,coral ,reefs1 ,volcanic ,isl&s1 ,s\? ,am]ican ,geology by ,*>les ,d>w9 ,,editorial ,,note ,al?\gh 9 "s respects m te*nical 9 _! subjects & /yle ?an ,d>w9's 8,j\rnal10 ! books "h repr9t$ w nev] lose _! value & int]e/ = ! orig9ality ( ! obs]vations !y conta94 ,_m p>ts ( !m are admirably adapt$ = giv+ an insight into problems reg>d+ ! /ructure & *anges ( ! e>?'s surface1 & 9 fact !y =m a *>m+ introduction to physical geology & physiography 9 _! application to special doma9s4 ,! books !mselves _c be obta9$ = _m times ! price ( ! pres5t volume1 & bo? ! g5]al read]1 :o desires to "k m ( ,d>w9's "w1 & ! /ud5t ( geology1 :o naturally wi%es to "k h[ a ma/] m9d reason$ on mo/ important geological subjects1 w be glad ( ! opportunity ( possess+ !m 9 a conv5i5t & *eap =m4 ,! ?ree introductions1 :i* my fri5d ,pr(essor ,judd has k9dly furni%$1 give critical & hi/orical in=mation :i* makes ?is edition ( special value4 ,g4,t4,b4 ,,cont5ts ,,! ,,/ructure ,,& ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,coral ,,reefs4 ,,critical ,,introduction ,,introduction ,*apt] ,i--,,atolls ,,or ,,lagoon-,,isl&s4 ,section ,i--,,description ,,( ,,keel+ ,,atoll4 ,corals on ! out] m>g94--,zone ( ,nullipor4--,ext]ior reef4--,islets4--,coral-conglom]ate4--,l agoon4--,calc>e\s s$im5t4--,sc>i & ,holu?uri subsi/+ on corals4--,*anges 9 ! condition ( ! reefs & islets4--,probable subsid5ce ( ! atoll4--,future /ate ( ! lagoon4 ,section ,,ii--,,g5]al ,,description ,,( ,,atolls4 ,g5]al =m & size ( atolls1 _! reefs & islets4--,ext]nal slope4--,zone ( ,nullipor4--,conglom]ate4--,dep? ( lagoons4--,s$im5t4--,reefs subm]g$ :olly or 9 "p4--,brea*es 9 ! reef4--,l$ge-=m$ %ores r\nd c]ta9 lagoons4--,conv]sion ( lagoons into l&4 ,section ,,iii--,,atolls ,,( ,,! ,,maldiva ,,ar*ipelago--,,great ,,*agos ,,bank4 ,maldiva ,ar*ipelago4--,r+-=m$ reefs1 m>g9al & c5tral4--,great dep?s 9 ! lagoons ( ! s\!rn atolls4--,reefs 9 ! lagoons all ris+ to ! surface4--,position ( islets & brea*es 9 ! reefs1 ) respect to ! preval5t w9ds & action ( ! waves4--,de/ruction ( islets4--,connection 9 ! position & subm>9e f\ndation ( di/9ct atolls4--,! app>5t dissev]m5t ( l>ge atolls4--,! ,great ,*agos ,bank4--,its subm]g$ condition & extraord9>y /ructure4 ,*apt] ,,ii--,,b>ri] ,,reefs4 ,closely resemble 9 g5]al =m & /ructure atoll-reefs4--,wid? & dep? ( ! lagoon-*annels4--,brea*es ?r\gh ! reef 9 front ( valleys1 & g5]ally on ! leew>d side4--,*ecks to ! fill+ up ( ! lagoon-*annels4--,size & con/itution ( ! encircl$ isl&s4--,numb] ( isl&s )9 ! same reef4--,b>ri]-reefs ( ,new ,cal$onia & ,au/ralia4--,position ( ! reef relative to ! slope ( ! adjo9+ l&4--,probable great ?ickness ( b>ri]-reefs4 ,*apt] ,,iii--,,fr++ ,,or ,,%ore-,,reefs4 ,reefs ( ,mauritius4--,%all[ *annel )9 ! reef4--,its sl[ fill+ up4--,curr5ts ( wat] =m$ )9 x4--,uprais$ reefs4--,n>r[ fr++-reefs 9 deep seas4--,reefs on ! coa/ ( ,e4 ,africa & ( ,brazil4--,fr++-reefs 9 v %all[ seas1 r\nd banks ( s$im5t & on worn-d[n isl&s4--,fr++-reefs affect$ by curr5ts ( ! sea4--,coral coat+ ! bottom ( ! sea1 b n =m+ reefs4 ,*apt] ,,iv--,,on ,,! ,,di/ribution ,,& ,,gr[? ,,( ,,coral-,,reefs4 ,section ,i--,,on ,,! ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,coral-,,reefs1 ,,& ,,on ,,! ,,conditions ,,fav\rable ,,to ,,_! ,,increase4 ,section ,,ii--,,on ,,! ,,rate ,,( ,,gr[? ,,( ,,coral-,,reefs4 ,section ,,iii--,,on ,,! ,,dep?s ,,at ,,:i* ,,reef-,,build+ ,,polypif]s ,,c ,,live4 ,*apt] ,v--,,!ory ,,( ,,! ,,=mation ,,( ,,! ,,diff]5t ,,classes ,,( ,,coral-,,reefs4 ,! atolls ( ! l>g] ar*ipelagoes are n =m$ on subm]g$ crat]s1 or on banks ( s$im5t4--,imm5se areas int]sp]s$ ) atolls4--,rec5t *anges 9 _! /ate4--,! orig9 ( b>ri]-reefs & ( atolls4--,_! relative =ms4--,! /ep-=m$ l$ges & walls r\nd ! %ores ( "s lagoons4--,! r+-=m$ reefs ( ! ,maldiva atolls4--,! subm]g$ condition ( p>ts or ( ! :ole ( "s annul> reefs4--,! dissev]m5t ( l>ge atolls4--,! union ( atolls by l9e> reefs4--,! ,great ,*agos ,bank4--,objections1 f ! area & am\nt ( subsid5ce requir$ by ! !ory1 consid]$4--,! probable composition ( ! l[] p>ts ( atolls4 ,*apt] ,,vi--,,on ,,! ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,coral-,,reefs ,,) ,,ref]5ce ,,to ,,! ,,!ory ,,( ,,_! ,,=mation4 ,description ( ! col\r$ map4--,proximity ( atolls & b>ri]- reefs4--,relation 9 =m & position ( atolls ) ord9>y isl&s4--,direct evid5ce ( subsid5ce difficult to be detect$4--,pro(s ( rec5t elevation :]e fr++-reefs occur4--,oscillations ( level4--,abs5ce ( active volcanoes 9 ! areas ( subsid5ce4--,imm5sity ( ! areas :i* h be5 elevat$ & h subsid$4--,_! relation to ! pres5t di/ribution ( ! l&4--,areas ( subsid5ce elongat$1 _! int]section & alt]nation ) ^? ( elevation4--,am\nt & sl[ rate ( ! subsid5ce4--,recapitulation4 ,app5dix ,conta9+ a detail$ description ( ! reefs & isl&s 9 ,plate ,,iii4 ,,geological ,,obs]vations ,,on ,,volcanic ,,isl&s4 ,,critical ,,introduction ,*apt] ,i--,,/4 ,,jago1 ,,9 ,,! ,,cape ,,de ,,v]de ,,ar*ipelago4 ,rocks ( ! l[e/ s]ies4--,a calc>e\s s$im5t>y deposit1 ) rec5t %ells1 alt]$ by ! contact ( sup]9cumb5t lava1 its horizontality & ext5t4--,subsequ5t volcanic eruptions1 associat$ ) calc>e\s matt] 9 an e>?y & fibr\s =m1 & (t5 enclos$ )9 ! sep>ate cells ( ! scori4--,anci5t & oblit]at$ orifices ( eruption ( small size4--,difficulty ( trac+ ov] a b>e pla9 rec5t /reams ( lava4--,inl& hills ( m anci5t volcanic rock4--,decompos$ oliv9e 9 l>ge masses4--,feldspa?ic rocks b5ea? ! upp] cry/all9e basaltic /rata4--,uni=m /ructure & =m ( ! m anci5t volcanic hills4--,=m ( ! valleys ne> ! coa/4--,conglom]ate n[ =m+ on ! sea bea*4 ,*apt] ,,ii--,,f]n&o ,,noronha2 ,,t]ceira2 ,,tahiti1 ,,etc4 ,,f]n&o ,,noronha4--,precipit\s hill ( phonolite4 ,,t]ceira4--,tra*ytic rocks3 _! s+ul> decomposition by /eam ( high temp]ature4 ,,tahiti4--,passage f wacke into trap2 s+ul> volcanic rock ) ! vesicles half-fill$ ) mesotype4 ,,mauritius4--,pro(s ( its rec5t elevation4--,/ructure ( its m anci5t m\nta9s2 simil>ity ) ,/4 ,jago4 ,,/4 ,,paul',s ,,rocks4--,n ( volcanic orig94--,_! s+ul> m9]alogical composition4 ,*apt] ,,iii--,,asc5sion4 ,basaltic lavas4--,num]\s crat]s truncat$ on ! same side4--,s+ul> /ructure ( volcanic bombs4--,a]i=m explosions4--,eject$ granite fragm5ts4--,tra*ytic rocks4--,s+ul> ve9s4--,jasp]1 its mann] ( =mation4--,concretions 9 pumice\s tuff4--,calc>e\s deposits & frondesc5t incru/ations on ! coa/4--,rem>kable lam9at$ b$s1 alt]nat+ )1 & pass+ into obsidian4--,orig9 ( obsidian4--,lam9ation ( volcanic rocks4 ,*apt] ,,iv--,,/4 ,,hel5a4 ,lavas ( ! feldspa?ic1 basaltic1 & subm>9e s]ies4--,section ( ,flag/aff ,hill & ( ! ,b>n4--,dikes4--,turk's ,cap & ,prosp]\s ,bays4--,basaltic r+4--,c5tral crat]i=m ridge1 ) an int]nal l$ge & a p>apet4--,cones ( phonolite4--,sup]ficial b$s ( calc>e\s s&/one4--,ext9ct l&-%ells4--,b$s ( detritus4--,elevation ( ! l&4--,d5udation4--,crat]s ( elevation4 ,*apt] ,v--,,galapagos ,,ar*ipelago4 ,*a?am ,isl&4--,crat]s compos$ ( a peculi> k9d ( tuff4--,small basaltic crat]s1 ) holl[s at _! bases4--,albem>le ,isl&2 fluid lavas1 _! composition4--,crat]s ( tuff2 incl9ation ( _! ext]ior div]g+ /rata1 & /ructure ( _! int]ior conv]g+ /rata4--,james ,isl&1 segm5t ( a small basaltic crat]2 fluidity & composition ( its lava-/reams1 & ( its eject$ fragm5ts4--,conclud+ rem>ks on ! crat]s ( tuff1 & on ! brea*$ condition ( _! s\!rn sides4--,m9]alogical composition ( ! rocks ( ! ar*ipelago4--,elevation ( ! l&4--,direction ( ! fissures ( eruption4 ,*apt] ,,vi--,,tra*yte ,,& ,,basalt4--,,di/ribution ,,( ,,volcanic ,,isles4 ,! s9k+ ( cry/als 9 fluid lava4--,specific gravity ( ! con/itu5t p>ts ( tra*yte & ( basalt1 & _! consequ5t sep>ation4--,obsidian4--,app>5t non-sep>ation ( ! elem5ts ( plutonic rocks4--,orig9 ( trap-dikes 9 ! plutonic s]ies4--,di/ribution ( volcanic isl&s2 _! preval5ce 9 ! great oceans4--,!y are g5]ally arrang$ 9 l9es4--,! c5tral volcanoes ( ,von ,bu* d\btful4--,volcanic isl&s bord]+ cont95ts4--,antiquity ( volcanic isl&s1 & _! elevation 9 mass4--,eruptions on p>allel l9es ( fissure )9 ! same geological p]iod4 ,*apt] ,,vii--,,au/ralia2 ,,new ,,zeal&2 ,,cape ,,( ,,good ,,hope4 ,new ,s\? ,wales4--,s&/one =mation4--,emb$d$ pseudo-fragm5ts ( %ale4--,/ratification4--,curr5t-cleavage 4--,great valleys4--,van ,diem5's ,l&4--,palozoic =mation4--,new] =mation ) volcanic rocks4--,trav]t9 ) leaves ( ext9ct plants4--,elevation ( ! l&4--,new ,zeal&4--,k+ ,george's ,s\nd4--,sup]ficial f]rug9\s b$s4--,sup]ficial calc>e\s deposits1 ) ca/s ( bran*es2 its orig9 f drift$ p>ticles ( %ells & corals4--,_! ext5t4--,cape ( ,good ,hope4--,junction ( ! granite & clay-slate4--,s&/one =mation4 ,,geological ,,obs]vations ,,on ,,s\? ,,am]ica4 ,,critical ,,introduction ,*apt] ,i--,,on ,,! ,,elevation ,,( ,,! ,,ea/]n ,,coa/ ,,( ,,s\? ,,am]ica4 ,uprais$ %ells ( ,la ,plata4--,bahia ,blanca1 ,s&-dunes & ,pumice-pebbles4--,/ep-=m$ pla9s ( ,patagonia1 ) uprais$ %ells4--,t]race-b\nd$ valley ( ,santa ,cruz1 =m]ly a sea-/rait4--,uprais$ %ells ( ,ti]ra del ,fuego4--,l5g? & bread? ( ! elevat$ area4--,equability ( ! movem5ts1 z %[n by ! simil> heights ( ! pla9s4--,sl[ness ( ! elevatory process4--,mode ( =mation ( ! /ep-=m$ pla9s4--,summ>y4--,great %+le =mation ( ,patagonia2 its ext5t1 orig91 & di/ribution4--,=mation ( sea-cliffs4 ,*apt] ,,ii--,,on ,,! ,,elevation ,,( ,,! ,,we/]n ,,coa/ ,,( ,,s\? ,,am]ica4 ,*onos ,ar*ipelago4--,*iloe1 rec5t & gradual elevation (1 traditions ( ! inhabitants on ?is subject4--,concepcion1 e>?quake & elevation (4--,,valp>aiso1 great elevation (1 uprais$ %ells1 e>? or m>9e orig91 gradual rise ( ! l& )9 ! hi/orical p]iod4--,,coquimbo1 elevation (1 9 rec5t times2 t]races ( m>9e orig91 _! incl9ation1 _! esc>pm5ts n horizontal4--,guasco1 gravel t]races (4--,copiapo4--,,p]u4--,uprais$ %ells ( ,cobija1 ,iquique1 & ,arica4--,lima1 %ell-b$s & sea-bea* on ,san ,lor5zo4--,human rema9s1 fossil e>!nw>e1 e>?quake debacle1 rec5t subsid5ce4--,on ! decay ( uprais$ %ells4--,g5]al summ>y4 ,*apt] ,,iii--,,on ,,! ,,pla9s ,,& ,,valleys ,,( ,,*ile3--,,salif]\s ,,sup]ficial ,,deposits4 ,bas9-l pla9s ( ,*ile2 _! dra9age1 _! m>9e orig94--,m>ks ( sea-action on ! ea/]n flanks ( ! ,cordill]a4--,slop+ t]race-l fr+es ( /ratifi$ %+le )9 ! valleys ( ! ,cordill]a2 _! m>9e orig94--,b\ld]s 9 ! valley ( ,ca*apual4--,horizontal elevation ( ! ,cordill]a4--,=mation ( valleys4--,b\ld]s mov$ by e>?quake-waves4--,sal9e sup]ficial deposits4--,b$ ( nitrate ( soda at ,iquique4--,sal9e incru/ations4--,salt-lakes ( ,la ,plata & ,patagonia2 purity ( ! salt2 its orig94 ,*apt] ,,iv--,,on ,,! ,,=mations ,,( ,,! ,,pampas4 ,m9]alogical con/itution4--,microscopical /ructure4--,bu5os ,ayres1 %ells emb$d$ 9 tosca-rock4--,bu5os ,ayres to ! ,colorado4--,s4 ,v5tana4--,bahia ,blanca2 ,m4 ,h]moso1 bones & infusoria (2 ,p4 ,alta1 %ells1 bones1 & infusoria (2 co-exi/5ce ( ! rec5t %ells & ext9ct mammif]s4--,bu5os ,ayres to ,/4 ,fe4--,skeletons ( ,ma/odon4--,infusoria4--,inf]ior m>9e t]ti>y /rata1 _! age4--,horse's too?4 ,,b&a ,,ori5tal4--,sup]ficial ,pampean =mation4--,inf]ior t]ti>y /rata1 v>iation (1 connect$ ) volcanic action2 ,macrau*5ia ,pata*onica at ,s4 ,julian 9 ,patagonia1 age (1 subsequ5t to liv+ mollusca & to ! erratic block p]iod4 ,,summ>y4--,area ( ,pampean =mation4--,!ories ( orig94--,s\rce ( s$im5t4--,e/u>y orig94--,contemporane\s ) exi/+ mollusca4--,relations to und]ly+ t]ti>y /rata4 ,anci5t deposit ( e/u>y orig94--,elevation & successive deposition ( ! ,pampean =mation4--,numb] & /ate ( ! rema9s ( mammif]s2 _! habitation1 food1 ext9ction1 & range4--,conclusion4--,supplem5t on ! ?ickness ( ! ,pampean =mation4--,localities 9 ,pampas at :i* mammif]\s rema9s h be5 f\nd4 ,*apt] ,v--,,on ,,! ,,old] ,,t]ti>y ,,=mations ,,( ,,patagonia ,,& ,,*ile4 ,rio ,negro4--,s4 ,josef4--,port ,desire1 :ite pumice\s mud/one ) infusoria4--,port ,s4 ,julian4--,santa ,cruz1 basaltic lava (4--,p4 ,gallegos4--,ea/]n ,ti]ra del ,fuego2 leaves ( ext9ct bee*-trees4--,summ>y on ! ,patagonian t]ti>y =mations4--,t]ti>y =mations ( ! ,we/]n ,coa/4--,*onos & ,*iloe gr\ps1 volcanic rocks (4--,concepcion4--,navidad4--,coquimbo4- -,summ>y4--,age ( ! t]ti>y =mations4--,l9es ( elevation4--,silicifi$ wood4--,comp>ative ranges ( ! ext9ct & liv+ mollusca on ! ,we/ ,coa/ ( ,s4 ,am]ica4--,climate ( ! t]ti>y p]iod4--,on ! causes ( ! abs5ce ( rec5t con*if]\s deposits on ! coa/s ( ,s\? ,am]ica4--,on ! contemporane\s deposition & pres]vation ( s$im5t>y =mations4 ,*apt] ,,vi--,,plutonic ,,& ,,metamorphic ,,rocks3--,,cleavage ,,& ,,foliation4 ,brazil1 ,bahia1 gneiss ) disjo9t$ metamorphos$ dikes4--,/rike ( foliation4--,rio de ,janeiro1 gneiss-granite1 emb$d$ fragm5t 91 decomposition (4--,la ,plata1 metamorphic & old volcanic rocks (4--,s4 ,v5tana4--,clay/one porphyry =mation ( ,patagonia2 s+ul> metamorphic rocks2 pseudo-dikes4--,falkl& ,isl&s1 palozoic fossils (4--,ti]ra del ,fuego1 clay-slate =mation1 cretace\s fossils (2 cleavage & foliation2 =m ( l&4--,*onos ,ar*ipelago1 mica-s*i/s1 foliation di/urb$ by granitic axis2 dikes4--,*iloe4--,concepcion1 dikes1 successive =mation (4--,c5tral & ,nor!rn ,*ile4--,conclud+ rem>ks on cleavage & foliation4--,_! close analogy & simil> orig94--,/ratification ( metamorphic s*i/s4--,foliation ( intrusive rocks4--,relation ( cleavage & foliation to ! l9es ( t5sion dur+ metamorphosis4 ,*apt] ,,vii--,,c5tral ,,*ile3--,,/ructure ,,( ,,! ,,cordill]a4 ,c5tral ,*ile4--,basal =mations ( ! ,cordill]a4--,orig9 ( ! porphyritic clay-/one conglom]ate4--,&esite4--,volcanic rocks4--,section ( ! ,cordill]a by ! ,peuqu5es or ,portillo ,pass4--,great gypse\s =mation4--,peuqu5es l9e2 ?ickness ( /rata1 fossils (4--,portillo l9e4--,conglom]ate1 or?itic granite1 mica-s*i/1 volcanic rocks (4--,conclud+ rem>ks on ! d5udation & elevation ( ! ,portillo l9e4--,section by ! ,cumbre1 or ,uspallata ,pass4--,porphyries4--,gypse\s /rata4--,section ne> ! ,pu5te del ,inca2 fossils (4--,great subsid5ce4--,intrusive porphyries4--,pla9 ( ,uspallata4--,section ( ! ,uspallata *a94--,/ructure & nature ( ! /rata4--,silicifi$ v]tical trees4--,great subsid5ce4--,granitic rocks ( axis4--,conclud+ rem>ks on ! ,uspallata range2 orig9 subsequ5t to t ( ! ma9 ,cordill]a2 two p]iods ( subsid5ce2 comp>ison ) ! ,portillo *a94 ,*apt] ,,viii--,,nor!rn ,,*ile4--,,conclusion4 ,section f ,illapel to ,comb>bala2 gypse\s =mation ) silicifi$ wood4--,panuncillo4--,coquimbo2 m9es ( ,arqu]os2 section up valley2 fossils4--,guasco1 fossils (4--,copiapo1 section up valley2 ,las ,amolanas1 silicifi$ wood4--,conglom]ates1 nature ( =m] l&1 fossils1 ?ickness ( /rata1 great subsid5ce4--,valley ( ,despoblado1 fossils1 tuface\s deposit1 complicat$ dislocations (4--,relations betwe5 anci5t orifices ( eruption & subsequ5t axes ( injection4--,iquique1 ,p]u1 fossils (1 salt-deposits4--,metallif]\s ve9s4--,summ>y on ! porphyritic conglom]ate & gypse\s =mations4--,great subsid5ce ) p>tial elevations dur+ ! cretaceo-oolitic p]iod4--,on ! elevation & /ructure ( ! ,cordill]a4--,recapitulation on ! t]ti>y s]ies4--,relation betwe5 movem5ts ( subsid5ce & volcanic action4--,pampean =mation4--,rec5t elevatory movem5ts4--,long-cont9u$ volcanic action 9 ! ,cordill]a4--,conclusion4 ,index to 8,coral-,reefs0 ,index to 8,volcanic ,isl&s0 ,index to 8,s\? ,am]ican ,obs]vations0 ,,! ,,/ructure ,,& ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,coral ,,reefs4 ,,critical ,,introduction ,a sci5tific discov]y is ! outcome ( an int]e/+ process ( evolution 9 ! m9d ( its au?or4 ,:5 we are able to detect ! g]ms ( ?\ght 9 :i* su* a discov]y has orig9at$1 & to trace ! successive /ages ( ! reason+ by :i* ! crude idea has develop$ into an epo*-mak+ book1 we h ! mat]ials = recon/ruct+ an important *apt] ( sci5tific hi/ory4 ,su* a contribution to ! /ory ( ! 8mak+ ( sci5ce0 may be furni%$ 9 respect to ,d>w9's fam\s !ory ( coral-reefs1 & ! cle>ly reason$ treatise 9 :i* x 0 fir/ fully set =?4 ,! subject ( corals & coral-reefs is "o conc]n+ :i* mu* popul> misconception has always prevail$4 ,! mislead+ comp>ison ( coral-rock ) ! combs ( bees & ! ne/s ( wasps is p]haps responsible = mu* ( ?is misund]/&+2 "o writ] has inde$ describ$ a coral-reef z be+ 8built by fi%es by means ( _! tee?40 ,sc>cely less mislead+1 h[ev]1 are ! ref]5ces we s frequ5tly meet )1 bo? 9 prose & v]se1 to ! 8skill10 8indu/ry10 & 8p]sev]ance0 ( ! 8coral-insect0 9 8build+0 8 8home40 ,z well might we praise m5 = _! clev]ness 9 mak+ _! own skeletons1 & laud _! assiduity 9 fill+ *ur*y>ds ) ! same4 ,! polyps & o!r organisms1 ^: rema9s accumulate to =m a coral-reef1 simply live & p]=m _! natural functions1 & !n die1 leav+ beh9d !m1 9 ! natural c\rse ( ev5ts1 ! h>d calc>e\s portions ( _! /ructures to add to ! gr[+ reef4 ,:ile ! =ms ( coral-reefs & coral-isl&s are sometimes v rem>kable & wor?y ( att5tive /udy1 !re is no gr\nd1 x ne$ sc>cely be add$1 = ! sugge/ion t !y af=d pro(s ( design on ! "p ( ! liv+ build]s1 or t1 9 ! words ( ,fl9d]s1 !y con/itute brea/works1 def5d+ ! work%ops f :5ce 8infant colonies might be safely s5t =?40 ,x 0 n till ! beg9n+ ( ! pres5t c5tury t travell]s l ,bee*ey1 ,*amisso1 ,quoy & ,gaim>d1 ,moresby1 ,nelson1 & o!rs1 began to collect accurate details conc]n+ ! =ms & /ructure ( coral-masses1 & to make su* obs]vations on ! habits ( reef-=m+ polyps1 z might s]ve z a basis = safe reason+ conc]n+ ! orig9 ( coral-reefs & isl&s4 ,9 ! second volume ( ,lyell's 8,pr9ciples ( ,geology10 publi%$ 9 #ahcb1 ! f9al *apt] gives an admirable summ>y ( all t 0 !n kn[n on ! subject4 ,at t "t1 ! r+-=m ( ! atolls 0 almo/ univ]sally reg>d$ z a pro( t !y _h gr[n up on subm]g$ volcanic crat]s2 & ,lyell gave 8 p[]ful support to t !ory4 ,*>les ,d>w9 0 nev] tir$ ( ackn[l$g+ 8 indebt$ness to ,lyell4 ,9 d$icat+ to 8 fri5d ! second edition ( 8 8,naturali/'s ,voyage ,r\nd ! ,_w10 ,d>w9 writes t he does s 8) grateful pleasure1 z an ackn[l$gm5t t ! *ief "p ( :atev] sci5tific m]it ?is j\rnal & ! o!r works ( ! au?or may possess1 has be5 d]iv$ f /udy+ ! well-kn[n & admirable #8,pr9ciples ( ,geology4'0 ,! second volume ( ,lyell's 8,pr9ciples0 appe>$ aft] ,d>w9 _h left ,engl&2 b x 0 d\btless s5t on to him )\t delay by 8 fai?ful fri5d & correspond5t1 ,pr(essor ,h5sl[4 ,x appe>s to h rea*$ ,d>w9 at a mo/ opportune mom5t1 :ile1 9 fact1 he 0 /udy+ ! /rik+ evid5ces ( sl[ & long-cont9u$1 b (t5 int]rupt$ movem5t on ! we/ coa/ ( ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,d>w9's acute m9d c\ld n fail to detect ! weakness ( ! !n preval5t !ory conc]n+ ! orig9 ( ! r+-%ap$ atolls--& ! difficulty :i* he f\nd 9 accept+ ! volcanic !ory1 z an explanation ( ! ph5om5a ( coral-reefs1 is well set =? 9 8 book4 ,9 an int]e/+ fragm5t ( autobiography1 ,d>w9 has giv5 u a v cle> acc\nt ( ! way 9 :i* ! lead+ idea ( ! !ory ( coral-reefs orig9at$ 9 8 m9d2 he writes1 8,no o!r "w ( m9e 0 begun 9 s d$uctive a _s z ?is1 = ! :ole !ory 0 ?\ght out on ! we/ coa/ ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 be=e ,i _h se5 a true coral-reef4 ,i _h !re=e only to v]ify & ext5d my views by a c>eful exam9ation ( liv+ reefs4 ,b x %\ld be obs]v$ t ,i _h dur+ ! two previ\s ye>s be5 incessantly att5d+ to ! effects on ! %ores ( ,s\? ,am]ica ( ! int]mitt5t elevation ( ! l&1 toge!r ) ! d5udation & deposition ( s$im5t4 ,?is necess>ily l$ me to reflect mu* on ! effects ( subsid5ce1 & x 0 easy to replace 9 imag9ation ! cont9u$ deposition ( s$im5t by ! upw>d gr[? ( corals4 ,to d ?is 0 to =m my !ory ( ! =mation ( b>ri]-reefs & atolls40 ,on h] homew>d voyage1 ! ,beagle visit$ ,tahiti1 ,au/ralia1 & "s ( ! coral-isl&s 9 ! ,indian ,ocean1 & ,d>w9 _h an opportunity ( te/+ & v]ify+ ! conclusion at :i* he _h arriv$ by /udy+ ! /atem5ts ( o!r obs]v]s4 ,i well recollect a rem>kable conv]sation ,i _h ) ,d>w91 %ortly aft] ! dea? ( ,lyell4 ,) *>act]i/ic mode/y1 he told me t he nev] fully realis$ ! importance ( 8 !ory ( coral-reefs till he _h an opportunity ( discuss+ x ) ,lyell1 %ortly aft] ! return ( ! ,beagle4 ,lyell1 on receiv+ f ! lips ( its au?or a sket* ( ! new !ory1 0 s ov]come ) delight t he danc$ ab\t & ?rew himself into ! wilde/ contortions1 z 0 8 mann] :5 excessively pleas$4 ,he wrote %ortly aft]w>ds to ,d>w9 z foll[s3--8,i c\ld ?9k ( no?+ = days aft] y\r lesson on coral-reefs1 b ( ! tops ( subm]g$ cont95ts4 ,x is all true1 b d n flatt] y\rself t y w be believ$ till y are gr[+ bald l me1 ) h>d "w & vexation at ! incr$ulity ( ! _w40 ,on ,may #bd?1 #ahcg1 ,lyell wrote to ,sir ,john ,h]s*el z foll[s3--8,i am v full ( ,d>w9's new !ory ( coral-isl&s1 & h urg$ ,:ewell to make him read x at our next meet+4 ,i mu/ give up my volcanic crat] =ev]1 ?\gh x co/ me a pang at fir/1 = x acc\nt$ = s mu*40 ,dr4 ,:ewell 0 presid5t ( ! ,geological ,society at ! "t1 & on ,may #ca/1 #ahcg1 ,d>w9 read a pap] entitl$ 8,on ,c]ta9 ,areas ( ,elevation & ,subsid5ce 9 ! ,pacific & ,indian oceans1 z d$uc$ f ! ,/udy ( ,coral ,=mations10 an ab/ract ( :i* appe>$ 9 ! second volume ( ! ,society's proce$+s4 ,x 0 ab\t ?is "t t ,d>w91 hav+ settl$ himself 9 lodg+s at ,great ,m>lbor\gh ,/reet1 comm5c$ ! writ+ ( 8 book on 8,coral-,reefs40 ,_m delays f ill-heal? & ! int]ruption ( o!r "w1 caus$ ! progress to be sl[1 & 8 j\rnal speaks ( 8recomm5c+0 ! subject 9 ,febru>y #ahci1 %ortly aft] 8 m>riage1 & aga9 9 ,octob] ( ! same ye>4 ,9 ,july #ahda1 he /ates t he began once m 8aft] m ?an ?irte5 mon?'s int]val10 & ! la/ pro(-%eet ( ! book 0 n correct$ till ,may #f?1 #ahdb4 ,d>w9 writes 9 8 autobiography1 8,?is book1 ?\gh a small "o1 co/ me tw5ty mon?s ( h>d "w1 z ,i _h to read e "w on ! isl&s ( ! ,pacific1 & to consult _m *>ts40 ,! task ( elaborat+ & writ+ out 8 books 01 ) ,d>w91 always a v sl[ & labori\s "o2 b x is cle> t 9 accompli%+ ! "w n[ "u consid]ation1 !re 0 a long & con/ant /ruggle ) ! le?>gy & weakness result+ f ! sad condition ( 8 heal? at t "t4 ,lyell's anticipation t ! !ory ( coral-reefs w\ld be sl[ 9 meet+ ) g5]al acceptance 0 c]ta9ly n ju/ifi$ by ! actual facts4 ,on ! contr>y ! new book 0 at once receiv$ ) g5]al ass5t among bo? geologi/s & zoologi/s1 & ev5 attract$ a consid]able am\nt ( att5tion f ! g5]al public4 ,x 0 n long be=e ! coral-reef !ory ( ,d>w9 f\nd an able expon5t & /urdy *ampion 9 ! p]son ( ! great ,am]ican naturali/1 ,pr(essor ,james ,d4 ,dana4 ,two ye>s aft] ! return ( ! ,beagle to ,engl&1 ! %ips ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,explor+ ,exp$ition set sail ^u _! f\r ye>s' cruise1 "u ! comm& ( ,capta9 ,wilkes1 & ,dana 0 a memb] ( ! sci5tific /aff4 ,:51 9 #ahci1 ! exp$ition arriv$ at ,sydney1 a newspap] p>agraph 0 f\nd :i* gave ! ,am]ican naturali/ ! fir/ intimation ( ,d>w9's new !ory ( ! orig9 ( atolls & b>ri]-reefs4 ,writ+ 9 #ahgb1 ,dana describes ! effect produc$ on 8 m9d by read+ ?is passage3--8,! p>agraph ?rew a flood ( light ov] ! subject1 & call$ =? feel+s ( peculi> satisfaction1 & ( gratefulness to ,mr4 ,d>w91 :i* /ill come up afre% :5ev] ! subject ( coral isl&s is m5tion$4 ,! ,gambi] ,isl&s 9 ! ,paumotus1 :i* gave him ! key to ! !ory1 ,i _h n se52 b on rea*+ ! ,feejees1 six mon?s lat]1 9 #ahdj1 ,i f\nd !re simil> facts on a /ill gr&] scale & ( a m div]sifi$ "*1 s t ,i 0 aft]w>d enabl$ to speak ( 8 !ory z e/abli%$ ) m positiv5ess ?an he himself1 9 8 philosophic caution1 _h be5 ready to adopt4 ,8 "w on coral-reefs appe>$ 9 #ahdb1 :5 my report on ! subject 0 already 9 manuscript4 ,x %[$ t ! conclusions on o!r po9ts1 :i* we _h indep5d5tly rea*$1 7 = ! mo/ "p ! same4 ,! pr9cipal po9ts ( diff]5ce relate to ! reason = ! abs5ce ( corals f "s coa/s1 & ! evid5ce !refrom z to *anges ( level1 & ! di/ribution ( ! oceanic regions ( elevation & subsid5ce--topics :i* a wide range ( travel ov] ! ,pacific br\ght directly & con/antly to my att5tion40 ,among ! ,reports ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,explor+ ,exp$ition1 two important works f ! p5 ( ,pr(essor ,dana made _! appe>ance2--"o on 8,zoophytes10 :i* treats at l5g? on 8,corals & ,coral-,animals10 & ! o!r on 8,coral-,reefs & ,isl&s40 ,9 #ahgb1 ,dana prep>$ a "w ( a m popul> "* 9 :i* "s ( ! *ief results ( 8 /udies are describ$2 x bore ! title ( 8,corals & ,coral-,isl&s40 ,( ?is "w1 new & enl>g$ editions appe>$ 9 #ahgd & #ahij 9 ,am]ica1 :ile two editions 7 publi%$ 9 ?is c\ntry 9 #ahgb & #ahge4 ,9 all ^! works _! au?or1 :ile ma9ta9+ an indep5d5t judgm5t on c]ta9 matt]s ( detail1 w>mly def5ds ! views ( ,d>w9 on all po9ts ess5tial to ! !ory4 ,ano!r able expon5t & illu/rator ( ! !ory ( coral-reefs 0 f\nd 9 ,pr(essor ,j4 ,b4 ,jukes1 :o accompani$ ,h4,m4,s4 ,fly1 z naturali/1 dur+ ! survey ( ! ,great ,b>ri]-,reef--9 ! ye>s #ahdb to #ahdf4 ,jukes1 :o 0 a man ( great acut5ess z well z indep5d5ce ( m9d1 concludes 8 acc\nt ( ! great ,au/ralian reefs ) ! foll[+ words3--8,aft] see+ mu* ( ! ,great ,b>ri]-,reefs1 & reflect+ mu* ^u !m1 & try+ if x 7 possible by any means to evade ! conclusions to :i* ,mr4 ,d>w9 has come1 ,i _c help add+ t 8 hypo!sis is p]fectly satisfactory to my m9d1 & rises beyond a m]e hypo!sis into ! true !ory ( coral-reefs40 ,z ! result ( ! cle> exposition ( ! subject by ,d>w91 ,lyell1 ,dana1 & ,jukes1 ! !ory ( coral-reefs _h1 by ! middle ( ! pres5t c5tury1 comm&$ ! almo/ univ]sal ass5t ( bo? biologi/s & geologi/s4 ,9 #ahei ,b>on von ,ri*?(5 br\ght =w>d new facts 9 its support1 by %[+ t ! exi/5ce ( ! ?ick masses ( dolomitic lime/one 9 ! ,tyrol c\ld be be/ acc\nt$ = if !y 7 reg>d$ z ( corall9e orig9 & z be+ =m$ dur+ a p]iod ( long cont9u$ subsid5ce4 ,! same views 7 ma9ta9$ by ,pr(essor ,mojsisovics 9 8 8,dolomit-riffe von ,sdtirol und ,v5eti510 :i* appe>$ 9 #ahgi4 ,! fir/ s]i\s note ( diss5t to ! g5]ally accept$ !ory 0 he>d 9 #ahfc1 :5 a di/+ui%$ ,g]man naturali/1 ,dr4 ,k>l ,semp]1 decl>$ t 8 /udy ( ! ,pelew ,isl&s %[$ t un9t]rupt$ subsid5ce c\ld n h be5 go+ on 9 t region4 ,dr4 ,semp]'s objections 7 v c>efully consid]$ by ,mr4 ,d>w91 & a reply to !m appe>$ 9 ! second & revis$ edition ( 8 8,coral-,reefs10 :i* 0 publi%$ 9 #ahgd4 ,) *>act]i/ic frankness & fre$om f prejudice1 ,d>w9 admitt$ t ! facts br\ght =w>d by ,dr4 ,semp] prov$ t 9 c]ta9 specifi$ cases1 subsid5ce c\ld n h play$ ! *ief "p 9 orig9at+ ! peculi> =ms ( ! coral-isl&s4 ,b :ile mak+ ?is admission1 he firmly ma9ta9$ t exceptional cases1 l ^? describ$ 9 ! ,pelew ,isl&s1 7 n suffici5t to invalidate ! !ory ( subsid5ce z appli$ to ! widely spread atolls1 encircl+ reefs1 & b>ri]-reefs ( ! ,pacific & ,indian ,oceans4 ,x is wor?y ( note t to ! end ( 8 life ,d>w9 ma9ta9$ a fri5dly correspond5ce ) ,semp] conc]n+ ! po9ts on :i* !y 7 at issue4 ,aft] ! appe>ance ( ,semp]'s "w1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,j4 ,re9 publi%$ an acc\nt ( ! ,b]mudas1 9 :i* he oppos$ ! int]pretation ( ! /ructure ( ! isl&s giv5 by ,nelson & o!r au?ors1 & ma9ta9$ t ! facts obs]v$ 9 !m are oppos$ to ! views ( ,d>w94 ,al?\gh1 s f> z ,i am aw>e1 ,d>w9 _h no opportunity ( /udy+ & consid]+ ^! p>ticul> objections1 x may be m5tion$ t two ,am]ican geologi/s h s9ce c>efully re-exam9$ ! di/rict--,pr(essor ,w4 ,n4 ,rice 9 #ahhd & ,pr(essor ,a4 ,heilpr9 9 #ahhi--;& !y h indep5d5tly arriv$ at ! conclusion t ,dr4 ,re9's objections _c be ma9ta9$4 ,! mo/ s]i\s opposition to ,d>w9's coral-reef !ory1 h[ev]1 0 t :i* develop$ itself aft] ! return ( ,h4,m4,s4 ,*all5g] f h] fam\s voyage4 ,mr4 ,john ,murray1 "o ( ! /aff ( naturali/s on bo>d t vessel1 prop\nd$ a new !ory ( coral-reefs1 & ma9ta9$ t ! view t !y 7 =m$ by subsid5ce 0 "o t 0 no long] t5able2 ^! objections h be5 support$ by ,pr(essor ,alex&] ,agassiz 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & by ,dr4 ,a4 ,geikie1 & ,dr4 ,h4 ,b4 ,guppy 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,al?\gh ,mr4 ,d>w9 did n live to br+ out a ?ird edition ( 8 8,coral-,reefs10 ,i "k f sev]al conv]sations ) him t he _h giv5 ! mo/ pati5t & ?\ghtful consid]ation to ,mr4 ,murray's pap] on ! subject4 ,he admitt$ to me t _h he kn[n1 :5 he wrote 8 "w1 ( ! abundant deposition ( ! rema9s ( calc>e\s organisms on ! sea floor1 he might h reg>d$ ?is cause z suffici5t 9 a few cases to raise ! summits ( subm]g$ volcanoes or o!r m\nta9s to a level at :i* reef-=m+ corals c comm5ce to fl\ri%4 ,b he did n ?9k t ! admission t "u c]ta9 fav\rable conditions1 atolls might be ?us =m$ )\t subsid5ce1 necessitat$ an ab&onm5t ( 8 !ory 9 ! case ( ! innum]able examples ( ! k9d :i* /ud ! ,indian & ,pacific ,oceans4 ,a lett] writt5 by ,d>w9 to ,pr(essor ,alex&] ,agassiz 9 ,may #ahha %[s exactly ! attitude :i* c>eful consid]ation ( ! subject l$ him to ma9ta9 t[>ds ! !ory prop\nd$ by ,mr4 ,murray3--8,y w h se510 he writes1 8,mr4 ,murray's views on ! =mation ( atolls & b>ri]-reefs4 ,be=e publi%+ my book1 ,i ?\ght long ov] ! same view1 b only z f> z ord9>y m>9e organisms are conc]n$1 = at t "t little 0 kn[n ( ! multitude ( m9ute oceanic organisms4 ,i reject$ ?is view1 z f ! few dr$g+s made 9 ! ,beagle1 9 ! s\? temp]ate regions1 ,i conclud$ t %ells1 ! small] corals1 etc41 decay$ & 7 dissolv$ :5 n protect$ by ! deposition ( s$im5t1 & s$im5t c\ld n accumulate 9 ! op5 ocean4 ,c]ta9ly1 %ells1 etc41 7 9 sev]al cases completely rott51 & crumbl$ into mud betwe5 my f+]s2 b y w "k :e!r ?is is 9 any degree common4 ,i h expressly said t a bank at ! prop] dep? w\ld give rise to an atoll1 :i* c\ld n be di/+ui%$ f "o =m$ dur+ subsid5ce4 ,i c1 h[ev]1 h>dly believe 9 ! exi/5ce ( z _m banks 7!re hav+ be5 no subsid5ce7 z !re are atolls 9 ! great oceans1 )9 a reasonable dep?1 on :i* m9ute oceanic organisms c\ld h accumulat$ to ! dep? ( _m hundr$ feet40 ,d>w9's conclud+ words 9 ! same lett] writt5 )9 a ye> ( 8 dea?1 are a /rik+ pro( ( ! c&\r & op5ness ( m9d :i* he pres]v$ s well to ! end1 9 ?is z 9 o!r controv]sies4 8,if ,i am wrong1 ! soon] ,i am knock$ on ! head & annihilat$ s mu* ! bett]4 ,x /ill seems to me a m>vell\s ?+ t !re %\ld n h be5 mu*1 & long-cont9u$1 subsid5ce 9 ! b$s ( ! great oceans4 ,i wi% "s d\bly ri* millionaire w\ld take x into 8 head to h bor+s made 9 "s ( ! ,pacific & ,indian atolls1 & br+ home cores = slic+ f a dep? ( #ejj or #fjj feet40 ,x is notewor?y t ! objections to ,d>w9's !ory h = ! mo/ "p proce$$ f zoologi/s1 :ile ^? :o h fully appreciat$ ! geological aspect ( ! "q1 h be5 ! /aun*e/ support]s ( ! !ory ( subsid5ce4 ,! desirability ( su* bor+ op]ations 9 atolls has be5 insi/$ ^u by sev]al geologi/s1 & x may be hop$ t be=e _m ye>s h pass$ away1 ,d>w9's hopes may be realis$1 ei!r ) or )\t ! int]v5tion ( ! 8d\bly ri* millionaire40 ,?ree ye>s aft] ! dea? ( ,d>w91 ! vet]an ,pr(essor ,dana re-ent]$ ! li/s & contribut$ a p[]ful def5ce ( ! !ory ( subsid5ce 9 ! =m ( a reply to an essay writt5 by ! able/ expon5t ( ! anti-,d>w9ian views on ?is subject1 ,dr4 ,a4 ,geikie4 ,:ile po9t+ out t ! ,d>w9ian position _h be5 to a great ext5t misund]/ood by its oppon5ts1 he %[$ t ! rival !ory pres5t$ ev5 great] difficulties ?an ^? :i* x pr(ess$ to remove4 ,dur+ ! la/ five ye>s1 ! :ole "q ( ! orig9 ( coral-reefs & isl&s has be5 re-op5$1 & a controv]sy has aris51 into :i*1 un=tunately1 acrimoni\s elem5ts h be5 v unnecess>ily introduc$4 ,^? :o desire x1 w f9d cle> & imp>tial /atem5ts ( ! v>i$ & (t5 mutually de/ructive views put =w>d by diff]5t au?ors1 9 ?ree works :i* h made _! appe>ance )9 ! la/ ye>1--8,! ,b]muda ,isl&s10 by ,pr(essor ,angelo ,heilpr92 8,corals & ,coral-,isl&s10 new edition by ,pr(essor ,j4 ,d4 ,dana2 & ! ?ird edition ( ,d>w9's 8,coral-,reefs10 ) ,notes & ,app5dix by ,pr(essor ,t4 ,g4 ,bonney4 ,mo/ read]s w1 ,i ?9k1 rise f ! p]usal ( ^! works ) ! conviction t1 :ile on c]ta9 po9ts ( detail x is cle> t1 ?r\gh ! want ( k conc]n+ ! action ( m>9e organisms 9 ! op5 ocean1 ,d>w9 0 betray$ into "s grave errors1 yet ! ma9 f\ndations ( 8 argum5t h n be5 s]i\sly impair$ by ! new facts obs]v$ 9 ! deep-sea rese>*es1 or by ! sev]e criticism to :i* 8 !ory has be5 subject$ dur+ ! la/ t5 ye>s4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,i ?9k x w appe> t mu* misappreh5sion has be5 exhibit$ by "s ( ,d>w9's critics1 z to :at 8 views & argum5ts really 72 s t ! repr9t & wide circulation ( ! book 9 its orig9al =m is greatly to be desir$1 & _c b be att5d$ ) advantage to all ^? :o w h ! fairness to acqua9t !mselves ) ,d>w9's views at fir/ h&1 be=e attempt+ to reply to !m4 ,,john ,w4 ,,judd4 ,,coral-,,reefs ,,introduction ,! object ( ?is volume is to describe f my own obs]vation & ! works ( o!rs1 ! pr9cipal k9ds ( coral-reefs1 m especially ^? occurr+ 9 ! op5 ocean1 & to expla9 ! orig9 ( _! peculi> =ms4 ,i d n "h treat ( ! polypif]s1 :i* con/ruct ^! va/ works1 except s f> z relates to _! di/ribution1 & to ! conditions fav\rable to _! vigor\s gr[?4 ,)\t any di/9ct int5tion to classify coral-reefs1 mo/ voyag]s h spok5 ( !m "u ! foll[+ heads3 8lagoon-isl&s10 or 8atolls10 8b>ri]0 or 8encircl+ reefs10 & 8fr++0 or 8%ore-reefs40 ,! lagoon-isl&s h receiv$ mu* ! mo/ att5tion2 & x is n surpris+1 = e "o mu/ be /ruck ) a/oni%m5t1 :5 he fir/ beholds "o ( ^! va/ r+s ( coral-rock1 (t5 _m leagues 9 diamet]1 "h & !re surm\nt$ by a l[ v]dant isl& ) dazzl+ :ite %ores1 ba!d on ! outside by ! foam+ break]s ( ! ocean1 & on ! inside surr\nd+ a calm expanse ( wat]1 :i* f reflection1 is ( a bright b pale gre5 col\r4 ,! naturali/ w feel ?is a/oni%m5t m deeply aft] hav+ exam9$ ! s(t & almo/ gelat9\s bodies ( ^! app>5tly insignificant creatures1 & :5 he kn[s t ! solid reef increases only on ! out] edge1 :i* day & night is la%$ by ! break]s ( an ocean nev] at re/4 ,well did ,franois ,pyr>d de ,laval1 9 ! ye> #afje1 exclaim1 8,c'e/ une mrueille de voir *acun de ces atollons1 enuironn d'un gr& banc de pi]re t\t aut\r1 n'y ayant po9t d'artifice huma940 ,! accompany+ sket* ( ,:itsunday isl&1 9 ! ,s\? ,pacific1 tak5 f ,capta9 ,bee*ey's admirable 8,voyage10 al?\gh excell5t ( its k9d1 gives b a fa9t idea ( ! s+ul> aspect ( "o ( ^! lagoon-isl&s4 ,:itsunday ,isl& is ( small size1 & ! :ole circle has be5 conv]t$ into l&1 :i* is a comp>atively r>e circum/ance4 ,z ! reef ( a lagoon-isl& g5]ally supports _m sep>ate small isl&s1 ! ^w 8isl&10 appli$ to ! :ole1 is (t5 ! cause ( confusion2 h5ce ,i h inv>iably us$ 9 ?is volume ! t]m 8atoll10 :i* is ! "n giv5 to ^! circul> gr\ps ( coral-islets by _! inhabitants 9 ! ,indian ,ocean1 & is synonym\s ) 8lagoon- isl&40 ,illu/ration3 ,:itsunday ,isl& ,b>ri]-reefs1 :5 encircl+ small isl&s1 h be5 comp>atively little notic$ by voyag]s2 b !y well des]ve att5tion4 ,9 _! /ructure !y are little less m>vell\s ?an atolls1 & !y give a s+ul> & mo/ picturesque "* to ! sc5]y ( ! isl&s !y surr\nd4 ,9 ! accompany+ sket*1 tak5 f ! 8,voyage ( ! ,coquille10 ! reef is se5 f )91 f "o ( ! high peaks ( ! isl& ( ,bolabola4#a ,"h1 z 9 ,:itsunday ,isl&1 ! :ole ( t "p ( ! reef :i* is visible is conv]t$ into l&4 ,?is is a circum/ance ( r>e occurr5ce2 m usually a sn[-:ite l9e ( great break]s1 ) "h & !re an islet cr[n$ by cocoa-nut trees1 sep>ates ! smoo? wat]s ( ! lagoon-l *annel f ! waves ( ! op5 sea4 ,! b>ri]-reefs ( ,au/ralia & ( ,new ,cal$onia1 ow+ to _! enorm\s dim5sions1 h excit$ mu* att5tion3 9 /ructure & =m !y resemble ^? encircl+ _m ( ! small] isl&s 9 ! ,pacific ,ocean4 #a ,i h tak5 ! lib]ty ( simplify+ ! =egr\nd1 & leav+ out a m\nta9\s isl& 9 ! f> di/ance4 ,illu/ration3 ,isl& ( ,bolabola ,) respect to fr++1 or %ore-reefs1 !re is little 9 _! /ructure :i* ne$s explanation2 & _! "n expresses _! comp>atively small ext5sion4 ,!y diff] f b>ri]-reefs 9 n ly+ s f> f ! %ore1 & 9 n hav+ )9 a broad *annel ( deep wat]4 ,reefs also occur ar\nd subm]g$ banks ( s$im5t & ( worn-d[n rock2 & o!rs are scatt]$ q irregul>ly :]e ! sea is v %all[2 ^! 9 mo/ respects are alli$ to ^? ( ! fr++ class1 b !y are ( comp>atively little int]e/4 ,i h giv5 a sep>ate *apt] to ea* ( ! above classes1 & h describ$ "s "o reef or isl&1 on :i* ,i possess$ mo/ in=mation1 z typical2 & h aft]w>ds comp>$ x ) o!rs ( a l k9d4 ,al?\gh ?is classification is useful f be+ obvi\s1 & f includ+ mo/ ( ! coral-reefs exi/+ 9 ! op5 sea1 x admits ( a m fundam5tal division into b>ri] & atoll-=m$ reefs on ! "o h&1 :]e !re is a great app>5t difficulty ) respect to ! f\ndation on :i* !y mu/ fir/ h gr[n2 & into fr++-reefs on ! o!r1 :]e1 ow+ to ! nature ( ! slope ( ! adjo9+ l&1 !re is no su* difficulty4 ,! two blue t9ts & ! r$ col\r#b on ! map 7,plate ,,iii71 repres5t ?is ma9 division1 z expla9$ 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! la/ *apt]4 ,9 ! ,app5dix1 e exi/+ coral-reef1 except "s on ! coa/ ( ,brazil n includ$ 9 ! map1 is briefly describ$ 9 geographical ord]1 z f> z ,i possess$ in=mation2 & any p>ticul> spot may be f\nd by consult+ ! ,index4 ,sev]al !ories h be5 advanc$ to expla9 ! orig9 ( atolls or lagoon-isl&s1 b sc>cely "o to acc\nt = b>ri]-reefs4 ,f ! limit$ dep?s at :i* reef-build+ polypif]s c fl\ri%1 tak5 into consid]ation ) c]ta9 o!r circum/ances1 we are compell$ to conclude1 z x w be se51 t bo? 9 atolls & b>ri]-reefs1 ! f\ndation on :i* ! coral 0 prim>ily atta*$1 has subsid$2 & t dur+ ?is d[nw>d movem5t1 ! reefs h gr[n upw>ds4 ,?is conclusion1 x w be fur!r se51 expla9s mo/ satisfactorily ! outl9e & g5]al =m ( atolls & b>ri]-reefs1 & likewise c]ta9 peculi>ities 9 _! /ructure4 ,! di/ribution1 also1 ( ! diff]5t k9ds ( coral-reefs1 & _! position ) relation to ! areas ( rec5t elevation1 & to ! po9ts subject to volcanic eruptions1 fully accord ) ?is !ory ( _! orig94#c #b ,replac$ by numb]s 9 ?is edition4 #c ,a brief acc\nt ( my views on coral =mations1 n[ publi%$ 9 my ,j\rnal ( ,rese>*es1 0 read ,may #ca/1 #ahcg1 be=e ! ,geological ,society1 & an ab/ract has appe>$ 9 ! ,proce$+s4 ,9 ! sev]al orig9al surveys1 f :i* ! small plans on ?is plate h be5 r$uc$1 ! coral-reefs are engrav$ 9 v diff]5t /yles4 ,= ! sake ( uni=mity1 ,i h adopt$ ! /yle us$ 9 ! *>ts ( ! ,*agos ,ar*ipelago1 publi%$ by ! ,ea/ ,indian ,company1 f ! survey by ,capta9 ,moresby & ,lieut5ant ,p[ell4 ,! surface ( ! reef1 :i* dries at l[ wat]1 is repres5t$ by a surface ) small crosses3 ! coral-islets on ! reef are m>k$ by small l9e> spaces1 on :i* a few cocoa-nut trees1 out ( all proportion too l>ge1 h be5 introduc$ = ! sake ( cle>ness4 ,! entire annul> reef1 :i* :5 surr\nd+ an op5 expanse ( wat]1 =ms an 8atoll10 & :5 surr\nd+ "o or m high isl&s1 =ms an encircl+ 8b>ri]-reef10 has a ne>ly uni=m /ructure4 ,! reefs 9 "s ( ! orig9al surveys are repres5t$ m]ely by a s+le l9e ) crosses1 s t _! bread? is n giv52 ,i h _h su* reefs engrav$ ( ! wid? usually atta9$ by coral-reefs4 ,i h n ?\ght x wor? :ile to introduce all ^? small & v num]\s reefs1 :i* occur )9 ! lagoons ( mo/ atolls & )9 ! lagoon-*annels ( mo/ b>ri]-reefs1 & :i* /& ei!r isolat$1 or are atta*$ to ! %ores ( ! reef or l&4 ,at ,p]os ,banhos none ( ! lagoon-reefs rise to ! surface ( ! wat]2 a few ( !m h be5 introduc$1 & are m>k$ by pla9 dott$ circles4 ,a few ( ! deepe/ s\nd+s are laid d[n )9 ea* reef2 !y are 9 fa?oms1 ( six ,engli% feet4 ,plate ,i--,map %[+ ! resemblance 9 =m betwe5 b>ri] coral-reefs surr\nd+ m\nta9\s isl&s1 & atolls or lagoon isl&s4 ,illu/ration3 ,map %[+ ! resemblance 9 =m4 ,fig4 #a--,,vanikoro1 situat$ 9 ! we/]n "p ( ! ,s\? ,pacific2 tak5 f ! survey by ,capta9 ,d',urville 9 ! ,a/rolabe2 ! s\nd+s on ! s\!rn side ( ! isl&1 namely1 f ?irty to =ty fa?oms1 are giv5 f ! voyage ( ! ,*ev4 ,dillon2 ! o!r s\nd+s are laid d[n f ! survey by ,d',urville2 height ( ! summit ( ! isl& is #c1jcb feet4 ,! pr9cipal small deta*$ reefs )9 ! lagoon-*annel h 9 ?is in/ance be5 repres5t$4 ,! s\!rn %ore ( ! isl& is n>r[ly fr+$ by a reef3 if ! engrav] _h c>ri$ ?is reef entirely r\nd bo? isl&s1 ?is figure w\ld h s]v$ 7by leav+ out 9 imag9ation ! b>ri]-reef7 z a good specim5 ( an abruptly-sid$ isl&1 surr\nd$ by a reef ( ! fr++ class4 ,fig4 #b--;,,hogoleu1 or ,,r\g1 9 ! ,c>ol9e ,ar*ipelago2 tak5 f ! 8,atlas ( ! ,voyage ( ! ,a/rolabe10 compil$ f ! surveys ( ,capta9s ,dup]rey & ,d',urville2 ! dep? ( ! imm5se lagoon-l space )9 ! reef is n kn[n4 ,fig4 #c--,,raiatea1 9 ! ,society ,ar*ipelago2 f ! map giv5 9 ! qu>to edition ( 8,cook's ,fir/ ,voyage20 x is probably n accurate4 ,fig4 #d--;,,b[1 or ,,hey\ ,,atoll 7or lagoon-isl&71 9 ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago1 f ! survey by ,capta9 ,bee*ey1 ,r4,n42 ! lagoon is *ok$ up ) reefs1 b ! av]age greate/ dep? ( ab\t tw5ty fa?oms1 is giv5 f ! publi%$ acc\nt ( ! voyage4 ,fig4 #e--;,,bolabola1 9 ! ,society ,ar*ipelago1 f ! survey ( ,capta9 ,dup]rey 9 ! ,coquille3 ! s\nd+s 9 ?is & ! foll[+ figures h be5 alt]$ f ,fr5* feet to ,engli% fa?oms2 height ( highe/ po9t ( ! isl& #d1jbf feet4 ,illu/ration3 ,map %[+ ! resemblance 9 =m4 ,fig4 #f4--,,maurua1 9 ! ,society ,ar*ipelago2 f ! survey by ,capta9 ,dup]rey 9 ! ,coquille3 height ( l& ab\t eight hundr$ feet4 ,fig4 #g--,,p\ynip,,te1 or ,,s5iav9e1 9 ! ,c>ol9e ,ar*ipelago2 f ! survey by ,admiral ,lutk4 ,fig4 #h--;,,gambi] ,,isl&s1 9 ! s\!rn "p ( ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago2 f ! survey by ,capta9 ,bee*ey2 height ( highe/ isl&1 #a1bdf feet2 ! isl&s are surr\nd$ by ext5sive & irregul> reefs2 ! reef on ! s\!rn side is subm]g$4 ,fig4 #i--,,p]os ,,banhos ,,atoll 7or lagoon-isl&71 9 ! ,*agos gr\p 9 ! ,indian ,ocean2 f ! survey by ,capta9 ,moresby & ,lieut5ant ,p[ell2 n ne>ly all ! small subm]g$ reefs 9 ! lagoon are repres5t$2 ! annul> reef on ! s\!rn side is subm]g$4 ,fig4 #aj--,,keel+1 or ,,cocos ,,atoll 7or lagoon-isl&71 9 ! ,indian ,ocean2 f ! survey by ,capta9 ,fitzroy2 ! lagoon s\? ( ! dott$ l9e is v %all[1 & is left almo/ b>e at l[ wat]2 ! "p nor? ( ! l9e is *ok$ up ) irregul> reefs4 ,! annul> reef on ! nor?-we/ side is brok51 & bl5ds into a %oal s&bank1 on :i* ! sea breaks4 ,*apt] ,i ,,atolls ,,or ,,lagoon-,,isl&s ,section ,i--,,keel+ ,,atoll ,corals on ! out] m>g94--,zone ( ,nullipor4--,ext]ior reef4--,islets4--,coral-conglom]ate4--,l agoon4--,calc>e\s s$im5t4--,sc>i & ,holu?uri subsi/+ on corals4--,*anges 9 ! condition ( ! reefs & islets4--,probable subsid5ce ( ! atoll4--,future /ate ( ! lagoon4 ,,keel+ or ,,cocos atoll is situat$ 9 ! ,indian ,ocean1 9 #ab #e ,s41 & longitude #ij #ee ,e43 a r$uc$ *>t ( x 0 made f ! survey ( ,capta9 ,fitzroy & ! ,(fic]s ( ,h4,m4,s4 ,beagle1 is giv5 9 ,plate ,i1 ,fig4 #aj4 ,! greate/ wid? ( ?is atoll is n9e miles & a half4 ,its /ructure is 9 mo/ respects *>act]i/ic ( ! class to :i* x belongs1 ) ! exception ( ! %all[ness ( ! lagoon4 ,! accompany+ woodcut repres5ts a v]tical section1 suppos$ to be drawn at l[ wat] f ! out] coa/ across "o ( ! l[ islets 7"o be+ tak5 ( av]age dim5sions7 to )9 ! lagoon4 ,illu/ration3 ,v]tical section ( "o ( ! l[ islets4 ,a4--,level ( ! sea at l[ wat]3 :]e ! lett] ,a is plac$1 ! dep? is tw5ty-five fa?oms1 & ! di/ance r m ?an "o hundr$ & fifty y>ds f ! edge ( ! reef4 ,b4--,out] edge ( t flat "p ( ! reef1 :i* dries at l[ wat]3 ! edge ei!r consi/s ( a convex m\nd1 z repres5t$1 or ( rugg$ po9ts1 l ^? a little f>!r seaw>d1 b5ea? ! wat]4 ,c4--,a flat ( coral-rock1 cov]$ at high wat]4 ,d4--,a l[ project+ l$ge ( brecciat$ coral-rock wa%$ by ! waves at high wat]4 ,e4--,a slope ( loose fragm5ts1 rea*$ by ! sea only dur+ gales3 ! upp] "p1 :i* is f six to twelve feet high1 is clo!d ) vegetation4 ,! surface ( ! islet g5tly slopes to ! lagoon4 ,f4--,level ( ! lagoon at l[ wat]4 ,! section is true to ! scale 9 a horizontal l9e1 b x c\ld n be made s 9 a v]tical "o1 z ! av]age greate/ height ( ! l& is only betwe5 six & twelve feet above high-wat] m>k4 ,i w describe ! section1 comm5c+ ) ! out] m>g94 ,i mu/ fir/ obs]ve t ! reef-build+ polypif]s1 n be+ tidal animals1 require to be con/antly subm]g$ or wa%$ by ! break]s4 ,i 0 assur$ by ,mr4 ,liesk1 a v intellig5t resid5t on ^! isl&s1 z well z by "s *iefs at ,tahiti 7,otaheite71 t an exposure to ! rays ( ! sun = a v %ort "t inv>iably causes _! de/ruction4 ,h5ce x is possible only "u ! mo/ fav\rable circum/ances1 af=d$ by an unusually l[ tide & smoo? wat]1 to rea* ! out] m>g91 :]e ! coral is alive4 ,i succe$$ only twice 9 ga9+ ?is "p1 & f\nd x almo/ entirely compos$ ( a liv+ ,porites1 :i* =ms great irregul>ly r\nd$ masses 7l ^? ( an ,a/ra1 b l>g]7 f f\r to eight feet broad1 & little less 9 ?ickness4 ,^! m\nds are sep>at$ f ea* o!r by n>r[ crook$ *annels1 ab\t six feet deep1 mo/ ( :i* int]sect ! l9e ( reef at "r angles4 ,on ! fur!/ m\nd1 :i* ,i 0 able to rea* by ! aid ( a leap+-pole1 & ov] :i* ! sea broke ) "s viol5ce1 al?\gh ! day 0 q calm & ! tide l[1 ! polypif]s 9 ! upp]mo/ cells 7 all dead1 b betwe5 ?ree & f\r in*es l[] d[n on its side !y 7 liv+1 & =m$ a project+ bord] r\nd ! upp] & dead surface4 ,! coral be+ ?us *eck$ 9 its upw>d gr[?1 ext5ds lat]ally1 & h5ce mo/ ( ! masses1 especially ^? a little fur!r inw>ds1 _h broad flat dead summits4 ,on ! o!r h& ,i c\ld see1 dur+ ! recoil ( ! break]s1 t a few y>ds fur!r seaw>d1 ! :ole convex surface ( ! ,porites 0 alive2 s t ! po9t :]e we 7 /&+ 0 almo/ on ! exact upw>d & %orew>d limit ( exi/5ce ( ^? corals :i* =m ! out] m>g9 ( ! reef4 ,we %all pres5tly see t !re are o!r organic productions1 fitt$ to be> a some:at long] exposure to ! air & sun4 ,next1 b mu* inf]ior 9 importance to ! ,porites1 is ! ,millepora complanata4#a #a ,?is ,millepora 7,palmipora ( ,bla9ville71 z well z ! ,m4 alcicornis1 possesses ! s+ul> prop]ty ( /++ ! sk9 :]e x is delicate1 z on ! face & arm4 ,x gr[s 9 ?ick v]tical plates1 int]sect+ ea* o!r at v>i\s angles1 & =ms an exce$+ly /rong honeycomb$ mass1 :i* g5]ally affects a circul> =m1 ! m>g9al plates alone be+ alive4 ,betwe5 ^! plates & 9 ! protect$ crevices on ! reef1 a multitude ( bran*+ zoophytes & o!r productions fl\ri%1 b ! ,porites & ,millepora alone seem able to resi/ ! fury ( ! break]s on its upp] & out] edge3 at ! dep? ( a few fa?oms o!r k9ds ( /ony corals live4 ,mr4 ,liesk1 :o 0 intimately acqua9t$ ) e "p ( ?is reef1 & likewise ) t ( ,nor? ,keel+ atoll1 assur$ me t ^! corals inv>iably compose ! out] m>g94 ,! lagoon is inhabit$ by q a di/9ct set ( corals1 g5]ally brittle & ?9ly bran*$2 b a ,porites1 app>5tly ( ! same species ) t on ! outside1 is f\nd !re1 al?\gh x does n seem to ?rive1 & c]ta9ly does n atta9 ! ?\s&? "p 9 bulk ( ! masses oppos$ to ! break]s4 ,! woodcut %[s ! =m ( ! bottom (f ! reef3 ! wat] deep5s = a space betwe5 "o & two hundr$ y>ds wide1 v gradually to tw5ty-five fa?oms 7,a 9 section71 beyond :i* ! sides plunge into ! unfa?omable ocean at an angle ( #de4b ,to ! dep? ( t5 or twelve fa?oms ! bottom is exce$+ly rugg$1 & seems =m$ ( great masses ( liv+ coral1 simil> to ^? on ! m>g94 ,! arm+ ( ! lead "h inv>iably came up q clean1 b deeply ind5t$1 & *a9s & an*ors :i* 7 l[]$1 9 ! hopes ( te>+ up ! coral1 7 brok54 ,_m small fragm5ts1 h[ev]1 ( ,millepora alcicornis 7 br\ght up2 & on ! arm+ f an eight-fa?om ca/1 !re 0 a p]fect impression ( an ,a/ra1 app>5tly alive4 ,i exam9$ ! roll$ fragm5ts ca/ on ! bea* dur+ gales1 9 ord] fur!r to asc]ta9 :at corals grew outside ! reef4 ,! fragm5ts consi/$ ( _m k9ds1 ( :i* ! ,porites already m5tion$ & a ,madrepora1 app>5tly ! ,m4 corymbosa1 7 ! mo/ abundant4 ,z ,i se>*$ 9 va9 9 ! holl[s on ! reef & 9 ! lagoon1 = a liv+ specim5 ( ?is ,madrepore1 ,i conclude t x is conf9$ to a zone outside1 & b5ea? ! surface1 :]e x mu/ be v abundant4 ,fragm5ts ( ! ,millepora alcicornis & ( an ,a/ra 7 also num]\s2 ! =m] is f\nd1 b n 9 proportionate numb]s1 9 ! holl[s on ! reef2 b ! ,a/ra ,i did n see liv+4 ,h5ce we may inf]1 t ^! are ! k9ds ( coral :i* =m ! rugg$ slop+ surface 7repres5t$ 9 ! woodcut by an unev5 l9e71 r\nd & b5ea? ! ext]nal m>g94 ,betwe5 twelve & tw5ty fa?oms ! arm+ came up an equal numb] ( times smoo!d ) s&1 & ind5t$ ) coral3 an an*or & lead 7 lo/ at ! respective dep?s ( ?irte5 & sixte5 fa?oms4 ,out ( tw5ty-five s\nd+s tak5 at a great] dep? ?an tw5ty fa?oms1 e "o %[$ t ! bottom 0 cov]$ ) s&2 :]eas1 at a less dep? ?an twelve fa?oms1 e s\nd+ %[$ t x 0 exce$+ly rugg$1 & free f all extrane\s p>ticles4 ,two s\nd+s 7 obta9$ at ! dep? ( #cfj fa?oms1 & sev]al betwe5 two hundr$ & ?ree hundr$ fa?oms4 ,! s& br\ght up f ^! dep?s consi/$ ( f9ely triturat$ fragm5ts ( /ony zoophytes1 b n1 z f> z ,i c\ld di/+ui%1 ( a p>ticle ( any lamelli=m g5us3 fragm5ts ( %ells 7 r>e4 #b ,! s\nd+s f :i* ?is section is laid d[n 7 tak5 ) great c>e by ,capta9 ,fitzroy himself4 ,he us$ a bell-%ap$ lead1 hav+ a diamet] ( f\r in*es1 & ! arm+s ea* "t 7 cut (f & br\ght on bo>d = me to exam9e4 ,! arm+ is a prep>ation ( tall[1 plac$ 9 ! concavity at ! bottom ( ! lead4 ,s&1 & ev5 small fragm5ts ( rock1 w adh]e to x2 & if ! bottom be ( rock x br+s up an exact impression ( its surface4 ,at a di/ance ( #b1bjj y>ds f ! break]s1 ,capta9 ,fitzroy f\nd no bottom ) a l9e ( #g1bjj feet 9 l5g?2 h5ce ! subm>9e slope ( ?is coral =mation is /eep] ?an t ( any volcanic cone4 ,(f ! m\? ( ! lagoon1 & likewise (f ! nor!rn po9t ( ! atoll1 :]e ! curr5ts act viol5tly1 ! incl9ation1 ow+ to ! accumulation ( s$im5t1 is less4 ,z ! arm+ ( ! lead f all ! great] dep?s %[$ a smoo? s&y bottom1 ,i at fir/ conclud$ t ! :ole consi/$ ( a va/ conical pile ( calc>e\s s&1 b ! sudd5 increase ( dep? at "s po9ts1 & ! circum/ance ( ! l9e hav+ be5 cut1 z if rubb$1 :5 betwe5 five hundr$ & six hundr$ fa?oms 7 out1 indicate ! probable exi/5ce ( subm>9e cliffs4 ,on ! m>g9 ( ! reef1 close )9 ! l9e :]e ! upp] surface ( ! ,porites & ( ! ,millepora is dead1 ?ree species ( ,nullipora fl\ri%4 ,"o gr[s 9 ?9 %eets1 l a li*5 on old trees2 ! second 9 /ony knobs1 z ?ick z a man's f+]1 radiat+ f a common c5tre2 & ! ?ird1 :i* is less common1 9 a moss-l reticulation ( ?91 b p]fectly rigid bran*es4#c ,! ?ree species occur ei!r sep>ately or m+l$ toge!r2 & !y =m by _! successive gr[? a lay] two or ?ree feet 9 ?ickness1 :i* 9 "s cases is h>d1 b :]e =m$ ( ! li*5-l k9d1 readily yields an impression to ! hamm]3 ! surface is ( a r$di% col\r4 ,^! ,nullipor1 al?\gh able to exi/ above ! limit ( true corals1 seem to require to be ba!d dur+ ! great] "p ( ea* tide by break+ wat]1 = !y are n f\nd 9 any abundance 9 ! protect$ holl[s on ! back "p ( ! reef1 :]e !y might be imm]s$ ei!r dur+ ! :ole or an equal proportional "t ( ea* tide4 ,x is rem>kable t organic productions ( su* extreme simplicity1 = ! ,nullipor und\bt$ly belong to "o ( ! l[e/ classes ( ! vegetable k+dom1 %\ld be limit$ to a zone s peculi>ly circum/anc$4 ,h5ce ! lay] compos$ by _! gr[? m]ely fr+es ! reef = a space ( ab\t tw5ty y>ds 9 wid?1 ei!r "u ! =m ( sep>ate mammillat$ projections1 :]e ! out] masses ( coral are sep>ate1 or1 m commonly1 :]e ! corals are unit$ into a solid m>g91 z a cont9u\s smoo? convex m\nd 7,b 9 woodcut71 l an artificial breakwat]4 ,bo? ! m\nd & mammillat$ projections /& ab\t ?ree feet high] ?an any o!r "p ( ! reef1 by :i* t]m ,i d n include ! islets1 =m$ by ! accumulation ( roll$ fragm5ts4 ,we %all h]eaft] see t o!r coral reefs are protect$ by a simil> ?ick gr[? ( ,nullipor on ! out] m>g91 ! "p mo/ expos$ to ! break]s1 & ?is mu/ effectually aid 9 pres]v+ x f be+ worn d[n4 #c ,?is la/ species is ( a beautiful bright pea*-blossom col\r4 ,its bran*es are ab\t z ?ick z cr[-quills2 !y are slightly flatt5$ & knobb$ at ! extremities4 ,! extremities only are alive & brightly col\r$4 ,! two o!r species are ( a dirty purpli%-:ite4 ,! second species is extremely h>d2 its %ort knob-l bran*es are cyl9drical1 & d n gr[ ?ick] at _! extremities4 ,! woodcut repres5ts a section across "o ( ! islets on ! reef1 b if all t "p :i* is above ! level ( ,c 7 remov$1 ! section w\ld be t ( a simple reef1 z x occurs :]e no islet has be5 =m$4 ,x is ?is reef :i* ess5tially =ms ! atoll4 ,x is a r+1 enclos+ ! lagoon on all sides except at ! nor!rn end1 :]e !re are two op5 spaces1 ?r\gh "o ( :i* %ips c ent]4 ,! reef v>ies 9 wid? f two hundr$ & fifty to five hundr$ y>ds1 its surface is level1 or v slightly incl9$ t[>ds ! lagoon1 & at high tide ! sea breaks entirely ov] x3 ! wat] at l[ tide ?r[n by ! break]s on ! reef1 is c>ri$ by ! _m n>r[ & %oal gullies or *annels on its surface1 into ! lagoon3 a return /ream sets out ( ! lagoon ?r\gh ! ma9 entrance4 ,! mo/ frequ5t coral 9 ! holl[s on ! reef is ,pocillopora v]rucosa1 :i* gr[s 9 %ort s9u\s plates1 or bran*es1 & :5 alive is ( a beautiful pale lake-r$3 a ,madrepora1 closely alli$ or id5tical ) ,m4 pocillif]a1 is also common4 ,z soon z an islet is =m$1 & ! waves are prev5t$ break+ entirely ov] ! reef1 ! *annels & holl[s 9 x become fill$ up ) cem5t$ fragm5ts1 & its surface is conv]t$ into a h>d smoo? floor 7,c ( woodcut71 l an artificial "o ( free/one4 ,?is flat surface v>ies 9 wid? f "o hundr$ to two hundr$1 or ev5 ?ree hundr$ y>ds1 & is /rew$ ) a few l>ge fragm5ts ( coral torn up dur+ gales3 x is uncov]$ only at l[ wat]4 ,i c\ld ) difficulty1 & only by ! aid ( a *isel1 procure *ips ( rock f its surface1 & !re=e c\ld n asc]ta9 h[ mu* ( x is =m$ by ! aggregation ( detritus1 & h[ mu* by ! outw>d gr[? ( m\nds ( corals1 simil> to ^? n[ liv+ on ! m>g94 ,no?+ c be m s+ul> ?an ! appe>ance at l[ tide ( ?is 8flat0 ( nak$ /one1 especially :]e x is ext]nally b\nd$ by ! smoo? convex m\nd ( ,nullipor1 appe>+ l a breakwat] built to resi/ ! waves1 :i* are con/antly ?r[+ ov] x %eets ( foam+ wat]4 ,! *>act]i/ic appe>ance ( ?is 8flat0 is %[n 9 ! =ego+ woodcut ( ,:itsunday atoll4 ,! islets on ! reef are fir/ =m$ betwe5 two hundr$ & ?ree hundr$ y>ds f its out] edge1 ?r\gh ! accumulation ( a pile ( fragm5ts1 ?r[n toge!r by "s unusually /rong gale4 ,_! ord9>y wid? is "u a qu>t] ( a mile1 & _! l5g? v>ies f a few y>ds to sev]al miles4 ,^? on ! s\?-ea/ & w9dw>d side ( ! atoll1 increase solely by ! addition ( fragm5ts on _! out] side2 h5ce ! loose blocks ( coral1 ( :i* _! surface is compos$1 z well z ! %ells m+l$ ) !m1 almo/ exclusively consi/ ( ^? k9ds :i* live on ! out] coa/4 ,! highe/ "p ( ! islets 7except+ hillocks ( bl[n s&1 "s ( :i* are ?irty feet high71 is close to ! out] bea* 7,e ( ! woodcut71 & av]ages f six to t5 feet above ord9>y high-wat] m>k4 ,f ! out] bea* ! surface slopes g5tly to ! %ores ( ! lagoon1 :i* no d\bt has be5 caus$ by ! break]s ! fur!r !y h roll$ ov] ! reef1 hav+ _h less p[] to ?r[ up fragm5ts4 ,! little waves ( ! lagoon heap up s& & fragm5ts ( ?9ly-bran*$ corals on ! inn] side ( ! islets on ! leew>d side ( ! atoll2 & ^! islets are broad] ?an ^? to w9dw>d1 "s be+ ev5 eight hundr$ y>ds 9 wid?2 b ! l& ?us add$ is v l[4 ,! fragm5ts b5ea? ! surface are cem5t$ into a solid mass1 :i* is expos$ z a l$ge 7,d ( ! woodcut71 project+ "s y>ds 9 front ( ! out] %ore & f two to f\r feet high4 ,?is l$ge is j rea*$ by ! waves at ord9>y high-wat]3 x ext5ds 9 front ( all ! islets1 & ev]y:]e has a wat]-worn & scoop$ appe>ance4 ,! fragm5ts ( coral :i* are occasionally ca/ on ! 8flat0 are dur+ gales ( unusual viol5ce swept toge!r on ! bea*1 :]e ! waves ea* day at high-wat] t5d to remove & gradually we> !m d[n2 b ! l[] fragm5ts hav+ become firmly cem5t$ toge!r by ! p]colation ( calc>e\s matt]1 resi/ ! daily tides long]1 & h5ce project z a l$ge4 ,! cem5t$ mass is g5]ally ( a :ite col\r1 b 9 "s few p>ts r$di% f f]rug9\s matt]2 x is v h>d1 & is sonor\s "u ! hamm]2 x is obscurely divid$ by seams1 dipp+ at a small angle seaw>d2 x consi/s ( fragm5ts ( ! corals :i* gr[ on ! out] m>g91 "s q & o!rs p>tially r\nd$1 "s small & o!rs betwe5 two & ?ree feet across2 & ( masses ( previ\sly =m$ conglom]ate1 torn up1 r\nd$1 & re-cem5t$2 or x consi/s ( a calc>e\s s&/one1 entirely compos$ ( r\nd$ p>ticles1 g5]ally almo/ bl5d$ toge!r1 ( %ells1 corals1 ! sp9es ( e*9i1 & o!r su* organic bodies2 rocks1 ( ?is latt] k9d1 occur on _m %ores1 :]e !re are no coral reefs4 ,! /ructure ( ! coral 9 ! conglom]ate has g5]ally be5 mu* obscur$ by ! infiltration ( spa?ose calc>e\s matt]2 & ,i collect$ a v int]e/+ s]ies1 beg9n+ ) fragm5ts ( unalt]$ coral1 & end+ ) o!rs1 :]e x 0 impossible to discov] ) ! nak$ eye any trace ( organic /ructure4 ,9 "s specim5s ,i 0 unable1 ev5 ) ! aid ( a l5s1 & by wett+ !m1 to di/+ui% ! b\nd>ies ( ! alt]$ coral & spa?ose lime/one4 ,_m ev5 ( ! blocks ( coral ly+ loose on ! bea*1 _h _! c5tral p>ts alt]$ & infiltrat$4 ,! lagoon alone rema9s to be describ$2 x is mu* %all[] ?an t ( mo/ atolls ( consid]able size4 ,! s\!rn "p is almo/ fill$ up ) banks ( mud & fields ( coral1 bo? dead & alive1 b !re are consid]able spaces1 betwe5 ?ree & f\r fa?oms1 & small] bas9s1 f eight to t5 fa?oms deep4 ,probably ab\t half its area consi/s ( s$im5t1 & half ( coral-reefs4 ,! corals compos+ ^! reefs h a v diff]5t aspect f ^? on ! outside2 !y are v num]\s 9 k9d1 & mo/ ( !m are ?9ly bran*$4 ,me&r9a1 h[ev]1 lives 9 ! lagoon1 & great r\nd$ masses ( ?is coral are num]\s1 ly+ q or almo/ loose on ! bottom4 ,! o!r commone/ k9ds consi/ ( ?ree closely alli$ species ( true ,madrepora 9 ?9 bran*es2 ( ,s]iatapora subulata2 two species ( ,porites#d ) cyl9drical bran*es1 "o ( :i* =ms circul> clumps1 ) ! ext]ior bran*es only alive2 & la/ly1 a coral some?+ l an ,explan>ia1 b ) />s on bo? surfaces1 gr[+ 9 ?91 brittle1 /ony1 foliace\s expansions1 especially 9 ! deep] bas9s ( ! lagoon4 ,! reefs on :i* ^! corals gr[ are v irregul> 9 =m1 are full ( cavities1 & h n a solid flat surface ( dead rock1 l t surr\nd+ ! lagoon2 nor c !y be ne>ly s h>d1 = ! inhabitants made ) cr[b>s a *annel ( consid]able l5g? ?r\gh ^! reefs1 9 :i* a s*oon]1 built on ! ,s4,e4 islet1 0 float$ out4 ,x is a v int]e/+ circum/ance1 po9t$ out to u by ,mr4 ,liesk1 t ?is *annel1 al?\gh made less ?an t5 ye>s be=e our visit1 0 !n1 z we saw1 almo/ *ok$ up ) liv+ coral1 s t fre% excavations w\ld be absolutely necess>y to all[ ano!r vessel to pass ?r\gh x4 #d ,?is ,porites has some:at ! habit ( ,p4 clav>ia1 b ! bran*es are n knobb$ at _! ends4 ,:5 alive x is ( a yell[ col\r1 b aft] hav+ be5 wa%$ 9 fre% wat] & plac$ to dry1 a jet-black slimy sub/ance exud$ f ! entire surface1 s t ! specim5 n[ appe>s z if x _h be5 dipp$ 9 ink4 ,! s$im5t f ! deepe/ p>ts 9 ! lagoon1 :5 wet1 appe>$ *alky1 b :5 dry1 l v f9e s&4 ,l>ge s(t banks ( simil>1 b ev5 f9] gra9$ mud1 occur on ! ,s4,e4 %ore ( ! lagoon1 af=d+ a ?ick gr[? ( a ,fucus1 on :i* turtle fe$3 ?is mud1 al?\gh discol\r$ by vegetable matt]1 appe>s f its entire solution 9 acids to be purely calc>e\s4 ,i h se5 9 ! ,museum ( ! ,geological ,society1 a simil> b m rem>kable sub/ance1 br\ght by ,lieut5ant ,nelson f ! reefs ( ,b]muda1 :i*1 :5 %[n to sev]al exp]i5c$ geologi/s1 0 mi/ak5 by !m = true *alk4 ,on ! outside ( ! reef mu* s$im5t mu/ be =m$ by ! action ( ! surf on ! roll$ fragm5ts ( coral2 b 9 ! calm wat]s ( ! lagoon1 ?is c take place only 9 a small degree4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 o!r & unexpect$ ag5ts at "w "h3 l>ge %oals ( two species ( ,sc>us1 "o inhabit+ ! surf outside ! reef & ! o!r ! lagoon1 subsi/ entirely1 z ,i 0 assur$ by ,mr4 ,liesk1 ! intellig5t resid5t be=e ref]r$ to1 by br[s+ on ! liv+ polypif]s4 ,i op5$ sev]al ( ^! fi%1 :i* are v num]\s & ( consid]able size1 & ,i f\nd _! inte/9es di/5d$ by small pieces ( coral1 & f9ely gr\nd calc>e\s matt]4 ,?is mu/ daily pass f !m z ! f9e/ s$im5t2 mu* also mu/ be produc$ by ! inf9itely num]\s v]mi=m & mollusc\s animals1 :i* make cavities 9 almo/ e block ( coral4 ,dr4 ,j4 ,allan1 ( ,=res1 :o has enjoy$ ! be/ means ( obs]vation1 in=ms me 9 a lett] t ! ,holo?uri 7a family ( ,radiata7 subsi/ on liv+ coral2 & ! s+ul> /ructure ( bone )9 ! ant]ior extremity ( _! bodies1 c]ta9ly appe>s well adapt$ = ?is purpose4 ,! numb] ( ! species ( ,holo?uria1 & ( ! individuals :i* sw>m on e "p ( ^! coral-reefs1 is extraord9>ily great2 & _m %iploads are annually freight$1 z is well-kn[n1 = ,*9a ) ! trepang1 :i* is a species ( ?is g5us4 ,! am\nt ( coral ye>ly consum$1 & gr\nd d[n into ! f9e/ mud1 by ^! sev]al creatures1 & probably by _m o!r k9ds1 mu/ be imm5se4 ,^! facts are1 h[ev]1 ( m importance 9 ano!r po9t ( view1 z %[+ u t !re are liv+ *ecks to ! gr[? ( coral-reefs1 & t ! almo/ univ]sal law ( 8consum$ & be consum$10 holds good ev5 ) ! polypif]s =m+ ^? massive bulw>ks1 :i* are able to )/& ! =ce ( ! op5 ocean4 ,consid]+ t ,keel+ atoll1 l o!r coral =mations1 has be5 entirely =m$ by ! gr[? ( organic be+s1 & ! accumulation ( _! detritus1 "o is naturally l$ to inquire h[ long x has cont9u$1 & h[ long x is likely to cont9ue1 9 its pres5t /ate4 ,mr4 ,liesk in=m$ me t he _h se5 an old *>t 9 :i* ! pres5t long isl& on ! ,s4,e4 side 0 divid$ by sev]al *annels into z _m islets2 & he assures me t ! *annels c /ill be di/+ui%$ by ! small] size ( ! trees on !m4 ,on sev]al islets1 also1 ,i obs]v$ t only "y cocoa-nut trees 7 gr[+ on ! extremities2 & t old] & tall] trees rose 9 regul> succession beh9d !m2 :i* %[s t ^! islets h v lately increas$ 9 l5g?4 ,9 ! upp] & s\?-ea/]n "p ( ! lagoon1 ,i 0 mu* surpris$ by f9d+ an irregul> field ( at lea/ a mile squ>e ( bran*+ corals1 /ill upright1 b entirely dead4 ,!y consi/$ ( ! species already m5tion$2 !y 7 ( a br[n col\r1 & s rott51 t 9 try+ to /& on !m ,i sank halfway up ! leg1 z if ?r\gh decay$ bru%wood4 ,! tops ( ! bran*es 7 b>ely cov]$ by wat] at ! "t ( l[e/ tide4 ,sev]al facts hav+ l$ me to disbelieve 9 any elevation ( ! :ole atoll1 ,i 0 at fir/ unable to imag9e :at cause c\ld h kill$ s l>ge a field ( coral4 ,^u reflection1 h[ev]1 x appe>$ to me t ! clos+ up ( ! above-m5tion$ *annels w\ld be a suffici5t cause2 = be=e ?is1 a /rong breeze by =c+ wat] ?r\gh !m into ! head ( ! lagoon1 w\ld t5d to raise its level4 ,b n[ ?is _c happ51 & ! inhabitants obs]ve t ! tide rises to a less height1 dur+ a high ,s4,e4 w9d1 at ! head ?an at ! m\? ( ! lagoon4 ,! corals1 :i*1 "u ! =m] condition ( ?+s1 _h atta9$ ! utmo/ possible limit ( upw>d gr[?1 w\ld ?us occasionally be expos$ = a %ort "t to ! sun1 & be kill$4 ,besides ! increase ( dry l&1 indicat$ by ! =ego+ facts1 ! ext]ior solid reef appe>s to h gr[n outw>ds4 ,on ! we/]n side ( ! atoll1 ! 8flat0 ly+ betwe5 ! m>g9 ( ! reef & ! bea*1 is v wide2 & 9 front ( ! regul> bea* ) its conglom]ate basis1 !re is1 9 mo/ p>ts1 a b$ ( s& & loose fragm5ts ) trees gr[+ out ( x1 :i* app>5tly is n rea*$ ev5 by ! spray at high wat]4 ,x is evid5t "s *ange has tak5 place s9ce ! waves =m$ ! inn] bea*2 t !y =m]ly beat aga9/ x ) viol5ce 0 evid5t1 f a rem>kably ?ick & wat]-worn po9t ( conglom]ate at "o spot1 n[ protect$ by vegetation & a bank ( s&2 t !y beat aga9/ x 9 ! same peculi> mann] 9 :i* ! swell f w9dw>d n[ obliquely curls r\nd ! m>g9 ( ! reef1 0 evid5t f ! conglom]ate hav+ be5 worn into a po9t project+ f ! bea* 9 a simil>ly oblique mann]4 ,?is retreat 9 ! l9e ( action ( ! break]s might result1 ei!r f ! surface ( ! reef 9 front ( ! islets hav+ be5 subm]g$ at "o "t1 & aft]w>d hav+ gr[n upw>ds1 or f ! m\nds ( coral on ! m>g9 hav+ cont9u$ to gr[ outw>ds4 ,t an outw>d gr[? ( ?is "p is 9 process1 c h>dly be d\bt$ f ! fact already m5tion$ ( ! m\nds ( ,porites ) _! summits app>5tly lately kill$1 & _! sides only ?ree or f\r in*es l[] d[n ?ick5$ by a fre% lay] ( liv+ coral4 ,b !re is a difficulty on ?is supposition :i* ,i mu/ n pass ov]4 ,if ! :ole1 or a l>ge "p ( ! 8flat10 _h be5 =m$ by ! outw>d gr[? ( ! m>g91 ea* successive m>g9 w\ld naturally h be5 coat$ by ! ,nullipor1 & s mu* ( ! surface w\ld h be5 ( equal height ) ! exi/+ zone ( liv+ ,nullipor3 ?is is n ! case1 z may be se5 9 ! woodcut4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 evid5t f ! abrad$ /ate ( ! 8flat10 ) its orig9al inequalities fill$ up1 t its surface has be5 mu* modifi$2 & x is possible t ! h9d] portions ( ! zone ( ,nullipor1 p]i%+ z ! reef gr[s outw>ds1 might be worn d[n by ! surf4 ,if ?is has n tak5 place1 ! reef c 9 no "p h increas$ outw>ds 9 bread? s9ce its =mation1 or at lea/ s9ce ! ,nullipor =m$ ! convex m\nd on its m>g92 = ! zone ?us =m$1 & :i* /&s betwe5 two & ?ree feet above ! o!r p>ts ( ! reef1 is n[h]e mu* above tw5ty y>ds 9 wid?4 ,?us f> we h consid]$ facts1 :i* indicate1 ) m or less probability1 ! increase ( ! atoll 9 its diff]5t p>ts3 !re are o!rs hav+ an opposite t5d5cy4 ,on ! s\?-ea/ side1 ,lieut5ant ,sulivan1 to ^: k9dness ,i am indebt$ = _m int]e/+ obs]vations1 f\nd ! conglom]ate project+ on ! reef ne>ly fifty y>ds 9 front ( ! bea*3 we may inf] f :at we see 9 all o!r p>ts ( ! atoll1 t ! conglom]ate 0 n orig9ally s mu* expos$1 b =m$ ! base ( an islet1 ! front & upp] "p ( :i* has s9ce be5 swept away4 ,! degree to :i* ! conglom]ate1 r\nd ne>ly ! :ole atoll1 has be5 scoop$1 brok5 up1 & ! fragm5ts ca/ on ! bea*1 is c]ta9ly v surpris+1 ev5 on ! view t x is ! (fice ( occasional gales to pile up fragm5ts1 & ( ! daily tides to we> !m away4 ,on ! we/]n side1 also1 ( ! atoll1 :]e ,i h describ$ a b$ ( s& & fragm5ts ) trees gr[+ out ( x1 9 front ( an old bea*1 x /ruck bo? ,lieut5ant ,sulivan & myself1 f ! mann] 9 :i* ! trees 7 be+ wa%$ d[n1 t ! surf _h lately recomm5c$ an attack on ?is l9e ( coa/4 ,appe>ances indicat+ a slight encroa*m5t ( ! wat] on ! l&1 are pla9] )9 ! lagoon3 ,i notic$ 9 sev]al places1 bo? on its w9dw>d & leew>d %ores1 old cocoa-nut trees fall+ ) _! roots und]m9$1 & ! rott5 /umps ( o!rs on ! bea*1 :]e ! inhabitants assur$ u ! cocoa-nut c\ld n n[ gr[4 ,capta9 ,fitzroy po9t$ out to me1 ne> ! settlem5t1 ! f\ndation po/s ( a %$1 n[ wa%$ by e tide1 b :i* ! inhabitants /at$1 _h sev5 ye>s be=e /ood above high wat]m>k4 ,9 ! calm wat]s ( ! lagoon1 directly connect$ ) a great1 & !re=e /able ocean1 x seems v improbable t a *ange 9 ! curr5ts1 suffici5tly great to cause ! wat] to eat into ! l& on all sides1 %\ld h tak5 place )9 a limit$ p]iod4 ,f ^! consid]ations ,i inf]r$1 t probably ! atoll _h lately subsid$ to a small am\nt2 & ?is inf]5ce 0 /r5g!n$ by ! circum/ance1 t 9 #ahcd1 two ye>s be=e our visit1 ! isl& _h be5 %ak5 by a sev]e e>?quake1 & by two slight] ones dur+ ! t5 previ\s ye>s4 ,if1 dur+ ^! subt]ranean di/urbances1 ! atoll did subside1 ! d[nw>d movem5t mu/ h be5 v small1 z we mu/ conclude f ! fields ( dead coral /ill lipp+ ! surface ( ! lagoon1 & f ! break]s on ! we/]n %ore n hav+ yet rega9$ ! l9e ( _! =m] action4 ,! subsid5ce mu/1 also1 h be5 prec$$ by a long p]iod ( re/1 dur+ :i* ! islets ext5d$ to _! pres5t size1 & ! liv+ m>g9 ( ! reef grew ei!r upw>ds1 or z ,i believe outw>ds1 to its pres5t di/ance f ! bea*4 ,:e!r ?is view be correct or n1 ! above facts are wor?y ( att5tion1 z %[+ h[ sev]e a /ruggle is 9 progress on ^! l[ coral =mations betwe5 ! two nicely balanc$ p[]s ( l& & wat]4 ,) respect to ! future /ate ( ,keel+ atoll1 if left undi/urb$1 we c see t ! islets may /ill ext5d 9 l5g?2 b z !y _c resi/ ! surf until brok5 by roll+ ov] a wide space1 _! increase 9 bread? mu/ dep5d on ! increas+ bread? ( ! reef2 & ?is mu/ be limit$ by ! /eepness ( ! subm>9e flanks1 :i* c be add$ to only by s$im5t d]iv$ f ! we> & te> ( ! coral4 ,f ! rapid gr[? ( ! coral 9 ! *annel cut = ! s*oon]1 & f ! sev]al ag5ts at "w 9 produc+ f9e s$im5t1 x might be ?\ght t ! lagoon w\ld necess>ily become quickly fill$ up4 ,"s ( ?is s$im5t1 h[ev]1 is transport$ into ! op5 sea1 z appe>s f ! s\nd+s (f ! m\? ( ! lagoon1 in/ead ( be+ deposit$ )9 x4 ,! deposition1 moreov]1 ( s$im5t1 *ecks ! gr[? ( coral-reefs1 s t ^! two ag5cies _c act toge!r ) full effect 9 fill+ x up4 ,we "k s little ( ! habits ( ! _m diff]5t species ( corals1 :i* =m ! lagoon-reefs1 t we h no m reasons = suppos+ t _! :ole surface w\ld gr[ up z quickly z ! coral did 9 ! s*oon]-*annel1 ?an = suppos+ t ! :ole surface ( a peat-moss w\ld increase z quickly z p>ts are kn[n to d 9 holes1 :]e ! peat has be5 cut away4 ,^! ag5cies1 nev]!less1 t5d to fill up ! lagoon2 b 9 proportion z x becomes %all[]1 s mu/ ! polypif]s be subject to _m injuri\s ag5cies1 su* z impure wat] & loss ( food4 ,= in/ance1 ,mr4 ,liesk in=m$ me1 t "s ye>s be=e our visit unusually heavy ra9 kill$ ne>ly all ! fi% 9 ! lagoon1 & probably ! same cause w\ld likewise injure ! corals4 ,! reefs also1 x mu/ be rememb]$1 _c possibly rise above ! level ( ! l[e/ spr+-tide1 s t ! f9al conv]sion ( ! lagoon into l& mu/ be due to ! accumulation ( s$im5t2 & 9 ! mid/ ( ! cle> wat] ( ! ocean1 & ) no surr\nd+ high l&1 ?is process mu/ be exce$+ly sl[4 ,section ,,ii--,,g5]al ,,description ,,( ,,atolls4 ,g5]al =m & size ( atolls1 _! reefs & islets4--,ext]nal slope4--,zone ( ,nullipor4--,conglom]ate4--,dep? ( lagoons4--,s$im5t4--,reefs subm]g$ :olly or 9 "p4--,brea*es 9 ! reef4--,l$ge-=m$ %ores r\nd c]ta9 lagoons4--,conv]sion ( lagoons into l&4 ,i w "h give a sket* ( ! g5]al =m & /ructure ( ! _m atolls & atoll-=m$ reefs :i* occur 9 ! ,pacific & ,indian ,oceans1 comp>+ !m ) ,keel+ atoll4 ,! ,maldiva atolls & ! ,great ,*agos ,bank diff] 9 s _m respects1 t ,i %all devote to !m1 besides occasional ref]5ces1 a ?ird section ( ?is *apt]4 ,keel+ atoll may be consid]$ z ( mod]ate dim5sions & ( regul> =m4 ,( ! ?irty-two isl&s survey$ by ,capta9 ,bee*ey 9 ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago1 ! longe/ 0 f\nd to be ?irty miles1 & ! %orte/ less ?an a mile2 b ,vlieg5 atoll1 situat$ 9 ano!r "p ( ! same gr\p1 appe>s to be sixty miles long & tw5ty broad4 ,mo/ ( ! atolls 9 ?is gr\p are ( an elongat$ =m2 ?us ,b[ ,isl& is ?irty miles 9 l5g?1 & on an av]age only six 9 wid? 7,see ,fig4 #d1 ,plate ,i71 & ,cl]mont ,tonn]e has ne>ly ! same proportions4 ,9 ! ,m>%all ,ar*ipelago 7! ,ralick & ,radack gr\p ( ,kotzebue7 sev]al ( ! atolls are m ?an ?irty miles 9 l5g?1 & ,rimsky ,korsac(f is fifty-f\r long1 & tw5ty wide1 at ! broade/ "p ( its irregul> outl9e4 ,mo/ ( ! atolls 9 ! ,maldiva ,ar*ipelago are ( great size1 "o ( !m 7:i*1 h[ev]1 be>s a d\ble "n7 measur$ 9 a m$ial & slightly curv$ l9e1 is no less ?an eighty-eight geographical miles long1 its greate/ wid? be+ "u tw5ty1 & its lea/ only n9e & a half miles4 ,"s atolls h spurs project+ f !m2 & 9 ! ,m>%all gr\p !re are atolls unit$ toge!r by l9e> reefs1 = in/ance ,m5*ik(f ,isl& 7,see ,fig4 #c1 ,plate ,,ii71 :i* is sixty miles 9 l5g?1 & consi/s ( ?ree loops ti$ toge!r4 ,9 f> ! great] numb] ( cases an atoll consi/s ( a simple elongat$ r+1 ) its outl9e mod]ately regul>4 ,! av]age wid? ( ! annul> wrea? may be tak5 z ab\t a qu>t] ( a mile4 ,capta9 ,bee*ey#e says t 9 ! atolls ( ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago x exce$$ 9 no in/ance half a mile4 ,! description giv5 ( ! /ructure & proportional dim5sions ( ! reef & islets ( ,keel+ atoll1 appe>s to apply p]fectly to ne>ly all ! atolls 9 ! ,pacific & ,indian ,oceans4 ,! islets are fir/ =m$ "s way back ei!r on ! project+ po9ts ( ! reef1 especially if its =m be angul>1 or on ! sides ( ! ma9 entrances into ! lagoon--t is 9 bo? cases1 on po9ts :]e ! break]s c act dur+ gales ( w9d 9 some:at diff]5t directions1 s t ! matt] ?r[n up f "o side may accumulate aga9/ t be=e ?r[n up f ano!r4 ,9 ,lutk's *>t ( ! ,c>ol9e atolls1 we see _m in/ances ( ! =m] case2 & ! occurr5ce ( islets1 z if plac$ = beacons1 on ! po9ts :]e !re is a gateway or brea* ?r\gh ! reef1 has be5 notic$ by sev]al au?ors4 ,!re are "s atoll-=m$ reefs1 ris+ to ! surface ( ! sea & p>tly dry at l[ wat]1 on :i* f "s cause islets h nev] be5 =m$2 & !re are o!rs on :i* !y h be5 =m$1 b h subsequ5tly be5 worn away4 ,9 atolls ( small dim5sions ! islets frequ5tly become unit$ into a s+le horse-%oe or r+-=m$ /rip2 b ,diego ,g>cia1 al?\gh an atoll ( consid]able size1 be+ ?irte5 miles & a half 9 l5g?1 has its lagoon entirely surr\nd$1 except at ! nor!rn end1 by a belt ( l&1 on an av]age a ?ird ( a mile 9 wid?4 ,to %[ h[ small ! total area ( ! annul> reef & ! l& is 9 isl&s ( ?is class1 ,i may quote a rem>k f ! voyage ( ,lutk1 namely1 t if ! =ty-?ree r+s1 or atolls1 9 ! ,c>ol9e ,ar*ipelago1 7 put "o )9 ano!r1 & ov] a /eeple 9 ! c5tre ( ,/4 ,pet]sburg1 ! :ole _w w\ld n cov] t city & its suburbs4 #e ,bee*ey's 8,voyage to ! ,pacific & ,be]+'s ,/raits10 *apt] viii4 ,! =m ( ! bottom (f ,keel+ atoll1 :i* gradually slopes to ab\t tw5ty fa?oms at ! di/ance ( betwe5 "o & two hundr$ y>ds f ! edge ( ! reef1 & !n plunges at an angle ( #de into unfa?omable dep?s1 is exactly ! same#f ) t ( ! sections ( ! atolls 9 ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago giv5 by ,capta9 ,bee*ey4 ,! nature1 h[ev]1 ( ! bottom seems to diff]1 = ?is (fic]#g in=ms me t all ! s\nd+s1 ev5 ! deepe/1 7 on coral1 b he does n "k :e!r dead or alive4 ,! slope r\nd ,*ri/mas atoll 7,lat4 #a #d ,n41 #aeg #de ,w471 describ$ by ,cook1#h is consid]ably less1 at ab\t half a mile f ! edge ( ! reef1 ! av]age dep? 0 ab\t f\rte5 fa?oms on a f9e s&y bottom1 & at a mile1 only betwe5 tw5ty & =ty fa?oms4 ,x has no d\bt be5 ow+ to ?is g5tle slope1 t ! /rip ( l& surr\nd+ its lagoon1 has increas$ 9 "o "p to ! extraord9>y wid? ( ?ree miles2 x is =m$ ( successive ridges ( brok5 %ells & corals1 l ^? on ! bea*4 ,i "k ( no o!r in/ance ( su* wid? 9 ! reef ( an atoll2 b ,mr4 ,f4 ,d4 ,b5nett in=ms me t ! incl9ation ( ! bottom r\nd ,c>ol9e atoll 9 ! ,pacific1 is l t (f ,*ri/mas ,isl&1 v g5tle4 ,(f ! ,maldiva & ,*agos atolls1 ! incl9ation is mu* m abrupt2 ?us at ,heaw&oo ,pholo1 ,lieut5ant ,p[ell#i f\nd fifty & sixty fa?oms close to ! edge ( ! reef1 & at #cjj y>ds di/ance !re 0 no bottom ) a #cjj-y>d l9e4 ,capta9 ,moresby in=ms me1 t at #ajj fa?oms f ! m\? ( ! lagoon ( ,diego ,g>cia1 he f\nd no bottom ) #aej fa?oms2 ?is is ! m rem>kable1 z ! slope is g5]ally less abrupt 9 front ( *annels ?r\gh a reef1 ow+ to ! accumulation ( s$im5t4 ,at ,egmont ,isl&1 also1 at #aej fa?oms f ! reef1 s\nd+s 7 /ruck ) #aej fa?oms4 ,la/ly1 at ,c>doo atoll1 only sixty y>ds f ! reef1 no bottom 0 obta9$1 z ,i am in=m$ by ,capta9 ,moresby1 ) a l9e ( #bjj fa?oms6 ,! curr5ts run ) great =ce r\nd ^! atolls1 & :]e !y are /ronge/1 ! incl9ation appe>s to be mo/ abrupt4 ,i am in=m$ by ! same au?ority1 t :]ev] s\nd+s 7 obta9$ (f ^! isl&s1 ! bottom 0 inv>iably s&y3 nor 0 !re any reason to suspect ! exi/5ce ( subm>9e cliffs1 z !re 0 at ,keel+ ,isl&4#aj ,"h !n occurs a difficulty2 c s& accumulate on a slope1 :i*1 9 "s cases1 appe>s to exce$ fifty-five degrees8 ,x mu/ be obs]v$1 t ,i speak ( slopes :]e s\nd+s 7 obta9$1 & n ( su* cases1 z t ( ,c>doo1 :]e ! nature ( ! bottom is unkn[n1 & :]e its incl9ation mu/ be ne>ly v]tical4 ,m4 ,elie de ,beaumont#aa has argu$1 & !re is no high] au?ority on ?is subject1 f ! incl9ation at :i* sn[ slides d[n 9 avalan*es1 t a b$ ( s& or mud _c be =m$ at a great] angle ?an ?irty degrees4 ,consid]+ ! numb] ( s\nd+s on s&1 obta9$ r\nd ! ,maldiva & ,*agos atolls1 :i* appe>s to indicate a great] angle1 & ! extreme abruptness ( ! s&-banks 9 ! ,we/ ,indies1 z w be m5tion$ 9 ! ,app5dix1 ,i mu/ conclude t ! adhesive prop]ty ( wet s& c\nt]acts its gravity1 9 a mu* great] ratio ?an has be5 all[$ = by ,m4 ,elie de ,beaumont4 ,f ! facility ) :i* calc>e\s s& becomes agglut9at$1 x is n necess>y to suppose t ! b$ ( loose s& is ?ick4 #f ,! =m ( ! bottom r\nd ! ,m>%all atolls 9 ! ,nor!rn ,pacific is probably simil>3 ,kotzebue 78,fir/ ,voyage10 vol4 ii1 p4 #af7 says3 8,we _h at a small di/ance f ! reef1 =ty fa?oms dep?1 :i* increas$ a little fur!r s mu* t we c\ld f9d no bottom40 #g ,i mu/ be p]mitt$ to express my obligation to ,capta9 ,bee*ey1 = ! v k9d mann] 9 :i* he has giv5 me in=mation on sev]al po9ts1 & to own ! great assi/ance ,i h d]iv$ f 8 excell5t publi%$ "w4 #h ,cook's 8,?ird ,voyage10 vol4 ii1 *ap4 #aj4 #i ,?is fact is tak5 f a ,,ms4 acc\nt ( ^! gr\ps l5t me by ,capta9 ,moresby4 ,see also ,capta9 ,moresby's pap] on ! ,maldiva atolls 9 ! ,geographical ,j\rnal1 vol4 v1 p4 #dja4 #aj ,(f "s ( ! isl&s 9 ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago ! bottom appe>s to desc5d by l$ges4 ,(f ,elizabe? ,isl&1 :i*1 h[ev]1 consi/s ( rais$ coral1 ,capta9 ,bee*ey 7page #de1 #dto ed47 describes ?ree l$ges3 ! fir/ _h an easy slope f ! bea* to a di/ance ( ab\t fifty y>ds3 ! second ext5d$ two hundr$ y>ds ) tw5ty-five fa?oms on x1 & !n end$ abruptly1 l ! fir/2 & imm$iately beyond ?is !re 0 no bottom ) two hundr$ fa?oms4 #aa 8,memoires p\r s]vir une description ,geolog4 de ,france10 tome iv1 p4 #baf4 ,capta9 ,bee*ey has obs]v$1 t ! subm>9e slope is mu* less at ! extremities ( ! m elongat$ atolls 9 ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago1 ?an at _! sides2 9 speak+ ( ,ducie's ,isl& he says#ab ! buttress1 z x may be call$1 :i* 8has ! mo/ p[]ful enemy 7! ,s4,w4 swell7 to oppose1 is c>ri$ out mu* fur!r1 & ) less abruptness ?an ! o!r40 ,9 "s cases1 ! less incl9ation ( a c]ta9 "p ( ! ext]nal slope1 = in/ance ( ! nor!rn extremities ( ! two ,keel+ atolls1 is caus$ by a prevail+ curr5t :i* !re accumulates a b$ ( s&4 ,:]e ! wat] is p]fectly tranquil1 z )9 a lagoon1 ! reefs g5]ally gr[ up p]p5dicul>ly1 & sometimes ev5 ov]hang _! bases2 on ! o!r h&1 on ! leew>d side ( ,mauritius1 :]e ! wat] is g5]ally tranquil1 al?\gh n inv>iably s1 ! reef is v g5tly incl9$4 ,h5ce x appe>s t ! ext]ior angle v>ies mu*2 nev]!less 9 ! close simil>ity 9 =m betwe5 ! sections ( ,keel+ atoll & ( ! atolls 9 ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago1 9 ! g5]al /eepness ( ! reefs ( ! ,maldiva & ,*agos atolls1 & 9 ! p]p5dicul>ity ( ^? ris+ out ( wat] always tranquil1 we may disc]n ! effects ( uni=m laws2 b f ! complex action ( ! surf & curr5ts1 on ! gr[+ p[]s ( ! coral & on ! deposition ( s$im5t1 we c by no means foll[ out all ! results4 #ab ,bee*ey's 8,voyage10 #dto ed41 p4 #dd4 ,:]e islets h be5 =m$ on ! reef1 t "p :i* ,i h sometimes call$ ! 8flat0 & :i* is p>tly dry at l[ wat]1 appe>s simil> 9 e atoll4 ,9 ! ,m>%all gr\p 9 ! ,nor? ,pacific1 x may be inf]r$ f ,*amisso's description1 t ! reef1 :]e islets h n be5 =m$ on x1 slopes g5tly f ! ext]nal m>g9 to ! %ores ( ! lagoon2 ,fl9d]s /ates t ! ,au/ralian b>ri] has a simil> incl9ation inw>ds1 & ,i h no d\bt x is ( g5]al occurr5ce1 al?\gh1 accord+ to ,ehr5b]g1 ! reefs ( ! ,r$ ,sea (f] an exception4 ,*amisso obs]ves t 8! r$ col\r ( ! reef 7at ! ,m>%all atolls7 "u ! break]s is caus$ by a ,nullipora1 :i* cov]s ! /one :]ev] ! waves beat2 &1 "u fav\rable circum/ances1 assumes a /alactical =m10--a description p]fectly applicable to ! m>g9 ( ,keel+ atoll4#ac ,al?\gh ,*amisso does n /ate t ! masses ( ,nullipor =m po9ts or a m\nd1 high] ?an ! flat1 yet ,i believe t ?is is ! case2 = ,kotzebue1#ad 9 ano!r "p1 speaks ( ! rocks on ! edge ( ! reef 8z visible = ab\t two feet at l[ wat]10 & ^! rocks we may feel q c]ta9 are n =m$ ( true coral1#ae ,:e!r a smoo? convex m\nd ( ,nullipor1 l t :i* appe>s z if artificially con/ruct$ to protect ! m>g9 ( ,keel+ ,isl&1 is ( frequ5t occurr5ce r\nd atolls1 ,i "k n2 b we %all pres5tly meet ) x1 "u precisely ! same =m1 on ! out] edge ( ! 8b>ri]-reefs0 :i* encircle ! ,society ,isl&s4 #ac ,kotzebue's 8,fir/ ,voyage10 vol4 iii1 p4 #adb4 ,ne> ,porto ,praya1 9 ! ,cape de ,v]de ,isl&s1 "s basaltic rocks1 la%$ by no inconsid]able surf1 7 completely envelop$ ) a lay] ( ,nullipor4 ,! entire surface ov] _m squ>e in*es1 0 col\r$ ( a pea*-blossom$ r$2 ! lay]1 h[ev]1 0 ( no great] ?ickness ?an pap]4 ,ano!r k9d1 9 ! =m ( project+ knobs1 grew 9 ! same situation4 ,^! ,nullipor are closely relat$ to ^? describ$ on ! coral-reefs1 b ,i believe are ( diff]5t species4 #ad ,kotzebue's 8,fir/ ,voyage10 vol4 ii1 p4 #af4 ,lieut5ant ,nelson1 9 8 excell5t memoir 9 ! ,geological ,transactions 7vol4 ii1 p4 #aje71 alludes to ! rocky po9ts m5tion$ by ,kotzebue1 & inf]s t !y consi/ ( ,s]pul1 :i* compose incru/+ masses on ! reefs ( ,b]mudas1 z !y likewise d on a s&/one b> (f ! coa/ ( ,brazil 7:i* ,i h describ$ 9 ,london ,phil4 ,j\rnal1 ,octob] #ahda74 ,^! masses ( ,s]pul hold ! same position1 relatively to ! action ( ! sea1 ) ! ,nullipor on ! coral-reefs 9 ! ,indian & ,pacific ,oceans4 #ae ,capta9 ,moresby1 9 8 valuable pap] 8on ! ,nor!rn atolls ( ,maldivas0 7,geographical ,j\rnal1 vol4 v71 says t ! edges ( ! reefs !re /& above wat] at l[ spr+-tides4 ,!re appe>s to be sc>cely a feature 9 ! /ructure ( ,keel+ reef1 :i* is n ( common1 if n ( univ]sal occurr5ce1 9 o!r atolls4 ,?us ,*amisso describes#af a lay] ( co>se conglom]ate1 outside ! islets r\nd ! ,m>%all atolls :i* 8appe>s on its upp] surface unev5 & eat5 away40 ,f draw+s1 ) app5d$ rem>ks1 ( ,diego ,g>cia 9 ! ,*agos gr\p & ( sev]al ( ! ,maldiva atolls1 %[n me by ,capta9 ,moresby1#ag x is evid5t t _! out] coa/s are subject to ! same r\nd ( decay & r5ovation z ^? ( ,keel+ atoll4 ,f ! description ( ! atolls 9 ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago1 giv5 9 ,capta9 ,bee*ey's 8,voyage10 x is n app>5t t any conglom]ate coral-rock 0 !re obs]v$4 #af ,kotzebue's 8,fir/ ,voyage10 vol4 iii1 p4 #add4 #ag ,see also ,moresby on ! ,nor!rn atolls ( ! ,maldivas1 ,geographical ,j\rnal1 vol v1 p4 #djj4 ,! lagoon 9 ,keel+ atoll is %all[2 9 ! atolls ( ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago ! dep? v>ies f #bj to #ch fa?oms1 & 9 ! ,m>%all ,gr\p1 accord+ to ,*amisso1 f #cj to #ce2 9 ! ,c>ol9e atolls x is only a little less4 ,)9 ! ,maldiva atolls !re are l>ge spaces ) #de fa?oms1 & "s s\nd+s are laid d[n ( #di fa?oms4 ,! great] "p ( ! bottom 9 mo/ lagoons1 is =m$ ( s$im5t2 l>ge spaces h exactly ! same dep?1 or ! dep? v>ies s ins5sibly1 t x is evid5t t no o!r means1 except+ aque\s deposition1 c\ld h level$ ! surface s equally4 ,9 ! ,maldiva atolls ?is is v conspicu\s1 & likewise 9 "s ( ! ,c>ol9e & ,m>%all ,isl&s4 ,9 ! =m] l>ge spaces consi/ ( s& & s(t clay2 & ,kotzebue speaks ( clay hav+ be5 f\nd )9 "o ( ! ,m>%all atolls4 ,no d\bt ?is clay is calc>e\s mud1 simil> to t at ,keel+ ,isl&1 & to t at ,b]muda already ref]r$ to1 z undi/+ui%able f dis9tegrat$ *alk1 & :i* ,lieut5ant ,nelson says is call$ !re pipe-clay4#ah #ah ,i may "h obs]ve t on ! coa/ ( ,brazil1 :]e !re is mu* coral1 ! s\nd+s ne> ! l& are describ$ by ,admiral ,r\ss91 9 ! ,pilote du ,brsil1 z silice\s s&1 m+l$ ) mu* f9ely comm9ut$ p>ticles ( %ells & coral4 ,fur!r 9 ! (f+1 = a space ( #a1cjj miles along ! coa/1 f ! ,abrolhos ,isl&s to ,m>anham1 ! bottom 9 _m places is compos$ ( 8tuf blanc1 ml ou =m de madrpores broys40 ,?is :ite sub/ance1 probably1 is analog\s to t :i* occurs )9 ! above-m5tion$ lagoons2 x is sometimes1 accord+ to ,r\ss91 firm1 & he comp>es x to mort>4 ,:]e ! waves act ) unequal =ce on ! two sides ( an atoll1 ! islets appe> to be fir/ =m$1 & are g5]ally ( great] cont9uity on ! m expos$ %ore4 ,! islets1 also1 :i* are plac$ to leew>d1 are 9 mo/ p>ts ( ! ,pacific liable to be occasionally swept entirely away by gales1 equall+ hurricanes 9 viol5ce1 :i* bl[ 9 an opposite direction to ! ord9>y trade-w9d4 ,! abs5ce ( ! islets on ! leew>d side ( atolls1 or :5 pres5t _! less] dim5sions comp>$ ) ^? to w9dw>d1 is a comp>atively unimportant fact2 b 9 sev]al in/ances ! reef itself on ! leew>d side1 reta9+ its usual def9$ outl9e1 does n rise to ! surface by sev]al fa?oms4 ,?is is ! case ) ! s\!rn side ( ,p]os ,banhos 7,plate #a1 ,fig4 #i7 9 ! ,*agos gr\p1 ) ,m\rileu atoll1#ai 9 ! ,c>ol9e ,ar*ipelago1 & ) ! b>ri]-reef 7,plate ,i1 ,fig4 #h7 ( ! ,gambi] ,isl&s4 ,i allude to ! latt] reef1 al?\gh belong+ to ano!r class1 because ,capta9 ,bee*ey 0 fir/ l$ by x to obs]ve ! peculi>ity 9 ! "q4 ,at ,p]os ,banhos ! subm]g$ "p is n9e miles 9 l5g?1 & lies at an av]age dep? ( ab\t five fa?oms2 its surface is ne>ly level1 & consi/s ( h>d /one1 ) a ?9 cov]+ ( loose s&4 ,!re is sc>cely any liv+ coral on x1 ev5 on ! out] m>g91 z ,i h be5 p>ticul>ly assur$ by ,capta9 ,moresby2 x is1 9 fact1 a wall ( dead coral-rock1 hav+ ! same wid? & transv]se section ) ! reef 9 its ord9>y /ate1 ( :i* x is a cont9u\s portion4 ,! liv+ & p]fect p>ts t]m9ate abruptly1 & abut on ! subm]g$ portions1 9 ! same mann] z on ! sides ( an ord9>y passage ?r\gh ! reef4 ,! reef to leew>d 9 o!r cases is ne>ly or q oblit]at$1 & "o side ( ! lagoon is left op52 = in/ance1 at ,oulleay 7,c>ol9e ,ar*ipelago71 :]e a cresc5t-=m$ reef is front$ by an irregul> bank1 on :i* ! o!r half ( ! annul> reef probably once /ood4 ,at ,namon\ito1 9 ! same ,ar*ipelago1 bo? ^! modifications ( ! reef concur2 x consi/s ( a great flat bank1 ) f tw5ty to tw5ty-five fa?oms wat] on x2 = a l5g? ( m ?an =ty miles on its s\!rn side x is op5 & )\t any reef1 :il/ on ! o!r sides x is b\nd$ by a reef1 9 p>ts ris+ to ! surface & p]fectly *>act]is$1 9 p>ts ly+ "s fa?oms subm]g$4 ,9 ! ,*agos gr\p !re are annul> reefs1 entirely subm]g$1 :i* h ! same /ructure z ! subm]g$ & def9$ portions j describ$4 ,! ,speak]'s ,bank (f]s an excell5t example ( ?is /ructure2 its c5tral expanse1 :i* is ab\t tw5ty-two fa?oms deep1 is tw5ty-f\r miles across2 ! ext]nal rim is ( ! usual wid? ( annul> reefs1 & is well-def9$2 x lies betwe5 six & eight fa?oms b5ea? ! surface1 & at ! same dep? !re are scatt]$ knolls 9 ! lagoon4 ,capta9 ,moresby believes ! rim consi/s ( dead rock1 ?9ly cov]$ ) s&1 & he is c]ta9 ?is is ! case ) ! ext]nal rim ( ! ,great ,*agos ,bank1 :i* is also ess5tially a subm]g$ atoll4 ,9 bo? ^! cases1 z 9 ! subm]g$ portion ( ! reef at ,p]os ,banhos1 ,capta9 ,moresby feels sure t ! quantity ( liv+ coral1 ev5 on ! out] edge ov]hang+ ! deep-sea wat]1 is q insignificant4 ,la/ly1 9 sev]al p>ts ( ! ,pacific & ,indian ,oceans !re are banks1 ly+ at great] dep?s ?an 9 ! cases j m5tion$1 ( ! same =m & size ) ! neighb\r+ atolls1 b ) _! atoll-l /ructure :olly oblit]at$4 ,x appe>s f ! survey ( ,freyc9et1 t !re are banks ( ?is k9d 9 ! ,c>ol9e ,ar*ipelago1 &1 z is report$1 9 ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago4 ,:5 we discuss ! orig9 ( ! diff]5t classes ( coral =mations1 we %all see t ! subm]g$ /ate ( ! :ole ( "s atoll-=m$ reefs1 & ( portions ( o!rs1 g5]ally b n inv>iably on ! leew>d side1 & ! exi/5ce ( m deeply subm]g$ banks n[ possess+ little or no signs ( _! orig9al atoll-l /ructure1 are probably ! effects ( a uni=m cause1--namely1 ! dea? ( ! coral1 dur+ ! subsid5ce ( ! area1 9 :i* ! atolls or banks are situat$4 #ai ,fr$]ick ,lutk's 8,voyage aut\r du ,monde10 vol4 ii1 p4 #bia4 ,see also 8 acc\nt ( ,namon\ito1 at pp4 #ig & #aje1 & ! *>t ( ,oulleay 9 ! ,atlas4 ,!re is seldom1 ) ! exception ( ! ,maldiva atolls1 m ?an two or ?ree *annels1 & g5]ally only "o lead+ into ! lagoon1 ( suffici5t dep? = a %ip to ent]4 9 small atolls1 !re is usually n ev5 "o4 ,:]e !re is deep wat]1 = in/ance above tw5ty fa?oms1 9 ! middle ( ! lagoon1 ! *annels ?r\gh ! reef are seldom z deep z ! c5tre1--x may be said t ! rim only ( ! sauc]-%ap$ holl[ =m+ ! lagoon is not*$4 ,mr4 ,lyell#bj has obs]v$ t ! gr[? ( ! coral w\ld t5d to ob/ruct all ! *annels ?r\gh a reef1 except ^? kept op5 by dis*>g+ ! wat]1 :i* dur+ high tide & ! great] "p ( ea* ebb is ?r[n ov] its circumf]5ce4 ,sev]al facts indicate t a consid]able quantity ( s$im5t is likewise dis*>g$ ?r\gh ^! *annels2 & ,capta9 ,moresby in=ms me t he has obs]v$1 dur+ ! *ange ( ! monsoon1 ! sea discol\r$ to a di/ance (f ! entrances into ! ,maldiva & ,*agos atolls4 ,?is1 probably1 w\ld *eck ! gr[? ( ! coral 9 !m1 f> m effectually ?an a m]e curr5t ( wat]4 ,9 ! _m small atolls )\t any *annel1 ^! causes h n prev5t$ ! entire r+ atta9+ ! surface4 ,! *annels1 l ! subm]g$ & effac$ p>ts ( ! reef1 v g5]ally ?\gh n inv>iably occur on ! leew>d side ( ! atoll1 or on t side1 accord+ to ,bee*ey1#ba :i*1 f runn+ 9 ! same direction ) ! preval5t w9d1 is n fully expos$ to x4 ,passages betwe5 ! islets on ! reef1 ?r\gh :i* boats c pass at high wat]1 mu/ n be conf\nd$ ) %ip-*annels1 by :i* ! annul> reef itself is brea*$4 ,! passages betwe5 ! islets occur1 ( c\rse1 on ! w9dw>d z well z on ! leew>d side2 b !y are m frequ5t & broad] to leew>d1 ow+ to ! less] dim5sions ( ! islets on t side4 #bj 8,pr9ciples ( ,geology10 vol4 iii1 p4 #bhi4 #ba ,bee*ey's 8,voyage10 #dto ed41 vol4 i1 p4 #ahi4 ,at ,keel+ atoll ! %ores ( ! lagoon %elve gradually1 :]e ! bottom is ( s$im5t1 & irregul>ly or abruptly :]e !re are coral-reefs2 b ?is is by no means ! univ]sal /ructure 9 o!r atolls4 ,*amisso1#bb speak+ 9 g5]al t]ms ( ! lagoons 9 ! ,m>%all atolls1 says ! lead g5]ally s9ks 8f a dep? ( two or ?ree fa?oms to tw5ty or tw5ty-f\r1 & y may pursue a l9e 9 :i* on "o side ( ! boat y may see ! bottom1 & on ! o!r ! azure-blue deep wat]40 ,! %ores ( ! lagoon-l *annel )9 ! b>ri]-reef at ,vanikoro h a simil> /ructure4 ,capta9 ,bee*ey has describ$ a modification ( ?is /ructure 7& he believes x is n uncommon7 9 two atolls 9 ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago1 9 :i* ! %ores ( ! lagoon desc5d by a few1 broad1 slightly incl9$ l$ges or /eps3 ?us at ,matilda atoll1#bc ! great ext]ior reef1 ! surface ( :i* is g5tly incl9$ t[>ds & b5ea? ! surface ( ! lagoon1 ends abruptly 9 a little cliff ?ree fa?oms deep2 at its foot1 a l$ge =ty y>ds wide ext5ds1 %elv+ g5tly inw>ds l ! surface-reef1 & t]m9at$ by a second little cliff five fa?oms deep2 beyond ?is1 ! bottom ( ! lagoon slopes to tw5ty fa?oms1 :i* is ! av]age dep? ( its c5tre4 ,^! l$ges seem to be =m$ ( coral-rock2 & ,capta9 ,bee*ey says t ! lead (t5 desc5d$ sev]al fa?oms ?r\gh holes 9 !m4 ,9 "s atolls1 all ! coral reefs or knolls 9 ! lagoon come to ! surface at l[ wat]2 9 o!r cases ( r>] occurr5ce1 all lie at ne>ly ! same dep? b5ea? x1 b mo/ frequ5tly !y are q irregul>1--"s ) p]p5dicul>1 "s ) slop+ sides1--"s ris+ to ! surface1 & o!rs ly+ at all int]m$iate dep?s f ! bottom upw>ds4 ,i _c1 !re=e1 suppose t ! union ( su* reefs c\ld produce ev5 "o uni=mly slop+ l$ge1 & mu* less two or ?ree1 "o b5ea? ! o!r1 & ea* t]m9at$ by an abrupt wall4 ,at ,matilda ,isl&1 :i* (f]s ! be/ example ( ! /ep-l /ructure1 ,capta9 ,bee*ey obs]ves t ! coral-knolls )9 ! lagoon are q irregul> 9 _! height4 ,we %all h]eaft] see t ! !ory :i* acc\nts = ! ord9>y =m ( atolls1 app>5tly includes ?is occasional peculi>ity 9 _! /ructure4 #bb ,kotzebue's 8,fir/ ,voyage10 vol4 iii1 p4 #adb4 #bc ,bee*ey's 8,voyage10 #dto ed41 vol4 i1 p4 #afj4 ,at ,:itsunday ,isl& ! bottom ( ! lagoon slopes gradually t[>ds ! c5tre1 & !n deep5s sudd5ly1 ! edge ( ! bank be+ ne>ly p]p5dicul>4 ,?is bank is =m$ ( coral & dead %ells4 ,9 ! mid/ ( a gr\p ( atolls1 !re sometimes occur small1 flat1 v l[ isl&s ( coral =mation1 :i* probably once includ$ a lagoon1 s9ce fill$ up ) s$im5t & coral-reefs4 ,capta9 ,bee*ey ent]ta9s no d\bt t ?is has be5 ! case ) ! two small isl&s1 :i* alone ( ?irty-"o survey$ by him 9 ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago1 did n conta9 lagoons4 ,romanz(f ,isl& 79 lat4 #ae deg ,s47 is describ$ by ,*amisso#bd z =m$ by a dam ( madreporitic rock inclos+ a flat space1 ?9ly cov]$ ) trees1 into :i* ! sea on ! leew>d side occasionally breaks4 ,nor? ,keel+ atoll appe>s to be 9 a r less =w>d /age ( conv]sion into l&2 x consi/s ( a horse-%oe %ap$ /rip ( l& surr\nd+ a muddy flat1 "o mile 9 its longe/ axis1 :i* is cov]$ by ! sea only at high wat]4 ,:5 describ+ ,s\? ,keel+ atoll1 ,i endeav\r$ to %[ h[ sl[ ! f9al process ( fill+ up a lagoon mu/ be2 nev]!less1 z all causes d t5d to produce ?is effect1 x is v rem>kable t n "o in/ance1 z ,i believe1 is kn[n ( a mod]ately siz$ lagoon be+ fill$ up ev5 to ! l[ wat]-l9e at spr+-tides1 mu* less ( su* a "o be+ conv]t$ into l&4 ,x is1 likewise1 9 "s degree rem>kable1 h[ few atolls1 except small ones1 are surr\nd$ by a s+le l9e> /rip ( l&1 =m$ by ! union ( sep>ate islets4 ,we _c suppose t ! _m atolls 9 ! ,pacific & ,indian ,oceans all h _h a late orig91 & yet %\ld !y rema9 at _! pres5t level1 subject$ only to ! action ( ! sea & to ! gr[+ p[]s ( ! coral1 dur+ z _m c5turies z mu/ h elaps$ s9ce any ( ! e>li] t]ti>y epo*s1 x _c1 ,i ?9k1 be d\bt$ t _! lagoons & ! islets on _! reef1 w\ld pres5t a totally diff]5t appe>ance f :at !y n[ d4 ,?is consid]ation leads to ! suspicion t "s r5ovat+ ag5cy 7namely subsid5ce7 comes into play at int]vals1 & p]petuates _! orig9al /ructure4 #bd ,kotzebue's 8,fir/ ,voyage10 vol4 iii1 p4 #bba4 ,section ,,iii--,,atolls ,,( ,,! ,,maldiva ,,ar*ipelago--,,great ,,*agos ,,bank ,maldiva ,ar*ipelago4--,r+-=m$ reefs1 m>g9al & c5tral4--,great dep?s 9 ! lagoons ( ! s\!rn atolls4--,reefs 9 ! lagoons all ris+ to ! surface4--,position ( islets & brea*es 9 ! reefs1 ) respect to ! preval5t w9ds & action ( ! waves4--,de/ruction ( islets4--,connection 9 ! position & subm>9e f\ndation ( di/9ct atolls4--,! app>5t dissev]m5t ( l>ge atolls4--,! ,great ,*agos ,bank4--,its subm]g$ condition & extraord9>y /ructure4 ,al?\gh occasional ref]5ces h be5 made to ! ,maldiva atolls1 & to ! banks 9 ! ,*agos gr\p1 "s po9ts ( _! /ructure des]ve fur!r consid]ation4 ,my description is d]iv$ f an exam9ation ( ! admirable *>ts lately publi%$ f ! survey ( ,capta9 ,moresby & ,lieut5ant ,p[ell1 & m especially f in=mation :i* ,capta9 ,moresby has communicat$ to me 9 ! k9de/ mann]4 ,! ,maldiva ,ar*ipelago is #dgj miles 9 l5g?1 ) an av]age bread? ( ab\t #ej miles4 ,! =m & dim5sions ( ! atolls1 & _! s+ul> position 9 a d\ble l9e1 may be se51 b n well1 9 ! greatly r$uc$ *>t 7,fig4 #f7 9 ,plate ,,ii4 ,! dim5sions ( ! longe/ atoll 9 ! gr\p 7call$ by ! d\ble "n ( ,milla-d\-,mad\ & ,tilla-d\-,matte7 h already be5 giv52 x is #hh miles 9 a m$ial & slightly curv$ l9e1 & is less ?an #bj miles 9 its broade/ "p4 ,suadiva1 also1 is a noble atoll1 be+ #dd miles across 9 "o direction1 & #cd 9 ano!r1 & ! great includ$ expanse ( wat] has a dep? ( betwe5 #bej & #cjj feet4 ,! small] atolls 9 ?is gr\p diff] 9 no respect f ord9>y ones2 b ! l>g] ones are rem>kable f be+ brea*$ by num]\s deep-wat] *annels lead+ into ! lagoon2 = in/ance1 !re are #db *annels1 ?r\gh :i* a %ip c\ld ent] ! lagoon ( ,suadiva4 ,9 ! ?ree s\!rn l>ge atolls1 ! sep>ate portions ( reef betwe5 ^! *annels h ! ord9>y /ructure1 & are l9e>2 b 9 ! o!r atolls1 especially ! m nor!rn ones1 ^! portions are r+-=m$1 l m9iature atolls4 ,o!r r+-=m$ reefs rise out ( ! lagoons1 9 ! place ( ^? irregul> ones :i* ord9>ily occur !re4 ,9 ! r$uction ( ! *>t ( ,mahlos ,mahdoo 7,plate ,,ii1 ,fig4 #d71 x 0 n f\nd easy to def9e ! islets & ! little lagoons )9 ea* reef1 s t ! r+-=m$ /ructure is v imp]fectly %[n2 9 ! l>ge publi%$ *>ts ( ,tilla-d\-,matte1 ! appe>ance ( ^! r+s1 f /&+ fur!r ap>t f ea* o!r1 is v rem>kable4 ,! r+s on ! m>g9 are g5]ally elongat$2 _m ( !m are ?ree1 & "s ev5 five miles1 9 diamet]2 ^? )9 ! lagoon are usually small]1 few be+ m ?an two miles across1 & ! great] numb] r less ?an "o4 ,! dep? ( ! little lagoon )9 ^! small annul> reefs is g5]ally f five to sev5 fa?oms1 b occasionally m2 & 9 ,ari atoll _m ( ! c5tral ones are twelve1 & "s ev5 m ?an twelve fa?oms deep4 ,^! r+s rise abruptly f ! plat=m or bank1 on :i* !y are plac$2 _! out] m>g9 is inv>iably bord]$ by liv+ coral#be )9 :i* !re is a flat surface ( coral rock2 ( ?is flat1 s& & fragm5ts h 9 _m cases accumulat$ & be5 conv]t$ into islets1 clo!d ) vegetation4 ,i c1 9 fact1 po9t out no ess5tial diff]5ce betwe5 ^! little r+-=m$ reefs 7:i*1 h[ev]1 are l>g]1 & conta9 deep] lagoons ?an _m true atolls t /& 9 ! op5 sea71 & ! mo/ p]fectly *>act]is$ atolls1 except+ t ! r+-=m$ reefs are bas$ on a %all[ f\ndation1 in/ead ( on ! floor ( ! op5 sea1 & t in/ead ( be+ scatt]$ irregul>ly1 !y are gr\p$ closely toge!r on "o l>ge plat=m1 ) ! m>g9al r+s arrang$ 9 a rudely =m$ circle4 #be ,capta9 ,moresby in=ms me t ,millepora complanata is "o ( ! commone/ k9ds on ! out] m>g91 z x is at ,keel+ atoll4 ,! p]fect s]ies :i* c be trac$ f portions ( simple l9e> reef1 to o!rs includ+ long l9e> lagoons1 & f ^! aga9 to oval or almo/ circul> r+s1 r5d]s x probable t ! latt] are m]ely modifications ( ! l9e> or normal /ate4 ,x is con=mable ) ?is view1 t ! r+-=m$ reefs on ! m>g91 ev5 :]e mo/ p]fect & /&+ fur!/ ap>t1 g5]ally h _! longe/ axes direct$ 9 ! l9e :i* ! reef w\ld h held1 if ! atoll _h be5 b\nd$ by an ord9>y wall4 ,we may also inf] t ! c5tral r+-=m$ reefs are modifications ( ^? irregul> ones1 :i* are f\nd 9 ! lagoons ( all common atolls4 ,x appe>s f ! *>ts on a l>ge scale1 t ! r+-l /ructure is cont+5t on ! m>g9al *annels or brea*es be+ wide2 &1 consequ5tly1 on ! :ole int]ior ( ! atoll be+ freely expos$ to ! wat]s ( ! op5 sea4 ,:5 ! *annels are n>r[ or few 9 numb]1 al?\gh ! lagoon be ( great size & dep? 7z 9 ,suadiva71 !re are no r+-=m$ reefs2 :]e ! *annels are some:at broad]1 ! m>g9al portions ( reef1 & especially ^? close to ! l>g] *annels1 are r+-=m$1 b ! c5tral ones are n s2 :]e !y are broade/1 almo/ e reef ?r\gh\t ! atoll is m or less p]fectly r+-=m$4 ,al?\gh _! pres5ce is ?us cont+5t on ! op5ness ( ! m>g9al *annels1 ! !ory ( _! =mation1 z we %all h]eaft] see1 is includ$ 9 t ( ! p>5t atolls1 ( :i* !y =m ! sep>ate portions4 ,! lagoons ( all ! atolls 9 ! s\!rn "p ( ! ,ar*ipelago are f t5 to tw5ty fa?oms deep] ?an ^? 9 ! nor!rn "p4 ,?is is well exemplifi$ 9 ! case ( ,addoo1 ! s\!rnmo/ atoll 9 ! gr\p1 = al?\gh only n9e miles 9 its longe/ diamet]1 x has a dep? ( ?irty-n9e fa?oms1 :]eas all ! o!r small atolls h comp>atively %all[ lagoons2 ,i c assign no adequate cause = ?is diff]5ce 9 dep?4 ,9 ! c5tral & deepe/ "p ( ! lagoons1 ! bottom consi/s1 z ,i am in=m$ by ,capta9 ,moresby1 ( /iff clay 7probably a calc>e\s mud72 ne>] ! bord] x consi/s ( s&1 & 9 ! *annels ?r\gh ! reef1 ( h>d s&-banks1 s&/one1 conglom]ate rubble1 & a little live coral4 ,close outside ! reef & ! l9e jo9+ its deta*$ portions 7:]e int]sect$ by _m *annels71 ! bottom is s&y1 & x slopes abruptly into unfa?omable dep?s4 ,9 mo/ lagoons ! dep? is consid]ably great] 9 ! c5tre ?an 9 ! *annels2 b 9 ,tilla-d\-,matte1 :]e ! m>g9al r+-=m$ reefs /& f> ap>t1 ! same dep? is c>ri$ across ! entire atoll1 f ! deep-wat] l9e on "o side to t on ! o!r4 ,i _c refra9 f once aga9 rem>k+ on ! s+ul>ity ( ^! atolls1--a great s&y & g5]ally concave disc rises abruptly f ! unfa?omable ocean1 ) its c5tral expanse /udd$ & its bord] symmetrically fr+$ ) oval bas9s ( coral-rock1 j lipp+ ! surface ( ! sea1 sometimes clo!d ) vegetation1 & ea* conta9+ a little lake ( cle> wat]6 ,9 ! s\!rn ,maldiva atolls1 ( :i* !re are n9e l>ge ones1 all ! small reefs )9 ! lagoons come to ! surface1 & are dry at l[ wat] spr+-tides2 h5ce 9 navigat+ !m1 !re is no dang] f subm>9e banks4 ,?is circum/ance is v rem>kable1 z )9 "s atolls1 = in/ance ^? ( ! neighb\r+ ,*agos gr\p1 n a s+le reef comes to ! surface1 & 9 mo/ o!r cases a few only d1 & ! re/ lie at all int]m$iate dep?s f ! bottom upw>ds4 ,:5 treat+ ( ! gr[? ( coral ,i %all aga9 ref] to ?is subject4 ,al?\gh 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! ,maldiva ,ar*ipelago ! w9ds1 dur+ ! monsoons1 bl[ dur+ ne>ly an equal "t f opposite qu>t]s1 & al?\gh1 z ,i am in=m$ by ,capta9 ,moresby1 ! we/]ly w9ds are ! /ronge/1 yet ! islets are almo/ all plac$ on ! ea/]n side ( ! nor!rn atolls1 & on ! s\?-ea/]n side ( ! s\!rn atolls4 ,t ! =mation ( ! islets is due to detritus ?r[n up f ! outside1 z 9 ! ord9>y mann]1 & n f ! int]ior ( ! lagoons1 may1 ,i ?9k be safely inf]r$ f sev]al consid]ations1 :i* x is h>dly wor? :ile to detail4 ,z ! ea/]ly w9ds are n ! /ronge/1 _! action probably is aid$ by "s prevail+ swell or curr5t4 ,9 gr\ps ( atolls1 expos$ to a trade-w9d1 ! %ip-*annels into ! lagoons are almo/ inv>iably situat$ on ! leew>d or less expos$ side ( ! reef1 & ! reef itself is sometimes ei!r want+ !re1 or is subm]g$4 ,a /rictly analog\s1 b diff]5t fact1 may be obs]v$ at ! ,maldiva atolls--namely1 t :]e two atolls /& 9 front ( ea* o!r1 ! brea*es 9 ! reef are ! mo/ num]\s on _! ne>1 & !re=e less expos$1 sides4 ,?us on ! ne> sides ( ,ari & ! two ,nill&oo atolls1 :i* face ,s4 ,mle1 ,phale$oo1 & ,moloque atolls1 !re are sev5ty-?ree deep-wat] *annels1 & only tw5ty-five on _! out] sides2 on ! ne> side ( ! ?ree latt] nam$ atolls !re are fifty-six op5+s1 & only ?irty-sev5 on _! outsides4 ,x is sc>cely possible to attribute ?is diff]5ce to any o!r cause ?an ! some:at diff]5t action ( ! sea on ! two sides1 :i* w\ld ensue f ! protection af=d$ by ! two r[s ( atolls to ea* o!r4 ,i may "h rem>k t 9 mo/ cases1 ! conditions fav\rable to ! great] accumulation ( fragm5ts on ! reef & to its m p]fect cont9uity on "o side ( ! atoll ?an on ! o!r1 h concurr$1 b ?is has n be5 ! case ) ! ,maldivas2 = we h se5 t ! islets are plac$ on ! ea/]n or s\?-ea/]n sides1 :il/ ! brea*es 9 ! reef occur indiff]5tly on any side1 :]e protect$ by an opposite atoll4 ,! reef be+ m cont9u\s on ! out] & m expos$ sides ( ^? atolls :i* /& ne> ea* o!r1 accords ) ! fact1 t ! reef ( ! s\!rn atolls is m cont9u\s ?an t ( ! nor!rn ones2 = ! =m]1 z ,i am in=m$ by ,capta9 ,moresby1 are m con/antly expos$ ?an ! nor!rn atolls to a heavy surf4 ,! date ( ! fir/ =mation ( "s ( ! islets 9 ?is ,ar*ipelago is kn[n to ! inhabitants2 on ! o!r h&1 sev]al islets1 & ev5 "s ( ^? :i* are believ$ to be v old1 are n[ fa/ we>+ away4 ,! "w ( de/ruction has1 9 "s in/ances1 be5 complet$ 9 t5 ye>s4 ,capta9 ,moresby f\nd on "o wat]-wa%$ reef ! m>ks ( wells & graves1 :i* 7 excavat$ :5 x support$ an islet4 ,9 ,s\? ,nill&oo atoll1 ! natives say t ?ree ( ! islets 7 =m]ly l>g]3 9 ,nor? ,nill&oo !re is "o n[ be+ wa%$ away2 & 9 ?is latt] atoll ,lieut5ant ,pr5tice f\nd a reef1 ab\t six hundr$ y>ds 9 diamet]1 :i* ! natives positively affirm$ 0 lately an isl& cov]$ ) cocoa-nut trees4 ,x is n[ only p>tially dry at l[ wat] spr+-tides1 & is 79 ,lieut5ant ,pr5tice's words7 8entirely cov]$ ) live coral & madrepore40 ,9 ! nor!rn "p1 also1 ( ! ,maldiva ,ar*ipelago & 9 ! ,*agos gr\p1 x is kn[n t "s ( ! islets are disappe>+4 ,! natives attribute ^! effects to v>iations 9 ! curr5ts ( ! sea4 ,= my own "p ,i _c avoid suspect+ t !re mu/ be "s fur!r cause1 :i* gives rise to su* a cycle ( *ange 9 ! action ( ! curr5ts ( ! great & op5 ocean4 ,sev]al ( ! atolls 9 ?is ,ar*ipelago are s relat$ to ea* o!r 9 =m & position1 t at ! fir/ glance "o is l$ to suspect t !y h orig9at$ 9 ! dissev]m5t ( a s+le "o4 ,mle consi/s ( ?ree p]fectly *>act]is$ atolls1 ( :i* ! %ape & relative position are su*1 t a l9e drawn closely r\nd all ?ree1 gives a symmetrical figure2 to see ?is cle>ly1 a l>g] *>t is requir$ ?an t ( ! ,ar*ipelago 9 ,plate ,,ii2 ! *annel sep>at+ ! two nor!rn ,male atolls is only little m ?an a mile wide1 & no bottom 0 f\nd 9 x ) #ajj fa?oms4 ,p[ell's ,isl& is situat$ at ! di/ance ( two miles & a half (f ! nor!rn end ( ,mahlos ,mahdoo 7see ,fig4 #d1 ,plate ,,ii71 at ! exact po9t :]e ! two sides ( ! latt]1 if prolong$1 w\ld meet2 no bottom1 h[ev]1 0 f\nd 9 ! *annel ) #bjj fa?oms2 9 ! wid] *annel betwe5 ,horsburgh atoll & ! s\!rn end ( ,mahlos ,mahdoo1 no bottom 0 f\nd ) #bej fa?oms4 ,9 ^! & simil> cases1 ! relation consi/s only 9 ! =m & position ( ! atolls4 ,b 9 ! *annel betwe5 ! two ,nill&oo atolls1 al?\gh ?ree miles & a qu>t] wide1 s\nd+s 7 /ruck at ! dep? ( #bjj fa?oms2 ! *annel betwe5 ,ross & ,ari atolls is f\r miles wide1 & only #aej fa?oms deep4 ,"h !n we h1 besides ! relation ( =m1 a subm>9e connection4 ,! fact ( s\nd+s hav+ be5 obta9$ betwe5 two sep>ate & p]fectly *>act]is$ atolls is 9 itself int]e/+1 z x has nev]1 ,i believe1 be5 effect$ 9 any ( ! _m o!r gr\ps ( atolls 9 ! ,pacific & ,indian seas4 ,9 cont9u+ to trace ! connection ( adjo9+ atolls1 if a ha/y glance be tak5 at ! *>t 7,fig4 #d1 ,plate ,,ii7 ( ,mahlos ,mahdoo1 & ! l9e ( unfa?omable wat] be foll[$1 no "o w hesitate to consid] x z "o atoll4 ,b a second look w %[ t x is divid$ by a bifurcat+ *annel1 ( :i* ! nor!rn arm is ab\t "o mile & ?ree-qu>t]s 9 wid?1 ) an av]age dep? ( #abe fa?oms1 & ! s\!rn "o ?ree-qu>t]s ( a mile wide1 & r less deep4 ,^! *annels resemble 9 ! slope ( _! sides & g5]al =m1 ^? :i* sep>ate atolls 9 e respect di/9ct2 & ! nor!rn arm is wid] ?an t divid+ two ( ! ,mle atolls4 ,! r+-=m$ reefs on ! sides ( ?is bifurcat+ *annel are elongat$1 s t ! nor!rn & s\!rn portions ( ,mahlos ,mahdoo may claim1 z f> z _! ext]nal outl9e is conc]n$1 to be consid]$ z di/9ct & p]fect atolls4 ,b ! int]m$iate portion1 ly+ 9 ! =k ( ! *annel1 is bord]$ by reefs less p]fect ?an ^? :i* surr\nd any o!r atoll 9 ! gr\p ( equally small dim5sions4 ,mahlos ,mahdoo1 !re=e1 is 9 e respect 9 s int]m$iate a condition1 t x may be consid]$ ei!r z a s+le atoll ne>ly dissev]$ into ?ree portions1 or z ?ree atolls almo/ p]fect & intimately connect$4 ,?is is an in/ance ( a v e>ly /age ( ! app>5t dissev]m5t ( an atoll1 b a /ill e>li] "o 9 _m respects is exhibit$ at ,tilla-d\-,matte4 ,9 "o "p ( ?is atoll1 ! r+-=m$ reefs /& s f> ap>t f ea* o!r1 t ! inhabitants h giv5 diff]5t names to ! nor!rn & s\!rn halves2 ne>ly all ! r+s1 moreov]1 are s p]fect & /& s sep>ate1 & ! space f :i* !y rise is s level & unlike a true lagoon1 t we c easily imag9e ! conv]sion ( ?is "o great atoll1 n into two or ?ree portions1 b into a :ole gr\p ( m9iature atolls4 ,a p]fect s]ies su* z we h "h trac$1 impresses ! m9d ) an idea ( actual *ange2 & x w h]eaft] be se51 t ! !ory ( subsid5ce1 ) ! upw>d gr[? ( ! coral1 modifi$ by accid5ts ( probable occurr5ce1 w acc\nt = ! occasional dissev]m5t ( l>ge atolls4 ,plate ,,ii--,great ,*agos ,bank1 ,new ,cal$onia1 ,m5*ik(f ,atoll1 etc4 ,illu/ration3 ,great ,*agos ,bank ,fig4 #a4--;,,great ,,*agos ,,bank1 9 ! ,indian ,ocean2 tak5 f ! survey by ,capta9 ,moresby & ,lieut5ant ,p[ell2 ! p>ts :i* are %ad$1 ) ! exception ( two or ?ree islets on ! we/]n & nor!rn sides1 d n rise to ! surface1 b are subm]g$ f f\r to t5 fa?oms2 ! banks b\nd$ by ! dott$ l9es lie f fifte5 to tw5ty fa?oms b5ea? ! surface1 & are =m$ ( s&2 ! c5tral space is ( mud1 & f ?irty to fifty fa?oms deep4 ,fig4 #b4--;,a v]tical section1 on ! same scale1 9 an ea/]n & we/]n l9e across ! ,great ,*agos ,bank1 giv5 = ! sake ( exhibit+ m cle>ly its /ructure4 ,illu/ration3 ,new ,cal$onia1 ,m5*ik(f ,atoll1 etc4 ,fig4 #c4--,m5*ik(f ,atoll 7or lagoon-isl&71 9 ! ,m>%all ,ar*ipelago1 ,nor!rn ,pacific ,ocean2 f ,krus5/]n's 8,atlas ( ! ,pacific20 orig9ally survey$ by ,capta9 ,hagemei/]2 ! dep? )9 ! lagoons is unkn[n4 ,fig4 #d4--,,mahlos ,,mahdoo ,,atoll1 toge!r ) ,horsburgh atoll1 9 ! ,maldiva ,ar*ipelago2 f ! survey by ,capta9 ,moresby & ,lieut5ant ,p[ell2 ! :ite spaces 9 ! middle ( ! sep>ate small reefs1 bo? on ! m>g9 & 9 ! middle "p1 are meant to repres5t little lagoons2 b x 0 f\nd n possible to di/+ui% !m cle>ly f ! small islets1 :i* h be5 =m$ on ^! same small reefs2 _m ( ! small] reefs c\ld n be introduc$2 ! nautical m>k 7dot ov] a da%7 ov] ! figures #bej & #bjj1 betwe5 ,mahlos ,mahdoo & ,horsburgh atoll & ,p[ell's isl&1 signifies t s\nd+s 7 n obta9$ at ^! dep?s4 ,fig4 #e4--,,new ,,cal$onia1 9 ! we/]n "p ( ! ,pacific2 f ,krus5/]n's 8,atlas10 compil$ f sev]al surveys2 ,i h slightly alt]$ ! nor!rn po9t ( ! reef1 9 accordance ) ! 8,atlas ( ! ,voyage ( ! ,a/rolabe40 ,9 ,krus5/]n's 8,atlas10 ! reef is repres5t$ by a s+le l9e ) crosses2 ,i h = ! sake ( uni=mity add$ an int]ior l9e4 ,fig4 #f4--,,maldiva ,,ar*ipelago1 9 ! ,indian ,ocean2 f ! survey by ,capta9 ,moresby & ,lieut5ant ,p[ell4 ,! ,great ,*agos bank alone rema9s to be describ$4 ,9 ! ,*agos gr\p !re are "s ord9>y atolls1 "s annul> reefs ris+ to ! surface b )\t any islets on !m1 & "s atoll-=m$ banks1 ei!r q subm]g$1 or ne>ly s4 ,( ! latt]1 ! ,great ,*agos ,bank is mu* ! l>ge/1 & diff]s 9 its /ructure f ! o!rs3 a plan ( x is giv5 9 ,plate ,,ii1 ,fig4 #a1 9 :i*1 = ! sake ( cle>ness1 ,i h _h ! p>ts "u t5 fa?oms deep f9ely %ad$3 an ea/ & we/ v]tical section is giv5 9 ,fig4 #b1 9 :i* ! v]tical scale has be5 necess>ily exagg]at$4 ,its longe/ axis is n9ety nautical miles1 & ano!r l9e drawn at "r angles to ! fir/1 across ! broade/ "p1 is sev5ty4 ,! c5tral "p consi/s ( a level muddy flat1 betwe5 =ty & fifty fa?oms deep1 :i* is surr\nd$ on all sides1 ) ! exception ( "s brea*es1 by ! /eep edges ( a set ( banks1 rudely arrang$ 9 a circle4 ,^! banks consi/ ( s&1 ) a v little live coral2 !y v>y 9 bread? f five to twelve miles1 & on an av]age lie ab\t sixte5 fa?oms b5ea? ! surface2 !y are bord]$ by ! /eep edges ( a ?ird n>r[ & upp] bank1 :i* =ms ! rim to ! :ole4 ,?is rim is ab\t a mile 9 wid?1 & ) ! exception ( two or ?ree spots :]e islets h be5 =m$1 is subm]g$ betwe5 five & t5 fa?oms4 ,x consi/s ( smoo? h>d rock1 cov]$ ) a ?9 lay] ( s&1 b ) sc>cely any live coral2 x is /eep on bo? sides1 & outw>ds slopes abruptly into unfa?omable dep?s4 ,at ! di/ance ( less ?an half a mile f "o "p1 no bottom 0 f\nd ) #aij fa?oms2 & (f ano!r po9t1 at a some:at great] di/ance1 !re 0 none ) #baj fa?oms4 ,small /eep-sid$ banks or knolls1 cov]$ ) luxuriantly gr[+ coral1 rise f ! int]ior expanse to ! same level ) ! ext]nal rim1 :i*1 z we h se51 is =m$ only ( dead rock4 ,x is impossible to look at ! plan 7,fig4 #a1 ,plate ,,ii71 al?\gh r$uc$ to s small a scale1 )\t at once p]ceiv+ t ! ,great ,*agos ,bank is1 9 ! words ( ,capta9 ,moresby1#bf 8no?+ m ?an a half-dr[n$ atoll40 ,b ( :at great dim5sions1 & ( h[ extraord9>y an int]nal /ructure8 ,we %all h]eaft] h to consid] bo? ! cause ( its subm]g$ condition1 a /ate common to o!r banks 9 ! gr\p1 & ! orig9 ( ! s+ul> subm>9e t]races1 :i* b\nd ! c5tral expanse3 ^!1 ,i ?9k1 x c be %[n1 h result$ f a cause analog\s to t :i* has produc$ ! bifurcat+ *annel across ,mahlos ,mahdoo4 #bf ,?is (fic] has _h ! k9dness to l5d me an excell5t ,,ms4 acc\nt ( ! ,*agos ,isl&s2 f ?is pap]1 f ! publi%$ *>ts1 & f v]bal in=mation communicat$ to me by ,capta9 ,moresby1 ! above acc\nt ( ! ,great ,*agos ,bank is tak54 ,*apt] ,,ii ,,b>ri] ,,reefs ,closely resemble 9 g5]al =m & /ructure atoll-reefs4--,wid? & dep? ( ! lagoon-*annels4--,brea*es ?r\gh ! reef 9 front ( valleys1 & g5]ally on ! leew>d side4--,*ecks to ! fill+ up ( ! lagoon-*annels4--,size & con/itution ( ! encircl$ isl&s4--,numb] ( isl&s )9 ! same reef4--,b>ri]-reefs ( ,new ,cal$onia & ,au/ralia4--,position ( ! reef relative to ! slope ( ! adjo9+ l&4--,probable great ?ickness ( b>ri]-reefs4 ,! t]m 8b>ri]0 has be5 g5]ally appli$ to t va/ reef :i* fronts ! ,n4,e4 %ore ( ,au/ralia1 & by mo/ voyag]s likewise to t on ! we/]n coa/ ( ,new ,cal$onia4 ,at "o "t ,i ?\ght x conv5i5t ?us to re/rict ! t]m1 b z ^! reefs are simil> 9 /ructure1 & 9 position relatively to ! l&1 to ^?1 :i*1 l a wall ) a deep moat )91 encircle _m small] isl&s1 ,i h class$ !m toge!r4 ,! reef1 also1 on ! we/ coa/ ( ,new ,cal$onia1 circl+ r\nd ! extremities ( ! isl&1 is an int]m$iate =m betwe5 a small encircl+ reef & ! ,au/ralian b>ri]1 :i* /ret*es = a ?\s& miles 9 ne>ly a /raight l9e4 ,! geograph] ,balbi has 9 effect describ$ ^? b>ri]-reefs1 :i* encircle mod]ately siz$ isl&s1 by call+ !m atolls ) high l& ris+ f )9 _! c5tral expanse4 ,! g5]al resemblance betwe5 ! reefs ( ! b>ri] & atoll classes may be se5 9 ! small1 b accurately r$uc$ *>ts on ,plate ,i1#a & ?is resemblance c be fur!r %[n to ext5d to e "p ( ! /ructure4 ,beg9n+ ) ! outside ( ! reef2 _m scatt]$ s\nd+s (f ,gambi]1 ,oualan1 & "s o!r encircl$ isl&s1 %[ t close to ! break]s !re exi/s a n>r[ %elv+ m>g91 beyond :i* ! ocean becomes sudd5ly unfa?omable2 b (f ! we/ coa/ ( ,new ,cal$onia1 ,capta9 ,k5t#b f\nd no bottom ) #aej fa?oms1 at two %ips' l5g? f ! reef2 s t ! slope "h mu/ be ne>ly z precipit\s z (f ! ,maldiva atolls4 #a ,! au?orities f :i* ^! *>ts h be5 r$uc$1 toge!r ) "s rem>ks on !m are giv5 9 a sep>ately app5d$ page1 descriptive ( ! ,plates4 #b ,dalrymple1 8,hydrog4 ,mem40 vol4 iii4 ,i c give little in=mation reg>d+ ! k9ds ( corals :i* live on ! out] m>g94 ,:5 ,i visit$ ! reef at ,tahiti1 al?\gh x 0 l[ wat]1 ! surf 0 too viol5t = me to see ! liv+ masses2 b1 accord+ to :at ,i he>d f "s intellig5t native *iefs1 !y resemble 9 _! r\nd$ & bran*less =ms1 ^? on ! m>g9 ( ,keel+ atoll4 ,! extreme v]ge ( ! reef1 :i* 0 visible betwe5 ! break+ waves at l[ wat]1 consi/$ ( a r\nd$1 convex1 artificial-l breakwat]1 entirely coat$ ) ,nullipor1 & absolutely simil> to t :i* ,i h describ$ at ,keel+ atoll4 ,f :at ,i he>d :5 at ,tahiti1 & f ! writ+s ( ! ,revs4 ,w4 ,ellis & ,j4 ,williams1 ,i conclude t ?is peculi> /ructure is common to mo/ ( ! encircl$ isl&s ( ! ,society ,ar*ipelago4 ,! reef )9 ?is m\nd or breakwat]1 has an extremely irregul> surface1 ev5 m s ?an betwe5 ! islets on ! reef ( ,keel+ atoll1 ) :i* alone 7z !re are no islets on ! reef ( ,tahiti7 x c prop]ly be comp>$4 ,at ,tahiti1 ! reef is v irregul> 9 wid?2 b r\nd _m o!r encircl$ isl&s1 = in/ance1 ,vanikoro or ,gambi] ,isl&s 7,figs #a & #h1 ,plate ,i71 x is q z regul>1 & ( ! same av]age wid?1 z 9 true atolls4 ,mo/ b>ri]-reefs on ! inn] side slope irregul>ly into ! lagoon-*annel 7z ! space ( deep wat] sep>at+ ! reef f ! includ$ l& may be call$71 b at ,vanikoro ! reef slopes only = a %ort di/ance1 & !n t]m9ates abruptly 9 a subm>9e wall1 =ty feet high1--a /ructure absolutely simil> to t describ$ by ,*amisso 9 ! ,m>%all atolls4 ,9 ! ,society ,ar*ipelago1 ,ellis#c /ates1 t ! reefs g5]ally lie at ! di/ance ( f "o to "o & a half miles1 &1 occasionally1 ev5 at m ?an ?ree miles1 f ! %ore4 ,! c5tral m\nta9s are g5]ally bord]$ by a fr+e ( flat1 & (t5 m>%y1 alluvial l&1 f "o to f\r miles 9 wid?4 ,?is fr+e consi/s ( coral-s& & detritus ?r[n up f ! lagoon-*annel1 & ( soil wa%$ d[n f ! hills2 x is an encroa*m5t on ! *annel1 analog\s to t l[ & inn] "p ( ! islets 9 _m atolls :i* is =m$ by ! accumulation ( matt] f ! lagoon4 ,at ,hogoleu 7,fig4 #b1 ,plate ,i71 9 ! ,c>ol9e ,ar*ipelago1#d ! reef on ! s\? side is no less ?an tw5ty miles2 on ! ea/ side1 five2 & on ! nor? side1 f\rte5 miles f ! encircl$ high isl&s4 #c ,consult1 on ?is & o!r po9ts1 ! 8,polynesian ,rese>*es10 by ! ,rev4 ,w4 ,ellis1 an admirable "w1 full ( curi\s in=mation4 #d ,see 8,hydrographical ,mem40 & ! 8,atlas ( ! ,voyage ( ! ,a/rolabe10 by ,capta9 ,dumont ,d',urville1 p4 #dbh4 ,! lagoon *annels may be comp>$ 9 e respect ) true lagoons4 ,9 "s cases !y are op51 ) a level bottom ( f9e s&2 9 o!rs !y are *ok$ up ) reefs ( delicately bran*$ corals1 :i* h ! same g5]al "* z ^? )9 ! ,keel+ atoll4 ,^! int]nal reefs ei!r /& sep>ately1 or m commonly skirt ! %ores ( ! includ$ high isl&s4 ,! dep? ( ! lagoon-*annel r\nd ! ,society ,isl&s v>ies f two or ?ree to ?irty fa?oms2 9 ,cook's#e *>t ( ,ulieta1 h[ev]1 !re is "o s\nd+ laid d[n ( =ty-eight fa?oms2 at ,vanikoro !re are sev]al ( fifty-f\r & "o ( fifty-six & a half fa?oms 7,engli%71 a dep? :i* ev5 exce$s by a little t ( ! int]ior ( ! great ,maldiva atolls4 ,"s b>ri]-reefs h v few islets on !m2 :il/ o!rs are surm\nt$ by num]\s ones2 & ^? r\nd "p ( ,bolabola 7,plate ,i1 ,fig4 #e7 =m a s+le l9e> /rip4 ,! islets fir/ appe> ei!r on ! angles ( ! reef1 or on ! sides ( ! brea*es ?r\gh x1 & are g5]ally mo/ num]\s on ! w9dw>d side4 ,! reef to leew>d reta9+ its usual wid?1 sometimes lies subm]g$ sev]al fa?oms b5ea? ! surface2 ,i h already m5tion$ ,gambi] ,isl& z an in/ance ( ?is /ructure4 ,subm]g$ reefs1 hav+ a less def9$ outl9e1 dead1 & cov]$ ) s&1 h be5 obs]v$ 7see ,app5dix7 (f "s p>ts ( ,huahe9e & ,tahiti4 ,! reef is m frequ5tly brea*$ to leew>d ?an to w9dw>d2 ?us ,i f9d 9 ,krus5/]n's 8,memoir on ! ,pacific10 t !re are passages ?r\gh ! encircl+ reef on ! leew>d side ( ea* ( ! sev5 ,society ,isl&s1 :i* possess %ip-h>b\rs2 b t !re are op5+s to w9dw>d ?r\gh ! reef ( only ?ree ( !m4 ,! brea*es 9 ! reef are seldom z deep z ! int]ior lagoon-l *annel2 !y g5]ally occur 9 front ( ! ma9 valleys1 a circum/ance :i* c be acc\nt$ =1 z w be se5 9 ! f\r? *apt]1 )\t mu* difficulty4 ,! brea*es be+ situat$ 9 front ( ! valleys1 :i* desc5d indiff]5tly on all sides1 expla9s _! m frequ5t occurr5ce ?r\gh ! w9dw>d side ( b>ri]-reefs ?an ?r\gh ! w9dw>d side ( atolls1--= 9 atolls !re is no includ$ l& to influ5ce ! position ( ! brea*es4 #e ,see ! *>t 9 vol4 i ( ,hawkeswor?'s #dto ed4 ( 8,cook's ,fir/ ,voyage40 ,x is rem>kable1 t ! lagoon-*annels r\nd m\nta9\s isl&s h n 9 e in/ance be5 long ago fill$ up ) coral & s$im5t2 b x is m easily acc\nt$ = ?an appe>s at fir/ sight4 ,9 cases l t ( ,hogoleu & ! ,gambi] ,isl&s1 :]e a few small peaks rise out ( a great lagoon1 ! conditions sc>cely diff] f ^? ( an atoll1 & ,i h already %[n1 at "s l5g?1 t ! fill+ up ( a true lagoon mu/ be an extremely sl[ process4 ,:]e ! *annel is n>r[1 ! ag5cy1 :i* on unprotect$ coa/s is mo/ productive ( s$im5t1 namely ! =ce ( ! break]s1 is "h entirely exclud$1 & ! reef be+ brea*$ 9 ! front ( ! ma9 valleys1 mu* ( ! f9] mud f ! riv]s mu/ be transport$ into ! op5 sea4 ,z a curr5t is =m$ by ! wat] ?r[n ov] ! edge ( atoll-=m$ reefs1 :i* c>ries s$im5t ) x ?r\gh ! deep-wat] brea*es1 ! same ?+ probably takes place 9 b>ri]-reefs1 & ?is w\ld greatly aid 9 prev5t+ ! lagoon-*annel f be+ fill$ up4 ,! l[ alluvial bord]1 h[ev]1 at ! foot ( ! encircl$ m\nta9s1 %[s t ! "w ( fill+ up is 9 progress2 & at ,maura 7,plate ,i1 ,fig4 #f71 9 ! ,society gr\p1 x has be5 almo/ effect$1 s t !re rema9s only "o h>b\r = small craft4 ,if we look at a set ( *>ts ( b>ri]-reefs1 & leave out 9 imag9ation ! encircl$ l&1 we %all f9d t1 besides ! _m po9ts already notic$ ( resemblance1 or r ( id5tity 9 /ructure ) atolls1 !re is a close g5]al agreem5t 9 =m1 av]age dim5sions1 & gr\p+4 ,encircl+ b>ri]-reefs1 l atolls1 are g5]ally elongat$1 ) an irregul>ly r\nd$1 ?\gh sometimes angul> outl9e4 ,!re are atolls ( all sizes1 f less ?an two miles 9 diamet] to sixty miles 7exclud+ ,tilla-d\-,matte1 z x consi/s ( a numb] ( almo/ indep5d5t atoll-=m$ reefs72 & !re are encircl+ b>ri]-reefs f ?ree miles & a half to =ty-six miles 9 diamet]1--,turtle ,isl& be+ an in/ance ( ! =m]1 & ,hogoleu ( ! latt]4 ,at ,tahiti ! encircl$ isl& is ?irty-six miles 9 its longe/ axis1 :il/ at ,maurua x is only a little m ?an two miles4 ,x w be %[n1 9 ! la/ *apt] 9 ?is volume1 t !re is ! /ricte/ resemblance 9 ! gr\p+ ( atolls & ( common isl&s1 & consequ5tly !re mu/ be ! same resemblance 9 ! gr\p+ ( atolls & ( encircl+ b>ri]-reefs4 ,! isl&s ly+ )9 reefs ( ?is class1 are ( v v>i\s heights4 ,tahiti#f is #g1jjj feet2 ,maurua ab\t #hjj2 ,aitutaki #cfj1 & ,man\ai only #ej4 ,! geological nature ( ! includ$ l& v>ies3 9 mo/ cases x is ( anci5t volcanic orig91 ow+ app>5tly to ! fact t isl&s ( ?is nature are mo/ frequ5t )9 all great seas2 "s1 h[ev]1 are ( madreporitic lime/one1 & o!rs ( prim>y =mation1 ( :i* latt] k9d ,new ,cal$onia (f]s ! be/ example4 ,! c5tral l& consi/s ei!r ( "o isl&1 or ( sev]al3 ?us1 9 ! ,society gr\p1 ,eimeo /&s by itself2 :ile ,taha & ,raiatea 7,fig4 #c1 ,plate ,i71 bo? mod]ately l>ge isl&s ( ne>ly equal size1 are includ$ 9 "o reef4 ,)9 ! reef ( ! ,gambi] gr\p !re are f\r l>ge & "s small] isl&s 7,fig4 #h1 ,plate ,i72 )9 t ( ,hogoleu 7,fig4 #b1 ,plate ,i7 ne>ly a doz5 small isl&s are scatt]$ ov] ! expanse ( "o va/ lagoon4 #f ,! height ( ,tahiti is giv5 f ,capta9 ,bee*ey2 ,maurua f ,mr4 ,f4 ,d4 ,b5nett 7,geograph4 ,j\rn4 vol4 viii1 p4 #bbj72 ,aitutaki f measurem5ts made on bo>d ! ,beagle2 & ,man\ai or ,h>vey ,isl&1 f an e/imate by ! ,rev4 ,j4 ,williams4 ,! two latt] isl&s1 h[ev]1 are n 9 "s respects well *>act]is$ examples ( ! encircl$ class4 ,aft] ! details n[ giv51 x may be ass]t$ t !re is n "o po9t ( ess5tial diff]5ce betwe5 encircl+ b>ri]-reefs & atolls3 ! latt] enclose a simple %eet ( wat]1 ! =m] encircle an expanse ) "o or m isl&s ris+ f x4 ,i 0 mu* /ruck ) ?is fact1 :5 view+1 f ! heights ( ,tahiti1 ! di/ant isl& ( ,eimeo /&+ )9 smoo? wat]1 & encircl$ by a r+ ( sn[-:ite break]s4 ,remove ! c5tral l&1 & an annul> reef l t ( an atoll 9 an e>ly /age ( its =mation is left2 remove x f ,bolabola1 & !re rema9s a circle ( l9e> coral-islets1 cr[n$ ) tall cocoa-nut trees1 l "o ( ! _m atolls scatt]$ ov] ! ,pacific & ,indian ,oceans4 ,! b>ri]-reefs ( ,au/ralia & ( ,new ,cal$onia des]ve a sep>ate notice f _! great dim5sions4 ,! reef on ! we/ coa/ ( ,new ,cal$onia 7,fig4 #e1 ,plate ,,ii7 is #djj miles 9 l5g?2 & = a l5g? ( _m leagues x seldom approa*es )9 eight miles ( ! %ore2 & ne> ! s\!rn end ( ! isl&1 ! space betwe5 ! reef & ! l& is sixte5 miles 9 wid?4 ,! ,au/ralian b>ri] ext5ds1 ) a few int]ruptions1 = ne>ly a ?\s& miles2 its av]age di/ance f ! l& is betwe5 tw5ty & ?irty miles2 & 9 "s p>ts f fifty to sev5ty4 ,! great arm ( ! sea ?us includ$1 is f t5 to tw5ty-five fa?oms deep1 ) a s&y bottom2 b t[>ds ! s\!rn end1 :]e ! reef is fur!r f ! %ore1 ! dep? gradually increases to =ty1 & 9 "s p>ts to m ?an sixty fa?oms4 ,fl9d]s#g has describ$ ! surface ( ?is reef z consi/+ ( a h>d :ite agglom]ate ( diff]5t k9ds ( coral1 ) r\gh project+ po9ts4 ,! out] edge is ! highe/ "p2 x is trav]s$ by n>r[ gullies1 & at r>e int]vals is brea*$ by %ip-*annels4 ,! sea close outside is pr(\ndly deep2 b1 9 front ( ! ma9 brea*es1 s\nd+s c sometimes be obta9$4 ,"s l[ islets h be5 =m$ on ! reef4 #g ,fl9d]s' 8,voyage to ,t]ra ,au/ralis10 vol4 ii1 p4 #hh4 ,!re is "o important po9t 9 ! /ructure ( b>ri]-reefs :i* mu/ "h be consid]$4 ,! accompany+ diagrams repres5t nor? & s\? v]tical sections1 tak5 ?r\gh ! highe/ po9ts ( ,vanikoro1 ,gambi]1 & ,maurua ,isl&s1 & ?r\gh _! encircl+ reefs4 ,! scale bo? 9 ! horizontal & v]tical direction is ! same1 namely1 a qu>t] ( an in* to a nautical mile4 ,! height & wid? ( ^! isl&s is kn[n2 & ,i h attempt$ to repres5t ! =m ( ! l& f ! %ad+ ( ! hills 9 ! l>ge publi%$ *>ts4 ,x has long be5 rem>k$1 ev5 f ! "t ( ,dampi]1 t consid]able degree ( relation subsi/s betwe5 ! incl9ation ( t "p ( ! l& :i* is b5ea? wat] & t above x2 h5ce ! dott$ l9e 9 ! ?ree sections1 probably1 does n widely diff] 9 incl9ation f ! actual subm>9e prolongation ( ! l&4 ,if we n[ look at ! out] edge ( ! reef 7,,aa71 & be> 9 m9d t ! plummet on ! "r h& repres5ts a dep? ( #a1bjj feet1 we mu/ conclude t ! v]tical ?ickness ( ^! b>ri] coral-reefs is v great4 ,illu/ration3 ,v]tical ?ickness ( ,vanikoro1 ,gambi] & ,maurua4 #a4 ,,vanikoro1 f ! 8,atlas ( ! ,voyage ( ! ,a/rolabe10 by ,d4 ,d',urville4 #b4 ,,gambi] ,,isl&1 f ,bee*ey4 #c4 ,,maurua1 f ! 8,atlas ( ! ,voyage ( ! ,coquille10 by ,dup]rey4 ,! horizontal l9e is ! level ( ! sea1 f :i* on ! "r h& a plummet desc5ds1 repres5t+ a dep? ( #bjj fa?oms1 or #a1bjj feet4 ,! v]tical %ad+ %[s ! section ( ! l&1 & ! horizontal %ad+ t ( ! encircl+ b>ri]-reef3 f ! smallness ( ! scale1 ! lagoon-*annel c\ld n be repres5t$4 ,,aa4--,out] edge ( ! coral-reefs1 :]e ! sea breaks4 ,,bb4--,! %ore ( ! encircl$ isl&s4 ,i mu/ obs]ve t if ! sections _h be5 tak5 9 any o!r direction across ^! isl&s1 or across o!r encircl$ isl&s1#h ! result w\ld h be5 ! same4 ,9 ! succe$+ *apt] x w be %[n t reef-build+ polypif]s _c fl\ri% at great dep?s1--= in/ance1 x is highly improbable t !y c\ld exi/ at a qu>t] ( ! dep? repres5t$ by ! plummet on ! "r h& ( ! woodcut4 ,"h !re is a great app>5t difficulty--h[ 7 ! basal p>ts ( ^! b>ri]-reef =m$8 ,x w1 p]haps1 occur to "s1 t ! actual reefs =m$ ( coral are n ( great ?ickness1 b t be=e _! fir/ gr[?1 ! coa/s ( ^! encircl$ isl&s 7 deeply eat5 into1 & a broad b %all[ subm>9e l$ge ?us left1 on ! edge ( :i* ! coral grew2 b if ?is _h be5 ! case1 ! %ore w\ld h be5 inv>iably b\nd$ by l(ty cliffs1 & n h slop$ d[n to ! lagoon-*annel1 z x does 9 _m in/ances4 ,on ?is view1#i moreov]1 ! cause ( ! reef spr++ up at su* a great di/ance f ! l&1 leav+ a deep & broad moat )91 rema9s altoge!r unexpla9$4 ,a supposition ( ! same nature1 & appe>+ at fir/ m probable is1 t ! reefs sprung up f banks ( s$im5t1 :i* _h accumulat$ r\nd ! %ore previ\sly to ! gr[? ( ! coral2 b ! ext5sion ( a bank to ! same di/ance r\nd an unbrok5 coa/1 & 9 front ( ^? deep arms ( ! sea 7z 9 ,raiatea1 see ,plate ,,ii1 ,fig4 #c7 :i* p5etrate ne>ly to ! he>t ( "s encircl$ isl&s1 is exce$+ly improbable4 ,& :y1 aga91 %\ld ! reef spr+ up1 9 "s cases /eep on bo? sides l a wall1 at a di/ance ( two1 ?ree or m miles f ! %ore1 leav+ a *annel (t5 betwe5 two hundr$ & ?ree hundr$ feet deep1 & ris+ f a dep? :i* we h reason to believe is de/ructive to ! gr[? ( coral8 ,an admission ( ?is nature _c possibly be made4 ,! exi/5ce1 also1 ( ! deep *annel1 utt]ly precludes ! idea ( ! reef hav+ gr[n outw>ds1 on a f\ndation sl[ly =m$ on its outside1 by ! accumulation ( s$im5t & coral detritus4 ,nor1 aga91 c x be ass]t$1 t ! reef-build+ corals w n gr[1 except+ at a great di/ance f ! l&2 =1 z we %all soon see1 !re is a :ole class ( reefs1 :i* take _! "n f gr[+ closely atta*$ 7especially :]e ! sea is deep7 to ! bea*4 ,at ,new ,cal$onia 7see ,plate ,,ii1 ,fig4 #e7 ! reefs :i* run 9 front ( ! we/ coa/ are prolong$ 9 ! same l9e #aej miles beyond ! nor!rn extremity ( ! isl&1 & ?is %[s t "s explanation1 q diff]5t f any ( ^? j sugge/$1 is requir$4 ,! cont9uation ( ! reefs on ea* side ( ! subm>9e prolongation ( ,new ,cal$onia1 is an exce$+ly int]e/+ fact1 if ?is "p =m]ly exi/$ z ! nor!rn extremity ( ! isl&1 & be=e ! atta*m5t ( ! coral _h be5 worn d[n by ! action ( ! sea1 or if x orig9ally exi/$ at its pres5t height1 ) or )\t b$s ( s$im5t on ea* flank1 h[ c we possibly acc\nt = ! reefs1 n gr[+ on ! cre/ ( ?is subm>9e portion1 b front+ its sides1 9 ! same l9e ) ! reefs :i* front ! %ores ( ! l(ty isl&8 ,we %all h]eaft] see1 t !re is "o1 & ,i believe only "o1 solution ( ?is difficulty4 #h ,9 ! fif? *apt] an ea/ & we/ section across ! ,isl& ( ,bolabola & its b>ri]-reefs is giv51 = ! sake ( illu/rat+ ano!r po9t4 ,! unbrok5 l9e 9 x 7woodcut ,no4 #e7 is ! section ref]r$ to4 ,! scale is 4#eg ( an in* to a mile2 x is tak5 f ! 8,atlas ( ! ,voyage ( ! ,coquille10 by ,dup]rey4 ,! dep? ( ! lagoon-*annel is exagg]at$4 #i ,! ,rev4 ,d4 ,ty]man & ,mr4 ,b5nett 78,j\rnal ( ,voyage & ,travels10 vol4 i1 p4 #bae7 h briefly sugge/$ ?is explanation ( ! orig9 ( ! encircl+ reefs ( ! ,society ,isl&s4 ,"o o!r supposition to acc\nt = ! position ( encircl+ b>ri]-reefs rema9s1 b x is almo/ too prepo/]\s to be m5tion$2 namely1 t !y re/ on enorm\s subm>9e crat]s1 surr\nd+ ! includ$ isl&s4 ,:5 ! size1 height1 & =m ( ! isl&s 9 ! ,society gr\p are consid]$1 toge!r ) ! fact t all are ?us encircl$1 su* a notion w be reject$ by almo/ e "o4 ,new ,cal$onia1 moreov]1 besides its size1 is compos$ ( primitive =mations1 z are "s ( ! ,comoro ,isl&s2#aj & ,aitutaki consi/s ( calc>e\s rock4 ,we mu/1 !re=e1 reject ^! sev]al explanations1 & conclude t ! v]tical ?ickness ( b>ri]-reefs1 f _! out] edges to ! f\ndation on :i* !y re/ 7f ,,aa 9 ! section to ! dott$ l9es7 is really great2 b 9 ?is1 !re is no difficulty1 = x is n necess>y to suppose t ! coral has sprung up f an imm5se dep?1 z w be evid5t :5 ! !ory ( ! upw>d gr[? ( coral-reefs1 dur+ ! sl[ subsid5ce ( _! f\ndation1 is discuss$4 #aj ,i h be5 in=m$ t ?is is ! case by ,dr4 ,allan ( ,=res1 :o has visit$ ?is gr\p4 ,*apt] ,,iii ,,fr++ ,,or ,,%ore-,,reefs ,reefs ( ,mauritius4--,%all[ *annel )9 ! reef4--,its sl[ fill+ up4--,curr5ts ( wat] =m$ )9 x4--,uprais$ reefs4--,n>r[ fr++-reefs 9 deep seas4--,reefs on ! coa/ ( ,ea/ ,africa & ( ,brazil4--,fr++-reefs 9 v %all[ seas1 r\nd banks ( s$im5t & on worn-d[n isl&s4--,fr++-reefs affect$ by curr5ts ( ! sea4--,coral coat+ ! bottom ( ! sea1 b n =m+ reefs4 ,fr++-reefs1 or1 z !y h be5 call$ by "s voyag]s1 %ore-reefs1 :e!r skirt+ an isl& or "p ( a cont95t1 might at fir/ be ?\ght to diff] little1 except 9 g5]ally be+ ( less bread?1 f b>ri]-reefs4 ,z f> z ! sup]ficies ( ! actual reef is conc]n$ ?is is ! case2 b ! abs5ce ( an int]ior deep-wat] *annel1 & ! close relation 9 _! horizontal ext5sion ) ! probable slope b5ea? ! sea ( ! adjo9+ l&1 pres5t ess5tial po9ts ( diff]5ce4 ,! reefs :i* fr+e ! isl& ( ,mauritius (f] a good example ( ?is class4 ,!y ext5d r\nd its :ole circumf]5ce1 ) ! exception ( two or ?ree p>ts1#a :]e ! coa/ is almo/ precipit\s1 & :]e1 if z is probable ! bottom ( ! sea has a simil> incl9ation1 ! coral w\ld h no f\ndation on :i* to become atta*$4 ,a simil> fact may sometimes be obs]v$ ev5 9 reefs ( ! b>ri] class1 :i* foll[ mu* less closely ! outl9e ( ! adjo9+ l&2 z1 = in/ance1 on ! s\?-ea/ & precipit\s side ( ,tahiti1 :]e ! encircl+ reef is int]rupt$4 ,on ! we/]n side ( ! ,mauritius1 :i* 0 ! only "p ,i visit$1 ! reef g5]ally lies at ! di/ance ( ab\t half a mile f ! %ore2 b 9 "s p>ts x is di/ant f "o to two1 & ev5 ?ree miles4 ,b ev5 9 ?is la/ case1 z ! coa/-l& is g5tly incl9$ f ! foot ( ! m\nta9s to ! sea-bea*1 & z ! s\nd+s outside ! reef indicate an equally g5tle slope b5ea? ! wat]1 !re is no reason = suppos+ t ! basis ( ! reef1 =m$ by ! prolongation ( ! /rata ( ! isl&1 lies at a great] dep? ?an t at :i* ! polypif]s c\ld beg9 con/ruct+ ! reef4 ,"s all[ance1 h[ev]1 mu/ be made = ! outw>d ext5sion ( ! corals on a f\ndation ( s& & detritus1 =m$ f _! own we>1 :i* w\ld give to ! reef a some:at great] v]tical ?ickness1 ?an w\ld o!rwise be possible4 #a ,?is fact is /at$ on ! au?ority ( ! ,(fici] du ,roi1 9 8 extremely int]e/+ 8,voyage l',isle de ,france10 und]tak5 9 #agfh4 ,accord+ to ,capta9 ,c>mi*ael 7,hook]'s ,bot4 ,misc4 vol4 ii1 p4 #caf7 on "o "p ( ! coa/ !re is a space = sixte5 miles )\t a reef4 ,! out] edge ( ! reef on ! we/]n or leew>d side ( ! isl& is tol]ably well def9$1 & is a little high] ?an any o!r "p4 ,x *iefly consi/s ( l>ge /rongly bran*$ corals1 ( ! g5us ,madrepora1 :i* also =m a slop+ b$ "s way out to sea3 ! k9ds ( coral gr[+ 9 ?is "p w be describ$ 9 ! ensu+ *apt]4 ,betwe5 ! out] m>g9 & ! bea*1 !re is a flat space ) a s&y bottom & a few tufts ( liv+ coral2 9 "s p>ts x is s %all[1 t p1 by avoid+ ! deep] holes & gullies1 c wade across x at l[ wat]2 9 o!r p>ts x is deep]1 seldom h[ev] exce$+ t5 or twelve feet1 s t x (f]s a safe coa/+ *annel = boats4 ,on ! ea/]n & w9dw>d side ( ! isl&1 :i* is expos$ to a heavy surf1 ! reef 0 describ$ to me z hav+ a h>d smoo? surface1 v slightly incl9$ inw>ds1 j cov]$ at l[-wat]1 & trav]s$ by gullies2 x appe>s to be q simil> 9 /ructure to ! reefs ( ! b>ri] & atoll classes4 ,! reef ( ,mauritius1 9 front ( e riv] & /reamlet1 is brea*$ by a /raight passage3 at ,gr& ,port1 h[ev]1 !re is a *annel l t )9 a b>ri]-reef2 x ext5ds p>allel to ! %ore = f\r miles1 & has an av]age dep? ( t5 or twelve fa?oms2 its pres5ce may probably be acc\nt$ = by two riv]s :i* ent] at ea* end ( ! *annel1 & b5d t[>ds ea* o!r4 ,! fact ( reefs ( ! fr++ class be+ always brea*$ 9 front ( /reams1 ev5 ( ^? :i* are dry dur+ ! great] "p ( ! ye>1 w be expla9$1 :5 ! conditions unfav\rable to ! gr[? ( coral are consid]$4 ,l[ coral-islets1 l ^? on b>ri]-reefs & atolls1 are seldom =m$ on reefs ( ?is class1 ow+ app>5tly 9 "s cases to _! n>r[ness1 & 9 o!rs to ! g5tle slope ( ! reef outside n yield+ _m fragm5ts to ! break]s4 ,on ! w9dw>d side1 h[ev]1 ( ! ,mauritius1 two or ?ree small islets h be5 =m$4 ,x appe>s1 z w be %[n 9 ! ensu+ *apt]1 t ! action ( ! surf is fav\rable to ! vigor\s gr[? ( ! /rong] corals1 & t s& or s$im5t1 if agitat$ by ! waves1 is injuri\s to !m4 ,h5ce x is probable t a reef on a %elv+ %ore1 l t ( ,mauritius1 w\ld at fir/ gr[ up1 n atta*$ to ! actual bea*1 b at "s little di/ance f x2 & ! corals on ! out] m>g9 w\ld be ! mo/ vigor\s4 ,a %all[ *annel w\ld ?us be =m$ )9 ! reef1 & z ! break]s are prev5t$ act+ on ! %ores ( ! isl&1 & z !y d n ord9>ily te> up _m fragm5ts f ! outside1 & z e /reamlet has its b$ prolong$ 9 a /raight l9e ?r\gh ! reef1 ?is *annel c\ld be fill$ up only v sl[ly ) s$im5t4 ,b a bea* ( s& & ( fragm5ts ( ! small] k9ds ( coral seems1 9 ! case ( ,mauritius1 to be sl[ly encroa*+ on ! %all[ *annel4 ,on _m %elv+ & s&y coa/s1 ! break]s t5d to =m a b> ( s& a little way f ! bea*1 ) a slight increase ( dep? )9 x2 = in/ance1 ,capta9 ,grey#b /ates t ! we/ coa/ ( ,au/ralia1 9 latitude #bd1 is front$ by a s& b> ab\t two hundr$ y>ds 9 wid?1 on :i* !re is only two feet ( wat]2 b )9 x ! dep? increases to two fa?oms4 ,simil> b>s1 m or less p]fect1 occur on o!r coa/s4 ,9 ^! cases ,i suspect t ! %all[ *annel 7:i* no d\bt dur+ /orms is occasionally oblit]at$7 is scoop$ out by ! fl[+ away ( ! wat] ?r[n beyond ! l9e1 on :i* ! waves break ) ! greate/ =ce4 ,at ,p]nambuco a b> ( h>d s&/one1#c :i* has ! same ext]nal =m & height z a coral-reef1 ext5ds ne>ly p>allel to ! coa/2 )9 ?is b> curr5ts1 app>5tly caus$ by ! wat] ?r[n ov] x dur+ ! great] "p ( ea* tide1 run /rongly1 & are we>+ away its inn] wall4 ,f ^! facts x c h>dly be d\bt$1 t )9 mo/ fr++-reefs1 especially )9 ^? ly+ "s di/ance f ! l&1 a return /ream mu/ c>ry away ! wat] ?r[n ov] ! out] edge2 & ! curr5t ?us produc$1 w\ld t5d to prev5t ! *annel be+ fill$ up ) s$im5t1 & might ev5 deep5 x "u c]ta9 circum/ances4 ,to ?is latt] belief ,i am l$1 by f9d+ t *annels are almo/ univ]sally pres5t )9 ! fr++-reefs ( ^? isl&s :i* h und]gone rec5t elevatory movem5ts2 & ?is c\ld h>dly h be5 ! case1 if ! conv]sion ( ! v %all[ *annel into l& _h n be5 c\nt]act$ to a c]ta9 ext5t4 #b ,capta9 ,grey's 8,j\rnal ( ,two ,exp$itions10 vol4 i1 p4 #cfi4 #c ,i h describ$ ?is s+ul> /ructure 9 ! ,lond4 & ,ed94 ,phil4 ,mag41 ,octob] #ahda4 ,a fr++-reef1 if elevat$ 9 a p]fect condition above ! level ( ! sea1 ought to pres5t ! s+ul> appe>ance ( a broad dry moat )9 a l[ m\nd4 ,! au?or#d ( an int]e/+ p$e/rian t\r r\nd ! ,mauritius1 seems to h met ) a /ructure ( ?is k9d3 he says 8,j'obs]vai que l1 o la m] tale1 indp5damm5t des rescifs du l>ge1 il y t]re une espce d'effoncem5t ou *em9 c\v]t naturel4 ,on y p\rrait mettre du canon10 etc4 ,9 ano!r place he adds1 8,avant de pass] le ,cap1 on rem>que un gros banc de corail lev de plus de qu9ze pi$s3 c'e/ une espce de rescif1 que la m] ab&onn1 il regne au pi$ une longue flaque d'eau1 dont on p\rrait faire un bass9 p\r de petits vaisseaux40 ,b ! m>g9 ( ! reef1 al?\gh ! highe/ & mo/ p]fect "p1 f be+ mo/ expos$ to ! surf1 w\ld g5]ally dur+ a sl[ rise ( ! l& be ei!r p>tially or entirely worn d[n to t level1 at :i* corals c\ld r5ew _! gr[? on its upp] edge4 ,on "s p>ts ( ! coa/-l& ( ,mauritius !re are little hillocks ( coral-rock1 :i* are ei!r ! la/ remnants ( a cont9u\s reef1 or ( l[ islets =m$ on x4 ,i obs]v$ t two su* hillocks betwe5 ,tam>9 ,bay & ! ,great ,black ,riv]2 !y 7 ne>ly tw5ty feet high1 ab\t two hundr$ y>ds f ! pres5t bea*1 & ab\t ?irty feet above its level4 ,!y rose abruptly f a smoo? surface1 /rew$ ) worn fragm5ts ( coral4 ,!y consi/$ 9 _! l[] "p ( h>d calc>e\s s&/one1 & 9 _! upp] ( great blocks ( sev]al species ( ,a/ra & ,madrepora1 loosely aggregat$2 !y 7 divid$ into irregul> b$s1 dipp+ seaw>d1 9 "o hillock at an angle ( #h1 & 9 ! o!r at #ah4 ,i suspect t ! sup]ficial p>ts ( ! reefs1 :i* h be5 uprais$ toge!r ) ! isl&s !y fr+e1 h g5]ally be5 mu* m modifi$ by ! we>+ action ( ! sea1 ?an ^? ( ,mauritius4 #d 8,voyage l',isle de ,france1 p> un ,(fici] du ,roi10 "p i1 pp4 #aib1 #bjj4 ,_m isl&s#e are fr+$ by reefs q simil> to ^? ( ,mauritius2 b on coa/s :]e ! sea deep5s v sudd5ly ! reefs are mu* n>r[]1 & _! limit$ ext5sion seems evid5tly to dep5d on ! high incl9ation ( ! subm>9e slope2 a relation1 :i*1 z we h se51 does n exi/ 9 reefs ( ! b>ri] class4 ,! fr++-reefs on /eep coa/s are frequ5tly n m ?an f fifty to "o hundr$ y>ds 9 wid?2 !y h a ne>ly smoo?1 h>d surface1 sc>cely uncov]$ at l[ wat]1 & )\t any int]ior %oal *annel1 l t )9 ^? fr++-reefs1 :i* lie at a great] di/ance f ! l&4 ,! fragm5ts torn up dur+ gales f ! out] m>g9 are ?r[n ov] ! reef on ! %ores ( ! isl&4 ,i may give z in/ances1 ,wateeo1 :]e ! reef is describ$ by ,cook z be+ a hundr$ y>ds wide2 & ,mauti & ,elizabe?#f ,isl&s1 :]e x is only fifty y>ds 9 wid?3 ! sea r\nd ^! isl&s is v deep4 #e ,i may give ,cuba1 z ano!r in/ance2 ,mr4 ,taylor 7,l\don's ,mag4 ( ,nat4 ,hi/41 vol4 ix1 p4 #ddi7 has describ$ a reef sev]al miles 9 l5g? betwe5 ,gib>a & ,vj>o1 :i* ext5ds p>allel to ! %ore at ! di/ance ( betwe5 half & ! ?ird "p ( a mile1 & encloses a space ( %all[ wat]1 ) a s&y bottom & tufts ( coral4 ,outside ! edge ( ! reef1 :i* is =m$ ( great bran*+ corals1 ! dep? is six & sev5 fa?oms4 ,?is coa/ has be5 upheav$ at no v di/ant geological p]iod4 #f ,mauti is describ$ by ,"l ,byron 9 ! voyage ( ,h4,m4,s4 ,blonde1 & ,elizabe? ,isl& by ,capta9 ,bee*ey4 ,fr++-reefs1 l b>ri]-reefs1 bo? surr\nd isl&s1 & front ! %ores ( cont95ts4 ,9 ! *>ts ( ! ea/]n coa/ ( ,africa1 by ,capta9 ,ow51 _m ext5sive fr++-reefs are laid d[n2 ?us1 = a space ( ne>ly =ty miles1 f latitude #a #ae to #a #de ,s41 a reef fr+es ! %ore at an av]age di/ance ( r m ?an "o mile1 & !re=e at a great] di/ance ?an is usual 9 reefs ( ?is class2 b z ! coa/-l& is n l(ty1 & z ! bottom %oals v gradually 7! dep? be+ only f eight to f\rte5 fa?oms at a mile & a half outside ! reef71 its ext5sion ?us f> f ! l& (f]s no difficulty4 ,! ext]nal m>g9 ( ?is reef is describ$1 z =m$ ( project+ po9ts1 )9 :i* !re is a space1 f six to twelve feet deep1 ) pat*es ( liv+ coral on x4 ,at ,mukdee%a 7lat4 #b #a ,n47 8! port is =m$10 x is said1#g 8by a long reef ext5d+ ea/w>d1 f\r or five miles1 )9 :i* !re is a n>r[ *annel1 ) t5 to twelve feet ( wat] at l[ spr+-tides20 x lies at ! di/ance ( a qu>t] ( a mile f ! %ore4 ,aga91 9 ! plan ( ,mombas 7lat4 #d ,s471 a reef ext5ds = ?irty-six miles1 at ! di/ance ( f half a mile to "o mile & a qu>t] f ! %ore2 )9 x1 !re is a *annel navigable 8= canoes & small craft10 betwe5 six & fifte5 feet deep3 outside ! reef ! dep? is ab\t ?irty fa?oms at ! di/ance ( ne>ly half a mile4 ,"p ( ?is reef is v symmetrical1 & has a uni=m bread? ( two hundr$ y>ds4 #g ,ow5's 8,africa10 vol4 i1 p4 #ceg1 f :i* "w ! =ego+ facts are likewise tak54 ,! coa/ ( ,brazil is 9 _m p>ts fr+$ by reefs4 ,( ^!1 "s are n ( coral =mation2 = in/ance1 ^? ne> ,bahia & 9 front ( ,p]nambuco2 b a few miles s\? ( ?is latt] city1 ! reef foll[s#h s closely e turn ( ! %ore1 t ,i c h>dly d\bt x is ( coral2 x runs at ! di/ance ( ?ree-qu>t]s ( a mile f ! l&1 & )9 x ! dep? is f t5 to fifte5 feet4 ,i 0 assur$ by an intellig5t pilot t at ,ports ,frances & ,maceio1 ! out] "p ( ! reef consi/s ( liv+ coral1 & ! inn] ( a :ite /one1 full ( l>ge irregul> cavities1 communicat+ ) ! sea4 ,! bottom ( ! sea (f ! coa/ ( ,brazil %oals gradually to betwe5 ?irty & =ty fa?oms1 at ! di/ance ( betwe5 n9e & t5 leagues f ! l&4 #h ,see ,b>on ,r\ss9's 8,pilote du ,brsil10 & accompany+ hydrographical memoir4 ,f ! description n[ giv51 we mu/ conclude t ! dim5sions & /ructure ( fr++-reefs dep5d entirely on ! great] or less incl9ation ( ! subm>9e slope1 conjo9$ ) ! fact t reef-build+ polypif]s c exi/ only at limit$ dep?s4 ,x foll[s f ?is1 t :]e ! sea is v %all[1 z 9 ! ,p]sian ,gulf & 9 p>ts ( ! ,ea/ ,indian ,ar*ipelago1 ! reefs lose _! fr++ "*1 & appe> z sep>ate & irregul>ly scatt]$ pat*es1 (t5 ( consid]able area4 ,f ! m vigor\s gr[? ( ! coral on ! outside1 & f ! conditions be+ less fav\rable 9 sev]al respects )91 su* reefs are g5]ally high] & m p]fect 9 _! m>g9al ?an 9 _! c5tral p>ts2 h5ce ^! reefs sometimes assume 7& ?is circum/ance ought n to be ov]look$7 ! appe>ance ( atolls2 b !y diff] f atolls 9 _! c5tral expanse be+ mu* less deep1 9 _! =m be+ less def9$1 & 9 be+ bas$ on a %all[ f\ndation4 ,b :5 9 a deep sea reefs fr+e banks ( s$im5t1 :i* h accumulat$ b5ea? ! surface1 r\nd ei!r isl&s or subm]g$ rocks1 !y are di/+ui%$ ) difficulty on ! "o h& f encircl+ b>ri]-reefs1 & on ! o!r f atolls4 ,9 ! ,we/ ,indies !re are reefs1 :i* ,i %\ld probably h arrang$ "u bo? ^! classes1 _h n ! exi/5ce ( l>ge & level banks1 ly+ a little b5ea? ! surface1 ready to s]ve z ! basis = ! atta*m5t ( coral1 be5 occasionally br\ght into view by ! entire or p>tial abs5ce ( reefs on !m1 & _h n ! =mation ( su* banks1 ?r\gh ! accumulation ( s$im5t n[ 9 progress1 be5 suffici5tly evid5t4 ,fr++-reefs sometimes coat1 & ?us protect ! f\ndations ( isl&s1 :i* h be5 worn d[n by ! surf to ! level ( ! sea4 ,accord+ to ,ehr5b]g1 ?is has be5 ext5sively ! case ) ! isl&s 9 ! ,r$ ,sea1 :i* =m]ly rang$ p>allel to ! %ores ( ! ma9l&1 ) deep wat] )9 !m3 h5ce ! reefs n[ coat+ _! bases are situat$ relatively to ! l& l b>ri]-reefs1 al?\gh n belong+ to t class2 b !re are1 z ,i believe1 9 ! ,r$ ,sea "s true b>ri]-reefs4 ,! reefs ( ?is sea & ( ! ,we/ ,indies w be describ$ 9 ! ,app5dix4 ,9 "s cases1 fr++-reefs appe> to be consid]ably modifi$ 9 outl9e by ! c\rse ( ! prevail+ curr5ts4 ,dr4 ,j4 ,allan in=ms me t on ! ea/ coa/ ( ,madagasc> almo/ e headl& & l[ po9t ( s& has a coral-reef ext5d+ f x 9 a ,s4,w4 & ,n4,e4 l9e1 p>allel to ! curr5ts on t %ore4 ,i %\ld ?9k ! influ5ce ( ! curr5ts *iefly consi/$ 9 caus+ an ext5sion1 9 a c]ta9 direction1 ( a prop] f\ndation = ! atta*m5t ( ! coral4 ,r\nd _m int]tropical isl&s1 = in/ance ! ,abrolhos on ! coa/ ( ,brazil survey$ by ,capta9 ,fitzroy1 &1 z ,i am in=m$ by ,mr4 ,cum+1 r\nd ! ,philipp9es1 ! bottom ( ! sea is entirely coat$ by irregul> masses ( coral1 :i* al?\gh (t5 ( l>ge size1 d n rea* ! surface & =m prop] reefs4 ,?is mu/ be ow+1 ei!r to insuffici5t gr[?1 or to ! abs5ce ( ^? k9ds ( corals :i* c )/& ! break+ ( ! waves4 ,! ?ree classes1 atoll-=m$1 b>ri]1 & fr++-reefs1 toge!r ) ! modifications j describ$ ( ! latt]1 include all ! mo/ rem>kable coral =mations any:]e exi/+4 ,at ! comm5cem5t ( ! la/ *apt] 9 ! volume1 :]e ,i detail ! pr9ciples on :i* ! map 7,plate ,,iii7 is col\r$1 ! exceptional cases w be enum]at$4 ,*apt] ,,iv ,,on ,,! ,,di/ribution ,,& ,,gr[? ,,( ,,coral-,,reefs ,9 ?is *apt] ,i w give all ! facts :i* ,i h collect$1 relat+ to ! di/ribution ( coral-reefs1--to ! conditions fav\rable to _! increase1--to ! rate ( _! gr[?1--& to ! dep? at :i* !y are =m$4 ,^! subjects h an important be>+ on ! !ory ( ! orig9 ( ! diff]5t classes ( coral-reefs4 ,section ,i--,,on ,,! ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,coral-,,reefs1 ,,& ,,on ,,! ,,conditions ,,fav\rable ,,to ,,_! ,,increase ,) reg>d to ! limits ( latitude1 ov] :i* coral-reefs ext5d1 ,i h no?+ new to add4 ,! ,b]muda ,isl&s1 9 #cb #ae ,n41 is ! po9t fur!/ remov$ f ! equator1 9 :i* !y appe> to exi/2 & x has be5 sugge/$ t _! ext5sion s f> nor?w>d 9 ?is in/ance is ow+ to ! w>m? ( ! ,gulf ,/ream4 ,9 ! ,pacific1 ! ,loo ,*oo ,isl&s1 9 latitude #bg ,n41 h reefs on _! %ores1 & !re is an atoll 9 #bh #cj1 situat$ ,n4,w4 ( ! ,s&wi* ,ar*ipelago4 ,9 ! ,r$ ,sea !re are coral-reefs 9 latitude #cj4 ,9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e coral-reefs d n ext5d s f> f ! equatorial sea4 ,9 ! ,s\!rn ,pacific !re are only a few reefs beyond ! l9e ( ! tropics1 b ,h\tmans ,abrolhos1 on ! we/]n %ores ( ,au/ralia 9 latitude #bi ,s41 are ( coral =mation4 ,! proximity ( volcanic l&1 ow+ to ! lime g5]ally evolv$ f x1 has be5 ?\ght to be fav\rable to ! increase ( coral-reefs4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 n mu* f\ndation = ?is view2 = n[h]e are coral-reefs m ext5sive ?an on ! %ores ( ,new ,cal$onia1 & ( nor?-ea/]n ,au/ralia1 :i* consi/ ( prim>y =mations2 & 9 ! l>ge/ gr\ps ( atolls1 namely ! ,maldiva1 ,*agos1 ,m>%all1 ,gilb]t1 & ,l[ ,ar*ipelagoes1 !re is no volcanic or o!r k9d ( rock1 except+ t =m$ ( coral4 ,! entire abs5ce ( coral-reefs 9 c]ta9 l>ge areas )9 ! tropical seas1 is a rem>kable fact4 ,?us no coral-reefs 7 obs]v$1 dur+ ! survey+ voyages ( ! ,beagle & h] t5d] on ! we/ coa/ ( ,s\? ,am]ica s\? ( ! equator1 or r\nd ! ,galapagos ,isl&s4 ,x appe>s1 also1 t !re are none#a nor? ( ! equator2 ,mr4 ,lloyd1 :o survey$ ! ,i/hmus ( ,panama1 rem>k$ to me1 t al?\gh he _h se5 corals liv+ 9 ! ,bay ( ,panama1 yet he _h nev] obs]v$ any reefs =m$ by !m4 ,i at fir/ attribut$ ?is abs5ce ( reefs on ! coa/s ( ,p]u & ( ! ,galapagos ,isl&s1#b to ! coldness ( ! curr5ts f ! s\?1 b ! ,gulf ( ,panama is "o ( ! hotte/ pelagic di/ricts 9 ! _w4#c ,9 ! c5tral p>ts ( ! ,pacific !re are isl&s entirely free f reefs2 9 "s few ( ^! cases ,i h ?\ght t ?is 0 ow+ to rec5t volcanic action2 b ! exi/5ce ( reefs r\nd ! great] "p ( ,hawaii1 "o ( ! ,s&wi* ,isl&s1 %[s t rec5t volcanic action does n necess>ily prev5t _! gr[?4 #a ,i h be5 in=m$ t ?is is ! case1 by ,lieut5ant ,ryd]1 ,r4,n41 & o!rs :o h _h ample opportunities = obs]vation4 #b ,! mean temp]ature ( ! surface sea f obs]vations made by ! direction ( ,capta9 ,fitzroy on ! %ores ( ! ,galapagos ,isl&s1 betwe5 ! #af? ( ,septemb] & ! #bj? ( ,octob]1 #ahce1 0 #fh ,fahr4 ,! l[e/ temp]ature obs]v$ 0 #eh4e at ! s\?-we/ end ( ,albem>le ,isl&2 & on ! we/ coa/ ( ?is isl&1 x 0 sev]al times #fb & #fc4 ,! mean temp]ature ( ! sea 9 ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago ( atolls1 & ne> ,tahiti1 f simil> obs]vations made on bo>d ! ,beagle1 0 7al?\gh fur!r f ! equator7 #gg4e1 ! l[e/ any day be+ #gf4e4 ,!re=e we h "h a diff]5ce ( #i4e 9 mean temp]ature1 & #ah 9 extremes2 a diff]5ce d\btless q suffici5t to affect ! di/ribution ( organic be+s 9 ! two areas4 #c ,humboldt's 8,p]sonal ,n>rative10 vol4 vii1 p4 #dcd4 ,9 ! la/ *apt] ,i /at$ t ! bottom ( ! sea r\nd "s isl&s is ?ickly coat$ ) liv+ corals1 :i* nev]!less d n =m reefs1 ei!r f insuffici5t gr[?1 or f ! species n be+ adapt$ to cont5d ) ! break+ waves4 ,i h be5 assur$ by sev]al p1 t !re are no coral-reefs on ! we/ coa/ ( ,africa1#d or r\nd ! isl&s 9 ! ,gulf ( ,gu9ea4 ,?is p]haps may be attribut$1 9 "p1 to ! s$im5t br\ght d[n by ! _m riv]s deb\*+ on t coa/1 & to ! ext5sive mud-banks1 :i* l9e great "p ( x4 ,b ! isl&s ( ,/4 ,hel5a1 ,asc5sion1 ! ,cape ,v]des1 ,/4 ,paul's1 & ,f]n&o ,noronha1 are1 also1 entirely )\t reefs1 al?\gh !y lie f> out at sea1 are compos$ ( ! same anci5t volcanic rocks1 & h ! same g5]al =m1 ) ^? isl&s 9 ! ,pacific1 ! %ores ( :i* are surr\nd$ by gigantic walls ( coral-rock4 ,) ! exception ( ,b]muda1 !re is n a s+le coral-reef 9 ! c5tral expanse ( ! ,atlantic ,ocean4 ,x w1 p]haps1 be sugge/$ t ! quantity ( c>bonate ( lime 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! sea1 may regulate ! pres5ce ( reefs4 ,b ?is _c be ! case1 = at ,asc5sion1 ! waves *>g$ to excess precipitate a ?ick lay] ( calc>e\s matt] on ! tidal rocks2 & at ,/4 ,jago1 9 ! ,cape ,v]des1 c>bonate ( lime n only is abundant on ! %ores1 b x =ms ! *ief "p ( "s uprais$ po/-t]ti>y /rata4 ,! app>5tly caprici\s di/ribution1 !re=e1 ( coral-reefs1 _c be expla9$ by any ( ^! obvi\s causes2 b z ! /udy ( ! t]re/rial & bett] kn[n half ( ! _w mu/ conv9ce e "o t no /ation capable ( support+ life is lo/1--nay m1 t !re is a /ruggle = ea* /ation1 betwe5 ! diff]5t ord]s ( nature1--we may conclude t 9 ^? p>ts ( ! int]tropical sea1 9 :i* !re are no coral-reefs1 !re are o!r organic bodies supply+ ! place ( ! reef-build+ polypif]s4 ,x has be5 %[n 9 ! *apt] on ,keel+ atoll t !re are "s species ( l>ge fi%1 & ! :ole tribe ( ,holo?uri :i* prey on ! t5d]] p>ts ( ! corals4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! polypif]s 9 _! turn mu/ prey on "s o!r organic be+s2 ! decrease ( :i* f any cause w\ld cause a proportionate de/ruction ( ! liv+ coral4 ,! relations1 !re=e1 :i* det]m9e ! =mation ( reefs on any %ore1 by ! vigor\s gr[? ( ! effici5t k9ds ( coral1 mu/ be v complex1 & ) our imp]fect k q inexplicable4 ,f ^! consid]ations1 we may inf] t *anges 9 ! condition ( ! sea1 n obvi\s to our s5ses1 might de/roy all ! coral-reefs 9 "o area1 & cause !m to appe> 9 ano!r3 ?us1 ! ,pacific or ,indian ,ocean might become z b>r5 ( coral-reefs z ! ,atlantic n[ is1 )\t our be+ able to assign any adequate cause = su* a *ange4 #d ,x might be conclud$1 f a pap] by ,capta9 ,ow5 7,geograph4 ,j\rn41 vol4 ii1 p4 #hi71 t ! reefs (f ,cape ,/4 ,anne & ! ,%]boro' ,isl&s 7 ( coral1 al?\gh ! au?or /ates t !y are n purely corall9e4 ,b ,i h be5 assur$ by ,lieut5ant ,holl&1 ,r4,n41 t ^! reefs are n ( coral1 or at lea/ t !y d n at all resemble ^? 9 ! ,we/ ,indies4 ,x has be5 a "q ) "s naturali/s1 :i* "p ( a reef is mo/ fav\rable to ! gr[? ( coral4 ,! great m\nds ( liv+ ,porites & ( ,millepora r\nd ,keel+ atoll occur exclusively on ! extreme v]ge ( ! reef1 :i* is wa%$ by a con/ant succession ( break]s2 & liv+ coral n[h]e else =ms solid masses4 ,at ! ,m>%all isl&s ! l>g] k9ds ( coral 7*iefly species ( ,a/ra1 a g5us closely alli$ to ,porites7 8:i* =m rocks measur+ sev]al fa?oms 9 ?ickness10 pref]1 accord+ to ,*amisso1#e ! mo/ viol5t surf4 ,i h /at$ t ! out] m>g9 ( ! ,maldiva atolls consi/s ( liv+ corals 7"s ( :i*1 if n all1 are ( ! same species ) ^? at ,keel+ atoll71 & "h ! surf is s trem5d\s1 t ev5 l>ge %ips h be5 ?r[n1 by a s+le heave ( ! sea1 high & dry on ! reef1 all on bo>d ?us escap+ ) _! lives4 ,ehr5b]g#f rem>ks1 t 9 ! ,r$ ,sea ! /ronge/ corals live on ! out] reefs1 & appe> to love ! surf2 he adds1 t ! m bran*$ k9ds ab\nd a little way )91 b t ev5 ^! 9 /ill m protect$ places1 become small]4 ,_m o!r facts hav+ a simil> t5d5cy might be adduc$4#g ,x has1 h[ev]1 be5 d\bt$ by ,,mm4 ,quoy & ,gaim>d1 :e!r any k9d ( coral c ev5 )/&1 mu* less fl\ri% 91 ! break]s ( an op5 sea3#h !y affirm t ! saxig5\s li?ophytes fl\ri% only :]e ! wat] is tranquil1 & ! heat int5se4 ,?is /atem5t has pass$ f "o geological "w to ano!r2 nev]!less1 ! protection ( ! :ole reef und\bt$ly is due to ^? k9ds ( coral1 :i* _c exi/ 9 ! situations ?\ght by ^! naturali/s to be mo/ fav\rable to !m4 ,= %\ld ! out] & liv+ m>g9 p]i%1 ( any "o ( ! _m l[ coral-isl&s1 r\nd :i* a l9e ( great break]s is incessantly foam+1 ! :ole1 x is sc>cely possible to d\bt1 w\ld be wa%$ away & de/roy$1 9 less ?an half a c5tury4 ,b ! vital en]gies ( ! corals conqu] ! me*anical p[] ( ! waves2 & ! l>ge fragm5ts ( reef torn up by e /orm1 are replac$ by ! sl[ b /eady gr[? ( ! innum]able polypif]s1 :i* =m ! liv+ zone on its out] edge4 #e ,kotzebue's 8,fir/ ,voyage0 7,eng4 ,trans471 vol4 iii1 pp4 #adb1 #adc1 #cca4 #f ,ehr5b]g1 8b] die ,natur und ,bildung d] ,corall5 ,bnke im ro!n ,me]e10 p4 #di4 #g ,9 ! ,we/ ,indies1 z ,i am in=m$ by ,capta9 ,bird ,all51 ,r4,n41 x is ! common belief ( ^?1 :o are be/ acqua9t$ ) ! reefs1 t ! coral fl\ri%es mo/1 :]e freely expos$ to ! swell ( ! op5 sea4 #h 8,annales des ,sci5ces ,naturelles10 tome vi1 pp4 #bgf1 #bgh4--8,l o les ondes sont agites1 les ,lytophyts ne peuv5t travaill]1 p>ce qu'elles dtruirai5t leurs fragiles difices10 etc4 ,f ^! facts1 x is c]ta91 t ! /ronge/ & mo/ massive corals fl\ri%1 :]e mo/ expos$4 ,! less p]fect /ate ( ! reef ( mo/ atolls on ! leew>d & less expos$ side1 comp>$ ) its /ate to w9dw>d2 & ! analog\s case ( ! great] numb] ( brea*es on ! ne> sides ( ^? atolls 9 ! ,maldiva ,ar*ipelago1 :i* af=d "s protection to ea* o!r1 are obvi\sly expla9$ by ?is circum/ance4 ,if ! "q _h be51 "u :at conditions ! great] numb] ( species ( coral1 n reg>d+ _! bulk & /r5g?1 7 develop$1 ,i %\ld answ]1--probably 9 ! situations describ$ by ,,mm4 ,quoy & ,gaim>d1 :]e ! wat] is tranquil & ! heat int5se4 ,! total numb] ( species ( coral 9 ! circumtropical seas mu/ be v great3 9 ! ,r$ ,sea alone1 #abj k9ds1 accord+ to ,ehr5b]g1#i h be5 obs]v$4 #i ,ehr5b]g1 8b] die ,natur10 etc41 p4 #df4 ,! same au?or has obs]v$ t ! recoil ( ! sea f a /eep %ore is injuri\s to ! gr[? ( coral1 al?\gh waves break+ ov] a bank are n s4 ,ehr5b]g also /ates1 t :]e !re is mu* s$im5t1 plac$ s z to be liable to be mov$ by ! waves !re is little or no coral2 & a collection ( liv+ specim5s plac$ by him on a s&y %ore di$ 9 ! c\rse ( a few days4#aj ,an exp]im5t1 h[ev]1 w pres5tly be relat$ 9 :i* "s l>ge masses ( liv+ coral increas$ rapidly 9 size1 aft] hav+ be5 secur$ by /akes on a s&bank4 ,t loose s$im5t %\ld be injuri\s to ! liv+ polypif]s1 appe>s1 at fir/ sight1 probable2 & accord+ly1 9 s\nd+ (f ,keel+ atoll1 & 7z w h]eaft] be %[n7 (f ,mauritius1 ! arm+ ( ! lead inv>iably came up clean1 :]e ! coral 0 gr[+ vigor\sly4 ,?is same circum/ance has probably giv5 rise to a /range belief1 :i*1 accord+ to ,capta9 ,ow51#aa is g5]al among/ ! inhabitants ( ! ,maldiva atolls1 namely t corals h roots1 & !re=e t if m]ely brok5 d[n to ! surface1 !y gr[ up aga92 b1 if root$ out1 !y are p]man5tly de/roy$4 ,by ?is means ! inhabitants keep _! h>b\rs cle>2 & ?us ! ,fr5* ,gov]nor ( ,/4 ,m>y's 9 ,madagasc>1 8cle>$ out & made a beautiful little port at t place40 ,= x is probable t s& w\ld accumulate 9 ! holl[s =m$ by te>+ out ! corals1 b n on ! brok5 & project+ /umps1 & !re=e1 9 ! =m] case1 ! fre% gr[? ( ! coral might be ?us prev5t$4 #aj ,ibid41 p4 #di4 #aa ,capta9 ,ow5 on ! ,geography ( ! ,maldiva ,isl&s1 ,geograph4 ,j\rnal1 vol4 ii1 p4 #hh4 ,9 ! la/ *apt] ,i rem>k$ t fr++-reefs are almo/ univ]sally brea*$1 :]e /reams ent] ! sea4#ab ,mo/ au?ors h attribut$ ?is fact to ! injuri\s effects ( ! fre% wat]1 ev5 :]e x ent]s ! sea only 9 small quantity1 & dur+ a "p ( ! ye>4 ,no d\bt bracki% wat] w\ld prev5t or ret>d ! gr[? ( coral2 b ,i believe t ! mud & s& :i* is deposit$1 ev5 by rivulets :5 flood$1 is a mu* m effici5t *eck4 ,! reef on ea* side ( ! *annel lead+ into ,port ,l\is at ,mauritius1 ends abruptly 9 a wall1 at ! foot ( :i* ,i s\nd$ & f\nd a b$ ( ?ick mud4 ,?is /eepness ( ! sides appe>s to be a g5]al "* 9 su* brea*es4 ,cook1#ac speak+ ( "o at ,raiatea1 says1 8l all ! re/1 x is v /eep on bo? sides40 ,n[1 if x 7 ! fre% wat] m+l+ ) ! salt :i* prev5t$ ! gr[? ( coral1 ! reef c]ta9ly w\ld n t]m9ate abruptly1 b z ! polypif]s ne>e/ ! impure /ream w\ld gr[ less vigor\sly ?an ^? f>!r (f1 s w\ld ! reef gradually ?9 away4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! s$im5t br\ght d[n f ! l& w\ld only prev5t ! gr[? ( ! coral 9 ! l9e ( its deposition1 b w\ld n *eck x on ! side1 s t ! reefs might increase till !y ov]hung ! b$ ( ! *annel4 ,! brea*es are mu* few] 9 numb]1 & front only ! l>g] valleys 9 reefs ( ! encircl+ b>ri] class4 ,!y probably are kept op5 9 ! same mann] z ^? into ! lagoon ( an atoll1 namely1 by ! =ce ( ! curr5ts & ! drift+ outw>ds ( f9e s$im5t4 ,_! position 9 front ( valleys1 al?\gh (t5 sep>at$ f ! l& by deep wat] lagoon-*annels1 :i* x might be ?\ght w\ld entirely remove ! injuri\s effects bo? ( ! fre% wat] & ! s$im5t1 w receive a simple explanation :5 we discuss ! orig9 ( b>ri]-reefs4 #ab ,lieut5ant ,well/ead & o!rs h rem>k$ t ?is is ! case 9 ! ,r$ ,sea2 ,dr4 ,rppell 78,reise 9 ,abyss40 ,b&4 i1 p4 #adb7 says t !re are pe>-%ap$ h>b\rs 9 ! uprais$ coral-coa/1 into :i* p]iodical /reams ent]4 ,f ?is circum/ance1 ,i presume1 we mu/ inf] t be=e ! upheaval ( ! /rata n[ =m+ ! coa/-l&1 fre% wat] & s$im5t ent]$ ! sea at ^! po9ts2 & ! coral be+ ?us prev5t$ gr[+1 ! pe>-%ap$ h>b\rs 7 produc$4 #ac ,cook's 8,fir/ ,voyage10 vol4 ii1 p4 #bga 7,hawkeswor?'s edit47 ,9 ! vegetable k+dom e diff]5t /ation has its peculi> gr\p ( plants1 & simil> relations appe> to prevail ) corals4 ,we h already describ$ ! great diff]5ce betwe5 ! corals )9 ! lagoon ( an atoll & ^? on its out] m>g94 ,! corals1 also1 on ! m>g9 ( ,keel+ ,isl& occurr$ 9 zones2 ?us ! ,porites & ,millepora complanata gr[ to a l>ge size only :]e !y are wa%$ by a heavy sea1 & are kill$ by a %ort exposure to ! air2 :]eas1 ?ree species ( ,nullipora also live amid/ ! break]s1 b are able to survive uncov]$ = a "p ( ea* tide2 at great] dep?s1 a /rong ,madrepora & ,millepora alcicornis are ! commone/ k9ds1 ! =m] appe>+ to be conf9$ to ?is "p1 b5ea? ! zone ( massive corals1 m9ute encru/+ corall9es & o!r organic bodies live4 ,if we comp>e ! ext]nal m>g9 ( ! reef at ,keel+ atoll ) t on ! leew>d side ( ,mauritius1 :i* are v diff]5tly circum/anc$1 we %all f9d a correspond+ diff]5ce 9 ! appe>ance ( ! corals4 ,at ! latt] place1 ! g5us ,madrepora is prepond]ant ov] e o!r k9d1 & b5ea? ! zone ( massive corals !re are l>ge b$s ( ,s]iatopora4 ,!re is also a m>k$ diff]5ce1 accord+ to ,capta9 ,moresby1#ad;betwe5 ! great bran*+ corals ( ! ,r$ ,sea1 & ^? on ! reefs ( ! ,maldiva atolls4 #ad ,capta9 ,moresby on ! ,nor!rn ,maldiva atolls1 ,geograph4 ,j\rnal1 vol4 v1 p4 #dja4 ,^! facts1 :i* 9 !mselves are des]v+ ( notice1 be>1 p]haps1 n v remotely1 on a rem>kable circum/ance :i* has be5 po9t$ out to me by ,capta9 ,moresby1 namely1 t ) v few exceptions1 none ( ! coral-knolls )9 ! lagoons ( ,p]os ,banhos1 ,diego ,g>cia1 & ! ,great ,*agos ,bank 7all situat$ 9 ! ,*agos gr\p71 rise to ! surface ( ! wat]2 :]eas all ^?1 ) equally few exceptions1 )9 ,solomon & ,egmont atolls 9 ! same gr\p1 & likewise )9 ! l>ge s\!rn ,maldiva atolls1 rea* ! surface4 ,i make ^! /atem5ts1 aft] hav+ exam9$ ! *>ts ( ea* atoll4 ,9 ! lagoon ( ,p]os ,banhos1 :i* is ne>ly tw5ty miles across1 !re is only "o s+le reef :i* rises to ! surface2 9 ,diego ,g>cia !re are sev51 b sev]al ( ^! lie close to ! m>g9 ( ! lagoon1 & ne$ sc>cely h be5 reckon$2 9 ! ,great ,*agos ,bank !re is n "o4 ,on ! o!r h&1 9 ! lagoons ( "s ( ! great s\!rn ,maldiva atolls1 al?\gh ?ickly /udd$ ) reefs1 e "o )\t exception rises to ! surface2 & on an av]age !re are less ?an two subm]g$ reefs 9 ea* atoll2 9 ! nor!rn atolls1 h[ev]1 ! subm]g$ lagoon-reefs are n q s r>e4 ,! subm]g$ reefs 9 ! ,*agos atolls g5]ally h f "o to sev5 fa?oms wat] on !m1 b "s h f sev5 to t54 ,mo/ ( !m are small ) v /eep sides2#ae at ,p]os ,banhos !y rise f a dep? ( ab\t ?irty fa?oms1 & "s ( !m 9 ! ,great ,*agos ,bank f above =ty fa?oms2 !y are cov]$1 ,capta9 ,moresby in=ms me1 ) liv+ & heal?y coral1 two & ?ree feet high1 consi/+ ( sev]al species4 ,:y !n h n ^! lagoon-reefs rea*$ ! surface1 l ! innum]able ones 9 ! atolls above nam$8 ,if we attempt to assign any diff]5ce 9 _! ext]nal conditions1 z ! cause ( ?is div]sity1 we are at once baffl$4 ,! lagoon ( ,diego ,g>cia is n deep1 & is almo/ :olly surr\nd$ by its reef2 ,p]os ,banhos is v deep1 mu* l>g]1 ) _m wide passages communicat+ ) ! op5 sea4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ( ^? atolls1 9 :i* all or ne>ly all ! lagoon-reefs h rea*$ ! surface1 "s are small1 o!rs l>ge1 "s %all[1 o!rs deep1 "s well-enclos$1 & o!rs op54 #ae ,"s ( ^! /atem5ts 7 n communicat$ to me v]bally by ,capta9 ,moresby1 b are tak5 f ! ,,ms4 acc\nt be=e allud$ to1 ( ! ,*agos ,gr\p4 ,capta9 ,moresby in=ms me t he has se5 a ,fr5* *>t ( ,diego ,g>cia made eighty ye>s be=e 8 survey1 & app>5tly v accurate2 & f x he inf]s1 t dur+ ?is int]val !re has n be5 ! smalle/ *ange 9 ! dep? on any ( ! knolls )9 ! lagoon4 ,x is also kn[n t dur+ ! la/ fifty-"o ye>s1 ! ea/]n *annel into ! lagoon has nei!r become n>r[]1 nor decreas$ 9 dep?2 & z !re are num]\s small knolls ( liv+ coral )9 x1 "s *ange might h be5 anticipat$4 ,moreov]1 z ! :ole reef r\nd ! lagoon ( ?is atoll has be5 conv]t$ into l&--an unp>allel$ case1 ,i believe1 9 an atoll ( su* l>ge size1--& z ! /rip ( l& is = consid]able spaces m ?an half a mile wide--also a v unusual circum/ance1--we h ! be/ possible evid5ce1 t ,diego ,g>cia has rema9$ at its pres5t level = a v long p]iod4 ,) ?is fact1 & ) ! k t no s5sible *ange has tak5 place dur+ eighty ye>s 9 ! coral-knolls1 & consid]+ t e s+le reef has rea*$ ! surface 9 o!r atolls1 :i* d n pres5t ! smalle/ appe>ance ( be+ old] ?an ,diego ,g>cia & ,p]os ,banhos1 & :i* are plac$ "u ! same ext]nal conditions ) !m1 "o is l$ to conclude t ^! subm]g$ reefs1 al?\gh cov]$ ) luxuriant coral1 h no t5d5cy to gr[ upw>ds1 & t !y w\ld rema9 at _! pres5t levels = an almo/ indef9ite p]iod4 ,f ! numb] ( ^! knolls1 f _! position1 size1 & =m1 _m ( !m be+ only "o or two hundr$ y>ds across1 ) a r\nd$ outl9e1 & precipit\s sides1--x is indisputable t !y h be5 =m$ by ! gr[? ( coral2 & ?is makes ! case mu* m rem>kable4 ,9 ,p]os ,banhos & 9 ! ,great ,*agos ,bank1 "s ( ^! almo/ column> masses are #bjj feet high1 & _! summits lie only f two to eight fa?oms b5ea? ! surface2 !re=e1 a small proportional am\nt m ( gr[? w\ld cause !m to atta9 ! surface1 l ^? num]\s knolls1 :i* rise f an equally great dep? )9 ! ,maldiva atolls4 ,we c h>dly suppose t "t has be5 want+ = ! upw>d gr[? ( ! coral1 :il/ 9 ,diego ,g>cia1 ! broad annul> /rip ( l&1 =m$ by ! cont9u$ accumulation ( detritus1 %[s h[ long ?is atoll has rema9$ at its pres5t level4 ,we mu/ look to "s o!r cause ?an ! rate ( gr[?2 & ,i suspect x w be f\nd 9 ! reefs be+ =m$ ( diff]5t species ( corals1 adapt$ to live at diff]5t dep?s4 ,! ,great ,*agos ,bank is situat$ 9 ! c5tre ( ! ,*agos ,gr\p1 & ! ,pitt & ,speak] ,banks at its two extreme po9ts4 ,^! banks resemble atolls1 except 9 _! ext]nal rim be+ ab\t eight fa?oms subm]g$1 & 9 be+ =m$ ( dead rock1 ) v little liv+ coral on x3 a portion n9e miles long ( ! annul> reef ( ,p]os ,banhos atoll is 9 ! same condition4 ,^! facts1 z w h]eaft] be %[n1 r5d] x v probable t ! :ole gr\p at "s =m] p]iod subsid$ sev5 or eight fa?oms2 & t ! coral p]i%$ on ! out] m>g9 ( ^? atolls :i* are n[ subm]g$1 b t x cont9u$ alive1 & grew up to ! surface on ^? :i* are n[ p]fect4 ,if ^! atolls did subside1 & if f ! sudd5ness ( ! movem5t or f any o!r cause1 ^? corals :i* are bett] adapt$ to live at a c]ta9 dep? ?an at ! surface1 once got possession ( ! knolls1 supplant+ ! =m] occupants1 !y w\ld ex]t little or no t5d5cy to gr[ upw>ds4 ,to illu/rate ?is1 ,i may obs]ve1 t if ! corals ( ! upp] zone on ! out] edge ( ,keel+ atoll 7 to p]i%1 x is improbable t ^? ( ! l[] zone w\ld gr[ to ! surface1 & ?us become expos$ to conditions = :i* !y d n appe> to be adapt$4 ,! conjecture1 t ! corals on ! subm]g$ knolls )9 ! ,*agos atolls h analog\s habits ) ^? ( ! l[] zone outside ,keel+ atoll1 receives "s support f a rem>k by ,capta9 ,moresby1 namely1 t !y h a diff]5t appe>ance f ^? on ! reefs 9 ! ,maldiva atolls1 :i*1 z we h se51 all rise to ! surface3 he comp>es ! k9d ( diff]5ce to t ( ! vegetation "u diff]5t climates4 ,i h ent]$ at consid]able l5g? into ?is case1 al?\gh unable to ?r[ mu* light on x1 9 ord] to %[ t an equal t5d5cy to upw>d gr[? ought n to be attribut$ to all coral-reefs1--to ^? situat$ at diff]5t dep?s1--to ^? =m+ ! r+ ( an atoll or ^? on ! knolls )9 a lagoon1--to ^? 9 "o area & ^? 9 ano!r4 ,! inf]5ce1 !re=e1 t "o reef c\ld n gr[ up to ! surface )9 a giv5 "t1 because ano!r1 n kn[n to be cov]$ ) ! same species ( corals1 & n kn[n to be plac$ "u conditions exactly ! same1 has n )9 ! same "t rea*$ ! surface1 is uns\nd4 ,section ,,ii--,,on ,,! ,,rate ,,( ,,gr[? ,,( ,,coral-,,reefs ,! rem>k made at ! close ( ! la/ section1 naturally leads to ?is division ( our subject1 :i* has n1 ,i ?9k1 hi!rto be5 consid]$ "u a "r po9t ( view4 ,ehr5b]g#af has /at$1 t 9 ! ,r$ ,sea1 ! corals only coat o!r rocks 9 a lay] f "o to two feet 9 ?ickness1 or at mo/ to a fa?om & a half2 & he disbelieves t1 9 any case1 !y =m1 by _! own prop] gr[?1 great masses1 /ratum ov] /ratum4 ,a ne>ly simil> obs]vation has be5 made by ,,mm4 ,quoy & ,gaim>d1#ag ) respect to ! ?ickness ( "s uprais$ b$s ( coral1 :i* !y exam9$ at ,timor & "s o!r places4 ,ehr5b]g#ah saw c]ta9 l>ge massive corals 9 ! ,r$ ,sea1 :i* he imag9es to be ( su* va/ antiquity1 t !y might h be5 beheld by ,ph>aoh2 & accord+ to ,mr4 ,lyell#ai !re are c]ta9 corals at ,b]muda1 :i* are kn[n by tradition1 to h be5 liv+ = c5turies4 ,to %[ h[ sl[ly coral-reefs gr[ upw>ds1 ,capta9 ,bee*ey#bj has adduc$ ! case ( ! ,dolph9 ,reef (f ,tahiti1 :i* has rema9$ at ! same dep? b5ea? ! surface1 namely ab\t two fa?oms & a half1 = a p]iod ( sixty-sev5 ye>s4 ,!re are reefs 9 ! ,r$ ,sea1 :i* c]ta9ly d n appe>#ba to h increas$ 9 dim5sions dur+ ! la/ half-c5tury1 & f ! comp>ison ( old *>ts ) rec5t surveys1 probably n dur+ ! la/ two hundr$ ye>s4 ,^!1 & o!r simil> facts1 h s /rongly impress$ _m ) ! belief ( ! extreme sl[ness ( ! gr[? ( corals1 t !y h ev5 d\bt$ ! possibility ( isl&s 9 ! great oceans hav+ be5 =m$ by _! ag5cy4 ,o!rs1 aga91 :o h n be5 ov]:elm$ by ?is difficulty1 h admitt$ t x w\ld require ?\s&s1 & t5s ( ?\s&s ( ye>s1 to =m a mass1 ev5 ( inconsid]able ?ickness2 b ! subject has n1 ,i believe1 be5 view$ 9 ! prop] light4 #af ,ehr5b]g1 z be=e cit$1 pp4 #ci1 #df1 & #ej4 #ag 8,annales des ,sci5ces ,nat40 tom4 vi1 p4 #bh4 #ah ,ehr5b]g1 ut sup41 p4 #db4 #ai ,lyell's 8,pr9ciples ( ,geology10 book iii1 *4 xviii4 #bj ,bee*ey's 8,voyage to ! ,pacific10 *4 viii4 #ba ,ehr5b]g1 ut sup41 p4 #dc4 ,t masses ( consid]able ?ickness h be5 =m$ by ! gr[? ( coral1 may be inf]r$ ) c]ta9ty f ! foll[+ facts4 ,9 ! deep lagoons ( ,p]os ,banhos & ( ! ,great ,*agos ,bank1 !re are1 z already describ$1 small /eep-sid$ knolls cov]$ ) liv+ coral4 ,!re are simil> knolls 9 ! s\!rn ,maldiva atolls1 "s ( :i*1 z ,capta9 ,moresby assures me1 are less ?an a hundr$ y>ds 9 diamet]1 & rise to ! surface f a dep? ( betwe5 two hundr$ & fifty & ?ree hundr$ feet4 ,consid]+ _! numb]1 =m1 & position1 x w\ld be prepo/]\s to suppose t !y are bas$ on p9nacles ( any rock1 n ( coral =mation2 or t s$im5t c\ld h be5 heap$ up into su* small & /eep isolat$ cones4 ,z no k9d ( liv+ coral gr[s above ! height ( a few feet1 we are compell$ to suppose t ^! knolls h be5 =m$ by ! successive gr[? & dea? ( _m individuals1--fir/ "o be+ brok5 (f or kill$ by "s accid5t1 & !n ano!r1 & "o set ( species be+ replac$ by ano!r set ) diff]5t habits1 z ! reef rose ne>] ! surface1 or z o!r *anges sup]v5$4 ,! spaces betwe5 ! corals w\ld become fill$ up ) fragm5ts & s&1 & su* matt] w\ld probably soon be consolidat$1 = we le>n f ,lieut5ant ,nelson1#bb t at ,b]muda a process ( ?is k9d takes place b5ea? wat]1 )\t ! aid ( evaporation4 ,9 reefs1 also1 ( ! b>ri] class1 we may feel sure1 z ,i h %[n1 t masses ( great ?ickness h be5 =m$ by ! gr[? ( ! coral2 9 ! case ( ,vanikoro1 judg+ only f ! dep? ( ! moat betwe5 ! l& & ! reef1 ! wall ( coral-rock mu/ be at lea/ ?ree hundr$ feet 9 v]tical ?ickness4 #bb 8,geological ,transactions10 vol4 v1 p4 #aac4 ,x is un=tunate t ! uprais$ coral-isl&s 9 ! ,pacific h n be5 exam9$ by a geologi/4 ,! cliffs ( ,elizabe? ,isl&1 9 ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago1 are eighty feet high1 & appe>1 f ,capta9 ,bee*ey's description1 to consi/ ( a homog5e\s coral-rock4 ,f ! isolat$ position ( ?is isl&1 we may safely inf] t x is an uprais$ atoll1 & !re=e t x has be5 =m$ by masses ( coral1 gr[n toge!r4 ,savage ,isl& seems1 f ! description ( ! y\ng] ,=/]1#bc to h a simil> /ructure1 & its %ores are ab\t =ty feet high3 "s ( ! ,cook ,isl&s also appe>#bd to be simil>ly compos$4 ,capta9 ,bel*]1 ,r4,n41 9 a lett] :i* ,capta9 ,beau=t %[$ me at ! admiralty1 speak+ ( ,b[ atoll1 says1 8,i h succe$$ 9 bor+ =ty-five feet ?r\gh coral-s&1 :5 ! aug] became jamm$ by ! fall+ 9 ( ! surr\nd+ creamy matt]40 ,on "o ( ! ,maldiva atolls1 ,capta9 ,moresby bor$ to a dep? ( tw5ty-six feet1 :5 8 aug] also broke3 he has _h ! k9dness to give me ! matt] br\ght up2 x is p]fectly :ite1 & l f9ely triturat$ coral-rock4 #bc ,=/]'s 8,voyage r\nd ! ,_w ) ,cook10 vol4 ii1 pp4 #afc1 #afg4 #bd ,williams's 8,n>rative ( ,mission>y ,ent]prise10 p4 #cj4 ,9 my description ( ,keel+ atoll1 ,i h giv5 "s facts1 :i* %[ t ! reef probably has gr[n outw>ds2 & ,i h f\nd1 j )9 ! out] m>g91 ! great m\nds ( ,porites & ( ,millepora1 ) _! summits lately kill$1 & _! sides subsequ5tly ?ick5$ by ! gr[? ( ! coral3 a lay]1 also1 ( ,nullipora _h already coat$ ! dead surface4 ,z ! ext]nal slope ( ! reef is ! same r\nd ! :ole ( ?is atoll1 & r\nd _m o!r atolls1 ! angle ( incl9ation mu/ result f an adaption betwe5 ! gr[+ p[]s ( ! coral1 & ! =ce ( ! break]s1 & _! action on ! loose s$im5t4 ,! reef1 !re=e1 c\ld n increase outw>ds1 )\t a ne>ly equal addition to e "p ( ! slope1 s t ! orig9al incl9ation might be pres]v$1 & ?is w\ld require a l>ge am\nt ( s$im5t1 all d]iv$ f ! we> ( corals & %ells1 to be add$ to ! l[] "p4 ,moreov]1 at ,keel+ atoll1 & probably 9 _m o!r cases1 ! diff]5t k9ds ( corals w\ld h to encroa* on ea* o!r2 ?us ! ,nullipor _c increase outw>ds )\t encroa*+ on ! ,porites & ,millepora complanata1 z is n[ tak+ place2 nor ^! latt] )\t encroa*+ on ! /rongly bran*$ ,madreporet1 ! ,millepora alcicornis1 & "s ,a/rz2 nor ^! aga9 )\t a f\ndation be+ =m$ = !m )9 ! requisite dep?1 by ! accumulation ( s$im5t4 ,h[ sl[1 !n1 mu/ be ! ord9>y lat]al or outw>d gr[? ( su* reefs4 ,b (f ,*ri/mas atoll1 :]e ! sea is mu* m %all[ ?an is usual1 we h good reason to believe t1 )9 a p]iod n v remote1 ! reef has increas$ consid]ably 9 wid?4 ,! l& has ! extraord9>y bread? ( ?ree miles2 x consi/s ( p>allel ridges ( %ells & brok5 corals1 :i* furni% 8an inconte/able pro(10 z obs]v$ by ,cook1#be 8t ! isl& has be5 produc$ by accessions f ! sea1 & is 9 a /ate ( increase40 ,! l& is front$ by a coral-reef1 & f ! mann] 9 :i* islets are kn[n to be =m$1 we may feel confid5t t ! reef 0 n ?ree miles wide1 :5 ! fir/1 or mo/ backw>d ridge1 0 ?r[n up2 &1 !re=e1 we mu/ conclude t ! reef has gr[n outw>ds dur+ ! accumulation ( ! successive ridges4 ,"h !n1 a wall ( coral-rock ( v consid]able bread? has be5 =m$ by ! outw>d gr[? ( ! liv+ m>g91 )9 a p]iod dur+ :i* ridges ( %ells & corals1 ly+ on ! b>e surface1 h n decay$4 ,!re c be little d\bt1 f ! acc\nt giv5 by ,capta9 ,bee*ey1 t ,matilda atoll1 9 ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago1 has be5 conv]t$ 9 ! space ( ?irty-f\r ye>s1 f be+1 z describ$ by ! crew ( a wreck$ :al+ vessel1 a 8reef ( rocks0 into a lagoon-isl&1 f\rte5 miles 9 l5g?1 ) 8"o ( its sides cov]$ ne>ly ! :ole way ) high trees40#bf ,! islets1 also1 on ,keel+ atoll1 x has be5 %[n1 h increas$ 9 l5g?1 & s9ce ! con/ruction ( an old *>t1 sev]al ( !m h become unit$ into "o long islet2 b 9 ?is case1 & 9 t ( ,matilda atoll1 we h no pro(1 & c only inf] z probable1 t ! reef1 t is ! f\ndation ( ! islets1 has increas$ z well z ! islets !mselves4 #be ,cook's 8,?ird ,voyage10 book ,,iii1 *4 x4 #bf ,bee*ey's 8,voyage to ! ,pacific10 *4 vii & viii4 ,aft] ^! consid]ations1 ,i atta* little importance1 z indicat+ ! ord9>y & /ill less ! possible rate ( outw>d gr[? ( coral-reefs1 to ! fact t c]ta9 reefs 9 ! ,r$ ,sea h n increas$ dur+ a long int]val ( "t2 or to o!r su* cases1 z t ( ,oulu?y atoll 9 ! ,c>ol9e gr\p1 :]e e islet1 describ$ a ?\s& ye>s be=e by ,cantova 0 f\nd 9 ! same /ate by ,lutk1#bg--)\t x c\ld be %[n t1 9 ^! cases1 ! conditions 7 fav\rable to ! vigor\s & unoppos$ gr[? ( ! corals liv+ 9 ! diff]5t zones ( dep?1 & t a prop] basis = ! ext5t ( ! reef 0 pres5t4 ,! =m] conditions mu/ dep5d on _m cont+5cies1 & 9 ! deep oceans :]e coral =mations mo/ ab\nd1 a basis )9 ! requisite dep? c r>ely be pres5t4 #bg ,f4 ,lutk's 8,voyage aut\r du ,monde40 ,9 ! gr\p ,elato1 h[ev]1 x appe>s t :at is n[ ! islet ,falipi1 is call$ 9 ,cantova's ,*>t1 ! ,banc de ,falipi4 ,x is n /at$ :e!r ?is has be5 caus$ by ! gr[? ( coral1 or by ! accumulation ( s&4 ,nor d ,i atta* any importance to ! fact ( c]ta9 subm]g$ reefs1 z ^? (f ,tahiti1 or ^? )9 ,diego ,g>cia n n[ be+ ne>] ! surface ?an !y 7 _m ye>s ago1 z an indication ( ! rate "u fav\rable circum/ances ( ! upw>d gr[? ( reefs2 aft] x has be5 %[n1 t all ! reefs h gr[n to ! surface 9 "s ( ! ,*agos atolls1 b t 9 neighb\r+ atolls :i* appe> to be ( equal antiquity & to be expos$ to ! same ext]nal conditions1 e reef rema9s subm]g$2 = we are almo/ driv5 to attribute ?is to a diff]5ce1 n 9 ! rate ( gr[?1 b 9 ! habits ( ! corals 9 ! two cases4 ,9 an old-/&+ reef1 ! corals1 :i* are s diff]5t 9 k9d on diff]5t p>ts ( x1 are probably all adapt$ to ! /ations !y occupy1 & hold _! places1 l o!r organic be+s1 by a /ruggle "o ) ano!r1 & ) ext]nal nature2 h5ce we may inf] t _! gr[? w\ld g5]ally be sl[1 except "u peculi>ly fav\rable circum/ances4 ,almo/ ! only natural condition1 all[+ a quick upw>d gr[? ( ! :ole surface ( a reef1 w\ld be a sl[ subsid5ce ( ! area 9 :i* x /ood2 if1 = in/ance1 ,keel+ atoll 7 to subside two or ?ree feet1 c we d\bt t ! project+ m>g9 ( live coral1 ab\t half an in* 9 ?ickness1 :i* surr\nds ! dead upp] surfaces ( ! m\nds ( ,porites1 w\ld 9 ?is case =m a conc5tric lay] ov] !m1 & ! reef ?us increase upw>ds1 in/ead (1 z at pres5t1 outw>ds8 ,! ,nullipor are n[ encroa*+ on ! ,porites & ,millepora1 b 9 ?is case might we n confid5tly expect t ! latt] w\ld1 9 _! turn1 encroa* on ! ,nullipor8 ,aft] a subsid5ce ( ?is k9d1 ! sea w\ld ga9 on ! islets1 & ! great fields ( dead b upright corals 9 ! lagoon1 w\ld be cov]$ by a %eet ( cle> wat]2 & might we n !n expect t ^! reefs w\ld rise to ! surface1 z !y anci5tly did :5 ! lagoon 0 less conf9$ by islets1 & z !y did )9 a p]iod ( t5 ye>s 9 ! s*oon]-*annel1 cut by ! inhabitants8 ,9 "o ( ! ,maldiva atolls1 a reef1 :i* )9 a v few ye>s exi/$ z an islet be>+ cocoa-nut trees1 0 f\nd by ,lieut5ant ,pr5tice 8entirely cov]$ ) live coral & ,madrepore40 ,! natives believe t ! islet 0 wa%$ away by a *ange 9 ! curr5ts1 b if1 in/ead ( ?is1 x _h quietly subsid$1 surely e "p ( ! isl& :i* (f]$ a solid f\ndation1 w\ld 9 a l mann] h become coat$ ) liv+ coral4 ,?r\gh /eps su* z ^!1 any ?ickness ( rock1 compos$ ( a s+ul> int]mixture ( v>i\s k9ds ( corals1 %ells1 & calc>e\s s$im5t1 might be =m$2 b )\t subsid5ce1 ! ?ickness w\ld necess>ily be det]m9$ by ! dep? at :i* ! reef-build+ polypif]s c exi/4 ,if x be ask$1 at :at rate 9 ye>s ,i suppose a reef ( coral fav\rably circum/anc$ c\ld gr[ up f a giv5 dep?2 ,i %\ld answ]1 t we h no precise evid5ce on ?is po9t1 & comp>atively little conc]n ) x4 ,we see1 9 innum]able po9ts ov] wide areas1 t ! rate has be5 suffici5t1 ei!r to br+ up ! reefs f v>i\s dep?s to ! surface1 or1 z is m probable1 to keep !m at ! surface1 dur+ progressive subsid5ces2 & ?is is a mu* m important /&>d ( comp>ison ?an any cycle ( ye>s4 ,x may1 h[ev]1 be inf]r$ f ! foll[+ facts1 t ! rate 9 ye>s "u fav\rable circum/ances w\ld be v f> f sl[4 ,dr4 ,allan1 ( ,=res1 has1 9 8 ,,ms4 ,!sis deposit$ 9 ! libr>y ( ! ,ed9burgh ,univ]sity 7extracts f :i* ,i owe to ! k9dness ( ,dr4 ,malcolmson71 ! foll[+ acc\nt ( "s exp]im5ts1 :i* he tri$ dur+ 8 travels 9 ! ye>s #ahcj to #ahcb on ! ea/ coa/ ( ,madagasc>4 8,to asc]ta9 ! rise & progress ( ! coral-family1 & fix ! numb] ( species met ) at ,f\l ,po9t 7latitude #ag #dj7 tw5ty species ( coral 7 tak5 (f ! reef & plant$ ap>t on a s&-bank ?ree feet deep at l[ wat]4 ,ea* portion weigh$ t5 p\nds1 & 0 kept 9 its place by /akes4 ,simil> quantities 7 plac$ 9 a clump & secur$ z ! re/4 ,?is 0 done 9 ,decemb] #ahcj4 ,9 ,july foll[+1 ea* deta*$ mass 0 ne>ly level ) ! sea at l[ wat]1 q immovable1 & sev]al feet long1 /ret*+ z ! p>5t reef1 ) ! coa/ curr5t f nor? to s\?4 ,! masses accumulat$ 9 a clump 7 f\nd equally increas$1 b "s ( ! species 9 su* unequal ratios1 z to be gr[+ ov] ea* o!r40 ,! loss ( ,dr4 ,allan's magnific5t collection by %ipwreck1 un=tunately prev5ts its be+ kn[n to :at g5]a ^! corals belong$2 b f ! numb]s exp]im5t$ on1 x is c]ta9 t all ! m conspicu\s k9ds mu/ h be5 includ$4 ,dr4 ,allan in=ms me1 9 a lett]1 t he believes x 0 a ,madrepora1 :i* grew mo/ vigor\sly4 ,"o may be p]mitt$ to suspect t ! level ( ! sea might possibly h be5 some:at diff]5t at ! two /at$ p]iods2 nev]!less1 x is q evid5t t ! gr[? ( ! t5-p\nd masses1 dur+ ! six or sev5 mon?s1 at ! end ( :i* !y 7 f\nd immovably fix$#bh & sev]al feet 9 l5g?1 mu/ h be5 v great4 ,! fact ( ! diff]5t k9ds ( coral1 :5 plac$ 9 "o clump1 hav+ increas$ 9 extremely unequal ratios1 is v int]e/+1 z x %[s ! mann] 9 :i* a reef1 support+ _m species ( coral1 w\ld probably be affect$ by a *ange 9 ! ext]nal conditions fav\r+ "o k9d m ?an ano!r4 ,! gr[? ( ! masses ( coral 9 ,n4 & ,s4 l9es p>allel to ! prevail+ curr5ts1 :e!r due to ! drift+ ( s$im5t or to ! simple movem5t ( ! wat]1 is1 also1 a v int]e/+ circum/ance4 #bh ,x is /at$ by ,de la ,be*e 78,geological ,manual10 p4 #adc71 on ! au?ority ( ,mr4 ,lloyd1 :o survey$ ! ,i/hmus ( ,panama1 t "s specim5s ( ,polypif]s1 plac$ by him 9 a %elt]$ pool ( wat]1 7 f\nd 9 ! c\rse ( a few days firmly fix$ by ! secretion ( a /ony matt]1 to ! bottom4 ,a fact1 communicat$ to me by ,lieut5ant ,well/ead1 ,i4,n41 9 "s degree corroborates ! result ( ,dr4 ,allan's exp]im5ts3 x is1 t 9 ! ,p]sian ,gulf a %ip _h h] copp] bottom encru/$ 9 ! c\rse ( tw5ty mon?s ) a lay] ( coral1 two feet 9 ?ickness1 :i* x requir$ great =ce to remove1 :5 ! vessel 0 dock$3 x 0 n asc]ta9$ to :at ord] ?is coral belong$4 ,! case ( ! s*oon]-*annel *ok$ up ) coral 9 an int]val ( less ?an t5 ye>s1 9 ! lagoon ( ,keel+ atoll1 %\ld be "h borne 9 m9d4 ,we may also inf]1 f ! tr\ble :i* ! inhabitants ( ! ,maldiva atolls take to root out1 z !y express x1 ! coral-knolls f _! h>b\rs1 t _! gr[? c h>dly be v sl[4#bi #bi ,mr4 ,/ut*bury 7,we/ ( ,engl& ,j\rnal1 ,no4 ,i1 p4 #ej47 has describ$ a specim5 ( ,ag>icia1 8weigh+ #b lbs4 #i oz41 :i* surr\nds a species ( oy/]1 ^: age c\ld n be m ?an two ye>s1 & yet is completely envelop$ by ?is d5se coral40 ,i presume t ! oy/] 0 liv+ :5 ! specim5 0 procur$2 o!rwise ! fact tells no?+4 ,mr4 ,/ut*bury also m5tions an an*or1 :i* _h become entirely encru/$ ) coral 9 fifty ye>s2 o!r cases1 h[ev]1 are record$ ( an*ors :i* h long rema9$ amid/ coral-reefs )\t hav+ become coat$4 ,! an*or ( ! ,beagle1 9 #ahcb1 aft] hav+ be5 d[n exactly "o mon? at ,rio de ,janeiro1 0 s ?ickly coat$ by two species ( ,tubul>ia1 t l>ge spaces ( ! iron 7 entirely conceal$2 ! tufts ( ?is horny zoophyte 7 betwe5 two & ?ree in*es 9 l5g?4 ,x has be5 attempt$ to compute1 b ,i believe errone\sly1 ! rate ( gr[? ( a reef1 f ! fact m5tion$ by ,capta9 ,bee*ey1 ( ! ,*ama gigas be+ emb$d$ 9 coral-rock4 ,b x %\ld be rememb]$1 t "s species ( ?is g5us inv>iably live1 bo? :il/ "y & old1 9 cavities1 :i* ! animal has ! p[] ( enl>g+ ) its gr[?4 ,i saw _m ( ^! %ells ?us emb$d$ 9 ! out] 8flat0 ( ,keel+ atoll1 :i* is compos$ ( dead rock2 & !re=e ! cavities 9 ?is case _h no relation :atev] ) ! gr[? ( coral4 ,m4 ,lesson1 also1 speak+ ( ?is %ell 7,p>tie ,zoolog4 8,voyage de la ,coquille071 has rem>k$1 8que con/amm5t ses valves tai5t engags compltem5t dans la masse des ,madrepores40 ,f ! facts giv5 9 ?is section1 x may be conclud$1 fir/1 t consid]able ?icknesses ( rock h c]ta9ly be5 =m$ )9 ! pres5t geological area by ! gr[? ( coral & ! accumulation ( its detritus2 &1 secondly1 t ! increase ( individual corals & ( reefs1 bo? outw>ds or horizontally & upw>ds or v]tically1 "u ! peculi> conditions fav\rable to su* increase1 is n sl[1 :5 ref]r$ ei!r to ! /&>d ( ! av]age oscillations ( level 9 ! e>?'s cru/1 or to ! m precise b less important "o ( a cycle ( ye>s4 ,section ,,iii--,,on ,,! ,,dep?s ,,at ,,:i* ,,reef-,,build+ ,,polypif]s ,,c ,,live ,i h already describ$ 9 detail1 :i* might h appe>$ trivial1 ! nature ( ! bottom ( ! sea imm$iately surr\nd+ ,keel+ atoll2 & ,i w n[ describe ) almo/ equal c>e ! s\nd+s (f ! fr++-reefs ( ,mauritius4 ,i h pref]r$ ?is arrangem5t1 = ! sake ( gr\p+ toge!r facts ( a simil> nature4 ,i s\nd$ ) ! wide bell-%ap$ lead :i* ,capta9 ,fitzroy us$ at ,keel+ ,isl&1 b my exam9ation ( ! bottom 0 conf9$ to a few miles ( coa/ 7betwe5 ,port ,l\is & ,tomb ,bay7 on ! leew>d side ( ! isl&4 ,! edge ( ! reef is =m$ ( great %apeless masses ( bran*+ ,madrepores1 :i* *iefly consi/ ( two species1--app>5tly ,m4 corymbosa & pocillif]a1--m+l$ ) a few o!r k9ds ( coral4 ,^! masses are sep>at$ f ea* o!r by ! mo/ irregul> gullies & cavities1 into :i* ! lead s9ks _m feet4 ,outside ?is irregul> bord] ( ,madrepores1 ! wat] deep5s gradually to tw5ty fa?oms1 :i* dep? g5]ally is f\nd at ! di/ance ( f half to ?ree-qu>t]s ( a mile f ! reef4 ,a little fur!r out ! dep? is ?irty fa?oms1 & !nce ! bank slopes rapidly into ! dep?s ( ! ocean4 ,?is incl9ation is v g5tle comp>$ ) t outside ,keel+ & o!r atolls1 b comp>$ ) mo/ coa/s x is /eep4 ,! wat] 0 s cle> outside ! reef1 t ,i c\ld di/+ui% e object =m+ ! rugg$ bottom4 ,9 ?is "p1 & to a dep? ( eight fa?oms1 ,i s\nd$ repeat$ly1 & at ea* ca/ p\nd$ ! bottom ) ! broad lead1 nev]!less ! arm+ inv>iably came up p]fectly clean1 b deeply ind5t$4 ,f eight to fifte5 fa?oms a little calc>e\s s& 0 occasionally br\ght up1 b m frequ5tly ! arm+ 0 simply ind5t$4 ,9 all ?is space ! two ,madrepores above m5tion$1 & two species ( ,a/ra1 ) r l>ge#cj />s1 seem$ ! commone/ k9ds2 & x mu/ be notic$ t twice at ! dep? ( fifte5 fa?oms1 ! arm+ 0 m>k$ ) a clean impression ( an ,a/ra4 ,besides ^! li?ophytes1 "s fragm5ts ( ! ,millepora alcicornis1 :i* occurs 9 ! same relative position at ,keel+ ,isl&1 7 br\ght up2 & 9 ! deep] p>ts !re 7 l>ge b$s ( a ,s]iatopora1 diff]5t f ,s4 subulata1 b closely alli$ to x4 ,on ! bea* )9 ! reef1 ! roll$ fragm5ts consi/$ *iefly ( ! corals j m5tion$1 & ( a massive ,porites1 l t at ,keel+ atoll1 ( a ,me&r9a1 ,pocillopora v]rucosa1 & ( num]\s fragm5ts ( ,nullipora4 ,f fifte5 to tw5ty fa?oms ! bottom 01 ) few exceptions1 ei!r =m$ ( s&1 or ?ickly cov]$ ) ,s]iatopora3 ?is delicate coral seems to =m at ^! dep?s ext5sive b$s unm+l$ ) any o!r k9d4 ,at tw5ty fa?oms1 "o s\nd+ br\ght up a fragm5t ( ,madrepora app>5tly ,m4 pocillif]a1 & ,i believe x is ! same species 7= ,i neglect$ to br+ specim5s f bo? /ations7 :i* ma9ly =ms ! upp] m>g9 ( ! reef2 if s1 x gr[s 9 dep?s v>y+ f #j to #bj fa?oms4 ,betwe5 #bj & #bc fa?oms ,i obta9$ sev]al s\nd+s1 & !y all %[$ a s&y bottom1 ) "o exception at #cj fa?oms1 :5 ! arm+ came up scoop$ out1 z if by ! m>g9 ( a l>ge ,c>yophyllia4 ,beyond #cc fa?oms ,i s\nd$ only once2 & f #hf fa?oms1 at ! di/ance ( "o mile & a ?ird f ! edge ( ! reef1 ! arm+ br\ght up calc>e\s s& ) a pebble ( volcanic rock4 ,! circum/ance ( ! arm+ hav+ inv>iably come up q clean1 :5 s\nd+ )9 a c]ta9 numb] ( fa?oms (f ! reefs ( ,mauritius & ,keel+ atoll 7eight fa?oms 9 ! =m] case1 & twelve 9 ! latt]7 & ( its hav+ always come up 7) "o exception7 smoo!d & cov]$ ) s&1 :5 ! dep? exce$$ tw5ty fa?oms1 probably indicates a crit]ion1 by :i* ! limits ( ! vigor\s gr[? ( coral might 9 all cases be readily asc]ta9$4 ,i d n1 h[ev]1 suppose t if a va/ numb] ( s\nd+s 7 obta9$ r\nd ^! isl&s1 ! limit above assign$ w\ld be f\nd nev] to v>y1 b ,i conceive ! facts are suffici5t to %[1 t ! exceptions w\ld be few4 ,! circum/ance ( a gradual *ange1 9 ! two cases1 f a field ( clean coral to a smoo? s&y bottom1 is f> m important 9 indicat+ ! dep? at :i* ! l>g] k9ds ( coral fl\ri% ?an almo/ any numb] ( sep>ate obs]vations on ! dep?1 at :i* c]ta9 species h be5 dr$g$ up4 ,= we c und]/& ! gradation1 only z a prolong$ /ruggle aga9/ unfav\rable conditions4 ,if a p]son 7 to f9d ! soil clo!d ) turf on ! banks ( a /ream ( wat]1 b on go+ to "s di/ance on "o side ( x1 he obs]v$ ! blades ( grass gr[+ ?9n] & ?9n]1 ) int]v5+ pat*es ( s&1 until he ent]$ a des]t ( s&1 he w\ld safely conclude1 especially if *anges ( ! same k9d 7 notic$ 9 o!r places1 t ! pres5ce ( ! wat] 0 absolutely necess>y to ! =mation ( a ?ick b$ ( turf3 s may we conclude1 ) ! same feel+ ( c]ta9ty1 t ?ick b$s ( coral are =m$ only at small dep?s b5ea? ! surface ( ! sea4 #cj ,s9ce ! prec$+ pages 7 pr9t$ (f1 ,i h receiv$ f ,mr4 ,lyell a v int]e/+ pamphlet1 entitl$ 8,rem>ks ^u ,coral ,=mations10 etc41 by ,j4 ,c\?\y1 ,bo/on1 ,unit$ ,/ates1 #ahdb4 ,!re is a /atem5t 7p4 #f71 on ! au?ority ( ! ,rev4 ,j4 ,williams1 corroborat+ ! rem>ks made by ,ehr5b]g & ,lyell 7p4 #ga ( ?is volume71 on ! antiquity ( c]ta9 individual corals 9 ! ,r$ ,sea & at ,b]muda2 namely1 t at ,upolu1 "o ( ! ,navigator ,isl&s1 8p>ticul> clumps ( coral are kn[n to ! fi%]m5 by "n1 d]iv$ f ei!r "s p>ticul> configuration or tradition atta*$ to !m1 & h&$ d[n f "t immemorial40 ,) respect to ! ?ickness ( masses ( coral-rock1 x cle>ly appe>s1 f ! descriptions giv5 by ,mr4 ,c\?\y 7pp4 #cd1 #eh7 t ,mangaia & ,aurora ,isl&s are uprais$ atolls1 compos$ ( coral rock3 ! level summit ( ! =m] is ab\t ?ree hundr$ feet1 & t ( ,aurora ,isl& is two hundr$ feet above ! sea-level4 ,i h endeav\r$ to collect e fact1 :i* might ei!r invalidate or corroborate ?is conclusion4 ,capta9 ,moresby1 ^: opportunities = obs]vation dur+ 8 survey ( ! ,maldiva & ,*agos ,ar*ipelagoes h be5 unrivall$1 in=ms me1 t ! upp] "p or zone ( ! /eep-sid$ reefs1 on ! inn] & out] coa/s ( ! atolls 9 bo? gr\ps1 inv>iably consi/s ( coral1 & ! l[] p>ts ( s&4 ,at sev5 or eight fa?oms dep?1 ! bottom is =m$1 z c\ld be se5 ?r\gh ! cle> wat]1 ( great liv+ masses ( coral1 :i* at ab\t t5 fa?oms g5]ally /& "s way ap>t f ea* o!r1 ) pat*es ( :ite s& betwe5 !m1 & at a little great] dep? ^! pat*es become unit$ into a smoo? /eep slope1 )\t any coral4 ,capta9 ,moresby1 also1 in=ms me 9 support ( 8 /atem5t1 t he f\nd only decay$ coral on ! ,padua ,bank 7nor!rn "p ( ! ,laccadive gr\p7 :i* has an av]age dep? betwe5 tw5ty-five & ?irty-five fa?oms1 b t on "s o!r banks 9 ! same gr\p ) only t5 or twelve fa?oms wat] on !m 7= in/ance1 ! ,tillacap5i bank71 ! coral 0 liv+4 ,) reg>d to ! coral-reefs 9 ! ,r$ ,sea1 ,ehr5b]g has ! foll[+ passage3--8,! liv+ corals d n desc5d !re into great dep?s4 ,on ! edges ( islets & ne> reefs1 :]e ! dep? 0 small1 v _m liv$2 b we f\nd no m ev5 at six fa?oms4 ,! pe>l-fi%]s at ,yem5 & ,massaua ass]t$ t !re 0 no coral ne> ! pe>l-banks at n9e fa?oms dep?1 b only s&4 ,we 7 n able to in/itute any m special rese>*es40#ca ,i am1 h[ev]1 assur$ bo? by ,capta9 ,moresby & ,lieut5ant ,well/ead1 t 9 ! m nor!rn p>ts ( ! ,r$ ,sea1 !re are ext5sive b$s ( liv+ coral at a dep? ( tw5ty-five fa?oms1 9 :i* ! an*ors ( _! vessels 7 frequ5tly entangl$4 ,capta9 ,moresby attributes ! less dep?1 at :i* ! corals are able to live 9 ! places m5tion$ by ,ehr5b]g1 to ! great] quantity ( s$im5t !re2 & ! situations1 :]e !y 7 fl\ri%+ at ! dep? ( tw5ty-five fa?oms1 7 protect$1 & ! wat] 0 extraord9>ily limpid4 ,on ! leew>d side ( ,mauritius :]e ,i f\nd ! coral gr[+ at a some:at great] dep? ?an at ,keel+ atoll1 ! sea1 ow+ app>5tly to its tranquil /ate1 0 likewise v cle>4 ,)9 ! lagoons ( "s ( ! ,m>%all atolls1 :]e ! wat] c be b little agitat$1 !re are1 accord+ to ,kotzebue1 liv+ b$s ( coral 9 tw5ty-five fa?oms4 ,f ^! facts1 & consid]+ ! mann] 9 :i* ! b$s ( clean coral (f ,mauritius1 ,keel+ ,isl&1 ! ,maldiva & ,*agos atolls1 graduat$ into a s&y slope1 x appe>s v probable t ! dep?1 at :i* reef-build+ polypif]s c exi/1 is p>tly det]m9$ by ! ext5t ( incl9$ surface1 :i* ! curr5ts ( ! sea & ! recoil+ waves h ! p[] to keep free f s$im5t4 #ca ,ehr5b]g1 8b] die ,natur10 etc41 p4 #ej4 ,,mm4 ,quoy & ,gaim>d#cb believe t ! gr[? ( coral is conf9$ )9 v limit$ dep?s2 & !y /ate t !y nev] f\nd any fragm5t ( an ,a/ra 7! g5us !y consid] mo/ effici5t 9 =m+ reefs7 at a dep? above tw5ty-five or ?irty feet4 ,b we h se5 t 9 sev]al places ! bottom ( ! sea is pav$ ) massive corals at m ?an twice ?is dep?2 & at fifte5 fa?oms 7or twice ?is dep?7 (f ! reefs ( ,mauritius1 ! arm+ 0 m>k$ ) ! di/9ct impression ( a liv+ ,a/ra4 ,millepora alcicornis lives 9 f #j to #ab fa?oms1 & ! g5]a ,madrepora & ,s]iatopora f #j to #bj fa?oms4 ,capta9 ,moresby has giv5 me a specim5 ( ,sid]opora scabra 7,porites ( ,lam>ck7 br\ght up alive f #ag fa?oms4 ,mr4 ,c\?\y#cc /ates t he has dr$g$ up on ! ,bahama banks consid]able masses ( ,me&r9a f #af fa?oms1 & he has se5 ?is coral gr[+ 9 #bj fa?oms4 ,a ,c>yophyllia1 half an in* 9 diamet]1 0 dr$g$ up alive f #hj fa?oms (f ,juan ,f]n&ez 7latitude #cc ,s47 by ,capta9 ,p4 ,p4 ,k+3#cd ?is is ! mo/ rem>kable fact ) :i* ,i am acqua9t$1 %[+ ! dep? at :i* a g5us ( corals (t5 f\nd on reefs1 c exi/4#ce ,we ought1 h[ev]1 to feel less surprise at ?is fact1 z ,c>yophyllia alone ( ! lamelli=m g5]a1 ranges f> beyond ! tropics2 x is f\nd 9 ,zetl&#cf 9 ,lat4 #fj ,n4 9 deep wat]1 & ,i procur$ a small species f ,ti]ra del ,fuego 9 ,lat4 #ec ,s4 ,capta9 ,bee*ey in=ms me1 t bran*es ( p9k & yell[ coral 7 frequ5tly br\ght up f betwe5 tw5ty & tw5ty-five fa?oms (f ! ,l[ atolls2 & ,lieut5ant ,/okes1 writ+ to me f ! ,n4,w4 coa/ ( ,au/ralia1 says t a /rongly bran*$ coral 0 procur$ !re f ?irty fa?oms2 un=tunately x is n kn[n to :at g5]a ^! corals belong4 #cb 8,annales des ,sci4 ,nat40 tom4 vi4 #cc 8,rem>ks on ,coral ,=mations10 p4 #ab4 #cd ,i am indebt$ to ,mr4 ,/okes = hav+ k9dly communicat$ ?is fact to me1 toge!r ) mu* o!r valuable in=mation4 #ce ,i w record 9 ! =m ( a note all ! facts t ,i h be5 able to collect on ! dep?s1 bo? )9 & )\t ! tropics1 at :i* ^? corals & corall9es c live1 :i* !re is no reason to suppose ev] mat]ially aid 9 ! con/ruction ( a reef4 ,ellis 78,nat4 ,hi/4 ( ,corall9e10 p4 #if7 /ates t ,ombellul>ia 0 procur$ 9 latitude #gi ,n4 /ick+ to a l9e f ! dep? ( #bcf fa?oms2 h5ce ?is coral ei!r mu/ h be5 float+ loose1 or 0 entangl$ 9 /ray l9e at ! bottom4 ,(f ,keel+ atoll a comp\nd ,ascidia 7,sigill9a7 0 br\ght up f #ci fa?oms1 & a piece ( sponge1 app>5tly liv+1 f #gj1 & a fragm5t ( ,nullipora also app>5tly liv+ f #ib fa?oms4 ,at a great] dep? ?an #ij fa?oms (f ?is coral isl&1 ! bottom 0 ?ickly /rew$ ) jo9ts ( ,halim$a & small fragm5ts ( o!r ,nullipor1 b all dead4 ,capta9 ,b4 ,all51 ,r4,n41 in=ms me t 9 ! survey ( ! ,we/ ,indies x 0 notic$ t betwe5 ! dep? ( #aj & #bjj fa?oms1 ! s\nd+ lead v g5]ally came up coat$ ) ! dead jo9ts ( a ,halim$a1 ( :i* he %[$ me specim5s4 ,(f ,p]nambuco1 9 ,brazil1 9 ab\t twelve fa?oms1 ! bottom 0 cov]$ ) fragm5ts dead & alive ( a dull r$ ,nullipora1 & ,i inf] f ,r\ss9's *>t1 t a bottom ( ?is k9d ext5ds ov] a wide area4 ,on ! bea*1 )9 ! coral-reefs ( ,mauritius1 va/ quantities ( fragm5ts ( ,nullipor 7 pil$ up4 ,f ^! facts x appe>s1 t ^! simply organiz$ bodies are among/ ! mo/ abundant productions ( ! sea4 #cf ,flem+'s 8,briti% ,animals10 g5us ,c>yophyllia4 ,"n ( ,zoophyte ,dep? 9 ,fa?oms ,c\ntry & ,s4 ,latitude ,au?ority ,s]tul>ia #dj ,cape ,horn #ff 7,:]e none is giv51 ! obs]vation is my own47 ,cell>ia ,ditto ,ditto ,cell>ia4 ,a m9ute sc>let encru/$ species1 f\nd liv+ #aij ,keel+ ,atoll #ab ,cell>ia4 ,an alli$1 small /ony sub-g5]ic =m #dh ,s4 ,cruz ,riv] #ej ,a coral alli$ to ,v9cul>ia1 ) eight r[s ( cells #dj ,cape ,horn ,tubulipora1 ne> to ,t4 patima ,ditto ,ditto ,ditto #id ,ea/ ,*iloe #dc ,cellepora1 sev]al species1 & alli$ sub-g5]ic =ms #dj ,cape ,horn ,ditto #dj & #eg ,*onos ,ar*4 #de ,ditto #dh ,s4 ,cruz #ej ,es*>a #cj ,ti]ra del ,fuego #ec ,ditto #dh ,s4 ,cruz ,r4 #ej ,retepora #dj ,cape ,horn ,ditto #ajj ,c4 ,good ,hope #cd ,quoy & ,gaim>d1 ,ann4 ,sci54 ,nat41 t4 vi1 p4 #bhd4 ,millepora1 a /rong coral ) cyl9drical bran*es1 ( a p9k col\r1 abut two in*es high1 resembl+ 9 ! =m ( its orifices ,m4 asp]a ( ,lam>ck #id & #cj ,e4 ,*iloe #dc ,ti]ra del ,fuego #ec ,coralium #abj ,b>b>y #cc ,n4 ,peyssonel 9 pap] read to ,royal society ,may #ageb4 ,antipa!s #af ,*onos #de ,gorgonia 7or an alli$ =m7 #afj ,abrolhos on ! coa/ ( ,brazil #ah ,capt4 ,bee*ey in=m$ me ( ?is fact 9 a lett]4 ,al?\gh ! limit ( dep?1 at :i* ea* p>ticul> k9d ( coral ceases to exi/1 is f> f be+ accurately kn[n2 yet :5 we be> 9 m9d ! mann] 9 :i* ! clumps ( coral gradually became infrequ5t at ab\t ! same dep?1 & :olly disappe>$ at a great] dep? ?an tw5ty fa?oms1 on ! slope r\nd ,keel+ atoll1 on ! leew>d side ( ! ,mauritius1 & at r less dep?1 bo? )\t & )9 ! atolls ( ! ,maldiva & ,*agos ,ar*ipelagoes2 & :5 we "k t ! reefs r\nd ^! isl&s d n diff] f o!r coral =mations 9 _! =m & /ructure1 we may1 ,i ?9k1 conclude t 9 ord9>y cases1 reef- build+ polypif]s d n fl\ri% at great] dep?s ?an betwe5 tw5ty & ?irty fa?oms4 ,x has be5 argu$#cg t reefs may possibly rise f v great dep?s ?r\gh ! means ( small corals1 fir/ mak+ a plat=m = ! gr[? ( ! /rong] k9ds4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is an arbitr>y supposition3 x is n always rememb]$1 t 9 su* cases !re is an antagoni/ p[] 9 action1 namely1 ! decay ( organic bodies1 :5 n protect$ by a cov]+ ( s$im5t1 or by _! own rapid gr[?4 ,we h1 moreov]1 no "r to calculate on unlimit$ "t = ! accumulation ( small organic bodies into great masses4 ,e fact 9 geology proclaims t nei!r ! l&1 nor ! b$ ( ! sea reta9 = indef9ite p]iods ! same level4 ,z well might x be imag9$ t ! ,briti% ,seas w\ld 9 "t become *ok$ up ) b$s ( oy/]s1 or t ! num]\s small corall9es (f ! inhospitable %ores ( ,ti]ra del ,fuego w\ld 9 "t =m a solid & ext5sive coral-reef4 #cg ,j\rnal ( ! ,royal ,geographical ,society1 #ahca1 p4 #bah4 ,*apt] ,v ,,!ory ,,( ,,! ,,=mation ,,( ,,! ,,diff]5t ,,classes ,,( ,,coral-,,reefs ,! atolls ( ! l>g] ar*ipelagoes are n =m$ on subm]g$ crat]s1 or on banks ( s$im5t4--,imm5se areas int]sp]s$ ) atolls4--,_! subsid5ce4--,! effects ( /orms & e>?quakes on atolls4--,rec5t *anges 9 _! /ate4--,! orig9 ( b>ri]-reefs & ( atolls4--,_! relative =ms4--,! /ep-=m$ l$ges & walls r\nd ! %ores ( "s lagoons4--,! r+-=m$ reefs ( ! ,maldiva atolls4--,! subm]g$ condition ( p>ts or ( ! :ole ( "s annul> reefs4--,! dissev]m5t ( l>ge atolls4--,! union ( atolls by l9e> reefs4--,! ,great ,*agos ,bank4--,objections f ! area & am\nt ( subsid5ce requir$ by ! !ory1 consid]$4--,! probable composition ( ! l[] p>ts ( atolls4 ,! naturali/s :o h visit$ ! ,pacific1 seem to h _h _! att5tion rivet$ by ! lagoon-isl&s1 or atolls1--^? s+ul> r+s ( coral-l& :i* rise abruptly out ( ! unfa?omable ocean--& h pass$ ov]1 almo/ unnotic$1 ! sc>cely less wond]ful encircl+ b>ri]-reefs4 ,! !ory mo/ g5]ally receiv$ on ! =mation ( atolls1 is t !y are bas$ on subm>9e crat]s2 b :]e c we f9d a crat] ( ! %ape ( ,b[ atoll1 :i* is five times z long z x is broad 7,plate ,i1 ,fig4 #d72 or l t ( ,m5*ik(f ,isl& 7,plate ,,ii1 ,fig4 #c71 ) its ?ree loops1 toge!r sixty miles 9 l5g?2 or l ,rimsky ,korsac(f1 n>r[1 crook$1 & fifty-f\r miles long2 or l ! nor!rn ,maldiva atolls1 made up ( num]\s r+-=m$ reefs1 plac$ on ! m>g9 ( a disc1--"o ( :i* discs is eighty-eight miles 9 l5g?1 & only f t5 to tw5ty 9 bread?8 ,x is1 also1 n a little improbable1 t !re %\ld h exi/$ z _m crat]s ( imm5se size cr[d$ toge!r b5ea? ! sea1 z !re are n[ 9 "s p>ts atolls4 ,b ?is !ory lies "u a great] difficulty1 z w be evid5t1 :5 we consid] on :at f\ndations ! atolls ( ! l>g] ar*ipelagoes re/3 nev]!less1 if ! rim ( a crat] af=d$ a basis at ! prop] dep?1 ,i am f> f d5y+ t a reef l a p]fectly *>act]is$ atoll might n be =m$2 "s su*1 p]haps1 n[ exi/2 b ,i _c believe 9 ! possibility ( ! great] numb] hav+ ?us orig9at$4 ,an e>li] & bett] !ory 0 propos$ by ,*amisso2#a he supposes t z ! m massive k9ds ( corals pref] ! surf1 ! out] portions1 9 a reef ris+ f a subm>9e basis1 w\ld fir/ rea* ! surface & consequ5tly =m a r+4 ,b on ?is view x mu/ be assum$1 t 9 e case ! basis consi/s ( a flat bank2 = if x 7 conically =m$1 l a m\nta9\s mass1 we c see no reason :y ! coral %\ld spr+ up f ! flanks1 in/ead ( f ! c5tral & highe/ p>ts3 consid]+ ! numb] ( ! atolls 9 ! ,pacific & ,indian ,oceans1 ?is assumption is v improbable4 ,z ! lagoons ( atolls are sometimes ev5 m ?an =ty fa?oms deep1 x mu/1 also1 be assum$ on ?is view1 t at a dep? at :i* ! waves d n break1 ! coral gr[s m vigor\sly on ! edges ( a bank ?an on its c5tral "p2 & ?is is an assumption )\t any evid5ce 9 support ( x4 ,i rem>k$1 9 ! ?ird *apt]1 t a reef1 gr[+ on a deta*$ bank1 w\ld t5d to assume an atoll-l /ructure2 if1 !re=e1 corals 7 to gr[ up f a bank1 ) a level surface "s fa?oms subm]g$1 hav+ /eep sides & be+ situat$ 9 a deep sea1 a reef n to be di/+ui%$ f an atoll1 might be =m$3 ,i believe "s su* exi/ 9 ! ,we/ ,indies4 ,b a difficulty ( ! same k9d ) t affect+ ! crat] !ory1 runn]s1 z we %all pres5tly see1 ?is view inapplicable to ! great] numb] ( atolls4 #a ,kotzebue's 8,fir/ ,voyage10 vol4 iii1 p4 #cca4 ,no !ory wor?y ( notice has be5 advanc$ to acc\nt = ^? b>ri]-reefs1 :i* encircle isl&s ( mod]ate dim5sions4 ,! great reef :i* fronts ! coa/ ( ,au/ralia has be5 suppos$1 b )\t any special facts1 to re/ on ! edge ( a subm>9e precipice1 ext5d+ p>allel to ! %ore4 ,! orig9 ( ! ?ird class or ( fr++-reefs pres5ts1 ,i believe1 sc>cely any difficulty1 & is simply consequ5t on ! polypif]s n gr[+ up f great dep?s1 & _! n fl\ri%+ close to g5tly %elv+ bea*es :]e ! wat] is (t5 turbid4 ,:at cause1 !n1 has giv5 to atolls & b>ri]-reefs _! *>act]i/ic =ms8 ,let u see :e!r an important d$uction w n foll[ f ! consid]ation ( ^! two circum/ances1 fir/1 ! reef-build+ corals fl\ri%+ only at limit$ dep?s2 & secondly1 ! va/ness ( ! areas int]sp]s$ ) coral-reefs & coral-islets1 none ( :i* rise to a great] height above ! level ( ! sea1 ?an t atta9$ by matt] ?r[n up by ! waves & w9ds4 ,i d n make ?is latt] /atem5t vaguely2 ,i h c>efully s\ght = descriptions ( e isl& 9 ! int]tropical seas2 & my task has be5 9 "s degree abridg$ by a map ( ! ,pacific1 correct$ 9 #ahcd by ,,mm4 ,d',urville & ,lott91 9 :i* ! l[ isl&s are di/+ui%$ f ! high ones 7ev5 f ^? mu* less ?an a hundr$ feet 9 height7 by be+ writt5 )\t a capital lett]2 ,i h detect$ a few errors 9 ?is map1 respect+ ! height ( "s ( ! isl&s1 :i* w be notic$ 9 ! ,app5dix1 :]e ,i treat ( coral =mations 9 geographical ord]4 ,to ! ,app5dix1 also1 ,i mu/ ref] = a m p>ticul> acc\nt ( ! data on :i* ! /atem5ts on ! next page are gr\nd$4 ,i h asc]ta9$1 & *iefly f ! writ+s ( ,cook1 ,kotzebue1 ,bell+haus51 ,dup]rey1 ,bee*ey1 & ,lutk1 reg>d+ ! ,pacific2 & f ,moresby#b ) respect to ! ,indian ,ocean1 t 9 ! foll[+ cases ! t]m 8l[ isl&0 /rictly means l& ( ! height commonly atta9$ by matt] ?r[n up by ! w9ds & ! waves ( an op5 sea4 ,if we draw a l9e 7! plan ,i h always adopt$7 jo9+ ! ext]nal atolls ( t "p ( ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago 9 :i* ! isl&s are num]\s1 ! figure w be a po9t$ ellipse 7rea*+ f ,hood to ,laz>ef ,isl&71 ( :i* ! long] axis is #hdj geographical miles1 & ! %ort] #dbj miles2 9 ?is space#c none ( ! innum]able islets unit$ into great r+s rise above ! /at$ level4 ,! ,gilb]t gr\p is v n>r[1 & #cjj miles 9 l5g?4 ,9 a prolong$ l9e f ?is gr\p1 at ! di/ance ( #bdj miles1 is ! ,m>%all ,ar*ipelago1 ! figure ( :i* is an irregul> squ>e1 "o end be+ broad] ?an ! o!r2 its l5g? is #ebj miles1 ) an av]age wid? ( #bdj2 ^! two gr\ps toge!r are #a1jdj miles 9 l5g?1 & all _! islets are l[4 ,betwe5 ! s\!rn end ( ! ,gilb]t & ! nor!rn end ( ,l[ ,ar*ipelago1 ! ocean is ?9ly /rew$ ) isl&s1 all ( :i*1 z f> z ,i h be5 able to asc]ta91 are l[2 s t f ne>ly ! s\!rn end ( ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago1 to ! nor!rn end ( ! ,m>%all ,ar*ipelago1 !re is a n>r[ b& ( ocean1 m ?an #d1jjj miles 9 l5g?1 conta9+ a great numb] ( isl&s1 all ( :i* are l[4 ,9 ! we/]n "p ( ! ,c>ol9e ,ar*ipelago1 !re is a space ( #dhj miles 9 l5g?1 & ab\t #ajj broad1 ?9ly int]sp]s$ ) l[ isl&s4 ,la/ly1 9 ! ,indian ,ocean1 ! ar*ipelago ( ! ,maldivas is #dgj miles 9 l5g?1 & #fj 9 bread?2 t ( ! ,laccadives is #aej by #ajj miles2 z !re is a l[ isl& betwe5 ^! two gr\ps1 !y may be consid]$ z "o gr\p ( #a1jjj miles 9 l5g?4 ,to ?is may be add$ ! ,*agos gr\p ( l[ isl&s1 situat$ #bhj miles di/ant1 9 a l9e prolong$ f ! s\!rn extremity ( ! ,maldivas4 ,?is gr\p1 includ+ ! subm]g$ banks1 is #agj miles 9 l5g? & #hj 9 bread?4 ,s /rik+ is ! uni=mity 9 direction ( ^! ?ree ar*ipelagoes1 all ! isl&s ( :i* are l[1 t ,capta9 ,moresby1 9 "o ( 8 pap]s1 speaks ( !m z p>ts ( "o great *a91 ne>ly #a1ejj miles long4 ,i am1 !n1 fully ju/ifi$ 9 repeat+1 t enorm\s spaces1 bo? 9 ! ,pacific & ,indian ,oceans1 are int]sp]s$ ) isl&s1 ( :i* n "o rises above t height1 to :i* ! waves & w9ds 9 an op5 sea c heap up matt]4 ,on :at f\ndations1 !n1 h ^! reefs & islets ( coral be5 con/ruct$8 ,a f\ndation mu/ orig9ally h be5 pres5t b5ea? ea* atoll at t limit$ dep?1 :i* is indisp5sable = ! fir/ gr[? ( ! reef-build+ polypif]s4 ,a conjecture w p]haps be haz>d$1 t ! requisite bases might h be5 af=d$ by ! accumulation ( great banks ( s$im5t1 :i* ow+ to ! action ( sup]ficial curr5ts 7aid$ possibly by ! undulatory movem5t ( ! sea7 did n q rea* ! surface1--z actually appe>s to h be5 ! case 9 "s p>ts ( ! ,we/ ,indian ,sea4 ,b 9 ! =m & disposition ( ! gr\ps ( atolls1 !re is no?+ to c\nt5ance ?is notion2 & ! assumption )\t any pro(1 t a numb] ( imm5se piles ( s$im5t h be5 heap$ on ! floor ( ! great ,pacific & ,indian ,oceans1 9 _! c5tral p>ts f> remote f l&1 & :]e ! d>k blue col\r ( ! limpid wat] bespeaks its purity1 _c = "o mom5t be admitt$4 #b ,see also ,capta9 ,ow5's & ,lieut5ant ,wood's pap]s 9 ! ,geographical ,j\rnal1 on ! ,maldiva & ,laccadive ,ar*ipelagoes4 ,^! (fic]s p>ticul>ly ref] to ! l[ness ( ! islets2 b ,i *iefly gr\nd my ass]tion respect+ ^! two gr\ps1 & ! ,*agos gr\p1 f in=mation communicat$ to me by ,capta9 ,moresby4 #c ,i f9d f ,mr4 ,c\?\y's pamphlet 7p4 #eh7 t ,aurora ,isl& is ab\t two hundr$ feet 9 height2 x consi/s ( coral-rock1 & seems to h be5 =m$ by ! elevation ( an atoll4 ,x lies nor?-ea/ ( ,tahiti1 close )\t ! l9e b\nd+ ! space col\r$ d>k blue 9 ! map app5d$ to ?is volume4 ,hond5 ,isl&1 :i* is situat$ 9 ! extreme nor?-we/ "p ( ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago1 accord+ to measurem5ts made on bo>d ! ,beagle1 :il/ sail+ by1 is #aad feet f ! summit ( ! trees to ! wat]'s edge4 ,?is isl& appe>$ to resemble ! o!r atolls ( ! gr\p4 ,! _m widely-scatt]$ atolls mu/1 !re=e1 re/ on rocky bases4 ,b we _c believe t ! broad summit ( a m\nta9 lies buri$ at ! dep? ( a few fa?oms b5ea? e atoll1 & nev]!less ?r\gh\t ! imm5se areas above-nam$1 ) n "o po9t ( rock project+ above ! level ( ! sea2 = we may judge ) "s accuracy ( m\nta9s b5ea? ! sea1 by ^? on ! l&2 & :]e c we f9d a s+le *a9 sev]al hundr$ miles 9 l5g? & ( consid]able bread?1 mu* less sev]al su* *a9s1 ) _! _m broad summits atta9+ ! same height1 )9 f #abj to #ahj feet8 ,if ! data be ?\ght insuffici5t1 on :i* ,i h gr\nd$ my belief1 respect+ ! dep? at :i* ! reef-build+ polypif]s c exi/1 & x be assum$ t !y c fl\ri% at a dep? ( ev5 "o hundr$ fa?oms1 yet ! weight ( ! above argum5t is b little dim9i%$1 = x is almo/ equally improbable1 t z _m subm>9e m\nta9s1 z !re are l[ isl&s 9 ! sev]al great & widely sep>at$ areas above specifi$1 %\ld all rise )9 six hundr$ feet ( ! surface ( ! sea & n "o above x1 z t !y %\ld be ( ! same height )9 ! small] limit ( "o or two hundr$ feet4 ,s highly improbable is ?is supposition1 t we are compell$ to believe1 t ! bases ( ! _m atolls did nev] at any "o p]iod all lie subm]g$ )9 ! dep? ( a few fa?oms b5ea? ! surface1 b t !y 7 br\ght into ! requisite position or level1 "s at "o p]iod & "s at ano!r1 ?r\gh movem5ts 9 ! e>?'s cru/4 ,b ?is c\ld n h be5 effect$ by elevation1 = ! belief t po9ts s num]\s & s widely sep>at$ 7 successively uplift$ to a c]ta9 level1 b t n "o po9t 0 rais$ above t level1 is q z improbable z ! =m] supposition1 & inde$ diff]s little f x4 ,x w probably occur to ^? :o h read ,ehr5b]g's acc\nt ( ! ,reefs ( ! ,r$ ,sea1 t _m po9ts 9 ^! great areas may h be5 elevat$1 b t z soon z rais$1 ! protub]ant p>ts 7 cut (f by ! de/roy+ action ( ! waves3 a mom5t's reflection1 h[ev]1 on ! bas9-l =m ( ! atolls1 w %[ t ?is is impossible2 = ! upheaval & subsequ5t abrasion ( an isl& w\ld leave a flat disc1 :i* might become coat$ ) coral1 b n a deeply concave surface2 moreov]1 we %\ld expect to see1 9 "s p>ts at lea/1 ! rock ( ! f\ndation br\ght to ! surface4 ,if1 !n1 ! f\ndations ( ! _m atolls 7 n uplift$ into ! requisite position1 !y mu/ ( necessity h subsid$ into x2 & ?is at once solves e difficulty1#d = we may safely inf]1 f ! facts giv5 9 ! la/ *apt]1 t dur+ a gradual subsid5ce ! corals w\ld be fav\rably circum/anc$ = build+ up _! solid frame works & rea*+ ! surface1 z isl& aft] isl& sl[ly disappe>$4 ,?us areas ( imm5se ext5t 9 ! c5tral & mo/ pr(\nd p>ts ( ! great oceans1 might become int]sp]s$ ) coral-islets1 none ( :i* w\ld rise to a great] height ?an t atta9$ by detritus heap$ up by ! sea1 & nev]!less !y might all h be5 =m$ by corals1 :i* absolutely requir$ = _! gr[? a solid f\ndation )9 a few fa?oms ( ! surface4 #d ,! additional difficulty on ! crat] hypo!sis be=e allud$ to1 w n[ be evid5t2 = on ?is view ! volcanic action mu/ be suppos$ to h =m$ )9 ! areas specifi$ a va/ numb] ( crat]s1 all ris+ )9 a few fa?oms ( ! surface1 & n "o above x4 ,! supposition t ! crat]s 7 at diff]5t times uprais$ above ! surface1 & 7 !re abrad$ by ! surf & subsequ5tly coat$ by corals1 is subject to ne>ly ! same objections ) ^? giv5 above 9 ?is p>agraph2 b ,i consid] x sup]flu\s to detail all ! argum5ts oppos$ to su* a notion4 ,*amisso's !ory1 f assum+ ! exi/5ce ( s _m banks1 all ly+ at ! prop] dep? b5ea? ! wat]1 is also vitally defective4 ,! same obs]vation applies to an hypo!sis ( ,lieut5ant ,nelson's 78,geolog4 ,trans40 vol4 v1 p4 #abb71 :o supposes t ! r+-=m$ /ructure is caus$ by a great] numb] ( g]ms ( corals becom+ atta*$ to ! declivity1 ?an to ! c5tral plateau ( a subm>9e bank3 x likewise applies to ! notion =m]ly ent]ta9$ 7,=/]'s 8,obs]v410 p4 #aea71 t lagoon-isl&s owe _! peculi> =m to ! in/9ctive t5d5cies ( ! polypif]s4 ,accord+ to ?is latt] view1 ! corals on ! out] m>g9 ( ! reef in/9ctively expose !mselves to ! surf 9 ord] to af=d protection to corals liv+ 9 ! lagoon1 :i* belong to o!r g5]a1 & to o!r families6 ,x w\ld be out ( place "h to d m ?an allude to ! _m facts1 %[+ t ! supposition ( a gradual subsid5ce ov] l>ge areas is by no means improbable4 ,we h ! cle>e/ pro( t a movem5t ( ?is k9d is possible1 9 ! upright trees buri$ "u ! /rata _m ?\s& feet 9 ?ickness2 we h also e reason = believ+ t !re are n[ l>ge areas gradually s9k+1 9 ! same mann] z o!rs are ris+4 ,& :5 we consid] h[ _m p>ts ( ! surface ( ! globe h be5 elevat$ )9 rec5t geological p]iods1 we mu/ admit t !re h be5 subsid5ces on a correspond+ scale1 = o!rwise ! :ole globe w\ld h swoll54 ,x is v rem>kable t ,mr4 ,lyell1#e ev5 9 ! fir/ edition ( 8 8,pr9ciples ( ,geology10 inf]r$ t ! am\nt ( subsid5ce 9 ! ,pacific mu/ h exce$$ t ( elevation1 f ! area ( l& be+ v small relatively to ! ag5ts !re t5d+ to =m x1 namely1 ! gr[? ( coral & volcanic action4 ,b x w be ask$1 are !re any direct pro(s ( a subsid+ movem5t 9 ^? areas1 9 :i* subsid5ce w expla9 a ph5om5on o!rwise inexplicable8 ,?is1 h[ev]1 c h>dly be expect$1 = x mu/ ev] be mo/ difficult1 except+ 9 c\ntries long civilis$1 to detect a movem5t1 ! t5d5cy ( :i* is to conceal ! "p affect$4 ,9 b>b>\s & semi-civilis$ nations h[ long might n a sl[ movem5t1 ev5 ( elevation su* z t n[ affect+ ,sc&9avia1 h escap$ att5tion6 #e 8,pr9ciples ( ,geology10 six? edition1 vol4 iii1 p4 #chf4 ,mr4 ,williams#f insi/s /rongly t ! traditions ( ! natives1 :i* he has tak5 mu* pa9s 9 collect+1 d n indicate ! appe>ance ( any new isl&s3 b on ! !ory ( a gradual subsid5ce1 all t w\ld be app>5t w\ld be1 ! wat] sometimes encroa*+ sl[ly on ! l&1 & ! l& aga9 recov]+ by ! accumulation ( detritus its =m] ext5t1 & p]haps sometimes ! conv]sion ( an atoll ) coral islets on x1 into a b>e or into a sunk5 annul> reef4 ,su* *anges w\ld naturally take place at ! p]iods :5 ! sea rose above its usual limits1 dur+ a gale ( m ?an ord9>y /r5g?2 & ! effects ( ! two causes w\ld be h>dly di/+ui%able4 ,9 ,kotzebue's 8,voyage0 !re are acc\nts ( isl&s1 bo? 9 ! ,c>ol9e & ,m>%all ,ar*ipelagoes1 :i* h be5 p>tly wa%$ away dur+ hurricanes2 & ,kadu1 ! native :o 0 on bo>d "o ( ! ,russian vessels1 said 8he saw ! sea at ,radack rise to ! feet ( ! cocoa-nut trees2 b x 0 conjur$ 9 "t40#g ,a /orm lately entirely swept away two ( ! ,c>ol9e isl&s1 & conv]t$ !m into %oals2 x p>tly1 also1 de/roy$ two o!r isl&s4#h ,accord+ to a tradition :i* 0 communicat$ to ,capta9 ,fitzroy1 x is believ$ 9 ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago1 t ! arrival ( ! fir/ %ip caus$ a great inundation1 :i* de/roy$ _m lives4 ,mr4 ,/ut*bury relates1 t 9 #ahbe1 ! we/]n side ( ,*a9 ,atoll1 9 ! same gr\p1 0 completely deva/at$ by a hurricane1 & n less ?an #cjj lives lo/3 89 ?is in/ance x 0 evid5t1 ev5 to ! natives1 t ! hurricane alone 0 n suffici5t to acc\nt = ! viol5t agitation ( ! ocean40#i ,t consid]able *anges h tak5 place rec5tly 9 "s ( ! atolls 9 ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago1 appe>s c]ta9 f ! case already giv5 ( ,matilda ,isl&3 ) respect to ,:itsunday & ,gl\ce/] ,isl&s 9 ?is same gr\p1 we mu/ ei!r attribute great inaccuracy to _! discov]]1 ! fam\s circumnavigator ,wallis1 or believe t !y h und]gone a consid]able *ange 9 ! p]iod ( fifty-n9e ye>s1 betwe5 8 voyage & t ( ,capta9 ,bee*ey's4 ,:itsunday ,isl& is describ$ by ,wallis z 8ab\t f\r miles long1 & ?ree wide10 n[ x is only "o mile & a half long4 ,! appe>ance ( ,gl\ce/] ,isl&1 9 ,capta9 ,bee*ey's words1#aj 8has be5 accurately describ$ by its discov]]1 b its pres5t =m & ext5t diff] mat]ially40 ,bl5heim reef1 9 ! ,*agos gr\p1 consi/s ( a wat]-wa%$ annul> reef1 ?irte5 miles 9 circumf]5ce1 surr\nd+ a lagoon t5 fa?oms deep3 on its surface !re 7 a few worn pat*es ( conglom]ate coral-rock1 ( ab\t ! size ( hovels2 & ^! ,capta9 ,moresby consid]$ z be+1 )\t d\bt1 ! la/ remnants ( islets2 s t "h an atoll has be5 conv]t$ into an atoll-=m$ reef4 ,! inhabitants ( ! ,maldiva ,ar*ipelago1 z long ago z #afje1 decl>$1 8t ! high tides & viol5t curr5ts 7 dim9i%+ ! numb] ( ! isl&s30#aa & ,i h already %[n1 on ! au?ority ( ,capta9 ,moresby1 t ! "w ( de/ruction is /ill 9 progress2 b t on ! o!r h& ! fir/ =mation ( "s islets is kn[n to ! pres5t inhabitants4 ,9 su* cases1 x w\ld be exce$+ly difficult to detect a gradual subsid5ce ( ! f\ndation1 on :i* ^! mutable /ructures re/4 #f ,williams's 8,n>rative ( ,mission>y ,ent]prise10 p4 #ca4 #g ,kotzebue's 8,fir/ ,voyage10 vol4 iii1 p4 #afh4 #h ,m4 ,desm\l9s 9 8,comptes ,r5dus10 #ahdj1 p4 #hcg4 #i ,we/ ( ,engl& ,j\rnal1 ,no4 ,i1 p4 #ce4 #aj ,bee*ey's 8,voyage to ! ,pacific10 *ap4 vii1 & ,wallis's 8,voyage 9 ! ,dolph910 *ap4 iv4 #aa ,see an extract f ,pyr>d's ,voyage 9 ,capta9 ,ow5's pap] on ! ,maldiva ,ar*ipelago1 9 ! ,geographical ,j\rnal1 vol4 ii1 p4 #hd4 ,"s ( ! ar*ipelagoes ( l[ coral-isl&s are subject to e>?quakes3 ,capta9 ,moresby in=ms me t !y are frequ5t1 ?\gh n v /rong1 9 ! ,*agos gr\p1 :i* occupies a v c5tral position 9 ! ,indian ,ocean1 & is f> f any l& n ( coral =mation4 ,"o ( ! isl&s 9 ?is gr\p 0 =m]ly cov]$ by a b$ ( m\ld1 :i*1 aft] an e>?quake1 disappe>$1 & 0 believ$ by ! resid5ts to h be5 wa%$ by ! ra9 ?r\gh ! brok5 masses ( und]ly+ rock2 ! isl& 0 ?us r5d]$ unproductive4 ,*amisso#ab /ates1 t e>?quakes are felt 9 ! ,m>%all atolls1 :i* are f> f any high l&1 & likewise 9 ! isl&s ( ! ,c>ol9e ,ar*ipelago4 ,on "o ( ! latt]1 namely ,oulleay atoll1 ,admiral ,lutk1 z he _h ! k9dness to in=m me1 obs]v$ sev]al /raight fissures ab\t a foot 9 wid?1 runn+ = "s hundr$ y>ds obliquely across ! :ole wid? ( ! reef4 ,fissures indicate a /ret*+ ( ! e>?'s cru/1 &1 !re=e1 probably *anges 9 its level2 b ^! coral-isl&s1 :i* h be5 %ak5 & fissur$1 c]ta9ly h n be5 elevat$1 &1 !re=e1 probably !y h subsid$4 ,9 ! *apt] on ,keel+ atoll1 ,i attempt$ to %[ by direct evid5ce1 t ! isl& und]w5t a movem5t ( subsid5ce1 dur+ ! e>?quakes lately felt !re4 #ab ,see ,*amisso1 9 ,kotzebue's 8,fir/ ,voyage10 vol4 iii1 p4 #ahb & #acf4 ,! facts /& ?us2--!re are _m l>ge tracts ( ocean1 )\t any high l&1 int]sp]s$ ) reefs & islets1 =m$ by ! gr[? ( ^? k9ds ( corals1 :i* _c live at great dep?s2 & ! exi/5ce ( ^! reefs & l[ islets1 9 su* numb]s & at su* di/ant po9ts1 is q inexplicable1 except+ on ! !ory1 t ! bases on :i* ! reefs fir/ became atta*$1 sl[ly & successively sank b5ea? ! level ( ! sea1 :il/ ! corals cont9u$ to gr[ upw>ds4 ,no positive facts are oppos$ to ?is view1 & "s g5]al consid]ations r5d] x probable4 ,!re is evid5ce ( *ange 9 =m1 :e!r or n f subsid5ce1 on "s ( ^! coral-isl&s2 & !re is evid5ce ( subt]ranean di/urbances b5ea? !m4 ,w !n ! !ory1 to :i* we h ?us be5 l$1 solve ! curi\s problem1--:at has giv5 to ea* class ( reef its peculi> =m8 ,let u 9 imag9ation place )9 "o ( ! subsid+ areas1 an isl& surr\nd$ by a 8fr++-reef10--t k9d1 :i* alone (f]s no difficulty 9 ! explanation ( its orig94 ,let ! unbrok5 l9es1 & ! oblique %ad+ 9 ! woodcut 7,no4 #d7 repres5t a v]tical section ?r\gh su* an isl&2 & ! horizontal %ad+ w repres5t ! section ( ! reef4 ,n[1 z ! isl& s9ks d[n1 ei!r a few feet at a "t or q ins5sibly1 we may safely inf] f :at we "k ( ! conditions fav\rable to ! gr[? ( coral1 t ! liv+ masses ba!d by ! surf on ! m>g9 ( ! reef1 w soon rega9 ! surface4 ,! wat]1 h[ev]1 w encroa*1 little by little1 on ! %ore1 ! isl& becom+ l[] & small]1 & ! space betwe5 ! edge ( ! reef & ! bea* proportionately broad]4 ,a section ( ! reef & isl& 9 ?is /ate1 aft] a subsid5ce ( sev]al hundr$ feet1 is giv5 by ! dott$ l9es3 coral-islets are suppos$ to h be5 =m$ on ! new reef1 & a %ip is an*or$ 9 ! lagoon-*annel4 ,?is section is 9 e respect t ( an encircl+ b>ri]-reef2 x is1 9 fact1 a section tak5#ac ea/ & we/ ?r\gh ! highe/ po9t ( ! encircl$ isl& ( ,bolabola2 ( :i* a plan is giv5 9 ,plate ,i1 ,fig4 #e4 ,! same section is m cle>ly %[n 9 ! foll[+ woodcut 7,no4 #e7 by ! unbrok5 l9es4 ,! wid? ( ! reef1 & its slope1 bo? on ! out] & inn] side1 w h be5 det]m9$ by ! gr[+ p[]s ( ! coral1 "u ! conditions 7= in/ance ! =ce ( ! break]s & ( ! curr5ts7 to :i* x has be5 expos$2 & ! lagoon-*annel w be deep] or %all[]1 9 proportion to ! gr[? ( ! delicately bran*$ corals )9 ! reef1 & to ! accumulation ( s$im5t1 relatively1 also1 to ! rate ( subsid5ce & ! l5g? ( ! int]v5+ /ation>y p]iods4 #ac ,! section has be5 made f ! *>t giv5 9 ! 8,atlas ( ! ,voyage ( ! ,coquille40 ,! scale is 4#eg ( an in* to a mile4 ,! height ( ! isl&1 accord+ to ,m4 ,lesson1 is #d1jbf feet4 ,! deepe/ "p ( ! lagoon-*annel is #afb feet2 its dep? is exagg]at$ 9 ! woodcut = ! sake ( cle>ness4 ,illu/ration3 ,v]tical section ( an isl& ( ,bolabola4 ,,aa--,out] edge ( ! reef at ! level ( ! sea4 ,,bb--,%ores ( ! isl&4 ,a,a--,out] edge ( ! reef1 aft] its upw>d gr[? dur+ a p]iod ( subsid5ce4 ,,cc--,! lagoon-*annel betwe5 ! reef & ! %ores ( ! n[ encircl$ l&4 ,b,b--,! %ores ( ! encircl$ isl&4 ,n4,b4--,9 ?is1 & ! foll[+ woodcut1 ! subsid5ce ( ! l& c\ld only be repres5t$ by an app>5t rise 9 ! level ( ! sea4 ,x is evid5t 9 ?is section1 t a l9e drawn p]p5dicul>ly d[n f ! out] edge ( ! new reef to ! f\ndation ( solid rock1 exce$s by z _m feet z !re h be5 feet ( subsid5ce1 t small limit ( dep? at :i* ! effective polypif]s c live--! corals hav+ gr[n up1 z ! :ole sank d[n1 f a basis =m$ ( o!r corals & _! consolidat$ fragm5ts4 ,?us ! difficulty on ?is head1 :i* be=e seem$ s great1 disappe>s4 ,z ! space betwe5 ! reef & ! subsid+ %ore cont9u$ to increase 9 bread? & dep?1 & z ! injuri\s effects ( ! s$im5t & fre% wat] borne d[n f ! l& 7 consequ5tly less5$1 ! great] numb] ( ! *annels1 ) :i* ! reef 9 its fr++ /ate mu/ h be5 brea*$1 especially ^? :i* front$ ! small] /reams1 w h become *ok$ up ) ! gr[? ( coral3 on ! w9dw>d side ( ! reef1 :]e ! coral gr[s mo/ vigor\sly1 ! brea*es w probably h fir/ be5 clos$4 ,9 b>ri]-reefs1 !re=e1 ! brea*es kept op5 by dra9+ ! tidal wat]s ( ! lagoon-*annel1 w g5]ally be plac$ on ! leew>d side1 & !y w /ill face ! m\?s ( ! l>g] /reams1 al?\gh remov$ beyond ! influ5ce ( _! s$im5t & fre% wat]2--& ?is1 x has be5 %[n1 is commonly ! case4 ,illu/ration3 ,v]tical section ( an isl& ( ,bolabola4 ,a,a--,out] edges ( ! b>ri]-reef at ! level ( ! sea4 ,! cocoa-nut trees repres5t coral-islets =m$ on ! reef4 ,,cc--,! lagoon-*annel4 ,b,b--,! %ores ( ! isl&1 g5]ally =m$ ( l[ alluvial l& & ( coral detritus f ! lagoon-*annel4 ,a,a--,! out] edges ( ! reef n[ =m+ an atoll4 ,c--,! lagoon ( ! newly =m$ atoll4 ,accord+ to ! scale1 ! dep? ( ! lagoon & ( ! lagoon-*annel is exagg]at$4 ,ref]r+ to ! diagram %[n above1 9 :i* ! newly =m$ b>ri]-reef is repres5t$ by unbrok5 l9es1 in/ead ( by dots z 9 ! =m] woodcut1 let ! "w ( subsid5ce g on1 & ! d\bly po9t$ hill w =m two small isl&s 7or m1 accord+ to ! numb] ( ! hills7 includ$ )9 "o annul> reef4 ,let ! isl& cont9ue subsid+1 & ! coral-reef w cont9ue gr[+ up on its own f\ndation1 :il/ ! wat] ga9s in* by in* on ! l&1 until ! la/ & highe/ p9nacle is cov]$1 & !re rema9s a p]fect atoll4 ,a v]tical section ( ?is atoll is %[n 9 ! woodcut by ! dott$ l9es2--a %ip is an*or$ 9 its lagoon1 b islets are n suppos$ yet to h be5 =m$ on ! reef4 ,! dep? ( ! lagoon & ! wid? & slope ( ! reef1 w dep5d on ! circum/ances j ref]r$ to "u b>ri]-reefs4 ,any fur!r subsid5ce w produce no *ange 9 ! atoll1 except p]haps a dim9ution 9 its size1 f ! reef n gr[+ v]tically upw>ds2 b %\ld ! curr5ts ( ! sea act viol5tly ^u x1 & %\ld ! corals p]i% on "p or on ! :ole ( its m>g91 *anges w\ld result dur+ subsid5ce :i* w be pres5tly notic$4 ,i may "h obs]ve1 t a bank ei!r ( rock or ( h>d5$ s$im5t1 level ) ! surface ( ! sea1 & fr+$ ) liv+ coral1 w\ld 7if n s small z to all[ ! c5tral space to be quickly fill$ up ) detritus7 by subsid5ce be conv]t$ imm$iately into an atoll1 )\t pass+1 z 9 ! case ( a reef fr++ ! %ore ( an isl&1 ?r\gh ! int]m$iate =m ( a b>ri]-reef4 ,if su* a bank lay a few fa?oms subm]g$1 ! simple gr[? ( ! coral 7z rem>k$ 9 ! ?ird *apt]7 )\t ! aid ( subsid5ce1 w\ld produce a /ructure sc>cely to be di/+ui%$ f a true atoll2 = 9 all cases ! corals on ! out] m>g9 ( a reef1 f hav+ space & be+ freely expos$ to ! op5 sea1 w gr[ vigor\sly & t5d to =m a cont9u\s r+ :il/ ! gr[? ( ! less massive k9ds on ! c5tral expanse1 w be *eck$ by ! s$im5t =m$ !re1 & by t wa%$ inw>ds by ! break]s2 & z ! space becomes %all[]1 _! gr[? w1 also1 be *eck$ by ! impurities ( ! wat]1 & probably by ! small am\nt ( food br\ght by ! enfeebl$ curr5ts1 9 proportion to ! surface ( liv+ reefs /udd$ ) innum]able crav+ m\?s3 ! subsid5ce ( a reef bas$ on a bank ( ?is k9d1 w\ld give dep? to its c5tral expanse or lagoon1 /eepness to its flanks1 & ?r\gh ! free gr[? ( ! coral1 symmetry to its outl9e3--,i may "h repeat t ! l>g] gr\ps ( atolls 9 ! ,pacific & ,indian ,oceans _c be suppos$ to be f\nd$ on banks ( ?is nature4 ,if1 in/ead ( ! isl& 9 ! diagram1 ! %ore ( a cont95t fr+$ by a reef _h subsid$1 a great b>ri]-reef1 l t on ! nor?-ea/ coa/ ( ,au/ralia1 w\ld h necess>ily result$2 & x w\ld h be5 sep>at$ f ! ma9 l& by a deep-wat] *annel1 broad 9 proportion to ! am\nt ( subsid5ce1 & to ! less or great] incl9ation ( ! neighb\r+ coa/-l9e4 ,! effect ( ! cont9u$ subsid5ce ( a great b>ri]-reef ( ?is k9d1 & its probable conv]sion into a *a9 ( sep>ate atolls1 w be notic$1 :5 we discuss ! app>5t progressive dissev]m5t ( ! l>g] ,maldiva atolls4 ,we n[ are able to p]ceive t ! close simil>ity 9 =m1 dim5sions1 /ructure1 & relative position 7:i* latt] po9t w h]eaft] be m fully notic$7 betwe5 fr++ & encircl+ b>ri]-reefs1 & betwe5 ^! latt] & atolls1 is ! necess>y result ( ! trans=mation1 dur+ subsid5ce ( ! "o class into ! o!r4 ,on ?is view1 ! ?ree classes ( reefs ought to graduate into ea* o!r4 ,reefs hav+ int]m$iate "* betwe5 ^? ( ! fr++ & b>ri] classes d exi/2 = in/ance1 on ! s\?-we/ coa/ ( ,madagasc>1 a reef ext5ds = sev]al miles1 )9 :i* !re is a broad *annel f sev5 to eight fa?oms deep1 b ! sea does n deep5 abruptly outside ! reef4 ,su* cases1 h[ev]1 are op5 to "s d\bts1 = an old fr++-reef1 :i* _h ext5d$ itself a little on a basis ( its own =mation1 w\ld h>dly be di/+ui%able f a b>ri]-reef1 produc$ by a small am\nt ( subsid5ce1 & ) its lagoon-*annel ne>ly fill$ up ) s$im5t dur+ a long /ation>y p]iod4 ,betwe5 b>ri]-reefs1 encircl+ ei!r "o l(ty isl& or sev]al small l[ ones1 & atolls includ+ a m]e expanse ( wat]1 a /rik+ s]ies c be %[n3 9 pro( ( ?is1 ,i ne$ only ref] to ! fir/ plate 9 ?is volume1 :i* speaks m pla9ly to ! eye1 ?an any description c\ld to ! e>4 ,! au?orities f :i* ! *>ts h be5 engrav$1 toge!r ) "s rem>ks on !m & descriptive ( ! plates1 are giv5 above4 ,at ,new ,cal$onia 7,plate ,,ii1 ,fig4 #e47 ! b>ri]-reefs ext5d = #aej miles on ea* side ( ! subm>9e prolongation ( ! isl&2 & at _! nor!rn extremity !y appe> brok5 up & conv]t$ into a va/ atoll-=m$ reef1 support+ a few l[ coral-islets3 we may imag9e t we "h see ! effects ( subsid5ce actually 9 progress1 ! wat] always encroa*+ on ! nor!rn end ( ! isl&1 t[>ds :i* ! m\nta9s slope d[n1 & ! reefs /eadily build+ up _! massive fabrics 9 ! l9es ( _! anci5t gr[?4 ,we h z yet only consid]$ ! orig9 ( b>ri]-reefs & atolls 9 _! simple/ =m2 b !re rema9 "s peculi>ities 9 /ructure & "s special cases1 describ$ 9 ! two fir/ *apt]s1 to be acc\nt$ = by our !ory4 ,^! consi/--9 ! incl9$ l$ge t]m9at$ by a wall1 & sometimes succe$$ by a second l$ge ) a wall1 r\nd ! %ores ( c]ta9 lagoons & lagoon-*annels2 a /ructure :i* _c1 z ,i endeav\r$ to %[1 be expla9$ by ! simple gr[+ p[]s ( ! corals1--9 ! r+ or bas9-l =ms ( ! c5tral reefs1 z well z ( ! sep>ate m>g9al portions ( ! nor!rn ,maldiva atolls1--9 ! subm]g$ condition ( ! :ole1 or ( p>ts ( c]ta9 b>ri] & atoll-=m$ reefs2 :]e only a "p is subm]g$1 ?is be+ g5]ally to leew>d1--9 ! app>5t progressive dissev]m5t ( "s ( ! ,maldiva atolls1--9 ! exi/5ce ( irregul>ly =m$ atolls1 "s be+ ti$ toge!r by l9e> reefs1 & o!rs ) spurs project+ f !m1--&1 la/ly1 9 ! /ructure & orig9 ( ! ,great ,*agos ,bank4 ,/ep-=m$ l$ges r\nd c]ta9 lagoons4--,if we suppose an atoll to subside at an extremely sl[ rate1 x is difficult to foll[ out ! complex results4 ,! liv+ corals w\ld gr[ up on ! out] m>g92 & likewise probably 9 ! gullies & deep] p>ts ( ! b>e surface ( ! annul> reef2 ! wat] w\ld encroa* on ! islets1 b ! accumulation ( fre% detritus might possibly prev5t _! entire subm]g5ce4 ,aft] a subsid5ce ( ?is v sl[ nature1 ! surface ( ! annul> reef slop+ g5tly into ! lagoon1 w\ld probably become unit$ ) ! irregul> reefs & banks ( s&1 :i* l9e ! %ores ( mo/ lagoons4 ,%\ld1 h[ev]1 ! atoll be c>ri$ d[n by a m rapid movem5t1 ! :ole surface ( ! annul> reef1 :]e !re 0 a f\ndation ( solid matt]1 w\ld be fav\rably circum/anc$ = ! fre% gr[? ( coral2 b z ! corals grew upw>ds on its ext]ior m>g91 & ! waves broke heavily on ?is "p1 ! increase ( ! massive polypif]s on ! inn] side w\ld be *eck$ f ! want ( wat]4 ,consequ5tly1 ! ext]ior p>ts w\ld fir/ rea* ! surface1 & ! new annul> reef ?us =m$ on ! old "o1 w\ld h its summit incl9$ inw>ds1 & be t]m9at$ by a subaque\s wall1 =m$ by ! upw>d gr[? ( ! coral 7be=e be+ mu* *eck$71 f ! inn] edge ( ! solid p>ts ( ! old reef4 ,! inn] portion ( ! new reef1 f n hav+ gr[n to ! surface1 w\ld be cov]$ by ! wat]s ( ! lagoon4 ,%\ld a subsid5ce ( ! same k9d be repeat$1 ! corals w\ld aga9 gr[ up 9 a wall1 f all ! solid p>ts ( ! resunk5 reef1 &1 !re=e1 n f )9 ! s&y %ores ( ! lagoon2 & ! inn] "p ( ! new annul> reef w\ld1 f be+ z be=e *eck$ 9 its upw>d gr[?1 be ( less height ?an ! ext]ior p>ts1 & !re=e w\ld n rea* ! surface ( ! lagoon4 ,9 ?is case ! %ores ( ! lagoon w\ld be surr\nd$ by two incl9$ l$ges1 "o b5ea? ! o!r1 & bo? abruptly t]m9at$ by subaque\s cliffs4#ad #ad ,accord+ to ,mr4 ,c\?\y 7p4 #bf7 ! ext]nal reef r\nd _m atolls desc5ds by a succession ( l$ges or t]races4 ,he attempts1 ,i d\bt :e!r successfully1 to expla9 ?is /ructure some:at 9 ! same mann] z ,i h attempt$1 ) respect to ! int]nal l$ges r\nd ! lagoons ( "s atolls4 ,m facts are want$ reg>d+ ! nature bo? ( ! int]ior & ext]ior /ep-l l$ges3 are all ! l$ges1 or only ! upp] ones1 cov]$ ) liv+ coral8 ,if !y are all cov]$1 are ! k9ds diff]5t on ! l$ges accord+ to ! dep?8 ,d ! int]ior & ext]ior l$ges occur toge!r 9 ! same atolls2 if s1 :at is _! total wid?1 & is ! int]v5+ surface-reef n>r[1 etc48 ,! r+ or bas9-=m$ reefs ( ! nor!rn ,maldiva atolls4--,i may fir/ obs]ve1 t ! reefs )9 ! lagoons ( atolls & )9 lagoon-*annels1 w\ld1 if fav\rably circum/anc$1 gr[ upw>ds dur+ subsid5ce 9 ! same mann] z ! annul> rim2 &1 !re=e1 we might expect t su* lagoon- reefs1 :5 n surr\nd$ & buri$ by an accumulation ( s$im5t m rapid ?an ! rate ( subsid5ce1 w\ld rise abruptly f a great] dep? ?an t at :i* ! effici5t polypif]s c fl\ri%3 we see ?is well exemplifi$ 9 ! small abruptly-sid$ reefs1 ) :i* ! deep lagoons ( ! ,*agos & ,s\!rn ,maldiva atolls are /udd$4 ,) respect to ! r+ or bas9-=m$ reefs ( ! ,nor!rn ,maldiva atolls1 x is evid5t1 f ! p]fectly cont9u\s s]ies :i* exi/s t ! m>g9al r+s1 al?\gh wid] ?an ! ext]ior or b\nd+ reef ( ord9>y atolls1 are only modifi$ portions ( su* a reef2 x is also evid5t t ! c5tral r+s1 al?\gh wid] ?an ! knolls or reefs :i* commonly occur 9 lagoons1 occupy _! place4 ,! r+-l /ructure has be5 %[n to be cont+5t on ! brea*es into ! lagoon be+ broad & num]\s1 s t all ! reefs :i* are ba!d by ! wat]s ( ! lagoon are plac$ "u ne>ly ! same conditions ) ! out] coa/ ( an atoll /&+ 9 ! op5 sea4 ,h5ce ! ext]ior & liv+ m>g9s ( ^! reefs mu/ h be5 fav\rably circum/anc$ = gr[+ outw>ds1 & increas+ beyond ! usual bread?2 & !y mu/ likewise h be5 fav\rably circum/anc$ = gr[+ vigor\sly upw>ds1 dur+ ! subsid+ movem5ts1 to :i* by our !ory ! :ole ar*ipelago has be5 subject$2 & subsid5ce ) ?is upw>d gr[? ( ! m>g9s w\ld conv]t ! c5tral space ( ea* little reef into a small lagoon4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 c\ld only take place ) ^? reefs1 :i* _h increas$ to a bread? suffici5t to prev5t _! c5tral spaces f be+ almo/ imm$iately fill$ up ) ! s& & detritus driv5 inw>ds f all sides3 h5ce x is t few reefs1 :i* are less ?an half a mile 9 diamet]1 ev5 9 ! atolls :]e ! bas9-l /ructure is mo/ /rik+ly exhibit$1 include lagoons4 ,?is rem>k1 ,i may add1 applies to all coral-reefs :]ev] f\nd4 ,! bas9-=m$ reefs ( ! ,maldiva ,ar*ipelago may1 9 fact1 be briefly describ$1 z small atolls =m$ dur+ subsid5ce ov] ! sep>ate portions ( l>ge & brok5 atolls1 9 ! same mann] z ^! latt] 7 =m$ ov] ! b>ri]-reefs1 :i* encircl$ ! isl&s ( a l>ge ar*ipelago n[ :olly subm]g$4 ,subm]g$ & dead reefs4--,9 ! second section ( ! fir/ *apt]1 ,i h %[n t !re are 9 ! neighb\rhood ( atolls1 "s deeply subm]g$ banks1 ) level surfaces2 t !re are o!rs1 less deeply b yet :olly subm]g$1 hav+ all ! *>act]s ( p]fect atolls1 b consi/+ m]ely ( dead coral-rock2 t !re are b>ri]-reefs & atolls ) m]ely a portion ( _! reef1 g5]ally on ! leew>d side1 subm]g$2 & t su* portions ei!r reta9 _! p]fect outl9e1 or !y appe> to be q effac$1 _! =m] place be+ m>k$ only by a bank1 con=m+ 9 outl9e ) t "p ( ! reef :i* rema9s p]fect4 ,^! sev]al cases are1 ,i believe1 intimately relat$ toge!r1 & c be expla9$ by ! same means4 ,!re1 p]haps1 exi/ "s subm]g$ reefs1 cov]$ ) liv+ coral & gr[+ upw>ds1 b to ^! ,i d n "h ref]4 ,z we see t 9 ^? p>ts ( ! ocean1 :]e coral-reefs are mo/ abundant1 "o isl& is fr+$ & ano!r neighb\r+ "o is n fr+$2 z we see 9 ! same ar*ipelago1 t all ! reefs are m p]fect 9 "o "p ( x ?an 9 ano!r1 = in/ance1 9 ! s\!rn half comp>$ ) ! nor!rn half ( ! ,maldiva ,ar*ipelago1 & likewise on ! out] coa/s comp>$ ) ! inn] coa/s ( ! atolls 9 ?is same gr\p1 :i* are plac$ 9 a d\ble r[2 z we "k t ! exi/5ce ( ! innum]able polypif]s =m+ a reef1 dep5ds on _! su/5ance1 & t !y are prey$ on by o!r organic be+s2 &1 la/ly1 z we "k t "s inorganic causes are highly injuri\s to ! gr[? ( coral1 x _c be expect$ t dur+ ! r\nd ( *ange to :i* e>?1 air1 & wat] are expos$1 ! reef-build+ polypif]s %\ld keep alive = p]petuity 9 any "o place2 & /ill less c ?is be expect$1 dur+ ! progressive subsid5ces1 p]haps at "s p]iods m rapid ?an at o!rs1 to :i* by our !ory ^! reefs & isl&s h be5 subject$ & are liable4 ,x is1 !n1 n improbable t ! corals %\ld sometimes p]i% ei!r on ! :ole or on "p ( a reef2 if on "p1 ! dead portion1 aft] a small am\nt ( subsid5ce1 w\ld /ill reta9 its prop] outl9e & position b5ea? ! wat]4 ,aft] a m prolong$ subsid5ce1 x w\ld probably =m1 ow+ to ! accumulation ( s$im5t1 only ! m>g9 ( a flat bank1 m>k+ ! limits ( ! =m] lagoon4 ,su* dead portions ( reef w\ld g5]ally lie on ! leew>d side1#ae = ! impure wat] & f9e s$im5t w\ld m easily fl[ out f ! lagoon ov] ?is side ( ! reef1 :]e ! =ce ( ! break]s is less ?an to w9dw>d2 & !re=e ! corals w\ld be less vigor\s on ?is side1 & be less able to resi/ any de/roy+ ag5t4 ,x is likewise ow+ to ?is same cause1 t reefs are m frequ5tly brea*$ to leew>d by n>r[ *annels1 s]v+ z by %ip-*annels1 ?an to w9dw>d4 ,if ! corals p]i%$ entirely1 or on ! great] "p ( ! circumf]5ce ( an atoll1 an atoll-%ap$ bank ( dead rock1 m or less entirely subm]g$1 w\ld be produc$2 & fur!r subsid5ce1 toge!r ) ! accumulation ( s$im5t1 w\ld (t5 oblit]ate its atoll-l /ructure1 & leave only a bank ) a level surface4 #ae ,mr4 ,lyell1 9 ! fir/ edition ( 8 8,pr9ciples ( ,geology10 (f]$ a some:at diff]5t explanation ( ?is /ructure4 ,he supposes t !re has be5 subsid5ce2 b he 0 n aw>e t ! subm]g$ portions ( reef 7 9 mo/ cases1 if n 9 all1 dead2 & he attributes ! diff]5ce 9 height 9 ! two sides ( mo/ atolls1 *iefly to ! great] accumulation ( detritus to w9dw>d ?an to leew>d4 ,b z matt] is accumulat$ only on ! backw>d "p ( ! reef1 ! front "p w\ld rema9 ( ! same height on bo? sides4 ,i may "h obs]ve t 9 mo/ cases 7= in/ance1 at ,p]os ,banhos1 ! ,gambi] gr\p & ! ,great ,*agos ,bank71 & ,i suspect 9 all cases1 ! dead & subm]g$ portions d n bl5d or slope into ! liv+ & p]fect p>ts1 b are sep>at$ f !m by an abrupt l9e4 ,9 "s in/ances small pat*es ( liv+ reef rise to ! surface f ! middle ( ! subm]g$ & dead p>ts4 ,9 ! ,*agos gr\p ( atolls1 )9 an area ( #afj miles by #fj1 !re are two atoll-=m$ banks ( dead rock 7besides ano!r v imp]fect "o71 entirely subm]g$2 a ?ird1 ) m]ely two or ?ree v small pieces ( liv+ reef ris+ to ! surface2 & a f\r?1 namely1 ,p]os ,banhos 7,plate ,i1 ,fig4 #i71 ) a portion n9e miles 9 l5g? dead & subm]g$4 ,z by our !ory ?is area has subsid$1 & z !re is no?+ improbable 9 ! dea?1 ei!r f *anges 9 ! /ate ( ! surr\nd+ sea or f ! subsid5ce be+ great or sudd51 ( ! corals on ! :ole1 or on portions ( "s ( ! atolls1 ! case ( ! ,*agos gr\p pres5ts no difficulty4 ,s f> inde$ are any ( ! above-m5tion$ cases ( subm]g$ reefs f be+ inexplicable1 t _! occurr5ce might h be5 anticipat$ on our !ory1 & z fre% atolls are suppos$ to be 9 progressive =mation by ! subsid5ce ( encircl+ b>ri]-reefs1 a weighty objection1 namely t ! numb] ( atolls mu/ be increas+ inf9itely1 might ev5 h be5 rais$1 if pro(s ( ! occasional de/ruction & loss ( atolls c\ld n h be5 adduc$4 ,! dissev]m5t ( ! l>g] ,maldiva atolls4--,! app>5t progressive dissev]m5t 9 ! ,maldiva ,ar*ipelago ( l>ge atolls into small] ones1 is1 9 _m respects1 an important consid]ation1 & requires an explanation4 ,! graduat$ s]ies :i* m>ks1 z ,i believe1 ?is process1 c be obs]v$ only 9 ! nor!rn half ( ! gr\p1 :]e ! atolls h exce$+ly imp]fect m>g9s1 consi/+ ( deta*$ bas9-=m$ reefs4 ,! curr5ts ( ! sea fl[ across ^! atolls1 z ,i am in=m$ by ,capta9 ,moresby1 ) consid]able =ce1 & drift ! s$im5t f side to side dur+ ! monsoons1 transport+ mu* ( x seaw>d2 yet ! curr5ts sweep ) great] =ce r\nd _! flanks4 ,x is hi/orically kn[n t ^! atolls h long exi/$ 9 _! pres5t /ate2 & we c believe1 t ev5 dur+ a v sl[ subsid5ce !y might ?us rema91 ! c5tral expanse be+ kept at ne>ly its orig9al dep? by ! accumulation ( s$im5t4 ,b 9 ! action ( su* nicely balanc$ =ces dur+ a progressive subsid5ce 7l t1 to :i* by our !ory ?is ar*ipelago has be5 subject$71 x w\ld be /range if ! curr5ts ( ! sea %\ld nev] make a direct passage across "s "o ( ! atolls1 ?r\gh ! _m wide brea*es 9 _! m>g9s4 ,if ?is 7 once effect$1 a deep-wat] *annel w\ld soon be =m$ by ! removal ( ! f9] s$im5t1 & ! *eck to its fur!r accumulation2 & ! sides ( ! *annel w\ld be worn into a slope l t on ! out] coa/s1 :i* are expos$ to ! same =ce ( ! curr5ts4 ,9 fact1 a *annel precisely l t bifurcat+ "o :i* divides ,mahlos ,mahdoo 7,plate ,,ii1 ,fig4 #d71 w\ld almo/ necess>ily be =m$4 ,! scatt]$ reefs situat$ ne> ! bord]s ( ! new ocean-*annel1 f be+ fav\rably plac$ = ! gr[? ( coral1 w\ld1 by _! ext5sion1 t5d to produce fre% m>g9s to ! dissev]$ portions2 su* a t5d5cy is v evid5t 7z may be se5 9 ! l>ge publi%$ *>t7 9 ! elongat$ reefs on ! bord]s ( ! two *annels int]sect+ ,mahlos ,mahdoo4 ,su* *annels w\ld become deep] ) cont9u$ subsid5ce1 & probably f ! reefs n gr[+ up p]p5dicul>ly1 some:at broad]4 ,9 ?is case1 & m especially if ! *annels _h be5 =m$ orig9ally ( consid]able bread?1 ! dissev]$ portions w\ld become p]fect & di/9ct atolls1 l ,ari & ,ross atolls 7,plate ,,ii1 ,fig4 #f71 or l ! two ,nill&oo atolls1 :i* mu/ be consid]$ z di/9ct1 al?\gh relat$ 9 =m & position1 & sep>at$ f ea* o!r by *annels1 :i* ?\gh deep h be5 s\nd$4 ,fur!r subsid5ce w\ld r5d] su* *annels unfa?omable1 & ! dissev]$ portions w\ld !n resemble ,phale$oo & ,moluque atolls1 or ,mahlos ,mahdoo & ,horsburgh atolls 7,plate ,,ii1 ,fig4 #d71 :i* are relat$ to ea* o!r 9 no respect except 9 proximity & position4 ,h5ce1 on ! !ory ( subsid5ce1 ! dissev]m5t ( l>ge atolls1 :i* h imp]fect m>g9s 7= o!rwise _! dissev]m5t w\ld be sc>cely possible71 & :i* are expos$ to /rong curr5ts1 is f> f be+ an improbable ev5t2 & ! sev]al /ages1 f close relation to entire isolation 9 ! atolls ( ! ,maldiva ,ar*ipelago1 are readily explicable4 ,we might g ev5 fur!r1 & ass]t z n improbable1 t ! fir/ =mation ( ! ,maldiva ,ar*ipelago 0 due to a b>ri]-reef1 ( ne>ly ! same dim5sions ) t ( ,new ,cal$onia 7,plate ,,ii1 ,fig4 #e71 = if1 9 imag9ation1 we complete ! subsid5ce ( t great isl&1 we might anticipate f ! pres5t brok5 condition ( ! nor!rn portion ( ! reef1 & f ! almo/ entire abs5ce ( reefs on ! ea/]n coa/1 t ! b>ri]-reef aft] repeat$ subsid5ces1 w\ld become dur+ its upw>d gr[? sep>at$ into di/9ct portions2 & ^! portions w\ld t5d to assume an atoll-l /ructure1 f ! coral gr[+ ) vig\r r\nd _! entire circumf]5ces1 :5 freely expos$ to an op5 sea4 ,z we h "s l>ge isl&s p>tly subm]g$ ) b>ri]-reefs m>k+ _! =m] limits1 su* z ,new ,cal$onia1 s our !ory makes x probable t !re %\ld be o!r l>ge isl&s :olly subm]g$2 & ^!1 we may n[ inf]1 w\ld be surm\nt$1 n by "o enorm\s atoll1 b by sev]al l>ge elongat$ ones1 l ! atolls 9 ! ,maldiva gr\p2 & ^! aga91 dur+ long p]iods ( subsid5ce1 w\ld sometimes become dissev]$ into small] atolls4 ,i may add1 t bo? 9 ! ,m>%all & ,c>ol9e ,ar*ipelagoes1 !re are atolls /&+ close toge!r1 :i* h an evid5t relation%ip 9 =m3 we may suppose1 9 su* cases1 ei!r t two or m encircl$ isl&s orig9ally /ood close toge!r1 & af=d$ bases = two or m atolls1 or t "o atoll has be5 dissev]$4 ,f ! position1 z well z =m1 ( ?ree atolls 9 ! ,c>ol9e ,ar*ipelago 7! ,nam\rrek & ,elato gr\p71 :i* are plac$ 9 an irregul> circle1 ,i am /rongly tempt$ to believe t !y h orig9at$ by ! process ( dissev]m5t4#af #af ,! same rem>k is1 p]haps1 applicable to ! isl&s ( ,ollap1 ,fanadik1 & ,tamatam 9 ! ,c>ol9e ,ar*ipelago1 ( :i* *>ts are giv5 9 ! atlas ( ,dup]rey's voyage3 a l9e drawn ?r\gh ! l9e> reefs & lagoons ( ^! ?ree isl&s =ms a semicircle4 ,consult also1 ! atlas ( ,lutk's voyage2 & = ! ,m>%all gr\p t ( ,kotzebue2 = ! ,gilb]t gr\p consult ! atlas ( ,dup]rey's voyage4 ,mo/ ( ! po9ts "h ref]r$ to may1 h[ev]1 be se5 9 ,krus5/]n's g5]al ,atlas ( ! ,pacific4 ,irregul>ly =m$ atolls4--,9 ! ,m>%all gr\p1 ,musquillo atoll consi/s ( two loops unit$ 9 "o po9t2 & ,m5*ik(f atoll is =m$ ( ?ree loops1 two ( :i* 7z may be se5 9 ,fig4 #c1 ,plate ,,ii7 are connect$ by a m]e ribbon-%ap$ reef1 & ! ?ree toge!r are sixty miles 9 l5g?4 ,9 ! ,gilb]t gr\p "s ( ! atolls h n>r[ /rips ( reef1 l spurs1 project+ f !m4 ,!re occur also 9 p>ts ( ! op5 sea1 a few l9e> & /raight reefs1 /&+ by !mselves2 & likewise "s few reefs 9 ! =m ( cresc5ts1 ) _! extremities m or less curl$ inw>ds4 ,n[1 ! upw>d gr[? ( a b>ri]-reef :i* front$ only "o side ( an isl&1 or "o side ( an elongat$ isl& ) its extremities 7( :i* cases exi/71 w\ld produce aft] ! complete subsid5ce ( ! l&1 m]e /rips or cresc5t or hook-=m$ reefs3 if ! isl& ?us p>tially front$ became divid$ dur+ subsid5ce into two or m isl&s1 ^! isl&s w\ld be unit$ toge!r by l9e> reefs2 & f ! fur!r gr[? ( ! coral along _! %ores toge!r ) subsid5ce1 reefs ( v>i\s =ms might ultimately be produc$1 ei!r atolls unit$ toge!r by l9e> reefs1 or atolls ) spurs project+ f !m4 ,"s1 h[ev]1 ( ! m simple =ms above specifi$1 might1 z we h se51 be equally well produc$ by ! coral p]i%+ dur+ subsid5ce on "p ( ! circumf]5ce ( an atoll1 :il/ on ! o!r p>ts x cont9u$ to gr[ up till x rea*$ ! surface4 ,! ,great ,*agos ,bank4--,i h already %[n t ! subm]g$ condition ( ! ,great ,*agos ,bank 7,plate ,,ii1 ,fig4 #a1 ) its section ,fig4 #b71 & ( "s o!r banks 9 ! ,*agos gr\p1 may 9 all probability be attribut$ to ! coral hav+ p]i%$ be=e or dur+ ! movem5ts ( subsid5ce1 to :i* ?is :ole area by our !ory has be5 subject$4 ,! ext]nal rim or upp] l$ge 7%ad$ 9 ! *>t71 consi/s ( dead coral-rock ?9ly cov]$ ) s&2 x lies at an av]age dep? ( betwe5 five & eight fa?oms1 & p]fectly resembles 9 =m ! annul> reef ( an atoll4 ,! banks ( ! second level1 ! b\nd>ies ( :i* are m>k$ by dott$ l9es 9 ! *>t1 lie f ab\t fifte5 to tw5ty fa?oms b5ea? ! surface2 !y are sev]al miles broad1 & t]m9ate 9 a v /eep slope r\nd ! c5tral expanse4 ,?is c5tral expanse ,i h already describ$1 z consi/+ ( a level muddy flat betwe5 ?irty & =ty fa?oms deep4 ,! banks ( ! second level1 might at fir/ sight be ?\ght analog\s to ! int]nal /ep-l l$ge ( coral-rock :i* bord]s ! lagoons ( "s atolls1 b _! mu* great] wid?1 & _! be+ =m$ ( s&1 are po9ts ( ess5tial diff]5ce4 ,on ! ea/]n side ( ! atoll "s ( ! banks are l9e> & p>allel1 resembl+ islets 9 a great riv]1 & po9t$ directly t[>ds a great brea* on ! opposite side ( ! atoll2 ^! are be/ se5 9 ! l>ge publi%$ *>t4 ,i inf]r$ f ?is circum/ance1 t /rong curr5ts sometimes set directly across ?is va/ bank2 & ,i h s9ce he>d f ,capta9 ,moresby t ?is is ! case4 ,i obs]v$1 also1 t ! *annels or brea*es ?r\gh ! rim1 7 all ( ! same dep? z ! c5tral lagoon-l space into :i* !y lead2 :]eas ! *annels into ! o!r atolls ( ! ,*agos gr\p1 & z ,i believe into mo/ o!r l>ge atolls1 are n ne>ly z deep z _! lagoons3 = in/ance at ,p]os ,banhos1 ! *annels are only ( ! same dep?1 namely betwe5 t5 & tw5ty fa?oms1 z ! bottom ( ! lagoon = a space ab\t a mile & a half 9 wid? r\nd its %ores1 :il/ ! c5tral expanse ( ! lagoon is f ?irty-five to =ty fa?oms deep4 ,n[1 if an atoll dur+ a gradual subsid5ce once became entirely subm]g$1 l ! ,great ,*agos ,bank1 & !re=e no long] expos$ to ! surf1 v little s$im5t c\ld be =m$ f x2 & consequ5tly ! *annels lead+ into ! lagoon f n be+ fill$ up ) drift$ s& & coral detritus1 w\ld cont9ue increas+ 9 dep?1 z ! :ole sank d[n4 ,9 ?is case1 we might expect t ! curr5ts ( ! op5 sea1 in/ead ( any long] sweep+ r\nd ! subm>9e flanks1 w\ld fl[ directly ?r\gh ! brea*es across ! lagoon1 remov+ 9 _! c\rse ! f9] s$im5t1 & prev5t+ its fur!r accumulation4 ,we %\ld !n h ! subm]g$ reef =m+ an ext]nal & upp] rim ( rock1 & b5ea? ?is portion ( ! s&y bottom ( ! old lagoon1 int]sect$ by deep-wat] *annels or brea*es1 & ?us =m$ into sep>ate m>g9al banks2 & ^! w\ld be cut (f by /eep slopes1 ov]hang+ ! c5tral space1 worn d[n by ! passage ( ! oceanic curr5ts4 ,by ^! means1 ,i h sc>cely any d\bt t ! ,great ,*agos ,bank has orig9at$1--a /ructure :i* at fir/ appe>$ to me f> m anomal\s ?an any ,i _h met )4 ,! process ( =mation is ne>ly ! same ) t1 by :i* ,mahlos ,mahdoo _h be5 trisect$2 b 9 ! ,*agos ,bank ! *annels ( ! oceanic curr5ts ent]+ at sev]al diff]5t qu>t]s1 h unit$ 9 a c5tral space4 ,?is great atoll-=m$ bank appe>s to be 9 an e>ly /age ( dissev]m5t2 %\ld ! "w ( subsid5ce g on1 f ! subm]g$ & dead condition ( ! :ole reef1 & ! imp]fection ( ! s\?-ea/ qu>t] a m]e wreck w\ld probably be left4 ,! ,pitt's ,bank1 situat$ n f> s\?w>d1 appe>s to be precisely 9 ?is /ate2 x consi/s ( a mod]ately level1 oblong bank ( s&1 ly+ f #aj to #bj fa?oms b5ea? ! surface1 ) two sides protect$ by a n>r[ l$ge ( rock :i* is subm]g$ betwe5 #e & #h fa?oms4 ,a little fur!r s\?1 at ab\t ! same di/ance z ! s\!rn rim ( ! ,great ,*agos ,bank is f ! nor!rn rim1 !re are two o!r small banks ) f #aj to #bj fa?oms on !m2 & n f> ea/w>d s\nd+s 7 /ruck on a s&y bottom1 ) betwe5 #aaj & #ade fa?oms4 ,! nor!rn portion ) its l$ge-l m>g91 closely resembles any "o segm5t ( ! ,great ,*agos ,bank1 betwe5 two ( ! deep-wat] *annels1 & ! scatt]$ banks1 s\?w>d appe> to be ! la/ wrecks ( less p]fect portions4 ,i h exam9$ ) c>e ! *>ts ( ! ,indian & ,pacific ,oceans1 & h n[ br\ght be=e ! read] all ! examples1 :i* ,i h met )1 ( reefs diff]+ f ! type ( ! class to :i* !y belong2 & ,i ?9k x has be5 satisfactorily %[n1 t !y are all includ$ 9 our !ory1 modifi$ by occasional accid5ts :i* might h be5 anticipat$ z probable4 ,9 ?is c\rse we h se51 t 9 ! lapse ( ages encircl+ b>ri]-reefs are occasionally conv]t$ into atolls1 ! "n ( atoll be+ prop]ly applicable1 at ! mom5t :5 ! la/ p9nacle ( encircl$ l& s9ks b5ea? ! surface ( ! sea4 ,we h1 also1 se5 t l>ge atolls dur+ ! progressive subsid5ce ( ! areas 9 :i* !y /&1 sometimes become dissev]$ into small] ones2 at o!r times1 ! reef-build+ polypif]s hav+ entirely p]i%$1 atolls are conv]t$ into atoll-=m$ banks ( dead rock2 & ^! aga9 ?r\gh fur!r subsid5ce & ! accumulation ( s$im5t modifi$ by ! =ce ( ! oceanic curr5ts1 pass into level banks ) sc>cely any di/+ui%+ "*4 ,?us may ! hi/ory ( an atoll be foll[$ f its fir/ orig91 ?r\gh ! occasional accid5ts ( its exi/5ce1 to its de/ruction & f9al oblit]ation4 ,objections to ! !ory ( ! =mation ( atolls & b>ri]-reefs4--,! va/ am\nt ( subsid5ce1 bo? horizontally or 9 area1 & v]tically or 9 dep?1 necess>y to h subm]g$ e m\nta91 ev5 ! highe/1 ?r\gh\t ! imm5se spaces ( ocean int]sp]s$ ) atolls1 w probably /rike mo/ p z a =midable objection to my !ory4 ,b z cont95ts1 z l>ge z ! spaces suppos$ to h subsid$1 h be5 rais$ above ! level ( ! sea1--z :ole regions are n[ ris+1 = in/ance1 9 ,sc&9avia & ,s\? ,am]ica1--& z no reason c be assign$1 :y subsid5ces %\ld n h occurr$ 9 "s p>ts ( ! e>?'s cru/ on z great a scale bo? 9 ext5t & am\nt z ^? ( elevation1 objections ( ?is nature /rike me z ( little =ce4 ,! rem>kable po9t is t movem5ts to su* an ext5t %\ld h tak5 place )9 a p]iod1 dur+ :i* ! polypif]s h cont9u$ add+ matt] on & above ! same reefs4 ,ano!r & less obvi\s objection to ! !ory w p]haps be advanc$ f ! circum/ance1 ( ! lagoons )9 atolls & )9 b>ri]-reefs nev] hav+ become 9 any "o in/ance dur+ prolong$ subsid5ces ( a great] dep? ?an sixty fa?oms1 & seldom m ?an =ty fa?oms2 b we already admit1 if ! !ory be wor? consid]+1 t ! rate ( subsid5ce has n exce$$ t ( ! upw>d gr[? ( ! coral on ! ext]ior m>g92 we are1 !re=e1 only fur!r requir$ to admit1 t ! subsid5ce has n exce$$ 9 rate ! fill+ up ( ! int]ior spaces by ! gr[? ( ! corals liv+ !re1 & by ! accumulation ( s$im5t4 ,z ?is fill+ up mu/ take place v sl[ly )9 b>ri]-reefs ly+ f> f ! l&1 & )9 atolls :i* are ( l>ge dim5sions & :i* h op5 lagoons ) v few reefs1 we are l$ to conclude t ! subsid5ce ?us c\nt]-balanc$1 mu/ h be5 sl[ 9 an extraord9>y degree2 a conclusion :i* accords ) our only means1 namely1 ) :at is kn[n ( ! rate & mann] ( rec5t elevatory movem5ts1 ( judg+ by analogy :at is ! probable rate ( subsid5ce4 ,9 ?is *apt] x has1 ,i ?9k1 be5 %[n1 t ! !ory ( subsid5ce1 :i* we 7 compell$ to receive f ! necessity ( giv+ to ! corals1 9 c]ta9 l>ge areas1 f\ndations at ! requisite dep?1 expla9s bo? ! normal /ructure & ! less regul> =ms ( ^? two great classes ( reefs1 :i* h ju/ly excit$ ! a/oni%m5t ( all p]sons :o h sail$ ?r\gh ! ,pacific & ,indian ,oceans4 ,b fur!r to te/ ! tru? ( ! !ory1 a cr[d ( que/ions w occur to ! read]3 ,d ! diff]5t k9ds ( reefs1 :i* h be5 produc$ by ! same k9d ( movem5t1 g5]ally lie )9 ! same areas8 ,:at is _! relation ( =m & position1--= in/ance1 d adjo9+ gr\ps ( atolls1 & ! sep>ate atolls 9 ^! gr\ps1 be> ! same relation to ea* o!r :i* isl&s d 9 common ar*ipelagoes8 ,h we reason to believe1 t :]e !re are fr++-reefs1 !re has n lately be5 subsid5ce2 or1 = x is almo/ our only way ( asc]ta9+ ?is po9t1 are !re frequ5tly pro(s ( rec5t elevation8 ,c we by ?is means acc\nt = ! pres5ce ( c]ta9 classes ( reefs 9 "s l>ge areas1 & _! entire abs5ce 9 o!rs8 ,d ! areas :i* h subsid$1 z indicat$ by ! pres5ce ( atolls & b>ri]-reefs1 & ! areas :i* h rema9$ /ation>y or h be5 uprais$1 z %[n by fr++-reefs1 be> any det]m9ate relation to ea* o!r2 & are ! dim5sions ( ^! areas su* z h>monise ) ! greatness ( ! subt]ranean *anges1 :i*1 x mu/ be suppos$1 h lately tak5 place b5ea? !m8 ,is !re any connection betwe5 ! movem5ts ?us indicat$1 & rec5t volcanic action8 ,all ^! que/ions ought to receive answ]s 9 accordance ) ! !ory2 & if ?is c be satisfactorily %[n1 n only is ! !ory confirm$1 b z d$uctions1 ! answ]s are 9 !mselves important4 ,"u ?is latt] po9t ( view1 ^! que/ions w be *iefly consid]$ 9 ! foll[+ *apt]4#ag #ag ,i may take ?is opportunity ( briefly consid]+ ! appe>ances1 :i* w\ld probably be pres5t$ by a v]tical & deep section across a coral =mation 7ref]r+ *iefly to an atoll71 =m$ by ! upw>d gr[? ( coral dur+ successive subsid5ces4 ,?is is a subject wor?y ( att5tion1 z a means ( comp>ison ) anci5t coral-/rata4 ,! circumf]5tial p>ts w\ld consi/ ( massive species1 9 a v]tical position1 ) _! int]/ices fill$ up ) detritus2 b ?is w\ld be ! "p mo/ subject to subsequ5t d5udation & removal4 ,x is useless to speculate h[ l>ge a portion ( ! ext]ior annul> reef w\ld consi/ ( upright coral1 & h[ mu* ( fragm5t>y rock1 = ?is w\ld dep5d on _m cont+5cies1--su* z on ! rate ( subsid5ce1 occasionally all[+ a fre% gr[? ( coral to cov] ! :ole surface1 & on ! break]s hav+ =ce suffici5t to ?r[ fragm5ts ov] ?is same space4 ,! conglom]ate :i* composes ! base ( ! islets1 w\ld 7if n remov$ by d5udation toge!r ) ! ext]ior reef on :i* x re/s7 be conspicu\s f ! size ( ! fragm5ts1--! diff]5t degrees 9 :i* !y h be5 r\nd$1--! pres5ce ( fragm5ts ( conglom]ate torn up1 r\nd$1 & recem5t$1--& f ! oblique /ratification4 ,! corals :i* liv$ 9 ! lagoon-reefs at ea* successive level1 w\ld be pres]v$ upright1 & !y w\ld consi/ ( _m k9ds1 g5]ally mu* bran*$4 ,9 ?is "p1 h[ev]1 a v l>ge proportion ( ! rock 7& 9 "s cases ne>ly all ( x7 w\ld be =m$ ( s$im5t>y matt]1 ei!r 9 an excessively f9e1 or 9 a mod]ately co>se /ate1 & ) ! p>ticles almo/ bl5d$ toge!r4 ,! conglom]ate :i* 0 =m$ ( r\nd$ pieces ( ! bran*$ corals1 on ! %ores ( ! lagoon1 w\ld diff] f t =m$ on ! islets & d]iv$ f ! out] coa/2 yet bo? might h accumulat$ v ne> ea* o!r4 ,i h se5 a conglom]ate lime/one f ,devon%ire l a conglom]ate n[ =m+ on ! %ores ( ! ,maldiva atolls4 ,! /ratification tak5 z a :ole1 w\ld be horizontal2 b ! conglom]ate b$s re/+ on ! ext]ior reef1 & ! b$s ( s&/one on ! %ores ( ! lagoon 7& no d\bt on ! ext]nal flanks7 w\ld probably be divid$ 7z at ,keel+ atoll & at ,mauritius7 by num]\s lay]s dipp+ at consid]able angles 9 diff]5t directions4 ,! calc>e\s s&/one & coral-rock w\ld almo/ necess>ily conta9 innum]able %ells1 e*9i1 & ! bones ( fi%1 turtle1 & p]haps ( birds2 possibly1 also1 ! bones ( small saurians1 z ^! animals f9d _! way to ! isl&s f> remote f any cont95t4 ,! l>ge %ells ( "s species ( ,tridacna w\ld be f\nd v]tically imb$d$ 9 ! solid rock1 9 ! position 9 :i* !y liv$4 ,we might expect also to f9d a mixture ( ! rema9s ( pelagic & littoral animals 9 ! /rata =m$ 9 ! lagoon1 = pumice & ! se$s ( plants are float$ f di/ant c\ntries into ! lagoons ( _m atolls3 on ! out] coa/ ( ,keel+ atoll1 ne> ! m\? ( ! lagoon1 ! case ( a pelagic ,pt]opod\s animal 0 br\ght up on ! arm+ ( ! s\nd+ lead4 ,all ! loose blocks ( coral on ,keel+ atoll 7 burr[$ by v]mi=m animals2 & z e cavity1 no d\bt1 ultimately becomes fill$ ) spa?ose lime/one1 slabs ( ! rock tak5 f a consid]able dep?1 w\ld1 if poli%$1 probably exhibit ! excavations ( su* burr[+ animals4 ,! conglom]ate & f9e-gra9$ b$s ( coral-rock w\ld be h>d1 sonor\s1 :ite & compos$ ( ne>ly pure calc>e\s matt]2 9 "s few p>ts1 judg+ f ! specim5s at ,keel+ atoll1 !y w\ld probably conta9 a small quantity ( iron4 ,float+ pumice & scori1 & occasionally /ones transport$ 9 ! root ( trees 7see my 8,j\rnal ( ,rese>*es10 page #edi7 appe> ! only s\rces1 ?r\gh :i* =eign matt] is br\ght to coral-=mations /&+ 9 ! op5 ocean4 ,! area ov] :i* s$im5t is transport$ f coral-reefs mu/ be consid]able3 ,capta9 ,moresby in=ms me t dur+ ! *ange ( monsoons ! sea is discol\r$ to a consid]able di/ance (f ! ,maldiva & ,*agos atolls4 ,! s$im5t ( fr++ & b>ri] coral-reefs mu/ be m+l$ ) ! mud1 :i* is br\ght d[n f ! l&1 & is transport$ seaw>d ?r\gh ! brea*es1 :i* occur 9 front ( almo/ e valley4 ,if ! atolls ( ! l>g] ar*ipelagoes 7 uprais$1 ! b$ ( ! ocean be+ conv]t$ into l&1 !y w\ld =m flat-topp$ m\nta9s1 v>y+ 9 diamet] f a few miles 7! smalle/ atolls be+ worn away7 to sixty miles2 & f be+ horizontally /ratifi$ & ( simil> composition1 !y w\ld1 z ,mr4 ,lyell has rem>k$1 falsely appe> z if !y _h orig9ally be5 unit$ into "o va/ cont9u\s mass4 ,su* great /rata ( coral-rock w\ld r>ely be associat$ ) erupt$ volcanic matt]1 = ?is c\ld only take place1 z may be inf]r$ f :at foll[s 9 ! next *apt]1 :5 ! area1 9 :i* !y 7 situat$1 comm5c$ to rise1 or at lea/ ceas$ to subside4 ,dur+ ! enorm\s p]iod necess>y to effect an elevation ( ! k9d j allud$ to1 ! surface w\ld necess>ily be d5ud$ to a great ?ickness2 h5ce x is highly improbable t any fr++-reef1 or ev5 any b>ri]-reef1 at lea/ ( ^? encircl+ small isl&s1 w\ld be pres]v$4 ,f ?is same cause1 ! /rata :i* 7 =m$ )9 ! lagoons ( atolls & lagoon-*annels ( b>ri]-reefs1 & :i* mu/ consi/ 9 a l>ge "p ( s$im5t>y matt]1 w\ld m (t5 be pres]v$ to future ages1 ?an ! ext]ior solid reef1 compos$ ( massive corals 9 an upright position2 al?\gh x is on ?is ext]ior "p t ! pres5t exi/5ce & fur!r gr[? ( atolls & b>ri]-reefs entirely dep5d4 ,plate ,,iii--,map %[+ ! di/ribution ( coral-reefs & active volcanoes4 ,illu/ration3 ,map %[+ di/ribution ( coral-reefs & active volcanoes4 ,illu/ration3 ,map %[+ di/ribution ( coral-reefs & active volcanoes4 ,illu/ration3 ,map %[+ di/ribution ( coral-reefs & active volcanoes4 ,! pr9ciples1 on :i* ?is map 0 col\r$1 are expla9$ 9 ! beg9n+ ( ,*apt] ,,vi2 & ! au?orities = ea* p>ticul> spot are detail$ 9 ! ,app5dix to ,coral ,reefs4 ,! names n pr9t$ 9 upp] case 9 ! ,index ref] to ! ,app5dix4 ,*apt] ,,vi ,,on ,,! ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,coral-,,reefs ,,) ,,ref]5ce ,,to ,,! ,,!ory ,,( ,,_! ,,=mation ,description ( ! col\r$ map4--,proximity ( atolls & b>ri]-reefs4--,relation 9 =m & position ( atolls ) ord9>y isl&s4--,direct evid5ce ( subsid5ce difficult to be detect$4--,pro(s ( rec5t elevation :]e fr++-reefs occur4--,oscillations ( level4--,abs5ce ( active volcanoes 9 ! areas ( subsid5ce4--,imm5sity ( ! areas :i* h be5 elevat$ & h subsid$4--,_! relation to ! pres5t di/ribution ( ! l&4--,areas ( subsid5ce elongat$1 _! int]section & alt]nation ) ^? ( elevation4--,am\nt & sl[ rate ( ! subsid5ce4--,recapitulation4 ,x w be conv5i5t to give "h a %ort acc\nt ( ! app5d$ map 7,plate ,,iii73#a a full] "o1 ) ! data = col\r+ ea* spot1 is res]v$ = ! ,app5dix2 & e place !re ref]r$ to may be f\nd 9 ! ,index4 ,a l>g] *>t w\ld h be5 desirable2 b1 small z ! adjo9$ "o is1 x is ! result ( _m mon?s' lab\r4 ,i h consult$1 z f> z ,i 0 able1 e orig9al voyage & map2 & ! col\rs 7 fir/ laid d[n on *>ts on a l>g] scale4 ,! same blue col\r1 ) m]ely a diff]5ce 9 ! dep? ( t9t1 is us$ = atolls or lagoon-isl&s1 & b>ri]-reefs1 = we h se51 t z f> z ! actual coral-=mation is conc]n$1 !y h no di/+ui%+ "*4 ,fr++-reefs h be5 col\r$ r$1 = betwe5 !m on ! "o h&1 & b>ri]-reefs & atolls on ! o!r1 !re is an important di/9ction ) respect to ! dep? b5ea? ! surface1 at :i* we are compell$ to believe _! f\ndations lie4 ,! two di/9ct col\rs1 !re=e1 m>k two great types ( /ructure4 #a ,inasmu* z ! col\r$ map w\ld h prov$ too co/ly to be giv5 9 ?is s]ies1 ! indications ( col\r h be5 replac$ by numb]s ref]r+ to ! dott$ gr\ps ( reefs1 etc4 ,! au?or's orig9al word+1 h[ev]1 is reta9$ 9 full1 z x w be easy to ref] to ! map by ! numb]s1 & ?us ! fl[ ( ! n>rative is undi/urb$4 ,! d>k blue col\r repres5t$ by 7#c7 9 our plate repres5ts atolls & subm]g$ annul> reefs1 ) deep wat] 9 _! c5tres4 ,i h col\r$ z atolls1 a few l[ & small coral-isl&s1 )\t lagoons2 b ?is has be5 done only :5 x cle>ly appe>$ t !y orig9ally conta9$ lagoons1 s9ce fill$ up ) s$im5t3 :5 !re 7 n good gr\nds = ?is belief1 !y h be5 left uncol\r$4 ,! pale blue col\r repres5t$ by 7#b7 repres5ts b>ri]-reefs4 ,! mo/ obvi\s "* ( reefs ( ?is class is ! broad & deep-wat] moat )9 ! reef3 b ?is1 l ! lagoons ( small atolls1 is liable to become fill$ up ) detritus & ) reefs ( delicately bran*$ corals3 :51 !re=e1 a reef r\nd ! entire circumf]5ce ( an isl& ext5ds v f> into a pr(\ndly deep sea1 s t x c h>dly be conf\nd$ ) a fr++-reef :i* mu/ re/ on a f\ndation ( rock )9 a small dep?1 x has be5 col\r$ pale blue1 al?\gh x does n include a deep-wat] moat3 b ?is has only be5 done r>ely1 & ea* case is di/9ctly m5tion$ 9 ! ,app5dix4 ,! r$ col\r 7#d7 repres5ts reefs fr++ ! l& q closely :]e ! sea is deep1 & :]e ! bottom is g5tly incl9$ ext5d+ to a mod]ate di/ance f x1 b n hav+ a deep-wat] moat or lagoon-l space p>allel to ! %ore4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ t fr++-reefs are frequ5tly brea*$ 9 front ( riv]s & valleys by deepi% *annels1 :]e mud has be5 deposit$4 ,a space ( ?irty miles 9 wid? has be5 col\r$ r\nd or 9 front ( ! reefs ( ea* class1 9 ord] t ! col\rs might be conspicu\s on ! app5d$ map1 :i* is r$uc$ to s small a scale4 ,! v]million spots1 & /reaks 7#a7 repres5t volcanoes n[ 9 action1 or hi/orically kn[n to h be5 s4 ,!y are *iefly laid d[n f ,von ,bu*'s "w on ! ,can>y ,isl&s2 & my reasons = mak+ a few alt]ations are giv5 9 ! note bel[4#b #b ,i h also made consid]able use ( ! geological "p ( ,b]ghaus' 8,physical ,atlas40 ,beg9n+ at ! ea/]n side ( ! ,pacific1 ,i h add$ to ! numb] ( ! volcanoes 9 ! s\!rn "p ( ! ,cordill]a1 & h col\r$ ,juan ,f]n&ez accord+ to obs]vations collect$ dur+ ! voyage ( ! ,beagle 78,geol4 ,trans410 vol4 v1 p4 #fja74 ,i h add$ a volcano to ,albem>le ,isl&1 "o ( ! ,galapagos ,ar*ipelago 7! au?or's 8,j\rnal ( ,rese>*es10 p4 #deg74 ,9 ! ,s&wi* gr\p !re are no active volcanoes1 except at ,hawaii2 b ! ,rev4 ,w4 ,ellis in=ms me1 !re are /reams ( lava app>5tly mod]n on ,maui1 hav+ a v rec5t appe>ance1 :i* c be trac$ to ! crat]s :5ce !y fl[$4 ,! same g5tleman in=ms me1 t !re is no reason to believe t any active volcano exi/s 9 ! ,society ,ar*ipelago2 nor are !re any kn[n 9 ! ,samoa or ,navigator gr\p1 al?\gh "s ( ! /reams ( lava & crat]s !re appe> rec5t4 ,9 ! ,fri5dly gr\p1 ! ,rev4 ,j4 ,williams says 78,n>rative ( ,mission>y ,ent]prise10 p4 #bi7 t ,to(oa & ,proby ,isl&s are active volcanoes4 ,i inf] f ,hamilton's 8,voyage 9 ! ,p&ora0 7p4 #ie71 t ,proby ,isl& is synonym\s ) ,on\af\1 b ,i h n v5tur$ to col\r x4 ,!re c be no d\bt respect+ ,to(oa1 & ,capta9 ,edw>ds 7,von ,bu*1 p4 #chf7 f\nd ! lava ( rec5t eruption at ,am>gura /ill smok+4 ,b]ghaus m>ks f\r active volcanoes actually )9 ! ,fri5dly gr\p2 b ,i d n "k on :at au?ority3 ,i may m5tion t ,maurelle describes ,latte z hav+ a burnt-up appe>ance3 ,i h m>k$ only ,to(oa & ,am>gura4 ,s\? ( ! ,new ,hebrides lies ,mat!ws ,rock1 :i* is drawn & describ$ z an active crat] 9 ! 8,voyage ( ! ,a/rolabe40 ,betwe5 x & ! volcano on ! ea/]n side ( ,new ,zeal&1 lies ,brim/one ,isl&1 :i* f ! high temp]ature ( ! wat] 9 ! crat]1 may be rank$ z active 7,b]ghaus 8,vorbem]k10 ,,ii ,lief4 ,s4 #ef74 ,malte ,brun1 vol4 xii1 p4 #bca1 says t !re is a volcano ne> port ,/4 ,v9c5t 9 ,new ,cal$onia4 ,i believe ?is to be an error1 aris+ f a smoke se5 on ! opposite coa/ by ,cook 78,second ,voyage10 vol4 ii1 p4 #bc7 :i* smoke w5t out at night4 ,! ,m>iana ,isl&s1 especially ! nor!rn ones1 conta9 _m crat]s 7see ,freyc9et's 8,hydrog4 ,descript407 :i* are n active4 ,von ,bu*1 h[ev]1 /ates 7p4 #dfb7 on ! au?ority ( ,la ,peyr\se1 t !re are no less ?an sev5 volcanoes betwe5 ^! isl&s & ,japan4 ,gemelli ,cr]i 7,*ur*ill's 8,collect40 vol4 iv1 p4 #deh71 says !re are two active volcanoes 9 latitude #bc #cj1 & 9 latitude #bd3 b ,i h n col\r$ !m4 ,f ! /atem5ts 9 ,bee*ey's 8,voyage0 7p4 #eah1 #dto edit47 ,i h col\r$ "o 9 ! nor!rn "p ( ! ,bon9 gr\p4 ,m4 ,s4 ,juli5 has cle>ly made out f ,*9ese manuscripts n v anci5t 78,comptes ,r5dus10 #ahdj1 p4 #hcb71 t !re are two active volcanoes on ! ea/]n side ( ,=mosa4 ,9 ,torres ,/raits1 on ,cap ,isl& 7#i #dh ,s41 #adb #ci ,e47 a volcano 0 se5 burn+ ) great viol5ce 9 #agic by ,capta9 ,bampton 7see ,introduction to ,fl9d]s' 8,voyage10 p4 #da74 ,mr4 ,m',clell& 7,report ( ,committee = inve/igat+ ,coal 9 ,india1 p4 #ci7 has %[n t ! volcanic b& pass+ ?r\gh ,b>r5 ,isl& mu/ be ext5d$ nor?w>ds4 ,x appe>s by an old *>t1 t ,*$uba 0 once an active volcano 7see also ,silliman's ,nor? ,am]ican ,j\rnal1 vol4 xxxviii1 p4 #che74 ,9 ,b]ghaus' 8,phys4 ,atlas10 #ahdj1 ,no4 #g ( ,geological ,"p1 a volcano on ! coa/ ( ,pondi*]ry is said to h bur/ =? 9 #ageg4 ,ord9aire 78,hi/4 ,nat4 des ,volcans10 p4 #bah7 says t !re is "o at ! m\? ( ! ,p]sian ,gulf1 b ,i h n col\r$ x1 z he gives no p>ticul>s4 ,a volcano 9 ,am/]dam1 or ,/4 ,paul's1 9 ! s\!rn "p ( ! ,indian ,ocean1 has be5 se5 7,naut4 ,mag4 #ahch1 p4 #hdb7 9 action4 ,dr4 ,j4 ,allan1 ( ,=res1 in=ms me 9 a lett]1 t :5 he 0 at ,joanna1 he saw at night flames app>5tly volcanic1 issu+ f ! *ief ,comoro ,isl&1 & t ! ,arabs assur$ him t !y 7 volcanic1 add+ t ! volcano burn$ m dur+ ! wet season4 ,i h m>k$ ?is z a volcano1 ?\gh ) "s hesitation1 on acc\nt ( ! possibility ( ! flame aris+ f gase\s s\rces4 ,! uncol\r$ coa/s consi/1 fir/ & *iefly1 ( ^?1 :]e !re are no coral-reefs1 or su* small portions z to be q insignificant4 ,secondly1 ( ^? coa/s :]e !re are reefs1 b :]e ! sea is v %all[1 = 9 ?is case ! reefs g5]ally lie f> f ! l&1 & become v irregul>1 9 _! =ms3 :]e !y h n become irregul>1 !y h be5 col\r$4 ?irdly1 if ,i _h ! means ( asc]ta9+ ! fact1 ,i %\ld n col\r a reef m]ely coat+ ! edges ( a subm>9e crat]1 or ( a level subm]g$ bank2 = su* sup]ficial =mations diff] ess5tially1 ev5 :5 n 9 ext]nal appe>ance1 f reefs ^: f\ndations z well z sup]ficies h be5 :olly =m$ by ! gr[? ( coral4 ,f\r?ly1 9 ! ,r$ ,sea1 & )9 "s p>ts ( ! ,ea/ ,indian ,ar*ipelago 7if ! imp]fect *>ts ( ! latt] c be tru/$71 !re are _m scatt]$ reefs1 ( small size1 repres5t$ 9 ! *>t by m]e dots1 :i* rise out ( deep wat]3 ^! _c be arrang$ "u ei!r ( ! ?ree classes3 9 ! ,r$ ,sea1 h[ev]1 "s ( ^! little reefs1 f _! position1 seem once to h =m$ p>ts ( a cont9u\s b>ri]4 ,!re exi/1 also1 scatt]$ 9 ! op5 ocean1 "s l9e> & irregul>ly =m$ /rips ( coral-reef1 :i*1 z %[n 9 ! la/ *apt]1 are probably alli$ 9 _! orig9 to atolls2 b z !y d n belong to t class1 !y h n be5 col\r$2 !y are v few 9 numb] & ( insignificant dim5sions4 ,la/ly1 "s reefs are left uncol\r$ f ! want ( in=mation respect+ !m1 & "s because !y are ( an int]m$iate /ructure betwe5 ! b>ri] & fr++ classes4 ,! value ( ! map is less5$1 9 proportion to ! numb] ( reefs :i* ,i h be5 oblig$ to leave uncol\r$1 al?\gh1 9 a !oretical po9t ( view1 few ( !m pres5t any great difficulty3 b _! numb] is n v great1 z w be f\nd by comp>+ ! map ) ! /atem5ts 9 ! ,app5dix4 ,i h exp]i5c$ m difficulty 9 col\r+ fr++-reefs ?an 9 col\r+ b>ri]-reefs1 z ! =m]1 f _! mu* less dim5sions1 h less attract$ ! att5tion ( navigators4 ,z ,i h _h to seek my in=mation f all k9ds ( s\rces1 & (t5 f indirect ones1 ,i d n v5ture to hope t ! map is free f _m errors4 ,nev]!less1 ,i tru/ x w give an approximately correct view ( ! g5]al di/ribution ( ! coral-reefs ov] ! :ole _w 7) ! exception ( "s fr++-reefs on ! coa/ ( ,brazil1 n includ$ )9 ! limits ( ! map71 & ( _! arrangem5t into ! ?ree great classes1 :i*1 ?\gh necess>ily v imp]fect f ! nature ( ! objects classifi$1 h be5 adopt$ by mo/ voyag]s4 ,i may fur!r rem>k1 t ! d>k blue col\r repres5ts l& entirely compos$ ( coral-rock2 ! pale blue1 l& ) a wide & ?ick bord] ( coral-rock2 & ! r$1 a m]e n>r[ fr+e ( coral-rock4 ,look+ n[ at ! map "u ! !oretical po9t ( view indicat$ 9 ! la/ *apt]1 ! two blue t9ts signify t ! f\ndations ( ! reefs ?us col\r$ h subsid$ to a consid]able am\nt1 at a sl[] rate ?an t ( ! upw>d gr[? ( ! corals1 & t probably 9 _m cases !y are /ill subsid+4 ,! r$ signifies t ! %ores :i* support fr++-reefs h n subsid$ 7at lea/ to any consid]able am\nt1 = ! effects ( a subsid5ce on a small scale w\ld 9 no case be di/+ui%able72 b t !y h rema9$ ne>ly /ation>y s9ce ! p]iod :5 !y fir/ became fr+$ by reefs2 or t !y are n[ ris+ or h be5 uprais$1 ) new l9es ( reefs successively =m$ on !m3 ^! latt] alt]natives are obvi\sly impli$1 z newly =m$ l9es ( %ore1 aft] elevations ( ! l&1 w\ld be 9 ! same /ate ) respect to ! gr[? ( fr++-reefs1 z /ation>y coa/s4 ,if dur+ ! prolong$ subsid5ce ( a %ore1 coral-reefs grew = ! fir/ "t on x1 or if an old b>ri]-reef 7 de/roy$ & subm]g$1 & new reefs became atta*$ to ! l&1 ^! w\ld necess>ily at fir/ belong to ! fr++ class1 &1 !re=e1 be col\r$ r$1 al?\gh ! coa/ 0 s9k+3 b ,i h no reason to believe1 t f ?is s\rce ( error1 any coa/ has be5 col\r$ wrongly ) respect to movem5t indicat$4 ,well *>act]is$ atolls & encircl+ b>ri]-reefs1 :]e sev]al occur 9 a gr\p1 or a s+le b>ri]-reef if ( l>ge dim5sions1 leave sc>cely any d\bt on ! m9d respect+ ! movem5t by :i* !y h be5 produc$2 & ev5 a small am\nt ( subsequ5t elevation is soon betray$4 ,! evid5ce f a s+le atoll or a s+le encircl+ b>ri]-reef1 mu/ be receiv$ ) "s caution1 = ! =m] may possibly be bas$ ^u a subm]g$ crat] or bank1 & ! latt] on a subm]g$ m>g9 ( s$im5t1 or ( worn-d[n rock4 ,f ^! rem>ks we may ) great] c]ta9ty inf] t ! spaces1 especially ! l>g] ones1 t9t$ blue 9 ! map1 h subsid$1 ?an t ! r$ spaces h rema9$ /ation>y1 or h be5 uprais$4 ,on ! gr\p+ ( ! diff]5t classes ( reefs4--,hav+ made ^! prelim9>y rem>ks1 ,i w consid] fir/ h[ f> ! gr\p+ ( ! diff]5t k9ds ( coral-isl&s & reefs is corroborative ( ! tru? ( ! !ory4 ,a glance at ! map %[s t ! reefs1 col\r$ blue & r$1 produc$ "u widely diff]5t conditions1 are n indiscrim9ately mix$ toge!r4 ,atolls & b>ri]-reefs1 on ! o!r h&1 z may be se5 by ! two blue t9ts1 g5]ally lie ne> ea* o!r2 & ?is w\ld be ! natural result ( bo? hav+ be5 produc$ dur+ ! subsid5ce ( ! areas 9 :i* !y /&4 ,?us1 ! l>ge/ gr\p ( encircl$ isl&s is t ( ! ,society ,ar*ipelago2 & ^! isl&s are surr\nd$ by atolls1 & only sep>at$ by a n>r[ space f ! l>ge gr\p ( ,l[ atolls4 ,9 ! mid/ ( ! ,c>ol9e atolls1 !re are ?ree f9e encircl$ isl&s4 ,! nor!rn po9t ( ! b>ri]-reef ( ,new ,cal$onia seems itself1 z be=e rem>k$1 to =m a complete l>ge atoll4 ,! great ,au/ralian b>ri] is describ$ z includ+ bo? atolls & small encircl$ isl&s4 ,capta9 ,k+#c m5tions _m atoll-=m$ & encircl+ coral-reefs1 "s ( :i* lie )9 ! b>ri]1 & o!rs may be said 7= in/ance betwe5 lat4 #af & #ac7 to =m "p ( x4 ,fl9d]s#d has describ$ an atoll-=m$ reef 9 lat4 #aj1 sev5 miles long & f "o to ?ree broad1 resembl+ a boot 9 %ape1 ) app>5tly v deep wat] )94 ,eight miles we/w>d ( ?is1 & =m+ "p ( ! b>ri]1 lie ! ,murray ,isl&s1 :i* are high & are encircl$4 ,9 ! ,corallian ,sea1 betwe5 ! two great b>ri]s ( ,au/ralia & ,new ,cal$onia1 !re are _m l[ islets & coral-reefs1 "s ( :i* are annul>1 or horse-%oe %ap$4 ,obs]v+ ! smallness ( ! scale ( ! map1 ! p>allels ( latitude be+ n9e hundr$ miles ap>t1 we see t none ( ! l>ge gr\ps ( reefs & isl&s suppos$ to h be5 produc$ by long-cont9u$ subsid5ce1 lie ne> ext5sive l9es ( coa/ col\r$ r$1 :i* are suppos$ to h rema9$ /ation>y s9ce ! gr[? ( _! reefs1 or to h be5 uprais$ & new l9es ( reefs =m$ on !m4 ,:]e ! r$ & blue circles d occur ne> ea* o!r1 ,i am able1 9 sev]al in/ances1 to %[ t !re h be5 oscillations ( level1 subsid5ce hav+ prec$$ ! elevation ( ! r$ spots2 & elevation hav+ prec$$ ! subsid5ce ( ! blue spots3 & 9 ?is case ! juxtaposition ( reefs belong+ to ! two great types ( /ructure is little surpris+4 ,we may1 !re=e1 conclude t ! proximity 9 ! same areas ( ! two classes ( reefs1 :i* owe _! orig9 to ! subsid5ce ( ! e>?'s cru/1 & _! sep>ation f ^? =m$ dur+ its /ation>y or upris+ condition1 holds good to ! full ext5t1 :i* might h be5 anticipat$ by our !ory4 #c ,sail+ directions1 app5d$ to vol4 ii ( 8 8,survey+ ,voyage to ,au/ralia40 #d 8,voyage to ,t]ra ,au/ralis10 vol4 ii1 p4 #ccf4 ,z gr\ps ( atolls h orig9at$ 9 ! upw>d gr[?1 at ea* fre% s9k+ ( ! l&1 ( ^? reefs :i* prim>ily fr+$ ! %ores ( "o great isl&1 or ( sev]al small] ones2 s we might expect t ^! r+s ( coral-rock1 l s _m rude outl9e *>ts1 w /ill reta9 "s traces ( ! g5]al =m1 or at lea/ g5]al range1 ( ! l&1 r\nd :i* !y 7 fir/ modell$4 ,t ?is is ! case ) ! atolls 9 ! ,s\!rn ,pacific z f> z _! range is conc]n$1 seems highly probable1 :5 we obs]ve t ! ?ree pr9cipal gr\ps are direct$ 9 nor?-we/ & s\?-ea/ l9es1 & t ne>ly all ! l& 9 ! ,s4 ,pacific ranges 9 ?is same direction2 namely1 ,n4 ,we/]n ,au/ralia1 ,new ,cal$onia1 ! nor!rn half ( ,new ,zeal&1 ! ,new ,hebrides1 ,saloman1 ,navigator1 ,society1 ,m>quesas1 & ,au/ral ar*ipelagoes3 9 ! ,nor!rn ,pacific1 ! ,c>ol9e atolls abut aga9/ ! nor?-we/ l9e ( ! ,m>%all atolls1 mu* 9 ! same mann] z ! ea/ & we/ l9e ( isl&s f ,c]am to ,new ,brita9 d on ,new ,irel&3 9 ! ,indian ,ocean ! ,laccadive & ,maldiva atolls ext5d ne>ly p>allel to ! we/]n & m\nta9\s coa/ ( ,india4 ,9 mo/ respects1 !re is a p]fect resemblance ) ord9>y isl&s 9 ! gr\p+ ( atolls & 9 _! =m3 ?us ! outl9e ( all ! l>g] gr\ps is elongat$2 & ! great] numb] ( ! individual atolls are elongat$ 9 ! same direction ) ! gr\p1 9 :i* !y /&4 ,! ,*agos gr\p is less elongat$ ?an is usual ) o!r gr\ps1 & ! individual atolls 9 x are likewise b little elongat$2 ?is is /rik+ly se5 by comp>+ !m ) ! neighb\r+ ,maldiva atolls4 ,9 ! ,m>%all & ,maldiva ar*ipelagoes1 ! atolls are rang$ 9 two p>allel l9es1 l ! m\nta9s 9 a great d\ble m\nta9-*a94 ,"s ( ! atolls1 9 ! l>g] ar*ipelagoes1 /& s ne> to ea* o!r1 & h su* an evid5t relation%ip 9 =m1 t !y compose little sub-gr\ps3 9 ! ,c>ol9e ,ar*ipelago1 "o su* sub-gr\p consi/s ( ,p\ynipete1 a l(ty isl& encircl$ by a b>ri]-reef1 & sep>at$ by a *annel only f\r miles & a half wide f ,&eema atoll1 ) a second atoll a little fur!r (f4 ,9 all ^! respects an exam9ation ( a s]ies ( *>ts w %[ h[ p]fectly gr\ps ( atolls resemble gr\ps ( common isl&s4 ,on ! direct evid5ce ( ! blue spaces 9 ! map hav+ subsid$ dur+ ! upw>d gr[? ( ! reefs s col\r$1 & ( ! r$ spaces hav+ rema9$ /ation>y1 or hav+ be5 uprais$4--,) respect to subsid5ce1 ,i h %[n 9 ! la/ *apt]1 t we _c expect to obta9 9 c\ntries inhabit$ only by semi-civilis$ races1 demon/rative pro(s ( a movem5t1 :i* inv>iably t5ds to conceal its own evid5ce4 ,b on ! coral-isl&s suppos$ to h be5 produc$ by subsid5ce1 we h pro(s ( *anges 9 _! ext]nal appe>ance--( a r\nd ( decay & r5ovation--( ! la/ ve/iges ( l& on "s--( its fir/ comm5cem5t on o!rs3 we he> ( /orms desolat+ !m to ! a/oni%m5t ( _! inhabitants3 we "k by ! great fissures ) :i* "s ( !m are trav]s$1 & by ! e>?quakes felt "u o!rs1 t subt]ranean di/urbances ( "s k9d are 9 progress4 ,^! facts1 if n directly connect$ ) subsid5ce1 z ,i believe !y are1 at lea/ %[ h[ difficult x w\ld be to discov] pro(s ( su* movem5t by ord9>y means4 ,at ,keel+ atoll1 h[ev]1 ,i h describ$ "s appe>ances1 :i* seem directly to %[ t subsid5ce did take place !re dur+ ! late e>?quakes4 ,vanikoro1 accord+ to ,*evali] ,dillon1#e is (t5 viol5tly %ak5 by e>?quakes1 & !re1 ! unusual dep? ( ! *annel betwe5 ! %ore & ! reef1--! almo/ entire abs5ce ( islets on ! reef1--its wall-l /ructure on ! inn] side1 & ! small quantity ( l[ alluvial l& at ! foot ( ! m\nta9s1 all seem to %[ t ?is isl& has n rema9$ long at its pres5t level1 ) ! lagoon-*annel subject$ to ! accumulation ( s$im5t1 & ! reef to ! we> & te> ( ! break]s4 ,at ! ,society ,ar*ipelago1 on ! o!r h&1 :]e a slight tremor is only r>ely felt1 ! %oal9ess ( ! lagoon-*annels r\nd "s ( ! isl&s1 ! numb] ( islets =m$ on ! reefs ( o!rs1 & ! broad belt ( l[ l& at ! foot ( ! m\nta9s1 indicate t1 al?\gh !re mu/ h be5 great subsid5ce to h produc$ ! b>ri]-reefs1 !re has s9ce elaps$ a long /ation>y p]iod4#f #e ,see ,capta9 ,dillon's 8,voyage 9 se>* ( ,la ,peyr\se40 ,m4 ,cordi] 9 8 8,report on ! ,voyage ( ! #8,a/rolabe'0 7p4 cxi1 vol4 i71 speak+ ( ,vanikoro1 says ! %ores are surr\nd$ by reefs ( madrepore1 8qu'on assure etre de =mation t\t-a-fait mod]ne40 ,i h 9 va9 endeav\r$ to le>n "s fur!r p>ticul>s ab\t ?is rem>kable passage4 ,i may "h add1 t accord+ to our !ory1 ! isl& ( ,p\ynipete 7,plate ,i1 ,fig4 #g71 9 ! ,c>ol9e ,ar*ipelago1 be+ encircl$ by a b>ri]-reef1 mu/ h subsid$4 ,9 ! ,new ,s4 ,wales ,lit4 ,adv]t4 ,febru>y #ahce 7:i* ,i h se5 ?r\gh ! fav\r ( ,dr4 ,lloghtsky71 !re is an acc\nt ( ?is isl& 7subsequ5tly confirm$ by ,mr4 ,campbell71 9 :i* x is said1 8,at ! ,n4,e4 end1 at a place call$ ,tam51 !re are ru9s ( a t[n1 n[ only accessible by boats1 ! waves rea*+ to ! /eps ( ! h\ses40 ,judg+ f ?is passage1 "o w\ld be tempt$ to conclude t ! isl& mu/ h subsid$1 s9ce ^! h\ses 7 built4 ,i may1 also1 "h app5d a /atem5t 9 ,malte ,brun 7vol4 ix1 p4 #gge1 giv5 )\t any au?ority71 t ! sea ga9s 9 an extraord9>y mann] on ! coa/ ( ,co*9 ,*9a1 :i* lies 9 front & ne> ! subsid+ coral-reefs 9 ! ,*9a ,sea3 z ! coa/ is granitic1 & n alluvial1 x is sc>cely possible t ! encroa*m5t ( ! sea c be ow+ to ! wa%+ away ( ! l&2 & if s1 x mu/ be due to subsid5ce4 #f ,mr4 ,c\?\y /ates 78,rem>ks10 p4 #dd7 t at ,tahiti & ,eimeo ! space betwe5 ! reef & ! %ore has be5 ne>ly fill$ up by ! ext5sion ( ^? coral-reefs1 :i* )9 mo/ b>ri]-reefs m]ely fr+e ! l&4 ,f ?is circum/ance1 he arrives at ! same conclusion z ,i h done1 t ! ,society ,isl&s s9ce _! subsid5ce1 h rema9$ /ation>y dur+ a long p]iod2 b he fur!r believes t !y h rec5tly comm5c$ ris+1 z well z ! :ole area ( ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago4 ,he does n give any detail$ pro(s reg>d+ ! elevation ( ! ,society ,isl&s1 b ,i %all ref] to ?is subject 9 ano!r "p ( ?is *apt]4 ,be=e mak+ "s fur!r comm5ts1 ,i may obs]ve h[ satisfactory x is to me1 to f9d ,mr4 ,c\?\y affirm+1 t 8hav+ p]sonally exam9$ a l>ge numb] ( coral-isl&s1 & also resid+ eight mon?s among ! volcanic class1 hav+ %ore & p>tially encircl+ reefs1 ,i may be p]mitt$ to /ate t my own obs]vations h impress$ a conviction ( ! correctness ( ! !ory ( ,mr4 ,d>w940 ,?is g5tleman believes1 t subsequ5tly to ! subsid5ce by :i* ! atolls 9 ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago 7 produc$1 ! :ole area has be5 elevat$ to ! am\nt ( a few feet2 ?is w\ld inde$ be a rem>kable fact2 b z f> z ,i am able to judge1 ! gr\nds ( 8 conclusion are n suffici5tly /rong4 ,he /ates t he f\nd 9 almo/ e atoll :i* he visit$1 ! %ores ( ! lagoon rais$ f eighte5 to ?irty in*es above ! sea-level1 & conta9+ imb$d$ ,tridacn & corals /&+ z !y grew2 "s ( ! corals 7 dead 9 _! upp] p>ts1 b bel[ a c]ta9 l9e !y cont9u$ to fl\ri%4 ,9 ! lagoons1 also1 he frequ5tly met ) clu/]s ( ,madrepore1 ) _! extremities /&+ f "o in* to a foot above ! surface ( ! wat]4 ,n[1 ^! appe>ances are exactly :at ,i %\ld h expect$1 )\t any subsequ5t elevation hav+ tak5 place2 & ,i ?9k ,mr4 ,c\?\y has n borne 9 m9d ! indisputable fact1 t corals1 :5 con/antly ba!d by ! surf1 c exi/ at a high] level ?an 9 q tranquil wat]1 z 9 a lagoon4 ,z long1 !re=e1 z ! waves cont9u$ at l[ wat] to break entirely ov] p>ts ( ! annul> reef ( an atoll1 subm]g$ to a small dep?1 ! corals & %ells atta*$ on ^! p>ts might cont9ue liv+ at a level above ! smoo? surface ( ! lagoon1 into :i* ! waves roll$2 b z soon z ! out] edge ( ! reef grew up to its utmo/ possible height1 or if ! reef 7 v broad ne>ly to t height1 ! =ce ( ! break]s w\ld be *eck$1 & ! corals & %ells on ! inn] p>ts ne> ! lagoon w\ld occasionally be left dry1 & ?us be p>tially or :olly de/roy$4 ,ev5 9 atolls1 :i* h n lately subsid$1 if ! out] m>g9 ( ! reef cont9u$ to increase 9 bread? seaw>d 7ea* fre% zone ( corals ris+ to ! same v]tical height z at ,keel+ atoll71 ! l9e :]e ! waves broke mo/ heavily w\ld advance outw>ds1 & !re=e ! corals1 :i* :5 liv+ ne> ! m>g91 7 wa%$ by ! break+ waves dur+ ! :ole ( ea* tide1 w\ld cease be+ s1 & w\ld !re=e be left on ! backw>d "p ( ! reef /&+ expos$ & dead4 ,! case ( ! madrepores 9 ! lagoons ) ! tops ( _! bran*es expos$1 seems to be an analog\s fact1 to ! great fields ( dead b upright corals 9 ! lagoon ( ,keel+ atoll2 a condition ( ?+s :i* ,i h endeav\r$ to %[1 has result$ f ! lagoon hav+ become m & m enclos$ & *ok$ up ) reefs1 s t dur+ high w9ds1 ! ris+ ( ! tide 7z obs]v$ by ! inhabitants7 is *eck$1 & ! corals1 :i* _h =m]ly gr[n to ! greate/ possible height1 are occasionally expos$1 & ?us are kill$3 & ?is is a condition ( ?+s1 t[>ds :i* almo/ e atoll 9 ! int]vals ( its subsid5ce mu/ be t5d+4 ,or if we look to ! /ate ( an atoll directly aft] a subsid5ce ( "s fa?oms1 ! waves w\ld roll heavily ov] ! entire circumf]5ce ( ! reef1 & ! surface ( ! lagoon w\ld1 l ! ocean1 nev] be q at re/1 & !re=e ! corals 9 ! lagoon1 f be+ con/antly lav$ by ! rippl+ wat]1 might ext5d _! bran*es to a little great] height ?an !y c\ld1 :5 ! lagoon became enclos$ & protect$4 ,*ri/mas atoll 7#b ,n4 lat47 :i* has a v %all[ lagoon1 & diff]s 9 sev]al respects f mo/ atolls1 possibly may h be5 elevat$ rec5tly2 b its highe/ "p appe>s 7,c\?\y1 p4 #df7 to be only t5 feet above ! sea-level4 ,! facts ( a second class1 adduc$ by ,mr4 ,c\?\y1 9 support ( ! alleg$ rec5t elevation ( ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago1 are n all 7especially ^? ref]r+ to a %elf ( rock7 q intelligible to me2 he believes t c]ta9 enorm\s fragm5ts ( rock on ! reef1 mu/ h be5 mov$ into _! pres5t position1 :5 ! reef 0 at a l[] level2 b "h aga9 ! =ce ( ! break]s on any inn] po9t ( ! reef be+ dim9i%$ by its outw>d gr[? )\t any *ange 9 its level1 has n1 ,i ?9k1 be5 borne 9 m9d4 ,we %\ld1 also1 n ov]look ! occasional ag5cy ( waves caus$ by e>?quakes & hurricanes4 ,mr4 ,c\?\y fur!r argues1 t s9ce ^! great fragm5ts 7 deposit$ & fix$ on ! reef1 !y h be5 elevat$2 he inf]s ?is f ! greate/ am\nt ( erosion n be+ ne> _! bases1 :]e !y are unceas+ly wa%$ by ! reflux ( ! tides1 b at "s height on _! sides1 ne> ! l9e ( high-wat] m>k1 z %[n 9 an accompany+ diagram4 ,my =m] rem>k aga9 applies "h1 ) ?is fur!r obs]vation1 t z ! waves h to roll ov] a wide space ( reef be=e !y rea* ! fragm5ts1 _! =ce mu/ be greatly increas$ ) ! increas+ dep? ( wat] z ! tide rises1 & !re=e ,i %\ld h expect$ t ! *ief l9e ( pres5t erosion w\ld h co9cid$ ) ! l9e ( high-wat] m>k2 & if ! reef _h gr[n outw>ds1 t !re w\ld h be5 l9es ( erosion at great] heights4 ,! conclusion1 to :i* ,i am f9ally l$ by ! int]e/+ obs]vations ( ,mr4 ,c\?\y is1 t ! atolls 9 ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago h1 l ! ,society ,isl&s1 rema9$ at a /ation>y level = a long p]iod3 & ?is probably is ! ord9>y c\rse ( ev5ts1 subsid5ce sup]v5+ aft] long int]vals ( re/4 ,turn+ n[ to ! r$ col\r2 z on our map1 ! areas :i* h sunk sl[ly d[nw>ds to great dep?s are _m & l>ge1 we might naturally h be5 l$ to conjecture1 t ) su* great *anges ( level 9 progress1 ! coa/s :i* h be5 fr+$ probably = ages 7= we h no reason to believe t coral-reefs are ( %ort duration71 w\ld n h rema9$ all ?is "t /ation>y1 b w\ld frequ5tly h und]gone movem5ts ( elevation4 ,?is supposition1 we %all imm$iately see1 holds good to a rem>kable ext5t2 & al?\gh a /ation>y condition ( ! l& c h>dly ev] be op5 to pro(1 f ! evid5ce be+ only negative1 we are1 9 "s degree1 enabl$ to asc]ta9 ! correctness ( ! p>ts col\r$ r$ on ! map1 by ! direct te/imony ( uprais$ organic rema9s ( a mod]n date4 ,be=e go+ into ! details on ?is head 7pr9t$ 9 small type71 ,i may m5tion1 t :5 read+ a memoir on coral =mations by ,,mm4 ,quoy & ,gaim>d#g ,i 0 a/oni%$ to f9d1 = ,i knew t !y _h cross$ bo? ! ,pacific & ,indian ,oceans1 t _! descriptions 7 applicable only to reefs ( ! fr++ class2 b my a/oni%m5t end$ satisfactorily1 :5 ,i discov]$ t1 by a /range *ance1 all ! isl&s :i* ^! em95t naturali/s _h visit$1 ?\gh sev]al 9 numb]1 namely1 ! ,mauritius1 ,timor1 ,new ,gu9ea1 ! ,m>iana1 & ,s&wi* ,ar*ipelagoes1 c\ld be %[n by _! own /atem5ts to h be5 elevat$ )9 a rec5t geological era4 #g 8,annales des ,sci5ces ,nat40 tom4 vi1 p4 #bgi1 etc4 ,9 ! ea/]n half ( ! ,pacific1 ! ,s&wi* ,isl&s are all fr+$1 & almo/ e naturali/ :o has visit$ !m1 has rem>k$ on ! abundance ( elevat$ corals & %ells1 app>5tly id5tical ) liv+ species4 ,! ,rev4 ,w4 ,ellis in=ms me1 t he has notic$ r\nd sev]al p>ts ( ,hawaii1 b$s ( coral-detritus1 ab\t tw5ty feet above ! level ( ! sea1 & :]e ! coa/ is l[ !y ext5d f> inl&4 ,uprais$ coral-rock =ms a consid]able "p ( ! bord]s ( ,oahu2 & at ,elizabe? ,isl&#h x composes ?ree /rata1 ea* ab\t t5 feet ?ick4 ,nihau1 :i* =ms ! nor!rn1 z ,hawaii does ! s\!rn end ( ! gr\p 7#cej miles 9 l5g?71 likewise seems to consi/ ( coral & volcanic rocks4 ,mr4 ,c\?\y#i has lately describ$ ) int]e/+ details1 sev]al uprais$ bea*es1 anci5t reefs ) _! surfaces p]fectly pres]v$1 & b$s ( rec5t %ells & corals1 at ! isl&s ( ,maui1 ,morokai1 ,oahu1 & ,tauai 7or ,kauai7 9 ?is gr\p4 ,mr4 ,pi]ce1 an intellig5t resid5t at ,oahu1 is conv9c$1 f *anges :i* h tak5 place )9 8 memory1 dur+ ! la/ sixte5 ye>s1 8t ! elevation is at pres5t go+ =w>d at a v p]ceptible rate40 ,! natives at ,kauai /ate t ! l& is !re ga9+ rapidly on ! sea1 & ,mr4 ,c\?\y has no d\bt1 f ! nature ( ! /rata1 t ?is has be5 effect$ by an elevation ( ! l&4 #h 8,zoology ( ,capta9 ,bee*ey's ,voyage10 p4 #agf4 ,see also ,,mm4 ,quoy & ,gaim>d 9 8,annales de ,sci54 ,nat40 tom4 vi4 #i 8,rem>ks on ,coral ,=mations10 p4 #ea4 ,9 ! s\!rn "p ( ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago1 ,elizabe? ,isl& is describ$ by ,capta9 ,bee*ey1#aj z be+ q flat1 & ab\t eighty feet 9 height2 x is entirely compos$ ( dead corals1 =m+ a honeycomb$1 b compact rock4 ,9 cases l ?is1 ( an isl& hav+ exactly ! appe>ance1 :i* ! elevation ( any "o ( ! small] surr\nd+ atolls ) a %all[ lagoon w\ld pres5t1 "o is l$ to conclude 7) little bett] reason1 h[ev]1 ?an ! improbability ( su* small & l[ fabrics la/+1 = an imm5se p]iod1 expos$ to ! _m de/roy+ ag5ts ( nature71 t ! elevation has tak5 place at an epo* n geologically remote4 ,:5 m]ely ! surface ( an isl& ( ord9>y =mation is /rew$ ) m>9e bodies1 & t cont9u\sly1 or ne>ly s1 f ! bea* to a c]ta9 height1 & n above t height1 x is exce$+ly improbable t su* organic rema9s1 al?\gh !y may n h be5 specially exam9$1 %\ld belong to any anci5t p]iod4 ,x is necess>y to be> ^! rem>ks 9 m9d1 9 consid]+ ! evid5ce ( ! elevatory movem5ts 9 ! ,pacific & ,indian ,oceans1 z x does n (t5 re/ on specific det]m9ations1 & !re=e %\ld be receiv$ ) caution4 ,six ( ! ,cook & ,au/ral ,isl&s 7,s4,w4 ( ! ,society gr\p71 are fr+$2 ( ^!1 five 7 describ$ to me by ! ,rev4 ,j4 ,williams1 z =m$ ( coral-rock1 associat$ ) "s basalt 9 ,mangaia71 & ! six? z l(ty & basaltic4 ,mangaia is ne>ly ?ree hundr$ feet high1 ) a level summit2 & accord+ to ,mr4 ,s4 ,wilson#aa x is an uprais$ reef2 8& !re are 9 ! c5tral holl[1 =m]ly ! b$ ( ! lagoon1 _m scatt]$ pat*es ( coral-rock1 "s ( !m rais$ to a height ( =ty feet40 ,^! knolls ( coral-rock 7 evid5tly once sep>ate reefs 9 ! lagoon ( an atoll4 ,mr4 ,m>t5s1 at ,sydney1 in=m$ me t ?is isl& is surr\nd$ by a t]race-l pla9 at ab\t ! height ( a hundr$ feet1 :i* probably m>ks a pause 9 its elevation4 ,f ^! facts we may inf]1 p]haps1 t ! ,cook & ,au/ral ,isl&s h be5 upheav$ at a p]iod probably n v remote4 #aj ,bee*ey's 8,voyage 9 ! ,pacific10 p4 #df1 #dto ed4 #aa ,c\?\y's 8,rem>ks10 p4 #cd4 ,savage ,isl& 7,s4,e4 ( ! ,fri5dly gr\p71 is ab\t =ty feet 9 height4 ,=/]#ab describes ! plants z already gr[+ out ( ! dead1 b /ill upright & spread+ trees ( coral2 & ! y\ng] ,=/]#ac believes t an anci5t lagoon is n[ repres5t$ by a c5tral pla92 "h we _c d\bt t ! elevatory =ces h rec5tly act$4 ,! same conclusion may be ext5d$1 ?\gh ) some:at less c]ta9ty1 to ! isl&s ( ! fri5dly gr\p1 :i* h be5 well describ$ 9 ! second & ?ird voyages ( ,cook4 ,! surface ( ,tongatab\ is l[ & level1 b ) "s p>ts a hundr$ feet high2 ! :ole consi/s ( coral-rock1 8:i* yet %[s ! cavities & irregul>ities worn into x by ! action ( ! tides40#ad ,on ,e\a ! same appe>ances 7 notic$ at an elevation ( betwe5 two hundr$ & ?ree hundr$ feet4 ,vavao1 also1 at ! opposite or nor!rn end ( ! gr\p1 consi/s1 accord+ to ! ,rev4 ,j4 ,williams1 ( coral-rock4 ,tongatab\1 ) its nor!rn ext5sive reefs1 resembles ei!r an uprais$ atoll ) "o half orig9ally imp]fect1 or "o unequally elevat$2 & ,anam\ka1 an atoll equally elevat$4 ,?is latt] isl& conta9s#ae 9 its c5tre a salt-wat] lake1 ab\t a mile-&-a-half 9 diamet]1 )\t any communication ) ! sea1 & ar\nd x ! l& rises gradually l a bank2 ! highe/ "p is only betwe5 tw5ty & ?irty feet2 b on ?is "p1 z well z on ! re/ ( ! l& 7:i*1 z ,cook obs]ves1 rises above ! height ( true lagoon-isl&s71 coral-rock1 l t on ! bea*1 0 f\nd4 ,9 ! ,navigator ,ar*ipelago1 ,mr4 ,c\?\y#af f\nd on ,manua _m & v l>ge fragm5ts ( coral at ! height ( eighty feet1 8on a /eep hill-side1 ris+ half a mile inl& f a l[ s&y pla9 ab\nd+ 9 m>9e rema9s40 ,! fragm5ts 7 emb$d$ 9 a mixture ( decompos$ lava & s&4 ,x is n /at$ :e!r !y 7 accompani$ by %ells1 or :e!r ! corals resembl$ rec5t species2 z ^! rema9s 7 emb$d$ !y possibly may belong to a remote epo*2 b ,i presume ?is 0 n ! op9ion ( ,mr4 ,c\?\y4 ,e>?quakes are v frequ5t 9 ?is ar*ipelago4 #ab 8,obs]vations made dur+ ,voyage r\nd ! ,_w10 p4 #adg4 #ac 8,voyage10 vol4 ii1 p4 #afc4 #ad ,cook's 8,?ird ,voyage0 7#dto ed471 vol4 i1 p4 #cad4 #ae ,ibid41 vol4 i1 p4 #bce4 #af 8,rem>ks on ,coral-,=mations10 p4 #ej4 ,/ill proce$+ we/w>d we come to ! ,new ,hebrides2 on ^! isl&s1 ,mr4 ,g4 ,b5nett 7au?or ( 8,w&]+s 9 ,new ,s\? ,wales071 in=ms me he f\nd mu* coral at a great altitude1 :i* he consid]$ ( rec5t orig94 ,respect+ ,santa ,cruz1 & ! ,solomon ,ar*ipelago1 ,i h no in=mation2 b at ,new ,irel&1 :i* =ms ! nor!rn po9t ( ! latt] *a91 bo? ,labill>di]e & ,lesson h describ$ l>ge b$s ( an app>5tly v mod]n madreporitic rock1 ) ! =m ( ! corals little alt]$4 ,! latt] au?or#ag /ates t ?is =mation composes a new] l9e ( coa/1 modell$ r\nd an anci5t "o4 ,!re only rema9s to be describ$ 9 ! ,pacific1 t curv$ l9e ( fr+$ isl&s1 ( :i* ! ,m>ianas =m ! ma9 "p4 ,( ^! ,guam1 ,rota1 ,t9iam1 ,saypan1 & "s islets f>!r nor?1 are describ$ by ,quoy & ,gaim>d1#ah & ,*amisso1#ai z *iefly compos$ ( madreporitic lime/one1 :i* atta9s a consid]able elevation1 & is 9 sev]al cases worn into successively ris+ cliffs3 ! two =m] naturali/s seem to h comp>$ ! corals & %ells ) ! exi/+ ones1 & /ate t !y are ( rec5t species4 ,fais1 :i* lies 9 ! prolong$ l9e ( ! ,m>ianas1 is ! only isl& 9 ?is "p ( ! sea :i* is fr+$2 x is n9ety feet high1 & consi/s entirely ( madreporitic rock4#bj #ag 8,voyage de la ,coquille10 ,"p4 ,zoolog4 #ah ,freyc9et's 8,voyage aut\r du ,monde40 ,see also ! 8,hydrographical ,memoir10 p4 #bae4 #ai ,kotzebue's 8,fir/ ,voyage40 #bj ,lutk's 8,voyage10 vol4 ii1 p4 #cjd4 ,9 ! ,ea/ ,indian ,ar*ipelago1 _m au?ors h record$ pro(s ( rec5t elevation4 ,m4 ,lesson#ba /ates1 t ne> ,port ,dory1 on ! nor? coa/ ( ,new ,gu9ea1 ! %ores are flank$1 to ! height ( #aej feet1 by madreporitic /rata ( mod]n date4 ,he m5tions simil> =mations at ,waigi\1 ,ambo9a1 ,b\r\1 ,c]am1 ,sonda1 & ,timor3 at ?is latt] place1 ,,mm4 ,quoy & ,gaim>d#bb h likewise describ$ ! primitive rocks1 z coat$ to a consid]able height ) coral4 ,"s small islets ea/w>d ( ,timor are said 9 ,kolff's 8,voyage10#bc to resemble small coral islets uprais$ "s feet above ! sea4 ,dr4 ,malcolmson in=ms me t ,dr4 ,h>die f\nd 9 ,,java an ext5sive =mation1 conta9+ an abundance ( %ells1 ( :i* ! great] "p appe> to be ( exi/+ species4 ,dr4 ,jack#bd has describ$ "s uprais$ %ells & corals1 app>5tly rec5t1 on ,pulo ,nias (f ,sumatra2 & ,m>sd5 relates 9 8 hi/ory ( ?is great isl&1 t ! names ( _m promontories1 %[ t !y 7 orig9ally isl&s4 ,on "p ( ! we/ coa/ ( ,borneo & at ! ,sooloo ,isl&s1 ! =m ( ! l&1 ! nature ( ! soil1 & ! wat]-wa%$ rocks1 pres5t appe>ances#be 7al?\gh x is d\btful :e!r su* vague evid5ce is wor?y ( m5tion71 ( hav+ rec5tly be5 cov]$ by ! sea2 & ! inhabitants ( ! ,sooloo ,isl&s believe t ?is has be5 ! case4 ,mr4 ,cum+1 :o has lately inve/igat$1 ) s mu* success1 ! natural hi/ory ( ! ,philipp9es1 f\nd ne> ,cabagan1 9 ,luzon1 ab\t fifty feet above ! level ( ! ,r4 ,cagayan1 & sev5ty miles f its m\?1 a l>ge b$ ( fossil %ells3 ^!1 he in=ms me1 are ( ! same species ) ^? n[ exi/+ on ! %ores ( ! neighb\r+ isl&s4 ,f ! acc\nts giv5 u by ,capta9 ,basil ,hall & ,capta9 ,bee*ey#bf ( ! l9es ( inl& reefs1 & walls ( coral-rock worn into caves1 above ! pres5t rea* ( ! waves1 at ! ,loo ,*oo ,isl&s1 !re c be little d\bt t !y h be5 uprais$ at no v remote p]iod4 #ba ,p>tie ,zoolog41 8,voyage de la ,coquille40 #bb 8,ann4 des ,sci54 ,nat40 tom4 vi1 p4 #bha4 #bc ,translat$ by ,w9dsor ,e>l1 *apt]s vi1 vii4 #bd 8,geolog4 ,transact40 #bnd s]ies1 vol4 i1 p4 #djc4 ,on ! ,p59sula ( ,malacca1 9 front ( ,p9ang1 #e #cj ,n41 ,dr4 ,w>d collect$ "s %ells1 :i* ,dr4 ,malcolmson in=ms me1 al?\gh n comp>$ ) exi/+ species1 _h a rec5t appe>ance4 ,dr4 ,w>d describes 9 ?is neighb\rhood 78,trans4 ,asiat4 ,soc40 vol4 xviii1 "p ii1 p4 #aff7 a s+le wat]-worn rock1 ) a conglom]ate ( sea-%ells at its base1 situat$ six miles inl&1 :i*1 accord+ to ! traditions ( ! natives1 0 once surr\nd$ by ! sea4 ,capta9 ,l[ has also describ$ 7,ibid41 "p i1 p4 #aca7 m\nds ( %ells ly+ two miles inl& on ?is l9e ( coa/4 #be 8,notices ( ! ,ea/ ,indian ,ar*40 ,s+apore1 #ahbh1 p4 #f1 & ,app5d41 p4 #dc4 #bf ,capta9 ,b4 ,hall1 8,voyage to ,loo ,*oo10 ,app5d41 pp4 xxi & xxv4 ,capta9 ,bee*ey's 8,voyage10 p4 #dif4 ,dr4 ,davy#bg describes ! nor!rn prov9ce ( ,ceylon z be+ v l[1 & consi/+ ( a lime/one ) %ells & corals ( v rec5t orig92 he adds1 t x does n admit ( a d\bt t ! sea has retir$ f ?is di/rict ev5 )9 ! memory ( man4 ,!re is also "s reason = believ+ t ! we/]n %ores ( ,india1 nor? ( ,ceylon1 h be5 uprais$ )9 ! rec5t p]iod4#bh ,mauritius has c]ta9ly be5 uprais$ )9 ! rec5t p]iod1 z ,i h /at$ 9 ! *apt] on fr++-reefs4 ,! nor!rn extremity ( ,madagasc> is describ$ by ,capta9 ,ow5#bi z =m$ ( madreporitic rock1 z likewise are ! %ores & outly+ isl&s along an imm5se space ( ,ea/]n ,africa1 f a little nor? ( ! equator = n9e hundr$ miles s\?w>d4 ,no?+ c be m vague ?an ! expression 8madreporitic rock20 b at ! same "t x is1 ,i ?9k1 sc>cely possible to look at ! *>t ( ! l9e> islets1 :i* rise to a great] height ?an c be acc\nt$ = by ! gr[? ( coral1 9 front ( ! coa/1 f ! equator to #b ,s41 )\t feel+ conv9c$ t a l9e ( fr++-reefs has be5 elevat$ at a p]iod s rec5t1 t no great *anges h s9ce tak5 place on ! surface ( ?is "p ( ! globe4 ,"s1 also1 ( ! high] isl&s ( madreporitic rock on ?is coa/1 = in/ance ,pemba1 h v s+ul> =ms1 :i* seem to %[ ! comb9$ effect ( ! gr[? ( coral r\nd subm]g$ banks1 & _! subsequ5t upheaval4 ,dr4 ,allan in=ms me t he nev] obs]v$ any elevat$ organic rema9s on ! ,sey*elles1 :i* come "u our fr+$ class4 #bg 8,travels 9 ,ceylon10 p4 #ac4 ,?is madreporitic =mation is m5tion$ by ,m4 ,cordi] 9 8 report to ! ,in/itute 7,may #d?1 #ahci71 on ! voyage ( ! ,*evrette1 z "o ( imm5se ext5t1 & belong+ to ! late/ t]ti>y p]iod4 #bh ,dr4 ,b5za1 9 8 8,j\rney ?r\gh ! ,n4 ,circ>s0 7! ,madras ,lit4 & ,sci5t4 ,j\rn4 vol4 v47 has describ$ a =mation ) rec5t fre%-wat] & m>9e %ells1 occurr+ at ! di/ance ( ?ree or f\r miles f ! pres5t %ore4 ,dr4 ,b5za1 9 conv]sation ) me1 attribut$ _! position to a rise ( ! l&4 ,dr4 ,malcolmson1 h[ev] 7& !re _c be a high] au?ority on ! geology ( ,india7 in=ms me t he suspects t ^! b$s may h be5 =m$ by ! m]e action ( ! waves & curr5ts accumulat+ s$im5t4 ,f analogy ,i %\ld mu* incl9e to ,dr4 ,b5za's op9ion4 #bi ,ow5's 8,africa10 vol4 ii1 p4 #cg1 = ,madagasc>2 & = ,s4 ,africa1 vol4 i1 pp4 #dab & #dbf4 ,lieut5ant ,botel]'s n>rative conta9s full] p>ticul>s reg>d+ ! coral-rock1 vol4 i1 p4 #agd1 & vol4 ii1 pp4 #da & #ed4 ,see also ,rus*5b]g]'s 8,voyage r\nd ! ,_w10 vol4 i1 p4 #fj4 ,! nature ( ! =mations r\nd ! %ores ( ! ,r$ ,sea1 z describ$ by sev]al au?ors1 %[s t ! :ole ( ?is l>ge area has be5 elevat$ )9 a v rec5t t]ti>y epo*4 ,a "p ( ?is space 9 ! app5d$ map1 is col\r$ blue1 indicat+ ! pres5ce ( b>ri]-reefs3 on :i* circum/ance ,i %all pres5tly make "s rem>ks4 ,rppell#cj /ates t ! t]ti>y =mation1 ( :i* he has exam9$ ! organic rema9s1 =ms a fr+e along ! %ores ) a uni=m height ( f ?irty & =ty feet f ! m\? ( ! ,gulf ( ,suez to ab\t latitude #bf2 b t s\? ( #bf1 ! b$s atta9 only ! height ( f twelve to fifte5 feet4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 c h>dly be q accurate2 al?\gh possibly !re may be a decrease 9 ! elevation ( ! %ores 9 ! middle p>ts ( ! ,r$ ,sea1 = ,dr4 ,malcolmson 7z he in=ms me7 collect$ f ! cliffs ( ,cam>an ,isl& 7lat4 #ae #cj ,s47 %ells & corals1 app>5tly rec5t1 at a height betwe5 ?irty & =ty feet2 & ,mr4 ,salt 78,travels 9 ,abyss9ia07 describes a simil> =mation a little s\?w>d on ! opposite %ore at ,amphila4 ,moreov]1 ne> ! m\? ( ! ,gulf ( ,suez1 al?\gh on ! coa/ opposite to t on :i* ,dr4 ,rppell says t ! mod]n b$s atta9 a height ( only ?irty to =ty feet1 ,mr4 ,burton#ca f\nd a deposit replete ) exi/+ species ( %ells1 at ! height ( #bjj feet4 ,9 an admirable s]ies ( draw+s by ,capta9 ,moresby1 ,i c\ld see h[ cont9u\sly ! cliff-b\nd$ l[ pla9s ( ?is =mation ext5d$ ) a ne>ly equable height1 bo? on ! ea/]n & we/]n %ores4 ,! s\!rn coa/ ( ,arabia seems to h be5 subject$ to ! same elevatory movem5t1 = ,dr4 ,malcolmson f\nd at ,sah> l[ cliffs conta9+ %ells & corals1 app>5tly ( rec5t species4 #cj ,rppell1 8,reise 9 ,abyss9i510 ,b& i41 s4 #ada4 #ca ,lyell's 8,pr9ciples ( ,geology10 #e? ed41 vol4 iv1 p4 #be4 ,! ,p]sian ,gulf ab\nds ) coral-reefs2 b z x is difficult to di/+ui% !m f s&-banks 9 ?is %all[ sea1 ,i h col\r$ only "s ne> ! m\?2 t[>ds ! head ( ! gulf ,mr4 ,a9swor?#cb says t ! l& is worn into t]races1 & t ! b$s conta9 organic rema9s ( exi/+ =ms4 ,! ,we/ ,indian ,ar*ipelago ( 8fr+$0 isl&s1 alone rema9s to be m5tion$2 evid5ce ( an elevation )9 a late t]ti>y epo* ( ne>ly ! :ole ( ?is great area1 may be f\nd 9 ! works ( almo/ all ! naturali/s :o h visit$ x4 ,i w give "s ( ! pr9cipal ref]5ces 9 a note4#cc #cb ,a9swor?'s 8,assyria & ,babylon10 p4 #bag4 #cc ,on ,florida & ! nor? %ores ( ! ,gulf ( ,mexico1 ,rog]s' 8,report to ,brit4 ,assoc40 vol4 iii1 p4 #ad4--,on ! %ores ( ,mexico1 ,humboldt1 8,polit4 ,essay on ,new ,spa910 vol4 i1 p4 #fb4 7,i h also "s corroborative facts ) respect to ! %ores ( ,mexico47--,honduras & ! ,antilles1 ,lyell's 8,pr9ciples10 #e? ed41 vol4 iv1 p4 #bb4--,santa ,cruz & ,b>badoes1 ,pr(4 ,hovey1 8,silliman's ,j\rnal01 vol4 xxxv1 p4 #gd4--,/4 ,dom+o1 ,c\rrojolles1 8,j\rn de ,phys40 tom4 liv41 p4 #ajf4--;,bahamas1 8,unit$ ,s]vice ,j\rnal01 ,no4 lxxi1 pp4 #bah & #bbd4 ,jamaica1 ,de la ,be*e1 8,geol4 ,man40 p4 #adb4--;,cuba1 ,taylor 9 8,lond4 & ,ed94 ,mag40 vol4 xi1 p4 #ag4 ,dr4 ,daub5y also1 at a meet+ ( ! ,geolog4 ,soc41 orally describ$ "s v mod]n b$s ly+ on ! ,n4,w4 p>ts ( ,cuba4 ,i might h add$ _m o!r less important ref]5ces4 ,x is v rem>kable on review+ ^! details1 to obs]ve 9 h[ _m in/ances fr++-reefs r\nd ! %ores1 h co9cid$ ) ! exi/5ce on ! l& ( uprais$ organic rema9s1 :i* seem1 f evid5ce m or less satisfactory1 to belong to a late t]ti>y p]iod4 ,x may1 h[ev]1 be object$1 t simil> pro(s ( elevation1 p]haps1 occur on ! coa/s col\r$ blue 9 our map3 b ?is c]ta9ly is n ! case ) ! few foll[+ & d\btful exceptions4 ,! entire area ( ! ,r$ ,sea appe>s to h be5 uprais$ )9 a mod]n p]iod2 nev]!less ,i h be5 compell$ 7?\gh on unsatisfactory evid5ce1 z giv5 9 ! ,app5dix7 to class ! reefs 9 ! middle "p1 z b>ri]-reefs2 %\ld1 h[ev]1 ! /atem5ts prove accurate to ! less height ( ! t]ti>y b$ 9 ?is middle "p1 comp>$ ) ! nor!rn & s\!rn di/ricts1 we might well suspect t x _h subsid$ subsequ5tly to ! g5]al elevation by :i* ! :ole area has be5 uprais$4 ,sev]al au?ors#cd h /at$ t !y h obs]v$ %ells & corals high up on ! m\nta9s ( ! ,society ,isl&s1--a gr\p encircl$ by b>ri]-reefs1 &1 !re=e1 suppos$ to h subsid$3 at ,tahiti ,mr4 ,/ut*bury f\nd on ! apex ( "o ( ! highe/ m\nta9s1 betwe5 #e1jjj & #g1jjj feet above ! level ( ! sea1 8a di/9ct & regul> /ratum ( semi-fossil coral40 ,at ,tahiti1 h[ev]1 o!r naturali/s1 z well z myself1 h se>*$ 9 va9 at a l[ level ne> ! coa/1 = uprais$ %ells or masses ( coral-reef1 :]e if pres5t !y c\ld h>dly h be5 ov]look$4 ,f ?is fact1 ,i conclud$ t probably ! organic rema9s /rew$ high up on ! surface ( ! l&1 _h orig9ally be5 emb$d$ 9 ! volcanic /rata1 & _h subsequ5tly be5 wa%$ out by ! ra94 ,i h s9ce he>d f ! ,rev4 ,w4 ,ellis1 t ! rema9s :i* he met )1 7 7z he believes7 int]/ratifi$ ) an argillace\s tuff2 ?is likewise 0 ! case ) ! %ells obs]v$ by ! ,rev4 ,d4 ,ty]man at ,huahe9e4 ,^! rema9s h n be5 specifically exam9$2 !y may1 !re=e1 & especially ! /ratum obs]v$ by ,mr4 ,/ut*bury at an imm5se height1 be contemporane\s ) ! fir/ =mation ( ! ,society ,isl&s1 & be ( any degree ( antiquity2 or !y may h be5 deposit$ at "s subsequ5t1 b probably n v rec5t1 p]iod ( elevation2 = if ! p]iod _h be5 rec5t1 ! entire surface ( ! coa/ l& ( ^! isl&s1 :]e ! reefs are s ext5sive1 w\ld h be5 coat$ ) uprais$ coral1 :i* c]ta9ly is n ! case4 ,two ( ! ,h>vey1 or ,cook ,isl&s1 namely1 ,aitutaki & ,man\ai1 are encircl$ by reefs1 :i* ext5d s f> f ! l&1 t ,i h col\r$ !m blue1 al?\gh ) mu* hesitation1 z ! space )9 ! reef is %all[1 & ! outl9e ( ! l& is n abrupt4 ,^! two isl&s consi/ ( coral-rock2 b ,i h no evid5ce ( _! rec5t elevation1 besides1 ! improbability ( ,mangaia1 a fr+$ isl& 9 ! same gr\p 7b di/ant #agj miles71 hav+ reta9$ its ne>ly p]fect atoll-l /ructure1 dur+ any imm5se lapse ( "t aft] its upheaval4 ,! ,r$ ,sea1 !re=e1 is ! only area 9 :i* we h cle> pro(s ( ! rec5t elevation ( a di/rict1 :i*1 by our !ory 7al?\gh ! b>ri]-reefs are !re n well *>act]is$71 has lately subsid$4 ,b we h no reason to be surpris$ at oscillation1 ( level ( ?is k9d hav+ occasionally tak5 place4 ,!re c be sc>cely any d\bt t ,savage1 ,aurora1#ce & ,mangaia ,isl&s1 & sev]al ( ! isl&s 9 ! ,fri5dly gr\p1 exi/$ orig9ally z atolls1 & ^! h und\bt$ly s9ce be5 uprais$ to "s height above ! level ( ! sea2 s t by our !ory1 !re has "h1 also1 be5 an oscillation ( level1--elevation hav+ succe$$ subsid5ce1 in/ead (1 z 9 ! middle "p ( ! ,r$ ,sea & at ! ,h>vey ,isl&s1 subsid5ce hav+ probably succe$$ rec5t elevation4 #cd ,ellis1 9 8 8,polynesian ,rese>*es10 0 ! fir/ to call att5tion to ^! rema9s 7vol4 i1 p4 #ch71 & ! tradition ( ! natives conc]n+ !m4 ,see also ,williams1 8,n>4 ( ,mission>y ,ent]prise10 p4 #ba2 also ,ty]man & ,g4 ,b5nett1 8,j\rnal ( ,voyage10 vol4 i1 p4 #bac2 also ,mr4 ,c\?\y's 8,rem>ks10 p4 #ea2 b ?is pr9cipal fact1 namely1 t !re is a mass ( uprais$ coral on ! n>r[ p59sula ( ,ti>ubu1 is f he>say evid5ce2 also ,mr4 ,/ut*bury1 ,we/ ( ,engl& ,j\rnal1 ,no4 i1 p4 #ed4 ,!re is a passage 9 ,von ,za*1 8,corres4 ,a/ronom40 vol4 x1 p4 #bff1 inf]r+ an upris+ at ,tahiti1 f a footpa? n[ us$1 :i* 0 =m]ly impassable2 b ,i p>ticul>ly inquir$ f sev]al native *iefs1 :e!r !y knew ( any *ange ( ?is k9d1 & !y 7 unanim\s 9 giv+ me an answ] 9 ! negative4 #ce ,aurora ,isl& is describ$ by ,mr4 ,c\?\y 78,rem>ks10 p4 #eh72 x lies #abj miles nor?-ea/ ( ,tahiti2 x is n col\r$ 9 ! app5d$ map1 because x does n appe> to be fr+$ by liv+ reefs4 ,mr4 ,c\?\y describes its summit z 8pres5t+ a broad table-l& :i* decl9es a few feet t[>ds ! c5tre1 :]e we may suppose ! lagoon to h be5 plac$40 ,x is ab\t two hundr$ feet 9 height1 & consi/s ( reef-rock & conglom]ate1 ) exi/+ species ( coral emb$d$ 9 x4 ,! isl& has be5 elevat$ at two successive p]iods2 ! cliffs be+ m>k$ halfway up ) a horizontal wat]-worn l9e ( deep excavations4 ,aurora ,isl& seems closely to resemble 9 /ructure ,elizabe? ,isl&1 at ! s\!rn end ( ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago4 ,x is an int]e/+ fact1 t ,fais1 :i*1 f its composition1 =m1 height1 & situation at ! we/]n end ( ! ,c>ol9e ,ar*ipelago1 "o is /rongly induc$ to believe exi/$ be=e its upheaval z an atoll1 lies exactly 9 ! prolongation ( ! curv$ l9e ( ! ,m>iana gr\p1 :i* we "k to be a l9e ( rec5t elevation4 ,i may add1 t ,elizabe? ,isl&1 9 ! s\!rn "p ( ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago1 :i* seems to h _h ! same k9d ( orig9 z ,fais1 lies ne> ,pitcairn ,isl&1 ! only "o 9 ?is "p ( ! ocean :i* is high1 & at ! same "t n surr\nd$ by an encircl+ b>ri]-reef4 ,on ! abs5ce ( active volcanoes 9 ! areas ( subsid5ce1 & on _! frequ5t pres5ce 9 ! areas ( elevation4--,be=e mak+ "s conclud+ rem>ks on ! relations ( ! spaces col\r$ blue & r$1 x w be conv5i5t to consid] ! position on our map ( ! volcanoes hi/orically kn[n to h be5 9 action4 ,x is impossible n to be /ruck1 fir/ ) ! abs5ce ( volcanoes 9 ! great areas ( subsid5ce t9t$ pale & d>k blue1--namely1 9 ! c5tral p>ts ( ! ,indian ,ocean1 9 ! ,*9a ,sea1 9 ! sea betwe5 ! b>ri]s ( ,au/ralia & ,new ,cal$onia1 9 ! ,c>ol9e1 ,m>%all1 ,gilb]t1 & ,l[ ,ar*ipelagoes2 &1 secondly1 ) ! co9cid5ce ( ! pr9cipal volcanic *a9s ) ! p>ts col\r$ r$1 :i* indicates ! pres5ce ( fr++-reefs2 &1 z we h j se51 ! pres5ce 9 mo/ cases ( uprais$ organic rema9s ( a mod]n date4 ,i may "h rem>k t ! reefs 7 all col\r$ be=e ! volcanoes 7 add$ to ! map1 or inde$ be=e ,i knew ( ! exi/5ce ( sev]al ( !m4 ,! volcano 9 ,torres ,/rait1 at ! nor!rn po9t ( ,au/ralia1 is t :i* lies ne>e/ to a l>ge subsid+ area1 al?\gh situat$ #abe miles )9 ! out] m>g9 ( ! actual b>ri]-reef4 ,! ,great ,comoro ,isl&1 :i* probably conta9s a volcano1 is only tw5ty miles di/ant f ! b>ri]-reef ( ,mohila2 ,ambil volcano1 9 ! ,philipp9es1 is di/ant only a little m ?an sixty miles f ! atoll-=m$ ,appoo reef3 & !re are two o!r volcanoes 9 ! map )9 n9ety miles ( circles col\r$ blue4 ,^! few cases1 :i* ?us (f] p>tial exceptions to ! rule1 ( volcanoes be+ plac$ remote f ! areas ( subsid5ce1 lie ei!r ne> s+le & isolat$ atolls1 or ne> small gr\ps ( encircl$ isl&s2 & ^! by our !ory c h1 9 few in/ances1 subsid$ to ! same am\nt 9 dep? or area1 z gr\ps ( atolls4 ,!re is n "o active volcano )9 sev]al hundr$ miles ( an ar*ipelago1 or ev5 a small gr\p ( atolls4 ,x is1 !re=e1 a /rik+ fact t 9 ! ,fri5dly ,ar*ipelago1 :i* owes its orig9 to ! elevation ( a gr\p ( atolls1 two volcanoes1 &1 p]haps1 o!rs are kn[n to be 9 action3 on ! o!r h&1 on sev]al ( ! encircl$ isl&s 9 ! ,pacific1 suppos$ by our !ory to h subsid$1 !re are old crat]s & /reams ( lava1 :i* %[ ! effects ( pa/ & anci5t eruptions4 ,9 ^! cases1 x w\ld appe> z if ! volcanoes _h come into action1 & _h become ext+ui%$ on ! same spots1 accord+ z ! elevat+ or subsid+ movem5ts prevail$4 ,!re are "s o!r coa/s on ! map1 :]e volcanoes 9 a /ate ( action concur ) pro(s ( rec5t elevation1 besides ^? col\r$ r$ f be+ fr+$ by coral-reefs4 ,?us ,i hope to %[ 9 a future volume1 t ne>ly ! :ole l9e ( ! we/ coa/ ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 :i* =ms ! greate/ volcanic *a9 9 ! _w1 f ne> ! equator = a space ( betwe5 #b1jjj & #c1jjj miles s\?w>d1 has und]gone an upw>d movem5t dur+ a late geological p]iod4 ,! isl&s on ! nor?-we/]n %ores ( ! ,pacific1 :i* =m ! second greate/ volcanic *a91 are v imp]fectly kn[n2 b ,luzon1 9 ! ,philipp9es1 & ! ,loo ,*oo ,isl&s1 h be5 rec5tly elevat$2 & at ,kamts*atka#cf !re are ext5sive t]ti>y b$s ( mod]n date4 ,evid5ce ( ! same nature1 b n v satisfactory1 may be detect$ 9 ,nor!rn ,new ,zeal& :]e !re are two volcanoes4 ,! co-exi/5ce 9 o!r p>ts ( ! _w ( active volcanoes1 ) uprais$ b$s ( a mod]n t]ti>y orig91 w occur to e geologi/4#cg ,nev]!less1 until x c\ld be %[n t volcanoes 7 inactive1 or did n exi/ 9 subsid+ areas1 ! conclusion t _! di/ribution dep5d$ on ! nature ( ! subt]ranean movem5ts 9 progress1 w\ld h be5 haz>d\s4 ,b n[1 view+ ! app5d$ map1 x may1 ,i ?9k1 be consid]$ z almo/ e/abli%$1 t volcanoes are (t5 7n necess>ily always7 pres5t 9 ^? areas :]e ! subt]ranean motive p[] has lately =c$1 or is n[ =c+ outw>ds1 ! cru/ ( ! e>?1 b t !y are inv>iably abs5t 9 ^?1 :]e ! surface has lately subsid$ or is /ill subsid+4#ch #cf ,at ,s$anka1 9 latitude #eh ,n4 7,von ,bu*'s 8,descrip4 des ,isles ,can>ies10 p4 #dee74 ,9 a =?com+ "p1 ,i %all give ! evid5ce ref]r$ to ) respect to ! elevation ( ,new ,zeal&4 #cg ,dur+ ! subt]ranean di/urbances :i* took place 9 ,*ile1 9 #ahce1 ,i h %[n 78,geolog4 ,trans40 #bnd ,s]41 vol4 v1 p4 #fjf7 t at ! same mom5t t a l>ge di/rict 0 uprais$1 volcanic matt] bur/ =? at widely sep>at$ po9ts1 ?r\gh bo? new & old v5ts4 #ch ,we may inf] f ?is rule1 t 9 any old deposit1 :i* conta9s int]/ratifi$ b$s ( erupt$ matt]1 !re 0 at ! p]iod1 & 9 ! area ( its =mation1 a t5d5cy to an upw>d movem5t 9 ! e>?'s surface1 & c]ta9ly no movem5t ( subsid5ce4 ,on ! relations ( ! areas ( subsid5ce & elevation4--,! imm5se surfaces on ! map1 :i*1 bo? by our !ory & by ! pla9 evid5ce ( uprais$ m>9e rema9s1 h und]gone a *ange ( level ei!r d[nw>ds or upw>ds dur+ a late p]iod1 is a mo/ rem>kable fact4 ,! exi/5ce ( cont95ts %[s t ! areas h be5 imm5se :i* at "s p]iod h be5 uprais$2 9 ,s\? ,am]ica we may feel sure1 & on ! nor?-we/]n %ores ( ! ,indian ,ocean we may suspect1 t ?is ris+ is ei!r n[ actually 9 progress1 or has tak5 place q rec5tly4 ,by our !ory1 we may conclude t ! areas are likewise imm5se :i* h lately subsid$1 or1 judg+ f ! e>?quakes occasionally felt & f o!r appe>ances1 are n[ subsid+4 ,! smallness ( ! scale ( our map %\ld n be ov]look$3 ea* ( ! squ>es on x conta9s 7n all[+ = ! curvature ( ! e>?7 #haj1jjj squ>e miles4 ,look at ! space ( ocean f ne> ! s\!rn end ( ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago to ! nor!rn end ( ! ,m>%all ,ar*ipelago1 a l5g? ( #d1ejj miles1 9 :i*1 z f> z is kn[n1 e isl&1 except ,aurora :i* lies j )\t ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago1 is atoll-=m$4 ,! ea/]n & we/]n b\nd>ies ( our map are cont95ts1 & !y are ris+ areas3 ! c5tral spaces ( ! great ,indian & ,pacific ,oceans1 are mo/ly subsid+2 betwe5 !m1 nor? ( ,au/ralia1 lies ! mo/ brok5 l& on ! globe1 & !re ! ris+ p>ts are surr\nd$ & p5etrat$ by areas ( subsid5ce1#ci s t ! prevail+ movem5ts n[ 9 progress1 seem to accord ) ! actual /ates ( surface ( ! great divisions ( ! _w4 #ci ,i suspect t ! ,arru & ,timor-laut ,isl&s pres5t an includ$ small area ( subsid5ce1 l t ( ! ,*9a ,sea1 b ,i h n v5tur$ to col\r !m f my imp]fect in=mation1 z giv5 9 ! ,app5dix4 ,! blue spaces on ! map are ne>ly all elongat$2 b x does n necess>ily foll[ f ?is 7a caution1 = :i* ,i am indebt$ to ,mr4 ,lyell71 t ! areas ( subsid5ce 7 likewise elongat$2 = ! subsid5ce ( a long1 n>r[ space ( ! b$ ( ! ocean1 includ+ 9 x a transv]se *a9 ( m\nta9s1 surm\nt$ by atolls1 w\ld only be m>k$ on ! map by a transv]se blue b&4 ,b :]e a *a9 ( atolls & b>ri]-reefs lies 9 an elongat$ area1 betwe5 spaces col\r$ r$1 :i* !re=e h rema9$ /ation>y or h be5 uprais$1 ?is mu/ h result$ ei!r f ! area ( subsid5ce hav+ orig9ally be5 elongat$ 7ow+ to "s t5d5cy 9 ! e>?'s cru/ ?us to subside71 or f ! subsid+ area hav+ orig9ally be5 ( an irregul> figure1 or z broad z long1 & hav+ s9ce be5 n>r[$ by ! elevation ( neighb\r+ di/ricts4 ,?us ! areas1 :i* subsid$ dur+ ! =mation ( ! great nor? & s\? l9es ( atolls 9 ! ,indian ,ocean1--( ! ea/ & we/ l9e ( ! ,c>ol9e atolls1--& ( ! nor?-we/ & s\?-ea/ l9e ( ! b>ri]-reefs ( ,new ,cal$onia & ,l\isiade1 mu/ h orig9ally be5 elongat$1 or if n s1 !y mu/ h s9ce be5 made elongat$ by elevations1 :i* we "k to belong to a rec5t p]iod4 ,i inf] f ,mr4 ,hopk9s' rese>*es1#dj t = ! =mation ( a long *a9 ( m\nta9s1 ) few lat]al spurs1 an area elongat$ 9 ! same direction ) ! *a91 mu/ h be5 subject$ to an elevatory movem5t4 ,m\nta9-*a9s1 h[ev]1 :5 already =m$1 al?\gh runn+ 9 v diff]5t directions1 x seems#da may be rais$ toge!r by a widely-act+ =ce3 s1 p]haps1 m\nta9-*a9s may subside toge!r4 ,h5ce1 we _c tell1 :e!r ! ,c>ol9e & ,m>%all ,ar*ipelagoes1 two gr\ps ( atolls runn+ 9 diff]5t directions & meet+ ea* o!r1 h be5 =m$ by ! subsid5ce ( two areas1 or ( "o l>ge area1 includ+ two di/9ct l9es ( m\nta9s4 ,we h1 h[ev]1 9 ! s\!rn prolongation ( ! ,m>iana ,isl&s1 probable evid5ce ( a l9e ( rec5t elevation hav+ int]sect$ "o ( rec5t subsid5ce4 ,a view ( ! map w %[ t1 g5]ally1 !re is a t5d5cy to alt]nation 9 ! p>allel areas und]go+ opposite k9ds ( movem5t2 z if ! s9k+ ( "o area balanc$ ! ris+ ( ano!r4 #dj 8,rese>*es 9 ,physical ,geology10 ,transact4 ,cambridge ,phil4 ,soc41 vol4 vi1 "p i4 #da ,= in/ance 9 ,s4 ,am]ica f lat4 #cd1 = v _m degrees s\?w>d !re are uprais$ b$s conta9+ rec5t species ( %ells1 on bo? ! ,atlantic & ,pacific side ( ! cont95t1 & f ! gradual asc5t ( ! l&1 al?\gh ) v unequal slopes1 on bo? sides t[>ds ! ,cordill]a1 ,i ?9k x c h>dly be d\bt$ t ! entire wid? has be5 uprais$ 9 mass )9 ! rec5t p]iod4 ,9 ?is case ! two ,w4,n4,w4 & ,e4,s4,e4 m\nta9-l9es1 namely ! ,si]ra ,v5tana & ! ,s4 ,tapalgu51 & ! great nor? & s\? l9e ( ! ,cordill]a h be5 toge!r rais$4 ,9 ! ,we/ ,indies ! ,n4 & ,s4 l9e ( ! ,ea/]n ,antilles1 & ! ,e4 & ,w4 l9e ( ,jamaica1 appe> bo? to h be5 uprais$ )9 ! late/ geological p]iod4 ,! exi/5ce 9 _m p>ts ( ! _w ( high table-l&1 proves t l>ge surfaces h be5 uprais$ 9 mass to consid]able heights above ! level ( ! ocean2 al?\gh ! highe/ po9ts 9 almo/ e c\ntry consi/ ( upturn$ /rata1 or erupt$ matt]3 & f ! imm5se spaces scatt]$ ) atolls1 :i* indicate t l& orig9ally exi/$ !re1 al?\gh n "o p9nacle n[ rema9s above ! level ( ! sea1 we may conclude t wide areas h subsid$ to an am\nt1 suffici5t to bury n only any =m]ly exi/+ table-l&1 b ev5 ! heights =m$ by fractur$ /rata1 & erupt$ matt]4 ,! effects produc$ on ! l& by ! lat] elevatory movem5ts1 namely1 successively ris+ cliffs1 l9es ( erosion1 & b$s ( lit]al %ells & pebbles1 all requir+ "t = _! production1 prove t ^! movem5ts h be5 v sl[2 we c1 h[ev]1 inf] ?is ) safety1 only ) respect to ! few la/ hundr$ feet ( rise4 ,b ) ref]5ce to ! :ole va/ am\nt ( subsid5ce1 necess>y to h produc$ ! _m atolls widely scatt]$ ov] imm5se spaces1 x has already be5 %[n 7& x is1 p]haps1 ! mo/ int]e/+ conclusion 9 ?is volume71 t ! movem5ts mu/ ei!r h be5 uni=m & exce$+ly sl[1 or h be5 effect$ by small /eps1 sep>at$ f ea* o!r by long int]vals ( "t1 dur+ :i* ! reef-con/ruct+ polypif]s 7 able to br+ up _! solid frameworks to ! surface4 ,we h little means ( judg+ :e!r _m consid]able oscillations ( level h g5]ally occurr$ dur+ ! elevation ( l>ge tracts2 b we "k1 f cle> geological evid5ce1 t ?is has frequ5tly tak5 place2 & we h se5 on our map1 t "s ( ! same isl&s h bo? subsid$ & be5 uprais$4 ,i conclude1 h[ev]1 t mo/ ( ! l>ge blue spaces1 h subsid$ )\t _m & great elevatory oscillations1 because only a few uprais$ atolls h be5 obs]v$3 ! supposition t su* elevations h tak5 place1 b t ! uprais$ p>ts h be5 worn d[n by ! surf1 & ?us h escap$ obs]vation1 is ov]rul$ by ! v consid]able dep? ( ! lagoons ( all ! l>g] atolls2 = ?is c\ld n h be5 ! case1 if !y _h suff]$ repeat$ elevations & abrasion4 ,f ! comp>ative obs]vations made 9 ^! latt] pages1 we may f9ally conclude1 t ! subt]ranean *anges :i* h caus$ "s l>ge areas to rise1 & o!rs to subside1 h act$ 9 a v simil> mann]4 ,recapitulation4--,9 ! ?ree fir/ *apt]s1 ! pr9cipal k9ds ( coral-reefs 7 describ$ 9 detail1 & !y 7 f\nd to diff] little1 z f> z relates to ! actual surface ( ! reef4 ,an atoll diff]s f an encircl+ b>ri]-reef only 9 ! abs5ce ( l& )9 its c5tral expanse2 & a b>ri]-reef diff]s f a fr++-reef1 9 be+ plac$ at a mu* great] di/ance f ! l& ) ref]5ce to ! probable incl9ation ( its subm>9e f\ndation1 & 9 ! pres5ce ( a deep-wat] lagoon-l space or moat )9 ! reef4 ,9 ! f\r? *apt] ! gr[+ p[]s ( ! reef-con/ruct+ polypif]s 7 discuss$2 & x 0 %[n1 t !y _c fl\ri% b5ea? a v limit$ dep?4 ,9 accordance ) ?is limit1 !re is no difficulty respect+ ! f\ndations on :i* fr++-reefs are bas$2 :]eas1 ) b>ri]-reefs & atolls1 !re is a great app>5t difficulty on ?is head2 9 b>ri]-reefs f ! improbability ( ! rock ( ! coa/ or ( banks ( s$im5t ext5d+1 9 e in/ance1 s f> seaw>d )9 ! requir$ dep?2--& 9 atolls1 f ! imm5sity ( ! spaces ov] :i* !y are int]sp]s$1 & ! app>5t necessity = believ+ t !y are all support$ on m\nta9-summits1 :i* al?\gh ris+ v ne> to ! surface-level ( ! sea1 9 no "o in/ance em]ge above x4 ,to escape ?is latt] mo/ improbable admission1 :i* implies ! exi/5ce ( subm>9e *a9s ( m\nta9s ( almo/ ! same height1 ext5d+ ov] areas ( _m ?\s& squ>e miles1 !re is b "o alt]native2 namely1 ! prolong$ subsid5ce ( ! f\ndations1 on :i* ! atolls 7 prim>ily bas$1 toge!r ) ! upw>d gr[? ( ! reef-con/ruct+ corals4 ,on ?is view e difficulty vani%es2 fr++ reefs are ?us conv]t$ into b>ri]-reefs2 & b>ri]-reefs1 :5 encircl+ isl&s1 are ?us conv]t$ into atolls1 ! in/ant ! la/ p9nacle ( l& s9ks b5ea? ! surface ( ! ocean4 ,?us ! ord9>y =ms & c]ta9 peculi>ities 9 ! /ructure ( atolls & b>ri]-reefs c be expla9$2--namely1 ! wall-l /ructure on _! inn] sides1 ! bas9 or r+-l %ape bo? ( ! m>g9al & c5tral reefs 9 ! ,maldiva atolls--! union ( "s atolls z if by a ribbon--! app>5t dissev]m5t ( o!rs--& ! occurr5ce1 9 atolls z well z 9 b>ri]-reefs1 ( portions ( reef1 & ( ! :ole ( "s reefs1 9 a dead & subm]g$ /ate1 b reta9+ ! outl9e ( liv+ reefs4 ,?us c be expla9$ ! exi/5ce ( brea*es ?r\gh b>ri]-reefs 9 front ( valleys1 ?\gh sep>at$ f !m by a wide space ( deep wat]2 ?us1 also1 ! ord9>y outl9e ( gr\ps ( atolls & ! relative =ms ( ! sep>ate atolls "o to ano!r2 ?us c be expla9$ ! proximity ( ! two k9ds ( reefs =m$ dur+ subsid5ce1 & _! sep>ation f ! spaces :]e fr++-reefs ab\nd4 ,on se>*+ = o!r evid5ce ( ! movem5ts suppos$ by our !ory1 we f9d m>ks ( *ange 9 atolls & 9 b>ri]-reefs1 & ( subt]ranean di/urbances "u !m2 b f ! nature ( ?+s1 x is sc>cely possible to detect any direct pro(s ( subsid5ce1 al?\gh "s appe>ances are /rongly 9 fav\r ( x4 ,on ! fr+$ coa/s1 h[ev]1 ! pres5ce ( uprais$ m>9e bodies ( a rec5t epo*1 pla9ly %[1 t ^! coa/s1 in/ead ( hav+ rema9$ /ation>y1 :i* is all t c be directly inf]r$ f our !ory1 h g5]ally be5 elevat$4 ,f9ally1 :5 ! two great types ( /ructure1 namely b>ri]-reefs & atolls on ! "o h&1 & fr++-reefs on ! o!r1 7 laid d[n 9 col\rs on our map1 a magnific5t & h>moni\s picture ( ! movem5ts1 :i* ! cru/ ( ! e>? has )9 a late p]iod und]gone1 is pres5t$ to u4 ,we !re see va/ areas ris+1 ) volcanic matt] e n[ & !n bur/+ =? ?r\gh ! v5ts or fissures ) :i* !y are trav]s$4 ,we see o!r wide spaces sl[ly s9k+ )\t any volcanic outbur/1 & we may feel sure1 t ?is s9k+ mu/ h be5 imm5se 9 am\nt z well z 9 area1 ?us to h buri$ ov] ! broad face ( ! ocean e "o ( ^? m\nta9s1 above :i* atolls n[ /& l monum5ts1 m>k+ ! place ( _! =m] exi/5ce4 ,reflect+ h[ p[]ful an ag5t ) respect to d5udation1 & consequ5tly to ! nature & ?ickness ( ! deposits 9 accumulation1 ! sea mu/ ev] be1 :5 act+ = prolong$ p]iods on ! l&1 dur+ ei!r its sl[ em]g5ce or subsid5ce2 reflect+1 also1 on ! f9al effects ( ^! movem5ts 9 ! int]*ange ( l& & ocean-wat] on ! climate ( ! e>?1 & on ! di/ribution ( organic be+s1 ,i may be p]mitt$ to hope1 t ! conclusions d]iv$ f ! /udy ( coral-=mations1 orig9ally attempt$ m]ely to expla9 _! peculi> =ms1 may be ?\ght wor?y ( ! att5tion ( geologi/s4 ,,app5dix4 ,,conta9+ ,a ,,detail$ ,,description ,,( ,,! ,,reefs ,,& ,,isl&s ,,9 ,,plate ,,iii4 ,9 ! beg9n+ ( ! la/ *apt] ,i /at$ ! pr9ciples on :i* ! map is col\r$4 ,!re only rema9s to be said1 t x is an exact copy ( "o by ,m4 ,c4 ,gressi]1 publi%$ by ! ,dpt ,gnral de la ,m>9e1 9 #ahce4 ,! names h be5 alt]$ into ,engli%1 & ! longitude has be5 r$uc$ to t ( ,gre5wi*4 ,! col\rs 7 fir/ laid d[n on accurate *>ts1 on a l>ge scale4 ,! data1 on :i* ! volcanoes hi/orically kn[n to h be5 9 action1 h be5 m>k$ ) v]million1 7 giv5 9 a note to ! la/ *apt]4 ,i w comm5ce my description on ! ea/]n side ( ! map1 & w describe ea* gr\p ( isl&s consecutively1 proce$+ we/w>d across ! ,pacific & ,indian ,oceans1 b end+ ) ! ,we/ ,indies4 ,! ,,we/]n ,,%ores ,,( ,,am]ica appe> to be entirely )\t coral-reefs2 s\? ( ! equator ! survey ( ! ,beagle1 & nor? ( x1 ! publi%$ *>ts %[ t ?is is ! case4 ,ev5 9 ! ,bay ( ,panama1 :]e corals fl\ri%1 !re are no true coral-reefs1 z ,i h be5 in=m$ by ,mr4 ,lloyd4 ,!re are no coral-reefs 9 ! ,galapagos ,ar*ipelago1 z ,i "k f p]sonal inspection2 & ,i believe !re are none on ! ,cocos1 ,revilla-gig$o1 & o!r neighb\r+ isl&s4 ,clipp]ton rock1 #aj ,n41 #aji ,w41 has lately be5 survey$ by ,capta9 ,bel*]2 9 =m x is l ! crat] ( a volcano4 ,f a draw+ app5d$ to ! ,,ms4 plan 9 ! ,admiralty1 x evid5tly is n an atoll4 ,! ea/]n p>ts ( ! ,pacific pres5t an enorm\s area1 )\t any isl&s1 except ,e1 & ,sala1 & ,gomez ,isl&s1 :i* d n appe> to be surr\nd$ by reefs4 ,! ,,l[ ,,ar*ipelago4--,?is gr\p consi/s ( ab\t eighty atolls3 x w be q sup]flu\s to ref] to descriptions ( ea*4 ,9 ,d',urville & ,lott9's *>t1 "o isl& 7,wol*onsky7 is writt5 ) a capital lett]1 signify+1 z expla9$ 9 a =m] *apt]1 t x is a high isl&2 b ?is mu/ be a mi/ake1 z ! orig9al *>t by ,bell+haus5 %[s t x is a true atoll4 ,capta9 ,bee*ey says ( ! ?irty-two gr\ps :i* he exam9$ 7( ! great] numb] ( :i* ,i h se5 beautiful ,,ms4 *>ts 9 ! ,admiralty71 t tw5ty-n9e n[ conta9 lagoons1 & he believes ! o!r ?ree orig9ally did4 ,bell+haus5 7see an acc\nt ( 8 ,russian voyage1 9 ! 8,biblio?4 des ,voyages10 #ahcd1 p4 #ddc7 says1 t ! sev5te5 isl&s :i* he discov]$ resembl$ ea* o!r 9 /ructure1 & he has giv5 *>ts on a l>ge scale ( all ( !m4 ,kotzebue has giv5 plans ( sev]al2 ,cook & ,bligh m5tion o!rs2 a few 7 se5 dur+ ! voyage ( ! ,beagle2 & notices ( o!r atolls are scatt]$ ?r\gh sev]al publications4 ,! ,acton gr\p 9 ?is ar*ipelago has lately be5 discov]$ 7,geograph4 ,j\rn41 vol4 vii1 p4 #ded72 x consi/s ( ?ree small & l[ islets1 "o ( :i* has a lagoon4 ,ano!r lagoon-isl& has be5 discov]$ 7,naut4 ,mag41 #ahci1 p4 #ggj71 9 #bb #d ,s41 & #acf #bj ,w4 ,t[>ds ! ,s4,e4 "p ( ! gr\p1 !re are "s isl&s ( diff]5t =mation3 ,elizabe? ,isl& is describ$ by ,bee*ey 7p4 #df1 #dto ed47 z fr+$ by reefs1 at ! di/ance ( betwe5 two & ?ree hundr$ y>ds2 col\r$ r$4 ,pitcairn ,isl&1 9 ! imm$iate neighb\rhood1 accord+ to ! same au?ority1 has no reefs ( any k9d1 al?\gh num]\s pieces ( coral are ?r[n up on ! bea*2 ! sea close to its %ore is v deep 7see 8,zool4 ( ,bee*ey's ,voyage10 p4 #afd72 x is left uncol\r$4 ,gambi] ,isl&s 7see ,plate ,i ,fig4 #h71 are encircl$ by a b>ri]-reef2 ! greate/ dep? )9 is ?irty-eight fa?oms2 col\r$ pale blue4 ,aurora ,isl&1 :i* lies ,n4,e4 ( ,tahiti close to ! l>ge space col\r$ d>k blue 9 ! map1 has be5 already describ$ 9 a note 771 on ! au?ority ( ,mr4 ,c\?\y2 x is an uprais$ atoll1 b z x does n appe> to be fr+$ by liv+ reefs1 x is left uncol\r$4 ,! ,,society ,ar*4 is sep>at$ by a n>r[ space f ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago2 & 9 _! p>allel direction !y manife/ "s relation to ea* o!r4 ,i h already describ$ ! g5]al "* ( ! reefs ( ^! f9e encircl$ isl&s4 ,9 ! 8,atlas ( ! ,coquille's ,voyage0 !re is a good g5]al *>t ( ! gr\p1 & sep>ate plans ( "s ( ! isl&s4 ,tahiti1 ! l>ge/ isl& 9 ! gr\p1 is almo/ surr\nd$1 z se5 9 ,cook's *>t1 by a reef f half a mile to a mile & a half f ! %ore1 ) f t5 to ?irty fa?oms )9 x4 ,"s consid]able subm]g$ reefs ly+ p>allel to ! %ore1 ) a broad & deep space )91 h lately be5 discov]$ 7,naut4 ,mag41 #ahcf1 p4 #bfd7 on ! ,n4,e4 coa/ ( ! isl&1 :]e none are laid d[n by ,cook4 ,at ,eimeo ! reef 8:i* l a r+ surr\nds x1 is 9 "s places "o or two miles di/ant f ! %ore1 9 o!rs unit$ to ! bea*0 7,ellis1 8,polynesian ,rese>*es10 vol4 i1 p4 #ah1 #abmo edition74 ,cook f\nd deep wat] 7tw5ty fa?oms7 9 "s ( ! h>b\rs )9 ! reef4 ,mr4 ,c\?\y1 h[ev]1 /ates 78,rem>ks10 p4 #de7 t bo? at ,tahiti & ,eimeo1 ! space betwe5 ! b>ri]-reef & ! %ore1 has be5 almo/ fill$ up1--8a ne>ly cont9u\s fr++-reef surr\nd+ ! isl&1 & v>y+ f a few y>ds to r m ?an a mile 9 wid?1 ! lagoons m]ely =m+ canals betwe5 ?is & ! sea-reef10 t is ! b>ri]-reef4 ,tapamanoa is surr\nd$ by a reef at a consid]able di/ance f ! %ore2 f ! isl& be+ small x is brea*$1 z ,i am in=m$ by ! ,rev4 ,w4 ,ellis1 only by a n>r[ & crook$ boat *annel4 ,?is is ! l[e/ isl& 9 ! gr\p1 its height probably n exce$+ #ejj feet4 ,a little way nor? ( ,tahiti1 ! l[ coral-islets ( ,teturoa are situat$2 f ! description ( !m giv5 me by ! ,rev4 ,j4 ,williams 7! au?or ( ! 8,n>rative ( ,mission>y ,ent]prise071 ,i %\ld h ?\ght !y _h =m$ a small atoll1 & likewise f ! description giv5 by ! ,rev4 ,d4 ,ty]man & ,g4 ,b5nett 78,j\rnal ( ,voyage & ,travels10 vol4 i1 p4 #ahc71 :o say t t5 l[ coral-islets 8are compreh5d$ )9 "o g5]al reef1 & sep>at$ f ea* o!r by int]jac5t lagoons20 b z ,mr4 ,/ut*bury 7,we/ ( ,engl& ,j\rnal1 vol4 i1 p4 #ed7 describes x z consi/+ ( a m]e n>r[ ridge1 ,i h left x uncol\r$4 ,maitea1 ea/w>d ( ! gr\p1 is class$ by ,=/] z a high encircl$ isl&2 b f ! acc\nt giv5 by ! ,rev4 ,d4 ,ty]man & ,g4 ,b5nett 7vol4 i1 p4 #eg7 x appe>s to be an exce$+ly abrupt cone1 ris+ f ! sea )\t any reef2 ,i h left x uncol\r$4 ,x w\ld be sup]flu\s to describe ! nor!rn isl&s 9 ?is gr\p1 z !y may be well se5 9 ! *>t accompany+ ! #dto edition ( ,cook's 8,voyages10 & 9 ! 8,atlas ( ! ,coquille's ,voyage40 ,maurua is ! only "o ( ! nor!rn isl&s1 9 :i* ! wat] )9 ! reef is n deep1 be+ only f\r & a half fa?oms2 b ! great wid? ( ! reef1 /ret*+ ?ree miles & a half s\?w>d ( ! l& 7:i* is repres5t$ 9 ! draw+ 9 ! 8,atlas ( ! ,coquille's ,voyage0 z desc5d+ abruptly to ! wat]7 %[s1 on ! pr9ciple expla9$ 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! la/ *apt]1 t x belongs to ! b>ri] class4 ,i may "h m5tion1 f in=mation communicat$ to me by ! ,rev4 ,w4 ,ellis1 t on ! ,n4,e4 side ( ,huahe9e !re is a bank ( s&1 ab\t a qu>t] ( a mile wide1 ext5d+ p>allel to ! %ore1 & sep>at$ f x by an ext5sive & deep lagoon2 ?is bank ( s& re/s on coral-rock1 & und\bt$ly 0 orig9ally a liv+ reef4 ,nor? ( ,bolabola lies ! atoll ( ,t\bai 7,mot\-iti ( ! 8,coquille's ,atlas07 :i* is col\r$ d>k blue2 ! o!r isl&s1 surr\nd$ by b>ri]-reefs1 are pale blue2 ?ree ( !m are repres5t$ 9 ,figs #c1 #d1 & #e1 9 ,plate ,i4 ,!re are ?ree l[ coral-gr\ps ly+ a little ,e4 ( ! ,society ,ar*ipelago1 & almo/ =m+ "p ( x1 namely ,bell+haus51 :i* is said by ,kotzebue 78,second ,voyage10 vol4 ii1 p4 #bee71 to be a lagoon-isl&2 ,mopeha1 :i*1 f ,cook's description 78,second ,voyage10 book iii1 *ap4 i71 no d\bt is an atoll2 & ! ,scilly ,isl&s1 :i* are said by ,wallis 78,voyage10 *ap4 ix7 to =m a gr\p ( l[ islets & %oals1 &1 !re=e1 probably1 !y compose an atoll3 ! two =m] h be5 col\r$ blue1 b n ! latt]4 ,,m5dana ,,or ,,m>quesas ,gr\p4--,^! isl&s are entirely )\t reefs1 z may be se5 9 ,krus5/]n's ,atlas1 mak+ a rem>kable contra/ ) ! adjac5t gr\p ( ! ,society ,isl&s4 ,mr4 ,f4 ,d4 ,b5nett has giv5 "s acc\nt ( ?is gr\p1 9 ! sev5? volume ( ! ,geograph4 ,j\rn4 ,he in=ms me t all ! isl&s h ! same g5]al "*1 & t ! wat] is v deep close to _! %ores4 ,he visit$ ?ree ( !m1 namely1 ,dom9icana1 ,*ri/iana1 & ,roapoa2 _! bea*es are /rew$ ) r\nd$ masses ( coral1 & al?\gh no regul> reefs exi/1 yet ! %ore is 9 _m places l9$ by coral-rock1 s t a boat gr\nds on ?is =mation4 ,h5ce ^! isl&s ought probably to come )9 ! class ( fr+$ isl&s & be col\r$ r$2 b z ,i am det]m9$ to err on ! cauti\s side1 ,i h left !m uncol\r$4 ,,cook or ,,h>vey & ,,au/ral ,,isl&4--,palm]/on ,isl& is m9utely describ$ z an atoll by ,capta9 ,cook dur+ 8 voyage 9 #aggd2 col\r$ blue4 ,aitutaki 0 p>tially survey$ by ! ,beagle 7see map accompany+ 8,voyages ( ,adv5ture & ,beagle072 ! l& is hilly1 slop+ g5tly to ! bea*2 ! highe/ po9t is #cfj feet2 on ! s\!rn side ! reef projects five miles f ! l&3 (f ?is po9t ! ,beagle f\nd no bottom ) #bgj fa?oms3 ! reef is surm\nt$ by _m l[ coral-islets4 ,al?\gh )9 ! reef ! wat] is exce$+ly %all[1 n be+ m ?an a few feet deep1 z ,i am in=m$ by ! ,rev4 ,j4 ,williams1 nev]!less1 f ! great ext5sion ( ?is reef into a pr(\ndly deep ocean1 ?is isl& probably belongs1 on ! pr9ciple lately adv]t$ to1 to ! b>ri] class1 & ,i h col\r$ x pale blue2 al?\gh ) mu* hesitation4--,man\ai or ,h>vey ,isl&4 ,! highe/ po9t is ab\t fifty feet3 ! ,rev4 ,j4 ,williams in=ms me t ! reef "h1 al?\gh x lies f> f ! %ore1 is less di/ant ?an at ,aitutaki1 b ! wat] )9 ! reef is r deep]3 ,i h also col\r$ ?is pale blue ) _m d\bts4--,r\nd ,miti>o ,isl&1 z ,i am in=m$ by ,mr4 ,williams1 ! reef is atta*$ to ! %ore2 col\r$ r$4--,mauki or ,ma\ti2 ! reef r\nd ?is isl& 7"u ! "n ( ,p>ry ,isl&1 9 ! 8,voyage ( ,h4,m4,s4 ,blonde10 p4 #bji7 is describ$ z a coral-flat1 only fifty y>ds wide1 & two feet "u wat]4 ,?is /atem5t has be5 corroborat$ by ,mr4 ,williams1 :o calls ! reef atta*$2 col\r$ r$4--,aitu1 or ,wateeo2 a mod]ately elevat$ hilly isl&1 l ! o!rs ( ?is gr\p4 ,! reef is describ$ 9 ,cook's 8,voyage10 z atta*$ to ! %ore1 & ab\t "o hundr$ y>ds wide2 col\r$ r$4--,f5\a-iti2 ,cook describes ?is isl& z v l[1 n m ?an six or sev5 feet high 7vol4 i1 book ii1 *ap4 iii1 #aggg72 9 ! *>t publi%$ 9 ! 8,coquille's ,atlas10 a reef is engrav$ close to ! %ore3 ?is isl& is n m5tion$ 9 ! li/ giv5 by ,mr4 ,williams 7page #af7 9 ! 8,n>rative ( ,mission>y ,ent]prise20 nature d\btful4 ,z x is s ne> ,atiu1 x has be5 unavoidably col\r$ r$4--,r>otonga2 ,mr4 ,williams in=ms me t x is a l(ty basaltic isl& ) an atta*$ reef2 col\r$ r$4--,!re are ?ree isl&s1 ,r\r\ti1 ,roxburgh1 & ,hull1 ( :i* ,i h n be5 able to obta9 any acc\nt1 & h left !m uncol\r$4 ,hull ,isl&1 9 ! ,fr5* *>t1 is writt5 ) small lett]s z be+ l[4--,mangaia2 height ab\t ?ree hundr$ feet2 8! surr\nd+ reef jo9s ! %ore0 7,williams1 8,n>rative10 p4 #ah72 col\r$ r$4--,rimet>a2 ,mr4 ,williams in=ms me t ! reef is r close to ! %ore2 b1 f in=mation giv5 me by ,mr4 ,ellis1 ! reef does n appe> to be q s closely atta*$ to x z 9 ! =ego+ cases3 ! isl& is ab\t ?ree hundr$ feet high 7,naut4 ,mag41 #ahci1 p4 #gch72 col\r$ r$4--,rurutu2 ,mr4 ,williams & ,mr4 ,ellis in=m me t ?is isl& has an atta*$ reef2 col\r$ r$4 ,x is describ$ by ,cook "u ! "n ( ,ohet]oa3 he says x is n surr\nd$1 l ! neighb\r+ isl&s by a reef2 he mu/ h meant a di/ant reef4--,t\b\ai2 9 ,cook's *>t 78,second ,voyage10 vol4 ii1 p4 #b7 ! reef is laid d[n 9 "p "o mile1 & 9 "p two miles f ! %ore4 ,mr4 ,ellis 78,polynes4 ,res40 vol4 iii1 p4 #cha7 says ! l[ l& r\nd ! base ( ! isl& is v ext5sive2 & ?is g5tleman in=ms me t ! wat] )9 ! reef appe>s deep2 col\r$ blue4--,raivaivai1 or ,vivitao2 ,mr4 ,williams in=ms me t ! reef is "h di/ant3 ,mr4 ,ellis1 h[ev]1 says t ?is is c]ta9ly n ! case on "o side ( ! isl&2 & he believes t ! wat] )9 ! reef is n deep2 h5ce ,i h left x uncol\r$4--,lanca/] ,reef1 describ$ 9 ,naut4 ,mag41 #ahcc 7p4 #fic71 z an ext5sive cresc5t-=m$ coral-reef4 ,i h n col\r$ x4--,rapa1 or ,op>ree2 f ! acc\nts giv5 ( x by ,ellis & ,vanc\v]1 !re does n appe> to be any reef4--,i4 de ,bass is an adjo9+ isl&1 ( :i* ,i _c f9d any acc\nt4--,kem9 ,isl&2 ,krus5/]n seems h>dly to "k its position1 & gives no fur!r p>ticul>s4 ,,isl&s ,,betwe5 ! ,l[ & ,gilb]t ,ar*ipelagoes4 ,c>ol9e ,isl& 7#aj ,s41 #aej deg ,w47 is describ$ by ,mr4 ,f4 ,d4 ,b5nett 7,geograph4 ,j\rn41 vol4 vii1 p4 #bbe7 z conta9+ a f9e lagoon2 col\r$ blue4--,fl9t ,isl& 7#aa ,s41 #aea ,w472 ,krus5/]n believes t x is ! same ) ,p]egr9o1 :i* is describ$ by ,quiros 7,burney's 8,*ron4 ,hi/410 vol4 ii1 p4 #bhc7 z 8a clu/] ( small isl&s connect$ by a reef1 & =m+ a lagoon 9 ! middle20 col\r$ blue4--,wo/ock is an isl& a little m ?an half a mile 9 diamet]1 & app>5tly q flat & l[1 & 0 discov]$ by ,bell+haus52 x is situat$ a little we/ ( ,c>ol9e ,isl&1 b x is n plac$ on ! ,fr5* *>ts2 ,i h n col\r$ x1 al?\gh ,i ent]ta9 little d\bt f ! *>t ( ,bell+haus51 t x orig9ally conta9$ a small lagoon4--,p5rhyn ,isl& 7#i ,s41 #aeh ,w472 a plan ( x 9 ! 8,atlas ( ! ,fir/ ,voyage0 ( ,kotzebue1 %[s t x is an atoll2 blue4--,sl>buck ,isl& 7#e ,s41 #aef ,w47 is describ$ 9 ,byron's 8,voyage 9 ! ,blonde0 7p4 #bjf7 z =m$ ( a flat coral-rock1 ) no trees2 ! height n giv52 n col\r$4--,mald5 ,isl& 7#d ,s41 #aed ,w472 9 ! same voyage 7p4 #bje7 ?is isl& is said to be ( coral =mation1 & no "p above =ty feet high2 ,i h n v5tur$ to col\r x1 al?\gh1 f be+ ( coral-=mation1 x is probably fr+$2 9 :i* case x %\ld be r$4--,j>vis1 or ,bunk] ,isl& 7#j #bj ,s41 #afj ,w47 is describ$ by ,mr4 ,f4 ,d4 ,b5nett 7,geograph4 ,j\rn41 vol4 vii1 p4 #bbg7 z a n>r[1 l[ /rip ( coral-=mation2 n col\r$4--,brook1 is a small l[ isl& betwe5 ! two latt]2 ! position1 & p]haps ev5 ! exi/5ce ( x is d\btful2 n col\r$4--,pescado & ,humphrey ,isl&s2 ,i c f9d out no?+ ab\t ^! isl&s1 except t ! latt] appe>s to be small & l[2 n col\r$4--,re>son1 or ,gr& ,duke ,alex&]'s 7#aj ,s41 #afa ,w472 an atoll1 ( :i* a plan is giv5 by ,bell+haus52 blue4--,s\vor(f ,isl&s 7#ac ,s41 #afc ,w472 ,admiral ,krus5/]n1 9 ! mo/ oblig+ mann]1 obta9$ = me an acc\nt ( ^! isl&s f ,admiral ,laz>eff1 :o discov]$ !m4 ,!y consi/ ( five v l[ isl&s ( coral-=mation1 two ( :i* are connect$ by a reef1 ) deep wat] close to x4 ,!y d n surr\nd a lagoon1 b are s plac$ t a l9e drawn ?r\gh !m includes an oval space1 "p ( :i* is %all[2 ^! islets1 !re=e1 probably once 7z is ! case ) "s ( ! isl&s 9 ! ,c>ol9e ,ar*ipelago7 =m$ a s+le atoll2 b ,i h n col\r$ !m4--,dang] ,isl& 7#aj ,s41 #aff ,w472 describ$ z l[ by ,commodore ,byron1 & m lately survey$ by ,bell+haus52 x is a small atoll ) ?ree islets on x2 blue4--,cl>5ce ,isl& 7#i ,s41 #agb ,w472 discov]$ 9 ! ,p&ora 7,g4 ,hamilton's 8,voyage10 p4 #ge73 x is said1 89 runn+ along ! l&1 we saw sev]al canoes cross+ ! lagoons20 z ?is isl& is 9 ! close vic9ity ( o!r l[ isl&s1 & z x is said1 t ! natives make res]voirs ( wat] 9 old cocoa-nut trees 7:i* %[s ! nature ( ! l&71 ,i h no d\bt x is an atoll1 & h col\r$ x blue4 ,york ,isl& 7#h ,s41 #agb ,w47 is describ$ by ,commodore ,byron 7*ap4 x ( 8 8,voyage07 z an atoll2 blue4--,sydney ,isl& 7#d ,s41 #agb ,w47 is ab\t ?ree miles 9 diamet]1 ) its int]ior occupi$ by a lagoon 7,capta9 ,tromel91 8,annal4 ,m>it40 #ahbi1 p4 #big72 blue4--,pho5ix ,isl& 7#d ,s41 #aga ,w47 is ne>ly circul>1 l[1 s&y1 n m ?an two miles 9 diamet]1 & v /eep outside 7,tromel91 8,annal4 ,m>it40 #ahbi1 p4 #big72 x may be inf]r$ t ?is isl& orig9ally conta9$ a lagoon1 b ,i h n col\r$ x4--,new ,nantucket 7#j #ae ,n41 #agd ,w474 ,f ! ,fr5* *>t x mu/ be a l[ isl&2 ,i c f9d no?+ m ab\t x or ab\t ,m>y ,isl&2 bo? uncol\r$4--,g>dn] ,isl& 7#e ,s41 #agd ,w47 f its position is c]ta9ly ! same z ,kem9 ,isl& describ$ 7,krus5/]n1 p4 #dce1 ,app54 to ,mem41 publi%$ #ahbg7 z hav+ a lagoon 9 its c5tre2 blue4 ,,isl&s ,,s\? ( ! ,s&wi* ,ar*ipelago4 ,*ri/mas ,isl& 7#b ,n41 #aeg ,w474 ,capta9 ,cook1 9 8 8,?ird ,voyage0 7vol4 ii1 *ap4 x71 has giv5 a detail$ acc\nt ( ?is atoll4 ,! bread? ( ! islets on ! reef is unusually great1 & ! sea ne> x does n deep5 s sudd5ly z is g5]ally ! case4 ,x has m lately be5 visit$ by ,mr4 ,f4 ,d4 ,b5nett 7,geograph4 ,j\rn41 vol4 vii1 p4 #bbf72 & he assures me t x is l[ & ( coral-=mation3 ,i p>ticul>ly m5tion ?is1 because x is engrav$ ) a capital lett]1 signify+ a high isl&1 9 ,d',urville & ,lott9's *>t4 ,mr4 ,c\?\y1 also1 has giv5 "s acc\nt ( x 78,rem>ks10 p4 #df7 f ! ,hawaiian 8,spectator02 he believes x has lately und]gone a small elevation1 b 8 evid5ce does n appe> to me satisfactory2 ! deepe/ "p ( ! lagoon is said to be only t5 feet2 nev]!less1 ,i h col\r$ x blue4--,fann+ ,isl& 7#d ,n41 #aeh ,w47 accord+ to ,capta9 ,tromel9 78,ann4 ,m>itim410 #ahbi1 p4 #bhc71 is an atoll3 8 acc\nt z obs]v$ by ,krus5/]n1 diff]s f t giv5 9 ,fann+'s 8,voyage0 7p4 #bbd71 :i*1 h[ev]1 is f> f cle>2 col\r$ blue4--,wa%+ton ,isl& 7#d ,n41 #aei ,w47 is engrav$ z a l[ isl& 9 ,d',urville's *>t1 b is describ$ by ,fann+ 7p4 #bbf7 z hav+ a mu* great] elevation ?an ,fann+ ,isl&1 & h5ce ,i presume x is n an atoll2 n col\r$4--,palmyra ,isl& 7#f ,n41 #afb ,w47 is an atoll divid$ into two p>ts 7,krus5/]n's 8,mem4 ,suppl410 p4 #ej1 also ,fann+'s 8,voyage10 p4 #bcc72 blue4--,smy?'s or ,john/on's ,isl&s 7#ag ,n41 #agj ,w474 ,capta9 ,smy?1 ,r4,n41 has _h ! k9dness to in=m me t !y consi/ ( two v l[1 small isl&s1 ) a dang]\s reef (f ! ea/ end ( !m4 ,capta9 ,smy? does n recollect :e!r ^! islets1 toge!r ) ! reef1 surr\nd$ a lagoon2 uncol\r$4 ,,s&wi* ,,ar*ipelago4--,hawaii2 9 ! *>t 9 ,freyc9et's 8,atlas10 small portions ( ! coa/ are fr+$ by reefs2 & 9 ! accompany+ 8,hydrog4 ,memoir10 reefs are m5tion$ 9 sev]al places1 & ! coral is said to injure ! cables4 ,on "o side ( ! islet ( ,kohaihai !re is a bank ( s& & coral ) five feet wat] on x1 runn+ p>allel to ! %ore1 & leav+ a *annel ( ab\t fifte5 feet deep )94 ,i h col\r$ ?is isl& r$1 b x is v mu* less p]fectly fr+$ ?an o!rs ( ! gr\p4--,maui2 9 ,freyc9et's *>t ( ! an*orage ( ,rahe9a1 two or ?ree miles ( coa/ are se5 to be fr+$2 & 9 ! 8,hydrog4 ,memoir10 8banks ( coral along %ore0 are spok5 (4 ,mr4 ,f4 ,d4 ,b5nett in=ms me t ! reefs1 on an av]age1 ext5d ab\t a qu>t] ( a mile f ! bea*2 ! l& is n v /eep1 & outside ! reefs ! sea does n become deep v sudd5ly2 col\r$ r$4--,morotoi1 ,i presume1 is fr+$3 ,freyc9et speaks ( ! break]s ext5d+ along ! %ore at a little di/ance f x4 ,f ! *>t1 ,i believe x is fr+$2 col\r$ r$4--,oahu2 ,freyc9et1 9 8 8,hydrog4 ,memoir10 m5tions "s ( ! reefs4 ,mr4 ,f4 ,d4 ,b5nett in=ms me t ! %ore is skirt$ = =ty or fifty miles 9 l5g?4 ,!re is ev5 a h>b\r = %ips =m$ by ! reefs1 b x is at ! m\? ( a valley2 r$4--,atooi1 9 ,la ,peyr\se's *>ts1 is repres5t$ z fr+$ by a reef1 9 ! same mann] z ,oahu & ,morotoi2 & ?is1 z ,i h be5 in=m$ by ,mr4 ,ellis1 on "p at lea/ ( ! %ore1 is ( coral-=mation3 ! reef does n leave a deep *annel )92 r$4--,oneeh[2 ,mr4 ,ellis believes t ?is isl& is also fr+$ by a coral-reef3 consid]+ its close proximity to ! o!r isl&s1 ,i h v5tur$ to col\r x r$4 ,i h 9 va9 consult$ ! works ( ,cook1 ,vanc\v]1 ,la ,peyr\se1 & ,lisiansky1 = any satisfactory acc\nt ( ! small isl&s & reefs1 :i* lie scatt]$ 9 a ,n4,w4 l9e prolong$ f ! ,s&wi* gr\p1 & h5ce h left !m uncol\r$1 ) "o exception2 = ,i am indebt$ to ,mr4 ,f4 ,d4 ,b5nett = in=m+ me ( an atoll-=m$ reef1 9 latitude #bh #bb1 longitude #agh #cj ,w41 on :i* ! ,gl$/anes 0 wreck$ 9 #ahcg4 ,x is app>5tly ( l>ge size1 & ext5ds 9 a ,n4,w4 & ,s4,e4 l9e3 v few islets h be5 =m$ on x4 ,! lagoon seems to be %all[2 at lea/1 ! deepe/ "p :i* 0 survey$ 0 only ?ree fa?oms4 ,mr4 ,c\?\y 78,rem>ks10 p4 #ch7 describes ?is isl& "u ! "n ( ,ocean isl&4 ,consid]able d\bts %\ld be ent]ta9$ reg>d+ ! nature ( a reef ( ?is k9d1 ) a v %all[ lagoon1 & /&+ f> f any o!r atoll1 on acc\nt ( ! possibility ( a crat] or flat bank ( rock ly+ at ! prop] dep? b5ea? ! surface ( ! wat]1 ?us af=d+ a f\ndation = a r+-=m$ coral-reef4 ,i h1 h[ev]1 ?\ght myself compell$1 f its l>ge size & symmetrical outl9e1 to col\r x blue4 ,,samoa or ,,navigator ,,gr\p4--,kotzebue1 9 8 8,second ,voyage10 contra/s ! /ructure ( ^! isl&s ) _m o!rs 9 ! ,pacific1 9 n be+ furni%$ ) h>b\rs = %ips1 =m$ by di/ant coral-reefs4 ,! ,rev4 ,j4 ,williams1 h[ev]1 in=ms me1 t coral-reefs d occur 9 irregul> pat*es on ! %ores ( ^! isl&s2 b t !y d n =m a cont9u\s b&1 z r\nd ,mangaia1 & o!r su* p]fect cases ( fr+$ isl&s4 ,f ! *>ts accompany+ ,la ,peyr\se's 8,voyage10 x appe>s t ! nor? %ore ( ,savaii1 ,ma\na1 ,oros5ga1 & ,manua1 are fr+$ by reefs4 ,la ,peyr\se1 speak+ ( ,ma\na 7p4 #abf71 says t ! coral-reef surr\nd+ its %ores1 almo/ t\*es ! bea*2 & is brea*$ 9 front ( ! little coves & /reams1 =m+ passages = canoes1 & probably ev5 = boats4 ,fur!r on 7p4 #aei71 he ext5ds ! same obs]vation to all ! isl&s :i* he visit$4 ,mr4 ,williams 9 8 8,n>rative10 speaks ( a reef go+ r\nd a small isl& atta*$ to ,oyolava1 & return+ aga9 to x3 all ^! isl&s h be5 col\r$ r$4--,a *>t ( ,rose ,isl&1 at ! extreme we/ end ( ! gr\p1 is giv5 by ,freyc9et1 f :i* ,i %\ld h ?\ght t x _h be5 an atoll2 b accord+ to ,mr4 ,c\?\y 78,rem>ks10 p4 #dc71 x consi/s ( a reef1 only a league 9 circuit1 surm\nt$ by a v few l[ islets2 ! lagoon is v %all[1 & is /rew$ ) num]\s l>ge b\ld]s ( volcanic rock4 ,?is isl&1 !re=e1 probably consi/s ( a bank ( rock1 a few feet subm]g$1 ) ! out] m>g9 ( its upp] surface fr+$ ) reefs2 h5ce x _c be prop]ly class$ ) atolls1 9 :i* ! f\ndations are always suppos$ to lie at a dep?1 great] ?an t at :i* ! reef-con/ruct+ polypif]s c live2 n col\r$4 ,bev]idge ,reef1 #bj ,s41 #afg ,w41 is describ$ 9 ! ,naut4 ,mag4 7,may #ahcc1 p4 #ddb7 z t5 miles long 9 a ,n4 & ,s4 l9e1 & eight wide2 89 ! inside ( ! reef !re appe>s deep wat]20 !re is a passage ne> ! ,s4,w4 corn]3 ?is !re=e seems to be a subm]g$ atoll1 & is col\r$ blue4 ,savage ,isl&1 #ai ,s41 #agj ,w41 has be5 describ$ by ,cook & ,=/]4 ,! y\ng] ,=/] 7vol4 ii1 p4 #afc7 says x is ab\t =ty feet high3 he suspects t x conta9s a l[ pla91 :i* =m]ly 0 ! lagoon4 ,! ,rev4 ,j4 ,williams in=ms me t ! reef fr++ its %ores1 resembles t r\nd ,mangaia2 col\r$ r$4 ,,fri5dly ,,ar*ipelago4--,pyl/a>t ,isl&4 ,judg+ f ! *>t 9 ,freyc9et's 8,atlas10 ,i %\ld h suppos$ t x _h be5 regul>ly fr+$2 b z no?+ is said 9 ! 8,hydrog4 ,memoir0 7or 9 ! 8,voyage0 ( ,tasman1 ! discov]]7 ab\t coral-reefs1 ,i h left x uncol\r$4--,tongatab\3 ,9 ! 8,atlas ( ! ,voyage ( ! ,a/rolabe10 ! :ole s\? side ( ! isl& is repres5t$ z n>r[ly fr+$ by ! same reef :i* =ms an ext5sive plat=m on ! nor!rn side4 ,! orig9 ( ?is latt] reef1 :i* might h be5 mi/ak5 = a b>ri]-reef1 has already be5 attempt$ to be expla9$1 :5 giv+ ! pro(s ( ! rec5t elevation ( ?is isl&4--,9 ,cook's *>ts ! little outly+ isl& also ( ,eoaigee1 is repres5t$ z fr+$2 col\r$ r$4--,e\a4 ,i _c make out f ,capta9 ,cook's *>ts & descriptions1 t ?is isl& has any reef1 al?\gh ! bottom ( ! neighb\r+ sea seems to be corally1 & ! isl& itself is =m$ ( coral-rock4 ,=/]1 h[ev]1 di/9ctly 78,obs]vations10 p4 #ad7 classes x ) high isl&s hav+ reefs1 b x c]ta9ly is n encircl$ by a b>ri]-reef & ! y\ng] ,=/] 78,voyage10 vol4 i1 p4 #dbf7 says1 t 8a b$ ( coral-rocks surr\nd$ ! coa/ t[>ds ! l&+-place40 ,i h !re=e class$ x ) ! fr+$ isl&s & col\r$ x r$4 ,! sev]al isl&s ly+ ,n4,w4 ( ,tongatab\1 namely ,anam\ka1 ,komango1 ,kot\1 ,lef\ga1 ,foa1 etc41 are se5 9 ,capta9 ,cook's *>t to be fr+$ by reefs1 9 sev]al ( !m are connect$ toge!r4 ,f ! v>i\s /atem5ts 9 ! fir/ volume ( ,cook's 8,?ird ,voyage10 & especially 9 ! f\r? & six? *apt]s1 x appe>s t ^! reefs are ( coral-=mation1 & c]ta9ly d n belong to ! b>ri] class2 col\r$ r$4--,t\foa & ,kao1 =m+ ! we/]n "p ( ! gr\p1 accord+ to ,=/] h no reefs2 ! =m] is an active volcano4--,vavao4 ,!re is a *>t ( ?is s+ul>ly =m$ isl&1 by ,esp9oza3 accord+ to ,mr4 ,williams x consi/s ( coral-rock3 ! ,*evali] ,dillon in=ms me t x is n fr+$2 n col\r$4 ,nor are ! isl&s ( ,latte & ,am>gura1 = ,i h n se5 plans on a l>ge scale ( !m1 & d n "k :e!r !y are fr+$4 ,ni\ha1 #af ,s41 #agd ,w41 or ,keppel ,isl& ( ,wallis1 or ,cocos ,isl&4 ,f a view & *>t ( ?is isl& giv5 9 ,wallis's 8,voyage0 7#dto ed47 x is evid5tly encircl$ by a reef2 col\r$ blue3 x is h[ev] rem>kable t ,boscaw5 ,isl&1 imm$iately adjo9+1 has no reef ( any k9d2 uncol\r$4 ,wallis ,isl&1 #ac ,s41 #agf ,w41 a *>t & view ( ?is isl& 9 ,wallis's 8,voyage0 7#dto ed47 %[s t x is encircl$4 ,a view ( x 9 ! ,naut4 ,mag41 ,july #ahcc1 p4 #cgf1 %[s ! same fact2 blue4 ,all\fat\1 or ,horn ,isl&1 ,on\afu1 or ,proby ,isl&1 & ,hunt] ,isl&s1 lie betwe5 ! ,navigator & ,fidji gr\ps4 ,i c f9d no di/9ct acc\nts ( !m4 ,,fidji or ,,viti ,,gr\p4--,! be/ *>t ( ! num]\s isl&s ( ?is gr\p1 w be f\nd 9 ! 8,atlas ( ! ,a/rolabe's ,voyage40 ,f ?is1 & f ! description giv5 9 ! 8,hydrog4 ,memoir10 accompany+ x1 x appe>s t _m ( ^! isl&s are bold & m\nta9\s1 ris+ to ! height ( betwe5 #c1jjj & #d1jjj feet4 ,mo/ ( ! isl&s are surr\nd$ by reefs1 ly+ f> f ! l&1 & outside ( :i* ! ocean appe>s v deep4 ,! ,a/rolabe s\nd$ ) n9ety fa?oms 9 sev]al places ab\t a mile f ! reefs1 & f\nd no bottom4 ,al?\gh ! dep? )9 ! reef is n laid d[n1 x is evid5t f sev]al expressions1 t ,capta9 ,d',urville believes t %ips c\ld an*or )91 if passages exi/$ ?r\gh ! out] b>ri]s4 ,! ,*evalli] ,dillon in=ms me t ?is is ! case3 h5ce ,i h col\r$ ?is gr\p blue4 ,9 ! ,s4,e4 "p lies ,batoa1 or ,turtle ,isl& ( ,cook 78,second ,voyage10 vol4 ii1 p4 #bc1 & *>t1 #dto ed47 surr\nd$ by a coral-reef1 8:i* 9 "s places ext5ds two miles f ! %ore20 )9 ! reef ! wat] appe>s to be deep1 & outside x is unfa?omable2 col\r$ pale blue4 ,at ! di/ance ( a few miles1 ,capta9 ,cook 7,ibid41 p4 #bd7 f\nd a circul> coral-reef1 f\r or five leagues 9 circuit1 ) deep wat] )92 89 %ort1 ! bank wants only a few little islets to make x exactly l "o ( ! half-dr[n$ isles s (t5 m5tion$10--namely1 atolls4 ,s\? ( ,batoa1 lies ! high isl& ( ,ono1 :i* appe>s 9 ,bell+haus5's 8,atlas0 to be encircl$2 z d "s o!r small isl&s to ! s\?2 col\r$ pale blue2 ne> ,ono1 !re is an annul> reef1 q simil> to ! "o j describ$ 9 ! words ( ,capta9 ,cook2 col\r$ d>k blue4 ,rot\mah1 #ac ,s41 #agi ,e4--,f ! *>t 9 ,dup]rey's 8,atlas10 ,i ?\ght ?is isl& 0 encircl$1 & _h col\r$ x blue1 b ! ,*evalli] ,dillon assures me t ! reef is only a %ore or fr++ "o2 r$4 ,indep5d5ce ,isl&1 #aj ,s41 #agi ,e41 is describ$ by ,mr4 ,g4 ,b5nett1 7,unit$ ,s]vice ,j\rn41 #ahca1 "p ii1 p4 #aig7 z a l[ isl& ( coral-=mation1 x is small1 & does n appe> to conta9 a lagoon1 al?\gh an op5+ ?r\gh ! reef is ref]r$ to4 ,a lagoon probably once exi/$1 & has s9ce be5 fill$ up2 left uncol\r$4 ,,ellice ,,gr\p4--,osc>1 ,pey/]1 & ,ellice ,isl&s are figur$ 9 ,arr[smi?'s 8,*>t ( ! ,pacific0 7correct$ to #ahcb7 z atolls1 & are said to be v l[2 blue4--,n$]l&is* ,isl&4 ,i am greatly indebt$ to ! k9dness ( ,admiral ,krus5/]n1 = s5d+ me ! orig9al docum5ts conc]n+ ?is isl&4 ,f ! plans giv5 by ,capta9s ,eeg & ,khremt%5ko1 & f ! detail$ acc\nt giv5 by ! =m]1 x appe>s t x is a n>r[ coral-isl&1 ab\t two miles long1 conta9+ a small lagoon4 ,! sea is v deep close to ! %ore1 :i* is front$ by %>p coral-rocks4 ,capta9 ,eeg comp>es ! lagoon ) t ( o!r coral-isl&s2 & he di/9ctly says1 ! l& is 8v l[40 ,i h !re=e col\r$ x blue4 ,admiral ,krus5/]n 78,memoir on ! ,pacific10 ,app5d41 #ahce7 /ates t its %ores are eighty feet high2 ?is probably arose f ! height ( ! cocoa-nut trees1 ) :i* x is cov]$1 be+ mi/ak5 = l&4--,gran ,cocal is said 9 ,krus5/]n's 8,memoir10 to be l[1 & to be surr\nd$ by a reef2 x is small1 & !re=e probably once conta9$ a lagoon2 uncol\r$4--,/4 ,augu/94 ,f a *>t & view ( x1 giv5 9 ! 8,atlas ( ! ,coquille's ,voyage10 x appe>s to be a small atoll1 ) its lagoon p>tly fill$ up2 col\r$ blue4 ,,gilb]t ,,gr\p4--,! *>t ( ?is gr\p1 giv5 9 ! 8,atlas ( ! ,coquille's ,voyage10 at once %[s t x is compos$ ( t5 well *>act]is$ atolls4 ,9 ,d',urville & ,lott9's *>t1 ,syd5ham is writt5 ) a capital lett]1 signify+ t x is high2 b ?is c]ta9ly is n ! case1 = x is a p]fectly *>act]is$ atoll1 & a sket*1 %[+ h[ l[ x is1 is giv5 9 ! 8,coquille's ,atlas40 ,"s n>r[ /rip-l reefs project f ! s\!rn side ( ,drummond atoll1 & r5d] x irregul>4 ,! s\!rn isl& ( ! gr\p is call$ ,*ase 79 "s *>ts1 ,rot*es72 ( ?is ,i c f9d no acc\nt1 b ,mr4 ,f4 ,d4 ,b5nett discov]$ 7,geograph4 ,j\rn41 vol4 vii1 p4 #bbi71 a l[ ext5sive isl& 9 ne>ly ! same latitude1 ab\t ?ree degrees we/w>d ( ! longitude assign$ to ,rot*es1 b v probably x is ! same isl&4 ,mr4 ,b5nett in=ms me t ! man at ! ma/head report$ an appe>ance ( lagoon-wat] 9 ! c5tre2 &1 !re=e1 consid]+ its position1 ,i h col\r$ x blue4--,pitt ,isl&1 at ! extreme nor!rn po9t ( ! gr\p1 is left uncol\r$1 z its exact position & nature is n kn[n4--,byron ,isl&1 :i* lies a little to ! ea/w>d1 does n appe> to h be5 visit$ s9ce ,commodore ,byron's voyage1 & x 0 !n se5 only f a di/ance ( eighte5 miles2 x is said to be l[2 uncol\r$4 ,ocean1 ,pleasant1 & ,atlantic ,isl&s all lie consid]ably to ! we/ ( ! ,gilb]t gr\p3 ,i h be5 unable to f9d any di/9ct acc\nt ( !m4 ,ocean ,isl& is writt5 ) small lett]s 9 ! ,fr5* *>t1 b 9 ,krus5/]n's 8,memoir0 x is said to be high4 ,,m>%all ,,gr\p4--,we are well acqua9t$ ) ?is gr\p f ! excell5t *>ts ( ! sep>ate isl&s1 made dur+ ! two voyages ( ,kotzebue3 a r$uc$ "o ( ! :ole gr\p may be easily se5 9 ,krus5/]n's 8,atlas10 & 9 ,kotzebue's 8,second ,voyage40 ,! gr\p consi/s 7) ! exception ( two little isl&s :i* probably h _h _! lagoon fill$ up7 ( a d\ble r[ ( tw5ty-?ree l>ge & well-*>act]is$ atolls1 f ! exam9ation ( :i* ,*amisso has giv5 u 8 well-kn[n acc\nt ( coral-=mations4 ,i include ,gasp> ,rico1 or ,cornwallis ,isl& 9 ?is gr\p1 :i* is describ$ by ,*amisso 7,kotzebue's 8,fir/ ,voyage10 vol4 iii1 p4 #agi7 8z a l[ sickle-=m$ gr\p1 ) m\ld only on ! w9dw>d side40 ,gasp>d ,isl& is consid]$ by "s geograph]s z a di/9ct isl& ly+ ,n4,e4 ( ! gr\p1 b x is n ent]$ 9 ! *>t by ,krus5/]n2 left uncol\r$4 ,9 ! ,s4,w4 "p ( ?is gr\p lies ,b>+ ,isl&1 ( :i* little is kn[n 7see ,krus5/]n's 8,app5dix10 #ahce1 p4 #adi74 ,i h left x uncol\r$2 b ,bo/on ,isl& ,i h col\r$ blue1 z x is describ$ 7,ibid47 z consi/+ ( f\rte5 small isl&s1 :i*1 no d\bt1 enclose a lagoon1 z repres5t$ 9 a *>t 9 ! 8#8,coquille's' ,atlas40--,two isl&s1 ,aur ,kaw5 & ,gasp> ,rico1 are writt5 9 ! ,fr5* *>t ) capital lett]s2 b ?is is an error1 = f ! acc\nt giv5 by ,*amisso 9 ,kotzebue's 8,fir/ ,voyage10 !y are c]ta9ly l[4 ,! nature1 position1 & ev5 exi/5ce1 ( ! %oals & small isl&s nor? ( ! ,m>%all gr\p1 are d\btful4 ,,new ,,hebrides4--,any *>t1 on ev5 a small scale1 ( ^! isl&s1 w %[ t _! %ores are almo/ )\t reefs1 pres5t+ a rem>kable contra/ ) ^? ( ,new ,cal$onia on ! "o h&1 & ! ,fidji gr\p on ! o!r4 ,nev]!less1 ,i h be5 assur$ by ,mr4 ,g4 ,b5nett1 t coral gr[s vigor\sly on _! %ores2 z inde$1 w be fur!r %[n 9 "s ( ! foll[+ notices4 ,z1 !re=e1 ^! isl&s are n encircl$1 & z coral gr[s vigor\sly on _! %ores1 we might almo/ conclude1 )\t fur!r evid5ce1 t !y 7 fr+$1 & h5ce ,i h appli$ ! r$ col\r ) r great] fre$om ?an 9 o!r in/ances4--,mat!w's ,rock1 an active volcano1 "s way s\? ( ! gr\p 7( :i* a plan is giv5 9 ! 8,atlas ( ! ,a/rolabe's ,voyage07 does n appe> to h reefs ( any k9d ab\t x4--,annatom1 ! s\!rnmo/ ( ! ,hebrides2 f a r\gh woodcut giv5 9 ! ,unit$ ,s]vice ,j\rnal 7#ahca1 "p iii1 p4 #aij71 accompany+ a pap] by ,mr4 ,b5nett1 x appe>s t ! %ore is fr+$2 col\r$ r$4--,tanna4 ,=/]1 9 8 8,obs]vations0 7p4 #bb71 says ,tanna has on its %ores coral-rock & madrepores2 & ! y\ng] ,=/]1 9 8 acc\nt 7vol4 ii1 p4 #bfi7 speak+ ( ! h>b\r says1 ! :ole ,s4,e4 side consi/s ( coral-reefs1 :i* are ov]fl[$ at high-wat]2 "p ( ! s\!rn %ore 9 ,cook's *>t is repres5t$ z fr+$2 col\r$ r$4--,imm] is describ$ 7,unit$ ,s]vice ,j\rnal1 #ahca1 "p iii1 p4 #aib7 by ,mr4 ,b5nett z be+ ( mod]ate elevation1 ) cliffs appe>+ l s&/one3 coral gr[s 9 pat*es on its %ore1 b ,i h n col\r$ x2 & ,i m5tion ^! facts1 because ,imm] might h be5 ?\ght f ,=/]'s classification 78,obs]vations10 p4 #ad71 to h be5 a l[ isl& or ev5 an atoll4--,erromango ,isl&2 ,cook 78,second ,voyage10 vol4 ii1 p4 #de1 #dto ed47 speaks ( rocks ev]y:]e l9+ ! coa/1 & ! natives (f]$ to haul 8 boat ov] ! break]s to ! s&y bea*3 ,mr4 ,b5nett1 9 a lett] to ! ,editor ( ! ,s+apore ,*ron41 alludes to ! reefs on its %ores4 ,x may1 ,i ?9k1 be safely inf]r$ f ^! passages t ! %ore is fr+$ 9 p>ts by coral-reefs2 col\r$ r$4--,s&wi* ,isl&4 ,! ea/ coa/ is said 7,cook's 8,second ,voyage10 vol4 ii1 p4 #da7 to be l[1 & to be gu>d$ by a *a9 ( break]s4 ,9 ! accompany+ *>t x is se5 to be fr+$ by a reef2 col\r$ r$4--,mallicollo4 ,=/] speaks ( ! reef-b\nd$ %ore3 ! reef is ab\t ?irty y>ds wide1 & s %all[ t a boat _c pass ov] x4 ,=/] also 78,obs]vations10 p4 #bc7 says1 t ! rocks ( ! sea-%ore consi/ ( madrepore4 ,9 ! plan ( ,s&wi* h>b\r1 ! headl&s are repres5t$ z fr+$2 col\r$ r$4--,aurora & ,p5teco/ ,isl&s1 accord+ to ,b\ga9ville1 app>5tly h no reefs2 nor has ! l>ge isl& ( ,s4 ,espiritu1 nor ,bligh ,isl& or ,banks' ,isl&s1 :i* latt] lie to ! ,n4,e4 ( ! ,hebrides4 ,b 9 none ( ^! cases1 h ,i met ) any detail$ acc\nt ( _! %ores1 or se5 plans on a l>ge scale2 & x w be evid5t1 t a fr++-reef ( only ?irty or ev5 a few hundr$ y>ds 9 wid?1 is ( s little importance to navigation1 t x w seldom be notic$1 except+ by *ance2 & h5ce ,i d n d\bt t sev]al ( ^! isl&s1 n[ left uncol\r$1 ought to be r$4 ,,santa ,,cruz ,,gr\p4--,vanikoro 7,fig4 #a1 ,plate ,i7 (f]s a /rik+ example ( a b>ri]- reef3 x 0 fir/ describ$ by ! ,*evali] ,dillon1 9 8 voyage1 & 0 survey$ 9 ! ,a/rolabe2 col\r$ pale blue4--,tikopia & ,fataka ,isl&s appe>1 f ! descriptions ( ,dillon & ,d',urville1 to h no reefs2 ,an\da is a l[1 flat isl&1 surr\nd$ by cliffs 78,a/rolabe ,hydrog40 & ,krus5/]n1 8,mem40 vol4 ii1 p4 #dcb72 ^! are uncol\r$4 ,t\p\a 7,otooboa ( ,dillon7 is /at$ by ,capta9 ,tromel9 78,annales ,m>it40 #ahbi1 p4 #bhi7 to be almo/ entirely includ$ 9 a reef1 ly+ at ! di/ance ( two miles f ! %ore4 ,!re is a space ( ?ree miles )\t any reef1 :i*1 al?\gh ind5t$ ) bays1 (f]s no an*orage f ! extreme dep? ( ! wat] close to ! %ore3 ,capta9 ,dillon also speaks ( ! reefs front+ ?is isl&2 col\r$ blue4--,santa-,cruz4 ,i h c>efully exam9$ ! works ( ,c>t]et1 ,d',entreca/eaux1 ,wilson1 & ,tromel91 & ,i _c discov] any m5tion ( reefs on its %ores2 left uncol\r$4--,t9akoro is a con/antly active volcano )\t reefs4--,m5dana ,isles 7m5tion$ by ,dillon "u ! "n ( ,mammee1 etc472 said by ,krus5/]n to be l[1 & int]tw9$ ) reefs4 ,i d n believe !y include a lagoon2 ,i h left !m uncol\r$4--,duff's ,isl&s compose a small gr\p direct$ 9 a ,n4,w4 & ,s4,e4 b&2 !y are describ$ by ,wilson 7p4 #bif1 8,miss4 ,voy40 #dto ed471 z =m$ by bold-peak$ l&1 ) ! isl&s surr\nd$ by coral-reefs1 ext5d+ ab\t half a mile f ! %ore2 at a di/ance ( a mile f ! reefs he f\nd only sev5 fa?oms4 ,z ,i h no reason = suppos+ !re is deep wat] )9 ^! reefs1 ,i h col\r$ !m r$4 ,k5n$y ,isl&1 ,n4,e4 ( ,duff's4 ,i h be5 unable to f9d any acc\nt ( x4 ,,new ,,cal$onia4--,! great b>ri]-reefs on ! %ores ( ?is isl& h already be5 describ$ 7,fig4 #e1 ,plate ,,ii74 ,!y h be5 visit$ by ,labill>di]e1 ,cook1 & ! nor!rn po9t by ,d',urville2 ?is latt] "p s closely resembles an atoll t ,i h col\r$ x d>k blue4 ,! ,loyalty gr\p is situat$ ea/w>d ( ?is isl&2 f ! *>t & description giv5 9 ! 8,voyage ( ! ,a/rolabe10 !y d n appe> to h any reefs2 nor? ( ?is gr\p1 !re are "s ext5sive l[ reefs 7call$ ,a/rolabe & ,beaupr17 :i* d n seem to be atoll-=m$2 ^! are left uncol\r$4 ,,au/ralian ,,b>ri]-,,reef4--,! limits ( ?is great reef1 :i* has already be5 describ$1 h be5 col\r$ f ! *>ts ( ,fl9d]s & ,k+4 ,9 ! nor!rn p>ts1 an atoll-=m$ reef1 ly+ outside ! b>ri]1 has be5 describ$ by ,bligh1 & is col\r$ d>k blue4 ,9 ! space betwe5 ,au/ralia & ,new ,cal$onia1 call$ by ,fl9d]s ! ,corallian ,sea1 !re are num]\s reefs4 ,( ^!1 "s are repres5t$ 9 ,krus5/]n's 8,atlas0 z hav+ an atoll-l /ructure2 namely1 ,bampton %oal1 ,fr$]ic1 ,v9e or ,horse-%oe1 & ,al]t reefs2 ^! h be5 col\r$ d>k blue4 ,,l\isiade4--,! dang]\s reefs :i* front & surr\nd ! we/]n1 s\!rn1 & nor!rn coa/s ( ?is s-call$ p59sula & ar*ipelago1 seem evid5tly to belong to ! b>ri] class4 ,! l& is l(ty1 ) a l[ fr+e on ! coa/2 ! reefs are di/ant1 & ! sea outside !m pr(\ndly deep4 ,ne>ly all t is kn[n ( ?is gr\p is d]iv$ f ! lab\rs ( ,d',entreca/eaux & ,b\ga9ville3 ! latt] has repres5t$ "o cont9u\s reef n9ety miles long1 p>allel to ! %ore1 & 9 places z mu* z t5 miles f x2 col\r$ pale blue4 ,a little di/ance nor?w>d we h ! ,laughlan ,isl&s1 ! reefs r\nd :i* are engrav$ 9 ! 8,atlas ( ! ,voyage ( ! ,a/rolabe10 9 ! same mann] z 9 ! encircl$ isl&s ( ! ,c>ol9e ,ar*ipelago1 ! reef is1 9 p>ts1 a mile & a half f ! %ore1 to :i* x does n appe> to be atta*$2 col\r$ blue4 ,at "s little di/ance f ! extremity ( ! ,l\isiade lies ! ,wells reef1 describ$ 9 ,g4 ,hamilton's 8,voyage 9 ,h4,m4,s4 ,p&ora0 7p4 #ajj73 x is said1 8,we f\nd we _h got embay$ 9 a d\ble reef1 :i* w soon be an isl&40 ,z ?is /atem5t is only intelligible on ! supposition ( ! reef be+ cresc5t or horse-%oe =m$1 l s _m o!r subm]g$ annul> reefs1 ,i h v5tur$ to col\r x blue4 ,,solomon ,,ar*ipelago4--,! *>t 9 ,krus5/]n's 8,atlas0 %[s t ^! isl&s are n encircl$1 & z coral appe>s f ! works ( ,surville1 ,b\ga9ville1 & ,labill>di]e1 to gr[ on _! %ores1 ?is circum/ance1 z 9 ! case ( ! ,new ,hebrides1 is a presumption t !y are fr+$4 ,i _c f9d out any?+ f ,d',entreca/eaux's 8,voyage10 reg>d+ ! s\!rn isl&s ( ! gr\p1 s h left !m uncol\r$4--,malayta ,isl& 9 a r\gh ,,ms4 *>t 9 ! ,admiralty has its nor!rn %ore fr+$4--,ysabel ,isl&1 ! ,n4,e4 "p ( ?is isl&1 9 ! same *>t1 is also fr+$3 ,m5dana1 speak+ 7,burney1 vol4 i1 p4 #bhj7 ( an islet adjo9+ ! nor!rn coa/1 says x is surr\nd$ by reefs2 ! %ores1 also ( ,port ,prasl9 appe> regul>ly fr+$4--,*oiseul ,isl&4 ,9 ,b\ga9ville's 8,*>t ( ,*oiseul ,bay10 p>ts ( ! %ores are fr+$ by coral-reefs4--,b\ga9ville ,isl&4 ,accord+ to ,d',entreca/eaux ! we/]n %ore ab\nds ) coral-reefs1 & ! small] isl&s are said to be atta*$ to ! l>g] ones by reefs2 all ! be=e-m5tion$ isl&s h be5 col\r$ r$4--,b\ka ,isl&s4 ,capta9 ,dup]rey has k9dly in=m$ me 9 a lett] t he pass$ close r\nd ! nor!rn side ( ?is isl& 7( :i* a plan is giv5 9 8 8,atlas ( ! ,coquille's ,voyage071 & t x 0 8g>nie d'une b&e de rcifs fleur d'eau adh]5tes au rivage20 & he inf]s1 f ! abundance ( coral on ! isl&s nor? & s\? ( ,b\ka1 t ! reef probably is ( coral2 col\r$ r$4 ,(f ! nor? coa/ ( ! ,solomon ,ar*ipelago !re are sev]al small gr\ps :i* are little kn[n2 !y appe> to be l[1 & ( coral-=mation2 & "s ( !m probably h an atoll-l /ructure2 ! ,*evalli] ,dillon1 h[ev]1 in=ms me t ?is is n ! case ) ! ,b4 de ,c&el>ia4--,outong ,java1 accord+ to ! ,spani% navigator1 ,maurelle1 is ?us *>act]is$2 b ?is is ! only "o :i* ,i h v5tur$ to col\r blue4 ,,new ,,irel&4--,! %ores ( ! ,s4,w4 po9t ( ?is isl& & "s adjo9+ islets1 are fr+$ by reefs1 z may be se5 9 ! 8,atlases ( ! ,voyages ( ! ,coquille & ,a/rolabe40 ,m4 ,lesson obs]ves t ! reefs are op5 9 front ( ea* /reamlet4 ,! ,duke ( ,york's ,isl& is also fr+$2 b ) reg>d to ! o!r p>ts ( ,new ,irel&1 ,new ,hanov]1 & ! small isl&s ly+ nor?w>d1 ,i h be5 unable to obta9 any in=mation4 ,i w only add t no "p ( ,new ,irel& appe>s to be front$ by di/ant reefs4 ,i h col\r$ r$ only ! above specifi$ portions4 ,,new ,,brita9 ,,& ,,! ,,nor!rn ,,%ore ,,( ,,new ,,gu9ea4--,f ! *>ts 9 ! 8,voyage ( ! ,a/rolabe10 & f ! 8,hydrog4 ,memoir10 x appe>s t ^! coa/s are entirely )\t reefs1 z are ! ,s*\t5 ,isl&s1 ly+ close to ! nor!rn %ore ( ,new ,gu9ea4 ,! we/]n & s\?-we/]n p>ts ( ,new ,gu9ea1 w be treat$ ( :5 we come to ! isl&s ( ! ,ea/ ,indian ,ar*ipelago4 ,,admiralty ,,gr\p4--,f ! acc\nts by ,b\ga9ville1 ,maurelle1 ,d',entreca/eaux1 & ! scatt]$ notices collect$ by ,horsburgh1 x appe>s1 t "s ( ! _m isl&s compos+ x1 are high1 ) a bold outl9e2 & o!rs are v l[1 small & int]lac$ ) reefs4 ,all ! high isl&s appe> to be front$ by di/ant reefs ris+ abruptly f ! sea1 & )9 "s ( :i* !re is reason to believe t ! wat] is deep4 ,i h !re=e little d\bt !y are ( ! b>ri] class4--,9 ! s\!rn "p ( ! gr\p we h ,elizabe? ,isl&1 :i* is surr\nd$ by a reef at ! di/ance ( a mile2 & two miles ea/w>d ( x 7,krus5/]n1 8,app5d40 #ahce1 p4 #db7 !re is a little isl& conta9+ a lagoon4--,ne> "h1 also lies ,circul>-reef 7,horsburgh1 8,direct410 vol4 i1 p4 #fia1 #d? ed471 8?ree or f\r miles 9 diamet] hav+ deep wat] inside ) an op5+ at ! ,n4,n4,w4 "p1 & on ! outside /eep to40 ,i h f ^! data1 col\r$ ! gr\p pale blue1 & ,circul>-reef d>k blue4--,! ,ana*orites1 ,e*equi]1 & ,h]mites1 consi/ ( innum]able l[ isl&s ( coral-=mation1 :i* probably h atoll-l =ms2 b n be+ able to asc]ta9 ?is1 ,i h n col\r$ !m1 nor ,dur\r ,isl&1 :i* is describ$ by ,c>t]et z l[4 ,! ,,c>ol9e ,,ar*ipelago is n[ well-kn[n1 *iefly f ! hydrographical lab\rs ( ,lutk2 x conta9s ab\t =ty gr\ps ( atolls1 & ?ree encircl$ isl&s1 two ( :i* are engrav$ 9 ,figs #b & #g1 ,plate ,i4 ,comm5c+ ) ! ea/]n "p2 ! encircl+ reef r\nd ,ual5 appe>s to be only ab\t half a mile f ! %ore2 b z ! l& is l[ & cov]$ ) mangroves 78,voyage aut\r du ,monde10 p> ,f4 ,lutk1 vol4 i1 p4 #cci71 ! real m>g9 has n probably be5 asc]ta9$4 ,! extreme dep? 9 "o ( ! h>b\rs )9 ! reef is ?irty-?ree fa?oms 7see *>ts 9 8,atlas ( ,coquille's ,voyage071 & outside at half a mile di/ant f ! reef1 no bottom 0 obta9$ ) two hundr$ & fifty fa?oms4 ,! reef is surm\nt$ by _m islets1 & ! lagoon-l *annel )9 is mo/ly %all[1 & appe>s to h be5 mu* encroa*$ on by ! l[ l& surr\nd+ ! c5tral m\nta9s2 ^! facts %[ t "t has all[$ mu* detritus to accumulate2 col\r$ pale blue4--,p\ynipte1 or ,s5iav9e4 ,9 ! great] "p ( ! circumf]5ce ( ?is isl&1 ! reef is ab\t "o mile & ?ree qu>t]s di/ant2 on ! nor? side x is five miles (f ! includ$ high islets4 ,! reef is brok5 9 sev]al places2 & j )9 x1 ! dep? 9 "o place is ?irty fa?oms1 & 9 ano!r1 tw5ty-eight1 beyond :i*1 to all appe>ance1 !re 0 8un porte va/e et sur0 7,lutk1 vol4 ii1 p4 #d72 col\r$ pale blue4--,hogoleu or ,r\g4 ,?is wond]ful gr\p conta9s at lea/ sixty-two isl&s1 & its reef is "o hundr$ & ?irty-five miles 9 circuit4 ,( ! isl&s1 only a few1 ab\t six or eight 7see 8,hydrog4 ,descrip40 p4 #dbh1 ( ! 8,voyage ( ! ,a/rolabe10 & ! l>ge accompany+ *>t tak5 *iefly f t giv5 by ,dup]rey7 are high1 & ! re/ are all small1 l[1 & =m$ on ! reef4 ,! dep? ( ! great int]ior lake has n be5 asc]ta9$2 b ,capta9 ,d',urville appe>s to h ent]ta9$ no d\bt ab\t ! possibility ( tak+ 9 a frigate4 ,! reef lies no less ?an f\rte5 miles di/ant f ! nor!rn coa/s ( ! int]ior high isl&s1 sev5 f _! we/]n sides1 & tw5ty f ! s\!rn2 ! sea is deep outside4 ,?is isl& is a lik5ess on a gr& scale to ! ,gambi] gr\p 9 ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago4 ,( ! gr\ps ( l[#a isl&s =m+ ! *ief "p ( ! ,c>ol9e ,ar*ipelago1 all ^? ( l>g] size1 h ! true atoll-/ructure 7z may be se5 9 ! 8,atlas0 by ,capta9 ,lutk71 & "s ev5 ( ! v small ones1 z ,macaskill & ,dup]rey1 ( :i* plans are giv5 9 ! 8,atlas ( ! ,coquille's ,voyage40 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 "s l[ small isl&s ( coral-=mation1 namely ,ollap1 ,tamatam1 ,bigali1 ,satah\al1 :i* d n conta9 lagoons2 b x is probable t lagoons orig9ally exi/$1 b h s9ce fill$ up3 ,lutk 7vol4 ii1 p4 #cjd7 seems to h ?\ght t all ! l[ isl&s1 ) only "o exception1 conta9$ lagoons4 ,f ! sket*es1 & f ! mann] 9 :i* ! m>g9s ( ^! isl&s are engrav$ 9 ! 8,atlas ( ! ,voyage ( ! ,coquille10 x might h be5 ?\ght t !y 7 n l[2 b by a comp>ison ) ! rem>ks ( ,lutk 7vol4 ii1 p4 #ajg1 reg>d+ ,bigali7 & ( ,freyc9et 78,hydrog4 ,memoir ,l',uranie ,voyage10 p4 #ahh1 reg>d+ ,tamatam1 ,ollap1 etc471 x w be se5 t ! arti/ mu/ h repres5t$ ! l& incorrectly4 ,! mo/ s\!rn isl& 9 ! gr\p1 namely ,piguiram1 is n col\r$1 because ,i h f\nd no acc\nt ( x4 ,n\g\or1 or ,monte ,v]dison1 :i* 0 n visit$ by ,lutk1 is describ$ & figur$ by ,mr4 ,b5nett 7,unit$ ,s]vice ,j\rnal1 ,janu>y #ahcb7 z an atoll4 ,all ! above-m5tion$ isl&s h be5 col\r$ blue4 #a ,9 ,d',urville & ,lott9's *>t1 ,pes]>e is writt5 ) capital lett]s2 b ?is evid5tly is an error1 = x is "o ( ! l[ islets on ! reef ( ,namon\yto 7see ,lutk's *>ts7--a regul> atoll4 ,,we/]n ,,"p ,,( ,,! ,,c>ol9e ,,ar*ipelago4--,fais ,isl& is n9ety feet high1 & is surr\nd$1 z ,i h be5 in=m$ by ,admiral ,lutk1 by a n>r[ reef ( liv+ coral1 ( :i* ! broade/ "p1 z repres5t$ 9 ! *>ts1 is only #aej y>ds2 col\r$ r$4--,philip ,isl&41 ,i believe1 is l[2 b ,hunt]1 9 8 8,hi/orical ,j\rnal10 gives no cle> acc\nt ( x2 uncol\r$4--,elivi2 f ! mann] 9 :i* ! islets on ! reefs are engrav$1 9 ! 8,atlas ( ! ,a/rolabe's ,voyage10 ,i %\ld h ?\ght !y 7 above ! ord9>y height1 b ,admiral ,lutk assures me ?is is n ! case3 !y =m a regul> atoll2 col\r$ blue4--,g\ap 7,eap ( ,*amisso71 is a high isl& ) a reef 7see *>t 9 8,voyage ( ! ,a/rolabe071 m ?an a mile di/ant 9 mo/ p>ts f ! %ore1 & two miles 9 "o "p4 ,capta9 ,d',urville ?9ks t !re w\ld be an*orage 78,hydrog4 ,descript4 ,a/rolabe ,voyage10 p4 #dcf7 = %ips )9 ! reef1 if a passage c\ld be f\nd2 col\r$ pale blue4--,g\l\1 f ! *>t 9 ! 8,a/rolabe's ,atlas10 appe>s to be an atoll4 ,d',urville 78,hydrog4 ,descript40 p4 #dcg7 speaks ( ! l[ islets on ! reef2 col\r$ d>k blue4 ,,pelew ,,isl&s4--,krus5/]n speaks ( "s ( ! isl&s be+ m\nta9\s2 ! reefs are di/ant f ! %ore1 & !re are spaces )9 !m1 & n opposite valleys1 ) f t5 to fifte5 fa?oms4 ,accord+ to a ,,ms4 *>t ( ! gr\p by ,lieut5ant ,elm] 9 ! ,admiralty1 !re is a l>ge space )9 ! reef ) deepi% wat]2 al?\gh ! high l& does n hold a c5tral position ) respect to ! reefs1 z is g5]ally ! case1 ,i h little d\bt t ! reefs ( ! ,pelew ,isl&s ought to be rank$ ) ! b>ri] class1 & ,i h col\r$ !m pale blue4 ,9 ,lieut5ant ,elm]'s *>t !re is a horse%oe-=m$ %oal1 laid d[n ?irte5 miles ,n4,w4 ( ,pelew1 ) fifte5 fa?oms )9 ! reef1 & "s dry banks on x2 col\r$ d>k blue4--,spani%1 ,m>tires1 ,sans]ot1 ,pulo ,anna & ,m>i]e ,isl&s are n col\r$1 because ,i "k no?+ ab\t !m1 except+ t accord+ to ,krus5/]n1 ! second1 ?ird1 & f\r? m5tion$1 are l[1 plac$ on coral-reefs1 & !re=e1 p]haps1 conta9 lagoons2 b ,pulo ,m>i]e is a little high]4 ,,m>iana ,,ar*ipelago1 or ,,ladrones4--,guahan4 ,almo/ ! :ole ( ?is isl& is fr+$ by reefs1 :i* ext5d 9 mo/ p>ts ab\t a ?ird ( a mile f ! l&4 ,ev5 :]e ! reefs are mo/ ext5sive1 ! wat] )9 !m is %all[4 ,9 sev]al p>ts !re is a navigable *annel = boats & canoes )9 ! reefs4 ,9 ,freyc9et's 8,hydrog4 ,mem40 !re is an acc\nt ( ^! reefs1 & 9 ! 8,atlas10 a map on a l>ge scale2 col\r$ r$4--,rota4 8,l'ile e/ presque entirem5t ent\re des rcifs0 7p4 #bab1 ,freyc9et's 8,hydrog4 ,mem4074 ,^! reefs project ab\t a qu>t] ( a mile f ! %ore2 col\r$ r$4--,t9ian4 ,! ea/]n coa/ is precipit\s1 & is )\t reefs2 b ! we/]n side is fr+$ l ! la/ isl&2 col\r$ r$4--,saypan4 ,! ,n4,e4 coa/1 & likewise ! we/]n %ores appe> to be fr+$2 b !re is a great1 irregul>1 horn-l reef project+ f> f ?is side2 col\r$ r$4--,f>allon de ,m$9illa1 appe>s s regul>ly & closely fr+$ 9 ,freyc9et's *>ts1 t ,i h v5tur$ to col\r x r$1 al?\gh no?+ is said ab\t reefs 9 ! 8,hydrographical ,memoir40 ,! sev]al isl&s :i* =m ! nor!rn "p ( ! gr\p are volcanic 7) ! exception p]haps ( ,torres1 :i* resembles 9 =m ! madreporitic isl& ( ,m$9illa71 & appe> to be )\t reefs4--,mangs1 h[ev]1 is describ$ 7by ,freyc9et1 p4 #bai1 8,hydrog407 f "s ,spani% *>ts1 z =m$ ( small isl&s plac$ 8au milieu des nombreux rcifs20 & z ^! reefs 9 ! g5]al *>t ( ! gr\p d n project s mu* z a mile2 & z !re is no appe>ance f a d\ble l9e1 ( ! exi/5ce ( deep wat] )91 ,i h v5tur$1 al?\gh ) mu* hesitation1 to col\r !m r$4 ,respect+ ,folg] & ,m>%all ,isl&s :i* lie "s way ea/ ( ! ,m>ianas1 ,i c f9d out no?+1 except+ t !y are probably l[4 ,krus5/]n says ?is ( ,m>%all ,isl&2 & ,folg] ,isl& is writt5 ) small lett]s 9 ,d',urville's *>t2 uncol\r$4 ,,bon9 ,,or ,,arzobispo ,,gr\p4--,peel ,isl& has be5 exam9$ by ,capta9 ,bee*ey1 to ^: k9dness ,i am mu* indebt$ = giv+ me in=mation reg>d+ x3 8,at ,port ,lloyd !re is a great deal ( coral2 & ! inn] h>b\r is entirely =m$ by coral-reefs1 :i* ext5d outside ! port along ! coa/40 ,capta9 ,bee*ey1 9 ano!r "p ( 8 lett] to me1 alludes to ! reefs fr++ ! isl& 9 all directions2 b at ! same "t x mu/ be obs]v$ t ! surf wa%es ! volcanic rocks ( ! coa/ 9 ! great] "p ( its circumf]5ce4 ,i d n "k :e!r ! o!r isl&s ( ! ,ar*ipelago are fr+$2 ,i h col\r$ ,peel ,isl& r$4--,grampus ,isl& to ! ea/w>d1 does n appe> 7,me>e's 8,voyage10 p4 #ie7 to h any reefs1 nor does ,ros>io ,isl& 7f ,lutk's *>t71 :i* lies to ! we/w>d4 ,respect+ ! few o!r isl&s 9 ?is "p ( ! sea1 namely ! ,sulphur ,isl&s1 ) an active volcano1 & ^? ly+ betwe5 ,bon9 & ,japan 7:i* are situat$ ne> ! extreme limit 9 latitude1 at :i* reefs are =m$71 ,i h n be5 able to f9d any cle> acc\nt4 ,,we/ ,,end ,,( ,,new ,,gu9ea4--,port ,dory4 ,f ! *>ts 9 ! 8,voyage ( ! ,coquille10 x w\ld appe> t ! coa/ 9 ?is "p is fr+$ by coral-reefs2 ,m4 ,lesson1 h[ev]1 rem>ks t ! coral is sickly2 col\r$ r$4--,waigi\4 ,a consid]able portion ( ! nor!rn %ores ( ^! isl&s is se5 9 ! *>ts 7on a l>ge scale7 9 ,freyc9et's 8,atlas0 to be fr+$ by coral-reefs4 ,=re/ 7p4 #ba1 8,voyage to ,new ,gu9ea07 alludes to ! coral-reefs l9+ ! heads ( ,piapis ,bay2 & ,horsburgh 7vol4 ii1 p4 #eii1 #d? edit471 speak+ ( ! isl&s 9 ,dampi] ,/rait1 says 8%>p coral-rocks l9e _! %ores20 col\r$ r$4--,9 ! sea nor? ( ^! isl&s1 we h ,gu$es 7or ,freewill1 or ,/4 ,david's71 :i* f ! *>t giv5 9 ! #dto edit4 ( ,c>t]et's 8,voyage10 mu/ be an atoll4 ,krus5/]n says ! islets are v l[2 col\r$ blue4--,c>t]et's ,%oals1 9 #b #ec ,n41 are describ$ z circul>1 ) /ony po9ts %[+ all r\nd1 ) deep] wat] 9 ! middle2 col\r$ blue4--,ai\2 ! plan ( ?is gr\p1 giv5 9 ! 8,atlas ( ! ,voyage ( ! ,a/rolabe10 %[s t x is an atoll2 &1 f a *>t 9 ,=re/'s 8,voyage10 x appe>s t !re is twelve fa?oms )9 ! circul> reef2 col\r$ blue4--,! ,s4,w4 coa/ ( ,new ,gu9ea appe>s to be l[1 muddy1 & devoid ( reefs4 ,! ,arru1 ,timor-laut1 & ,t5imb] gr\ps h lately be5 exam9$ by ,capta9 ,kolff1 ! ,,ms4 translation ( :i*1 by ,mr4 ,w4 ,e>l1 ,i h be5 p]mitt$ to read1 ?r\gh ! k9dness ( ,capta9 ,wa%+ton1 ,r4,n4 ,^! isl&s are mo/ly r l[1 & are surr\nd$ by di/ant reefs 7! ,ki ,isl&s1 h[ev]1 are l(ty1 &1 f ,mr4 ,/anley's survey1 appe> )\t reefs72 ! sea 9 "s p>ts is %all[1 9 o!rs pr(\ndly deep 7z ne> ,l>rat74 ,f ! imp]fection ( ! publi%$ *>ts1 ,i h be5 unable to decide to :i* class ^! reefs belong4 ,f ! di/ance to :i* !y ext5d f ! l&1 :]e ! sea is v deep1 ,i am /rongly incl9$ to believe !y ought to come )9 ! b>ri] class1 & be col\r$ blue2 b ,i h be5 =c$ to leave !m uncol\r$4--,! la/-m5tion$ gr\ps are connect$ ) ! ea/ end ( ,c]am by a *a9 ( small isl&s1 ( :i* ! small gr\ps ( ,c]am-laut1 ,goram & ,keff+ are surr\nd$ by v ext5sive reefs1 project+ into deep wat]1 :i*1 z 9 ! la/ case1 ,i /rongly suspect belong to ! b>ri] class2 b ,i h n col\r$ !m4 ,f ! s\? side ( ,keff+1 ! reefs project five miles 7,w9dsor ,e>l's 8,sail+ ,direct4 = ! ,arafura ,sea10 p4 #i74 ,,c]am4--,9 v>i\s *>ts :i* ,i h exam9$1 sev]al p>ts ( ! coa/ are repres5t$ z fr+$ by reefs4--,manipa ,isl&1 betwe5 ,c]am & ,b\r\1 9 an old ,,ms4 *>t 9 ! ,admiralty1 is fr+$ by a v irregul> reef1 p>tly dry at l[ wat]1 :i* ,i d n d\bt is ( coral-=mation2 bo? isl&s col\r$ r$4--,b\r\2 p>ts ( ?is isl& appe> fr+$ by coral-reefs1 namely1 ! ea/]n coa/1 z se5 9 ,freyc9et's *>t2 & ,cajeli ,bay1 :i* is said by ,horsburgh 7vol4 ii1 p4 #fcj7 to be l9$ by coral-reefs1 t /ret* out a little way1 & h only a few feet wat] on !m4 ,9 sev]al *>ts1 portions ( ! isl&s =m+ ! ,,ambo9a ,,gr\p are fr+$ by reefs2 = in/ance1 ,noessa1 ,h>5ca1 & ,uca/]1 9 ,freyc9et's *>ts4 ,! above-m5tion$ isl&s h be5 col\r$ r$1 al?\gh ! evid5ce is n v satisfactory4--,nor? ( ,b\r\ ! p>allel l9e ( ! ,xulla ,isles ext5ds3 ,i h n be5 able to f9d out any?+ ab\t !m1 except+ t ,horsburgh 7vol4 ii1 p4 #edc7 says t ! nor!rn %ore is surr\nd$ by a reef at ! di/ance ( two or ?ree miles2 uncol\r$4--,mysol ,gr\p2 ! ,kan>y ,isl&s are said by ,=re/ 78,voyage10 p4 #acj7 to be divid$ f ea* o!r by deep /raits1 & are l9$ ) coral-rocks2 col\r$ r$4--,guebe1 ly+ betwe5 ,waigi\ & ,gilolo1 is engrav$ z if fr+$2 & x is said by ,freyc9et1 t all ! s\nd+s "u five fa?oms 7 on coral2 col\r$ r$4--,gilolo4 ,9 a *>t publi%$ by ,dalrymple1 ! num]\s isl&s on ! we/]n1 s\!rn 7,bat*ian & ! ,/rait ( ,pati5tia71 & ea/]n sides appe> fr+$ by n>r[ reefs2 ^! reefs1 ,i suppose1 are ( coral1 = x is said 9 8,malte ,brun0 7vol4 xii1 p4 #aef71 8,sur les ctes 7( ,bat*ian7 comme dans les plup>t des iles de cet ar*ipel1 il y a de rocs de mdrepores d'une beaut et d'une v>it infimies40 ,=re/1 also 7p4 #ej71 says ,sel&1 ne> ,bat*ian1 is a little isl& ) reefs ( coral2 col\r$ r$4--,morty ,isl& 7nor? ( ,gilolo74 ,horsburgh 7vol4 ii1 p4 #ejf7 says ! nor!rn coa/ is l9$ by reefs1 project+ "o or two miles1 & hav+ no s\nd+s close to !m2 ,i h left x uncol\r$1 al?\gh1 z 9 "s =m] cases1 x ought probably to be pale blue4--,celebes4 ,! we/]n & nor!rn coa/s appe> 9 ! *>ts to be bold & )\t reefs4 ,ne> ! extreme nor!rn po9t1 h[ev]1 an islet 9 ! ,/raits ( ,limbe1 & p>ts ( ! adjo9+ %ore1 appe> to be fr+$3 ! ea/ side ( ! bay ( ,manado1 has deep wat]1 & is fr+$ by s& & coral 78,a/rol4 ,voyage10 ,hydrog4 ,"p1 pp4 #dec-d72 ?is extreme po9t1 !re=e1 ,i h col\r$ r$4--,( ! isl&s lead+ f ?is po9t to ,mag9danao1 ,i h n be5 able to f9d any acc\nt1 except ( ,s]angani1 :i* appe>s surr\nd$ by n>r[ reefs2 & ,=re/ 78,voyage10 p4 #afd7 speaks ( coral on its %ores2 ,i h1 !re=e1 col\r$ ?is isl& r$4 ,to ! ea/w>d ( ?is *a9 lie sev]al isl&s2 ( :i* ,i _c f9d any acc\nt1 except ( ,k>kalang1 :i* is said by ,horsburgh 7vol4 ii1 p4 #ejd7 to be l9$ by a dang]\s reef1 project+ sev]al miles f ! nor!rn %ore2 n col\r$4 ,,isl&s ,,ne> ,,timor4--,! acc\nt ( ! foll[+ isl&s is tak5 f ,capta9 ,d4 ,kolff's 8,voyage10 9 #ahbe1 translat$ by ,mr4 ,w4 ,e>l1 f ! ,dut*4--,lette has 8reefs ext5d+ along %ore at ! di/ance ( half a mile f ! l&40--,moa has reefs on ! ,s4,w4 "p4--,lakor has a reef l9+ its %ore2 ^! isl&s are col\r$ r$4--,/ill m ea/w>d1 ,luan has1 diff]5tly f ! la/-m5tion$ isl&s1 an ext5sive reef2 x is /eep outside1 & )9 !re is a dep? ( twelve feet2 f ^! facts1 x is impossible to decide to :i* class ?is isl& belongs4--,kissa1 (f ! po9t ( ,timor1 has its 8%ore front$ by a reef1 /eep too on ! out] side1 ov] :i* small proahs c g at ! "t ( high wat]20 col\r$ r$4--,timor2 mo/ ( ! po9ts1 & "s consid]able spaces ( ! nor!rn %ore1 are se5 9 ,freyc9et's *>t to be fr+$ by coral-reefs2 & m5tion is made ( !m 9 ! accompany+ 8,hydrog4 ,memoir20 col\r$ r$4--,savu1 ,s4,e4 ( ,timor1 appe>s 9 ,fl9d]s' *>t to be fr+$2 b ,i h n col\r$ x1 z ,i d n "k t ! reefs are ( coral4--,s&alwood ,isl& has1 accord+ to ,horsburgh 7vol4 ii1 p4 #fjg71 a reef on its s\!rn %ore1 f\r miles di/ant f ! l&2 z ! neighb\r+ sea is deep1 & g5]ally bold1 ?is probably is a b>ri]-reef1 b ,i h n v5tur$ to col\r x4 ,n4,w4 ,,coa/ ,,( ,,au/ralia4--,x appe>s1 9 ,capta9 ,k+'s ,sail+ ,directions 78,n>rative ( ,survey10 vol4 ii1 pp4 #cbe-cfi71 t !re are _m ext5sive coral-reefs skirt+1 (t5 at consid]able di/ances1 ! ,n4,w4 %ores1 & encompass+ ! small adjo9+ islets4 ,deep wat]1 9 no in/ance1 is repres5t$ 9 ! *>ts betwe5 ^! reefs & ! l&2 &1 !re=e1 !y probably belong to ! fr++ class4 ,b z !y ext5d f> into ! sea1 :i* is g5]ally %all[1 ev5 9 places :]e ! l& seems to be some:at precipit\s2 ,i h n col\r$ !m4 ,h\tman's ,abrolhos 7lat4 #bh ,s4 on we/ coa/7 h lately be5 survey$ by ,capta9 ,wickham 7z describ$ 9 ,naut4 ,mag4 #ahda1 p4 #eaa73 !y lie on ! edge ( a /eeply %elv+ bank1 :i* ext5ds ab\t ?irty miles seaw>d1 along ! :ole l9e ( coa/4 ,! two s\!rn reefs1 or isl&s1 enclose a lagoon-l space ( wat]1 v>y+ 9 dep? f five to fifte5 fa?oms1 & 9 "o spot ) tw5ty-?ree fa?oms4 ,! great] "p ( ! isl& has be5 =m$ on _! inl& sides1 by ! accumulation ( fragm5ts ( coral2 ! seaw>d face consi/+ ( ne>ly b>e l$ges ( rock4 ,"s ( ! specim5s1 br\ght home by ,capta9 ,wickham1 conta9$ fragm5ts ( m>9e %ells1 b o!rs did n2 & ^! closely resembl$ a =mation at ,k+ ,george's ,s\nd1 pr9cipally due to ! action ( ! w9d on calc>e\s du/1 :i* ,i %all describe 9 a =?com+ "p4 ,f ! extreme irregul>ity ( ^! reefs ) _! lagoons1 & f _! position on a bank1 ! usual dep? ( :i* is only ?irty fa?oms1 ,i h n v5tur$ to class !m ) atolls1 & h5ce h left !m uncol\r$4--,r[ley ,%oals4 ,^! lie "s way f ! ,n4,w4 coa/ ( ,au/ralia3 accord+ to ,capta9 ,k+ 78,n>rative ( ,survey10 vol4 i1 p4 #fj71 !y are ( coral-=mation4 ,!y rise abruptly f ! sea1 & ,capta9 ,k+ _h no bottom ) #agj fa?oms close to !m4 ,?ree ( !m are cresc5t-%ap$2 !y are m5tion$ by ,mr4 ,lyell1 on ! au?ority ( ,capta9 ,k+1 ) ref]5ce to ! direction ( _! op5 sides4 8,a ?ird oval reef ( ! same gr\p is entirely subm]g$0 78,pr9ciples ( ,geology10 book iii1 *ap4 xviii72 col\r$ blue4--,scott's ,reefs1 ly+ nor? ( ,r[ley ,%oals1 are briefly describ$ by ,capta9 ,wickham 7,naut4 ,mag4 #ahda1 p4 #ddj73 !y appe> to be ( great size1 ( a circul> =m1 & 8) smoo? wat] )91 =m+ probably a lagoon ( great ext5t40 ,!re is a break on ! we/]n side1 :]e !re probably is an entrance3 ! wat] is v deep (f ^! reefs2 col\r$ blue4 ,proce$+ we/w>d along ! great volcanic *a9 ( ! ,ea/ ,indian ,ar*ipelago1 ,solor ,/rait is repres5t$ 9 a *>t publi%$ by ,dalrymple f a ,dut* ,,ms41 z fr+$2 z are p>ts ( ,flores1 ( ,ad5>a1 & ( ,solor4 ,horsburgh speaks ( coral gr[+ on ^! %ores2 & !re=e ,i h no d\bt t ! reefs are ( coral1 & accord+ly h col\r$ !m r$4 ,we he> f ,horsburgh 7vol4 ii1 p4 #fjb7 t a coral-flat b\nds ! %ores ( ,sapy ,bay4 ,f ! same au?ority x appe>s 7p4 #faj7 t reefs fr+e ! isl& ( ,timor-,"y1 on ! ,n4 %ore ( ,sumbawa2 &1 likewise 7p4 #fjj71 t ,bally t[n 9 ,lombock1 is front$ by a reef1 /ret*+ along ! %ore at a di/ance ( a hundr$ fa?oms1 ) *annels ?r\gh x = boats2 ^! places1 !re=e1 h be5 col\r$ r$4--,bally ,isl&4 ,9 a ,dut* ,,ms4 *>t on a l>ge scale ( ,java1 :i* 0 br\ght f t isl& by ,dr4 ,horsfield1 :o _h ! k9dness to %[ x me at ! ,india ,h\se1 its we/]n1 nor!rn1 & s\!rn %ores appe> v regul>ly fr+$ by a reef 7see also ,horsburgh1 vol4 ii1 p4 #eic72 & z coral is f\nd abundantly !re1 ,i h n ! lea/ d\bt t ! reef is ( coral1 & !re=e h col\r$ x r$4 ,,java4--,my in=mation reg>d+ ! reefs ( ?is great isl& is d]iv$ f ! *>t j m5tion$4 ,! great] "p ( ,madu>a is repres5t$ 9 x z regul>ly fr+$1 & likewise portions ( ! coa/ ( ,java imm$iately s\? ( x4 ,dr4 ,horsfield in=ms me t coral is v abundant ne> ,s\rabaya4 ,! islets & p>ts ( ! ,n4 coa/ ( ,java1 we/ ( ,po9t ,buang1 or ,jap>a1 are fr+$ by reefs1 said to be ( coral4 ,lubeck1 or ,bavian ,isl&s1 ly+ at "s di/ance f ! %ore ( ,java1 are regul>ly fr+$ by coral-reefs4 ,c>imon ,java appe>s equally s1 ?\gh x is n directly said t ! reefs are ( coral2 !re is a dep? betwe5 ?irty & =ty fa?oms r\nd ^! isl&s4 ,p>ts ( ! %ores ( ,sunda ,/rait1 :]e ! wat] is f =ty to eighty fa?oms deep1 & ! islets ne> ,batavia appe> 9 sev]al *>ts to be fr+$4 ,9 ! ,dut* *>t ! s\!rn %ore1 9 ! n>r[e/ "p ( ! isl&1 is 9 two places fr+$ by reefs ( coral4 ,we/ ( ,segorr[odee ,bay1 & ! extreme ,s4,e4 & ,e4 portions are likewise fr+$ by coral-reefs2 all ! above-m5tion$ places col\r$ r$4 ,macass> ,/rait2 ! ea/ coa/ ( ,borneo appe>s1 9 mo/ p>ts1 free f reefs1 & :]e !y occur1 z on ! ea/ coa/ ( ,pam>oong1 ! sea is v %all[2 h5ce no "p is col\r$4 ,9 ,macass> ,/rait itself1 9 ab\t lat4 #b ,s41 !re are _m small isl&s ) coral-%oals project+ f> f !m4 ,!re are also 7old *>ts by ,dalrymple7 num]\s little flats ( coral1 n ris+ to ! surface ( ! wat]1 & %elv+ sudd5ly f five fa?oms to no bottom ) fifty fa?oms2 !y d n appe> to h a lagoon-l /ructure4 ,!re are simil> coral-%oals a little f>!r s\?2 & 9 lat4 #d #ee !re are two1 :i* are engrav$ f mod]n surveys1 9 a mann] :i* might repres5t an annul> reef ) deep wat] inside3 ,capta9 ,moresby1 h[ev]1 :o 0 =m]ly 9 ?is sea1 d\bts ?is fact1 s t ,i h left !m uncol\r$3 at ! same "t ,i may rem>k1 t ^! two %oals make a ne>] approa* to ! atoll-l /ructure ?an any o!r )9 ! ,e4 ,indian ,ar*ipelago4 ,s\?w>d ( ^! %oals !re are o!r l[ isl&s & irregul> coral-reefs2 & 9 ! space ( sea1 nor? ( ! great volcanic *a91 f ,timor to ,java1 we h also o!r isl&s1 su* z ! ,po/illions1 ,kalatoa1 ,tokan-,bessees1 etc41 :i* are *iefly l[1 & are surr\nd$ by v irregul> & di/ant reefs4 ,f ! imp]fect *>ts ,i h se51 ,i h n be5 able to decide :e!r !y belong to ! atoll or b>ri]-classes1 or :e!r !y m]ely fr+e subm>9e banks1 & g5tly slop+ l&4 ,9 ! ,bay ( ,bon91 betwe5 ! two s\!rn arms ( ,celebes1 !re are num]\s coral-reefs2 b none ( !m seem to h an atoll-l /ructure4 ,i h1 !re=e1 n col\r$ any ( ! isl&s 9 ?is "p ( ! sea2 ,i ?9k x1 h[ev]1 exce$+ly probable t "s ( !m ought to be blue4 ,i may add t !re is a h>b\r on ! ,s4,e4 coa/ ( ,b\ton :i*1 accord+ to an old *>t1 is =m$ by a reef1 p>allel to ! %ore1 ) deep wat] )92 & 9 ! 8,voyage ( ! ,coquille10 "s neighb\r+ isl&s are repres5t$ ) reefs a good way di/ant1 b ,i d n "k :e!r ) deep wat] )94 ,i h n ?\ght ! evid5ce suffici5t to p]mit me to col\r !m4 ,,sumatra4--,comm5c+ ) ! we/ coa/ & outly+ isl&s1 ,engano ,isl& is repres5t$ 9 ! publi%$ *>t z surr\nd$ by a n>r[ reef1 & ,napi]1 9 8 8,sail+ ,directions10 speaks ( ! reef be+ ( coral 7also ,horsburgh1 vol4 ii1 p4 #aae72 col\r$ r$4--,rat ,isl& 7#c #ea ,s47 is surr\nd$ by reefs ( coral1 p>tly dry at l[ wat]1 7,horsburgh1 vol4 ii1 p4 #if74--,trie/e ,isl& 7#d #b ,s474 ,! %ore is repres5t$ 9 a *>t :i* ,i saw at ! ,india ,h\se1 z fr+$ 9 su* a mann]1 t ,i feel sure ! fr+e consi/s ( coral2 b z ! isl& is s l[1 t ! sea sometimes fl[s q ov] x 7,dampi]1 8,voyage10 vol4 i1 p4 #dgd71 ,i h n col\r$ x4--,pulo ,dooa 7lat4 #c74 ,9 an old *>t x is said !re are *asms 9 ! reefs r\nd ! isl&1 admitt+ boats to ! wat]+-place1 & t ! s\!rn islet consi/s ( a mass ( s& & coral4--,pulo ,pisang2 ,horsburgh 7vol4 ii1 p4 #hf7 says t ! rocky coral-bank1 :i* /ret*es ab\t =ty y>ds f ! %ore1 is /eep to all r\nd3 9 a *>t1 also1 :i* ,i h se51 ! isl& is repres5t$ z regul>ly fr+$4--,pulo ,m9tao is l9$ ) reefs on its we/ side 7,horsburgh1 vol4 ii1 p4 #ajg74--,pulo ,baniak2 ! same au?ority 7vol4 ii1 p4 #aje71 speak+ ( a "p1 says x is fac$ ) coral-rocks4--,m+u9 7#c #cf ,n474 ,a coral-reef fronts ?is place1 & projects into ! sea ne>ly a qu>t] ( a mile 78,notices ( ! ,indian ,ar*40 publi%$ at ,s+apore1 p4 #aje74--,pulo ,brassa 7#e #df ,n474 ,a reef surr\nds x at a cable's l5g? 7,horsburgh1 vol4 ii1 p4 #fj74 ,i h col\r$ all ! above-specifi$ po9ts r$4 ,i may "h add1 t bo? ,horsburgh & ,mr4 ,moor 79 ! 8,notices0 j allud$ to7 frequ5tly speak ( ! num]\s reefs & banks ( coral on ! we/ coa/ ( ,sumatra2 b ^! n[h]e h ! /ructure ( a b>ri]-reef1 & ,m>sd5 78,hi/ory ( ,sumatra07 /ates1 t :]e ! coa/ is flat1 ! fr++-reefs ext5d fur!/ f x4 ,! nor!rn & s\!rn po9ts1 & ! great] "p ( ! ea/ coa/1 are l[1 & fac$ ) mud banks1 & !re=e )\t coral4 ,,nicob> ,,isl&s4--,! *>t repres5ts ! isl&s ( ?is gr\p z fr+$ by reefs4 ,) reg>d to ,great ,nicob>1 ,capta9 ,moresby in=ms me1 t x is fr+$ by reefs ( coral1 ext5d+ betwe5 two & ?ree hundr$ y>ds f ! %ore4 ,! ,nor!rn ,nicob>s appe> s regul>ly fr+$ 9 ! publi%$ *>ts1 t ,i h no d\bt ! reefs are ( coral4 ,?is gr\p1 !re=e1 is col\r$ r$4 ,,&aman ,,isl&s4--,f an exam9ation ( ! ,,ms4 *>t1 on a l>ge scale1 ( ?is isl&1 by ,capta9 ,ar*4 ,blair1 9 ! ,admiralty1 sev]al portions ( ! coa/ appe> fr+$2 & z ,horsburgh speaks ( coral-reefs be+ num]\s 9 ! vic9ity ( ^! isl&s1 ,i %\ld h col\r$ !m r$1 _h n "s expressions 9 a pap] 9 ! 8,asiatic ,rese>*es0 7vol4 iv1 p4 #djb7 l$ me to d\bt ! exi/5ce ( reefs2 uncol\r$4 ,! coa/ ( ,malacca1 ,t5ass]im & ! coa/s nor?w>d1 appe> 9 ! great] "p to be l[ & muddy3 :]e reefs occur1 z 9 p>ts ( ,malacca ,/raits1 & ne> ,s+apore1 !y are ( ! fr++ k9d2 b ! wat] is s %oal1 t ,i h n col\r$ !m4 ,9 ! sea1 h[ev]1 betwe5 ,malacca & ! we/ coa/ ( ,borneo1 :]e !re is a great] dep? f =ty to fifty fa?oms1 ,i h col\r$ r$ "s ( ! gr\ps1 :i* are regul>ly fr+$4 ,! nor!rn ,natunas & ! ,anambas ,isl&s are repres5t$ 9 ! *>ts on a l>ge scale1 publi%$ 9 ! 8,atlas ( ! ,voyage ( ! ,fav\rite10 z fr+$ by reefs ( coral1 ) v %oal wat] )9 !m4--,tumbelan & ,bunoa ,isl&s 7#a ,n47 are repres5t$ 9 ! ,engli% *>ts z surr\nd$ by a v regul> fr+e4--,/4 ,b>bes 7#j #ae ,n47 is said by ,horsburgh 7vol4 ii1 p4 #bgi7 to be front$ by a reef1 ov] :i* boats c l& only at high wat]4--,! %ore ( ,borneo at ,tunjong ,apee is also front$ by a reef1 ext5d+ n f> f ! l& 7,horsburgh1 vol4 ii1 p4 #dfh74 ,^! places ,i h col\r$ r$2 al?\gh ) "s hesitation1 z ! wat] is %all[4 ,i might p]haps h add$ ,pulo ,leat1 9 ,gasp> ,/rait1 ,lucep>a1 & ,c>imata2 b z ! sea is conf9$ & %all[1 & ! reefs n v regul>1 ,i h left !m uncol\r$4 ,! wat] %oals gradually t[>ds ! :ole we/ coa/ ( ,borneo3 ,i _c make out t x has any reefs ( coral4 ,! isl&s1 h[ev]1 (f ! nor!rn extremity1 & ne> ! ,s4,w4 end ( ,palawan1 are fr+$ by v di/ant coral-reefs2 ?us ! reefs 9 ! case ( ,balabac are no less ?an five miles f ! l&2 b ! sea1 9 ! :ole ( ?is di/rict1 is s %all[1 t ! reefs might be expect$ to ext5d v f> f ! l&4 ,i h n1 !re=e1 ?\ght myself au?oris$ to col\r !m4 ,! ,n4,e4 po9t ( ,borneo1 :]e ! wat] is v %oal1 is connect$ ) ,mag9danao by a *a9 ( isl&s call$ ! ,sooloo ,ar*ipelago1 ab\t :i* ,i h be5 able to obta9 v little in=mation2 ,pangoot>an1 al?\gh t5 miles long1 entirely consi/s ( a b$ ( coral-rock 78,notices ( ,e4 ,indian ,ar*40 p4 #eh73 ,i believe f ,horsburgh t ! isl& is l[2 n col\r$4--,tah[ ,bank1 9 "s old *>ts1 appe>s l a subm]g$ atoll2 n col\r$4 ,=re/ 78,voyage10 p4 #ba7 /ates t "o ( ! isl&s ne> ,sooloo is surr\nd$ by coral-rocks2 b !re is no di/ant reef4 ,ne> ! ,s4 end ( ,basselan1 "s ( ! islets 9 ! *>t accompany+ ,=re/'s 8,voyage10 appe> fr+$ ) reefs2 h5ce ,i h col\r$1 ?\gh unwill+ly1 p>ts ( ! ,sooloo gr\p r$4 ,! sea betwe5 ,sooloo & ,palawan1 ne> ! %oal coa/ ( ,borneo1 is int]sp]s$ ) irregul> reefs & %oal pat*es2 n col\r$3 b 9 ! nor!rn "p ( ?is sea1 !re are two l[ islets1 ,cagayanes & ,cavilli1 surr\nd$ by ext5sive coral-reefs2 ! break]s r\nd ! latt] 7,horsburgh1 vol4 ii1 p4 #eac7 ext5d five or six miles f a s&bank1 :i* =ms ! only dry "p2 ^! break]s are /eep to outside2 !re appe>s to be an op5+ ?r\gh !m on "o side1 ) f\r or five fa?oms )93 f ?is description1 ,i /rongly suspect t ,cavilli ought to be consid]$ an atoll2 b1 z ,i h n se5 any *>t ( x1 on ev5 a mod]ately l>ge scale1 ,i h n col\r$ x4 ,! islets (f ! nor!rn end ( ,palawan1 are 9 ! same case z ^? (f ! s\!rn end1 namely !y are fr+$ by reefs1 "s way di/ant f ! %ore1 b ! wat] is exce$+ly %all[2 uncol\r$4 ,! we/]n %ore ( ,palawan w be treat$ ( "u ! head ( ,*9a ,sea4 ,,philipp9e ,,ar*ipelago4--,a *>t on a l>ge scale ( ,appoo ,%oal1 :i* lies ne> ! ,s4,e4 coa/ ( ,m9doro1 has be5 execut$ by ,capta9 ,d4 ,ross3 x appe>s atoll-=m$1 b ) r an irregul> outl9e2 its diamet] is ab\t t5 miles2 !re are two well-def9$ passages lead+ into ! int]ior lagoon1 :i* appe>s op52 close outside ! reef all r\nd1 !re is no bottom ) sev5ty fa?oms2 col\r$ blue4--,m9doro3 ! ,n4,w4 coa/ is repres5t$ 9 sev]al *>ts1 z fr+$ by a reef1 & ,luban ,isl& is said1 by ,horsburgh 7vol4 ii1 p4 #dcf71 to be 8l9$ by a reef40--,luzon3 ,mr4 ,cum+1 :o has lately inve/igat$ ) s mu* success ! ,natural ,hi/ory ( ! ,philipp9es1 in=ms me1 t ab\t ?ree miles ( ! %ore nor? ( ,po9t ,/4 ,jago1 is fr+$ by a reef2 z are 7,horsburgh1 vol4 ii1 p4 #dcg7 ! ,?ree ,fri>s (f ,silangu9 ,bay4 ,betwe5 ,po9t ,capones & ,playa ,honda1 ! coa/ is 8l9$ by a coral-reef1 /ret*+ out ne>ly a mile 9 "s places10 7,horsburgh72 & ,mr4 ,cum+ visit$ "s fr++-reefs on p>ts ( ?is coa/1 namely1 ne> ,puebla1 ,iba1 & ,mans+lor4 ,9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,solon-solon ,bay1 ! %ore is l9$ 7,horsburgh1 ii1 p4 #dci7 by coral-reefs1 /ret*+ out a great way3 !re are also reefs ab\t ! islets (f ,solamague2 & z ,i am in=m$ by ,mr4 ,cum+1 ne> ,/4 ,catal9a1 & a little nor? ( x4 ,! same g5tleman in=ms me !re are reefs on ! ,s4,e4 po9t ( ?is isl& 9 front ( ,sam>1 ext5d+ f ,malalabon to ,bulusan4 ,^! appe> to be ! pr9cipal fr++-reefs on ! coa/s ( ,luzon2 & !y h all be5 col\r$ r$4 ,mr4 ,cum+ in=ms me t none ( !m h deep wat] )92 al?\gh x appe>s f ,horsburgh t "s few ext5d to a consid]able di/ance f ! %ore4 ,)9 ! ,philipp9e ,ar*ipelago1 ! %ores ( ! isl&s d n appe> to be commonly fr+$1 ) ! exception ( ! ,s4 %ore ( ,masbate1 & ne>ly ! :ole ( ,bohol2 :i* are bo? col\r$ r$4 ,on ! ,s4 %ore ( ,mag9danao1 ,bunwoot ,isl& is surr\nd$ 7accord+ to ,=re/1 8,voyage10 p4 #bec71 by a coral-reef1 :i* 9 ! *>t appe>s "o ( ! fr++ class4 ,) respect to ! ea/]n coa/s ( ! :ole ,ar*ipelago1 ,i h n be5 able to obta9 any acc\nt4 ,,babuyan ,,isl&s4--,horsburgh says 7vol4 ii1 p4 #ddb71 coral-reefs l9e ! %ores ( ! h>b\r 9 ,fuga2 & ! *>ts %[ !re are o!r reefs ab\t ^! isl&s4 ,camigu9 has its %ore 9 p>ts l9$ by coral-rock 7,horsburgh1 p4 #ddc72 ab\t a mile (f %ore !re is betwe5 ?irty & ?irty-five fa?oms4 ,! plan ( ,port ,san ,pio ,qu9to %[s t its %ores are fr+$ ) coral2 col\r$ r$4--,,ba%ee ,,isl&s3 ,horsburgh1 speak+ ( ! s\!rn "p ( ! gr\p 7vol4 ii1 p4 #dde7 says ! %ores ( bo? isl&s are =tifi$ by a reef1 & ?r\gh "s ( ! gaps 9 x1 ! natives c pass 9 _! boats 9 f9e wea!r2 ! bottom ne> ! l& is coral-rock4 ,f ! publi%$ *>ts1 x is evid5t t sev]al ( ^! isl&s are mo/ regul>ly fr+$2 col\r$ r$4 ,! nor!rn isl&s are left uncol\r$1 z ,i h be5 unable to f9d any acc\nt ( !m4--,,=mosa4 ,! %ores1 especially ! we/]n "o1 seem *iefly compos$ ( mud & s&1 & ,i _c make out t !y are any:]e l9$ by reefs2 except 9 a h>b\r 7,horsburgh1 vol4 ii1 p4 #ddi7 at ! extreme nor!rn po9t3 h5ce1 ( c\rse1 ! :ole ( ?is isl& is left uncol\r$4 ,! small adjo9+ isl&s are 9 ! same case4--,,pat*[1 ,,or ,,madjiko-,,sima ,,gr\ps4 ,pat*uson has be5 describ$ by ,capta9 ,br\ghton 78,voy4 to ! ,n4 ,pacific10 p4 #aia72 he says1 ! boats1 ) "s difficulty1 f\nd a passage ?r\gh ! coral-reefs1 :i* ext5d along ! coa/1 ne>ly half a mile (f x4 ,! boats 7 well %elt]$ )9 ! reef2 b x does n appe> t ! wat] is deep !re4 ,outside ! reef ! dep? is v irregul>1 v>y+ f five to fifty fa?oms2 ! =m ( ! l& is n v abrupt2 col\r$ r$4--,tayp9-san2 f ! description giv5 7p4 #aie7 by ! same au?or1 x appe>s t a v irregul> reef ext5ds1 to ! di/ance ( sev]al miles1 f ! s\!rn isl&2 b :e!r x encircles a space ( deep wat] is n evid5t2 nor1 inde$1 :e!r ^! outly+ reefs are connect$ ) ^? m imm$iately adjo9+ ! l&2 left uncol\r$4 ,i may "h j add t ! %ore ( ,kumi 7ly+ we/ ( ,pat*[71 has a n>r[ reef atta*$ to x 9 ! plan ( x1 9 ,la ,peyr\se's 8,atlas20 b x does n appe> 9 ! acc\nt ( ! voyage t x is ( coral2 uncol\r$4--,,loo ,,*oo4 ,! great] "p ( ! coa/ ( ?is mod]ately hilly isl&1 is skirt$ by reefs1 :i* d n ext5d f> f ! %ore1 & :i* d n leave a *annel ( deep wat] )9 !m1 z may be se5 9 ! *>ts accompany+ ,capta9 ,b4 ,hall's voyage to ,loo ,*oo 7see also rem>ks 9 ,app5dix1 pp4 xxi4 & xxv474 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 "s ports ) deep wat]1 =m$ by reefs 9 front ( valleys1 9 ! same mann] z happ5s at ,mauritius4 ,capta9 ,bee*ey1 9 a lett] to me1 comp>es ^! reefs ) ^? encircl+ ! ,society ,isl&s2 b !re appe>s to me a m>k$ diff]5ce betwe5 !m1 9 ! less di/ance at :i* ! ,loo ,*oo reefs lie f ! l& ) relation to ! probable subm>9e incl9ation1 & 9 ! abs5ce ( an int]ior deep wat]-moat or *annel1 p>allel to ! l&4 ,h5ce1 ,i h class$ ^! reefs ) fr++-reefs1 & col\r$ !m r$4--,,pescadores 7we/ ( ,=mosa74 ,dampi] 7vol4 i1 p4 #daf71 has comp>$ ! appe>ance ( ! l& to ! s\!rn p>ts ( ,engl&4 ,! isl&s are int]lac$ ) coral-reefs2 b z ! wat] is v %oal1 & z spits ( s& & gravel 7,horsburgh1 vol4 ii1 p4 #dej7 ext5d f> out f !m1 x is impossible to draw any inf]5ces reg>d+ ! nature ( ! reefs4 ,,*9a ,,sea4--,proce$+ f nor? to s\?1 we fir/ meet ! ,pratas ,%oal 7lat4 #bj ,n47 :i*1 accord+ to ,horsburgh 7vol4 ii1 p4 #cce71 is compos$ ( coral1 is ( a circul> =m1 & has a l[ islet on x4 ,! reef is on a level ) ! wat]'s edge1 & :5 ! sea runs high1 !re are break]s mo/ly all r\nd1 8b ! wat] )9 seems pretty deep 9 "s places2 al?\gh /eep-to 9 mo/ p>ts outside1 !re appe> to be sev]al p>ts :]e a %ip might f9d an*orage outside ! break]s20 col\r$ blue4--,! ,p>acells h be5 accurately survey$ by ,capta9 ,d4 ,ross1 & *>ts on a l>ge scale publi%$3 b few l[ islets h be5 =m$ on ^! %oals1 & ?is seems to be a g5]al circum/ance 9 ! ,*9a ,sea2 ! sea close outside ! reefs is v deep2 sev]al ( !m h a lagoon-l /ructure2 or sep>ate islets 7,prattle1 ,rob]t1 ,drummond1 etc47 are s arrang$ r\nd a mod]ately %all[ space1 z to appe> z if !y _h once =m$ "o l>ge atoll4--,bombay ,%oal 7"o ( ! ,p>acells7 has ! =m ( an annul> reef1 & is 8app>5tly deep )920 x seems to h an entrance 7,horsburgh1 vol4 ii1 p4 #ccb7 on its we/ side2 x is v /eep outside4--,discov]y ,%oal1 also is ( an oval =m1 ) a lagoon-l space )91 & ?ree op5+s lead+ into x1 9 :i* !re is a dep? f two to tw5ty fa?oms4 ,outside1 at ! di/ance 7,horsburgh1 vol4 ii1 p4 #ccc7 ( only tw5ty y>ds f ! reef1 s\nd+s c\ld n be obta9$4 ,! ,p>acells are col\r$ blue4--,macclesfield ,bank3 ?is is a coral-bank ( great size1 ly+ ea/ ( ! ,p>acells2 "s p>ts ( ! bank are level1 ) a s&y bottom1 b1 g5]ally1 ! dep? is v irregul>4 ,x is int]sect$ by deep cuts or *annels4 ,i am n able to p]ceive 9 ! publi%$ *>ts 7its limits1 h[ev]1 are n v accurately kn[n7 :e!r ! c5tral "p is deep]1 :i* ,i suspect is ! case1 z 9 ! ,great ,*agos ,bank1 9 ! ,indian ,ocean2 n col\r$4--,sc>bor\gh ,%oal3 ?is coral-%oal is engrav$ ) a d\ble r[ ( crosses1 =m+ a circle1 z if !re 0 deep wat] )9 ! reef3 close outside !re 0 no bottom1 ) a hundr$ fa?oms2 col\r$ blue4--,! sea (f ! we/ coa/ ( ,palawan & ! nor!rn "p ( ,borneo is /rew$ ) %oals3 ,swall[ ,%oal1 accord+ to ,horsburgh 7vol4 ii1 p4 #dca7 8is =m$1 l mo/ ( ! %oals h]eab\ts1 ( a belt ( coral-rocks1 8) a bas9 ( deep wat] )940--,half-,moon ,%oal has a simil> /ructure2 ,capta9 ,d4 ,ross describes x1 z a n>r[ belt ( coral-rock1 ) a bas9 ( deep wat] 9 ! c5tre10 & deep sea close outside4--,bombay ,%oal appe>s 7,horsburgh1 vol4 ii1 p4 #dcb7 8to be a bas9 ( smoo? wat] surr\nd$ by break]s40 ,^! ?ree %oals ,i h col\r$ blue4--,! ,p>aquas ,%oals are ( a circul> =m1 ) deep gaps runn+ ?r\gh !m2 n col\r$4--,a bank gradually %oal+ to ! dep? ( ?irty fa?oms1 ext5ds to a di/ance ( ab\t tw5ty miles f ! nor!rn "p ( ,borneo1 & to ?irty miles f ! nor!rn "p ( ,palawan4 ,ne> ! l& ?is bank appe>s tol]ably free f dang]1 b a little fur!r out x is ?ickly /udd$ ) coral-%oals1 :i* d n g5]ally rise q to ! surface2 "s ( !m are v /eep-to1 & o!rs h a fr+e ( %oal-wat] r\nd !m4 ,i %\ld h ?\ght t ^! %oals _h level surfaces1 _h x n be5 = ! /atem5t made by ,horsburgh 8t mo/ ( ! %oals h]eab\ts are =m$ ( a belt ( coral40 ,b1 p]haps t expression 0 m p>ticul>ly appli$ to ! %oals fur!r 9 ! (f+4 ,if ^! reefs ( coral h a lagoon-l /ructure1 !y %\ld h be5 col\r$ blue1 & !y w\ld h =m$ an imp]fect b>ri] 9 front ( ,palawan & ! nor!rn "p ( ,borneo4 ,b1 z ! wat] is n v deep1 ^! reefs may h gr[n up f inequalities on ! bank3 ,i h n col\r$ !m4--,! coa/ ( ,*9a1 ,tonqu91 & ,co*9-,*9a1 =m+ ! we/]n b\nd>y ( ! ,*9a ,sea1 appe> to be )\t reefs3 ) reg>d to ! two la/-m5tion$ coa/s1 ,i speak aft] exam9+ ! *>ts on a l>ge scale 9 ! 8,atlas ( ! ,voyage ( ! ,fav\rite40 ,,indian ,,ocean4--,s\? ,keel+ atoll has be5 specially describ$4 ,n9e miles nor? ( x lies ,nor? ,keel+1 a v small atoll1 survey$ by ! ,beagle1 ! lagoon ( :i* is dry at l[ wat]4--,*ri/mas ,isl&1 ly+ to ! ea/1 is a high isl&1 )\t1 z ,i h be5 in=m$ by a p]son :o pass$ x1 any reefs at all4--,,ceylon3 a space ab\t eighty miles 9 l5g? ( ! s\?-we/]n & s\!rn %ores ( ^! isl&s has be5 describ$ by ,mr4 ,twynam 7,naut4 ,mag4 #ahcf1 pp4 #cfe & #eah72 p>ts ( ?is space appe> to be v regul>ly fr+$ by coral-reefs1 :i* ext5d f a qu>t] to half a mile f ! %ore4 ,^! reefs are 9 places brea*$1 & af=d safe an*orage = ! small trad+ craft4 ,outside1 ! sea gradually deep5s2 !re is =ty fa?oms ab\t six miles (f %ore3 ?is "p ,i h col\r$ r$4 ,9 ! publi%$ *>ts ( ,ceylon !re appe> to be fr++-reefs 9 sev]al p>ts ( ! s\?-ea/]n %ores1 :i* ,i h also col\r$ r$4--,at ,v5loos ,bay ! %ore is likewise fr+$4 ,nor? ( ,tr9comalee !re are also reefs ( ! same k9d4 ,! sea (f ! nor!rn "p ( ,ceylon is exce$+ly %all[2 & !re=e ,i h n col\r$ ! reefs :i* fr+e portions ( its %ores1 & ! adjo9+ islets1 z well z ! ,indian promontory ( ,madura4 ,,*agos1 ,,maldiva1 ,,& ,,laccadive ,,ar*ipelagoes4--,^! ?ree great gr\ps :i* h already be5 (t5 notic$1 are n[ well-kn[n f ! admirable surveys ( ,capta9 ,moresby & ,lieut5ant ,p[ell4 ,! publi%$ *>ts1 :i* are wor?y ( ! mo/ att5tive exam9ation1 at once %[ t ! ,*agos & ,maldiva gr\ps are entirely =m$ ( great atolls1 or lagoon-=m$ reefs1 surm\nt$ by islets4 ,9 ! ,laccadive gr\p1 ?is /ructure is less evid5t2 ! islets are l[1 n exce$+ ! usual height ( coral-=mations 7see ,lieut5ant ,wood's acc\nt1 ,geograph4 ,j\rn41 vol4 vi1 p4 #bi71 & mo/ ( ! reefs are circul>1 z may be se5 9 ! publi%$ *>ts2 & )9 sev]al ( !m1 z ,i am in=m$ by ,capta9 ,moresby1 !re is deepi% wat]2 ^!1 !re=e1 h be5 col\r$ blue4 ,directly nor?1 & almo/ =m+ "p ( ?is gr\p1 !re is a long1 n>r[1 slightly curv$ bank1 ris+ out ( ! dep?s ( ! ocean1 compos$ ( s&1 %ells1 & decay$ coral1 ) f tw5ty-?ree to ?irty fa?oms on x4 ,i h no d\bt t x has _h ! same orig9 ) ! o!r ,laccadive banks2 b z x does n deep5 t[>ds ! c5tre ,i h n col\r$ x4 ,i might h ref]r$ to o!r au?orities reg>d+ ^! ?ree ar*ipelagoes2 b aft] ! publication ( ! *>ts by ,capta9 ,moresby1 to ^: p]sonal k9dness 9 giv+ me mu* in=mation ,i am exce$+ly indebt$1 x w\ld h be5 sup]flu\s4 ,sahia de ,malha bank consi/s ( a s]ies ( n>r[ banks1 ) f eight to sixte5 fa?oms on !m2 !y are arrang$ 9 a semicircul> mann]1 r\nd a space ab\t =ty fa?oms deep1 :i* slopes on ! ,s4,e4 qu>t] to unfa?omable dep?s2 !y are /eep-to on bo? sides1 b m especially on ! ocean-side4 ,h5ce ?is bank closely resembles 9 /ructure1 & ,i may add f ,capta9 ,moresby's in=mation 9 composition1 ! ,pitt's ,bank 9 ! ,*agos gr\p2 & ! ,pitt's ,bank1 mu/1 aft] :at has be5 %[n ( ! ,great ,*agos ,bank1 be consid]$ z a sunk51 half-de/roy$ atoll2 h5ce col\r$ blue4--,c>gados ,c>ajos ,bank4 ,its s\!rn portion consi/s ( a l>ge1 curv$1 coral-%oal1 ) "s l[ islets on its ea/]n edge1 & likewise "s on ! we/]n side1 betwe5 :i* !re is a dep? ( ab\t twelve fa?oms4 ,nor?w>d1 a great bank ext5ds4 ,i _c 7probably ow+ to ! want ( p]fect *>ts7 ref] ?is reef & bank to any class2--!re=e n col\r$4--,ile de ,sable is a little isl&1 ly+ we/ ( ,c4 ,c>ajos1 only "s toises 9 height 78,voyage ( ! ,fav\rite10 vol4 i1 p4 #acj72 x is surr\nd$ by reefs2 b its /ructure is un9telligible to me4 ,!re are "s small banks nor? ( x1 ( :i* ,i c f9d no cle> acc\nt4--,mauritius4 ,! reefs r\nd ?is isl& h be5 describ$ 9 ! *apt] on fr++-reefs2 col\r$ r$4--,rodriguez4 ,! coral-reefs "h are exce$+ly ext5sive2 9 "o "p !y project ev5 five miles f ! %ore4 ,z f> z ,i c make out1 !re is no deep-wat] moat )9 !m2 & ! sea outside does n deep5 v sudd5ly4 ,! outl9e1 h[ev]1 ( ! l& appe>s to be 78,life ( ,sir ,j4 ,mak9to%10 vol4 ii1 p4 #afe7 hilly & rugg$4 ,i am unable to decide :e!r ^! reefs belong to ! b>ri] class2 z seems probable f _! great ext5sion1 or to ! fr++ class2 uncol\r$4--,b\rbon4 ,! great] "p ( ! %ores ( ?is isl& are )\t reefs2 b ,capta9 ,c>mi*ael 7,hook]'s 8,bot4 ,misc407 /ates t a portion1 fifte5 miles 9 l5g?1 on ! ,s4,e4 side1 is imp]fectly fr+$ ) coral reefs3 ,i h n ?\ght ?is suffici5t to col\r ! isl&4 ,,sey*elles4--,! rocky isl&s ( prim>y =mation1 compos+ ?is gr\p1 rise f a v ext5sive & tol]ably level bank1 hav+ a dep? betwe5 tw5ty & =ty fa?oms4 ,9 ,capta9 ,ow5's *>t1 & 9 t 9 ! 8,atlas ( ! ,voyage ( ! ,fav\rite10 x appe>s t ! ea/ side ( ,mahe & ! adjo9+ isl&s ( ,/4 ,anne & ,c]f1 are regul>ly fr+$ by coral-reefs4 ,a portion ( ! ,s4,e4 "p ( ,curieuse ,isl&1 ! ,n41 & "p ( ! ,s4,w4 %ore ( ,prasl9 ,isl&1 & ! :ole we/ side ( ,digue ,isl&1 appe> fr+$4 ,f a ,,ms4 acc\nt ( ^! isl&s by ,capta9 ,f4 ,moresby1 9 ! ,admiralty1 x appe>s t ,silh\ette is also fr+$2 he /ates t all ^! isl&s are =m$ ( granite & qu>tz1 t !y rise abruptly f ! sea1 & t 8coral-reefs h gr[n r\nd !m1 & project = "s di/ance40 ,dr4 ,allan1 ( ,=res1 :o visit$ ^! isl&s1 in=ms me t !re is no deep wat] betwe5 ! reefs & ! %ore4 ,! above specifi$ po9ts h be5 col\r$ r$4 ,amirantes ,isl&s3 ,! small isl&s ( ?is neighb\r+ gr\p1 accord+ to ! ,,ms4 acc\nt ( !m by ,capta9 ,f4 ,moresby1 are situat$ on an ext5sive bank2 !y consi/ ( ! debris ( corals & %ells2 are only ab\t tw5ty feet 9 height1 & are environ$ by reefs1 "s atta*$ to ! %ore1 & "s r di/ant f x4--,i h tak5 great pa9s to procure plans & in=mation reg>d+ ! sev]al isl&s ly+ betwe5 ,s4,e4 & ,s4,w4 ( ! ,amirantes1 & ! ,sey*elles2 rely+ *iefly on ,capta9 ,f4 ,moresby & ,dr4 ,allan1 x appe>s t ! great] numb]1 namely--,platte1 ,alphonse1 ,coetivi1 ,galega1 ,provid5ce1 ,/4 ,pi]re1 ,a/ova1 ,assomption1 & ,glorioso1 are l[1 =m$ ( s& or coral-rock1 & irregul>ly %ap$2 !y are situat$ on v ext5sive banks1 & are connect$ ) great coral-reefs4 ,galega is said by ,dr4 ,allan1 to be r high] ?an ! o!r isl&s2 & ,/4 ,pi]re is describ$ by ,capta9 ,f4 ,moresby1 z be+ cav]n\s ?r\gh\t1 & z n consi/+ ( ei!r lime/one or granite4 ,^! isl&s1 z well z ! ,amirantes1 c]ta9ly are n atoll-=m$1 & !y diff] z a gr\p f e o!r gr\p ) :i* ,i am acqua9t$2 ,i h n col\r$ !m2 b probably ! reefs belong to ! fr++ class4 ,_! =mation is attribut$1 bo? by ,dr4 ,allan & ,capta9 ,f4 ,moresby1 to ! action ( ! curr5ts1 "h exce$+ly viol5t1 on banks1 :i* no d\bt h _h an indep5d5t geological orig94 ,!y resemble 9 _m respects "s isl&s & banks 9 ! ,we/ ,indies1 :i* owe _! orig9 to a simil> ag5cy1 9 conjunction ) an elevation ( ! entire area4 ,9 close vic9ity to ! sev]al isl&s1 !re are ?ree o!rs ( an app>5tly diff]5t nature3 fir/1 ,juan de ,nova1 :i* appe>s f "s plans & acc\nts to be an atoll2 b f o!rs does n appe> to be s2 n col\r$4 ,secondly ,cosmol$o2 8?is gr\p consi/s ( a r+ ( coral1 t5 leagues 9 circumf]5ce1 & a qu>t] ( a mile broad 9 "s places1 enclos+ a magnific5t lagoon1 into :i* !re did n appe> a s+le op5+0 7,horsburgh1 vol4 i1 p4 #aea72 col\r$ blue4 ,?irdly1 ,aldabra2 x consi/s ( ?ree islets1 ab\t tw5ty-five feet 9 height1 ) r$ cliffs 7,horsburgh1 vol4 i1 p4 #agf7 surr\nd+ a v %all[ bas9 or lagoon4 ,! sea is pr(\ndly deep close to ! %ore4 ,view+ ?is isl& 9 a *>t1 x w\ld be ?\ght an atoll2 b ! =ego+ description %[s t !re is some?+ diff]5t 9 its nature2 ,dr4 ,allan also /ates t x is cav]n\s1 & t ! coral-rock has a vitrifi$ appe>ance4 ,is x an upheav$ atoll1 or ! crat] ( a volcano8--uncol\r$4 ,,comoro ,,gr\p4--,mayotta1 accord+ to ,horsburgh 7vol4 i1 p4 #baf1 #d? ed471 is completely surr\nd$ by a reef1 :i* runs at ! di/ance ( ?ree1 f\r1 & 9 "s places ev5 five miles f ! l&2 9 an old *>t1 publi%$ by ,dalrymple1 a dep? 9 _m places ( ?irty-six & ?irty-eight fa?oms is laid d[n )9 ! reef4 ,9 ! same *>t1 ! space ( op5 wat] )9 ! reef 9 "s p>ts is ev5 m ?an ?ree miles wide3 ! l& is bold & peak$2 ?is isl&1 !re=e1 is encircl$ by a well-*>act]is$ b>ri]-reef1 & is col\r$ pale blue4--,johanna2 ,horsburgh says 7vol4 i1 p4 #bag7 ?is isl& f ! ,n4,w4 to ! ,s4,w4 po9t1 is b\nd$ by a reef1 at ! di/ance ( two miles f ! %ore2 9 "s p>ts1 h[ev]1 ! reef mu/ be atta*$1 s9ce ,lieut5ant ,botel] 78,n>r40 vol4 i1 p4 #afa7 describes a passage ?r\gh x1 )9 :i* !re is room only = a few boats4 ,its height1 z ,i am in=m$ by ,dr4 ,allan1 is ab\t #c1ejj feet2 x is v precipit\s1 & is compos$ ( granite1 gre5/one1 & qu>tz2 col\r$ blue4--,mohilla2 on ! ,s4 side ( ?is isl& !re is an*orage1 9 f ?irty to =ty-five fa?oms1 betwe5 a reef & ! %ore 7,horsburgh1 vol4 i1 p4 #bad72 9 ,capta9 ,ow5's *>t ( ,madagasc>1 ?is isl& is repres5t$ z encircl$2 col\r$ blue4--,great ,comoro ,isl& is1 z ,i am in=m$ by ,dr4 ,allan1 ab\t #h1jjj feet high1 & app>5tly volcanic2 x is n regul>ly encircl$2 b reefs ( v>i\s %apes & dim5sions1 jut out f e headl& on ! ,w41 ,s41 & ,s4,e4 coa/s1 inside ( :i* reefs !re are *annels1 (t5 p>allel ) ! %ore1 ) deep wat]4 ,on ! nor?-we/]n coa/s ! reefs appe> atta*$ to ! %ores4 ,! l& ne> ! coa/ is 9 "s places bold1 b g5]ally speak+ x is flat2 ,horsburgh says 7vol4 i1 p4 #bad7 ! wat] is pr(\ndly deep close to ! %ore1 f :i* expression ,i presume "s p>ts are )\t reefs4 ,f ?is description ,i appreh5d ! reef belongs to ! b>ri] class2 b ,i h n col\r$ x1 z mo/ ( ! *>ts :i* ,i h se51 repres5t ! reefs r\nd x z v mu* less ext5sive ?an r\nd ! o!r isl&s 9 ! gr\p4 ,,madagasc>4--,my in=mation is *iefly d]iv$ f ! publi%$ *>ts by ,capta9 ,ow51 & ! acc\nts giv5 by him & by ,lieut5ant ,botel]4 ,comm5c+ at ! ,s4,w4 extremity ( ! isl&2 t[>ds ! nor!rn "p ( ! ,/> ,bank 79 lat4 #be ,s47 ! coa/ = t5 miles is fr+$ by a reef2 col\r$ r$4 ,! %ore imm$iately ,s4 ( ,/4 ,augu/9e's ,bay appe>s fr+$2 b ,tulle> ,h>b\r1 directly ,n4 ( x1 is =m$ by a n>r[ reef t5 miles long1 ext5d+ p>allel to ! %ore1 ) f f\r to t5 fa?oms )9 x4 ,if ?is reef _h be5 m ext5sive1 x mu/ h be5 class$ z a b>ri]-reef2 b z ! l9e ( coa/ falls inw>ds "h1 a subm>9e bank p]haps ext5ds p>allel to ! %ore1 :i* has (f]$ a f\ndation = ! gr[? ( ! coral2 ,i h left ?is "p uncol\r$4 ,f lat4 #bb #af to #ba #cg1 ! %ore is fr+$ by coral-reefs 7see ,lieut5ant ,botel]'s 8,n>rative10 vol4 ii1 p4 #ajf71 less ?an a mile 9 wid?1 & ) %all[ wat] )94 ,!re are outly+ coral-%oals 9 sev]al p>ts ( ! (f+1 ) ab\t t5 fa?oms betwe5 !m & ! %ore1 & ! dep? ( ! sea "o mile & a half seaw>d1 is ab\t ?irty fa?oms4 ,! "p above specifi$ is engrav$ on a l>ge scale2 & z 9 ! *>ts on r a small] scale ! same fr+e ( reef ext5ds z f> z lat4 #cc #ae2 ,i h col\r$ ! :ole ( ?is "p ( ! coa/ r$4 ,! isl&s ( ,juan de ,nova 79 lat4 #ag ,s47 appe> 9 ! *>ts on a l>ge scale to be fr+$1 b ,i h n be5 able to asc]ta9 :e!r ! reefs are ( coral2 uncol\r$4 ,! ma9 "p ( ! we/ coa/ appe>s to be l[1 ) outly+ s&banks1 :i*1 ,lieut5ant ,botel] 7vol4 ii1 p4 #ajf7 says1 8are fac$ on ! edge ( deep wat] by a l9e ( %>p-po9t$ coral-rocks40 ,nev]!less ,i h n col\r$ ?is "p1 z ,i _c make out by ! *>ts t ! coa/ itself is fr+$4 ,! headl&s ( ,n>r5da & ,pass&ava ,bays 7#ad #dj7 & ! isl&s 9 front ( ,radama ,h>b\r are repres5t$ 9 ! plans z regul>ly fr+$1 & h accord+ly be5 col\r$ r$4 ,) respect to ! ,ea/ coa/ ( ,madagasc>1 ,dr4 ,allan in=ms me 9 a lett]1 t ! :ole l9e ( coa/1 f ,tamatave1 9 #ah #ab1 to ,c4 ,amb]1 at ! extreme nor!rn po9t ( ! isl&1 is bord]$ by coral-reefs4 ,! l& is l[1 unev51 & gradually ris+ f ! coa/4 ,f ,capta9 ,ow5's *>ts1 also1 ! exi/5ce ( ^! reefs1 :i* evid5tly belong to ! fr++ class1 on "s p>ts1 namely ,n4 ( ,briti% ,s\nd1 & ne> ,ngoncy1 ( ! above l9e ( coa/ might h be5 inf]r$4 ,lieut5ant ,botel] 7vol4 i1 p4 #aee7 speaks ( 8! reef surr\nd+ ! isl& ( ,/4 ,m>y's at a small di/ance f ! %ore40 ,9 a previ\s *apt] ,i h describ$1 f ! in=mation ( ,dr4 ,allan1 ! mann] 9 :i* ! reefs ext5d 9 ,n4,e4 l9es f ! headl&s on ?is coa/1 ?us sometimes =m+ r deep *annels )9 !m1 ?is seems caus$ by ! action ( ! curr5ts1 & ! reefs spr+ up f ! subm>9e prolongations ( ! s&y headl&s4 ,! above specifi$ portion ( ! coa/ is col\r$ r$4 ,! rema9+ ,s4,e4 portions d n appe> 9 any publi%$ *>t to possess reefs ( any k9d2 & ! ,rev4 ,w4 ,ellis1 ^: means ( in=mation reg>d+ ?is side ( ,madagasc> h be5 ext5sive1 in=ms me he believes !re are none4 ,,ea/ ,,coa/ ,,( ,,africa4--,proce$+ f ! nor!rn "p1 ! coa/ appe>s1 = a consid]able space1 )\t reefs4 ,my in=mation1 ,i may "h obs]ve1 is d]iv$ f ! survey by ,capta9 ,ow51 toge!r ) 8 n>rative2 & t by ,lieut5ant ,botel]4 ,at ,mukdee%a 7#aj #a ,n47 !re is a coral-reef ext5d+ f\r or five miles along ! %ore 7,ow5's 8,n>r40 vol4 i1 p4 #ceg7 :i* 9 ! *>t lies at ! di/ance ( a qu>t] ( a mile f ! %ore1 & has )9 x f six to t5 feet wat]3 ?is !n is a fr++-reef1 & is col\r$ r$4 ,f ,juba1 a little ,s4 ( ! equator1 to ,lamoo 79 #b #bj ,s47 8! coa/ & isl&s are =m$ ( madrepore0 7,ow5's 8,n>rative10 vol4 i1 p4 #cfc74 ,! *>t ( ?is "p 7entitl$ ,dundas ,isl&s71 pres5ts an extraord9>y appe>ance2 ! coa/ ( ! ma9l& is q /raight & x is front$ at ! av]age di/ance ( two miles1 by exce$+ly n>r[1 /raight islets1 fr+$ ) reefs4 ,)9 ! *a9 ( islets1 !re are ext5sive tidal flats & muddy bays1 into :i* _m riv]s ent]2 ! dep?s ( ^! spaces v>ies f "o to f\r fa?oms--! latt] dep? n be+ common1 & ab\t twelve feet ! av]age4 ,outside ! *a9 ( islets1 ! sea1 at ! di/ance ( a mile1 v>ies 9 dep? f eight to fifte5 fa?oms4 ,lieut5ant ,botel] 78,n>r410 vol4 i1 p4 #cfi7 describes ! muddy bay ( ,patta1 :i* seems to resemble o!r p>ts ( ?is coa/1 z front$ by small1 n>r[1 level islets =m$ ( decompos+ coral1 ! m>g9 ( :i* is seldom ( great] height ?an twelve feet1 ov]hang+ ! rocky surface f :i* ! islets rise4 ,kn[+ t ! islets are =m$ ( coral1 x is1 ,i ?9k1 sc>cely possible to view ! coa/1 & n at once conclude t we "h see a fr++-reef1 :i* has be5 uprais$ a few feet3 ! unusual dep? ( f two to f\r fa?oms )9 "s ( ^! islets1 is probably due to muddy riv]s hav+ prev5t$ ! gr[? ( coral ne> ! %ore4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 "o difficulty on ?is view1 namely1 t be=e ! elevation took place1 :i* conv]t$ ! reef into a *a9 ( islets1 ! wat] mu/ app>5tly h be5 /ill deep]2 on ! o!r h& x may be suppos$ t ! =mation ( a ne>ly p]fect b>ri] 9 front1 ( s l>ge an ext5t ( coa/1 w\ld cause ! curr5ts 7especially 9 front ( ! riv]s71 to deep5 _! muddy b$s4 ,:5 describ+ 9 ! *apt] on fr++-reefs1 ^? ( ,mauritius1 ,i h giv5 my reasons = believ+ t ! %oal spaces )9 reefs ( ?is k9d1 mu/1 9 _m in/ances1 h be5 deep5$4 ,h[ev] ?is may be1 z sev]al p>ts ( ?is l9e ( coa/ are und\bt$ly fr+$ by liv+ reefs1 ,i h col\r$ x r$4--,male5da 7#c #bj ,s474 ,9 ! plan ( ! h>b\r1 ! s\? headl& appe>s fr+$2 & 9 ,ow5's *>t on a l>g] scale1 ! reefs are se5 to ext5d ne>ly ?irty miles s\?w>d2 col\r$ r$4--,mombas 7#d #e ,s474 ,! isl& :i* =ms ! h>b\r1 8is surr\nd$ by cliffs ( madrepore1 capable ( be+ r5d]$ almo/ impregnable0 7,ow5's 8,n>r410 vol4 i1 p4 #dab74 ,! %ore ( ! ma9l& ,n4 & ,s4 ( ! h>b\r1 is mo/ regul>ly fr+$ by a coral-reef at a di/ance f half a mile to "o mile & a qu>t] f ! l&2 )9 ! reef ! dep? is f n9e to fifte5 feet2 outside ! reef ! dep? at r less ?an half a mile is ?irty fa?oms4 ,f ! *>ts x appe>s t a space ab\t ?irty-six miles 9 l5g?1 is "h fr+$2 col\r$ r$4--,pemba 7#e ,s47 is an isl& ( coral-=mation1 level1 & ab\t two hundr$ feet 9 height 7,ow5's 8,n>r410 vol4 i1 p4 #dbe72 x is ?irty-five miles long1 & is sep>at$ f ! ma9l& by a deep sea4 ,! out] coa/ is repres5t$ 9 ! *>t z regul>ly fr+$2 col\r$ r$4 ,! ma9l& 9 front ( ,pemba is likewise fr+$2 b !re also appe> to be "s outly+ reefs ) deep wat] betwe5 !m & ! %ore4 ,i d n und]/& _! /ructure1 ei!r f ! *>ts or ! description1 !re=e h n col\r$ !m4--,zanzib> resembles ,pemba 9 mo/ respects2 its s\!rn half on ! we/]n side & ! neighb\r+ islets are fr+$2 col\r$ r$4 ,on ! ma9l&1 a little ,s4 ( ,zanzib>1 !re are "s banks p>allel to ! coa/1 :i* ,i %\ld h ?\ght _h be5 =m$ ( coral1 _h x n be5 said 7,botel]'s 8,n>r410 vol4 ii1 p4 #ci7 t !y 7 compos$ ( s&2 n col\r$4--,la?am's ,bank is a small isl&1 fr+$ by coral-reefs2 b be+ only t5 feet high1 x has n be5 col\r$4--,monfeea is an isl& ( ! same "* z ,pemba2 its out] %ore is fr+$1 & its s\!rn extremity is connect$ ) ,keelwa ,po9t on ! ma9l& by a *a9 ( isl&s fr+$ by reefs2 col\r$ r$4 ,! f\r la/-m5tion$ isl&s resemble 9 _m respects "s ( ! isl&s 9 ! ,r$ ,sea1 :i* w pres5tly be describ$4--,keelwa4 ,9 a plan ( ! %ore1 a space ( tw5ty miles ,n4 & ,s4 ( ?is place is fr+$ by reefs1 app>5tly ( coral3 ^! reefs are prolong$ /ill fur!r s\?w>d 9 ,ow5's g5]al *>t4 ,! coa/ 9 ! plans ( ! riv]s ,l9dy & ,mongh[ 7#i #ei & #aj #g ,s47 has ! same /ructure2 col\r$ r$4--,qu]imba ,isl&s 7f #aj #dj to #ac ,s474 ,a *>t on a l>ge scale is giv5 ( ^! isl&s2 !y are l[1 & ( coral-=mation 7,botel]'s 8,n>r410 vol4 ii1 p4 #ed72 & g5]ally h ext5sive reefs project+ f !m :i* are dry at l[ wat]1 & :i* on ! outside rise abruptly f a deep sea3 on _! insides !y are sep>at$ f ! cont95t by a *annel1 or r a succession ( bays1 ) an av]age dep? ( t5 fa?oms4 ,! small headl&s on ! cont95t also h coral-banks atta*$ to !m2 & ! ,qu]imba isl&s & banks are plac$ on ! l9es ( prolongation ( ^! headl&s1 & are sep>at$ f !m by v %all[ *annels4 ,x is evid5t t :atev] cause1 :e!r ! drift+ ( s$im5t or subt]ranean movem5ts1 produc$ ! headl&s1 likewise produc$1 z might h be5 expect$1 subm>9e prolongations to !m2 & ^! t[>ds _! out] extremities1 h s9ce af=d$ a fav\rable basis = ! gr[? ( coral-reefs1 & subsequ5tly = ! =mation ( islets4 ,z ^! reefs cle>ly belong to ! fr++ class1 ! ,qu]imba isl&s h be5 col\r$ r$4--,monabila 7#ac #cb ,s474 ,9 ! plan ( ?is h>b\r1 ! headl&s outside are fr+$ by reefs app>5tly ( coral2 col\r$ r$4--,mozambique 7#aej ,s47 ,! out] "p ( ! isl& on :i* ! city is built1 & ! neighb\r+ isl&s1 are fr+$ by coral-reefs2 col\r$ r$4 ,f ! description giv5 9 ,ow5's 8,n>r40 7vol4 i1 p4 #afb71 ! %ore f ,mozambique to ,delagoa ,bay appe>s to be l[ & s&y2 _m ( ! %oals & islets (f ?is l9e ( coa/ are ( coral-=mation2 b f _! small size & l[ness1 x is n possible1 f ! *>ts1 to "k :e!r !y are truly fr+$4 ,h5ce ?is portion ( coa/ is left uncol\r$1 z are likewise ^? p>ts m nor?w>d1 ( :i* no m5tion has be5 made 9 ! =ego+ pages f ! want ( in=mation4 ,,p]sian ,,gulf4--,f ! *>ts lately publi%$ on a l>ge scale by ! ,ea/ ,india ,company1 x appe>s t sev]al p>ts1 especially ! s\!rn %ores ( ?is gulf1 are fr+$ by coral-reefs2 b z ! wat] is v %all[1 & z !re are num]\s s&banks1 :i* are difficult to di/+ui% on ! *>t f reefs1 ,i h n col\r$ ! upp] "p r$4 ,t[>ds ! m\?1 h[ev]1 :]e ! wat] is r deep]1 ! isl&s ( ,ormuz & ,l>rack1 appe> s regul>ly fr+$1 t ,i h col\r$ !m r$4 ,!re are c]ta9ly no atolls 9 ! ,p]sian ,gulf4 ,! %ores ( ,immaum1 & ( ! promontory =m+ ! s\!rn headl& ( ! ,p]sian ,gulf1 seem to be )\t reefs4 ,! :ole ,s4,w4 "p 7except "o or two small pat*es7 ( ,arabia ,felix1 & ! %ores ( ,socotra appe> f ! *>ts & memoir ( ,capta9 ,ha9es 7,geograph4 ,j\rn41 #ahci1 p4 #abe7 to be )\t any reefs4 ,i believe !re are no ext5sive coral-reefs on any "p ( ! coa/s ( ,india1 except on ! l[ promontory ( ,madura 7z already m5tion$7 9 front ( ,ceylon4 ,,r$ ,,sea4--,my in=mation is *iefly d]iv$ f ! admirable *>ts publi%$ by ! ,ea/ ,india ,company 9 #ahcf1 f p]sonal communication ) ,capta9 ,moresby1 "o ( ! surveyors1 & f ! excell5t memoir1 8b] die ,natur d] ,corall5-,bnk5 des ,ro!n ,me]es10 by ,ehr5b]g4 ,! pla9s imm$iately bord]+ ! ,r$ ,sea seem *iefly to consi/ ( a s$im5t>y =mation ( ! new] t]ti>y p]iod4 ,! %ore is1 ) ! exception ( a few p>ts1 fr+$ by coral-reefs4 ,! wat] is g5]ally pr(\ndly deep close to ! %ore2 b ?is fact1 :i* has attract$ ! att5tion ( mo/ voyag]s1 seems to h no necess>y connection ) ! pres5ce ( reefs2 = ,capta9 ,moresby p>ticul>ly obs]v$ to me1 t1 9 lat4 #bd #aj on ! ea/]n side1 !re is a piece ( coa/1 ) v deep wat] close to x1 )\t any reefs1 b n diff]+ 9 o!r respects f ! usual nature ( ! coa/-l9e4 ,! mo/ rem>kable feature 9 ! ,r$ ,sea is ! *a9 ( subm]g$ banks1 reefs1 & isl&s1 ly+ "s way f ! %ore1 *iefly on ! ea/]n side2 ! space )9 be+ deep en\gh to admit a safe navigation 9 small vessels4 ,! banks are g5]ally ( an oval =m1 & "s miles 9 wid?2 b "s ( !m are v long 9 proportion to _! wid?4 ,capta9 ,moresby in=ms me t any "o1 :o _h n made actual plans ( !m1 w\ld be apt to ?9k t !y 7 mu* m elongat$ ?an !y really are4 ,_m ( !m rise to ! surface1 b ! great] numb] lie f five to ?irty fa?oms b5ea? x1 ) irregul> s\nd+s on !m4 ,!y consi/ ( s& & liv+ coral2 coral on mo/ ( !m1 accord+ to ,capta9 ,moresby1 cov]+ ! great] "p ( _! surface4 ,!y ext5d p>allel to ! %ore1 & !y are n unfrequ5tly connect$ 9 _! middle p>ts by %ort transv]se banks ) ! ma9l&4 ,! sea is g5]ally pr(\ndly deep q close to !m1 z x is ne> mo/ p>ts ( ! coa/ ( ! ma9l&2 b ?is is n univ]sally ! case1 = betwe5 lat4 #ae & #ag ! wat] deep5s q gradually f ! banks1 bo? on ! ea/]n & we/]n %ores1 t[>ds ! middle ( ! sea4 ,isl&s 9 _m p>ts arise f ^! banks2 !y are l[1 flat-topp$1 & consi/ ( ! same horizontally /ratifi$ =mation ) t =m+ ! pla9-l m>g9 ( ! ma9l&4 ,"s ( ! small] & l[] isl&s consi/ ( m]e s&4 ,capta9 ,moresby in=ms me1 t small masses ( rock1 ! remnants ( isl&s1 are left on _m banks :]e !re is n[ no dry l&4 ,ehr5b]g also ass]ts t mo/ ( ! islets1 ev5 ! l[e/1 h a flat abrad$ basis1 compos$ ( ! same t]ti>y =mation3 he believes t z soon z ! surf we>s d[n ! protub]ant p>ts ( a bank1 j b5ea? ! level ( ! sea1 ! surface becomes protect$ f fur!r abrasion by ! gr[? ( coral1 & he ?us acc\nts = ! exi/5ce ( s _m banks /&+ on a level ) ! surface ( ?is sea4 ,x appe>s t mo/ ( ! isl&s are c]ta9ly decreas+ 9 size4 ,! =m ( ! banks & isl&s is mo/ s+ul> 9 ! "p j ref]r$ to1 namely1 f lat4 #ae to #ag1 :]e ! sea deep5s q gradually3 ! ,dhalac gr\p1 on ! we/]n coa/1 is surr\nd$ by an intricate ar*ipelago ( islets & %oals2 ! ma9 isl& is v irregul>ly %ap$1 & x includes a bay sev5 miles long1 by f\r across1 9 :i* no bottom 0 f\nd ) #beb feet3 !re is only "o entrance into ?is bay1 half a mile wide1 & ) an isl& 9 front ( x4 ,! subm]g$ banks on ! ea/]n coa/1 )9 ! same latitudes1 r\nd ,f>san ,isl&1 are1 likewise1 p5etrat$ by _m n>r[ creeks ( deep wat]2 "o is twelve miles long1 9 ! =m ( a hat*et1 9 :i*1 close to its broad upp] end1 s\nd+s 7 n /ruck ) #cfj feet1 & its entrance is only half a mile wide3 9 ano!r creek ( ! same nature1 b ev5 ) a m irregul> outl9e1 !re 0 no bottom ) #dhj feet4 ,! isl& ( ,f>san1 itself1 has z s+ul> a =m z any ( its surr\nd+ banks4 ,! bottom ( ! sea r\nd ! ,dhalac & ,f>san ,isl&s consi/s *iefly ( s& & agglut9at$ fragm5ts1 b1 9 ! deep & n>r[ creeks1 x consi/s ( mud2 ! isl&s !mselves consi/ ( ?91 horizontally /ratifi$1 mod]n t]ti>y b$s1 conta9+ b little brok5 coral1#b _! %ores are fr+$ by liv+ coral-reefs4 #b ,rppell1 8,reise 9 ,abyss9ie10 ,b&4 i1 ,s4 #bdg4 ,f ! acc\nt giv5 by ,rppell#c ( ! mann] 9 :i* ,dhalac has be5 r5t by fissures1 ! opposite sides ( :i* h be5 unequally elevat$ 79 "o in/ance to ! am\nt ( fifty feet71 x seems probable t its irregul> =m1 z well z probably t ( ,f>san1 may h be5 p>tly caus$ by unequal elevations2 b1 consid]+ ! g5]al =m ( ! banks1 & ( ! deep-wat] creeks1 toge!r ) ! composition ( ! l&1 ,i ?9k _! configuration is m probably due 9 great "p to /rong curr5ts hav+ drift$ s$im5t ov] an unev5 bottom3 x is almo/ c]ta9 t _! =m _c be attribut$ to ! gr[? ( coral4 ,:atev] may h be5 ! precise orig9 ( ! ,dhalac & ,f>san ,ar*ipelagoes1 ! great] numb] ( ! banks on ! ea/]n side ( ! ,r$ ,sea seem to h orig9at$ ?r\gh ne>ly simil> means4 ,i judge ( ?is f _! simil>ity 9 configuration 79 pro( ( :i* ,i may in/ance a bank on ! ea/ coa/ 9 lat4 #bb2 & al?\gh x is true t ! nor!rn banks g5]ally h a less complicat$ outl9e71 & f _! simil>ity 9 composition1 z may be obs]v$ 9 _! uprais$ portions4 ,! dep? )9 ! banks nor?w>d ( lat4 #ag1 is usually great]1 & _! out] sides %elve m abruptly 7circum/ances :i* seem to g toge!r7 ?an 9 ! ,dhalac & ,f>san ,ar*ipelagoes2 b ?is might easily h be5 caus$ by a diff]5ce 9 ! action ( ! curr5ts dur+ _! =mation3 moreov]1 ! great] quantity ( liv+ coral1 :i*1 accord+ to ,capta9 ,moresby1 exi/s on ! nor!rn banks1 w\ld t5d to give !m /eep] m>g9s4 #c ,ibid41 ,s4 #bde4 ,f ?is acc\nt1 brief & imp]fect z x is1 we c see t ! great *a9 ( banks on ! ea/]n coa/1 & on ! we/]n side 9 ! s\!rn portion1 diff] greatly f true b>ri]-reefs :olly =m$ by ! gr[? ( coral4 ,x is inde$ ! direct conclusion ( ,ehr5b]g 78b] die10 etc41 pp4 #de & #ea71 t !y are connect$ 9 _! orig9 q second>ily ) ! gr[? ( coral2 & he rem>ks t ! isl&s (f ! coa/ ( ,norway1 if worn d[n level ) ! sea1 & m]ely coat$ ) liv+ coral1 w\ld pres5t a ne>ly simil> appe>ance4 ,i _c1 h[ev]1 avoid suspect+1 f in=mation giv5 me by ,dr4 ,malcolmson & ,capta9 ,moresby1 t ,ehr5b]g has r "u-rat$ ! influ5ce ( corals1 9 "s places at lea/1 on ! =mation ( ! t]ti>y deposits ( ! ,r$ ,sea4 ,! we/ coa/ ( ! ,r$ ,sea betwe5 lat4 #ai & #bb4--,!re are1 9 ?is space1 reefs1 :i*1 if ,i _h kn[n no?+ ( ^? 9 o!r p>ts ( ! ,r$ ,sea1 ,i %\ld unhesitat+ly h consid]$ z b>ri]-reefs2 &1 aft] delib]ation1 ,i h come to ! same conclusion4 ,"o ( ^! reefs1 9 #bj #ae1 is tw5ty miles long1 less ?an a mile 9 wid? 7b exp&+ at ! nor!rn end into a disc71 slightly s9u\s1 & ext5d+ p>allel to ! ma9l& at ! di/ance ( five miles f x1 ) v deep wat] )92 9 "o spot s\nd+s 7 n obta9$ ) #bje fa?oms4 ,"s leagues fur!r s\?1 !re is ano!r l9e> reef1 v n>r[1 t5 miles long1 ) o!r small portions ( reef1 nor? & s\?1 almo/ connect$ ) x2 & )9 ?is l9e ( reefs 7z well z outside7 ! wat] is pr(\ndly deep4 ,!re are also "s small l9e> & sickle-=m$ reefs1 ly+ a little way out at sea4 ,all ^! reefs are cov]$1 z ,i am in=m$ by ,capta9 ,moresby1 by liv+ corals4 ,"h1 !n1 we h all ! *>act]s ( reefs ( ! b>ri] class2 & 9 "s outly+ reefs we h an approa* to ! /ructure ( atolls4 ,! s\rce ( my d\bts ab\t ! classification ( ^! reefs1 arises f hav+ obs]v$ 9 ! ,dhalac & ,f>san gr\ps ! n>r[ness & /raightness ( sev]al spits ( s& & rock3 "o ( ^! spits 9 ! ,dhalac gr\p is ne>ly fifte5 miles long1 only two broad1 & x is bord]$ on ea* side ) deep wat]2 s t1 if worn d[n by ! surf1 & coat$ ) liv+ corals1 x w\ld =m a reef ne>ly simil> to ^? )9 ! space "u consid]ation4 ,!re is1 also1 9 ?is space 7lat4 #ba7 a p59sula1 bord]$ by cliffs1 ) its extremity worn d[n to ! level ( ! sea1 & its basis fr+$ ) reefs3 9 ! l9e ( prolongation ( ?is p59sula1 !re lies ! isl& ( ,mac[a 7=m$1 accord+ to ,capta9 ,moresby1 ( ! usual t]ti>y deposit71 & "s small] isl&s1 l>ge p>ts ( :i* likewise appe> to h be5 worn d[n1 & are n[ coat$ ) liv+ corals4 ,if ! removal ( ! /rata 9 ^! sev]al cases _h be5 m complete1 ! reefs ?us =m$ w\ld h ne>ly resembl$ ^? b>ri]-l ones n[ "u discussion4 ,not)/&+ ^! facts1 ,i _c p]suade myself t ! _m v small1 isolat$1 & sickle-=m$ reefs & o!rs1 long1 ne>ly /raight1 & v n>r[1 ) ! wat] unfa?omably deep close r\nd !m1 c\ld possibly h be5 =m$ by corals m]ely coat+ banks ( s$im5t1 or ! abrad$ surfaces ( irregul>ly %ap$ isl&s4 ,i feel compell$ to believe t ! f\ndations ( ^! reefs h subsid$1 & t ! corals1 dur+ _! upw>d gr[?1 h giv5 to ^! reefs _! pres5t =ms3 ,i may rem>k t ! subsid5ce ( n>r[ & irregul>ly-%ap$ p59sulas & isl&s1 su* z ^? exi/+ on ! coa/s ( ! ,r$ ,sea1 w\ld af=d ! requisite f\ndations = ! reefs 9 "q4 ,! we/ coa/ f lat4 #bb to #bd4--,?is "p ( ! coa/ 7nor? ( ! space col\r$ blue on ! map7 is front$ by an irregul>ly %elv+ bank1 f ab\t t5 to ?irty fa?oms deep2 num]\s little reefs1 "s ( :i* h ! mo/ s+ul> %apes1 rise f ?is bank4 ,x may be obs]v$1 respect+ "o ( !m1 9 lat4 #bc #aj1 t if ! promontory 9 lat4 #bd 7 worn d[n to ! level ( ! sea1 & coat$ ) corals1 a v simil> & grotesquely =m$ reef w\ld be produc$4 ,_m ( ! reefs on ?is "p ( ! coa/ may ?us h orig9at$2 b !re are "s sickle1 & almo/ atoll-=m$ reefs ly+ 9 deep wat] (f ! promontory 9 lat4 #bd1 :i* lead me to suppose t all ^! reefs are m probably alli$ to ! b>ri] or atoll classes4 ,i h n1 h[ev]1 v5tur$ to col\r ?is portion ( coa/4 ,on ! we/ coa/ f lat4 #ai to #ag 7s\? ( space col\r$ blue on ! map71 !re are _m l[ islets ( v small dim5sions1 n mu* elongat$1 & ris+ out ( great dep?s at a di/ance f ! coa/2 ^! _c be class$ ei!r ) atolls1 or b>ri]- or fr++-reefs4 ,i may "h rem>k t ! outly+ reefs on ! we/ coa/1 betwe5 lat4 #ai & #bd1 are ! only ones 9 ! ,r$ ,sea1 :i* approa* 9 /ructure to ! true atolls ( ! ,indian & ,pacific ,oceans1 b !y pres5t only imp]fect m9iature lik5esses ( !m4 ,ea/]n coa/4--,i h felt ! greate/ d\bt ab\t col\r+ any portion ( ?is coa/1 nor? ( ! fr++-reefs r\nd ! ,f>san ,isl&s 9 #af #aj4 ,!re are _m small outly+ coral-reefs along ! :ole l9e ( coa/2 b z ! great] numb] rise f banks n v deeply subm]g$ 7! =mation ( :i* has be5 %[n to be only second>ily connect$ ) ! gr[? ( coral71 _! orig9 may be due simply to ! gr[? ( knolls ( corals1 f an irregul> f\ndation situat$ )9 a limit$ dep?4 ,b betwe5 lat4 #ah & #bj1 !re are s _m l9e>1 elliptic1 & extremely small reefs1 ris+ abruptly out ( pr(\nd dep?s1 t ! same reasons1 :i* l$ me to col\r blue a portion ( ! we/ coa/1 h induc$ me to d ! same 9 ?is "p4 ,!re exi/ "s small outly+ reefs ris+ f deep wat]1 nor? ( lat4 #bj 7! nor!rn limit col\r$ blue71 on ! ea/ coa/2 b z !y are n v num]\s & sc>cely any ( !m l9e>1 ,i h ?\ght x "r to leave !m uncol\r$4 ,9 ! s\!rn p>ts ( ! ,r$ ,sea1 consid]able spaces ( ! ma9l&1 & ( "s ( ! ,dhalac isl&s1 are skirt$ by reefs1 :i*1 z ,i am in=m$ by ,capta9 ,moresby1 are ( liv+ coral1 & h all ! *>act]s ( ! fr++ class4 ,z 9 ^! latitudes1 !re are no outly+ l9e> or sickle-=m$ reefs1 ris+ out ( unfa?omable dep?s1 ,i h col\r$ ^! p>ts ( ! coa/ r$4 ,on simil> gr\nds1 ,i h col\r$ r$ ! nor!rn p>ts ( ! we/]n coa/ 7nor? ( lat4 #bd #cj71 & likewise ! %ores ( ! *ief "p ( ! ,gulf ( ,suez4 ,9 ! ,gulf ( ,acaba1 z ,i am in=m$ by ,capta9 ,moresby !re are no coral-reefs1 & ! wat] is pr(\ndly deep4 ,,we/ ,,indies4--,my in=mation reg>d+ ! reefs ( ?is area1 is d]iv$ f v>i\s s\rces1 & f an exam9ation ( num]\s *>ts2 especially ( ^? lately execut$ dur+ ! survey "u ,capta9 ,ow51 ,r4,n4 ,i lay "u p>ticul> obligation to ,capta9 ,bird ,all51 ,r4,n41 "o ( ! memb]s ( ! late survey1 = _m p]sonal communications on ?is subject4 ,z 9 ! case ( ! ,r$ ,sea1 x is necess>y to make "s prelim9>y rem>ks on ! subm]g$ banks ( ! ,we/ ,indies1 :i* are 9 "s degree connect$ ) coral-reefs1 & cause consid]able d\bts 9 _! classification4 ,t l>ge accumulations ( s$im5t are 9 progress on ! ,we/ ,indian %ores1 w be evid5t to any "o :o exam9es ! *>ts ( t sea1 especially ( ! portion nor? ( a l9e jo9+ ,yucutan & ,florida4 ,! area ( deposition seems less intimately connect$ ) ! deb\*em5t ( ! great riv]s1 ?an ) ! c\rse ( ! sea-curr5ts2 z is evid5t f ! va/ ext5sion ( ! banks f ! promontories ( ,yucutan & ,mosquito4 ,besides ! coa/-banks1 !re are _m ( v>i\s dim5sions :i* /& q isolat$2 ^! closely resemble ea* o!r1 !y lie f two or ?ree to tw5ty or ?irty fa?oms "u wat]1 & are compos$ ( s&1 sometimes firmly agglut9at$1 ) little or no coral2 _! surfaces are smoo? & ne>ly level1 %elv+ only to ! am\nt ( a few fa?oms1 v gradually all r\nd t[>ds _! edges1 :]e !y plunge abruptly into ! unfa?omable sea4 ,?is /eep incl9ation ( _! sides1 :i* is likewise *>act]i/ic ( ! coa/-banks1 is v rem>kable3 ,i may give z an in/ance1 ! ,mi/]iosa ,bank1 on ! edges ( :i* ! s\nd+s *ange 9 #bej fa?oms horizontal di/ance1 f #aa to #baj fa?oms2 (f ! nor!rn po9t ( ! bank ( ,old ,provid5ce1 9 #bjj fa?oms horizontal di/ance1 ! *ange is f #ai to #aeb fa?oms2 (f ! ,great ,bahama ,bank1 9 #afj fa?oms horizontal di/ance1 ! incl9ation is 9 _m places f #aj fa?oms to no bottom ) #aij fa?oms4 ,on coa/s 9 all p>ts ( ! _w1 :]e s$im5t is accumulat+1 some?+ ( ?is k9d may be obs]v$2 ! banks %elve v g5tly f> out to sea1 & !n t]m9ate abruptly4 ,! =m & composition ( ! banks /&+ 9 ! middle p>ts ( ! ,w4 ,indian ,sea1 cle>ly %[ t _! orig9 mu/ be *iefly attribut$ to ! accumulation ( s$im5t2 & ! only obvi\s explanation ( _! isolat$ position is ! pres5ce ( a nucleus1 r\nd :i* ! curr5ts h collect$ f9e drift matt]4 ,any "o :o w comp>e ! "* ( ! bank surr\nd+ ! hilly isl& ( ,old ,provid5ce1 ) ^? banks 9 its neighb\rhood :i* /& isolat$1 w sc>cely d\bt t !y surr\nd subm]g$ m\nta9s4 ,we are l$ to ! same conclusion by exam9+ ! bank call$ ,?und] ,knoll1 :i* is sep>at$ f ! ,great ,mosquito ,bank by a *annel only sev5 miles wide1 & #ade fa?oms deep4 ,!re _c be any d\bt t ! ,mosquito ,bank has be5 =m$ by ! accumulation ( s$im5t r\nd ! promontory ( ! same "n2 & ,?und] ,knoll resembles ! ,mosquito ,bank1 9 ! /ate ( its surface subm]g$ tw5ty fa?oms1 9 ! incl9ations ( its sides1 9 composition1 & 9 e o!r respect4 ,i may obs]ve1 al?\gh ! rem>k is "h irrelevant1 t geologi/s %\ld be cauti\s 9 conclud+ t all ! outly]s ( any =mation h once be5 connect$ toge!r1 = we "h see t deposits1 d\btless ( exactly ! same nature1 may be deposit$ ) l>ge valley-l spaces betwe5 !m4 ,l9e> /rips ( coral-reefs & small knolls project f _m ( ! isolat$1 z well z coa/-banks2 sometimes !y occur q irregul>ly plac$1 z on ! ,mosquito ,bank1 b m g5]ally !y =m cresc5ts on ! w9dw>d side1 situat$ "s little di/ance )9 ! out] edge ( ! banks3--?us on ! ,s]ranilla ,bank !y =m an int]rupt$ *a9 :i* ranges betwe5 two & ?ree miles )9 ! w9dw>d m>g93 g5]ally !y occur1 z on ,roncador1 ,c\rt[n1 & ,anegada ,banks1 ne>] ! l9e ( deep wat]4 ,_! occurr5ce on ! w9dw>d side is con=mable to ! g5]al rule1 ( ! effici5t k9ds ( corals fl\ri%+ be/ :]e mo/ expos$2 b _! position "s way )9 ! l9e ( deep wat] ,i _c expla91 )\t x be1 t a dep? some:at less ?an t close to ! out] m>g9 ( ! banks1 is mo/ fav\rable to _! gr[?4 ,:]e ! corals h =m$ a ne>ly cont9u\s rim1 close to ! w9dw>d edge ( a bank "s fa?oms subm]g$1 ! reef closely resembles an atoll2 b if ! bank surr\nds an isl& 7z 9 ! case ( ,old ,provid5ce71 ! reef resembles an encircl+ b>ri]-reef4 ,i %\ld und\bt$ly h class$ "s ( ^! fr+$ banks z imp]fect atolls1 or b>ri]-reefs1 if ! s$im5t>y nature ( _! f\ndations _h n be5 evid5t f ! pres5ce ( o!r neighb\r+ banks1 ( simil> =ms & ( simil> composition1 b )\t ! cresc5t-l m>g9al reef3 9 ! ?ird *apt]1 ,i obs]v$ t probably "s atoll-l reefs did exi/1 :i* _h orig9at$ 9 ! mann] "h suppos$4 ,pro(s ( elevation )9 rec5t t]ti>y p]iods ab\nd1 z ref]r$ to 9 ! six? *apt]1 ov] ne>ly ! :ole area ( ! ,we/ ,indies4 ,h5ce x is easy to und]/& ! orig9 ( ! l[ l& on ! coa/s1 :]e s$im5t is n[ accumulat+2 = in/ance on ! nor!rn "p ( ,yucutan1 & on ! ,n4,e4 "p ( ,mosquito1 :]e ! l& is l[1 & :]e ext5sive banks appe> to be 9 progressive =mation4 ,h5ce1 also1 ! orig9 ( ! ,great ,bahama ,banks1 :i* are bord]$ on _! we/]n & s\!rn edges by v n>r[1 long1 s+ul>ly %ap$ isl&s1 =m$ ( s&1 %ells1 & coral-rock1 & "s ( !m ab\t a hundr$ feet 9 height1 is easily expla9$ by ! elevation ( banks fr+$ on _! w9dw>d 7we/]n & s\!rn7 sides by coral-reefs4 ,on ?is view1 h[ev]1 we mu/ suppose ei!r t ! *ief "p ( ! surfaces ( ! great ,bahama s&banks 7 all orig9ally deeply subm]g$1 & 7 br\ght up to _! pres5t level by ! same elevatory action1 :i* =m$ ! l9e> isl&s2 or t dur+ ! elevation ( ! banks1 ! sup]ficial curr5ts & swell ( ! waves cont9u$ we>+ !m d[n & keep+ !m at a ne>ly uni=m level3 ! level is n q uni=m2 =1 9 proce$+ f ! ,n4,w4 end ( ! ,bahama gr\p t[>ds ! ,s4,e4 end1 ! dep? ( ! banks increases1 & ! area ( l& decreases1 9 a v gradual & rem>kable mann]4 ,! latt] view1 namely1 t ^! banks h be5 worn d[n by ! curr5ts & swell dur+ _! elevation1 seems to me ! mo/ probable "o4 ,x is1 also1 ,i believe1 applicable to _m banks1 situat$ 9 widely di/ant p>ts ( ! ,we/ ,indian ,sea1 :i* are :olly subm]g$2 =1 on any o!r view1 we mu/ suppose1 t ! elevatory =ces h act$ ) a/oni%+ uni=mity4 ,! %ores ( ! ,gulf ( ,mexico1 = ! space ( _m hundr$ miles1 is =m$ by a *a9 ( lagoons1 f "o to tw5ty miles 9 bread? 78,columbian ,navigator10 p4 #agh1 etc471 conta9+ ei!r fre% or salt wat]1 & sep>at$ f ! sea by l9e> /rips ( s&4 ,great spaces ( ! %ores ( ,s\!rn ,brazil1#d & ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates f ,long ,isl& 7z obs]v$ by ,pr(essor ,rog]s7 to ,florida h ! same "*4 ,pr(essor ,rog]s1 9 8 8,report to ! ,briti% ,association0 7vol4 iii1 p4 #ac71 speculates on ! orig9 ( ^! l[1 s&y1 l9e> islets2 he /ates t ! lay]s ( :i* !y are compos$ are too homog5e\s1 & conta9 too l>ge a proportion ( %ells1 to p]mit ! common supposition ( _! =mation be+ simply due to matt] ?r[n up1 :]e x n[ lies1 by ! surf3 he consid]s ^! isl&s z upheav$ b>s or %oals1 :i* 7 deposit$ 9 l9es :]e oppos$ curr5ts met4 ,x is evid5t t ^! isl&s & spits ( s& p>allel to ! coa/1 & sep>at$ f x by %all[ lagoons1 h no necess>y connection ) coral-=mations4 ,b 9 ,s\!rn ,florida1 f ! acc\nts ,i h receiv$ f p]sons :o h resid$ !re1 ! uprais$ isl&s seem to be =m$ ( /rata1 conta9+ a good deal ( coral1 & !y are ext5sively fr+$ by liv+ reefs2 ! *annels )9 ^! isl&s are 9 "s places betwe5 two & ?ree miles wide1 & five or six fa?oms deep1 ?\gh g5]ally#e !y are less 9 dep? ?an wid?4 ,aft] hav+ se5 h[ frequ5tly banks ( s$im5t 9 ! ,we/ ,indian ,sea are fr+$ by reefs1 we c readily conceive t b>s ( s$im5t might be greatly aid$ 9 _! =mation along a l9e ( coa/1 by ! gr[? ( corals2 & su* b>s w\ld1 9 t case1 h a deceptive resemblance ) true b>ri]-reefs4 #d ,9 ! ,london & ,ed9burgh ,philosophical ,j\rnal1 #ahda1 p4 #beg1 ,i h describ$ a s+ul> b> ( s&/one ly+ p>allel to ! coa/ (f ,p]nambuco 9 ,brazil1 :i* probably is an analog\s =mation4 #e ,9 ! ord9>y sea-*>ts1 no lagoons appe> on ! coa/ ( ,florida1 nor? ( #bf2 b ,major ,:it+ 7,silliman's ,j\rnal1 vol4 xxxv1 p4 #ed7 says t _m are =m$ by s& ?r[n up along ! :ole l9e ( coa/ f ,/4 ,augu/9e's to ,jupit] ,inlet4 ,hav+ n[ endeav\r$ to remove "s s\rces ( d\bt 9 classify+ ! reefs ( ! ,we/ ,indies1 ,i w give my au?orities = col\r+ su* portions ( ! coa/ z ,i h ?\ght myself w>rant$ 9 do+4 ,capta9 ,bird ,all5 in=ms me1 t mo/ ( ! isl&s on ! ,bahama ,banks are fr+$1 especially on _! w9dw>d sides1 ) liv+ reefs2 & h5ce ,i h col\r$ ^?1 :i* are ?us repres5t$ 9 ,capta9 ,ow5's late *>t1 r$4 ,! same (fic] in=ms me1 t ! isl&s along ! s\!rn "p ( ,florida are simil>ly fr+$2 col\r$ r$4 ,,cuba3 ,proce$+ along ! nor!rn coa/1 at ! di/ance ( =ty miles f ! extreme ,s4,e4 po9t1 ! %ores are fr+$ by reefs1 :i* ext5d we/w>d = a space ( #afj miles1 ) only a few breaks4 ,p>ts ( ^! reefs are repres5t$ 9 ! plans ( ! h>b\rs on ?is coa/ by ,capta9 ,ow52 & an excell5t description is giv5 ( !m by ,mr4 ,taylor 7,l\don's 8,mag4 ( ,nat4 ,hi/410 vol4 ix1 p4 #ddi72 he /ates t !y enclos$ a space call$ ! 8baxo10 f half to ?ree-qu>t]s ( a mile 9 wid?1 ) a s&y bottom1 & a little coral4 ,9 mo/ p>ts p c wade1 at l[ wat]1 to ! reef2 b 9 "s p>ts ! dep? is betwe5 two & ?ree fa?oms4 ,close outside ! reef1 ! dep? is betwe5 six & sev5 fa?oms2 ^! well-*>act]is$ fr++-reefs are col\r$ r$4 ,we/w>d ( longitude #gg #cj1 on ! nor!rn side ( ,cuba1 a great bank comm5ces1 :i* ext5ds along ! coa/ = ne>ly f\r degrees ( longitude4 ,9 ! place ( its comm5cem5t1 9 its /ructure1 & 9 ! 8cays10 or l[ isl&s on its edge1 !re is a m>k$ correspond5ce 7z obs]v$ by ,humboldt1 8,p]s4 ,n>r410 vol4 vii1 p4 #hh7 betwe5 x & ! ,great ,bahama & ,sal ,banks1 :i* lie directly 9 front4 ,h5ce "o is l$ to attribute ! same orig9 to bo? ^! sets ( banks2 namely1 ! accumulation ( s$im5t1 conjo9$ ) an elevatory movem5t1 & ! gr[? ( coral on _! outw>d edges2 ^? p>ts :i* appe> fr+$ by liv+ reefs are col\r$ r$4 ,we/w>d ( ^! banks1 !re is a portion ( coa/ app>5tly )\t reefs1 except 9 ! h>b\rs1 ! %ores ( :i* seem 9 ! publi%$ plans to be fr+$4 ,! ,colorado ,%oals 7see ,capta9 ,ow5's *>ts71 & ! l[ l& at ! we/]n end ( ,cuba1 correspond z closely 9 relative position & /ructure to ! banks at ! extreme po9t ( ,florida1 z ! banks above describ$ on ! nor? side ( ,cuba1 d to ! ,bahamas1 ! dep? )9 ! islets & reefs on ! out] edge ( ! ,colorados1 is g5]ally betwe5 two & ?ree fa?oms1 increas+ to twelve fa?oms 9 ! s\!rn "p1 :]e ! bank becomes ne>ly op51 )\t islets or coral-reefs2 ! portions :i* are fr+$ are col\r$ r$4 ,! s\!rn %ore ( ,cuba is deeply concave1 & ! includ$ space is fill$ up ) mud & s&banks1 l[ isl&s & coral-reefs4 ,betwe5 ! m\nta9\s ,isle ( ,p9es & ! s\!rn %ore ( ,cuba1 ! g5]al dep? is only betwe5 two & ?ree fa?oms2 & 9 ?is "p small isl&s1 =m$ ( fragm5t>y rock & brok5 madrepores 7,humboldt1 8,p]s4 ,n>r410 vol4 vii1 pp4 #ea1 #hf to #ij1 #bia1 #cji1 #cbj71 rise abruptly1 & j rea* ! surface ( ! sea4 ,f "s expressions us$ 9 ! 8,columbian ,navigator0 7vol4 i1 pt ii1 p4 #id71 x appe>s t consid]able spaces along ! out] coa/ ( ,s\!rn ,cuba are b\nd$ by cliffs ( coral-rock1 =m$ probably by ! upheaval ( coral-reefs & s&banks4 ,! *>ts repres5t ! s\!rn "p ( ! ,isle ( ,p9es z fr+$ by reefs1 :i* ! 8,columb4 ,navig40 says ext5d "s way f ! coa/1 b h only f n9e to twelve feet wat] on !m2 ^! are col\r$ r$4--,i h n be5 able to procure any detail$ description ( ! l>ge gr\ps ( banks & 8cays0 fur!r ea/w>d on ! s\!rn side ( ,cuba2 )9 !m !re is a l>ge expanse1 ) a muddy bottom1 f eight to twelve fa?oms deep2 al?\gh "s p>ts ( ?is l9e ( coa/ are repres5t$ 9 ! g5]al *>ts ( ! ,we/ ,indies1 z fr+$1 ,i h n ?\ght x prud5t to col\r !m4 ,! rema9+ portion ( ! s\? coa/ ( ,cuba appe>s to be )\t coral-reefs4 ,,yucutan4--,! ,n4,e4 "p ( ! promontory appe>s 9 ,capta9 ,ow5's *>ts to be fr+$2 col\r$ r$4 ,! ea/]n coa/1 f #bj to #ah is fr+$4 ,s\? ( lat4 #ah1 !re comm5ces ! mo/ rem>kable reef 9 ! ,we/ ,indies3 x is ab\t "o hundr$ & ?irty miles 9 l5g?1 rang+ 9 a ,n4 & ,s4 l9e1 at an av]age di/ance ( fifte5 miles f ! coa/4 ,! islets on x are all l[1 z ,i h be5 in=m$ by ,capta9 ,b4 ,all52 ! wat] deep5s sudd5ly on ! outside ( ! reef1 b n m abruptly ?an (f _m ( ! s$im5t>y banks3 )9 its s\!rn extremity 7(f ,honduras7 ! dep? is tw5ty-five fa?oms2 b 9 ! m nor!rn p>ts1 ! dep? soon increases to t5 fa?oms1 & )9 ! nor!rnmo/ "p1 = a space ( tw5ty miles1 ! dep? is only f "o to two fa?oms4 ,9 mo/ ( ^! respects we h ! *>act]i/ics ( a b>ri]-reef2 nev]!less1 f obs]v+1 fir/1 t ! *annel )9 ! reef is a cont9uation ( a great irregul> bay1 :i* p5etrates ! ma9l& to ! dep? ( fifty miles2 & secondly1 t consid]able spaces ( ?is b>ri]-l reef are describ$ 9 ! *>ts 7= in/ance1 9 lat4 #af #de & #af #ab7 z =m$ ( pure s&2 & ?irdly1 f kn[+ t s$im5t is accumulat+ 9 _m p>ts ( ! ,we/ ,indies 9 banks p>allel to ! %ore2 ,i h n v5tur$ to col\r ?is reef z a b>ri]1 )\t fur!r evid5ce t x has really be5 =m$ by ! gr[? ( corals1 & t x is n m]ely 9 p>ts a spit ( s&1 & 9 o!r p>ts a worn d[n promontory1 p>tially coat$ & fr+$ by reefs2 ,i lean1 h[ev]1 to ! probability ( its be+ a b>ri]-reef1 produc$ by subsid5ce4 ,to add to my d\bts1 imm$iately on ! outside ( ?is b>ri]-l reef1 ,turneffe1 ,ligh?\se1 & ,glov] reefs are situat$1 & ^! reefs h s completely ! =m ( atolls1 t if !y _h occurr$ 9 ! ,pacific1 ,i %\ld n h hesitat$ ab\t col\r+ !m blue4 ,turneffe ,reef seems almo/ entirely fill$ up ) l[ mud islets2 & ! dep? )9 ! o!r two reefs is only f "o to ?ree fa?oms4 ,f ?is circum/ance & f _! simil>ity 9 =m1 /ructure1 & relative position1 bo? to ! bank call$ ,nor!rn ,triangles1 on :i* !re is an islet betwe5 sev5ty & eighty feet1 & to ,cozumel ,isl&1 ! level surface ( :i* is likewise betwe5 sev5ty & eighty feet 9 height1 ,i consid] x m probable t ! ?ree =ego+ banks are ! worn d[n bases ( upheav$ %oals1 fr+$ ) corals1 ?an t !y are true atolls1 :olly produc$ by ! gr[? ( coral dur+ subsid5ce2 left uncol\r$4 ,9 front ( ! ea/]n ,mosquito coa/1 !re are betwe5 lat4 #ab & #af "s ext5sive banks 7already m5tion$1 p4 #adh71 ) high isl&s ris+ f _! c5tres2 & !re are o!r banks :olly subm]g$1 bo? ( :i* k9ds ( banks are bord]$1 ne> _! w9dw>d m>g9s1 by cresc5t-%ap$ coral-reefs4 ,b x c h>dly be d\bt$1 z 0 obs]v$ 9 ! prelim9>y rem>ks1 t ^! banks owe _! orig91 l ! great bank ext5d+ f ! ,mosquito promontory1 almo/ entirely to ! accumulation ( s$im5t1 & n to ! gr[? ( corals2 h5ce ,i h n col\r$ !m4 ,cayman ,isl&3 ?is isl& appe>s 9 ! *>ts to be fr+$2 & ,capta9 ,b4 ,all5 in=ms me t ! reefs ext5d ab\t a mile f ! %ore1 & h only f five to twelve feet wat] )9 !m2 col\r$ r$4--,jamaica3 judg+ f ! *>ts1 ab\t fifte5 miles ( ! ,s4,e4 extremity1 & ab\t twice t l5g? on ! ,s4,w4 extremity1 & "s portions on ! ,s4 side ne> ,k+/on & ,port ,royal1 are regul>ly fr+$1 & !re=e are col\r$ r$4 ,f ! plans ( "s h>b\rs on ! ,n4 side ( ,jamaica1 p>ts ( ! coa/ appe> to be fr+$2 b z ^! are n repres5t$ 9 ! *>ts ( ! :ole isl&1 ,i h n col\r$ !m4--,/4 ,dom+o3 ,i h n be5 able to obta9 suffici5t in=mation1 ei!r f plans ( ! h>b\rs1 or f g5]al *>ts1 to enable me to col\r any "p ( ! coa/1 except sixty miles f ,port de ,plata we/w>d1 :i* seems v regul>ly fr+$2 _m o!r p>ts1 h[ev]1 ( ! coa/ are probably fr+$1 especially t[>ds ! ea/]n end ( ! isl&4--,pu]to ,rico3 consid]able portions ( ! s\!rn1 we/]n1 & ea/]n coa/s1 & "s p>ts ( ! nor!rn coa/1 appe> 9 ! *>ts to be fr+$2 col\r$ r$4--,"s miles 9 l5g? ( ! s\!rn side ( ! ,isl& ( ,/4 ,?omas is fr+$2 mo/ ( ! ,virg9 ,gorda ,isl&s1 z ,i am in=m$ by ,mr4 ,s*omburgk1 are fr+$2 ! %ores ( ,anegada1 z well z ! bank on :i* x /&s1 are likewise fr+$2 ^! isl&s h be5 col\r$ r$4 ,! great] "p ( ! s\!rn side ( ,santa ,cruz appe>s 9 ! ,dani% survey to be fr+$ 7see also ,pr(4 ,hovey's acc\nt ( ?is isl&1 9 ,silliman's ,j\rnal1 vol4 xxxv1 p4 #gd72 ! reefs ext5d along ! %ore = a consid]able space1 & project r m ?an a mile2 ! dep? )9 ! reef is ?ree fa?oms2 col\r$ r$4--,! ,antilles1 z rem>k$ by ,von ,bu* 78,descrip4 ,iles ,can>ies10 p4 #did71 may be divid$ into two l9e> gr\ps1 ! we/]n r[ be+ volcanic1 & ! ea/]n ( mod]n calc>e\s orig92 my in=mation is v defective on ! :ole gr\p4 ,( ! ea/]n isl&s1 ,b>buda & ! we/]n coa/s ( ,antigua & ,m>iagalante appe> to be fr+$3 ?is is also ! case ) ,b>badoes1 z ,i h be5 in=m$ by a resid5t2 ^! isl&s are col\r$ r$4 ,on ! %ores ( ! ,we/]n ,antilles1 ( volcanic orig91 v few coral-reefs appe> to exi/4 ,! isl& ( ,m>t9ique1 ( :i* !re are beautifully execut$ ,fr5* *>ts1 on a v l>ge scale1 alone pres5ts any appe>ance wor?y ( special notice4 ,! s\?-we/]n1 s\!rn1 & ea/]n coa/s1 toge!r =m+ ab\t half ! circumf]5ce ( ! isl&1 are skirt$ by v irregul> banks1 project+ g5]ally r less ?an a mile f ! %ore1 & ly+ f two to five fa?oms subm]g$4 ,9 front ( almo/ e valley1 !y are brea*$ by n>r[1 crook$1 /eep-sid$ passages4 ,! ,fr5* eng9e]s asc]ta9$ by bor+1 t ^! subm]g$ banks consi/$ ( madreporitic rocks1 :i* 7 cov]$ 9 _m p>ts by ?9 lay]s ( mud or s&4 ,f ?is fact1 & especially f ! /ructure ( ! n>r[ brea*es1 ,i ?9k !re c be little d\bt t ^! banks once =m$ liv+ reefs1 :i* fr+$ ! %ores ( ! isl&1 & l o!r reefs probably rea*$ ! surface4 ,f "s ( ^! subm]g$ banks reefs ( liv+ coral rise abruptly1 ei!r 9 small deta*$ pat*es1 or 9 l9es p>allel to1 b "s way )9 ! out] edges ( ! banks on :i* !y are bas$4 ,besides ! above banks :i* skirt ! %ores ( ! isl&1 !re is on ! ea/]n side a range ( l9e> banks1 simil>ly con/itut$1 tw5ty miles 9 l5g?1 ext5d+ p>allel to ! coa/ l9e1 & sep>at$ f x by a space betwe5 two & f\r miles 9 wid?1 & f five to fifte5 fa?oms 9 dep?4 ,f ?is range ( deta*$ banks1 "s l9e> reefs ( liv+ coral likewise rise abruptly2 & if !y _h be5 ( great] l5g? 7= !y d n front m ?an a six? "p ( ! circumf]5ce ( ! isl&71 !y w\ld necess>ily f _! position h be5 col\r$ z b>ri]-reefs2 z ! case /&s !y are left uncol\r$4 ,i suspect t aft] a small am\nt ( subsid5ce1 ! corals 7 kill$ by s& & mud be+ deposit$ on !m1 & ! reefs be+ ?us prev5t$ f gr[+ upw>ds1 ! banks ( madreporitic rock 7 left 9 _! pres5t subm]g$ condition4 ,,! ,,b]muda ,,isl&s h be5 c>efully describ$ by ,lieut5ant ,nelson1 9 an excell5t ,memoir 9 ! 8,geological ,transactions0 7vol4 v1 "p i1 p4 #ajc74 ,9 ! =m ( ! bank or reef1 on "o side ( :i* ! isl&s /&1 !re is a close g5]al resemblance to an atoll2 b 9 ! foll[+ respects !re is a consid]able diff]5ce1--fir/1 9 ! m>g9 ( ! reef n =m+ 7z ,i h be5 in=m$ by ,mr4 ,*aff]s1 ,r4,n47 a flat1 solid surface1 laid b>e at l[ wat]1 & regul>ly b\nd+ ! int]nal space ( %all[ wat] or lagoon2 secondly1 9 ! bord] ( gradually %oal+ wat]1 ne>ly a mile & a half 9 wid?1 :i* surr\nds ! entire outside ( ! reef 7z is laid d[n 9 ,capta9 ,hurd's *>t72 & ?irdly1 9 ! size1 height1 & extraord9>y =m ( ! isl&s1 :i* pres5t little resemblance to ! long1 n>r[1 simple islets1 seldom exce$+ half a mile 9 bread?1 :i* surm\nt ! annul> reefs ( almo/ all ! atolls 9 ! ,indian & ,pacific ,oceans4 ,moreov]1 !re are evid5t pro(s 7,nelson1 ,ibid41 p4 #aah71 t isl&s simil> to ! exi/+ ones1 =m]ly ext5d$ ov] o!r p>ts ( ! reef4 ,x w\ld1 ,i believe1 be difficult to f9d a true atoll ) l& exce$+ ?irty feet 9 height2 :]eas1 ,mr4 ,nelson e/imates ! highe/ po9t ( ! ,b]muda ,isl&s to be #bfj feet2 if1 h[ev]1 ,mr4 ,nelson's view1 t ! :ole ( ! l& consi/s ( s& drift$ by ! w9ds1 & agglut9at$ toge!r1 7 prov$ correct1 ?is diff]5ce w\ld be immat]ial2 b1 f 8 own acc\nt 7p4 #aah71 !re occur 9 "o place1 five or six lay]s ( r$ e>?1 int]/ratifi$ ) ! ord9>y calc>e\s rock1 & includ+ /ones too heavy = ! w9d to h mov$1 )\t hav+ at ! same "t utt]ly disp]s$ e gra9 ( ! accompany+ drift$ matt]4 ,mr4 ,nelson attributes ! orig9 ( ^! sev]al lay]s1 ) _! emb$d$ /ones1 to z _m viol5t cata/rophes2 b fur!r inve/igation 9 su* cases has g5]ally succe$$ 9 expla9+ ph5om5a ( ?is k9d by ord9>y & simpl] means4 ,f9ally1 ,i may rem>k1 t ^! isl&s h a consid]able resemblance 9 %ape to ,b>buda 9 ! ,we/ ,indies1 & to ,pemba on ! ea/]n coa/ ( ,africa1 :i* latt] isl& is ab\t two hundr$ feet 9 height1 & consi/s ( coral-rock4 ,i believe t ! ,b]muda ,isl&s1 f be+ fr+$ by liv+ reefs1 ought to h be5 col\r$ r$2 b ,i h left !m uncol\r$1 on acc\nt ( _! g5]al resemblance 9 ext]nal =m to a lagoon-isl& or atoll4 ,,geological ,,obs]vations ,,on ,,volcanic ,,isl&s4 ,,critical ,,introduction4 ,! prep>ation ( ! s]ies ( works publi%$ "u ! g5]al title 8,geology ( ! ,voyage ( ! ,beagle0 occupi$ a great "p ( ,d>w9's "t dur+ ! t5 ye>s t foll[$ 8 return to ,engl&4 ,! second volume ( ! s]ies1 entitl$ 8,geological ,obs]vations on ,volcanic ,isl&s1 ) ,brief ,notices on ! ,geology ( ,au/ralia & ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope10 made its appe>ance 9 #ahdd4 ,! mat]ials = ?is volume 7 collect$ 9 "p dur+ ! outw>d voyage1 :5 ! ,beagle call$ at ,/4 ,jago 9 ! ,cape de ,v]de ,isl&s1 & ,/4 ,paul's ,rocks1 & at ,f]n&o ,noronha1 b ma9ly dur+ ! homew>d cruise2 !n x 0 t ! ,galapagos ,isl&s 7 survey$1 ! ,l[ ,ar*ipelago pass$ ?r\gh1 & ,tahiti visit$2 aft] mak+ calls at ! ,bay ( ,isl&s1 9 ,new ,zeal&1 & also at ,sydney1 ,hob>t ,t[n & ,k+ ,george's ,s\nd 9 ,au/ralia1 ! ,beagle sail$ across ! ,indian ,ocean to ! little gr\p ( ! ,keel+ or ,cocos ,isl&s1 :i* ,d>w9 has r5d]$ fam\s by 8 obs]vations1 & !nce to ,mauritius2 call+ at ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope on h] way1 ! %ip !n proce$$ successively to ,/4 ,hel5a & ,asc5sion1 & revisit$ ! ,cape de ,v]de ,isl&s be=e f9ally rea*+ ,engl&4 ,al?\gh ,d>w9 0 ?us able to gratify 8 curiosity by visits to a great numb] ( v int]e/+ volcanic di/ricts1 ! voyage op5$ = him ) a bitt] disappo9tm5t4 ,he _h be5 read+ ,humboldt's 8,p]sonal ,n>rative0 dur+ 8 la/ ye>'s resid5ce 9 ,cambridge1 & _h copi$ out f x long passages ab\t ,t5]iffe4 ,he 0 actually mak+ inquiries z to ! be/ means ( visit+ t isl&1 :5 ! (f] 0 made to him to accompany ,capta9 ,fitzroy 9 ! ,beagle4 ,8 fri5d ,h5sl[ too1 on p>t+ ) him1 _h giv5 him ! advice to procure & read ! rec5tly publi%$ fir/ volume ( ! 8,pr9ciples ( ,geology10 ?\gh he w>n$ him aga9/ accept+ ! views advocat$ by its au?or4 ,dur+ ! "t ! ,beagle 0 beat+ backw>ds & =w>ds :5 ! voyage comm5c$1 ,d>w91 al?\gh h>dly ev] able to leave 8 b]?1 0 employ+ all ! opportunities :i* ! t]rible sea-sickness left him1 9 /udy+ ,humboldt & ,lyell4 ,we may !re=e =m an idea ( 8 feel+s :51 on ! %ip rea*+ ,santa ,cruz1 & ! ,peak ( ,t5]iffe mak+ its appe>ance among ! cl\ds1 !y 7 sudd5ly in=m$ t an outbreak ( *ol]a w\ld prev5t any l&+6 ,ample comp5sation = ?is disappo9tm5t 0 f\nd1 h[ev]1 :5 ! %ip rea*$ ,porta ,praya 9 ,/4 ,jago1 ! l>ge/ ( ! ,cape de ,v]de ,isl&s4 ,"h he sp5t ?ree mo/ delightful weeks1 & really comm5c$ 8 "w z a geologi/ & naturali/4 ,writ+ to 8 fa!r he says1 8,geologis+ 9 a volcanic c\ntry is mo/ delightful2 besides ! int]e/ atta*$ to itself1 x leads y into mo/ beautiful & retir$ spots4 ,nobody b a p]son fond ( ,natural ,hi/ory c imag9e ! pleasure ( /roll+ "u cocoa-nuts 9 a ?icket ( bananas & c(fee-plants1 & an endless numb] ( wild fl[]s4 ,& ?is isl&1 t has giv5 me s mu* in/ruction & delight1 is reckon$ ! mo/ un9t]e/+ place t we p]haps %all t\* at dur+ our voyage4 ,x c]ta9ly is g5]ally v b>r51 b ! valleys are m exquisitely beautiful1 f ! v contra/4 ,x is utt]ly useless to say any?+ ab\t ! sc5]y2 x w\ld be z pr(itable to expla9 to a bl9d man col\rs1 z to a p]son :o has n be5 out ( ,europe1 ! total dissimil>ity ( a tropical view4 ,:5ev] ,i enjoy any?+1 ,i always look =w>d to writ+ x d[n1 ei!r 9 my log-book 7:i* increases 9 bulk71 or 9 a lett]2 s y mu/ excuse raptures1 & ^? raptures badly express$4 ,i f9d my collections are increas+ wond]fully1 & f ,rio ,i ?9k ,i %all be oblig$ to s5d a c>go home40 ,! indelible impression made on ,d>w9's m9d by ?is fir/ visit to a volcanic isl&1 is borne witness to by a rem>kable passage 9 ! 8,autobiography0 writt5 by him 9 #ahgf4 8,! geology ( ,/4 ,jago is v /rik+1 yet simple2 a /ream ( lava =m]ly fl[$ ov] ! b$ ( ! sea1 =m$ ( triturat$ rec5t %ells & corals1 :i* x has bak$ into a h>d :ite rock4 ,s9ce !n ! :ole isl& has be5 upheav$4 ,b ! l9e ( :ite rock reveal$ to me a new & important fact1 namely t !re _h be5 aft]w>ds subsid5ce r\nd ! crat]s :i* _h s9ce be5 9 action1 & _h p\r$ =? lava4 ,x !n fir/ dawn$ on me t ,i might p]haps write a book on ! geology ( ! v>i\s c\ntries visit$1 & ?is made me ?rill ) delight4 ,t 0 a memorable h\r to me1 & h[ di/9ctly ,i c call to m9d ! l[ cliff ( lava b5ea? :i* ,i re/$1 ) ! sun gl>+ hot1 a few /range des]t plants gr[+ ne> & ) liv+ corals 9 ! tidal pools at my feet40 ,only five ye>s be=e1 :5 li/5+ to poor ,pr(essor ,jameson's lectures on ! effete ,w]n]ianism1 :i* at t "t did duty = geological tea*+1 ,d>w9 _h f\nd !m 8incr$ibly dull10 & he decl>$ t 8! sole effect !y produc$ on me 0 a det]m9ation nev] s long z ,i liv$ to read a book on ,geology1 or 9 any way to /udy ! sci5ce40 ,:at a contra/ we f9d 9 ! expressions :i* he makes use ( 9 ref]r+ to ,geological ,sci5ce1 9 8 lett]s writt5 home f ! ,beagle6 ,aft] allud+ to ! delight ( collect+ & /udy+ m>9e animals1 he exclaims1 8,b ,geology c>ries ! day60 ,writ+ to ,h5sl[ he says1 8,i am q *>m$ ) ,geology1 b1 l ! wise animal betwe5 two bundles ( hay1 ,i d n "k :i* to l be/2 ! old cry/all9e gr\p ( rocks1 or ! s(t] & m fossilif]\s b$s40 ,& j z ! long voyage is ab\t to come to a close he aga9 writes1 8,i f9d 9 ,geology a nev]-fail+ int]e/2 z x has be5 rem>k$1 x creates ! same gr& ideas respect+ ?is _w :i* ,a/ronomy does = ! ,univ]se40 ,9 ?is passage ,d>w9 d\btless ref]s to a rem>k ( ,sir ,john ,h]s*el's 9 8 admirable 8,prelim9>y ,disc\rse on ! ,/udy ( ,natural ,philosophy10--a book :i* ex]cis$ a mo/ rem>kable & b5eficial influ5ce on ! m9d ( ! "y naturali/4 ,if !re _c be any d\bt z to ! /rong pr$ilection 9 ,d>w9's m9d = geological /udies1 bo? dur+ & aft] ! memorable voyage1 !re is equally little difficulty 9 p]ceiv+ ! s*ool ( geological ?\ght :i*1 9 spite ( ! w>n+s ( ,s$gwick & ,h5sl[1 _h obta9$ complete asc5dancy ov] 8 m9d4 ,he writes 9 #ahgf3 8,! v fir/ place :i* ,i exam9$1 namely ,/4 ,jago 9 ! ,cape de ,v]de ,isl&s1 %[$ me cle>ly ! wond]ful sup]iority ( ,lyell's mann] ( treat+ ,geology1 comp>$ ) t ( any o!r au?or1 ^: works ,i _h ) me1 or ev] aft]w>ds read40 ,& aga91 8,! sci5ce ( ,geology is enorm\sly indebt$ to ,lyell--m s1 z ,i believe1 ?an to any o!r man :o ev] liv$ 4 4 4 ,i am pr\d to rememb] t ! fir/ place1 namely1 ,/4 ,jago1 9 ! ,cape de ,v]de ,ar*ipelago1 9 :i* ,i geologis$1 conv9c$ me ( ! inf9ite sup]iority ( ,lyell's views ov] ^? advocat$ 9 any o!r "w kn[n to me40 ,! passages ,i h cit$ w s]ve to %[ ! _s 9 :i* ,d>w9 ent]$ ^u 8 geological /udies1 & ! p]usal ( ! foll[+ pages w furni% abundant pro(s ( ! en?usiasm1 acum51 & caution ) :i* 8 rese>*es 7 pursu$4 ,l>ge collections ( rocks & m9]als 7 made by ,d>w9 dur+ 8 rese>*es1 & s5t home to ,cambridge1 to be kept "u ! c>e ( 8 fai?ful fri5d ,h5sl[4 ,aft] visit+ 8 relations & fri5ds1 ,d>w9's fir/ c>e on 8 return to ,engl& 0 to unpack & exam9e ^! collections4 ,he accord+ly1 at ! end ( #ahcf1 took lodg+s = ?ree mon?s 9 ,fitzwilliam ,/reet1 ,cambridge1 s z to be ne> ,h5sl[2 & 9 /udy+ & det]m9+ 8 geological specim5s receiv$ mu* valuable aid f ! em95t cry/allograph] & m9]alogi/1 ,pr(essor ,william ,hall[s ,mill]4 ,! actual writ+ ( ! volume ^u volcanic isl&s 0 n comm5c$ till #ahdc1 :5 ,d>w9 _h settl$ 9 ! spot :i* became 8 home = ! re/ ( 8 life--! fam\s h\se at ,d[n1 9 ,k5t4 ,writ+ to 8 fri5d ,mr4 ,fox1 on ,m>* #bh?1 #ahdc1 he says1 8,i am v sl[ly progress+ ) a volume1 or r pamphlet1 on ! volcanic isl&s :i* we visit$3 ,i manage only a c\ple ( h\rs p] day1 & t n v regul>ly4 ,x is uphill "w writ+ books1 :i* co/ money 9 publi%+1 & :i* are n read ev5 by geologi/s40 ,! "w occupi$ ,d>w9 dur+ ! :ole ( ! ye> #ahdc1 & 0 issu$ 9 ! spr+ ( ! foll[+ ye>1 ! actual "t engag$ 9 prep>+ x be+ record$ 9 8 di>y z 8f ! summ] ( #ahdb to ,janu>y #ahdd20 b ! au?or does n appe> to h be5 by any means satisfi$ ) ! result :5 ! book 0 f9i%$4 ,he wrote to ,lyell1 8,y h pleas$ me mu* by say+ t y int5d look+ ?r\gh my #8,volcanic ,isl&s2' x co/ me eighte5 mon?s666 & ,i h he>d ( v few :o h read x4 ,n[ ,i %all feel1 :atev] little 7& little x is7 !re is confirmatory ( old "w1 or new1 w "w its effect & n be lo/40 ,to ,sir ,joseph ,hook] he wrote1 8,i h j f9i%$ a little volume on ! volcanic isl&s :i* we visit$4 ,i d n "k h[ f> y c>e = dry simple geology1 b ,i hope y w let me s5d y a copy40 ,e geologi/ kn[s h[ full ( int]e/ & sugge/iv5ess is ?is book ( ,d>w9's on volcanic isl&s4 ,probably ! scant satisfaction :i* its au?or seem$ to f9d 9 x may be trac$ to ! effect ( a contra/ :i* he felt betwe5 ! memory ( gl[+ delights he _h exp]i5c$ :51 hamm] 9 h&1 he roam$ ov] new & int]e/+ sc5es1 & ! sl[1 labori\s1 & less cong5ial task ( re-writ+ & arrang+ 8 notes 9 book-=m4 ,9 #ahgd1 9 writ+ an acc\nt ( ! anci5t volcanoes ( ! ,hebrides1 ,i _h frequ5t occasion to quote ,mr4 ,d>w9's obs]vations on ! ,atlantic volcanoes1 9 illu/ration ( ! ph5om5a exhibit$ by ! relics ( /ill old] volcanoes 9 our own isl&s4 ,d>w91 9 writ+ to 8 old fri5d ,sir ,*>les ,lyell ^u ! subject1 says1 8,i 0 n a little pleas$ to see my volcanic book quot$1 = ,i ?\ght x 0 completely dead & =gott540 ,two ye>s lat] ! orig9al publi%]s ( ?is book & ( t on ,s\? ,am]ica propos$ to re-issue !m4 ,d>w9 at fir/ hesitat$1 = he seem$ to ?9k !re c\ld be little ( abid+ int]e/ 9 !m2 he consult$ me ^u ! subject 9 "o ( ! conv]sations :i* ,i us$ to h ) him at t "t1 & ,i /rongly urg$ ^u him ! repr9t ( ! works4 ,i 0 mu* gratifi$ :5 he gave way ^u ! po9t1 & cons5t$ to _! appe>+ j z orig9ally issu$4 ,9 8 preface he says1 8,ow+ to ! great progress :i* ,geology has made 9 rec5t times1 my views on "s few po9ts may be some:at antiquat$1 b ,i h ?\ght x be/ to leave !m z !y orig9ally appe>$40 ,x may be int]e/+ to indicate1 z briefly z possible1 ! *ief geological problem ^u :i* ! publication ( ,d>w9's 8,volcanic ,isl&s0 ?rew new & important light4 ,! m]it ( ! "w consi/$ 9 supply+ int]e/+ obs]vations1 :i* 9 "s cases h prov$ ( crucial value 9 explod+ preval5t fallacies2 9 call+ att5tion to ph5om5a & consid]ations t _h be5 q ov]look$ by geologi/s1 b h s9ce ex]cis$ an important influ5ce 9 m\ld+ geological speculation2 & la/ly 9 %[+ ! importance :i* atta*es to small & seem+ly insignificant causes1 "s ( :i* af=d a key to ! explanation ( v curi\s geological problems4 ,visit+ z he did ! di/ricts 9 :i* ,von ,bu* & o!rs _h f\nd :at !y ?\ght to be evid5ce ( ! tru? ( 8,elevation-crat]s10 ,d>w9 0 able to %[ t ! facts 7 capable ( a totally diff]5t int]pretation4 ,! views orig9ally put =w>d by ! old ,g]man geologi/ & travell]1 & almo/ univ]sally accept$ by 8 c\ntrym51 _h met ) mu* support f ,elie de ,beaumont & ,dufr5oy1 ! lead]s ( geological ?\ght 9 ,france4 ,!y 71 h[ev]1 /\tly oppos$ by ,scrope & ,lyell 9 ?is c\ntry1 & by ,con/ant ,prevo/ & ,virlet on ! o!r side ( ! *annel4 ,d>w91 9 ! "w be=e u1 %[s h[ little gr\nd !re is = ! assumption t ! great r+-crat]s ( ! ,atlantic isl&s h orig9at$ 9 gigantic bli/]s ( ! e>?'s surface :i*1 op5+ at ! top1 h giv5 orig9 to ! crat]s4 ,admitt+ ! influ5ce ( ! injection ( lava into ! /ructure ( ! volcanic cones1 9 increas+ _! bulk & elevation1 he %[s t1 9 ! ma91 ! volcanoes are built up by repeat$ ejections caus+ an accumulation ( mat]ials ar\nd ! v5t4 ,:ile1 h[ev]1 agree+ on ! :ole ) ,scrope & ,lyell1 z to ! explosive orig9 ( ord9>y volcanic crat]s1 ,d>w9 cle>ly saw t1 9 "s cases1 great crat]s might be =m$ or enl>g$1 by ! subsid5ce ( ! floors aft] eruptions4 ,! importance ( ?is ag5cy1 to :i* too little att5tion has be5 direct$ by geologi/s1 has rec5tly be5 %[n by ,pr(essor ,dana1 9 8 admirable "w on ,kilauea & ! o!r great volcanoes ( ! ,hawaiian ,ar*ipelago4 ,! effects ( subsid5ce at a volcanic c5tre 9 produc+ a d[nw>d dip ( ! /rata ar\nd x1 0 fir/ po9t$ out by ,d>w91 z ! result ( 8 e>lie/ "w 9 ! ,cape de ,v]de ,isl&s4 ,/rik+ illu/rations ( ! same pr9ciple h s9ce be5 po9t$ out by ,m4 ,rob]t & o!rs 9 ,icel&1 by ,mr4 ,heaphy 9 ,new ,zeal&1 & by myself 9 ! ,we/]n ,isles ( ,scotl&4 ,d>w9 aga9 & aga9 call$ att5tion to ! evid5ce t volcanic v5ts exhibit relations to "o ano!r :i* c only be expla9$ by assum+ ! exi/5ce ( l9es ( fissure 9 ! e>?'s cru/1 along :i* ! lavas h made _! way to ! surface4 ,b he1 at ! same "t1 cle>ly saw t !re 0 no evid5ce ( ! occurr5ce ( great deluges ( lava along su* fissures2 he %[$ h[ ! mo/ rem>kable plateaux1 compos$ ( successive lava %eets1 might be built up by repeat$ & mod]ate ejections f num]\s isolat$ v5ts2 & he expressly insi/s ^u ! rapidity ) :i* ! c9d]-cones ar\nd ! orifices ( ejection & ! evid5ces ( successive outfl[s ( lava w\ld be oblit]at$ by d5udation4 ,"o ( ! mo/ /rik+ p>ts ( ! book is t 9 :i* he deals ) ! effects ( d5udation 9 produc+ 8basal wrecks0 or worn d[n /umps ( volcanoes4 ,he 0 enabl$ to exam9e a s]ies ( cases 9 :i* c\ld be trac$ e gradation1 f p]fect volcanic cones d[n to ! solidifi$ plugs :i* _h consolidat$ 9 ! v5ts f :i* ejections _h tak5 place4 ,d>w9's obs]vations on ^! po9ts h be5 ( ! greate/ value & assi/ance to all :o h essay$ to /udy ! effects ( volcanic action dur+ e>li] p]iods ( ! e>?'s hi/ory4 ,l ,lyell1 he 0 firmly p]suad$ ( ! cont9uity ( geological hi/ory1 & ev] delight$ 9 f9d+ indications1 9 ! pres5t ord] ( nature1 t ! ph5om5a ( ! pa/ c\ld be acc\nt$ = by means ( causes :i* are /ill 9 op]ation4 ,lyell's la/ "w 9 ! field 0 c>ri$ on ab\t 8 home 9 ,=f>%ire1 & only a few mon?s be=e 8 dea? he wrote to ,d>w93 8,all ! "w :i* ,i h done has confirm$ me 9 ! belief t ! only diff]5ce betwe5 ,palozoic & rec5t volcanic rocks is no m ?an we mu/ all[ =1 by ! enorm\s "t to :i* ! products ( ! olde/ volcanoes h be5 subject$ to *emical *anges40 ,d>w9 0 greatly impress$1 z ! result ( 8 /udies ( volcanic ph5om5a1 foll[$ by an exam9ation ( ! great granite-masses ( ! ,&es1 ) ! relations betwe5 ! s-call$ ,plutonic rocks & ^? ( und\bt$ly volcanic orig94 ,x 0 inde$ a =tunate circum/ance1 t aft] /udy+ "s excell5t examples ( rec5t volcanic rocks1 he proce$$ to exam9e 9 ,s\? ,am]ica _m f9e illu/rations ( ! old] igne\s rock-masses1 & especially ( ! mo/ highly cry/all9e types ( ! same1 & !n on 8 way home _h opportunities ( reviv+ ! impression made ^u him by ! fre% & unalt]$ volcanic rocks4 ,"s ( ! g5]al consid]ations sugge/$ by ^! obs]vations 7 discuss$ 9 a pap] read by him be=e ! ,geological ,society1 on ,m>* #g?1 #ahch1 "u ! title 8,on ! ,connection ( ,c]ta9 ,volcanic ,ph5om5a1 & ,on ! ,=mation ( ,m\nta9-*a9s1 & ! ,effect ( ,cont95tal ,elevations40 ,! exact be>+ ( ^! two classes ( facts ^u "o ano!r are m fully discuss$ 9 8 book on ,s\? ,am]ican geology4 ,! pro(s ( rec5t elevation ar\nd _m ( ! volcanic isl&s l$ ,d>w9 to conclude t volcanic areas 71 z a rule1 regions 9 :i* upw>d movem5ts 7 tak+ place1 & he 0 naturally l$ to contra/ !m ) ! areas 9 :i*1 z he %[$1 ! occurr5ce ( atolls1 encircl+ reefs1 & b>ri]-reefs af=d indication ( subsid5ce4 ,9 ?is way he 0 able to map out ! oceanic areas 9 diff]5t zones1 along :i* opposite k9ds ( movem5t 7 tak+ place4 ,8 conclusions on ?is subject 7 full ( novelty & sugge/iv5ess4 ,v cle>ly did ,d>w9 recognise ! importance ( ! fact t mo/ ( ! oceanic isl&s appe> to be ( volcanic orig91 ?\gh he 0 c>eful to po9t out ! rem>kable exceptions :i* some:at invalidate ! g5]alisation4 ,9 8 8,orig9 ( ,species0 he has elaborat$ ! idea & sugge/$ ! !ory ( ! p]man5ce ( ocean-bas9s1 a sugge/ion :i* has be5 adopt$ & pu%$ f>!r by subsequ5t au?ors1 ?an we ?9k its orig9ator w\ld h approv$4 ,8 caution & fairness ( m9d on ?is & simil> speculative que/ions 0 well-kn[n to all :o 7 9 ! habit ( discuss+ !m ) him4 ,"s ye>s be=e ! voyage ( ! ,beagle1 ,mr4 ,p\lett ,scrope _h po9t$ out ! rem>kable analogies t exi/ betwe5 c]ta9 igne\s rocks ( b&$ /ructure1 z se5 9 ! ,ponza ,isl&s1 & ! foliat$ cry/all9e s*i/s4 ,x does n appe> t ,d>w9 0 acqua9t$ ) ?is rem>kable memoir1 b q indep5d5tly he call$ att5tion to ! same ph5om5a :5 he came to /udy "s v simil> rocks :i* occur 9 ! isl& ( ,asc5sion4 ,com+ fre% f ! /udy ( ! great masses ( cry/all9e s*i/ 9 ! ,s\? ,am]ican cont95t1 he 0 /ruck by ! circum/ance t 9 ! und\bt$ly igne\s rocks ( ,asc5sion we f9d a simil> sep>ation ( ! con/itu5t m9]als along p>allel 8folia40 ,^! obs]vations l$ ,d>w9 to ! same conclusion z t arriv$ at "s "t be=e by ,scrope--namely t :5 cry/allisation takes place 9 rock masses "u ! influ5ce ( great de=m+ /resses1 a sep>ation & p>allel arrangem5t ( ! con/itu5t m9]als w result4 ,?is is a process :i* is n[ fully recognis$ z hav+ be5 a pot5t factor 9 ! production ( ! metamorphic rock1 & has be5 call$ by m rec5t writ]s 8dynamo-metamorphism40 ,9 ?is1 & 9 _m simil> discussions1 9 :i* exact m9]alogical k 0 requir$1 x is rem>kable h[ successful ,d>w9 0 9 mak+ out ! true facts ) reg>d to ! rocks he /udi$ by ! simple aid ( a p5knife & pocket-l5s1 supplem5t$ by a few *emical te/s & ! con/ant use ( ! bl[pipe4 ,s9ce 8 day1 ! me?od ( /udy ( rocks by ?9 sections "u ! microscope has be5 devis$1 & has become a mo/ effici5t aid 9 all petrographical inquiries4 ,dur+ ! voyage ( ,h4,m4,s4 ,*all5g]1 _m ( ! isl&s /udi$ by ,d>w9 h be5 revisit$ & _! rocks collect$4 ,! results ( _! /udy by "o ( ! greate/ ma/]s ( ! sci5ce ( micropetrography--,pr(essor ,r5>d ( ,brussels--h be5 rec5tly publi%$ 9 "o ( ! volumes ( 8,reports on ! ,*all5g] ,exp$ition40 ,:ile mu* t is new & valuable has be5 contribut$ to geological sci5ce by ^! m rec5t inve/igations1 & _m *anges h be5 made 9 nom5clature & o!r po9ts ( detail1 x is int]e/+ to f9d t all ! *ief facts describ$ by ,d>w9 & 8 fri5d ,pr(essor ,mill] h /ood ! te/ ( "t & fur!r /udy1 & rema9 z a monum5t ( ! acum5 & accuracy 9 m9ute obs]vation ( ^! pione]s 9 geological rese>*4 ,,john ,w4 ,,judd4 ,*apt] ,i ,,/4 ,,jago1 ,,9 ,,! ,,cape ,,de ,,v]de ,,ar*ipelago4 ,rocks ( ! l[e/ s]ies4--,a calc>e\s s$im5t>y deposit1 ) rec5t %ells1 alt]$ by ! contact ( sup]9cumb5t lava1 its horizontality & ext5t4--,subsequ5t volcanic eruptions1 associat$ ) calc>e\s matt] 9 an e>?y & fibr\s =m1 & (t5 enclos$ )9 ! sep>ate cells ( ! scori4--,anci5t & oblit]at$ orifices ( eruption ( small size4 ,difficulty ( trac+ ov] a b>e pla9 rec5t /reams ( lava4--,inl& hills ( m anci5t volcanic rock4--,decompos$ oliv9e 9 l>ge masses4 ,feldspa?ic rocks b5ea? ! upp] cry/all9e basaltic /rata4 ,uni=m /ructure & =m ( ! m anci5t volcanic hills4--,=m ( ! valleys ne> ! coa/4 ,conglom]ate n[ =m+ on ! sea bea*4 ,! isl& ( ,/4 ,jago ext5ds 9 a ,n4,n4,w4 & ,s4,s4,e4 direction1 ?irty miles 9 l5g? by ab\t twelve 9 bread?4 ,my obs]vations1 made dur+ two visits1 7 conf9$ to ! s\!rn portion )9 ! di/ance ( a few leagues f ,porto ,praya4 ,! c\ntry1 view$ f ! sea1 pres5ts a v>i$ outl9e3 smoo? conical hills ( a r$di% col\r 7l ,r$ ,hill 9 ,fig4 #aa7 & o!rs less regul>1 flat-topp$1 & ( a blacki% col\r 7l ,a1 ,b1 ,c17 rise f successive1 /ep-=m$ pla9s ( lava4 ,at a di/ance1 a *a9 ( m\nta9s1 _m ?\s& feet 9 height1 trav]ses ! int]ior ( ! isl&4 ,!re is no active volcano 9 ,/4 ,jago1 & only "o 9 ! gr\p1 namely at ,fogo4 ,! isl& s9ce be+ inhabit$ has n suff]$ f de/ructive e>?quakes4 #a ,! outl9e ( ! coa/1 ! position ( ! villages1 /reamlets1 & ( mo/ ( ! hills 9 ?is woodcut1 are copi$ f ! *>t made on bo>d ,h4,m4,s4 ,lev54 ,! squ>e-topp$ hills 7,a1 ,b1 ,c1 etc47 are put 9 m]ely by eye1 to illu/rate my description4 ,! l[e/ rocks expos$ on ! coa/ ne> ,porto ,praya1 are highly cry/all9e & compact2 !y appe> to be ( anci5t1 subm>9e1 volcanic orig92 !y are uncon=mably cov]$ by a ?91 irregul>1 calc>e\s deposit1 ab\nd+ ) %ells ( a late t]ti>y p]iod2 & ?is aga9 is capp$ by a wide %eet ( basaltic lava1 :i* has fl[$ 9 successive /reams f ! int]ior ( ! isl&1 betwe5 ! squ>e-topp$ hills m>k$ ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 etc4 ,/ill m rec5t /reams ( lava h be5 erupt$ f ! scatt]$ cones1 su* z ,r$ & ,signal ,po/ ,hills4 ,! upp] /rata ( ! squ>e-topp$ hills are intimately relat$ 9 m9]alogical composition1 & 9 o!r respects1 ) ! l[e/ s]ies ( ! coa/-rocks1 ) :i* !y seem to be cont9u\s4 ,illu/ration3 ,"p ( ,/4 ,jago1 "o ( ! ,cape de ,v]de isl&s4 ,"p ( ,/4 ,jago1 "o ( ! ,cape de ,v]de isl&s4 ,m9]alogical description ( ! rocks ( ! l[e/ s]ies4--,^! rocks possess an extremely v>y+ "*2 !y consi/ ( black1 br[n1 & grey1 compact1 basaltic bases1 ) num]\s cry/als ( augite1 hornbl5de1 oliv9e1 mica1 & sometimes glassy feldsp>4 ,a common v>iety is almo/ entirely compos$ ( cry/als ( augite ) oliv9e4 ,mica1 x is kn[n1 seldom occurs :]e augite ab\nds2 nor probably does ! pres5t case (f] a real exception1 = ! mica 7at lea/ 9 my be/ *>act]is$ specim51 9 :i* "o nodule ( ?is m9]al is ne>ly half an in* 9 l5g?7 is z p]fectly r\nd$ z a pebble 9 a conglom]ate1 & evid5tly has n be5 cry/allis$ 9 ! base1 9 :i* x is n[ enclos$1 b has proce$$ f ! fusion ( "s pre-exi/+ rock4 ,^! compact lavas alt]nate ) tuffs1 amygdaloids1 & wacke1 & 9 "s places ) co>se conglom]ate4 ,"s ( ! argillace\s wackes are ( a d>k gre5 col\r1 o!rs1 pale yell[i%-gre51 & o!rs ne>ly :ite2 ,i 0 surpris$ to f9d t "s ( ! latt] v>ieties1 ev5 :]e :ite/1 fus$ into a jet black enamel1 :il/ "s ( ! gre5 v>ieties af=d$ only a pale gray bead4 ,num]\s dikes1 consi/+ *iefly ( highly compact augitic rocks1 & ( gray amygdaloidal v>ieties1 int]sect ! /rata1 :i* h 9 sev]al places be5 dislocat$ ) consid]able viol5ce1 & ?r[n into highly incl9$ positions4 ,"o l9e ( di/urbance crosses ! nor!rn end ( ,quail ,isl& 7an islet 9 ! ,bay ( ,porto ,praya71 & c be foll[$ to ! ma9l&4 ,^! di/urbances took place be=e ! deposition ( ! rec5t s$im5t>y b$2 & ! surface1 also1 _h previ\sly be5 d5ud$ to a great ext5t1 z is %[n by _m truncat$ dikes4 ,description ( ! calc>e\s deposit ov]ly+ ! =ego+ volcanic rocks4--,?is /ratum is v conspicu\s f its :ite col\r1 & f ! extreme regul>ity ) :i* x ranges 9 a horizontal l9e = "s miles along ! coa/4 ,its av]age height above ! sea1 measur$ f ! upp] l9e ( junction ) ! sup]9cumb5t basaltic lava1 is ab\t sixty feet2 & its ?ickness1 al?\gh v>y+ mu* f ! inequalities ( ! und]ly+ =mation1 may be e/imat$ at ab\t tw5ty feet4 ,x consi/s ( q :ite calc>e\s matt]1 p>tly compos$ ( organic dbris1 & p>tly ( a sub/ance :i* may be aptly comp>$ 9 appe>ance ) mort>4 ,fragm5ts ( rock & pebbles are scatt]$ ?r\gh\t ?is b$1 (t5 =m+1 especially 9 ! l[] "p1 a conglom]ate4 ,_m ( ! fragm5ts ( rock are :itewa%$ ) a ?9 coat+ ( calc>e\s matt]4 ,at ,quail ,isl&1 ! calc>e\s deposit is replac$ 9 its l[e/ "p by a s(t1 br[n1 e>?y tuff1 full ( ,turritell2 ?is is cov]$ by a b$ ( pebbles1 pass+ into s&/one1 & mix$ ) fragm5ts ( e*9i1 claws ( crabs1 & %ells2 ! oy/]-%ells /ill adh]+ to ! rock on :i* !y grew4 ,num]\s :ite balls appe>+ l pisolitic concretions1 f ! size ( a walnut to t ( an apple1 are emb$d$ 9 ?is deposit2 !y usually h a small pebble 9 _! c5tres4 ,al?\gh s l concretions1 a close exam9ation conv9c$ me t !y 7 ,nullipor1 reta9+ _! prop] =ms1 b ) _! surfaces slightly abrad$3 ^! bodies 7plants z !y are n[ g5]ally consid]$ to be7 exhibit "u a microscope ( ord9>y p[]1 no traces ( organisation 9 _! int]nal /ructure4 ,mr4 ,george ,r4 ,s[]by has be5 s good z to exam9e ! %ells :i* ,i collect$3 !re are f\rte5 species 9 a suffici5tly p]fect condition = _! *>act]s to be made out ) "s degree ( c]ta9ty1 & f\r :i* c be ref]r$ only to _! g5]a4 ,( ! f\rte5 %ells1 ( :i* a li/ is giv5 9 ! ,app5dix1 elev5 are rec5t species2 "o1 ?\gh undescrib$1 is p]haps id5tical ) a species :i* ,i f\nd liv+ 9 ! h>b\r ( ,porto ,praya2 ! two rema9+ species are unkn[n1 & h be5 describ$ by ,mr4 ,s[]by4 ,until ! %ells ( ?is ,ar*ipelago & ( ! neighb\r+ coa/s are bett] kn[n1 x w\ld be ra% to ass]t t ev5 ^! two latt] %ells are ext9ct4 ,! numb] ( species :i* c]ta9ly belong to exi/+ k9ds1 al?\gh few 9 numb]1 are suffici5t to %[ t ! deposit belongs to a late t]ti>y p]iod4 ,f its m9]alogical "*1 f ! numb] & size ( ! emb$d$ fragm5ts1 & f ! abundance ( ,patell1 & o!r littoral %ells1 x is evid5t t ! :ole 0 accumulat$ 9 a %all[ sea1 ne> an anci5t coa/-l9e4 ,effects produc$ by ! fl[+ ( ! sup]9cumb5t basaltic lava ov] ! calc>e\s deposit4--,^! effects are v curi\s4 ,! calc>e\s matt] is alt]$ to ! dep? ( ab\t a foot b5ea? ! l9e ( junction2 & a mo/ p]fect gradation c be trac$1 f loosely aggregat$1 small1 p>ticles ( %ells1 corall9es1 & ,nullipor1 into a rock1 9 :i* n a trace ( me*anical orig9 c be discov]$1 ev5 ) a microscope4 ,:]e ! metamorphic *ange has be5 greate/1 two v>ieties occur4 ,! fir/ is a h>d1 compact1 :ite1 f9e-gra9$ rock1 /rip$ ) a few p>allel l9es ( black volcanic p>ticles1 & resembl+ a s&/one1 b :i*1 ^u close exam9ation1 is se5 to be cry/allis$ ?r\gh\t1 ) ! cleavages s p]fect t !y c be readily measur$ by ! reflect+ goniomet]4 ,9 specim5s1 :]e ! *ange has be5 less complete1 :5 moi/5$ & exam9$ "u a /rong l5s1 ! mo/ int]e/+ gradation c be trac$1 "s ( ! r\nd$ p>ticles reta9+ _! prop] =ms1 & o!rs ins5sibly melt+ into ! granulo-cry/all9e pa/e4 ,! wea!r$ surface ( ?is /one1 z is s frequ5tly ! case ) ord9>y lime/ones1 assumes a brick-r$ col\r4 ,! second metamorphos$ v>iety is likewise a h>d rock1 b )\t any cry/all9e /ructure4 ,x consi/s ( a :ite1 opaque1 compact1 calc>e\s /one1 ?ickly mottl$ ) r\nd$1 ?\gh regul>1 spots ( a s(t1 e>?y1 o*race\s sub/ance4 ,?is e>?y matt] is ( a pale yell[i%-br[n col\r1 & appe>s to be a mixture ( c>bonate ( lime ) iron2 x eff]vesces ) acids1 is infusible1 b black5s "u ! bl[pipe1 & becomes magnetic4 ,! r\nd$ =m ( ! m9ute pat*es ( e>?y sub/ance1 & ! /eps 9 ! progress ( _! p]fect =mation1 :i* c be foll[$ 9 a suit ( specim5s1 cle>ly %[ t !y are due ei!r to "s p[] ( aggregation 9 ! e>?y p>ticles among/ !mselves1 or m probably to a /rong attraction betwe5 ! atoms ( ! c>bonate ( l9e1 & consequ5tly to ! segregation ( ! e>?y extrane\s matt]4 ,i 0 mu* int]e/$ by ?is fact1 because ,i h (t5 se5 qu>tz rocks 7= in/ance1 9 ! ,falkl& ,isl&s1 & 9 ! l[] ,silurian /rata ( ! ,/ip]-/ones 9 ,%rop%ire71 mottl$ 9 a precisely analog\s mann]1 ) little spots ( a :ite1 e>?y sub/ance 7e>?y feldsp>872 & ^! rocks1 !re 0 good reason to suppose1 _h und]gone ! action ( heat1--a view :i* ?us receives confirmation4 ,?is spott$ /ructure may possibly af=d "s indication 9 di/+ui%+ ^? =mations ( qu>tz1 :i* owe _! pres5t /ructure to igne\s action1 f ^? produc$ by ! ag5cy ( wat] alone2 a s\rce ( d\bt1 :i* ,i %\ld ?9k f my own exp]i5ce1 t mo/ geologi/s1 :5 exam9+ ar5aceo-qu>tzose di/ricts mu/ h exp]i5c$4 ,! l[e/ & mo/ scoriace\s "p ( ! lava1 9 roll+ ov] ! s$im5t>y deposit at ! bottom ( ! sea1 has caught up l>ge quantities ( calc>e\s matt]1 :i* n[ =ms a sn[-:ite1 highly cry/all9e basis to a breccia1 includ+ small pieces ( black1 glossy scori4 ,a little above ?is1 :]e ! lime is less abundant1 & ! lava m compact1 num]\s little balls1 compos$ ( spicula ( calc>e\s sp>1 radiat+ f common c5tres1 occupy ! int]/ices4 ,9 "o "p ( ,quail ,isl&1 ! lime has ?us be5 cry/allis$ by ! heat ( ! sup]9cumb5t lava1 :]e x is only ?irte5 feet 9 ?ickness2 nor _h ! lava be5 orig9ally ?ick]1 & s9ce r$uc$ by degradation1 z c\ld be told f ! degree ( cellul>ity ( its surface4 ,i h already obs]v$ t ! sea mu/ h be5 %all[ 9 :i* ! calc>e\s deposit 0 accumulat$4 ,9 ?is case1 !re=e1 ! c>bonic acid gas has be5 reta9$ "u a pressure1 insignificant comp>$ ) t 7a column ( wat]1 #a1gjh feet 9 height7 orig9ally suppos$ by ,sir ,james ,hall to be requisite = ?is end3 b s9ce 8 exp]im5ts1 x has be5 discov]$ t pressure has less to d ) ! ret5tion ( c>bonic acid gas1 ?an ! nature ( ! circumjac5t atmosph]e2 & h5ce1 z is /at$ to be ! case by ,mr4 ,f>aday1#b masses ( lime/one are sometimes fus$ & cry/allis$ ev5 9 common limekilns4 ,c>bonate ( lime c be heat$ to almo/ any degree1 accord+ to ,f>aday1 9 an atmosph]e ( c>bonic acid gas1 )\t be+ decompos$2 & ,gay-,lussac f\nd t fragm5ts ( lime/one1 plac$ 9 a tube & heat$ to a degree1 n suffici5t by itself to cause _! decomposition1 yet imm$iately evolv$ _! c>bonic acid1 :5 a /ream ( common air or /eam 0 pass$ ov] !m3 ,gay-,lussac attributes ?is to ! me*anical displacem5t ( ! nasc5t c>bonic acid gas4 ,! calc>e\s matt] b5ea? ! lava1 & especially t =m+ ! cry/all9e spicula betwe5 ! int]/ices ( ! scori1 al?\gh heat$ 9 an atmosph]e probably compos$ *iefly ( /eam1 c\ld n h be5 subject$ to ! effects ( a pass+ /ream2 & h5ce x is1 p]haps1 t !y h reta9$ _! c>bonic acid1 "u a small am\nt ( pressure4 #b ,i am mu* indebt$ to ,mr4 ,e4 ,w4 ,brayley 9 hav+ giv5 me ! foll[+ ref]5ces to pap]s on ?is subject3 ,f>aday 9 ! ,ed9burgh ,new ,philosophical ,j\rnal1 vol4 xv1 p4 #cih2 ,gay-,lussac 9 ,annales de ,*em4 et ,phys41 tome lxiii1 p4 #bai1 translat$ 9 ! ,london & ,ed9burgh ,philosophical ,magaz9e1 vol4 x1 p4 #dif4 ,! fragm5ts ( scori1 emb$d$ 9 ! cry/all9e calc>e\s basis1 are ( a jet black col\r1 ) a glossy fracture l pit*/one4 ,_! surfaces1 h[ev]1 are coat$ ) a lay] ( a r$di%-orange1 transluc5t sub/ance1 :i* c easily be scrat*$ ) a knife2 h5ce !y appe> z if ov]laid by a ?9 lay] ( ros94 ,"s ( ! small] fragm5ts are p>tially *ang$ ?r\gh\t into ?is sub/ance3 a *ange :i* appe>s q diff]5t f ord9>y decomposition4 ,at ! ,galapagos ,ar*ipelago 7z w be describ$ 9 a future *apt]71 great b$s are =m$ ( volcanic a%es & p>ticles ( scori1 :i* h und]gone a closely simil> *ange4 ,! ext5t & horizontality ( ! calc>e\s /ratum4--,! upp] l9e ( surface ( ! calc>e\s /ratum1 :i* is s conspicu\s f be+ q :ite & s ne>ly horizontal1 ranges = miles along ! coa/1 at ! height ( ab\t sixty feet above ! sea4 ,! %eet ( basalt1 by :i* x is capp$1 is on an av]age eighty feet 9 ?ickness4 ,we/w>d ( ,porto ,praya beyond ,r$ ,hill1 ! :ite /ratum ) ! sup]9cumb5t basalt is cov]$ up by m rec5t /reams4 ,nor?w>d ( ,signal ,po/ ,hill1 ,i c\ld foll[ x ) my eye1 tr5d+ away = sev]al miles along ! sea cliffs4 ,! di/ance ?us obs]v$ is ab\t sev5 miles2 b ,i _c d\bt f its regul>ity t x ext5ds mu* f>!r4 ,9 "s rav9es at "r angles to ! coa/1 x is se5 g5tly dipp+ t[>ds ! sea1 probably ) ! same incl9ation z :5 deposit$ r\nd ! anci5t %ores ( ! isl&4 ,i f\nd only "o inl& section1 namely1 at ! base ( ! hill m>k$ ,a1 :]e1 at ! height ( "s hundr$ feet1 ?is b$ 0 expos$2 x "h re/$ on ! usual compact augitic rock associat$ ) wacke1 & 0 cov]$ by ! widespread %eet ( mod]n basaltic lava4 ,"s exceptions occur to ! horizontality ( ! :ite /ratum3 at ,quail ,isl&1 its upp] surface is only =ty feet above ! level ( ! sea2 "h also ! capp+ ( lava is only betwe5 twelve & fifte5 feet 9 ?ickness2 on ! o!r h&1 at ! nor?-ea/ side ( ,porto ,praya h>b\r1 ! calc>e\s /ratum1 z well z ! rock on :i* x re/s1 atta9 a height above ! av]age level3 ! inequality ( level 9 ^! two cases is n1 z ,i believe1 ow+ to unequal elevation1 b to orig9al irregul>ities at ! bottom ( ! sea4 ,( ?is fact1 at ,quail ,isl&1 !re 0 cle> evid5ce 9 ! calc>e\s deposit be+ 9 "o "p ( mu* great] ?an ! av]age ?ickness1 & 9 ano!r "p be+ entirely abs5t2 9 ?is latt] case1 ! mod]n basaltic lavas re/$ directly on ^? ( m anci5t orig94 ,fig4 #b ,illu/ration3 ,signal ,po/ ,hill ,,signal ,,po/ ,,hill ,a--,anci5t volcanic rocks4 ,b--,calc>e\s /ratum4 ,c--,upp] bala/ic lava4 ,"u ,signal ,po/ ,hill1 ! :ite /ratum dips into ! sea 9 a rem>kable mann]4 ,?is hill is conical1 #dej feet 9 height1 & reta9s "s traces ( hav+ _h a crat]i=m /ructure2 x is compos$ *iefly ( matt] erupt$ po/]iorly to ! elevation ( ! great basaltic pla91 b p>tly ( lava ( app>5tly subm>9e orig9 & ( consid]able antiquity4 ,! surr\nd+ pla91 z well z ! ea/]n flank ( ?is hill1 has be5 worn into /eep precipices1 ov]hang+ ! sea4 ,9 ^! precipices1 ! :ite calc>e\s /ratum may be se51 at ! height ( ab\t sev5ty feet above ! bea*1 runn+ = "s miles bo? nor?w>d & s\?w>d ( ! hill1 9 a l9e appe>+ to be p]fectly horizontal2 b = a space ( a qu>t] ( a mile directly "u ! hill1 x dips into ! sea & disappe>s4 ,on ! s\? side ! dip is gradual1 on ! nor? side x is m abrupt1 z is %[n 9 ,fig4 #b4 ,z nei!r ! calc>e\s /ratum1 nor ! sup]9cumb5t basaltic lava 7z f> z ! latt] c be di/+ui%$ f ! m mod]n ejections71 appe>s to ?ick5 z x dips1 ,i inf] t ^! /rata 7 n orig9ally accumulat$ 9 a tr\gh1 ! c5tre ( :i* aft]w>ds became a po9t ( eruption2 b t !y h subsequ5tly be5 di/urb$ & b5t4 ,we may suppose ei!r t ,signal ,po/ ,hill subsid$ aft] its elevation ) ! surr\nd+ c\ntry1 or t x nev] 0 uplift$ to ! same height ) x4 ,?is latt] seems to me ! mo/ probable alt]native1 = dur+ ! sl[ & equable elevation ( ?is portion ( ! isl&1 ! subt]ranean motive p[]1 f exp5d+ "p ( its =ce 9 repeat$ly erupt+ volcanic matt] f b5ea? ?is po9t1 w\ld1 x is likely1 h less =ce to uplift x4 ,some?+ ( ! same k9d seems to h occurr$ ne> ,r$ ,hill1 = :5 trac+ upw>ds ! nak$ /reams ( lava f ne> ,porto ,praya t[>ds ! int]ior ( ! isl&1 ,i 0 /rongly induc$ to suspect1 t s9ce ! lava _h fl[$1 ! slope ( ! l& _h be5 slightly modifi$1 ei!r by a small subsid5ce ne> ,r$ ,hill1 or by t portion ( ! pla9 hav+ be5 uplift$ to a less height dur+ ! elevation ( ! :ole area4 ,! basaltic lava1 sup]9cumb5t on ! calc>e\s deposit4--,?is lava is ( a pale grey col\r1 fus+ into a black enamel2 its fracture is r e>?y & concretion>y2 x conta9s oliv9e 9 small gra9s4 ,! c5tral p>ts ( ! mass are compact1 or at mo/ cr5ulat$ ) a few m9ute cavities1 & are (t5 column>4 ,at ,quail ,isl& ?is /ructure 0 assum$ 9 a /rik+ mann]2 ! lava 9 "o "p be+ divid$ into horizontal lam91 :i* became 9 ano!r "p split by v]tical fissures into five-sid$ plates2 & ^! aga91 be+ pil$ on ea* o!r1 ins5sibly became sold]$ toge!r1 =m+ f9e symmetrical columns4 ,! l[] surface ( ! lava is vesicul>1 b sometimes only to ! ?ickness ( a few in*es2 ! upp] surface1 :i* is likewise vesicul>1 is divid$ into balls1 frequ5tly z mu* z ?ree feet 9 diamet]1 made up ( conc5tric lay]s4 ,! mass is compos$ ( m ?an "o /ream2 its total ?ickness be+1 on an av]age1 ab\t eighty feet3 ! l[] portion has c]ta9ly fl[$ b5ea? ! sea1 & probably likewise ! upp] portion4 ,! *ief "p ( ?is lava has fl[$ f ! c5tral di/ricts1 betwe5 ! hills m>k$ ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 etc41 9 ! woodcut-map4 ,! surface ( ! c\ntry1 ne> ! coa/1 is level & b>r52 t[>ds ! int]ior1 ! l& rises by successive t]races1 ( :i* f\r1 :5 view$ f a di/ance1 c\ld be di/9ctly c\nt$4 ,volcanic eruptions subsequ5t to ! elevation ( ! coa/l&2 ! eject$ matt] associat$ ) e>?y lime4--,^! rec5t lavas h proce$$ f ^? scatt]$1 conical1 r$di%-col\r$ hills1 :i* rise abruptly f ! pla9-c\ntry ne> ! coa/4 ,i asc5d$ "s ( !m1 b w describe only "o1 namely1 ,r$ ,hill1 :i* may s]ve z a type ( its class1 & is rem>kable 9 "s especial respects4 ,its height is ab\t six hundr$ feet2 x is compos$ ( bright r$1 highly scoriace\s rock ( a basaltic nature2 on "o side ( its summit !re is a holl[1 probably ! la/ remnant ( a crat]4 ,sev]al ( ! o!r hills ( ?is class1 judg+ f _! ext]nal =ms1 are surm\nt$ by mu* m p]fect crat]s4 ,:5 sail+ along ! coa/1 x 0 evid5t t a consid]able body ( lava _h fl[$ f ,r$ ,hill1 ov] a l9e ( cliff ab\t "o hundr$ & tw5ty feet 9 height1 into ! sea3 ?is l9e ( cliff is cont9u\s ) t =m+ ! coa/1 & b\nd+ ! pla9 on bo? sides ( ?is hill2 ^! /reams1 !re=e1 7 erupt$1 aft] ! =mation ( ! coa/-cliffs1 f ,r$ ,hill1 :5 x mu/ h /ood1 z x n[ does1 above ! level ( ! sea4 ,?is conclusion accords ) ! highly scoriace\s condition ( all ! rock on x1 appe>+ to be ( suba]ial =mation3 & ?is is important1 z !re are "s b$s ( calc>e\s matt] ne> its summit1 :i* might1 at a ha/y glance1 h be5 mi/ak5 = a subm>9e deposit4 ,^! b$s consi/ ( :ite1 e>?y1 c>bonate ( lime1 extremely friable s z to be cru%$ ) ! lea/ pressure2 ! mo/ compact specim5s n resi/+ ! /r5g? ( ! f+]s4 ,"s ( ! masses are z :ite z quicklime1 & appe> absolutely pure2 b on exam9+ !m ) a l5s1 m9ute p>ticles ( scori c always be se51 & ,i c\ld f9d none :i*1 :5 dissolv$ 9 acids1 did n leave a residue ( ?is nature4 ,x is1 moreov]1 difficult to f9d a p>ticle ( ! lime :i* does n *ange col\r "u ! bl[pipe1 mo/ ( !m ev5 becom+ glaz$4 ,! scoriace\s fragm5ts & ! calc>e\s matt] are associat$ 9 ! mo/ irregul> mann]1 sometimes 9 obscure b$s1 b m g5]ally z a confus$ breccia1 ! lime 9 "s p>ts & ! scori 9 o!rs be+ mo/ abundant4 ,sir ,h4 ,de la ,be*e has be5 s k9d z to h "s ( ! pure/ specim5s analys$1 ) a view to discov]1 consid]+ _! volcanic orig91 :e!r !y conta9$ mu* magnesia2 b only a small portion 0 f\nd1 su* z is pres5t 9 mo/ lime/ones4 ,fragm5ts ( ! scori emb$d$ 9 ! calc>e\s mass1 :5 brok51 exhibit _m ( _! cells l9$ & p>tly fill$ ) a :ite1 delicate1 excessively fragile1 moss-l1 or r conf]va-l1 reticulation ( c>bonate ( lime4 ,^! fibres1 exam9$ "u a l5s ( "o-t5? ( an in* focal di/ance1 appe> cyl9drical2 !y are r above "o-?\s&? ( an in* 9 diamet]2 !y are ei!r simply bran*$1 or m commonly unit$ into an irregul> mass ( network1 ) ! me%es ( v unequal sizes & ( unequal numb]s ( sides4 ,"s ( ! fibres are ?ickly cov]$ ) extremely m9ute spicula1 occasionally aggregat$ into little tuffs2 & h5ce !y h a hairy appe>ance4 ,^! spicula are ( ! same diamet] ?r\gh\t _! l5g?2 !y are easily deta*$1 s t ! object-glass ( ! microscope soon becomes scatt]$ ov] ) !m4 ,)9 ! cells ( _m fragm5ts ( ! scoria1 ! lime exhibits ?is fibr\s /ructure1 b g5]ally 9 a less p]fect degree4 ,^! cells d n appe> to be connect$ ) "o ano!r4 ,!re c be no d\bt1 z w pres5tly be %[n1 t ! lime 0 erupt$1 m+l$ ) ! lava 9 its fluid /ate1 & !re=e ,i h ?\ght x wor? :ile to describe m9utely ?is curi\s fibr\s /ructure1 ( :i* ,i "k no?+ analog\s4 ,f ! e>?y condition ( ! fibres1 ?is /ructure does n appe> to be relat$ to cry/allisation4 ,o!r fragm5ts ( ! scoriace\s rock f ?is hill1 :5 brok51 are (t5 se5 m>k$ ) %ort & irregul> :ite /reaks1 :i* are ow+ to a r[ ( sep>ate cells be+ p>tly1 or q1 fill$ ) :ite calc>e\s p[d]4 ,?is /ructure imm$iately rem9d$ me ( ! appe>ance 9 badly knead$ d\gh1 ( balls & drawn-out /reaks ( fl\r1 :i* h rema9$ unmix$ ) ! pa/e2 & ,i _c d\bt t small masses ( ! lime1 9 ! same mann] rema9+ unmix$ ) ! fluid lava1 h be5 drawn out :5 ! :ole 0 9 motion4 ,i c>efully exam9$1 by trituration & solution 9 acids1 pieces ( ! scori1 tak5 f )9 half-an-in* ( ^? cells :i* 7 fill$ ) ! calc>e\s p[d]1 & !y did n conta9 an atom ( free lime4 ,x is obvi\s t ! lava & lime h on a l>ge scale be5 v imp]fectly m+l$2 & :]e small portions ( ! lime h be5 entangl$ )9 a piece ( ! viscid lava1 ! cause ( _! n[ occupy+1 9 ! =m ( a p[d] or ( a fibr\s reticulation1 ! vesicul> cavities1 is1 ,i ?9k1 evid5tly due to ! conf9$ gases hav+ mo/ readily exp&$ at ! po9ts :]e ! incoh]5t lime r5d]$ ! lava less adhesive4 ,a mile ea/w>d ( ! t[n ( ,praya1 !re is a /eep-sid$ gorge1 ab\t "o hundr$ & fifty y>ds 9 wid?1 cutt+ ?r\gh ! basaltic pla9 & und]ly+ b$s1 b s9ce fill$ up by a /ream ( m mod]n lava4 ,?is lava is d>k grey1 & 9 mo/ p>ts compact & rudely column>2 b at a little di/ance f ! coa/1 x includes 9 an irregul> mann] a brecciat$ mass ( r$ scori m+l$ ) a consid]able quantity ( :ite1 friable1 & 9 "s p>ts1 ne>ly pure e>?y lime1 l t on ! summit ( ,r$ ,hill4 ,?is lava1 ) its entangl$ lime1 has c]ta9ly fl[$ 9 ! =m ( a regul> /ream2 &1 judg+ f ! %ape ( ! gorge1 t[>ds :i* ! dra9age ( ! c\ntry 7feeble ?\gh x n[ be7 /ill is direct$1 & f ! appe>ance ( ! b$ ( loose wat]-worn blocks ) _! int]/ices unfill$1 l ^? 9 ! b$ ( a torr5t1 on :i* ! lava re/s1 we may conclude t ! /ream 0 ( suba]ial orig94 ,i 0 unable to trace x to its s\rce1 b1 f its direction1 x seem$ to h come f ,signal ,po/ ,hill1 di/ant "o mile & a qu>t]1 :i*1 l ,r$ ,hill1 has be5 a po9t ( eruption subsequ5t to ! elevation ( ! great basaltic pla94 ,x accords ) ?is view1 t ,i f\nd on ,signal ,po/ ,hill1 a mass ( e>?y1 calc>e\s matt] ( ! same nature1 m+l$ ) scori4 ,i may "h obs]ve t "p ( ! calc>e\s matt] =m+ ! horizontal s$im5t>y b$1 especially ! f9] matt] ) :i* ! emb$d$ fragm5ts ( rock are :itewa%$1 has probably be5 d]iv$ f simil> volcanic eruptions1 z well z f triturat$ organic rema9s3 ! und]ly+1 anci5t1 cry/all9e rocks1 also1 are associat$ ) mu* c>bonate ( lime1 fill+ amygdaloidal cavities1 & =m+ irregul> masses1 ! nature ( :i* latt] ,i 0 unable to und]/&4 ,consid]+ ! abundance ( e>?y lime ne> ! summit ( ,r$ ,hill1 a volcanic cone six hundr$ feet 9 height1 ( suba]ial gr[?1--consid]+ ! intimate mann] 9 :i* m9ute p>ticles & l>ge masses ( scori are emb$d$ 9 ! masses ( ne>ly pure lime1 & on ! o!r h&1 ! mann] 9 :i* small k]nels & /reaks ( ! calc>e\s p[d] are includ$ 9 solid pieces ( ! scori1--consid]+1 also1 ! simil> occurr5ce ( lime & scori )9 a /ream ( lava1 also suppos$1 ) good reason1 to h be5 ( mod]n suba]ial orig91 & to h fl[$ f a hill1 :]e e>?y lime also occurs3 ,i ?9k1 consid]+ ^! facts1 !re c be no d\bt t ! lime has be5 erupt$1 m+l$ ) ! molt5 lava4 ,i am n aw>e t any simil> case has be5 describ$3 x appe>s to me an int]e/+ "o1 inasmu* z mo/ geologi/s mu/ h speculat$ on ! probable effects ( a volcanic focus1 bur/+ ?r\gh deep-seat$ b$s ( diff]5t m9]alogical composition4 ,! great abundance ( free silex 9 ! tra*ytes ( "s c\ntries 7z describ$ by ,beudant 9 ,hung>y1 & by ,p4 ,scrope 9 ! ,panza ,isl&s71 p]haps solves ! inquiry ) respect to deep-seat$ b$s ( qu>tz2 & we probably "h see x answ]$1 :]e ! volcanic action has invad$ subjac5t masses ( lime/one4 ,"o is naturally l$ to conjecture 9 :at /ate ! n[ e>?y c>bonate ( lime exi/$1 :5 eject$ ) ! int5sely heat$ lava3 f ! extreme cellul>ity ( ! scori on ,r$ ,hill1 ! pressure _c h be5 great1 & z mo/ volcanic eruptions are accompani$ by ! emission ( l>ge quantities ( /eam & o!r gases1 we "h h ! mo/ fav\rable conditions1 accord+ to ! views at pres5t ent]ta9$ by *emi/s1 = ! expulsion ( ! c>bonic acid4#c ,has ! sl[ re-absorption ( ?is gas1 x may be ask$1 giv5 to ! lime 9 ! cells ( ! lava1 t peculi> fibr\s /ructure1 l t ( an effloresc+ salt8 ,f9ally1 ,i may rem>k on ! great contra/ 9 appe>ance betwe5 ?is e>?y lime1 :i* mu/ h be5 heat$ 9 a free atmosph]e ( /eam & o!r gases1 :ile ! :ite1 cry/all9e1 calc>e\s sp>1 produc$ by a s+le ?9 %eet ( lava 7z at ,quail ,isl&7 roll+ ov] simil> e>?y lime & ! dbris ( organic rema9s1 at ! bottom ( a %all[ sea4 #c ,:il/ deep b5ea? ! surface1 ! c>bonate ( lime 01 ,i presume1 9 a fluid /ate4 ,hutton1 x is kn[n1 ?\ght t all amygdaloids 7 produc$ by drops ( molt5 lime/one float+ 9 ! trap1 l oil 9 wat]3 ?is no d\bt is errone\s1 b if ! matt] =m+ ! summit ( ,r$ ,hill _h be5 cool$ "u ! pressure ( a mod]ately deep sea1 or )9 ! walls ( a dike1 we %\ld1 9 all probability1 h _h a trap rock associat$ ) l>ge masses ( compact1 cry/all9e1 calc>e\s sp>1 :i*1 accord+ to ! views ent]ta9$ by _m geologi/s1 w\ld h be5 wrongly attribut$ to subsequ5t infiltration4 ,signal ,po/ ,hill4--,?is hill has already be5 sev]al times m5tion$1 especially ) ref]5ce to ! rem>kable mann] 9 :i* ! :ite calc>e\s /ratum1 9 o!r p>ts s horizontal 7,fig4 #b71 dips "u x into ! sea4 ,x has a broad summit1 ) obscure traces ( a crat]i=m /ructure1 & is compos$ ( basaltic rocks1#d "s compact1 o!rs highly cellul> ) incl9$ b$s ( loose scori1 ( :i* "s are associat$ ) e>?y lime4 ,l ,r$ ,hill1 x has be5 ! s\rce ( eruptions1 subsequ5tly to ! elevation ( ! surr\nd+ basaltic pla92 b unlike t hill1 x has und]gone consid]able d5udation1 & has be5 ! seat ( volcanic action at a remote p]iod1 :5 b5ea? ! sea4 ,i judge ( ?is latt] circum/ance f f9d+ on its inl& flank ! la/ remnants ( ?ree small po9ts ( eruption4 ,^! po9ts are compos$ ( glossy scori1 cem5t$ by cry/all9e calc>e\s sp>1 exactly l ! great subm>9e calc>e\s deposit1 :]e ! heat$ lava has roll$ ov] x3 _! demoli%$ /ate c1 ,i ?9k1 be expla9$ only by ! d5ud+ action ( ! waves ( ! sea4 ,i 0 guid$ to ! fir/ orifice by obs]v+ a %eet ( lava1 ab\t two hundr$ y>ds squ>e1 ) /eepi% sides1 sup]impos$ on ! basaltic pla9 ) no adjo9+ hillock1 :5ce x c\ld h be5 erupt$2 & ! only trace ( a crat] :i* ,i 0 able to discov]1 consi/$ ( "s incl9$ b$s ( scori at "o ( its corn]s4 ,at ! di/ance ( fifty y>ds f a second level-topp$ pat* ( lava1 b ( mu* small] size1 ,i f\nd an irregul> circul> gr\p ( masses ( cem5t$1 scoriace\s breccia1 ab\t six feet 9 height1 :i* d\btless _h once =m$ ! po9t ( eruption4 ,! ?ird orifice is n[ m>k$ only by an irregul> circle ( cem5t$ scori1 ab\t f\r y>ds 9 diamet]1 & ris+ 9 its highe/ po9t sc>cely ?ree feet above ! level ( ! pla91 ! surface ( :i*1 close all r\nd1 exhibits its usual appe>ance3 "h we h a horizontal basal section ( a volcanic spiracle1 :i*1 toge!r ) all its eject$ matt]1 has be5 almo/ totally oblit]at$4 #d ,( ^!1 "o common v>iety is rem>kable = be+ full ( small fragm5ts ( a d>k jasp]-r$ e>?y m9]al1 :i*1 :5 exam9$ c>efully1 %[s an indi/9ct cleavage2 ! little fragm5ts are elongat$ 9 =m1 are s(t1 are magnetic be=e & aft] be+ heat$1 & fuse ) difficulty into a dull enamel4 ,?is m9]al is evid5tly closely relat$ to ! oxides ( iron1 b ,i _c asc]ta9 :at x exactly is4 ,! rock conta9+ ?is m9]al is cr5ulat$ ) small angul> cavities1 :i* are l9$ & fill$ ) yell[i% cry/als ( c>bonate ( lime4 ,! /ream ( lava1 :i* fills ! n>r[ gorge#e ea/w>d ( ! t[n ( ,praya1 judg+ f its c\rse1 seems1 z be=e rem>k$1 to h come f ,signal ,po/ ,hill1 & to h fl[$ ov] ! pla91 aft] its elevation3 ! same obs]vation applies to a /ream 7possibly "p ( ! same "o7 capp+ ! sea cliffs1 a little ea/w>d ( ! gorge4 ,:5 ,i endeav\r$ to foll[ ^! /reams ov] ! /ony level pla91 :i* is almo/ de/itute ( soil & vegetation1 ,i 0 mu* surpris$ to f9d1 t al?\gh compos$ ( h>d basaltic matt]1 & n hav+ be5 expos$ to m>9e d5udation1 all di/ant traces ( !m soon became utt]ly lo/4 ,b ,i h s9ce obs]v$ at ! ,galapagos ,ar*ipelago1 t x is (t5 impossible to foll[ ev5 great deluges ( q rec5t lava across old] /reams1 except by ! size ( ! bu%es gr[+ on !m1 or by ! comp>ative /ates ( gloss9ess ( _! surfaces1--*>act]s :i* a %ort lapse ( "t w\ld be suffici5t q to obscure4 ,i may rem>k1 t 9 a level c\ntry1 ) a dry climate1 & ) ! w9d bl[+ always 9 "o direction 7z at ! ,cape de ,v]de ,ar*ipelago71 ! effects ( atmosph]ic degradation are probably mu* great] ?an w\ld at fir/ be expect$2 = soil 9 ?is case accumulates only 9 a few protect$ holl[s1 & be+ bl[n 9 "o direction1 x is always travell+ t[>ds ! sea 9 ! =m ( ! f9e/ du/1 leav+ ! surface ( ! rocks b>e1 & expos$ to ! full effects ( r5ew$ meteoric action4 #e ,! sides ( ?is gorge1 :]e ! upp] basaltic /ratum is int]sect$1 are almo/ p]p5dicul>4 ,! lava1 :i* has s9ce fill$ x up1 is atta*$ to ^! sides1 almo/ z firmly z a dike is to its walls4 ,9 mo/ cases1 :]e a /ream ( lava has fl[$ d[n a valley1 x is b\nd$ on ea* side by loose scoriace\s masses4 ,inl& hills ( m anci5t volcanic rocks4--,^! hills are laid d[n by eye1 & m>k$ z ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 etc41 9 ,map #a4 ,!y are relat$ 9 m9]alogical composition1 & are probably directly cont9u\s ) ! l[e/ rocks expos$ on ! coa/4 ,^! hills1 view$ f a di/ance1 appe> z if !y _h once =m$ "p ( an irregul> tablel&1 & f _! correspond+ /ructure & composition ?is probably has be5 ! case4 ,!y h flat1 slightly incl9$ summits1 & are1 on an av]age1 ab\t six hundr$ feet 9 height2 !y pres5t _! /eepe/ slope t[>ds ! int]ior ( ! isl&1 f :i* po9t !y radiate outw>ds1 & are sep>at$ f ea* o!r by broad & deep valleys1 ?r\gh :i* ! great /reams ( lava1 =m+ ! coa/-pla9s1 h desc5d$4 ,_! inn] & /eep] esc>pm5ts are rang$ 9 an irregul> curve1 :i* rudely foll[s ! l9e ( ! %ore1 two or ?ree miles inl& f x4 ,i asc5d$ a few ( ^! hills1 & f o!rs1 :i* ,i 0 able to exam9e ) a telescope1 ,i obta9$ specim5s1 ?r\gh ! k9dness ( ,mr4 ,k5t1 ! assi/ant-surgeon ( ! ,beagle2 al?\gh by ^! means ,i am acqua9t$ ) only a "p ( ! range1 five or six miles 9 l5g?1 yet ,i sc>cely hesitate1 f _! uni=m /ructure1 to affirm t !y are p>ts ( "o great =mation1 /ret*+ r\nd mu* ( ! circumf]5ce ( ! isl&4 ,! upp] & l[] /rata ( ^! hills diff] greatly 9 composition4 ,! upp] are basaltic1 g5]ally compact1 b sometimes scoriace\s & amygdaloidal1 ) associat$ masses ( wacke3 :]e ! basalt is compact1 x is ei!r f9e-gra9$ or v co>sely cry/allis$2 9 ! latt] case x passes into an augitic rock1 conta9+ mu* oliv9e2 ! oliv9e is ei!r col\rless1 or ( ! usual yell[ & dull r$di% %ades4 ,on "s ( ! hills1 b$s ( calc>e\s matt]1 bo? 9 an e>?y & 9 a cry/all9e =m1 includ+ fragm5ts ( glossy scori1 are associat$ ) ! basaltic /rata4 ,^! /rata diff] f ! /reams ( basaltic lava =m+ ! coa/-pla9s1 only 9 be+ m compact1 & 9 ! cry/als ( augite1 & 9 ! gra9s ( oliv9e be+ ( mu* great] size2--*>act]s :i*1 toge!r ) ! appe>ance ( ! associat$ calc>e\s b$s1 induce me to believe t !y are ( subm>9e =mation4 ,"s consid]able masses ( wacke1 :i* are associat$ ) ^! basaltic /rata1 & :i* likewise occur 9 ! basal s]ies on ! coa/1 especially at ,quail ,isl&1 are curi\s4 ,!y consi/ ( a pale yell[i%-gre5 argillace\s sub/ance1 ( a crumbl+ texture :5 dry1 b unctu\s :5 moi/3 9 its pure/ =m1 x is ( a beautiful gre5 t9t1 ) transluc5t edges1 & occasionally ) obscure traces ( an orig9al cleavage4 ,"u ! bl[pipe x fuses v readily into a d>k grey1 & sometimes ev5 black bead1 :i* is slightly magnetic4 ,f ^! *>act]s1 ,i naturally ?\ght t x 0 "o ( ! pale species1 decompos$1 ( ! g5us augite2--a conclusion support$ by ! unalt]$ rock be+ full ( l>ge sep>ate cry/als ( black augite1 & ( balls & irregul> /reaks ( d>k grey augitic rock4 ,z ! basalt ord9>ily consi/s ( augite1 & ( oliv9e (t5 t>ni%$ & ( a dull r$ col\r1 ,i 0 l$ to exam9e ! /ages ( decomposition ( ?is latt] m9]al1 & ,i f\nd1 to my surprise1 t ,i c\ld trace a ne>ly p]fect gradation f unalt]$ oliv9e to ! gre5 wacke4 ,"p ( ! same gra9 "u ! bl[pipe w\ld 9 "s in/ances behave l oliv9e1 its col\r be+ only slightly *ang$1 & "p w\ld give a black magnetic bead4 ,h5ce ,i c h no d\bt t ! gre5i% wacke orig9ally exi/$ z oliv9e2 b great *emical *anges mu/ h be5 effect$ dur+ ! act ( decomposition ?us to h alt]$ a v h>d1 transp>5t1 infusible m9]al1 into a s(t1 unctu\s1 easily melt$1 argillace\s sub/ance4#f #f ,d',aubuisson 8,trait de ,gognosie0 7tome ii1 p4 #efi7 m5tions1 on ! au?ority ( ,m4 ,m>cel de ,s]res1 masses ( gre5 e>? ne> ,montpelli]1 :i* are suppos$ to be due to ! decomposition ( oliv9e4 ,i d n1 h[ev]1 f9d1 t ! action ( ?is m9]al "u ! bl[pipe be+ entirely alt]$1 z x becomes decompos$1 has be5 notic$2 & ! k ( ?is fact is important1 z at fir/ x appe>s highly improbable t a h>d1 transp>5t1 refractory m9]al %\ld be *ang$ into a s(t1 easily fus$ clay1 l ?is ( ,/4 ,jago4 ,i %all h]eaft] describe a gre5 sub/ance1 =m+ ?reads )9 ! cells ( "s vesicul> basaltic rocks 9 ,van ,diem5's ,l&1 :i* behave "u ! bl[pipe l ! gre5 wacke ( ,/4 ,jago2 b its occurr5ce 9 cyl9drical ?reads1 %[s x _c h result$ f ! decomposition ( oliv9e1 a m9]al always exi/+ 9 ! =m ( gra9s or cry/als4 ,! basal /rata ( ^! hills1 z well z "s neighb\r+1 sep>ate1 b>e1 r\nd$ hillocks1 consi/ ( compact1 f9e-gra9$1 non-cry/all9e 7or s slightly z sc>cely to be p]ceptible71 f]rug9\s1 feldspa?ic rocks1 & g5]ally 9 a /ate ( semi-decomposition4 ,_! fracture is exce$+ly irregul>1 & spl9t]y2 yet small fragm5ts are (t5 v t\gh4 ,!y conta9 mu* f]rug9\s matt]1 ei!r 9 ! =m ( m9ute gra9s ) a metallic lu/re1 or ( br[n hair-l ?reads3 ! rock 9 ?is latt] case assum+ a pseudo-brecciat$ /ructure4 ,^! rocks sometimes conta9 mica & ve9s ( agate4 ,_! ru/y br[n or yell[i% col\r is p>tly due to ! oxides ( iron1 b *iefly to innum]able1 microscopically m9ute1 black specks1 :i*1 :5 a fragm5t is heat$1 are easily fus$1 & evid5tly are ei!r hornbl5de or augite4 ,^! rocks1 !re=e1 al?\gh at fir/ appe>+ l bak$ clay or "s alt]$ s$im5t>y deposit1 conta9 all ! ess5tial +r$i5ts ( tra*yte2 f :i* !y diff] only 9 n be+ h>%1 & 9 n conta9+ cry/als ( glassy feldsp>4 ,z is s (t5 ! case ) tra*ytic =mation1 no /ratification is "h app>5t4 ,a p]son w\ld n readily believe t ^! rocks c\ld h fl[$ z lava2 yet at ,/4 ,hel5a !re are well-*>act]is$ /reams 7z w be describ$ 9 an ensu+ *apt]7 ( ne>ly simil> composition4 ,amid/ ! hillocks compos$ ( ^! rocks1 ,i f\nd 9 ?ree places1 smoo? conical hills ( phonolite1 ab\nd+ ) f9e cry/als ( glassy feldsp>1 & ) ne$les ( hornbl5de4 ,^! cones ( phonolite1 ,i believe1 be> ! same relation to ! surr\nd+ feldspa?ic /rata :i* "s masses ( co>sely cry/allis$ augitic rock1 9 ano!r "p ( ! isl&1 be> to ! surr\nd+ basalt1 namely1 t bo? h be5 inject$4 ,! rocks ( a feldspa?ic nature be+ ant]ior 9 orig9 to ! basaltic /rata1 :i* cap !m1 z well z to ! basaltic /reams ( ! coa/-pla9s1 accords ) ! usual ord] ( succession ( ^! two gr& divisions ( ! volcanic s]ies4 ,! /rata ( mo/ ( ^! hills 9 ! upp] "p1 :]e alone ! planes ( division are di/+ui%able1 are incl9$ at a small angle f ! int]ior ( ! isl& t[>ds ! sea-coa/4 ,! incl9ation is n ! same 9 ea* hill2 9 t m>k$ ,a x is less ?an 9 ,b1 ,d1 or ,e2 9 ,c ! /rata are sc>cely deflect$ f a horizontal plane1 & 9 ,f 7z f> z ,i c\ld judge )\t asc5d+ x7 !y are slightly incl9$ 9 a rev]se direction1 t is1 inw>ds & t[>ds ! c5tre ( ! isl&4 ,not)/&+ ^! diff]5ces ( incl9ation1 _! correspond5ce 9 ext]nal =m1 & 9 ! composition bo? ( _! upp] & l[] p>ts1--_! relative position 9 "o curv$ l9e1 ) _! /eepe/ sides turn$ inw>ds1--all seem to %[ t !y orig9ally =m$ p>ts ( "o plat=m2 :i* plat=m1 z be=e rem>k$1 probably ext5d$ r\nd a consid]able portion ( ! circumf]5ce ( ! isl&4 ,! upp] /rata c]ta9ly fl[$ z lava1 & probably b5ea? ! sea1 z p]haps did ! l[] feldspa?ic masses3 h[ !n come ^! /rata to hold _! pres5t position1 & :5ce 7 !y erupt$8 ,9 ! c5tre ( ! isl&#g !re are l(ty m\nta9s1 b !y are sep>at$ f ! /eep inl& flanks ( ^! hills by a wide space ( l[] c\ntry3 ! int]ior m\nta9s1 moreov]1 seem to h be5 ! s\rce ( ^? great /reams ( basaltic lava :i*1 contract+ z !y pass betwe5 ! bases ( ! hills 9 "q1 exp& into ! coa/-pla9s4 ,r\nd ! %ores ( ,/4 ,hel5a !re is a rudely =m$ r+ ( basaltic rocks1 & at ,mauritius !re are remnants ( ano!r su* a r+ r\nd "p1 if n r\nd ! :ole1 ( ! isl&2 "h aga9 ! same "q imm$iately occurs1 h[ came ^! masses to hold _! pres5t position1 & :5ce 7 !y erupt$8 ,! same answ]1 :atev] x may be1 probably applies 9 ^! ?ree cases2 & 9 a future *apt] we %all recur to ?is subject4 #g ,i saw v little ( ! inl& p>ts ( ! isl&4 ,ne> ! village ( ,/4 ,dom+o1 !re are magnific5t cliffs ( r co>sely cry/allis$ basaltic lava4 ,foll[+ ! little /ream 9 ?is valley1 ab\t a mile above ! village1 ! base ( ! great cliff 0 =m$ ( a compact f9e-gra9$ basalt1 con=mably cov]$ by a b$ ( pebbles4 ,ne> ,fu5tes1 ,i met ) pap-=m$ hills ( ! compact feldspa?ic s]ies ( rocks4 ,valleys ne> ! coa/4--,^! are broad1 v flat1 & g5]ally b\nd$ by l[ cliff-=m$ sides4 ,portions ( ! basaltic pla9 are sometimes ne>ly or q isolat$ by !m2 ( :i* fact1 ! space on :i* ! t[n ( ,praya /&s (f]s an in/ance4 ,! great valley we/ ( ! t[n has its bottom fill$ up to a dep? ( m ?an tw5ty feet by well-r\nd$ pebbles1 :i* 9 "s p>ts are firmly cem5t$ toge!r by :ite calc>e\s matt]4 ,!re c be no d\bt1 f ! =m ( ^! valleys1 t !y 7 scoop$ out by ! waves ( ! sea1 dur+ t equable elevation ( ! l&1 ( :i* ! horizontal calc>e\s deposit1 ) its exi/+ species ( m>9e rema9s1 gives evid5ce4 ,consid]+ h[ well %ells h be5 pres]v$ 9 ?is /ratum1 x is s+ul> t ,i c\ld n f9d ev5 a s+le small fragm5t ( %ell 9 ! conglom]ate at ! bottom ( ! valleys4 ,! b$ ( pebbles 9 ! valley we/ ( ! t[n is int]sect$ by a second valley jo9+ x z a tribut>y1 b ev5 ?is valley appe>s mu* too wide & flat-bottom$ to h be5 =m$ by ! small quantity ( wat]1 :i* falls only dur+ "o %ort wet season2 = at o!r times ( ! ye> ^! valleys are absolutely dry4 ,rec5t conglom]ate4--,on ! %ores ( ,quail ,isl&1 ,i f\nd fragm5ts ( brick1 bolts ( iron1 pebbles1 & l>ge fragm5ts ( basalt1 unit$ by a scanty base ( impure calc>e\s matt] into a firm conglom]ate4 ,to %[ h[ exce$+ly firm ?is rec5t conglom]ate is1 ,i may m5tion1 t ,i endeav\r$ ) a heavy geological hamm] to knock out a ?ick bolt ( iron1 :i* 0 emb$d$ a little above l[-wat] m>k1 b 0 q unable to succe$4 ,*apt] ,,ii ,,f]n&o ,,noronha2 ,,t]ceira2 ,,tahiti1 ,,etc4 ,,f]n&o ,,noronha4--,precipit\s hill ( phonolite4 ,,t]ceira4--,tra*ytic rocks3 _! s+ul> decomposition by /eam ( high temp]ature4 ,,tahiti4--,passage f wacke into trap2 s+ul> volcanic rock ) ! vesicles half-fill$ ) mesotype4 ,,mauritius4--,pro(s ( its rec5t elevation4 ,/ructure ( its m anci5t m\nta9s2 simil>ity ) ,/4 ,jago4 ,,/4 ,,paul',s ,,rocks4--,n ( volcanic orig94 ,_! s+ul> m9]alogical composition4 ,f]n&o ,noronha4--,dur+ our %ort visit at ?is & ! f\r foll[+ isl&s1 ,i obs]v$ v little wor?y ( description4 ,f]n&o ,noronha is situat$ 9 ! ,atlantic ,ocean1 9 lat4 #c #ej ,s41 & #bcj miles di/ant f ! coa/ ( ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,x consi/s ( sev]al islets1 toge!r n9e miles 9 l5g? by ?ree 9 bread?4 ,! :ole seems to be ( volcanic orig92 al?\gh !re is no appe>ance ( any crat]1 or ( any "o c5tral em95ce4 ,! mo/ rem>kable feature is a hill #a1jjj feet high1 ( :i* ! upp] #djj feet consi/ ( a precipit\s1 s+ul>ly %ap$ p9nacle1 =m$ ( column> phonolite1 conta9+ num]\s cry/als ( glassy feldsp>1 & a few ne$les ( hornbl5de4 ,f ! highe/ accessible po9t ( ?is hill1 ,i c\ld di/+ui% 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! gr\p sev]al o!r conical hills1 app>5tly ( ! same nature4 ,at ,/4 ,hel5a !re are simil>1 great1 conical1 protub]ant masses ( phonolite1 ne>ly "o ?\s& feet 9 height1 :i* h be5 =m$ by ! injection ( fluid feldspa?ic lava into yield+ /rata4 ,if ?is hill has _h1 z is probable1 a simil> orig91 d5udation has be5 "h effect$ on an enorm\s scale4 ,ne> ! base ( ?is hill1 ,i obs]v$ b$s ( :ite tuff1 int]sect$ by num]\s dikes1 "s ( amygdaloidal basalt & o!rs ( tra*yte2 & b$s ( slaty phonolite ) ! planes ( cleavage direct$ ,n4,w4 & ,s4,e4 ,p>ts ( ?is rock1 :]e ! cry/als 7 scanty1 closely resembl$ common clay-slate1 alt]$ by ! contact ( a trap-dike4 ,! lam9ation ( rocks1 :i* und\bt$ly h once be5 fluid1 appe>s to me a subject well des]v+ att5tion4 ,on ! bea* !re 7 num]\s fragm5ts ( compact basalt1 ( :i* rock a di/ant faade ( columns seem$ to be =m$4 ,t]ceira 9 ! ,azores4--,! c5tral p>ts ( ?is isl& consi/ ( irregul>ly r\nd$ m\nta9s ( no great elevation1 compos$ ( tra*yte1 :i* closely resembles 9 g5]al "* ! tra*yte ( ,asc5sion1 pres5tly to be describ$4 ,?is =mation is 9 _m p>ts ov]laid1 9 ! usual ord] ( sup]position1 by /reams ( basaltic lava1 :i* ne> ! coa/ compose ne>ly ! :ole surface4 ,! c\rse :i* ^! /reams h foll[$ f _! crat]s1 c (t5 be foll[$ by ! eye4 ,! t[n ( ,angra is ov]look$ by a crat]i=m hill 7,m\nt ,brazil71 entirely built ( ?9 /rata ( f9e-gra9$1 h>%1 br[n-col\r$ tuff4 ,! upp] b$s are se5 to ov]lap ! basaltic /reams on :i* ! t[n /&s4 ,?is hill is almo/ id5tical 9 /ructure & composition ) num]\s crat]i=m$ hills 9 ! ,galapagos ,ar*ipelago4 ,effects ( /eam on ! tra*ytic rocks4--,9 ! c5tral "p ( ! isl& !re is a spot1 :]e /eam is con/antly issu+ 9 jets f ! bottom ( a small rav9e-l holl[1 :i* has no exit1 & :i* abuts aga9/ a range ( tra*ytic m\nta9s4 ,! /eam is emitt$ f sev]al irregul> fissures3 x is sc5tless1 soon black5s iron1 & is ( mu* too high temp]ature to be endur$ by ! h&4 ,! mann] 9 :i* ! solid tra*yte is *ang$ on ! bord]s ( ^! orifices is curi\s3 fir/1 ! base becomes e>?y1 ) r$ freckles evid5tly due to ! oxidation ( p>ticles ( iron2 !n x becomes s(t2 & la/ly1 ev5 ! cry/als ( glassy feldsp> yield to ! dissolv+ ag5t4 ,aft] ! mass is conv]t$ into clay1 ! oxide ( iron seems to be entirely remov$ f "s p>ts1 :i* are left p]fectly :ite1 :il/ 9 o!r neighb\r+ p>ts1 :i* are ( ! brighte/ r$ col\r1 x seems to be deposit$ 9 great] quantity2 "s o!r masses are m>bl$ ) two di/9ct col\rs4 ,portions ( ! :ite clay1 n[ t !y are dry1 _c be di/+ui%$ by ! eye f ! f9e/ prep>$ *alk2 & :5 plac$ betwe5 ! tee? !y feel equally s(t-gra9$2 ! inhabitants use ?is sub/ance = :ite-wa%+ _! h\ses4 ,! cause ( ! iron be+ dissolv$ 9 "o "p1 & close by be+ aga9 deposit$1 is obscure2 b ! fact has be5 obs]v$ 9 sev]al o!r places4#a ,9 "s half-decay$ specim5s1 ,i f\nd small1 globul> aggregations ( yell[ hyalite1 resembl+ gum-arabic1 :i* no d\bt _h be5 deposit$ by ! /eam4 #a ,spallanzani1 ,dolomieu1 & ,h(fman h describ$ simil> cases 9 ! ,italian volcanic isl&s4 ,dolomieu says ! iron at ! ,panza ,isl&s is r$eposit$ 9 ! =m ( ve9s 7p4 #hf 8,mmoire sur les ,isles ,ponces074 ,^! au?ors likewise believe t ! /eam deposits silica3 x is n[ exp]im5tally kn[n t vap\r ( a high temp]ature is able to dissolve silica4 ,z !re is no escape = ! ra9-wat]1 :i* trickles d[n ! sides ( ! rav9e-l holl[1 :5ce ! /eam issues1 x mu/ all p]colate d[nw>ds ?r\gh ! fissures at its bottom4 ,"s ( ! inhabitants in=m$ me t x 0 on record t flames 7"s lum9\s appe>ance87 _h orig9ally proce$$ f ^! cracks1 & t ! flames _h be5 succe$$ by ! /eam2 b ,i 0 n able to asc]ta9 h[ long ?is 0 ago1 or any?+ c]ta9 on ! subject4 ,:5 view+ ! spot1 ,i imag9$ t ! injection ( a l>ge mass ( rock4 l ! cone ( phonolite at ,f]n&o ,noronha1 9 a semi-fluid /ate1 by ar*+ ! surface might h caus$ a w$ge-%ap$ holl[ ) cracks at ! bottom1 & t ! ra9-wat] p]colat+ to ! neighb\rhood ( ! heat$ mass1 w\ld dur+ _m succe$+ ye>s be driv5 back 9 ! =m ( /eam4 ,tahiti 7,otaheite74--,i visit$ only a "p ( ! nor?-we/]n side ( ?is isl&1 & ?is "p is entirely compos$ ( volcanic rocks4 ,ne> ! coa/ !re are sev]al v>ieties ( basalt1 "s ab\nd+ ) l>ge cry/als ( augite & t>ni%$ oliv9e1 o!rs compact & e>?y1--"s slightly vesicul>1 & o!rs occasionally amygdaloidal4 ,^! rocks are g5]ally mu* decompos$1 & to my surprise1 ,i f\nd 9 sev]al sections t x 0 impossible to di/+ui%1 ev5 approximately1 ! l9e ( sep>ation betwe5 ! decay$ lava & ! alt]nat+ b$s ( tuff4 ,s9ce ! specim5s h become dry1 x is r m easy to di/+ui% ! decompos$ igne\s rocks f ! s$im5t>y tuffs4 ,?is gradation 9 "* betwe5 rocks hav+ su* widely diff]5t orig9s1 may ,i ?9k be expla9$ by ! yield+ "u pressure ( ! s(t5$ sides ( ! vesicul> cavities1 :i* 9 _m volcanic rocks occupy a l>ge proportion ( _! bulk4 ,z ! vesicles g5]ally increase 9 size & numb] 9 ! upp] p>ts ( a /ream ( lava1 s w\ld ! effects ( _! compression increase2 ! yield+1 moreov]1 ( ea* l[] vesicle mu/ t5d to di/urb all ! s(t5$ matt] above x4 ,h5ce we might expect to trace a p]fect gradation f an unalt]$ cry/all9e rock to "o 9 :i* all ! p>ticles 7al?\gh orig9ally =m+ "p ( ! same solid mass7 _h und]gone me*anical displacem5t2 & su* p>ticles c\ld h>dly be di/+ui%$ f o!rs ( simil> composition1 :i* _h be5 deposit$ z s$im5t4 ,z lavas are sometimes lam9at$ 9 _! upp] p>ts ev5 horizontal l9es1 appe>+ l ^? ( aque\s deposition1 c\ld n 9 all cases be reli$ on z a crit]ion ( s$im5t>y orig94 ,f ^! consid]ations x is n surpris+ t =m]ly _m geologi/s believ$ 9 real transitions f aque\s deposits1 ?r\gh wacke1 into igne\s traps4 ,9 ! valley ( ,tia-auru1 ! commone/ rocks are basalts ) mu* oliv9e1 & 9 "s cases almo/ compos$ ( l>ge cry/als ( augite4 ,i pick$ up "s specim5s1 ) mu* glassy feldsp>1 approa*+ 9 "* to tra*yte4 ,!re 7 also _m l>ge blocks ( vesicul> basalt1 ) ! cavities beautifully l9$ ) *abasie 7871 & radiat+ bundles ( mesotype4 ,"s ( ^! specim5s pres5t$ a curi\s appe>ance1 ow+ to a numb] ( ! vesicles be+ half fill$ up ) a :ite1 s(t1 e>?y mesotypic m9]al1 :i* intumesc$ "u ! bl[pipe 9 a rem>kable mann]4 ,z ! upp] surfaces 9 all ! half-fill$ cells are exactly p>allel1 x is evid5t t ?is sub/ance has sunk to ! bottom ( ea* cell f its weight4 ,sometimes1 h[ev]1 x entirely fills ! cells4 ,o!r cells are ei!r q fill$1 or l9$1 ) small cry/als1 app>5tly ( *abasie2 ^! cry/als1 also1 frequ5tly l9e ! upp] half ( ! cells p>tly fill$ ) ! e>?y m9]al1 z well z ! upp] surface ( ?is sub/ance itself1 9 :i* case ! two m9]als appe> to bl5d into ea* o!r4 ,i h nev] se5 any o!r amygdaloid#b ) ! cells half fill$ 9 ! mann] "h describ$2 & x is difficult to imag9e ! causes :i* det]m9$ ! e>?y m9]al to s9k f its gravity to ! bottom ( ! cells1 & ! cry/all9e m9]al to adh]e 9 a coat+ ( equal ?ickness r\nd ! sides ( ! cells4 #b ,mac,culloch1 h[ev]1 has describ$ & giv5 a plate ( 78,geolog4 ,trans40 #a/ s]ies1 vol4 iv1 p4 #bbe7 a trap rock1 ) cavities fill$ up horizontally ) qu>tz & *alc$ony4 ,! upp] halves ( ^! cavities are (t5 fill$ by lay]s1 :i* foll[ ea* irregul>ity ( ! surface1 & by little dep5d+ /alactites ( ! same silice\s sub/ances4 ,! basic /rata on ! sides ( ! valley are g5tly incl9$ seaw>d1 & ,i n[h]e obs]v$ any sign ( di/urbance2 ! /rata are sep>at$ f ea* o!r by ?ick1 compact b$s ( conglom]ate1 9 :i* ! fragm5ts are l>ge1 "s be+ r\nd$1 b mo/ angul>4 ,f ! "* ( ^! b$s1 f ! compact & cry/all9e condition ( mo/ ( ! lavas1 & f ! nature ( ! infiltrat$ m9]als1 ,i 0 l$ to conjecture t !y _h orig9ally fl[$ b5ea? ! sea4 ,?is conclusion agrees ) ! fact t ! ,rev4 ,w4 ,ellis f\nd m>9e rema9s at a consid]able height1 :i* he believes 7 int]/ratifi$ ) volcanic matt]2 z is likewise describ$ to be ! case by ,messrs4 ,ty]man & ,b5nett at ,huahe9e1 an isl& 9 ?is same ar*ipelago4 ,mr4 ,/ut*bury also discov]$ ne> ! summit ( "o ( ! l(tie/ m\nta9s ( ,tahiti1 at ! height ( sev]al ?\s& feet1 a /ratum ( semi-fossil coral4 ,none ( ^! rema9s h be5 specifically exam9$4 ,on ! coa/1 :]e masses ( coral-rock w\ld h af=d$ ! cle>e/ evid5ce1 ,i look$ 9 va9 = any signs ( rec5t elevation4 ,= ref]5ces to ! above au?orities1 & = m detail$ reasons = n believ+ t ,tahiti has be5 rec5tly elevat$1 ,i mu/ ref] to ! 8,/ructure & ,di/ribution ( ,coral-,reefs40 ,mauritius4--,approa*+ ?is isl& on ! nor!rn or nor?-we/]n side1 a curv$ *a9 ( bold m\nta9s1 surm\nt$ by rugg$ p9nacles1 is se5 to rise f a smoo? bord] ( cultivat$ l&1 :i* g5tly slopes d[n to ! coa/4 ,at ! fir/ glance1 "o is tempt$ to believe t ! sea lately rea*$ ! base ( ^! m\nta9s1 & ^u exam9ation1 ?is view1 at lea/ ) respect to ! inf]ior p>ts ( ! bord]1 is f\nd to be p]fectly correct4 ,sev]al au?ors#c h describ$ masses ( uprais$ coral-rock r\nd ! great] "p ( ! circumf]5ce ( ! isl&4 ,betwe5 ,tam>9 ,bay & ! ,great ,black ,riv] ,i obs]v$1 9 company ) ,capta9 ,lloyd1 two hillocks ( coral-rock1 =m$ 9 _! l[] "p ( h>d calc>e\s s&/one1 & 9 _! upp] ( great blocks1 slightly aggregat$1 ( ,a/ra & ,madrepora1 & ( fragm5ts ( basalt2 !y 7 divid$ into b$s dipp+ seaw>d1 9 "o case at an angle ( #h1 & 9 ! o!r at #ah2 !y _h a wat]-worn appe>ance1 & !y rose abruptly f a smoo? surface1 /rew$ ) roll$ dbris ( organic rema9s1 to a height ( ab\t tw5ty feet4 ,! ,(fici] du ,roi1 9 8 mo/ int]e/+ t\r 9 #agfh r\nd ! isl&1 has describ$ masses ( uprais$ coral-rocks1 /ill reta9+ t moat-l /ructure 7see my 8,coral ,reefs07 :i* is *>act]i/ic ( ! liv+ reefs4 ,on ! coa/ nor?w>d ( ,port ,l\is1 ,i f\nd ! lava conceal$ = a consid]able space inl& by a conglom]ate ( corals & %ells1 l ^? on ! bea*1 b 9 p>ts consolidat$ by r$ f]rug9\s matt]4 ,m4 ,bory ,/4 ,v9c5t has describ$ simil> calc>e\s b$s ov] ne>ly ! :ole ( ! pla9 ( ,pamplem\sses4 ,ne> ,port ,l\is1 :5 turn+ ov] "s l>ge /ones1 :i* lay 9 ! b$ ( a /ream at ! head ( a protect$ creek1 & at ! height ( "s y>ds above ! level ( spr+ tides1 ,i f\nd sev]al %ells ( s]pula /ill adh]+ to _! "u sides4 #c ,capta9 ,c>mi*ael1 9 ,hook]'s 8,bot4 ,misc410 vol4 ii1 p4 #cja4 ,capta9 ,lloyd has lately1 9 ! 8,proce$+s ( ! ,geological ,society0 7vol4 iii1 p4 #cag71 describ$ c>efully "s ( ^! masses4 ,9 ! 8,voyage l',isle de ,france1 p> un ,(fici] du ,roi10 _m int]e/+ facts are giv5 on ?is subject4 ,consult also 8,voyage aux ,quatre ,isles d',afrique1 p> ,m4 ,bory ,/4 ,v9c5t40 ,! jagg$ m\nta9s ne> ,port ,l\is rise to a height ( betwe5 two & ?ree ?\s& feet2 !y consi/ ( /rata ( basalt1 obscurely sep>at$ f ea* o!r by firmly aggregat$ b$s ( fragm5t>y matt]2 & !y are int]sect$ by a few v]tical dikes4 ,! basalt 9 "s p>ts ab\nds ) l>ge cry/als ( augite & oliv9e1 & is g5]ally compact4 ,! int]ior ( ! isl& =ms a pla91 rais$ probably ab\t a ?\s& feet above ! level ( ! sea1 & compos$ ( /reams ( lava :i* h fl[$ r\nd & betwe5 ! rugg$ basaltic m\nta9s4 ,^! m rec5t lavas are also basaltic1 b less compact1 & "s ( !m ab\nd ) feldsp>1 s t !y ev5 fuse into a pale col\r$ glass4 ,on ! banks ( ! ,great ,riv]1 a section is expos$ ne>ly five hundr$ feet deep1 worn ?r\gh num]\s ?9 %eets ( ! lava ( ?is s]ies1 :i* are sep>at$ f ea* o!r by b$s ( scori4 ,!y seem to h be5 ( suba]ial =mation1 & to h fl[$ f sev]al po9ts ( eruption on ! c5tral plat=m1 ( :i* ! ,piton du ,milieu is said to be ! pr9cipal "o4 ,!re are also sev]al volcanic cones1 app>5tly ( ?is mod]n p]iod1 r\nd ! circumf]5ce ( ! isl&1 especially at ! nor!rn end1 :]e !y =m sep>ate islets4 ,! m\nta9s compos$ ( ! m compact & cry/all9e basalt1 =m ! ma9 skeleton ( ! isl&4 ,m4 ,bailly#d /ates t !y all 8se dvelopp5t aut\r d'elle comme une ce9ture d'imm5ses remp>ts1 t\tes affectant une p5te plus ou mo9s encl9e v]s le rivage de la m]2 t&is1 au contraire1 que v]s le c5tre de l'ile elles pres5t5t une c\pe abrupte1 et s\v5t taille pic4 ,t\tes ces montagnes sont =mes de c\*es p>allles incl9es du c5tre de l'ile v]s la m]40 ,^! /atem5ts h be5 disput$1 ?\gh n 9 detail1 by ,m4 ,quoy1 9 ! voyage ( ,freyc9et4 ,z f> z my limit$ means ( obs]vation w5t1 ,i f\nd !m p]fectly correct4#e ,! m\nta9s on ! ,n4,w4 side ( ! isl&1 :i* ,i exam9$1 namely1 ,la ,p\ce1 ,pet] ,botts1 ,corps de ,g>de1 ,les ,mamelles1 & app>5tly ano!r f>!r s\?w>d1 h precisely ! ext]nal %ape & /ratification describ$ by ,m4 ,bailly4 ,!y =m ab\t a qu>t] ( 8 girdle ( ramp>ts4 ,al?\gh ^! m\nta9s n[ /& q deta*$1 be+ sep>at$ f ea* o!r by brea*es1 ev5 sev]al miles 9 wid?1 ?r\gh :i* deluges ( lava h fl[$ f ! int]ior ( ! isl&2 nev]!less1 see+ _! close g5]al simil>ity1 "o mu/ feel conv9c$ t !y orig9ally =m$ p>ts ( "o cont9u\s mass4 ,judg+ f ! beautiful map ( ! ,mauritius1 publi%$ by ! ,admiralty f a ,fr5* ,,ms41 !re is a range ( m\nta9s 7,m4 ,bamboo7 on ! opposite side ( ! isl&1 :i* correspond 9 height1 relative position1 & ext]nal =m1 ) ^? j describ$4 ,:e!r ! girdle 0 ev] complete may well be d\bt$2 b f ,m4 ,bailly's /atem5ts1 & my own obs]vations1 x may be safely conclud$ t m\nta9s ) precipit\s inl& flanks1 & compos$ ( /rata dipp+ outw>ds1 once ext5d$ r\nd a consid]able portion ( ! circumf]5ce ( ! isl&4 ,! r+ appe>s to h be5 oval & ( va/ size2 its %ort] axis1 measur$ across f ! inn] sides ( ! m\nta9s ne> ,port ,l\is & ^? ne> ,gr& ,port1 be+ no less ?an ?irte5 geographical miles 9 l5g?4 ,m4 ,bailly boldly supposes t ?is enorm\s gulf1 :i* has s9ce be5 fill$ up to a great ext5t by /reams ( mod]n lava1 0 =m$ by ! s9k+ 9 ( ! :ole upp] "p ( "o great volcano4 #d 8,voyage aux ,t]res ,au/rales10 tome i1 p4 #ed4 #e ,m4 ,lesson1 9 8 acc\nt ( ?is isl&1 9 ! 8,voyage ( ! ,coquille10 seems to foll[ ,m4 ,bailly's views4 ,x is s+ul> 9 h[ _m respects ^? portions ( ,/4 ,jago & ( ,mauritius :i* ,i visit$ agree 9 _! geological hi/ory4 ,at bo? isl&s1 m\nta9s ( simil> ext]nal =m1 /ratification1 & 7at lea/ 9 _! upp] b$s7 composition1 foll[ 9 a curv$ *a9 ! coa/-l9e4 ,^! m\nta9s 9 ea* case appe> orig9ally to h =m$ p>ts ( "o cont9u\s mass4 ,! basaltic /rata ( :i* !y are compos$1 f _! compact & cry/all9e /ructure1 seem1 :5 contra/$ ) ! neighb\r+ basaltic /reams ( suba]ial =mation1 to h fl[$ b5ea? ! pressure ( ! sea1 & to h be5 subsequ5tly elevat$4 ,we may suppose t ! wide brea*es betwe5 ! m\nta9s 7 9 bo? cases worn by ! waves1 dur+ _! gradual elevation--( :i* process1 )9 rec5t times1 !re is abundant evid5ce on ! coa/-l& ( bo? isl&s4 ,at bo?1 va/ /reams ( m rec5t basaltic lavas h fl[$ f ! int]ior ( ! isl&1 r\nd & betwe5 ! anci5t basaltic hills2 at bo?1 moreov]1 rec5t cones ( eruption are scatt]$ ar\nd ! circumf]5ce ( ! isl&2 b at nei!r h eruptions tak5 place )9 ! p]iod ( hi/ory4 ,z rem>k$ 9 ! la/ *apt]1 x is probable t ^! anci5t basaltic m\nta9s1 :i* resemble 7at lea/ 9 _m respects7 ! basal & di/urb$ remnants ( two gigantic volcanoes1 owe _! pres5t =m1 /ructure1 & position1 to ! action ( simil> causes4 ,/4 ,paul's ,rocks4--,?is small isl& is situat$ 9 ! ,atlantic ,ocean1 ne>ly "o degree nor? ( ! equator1 & #edj miles di/ant f ,s\? ,am]ica1 9 #bi #ae we/ longitude4 ,its highe/ po9t is sc>cely fifty feet above ! level ( ! sea2 its outl9e is irregul>1 & its entire circumf]5ce b>ely ?ree-qu>t]s ( a mile4 ,?is little po9t ( rock rises abruptly out ( ! ocean2 &1 except on its we/]n side1 s\nd+s 7 n obta9$1 ev5 at ! %ort di/ance ( a qu>t] ( a mile f its %ore4 ,x is n ( volcanic orig92 & ?is circum/ance1 :i* is ! mo/ rem>kable po9t 9 its hi/ory 7z w h]eaft] be ref]r$ to71 prop]ly ought to exclude x f ! pres5t volume4 ,x is compos$ ( rocks1 unlike any :i* ,i h met )1 & :i* ,i _c *>act]ise by any "n1 & mu/ !re=e describe4 ,! simple/1 & "o ( ! mo/ abundant k9ds1 is a v compact1 heavy1 gre5i%-black rock1 hav+ an angul>1 irregul> fracture1 ) "s po9ts j h>d en\gh to scrat* glass1 & infusible4 ,?is v>iety passes into o!rs ( pal] gre5 t9ts1 less h>d1 b ) a m cry/all9e fracture1 & transluc5t on _! edges2 & ^! are fusible into a gre5 enamel4 ,sev]al o!r v>ieties are *iefly *>act]is$ by conta9+ innum]able ?reads ( d>k-gre5 s]p5t9e1 & by hav+ calc>e\s matt] 9 _! int]/ices4 ,^! rocks h an obscure1 concretion>y /ructure1 & are full ( v>i\sly col\r$ angul> pseudo fragm5ts4 ,^! angul> pseudo fragm5ts consi/ ( ! fir/-describ$ d>k gre5 rock1 ( a br[n s(t] k9d1 ( s]p5t9e1 & ( a yell[i% h>% /one1 :i*1 p]haps1 is relat$ to s]p5t9e rock4 ,!re are o!r vesicul>1 calc>eo-f]rug9\s1 s(t /ones4 ,!re is no di/9ct /ratification1 b p>ts are imp]fectly lam9at$2 & ! :ole ab\nds ) innum]able ve9s1 & ve9-l masses1 bo? small & l>ge4 ,( ^! ve9-l masses1 "s calc>e\s ones1 :i* conta9 m9ute fragm5ts ( %ells1 are cle>ly ( subsequ5t orig9 to ! o!rs4 ,a glossy incru/ation4--,ext5sive portions ( ^! rocks are coat$ by a lay] ( a glossy poli%$ sub/ance1 ) a pe>ly lu/re & ( a greyi% :ite col\r2 x foll[s all ! inequalities ( ! surface1 to :i* x is firmly atta*$4 ,:5 exam9$ ) a l5s1 x is f\nd to consi/ ( num]\s exce$+ly ?9 lay]s1 _! aggregate ?ickness be+ ab\t ! t5? ( an in*4 ,x is consid]ably h>d] ?an calc>e\s sp>1 b c be scrat*$ ) a knife2 "u ! bl[pipe x scales (f1 decrepitates1 slightly black5s1 emits a fetid od\r1 & becomes /rongly alkal9e3 x does n eff]vesce 9 acids4#f ,i presume ?is sub/ance has be5 deposit$ by wat] dra9+ f ! birds' dung1 ) :i* ! rocks are cov]$4 ,at ,asc5sion1 ne> a cavity 9 ! rocks :i* 0 fill$ ) a lam9at$ mass ( infiltrat$ birds' dung1 ,i f\nd "s irregul>ly =m$1 /alactitical masses ( app>5tly ! same nature4 ,^! masses1 :5 brok51 _h an e>?y texture2 b on _! outsides1 & especially at _! extremities1 !y 7 =m$ ( a pe>ly sub/ance1 g5]ally 9 little globules1 l ! enamel ( tee?1 b m transluc5t1 & s h>d z j to scrat* plate-glass4 ,?is sub/ance slightly black5s "u ! bl[pipe1 emits a bad smell1 !n becomes q :ite1 swell+ a little1 & fuses into a dull :ite enamel2 x does n become alkal9e2 nor does x eff]vesce 9 acids4 ,! :ole mass _h a collaps$ appe>ance1 z if 9 ! =mation ( ! h>d glossy cru/ ! :ole _h %runk mu*4 ,at ! ,abrolhos ,isl&s on ! coa/ ( ,brazil1 :]e also !re is mu* birds' dung1 ,i f\nd a great quantity ( a br[n1 arboresc5t sub/ance adh]+ to "s trap-rock4 ,9 its arboresc5t =m1 ?is sub/ance s+ul>ly resembles "s ( ! bran*$ species ( ,nullipora4 ,"u ! bl[pipe1 x behaves l ! specim5s f ,asc5sion2 b x is less h>d & glossy1 & ! surface has n ! %runk appe>ance4 #f ,9 my 8,j\rnal0 ,i h describ$ ?is sub/ance2 ,i !n believ$ t x 0 an impure phosphate ( lime4 ,*apt] ,,iii ,,asc5sion4 ,basaltic lavas4--,num]\s crat]s truncat$ on ! same side4--,s+ul> /ructure ( volcanic bombs4--,a]i=m explosions4--,eject$ granitic fragm5ts4--,tra*ytic rocks4--,s+ul> ve9s4--,jasp]1 its mann] ( =mation4--,concretions 9 pumice\s tuff4--,calc>e\s deposits & frondesc5t incru/ations on ! coa/4--,rem>kable lam9at$ b$s1 alt]nat+ )1 & pass+ into1 obsidian4--,orig9 ( obsidian4--,lam9ation ( volcanic rocks4 ,?is isl& is situat$ 9 ! ,atlantic ,ocean1 9 lat4 #h ,s41 long4 #ad ,w4 ,x has ! =m ( an irregul> triangle 7see map bel[71 ea* side be+ ab\t six miles 9 l5g?4 ,its highe/ po9t is #b1hgj feet#a above ! level ( ! sea4 ,! :ole is volcanic1 &1 f ! abs5ce ( pro(s to ! contr>y1 ,i believe ( suba]ial orig94 ,! fundam5tal rock is ev]y:]e ( a pale col\r1 g5]ally compact1 & ( a feldspa?ic nature4 ,9 ! ,s4,e4 portion ( ! isl&1 :]e ! highe/ l& is situat$1 well *>act]is$ tra*yte1 & o!r cong5]\s rocks ( t v>y+ "h & !re a hill or s+le po9t ( rock 7"o ( :i* ne> ! sea-coa/1 nor? ( ! ,=t1 is only two or ?ree y>ds across7 ( ! tra*yte /ill rema9+ expos$4 #a ,geographical ,j\rnal1 vol4 v1 p4 #bdc4 ,illu/ration3 ,isl& ( ,asc5sion ,,plate ,,iv4 ,basaltic rocks4--,! ov]ly+ basaltic lava is 9 "s p>ts extremely vesicul>1 9 o!rs little s2 x is ( a black col\r1 b sometimes conta9s cry/als ( glassy feldsp>1 & seldom mu* oliv9e4 ,^! /reams appe> to h possess$ s+ul>ly little fluidity2 _! side walls & l[] ends be+ v /eep1 & ev5 z mu* z betwe5 tw5ty & ?irty feet 9 height4 ,_! surface is extraord9>ily rugg$1 & f a %ort di/ance appe>s z if /udd$ ) small crat]s4 ,^! projections consi/ ( broad1 irregul>ly conical1 hillocks1 trav]s$ by fissures1 & compos$ ( ! same unequally scoriace\s basalt ) ! surr\nd+ /reams1 b hav+ an obscure t5d5cy to a column> /ructure2 !y rise to a height betwe5 t5 & ?irty feet above ! g5]al surface1 & h be5 =m$1 z ,i presume1 by ! heap+ up ( ! viscid lava at po9ts ( great] resi/ance4 ,at ! base ( sev]al ( ^! hillocks1 & occasionally likewise on m level p>ts1 solid ribs1 compos$ ( angulo-globul> masses ( basalt1 resembl+ 9 size & outl9e ar*$ sew]s or gutt]s ( brickwork1 b n be+ holl[1 project betwe5 two or ?ree feet above ! surface ( ! /reams2 :at _! orig9 may h be51 ,i d n "k4 ,_m ( ! sup]ficial fragm5ts f ^! basaltic /reams pres5t s+ul>ly convolut$ =ms2 & "s specim5s c\ld h>dly be di/+ui%$ f logs ( d>k-col\r$ wood )\t _! b>k4 ,_m ( ! basaltic /reams c be trac$1 ei!r to po9ts ( eruption at ! base ( ! great c5tral mass ( tra*yte1 or to sep>ate1 conical1 r$-col\r$ hills1 :i* are scatt]$ ov] ! nor!rn & we/]n bord]s ( ! isl&4 ,/&+ on ! c5tral em95ce1 ,i c\nt$ betwe5 tw5ty & ?irty ( ^! cones ( eruption4 ,! great] numb] ( !m _h _! truncat$ summits cut (f obliquely1 & !y all slop$ t[>ds ! ,s4,e41 :5ce ! trade-w9d bl[s4#b ,?is /ructure no d\bt has be5 caus$ by ! eject$ fragm5ts & a%es be+ always bl[n1 dur+ eruptions1 9 great] quantity t[>ds "o side ?an t[>ds ! o!r4 ,m4 ,moreau de ,jonnes has made a simil> obs]vation ) respect to ! volcanic orifices 9 ! ,we/ ,indian ,isl&s4 #b ,m4 ,lesson 9 ! 8,zoology ( ! ,voyage ( ! ,coquille10 p4 #dij has obs]v$ ?is fact4 ,mr4 ,h5nah 78,geolog4 ,proce$+s10 #ahce1 p4 #ahi7 fur!r rem>ks t ! mo/ ext5sive b$s ( a%es at ,asc5sion inv>iably occur on ! leew>d side ( ! isl&4 ,volcanic bombs4--,^! occur 9 great numb]s /rew$ on ! gr\nd1 & "s ( !m lie at consid]able di/ances f any po9ts ( eruption4 ,!y v>y 9 size f t ( an apple to t ( a man's body2 !y are ei!r sph]ical or pe>-%ap$1 or ) ! h9d] "p 7correspond+ to ! tail ( a comet7 irregul>1 /udd$ ) project+ po9ts1 & ev5 concave4 ,_! surfaces are r\gh1 & fissur$ ) bran*+ cracks2 _! int]nal /ructure is ei!r irregul>ly scoriace\s & compact1 or x pres5ts a symmetrical & v curi\s appe>ance4 ,an irregul> segm5t ( a bomb ( ?is latt] k9d1 ( :i* ,i f\nd sev]al1 is accurately repres5t$ 9 figure ,no4 #c4 ,its size 0 ab\t t ( a man's head4 ,! :ole int]ior is co>sely cellul>2 ! cells av]ag+ 9 diamet] ab\t ! t5? ( an in*2 b ne>] ! outside !y gradually decrease 9 size4 ,?is "p is succe$$ by a well-def9$ %ell ( compact lava1 hav+ a ne>ly uni=m ?ickness ( ab\t ! ?ird ( an in*2 & ! %ell is ov]laid by a some:at ?ick] coat+ ( f9ely cellul> lava 7! cells v>y+ f ! fiftie? to ! hundr$? ( an in* 9 diamet]71 :i* =ms ! ext]nal surface3 ! l9e sep>at+ ! %ell ( compact lava f ! out] scoriace\s cru/ is di/9ctly def9$4 ,?is /ructure is v simply expla9$1 if we suppose a mass ( viscid1 scoriace\s matt]1 to be project$ ) a rapid1 rotatory motion ?r\gh ! air2 = :il/ ! ext]nal cru/1 f cool+1 became solidifi$ 79 ! /ate we n[ see x71 ! c5trifugal =ce1 by reliev+ ! pressure 9 ! int]ior p>ts ( ! bomb1 w\ld all[ ! heat$ vap\rs to exp& _! cells2 b ^! be+ driv5 by ! same =ce aga9/ ! already-h>d5$ cru/1 w\ld become1 ! ne>] !y 7 to ?is "p1 small] & small] or less exp&$1 until !y became pack$ into a solid1 conc5tric %ell4 ,z we "k t *ips f a gr9d/one#c c be flirt$ (f1 :5 made to revolve ) suffici5t velocity1 we ne$ n d\bt t ! c5trifugal =ce w\ld h p[] to modify ! /ructure ( a s(t5$ bomb1 9 ! mann] "h suppos$4 ,geologi/s h rem>k$1 t ! ext]nal =m ( a bomb at once bespeaks ! hi/ory ( its a]ial c\rse1 & few n[ see t ! int]nal /ructure c speak1 ) almo/ equal pla9ness1 ( its rotatory movem5t4 #c ,ni*ol's 8,ar*itecture ( ! ,heav5s40 ,no4 #c ,illu/ration3 ,fragm5t ( a sph]ical volcanic bomb4 ,fragm5t ( a sph]ical volcanic bomb1 ) ! inf]ior p>ts co>sely cellul>1 coat$ by a conc5tric lay] ( compact lava1 & ?is aga9 by a cru/ ( f9ely cellul> rock4 ,no4 #d ,illu/ration3 ,volcanic bomb ( obsidian f ,au/ralia4 ,volcanic bomb ( obsidian f ,au/ralia4 ,! figure at left gives a front view2 ! figure at "r a side view ( ! same object4 ,m4 ,bory ,/4 ,v9c5t#d has describ$ "s balls ( lava f ! ,isle ( ,b\rbon1 :i* h a closely simil> /ructure4 ,8 explanation1 h[ev] 7if ,i und]/& x rightly71 is v diff]5t f t :i* ,i h giv52 = he supposes t !y h roll$1 l sn[balls1 d[n ! sides ( ! crat]4 ,m4 ,beudant1#e also1 has describ$ "s s+ul> little balls ( obsidian1 nev] m ?an six or eight in*es 9 diamet]1 :i* he f\nd /rew$ on ! surface ( ! gr\nd3 _! =m is always oval2 sometimes !y are mu* swoll5 9 ! middle1 & ev5 sp9dle-%ap$3 _! surface is regul>ly m>k$ ) conc5tric ridges & furr[s1 all ( :i* on ! same ball are at "r angles to "o axis3 _! int]ior is compact & glassy4 ,m4 ,beudant supposes t masses ( lava1 :5 s(t1 7 %ot into ! air1 ) a rotatory movem5t r\nd ! same axis1 & t ! =m & sup]ficial ridges ( ! bombs 7 ?us produc$4 ,sir ,?omas ,mit*ell has giv5 me :at at fir/ appe>s to be ! half ( a mu* flatt5$ oval ball ( obsidian2 x has a s+ul> artificial-l appe>ance1 :i* is well repres5t$ 7( ! natural size7 9 figure ,no4 #d4 ,x 0 f\nd 9 its pres5t /ate1 on a great s&y pla9 betwe5 ! riv]s ,d>l+ & ,murray1 9 ,au/ralia1 & at ! di/ance ( sev]al hundr$ miles f any kn[n volcanic region4 ,x seems to h be5 emb$d$ 9 "s r$di% tuface\s matt]2 & may h be5 transport$ ei!r by ! aborig9es or by natural means4 ,! ext]nal sauc] consi/s ( compact obsidian1 ( a bottle-gre5 col\r1 & is fill$ ) f9ely cellul> black lava1 mu* less transp>5t & glassy ?an ! obsidian4 ,! ext]nal surface is m>k$ ) f\r or five n q p]fect ridges1 :i* are repres5t$ r too di/9ctly 9 figure ,no4 #d4 ,"h1 !n1 we h ! ext]nal /ructure describ$ by ,m4 ,beudant1 & ! int]nal cellul> condition ( ! bombs f ,asc5sion4 ,! lip ( ! sauc] is slightly concave1 exactly l ! m>g9 ( a s\p-plate1 & its inn] edge ov]laps a little ! c5tral cellul> lava4 ,?is /ructure is s symmetrical r\nd ! entire circumf]5ce1 t "o is =c$ to suppose t ! bomb bur/ dur+ its rotatory c\rse1 be=e be+ q solidifi$1 & t ! lip & edges 7 ?us slightly modifi$ & turn$ inw>ds4 ,x may be rem>k$ t ! sup]ficial ridges are 9 planes1 at "r angles to an axis1 transv]se to ! long] axis ( ! flatt5$ oval3 to expla9 ?is circum/ance1 we may suppose t :5 ! bomb bur/1 ! axis ( rotation *ang$4 #d 8,voyage aux ,quatre ,isles d',afrique0 tome i1 p4 #bbb4 #e 8,voyage en ,hongrie10 tome ii1 p4 #bad4 ,a]i=m explosions4--,! flanks ( ,gre5 ,m\nta9 & ! surr\nd+ c\ntry are cov]$ by a great mass1 "s hundr$ feet 9 ?ickness1 ( loose fragm5ts4 ,! l[] b$s g5]ally consi/ ( f9e-gra9$1 slightly consolidat$ tuffs1#f & ! upp] b$s ( great loose fragm5ts1 ) alt]nat+ f9] b$s4#g ,"o :ite ribbon-l lay] ( decompos$1 pumice\s breccia1 0 curi\sly b5t into deep unbrok5 curves1 b5ea? ea* ( ! l>ge fragm5ts 9 ! sup]9cumb5t /ratum4 ,f ! relative position ( ^! b$s1 ,i presume t a n>r[-m\!d crat]1 /&+ ne>ly 9 ! position ( ,gre5 ,m\nta91 l a great air-gun1 %ot =?1 be=e its f9al ext9ction1 ?is va/ accumulation ( loose matt]4 ,subsequ5tly to ?is ev5t1 consid]able dislocations h tak5 place1 & an oval circus has be5 =m$ by subsid5ce4 ,?is sunk5 space lies at ! nor?-ea/]n foot ( ,gre5 ,m\nta91 & is well repres5t$ 9 ,map #b4 ,its long] axis1 :i* is connect$ ) a ,n4,e4 & ,s4,w4 l9e ( fissure1 is ?ree-fif?s ( a nautical mile 9 l5g?2 its sides are ne>ly p]p5dicul>1 except 9 "o spot1 & ab\t f\r hundr$ feet 9 height2 !y consi/1 9 ! l[] "p1 ( a pale basalt ) feldsp>1 & 9 ! upp] "p1 ( ! tuff & loose eject$ fragm5ts2 ! bottom is smoo? & level1 & "u almo/ any o!r climate a deep lake w\ld h be5 =m$ "h4 ,f ! ?ickness ( ! b$ ( loose fragm5ts1 ) :i* ! surr\nd+ c\ntry is cov]$1 ! am\nt ( a]i=m matt] necess>y = _! projection mu/ h be5 enorm\s2 h5ce we may suppose x probable t aft] ! explosions va/ subt]ranean cav]ns 7 left1 & t ! fall+ 9 ( ! ro( ( "o ( ^! produc$ ! holl[ "h describ$4 ,at ! ,galapagos ,ar*ipelago1 pits ( a simil> "*1 b ( a mu* small] size1 frequ5tly occur at ! bases ( small cones ( eruption4 #f ,"s ( ?is pep]9o1 or tuff1 is suffici5tly h>d n to be brok5 by ! greate/ =ce ( ! f+]s4 #g ,on ! nor!rn side ( ! ,gre5 ,m\nta9 a ?9 seam1 ab\t an in* 9 ?ickness1 ( compact oxide ( iron1 ext5ds ov] a consid]able area2 x lies con=mably 9 ! l[] "p ( ! /ratifi$ mass ( a%es & fragm5ts4 ,?is sub/ance is ( a r$di%-br[n col\r1 ) an almo/ metallic lu/re2 x is n magnetic1 b becomes s aft] hav+ be5 heat$ "u ! bl[pipe1 by :i* x is black5$ & p>tly fus$4 ,?is seam ( compact /one1 by int]cept+ ! little ra9-wat] :i* falls on ! isl&1 gives rise to a small dripp+ spr+1 fir/ discov]$ by ,dampi]4 ,x is ! only fre% wat] on ! isl&1 s t ! possibility ( its be+ inhabit$ has entirely dep5d$ on ! occurr5ce ( ?is f]rug9\s lay]4 ,eject$ granitic fragm5ts4--,9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,gre5 ,m\nta91 fragm5ts ( extrane\s rock are n unfrequ5tly f\nd emb$d$ 9 ! mid/ ( masses ( scori4 ,lieut5ant ,evans1 to ^: k9dness ,i am indebt$ = mu* in=mation1 gave me sev]al specim5s1 & ,i f\nd o!rs myself4 ,!y ne>ly all h a granitic /ructure1 are brittle1 h>% to ! t\*1 & app>5tly ( alt]$ col\rs4 ,fir/1 a :ite sy5ite1 /reak$ & mottl$ ) r$2 x consi/s ( well-cry/allis$ feldsp>1 num]\s gra9s ( qu>tz1 & brilliant1 ?\gh small1 cry/als ( hornbl5de4 ,! feldsp> & hornbl5de 9 ?is & ! succe$+ cases h be5 det]m9$ by ! reflect+ goniomet]1 & ! qu>tz by its action "u ! bl[pipe4 ,! feldsp> 9 ^! eject$ fragm5ts1 l ! glassy k9d 9 ! tra*yte1 is f its cleavage a pota%-feldsp>4 ,secondly1 a brick-r$ mass ( feldsp>1 qu>tz1 & small d>k pat*es ( a decay$ m9]al2 "o m9ute p>ticle ( :i* ,i 0 able to asc]ta91 by its cleavage1 to be hornbl5de4 ,?irdly1 a mass ( confus$ly cry/allis$ :ite feldsp>1 ) little ne/s ( a d>k-col\r$ m9]al1 (t5 c>i\s1 ext]nally r\nd$1 hav+ a glossy fracture1 b no di/9ct cleavage3 f comp>ison ) ! second specim51 ,i h no d\bt t x is fus$ hornbl5de4 ,f\r?ly1 a rock1 :i* at fir/ appe>s a simple aggregation ( di/9ct & l>ge-siz$ cry/als ( du/y-col\r$ ,labrador feldsp>2#h b 9 _! int]/ices !re is "s :ite granul> feldsp>1 abundant scales ( mica1 a little alt]$ hornbl5de1 &1 z ,i believe1 no qu>tz4 ,i h describ$ ^! fragm5ts 9 detail1 because x is r>e#i to f9d granitic rocks eject$ f volcanoes ) _! m9]als un*ang$1 z is ! case ) ! fir/ specim51 & p>tially ) ! second4 ,"o o!r l>ge fragm5t1 f\nd 9 ano!r spot1 is des]v+ ( notice2 x is a conglom]ate1 conta9+ small fragm5ts ( granitic1 cellul>1 & jasp]y rocks1 & ( horn/one porphyries1 emb$d$ 9 a base ( wacke1 ?read$ by num]\s ?9 lay]s ( a concretion>y pit*/one pass+ into obsidian4 ,^! lay]s are p>allel1 slightly tortu\s1 & %ort2 !y ?9 out at _! ends1 & resemble 9 =m ! lay]s ( qu>tz 9 gneiss4 ,x is probable t ^! small emb$d$ fragm5ts 7 n sep>ately eject$1 b 7 entangl$ 9 a fluid volcanic rock1 alli$ to obsidian2 & we %all pres5tly see t sev]al v>ieties ( ?is latt] s]ies ( rock assume a lam9at$ /ructure4 #h ,pr(essor ,mill] has be5 s k9d z to exam9e ?is m9]al4 ,he obta9$ two good cleavages ( #hf #cj & #hf #ej4 ,! mean ( sev]al1 :i* ,i made1 0 #hf #cj4 ,pr(essor ,mill] /ates t ^! cry/als1 :5 r$uc$ to a f9e p[d]1 are soluble 9 hydro*loric acid1 leav+ "s undissolv$ silex beh9d2 ! addition ( oxalate ( ammonia gives a copi\s precipitate ( lime4 ,he fur!r rem>ks1 t accord+ to ,von ,kobell1 anor?ite 7a m9]al occurr+ 9 ! eject$ fragm5ts at ,m\nt ,somma7 is always :ite & transp>5t1 s t if ?is be ! case1 ^! cry/als f ,asc5sion mu/ be consid]$ z ,labrador feldsp>4 ,pr(essor ,mill] adds1 t he has se5 an acc\nt1 9 ,erdmann's 8,j\rnal fr tecnis*e ,*emie10 ( a m9]al eject$ f a volcano :i* _h ! ext]nal *>act]s ( ,labrador feldsp>1 b diff]$ 9 ! analysis f t giv5 by m9]alogi/s ( ?is m9]al3 ! au?or attribut$ ?is diff]5ce to an error 9 ! analysis ( ,labrador feldsp>1 :i* is v old4 #i ,daub5y1 9 8 "w on ,volcanoes 7p4 #chf71 rem>ks t ?is is ! case2 & ,humboldt1 9 8 8,p]sonal ,n>rative10 vol4 i1 p4 #bcf1 says 8,9 g5]al1 ! masses ( kn[n primitive rocks1 ,i mean ^? :i* p]fectly resemble our granites1 gneiss1 & mica-slate1 are v r>e 9 lavas3 ! sub/ances we g5]ally d5ote by ! "n ( granite1 ?r[n out by ,vesuvius1 are mixtures ( nephel9e1 mica1 & pyrox5e40 ,tra*ytic s]ies ( rocks4--,^? occupy ! m elevat$ & c5tral1 & likewise ! s\?-ea/]n1 p>ts ( ! isl&4 ,! tra*yte is g5]ally ( a pale br[n col\r1 /a9$ ) small d>k] pat*es2 x conta9s brok5 & b5t cry/als ( glassy feldsp>1 gra9s ( specul> iron1 & black microscopical po9ts1 :i* latt]1 f be+ easily fus$1 & !n becom+ magnetic1 ,i presume are hornbl5de4 ,! great] numb] ( ! hills1 h[ev]1 are compos$ ( a q :ite1 friable /one1 appe>+ l a tra*ytic tuff4 ,obsidian1 horn/one1 & sev]al k9ds ( lam9at$ feldspa?ic rocks1 are associat$ ) ! tra*yte4 ,!re is no di/9ct /ratification2 nor c\ld ,i di/+ui% a crat]i=m /ructure 9 any ( ! hills ( ?is s]ies4 ,consid]able dislocations h tak5 place2 & _m fissures 9 ^! rocks are yet left op51 or are only p>tially fill$ ) loose fragm5ts4 ,)9 ! space1#aj ma9ly =m$ ( tra*yte1 "s basaltic /reams h bur/ =?2 & n f> f ! summit ( ,gre5 ,m\nta91 !re is "o /ream ( q black1 vesicul> basalt1 conta9+ m9ute cry/als ( glassy feldsp>1 :i* h a r\nd$ appe>ance4 #aj ,?is space is ne>ly includ$ by a l9e sweep+ r\nd ,gre5 ,m\nta91 & jo9+ ! hills1 call$ ! ,wea!r ,port ,signal1 ,holyhead1 & t d5om9at$ 7improp]ly 9 a geological s5se7 8! ,crat] ( an old volcano40 ,! s(t :ite /one above m5tion$ is rem>kable f its s+ul> resemblance1 :5 view$ 9 mass1 to a s$im5t>y tuff3 x 0 long be=e ,i c\ld p]suade myself t su* 0 n its orig92 & o!r geologi/s h be5 p]plex$ by closely simil> =mations 9 tra*ytic regions4 ,9 two cases1 ?is :ite e>?y /one =m$ isolat$ hills2 9 a ?ird1 x 0 associat$ ) column> & lam9at$ tra*yte2 b ,i 0 unable to trace an actual junction4 ,x conta9s num]\s cry/als ( glassy feldsp> & black microscopical specks1 & is m>k$ ) small d>k] pat*es1 exactly z 9 ! surr\nd+ tra*yte4 ,its basis1 h[ev]1 :5 view$ "u ! microscope1 is g5]ally q e>?y2 b sometimes x exhibits a decid$ly cry/all9e /ructure4 ,on ! hill m>k$ 8,crat] ( an old volcano10 x passes into a pale gre5i%-grey v>iety1 diff]+ only 9 its col\r1 & 9 n be+ s e>?y2 ! passage 0 9 "o case effect$ ins5sibly2 9 ano!r1 x 0 =m$ by num]\s1 r\nd$ & angul>1 masses ( ! gre5i% v>iety1 be+ emb$d$ 9 ! :ite v>iety2--9 ?is latt] case1 ! appe>ance 0 v mu* l t ( a s$im5t>y deposit1 torn up & abrad$ dur+ ! deposition ( a subsequ5t /ratum4 ,bo? ^! v>ieties are trav]s$ by innum]able tortu\s ve9s 7pres5tly to be describ$71 :i* are totally unlike inject$ dikes1 or inde$ any o!r ve9s :i* ,i h ev] se54 ,bo? v>ieties include a few scatt]$ fragm5ts1 l>ge & small1 ( d>k-col\r$ scoriace\s rocks1 ! cells ( "s ( :i* are p>tially fill$ ) ! :ite e>?y /one2 !y likewise include "s huge blocks ( a cellul> porphyry4#aa ,^! fragm5ts project f ! wea!r$ surface1 & p]fectly resemble fragm5ts emb$d$ 9 a true s$im5t>y tuff4 ,b z x is kn[n t extrane\s fragm5ts ( cellul> rock are sometimes includ$ 9 column> tra*yte1 9 phonolite1#ab & 9 o!r compact lavas1 ?is circum/ance is n any real argum5t = ! s$im5t>y orig9 ( ! :ite e>?y /one4#ac ,! ins5sible passage ( ! gre5i% v>iety into ! :ite "o1 & likewise ! m abrupt passage by fragm5ts ( ! =m] be+ emb$d$ 9 ! latt]1 might result f slight diff]5ces 9 ! composition ( ! same mass ( molt5 /one1 & f ! abrad+ action ( "o su* "p /ill fluid on ano!r "p already solidifi$4 ,! curi\sly =m$ ve9s h1 ,i believe1 be5 =m$ by silice\s matt] be+ subsequ5tly segregat$4 ,b my *ief reason = believ+ t ^! s(t e>?y /ones1 ) _! extrane\s fragm5ts1 are n ( s$im5t>y orig91 is ! extreme improbability ( cry/als ( feldsp>1 black microscopical specks1 & small /a9s ( a d>k] col\r occurr+ 9 ! same proportional numb]s 9 an aque\s deposit1 & 9 masses ( solid tra*yte4 ,moreov]1 z ,i h rem>k$1 ! microscope occasionally reveals a cry/all9e /ructure 9 ! app>5tly e>?y basis4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! p>tial decomposition ( su* great masses ( tra*yte1 =m+ :ole m\nta9s1 is und\bt$ly a circum/ance ( n easy explanation4 #aa ,! porphyry is d>k col\r$2 x conta9s num]\s1 (t5 fractur$1 cry/als ( :ite opaque feldsp>1 also decompos+ cry/als ( oxide ( iron2 its vesicles include masses ( delicate1 hair-l1 cry/als1 app>5tly ( analcime4 #ab ,d',aubuisson1 8,trait de ,gognosie10 tome ii1 p4 #edh4 #ac ,dr4 ,daub5y 7on ,volcanoes1 p4 #ahj7 seems to h be5 l$ to believe t c]ta9 tra*ytic =mations ( ,is*ia & ( ! ,puy de ,dme1 :i* closely resemble ^! ( ,asc5sion1 7 ( s$im5t>y orig91 *iefly f ! frequ5t pres5ce 9 !m 8( scori=m portions1 diff]5t 9 col\r f ! matrix40 ,dr4 ,daub5y adds1 t on ! o!r h&1 ,broc*i1 & o!r em95t geologi/s1 h consid]$ ^! b$s z e>?y v>ieties ( tra*yte2 he consid]s ! subject des]v+ ( fur!r att5tion4 ,ve9s 9 ! e>?y tra*ytic masses4--,^! ve9s are extraord9>ily num]\s1 int]sect+ 9 ! mo/ complicat$ mann] bo? col\r$ v>ieties ( ! e>?y tra*yte3 !y are be/ se5 on ! flanks ( ! 8,crat] ( ! old volcano40 ,!y conta9 cry/als ( glassy feldsp>1 black microscopical specks & little d>k /a9s1 precisely z 9 ! surr\nd+ rock2 b ! basis is v diff]5t1 be+ exce$+ly h>d1 compact1 some:at brittle1 & ( r less easy fusibility4 ,! ve9s v>y mu*1 & sudd5ly1 f ! t5? ( an in* to "o in* 9 ?ickness2 !y (t5 ?9 out1 n only on _! edges1 b 9 _! c5tral p>ts1 ?us leav+ r\nd1 irregul> ap]tures2 _! surfaces are rugg$4 ,!y are incl9$ at e possible angle ) ! horizon1 or are horizontal2 !y are g5]ally curvil9e>1 & (t5 int]bran* "o ) ano!r4 ,f _! h>dness !y )/& wea!r+1 & project+ two or ?ree feet above ! gr\nd1 !y occasionally ext5d "s y>ds 9 l5g?2 ^! plate-l ve9s1 :5 /ruck1 emit a s\nd1 almo/ l t ( a drum1 & !y may be di/9ctly se5 to vibrate2 _! fragm5ts1 :i* are /rew$ on ! gr\nd1 clatt] l pieces ( iron :5 knock$ aga9/ ea* o!r4 ,!y (t5 assume ! mo/ s+ul> =ms2 ,i saw a p$e/al ( ! e>?y tra*yte1 cov]$ by a hemisph]ical portion ( a ve91 l a great umbrella1 suffici5tly l>ge to %elt] two p]sons4 ,i h nev] met )1 or se5 describ$1 any ve9s l ^!2 b 9 =m !y resemble ! f]rug9\s seams1 due to "s process ( segregation1 occurr+ n uncommonly 9 s&/ones1--= in/ance1 9 ! ,new ,r$ s&/one ( ,engl&4 ,num]\s ve9s ( jasp] & ( silice\s s9t]1 occurr+ on ! summit ( ?is same hill1 %[ t !re has be5 "s abundant s\rce ( silica1 & z ^! plate-l ve9s diff] f ! tra*yte only 9 _! great] h>dness1 brittl5ess1 & less easy fusibility1 x appe>s probable t _! orig9 is due to ! segregation or infiltration ( silice\s matt]1 9 ! same mann] z happ5s ) ! oxides ( iron 9 _m s$im5t>y rocks4 ,silice\s s9t] & jasp]4--,! silice\s s9t] is ei!r q :ite1 ( little specific gravity1 & ) a some:at pe>ly fracture1 pass+ into p9ki% pe>l qu>tz2 or x is yell[i% :ite1 ) a h>% fracture1 & x !n conta9s an e>?y p[d] 9 small cavities4 ,bo? v>ieties occur1 ei!r 9 l>ge irregul> masses 9 ! alt]$ tra*yte1 or 9 seams includ$ 9 broad1 v]tical1 tortu\s1 irregul> ve9s ( a compact1 h>% /one ( a dull r$ col\r1 appe>+ l a s&/one4 ,?is /one1 h[ev]1 is only alt]$ tra*yte2 & a ne>ly simil> v>iety1 b (t5 honeycomb$1 sometimes adh]es to ! project+ plate-l ve9s1 describ$ 9 ! la/ p>agraph4 ,! jasp] is ( an o*re yell[ or r$ col\r2 x occurs 9 l>ge irregul> masses1 & sometimes 9 ve9s1 bo? 9 ! alt]$ tra*yte & 9 an associat$ mass ( scoriace\s basalt4 ,! cells ( ! scoriace\s basalt are l9$ or fill$ ) f9e1 conc5tric lay]s ( *alc$ony1 coat$ & /udd$ ) bright-r$ oxide ( iron4 ,9 ?is rock1 especially 9 ! r m compact p>ts1 irregul> angul> pat*es ( ! r$ jasp] are includ$1 ! edges ( :i* ins5sibly bl5d into ! surr\nd+ mass2 o!r pat*es occur hav+ an int]m$iate "* betwe5 p]fect jasp] & ! f]rug9\s1 decompos$1 basaltic base4 ,9 ^! pat*es1 & likewise 9 ! l>ge ve9-l masses ( jasp]1 !re occur little r\nd$ cavities1 ( exactly ! same size & =m ) ! air-cells1 :i* 9 ! scoriace\s basalt are fill$ & l9$ ) lay]s ( *alc$ony4 ,small fragm5ts ( ! jasp]1 exam9$ "u ! microscope1 seem to resemble ! *alc$ony ) its col\r+ matt] n sep>at$ into lay]s1 b m+l$ 9 ! silice\s pa/e1 toge!r ) "s impurities4 ,i c und]/& ^! facts1--namely1 ! bl5d+ ( ! jasp] into ! semi-decompos$ basalt1--its occurr5ce 9 angul> pat*es1 :i* cle>ly d n occupy pre-exi/+ holl[s 9 ! rock1--& its conta9+ little vesicles fill$ ) *alc$ony1 l ^? 9 ! scoriace\s lava1--only on ! supposition t a fluid1 probably ! same fluid :i* deposit$ ! *alc$ony 9 ! air-cells1 remov$ 9 ^? p>ts :]e !re 7 no cavities1 ! +r$i5ts ( ! basaltic rock1 & left 9 _! place silica & iron1 & ?us produc$ ! jasp]4 ,9 "s specim5s ( silicifi$ wood1 ,i h obs]v$1 t 9 ! same mann] z 9 ! basalt1 ! solid p>ts 7 conv]t$ into a d>k-col\r$ homog5e\s /one1 :]eas ! cavities =m$ by ! l>g] sap-vessels 7:i* may be comp>$ ) ! air-vesicles 9 ! basaltic lava7 & o!r irregul> holl[s1 app>5tly produc$ by decay1 7 fill$ ) conc5tric lay]s ( *alc$ony2 9 ?is case1 !re c be little d\bt t ! same fluid deposit$ ! homog5e\s base & ! *alc$onic lay]s4 ,aft] ^! consid]ations1 ,i _c d\bt b t ! jasp] ( ,asc5sion may be view$ z a volcanic rock silicifi$1 9 precisely ! same s5se z ?is t]m is appli$ to wood1 :5 silicifi$2 we are equally ignorant ( ! means by :i* e atom ( wood1 :il/ 9 a p]fect /ate1 is remov$ & replac$ by atoms ( silica1 z we are ( ! means by :i* ! con/itu5t p>ts ( a volcanic rock c\ld be ?us act$ on4#ad ,i 0 l$ to ! c>eful exam9ation ( ^! rocks1 & to ! conclusion "h giv51 f hav+ he>d ! ,rev4 ,pr(essor ,h5sl[ express a simil> op9ion1 reg>d+ ! orig9 9 trap-rocks ( _m *alc$onies & agates4 ,silice\s deposits seem to be v g5]al1 if n ( univ]sal occurr5ce1 9 p>tially decompos$ tra*ytic tuffs2#ae & z ^! hills1 accord+ to ! view above giv51 consi/ ( tra*yte s(t5$ & alt]$ 9 situ1 ! pres5ce ( free silica 9 ?is case may be add$ z "o m in/ance to ! li/4 #ad ,beudant 78,voyage en ,hongrie10 tome iii1 pp4 #ejb1 #ejd7 describes kidney-%ap$ masses ( jasp]-opal1 :i* ei!r bl5d into ! surr\nd+ tra*ytic conglom]ate1 or are emb$d$ 9 x l *alk-fl9ts2 & he comp>es !m ) ! fragm5ts ( opalis$ wood1 :i* are abundant 9 ?is same =mation4 ,beudant1 h[ev]1 appe>s to h view$ ! process ( _! =mation r z "o ( simple infiltration ?an ( molecul> ex*ange2 b ! pres5ce ( a concretion1 :olly diff]5t f ! surr\nd+ matt]1 if n =m$ 9 a pre-exi/+ holl[1 cle>ly seems to me to require1 ei!r a molecul> or me*anical displacem5t ( ! atoms1 :i* occupi$ ! space aft]w>ds fill$ by x4 ,! jasp]-opal ( ,hung>y passes into *alc$ony1 & !re=e 9 ?is case1 z 9 t ( ,asc5sion1 jasp] seems to be intimately relat$ 9 orig9 ) *alc$ony4 #ae ,beudant 78,voyage ,m9410 tome iii1 p4 #ejg7 enum]ates cases 9 ,hung>y1 ,g]many1 ,c5tral ,france1 ,italy1 ,greece1 & ,mexico4 ,concretions 9 pumice\s tuff4--,! hill1 m>k$ 9 ,map #b 8,crat] ( an old volcano10 has no claims to ?is appellation1 :i* ,i c\ld discov]1 except 9 be+ surm\nt$ by a circul>1 v %all[1 sauc]-l summit1 ne>ly half a mile 9 diamet]4 ,?is holl[ has be5 ne>ly fill$ up ) _m successive %eets ( a%es & scori1 ( diff]5t col\rs1 & slightly consolidat$4 ,ea* successive sauc]-%ap$ lay] crops out all r\nd ! m>g91 =m+ s _m r+s ( v>i\s col\rs1 & giv+ to ! hill a fanta/ic appe>ance4 ,! out] r+ is broad1 & ( a :ite col\r2 h5ce x resembles a c\rse r\nd :i* horses h be5 ex]cis$1 & has receiv$ ! "n ( ! ,devil's ,rid+ ,s*ool1 by :i* x is mo/ g5]ally kn[n4 ,^! successive lay]s ( a%es mu/ h fall5 ov] ! :ole surr\nd+ c\ntry1 b !y h all be5 bl[n away except 9 ?is "o holl[1 9 :i* probably moi/ure accumulat$1 ei!r dur+ an extraord9>y ye> :5 ra9 fell1 or dur+ ! /orms (t5 accompany+ volcanic eruptions4 ,"o ( ! lay]s ( a p9ki% col\r1 & *iefly d]iv$ f small1 decompos$ fragm5ts ( pumice1 is rem>kable1 f conta9+ num]\s concretions4 ,^! are g5]ally sph]ical1 f half an in* to ?ree in*es 9 diamet]2 b !y are occasionally cyl9drical1 l ^? ( iron-pyrites 9 ! *alk ( ,europe4 ,!y consi/ ( a v t\gh1 compact1 pale-br[n /one1 ) a smoo? & ev5 fracture4 ,!y are divid$ into conc5tric lay]s by ?9 :ite p>titions1 resembl+ ! ext]nal sup]ficies2 six or eight ( su* lay]s are di/9ctly def9$ ne> ! outside2 b ^? t[>ds ! inside g5]ally become indi/9ct1 & bl5d into a homog5e\s mass4 ,i presume t ^! conc5tric lay]s 7 =m$ by ! %r9k+ ( ! concretion1 z x became compact4 ,! int]ior "p is g5]ally fissur$ by m9ute cracks or sept>ia1 :i* are l9$1 bo? by black1 metallic1 & by o!r :ite & cry/all9e specks1 ! nature ( :i* ,i 0 unable to asc]ta94 ,"s ( ! l>g] concretions consi/ ( a m]e sph]ical %ell1 fill$ ) slightly consolidat$ a%es4 ,! concretions conta9 a small proportion ( c>bonate ( lime3 a fragm5t plac$ "u ! bl[pipe decrepitates1 !n :it5s & fuses into a blebby enamel1 b does n become cau/ic4 ,! surr\nd+ a%es d n conta9 any c>bonate ( lime2 h5ce ! concretions h probably be5 =m$1 z is s (t5 ! case1 by ! aggregation ( ?is sub/ance4 ,i h n met ) any acc\nt ( simil> concretions2 & consid]+ _! great t\ghness & compactness1 _! occurr5ce 9 a b$1 :i* probably has be5 subject$ only to atmosph]ic moi/ure1 is rem>kable4 ,=mation ( calc>e\s rocks on ! sea-coa/4--,on sev]al ( ! sea-bea*es1 !re are imm5se accumulations ( small1 well-r\nd$ p>ticles ( %ells & corals1 ( :ite1 yell[i%1 & p9k col\rs1 int]sp]s$ ) a few volcanic p>ticles4 ,at ! dep? ( a few feet1 ^! are f\nd cem5t$ toge!r into /one1 ( :i* ! s(t] v>ieties are us$ = build+2 !re are o!r v>ieties1 bo? co>se & f9e-gra9$1 too h>d = ?is purpose3 & ,i saw "o mass divid$ into ev5 lay]s half an in* 9 ?ickness1 :i* 7 s compact t :5 /ruck ) a hamm] !y rang l fl9t4 ,x is believ$ by ! inhabitants1 t ! p>ticles become unit$ 9 ! c\rse ( a s+le ye>4 ,! union is effect$ by calc>e\s matt]2 & 9 ! mo/ compact v>ieties1 ea* r\nd$ p>ticle ( %ell & volcanic rock c be di/9ctly se5 to be envelop$ 9 a husk ( pellucid c>bonate ( lime4 ,extremely few p]fect %ells are emb$d$ 9 ^! agglut9at$ masses2 & ,i h exam9$ ev5 a l>ge fragm5t "u a microscope1 )\t be+ able to discov] ! lea/ ve/ige ( /ri or o!r m>ks ( ext]nal =m3 ?is %[s h[ long ea* p>ticle mu/ h be5 roll$ ab\t1 be=e its turn came to be emb$d$ & cem5t$4#af ,"o ( ! mo/ compact v>ieties1 :5 plac$ 9 acid1 0 entirely dissolv$1 ) ! exception ( "s floccul5t animal matt]2 its specific gravity 0 #bfc4 ,! specific gravity ( ord9>y lime/one v>ies f #bf to #bge2 pure ,c>r>a m>ble 0 f\nd by ,sir ,h4 ,de la ,be*e#ag to be #bg4 ,x is rem>kable t ^! rocks ( ,asc5sion1 =m$ close to ! surface1 %\ld be ne>ly z compact z m>ble1 :i* has und]gone ! action ( heat & pressure 9 ! plutonic regions4 #af ,! eggs ( ! turtle be+ buri$ by ! p>5t1 sometimes become enclos$ 9 ! solid rock4 ,mr4 ,lyell has giv5 a figure 78,pr9ciples ( ,geology10 book iii1 *4 #ag7 ( "s eggs1 conta9+ ! bones ( "y turtles1 f\nd ?us entomb$4 #ag 8,rese>*es 9 ,!oretical ,geology10 p4 #ab4 ,! great accumulation ( loose calc>e\s p>ticles1 ly+ on ! bea* ne> ! ,settlem5t1 comm5ces 9 ! mon? ( ,octob]1 mov+ t[>ds ! ,s4,w41 :i*1 z ,i 0 in=m$ by ,lieut5ant ,evans1 is caus$ by a *ange 9 ! prevail+ direction ( ! curr5ts4 ,at ?is p]iod ! tidal rocks1 at ! ,s4,w4 end ( ! bea*1 :]e ! calc>e\s s& is accumulat+1 & r\nd :i* ! curr5ts sweep1 become gradually coat$ ) a calc>e\s incru/ation1 half an in* 9 ?ickness4 ,x is q :ite1 compact1 ) "s p>ts slightly spa?ose1 & is firmly atta*$ to ! rock4 ,aft] a %ort "t x gradually disappe>s1 be+ ei!r r$issolv$1 :5 ! wat] is less *>g$ ) lime1 or m probably is me*anically abrad$4 ,lieut5ant ,evans has obs]v$ ^! facts1 dur+ ! six ye>s he has resid$ at ,asc5sion4 ,! incru/ation v>ies 9 ?ickness 9 diff]5t ye>s3 9 #ahca x 0 unusually ?ick4 ,:5 ,i 0 !re 9 ,july1 !re 0 no remnant ( ! incru/ation2 b on a po9t ( basalt1 f :i* ! qu>rym5 _h lately remov$ a mass ( ! calc>e\s free/one1 ! incru/ation 0 p]fectly pres]v$4 ,consid]+ ! position ( ! tidal-rocks1 & ! p]iod at :i* !y become coat$1 !re c be no d\bt t ! movem5t & di/urbance ( ! va/ accumulation ( calc>e\s p>ticles1 _m ( !m be+ p>tially agglut9at$ toge!r1 cause ! waves ( ! sea to be s highly *>g$ ) c>bonate ( lime1 t !y deposit x on ! fir/ objects aga9/ :i* !y imp+e4 ,i h be5 in=m$ by ,lieut5ant ,holl&1 ,r4,n41 t ?is incru/ation is =m$ on _m p>ts ( ! coa/1 on mo/ ( :i*1 ,i believe1 !re are likewise great masses ( comm9ut$ %ells4 ,a frondesc5t calc>e\s incru/ation4--,9 _m respects ?is is a s+ul> deposit2 x coats ?r\gh\t ! ye> ! tidal volcanic rocks1 t project f ! bea*es compos$ ( brok5 %ells4 ,its g5]al appe>ance is well repres5t$ 9 ,figure #e2 b ! fronds or discs1 ( :i* x is compos$1 are g5]ally s closely cr[d$ toge!r z to t\*4 ,^! fronds h _! s9u\s edges f9ely cr5ulat$1 & !y project ov] _! p$e/als or supports2 _! upp] surfaces are ei!r slightly concave1 or slightly convex2 !y are highly poli%$1 & ( a d>k grey or jet black col\r2 _! =m is irregul>1 g5]ally circul>1 & f ! t5? ( an in* to "o in* & a half 9 diamet]2 _! ?ickness1 or am\nt ( _! projection f ! rock on :i* !y /&1 v>ies mu*1 ab\t a qu>t] ( an in* be+ p]haps mo/ usual4 ,! fronds occasionally become m & m convex1 until !y pass into botryoidal masses ) _! summits fissur$2 :5 9 ?is /ate1 !y are glossy & ( an int5se black1 s z to resemble "s fus$ metallic sub/ance4 ,i h %[n ! incru/ation1 bo? 9 ?is latt] & 9 its ord9>y /ate to sev]al geologi/s1 b n "o c\ld conjecture its orig91 except t p]haps x 0 ( volcanic nature6 ,no4 #e ,illu/ration3 ,an incru/ration ( calc>e\s & animal matt]4 ,an incru/ation ( calc>e\s & animal matt]1 coat+ ! tidal-rocks at ,asc5sion4 ,! sub/ance =m+ ! fronds has a v compact & (t5 almo/ cry/all9e fracture2 ! edges be+ transluc5t1 & h>d en\gh easily to scrat* calc>e\s sp>4 ,"u ! bl[pipe x imm$iately becomes :ite1 & emits a /rong animal od\r1 l t f fre% %ells4 ,x is *iefly compos$ ( c>bonate ( lime2 :5 plac$ 9 muriatic acid x fro?s mu*1 leav+ a residue ( sulphate ( lime1 & ( an oxide ( iron1 toge!r ) a black p[d]1 :i* is n soluble 9 heat$ acids4 ,?is latt] sub/ance seems to be c>bonace\s1 & is evid5tly ! col\r+ matt]4 ,! sulphate ( lime is extrane\s1 & occurs 9 di/9ct1 excessively m9ute1 lamell> plates1 /udd$ on ! surface ( ! fronds1 & emb$d$ betwe5 ! f9e lay]s ( :i* !y are compos$2 :5 a fragm5t is heat$ 9 ! bl[pipe1 ^! lamell are imm$iately r5d]$ visible4 ,! orig9al outl9e ( ! fronds may (t5 be trac$1 ei!r to a m9ute p>ticle ( %ell fix$ 9 a crevice ( ! rock1 or to sev]al cem5t$ toge!r2 ^! fir/ become deeply corrod$1 by ! dissolv+ p[] ( ! waves1 into %>p ridges1 & !n are coat$ ) successive lay]s ( ! glossy1 grey1 calc>e\s incru/ation4 ,! inequalities ( ! prim>y support affect ! outl9e ( e successive lay]1 9 ! same mann] z may (t5 be se5 9 bezo>-/ones1 :5 an object l a nail =ms ! c5tre ( aggregation4 ,! cr5ulat$ edges1 h[ev]1 ( ! frond appe> to be due to ! corrod+ p[] ( ! surf on its own deposit1 alt]nat+ ) fre% depositions4 ,on "s smoo? basaltic rocks on ! coa/ ( ,/4 ,jago1 ,i f\nd an exce$+ly ?9 lay] ( br[n calc>e\s matt]1 :i* "u a l5s pres5t$ a m9iature lik5ess ( ! cr5ulat$ & poli%$ fronds ( ,asc5sion2 9 ?is case a basis 0 n af=d$ by any project+ extrane\s p>ticles4 ,al?\gh ! incru/ation at ,asc5sion is p]si/5t ?r\gh\t ! ye>2 yet f ! abrad$ appe>ance ( "s p>ts1 & f ! fre% appe>ance ( o!r p>ts1 ! :ole seems to und]go a r\nd ( decay & r5ovation1 due probably to *anges 9 ! =m ( ! %ift+ bea*1 & consequ5tly 9 ! action ( ! break]s3 h5ce probably x is1 t ! incru/ation nev] acquires a great ?ickness4 ,consid]+ ! position ( ! encru/$ rocks 9 ! mid/ ( ! calc>e\s bea*1 toge!r ) its composition1 ,i ?9k !re c be no d\bt t its orig9 is due to ! dissolution & subsequ5t deposition ( ! matt] compos+ ! r\nd$ p>ticles ( %ells & corals4#ah ,f ?is s\rce x d]ives its animal matt]1 :i* is evid5tly ! col\r+ pr9ciple4 ,! nature ( ! deposit1 9 its incipi5t /age1 c (t5 be well se5 ^u a fragm5t ( :ite %ell1 :5 jamm$ betwe5 two ( ! fronds2 x !n appe>s exactly l ! ?9ne/ wa% ( a pale grey v>ni%4 ,its d>kness v>ies a little1 b ! jet blackness ( "s ( ! fronds & ( ! botryoidal masses seems due to ! transluc5cy ( ! successive grey lay]s4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 ?is s+ul> circum/ance1 t :5 deposit$ on ! "u side ( l$ges ( rock or 9 fissures1 x appe>s always to be ( a pale1 pe>ly grey col\r1 ev5 :5 ( consid]able ?ickness3 h5ce "o is l$ to suppose1 t an abundance ( light is necess>y to ! developm5t ( ! d>k col\r1 9 ! same mann] z seems to be ! case ) ! upp] & expos$ surfaces ( ! %ells ( liv+ mollusca1 :i* are always d>k1 comp>$ ) _! "u surfaces & ) ! p>ts habitually cov]$ by ! mantle ( ! animal4 ,9 ?is circum/ance1--9 ! imm$iate loss ( col\r & 9 ! od\r emitt$ "u ! bl[pipe1--9 ! degree ( h>dness & transluc5cy ( ! edges1--& 9 ! beautiful poli% ( ! surface1#ai rivall+ :5 9 a fre% /ate t ( ! f9e/ ,oliva1 !re is a /rik+ analogy betwe5 ?is inorganic incru/ation & ! %ells ( liv+ mollusc\s animals4#bj ,?is appe>s to me to be an int]e/+ physiological fact4#ba #ah ,! sel5ite1 z ,i h rem>k$ is extrane\s1 & mu/ h be5 d]iv$ f ! sea-wat]4 ,x is an int]e/+ circum/ance ?us to f9d ! waves ( ! ocean1 suffici5tly *>g$ ) sulphate ( lime1 to deposit x on ! rocks1 aga9/ :i* !y da% e tide4 ,dr4 ,web/] has describ$ 78,voyage ( ! ,*anticle]10 vol4 ii1 p4 #cai7 b$s ( gypsum & salt1 z mu* z two feet 9 ?ickness1 left by ! evaporation ( ! spray on ! rocks on ! w9dw>d coa/4 ,beautiful /alactites ( sel5ite1 resembl+ 9 =m ^? ( c>bonate ( lime1 are =m$ ne> ^! b$s4 ,amorph\s masses ( gypsum1 also1 occur 9 cav]ns 9 ! int]ior ( ! isl&2 & at ,cross ,hill 7an old crat]7 ,i saw a consid]able quantity ( salt ooz+ f a pile ( scori4 ,9 ^! latt] cases1 ! salt & gypsum appe> to be volcanic products47 #ai ,f ! fact describ$ 9 my 8,j\rnal ( ,rese>*es0 ( a coat+ ( oxide ( iron1 deposit$ by a /reamlet on ! rocks 9 its b$ 7l a ne>ly simil> coat+ at ! great cat>acts ( ! ,or9oco & ,nile71 becom+ f9ely poli%$ :]e ! surf acts1 ,i presume t ! surf 9 ?is in/ance1 also1 is ! poli%+ ag5t47 #bj ,9 ! section descriptive ( ,/4 ,paul's ,rocks1 ,i h describ$ a glossy1 pe>ly sub/ance1 :i* coats ! rocks1 & an alli$ /alactitical incru/ation f ,asc5sion1 ! cru/ ( :i* resembles ! enamel ( tee?1 b is h>d en\gh to scrat* plate-glass4 ,bo? ^! sub/ances conta9 animal matt]1 & seem to h be5 d]iv$ f wat] 9 filt]+ ?r\gh birds' dung4 #ba ,mr4 ,horn] & ,sir ,david ,brew/] h describ$ 78,philosophical ,transactions10 #ahcf1 p4 #fe7 a s+ul> 8artificial sub/ance1 resembl+ %ell40 ,x is deposit$ 9 f9e1 transp>5t1 highly poli%$1 br[n-col\r$ lam91 possess+ peculi> optical prop]ties1 on ! inside ( a vessel1 9 :i* clo?1 fir/ prep>$ ) glue & !n ) lime1 is made to revolve rapidly 9 wat]4 ,x is mu* s(t]1 m transp>5t1 & conta9s m animal matt]1 ?an ! natural incru/ation at ,asc5sion2 b we "h aga9 see ! /rong t5d5cy :i* c>bonate ( lime & animal matt] ev9ce to =m a solid sub/ance alli$ to %ell4 ,s+ul> lam9at$ b$s alt]nat+ ) & pass+ into obsidian4--,^! b$s occur )9 ! tra*ytic di/rict1 at ! we/]n base ( ,gre5 ,m\nta91 "u :i* !y dip at a high incl9ation4 ,!y are only p>tially expos$1 be+ cov]$ up by mod]n ejections2 f ?is cause1 ,i 0 unable to trace _! junction ) ! tra*yte1 or to discov] :e!r !y _h fl[$ z a /ream ( lava1 or _h be5 inject$ amid/ ! ov]ly+ /rata4 ,!re are ?ree pr9cipal b$s ( obsidian1 ( :i* ! ?icke/ =ms ! base ( ! section4 ,! alt]nat+ /ony lay]s appe> to me em95tly curi\s1 & %all be fir/ describ$1 & aft]w>ds _! passage into ! obsidian4 ,!y h an extremely div]sifi$ appe>ance2 five pr9cipal v>ieties may be notic$1 b ^! ins5sibly bl5d into ea* o!r by endless gradations4 ,fir/4--,a pale grey1 irregul>ly & co>sely lam9at$1#bb h>%-feel+ rock1 resembl+ clay-slate :i* has be5 9 contact ) a trap-dike1 & ) a fracture ( ab\t ! same degree ( cry/all9e /ructure4 ,?is rock1 z well z ! foll[+ v>ieties1 easily fuses into a pale glass4 ,! great] "p is honeycomb$ ) irregul>1 angul>1 cavities1 s t ! :ole has a curi\s appe>ance1 & "s fragm5ts resemble 9 a rem>kable mann] silicifi$ logs ( decay$ wood4 ,?is v>iety1 especially :]e m compact1 is (t5 m>k$ ) ?9 :iti% /reaks1 :i* are ei!r /raight or wrap r\nd1 "o beh9d ! o!r1 ! elongat$ c>i\s holl[s4 #bb ,?is t]m is op5 to "s mis9t]pretation1 z x may be appli$ bo? to rocks divid$ into lam9 ( exactly ! same composition1 & to lay]s firmly atta*$ to ea* o!r1 ) no fissile t5d5cy1 b compos$ ( diff]5t m9]als1 or ( diff]5t %ades ( col\r4 ,! t]m 8lam9at$10 9 ?is *apt]1 is appli$ 9 ^! latt] s5ses2 :]e a homog5e\s rock splits1 z 9 ! =m] s5se1 9 a giv5 direction1 l clay-slate1 ,i h us$ ! t]m 8fissile40 ,secondly4--,a blui% grey or pale br[n1 compact1 heavy1 homog5e\s /one1 ) an angul>1 unev51 e>?y fracture2 view$1 h[ev]1 "u a l5s ( high p[]1 ! fracture is se5 to be di/9ctly cry/all9e1 & ev5 sep>ate m9]als c be di/+ui%$4 ,?irdly4--,a /one ( ! same k9d ) ! la/1 b /reak$ ) num]\s1 p>allel1 slightly tortu\s1 :ite l9es ( ! ?ickness ( hairs4 ,^! :ite l9es are m cry/all9e ?an ! p>ts betwe5 !m2 & ! /one splits along !m3 !y frequ5tly exp& into exce$+ly ?9 cavities1 :i* are (t5 only j p]ceptible ) a l5s4 ,! matt] =m+ ! :ite l9es becomes bett] cry/allis$ 9 ^! cavities1 & ,pr(essor ,mill] 0 =tunate en\gh1 aft] sev]al trials1 to asc]ta9 t ! :ite cry/als1 :i* are ! l>ge/1 7 ( qu>tz1#bc & t ! m9ute gre5 transp>5t ne$les 7 augite1 or1 z !y w\ld m g5]ally be call$1 diopside3 besides ^! cry/als1 !re are "s m9ute1 d>k specks )\t a trace ( cry/all9e1 & "s f9e1 :ite1 granul>1 cry/all9e matt] :i* is probably feldsp>4 ,m9ute fragm5ts ( ?is rock are easily fusible4 #bc ,pr(essor ,mill] in=ms me t ! cry/als :i* he measur$ _h ! faces ,p1 z1 m ( ! figure 7#adg7 giv5 by ,haid+] 9 8 ,translation ( ,mohs2 & he adds1 t x is rem>kable1 t none ( !m _h ! slighte/ trace ( faces r ( ! regul> six-sid$ prism4 ,f\r?ly4--,a compact cry/all9e rock1 b&$ 9 /raight l9es ) innum]able lay]s ( :ite & grey %ades ( col\r1 v>y+ 9 wid? f ! ?irtie? to ! two-hundr$? ( an in*2 ^! lay]s seem to be compos$ *iefly ( feldsp>1 & !y conta9 num]\s p]fect cry/als ( glassy feldsp>1 :i* are plac$ l5g?ways2 !y are also ?ickly /udd$ ) microscopically m9ute1 amorph\s1 black specks1 :i* are plac$ 9 r[s1 ei!r /&+ sep>ately1 or m frequ5tly unit$1 two or ?ree or sev]al toge!r1 into black l9es1 ?9n] ?an a hair4 ,:5 a small fragm5t is heat$ 9 ! bl[pipe1 ! black specks are easily fus$ into black brilliant beads1 :i* become magnetic1--*>act]s t apply to no common m9]al except hornbl5de or augite4 ,) ! black specks !re are m+l$ "s o!rs ( a r$ col\r1 :i* are magnetic be=e be+ heat$1 & no d\bt are oxide ( iron4 ,r\nd two little cavities1 9 a specim5 ( ?is v>iety1 ,i f\nd ! black specks aggregat$ into m9ute cry/als1 appe>+ l ^? ( augite or hornbl5de1 b too dull & small to be measur$ by ! goniomet]2 9 ! specim51 also1 ,i c\ld di/+ui% amid/ ! cry/all9e feldsp>1 gra9s1 :i* _h ! aspect ( qu>tz4 ,by try+ ) a p>allel rul]1 ,i f\nd t ! ?9 grey lay]s & ! black hair-l l9es 7 absolutely /raight & p>allel to ea* o!r4 ,x is impossible to trace ! gradation f ! homog5e\s grey rocks to ^! /rip$ v>ieties1 or inde$ ! "* ( ! diff]5t lay]s 9 ! same specim51 )\t feel+ conv9c$ t ! m or less p]fect :it5ess ( ! cry/all9e feldspa?ic matt] dep5ds on ! m or less p]fect aggregation ( diffus$ matt]1 into ! black & r$ specks ( hornbl5de & oxide ( iron4 ,fif?ly4--,a compact heavy rock1 n lam9at$1 ) an irregul>1 angul>1 highly cry/all9e1 fracture2 x ab\nds ) di/9ct cry/als ( glassy feldsp>1 & ! cry/all9e feldspa?ic base is mottl$ ) a black m9]al1 :i* on ! wea!r$ surface is se5 to be aggregat$ into small cry/als1 "s p]fect1 b ! great] numb] imp]fect4 ,i %[$ ?is specim5 to an exp]i5c$ geologi/1 & ask$ him :at x 02 he answ]$1 z ,i ?9k e "o else w\ld h done1 t x 0 a primitive gre5/one4 ,! wea!r$ surface1 also1 ( ! b&$ v>iety 9 figure ,no4 #d1 /rik+ly resembles a worn fragm5t ( f9ely lam9at$ gneiss4 ,^! five v>ieties1 ) _m int]m$iate ones1 pass & repass into ea* o!r4 ,z ! compact v>ieties are q subord9ate to ! o!rs1 ! :ole may be consid]$ z lam9at$ or /rip$4 ,! lam91 to sum up _! *>act]i/ics1 are ei!r q /raight1 or slightly tortu\s1 or convolut$2 !y are all p>allel to ea* o!r1 & to ! int]calat+ /rata ( obsidian2 !y are g5]ally ( extreme ?9ness2 !y consi/ ei!r ( an app>5tly homog5e\s1 compact rock1 /rip$ ) diff]5t %ades ( grey & br[n col\rs1 or ( cry/all9e feldspa?ic lay]s 9 a m or less p]fect /ate ( purity1 & ( diff]5t ?icknesses1 ) di/9ct cry/als ( glassy feldsp> plac$ l5g?ways1 or ( v ?9 lay]s *iefly compos$ ( m9ute cry/als ( qu>tz & augite1 or compos$ ( black & r$ specks ( an augitic m9]al & ( an oxide ( iron1 ei!r n cry/allis$ or imp]fectly s4 ,aft] hav+ fully describ$ ! obsidian1 ,i %all return to ! subject ( ! lam9ation ( rocks ( ! tra*ytic s]ies4 ,! passage ( ! =ego+ b$s into ! /rata ( glassy obsidian is effect$ 9 sev]al ways3 fir/1 angulo-modul> masses ( obsidian1 bo? l>ge & small1 abruptly appe> dissem9at$ 9 a slaty1 or 9 an amorph\s1 pale-col\r$1 feldspa?ic rock1 ) a some:at pe>ly fracture4 ,secondly1 small irregul> nodules ( ! obsidian1 ei!r /&+ sep>ately1 or unit$ into ?9 lay]s1 seldom m ?an ! t5? ( an in* 9 ?ickness1 alt]nate repeat$ly ) v ?9 lay]s ( a feldspa?ic rock1 :i* is /rip$ ) ! f9e/ p>allel zones ( col\r1 l an agate1 & :i* sometimes passes into ! nature ( pit*/one2 ! int]/ices betwe5 ! nodules ( obsidian are g5]ally fill$ by s(t :ite matt]1 resembl+ pumice\s a%es4 ,?irdly1 ! :ole sub/ance ( ! b\nd+ rock sudd5ly passes into an angulo-concretion>y mass ( obsidian4 ,su* masses 7z well z ! small nodules7 ( obsidian are ( a pale gre5 col\r1 & are g5]ally /reak$ ) diff]5t %ades ( col\r1 p>allel to ! lam9 ( ! surr\nd+ rock2 !y likewise g5]ally conta9 m9ute :ite sphrulites1 ( :i* half is sometimes emb$d$ 9 a zone ( "o %ade ( col\r1 & half 9 a zone ( ano!r %ade4 ,! obsidian assumes its jet black col\r & p]fectly con*oidal fracture1 only :5 9 l>ge masses2 b ev5 9 ^!1 on c>eful exam9ation & on hold+ ! specim5s 9 diff]5t lights1 ,i c\ld g5]ally di/+ui% p>allel /reaks ( diff]5t %ades ( d>kness4 ,no4 #f ,illu/ration3 ,opaque br[n sphrulites1 drawn on an enl>g$ scale4 ,opaque br[n sphrulites1 drawn on an enl>g$ scale4 ,! upp] ones are ext]nally m>k$ ) p>allel ridges4 ,! int]nal radiat+ /ructure ( ! l[] ones1 is mu* too pla9ly repres5t$4 ,no4 #g ,illu/ration3 ,a lay]1 =m$ by ! union ( m9ute br[n sphrulites4 ,a lay]1 =m$ by ! union ( m9ute br[n sphrulites1 int]sect+ two o!r simil> lay]s3 ! :ole repres5t$ ( ne>ly ! natural size4 ,"o ( ! commone/ transitional rocks des]ves 9 sev]al respects a fur!r description4 ,x is ( a v complicat$ nature1 & consi/s ( num]\s ?91 slightly tortu\s lay]s ( a pale-col\r$ feldspa?ic /one1 (t5 pass+ into an imp]fect pit*/one1 alt]nat+ ) lay]s =m$ ( numb]less little globules ( two v>ieties ( obsidian1 & ( two k9ds ( sphrulites1 emb$d$ 9 a s(t or 9 a h>d pe>ly base4 ,! sphrulites are ei!r :ite & transluc5t1 or d>k br[n & opaque2 ! =m] are q sph]ical1 ( small size1 & di/9ctly radiat$ f _! c5tre4 ,! d>k br[n sphrulites are less p]fectly r\nd1 & v>y 9 diamet] f ! tw5tie? to ! ?irtie? ( an in*2 :5 brok5 !y exhibit t[>ds _! c5tres1 :i* are :iti%1 an obscure radiat+ /ructure2 two ( !m :5 unit$ sometimes h only "o c5tral po9t ( radiation2 !re is occasionally a trace ( or a holl[ crevice 9 _! c5tres4 ,!y /& ei!r sep>ately1 or are unit$ two or ?ree or _m toge!r into irregul> gr\ps1 or m commonly into lay]s1 p>allel to ! /ratification ( ! mass4 ,?is union 9 _m cases is s p]fect1 t ! two sides ( ! lay] ?us =m$1 are q ev52 & ^! lay]s1 z !y become less br[n & opaque1 _c be di/+ui%$ f ! alt]nat+ lay]s ( ! pale-col\r$ feldspa?ic /one4 ,! sphrulites1 :5 n unit$1 are g5]ally compress$ 9 ! plane ( ! lam9ation ( ! mass2 & 9 ?is same plane1 !y are (t5 m>k$ int]nally1 by zones ( diff]5t %ades ( col\r1 & ext]nally by small ridges & furr[s4 ,9 ! upp] "p ( figure ,no4 #f1 ! sphrulites ) ! p>allel ridges & furr[s are repres5t$ on an enl>g$ scale1 b !y are n well execut$2 & 9 ! l[] "p1 _! usual mann] ( gr\p+ is %[n4 ,9 ano!r specim51 a ?9 lay] =m$ ( ! br[n sphrulites closely unit$ toge!r1 int]sects1 z repres5t$ 9 figure ,no4 #g1 a lay] ( simil> composition2 & aft] runn+ = a %ort space 9 a slightly curv$ l9e1 aga9 int]sects x1 & likewise a second lay] ly+ a little way b5ea? t fir/ int]sect$4 ,! small nodules also ( obsidian are sometimes ext]nally m>k$ ) ridges & furr[s1 p>allel to ! lam9ation ( ! mass1 b always less pla9ly ?an ! sphrulites4 ,^! obsidian nodules are g5]ally angul>1 ) _! edges blunt$3 !y are (t5 impress$ ) ! =m ( ! adjo9+ sphrulites1 ?an :i* !y are always l>g]2 ! sep>ate nodules seldom appe> to h drawn ea* o!r out by ex]t+ a mutually attractive =ce4 ,_h ,i n f\nd 9 "s cases1 a di/9ct c5tre ( attraction 9 ^! nodules ( obsidian1 ,i %\ld h be5 l$ to h consid]$ !m z residu>y matt]1 left dur+ ! =mation ( ! pe>l/one1 9 :i* !y are emb$d$1 & ( ! sphrulitic globules4 ,! sphrulites & ! little nodules ( obsidian 9 ^! rocks s closely resemble1 9 g5]al =m & /ructure1 concretions 9 s$im5t>y deposits1 t "o is at once tempt$ to attribute to !m an analog\s orig94 ,!y resemble ord9>y concretions 9 ! foll[+ respects3 9 _! ext]nal =m1--9 ! union ( two or ?ree1 or ( sev]al1 into an irregul> mass1 or into an ev5-sid$ lay]1--9 ! occasional int]section ( "o su* lay] by ano!r1 z 9 ! case ( *alk-fl9ts1--9 ! pres5ce ( two or ?ree k9ds ( nodules1 (t5 close toge!r1 9 ! same basis1--9 _! fibr\s1 radiat+ /ructure1 ) occasional holl[s 9 _! c5tres1--9 ! co-exi/5ce ( a lam9>y1 concretion>y1 & radiat+ /ructure1 z is s well develop$ 9 ! concretions ( magnesian lime/one1 describ$ by ,pr(essor ,s$gwick4#bd ,concretions 9 s$im5t>y deposits1 x is kn[n1 are due to ! sep>ation f ! surr\nd+ mass ( ! :ole or "p ( "s m9]al sub/ance1 & its aggregation r\nd c]ta9 po9ts ( attraction4 ,guid$ by ?is fact1 ,i h endeav\r$ to discov] :e!r obsidian & ! sphrulites 7to :i* may be add$ m>ekanite & pe>l/one1 bo? ( !m occurr+ 9 nodul> concretions 9 ! tra*ytic s]ies7 diff] 9 _! con/itu5t p>ts1 f ! m9]als g5]ally compos+ tra*ytic rocks4 ,x appe>s f ?ree analyses1 t obsidian conta9s on an av]age #gf p] c5t ( silica2 f "o analysis1 t sphrulites conta9 #giab2 f two1 t m>ekanite conta9s #gibe2 & f two o!r analyses1 t pe>l/one conta9s #gefb ( silica4#be ,n[1 ! con/itu5t p>ts ( tra*yte1 z f> z !y c be di/+ui%$ consi/ ( feldsp>1 conta9+ #feba ( silica2 or ( albite1 conta9+ #fiji2 ( hornbl5de1 conta9+ #eebg1bf & ( oxide ( iron3 s t ! =ego+ glassy concretion>y sub/ances all conta9 a l>g] proportion ( silica ?an t occurr+ 9 ord9>y feldspa?ic or tra*ytic rocks4 ,d',aubuisson1#bg also1 has rem>k$ on ! l>ge proportion ( silica comp>$ ) alum9a1 9 six analyses ( obsidian & pe>l/one giv5 9 ,brongni>t's 8,m9]alogy40 ,h5ce ,i conclude1 t ! =ego+ concretions h be5 =m$ by a process ( aggregation1 /rictly analog\s to t :i* takes place 9 aque\s deposits1 act+ *iefly on ! silica1 b likewise on "s ( ! o!r elem5ts ( ! surr\nd+ mass1 & ?us produc+ ! diff]5t concretion>y v>ieties4 ,f ! well-kn[n effects ( rapid cool+#bh 9 giv+ glass9ess ( texture1 x is probably necess>y t ! entire mass1 9 cases l t ( ,asc5sion1 %\ld h cool$ at a c]ta9 rate2 b consid]+ ! repeat$ & complicat$ alt]ations ( nodules & ?9 lay]s ( a glassy texture ) o!r lay]s q /ony or cry/all9e1 all )9 ! space ( a few feet or ev5 in*es1 x is h>dly possible t !y c\ld h cool$ at diff]5t rates1 & ?us h acquir$ _! diff]5t textures4 #bd 8,geological ,transactions10 vol4 #c1 "p i1 p4 #cg4 #be ,! =ego+ analyses are tak5 f ,beudant 8,trait de ,m9ralogie10 tome ii1 p4 #aac2 & "o analysis ( obsidian f ,phillips's 8,m9]alogy40 #bf ,^! analyses are tak5 f ,von ,kobell's 8,grundzge d] ,m9]alogie10 #ahch4 #bg 8,trait de ,gogn410 tome ii1 p4 #ece4 #bh ,?is is se5 9 ! manufacture ( common glass1 & 9 ,gregory ,watts's exp]im5ts on molt5 trap2 also on ! natural surfaces ( lava-/reams1 & on ! side-walls ( dikes4 ,! natural sphrulites 9 ^! rocks#bi v closely resemble ^? produc$ 9 glass1 :5 sl[ly cool$4 ,9 "s f9e specim5s ( p>tially devitrifi$ glass1 9 ! possession ( ,mr4 ,/okes1 ! sphrulites are unit$ into /raight lay]s ) ev5 sides1 p>allel to ea* o!r1 & to "o ( ! out] surfaces1 exactly z 9 ! obsidian4 ,^! lay]s sometimes int]bran* & =m loops2 b ,i did n see any case ( actual int]section4 ,!y =m ! passage f ! p]fectly glassy portions1 to ^? ne>ly homog5e\s & /ony1 ) only an obscure concretion>y /ructure4 ,9 ! same specim51 also1 sphrulites diff]+ slightly 9 col\r & 9 /ructure1 occur emb$d$ close toge!r4 ,consid]+ ^! facts1 x is "s confirmation ( ! view above giv5 ( ! concretion>y orig9 ( ! obsidian & natural sphrulites1 to f9d t ,m4 ,d>tigues1#cj 9 8 curi\s pap] on ?is subject1 attributes ! production ( sphrulites 9 glass1 to ! diff]5t +r$i5ts obey+ _! own laws ( attraction & becom+ aggregat$4 ,he is l$ to believe t ?is takes place1 f ! difficulty 9 remelt+ sphrulitic glass1 )\t ! :ole be fir/ ?or\ghly p\nd$ & mix$ toge!r2 & likewise f ! fact1 t ! *ange takes place mo/ readily 9 glass compos$ ( _m +r$i5ts4 ,9 confirmation ( ,m4 ,d>tigues' view1 ,i may rem>k1 t ,m4 ,fleuriau de ,bellevue#ca f\nd t ! sphrulitic portions ( devitrifi$ glass 7 act$ on bo? by nitric acid & "u ! bl[pipe1 9 a diff]5t mann] f ! compact pa/e 9 :i* !y 7 emb$d$4 #bi ,i d n "k :e!r x is g5]ally kn[n1 t bodies hav+ exactly ! same appe>ance z sphrulites1 sometimes occur 9 agates4 ,mr4 ,rob]t ,br[n %[$ me 9 an agate1 =m$ )9 a cavity 9 a piece ( silicifi$ wood1 "s little specks1 :i* 7 only j visible to ! nak$ eye3 ^! specks1 :5 plac$ by him "u a l5s ( high p[]1 pres5t$ a beautiful appe>ance3 !y 7 p]fectly circul>1 & consi/$ ( ! f9e/ fibres ( a br[n col\r1 radiat+ ) great exactness f a common c5tre4 ,^! little radiat+ />s are occasionally int]sect$1 & portions are q cut (f by ! f9e1 ribbon-l zones ( col\r 9 ! agate4 ,9 ! obsidian ( ,asc5sion1 ! halves ( a sphrulite (t5 lie 9 diff]5t zones ( col\r1 b !y are n cut (f by !m1 z 9 ! agate4 #cj ,j\rnal de ,physique1 tome #ei 7#ahjd71 pp4 #aj1 #ab4 #ca ,idem1 tome #fj 7#ahje71 p4 #dah4 ,comp>ison ( ! obsidian b$s & alt]nat+ /rata ( asc5sion1 ) ^? ( o!r c\ntries4--,i h be5 /ruck ) mu* surprise1 h[ closely ! excell5t description ( ! obsidian rocks ( ,hung>y1 giv5 by ,beudant1#cb & t by ,humboldt1 ( ! same =mation 9 ,mexico & ,p]u1#cc & likewise ! descriptions giv5 by sev]al au?ors#cd ( ! tra*ytic regions 9 ! ,italian isl&s1 agree ) my obs]vations at ,asc5sion4 ,_m passages might h be5 transf]r$ )\t alt]ation f ! works ( ! above au?ors1 & w\ld h be5 applicable to ?is isl&4 ,!y all agree 9 ! lam9at$ & /ratifi$ "* ( ! :ole s]ies2 & ,humboldt speaks ( "s ( ! b$s ( obsidian be+ ribbon$ l jasp]4#ce ,!y all agree 9 ! nodul> or concretion>y "* ( ! obsidian1 & ( ! passage ( ^! nodules into lay]s4 ,!y all ref] to ! repeat$ alt]ations1 (t5 9 undulatory planes1 ( glassy1 pe>ly1 /ony1 & cry/all9e lay]s3 ! cry/all9e lay]s1 h[ev]1 seem to be mu* m p]fectly develop$ at ,asc5sion1 ?an 9 ! above-nam$ c\ntries4 ,humboldt comp>es "s ( ! /ony b$s1 :5 view$ f a di/ance1 to /rata ( a s*i/ose s&/one4 ,sphrulites are describ$ z occurr+ abundantly 9 all cases2 & !y ev]y:]e seem to m>k ! passage1 f ! p]fectly glassy to ! /ony & cry/all9e b$s4 ,beudant's acc\nt#cf ( 8 8p]lite li?oide globulaire0 9 e1 ev5 ! mo/ trifl+ p>ticul>1 might h be5 writt5 = ! little br[n sphrulitic globules ( ! rocks ( ,asc5sion4 #cb 8,voyage en ,hongrie10 tome i1 p4 #ccj2 tome ii1 pp4 #bba & #cae2 tome iii1 pp4 #cfi1 #cga1 #cgg1 #cha4 #cc 8,essai ,gogno/ique10 pp4 #agf1 #cbf1 #cbh4 #cd ,p4 ,scrope1 9 8,geological ,transactions10 vol4 ii 7second s]ies7 p4 #aie4 ,consult1 also1 ,dolomieu's 8,voyage aux ,isles ,lip>i10 & ,d',aubuisson1 8,trait de ,gogn410 tome ii1 p4 #ecd4 #ce ,9 ,mr4 ,/okes' f9e collection ( obsidians f ,mexico1 ,i obs]ve t ! sphrulites are g5]ally mu* l>g] ?an ^? ( ,asc5sion2 !y are g5]ally :ite1 opaque1 & are unit$ into di/9ct lay]s3 !re are _m s+ul> v>ieties1 diff]5t f any at ,asc5sion4 ,! obsidians are f9ely zon$1 9 q /raight or curv$ l9es1 ) exce$+ly slight diff]5ces ( t9t1 ( cellul>ity1 & ( m or less p]fect degrees ( glass9ess4 ,trac+ "s ( ! less p]fectly glassy zones1 !y are se5 to become /udd$ ) m9ute :ite sphrulites1 :i* become m & m num]\s1 until at la/ !y unite & =m a di/9ct lay]3 on ! o!r h&1 at ,asc5sion1 only ! br[n sphrulites unite & =m lay]s2 ! :ite ones always be+ irregul>ly dissem9at$4 ,"s specim5s at ! ,geological ,society1 said to belong to an obsidian =mation f ,mexico1 h an e>?y fracture1 & are divid$ 9 ! f9e/ p>allel lam91 by specks ( a black m9]al1 l ! augitic or hornbl5dic specks 9 ! rocks at ,asc5sion4 #cf ,beudant's 8,voyage10 tome iii1 p4 #cgc4 ,f ! close simil>ity 9 s _m respects1 betwe5 ! obsidian =mations ( ,hung>y1 ,mexico1 ,p]u1 & ( "s ( ! ,italian isl&s1 ) t ( ,asc5sion1 ,i c h>dly d\bt t 9 all ^! cases1 ! obsidian & ! sphrulites owe _! orig9 to a concretion>y aggregation ( ! silica1 & ( "s ( ! o!r con/itu5t elem5ts1 tak+ place :il/ ! liquifi$ mass cool$ at a c]ta9 requir$ rate4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 well-kn[n1 t 9 sev]al places1 obsidian has fl[$ 9 /reams l lava2 = in/ance1 at ,t5]iffe1 at ! ,lip>i ,isl&s1 & at ,icel&4#cg ,9 ^! cases1 ! sup]ficial p>ts are ! mo/ p]fectly glassy1 ! obsidian pass+ at ! dep? ( a few feet into an opaque /one4 ,9 an analysis by ,vauquel9 ( a specim5 ( obsidian f ,hecla1 :i* probably fl[$ z lava1 ! proportion ( silica is ne>ly ! same z 9 ! nodul> or concretion>y obsidian f ,mexico4 ,x w\ld be int]e/+ to asc]ta91 :e!r ! opaque int]ior portions & ! sup]ficial glassy coat+ conta9$ ! same proportional con/itu5t p>ts3 we "k f ,m4 ,dufrnoy#ch t ! ext]ior & int]ior p>ts ( ! same /ream ( lava sometimes diff] consid]ably 9 _! composition4 ,ev5 %\ld ! :ole body ( ! /ream ( obsidian turn out to be simil>ly compos$ ) nodul> obsidian1 x w\ld only be necess>y1 9 accordance ) ! =ego+ facts1 to suppose t lava 9 ^! in/ances _h be5 erupt$ ) its +r$i5ts mix$ 9 ! same proportion1 z 9 ! concretion>y obsidian4 #cg ,= ,t5]iffe1 see von ,bu*1 8,descript4 des ,isles ,can>ies10 pp4 #ahd & #aij2 = ! ,lip>i ,isl&s1 see ,dolomieu's 8,voyage10 p4 #cd2 = ,icel&1 see ,mack5zie's 8,travels10 p4 #cfi4 #ch 8,mmoires p\r s]vir a une ,descript4 ,golog4 de la ,france10 tome iv1 p4 #cga4 ,lam9ation ( volcanic rocks ( ! tra*ytic s]ies4 ,we h se5 t1 9 sev]al & widely di/ant c\ntries1 ! /rata alt]nat+ ) b$s ( obsidian1 are highly lam9at$4 ,! nodules1 also1 bo? l>ge & small1 ( ! obsidian1 are zon$ ) diff]5t %ades ( col\r2 & ,i h se5 a specim5 f ,mexico 9 ,mr4 ,/okes' collection1 ) its ext]nal surface wea!r$#ci into ridges & furr[s1 correspond+ ) ! zones ( diff]5t degrees ( glass9ess3 ,humboldt1#dj moreov]1 f\nd on ! ,peak ( ,t5]iffe1 a /ream ( obsidian divid$ by v ?91 alt]nat+1 lay]s ( pumice4 ,_m o!r lavas ( ! feldspa?ic s]ies are lam9at$2 ?us1 masses ( common tra*yte at ,asc5sion are divid$ by f9e e>?y l9es1 along :i* ! rock splits1 sep>at+ ?9 lay]s ( slightly diff]5t %ades ( col\r2 ! great] numb]1 also1 ( ! emb$d$ cry/als ( glassy feldsp> are plac$ l5g?ways 9 ! same direction4 ,mr4 ,p4 ,scrope#da has describ$ a rem>kable column> tra*yte 9 ! ,panza ,isl&s1 :i* seems to h be5 inject$ into an ov]ly+ mass ( tra*ytic conglom]ate3 x is /rip$ ) zones1 (t5 ( extreme t5uity1 ( diff]5t textures & col\rs2 ! h>d] & d>k] zones appe>+ to conta9 a l>g] proportion ( silica4 ,9 ano!r "p ( ! isl&1 !re are lay]s ( pe>l/one & pit*/one1 :i* 9 _m respects resemble ^? ( ,asc5sion4 ,! zones 9 ! column> tra*yte are g5]ally contort$2 !y ext5d un9t]rupt$ly = a great l5g? 9 a v]tical direction1 & app>5tly p>allel to ! walls ( ! dike-l mass4 ,von ,bu*#db has describ$ at ,t5]iffe1 a /ream ( lava conta9+ innum]able ?91 plate-l cry/als ( feldsp>1 :i* are arrang$ l :ite ?reads1 "o beh9d ! o!r1 & :i* mo/ly foll[ ! same direction4 ,dolomieu#dc also /ates1 t ! grey lavas ( ! mod]n cone ( ,vulcano1 :i* h a vitre\s texture1 are /reak$ ) p>allel :ite l9es3 he fur!r describes a solid pumice-/one :i* possesses a fissile /ructure1 l t ( c]ta9 micace\s s*i/s4 ,phonolite1 :i* ,i may obs]ve is (t51 if n always1 an inject$ rock1 also1 (t5 has a fissile /ructure2 ?is is g5]ally due to ! p>allel position ( ! emb$d$ cry/als ( feldsp>1 b sometimes1 z at ,f]n&o ,noronha1 seems to be ne>ly indep5d5t ( _! pres5ce4#dd ,f ^! facts we see1 t v>i\s rocks ( ! feldspa?ic s]ies h ei!r a lam9at$ or fissile /ructure1 & t x occurs bo? 9 masses :i* h inject$ into ov]ly+ /rata1 & 9 o!rs :i* h fl[$ z /reams ( lava4 #ci ,mac,culloch /ates 78,classification ( ,rocks10 p4 #eca71 t ! expos$ surfaces ( ! pit*/one dikes 9 ,arran are furr[$ 8) undulat+ l9es1 resembl+ c]ta9 v>ieties ( m>bl$ pap]1 & :i* evid5tly result f "s correspond+ diff]5ce ( lam9> /ructure40 #dj 8,p]sonal ,n>rative10 vol4 i1 p4 #bbb4 #da 8,geological ,transactions10 vol4 ii 7second s]ies71 p4 #aie4 #db 8,description des ,iles ,can>ies10 p4 #ahd4 #dc 8,voyage aux ,isles de ,lip>i10 pp4 #ce & #he4 #dd ,9 ?is case1 & 9 t ( ! fissile pumice-/one1 ! /ructure is v diff]5t f t 9 ! =ego+ cases1 :]e ! lam9 consi/ ( alt]nate lay]s ( diff]5t composition or texture4 ,9 "s s$im5t>y =mations1 h[ev]1 :i* app>5tly are homog5e\s & fissile1 z 9 glossy clay-slate1 !re is reason to believe1 accord+ to ,d',aubuisson1 t ! lam9 are really due to excessively ?91 alt]nat+1 lay]s ( mica4 ,! lam9 ( ! b$s1 alt]nat+ ) ! obsidian at ,asc5sion1 dip at a high angle "u ! m\nta91 at ! base ( :i* !y are situat$2 & !y d n appe> z if !y _h be5 incl9$ by viol5ce4 ,a high incl9ation is common to ^! b$s 9 ,mexico1 ,p]u1 & 9 "s ( ! ,italian isl&s3#de on ! o!r h&1 9 ,hung>y1 ! lay]s are horizontal2 ! lam91 also1 ( "s ( ! lava-/reams above ref]r$ to1 z f> z ,i c und]/& ! descriptions giv5 ( !m1 appe> to be highly incl9$ or v]tical4 ,i d\bt :e!r 9 any ( ^! cases1 ! lam9 h be5 tilt$ into _! pres5t position2 & 9 "s in/ances1 z 9 t ( ! tra*yte describ$ by ,mr4 ,scrope1 x is almo/ c]ta9 t !y h be5 orig9ally =m$ ) a high incl9ation4 ,9 _m ( ^! cases1 !re is evid5ce t ! mass ( liquifi$ rock has mov$ 9 ! direction ( ! lam94 ,at ,asc5sion1 _m ( ! air-cells h a drawn out appe>ance1 & are cross$ by co>se semi-glassy fibres1 9 ! direction ( ! lam92 & "s ( ! lay]s1 sep>at+ ! sphrulitic globules1 h a scor$ appe>ance1 z if produc$ by ! grat+ ( ! globules4 ,i h se5 a specim5 ( zon$ obsidian f ,mexico1 9 ,mr4 ,/okes' collection1 ) ! surfaces ( ! be/-def9$ lay]s /reak$ or furr[$ ) p>allel l9es2 & ^! l9es or /reaks precisely resembl$ ^?1 produc$ on ! surface ( a mass ( artificial glass by its hav+ be5 p\r$ out ( a vessel4 ,humboldt1 also1 has describ$ little cavities1 :i* he comp>es to ! tails ( comets1 beh9d sphrulites 9 lam9at$ obsidian rocks f ,mexico1 & ,mr4 ,scrope has describ$ o!r cavities beh9d fragm5ts emb$d$ 9 8 lam9at$ tra*yte1 & :i* he supposes to h be5 produc$ dur+ ! movem5t ( ! mass4#df ,f su* facts1 mo/ au?ors h attribut$ ! lam9ation ( ^! volcanic rocks to _! movem5t :il/ liquifi$4 ,al?\gh x is easy to p]ceive1 :y ea* sep>ate air-cell1 or ea* fibre 9 pumice-/one1#dg %\ld be drawn out 9 ! direction ( ! mov+ mass2 x is by no means at fir/ obvi\s :y su* air-cells & fibres %\ld be arrang$ by ! movem5t1 9 ! same planes1 9 lam9 absolutely /raight & p>allel to ea* o!r1 & (t5 ( extreme t5uity2 & /ill less obvi\s is x1 :y su* lay]s %\ld come to be ( slightly diff]5t composition & ( diff]5t textures4 #de ,see ,phillips' 8,m9]alogy10 = ! ,italian ,isl&s1 p4 #acf4 ,= ,mexico & ,p]u1 see ,humboldt's 8,essai ,gogno/ique40 ,mr4 ,edw>ds also describes ! high incl9ation ( ! obsidian rocks ( ! ,c]ro del ,navaja 9 ,mexico 9 ! ,proc4 ( ! ,geolog4 ,soc4 ,june #ahch4 #df 8,geological ,transactions10 vol4 ii 7second s]ies71 p4 #bjj etc4 ,^! emb$d$ fragm5ts1 9 "s in/ances1 consi/ ( ! lam9at$ tra*yte brok5 (f & 8envelop$ 9 ^? p>ts1 :i* /ill rema9$ liquid40 ,beudant1 also1 frequ5tly ref]s 9 8 great "w on 8,hung>y0 7tome iii1 p4 #chf71 to tra*ytic rocks1 irregul>ly spott$ ) fragm5ts ( ! same v>ieties1 :i* 9 o!r p>ts =m ! p>allel ribbons4 ,9 ^! cases1 we mu/ suppose1 t aft] "p ( ! molt5 mass _h assum$ a lam9at$ /ructure1 a fre% irruption ( lava broke up ! mass1 & involv$ fragm5ts1 & t subsequ5tly ! :ole became relam9at$4 #dg ,dolomieu's 8,voyage10 p4 #fd4 ,9 endeav\r+ to make out ! cause ( ! lam9ation ( ^! igne\s feldspa?ic rocks1 let u return to ! facts s m9utely describ$ at ,asc5sion4 ,we !re see1 t "s ( ! ?9ne/ lay]s are *iefly =m$ by num]\s1 exce$+ly m9ute1 ?\gh p]fect1 cry/als ( diff]5t m9]als2 t o!r lay]s are =m$ by ! union ( diff]5t k9ds ( concretion>y globules1 & t ! lay]s ?us =m$1 (t5 _c be di/+ui%$ f ! ord9>y feldspa?ic & pit*/one lay]s1 compos+ a l>ge portion ( ! entire mass4 ,! fibr\s radiat+ /ructure ( ! sphrulites seems1 judg+ f _m analog\s cases1 to connect ! concretion>y & cry/all9e =ces3 ! sep>ate cry/als1 also1 ( feldsp> all lie 9 ! same p>allel planes4#dh ,^! alli$ =ces1 !re=e1 h play$ an important "p 9 ! lam9ation ( ! mass1 b !y _c be consid]$ ! prim>y =ce2 = ! sev]al k9ds ( nodules1 bo? ! smalle/ & l>ge/1 are int]nally zon$ ) excessively f9e %ades ( col\r1 p>allel to ! lam9ation ( ! :ole2 & _m ( !m are1 also1 ext]nally m>k$ 9 ! same direction ) p>allel ridges & furr[s1 :i* h n be5 produc$ by wea!r+4 #dh ,! =mation1 inde$1 ( a l>ge cry/al ( any m9]al 9 a rock ( mix$ composition implies an aggregation ( ! requisite atoms1 alli$ to concretion>y action4 ,! cause ( ! cry/als ( feldsp> 9 ^! rocks ( ,asc5sion1 be+ all plac$ l5g?ways1 is probably ! same ) t :i* elongates & flatt5s all ! br[n sphrulitic globules 7:i* behave l feldsp> "u ! bl[pipe7 9 ?is same direction4 ,"s ( ! f9e/ /reaks ( col\r 9 ! /ony lay]s1 alt]nat+ ) ! obsidian1 c be di/9ctly se5 to be due to an incipi5t cry/allisation ( ! con/itu5t m9]als4 ,! ext5t to :i* ! m9]als h cry/allis$ c1 also1 be di/9ctly se5 to be connect$ ) ! great] or less size1 & ) ! numb]1 ( ! m9ute1 flatt5$1 cr5ulat$ air-cavities or fissures4 ,num]\s facts1 z 9 ! case ( geodes1 & ( cavities 9 silicifi$ wood1 9 prim>y rocks1 & 9 ve9s1 %[ t cry/allisation is mu* fav\r$ by space4 ,h5ce1 ,i conclude1 t1 if 9 a mass ( cool+ volcanic rock1 any cause produc$ 9 p>allel planes a numb] ( m9ute fissures or zones ( less t5sion 7:i* f ! p5t-up vap\rs w\ld (t5 be exp&$ into cr5ulat$ air-cavities71 ! cry/allisation ( ! con/itu5t p>ts1 & probably ! =mation ( concretions1 w\ld be sup]9duc$ or mu* fav\r$ 9 su* planes2 & ?us1 a lam9at$ /ructure ( ! k9d we are "h consid]+ w\ld be g5]at$4 ,t "s cause does produce p>allel zones ( less t5sion 9 volcanic rocks1 dur+ _! consolidation1 we mu/ admit 9 ! case ( ! ?9 alt]nate lay]s ( obsidian & pumice describ$ by ,humboldt1 & ( ! small1 flatt5$1 cr5ulat$ air-cells 9 ! lam9at$ rocks ( ,asc5sion2 = on no o!r pr9ciple c we conceive :y ! conf9$ vap\rs %\ld ?r\gh _! expansion =m air-cells or fibres 9 sep>ate1 p>allel planes1 in/ead ( irregul>ly ?r\gh\t ! mass4 ,9 ,mr4 ,/okes' collection1 ,i h se5 a beautiful example ( ?is /ructure1 9 a specim5 ( obsidian f ,mexico1 :i* is %ad$ & zon$1 l ! f9e/ agate1 ) num]\s1 /raight1 p>allel lay]s1 m or less opaque & :ite1 or almo/ p]fectly glassy2 ! degree ( opacity & glass9ess dep5d+ on ! numb] ( microscopically m9ute1 flatt5$ air-cells2 9 ?is case1 x is sc>cely possible to d\bt b t ! mass1 to :i* ! fragm5t belong$1 mu/ h be5 subject$ to "s1 probably prolong$1 action1 caus+ ! t5sion slightly to v>y 9 ! successive planes4 ,sev]al causes appe> capable ( produc+ zones ( diff]5t t5sion1 9 masses semi-liquifi$ by heat4 ,9 a fragm5t ( devitrifi$ glass1 ,i h obs]v$ lay]s ( sphrulites :i* appe>$1 f ! mann] 9 :i* !y 7 abruptly b5t1 to h be5 produc$ by ! simple contraction ( ! mass 9 ! vessel1 9 :i* x cool$4 ,9 c]ta9 dikes on ,m\nt ,etna1 describ$ by ,m4 ,elie de ,beaumont1#di z bord]$ by alt]nat+ b&s ( scoriace\s & compact rock1 "o is l$ to suppose t ! /ret*+ movem5t ( ! surr\nd+ /rata1 :i* orig9ally produc$ ! fissures1 cont9u$ :il/ ! inject$ rock rema9$ fluid4 ,guid$1 h[ev]1 by ,pr(essor ,=bes'#ej cle> description ( ! zon$ /ructure ( glaci]-ice1 f> ! mo/ probable explanation ( ! lam9at$ /ructure ( ^! feldspa?ic rocks appe>s to be1 t !y h be5 /ret*$ :il/ sl[ly fl[+ onw>ds 9 a pa/y condition1#ea 9 precisely ! same mann] z ,pr(essor ,=bes believes1 t ! ice ( mov+ glaci]s is /ret*$ & fissur$4 ,9 bo? cases1 ! zones may be comp>$ to ^? 9 ! f9e/ agates2 9 bo?1 !y ext5d 9 ! direction 9 :i* ! mass has fl[$1 & ^? expos$ on ! surface are g5]ally v]tical3 9 ! ice1 ! por\s lam9 are r5d]$ di/9ct by ! subsequ5t congelation ( infiltrat$ wat]1 9 ! /ony feldspa?ic lavas1 by subsequ5t cry/all9e & concretion>y action4 ,! fragm5t ( glassy obsidian 9 ,mr4 ,/okes' collection1 :i* is zon$ ) m9ute air-cells mu/ /rik+ly resemble1 judg+ f ,pr(essor ,=bes' descriptions1 a fragm5t ( ! zon$ ice2 & if ! rate ( cool+ & nature ( ! mass _h be5 fav\rable to its cry/allisation or to concretion>y action1 we %\ld "h h _h ! f9e/ p>allel zones ( diff]5t composition & texture4 ,9 glaci]s1 ! l9es ( por\s ice & ( m9ute crevices seem to be due to an incipi5t /ret*+1 caus$ by ! c5tral p>ts ( ! froz5 /ream mov+ fa/] ?an ! sides & bottom1 :i* are ret>d$ by friction3 h5ce 9 glaci]s ( c]ta9 =ms & t[>ds ! l[] end ( mo/ glaci]s1 ! zones become horizontal4 ,may we v5ture to suppose t 9 ! feldspa?ic lavas ) horizontal lam91 we see an analog\s case8 ,all geologi/s1 :o h exam9$ tra*ytic regions1 h come to ! conclusion1 t ! lavas ( ?is s]ies h possess$ an exce$+ly imp]fect fluidity2 & z x is evid5t t only matt] ?us *>act]is$ w\ld be subject to become fissur$ & to be =m$ into zones ( diff]5t t5sions1 9 ! mann] "h suppos$1 we probably see ! reason :y augitic lavas1 :i* appe> g5]ally to h possess$ a high degree ( fluidity1 are n1#eb l ! feldspa?ic lavas1 divid$ into lam9 ( diff]5t composition & texture4 ,moreov]1 9 ! augitic s]ies1 !re nev] appe>s to be any t5d5cy to concretion>y action1 :i* we h se5 plays an important "p 9 ! lam9ation ( rocks1 ( ! tra*ytic s]ies1 or at lea/ 9 r5d]+ t /ructure app>5t4 #di 8,mm4 p\r s]vir10 etc41 tome iv1 p4 #aca4 #ej ,ed9burgh ,new ,phil4 ,j\rnal1 #ahdb1 p4 #cej4 #ea ,i presume t ?is is ne>ly ! same explanation :i* ,mr4 ,scrope _h 9 8 m9d1 :5 he speaks 78,geolog4 ,transact410 vol4 ii1 second s]ies1 p4 #bbh7 ( ! ribbon$ /ructure ( 8 tra*ytic rocks1 hav+ aris51 f 8a l9e> ext5sion ( ! mass1 :ile 9 a /ate ( imp]fect liquidity1 c\pl$ ) a concretion>y process40 #eb ,basaltic lavas1 & _m o!r rocks1 are n unfrequ5tly divid$ into ?ick lam9 or plates1 ( ! same composition1 :i* are ei!r /raight or curv$2 ^! be+ cross$ by v]tical l9es ( fissure1 sometimes become unit$ into columns4 ,?is /ructure seems relat$1 9 its orig91 to t by :i* _m rocks1 bo? igne\s & s$im5t>y1 become trav]s$ by p>allel sy/ems ( fissures4 ,:atev] may be ?\ght ( ! explanation "h advanc$ ( ! lam9at$ /ructure ( ! rocks ( ! tra*ytic s]ies1 ,i v5ture to call ! att5tion ( geologi/s to ! simple fact1 t 9 a body ( rock at ,asc5sion1 und\bt$ly ( volcanic orig91 lay]s (t5 ( extreme t5uity1 q /raight1 & p>allel to ea* o!r1 h be5 produc$2--"s compos$ ( di/9ct cry/als ( qu>tz & diopside1 m+l$ ) amorph\s augitic specks & granul> feldsp>1--o!rs entirely compos$ ( ^! black augitic specks1 ) granules ( oxide ( iron1--& la/ly1 o!rs =m$ ( cry/all9e feldsp>1 9 a m or less p]fect /ate ( purity1 toge!r ) num]\s cry/als ( feldsp>1 plac$ l5g?ways4 ,at ?is isl&1 !re is reason to believe1 & 9 "s analog\s cases1 x is c]ta9ly kn[n1 t ! lam9 h orig9ally be5 =m$ ) _! pres5t high incl9ation4 ,facts ( ?is nature are manife/ly ( importance1 ) relation to ! /ructural orig9 ( t gr& s]ies ( plutonic rocks1 :i* l ! volcanic h und]gone ! action ( heat1 & :i* consi/ ( alt]nate lay]s ( qu>tz1 feldsp>1 mica & o!r m9]als4 ,*apt] ,,iv ,,/4 ,,hel5a ,lavas ( ! feldspa?ic1 basaltic1 & subm>9e s]ies4--,section ( ,flag/aff ,hill & ( ! ,b>n4--,dikes4--,turk's ,cap & ,prosp]\s ,bays4--,basaltic r+4--,c5tral crat]i=m ridge1 ) an int]nal l$ge & a p>apet4 ,cones ( phonolite4 ,sup]ficial b$s ( calc>e\s s&/one4--,ext9ct l&-%ells4--,b$s ( detritus4--,elevation ( ! l&4--,d5udation4--,crat]s ( elevation4 ,! :ole isl& is ( volcanic orig92 its circumf]5ce1 accord+ to ,beatson1#a is ab\t tw5ty-eight miles4 ,! c5tral & l>ge/ "p consi/s ( rocks ( a feldspa?ic nature1 g5]ally decompos$ to an extraord9>y degree2 & :5 9 ?is /ate1 pres5t+ a s+ul> assemblage ( alt]nat+1 r$1 purple1 br[n1 yell[1 & :ite1 s(t1 argillace\s b$s4 ,f ! %ortness ( our visit1 ,i did n exam9e ^! b$s ) c>e2 "s ( !m1 especially ^? ( ! :ite1 yell[1 & br[n %ades1 orig9ally exi/$ z /reams ( lava1 b ! great] numb] 7 probably eject$ 9 ! =m ( scori & a%es3 o!r b$s ( a purple t9t1 porphyritic ) cry/al-%ap$ pat*es ( a :ite1 s(t sub/ance1 :i* are n[ unctu\s1 & yield1 l wax1 a poli%$ /reak to ! nail1 seem once to h exi/$ z solid clay/one-porphyries3 ! r$ argillace\s b$s g5]ally h a brecciat$ /ructure1 & no d\bt h be5 =m$ by ! decomposition ( scori4 ,sev]al ext5sive /reams1 h[ev]1 belong+ to ?is s]ies1 reta9 _! /ony "*2 ^! are ei!r ( a blacki%-gre5 col\r1 ) m9ute acicul> cry/als ( feldsp>1 or ( a v pale t9t1 & almo/ compos$ ( m9ute1 (t5 scaly1 cry/als ( feldsp>1 ab\nd+ ) microscopical black specks2 !y are g5]ally compact & lam9at$2 o!rs1 h[ev]1 ( simil> composition1 are cellul> & some:at decompos$4 ,none ( ^! rocks conta9 l>ge cry/als ( feldsp>1 or h ! h>% fracture peculi> to tra*yte4 ,^! feldspa?ic lavas & tuffs are ! upp]mo/ or ^? la/ erupt$2 innum]able dikes1 h[ev]1 & great masses ( molt5 rock1 h subsequ5tly be5 inject$ into !m4 ,!y conv]ge1 z !y rise1 t[>ds ! c5tral curv$ ridge1 ( :i* "o po9t atta9s ! elevation ( #b1gjj feet4 ,?is ridge is ! highe/ l& 9 ! isl&2 & x once =m$ ! nor!rn rim ( a great crat]1 :5ce ! lavas ( ?is s]ies fl[$3 f its ru9$ condition1 f ! s\!rn half hav+ be5 remov$1 & f ! viol5t dislocation :i* ! :ole isl& has und]gone1 its /ructure is r5d]$ v obscure4 #a ,gov]nor ,beatson's 8,acc\nt ( ,/4 ,hel5a40 ,basaltic s]ies4--,! m>g9 ( ! isl& is =m$ by a rude circle ( great1 black1 /ratifi$1 ramp>ts ( basalt1 dipp+ seaw>d1 & worn into cliffs1 :i* are (t5 ne>ly p]p5dicul>1 & v>y 9 height f a few hundr$ feet to two ?\s&4 ,?is circle1 or r horse-%oe %ap$ r+1 is op5 to ! s\?1 & is brea*$ by sev]al o!r wide spaces4 ,its rim or summit g5]ally projects little above ! level ( ! adjo9+ inl& c\ntry2 & ! m rec5t feldspa?ic lavas1 slop+ d[n f ! c5tral heights1 g5]ally abut aga9/ & ov]lap its inn] m>g92 on ! nor?-we/]n side ( ! isl&1 h[ev]1 !y appe> 7judg+ f a di/ance7 to h fl[$ ov] & conceal$ portions ( x4 ,9 "s p>ts1 :]e ! basaltic r+ has be5 brea*$1 & ! black ramp>ts /& deta*$1 ! feldspa?ic lavas h pass$ betwe5 !m1 & n[ ov]hang ! sea-coa/ 9 l(ty cliffs4 ,! basaltic rocks are ( a black col\r & ?9ly /ratifi$2 !y are g5]ally highly vesicul>1 b occasionally compact2 "s ( !m conta9 num]\s cry/als ( glassy feldsp> & octah$rons ( titanif]\s iron2 o!rs ab\nd ) cry/als ( augite & gra9s ( oliv9e4 ,! vesicles are frequ5tly l9$ ) m9ute cry/als 7( *abasie87 & ev5 become amygdaloidal ) !m4 ,! /reams are sep>at$ f ea* o!r by c9d]y matt]1 or by a bright r$1 friable1 salif]\s tuff1 :i* is m>k$ by successive l9es l ^? ( aque\s deposition2 & sometimes x has an obscure1 concretion>y /ructure4 ,! rocks ( ?is basaltic s]ies occur n[h]e except ne> ! coa/4 ,9 mo/ volcanic di/ricts ! tra*ytic lavas are ( ant]ior orig9 to ! basaltic2 b "h we see1 t a great pile ( rock1 closely relat$ 9 composition to ! tra*ytic family1 has be5 erupt$ subsequ5tly to ! basaltic /rata3 ! numb]1 h[ev]1 ( dikes1 ab\nd+ ) l>ge cry/als ( augite1 ) :i* ! feldspa?ic lavas h be5 inject$1 %[s p]haps "s t5d5cy to a return to ! m usual ord] ( sup]position4 ,basal subm>9e lavas4--,! lavas ( ?is basal s]ies lie imm$iately b5ea? bo? ! basaltic & feldspa?ic rocks4 ,accord+ to ,mr4 ,seale1#b !y may be se5 at int]vals on ! sea-bea* r\nd ! entire isl&4 ,9 ! sections :i* ,i exam9$1 _! nature v>i$ mu*2 "s ( ! /rata ab\nd ) cry/als ( augite2 o!rs are ( a br[n col\r1 ei!r lam9at$ or 9 a rubbly condition2 & _m p>ts are highly amygdaloidal ) calc>e\s matt]4 ,! successive %eets are ei!r closely unit$ toge!r1 or are sep>at$ f ea* o!r by b$s ( scoriace\s rock & ( lam9at$ tuff1 frequ5tly conta9+ well-r\nd$ fragm5ts4 ,! int]/ices ( ^! b$s are fill$ ) gypsum & salt2 ! gypsum also sometimes occurr+ 9 ?9 lay]s4 ,f ! l>ge quantity ( ^! two sub/ances1 f ! pres5ce ( r\nd$ pebbles 9 ! tuffs1 & f ! abundant amygdaloids1 ,i _c d\bt t ^! basal volcanic /rata fl[$ b5ea? ! sea4 ,?is rem>k ought p]haps to be ext5d$ to a "p ( ! sup]9cumb5t basaltic rocks2 b on ?is po9t1 ,i 0 n able to obta9 cle> evid5ce4 ,! /rata ( ! basal s]ies1 :5ev] ,i exam9$ !m1 7 int]sect$ by an extraord9>y numb] ( dikes4 #b 8,geognosy ( ! ,isl& ( ,/4 ,hel5a40 ,mr4 ,seale has con/ruct$ a gigantic model ( ,/4 ,hel5a1 well wor? visit+1 :i* is n[ deposit$ at ,addiscombe ,college1 9 ,surrey4 ,flag/aff ,hill & ! ,b>n4--,i w n[ describe "s ( ! m rem>kable sections1 & w comm5ce ) ^! two hills1 :i* =m ! pr9cipal ext]nal feature on ! nor?-ea/]n side ( ! isl&4 ,! squ>e1 angul> outl9e1 & black col\r ( ! ,b>n1 at once %[ t x belongs to ! basaltic s]ies2 :il/ ! smoo?1 conical figure1 & ! v>i$ bright t9ts ( ,flag/aff ,hill1 r5d] x equally cle>1 t x is compos$ ( ! s(t5$1 feldspa?ic rocks4 ,^! two l(ty hills are connect$ 7z is %[n 9 figure ,no4 #h7 by a %>p ridge1 :i* is compos$ ( ! rubbly lavas ( ! basal s]ies4 ,! /rata ( ?is ridge dip we/w>d1 ! incl9ation becom+ less & less t[>ds ! ,flag/aff2 & ! upp] feldspa?ic /rata ( ?is hill c be se51 ?\gh ) "s difficulty1 to dip con=mably to ! ,w4,s4,w4 ,close to ! ,b>n1 ! /rata ( ! ridge are ne>ly v]tical1 b are mu* obscur$ by innum]able dikes2 "u ?is hill1 !y probably *ange f be+ v]tical into be+ incl9$ into an opposite direction2 = ! upp] or basaltic /rata1 :i* are ab\t eight hundr$ or "o ?\s& feet 9 ?ickness1 are incl9$ nor?-ea/w>d1 at an angle betwe5 ?irty & =ty degrees4 ,no4 #h ,illu/ration3 ,flag/aff ,hill & ! ,b>n4 ,! d\ble l9es repres5t ! basaltic /rata2 ! s+le1 ! basal subm>9e /rata2 ! dott$1 ! upp] feldspa?ic /rata2 ! dikes are %ad$ transv]sely4 ,?is ridge1 & likewise ! ,b>n & ,flag/aff ,hills1 are int]lac$ by dikes1 _m ( :i* pres]ve a rem>kable p>allelism 9 a ,n4,n4,w4 & ,s4,s4,e4 direction4 ,! dikes *iefly consi/ ( a rock1 porphyritic ) l>ge cry/als ( augite2 o!rs are =m$ ( a f9e-gra9$ & br[n-col\r$ trap4 ,mo/ ( ^! dikes are coat$ by a glossy lay]1#c f "o to two-t5?s ( an in* 9 ?ickness1 :i*1 unlike true pit*/one1 fuses into a black enamel2 ?is lay] is evid5tly analog\s to ! glossy sup]ficial coat+ ( _m lava /reams4 ,! dikes c (t5 be foll[$ = great l5g?s bo? horizontally & v]tically1 & !y seem to pres]ve a ne>ly uni=m ?ickness3#d ,mr4 ,seale /ates1 t "o ne> ! ,b>n1 9 a height ( #a1bfj feet1 decreases 9 wid? only f\r in*es1--f n9e feet at ! bottom1 to eight feet & eight in*es at ! top4 ,on ! ridge1 ! dikes appe> to h be5 guid$ 9 _! c\rse1 to a consid]able degree1 by ! alt]nat+ s(t & h>d /rata3 !y are (t5 firmly unit$ to ! h>d] /rata1 & !y pres]ve _! p>allelism = su* great l5g?s1 t 9 v _m in/ances x 0 impossible to conjecture1 :i* ( ! b$s 7 dikes1 & :i* /reams ( lava4 ,! dikes1 ?\gh s num]\s on ?is ridge1 are ev5 m num]\s 9 ! valleys a little s\? ( x1 & to a degree ,i nev] saw equall$ any:]e else3 9 ^! valleys !y ext5d 9 less regul> l9es1 cov]+ ! gr\nd ) a network1 l a spid]'s web1 & ) "s p>ts ( ! surface ev5 appe>+ to consi/ :olly ( dikes1 int]lac$ by o!r dikes4 #c ,?is circum/ance has be5 obs]v$ 7,lyell1 8,pr9ciples ( ,geology10 vol4 iv1 *ap4 x1 p4 #i7 9 ! dikes ( ! ,atrio del ,cavallo1 b app>5tly x is n ( v common occurr5ce4 ,sir ,g4 ,mack5zie1 h[ev]1 /ates 7p4 #cgb1 8,travels 9 ,icel&07 t all ! ve9s 9 ,icel& h a 8black vitre\s coat+ on _! sides40 ,capta9 ,c>mi*ael1 speak+ ( ! dikes 9 ,tri/an d',acunha1 a volcanic isl& 9 ! ,s\!rn ,atlantic1 says 78,l9nan ,transactions10 vol4 xii1 p4 #dhe7 t _! sides1 8:]e !y come 9 contact ) ! rocks1 are inv>iably 9 a semi-vitrifi$ /ate40 #d 8,geognosy ( ! ,isl& ( ,/4 ,hel5a10 plate #e4 ,f ! complexity produc$ by ! dikes1 f ! high incl9ation & anticl9al dip ( ! /rata ( ! basal s]ies1 :i* are ov]laid1 at ! opposite ends ( ! %ort ridge1 by two great masses ( diff]5t ages & ( diff]5t composition1 ,i am n surpris$ t ?is s+ul> section has be5 misund]/ood4 ,x has ev5 be5 suppos$ to =m "p ( a crat]2 b s f> is ?is f hav+ be5 ! case1 t ! summit ( ,flag/aff ,hill once =m$ ! l[] extremity ( a %eet ( lava & a%es1 :i* 7 erupt$ f ! c5tral1 crat]i=m ridge4 ,judg+ f ! slope ( ! contemporane\s /reams 9 an adjo9+ & undi/urb$ "p ( ! isl&1 ! /rata ( ! ,flag/aff ,hill mu/ h be5 upturn$ at lea/ twelve hundr$ feet1 & probably mu* m1 = ! great truncat$ dikes on its summit %[ t x has be5 l>gely d5ud$4 ,! summit ( ?is hill n[ ne>ly equals 9 height ! crat]i=m ridge2 & be=e hav+ be5 d5ud$1 x 0 probably high] ?an ?is ridge1 f :i* x is sep>at$ by a broad & mu* l[] tract ( c\ntry2 we "h1 !re=e1 see t ! l[] extremities ( a set ( lava-/reams h be5 tilt$ up to z great a height z1 or p]haps great] height ?an1 ! crat]1 d[n ! flanks ( :i* !y orig9ally fl[$4 ,i believe t dislocations on s gr& a scale are extremely r>e#e 9 volcanic di/ricts4 ,! =mation ( su* numb]s ( dikes 9 ?is "p ( ! isl& %[s t ! surface mu/ "h h be5 /ret*$ to a q extraord9>y degree3 ?is /ret*+1 on ! ridge betwe5 ,flag/aff & ,b>n ,hills1 probably took place subsequ5tly 7?\gh p]haps imm$iately s7 to ! /rata be+ tilt$2 = _h ! /rata at t "t ext5d$ horizontally1 !y w\ld 9 all probability h be5 fissur$ & inject$ transv]sely1 in/ead ( 9 ! planes ( _! /ratification4 ,al?\gh ! space betwe5 ! ,b>n & ,flag/aff ,hill pres5ts a di/9ct anticl9al l9e ext5d+ nor? & s\?1 & ?\gh mo/ ( ! dikes range ) mu* regul>ity 9 ! same l9e1 nev]!less1 at only a mile due s\? ( ! ridge ! /rata lie undi/urb$4 ,h5ce ! di/urb+ =ce seems to h act$ "u a po9t1 r ?an along a l9e4 ,! mann] 9 :i* x has act$1 is probably expla9$ by ! /ructure ( ,little ,/ony-top1 a m\nta9 #b1jjj feet high1 situat$ a few miles s\?w>d ( ! ,b>n2 we !re see1 ev5 f a di/ance1 a d>k-col\r$1 %>p1 w$ge ( compact column> rock1 ) ! bright-col\r$ feldspa?ic /rata1 slop+ away on ea* side f its uncov]$ apex4 ,?is w$ge1 f :i* x d]ives its "n ( ,/ony-top1 consi/s ( a body ( rock1 :i* has be5 inject$ :il/ liquifi$ into ! ov]ly+ /rata2 & if we may suppose t a simil> body ( rock lies inject$1 b5ea? ! ridge connect+ ! ,b>n & ,flag/aff1 ! /ructure !re exhibit$ w\ld be expla9$4 #e ,m4 ,con/ant ,prevo/ 78,mm4 de la ,soc4 ,golog410 tome ii7 obs]ves t 8les produits volcaniques n'ont que localem5t et r>em5t mme drang le sol1 trav]s lequel ils se sont fait j\r40 ,no4 #i ,illu/ration3 ,prosp]\s ,hill & ,! ,b>n4 ,! d\ble l9es repres5t ! basaltic /rata2 ! s+le1 ! basal subm>9e /rata2 ! dott$1 ! upp] feldspa?ic /rata4 ,turk's ,cap & ,prosp]\s ,bays4--,prosp]\s ,hill is a great1 black1 precipit\s m\nta91 situat$ two miles & a half s\? ( ! ,b>n1 & compos$1 l x1 ( basaltic /rata4 ,^! re/1 9 "o "p1 on ! br[n-col\r$1 porphyritic b$s ( ! basal s]ies1 & 9 ano!r "p1 on a fissur$ mass ( highly scoriace\s & amygdaloidal rock1 :i* seems to h =m$ a small po9t ( eruption b5ea? ! sea1 contemporane\sly ) ! basal s]ies4 ,prosp]\s ,hill1 l ! ,b>n1 is trav]s$ by _m dikes1 ( :i* ! great] numb] range nor? & s\?1 & its /rata dip1 at an angle ( ab\t #bj degrees1 r obliquely f ! isl& t[>ds ! sea4 ,! space betwe5 ,prosp]\s ,hill & ! ,b>n1 z repres5t$ 9 figure ,no4 #i1 consi/s ( l(ty cliffs1 compos$ ( ! lavas ( ! upp] or feldspa?ic s]ies1 :i* re/1 ?\gh uncon=mably1 on ! basal subm>9e /rata1 z we h se5 t !y d at ,flag/aff ,hill4 ,diff]5tly1 h[ev]1 f 9 t hill1 ^! upp] /rata are ne>ly horizontal1 g5tly ris+ t[>ds ! int]ior ( ! isl&2 & !y are compos$ ( gre5i%-black1 or m commonly1 pale br[n1 compact lavas1 in/ead ( s(t5$ & highly col\r$ matt]4 ,^! br[n-col\r$1 compact lavas1 consi/ almo/ entirely ( small glimm]+ scales1 or ( m9ute acicul> cry/als1 ( feldsp>1 plac$ close by ! side ( ea* o!r1 & ab\nd+ ) m9ute black specks1 app>5tly ( hornbl5de4 ,! basaltic /rata ( ,prosp]\s ,hill project only a little above ! level ( ! g5tly-slop+1 feldspa?ic /reams1 :i* w9d r\nd & abut aga9/ _! upturn$ edges4 ,! incl9ation ( ! basaltic /rata seems to be too great to h be5 caus$ by _! hav+ fl[$ d[n a slope1 & !y mu/ h be5 tilt$ into _! pres5t position be=e ! eruption ( ! feldspa?ic /reams4 ,basaltic r+4--,proce$+ r\nd ! ,isl&1 ! lavas ( ! upp] s]ies1 s\?w>d ( ,prosp]\s ,hill1 ov]hang ! sea 9 l(ty precipices4 ,fur!r on1 ! headl&1 call$ ,great ,/ony-top1 is compos$1 z ,i believe1 ( basalt2 z is ,long ,range ,po9t1 on ! inl& side ( :i* ! col\r$ b$s abut4 ,on ! s\!rn side ( ! isl&1 we see ! basaltic /rata ( ! ,s\? ,b>n1 dipp+ obliquely seaw>d at a consid]able angle2 ?is headl&1 also1 /&s a little above ! level ( ! m mod]n1 feldspa?ic lavas4 ,fur!r on1 a l>ge space ( coa/1 on ea* side ( ,s&y ,bay1 has be5 mu* d5ud$1 & !re seems to be left only ! basal wreck ( ! great1 c5tral crat]4 ,! basaltic /rata reappe>1 ) _! seaw>d dip1 at ! foot ( ! hill1 call$ ,man-&-,horse2 & !nce !y are cont9u$ along ! :ole nor?-we/]n coa/ to ,sug>-,loaf ,hill1 situat$ ne> to ! ,flag/aff2 & !y ev]y:]e h ! same seaw>d incl9ation1 & re/1 9 "s p>ts at lea/1 on ! lavas ( ! basal s]ies4 ,we ?us see t ! circumf]5ce ( ! isl& is =m$ by a mu*-brok5 r+1 or r1 a horse-%oe1 ( basalt1 op5 to ! s\?1 & int]rupt$ on ! ea/]n side by _m wide brea*es4 ,! bread? ( ?is m>g9al fr+e on ! nor?-we/]n side1 :]e alone x is at all p]fect1 appe>s to v>y f a mile to a mile & a half4 ,! basaltic /rata1 z well z ^? ( ! subjac5t basal s]ies1 dip1 ) a mod]ate incl9ation1 :]e !y h n be5 subsequ5tly di/urb$1 t[>ds ! sea4 ,! m brok5 /ate ( ! basaltic r+ r\nd ! ea/]n half1 comp>$ ) ! we/]n half ( ! isl&1 is evid5tly due to ! mu* great] d5ud+ p[] ( ! waves on ! ea/]n or w9dw>d side1 z is %[n by ! great] height ( ! cliffs on t side1 ?an to leew>d4 ,:e!r ! m>g9 ( basalt 0 brea*$1 be=e or aft] ! eruption ( ! lavas ( ! upp] s]ies1 is d\btful2 b z sep>ate portions ( ! basaltic r+ appe> to h be5 tilt$ be=e t ev5t1 & f o!r reasons1 x is m probable1 t "s at lea/ ( ! brea*es 7 fir/ =m$4 ,recon/ruct+ 9 imag9ation1 z f> z is possible1 ! r+ ( basalt1 ! int]nal space or holl[1 :i* has s9ce be5 fill$ up ) ! matt] erupt$ f ! great c5tral crat]1 appe>s to h be5 ( an oval figure1 eight or n9e miles 9 l5g? by ab\t f\r miles 9 bread?1 & ) its axis direct$ 9 a ,n4,e4 & ,s4,w4 l9e1 co9cid5t ) ! pres5t longe/ axis ( ! isl&4 ,! c5tral curv$ ridge4--,?is ridge consi/s1 z be=e rem>k$1 ( grey feldspa?ic lavas1 & ( r$1 brecciat$1 argillace\s tuffs1 l ! b$s ( ! upp] col\r$ s]ies4 ,! grey lavas conta9 num]\s1 m9ute1 black1 easily fusible specks2 & b v few l>ge cry/als ( feldsp>4 ,!y are g5]ally mu* s(t5$2 ) ! exception ( ?is "*1 & ( be+ 9 _m p>ts highly cellul>1 !y are q simil> to ^? great %eets ( lava :i* ov]hang ! coa/ at ,prosp]\s ,bay4 ,consid]able int]vals ( "t appe> to h elaps$1 judg+ f ! m>ks ( d5udation1 betwe5 ! =mation ( ! successive b$s1 ( :i* ?is ridge is compos$4 ,on ! /eep nor!rn slope1 ,i obs]v$ 9 sev]al sections a mu* worn undulat+ surface ( r$ tuff1 cov]$ by grey1 decompos$1 feldspa?ic lavas1 ) only a ?9 e>?y lay] int]pos$ betwe5 !m4 ,9 an adjo9+ "p1 ,i notic$ a trap-dike1 f\r feet wide1 cut (f & cov]$ up by ! feldspa?ic lava1 z is repres5t$ 9 figure ,no4 #i4 ,! ridge ends on ! ea/]n side 9 a hook1 :i* is n repres5t$ cle>ly en\gh 9 any map :i* ,i h se52 t[>ds ! we/]n end1 x gradually slopes d[n & divides into sev]al subord9ate ridges4 ,! be/ def9$ portion betwe5 ,diana's ,peak & ,ne/ ,lodge1 :i* supports ! highe/ p9nacles 9 ! isl& v>y+ f #b1jjj to #b1gjj feet1 is r less ?an ?ree miles long 9 a /raight l9e4 ,?r\gh\t ?is space ! ridge has a uni=m appe>ance & /ructure2 its curvature resembles t ( ! coa/-l9e ( a great bay1 be+ made up ( _m small] curves1 all op5 to ! s\?4 ,! nor!rn & out] side is support$ by n>r[ ridges or buttresses1 :i* slope d[n to ! adjo9+ c\ntry4 ,! inside is mu* /eep]1 & is almo/ precipit\s2 x is =m$ ( ! basset edges ( ! /rata1 :i* g5tly decl9e outw>ds4 ,along "s p>ts ( ! inn] side1 a little way b5ea? ! summit1 a flat l$ge ext5ds1 :i* imitates 9 outl9e ! small] curvatures ( ! cre/4 ,l$ges ( ?is k9d occur n unfrequ5tly )9 volcanic crat]s1 & _! =mation seems to be due to ! s9k+ d[n ( a level %eet ( h>d5$ lava1 ! edges ( :i* rema9 7l ! ice r\nd a pool1 f :i* ! wat] has be5 dra9$7 adh]+ to ! sides4#f #f ,a mo/ rem>kable in/ance ( ?is /ructure is describ$ 9 ,ellis 8,polynesian ,rese>*es0 7second edition71 :]e an admirable draw+ is giv5 ( ! successive l$ges or t]races1 on ! bord]s ( ! imm5se crat] at ,hawaii1 9 ! ,s&wi* ,isl&s4 ,no4 #aj ,illu/ration3 ,dike #a--;,grey feldspa?ic lava4 #b--;,a lay]1 "o in* 9 ?ickness1 ( a r$di% e>?y matt]4 #c--;,brecciat$1 r$1 argillace\s tuff4 ,9 "s p>ts1 ! ridge is surm\nt$ by a wall or p>apet1 p]p5dicul> on bo? sides4 ,ne> ,diana's ,peak ?is wall is extremely n>r[4 ,at ! ,galapagos ,ar*ipelago ,i obs]v$ p>apets1 hav+ a q simil> /ructure & appe>ance1 surm\nt+ sev]al ( ! crat]s2 "o1 :i* ,i m p>ticul>ly exam9$1 0 compos$ ( glossy1 r$ scori firmly cem5t$ toge!r2 be+ ext]nally p]p5dicul>1 & ext5d+ r\nd ne>ly ! :ole circumf]5ce ( ! crat]1 x r5d]$ x almo/ inaccessible4 ,! ,peak ( ,t5]iffe & ,cotopaxi1 accord+ to ,humboldt1 are simil>ly con/ruct$2 he /ates#g t 8at _! summits a circul> wall surr\nds ! crat]1 :i* wall1 at a di/ance1 has ! appe>ance ( a small cyl9d] plac$ on a truncat$ cone4 ,on ,cotopaxi#h ?is peculi> /ructure is visible to ! nak$ eye at m ?an two ?\s& toises' di/ance2 & no p]son has ev] rea*$ its crat]4 ,on ! ,peak ( ,t5]iffe1 ! p>apet is s high1 t x w\ld be impossible to rea* ! cald]a1 if on ! ea/]n side !re did n exi/ a brea*40 ,! orig9 ( ^! circul> p>apets is probably due to ! heat or vap\rs f ! crat]1 p5etrat+ & h>d5+ ! sides to a ne>ly equal dep?1 & aft]w>ds to ! m\nta9 be+ sl[ly act$ on by ! wea!r1 :i* w\ld leave ! h>d5$ "p1 project+ 9 ! =m ( a cyl9d] or circul> p>apet4 #g 8,p]sonal ,n>rative10 vol4 i1 p4 #aga4 #h ,humboldt's 8,picturesque ,atlas10 folio1 pl4 #aj4 ,f ! po9ts ( /ructure 9 ! c5tral ridge1 n[ enum]at$1--namely1 f ! conv]g5ce t[>ds x ( ! b$s ( ! upp] s]ies1--f ! lavas !re becom+ highly cellul>1--f ! flat l$ge1 ext5d+ along its inn] & precipit\s side1 l t )9 "s /ill active crat]s1--f ! p>apet-l wall on its summit1--& la/ly1 f its peculi> curvature1 unlike t ( any common l9e ( elevation1 ,i _c d\bt t ?is curv$ ridge =ms ! la/ remnant ( a great crat]4 ,9 endeav\r+1 h[ev]1 to trace its =m] outl9e1 "o is soon baffl$2 its we/]n extremity gradually slopes d[n1 &1 bran*+ into o!r ridges1 ext5ds to ! sea-coa/2 ! ea/]n end is m curv$1 b x is only a little bett] def9$4 ,"s appe>ances lead me to suppose t ! s\!rn wall ( ! crat] jo9$ ! pres5t ridge ne> ,ne/ ,lodge2 9 ?is case ! crat] mu/ h be5 ne>ly ?ree miles long1 & ab\t a mile & a half 9 bread?4 ,_h ! d5udation ( ! ridge & ! decomposition ( its con/itu5t rocks proce$$ a few /eps fur!r1 & _h ?is ridge1 l sev]al o!r p>ts ( ! isl&1 be5 brok5 up by great dikes & masses ( inject$ matt]1 we %\ld 9 va9 h endeav\r$ to discov] its true nature4 ,ev5 n[ we h se5 t at ,flag/aff ,hill ! l[] extremity & mo/ di/ant portion ( "o %eet ( ! erupt$ matt] has be5 upheav$ to z great a height z ! crat] d[n :i* x fl[$1 & probably ev5 to a great] height4 ,x is int]e/+ ?us to trace ! /eps by :i* ! /ructure ( a volcanic di/rict becomes obscur$1 & f9ally oblit]at$3 s ne> to ?is la/ /age is ,/4 ,hel5a1 t ,i believe no "o has hi!rto suspect$ t ! c5tral ridge or axis ( ! isl& is ! la/ wreck ( ! crat]1 :5ce ! mo/ mod]n volcanic /reams 7 p\r$ =?4 ,! great holl[ space or valley s\?w>d ( ! c5tral curv$ ridge1 across :i* ! half ( ! crat] mu/ once h ext5d$1 is =m$ ( b>e1 wat]-worn hillocks & ridges ( r$1 yell[1 & br[n rocks1 m+l$ toge!r 9 *aos-l confusion1 int]lac$ by dikes1 & )\t any regul> /ratification4 ,! *ief "p consi/s ( r$ decompos+ scori1 associat$ ) v>i\s k9ds ( tuff & yell[ argillace\s b$s1 full ( brok5 cry/als1 ^? ( augite be+ p>ticul>ly l>ge4 ,"h & !re masses ( highly cellul> & amygdaloidal lavas protrude4 ,f "o ( ! ridges 9 ! mid/ ( ! valley1 a conical precipit\s hill1 call$ ,lot1 boldly /&s up1 & =ms a mo/ s+ul> & conspicu\s object4 ,x is compos$ ( phonolite1 divid$ 9 "o "p into great curv$ lam91 9 ano!r1 into angul> concretion>y balls1 & 9 a ?ird "p into outw>dly radiat+ columns4 ,at its base ! /rata ( lava1 tuff1 & scori1 dip away on all sides2#i ! uncov]$ portion is #aig feet#aj 9 height1 & its horizontal section gives an oval figure4 ,! phonolite is ( a gre5i%-grey col\r1 & is full ( m9ute acicul> cry/als ( feldsp>2 9 mo/ p>ts x has a con*oidal fracture1 & is sonor\s1 yet x is cr5ulat$ ) m9ute air-cavities4 ,9 a ,s4,w4 direction f ,lot1 !re are "s o!r rem>kable column> p9nacles1 b ( a less regul> %ape1 namely1 ,lot's ,wife1 & ! ,asses' ,e>s1 compos$ ( alli$ k9ds ( rock4 ,f _! flatt5$ %ape1 & _! relative position to ea* o!r1 !y are evid5tly connect$ on ! same l9e ( fissure4 ,x is1 moreov]1 rem>kable t ?is same ,n4,e4 & ,s4,w4 l9e1 jo9+ ,lot & ,lot's ,wife1 if prolong$ w\ld int]sect ,flag/aff ,hill1 :i*1 z be=e /at$1 is cross$ by num]\s dikes runn+ 9 ?is direction1 & :i* has a di/urb$ /ructure1 r5d]+ x probable t a great body ( once fluid rock lies inject$ b5ea? x4 #i ,abi* 9 8 8,views ( ,vesuvius0 7plate vi71 has %[n ! mann] 9 :i* b$s1 "u ne>ly simil> circum/ances1 are tilt$ up4 ,! upp] b$s are m turn$ up ?an ! l[]2 & he acc\nts = ?is1 by %[+ t ! lava ins9uates itself horizontally betwe5 ! l[] b$s4 #aj ,?is height is giv5 by ,mr4 ,seale 9 8 ,geognosy ( ! isl&4 ,! height ( ! summit above ! level ( ! sea is said to be #a1ddd feet4 ,9 ?is same great valley !re are sev]al o!r conical masses ( inject$ rock 7"o1 ,i obs]v$1 0 compos$ ( compact gre5/one71 "s ( :i* are n connect$1 z f> z is app>5t1 ) any l9e ( dike2 :il/ o!rs are obvi\sly ?us connect$4 ,( ^! dikes1 ?ree or f\r great l9es /ret* across ! valley 9 a ,n4,e4 & ,s4,w4 direction1 p>allel to t "o connect+ ! ,asses' ,e>s1 ,lot's ,wife1 & probably ,lot4 ,! numb] ( ^! masses ( inject$ rock is a rem>kable feature 9 ! geology ( ,/4 ,hel5a4 ,besides ^? j m5tion$1 & ! hypo!tical "o b5ea? ,flag/aff ,hill1 !re is ,little ,/ony-top & o!rs1 z ,i h reason to believe1 at ! ,man-&-,horse1 & at ,high ,hill4 ,mo/ ( ^! masses1 if n all ( !m1 h be5 inject$ subsequ5tly to ! la/ volcanic eruptions f ! c5tral crat]4 ,! =mation ( conical bosses ( rock on l9es ( fissure1 ! walls ( :i* are 9 mo/ cases p>allel1 may probably be attribut$ to inequalities 9 ! t5sion1 caus+ small transv]se fissures1 & at ^! po9ts ( int]section ! edges ( ! /rata w\ld naturally yield1 & be easily turn$ upw>ds4 ,f9ally1 ,i may rem>k1 t hills ( phonolite ev]y:]e are apt#aa to assume s+ul> & ev5 grotesque %apes1 l t ( ,lot3 ! peak at ,f]n&o ,noronha (f]s an in/ance2 at ,/4 ,jago1 h[ev]1 ! cones ( phonolite1 ?\gh tap]+1 h a regul> =m4 ,suppos+1 z seems probable1 t all su* hillocks or obelisks h orig9ally be5 inject$1 :il/ liquifi$1 into a m\ld =m$ by yield+ /rata1 z c]ta9ly has be5 ! case ) ,lot1 h[ are we to acc\nt = ! frequ5t abruptness & s+ul>ity ( _! outl9es1 comp>$ ) simil>ly inject$ masses ( gre5/one & basalt8 ,c x be due to a less p]fect degree ( fluidity1 :i* is g5]ally suppos$ to be *>act]i/ic ( ! alli$ tra*ytic lavas8 #aa ,d',aubuisson1 9 8 8,trait de ,gognosie0 7tome ii1 p4 #edj7 p>ticul>ly rem>ks t ?is is ! case4 ,sup]ficial deposits4--,s(t calc>e\s s&/one occurs 9 ext5sive1 ?\gh ?91 sup]ficial b$s1 bo? on ! nor!rn & s\!rn %ores ( ! isl&4 ,x consi/s ( v m9ute1 equal-siz$1 r\nd$ p>ticles ( %ells1 & o!r organic bodies1 :i* p>tially reta9 _! yell[1 br[n1 & p9k col\rs1 & occasionally1 ?\gh v r>ely1 pres5t an obscure trace ( _! orig9al ext]nal =ms4 ,i 9 va9 endeav\r$ to f9d a s+le unroll$ fragm5t ( a %ell4 ,! col\r ( ! p>ticles is ! mo/ obvi\s "* by :i* _! orig9 c be recognis$1 ! t9ts be+ affect$ 7& an od\r produc$7 by a mod]ate heat1 9 ! same mann] z 9 fre% %ells4 ,! p>ticles are cem5t$ toge!r1 & are m+l$ ) "s e>?y matt]3 ! pure/ masses1 accord+ to ,beatson1 conta9 #gj p] c5t ( c>bonate ( lime4 ,! b$s1 v>y+ 9 ?ickness f two or ?ree feet to fifte5 feet1 coat ! surface ( ! gr\nd2 !y g5]ally lie on t side ( ! valley :i* is protect$ f ! w9d1 & !y occur at ! height ( sev]al hundr$ feet above ! level ( ! sea4 ,_! position is ! same :i* s&1 if n[ drift$ by ! trade-w9d1 w\ld occupy2 & no d\bt !y ?us orig9at$1 :i* expla9s ! equal size & m9ut5ess ( ! p>ticles1 & likewise ! entire abs5ce ( :ole %ells1 or ev5 ( mod]ately-siz$ fragm5ts4 ,x is rem>kable t at ! pres5t day !re are no %elly bea*es on any "p ( ! coa/1 :5ce calc>e\s du/ c\ld be drift$ & w9n[$2 we mu/1 !re=e1 look back to a =m] p]iod :5 be=e ! l& 0 worn into ! pres5t great precipices1 a %elv+ coa/1 l t ( ,asc5sion1 0 fav\rable to ! accumulation ( %elly detritus4 ,"s ( ! b$s ( ?is lime/one are betwe5 six hundr$ & sev5 hundr$ feet above ! sea2 b "p ( ?is height may possibly be due to an elevation ( ! l&1 subsequ5t to ! accumulation ( ! calc>e\s s&4 ,! p]colation ( ra9-wat] has consolidat$ p>ts ( ^! b$s into a solid rock1 & has =m$ masses ( d>k br[n1 /alagmitic lime/one4 ,at ! ,sug>-,loaf qu>ry1 fragm5ts ( rock on ! adjo9+ slopes#ab h be5 ?ickly coat$ by successive f9e lay]s ( calc>e\s matt]4 ,x is s+ul>1 t _m ( ^! pebbles h _! entire surfaces coat$1 )\t any po9t ( contact hav+ be5 left uncov]$2 h5ce1 ^! pebbles mu/ h be5 lift$ up by ! sl[ deposition betwe5 !m ( ! successive films ( c>bonate ( lime4 ,masses ( :ite1 f9ely oolitic rock are atta*$ to ! outside ( "s ( ^! coat$ pebbles4 ,von ,bu* has describ$ a compact lime/one at ,lanz>ote1 :i* seems p]fectly to resemble ! /alagmitic deposition j m5tion$3 x coats pebbles1 & 9 p>ts is f9ely oolitic3 x =ms a f>-ext5d$ lay]1 f "o in* to two or ?ree feet 9 ?ickness1 & x occurs at ! height ( #hjj feet above ! sea1 b only on t side ( ! isl& expos$ to ! viol5t nor?-we/]n w9ds4 ,von ,bu* rem>ks1#ac t x is n f\nd 9 holl[s1 b only on ! unbrok5 & incl9$ surfaces ( ! m\nta94 ,he believes1 t x has be5 deposit$ by ! spray :i* is borne ov] ! :ole isl& by ^! viol5t w9ds4 ,x appe>s1 h[ev]1 to me mu* m probable t x has be5 =m$1 z at ,/4 ,hel5a1 by ! p]colation ( wat] ?r\gh f9ely comm9ut$ %ells3 = :5 s& is bl[n on a mu*-expos$ coa/1 x always t5ds to accumulate on broad1 ev5 surfaces1 :i* (f] a uni=m resi/ance to ! w9ds4 ,at ! neighb\r+ isl&1 moreov]1 ( ,feurtev5tura1#ad !re is an e>?y lime/one1 :i*1 accord+ to ,von ,bu*1 is q simil> to specim5s :i* he has se5 f ,/4 ,hel5a1 & :i* he believes to h be5 =m$ by ! drift+ ( %elly detritus4 #ab ,9 ! e>?y detritus on sev]al p>ts ( ?is hill1 irregul> masses ( v impure1 cry/allis$ sulphate ( lime occur4 ,z ?is sub/ance is n[ be+ abundantly deposit$ by ! surf at ,asc5sion1 x is possible t ^! masses may ?us h orig9at$2 b if s1 x mu/ h be5 at a p]iod :5 ! l& /ood at a mu* l[] level4 ,?is e>?y sel5ite is n[ f\nd at a height ( betwe5 six hundr$ & sev5 hundr$ feet4 #ac 8,description des ,isles ,can>ies10 p4 #bic4 #ad ,idem1 pp4 #cad & #cgd4 ,! upp] b$s ( ! lime/one1 at ! above-m5tion$ qu>ry on ! ,sug>-,loaf ,hill1 are s(t]1 f9]-gra9$ & less pure1 ?an ! l[] b$s4 ,!y ab\nd ) fragm5ts ( l&-%ells1 & ) "s p]fect ones2 !y conta91 also1 ! bones ( birds1 & ! l>ge eggs1#ae app>5tly ( wat]-f[l4 ,x is probable t ^! upp] b$s rema9$ long 9 an unconsolidat$ =m1 dur+ :i* "t1 ^! t]re/rial productions 7 emb$d$4 ,mr4 ,g4 ,r4 ,s[]by has k9dly exam9$ ?ree species ( l&-%ells1 :i* ,i procur$ f ?is b$1 & has describ$ !m 9 detail4 ,"o ( !m is a ,succ9ea1 id5tical ) a species n[ liv+ abundantly on ! isl&2 ! two o!rs1 namely1 ,co*log5a fossilis & ,helix biplicata1 are n kn[n 9 a rec5t /ate3 ! latt] species 0 also f\nd 9 ano!r & diff]5t locality1 associat$ ) a species ( ,co*log5a :i* is und\bt$ly ext9ct4 #ae ,colonel ,wilkes1 9 a catalogue pres5t$ ) "s specim5s to ! ,geological ,society1 /ates t z _m z t5 eggs 7 f\nd by "o p]son4 ,dr4 ,buckl& has rem>k$ 78,geolog4 ,trans410 vol4 v1 p4 #dgd7 on ^! eggs4 ,b$s ( ext9ct l&-%ells4--,l&-%ells1 all ( :i* appe> to be species n[ ext9ct1 occur emb$d$ 9 e>?1 9 sev]al p>ts ( ! isl&4 ,! great] numb] h be5 f\nd at a consid]able height on ,flag/aff ,hill4 ,on ! ,n4,w4 side ( ?is hill1 a ra9-*annel exposes a section ( ab\t tw5ty feet 9 ?ickness1 ( :i* ! upp] "p consi/s ( black vegetable m\ld1 evid5tly wa%$ d[n f ! heights above1 & ! l[] "p ( less black e>?1 ab\nd+ ) "y & old %ells1 & ) _! fragm5ts3 "p ( ?is e>? is slightly consolidat$ by calc>e\s matt]1 app>5tly due to ! p>tial decomposition ( "s ( ! %ells4 ,mr4 ,seale1 an intellig5t resid5t1 :o fir/ call$ att5tion to ^! %ells1 gave me a l>ge collection f ano!r locality1 :]e ! %ells appe> to h be5 emb$d$ 9 v black e>?4 ,mr4 ,g4 ,r4 ,s[]by has exam9$ ^! %ells1 & has describ$ !m4 ,!re are sev5 species1 namely1 "o ,co*log5a1 two species ( ! g5us ,co*licopa1 & f\r ( ,helix2 none ( ^! are kn[n 9 a rec5t /ate1 or h be5 f\nd 9 any o!r c\ntry4 ,! small] species 7 pick$ out ( ! inside ( ! l>ge %ells ( ! ,co*log5a aurisvulp9a4 ,?is la/-m5tion$ species is 9 _m respects a v s+ul> "o2 x 0 class$1 ev5 by ,lam>ck1 9 a m>9e g5us1 & hav+ ?us be5 mi/ak5 = a sea-%ell1 & ! small] accompany+ species hav+ be5 ov]look$1 ! exact localities :]e x 0 f\nd h be5 measur$1 & ! elevation ( ?is isl& ?us d$uc$6 ,x is v rem>kable t all ! %ells ( ?is species f\nd by me 9 "o spot1 =m a di/9ct v>iety1 z describ$ by ,mr4 ,s[]by1 f ^? procur$ f ano!r locality by ,mr4 ,seale4 ,z ?is ,co*log5a is a l>ge & conspicu\s %ell1 ,i p>ticul>ly inquir$ f sev]al intellig5t c\ntrym5 :e!r !y _h ev] se5 x alive2 !y all assur$ me t !y _h n1 & !y w\ld n ev5 believe t x 0 a l& animal3 ,mr4 ,seale1 moreov]1 :o 0 a collector ( %ells all 8 life at ,/4 ,hel5a1 nev] met ) x alive4 ,possibly "s ( ! small] species may turn out to be yet liv+ k9ds2 b1 on ! o!r h&1 ! two l&-%ells :i* are n[ liv+ on ! isl& 9 great numb]s1 d n occur emb$d$1 z f> z is yet kn[n1 ) ! ext9ct species4 ,i h %[n 9 my 8,j\rnal10#af t ! ext9ction ( ^! l&-%ells possibly may n be an anci5t ev5t2 z a great *ange took place 9 ! /ate ( ! isl& ab\t "o hundr$ & tw5ty ye>s ago1 :5 ! old trees di$1 & 7 n replac$ by "y ones1 ^! be+ de/roy$ by ! goats & hogs1 :i* _h run wild 9 numb]s1 f ! ye> #aejb4 ,mr4 ,seale /ates1 t on ,flag/aff ,hill1 :]e we h se5 t ! emb$d$ l&-%ells are especially num]\s1 traces are ev]y:]e discov]able1 :i* pla9ly indicate t x 0 once ?ickly clo!d ) trees2 at pres5t n ev5 a bu% gr[s !re4 ,! ?ick b$ ( black vegetable m\ld :i* cov]s ! %ell-b$1 on ! flanks ( ?is hill1 0 probably wa%$ d[n f ! upp] "p1 z soon z ! trees p]i%$1 & ! %elt] af=d$ by !m 0 lo/4 #af 8,j\rnal ( ,rese>*es10 p4 #ehb4 ,elevation ( ! l&4--,see+ t ! lavas ( ! basal s]ies1 :i* are ( subm>9e orig91 are rais$ above ! level ( ! sea1 & at "s places to ! height ( _m hundr$ feet1 ,i look$ out = sup]ficial signs ( ! elevation ( ! l&4 ,! bottoms ( "s ( ! gorges1 :i* desc5d to ! coa/1 are fill$ up to ! dep? ( ab\t a hundr$ feet1 by rudely divid$ lay]s ( s&1 muddy clay1 & fragm5t>y masses2 9 ^! b$s1 ,mr4 ,seale has f\nd ! bones ( ! tropic-bird & ( ! albatross2 ! =m] n[ r>ely1 & ! latt] nev] visit+ ! isl&4 ,f ! diff]5ce betwe5 ^! lay]s1 & ! slop+ piles ( detritus :i* re/ on !m1 ,i suspect t !y 7 deposit$1 :5 ! gorges /ood b5ea? ! sea4 ,mr4 ,seale1 moreov]1 has %[n t "s ( ! fissure-l gorges#ag become1 ) a concave outl9e1 gradually r wid] at ! bottom ?an at ! top2 & ?is peculi> /ructure 0 probably caus$ by ! we>+ action ( ! sea1 :5 x ent]$ ! l[] "p ( ^! gorges4 ,at great] heights1 ! evid5ce ( ! rise ( ! l& is ev5 less cle>3 nev]!less1 9 a bay-l depression on ! table-l& beh9d ,prosp]\s ,bay1 at ! height ( ab\t a ?\s& feet1 !re are flat-topp$ masses ( rock1 :i* x is sc>cely conceivable1 c\ld h be5 insulat$ f ! surr\nd+ & simil> /rata1 by any o!r ag5cy ?an ! d5ud+ action ( a sea-bea*4 ,mu* d5udation1 inde$1 has be5 effect$ at great elevations1 :i* x w\ld n be easy to expla9 by any o!r means3 ?us1 ! flat summit ( ! ,b>n1 :i* is #b1jjj feet high1 pres5ts1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,seale1 a p]fect network ( truncat$ dikes2 on hills l ! ,flag/aff1 =m$ ( s(t rock1 we might suppose t ! dikes _h be5 worn d[n & cut (f by meteoric ag5cy1 b we c h>dly suppose ?is possible ) ! h>d1 basaltic /rata ( ! ,b>n4 #ag ,a fissure-l gorge1 ne> ,/ony-top1 is said by ,mr4 ,seale to be #hdj feet deep1 & only #aae feet 9 wid?4 ,coa/ d5udation4--,! enorm\s cliffs1 9 _m p>ts betwe5 "o & two ?\s& feet 9 height1 ) :i* ?is prison-l isl& is surr\nd$1 ) ! exception ( only a few places1 :]e n>r[ valleys desc5d to ! coa/1 is ! mo/ /rik+ feature 9 its sc5]y4 ,we h se5 t portions ( ! basaltic r+1 two or ?ree miles 9 l5g? by "o or two miles 9 bread?1 & f "o to two ?\s& feet 9 height1 h be5 :olly remov$4 ,!re are1 also1 l$ges & banks ( rock1 ris+ out ( pr(\ndly deep wat]1 & di/ant f ! pres5t coa/ betwe5 ?ree & f\r miles1 :i*1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,seale1 c be trac$ to ! %ore1 & are f\nd to be ! cont9uations ( c]ta9 well-kn[n great dikes4 ,! swell ( ! ,atlantic ,ocean has obvi\sly be5 ! active p[] 9 =m+ ^! cliffs2 & x is int]e/+ to obs]ve t ! less]1 ?\gh /ill great1 height ( ! cliffs on ! leew>d & p>tially protect$ side ( ! isl& 7ext5d+ f ! ,sug>-,loaf ,hill to ,s\? ,we/ ,po9t71 corresponds ) ! less] degree ( exposure4 ,:5 reflect+ on ! comp>atively l[ coa/s ( _m volcanic isl&s1 :i* also /& expos$ 9 ! op5 ocean1 & are app>5tly ( consid]able antiquity1 ! m9d recoils f an attempt to grasp ! numb] ( c5turies ( exposure1 necess>y to h gr\nd into mud & to h disp]s$ ! enorm\s cubic mass ( h>d rock :i* has be5 p>$ (f ! circumf]5ce ( ?is isl&4 ,! contra/ 9 ! sup]ficial /ate ( ,/4 ,hel5a1 comp>$ ) ! ne>e/ isl&1 namely1 ,asc5sion1 is v /rik+4 ,at ,asc5sion1 ! surfaces ( ! lava-/reams are glossy1 z if j p\r$ =?1 _! b\nd>ies are well def9$1 & !y c (t5 be trac$ to p]fect crat]s1 :5ce !y 7 erupt$2 9 ! c\rse ( _m long walks1 ,i did n obs]ve a s+le dike2 & ! coa/ r\nd ne>ly ! entire circumf]5ce is l[1 & has be5 eat5 back 7?\gh too mu* /ress mu/ n be plac$ on ?is fact1 z ! isl& may h be5 subsid+7 into a little wall only f t5 to ?irty feet high4 ,yet dur+ ! #cdj ye>s1 s9ce ,asc5sion has be5 kn[n1 n ev5 ! feeble/ signs ( volcanic action h be5 record$4#ah ,on ! o!r h&1 at ,/4 ,hel5a1 ! c\rse ( no "o /ream ( lava c be trac$1 ei!r by ! /ate ( its b\nd>ies or ( its sup]ficies2 ! m]e wreck ( "o great crat] is left2 n ! valleys only1 b ! surfaces ( "s ( ! highe/ hills1 are int]lac$ by worn-d[n dikes1 &1 9 _m places1 ! d5ud$ summits ( great cones ( inject$ rock /& expos$ & nak$2 la/ly1 z we h se51 ! entire circuit ( ! isl& has be5 deeply worn back into ! gr&e/ precipices4 #ah ,9 ! ,nautical ,magaz9e = #ahce1 p4 #fdb1 & = #ahch1 p4 #cfa1 & 9 ! 8,comptes ,r5dus10 ,april #ahch1 acc\nts are giv5 ( a s]ies ( volcanic ph5om5a--e>?quakes--tr\bl$ wat]--float+ scori & columns ( smoke--:i* h be5 obs]v$ at int]vals s9ce ! middle ( ! la/ c5tury1 9 a space ( op5 sea betwe5 longitudes #bj & #bb we/1 ab\t half a degree s\? ( ! equator4 ,^! facts seem to %[1 t an isl& or an ar*ipelago is 9 process ( =mation 9 ! middle ( ! ,atlantic3 a l9e jo9+ ,/4 ,hel5a & ,asc5sion1 prolong$1 int]sects ?is sl[ly nasc5t focus ( volcanic action4 ,crat]s ( ,elevation4 ,!re is mu* resemblance 9 /ructure & 9 geological hi/ory betwe5 ,/4 ,hel5a1 ,/4 ,jago1 & ,mauritius4 ,all ?ree isl&s are b\nd$ 7at lea/ 9 ! p>ts :i* ,i 0 able to exam9e7 by a r+ ( basaltic m\nta9s1 n[ mu* brok51 b evid5tly once cont9u\s4 ,^! m\nta9s h1 or app>5tly once _h1 _! esc>pm5ts /eep t[>ds ! int]ior ( ! isl&1 & _! /rata dip outw>ds4 ,i 0 able to asc]ta91 only 9 a few cases1 ! incl9ation ( ! b$s2 nor 0 ?is easy1 = ! /ratification 0 g5]ally obscure1 except :5 view$ f a di/ance4 ,i feel1 h[ev]1 little d\bt t1 accord+ to ! rese>*es ( ,m4 ,elie de ,beaumont1 _! av]age incl9ation is great] ?an t :i* !y c\ld h acquir$1 consid]+ _! ?ickness & compactness1 by fl[+ d[n a slop+ surface4 ,at ,/4 ,hel5a1 & at ,/4 ,jago1 ! basaltic /rata re/ on old] & probably subm>9e b$s ( diff]5t composition4 ,at all ?ree isl&s1 deluges ( m rec5t lavas h fl[$ f ! c5tre ( ! isl&1 t[>ds & betwe5 ! basaltic m\nta9s2 & at ,/4 ,hel5a ! c5tral plat=m has be5 fill$ up by !m4 ,all ?ree isl&s h be5 rais$ 9 mass4 ,at ,mauritius ! sea1 )9 a late geological p]iod1 mu/ h rea*$ to ! foot ( ! basaltic m\nta9s1 z x n[ does at ,/4 ,hel5a2 & at ,/4 ,jago x is cutt+ back ! int]m$iate pla9 t[>ds !m4 ,9 ^! ?ree isl&s1 b especially at ,/4 ,jago & at ,mauritius1 :51 /&+ on ! summit ( "o ( ! old basaltic m\nta9s1 "o looks 9 va9 t[>ds ! c5tre ( ! isl&1--! po9t t[>ds :i* ! /rata b5ea? "o's feet1 & ( ! m\nta9s on ea* side1 rudely conv]ge1--= a s\rce :5ce ^! /rata c\ld h be5 erupt$2 b "o sees only a va/ holl[ plat=m /ret*$ b5ea?1 or piles ( matt] ( m rec5t orig94 ,^! basaltic m\nta9s come1 ,i presume1 into ! class ( ,crat]s ( elevation3 x is immat]ial :e!r ! r+s 7 ev] completely =m$1 = ! portions :i* n[ exi/ h s uni=m a /ructure1 t1 if !y d n =m fragm5ts ( true crat]s1 !y _c be class$ ) ord9>y l9es ( elevation4 ,) respect to _! orig91 aft] hav+ read ! works ( ,mr4 ,lyell1#ai & ( ,,mm4 ,c4 ,prevo/ & ,virlet1 ,i _c believe t ! great c5tral holl[s h be5 =m$ by a simple dome-%ap$ elevation1 & ! consequ5t ar*+ ( ! /rata4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,i h v great difficulty 9 admitt+ t ^! basaltic m\nta9s are m]ely ! basal fragm5ts ( great volcanoes1 ( :i* ! summits h ei!r be5 bl[n (f1 or m probably swall[$ up by subsid5ce4 ,^! r+s are1 9 "s in/ances1 s imm5se1 z at ,/4 ,jago & at ,mauritius1 & _! occurr5ce is s frequ5t1 t ,i c h>dly p]suade myself to adopt ?is explanation4 ,moreov]1 ,i suspect t ! foll[+ circum/ances1 f _! frequ5t concurr5ce1 are someway connect$ toge!r1--a connection n impli$ 9 ei!r ( ! above views3 namely1 fir/1 ! brok5 /ate ( ! r+2 %[+ t ! n[ deta*$ portions h be5 expos$ to great d5udation1 & 9 "s cases1 p]haps1 r5d]+ x probable t ! r+ nev] 0 entire2 secondly1 ! great am\nt ( matt] erupt$ f ! c5tral area aft] or dur+ ! =mation ( ! r+2 & ?irdly1 ! elevation ( ! di/rict 9 mass4 ,z f> z relates to ! incl9ation ( ! /rata be+ great] ?an t :i* ! basal fragm5ts ( ord9>y volcanoes w\ld naturally possess1 ,i c readily believe t ?is incl9ation might h be5 sl[ly acquir$ by t am\nt ( elevation1 ( :i*1 accord+ to ,m4 ,elie de ,beaumont1 ! num]\s upfill$ fissures or dikes are ! evid5ce & ! measure1--a view equally novel & important1 :i* we owe to ! rese>*es ( t geologi/ on ,m\nt ,etna4 #ai 8,pr9ciples ( ,geology0 7fif? edit471 vol4 ii1 p4 #aga4 ,a conjecture1 includ+ ! above circum/ances1 occurr$ to me1 :51-- ) my m9d fully conv9c$1 f ! ph5om5a ( #ahce 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1#bj t ! =ces :i* eject matt] f volcanic orifices & raise cont95ts 9 mass are id5tical1--,i view$ t "p ( ! coa/ ( ,/4 ,jago1 :]e ! horizontally uprais$1 calc>e\s /ratum dips into ! sea1 directly b5ea? a cone ( subsequ5tly erupt$ lava4 ,! conjecture is t1 dur+ ! sl[ elevation ( a volcanic di/rict or isl&1 9 ! c5tre ( :i* "o or m orifices cont9ue op51 & ?us relieve ! subt]ranean =ces1 ! bord]s are elevat$ m ?an ! c5tral area2 & t ! portions ?us uprais$ d n slope g5tly into ! c5tral1 less elevat$ area1 z does ! calc>e\s /ratum "u ! cone at ,/4 ,jago1 & z does a l>ge "p ( ! circumf]5ce ( ,icel&1#ba b t !y are sep>at$ f x by curv$ faults4 ,we might expect1 f :at we see along ord9>y faults1 t ! /rata on ! uprais$ side1 already dipp+ outw>ds f _! orig9al =mation z lava-/reams1 w\ld be tilt$ f ! l9e ( fault1 & ?us h _! incl9ation increas$4 ,accord+ to ?is hypo!sis1 :i* ,i am tempt$ to ext5d only to "s few cases1 x is n probable t ! r+ w\ld ev] be =m$ q p]fect2 & f ! elevation be+ sl[1 ! uprais$ portions w\ld g5]ally be expos$ to mu* d5udation1 & h5ce ! r+ become brok52 we might also expect to f9d occasional inequalities 9 ! dip ( ! uprais$ masses1 z is ! case at ,/4 ,jago4 ,by ?is hypo!sis ! elevation ( ! di/ricts 9 mass1 & ! fl[+ ( deluges ( lava f ! c5tral plat=ms1 are likewise connect$ toge!r4 ,on ?is view ! m>g9al basaltic m\nta9s ( ! ?ree =ego+ isl&s might /ill be consid]$ z =m+ 8,crat]s ( elevation20 ! k9d ( elevation impli$ hav+ be5 sl[1 & ! c5tral holl[ or plat=m hav+ be5 =m$1 n by ! ar*+ ( ! surface1 b simply by t "p hav+ be5 uprais$ to a less height4 #bj ,i h giv5 a detail$ acc\nt ( ^! ph5om5a1 9 a pap] read be=e ! ,geological ,society 9 ,m>* #ahch4 ,at ! in/ant ( "t1 :5 an imm5se area 0 convuls$ & a l>ge tract elevat$1 ! di/ricts imm$iately surr\nd+ sev]al ( ! great v5ts 9 ! ,cordill]a rema9$ quiesc5t2 ! subt]ranean =ces be+ app>5tly reliev$ by ! eruptions1 :i* !n recomm5c$ ) great viol5ce4 ,an ev5t ( some:at ! same k9d1 b on an inf9itely small] scale1 appe>s to h tak5 place1 accord+ to ,abi* 78,views ( ,vesuvius10 plates i & ix71 )9 ! great crat] ( ,vesuvius1 :]e a plat=m on "o side ( a fissure 0 rais$ 9 mass tw5ty feet1 :il/ on ! o!r side1 a tra9 ( small volcanoes bur/ =? 9 eruption4 #ba ,x appe>s1 f in=mation communicat$ to me 9 ! mo/ oblig+ mann] by ,m4 ,e4 ,rob]t1 t ! circumf]5tial p>ts ( ,icel&1 :i* are compos$ ( anci5t basaltic /rata alt]nat+ ) tuff1 dip inl&1 ?us =m+ a gigantic sauc]4 ,m4 ,rob]t f\nd t ?is 0 ! case1 ) a few & q local exceptions1 = a space ( coa/ sev]al hundr$ miles 9 l5g?4 ,i f9d ?is /atem5t corroborat$1 z f> z reg>ds "o place1 by ,mack5zie 9 8 8,travels0 7p4 #cgg71 & 9 ano!r place by "s ,,ms4 notes k9dly l5t me by ,dr4 ,holl&4 ,! coa/ is deeply ind5t$ by creeks1 at ! head ( :i* ! l& is g5]ally l[4 ,m4 ,rob]t in=ms me1 t ! inw>dly dipp+ /rata appe> to ext5d z f> z ?is l9e1 & t _! incl9ation usually corresponds ) ! slope ( ! surface1 f ! high coa/-m\nta9s to ! l[ l& at ! head ( ^! creeks4 ,9 ! section describ$ by ,sir ,g4 ,mack5zie1 ! dip is #abj4 ,! int]ior p>ts ( ! isl& *iefly consi/1 z f> z is kn[n1 ( rec5tly erupt$ matt]4 ,! great size1 h[ev]1 ( ,icel&1 equall+ ! bulkie/ "p ( ,engl&1 ought p]haps to exclude x f ! class ( isl&s we h be5 consid]+2 b ,i _c avoid suspect+ t if ! coa/-m\nta9s1 in/ead ( g5tly slop+ into ! less elevat$ c5tral area1 _h be5 sep>at$ f x by irregul>ly curv$ faults1 ! /rata w\ld h be5 tilt$ seaw>d1 & a 8,crat] ( elevation10 l t ( ,/4 ,jago or t ( ,mauritius1 b ( mu* va/] dim5sions1 w\ld h be5 =m$4 ,i w only fur!r rem>k1 t ! frequ5t occurr5ce ( ext5sive lakes at ! foot ( l>ge volcanoes1 & ! frequ5t association ( volcanic & fre%-wat] /rata1 seem to indicate t ! areas ar\nd volcanoes are apt to be depress$ b5ea? ! level ( ! adjo9+ c\ntry1 ei!r f hav+ be5 less elevat$1 or f ! effects ( subsid5ce4 ,*apt] ,v ,,galapagos ,,ar*ipelago4 ,*a?am ,isl&4--,crat]s compos$ ( a peculi> k9d ( tuff4--,small basaltic crat]s1 ) holl[s at _! bases4--,albem>le ,isl&1 fluid lavas1 _! composition4--,crat]s ( tuff1 incl9ation ( _! ext]ior div]g+ /rata1 & /ructure ( _! int]ior conv]g+ /rata4--,james ,isl&1 segm5t ( a small basaltic crat]2 fluidity & composition ( its lava-/reams1 & ( its eject$ fragm5ts4--,conclud+ rem>ks on ! crat]s ( tuff1 & on ! brea*$ condition ( _! s\!rn sides4--,m9]alogical composition ( ! rocks ( ! ar*ipelago4--,elevation ( ! l&4 ,direction ( ! fissures ( eruption4 ,?is ar*ipelago is situat$ "u ! equator1 at a di/ance ( betwe5 five & six hundr$ miles f ! we/ coa/ ( ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,x consi/s ( five pr9cipal isl&s1 & ( sev]al small ones1 :i* toge!r are equal 9 area1#a b n 9 ext5t ( l&1 to ,sicily1 conjo9tly ) ! ,ionian ,isl&s4 ,!y are all volcanic3 on two1 crat]s h be5 se5 9 eruption1 & on sev]al ( ! o!r isl&s1 /reams ( lava h a rec5t appe>ance4 ,! l>g] isl&s are *iefly compos$ ( solid rock1 & !y rise ) a tame outl9e to a height ( betwe5 "o & f\r ?\s& feet4 ,!y are sometimes1 b n g5]ally1 surm\nt$ by "o pr9cipal orifice4 ,! crat]s v>y 9 size f m]e spiracles to huge caldrons sev]al miles 9 circumf]5ce2 !y are extraord9>ily num]\s1 s t ,i %\ld ?9k1 if enum]at$1 !y w\ld be f\nd to exce$ two ?\s&2 !y are =m$ ei!r ( scori & lava1 or ( a br[n-col\r$ tuff2 & ^! latt] crat]s are 9 sev]al respects rem>kable4 ,! :ole gr\p 0 survey$ by ! (fic]s ( ! ,beagle4 ,i visit$ myself f\r ( ! pr9cipal isl&s1 & receiv$ specim5s f all ! o!rs4 ,"u ! head ( ! diff]5t isl&s ,i w describe only t :i* appe>s to me des]v+ ( att5tion4 #a ,i exclude f ?is measurem5t1 ! small volcanic isl&s ( ,culpepp] & ,w5man1 ly+ sev5ty miles nor?w>d ( ! gr\p4 ,crat]s 7 visible on all ! isl&s ( ! gr\p1 except on ,t[]s ,isl&1 :i* is "o ( ! l[e/2 ?is isl& is1 h[ev]1 =m$ ( volcanic rocks4 ,no4 #aa ,illu/ration3 ,galapagos ,ar*ipelago4 ,galapagos ,ar*ipelago ,,*a?am ,,isl&4 ,crat]s compos$ ( a s+ul> k9d ( tuff4--,t[>ds ! ea/]n end ( ?is isl& !re occur two crat]s compos$ ( two k9ds ( tuff2 "o k9d be+ friable1 l slightly consolidat$ a%es2 & ! o!r compact1 & ( a diff]5t nature f any?+ :i* ,i h met ) describ$4 ,?is latt] sub/ance1 :]e x is be/ *>act]is$1 is ( a yell[i%-br[n col\r1 transluc5t1 & ) a lu/re some:at resembl+ res92 x is brittle1 ) an angul>1 r\gh1 & v irregul> fracture1 sometimes1 h[ev]1 be+ slightly granul>1 & ev5 obscurely cry/all9e3 x c readily be scrat*$ ) a knife1 yet "s po9ts are h>d en\gh j to m>k common glass2 x fuses ) ease into a blacki%-gre5 glass4 ,! mass conta9s num]\s brok5 cry/als ( oliv9e & augite1 & small p>ticles ( black & br[n scori2 x is (t5 trav]s$ by ?9 seams ( calc>e\s matt]4 ,x g5]ally affects a nodul> or concretion>y /ructure4 ,9 a h& specim51 ?is sub/ance w\ld c]ta9ly be mi/ak5 = a pale & peculi> v>iety ( pit*/one2 b :5 se5 9 mass its /ratification1 & ! num]\s lay]s ( fragm5ts ( basalt1 bo? angul> & r\nd$1 at once r5d] its subaque\s orig9 evid5t4 ,an exam9ation ( a s]ies ( specim5s %[s t ?is res9-l sub/ance results f a *emical *ange on small p>ticles ( pale & d>k-col\r$ scoriace\s rocks2 & ?is *ange c\ld be di/9ctly trac$ 9 diff]5t /ages r\nd ! edges ( ev5 ! same p>ticle4 ,! position ne> ! coa/ ( all ! crat]s compos$ ( ?is k9d ( tuff or pep]9o1 & _! brea*$ condition1 r5d]s x probable t !y 7 all =m$ :5 /&+ imm]s$ 9 ! sea2 consid]+ ?is circum/ance1 toge!r ) ! rem>kable abs5ce ( l>ge b$s ( a%es 9 ! :ole ar*ipelago1 ,i ?9k x highly probable t mu* ! great] "p ( ! tuff has orig9at$ f ! trituration ( fragm5ts ( ! grey1 basaltic lavas 9 ! m\?s ( crat]s /&+ 9 ! sea4 ,x may be ask$ :e!r ! heat$ wat] )9 ^! crat]s has produc$ ?is s+ul> *ange 9 ! small scoriace\s p>ticles & giv5 to !m _! transluc5t1 res9-l fracture4 ,or has ! associat$ lime play$ any "p 9 ?is *ange8 ,i ask ^! que/ions f hav+ f\nd at ,/4 ,jago1 9 ! ,cape de ,v]de ,isl&s1 t :]e a great /ream ( molt5 lava has fl[$ ov] a calc>e\s bottom into ! sea1 ! out]mo/ film1 :i* 9 o!r p>ts resembles pit*/one1 is *ang$1 app>5tly by its contact ) ! c>bonate ( lime1 into a res9-l sub/ance1 precisely l ! be/ *>act]is$ specim5s ( ! tuff f ?is ar*ipelago4#b #b ,! concretions conta9+ lime1 :i* ,i h describ$ at ,asc5sion1 z =m$ 9 a b$ ( a%es1 pres5t "s degree ( resemblance to ?is sub/ance1 b !y h n a res9\s fracture4 ,at ,/4 ,hel5a1 also1 ,i f\nd ve9s ( a some:at simil>1 compact1 b non-res9\s sub/ance1 occurr+ 9 a b$ ( pumice\s a%es1 app>5tly free f calc>e\s matt]3 9 nei!r ( ^! cases c\ld heat h act$4 ,to return to ! two crat]s3 "o ( !m /&s at ! di/ance ( a league f ! coa/1 ! int]v5+ tract consi/+ ( a calc>e\s tuff1 app>5tly ( subm>9e orig94 ,?is crat] consi/s ( a circle ( hills "s ( :i* /& q deta*$1 b all h a v regul>1 qu-qu v]sal dip1 at an incl9ation ( betwe5 ?irty & =ty degrees4 ,! l[] b$s1 to ! ?ickness ( sev]al hundr$ feet1 consi/ ( ! res9-l /one1 ) emb$d$ fragm5ts ( lava4 ,! upp] b$s1 :i* are betwe5 ?irty & =ty feet 9 ?ickness1 are compos$ ( a ?9ly /ratifi$1 f9e-gra9$1 h>%1 friable1 br[n-col\r$ tuff1 or pep]9o4#c ,a c5tral mass )\t any /ratification1 :i* mu/ =m]ly h occupi$ ! holl[ ( ! crat]1 b is n[ atta*$ only to a few ( ! circumf]5tial hills1 consi/s ( a tuff1 int]m$iate 9 "* betwe5 t ) a res9-l1 & t ) an e>?y fracture4 ,?is mass conta9s :ite calc>e\s matt] 9 small pat*es4 ,! second crat] 7#ebj feet 9 height7 mu/ h exi/$ until ! eruption ( a rec5t1 great /ream ( lava1 z a sep>ate islet2 a f9e section1 worn by ! sea1 %[s a gr& funnel-%ap$ mass ( basalt1 surr\nd$ by /eep1 slop+ flanks ( tuff1 hav+ 9 p>ts an e>?y1 & 9 o!rs a semi-res9\s fracture4 ,! tuff is trav]s$ by sev]al broad1 v]tical dikes1 ) smoo? & p>allel sides1 :i* ,i did n d\bt 7 =m$ ( basalt1 until ,i actually broke (f fragm5ts4 ,^! dikes1 h[ev]1 consi/ ( tuff l t ( ! surr\nd+ /rata1 b m compact1 & ) a smoo!r fracture2 h5ce we mu/ conclude1 t fissures 7 =m$ & fill$ up ) ! f9] mud or tuff f ! crat]1 be=e its int]ior 0 occupi$1 z x n[ is1 by a solidifi$ pool ( basalt4 ,o!r fissures h be5 subsequ5tly =m$1 p>allel to ^! s+ul> dikes1 & are m]ely fill$ ) loose rubbi%4 ,! *ange f ord9>y scoriace\s p>ticles to ! sub/ance ) a semi-res9\s fracture1 c\ld be cle>ly foll[$ 9 portions ( ! compact tuff ( ^! dikes4 #c ,^? geologi/s :o re/rict ! t]m ( 8tuff0 to a%es ( a :ite col\r1 result+ f ! attrition ( feldspa?ic lavas1 w\ld call ^! br[n-col\r$ /rata 8pep]9o40 ,no4 #ab ,illu/ration3 ,! ,kick] ,rock4 ,! ,kick] ,rock1 #djj feet high4 ,at ! di/ance ( a few miles f ^! two crat]s1 /&s ! ,kick] ,rock1 or islet1 rem>kable f its s+ul> =m4 ,x is un/ratifi$1 & is compos$ ( compact tuff1 9 p>ts hav+ ! res9-l fracture4 ,x is probable t ?is amorph\s mass1 l t simil> mass 9 ! case fir/ describ$1 once fill$ up ! c5tral holl[ ( a crat]1 & t its flanks1 or slop+ walls1 h s9ce be5 worn q away by ! sea1 9 :i* x /&s expos$4 ,small basaltic crat]s4--,a b>e1 undulat+ tract1 at ! ea/]n end ( ,*a?am ,isl&1 is rem>kable f ! numb]1 proximity1 & =m ( ! small basaltic crat]s ) :i* x is /udd$4 ,!y consi/1 ei!r ( a m]e conical pile1 or1 b less commonly1 ( a circle1 ( black & r$1 glossy scori1 p>tially cem5t$ toge!r4 ,!y v>y 9 diamet] f ?irty to "o hundr$ & fifty y>ds1 & rise f ab\t fifty to "o hundr$ feet above ! level ( ! surr\nd+ pla94 ,f "o small em95ce1 ,i c\nt$ sixty ( ^! crat]s1 all ( :i* 7 )9 a ?ird ( a mile f ea* o!r1 & _m 7 mu* clos]4 ,i measur$ ! di/ance betwe5 two v small crat]s1 & f\nd t x 0 only ?irty y>ds f ! summit-rim ( "o to ! rim ( ! o!r4 ,small /reams ( black1 basaltic lava1 conta9+ oliv9e & mu* glassy feldsp>1 h fl[$ f _m1 b n f all ( ^! crat]s4 ,! surfaces ( ! m rec5t /reams 7 exce$+ly rugg$1 & 7 cross$ by great fissures2 ! old] /reams 7 only a little less rugg$2 & !y 7 all bl5d$ & m+l$ toge!r 9 complete confusion4 ,! diff]5t gr[?1 h[ev]1 ( ! trees on ! /reams1 (t5 pla9ly m>k$ _! diff]5t ages4 ,_h x n be5 = ?is latt] "*1 ! /reams c\ld 9 few cases h be5 di/+ui%$2 &1 consequ5tly1 ?is wide undulatory tract might h 7z probably _m tracts h7 be5 errone\sly consid]$ z =m$ by "o great deluge ( lava1 in/ead ( by a multitude ( small /reams1 erupt$ f _m small orifices4 ,9 sev]al p>ts ( ?is tract1 & especially at ! base ( ! small crat]s1 !re are circul> pits1 ) p]p5dicul> sides1 f tw5ty to =ty feet deep4 ,at ! foot ( "o small crat]1 !re 7 ?ree ( ^! pits4 ,!y h probably be5 =m$1 by ! fall+ 9 ( ! ro(s ( small cav]ns4#d ,9 o!r p>ts1 !re are mammi=m hillocks1 :i* resemble great bubbles ( lava1 ) _! summits fissur$ by irregul> cracks1 :i* appe>$1 ^u ent]+ !m1 to be v deep2 lava has n fl[$ f ^! hillocks4 ,!re are1 also1 o!r v regul>1 mammi=m hillocks1 compos$ ( /ratifi$ lava1 & surm\nt$ by circul>1 /eep-sid$ holl[s1 :i*1 ,i suppose h be5 =m$ by a body ( gas1 fir/1 ar*+ ! /rata into "o ( ! bubble-l hillocks1 & !n1 bl[+ (f its summit4 ,^! sev]al k9ds ( hillocks & pits1 z well z ! num]\s1 small1 scoriace\s crat]s1 all %[ t ?is tract has be5 p5etrat$1 almo/ l a sieve1 by ! passage ( heat$ vap\rs4 ,! m regul> hillocks c\ld only h be5 heav$ up1 :il/ ! lava 0 9 a s(t5$ /ate4#e #d 7,m4 ,elie de ,beaumont has describ$ 78,mm4 p\r s]vir10 etc41 tome iv1 p4 #aac7 _m 8petits cirques d'eb\lem5t0 on ,etna1 ( "s ( :i* ! orig9 is hi/orically kn[n4 #e ,sir ,g4 ,mack5zie 78,travels 9 ,icel&10 pp4 #chi to #cib7 has describ$ a pla9 ( lava at ! foot ( ,hecla1 ev]y:]e heav$ up into great bubbles or bli/]s4 ,sir ,george /ates t ?is cav]n\s lava composes ! upp]mo/ /ratum2 & ! same fact is affirm$ by ,von ,bu* 78,descript4 des ,isles ,can>ies10 p4 #aei71 ) respect to ! basaltic /ream ne> ,rialejo1 9 ,t5]iffe4 ,x appe>s s+ul> t x %\ld be ! upp] /reams t are *iefly cav]n\s1 = "o sees no reason :y ! upp] & l[] %\ld n h be5 equally affect$ at diff]5t times2--h ! inf]ior /reams fl[$ b5ea? ! pressure ( ! sea1 & ?us be5 flatt5$1 aft] ! passage ?r\gh !m1 ( bodies ( gas8 ,,albem>le ,,isl&4--,?is isl& consi/s ( five1 great1 flat-topp$ crat]s1 :i*1 toge!r ) ! "o on ! adjo9+ isl& ( ,n>bor\gh1 s+ul>ly resemble ea* o!r1 9 =m & height4 ,! s\!rn "o is #d1gjj feet high1 two o!rs are #c1gbj feet1 a ?ird only #ej feet high]1 & ! rema9+ ones app>5tly ( ne>ly ! same height4 ,?ree ( ^! are situat$ on "o l9e1 & _! crat]s appe> elongat$ 9 ne>ly ! same direction4 ,! nor!rn crat]1 :i* is n ! l>ge/1 0 f\nd by ! triangulation to measure1 ext]nally1 no less ?an ?ree miles & "o-eigh? ( a mile 9 diamet]4 ,ov] ! lips ( ^! great1 broad caldrons1 & f little orifices ne> _! summits1 deluges ( black lava h fl[$ d[n _! nak$ sides4 ,fluidity ( diff]5t lavas4--,ne> ,tagus or ,banks' ,cove1 ,i exam9$ "o ( ^! great /reams ( lava1 :i* is rem>kable f ! evid5ce ( its =m] high degree ( fluidity1 especially :5 its composition is consid]$4 ,ne> ! sea-coa/ ?is /ream is sev]al miles 9 wid?4 ,x consi/s ( a black1 compact base1 easily fusible into a black bead1 ) angul> & n v num]\s air-cells1 & ?ickly /udd$ ) l>ge1 fractur$ cry/als ( glassy albite1#f v>y+ f ! t5? ( an in* to half an in* 9 diamet]4 ,?is lava1 al?\gh at fir/ sight appe>+ em95tly porphyritic1 _c prop]ly be consid]$ s1 = ! cry/als h evid5tly be5 envelop$1 r\nd$1 & p5etrat$ by ! lava1 l fragm5ts ( =eign rock 9 a trap-dike4 ,?is 0 v cle> 9 "s specim5s ( a simil> lava1 f ,ab+don ,isl&1 9 :i* ! only diff]5ce 01 t ! vesicles 7 sph]ical & m num]\s4 ,! albite 9 ^! lavas is 9 a simil> condition ) ! leucite ( ,vesuvius1 & ) ! oliv9e1 describ$ by ,von ,bu*1#g z project+ 9 great balls f ! basalt ( ,lanz>ote4 ,besides ! albite1 ?is lava conta9s scatt]$ gra9s ( a gre5 m9]al1 ) no di/9ct cleavage1 & closely resembl+ oliv9e2#h b z x fuses easily into a gre5 glass1 x belongs probably to ! augitic family3 at ,james ,isl&1 h[ev]1 a simil> lava conta9$ true oliv9e4 ,i obta9$ specim5s f ! actual surface1 & f a dep? ( f\r feet1 b !y diff]$ 9 no respect4 ,! high degree ( fluidity ( ?is lava-/ream 0 at once evid5t1 f its smoo? & g5tly slop+ surface1 f ! mann] 9 :i* ! ma9 /ream 0 divid$ by small inequalities into little rills1 & especially f ! mann] 9 :i* its edges1 f> bel[ its s\rce1 & :]e x mu/ h be5 9 "s degree cool$1 ?9n$ out to almo/ no?+2 ! actual m>g9 consi/+ ( loose fragm5ts1 few ( :i* 7 l>g] ?an a man's head4 ,! contra/ betwe5 ?is m>g91 & ! /eep walls1 above tw5ty feet high1 b\nd+ _m ( ! basaltic /reams at ,asc5sion1 is v rem>kable4 ,x has g5]ally be5 suppos$ t lavas ab\nd+ ) l>ge cry/als1 & includ+ angul> vesicles1#i h possess$ little fluidity2 b we see t ! case has be5 v diff]5t at ,albem>le ,isl&4 ,! degree ( fluidity 9 diff]5t lavas1 does n seem to correspond ) any app>5t correspond+ am\nt ( diff]5ce 9 _! composition3 at ,*a?am ,isl&1 "s /reams1 conta9+ mu* glassy albite & "s oliv9e1 are s rugg$1 t !y may be comp>$ to a sea froz5 dur+ a /orm2 :il/ ! great /ream at ,albem>le ,isl& is almo/ z smoo? z a lake :5 ruffl$ by a breeze4 ,at ,james ,isl&1 black basaltic lava1 ab\nd+ ) small gra9s ( oliv9e1 pres5ts an int]m$iate degree ( r\ghness2 its surface be+ glossy1 & ! deta*$ fragm5ts resembl+1 9 a v s+ul> mann]1 folds ( drap]y1 cables1 & pieces ( ! b>k ( trees4#aj #f ,9 ! ,cordill]a ( ,*ile1 ,i h se5 lava v closely resembl+ ?is v>iety at ! ,galapagos ,ar*ipelago4 ,x conta9$1 h[ev]1 besides ! albite1 well-=m$ cry/als ( augite1 & ! base 7p]haps 9 consequ5ce ( ! aggregation ( ! augitic p>ticles7 0 a %ade light] 9 col\r4 ,i may "h rem>k1 t 9 all ^! cases1 ,i call ! feldspa?ic cry/als1 albite1 f _! cleavage-planes 7z measur$ by ! reflect+ goniomet]7 correspond+ ) ^? ( t m9]al4 ,z1 h[ev]1 o!r species ( ?is g5us h lately be5 discov]$ to cleave 9 ne>ly ! same planes ) albite1 ?is det]m9ation mu/ be consid]$ z only provisional4 ,i exam9$ ! cry/als 9 ! lavas ( _m diff]5t p>ts ( ! ,galapagos gr\p1 & ,i f\nd t none ( !m1 ) ! exception ( "s cry/als f "o "p ( ,james ,isl&1 cleav$ 9 ! direction ( or?ite or pota%-feldsp>4 #g 8,description des ,isles ,can>ies10 p4 #bie4 #h ,humboldt m5tions t he mi/ook a gre5 augitic m9]al1 occurr+ 9 ! volcanic rocks ( ! ,cordill]a ( ,quito1 = oliv9e4 #i ,! irregul> & angul> =m ( ! vesicles is probably caus$ by ! unequal yield+ ( a mass compos$1 9 almo/ equal proportion1 ( solid cry/als & ( a viscid base4 ,x c]ta9ly seems a g5]al circum/ance1 z might h be5 expect$1 t 9 lava1 :i* has possess$ a high degree ( fluidity1 z well z an ev5-siz$ gra91 ! vesicles are int]nally smoo? & sph]ical4 #aj ,a specim5 ( basaltic lava1 ) a few small brok5 cry/als ( albite1 giv5 me by "o ( ! (fic]s1 is p]haps wor?y ( description4 ,x consi/s ( cyl9drical ramifications1 "s ( :i* are only ! tw5tie? ( an in* 9 diamet]1 & are drawn out into ! %>pe/ po9ts4 ,! mass has n be5 =m$ l a /alactite1 = ! po9ts t]m9ate bo? upw>ds & d[nw>ds4 ,globules1 only ! =tie? ( an in* 9 diamet]1 h dropp$ f "s ( ! po9ts1 & adh]e to ! adjo9+ bran*es4 ,! lava is vesicul>1 b ! vesicles nev] rea* ! surface ( ! bran*es1 :i* are smoo? & glossy4 ,z x is g5]ally suppos$ t vesicles are always elongat$ 9 ! direction ( ! movem5t ( ! fluid mass1 ,i may obs]ve1 t 9 ^! cyl9drical bran*es1 :i* v>y f a qu>t] to only ! tw5tie? ( an in* 9 diamet]1 e air-cell is sph]ical4 ,crat]s ( tuff4--,ab\t a mile s\?w>d ( ,banks' ,cove1 !re is a f9e elliptic crat]1 ab\t five hundr$ feet 9 dep?1 & ?ree-qu>t]s ( a mile 9 diamet]4 ,its bottom is occupi$ by a lake ( br9e1 out ( :i* "s little crat]i=m hills ( tuff rise4 ,! l[] b$s are =m$ ( compact tuff1 appe>+ l a subaque\s deposit2 :il/ ! upp] b$s1 r\nd ! entire circumf]5ce1 consi/ ( a h>%1 friable tuff1 ( little specific gravity1 b (t5 conta9+ fragm5ts ( rock 9 lay]s4 ,?is upp] tuff conta9s num]\s pisolitic balls1 ab\t ! size ( small bullets1 :i* diff] f ! surr\nd+ matt]1 only 9 be+ slightly h>d] & f9] gra9$4 ,! b$s dip away v regul>ly on all sides1 at angles v>y+1 z ,i f\nd by measurem5t1 f tw5ty-five to ?irty degrees4 ,! ext]nal surface ( ! crat] slopes at a ne>ly simil> incl9ation1 & is =m$ by slightly convex ribs1 l ^? on ! %ell ( a pect5 or scallop1 :i* become broad] z !y ext5d f ! m\? ( ! crat] to its base4 ,^! ribs are g5]ally f eight to tw5ty feet 9 bread?1 b sometimes !y are z mu* z =ty feet broad2 & !y resemble old1 pla/]$1 mu* flatt5$ vaults1 ) ! pla/] scal+ (f 9 plates3 !y are sep>at$ f ea* o!r by gullies1 deep5$ by alluvial action4 ,at _! upp] & n>r[ ends1 ne> ! m\? ( ! crat]1 ^! ribs (t5 consi/ ( real holl[ passages1 l1 b r small] ?an1 ^? (t5 =m$ by ! cool+ ( ! cru/ ( a lava-/ream1 :il/ ! inn] p>ts h fl[$ onw>d2--( :i* /ructure ,i saw _m examples at ,*a?am ,isl&4 ,!re c be no d\bt b t ^! holl[ ribs or vaults h be5 =m$ 9 a simil> mann]1 namely1 by ! sett+ or h>d5+ ( a sup]ficial cru/ on /reams ( mud1 :i* h fl[$ d[n f ! upp] "p ( ! crat]4 ,9 ano!r "p ( ?is same crat]1 ,i saw op5 concave gutt]s betwe5 "o & two feet wide1 :i* appe> to h be5 =m$ by ! h>d5+ ( ! l[] surface ( a mud /ream1 in/ead (1 z 9 ! =m] case1 ( ! upp] surface4 ,f ^! facts ,i ?9k x is c]ta9 t ! tuff mu/ h fl[$ z mud4#aa ,?is mud may h be5 =m$ ei!r )9 ! crat]1 or f a%es deposit$ on its upp] p>ts1 & aft]w>ds wa%$ d[n by torr5ts ( ra94 ,! =m] me?od1 9 mo/ ( ! cases1 appe>s ! m probable "o2 at ,james ,isl&1 h[ev]1 "s b$s ( ! friable k9d ( tuff ext5d s cont9u\sly ov] an unev5 surface1 t probably !y 7 =m$ by ! fall+ ( %[]s ( a%es4 #aa ,?is conclusion is ( "s int]e/1 because ,m4 ,dufr5oy 78,mm4 p\r s]vir10 tome iv1 p4 #bgd7 has argu$ f /rata ( tuff1 app>5tly ( simil> composition ) t "h describ$1 be+ incl9$ at angles betwe5 #ah & #bj1 t ,monte ,nuevo & "s o!r crat]s ( ,s\!rn ,italy h be5 =m$ by upheaval4 ,f ! facts giv5 above1 ( ! vault$ "* ( ! sep>ate rills1 & f ! tuff n ext5d+ 9 horizontal %eets r\nd ^! crat]i=m hills1 no "o w suppose t ! /rata h "h be5 produc$ by elevation2 & yet we see t _! incl9ation is above #bj1 & (t5 z mu* z #cj4 ,! consolidat$ /rata also1 ( ! int]nal talus1 z w be imm$iately se51 dips at an angle ( above #cj4 ,)9 ?is same crat]1 /rata ( co>se tuff1 *iefly compos$ ( fragm5ts ( lava1 abut1 l a consolidat$ talus1 aga9/ ! inside walls4 ,!y rise to a height ( betwe5 "o hundr$ & "o hundr$ & fifty feet above ! surface ( ! int]nal br9e-lake2 !y dip inw>ds1 & are incl9$ at an angle v>y+ f ?irty to ?irty-six degrees4 ,!y appe> to h be5 =m$ b5ea? wat]1 probably at a p]iod :5 ! sea occupi$ ! holl[ ( ! crat]4 ,i 0 surpris$ to obs]ve t b$s hav+ ?is great incl9ation did n1 z f> z !y c\ld be foll[$1 ?ick5 t[>ds _! l[] extremities4 ,banks' ,cove4--,?is h>b\r occupies "p ( ! int]ior ( a %att]$ crat] ( tuff l>g] ?an t la/ describ$4 ,all ! tuff is compact1 & includes num]\s fragm5ts ( lava2 x appe>s l a subaque\s deposit4 ,! mo/ rem>kable feature 9 ?is crat] is ! great developm5t ( /rata conv]g+ inw>ds1 z 9 ! la/ case1 at a consid]able incl9ation1 & (t5 deposit$ 9 irregul> curv$ lay]s4 ,^! int]ior conv]g+ b$s1 z well z ! prop]1 div]g+ crat]i=m /rata1 are repres5t$ 9 figure ,no4 #ac1 a rude1 sectional sket* ( ! headl&s1 =m+ ?is ,cove4 ,! int]nal & ext]nal /rata diff] little 9 composition1 & ! =m] h evid5tly result$ f ! we> & te>1 & r$eposition ( ! matt] =m+ ! ext]nal crat]i=m /rata4 ,f ! great developm5t ( ^! inn] b$s1 a p]son walk+ r\nd ! rim ( ?is crat] might fancy himself on a circul> anticl9al ridge ( /ratifi$ s&/one & conglom]ate4 ,! sea is we>+ away ! inn] & out] /rata1 & especially ! latt]2 s t ! inw>dly conv]g+ /rata w1 p]haps1 9 "s future age1 be left /&+ alone--a case :i* might at fir/ p]plex a geologi/4#ab #ab ,i believe t ?is case actually occurs 9 ! ,azores1 :]e ,dr4 ,web/] 78,description10 p4 #ahe7 has describ$ a bas9-=m$1 little isl&1 compos$ ( /rata ( tuff1 dipp+ inw>ds & b\nd$ ext]nally by /eep sea-worn cliffs4 ,dr4 ,daub5y supposes 7on ,volcanoes1 p4 #bff71 t ?is cavity mu/ h be5 =m$ by a circul> subsid5ce4 ,x appe>s to me f> m probable1 t we "h h /rata :i* 7 orig9ally deposit$ )9 ! holl[ ( a crat]1 ( :i* ! ext]ior walls h s9ce be5 remov$ by ! sea4 ,no4 #ac ,illu/ration3 ,sectional sket* ( headl&s =m+ ,banks' ,cove4 ,a sectional sket* ( ! headl&s =m+ ,banks' ,cove1 %[+ ! div]g+ crat]=m /rata1 & ! conv]g+ /ratifi$ talus4 ,! highe/ po9t ( ^! hills is #hag feet above ! sea4 ,,james ,,isl&4--,two crat]s ( tuff on ?is isl& are ! only rema9+ ones :i* require any notice4 ,"o ( !m lies a mile & a half inl& f ,pu]to ,gr&e3 x is circul>1 ab\t ! ?ird ( a mile 9 diamet]1 & #djj feet 9 dep?4 ,x diff]s f all ! o!r tuff-crat]s :i* ,i exam9$1 9 hav+ ! l[] "p ( its cavity1 to ! height ( betwe5 "o hundr$ & "o hundr$ & fifty feet1 =m$ by a precipit\s wall ( basalt1 giv+ to ! crat] ! appe>ance ( hav+ bur/ ?r\gh a solid %eet ( rock4 ,! upp] "p ( ?is crat] consi/s ( /rata ( ! alt]$ tuff1 ) a semi-res9\s fracture4 ,its bottom is occupi$ by a %all[ lake ( br9e1 cov]+ lay]s ( salt1 :i* re/ on deep black mud4 ,! o!r crat] lies at ! di/ance ( a few miles1 & is only rem>kable f its size & p]fect condition4 ,its summit is #a1bjj feet above ! level ( ! sea1 & ! int]ior holl[ is #fjj feet deep4 ,its ext]nal slop+ surface pres5t$ a curi\s appe>ance f ! smoo?ness ( ! wide lay]s ( tuff1 :i* resembl$ a va/ pla/]$ floor4 ,brattle ,isl& is1 ,i believe1 ! l>ge/ crat] 9 ! ,ar*ipelago compos$ ( tuff2 its int]ior diamet] is ne>ly a nautical mile4 ,at pres5t x is 9 a ru9$ condition1 consi/+ ( little m ?an half a circle op5 to ! s\?2 its great size is probably due1 9 "p1 to int]nal degradation1 f ! action ( ! sea4 ,no4 #ad ,illu/ration3 ,segm5t ( v small orifice ( eruption4 ,segm5t ( a v small orifice ( eruption1 on ! bea* ( ,fre%-wat] ,bay4 ,segm5t ( a basaltic crat]4--,"o side ( ,fre%-wat] ,bay1 9 ,james ,isl&1 is b\nd$ by a promontory1 :i* =ms ! la/ wreck ( a great crat]4 ,on ! bea* ( ?is promontory1 a quadrant-%ap$ segm5t ( a small subord9ate po9t ( eruption /&s expos$4 ,x consi/s ( n9e sep>ate little /reams ( lava pil$ ^u ea* o!r2 & ( an irregul> p9nacle1 ab\t fifte5 feet high1 ( r$di%-br[n1 vesicul> basalt1 ab\nd+ ) l>ge cry/als ( glassy albite1 & ) fus$ augite4 ,?is p9nacle1 & "s adjo9+ paps ( rock on ! bea*1 repres5t ! axis ( ! crat]4 ,! /reams ( lava c be foll[$ up a little rav9e1 at "r angles to ! coa/1 = betwe5 t5 & fifte5 y>ds1 :]e !y are hidd5 by detritus3 along ! bea* !y are visible = ne>ly eighty y>ds1 & ,i d n believe t !y ext5d mu* fur!r4 ,! ?ree l[] /reams are unit$ to ! p9nacle2 & at ! po9t ( junction 7z %[n 9 figure ,no4 #ad1 a rude sket* made on ! spot71 !y are slightly ar*$1 z if 9 ! act ( fl[+ ov] ! lip ( ! crat]4 ,! six upp] /reams no d\bt 7 orig9ally unit$ to ?is same column be=e x 0 worn d[n by ! sea4 ,! lava ( ^! /reams is ( simil> composition ) t ( ! p9nacle1 except+ t ! cry/als ( albite appe> to be m comm9ut$1 & ! gra9s ( fus$ augite are abs5t4 ,ea* /ream is sep>at$ f ! "o above x by a few in*es1 or at mo/ by "o or two feet 9 ?ickness1 ( loose fragm5t>y scori1 app>5tly d]iv$ f ! abrasion ( ! /reams 9 pass+ ov] ea* o!r4 ,all ^! /reams are v rem>kable f _! ?9ness4 ,i c>efully measur$ sev]al ( !m2 "o 0 eight in*es ?ick1 b 0 firmly coat$ ) ?ree in*es above1 & ?ree in*es bel[1 ( r$ scoriace\s rock 7:i* is ! case ) all ! /reams71 mak+ altoge!r a ?ickness ( f\rte5 in*es3 ?is ?ickness 0 pres]v$ q uni=mly along ! entire l5g? ( ! section4 ,a second /ream 0 only eight in*es ?ick1 includ+ bo? ! upp] & l[] scoriace\s surfaces4 ,until exam9+ ?is section1 ,i _h n ?\ght x possible t lava c\ld h fl[$ 9 su* uni=mly ?9 %eets ov] a surface f> f smoo?4 ,^! little /reams closely resemble 9 composition t great deluge ( lava at ,albem>le ,isl&1 :i* likewise mu/ h possess$ a high degree ( fluidity4 ,pseudo-extrane\s1 eject$ fragm5ts4--,9 ! lava & 9 ! scori ( ?is little crat]1 ,i f\nd sev]al fragm5ts1 :i*1 f _! angul> =m1 _! granul> /ructure1 _! fre$om f air-cells1 _! brittle & burnt condition1 closely resembl$ ^? fragm5ts ( prim>y rocks :i* are occasionally eject$1 z at ,asc5sion1 f volcanoes4 ,^! fragm5ts consi/ ( glassy albite1 mu* mackl$1 & ) v imp]fect cleavages1 m+l$ ) semi-r\nd$ gra9s1 hav+ t>ni%$1 glossy surfaces1 ( a /eel-blue m9]al4 ,! cry/als ( albite are coat$ by a r$ oxide ( iron1 appe>+ l a residual sub/ance2 & _! cleavage-planes also are sometimes sep>at$ by excessively f9e lay]s ( ?is oxide1 giv+ to ! cry/als ! appe>ance ( be+ rul$ l a glass micromet]4 ,!re 0 no qu>tz4 ,! /eel-blue m9]al1 :i* is abundant 9 ! p9nacle1 b :i* disappe>s 9 ! /reams d]iv$ f ! p9nacle1 has a fus$ appe>ance1 & r>ely pres5ts ev5 a trace ( cleavage2 ,i obta9$1 h[ev]1 "o measurem5t1 :i* prov$ t x 0 augite2 & 9 "o o!r fragm5t1 :i* diff]$ f ! o!rs1 9 be+ slightly cellul>1 & 9 gradually bl5d+ into ! surr\nd+ matrix ! small gra9s ( ?is m9]al 7 tol]ably well cry/allis$4 ,al?\gh !re is s wide a diff]5ce 9 appe>ance betwe5 ! lava ( ! little /reams1 & especially ( _! r$ scoriace\s cru/s1 & "o ( ^! angul> eject$ fragm5ts1 :i* at fir/ sight might readily be mi/ak5 = sy5ite1 yet ,i believe t ! lava has orig9at$ f ! melt+ & movem5t ( a mass ( rock ( absolutely simil> composition ) ! fragm5ts4 ,besides ! specim5 above allud$ to1 9 :i* we see a fragm5t becom+ slightly cellul>1 & bl5d+ into ! surr\nd+ matrix1 "s ( ! gra9s ( ! /eel-blue augite also h _! surfaces becom+ v f9ely vesicul>1 & pass+ into ! nature ( ! surr\nd+ pa/e2 o!r gra9s are ?r\gh\t1 9 an int]m$iate condition4 ,! pa/e seems to consi/ ( ! augite m p]fectly fus$1 or1 m probably1 m]ely di/urb$ 9 its s(t5$ /ate by ! movem5t ( ! mass1 & m+l$ ) ! oxide ( iron & ) f9ely comm9ut$1 glassy albite4 ,h5ce probably x is t ! fus$ albite1 :i* is abundant 9 ! p9nacle1 disappe>s 9 ! /reams4 ,! albite is 9 exactly ! same /ate1 ) ! exception ( mo/ ( ! cry/als be+ small] 9 ! lava & 9 ! emb$d$ fragm5ts2 b 9 ! fragm5ts !y appe> to be less abundant3 ?is1 h[ev]1 w\ld naturally happ5 f ! intumesc5ce ( ! augitic base1 & its consequ5t app>5t increase 9 bulk4 ,x is int]e/+ ?us to trace ! /eps by :i* a compact granul> rock becomes conv]t$ into a vesicul>1 pseudo-porphyritic lava1 & f9ally into r$ scori4 ,! /ructure & composition ( ! emb$d$ fragm5ts %[ t !y are p>ts ei!r ( a mass ( prim>y rock :i* has und]gone consid]able *ange f volcanic action1 or m probably ( ! cru/ ( a body ( cool$ & cry/allis$ lava1 :i* has aft]w>ds be5 brok5 up & re-liquifi$2 ! cru/ be+ less act$ on by ! r5ew$ heat & movem5t4 ,conclud+ rem>ks on ! tuff-crat]s4--,^! crat]s1 f ! peculi>ity ( ! res9-l sub/ance :i* ent]s l>gely into _! composition1 f _! /ructure1 _! size & numb]1 pres5t ! mo/ /rik+ feature 9 ! geology ( ?is ,ar*ipelago4 ,! majority ( !m =m ei!r sep>ate islets1 or promontories atta*$ to ! l>g] isl&s2 & ^? :i* n[ /& at "s little di/ance f ! coa/ are worn & brea*$1 z if by ! action ( ! sea4 ,f ?is g5]al circum/ance ( _! position1 & f ! small quantity ( eject$ a%es 9 any "p ( ! ,ar*ipelago1 ,i am l$ to conclude1 t ! tuff has be5 *iefly produc$1 by ! gr9d+ toge!r ( fragm5ts ( lava )9 active crat]s1 communicat+ ) ! sea4 ,9 ! orig9 & composition ( ! tuff1 & 9 ! frequ5t pres5ce ( a c5tral lake ( br9e & ( lay]s ( salt1 ^! crat]s resemble1 ?\gh on a gigantic scale1 ! 8salses10 or hillocks ( mud1 :i* are common 9 "s p>ts ( ,italy & 9 o!r c\ntries4#ac ,_! clos] connection1 h[ev]1 9 ?is ,ar*ipelago1 ) ord9>y volcanic action1 is %[n by ! pools ( solidifi$ basalt1 ) :i* !y are sometimes fill$ up4 #ac ,d',aubuisson's 8,trait de ,gognosie10 tome i1 p4 #ahi4 ,i may rem>k1 t ,i saw at ,t]ceira1 9 ! ,azores1 a crat] ( tuff or pep]9o1 v simil> to ^! ( ! ,galapagos ,ar*ipelago4 ,f ! description giv5 9 ,freyc9et 8,voyage10 simil> ones occur at ! ,s&wi* ,isl&s2 & probably !y are pres5t 9 _m o!r places4 ,x at fir/ appe>s v s+ul>1 t all ! crat]s =m$ ( tuff h _! s\!rn sides1 ei!r q brok5 d[n & :olly remov$1 or mu* l[] ?an ! o!r sides4 ,i saw & receiv$ acc\nts ( tw5ty-eight ( ^! crat]s2 ( ^!1 twelve =m sep>ate islets1#ad & n[ exi/ z m]e cresc5ts q op5 to ! s\?1 ) occasionally a few po9ts ( rock m>k+ _! =m] circumf]5ce3 ( ! rema9+ sixte51 "s =m promontories1 & o!rs /& at a little di/ance inl& f ! %ore2 b all h _! s\!rn sides ei!r ! l[e/1 or q brok5 d[n4 ,two1 h[ev]1 ( ! sixte5 _h _! nor!rn sides also l[1 :il/ _! ea/]n & we/]n sides 7 p]fect4 ,i did n see1 or he> (1 a s+le exception to ! rule1 ( ^! crat]s be+ brok5 d[n or l[ on ! side1 :i* faces a po9t ( ! horizon betwe5 ,s4,e4 & ,s4,w4 ,?is rule does n apply to crat]s compos$ ( lava & scori4 ,! explanation is simple3 at ?is ,ar*ipelago1 ! waves f ! trade-w9d1 & ! swell propagat$ f ! di/ant p>ts ( ! op5 ocean1 co9cide 9 direction 7:i* is n ! case 9 _m p>ts ( ! ,pacific71 & ) _! unit$ =ces attack ! s\!rn sides ( all ! isl&s2 & consequ5tly ! s\!rn slope1 ev5 :5 entirely =m$ ( h>d basaltic rock1 is inv>iably /eep] ?an ! nor!rn slope4 ,z ! tuff-crat]s are compos$ ( a s(t mat]ial1 & z probably all1 or ne>ly all1 h at "s p]iod /ood imm]s$ 9 ! sea1 we ne$ n wond] t !y %\ld inv>iably exhibit on _! expos$ sides ! effects ( ?is great d5ud+ p[]4 ,judg+ f ! worn condition ( _m ( ^! crat]s1 x is probable t "s h be5 entirely wa%$ away4 ,z !re is no reason to suppose1 t ! crat]s =m$ ( scori & lava 7 erupt$ :il/ /&+ 9 ! sea1 we c see :y ! rule does n apply to !m4 ,at ,asc5sion1 x 0 %[n t ! m\?s ( ! crat]s1 :i* are !re all ( t]re/rial orig91 h be5 affect$ by ! trade-w9d2 & ?is same p[] might "h1 also1 aid 9 mak+ ! w9dw>d & expos$ sides ( "s ( ! crat]s orig9ally ! l[e/4 #ad ,^! consi/ ( ! ?ree ,crossman ,islets1 ! l>ge/ ( :i* is #fjj feet 9 height2 ,en*ant$ ,isl&2 ,g>dn] ,isl& 7#gfj feet high72 ,*ampion ,isl& 7#cca feet high72 ,end]by ,isl&2 ,brattle ,isl&2 two islets ne> ,indefatigable ,isl&2 & "o ne> ,james ,isl&4 ,a second crat] ne> ,james ,isl& 7) a salt lake 9 its c5tre7 has its s\!rn side only ab\t tw5ty feet high1 :il/ ! o!r p>ts ( ! circumf]5ce are ab\t ?ree hundr$ feet 9 height4 ,m9]alogical composition ( ! rocks4--,9 ! nor!rn isl&s1 ! basaltic lavas seem g5]ally to conta9 m albite ?an !y d 9 ! s\!rn half ( ! ,ar*ipelago2 b almo/ all ! /reams conta9 "s4 ,! albite is n unfrequ5tly associat$ ) oliv9e4 ,i did n obs]ve 9 any specim5 di/+ui%able cry/als ( hornbl5de or augite2 ,i except ! fus$ gra9s 9 ! eject$ fragm5ts1 & 9 ! p9nacle ( ! little crat]1 above describ$4 ,i did n meet ) a s+le specim5 ( true tra*yte2 ?\gh "s ( ! pal] lavas1 :5 ab\nd+ ) l>ge cry/als ( ! h>% & glassy albite1 resemble 9 "s degree ?is rock2 b 9 e case ! basis fuses into a black enamel4 ,b$s ( a%es & f>-eject$ scori1 z previ\sly /at$1 are almo/ abs5t2 nor did ,i see a fragm5t ( obsidian or ( pumice4 ,von ,bu*#ae believes t ! abs5ce ( pumice on ,m\nt ,etna is consequ5t on ! feldsp> be+ ( ! ,labrador v>iety2 if ! pres5ce ( pumice dep5ds on ! con/itution ( ! feldsp>1 x is rem>kable1 t x %\ld be abs5t 9 ?is ar*ipelago1 & abundant 9 ! ,cordill]a ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 9 bo? ( :i* regions ! feldsp> is ( ! albitic v>iety4 ,ow+ to ! abs5ce ( a%es1 & ! g5]al indecomposable "* ( ! lava 9 ?is ,ar*ipelago1 ! isl&s are sl[ly clo!d ) a poor vegetation1 & ! sc5]y has a desolate & frightful aspect4 #ae 8,description des ,isles ,can>ies10 p4 #cbh4 ,elevation ( ! l&4--,pro(s ( ! ris+ ( ! l& are scanty & imp]fect4 ,at ,*a?am ,isl&1 ,i notic$ "s great blocks ( lava1 cem5t$ by calc>e\s matt]1 conta9+ rec5t %ells2 b !y occurr$ at ! height ( only a few feet above high-wat] m>k4 ,"o ( ! (fic]s gave me "s fragm5ts ( %ells1 :i* he f\nd emb$d$ sev]al hundr$ feet above ! sea1 9 ! tuff ( two crat]s1 di/ant f ea* o!r4 ,x is possible1 t ^! fragm5ts may h be5 c>ri$ up to _! pres5t height 9 an eruption ( mud2 b z1 9 "o in/ance1 !y 7 associat$ ) brok5 oy/]-%ells1 almo/ =m+ a lay]1 x is m probable t ! tuff 0 uplift$ ) ! %ells 9 mass4 ,! specim5s are s imp]fect t !y c be recognis$ only z belong+ to rec5t m>9e g5]a4 ,on ,*>les ,isl&1 ,i obs]v$ a l9e ( great r\nd$ blocks1 pil$ on ! summit ( a v]tical cliff1 at ! height ( fifte5 feet above ! l9e1 :]e ! sea n[ acts dur+ ! heavie/ gales4 ,?is appe>$1 at fir/1 good evid5ce 9 fav\r ( ! elevation ( ! l&2 b x 0 q deceptive1 = ,i aft]w>ds saw on an adjo9+ "p ( ?is same coa/1 & he>d f eye-witnesses1 t :]ev] a rec5t /ream ( lava =ms a smoo? incl9$ plane1 ent]+ ! sea1 ! waves dur+ gales h ! p[] ( roll+ up r\nd$ blocks to a great height1 above ! l9e ( _! ord9>y action4 ,z ! little cliff 9 ! =ego+ case is =m$ by a /ream ( lava1 :i*1 be=e be+ worn back1 mu/ h ent]$ ! sea ) a g5tly slop+ surface1 x is possible or r x is probable1 t ! r\nd$ b\ld]s1 n[ ly+ on its summit1 are m]ely ! remnants ( ^? :i* _h be5 roll$ up dur+ /orms to _! pres5t height4 ,direction ( ! fissures ( eruption4--,! volcanic orifices 9 ?is gr\p _c be consid]$ z indiscrim9ately scatt]$4 ,?ree great crat]s on ,alb]m>le ,isl& =m a well-m>k$ l9e1 ext5d+ ,n4,w4 by ,n4 & ,s4,e4 by ,s4 ,n>bor\gh ,isl&1 & ! great crat] on ! rectangul> projection ( ,albem>le ,isl&1 =m a second p>allel l9e4 ,to ! ea/1 ,hood's ,isl&1 & ! isl&s & rocks betwe5 x & ,james ,isl&1 =m ano!r ne>ly p>allel l9e1 :i*1 :5 prolong$1 includes ,culpepp] & ,w5man ,isl&s1 ly+ sev5ty miles to ! nor?4 ,! o!r isl&s ly+ fur!r ea/w>d1 =m a less regul> f\r? l9e4 ,sev]al ( ^! isl&s1 & ! v5ts on ,albem>le ,isl&1 are s plac$1 t !y likewise fall on a set ( rudely p>allel l9es1 int]sect+ ! =m] l9es at "r angles2 s t ! pr9cipal crat]s appe> to lie on ! po9ts :]e two sets ( fissures cross ea* o!r4 ,! isl&s !mselves1 ) ! exception ( ,albem>le ,isl&1 are n elongat$ 9 ! same direction ) ! l9es on :i* !y /&4 ,! direction ( ^! isl&s is ne>ly ! same ) t :i* prevails 9 s rem>kable a mann] 9 ! num]\s ar*ipelagoes ( ! great ,pacific ,ocean4 ,f9ally1 ,i may rem>k1 t among/ ! ,galapagos ,isl&s !re is no "o dom9ant v5t mu* high] ?an all ! o!rs1 z may be obs]v$ 9 _m volcanic ar*ipelagoes3 ! highe/ is ! great m\nd on ! s\?-we/]n extremity ( ,albem>le ,isl&1 :i* exce$s by b>ely a ?\s& feet sev]al o!r neighb\r+ crat]s4 ,*apt] ,,vi ,,tra*yte ,,& ,,basalt4--,,di/ribution ,,( ,,volcanic ,,isles4 ,! s9k+ ( cry/als 9 fluid lava4--,specific gravity ( ! con/itu5t p>ts ( tra*yte & ( basalt1 & _! consequ5t sep>ation4--,obsidian4--,app>5t non-sep>ation ( ! elem5ts ( plutonic rocks4--,orig9 ( trap-dikes 9 ! plutonic s]ies4--,di/ribution ( volcanic isl&s2 _! preval5ce 9 ! great oceans4--,!y are g5]ally arrang$ 9 l9es4--,! c5tral volcanoes ( ,von ,bu* d\btful4--,volcanic isl&s bord]+ cont95ts4--,antiquity ( volcanic isl&s1 & _! elevation 9 mass4--,eruptions on p>allel l9es ( fissure )9 ! same geological p]iod4 ,on ! sep>ation ( ! con/itu5t m9]als ( lava1 accord+ to _! specific gravities4--,"o side ( ,fre%-wat] ,bay1 9 ,james ,isl&1 is =m$ by ! wreck ( a l>ge crat]1 m5tion$ 9 ! la/ *apt]1 ( :i* ! int]ior has be5 fill$ up by a pool ( basalt1 ab\t two hundr$ feet 9 ?ickness4 ,?is basalt is ( a grey col\r1 & conta9s _m cry/als ( glassy albite1 :i* become mu* m num]\s 9 ! l[]1 scoriace\s "p4 ,?is is contr>y to :at might h be5 expect$1 = if ! cry/als _h be5 orig9ally dissem9at$ 9 equal numb]s1 ! great] intumesc5ce ( ?is l[] scoriace\s "p w\ld h made !m appe> few] 9 numb]4 ,von ,bu*#a has describ$ a /ream ( obsidian on ! ,peak ( ,t5]iffe1 9 :i* ! cry/als ( feldsp> become m & m num]\s1 z ! dep? or ?ickness increases1 s t ne> ! l[] surface ( ! /ream ! lava ev5 resembles a prim>y rock4 ,von ,bu* fur!r /ates1 t ,m4 ,dree1 9 8 exp]im5ts 9 melt+ lava1 f\nd t ! cry/als ( feldsp> always t5d$ to precipitate !mselves to ! bottom ( ! crucible4 ,9 ^! cases1 ,i presume !re c be no d\bt#b t ! cry/als s9k f _! weight4 ,! specific gravity ( feldsp> v>ies#c f #bd to #beh1 :il/ obsidian seems commonly to be f #bc to #bd2 & 9 a fluidifi$ /ate its specific gravity w\ld probably be less1 :i* w\ld facilitate ! s9k+ ( ! cry/als ( feldsp>4 ,at ,james ,isl&1 ! cry/als ( albite1 ?\gh no d\bt ( less weight ?an ! grey basalt1 9 ! p>ts :]e compact1 might easily be ( great] specific gravity ?an ! scoriace\s mass1 =m$ ( melt$ lava & bubbles ( heat$ gas4 #a 8,description des ,isles ,can>ies10 pp4 #aij & #aia4 #b ,9 a mass ( molt5 iron1 x is f\nd 7,ed9burgh ,new ,philosophical ,j\rnal1 vol4 xxiv1 p4 #ff7 t ! sub/ances1 :i* h a clos] aff9ity = oxyg5 ?an iron has1 rise f ! int]ior ( ! mass to ! surface4 ,b a simil> cause c h>dly apply to ! sep>ation ( ! cry/als ( ^! lava-/reams4 ,! cool+ ( ! surface ( lava seems1 9 "s cases1 to h affect$ its composition2 = ,dufr5oy 78,mm4 p\r s]vir10 tome iv1 p4 #bga7 f\nd t ! int]ior p>ts ( a /ream ne> ,naples conta9$ two-?irds ( a m9]al :i* 0 act$ on by acids1 :il/ ! surface consi/$ *iefly ( a m9]al unattackable by acids4 #c ,i h tak5 ! specific gravities ( ! simple m9]als f ,von ,kobell1 "o ( ! late/ & be/ au?orities1 & ( ! rocks f v>i\s au?orities4 ,obsidian1 accord+ to ,phillips1 is #bce2 & ,jameson says x nev] exce$s #bd2 b a specim5 f ,asc5sion1 weigh$ by myself1 0 #bdb4 ,! s9k+ ( cry/als ?r\gh a viscid sub/ance l molt5 rock1 z is unequivocally %[n to h be5 ! case 9 ! exp]im5ts ( ,m4 ,dre1 is wor?y ( fur!r consid]ation1 z ?r[+ light on ! sep>ation ( ! tra*ytic & basaltic s]ies ( lavas4 ,mr4 ,p4 ,scrope has speculat$ on ?is subject2 b he does n seem to h be5 aw>e ( any positive facts1 su* z ^? above giv52 & he has ov]look$ "o v necess>y elem5t1 z x appe>s to me1 9 ! ph5om5on--namely1 ! exi/5ce ( ei!r ! light] or heavi] m9]al 9 globules or 9 cry/als4 ,9 a sub/ance ( imp]fect fluidity1 l molt5 rock1 x is h>dly cr$ible1 t ! sep>ate1 inf9itely small atoms1 :e!r ( feldsp>1 augite1 or ( any o!r m9]al1 w\ld h p[] f _! slightly diff]5t gravities to ov]come ! friction caus$ by _! movem5t2 b if ! atoms ( any "o ( ^! m9]als became1 :il/ ! o!rs rema9$ fluid1 unit$ into cry/als or granules1 x is easy to p]ceive t f ! less5$ friction1 _! s9k+ or float+ p[] w\ld be greatly increas$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if all ! m9]als became granulat$ at ! same "t1 x is sc>cely possible1 f _! mutual resi/ance1 t any sep>ation c\ld take place4 ,a valuable1 practical discov]y1 illu/rat+ ! effect ( ! granulation ( "o elem5t 9 a fluid mass1 9 aid+ its sep>ation1 has lately be5 made3 :5 lead conta9+ a small proportion ( silv]1 is con/antly /irr$ :il/ cool+1 x becomes granulat$1 & ! gra9s ( imp]fect cry/als ( ne>ly pure lead s9k to ! bottom1 leav+ a residue ( melt$ metal mu* ri*] 9 silv]2 :]eas if ! mixture be left undi/urb$1 al?\gh kept fluid = a l5g? ( "t1 ! two metals %[ no signs ( sep>at+4#d ,! sole use ( ! /irr+ seems to be1 ! =mation ( deta*$ granules4 ,! specific gravity ( silv] is #ajd1 & ( lead #aace3 ! granulat$ lead1 :i* s9ks1 is nev] absolutely pure1 & ! residual fluid metal conta9s1 :5 ri*e/1 only #a_/aai "p ( silv]4 ,z ! diff]5ce 9 specific gravity1 caus$ by ! diff]5t proportions ( ! two metals1 is s exce$+ly small1 ! sep>ation is probably aid$ 9 a great degree by ! diff]5ce 9 gravity betwe5 ! lead1 :5 granul> ?\gh /ill hot1 & :5 fluid4 #d ,a full & int]e/+ acc\nt ( ?is discov]y1 by ,mr4 ,patt9son1 0 read be=e ! ,briti% ,association 9 ,septemb] #ahch4 ,9 "s alloys1 accord+ to ,turn] 78,*emi/ry10 p4 #baj71 ! heavie/ metal s9ks1 & x appe>s t ?is takes place :il/ bo? metals are fluid4 ,:]e !re is a consid]able diff]5ce 9 gravity1 z betwe5 iron & ! slag =m$ dur+ ! fusion ( ! ore1 we ne$ n be surpris$ at ! atoms sep>at+1 )\t ei!r sub/ance be+ granulat$4 ,9 a body ( liquifi$ volcanic rock1 left = "s "t )\t any viol5t di/urbance1 we might expect1 9 accordance ) ! above facts1 t if "o ( ! con/itu5t m9]als became aggregat$ into cry/als or granules1 or _h be5 envelop$ 9 ?is /ate f "s previ\sly exi/+ mass1 su* cry/als or granules w\ld rise or s9k1 accord+ to _! specific gravity4 ,n[ we h pla9 evid5ce ( cry/als be+ emb$d$ 9 _m lavas1 :il/ ! pa/e or basis has cont9u$ fluid4 ,i ne$ only ref]1 z in/ances1 to ! sev]al1 great1 pseudo-porphyritic /reams at ! ,galapagos ,isl&s1 & to ! tra*ytic /reams 9 _m p>ts ( ! _w1 9 :i* we f9d cry/als ( feldsp> b5t & brok5 by ! movem5t ( ! surr\nd+1 semi-fluid matt]4 ,lavas are *iefly compos$ ( ?ree v>ieties ( feldsp>1 v>y+ 9 specific gravity f #bd to #bgd2 ( hornbl5de & augite1 v>y+ f #cj to #cd2 ( oliv9e1 v>y+ f #cc to #cd2 & la/ly1 ( oxides ( iron1 ) specific gravities f #dh to #eb4 ,h5ce cry/als ( feldsp>1 envelop$ 9 a mass ( liquifi$1 b n highly vesicul> lava1 w\ld t5d to rise to ! upp] p>ts2 & cry/als or granules ( ! o!r m9]als1 ?us envelop$1 w\ld t5d to s9k4 ,we ought n1 h[ev]1 to expect any p]fect degree ( sep>ation 9 su* viscid mat]ials4 ,tra*yte1 :i* consi/s *iefly ( feldsp>1 ) "s hornbl5de & oxide ( iron1 has a specific gravity ( ab\t #bde2e :il/ basalt1 compos$ *iefly ( augite & feldsp>1 (t5 ) mu* iron & oliv9e1 has a gravity ( ab\t #cj4 ,accord+ly we f9d1 t :]e bo? tra*ytic & basaltic /reams h proce$$ f ! same orifice1 ! tra*ytic /reams h g5]ally be5 fir/ erupt$ ow+1 z we mu/ suppose1 to ! molt5 lava ( ?is s]ies hav+ accumulat$ 9 ! upp] p>ts ( ! volcanic focus4 ,?is ord] ( eruption has be5 obs]v$ by ,beudant1 ,scrope1 & by o!r au?ors2 ?ree in/ances1 also1 h be5 giv5 9 ?is volume4 ,z ! lat] eruptions1 h[ev]1 f mo/ volcanic m\nta9s1 bur/ ?r\gh _! basal p>ts1 ow+ to ! increas$ height & weight ( ! int]nal column ( molt5 rock1 we see :y1 9 mo/ cases1 only ! l[] flanks ( ! c5tral1 tra*ytic masses1 are envelop$ by basaltic /reams4 ,! sep>ation ( ! +r$i5ts ( a mass ( lava1 w\ld1 p]haps1 sometimes take place )9 ! body ( a volcanic m\nta91 if l(ty & ( great dim5sions1 in/ead ( )9 ! und]gr\nd focus2 9 :i* case1 tra*ytic /reams might be p\r$ =?1 almo/ contemporane\sly1 or at %ort recurr5t int]vals1 f its summit1 & basaltic /reams f its base3 ?is seems to h tak5 place at ,t5]iffe4#f ,i ne$ only fur!r rem>k1 t f viol5t di/urbances ! sep>ation ( ! two s]ies1 ev5 "u o!rwise fav\rable conditions1 w\ld naturally (t5 be prev5t$1 & likewise _! usual ord] ( eruption be inv]t$4 ,f ! high degree ( fluidity ( mo/ basaltic lavas1 ^! p]haps1 alone1 w\ld 9 _m cases rea* ! surface4 #e ,tra*yte f ,java 0 f\nd by ,von ,bu* to be #bdg2 f ,auv]gne1 by ,de la ,be*e1 x 0 #bdb2 f ,asc5sion1 by myself1 x 0 #bdb4 ,jameson & o!r au?ors give to basalt a specific gravity ( #cj2 b specim5s f ,auv]gne 7 f\nd1 by ,de la ,be*e1 to be only #bgh2 & f ! ,giant's ,causeway1 to be #bia4 #f ,consult ,von ,bu*'s well-kn[n & admirable 8,description ,physique0 ( ?is isl&1 :i* might s]ve z a model ( descriptive geology4 ,z we h se5 t cry/als ( feldsp>1 9 ! in/ance describ$ by ,von ,bu*1 s9k 9 obsidian1 9 accordance ) _! kn[n great] specific gravity1 we might expect to f9d 9 e tra*ytic di/rict1 :]e obsidian has fl[$ z lava1 t x _h proce$$ f ! upp] or highe/ orifices4 ,?is1 accord+ to ,von ,bu*1 holds good 9 a rem>kable mann] bo? at ! ,lip>i ,isl&s & on ! ,peak ( ,t5]iffe2 at ?is latt] place obsidian has nev] fl[$ f a less height ?an #i1bjj feet4 ,obsidian1 also1 appe>s to h be5 erupt$ f ! l(tie/ peaks ( ! ,p]uvian ,cordill]a4 ,i w only fur!r obs]ve1 t ! specific gravity ( qu>tz v>ies f #bf to #bh2 & !re=e1 t :5 pres5t 9 a volcanic focus1 x w\ld n t5d to s9k ) ! basaltic bases2 & ?is1 p]haps1 expla9s ! frequ5t pres5ce1 & ! abundance ( ?is m9]al1 9 ! lavas ( ! tra*ytic s]ies1 z obs]v$ 9 previ\s p>ts ( ?is volume4 ,an objection to ! =ego+ !ory w1 p]haps1 be drawn f ! plutonic rocks n be+ sep>at$ into two evid5tly di/9ct s]ies1 ( diff]5t specific gravities2 al?\gh1 l ! volcanic1 !y h be5 liquifi$4 ,9 answ]1 x may fir/ be rem>k$1 t we h no evid5ce ( ! atoms ( any "o ( ! con/itu5t m9]als 9 ! plutonic s]ies hav+ be5 aggregat$1 :il/ ! o!rs rema9$ fluid1 :i* we h endeav\r$ to %[ is an almo/ necess>y condition ( _! sep>ation2 on ! contr>y1 ! cry/als h g5]ally impress$ ea* o!r ) _! =ms4#g #g ,! cry/all9e pa/e ( phonolite is frequ5tly p5etrat$ by long ne$les ( hornbl5de2 f :i* x appe>s t ! hornbl5de1 ?\gh ! m fusible m9]al1 has cry/allis$ be=e1 or at ! same "t ) a m refractory sub/ance4 ,phonolite1 z f> z my obs]vations s]ve1 9 e in/ance appe>s to be an inject$ rock1 l ^? ( ! plutonic s]ies2 h5ce probably1 l ^! latt]1 x has g5]ally be5 cool$ )\t repeat$ & viol5t di/urbances4 ,^? geologi/s :o h d\bt$ :e!r granite c\ld h be5 =m$ by igne\s liquefaction1 because m9]als ( diff]5t degrees ( fusibility impress ea* o!r ) _! =ms1 c\ld n h be5 aw>e ( ! fact ( cry/allis$ hornbl5de p5etrat+ phonolite1 a rock und\bt$ly ( igne\s orig94 ,! viscidity1 :i* x is n[ kn[n1 t bo? feldsp> & qu>tz reta9 at a temp]ature mu* bel[ _! po9ts ( fusion1 easily expla9s _! mutual impressm5t4 ,consult on ?is subject ,mr4 ,horn]'s pap] on ,bonn1 8,geolog4 ,transact410 vol4 iv1 p4 #dci2 & 8,l',in/itut10 ) respect to qu>tz1 #ahci1 p4 #afa4 ,9 ! second place1 ! p]fect tranquillity1 "u :i* x is probable t ! plutonic masses1 buri$ at pr(\nd dep?s1 h cool$1 w\ld1 mo/ likely1 be highly unfav\rable to ! sep>ation ( _! con/itu5t m9]als2 =1 if ! attractive =ce1 :i* dur+ ! progressive cool+ draws toge!r ! molecules ( ! diff]5t m9]als1 has p[] suffici5t to keep !m toge!r1 ! friction betwe5 su* half-=m$ cry/als or pa/y globules w\ld effectually prev5t ! heavi] ones f s9k+1 or ! light] ones f ris+4 ,on ! o!r h&1 a small am\nt ( di/urbance1 :i* w\ld probably occur 9 mo/ volcanic foci1 & :i* we h se5 does n prev5t ! sep>ation ( granules ( lead f a mixture ( molt5 lead & silv]1 or cry/als ( feldsp> f /reams ( lava1 by break+ & dissolv+ ! less p]fectly =m$ globules1 w\ld p]mit ! m p]fect & !re=e unbrok5 cry/als1 to s9k or rise1 accord+ to _! specific gravity4 ,al?\gh 9 plutonic rocks two di/9ct species1 correspond+ to ! tra*ytic & basaltic s]ies1 d n exi/1 ,i mu* suspect t a c]ta9 am\nt ( sep>ation ( _! con/itu5t p>ts has (t5 tak5 place4 ,i suspect ?is f hav+ obs]v$ h[ frequ5tly dikes ( gre5/one & basalt int]sect widely ext5d$ =mations ( granite & ! alli$ metamorphic rocks4 ,i h nev] exam9$ a di/rict 9 an ext5sive granitic region )\t discov]+ dikes2 ,i may in/ance ! num]\s trap-dikes1 9 sev]al di/ricts ( ,brazil1 ,*ile1 & ,au/ralia1 & at ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope3 _m dikes likewise occur 9 ! great granitic tracts ( ,india1 9 ! nor? ( ,europe1 & 9 o!r c\ntries4 ,:5ce1 !n1 has ! gre5/one & basalt1 =m+ ^! dikes1 come8 ,are we to suppose1 l "s ( ! eld] geologi/s1 t a zone ( trap is uni=mly spread out b5ea? ! granitic s]ies1 :i* composes1 z f> z we "k1 ! f\ndations ( ! e>?'s cru/8 ,is x n m probable1 t ^! dikes h be5 =m$ by fissures p5etrat+ into p>tially cool$ rocks ( ! granitic & metamorphic s]ies1 & by _! m fluid p>ts1 consi/+ *iefly ( hornbl5de1 ooz+ out1 & be+ suck$ into su* fissures8 ,at ,bahia1 9 ,brazil1 9 a di/rict compos$ ( gneiss & primitive gre5/one1 ,i saw _m dikes1 ( a d>k augitic 7= "o cry/al c]ta9ly 0 ( ?is m9]al7 or hornbl5dic rock1 :i*1 z sev]al appe>ances cle>ly prov$1 ei!r _h be5 =m$ be=e ! surr\nd+ mass _h become solid1 or _h toge!r ) x be5 aft]w>ds ?or\ghly s(t5$4#h ,on bo? sides ( "o ( ^! dikes1 ! gneiss 0 p5etrat$1 to ! di/ance ( sev]al y>ds1 by num]\s1 curvil9e> ?reads or /reaks ( d>k matt]1 :i* resembl$ 9 =m cl\ds ( ! class call$ cirrhi-com2 "s few ( ^! ?reads c\ld be trac$ to _! junction ) ! dike4 ,:5 exam9+ !m1 ,i d\bt$ :e!r su* hair-l & curvil9e> ve9s c\ld h be5 inject$1 & ,i n[ suspect1 t in/ead ( hav+ be5 inject$ f ! dike1 !y 7 its fe$]s4 ,if ! =ego+ views ( ! orig9 ( trap-dikes 9 widely ext5d$ granitic regions f> f rocks ( any o!r =mation1 be admitt$ z probable1 we may fur!r admit1 9 ! case ( a great body ( plutonic rock1 be+ impell$ by repeat$ movem5ts into ! axis ( a m\nta9-*a91 t its m liquid con/itu5t p>ts might dra9 into deep & unse5 abysses2 aft]w>ds1 p]haps1 to be br\ght to ! surface "u ! =m1 ei!r ( inject$ masses ( gre5/one & augitic porphyry1#i or ( basaltic eruptions4 ,mu* ( ! difficulty :i* geologi/s h exp]i5c$ :5 !y h comp>$ ! composition ( volcanic ) plutonic =mations1 w1 ,i ?9k1 be remov$1 if we may believe t mo/ plutonic masses h be51 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 dra9$ ( ^? comp>atively weighty & easily liquifi$ elem5ts1 :i* compose ! trappean & basaltic s]ies ( rocks4 #h ,portions ( ^! dikes h be5 brok5 (f1 & are n[ surr\nd$ by ! prim>y rocks1 ) _! lam9 con=mably w9d+ r\nd !m4 ,dr4 ,hubb>d also 7,silliman's ,j\rnal1 vol4 xxxiv1 p4 #aai71 has describ$ an int]lacem5t ( trap-ve9s 9 ! granite ( ! ,:ite ,m\nta9s1 :i* he ?9ks mu/ h be5 =m$ :5 bo? rocks 7 s(t4 #i ,mr4 ,phillips 78,l>dn]'s ,encyclop410 vol4 ii1 p4 #aae7 quotes ,von ,bu*'s /atem5t1 t augitic porphyry ranges p>allel to1 & is f\nd con/antly at ! base (1 great *a9s ( m\nta9s4 ,humboldt1 also1 has rem>k$ ! frequ5t occurr5ce ( trap-rock1 9 a simil> position2 ( :i* fact ,i h obs]v$ _m examples at ! foot ( ! ,*ilian ,cordill]a4 ,! exi/5ce ( granite 9 ! axes ( great m\nta9 *a9s is always probable1 & ,i am tempt$ to suppose1 t ! lat]ally inject$ masses ( augitic porphyry & ( trap1 be> ne>ly ! same relation to ! granitic axes :i* basaltic lavas be> to ! c5tral tra*ytic masses1 r\nd ! flanks ( :i* !y h s frequ5tly be5 erupt$4 ,on ! di/ribution ( volcanic isl&s4--,dur+ my inve/igations on coral-reefs1 ,i _h occasion to consult ! works ( _m voyag]s1 & ,i 0 inv>iably /ruck ) ! fact1 t ) r>e exceptions1 ! innum]able isl&s scatt]$ ?r\gh\t ! ,pacific1 ,indian1 & ,atlantic ,oceans1 7 compos$ ei!r ( volcanic1 or ( mod]n coral-rocks4 ,x w\ld be t$i\s to give a long catalogue ( all ! volcanic isl&s2 b ! exceptions :i* ,i h f\nd are easily enum]at$3 9 ! ,atlantic1 we h ,/4 ,paul's ,rock1 describ$ 9 ?is volume1 & ! ,falkl& ,isl&s1 compos$ ( qu>tz & clay-slate2 b ^! latt] isl&s are ( consid]able size1 & lie n v f> f ! ,s\? ,am]ican coa/3#aj 9 ! ,indian ,ocean1 ! ,sey*elles 7situat$ 9 a l9e prolong$ f ,madagasc>7 consi/ ( granite & qu>tz3 9 ! ,pacific ,ocean1 ,new ,cal$onia1 an isl& ( l>ge size1 belongs 7z f> z is kn[n7 to ! prim>y class4 ,new ,zeal&1 :i* conta9s mu* volcanic rock & "s active volcanoes1 f its size _c be class$ ) ! small isl&s1 :i* we are n[ consid]+4 ,! pres5ce ( a small quantity ( non-volcanic rock1 z ( clay-slate on ?ree ( ! ,azores1#aa or ( t]ti>y lime/one at ,madeira1 or ( clay-slate at ,*a?am ,isl& 9 ! ,pacific1 or ( lignite at ,k]guel5 ,l&1 ought n to exclude su* isl&s or ar*ipelagoes1 if =m$ *iefly ( erupt$ matt]1 f ! volcanic class4 #aj ,judg+ f ,=/]'s imp]fect obs]vation1 p]haps ,georgia is n volcanic4 ,dr4 ,allan is my in=mant ) reg>d to ! ,sey*elles4 ,i d n "k ( :at =mation ,rodriguez1 9 ! ,indian ,ocean1 is compos$4 #aa ,?is is /at$ on ! au?ority ( ,c\nt ,v4 de ,b$em>1 ) respect to ,flores & ,graciosa 7,*>lswor?1 8,magaz9e ( ,nat4 ,hi/410 vol4 i1 p4 #eeg74 ,/4 ,m>ia has no volcanic rock1 accord+ to ,capta9 ,boyd 7,von ,bu* 8,descript410 p4 #cfe74 ,*a?am ,isl& has be5 describ$ by ,dr4 ,dieff5ba* 9 ! 8,geographical ,j\rnal10 #ahda1 p4 #bja4 ,z yet we h receiv$ only imp]fect notices on ,k]guel5 ,l&1 f ! ,ant>ctic ,exp$ition4 ,! composition ( ! num]\s isl&s scatt]$ ?r\gh ! great oceans be+ ) su* r>e exceptions volcanic1 is evid5tly an ext5sion ( t law1 & ! effect ( ^? same causes1 :e!r *emical or me*anical1 f :i* x results1 t a va/ majority ( ! volcanoes n[ 9 action /& ei!r z isl&s 9 ! sea1 or ne> its %ores4 ,?is fact ( ! ocean-isl&s be+ s g5]ally volcanic is also int]e/+ 9 relation to ! nature ( ! m\nta9-*a9s on our cont95ts1 :i* are comp>atively seldom volcanic2 & yet we are l$ to suppose t :]e our cont95ts n[ /& an ocean once ext5d$4 ,d volcanic eruptions1 we may ask1 rea* ! surface m readily ?r\gh fissures =m$ dur+ ! fir/ /ages ( ! conv]sion ( ! b$ ( ! ocean into a tract ( l&8 ,look+ at ! *>ts ( ! num]\s volcanic ar*ipelagoes1 we see t ! isl&s are g5]ally arrang$ ei!r 9 s+le1 d\ble1 or triple r[s1 9 l9es :i* are frequ5tly curv$ 9 a slight degree4#ab ,ea* sep>ate isl& is ei!r r\nd$1 or m g5]ally elongat$ 9 ! same direction ) ! gr\p 9 :i* x /&s1 b sometimes transv]sely to x4 ,"s ( ! gr\ps :i* are n mu* elongat$ pres5t little symmetry 9 _! =ms2 ,m4 ,virlet#ac /ates t ?is is ! case ) ! ,grecian ,ar*ipelago3 9 su* gr\ps ,i suspect 7= ,i am aw>e h[ easy x is to deceive oneself on ^! po9ts71 t ! v5ts are g5]ally arrang$ on "o l9e1 or on a set ( %ort p>allel l9es1 int]sect+ at ne>ly "r angles ano!r l9e1 or set ( l9es4 ,! ,galapagos ,ar*ipelago (f]s an example ( ?is /ructure1 = mo/ ( ! isl&s & ! *ief orifices on ! l>ge/ isl& are s gr\p$ z to fall on a set ( l9es rang+ ab\t ,n4,w4 by ,n41 & on ano!r set rang+ ab\t ,w4,s4,w43 9 ! ,can>y ,ar*ipelago we h a simpl] /ructure ( ! same k9d3 9 ! ,cape de ,v]de gr\p1 :i* appe>s to be ! lea/ symmetrical ( any oceanic volcanic ar*ipelago1 a ,n4,w4 & ,s4,e4 l9e =m$ by sev]al isl&s1 if prolong$1 w\ld int]sect at "r angles a curv$ l9e1 on :i* ! rema9+ isl&s are plac$4 ,von ,bu*#ad has class$ all volcanoes "u two heads1 namely1 c5tral volcanoes1 r\nd :i* num]\s eruptions h tak5 place on all sides1 9 a mann] almo/ regul>1 & volcanic *a9s4 ,9 ! examples giv5 ( ! fir/ class1 z f> z position is conc]n$1 ,i c see no gr\nds = _! be+ call$ 8c5tral20 & ! evid5ce ( any diff]5ce 9 m9]alogical nature betwe5 c5tral volcanoes & volcanic *a9s appe>s slight4 ,no d\bt "s "o isl& 9 mo/ small volcanic ar*ipelagoes is apt to be consid]ably high] ?an ! o!rs2 & 9 a simil> mann]1 :atev] ! cause may be1 t on ! same isl& "o v5t is g5]ally high] ?an all ! o!rs4 ,von ,bu* does n include 9 8 class ( volcanic *a9s small ar*ipelagoes1 9 :i* ! isl&s are admitt$ by him1 z at ! ,azores1 to be arrang$ 9 l9es2 b :5 view+ on a map ( ! _w h[ p]fect a s]ies exi/s f a few volcanic isl&s plac$ 9 a r[ to a tra9 ( l9e> ar*ipelagoes foll[+ ea* o!r 9 a /raight l9e1 & s on to a great wall l ! ,cordill]a ( ,am]ica1 x is difficult to believe t !re exi/s any ess5tial diff]5ce betwe5 %ort & long volcanic *a9s4 ,von ,bu*#ae /ates t 8 volcanic *a9s surm\nt1 or are closely connect$ )1 m\nta9-ranges ( prim>y =mation3 b if tra9s ( l9e> ar*ipelagoes are1 9 ! c\rse ( "t1 by ! long-cont9u$ action ( ! elevatory & volcanic =ces1 conv]t$ into m\nta9-ranges1 x w\ld naturally result t ! inf]ior prim>y rocks w\ld (t5 be uplift$ & br\ght into view4 #ab ,pr(essors ,william & ,h5ry ,d>w9 ,rog]s h lately insi/$ mu*1 9 a memoir read be=e ! ,am]ican ,association1 on ! regul>ly curv$ l9es ( elevation 9 p>ts ( ! ,appala*ian range4 #ac 8,bullet9 de la ,soc4 ,golog410 tome iii1 p4 #aaj4 #ad 8,description des ,isles ,can>ies10 p4 #cbd4 #ae ,idem1 p4 #cic4 ,"s au?ors h rem>k$ t volcanic isl&s occur scatt]$1 ?\gh at v unequal di/ances1 along ! %ores ( ! great cont95ts1 z if 9 "s measure connect$ ) !m4 ,9 ! case ( ,juan ,f]n&ez1 situat$ #ccj miles f ! coa/ ( ,*ile1 !re 0 und\bt$ly a connection betwe5 ! volcanic =ces act+ "u ?is isl& & "u ! cont95t1 z 0 %[n dur+ ! e>?quake ( #ahce4 ,! isl&s1 moreov]1 ( "s ( ! small volcanic gr\ps :i* ?us bord] cont95ts1 are plac$ 9 l9es1 relat$ to ^? along :i* ! adjo9+ %ores ( ! cont95ts tr5d2 ,i may in/ance ! l9es ( int]section at ! ,galapagos1 & at ! ,cape de ,v]de ,ar*ipelagoes1 & ! be/ m>k$ l9e ( ! ,can>y ,isl&s4 ,if ^! facts be n m]ely accid5tal1 we see t _m scatt]$ volcanic isl&s & small gr\ps are relat$ n only by proximity1 b 9 ! direction ( ! fissures ( eruption to ! neighb\r+ cont95ts--a relation1 :i* ,von ,bu* consid]s1 *>act]i/ic ( 8 great volcanic *a9s4 ,9 volcanic ar*ipelagoes1 ! orifices are seldom 9 activity on m ?an "o isl& at a "t2 & ! great] eruptions usually recur only aft] long int]vals4 ,obs]v+ ! numb] ( crat]s1 t are usually f\nd on ea* isl& ( a gr\p1 & ! va/ am\nt ( matt] :i* has be5 erupt$ f !m1 "o is l$ to attribute a high antiquity ev5 to ^? gr\ps1 :i* appe>1 l ! ,galapagos1 to be ( comp>atively rec5t orig94 ,?is conclusion accords ) ! prodigi\s am\nt ( degradation1 by ! sl[ action ( ! sea1 :i* _! orig9ally slop+ coa/s mu/ h suff]$1 :5 !y are worn back1 z is s (t5 ! case1 into gr& precipices4 ,we ought n1 h[ev]1 to suppose1 9 h>dly any in/ance1 t ! :ole body ( matt]1 =m+ a volcanic isl&1 has be5 erupt$ at ! level1 on :i* x n[ /&s3 ! numb] ( dikes1 :i* seem inv>iably to int]sect ! int]ior p>ts ( e volcano1 %[1 on ! pr9ciples expla9$ by ,m4 ,elie de ,beaumont1 t ! :ole mass has be5 uplift$ & fissur$4 ,a connection1 moreov]1 betwe5 volcanic eruptions & contemporane\s elevations 9 mass#af has1 ,i ?9k1 be5 %[n to exi/ 9 my "w on ,coral-,reefs1 bo? f ! frequ5t pres5ce ( uprais$ organic rema9s1 & f ! /ructure ( ! accompany+ coral-reefs4 ,f9ally1 ,i may rem>k1 t 9 ! same ,ar*ipelago1 eruptions h tak5 place )9 ! hi/orical p]iod on m ?an "o ( ! p>allel l9es ( fissure3 ?us1 at ! ,galapagos ,ar*ipelago1 eruptions h tak5 place f a v5t on ,n>bor\gh ,isl&1 & f "o on ,albem>le ,isl&1 :i* v5ts d n fall on ! same l9e2 at ! ,can>y ,isl&s1 eruptions h tak5 place 9 ,t5]iffe & ,lanz>ote2 & at ! ,azores1 on ! ?ree p>allel l9es ( ,pico1 ,/4 ,jorge1 & ,t]ceira4 ,believ+ t a m\nta9-axis diff]s ess5tially f a volcano1 only 9 plutonic rocks hav+ be5 inject$1 in/ead ( volcanic matt] hav+ be5 eject$1 ?is appe>s to me an int]e/+ circum/ance2 = we may inf] f x z probable1 t 9 ! elevation ( a m\nta9-*a91 two or m ( ! p>allel l9es =m+ x may be uprais$ & inject$ )9 ! same geological p]iod4 #af ,a simil> conclusion is =c$ on u1 by ! ph5om5a1 :i* accompani$ ! e>?quake ( #ahce1 at ,concepcion1 & :i* are detail$ 9 my pap] 7vol4 v1 p4 #fja7 9 ! 8,geological ,transactions40 ,*apt] ,,vii ,,au/ralia2 ,,new ,,zeal&2 ,,cape ,,( ,,good ,,hope4 ,new ,s\? ,wales4--,s&/one =mation4--,emb$d$ pseudo-fragm5ts ( %ale4--,/ratification4--,curr5t-cleavage 4--,great valleys4--,van ,diem5's ,l&4--,palozoic =mation4--,new] =mation ) volcanic rocks4--,trav]t9 ) leaves ( ext9ct plants4--,elevation ( ! l&4--,new ,zeal&4--,k+ ,george's ,s\nd4--,sup]ficial f]rug9\s b$s4--,sup]ficial calc>e\s deposits1 ) ca/s ( bran*es4--,_! orig9 f drift$ p>ticles ( %ells & corals4--,_! ext5t4--,cape ( ,good ,hope4--,junction ( ! granite & clay-slate4--,s&/one =mation4 ,! ,beagle1 9 h] homew>d voyage1 t\*$ at ,new ,zeal&1 ,au/ralia1 ,van ,diem5's ,l&1 & ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope4 ,9 ord] to conf9e ! ,?ird ,"p ( ^! ,geological ,obs]vations to ,s\? ,am]ica1 ,i w "h briefly describe all t ,i obs]v$ at ^! places wor?y ( ! att5tion ( geologi/s4 ,new ,s\? ,wales4--,my opportunities ( obs]vation consi/$ ( a ride ( n9ety geographical miles to ,ba?ur/1 9 a ,w4,n4,w4 direction f ,sydney4 ,! fir/ ?irty miles f ! coa/ passes ov] a s&/one c\ntry1 brok5 up 9 _m places by trap-rocks1 & sep>at$ by a bold esc>pm5t ov]hang+ ! riv] ,nepean1 f ! great s&/one plat=m ( ! ,blue ,m\nta9s4 ,?is upp] plat=m is #a1jjj feet high at ! edge ( ! esc>pm5t1 & rises 9 a di/ance ( tw5ty-five miles to betwe5 ?ree & f\r ?\s& feet above ! level ( ! sea4 ,at ?is di/ance ! road desc5ds to a c\ntry r less elevat$1 & compos$ 9 *ief "p ( prim>y rocks4 ,!re is mu* granite1 9 "o "p pass+ into a r$ porphyry ) octagonal cry/als ( qu>tz1 & int]sect$ 9 "s places by trap-dikes4 ,ne> ! ,d[ns ( ,ba?ur/ ,i pass$ ov] mu* pale-br[n1 glossy clay-slate1 ) ! %att]$ lam9 runn+ nor? & s\?2 ,i m5tion ?is fact1 because ,capta9 ,k+ in=ms me t1 9 ! c\ntry a hundr$ miles s\?w>d1 ne> ,lake ,george1 ! mica-slate ranges s inv>iably nor? & s\? t ! inhabitants take advantage ( x 9 f9d+ _! way ?r\gh ! =e/s4 ,! s&/one ( ! ,blue ,m\nta9s is at lea/ #a1bjj feet ?ick1 & 9 "s p>ts is app>5tly ( great] ?ickness2 x consi/s ( small gra9s ( qu>tz1 cem5t$ by :ite e>?y matt]1 & x ab\nds ) f]rug9\s ve9s4 ,! l[] b$s sometimes alt]nate ) %ales & coal3 at ,wolgan ,i f\nd 9 c>bonace\s %ale leaves ( ! ,glossopt]is ,br[nii1 a f]n :i* s frequ5tly accompanies ! coal ( ,au/ralia4 ,! s&/one conta9s pebbles ( qu>tz2 & ^! g5]ally increase 9 numb] & size 7seldom1 h[ev]1 exce$+ an in* or two 9 diamet]7 9 ! upp] b$s3 ,i obs]v$ a simil> circum/ance 9 ! gr& s&/one =mation at ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope4 ,on ! ,s\? ,am]ican coa/1 :]e t]ti>y & supra-t]ti>y b$s h be5 ext5sively elevat$1 ,i repeat$ly notic$ t ! upp]mo/ b$s 7 =m$ ( co>s] mat]ials ?an ! l[]3 ?is appe>s to indicate t1 z ! sea became %all[]1 ! =ce ( ! waves or curr5ts increas$4 ,on ! l[] plat=m1 h[ev]1 betwe5 ! ,blue ,m\nta9s & ! coa/1 ,i obs]v$ t ! upp] b$s ( ! s&/one frequ5tly pass$ into argillace\s %ale1--! effect1 probably1 ( ?is l[] space hav+ be5 protect$ f /rong curr5ts dur+ its elevation4 ,! s&/one ( ! ,blue ,m\nta9s evid5tly hav+ be5 ( me*anical orig91 & n hav+ suff]$ any metamorphic action1 ,i 0 surpris$ at obs]v+ t1 9 "s specim5s1 ne>ly all ! gra9s ( qu>tz 7 s p]fectly cry/allis$ ) brilliant facets t !y evid5tly _h n 9 _! pres5t =m be5 aggregat$ 9 any previ\sly exi/+ rock4#a ,x is difficult to imag9e h[ ^! cry/als c\ld h be5 =m$2 "o c h>dly believe t !y 7 sep>ately precipitat$ 9 _! pres5t cry/allis$ /ate4 ,is x possible t r\nd$ gra9s ( qu>tz may h be5 act$ on by a fluid corrod+ _! surfaces1 & deposit+ on !m fre% silica8 ,i may rem>k t1 9 ! s&/one =mation ( ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope1 x is evid5t t silica has be5 pr(usely deposit$ f aque\s solution4 #a ,i h lately se51 9 a pap] by ,smi? 7! fa!r ( ,engli% geologi/s71 9 ! ,magaz9e ( ,natural ,hi/ory1 t ! gra9s ( qu>tz 9 ! mill/one grit ( ,engl& are (t5 cry/allis$4 ,sir ,david ,brew/]1 9 a pap] read be=e ! ,briti% ,association1 #ahdj1 /ates1 t 9 old decompos$ glass1 ! silex & metals sep>ate into conc5tric r+s1 & t ! silex rega9s its cry/all9e /ructure1 z is %[n by its action on light4 ,9 sev]al p>ts ( ! s&/one ,i notic$ pat*es ( %ale :i* might at ! fir/ glance h be5 mi/ak5 = extrane\s fragm5ts2 _! horizontal lam91 h[ev]1 be+ p>allel ) ^? ( ! s&/one1 %[$ t !y 7 ! remnants ( ?91 cont9u\s b$s4 ,"o su* fragm5t 7probably ! section ( a long n>r[ /rip7 se5 9 ! face ( a cliff1 0 ( great] v]tical ?ickness ?an bread?1 :i* proves t ?is b$ ( %ale mu/ h be5 9 "s slight degree consolidat$1 aft] hav+ be5 deposit$1 & be=e be+ worn away by ! curr5ts4 ,ea* pat* ( ! %ale %[s1 also1 h[ sl[ly _m ( ! successive lay]s ( s&/one 7 deposit$4 ,^! pseudo-fragm5ts ( %ale w p]haps expla91 9 "s cases1 ! orig9 ( app>5tly extrane\s fragm5ts 9 cry/all9e metamorphic rocks4 ,i m5tion ?is1 because ,i f\nd ne> ,rio de ,janeiro a well-def9$ angul> fragm5t1 sev5 y>ds long by two y>ds 9 bread?1 ( gneiss conta9+ g>nets & mica 9 lay]s1 enclos$ 9 ! ord9>y1 /ratifi$1 porphyritic gneiss ( ! c\ntry4 ,! lam9 ( ! fragm5t & ( ! surr\nd+ matrix ran 9 exactly ! same direction1 b !y dipp$ at diff]5t angles4 ,i d n wi% to affirm t ?is s+ul> fragm5t 7a solit>y case1 z f> z ,i "k7 0 orig9ally deposit$ 9 a lay]1 l ! %ale 9 ! ,blue ,m\nta9s1 betwe5 ! /rata ( ! porphyritic gneiss1 be=e !y 7 metamorphos$2 b !re is suffici5t analogy betwe5 ! two cases to r5d] su* an explanation possible4 ,/ratification ( ! esc>pm5t4--,! /rata ( ! ,blue ,m\nta9s appe> to ! eye horizontal2 b !y probably h a simil> incl9ation ) ! surface ( ! plat=m1 :i* slopes f ! we/ t[>ds ! esc>pm5t ov] ! ,nepean1 at an angle ( "o degree1 or ( "o hundr$ feet 9 a mile4#b ,! /rata ( ! esc>pm5t dip almo/ con=mably ) its /eeply incl9$ face1 & ) s mu* regul>ity1 t !y appe> z if ?r[n into _! pres5t position2 b on a m c>eful exam9ation1 !y are se5 to ?ick5 & to ?9 out1 & 9 ! upp] "p to be succe$$ & almo/ capp$ by horizontal b$s4 ,^! appe>ances r5d] x probable1 t we "h see an orig9al esc>pm5t1 n =m$ by ! sea hav+ eat5 back into ! /rata1 b by ! /rata hav+ orig9ally ext5d$ only ?us f>4 ,^? :o h be5 9 ! habit ( exam9+ accurate *>ts ( sea-coa/s1 :]e s$im5t is accumulat+1 w be aw>e1 t ! surfaces ( ! banks ?us =m$1 g5]ally slope f ! coa/ v g5tly t[>ds a c]ta9 l9e 9 ! (f+1 beyond :i* ! dep? 9 mo/ cases sudd5ly becomes great4 ,i may in/ance ! great banks ( s$im5t )9 ! ,we/ ,indian ,ar*ipelago1#c :i* t]m9ate 9 subm>9e slopes1 incl9$ at angles ( betwe5 ?irty & =ty degrees1 & sometimes ev5 at m ?an =ty degrees3 e "o kn[s h[ /eep su* a slope w\ld appe> on ! l&4 ,banks ( ?is nature1 if uplift$1 w\ld probably h ne>ly ! same ext]nal =m z ! plat=m ( ! ,blue ,m\nta9s1 :]e x abruptly t]m9ates ov] ! ,nepean4 #b ,?is is /at$ on ! au?ority ( ,sir ,t4 ,mit*ell1 9 8 8,travels10 vol4 ii1 p4 #ceg4 #c ,i h describ$ ^! v curi\s banks 9 ! ,app5dix to my volume on ! /ructure ( ,coral-,reefs4 ,i h asc]ta9$ ! incl9ation ( ! edges ( ! banks1 f in=mation giv5 me by ,capta9 ,b4 ,all51 "o ( ! surveyors1 & by c>efully measur+ ! horizontal di/ances betwe5 ! la/ s\nd+ on ! bank & ! fir/ 9 ! deep wat]4 ,widely ext5d$ banks 9 all p>ts ( ! ,we/ ,indies h ! same g5]al =m ( surface4 ,curr5t-cleavage4--,! /rata ( s&/one 9 ! l[ coa/ c\ntry1 & likewise on ! ,blue ,m\nta9s1 are (t5 divid$ by cross or curr5t lam91 :i* dip 9 diff]5t directions1 & frequ5tly at an angle ( =ty-five degrees4 ,mo/ au?ors h attribut$ ^! cross lay]s to successive small accumulations on an incl9$ surface2 b f a c>eful exam9ation 9 "s p>ts ( ! ,new ,r$ ,s&/one ( ,engl&1 ,i believe t su* lay]s g5]ally =m p>ts ( a s]ies ( curves1 l gigantic tidal ripples1 ! tops ( :i* h s9ce be5 cut (f1 ei!r by ne>ly horizontal lay]s1 or by ano!r set ( great ripples1 ! folds ( :i* d n exactly co9cide ) ^? bel[ !m4 ,x is well-kn[n to surveyors t mud & s& are di/urb$ dur+ /orms at consid]able dep?s1 at lea/ f ?ree hundr$ to f\r hundr$ & fifty feet1#d s t ! nature ( ! bottom ev5 becomes tempor>ily *ang$2 ! bottom1 also1 at a dep? betwe5 sixty & sev5ty feet1 has be5 obs]v$#e to be broadly rippl$4 ,"o may1 !re=e1 be all[$ to suspect1 f ! appe>ance j m5tion$ 9 ! ,new ,r$ ,s&/one1 t at great] dep?s1 ! b$ ( ! ocean is heap$ up dur+ gales into great ripple-l furr[s & depressions1 :i* are aft]w>ds cut (f by ! curr5ts dur+ m tranquil wea!r1 & aga9 furr[$ dur+ gales4 #d ,see ,m>t9 ,:ite1 on 8,s\nd+s 9 ! ,briti% ,*annel10 pp4 #d & #aff4 #e ,m4 ,siau on ! 8,action ( ,waves10 ,ed94 ,new ,phil4 ,j\rn41 vol4 xxxi1 p4 #bde4 ,valleys 9 ! s&/one plat=ms4--,! gr& valleys1 by :i* ! ,blue ,m\nta9s & ! o!r s&/one plat=ms ( ?is "p ( ,au/ralia are p5etrat$1 & :i* long (f]$ an insup]able ob/acle to ! attempts ( ! mo/ ent]pris+ coloni/ to rea* ! int]ior c\ntry1 =m ! mo/ /rik+ feature 9 ! geology ( ,new ,s\? ,wales4 ,!y are ( gr& dim5sions1 & are bord]$ by cont9u\s l9ks ( l(ty cliffs4 ,x is n easy to conceive a m magnific5t spectacle1 ?an is pres5t$ to a p]son walk+ on ! summit-pla9s1 :5 )\t any notice he arrives at ! br9k ( "o ( ^! cliffs1 :i* are s p]p5dicul>1 t he c /rike ) a /one 7z ,i h tri$7 ! trees gr[+1 at ! dep? ( betwe5 "o ?\s& & "o ?\s& five hundr$ feet bel[ him2 on bo? h&s he sees headl& beyond headl& ( ! rec$+ l9e ( cliff1 & on ! opposite side ( ! valley1 (t5 at ! di/ance ( sev]al miles1 he beholds ano!r l9e ris+ up to ! same height ) t on :i* he /&s1 & =m$ ( ! same horizontal /rata ( pale s&/one4 ,! bottoms ( ^! valleys are mod]ately level1 & ! fall ( ! riv]s fl[+ 9 !m1 accord+ to ,sir ,t4 ,mit*ell1 is g5tle4 ,! ma9 valleys (t5 s5d into ! plat=m great baylike arms1 :i* exp& at _! upp] ends2 & on ! o!r h&1 ! plat=m (t5 s5ds promontories into ! valley1 & ev5 leaves 9 !m great1 almo/ insulat$1 masses4 ,s cont9u\s are ! b\nd+ l9es ( cliff1 t to desc5d into "s ( ^! valleys1 x is necess>y to g r\nd tw5ty miles2 & into o!rs1 ! surveyors h only lately p5etrat$1 & ! coloni/s h n yet be5 able to drive 9 _! cattle4 ,b ! mo/ rem>kable po9t ( /ructure 9 ^! valleys1 is1 t al?\gh sev]al miles wide 9 _! upp] p>ts1 !y g5]ally contract t[>ds _! m\?s to su* a degree z to become impassable4 ,! ,surveyor-,g5]al1 ,sir ,t4 ,mit*ell1#f 9 va9 endeav\r$1 fir/ on foot & !n by crawl+ betwe5 ! great fall5 fragm5ts ( s&/one1 to asc5d ?r\gh ! gorge by :i* ! riv] ,grose jo9s ! ,nepean2 yet ! valley ( ! ,grose 9 its upp] "p1 z ,i saw1 =ms a magnific5t bas9 "s miles 9 wid?1 & is on all sides surr\nd$ by cliffs1 ! summits ( :i* are believ$ to be n[h]e less ?an #c1jjj feet above ! level ( ! sea4 ,:5 cattle are driv5 into ! valley ( ! ,wolgan by a pa? 7:i* ,i desc5d$7 p>tly cut by ! coloni/s1 !y _c escape2 = ?is valley is 9 e o!r "p surr\nd$ by p]p5dicul> cliffs1 & eight miles l[] d[n1 x contracts1 f an av]age wid? ( half a mile1 to a m]e *asm impassable to man or bea/4 ,sir ,t4 ,mit*ell#g /ates1 t ! great valley ( ! ,cox riv] ) all its bran*es contracts1 :]e x unites ) ! ,nepean1 into a gorge #b1bjj y>ds wide1 & ab\t "o ?\s& feet 9 dep?4 ,o!r simil> cases might h be5 add$4 #f 8,travels 9 ,au/ralia10 vol4 i1 p4 #aed4--;,i mu/ express my obligation to ,sir ,t4 ,mit*ell = sev]al int]e/+ p]sonal communications on ! subject ( ^! great valleys ( ,new ,s\? ,wales4 #g ,idem1 vol4 ii1 p4 #ceh4 ,! fir/ impression1 f see+ ! correspond5ce ( ! horizontal /rata1 on ea* side ( ^! valleys & great amphi!atre-l depressions1 is t !y h be5 9 *ief "p holl[$ out1 l o!r valleys1 by aque\s erosion2 b :5 "o reflects on ! enorm\s am\nt ( /one1 :i* on ?is view mu/ h be5 remov$1 9 mo/ ( ! above cases ?r\gh m]e gorges or *asms1 "o is l$ to ask :e!r ^! spaces may n h subsid$4 ,b consid]+ ! =m ( ! irregul>ly bran*+ valleys1 & ( ! n>r[ promontories1 project+ into !m f ! plat=ms1 we are compell$ to ab&on ?is notion4 ,to attribute ^! holl[s to alluvial action1 w\ld be prepo/]\s2 nor does ! dra9age f ! summit-level always fall1 z ,i rem>k$ ne> ! ,wea!rbo>d1 into ! head ( ^! valleys1 b into "o side ( _! bay-l recesses4 ,"s ( ! inhabitants rem>k$ to me1 t !y nev] view$ "o ( ^! baylike recesses1 ) ! headl&s rec$+ on bo? h&s1 )\t be+ /ruck ) _! resemblance to a bold sea-coa/4 ,?is is c]ta9ly ! case2 moreov]1 ! num]\s f9e h>b\rs1 ) _! widely bran*+ arms1 on ! pres5t coa/ ( ,new ,s\? ,wales1 :i* are g5]ally connect$ ) ! sea by a n>r[ m\?1 f "o mile to a qu>t] ( a mile 9 wid?1 pass+ ?r\gh ! s&/one coa/-cliffs1 pres5t a lik5ess1 ?\gh on a m9iature scale1 to ! great valleys ( ! int]ior4 ,b !n imm$iately occurs ! />tl+ difficulty1 :y has ! sea worn out ^! great1 ?\gh circumscrib$1 depressions on a wide plat=m1 & left m]e gorges1 ?r\gh :i* ! :ole va/ am\nt ( triturat$ matt] mu/ h be5 c>ri$ away8 ,! only light ,i c ?r[ on ?is enigma1 is by %[+ t banks appe> to be =m+ 9 "s seas ( ! mo/ irregul> =ms1 & t ! sides ( su* banks are s /eep 7z be=e /at$7 t a comp>atively small am\nt ( subsequ5t erosion w\ld =m !m into cliffs3 t ! waves h p[] to =m high & precipit\s cliffs1 ev5 9 l&lock$ h>b\rs1 ,i h obs]v$ 9 _m p>ts ( ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,9 ! ,r$ ,sea1 banks ) an extremely irregul> outl9e & compos$ ( s$im5t1 are p5etrat$ by ! mo/ s+ul>ly %ap$ creeks ) n>r[ m\?s3 ?is is likewise ! case1 ?\gh on a l>g] scale1 ) ! ,bahama ,banks4 ,su* banks1 ,i h be5 l$ to suppose1#h h be5 =m$ by curr5ts heap+ s$im5t on an irregul> bottom4 ,t 9 "s cases1 ! sea1 in/ead ( spread+ out s$im5t 9 a uni=m %eet1 heaps x r\nd subm>9e rocks & isl&s1 x is h>dly possible to d\bt1 aft] hav+ exam9$ ! *>ts ( ! ,we/ ,indies4 ,to apply ^! ideas to ! s&/one plat=ms ( ,new ,s\? ,wales1 ,i imag9e t ! /rata might h be5 heap$ on an irregul> bottom by ! action ( /rong curr5ts1 & ( ! undulations ( an op5 sea2 & t ! valley-l spaces ?us left unfill$ might1 dur+ a sl[ elevation ( ! l&1 h _h _! /eeply slop+ flanks worn into cliffs2 ! worn-d[n s&/one be+ remov$1 ei!r at ! "t :5 ! n>r[ gorges 7 cut by ! retreat+ sea1 or subsequ5tly by alluvial action4 #h ,see ! 8,app5dix0 to ! ,"p on ,coral-,reefs4 ,! fact ( ! sea heap+ up mud r\nd a subm>9e nucleus1 is wor?y ( ! notice ( geologi/s3 = outly]s ( ! same composition ) ! coa/ banks are ?us =m$2 & ^!1 if upheav$ & worn into cliffs1 w\ld naturally be ?\ght to h be5 once connect$ toge!r4 ,van ,diem5's ,l&4 ,! s\!rn "p ( ?is isl& is ma9ly =m$ ( m\nta9s ( gre5/one1 :i* (t5 assumes a sy5itic "*1 & conta9s mu* hyp]/h5e4 ,^! m\nta9s1 9 _! l[] half1 are g5]ally encas$ by /rata conta9+ num]\s small corals & "s %ells4 ,^! %ells h be5 exam9$ by ,mr4 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by1 & h be5 describ$ by him3 !y consi/ ( two species ( ,producta1 & ( six ( ,spirif]a2 two ( ^!1 namely1 ,p4 rugata & ,s4 rotundata1 resemble1 z f> z _! imp]fect condition all[s ( comp>ison1 ,briti% m\nta9-lime/one %ells4 ,mr4 ,lonsdale has _h ! k9dness to exam9e ! corals2 !y consi/ ( six undescrib$ species1 belong+ to ?ree g5]a4 ,species ( ^! g5]a occur 9 ! ,silurian1 ,devonian1 & ,c>bonif]\s /rata ( ,europe4 ,mr4 ,lonsdale rem>ks1 t all ^! fossils h und\bt$ly a ,palozoic "*1 & t probably !y correspond 9 age to a division ( ! sy/em above ! ,silurian =mations4 ,! /rata conta9+ ^! rema9s are s+ul> f ! extreme v>iability ( _! m9]alogical composition4 ,e int]m$iate =m is pres5t1 betwe5 fl9ty-slate1 clay-slate pass+ into grey wacke1 pure lime/one1 s&/one1 & porcellanic rock2 & "s ( ! b$s c only be describ$ z compos$ ( a siliceo-calc>eo-clay-slate4 ,! =mation1 z f> z ,i c\ld judge1 is at lea/ a ?\s& feet 9 ?ickness3 ! upp] few hundr$ feet usually consi/ ( a silice\s s&/one1 conta9+ pebbles & no organic rema9s2 ! inf]ior /rata1 ( :i* a pale fl9ty slate is p]haps ! mo/ abundant1 are ! mo/ v>iable2 & ^! *iefly ab\nd ) ! rema9s4 ,betwe5 two b$s ( h>d cry/all9e lime/one1 ne> ,newt[n1 a lay] ( :ite s(t calc>e\s matt] is qu>ri$1 & is us$ = :itewa%+ h\ses4 ,f in=mation giv5 to me by ,mr4 ,frankl&1 ! ,surveyor-,g5]al1 x appe>s t ?is ,palozoic =mation is f\nd 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! :ole isl&2 f ! same au?ority1 ,i may add1 t on ! nor?-ea/]n coa/ & 9 ,bass' ,/raits prim>y rocks ext5sively occur4 ,! %ores ( ,/orm ,bay are skirt$1 to ! height ( a few hundr$ feet1 by /rata ( s&/one1 conta9+ pebbles ( ! =mation j describ$1 ) its *>act]i/ic fossils1 & !re=e belong+ to a subsequ5t age4 ,^! /rata ( s&/one (t5 pass into %ale1 & alt]nate ) lay]s ( impure coal2 !y h 9 _m places be5 viol5tly di/urb$4 ,ne> ,hob>t ,t[n1 ,i obs]v$ "o dike1 ne>ly a hundr$ y>ds 9 wid?1 on "o side ( :i* ! /rata 7 tilt$ at an angle ( #fj degrees1 & on ! o!r !y 7 9 "s p>ts v]tical1 & _h be5 alt]$ by ! effects ( ! heat4 ,on ! we/ side ( ,/orm ,bay1 ,i f\nd ^! /rata capp$ by /reams ( basaltic lava ) oliv9e2 & close by !re 0 a mass ( brecciat$ scori1 conta9+ pebbles ( lava1 :i* probably m>ks ! place ( an anci5t subm>9e crat]4 ,two ( ^! /reams ( basalt 7 sep>at$ f ea* o!r by a lay] ( argillace\s wacke1 :i* c\ld be trac$ pass+ into p>tially alt]$ scori4 ,! wacke conta9$ num]\s r\nd$ gra9s ( a s(t1 grass-gre5 m9]al1 ) a waxy lu/re1 & transluc5t on its edges3 "u ! bl[pipe x in/antly black5$1 & ! po9ts fus$ into a /rongly magnetic1 black enamel4 ,9 ^! *>act]s1 x resembles ^? masses ( decompos$ oliv9e1 describ$ at ,/4 ,jago 9 ! ,cape de ,v]de gr\p2 & ,i %\ld h ?\ght t x _h ?us orig9at$1 _h ,i n f\nd a simil> sub/ance1 9 cyl9drical ?reads1 )9 ! cells ( ! vesicul> basalt1--a /ate "u :i* oliv9e nev] appe>s2 ?is sub/ance1#i ,i believe1 w\ld be class$ z bole by m9]alogi/s4 #i ,*lorophite1 describ$ by ,dr4 ,mac,culloch 78,we/]n ,isl&s10 vol4 i1 p4 #ejd7 z occurr+ 9 a basaltic amygdaloid1 diff]s f ?is sub/ance1 9 rema9+ un*ang$ be=e ! bl[pipe1 & 9 black5+ f exposure to ! air4 ,may we suppose t oliv9e1 9 und]go+ ! rem>kable *ange describ$ at ,/4 ,jago1 passes ?r\gh sev]al /ates8 ,trav]t9 ) ext9ct plants4--,beh9d ,hob>t ,t[n !re is a small qu>ry ( a h>d trav]t91 ! l[] /rata ( :i* ab\nd ) di/9ct impressions ( leaves4 ,mr4 ,rob]t ,br[n has _h ! k9dness to look at my specim5s1 & he in=m$ me t !re are f\r or five k9ds1 none ( :i* he recognises z belong+ to exi/+ species4 ,! mo/ rem>kable leaf is palmate1 l t ( a fan-palm1 & no plant hav+ leaves ( ?is /ructure has hi!rto be5 discov]$ 9 ,van ,diem5's ,l&4 ,! o!r leaves d n resemble ! mo/ usual =m ( ! ,eucalyptus 7( :i* tribe ! exi/+ =e/s are *iefly compos$71 nor d !y resemble t class ( exceptions to ! common =m ( ! leaves ( ! ,eucalyptus1 :i* occur 9 ?is isl&4 ,! trav]t9 conta9+ ?is remnant ( a lo/ vegetation1 is ( a pale yell[ col\r1 h>d1 & 9 p>ts ev5 cry/all9e2 b n compact1 & is ev]y:]e p5etrat$ by m9ute1 tortu\s1 cyl9drical pores4 ,x conta9s a v few pebbles ( qu>tz1 & occasionally lay]s ( *alc$onic nodules1 l ^? ( *]t 9 our ,gre5s&4 ,f ! pur5ess ( ?is calc>e\s rock1 x has be5 se>*$ = 9 o!r places1 b has nev] be5 f\nd4 ,f ?is circum/ance1 & f ! "* ( ! deposit1 x 0 probably =m$ by a calc>e\s spr+ ent]+ a small pool or n>r[ creek4 ,! /rata h subsequ5tly be5 tilt$ & fissur$2 & ! surface has be5 cov]$ by a s+ul> mass1 ) :i*1 also1 a l>ge fissure has be5 fill$ up1 =m$ ( balls ( trap emb$d$ 9 a mixture ( wacke & a :ite1 e>?y1 alum9o-calc>e\s sub/ance4 ,h5ce x w\ld appe>1 z if a volcanic eruption _h tak5 place on ! bord]s ( ! pool1 9 :i* ! calc>e\s matt] 0 deposit+1 & _h brok5 x up & dra9$ x4 ,elevation ( ! l&4--,bo? ! ea/]n & we/]n %ores ( ! bay1 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,hob>t ,t[n1 are 9 mo/ p>ts cov]$ to ! height ( ?irty feet above ! level ( high-wat] m>k1 ) brok5 %ells1 m+l$ ) pebbles4 ,! coloni/s attribute ^! %ells to ! aborig9es hav+ c>ri$ !m up = food3 und\bt$ly1 !re are _m l>ge m\nds1 z 0 po9t$ out to me by ,mr4 ,frankl&1 :i* h be5 ?us =m$2 b ,i ?9k f ! numb]s ( ! %ells1 f _! frequ5t small size1 f ! mann] 9 :i* !y are ?9ly scatt]$1 & f "s appe>ances 9 ! =m ( ! l&1 t we mu/ attribute ! pres5ce ( ! great] numb] to a small elevation ( ! l&4 ,on ! %ore ( ,ralph ,bay 7op5+ into ,/orm ,bay7 ,i obs]v$ a cont9u\s bea* ab\t fifte5 feet above high-wat] m>k1 clo!d ) vegetation1 & by digg+ into x1 pebbles encru/$ ) ,s]pul 7 f\nd3 along ! banks1 also1 ( ! riv] ,d]w5t1 ,i f\nd a b$ ( brok5 sea-%ells above ! surface ( ! riv]1 & at a po9t :]e ! wat] is n[ mu* too fre% = sea-%ells to live2 b 9 bo? ^! cases1 x is j possible1 t be=e c]ta9 spits ( s& & banks ( mud 9 ,/orm ,bay 7 accumulat$1 ! tides might h ris5 to ! height :]e we n[ f9d ! %ells4#aj #aj ,x w\ld appe> t "s *anges are n[ 9 progress 9 ,ralph ,bay1 = ,i 0 assur$ by an intellig5t f>m]1 t oy/]s 7 =m]ly abundant 9 x1 b t ab\t ! ye> #ahcd !y _h1 )\t any app>5t cause1 disappe>$4 ,9 ! 8,transactions ( ! ,m>yl& ,academy0 7vol4 i1 "p i1 p4 #bh7 !re is an acc\nt by ,mr4 ,ducatel ( va/ b$s ( oy/]s & clams hav+ be5 de/roy$ by ! gradual fill+ up ( ! %all[ lagoons & *annels1 on ! %ores ( ! s\!rn ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,at ,*iloe1 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 ,i he>d ( a simil> loss1 su/a9$ by ! inhabitants1 9 ! disappe>ance f "o "p ( ! coa/ ( an edible species ( ,ascidia4 ,evid5ce m or less di/9ct ( a *ange ( level betwe5 ! l& & wat]1 has be5 detect$ on almo/ all ! l& on ?is side ( ! globe4 ,capta9 ,grey1 & o!r travell]s1 h f\nd 9 ,s\!rn ,au/ralia uprais$ %ells1 belong+ ei!r to ! rec5t1 or to a late t]ti>y p]iod4 ,! ,fr5* naturali/s 9 ,baud9's exp$ition1 f\nd %ells simil>ly circum/anc$ on ! ,s4,w4 coa/ ( ,au/ralia4 ,! ,rev4 ,w4 ,b4 ,cl>ke#aa f9ds pro(s ( ! elevation ( ! l&1 to ! am\nt ( #djj feet1 at ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope4 ,9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! ,bay ( ,isl&s 9 ,new ,zeal&1#ab ,i obs]v$ t ! %ores 7 scatt]$ to "s height1 z at ,van ,diem5's ,l&1 ) sea-%ells1 :i* ! coloni/s attribute to ! natives4 ,:atev] may h be5 ! orig9 ( ^! %ells1 ,i _c d\bt1 aft] hav+ se5 a section ( ! valley ( ! ,?ames ,riv] 7#cg degrees ,s471 drawn by ! ,rev4 ,w4 ,williams1 t ! l& has be5 !re elevat$3 on ! opposite sides ( ?is great valley1 ?ree /ep-l t]races1 compos$ ( an enorm\s accumulation ( r\nd$ pebbles1 exactly correspond ) ea* o!r3 ! esc>pm5t ( ea* t]race is ab\t fifty feet 9 height4 ,no "o aft] hav+ exam9$ ! t]races 9 ! valleys on ! we/]n %ores ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 :i* are /rew$ ) sea-%ells1 & h be5 =m$ dur+ int]vals ( re/ 9 ! sl[ elevation ( ! l&1 c\ld d\bt t ! ,new ,zeal& t]races h be5 simil>ly =m$4 ,i may add1 t ,dr4 ,dieff5ba*1 9 8 description ( ! ,*a?am ,isl&s#ac 7,s4,w4 ( ,new ,zeal&71 /ates t x is manife/ 8t ! sea has left _m places b>e :i* 7 once cov]$ by its wat]s40 #aa 8,proce$+s ( ! ,geological ,society10 vol4 iii1 p4 #dbj4 #ab ,i w "h give a catalogue ( ! rocks :i* ,i met ) ne> ! ,bay ( ,isl&s1 9 ,new ,zeal&3--#a/1 ,mu* basaltic lava1 & scori=m rocks1 =m+ di/9ct crat]s2--#bnd1 ,a ca/ellat$ hill ( horizontal /rata ( fle%-col\r$ lime/one1 %[+ :5 fractur$ di/9ct cry/all9e facets3 ! ra9 has act$ on ?is rock 9 a rem>kable mann]1 corrod+ its surface into a m9iature model ( an ,alp9e c\ntry3 ,i obs]v$ "h lay]s ( *]t & clay iron/one2 & 9 ! b$ ( a /ream1 pebbles ( clay-slate2--#crd1 ,! %ores ( ! ,bay ( ,isl&s are =m$ ( a feldspa?ic rock1 ( a blui%-grey col\r1 (t5 mu* decompos$1 ) an angul> fracture1 & cross$ by num]\s f]rug9\s seams1 b )\t any di/9ct /ratification or cleavage4 ,"s v>ieties are highly cry/all9e1 & w\ld at once be pron\nc$ to be trap2 o!rs /rik+ly resembl$ clay-slate1 slightly alt]$ by heat3 ,i 0 unable to =m any decid$ op9ion on ?is =mation4 #ac ,geographical ,j\rnal1 vol4 xi1 pp4 #bjb1 #bje4 ,k+ ,george's ,s\nd4 ,?is settlem5t is situat$ at ! s\?-we/]n angle ( ! ,au/ralian cont95t3 ! :ole c\ntry is granitic1 ) ! con/itu5t m9]als sometimes obscurely arrang$ 9 /raight or curv$ lam94 ,9 ^! cases1 ! rock w\ld be call$ by ,humboldt1 gneiss-granite1 & x is rem>kable t ! =m ( ! b>e conical hills1 appe>+ to be compos$ ( great fold+ lay]s1 /rik+ly resembles1 on a small scale1 ^? compos$ ( gneiss-granite at ,rio de ,janeiro1 & ^? describ$ by ,humboldt at ,v5ezuela4 ,^! plutonic rocks are1 9 _m places1 int]sect$ by trappean-dikes2 9 "o place1 ,i f\nd t5 p>allel dikes rang+ 9 an ,e4 & ,w4 l9e2 & n f> (f ano!r set ( eight dikes1 compos$ ( a diff]5t v>iety ( trap1 rang+ at "r angles to ! =m] ones4 ,i h obs]v$ 9 sev]al prim>y di/ricts1 ! occurr5ce ( sy/ems ( dikes p>allel & close to ea* o!r4 ,sup]ficial f]rug9\s b$s4--,! l[] p>ts ( ! c\ntry are ev]y:]e cov]$ by a b$1 foll[+ ! inequalities ( ! surface1 ( a honeycomb$ s&/one1 ab\nd+ ) oxides ( iron4 ,b$s ( ne>ly simil> composition are common1 ,i believe1 along ! :ole we/]n coa/ ( ,au/ralia1 & on _m ( ! ,ea/ ,indian isl&s4 ,at ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope1 at ! base ( ! m\nta9s =m$ ( granite & capp$ ) s&/one1 ! gr\nd is ev]y:]e coat$ ei!r by a f9e-gra9$1 rubbly1 o*race\s mass1 l t at ,k+ ,george's ,s\nd1 or by a co>s] s&/one ) fragm5ts ( qu>tz1 & r5d]$ h>d & heavy by an abundance ( ! hydrate ( iron1 :i* pres5ts1 :5 fre%ly brok51 a metallic lu/re4 ,bo? ^! v>ieties h a v irregul> texture1 includ+ spaces ei!r r\nd$ or angul>1 full ( loose s&3 f ?is cause ! surface is always honeycomb$4 ,! oxide ( iron is mo/ abundant on ! edges ( ! cavities1 :]e alone x af=ds a metallic fracture4 ,9 ^! =mations1 z well z 9 _m true s$im5t>y deposits1 x is evid5t t iron t5ds to become aggregat$1 ei!r 9 ! =m ( a %ell1 or ( a network4 ,! orig9 ( ^! sup]ficial b$s1 ?\gh suffici5tly obscure1 seems to be due to alluvial action on detritus ab\nd+ ) iron4 ,sup]ficial calc>e\s deposit4--,a calc>e\s deposit on ! summit ( ,bald ,head1 conta9+ bran*$ bodies1 suppos$ by "s au?ors to h be5 corals1 has be5 celebrat$ by ! descriptions ( _m di/+ui%$ voyag]s4#ad ,x folds r\nd & conceals irregul> hummocks ( granite1 at ! height ( #fjj feet above ! level ( ! sea4 ,x v>ies mu* 9 ?ickness2 :]e /ratifi$1 ! b$s are (t5 incl9$ at high angles1 ev5 z mu* z at ?irty degrees1 & !y dip 9 all directions4 ,^! b$s are sometimes cross$ by oblique & ev5-sid$ lam94 ,! deposit consi/s ei!r ( a f9e1 :ite calc>e\s p[d]1 9 :i* n a trace ( /ructure c be discov]$1 or ( exce$+ly m9ute1 r\nd$ gra9s1 ( br[n1 yell[i%1 & purpli% col\rs2 bo? v>ieties be+ g5]ally1 b n always1 mix$ ) small p>ticles ( qu>tz1 & be+ cem5t$ into a m or less p]fect /one4 ,! r\nd$ calc>e\s gra9s1 :5 heat$ 9 a slight degree1 in/antly lose _! col\rs2 9 ?is & 9 e o!r respect1 closely resembl+ ^? m9ute1 equal-siz$ p>ticles ( %ells & corals1 :i* at ,/4 ,hel5a h be5 drift$ up ! side ( ! m\nta9s1 & h ?us be5 w9n[$ ( all co>s] fragm5ts4 ,i _c d\bt t ! col\r$ calc>e\s p>ticles "h h _h a simil> orig94 ,! impalpable p[d] has probably be5 d]iv$ f ! decay ( ! r\nd$ p>ticles2 ?is c]ta9ly is possible1 = on ! coa/ ( ,p]u1 ,i h trac$ l>ge unbrok5 %ells gradually fall+ into a sub/ance z f9e z p[d]$ *alk4 ,bo? ( ! above-m5tion$ v>ieties ( calc>e\s s&/one frequ5tly alt]nate )1 & bl5d into1 ?9 lay]s ( a h>d sub/alagmitic#ae rock1 :i*1 ev5 :5 ! /one on ea* side conta9s p>ticles ( qu>tz1 is entirely free f !m3 h5ce we mu/ suppose t ^! lay]s1 z well z c]ta9 ve9-l masses1 h be5 =m$ by ra9 dissolv+ ! calc>e\s matt] & re-precipitat+ x1 z has happ5$ at ,/4 ,hel5a4 ,ea* lay] probably m>ks a fre% surface1 :5 !1 n[ firmly cem5t$1 p>ticles exi/$ z loose s&4 ,^! lay]s are sometimes brecciat$ & re-cem5t$1 z if !y _h be5 brok5 by ! slipp+ ( ! s& :5 s(t4 ,i did n f9d a s+le fragm5t ( a sea-%ell2 b blea*$ %ells ( ! ,helix melo1 an exi/+ l& species1 ab\nd 9 all ! /rata2 & ,i likewise f\nd ano!r ,helix1 & ! case ( an ,oniscus4 #ad ,i visit$ ?is hill1 9 company ) ,capta9 ,fitzroy1 & we came to a simil> conclusion reg>d+ ^! bran*+ bodies4 #ae ,i adopt ?is t]m f ,lieut5ant ,nelson's excell5t pap] on ! ,b]muda ,isl&s 78,geolog4 ,trans410 vol4 v1 p4 #ajf71 = ! h>d1 compact1 cream- or br[n-col\r$ /one1 )\t any cry/all9e /ructure1 :i* s (t5 accompanies sup]ficial calc>e\s accumulations4 ,i h obs]v$ su* sup]ficial b$s1 coat$ ) sub/alagmitic rock1 at ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope1 9 sev]al p>ts ( ,*ile1 & ov] wide spaces 9 ,la ,plata & ,patagonia4 ,"s ( ^! b$s h be5 =m$ f decay$ %ells1 b ! orig9 ( ! great] numb] is suffici5tly obscure4 ,! causes :i* det]m9e wat] to dissolve lime1 & !n soon to r$eposit x1 are n1 ,i ?9k1 kn[n4 ,! surface ( ! sub/alagmitic lay]s appe>s always to be corrod$ by ! ra9-wat]4 ,z all ! above-m5tion$ c\ntries h a long dry season1 comp>$ ) ! ra9y "o1 ,i %\ld h ?\ght t ! pres5ce ( ! sub/alagmitic 0 connect$ ) ! climate1 _h n ,lieut5ant ,nelson f\nd ?is sub/ance =m+ "u sea-wat]4 ,dis9tegrat$ %ell seems to be extremely soluble2 ( :i* ,i f\nd good evid5ce1 9 a curi\s rock at ,coquimbo 9 ,*ile1 :i* consi/$ ( small1 pellucid1 empty husks1 cem5t$ toge!r4 ,a s]ies ( specim5s cle>ly %[$ t ^! husks _h orig9ally conta9$ small r\nd$ p>ticles ( %ells1 :i* _h be5 envelop$ & cem5t$ toge!r by calc>e\s matt] 7z (t5 happ5s on sea-bea*es71 & :i* subsequ5tly _h decay$1 & be5 dissolv$ by wat]1 t mu/ h p5etrat$ ?r\gh ! calc>e\s husks1 )\t corrod+ !m1--( :i* processes e /age c\ld be se54 ,! bran*es are absolutely undi/+ui%able 9 %ape f ! brok5 & upright /umps ( a ?icket2 _! roots are (t5 uncov]$1 & are se5 to div]ge on all sides2 "h & !re a bran* lies pro/rate4 ,! bran*es g5]ally consi/ ( ! s&/one1 r firm] ?an ! surr\nd+ matt]1 ) ! c5tral p>ts fill$1 ei!r ) friable1 calc>e\s matt]1 or ) a sub/alagmitic v>iety2 ?is c5tral "p is also frequ5tly p5etrat$ by l9e> crevices1 sometimes1 ?\gh r>ely1 conta9+ a trace ( woody matt]4 ,^! calc>e\s1 bran*+ bodies1 appe> to h be5 =m$ by f9e calc>e\s matt] be+ wa%$ into ! ca/s or cavities1 left by ! decay ( bran*es & roots ( ?ickets1 buri$ "u drift$ s&4 ,! :ole surface ( ! hill is n[ und]go+ dis9tegration1 & h5ce ! ca/s1 :i* are compact & h>d1 are left project+4 ,9 calc>e\s s& at ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope1 ,i f\nd ! ca/s1 describ$ by ,abel1 q simil> to ^! at ,bald ,head2 b _! c5tres are (t5 fill$ ) black c>bonace\s matt] n yet remov$4 ,x is n surpris+1 t ! woody matt] %\ld h be5 almo/ entirely remov$ f ! ca/s on ,bald ,head2 = x is c]ta91 t _m c5turies mu/ h elaps$ s9ce ! ?ickets 7 buri$2 at pres5t1 ow+ to ! =m & height ( ! n>r[ promontory1 no s& is drift$ up1 & ! :ole surface1 z ,i h rem>k$1 is we>+ away4 ,we mu/1 !re=e1 look back to a p]iod :5 ! l& /ood l[]1 ( :i* ! ,fr5* naturali/s#af f\nd evid5ce 9 uprais$ %ells ( rec5t species1 = ! drift+ on ,bald ,head ( ! calc>e\s & qu>tzose s&1 & ! consequ5t emb$m5t ( ! vegetable rema9s4 ,!re 0 only "o appe>ance :i* at fir/ made me d\bt conc]n+ ! orig9 ( ! ca/1--namely1 t ! f9] roots f diff]5t /ems sometimes became unit$ toge!r into upright plates or ve9s2 b :5 ! mann] is borne 9 m9d 9 :i* f9e roots (t5 fill up cracks 9 h>d e>?1 & t ^! roots w\ld decay & leave holl[s1 z well z ! /ems1 !re is no real difficulty 9 ?is case4 ,besides ! calc>e\s bran*es f ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope1 ,i h se5 ca/s1 ( exactly ! same =ms1 f ,madeira#ag & f ,b]muda2 at ?is latt] place1 ! surr\nd+ calc>e\s rocks1 judg+ f ! specim5s collect$ by ,lieut5ant ,nelson1 are likewise simil>1 z is _! suba]ial =mation4 ,reflect+ on ! /ratification ( ! deposit on ,bald ,head1--on ! irregul>ly alt]nat+ lay]s ( sub/alagmitic rock1--on ! uni=mly siz$1 & r\nd$ p>ticles1 app>5tly ( sea-%ells & corals1--on ! abundance ( l&-%ells ?r\gh\t ! mass1--& f9ally1 on ! absolute resemblance ( ! calc>e\s ca/s1 to ! /umps1 roots1 & bran*es ( t k9d ( vegetation1 :i* w\ld gr[ on s&-hillocks1 ,i ?9k !re c be no reasonable d\bt1 not)/&+ ! diff]5t op9ion ( "s au?ors1 t a true view ( _! orig9 has be5 "h giv54 #af ,see ,m4 ,pron's 8,voyage10 tome i1 p4 #bjd4 #ag ,dr4 ,j4 ,macaulay has fully describ$ 7,ed9b4 ,new ,phil4 ,j\rn41 vol4 xxix1 p4 #cej7 ! ca/s f ,madeira4 ,he consid]s 7diff]5tly f ,mr4 ,smi? ( ,jordan ,hill7 ^! bodies to be corals1 & ! calc>e\s deposit to be ( subaque\s orig94 ,8 argum5ts *iefly re/ 7= 8 rem>ks on _! /ructure are vague7 on ! great quantity ( ! calc>e\s matt]1 & on ! ca/s conta9+ animal matt]1 z %[n by _! evolv+ ammonia4 ,_h ,dr4 ,macaulay se5 ! enorm\s masses ( roll$ p>ticles ( %ells & corals on ! bea* ( ,asc5sion1 & especially on coral-reefs2 & _h he reflect$ on ! effects ( long-cont9u$1 g5tle w9ds1 9 drift+ up ! f9] p>ticles1 he w\ld h>dly h advanc$ ! argum5t ( quantity1 :i* is seldom tru/wor?y 9 geology4 ,if ! calc>e\s matt] has orig9at$ f dis9tegrat$ %ells & corals1 ! pres5ce ( animal matt] is :at might h be5 expect$4 ,mr4 ,&]son analys$ = ,dr4 ,macaulay "p ( a ca/1 & he f\nd x compos$ (-- ,c>bonate ( lime #gcae ,silica #aaij ,phosphate ( lime #hha ,animal matt] #dbe ,sulphate ( lime a trace ------ #ihaa ,calc>e\s deposits1 l ^! ( ,k+ ,george's ,s\nd1 are ( va/ ext5t on ! ,au/ralian %ores4 ,dr4 ,fitton rem>ks1 t 8rec5t calc>e\s breccia 7by :i* t]m all ^! deposits are includ$7 0 f\nd dur+ ,baud9's voyage1 ov] a space ( no less ?an tw5ty-five degrees ( latitude & an equal ext5t ( longitude1 on ! s\!rn1 we/]n1 & nor?-we/]n coa/s40#ah ,x appe>s also f ,m4 ,p]on1 ) ^: obs]vations & op9ions on ! orig9 ( ! calc>e\s matt] & bran*+ ca/s m9e entirely accord1 t ! deposit is g5]ally mu* m cont9u\s ?an ne> ,k+ ,george's ,s\nd4 ,at ,swan ,riv]1 ,ar*deacon ,scott#ai /ates t 9 "o "p x ext5ds t5 miles inl&4 ,capta9 ,wickham1 moreov]1 in=ms me t dur+ 8 late survey ( ! we/]n coa/1 ! bottom ( ! sea1 :]ev] ! vessel an*or$1 0 asc]ta9$1 by cr[b>s be+ let d[n1 to consi/ ( :ite calc>e\s matt]4 ,h5ce x seems t along ?is coa/1 z at ,b]muda & at ,keel+ ,atoll1 subm>9e & suba]ial deposits are contemporane\sly 9 process ( =mation1 f ! dis9tegration ( m>9e organic bodies4 ,! ext5t ( ^! deposits1 consid]+ _! orig91 is v /rik+2 & !y c be comp>$ 9 ?is respect only ) ! great coral-reefs ( ! ,indian & ,pacific ,oceans4 ,9 o!r p>ts ( ! _w1 = in/ance 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 !re are sup]ficial calc>e\s deposits ( great ext5t1 9 :i* n a trace ( organic /ructure is discov]able2 ^! obs]vations w\ld lead to ! inquiry1 :e!r su* deposits may n1 also1 h be5 =m$ f dis9tegrat$ %ells & corals4 #ah ,= ample details on ?is =mation consult ,dr4 ,fitton's 8,app5dix to ,capta9 ,k+'s ,voyage40 ,dr4 ,fitton is incl9$ to attribute a concretion>y orig9 to ! bran*+ bodies3 ,i may rem>k1 t ,i h se5 9 b$s ( s& 9 ,la ,plata cyl9drical /ems :i* no d\bt ?us orig9at$2 b !y diff]$ mu* 9 appe>ance f ^! at ,bald ,head1 & ! o!r places above specifi$4 #ai 8,proce$+s ( ! ,geolog4 ,soc410 vol4 i1 p4 #cbj4 ,cape ( ,good ,hope4 ,aft] ! acc\nts giv5 by ,b>r[1 ,c>mi*ael1 ,basil ,hall1 & ,w4 ,b4 ,cl>ke ( ! geology ( ?is di/rict1 ,i %all conf9e myself to a few obs]vations on ! junction ( ! ?ree pr9cipal =mations4 ,! fundam5tal rock is granite1#bj ov]laid by clay-slate3 ! latt] is g5]ally h>d1 & glossy f conta9+ m9ute scales ( mica2 x alt]nates )1 & passes into1 b$s ( slightly cry/all9e1 feldspa?ic1 slaty rock4 ,?is clay-slate is rem>kable f be+ 9 "s places 7z on ! ,lion's ,rump7 decompos$1 ev5 to ! dep? ( tw5ty feet1 into a pale-col\r$1 s&/one-l rock1 :i* has be5 mi/ak51 ,i believe1 by "s obs]v]s1 = a sep>ate =mation4 ,i 0 guid$ by ,dr4 ,&rew ,smi? to a f9e junction at ,gre5 ,po9t betwe5 ! granite & clay-slate3 ! latt] at ! di/ance ( a qu>t] ( a mile f ! spot1 :]e ! granite appe>s on ! bea* 7?\gh1 probably1 ! granite is mu* ne>] und]gr\nd71 becomes slightly m compact & cry/all9e4 ,at a less di/ance1 "s ( ! b$s ( clay-slate are ( a homog5e\s texture1 & obscurely /rip$ ) diff]5t zones ( col\r1 :il/ o!rs are obscurely spott$4 ,)9 a hundr$ y>ds ( ! fir/ ve9 ( granite1 ! clay-slate consi/s ( sev]al v>ieties2 "s compact ) a t+e ( purple1 o!rs gli/5+ ) num]\s m9ute scales ( mica & imp]fectly cry/allis$ feldsp>2 "s obscurely granul>1 o!rs porphyritic ) small1 elongat$ spots ( a s(t :ite m9]al1 :i* be+ easily corrod$1 gives to ?is v>iety a vesicul> appe>ance4 ,close to ! granite1 ! clay-slate is *ang$ into a d>k-col\r$1 lam9at$ rock1 hav+ a granul> fracture1 :i* is due to imp]fect cry/als ( feldsp>1 coat$ by m9ute1 brilliant scales ( mica4 #bj ,9 sev]al places ,i obs]v$ 9 ! granite1 small d>k-col\r$ balls1 compos$ ( m9ute scales ( black mica 9 a t\gh basis4 ,9 ano!r place1 ,i f\nd cry/als ( black s*orl radiat+ f a common c5tre4 ,dr4 ,&rew ,smi? f\nd1 9 ! int]ior p>ts ( ! c\ntry1 "s beautiful specim5s ( granite1 ) silv]y mica radiat+ or r bran*+1 l moss1 f c5tral po9ts4 ,at ! ,geological ,society1 !re are specim5s ( granite ) cry/allis$ feldsp> bran*+ & radiat+ 9 l mann]4 ,! actual junction betwe5 ! granitic & clay-slate di/ricts ext5ds ov] a wid? ( ab\t two hundr$ y>ds1 & consi/s ( irregul> masses & ( num]\s dikes ( granite1 entangl$ & surr\nd$ by ! clay-slate3 mo/ ( ! dikes range 9 a ,n4,w4 & ,s4,e4 l9e1 p>allel to ! cleavage ( ! slate4 ,z we leave ! junction1 ?9 b$s1 & la/ly1 m]e films ( ! alt]$ clay-slate are se51 q isolat$1 z if float+1 9 ! co>sely cry/allis$ granite2 b al?\gh completely deta*$1 !y all reta9 traces ( ! uni=m ,n4,w4 & ,s4,e4 cleavage4 ,?is fact has be5 obs]v$ 9 o!r simil> cases1 & has be5 advanc$ by "s em95t geologi/s1#ba z a great difficulty on ! ord9>y !ory1 ( granite hav+ be5 inject$ :il/ liquifi$2 b if we reflect on ! probable /ate ( ! l[] surface ( a lam9at$ mass1 l clay-slate1 aft] hav+ be5 viol5tly ar*$ by a body ( molt5 granite1 we may conclude t x w\ld be full ( fissures p>allel to ! planes ( cleavage2 & t ^! w\ld be fill$ ) granite1 s t :]ev] ! fissures 7 close to ea* o!r1 m]e p>t+ lay]s or w$ges ( ! slate w\ld dep5d into ! granite4 ,%\ld1 !re=e1 ! :ole body ( rock aft]w>ds become worn d[n & d5ud$1 ! l[] ends ( ^! dep5d5t masses or w$ges ( slate w\ld be left q isolat$ 9 ! granite2 yet !y w\ld reta9 _! prop] l9es ( cleavage1 f hav+ be5 unit$1 :il/ ! granite 0 fluid1 ) a cont9u\s cov]+ ( clay-slate4 #ba ,see ,m4 ,keilhau's 8,!ory on ,granite0 translat$ 9 ! ,ed9burgh ,new ,philosophical ,j\rnal1 vol4xxiv1 p4 #djb4 ,foll[+1 9 company ) ,dr4 ,a4 ,smi?1 ! l9e ( junction betwe5 ! granite & ! slate1 z x /ret*$ inl&1 9 a ,s4,e4 direction1 we came to a place1 :]e ! slate 0 conv]t$ into a f9e-gra9$1 p]fectly *>act]is$ gneiss1 compos$ ( yell[-br[n granul> feldsp>1 ( abundant black brilliant mica1 & ( few & ?9 lam9 ( qu>tz4 ,f ! abundance ( ! mica 9 ?is gneiss1 comp>$ ) ! small quantity & excessively m9ute scales1 9 :i* x exi/s 9 ! glossy clay-slate1 we mu/ conclude1 t x has be5 "h =m$ by ! metamorphic action--a circum/ance d\bt$1 "u ne>ly simil> circum/ances1 by "s au?ors4 ,! lam9 ( ! clay-slate are /raight2 & x 0 int]e/+ to obs]ve1 t z !y assum$ ! "* ( gneiss1 !y became undulatory ) "s ( ! small] flexures angul>1 l ! lam9 ( _m true metamorphic s*i/s4 ,s&/one =mation4--,?is =mation makes ! mo/ impos+ feature 9 ! geology ( ,s\!rn ,africa4 ,! /rata are 9 _m p>ts horizontal1 & atta9 a ?ickness ( ab\t two ?\s& feet4 ,! s&/one v>ies 9 "*2 x conta9s little e>?y matt]1 b is (t5 /a9$ ) iron2 "s ( ! b$s are v f9e-gra9$ & q :ite2 o!rs are z compact & homog5e\s z qu>tz rock4 ,9 "s places ,i obs]v$ a breccia ( qu>tz1 ) ! fragm5ts almo/ dissolv$ 9 a silice\s pa/e4 ,broad ve9s ( qu>tz1 (t5 includ+ l>ge & p]fect cry/als1 are v num]\s2 & x is evid5t 9 ne>ly all ! /rata1 t silica has be5 deposit$ f solution 9 rem>kable quantity4 ,_m ( ! v>ieties ( qu>tzite appe>$ q l metamorphic rocks2 b f ! upp] /rata be+ z silice\s z ! l[]1 & f ! undi/urb$ junctions ) ! granite1 :i* 9 _m places c be exam9$1 ,i c h>dly believe t ^! s&/one-/rata h be5 expos$ to heat4#bb ,on ! l9es ( junction betwe5 ^! two great =mations1 ,i f\nd 9 sev]al places ! granite decay$ to ! dep? ( a few in*es1 & succe$$1 ei!r by a ?9 lay] ( f]rug9\s %ale1 or by f\r or five in*es 9 ?ickness ( ! re-cem5t$ cry/als ( ! granite1 on :i* ! great pile ( s&/one imm$iately re/$4 #bb ,! ,rev4 ,w4 ,b4 ,cl>ke1 h[ev]1 /ates1 to my surprise 78,geolog4 ,proce$+s10 vol4 iii1 p4 #dbb71 t ! s&/one 9 "s p>ts is p5etrat$ by granitic dikes3 su* dikes mu/ belong to an epo* altoge!r subsequ5t to t :5 ! molt5 granite act$ on ! clay-slate4 ,mr4 ,s*omburgk has describ$#bc a great s&/one =mation 9 ,nor!rn ,brazil1 re/+ on granite1 & resembl+ to a rem>kable degree1 9 composition & 9 ! ext]nal =m ( ! l&1 ?is =mation ( ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope4 ,! s&/ones ( ! great plat=ms ( ,ea/]n ,au/ralia1 :i* also re/ on granite1 diff] 9 conta9+ m e>?y & less silice\s matt]4 ,no fossil rema9s h be5 discov]$ 9 ^! ?ree va/ deposits4 ,f9ally1 ,i may add t ,i did n see any b\ld]s ( f>-transport$ rocks at ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope1 or on ! ea/]n & we/]n %ores ( ,au/ralia1 or at ,van ,diem5's ,l&4 ,9 ! nor!rn isl& ( ,new ,zeal&1 ,i notic$ "s l>ge blocks ( gre5/one1 b :e!r _! p>5t rock 0 f> di/ant1 ,i _h no opportunity ( det]m9+4 #bc ,geographical ,j\rnal1 vol4 x1 p4 #bdf4 ,,geological ,,obs]vations ,,on ,,s\? ,,am]ica4 ,,critical ,,introduction4 ,( ! rem>kable 8trilogy0 con/itut$ by ,d>w9's writ+s :i* deal ) ! geology ( ! ,beagle1 ! memb] :i* has p]haps attract$ lea/ att5tion1 up to ! pres5t "t is t :i* treats ( ! geology ( ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,! actual writ+ ( ?is book appe>s to h occupi$ ,d>w9 a %ort] p]iod ?an ei!r ( ! o!r volumes ( ! s]ies2 8 di>y records t ! "w 0 accompli%$ )9 t5 mon?s1 namely1 betwe5 ,july #ahdd & ,april #ahde2 b ! book 0 n actually issu$ till late 9 ! ye> foll[+1 ! preface be>+ ! date 8,septemb] #ahdf40 ,altoge!r1 z ,d>w9 in=ms u 9 8 8,autobiography10 ! geological books 8consum$ f\r & a half ye>s' /eady "w10 mo/ ( ! rema9d] ( ! t5 ye>s t elaps$ betwe5 ! return ( ! ,beagle1 & ! completion ( 8 geological books be+1 x is sad to relate1 8lo/ ?r\gh illness60 ,conc]n+ ! 8,geological ,obs]vations on ,s\? ,am]ica10 ,d>w9 wrote to 8 fri5d ,lyell1 z foll[s3--8,my volume w be ab\t #bdj pages1 dreadfully dull1 yet mu* cond5s$4 ,i ?9k :5ev] y h "t to look ?r\gh x1 y w ?9k ! collection ( facts on ! elevation ( ! l& & on ! =mation ( t]races pretty good40 8,mu* cond5s$0 is ! v]dict t ev]yone mu/ endorse1 on ris+ f ! p]usal ( ?is rem>kable book2 b by no means 8dull40 ,! ?ree & a half ye>s f ,april #ahcb to ,septemb] #ahce1 7 sp5t by ,d>w9 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 & 7 devot$ to cont9u\s sci5tific "w2 ! problems he dealt ) 7 ei!r purely geological or ^? :i* con/itute ! bord]l& betwe5 ! geological & biological sci5ces4 ,x is impossible to read ! j\rnal :i* he kept dur+ ?is "t )\t be+ impress$ by ! conviction t x conta9s all ! g]ms ( ?\ght :i* aft]w>ds develop$ into ! 8,orig9 ( ,species40 ,b x is equally evid5t t aft] 8 return to ,engl&1 biological speculations gradually began to ex]cise a m exclusive sway ov] ,d>w9's m9d1 & t5d$ to dispossess geology1 :i* dur+ ! actual p]iod ( ! voyage c]ta9ly engross$ mo/ ( 8 "t & att5tion4 ,! wond]ful s]ies ( obs]vations made dur+ ^? ?ree & a half ye>s 9 ,s\? ,am]ica c\ld sc>cely be done ju/ice to1 9 ! #bdj pages devot$ to _! exposition4 ,t he execut$ ! "w ( prep>+ ! book on ,s\? ,am]ica 9 some:at ! mann] ( a task1 is %[n by _m ref]5ces 9 8 lett]s4 ,writ+ to ,sir ,joseph ,hook] 9 #ahde1 he says1 8,i hope ?is next summ] to f9i% my ,s\? ,am]ican ,geology1 !n to get out a little ,zoology1 & hurrah = my species "w60 ,x w\ld seem t ! feel+ ( disappo9tm5t1 :i* ,d>w9 s (t5 exp]i5c$ 9 comp>+ a book :5 complet$1 ) ! obs]vations & speculations :i* _h inspir$ x1 0 m ke5ly felt 9 ! case ( 8 volume on ,s\? ,am]ica ?an any o!r4 ,to "o fri5d he writes1 8,i h ( late be5 slav+ extra h>d1 to ! great discomfiture ( wret*$ dige/ive organs1 at ,s\? ,am]ica1 & ?ank all ! fates1 ,i h done ?ree-f\r?s ( x4 ,writ+ pla9 ,engli% gr[s ) me m & m difficult1 & nev] atta9able4 ,z = y\r pret5d+ t y w read any?+ s dull z my pure geological descriptions1 lay n su* a flatt]+ unction on my s\l1 = x is incr$ible40 ,to ano!r fri5d he writes1 8,y d n "k :at y ?reat5 :5 y propose to read x--x is purely geological4 ,i said to my bro!r1 #8,y w ( c\rse read x1' & 8 answ] 01 #8,^u my life1 ,i w\ld soon] ev5 buy x4'0 ,9 spite ( ^! disp>ag+ rem>ks1 h[ev]1 we are /rongly incl9$ to believe t ?is book1 despis$ by its au?or1 & neglect$ by 8 contempor>ies1 w 9 ! end be admitt$ to be "o ( ,d>w9's *ief titles to fame4 ,x is1 p]haps1 an un=tunate circum/ance t ! great success :i* he atta9$ 9 biology by ! publication ( ! 8,orig9 ( ,species0 has1 to "s ext5t1 ov]%ad[$ ! fact t ,d>w9's claims z a geologi/1 are ( ! v highe/ ord]4 ,x is n too mu* to say t1 _h ,d>w9 n be5 a geologi/1 ! 8,orig9 ( ,species0 c\ld nev] h be5 writt5 by him4 ,b ap>t f ^? geological que/ions1 :i* h an important be>+ on biological ?\ght & speculation1 su* z ! pro(s ( imp]fection 9 ! geological record1 ! relations ( ! lat] t]ti>y faunas to ! rec5t ones 9 ! same areas1 & ! app>5t int]m+l+ ( types belong+ to di/ant geological epo*s1 :5 we /udy ! palontology ( remote di/ricts1--!re are o!r purely geological problems1 ^u :i* ! contributions made by ,d>w9 are ( ! v highe/ value4 ,i believe t ! v]dict ( ! hi/orians ( sci5ce w be t if ,d>w9 _h n tak5 a =emo/ place among ! biologi/s ( ?is c5tury1 8 position z a geologi/ w\ld h be5 an almo/ equally comm&+ "o4 ,b 9 ! case ( ,d>w9's pr9cipal geological "w--t relat+ to ! orig9 ( ! cry/all9e s*i/s1--geologi/s 7 n at ! "t prep>$ to receive 8 revolution>y tea*+s4 ,! influ5ce ( p[]ful au?ority 0 long ex]cis$1 inde$1 to /ifle 8 tea*+1 & only n[1 :5 ?is un=tunate opposition has disappe>$1 is ! true nature & importance ( ,d>w9's purely geological "w beg9n+ to be recognis$4 ,! two fir/ *apt]s ( ! 8,geological ,obs]vations on ,s\? ,am]ica10 deal ) ! pro(s :i* exi/ ( great1 b frequ5tly int]rupt$1 movem5ts ( elevation dur+ v rec5t geological times4 ,9 connection ) ?is subject1 ,d>w9's p>ticul> att5tion 0 direct$ to ! relations betwe5 ! great e>?quakes ( ,s\? ,am]ica--( "s ( :i* he _h impressive exp]i5ce--& ! p]man5t *anges ( elevation :i* 7 tak+ place4 ,he 0 mu* /ruck by ! rapidity ) :i* ! evid5ce ( su* great e>? movem5ts is frequ5tly oblit]at$2 & especially ) ! rem>kable way 9 :i* ! action ( ra9-wat]1 p]colat+ ?r\gh deposits on ! e>?'s surface1 removes all traces ( %ells & o!r calc>e\s organisms4 ,x 0 ^! consid]ations :i* 7 ! p>5ts ( ! g5]alisation t a palontological record c only be pres]v$ dur+ ^? p]iods 9 :i* long-cont9u$ sl[ subsid5ce is go+ on4 ,?is 9 turn1 l$ to ! /ill wid] & m sugge/ive conclusion t ! geological record z a :ole is1 & nev] c be m ?an1 a s]ies ( m or less isolat$ fragm5ts4 ,! recognition ( ?is important fact con/itutes ! key/one to any !ory ( evolution :i* seeks to f9d a basis 9 ! actual /udy ( ! types ( life t h =m]ly inhabit$ our globe4 ,9 8 ?ird *apt]1 ,d>w9 gives a numb] ( int]e/+ facts1 collect$ dur+ 8 visits to ! pla9s & valleys ( ,*ili1 :i* be> on ! "q ( ! orig9 ( salif]\s deposits--! accumulation ( salt1 gypsum1 & nitrate ( soda4 ,?is is a problem t has excit$ mu* discussion among geologi/s1 & :i*1 9 spite ( _m valuable obs]vations1 /ill rema9s to a great ext5t v obscure4 ,among ! important consid]ations insi/$ ^u by ,d>w9 is t relat+ to ! abs5ce ( m>9e %ells 9 b$s associat$ ) su* deposits4 ,he ju/ly argues t if ! /rata 7 =m$ 9 %all[ wat]s1 & !n expos$ by upheaval to suba]ial action1 all %ells & o!r calc>e\s organisms w\ld be remov$ by solution4 ,foll[+ ,lyell's me?od1 ,d>w9 proce$s f ! /udy ( deposits n[ be+ accumulat$ on ! e>?'s surface1 to ^? :i* h be5 =m$ dur+ ! m rec5t p]iods ( ! geological hi/ory4 ,8 acc\nt ( ! great ,pampean =mation1 ) its wond]ful mammalian rema9s--,ma/odon1 ,toxodon1 ,scelido!rium1 ,macrau*5ia1 ,mega!rium1 ,megalonyx1 ,mylodon1 & ,glyptodon--?is full ( int]e/4 ,8 discov]y ( ! rema9s ( a true ,equus af=d$ a rem>kable confirmation ( ! fact--already made out 9 ,nor? ,am]ica--t species ( horse _h exi/$ & become ext9ct 9 ! ,new ,_w1 be=e _! introduction by ! ,spani>ds 9 ! sixte5? c5tury4 ,fully p]ceiv+ ! importance ( ! microscope 9 /udy+ ! nature & orig9 ( su* deposits z ^? ( ! ,pampas1 ,d>w9 submitt$ _m ( 8 specim5s bo? to ,dr4 ,c>p5t] 9 ?is c\ntry1 & to ,pr(essor ,ehr5b]g 9 ,b]l94 ,_m v important notes on ! microscopic organisms conta9$ 9 ! =mation w be f\nd scatt]$ ?r\gh ! *apt]4 ,d>w9's /udy ( ! old] t]ti>y =mations1 ) _! abundant %ells1 & _! relics ( vegetable life buri$ "u great %eets ( basalt1 l$ him to consid] c>efully ! "q ( climate dur+ ^! e>li] p]iods4 ,9 opposition to preval5t views on ?is subject1 ,d>w9 po9ts out t 8 obs]vations are oppos$ to ! conclusion t a high] temp]ature prevail$ univ]sally ov] ! globe dur+ e>ly geological p]iods4 ,he argues t 8! causes :i* gave to ! old] t]ti>y productions ( ! q temp]ate zones ( ,europe a tropical "*1 7 ( a local "* & did n affect ! :ole globe40 ,9 ?is1 z 9 _m simil> in/ances1 we see ! b5eficial influ5ce ( ext5sive travel 9 free+ ,d>w9's m9d f prevail+ prejudices4 ,x 0 ?is wid5+ ( exp]i5ce :i* r5d]$ him s especially qualifi$ to deal ) ! great problem ( ! orig9 ( species1 & 9 do+ s to emancipate himself f ideas :i* 7 receiv$ ) unque/ion+ fai? by geologi/s ^: /udies _h be5 circumscrib$ )9 ! limits ( ,we/]n ,europe4 ,9 ! ,cordill]as ( ,nor!rn & ,c5tral ,*ili1 ,d>w91 :5 /udy+ /ill old] =mations1 cle>ly recognis$ t !y conta9 an admixture ( ! =ms ( life1 :i* 9 ,europe are di/9ctive ( ! ,cretace\s & ,jurassic p]iods respectively4 ,he 0 ?us l$ to conclude t ! classification ( geological p]iods1 :i* fairly well expresses ! facts t _h be5 discov]$ 9 ! areas :]e ! sci5ce 0 fir/ /udi$1 is no long] capable ( be+ appli$ :5 we come to ! /udy ( widely di/ant regions4 ,?is important conclusion l$ up to ! fur!r g5]alisation t ea* great geological p]iod has exhibit$ a geographical di/ribution ( ! =ms ( animal & vegetable life1 comp>able to t :i* prevails 9 ! exi/+ fauna & flora4 ,to ^? :o are famili> ) ! ext5t to :i* ! doctr9e ( univ]sal =mations has affect$ geological ?\ght & speculation1 bo? long be=e & s9ce ! "t t ,d>w9 wrote1 ! importance ( ?is new /&po9t to :i* he 0 able to atta9 w be suffici5tly app>5t4 ,l ! idea ( ! extreme imp]fection ( ! ,geological ,record1 ! doctr9e ( local geological =mations is f\nd p]meat+ & m\ld+ all ! palontological reason+s ( 8 great "w4 ,9 "o ( ,d>w9's lett]s1 writt5 :ile he 0 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 !re is a passage we h already quot$1 9 :i* he expresses 8 inability to decide betwe5 ! rival claims ^u 8 att5tion ( 8! old cry/all9e gr\p ( rocks10 & 8! s(t] fossilif]\s b$s0 respectively4 ,! six? *apt] ( ! "w be=e u1 entitl$ 8,plutonic & ,metamorphic ,rocks--,cleavage & ,foliation10 conta9s a brief summ>y ( a s]ies ( obs]vations & reason+s ^u ^! cry/all9e rocks1 :i* are1 we believe1 calculat$ to effect a revolution 9 geological sci5ce1 &--?\gh _! value & importance h long be5 ov]look$--are likely to entitle ,d>w9 9 ! future to a position among geologi/s1 sc>cely1 if at all1 inf]ior to t :i* he already occupies among biologi/s4 ,d>w9's /udies ( ! great rock-masses ( ! ,&es conv9c$ him ( ! close relations betwe5 ! granitic or ,plutonic rocks1 & ^? :i* 7 und\bt$ly p\r$ =? z lavas4 ,^u 8 return1 he set to "w1 ) ! aid ( ,pr(essor ,mill]1 to make a c>eful /udy ( ! m9]als compos+ ! granites & ^? :i* occur 9 ! lavas1 & he 0 able to %[ t 9 all ess5tial respects !y are id5tical4 ,he 0 fur!r able to prove t !re is a complete gradation betwe5 ! highly cry/all9e or granitic rock-masses1 & ^? conta9+ m or less glassy matt] betwe5 _! cry/als1 :i* con/itute ord9>y lavas4 ,! importance ( ?is conclusion w be realis$ :5 we rememb] t x 0 !n ! common cre$ ( geologi/s--& /ill cont9ues to be s on ! ,cont95t--t all highly cry/all9e rocks are ( great geological antiquity1 & t ! igne\s ejections :i* h tak5 place s9ce ! beg9n+ ( ! t]ti>y p]iods diff] ess5tially1 9 _! composition1 _! /ructure1 & _! mode ( occurr5ce1 f ^? :i* h made _! appe>ance at e>li] p]iods ( ! _w's hi/ory4 ,v completely h ! conclusions ( ,d>w9 ^u ^! subjects be5 ju/ifi$ by rec5t rese>*es4 ,9 ,engl&1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & ,italy1 examples ( ! gradual passage ( rocks ( truly granitic /ructure into ord9>y lavas h be5 describ$1 & ! reality ( ! transition has be5 demon/rat$ by ! mo/ c>eful /udies ) ! microscope4 ,rec5t rese>*es c>ri$ on 9 ,s\? ,am]ica by ,pr(essor ,/elzn]1 h also %[n ! exi/5ce ( a class ( highly cry/all9e rocks--! 8,&5granites0--:i* comb9e 9 !mselves _m ( ! *>act]i/ics :i* 7 once ?\ght to be di/9ctive ( ! s-call$ ,plutonic & volcanic rocks4 ,no "o famili> ) rec5t geological lit]ature--ev5 9 ,g]many & ,france1 :]e ! old views conc]n+ ! di/9ction ( igne\s products ( diff]5t ages h be5 mo/ /\tly ma9ta9$--c fail to recognise ! fact t ! pr9ciples cont5d$ = by ,d>w9 bid fair at no di/ant p]iod to w9 univ]sal acceptance among geologi/s all ov] ! globe4 ,/ill m important are ! conclusions at :i* ,d>w9 arriv$ ) respect to ! orig9 ( ! s*i/s & gneisses :i* cov] s l>ge an area 9 ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,c>efully not+1 by ! aid ( 8 compass & cl9omet]1 at e po9t :i* he visit$1 ! direction & am\nt ( incl9ation ( ! p>allel divisions 9 ^! rocks1 he 0 l$ to a v important g5]alisation--namely1 t ov] v wide areas ! direction 7/rike7 ( ! planes ( cleavage 9 slates1 & ( foliation 9 s*i/s & gneisses1 rema9$ con/ant1 ?\gh ! am\nt ( _! incl9ation 7dip7 (t5 v>i$ )9 wide limits4 ,fur!r ?an ?is x appe>$ t !re 0 always a close correspond5ce betwe5 ! /rike ( ! cleavage & foliation & ! direction ( ! great axes along :i* elevation _h tak5 place 9 ! di/rict4 ,9 ,ti]ra del ,fuego1 ,d>w9 f\nd /rik+ evid5ce t ! cleavage int]sect+ great masses ( slate-rocks 0 q indep5d5t ( _! orig9al /ratification1 & c\ld (t51 inde$1 be se5 cutt+ across x at "r angles4 ,he 0 also able to v]ify ,s$gwick's obs]vation t1 9 "s slates1 glossy surfaces on ! planes ( cleavage arise f ! developm5t ( new m9]als1 *lorite1 epidote or mica1 & t 9 ?is way a complete graduation f slates to true s*i/s may be trac$4 ,d>w9 fur!r %[$ t 9 highly s*i/ose rocks1 ! folia b5d ar\nd & encircle any =eign bodies 9 ! mass1 & t 9 "s cases !y exhibit ! mo/ tortu\s =ms & complicat$ puck]+s4 ,he cle>ly saw t 9 all cases ! =ces by :i* ^! /rik+ ph5om5a mu/ h be5 produc$ 7 p]si/5t ov] wide areas1 & 7 connect$ ) ! great movem5ts by :i* ! rocks _h be5 upheav$ & fold$4 ,t ! di/9ct folia ( qu>tz1 feldsp>1 mica1 & o!r m9]als compos+ ! metamorphic s*i/s c\ld n h be5 sep>ately deposit$ z s$im5t 0 /rongly insi/$ ^u by ,d>w92 & 9 do+ s he oppos$ ! view g5]ally preval5t among geologi/s at t "t4 ,he 0 ?us driv5 to ! conclusion t foliation1 l cleavage1 is n an orig9al1 b a sup]9duc$ /ructure 9 rock-masses1 & t x is ! result ( re-cry/allisation1 "u ! controll+ influ5ce ( great pressure1 ( ! mat]ials ( :i* ! rock 0 compos$4 ,9 /udy+ ! lavas ( ,asc5sion1 z we h already se51 ,d>w9 0 l$ to recognise ! circum/ance t1 :5 igne\s rocks are subject$ to great diff]5tial movem5ts dur+ ! p]iod ( _! consolidation1 !y acquire a foliat$ /ructure1 closely analog\s to t ( ! cry/all9e s*i/s4 ,l 8 pr$ecessor 9 ?is field ( inquiry1 ,mr4 ,p\lett ,scrope1 ,*>les ,d>w9 seems to h be5 greatly impress$ by ^! facts1 & he argu$ f !m t ! rocks exhibit+ ! foliat$ /ructure mu/ h be5 9 a /ate ( pla/icity1 l t ( a cool+ mass ( lava4 ,at t "t ! sugge/ive exp]im5ts ( ,tresca1 ,daubree1 & o!rs1 %[+ t solid masses "u ! influ5ce ( enorm\s pressure become actually pla/ic1 _h n be5 publi%$4 ,_h ,d>w9 be5 aw>e ( ^! facts he w\ld h se5 t x 0 n necess>y to assume a /ate ( imp]fect solidity 9 rock-masses 9 ord] to acc\nt = _! hav+ yield$ to pressure & t5sion1 &1 9 do+ s1 acquir+ ! new *>act]s :i* di/+ui% ! cry/all9e s*i/s4 ,! views put =w>d by ,d>w9 on ! orig9 ( ! cry/all9e s*i/s f\nd an able advocate 9 ,mr4 ,daniel ,%>pe1 :o 9 #aheb & #ahed publi%$ two pap]s1 deal+ ) ! geology ( ! ,scotti% ,highl&s & ( ! ,alps respectively1 9 :i* he %[$ t ! pr9ciples arriv$ at by ,d>w9 :5 /udy+ ! ,s\? ,am]ican rocks af=d a complete explanation ( ! /ructure ( ! two di/ricts 9 "q4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 ! conclusions ( ,d>w9 & ,%>pe 7 met ) ! /ronge/ opposition by ,sir ,rod]ick ,mur*ison & ,dr4 ,a4 ,geikie1 :o 9 #ahfa read a pap] be=e ! ,geological ,society 8,on ! ,co9cid5ce betwe5 ,/ratification & ,foliation 9 ! ,cry/all9e ,rocks ( ! ,scotti% ,highl&s10 9 :i* !y insi/$ t _! obs]vations 9 ,scotl& t5d$ to entirely disprove ! conclusions ( ,d>w9 t foliation 9 rocks is a second>y /ructure1 & entirely indep5d5t ( ! orig9al /ratification ( ! rock-masses4 ,n[ x is a mo/ significant circum/ance t1 no soon] did ! (fic]s ( ! ,geological ,survey comm5ce ! c>eful & detail$ /udy ( ! ,scotti% ,highl&s ?an !y f\nd !mselves compell$ to make a =mal retraction ( ! views :i* _h be5 put =w>d by ,mur*ison & ,geikie 9 opposition to ! conclusions ( ,d>w94 ,! (fic]s ( ! ,geological ,survey h completely ab&on$ ! view t ! foliation ( ! ,highl& rocks has be5 det]m9$ by _! orig9al /ratification1 & admit t ! /ructure is ! result ( ! pr(\nd movem5ts to :i* ! rocks h be5 subject$4 ,! same conclusions h rec5tly be5 support$ by obs]vations made 9 _m diff]5t di/ricts--among :i* we may especially ref] to ^? ( ,dr4 ,h4 ,reus* 9 ,norway1 & ^? ( ,dr4 ,j4 ,lehmann 9 ,saxony4 ,at ! pres5t "t ! argum5ts s cle>ly /at$ by ,d>w9 9 ! "w be=e u1 h1 aft] endur+ opposition or neglect = a :ole g5]ation1 begun to 8triumph all along ! l9e10 & we may look =w>d confid5tly to ! ne> future1 :5 8 claim to be reg>d$ z "o ( ! greate/ ( geological discov]]s %all be fully v9dicat$4 ,,john ,w4 ,,judd4 ,*apt] ,i ,,on ,,! ,,elevation ,,( ,,! ,,ea/]n ,,coa/ ,,( ,,s\? ,,am]ica4 ,uprais$ %ells ( ,la ,plata4--,bahia ,blanca1 ,s&-dunes & ,pumice-pebbles4--,/ep-=m$ pla9s ( ,patagonia1 ) uprais$ ,%ells4--,t]race-b\nd$ ,valley ( ,santa ,cruz1 =m]ly a ,sea-/rait4--,uprais$ %ells ( ,ti]ra del ,fuego4--,l5g? & bread? ( ! elevat$ area4--,equability ( ! movem5ts1 z %[n by ! simil> heights ( ! pla9s4--,sl[ness ( ! elevatory process4--,mode ( =mation ( ! /ep-=m$ pla9s4--,summ>y4--,great ,%+le ,=mation ( ,patagonia2 its ext5t1 orig91 & di/ribution4--,=mation ( sea-cliffs4 ,9 ! foll[+ ,volume1 :i* treats ( ! geology ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 & almo/ exclusively ( ! p>ts s\?w>d ( ! ,tropic ( ,capricorn1 ,i h arrang$ ! *apt]s accord+ to ! age ( ! deposits1 occasionally dep>t+ f ?is ord]1 = ! sake ( geographical simplicity4 ,! elevation ( ! l& )9 ! rec5t p]iod1 & ! modifications ( its surface ?r\gh ! action ( ! sea 7to :i* subjects ,i paid p>ticul> att5tion7 w be fir/ discuss$2 ,i w !n pass on to ! t]ti>y deposits1 & aft]w>ds to ! old] rocks4 ,only ^? di/ricts & sections w be describ$ 9 detail :i* appe> to me to des]ve "s p>ticul> att5tion2 & ,i w1 at ! end ( ea* *apt]1 give a summ>y ( ! results4 ,we w comm5ce ) ! pro(s ( ! upheaval ( ! ea/]n coa/ ( ! cont95t1 f ! ,rio ,plata s\?w>d2 &1 9 ! ,second ,*apt]1 foll[ up ! same subject along ! %ores ( ,*ile & ,p]u4 ,on ! nor!rn bank ( ! great e/u>y ( ! ,rio ,plata1 ne> ,maldonado1 ,i f\nd at ! head ( a lake1 sometimes bracki% b g5]ally conta9+ fre% wat]1 a b$ ( muddy clay1 six feet 9 ?ickness1 ) num]\s %ells ( species /ill exi/+ 9 ! ,plata1 namely1 ! ,az>a labiata1 d',orbigny1 fragm5ts ( ,mytilus eduli=mis1 d',orbigny1 ,palude/r9a ,isabellei1 d',orbigny1 & ! ,sol5 ,c>ibu1 ,lam41 :i* la/ 0 emb$d$ v]tically 9 ! position 9 :i* x _h liv$4 ,^! %ells lie at ! height ( only two feet above ! lake1 nor w\ld !y h be5 wor? m5tion+1 except 9 connection ) analog\s facts4 ,at ,monte ,video1 ,i notic$ ne> ! t[n1 & along ! base ( ! m\nt1 b$s ( a liv+ ,mytilus1 rais$ "s feet above ! surface ( ! ,plata3 9 a simil> b$1 at a height f ?irte5 to sixte5 feet1 ,m4 ,isabelle collect$ eight species1 :i*1#a accord+ to ,m4 d',orbigny1 n[ live at ! m\? ( ! e/u>y4 ,at ,colonia del ,sacrami5to1 fur!r we/w>d1 ,i obs]v$ at ! height ( ab\t fifte5 feet above ! riv]1 !re ( q fre% wat]1 a small b$ ( ! same ,mytilus1 :i* lives 9 bracki% wat] at ,monte ,video4 ,ne> ! m\? ( ,uruguay1 & = at lea/ ?irty-five miles nor?w>d1 !re are at int]vals l>ge s&y tracts1 ext5d+ sev]al miles f ! banks ( ! riv]1 b n rais$ mu* above its level1 ab\nd+ ) small bivalves1 :i* occur 9 su* numb]s t at ! ,agraciado !y are sift$ & burnt = lime4 ,^? :i* ,i exam9$ ne> ! ,a4 ,s4 ,juan 7 mu* worn3 !y consi/$ ( ,mactra ,isabellei1 d',orbigny1 m+l$ ) few ( ,v5us s9uosa1 ,lam41 bo? inhabit+1 z ,i am in=m$ by ,m4 d',orbigny1 bracki% wat] at ! m\? ( ! ,plata1 ne>ly or q z salt z ! op5 sea4 ,! loose s&1 9 :i* ^! %ells are pack$1 is heap$ into l[1 /raight1 long l9es ( dunes1 l ^? left by ! sea at ! head ( _m bays4 ,m4 d',orbigny has describ$#b an analog\s ph5om5on on a great] scale1 ne> ,san ,p$ro on ! riv] ,p>ana1 :]e he f\nd widely ext5d$ b$s & hillocks ( s&1 ) va/ numb]s ( ! ,az>a labiata1 at ! height ( ne>ly #ajj feet 7,engli%7 above ! surface ( t riv]4 ,! ,az>a inhabits bracki% wat]1 & is n kn[n to be f\nd ne>] to ,san ,p$ro ?an ,bu5os ,ayres1 di/ant above a hundr$ miles 9 a /raight l9e4 ,ne>] ,bu5os ,ayres1 on ! road f t place to ,san ,isidro1 !re are ext5sive b$s1 z ,i am in=m$ by ,sir ,woodb9e ,p>i%1#c ( ! ,az>a labiata1 ly+ at ab\t =ty feet above ! level ( ! riv]1 & di/ant betwe5 two & ?ree miles f x4 ,^! %ells are always f\nd on ! highe/ banks 9 ! di/rict3 !y are emb$d$ 9 a /ratifi$ e>?y mass1 precisely l t ( ! great ,pampean deposit h]eaft] to be describ$4 ,9 "o collection ( ^! %ells1 !re 7 "s valves ( ! ,v5us s9uosa1 ,lam41 ! same species f\nd ) ! ,mactra on ! banks ( ! ,uruguay4 ,s\? ( ,bu5os ,ayres1 ne> ,ens5ada1 !re are o!r b$s ( ! ,az>a1 "s ( :i* seem to h be5 emb$d$ 9 yell[i%1 calc>e\s1 semi-cry/all9e matt]2 & ,sir ,w4 ,p>i% has giv5 me f ! banks ( ! ,arroyo del ,tri/an1 situat$ 9 ?is same neighb\rhood1 at ! di/ance ( ab\t a league f ! ,plata1 a specim5 ( a pale-r$di%1 calc]eo-argillace\s /one 7precisely l p>ts ( ! ,pampean deposit ! importance ( :i* fact w be ref]r$ to 9 a succe$+ *apt]71 ab\nd+ ) %ells ( an ,az>a1 mu* worn1 b :i* 9 g5]al =m & appe>ance closely resemble1 & are probably id5tical )1 ! ,a4 labiata4 ,besides ^! %ells1 cellul>1 highly cry/all9e rock1 =m$ ( ! ca/s ( small bivalves1 is f\nd ne> ,ens5ada2 & likewise b$s ( sea-%ells1 :i* f _! appe>ance appe> to h la9 on ! surface4 ,sir ,w4 ,p>i% has giv5 me "s ( ^! %ells1 & ,m4 d',orbigny pron\nces !m to be3-- ,bucc9anops globulosum1 d',orbigny4 ,olivancill>ia auricul>ia1 d',orbigny4 ,v5us flexuosa1 ,lam4 ,cy!ra 7imp]fect74 ,mactra ,isabellei1 d',orbigny4 ,o/rea pul*ella1 d',orbigny4 ,besides ^!1 ,sir ,w4 ,p>i% procur$#d 7z nam$ by ,mr4 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by7 ! foll[+ %ells3-- ,voluta colocyn?is4 ,voluta angulata4 ,bucc9um 7n spec4874 #a 8,voyage dans l',amrique ,mrid43 ,"p4 ,golog410 p4 #ba4 #b ,ibid41 p4 #dc4 #c 8,bu5os ,ayres10 etc41 by ,sir ,woodb9e ,p>i%1 p4 #afh4 #d 8,bu5os ,ayres10 etc41 by ,sir ,w4 ,p>i%1 p4 #afh4 ,all ^! species 7)1 p]haps1 ! exception ( ! la/7 are rec5t1 & live on ! ,s\? ,am]ican coa/4 ,^! %ell-b$s ext5d f "o league to six leagues f ! ,plata1 & mu/ lie _m feet above its level4 ,i he>d1 also1 ( b$s ( %ells on ! ,somborombon1 & on ! ,rio ,salado1 at :i* latt] place1 z ,m4 d',orbigny in=ms me1 ! ,mactra ,isabellei & ,v5us s9uosa are f\nd4 ,dur+ ! elevation ( ! ,prov9ces ( ,la ,plata1 ! wat]s ( ! anci5t e/u>y h b little affect$ 7) ! exception ( ! s&-hills on ! banks ( ! ,p>ana & ,uruguay7 ! outl9e ( ! l&4 ,m4 ,p>*appe1#e h[ev]1 has describ$ gr\ps ( s& dunes scatt]$ ov] ! wide ext5t ( ! ,pampas s\?w>d ( ,bu5os ,ayres1 :i* ,m4 d',orbigny attributes ) mu* probability to ! action ( ! sea1 be=e ! pla9s 7 rais$ above its level4#f #e ,d',orbigny's 8,voyage ,golog410 p4 #dd4 #f ,be=e proce$+ to ! di/ricts s\?w>d ( ,la ,plata1 x may be wor? :ile j to /ate1 t !re is "s evid5ce t ! coa/ ( ,brazil has p>ticipat$ 9 a small am\nt ( elevation4 ,mr4 ,bur*ell in=ms me1 t he collect$ at ,santos 7lat4 #bd ,s47 oy/]-%ells1 app>5tly rec5t1 "s miles f ! %ore1 & q above ! tidal action4 ,we/w>d ( ,rio de ,janeiro1 ,capta9 ,elliot is ass]t$ 7see ,h>lan1 8,m$4 & ,phys4 ,res410 p4 #ce1 & ,dr4 ,meigs1 9 8,trans4 ,am]4 ,phil4 ,soc4071 to h f\nd human bones1 encru/$ ) sea-%ells1 betwe5 fifte5 & tw5ty feet above ! level ( ! sea4 ,betwe5 ,rio de ,janeiro & ,cape ,frio ,i cross$ s&y tracts ab\nd+ ) sea-%ells1 at a di/ance ( a league f ! coa/2 b :e!r ^! tracts h be5 =m$ by upheaval1 or ?r\gh ! m]e accumulation ( drift s&1 ,i am n prep>$ to ass]t4 ,at ,bahia 7lat4 #ac ,s471 9 "s p>ts ne> ! coa/1 !re are traces ( sea-action at ! height ( ab\t tw5ty feet above its pres5t level2 !re are also1 9 _m p>ts1 remnants ( b$s ( s&/one & conglom]ate ) num]\s rec5t %ells1 rais$ a little above ! sea-level4 ,i may add1 t at ! head ( ,bahia ,bay !re is a =mation1 ab\t =ty feet 9 ?ickness1 conta9+ t]ti>y %ells app>5tly ( fre%-wat] orig91 n[ wa%$ by ! sea & encru/$ ) ,bal9i2 ?is appe>s to indicate a small am\nt ( subsid5ce subsequ5t to its deposition4 ,at ,p]nambuco 7lat4 #h ,s471 9 ! alluvial or t]ti>y cliffs1 surr\nd+ ! l[ l& on :i* ! city /&s1 ,i look$ 9 va9 = organic rema9s1 or o!r evid5ce ( *anges 9 level4 ,s\?w>d ( ! ,plata4--,! coa/ z f> z ,bahia ,blanca 79 lat4 #ci ,s47 is =m$ ei!r ( a horizontal range ( cliffs1 or ( imm5se accumulations ( s&-dunes4 ,)9 ,bahia ,blanca1 a small piece ( tablel&1 ab\t tw5ty feet above high-wat] m>k1 call$ ,punta ,alta1 is =m$ ( /rata ( cem5t$ gravel & ( r$ e>?y mud1 ab\nd+ ) %ells 7) o!rs ly+ loose on ! surface71 & ! bones ( ext9ct mammif]s4 ,^! %ells1 tw5ty 9 numb]1 toge!r ) a ,balanus & two corals1 are all rec5t species1 /ill inhabit+ ! neighb\r+ seas4 ,!y w be enum]at$ 9 ! ,f\r? ,*apt]1 :5 describ+ ! ,pampean =mation2 five ( !m are id5tical ) ! uprais$ ones f ne> ,bu5os ,ayres4 ,! nor!rn %ore ( ,bahia ,blanca is1 9 ma9 "p1 =m$ ( imm5se s&-dunes1 re/+ on gravel ) rec5t %ells1 & rang+ 9 l9es p>allel to ! %ore4 ,^! ranges are sep>at$ f ea* o!r by flat spaces1 compos$ ( /iff impure r$ clay1 9 :i*1 at ! di/ance ( ab\t two miles f ! coa/1 ,i f\nd by digg+ a few m9ute fragm5ts ( sea-%ells4 ,! s&-dunes ext5d sev]al miles inl&1 & /& on a pla91 :i* slopes up to a height ( betwe5 "o hundr$ & two hundr$ feet4 ,num]\s1 small1 well-r\nd$ pebbles ( pumice lie scatt]$ bo? on ! pla9 & s&-hillocks3 at ,monte ,h]moso1 on ! flat summit ( a cliff1 ,i f\nd _m ( !m at a height ( #abj feet 7angul> measurem5t7 above ! level ( ! sea4 ,^! pumice pebbles1 no d\bt1 7 orig9ally br\ght d[n f ! ,cordill]a by ! riv]s :i* cross ! cont95t1 9 ! same way z ! riv] ,negro anci5tly br\ght d[n1 & /ill br+s d[n1 pumice1 & z ! riv] ,*upat br+s d[n scori3 :5 once deliv]$ at ! m\? ( a riv]1 !y w\ld naturally h travell$ along ! coa/s1 & be5 ca/ up dur+ ! elevation ( ! l&1 at diff]5t heights4 ,! orig9 ( ! argillace\s flats1 :i* sep>ate ! p>allel ranges ( s&-dunes1 seems due to ! tides "h hav+ a t5d5cy 7z ,i believe !y h on mo/ %oal1 protect$ coa/s7 to ?r[ up a b> p>allel to ! %ore1 & at "s di/ance f x2 ?is b> gradually becomes l>g]1 af=d+ a base = ! accumulation ( s&-dunes1 & ! %all[ space )9 !n becomes silt$ up ) mud4 ,! repetition ( ?is process1 )\t any elevation ( ! l&1 w\ld =m a level pla9 trav]s$ by p>allel l9es ( s&-hillocks2 dur+ a sl[ elevation ( ! l&1 ! hillocks w\ld re/ on a g5tly incl9$ surface1 l t on ! nor!rn %ore ( ,bahia ,blanca4 ,i did n obs]ve any %ells 9 ?is neighb\rhood at a great] height ?an tw5ty feet2 & !re=e ! age ( ! sea-drift$ pebbles ( pumice1 n[ /&+ at ! height ( #abj feet1 mu/ rema9 unc]ta94 ,! ma9 pla9 surr\nd+ ,bahia ,blanca ,i e/imat$ at f two hundr$ to ?ree hundr$ feet2 x ins5sibly rises t[>ds ! di/ant ,si]ra ,v5tana4 ,!re are 9 ?is neighb\rhood "s o!r & l[] pla9s1 b !y d n abut "o at ! foot ( ! o!r1 9 ! mann] h]eaft] to be describ$1 s *>act]i/ic ( ,patagonia4 ,! pla9 on :i* ! settlem5t /&s is cross$ by _m l[ s&-dunes1 ab\nd+ ) ! m9ute %ells ( ! ,palude/r9a au/ralis1 d',orbigny1 :i* n[ lives 9 ! bay4 ,?is l[ pla9 is b\nd$ to ! s\?1 at ! ,cabeza del ,buey1 by ! cliff-=m$ m>g9 ( a wide pla9 ( ! ,pampean =mation1 :i* ,i e/imat$ at sixty feet 9 height4 ,on ! summit ( ?is cliff !re is a range ( high s&-dunes ext5d+ sev]al miles 9 an ea/ & we/ l9e4 ,s\?w>d ( ,bahia ,blanca1 ! riv] ,colorado fl[s betwe5 two pla9s1 app>5tly f ?irty to =ty feet 9 height4 ,( ^! pla9s1 ! s\!rn "o slopes up to ! foot ( ! great s&/one plateau ( ! ,rio ,negro2 & ! nor!rn "o aga9/ an esc>pm5t ( ! ,pampean deposit2 s t ! ,colorado fl[s 9 a valley fifty miles 9 wid?1 betwe5 ! upp] esc>pm5ts4 ,i /ate ?is1 because on ! l[ pla9 at ! foot ( ! nor!rn esc>pm5t1 ,i cross$ an imm5se accumulation ( high s&-dunes1 e/imat$ by ! ,gau*os at no less ?an eight miles 9 bread?4 ,^! dunes range we/w>d f ! coa/1 :i* is tw5ty miles di/ant1 to f> inl&1 9 l9es p>allel to ! valley2 !y are sep>at$ f ea* o!r by argillace\s flats1 precisely l ^? on ! nor!rn %ore ( ,bahia ,blanca4 ,at pres5t !re is no s\rce :5ce ?is imm5se accumulation ( s& c\ld proce$2 b if1 z ,i believe1 ! upp] esc>pm5ts once =m$ ! %ores ( an e/u>y1 9 t case ! s&/one =mation ( ! riv] ,negro w\ld h af=d$ an inexhau/ible supply ( s&1 :i* w\ld naturally h accumulat$ on ! nor!rn %ore1 z on e "p ( ! coa/ op5 to ! s\? w9ds betwe5 ,bahia ,blanca & ,bu5os ,ayres4 ,at ,san ,blas 7#dj #dj ,s47 a little s\? ( ! m\? ( ! ,colorado1 ,m4 d',orbigny#g f\nd f\rte5 species ( exi/+ %ells 7six ( !m id5tical ) ^? f ,bahia ,blanca71 emb$d$ 9 _! natural positions4 ,f ! zone ( dep? :i* ^! %ells are kn[n to inhabit1 !y mu/ h be5 uplift$ ?irty-two feet4 ,he also f\nd1 at f fifte5 to tw5ty feet above ?is b$1 ! rema9s ( an anci5t bea*4 #g 8,voyage10 etc41 p4 #ed4 ,t5 miles s\?w>d1 b #abj miles to ! we/1 at ,port ,s4 ,antonio1 ! ,(fic]s employ$ on ! ,survey assur$ me t !y saw _m old sea-%ells /rew$ on ! surface ( ! gr\nd1 simil> to ^? f\nd on o!r p>ts ( ! coa/ ( ,patagonia4 ,at ,san ,josef1 n9ety miles s\? 9 ne>ly ! same longitude1 ,i f\nd1 above ! gravel1 :i* caps an old t]ti>y =mation1 an irregul> b$ & hillock ( s&1 sev]al feet 9 ?ickness1 ab\nd+ ) %ells ( ,patella deaurita1 ,mytilus ,magellanicus1 ! latt] reta9+ mu* ( its col\r2 ,fusus ,magellanicus 7& a v>iety ( ! same71 & a l>ge ,balanus 7probably ,b4 ,tulipa71 all n[ f\nd on ?is coa/3 ,i e/imat$ ?is b$ at f eighty to "o hundr$ feet above ! level ( ! sea4 ,to ! we/w>d ( ?is bay1 !re is a pla9 e/imat$ at betwe5 two hundr$ & ?ree hundr$ feet 9 height3 ?is pla9 seems1 f _m measurem5ts1 to be a cont9uation ( ! s&/one plat=m ( ! riv] ,negro4 ,! next place s\?w>d1 :]e ,i l&$1 0 at ,port ,desire1 #cdj miles di/ant2 b f ! int]m$iate di/ricts ,i receiv$1 ?r\gh ! k9dness ( ! ,(fic]s ( ! ,survey1 especially f ,lieut5ant ,/okes & ,mr4 ,k+1 _m specim5s & sket*es1 q suffici5t to %[ ! g5]al uni=mity ( ! :ole l9e ( coa/4 ,i may "h /ate1 t ! :ole ( ,patagonia consi/s ( a t]ti>y =mation1 re/+ on & sometimes surr\nd+ hills ( porphyry & qu>tz3 ! surface is worn into _m wide valleys & into level /ep-=m$ pla9s1 ris+ "o above ano!r1 all capp$ by irregul> b$s ( gravel1 *iefly compos$ ( porphyritic rocks4 ,?is gravel =mation w be sep>ately describ$ at ! end ( ! *apt]4 ,9 ! foll[+ diagrams3 ,basel9e is ,level ( sea4 ,scale is #a_/bj ( in* to #ajj feet v]tical4 ,height is %[n 9 feet ?us3 ,an4 ,m4 always /&s = angul> or trigonometrical measurem5t4 ,ba4 ,m4 always /&s = b>ometrical measurem5t4 ,e/4 always /&s = e/imation by ! ,(fic]s ( ! ,survey4 ,no4 #a ,section ( /ep-=m$ pla9s s\? ( ,nuevo ,gulf4 ,illu/ration3 ,section ( /ep-=m$ pla9s s\? ( ,nuevo ,gulf4 ,my object 9 giv+ ! foll[+ measurem5ts ( ! pla9s1 z tak5 by ! ,(fic]s ( ! ,survey1 is1 z w h]eaft] be se51 to %[ ! rem>kable equability ( ! rec5t elevatory movem5ts4 ,r\nd ! s\!rn p>ts ( ,nuevo ,gulf1 z f> z ! ,riv] ,*upat 7sev5ty miles s\?w>d ( ,san ,josef71 !re appe> to be sev]al pla9s1 ( :i* ! be/ def9$ are "h repres5t$4 ,! upp] pla9 is "h well def9$ 7call$ ,table ,hills72 its edge =ms a cliff or l9e ( esc>pm5t _m miles 9 l5g?1 project+ ov] a l[] pla94 ,! l[e/ pla9 corresponds ) t at ,san ,josef ) ! rec5t %ells on its surface4 ,betwe5 ?is l[e/ & ! upp]mo/ pla91 !re is probably m ?an "o /ep-=m$ t]race3 sev]al measurem5ts %[ ! exi/5ce ( ! int]m$iate "o ( ! height giv5 9 diagram ,no4 #a4 ,no4 #b ,section ( pla9s 9 ! ,bay ( ,/4 ,george4 ,illu/ration3 ,section ( pla9s 9 ! ,bay ( ,/4 ,george4 ,ne> ! nor? headl& ( ! great ,bay ( ,/4 ,george 7#ajj miles s\? ( ! ,*upat71 two well-m>k$ pla9s ( #bej & #ccj feet 7 measur$3 ^! are said to sweep r\nd a great "p ( ! ,bay4 ,at its s\? headl&1 #abj miles di/ant f ! nor? headl&1 ! #bej feet pla9 0 aga9 measur$4 ,9 ! middle ( ! bay1 a high] pla9 0 f\nd at two neighb\r+ places 7,tilli ,roads & ,c4 ,m>ques7 to be #ehj feet 9 height4 ,above ?is pla91 t[>ds ! int]ior1 ,mr4 ,/okes in=ms me t !re 7 sev]al o!r /ep-=m$ pla9s1 ! highe/ ( :i* 0 e/imat$ at #a1bjj feet1 & 0 se5 rang+ at app>5tly ! same height = #aej miles nor?w>d4 ,all ^! pla9s h be5 worn into great valleys & mu* d5ud$4 ,! section 9 diagram ,no4 #c is illu/rative ( ! g5]al /ructure ( ! great ,bay ( ,/4 ,george4 ,at ! s\? headl& ( ! ,bay ( ,/4 ,george 7ne> ,c4 ,?ree ,po9ts7 ! #bej pla9 is v ext5sive4 ,at ,port ,desire 7=ty miles s\?w>d7 ,i made sev]al measurem5ts ) ! b>omet] ( a pla91 :i* ext5ds along ! nor? side ( ! port & along ! op5 coa/1 & :i* v>ies f #bde to #bee feet 9 height3 ?is pla9 abuts aga9/ ! foot ( a high] pla9 ( #ccj feet1 :i* ext5ds also f> nor?w>d along ! coa/1 & likewise into ! int]ior4 ,9 ! di/ance a high] inl& plat=m 0 se51 ( :i* ,i d n "k ! height4 ,9 ?ree sep>ate places1 ,i obs]v$ ! cliff ( ! #bde-bee feet pla91 fr+$ by a t]race or n>r[ pla9 e/imat$ at ab\t "o hundr$ feet 9 height4 ,^! pla9s are repres5t$ 9 ! foll[+ section3-- ,no4 #c ,section ( pla9s at ,port ,desire4 ,illu/ration3 ,section ( pla9s at ,port ,desire4 ,9 _m places1 ev5 at ! di/ance ( ?ree & f\r miles f ! coa/1 ,i f\nd on ! gravel-capp$ surface ( ! #bde-bee feet1 & ( ! #ccj feet pla91 %ells ( ,mytilus ,magellanicus1 ,m4 edulis1 ,patella deaurita1 & ano!r ,patella1 too mu* worn to be id5tifi$1 b app>5tly simil> to "o f\nd abundantly adh]+ to ! leaves ( ! kelp4 ,^! species are ! commone/ n[ liv+ on ?is coa/4 ,! %ells all appe>$ v old2 ! blue ( ! mussels 0 mu* fad$2 & only traces ( col\r c\ld be p]ceiv$ 9 ! ,patellas1 ( :i* ! out] surfaces 7 scal+ (f4 ,!y lay scatt]$ on ! smoo? surface ( ! gravel1 b ab\nd$ mo/ 9 c]ta9 pat*es1 especially at ! heads ( ! small] valleys3 !y g5]ally conta9$ s& 9 _! insides2 & ,i presume t !y h be5 wa%$ by alluvial action out ( ?9 s&y lay]s1 traces ( :i* may sometimes be se5 cov]+ ! gravel4 ,! sev]al pla9s h v level surfaces2 b all are scoop$ out by num]\s broad1 w9d+1 flat-bottom$ valleys1 9 :i*1 judg+ f ! bu%es1 /reams nev] fl[4 ,^! rem>ks on ! /ate ( ! %ells1 & on ! nature ( ! pla9s1 apply to ! foll[+ cases1 s ne$ n be repeat$4 ,s\?w>d ( ,port ,desire1 ! pla9s h be5 greatly d5ud$1 ) only small pieces ( tablel& m>k+ _! =m] ext5sion4 ,b opposite ,bird ,isl&1 two consid]able /ep-=m$ pla9s 7 measur$1 & f\nd respectively to be #cej & #eij feet 9 height4 ,?is latt] pla9 ext5ds along ! coa/ close to ,port ,/4 ,julian 7#aaj miles s\? ( ,port ,desire72 :]e we h ! foll[+ section3-- ,no4 #d ,section ( pla9s at ,port ,/4 ,julian4 ,illu/ration3 ,section ( pla9s at ,port ,/4 ,julian4 ,! l[e/ pla9 0 e/imat$ at n9ety feet3 x is rem>kable f ! usual gravel-b$ be+ deeply worn into holl[s1 :i* are fill$ up )1 z well z ! g5]al surface cov]$ by1 s&y & r$di% e>?y matt]3 9 "o ( ! holl[s ?us fill$ up1 ! skeleton ( ! ,macrau*5ia ,pata*onica1 z w h]eaft] be describ$1 0 emb$d$4 ,on ! surface & 9 ! upp] p>ts ( ?is e>?y mass1 !re 7 num]\s %ells ( ,mytilus ,magellanicus & ,m4 edulis1 ,patella deaurita1 & fragm5ts ( o!r species4 ,?is pla9 is tol]ably level1 b n ext5sive2 x =ms a promontory sev5 or eight miles long1 & ?ree or f\r wide4 ,! upp] pla9s 9 ,diagram #d 7 measur$ by ! ,(fic]s ( ! ,survey2 !y 7 all capp$ by ?ick b$s ( gravel1 & 7 all m or less d5ud$2 ! #iej pla9 consi/s m]ely ( sep>ate1 truncat$1 gravel-capp$ hills1 two ( :i*1 by measurem5t1 7 f\nd to diff] only ?ree feet4 ,! #dcj feet pla9 ext5ds1 app>5tly ) h>dly a break1 to ne> ! nor!rn entrance ( ! ,rio ,santa ,cruz 7fifty miles to ! s\?72 b x 0 !re f\nd to be only #ccj feet 9 height4 ,on ! s\!rn side ( ! m\? ( ! ,santa ,cruz we h ,diagram #e1 :i* ,i am able to give ) m detail ?an 9 ! =ego+ cases3-- ,no4 #e ,section ( pla9s at ! m\? ( ! ,rio ,santa ,cruz4 ,illu/ration3 ,section ( pla9s at ! m\? ( ! ,rio ,santa ,cruz4 ,! pla9 m>k$ #cee feet 7z asc]ta9$ by ! b>omet] & by angul> measurem5t7 is a cont9uation ( ! above-m5tion$ #ccj feet pla93 x ext5ds 9 a ,n4,w4 direction along ! s\!rn %ores ( ! e/u>y4 ,x is capp$ by gravel1 :i* 9 mo/ p>ts is cov]$ by a ?9 b$ ( s&y e>?1 & is scoop$ out by _m flat-bottom$ valleys4 ,x appe>s to ! eye q level1 b 9 proce$+ 9 a ,s4,s4,w4 c\rse1 t[>ds an esc>pm5t di/ant ab\t six miles1 & likewise rang+ across ! c\ntry 9 a ,n4,w4 l9e1 x 0 f\nd to rise at fir/ ins5sibly1 & !n = ! la/ half-mile1 s5sibly1 close up to ! base ( ! esc>pm5t3 at ?is po9t x 0 #dfc feet 9 height1 %[+ a rise ( #ajh feet 9 ! six miles4 ,on ?is #cee-dfc feet pla91 ,i f\nd sev]al %ells ( ,mytilus ,magellanicus & ( a ,mytilus1 :i* ,mr4 ,s[]by in=ms me is yet unnam$1 ?\gh well-kn[n z rec5t on ?is coa/2 ,patella deaurita2 ,fusus1 ,i believe1 ,magellanicus1 b ! specim5 has be5 lo/2 & at ! di/ance ( f\r miles f ! coa/1 at ! height ( ab\t f\r hundr$ feet1 !re 7 fragm5ts ( ! same ,patella & ( a ,voluta 7app>5tly ,v4 ancilla7 p>tially emb$d$ 9 ! sup]ficial s&y e>?4 ,all ^! %ells _h ! same anci5t appe>ance ) ^? f ! =ego+ localities4 ,z ! tides along ?is "p ( ! coa/ rise at ! ,syzygal p]iod =ty feet1 & !re=e =m a well-m>k$ bea*-l9e1 ,i p>ticul>ly look$ out = ridges 9 cross+ ?is pla91 :i*1 z we h se51 rises #ajh feet 9 ab\t six miles1 b ,i c\ld n see any traces ( su*4 ,! next highe/ pla9 is #gaj feet above ! sea2 x is v n>r[1 b level1 & is capp$ ) gravel2 x abuts to ! foot ( ! #hdj feet pla94 ,?is summit-pla9 ext5ds z f> z ! eye c range1 bo? inl& along ! s\!rn side ( ! valley ( ! ,santa ,cruz1 & s\?w>d along ! ,atlantic4 ,! ,valley ( ! ,r4 ,santa ,cruz4--,?is valley runs 9 an ea/ & we/ direction to ! ,cordill]a1 a di/ance ( ab\t "o hundr$ & sixty miles4 ,x cuts ?r\gh ! great ,patagonian t]ti>y =mation1 includ+1 9 ! upp] half ( ! valley1 imm5se /reams ( basaltic lava1 :i* z well z ! s(t] b$s1 are capp$ by gravel2 & ?is gravel1 high up ! riv]1 is associat$ ) a va/ b\ld] =mation4#h ,9 asc5d+ ! valley1 ! pla9 :i* at ! m\? on ! s\!rn side is #cee feet high1 is se5 to tr5d t[>ds ! correspond+ pla9 on ! nor!rn side1 s t _! esc>pm5ts appe> l ! %ores ( a =m] e/u>y1 l>g] ?an ! exi/+ "o3 ! esc>pm5ts1 also1 ( ! #hdj feet summit-pla9 7) a correspond+ nor!rn "o1 :i* is met ) "s way up ! valley71 appe> l ! %ores ( a /ill l>g] e/u>y4 ,f>!r up ! valley1 ! sides are b\nd$ ?r\gh\t its entire l5g? by level1 gravel-capp$ t]races1 ris+ above ea* o!r 9 /eps4 ,! wid? betwe5 ! upp] esc>pm5ts is on an av]age betwe5 sev5 & t5 miles2 9 "o spot1 h[ev]1 :]e cutt+ ?r\gh ! basaltic lava1 x 0 only "o mile & a half4 ,betwe5 ! esc>pm5ts ( ! second highe/ t]race ! av]age wid? is ab\t f\r or five miles4 ,! bottom ( ! valley1 at ! di/ance ( #aaj miles f its m\?1 beg9s s5sibly to exp&1 & soon =ms a consid]able pla91 #ddj feet above ! level ( ! sea1 ?r\gh :i* ! riv] fl[s 9 a gut f tw5ty to =ty feet 9 dep?4 ,i "h f\nd1 at a po9t #adj miles f ! ,atlantic1 & sev5ty miles f ! ne>e/ creek ( ! ,pacific1 at ! height ( #daj feet1 a v old & worn %ell ( ,patella deaurita4 ,l[] d[n ! valley1 #aje miles f ! ,atlantic 7long4 #ga ,w471 & at an elevation ( ab\t #cjj feet1 ,i also f\nd1 9 ! b$ ( ! riv]1 two mu* worn & brok5 %ells ( ! ,voluta ancilla1 /ill reta9+ traces ( _! col\rs2 & "o ( ! ,patella deaurita4 ,x appe>$ t ^! %ells _h be5 wa%$ f ! banks into ! riv]2 consid]+ ! di/ance f ! sea1 ! des]t & absolutely unfrequ5t$ "* ( ! c\ntry1 & ! v anci5t appe>ance ( ! %ells 7exactly l ^? f\nd on ! pla9s ne>] ! coa/71 !re is1 ,i ?9k1 no cause to suspect t !y c\ld h be5 br\ght "h by ,indians4 #h ,i h describ$ ?is =mation 9 a pap] 9 ! 8,geological ,transactions10 vol4 vi1 p4 #dae4 ,! pla9 at ! head ( ! valley is tol]ably level1 b wat]-worn1 & ) _m s&-dunes on x l ^? on a sea-coa/4 ,at ! highe/ po9t to :i* we asc5d$1 x 0 sixte5 miles wide 9 a nor? & s\? l9e2 & =ty-five miles 9 l5g? 9 an ea/ & we/ l9e4 ,x is bord]$ by ! esc>pm5ts1 "o above ! o!r1 ( two pla9s1 :i* div]ge z !y approa* ! ,cordill]a1 & consequ5tly resemble1 at two levels1 ! %ores ( great bays fac+ ! m\nta9s2 & ^! m\nta9s are brea*$ 9 front ( ! l[] pla9 by a rem>kable gap4 ,! valley1 !re=e1 ( ! ,santa ,cruz consi/s ( a /raight broad cut1 ab\t n9ety miles 9 l5g?1 bord]$ by gravel-capp$ t]races & pla9s1 ! esc>pm5ts ( :i* at bo? ends div]ge or exp&1 "o ov] ! o!r1 aft] ! mann] ( ! %ores ( great bays4 ,be>+ 9 m9d ?is peculi> =m ( ! l&--! s&-dunes on ! pla9 at ! head ( ! valley--! gap 9 ! ,cordill]a1 9 front ( x--! pres5ce 9 two places ( v anci5t %ells ( exi/+ species--& la/ly1 ! circum/ance ( ! #cee-dec feet pla91 ) ! num]\s m>9e rema9s on its surface1 sweep+ f ! ,atlantic coa/1 f> up ! valley1 ,i ?9k we mu/ admit1 t )9 ! rec5t p]iod1 ! c\rse ( ! ,santa ,cruz =m$ a sea-/rait int]sect+ ! cont95t4 ,at ?is p]iod1 ! s\!rn "p ( ,s\? ,am]ica consi/$ ( an ar*ipelago ( isl&s #cfj miles 9 a nor? & s\? l9e4 ,we %all pres5tly see1 t two o!r /raits also1 s9ce clos$1 !n cut ?r\gh ,ti]ra del ,fuego2 ,i may add1 t "o ( !m mu/ at t "t h exp&$ at ! foot ( ! ,cordill]a into a great bay 7n[ ,otway ,wat]7 l t :i* =m]ly cov]$ ! #ddj feet pla9 at ! head ( ! ,santa ,cruz4 ,i h said t ! valley 9 its :ole c\rse is bord]$ by gravel-capp$ pla9s4 ,! section 7diagram ,no4 #f71 suppos$ to be drawn 9 a nor? & s\? l9e across ! valley1 c sc>cely be consid]$ z m ?an illu/rative2 = dur+ our hurri$ asc5t x 0 impossible to measure all ! pla9s at any "o place4 ,at a po9t ne>ly midway betwe5 ! ,cordill]a & ! ,atlantic1 ,i f\nd ! pla9 7,a nor?7 #a1abb feet above ! riv]2 all ! l[] pla9s on ?is side 7 "h unit$ into "o great brok5 cliff3 at a po9t sixte5 miles l[] d[n ! /ream1 ,i f\nd by measurem5t & e/imation t ,b 7n7 0 #hfi above ! riv]3 v ne> to :]e ,a 7n7 0 measur$1 ,c 7n7 0 #fci above ! same level3 ! t]race ,d 7n7 0 n[h]e measur$3 ! l[e/ ,e 7n7 0 9 _m places ab\t tw5ty feet above ! riv]4 ,^! pla9s or t]races 7 be/ develop$ :]e ! valley 0 wide/2 ! :ole five1 l gigantic /eps1 occurr$ toge!r only at a few po9ts4 ,! l[] t]races are less cont9u\s ?an ! high] ones1 & appe> to be entirely lo/ 9 ! upp] ?ird ( ! valley4 ,t]race ,c 7s71 h[ev] 0 trac$ cont9u\sly = a great di/ance4 ,! t]race ,b 7n71 at a po9t fifty-five miles f ! m\? ( ! riv]1 0 f\r miles 9 wid?2 high] up ! valley ?is t]race 7or at lea/ ! second highe/ "o1 = ,i c\ld n always trace x cont9u\sly7 0 ab\t eight miles wide4 ,?is second pla9 0 g5]ally wid] ?an ! l[] ones--z inde$ foll[s f ! valley f ,a 7n7 to ,a 7s7 be+ g5]ally ne>ly d\ble ! wid? ( f ,b 7n7 to ,b 7s74 ,no4 #f ,nor? & ,s\? ,section across ! t]races b\nd+ ! valley ( ! ,riv] ,santa ,cruz1 high up its c\rse4 ,illu/ration3 ,nor? & ,s\? ,section across ! t]races b\nd+ ! ,riv] ,santa ,cruz4 ,l[ d[n ! valley1 ! summit-pla9 ,a 7s7 is cont9u\s ) ! #hdj feet pla9 on ! coa/1 b x is soon lo/ or unites ) ! esc>pm5t ( ,b 7s74 ,! correspond+ pla9 ,a 7n71 on ! nor? side ( ! valley1 appe>s to range cont9u\sly f ! ,cordill]a to ! head ( ! pres5t e/u>y ( ! ,santa ,cruz1 :]e x tr5ds nor?w>d t[>ds ,port ,/4 ,julian4 ,ne> ! ,cordill]a ! summit-pla9 on bo? sides ( ! valley is betwe5 #c1bjj & #c1cjj feet 9 height2 at #ajj miles f ! ,atlantic1 x is #a1daf feet1 & on ! coa/ #hdj feet1 all above ! sea-bea*2 s t 9 a di/ance ( #ajj miles ! pla9 rises #egf feet1 & mu* m rapidly ne> to ! ,cordill]a4 ,! l[] t]races ,b & ,c also appe> to rise z !y run up ! valley2 ?us ,d 7n71 measur$ at two po9ts tw5ty-f\r miles ap>t1 0 f\nd to h ris5 #ahe feet4 ,f sev]al reasons ,i suspect1 t ?is gradual incl9ation ( ! pla9s up ! valley1 has be5 *iefly caus$ by ! elevation ( ! cont95t 9 mass1 hav+ be5 ! great] ! ne>] to ! ,cordill]a4 ,all ! t]races are capp$ ) well-r\nd$ gravel1 :i* re/s ei!r on ! d5ud$ & sometimes furr[$ surface ( ! s(t t]ti>y deposits1 or on ! basaltic lava4 ,! diff]5ce 9 height betwe5 "s ( ! l[] /eps or t]races seems to be entirely ow+ to a diff]5ce 9 ! ?ickness ( ! capp+ gravel4 ,furr[s & inequalities 9 ! gravel1 :]e su* occur1 are fill$ up & smoo!d ov] ) s&y e>?4 ,! pebbles1 especially on ! high] pla9s1 are (t5 :itewa%$1 & ev5 cem5t$ toge!r by a :ite alum9\s sub/ance1 & ,i occasionally f\nd ?is to be ! case ) ! gravel on ! t]race ,d4 ,i c\ld n p]ceive any trace ( a simil> deposition on ! pebbles n[ ?r[n up by ! riv]1 & !re=e ,i d n ?9k t t]race ,d 0 riv]-=m$4 ,z ! t]race ,e g5]ally /&s ab\t tw5ty feet above ! b$ ( ! riv]1 my fir/ impression 0 to d\bt :e!r ev5 ?is l[e/ "o c\ld h be5 s =m$2 b x %\ld always be borne 9 m9d1 t ! horizontal upheaval ( a di/rict1 by increas+ ! total desc5t ( ! /reams1 w always t5d to increase1 fir/ ne> ! sea-coa/ & !n fur!r & fur!r up ! valley1 _! corrod+ & deep5+ p[]s3 s t an alluvial pla91 =m$ almo/ on a level ) a /ream1 w1 aft] an elevation ( ?is k9d1 9 "t be cut ?r\gh1 & left /&+ at a height nev] aga9 to be rea*$ by ! wat]4 ,) respect to ! ?ree upp] t]races ( ! ,santa ,cruz1 ,i ?9k !re c be no d\bt1 t !y 7 modell$ by ! sea1 :5 ! valley 0 occupi$ by a /rait1 9 ! same mann] 7h]eaft] to be discuss$7 z ! great] /ep-=m$1 %ell-/rew$ pla9s along ! coa/ ( ,patagonia4 ,to return to ! %ores ( ! ,atlantic3 ! #hdj feet pla91 at ! m\? ( ! ,santa ,cruz1 is se5 ext5d+ horizontally f> to ! s\?2 & ,i am in=m$ by ! ,(fic]s ( ! ,survey1 t b5d+ r\nd ! head ( ,coy ,inlet 7sixty-five miles s\?w>d71 x tr5ds inl&4 ,outli]s ( app>5tly ! same height are se5 =ty miles f>!r s\?1 inl& ( ! riv] ,gallegos2 & a pla9 comes d[n to ,cape ,gregory 7?irty-five miles s\?w>d71 9 ! ,/rait ( ,magellan1 :i* 0 e/imat$ at betwe5 eight hundr$ & "o ?\s& feet 9 height1 & :i*1 ris+ t[>ds ! int]ior1 is capp$ by ! b\ld] =mation4 ,s\? ( ! ,/rait ( ,magellan1 !re are l>ge outly+ masses ( app>5tly ! same great tablel&1 ext5d+ at int]vals along ! ea/]n coa/ ( ,ti]ra del ,fuego3 at two places "h1 #aaj miles a "p1 ?is pla9 0 f\nd to be #iej & #igj feet 9 height4 ,f ,coy ,inlet1 :]e ! high summit-pla9 tr5ds inl&1 a pla9 e/imat$ at #cej feet 9 height1 ext5ds = =ty miles to ! riv] ,gallegos4 ,f ?is po9t to ! ,/rait ( ,magellan1 & on ea* side ( t ,/rait1 ! c\ntry has be5 mu* d5ud$ & is less level4 ,x consi/s *iefly ( ! b\ld] =mation1 :i* rises to a height ( betwe5 "o hundr$ & fifty & two hundr$ & fifty feet1 & is (t5 capp$ by b$s ( gravel4 ,at ,n4,s4 ,gracia1 on ! nor? side ( ! ,inn] ,n>r[s ( ! ,/rait ( ,magellan1 ,i f\nd on ! summit ( a cliff1 #afj feet 9 height1 %ells ( exi/+ ,patell & ,mytili1 scatt]$ on ! surface & p>tially emb$d$ 9 e>?4 ,on ! ea/]n coa/1 also1 ( ,ti]ra del ,fuego1 9 latitude #ec #bj s\?1 ,i f\nd _m ,mytili on "s level l&1 e/imat$ at #bjj feet 9 height4 ,ant]ior to ! elevation atte/$ by ^! %ells1 x is evid5t by ! pres5t =m ( ! l&1 & by ! di/ribution ( ! great erratic b\ld]s#i on ! surface1 t two sea-*annels connect$ ! ,/rait ( ,magellan bo? ) ,seba/ian ,bay & ) ,otway ,wat]4 #i 8,geolog4 ,transactions10 vol4 vi1 p4 #dai4 ,conclud+ rem>ks on ! rec5t elevation ( ! s\?-ea/]n coa/s ( ,am]ica1 & on ! action ( ! sea on ! l&4--,uprais$ %ells ( species1 /ill exi/+ z ! commone/ k9ds 9 ! adjo9+ sea1 occur1 z we h se51 at heights ( betwe5 a few feet & #daj feet1 at int]vals f latitude #cc #dj to #ec #bj s\?4 ,?is is a di/ance ( #a1ahj geographical miles--ab\t equal f ,london to ! ,nor? ,cape ( ,sw$54 ,z ! b\ld] =mation ext5ds ) ne>ly ! same height #aej miles s\? ( #ec #bj1 ! mo/ s\!rn po9t :]e ,i l&$ & f\nd uprais$ %ells2 & z ! level ,pampas ranges _m hundr$ miles nor?w>d ( ! po9t1 :]e ,m4 d',orbigny f\nd at ! height ( #ajj feet b$s ( ! ,az>a1 ! space 9 a nor? & s\? l9e1 :i* has be5 uplift$ )9 ! rec5t p]iod1 mu/ h be5 mu* above ! #a1ahj miles4 ,by ! t]m 8rec5t10 ,i ref] only to t p]iod )9 :i* ! n[ liv+ mollusca 7 call$ into exi/5ce2 = x w be se5 9 ! ,f\r? ,*apt]1 t bo? at ,bahia ,blanca & ,p4 ,s4 ,julian1 ! mammif]\s quadrup$s :i* co-exi/$ ) ^! %ells belong to ext9ct species4 ,i h said t ! uprais$ %ells 7 f\nd only at int]vals on ?is l9e ( coa/1 b ?is 9 all probability may be attribut$ to my n hav+ l&$ at ! int]m$iate po9ts2 = :]ev] ,i did l&1 ) ! exception ( ! riv] ,negro1 %ells 7 f\nd3 moreov]1 ! %ells are /rew$ on pla9s or t]races1 :i*1 z we %all imm$iately see1 ext5d = great di/ances ) a uni=m height4 ,i asc5d$ ! high] pla9s only 9 a few places1 ow+ to ! di/ance at :i* _! esc>pm5ts g5]ally range f ! coa/1 s t ,i am f> f kn[+ t #daj feet is ! maximum ( elevation ( ^! uprais$ rema9s4 ,! %ells are ^? n[ mo/ abundant 9 a liv+ /ate 9 ! adjo9+ sea4#aj ,all ( !m h an anci5t appe>ance2 b "s1 especially ! mussels1 al?\gh ly+ fully expos$ to ! wea!r1 reta9 to a consid]able ext5t _! col\rs3 ?is circum/ance appe>s at fir/ surpris+1 b x is n[ kn[n t ! col\r+ pr9ciple ( ! ,mytilus is s endur+1 t x is pres]v$ :5 ! %ell itself is completely dis9tegrat$4#aa ,mo/ ( ! %ells are brok52 ,i n[h]e f\nd two valves unit$2 ! fragm5ts are n r\nd$1 at lea/ 9 none ( ! specim5s :i* ,i br\ght home4 #aj ,capta9 ,k+1 8,voyages ( ,adv5ture & ,beagle10 vol4 i1 #a pp4 #f & #acc4 #aa ,see ,mr4 ,lyell 8,pro(s ( a ,gradual ,ris+ 9 ,sw$510 9 ! 8,philosoph4 ,transact410 #ahce1 p4 #a4 ,see also ,mr4 ,smi? ( ,jordan ,hill 9 ! ,ed94 ,new ,phil4 ,j\rnal1 vol4 xxv1 p4 #cic4 ,) respect to ! bread? ( ! uprais$ area 9 an ea/ & we/ l9e1 we "k f ! %ells f\nd at ! ,inn] ,n>r[s ( ! ,/rait ( ,magellan1 t ! entire wid? ( ! pla91 al?\gh !re v n>r[1 has be5 elevat$4 ,x is probable t 9 ?is s\!rnmo/ "p ( ! cont95t1 ! movem5t has ext5d$ "u ! sea f> ea/w>d2 = at ! ,falkl& ,isl&s1 ?\gh ,i c\ld n f9d any %ells1 ! bones ( :ales h be5 notic$ by sev]al compet5t obs]v]s1 ly+ on ! l& at a consid]able di/ance f ! sea1 & at ! height ( "s hundr$ feet above x4#ab ,moreov]1 we "k t 9 ,ti]ra del ,fuego ! b\ld] =mation has be5 uplift$ )9 ! rec5t p]iod1 & a simil> =mation occurs#ac on ! nor?-we/]n %ores 7,byron ,s\nd7 ( ^! isl&s4 ,! di/ance f ?is po9t to ! ,cordill]a ( ,ti]ra del ,fuego1 is #cfj miles1 :i* we may take z ! probable wid? ( ! rec5tly uprais$ area4 ,9 ! latitude ( ! ,r4 ,santa ,cruz1 we "k f ! %ells f\nd at ! m\? & head1 & 9 ! middle ( ! valley1 t ! entire wid? 7ab\t #afj miles7 ( ! surface ea/w>d ( ! ,cordill]a has be5 uprais$4 ,f ! slope ( ! pla9s1 z %[n by ! c\rse ( ! riv]s1 = sev]al degrees nor?w>d ( ! ,santa ,cruz1 x is probable t ! elevation atte/$ by ! %ells on ! coa/ has likewise ext5d$ to ! ,cordill]a4 ,:51 h[ev]1 we look z f> nor?w>d z ! prov9ces ( ,la ,plata1 ?is conclusion w\ld be v haz>d\s2 n only is ! di/ance f ,maldonado 7:]e ,i f\nd uprais$ %ells7 to ! ,cordill]a great1 namely1 #gfj miles1 b at ! head ( ! e/u>y ( ! ,plata1 a ,n4,n4,e4 & ,s4,s4,w4 range ( t]ti>y volcanic rocks has be5 obs]v$1#ad :i* may well indicate an axis ( elevation q di/9ct f t ( ! ,&es4 ,moreov]1 9 ! c5tre ( ! ,pampas 9 ! *a9 ( ,cordova1 sev]e e>?quakes h be5 felt2#ae :]eas at ,m5doza1 at ! ea/]n foot ( ! ,cordill]a1 only g5tle oscillations1 transmitt$ f ! %ores ( ! ,pacific1 h ev] be5 exp]i5c$4 ,h5ce ! elevation ( ! ,pampas may be due to sev]al di/9ct axes ( movem5t2 & we _c judge1 f ! uprais$ %ells r\nd ! e/u>y ( ! ,plata1 ( ! bread? ( ! area uplift$ )9 ! rec5t p]iod4 #ab 8,voyages ( ! ,adv5ture & ,beagle10 vol4 ii1 p4 #bbg4 ,& ,b\ga9ville's 8,voyage10 tome i1 p4 #aab4 #ac ,i owe ?is fact to ! k9dness ( ,capta9 ,sulivan1 ,r4,n41 a highly compet5t obs]v]4 ,i m5tion x m especially1 z 9 my ,pap] 7p4 #dbg7 on ! ,b\ld] ,=mation1 ,i h1 aft] hav+ exam9$ ! nor!rn & middle p>ts ( ! ea/]n isl&1 said t ! =mation 0 "h :olly abs5t4 #ad ,?is volcanic =mation w be describ$ 9 ,*apt] ,,iv4 ,x is n improbable t ! height ( ! uprais$ %ells at ! head ( ! e/u>y ( ! ,plata1 be+ great] ?an at ,bahia ,blanca or at ,san ,blas1 may be ow+ to ! upheaval ( ^! latt] places hav+ be5 connect$ ) ! di/ant l9e ( ! ,cordill]a1 :il/ t ( ! prov9ces ( ,la ,plata 0 9 connection ) ! adjo9+ t]ti>y volcanic axis4 #ae ,see ,sir ,w4 ,p>i%'s "w on 8,la ,plata10 p4 #bdb4 ,= a notice ( an e>?quake :i* dra9$ a lake ne> ,cordova1 see also ,temple's 8,travels 9 ,p]u40 ,sir ,w4 ,p>i% in=ms me1 t a t[n betwe5 ,salta & ,tucuman 7nor? ( ,cordova7 0 =m]ly utt]ly ov]?r[n by an e>?quake4 ,n only has ! above specifi$ long range ( coa/ be5 elevat$ )9 ! rec5t p]iod1 b ,i ?9k x may be safely inf]r$ f ! simil>ity 9 height ( ! gravel-capp$ pla9s at di/ant po9ts1 t !re has be5 a rem>kable degree ( equability 9 ! elevatory process4 ,i may premise1 t :5 ,i measur$ ! pla9s1 x 0 simply to asc]ta9 ! heights at :i* %ells occurr$2 aft]w>ds1 comp>+ ^! measurem5ts ) "s ( ^? made dur+ ! ,survey1 ,i 0 /ruck ) _! uni=mity1 & accord+ly tabulat$ all ^? :i* repres5t$ ! summit-edges ( pla9s4 ,! ext5sion ( ! #ccj to #cee feet pla9 is v /rik+1 be+ f\nd ov] a space ( #ejj geographical miles 9 a nor? & s\? l9e4 ,a table 7,table #a7 ( ! measurem5ts is giv5 bel[4 ,! angul> measurem5ts & all ! e/imations 79 feet7 are by ! ,(fic]s ( ! ,survey2 ! b>ometrical ones by myself3-- ,feet ,gallegos ,riv] to ,coy ,inlet 7p>tly angul> p>tly e/imation7 #cej ,s\? ,side ( ,santa ,cruz 7angul> & b>ometric7 #cee ,nor? ,side ( ,santa ,cruz 7angul> & b>ometric7 #ccj ,bird ,isl&1 pla9 opposite to 7angul>7 #cej ,port ,desire1 pla9 ext5d+ f> along coa/ 7b>ometric7 #ccj ,/4 ,george's ,bay1 nor? promontory 7angul>7 #ccj ,table ,l&1 s\? ( ,new ,bay 7angul>7 #cej ,a pla91 v>y+ f #bde to #bee feet1 seems to ext5d ) mu* uni=mity f ,port ,desire to ! nor? ( ,/4 ,george's ,bay1 a di/ance ( #agj miles2 & "s approximate measurem5ts 79 feet71 also giv5 9 ! table bel[1 indicate ! mu* great] ext5sion ( #ghj miles3-- ,feet ,coy ,inlet1 s\? ( 7p>tly angul> & p>tly e/imation7 #bjj to #cjj ,port ,desire 7b>ometric7 #bde to #bee ,c4 ,blanco 7angul>7 #bej ,nor? ,promontory ( ,/4 ,george's ,bay 7angul>7 #bej ,s\? ( ,new ,bay 7angul>7 #bjj to #bbj ,nor? ( ,s4 ,josef 7e/imation7 #bjj to #cjj ,pla9 ( ,rio ,negro 7angul>7 #bjj to #bbj ,bahia ,blanca 7e/imation7 #bjj to #cjj ,! ext5sion1 moreov]1 ( ! #efj to #ehj1 & ( ! #hj to #ajj feet1 pla9s is rem>kable1 ?\gh some:at less obvi\s ?an 9 ! =m] cases4 ,be>+ 9 m9d t ,i h n pick$ ^! measurem5ts out ( a s]ies1 b h us$ all ^? :i* repres5t$ ! edges ( pla9s1 ,i ?9k x sc>cely possible t ^! co9cid5ces 9 height %\ld be accid5tal4 ,we mu/ !re=e conclude t ! action1 :atev] x may h be51 by :i* ^! pla9s h be5 modell$ into _! pres5t =ms1 has be5 s+ul>ly uni=m4 ,^! pla9s or great t]races1 ( :i* ?ree & f\r (t5 rise l /eps "o beh9d ! o!r1 are =m$ by ! d5udation ( ! old ,patagonian t]ti>y b$s1 & by ! deposition on _! surfaces ( a mass ( well-r\nd$ gravel1 v>y+1 ne> ! coa/1 f t5 to ?irty-five feet 9 ?ickness1 b increas+ 9 ?ickness t[>ds ! int]ior4 ,! gravel is (t5 capp$ by a ?9 irregul> b$ ( s&y e>?4 ,! pla9s slope up1 ?\gh seldom s5sibly to ! eye1 f ! summit edge ( "o esc>pm5t to ! foot ( ! next highe/ "o4 ,)9 a di/ance ( #aej miles1 betwe5 ,santa ,cruz to ,port ,desire1 :]e ! pla9s are p>ticul>ly well develop$1 !re are at lea/ sev5 /ages or /eps1 "o above ! o!r4 ,on ! ?ree l[] ones1 namely1 ^? ( #ajj feet1 #bej feet1 & #cej feet 9 height1 exi/+ littoral %ells are abundantly /rew$1 ei!r on ! surface1 or p>tially emb$d$ 9 ! sup]ficial s&y e>?4 ,by :atev] action ^! ?ree l[] pla9s h be5 modell$1 s und\bt$ly h all ! high] ones1 up to a height ( #iej feet at ,s4 ,julian1 & ( #a1bjj feet 7by e/imation7 along ,/4 ,george's ,bay4 ,i ?9k x w n be disput$1 consid]+ ! pres5ce ( ! uprais$ m>9e %ells1 t ! sea has be5 ! active p[] dur+ /ages ( "s k9d 9 ! elevatory process4 ,we w n[ briefly consid] ?is subject3 if we look at ! exi/+ coa/-l9e1 ! evid5ce ( ! great d5ud+ p[] ( ! sea is v di/9ct2 =1 f ,cape ,/4 ,diego1 9 lat4 #ed #cj to ! m\? ( ! ,rio ,negro1 9 lat4 #ca 7a l5g? ( m ?an eight hundr$ miles71 ! %ore is =m$1 ) s+ul>ly few exceptions1 ( bold & nak$ cliffs3 9 _m places ! cliffs are high2 ?us1 s\? ( ! ,santa ,cruz1 !y are betwe5 eight & n9e hundr$ feet 9 height1 ) _! horizontal /rata abruptly cut (f1 %[+ ! imm5se mass ( matt] :i* has be5 remov$4 ,ne>ly ?is :ole l9e ( coa/ consi/s ( a s]ies ( great] or less] curves1 ! horns ( :i*1 & likewise c]ta9 /raight project+ portions1 are =m$ ( h>d rocks2 h5ce ! concave p>ts are evid5tly ! effect & ! measure ( ! d5ud+ action on ! s(t] /rata4 ,at ! foot ( all ! cliffs1 ! sea %oals v gradually f> outw>ds2 & ! bottom1 = a space ( "s miles1 ev]y:]e consi/s ( gravel4 ,i c>efully exam9$ ! b$ ( ! sea (f ! ,santa ,cruz1 & f\nd t its incl9ation 0 exactly ! same1 bo? 9 am\nt & 9 its peculi> curvature1 ) t ( ! #cee feet pla9 at ?is same place4 ,if1 !re=e1 ! coa/1 ) ! b$ ( ! adjo9+ sea1 7 n[ sudd5ly elevat$ "o or two hundr$ feet1 an inl& l9e ( cliffs1 t is an esc>pm5t1 w\ld be =m$1 ) a gravel-capp$ pla9 at its foot g5tly slop+ to ! sea1 & hav+ an incl9ation l t ( ! exi/+ #cee feet pla94 ,f ! d5ud+ t5d5cy ( ! sea1 ?is newly =m$ pla9 w\ld 9 "t be eat5 back into a cliff3 & repetitions ( ?is elevatory & d5ud+ process w\ld produce a s]ies ( gravel-capp$ slop+ t]races1 ris+ "o above ano!r1 l ^? front+ ! %ores ( ,patagonia4 ,! *ief difficulty 7= !re are o!r inconsid]able ones7 on ?is view1 is ! fact1--z f> z ,i c tru/ two cont9u\s l9es ( s\nd+s c>efully tak5 betwe5 ,santa ,cruz & ! ,falkl& ,isl&s1 & sev]al scatt]$ obs]vations on ?is & o!r coa/s1--t ! pebbles at ! bottom ( ! sea quickly & regul>ly decrease 9 size ) ! increas+ dep? & di/ance f ! %ore1 :]eas 9 ! gravel on ! slop+ pla9s1 no su* decrease 9 size 0 p]ceptible4 ,! foll[+ table gives ! av]age result ( _m s\nd+s (f ! ,santa ,cruz3-- ,"u two miles f ! %ore1 _m ( ! pebbles 7 ( l>ge size1 m+l$ ) "s small ones4 ,di/ance 9 miles f %ore ,dep? 9 fa?oms ,size ( ,pebbles #c to #d #aa to #ab ,z l>ge z walnuts2 m+l$ 9 e case ) "s small] ones4 #f to #g #ag to #ai ,z l>ge z hazel-nuts4 #aj to #aa #bc to #be ,f ?ree- to f\r-t5?s ( an in* 9 diamet]4 #ab #cj to #dj ,two-t5?s ( an in*4 #bb to #aej #de to #fe ,"o-t5? ( an in*1 to ! f9e/ s&4 ,i p>ticul>ly att5d$ to ! size ( ! pebbles on ! #cee feet ,santa ,cruz pla91 & ,i notic$ t on ! summit-edge ( ! pres5t sea cliffs _m 7 z l>ge z half a man's head2 & 9 cross+ f ^! cliffs to ! foot ( ! next highe/ esc>pm5t1 a di/ance ( six miles1 ,i c\ld n obs]ve any increase 9 _! size4 ,we %all pres5tly see t ! !ory ( a sl[ & almo/ ins5sible rise ( ! l&1 w expla9 all ! facts connect$ ) ! gravel-capp$ t]races1 bett] ?an ! !ory ( sudd5 elevations ( f "o to two hundr$ feet4 ,m4 d',orbigny has argu$1 f ! uprais$ %ells at ,san ,blas be+ emb$d$ 9 ! positions 9 :i* !y liv$1 & f ! valves ( ! ,az>a labiata high on ! banks ( ! ,p>ana be+ unit$ & unroll$1 t ! elevation ( ,nor!rn ,patagonia & ( ,la ,plata mu/ h be5 sudd52 = he ?9ks1 if x _h be5 gradual1 ^! %ells w\ld all h be5 roll$ on successive bea*-l9es4 ,b 9 protect$ bays1 su* z 9 t ( ,bahia ,blanca1 :]ev] ! sea is accumulat+ ext5sive mud-banks1 or :]e ! w9ds quietly heap up s&-dunes1 b$s ( %ells might assur$ly be pres]v$ buri$ 9 ! positions 9 :i* !y _h liv$1 ev5 :il/ ! l& reta9$ ! same level2 any1 ! smalle/1 am\nt ( elevation w\ld directly aid 9 _! pres]vation4 ,i saw a multitude ( spots 9 ,bahia ,blanca :]e ?is might h be5 effect$2 & at ,maldonado x almo/ c]ta9ly has be5 effect$4 ,9 speak+ ( ! elevation ( ! l& hav+ be5 sl[1 ,i d n wi% to exclude ! small />ts :i* accompany e>?quakes1 z on ! coa/ ( ,*ile2 & by su* movem5ts b$s ( %ells might easily be uplift$1 ev5 9 positions expos$ to a heavy surf1 )\t und]go+ any attrition3 = in/ance1 9 #ahce1 a rocky flat (f ! isl& ( ,santa ,m>ia 0 at "o bl[ upheav$ above high-wat] m>k1 & 0 left cov]$ ) gap+ & putrefy+ mussel-%ells1 /ill atta*$ to ! b$ on :i* !y _h liv$4 ,if ,m4 d',orbigny _h be5 aw>e ( ! _m long p>allel l9es ( s&-hillocks1 ) inf9itely num]\s %ells ( ! ,mactra & ,v5us1 at a l[ level ne> ! ,uruguay2 if he _h se5 at ,bahia ,blanca ! imm5se s&-dunes1 ) wat]-worn pebbles ( pumice1 rang+ 9 p>allel l9es1 "o beh9d ! o!r1 up a height ( at lea/ #abj feet2 if he _h se5 ! s&-dunes1 ) ! c\ntless ,palude/r9as1 on ! l[ pla9 ne> ! ,=t at ?is place1 & t long l9e on ! edge ( ! cliff1 sixty feet high] up2 if he _h cross$ t long & great belt ( p>allel s&-dunes1 eight miles 9 wid?1 /&+ at ! height ( f =ty to fifty feet above ! ,colorado1 :]e s& c\ld n n[ collect1--,i _c believe he w\ld h ?\ght t ! elevation ( ?is great di/rict _h be5 sudd54 ,c]ta9ly ! s&-dunes 7especially :5 ab\nd+ ) %ells71 :i* /& 9 ranges at s _m diff]5t levels1 mu/ all h requir$ long "t = _! accumulation2 & h5ce ,i d n d\bt t ! la/ #ajj feet ( elevation ( ,la ,plata & ,nor!rn ,patagonia has be5 exce$+ly sl[4 ,if we ext5d ?is conclusion to ,c5tral & ,s\!rn ,patagonia1 ! incl9ation ( ! successively ris+ gravel-capp$ pla9s c be expla9$ q z well1 z by ! m obvi\s view already giv5 ( a few comp>atively great & sudd5 elevations2 9 ei!r case we mu/ admit long p]iods ( re/1 dur+ :i* ! sea ate deeply into ! l&4 ,let u suppose ! pres5t coa/ to rise at a ne>ly equable1 sl[ rate1 yet suffici5tly quick to prev5t ! waves q remov+ ea* "p z soon z br\ght up2 9 ?is case e portion ( ! pres5t b$ ( ! sea w successively =m a bea*-l9e1 & f be+ expos$ to a l action w be simil>ly affect$4 ,x _c matt] to :at height ! tides rise1 ev5 if to =ty feet z at ,santa ,cruz1 = !y w act ) equal =ce & 9 l mann] on ea* successive l9e4 ,h5ce !re is no difficulty 9 ! fact ( ! #cee feet pla9 at ,santa ,cruz slop+ up #ajh feet to ! foot ( ! next highe/ esc>pm5t1 & yet hav+ no m>ks ( any "o p>ticul> bea*-l9e on x2 = ! :ole surface on ?is view has be5 a bea*4 ,i _c pret5d to foll[ out ! precise action ( ! tidal-waves dur+ a rise ( ! l&1 sl[1 yet suffici5tly quick to prev5t or *eck d5udation3 b if x be analog\s to :at takes place on protect$ p>ts ( ! pres5t coa/1 :]e gravel is n[ accumulat+ 9 l>ge quantities1#af an incl9$ surface1 ?ickly capp$ by well-r\nd$ pebbles ( ab\t ! same size1 w\ld be ultimately left4 ,on ! gravel n[ accumulat+1 ! waves1 aid$ by ! w9d1 sometimes ?r[ up a ?9 cov]+ ( s&1 toge!r ) ! common coa/-%ells4 ,%ells ?us ca/ up by gales1 w\ld1 dur+ an elevatory p]iod1 nev] aga9 be t\*$ by ! sea4 ,h5ce1 on ?is view ( a sl[ & gradual ris+ ( ! l&1 int]rupt$ by p]iods ( re/ & d5udation1 we c und]/& ! pebbles be+ ( ab\t ! same size ov] ! entire wid? ( ! /ep-l pla9s1--! occasional ?9 cov]+ ( s&y e>?1--& ! pres5ce ( brok51 unroll$ fragm5ts ( ^? %ells1 :i* n[ live exclusively ne> ! coa/4 #af ,on ! ea/]n side ( ,*iloe1 :i* isl& we %all see 9 ! next *apt] is n[ ris+1 ,i obs]v$ t all ! bea*es & ext5sive tidal-flats 7 =m$ ( %+le4 ,summ>y ( results4--,x may be conclud$ t ! coa/ on ?is side ( ! cont95t1 = a space ( at lea/ #a1ahj miles1 has be5 elevat$ to a height ( #ajj feet 9 ,la ,plata1 & ( #djj feet 9 ,s\!rn ,patagonia1 )9 ! p]iod ( exi/+ %ells1 b n ( exi/+ mammif]s4 ,t 9 ,la ,plata ! elevation has be5 v sl[ly effect$3 t 9 ,patagonia ! movem5t may h be5 by consid]able />ts1 b mu* m probably sl[ & quiet4 ,9 ei!r case1 !re h be5 long int]v5+ p]iods ( comp>ative re/1#ag dur+ :i* ! sea corrod$ deeply1 z x is /ill corrod+1 into ! l&4 ,t ! p]iods ( d5udation & elevation 7 contemporane\s & equable ov] great spaces ( coa/1 z %[n by ! equable heights ( ! pla9s2 t !re h be5 at lea/ eight p]iods ( d5udation1 & t ! l&1 up to a height ( f #iej to #a1bjj feet1 has be5 simil>ly modell$ & affect$3 t ! area elevat$1 9 ! s\!rnmo/ "p ( ! cont95t1 ext5d$ 9 bread? to ! ,cordill]a1 & probably seaw>d to ! ,falkl& ,isl&s2 t nor?w>d1 9 ,la ,plata1 ! bread? is unkn[n1 !re hav+ be5 probably m ?an "o axis ( elevation2 & f9ally1 t1 ant]ior to ! elevation atte/$ by ^! uprais$ %ells1 ! l& 0 divid$ by a ,/rait :]e ! ,riv] ,santa ,cruz n[ fl[s1 & t fur!r s\?w>d !re 7 o!r sea-/raits1 s9ce clos$4 ,i may add1 t at ,santa ,cruz1 9 lat4 #ej ,s41 ! pla9s h be5 uplift$ at lea/ #a1djj feet1 s9ce ! p]iod :5 gigantic b\ld]s 7 transport$ betwe5 sixty & sev5ty miles f _! p>5t rock1 on float+ iceb]gs4 #ag ,i say comp>ative & n absolute re/1 because ! sea acts1 z we h se51 ) great d5ud+ p[] on ?is :ole l9e ( coa/2 & !re=e1 dur+ an elevation ( ! l&1 if excessively sl[ 7& ( c\rse dur+ a subsid5ce ( ! l&71 x is q possible t l9es ( cliff might be =m$47 ,la/ly1 consid]+ ! great upw>d movem5ts :i* ?is long l9e ( coa/ has und]gone1 & ! proximity ( its s\!rn half to ! volcanic axis ( ! ,cordill]a1 x is highly rem>kable t 9 ! _m f9e sections expos$ 9 ! ,pampean1 ,patagonian t]ti>y1 & ,b\ld] =mations1 ,i n[h]e obs]v$ ! smalle/ fault or abrupt curvature 9 ! /rata4 ,gravel ,=mation ( ,patagonia4 ,i w "h describe 9 m detail ?an has be5 z yet incid5tally done1 ! nature1 orig91 & ext5t ( ! great %+le cov]+ ( ,patagonia3 b ,i d n mean to affirm t all ( ?is %+le1 especially t on ! high] pla9s1 belongs to ! rec5t p]iod4 ,a ?9 b$ ( s&y e>?1 ) small pebbles ( v>i\s porphyries & ( qu>tz1 cov]+ a l[ pla9 on ! nor? side ( ! ,rio ,colorado1 is ! extreme nor!rn limit ( ?is =mation4 ,^! little pebbles h probably be5 d]iv$ f ! d5udation ( a m regul> b$ ( gravel1 capp+ ! old t]ti>y s&/one plateau ( ! ,rio ,negro4 ,! gravel-b$ ne> ! ,rio ,negro is1 on an av]age1 ab\t t5 or twelve feet 9 ?ickness2 & ! pebbles are l>g] ?an on ! nor!rn side ( ! ,colorado1 be+ f "o or two in*es 9 diamet]1 & compos$ *iefly ( r d>k-t9t$ porphyries4 ,among/ !m ,i "h fir/ notic$ a v>iety (t5 to be ref]r$ to1 namely1 a peculi> gall/one-yell[ silice\s porphyry1 frequ5tly1 b n inv>iably1 conta9+ gra9s ( qu>tz4 ,! pebbles are emb$d$ 9 a :ite1 gritty1 calc>e\s matrix1 v l mort>1 sometimes m]ely coat+ ) a :itewa% ! sep>ate /ones1 & sometimes =m+ ! great] "p ( ! mass4 ,9 "o place ,i saw 9 ! gravel concretion>y nodules 7n r\nd$7 ( cry/allis$ gypsum1 "s z l>ge z a man's head4 ,i trac$ ?is b$ = =ty-five miles inl&1 & 0 assur$ t x ext5d$ f> into ! int]ior4 ,z ! surface ( ! calc>eo-argillace\s pla9 ( ,pampean =mation1 on ! nor!rn side ( ! wide valley ( ! ,colorado1 /&s at ab\t ! same height ) ! mort>-l cem5t$ gravel capp+ ! s&/one on ! s\!rn side1 x is probable1 consid]+ ! app>5t equability ( ! subt]ranean movem5ts along ?is side ( ,am]ica1 t ?is gravel ( ! ,rio ,negro & ! upp] b$s ( ! ,pampean =mation nor?w>d ( ! ,colorado1 are ( ne>ly contemporane\s orig91 & t ! calc>e\s matt] has be5 d]iv$ f ! same s\rce4 ,s\?w>d ( ! ,rio ,negro1 ! cliffs along ! great bay ( ,s4 ,antonio are capp$ ) gravel3 at ,san ,josef1 ,i f\nd t ! pebbles closely resembl$ ^? on ! pla9 ( ! ,rio ,negro1 b t !y 7 n cem5t$ by calc>e\s matt]4 ,betwe5 ,san ,josef & ,port ,desire1 ,i 0 assur$ by ! ,(fic]s ( ! ,survey t ! :ole face ( ! c\ntry is coat$ ) gravel4 ,at ,port ,desire & ov] a space ( tw5ty-five miles inl&1 on ! ?ree /ep-=m$ pla9s & 9 ! valleys1 ,i ev]y:]e pass$ ov] gravel :i*1 :]e ?icke/1 0 betwe5 ?irty & =ty feet4 ,"h1 z 9 o!r p>ts ( ,patagonia1 ! gravel1 or its s&y cov]+1 01 z we h se51 (t5 /rew$ ) rec5t m>9e %ells4 ,! s&y cov]+ sometimes fills up furr[s 9 ! gravel1 z does ! gravel 9 ! und]ly+ t]ti>y =mations4 ,! pebbles are frequ5tly :itewa%$ & ev5 cem5t$ toge!r by a peculi>1 :ite1 friable1 alum9\s1 fusible sub/ance1 :i* ,i believe is decompos$ feldsp>4 ,at ,port ,desire1 ! gravel re/$ sometimes on ! basal =mation ( porphyry1 & sometimes on ! upp] or ! l[] d5ud$ t]ti>y /rata4 ,x is rem>kable t mo/ ( ! porphyritic pebbles diff] f ^? v>ieties ( porphyry :i* occur "h abundantly 9 situ4 ,! peculi> gall/one-yell[ v>iety 0 common1 b less num]\s ?an at ,port ,s4 ,julian1 :]e x =m$ ne>ly "o-?ird ( ! mass ( ! gravel2 ! rema9+ "p !re consi/+ ( pale grey & gre5i% porphyries ) _m cry/als ( feldsp>4 ,at ,port ,s4 ,julian1 ,i asc5d$ "o ( ! flat-topp$ hills1 ! d5ud$ remnant ( ! highe/ pla91 & f\nd x1 at ! height ( #iej feet1 capp$ ) ! usual b$ ( gravel4 ,ne> ! m\? ( ! ,santa ,cruz1 ! b$ ( gravel on ! #cee feet pla9 is f tw5ty to ab\t ?irty-five feet 9 ?ickness4 ,! pebbles v>y f m9ute ones to ! size ( a h5's egg1 & ev5 to t ( half a man's head2 !y consi/ ( pal] v>ieties ( porphyry ?an ^? f\nd fur!r nor?w>d1 & !re are few] ( ! gall/one-yell[ k9d2 pebbles ( compact black clay-slate 7 "h fir/ obs]v$4 ,! gravel1 z we h se51 cov]s ! /ep-=m$ pla9s at ! m\?1 head1 & on ! sides ( ! great valley ( ! ,santa ,cruz4 ,at a di/ance ( #aaj miles f ! coa/1 ! pla9 has ris5 to ! height ( #a1daf feet above ! sea2 & ! gravel1 ) ! associat$ great b\ld] =mation1 has atta9$ a ?ickness ( #bab feet4 ,! pla91 app>5tly ) its usual gravel cov]+1 slopes up to ! foot ( ! ,cordill]a to ! height ( betwe5 #c1bjj & #c1cjj feet4 ,9 asc5d+ ! valley1 ! gravel gradually becomes entirely alt]$ 9 "*3 high up1 we h pebbles ( cry/all9e feldspa?ic rocks1 compact clay-slate1 qu>tzose s*i/s1 & pale-col\r$ porphyries2 ^! rocks1 judg+ bo? f ! gigantic b\ld]s 9 ! surface & f "s small pebbles emb$d$ b5ea? #gjj feet 9 ?ickness ( ! old t]ti>y /rata1 are ! prevail+ k9ds 9 ?is "p ( ! ,cordill]a2 pebbles ( basalt f ! neighb\r+ /reams ( basaltic lava are also num]\s2 !re are few or none ( ! r$di% or ( ! gall/one-yell[ porphyries s common ne> ! coa/4 ,h5ce ! pebbles on ! #cej feet pla9 at ! m\? ( ! ,santa ,cruz _c h be5 d]iv$ 7) ! exception ( ^? ( compact clay-slate1 :i*1 h[ev]1 may equally well h come f ! s\?7 f ! ,cordill]a 9 ?is latitude2 b probably1 9 *ief "p1 f f>!r nor?4 ,s\?w>d ( ! ,santa ,cruz1 ! gravel may be se5 cont9u\sly capp+ ! great #hdj feet pla93 at ! ,rio ,gallegos1 :]e ?is pla9 is succe$$ by a l[] "o1 !re is1 z ,i am in=m$ by ,capta9 ,sulivan1 an irregul> cov]+ ( gravel f t5 to twelve feet 9 ?ickness ov] ! :ole c\ntry4 ,! di/rict on ea* side ( ! ,/rait ( ,magellan is cov]$ up ei!r ) gravel or ! b\ld] =mation3 x 0 int]e/+ to obs]ve ! m>k$ diff]5ce betwe5 ! p]fectly r\nd$ /ate ( ! pebbles 9 ! great %+le =mation ( ,patagonia1 & ! m or less angul> fragm5ts 9 ! b\ld] =mation4 ,! pebbles & fragm5ts ne> ! ,/rait ( ,magellan ne>ly all belong to rocks kn[n to occur 9 ,fuegia4 ,i 0 !re=e mu* surpris$ 9 dr$g+ s\? ( ! ,/rait to f9d1 9 lat4 #ed #aj s\?1 _m pebbles ( ! gall/one-yell[ silice\s porphyry2 ,i procur$ o!rs f a great dep? (f ,/at5 ,isl&1 & o!rs 7 br\ght me f ! we/]n extremity ( ! ,falkl& ,isl&s4#ah ,! di/ribution ( ! pebbles ( ?is peculi> porphyry1 :i* ,i v5ture to affirm is n f\nd 9 situ ei!r 9 ,fuegia1 ! ,falkl& ,isl&s1 or on ! coa/ ( ,patagonia1 is v rem>kable1 = !y are f\nd ov] a space ( #hdj miles 9 a nor? & s\? l9e1 & at ! ,falkl&s1 #cjj miles ea/w>d ( ! coa/ ( ,patagonia4 ,_! occurr5ce 9 ,fuegia & ! ,falkl&s may1 h[ev]1 p]haps be due to ! same ice-ag5cy by :i* ! b\ld]s h be5 !re transport$4 #ah ,at my reque/1 ,mr4 ,k5t collect$ = me a bag ( pebbles f ! bea* ( ,:ite ,rock h>b\r1 9 ! nor!rn "p ( ! s\nd1 betwe5 ! two ,falkl& ,isl&s4 ,out ( ^! well-r\nd$ pebbles1 v>y+ 9 size f a walnut to a h5's egg1 ) "s l>g]1 ?irty-eight evid5tly belong$ to ! rocks ( ^! isl&s2 tw5ty-six 7 simil> to ! pebbles ( porphyry f\nd on ! ,patagonian pla9s1 :i* rocks d n exi/ 9 situ 9 ! ,falkl&s2 "o pebble belong$ to ! peculi> yell[ silice\s porphyry2 ?irty 7 ( d\btful orig94 ,we h se5 t porphyritic pebbles ( a small size are fir/ met ) on ! nor!rn side ( ! ,rio ,colorado1 ! b$ becom+ well develop$ ne> ! ,rio ,negro3 f ?is latt] po9t ,i h e reason to believe t ! gravel ext5ds un9t]rupt$ly ov] ! pla9s & valleys ( ,patagonia = at lea/ #fcj nautical miles s\?w>d to ! ,rio ,gallegos4 ,f ! slope ( ! pla9s1 f ! nature ( ! pebbles1 f _! ext5sion at ! ,rio ,negro f> into ! int]ior1 & at ! ,santa ,cruz close up to ! ,cordill]a1 ,i ?9k x highly probable t ! :ole bread? ( ,patagonia is ?us cov]$4 ,if s1 ! av]age wid? ( ! b$ mu/ be ab\t two hundr$ miles4 ,ne> ! coa/ ! gravel is g5]ally f t5 to ?irty feet 9 ?ickness2 & z 9 ! valley ( ,santa ,cruz x atta9s1 at "s di/ance f ! ,cordill]a1 a ?ickness ( #bad feet1 we may1 ,i ?9k1 safely assume its av]age ?ickness ov] ! :ole area ( #fcj by #bjj miles1 at fifty feet6 ,! transportal & orig9 ( ?is va/ b$ ( pebbles is an int]e/+ problem4 ,f ! mann] 9 :i* !y cap ! /ep-=m$ pla9s1 worn by ! sea )9 ! p]iod ( exi/+ %ells1 _! deposition1 at lea/ on ! pla9s up to a height ( #djj feet1 mu/ h be5 a rec5t geological ev5t4 ,f ! =m ( ! cont95t1 we may feel sure t !y h come f ! we/w>d1 probably1 9 *ief "p f ! ,cordill]a1 b1 p]haps1 p>tly f unkn[n rocky ridges 9 ! c5tral di/ricts ( ,patagonia4 ,t ! pebbles h n be5 transport$ by riv]s1 f ! int]ior t[>ds ! coa/1 we may conclude f ! fewness & smallness ( ! /reams ( ,patagonia3 moreov]1 9 ! case ( ! "o great & rapid riv] ( ,santa ,cruz1 we h good evid5ce t its transport+ p[] is v trifl+4 ,?is riv] is f two to ?ree hundr$ y>ds 9 wid?1 ab\t sev5te5 feet deep 9 its middle1 & runs ) a s+ul> degree ( uni=mity five knots an h\r1 ) no lakes & sc>cely any /ill rea*es3 nev]!less1 to give "o in/ance ( its small transport+ p[]1 ^u c>eful exam9ation1 pebbles ( compact basalt c\ld n be f\nd 9 ! b$ ( ! riv] at a great] di/ance ?an t5 miles bel[ ! po9t :]e ! /ream ru%es ov] ! debris ( ! great basaltic cliffs =m+ its %ore3 fragm5ts ( ! cellul> v>ieties h be5 wa%$ d[n twice or ?rice z f>4 ,t ! pebbles 9 ,c5tral & ,nor!rn ,patagonia h n be5 transport$ by ice-ag5cy1 z seems to h be5 ! case to a consid]able ext5t f>!r s\?1 & likewise 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 we may conclude1 f ! abs5ce ( all angul> fragm5ts 9 ! gravel1 & f ! complete contra/ 9 _m o!r respects betwe5 ! %+le & neighb\r+ b\ld] =mation4 ,look+ to ! gravel on any "o ( ! /ep-=m$ pla9s1 ,i _c d\bt1 f ! sev]al reasons assign$ 9 ?is *apt]1 t x has be5 spread out & level$ by ! long-cont9u$ action ( ! sea1 probably dur+ ! sl[ rise ( ! l&4 ,! smoo? & p]fectly r\nd$ condition ( ! innum]able pebbles alone w\ld prove long-cont9u$ action4 ,b h[ ! :ole mass ( %+le on ! coa/-pla9s has be5 transport$ f ! m\nta9s ( ! int]ior1 is ano!r & m difficult "q4 ,! foll[+ consid]ations1 h[ev]1 %[ t ! sea by its ord9>y action has consid]able p[] 9 di/ribut+ pebbles4 ,a table has already be5 giv51 %[+ h[ v uni=mly & gradually#ai ! pebbles decrease 9 size ) ! gradually seaw>d increas+ dep? & di/ance4 ,a s]ies ( ?is k9d irresi/ibly leads to ! conclusion1 t ! sea has ! p[] ( sift+ & di/ribut+ ! loose matt] on its bottom4 ,accord+ to ,m>t9 ,:ite1#bj ! b$ ( ! ,briti% ,*annel is di/urb$ dur+ gales at dep?s ( sixty-?ree & sixty-sev5 fa?oms1 & at ?irty fa?oms1 %+le & fragm5ts ( %ells are (t5 deposit$1 aft]w>ds to be c>ri$ away aga94 ,gr\ndswells1 :i* are believ$ to be caus$ by di/ant gales1 seem especially to affect ! bottom3 at su* times1 accord+ to ,sir ,r4 ,s*omburgk1#ba ! sea to a great di/ance r\nd ! ,we/ ,indian ,isl&s1 at dep?s f five to fifte5 fa?oms1 becomes discol\r$1 & ev5 ! an*ors ( vessels h be5 mov$4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 "s difficulties 9 und]/&+ h[ ! sea c transport pebbles ly+ at ! bottom1 =1 f exp]im5ts in/itut$ on ! p[] ( runn+ wat]1 x w\ld appe> t ! curr5ts ( ! sea h n suffici5t velocity to move /ones ( ev5 mod]ate size3 moreov]1 ,i h repeat$ly f\nd 9 ! mo/ expos$ situations t ! pebbles :i* lie at ! bottom are encru/$ ) full-gr[n liv+ corall9es1 furni%$ ) ! mo/ delicate1 yet unbrok5 sp9es3 = in/ance1 9 t5 fa?oms wat] (f ! m\? ( ! ,santa ,cruz1 _m pebbles1 "u half an in* 9 diamet]1 7 ?us coat$ ) ,flu/racean zoophytes4#bb ,h5ce we mu/ conclude t ^! pebbles are n (t5 viol5tly di/urb$3 x %\ld1 h[ev]1 be borne 9 m9d t ! gr[? ( corall9es is rapid4 ,! view1 prop\nd$ by ,pr(essor ,playfair1 w1 ,i believe1 expla9 ?is app>5t difficulty1--namely1 t f ! undulations ( ! sea t5d+ to lift up & d[n pebbles or o!r loose bodies at ! bottom1 su* are liable1 :5 ?us q or p>tially rais$1 to be mov$ ev5 by a v small =ce1 a little onw>ds4 ,we c ?us und]/& h[ oceanic or tidal curr5ts ( no great /r5g?1 or t recoil movem5t ( ! bottom-wat] ne> ! l&1 call$ by sailors ! 8und]t[0 7:i* ,i presume mu/ ext5d out seaw>d z f> z ! break+ waves impel ! surface-wat] t[>ds ! bea*71 may ga9 ! p[] dur+ /orms ( sift+ & di/ribut+ pebbles ev5 ( consid]able size1 & yet )\t s viol5tly di/urb+ !m z to injure ! encru/+ corall9es4#bc #ai ,i may m5tion1 t at ! di/ance ( #aej miles f ! ,patagonian %ore ,i c>efully exam9$ ! m9ute r\nd$ p>ticles 9 ! s&1 & f\nd !m to be fusible l ! porphyries ( ! great %+le b$4 ,i c\ld ev5 di/+ui% p>ticles ( ! gall/one-yell[ porphyry4 ,x 0 int]e/+ to notice h[ gradually ! p>ticles ( :ite qu>tz increas$1 z we approa*$ ! ,falkl& ,isl&s1 :i* are ?us con/itut$4 ,9 ! :ole l9e ( s\nd+s betwe5 ^! isl&s & ! coa/ ( ,patagonia dead or liv+ organic rema9s 7 mo/ r>e4 ,on ! relations betwe5 ! dep? ( wat] & ! nature ( ! bottom1 see ,m>t9 ,:ite on 8,s\nd+s 9 ! ,*annel10 pp4 #d1 #f1 #age2 also ,capta9 ,bee*ey's 8,voyage to ! ,pacific10 *ap4 xviii4 #bj 8,s\nd+s 9 ! ,*annel10 pp4 #d1 #aff4 ,m4 ,siau /ates 7,ed94 ,new ,phil4 ,j\r41 vol4 xxxi1 p4 #bdf71 t he f\nd ! s$im5t1 at a dep? ( #ahh metres1 arrang$ 9 ripples ( diff]5t degrees ( f95ess4 ,!re are "s excell5t discussions on ?is & alli$ subjects 9 ,sir ,h4 ,de la ,be*e's 8,!oretical ,rese>*es40 #ba ,j\rnal ( ,royal ,geograph4 ,soc41 vol4 v1 p4 #be4 ,x appe>s f ,mr4 ,scott ,russell's inve/igations 7see ,mr4 ,mur*ison's 8,anniv]4 ,address ,geolog4 ,soc410 #ahdc1 p4 #dj71 t 9 waves ( translation ! motion ( ! p>ticles ( wat] is ne>ly z great at ! bottom z at ! top4 #bb 7,a pebble1 "o & a half in* squ>e & half an in* ?ick1 0 giv5 me1 dr$g$ up f tw5ty-sev5 fa?oms dep? (f ! we/]n end ( ! ,falkl& ,isl&s1 :]e ! sea is rem>kably /ormy1 & subject to viol5t tides4 ,?is pebble 0 encru/$ on all sides by a delicate liv+ corall9e4 ,i h se5 _m pebbles f dep?s betwe5 =ty & sev5ty fa?oms ?us encru/$2 "o f ! latt] dep? (f ,cape ,horn4 #bc ,i may take ?is opportunity ( rem>k+ on a s+ul>1 b v common "* 9 ! =m ( ! bottom1 9 ! creeks :i* deeply p5etrate ! we/]n %ores ( ,ti]ra del ,fuego2 namely1 t !y are almo/ inv>iably mu* %all[] close to ! op5 sea at _! m\?s ?an inl&4 ,?us1 ,cook1 9 ent]+ ,*ri/mas ,s\nd1 fir/ _h s\nd+s 9 ?irty-sev5 fa?oms1 !n 9 fifty1 !n 9 sixty1 & a little f>!r 9 no bottom ) #agj fa?oms4 ,! seal]s are s famili> ) ?is fact1 t !y always look out = an*orage ne> ! entrances ( ! creeks4 ,see1 also1 on ?is subject1 ! 8,voyages ( ! ,adv5ture & ,beagle10 vol4 i1 p4 #cge & 8,app5dix10 p4 #cac4 ,?is ,%oalness ( ! sea-*annels ne> _! entrances probably results f ! quantity ( s$im5t =m$ by ! we> & te> ( ! out] rocks expos$ to ! full =ce ( ! op5 sea4 ,i h no d\bt t _m lakes1 = in/ance 9 ,scotl&1 :i* are v deep )91 & are sep>at$ f ! sea app>5tly only by a tract ( detritus1 7 orig9ally sea-*annels ) banks ( ?is nature ne> _! m\?s1 :i* h s9ce be5 upheav$4 ,! sea acts 9 ano!r & di/9ct mann] 9 ! di/ribution ( pebbles1 namely by ! waves on ! bea*4 ,mr4 ,palm]1#bd 9 8 excell5t memoir on ?is subject1 has %[n t va/ masses ( %+le travel ) surpris+ quickness along l9es ( coa/1 accord+ to ! direction ) :i* ! waves break on ! bea* & t ?is is det]m9$ by ! prevail+ direction ( ! w9ds4 ,?is ag5cy mu/ be p[]ful 9 m+l+ toge!r & dissem9at+ pebbles d]iv$ f diff]5t s\rces3 we may1 p]haps1 ?us und]/& ! wide di/ribution ( ! gall/one-yell[ porphyry2 & likewise1 p]haps1 ! great diff]5ce 9 ! nature ( ! pebbles at ! m\? ( ! ,santa ,cruz f ^? 9 ! same latitude at ! head ( ! valley4 #bd 8,philosophical ,transactions10 #ahcd1 p4 #egf4 ,i w n pret5d to assign to ^! sev]al & complicat$ ag5cies _! %>es 9 ! di/ribution ( ! ,patagonian %+le3 b f ! sev]al consid]ations giv5 9 ?is *apt]1 & ,i may add1 f ! frequ5cy ( a capp+ ( gravel on t]ti>y deposits 9 all p>ts ( ! _w1 z ,i h myself obs]v$ & se5 /at$ 9 ! works ( v>i\s au?ors1 ,i _c d\bt t ! p[] ( widely disp]s+ gravel is an ord9>y cont+5t on ! action ( ! sea2 & t ev5 9 ! case ( ! great ,patagonian %+le-b$ we h no occasion to call 9 ! aid ( debacles4 ,i at "o "t imag9$ t p]haps an imm5se accumulation ( %+le _h orig9ally be5 collect$ at ! foot ( ! ,cordill]a2 & t ?is accumulation1 :5 uprais$ above ! level ( ! sea1 _h be5 eat5 into & p>tially spread out 7z (f ! pres5t l9e ( coa/72 & t ! newly-spread out b$ _h 9 its turn be5 uprais$1 eat5 into1 & re-spread out2 & s onw>ds1 until ! %+le1 :i* 0 fir/ accumulat$ 9 great ?ickness at ! foot ( ! ,cordill]a1 _h rea*$ 9 ?9n] b$s its pres5t ext5sion4 ,by :atev] means ! gravel =mation ( ,patagonia may h be5 di/ribut$1 ! va/ness ( its area1 its ?ickness1 its sup]ficial position1 its rec5t orig91 & ! great degree ( simil>ity 9 ! nature ( its pebbles1 all appe> to me well des]v+ ! att5tion ( geologi/s1 9 relation to ! orig9 ( ! widely-spread b$s ( conglom]ate belong+ to pa/ epo*s4 ,no4 #g ,section ( coa/-cliffs & bottom ( sea1 (f ! isl& ( ,/4 ,hel5a4 ,illu/ration3 ,section ( cla/-cliffs & bottom ( sea1 (f ! isl& ( ,/4 ,hel5a4 ,=mation ( ,cliffs4--,:5 view+ ! sea-worn cliffs ( ,patagonia1 9 "s p>ts betwe5 eight hundr$ & n9e hundr$ feet 9 height1 & =m$ ( horizontal t]ti>y /rata1 :i* mu/ once h ext5d$ f> seaw>d--or aga91 :5 view+ ! l(ty cliffs r\nd _m volcanic isl&s1 9 :i* ! g5tle incl9ation ( ! lava-/reams indicates ! =m] ext5sion ( ! l&1 a difficulty (t5 occurr$ to me1 namely1 h[ ! /rata c\ld possibly h be5 remov$ by ! action ( ! sea at a consid]able dep? b5ea? its surface4 ,! section 9 diagram ,no4 #g1 :i* repres5ts ! g5]al =m ( ! l& on ! nor!rn & leew>d side ( ,/4 ,hel5a 7tak5 f ,mr4 ,seale's l>ge model & v>i\s measurem5ts71 & ( ! bottom ( ! adjo9+ sea 7tak5 *iefly f ,capta9 ,au/9's survey & "s old *>ts71 w %[ ! nature ( ?is difficulty4 ,if1 z seems probable1 ! basaltic /reams 7 orig9ally prolong$ ) ne>ly _! pres5t incl9ation1 !y mu/1 z %[n by ! dott$ l9e 9 ! section1 once h ext5d$ at lea/ to a po9t1 n[ cov]$ by ! sea to a dep? ( ne>ly ?irty fa?oms3 b ,i h e reason to believe !y ext5d$ consid]ably fur!r1 = ! incl9ation ( ! /reams is less ne> ! coa/ ?an fur!r inl&4 ,x %\ld also be obs]v$1 t o!r sections on ! coa/ ( ?is isl& w\ld h giv5 f> m /rik+ results1 b ,i _h n ! exact measurem5ts2 ?us1 on ! w9dw>d side1 ! cliffs are ab\t two ?\s& feet 9 height & ! cut-(f lava /reams v g5tly incl9$1 & ! bottom ( ! sea has ne>ly a simil> slope all r\nd ! isl&4 ,h[1 !n1 has all ! h>d basaltic rock1 :i* once ext5d$ b5ea? ! surface ( ! sea1 be5 worn away8 ,accord+ to ,capta9 ,au/91 ! bottom is unev5 & rocky only to t v small di/ance f ! bea* )9 :i* ! dep? is f five to six fa?oms2 outside ?is l9e1 to a dep? ( ab\t "o hundr$ fa?oms1 ! bottom is smoo?1 g5tly incl9$1 & =m$ ( mud & s&2 outside ! "o hundr$ fa?oms1 x plunges sudd5ly into unfa?omable dep?s1 z is s v commonly ! case on all coa/s :]e s$im5t is accumulat+4 ,at great] dep?s ?an ! five or six fa?oms1 x seems impossible1 "u exi/+ circum/ances1 t ! sea c bo? h worn away h>d rock1 9 p>ts to a ?ickness ( at lea/ #aej feet1 & h deposit$ a smoo? b$ ( f9e s$im5t4 ,n[1 if we _h any reason to suppose t ,/4 ,hel5a _h1 dur+ a long p]iod1 gone on sl[ly subsid+1 e difficulty w\ld be remov$3 = look+ at ! diagram1 & imag9+ a fre% am\nt ( subsid5ce1 we c see t ! waves w\ld !n act on ! coa/-cliffs ) fre% & unimpair$ vig\r1 :il/ ! rocky l$ge ne> ! bea* w\ld be c>ri$ d[n to t dep?1 at :i* s& & mud w\ld be deposit$ on its b>e & unev5 surface3 aft] ! =mation ne> ! %ore ( a new rocky %oal1 fre% subsid5ce w\ld c>ry x d[n & all[ x to be smoo?ly cov]$ up4 ,b 9 ! case ( ! _m cliff-b\nd$ isl&s1 = in/ance 9 "s ( ! ,can>y ,isl&s & ( ,madeira1 r\nd :i* ! incl9ation ( ! /rata %[s t ! l& once ext5d$ f> into ! dep?s ( ! sea1 :]e !re is no app>5t means ( h>d rock be+ worn away--are we to suppose t all ^! isl&s h sl[ly subsid$8 ,madeira1 ,i may rem>k1 has1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,smi? ( ,jordan ,hill1 subsid$4 ,are we to ext5d ?is conclusion to ! high1 cliff-b\nd1 horizontally /ratifi$ %ores ( ,patagonia1 (f :i*1 ?\gh ! wat] is n deep ev5 at ! di/ance ( sev]al miles1 yet ! smoo? bottom ( pebbles gradually decreas+ 9 size ) ! increas+ dep?1 & d]iv$ f a =eign s\rce1 seem to decl>e t ! sea is n[ a deposit+ & n a corrod+ ag5t8 ,i am mu* incl9$ to suspect1 t we %all h]eaft] f9d 9 all su* cases1 t ! l& ) ! adjo9+ b$ ( ! sea has 9 tru? subsid$3 ! "t w1 ,i believe1 come1 :5 geologi/s w consid] x z improbable1 t ! l& %\ld h reta9$ ! same level dur+ a :ole geological p]iod1 z t ! atmosph]e %\ld h rema9$ absolutely calm dur+ an entire season4 ,*apt] ,,ii ,,on ,,! ,,elevation ,,( ,,! ,,we/]n ,,coa/ ,,( ,,s\? ,,am]ica4 ,*onos ,ar*ipelago4--,*iloe1 rec5t & gradual elevation (1 traditions ( ! inhabitants on ?is subject4--,concepcion1 e>?quake & elevation (4--,,valp>aiso1 great elevation (1 uprais$ %ells1 e>? ( m>9e orig91 gradual rise ( ! l& )9 ! hi/orical p]iod4--,,coquimbo1 elevation (1 9 rec5t times2 t]races ( m>9e orig91 _! incl9ation1 _! esc>pm5ts n horizontal4--,guasco1 gravel t]races (4--,copiapo4--,,p]u4--,uprais$ %ells ( ,cobija1 ,iquique1 & ,arica4--,lima1 %ell-b$s & sea-bea* on ,san ,lor5zo1 human rema9s1 fossil e>!nw>e1 e>?quake debacle1 rec5t subsid5ce4 ,on ! decay ( uprais$ %ells4--,g5]al summ>y4 ,comm5c+ at ! s\? & proce$+ nor?w>d1 ! fir/ place at :i* ,i l&$1 0 at ,cape ,tres ,montes1 9 lat4 #df #ce4 ,"h1 on ! %ores ( ,*ri/mas ,cove1 ,i obs]v$ 9 sev]al places a bea* ( pebbles ) rec5t %ells1 ab\t tw5ty feet above high-wat] m>k4 ,s\?w>d ( ,tres ,montes 7betwe5 lat4 #dg & #dh71 ,byron#a rem>ks1 8,we ?\ght x v /range1 t ^u ! summits ( ! highe/ hills 7 f\nd b$s ( %ells1 a foot or two ?ick40 ,9 ! ,*onos ,ar*ipelago1 ! isl& ( ,lemus 7lat4 #dd #cj7 01 accord+ to ,m4 ,co/e1#b sudd5ly elevat$ eight feet1 dur+ ! e>?quake ( #ahbi3 he adds1 8,des ro*es jadis t\j\rs c\v]tes p> la m]1 re/ant auj\rd'hui con/amm5t dec\v]tes40 ,9 o!r p>ts ( ?is ar*ipelago1 ,i obs]v$ two t]races ( gravel1 abutt+ to ! foot ( ea* o!r3 at ,l[e's ,h>b\r 7#dc #dh71 "u a great mass ( ! b\ld] =mation1 ab\t ?ree hundr$ feet 9 ?ickness1 ,i f\nd a lay] ( s&1 ) num]\s comm9ut$ fragm5ts ( sea-%ells1 hav+ a fre% aspect1 b too small to be id5tifi$4 #a 8,n>rative ( ! ,loss ( ! ,wag]40 #b 8,comptes ,r5dus10 ,octob] #ahch1 p4 #gjf4 ,! ,isl& ( ,*iloe4--,! evid5ce ( rec5t elevation is "h m satisfactory4 ,! bay ( ,san ,c>los is 9 mo/ p>ts b\nd$ by precipit\s cliffs f ab\t t5 to =ty feet 9 height1 _! bases be+ sep>at$ f ! pres5t l9e ( tidal action by a talus1 a few feet 9 height1 cov]$ ) vegetation4 ,9 "o %elt]$ creek 7we/ ( ,p4 ,ar5a71 in/ead ( a loose talus1 !re 0 a b>e slop+ bank ( t]ti>y mud/one1 p]=at$1 above ! l9e ( ! highe/ tides1 by num]\s %ells ( a ,pholas n[ common 9 ! h>b\r4 ,! upp] extremities ( ^! %ells1 /&+ upright 9 _! holes ) grass gr[+ out ( !m1 7 abrad$ ab\t a qu>t] ( an in*1 to ! same level ) ! surr\nd+ worn /rata4 ,9 o!r p>ts1 ,i obs]v$ 7z at ,pudeto7 a great bea*1 =m$ ( comm9ut$ %ells1 tw5ty feet above ! pres5t %ore4 ,9 o!r p>ts aga91 !re 7 small caves worn into ! foot ( ! l[ cliffs1 & protect$ f ! waves by ! talus ) its vegetation3 "o su* cave1 :i* ,i exam9$1 _h its m\? ab\t tw5ty feet1 & its bottom1 :i* 0 fill$ ) s& conta9+ fragm5ts ( %ells & legs ( crabs1 f eight to t5 feet above high-wat] m>k4 ,f ^! sev]al facts1 & f ! appe>ance ( ! uprais$ %ells1 ,i inf]r$ t ! elevation _h be5 q rec5t2 & on inquir+ f ,mr4 ,williams1 ! ,portma/]1 he told me he 0 conv9c$ t ! l& _h ris51 or ! sea fall51 f\r feet )9 ! la/ f\r ye>s4 ,dur+ ?is p]iod1 !re _h be5 "o sev]e e>?quake1 b no p>ticul> *ange ( level 0 !n obs]v$2 f ! habits ( ! p :o all keep boats 9 ! protect$ creeks1 x is absolutely impossible t a rise ( f\r feet c\ld h tak5 place sudd5ly & be5 unp]ceiv$4 ,mr4 ,williams believes t ! *ange has be5 q gradual4 ,)\t ! elevatory movem5t cont9ues at a quick rate1 !re c be no d\bt t ! sea w soon de/roy ! talus ( e>? at ! foot ( ! cliffs r\nd ! bay1 & w !n rea* its =m] lat]al ext5sion1 b n ( c\rse its =m] level3 "s ( ! inhabitants assur$ me t "o su* talus1 ) a footpa? on x1 0 ev5 already s5sibly decreas+ 9 wid?4 ,i receiv$ sev]al acc\nts ( b$s ( %ells1 exi/+ at consid]able heights 9 ! inl& p>ts ( ,*iloe2 & to "o ( ^!1 ne> ,catiman1 ,i 0 guid$ by a c\ntryman4 ,"h1 on ! s\? side ( ! p59sula ( ,lacuy1 !re 0 an imm5se b$ ( ! ,v5us co/ellata & ( an oy/]1 ly+ on ! summit-edge ( a piece ( tablel&1 #cej feet 7by ! b>omet]7 above ! level ( ! sea4 ,! %ells 7 closely pack$ toge!r1 emb$d$ 9 & cov]$ by a v black1 damp1 peaty m\ld1 two or ?ree feet 9 ?ickness1 out ( :i* a =e/ ( great trees 0 gr[+4 ,consid]+ ! nature & dampness ( ?is peaty soil1 x is surpris+ t ! f9e ridges on ! outside ( ! ,v5us are p]fectly pres]v$1 ?\gh all ! %ells h a black5$ appe>ance4 ,i did n d\bt t ! black soil1 :i* :5 dry1 cakes h>d1 0 entirely ( t]re/rial orig91 b on exam9+ x "u ! microscope1 ,i f\nd _m v m9ute r\nd$ fragm5ts ( %ells1 among/ :i* ,i c\ld di/+ui% bits ( ,s]pul & mussels4 ,! ,v5us co/ellata1 & ! ,o/rea 7,o4 edulis1 accord+ to ,capta9 ,k+7 are n[ ! commone/ %ells 9 ! adjo9+ bays4 ,9 a b$ ( %ells1 a few feet bel[ ! #cej feet b$1 ,i f\nd a horn ( ! little ,c]vus humilis1 :i* n[ inhabits ,*iloe4 ,! ea/]n or inl& side ( ,*iloe1 ) its _m adjac5t islets1 consi/s ( t]ti>y & b\ld] deposits1 worn into irregul> pla9s capp$ by gravel4 ,ne> ,ca/ro1 & = t5 miles s\?w>d1 & on ! islet ( ,lemuy1 ,i f\nd ! surface ( ! gr\nd to a height ( betwe5 tw5ty & ?irty feet above high-wat] m>k1 & 9 sev]al places app>5tly up to fifty feet1 ?ickly coat$ by mu* comm9ut$ %ells1 *iefly ( ! ,v5us co/ellata & ,mytilus ,*ilo5sis2 ! species n[ mo/ abundant on ?is l9e ( coa/4 ,z ! inhabitants c>ry imm5se numb]s ( ^! %ells inl&1 ! cont9uity ( ! b$ at ! same height 0 (t5 ! only means ( recognis+ its natural orig94 ,ne> ,ca/ro1 on ea* side ( ! creek & rivulet ( ! ,gamboa1 ?ree di/9ct t]races are se53 ! l[e/ 0 e/imat$ at ab\t "o hundr$ & fifty feet 9 height1 & ! highe/ at ab\t five hundr$ feet1 ) ! c\ntry irregul>ly ris+ beh9d x2 obscure traces1 also1 ( ^! same t]races c\ld be se5 along o!r p>ts ( ! coa/4 ,!re c be no d\bt t _! ?ree esc>pm5ts record pauses 9 ! elevation ( ! isl&4 ,i may rem>k t sev]al promontories h ! ^w ,huapi1 :i* signifies 9 ! ,indian tongue1 isl&1 app5d$ to !m1 su* z ,huapil9ao1 ,huapilacuy1 ,caucahuapi1 etc42 & ^!1 accord+ to ,indian traditions1 once exi/$ z isl&s4 ,9 ! same mann] ! t]m ,pulo 9 ,sumatra is app5d$#c to ! names ( promontories1 traditionally said to h be5 isl&s2 9 ,sumatra1 z 9 ,*iloe1 !re are uprais$ rec5t %ells4 ,! ,bay ( ,c>elmapu1 on ! ma9l& nor? ( ,*iloe1 accord+ to ,agerros1#d 0 9 #afdc a good h>b\r2 x is n[ q useless1 except = boats4 #c ,m>sd5's 8,sumatra10 p4 #ca4 #d 8,descripcion ,hi/4 de la ,prov9cia de ,*ilo10 p4 #gh4 ,f ! acc\nt giv5 by ! old ,spani% writ]s1 x w\ld appe> t sev]al o!r h>b\rs1 betwe5 ?is po9t & ,concepcion1 7 =m]ly mu* deep] ?an !y n[ are4 ,valdivia4--,i did n obs]ve "h any di/9ct pro(s ( rec5t elevation2 b 9 a b$ ( v s(t s&/one1 =m+ a fr+e-l pla91 ab\t sixty feet 9 height1 r\nd ! hills ( mica-slate1 !re are %ells ( ,mytilus1 ,crepidula1 ,sol51 ,novacul9a1 & ,cy!ra1 too imp]fect to be specifically recognis$4 ,at ,imp]ial1 sev5ty miles nor? ( ,valdivia1 ,agerros#e /ates t !re are l>ge b$s ( %ells1 at a consid]able di/ance f ! coa/1 :i* are burnt = lime4 ,! isl& ( ,mo*a1 ly+ a little nor? ( ,imp]ial1 0 uplift$ two feet1#f dur+ ! e>?quake ( #ahce4 #e ,ibid41 p4 #be4 #f 8,voyages ( ,adv5ture & ,beagle10 vol4 ii1 p4 #dae4 ,concepcion4--,i _c add any?+ to ! excell5t acc\nt by ,capta9 ,fitzroy#g ( ! elevation ( ! l& at ?is place1 :i* accompani$ ! e>?quake ( #ahce4 ,i w only recall to ! recollection ( geologi/s1 t ! s\!rn end ( ! isl& ( ,/4 ,m>y 0 uplift$ eight feet1 ! c5tral "p n9e1 & ! nor!rn end t5 feet2 & ! :ole isl& m ?an ! surr\nd+ di/ricts4 ,great b$s ( mussels1 patell1 & *itons /ill adh]+ to ! rocks 7 uprais$ above high-wat] m>k2 & "s acres ( a rocky flat1 :i* 0 =m]ly always cov]$ by ! sea1 0 left /&+ dry1 & exhal$ an (f5sive smell1 f ! _m atta*$ & putrefy+ %ells4 ,x appe>s f ! rese>*es ( ,capta9 ,fitzroy t bo? ! isl& ( ,/4 ,m>y & ,concepcion 7:i* 0 uplift$ only f\r or five feet7 9 ! c\rse ( "s weeks subsid$1 & lo/ "p ( _! fir/ elevation4 ,i w only add z a lesson ( caution1 t r\nd ! s&y %ores ( ! great ,bay ( ,concepcion1 x 0 mo/ difficult1 ow+ to ! oblit]at+ effects ( ! great accompany+ wave1 to recognise any di/9ct evid5ce ( ?is consid]able upheaval2 "o spot mu/ be except$1 :]e !re 0 a deta*$ rock :i* be=e ! e>?quake _h always be5 cov]$ by ! sea1 b aft]w>ds 0 left uncov]$4 #g ,ibid41 vol4 ii1 p4 #dab1 et seq4 ,9 vol4 v1 p4 #fja ( ! 8,geological ,transactions0 ,i h giv5 an acc\nt ( ! rem>kable volcanic ph5om5a1 :i* accompani$ ?is e>?quake4 ,^! ph5om5a appe> to me to prove t ! action1 by :i* l>ge tracts ( l& are uplift$1 & by :i* volcanic eruptions are produc$1 is 9 e respect id5tical4 ,on ! isl& ( ,quiriqu9a 79 ! ,bay ( ,concepcion71 ,i f\nd1 at an e/imat$ height ( f\r hundr$ feet1 ext5sive lay]s ( %ells1 mo/ly comm9ut$1 b "s p]fectly pres]v$ & closely pack$ 9 black vegetable m\ld2 !y consi/$ ( ,con*olepas1 ,fissurella1 ,mytilus1 ,tro*us1 & ,balanus4 ,"s ( ^! lay]s ( %ells re/$ on a ?ick b$ ( bright-r$1 dry1 friable e>?1 capp+ ! surface ( ! t]ti>y s&/one1 & ext5d+1 z ,i obs]v$ :il/ sail+ along ! coa/1 = #aej miles s\?w>d3 at ,valp>aiso1 we %all pres5tly see t a simil> r$ e>?y mass1 ?\gh q l t]re/rial m\ld1 is really 9 *ief "p ( rec5t m>9e orig94 ,on ! flanks ( ?is isl& ( ,quiriqu9a1 at a less height ?an ! #djj feet1 !re 7 spaces sev]al feet squ>e1 ?ickly /rew$ ) fragm5ts ( simil> %ells4 ,dur+ a subsequ5t visit ( ! ,beagle to ,concepcion1 ,mr4 ,k5t1 ! assi/ant-surgeon1 0 s k9d z to make = me "s measurem5ts ) ! b>omet]3 he f\nd _m m>9e rema9s along ! %ores ( ! :ole bay1 at a height ( ab\t tw5ty feet2 & f ! hill ( ,s5t9ella beh9d ,talcahuano1 at ! height ( #afj feet1 he collect$ num]\s %ells1 pack$ toge!r close b5ea? ! surface 9 black e>?1 consi/+ ( two species ( ,mytilus1 two ( ,crepidula1 "o ( ,con*olepas1 ( ,fissurella1 ,v5us1 ,mactra1 ,turbo1 ,monoc]os1 & ! ,balanus psittacus4 ,^! %ells 7 blea*$1 & )9 "s ( ! ,balani o!r ,balani 7 gr[+1 %[+ t !y mu/ h long la9 dead 9 ! sea4 ,! above species ,i comp>$ ) liv+ ones f ! bay1 & f\nd !m id5tical2 b hav+ s9ce lo/ ! specim5s1 ,i _c give _! names3 ?is is ( little importance1 z ,mr4 ,brod]ip has exam9$ a simil> collection1 made dur+ ,capta9 ,bee*ey's exp$ition1 & asc]ta9$ t !y consi/$ ( t5 rec5t species1 associat$ ) fragm5ts ( ,e*9i1 crabs1 & ,flu/r2 "s ( ^! rema9s 7 e/imat$ by ,lieut5ant ,bel*] to lie at ! height ( ne>ly a ?\s& feet above ! level ( ! sea4#h ,9 "s places r\nd ! bay1 ,mr4 ,k5t obs]v$ t !re 7 b$s =m$ exclusively ( ! ,mytilus ,*ilo5sis3 ?is species n[ lives 9 p>ts nev] uncov]$ by ! tides4 ,at consid]able heights1 ,mr4 ,k5t f\nd only a few %ells2 b f ! summit ( "o hill1 #fbe feet high1 he br\ght me specim5s ( ! ,con*olepas1 ,mytilus ,*ilo5sis1 & a ,turbo4 ,^! %ells 7 s(t] & m brittle ?an ^? f ! height ( #afd feet2 & ^! latt] _h obvi\sly a mu* m anci5t appe>ance ?an ! same species f ! height ( only tw5ty feet4 #h 8,zoology ( ,capta9 ,bee*ey's ,voyage10 p4 #afb4 ,coa/ nor? ( ,concepcion4--,! fir/ po9t exam9$ 0 at ! m\? ( ! ,rapel 7#afj miles nor? ( ,concepcion & sixty miles s\? ( ,valp>aiso71 :]e ,i obs]v$ a few %ells at ! height ( #ajj feet1 & "s b>nacles adh]+ to ! rocks ?ree or f\r feet above ! highe/ tides3 ,m4 ,gay#i f\nd "h rec5t %ells at ! di/ance ( two leagues f ! %ore4 ,inl& !re are "s wide1 gravel-capp$ pla9s1 int]sect$ by _m broad1 flat-bottom$ valleys 7n[ c>ry+ insignificant /reamlets71 ) _! sides cut into successive wall-l esc>pm5ts1 ris+ "o above ano!r1 & 9 _m places1 accord+ to ,m4 ,gay1 worn into caves4 ,! "o cave 7,c4 del ,obispo7 :i* ,i exam9$1 resembl$ ^? =m$ on _m sea-coa/s1 ) its bottom fill$ ) %+le4 ,^! inl& pla9s1 in/ead ( slop+ t[>ds ! coa/1 are incl9$ 9 an opposite direction t[>ds ! ,cordill]a1 l ! successively ris+ t]races on ! inl& or ea/]n side ( ,*iloe3 "s po9ts ( granite1 :i* project ?r\gh ! pla9s ne> ! coa/1 no d\bt once =m$ a *a9 ( outly+ isl&s1 on ! inl& %ores ( :i* ! pla9s 7 accumulat$4 ,at ,bucalemu1 a few miles nor?w>d ( ! ,rapel1 ,i obs]v$ at ! foot1 & on ! summit-edge ( a pla91 t5 miles f ! coa/1 _m rec5t %ells1 mo/ly comm9ut$1 b "s p]fect4 ,!re 71 also1 _m at ! bottom ( ! great valley ( ! ,maypu4 ,at ,san ,antonio1 %ells are said to be collect$ & burnt = lime4 ,at ! bottom ( a great rav9e 7,quebrada ,onda1 on ! road to ,casa ,blanca71 at ! di/ance ( sev]al miles f ! coa/1 ,i notic$ a consid]able b$1 compos$ exclusively ( ,mesodesma donaci=me1 ,de%41 ly+ on a b$ ( muddy s&3 ?is %ell n[ lives associat$ toge!r 9 great numb]s1 on tidal-flats on ! coa/ ( ,*ile4 #i 8,annales des ,sci5c4 ,nat410 ,avril #ahcc4 ,valp>aiso4 ,dur+ two successive ye>s ,i c>efully exam9$1 "p ( ! "t 9 company ) ,mr4 ,alison1 into all ! facts connect$ ) ! rec5t elevation ( ?is neighb\rhood4 ,9 v _m p>ts a bea* ( brok5 %ells1 ab\t f\rte5 or fifte5 feet above high-wat] m>k1 may be obs]v$2 & at ?is level ! coa/-rocks1 :]e precipit\s1 are corrod$ 9 a b&4 ,at "o spot1 ,mr4 ,alison1 by remov+ "s birds' dung1 f\nd at ?is same level b>nacles adh]+ to ! rocks4 ,= sev]al miles s\?w>d ( ! bay1 almo/ e flat little headl&1 betwe5 ! heights ( #fj & #bcj feet 7measur$ by ! b>omet]71 is smoo?ly coat$ by a ?ick mass ( comm9ut$ %ells1 ( ! same species1 & app>5tly 9 ! same proportional numb]s ) ^? exi/+ 9 ! adjo9+ sea4 ,! ,con*olepas is mu* ! mo/ abundant1 & ! be/ pres]v$ %ell2 b ,i extract$ p]fectly pres]v$ specim5s ( ! ,fissurella biradiata1 a ,tro*us & ,balanus 7bo? well-kn[n1 b accord+ to ,mr4 ,s[]by yet unnam$7 & p>ts ( ! ,mytilus ,*ilo5sis4 ,mo/ ( ^! %ells1 z well z an encru/+ ,nullipora1 p>tially reta9 _! col\r2 b !y are brittle1 & (t5 /a9$ r$ f ! und]ly+ brecciat$ mass ( prim>y rocks2 "s are pack$ toge!r1 ei!r 9 black or r$di% m\lds2 "s lie loose on ! b>e rocky surfaces4 ,! total numb] ( ^! %ells is imm5se2 !y are less num]\s1 ?\gh /ill f> f r>e1 up a height ( #a1jjj feet above ! sea4 ,on ! summit ( a hill1 measur$ #eeg feet1 !re 0 a small horizontal b& ( comm9ut$ %ells1 ( :i* _m consi/$ 7& likewise f less] heights7 ( v "y & small specim5s ( ! /ill liv+ ,con*olepas1 ,tro*us1 ,patell1 ,crepidul1 & ( ,mytilus ,magellanicus 7873#aj sev]al ( ^! %ells 7 "u a qu>t] ( an in* 9 _! greate/ diamet]4 ,my att5tion 0 call$ to ?is circum/ance by a native fi%]man1 :om ,i took to look at ^! %ell-b$s2 & he ridicul$ ! notion ( su* small %ells hav+ be5 br\ght up = food2 nor c\ld "s ( ! species h adh]$ :5 alive to o!r l>g] %ells4 ,on ano!r hill1 "s miles di/ant1 & #fdh feet high1 ,i f\nd %ells ( ! ,con*olepas & ,tro*us1 p]fect1 ?\gh v old1 ) fragm5ts ( ,mytilus ,*ilo5sis1 all emb$d$ 9 r$di%-br[n m\ld3 ,i also f\nd ^! same species1 ) fragm5ts ( an ,e*9us & ( ,balanus psittacus1 on a hill #a1jjj feet high4 ,above ?is height1 %ells became v r>e1 ?\gh on a hill #a1cjj feet high1#aa ,i collect$ ! ,con*olepas1 ,tro*us1 ,fissurella1 & a ,patella4 ,at ^! great] heights ! %ells are almo/ inv>iably emb$d$ 9 m\ld1 & sometimes are expos$ only by te>+ up bu%es4 ,^! %ells obvi\sly _h a v mu* m anci5t appe>ance ?an ^? f ! less] heights2 ! apices ( ! ,tro*i 7 (t5 worn d[n2 ! little holes made by burr[+ animals 7 greatly enl>g$2 & ! ,con*olepas 0 (t5 p]=at$ q ?r\gh1 ow+ to ! inn] plates ( %ell hav+ scal$ (f4 #aj ,mr4 ,cum+ in=ms me t he does n ?9k ?is species id5tical )1 ?\gh closely resembl+1 ! true ,m4 ,magellanicus ( ! s\!rn & ea/]n coa/ ( ,s\? ,am]ica2 x lives abundantly on ! coa/ ( ,*ile4 #aa ,measur$ by ! b>omet]3 ! highe/ po9t 9 ! range beh9d ,valp>aiso ,i f\nd to be #a1fbf feet above ! level ( ! sea4 ,_m ( ^! %ells1 z ,i h said1 7 pack$ 91 & 7 q fill$ )1 blacki% or r$di%-br[n e>?1 re/+ on ! granitic detritus4 ,i did n d\bt until lately t ?is m\ld 0 ( purely t]re/rial orig91 :5 ) a microscope exam9+ "s ( x f ! inside ( a ,con*olepas f ! height ( ab\t "o hundr$ feet1 ,i f\nd t x 0 9 consid]able "p compos$ ( m9ute fragm5ts ( ! sp9es1 m\?-bones1 & %ells ( ,e*9i1 & ( m9ute fragm5ts1 ( *iefly v "y ,patell1 ,mytili1 & o!r species4 ,i f\nd simil> microscopical fragm5ts 9 e>? fill+ up ! c5tral orifices ( "s l>ge ,fissurell4 ,?is e>? :5 cru%$ emits a sickly smell1 precisely l t f g>d5-m\ld mix$ ) guano4 ,! e>? accid5tally pres]v$ )9 ! %ells1 f ! great] heights1 has ! same g5]al appe>ance1 b x is a little r$d]2 x emits ! same smell :5 rubb$1 b ,i 0 unable to detect ) c]ta9ty any m>9e rema9s 9 x4 ,?is e>? resembles 9 g5]al appe>ance1 z be=e rem>k$1 t capp+ ! rocks ( ,quiriqu9a 9 ! ,bay ( ,concepcion1 on :i* b$s ( sea-%ells lay4 ,i h1 also1 %[n t ! black1 peaty soil1 9 :i* ! %ells at ! height ( #cej feet at ,*iloe 7 pack$1 conta9$ _m m9ute fragm5ts ( m>9e animals4 ,^! facts appe> to me int]e/+1 z !y %[ t soils1 :i* w\ld naturally be consid]$ ( purely t]re/rial nature1 may owe _! orig9 9 *ief "p to ! sea4 ,be+ well aw>e f :at ,i h se5 at ,*iloe & 9 ,ti]ra del ,fuego1 t va/ quantities ( %ells are c>ri$1 dur+ successive ages1 f> inl&1 :]e ! inhabitants *iefly subsi/ on ^! productions1 ,i am b\nd to /ate t at great] heights ?an #eeg feet1 :]e ! numb] ( v "y & small %ells prov$ t !y _h n be5 c>ri$ up = food1 ! only evid5ce ( ! %ells hav+ be5 naturally left by ! sea1 consi/s 9 _! inv>iable & uni=m appe>ance ( extreme antiquity--9 ! di/ance ( "s ( ! places f ! coa/1 9 o!rs be+ inaccessible f ! ne>e/ "p ( ! bea*1 & 9 ! abs5ce ( fre% wat] = m5 to dr9k--9 ! %ells n ly+ 9 heaps1--&1 la/ly1 9 ! close simil>ity ( ! soil 9 :i* !y are emb$d$1 to t :i* l[] d[n c be unequivocally %[n to be 9 great "p =m$ f ! debris ( ! sea animals4#ab #ab ,9 ! 8,proce$+s ( ! ,geolog4 ,soc410 vol4 ii1 p4 #ddf1 ,i h giv5 a brief acc\nt ( ! uprais$ %ells on ! coa/ ( ,*ile1 & h !re /at$ t ! pro(s ( elevation are n satisfactory above ! height ( #bcj feet4 ,i _h at t "t un=tunately ov]look$ a sep>ate page writt5 dur+ my second visit to ,valp>aiso1 describ+ ! %ells n[ 9 my possession f ! #eeg feet hill2 ,i _h n !n unpack$ my collections1 & _h n reconsid]$ ! obvi\s appe>ance ( great] antiquity ( ! %ells f ! great] heights1 nor _h ,i at t "t discov]$ ! m>9e orig9 ( ! e>? 9 :i* _m ( ! %ells are pack$4 ,consid]+ ^! facts1 ,i d n n[ feel a %ad[ ( d\bt t ! %ells1 at ! height ( #a1cjj feet1 h be5 uprais$ by natural causes into _! pres5t position4 ,) respect to ! position 9 :i* ! %ells lie1 ,i 0 repeat$ly /ruck "h1 at ,concepcion1 & at o!r places1 ) ! frequ5cy ( _! occurr5ce on ! summits & edges ei!r ( sep>ate hills1 or ( little flat headl&s (t5 t]m9at+ precipit\sly ov] ! sea4 ,! sev]al above-enum]at$ species ( mollusca1 :i* are f\nd /rew$ on ! surface ( ! l& f a few feet above ! level ( ! sea up to ! height ( #a1cjj feet1 all n[ live ei!r on ! bea*1 or at only a few fa?oms' dep?3 ,mr4 ,edmond/on1 9 a lett] to ,pr(essor ,e4 ,=bes1 /ates t 9 dr$g+ 9 ! ,bay ( ,valp>aiso1 he f\nd ! common species ( ,con*olepas1 ,fissurella1 ,tro*us1 ,monoc]os1 ,*itons1 etc41 liv+ 9 abundance f ! bea* to a dep? ( sev5 fa?oms2 & dead %ells occurr$ only a few fa?oms deep]4 ,! common ,turritella c+ulata 0 dr$g$ up liv+ at ev5 f t5 to fifte5 fa?oms2 b ?is is a species :i* ,i did n f9d "h among/ ! uprais$ %ells4 ,consid]+ ?is fact ( ! species be+ all littoral or sub-littoral1 consid]+ _! occurr5ce at v>i\s heights1 _! va/ numb]s1 & _! g5]ally comm9ut$ /ate1 !re c be little d\bt t !y 7 left on successive bea*-l9es dur+ a gradual elevation ( ! l&4 ,! pres5ce1 h[ev]1 ( s _m :ole & p]fectly pres]v$ %ells appe>s at fir/ a difficulty on ?is view1 consid]+ t ! coa/ is expos$ to ! full =ce ( an op5 ocean3 b we may suppose1 ei!r t ^! %ells 7 ?r[n dur+ gales on flat l$ges ( rock j above ! level ( high-wat] m>k1 & t dur+ ! elevation ( ! l& !y are nev] aga9 t\*$ by ! waves1 or1 t dur+ e>?quakes1 su* z ^? ( #ahbb1 #ahce1 & #ahcg1 rocky reefs cov]$ ) m>9e-animals 7 x "o bl[ uplift$ above ! future rea* ( ! sea4 ,?is latt] explanation is1 p]haps1 ! mo/ probable "o ) respect to ! b$s at ,concepcion entirely compos$ ( ! ,mytilus ,*ilo5sis1 a species :i* lives bel[ ! l[e/ tides2 & likewise ) respect to ! great b$s occurr+ bo? nor? & s\? ( ,valp>aiso1 ( ! ,mesodesma donaci=me1--a %ell :i*1 z ,i am in=m$ by ,mr4 ,cum+1 inhabits s&banks at ! level ( ! l[e/ tides4 ,b ev5 9 ! case ( %ells hav+ ! habits ( ?is ,mytilus & ,mesodesma1 b$s ( !m1 :]ev] ! sea g5tly ?r[s up s& or mud1 & ?us protects its own accumulations1 might be uprais$ by ! sl[e/ movem5t1 & yet rema9 undi/urb$ by ! waves ( ea* new bea*-l9e4 ,x is wor?y ( rem>k1 t n[h]e ne> ,valp>aiso above ! height ( tw5ty feet1 or r>ely ( fifty feet1 ,i saw any l9es ( erosion on ! solid rocks1 or any b$s ( pebbles2 ?is1 ,i believe1 may be acc\nt$ = by ! dis9tegrat+ t5d5cy ( mo/ ( ! rocks 9 ?is neighb\rhood4 ,nor is ! l& "h modell$ into t]races3 ,mr4 ,alison1 h[ev]1 in=ms me1 t on bo? sides ( "o n>r[ rav9e1 at ! height ( #cjj feet above ! sea1 he f\nd a succession ( r indi/9ct /ep-=m$ bea*es1 compos$ ( brok5 %ells1 :i* toge!r cov]$ a space ( ab\t eighty feet v]tical4 ,i c add no?+ to ! acc\nts already publi%$ ( ! elevation ( ! l& at ,valp>aiso1#ac :i* accompani$ ! e>?quake ( #ahbb3 b ,i he>d x confid5tly ass]t$1 t a s5t9el on duty1 imm$iately aft] ! %ock1 saw a "p ( a =t1 :i* previ\sly 0 n )9 ! l9e ( 8 vision1 & ?is w\ld indicate t ! uplift+ 0 n horizontal3 x w\ld ev5 appe> f "s facts collect$ by ,mr4 ,alison1 t only ! ea/]n half ( ! bay 0 !n elevat$4 ,?r\gh ! k9dness ( ?is same g5tleman1 ,i am able to give an int]e/+ acc\nt ( ! *anges ( level1 :i* h sup]v5$ "h )9 hi/orical p]iods3 ab\t ! ye> #afhj a long sea-wall 7or ,prefil7 0 built1 ( :i* only a few fragm5ts n[ rema92 up to ! ye> #ahag1 ! sea (t5 broke ov] x1 & wa%$ ! h\ses on ! opposite side ( ! road 7:]e ! prison n[ /&s72 & ev5 9 #ahai1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,m>t9 rememb]s walk+ at ! foot ( ?is wall1 & be+ (t5 oblig$ to climb ov] x to escape ! waves4 ,!re n[ /&s 7#ahcd7 on ! seaw>d side ( ?is wall1 & betwe5 x & ! bea*1 9 "o "p a s+le r[ ( h\ses1 & 9 ano!r "p two r[s ) a /reet betwe5 !m4 ,?is great ext5sion ( ! bea* 9 s %ort a "t _c be attribut$ simply to ! accumulation ( detritus2 = a resid5t eng9e] measur$ = me ! height betwe5 ! l[e/ "p ( ! wall visible1 & ! pres5t bea*-l9e at spr+-tides1 & ! diff]5ce 0 elev5 feet six in*es4 ,! *ur* ( ,s4 ,augu/9 is believ$ to h be5 built 9 #afad1 & !re is a tradition t ! sea =m]ly fl[$ v ne> x2 by levell+1 its f\ndations 7 f\nd to /& n9ete5 feet six in*es above ! highe/ bea*-l9e2 s t we see 9 a p]iod ( #bbj ye>s1 ! elevation _c h be5 z mu* z n9ete5 feet six in*es4 ,f ! facts giv5 ) respect to ! sea-wall1 & f ! te/imony ( ! eld] inhabitants1 x appe>s c]ta9 t ! *ange 9 level began to be manife/ ab\t ! ye> #ahag4 ,! only sudd5 elevation ( :i* !re is any record occurr$ 9 #ahbb1 & ?is seems to h be5 less ?an ?ree feet4 ,s9ce t ye>1 ,i 0 assur$ by sev]al compet5t obs]v]s1 t "p ( an old wreck1 :i* is firmly emb$d$ ne> ! bea*1 has s5sibly em]g$2 h5ce "h1 z at ,*iloe1 a sl[ rise ( ! l& appe>s to be n[ 9 progress4 ,x seems highly probable t ! rocks :i* are corrod$ 9 a b& at ! height ( f\rte5 feet above ! sea 7 act$ on dur+ ! p]iod1 :5 by tradition ! base ( ,s4 ,augu/9 *ur*1 n[ n9ete5 feet six in*es above ! highe/ wat]-m>k1 0 occasionally wa%$ by ! waves4 #ac ,dr4 ,mey5 78,reise um ,erde10 ,?4 ,i1 s4 #bba7 f\nd 9 #ahca seawe$ & o!r bodies /ill adh]+ to "s rocks :i* dur+ ! %ock ( #ahbb 7 lift$ above ! sea4 ,valp>aiso to ,coquimbo4--,= ! fir/ sev5ty-five miles nor? ( ,valp>aiso ,i foll[$ ! coa/-road1 & ?r\gh\t ?is space ,i obs]v$ innum]able masses ( uprais$ %ells4 ,ab\t ,qu9t]o !re are imm5se accumulations 7work$ = lime7 ( ! ,mesodesma donaci=me1 pack$ 9 s&y e>?2 !y ab\nd *iefly ab\t fifte5 feet above high-wat]1 b %ells are "h f\nd1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,mi]s1#ad to a height ( #ejj feet1 & at a di/ance ( ?ree leagues f ! coa/3 ,i "h notic$ b>nacles adh]+ to ! rocks ?ree or f\r feet above ! highe/ tides4 ,9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,plazilla & ,catapilco1 at heights ( betwe5 two hundr$ & ?ree hundr$ feet1 ! numb] ( comm9ut$ %ells1 ) "s p]fect ones1 especially ( ! ,mesodesma1 pack$ 9 lay]s1 0 truly imm5se3 ! l& at ,plazilla _h evid5tly exi/$ z a bay1 ) abrupt rocky masses ris+ out ( x1 precisely l ! islets 9 ! brok5 bays n[ ind5t+ ?is coa/4 ,on bo? sides ( ! riv]s ,ligua1 ,longotomo1 ,gua*51 & ,quilim>i1 !re are pla9s ( gravel ab\t two hundr$ feet 9 height1 9 _m p>ts absolutely cov]$ ) %ells4 ,close to ,con*alee1 a gravel-pla9 is front$ by a l[] & simil> pla9 ab\t sixty feet 9 height1 & ?is aga9 is sep>at$ f ! bea* by a wide tract ( l[ l&3 ! surfaces ( all ?ree pla9s or t]races 7 /rew$ ) va/ numb]s ( ! ,con*olepas1 ,mesodesma1 an exi/+ ,v5us1 & o!r /ill exi/+ littoral %ells4 ,! two upp] t]races closely resemble 9 m9iature ! pla9s ( ,patagonia2 & l !m are furr[$ by dry1 flat-bottom$1 w9d+ valleys4 ,nor?w>d ( ?is place ,i turn$ inw>d2 & !re=e f\nd no m %ells3 b ! valleys ( ,*uapa1 ,illapel1 & ,lim>i1 are b\nd$ by gravel-capp$ pla9s1 (t5 includ+ a l[] t]race )94 ,^! pla9s s5d bay-l arms betwe5 & into ! surr\nd+ hills2 & !y are cont9u\sly unit$ ) o!r ext5sive gravel-capp$ pla9s1 sep>at+ ! coa/ m\nta9-ranges f ! ,cordill]a4 #ad 8,travels 9 ,*ile10 vol4 i1 pp4 #cie1 #deh4 ,i receiv$ sev]al simil> acc\nts f ! inhabitants1 & 0 assur$ t !re are _m %ells on ! pla9 ( ,casa ,blanca1 betwe5 ,valp>aiso & ,santiago1 at ! height ( #hjj feet4 ,coquimbo4 ,a n>r[ fr+e-l pla91 g5tly incl9$ t[>ds ! sea1 "h ext5ds = elev5 miles along ! coa/1 ) arms /ret*+ up betwe5 ! coa/-m\nta9s1 & likewise up ! valley ( ,coquimbo3 at its s\!rn extremity x is directly connect$ ) ! pla9 ( ,lim>i1 out ( :i* hills abruptly rise l islets1 & o!r hills project l headl&s on a coa/4 ,! surface ( ! fr+e-l pla9 appe>s level1 b diff]s ins5sibly 9 height1 & greatly 9 composition1 9 diff]5t p>ts4 ,at ! m\? ( ! valley ( ,coquimbo1 ! surface consi/s :olly ( gravel1 & /&s f #cjj to #cej feet above ! level ( ! sea1 be+ ab\t "o hundr$ feet high] ?an 9 o!r p>ts4 ,9 ^! o!r & l[] p>ts ! sup]ficial b$s consi/ ( calc>e\s matt]1 & re/ on anci5t t]ti>y deposits h]eaft] to be describ$4 ,! upp]mo/ calc>e\s lay] is cream-col\r$1 compact1 smoo?-fractur$1 sub-/alacti=m1 & conta9s "s s&1 e>?y matt]1 & rec5t %ells4 ,x lies on1 & s5ds w$ge-l ve9s into1#ae a mu* m friable1 calc>e\s1 tuff-l v>iety2 & bo? re/ on a mass ab\t tw5ty feet 9 ?ickness1 =m$ ( fragm5ts ( rec5t %ells1 ) a few :ole ones1 & ) small pebbles firmly cem5t$ toge!r4 ,?is latt] rock is call$ by ! inhabitants losa1 & is us$ = build+3 9 _m p>ts x is divid$ into /rata1 :i* dip at an angle ( t5 degrees seaw>d1 & appe> z if !y _h orig9ally be5 heap$ 9 successive lay]s 7z may be se5 on coral-reefs7 on a /eep bea*4 ,?is /one is rem>kable f be+ 9 p>ts entirely =m$ ( empty1 pellucid capsules or cells ( calc>e\s matt]1 ( ! size ( small se$s3 a s]ies ( specim5s unequivocally %[$ t all ^! capsules once conta9$ m9ute r\nd$ fragm5ts ( %ells :i* h s9ce be5 gradually dissolv$ by wat] p]colat+ ?r\gh ! mass4#af #ae ,9 _m respects ?is upp] h>d1 & ! und]ly+ m friable1 v>ieties1 resemble ! great sup]ficial b$s at ,k+ ,george's ,s\nd 9 ,au/ralia1 :i* ,i h describ$ 9 my 8,geological ,obs]vations on ,volcanic ,isl&s40 ,!re c\ld be little d\bt t ! upp] lay]s !re h be5 h>d5$ by ! action ( ra9 on ! friable1 calc>e\s matt]1 & t ! :ole mass has orig9at$ 9 ! decay ( m9utely comm9ut$ sea-%ells & corals4 #af ,i h incid5tally describ$ ?is rock 9 ! above "w on ,volcanic ,isl&s4 ,! %ells emb$d$ 9 ! calc>e\s b$s =m+ ! surface ( ?is fr+e-l pla91 at ! height ( f #bjj to #bej feet above ! sea1 consi/ (3-- ,v5us opaca4 ,mul9ia ,byron5sis4 ,pect5 purpuratus4 ,mesodesma donaci=me4 ,turritella c+ulata4 ,monoc]os co/atum4 ,con*olepas ,p]uviana4 ,tro*us 7common ,valp>aiso species74 ,calyptra ,byron5sis4 ,al?\gh ^! species are all rec5t1 & are all f\nd 9 ! neighb\r+ sea1 yet ,i 0 p>ticul>ly /ruck ) ! diff]5ce 9 ! proportional numb]s ( ! sev]al species1 & ( ^? n[ ca/ up on ! pres5t bea*4 ,i f\nd only "o specim5 ( ! ,con*olepas1 & ! ,pect5 0 v r>e1 ?\gh bo? ^! %ells are n[ ! commone/ k9ds1 ) ! exception1 p]haps1 ( ! ,calyptra radians1 ( :i* ,i did n f9d "o 9 ! calc>e\s b$s4 ,i w n pret5d to det]m9e h[ f> ?is diff]5ce 9 ! proportional numb]s dep5ds on ! age ( ! deposit1 & h[ f> on ! diff]5ce 9 nature betwe5 ! pres5t s&y bea*es & ! calc>e\s bottom1 on :i* ! emb$d$ %ells mu/ h liv$4 ,no4 #h ,section ( pla9 ( ,coquimbo4 ,illu/ration3 ,section ( pla9 ( ,coquimbo4 ,on ! b>e surface ( ! calc>e\s pla91 or 9 a ?9 cov]+ ( s&1 !re 7 ly+1 at a height f #bjj to #beb feet1 _m rec5t %ells1 :i* _h a mu* fre%] appe>ance ?an ! emb$d$ ones3 fragm5ts ( ! ,con*olepas1 & ( ! common ,mytilus1 /ill reta9+ a t+e ( its col\r1 7 num]\s1 & altoge!r !re 0 manife/ly a clos] approa* 9 proportional numb]s to ^? n[ ly+ on ! bea*4 ,9 a mass ( /ratifi$1 slightly agglut9at$ s&1 :i* 9 "s places cov]s up ! l[] half ( ! seaw>d esc>pm5t ( ! pla91 ! includ$ %ells appe>$ to be 9 exactly ! same proportional numb]s ) ^? on ! bea*4 ,on "o side ( a /eep-sid$ rav9e1 cutt+ ?r\gh ! pla9 beh9d ,h]radura ,bay1 ,i obs]v$ a n>r[ /rip ( /ratifi$ s&1 conta9+ simil> %ells 9 simil> proportional numb]s2 a section ( ! rav9e is repres5t$ 9 ,diagram #h1 :i* s]ves also to %[ ! g5]al composition ( ! pla94 ,i m5tion ?is case ( ! rav9e *iefly because )\t ! evid5ce ( ! m>9e %ells 9 ! s&1 any "o w\ld h suppos$ t x _h be5 holl[$ out by simple alluvial action4 ,! esc>pm5t ( ! fr+e-l pla91 :i* /ret*es = elev5 miles along ! coa/1 is 9 "s p>ts front$ by two or ?ree n>r[1 /ep-=m$ t]races1 "o ( :i* at ,h]radura ,bay exp&s into a small pla94 ,its surface 0 !re =m$ ( gravel1 cem5t$ toge!r by calc>e\s matt]2 & out ( x ,i extract$ ! foll[+ rec5t %ells1 :i* are 9 a m p]fect condition ?an ^? f ! upp] pla93-- ,calyptra radians4 ,turritella c+ulata4 ,oliva ,p]uviana4 ,murex labiosus1 v>4 ,nassa 7id5tical ) a liv+ species74 ,sol5 ,dombeiana4 ,pect5 purpuratus4 ,v5us ,*il5sis4 ,amphidesma rugulosum4 ,! small irregul> wr9kles ( ! po/]ior "p ( ?is %ell are r /rong] ?an 9 ! rec5t specim5s ( ?is species f ,coquimbo4 7,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by47 ,balanus 7id5tical ) liv+ species74 ,on ! sy5itic ridge1 :i* =ms ! s\!rn b\nd>y ( ,h]radura ,bay & ,pla91 ,i f\nd ! ,con*olepas & ,turritella c+ulata 7mo/ly 9 fragm5ts71 at ! height ( #bdb feet above ! sea4 ,i c\ld n h told t ^! %ells _h n =m]ly be5 br\ght up by man1 if ,i _h n f\nd "o v small mass ( !m cem5t$ toge!r 9 a friable calc>e\s tuff4 ,i m5tion ?is fact m p>ticul>ly1 because ,i c>efully look$1 9 _m app>5tly fav\rable spots1 at less] heights on ! side ( ?is ridge1 & c\ld n f9d ev5 ! smalle/ fragm5t ( a %ell4 ,?is is only "o in/ance out ( _m1 prov+ t ! abs5ce ( sea-%ells on ! surface1 ?\gh 9 _m respects inexplicable1 is an argum5t ( v little weight 9 opposition to o!r evid5ce on ! rec5t elevation ( ! l&4 ,! highe/ po9t 9 ?is neighb\rhood at :i* ,i f\nd uprais$ %ells ( exi/+ species 0 on an inl& calc>e\s pla91 at ! height ( #beb feet above ! sea4 ,x w\ld appe> f ,mr4 ,caldcleugh's rese>*es1#ag t a rise has tak5 place "h )9 ! la/ c5tury & a half2 & z no sudd5 *ange ( level has be5 obs]v$ dur+ ! n v sev]e e>?quakes1 :i* h occasionally occurr$ "h1 ! ris+ has probably be5 sl[1 l t n[1 or q lately1 9 progress at ,*iloe & at ,valp>aiso3 !re are ?ree well-kn[n rocks1 call$ ! ,pelicans1 :i* 9 #agaj1 accord+ to ,feuille1 7 fleur d'eau1 b n[ are said to /& twelve feet above l[-wat] m>k3 ! spr+-tides rise "h only five feet4 ,!re is ano!r rock1 n[ n9e feet above high-wat] m>k1 :i* 9 ! "t ( ,frezi] & ,feuille rose only five or six feet out ( wat]4 ,mr4 ,caldcleugh1 ,i may add1 also %[s 7& ,i receiv$ simil> acc\nts7 t !re has be5 a consid]able decrease 9 ! s\nd+s dur+ ! la/ twelve ye>s 9 ! ,bays ( ,coquimbo1 ,concepcion1 ,valp>aiso1 & ,guasco2 b z 9 ^! cases x is ne>ly impossible to di/+ui% betwe5 ! accumulation ( s$im5t & ! upheavem5t ( ! bottom1 ,i h n ent]$ into any details4 #ag 8,proce$+s ( ! ,geological ,society10 vol4 ii1 p4 #ddf4 ,valley ( ,coquimbo4--,! n>r[ coa/-pla9 s5ds1 z be=e /at$1 an arm1 or m correctly a fr+e1 on bo? sides1 b *iefly on ! s\!rn side1 sev]al miles up ! valley4 ,^! fr+es are worn into /eps or t]races1 :i* pres5t a mo/ rem>kable appe>ance1 & h be5 comp>$ 7?\gh n v correctly7 by ,capta9 ,basil ,hall1 to ! p>allel roads ( ,gl5 ,roy 9 ,scotl&3 _! orig9 has be5 ably discuss$ by ,mr4 ,lyell4#ah ,! fir/ section :i* ,i w give 7,figure #i71 is n drawn across ! valley1 b 9 an ea/ & we/ l9e at its m\?1 :]e ! /ep-=m$ t]races deb\* & pres5t _! v g5tly incl9$ surfaces t[>ds ! ,pacific4 #ah 8,pr9ciples ( ,geology0 7#a/ edit471 vol4 iii1 p4 #aca4 ,no4 #i ,ea/ & we/ section ?r\gh ! t]races at ,coquimbo1 :]e !y deb\* f ! valley1 & front ! sea4 ,illu/ration3 ,ea/ & we/ section ?r\gh t]races at ,coquimbo4 ,! bottom pla9 7,a7 is ab\t a mile 9 wid?1 & rises q ins5sibly f ! bea* to a height ( tw5ty-five feet at ! foot ( ! next pla92 x is s&y1 & abundantly /rew$ ) %ells4 ,pla9 or t]race ,b is ( small ext5t1 & is almo/ conceal$ by ! h\ses ( ! t[n1 z is likewise ! esc>pm5t ( t]race ,c4 ,on bo? sides ( a rav9e1 two miles s\? ( ! t[n1 !re are two little t]races1 "o above ! o!r1 evid5tly correspond+ ) ,b & ,c2 & on !m m>9e rema9s ( ! species already enum]at$ 7 pl5tiful4 ,t]race ,e is v n>r[1 b q di/9ct & level2 a little s\?w>d ( ! t[n !re 7 traces ( a t]race ,d int]m$iate betwe5 ,e & ,c4 ,t]race ,f is "p ( ! fr+e-l pla91 :i* /ret*es = ! elev5 miles along ! coa/2 x is "h compos$ ( %+le1 & is #ajj feet high] ?an :]e compos$ ( calc>e\s matt]4 ,?is great] height is obvi\sly due to ! quantity ( %+le1 :i* at "s =m] p]iod has be5 br\ght d[n ! great valley ( ,coquimbo4 ,consid]+ ! _m %ells /rew$ ov] ! t]races ,a1 ,b1 & ,c1 & a few miles s\?w>d on ! calc>e\s pla91 :i* is cont9u\sly unit$ ) ! upp] /ep-l pla9 ,f1 !re _c1 ,i appreh5d1 be any d\bt1 t ^! six t]races h be5 =m$ by ! action ( ! sea2 & t _! five esc>pm5ts m>k s _m p]iods ( comp>ative re/ 9 ! elevatory movem5t1 dur+ :i* ! sea wore into ! l&4 ,! elevation betwe5 ^! p]iods may h be5 sudd5 & on an av]age n m ?an sev5ty-two feet ea* "t1 or x may h be5 gradual & ins5sibly sl[4 ,f ! %ells on ! ?ree l[] t]races1 & on ! upp] "o1 & ,i may add on ! ?ree gravel-capp$ t]races at ,con*alee1 be+ all littoral & sub-littoral species1 & f ! analogical facts giv5 at ,valp>aiso1 & la/ly f ! evid5ce ( a sl[ ris+ lately or /ill 9 progress "h1 x appe>s to me f> m probable t ! movem5t has be5 sl[4 ,! exi/5ce ( ^! successive esc>pm5ts1 or old cliff-l9es1 is 9 ano!r respect highly in/ructive1 = !y %[ p]iods ( comp>ative re/ 9 ! elevatory movem5t1 & ( d5udation1 :i* w\ld nev] ev5 h be5 suspect$ f a close exam9ation ( _m miles ( coa/ s\?w>d ( ,coquimbo4 ,we come n[ to ! t]races on ! opposite sides ( ! ea/ & we/ valley ( ,coquimbo3 ! section 9 figure ,no4 #aj is tak5 9 a nor? & s\? l9e across ! valley at a po9t ab\t ?ree miles f ! sea4 ,! valley measur$ f ! edges ( ! esc>pm5ts ( ! upp] pla9 ,,ff is ab\t a mile 9 wid?2 b f ! bases ( ! b\nd+ m\nta9s x is f ?ree to f\r miles wide4 ,! t]races m>k$ ) an int]rogative d n exi/ on t side ( ! valley1 b are introduc$ m]ely to r5d] ! diagram m intelligible4 ,no4 #aj ,nor? & s\? section across ! valley ( ,coquimbo4 ,illu/ration3 ,nor? & s\? section across ! valley ( ,coquimbo4 ,t]races m>k$ ) 8 d n occur on t side ( ! valley1 & are introduc$ only to make ! diagram m intelligible4 ,a riv] & bottom-pla9 ( valley ,c1 ,e1 & ,f1 on ! s\? side ( valley1 are respectively1 #aig1 #cgg1 & #dbj feet above ! level ( ! sea4 ,,aa4 ,! bottom ( ! valley1 believ$ to be #ajj feet above ! sea3 x is cont9u\sly unit$ ) ! l[e/ pla9 ,a ( figure ,no4 #i4 ,b4 ,?is t]race high] up ! valley exp&s consid]ably2 seaw>d x is soon lo/1 its esc>pm5t be+ unit$ ) t ( ,c3 x is n develop$ at all on ! s\? side ( ! valley4 ,c4 ,?is t]race1 l ! la/1 is consid]ably exp&$ high] up ! valley4 ,^! two t]races app>5tly correspond ) ,b & ,c ( figure ,no4 #i4 ,d is n well develop$ 9 ! l9e ( ?is section2 b seaw>d x exp&s into a pla93 x is n pres5t on ! s\? side ( ! valley2 b x is met )1 z /at$ "u ! =m] section1 a little s\? ( ! t[n4 ,e is well develop$ on ! s\? side1 b abs5t on ! nor? side ( ! valley3 ?\gh n cont9u\sly unit$ ) ,e ( figure ,no4 #i1 x app>5tly corresponds ) x4 ,f4 ,?is is ! surface-pla91 & is cont9u\sly unit$ ) t :i* /ret*es l a fr+e along ! coa/4 ,9 asc5d+ ! valley x gradually becomes n>r[]1 & is at la/1 at ! di/ance ( ab\t t5 miles f ! sea1 r$uc$ to a r[ ( flat-topp$ pat*es on ! sides ( ! m\nta9s4 ,none ( ! l[] t]races ext5d s f> up ! valley4 ,^! five t]races are =m$ ( %+le & s&2 ?ree ( !m1 z m>k$ by ,capta9 ,b4 ,hall 7namely1 ,b1 ,c1 & ,f71 are mu* m conspicu\s ?an ! o!rs4 ,f ! m>9e rema9s copi\sly /rew$ at ! m\? ( ! valley on ! l[] t]races1 & s\?w>d ( ! t[n on ! upp] "o1 !y are1 z be=e rem>k$1 und\bt$ly ( m>9e orig92 b )9 ! valley1 & ?is fact well des]ves notice1 at a di/ance ( f only a mile & a half to ?ree or f\r miles f ! sea1 ,i c\ld n f9d ev5 a fragm5t ( a %ell4 ,on ! incl9ation ( ! t]races ( ,coquimbo1 & on ! upp] & basal edges ( _! esc>pm5ts n be+ horizontal4--,! surfaces ( ^! t]races slope 9 a slight degree1 z %[n by ! two la/ sections tak5 conjo9tly1 bo? t[>ds ! c5tre ( ! valley1 & seaw>ds t[>ds its m\?4 ,?is d\ble or diagonal incl9ation1 :i* is n ! same 9 ! sev]al t]races1 is1 z we %all imm$iately see1 ( simple explanation4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 "s o!r po9ts :i* at fir/ appe> by no means obvi\s1--namely1 fir/1 t ea* t]race1 tak5 9 its :ole bread? f ! summit-edge ( "o esc>pm5t to ! base ( t above x1 & foll[$ up ! valley1 is n horizontal2 nor h ! sev]al t]races1 :5 foll[$ up ! valley1 all ! same incl9ation2 ?us ,i f\nd ! t]races ,c1 ,e1 & ,f1 measur$ at a po9t ab\t two miles f ! m\? ( ! valley1 /ood sev]ally betwe5 fifty-six to sev5ty-sev5 feet high] ?an at ! m\?4 ,aga91 if we look to any "o l9e ( cliff or esc>pm5t1 nei!r its summit-edge nor its base is horizontal4 ,on ! !ory ( ! t]races hav+ be5 =m$ dur+ a sl[ & equable rise ( ! l&1 ) z _m int]vals ( re/ z !re are esc>pm5ts1 x appe>s at fir/ v surpris+ t horizontal l9es ( "s k9d %\ld n h be5 left on ! l&4 ,! direction ( ! diagonal incl9ation 9 ! diff]5t t]races be+ diff]5t1--9 "s be+ direct$ m t[>ds ! middle ( ! valley1 9 o!rs m t[>ds its m\?1--naturally foll[s on ! view ( ea* t]race1 be+ an accumulation ( successive bea*-l9es r\nd bays1 :i* mu/ h be5 ( diff]5t =ms & sizes :5 ! l& /ood at diff]5t levels3 = if we look to ! actual bea* ( a n>r[ creek1 its slope is direct$ t[>ds ! middle2 :]eas1 9 an op5 bay1 or slight concavity on a coa/1 ! slope is t[>ds ! m\?1 t is1 almo/ directly seaw>d2 h5ce z a bay alt]s 9 =m & size1 s w ! direction ( ! incl9ation ( its successive bea*es become *ang$4 ,illu/ration3 ,a bay 9 ! di/rict :i* has begun sl[ly ris+4 ,if x 7 possible to trace any "o ( ! _m bea*-l9es1 compos+ ea* slop+ t]race1 x w\ld ( c\rse be horizontal2 b ! only l9es ( dem>cation are ! summit & basal edges ( ! esc>pm5ts4 ,n[ ! summit-edge ( "o ( ^! esc>pm5ts m>ks ! fur!/ l9e or po9t to :i* ! sea has cut into a mass ( gravel slop+ seaw>d2 & z ! sea w g5]ally h great] p[] at ! m\? ?an at ! protect$ head ( ! bay1 s w ! esc>pm5t at ! m\? be cut deep] into ! l&1 & its summit-edge be high]2 consequ5tly x w n be horizontal4 ,) respect to ! basal or l[] edges ( ! esc>pm5ts1 f pictur+ 9 "o's m9d anci5t bays entirely surr\nd$ at successive p]iods by cliff-=m$ %ores1 "o's fir/ impression is t !y at lea/ necess>ily mu/ be horizontal1 if ! elevation has be5 horizontal4 ,b "h is a fallacy3 = aft] ! sea has1 dur+ a cessation ( ! elevation1 worn cliffs all r\nd ! %ores ( a bay1 :5 ! movem5t recomm5ces1 & especially if x recomm5ces sl[ly1 x might well happ5 t1 at ! expos$ m\? ( ! bay1 ! waves might cont9ue = "s "t we>+ into ! l&1 :il/ 9 ! protect$ & upp] p>ts successive bea*-l9es might be accumulat+ 9 a slop+ surface or t]race at ! foot ( ! cliffs :i* _h be5 lately rea*$3 h5ce1 suppos+ ! :ole l9e ( esc>pm5t to be f9ally uplift$ above ! rea* ( ! sea1 its basal l9e or foot ne> ! m\? w run at a l[] level ?an 9 ! upp] & protect$ p>ts ( ! bay2 consequ5tly ?is basal l9e w n be horizontal4 ,& x has already be5 %[n t ! summit-edges ( ea* esc>pm5t w g5]ally be high] ne> ! m\? 7f ! seaw>d slop+ l& be+ !re mo/ expos$ & cut into7 ?an ne> ! head ( ! bay2 !re=e ! total height ( ! esc>pm5ts w be greate/ ne> ! m\?2 & fur!r up ! old bay or valley !y w on bo? sides g5]ally ?9 out & die away3 ,i h obs]v$ ?is ?9n+ out ( ! successive esc>pm5t at o!r places besides ,coquimbo2 & = a long "t ,i 0 q unable to und]/& its mean+4 ,! rude diagram 9 ,figure #aa w p]haps r5d] :at ,i mean m intelligible2 x repres5ts a bay 9 a di/rict :i* has begun sl[ly ris+4 ,be=e ! movem5t comm5c$1 x is suppos$ t ! waves _h be5 enabl$ to eat into ! l& & =m cliffs1 z f> up1 b ) gradually dim9i%+ p[]1 z ! po9ts ,,aa3 aft] ! movem5t _h comm5c$ & gone on = a little "t1 ! sea is suppos$ /ill to h reta9$ ! p[]1 at ! expos$ m\? ( ! bay1 ( cutt+ d[n & into ! l& z x sl[ly em]g$2 b 9 ! upp] p>ts ( ! bay x is suppos$ soon to h lo/ ?is p[]1 ow+ to ! m protect$ situation & to ! quantity ( detritus br\ght d[n by ! riv]2 consequ5tly l[ l& 0 !re accumulat$4 ,z ?is l[ l& 0 =m$ dur+ a sl[ elevatory movem5t1 its surface w g5tly slope upw>ds f ! bea* on all sides4 ,n[1 let u imag9e ! bay1 n to make ! diagram m complicat$1 sudd5ly conv]t$ into a valley3 ! basal l9e ( ! cliffs w ( c\rse be horizontal1 z f> z ! bea* is n[ se5 ext5d+ 9 ! diagram2 b 9 ! upp] "p ( ! valley1 ?is l9e w be high]1 ! level ( ! di/rict hav+ be5 rais$ :il/ ! l[ l& 0 accumulat+ at ! foot ( ! inl& cliffs4 ,if1 in/ead ( ! bay 9 ! diagram be+ sudd5ly conv]t$ into a valley1 we suppose ) mu* m probability x to be uprais$ sl[ly1 !n ! waves 9 ! upp] p>ts ( ! bay w cont9ue v gradually to fail to rea* ! cliffs1 :i* are n[ 9 ! diagram repres5t$ z wa%$ by ! sea1 & :i*1 consequ5tly1 w be left /&+ high] & high] above its level2 :il/ at ! /ill expos$ m\?1 x might well happ5 t ! waves might be enabl$ to cut deep] & deep]1 bo? d[n & into ! cliffs1 z ! l& sl[ly rose4 ,! great] or less] de/roy+ p[] ( ! waves at ! m\?s ( successive bays1 comp>atively ) ?is same p[] 9 _! upp] & protect$ p>ts1 w v>y z ! bays become *ang$ 9 =m & size1 & !re=e at diff]5t levels1 at _! m\?s & heads1 m or less ( ! surfaces betwe5 ! esc>pm5ts 7t is1 ! accumulat$ bea*-l9es or t]races7 w be left unde/roy$3 f :at has gone be=e we c see t1 accord+ z ! elevatory movem5ts aft] ea* cessation recomm5ce m or less sl[ly1 accord+ to ! am\nt ( detritus deliv]$ by ! riv] at ! heads ( ! successive bays1 & accord+ to ! degree ( protection af=d$ by _! alt]$ =ms1 s w a great] or less ext5t ( t]race be accumulat$ 9 ! upp] "p1 to :i* !re w be no surface at a correspond+ level at ! m\?3 h5ce we c p]ceive :y no "o t]race1 tak5 9 its :ole bread? & foll[$ up ! valley1 is horizontal1 ?\gh ea* sep>ate bea*-l9e mu/ h be5 s2 & :y ! incl9ation ( ! sev]al t]races1 bo? transv]sely1 & longitud9ally up ! valley1 is n alike4 ,i h ent]$ into ?is case 9 "s detail1 = ,i 0 long p]plex$ 7& o!rs h felt ! same difficulty7 9 und]/&+ h[1 on ! idea ( an equable elevation ) ! sea at int]vals eat+ into ! l&1 x came t nei!r ! t]races nor ! upp] nor l[] edges ( ! esc>pm5ts 7 horizontal4 ,along l9es ( coa/1 ev5 ( great l5g?s1 su* z t ( ,patagonia1 if !y are ne>ly uni=mly expos$1 ! corrod+ p[] ( ! waves w be *eck$ & conqu]$ by ! elevatory movem5t1 z (t5 z x recomm5ces1 at ab\t ! same p]iod2 & h5ce ! t]races1 or accumulat$ bea*-l9es1 w comm5ce be+ =m$ at ne>ly ! same levels3 at ea* succe$+ p]iod ( re/1 !y w1 also1 be eat5 into at ne>ly ! same rate1 & consequ5tly !re w be a mu* clos] co9cid5ce 9 _! levels & incl9ations1 ?an 9 ! t]races & esc>pm5ts =m$ r\nd bays ) _! diff]5t p>ts v diff]5tly expos$ to ! action ( ! sea4 ,x is only :]e ! waves are enabl$1 aft] a long lapse ( "t1 sl[ly to corrode h>d rocks1 or to ?r[ up1 ow+ to ! supply ( s$im5t be+ small & to ! surface be+ /eeply incl9$1 a n>r[ bea* or m\nd1 t we c expect1 z at ,gl5 ,roy 9 ,scotl&1#ai a di/9ct l9e m>k+ an old sea-level1 & :i* w be /rictly horizontal1 if ! subsequ5t elevatory movem5ts h be5 s3 = 9 ^! cases no disc]nible effects w be produc$1 except dur+ ! long int]v5+ p]iods ( re/2 :]eas 9 ! case ( /ep-=m$ coa/s1 su* z ^? describ$ 9 ?is & ! prec$+ *apt]1 ! t]races !mselves are accumulat$ dur+ ! sl[ elevatory process1 ! accumulation comm5c+ soon] 9 protect$ ?an 9 expos$ situations1 & soon] :]e !re is copi\s supply ( detritus ?an :]e !re is little2 on ! o!r h&1 ! /eps or esc>pm5ts are =m$ dur+ ! /ation>y p]iods1 & are m deeply cut d[n & into ! coa/-l& 9 expos$ ?an 9 protect$ situations2--! cutt+ action1 moreov]1 be+ prolong$ 9 ! mo/ expos$ p>ts1 bo? dur+ ! beg9n+ & end+1 if sl[1 ( ! upw>d movem5t4 #ai 8,philosophical ,transactions10 #ahci1 p4 #ci4 ,al?\gh 9 ! =ego+ discussion ,i h assum$ ! elevation to h be5 horizontal1 x may be suspect$1 f ! consid]able seaw>d slope ( ! t]races1 bo? up ! valley ( ,s4 ,cruz & up t ( ,coquimbo1 t ! ris+ has be5 great] inl& ?an ne>] ! coa/4 ,!re is reason to believe1#bj f ! effects produc$ on ! wat]-c\rse ( a mill dur+ ! e>?quake ( #ahbb 9 ,*ile1 t ! upheaval "o mile inl& 0 ne>ly d\ble1 namely1 betwe5 five & sev5 feet1 to :at x 0 on ! ,pacific4 ,we "k1 also1 f ! admirable rese>*es ( ,m4 ,bravais1#ba t 9 ,sc&9avia ! anci5t sea-bea*es g5tly slope f ! int]ior m\nta9-ranges t[>ds ! coa/1 & t !y are n p>allel "o to ! o!r %[+ t ! proportional diff]5ce 9 ! am\nt ( elevation on ! coa/ & 9 ! int]ior1 v>i$ at diff]5t p]iods4 #bj ,mr4 ,place 9 ! ,qu>t]ly ,j\rnal ( ,sci5ce1 #ahbd1 vol4 xvii1 p4 #db4 #ba 8,voyages de la ,comm4 du ,nord10 etc41 also 8,comptes ,r5dus10 ,oct4 #ahdb4 ,coquimbo to ,guasco4--,9 ?is di/ance ( n9ety miles1 ,i f\nd 9 almo/ e "p m>9e %ells up to a height ( app>5tly f two hundr$ to ?ree hundr$ feet4 ,! des]t pla9 ne> ,*oros is ?us cov]$2 x is b\nd$ by ! esc>pm5t ( a high] pla91 consi/+ ( pale-col\r$1 e>?y1 calc>e\s /one1 l t ( ,coquimbo1 ) ! same rec5t %ells emb$d$ 9 x4 ,9 ! valley ( ,*an]al1 a simil> b$ occurs 9 :i*1 diff]5tly f t ( ,coquimbo1 ,i obs]v$ _m %ells ( ! ,con*olepas3 ne> ,guasco ! same calc>e\s b$ is likewise met )4 ,9 ! valley ( ,guasco1 ! /ep-=m$ t]races ( gravel are displac$ 9 a m /rik+ mann] ?an at any o!r po9t4 ,i foll[$ ! valley = ?irty-sev5 miles 7z reckon$ by ! inhabitants7 f ! coa/ to ,ball5>2 9 ne>ly ! :ole ( ?is di/ance1 five gr& t]races1 runn+ at correspond+ heights on bo? sides ( ! broad valley1 are m conspicu\s ?an ! ?ree be/-develop$ ones at ,coquimbo4 ,!y give to ! l&scape ! mo/ s+ul> & =mal aspect2 & :5 ! cl\ds hung l[1 hid+ ! neighb\r+ m\nta9s1 ! valley resembl$ 9 ! mo/ /rik+ mann] t ( ,santa ,cruz4 ,! :ole ?ickness ( ^! t]races or pla9s seems compos$ ( gravel1 r firmly aggregat$ toge!r1 ) occasional p>t+ seams ( clay3 ! pebbles on ! upp] pla9 are (t5 :itewa%$ ) an alum9\s sub/ance1 z 9 ,patagonia4 ,ne> ! coa/ ,i obs]v$ _m sea-%ells on ! l[] pla9s4 ,at ,freyr9a 7twelve miles up ! valley71 !re are six t]races beside ! bottom-surface ( ! valley3 ! two l[] ones are "h only f two hundr$ to ?ree hundr$ y>ds 9 wid?1 b high] up ! valley !y exp& into pla9s2 ! ?ird t]race is g5]ally n>r[2 ! f\r? ,i saw only 9 "o place1 b !re x 0 di/9ct = ! l5g? ( a mile2 ! fif? is v broad2 ! six? is ! summit-pla91 :i* exp&s inl& into a great bas94 ,n hav+ a b>omet] ) me1 ,i did n asc]ta9 ! height ( ^! pla9s1 b !y appe>$ consid]ably high] ?an ^? at ,coquimbo4 ,_! wid? v>ies mu*1 sometimes be+ v broad1 & sometimes contract+ into m]e fr+es ( sep>ate flat-topp$ projections1 & !n q disappe>+3 at ! "o spot1 :]e ! f\r? t]race 0 visible1 ! :ole six t]races 7 cut (f = a %ort space by "o s+le bold esc>pm5t4 ,ne> ,ball5> 7?irty-sev5 miles f ! m\? ( ! riv]71 ! valley betwe5 ! summit-edges ( ! highe/ esc>pm5ts is sev]al miles 9 wid?1 & ! five t]races on bo? sides are broadly develop$3 ! highe/ _c be less ?an six hundr$ feet above ! b$ ( ! riv]1 :i* itself mu/1 ,i conceive1 be "s hundr$ feet above ! sea4 ,no4 #ab ,nor? & s\? section across ! valley ( ,guasco1 & ( a pla9 nor? ( x4 ,illu/ration3 ,nor? & s\? section across ! valley ( ,guasco4 ,on ! nor!rn side ( ! valley ! summit-pla9 ( gravel 7,a7 has two esc>pm5ts1 "o fac+ ! valley1 & ! o!r a great bas9-l pla9 7,b71 :i* /ret*es = sev]al leagues nor?w>d4 ,?is n>r[ pla9 7,a7 ) ! d\ble esc>pm5t1 evid5tly once =m$ a spit or promontory ( gravel1 project+ into & divid+ two great bays1 & subsequ5tly 0 worn on bo? sides into /eep cliffs4 ,:e!r ! sev]al esc>pm5ts 9 ?is valley 7 =m$ dur+ ! same /ation>y p]iods ) ^? ( ,coquimbo1 ,i w n pret5d to conjecture2 b if s ! int]v5+ & subsequ5t elevatory movem5ts mu/ h be5 "h mu* m en]getic1 = ^! pla9s c]ta9ly /& at a mu* high] level ?an d ^? ( ,coquimbo4 ,copiapo4--,f ,guasco to ,copiapo1 ,i foll[$ ! road ne> ! foot ( ! ,cordill]a1 & !re=e saw no uprais$ rema9s4 ,at ! m\?1 h[ev]1 ( ! valley ( ,copiapo !re is a pla91 e/imat$ by ,mey5#bb betwe5 fifty & sev5ty feet 9 height1 ( :i* ! upp] "p consi/s *iefly ( gravel1 ab\nd+ ) rec5t %ells1 *iefly ( ! ,con*olepas1 ,v5us ,dombeyi1 & ,calyptra tro*i=mis4 ,a little inl&1 on a pla9 e/imat$ by myself at ne>ly ?ree hundr$ feet1 ! upp] /ratum 0 =m$ ( brok5 %ells & s& cem5t$ by :ite calc>e\s matt]1 & ab\nd+ ) emb$d$ rec5t %ells1 ( :i* ! ,mul9ia ,byron5sis & ,pect5 purpuratus 7 ! mo/ num]\s4 ,! l[] pla9 /ret*es = "s miles s\?w>d1 & = an unkn[n di/ance nor?w>d1 b n f> up ! valley2 its seaw>d face1 accord+ to ,mey51 is worn into caves above ! level ( ! pres5t bea*4 ,! valley ( ,copiapo is mu* less /eeply incl9$ & less direct 9 its c\rse ?an any o!r valley :i* ,i saw 9 ,*ile2 & its bottom does n g5]ally consi/ ( gravel3 !re are no /ep-=m$ t]races 9 x1 except at "o spot ne> ! m\? ( ! great lat]al valley ( ! ,despoblado :]e !re are only two1 "o above ! o!r3 l[] d[n ! valley1 9 "o place ,i obs]v$ t ! solid rock _h be5 cut into ! %ape ( a bea*1 & 0 smoo!d ov] ) %+le4 #bb 8,reise um die ,erde10 ,?4 ,i1 s4 #cgb1 et seq4 ,nor?w>d ( ,copiapo1 9 lat4 #bf ,s41 ! old voyag] ,waf]#bc f\nd imm5se numb]s ( sea-%ells "s miles f ! coa/4 ,at ,cobija 7lat4 #bb #cd7 ,m4 d',orbigny obs]v$ b$s ( gravel & brok5 %ells1 conta9+ t5 species ( rec5t %ells2 he also f\nd1 on project+ po9ts ( porphyry1 at a height ( #cjj feet1 %ells ( ,con*olepas1 ,*iton1 ,calyptra1 ,fissurella1 & ,patella1 /ill atta*$ to ! spots on :i* !y _h liv$4 ,m4 d',orbigny argues f ?is fact1 t ! elevation mu/ h be5 great & sudd53#bd to me x appe>s f> m probable t ! movem5t 0 gradual1 ) small />ts z dur+ ! e>?quakes ( #ahbb & #ahce1 by :i* :ole b$s ( %ells atta*$ to ! rocks 7 lift$ above ! subsequ5t rea* ( ! waves4 ,m4 d',orbigny also f\nd roll$ pebbles ext5d+ up ! m\nta9 to a height ( at lea/ six hundr$ feet4 ,at ,iquique 7lat4 #bj #ab ,s471 9 a great accumulation ( s&1 at a height e/imat$ betwe5 "o hundr$ & fifty & two hundr$ feet1 ,i obs]v$ _m l>ge sea-%ells :i* ,i ?\ght c\ld n h be5 bl[n up by ! w9d to t height4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,blake has lately#be describ$ ^! %ells3 he /ates t 8inl& t[>d ! m\nta9s !y =m a compact uni=m b$1 sc>cely a trace ( ! orig9al %ells be+ disc]nible2 b z we approa* ! %ore1 ! =ms become gradually m di/9ct till we meet ) ! liv+ %ells on ! coa/40 ,?is int]e/+ obs]vation1 %[+ by ! gradual decay ( ! %ells h[ sl[ly & gradually ! coa/ mu/ h be5 uplift$1 we %all pres5tly see fully confirm$ at ,lima4 ,at ,arica 7lat4 #ah #bh71 ,m4 d',orbigny#bf f\nd a great range ( s&-dunes1 f\rte5 leagues 9 l5g?1 /ret*+ t[>ds ,tacna1 includ+ rec5t %ells & bones ( ,cetacea1 & rea*+ up to a height ( #cjj feet above ! sea4 ,lieut5ant ,frey] has giv5 "s m precise facts3 he /ates#bg t ! ,morro ( ,arica is ab\t f\r hundr$ feet high2 x is worn into obscure t]races1 on ! b>e rock ( :i* he f\nd ,bal9i & ,millepor adh]+4 ,at ! height ( betwe5 tw5ty & ?irty feet ! %ells & corals 7 9 a q fre% /ate1 b at fifty feet !y 7 mu* abrad$2 !re 71 h[ev]1 traces ( organic rema9s at great] heights4 ,on ! road f ,tacna to ,arequipa1 betwe5 ,loquimbo & ,moquegua1 ,mr4 ,m4 ,hamilton#bh f\nd num]\s rec5t sea %ells 9 s&1 at a consid]able di/ance f ! sea4 #bc ,burnett's 8,collection ( ,voyages10 vol4 iv1 p4 #aic4 #bd 8,voyage1 ,"p ,golog410 p4 #id4 ,m4 d',orbigny 7p4 #ih71 9 summ+ up1 says3 8,s'il e/ c]ta9 7z he believes7 que t\s les t]ra9s en p5te1 compris entre la m] et les montagnes sont l'anci5 rivage de la m]1 on doit suppos]1 p\r l'ensemble1 un exhaussem5t que ce ne s]ait pas mo9dre de deux c5t mtres2 il faudrait suppos] encore que ce s\lvem5t n'a po9t t graduel2 4 4 4 mais qu'il rsult]ait d'une seule et mme cause =tuite10 etc4 ,n[1 on ?is view1 :5 ! sea 0 =m+ ! bea* at ! foot ( ! m\nta9s1 _m %ells ( ,con*olepas1 ,*iton1 ,calyptra1 ,fissurella1 & ,patella 7:i* are kn[n to live close to ! bea*71 7 atta*$ to rocks at a dep? ( #cjj feet1 & at a dep? ( #fjj feet sev]al ( ^! same %ells 7 accumulat+ 9 great numb]s 9 horizontal b$s4 ,f :at ,i h myself se5 9 dr$g+1 ,i believe ?is to be improbable 9 ! highe/ degree1 if n impossible2 & ,i ?9k ev]yone :o has read ,pr(essor ,e4 ,=bes's excell5t rese>*es on ! subject1 w )\t hesitation agree 9 ?is conclusion4 #be ,silliman's ,am]4 ,j\rn4 ( ,sci5ce1 vol4 xliv1 p4 #b4 #bf 8,voyage10 etc41 p4 #aja4 #bg ,9 a lett] to ,mr4 ,lyell1 8,geolog4 ,proc410 vol4 ii1 p4 #agi4 #bh ,ed94 ,new ,phil4 ,j\rn41 vol4 xxx1 p4 #aee4 ,lima4 ,nor?w>d ( ,arica1 ,i "k no?+ ( ! coa/ = ab\t a space ( five degrees ( latitude2 b ne> ,callao1 ! port ( ,lima1 !re is abundant & v curi\s evid5ce ( ! elevation ( ! l&4 ,! isl& ( ,san ,lor5zo is upw>ds ( "o ?\s& feet high2 ! basset edges ( ! /rata compos+ ! l[] "p are worn into ?ree obscure1 n>r[1 slop+ /eps or l$ges1 :i* c be se5 only :5 /&+ on !m3 !y probably resemble ^? describ$ by ,lieut5ant ,frey] at ,arica4 ,! surface ( ! l[] l$ge1 :i* ext5ds f a l[ cliff ov]hang+ ! sea to ! foot ( ! next upp] esc>pm5t1 is cov]$ by an enorm\s accumulation ( rec5t %ells4#bi ,! b$ is level1 & 9 "s p>ts m ?an two feet 9 ?ickness2 ,i trac$ x ov] a space ( "o mile 9 l5g?1 & he>d ( x 9 o!r places3 ! upp]mo/ "p is eighty-five feet by ! b>omet] above high-wat] m>k4 ,! %ells are pack$ toge!r1 b n /ratifi$3 !y are m+l$ ) e>? & /ones1 & are g5]ally cov]$ by a few in*es ( detritus2 !y re/ on a mass ( ne>ly angul> fragm5ts ( ! und]ly+ s&/one1 sometimes cem5t$ toge!r by common salt4 ,i collect$ eighte5 species ( %ells ( all ages & sizes4 ,sev]al ( ! univalves _h evid5tly long la9 dead at ! bottom ( ! sea1 = _! insides 7 incru/$ ) ,balani & ,s]pul4 ,all1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,g4,b4 ,s[]by1 are rec5t species3 !y consi/ (3-- ,mytilus ,magellanicus3 same z t f\nd at ,valp>aiso1 & !re /at$ to be probably di/9ct f ! true ,m4 ,magellanicus ( ! ea/ coa/4 ,v5us co/ellata1 ,s[]by 8,zoological ,proce$+s40 ,pect5 purpuratus1 ,lam4 ,*ama1 probably e*9ulata1 ,brod4 ,calyptra ,byron5sis1 ,gray4 ,calyptra radians 7,tro*us1 ,lam47 ,fissurella aff9is1 ,gray4 ,fissurella biradiata1 ,trembly4 ,purpura *ocolatta1 ,duclos4 ,purpura ,p]uviana1 ,gray4 ,purpura labiata1 ,gray4 ,purpura buxea 7,murex1 ,brod474 ,con*olepas ,p]uviana4 ,nassa1 relat$ to reticulata4 ,triton rudis1 ,brod4 ,tro*us1 n yet describ$1 b well-kn[n & v common4 & #ah4 ,balanus1 two species1 bo? common on ! coa/4 #bi ,m4 ,*evali]1 9 ! 8,voyage ( ! ,bonite10 obs]v$ ^! %ells2 b 8 specim5s 7 lo/4--8,l',in/itut10 #ahch1 p4 #aea4 ,^! uprais$ %ells appe> to be ne>ly 9 ! same proportional numb]s--) ! exception ( ! ,crepidul be+ m num]\s--) ^? on ! exi/+ bea*4 ,! /ate ( pres]vation ( ! diff]5t species diff]$ mu*2 b mo/ ( !m 7 mu* corrod$1 brittle1 & blea*$3 ! upp] & l[] surfaces ( ! ,con*olepas _h g5]ally q scal$ (f3 "s ( ! ,tro*i & ,fissurell /ill p>tially reta9 _! col\rs4 ,x is rem>kable t ^! %ells1 tak5 all toge!r1 h fully z anci5t an appe>ance1 al?\gh ! extremely arid climate appe>s highly fav\rable = _! pres]vation1 z ^? f #a1cjj feet at ,valp>aiso1 & c]ta9ly a m anci5t appe>ance ?an ^? f five to six hundr$ feet f ,valp>aiso & ,concepcion2 at :i* places ,i h se5 grass & o!r vegetables actually gr[+ out ( ! %ells4 ,_m ( ! univalves "h at ,san ,lor5zo 7 fill$ )1 & unit$ toge!r by1 pure salt1 probably left by ! evaporation ( ! sea-spray1 z ! l& sl[ly em]g$4#cj ,on ! highe/ p>ts ( ! l$ge1 small fragm5ts ( ! %ells 7 m+l$ )1 & evid5tly 9 process ( r$uction into1 a yell[i%-:ite1 s(t1 calc>e\s p[d]1 ta/+ /rongly ( salt1 & 9 "s places z f9e z prep>$ m$ic9al *alk4 #cj ,! und]ly+ s&/one conta9s true lay]s ( salt2 s t ! salt may possibly h come f ! b$s 9 ! high] p>ts ( ! isl&2 b ,i ?9k m probably f ! sea-spray4 ,x is g5]ally ass]t$ t ra9 nev] falls on ! coa/ ( ,p]u2 b ?is is n q accurate2 =1 on sev]al days1 dur+ our visit1 ! s-call$ ,p]uvian dew fell 9 suffici5t quantity to make ! /reets muddy1 & x w\ld c]ta9ly h wa%$ s deliquesc5t a sub/ance z salt into ! soil4 ,i /ate ?is because ,m4 d',orbigny1 9 discuss+ an analog\s subject1 supposes t ,i _h =gott5 t x nev] ra9s on ?is :ole l9e ( coa/4 ,see ,ulloa's 8,voyage0 7vol4 ii1 ,eng4 ,trans41 p4 #fg7 = an acc\nt ( ! muddy /reets ( ,lima1 & on ! cont9uance ( ! mi/s dur+ ! :ole w9t]4 ,ra91 also1 falls at r>e int]vals ev5 9 ! drie/ di/ricts1 z1 = in/ance1 dur+ =ty days1 9 #agbf1 at ,*ocope 7#g #df72 ?is ra9 entirely ru9$ 78,ulloa10 etc41 p4 #ah7 ! mud h\ses ( ! inhabitants4 ,fossil-rema9s ( human art4--,9 ! mid/ ( ^! %ells on ,san ,lor5zo1 ,i f\nd light corall9es1 ! horny ovule-cases ( ,mollusca1 roots ( seawe$1#ca bones ( birds1 ! heads ( ,indian corn & o!r vegetable matt]1 a piece ( wov5 ru%es1 & ano!r ( ne>ly decay$ cotton /r+4 ,i extract$ ^! rema9s by digg+ a hole1 on a level spot2 & !y _h all indisputably be5 emb$d$ ) ! %ells4 ,i comp>$ ! plait$ ru%1 ! cotton /r+1 & ,indian corn1 at ! h\se ( an antiqu>y1 ) simil> objects1 tak5 f ! ,huacas or burial-gr\nds ( ! anci5t ,p]uvians1 & !y 7 undi/+ui%able2 x %\ld be obs]v$ t ! ,p]uvians us$ /r+ only ( cotton4 ,! small quantity ( s& or gravel ) ! %ells1 ! abs5ce ( l>ge /ones1 ! wid? & ?ickness ( ! b$1 & ! "t requisite = a l$ge to be cut into ! s&/one1 all %[ t ^! rema9s 7 n ?r[n high up by an e>?quake-wave3 on ! o!r h&1 ^! facts1 toge!r ) ! numb] ( dead %ells1 & ( float+ objects1 bo? m>9e & t]re/rial1 bo? natural & human1 r5d] x almo/ c]ta9 t !y 7 accumulat$ on a true bea*1 s9ce uprais$ eighty-five feet1 & uprais$ ?is mu* s9ce ,indian man inhabit$ ,p]u4 ,! elevation may h be51 ei!r by sev]al small sudd5 />ts1 or q gradual2 9 ?is latt] case ! unroll$ %ells hav+ be5 ?r[n up dur+ gales beyond ! rea* ( ! waves :i* aft]w>ds broke on ! sl[ly em]g+ l&4 ,i h made ^! rem>ks1 *iefly because ,i 0 at fir/ surpris$ at ! complete diff]5ce 9 nature1 betwe5 ?is broad1 smoo?1 uprais$ b$ ( %ells1 & ! pres5t %+le-bea* at ! foot ( ! l[ s&/one-cliffs2 b a bea* =m$1 :5 ! sea is cutt+ into ! l&1 z is %[n n[ to be ! case by ! l[ b>e s&/one-cliffs1 ought n to be comp>$ ) a bea* accumulat$ on a g5tly incl9$ rocky surface1 at a p]iod :5 ! sea 7probably ow+ to ! elevatory movem5t 9 process7 0 n able to eat into ! l&4 ,) respect to ! mass ( ne>ly angul>1 salt-cem5t$ fragm5ts ( s&/one1 :i* lie "u ! %ells1 & :i* are s unlike ! mat]ials ( an ord9>y sea-bea*2 ,i ?9k x probable aft] hav+ se5 ! rem>kable effects#cb ( ! e>?quake ( #ahce1 9 absolutely %att]+ z if by gunp[d] ! surface ( ! prim>y rocks ne> ,concepcion1 t a smoo? b>e surface ( /one 0 left by ! sea cov]$ by ! %elly mass1 & t aft]w>ds :5 uprais$1 x 0 sup]ficially %att]$ by ! sev]e %ocks s (t5 exp]i5c$ "h4 #ca ,mr4 ,smi? ( ,jordan ,hill f\nd pieces ( seawe$ 9 an uprais$ plei/oc5e deposit 9 ,scotl&4 ,see 8 admirable ,pap] 9 ! ,ed94 ,new ,phil4 ,j\rnal1 vol4 xxv1 p4 #chd4 #cb ,i h describ$ ?is 9 my 8,j\rnal ( ,rese>*es10 p4 #cjc1 #bnd edit4 ,! v l[ l& surr\nd+ ! t[n ( ,callao1 is to ! s\? jo9$ by an obscure esc>pm5t to a high] pla9 7s\? ( ,bella ,vi/a71 :i* /ret*es along ! coa/ = a l5g? ( ab\t eight miles4 ,?is pla9 appe>s to ! eye q level2 b ! sea-cliffs %[ t its height v>ies 7z f> z ,i c\ld e/imate7 f sev5ty to "o hundr$ & tw5ty feet4 ,x is compos$ ( ?91 sometimes wav+1 b$s ( clay1 (t5 ( bright r$ & yell[ col\rs1 ( lay]s ( impure s&1 & 9 "o "p ) a great /ratifi$ mass ( granitic pebbles4 ,^! b$s are capp$ by a rem>kable mass1 v>y+ f two to six feet 9 ?ickness1 ( r$di% loam or mud1 conta9+ _m scatt]$ & brok5 fragm5ts ( rec5t m>9e %ells1 sometimes ?\gh r>ely s+le l>ge r\nd pebble1 m frequ5tly %ort irregul> lay]s ( f9e gravel1 & v _m pieces ( r$ co>se e>!nw>e1 :i* f _! curvatures mu/ once h =m$ p>ts ( l>ge vessels4 ,! e>!nw>e is ( ,indian manufacture2 & ,i f\nd exactly simil> pieces accid5tally includ$ )9 ! bricks1 ( :i* ! neighb\r+ anci5t ,p]uvian burial-m\nds are built4 ,^! fragm5ts ab\nd$ 9 su* numb]s 9 c]ta9 spots1 t x appe>$ z if waggon-loads ( e>!nw>e _h be5 sma%$ to pieces4 ,! brok5 sea-%ells & pott]y are /rew$ bo? on ! surface1 & ?r\gh\t ! :ole ?ickness ( ?is upp] loamy mass4 ,i f\nd !m :]ev] ,i exam9$ ! cliffs1 = a space ( betwe5 two & ?ree miles1 & = half a mile inl&2 & !re c be little d\bt t ?is same b$ ext5ds ) a smoo? surface sev]al miles fur!r ov] ! entire pla94 ,besides ! little includ$ irregul> lay]s ( small pebbles1 !re are occasionally v obscure traces ( /ratification4 ,at "o ( ! highe/ p>ts ( ! cliff1 e/imat$ #abj feet above ! sea1 :]e a little rav9e came d[n1 !re 7 two sections1 at "r angles to ea* o!r1 ( ! floor ( a %$ or build+4 ,9 bo? sections or faces1 two r[s1 "o ov] ! o!r1 ( l>ge r\nd /ones c\ld be di/9ctly se52 !y 7 pack$ close toge!r on an artificial lay] ( s& two in*es ?ick1 :i* _h be5 plac$ on ! natural clay-b$s2 ! r\nd /ones 7 cov]$ by ?ree feet 9 ?ickness ( ! loam ) brok5 sea-%ells & pott]y4 ,h5ce1 be=e ?is widely spread-out b$ ( loam 0 deposit$1 x is c]ta9 t ! pla9 0 inhabit$2 & x is probable1 f ! brok5 vessels be+ s mu* m abundant 9 c]ta9 spots ?an 9 o!rs1 & f ! und]ly+ clay be+ fitt$ = _! manufacture1 t ! kilns /ood "h4 ,! smoo?ness & wide ext5t ( ! pla91 ! bulk ( matt] deposit$1 & ! obscure traces ( /ratification seem to indicate t ! loam 0 deposit$ "u wat]2 on ! o!r h&1 ! pres5ce ( sea-%ells1 _! brok5 /ate1 ! pebbles ( v>i\s sizes1 & ! artificial floor ( r\nd /ones1 almo/ prove t x mu/ h orig9at$ 9 a ru% ( wat] f ! sea ov] ! l&4 ,! height ( ! pla91 namely1 #abj feet1 r5d]s x improbable t an e>?quake-wave1 va/ z "s h "h be51 c\ld h brok5 ov] ! surface at its pres5t level2 b :5 ! l& /ood eighty-five feet l[]1 at ! p]iod :5 ! %ells 7 ?r[n up on ! l$ge at ,s4 ,lor5zo1 & :5 z we "k man inhabit$ ?is di/rict1 su* an ev5t might well h occurr$2 & if we may fur!r suppose1 t ! pla9 0 at t "t conv]t$ into a tempor>y lake1 z actually occurr$1 dur+ ! e>?quakes ( #agac & #agdf1 9 ! case ( ! l[ l& r\nd ,callao ow+ to its be+ encircl$ by a high %+le-bea*1 all ! appe>ances above describ$ w be p]fectly expla9$4 ,i mu/ add1 t at a l[] level ne> ! po9t :]e ! pres5t l[ l& r\nd ,callao jo9s ! high] pla91 !re are appe>ances ( two di/9ct deposits bo? app>5tly =m$ by debacles3 9 ! upp] "o1 a horse's too? & a dog's jaw 7 emb$d$2 s t bo? mu/ h be5 =m$ aft] ! settlem5t ( ! ,spani>ds3 accord+ to ,aco/a1 ! e>?quake-wave ( #aehf rose eighty-f\r feet4 ,! inhabitants ( ,callao d n believe1 z f> z ,i c\ld asc]ta91 t any *ange 9 level is n[ 9 progress4 ,! great fragm5ts ( brickwork1 :i* x is ass]t$ c be se5 at ! bottom ( ! sea1 & :i* h be5 adduc$ z a pro( ( a late subsid5ce1 are1 z ,i am in=m$ by ,mr4 ,gill1 a resid5t eng9e]1 loose fragm5ts2 ?is is probable1 = ,i f\nd on ! bea*1 & n ne> ! rema9s ( any build+1 masses ( brickwork1 ?ree & f\r feet squ>e1 :i* _h be5 wa%$ into _! pres5t places1 & smoo!d ov] ) %+le dur+ ! e>?quake ( #agdf4 ,! spit ( l&1 on :i* ! ru9s ( ,old ,callao /&1 is s extremely l[ & n>r[1 t x is improbable 9 ! highe/ degree t a t[n %\ld h be5 f\nd$ on x 9 its pres5t /ate2 & ,i h lately he>d#cc t ,m4 ,ts*udi has come to ! conclusion1 f a comp>ison ( old ) mod]n *>ts1 t ! coa/ bo? s\? & nor? ( ,callao has subsid$4 ,i h %[n t ! isl& ( ,san ,lor5zo has be5 uprais$ eighty-five feet s9ce ! ,p]uvians inhabit$ ?is c\ntry2 & :atev] may h be5 ! am\nt ( rec5t subsid5ce1 by s mu* m mu/ ! elevation h exce$$ ! eighty-five feet4 ,9 sev]al places#cd 9 ?is neighb\rhood1 m>ks ( sea-action h be5 obs]v$3 ,ulloa gives a detail$ acc\nt ( su* appe>ances at a po9t five leagues nor?w>d ( ,callao3 ,mr4 ,cruik%ank f\nd ne> ,lima successive l9es ( sea-cliffs1 ) r\nd$ blocks at _! bases1 at a height ( #gjj feet above ! pres5t level ( ! sea4 #cc ,i am indebt$ = ?is fact to ,dr4 ,e4 ,dieff5ba*4 ,i may add t !re is a tradition1 t ! isl&s ( ,san ,lor5zo & ,fronton 7 once jo9$1 & t ! *annel betwe5 ,san ,lor5zo & ! ma9l&1 n[ above two miles 9 wid?1 0 s n>r[ t cattle us$ to swim ov]4 #cd 8,obs]vaciones sobre el ,clima del ,lima0 p> ,dr4 ,h4 ,unane1 p4 #d4--,ulloa's 8,voyage10 vol4 ii1 ,eng4 ,trans41 p4 #ig4--;,= ,mr4 ,cruik%ank's obs]vations1 see ,mr4 ,lyell's 8,pr9ciples ( ,geology0 7#a/ edition7 vol4 iii1 p4 #acj4 ,on ! decay ( uprais$ sea-%ells4--,i h /at$ t _m ( ! %ells on ! l[] incl9$ l$ge or t]race ( ,san ,lor5zo are corrod$ 9 a peculi> mann]1 & t !y h a mu* m anci5t appe>ance ?an ! same species at consid]ably great] heights on ! coa/ ( ,*ile4 ,i h1 also1 /at$ t ^! %ells 9 ! upp] "p ( ! l$ge1 at ! height ( eighty-five feet above ! sea1 are fall+1 & 9 "s p>ts are q *ang$ into a f9e1 s(t1 sal9e1 calc>e\s p[d]4 ,! f9e/ "p ( ?is p[d] has be5 analys$ = me1 at ! reque/ ( ,sir ,h4 ,de la ,be*e1 by ! k9dness ( ,mr4 ,tr5ham ,reeks ( ! ,museum ( ,economic ,geology2 x consi/s ( c>bonate ( lime 9 abundance1 ( sulphate & muriate ( lime1 & ( muriate & sulphate ( soda4 ,! c>bonate ( lime is obvi\sly d]iv$ f ! %ells2 & common salt is s abundant 9 p>ts ( ! b$1 t1 z be=e rem>k$1 ! univalves are (t5 fill$ ) x4 ,! sulphate ( lime may h be5 d]iv$1 z has probably ! common salt1 f ! evaporation ( ! sea-spray1 dur+ ! em]g5ce ( ! l&2 = sulphate ( lime is n[ copi\sly deposit$ f ! spray on ! %ores ( ,asc5sion4#ce ,! o!r sal9e bodies may p]haps h be5 p>tially ?us d]iv$1 b *iefly1 z ,i conclude f ! foll[+ facts1 ?r\gh a diff]5t means4 #ce ,see 8,volcanic ,isl&s10 etc41 by ! ,au?or4 ,on mo/ p>ts ( ! second l$ge or old sea-bea*1 at a height ( #agj feet1 !re is a lay] ( :ite p[d] ( v>iable ?ickness1 z mu* 9 "s p>ts z two in*es1 ly+ on ! angul>1 salt-cem5t$ fragm5ts ( s&/one & "u ab\t f\r in*es ( e>?1 :i* p[d]1 f its close resemblance 9 nature to ! upp] & mo/ decay$ p>ts ( ! %elly mass1 ,i c h>dly d\bt orig9ally exi/$ z a b$ ( %ells1 n[ mu* collaps$ & q dis9tegrat$4 ,i c\ld n discov] ) ! microscope a trace ( organic /ructure 9 x2 b its *emical con/itu5ts1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,reeks1 are ! same z 9 ! p[d] extract$ f among/ ! decay+ %ells on ! l[] l$ge1 ) ! m>k$ exception t ! c>bonate ( lime is pres5t 9 only v small quantity4 ,on ! ?ird & highe/ l$ge1 ,i obs]v$ "s ( ?is p[d] 9 a simil> position1 & likewise occasionally 9 small pat*es at consid]ably great] heights ne> ! summit ( ! isl&4 ,at ,iquique1 :]e ! :ole face ( ! c\ntry is cov]$ by a highly salif]\s alluvium1 & :]e ! climate is extremely dry1 we h se5 t1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,blake1 ! %ells :i* are p]fect ne> ! bea* become1 9 asc5d+1 gradually less & less p]fect1 until sc>cely a trace ( _! orig9al /ructure c be discov]$4 ,x is kn[n t c>bonate ( lime & common salt left 9 a mass toge!r1#cf & slightly moi/5$1 p>tially decompose ea* o!r3 n[ we h at ,san ,lor5zo & at ,iquique1 9 ! %ells & salt pack$ toge!r1 & occasionally moi/5$ by ! s-call$ ,p]uvian dew1 ! prop] elem5ts = ?is action4 ,we c ?us und]/& ! peculi> corrod$ appe>ance ( ! %ells on ,san ,lor5zo1 & ! great decrease ( quantity 9 ! c>bonate ( lime 9 ! p[d] on ! upp] l$ge4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a great difficulty on ?is view1 = ! resultant salts %\ld be c>bonate ( soda & muriate ( lime2 ! latt] is pres5t1 b n ! c>bonate ( soda4 ,h5ce ,i am l$ to ! p]haps unau?oris$ conjecture 7:i* ,i %all h]eaft] h to ref] to7 t ! c>bonate ( soda1 by "s unexpla9$ means1 becomes conv]t$ into a sulphate4 ,if ! above rem>ks be j1 we are l$ to ! v unexpect$ conclusion1 t a dry climate1 by leav+ ! salt f ! sea-spray undissolv$1 is mu* less fav\rable to ! pres]vation ( uprais$ %ells ?an a humid climate4 ,h[ev] ?is may be1 x is int]e/+ to "k ! mann] 9 :i* masses ( %ells1 gradually uprais$ above ! sea-level1 decay & f9ally disappe>4 #cf ,i am in=m$ by ,dr4 ,kane1 ?r\gh ,mr4 ,reeks1 t a manufactory 0 e/abli%$ on ?is pr9ciple 9 ,france1 b fail$ f ! small quantity ( c>bonate ( soda produc$4 ,spr5gel 7,g>d5]s' ,*ron41 #ahde1 p4 #aeg7 /ates1 t salt & c>bonate ( lime are liable to mutual decomposition 9 ! soil4 ,sir ,h4 ,de la ,be*e in=ms me1 t calc>e\s rocks wa%$ by ! spray ( ! sea1 are (t5 corrod$ 9 a peculi> mann]2 see also on ?is latt] subject ,g>d5]s' ,*ron41 p4 #fge1 #ahdd4 ,summ>y on ! rec5t elevation ( ! we/ coa/ ( ,s\? ,am]ica4--,we h se5 t uprais$ m>9e rema9s occur at int]vals1 & 9 "s p>ts almo/ cont9u\sly1 f lat4 #de #ce to #ab ,s41 along ! %ores ( ! ,pacific4 ,?is is a di/ance1 9 a nor? & s\? l9e1 ( #b1jge geographical miles4 ,f ,byron's obs]vations1 ! elevation has no d\bt ext5d$ sixty miles fur!r s\?2 & f ! simil>ity 9 ! =m ( ! c\ntry ne> ,lima1 x has probably ext5d$ _m leagues fur!r nor?4#cg ,along ?is great l9e ( coa/1 besides ! organic rema9s1 !re are 9 v _m p>ts1 m>ks ( erosion1 caves1 anci5t bea*es1 s&-dunes1 & successive t]races ( gravel1 all above ! pres5t level ( ! sea4 ,f ! /eepness ( ! l& on ?is side ( ! cont95t1 %ells h r>ely be5 f\nd at great] di/ances inl& ?an f two to ?ree leagues2 b ! m>ks ( sea-action are evid5t f>!r f ! coa/2 = in/ance1 9 ! valley ( ,guasco1 at a di/ance ( betwe5 ?irty & =ty miles4 ,judg+ f ! uprais$ %ells alone1 ! elevation 9 ,*iloe has be5 #cej feet1 at ,concepcion c]ta9ly #fbe feet2 & by e/imation #a1jjj feet2 at ,valp>aiso #a1cjj feet2 at ,coquimbo #beb feet2 nor?w>d ( ?is place1 sea-%ells h n1 ,i believe1 be5 f\nd above #cjj feet2 & at ,lima !y 7 fall+ into decay 7ha/5$ probably by ! salt7 at #he feet4 ,n only has ?is am\nt ( elevation tak5 place )9 ! p]iod ( exi/+ ,mollusca & ,cirrip$es2 b _! proportional numb]s 9 ! neighb\r+ sea h 9 mo/ cases rema9$ ! same4 ,ne> ,lima1 h[ev]1 a small *ange 9 ?is respect betwe5 ! liv+ & ! uprais$ 0 obs]v$3 at ,coquimbo ?is 0 m evid5t1 all ! %ells be+ exi/+ species1 b ) ^? emb$d$ 9 ! upp]mo/ calc>e\s pla9 n approximat+ s closely 9 proportional numb]s1 z d ^? t lie loose on its surface at ! height ( #beb feet1 & /ill less closely ?an ^? :i* are /rew$ on ! l[] pla9s1 :i* latt] are id5tical 9 proportional numb]s ) ^? n[ ca/ up on ! bea*4 ,f ?is circum/ance1 & f n f9d+1 ^u c>eful exam9ation1 ne> ,coquimbo any %ells at a great] height ?an #beb feet1 ,i believe t ! rec5t elevation !re has be5 mu* less ?an at ,valp>aiso1 :]e x has be5 #a1cjj feet1 & ,i may add1 ?an at ,concepcion4 ,?is consid]able inequality 9 ! am\nt ( elevation at ,coquimbo & ,valp>aiso1 places only #bjj miles ap>t1 is n improbable1 consid]+1 fir/1 ! diff]5ce 9 ! =ce & numb] ( ! %ocks n[ ye>ly affect+ diff]5t p>ts ( ?is coa/2 &1 secondly1 ! fact ( s+le areas1 su* z t ( ! prov9ce ( ,concepcion1 hav+ be5 uplift$ v unequally dur+ ! same e>?quake4 ,x w\ld1 9 mo/ cases1 be v haz>d\s to inf] an inequality ( elevation1 f %ells be+ f\nd on ! surface or 9 sup]ficial b$s at diff]5t heights2 = we d n "k on :at _! rate ( decay dep5ds2 & at ,coquimbo "o in/ance out ( _m has be5 giv51 ( a promontory1 :i*1 f ! occurr5ce ( "o v small collection ( lime-cem5t$ %ells1 has indisputably be5 elevat$ #bdb feet1 & yet on :i*1 n ev5 a fragm5t ( %ell c\ld be f\nd on c>eful exam9ation betwe5 ?is height & ! bea*1 al?\gh _m sites appe>$ v fav\rable = ! pres]vation ( organic rema9s3 ! abs5ce1 also1 ( %ells on ! gravel-t]races a %ort di/ance up ! valley ( ,coquimbo1 ?\gh abundant on ! correspond+ t]races at its m\?1 %\ld be borne 9 m9d4 #cg ,i may take ?is opportunity ( /at+ t 9 a ,,ms4 9 ! ,geological ,society by ,mr4 ,weav]1 x is /at$ t b$s ( oy/]s & o!r rec5t %ells are f\nd ?irty feet above ! level ( ! sea1 9 _m p>ts ( ,tampico1 9 ! ,gulf ( ,mexico4 ,!re are o!r epo*s1 besides t ( ! exi/5ce ( rec5t ,mollusca1 by :i* to judge ( ! *anges ( level on ?is coa/4 ,at ,lima1 z we h j se51 ! elevation has be5 at lea/ eighty-five feet1 )9 ! ,indo-human p]iod2 & s9ce ! arrival ( ! ,spani>ds 9 #aecj1 !re has app>5tly be5 a s9k+ ( ! surface4 ,at ,valp>aiso1 9 ! c\rse ( #bbj ye>s1 ! rise mu/ h be5 less ?an n9ete5 feet2 b x has be5 z mu* z f t5 to elev5 feet 9 ! sev5te5 ye>s subsequ5tly to #ahag1 & ( ?is rise only a "p c be attribut$ to ! e>?quake ( #ahbb1 ! rema9d] hav+ be5 ins5sible & app>5tly /ill1 9 #ahcd1 9 progress4 ,at ,*iloe ! elevation has be5 gradual1 & ab\t f\r feet dur+ f\r ye>s4 ,at ,coquimbo1 also1 x has be5 gradual1 & 9 ! c\rse ( #aej ye>s has am\nt$ to sev]al feet4 ,! sudd5 small upheavals1 accompani$ by e>?quakes1 z 9 #ahbb at ,valp>aiso1 9 #ahce at ,concepcion1 & 9 #ahcg 9 ! ,*onos ,ar*ipelago1 are famili> to mo/ geologi/s1 b ! gradual ris+ ( ! coa/ ( ,*ile has be5 h>dly notic$2 x is1 h[ev]1 v important1 z connect+ toge!r ^! two ord]s ( ev5ts4 ,! rise ( ,lima1 hav+ be5 eighty-five feet )9 ! p]iod ( man1 is ! m surpris+ if we ref] to ! ea/]n coa/ ( ! cont95t1 = at ,port ,s4 ,julian1 9 ,patagonia1 !re is good evid5ce 7z we %all h]eaft] see7 t :5 ! l& /ood n9ety feet l[]1 ! ,macrau*5ia1 a mammif]\s bea/1 0 alive2 & at ,bahia ,blanca1 :5 x /ood only a few feet l[] ?an x n[ does1 _m gigantic quadrup$s rang$ ov] ! adjo9+ c\ntry4 ,b ! coa/ ( ,patagonia is "s way di/ant f ! ,cordill]a1 & ! movem5t at ,bahia ,blanca is p]haps n[ays connect$ ) ?is great range1 b r ) ! t]ti>y volcanic rocks ( ,b&a ,ori5tal1 & !re=e ! elevation at ^! places may h be5 inf9itely sl[] ?an on ! coa/ ( ,p]u4 ,all su* speculations1 h[ev]1 mu/ be vague1 = z we "k ) c]ta9ty t ! elevation ( ! :ole coa/ ( ,patagonia has be5 int]rupt$ by _m & long pauses1 :o w pret5d to say t1 9 su* cases1 _m & long p]iods ( subsid5ce may n also h be5 int]calat$8 ,9 _m p>ts ( ! coa/ ( ,*ile & ,p]u !re are m>ks ( ! action ( ! sea at successive heights on ! l&1 %[+ t ! elevation has be5 int]rupt$ by p]iods ( comp>ative re/ 9 ! upw>d movem5t1 & ( d5udation 9 ! action ( ! sea4 ,^! are pla9e/ at ,*iloe1 :]e1 9 a height ( ab\t five hundr$ feet1 !re are ?ree esc>pm5ts1--at ,coquimbo1 :]e 9 a height ( #cfd feet1 !re are five1--at ,guasco1 :]e !re are six1 ( :i* five may p]haps correspond ) ^? at ,coquimbo1 b if s1 ! subsequ5t & int]v5+ elevatory movem5ts h be5 "h mu* m en]getic1--at ,lima1 :]e1 9 a height ( ab\t #bej feet !re are ?ree t]races1 & o!rs1 z x is ass]t$1 at consid]ably great] heights4 ,! almo/ entire abs5ce ( anci5t m>ks ( sea-action at def9$ levels along consid]able spaces ( coa/1 z ne> ,valp>aiso & ,concepcion1 is highly in/ructive1 = z x is improbable t ! elevation at ^! places alone %\ld h be5 cont9u\s1 we mu/ attribute ! abs5ce ( su* m>ks to ! nature & =m ( ! coa/-rocks4 ,see+ ov] h[ _m hundr$ miles ( ! coa/ ( ,patagonia1 & on h[ _m places on ! %ores ( ! ,pacific1 ! elevatory process has be5 int]rupt$ by p]iods ( comp>ative re/1 we may conclude1 conjo9tly ) ! evid5ce drawn f o!r qu>t]s ( ! _w1 t ! elevation ( ! l& is g5]ally an int]mitt5t action4 ,f ! quantity ( matt] remov$ 9 ! =mation ( ! esc>pm5ts1 especially ( ^? ( ,patagonia1 x appe>s t ! p]iods ( re/ 9 ! movem5t1 & ( d5udation ( ! l&1 h g5]ally be5 v long4 ,9 ,patagonia1 we h se5 t ! elevation has be5 equable1 & ! p]iods ( d5udation syn*ron\s ov] v wide spaces ( coa/2 on ! %ores ( ! ,pacific1 ow+ to ! t]races *iefly occurr+ 9 ! valleys1 we h n equal means ( judg+ on ?is po9t2 & ! v diff]5t heights ( ! uprais$ %ells at ,coquimbo1 ,valp>aiso1 & ,concepcion seem directly oppos$ to su* a conclusion4 ,:e!r on ?is side ( ! cont95t ! elevation1 betwe5 ! p]iods ( comp>ative re/ :5 ! esc>pm5ts 7 =m$1 has be5 by small sudd5 />ts1 su* z ^? accompany+ rec5t e>?quakes1 or1 z is mo/ probable1 by su* />ts conjo9tly ) a gradual upw>d movem5t1 or by great & sudd5 upheavals1 ,i h no direct evid5ce4 ,b z on ! ea/]n coa/1 ,i 0 l$ to ?9k1 f ! analogy ( ! la/ hundr$ feet ( elevation 9 ,la ,plata1 & f ! ne>ly equal size ( ! pebbles ov] ! entire wid? ( ! t]races1 & f ! uprais$ %ells be+ all littoral species1 t ! elevation _h be5 gradual2 s d ,i on ?is we/]n coa/1 f ! analogy ( ! movem5ts n[ 9 progress1 & f ! va/ numb]s ( %ells n[ liv+ exclusively on or close to ! bea*1 :i* are /rew$ ov] ! :ole surface ( ! l& up to v consid]able heights1 conclude1 t ! movem5t "h also has be5 sl[ & gradual1 aid$ probably by small occasional />ts4 ,we "k at lea/ t at ,coquimbo1 :]e five esc>pm5ts occur 9 a height ( #cfd feet1 ! successive elevations1 if !y h be5 sudd51 _c h be5 v great4 ,x has1 ,i ?9k1 be5 %[n t ! occasional pres]vation ( %ells1 unroll$ & unbrok51 is n improbable ev5 dur+ a q gradual ris+ ( ! l&2 & _! pres]vation1 if ! movem5t has be5 aid$ by small />ts1 is q con=mable ) :at actually takes place dur+ rec5t e>?quakes4 ,judg+ f ! pres5t action ( ! sea1 along ! %ores ( ! ,pacific1 on ! deposits ( its own accumulation1 ! pres5t "t seems 9 mo/ places to be "o ( comp>ative re/ 9 ! elevatory movem5t1 & ( d5udation ( ! l&4 ,und\bt$ly ?is is ! case along ! :ole great l5g? ( ,patagonia4 ,at ,*iloe1 h[ev]1 we h se5 t a n>r[ slop+ fr+e1 cov]$ ) vegetation1 sep>ates ! pres5t sea-bea* f a l9e ( l[ cliffs1 :i* ! waves lately rea*$2 "h1 !n1 ! l& is ga9+ 9 bread? & height1 & ! pres5t p]iod is n "o ( re/ 9 ! elevation & ( cont+5t d5udation2 b if ! ris+ be n prolong$ at a quick rate1 !re is e probability t ! sea w soon rega9 its =m] horizontal limits4 ,i obs]v$ simil> l[ slop+ fr+es on sev]al p>ts ( ! coa/1 bo? nor?w>d ( ,valp>aiso & ne> ,coquimbo2 b at ?is latt] place1 f ! *ange 9 =m :i* ! coa/ has und]gone s9ce ! old esc>pm5ts 7 worn1 x may be d\bt$ :e!r ! sea1 act+ = any l5g? ( "t at its pres5t level1 w\ld eat into ! l&2 = x n[ r t5ds to ?r[ up great masses ( s&4 ,x is f facts su* z ^! t ,i h g5]ally us$ ! t]m comp>ative re/1 z appli$ to ! elevation ( ! l&2 ! re/ or cessation 9 ! movem5t be+ comp>ative bo? ) :at has prec$$ x & foll[$ x1 & ) ! sea's p[] ( corrosion at ea* spot & at ea* level4 ,ne> ,lima1 ! cliff-=m$ %ores ( ,san ,lor5zo1 & on ! ma9l& s\? ( ,callao1 %[ t ! sea is ga9+ on ! l&2 & z we h "h "s evid5ce t its surface has lately subsid$ or is /ill s9k+1 ! p]iods ( comp>ative re/ 9 ! elevation & ( cont+5t d5udation1 may probably 9 _m cases include p]iods ( subsid5ce4 ,x is only1 z 0 %[n 9 detail :5 discuss+ ! t]races ( ,coquimbo1 :5 ! sea ) difficulty & aft] a long lapse ( "t has ei!r corrod$ a n>r[ l$ge into solid rock1 or has heap$ up on a /eep surface a n>r[ m\nd ( detritus1 t we c confid5tly ass]t t ! l& at t level & at t p]iod long rema9$ absolutely /ation>y4 ,9 ! case ( t]races =m$ ( gravel or s&1 al?\gh ! elevation may h be5 /rictly horizontal1 x may well happ5 t no "o level bea*-l9e may be traceable1 & t nei!r ! t]races !mselves nor ! summit nor basal edges ( _! esc>pm5ts may be horizontal4 ,f9ally1 comp>+ ! ext5t ( ! elevat$ area1 z d$uc$ f ! uprais$ rec5t organic rema9s1 on ! two sides ( ! cont95t1 we h se5 t on ! ,atlantic1 %ells h be5 f\nd at int]vals f ,ea/]n ,ti]ra del ,fuego = #a1ahj miles nor?w>d1 & on ! ,pacific = a space ( #b1jge miles4 ,= a l5g? ( #gge miles1 !y occur 9 ! same latitudes on bo? sides ( ! cont95t4 ,)\t tak+ ?is circum/ance into consid]ation1 x is probable f ! reasons assign$ 9 ! la/ *apt]1 t ! entire bread? ( ! cont95t 9 ,c5tral ,patagonia has be5 uplift$ 9 mass2 b f o!r reasons !re giv51 x w\ld be haz>d\s to ext5d ?is conclusion to ,la ,plata4 ,f ! cont95t be+ n>r[ 9 ! s\!rn-mo/ p>ts ( ,patagonia1 & f ! %ells f\nd at ! ,inn] ,n>r[s ( ! ,/rait ( ,magellan1 & likewise f> up ! valley ( ! ,santa ,cruz1 x is probable t ! s\!rn "p ( ! we/]n coa/1 :i* 0 n visit$ by me1 has be5 elevat$ )9 ! p]iod ( rec5t ,mollusca3 if s1 ! %ores ( ! ,pacific h be5 cont9u\sly1 rec5tly1 & 9 a geological s5se syn*ron\sly uprais$1 f ,lima = a l5g? ( #b1dhj nautical miles s\?w>d1--a di/ance equal to t f ! ,r$ ,sea to ! ,nor? ,cape ( ,sc&9avia6 ,*apt] ,,iii ,,on ,,! ,,pla9s ,,& ,,valleys ,,( ,,*ile3--,,salif]\s ,,sup]ficial ,,deposits4 ,bas9-l pla9s ( ,*ile2 _! dra9age1 _! m>9e orig94--,m>ks ( sea-action on ! ea/]n flanks ( ! ,cordill]a4--,slop+ t]race-l fr+es ( /ratifi$ %+le )9 ! valleys ( ! ,cordill]a2 _! m>9e orig94--,b\ld]s 9 ! valley ( ,ca*apual4--,horizontal elevation ( ! ,cordill]a4--,=mation ( valleys4--,b\ld]s mov$ by e>?quake-waves4--,sal9e sup]ficial deposits4--,b$ ( nitrate ( soda at ,iquique4--,sal9e incru/ations4--,salt-lakes ( ,la ,plata & ,patagonia2 purity ( ! salt2 its orig94 ,! space betwe5 ! ,cordill]a & ! coa/ ( ,*ile is on a rude av]age f eighty to above "o hundr$ miles 9 wid?2 x is =m$1 ei!r ( an almo/ cont9u\s mass ( m\nta9s1 or m commonly ( sev]al ne>ly p>allel ranges1 sep>at$ by pla9s2 9 ! m s\!rn p>ts ( ?is prov9ce ! m\nta9s are q subord9ate to ! pla9s2 9 ! nor!rn "p ! m\nta9s pr$om9ate4 ,! bas9-l pla9s at ! foot ( ! ,cordill]a are 9 sev]al respects rem>kable2 t on :i* ! capital ( ,*ile /&s is fifte5 miles 9 wid?1 9 an ea/ & we/ l9e1 & ( mu* great] l5g? 9 a nor? & s\? l9e2 x /&s #a1gej feet above ! sea2 its surface appe>s smoo?1 b really falls & rises 9 wide g5tle undulations1 ! holl[s correspond+ ) ! ma9 valleys ( ! ,cordill]a3 ! /rik+ mann] 9 :i* x abruptly comes up to ! foot ( ?is great range has be5 rem>k$ by e au?or#a s9ce ! "t ( ,mol9a4 ,ne> ! ,cordill]a x is compos$ ( a /ratifi$ mass ( pebbles ( all sizes1 occasionally includ+ r\nd$ b\ld]s3 ne> its we/]n b\nd>y1 x consi/s ( r$di% s&y clay1 conta9+ "s pebbles & num]\s fragm5ts ( pumice1 & sometimes passes into pure s& or into volcanic a%es4 ,at ,podaguel1 on ?is we/]n side ( ! pla91 b$s ( s& are capp$ by a calc>e\s tuff1 ! upp]mo/ lay]s be+ g5]ally h>d & sub/alagmitic1 & ! l[] ones :ite & friable1 bo? toge!r precisely resembl+ ! b$s at ,coquimbo1 :i* conta9 rec5t m>9e %ells4 ,abrupt1 b r\nd$1 hummocks ( rock rise out ( ?is pla93 ^? ( ,/a4 ,lucia & ,s4 ,cri/oval are =m$ ( gre5/one-porphyry almo/ entirely d5ud$ ( its orig9al cov]+ ( porphyritic clay/one breccia2 on _! summits1 _m fragm5ts ( rock 7"s ( !m k9ds n f\nd 9 situ7 are coat$ & unit$ toge!r by a :ite1 friable1 calc>e\s tuff1 l t f\nd at ,podaguel4 ,:5 ?is matt] 0 deposit$ on ! summit ( ,s4 ,cri/oval1 ! wat] mu/ h /ood #idf feet#b above ! surface ( ! surr\nd+ pla94 #a ,?is pla9 is p>tially sep>at$ into two bas9s by a range ( hills2 ! s\!rn half1 accord+ to ,mey5 78,reise um ,erde10 ,?4 i1 s4 #bgd71 falls 9 height1 by an abrupt /ep1 ( betwe5 fifte5 & tw5ty feet4 #b ,or #b1fij feet above ! sea1 z measur$ b>ometrically by ,mr4 ,eck4 ,?is tuff appe>s to ! eye ne>ly pure2 b :5 plac$ 9 acid x leaves a consid]able residue ( s& & brok5 cry/als1 app>5tly ( feldsp>4 ,dr4 ,mey5 78,reise10 ,?4 i1 s4 #bfi7 says he f\nd a simil> sub/ance on ! neighb\r+ hill ( ,dom9ico 7& ,i f\nd x also on ! ,c]ro ,blanco71 & he attributes x to ! wea!r+ ( ! /one4 ,9 "s places :i* ,i exam9$1 its bulk put ?is view ( its orig9 q out ( ! "q2 & ,i %\ld mu* d\bt :e!r ! decomposition ( a porphyry w\ld1 9 any case1 leave a cru/ *iefly compos$ ( c>bonate ( lime4 ,! :ite cru/1 :i* is commonly se5 on wea!r$ feldspa?ic rocks1 does n appe> to conta9 any free c>bonate ( lime4 ,to ! s\? ?is bas9-l pla9 contracts1 & ris+ sc>cely p]ceptibly ) a smoo? surface1 passes ?r\gh a rem>kable level gap 9 ! m\nta9s1 =m+ a true l&-/rait1 & call$ ! ,ango/ura4 ,x !n imm$iately exp&s into a second bas9-=m$ pla93 ?is aga9 to ! s\? contracts into ano!r l&-/rait1 & exp&s into a ?ird bas91 :i*1 h[ev]1 falls sudd5ly 9 level ab\t =ty feet4 ,?is ?ird bas91 to ! s\?1 likewise contracts into a /rait1 & !n aga9 op5s into ! great pla9 ( ,san ,f]n&o1 /ret*+ s f> s\? t ! sn[y peaks ( ! di/ant ,cordill]a are se5 ris+ above its horizon z above ! sea4 ,^! pla9s1 ne> ! ,cordill]a1 are g5]ally =m$ ( a ?ick /ratifi$ mass ( %+le2#c 9 o!r p>ts1 ( a r$ s&y clay1 (t5 ) an admixture ( pumice\s matt]4 ,al?\gh ^! bas9s are connect$ toge!r l a necklace1 9 a nor? & s\? l9e1 by smoo? l&-/raits1 ! /reams :i* dra9 !m d n all fl[ nor? & s\?1 b mo/ly we/w>d1 ?r\gh brea*es worn 9 ! b\nd+ m\nta9s2 & 9 ! case ( ! second bas91 or t ( ,rancagua1 !re are two di/9ct brea*es4 ,ea* bas91 moreov]1 is n dra9$ s+ly2 ?us1 to give ! mo/ /rik+ in/ance1 b n ! only "o1 9 proce$+ s\?w>d ov] ! pla9 ( ,rancagua1 we fir/ f9d ! wat] fl[+ nor?w>d to & ?r\gh ! nor!rn l&-/rait2 !n1 )\t cross+ any m>k$ ridge or wat]%$1 we see x fl[+ s\?-we/w>d t[>ds ! nor!rn "o ( ! two brea*es 9 ! we/]n m\nta9\s b\nd>y2 & la/ly1 aga9 )\t any ridge1 x fl[s t[>ds ! s\!rn brea* 9 ^! same m\nta9s4 ,h5ce ! surface ( ?is "o bas9-l pla91 appe>+ to ! eye s level1 has be5 modell$ ) great nicety1 s t ! dra9age1 )\t any conspicu\s wat]%$s1 is direct$ t[>ds ?ree op5+s 9 ! encircl+ m\nta9s4#d ,! /reams fl[+ f ! s\!rn bas9-l pla9s1 aft] pass+ ?r\gh ! brea*es to ! we/1 unite & =m ! riv] ,rapel1 :i* ent]s ! ,pacific ne> ,navidad4 ,i foll[$ ! s\!rnmo/ bran* ( ?is riv]1 & f\nd t ! bas9 or pla9 ( ,san ,f]n&o is cont9u\sly & smoo?ly unit$ ) ^? pla9s1 :i* 7 describ$ 9 ! ,second ,*apt]1 z be+ worn ne> ! coa/ into successive cave-eat5 esc>pm5ts1 & /ill ne>] to ! coa/1 z be+ /rew$ ) uprais$ rec5t m>9e rema9s4 ,i might h giv5 descriptions ( num]\s o!r pla9s ( ! same g5]al =m1 "s at ! foot ( ! ,cordill]a1 "s ne> ! coa/1 & "s halfway betwe5 ^! po9ts4 ,i w allude only to "o o!r1 namely1 ! pla9 ( ,uspallata1 ly+ on ! ea/]n or opposite side ( ! ,cordill]a1 betwe5 t great range & ! p>allel l[] range ( ,uspallata4 ,accord+ to ,mi]s1 its surface is #f1jjj feet above ! level ( ! sea3 x is f t5 to fifte5 miles 9 wid?1 & is said to ext5d ) an unbrok5 surface = #ahj miles nor?w>ds3 x is dra9$ by two riv]s pass+ ?r\gh brea*es 9 ! m\nta9s to ! ea/4 ,on ! banks ( ! ,riv] ,m5doza x is se5 to be compos$ ( a great accumulation ( /ratifi$ %+le1 e/imat$ at #djj feet 9 ?ickness4 ,9 g5]al appe>ance1 & 9 num]\s po9ts ( /ructure1 ?is pla9 closely resembles ^? ( ,*ile4 #c ,! pla9 ( ,san ,f]n&o has1 accord+ to ,,mm4 ,mey5 & ,gay 8,reise10 etc41 ,?4 i1 ss4 #bie & #bih1 ne> ! ,cordill]a1 an upp] /ep-=m$ pla9 ( clay1 on ! surface ( :i* !y f\nd num]\s blocks ( rocks1 f two to ?ree feet long1 ei!r ly+ s+le or pil$ 9 heaps1 b all arrang$ 9 ne>ly /raight l9es4 #d ,x appe>s f ,capta9 ,h]b]t's acc\nt ( ! ,diluvium ( ! ,himalaya1 78,glean+s ( ,sci5ce10 ,calcutta1 vol4 ii1 p4 #afd71 t precisely simil> rem>ks apply to ! dra9age ( ! pla9s or valleys betwe5 ^? great m\nta9s4 ,! orig9 & mann] ( =mation ( ! ?ick b$s ( gravel1 s&y clay1 volcanic detritus1 & calc>e\s tuff1 compos+ ^! bas9-l pla9s1 is v important2 because1 z we %all pres5tly %[1 !y s5d arms or fr+es f> up ! ma9 valleys ( ! ,cordill]a4 ,_m ( ! inhabitants believe t ^! pla9s 7 once occupi$ by lakes1 sudd5ly dra9$2 b ,i conceive t ! numb] ( ! sep>ate brea*es at ne>ly ! same level 9 ! m\nta9s surr\nd+ !m q precludes ?is idea4 ,_h n su* di/+ui%$ naturali/s z ,,mm4 ,mey5 & ,gay /at$ _! belief t ^! deposits 7 left by great debacles ru%+ d[n f ! ,cordill]a1 ,i %\ld n h notic$ a view1 :i* appe>s to me f _m reasons improbable 9 ! highe/ degree--namely1 f ! va/ accumulation ( well-r\nd$ pebbles--_! frequ5t /ratification ) lay]s ( s&--! ov]ly+ b$s ( calc>e\s tuff--?is same sub/ance coat+ & unit+ ! fragm5ts ( rock on ! hummocks 9 ! pla9 ( ,santiago--& la/ly ev5 f ! worn1 r\nd$1 & mu* d5ud$ /ate ( ^! hummocks1 & ( ! headl&s :i* project f ! surr\nd+ m\nta9s4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ^! sev]al circum/ances1 z well z ! cont9u\s union ( ! bas9s at ! foot ( ! ,cordill]a1 ) ! great pla9 ( ! ,rio ,rapel :i* /ill reta9s ! m>ks ( sea-action at v>i\s levels1 & _! g5]al simil>ity 9 =m & composition ) ! _m pla9s ne> ! coa/1 :i* are ei!r simil>ly m>k$ or are /rew$ ) uprais$ m>9e rema9s1 fully conv9ce me t ! m\nta9s b\nd+ ^! bas9-pla9s 7 brea*$1 _! islet-l project+ rocks worn1 & ! loose /ratifi$ detritus =m+ _! n[ level surfaces deposit$1 by ! sea1 z ! l& sl[ly em]g$4 ,x is h>dly possible to /ate too /rongly ! p]fect resemblance 9 outl9e betwe5 ^! bas9-l1 long1 & n>r[ pla9s ( ,*ile 7especially :5 9 ! e>ly morn+ ! mi/s hang+ l[ repres5t$ wat]71 & ! creeks & fiords n[ int]sect+ ! s\!rn & we/]n %ores ( ! cont95t4 ,we c on ?is view ( ! sea1 :5 ! l& /ood l[]1 hav+ long & tranquilly occupi$ ! spaces betwe5 ! m\nta9-ranges1 und]/& h[ ! b\nd>ies ( ! sep>ate bas9s 7 brea*$ 9 m ?an "o place2 = we see t ?is is ! g5]al "* ( ! inl& bays & *annels ( ,ti]ra del ,fuego2 we !re1 also1 see 9 ! saw+ action ( ! tides1 :i* fl[ ) great =ce 9 ! cross *annels1 a p[] suffici5t to keep ! brea*es op5 z ! l& em]g$4 ,we c fur!r see t ! waves w\ld naturally leave ! smoo? bottom ( ea* great bay or *annel1 z x became sl[ly conv]t$ into l&1 g5tly incl9$ to z _m po9ts z !re 7 m\?s1 ?r\gh :i* ! sea f9ally retreat$1 ?us =m+ s _m wat]%$s1 )\t any m>k$ ridges1 on a ne>ly level surface4 ,! abs5ce ( m>9e rema9s 9 ^! high inl& pla9s _c be prop]ly adduc$ z an objection to _! m>9e orig93 = we may conclude1 f %ells n be+ f\nd 9 ! great %+le b$s ( ,patagonia1 ?\gh copi\sly /rew$ on _! surfaces1 & f _m o!r analog\s facts1 t su* deposits are em95tly unfav\rable = ! emb$m5t ( su* rema9s2 & ) respect to %ells n be+ f\nd /rew$ on ! surface ( ^! bas9-l pla9s1 x 0 %[n 9 ! la/ *apt] t rema9s ?us expos$ 9 "t decay & disappe>4 ,no4 #ac ,section ( ! pla9 at ! ea/]n foot ( ! ,*ilian ,cordill]a4 ,illu/ration3 ,section ( ! pla9 at ! ea/]n foot ( ! ,*ilian ,cordill]a4 ,i obs]v$ "s appe>ances on ! pla9s at ! ea/]n & opposite foot ( ! ,cordill]a :i* are wor? notice1 z %[+ t ! sea !re long act$ at ne>ly ! same level z on ! bas9-pla9s ( ,*ile4 ,! m\nta9s on ?is ea/]n side are exce$+ly abrupt2 !y rise out ( a smoo?1 talus-l1 v g5tle1 slope1 f five to t5 miles 9 wid? 7z repres5t$ 9 ,figure #ac71 entirely compos$ ( p]fectly r\nd$ pebbles1 (t5 :ite-wa%$ ) an alum9\s sub/ance l decompos$ feldsp>4 ,?is slop+ pla9 or talus bl5ds into a p]fectly flat space a few miles 9 wid?1 compos$ ( r$di% impure clay1 ) small calc>e\s concretions z 9 ! ,pampean deposit1--( f9e :ite s& ) small pebbles 9 lay]s1--& ( ! above-m5tion$ :ite alum9\s e>?1 all int]/ratifi$ toge!r4 ,?is flat space runs z f> z ,m5doza1 ?irty miles nor?w>d1 & /&s probably at ab\t ! same height1 namely1 #b1gjj feet 7,p5tl& & ,mi]s7 above ! sea4 ,to ! ea/ x is b\nd$ by an esc>pm5t1 eighty feet 9 height1 runn+ = _m miles nor? & s\?1 & compos$ ( p]fectly r\nd pebbles1 & loose1 :ite-wa%$1 or emb$d$ 9 ! alum9\s e>?3 beh9d ?is esc>pm5t !re is a second & simil> "o ( gravel4 ,nor?w>d ( ,m5doza1 ^! esc>pm5ts become brok5 & q oblit]at$2 & x does n appe> t !y ev] enclos$ a lake-l area3 ,i conclude1 !re=e1 t !y 7 =m$ by ! sea1 :5 x rea*$ ! foot ( ! ,cordill]a1 l ! simil> esc>pm5ts occurr+ at s _m po9ts on ! coa/s ( ,*ile & ,patagonia4 ,! talus-l pla9 slopes up ) a smoo? surface into ! great dry valleys ( ! ,cordill]a4 ,on ea* h& ( ! ,portillo valley1 ! m\nta9s are =m$ ( r$ granite1 mica-slate1 & basalt1 :i* all h suff]$ a truly a/oni%+ am\nt ( d5udation2 ! gravel 9 ! valley1 z well z on ! talus-l pla9 9 front ( x1 is compos$ ( ^! rocks2 b at ! m\? ( ! valley1 9 ! middle 7height probably ab\t ?ree ?\s& five hundr$ feet above ! sea71 a few small isolat$ hillocks ( sev]al v>ieties ( porphyry project1 r\nd :i*1 on all sides1 smoo? & (t5 :ite-wa%$ pebbles ( ^! same porphyries1 to ! exclusion ( all o!rs1 ext5d to a circumscrib$ di/ance4 ,n[1 x is difficult to conceive any o!r ag5cy1 except ! quiet & long-cont9u$ action ( ! sea on ^! hillocks1 :i* c\ld h r\nd$ & :itewa%$ ! fragm5ts ( porphyry1 & caus$ !m to radiate f su* small & q insignificant c5tres1 9 ! mid/ ( t va/ /ream ( /ones :i* has desc5d$ f ! ma9 ,cordill]a4 ,slop+ t]races ( gravel 9 ! valleys ( ! ,cordill]a4--,all ! ma9 valleys on bo? flanks ( ! ,*ilean ,cordill]a h =m]ly _h1 or /ill h1 _! bottoms fill$ up to a consid]able ?ickness by a mass ( rudely /ratifi$ %+le4 ,9 ,c5tral ,*ile ! great] "p ( ?is mass has be5 remov$ by ! torr5ts2 cliff-b\nd$ fr+es1 m or less cont9u\s1 be+ left at correspond+ heights on bo? sides ( ! valleys4 ,^! fr+es1 or z !y may be call$ t]races1 h a smoo? surface1 & z ! valleys rise1 !y g5tly rise ) !m3 h5ce !y are easily irrigat$1 & af=d great facilities = ! con/ruction ( ! roads4 ,f _! uni=mity1 !y give a rem>kable "* to ! sc5]y ( ^! gr&1 wild1 brok5 valleys4 ,9 wid?1 ! fr+es v>y mu*1 sometimes be+ only broad en\gh = ! roads1 & sometimes exp&+ into n>r[ pla9s4 ,_! surfaces1 besides g5tly ris+ up ! valley1 are slightly incl9$ t[>ds its c5tre 9 su* a mann] z to %[ t ! :ole bottom mu/ once h be5 fill$ up ) a smoo? & slightly concave mass1 z /ill are ! dry unfurr[$ valleys ( ,nor!rn ,*ile4 ,:]e two valleys unite into "o1 ^! t]races are p>ticul>ly well exhibit$1 z is repres5t$ 9 ,figure #ad4 ,! ?ickness ( ! gravel =m+ ^! fr+es1 on a rude av]age1 may be said to v>y f ?irty to sixty or eighty feet2 b ne> ! m\?s ( ! valleys x 0 9 sev]al places f two to ?ree hundr$ feet4 ,! am\nt ( matt] remov$ by ! torr5ts has be5 imm5se2 yet 9 ! l[] p>ts ( ! valleys ! t]races h seldom be5 entirely worn away on ei!r side1 nor has ! solid und]ly+ rock be5 rea*$3 high] up ! valleys1 ! t]races h frequ5tly be5 remov$ on "o or ! o!r side1 & sometimes on bo? sides2 b 9 ?is latt] case !y reappe> aft] a %ort int]val on ! l9e1 :i* !y w\ld h held _h !y be5 unbrok54 ,:]e ! solid rock has be5 rea*$1 x has be5 cut into deep & n>r[ gorges4 ,/ill high] up ! valleys1 ! t]races gradually become m & m brok51 n>r[]1 & less ?ick1 until1 at a height ( f sev5 to n9e ?\s& feet1 !y become lo/1 & bl5d$ ) ! piles ( fall5 detritus4 ,illu/ration3 ,gr\nd plan ( a bifurcat+ valley 9 ! ,cordill]a4 ,i c>efully exam9$ 9 _m places ! /ate ( ! gravel1 & almo/ ev]y:]e f\nd ! pebbles equally & p]fectly r\nd$1 occasionally ) great blocks ( rock1 & g5]ally di/9ctly /ratifi$1 (t5 ) p>t+ seams ( s&4 ,! pebbles 7 sometimes coat$ ) a :ite alum9\s1 & less frequ5tly ) a calc>e\s1 cru/4 ,at great heights up ! valleys ! pebbles become less r\nd$2 & z ! t]races become oblit]at$1 ! :ole mass passes into ! nature ( ord9>y detritus4 ,i 0 repeat$ly /ruck ) ! great diff]5ce betwe5 ?is detritus high up ! valleys1 & ! gravel ( ! t]races l[ d[n1 namely1 9 ! great] numb] ( ! q angul> fragm5ts 9 ! detritus1--9 ! unequal degree to :i* ! o!r fragm5ts h be5 r\nd$1--9 ! quantity ( associat$ e>?1--9 ! abs5ce ( /ratification1--& 9 ! irregul>ity ( ! upp] surfaces4 ,?is diff]5ce 0 likewise well %[n at po9ts l[ d[n ! valleys1 :]e precipit\s rav9es1 cutt+ ?r\gh m\nta9s ( highly col\r$ rock1 h ?r[n d[n wide1 fan-%ap$ accumulations ( detritus on ! t]races3 9 su* cases1 ! l9e ( sep>ation betwe5 ! detritus & ! t]race c\ld be po9t$ out to )9 an in* or two2 ! detritus consi/+ entirely ( angul> & only p>tially r\nd$ fragm5ts ( ! adjo9+ col\r$ rocks2 ! /ratifi$ %+le 7z ,i asc]ta9$ by close inspection1 especially 9 "o case1 9 ! valley ( ! ,riv] ,m5doza7 conta9+ only a small proportion ( ^! fragm5ts1 & ^? few well r\nd$4 ,i p>ticul>ly att5d$ to ! appe>ance ( ! t]races :]e ! valleys made abrupt & consid]able b5ds1 b ,i c\ld p]ceive no diff]5ce 9 _! /ructure3 !y foll[$ ! b5ds ) _! usual ne>ly equable incl9ation4 ,i obs]v$1 also1 9 sev]al valleys1 t :]ev] l>ge blocks ( any rock became num]\s1 ei!r on ! surface ( ! t]race or emb$d$ 9 x1 ?is rock soon appe>$ high] up 9 situ3 ?us ,i h notic$ blocks ( porphyry1 ( &esitic sy5ite1 ( porphyry & ( sy5ite1 alt]nately becom+ num]\s1 & 9 ea* case succe$$ by m\nta9s ?us con/itut$4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 "o rem>kable exception to ?is rule2 = along ! valley ( ! ,ca*apual1 ,m4 ,gay f\nd num]\s l>ge blocks ( :ite granite1 :i* does n occur 9 ! neighb\rhood4 ,i obs]v$ ^! blocks1 z well z o!rs ( &esitic sy5ite 7n occurr+ "h 9 situ71 ne> ! ba?s ( ,cauqu5es at a height ( betwe5 two & ?ree hundr$ feet above ! riv]1 & !re=e q above ! t]race or fr+e :i* bord]s t riv]2 "s miles up ! valleys !re 7 o!r blocks at ab\t ! same height4 ,i also notic$1 at a less height1 j above ! t]race1 blocks ( porphyries 7app>5tly n f\nd 9 ! imm$iately imp5d+ m\nta9s71 arrang$ 9 rude l9es1 z on a sea-bea*4 ,all ^! blocks 7 r\nd$1 & ?\gh l>ge1 n gigantic1 l ! true erratic b\ld]s ( ,patagonia & ,fuegia4 ,m4 ,gay#e /ates t ! granite does n occur 9 situ )9 a di/ance ( tw5ty leagues2 ,i suspect1 = sev]al reasons1 t x w ultimately be f\nd at a mu* less di/ance1 ?\gh c]ta9ly n 9 ! imm$iate neighb\rhood4 ,! b\ld]s f\nd by ,,mm4 ,mey5 & ,gay on ! upp] pla9 ( ,san ,f]n&o 7m5tion$ 9 a previ\s note7 probably belong to ?is same class ( ph5om5a4 #e 8,annales des ,sci5ce ,nat40 7,i4 sries1 tome #bh74 ,m4 ,gay1 z ,i 0 in=m$1 p5etrat$ ! ,cordill]a by ! great oblique valley ( ,los ,cupressos1 & n by ! mo/ direct l9e4 ,^! fr+es ( /ratifi$ gravel occur along all ! great valleys ( ! ,cordill]a1 z well z along _! ma9 bran*es2 !y are /rik+ly develop$ 9 ! valleys ( ! ,maypu1 ,m5doza1 ,aconcagua1 ,ca*apual1 & accord+ to ,mey51#f 9 ! ,t+uirica4 ,x,in ! valleys1 h[ev]1 ( ,nor!rn ,*ile1 & 9 "s on ! ea/]n flank ( ! ,cordill]a1 z 9 ! ,portillo ,valley1 :]e /reams h nev] fl[$1 or are q insignificant 9 volume1 ! pres5ce ( a mass ( /ratifi$ gravel c be inf]r$ only f ! smoo? slightly concave =m ( ! bottom4 ,"o naturally seeks = "s explanation ( s g5]al & /rik+ a ph5om5on2 t ! matt] =m+ ! fr+es along ! valleys1 or /ill fill+ up _! entire b$s1 has n fall5 f ! adjo9+ m\nta9s l common detritus1 is evid5t f ! complete contra/ 9 e respect betwe5 ! gravel & ! piles ( detritus1 :e!r se5 high up ! valleys on _! sides1 or l[ d[n 9 front ( ! m precipit\s rav9es2 t ! matt] has n be5 deposit$ by debacles1 ev5 if we c\ld believe 9 debacles hav+ ru%$ d[n e valley1 & all _! bran*es1 ea/w>d & we/w>d f ! c5tral p9nacles ( ! ,cordill]a1 we mu/ admit f ! foll[+ reasons1--f ! di/9ct /ratification ( ! mass1--its smoo? upp] surface1--! well-r\nd$ & sometimes encru/$ /ate ( ! pebbles1 s diff]5t f ! loose debris on ! m\nta9s1--& especially f ! t]races pres]v+ _! uni=m incl9ation r\nd ! mo/ abrupt b5ds4 ,to suppose t z ! l& n[ /&s1 ! riv]s deposit$ ! %+le along ! c\rse ( e valley1 & all _! ma9 bran*es1 appe>s to me prepo/]\s1 see+ t ^! same riv]s n only are n[ remov+ & h remov$ mu* ( ?is deposit1 b are ev]y:]e t5d+ to cut deep & n>r[ gorges 9 ! h>d und]ly+ rocks4 #f 8,reise10 etc41 ,?4 ,i1 s4 #cjb4 ,i h /at$ t ^! fr+es ( gravel1 ! orig9 ( :i* are inexplicable on ! notion ( debacles or ( ord9>y alluvial action1 are directly cont9u\s ) ! simil>ly-compos$ bas9-l pla9s at ! foot ( ! ,cordill]a1 :i*1 f ! sev]al reasons be=e assign$1 ,i _c d\bt 7 modell$ by ! ag5cy ( ! sea4 ,n[ if we suppose t ! sea =m]ly occupi$ ! valleys ( ! ,*ilean ,cordill]a1 9 precisely ! same mann] z x n[ does 9 ! m s\!rn p>ts ( ! cont95t1 :]e deep w9d+ creeks p5etrate into ! v he>t (1 & 9 ! case ( ,ob/ruction ,s\nd q ?r\gh1 ?is great range2 & if we suppose t ! m\nta9s 7 uprais$ 9 ! same sl[ mann] z ! ea/]n & we/]n coa/s h be5 uprais$ )9 ! rec5t p]iod1 !n ! orig9 & =mation ( ^! slop+1 t]race-l fr+es ( gravel c be simply expla9$4 ,= e "p ( ! bottom ( ea* valley w1 on ?is view1 h long /ood at ! head ( a sea creek1 into :i* ! !n exi/+ torr5ts w h deliv]$ fragm5ts ( rocks1 :]e1 by ! action ( ! tides1 !y w h be5 roll$1 sometimes encru/$1 rudely /ratifi$1 & ! :ole surface levell$ by ! bl5d+ toge!r ( ! successive bea* l9es4#g ,z ! l& rose1 ! torr5ts 9 e valley w h t5d$ to h remov$ ! matt] :i* j be=e _h be5 arre/$ on1 or ne>1 ! bea*-l9es2 ! torr5ts1 also1 hav+ cont9u$ to ga9 9 =ce by ! cont9u$ elevation increas+ _! total desc5t f _! s\rces to ! sea4 ,?is sl[ ris+ ( ! ,cordill]a1 :i* expla9s s well ! o!rwise inexplicable orig9 & /ructure ( ! t]races1 judg+ f all kn[n analogies1 w probably h be5 int]rupt$ by _m p]iods ( re/2 b we ought n to expect to f9d any evid5ce ( ^! p]iods 9 ! /ructure ( ! gravel-t]races3 =1 z ! waves at ! heads ( deep creeks h little erosive p[]1 s ! only effect ( ! sea hav+ long rema9$ at ! same level w be t ! upp] p>ts ( ! creeks w h become fill$ up at su* p]iods to ! level ( ! wat] ) gravel & s&2 & t aft]w>ds ! riv]s w h ?r[n d[n on ! fill$-up p>ts a talus ( simil> matt]1 ( :i* ! incl9ation 7z at ! head ( a p>tially fill$-up lake7 w h be5 det]m9$ by ! supply ( detritus1 & ! =ce ( ! /ream4#h ,h5ce1 aft] ! f9al conv]sion ( ! creeks into valleys1 almo/ ! only diff]5ce 9 ! t]races at ^? po9ts at :i* ! sea /ood long1 w be a some:at m g5tle incl9ation1 ) riv]-worn in/ead ( sea-worn detritus on ! surface4 #g ,slop+ t]races ( precisely simil> /ructure h be5 describ$ by me 78,philosoph4 ,transactions10 #ahci1 p4 #eh7 9 ! valleys ( ,lo*ab] 9 ,scotl&1 :]e1 at high] levels1 ! p>allel roads ( ,gl5 ,roy %[ ! m>ks ( ! long & quiet resid5ce ( ! sea4 ,i h no d\bt t ^! slop+ t]races w\ld h be5 pres5t 9 ! valleys ( mo/ ( ! ,european ranges1 _h n e trace ( !m1 & all wrecks ( sea-action1 be5 swept away by ! glaci]s :i* h s9ce occupi$ !m4 ,i h %[n t ?is is ! case ) ! m\nta9s 7,london & ,ed94 ,phil4 ,j\rnal1 vol4 xxi1 p4 #ahg7 ( ,nor? ,wales4 #h ,i h attempt$ to expla9 ?is process 9 a m detail$ mann]1 9 a lett] to ,mr4 ,macl>51 publi%$ 9 ! ,ed9burgh ,new ,phil4 ,j\rnal1 vol4 xxxv1 p4 #bhh4 ,i "k ( only "o difficulty on ! =ego+ view1 namely1 ! f>-transport$ blocks ( rock high on ! sides ( ! valley ( ! ,ca*apual3 ,i w n attempt any explanation ( ?is ph5om5on1 b ,i may /ate my belief t a m\nta9-ridge ne> ! ,ba?s ( ,cauqu5es has be5 uprais$ long subsequ5tly to all ! o!r ranges 9 ! neighb\rhood1 & t :5 ?is 0 effect$ ! :ole face ( ! c\ntry mu/ h be5 greatly alt]$4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ages1 moreov]1 9 ?is & o!r valleys1 ev5ts may h occurr$ l1 b ev5 on a gr&] scale ?an1 t describ$ by ,mol9a1#i :5 a slip dur+ ! e>?quake ( #agfb bank$ up = t5 days ! great ,riv] ,lontue1 :i* !n bur/+ its b>ri] 8inundat$ ! :ole c\ntry10 & d\btless transport$ _m great fragm5ts ( rock4 ,f9ally1 not)/&+ ?is "o case ( difficulty1 ,i _c ent]ta9 any d\bt1 t ^! t]race-l fr+es1 :i* are cont9u\sly unit$ ) ! bas9-%ap$ pla9s at ! foot ( ! ,cordill]a1 h be5 =m$ by ! arre/m5t ( riv]-borne detritus at successive levels1 9 ! same mann] z we see n[ tak+ place at ! heads ( all ^? _m1 deep1 w9d+ fiords int]sect+ ! s\!rn coa/s4 ,to my m9d1 ?is has be5 "o ( ! mo/ important conclusions to :i* my obs]vations on ! geology ( ,s\? ,am]ica h l$ me2 = we ?us le>n t "o ( ! gr&e/ & mo/ symmetrical m\nta9-*a9s 9 ! _w1 ) its sev]al p>allel l9es1#aj has be5 toge!r uplift$ 9 mass betwe5 sev5 & n9e ?\s& feet1 9 ! same gradual mann] z h ! ea/]n & we/]n coa/s )9 ! rec5t p]iod4 #i 8,comp5dio de la ,hi/410 etc41 tome i1 p4 #cj4 ,m4 ,brongni>t1 9 8 report on ,m4 ,gay's lab\rs 78,annales des ,sci5ces0 #ahcc71 consid]s t ! b\ld]s 9 ! ,ca*apual belong to ! same class ) ! erratic b\ld]s ( ,europe4 ,z ! blocks :i* ,i saw are n gigantic1 & especially z !y are n angul>1 & z !y h n be5 transport$ fairly across l[ spaces or wide valleys1 ,i am unwill+ to class !m ) ^? :i*1 bo? 9 ! nor!rn & s\!rn hemisph]e 78,geolog4 ,transac410 vol4 vi1 p4 #dae71 h be5 transport$ by ice4 ,x is to be hop$ t :5 ,m4 ,gay's long-cont9u$ & admirable lab\rs 9 ,*ile are publi%$1 m light w be ?r[n on ?is subject4 ,h[ev]1 ! b\ld]s may h be5 prim>ily transport$2 ! f9al position ( ^? ( porphyry1 :i* h be5 describ$ z arrang$ at ! foot ( ! m\nta9 9 rude l9es1 ,i _c d\bt1 has be5 due to ! action ( waves on a bea*4 ,! valley ( ! ,ca*apual1 9 ! "p :]e ! b\ld]s occur1 bur/s ?r\gh ! high ridge ( ,cauqu5es1 :i* runs p>allel to1 b at "s di/ance f1 ! ,cordill]a4 ,?is ridge has be5 subject$ to excessive viol5ce2 tra*ytic lava has bur/ f x1 & hot spr+s yet fl[ at its base4 ,see+ ! enorm\s am\nt ( d5udation ( solid rock 9 ! upp] & mu* broad] p>ts ( ?is valley :]e x ent]s ! ,cordill]a1 & see+ to :at ext5t ! ridge ( ,cauqu5es n[ protects ! great range1 ,i c\ld n help believ+ 7z allud$ to 9 ! text7 t ?is ridge ) its tra*ytic eruptions _h be5 ?r[n up at a mu* lat] p]iod ?an ! ,cordill]a4 ,if ?is has be5 ! case1 ! b\ld]s1 aft] hav+ be5 transport$ to a l[ level by ! torr5ts 7:i* exhibit 9 e valley pro(s ( _! p[] ( mov+ great fragm5ts71 may h be5 rais$ up to _! pres5t height1 ) ! l& on :i* !y re/$4 #aj ,i d n wi% to affirm t all ! l9es h be5 uplift$ q equally2 slight diff]5ces 9 ! elevation w\ld leave no p]ceptible effect on ! t]races4 ,x may1 h[ev]1 be inf]r$1 p]haps ) "o exception1 t s9ce ! p]iod :5 ! sea occupi$ ^! valleys1 ! sev]al ranges h n be5 dislocat$ by great & abrupt faults or upheavals2 = if su* _h occurr$1 ! t]races ( gravel at ^! po9ts w\ld n h be5 cont9u\s4 ,! "o exception is at ! l[] end ( a pla9 9 ! ,valle del ,yeso 7a bran* ( ! ,maypu71 :]e1 at a great height1 ! t]races & valley appe> to h be5 brok5 ?r\gh by a l9e ( upheaval1 ( :i* ! evid5ce is pla9 9 ! adjo9+ m\nta9s2 ?is dislocation1 p]haps1 occurr$ aft] ! elevation ( ?is "p ( ! valley above ! level ( ! sea4 ,! valley "h is almo/ block$ up by a pile ab\t "o ?\s& feet 9 ?ickness1 =m$1 z f> z ,i c\ld judge1 f ?ree sides1 entirely1 or at lea/ 9 *ief "p1 ( gravel & detritus4 ,on ! s\? side1 ! riv] has cut q ?r\gh ?is mass2 on ! nor!rn side1 & on ! v summit1 deep rav9es1 p>allel to ! l9e ( ! valley1 are worn1 z if ! dra9age f ! valley above _h pass$ by ^! two l9es be=e foll[+ its pres5t c\rse4 ,=mation ( ,valleys4 ,! bulk ( solid rock :i* has be5 remov$ 9 ! l[] p>ts ( ! valleys ( ! ,cordill]a has be5 enorm\s4 ,x is only by reflect+ on su* cases z t ( ! gravel b$s ( ,patagonia1 cov]+ s _m ?\s& squ>e leagues ( surface1 & :i*1 if heap$ into a ridge1 w\ld =m a m\nta9-range almo/ equal to ! ,cordill]a1 t ! am\nt ( d5udation becomes cr$ible4 ,! valleys )9 ?is range (t5 foll[ anticl9al b r>ely syncl9al l9es2 t is1 ! /rata on ! two sides m (t5 dip f ! l9e ( valley ?an t[>ds x4 ,on ! flanks ( ! range1 ! valleys mo/ frequ5tly run nei!r along anticl9al nor syncl9al axes1 b along l9es ( flexure or faults3 t is1 ! /rata on bo? sides dip 9 ! same direction1 b ) diff]5t1 ?\gh (t5 only slightly diff]5t1 incl9ations4 ,z mo/ ( ! ne>ly p>allel ridges :i* toge!r =m ! ,cordill]a run approximately nor? & s\?1 ! ea/ & we/ valleys cross !m 9 zig-zag l9es1 bur/+ ?r\gh ! po9ts :]e ! /rata h be5 lea/ incl9$4 ,no d\bt ! great] "p ( ! d5udation 0 affect$ at ! p]iods :5 tidal-creeks occupi$ ! valleys1 & :5 ! out] flanks ( ! m\nta9s 7 expos$ to ! full =ce ( an op5 ocean4 ,i h already allud$ to ! p[] ( ! tidal action 9 ! *annels connect+ great bays2 & ,i may "h m5tion t "o ( ! survey+ vessels 9 a *annel ( ?is k9d1 ?\gh "u sail1 0 :irl$ r\nd & r\nd by ! =ce ( ! curr5t4 ,we %all h]eaft] see1 t ( ! two ma9 ridges =m+ ! ,*ilean ,cordill]a1 ! ea/]n & l(tie/ "o owes ! great] "p ( its angul> upheaval to a p]iod subsequ5t to ! elevation ( ! we/]n ridge2 & x is likewise probable t _m ( ! o!r p>allel ridges h be5 angul>ly upheav$ at diff]5t p]iods2 consequ5tly _m p>ts ( ! surfaces ( ^! m\nta9s mu/ =m]ly h be5 expos$ to ! full =ce ( ! waves1 :i*1 if ! ,cordill]a 7 n[ sunk into ! sea1 w\ld be protect$ by p>allel *a9s ( isl&s4 ,! torr5ts 9 ! valleys c]ta9ly h great p[] 9 we>+ ! rocks2 z c\ld be told by ! dull rattl+ s\nd ( ! _m fragm5ts night & day hurry+ d[nw>ds2 & z 0 atte/$ by ! va/ size ( c]ta9 fragm5ts1 :i* ,i 0 assur$ _h be5 c>ri$ onw>ds dur+ floods2 yet we h se5 9 ! l[] p>ts ( ! valleys1 t ! torr5ts h seldom remov$ all ! sea-*eck$ %+le =m+ ! t]races1 & h _h "t s9ce ! la/ elevation 9 mass only to cut 9 ! und]ly+ rocks1 gorges1 deep & n>r[1 b q insignificant 9 dim5sions comp>$ ) ! entire wid? & dep? ( ! valleys4 ,along ! %ores ( ! ,pacific1 ,i nev] ceas$ dur+ my _m & long excursions to feel a/oni%$ at see+ e valley1 rav9e1 & ev5 little inequality ( surface1 bo? 9 ! h>d granitic & s(t t]ti>y di/ricts1 reta9+ ! exact outl9e1 :i* !y _h :5 ! sea left _! surfaces coat$ ) organic rema9s4 ,:5 ^! rema9s %all h decay$1 !re w be sc>cely any diff]5ce 9 appe>ance betwe5 ?is l9e ( coa/-l& & mo/ o!r c\ntries1 :i* we are accu/om$ to believe h assum$ _! pres5t features *iefly ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( ! wea!r & fre%-wat] /reams4 ,9 ! old granitic di/ricts1 no d\bt x w\ld be ra% to attribute all ! modifications ( outl9e exclusively to ! sea-action2 = :o c say h[ (t5 ?is lately subm]g$ coa/ may n previ\sly h exi/$ z l&1 worn by runn+ /reams & wa%$ by ra98 ,?is s\rce ( d\bt1 h[ev]1 does n apply to ! di/ricts sup]ficially =m$ ( ! mod]n t]ti>y deposits4 ,! valleys worn by ! sea1 ?r\gh ! s(t] =mations1 bo? on ! ,atlantic & ,pacific sides ( ! cont95t1 are g5]ally broad1 w9d+1 & flat-bottom$3 ! only di/rict ( ?is nature n[ p5etrat$ by arms ( ! sea1 is ! isl& ( ,*iloe4 ,f9ally1 ! conclusion at :i* ,i h arriv$1 ) respect to ! relative p[]s ( ra9 & sea wat] on ! l&1 is1 t ! latt] is f> ! mo/ effici5t ag5t1 & t its *ief t5d5cy is to wid5 ! valleys2 :il/ torr5ts & riv]s t5d to deep5 !m1 & to remove ! wreck ( ! sea's de/roy+ action4 ,z ! waves h m p[]1 ! m op5 & expos$ ! space may be1 s w !y always t5d to wid5 m & m ! m\?s ( valleys comp>$ ) _! upp] p>ts3 h5ce1 d\btless1 x is1 t mo/ valleys exp& at _! m\?s1--t "p1 at :i* ! riv]s fl[+ 9 !m1 g5]ally h ! lea/ we>+ p[]4 ,:5 reflect+ on ! action ( ! sea on ! l& at =m] levels1 ! effect ( ! great waves1 :i* g5]ally accompany e>?quakes1 mu/ n be ov]look$3 few ye>s pass )\t a sev]e e>?quake occurr+ on "s "p ( ! we/ coa/ ( ,s\? ,am]ica2 & ! waves ?us caus$ h great p[]4 ,at ,concepcion1 aft] ! %ock ( #ahce1 ,i saw l>ge slabs ( s&/one1 "o ( :i* 0 six feet long1 ?ree 9 bread?1 & two 9 ?ickness1 ?r[n high up on ! bea*2 & f ! nature ( ! m>9e animals /ill adh]+ to x1 x mu/ h be5 torn up f a consid]able dep?4 ,on ! o!r h&1 at ,callao1 ! recoil-wave ( ! e>?quake ( #agdf c>ri$ great masses ( brickwork1 betwe5 ?ree & f\r feet squ>e1 "s way out seaw>d4 ,dur+ ! c\rse ( ages1 ! effect ?us produc$ at ea* successive level1 _c h be5 small2 & 9 "s ( ! t]ti>y deposits on ?is l9e ( coa/1 ,i obs]v$ great b\ld]s ( granite & o!r neighb\r+ rocks1 emb$d$ 9 f9e s$im5t>y lay]s1 ! transportal ( :i*1 except by ! means ( e>?quake-waves1 always appe>$ to me inexplicable4 ,sup]ficial ,sal9e ,deposits4 ,?is subject may be "h conv5i5tly treat$ (3 ,i w beg9 ) ! mo/ int]e/+ case1 namely1 ! sup]ficial sal9e b$s ne> ,iquique 9 ,p]u4 ,! porphyritic m\nta9s on ! coa/ rise abruptly to a height ( betwe5 "o ?\s& n9e hundr$ & ?ree ?\s& feet3 betwe5 _! summits & an inl& pla91 on :i* ! celebrat$ deposit ( nitrate ( soda lies1 !re is a high undulatory di/rict1 cov]$ by a rem>kable sup]ficial salif]\s cru/1 *iefly compos$ ( common salt1 ei!r 9 :ite1 h>d1 opaque nodules1 or m+l$ ) s&1 9 ?is latt] case =m+ a compact s&/one4 ,?is salif]\s sup]ficial cru/ ext5ds f ! edge ( ! coa/-esc>pm5t1 ov] ! :ole face ( ! c\ntry2 b nev] atta9s1 z ,i am assur$ by ,mr4 ,bolla]t 7long resid5t "h7 any great ?ickness4 ,al?\gh a v slight %[] falls only at int]vals ( _m ye>s1 yet small funnel-%ap$ cavities %[ t ! salt has be5 9 "s p>ts dissolv$4#aa ,9 sev]al places ,i saw l>ge pat*es ( s&1 q moi/1 ow+ to ! quantity ( muriate ( lime 7z asc]ta9$ by ,mr4 ,t4 ,reeks7 conta9$ 9 !m4 ,f ! compact salt-cem5t$ s& be+ ei!r r$1 purpli%1 or yell[1 accord+ to ! col\r ( ! rocky /rata on :i* x re/$1 ,i imag9$ t ?is#ab sub/ance _h probably be5 d]iv$ ?r\gh common alluvial action f ! lay]s ( salt :i* occur int]/ratifi$ 9 ! surr\nd+ m\nta9s3 b f ! int]e/+ details giv5 by ,m4 d',orbigny1 & f f9d+ on a fre% exam9ation ( ?is agglom]at$ s&1 t x is n irregul>ly cem5t$1 b consi/s ( ?9 lay]s ( s& ( diff]5t t9ts ( col\r1 alt]nat+ ) excessively f9e p>allel lay]s ( salt1 ,i conclude t x is n ( alluvial orig94 ,m4 d',orbigny#ac obs]v$ analog\s sal9e b$s ext5d+ f ,cobija = five degrees ( latitude nor?w>d1 & at heights v>y+ f six hundr$ to n9e hundr$ feet3 f f9d+ rec5t sea-%ells /rew$ on ^! salif]\s b$s1 & "u !m1 great well-r\nd$ blocks1 exactly l ^? on ! exi/+ bea*1 he believes t ! salt1 :i* is inv>iably sup]ficial1 has be5 left by ! evaporation ( ! sea-wat]4 ,?is same conclusion mu/1 ,i n[ believe1 be ext5d$ to ! sup]ficial salif]\s b$s ( ,iquique1 ?\gh !y /& ab\t ?ree ?\s& feet above ! level ( ! sea4 #aa ,x is s+ul> h[ sl[ly1 accord+ to ! obs]vations ( ,m4 ,cordi] on ! salt-m\nta9 ( ,c>dona 9 ,spa9 78,ann4 des ,m9es1 ,transl4 ( ,geolog4 ,mem40 by ,de la ,be*e1 p4 #fj71 salt is dissolv$1 :]e ! am\nt ( ra9 is suppos$ to be z mu* z #cad ( an in* 9 ! ye>4 ,x is calculat$ t only five feet 9 ?ickness is dissolv$ 9 ! c\rse ( a c5tury4 #ab 8,j\rnal ( ,rese>*es10 p4 #ddd1 fir/ edit4 #ac 8,voyage10 etc41 p4 #ajb4 ,m4 d',orbigny f\nd ?is deposit int]sect$1 9 _m places1 by deep rav9es1 9 :i* !re 0 no salt4 ,/reams mu/ once1 ?\gh hi/orically unkn[n1 h fl[$ 9 !m2 & ,m4 d',orbigny argues f ! pres5ce ( undissolv$ salt ov] ! :ole surr\nd+ c\ntry1 t ! /reams mu/ h aris5 f ra9 or sn[ hav+ fall51 n 9 ! adjo9+ c\ntry1 b on ! n[ arid ,cordill]a4 ,i may rem>k1 t f hav+ obs]v$ ru9s ( ,indian build+s 9 absolutely /]ile p>ts ( ! ,*ilian ,cordill]a 78,j\rnal10 #bnd edit41 p4 #ceg71 ,i am l$ to believe t ! climate1 at a "t :5 ,indian man inhabit$ ?is "p ( ! cont95t1 0 9 "s slight degree m humid ?an x is at pres5t4 ,associat$ ) ! salt 9 ! sup]ficial b$s1 !re are num]\s1 ?91 horizontal lay]s ( impure1 dirty-:ite1 friable1 gypse\s & calc>e\s tuffs4 ,! gypse\s b$s are v rem>kable1 f ab\nd+ )1 s z sometimes to be almo/ compos$ (1 irregul> concretions1 f ! size ( an egg to t ( a man's head1 ( v h>d1 compact1 heavy gypsum1 9 ! =m ( anhydrite4 ,?is gypsum conta9s "s =eign p>ticles ( /one2 x is /a9$1 judg+ f its action ) borax1 ) iron1 & x exhales a /rong alum9\s od\r4 ,! surfaces ( ! concretions are m>k$ by %>p1 radiat+1 or bifurcat+ ridges1 z if !y _h be5 7b n really7 corrod$3 int]nally !y are p5etrat$ by bran*+ ve9s 7l ^? ( calc>e\s sp> 9 ! sept>ia ( ! ,london clay7 ( pure :ite anhydrite4 ,^! ve9s might naturally h be5 ?\ght to h be5 =m$ by subsequ5t infiltration1 _h n ea* little emb$d$ fragm5t ( rock be5 likewise edg$ 9 a v rem>kable mann] by a n>r[ bord] ( ! same :ite anhydrite3 ?is %[s t ! ve9s mu/ h be5 =m$ by a process ( segregation1 & n ( infiltration4 ,"s ( ! little includ$ & crack$ fragm5ts ( =eign rock are p5etrat$ by ! anhydrite1 & portions h evid5tly be5 ?us me*anically displac$3 at ,/4 ,hel5a1 ,i obs]v$ t calc>e\s matt]1 deposit$ by ra9 wat]1 also _h ! p[] to sep>ate small fragm5ts ( rock f ! l>g] masses4#ad ,i believe ! sup]ficial gypse\s deposit is widely ext5d$3 ,i receiv$ specim5s ( x f ,pisagua1 =ty miles nor? ( ,iquique1 & likewise f ,arica1 :]e x coats a lay] ( pure salt4 ,m4 d',orbigny#ae f\nd at ,cobija a b$ ( clay1 ly+ above a mass ( uprais$ rec5t %ells1 :i* 0 saturat$ ) sulphate ( soda1 & includ$ ?9 lay]s ( fibr\s gypsum4 ,^! widely ext5d$1 sup]ficial1 b$s ( salt & gypsum1 appe> to me an int]e/+ geological ph5om5on1 :i* c\ld be pres5t$ only "u a v dry climate4 #ad 8,volcanic ,isl&s10 etc41 p4 #hg4 #ae 8,voyage ,golog410 etc41 p4 #ie4 ,! pla9 or bas91 on ! bord]s ( :i* ! fam\s b$ ( nitrate ( soda lies1 is situat$ at ! di/ance ( ab\t ?irty miles f ! sea1 be+ sep>at$ f x by ! salif]\s di/rict j describ$4 ,x /&s at a height ( #c1cjj feet2 its surface is level1 & "s leagues 9 wid?2 x ext5ds =ty miles nor?w>d1 & has a total l5g? 7z ,i 0 in=m$ by ,mr4 ,bel=d ,wilson1 ! ,consul-,g5]al at ,lima7 ( #dbj miles4 ,9 a well ne> ! works1 ?irty-six y>ds 9 dep?1 s&1 e>?1 & a little gravel 7 f\nd3 9 ano!r well1 ne> ,almonte1 fifty y>ds deep1 ! :ole consi/$1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,blake1#af ( clay1 includ+ a lay] ( s& two feet ?ick1 :i* re/$ on f9e gravel1 & ?is on co>se gravel1 ) l>ge r\nd$ fragm5ts ( rock4 ,9 _m p>ts ( ?is n[ utt]ly des]t pla91 ru%es & l>ge pro/rate trees 9 a h>d5$ /ate1 app>5tly ,mimosas1 are f\nd buri$1 at a dep? f ?ree to six feet2 accord+ to ,mr4 ,blake1 !y h all fall5 to ! s\?-we/4 ,! b$ ( nitrate ( soda is said to ext5d = =ty to fifty leagues along ! we/]n m>g9 ( ! pla91 b is n f\nd 9 its c5tral p>ts3 x is f two to ?ree feet 9 ?ickness1 & is s h>d t x is g5]ally bla/$ ) gunp[d]2 x slopes g5tly upw>ds f ! edge ( ! pla9 to betwe5 t5 & ?irty feet above its level4 ,x re/s on s& 9 :i*1 x is said1 vegetable rema9s & brok5 %ells h be5 f\nd2 %ells h also be5 f\nd1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,blake1 bo? on & 9 ! nitrate ( soda4 ,x is cov]$ by a sup]ficial mass ( s&1 conta9+ nodules ( common salt1 &1 z ,i 0 assur$ by a m9]1 mu* s(t gypse\s matt]1 precisely l t 9 ! sup]ficial cru/ already describ$3 c]ta9ly ?is cru/1 ) its *>act]i/ic concretions ( anhydrite1 comes close d[n to ! edge ( ! pla94 #af ,see an admirable pap] 8,geolog4 & ,miscell4 ,notices ( ,t>apaca10 9 ,silliman's ,am]ican ,j\rnal1 vol4 xliv1 p4 #a4 ,! nitrate ( soda v>ies 9 purity 9 diff]5t p>ts1 & (t5 conta9s nodules ( common salt4 ,accord+ to ,mr4 ,blake1 ! proportion ( nitrate ( soda v>ies f #bj to #ge p] c5t4 ,an analysis by ,mr4 ,a4 ,hayes1 ( an av]age specim51 gave3-- ,nitrate ( ,soda #fdih ,sulphate ( ,soda #cjj ,*loride ( ,soda #bhfi ,iodic ,salts #jfc ,%ells & ,m>l #bfj ------ #ii4ij ,! 8"m-wat]0 at "s ( ! ref9]ies is v ri* 9 iodic salts1 & is suppos$#ag to conta9 mu* muriate ( lime4 ,9 an unref9$ specim5 br\ght home by myself1 ,mr4 ,t4 ,reeks has asc]ta9$ t ! muriate ( lime is v abundant4 ,) respect to ! orig9 ( ?is sal9e mass1 f ! mann] 9 :i* ! g5tly incl9$1 compact b$ foll[s = s _m miles ! s9u\s m>g9 ( ! pla91 !re c be no d\bt t x 0 deposit$ f a %eet ( wat]3 f ! fragm5ts ( emb$d$ %ells1 f ! abundant iodic salts1 f ! sup]ficial salif]\s cru/ occurr+ at a high] level & be+ probably ( m>9e orig91 & f ! pla9 resembl+ 9 =m ^? ( ,*ile & t ( ,uspallata1 !re c be little d\bt t ?is %eet ( wat] 01 at lea/ orig9ally1 connect$ ) ! sea4#ah #ag ,lit]>y ,gazette1 #ahda1 p4 #dge4 #ah 7,f an (ficial docum5t1 %[n me by ,mr4 ,bel=d ,wilson1 x appe>s t ! fir/ export ( nitrate ( soda to ,europe 0 9 ,july #ahcj1 on ,fr5* acc\nt1 9 a ,briti% %ip3-- ,entire export 9 ,qu9tals #ahcj #ag1cjj #ahca #dj1hhe #ahcb #ea1djj #ahcc #ia1cce #ahcd #adi1ech ,! ,spani% qu9tal ne>ly equals #ajj ,engli% p\nds4 ,?91 sup]ficial1 sal9e incru/ations4--,^! sal9e incru/ations are common 9 _m p>ts ( ,am]ica3 ,humboldt met ) !m on ! tablel& ( ,mexico1 & ! ,jesuit ,falkn] & o!r au?ors#ai /ate t !y occur at int]vals ov] ! va/ pla9s ext5d+ f ! m\? ( ! ,plata to ,rioja & ,catam>ca4 ,h5ce x is t dur+ dr\ghts1 mo/ ( ! /reams 9 ! ,pampas are sal9e4 ,i n[h]e met ) ^! incru/ations s abundantly z ne> ,bahia ,blanca3 squ>e miles ( ! mud-flats1 :i* ne> t place are rais$ only a few feet above ! sea1 j en\gh to protect !m f be+ ov]fl[$1 appe>1 aft] dry wea!r1 :it] ?an ! gr\nd aft] ! ?icke/ ho>-fro/4 ,aft] ra9 ! salts disappe>1 & e puddle ( wat] becomes highly sal9e2 z ! surface dries1 ! capill>y action draws ! moi/ure up pieces ( brok5 e>?1 dead /icks1 & tufts ( grass1 :]e ! salt effloresces4 ,! incru/ation1 :]e ?icke/1 does n exce$ a qu>t] ( an in*4 ,m4 ,p>*appe#bj has analys$ x2 & f9ds t ! specim5s collect$ at ! extreme head ( ! l[ pla91 ne> ! ,riv] ,manuello1 consi/ ( #ic p] c5t ( sulphate ( soda1 & #g ( common salt2 :il/ ! specim5s tak5 close to ! coa/ conta9 only #fc p] c5t ( ! sulphate1 & #cg ( ! muriate ( soda4 ,?is rem>kable fact1 toge!r ) our k t ! :ole ( ?is l[ muddy pla9 has be5 cov]$ by ! sea )9 ! rec5t p]iod1 mu/ lead to ! suspicion t ! common salt1 by "s unkn[n process1 becomes 9 "t *ang$ into ! sulphate4 ,friable1 calc>e\s matt] is "h abundant1 & ! case ( ! app>5t d\ble decomposition ( ! %ells & salt on ,san ,lor5zo1 %\ld n be =gott54 #ai ,az>a 78,travels10 vol4 i1 p4 #ee7 consid]s t ! ,p>ana is ! ea/]n b\nd>y ( ! salif]\s region2 b ,i he>d ( 8salitrales0 9 ! ,prov9ce ( ,entre ,rios4 #bj ,m4 d',orbigny's 8,voyage10 etc41 ,"p4 ,hi/41 tome i1 p4 #ffd4 ,! sal9e incru/ations1 ne> ,bahia ,blanca1 are n conf9$ to1 ?\gh mo/ abundant on1 ! l[ muddy flats2 = ,i notic$ "s on a calc>e\s pla9 betwe5 ?irty & =ty feet above ! sea1 & ev5 a little occurs 9 /ill high] valleys4 ,l[ alluvial tracts 9 ! valleys ( ! ,riv]s ,negro & ,colorado are also encru/$1 & 9 ! latt] valley su* spaces appe>$ to be occasionally ov]fl[$ by ! riv]4 ,i obs]v$ sal9e incru/ations 9 "s ( ! valleys ( ,s\!rn ,patagonia4 ,at ,port ,desire a l[1 flat1 muddy valley 0 ?ickly incru/$ by salts1 :i* on analysis by ,mr4 ,t4 ,reeks1 are f\nd to consi/ ( a mixture ( sulphate & muriate ( soda1 ) c>bonate ( lime & e>?y matt]4 ,on ! we/]n side ( ! cont95t1 ! s\!rn coa/s are mu* too humid = ?is ph5om5on2 b 9 ,nor!rn ,*ile ,i aga9 met ) simil> incru/ations4 ,on ! h>d5$ mud1 9 p>ts ( ! broad1 flat-bottom$ valley ( ,copiapo1 ! sal9e matt] encru/s ! gr\nd to ! ?ickness ( "s in*es3 specim5s1 s5t by ,mr4 ,b+ley to ,apo!c>ies' ,hall = analysis1 7 said to consi/ ( c>bonate & sulphate ( soda4 ,mu* sulphate ( soda is f\nd 9 ! des]t ( ,atacama4 ,9 all p>ts ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 ! sal9e incru/ations occur mo/ frequ5tly on l[ damp surfaces ( mud1 :]e ! climate is r dry2 & ^! l[ surfaces h1 9 almo/ e case1 be5 uprais$ above ! level ( ! sea1 )9 ! rec5t p]iod4 ,salt-lakes ( ,patagonia & ,la ,plata4--,sal9as1 or natural salt-lakes1 occur 9 v>i\s =mations on ! ea/]n side ( ! cont95t1--9 ! argillaceo-calc>e\s deposit ( ! ,pampas1 9 ! s&/one ( ! ,rio ,negro1 :]e !y are v num]\s1 9 ! pumice\s & o!r b$s ( ! ,patagonian t]ti>y =mation1 & 9 small prim>y di/ricts 9 ! mid/ ( ?is latt] =mation4 ,port ,s4 ,julian is ! mo/ s\!rly po9t 7lat4 #di to #ej7 at :i* sal9as are kn[n to occur4#ba ,! depressions1 9 :i* ^! salt-lakes lie1 are f a few feet to sixty metres1 z ass]t$ by ,m4 d',orbigny1#bb bel[ ! surface ( ! surr\nd+ pla9s2 &1 accord+ to ?is same au?or1 ne> ! ,rio ,negro !y all tr5d1 ei!r 9 ! ,n4,e4 & ,s4,w4 or 9 ,e4 & ,w4 l9es1 co9cid5t ) ! g5]al slope ( ! pla94 ,^! depressions 9 ! pla9 g5]ally h "o side l[] ?an ! o!rs1 b !re are no outlets = dra9age4 ,"u a less dry climate1 an outlet w\ld soon h be5 =m$1 & ! salt wa%$ away4 ,! sal9as occur at diff]5t elevations above ! sea2 !y are (t5 sev]al leagues 9 diamet]2 !y are g5]ally v %all[1 b !re is a deep "o 9 a qu>tz-rock =mation ne> ,c4 ,blanco4 ,9 ! wet season1 ! :ole1 or a "p1 ( ! salt is dissolv$1 be+ r$eposit$ dur+ ! succe$+ dry season4 ,at ?is p]iod ! appe>ance ( ! sn[-:ite expanse ( salt cry/allis$ 9 great cubes1 is v /rik+4 ,9 a l>ge sal9a1 nor?w>d ( ! ,rio ,negro1 ! salt at ! bottom1 dur+ ! :ole ye>1 is betwe5 two & ?ree feet 9 ?ickness4 #ba ,accord+ to ,az>a 78,travels10 vol4 i1 p4 #ef7 !re are salt-lakes z f> nor? z ,*aco 7lat4 #be71 on ! banks ( ! ,v]mejo4 ,! salt-lakes ( ,sib]ia appe> 7,pallas's 8,travels10 ,engli% ,trans41 vol4 i1 p4 #bhd7 to occur 9 v simil> depressions to ^? ( ,patagonia4 #bb 8,voyage ,golog410 p4 #fc4 ,! salt re/s almo/ always on a ?ick b$ ( black muddy s&1 :i* is fetid1 probably f ! decay ( ! burr[+ worms inhabit+ x4#bc ,9 a sal9a1 situat$ ab\t fifte5 miles above ! t[n ( ,el ,c>m5 on ! ,rio ,negro1 & ?ree or f\r miles f ! banks ( t riv]1 ,i obs]v$ t ?is black mud re/$ on gravel ) a calc>e\s matrix1 simil> to t spread ov] ! :ole surr\nd+ pla9s3 at ,port ,s4 ,julian ! mud1 also1 re/$ on ! gravel3 h5ce ! depressions mu/ h be5 =m$ ant]iorly to1 or contemporane\sly )1 ! spread+ out ( ! gravel4 ,i 0 in=m$ t "o small sal9a occurs 9 an alluvial pla9 )9 ! valley ( ! ,rio ,negro1 & !re=e its orig9 mu/ be subsequ5t to ! excavation ( t valley4 ,:5 ,i visit$ ! sal9a1 fifte5 miles above ! t[n1 ! salt 0 beg9n+ to cry/allise1 & on ! muddy bottom !re 7 ly+ _m cry/als1 g5]ally plac$ crossways ( sulphate ( soda 7z asc]ta9$ by ,mr4 ,reeks71 & emb$d$ 9 ! mud1 num]\s cry/als ( sulphate ( lime1 f "o to ?ree in*es 9 l5g?3 ,m4 d',orbigny#bd /ates t "s ( ^! cry/als are acicul> & m ?an ev5 n9e in*es 9 l5g?2 o!rs are macl$ & ( great purity3 ^? ,i f\nd all conta9$ "s s& 9 _! c5tres4 ,z ! black & fetid s& ov]lies ! gravel1 & t ov]lies ! regul> t]ti>y /rata1 ,i ?9k !re c be no d\bt t ^! rem>kable cry/als ( sulphate ( lime h be5 deposit$ f ! wat]s ( ! lake4 ,! inhabitants call ! cry/als ( sel5ite1 ! padre del sal1 & ^? ( ! sulphate ( soda1 ! madre del sal2 !y assur$ me t bo? are f\nd "u ! same circum/ances 9 sev]al ( ! neighb\r+ sal9as2 & t ! sulphate ( soda is annually dissolv$1 & is always cry/allis$ be=e ! common salt on ! muddy bottom4#be ,! association ( gypsum & salt 9 ?is case1 z well z 9 ! sup]ficial deposits ( ,iquique1 appe>s to me int]e/+1 consid]+ h[ g5]ally ^! sub/ances are associat$ 9 ! old] /ratifi$ =mations4 #bc ,pr(essor ,ehr5b]g exam9$ "s ( ?is muddy s&1 b 0 unable to f9d 9 x any infusoria4 #bd 8,voyage ,golog410 p4 #fd4 #be ,?is is :at might h be5 expect$2 = ,m4 ,ball>d ass]ts 7,acad4 des ,sci5ces1 ,oct4 #g1 #ahdd1 t sulphate ( soda is precipitat$ f solution m readily f wat] conta9+ muriate ( soda 9 excess1 ?an f pure wat]4 ,mr4 ,reeks has analys$ = me "s ( ! salt f ! sal9a ne> ! ,rio ,negro2 he f9ds x compos$ entirely ( *loride ( sodium1 ) ! exception ( #jbf ( sulphate ( lime & ( #jbb ( e>?y matt]3 !re are no traces ( iodic salts4 ,"s salt f ! sal9a ,*iquitos1 9 ! ,pampean =mation1 is equally pure4 ,x is a s+ul> fact1 t ! salt f ^! sal9as does n s]ve s well = pres]v+ meat1 z sea-salt f ! ,cape de ,v]de ,isl&s2 & a m]*ant at ,bu5os ,ayres told me t he consid]$ x z #ej p] c5t less valuable4 ,! purity ( ! ,patagonian salt1 or abs5ce f x ( ^? o!r sal9e bodies f\nd 9 all sea-wat]1 is ! only assignable cause = ?is inf]iority2 a conclusion :i* is support$ by ! fact lately asc]ta9$1#bf t ^? salts answ] be/ = pres]v+ *eese :i* conta9 mo/ ( ! deliquesc5t *lorides4#bg #bf ,hort4 & ,agricult4 ,gazette1 #ahde1 p4 #ic4 #bg ,x w\ld probably well answ] = ! m]*ants ( ,bu5os ,ayres 7consid]+ ! great consumption !re ( salt = pres]v+ meat7 to import ! deliquesc5t *lorides to mix ) ! salt f ! sal9as3 ,i may call att5tion to ! fact1 t at ,iquique1 a l>ge quantity ( muriate ( lime1 left 9 ! "m-wat] dur+ ! ref9em5t ( ! nitrate ( soda1 is annually ?r[n away4 ,) respect to ! orig9 ( ! salt 9 ! sal9as1 ! =ego+ analysis seems oppos$ to ! view ent]ta9$ by ,m4 d',orbigny & o!rs1 & :i* seems s probable consid]+ ! rec5t elevation ( ?is l9e ( coa/1 namely1 t x is due to ! evaporation ( sea-wat] & to ! dra9age f ! surr\nd+ /rata impregnat$ ) sea-salt4 ,i 0 in=m$ 7,i "k n :e!r accurately7 t on ! nor!rn side ( ! sal9a on ! ,rio ,negro1 !re is a small br9e spr+ :i* fl[s at all times ( ! ye>3 if ?is be s1 ! salt 9 ?is case at lea/1 probably is ( subt]ranean orig94 ,x at fir/ appe>s v s+ul> t fre% wat] c (t5 be procur$ 9 wells1#bh & is sometimes f\nd 9 small lakes1 q close to ^! sal9as4 ,i am n aw>e t ?is fact be>s p>ticul>ly on ! orig9 ( ! salt2 b p]haps x is r oppos$ to ! view ( ! salt hav+ be5 wa%$ out ( ! surr\nd+ sup]ficial /rata1 b n to its hav+ be5 ! residue ( sea-wat]1 left 9 depressions z ! l& 0 sl[ly elevat$4 #bh ,sir ,w4 ,p>i% /ates 78,bu5os ,ayres10 etc41 pp4 #abb & #agj7 t ?is is ! case ne> ! great sal9as we/w>d ( ! ,s4 ,v5tana4 ,i h se5 simil> /atem5ts 9 an anci5t ,,ms4 ,j\rnal lately publi%$ by ,s4 ,angelis4 ,at ,iquique1 :]e ! surface is s ?ickly encru/$ ) sal9e matt]1 ,i ta/$ wat] only slightly bracki%1 procur$ 9 a well ?irty-six y>ds deep2 b "h "o feels less surprise at its pres5ce1 z pure wat] might p]colate "u gr\nd f ! n v di/ant ,cordill]a4 ,*apt] ,,iv ,,on ,,! ,,=mations ,,( ,,! ,,pampas4 ,m9]alogical con/itution4--,microscopical /ructure4--,bu5os ,ayres1 %ells emb$d$ 9 tosca-rock4--,bu5os ,ayres to ! ,colorado4--,san ,v5tana4--,bahia ,blanca2 ,m4 ,h]moso1 bones & infusoria (2 ,p4 ,alta1 %ells1 bones1 & infusoria (2 co-exi/5ce ( ! rec5t %ells & ext9ct mammif]s4--,bu5os ,ayres to ,santa ,f4--,skeletons ( ,ma/odon4--,infusoria4--,inf]ior m>9e t]ti>y /rata1 _! age4--,horse's too?4 ,,b&a ,,ori5tal4--,sup]ficial ,pampean =mation4--,inf]ior t]ti>y /rata1 v>iation (1 connect$ ) volcanic action2 ,macrau*5ia ,pata*onica at ,san ,julian 9 ,patagonia1 age (1 subsequ5t to liv+ mollusca & to ! erratic block p]iod4 ,,summ>y4--,area ( ,pampean =mation4--,!ories ( orig94--,s\rce ( s$im5t4--,e/u>y orig94-- ,contemporane\s ) exi/+ mollusca4--,relations to und]ly+ t]ti>y /rata4--,anci5t deposit ( e/u>y orig94--,elevation & successive deposition ( ! ,pampean =mation4--,numb] & /ate ( ! rema9s ( mammif]s2 _! habitation1 food1 ext9ction1 & range4--,conclusion4--,localities 9 ,pampas at :i* mammif]\s rema9s h be5 f\nd4 ,! ,pampean =mation is highly int]e/+ f its va/ ext5t1 its disput$ orig91 & f ! numb] ( ext9ct gigantic mammif]s emb$d$ 9 x4 ,x has ^u ! :ole a v uni=m "*3 consi/+ ( a m or less dull r$di%1 slightly indurat$1 argillace\s e>? or mud1 (t51 b n always1 includ+ 9 horizontal l9es concretions ( m>l1 & frequ5tly pass+ into a compact m>ly rock4 ,! mud1 :]ev] ,i exam9$ x1 ev5 close to ! concretions1 did n conta9 any c>bonate ( lime4 ,! concretions are g5]ally nodul>1 sometimes r\gh ext]nally1 sometimes /alacti=m$2 !y are ( a compact /ructure1 b (t5 p5etrat$ 7z well z ! mud7 by hair-l s]p5t9e cavities1 & occasionally ) irregul> fissures 9 _! c5tres1 l9$ ) m9ute cry/als ( c>bonate ( lime2 !y are ( :ite1 br[n1 or pale p9ki% t9ts1 (t5 m>k$ by black d5dritic manganese or iron2 !y are ei!r d>k] or light] t9t$ ?an ! surr\nd+ mass2 !y conta9 mu* c>bonate ( lime1 b exhale a /rong alum9\s od\r1 & leave1 :5 dissolv$ 9 acids1 a l>ge b v>y+ residue1 ( :i* ! great] "p consi/s ( s&4 ,^! concretions (t5 unite into irregul> /rata2 & ov] v l>ge tracts ( c\ntry1 ! entire mass consi/s ( a h>d1 b g5]ally cav]n\s m>ly rock3 "s ( ! v>ieties might be call$ calc>e\s tuffs4 ,dr4 ,c>p5t] has k9dly exam9$ "u ! microscope1 slic$ & poli%$ specim5s ( ^! concretions1 & ( ! solid m>l-rock1 collect$ 9 v>i\s places betwe5 ! ,colorado & ,santa ,fe ,bajada4 ,9 ! great] numb]1 ,dr4 ,c>p5t] f9ds t ! :ole sub/ance pres5ts a tol]ably uni=m amorph\s "*1 b ) traces ( incipi5t cry/all9e metamorphosis2 9 o!r specim5s he f9ds microscopically m9ute r\nd$ concretions ( an amorph\s sub/ance 7resembl+ 9 size ^? 9 oolitic rocks1 b n hav+ a conc5tric /ructure71 unit$ by a cem5t :i* is (t5 cry/all9e4 ,9 "s1 ,dr4 ,c>p5t] c p]ceive di/9ct traces ( %ells1 corals1 ,poly?alamia1 & r>ely ( spongoid bodies4 ,= ! sake ( comp>ison1 ,i s5t ,dr4 ,c>p5t] specim5s ( ! calc>e\s rock1 =m$ *iefly ( fragm5ts ( rec5t %ells1 f ,coquimbo 9 ,*ile3 9 "o ( ^! specim5s1 ,dr4 ,c>p5t] f9ds1 besides ! l>g] fragm5ts1 microscopical p>ticles ( %ells1 & a v>y+ quantity ( opaque amorph\s matt]2 9 ano!r specim5 f ! same b$1 he f9ds ! :ole compos$ ( ! amorph\s matt]1 ) lay]s %[+ indications ( an incipi5t cry/all9e metamorphosis3 h5ce ^! latt] specim5s1 bo? 9 ext]nal appe>ance & 9 microscopical /ructure1 closely resemble ^? ( ! ,pampas4 ,dr4 ,c>p5t] in=ms me t x is well kn[n t *emical precipitation ?r[s d[n c>bonate ( lime 9 ! opaque amorph\s /ate2 & he is incl9$ to believe t ! long-cont9u$ attrition ( a calc>e\s body 9 a /ate ( cry/all9e or semi-cry/all9e aggregation 7z1 = in/ance1 9 ! ord9>y %ells ( ,mollusca1 :i*1 :5 slic$1 are transp>5t7 may yield ! same result4 ,f ! intimate relations betwe5 all ! ,coquimbo specim5s1 ,i c h>dly d\bt t ! amorph\s c>bonate ( lime 9 !m has result$ f ! attrition & decay ( ! l>g] fragm5ts ( %ell3 :e!r ! amorph\s matt] 9 ! m>ly rocks ( ! ,pampas has likewise ?us orig9at$1 x w\ld be haz>d\s to conjecture4 ,= conv5i5ce' sake1 ,i w call ! m>ly rock by ! "n giv5 to x by ! inhabitants1 namely1 ,tosca-rock2 & ! r$di% argillace\s e>?1 ,pampean mud4 ,?is latt] sub/ance1 ,i may m5tion1 has be5 exam9$ = me by ,pr(essor ,ehr5b]g1 & ! result ( 8 exam9ation w be giv5 "u ! prop] localities4 ,i w comm5ce my descriptions at a c5tral spot1 namely1 at ,bu5os ,ayres1 & !nce proce$ fir/ s\?w>d to ! extreme limit ( ! deposit1 & aft]w>ds nor?w>d4 ,! pla9 on :i* ,bu5os ,ayres /&s is f ?irty to =ty feet 9 height4 ,! ,pampean mud is "h ( a r pale col\r1 & includes small ne>ly :ite nodules1 & o!r irregul> /rata ( an unusually ar5ace\s v>iety ( tosca-rock4 ,9 a well at ! dep? ( sev5ty feet1 accord+ to ,ignatio ,nunez1 mu* tosca-rock 0 met )1 & at sev]al po9ts1 at "o hundr$ feet deep1 b$s ( s& h be5 f\nd4 ,i h already giv5 a li/ ( ! rec5t m>9e & e/u>y %ells f\nd 9 _m p>ts on ! surface ne> ,bu5os ,ayres1 z f> z ?ree or f\r leagues f ! ,plata4 ,specim5s f ne> ,ens5ada1 giv5 me by ,sir ,w4 ,p>i%1 :]e ! rock is qu>ri$ j b5ea? ! surface ( ! pla91 consi/ ( brok5 bivalves1 cem5t$ by & conv]t$ into :ite cry/all9e c>bonate ( lime4 ,i h already allud$1 9 ! fir/ *apt]1 to a specim5 7also giv5 me by ,sir ,w4 ,p>i%7 f ! ,a4 del ,tri/an1 9 :i* %ells1 resembl+ 9 e respect ! ,az>a labiata1 d',orbigny1 z f> z _! worn condition p]mits ( comp>ison1 are emb$d$ 9 a r$di%1 s(ti%1 some:at ar5ace\s m>ly rock3 aft] c>eful comp>ison1 ) ! aid ( a microscope & acids1 ,i c p]ceive no diff]5ce betwe5 ! basis ( ?is rock & ! specim5s collect$ by me 9 _m p>ts ( ! ,pampas4 ,i h also /at$1 on ! au?ority ( ,sir ,w4 ,p>i%1 t nor?w>d ( ,bu5os ,ayres1 on ! highe/ p>ts ( ! pla91 ab\t =ty feet above ! ,plata1 & two or ?ree miles f x1 num]\s %ells ( ! ,az>a labiata 7& ,i believe ( ,v5us s9uosa7 occur emb$d$ 9 a /ratifi$ e>?y mass1 includ+ small m>ly concretions1 & said to be precisely l ! great ,pampean deposit4 ,h5ce we may conclude t ! mud ( ! ,pampas cont9u$ to be deposit$ to )9 ! p]iod ( ?is exi/+ e/u>y %ell4 ,al?\gh ?is =mation is ( su* imm5se ext5t1 ,i "k ( no o!r in/ance ( ! pres5ce ( %ells 9 x4 ,bu5os ,ayres to ! ,rio ,colorado4--,) ! exception ( a few metamorphic ridges1 ! c\ntry betwe5 ^! two po9ts1 a di/ance ( #djj geographical miles1 belongs to ! ,pampean =mation1 & 9 ! s\!rn "p is g5]ally =m$ ( ! h>d] & m calc>e\s v>ieties4 ,i w briefly describe my r\te3 ab\t tw5ty-five miles ,s4,s4,w4 ( ! capital1 9 a well =ty y>ds 9 dep?1 ! upp] "p1 &1 z ,i 0 assur$1 ! entire ?ickness1 0 =m$ ( d>k r$ ,pampean mud )\t concretions4 ,nor? ( ! ,riv] ,salado1 !re are _m lakes2 & on ! banks ( "o 7ne> ! ,gu>dia7 !re 0 a little cliff simil>ly compos$1 b includ+ _m nodul> & /alacti=m concretions3 ,i f\nd "h a l>ge piece ( tessellat$ arm\r1 l t ( ! ,glyptodon1 & _m fragm5ts ( bones4 ,! cliffs on ! ,salado consi/ ( pale-col\r$ ,pampean mud1 includ+ & pass+ into great masses ( tosca-rock3 "h a skeleton ( ! ,mega!rium & ! bones ( o!r ext9ct quadrup$s 7see ! li/ at ! end ( ?is *apt]7 7 f\nd4 ,l>ge quantities ( cry/allis$ gypsum 7( :i* specim5s 7 giv5 me7 occur 9 ! cliffs ( ?is riv]2 & likewise 7z ,i 0 assur$ by ,mr4 ,lumb7 9 ! ,pampean mud on ! ,riv] ,*uelo1 sev5 leagues f ,bu5os ,ayres3 ,i m5tion ?is because ,m4 d',orbigny lays "s /ress on ! suppos$ abs5ce ( ?is m9]al 9 ! ,pampean =mation4 ,s\?w>d ( ! ,salado ! c\ntry is l[ & swampy1 ) tosca-rock appe>+ at long int]vals at ! surface4 ,on ! banks1 h[ev]1 ( ! ,tapalgu5 7sixty miles s\? ( ! ,salado7 !re is a l>ge ext5t ( tosca-rock1 "s highly compact & ev5 semi-cry/all9e1 ov]ly+ pale ,pampean mud ) ! usual concretions4 ,?irty miles fur!r s\?1 ! small qu>tz-ridge ( ,tapalgu5 is fr+$ on its nor!rn & s\!rn flank1 by little1 n>r[1 flat-topp$ hills ( tosca-rock1 :i* /& high] ?an ! surr\nd+ pla94 ,betwe5 ?is ridge & ! ,si]ra ( ,guitru-gueyu1 a di/ance ( sixty miles1 ! c\ntry is swampy1 ) ! tosca-rock appe>+ only 9 f\r or five spots3 ?is si]ra1 precisely l t ( ,tapalgu51 is bord]$ by horizontal1 (t5 cliff-b\nd$1 little hills ( tosca-rock1 high] ?an ! surr\nd+ pla94 ,"h1 also1 a new appe>ance 0 pres5t$ 9 "s ext5sive & level banks ( alluvium or detritus ( ! neighb\r+ metamorphic rocks2 b ,i neglect$ to obs]ve :e!r x 0 /ratifi$ or n4 ,betwe5 ,guitru-gueyu & ! ,si]ra ,v5tana1 ,i cross$ a dry pla9 ( tosca-rock high] ?an ! c\ntry hi!rto pass$ ov]1 & ) small pieces ( d5ud$ tablel& ( ! same =mation1 /&+ /ill high]4 ,! m>ly or calc>e\s b$s n only come up ne>ly horizontally to ! nor!rn & s\!rn foot ( ! great qu>tzose m\nta9s ( ! ,si]ra ,v5tana1 b int]fold betwe5 ! p>allel ranges4 ,! sup]ficial b$s 7= ,i n[h]e obta9$ sections m ?an tw5ty feet deep7 reta91 ev5 close to ! m\nta9s1 _! usual "*3 ! upp]mo/ lay]1 h[ev]1 9 "o place includ$ pebbles ( qu>tz1 & re/$ on a mass ( detritus ( ! same rock4 ,at ! v foot ( ! m\nta9s1 !re 7 "s few piles ( qu>tz & tosca-rock detritus1 includ+ l&-%ells2 b at ! di/ance ( only half a mile f ^! l(ty1 jagg$1 & batt]$ m\nta9s1 ,i c\ld n1 to my great surprise1 f9d on ! b\ndless surface ( ! calc>e\s pla9 ev5 a s+le pebble4 ,qu>tz-pebbles1 h[ev]1 ( consid]able size h at "s p]iod be5 transport$ to a di/ance ( betwe5 =ty & fifty miles to ! %ores ( ,bahia ,blanca4#a #a ,s*midtmey] 78,travels 9 ,*ile10 p4 #aej7 /ates t he fir/ notic$ on ! ,pampas1 v small bits ( r$ granite1 :5 fifty miles di/ant f ! s\!rn extremity ( ! m\nta9s ( ,cordova1 :i* project on ! pla91 l a reef into ! sea4 ,! highe/ peak ( ! ,/4 ,v5tana is1 by ,capta9 ,fitzroy's measurem5t1 #c1cdj feet1 & ! calc>e\s pla9 at its foot 7f obs]vations tak5 by "s ,spani% (fic]s#b7 #hdj feet above ! sea-level4 ,on ! flanks ( ! m\nta9s1 at a height ( ?ree hundr$ or f\r hundr$ feet above ! pla91 !re 7 a few small pat*es ( conglom]ate & breccia1 firmly cem5t$ by f]rug9\s matt] to ! abrupt & batt]$ face ( ! qu>tz--traces be+ ?us exhibit$ ( anci5t sea-action4 ,! high pla9 r\nd ?is range s9ks q ins5sibly to ! eye on all sides1 except to ! nor?1 :]e its surface is brok5 into l[ cliffs4 ,r\nd ! ,si]ras ,tapalgu51 ,guitru-gueyu1 & betwe5 ! latt] & ! ,v5tana we h se5 7& %all h]eaft] see r\nd "s hills 9 ,b&a ,ori5tal71 t ! tosca-rock =ms l[1 flat-topp$1 cliff-b\nd$ hills1 high] ?an ! surr\nd+ pla9s ( simil> composition4 ,f ! horizontal /ratification & f ! appe>ance ( ! brok5 cliffs1 ! great] height ( ! ,pampean =mation r\nd ^! prim>y hills ought n to be altoge!r or 9 *ief "p attribut$ to ^! sev]al po9ts hav+ be5 uplift$ m en]getically ?an ! surr\nd+ c\ntry1 b to ! argillaceo-calc>e\s mud hav+ collect$ r\nd !m1 :5 !y exi/$ z islets or subm>9e rocks1 at a great] height1 ?an at ! bottom ( ! adjo9+ op5 sea2--! cliffs hav+ be5 subsequ5tly worn dur+ ! elevation ( ! :ole c\ntry 9 mass4 #b 8,la ,plata10 etc41 by ,sir ,w4 ,p>i%1 p4 #adf4 ,s\?w>d ( ! ,v5tana1 ! pla9 ext5ds f>!r ?an ! eye c range2 its surface is n v level1 hav+ slight depressions ) no dra9age exits2 x is g5]ally cov]$ by a few feet 9 ?ickness ( s&y e>?2 & 9 "s places1 accord+ to ,m4 ,p>*appe1#c b$s ( clay two y>ds ?ick4 ,on ! banks ( ! ,sauce1 f\r leagues ,s4,e4 ( ! ,v5tana1 !re is an imp]fect section ab\t two hundr$ feet 9 height1 display+ 9 ! upp] "p tosca-rock & 9 ! l[] "p r$ ,pampean mud4 ,at ! settlem5t ( ,bahia ,blanca1 ! upp]mo/ pla9 is compos$ ( v compact1 /ratifi$ tosca-rock1 conta9+ r\nd$ gra9s ( qu>tz di/+ui%able by ! nak$ eye3 ! l[] pla91 on :i* ! =tress /&s1 is describ$ by ,m4 ,p>*appe#d z compos$ ( solid tosca-rock2 b ! sections :i* ,i exam9$ appe>$ m l a r$eposit$ mass ( ?is rock1 ) small pebbles & fragm5ts ( qu>tz4 ,i %all imm$iately return to ! important sections on ! %ores ( ,bahia ,blanca4 ,tw5ty miles s\?w>d ( ?is place1 !re is a rem>kable ridge ext5d+ ,w4 by ,n4 & ,e4 by ,s41 =m$ ( small1 sep>ate1 flat-topp$1 /eep-sid$ hills1 ris+ betwe5 "o hundr$ & two hundr$ feet above ! ,pampean pla9 at its s\!rn base1 :i* pla9 is a little l[] ?an t to ! nor?4 ,! upp]mo/ /ratum 9 ?is ridge consi/s ( pale1 highly calc>e\s1 compact tosca-rock1 re/+ 7z se5 9 "o place7 on r$di% ,pampean mud1 & ?is aga9 on a pal] k9d3 at ! foot ( ! ridge1 !re is a well 9 r$di% clay or mud4 ,i h se5 no o!r in/ance ( a *a9 ( hills belong+ to ! ,pampean =mation2 & z ! /rata %[ no signs ( di/urbance1 & z ! direction ( ! ridge is ! same ) t common to all ! metamorphic l9es 9 ?is :ole area1 ,i suspect t ! ,pampean s$im5t has 9 ?is in/ance be5 accumulat$ on & ov] a ridge ( h>d rocks1 in/ead (1 z 9 ! case ( ! above-m5tion$ ,si]ras1 r\nd _! subm>9e flanks4 ,s\? ( ?is little *a9 ( tosca-rock1 a pla9 ( ,pampean mud decl9es t[>ds ! banks ( ! ,colorado3 9 ! middle a well has be5 dug 9 r$ ,pampean mud1 cov]$ by two feet ( :ite1 s(ti%1 highly calc>e\s tosca-rock1 ov] :i* lies s& ) small pebbles ?ree feet 9 ?ickness--! fir/ appe>ance ( t va/ %+le =mation describ$ 9 ! ,fir/ ,*apt]4 ,9 ! fir/ section aft] cross+ ! ,colorado1 an old t]ti>y =mation1 namely1 ! ,rio ,negro s&/one 7to be describ$ 9 ! next *apt]71 is met )3 b f ! acc\nts giv5 me by ! ,gau*os1 ,i believe t at ! m\? ( ! ,colorado ! ,pampean =mation ext5ds a little fur!r s\?w>ds4 #c ,m4 d',orbigny1 8,voyage10 ,"p4 ,golog41 pp4 #dg1 #dh4 #d ,ibid4 ,bahia ,blanca4--,to return to ! %ores ( ?is bay4 ,at ,monte ,h]moso !re is a good section1 ab\t "o hundr$ feet 9 height1 ( f\r di/9ct /rata1 appe>+ to ! eye horizontal1 b ?ick5+ a little t[>ds ! ,n4,w4 ,! upp]mo/ b$1 ab\t tw5ty feet 9 ?ickness1 consi/s ( obliquely lam9at$1 s(t s&/one1 includ+ _m pebbles ( qu>tz1 & fall+ at ! surface into loose s&4 ,! second b$1 only six in*es ?ick1 is a h>d1 d>k-col\r$ s&/one4 ,! ?ird b$ is pale-col\r$ ,pampean mud2 & ! f\r? is ( ! same nature1 b d>k] col\r$1 includ+ 9 its l[] "p horizontal lay]s & l9es ( concretions ( n v compact p9ki% tosca-rock4 ,! bottom ( ! sea1 ,i may rem>k1 to a di/ance ( sev]al miles f ! %ore1 & to a dep? ( betwe5 sixty & "o hundr$ feet1 0 f\nd by ! an*ors to be compos$ ( tosca-rock & r$di% ,pampean mud4 ,pr(essor ,ehr5b]g has exam9$ = me specim5s ( ! two l[] b$s1 & f9ds 9 !m ?ree ,polyga/rica & six ,phytoli?>ia4#e ,( ^!1 only "o 7,spongoli?is ,fu/is87 is a m>9e =m2 five ( !m are id5tical ) microscopical /ructures ( bracki%-wat] orig91 h]eaft] to be m5tion$1 :i* =m a c5tral po9t 9 ! ,pampean =mation4 ,9 ^! two b$s1 especially 9 ! l[] "o1 bones ( ext9ct mammif]s1 "s emb$d$ 9 _! prop] relative positions & o!rs s+le1 are v num]\s 9 a small ext5t ( ! cliffs4 ,^! rema9s consi/ (1 fir/1 ! head ( ,ct5omys antiquus1 alli$ to ! liv+ ,ct5omys ,brazili5sis2 secondly1 a fragm5t ( ! rema9s ( a rod5t2 ?irdly1 mol> tee? & o!r bones ( a l>ge rod5t1 closely alli$ to1 b di/9ct f1 ! exi/+ species ( ,hydro*o]us1 & !re=e probably an inhabitant ( fre% wat]2 f\r? & fif?ly1 portions ( v]tebr1 limbs1 ribs1 & o!r bones ( two rod5ts2 six?ly1 bones ( ! extremities ( "s great mega!roid quadrup$4#f ,! numb] ( ! rema9s ( rod5ts gives to ?is collection a peculi> "*1 comp>$ ) ^? f\nd 9 any o!r locality4 ,all ^! bones are compact & heavy2 _m ( !m are /a9$ r$1 ) _! surfaces poli%$2 "s ( ! small] ones are z black z jet4 #e ,! foll[+ li/ is giv5 9 ! 8,monatsb]i*t5 d] knig4 ,akad4 zu ,b]l910 ,april #ahde3-- ,,polyga/rica4 ,fragil>ia rhabdosoma4 ,gallionella di/ans4 ,p9nul>ia8 ,,phytoli?>ia4 ,li?odontium ,bursa4 ,li?odontium furcatum4 ,li?o/ylidium exesum4 ,li?o/ylidium rude4 ,li?o/ylidium ,s]ra4 ,spongoli?is ,fu/is8 #f ,see 8,fossil ,mammalia0 7p4 #aji7 by ,pr(essor ,ow51 9 ! 8,zoology ( ! ,voyage ( ! ,beagle20 & ,catalogue 7p4 #cf7 ( ,fossil ,rema9s 9 ,museum ( ,royal ,college ( ,surgeons4 ,monte ,h]moso is betwe5 fifty & sixty miles di/ant 9 a ,s4,e4 l9e f ! ,v5tana1 ) ! int]m$iate c\ntry g5tly ris+ t[>ds x1 & all consi/+ ( ! ,pampean =mation4 ,:at relation1 !n1 d ^! b$s1 at ! level ( ! sea & "u x1 be> to ^? on ! flanks ( ! ,v5tana1 at ! height ( #hdj feet1 & on ! flanks ( ! o!r neighb\r+ si]ras1 :i*1 f ! reasons already assign$1 d n appe> to owe _! great] height to unequal elevation8 ,:5 ! tosca-rock 0 accumulat+ r\nd ! ,v5tana1 & :51 ) ! exception ( a few small rugg$ prim>y isl&s1 ! :ole wide surr\nd+ pla9s mu/ h be5 "u wat]1 7 ! /rata at ,monte ,h]moso deposit+ at ! bottom ( a great op5 sea1 betwe5 eight hundr$ & "o ?\s& feet 9 dep?8 ,i mu* d\bt ?is2 = if s1 ! almo/ p]fect c>casses ( ! sev]al small rod5ts1 ! rema9s ( :i* are s v num]\s 9 s limit$ a space1 mu/ h be5 drift$ to ?is spot f ! di/ance ( _m hundr$ miles4 ,x appe>s to me f> m probable1 t dur+ ! ,pampean p]iod ?is :ole area _h comm5c$ sl[ly ris+ 7& 9 ! cliffs1 at sev]al diff]5t heights we h pro(s ( ! l& hav+ be5 expos$ to sea-action at sev]al levels71 & t tracts ( l& _h ?us be5 =m$ ( ,pampean s$im5t r\nd ! ,v5tana & ! o!r prim>y ranges1 on :i* ! sev]al rod5ts & o!r quadrup$s liv$1 & t a /ream 79 :i* p]haps ! ext9ct aquatic ,hydro*o]us liv$7 drift$ _! bodies into ! adjo9+ sea1 into :i* ! ,pampean mud cont9u$ to be p\r$ f ! nor?4 ,z ! l& cont9u$ to rise1 x appe>s t ?is s\rce ( s$im5t 0 cut (f2 & 9 its place s& & pebbles 7 borne d[n by /rong] curr5ts1 & con=mably deposit$ ov] ! ,pampean /rata4 ,punta ,alta is situat$ ab\t ?irty miles high] up on ! nor!rn side ( ?is same bay3 x consi/s ( a small pla91 betwe5 tw5ty & ?irty feet 9 height1 cut (f on ! %ore by a l9e ( l[ cliffs ab\t a mile 9 l5g?1 repres5t$ 9 figure ,no4 #ae ) its v]tical scale necess>ily exagg]at$4 ,! l[] b$ 7,a7 is m ext5sive ?an ! upp] ones2 x consi/s ( /ratifi$ gravel or conglom]ate1 cem5t$ by calc>eo-ar5ace\s matt]1 & is divid$ by curvil9e> lay]s ( p9ki% m>l1 ( :i* "s are precisely l tosca-rock1 & "s m s&y4 ,! b$s are curvil9e>1 ow+ to ! action ( curr5ts1 & dip 9 diff]5t directions2 !y include an extraord9>y numb] ( bones ( gigantic mammif]s & _m %ells4 ,! pebbles are ( consid]able size1 & are ( h>d s&/one1 & ( qu>tz1 l t ( ! ,v5tana3 !re are also a few well-r\nd$ masses ( tosca-rock4 ,no4 #ae ,section ( b$s ) rec5t %ells & ext9ct mammif]s1 at ,punta ,alta 9 ,bahia ,blanca4 ,illu/ration3 ,section ( b$s at ,punta ,alta 9 ,bahia ,blanca4 ,! second b$ 7,b7 is ab\t fifte5 feet 9 ?ickness1 b t[>ds bo? extremities ( ! cliff 7n includ$ 9 ! diagram7 x ei!r ?9s out & dies away1 or passes ins5sibly into an ov]ly+ b$ ( gravel4 ,x consi/s ( r$1 t\gh clayey mud1 ) m9ute l9e> cavities2 x is m>k$ ) fa9t horizontal %ades ( col\r2 x includes a few pebbles1 & r>ely a m9ute p>ticle ( %ell3 9 "o spot1 ! d]mal arm\r & a few bones ( a ,dasypoid quadrup$ 7 emb$d$ 9 x3 x fills up furr[s 9 ! und]ly+ gravel4 ,) ! exception ( ! few pebbles & p>ticles ( %ells1 ?is b$ resembles ! true ,pampean mud2 b x /ill m closely resembles ! clayey flats 7m5tion$ 9 ! ,fir/ ,*apt]7 sep>at+ ! successively ris+ p>allel ranges ( s&-dunes4 ,! b$ 7,c7 is ( /ratifi$ gravel1 l ! l[e/ "o2 x fills up furr[s 9 ! und]ly+ r$ mud1 & is sometimes int]/ratifi$ ) x1 & sometimes ins5sibly passes into x2 z ! r$ mud ?9s out1 ?is upp] gravel ?ick5s4 ,%ells are m num]\s 9 x ?an 9 ! l[] gravel2 b ! bones1 ?\gh "s are /ill pres5t1 are less num]\s4 ,9 "o "p1 h[ev]1 :]e ?is gravel & ! r$ mud pass$ into ea* o!r1 ,i f\nd sev]al bones & a tol]ably p]fect head ( ! ,mega!rium4 ,"s ( ! l>ge ,volutas1 ?\gh emb$d$ 9 ! gravel-b$ 7,c71 7 fill$ ) ! r$ mud1 includ+ great numb]s ( ! little rec5t ,palude/r9a au/ralis4 ,^! ?ree l[] b$s are cov]$ by an uncon=mable mantle 7,d7 ( /ratifi$ s&y e>?1 includ+ _m pebbles ( qu>tz1 pumice & phonolite1 l& & sea-%ells4 ,m4 d',orbigny has be5 s oblig+ z to "n = me ! tw5ty species ( ,mollusca emb$d$ 9 ! two gravel b$s3 !y consi/ (3-- ,volutella angulata1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage0 ,mollusq4 & ,pal4 ,voluta ,braziliana1 ,sol4 ,olicancill]ia ,brazili5sis1 d',orbigny4 ,olicancill]ia auricul>ia1 d',orbigny4 ,oliv9a puel*ana1 d',orbigny4 ,bucc9anops co*lidium1 d',orbigny4 ,bucc9anops globulosum1 d',orbigny4 ,colombella s]tul>i>um1 d',orbigny4 ,tro*us ,patagonicus1 & v>4 ( ditto1 d',orbigny4 ,palude/r9a ,au/ralis1 d',orbigny4 ,fissurella ,patagonica1 d',orbigny4 ,crepidula muricata1 ,lam4 ,v5us purpurata1 ,lam4 ,v5us ro/rata1 ,phillippi4 ,mytilus ,d>w9ianus1 d',orbigny4 ,nucula semiornata1 d',orbigny4 ,c>dita ,patagonica1 d',orbigny4 ,corbula ,patagonica 7871 d',orbigny4 ,pect5 te?uel*us1 d',orbigny4 ,o/rea puel*ana1 d',orbigny4 ,a liv+ species ( ,balanus4 & #bc4 ,an ,a/r & encru/+ ,flu/ra1 app>5tly id5tical ) species n[ liv+ 9 ! bay4 ,all ^! %ells n[ live on ?is coa/1 & mo/ ( !m 9 ?is same bay4 ,i 0 also /ruck ) ! fact1 t ! proportional numb]s ( ! diff]5t k9ds appe>$ to be ! same ) ^? n[ ca/ up on ! bea*3 9 bo? cases specim5s ( ,voluta1 ,crepidula1 ,v5us1 & ,tro*us are ! mo/ abundant4 ,f\r or five ( ! species are ! same ) ! uprais$ %ells on ! ,pampas ne> ,bu5os ,ayres4 ,all ! specim5s h a v anci5t & blea*$ appe>ance1#g & d n emit1 :5 heat$1 an animal od\r3 "s ( !m are *ang$ ?r\gh\t into a :ite1 s(t1 fibr\s sub/ance2 o!rs h ! space betwe5 ! ext]nal walls1 ei!r holl[1 or fill$ up ) cry/all9e c>bonate ( lime4 #g ,a ,bul9us1 m5tion$ 9 ! ,introduction to ! 8,fossil ,mammalia0 9 ! 8,zoology ( ! ,voyage ( ! ,beagle0 has s mu* fre%] an appe>ance1 ?an ! m>9e species1 t ,i suspect x mu/ h fall5 among/ ! o!rs1 & be5 collect$ by mi/ake4 ,! rema9s ( ! ext9ct mammif]\s animals1 f ! two gravel b$s h be5 describ$ by ,pr(essor ,ow5 9 ! 8,zoology ( ! ,voyage ( ! ,beagle30 !y consi/ (1 #a/1 "o ne>ly p]fect head & ?ree fragm5ts ( heads ( ! ,mega!rium ,cuvi]ii2 #bnd1 a l[] jaw ( ,megalonyx ,jeff]sonii2 #crd1 l[] jaw ( ,mylodon ,d>w9ii2 #d?1 fragm5ts ( a head ( "s gigantic ,ed5tal quadrup$2 #e?1 an almo/ entire skeleton ( ! great ,scelido!rium leptocephalum1 ) mo/ ( ! bones1 includ+ ! head1 v]tebr1 ribs1 "s ( ! extremities to ! claw-bone1 & ev51 z rem>k$ by ,pr(essor ,ow51 ! knee-cap1 all ne>ly 9 _! prop] relative positions2 #f?1 fragm5ts ( ! jaw & a sep>ate too? ( a ,toxodon1 belong+ ei!r to ,t4 ,plat5sis1 or to a second species lately discov]$ ne> ,bu5os ,ayres2 #g?1 a too? ( ,equus curvid5s2 #h?1 too? ( a ,pa*yd]m1 closely alli$ to ,palo!rium1 ( :i* p>ts ( ! head h be5 lately s5t f ,bu5os ,ayres to ! ,briti% ,museum2 9 all probability ?is pa*yd]m is id5tical ) ! ,macrau*5ia ,patagonica f ,port ,s4 ,julian1 h]eaft] to be ref]r$ to4 ,la/ly1 & #i?ly1 9 a cliff ( ! r$ clayey b$ 7,b71 !re 0 a d\ble piece1 ab\t ?ree feet long & two wide1 ( ! bony arm\r ( a l>ge ,dasypoid quadrup$1 ) ! two sides press$ ne>ly close toge!r3 z ! cliff is n[ rapidly wa%+ away1 ?is fossil probably 0 lately mu* m p]fect2 f betwe5 its d\bl$-up sides1 ,i extract$ ! middle & ungual phalanges1 unit$ toge!r1 ( "o ( ! feet1 & likewise a sep>ate phalanx3 h5ce "o or m ( ! limbs mu/ h be5 atta*$ to ! d]mal case1 :5 x 0 emb$d$4 ,besides ^! sev]al rema9s 9 a di/+ui%able condition1 !re 7 v _m s+le bones3 ! great] numb] 7 emb$d$ 9 a space #bjj y>ds squ>e4 ,! prepond]ance ( ! ,ed5tal quadrup$s is rem>kable2 z is1 9 contra/ ) ! b$s ( ,monte ,h]moso1 ! abs5ce ( ,rod5ts4 ,mo/ ( ! bones are n[ 9 a s(t & friable condition1 &1 l ! %ells1 d n emit :5 burnt an animal od\r4 ,! decay$ /ate ( ! bones may be p>tly ow+ to _! late exposure to ! air & tidal-waves4 ,b>nacles1 ,s]pul1 & corall9es are atta*$ to _m ( ! bones1 b ,i neglect$ to obs]ve#h :e!r ^! might n h gr[n on !m s9ce be+ expos$ to ! pres5t tidal action2 b ,i believe t "s ( ! b>nacles mu/ h gr[n on ! ,scelido!rium1 soon aft] be+ deposit$1 & be=e be+ :olly cov]$ up by ! gravel4 ,besides ! rema9s 9 ! condition "h describ$1 ,i f\nd "o s+le fragm5t ( bone v mu* roll$1 & z black z jet1 s z p]fectly to resemble "s ( ! rema9s f ,monte ,h]moso4 #h ,aft] hav+ pack$ up my specim5s at ,bahia ,blanca1 ?is po9t occurr$ to me1 & ,i not$ x2 b =got x on my return1 until ! rema9s _h be5 clean$ & oil$3 my att5tion has be5 lately call$ to ! subject by "s rem>ks by ,m4 d',orbigny4 ,v _m ( ! bones _h be5 brok51 abrad$1 & roll$1 be=e be+ emb$d$4 ,o!rs1 ev5 "s ( ^? includ$ 9 ! co>se/ p>ts ( ! ! n[ h>d conglom]ate1 /ill reta9 all _! m9ute/ prom95ces p]fectly pres]v$2 s t ,i conclude t !y probably 7 protect$ by sk91 fle%1 or ligam5ts1 :il/ be+ cov]$ up4 ,9 ! case ( ! ,scelido!rium1 x is q c]ta9 t ! :ole skeleton 0 held toge!r by its ligam5ts1 :5 deposit$ 9 ! gravel 9 :i* ,i f\nd x4 ,"s c]vical v]tebr & a hum]us ( correspond+ size lay s close toge!r1 z did "s ribs & ! bones ( a leg1 t ,i ?\ght t !y mu/ orig9ally h belong$ to two skeletons1 & n h be5 wa%$ 9 s+le2 b z rema9s 7 "h v num]\s1 ,i w n lay mu* /ress on ^! two cases4 ,we h j se5 t ! arm\r ( ! ,dasypoid quadrup$ 0 c]ta9ly emb$d$ toge!r ) "s ( ! bones ( ! feet4 ,pr(essor ,ehr5b]g#i has exam9$ = me specim5s ( ! f9] matt] f 9 contact ) ^! mammif]\s rema9s3 he f9ds 9 !m two ,polyga/rica1 decid$ly m>9e =ms2 & six ,phytoli?>ia1 ( :i* "o is probably m>9e1 & ! o!rs ei!r ( fre%-wat] or t]re/rial orig94 ,only "o ( ^! eight microscopical bodies is common to ! n9e f ,monte ,h]moso3 b five ( !m are 9 common ) ^? f ! ,pampean mud on ! banks ( ! ,p>ana4 ,! pres5ce ( any fre%-wat] infusoria1 consid]+ ! aridity ( ! surr\nd+ c\ntry1 is "h rem>kable3 ! mo/ probable explanation appe>s to be1 t ^! microscopical organisms 7 wa%$ out ( ! adjo9+ great ,pampean =mation dur+ its d5udation1 & aft]w>ds r$eposit$4 #i 8,monatsb]i*t5 d] ,akad4 zu ,b]l910 ,april #ahde4 ,! li/ consi/s (3-- ,,polyga/rica4 ,gallionella sulcata4 ,/auropt]a asp]a8 fragm4 ,,phytoli?>ia4 ,li?a/]iscus tub]culatus4 ,li?o/ylidium ,clepsammidium4 ,li?o/ylidium quadratum4 ,li?o/ylidium rude4 ,li?o/ylidium unid5tatum4 ,spongoli?is acicul>is4 ,we w n[ see :at conclusions may be drawn f ! facts above detail$4 ,x is c]ta9 t ! gravel-b$s & int]m$iate r$ mud 7 deposit$ )9 ! p]iod1 :5 exi/+ species ( ,mollusca held to ea* o!r ne>ly ! same relative proportions z !y d on ! pres5t coa/4 ,^! b$s1 f ! numb] ( littoral species1 mu/ h be5 accumulat$ 9 %all[ wat]2 b n1 judg+ f ! /ratification ( ! gravel & ! lay]s ( m>l1 on a bea*4 ,f ! mann] 9 :i* ! r$ clay fills up furr[s 9 ! und]ly+ gravel1 & is 9 "s p>ts itself furr[$ by ! ov]ly+ gravel1 :il/ 9 o!r p>ts x ei!r ins5sibly passes into1 or alt]nates )1 ?is upp] gravel1 we may inf] sev]al local *anges 9 ! curr5ts1 p]haps caus$ by slight *anges1 up or d[n1 9 ! level ( ! l&4 ,by ! elevation ( ^! b$s1 to :i* p]iod ! alluvial mantle ) pumice-pebbles1 l& & sea-%ells belongs1 ! pla9 ( ,punta ,alta1 f tw5ty to ?irty feet 9 height1 0 =m$4 ,9 ?is neighb\rhood !re are o!r & high] sea-=m$ pla9s & l9es ( cliffs 9 ! ,pampean =mation worn by ! d5ud+ action ( ! waves at diff]5t levels4 ,h5ce we c easily und]/& ! pres5ce ( r\nd$ masses ( tosca-rock 9 ?is l[e/ pla92 & likewise1 z ! cliffs at ,monte ,h]moso ) _! mammif]\s rema9s /& at a high] level1 ! pres5ce ( ! "o mu*-roll$ fragm5t ( bone :i* 0 z black z jet3 possibly "s few ( ! o!r mu*-roll$ bones may h be5 simil>ly d]iv$1 ?\gh ,i saw only ! "o fragm5t1 9 ! same condition ) ^? f ,monte ,h]moso4 ,m4 d',orbigny has sugge/$#aj t all ^! mammif]\s rema9s may h be5 wa%$ out ( ! ,pampean =mation1 & aft]w>ds r$eposit$ toge!r ) ! rec5t %ells4 ,und\bt$ly x is a m>vell\s fact t ^! num]\s gigantic quadrup$s1 belong+1 ) ! exception ( ! ,equus curvid5s1 to sev5 ext9ct g5]a1 & "o1 namely1 ! ,toxodon1 n fall+ into any exi/+ family1 %\ld h co-exi/$ ) ,mollusca1 all ( :i* are /ill liv+ species2 b analog\s facts h be5 obs]v$ 9 ,nor? ,am]ica & 9 ,europe4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x %\ld n be ov]look$1 t mo/ ( ! co-emb$d$ %ells h a m anci5t & alt]$ appe>ance ?an ! bones4 ,9 ! second place1 is x probable t num]\s bones n h>d5$ by silex or any o!r m9]al1 c\ld h reta9$ _! delicate prom95ces & surfaces p]fect if !y _h be5 wa%$ out ( "o deposit1 & re-emb$d$ 9 ano!r3--?is lat] deposit be+ =m$ ( l>ge1 h>d pebbles1 arrang$ by ! action ( curr5ts or break]s 9 %all[ wat] into v>i\sly curv$ & incl9$ lay]s8 ,! bones :i* are n[ 9 s p]fect a /ate ( pres]vation1 mu/1 ,i conceive1 h be5 fre% & s\nd :5 emb$d$1 & probably 7 protect$ by sk91 fle%1 or ligam5ts4 ,! skeleton ( ! ,scelido!rium indisputably 0 deposit$ entire3 %all we say t :5 held toge!r by its matrix x 0 wa%$ out ( an old gravel-b$ 7totally unlike 9 "* to ! ,pampean =mation71 & re-emb$d$ 9 ano!r gravel-b$1 compos$ 7,i speak aft] c>eful comp>ison7 ( exactly ! same k9d ( pebbles1 9 ! same k9d ( cem5t8 ,i w lay no /ress on ! two cases ( sev]al ribs & bones ( ! extremities hav+ app>5tly be5 emb$d$ 9 _! prop] relative position3 b w any "o be s bold z to affirm t x is possible1 t a piece ( ! ?9 tessellat$ arm\r ( a ,dasypoid quadrup$1 at lea/ ?ree feet long & two 9 wid?1 & n[ s t5d] t ,i 0 unable ) ! utmo/ c>e to extract a fragm5t m ?an two or ?ree in*es squ>e1 c\ld h be5 wa%$ out ( "o b$1 & re-emb$d$ 9 ano!r1 toge!r ) "s ( ! small bones ( ! feet1 )\t hav+ be5 da%$ into atoms8 ,we mu/ !n :olly reject ,m4 d',orbigny's supposition1 & admit z c]ta91 t ! ,scelido!rium & ! l>ge ,dasypoid quadrup$1 & z highly probable1 t ! ,toxodon1 ,mega!rium1 etc41 "s ( ! bones ( :i* are p]fectly pres]v$1 7 emb$d$ = ! fir/ "t1 & 9 a fre% condition1 9 ! /rata 9 :i* !y 7 f\nd entomb$4 ,^! gigantic quadrup$s1 !re=e1 ?\gh belong+ to ext9ct g5]a & families1 coexi/$ ) ! tw5ty above-enum]at$ ,mollusca1 ! b>nacle & two corals1 /ill liv+ on ?is coa/4 ,f ! roll$ fragm5t ( black bone1 & f ! pla9 ( ,punta ,alta be+ l[] ?an t ( ,monte ,h]moso1 ,i conclude t ! co>se sub-littoral deposits ( ,punta ,alta1 are ( subsequ5t orig9 to ! ,pampean mud ( ,monte ,h]moso2 & ! b$s at ?is latt] place1 z we h se51 are probably ( subsequ5t orig9 to ! high tosca-pla9 r\nd ! ,si]ra ,v5tana3 we %all1 h[ev]1 return1 at ! end ( ?is *apt]1 to ! consid]ation ( ^! sev]al /ages 9 ! great ,pampean =mation4 #aj 8,voyage10 ,"p4 ,golog41 p4 #di4 ,bu5os ,ayres to ,/4 ,f ,bajada1 9 ,entre ,rios4--,= "s di/ance nor?w>d ( ,bu5os ,ayres1 ! esc>pm5t ( ! ,pampean =mation does n approa* v ne> to ! ,plata1 & x is conceal$ by vegetation3 b 9 sections on ! banks ( ! ,rios ,luxan1 ,areco1 & ,arrecifes1 ,i obs]v$ bo? pale & d>k r$di% ,pampean mud1 ) small1 :iti% concretions ( tosca2 at all ^! places mammif]\s rema9s h be5 f\nd4 ,9 ! cliffs on ! ,p>ana1 at ,san ,nicolas1 ! ,pampean mud conta9s b little tosca2 "h ,m4 d',orbigny f\nd ! rema9s ( two rod5ts 7,ct5omys ,bon>i5sis & ,k]odon antiquus7 & ! jaw ( a ,canis3 :5 on ! riv] ,i c\ld cle>ly di/+ui% 9 ?is f9e l9e ( cliffs1 8horizontal l9es ( v>iation bo? 9 t9t & compactness40#aa ,! pla9 nor?w>d ( ?is po9t is v level1 b ) "s depressions & lakes2 ,i e/imat$ its height at f =ty to sixty feet above ! ,p>ana4 ,at ! ,a4 ,m$io ! bright r$ ,pampean mud conta9s sc>cely any tosca-rock2 :il/ at a %ort di/ance ! /ream ( ! ,pabon1 =ms a cascade1 ab\t tw5ty feet 9 height1 ov] a cav]n\s mass ( two v>ieties ( tosca-rock2 ( :i* "o is v compact & semi-cry/all9e1 ) seams ( cry/allis$ c>bonate ( lime3 simil> compact v>ieties are met ) on ! ,salidillo & ,seco4 ,! absolute id5tity 7,i speak aft] a comp>ison ( my specim5s7 betwe5 "s ( ^! v>ieties1 & ^? f ,tapalgu51 & f ! ridge s\? ( ,bahia ,blanca1 a di/ance ( #djj miles ( latitude1 is v /rik+4 #aa ,i quote ^! words f my note-book1 z writt5 d[n on ! spot1 on acc\nt ( ! g5]al abs5ce ( /ratification 9 ! ,pampean =mation hav+ be5 insi/$ on by ,m4 d',orbigny z a pro( ( ! diluvial orig9 ( ?is great deposit4 ,at ,ros>io !re is b little tosca-rock3 ne> ?is place ,i fir/ notic$ at ! edge ( ! riv] traces ( an und]ly+ =mation1 :i*1 tw5ty-five miles high] up 9 ! e/ancia ( ,gorodona1 consi/s ( a pale yell[i% clay1 ab\nd+ ) concretion>y cyl9d]s ( a f]rug9\s s&/one4 ,?is b$1 :i* is probably ! equival5t ( ! old] t]ti>y m>9e /rata1 imm$iately to be describ$ 9 ,entre ,rios1 only j rises above ! level ( ! ,p>ana :5 l[4 ,! re/ ( ! cliff at ,gorodona1 is =m$ ( r$ ,pampean mud1 )1 9 ! l[] "p1 _m concretions ( tosca1 "s /alacti-=m$1 & ) only a few 9 ! upp] "p3 at ! height ( six feet above ! riv]1 two gigantic skeletons ( ! ,ma/odon ,&ium 7 "h emb$d$2 _! bones 7 scatt]$ a few feet ap>t1 b _m ( !m /ill held _! prop] relative positions3 !y 7 mu* decay$ & z s(t z *eese1 s t ev5 "o ( ! great mol> tee? fell into pieces 9 my h&4 ,we "h see t ! ,pampean deposit conta9s mammif]\s rema9s close to its base4 ,on ! banks ( ! ,c>c>ana1 a few miles di/ant1 ! l[e/ b$ visible 0 pale ,pampean mud1 ) masses ( tosca-rock1 9 "o ( :i* ,i f\nd a mu* decay$ too? ( ! ,ma/odon3 above ?is b$1 !re 0 a ?9 lay] almo/ compos$ ( small concretions ( :ite tosca1 out ( :i* ,i extract$ a well pres]v$1 b slightly brok5 too? ( ,toxodon ,plat5sis3 above ?is !re 0 an unusual b$ ( v s(t impure s&/one4 ,9 ?is neighb\rhood ,i notic$ _m s+le emb$d$ bones1 & ,i he>d ( o!rs hav+ be5 f\nd 9 s p]fect a /ate t !y 7 long us$ z gate-po/s3 ! ,jesuit ,falkn] f\nd "h ! d]mal arm\r ( "s gigantic ,ed5tal quadrup$4 ,9 "s ( ! r$ mud scrap$ f a too? ( "o ( ! ,ma/odons at ,gorodona1 ,pr(essor ,ehr5b]g f9ds sev5 ,polyga/rica & ?irte5 ,phytoli?>ia1#ab all ( !m1 ,i believe1 ) two exceptions1 already kn[n species4 ,( ^! tw5ty1 ! prepond]at+ numb] are ( fre%-wat] orig92 only two species ( ,cosc9odiscus & a ,spongoli?is %[ ! direct influ5ce ( ! sea2 !re=e ,pr(essor ,ehr5b]g arrives at ! important conclusion t ! deposit mu/ h be5 ( bracki%-wat] orig94 ,( ! ?irte5 ,phytoli?>ia1 n9e are met ) 9 ! two deposits 9 ,bahia ,blanca1 :]e !re is evid5ce f two o!r species ( ,polyga/rica t ! b$s 7 accumulat$ 9 bracki% wat]4 ,! traces ( coral1 sponges1 & ,poly?alamia1 f\nd by ,dr4 ,c>p5t] 9 ! tosca-rock 7( :i* ,i mu/ obs]ve ! great] numb] ( specim5s 7 f ! upp] b$s 9 ! s\!rn p>ts ( ! =mation71 app>5tly %[ a m purely m>9e orig94 #ab 8,monatsb]i*t5 d] knig4 ,akad4 zu ,b]l910 ,april #ahde4 ,! li/ consi/s (3-- ,,polyga/rica4 ,campylodiscus clypeus4 ,cosc9odiscus subtilis4 ,cosc9odiscus al4 sp4 ,eunotia4 ,gallionella granulata4 ,himantidium gracile4 ,p9nul>ia borealis4 ,at ,/4 ,f ,bajada1 9 ,entre ,rios1 ! cliffs1 e/imat$ at betwe5 sixty & sev5ty feet 9 height1 expose an int]e/+ section3 ! l[] half consi/s ( t]ti>y /rata ) m>9e %ells1 & ! upp] half ( ! ,pampean =mation4 ,! l[e/ b$ is an obliquely lam9at$1 blacki%1 indurat$ mud1 ) di/9ct traces ( vegetable rema9s4#ac ,above ?is !re is a ?ick b$ ( yell[i% s&y clay1 ) mu* cry/allis$ gypsum & _m %ells ( ,o/re1 ,pect5s1 & ,arc3 above ?is !re g5]ally comes an ar5ace\s cry/all9e lime/one1 b !re is sometimes int]pos$ a b$1 ab\t twelve feet ?ick1 ( d>k gre51 soapy clay1 wea!r+ into small angul> fragm5ts4 ,! lime/one1 :]e pure/1 is :ite1 highly cry/all9e1 & full ( cavities3 x includes small pebbles ( qu>tz1 brok5 %ells1 tee? ( %>ks1 & sometimes1 z ,i 0 in=m$1 l>ge bones3 x (t5 conta9s s mu* s& z to pass into a calc>e\s s&/one1 & 9 su* p>ts ! great ,o/rea ,patagonica#ad *iefly ab\nds4 ,9 ! upp] "p1 ! lime/one alt]nates ) lay]s ( f9e :ite s&4 ,! %ells includ$ 9 ^! b$s h be5 nam$ = me by ,m4 d',orbigny3 !y consi/ (3-- ,o/rea ,patagonica1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage10 ,"p4 ,pal4 ,o/rea ,alv>ezii1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage10 ,"p4 ,pal4 ,pect5 ,p>an5sis1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage10 ,"p4 ,pal4 ,pect5 ,d>w9ianus1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage10 ,"p4 ,pal4 ,v5us ,mun/]ii1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage10 ,pal4 ,arca ,bonpl&iana1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage10 ,pal4 ,c>dium ,plat5se1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage10 ,pal4 ,tell9a1 probably nov4 spec41 b too imp]fect = description4 ,,phytoli?>ia4 ,li?a/]iscus tub]culatus4 ,li?odontium bursa4 ,li?odontium furcatum4 ,li?odontium ro/ratum4 ,li?o/ylidium ,amphiodon4 ,li?o/ylidium ,clepsammidium4 ,li?o/ylidium ,hamus4 ,li?o/ylidium poly$rum4 ,li?o/ylidium quadratum4 ,li?o/ylidium rude4 ,li?o/ylidium ,s]ra4 ,li?o/ylidium unid5tatum4 ,spongoli?is ,fu/is4 #ac ,m4 d',orbigny has giv5 78,voyage10 ,"p4 ,golog41 p4 #cg7 a detail$ description ( ?is section1 b z he does n m5tion ?is l[e/ b$1 x may h be5 conceal$ :5 he 0 !re by ! riv]4 ,!re is a consid]able discrepancy betwe5 8 description & m9e1 :i* ,i c only acc\nt = by ! b$s !mselves v>y+ consid]ably 9 %ort di/ances4 #ad ,capta9 ,sulivan1 ,r4,n41 has giv5 me a specim5 ( ?is %ell1 :i* he f\nd 9 ! cliffs at ,po9t ,c]rito1 betwe5 tw5ty & ?irty miles above ! ,bajada4 ,^! species are all ext9ct3 ! six fir/ 7 f\nd by ,m4 d',orbigny & myself 9 ! =mations ( ! ,rio ,negro1 ,s4 ,josef1 & o!r p>ts ( ,patagonia2 & !re=e1 z fir/ obs]v$ by ,m4 d',orbigny1 ^! b$s c]ta9ly belong to ! great ,patagonian =mation1 :i* w be describ$ 9 ! ensu+ *apt]1 & :i* we %all see mu/ be consid]$ z a v anci5t t]ti>y "o4 ,nor? ( ! ,bajada1 ,m4 d',orbigny f\nd1 9 b$s :i* he consid]s z ly+ b5ea? ! /rata "h describ$1 rema9s ( a ,toxodon1 :i* he has nam$ z a di/9ct species f ! ,t4 ,plat5sis ( ! ,pampean =mation4 ,mu* silicifi$ wood is f\nd on ! banks ( ! ,p>ana 7& likewise on ! ,uruguay71 & ,i 0 in=m$ t !y come out ( ^! l[] b$s2 f\r specim5s collect$ by myself are dicotyl$on\s4 ,! upp] half ( ! cliff1 to a ?ickness ( ab\t ?irty feet1 consi/s ( ,pampean mud1 ( :i* ! l[] "p is pale-col\r$1 & ! upp] "p ( a bright] r$1 ) "s irregul> lay]s ( an ar5ace\s v>iety ( tosca1 & a few small concretions ( ! ord9>y k9d4 ,close above ! m>9e lime/one1 !re is a ?9 /ratum ) a concretion>y outl9e ( :ite h>d tosca-rock or m>l1 :i* may be consid]$ ei!r z ! upp]mo/ b$ ( ! inf]ior deposits1 or ! l[e/ ( ! ,pampean =mation2 at "o "t ,i consid]$ ?is b$ z m>k+ a passage betwe5 ! two =mations3 b ,i h s9ce become conv9c$ t ,i 0 deceiv$ on ?is po9t4 ,9 ! section on ! ,p>ana1 ,i did n f9d any mammif]\s rema9s2 b at two miles di/ance on ! ,a4 ,tapas 7a tribut>y ( ! ,con*itas71 !y 7 extremely num]\s 9 a l[ cliff ( r$ ,pampean mud ) small concretions1 precisely l ! upp] b$ on ! ,p>ana4 ,mo/ ( ! bones 7 solit>y & mu* decay$2 b ,i saw ! d]mal arm\r ( a gigantic ,ed5tal quadrup$1 =m+ a caldron-l holl[1 f\r or five feet 9 diamet]1 out ( :i*1 z ,i 0 in=m$1 ! almo/ entire skeleton _h be5 lately remov$4 ,i f\nd s+le tee? ( ! ,ma/odon ,&ium1 ,toxodon ,plat5sis1 & ,equus curvid5s1 ne> to ea* o!r4 ,z ?is latt] too? approa*es closely to t ( ! common horse1 ,i paid p>ticul> att5tion to its true emb$m5t1 = ,i did n at t "t "k t !re 0 a simil> too? hidd5 9 ! matrix ) ! o!r mammif]\s rema9s f ,punta ,alta4 ,x is an int]e/+ circum/ance1 t ,pr(essor ,ow5 f9ds t ! tee? ( ?is horse approa* m closely 9 _! peculi> curvature to a fossil specim5 br\ght by ,mr4 ,lyell#ae f ,nor? ,am]ica1 ?an to ^? ( any o!r species ( ,equus4 #ae ,lyell's 8,travels 9 ,nor? ,am]ica10 vol4 i1 p4 #afd & 8,proc4 ( ,geolog4 ,soc410 vol4 iv1 p4 #ci4 ,! und]ly+ m>9e t]ti>y /rata ext5d ov] a wide area3 ,i 0 assur$ t !y c be trac$ 9 rav9es 9 an ea/ & we/ l9e across ,entre ,rios to ! ,uruguay1 a di/ance ( ab\t #ace miles4 ,9 a ,s4,e4 direction ,i he>d ( _! exi/5ce at ! head ( ! ,r4 ,nankay2 & at ,p4 ,gorda 9 ,b&a ,ori5tal1 a di/ance ( #agj miles1 ,i f\nd ! same lime/one1 conta9+ ! same fossil %ells1 ly+ at ab\t ! same level above ! riv] z at ,/4 ,fe4 ,9 a s\!rly direction1 ^! b$s s9k 9 height1 = at ano!r ,p4 ,gorda 9 ,entre ,rios1 ! lime/one is se5 at a mu* less height2 & !re c be little d\bt t ! yell[i% s&y clay1 on a level ) ! riv]1 betwe5 ! ,c>c>ana & ,s4 ,ni*olas1 belongs to ?is same =mation2 z p]haps d ! b$s ( s& at ,bu5os ,ayres1 :i* lie at ! bottom ( ! ,pampean =mation1 ab\t sixty feet b5ea? ! surface ( ! ,plata4 ,! s\!rly decl9ation ( ^! b$s may p]haps be due1 n to unequal elevation1 b to ! orig9al =m ( ! bottom ( ! sea1 slop+ f l& situat$ to ! nor?2 = t l& exi/$ at no great di/ance1 we h evid5ce 9 ! vegetable rema9s 9 ! l[e/ b$ at ,/4 ,fe2 & 9 ! silicifi$ wood & 9 ! bones ( ,toxodon ,p>an5sis1 f\nd 7accord+ to ,m4 d',orbigny7 9 /ill l[] /rata4 ,b&a ,ori5tal4--,?is prov9ce lies on ! nor!rn side ( ! ,plata1 & ea/w>d ( ! ,uruguay3 x has a g5tle undulatory surface1 ) a basis ( prim>y rocks2 & is 9 mo/ p>ts cov]$ up ) an un/ratifi$ mass1 ( no great ?ickness1 ( r$di% ,pampean mud4 ,9 ! ea/]n half1 ne> ,maldonado1 ?is deposit is m ar5ace\s ?an 9 ! ,pampas1 x conta9s _m ?\gh small concretions ( m>l or tosca-rock1 & o!rs ( highly f]rug9\s s&/one2 9 "o section1 only a few y>ds 9 dep?1 x re/$ on /ratifi$ s&4 ,ne> ,monte ,video ?is deposit 9 "s spots appe>s to be ( great] ?ickness2 & ! rema9s ( ! ,glyptodon & o!r ext9ct mammif]s h be5 f\nd 9 x4 ,9 ! long l9e ( cliffs1 betwe5 fifty & sixty feet 9 height1 call$ ! ,b>rancas de ,s4 ,gregorio1 :i* ext5d we/w>d ( ! ,rio ,s4 ,lucia1 ! l[] half is =m$ ( co>se s& ( qu>tz & feldsp> )\t mica1 l t n[ ca/ up on ! bea* ne> ,maldonado2 & ! upp] half ( ,pampean mud1 v>y+ 9 col\r & conta9+ honeycomb$ ve9s ( s(t calc>e\s matt] & small concretions ( tosca-rock arrang$ 9 l9es1 & likewise a few pebbles ( qu>tz4 ,?is deposit fills up holl[s & furr[s 9 ! und]ly+ s&2 appe>+ z if wat] *>g$ ) mud _h invad$ a s&y bea*4 ,^! cliffs ext5d f> we/w>d1 & at a di/ance ( sixty miles1 ne> ,colonia del ,sacrami5to1 ,i f\nd ! ,pampean deposit re/+ 9 "s places on ?is s&1 & 9 o!rs on ! prim>y rocks3 betwe5 ! s& & ! r$di% mud1 !re appe>$ to be int]pos$1 b ! section 0 n a v good "o1 a ?9 b$ ( %ells ( an exi/+ ,mytilus1 /ill p>tially reta9+ _! col\r4 ,! ,pampean =mation 9 ,b&a ,ori5tal might readily be mi/ak5 = an alluvial deposit3 comp>$ ) t ( ! ,pampas1 x is (t5 m s&y1 & conta9s small fragm5ts ( qu>tz2 ! concretions are mu* small]1 & !re are no ext5sive masses ( tosca-rock4 ,9 ! extreme we/]n p>ts ( ?is prov9ce1 betwe5 ! ,uruguay & a l9e drawn f ,colonia to ! ,r4 ,p]dido 7a tribut>y ( ! ,r4 ,negro71 ! =mations are f> m complicat$4 ,besides prim>y rocks1 we meet ) ext5sive tracts & _m flat-topp$1 horizontally /ratifi$1 cliff-b\nd$1 isolat$ hills ( t]ti>y /rata1 v>y+ extraord9>ily 9 m9]alogical nature1 "s id5tical ) ! old m>9e b$s ( ,/4 ,f ,bajada1 & "s ) ^? ( ! mu* m rec5t ,pampean =mation4 ,!re are1 also1 ext5sive l[ tracts ( c\ntry cov]$ ) a deposit conta9+ mammif]\s rema9s1 precisely l t j describ$ 9 ! m ea/]n p>ts ( ! prov9ce4 ,al?\gh f ! smoo? & unbrok5 /ate ( ! c\ntry1 ,i nev] obta9$ a section ( ?is latt] deposit close to ! foot ( ! high] t]ti>y hills1 yet ,i h n ! lea/ d\bt t x is ( q subsequ5t orig92 hav+ be5 deposit$ aft] ! sea _h worn ! t]ti>y /rata into ! cliff-b\nd$ hills4 ,?is lat] =mation1 :i* is c]ta9ly ! equival5t ( t ( ! ,pampas1 is well se5 9 ! valleys 9 ! e/ancia ( ,b]quelo1 ne> ,m]c$es2 x "h consi/s ( r$di% e>?1 full ( r\nd$ gra9s ( qu>tz1 & ) "s small concretions ( tosca-rock arrang$ 9 horizontal l9es1 s z p]fectly to resemble1 except 9 conta9+ a little calc>e\s matt]1 ! =mation 9 ! ea/]n p>ts ( ,b&a ,ori5tal1 9 ,entre ,rios1 & at o!r places3 9 ?is e/ancia ! skeleton ( a great ,ed5tal quadrup$ 0 f\nd4 ,9 ! valley ( ! ,s>&is1 at ! di/ance ( only a few miles1 ?is deposit has a some:at diff]5t "*1 be+ :it]1 s(t]1 f9]-gra9$1 & full ( little cavities1 & consequ5tly ( little specific gravity2 nor does x conta9 any concretions or calc>e\s matt]3 ,i "h procur$ a head1 :i* :5 fir/ discov]$ mu/ h be5 q p]fect1 ( ! ,toxodon ,plat5sis1 ano!r ( a ,mylodon1#af p]haps ,m4 ,d>w9ii1 & a l>ge piece ( d]mal arm\r1 diff]+ f t ( ! ,glyptodon clavipes4 ,^! bones are rem>kable f _! extraord9>ily fre% appe>ance2 :5 held ov] a lamp ( spirits ( w9e1 !y give out a /rong od\r & burn ) a small flame2 ,mr4 ,t4 ,reeks has be5 s k9d z to analyse "s ( ! fragm5ts1 & he f9ds t !y conta9 ab\t #g p] c5t ( animal matt]1 & #h p] c5t ( wat]4#ag #af ,?is head 0 at fir/ consid]$ by ,pr(essor ,ow5 79 ! 8,zoology ( ! ,beagle's ,voyage07 z belong+ to a di/9ct g5us1 namely1 ,glosso!rium4 #ag ,liebig 78,*emi/ry ( ,agriculture10 p4 #aid7 /ates t fre% dry bones conta9 f #cb to #cc p] c5t ( dry gelat9e4 ,see also ,dr4 ,daub5y1 9 ,ed94 ,new ,phil4 ,j\rn41 vol4 xxxvii1 p4 #bic4 ,! old] t]ti>y /rata1 =m+ ! high] isolat$ hills & ext5sive tracts ( c\ntry1 v>y1 z ,i h said1 extraord9>ily 9 composition3 )9 ! di/ance ( a few miles1 ,i sometimes pass$ ov] cry/all9e lime/one ) agate1 calc>e\s tuffs1 & m>ly rocks1 all pass+ into ea* o!r1--r$ & pale mud ) concretions ( tosca-rock1 q l ! ,pampean =mation1--calc>e\s conglom]ates & s&/ones1--bright r$ s&/ones pass+ ei!r into r$ conglom]ate1 or into :ite s&/one1--h>d silice\s s&/ones1 jasp]y & *alc$onic rocks1 & num]\s o!r subord9ate v>ieties4 ,i 0 unable to m>k out ! relations ( all ^! /rata1 & w describe only a few di/9ct sections3--9 ! cliffs betwe5 ,p4 ,gorda on ! ,uruguay & ! ,a4 de ,vivoras1 ! upp] b$ is cry/all9e cellul> lime/one (t5 pass+ into calc>e\s s&/one1 ) impressions ( "s ( ! same %ells z at ,/4 ,f ,bajada2 at ,p4 ,gorda1#ah ?is lime/one is int]/ratifi$ ) & re/s on1 :ite s&1 :i* cov]s a b$ ab\t ?irty feet ?ick ( pale-col\r$ clay1 ) _m %ells ( ! great ,o/rea ,patagonica3 b5ea? ?is1 9 ! v]tical cliff1 ne>ly on a level ) ! riv]1 !re is a b$ ( r$ mud absolutely l ! ,pampean deposit1 ) num]\s (t5 l>ge concretions ( p]fectly *>act]is$ :ite1 compact tosca-rock4 ,at ! m\? ( ! ,vivoras1 ! riv] fl[s ov] a pale cav]n\s tosca-rock1 q l t 9 ! ,pampas1 & ?is appe>$ to und]lie ! cry/all9e lime/one2 b ! section 0 n unequivocal l t at ,p4 ,gorda4 ,^! b$s n[ =m only a n>r[ & mu* d5ud$ /rip ( l&2 b !y mu/ once h ext5d$ mu* fur!r2 = on ! next /ream1 s\? ( ! ,s4 ,juan1 ,capta9 ,sulivan1 ,r4,n41 f\nd a little cliff1 only j above ! surface ( ! riv]1 ) num]\s %ells ( ! ,v5us ,mun/]ii1 ,d',orbigny1--"o ( ! species occurr+ at ,/4 ,f1 & ( :i* !re are ca/s at ,p4 ,gorda3 ! l9e ( cliffs ( ! subsequ5tly deposit$ true ,pampean mud1 ext5d f ,colonia to )9 half a mile ( ?is spot1 & no d\bt once cov]$ up ?is d5ud$ m>9e /ratum4 ,aga9 at ,colonia1 a ,fr5*man f\nd1 9 digg+ ! f\ndations ( a h\se1 a great mass ( ! ,o/rea ,patagonica 7( :i* ,i saw _m fragm5ts71 pack$ toge!r j b5ea? ! surface1 & directly sup]impos$ on ! gneiss4 ,^! sections are important3 ,m4 d',orbigny is unwill+ to believe t b$s ( ! same nature ) ! ,pampean =mation ev] und]lie ! anci5t m>9e t]ti>y /rata2 & ,i 0 z mu* surpris$ at x z he c\ld h be52 b ! v]tical cliff at ,p4 ,gorda all[$ ( no mi/ake1 & ,i mu/ be p]mitt$ to affirm1 t aft] hav+ exam9$ ! c\ntry f ! ,colorado to ,/4 ,f ,bajada1 ,i c\ld n be deceiv$ 9 ! m9]alogical "* ( ! ,pampean deposit4 #ah ,9 my 8,j\rnal0 7p4 #aga1 #a/ edit471 ,i h ha/ily & inaccurately /at$ t ! ,pampean mud1 :i* is f\nd ov] ! ea/]n "p ( ,b4 ,ori5tal1 lies ov] ! lime/one at ,p4 ,gorda2 ,i %\ld h said t !re 0 reason to inf] t x 0 a subsequ5t or sup]ior deposit4 ,moreov]1 9 a precipit\s "p ( ! rav9e ( ,las ,bocas1 a r$ s&/one is di/9ctly se5 to ov]lie a ?ick b$ ( pale mud1 also q l ! ,pampean =mation1 ab\nd+ ) concretions ( true tosca-rock4 ,?is s&/one ext5ds ov] _m miles ( c\ntry3 x is z r$ z ! brighte/ volcanic scori2 x sometimes passes into a co>se r$ conglom]ate compos$ ( ! und]ly+ prim>y rocks2 & (t5 passes into a s(t :ite s&/one ) r$ /reaks4 ,at ! ,cal]a de los ,hu]fanos1 only a qu>t] ( a mile s\? ( :]e ,i fir/ met ) ! r$ s&/one1 ! cry/all9e :ite lime/one is qu>ri$3 z ?is b$ is ! upp]mo/1 & z x (t5 passes into calc>e\s s&/one1 int]/ratifi$ ) pure s&2 & z ! r$ s&/one likewise passes into s(t :ite s&/one1 & is also ! upp]mo/ b$1 ,i believe t ^! two b$s1 ?\gh s diff]5t1 are equival5ts4 ,a few leagues s\?w>d ( ^! two places1 on ea* side ( ! l[ prim>y range ( ,s4 ,juan1 !re are "s flat-topp$1 cliff-b\nd$1 sep>ate little hills1 v simil> to ^? fr++ ! prim>y ranges 9 ! great pla9 s\? ( ,bu5os ,ayres3 !y are compos$--#a/1 ( calc>e\s tuff ) _m p>ticles ( qu>tz1 sometimes pass+ into a co>se conglom]ate2 #bnd1 ( a /one undi/+ui%able on ! close/ inspection f ! compact] v>ieties ( tosca-rock2 & #crd1 ( semi-cry/all9e lime/one1 includ+ nodules ( agate3 ^! ?ree v>ieties pass ins5sibly into ea* o!r1 & z !y =m ! upp]mo/ /ratum 9 ?is di/rict1 ,i believe t !y1 also1 are ! equival5ts ( ! pure cry/all9e lime/one1 & ( ! r$ & :ite s&/ones & conglom]ates4 ,betwe5 ^! po9ts & ,m]c$es on ! ,rio ,negro1 !re are sc>cely any good sections1 ! road pass+ ov] lime/one1 tosca-rock1 calc>e\s & bright r$ s&/ones1 & ne> ! s\rce ( ! ,san ,salvador ov] a wide ext5t ( jasp]y rocks1 ) mu* milky agate1 l t 9 ! lime/one ne> ,san ,juan4 ,9 ! e/ancia ( ,b]quelo1 ! sep>ate1 flat-topp$1 cliff-b\nd$ hills are r high] ?an 9 ! o!r p>ts ( ! c\ntry2 !y range 9 a ,n4,e4 & ,s4,w4 direction2 _! upp]mo/ b$s consi/ ( ! same bright r$ s&/one1 pass+ sometimes into a conglom]ate1 & 9 ! l[] "p into s(t :ite s&/one1 & ev5 into loose s&3 b5ea? ?is s&/one1 ,i saw 9 two places lay]s ( calc>e\s & m>ly rocks1 & 9 "o place r$ ,pampean-l e>?2 at ! base ( ^! sections1 !re 0 a h>d1 /ratifi$1 :ite s&/one1 ) *alc$onic lay]s4 ,ne> ,m]c$es1 b$s ( ! same nature & app>5tly ( ! same age1 are associat$ ) compact1 :ite1 cry/all9e lime/one1 includ+ mu* botryoidal agate1 & s+ul> masses1 l porcela91 b really compos$ ( a calc>eo-silice\s pa/e4 ,9 s9k+ wells 9 ?is di/rict ! *alc$onic /rata seem to be ! l[e/4 ,b$s1 su* z !re describ$1 occur ov] ! :ole ( ?is neighb\rhood2 b tw5ty miles fur!r up ! ,r4 ,negro1 9 ! cliffs ( ,p]ika1 :i* are ab\t fifty feet 9 height1 ! upp] b$ is a prettily v>iegat$ *alc$ony1 m+l$ ) a pure :ite tall[y lime/one2 b5ea? ?is !re is a conglom]ate ( qu>tz & granite2 b5ea? ?is _m s&/ones1 "s highly calc>e\s2 & ! :ole l[] two-?irds ( ! cliff consi/s ( e>?y calc>e\s b$s ( v>i\s degrees ( purity1 ) "o lay] ( r$di% ,pampean-l mud4 ,:5 exam9+ ! agates1 ! *alc$onic & jasp]y rocks1 "s ( ! lime/ones1 & ev5 ! bright r$ s&/ones1 ,i 0 =cibly /ruck ) _! resemblance to deposits =m$ 9 ! neighb\rhood ( volcanic action4 ,i n[ f9d t ,m4 ,isabelle1 9 8 8,voyage a ,bu5os ,ayres10 has describ$ closely simil> b$s on ,itaquy & ,ibicuy 7:i* ent] ! ,uruguay "s way nor? ( ! ,r4 ,negro7 & ^! b$s include fragm5ts ( r$ decompos$ true scori h>d5$ by zeolite1 & ( black ret9ite3 we h !n "h good evid5ce ( volcanic action dur+ our t]ti>y p]iod4 ,/ill fur!r nor?1 ne> ,s4 ,anna1#ai :]e ! ,p>ana makes a rem>kable b5d1 ,m4 ,bonpl& f\nd "s s+ul> amygdaloidal rocks1 :i* p]haps may belong to ?is same epo*4 ,i may rem>k t1 judg+ f ! size & well-r\nd$ condition ( ! blocks ( rock 9 ! above-describ$ conglom]ates1 masses ( prim>y =mation probably exi/$ at ?is t]ti>y p]iod above wat]3 !re is1 also1 accord+ to ,m4 ,isabelle1 mu* conglom]ate fur!r nor?1 at ,salto4 #ai ,m4 d',orbigny1 8,voyage10 ,"p4 ,golog41 p4 #bi4 ,f :atev] s\rce & ?r\gh :atev] means ! great ,pampean =mation orig9at$1 we "h h1 ,i mu/ repeat1 unequivocal evid5ce ( a simil> action at a p]iod be=e t ( ! deposition ( ! m>9e t]ti>y /rata ) ext9ct %ells1 at ,santa ,f & ,p4 ,gorda4 ,dur+ also ! deposition ( ^! /rata1 we h 9 ! int]calat$ lay]s ( r$ ,pampean-l mud & tosca-rock1 & 9 ! passage ne> ,s4 ,juan ( ! semi-cry/all9e lime/ones ) agate into tosca undi/+ui%able f t ( ! ,pampas1 evid5ce ( ! same action1 ?\gh cont9u$ only at int]vals & 9 a feeble mann]4 ,we h fur!r se5 t 9 ?is di/rict1 at a p]iod n only subsequ5t to ! deposition ( ! t]ti>y /rata1 b to _! upheavem5t & mo/ ext5sive d5udation1 true ,pampean mud ) its usual *>act]s & includ+ mammif]\s rema9s1 0 deposit$ r\nd & betwe5 ! hills or islets =m$ ( ^! t]ti>y /rata1 & ov] ! :ole ea/]n & l[ prim>y di/ricts ( ,b&a ,ori5tal4 ,no4 #af ,section ( ! l[e/ pla9 at ,port ,s4 ,julian4 ,illu/ration3 ,section ( ! l[e/ pla9 at ,port ,s4 ,julian4 ,e>?y mass1 ) ext9ct mammif]\s rema9s1 ov] ! porphyritic gravel at ,s4 ,julian1 lat4 #di #ad ,s41 9 ,patagonia4--,?is case1 ?\gh n com+ /rictly "u ! ,pampean =mation1 may be conv5i5tly giv5 "h4 ,on ! s\? side ( ! h>b\r1 !re is a ne>ly level pla9 7m5tion$ 9 ! ,fir/ ,*apt]7 ab\t sev5 miles long1 & ?ree or f\r miles wide1 e/imat$ at n9ety feet 9 height1 & bord]$ by p]p5dicul> cliffs1 ( :i* a section is repres5t$ above4 ,! l[] old t]ti>y /rata 7to be describ$ 9 ! next *apt]7 are cov]$ by ! usual gravel b$2 & ?is by an irregul> e>?y1 sometimes s&y mass1 seldom m ?an two or ?ree feet 9 ?ickness1 except :]e x fills up furr[s or gullies worn n only ?r\gh ! und]ly+ gravel1 b ev5 ?r\gh ! upp] t]ti>y b$s4 ,?is e>?y mass is ( a pale r$di% col\r1 l ! less pure v>ieties ( ,pampean mud 9 ,b&a ,ori5tal2 x includes small calc>e\s concretions1 l ^? ( tosca-rock b m ar5ace\s1 & o!r concretions ( a gre5i%1 indurat$ argillace\s sub/ance3 a few pebbles1 also1 f ! und]ly+ gravel-b$ are also includ$ 9 x1 & ^! be+ occasionally arrang$ 9 horizontal l9es1 %[ t ! mass is ( sub-aque\s orig94 ,on ! surface & emb$d$ 9 ! sup]ficial p>ts1 !re are num]\s %ells1 p>tially reta9+ _! col\rs1 ( ?ree or f\r ( ! n[ commone/ littoral species4 ,ne> ! bottom ( "o deep furr[ 7repres5t$ 9 figure ,no4 #af71 fill$ up ) ?is e>?y deposit1 ,i f\nd a l>ge "p ( ! skeleton ( ! ,macrau*5ia ,pata*onica--a gigantic & mo/ extraord9>y pa*yd]m1 alli$1 accord+ to ,pr(essor ,ow51 to ! ,palo!rium1 b ) aff9ities to ! ,rum9ants1 especially to ! ,am]ican division ( ! ,camelid4 ,sev]al ( ! v]tebr 9 a *a91 & ne>ly all ! bones ( "o ( ! limbs1 ev5 to ! smalle/ bones ( ! foot1 7 emb$d$ 9 _! prop] relative positions3 h5ce ! skeleton 0 c]ta9ly unit$ by its fle% or ligam5ts1 :5 envelop$ 9 ! mud4 ,?is e>?y mass1 ) its concretions & mammif]\s rema9s1 fill+ up furr[s 9 ! und]ly+ gravel1 c]ta9ly pres5ts a v /rik+ resemblance to "s ( ! sections 7= in/ance1 at ,p4 ,alta 9 ,b4 ,blanca1 or at ! ,b>rancas de ,s4 ,gregorio7 9 ! ,pampean =mation2 b ,i mu/ believe t ?is resemblance is only accid5tal4 ,i suspect t ! mud :i* at ! pres5t day is accumulat+ 9 deep & n>r[ gullies at ! head ( ! h>b\r1 w\ld1 aft] elevation1 pres5t a v simil> appe>ance4 ,! s\!rnmo/ "p ( ! true ,pampean =mation1 namely1 on ! ,colorado1 lies #efj miles ( latitude nor? ( ?is po9t4#bj #bj ,9 ! succe$+ *apt] ,i %all h to ref] to a great deposit ( ext9ct mammif]\s rema9s1 lately discov]$ by ,capta9 ,sulivan1 ,r4,n41 at a po9t /ill fur!r s\?1 namely1 at ! ,r4 ,gallegos2 _! age mu/ at pres5t rema9 d\btful4 ,) respect to ! age ( ! ,macrau*5ia1 ! %ells on ! surface prove t ! mass 9 :i* ! skeleton 0 envelop$ has be5 elevat$ above ! sea )9 ! rec5t p]iod3 ,i did n see any ( ! %ells emb$d$ at a suffici5t dep? to assure me 7?\gh x be highly probable7 t ! :ole ?ickness ( ! mass 0 contemporane\s ) ^! individual specim5s4 ,t ! ,macrau*5ia liv$ subsequ5tly to ! spread+ out ( ! gravel on ?is pla9 is c]ta92 & t ?is gravel1 at ! height ( n9ety feet1 0 spread out long aft] ! exi/5ce ( rec5t %ells1 is sc>cely less c]ta94 ,=1 x 0 %[n 9 ! ,fir/ ,*apt]1 t ?is l9e ( coa/ has be5 upheav$ ) rem>kable equability1 & t ov] a va/ space bo? nor? & s\? ( ,s4 ,julian1 rec5t species ( %ells are /rew$ on 7or emb$d$ 97 ! surface ( ! #bej feet pla91 & ( ! #cej feet pla9 up to a height ( #djj feet4 ,^! wide /ep-=m$ pla9s h be5 =m$ by ! d5ud+ action ( ! coa/-waves on ! old t]ti>y /rata2 & !re=e1 :5 ! surface ( ! #cej feet pla91 ) ! %ells on x1 fir/ rose above ! level ( ! sea1 ! #bej feet pla9 did n exi/1 & its =mation1 z well z ! spread+ out ( ! gravel on its summit1 mu/ h tak5 place subsequ5tly4 ,s also ! d5udation & ! gravel-cov]+ ( ! #ij feet pla9 mu/ h tak5 place subsequ5tly to ! elevation ( ! #bej feet pla91 on :i* rec5t %ells are also /rew$4 ,h5ce !re _c be any d\bt t ! ,macrau*5ia1 :i* c]ta9ly 0 entomb$ 9 a fre% /ate1 & :i* mu/ h be5 alive aft] ! spread+ out ( ! gravel on ! #ij feet pla91 exi/$1 n only subsequ5tly to ! uprais$ %ells on ! surface ( ! #bej feet pla91 b also to ^? on ! #cej to #djj feet pla93 ^! %ells1 eight 9 numb] 7namely1 ?ree species ( ,mytilus1 two ( ,patella1 "o ,fusus1 ,voluta1 & ,balanus71 are und\bt$ly rec5t species1 & are ! commone/ k9ds n[ liv+ on ?is coa/4 ,at ,punta ,alta 9 ,b4 ,blanca1 ,i rem>k$ h[ m>vell\s x 01 t ! ,toxodon1 a mammif] s unlike to all kn[n g5]a1 %\ld h co-exi/$ ) tw5ty-?ree /ill liv+ m>9e animals2 & n[ we f9d t ! ,macrau*5ia1 a quadrup$ only a little less anomal\s ?an ! ,toxodon1 also co-exi/$ ) eight o!r /ill exi/+ ,mollusca3 x %\ld1 moreov]1 be borne 9 m9d1 t a too? ( a pa*yd]mat\s animal 0 f\nd ) ! o!r rema9s at ,punta ,alta1 :i* ,pr(essor ,ow5 ?9ks almo/ c]ta9ly belong$ to ! ,macrau*5ia4 ,mr4 ,lyell#ba has arriv$ at a highly important conclusion ) respect to ! age ( ! ,nor? ,am]ican ext9ct mammif]s 7_m ( :i* are closely alli$ to1 & ev5 id5tical )1 ^? ( ! ,pampean =mation71 namely1 t !y liv$ subsequ5tly to ! p]iod :5 erratic b\ld]s 7 transport$ by ! ag5cy ( float+ ice 9 temp]ate latitudes4 ,n[ 9 ! valley ( ! ,santa ,cruz1 only fifty miles ( latitude s\? ( ! spot :]e ! ,macrau*5ia 0 entomb$1 va/ numb]s ( gigantic1 angul> b\ld]s1 :i* mu/ h be5 transport$ f ! ,cordill]a on iceb]gs1 lie /rew$ on ! pla91 at ! height ( #a1djj feet above ! level ( ! sea4 ,9 asc5d+ to ?is level1 sev]al /ep-=m$ pla9s mu/ be cross$1 all ( :i* h necess>ily requir$ long "t = _! =mation2 h5ce ! l[e/ or n9ety feet pla91 ) its sup]ficial b$ conta9+ ! rema9s ( ! ,macrau*5ia1 mu/ h be5 =m$ v long subsequ5tly to ! p]iod :5 ! #a1djj feet pla9 0 b5ea? ! sea1 & b\ld]s 7 dropp$ on x f float+ masses ( ice4#bb ,mr4 ,lyell's conclusion1 !re=e1 is ?us f> confirm$ 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e2 & x is ! m important1 z "o is naturally tempt$ to admit s simple an explanation1 t x 0 ! ice-p]iod t caus$ ! ext9ction ( ! num]\s great mammif]s :i* s lately sw>m$ ov] ! two ,am]icas4 #ba 8,geological ,proce$+s10 vol4 iv1 p4 #cf4 #bb ,x mu/ n be inf]r$ f ^! rem>ks1 t ! ice-action ceas$ 9 ,s\? ,am]ica at ?is comp>atively anci5t p]iod2 = 9 ,ti]ra del ,fuego b\ld]s 7 probably transport$ contemporane\sly )1 if n subsequ5tly to1 ! =mation ( ! n9ety feet pla9 at ,s4 ,julian1 & at o!r p>ts ( ! coa/ ( ,patagonia4 ,summ>y & conclud+ rem>ks on ! ,pampean =mation4--,"o ( its mo/ /rik+ features is its great ext5t2 ,i pass$ cont9u\sly ov] x f ! ,colorado to ,/4 ,fe ,bajada1 a di/ance ( #ejj geographical miles2 & ,m4 d',orbigny trac$ x = #bej miles fur!r nor?4 ,9 ! latitude ( ! ,plata1 ,i exam9$ ?is =mation at int]vals ov] an ea/ & we/ l9e ( #cjj miles f ,maldonado to ! ,r4 ,c>c>ana2 & ,m4 d',orbigny believes x ext5ds #ajj miles fur!r inl&3 f ,mr4 ,caldcleugh's travels1 h[ev]1 ,i %\ld h ?\ght t x _h ext5d$1 s\? ( ! ,cordovese range1 to ne> ,m5doza1 & ,i may add t ,i he>d ( great bones hav+ be5 f\nd high up ! ,r4 ,qu9to4 ,h5ce ! area ( ! ,pampean =mation1 z rem>k$ by ,m4 d',orbigny1 is probably at lea/ equal to t ( ,france1 & p]haps twice or ?rice z great4 ,9 a bas91 surr\nd$ by gravel-cliff 7at a height ( ne>ly ?ree ?\s& feet71 s\? ( ,m5doza1 !re is1 z describ$ 9 ! ,?ird ,*apt]1 a deposit v l ! ,pampean1 int]/ratifi$ ) o!r matt]2 & aga9 at ,s4 ,julian's1 9 ,patagonia1 #efj miles s\? ( ! ,colorado1 a small irregul> b$ ( a ne>ly simil> nature conta9s1 z we h j se51 mammif]\s rema9s4 ,9 ! prov9ces ( ,moxos & ,*iquitos 7#a1jjj miles nor?w>d ( ! ,pampas71 & 9 ,bolivia1 at a height ( #d1jjj metres1 ,m4 d',orbigny has describ$ simil> deposits1 :i* he believes to h be5 =m$ by ! same ag5cy contemporane\sly ) ! ,pampean =mation4 ,consid]+ ! imm5se di/ances betwe5 ^! sev]al po9ts1 & _! diff]5t heights1 x appe>s to me inf9itely m probable1 t ?is simil>ity has result$ n f contemporane\sness ( orig91 b f ! simil>ity ( ! rocky framework ( ! cont95t3 x is kn[n t 9 ,brazil an imm5se area consi/s ( gneissic rocks1 & we %all h]eaft] see1 ov] h[ great a l5g? ! plutonic rocks ( ! ,cordill]a1 ! ov]ly+ purple porphyries1 & ! tra*ytic ejections1 are almo/ id5tical 9 nature4 ,?ree !ories on ! orig9 ( ! ,pampean =mation h be5 prop\nd$3--,fir/1 t ( a great debacle by ,m4 d',orbigny2 ?is seems f\nd$ *iefly on ! abs5ce ( /ratification1 & on ! numb] ( emb$d$ rema9s ( t]re/rial quadrup$s4 ,al?\gh ! ,pampean =mation 7l s _m argillace\s deposits7 is n divid$ into di/9ct & sep>ate /rata1 yet we h se5 t 9 "o good section x 0 /rip$ ) horizontal zones ( col\r1 & t 9 sev]al specifi$ places ! upp] & l[] p>ts diff]$1 n only consid]ably 9 col\r1 b greatly 9 con/itution4 ,9 ! s\!rn "p ( ! ,pampas ! upp] mass 7to a c]ta9 ext5t /ratifi$7 g5]ally consi/s ( h>d tosca-rock1 & ! l[] "p ( r$ ,pampean mud1 (t5 itself divid$ into two or m masses1 v>y+ 9 col\r & 9 ! quantity ( includ$ calc>e\s matt]4 ,9 ,we/]n ,b&a ,ori5tal1 b$s ( a simil> nature1 b ( a great] age1 con=mably und]lie & are int]calat$ ) ! regul>ly /ratifi$ t]ti>y =mation4 ,z a g5]al rule1 ! m>ly concretions are arrang$ 9 horizontal l9es1 sometimes unit$ into irregul> /rata3 surely1 if ! mud _h be5 tumultu\sly deposit$ 9 mass1 ! includ$ calc>e\s matt] w\ld h segregat$ itself irregul>ly1 & n into nodules arrang$ 9 horizontal l9es1 "o above ! o!r & (t5 f> ap>t3 ?is arrangem5t appe>s to me to prove t mud1 diff]+ slightly 9 composition1 0 successively & quietly deposit$4 ,on ! !ory ( a debacle1 a prodigi\s am\nt ( mud1 )\t a s+le pebble1 is suppos$ to h be5 borne ov] ! wide surface ( ! ,pampas1 :5 "u wat]3 on ! o!r h&1 ov] ! :ole ( ,patagonia1 ! same or ano!r debacle is suppos$ to h borne no?+ b gravel1--! gravel & ! f9e mud 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! ,rios ,negro & ,colorado hav+ be5 borne to an equal di/ance f ! ,cordill]a1 or imag9$ l9e ( di/urbance3 assur$ly directly opposite effects ought n to be attribut$ to ! same ag5cy4 ,:]e1 aga91 c\ld a mass ( f9e s$im5t1 *>g$ ) calc>e\s matt] 9 a fit /ate = *emical segregation1 & 9 quantity suffici5t to cov] an area at lea/ #gej miles long1 & #djj miles broad1 to a dep? ( f tw5ty to ?irty feet to a hundr$ feet1 h be5 accumulat$1 ready to be transport$ by ! suppos$ debacle8 ,to my m9d x is little %ort ( demon/ration1 t a great lapse ( "t 0 necess>y = ! production & deposition ( ! enorm\s am\nt ( mudlike matt] =m+ ! ,pampas2 nor %\ld ,i h notic$ ! !ory ( a debacle1 _h x n be5 adduc$ by a naturali/ s em95t z ,m4 d',orbigny4 ,a second !ory1 fir/ sugge/$1 ,i believe1 by ,sir ,w4 ,p>i%1 is t ! ,pampean =mation 0 ?r[n d[n on l[ & m>%y pla9s by ! riv]s ( ?is c\ntry be=e !y assum$ _! pres5t c\rses4 ,! appe>ance & composition ( ! deposit1 ! mann] 9 :i* x slopes up & r\nd ! prim>y ranges1 ! nature ( ! und]ly+ m>9e b$s1 ! e/u>y & sea-%ells on ! surface1 ! ov]ly+ s&/one b$s at ,m4 ,h]moso1 are all q oppos$ to ?is view4 ,nor d ,i believe t !re is a s+le in/ance ( a skeleton ( "o ( ! ext9ct mammif]s hav+ be5 f\nd 9 an upright position1 z if x _h be5 mir$4 ,! ?ird !ory1 ( ! tru? ( :i* ,i _c ent]ta9 ! smalle/ d\bt1 is t ! ,pampean =mation 0 sl[ly accumulat$ at ! m\? ( ! =m] e/u>y ( ! ,plata & 9 ! sea adjo9+ x4 ,i h come to ?is conclusion f ! reasons assign$ aga9/ ! two =ego+ !ories1 & f simple geographical consid]ations4 ,f ! num]\s %ells ( ! ,az>a labiata ly+ loose on ! surface ( ! pla9s1 & ne> ,bu5os ,ayres emb$d$ 9 ! tosca-rock1 we "k t ?is =mation n only 0 =m]ly cov]$ by1 b t ! upp]mo/ p>ts 7 deposit$ 91 ! bracki% wat] ( ! anci5t ,la ,plata4 ,s\?w>d & seaw>d ( ,bu5os ,ayres1 ! pla9s 7 upheav$ f "u wat] inhabit$ by true m>9e %ells4 ,we fur!r "k f ,pr(essor ,ehr5b]g's exam9ation ( ! tw5ty microscopical organisms 9 ! mud r\nd ! too? ( ! ,ma/odon high up ! c\rse ( ! ,p>ana1 t ! bottom-mo/ "p ( ?is =mation 0 ( bracki%-wat] orig94 ,a simil> conclusion mu/ be ext5d$ to ! b$s ( l composition1 at ! level ( ! sea & "u x1 at ,m4 ,h]moso 9 ,bahia ,blanca4 ,dr4 ,c>p5t] f9ds t ! h>d] v>ieties ( tosca-rock1 collect$ *iefly to ! s\?1 conta9 m>9e spongoid bodies1 m9ute fragm5ts ( %ells1 corals1 & ,poly?alamia2 ^! p]haps may h be5 drift$ inw>ds by ! tides1 f ! m op5 p>ts ( ! sea4 ,! abs5ce ( %ells1 ?r\gh\t ?is deposit1 ) ! exception ( ! upp]mo/ lay]s ne> ,bu5os ,ayres1 is a rem>kable fact3 c x be expla9$ by ! bracki% condition ( ! wat]1 or by ! deep mud at ! bottom8 ,i h /at$ t bo? ! r$di% mud & ! concretions ( tosca-rock are (t5 p5etrat$ by m9ute1 l9e> cavities1 su* z frequ5tly may be obs]v$ 9 fre%-wat] calc>e\s deposits3--7 !y produc$ by ! burr[+ ( small worms8 ,only on ?is view ( ! ,pampean =mation hav+ be5 ( e/u>y orig91 c ! extraord9>y numb]s 7pres5tly to be allud$ to7 ( ! emb$d$ mammif]\s rema9s be expla9$4#bc #bc ,x is almo/ sup]flu\s to give ! num]\s cases 7= in/ance1 9 ,sumatra2 ,lyell's 8,pr9ciples10 vol4 iii1 p4 #cbe1 six? edit471 ( ! c>casses ( animals hav+ be5 wa%$ out to sea by swoll5 riv]s2 b ,i may ref] to a rec5t acc\nt by ,mr4 ,bett+ton 78,asiatic ,soc410 #ahde1 ,june #ba/71 ( ox51 de]1 & be>s be+ c>ri$ into ! ,gulf ( ,cambray2 see also ! acc\nt 9 my 8,j\rnal0 7#bnd edit41 p4 #acc71 ( ! numb]s ( animals dr[n$ 9 ! ,plata dur+ ! great1 (t5 recurr5t1 dr\ghts4 ,) respect to ! fir/ orig9 ( ! r$di% mud1 ,i w only rem>k1 t ! enorm\s area ( ,brazil consi/s 9 *ief "p ( gneissic & o!r granitic rocks1 :i* h suff]$ decomposition1 & be5 conv]t$ into a r$1 gritty1 argillace\s mass1 to a great] dep? ?an 9 any o!r c\ntry :i* ,i h se54 ,! mixture ( r\nd$ gra9s1 & ev5 ( small fragm5ts & pebbles ( qu>tz1 9 ! ,pampean mud ( ,b&a ,ori5tal1 is evid5tly due to ! neighb\r+ & und]ly+ prim>y rocks4 ,! e/u>y mud 0 drift$ dur+ ! ,pampean p]iod 9 a mu* m s\!rly c\rse1 ow+ probably to ! ea/ & we/ prim>y ridges s\? ( ! ,plata n hav+ be5 !n elevat$1 ?an ! mud ( ! ,plata at pres5t is2 = x 0 =m]ly deposit$ z f> s\? z ! ,colorado4 ,! quantity ( calc>e\s matt] 9 ?is =mation1 especially 9 ^? l>ge di/ricts :]e ! :ole mass passes into tosca-rock1 is v great3 ,i h already rem>k$ on ! close resemblance 9 ext]nal & microscopical appe>ance1 betwe5 ?is tosca-rock & ! /rata at ,coquimbo1 :i* h c]ta9ly result$ f ! decay & attrition ( rec5t %ells3#bd ,i d>e n1 h[ev]1 ext5d ?is conclusion to ! calc>e\s rocks ( ! ,pampas1 m especially z ! und]ly+ t]ti>y /rata 9 we/]n ,b&a ,ori5tal %[ t at t p]iod !re 0 a copi\s emission ( c>bonate ( lime1 9 connection ) volcanic action4 #bd ,i may add1 t !re are ne>ly simil> sup]ficial calc>e\s b$s at ,k+ ,george's ,s\nd 9 ,au/ralia2 & ^! und\bt$ly h be5 =m$ by ! dis9tegration ( m>9e rema9s 7see 8,volcanic ,isl&s10 etc41 p4 #add74 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 some?+ v rem>kable 9 ! frequ5cy ( sup]ficial1 ?9 b$s ( e>?y calc>e\s matt]1 9 di/ricts :]e ! surr\nd+ rocks are n calc>e\s4 ,major ,*>t]s1 9 a ,pap] read be=e ! ,geographical ,society 7,april #ac?1 #ahdj1 & ab/ract$ 9 ! ,a!num1 p4 #cag71 /ates t ?is is ! case 9 p>ts ( ,mexico1 & t he has obs]v$ simil> appe>ances 9 _m p>ts ( ,s\? ,africa4 ,! circum/ance ( ! upp]mo/ /ratum r\nd ! ragg$ ,si]ra ,v5tana1 consi/+ ( calc>e\s or m>ly matt]1 )\t any cov]+ ( alluvial matt]1 /rikes me z v s+ul>1 9 :atev] mann] we view ! deposition & elevation ( ! ,pampean =mation4 ,! ,pampean =mation1 judg+ f its simil> composition1 & f ! app>5t absolute specific id5tity ( "s ( its mammif]\s rema9s1 & f ! g5]ic resemblance ( o!rs1 belongs ov] its va/ area--?r\gh\t ,b&a ,ori5tal1 ,entre ,rios1 & ! wide ext5t ( ! ,pampas z f> s\? z ! ,colorado1--to ! same geological epo*4 ,! mammif]\s rema9s occur at all dep?s f ! top to ! bottom ( ! deposit2 & ,i may add t n[h]e 9 ! ,pampas is !re any appe>ance ( mu* sup]ficial d5udation3 "s bones :i* ,i f\nd ne> ! ,gu>dia del ,monte 7 emb$d$ close to ! surface2 & ?is appe>s to h be5 ! case ) _m ( ^? discov]$ 9 ,b&a ,ori5tal3 on ! ,matanzas1 tw5ty miles s\? ( ,bu5os ,ayres1 a ,glyptodon 0 emb$d$ five feet b5ea? ! surface2 num]\s rema9s 7 f\nd by ,s4 ,muniz1 ne> ,luxan1 at an av]age dep? ( eighte5 feet2 9 ,bu5os ,ayres a skeleton 0 dis9t]r$ at sixty feet dep?1 & on ! ,p>ana ,i h describ$ two skeletons ( ! ,ma/odon only five or six feet above ! v base ( ! deposit4 ,) respect to ! age ( ?is =mation1 z judg$ ( by ! ord9>y /&>d ( ! exi/5ce ( ,mollusca1 ! only evid5ce )9 ! limits ( ! true ,pampas :i* is at all tru/wor?y1 is af=d$ by ! /ill liv+ ,az>a labiata be+ emb$d$ 9 tosca-rock ne> ,bu5os ,ayres4 ,at ,punta ,alta1 h[ev]1 we h se5 t sev]al ( ! ext9ct mammif]s1 mo/ *>act]i/ic ( ! ,pampean =mation1 co-exi/$ ) tw5ty species ( ,mollusca1 a b>nacle & two corals1 all /ill liv+ on ?is same coa/2--= :5 we rememb] t ! %ells h a m anci5t appe>ance ?an ! bones2 t _m ( ! bones1 ?\gh emb$d$ 9 a co>se conglom]ate1 are p]fectly pres]v$2 t almo/ all ! p>ts ( ! skeleton ( ! ,scelido!rium1 ev5 to ! knee-cap1 7 ly+ 9 _! prop] relative positions2 & t a l>ge piece ( ! fragile d]mal arm\r ( a ,dasypoid quadrup$1 connect$ ) "s ( ! bones ( ! foot1 _h be5 entomb$ 9 a condition all[+ ! two sides to be d\bl$ toge!r1 x mu/ assur$ly be admitt$ t ^! mammif]\s rema9s 7 emb$d$ 9 a fre% /ate1 & !re=e t ! liv+ animals co-exi/$ ) ! co-emb$d$ %ells4 ,moreov]1 ! ,macrau*5ia ,pata*onica 7( :i*1 accord+ to ,pr(essor ,ow51 rema9s also occur 9 ! ,pampas ( ,bu5os ,ayres1 & at ,punta ,alta7 has be5 %[n by satisfactory evid5ce ( ano!r k9d1 to h liv$ on ! pla9s ( ,patagonia long aft] ! p]iod :5 ! adjo9+ sea 0 fir/ t5ant$ by its pres5t commone/ mollusc\s animals4 ,we mu/1 !re=e1 conclude t ! ,pampean =mation belongs1 9 ! ord9>y geological s5se ( ! ^w1 to ! ,rec5t ,p]iod4#be #be ,m4 d',orbigny believes 78,voyage10 ,"p4 ,golog41 p4 #ha7 t ?is =mation1 ?\gh 8trs vois9e de la ntre1 e/ nanmo9s de beauc\p antrieure notre cration40 ,at ,/4 ,f ,bajada1 ! ,pampean e/u>y =mation1 ) its mammif]\s rema9s1 con=mably ov]lies ! m>9e t]ti>y /rata1 :i* 7z fir/ %[n by ,m4 d',orbigny7 are contemporane\s ) ^? ( ,patagonia1 & :i*1 z we %all h]eaft] see1 belong to a v anci5t t]ti>y /age4 ,:5 exam9+ ! junction betwe5 ^! two =mations1 ,i ?\ght t ! concretion>y lay] ( m>l m>k$ a passage betwe5 ! m>9e & e/u>y /ages4 ,m4 d',orbigny disputes ?is view 7z giv5 9 my 8,j\rnal071 & ,i admit t x is errone\s1 ?\gh 9 "s degree excusable1 f _! con=mability & f bo? ab\nd+ ) calc>e\s matt]4 ,x w\ld1 inde$1 h be5 a great anomaly if !re _h be5 a true passage betwe5 a deposit contemporane\s ) exi/+ species ( mollusca1 & "o 9 :i* all ! mollusca appe> to be ext9ct4 ,nor?w>d ( ,santa ,fe1 ,m4 d',orbigny met ) f]rug9\s s&/ones1 m>ly rocks1 & o!r b$s1 :i* he consid]s z a di/9ct & l[] =mation2 b ! evid5ce t !y are n p>ts ( ! same ) an alt]$ m9]alogical "*1 does n appe> to me q satisfactory4 ,9 ,we/]n ,b&a ,ori5tal1 :ile ! m>9e t]ti>y /rata 7 accumulat+1 !re 7 volcanic eruptions1 mu* silex & lime 7 precipitat$ f solution1 co>se conglom]ates 7 =m$1 be+ d]iv$ probably f adjo9+ l&1 & lay]s ( r$ mud & m>ly rocks1 l ^? ( ! ,pampean =mation1 7 occasionally deposit$4 ,! true ,pampean deposit1 ) mammif]\s rema9s1 in/ead ( z at ,santa ,fe ov]ly+ con=mably ! t]ti>y /rata1 is "h se5 at a l[] level fold+ r\nd & betwe5 ! flat-topp$1 cliff-b\nd$ hills1 =m$ by a upheaval & d5udation ( ^! same t]ti>y /rata4 ,! upheaval1 hav+ occurr$ "h e>li] ?an at ,santa ,fe1 may be naturally acc\nt$ = by ! contemporane\s volcanic action4 ,at ! ,b>rancas de ,s4 ,gregorio1 ! ,pampean deposit1 z we h se51 ov]lies & fills up furr[s 9 co>se s&1 precisely l t n[ accumulat+ on ! %ores ne> ! m\? ( ! ,plata4 ,i c h>dly believe t ?is loose & co>se s& is contemporane\s ) ! old t]ti>y & (t5 cry/all9e /rata ( ! m we/]n p>ts ( ! prov9ce2 & am induc$ to suspect t x is ( subsequ5t orig94 ,if t section ne> ,colonia c\ld be implicitly tru/$1 9 :i*1 at a height ( only fifte5 feet above ! ,plata1 a b$ ( fre%-look+ mussels1 ( an exi/+ littoral species1 appe>$ to lie betwe5 ! s& & ! ,pampean mud1 ,i %\ld conclude t ,b&a ,ori5tal mu/ h /ood1 :5 ! co>se s& 0 accumulat+1 at only a little bel[ its pres5t level1 & _h !n subsid$1 all[+ ! e/u>y ,pampean mud to cov] f> & wide its surface up to a height ( "s hundr$ feet2 & t aft] ?is subsid5ce ! prov9ce _h be5 uplift$ to its pres5t level4 ,9 ,we/]n ,b&a ,ori5tal1 we "k1 f two unequivocal sections t !re is a mass1 absolutely undi/+ui%able f ! true ,pampean deposit1 b5ea? ! old t]ti>y /rata4 ,?is inf]ior mass mu/ be v mu* m anci5t ?an ! upp] deposit ) its mammif]\s rema9s1 = x lies b5ea? ! t]ti>y /rata 9 :i* all ! %ells are ext9ct4 ,nev]!less1 ! l[] & upp] masses1 z well z "s int]m$iate lay]s1 are s simil> 9 m9]alogical "*1 t ,i _c d\bt t !y are all ( e/u>y orig91 & h be5 d]iv$ f ! same great s\rce4 ,at fir/ x appe>$ to me extremely improbable1 t mud ( ! same nature %\ld h be5 deposit$ on ne>ly ! same spot1 dur+ an imm5se lapse ( "t1 namely1 f a p]iod equival5t p]haps to ! ,eoc5e ( ,europe to t ( ! ,pampean =mation4 ,b z1 at ! v comm5cem5t ( ! ,pampean p]iod1 if n at a /ill e>li] p]iod1 ! ,si]ra ,v5tana =m$ a b\nd>y to ! s\?1--! ,cordill]a or ! pla9s 9 front ( !m to ! we/1--! :ole prov9ce ( ,corri5tes probably to ! nor?1 =1 accord+ to ,m4 d',orbigny1 x is n cov]$ by ! ,pampean deposit1--& ,brazil1 z kn[n by ! rema9s 9 ! caves1 to ! nor?-ea/2 & z aga91 dur+ ! old] t]ti>y p]iod1 l& already exi/$ 9 ,we/]n ,b&a ,ori5tal & ne> ,/4 ,f ,bajada1 z may be inf]r$ f ! vegetable debris1 f ! quantities ( silicifi$ wood1 & f ! rema9s ( a ,toxodon f\nd1 accord+ to ,m4 d',orbigny1 9 /ill l[] /rata1 we may conclude1 t at ?is anci5t p]iod a great expanse ( wat] 0 surr\nd$ by ! same rocky framework :i* n[ b\nds ! pla9s ( ,pampean =mation4 ,?is hav+ be5 ! case1 ! circum/ance ( s$im5t ( ! same nature hav+ be5 deposit$ 9 ! same area dur+ an imm5se lapse ( "t1 ?\gh highly rem>kable1 does n appe> incr$ible4 ,! elevation ( ! ,pampas1 at lea/ ( ! s\!rn p>ts1 has be5 sl[ & int]rupt$ by sev]al p]iods ( re/1 z may be inf]r$ f ! pla9s1 cliffs1 & l9es ( s&-dunes 7) %ells & pumice-pebbles7 /&+ at diff]5t heights4 ,i believe1 also1 t ! ,pampean mud cont9u$ to be deposit$1 aft] p>ts ( ?is =mation _h already be5 elevat$1 9 ! same mann] z mud w\ld cont9ue to be deposit$ 9 ! e/u>y ( ! ,plata1 if ! mud-banks on its %ores 7 n[ uplift$ & *ang$ into pla9s3 ,i believe 9 ?is f ! improbability ( s _m skeletons & bones hav+ be5 accumulat$ at "o spot1 :]e ,m4 ,h]moso n[ /&s1 at a dep? ( betwe5 eight hundr$ & "o ?\s& feet1 & at a va/ di/ance f any l& except small rocky islets1--z mu/ h be5 ! case1 if ! high tosca-pla9 r\nd ! ,v5tana & adjo9+ ,si]ras1 _h n be5 already uplift$ & conv]t$ into l&1 support+ mammif]\s animals4 ,at ,punta ,alta we h good evid5ce t ! gravel-/rata1 :i* c]ta9ly belong to ! true ,pampean p]iod1 7 accumulat$ aft] ! elevation 9 t neighb\rhood ( ! ma9 "p ( ! ,pampean deposit1 :5ce ! r\nd$ masses ( tosca-rock 7 d]iv$1 & t roll$ fragm5t ( black bone 9 ! same peculi> condition ) ! rema9s at ,monte ,h]moso4 ,! numb] ( ! mammif]\s rema9s emb$d$ 9 ! ,pampas is1 z ,i h rem>k$1 wond]ful3 x %\ld be borne 9 m9d t !y h almo/ exclusively be5 f\nd 9 ! cliffs & /eep banks ( riv]s1 & t1 until lately1 !y excit$ no att5tion among/ ! inhabitants3 ,i am firmly conv9c$ t a deep tr5* c\ld n be cut 9 any l9e across ! ,pampas1 )\t int]sect+ ! rema9s ( "s quadrup$4 ,x is difficult to =m an op9ion 9 :at "p ( ! ,pampas !y are mo/ num]\s2 9 a limit$ spot !y c\ld n well h be5 m num]\s ?an !y 7 at ,p4 ,alta2 ! numb]1 h[ev]1 lately f\nd by ,s5or ,f4 ,muniz1 ne> ,luxan1 9 a c5tral spot 9 ! ,pampas1 is extraord9>ily great3 at ! end ( ?is *apt] ,i w give a li/ ( all ! localities at :i* ,i h he>d ( rema9s hav+ be5 discov]$4 ,v frequ5tly ! rema9s consi/ ( almo/ p]fect skeletons2 b !re are1 also1 num]\s s+le bones1 z = in/ance at ,/4 ,f4 ,_! /ate ( pres]vation v>ies mu*1 ev5 :5 emb$d$ ne> ea* o!r3 ,i saw none o!rs s p]fectly pres]v$ z ! heads ( ! ,toxodon & ,mylodon f ! :ite s(t e>?y b$ on ! ,s>&is 9 ,b&a ,ori5tal4 ,x is rem>kable t 9 two limit$ sections ,i f\nd no less ?an five tee? sep>ately emb$d$1 & ,i he>d ( tee? hav+ be5 simil>ly f\nd 9 o!r p>ts3 may we suppose t ! skeletons or heads 7 = a long "t g5tly drift$ by curr5ts ov] ! s(t muddy bottom1 & t ! tee? occasionally1 "h & !re1 dropp$ out8 ,x may be naturally ask$1 :]e did ^! num]\s animals live8 ,f ! rem>kable discov]ies ( ,,mm4 ,lund & ,claus51 x appe>s t "s ( ! species f\nd 9 ! ,pampas inhabit$ ! highl&s ( ,brazil3 ! ,ma/odon ,&ium is emb$d$ at great heights 9 ! ,cordill]a f nor? ( ! equator#bf to at lea/ z f> s\? z ,t>ija2 & z !re is no high] l&1 !re c be little d\bt t ?is ,ma/odon mu/ h liv$ on ! pla9s & valleys ( t great range4 ,^! c\ntries1 h[ev]1 appe> too f> di/ant = ! habitation ( ! individuals entomb$ 9 ! ,pampas3 we mu/ probably look to ne>] po9ts1 = in/ance to ! prov9ce ( ,corri5tes1 :i*1 z already rem>k$1 is said n to be cov]$ by ! ,pampean =mation1 & may !re=e1 at ! p]iod ( its deposition1 h exi/$ z dry l&4 ,i h already giv5 my reasons = believ+ t ! animals emb$d$ at ,m4 ,h]moso & at ,p4 ,alta 9 ,bahia ,blanca1 liv$ on adjo9+ l&1 =m$ ( p>ts ( ! already elevat$ ,pampean deposit4 ,) respect to ! food ( ^! _m great ext9ct quadrup$s1 ,i w n repeat ! facts giv5 9 my 8,j\rnal0 7second edit41 p4 #he71 %[+ t !re is no correlation betwe5 ! luxuriance ( ! vegetation ( a c\ntry & ! size ( its mammif]\s inhabitants4 ,i d n d\bt t l>ge animals c\ld n[ exi/1 z f> z ! am\nt1 n k9d1 ( vegetation is conc]n$1 on ! /]ile pla9s ( ,bahia ,blanca & ( ! ,r4 ,negro1 z well z on ! equally1 if n m /]ile pla9s ( ,s\!rn ,africa4 ,! climate1 h[ev]1 may p]haps h some:at det]iorat$ s9ce ! mammif]s emb$d$ at ,bahia ,blanca liv$ !re2 = we mu/ n inf]1 f ! cont9u$ exi/5ce ( ! same %ells on ! pres5t coa/s1 t !re has be5 no *ange 9 climate2 = sev]al ( ^! %ells n[ range nor?w>d along ! %ores ( ,brazil1 :]e ! mo/ luxuriant vegetation fl\ri%es "u a tropical temp]ature4 ,) respect to ! ext9ction1 :i* at fir/ fills ! m9d ) a/oni%m5t1 ( ! _m great & small mammif]s ( ?is p]iod1 ,i may also ref] to ! "w above cit$ 7second edit41 p4 #agc71 9 :i* ,i h endeav\r$ to %[1 t h[ev] unable we may be to expla9 ! precise cause1 we ought n prop]ly to feel m surpris$ at a species becom+ ext9ct ?an at "o be+ r>e2 & yet we are accu/om$ to view ! r>ity ( any p>ticul> species z an ord9>y ev5t1 n requir+ any extraord9>y ag5cy4 #bf ,humboldt /ates t ! ,ma/odon has be5 discov]$ 9 ,new ,granada3 x has be5 f\nd 9 ,quito4 ,:5 at ,lima1 ,i saw a too? ( a ,ma/odon 9 ! possession ( ,don ,m4 ,riv]o1 f\nd at ,playa ,*ica on ! ,m>anon1 ne> ! ,guallaga4 ,e "o has he>d ( ! num]\s rema9s ( ,ma/odon 9 ,bolivia4 ,! sev]al mammif]s emb$d$ 9 ! ,pampean =mation1 :i* mo/ly belong to ext9ct g5]a1 & "s ev5 to ext9ct families or ord]s1 & :i* diff] ne>ly1 if n q1 z mu* z d ! ,eoc5e mammif]s ( ,europe f liv+ quadrup$s hav+ exi/$ contemporane\sly ) mollusca1 all /ill inhabit+ ! adjo9+ sea1 is c]ta9ly a mo/ /rik+ fact4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 f> f be+ an isolat$ "o2 =1 dur+ ! late t]ti>y deposits ( ,brita91 an elephant1 rh9oc]os1 & hippopotamus co-exi/$ ) _m rec5t l& & fre%-wat] %ells2 & 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 we h ! be/ evid5ce t a ma/odon1 elephant1 mega!rium1 megalonyx1 mylodon1 an ext9ct horse & ox1 likewise co-exi/$ ) num]\s l&1 fre%-wat]1 & m>9e rec5t %ells4#bg ,! enum]ation ( ^! ext9ct ,nor? ,am]ican animals naturally leads me to ref] to ! =m] clos] relation ( ! mammif]\s inhabitants ( ! two ,am]icas1 :i* ,i h discuss$ 9 my 8,j\rnal10 & likewise to ! va/ ext5t ( c\ntry ov] :i* "s ( !m rang$3 ?us ! same species ( ! ,mega!rium1 ,megalonyx1 ,equus 7z f> z ! /ate ( _! rema9s p]mits ( id5tification71 ext5d$ f ! ,s\!rn ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,nor? ,am]ica to ,bahia ,blanca1 9 lat4 #ci ,s41 on ! coa/ ( ,patagonia4 ,! fact ( ^! animals hav+ inhabit$ tropical & temp]ate regions1 does n appe> to me any great difficulty1 see+ t at ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope sev]al quadrup$s1 su* z ! elephant & hippopotamus1 range f ! equator to lat4 #ce s\?4 ,! case ( ! ,ma/odon ,&ium is "o ( m difficulty1 = x is f\nd f lat4 #cf ,s41 ov]1 z ,i h reason to believe1 ne>ly ! :ole ( ,brazil1 & up ! ,cordill]a to regions :i*1 accord+ to ,m4 d',orbigny1 bord] on p]petual sn[1 & :i* are almo/ de/itute ( vegetation3 und\bt$ly ! climate ( ! ,cordill]a mu/ h be5 diff]5t :5 ! ma/odon inhabit$ x2 b we %\ld n =get ! case ( ! ,sib]ian mammo? & rh9oc]os1 z %[+ h[ sev]e a climate ! l>g] pa*yd]mata c endure2 nor ov]look ! fact ( ! guanaco rang+ at ! pres5t day ov] ! hot l[ des]ts ( ,p]u1 ! l(ty p9nacles ( ! ,cordill]a1 & ! damp =e/-clad l& ( ,s\!rn ,ti]ra del ,fuego2 ! puma1 also1 is f\nd f ! equator to ! ,/rait ( ,magellan1 & ,i h se5 its foot/eps only a little bel[ ! limits ( p]petual sn[ 9 ! ,cordill]a ( ,*ile4 #bg ,_m orig9al obs]vations1 & a summ>y on ?is subject1 are giv5 9 ,mr4 ,lyell's pap] 9 ! 8,geolog4 ,proc410 vol4 iv1 p4 #c & 9 8 8,travels 9 ,nor? ,am]ica10 vol4 i1 p4 #afd & vol4 ii1 p4 #fj4 ,= ! ,european analog\s cases see ,mr4 ,lyell's 8,pr9ciples ( ,geology0 7#f? edit471 vol4 i1 p4 #cg4 ,at ! p]iod1 s rec5t 9 a geological s5se1 :5 ^! ext9ct mammif]s exi/$1 ! two ,am]icas mu/ h sw>m$ ) quadrup$s1 _m ( !m ( gigantic size2 =1 besides ^? m p>ticul>ly ref]r$ to 9 ?is *apt]1 we mu/ include 9 ?is same p]iod ^? wond]fully num]\s rema9s1 "s few ( !m specifically1 & o!rs g5]ically relat$ to ^? ( ! ,pampas1 discov]$ by ,,mm4 ,lund & ,claus5 9 ! caves ( ,brazil4 ,f9ally1 ! facts "h giv5 %[ h[ cauti\s we ought to be 9 judg+ ( ! antiquity ( a =mation f ev5 a great am\nt ( diff]5ce betwe5 ! ext9ct & liv+ species 9 any "o class ( animals2--we ought ev5 to be cauti\s 9 accept+ ! g5]al proposition1 t *ange 9 organic =ms & lapse ( "t are at all1 necess>ily1 correlatives4 ,localities )9 ! region ( ! ,pampas :]e great bones h be5 f\nd4 ,! foll[+ li/1 :i* includes e acc\nt :i* ,i h hi!rto met ) ( ! discov]y ( fossil mammif]\s rema9s 9 ! ,pampas1 may be h]eaft] useful to a geologi/ inve/igat+ ?is region1 & x t5ds to %[ _! extraord9>y abundance4 ,i he>d ( & saw _m fossils1 ! orig9al position ( :i* ,i c\ld n asc]ta92 & ,i receiv$ _m /atem5ts too vague to be "h ins]t$4 ,beg9n+ to ! s\?3--we h ! two /ations 9 ,bahia ,blanca1 describ$ 9 ?is *apt]1 :]e at ,p4 ,alta1 ! ,mega!rium1 ,megalonyx1 ,scelido!rium1 ,mylodon1 ,holophractus 7or an alli$ g5us71 ,toxodon1 ,macrau*5ia1 & an ,equus 7 collect$2 & at ,m4 ,h]moso a ,ct5omys1 ,hydro*rus1 "s o!r rod5ts & ! bones ( a great mega!roid quadrup$4 ,close nor?-ea/ ( ! ,s4 ,tapalgu51 we h ! ,rios #8,huesos' 7i4e4 bones71 :i* probably takes its "n f l>ge fossil bones4 ,ne> ,villa ,nuevo1 & at ,las ,av]ias1 n f> f ! ,salado1 ?ree ne>ly p]fect skeletons1 "o ( ! ,mega!rium1 "o ( ! ,glyptodon clavipes1 & "o ( "s great ,dasypoid quadrup$1 7 f\nd by ! ag5t ( ,sir ,w4 ,p>i% 7see 8 "w 8,bu5os ,ayres10 etc41 p4 #aga74 ,i h se5 ! too? ( a ,ma/odon f ! ,salado2 a little nor?w>d ( ?is riv]1 on ! bord]s ( a lake ne> ! ,g4 del ,monte1 ,i saw _m bones1 & "o l>ge piece ( d]mal arm\r2 high] up ! ,salado1 !re is a place call$ ,monte 8,huesos40 ,on ! ,matanzas1 ab\t tw5ty miles s\? ( ,bu5os ,ayres1 ! skeleton 7vide p4 #agh ( 8,bu5os ,ayres10 etc41 by ,sir ,w4 ,p>i%7 ( a ,glyptodon 0 f\nd ab\t five feet b5ea? ! surface2 "h also 7see ,catalogue ( ,royal ,college ( ,surgeons7 rema9s ( ,glyptodon clavipes1 ,g4 ornatus1 & ,g4 reticulatus 7 f\nd4 ,signor ,angelis1 9 a lett] :i* ,i h se51 ref]s to "s great rema9s f\nd 9 ,bu5os ,ayres1 at a dep? ( tw5ty v>as f ! surface4 ,sev5 leagues nor? ( ?is city ! same au?or f\nd ! skeletons ( ,mylodon robu/us & ,glyptodon ornatus4 ,f ?is neighb\rhood he has lately s5t to ! ,briti% ,museum ! foll[+ fossils3--,rema9s ( ?ree or f\r individuals ( ,mega!rium2 ( ?ree species ( ,glyptodon2 ( ?ree individuals ( ! ,ma/odon ,&ium2 ( ,macrau*5ia2 ( a second species ( ,toxodon1 diff]5t f ,t4 ,plat5sis2 & la/ly1 ( ! ,ma*airodus1 a wond]ful l>ge c>nivor\s animal4 ,m4 d',orbigny has lately receiv$ f ! ,recolate 78,voyage10 ,pal41 p4 #add71 ne> ,bu5os ,ayres1 a too? ( ,toxodon ,plat5sis4 ,proce$+ nor?w>d1 along ! we/ bank ( ! ,p>ana1 we come to ! ,rio ,luxan1 :]e two skeletons ( ! ,mega!rium h be5 f\nd2 & lately1 )9 eight leagues ( ! t[n ( ,luxan1 ,dr4 ,f4 ,x4 ,muniz has collect$ 7,briti% ,packet1 ,bu5os ,ayres1 ,septemb] #be1 #ahda71 f an av]age dep? ( eighte5 feet1 v num]\s rema9s1 ( no less ?an1 z he believes1 n9e di/9ct species ( mammif]s4 ,at ,areco1 l>ge bones h be5 f\nd1 :i* are believ$1 by ! inhabitants1 to h be5 *ang$ f small bones1 by ! wat] ( ! riv]6 ,at ,arrecifes1 ! ,glyptodon1 s5t to ! ,college ( ,surgeons1 0 f\nd2 & ,i h se5 two tee? ( a ,ma/odon f ?is qu>t]4 ,at ,s4 ,nicolas1 ,m4 d',orbigny f\nd rema9s ( a ,canis1 ,ct5omys1 & ,k]odon2 & ,m4 ,isabelle 78,voyage10 p4 #ccb7 ref]s to a gigantic ,armadillo f\nd !re4 ,at ,s4 ,c>los1 ,i he>d ( great bones4 ,a little bel[ ! m\? ( ! ,c>c>ana1 ! two skeletons ( ,ma/odon 7 f\nd2 on ! banks ( ?is riv]1 ne> ,s4 ,miguel1 ,i f\nd tee? ( ! ,ma/odon & ,toxodon2 & 8,falkn]0 7p4 #ee7 describes ! osse\s arm\r ( "s great animal2 ,i he>d ( _m o!r bones 9 ?is neighb\rhood4 ,i h se51 ,i may add1 9 ! possession ( ,mr4 ,caldcleugh1 ! too? ( a ,ma/odon ,&ium1 said to h be5 f\nd 9 ,p>aguay2 ,i may "h also ref] to a /atem5t 9 ?is g5tleman's travels 7vol4 i1 p4 #dh71 ( a great skeleton hav+ be5 f\nd 9 ! prov9ce ( ,bolivia 9 ,brazil1 on ! ,r4 de las ,contas4 ,! fur!/ po9t we/w>d 9 ! ,pampas1 at :i* ,i h he>d ( fossil bones1 0 high up on ! banks ( ,r4 ,qu9to4 ,9 ,entre ,rios1 besides ! rema9s ( ! ,ma/odon1 ,toxodon1 ,equus1 & a great ,dasypoid quadrup$ ne> ,/4 ,fe ,bajada1 ,i receiv$ an acc\nt ( bones hav+ be5 f\nd a little ,s4,e4 ( ,p4 ,gorda 7on ! ,p>ana71 & ( an entire skeleton at ,matanzas1 on ! ,arroyo del ,animal4 ,9 ,b&a ,ori5tal1 besides ! rema9s ( ! ,toxodon1 ,mylodon1 & two skeletons ( great animals ) osse\s arm\r 7di/9ct f t ( ! ,glyptodon71 f\nd on ! ,arroyos ,s>&is & ,b]quelo1 ,m4 ,isabelle 78,voyage10 p4 #cbb7 says1 _m bones h be5 f\nd ne> ! ,r4 ,negro1 & on ! ,r4 ,arapey1 an afflu5t ( ! ,p>aguay1 9 lat4 #cj #dj s\?4 ,i he>d ( bones ne> ! s\rce ( ! ,a4 ,vivoras4 ,i saw ! rema9s ( a ,dasypoid quadrup$ f ! ,arroyo ,seco1 close to ,m4 ,video2 & ,m4 d',orbigny ref]s 78,voyage10 ,golog41 p4 #bd71 to ano!r f\nd on ! ,p$]nal1 an afflu5t ( ! ,/4 ,lucia2 & ,signor ,angelis1 9 a lett]1 /ates t a ?ird skeleton ( ?is family has be5 f\nd1 ne> ,canelones4 ,i saw a too? ( ! ,ma/odon f ,talas1 ano!r afflu5t ( ! ,/4 ,lucia4 ,! mo/ ea/]n po9t at :i* ,i he>d ( great bones hav+ be5 f\nd1 0 at ,solis ,gr&e1 betwe5 ,m4 ,video & ,maldonado4 ,*apt] ,v ,,on ,,! ,,old] ,,t]ti>y ,,=mations ,,( ,,patagonia ,,& ,,*ile4 ,rio ,negro4--,s4 ,josef4--,port ,desire1 :ite pumice\s mud/one ) infusoria4--,port ,s4 ,julian4--,santa ,cruz1 basaltic lava (4--,p4 ,gallegos4--,ea/]n ,ti]ra del ,fuego2 leaves ( ext9ct bee*-trees4--,summ>y on ! ,patagonian t]ti>y =mations4--,t]ti>y =mations ( ! ,we/]n ,coa/4--,*onos & ,*iloe gr\ps1 volcanic rocks (4--,concepcion4--,navidad4--,coquimbo4- -,summ>y4--,age ( ! t]ti>y =mations4--,l9es ( elevation4--,silicifi$ wood4--,comp>ative ranges ( ! ext9ct & liv+ mollusca on ! ,we/ ,coa/ ( ,s4 ,am]ica4--,climate ( ! t]ti>y p]iod4--,on ! causes ( ! abs5ce ( rec5t con*if]\s deposits on ! coa/ ( ,s4 ,am]ica4--,on ! contemporane\s deposition & pres]vation ( s$im5t>y =mations4 ,rio ,negro4--,i c add little to ! details giv5 by ,m4 d',orbigny#a on ! s&/one =mation ( ?is di/rict4 ,! cliffs to ! s\? ( ! riv] are ab\t two hundr$ feet 9 height1 & are compos$ ( s&/one ( v>i\s t9ts & degrees ( h>dness4 ,"o lay]1 :i* ?9n$ out at bo? ends1 consi/$ ( e>?y matt]1 ( a pale r$di% col\r1 ) "s gypsum1 & v l 7,i speak aft] comp>ison ( ! specim5s br\ght home7 ,pampean mud3 above ?is 0 a lay] ( compact m>ly rock ) d5dritic manganese4 ,_m blocks ( a conglom]ate ( pumice-pebbles emb$d$ 9 h>d s&/one 7 /rew$ at ! foot ( ! cliff1 & _h evid5tly fall5 f above4 ,a few miles ,n4,e4 ( ! t[n1 ,i f\nd1 l[ d[n 9 ! s&/one1 a b$1 a few in*es 9 ?ickness1 ( a :ite1 friable1 h>%-feel+ s$im5t1 :i* adh]es to ! tongue1 is ( easy fusibility1 & ( little specific gravity2 exam9$ "u ! microscope1 x is se5 to be pumice\s tuff1 =m$ ( brok5 transp>5t cry/als4 ,9 ! cliffs s\? ( ! riv]1 !re is1 also1 a ?9 lay] ( ne>ly simil> nature1 b f9] gra9$1 & n s :ite2 x might easily h be5 mi/ak5 = a calc>e\s tuff1 b x conta9s no lime3 ?is sub/ance precisely resembles a mo/ widely ext5d$ & ?ick =mation 9 ,s\!rn ,patagonia1 h]eaft] to be describ$1 & :i* is rem>kable = be+ p>tially =m$ ( infusoria4 ,^! b$s1 conjo9tly ) ! conglom]ate ( pumice1 are int]e/+1 z %[+ ! nature ( ! volcanic action 9 ! ,cordill]a dur+ ?is old t]ti>y p]iod4 #a 8,voyage10 ,"p4 ,golog41 pp4 #eg-fe4 ,9 a b$ at ! base ( ! s\!rn cliffs1 ,m4 d',orbigny f\nd two ext9ct fre%-wat] %ells1 namely1 a ,unio & ,*il9a4 ,?is b$ re/$ on "o ) bones ( an ext9ct rod5t1 namely1 ! ,megamys ,patagoni5sis2 & ?is aga9 on ano!r ) ext9ct m>9e %ells4 ,! species f\nd by ,m4 d',orbigny 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ?is =mation consi/ (3-- ,o/rea ,patagonica1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage1 ,pal40 7also at ,/4 ,f1 & :ole coa/ ( ,patagonia74 ,o/rea ,f]r>isi1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage1 ,pal40 ,o/rea ,alv>ezii1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage1 ,pal40 7also at ,/4 ,f1 & ,s4 ,josef74 ,pect5 ,patagoni5sis1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage1 ,pal40 ,v5us ,mun/]ii1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage1 ,pal40 7also at ,/4 ,f74 ,arca ,bonpl&iana1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage1 ,pal40 7also at ,/4 ,f74 ,accord+ to ,m4 d',orbigny1 ! s&/one ext5ds we/w>d along ! coa/ z f> z ,port ,s4 ,antonio1 & up ! ,r4 ,negro f> into ! int]ior3 nor?w>d ,i trac$ x to ! s\!rn side ( ! ,rio ,colorado1 :]e x =ms a l[ d5ud$ pla94 ,?is =mation1 ?\gh contemporane\s ) t ( ! re/ ( ,patagonia1 is q diff]5t 9 m9]alogical composition1 be+ connect$ ) x only by ! "o ?9 :ite lay]3 ?is diff]5ce may be reasonably attribut$ to ! s$im5t br\ght d[n 9 anci5t times by ! ,rio ,negro2 by :i* ag5cy1 also1 we c und]/& ! pres5ce ( ! fre%-wat] %ells1 & ( ! bones ( l& animals4 ,judg+ f ! id5tity ( f\r ( ! above %ells1 ?is =mation is contemporane\s 7z rem>k$ by ,m4 d',orbigny7 ) t "u ! ,pampean deposit 9 ,entre ,rios & 9 ,b&a ,ori5tal4 ,! gravel capp+ ! s&/one pla91 ) its calc>e\s cem5t & nodules ( gypsum1 is probably1 f ! reasons giv5 9 ! ,fir/ ,*apt]1 contemporane\s ) ! upp]mo/ b$s ( ! ,pampean =mation on ! upp] pla9 nor? ( ! ,colorado4 ,san ,josef4--,my exam9ation "h 0 v %ort3 ! cliffs are ab\t a hundr$ feet high2 ! l[] ?ird consi/s ( yell[i%-br[n1 s(t1 slightly calc>e\s1 muddy s&/one1 p>ts ( :i* :5 /ruck emit a fetid smell4 ,9 ?is b$ ! great ,o/ra ,patagonica1 (t5 m>k$ ) d5dritic manganese & small coral-l9es1 7 extraord9>ily num]\s4 ,i f\nd "h ! foll[+ %ells3-- ,o/rea ,patagonica1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage1 ,pal40 7also at ,/4 ,f & :ole coa/ ( ,patagonia74 ,o/rea ,alv>ezii1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage1 ,pal40 7also at ,/4 ,f & ,r4 ,negro74 ,pect5 ,p>an5sis1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage1 ,pal40 7also at ,/4 ,f1 ,s4 ,julian1 & ,port ,desire74 ,pect5 ,d>w9ianus1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage1 ,pal40 7also at ,/4 ,f74 ,pect5 act9odes1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by4 ,t]ebratula ,patagonica1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by 7also ,s4 ,julian74 ,ca/s ( a ,turritella4 ,! f\r fir/ ( ^! species occur at ,/4 ,f 9 ,entre ,rios1 & ! two fir/ 9 ! s&/one ( ! ,rio ,negro4 ,above ?is fossilif]\s mass1 !re is a /ratum ( v f9e-gra9$1 pale br[n mud/one1 includ+ num]\s lam9 ( sel5ite4 ,all ! /rata appe> horizontal1 b :5 foll[$ by ! eye = a long di/ance1 !y are se5 to h a small ea/]ly dip4 ,on ! surface we h ! porphyritic gravel1 & on x s& ) rec5t %ells4 ,nuevo ,gulf4--,f specim5s & notes giv5 me by ,lieut5ant ,/okes1 x appe>s t ! l[] b$ consi/s ( s(t muddy s&/one1 l t ( ,s4 ,josef1 ) _m imp]fect %ells1 includ+ ! ,pect5 ,p>an5sis1 d',orbigny1 ca/s ( a ,turritella & ,scutella4 ,on ?is !re are two /rata ( ! pale br[n mud/one1 also l t ( ,s4 ,josef1 sep>at$ by a d>k]-col\r$1 m argillace\s v>iety1 includ+ ! ,o/rea ,patagonica4 ,pr(essor ,ehr5b]g has exam9$ ?is mud/one = me3 he f9ds 9 x ?ree already kn[n microscopic organisms1 envelop$ 9 a f9e-gra9$ pumice\s tuff1 :i* ,i %all h imm$iately to describe 9 detail4 ,specim5s br\ght to me f ! upp]mo/ b$1 nor? ( ! ,rio ,*upat1 consi/ ( ?is same sub/ance1 b ( a :it] col\r4 ,t]ti>y /rata1 su* z "h describ$1 appe> to ext5d along ! :ole coa/ betwe5 ,rio ,*upat & ,port ,desire1 except :]e int]rupt$ by ! und]ly+ clay/one porphyry1 & by "s metamorphic rocks2 ^! h>d rocks1 ,i may add1 are f\nd at int]vals ov] a space ( ab\t five degrees ( latitude1 f ,po9t ,union to a po9t betwe5 ,port ,s4 ,julian & ,s4 ,cruz1 & w be describ$ 9 ! ensu+ *apt]4 ,_m gigantic specim5s ( ! ,o/rea ,patagonica 7 collect$ 9 ! ,gulf ( ,/4 ,george4 ,port ,desire4--,a good section ( ! l[e/ fossilif]\s mass1 ab\t =ty feet 9 ?ickness1 re/+ on clay/one porphyry1 is exhibit$ a few miles s\? ( ! h>b\r4 ,! %ells suffici5tly p]fect to be recognis$ consi/ (3-- ,o/rea ,patagonica1 d',orbigny1 7also at ,/4 ,f1 & :ole coa/ ( ,patagonia74 ,pect5 ,p>an5sis1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage1 ,pal40 7also at ,/4 ,f1 ,s4 ,josef1 ,s4 ,julian74 ,pect5 c5tralis1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by 7also at ,s4 ,julian & ,s4 ,cruz74 ,cuculla alta1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by 7also at ,s4 ,cruz74 ,nucula ornata1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by4 ,turritella ,patagonica1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by4 ,! fossilif]\s /rata1 :5 n d5ud$1 are con=mably cov]$ by a consid]able ?ickness ( ! f9e-gra9$ pumice\s mud/one1 divid$ into two masses3 ! l[] half is v f9e-gra9$1 slightly unctu\s1 & s compact z to break ) a semi-con*oidal fracture1 ?\gh yield+ to ! nail2 x includes lam9 ( sel5ite3 ! upp] half precisely resembles ! "o lay] at ! ,rio ,negro1 & ) ! exception ( be+ :it]1 ! upp] b$s at ,san ,josef & ,nuevo ,gulf4 ,9 nei!r mass is !re any trace to ! nak$ eye ( organic =ms4 ,tak+ ! entire deposit1 x is g5]ally q :ite1 or yell[i%1 or feebly t9t$ ) gre52 x is ei!r almo/ friable "u ! f+]1 or z h>d z *alk2 x is ( easy fusibility1 ( little specific gravity1 is n h>% to ! t\*1 adh]es to ! tongue1 & :5 brea!d on exhales a /rong alum9\s od\r2 x sometimes conta9s a v little calc>e\s matt]1 & traces 7besides ! includ$ lam97 ( gypsum4 ,"u ! microscope1 accord+ to ,pr(essor ,ehr5b]g1#b x consi/s ( m9ute1 triturat$1 cellul>1 glassy fragm5ts ( pumice1 ) "s brok5 cry/als4 ,9 ! m9ute glassy fragm5ts1 ,pr(essor ,ehr5b]g recognises organic /ructures1 :i* h be5 affect$ by volcanic heat3 9 ! specim5s f ?is place1 & f ,port ,s4 ,julian1 he f9ds sixte5 ,polyga/rica & twelve ,phytoli?>ia4 ,( ^! organisms1 sev5 are new =ms1 ! o!rs be+ previ\sly kn[n3 all are ( m>9e1 & *iefly ( oceanic1 orig94 ,?is deposit to ! nak$ eye resembles ! cru/ :i* (t5 appe>s on wea!r$ surfaces ( feldspa?ic rocks2 x likewise resembles ^? b$s ( e>?y feldspa?ic matt]1 sometimes int]/ratifi$ ) porphyritic rocks1 z is ! case 9 ?is v di/rict ) ! und]ly+ purple clay/one porphyry4 ,f exam9+ specim5s "u a common microscope1 & comp>+ !m ) o!r specim5s und\bt$ly ( volcanic orig91 ,i _h come to ! same conclusion ) ,pr(essor ,ehr5b]g1 namely1 t ?is great deposit1 9 its fir/ orig91 is ( volcanic nature4 #b 8,monatsb]i*t5 de knig4 ,akad4 zu ,b]l910 vom ,april #ahde4 ,port ,s4 ,julian4--,on ! s\? side ( ! h>b\r1 ! foll[+ section 7figure ,no4 #ag7 gives ! nature ( ! b$s se5 9 ! cliffs ( ! n9ety feet pla94 ,beg9n+ at ! top3--fir/1 ! e>?y mass 7,,aa71 includ+ ! rema9s ( ! ,macrau*5ia1 ) rec5t %ells on ! surface2 second1 ! porphyritic %+le 7,b71 :i* 9 its l[] "p is int]/ratifi$ 7ow+1 ,i believe1 to r$isposition dur+ d5udation7 ) ! :ite pumice\s mud/one2 ?ird1 ?is :ite mud/one1 ab\t tw5ty feet 9 ?ickness1 & divid$ into two v>ieties 7,c & ,d71 bo? closely resembl+ ! l[]1 f9e-gra9$1 m unctu\s & compact k9d at ,port ,desire2 &1 z at t place1 includ+ mu* sel5ite2 f\r?1 a fossilif]\s mass1 divid$ into ?ree ma9 b$s1 ( :i* ! upp]mo/ is ?91 & consi/s ( f]rug9\s s&/one1 ) _m %ells ( ! great oy/] & ,pect5 ,p>an5sis2 ! middle b$ 7,e7 is a yell[i% e>?y s&/one ab\nd+ ) ,scutell2 & ! l[e/ b$ 7,f7 is an indurat$1 gre5i%1 s&y clay1 includ+ l>ge concretions ( calc>e\s s&/one1 _m %ells ( ! great oy/]1 & 9 p>ts almo/ made up ( fragm5ts ( ,balanid4 ,out ( ^! ?ree b$s1 ,i procur$ ! foll[+ twelve species1 ( :i* ! two fir/ 7 exce$+ly num]\s 9 individuals1 z 7 ! ,t]ebratul & ,turritell 9 c]ta9 lay]s3-- ,o/rea ,patagonica1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage1 ,pal40 7also at ,/4 ,f1 & :ole coa/ ( ,patagonia74 ,pect5 ,p>an5sis1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage1 ,pal40 7,/4 ,f1 ,s4 ,josef1 ,port ,desire74 ,pect5 c5tralis1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by 7also at ,port ,desire & ,s4 ,cruz74 ,pect5 gem9atus1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by4 ,t]ebratula ,patagonica1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by 7also ,s4 ,josef74 ,/ru?iol>ia ornata1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by 7also ,s4 ,cruz74 ,fusus ,patagonicus1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by4 ,fusus ,noa*9us1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by4 ,scal>ia rugulosa1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by4 ,turritella ambulacrum1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by 7also ,s4 ,cruz74 ,pyrula1 ca/ (1 l ,p4 v5tricosa ( ,s[]by1 ,tank ,cat4 ,balanus v>ians1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by4 ,scutella1 diff]+ f ! species f ,nuevo ,gulf4 ,no4 #ag ,section ( ! /rata exhibit$ 9 ! cliffs ( ! n9ety feet pla9 at ,port ,s4 ,julian4 ,illu/ration3 ,section ( ! /rata exhibit$ 9 ! cliffs ( ! n9ety feet pla9 at ,port ,s4 ,julian4 ,at ! head ( ! inn] h>b\r ( ,port ,s4 ,julian1 ! fossilif]\s mass is n display$1 & ! sea-cliffs f ! wat]'s edge to a height ( betwe5 "o & two hundr$ feet are =m$ ( ! :ite pumice\s mud/one1 :i* "h includes innum]able1 f>-ext5d$1 sometimes horizontal1 sometimes incl9$ or v]tical lam9 ( transp>5t gypsum1 (t5 ab\t an in* 9 ?ickness4 ,fur!r inl&1 ) ! exception ( ! sup]ficial gravel1 ! :ole ?ickness ( ! truncat$ hills1 :i* repres5t a =m]ly cont9u\s pla9 #iej feet 9 height1 appe>s to be =m$ ( ?is :ite mud/one3 "h & !re1 h[ev]1 at v>i\s heights1 ?9 e>?y lay]s1 conta9+ ! great oy/]1 ,pect5 ,p>an5sis & ,turritella ambulacrum1 are int]/ratifi$2 ?us %[+ t ! :ole mass belongs to ! same epo*4 ,i n[h]e f\nd ev5 a fragm5t ( a %ell actually 9 ! :ite deposit1 & only a s+le ca/ ( a ,turritella4 ,out ( ! eighte5 microscopic organisms discov]$ by ,ehr5b]g 9 ! specim5s f ?is place1 t5 are common to ! same deposit at ,port ,desire4 ,i may add t specim5s ( ?is :ite mud/one1 ) ! same id5tical *>act]s 7 br\ght me f two po9ts1--"o tw5ty miles nor? ( ,s4 ,julian1 :]e a wide gravel-capp$ pla91 #cej feet 9 height1 is ?us compos$2 & ! o!r =ty miles s\? ( ,s4 ,julian1 :]e1 on ! old *>ts1 ! cliffs are m>k$ z 8,*alk ,hills40 ,santa ,cruz4--,! gravel-capp$ cliffs at ! m\? ( ! riv] are #cee feet 9 height3 ! l[] "p1 to a ?ickness ( fifty or sixty feet1 consi/s ( a m or less h>d5$1 d>ki%1 muddy1 or argillace\s s&/one 7l ! l[e/ b$ ( ,port ,desire71 conta9+ v _m %ells1 "s silicifi$ & "s conv]t$ into yell[ calc>e\s sp>4 ,! great oy/] is "h num]\s 9 lay]s2 ! ,trigonocelia & ,turritella are also v num]\s3 x is rem>kable t ! ,pect5 ,p>an5sis1 s common 9 all o!r p>ts ( ! coa/1 is "h abs5t3 ! %ells consi/ (3-- ,o/rea ,patagonica1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage1 ,pal40 7also at ,/4 ,f & :ole coa/ ( ,patagonia74 ,pect5 c5tralis1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by 7also ,p4 ,desire & ,s4 ,julian74 ,v5us m]idionalis ( ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by4 ,crassatella ,lyellii1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by4 ,c>dium puel*um1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by4 ,c>dita ,patagonica1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by4 ,mactra rugata1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by4 ,mactra ,d>w9ii1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by4 ,cuculla alta1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by 7also ,p4 ,desire74 ,trigonocelia insolita1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by4 ,nucula 787 glabra1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by4 ,crepidula greg>ia1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by4 ,voluta alta1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by4 ,tro*us coll>is1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by4 ,natica solida 7871 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by4 ,/ru?iol>ia ornata1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by 7also ,p4 ,desire74 ,turritella ambulacrum1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by 7also ,p4 ,s4 ,julian74 ,imp]fect fragm5ts ( ! g5]a ,bysso>ca1 ,artemis1 & ,fusus4 ,! upp] "p ( ! cliff is g5]ally divid$ into ?ree great /rata1 diff]+ slightly 9 composition1 b ess5tially resembl+ ! pumice\s mud/one ( ! places f>!r nor?2 ! deposit1 h[ev]1 "h is m ar5ace\s1 ( great] specific gravity1 & n s :ite3 x is int]lac$ ) num]\s ?9 ve9s1 p>tially or q fill$ ) transv]se fibres ( gypsum2 ^! fibres 7 too %ort to rea* across ! ve91 h _! extremities curv$ or b5t3 9 ! same ve9s ) ! gypsum1 & likewise 9 sep>ate ve9s z well z 9 little ne/s1 !re is mu* p[d]y sulphate ( magnesia 7z asc]ta9$ by ,mr4 ,reeks7 9 an uncompress$ =m3 ,i believe t ?is salt has n h]et(ore be5 f\nd 9 ve9s4 ,( ! ?ree b$s1 ! c5tral "o is ! mo/ compact1 & m l ord9>y s&/one3 x includes num]\s flatt5$ sph]ical concretions1 (t5 unit$ l a necklace1 compos$ ( h>d calc>e\s s&/one1 conta9+ a few %ells3 "s ( ^! concretions 7 f\r feet 9 diamet]1 & 9 a horizontal l9e n9e feet ap>t1 %[+ t ! calc>e\s matt] mu/ h be5 drawn to ! c5tres ( attraction1 f a di/ance ( f\r feet & a half on bo? sides4 ,9 ! upp] & l[] f9]-gra9$ /rata1 !re 7 o!r concretions ( a grey col\r1 conta9+ calc>e\s matt]1 & s f9e-gra9$ & compact1 z almo/ to resemble porcela9-rock3 ,i h se5 exactly simil> concretions 9 a volcanic tuface\s b$ 9 ,*iloe4 ,al?\gh 9 ?is upp] f9e-gra9$ /rata1 organic rema9s 7 v r>e1 yet ,i notic$ a few ( ! great oy/]2 & 9 "o includ$ s(t f]rug9\s lay]1 !re 7 "s specim5s ( ! ,cuculla alta 7f\nd at ,port ,desire 9 ! l[] fossilif]\s mass7 & ( ! ,mactra rugata1 :i* latt] %ell has be5 p>tially conv]t$ into gypsum4 ,no4 #ah ,section ( ! pla9 at ,patagonia1 on ! banks ( ! ,s4 ,cruz4 ,illu/ration3 ,section ( ! pla9 at ,patagonia1 on ! banks ( ! ,s4 ,cruz4 ,9 asc5d+ ! valley ( ! ,s4 ,cruz1 ! upp] /rata ( ! coa/-cliffs are prolong$1 ) ne>ly ! same *>act]s1 = fifty miles3 at ab\t ?is po9t1 !y beg9 9 ! mo/ gradual & sc>cely p]ceptible mann]1 to be b&$ ) :ite l9es2 & aft] asc5d+ t5 miles f>!r1 we meet ) di/9ct ?9 lay]s ( :iti%1 gre5i%1 & yell[i% f9e-gra9$1 fusible s$im5ts4 ,at eighty miles f ! coa/1#c 9 a cliff ?us compos$1 !re 7 a few lay]s ( f]rug9\s s&/one1 & ( an argillace\s s&/one ) concretions ( m>l l ^? 9 ! ,pampas4 ,at "o hundr$ miles f ! coa/1 t is at a c5tral po9t betwe5 ! ,atlantic & ! ,cordill]a1 we h ! section 9 figure ,no4 #ah4 #c ,at ?is spot1 = a space ( ?ree-qu>t]s ( a mile along ! nor? side ( ! riv]1 & = a wid? ( half a mile1 !re has be5 a great slip1 :i* has =m$ hills betwe5 sixty & sev5ty feet 9 height1 & has tilt$ ! /rata into highly incl9$ & ev5 v]tical positions4 ,! /rata g5]ally dipp$ at an angle ( #de t[>ds ! cliff f :i* !y _h slid$4 ,i h obs]v$ 9 slips1 bo? on a small & l>ge scale1 t ?is inw>d dip is v g5]al4 ,is x due to ! hydro/atic pressure ( wat] p]colat+ ) difficulty ?r\gh ! /rata act+ ) great] =ce at ! base ( ! mass ?an aga9/ ! upp] "p8 ,! upp] half ( ! s$im5t>y mass1 "u ! basaltic lava1 consi/s ( innum]able zones ( p]fectly :ite bright gre51 yell[i% & br[ni%1 f9e-gra9$1 sometimes incoh]5t1 s$im5t>y matt]4 ,! :ite1 pumice\s1 tra*ytic tuff-l v>ieties are ( r great] specific gravity ?an ! pumice\s mud/one on ! coa/ to ! nor?2 "s ( ! lay]s1 especially ! br[n] ones1 are co>s]1 s t ! brok5 cry/als are di/+ui%able ) a weak l5s4 ,! lay]s v>y 9 "* 9 %ort di/ances4 ,) ! exception ( a few ( ! ,o/rea ,patagonica1 :i* appe>$ to h roll$ d[n f ! cliff above1 no organic rema9s 7 f\nd4 ,! *ief diff]5ce betwe5 ^! lay]s tak5 z a :ole1 & ! upp] b$s bo? at ! m\? ( ! riv] & on ! coa/ nor?w>d1 seems to lie 9 ! occasional pres5ce ( m col\r+ matt]1 & 9 ! supply hav+ be5 int]mitt5t2 ^! *>act]s1 z we h se51 v gradually disappe> 9 desc5d+ ! valley1 & ?is fact may p]haps be acc\nt$ = by ! curr5ts ( a m op5 sea hav+ bl5d$ toge!r ! s$im5t f a di/ant & int]mitt5t s\rce4 ,! col\r$ lay]s 9 ! =ego+ section re/ on a mass1 app>5tly ( great ?ickness 7b mu* hidd5 by ! talus71 ( s(t s&/one1 almo/ compos$ ( m9ute pebbles1 f "o-t5? to two-t5?s ( an in* 9 diamet]1 ( ! rocks 7) ! entire exception ( ! basaltic lava7 compos+ ! great b\ld]s on ! surface ( ! pla91 & probably compos+ ! neighb\r+ ,cordill]a4 ,five miles high] up ! valley1 & aga9 ?irty miles high] up#d 7t is tw5ty miles f ! ne>e/ range ( ! ,cordill]a71 ! l[] pla9 includ$ )9 ! upp] esc>pm5ts1 is =m$1 z se5 on ! banks ( ! riv]1 ( a ne>ly simil> b f9]-gra9$1 m e>?y1 lam9at$ s&/one1 alt]nat+ ) argillace\s b$s1 & conta9+ num]\s mod]ately siz$ pebbles ( ! same rocks1 & "s %ells ( ! great ,o/rea ,patagonica4 ,z mo/ ( ^! %ells _h be5 roll$ be=e be+ "h emb$d$1 _! pres5ce does n prove t ! s&/one belongs to ! great ,patagonian t]ti>y =mation1 = !y might h be5 r$eposit$ 9 x1 :5 ! valley exi/$ z a sea-/rait2 b z among/ ! pebbles !re 7 none ( basalt1 al?\gh ! cliffs on bo? sides ( ! valley are compos$ ( ?is rock1 ,i believe t ! s&/one does belong to ?is =mation4 ,at ! highe/ po9t to :i* we asc5d$1 tw5ty miles di/ant f ! ne>e/ slope ( ! ,cordill]a1 ,i c\ld see ! horizontally zon$ :ite b$s1 /ret*+ "u ! black basaltic lava1 close up to ! m\nta9s2 s t ! valley ( ! ,s4 ,cruz gives a fair idea ( ! con/itution ( ! :ole wid? ( ,patagonia4 #d ,i f\nd at bo? places1 b n 9 situ1 quantities ( conif]\s & ord9>y dicotyl$on\s silicifi$ wood1 :i* 0 exam9$ = me by ,mr4 ,r4 ,br[n4 ,basaltic lava ( ! ,s4 ,cruz4--,?is =mation is fir/ met ) sixty-sev5 miles f ! m\? ( ! riv]2 !nce x ext5ds un9t]rupt$ly1 g5]ally b n exclusively on ! nor!rn side ( ! valley1 close up to ! ,cordill]a4 ,! basalt is g5]ally black & f9e-gra9$1 b sometimes grey & lam9at$2 x conta9s "s oliv9e1 & high up ! valley mu* glassy feldsp>1 :]e1 also1 x is (t5 amygdaloidal2 x is nev] highly vesicul>1 except on ! sides ( r5ts & on ! upp] & l[]1 sph]ically lam9at$ surfaces4 ,x is (t5 column>2 & 9 "o place ,i saw magnific5t columns1 ea* face twelve feet 9 wid?1 ) _! int]/ices fill$ up ) calc>e\s tuff4 ,! /reams re/ con=mably on ! :ite s$im5t>y b$s1 b ,i n[h]e saw ! actual junction2 nor did ,i any:]e see ! :ite b$s actually sup]impos$ on ! lava2 b "s way up ! valley at ! foot ( ! upp]mo/ esc>pm5ts1 !y mu/ be ?us sup]impos$4 ,moreov]1 at ! l[e/ po9t d[n ! valley1 :]e ! /reams ?9 out & t]m9ate 9 irregul> projections1 ! spaces or int]vals betwe5 ^! projections are fill$ up to ! level ( ! n[ d5ud$ & gravel-capp$ surfaces ( ! pla9s1 ) ! :ite-zon$ s$im5t>y b$s2 prov+ t ?is matt] cont9u$ to be deposit$ aft] ! /reams _h fl[$4 ,h5ce we may conclude t ! basalt is contemporane\s ) ! upp] p>ts ( ! great t]ti>y =mation4 ,! lava :]e fir/ met ) is #acj feet 9 ?ickness3 x !re consi/s ( two1 ?ree1 or p]haps m /reams1 divid$ f ea* o!r by vesicul> sph]oids l ^? on ! surface4 ,f ! /reams hav+1 z x appe>s1 ext5d$ to diff]5t di/ances1 ! t]m9al po9ts are ( unequal heights4 ,g5]ally ! surface ( ! basalt is smoo? !m 9 "o "p high up ! valley1 x 0 s unev5 & hummocky1 t until ,i aft]w>ds saw ! /reams ext5d+ cont9u\sly on bo? sides ( ! valley up to a height ( ab\t ?ree ?\s& feet close to ! ,cordill]a1 ,i ?\ght t ! crat]s ( eruption 7 probably close at h&4 ,?is hummocky surface ,i believe to h be5 caus$ by ! cross+ & heap+ up ( diff]5t /reams4 ,9 "o place1 !re 7 sev]al r\nd$ ridges ab\t tw5ty feet 9 height1 "s ( !m z broad z high1 & "s broad]1 :i* c]ta9ly _h be5 =m$ :il/ ! lava 0 fluid1 = 9 transv]se sections ea* ridge 0 se5 to be conc5trically lam9at$1 & to be compos$ ( imp]fect columns radiat+ f common c5tres1 l ! spokes ( :eels4 ,! basaltic mass :]e fir/ met ) is1 z ,i h said1 #acj feet 9 ?ickness1 &1 ?irty-five miles high] up ! valley1 x increases to #cbb feet4 ,9 ! fir/ f\rte5 & a half miles ( ?is di/ance1 ! upp] surface ( ! lava1 judg+ f ?ree measurem5ts tak5 above ! level ( ! riv] 7( :i* ! app>5tly v uni=m incl9ation has be5 calculat$ f its total height at a po9t #ace miles f ! m\?71 slopes t[>ds ! ,atlantic at an angle ( only #j #g #bj3 ?is mu/ be consid]$ only z an approximate measurem5t1 b x _c be f> wrong4 ,tak+ ! :ole ?irty-five miles1 ! upp] surface slopes at an angle ( #j #aj #ec2 b ?is result is ( no value 9 %[+ ! incl9ation ( any "o /ream1 = halfway betwe5 ! two po9ts ( measurem5t1 ! surface sudd5ly rises betwe5 "o hundr$ & two hundr$ feet1 app>5tly caus$ by "s ( ! upp]mo/ /reams hav+ ext5d$ ?us f> & no f>!r4 ,f ! measurem5t made at ^! two po9ts1 ?irty-five miles ap>t1 ! mean incl9ation ( ! s$im5t>y b$s1 ov] :i* ! lava has fl[$1 is n[ 7aft] elevation f "u ! sea7 only #j #g #eb3 = ! sake ( comp>ison1 x may be m5tion$ t ! bottom ( ! pres5t sea 9 a l9e f ! m\? ( ! ,s4 ,cruz to ! ,falkl& ,isl&s1 f a dep? ( sev5te5 fa?oms to a dep? ( eighty-five fa?oms1 decl9es at an angle ( #j #a #bb2 betwe5 ! bea* & ! dep? ( sev5te5 fa?oms1 ! slope is great]4 ,f a po9t ab\t half-way up ! valley1 ! basaltic mass rises m abruptly t[>ds ! foot ( ! ,cordill]a1 namely1 f a height ( #a1bjd feet1 to ab\t #c1jjj feet above ! sea4 ,?is great deluge ( lava is wor?y1 9 its dim5sions1 ( ! great cont95t to :i* x belongs4 ,! aggregate /reams h fl[$ f ! ,cordill]a to a di/ance 7unp>allel$1 ,i believe1 9 any case yet kn[n7 ( ab\t "o hundr$ geographical miles4 ,ne> _! fur!/ extremity _! total ?ickness is #acj feet1 :i* increase ?irty-five miles f>!r inl&1 z we h j se51 to #cbb feet4 ,! lea/ incl9ation giv5 by ,m4 ,e4 de ,beaumont ( ! upp] surface ( a lava-/ream1 namely #j #cj1 is t ( ! great suba]ial eruption 9 #aghc f ,skapt> ,jukul 9 ,icel&2 & ,m4 ,e4 de ,beaumont %[s#e t x mu/ h fl[$ d[n a mean incl9ation ( less ?an #j #bj4 ,b we n[ see t "u ! pressure ( ! sea1 successive /reams h fl[$ ov] a smoo? bottom ) a mean incl9ation ( n m ?an #j #g #eb2 & t ! upp] surface ( ! t]m9al portion 7ov] a space ( f\rte5 & a half miles7 has an incl9ation ( n m ?an #j #g #bj4 ,if ! elevation ( ,patagonia has be5 great] ne>] ! ,cordill]a ?an ne> ! ,atlantic 7z is probable71 !n ^! angles are n[ all too l>ge4 ,i mu/ repeat1 t al?\gh ! =ego+ measurem5ts1 :i* 7 all c>efully tak5 ) ! b>omet]1 may n be absolutely correct1 !y _c be widely errone\s4 #e 8,mmoires p\r s]vir10 etc41 pp4 #agh & #bag4 ,s\?w>d ( ! ,s4 ,cruz1 ! cliffs ( ! #hdj feet pla9 ext5d to ,coy ,inlet1 & ow+ to ! nak$ pat*es ( ! :ite s$im5t1 !y are said on ! *>ts to be 8l ! coa/ ( ,k5t40 ,at ,coy ,inlet ! high pla9 tr5ds inl&1 leav+ flat-topp$ outli]s4 ,at ,port ,gallegos 7lat4 #ea #ce1 & n9ety miles s\? ( ,s4 ,cruz71 ,i am in=m$ by ,capta9 ,sulivan1 ,r4,n41 t !re is a gravel-capp$ pla9 f two to ?ree hundr$ feet 9 height1 =m$ ( num]\s /rata1 "s f9e-gra9$ & pale-col\r$1 l ! upp] b$s at ! m\? ( ! ,s4 ,cruz1 o!rs r d>k & co>s]1 s z to resemble grit/ones or tuffs2 ^! latt] include r l>ge fragm5ts ( app>5tly decompos$ volcanic rocks2 !re are1 also1 includ$ lay]s ( gravel4 ,?is =mation is highly rem>kable1 f ab\nd+ ) mammif]\s rema9s1 :i* h n z yet be5 exam9$ by ,pr(essor ,ow51 b :i* include "s l>ge1 b mo/ly small1 species ( ,pa*yd]mata1 ,ed5tata1 & ,rod5tia4 ,f ! appe>ance ( ! pale-col\r$1 f9e-gra9$ b$s1 ,i 0 incl9$ to believe t !y correspond$ ) ! upp] b$s ( ! ,s4 ,cruz2 b ,pr(essor ,ehr5b]g1 :o has exam9$ "s ( ! specim5s1 in=ms me t ! includ$ microscopical organisms are :olly diff]5t1 be+ fre% & bracki%-wat] =ms4 ,h5ce ! two to ?ree hundr$ feet pla9 at ,port ,gallegos is ( unkn[n age1 b probably ( subsequ5t orig9 to ! great ,patagonian t]ti>y =mation4 ,ea/]n ,ti]ra del ,fuego4--,judg+ f ! height1 ! g5]al appe>ance1 & ! :ite col\r ( ! pat*es visible on ! hill sides1 ! upp]mo/ pla91 bo? on ! nor? & we/]n side ( ! ,/rait ( ,magellan1 & along ! ea/]n coa/ ( ,ti]ra del ,fuego z f> s\? z ne> ,port ,/4 ,polyc>p1 probably belongs to ! great ,patagonian t]ti>y =mation4 ,^! high] table-ranges are fr+$ by l[1 irregul>1 ext5sive pla9s1 belong+ to ! b\ld] =mation1#f & compos$ ( co>se un/ratifi$ masses1 sometimes associat$ 7z nor? ( ,c4 ,virg9's7 ) f9e1 lam9at$1 muddy s&/ones4 ,! cliffs 9 ,seba/ian ,bay are #bjj feet 9 height1 & are compos$ ( f9e s&/ones1 (t5 9 curvil9e> lay]s1 includ+ h>d concretions ( calc>e\s s&/one1 & lay]s ( gravel4 ,9 ^! b$s !re are fragm5ts ( wood1 legs ( crabs1 b>nacles encru/$ ) corall9es /ill p>tially reta9+ _! col\r1 imp]fect fragm5ts ( a ,pholas di/9ct f any kn[n species1 & ( a ,v5us1 approa*+ v closely to1 b slightly diff]5t 9 =m f1 ! ,v4 l5ticul>is1 a species liv+ on ! coa/ ( ,*ile4 ,leaves ( trees are num]\s betwe5 ! lam9 ( ! muddy s&/one2 !y belong1 z ,i am in=m$ by ,dr4 ,j4 ,d4 ,hook]1#g to ?ree species ( decidu\s bee*1 diff]5t f ! two species :i* compose ! great proportion ( trees 9 ?is =e/-clad l&4 ,f ^! facts x is difficult to conjecture1 :e!r we "h see ! basal "p ( ! great ,patagonian =mation1 or "s lat] deposit4 #f ,describ$ 9 ! 8,geological ,transactions10 vol4 vi1 p4 #dae4 #g 8,botany ( ! ,ant>ctic ,voyage10 p4 #bab4 ,summ>y on ! ,patagonian t]ti>y =mation4--,f\r out ( ! sev5 fossil %ells1 f ,/4 ,f 9 ,entre ,rios1 7 f\nd by ,m4 d',orbigny 9 ! s&/one ( ! ,rio ,negro1 & by me at ,san ,josef4 ,?ree out ( ! six f ,san ,josef are id5tical ) ^? f ,port ,desire & ,s4 ,julian1 :i* two places h toge!r fifte5 species1 out ( :i* ?ree are common to bo?4 ,santa ,cruz has sev5te5 species1 out ( :i* five are common to ,port ,desire & ,s4 ,julian4 ,consid]+ ! diff]5ce 9 latitude betwe5 ^! sev]al places1 & ! small numb] ( species altoge!r collect$1 namely ?irty-six1 ,i conceive ! above proportional numb] ( species 9 common1 is suffici5t to %[ t ! l[] fossilif]\s mass belongs ne>ly1 ,i d n say absolutely1 to ! same epo*4 ,:at ?is epo* may be1 comp>$ ) ! ,european t]ti>y /ages1 ,m4 d',orbigny w n pret5d to det]m9e4 ,! ?irty-six species 7includ+ ^? collect$ by myself & by ,m4 d',orbigny7 are all ext9ct1 or at lea/ unkn[n2 b x %\ld be borne 9 m9d1 t ! pres5t coa/ consi/s ( %+le1 & t no "o1 ,i believe1 has dr$g$ "h = %ells2 h5ce x is n improbable t "s ( ! species may h]eaft] be f\nd liv+4 ,"s few ( ! species are closely relat$ ) exi/+ ones2 ?is is especially ! case1 accord+ to ,m4 d',orbigny & ,mr4 ,s[]by1 ) ! ,fusus ,patagonicus2 &1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,s[]by1 ) ! ,pyrula1 ! ,v5us m]idionalis1 ! ,crepidula greg>ia1 & ! ,turritella ambulacrum1 & ,t4 ,patagonica4 ,at lea/ ?ree ( ! g5]a1 namely1 ,cuculla1 ,crassatella1 & 7z det]m9$ by ,mr4 ,s[]by7 ,/ru?iol>ia1 are n f\nd 9 ?is qu>t] ( ! _w2 & ,trigonocelia is ext9ct4 ,! evid5ce tak5 altoge!r indicates t ?is great t]ti>y =mation is ( consid]able antiquity2 b :5 treat+ ( ! ,*ilean b$s1 ,i %all h to ref] aga9 to ?is subject4 ,! :ite pumice\s mud/one1 ) its abundant gypsum1 belongs to ! same g5]al epo* ) ! und]ly+ fossilif]\s mass1 z may be inf]r$ f ! %ells includ$ 9 ! int]calat$ lay]s at ,nuevo ,gulf1 ,s4 ,julian1 & ,s4 ,cruz4 ,out ( ! tw5ty-sev5 m>9e microscopic /ructures f\nd by ,pr(essor ,ehr5b]g 9 ! specim5s f ,s4 ,julian & ,port ,desire1 t5 are common to ^! two places3 ! ?ree f\nd at ,nuevo ,gulf are di/9ct4 ,i h m9utely describ$ ?is deposit1 f its rem>kable *>act]s & its wide ext5sion4 ,f ,coy ,inlet to ,port ,desire1 a di/ance ( #bcj miles1 x is c]ta9ly cont9u\s2 & ,i h reason to believe t x likewise ext5ds to ! ,rio ,*upat1 ,nuevo ,gulf1 & ,san ,josef1 a di/ance ( #egj miles3 we h1 also1 se5 t a s+le lay] occurs at ! ,rio ,negro4 ,at ,port ,s4 ,julian x is f eight to n9e hundr$ feet 9 ?ickness2 & at ,s4 ,cruz x ext5ds1 ) a slightly alt]$ "*1 up to ! ,cordill]a4 ,f its microscopic /ructure1 & f its analogy ) o!r =mations 9 volcanic di/ricts1 x mu/ be consid]$ z orig9ally ( volcanic orig93 x may h be5 =m$ by ! long-cont9u$ attrition ( va/ quantities ( pumice1 or judg+ f ! mann] 9 :i* ! mass becomes1 9 asc5d+ ! valley ( ,s4 ,cruz1 divid$ into v>i\sly col\r$ lay]s1 f ! long-cont9u$ eruption ( cl\ds ( f9e a%es4 ,9 ei!r case1 we mu/ conclude1 t ! s\!rn volcanic orifices ( ! ,cordill]a1 n[ 9 a dormant /ate1 7 at ab\t ?is p]iod ov] a wide space1 & = a great l5g? ( "t1 9 action4 ,we h evid5ce ( ?is fact1 9 ! latitude ( ! ,rio ,negro1 9 ! s&/one-conglom]ate ) pumice1 & demon/rative pro( ( x1 at ,s4 ,cruz1 9 ! va/ deluges ( basaltic lava3 at ?is same t]ti>y p]iod1 also1 !re is di/9ct evid5ce ( volcanic action 9 ,we/]n ,b&a ,ori5tal4 ,! ,patagonian t]ti>y =mation ext5ds cont9u\sly1 judg+ f fossils alone1 f ,s4 ,cruz to ne> ! ,rio ,colorado1 a di/ance ( above six hundr$ miles1 & reappe>s ov] a wide area 9 ,entre ,rios & ,b&a ,ori5tal1 mak+ a total di/ance ( #a1ajj miles2 b ?is =mation und\bt$ly ext5ds 7?\gh no fossils 7 collect$7 f> s\? ( ! ,s4 ,cruz1 &1 accord+ to ,m4 d',orbigny1 #abj miles nor? ( ,/4 ,f4 ,at ,s4 ,cruz we h se5 t x ext5ds across ! cont95t2 be+ on ! coa/ ab\t eight hundr$ feet 9 ?ickness 7& r m at ,s4 ,julian71 & ris+ ) ! contemporane\s lava-/reams to a height ( ab\t ?ree ?\s& feet at ! base ( ! ,cordill]a4 ,x re/s1 :]ev] any und]ly+ =mation c be se51 on plutonic & metamorphic rocks4 ,includ+ ! new] ,pampean deposit1 & ^? /rata 9 ,ea/]n ,ti]ra del ,fuego ( d\btful age1 z well z ! b\ld] =mation1 we h a l9e ( m ?an tw5ty-sev5 degrees ( latitude1 equal to t f ! ,/raits ( ,gibralt> to ! s\? ( ,icel&1 cont9u\sly compos$ ( t]ti>y =mations4 ,?r\gh\t ?is great space ! l& has be5 uprais$1 )\t ! /rata hav+ be5 9 a s+le in/ance1 z f> z my means ( obs]vation w5t1 unequally tilt$ or dislocat$ by a fault4 ,t]ti>y ,=mations on ! ,we/ ,coa/4 ,*onos ,ar*ipelago4--,! num]\s isl&s ( ?is gr\p1 ) ! exception ( ,lemus1 ,ypun1 consi/ ( metamorphic s*i/s2 ^! two isl&s are =m$ ( s(ti% grey & br[n1 fusible1 (t5 lam9at$ s&/ones1 conta9+ a few pebbles1 fragm5ts ( black lignite1 & num]\s mammillat$ concretions ( h>d calc>e\s s&/one4 ,out ( ^! concretions at ,ypun 7lat4 #dj #cj ,s471 ,i extract$ ! f\r foll[+ ext9ct species ( %ells3-- ,turritella suturalis1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by 7also ,navidad74 ,sig>etus subglobosus1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by 7also ,navidad74 ,cy!ra 787 sulculosa 7871 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by 7also ,*iloe & ,huafo874 ,voluta1 fragm5ts (4 ,9 ! nor!rn p>ts ( ?is gr\p !re are "s cliffs ( gravel & ( ! b\ld] =mation4 ,9 ! s\!rn "p 7at ,p4 ,&res 9 ,tres ,montes71 !re is a volcanic =mation1 probably ( t]ti>y orig94 ,! lavas atta9 a ?ickness ( f two to ?ree hundr$ feet2 !y are extremely v>iable 9 col\r & nature1 be+ compact1 or brecciat$1 or cellul>1 or amygdaloidal ) zeolite1 agate & bole1 or porphyritic ) glassy albitic feldsp>4 ,!re is also mu* imp]fect rubbly pit*/one1 ) ! int]/ices *>g$ ) p[d]y c>bonate ( lime app>5tly ( contemporane\s orig94 ,^! lavas are con=mably associat$ ) /rata ( breccia & ( br[n tuff conta9+ lignite4 ,! :ole mass has be5 brok5 up & tilt$ at an angle ( #de1 by a s]ies ( great volcanic dikes1 "o ( :i* 0 ?irty y>ds 9 bread?4 ,?is volcanic =mation resembles "o1 pres5tly to be describ$1 9 ,*iloe4 ,huafo4--,?is isl& lies betwe5 ! ,*onos & ,*iloe gr\ps3 x is ab\t eight hundr$ feet high1 & p]haps has a nucleus ( metamorphic rocks4 ,! /rata :i* ,i exam9$ consi/$ ( f9e-gra9$ muddy s&/ones1 ) fragm5ts ( lignite & concretions ( calc>e\s s&/one4 ,i collect$ ! foll[+ ext9ct %ells1 ( :i* ! ,turritella 0 9 great numb]s3-- ,bulla cosmophila1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by4 ,pleurotoma subqualis1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by4 ,fusus cl]yanus1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage ,pal40 7also at ,coquimbo74 ,triton leuco/omoides1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by4 ,turritella ,*il5sis1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by 7also ,mo*a74 ,v5us1 probably a di/9ct species1 b v imp]fect4 ,cy!ra 787 sulculosa 7871 probably a di/9ct species1 b v imp]fect4 ,d5talium majus1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by4 ,*iloe4--,?is f9e isl& is ab\t "o hundr$ miles 9 l5g?4 ,! entire s\!rn "p1 & ! :ole we/]n coa/1 consi/s ( mica-s*i/1 :i* likewise is se5 9 ! rav9es ( ! int]ior4 ,! c5tral m\nta9s rise to a height ( #c1jjj feet1 & are said to be p>tly =m$ ( granite & gre5/one3 !re are two small volcanic di/ricts4 ,! ea/]n coa/1 & l>ge p>ts ( ! nor!rn extremity ( ! isl& are compos$ ( gravel1 ! b\ld] =mation1 & und]ly+ horizontal /rata4 ,! latt] are well display$ = tw5ty miles nor? & s\? ( ,ca/ro2 !y v>y 9 "* f common s&/one to f9e-gra9$1 lam9at$ mud/ones3 all ! specim5s :i* ,i exam9$ are easily fusible1 & "s ( ! b$s might be call$ volcanic grit-/ones4 ,^! latt] /rata are p]haps relat$ to a mass ( column> tra*yte :i* occurs beh9d ,ca/ro4 ,! s&/one occasionally includes pebbles1 & _m fragm5ts & lay]s ( lignite2 ( ! latt]1 "s are app>5tly =m$ ( wood & o!rs ( leaves3 "o lay] on ! ,n4,w4 side ( ,lemuy is ne>ly two feet 9 ?ickness4 ,!re is also mu* silicifi$ wood1 bo? common dicotyl$on\s & conif]\s3 a section ( "o specim5 9 ! direction ( ! m$ull>y rays has1 z ,i am in=m$ by ,mr4 ,r4 ,br[n1 ! discs 9 a d\ble r[ plac$ alt]nately1 & n opposite z 9 ! true ,arauc>ia4 ,i f\nd m>9e rema9s only 9 "o spot1 9 "s concretions ( h>d calc>e\s s&/one3 9 sev]al o!r di/ricts ,i h obs]v$ t organic rema9s 7 exclusively conf9$ to su* concretions2 are we to acc\nt = ?is fact1 by ! supposition t ! %ells liv$ only at ^! po9ts1 or is x n m probable t _! rema9s 7 pres]v$ only :]e concretions 7 =m$8 ,! %ells "h are 9 a bad /ate1 !y consi/ (3-- ,tell9ides 787 oblonga1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by 7a sol5ella 9 ,m4 d',orbigny's op9ion74 ,natica /riolata1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by4 ,natica 787 pumila1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by4 ,cy!ra 787 sulculosa1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by 7also ,ypun & ,huafo874 ,at ! nor!rn extremity ( ! isl&1 ne> ,s4 ,c>los1 !re is a l>ge volcanic =mation1 betwe5 five & sev5 hundr$ feet 9 ?ickness4 ,! commone/ lava is blacki%-grey or br[n1 ei!r vesicul>1 or amygdaloidal ) calc>e\s sp> & bole3 mo/ ev5 ( ! d>ke/ v>ieties fuse into a pale-col\r$ glass4 ,! next commone/ v>iety is a rubbly1 r>ely well *>act]is$ pit*/one 7fus+ into a :ite glass7 :i* passes 9 ! mo/ irregul> mann] into /ony grey lavas4 ,?is pit*/one1 z well z "s purple clay/one porphyry1 c]ta9ly fl[$ 9 ! =m ( /reams4 ,^! v>i\s lavas (t5 pass1 at a consid]able dep? f ! surface1 9 ! mo/ abrupt & s+ul> mann] into wacke4 ,great masses ( ! solid rock are brecciat$1 & x 0 g5]ally impossible to discov] :e!r ! recem5t+ process _h be5 an igne\s or aque\s action4#h ,! b$s are obscurely sep>at$ f ea* o!r2 !y are sometimes p>t$ by seams ( tuff & lay]s ( pebbles4 ,9 "o place !y re/$ on1 & 9 ano!r place 7 capp$ by1 tuffs & girt-/ones1 app>5tly ( subm>9e orig94 #h ,9 a cliff ( ! h>de/ fragm5t>y mass1 ,i f\nd sev]al tortu\s1 v]tical ve9s1 v>y+ 9 ?ickness f a few t5?s ( an in* to "o in* & a half1 ( a sub/ance :i* ,i h n se5 describ$4 ,x is glossy1 & ( a br[n col\r2 x is ?9ly lam9at$1 ) ! lam9 transp>5t & ela/ic2 x is a little h>d] ?an calc>e\s sp>2 x is infusible "u ! bl[pipe1 sometimes decrepitates1 gives out wat]1 curls up1 black5s1 & becomes magnetic4 ,borax easily dissolves a consid]able quantity ( x1 & gives a glass t+$ ) gre54 ,i h no idea :at its true nature is4 ,on fir/ see+ x1 ,i mi/ook x = lignite6 ,! neighb\r+ p59sula ( ,lacuy is almo/ :olly =m$ ( tuface\s deposits1 connect$ probably 9 _! orig9 ) ! volcanic hills j describ$4 ,! tuffs are pale-col\r$1 alt]nat+ ) lam9at$ mud/ones & s&/ones 7all easily fusible71 & pass+ sometimes into f9e-gra9$ :ite b$s /rik+ly resembl+ ! great upp] infusorial deposit ( ,patagonia1 & sometimes into brecciolas ) pieces ( pumice 9 ! la/ /age ( decay2 ^! aga9 pass into ord9>y co>se breccias & conglom]ates ( h>d rocks4 ,)9 v %ort di/ances1 "s ( ! f9] tuffs (t5 pass$ into ea* o!r 9 a peculi> mann]1 namely1 by irregul> polygonal concretions ( "o v>iety increas+ s mu* & s sudd5ly 9 size1 t ! second v>iety1 in/ead ( any long] =m+ ! entire mass1 0 left m]ely 9 ?9 ve9s betwe5 ! concretions4 ,9 a /raight l9e ( cliffs1 at ,po9t ,t5uy1 ,i exam9$ ! foll[+ rem>kable section 7figure ,no4 #ai73-- ,no4 #ai ,illu/ration3 ,section at ,po9t ,t5uy ,on ! left h&1 ! l[] "p 7,,aa7 consi/s ( regul>1 alt]nat+ /rata ( br[n tuffs & gre5i% lam9at$ mud/one1 g5tly incl9$ to ! "r1 & con=mably cov]$ by a mass 7,b left7 ( a :ite1 tuface\s & brecciolat$ deposit4 ,on ! "r h&1 ! :ole cliff 7,,bb "r7 consi/s ( ! same :ite tuface\s matt]1 :i* on ?is side pres5ts sc>cely a trace ( /ratification1 b to ! left becomes v gradually & r indi/9ctly divid$ into /rata q con=mable ) ! und]ly+ b$s 7,,aa73 moreov]1 a few hundr$ y>ds fur!r to ! left1 :]e ! surface has be5 less d5ud$1 ! tuface\s /rata 7,b left7 are con=mably cov]$ by ano!r set ( /rata1 l ! und]ly+ ones 7,,aa7 ( ?is section4 ,9 ! middle ( ! diagram1 ! b$s 7,,aa7 are se5 to be abruptly cut (f1 & to abut aga9/ ! tuface\s non-/ratifi$ mass2 b ! l9e ( junction has be5 accid5tally n repres5t$ /eep en\gh1 = ,i p>ticul>ly notic$ t be=e ! b$s _h be5 tilt$ to ! "r1 ?is l9e mu/ h be5 ne>ly v]tical4 ,x appe>s t a curr5t ( wat] cut = itself a deep & /eep subm>9e *annel1 & at ! same "t or aft]w>ds fill$ x up ) ! tuface\s & brecciolat$ matt]1 & spread ! same ov] ! surr\nd+ subm>9e b$s2 ! matt] becom+ /ratifi$ 9 ^! m di/ant & less tr\bl$ p>ts1 & be+ moreov] subsequ5tly cov]$ up by o!r /rata 7l ,,aa7 n %[n 9 ! diagram4 ,x is s+ul> t ?ree ( ! b$s 7( ,,aa7 are prolong$ 9 _! prop] direction1 z repres5t$1 beyond ! l9e ( junction into ! :ite tuface\s matt]3 ! prolong$ portions ( two ( ! b$s are r\nd$2 9 ! ?ird1 ! t]m9al fragm5t has be5 pu%$ upw>ds3 h[ ^! b$s c\ld h be5 left ?us prolong$1 ,i w n pret5d to expla94 ,9 ano!r section on ! opposite side ( a promontory1 !re 0 at ! foot ( ?is same l9e ( junction1 t is at ! bottom ( ! old subm>9e *annel1 a pile ( fragm5ts ( ! /rata 7,,aa71 ) _! int]/ices fill$ up ) :ite tuface\s matt]3 ?is is exactly :at might h be5 anticipat$ "u su* circum/ances4 ,no4 #bj ,gr\nd plan %[+ ! relation betwe5 ve9s & concretion>y zones 9 a mass ( tuff4 ,illu/ration3 ,gr\nd plan %[+ ! relation betwe5 ve9s & concretion>y zones 9 a mass ( tuff4 ,! v>i\s tuface\s & o!r b$s at ?is nor!rn end ( ,*iloe probably belong to ab\t ! same age ) ^? ne> ,ca/ro1 & !y conta91 z !re1 _m fragm5ts ( black lignite & ( silicifi$ & pyrit\s wood1 (t5 emb$d$ close toge!r4 ,!y also conta9 _m & s+ul> concretions3 "s are ( h>d calc>e\s s&/one1 9 :i* x w\ld appe> t brok5 volcanic cry/als & scales ( mica h be5 bett] pres]v$ 7z 9 ! case ( ! organic rema9s ne> ,ca/ro7 ?an 9 ! surr\nd+ mass4 ,o!r concretions 9 ! :ite brecciola are ( a h>d1 f]rug9\s1 yet fusible1 nature2 !y are z r\nd z cannon-balls1 & v>y f two or ?ree in*es to two feet 9 diamet]2 _! insides g5]ally consi/ ei!r ( f9e1 sc>cely coh]5t volcanic s&1#i or ( an argillace\s tuff2 9 ?is latt] case1 ! ext]nal cru/ 0 q ?9 & h>d4 ,"s ( ^! sph]ical balls 7 encircl$ 9 ! l9e ( _! equators1 by a necklace-l r[ ( small] concretions4 ,aga9 !re 7 o!r concretions1 irregul>ly =m$1 & compos$ ( a h>d1 compact1 a%-col\r$ /one1 ) an almo/ porcela9\s fracture1 adhesive to ! tongue1 & )\t any calc>e\s matt]4 ,^! b$s are1 also1 int]lac$ by _m ve9s1 conta9+ gypsum1 f]rug9\s matt]1 calc>e\s sp>1 & agate4 ,x 0 "h se5 ) rem>kable di/9ctness1 h[ intimately concretion>y action & ! production ( fissures & ve9s are relat$ toge!r4 ,figure #bj is an accurate repres5tation ( a horizontal space ( tuff1 ab\t f\r feet long by two & a half 9 wid?3 ! d\ble l9es repres5t ! fissures p>tially fill$ ) oxide ( iron & agate3 ! curvil9e> l9es %[ ! c\rse ( ! innum]able1 conc5tric1 concretion>y zones ( diff]5t %ades ( col\r & ( co>s5ess 9 ! p>ticles ( tuff4 ,! symmetry & complexity ( ! arrangem5t gave ! surface an elegant appe>ance4 ,x may be se5 h[ obvi\sly ! fissures det]m9e 7or h be5 det]m9$ by7 ! %ape1 sometimes ( ! :ole concretion1 & sometimes only ( its c5tral p>ts4 ,! fissures also det]m9e ! curvatures ( ! long undulat+ zones ( concretion>y action4 ,f ! v>y+ composition ( ! ve9s & concretions1 ! am\nt ( *emical action :i* ! mass has und]gone is surpris+ly great2 & x w\ld likewise appe> f ! diff]5ce 9 size 9 ! p>ticles ( ! concretion>y zones1 t ! mass1 also1 has be5 subject$ to int]nal me*anical movem5ts4 #i ,! frequ5t t5d5cy 9 iron to =m holl[ concretions or %ell conta9+ incoh]5t matt] is s+ul>2 ,d',aubuisson 78,trait de ,gogn40 tome i1 p4 #cah7 rem>ks on ?is circum/ance4 ,9 ! p59sula ( ,lacuy1 ! /rata ov] a wid? ( f\r miles h be5 upheav$ by ?ree di/9ct1 & "s o!r indi/9ct1 l9es ( elevation1 rang+ )9 a po9t ( nor? & s\?4 ,"o l9e1 ab\t two hundr$ feet 9 height1 is regul>ly anticl9al1 ) ! /rata dipp+ away on bo? sides1 at an angle ( #ae1 f a c5tral 8valley ( elevation10 ab\t ?ree hundr$ y>ds 9 wid?4 ,a second n>r[ /eep ridge1 only sixty feet high1 is unicl9al1 ! /rata ?r\gh\t dipp+ we/w>d2 ^? on bo? flanks be+ incl9$ at an angle ( f t5 to fifte5 degrees2 :il/ ^? on ! ridge dip 9 ! same direction at an angle ( betwe5 ?irty & =ty degrees4 ,?is ridge1 trac$ nor?w>ds1 dies away2 & ! b$s at its t]m9al po9t1 in/ead ( dipp+ we/w>d1 are incl9$ #ab to ! nor?4 ,?is case int]e/$ me1 z be+ ! fir/ 9 :i* ,i f\nd 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 =mations p]haps ( t]ti>y orig91 brok5 by l9es ( elevation4 ,valdivia3 ,isl& ( ,mo*a4--,! =mations ( ,*iloe seem to ext5d ) ne>ly ! same "* to ,valdivia1 & = "s leagues nor?w>d ( x3 ! und]ly+ rocks are micace\s s*i/s1 & are cov]$ up ) s&/one & o!r s$im5t>y b$s1 includ+1 z ,i 0 assur$1 9 _m places lay]s ( lignite4 ,i did n l& on ,mo*a 7lat4 #ch #bj71 b ,mr4 ,/okes br\ght me specim5s ( ! grey1 f9e-gra9$1 slightly calc>e\s s&/one1 precisely l t ( ,huafo1 conta9+ lignite & num]\s ,turritell4 ,! isl& is flat topp$1 #a1bdj feet 9 height1 & appe>s l an outli] ( ! s$im5t>y b$s on ! ma9l&4 ,! few %ells collect$ consi/ (3-- ,turritella ,*il5sis1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by 7also at ,huafo74 ,fusus1 v imp]fect1 some:at resembl+ ,f4 subreflexus ( ,navidad1 b probably diff]5t4 ,v5us1 fragm5ts (4 ,concepcion4--,sail+ nor?w>d f ,valdivia1 ! coa/-cliffs are se51 fir/ to assume ne> ! ,r4 ,tolt51 & !nce = #aej miles nor?w>d1 to be cont9u$ ) ! same m9]alogical *>act]s1 imm$iately to be describ$ at ,concepcion4 ,i he>d 9 _m places ( b$s ( lignite1 "s ( x f9e & glossy1 & likewise ( silicifi$ wood2 ne> ! ,tolt5 ! cliffs are l[1 b !y soon rise 9 height2 & ! horizontal /rata are prolong$1 ) a ne>ly level surface1 until com+ to a m l(ty tract betwe5 po9ts ,rum5a & ,lavapie4 ,"h ! b$s h be5 brok5 up by at lea/ eight or n9e p>allel l9es ( elevation1 rang+ ,e4 or ,e4,n4,e4 & ,w4 or ,w4,s4,w4 ,^! l9es c be foll[$ ) ! eye _m miles into ! int]ior2 !y are all unicl9al1 ! /rata 9 ea* dipp+ to a po9t betwe5 ,s4 & ,s4,s4,e4 ) an incl9ation 9 ! c5tral l9es ( ab\t =ty degrees1 & 9 ! out] ones ( "u tw5ty degrees4 ,?is b& ( symmetrically tr\bl$ c\ntry is ab\t eight miles 9 wid?4 ,! isl& ( ,quiriqu9a1 9 ! ,bay ( ,concepcion1 is =m$ ( v>i\s s(t & (t5 f]rug9\s s&/ones1 ) b&s ( pebbles1 & ) ! l[] /rata sometimes pass+ into a conglom]ate re/+ on ! und]ly+ metamorphic s*i/s4 ,^! b$s include subord9ate lay]s ( gre5i% impure clay1 s(t micace\s & calc>e\s s&/ones1 & r$di% friable e>?y matt] ) :ite specks l decompos$ cry/als ( feldsp>2 !y include1 also1 h>d concretions1 fragm5ts ( %ells1 lignite1 & silicifi$ wood4 ,9 ! upp] "p !y pass into :ite1 s(t s$im5ts & brecciolas1 v l ^? describ$ at ,*iloe2 z inde$ is ! :ole =mation4 ,at ,lirgu5 & o!r places on ! ea/]n side ( ! bay1 !re are good sections ( ! l[] s&/ones1 :i* are g5]ally f]rug9\s1 b :i* v>y 9 "*1 & ev5 pass into an argillace\s nature2 !y conta9 h>d concretions1 fragm5ts ( lignite1 silicifi$ wood1 & pebbles 7( ! same rocks ) ! pebbles 9 ! s&/ones ( ,quiriqu9a71 & !y alt]nate ) num]\s1 (t5 v ?9 lay]s ( imp]fect coal1 g5]ally ( little specific gravity4 ,! ma9 b$ "h is ?ree feet ?ick2 & only ! coal ( ?is "o b$ has a glossy fracture4 ,ano!r irregul>1 curvil9e> b$ ( br[n1 compact lignite1 is rem>kable = be+ includ$ 9 a mass ( co>se gravel4 ,^! imp]fect coals1 :5 plac$ 9 a heap1 ignite spontane\sly4 ,! cliffs on ?is side ( ! bay1 z well z on ! isl& ( ,quiriqu9a1 are capp$ ) r$ friable e>?1 :i*1 z /at$ 9 ! ,second ,*apt]1 is ( rec5t =mation4 ,! /ratification 9 ?is neighb\rhood is g5]ally horizontal2 b ne> ,lirgu5 ! b$s dip ,n4,w4 at an angle ( #bc2 ne> ,concepcion !y are also incl9$3 at ! nor!rn end ( ,quiriqu9a !y h be5 tilt$ at an angle ( #cj1 & at ! s\!rn end at angles v>y+ f #ae to #dj3 ^! dislocations mu/ h tak5 place "u ! sea4 ,a collection ( %ells1 f ! isl& ( ,quiriqu9a1 has be5 describ$ by ,m4 d',orbigny3 !y are all ext9ct1 & f _! g5]ic "*1 ,m4 d',orbigny inf]r$ t !y 7 ( t]ti>y orig93 !y consi/ (3-- ,scal>ia ,*il5sis1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage1 ,"p ,pal40 ,natica ,araucana1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage1 ,"p ,pal40 ,natica au/ralis1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage1 ,"p ,pal40 ,fusus difficilis1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage1 ,"p ,pal40 ,pyrula longiro/ra1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage1 ,"p ,pal40 ,pleurotoma ,araucana1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage1 ,"p ,pal40 ,c>dium auca1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage1 ,"p ,pal40 ,c>dium acutico/atum1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage1 ,"p ,pal40 ,v5us auca1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage1 ,"p ,pal40 ,mactra cecileana1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage1 ,"p ,pal40 ,mactra ,araucana1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage1 ,"p ,pal40 ,arca ,araucana1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage1 ,"p ,pal40 ,nucula ,l>gilli]ti1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage1 ,"p ,pal40 ,trigonia ,hanetiana1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage1 ,"p ,pal40 ,dur+ a second visit ( ! ,beagle to ,concepcion1 ,mr4 ,k5t collect$ = me "s silicifi$ wood & %ells out ( ! concretions 9 ! s&/one f ,tome1 situat$ a %ort di/ance nor? ( ,lirgu54 ,!y consi/ (3-- ,natica au/ralis1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage1 ,"p ,pal40 ,mactra ,araucana1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage1 ,"p ,pal40 ,trigonia ,hanetiana1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage1 ,"p ,pal40 ,pect51 fragm5ts (1 probably two species1 b too imp]fect = description4 ,baculites vag9a1 ,e4 ,=bes4 ,nautilus d',orbignyanus1 ,e4 ,=bes4 ,besides ^! %ells1 ,capta9 ,bel*]#aj f\nd "h an ,ammonite1 ne>ly ?ree feet 9 diamet]1 & s heavy t he c\ld n br+ x away2 fragm5ts are deposit$ at ,hasl> ,hospital3 he also f\nd ! silicifi$ v]tebr ( "s v l>ge animal4 ,f ! id5tity 9 m9]alogical nature ( ! rocks1 & f ,capta9 ,bel*]'s m9ute description ( ! coa/ betwe5 ,lirgu5 & ,tome1 ! fossilif]\s concretions at ?is latt] place c]ta9ly belong to ! same =mation ) ! b$s exam9$ by myself at ,lirgu52 & ^! aga9 are und\bt$ly ! same ) ! /rata ( ,quiriqu9a2 moreov]2 ! ?ree fir/ ( ! %ells f ,tome1 ?\gh associat$ 9 ! same concretions ) ! ,baculite1 are id5tical ) ! species f ,quiriqu9a4 ,h5ce all ! s&/one & lignitif]\s b$s 9 ?is neighb\rhood c]ta9ly belong to ! same =mation4 ,al?\gh ! g5]ic "* ( ! ,quiriqu9a fossils naturally l$ ,m4 d',orbigny to conceive t !y 7 ( t]ti>y orig91 yet z we n[ f9d !m associat$ ) ! ,baculites vag9a & ) an ,ammonite1 we mu/1 9 ! op9ion ( ,m4 d',orbigny1 & if we are guid$ by ! analogy ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 rank !m 9 ! ,cretace\s sy/em4 ,moreov]1 ! ,baculites vag9a1 :i* is 9 a tol]able /ate ( pres]vation1 appe>s to ,pr(essor ,e4 ,=bes c]ta9ly to be id5tical ) a species1 s nam$ by him1 f ,pondi*]ry 9 ,india2 :]e x is associat$ ) num]\s decid$ly cretace\s species1 :i* approa* mo/ ne>ly to ,l[] ,gre5s& or ,neocomian =ms3 ?is fact1 consid]+ ! va/ di/ance betwe5 ,*ile & ,india1 is truly surpris+4 ,aga91 ! ,nautilus d',orbignyanus1 z f> z its imp]fect /ate all[s ( comp>ison1 resembles1 z ,i am in=m$ by ,pr(essor ,=bes1 bo? 9 its g5]al =m & 9 t ( its *amb]s1 two species f ! ,upp] ,gre5s&4 ,x may be add$ t e "o ( ! above-nam$ g5]a f ,quiriqu9a1 :i* h an app>5tly t]ti>y "*1 are f\nd 9 ! ,pondi*]ry /rata4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 "s difficulties on ?is view ( ! =mations at ,concepcion be+ cretace\s1 :i* ,i %all aft]w>ds allude to2 & ,i w "h only /ate t ! ,c>dium auca is f\nd also at ,coquimbo1 ! b$s at :i* place1 !re c be no d\bt1 are t]ti>y4 #aj 8,zoology ( ,capta9 ,bee*ey's ,voyage10 p4 #afc4 ,navidad4#aa--,! ,concepcion =mation ext5ds "s di/ance nor?w>d1 b h[ f> ,i "k n2 = ! next po9t at :i* ,i l&$ 0 at ,navidad1 #afj miles nor? ( ,concepcion1 & #fj miles s\? ( ,valp>aiso4 ,! cliffs "h are ab\t eight hundr$ feet 9 height3 !y consi/1 :]ev] ,i c\ld exam9e !m1 ( f9e-gra9$1 yell[i%1 e>?y s&/ones1 ) f]rug9\s ve9s1 & ) concretions ( h>d calc>e\s s&/one4 ,9 "o "p1 !re 7 _m pebbles ( ! common metamorphic porphyries ( ! ,cordill]a3 & ne> ! base ( ! cliff1 ,i obs]v$ a s+le r\nd$ b\ld] ( gre5/one1 ne>ly a y>d 9 diamet]4 ,i trac$ ?is s&/one =mation b5ea? ! sup]ficial cov]+ ( gravel1 = "s di/ance inl&3 ! /rata are slightly incl9$ f ! sea t[>ds ! ,cordill]a1 :i* app>5tly has be5 caus$ by _! hav+ be5 accumulat$ aga9/ or r\nd outly+ masses ( granite1 ( :i* "s po9ts project ne> ! coa/4 ,! s&/one conta9s fragm5ts ( wood1 ei!r 9 ! /ate ( lignite or p>tially silicifi$1 %>ks' tee?1 & %ells 9 great abundance1 bo? high up & l[ d[n ! sea-cliffs4 ,pectunculus & ,oliva 7 mo/ num]\s 9 individuals1 & next to !m ,turritella & ,fusus4 ,i collect$ 9 a %ort "t1 ?\gh suff]+ f illness1 ! foll[+ ?irty-"o species1 all ( :i* are ext9ct1 & sev]al ( ! g5]a d n n[ range 7z we %all h]eaft] %[7 ne>ly s f> s\?3-- ,ga/ridium cepa1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by4 ,monoc]os1 fragm5ts (1 consid]$ by ,m4 d',orbigny z a new species4 ,voluta alta1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by 7consid]$ by ,m4 d',orbigny z di/9ct f ! ,v4 alta ( ,santa ,cruz74 ,voluta triplicata1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by4 ,oliva dimidiata1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by4 ,pleurotoma discors1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by4 ,pleurotoma turb9elloides1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by4 ,fusus subreflexus1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by4 ,fusus pyruli=mis1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by4 ,fusus1 alli$ to ,f4 regul>is 7consid]$ by ,m4 d',orbigny z a di/9ct species74 ,turritella suturalis1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by4 ,turritella ,patagonica1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by 7fragm5ts (74 ,tro*us lvis1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by4 ,tro*us coll>is1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by 7consid]$ by ,m4 d',orbigny z ! "y ( ! ,t4 lvis74 ,cassis monilif]1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by4 ,pyrula di/ans1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by4 ,triton v]ruculosus1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by4 ,sig>etus subglobosus1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by4 ,natica solida1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by4 7,x is d\btful :e!r ! ,natica solida ( ,s4 ,cruz is ! same species ) ?is47 ,t]ebra undulif]a1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by4 ,t]ebra co/ellata1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by4 ,bulla 7fragm5ts (74 ,d5talium giganteum1 d4 ,d5talium sulcosum1 d4 ,corbis 787 lvigata1 d4 ,c>dium multiradiatum1 d4 ,v5us m]idionalis1 d4 ,pectunculus disp>1 787 ,de%4 7consid]$ by ,m4 d',orbigny z a di/9ct species74 & #cj4 ,cy!ra & ,mactra1 fragm5ts ( 7consid]$ by ,m4 d',orbigny z new species74 ,pect51 fragm5ts (4 #aa ,i 0 guid$ to ?is locality by ! ,report on ,m4 ,gay's 8,geological ,rese>*es10 9 ! 8,annales des ,sci5c4 ,nat40 7#a/ s]ies1 tome #bh4 ,coquimbo4--,= m ?an two hundr$ miles nor?w>d ( ,navidad1 ! coa/ consi/s ( plutonic & metamorphic rocks1 ) ! exception ( "s q insignificant sup]ficial b$s ( rec5t orig94 ,at ,tonguay1 tw5ty-five miles s\? ( ,coquimbo1 t]ti>y b$s recomm5ce4 ,i h already m9utely describ$ 9 ! ,second ,*apt]1 ! /ep-=m$ pla9s ( ,coquimbo1 & ! upp] calc>e\s b$s 7f tw5ty to ?irty feet 9 ?ickness7 conta9+ %ells ( rec5t species1 b 9 diff]5t proportions f ^? on ! bea*4 ,!re rema9s to be describ$ only ! und]ly+ anci5t t]ti>y b$s1 repres5t$ 9 ,figure #ba by ! lett]s ,f & ,e3-- ,no4 #ba ,section ( ! t]ti>y =mation at ,coquimbo4 ,illu/ration3 ,section ( ! t]ti>y =mation at ,coquimbo4 ,i obta9$ good sections ( b$ 7,f7 only 9 ,h]radura ,bay3 x consi/s ( s(t :iti% s&/one1 ) f]rug9\s ve9s1 "s pebbles ( granite1 & concretion>y lay]s ( h>d calc>e\s s&/one4 ,^! concretions are rem>kable f ! great numb] ( l>ge silicifi$ bones1 app>5tly ( cetace\s animals1 :i* !y conta92 & likewise ( a %>k's tee?1 closely resembl+ ^? ( ! ,c>*>ias megalodon4 ,%ells ( ! foll[+ species1 ( :i* ! gigantic ,oy/] & ,p]na are ! mo/ conspicu\s1 are num]\sly emb$d$ 9 ! concretions3-- ,bulla ambigua1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage10 ,pal4 ,monoc]os ,bla9villii1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage10 ,pal4 ,c>dium auca1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage10 ,pal4 ,panopa ,coquimb5sis1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage10 ,pal4 ,p]na ,gaudi*audi1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage10 ,pal4 ,artemis pond]osa2 ,mr4 ,s[]by c f9d no di/+ui%+ "* betwe5 ?is fossil & ! rec5t ,a4 pond]osa2 x is c]ta9ly an ,artemis1 z %[n by ! pallial impression4 ,o/rea ,patagonica 7872 ,mr4 ,s[]by c po9t out no di/+ui%+ "* betwe5 ?is species & t s em95tly *>act]i/ic ( ! great ,patagonian =mation2 b he w n pret5d to affirm t !y are id5tical4 ,fragm5ts ( a ,v5us & ,natica4 ,! cliffs on "o side ( ,h]radura ,bay are capp$ by a mass ( /ratifi$ %+le1 conta9+ a little calc>e\s matt]1 & ,i did n d\bt t x belong$ to ! same rec5t =mation ) ! gravel on ! surr\nd+ pla9s1 also cem5t$ by calc>e\s matt]1 until to my surprise1 ,i f\nd 9 ! mid/ ( x1 a s+le ?9 lay] almo/ entirely compos$ ( ! above gigantic oy/]4 ,at a little di/ance inl&1 ,i obta9$ sev]al sections ( ! b$ 7,e71 :i*1 ?\gh diff]5t 9 appe>ance f ! l[] b$ 7,f71 belongs to ! same =mation3 x consi/s ( a highly f]rug9\s s&y mass1 almo/ compos$1 l ! l[e/ b$ at ,port ,s4 ,julian1 ( fragm5ts ( ,balanid2 x includes "s pebbles1 & lay]s ( yell[i%-br[n mud/one4 ,! emb$d$ %ells consi/ (3-- ,monoc]os ,bla9villii1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage0 ,pal4 ,monoc]os ambiguus1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by4 ,anomia alt]nans1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by4 ,pect5 rudis1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by4 ,p]na ,gaudi*audi1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage0 ,pal4 ,o/rea ,patagonica 7871 d',orbigny1 8,voyage0 ,pal4 ,o/rea1 small species1 9 imp]fect /ate2 x appe>$ to me l a small k9d n[ liv+ 91 b v r>e 9 ! bay4 ,mytilus ,*ilo5sis2 ,mr4 ,s[]by c f9d no di/+ui%+ "* betwe5 ?is fossil1 z f> z its n v p]fect condition all[s ( comp>ison1 & ! rec5t species4 ,balanus ,coquimb5sis1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by4 ,balanus psittacus8 ,k+4 ,?is appe>s to ,mr4 ,s[]by & myself id5tical ) a v l>ge & common species n[ liv+ on ! coa/4 ,! upp]mo/ lay]s ( ?is f]rug9o-s&y mass are con=mably cov]$ by1 & impregnat$ to ! dep? ( sev]al in*es )1 ! calc>e\s matt] ( ! b$ 7,d7 call$ losa3 h5ce ,i at "o "t imag9$ t !re 0 a gradual passage betwe5 !m2 b z all ! species are rec5t 9 ! b$ 7,d71 :il/ ! mo/ *>act]i/ic %ells ( ! upp]mo/ lay]s ( 7,e7 are ! ext9ct ,p]na1 ,pect51 & ,monoc]os1 ,i agree ) ,m4 d',orbigny1 t ?is view is errone\s1 & t !re is only a m9]alogical passage betwe5 !m1 & no gradual transition 9 ! nature ( _! organic rema9s4 ,besides ! f\rte5 species enum]at$ f ^! two l[] b$s1 ,m4 d',orbigny has describ$ t5 o!r species giv5 to him f ?is locality2 namely3-- ,fusus ,cl]yanus1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage0 ,pal4 ,fusus petitianus1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage0 ,pal4 ,v5us hanetiana1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage0 ,pal4 ,v5us inc]ta 787 d',orbigny1 8,voyage0 ,pal4 ,v5us ,cl]yana1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage0 ,pal4 ,v5us petitiana1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage0 ,pal4 ,v5us ,*il5sis1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage0 ,pal4 ,solecurtus hanetianus1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage0 ,pal4 ,mactra auca1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage0 ,pal4 ,oliva s]5a1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage0 ,pal4 ,( ^! tw5ty-f\r %ells1 all are ext9ct1 except1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,s[]by1 ! ,artemis pond]osa1 ,mytilus ,*ilo5sis1 & probably ! great ,balanus4 ,coquimbo to ,copiapo4--,a few miles nor? ( ,coquimbo1 ,i met ) ! f]rug9\s1 balanif]\s mass 7,e7 ) _m silicifi$ bones2 ,i 0 in=m$ t ^! silicifi$ bones occur also at ,tonguay1 s\? ( ,coquimbo3 _! numb] is c]ta9ly rem>kable1 & !y seem to take ! place ( ! silicifi$ wood1 s common on ! coa/-=mations ( ,s\!rn ,*ile4 ,9 ! valley ( ,*aeral1 ,i aga9 saw ?is same =mation1 capp$ ) ! rec5t calc>e\s b$s4 ,i "h left ! coa/1 & did n see any m ( ! t]ti>y =mations1 until desc5d+ to ! sea at ,copiapo3 "h 9 "o place ,i f\nd v>i\sly col\r$ lay]s ( s& & s(t s&/one1 ) seams ( gypsum1 & 9 ano!r place1 a comm9ut$ %elly mass1 ) lay]s ( rott5-/one & seams ( gypsum1 includ+ _m ( ! ext9ct gigantic oy/]3 b$s ) ^! oy/]s are said to occur at ,engli% ,h>b\r1 a few miles nor? ( ,copiapo4 ,coa/ ( ,p]u4--,) ! exception ( deposits conta9+ rec5t %ells & ( q insignificant dim5sions1 no t]ti>y =mations h be5 obs]v$ on ?is coa/1 = a space ( tw5ty-two degrees ( latitude nor? ( ,copiapo1 until com+ to ,payta1 :]e !re is said to be a consid]able calc>e\s deposit3 a few fossils h be5 describ$ by ,m4 d',orbigny f ?is place1 namely3-- ,ro/ell>ia ,gaudi*audi1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage0 ,pal4 ,pectunculus ,payt5sis1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage0 ,pal4 ,v5us petitiana1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage0 ,pal4 ,o/rea ,patagonica8 ,?is great oy/] 7( :i* specim5s h be5 giv5 me7 _c be di/+ui%$ by ,mr4 ,s[]by f "s ( ! v>ieties f ,patagonia2 ?\gh x w\ld be haz>d\s to ass]t x is ! same ) t species1 or ) t f ,coquimbo4 ,conclud+ ,rem>ks4--,! =mations describ$ 9 ?is *apt]1 h1 9 ! case ( ,*iloe & probably 9 t ( ,concepcion & ,navidad1 app>5tly be5 accumulat$ 9 tr\ghs =m$ by subm>9e ridges ext5d+ p>allel to ! anci5t %ores ( ! cont95t2 9 ! case ( ! isl&s ( ,mo*a & ,huafo x is highly probable1 & 9 t ( ,ypun & ,lemus almo/ c]ta91 t !y 7 accumulat$ r\nd isolat$ rocky c5tres or nuclei1 9 ! same mann] z mud & s& are n[ collect+ r\nd ! outly+ islets & reefs 9 ! ,we/ ,indian ,ar*ipelago4 ,h5ce1 ,i may rem>k1 x does n foll[ t ! outly+ t]ti>y masses ( ,mo*a & ,huafo 7 ev] cont9u\sly unit$ at ! same level ) ! =mations on ! ma9l&1 ?\gh !y may h be5 ( contemporane\s orig91 & be5 subsequ5tly uprais$ to ! same height4 ,9 ! m nor!rn p>ts ( ,*ile1 ! t]ti>y /rata seem to h be5 sep>ately accumulat$ 9 bays1 n[ =m+ ! m\?s ( valleys4 ,! relation betwe5 ^! sev]al deposits on ! %ores ( ! ,pacific1 is n ne>ly s cle> z 9 ! case ( ! t]ti>y =mations on ! ,atlantic4 ,judg+ f ! =m & height ( ! l& 7evid5ce :i* ,i feel sure is "h mu* m tru/wor?y ?an x c ev] be 9 su* brok5 cont95ts z t ( ,europe71 f ! id5tity ( m9]alogical composition1 f ! pres5ce ( fragm5ts ( lignite & ( silicifi$ wood1 & f ! int]calat$ lay]s ( imp]fect coal1 ,i mu/ believe t ! coa/-=mations f ,c5tral ,*iloe to ,concepcion1 a di/ance ( #djj miles1 are ( ! same age3 f ne>ly simil> reasons1 ,i suspect t ! b$s ( ,mo*a1 ,huafo1 & ,ypun1 belong also to ! same p]iod4 ,! commone/ %ell 9 ,mo*a & ,huafo is ! same species ( ,turritella2 & ,i believe ! same ,cy!ra is f\nd on ! isl&s ( ,huafo1 ,*iloe1 & ,ypun2 b ) ^! trifl+ exceptions1 ! few organic rema9s f\nd at ^! places are di/9ct4 ,! num]\s %ells f ,navidad1 ) ! exception ( two1 namely1 ! ,sig>etus & ,turritella f\nd at ,ypun1 are likewise di/9ct f ^? f\nd 9 any o!r "p ( ?is coa/4 ,coquimbo has ,c>dium auca 9 common ) ,concepcion1 & ,fusus ,cl]yanus ) ,huafo2 ,i may add1 t ,coquimbo has ,v5us petitiana1 & a gigantic oy/] 7said by ,m4 d',orbigny also to be f\nd a little s\? ( ,concepcion7 9 common ) ,payta1 ?\gh ?is latt] place is situat$ tw5ty-two degrees nor?w>d ( lat4 #bg1 to :i* po9t ! ,coquimbo =mation ext5ds4 ,f ^! facts1 & f ! g5]ic resemblance ( ! fossils f ! diff]5t localities1 ,i _c avoid ! suspicion t !y all belong to ne>ly ! same epo*1 :i* epo*1 z we %all imm$iately see1 mu/ be a v anci5t t]ti>y "o4 ,b z ! ,baculite1 especially consid]+ its app>5t id5tity ) ! ,cretace\s ,pondi*]ry species1 & ! pres5ce ( an ,ammonite1 & ! resemblance ( ! ,nautilus to two upp] gre5s& species1 toge!r af=d v /rong evid5ce t ! =mation ( ,concepcion is a ,second>y "o2 ,i w1 9 my rem>ks on ! fossils f ! o!r localities1 put on "o side ^? f ,concepcion & f ,ea/]n ,*iloe1 :i*1 :atev] _! age may be1 appe> to me to belong to "o gr\p4 ,i mu/1 h[ev]1 aga9 call att5tion to ! fact t ! ,c>dium auca is f\nd bo? at ,concepcion & 9 ! und\bt$ly t]ti>y /rata ( ,coquimbo3 nor %\ld ! possibility be ov]look$1 t z ,trigonia1 ?\gh kn[n 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e only z a ,second>y g5us1 has liv+ repres5tatives 9 ! ,au/ralian seas1 s a ,baculite1 ,ammonite1 & ,trigonia may h surviv$ 9 ?is remote "p ( ! s\!rn ocean to a some:at lat] p]iod ?an to ! nor? ( ! equator4 ,be=e pass+ 9 review ! fossils f ! o!r localities1 !re are two po9ts1 ) respect to ! =mations betwe5 ,concepcion & ,*iloe1 :i* des]ve "s notice4 ,fir/1 t ?\gh ! /rata are g5]ally horizontal1 !y h be5 upheav$ 9 ,*iloe 9 a set ( p>allel anticl9al & unicl9al l9es rang+ nor? & s\?1--9 ! di/rict ne> ,p4 ,rum5a by eight or n9e f>-ext5d$1 mo/ symmetrical1 unicl9al l9es rang+ ne>ly ea/ & we/1--& 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,concepcion by less regul> s+le l9es1 direct$ bo? ,n4,e4 & ,s4,w41 & ,n4,w4 & ,s4,e4 ,?is fact is ( "s int]e/1 z %[+ t )9 a p]iod :i* _c be consid]$ z v anci5t 9 relation to ! hi/ory ( ! cont95t1 ! /rata betwe5 ! ,cordill]a & ! ,pacific h be5 brok5 up 9 ! same v>i\sly direct$ mann] z h ! old plutonic & metamorphic rocks 9 ?is same di/rict4 ,! second po9t is1 t ! s&/one betwe5 ,concepcion & ,s\!rn ,*iloe is ev]y:]e lignitif]\s1 & includes mu* silicifi$ wood2 :]eas ! =mations 9 ,nor!rn ,*ile d n include b$s ( lignite or coal1 & 9 place ( ! fragm5ts ( silicifi$ wood !re are silicifi$ bones4 ,n[1 at ! pres5t day1 f ,cape ,horn to ne> ,concepcion1 ! l& is entirely conceal$ by =e/s1 :i* ?9 out at ,concepcion1 & 9 ,c5tral & ,nor!rn ,*ile entirely disappe>4 ,?is co9cid5ce 9 ! di/ribution ( ! fossil wood & ! liv+ =e/s may be q accid5tal2 b ,i incl9e to take a diff]5t view ( x2 =1 z ! diff]5ce 9 climate1 on :i* ! pres5ce ( =e/s dep5ds1 is "h obvi\sly 9 *ief "p due to ! =m ( ! l&1 & z ! ,cordill]a und\bt$ly exi/$ :5 ! lignitif]\s b$s 7 accumulat+1 ,i conceive x is n improbable t ! climate1 dur+ ! lignitif]\s p]iod1 v>i$ on diff]5t p>ts ( ! coa/ 9 a some:at simil> mann] z x n[ does4 ,look+ to an e>li] epo*1 :5 ! /rata ( ! ,cordill]a 7 deposit+1 !re 7 isl&s :i* ev5 9 ! latitude ( ,nor!rn ,*ile1 :]e n[ all is irreclaimably des]t1 support$ l>ge conif]\s =e/s4 ,sev5ty-n9e species ( fossil %ells1 9 a tol]ably recognisable condition1 f ! coa/ ( ,*ile & ,p]u1 are describ$ 9 ?is volume1 & 9 ! ,palontological "p ( ,m4 d',orbigny's 8,voyage03 if we put on "o side ! tw5ty species exclusively f\nd at ,concepcion & ,*iloe1 fifty-n9e species f ,navidad & ! o!r specifi$ localities rema94 ,( ^! fifty-n9e species only an ,artemis1 a ,mytilus & ,balanus1 all f ,coquimbo1 are 79 ! op9ion ( ,mr4 ,s[]by1 b n 9 t ( ,m4 d',orbigny7 id5tical ) liv+ %ells2 & x w\ld c]ta9ly require a bett] s]ies ( specim5s to r5d] ?is conclusion c]ta94 ,only ! ,turritella ,*il5sis f ,huafo & ,mo*a1 ! ,t4 ,patagonica & ,v5us m]idionalis f ,navidad1 come v ne> to rec5t ,s\? ,am]ican %ells1 namely1 ! two ,turritellas to ,t4 c+ulata1 & ! ,v5us to ,v4 exalbida3 "s few o!r species come r less ne>2 & "s few resemble =ms 9 ! old] ,european t]ti>y deposits3 none ( ! species resemble second>y =ms4 ,h5ce ,i conceive !re c be no d\bt t ^! =mations are t]ti>y1--a po9t necess>y to consid]1 aft] ! case ( ,concepcion4 ,! fifty-n9e species belong to ?irty-two g5]a2 ( ^!1 ,ga/ridium is ext9ct1 & ?ree or f\r ( ! g5]a 7viz4 ,panopa1 ,ro/ell>ia1 ,corbis 7871 & ,i believe ,solecurtus7 are n n[ f\nd on ! we/ coa/ ( ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,fifte5 ( ! g5]a h on ?is coa/ liv+ repres5tatives 9 ab\t ! same latitudes ) ! fossil species2 b twelve g5]a n[ range v diff]5tly to :at !y =m]ly did4 ,! idea ( ! table on ! foll[+ page1 9 :i* ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! ext5sion 9 latitude ( ! fossil & exi/+ species is %[n1 is tak5 f ,m4 d',orbigny's "w2 b ! range ( ! liv+ %ells is giv5 on ! au?ority ( ,mr4 ,cum+1 ^: long-cont9u$ rese>*es on ! con*ology ( ,s\? ,am]ica are well-kn[n4 ,:5 we consid] t v few1 if any1 ( ! fifty-n9e fossil %ells are id5tical )1 or make any close approa* to1 liv+ species2 :5 we consid] t "s ( ! g5]a d n n[ exi/ on ! we/ coa/ ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 & t no less ?an twelve g5]a out ( ! ?irty-two =m]ly rang$ v diff]5tly f ! exi/+ species ( ! same g5]a1 we mu/ admit t ^! deposits are ( consid]able antiquity1 & t !y probably v]ge on ! comm5cem5t ( ! t]ti>y era4 ,may we n v5ture to believe1 t !y are ( ne>ly contemporane\s orig9 ) ! ,eoc5e =mations ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e8 ,g5]a1 ) liv+ & t]ti>y species on ! we/ coa/ ( ,s4 ,am]ica4#ab ,latitudes1 9 :i* f\nd fossil on ! coa/s ( ,*ile & ,p]u4 ,s\!rnmo/ latitude1 9 :i* f\nd liv+ on ! we/ coa/ ( ,s4 ,am]ica4 ,bulla #cj to #dc #cj #ab ne> ,lima4 ,cassis #cd #a #cg ,pyrula #cd 7& #cf #cj at ,concepcion7 #e ,payta ,fusus #cj to #dc #cj #bc ,mexillones2 reappe>s at ! ,/4 ( ,magellan ,pleurotoma #cd to #dc #cj #b #ah ,/4 ,el5a ,t]ebra #cd #e ,payta ,sig>etus #cd to #dd #cj #ab ,lima ,anomia #cj #g #dh ,p]na #cj #a #bc ,xixappa ,c>dium #cj to #cd 7& #cf #cj at ,concepcion7 #e ,payta ,artemis #cj #e ,payta ,voluta #cd to #dd #cj ,mr4 ,cum+ does n "k ( any species liv+ on ! we/ coa/1 betwe5 ! equator & lat4 #dc s\?2 f ?is latitude a species is f\nd z f> s\? z ,ti]ra del ,fuego4 #ab ,m4 d',orbigny /ates t ! g5us ,natica is n f\nd on ! coa/ ( ,*ile2 b ,mr4 ,cum+ f\nd x at ,valp>aiso4 ,scal>ia 0 f\nd at ,valp>aiso2 ,arca1 at ,iquique1 9 lat4 #bj1 by ,mr4 ,cum+2 ,arca1 also1 0 f\nd by ,capta9 ,k+1 at ,juan ,f]n&ez1 9 lat4 #cc #cj4 ,comp>+ ! fossil rema9s f ! coa/ ( ,*ile 7leav+ out1 z be=e1 ,concepcion & ,*iloe7 ) ^? f ,patagonia1 we may conclude1 f _! g5]ic resemblance1 & f ! small numb] ( ! species :i* f ei!r coa/ approa* closely to liv+ =ms1 t ! =mations ( bo? belong to ne>ly ! same epo*2 & ?is is ! op9ion ( ,m4 ,d',orbigny4 ,_h n a s+le fossil %ell be5 common to ! two coa/s1 x c\ld n h be5 argu$ t ! =mations belong$ to diff]5t ages2 = ,messrs4 ,cum+ & ,h9ds h f\nd1 on ! comp>ison ( ne>ly two ?\s& liv+ species f ! opposite sides ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 only "o 9 common1 namely1 ! ,purpura lapillus f bo? sides ( ! ,i/hmus ( ,panama3 ev5 ! %ells collect$ by myself among/ ! ,*onos ,isl&s & on ! coa/ ( ,patagonia1 are dissimil>1 & we mu/ desc5d to ! apex ( ! cont95t1 to ,ti]ra del ,fuego1 to f9d ^! two great con*ological prov9ces unit$ into "o4 ,h5ce x is rem>kable t f\r or five ( ! fossil %ells f ,navidad1 namely1 ,voluta alta1 ,turritella ,patagonica1 ,tro*us coll>is1 ,v5us m]idionalis1 p]haps 7,natica solida71 & p]haps ! l>ge oy/] f ,coquimbo1 are consid]$ by ,mr4 ,s[]by z id5tical ) species f ,santa ,cruz & ,p4 ,desire4 ,m4 d',orbigny1 h[ev]1 admits ! p]fect id5tity only ( ! ,tro*us4 ,on ! temp]ature ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod4--,z ! numb] ( ! fossil species & g5]a f ! we/]n & ea/]n coa/s is consid]able1 x w be int]e/+ to consid] ! probable nature ( ! climate "u :i* !y liv$4 ,we w fir/ take ! case ( ,navidad1 9 lat4 #cd1 :]e ?irty-"o species 7 collect$1 & :i*1 z we %all pres5tly see1 mu/ h inhabit$ %all[ wat]1 & !re=e w necess>ily well exhibit ! effects ( temp]ature4 ,ref]r+ to ! table giv5 9 ! previ\s page1 we f9d t ! exi/+ species ( ! g5]a ,cassis1 ,pyrula1 ,pleurotoma1 ,t]ebra1 & ,sig>etus1 :i* are g5]ally 7?\gh by no means inv>iably7 *>act]i/ic ( w>m] latitudes1 d n at ! pres5t day range ne>ly s f> s\? on ?is l9e ( coa/ z ! fossil species =m]ly did4 ,includ+ ,coquimbo1 we h ,p]na 9 ! same pr$icam5t4 ,! fir/ impression f ?is fact is1 t ! climate mu/ =m]ly h be5 w>m] ?an x n[ is2 b we mu/ be v cauti\s 9 admitt+ ?is1 = ,c>dium1 ,bulla1 & ,fusus 7&1 if we include ,coquimbo1 ,anomia & ,artemis7 likewise =m]ly rang$ f>!r s\? ?an !y n[ d2 & z ^! g5]a are f> f be+ *>act]i/ic ( hot climates1 _! =m] great] s\!rn range may well h be5 ow+ to causes q di/9ct f climate3 ,voluta1 aga91 ?\gh g5]ally s tropical a g5us1 is at pres5t conf9$ on ! we/ coa/ to cold] or m s\!rn latitudes ?an x 0 dur+ ! t]ti>y p]iod4 ,! ,tro*us coll>is1 moreov]1 &1 z we h j se5 accord+ to ,mr4 ,s[]by1 two or ?ree o!r species1 =m]ly rang$ f ,navidad z f> s\? z ,santa ,cruz 9 latitude #ej degrees4 ,if1 in/ead ( comp>+ ! fossils ( ,navidad1 z we h hi!rto done1 ) ! %ells n[ liv+ on ! we/ coa/ ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 we comp>e !m ) ^? f\nd 9 o!r p>ts ( ! _w1 "u ne>ly simil> latitudes2 = in/ance1 9 ! s\!rn p>ts ( ! ,m$it]ranean or ( ,au/ralia1 !re is no evid5ce t ! sea (f ,navidad 0 =m]ly hott] ?an :at might h be5 expect$ f its latitude1 ev5 if x 0 some:at w>m] ?an x n[ is :5 cool$ by ! great s\!rn pol> curr5t4 ,sev]al ( ! mo/ tropical g5]a h no repres5tative fossils at ,navidad2 & !re are only s+le species ( ,cassis1 ,pyrula1 & ,sig>etus1 two ( ,pleurotoma & two ( ,t]ebra1 b none ( ^! species are ( conspicu\s size4 ,9 ,patagonia1 !re is ev5 /ill less evid5ce 9 ! "* ( ! fossils1 ( ! climate hav+ be5 =m]ly w>m]4#ac ,z f ! v>i\s reasons already assign$1 !re c be little d\bt t ! =mations ( ,patagonia & at lea/ ( ,navidad & ,coquimbo 9 ,*ile1 are ! equival5ts ( an anci5t /age 9 ! t]ti>y =mations ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 ! conclusion t ! climate ( ! s\!rn seas at ?is p]iod 0 n hott] ?an :at might h be5 expect$ f ! latitude ( ea* place1 appe>s to me highly important2 = we mu/ believe1 9 accordance ) ! views ( ,mr4 ,lyell1 t ! causes :i* gave to ! old] t]ti>y productions ( ! q temp]ate zones ( ,europe a tropical "*1 7 ( a local "* & did n affect ! entire globe4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,i h endeav\r$ to %[1 9 ! 8,geological ,transactions10 t1 at a mu* lat] p]iod1 ,europe & ,nor? & ,s\? ,am]ica 7 ne>ly contemporane\sly subject$ to ice-action1 & consequ5tly to a cold]1 or at lea/ m equable1 climate ?an t n[ *>act]i/ic ( ! same latitudes4 #ac ,x may be wor? :ile to m5tion t ! %ells liv+ at ! pres5t day on ?is ea/]n side ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 9 lat4 #dj1 h p]haps a m tropical "* ?an ^? 9 correspond+ latitudes on ! %ores ( ,europe3 = at ,bahia ,blanca & ,s4 ,blas1 !re are two f9e species ( ,voluta & f\r ( ,oliva4 ,on ! abs5ce ( ext5sive mod]n con*if]\s deposits 9 ,s\? ,am]ica2 & on ! contemporane\sness ( ! old] ,t]ti>y deposits at di/ant po9ts be+ due to contemporane\s movem5ts ( subsid5ce4--,kn[+ f ! rese>*es ( ,pr(essor ,e4 ,=bes1 t mollusc\s animals *iefly ab\nd )9 a dep? ( #ajj fa?oms & "u1 & be>+ 9 m9d h[ _m ?\s& miles ( bo? coa/s ( ,s\? ,am]ica h be5 uprais$ )9 ! rec5t p]iod by a sl[1 long-cont9u$1 int]mitt5t movem5t1--see+ ! div]sity 9 nature ( ! %ores & ! numb] ( %ells n[ liv+ on !m1--see+ also t ! sea (f ,patagonia & (f _m p>ts ( ,*ile1 0 dur+ ! t]ti>y p]iod highly fav\rable to ! accumulation ( s$im5t1--! abs5ce ( ext5sive deposits includ+ rec5t %ells ov] ^! va/ spaces ( coa/ is highly rem>kable4 ,! con*if]\s calc>e\s b$s at ,coquimbo1 & at a few isolat$ po9ts nor?w>d1 (f] ! mo/ m>k$ exception to ?is /atem5t2 = ^! b$s are f tw5ty to ?irty feet 9 ?ickness1 & !y /ret* = "s miles along %ore1 atta9+1 h[ev]1 only a v trifl+ bread?4 ,at ,valdivia !re is "s s&/one ) imp]fect ca/s ( %ells1 :i* possibly may belong to ! rec5t p]iod3 p>ts ( ! b\ld] =mation & ! %+le-b$s on ! l[] pla9s ( ,patagonia probably belong to ?is same p]iod1 b nei!r are fossilif]\s3 x also s happ5s t ! great ,pampean =mation does n include1 ) ! exception ( ! ,az>a1 any mollusca4 ,!re _c be ! smalle/ d\bt t ! uprais$ %ells along ! %ores ( ! ,atlantic & ,pacific1 :e!r ly+ on ! b>e surface1 or emb$d$ 9 m\ld or 9 s&-hillocks1 w 9 ! c\rse ( ages be de/roy$ by alluvial action3 ?is probably w be ! case ev5 ) ! calc>e\s b$s ( ,coquimbo1 s liable to dissolution by ra9-wat]4 ,if we take into consid]ation ! probability ( oscillations ( level & ! consequ5t action ( ! tidal-waves at diff]5t heights1 _! de/ruction w appe> almo/ c]ta94 ,look+ to an epo* z f> di/ant 9 futurity z we n[ are f ! pa/ ,mioc5e p]iod1 !re seems to me sc>cely a *ance1 "u exi/+ conditions1 ( ! num]\s %ells n[ liv+ 9 ^? zones ( dep?s mo/ f]tile 9 life1 & f\nd exclusively on ! we/]n & s\?-ea/]n coa/s ( ,s4 ,am]ica1 be+ pres]v$ to ?is imag9>y di/ant epo*4 ,a :ole con*ological s]ies w 9 "t be swept away1 ) no memorials ( _! exi/5ce pres]v$ 9 ! e>?'s cru/4 ,c any light be ?r[n on ?is rem>kable abs5ce ( rec5t con*if]\s deposits on ^! coa/s1 on :i*1 at an anci5t t]ti>y epo*1 /rata ab\nd+ ) organic rema9s 7 ext5sively accumulat$8 ,i ?9k !re c1 namely1 by consid]+ ! conditions necess>y = ! pres]vation ( a =mation to a di/ant age4 ,look+ to ! enorm\s am\nt ( d5udation :i* on all sides ( u has be5 effect$1--z evid5c$ by ! l(ty cliffs cutt+ (f on s _m coa/s horizontal & once f>-ext5d$ /rata ( no great antiquity 7z 9 ! case ( ,patagonia71--z evid5c$ by ! level surface ( ! gr\nd on bo? sides ( great faults & dislocations1--by inl& l9es ( esc>pm5ts1 by outli]s1 & numb]less o!r facts1 & by t argum5t ( high g5]ality advanc$ by ,mr4 ,lyell1 namely1 t e s$im5t>y =mation1 :atev] its ?ickness may be1 & ov] h[ev] _m hundr$ squ>e miles x may ext5d1 is ! result & ! measure ( an equal am\nt ( we> & te> ( pre-exi/+ =mations2 consid]+ ^! facts1 we mu/ conclude t1 z an ord9>y rule1 a =mation to resi/ su* va/ de/roy+ p[]s1 & to la/ to a di/ant epo*1 mu/ be ( wide ext5t1 & ei!r 9 itself1 or toge!r ) sup]9cumb5t /rata1 be ( great ?ickness4 ,9 ?is discussion1 we are consid]+ only =mations conta9+ ! rema9s ( m>9e animals1 :i*1 z be=e m5tion$1 live1 ) "s exceptions )9 7mo/ ( !m mu* )97 dep?s ( #ajj fa?oms4 ,h[1 !n1 c a ?ick & widely ext5d$ =mation be accumulat$1 :i* %all include su* organic rema9s8 ,fir/1 let u take ! case ( ! b$ ( ! sea long rema9+ at a /ation>y level3 "u ^! circum/ances x is evid5t t con*if]\s /rata c accumulate only to ! same ?ickness ) ! dep? at :i* ! %ells c live2 on g5tly incl9$ coa/s alone c !y accumulate to any consid]able wid?2 & f ! want ( sup]9cumb5t pressure1 x is probable t ! s$im5t>y matt] w seldom be mu* consolidat$3 su* =mations h no v good *ance1 :5 9 ! c\rse ( "t !y are uprais$1 ( long resi/+ ! p[]s ( d5udation4 ,! *ance w be less if ! subm>9e surface1 in/ead ( hav+ rema9$ /ation>y1 %all h gone on sl[ly ris+ dur+ ! deposition ( ! /rata1 = 9 ?is case _! total ?ickness mu/ be less1 & ea* "p1 be=e be+ consolidat$ or ?ickly cov]$ up by sup]9cumb5t matt]1 w h _h successively to pass ?r\gh ! ordeal ( ! bea*2 & on mo/ coa/s1 ! waves on ! bea* t5d to we> d[n & disp]se e object expos$ to _! action4 ,n[1 bo? on ! s\?-ea/]n & we/]n %ores ( ,s4 ,am]ica1 we h _h cle> pro(s t ! l& has be5 sl[ly ris+1 & 9 ! long l9es ( l(ty cliffs1 we h se5 t ! t5d5cy ( ! sea is almo/ ev]y:]e to eat into ! l&4 ,consid]+ ^! facts1 x ceases1 ,i ?9k1 to be surpris+1 t ext5sive rec5t con*if]\s deposits are entirely abs5t on ! s\!rn & we/]n %ores ( ,am]ica4 ,let u take ! "o rema9+ case1 ( ! b$ ( ! sea sl[ly subsid+ dur+ a l5g? ( "t1 :il/ s$im5t has gone on be+ deposit$4 ,x is evid5t t /rata might ?us accumulate to any ?ickness1 ea* /ratum be+ deposit$ 9 %all[ wat]1 & consequ5tly ab\nd+ ) ^? %ells :i* _c live at great dep?s3 ! pressure1 also1 ,i may obs]ve1 ( ea* fre% b$ w\ld aid 9 consolidat+ all ! l[] ones4 ,ev5 on a r /eep coa/1 ?\gh su* mu/ ev] be unfav\rable to widely ext5d$ deposits1 ! =mations w\ld always t5d to increase 9 bread? f ! wat] encroa*+ on ! l&4 ,h5ce we may admit t p]iods ( sl[ subsid5ce w commonly be mo/ fav\rable to ! accumulation ( con*if]\s deposits1 ( suffici5t ?ickness1 ext5sion1 & h>dness1 to resi/ ! av]age p[]s ( d5udation4 ,we h se5 t at an anci5t t]ti>y epo*1 fossilif]\s deposits 7 ext5sively deposit$ on ! coa/s ( ,s4 ,am]ica2 & x is a v int]e/+ fact1 t !re is evid5ce t ^! anci5t t]ti>y b$s 7 deposit$ dur+ a p]iod ( subsid5ce4 ,?us1 at ,navidad1 ! /rata are ab\t eight hundr$ feet 9 ?ickness1 & ! fossil %ells are abundant bo? at ! level ( ! sea & "s way up ! cliffs2 hav+ s5t a li/ ( ^! fossils to ,pr(essor ,e4 ,=bes1 he ?9ks !y mu/ h liv$ 9 wat] betwe5 "o & t5 fa?oms 9 dep?3 h5ce ! bottom ( ! sea on :i* ^! %ells once liv$ mu/ h subsid$ at lea/ #gjj feet to all[ ( ! sup]9cumb5t matt] be+ deposit$4 ,i mu/ "h rem>k1 t1 z all ^! & ! foll[+ fossil %ells are ext9ct species1 ,pr(essor ,=bes necess>ily judges ( ! dep?s at :i* !y liv$ only f _! g5]ic "*1 & f ! analogical di/ribution ( %ells 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e2 b !re is no j cause f ?is to d\bt ! g5]al results4 ,at ,huafo ! /rata are ab\t ! same ?ickness1 namely1 #hjj feet1 & ,pr(essor ,=bes ?9ks ! fossils f\nd !re _c h liv$ at a great] dep? ?an fifty fa?oms1 or #cjj feet4 ,^! two po9ts1 namely1 ,navidad & ,huafo1 are #egj miles ap>t1 b ne>ly halfway betwe5 !m lies ,mo*a1 an isl& #a1bjj feet 9 height1 app>5tly =m$ ( t]ti>y /rata up to its level summit1 & ) _m %ells1 includ+ ! same ,turritella ) t f\nd at ,huafo1 emb$d$ close to ! level ( ! sea4 ,9 ,patagonia1 %ells are num]\s at ,santa ,cruz1 at ! foot ( ! #cej feet pla91 :i* has c]ta9ly be5 =m$ by ! d5udation ( ! #hdj feet pla91 & !re=e 0 orig9ally cov]$ by /rata t numb] ( feet 9 ?ickness1 & ^! %ells1 accord+ to ,pr(essor ,=bes1 probably liv$ at a dep? ( betwe5 sev5 & fifte5 fa?oms3 at ,port ,s4 ,julian1 sixty miles to ! nor?1 %ells are num]\s at ! foot ( ! n9ety feet pla9 7=m$ by ! d5udation ( ! #iej feet pla971 & likewise occasionally at ! height ( sev]al hundr$ feet 9 ! upp] /rata2 ^! %ells mu/ h liv$ 9 wat] some:]e betwe5 five & fifty fa?oms 9 dep?4 ,al?\gh 9 o!r p>ts ( ,patagonia ,i h no direct evid5ce ( %oal-wat] %ells hav+ be5 buri$ "u a great ?ickness ( sup]9cumb5t subm>9e /rata1 yet x %\ld be borne 9 m9d t ! l[] fossilif]\s /rata ) sev]al ( ! same species ( ,mollusca1 ! upp] tuface\s b$s1 & ! high summit-pla91 /ret* = a consid]able di/ance s\?w>d1 & = hundr$s ( miles nor?w>d2 see+ ?is uni=mity ( /ructure1 ,i conceive x may be fairly conclud$ t ! subsid5ce by :i* ! %ells at ,santa ,cruz & ,s4 ,julian 7 c>ri$ d[n & cov]$ up1 0 n conf9$ to ^! two po9ts1 b 0 co-ext5sive ) a consid]able portion ( ! ,patagonian t]ti>y =mation4 ,9 a succe$+ *apt] x w be se51 t we are l$ to a simil> conclusion ) respect to ! second>y fossilif]\s /rata ( ! ,cordill]a1 namely1 t !y also 7 deposit$ dur+ a long-cont9u$ & great p]iod ( subsid5ce4 ,f ! =ego+ reason+1 & f ! facts j giv51 ,i ?9k we mu/ admit ! probability ( ! foll[+ proposition3 namely1 t :5 ! b$ ( ! sea is ei!r /ation>y or ris+1 circum/ances are f> less fav\rable1 ?an :5 ! level is s9k+1 to ! accumulation ( con*if]\s deposits ( suffici5t ?ickness & ext5sion to resi/1 :5 upheav$1 ! av]age va/ am\nt ( d5udation4 ,?is result appe>s to me1 9 sev]al respects1 v int]e/+3 e "o is at fir/ incl9$ to believe t at innum]able po9ts1 :]ev] !re is a supply ( s$im5t1 fossilif]\s /rata are n[ =m+1 :i* at "s future di/ant epo* w be upheav$ & pres]v$2 b on ! views above giv51 we mu/ conclude t ?is is f> f be+ ! case2 on ! contr>y1 we require 7#a/71 a long-cont9u$ supply ( s$im5t2 7#bnd71 an ext5sive %all[ area2 & 7#crd71 t ?is area %all sl[ly subside to a great dep?1 s z to admit ! accumulation ( a widely ext5d$ ?ick mass ( sup]9cumb5t /rata4 ,9 h[ few p>ts ( ! _w1 probably1 d ^! conditions at ! pres5t day concur6 ,we c ?us1 also1 und]/& ! g5]al want ( t close sequ5ce 9 fossilif]\s =mations :i* we might !oretically h anticipat$2 =1 )\t we suppose a subsid+ movem5t to g on at ! same spot dur+ an enorm\s p]iod1 f "o geological era to ano!r1 & dur+ ! :ole ( ?is p]iod s$im5t to accumulate at ! prop] rate1 s t ! dep? %\ld n become too great = ! cont9u$ exi/5ce ( mollusc\s animals1 x is sc>cely possible t !re %\ld be a p]fect sequ5ce at ! same spot 9 ! fossil %ells ( ! two geological =mations4#ad ,s f> f a v long-cont9u$ subsid5ce be+ probable1 _m facts lead to ! belief t ! e>?'s surface oscillates up & d[n2 & we h se5 t dur+ ! elevatory movem5ts !re is b a small *ance ( durable fossilif]\s deposits accumulat+4 #ad ,pr(essor ,h4 ,d4 ,rog]s1 9 8 excell5t address to ! ,association ( ,am]ican ,geologi/s 7,silliman's ,j\rnal1 vol4 xlvii1 p4 #bgg7 makes ! foll[+ rem>k3 8,i "q if we are at all aw>e h[ completely ! :ole hi/ory ( all dep>t$ "t lies indelibly record$ ) ! ample/ m9ut5ess ( detail 9 ! successive s$im5ts ( ! globe1 h[ effectually1 9 o!r words1 e p]iod ( "t has writt5 its own hi/ory1 c>efully pres]v+ e creat$ =m & e trace ( action40 ,i ?9k ! correctness ( su* rem>ks is m ?an d\btful1 ev5 if we except 7z ,i suppose he w\ld7 all ^? num]\s organic =ms :i* conta9 no h>d p>ts47 ,la/ly1 ^! same consid]ations appe> to ?r[ "s light on ! fact t c]ta9 p]iods appe> to h be5 fav\rable to ! deposition1 or at lea/ to ! pres]vation1 ( contemporane\s =mations at v di/ant po9ts4 ,we h se5 t 9 ,s4 ,am]ica an enorm\s area has be5 ris+ )9 ! rec5t p]iod2 & 9 o!r qu>t]s ( ! globe imm5se spaces appe> to h ris5 contemporane\sly4 ,f my exam9ation ( ! coral-reefs ( ! great oceans1 ,i h be5 l$ to conclude t ! b$ ( ! sea has gone on sl[ly s9k+ )9 ! pres5t era1 ov] truly va/ areas3 ?is1 inde$1 is 9 itself probable1 f ! simple fact ( ! ris+ areas hav+ be5 s l>ge4 ,9 ,s\? ,am]ica we h di/9ct evid5ce t at ne>ly ! same t]ti>y p]iod1 ! b$ ( ! sea (f p>ts ( ! coa/ ( ,*ile & (f ,patagonia 0 s9k+1 ?\gh ^! regions are v remote f ea* o!r4 ,if1 !n1 x holds good1 z a g5]al rule1 t 9 ! same qu>t] ( ! globe ! e>?'s cru/ t5ds to s9k & rise contemporane\sly ov] va/ spaces1 we c at once see1 t we h at di/ant po9ts1 at ! same p]iod1 ^? v conditions :i* appe> to be requisite = ! accumulation ( fossilif]\s masses ( suffici5t ext5sion1 ?ickness1 & h>dness1 to resi/ d5udation1 & consequ5tly to la/ unto an epo* di/ant 9 futurity4#ae #ae ,pr(essor ,=bes has "s admirable rem>ks on ?is subject1 9 8 8,report on ! ,%ells ( ! gean ,sea40 ,9 a lett] to ,mr4 ,macl>5 7,ed9burgh ,new ,phil4 ,j\rnal1 ,janu>y #ahdc71 ,i p>tially ent]$ into ?is discussion1 & endeav\r$ to %[ t x 0 highly improbable1 t uprais$ atolls or b>ri]-reefs1 ?\gh ( great ?ickness1 %\ld1 ow+ to _! small ext5sion or bread?1 be pres]v$ to a di/ant future p]iod4 ,*apt] ,,vi ,,plutonic ,,& ,,metamorphic ,,rocks3--,,cleavage ,,& ,,foliation4 ,brazil1 ,bahia1 gneiss ) disjo9t$ metamorphos$ dikes4--,/rike ( foliation4--,rio de ,janeiro1 gneiss-granite1 emb$d$ fragm5t 91 decomposition (4--,la ,plata1 metamorphic & old volcanic rocks (4--,s4 ,v5tana4--,clay/one porphyry =mation ( ,patagonia2 s+ul> metamorphic rocks2 pseudo-dikes4--,falkl& ,isl&s1 ,palozoic fossils (4--,ti]ra del ,fuego1 clay-slate =mation1 cretace\s fossils (2 cleavage & foliation2 =m ( l&4--,*onos ,ar*ipelago1 mica-s*i/s1 foliation di/urb$ by granitic axis2 dikes4--,*iloe4--,concepcion1 dikes1 successive =mation (4--,c5tral & ,nor!rn ,*ile4--,conclud+ rem>ks on cleavage & foliation4--,_! close analogy & simil> orig94 --,/ratification ( metamorphic s*i/s4--,foliation ( intrusive rocks4--,relation ( cleavage & foliation to ! l9es ( t5sion dur+ metamorphosis4 ,! metamorphic & plutonic =mations ( ! sev]al di/ricts visit$ by ! ,beagle w be "h *iefly treat$ (1 b only su* cases z appe> to me new1 or ( "s special int]e/1 w be describ$ 9 detail2 at ! end ( ! *apt] ,i w sum up all ! facts on cleavage & foliation1--to :i* ,i p>ticul>ly att5d$4 ,bahia1 ,brazil3 lat4 #ac s\?4--,! prevail+ rock is gneiss1 (t5 pass+1 by ! disappe>ance ( ! qu>tz & mica1 & by ! feldsp> los+ its r$ col\r1 into a brilliantly grey primitive gre5/one4 ,n unfrequ5tly qu>tz & hornbl5de are arrang$ 9 lay]s 9 almo/ amorph\s feldsp>4 ,!re is "s f9e-gra9$ sy5itic granite1 orbicul>ly m>k$ by f]rug9\s l9es1 & wea!r+ into v]tical1 cyl9drical holes1 almo/ t\*+ ea* o!r4 ,9 ! gneiss1 concretions ( granul> feldsp> & o!rs ( g>nets ) mica occur4 ,! gneiss is trav]s$ by num]\s dikes compos$ ( black1 f9ely cry/allis$1 hornbl5dic rock1 conta9+ a little glassy feldsp> & sometimes mica1 & v>y+ 9 ?ickness f m]e ?reads to t5 feet3 ^! ?reads1 :i* are (t5 curvil9e>1 c\ld sometimes be trac$ runn+ into ! l>g] dikes4 ,"o ( ^! dikes 0 rem>kable f hav+ be5 9 two or ?ree places lat]ally disjo9t$1 ) unbrok5 gneiss int]pos$ betwe5 ! brok5 ends1 & 9 "o "p ) a portion ( ! gneiss driv51 app>5tly :il/ 9 a s(t5$ /ate1 into its side or wall4 ,9 sev]al neighb\r+ places1 ! gneiss includ$ angul>1 well-def9$1 sometimes b5t1 masses ( hornbl5de rock1 q l1 except 9 be+ m p]fectly cry/allis$1 t =m+ ! dikes1 &1 at lea/ 9 "o in/ance1 conta9+ 7z det]m9$ by ,pr(essor ,mill]7 augite z well z hornbl5de4 ,9 "o or two cases ^! angul> masses1 ?\gh n[ q sep>ate f ea* o!r by ! solid gneiss1 _h1 f _! exact correspond5ce 9 size & %ape1 evid5tly once be5 unit$2 h5ce ,i _c d\bt t mo/ or all ( ! fragm5ts h be5 d]iv$ f ! break+ up ( ! dikes1 ( :i* we see ! fir/ /age 9 ! above-m5tion$ lat]ally disjo9t$ "o4 ,! gneiss close to ! fragm5ts g5]ally conta9$ _m l>ge cry/als ( hornbl5de1 :i* are entirely abs5t or r>e 9 o!r p>ts3 its folia or lam9 7 g5tly b5t r\nd ! fragm5ts1 9 ! same mann] z !y sometimes are r\nd concretions4 ,h5ce ! gneiss has c]ta9ly be5 s(t5$1 its composition modifi$1 & its folia arrang$1 subsequ5tly to ! break+ up ( ! dikes1#a ^! latt] also hav+ be5 at ! same "t b5t & s(t5$4 #a ,pr(essor ,hit*cock 78,geology ( ,massa*usetts10 vol4 ii1 p4 #fgc1 gives a closely simil> case ( a gre5/one dike 9 sy5ite4 ,i mu/ "h take ! opportunity ( premis+1 t by ! t]m cleavage ,i imply ^? planes ( division :i* r5d] a rock1 appe>+ to ! eye q or ne>ly homog5e\s1 fissile4 ,by ! t]m foliation1 ,i ref] to ! lay]s or plates ( diff]5t m9]alogical nature ( :i* mo/ metamorphic s*i/s are compos$2 !re are1 also1 (t5 includ$ 9 su* masses1 alt]nat+1 homog5e\s1 fissile lay]s or folia1 & 9 ?is case ! rock is bo? foliat$ & has a cleavage4 ,by /ratification1 z appli$ to ^! =mations1 ,i mean ^? alt]nate1 p>allel1 l>ge masses ( diff]5t composition1 :i* are !mselves frequ5tly ei!r foliat$ or fissile1--su* z ! alt]nat+ s-call$ /rata ( mica-slate1 gneiss1 glossy clay-slate1 & m>ble4 ,! folia ( ! gneiss )9 a few miles r\nd ,bahia g5]ally /rike irregul>ly1 & are (t5 curvil9e>1 dipp+ 9 all directions at v>i\s angles3 b :]e be/ def9$1 !y ext5d$ mo/ frequ5tly 9 a ,n4,e4 by ,n4 7or ,ea/ #ej ,n47 & ,s4,w4 by ,s4 l9e1 correspond+ ne>ly ) ! coa/-l9e nor?w>ds ( ! bay4 ,i may add t ,mr4 ,g>dn]#b f\nd 9 sev]al p>ts ( ! prov9ce ( ,ce>a1 :i* lies betwe5 f\r & five hundr$ miles nor? ( ,bahia1 gneiss ) ! folia ext5d+ ,e4 #de ,n42 & 9 ,guyana accord+ to ,sir ,r4 ,s*omburgk1 ! same rock /rikes ,e4 #eg ,n4 ,aga91 ,humboldt describes ! gneiss-granite ov] an imm5se area 9 ,v5ezuela & ev5 9 ,colombia1 z /rik+ ,e4 #ej ,n41 & dipp+ to ! ,n4,w4 at an angle ( fifty degrees4 ,h5ce all ! obs]vations hi!rto made t5d to %[ t ! gneissic rocks ov] ! :ole ( ?is "p ( ! cont95t h _! folia ext5d+ g5]ally )9 almo/ a po9t ( ! compass ( ! same direction4#c #b 8,geological ,section ( ! ,brit4 ,assoc410 #ahdj4 ,= ,sir ,r4 ,s*omburgk's obs]vations see ,geograph4 ,j\rnal1 #ahdb1 p4 #aij4 ,see also ,humboldt's discussion on ,loxodrism 9 ! 8,p]sonal ,n>rative40 #c ,i l&$ at only "o place nor? ( ,bahia1 namely1 at ,p]nambuco4 ,i f\nd !re only s(t1 horizontally /ratifi$ matt]1 =m$ f dis9tegrat$ granitic rocks1 & "s yell[i% impure lime/one1 probably ( a t]ti>y epo*4 ,i h describ$ a mo/ s+ul> natural b> ( h>d s&/one1 :i* protects ! h>b\r1 9 ! #ai? vol4 7#ahda7 p4 #beh ( ! ,london & ,ed94 ,phil4 ,magaz9e4 ,,abrolhos ,,islets1 lat4 #ah ,s4 (f ! coa/ ( ,brazil4--,al?\gh n /rictly 9 place1 ,i d n "k :]e ,i c m conv5i5tly describe ?is little gr\p ( small isl&s4 ,! l[e/ b$ is a s&/one ) f]rug9\s ve9s2 x wea!rs into an extraord9>y honeycomb$ mass2 above x !re is a d>k-col\r$ argillace\s %ale2 above ?is a co>s] s&/one--mak+ a total ?ickness ( ab\t sixty feet2 & la/ly1 above ^! s$im5t>y b$s1 !re is a f9e con=mable mass ( gre5/one1 9 "s p>ts hav+ a column> /ructure4 ,all ! /rata1 z well z ! surface ( ! l&1 dip at an angle ( ab\t #ab to ,n4 by ,w4 ,"s ( ! islets are compos$ entirely ( ! s$im5t>y1 o!rs ( ! trappean rocks1 g5]ally1 h[ev]1 ) ! s&/one1 cropp+ out on ! s\!rn %ores4 ,rio de ,janeiro4--,?is :ole di/rict is almo/ exclusively =m$ ( gneiss1 ab\nd+ ) g>nets1 & porphyritic ) l>ge cry/als1 ev5 ?ree & f\r in*es 9 l5g?1 ( or?oclase feldsp>3 9 ^! cry/als mica & g>nets are (t5 enclos$4 ,at ! we/]n base ( ! ,corcovado1 !re is "s f]rug9\s c>i\s qu>tz-rock2 & 9 ! ,tijeuka range1 mu* f9e-gra9$ granite4 ,i obs]v$ b\ld]s ( gre5/one 9 sev]al places2 & on ! islet ( ,villegagnon1 & likewise on ! coa/ "s miles nor?w>d1 two l>ge trappean dikes4 ,! porphyritic gneiss1 or gneiss-granite z x has be5 call$ by ,humboldt1 is only s f> foliat$ t ! con/itu5t m9]als are arrang$ ) a c]ta9 degree ( regul>ity1 & may be said to h a 8gra910 b !y are n sep>at$ into di/9ct folia or lam94 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 sev]al o!r v>ieties ( gneiss regul>ly foliat$1 & alt]nat+ ) ea* o!r 9 s-call$ /rata4 ,! /ratification & foliation ( ! ord9>y gneisses1 & ! foliation or 8gra90 ( ! gneiss-granite1 are p>allel to ea* o!r1 & g5]ally /rike )9 a po9t ( ,n4,e4 & ,s4,w4 dipp+ at a high angle 7betwe5 #ej & #fj7 g5]ally to ,s4,e43 s t "h aga9 we meet ) ! /rike s preval5t ov] ! m nor!rn p>ts ( ?is cont95t4 ,! m\nta9s ( gneiss-granite are to a rem>kable degree abruptly conical1 :i* seems caus$ by ! rock t5d+ to exfoliate 9 ?ick1 conically conc5tric lay]s3 ^! peaks resemble 9 %ape ^? ( phonolite & o!r inject$ rocks on volcanic isl&s2 nor is ! gra9 or foliation 7z we %all aft]w>ds see7 any difficulty on ! idea ( ! gneiss-granite hav+ be5 an intrusive r ?an a metamorphic =mation4 ,! l9es ( m\nta9s1 b n always ea* sep>ate hill1 range ne>ly 9 ! same direction ) ! foliation & s-call$ /ratification1 b r m ea/]ly4 ,no4 #bb ,fragm5t ( gneiss emb$d$ 9 ano!r v>iety ( ! same rock4 ,illu/ration3 ,fragm5t ( gneiss emb$d$ 9 ano!r v>iety ( ! same rock4 ,on a b>e g5tly incl9$ surface ( ! porphyritic gneiss 9 ,bot(ogo ,bay1 ,i obs]v$ ! appe>ance "h repres5t$4 ,a fragm5t sev5 y>ds long & two 9 wid?1 ) angul> & di/9ctly def9$ edges1 compos$ ( a peculi> v>iety ( gneiss ) d>k lay]s ( mica & g>nets1 is surr\nd$ on all sides by ! ord9>y gneiss-granite2 bo? hav+ be5 dislocat$ by a granitic ve94 ,! folia 9 ! fragm5t & 9 ! surr\nd+ rock /rike 9 ! same ,n4,n4,e4 & ,s4,s4,w4 l9e2 b 9 ! fragm5t !y are v]tical1 :]eas 9 ! gneiss-granite !y dip at a small angle1 z %[n by ! arr[s1 to ,s4,s4,e4 ,?is fragm5t1 consid]+ its great size1 its solit>y position1 & its foliat$ /ructure p>allel to t ( ! surr\nd+ rock1 is1 z f> z ,i "k1 a unique case3 & ,i w n attempt any explanation ( its orig94 ,! num]\s travell]s#d 9 ?is c\ntry1 h all be5 greatly surpris$ at ! dep? to :i* ! gneiss & o!r granitic rocks1 z well z ! talcose slates ( ! int]ior1 h be5 decompos$4 ,ne> ,rio1 e m9]al except ! qu>tz has be5 completely s(t5$1 9 "s places to a dep? little less ?an "o hundr$ feet4#e ,! m9]als reta9 _! positions 9 folia rang+ 9 ! usual direction2 & fractur$ qu>tz ve9s may be trac$ f ! solid rock1 runn+ = "s di/ance into ! s(t5$1 mottl$1 highly col\r$1 argillace\s mass4 ,x is said t ^! decompos$ rocks ab\nd ) gems ( v>i\s k9ds1 (t5 9 a fractur$ /ate1 ow+1 z "s h suppos$1 to ! collapse ( geodes1 & t !y conta9 gold & diamonds4 ,at ,rio1 x appe>$ to me t ! gneiss _h be5 s(t5$ be=e ! excavation 7no d\bt by ! sea7 ( ! exi/+1 broad1 flat-bottom$ valleys2 = ! dep? ( decomposition did n appe> at all con=mable ) ! pres5t undulations ( ! surface4 ,! porphyritic gneiss1 :]e n[ expos$ to ! air1 seems to )/& decomposition rem>kably well2 & ,i c\ld see no signs ( any t5d5cy to ! production ( argillace\s masses l ^? "h describ$4 ,i 0 also /ruck ) ! fact1 t :]e a b>e surface ( ?is rock slop$ into "o ( ! quiet bays1 !re 7 no m>ks ( erosion at ! level ( ! wat]1 & ! p>ts bo? b5ea? & above x pres]v$ a uni=m curve4 ,at ,bahia1 ! gneiss rocks are simil>ly decompos$1 ) ! upp] p>ts ins5sibly los+ _! foliation1 & pass+1 )\t any di/9ct l9e ( sep>ation1 into a bright r$ argillace\s e>?1 includ+ p>tially r\nd$ fragm5ts ( qu>tz & granite4 ,f ?is circum/ance1 & f ! rocks appe>+ to h suff]$ decomposition be=e ! excavation ( ! valleys1 ,i suspect t "h1 z at ,rio1 ! decomposition took place "u ! sea4 ,! subject appe>$ to me a curi\s "o1 & w\ld probably well repay c>eful exam9ation by an able m9]alogi/4 #d ,spix & ,m>tius h collect$ 9 an ,app5dix to _! 8,travels10 ! l>ge/ body ( facts on ?is subject4 ,see also "s rem>ks by ,m4 ,lund 9 8 communications to ! ,academy at ,cop5hag52 & o!rs by ,m4 ,gaudi*aud 9 ,freyc9et's 8,voyage40 #e ,dr4 ,b5za describes granitic rock 7,madras ,j\rnal ( ,lit41 etc41 ,oct4 #ahc8 p4 #bdf71 9 ! ,neelgh]ries1 decompos$ to a dep? ( =ty feet4 ,! ,nor!rn ,prov9ces ( ,la ,plata4--,accord+ to "s obs]vations communicat$ to me by ,mr4 ,fox1 ! coa/ f ,rio de ,janeiro to ! m\? ( ! ,plata seems ev]y:]e to be granitic1 ) a few trappean dikes4 ,at ,port ,alegre1 ne> ! b\nd>y ( ,brazil1 !re are porphyries & diorites4#f ,at ! m\? ( ! ,plata1 ,i exam9$ ! c\ntry = tw5ty-five miles we/1 & = ab\t sev5ty miles nor? ( ,maldonado3 ne> ?is t[n1 !re is "s common gneiss1 & mu*1 9 all p>ts ( ! c\ntry1 ( a co>se-gra9$ mixture ( qu>tz & r$di% feldsp>1 (t51 h[ev]1 assum+ a little d>k-gre5 imp]fect hornbl5de1 & !n imm$iately becom+ foliat$4 ,! abrupt hillocks ?us compos$1 z well z ! highly incl9$ folia ( ! common v>ieties ( gneiss1 /rike ,n4,n4,e4 or a little m ea/]ly1 & ,s4,s4,w4 ,clay-slate is occasionally met )1 & ne> ! ,l4 del ,potr]o1 !re is :ite m>ble1 r5d]$ fissile f ! pres5ce ( hornbl5de1 mica1 & asbe/us2 ! cleavage ( ^! rocks & _! /ratification1 t is ! alt]nat+ masses ?us compos$1 /rike ,n4,n4,e4 & ,s4,s4,w4 l ! foliat$ gneisses1 & h an almo/ v]tical dip4 ,! ,si]ra ,l>ga1 a l[ range five miles we/ ( ,maldonado1 consi/s ( qu>tzite1 (t5 f]rug9\s1 hav+ an ar5ace\s feel1 & divid$ into excessively ?91 almo/ v]tical lam9 or folia by microscopically m9ute scales1 app>5tly ( mica1 & /rik+ 9 ! usual ,n4,n4,e4 & ,s4,s4,w4 direction4 ,! range itself is =m$ ( "o pr9cipal l9e ) "s subord9ate ones2 & x ext5ds ) rem>kable uni=mity f> nor?w>d 7x is said ev5 to ! conf9es ( ,brazil71 9 ! same l9e ) ! v]tically ribbon$ qu>tz rock ( :i* x is compos$4 ,! ,s4 de ,las ,animas is ! highe/ range 9 ! c\ntry2 ,i e/imat$ x at #a1jjj feet2 x runs nor? & s\?1 & is =m$ ( feldspa?ic porphyry2 ne> its base !re is a ,n4,n4,w4 & ,s4,s4,e4 ridge ( a conglom]ate 9 a highly porphyritic basis4 #f ,m4 ,isabelle1 8,voyage ,bu5os ,ayres10 p4 #dgi4 ,nor?w>d ( ,maldonado1 & s\? ( ,las ,m9as1 !re is an ,e4 & ,w4 hilly b& ( c\ntry1 "s miles 9 wid?1 =m$ ( silice\s clay-slate1 ) "s qu>tz1 rock1 & lime/one1 hav+ a tortu\s irregul> cleavage1 g5]ally rang+ ea/ & we/4 ,e4 & ,s4,e4 ( ,las ,m9as !re is a confus$ di/rict ( imp]fect gneiss & lam9at$ qu>tz1 ) ! hills rang+ 9 v>i\s directions1 b ) ea* sep>ate hill g5]ally runn+ 9 ! same l9e ) ! folia ( ! rocks ( :i* x is compos$3 ?is confusion appe>s to h be5 caus$ by ! int]section ( ! ,e4 & ,w4 & ,n4,n4,e4 & ,s4,s4,w4 /rikes4 ,nor?w>d ( ,las ,m9as1 ! m regul> nor!rly ranges pr$om9ate3 f ?is place to ne> ,polanco1 we meet ) ! co>se-gra9$ mixture ( qu>tz & feldsp>1 (t5 ) ! imp]fect hornbl5de1 & !n becom+ foliat$ 9 a ,n4 & ,s4 l9e--) imp]fect clay-slate1 includ+ lam9 ( r$ cry/allis$ feldsp>--) :ite or black m>ble1 sometimes conta9+ asbe/us & cry/als ( gypsum--) qu>tz-rock--) sy5ite--& la/ly1 ) mu* granite4 ,! m>ble & granite alt]nate repeat$ly 9 app>5tly v]tical masses3 "s miles nor?w>d ( ! ,polanco1 a wide di/rict is said to be entirely compos$ ( m>ble4 ,x is rem>kable1 h[ r>e mica is 9 ! :ole range ( c\ntry nor? & we/w>d ( ,maldonado4 ,?r\gh\t ?is di/rict1 ! cleavage ( ! clay-slate & m>ble--! foliation ( ! gneiss & ! qu>tz--! /ratification or alt]nat+ masses ( ^! sev]al rocks--& ! range ( ! hills1 all co9cide 9 direction2 & al?\gh ! c\ntry is only hilly1 ! planes ( division are almo/ ev]y:]e v highly incl9$ or v]tical4 ,"s anci5t subm>9e volcanic rocks are wor? m5tion+1 f _! r>ity on ?is ea/]n side ( ! cont95t4 ,9 ! valley ( ! ,tapas 7fifty or sixty miles ,n4 ( ,maldonado7 !re is a tract ?ree or f\r miles 9 l5g?1 compos$ ( v>i\s trappean rocks ) glassy feldsp>--( app>5tly metamorphos$ grit-/ones--( purpli% amygdaloids ) l>ge k]nels ( c>bonate ( lime#g--;& mu* ( a h>%i% rock ) glassy feldsp> int]m$iate 9 "* betwe5 clay/one porphyry & tra*yte4 ,?is latt] rock 0 9 "o spot rem>kable f be+ full ( drusy cavities1 l9$ ) qu>tz cry/als1 & arrang$ 9 planes1 dipp+ at an angle ( #ej to ! ea/1 & /rik+ p>allel to ! foliation ( an adjo9+ hill compos$ ( ! common mixture ( qu>tz1 feldsp>1 & imp]fect hornbl5de3 ?is fact p]haps indicates t ^! volcanic rocks h be5 metamorphos$1 & _! con/itu5t p>ts re>rang$1 at ! same "t & accord+ to ! same laws1 ) ! granitic & metamorphic =mations ( ?is :ole region4 ,9 ! valley ( ! ,m>m>aya1 a few miles s\? ( ! ,tapas1 a b& ( trappean & amygdaloidal rock is int]pos$ betwe5 a hill ( granite & an ext5sive surr\nd+ =mation ( r$ conglom]ate1 :i* 7l t at ! foot ( ! ,s4 ,animas7 has its basis porphyritic ) cry/als ( feldsp>1 & :i* h5ce has c]ta9ly suff]$ metamorphosis4 #g ,ne> ! ,pan de ,azuc> !re is "s gre5i% porphyry1 9 "o place amygdaloidal ) agate4 ,monte ,video4--,! rocks "h consi/ ( sev]al v>ieties ( gneiss1 ) ! feldsp> (t5 yell[i%1 granul> & imp]fectly cry/allis$1 alt]nat+ )1 & pass+ ins5sibly into1 b$s1 f a few y>ds to ne>ly a mile 9 ?ickness1 ( f9e or co>se gra9$1 d>k-gre5 hornbl5dic slate2 ?is aga9 (t5 pass+ into *loritic s*i/4 ,^! passages seem *iefly due to *anges 9 ! mica1 & its replacem5t by o!r m9]als4 ,at ,rat ,isl& ,i exam9$ a mass ( *loritic s*i/1 only a few y>ds squ>e1 irregul>ly surr\nd$ on all sides by ! gneiss1 & intricately p5etrat$ by _m curvil9e> ve9s ( qu>tz1 :i* gradually bl5d into ! gneiss3 ! cleavage ( ! *loritic s*i/ & ! foliation ( ! gneiss 7 exactly p>allel4 ,ea/w>d ( ! city !re is mu* f9e-gra9$1 d>k-col\r$ gneiss1 almo/ assum+ ! "* ( hornbl5de-slate1 :i* alt]nates 9 ?9 lam9 ) lam9 ( qu>tz1 ! :ole mass be+ transv]sely int]sect$ by num]\s l>ge ve9s ( qu>tz3 ,i p>ticul>ly obs]v$ t ^! ve9s 7 absolutely cont9u\s ) ! alt]nat+ lam9 ( qu>tz4 ,9 ?is case & at ,rat ,isl&1 ! passage ( ! gneiss into imp]fect hornbl5dic or into *loritic slate1 seem$ to be connect$ ) ! segregation ( ! ve9s ( qu>tz4#h #h ,mr4 ,gre5\gh 7p4 #gh1 8,critical ,exam9ation10 etc47 obs]ves t qu>tz 9 mica-slate sometimes appe>s 9 b$s & sometimes 9 ve9s4 ,von ,bu* also 9 8 8,travels 9 ,norway0 7p4 #bcf71 rem>ks on alt]nat+ lam9 ( qu>tz & hornbl5de-slate replac+ mica-s*i/4 ,! ,m\nt1 a hill believ$ to be #dej feet 9 height1 f :i* ! place takes its "n1 is mu* ! highe/ l& 9 ?is neighb\rhood3 x consi/s ( hornbl5dic slate1 :i* 7except on ! ea/]n & di/urb$ base7 has an ea/ & we/ ne>ly v]tical cleavage2 ! long] axis ( ! hill also ranges 9 ?is same l9e4 ,ne> ! summit ! hornbl5de-slate gradually becomes m & m co>sely cry/allis$1 & less pla9ly lam9at$1 until x passes into a heavy1 sonor\s gre5/one1 ) a slaty con*oidal fracture2 ! lam9 on ! nor? & s\? sides ne> ! summit dip inw>ds1 z if ?is upp] "p _h exp&$ or bulg$ outw>ds4 ,?is gre5/one mu/1 ,i conceive1 be consid]$ z metamorphos$ hornbl5de-slate4 ,! ,c]rito1 ! next highe/1 b mu* less elevat$ po9t1 is almo/ simil>ly compos$4 ,9 ! m we/]n p>ts ( ! prov9ce1 besides gneiss1 !re is qu>tz-rock1 sy5ite1 & granite2 & at ,colla1 ,i he>d ( m>ble4 ,ne> ,m4 ,video1 ! space :i* ,i m accurately exam9$ 0 ab\t fifte5 miles 9 an ea/ & we/ l9e1 & "h ,i f\nd ! foliation ( ! gneiss & ! cleavage ( ! slates g5]ally well develop$1 & ext5d+ p>allel to ! alt]nat+ /rata compos$ ( ! gneiss1 hornbl5dic & *loritic s*i/s4 ,^! planes ( division all range )9 "o po9t ( ea/ & we/1 frequ5tly ea/ by s\? & we/ by nor?2 _! dip is g5]ally almo/ v]tical1 & sc>cely any:]e "u #de3 ?is fact1 consid]+ h[ slightly undulatory ! surface ( ! c\ntry is1 des]ves att5tion4 ,we/w>d ( ,m4 ,video1 t[>ds ! ,uruguay1 :]ev] ! gneiss is expos$1 ! highly incl9$ folia are se5 /rik+ 9 ! same direction2 ,i mu/ except "o spot :]e ! /rike 0 ,n4,w4 by ,w4 ,! little ,si]ra de ,s4 ,juan1 =m$ ( gneiss & lam9at$ qu>tz1 mu/ also be except$1 = x ranges betwe5 ,n4 to ,n4,e4 & ,s4 to ,s4,w4 & seems to belong to ! same sy/em ) ! hills 9 ! ,maldonado di/rict4 ,f9ally1 we h se5 t1 = _m miles nor?w>d ( ,maldonado & = tw5ty-five miles we/w>d ( x1 z f> z ! ,s4 de las ,animas1 ! foliation1 cleavage1 s-call$ /ratification & l9es ( hills1 all range ,n4,n4,e4 & ,s4,s4,w41 :i* is ne>ly co9cid5t ) ! adjo9+ coa/ ( ! ,atlantic4 ,we/w>d ( ! ,s4 de las ,animas1 z f> z ev5 ! ,uruguay1 ! foliation1 cleavage1 & /ratification 7b n l9es ( hills1 = !re are no def9$ ones7 all range ab\t ,e4 by ,s4 & ,w4 by ,n41 :i* is ne>ly co9cid5t ) ! direction ( ! nor!rn %ore ( ! ,plata2 9 ! confus$ c\ntry ne> ,las ,m9as1 :]e ^! two great sy/ems appe> to int]sect ea* o!r1 ! cleavage1 foliation1 & /ratification run 9 v>i\s directions1 b g5]ally co9cide ) ! l9e ( ea* sep>ate hill4 ,s\!rn ,la ,plata4--,! fir/ ridge1 s\? ( ! ,plata1 :i* projects ?r\gh ! ,pampean =mation1 is ! ,si]ra ,tapalgu5 & ,vulcan1 situat$ #bjj miles s\?w>d ( ! di/rict j describ$4 ,?is ridge is only a few hundr$ feet 9 height1 & runs f ,c4 ,corri5tes 9 a ,w4,n4,w4 l9e = at lea/ #aej miles into ! int]ior3 at ,tapalgu51 x is compos$ ( un/ratifi$ granul> qu>tz1 rem>kable f =m+ tabul> masses & small pla9s1 surr\nd$ by precipit\s cliffs3 o!r p>ts ( ! range are said to consi/ ( granite3 & m>ble is f\nd at ! ,s4 ,t9ta4 ,x appe>s f ,m4 ,p>*appe's#i obs]vations1 t at ,t&il !re is a range ( qu>tzose gneiss1 v l ! rocks ( ! ,s4 ,l>ga ne> ,maldonado1 runn+ 9 ! same ,n4,n4,e4 & ,s4,s4,w4 direction2 s t ! framework ( ! c\ntry "h is v simil> to t on ! nor!rn %ore ( ! ,plata4 #i ,m4 d',orbigny's 8,voyage10 ,"p4 ,golog41 p4 #df4 ,i h giv5 a %ort acc\nt ( ! peculi> =ms ( ! qu>tz hills ( ,tapalgu51 s unusual 9 a metamorphic =mation1 9 my 8,j\rnal ( ,rese>*es0 7#bnd edit471 p4 #aaf4 ,! ,si]ra ,guitru-gueyu is situat$ sixty miles s\? ( ! ,s4 ,tapalgu53 x consi/s ( num]\s p>allel1 sometimes bl5d$ toge!r ridges1 ab\t tw5ty-?ree miles 9 wid?1 & five hundr$ feet 9 height above ! pla91 & ext5d+ 9 a ,n4,w4 & ,s4,e4 direction4 ,skirt+ r\nd ! extreme ,s4,e4 t]m9ation1 ,i asc5d$ only a few po9ts1 :i* 7 compos$ ( a f9e-gra9$ gneiss1 almo/ compos$ ( feldsp> ) a little mica1 & pass+ 9 ! upp] p>ts ( ! hills into a r compact purpli% clay-slate4 ,! cleavage 0 ne>ly v]tical1 /rik+ 9 a ,n4,w4 by ,w4 & ,s4,e4 by ,e4 l9e1 ne>ly1 ?\gh n q1 co9cid5t ) ! direction ( ! p>allel ridges4 ,! ,si]ra ,v5tana lies close s\? ( t ( ,guitru-gueyu2 x is rem>kable f atta9+ a height1 v unusual on ?is side ( ! cont95t1 ( #c1cdj feet4 ,x consi/s up to its summit1 ( qu>tz1 g5]ally pure & :ite1 b sometimes r$di%1 & divid$ into ?ick lam9 or /rata3 9 "o "p !re is a little glossy clay-slate ) a tortu\s cleavage4 ,! ?ick lay]s ( qu>tz /rike 9 a ,w4 #cj ,n4 l9e1 dipp+ s\!rly at an angle ( #de & upw>ds4 ,! pr9cipal l9e ( m\nta9s1 ) "s q subord9ate p>allel ridges1 range ab\t ,w4 #de ,n43 b at _! ,s4,e4 t]m9ation1 only ,w4 #be ,n4 ,?is ,si]ra is said to ext5d betwe5 tw5ty & ?irty leagues into ! int]ior4 ,patagonia4--,) ! exception p]haps ( ! hill ( ,s4 ,antonio 7#fjj feet high7 9 ! ,gulf ( ,s4 ,matias1 :i* has nev] be5 visit$ by a geologi/1 cry/all9e rocks are n met ) on ! coa/ ( ,patagonia = a space ( #chj miles s\? ( ! ,s4 ,v5tana4 ,at ?is po9t 7lat4 #dc #ej71 at ,po9ts ,union & ,tombo1 plutonic rocks are said to appe>1 & are f\nd1 at r wide int]vals1 b5ea? ! ,patagonian t]ti>y =mation = a space ( ab\t ?ree hundr$ miles s\?w>d1 to ne> ,bird ,isl&1 9 latitude #dh #ef4 ,judg+ f specim5s k9dly collect$ = me by ,mr4 ,/okes1 ! prevail+ rock at ,ports ,/4 ,el5a1 ,cam]ones1 ,malasp9a1 & z f> s\? z ! ,paps ( ,p9$a1 is a purpli%-p9k or br[ni% clay/one porphyry1 sometimes lam9at$1 sometimes slightly vesicul>1 ) cry/als ( opaque feldsp> & ) a few gra9s ( qu>tz2 h5ce ^! porphyries resemble ^? imm$iately to be describ$ at ,port ,desire1 & likewise a s]ies :i* ,i h se5 f ,p4 ,alegre on ! s\!rn conf9es ( ,brazil4 ,?is porphyritic =mation fur!r resembles 9 a s+ul>ly close mann] ! l[e/ /ratifi$ =mation ( ! ,cordill]a ( ,*ile1 :i*1 z we %all h]eaft] see1 has a va/ range1 & atta9s a great ?ickness4 ,at ! bottom ( ! ,gulf ( ,/4 ,george1 only t]ti>y deposits appe> to be pres5t4 ,at ,cape ,blanco1 !re is qu>tz rock1 v l t ( ! ,falkl& ,isl&s1 & "s h>d1 blue silice\s clay-slate4 ,at ,port ,desire !re is an ext5sive =mation ( ! clay/one porphyry1 /ret*+ at lea/ tw5ty-five miles into ! int]ior3 x has be5 d5ud$ & deeply worn into gullies be=e be+ cov]$ up by ! t]ti>y deposits1 ?r\gh :i* x "h & !re projects 9 hills2 ^? nor? ( ! bay be+ #ddj feet 9 height4 ,! /rata h 9 sev]al places be5 tilt$ at small angles1 g5]ally ei!r to ,n4,n4,w4 or ,s4,s4,e4 ,by gradual passages & alt]nations1 ! porphyries *ange incessantly 9 nature4 ,i w describe only "s ( ! pr9cipal m9]alogical *anges1 :i* are highly in/ructive1 & :i* ,i c>efully exam9$4 ,! prevail+ rock has a compact purpli% base1 ) cry/als ( e>?y or opaque feldsp>1 & (t5 ) gra9s ( qu>tz4 ,!re are o!r v>ieties1 ) an almo/ truly tra*ytic base1 full ( little angul> vesicles & cry/als ( glassy feldsp>2 & !re are b$s ( black p]fect pit*/one1 z well z ( a concretion>y imp]fect v>iety4 ,on a casual inspection1 ! :ole s]ies w\ld be ?\ght to be ( ! same plutonic or volcanic nature ) ! tra*ytic v>ieties & pit*/one2 b ?is is f> f be+ ! case1 z mu* ( ! porphyry is c]ta9ly ( metamorphic orig94 ,besides ! true porphyries1 !re are _m b$s ( e>?y1 q :ite or yell[i%1 friable1 easily fusible matt]1 resembl+ *alk1 :i* "u ! microscope is se5 to consi/ ( m9ute brok5 cry/als1 & :i*1 z rem>k$ 9 a =m] *apt]1 s+ul>ly resembles ! upp] tuface\s b$s ( ! ,patagonian t]ti>y =mation4 ,?is e>?y sub/ance (t5 becomes co>s]1 & conta9s m9ute r\nd$ fragm5ts ( porphyries & r\nd$ gra9s ( qu>tz1 & 9 "o case s _m ( ! latt] z to resemble a common s&/one4 ,^! b$s are sometimes m>k$ ) true l9es ( aque\s deposition1 sep>at+ p>ticles ( diff]5t degrees ( co>s5ess2 9 o!r cases !re are p>allel f]rug9\s l9es n ( true deposition1 z %[n by ! arrangem5t ( ! p>ticles1 ?\gh s+ul>ly resembl+ !m4 ,! m indurat$ v>ieties (t5 include _m small & "s l>g] angul> cavities1 :i* appe> due to ! removal ( e>?y matt]3 "s v>ieties conta9 mica4 ,all ^! e>?y & g5]ally :ite /ones ins5sibly pass into m indurat$ sonor\s v>ieties1 break+ ) a con*oidal fracture1 yet ( small specific gravity2 _m ( ^! latt] v>ieties assume a pale purple t9t1 be+ s+ul>ly b&$ & ve9$ ) diff]5t %ades1 & (t5 become pla9ly porphyritic ) cry/als ( feldsp>4 ,! =mation ( ^! cry/als c\ld be mo/ cle>ly trac$ by m9ute angul> & (t5 p>tially holl[ pat*es ( e>?y matt]1 fir/ assum+ a fibr\s /ructure1 !n pass+ into opaque imp]fectly %ap$ cry/als1 & la/ly1 into p]fect glassy cry/als4 ,:5 ^! cry/als h appe>$1 & :5 ! basis has become compact1 ! rock 9 _m places c\ld n be di/+ui%$ f a true clay/one porphyry )\t a trace ( me*anical /ructure4 ,9 "s p>ts1 ^! e>?y or tuface\s b$s pass into jasp]y & into beautifully mottl$ & b&$ porcela9 rocks1 :i* break into spl9t]s1 transluc5t at _! edges1 h>d en\gh to scrat* glass1 & fusible into :ite transp>5t beads3 gra9s ( qu>tz includ$ 9 ! porcela9\s v>ieties c be se5 melt+ into ! surr\nd+ pa/e4 ,9 o!r p>ts1 ! e>?y or tuface\s b$s ei!r ins5sibly pass into1 or alt]nate )1 breccias compos$ ( l>ge & small fragm5ts ( v>i\s purpli% porphyries1 ) ! matrix g5]ally porphyritic3 ^! breccias1 ?\gh _! subaque\s orig9 is 9 _m places %[n bo? by ! arrangem5t ( _! small] p>ticles & by an oblique or curr5t lam9ation1 also pass into porphyries1 9 :i* e trace ( me*anical orig9 & /ratification has be5 oblit]at$4 ,"s highly porphyritic ?\gh co>se-gra9$ masses1 evid5tly ( s$im5t>y orig91 & divid$ into ?9 lay]s1 diff]+ f ea* o!r *iefly 9 ! numb] ( emb$d$ gra9s ( qu>tz1 int]e/$ me mu* f ! peculi> mann] 9 :i* "h & !re "s ( ! lay]s t]m9at$ 9 abrupt po9ts1 q unlike ^? produc$ by a lay] ( s$im5t naturally ?9n+ out1 & app>5tly ! result ( a subsequ5t process ( metamorphic aggregation4 ,9 ano!r common v>iety ( a f9] texture1 ! aggregat+ process _h gone fur!r1 = ! :ole mass consi/$ ( q %ort1 p>allel1 (t5 slightly curv$ lay]s or pat*es1 ( :iti% or r$di% f9ely granulo-cry/all9e feldspa?ic matt]1 g5]ally t]m9at+ at bo? ends 9 blunt po9ts2 ^! lay]s or pat*es fur!r t5d$ to pass into w$ge or almond-%ap$ little masses1 & ^! f9ally into true cry/als ( feldsp>1 ) _! c5tres (t5 slightly drusy4 ,! s]ies 0 s p]fect t ,i c\ld n d\bt t ^! l>ge cry/als1 :i* _h _! long] axes plac$ p>allel to ea* o!r1 _h prim>ily orig9at$ 9 ! metamorphosis & aggregation ( alt]nat+ lay]s ( tuff2 & h5ce _! p>allel position mu/ be attribut$ 7unexpect$ ?\gh ! conclusion may be71 n to laws ( *emical action1 b to ! orig9al planes ( deposition4 ,i am tempt$ briefly to describe ?ree o!r s+ul> alli$ v>ieties ( rock2 ! fir/ )\t exam9ation w\ld h pass$ = a /ratifi$ porphyritic breccia1 b all ! includ$ angul> fragm5ts consi/$ ( a bord] ( p9ki% cry/all9e feldspa?ic matt]1 surr\nd+ a d>k transluc5t silice\s c5tre1 9 :i* gra9s ( qu>tz n q bl5d$ into ! pa/e c\ld be di/+ui%$3 ?is uni=mity 9 ! nature ( ! fragm5ts %[s t !y are n ( me*anical1 b ( concretion>y orig91 hav+ result$ p]haps f ! self-break+ up & aggregation ( lay]s ( indurat$ tuff conta9+ num]\s gra9s ( qu>tz1--into :i*1 inde$1 ! :ole mass 9 "o "p pass$4 ,! second v>iety is a r$di% non-porphyritic clay/one1 q full ( sph]ical cavities1 ab\t half an in* 9 diamet]1 ea* l9$ ) a collaps$ cru/ =m$ ( cry/als ( qu>tz4 ,! ?ird v>iety also consi/s ( a pale purple non-porphyritic clay/one1 almo/ :olly =m$ ( concretion>y balls1 obscurely arrang$ 9 lay]s1 ( a less compact & pal] col\r$ clay/one2 ea* ball be+ on "o side p>tly holl[ & l9$ ) cry/als ( qu>tz4 ,pseudo-dikes4--,"s miles up ! h>b\r1 9 a l9e ( cliffs =m$ ( slightly metamorphos$ tuface\s & porphyritic clay/one b$s1 ,i obs]v$ ?ree v]tical dikes1 s closely resembl+ 9 g5]al appe>ance ord9>y volcanic dikes1 t ,i did n d\bt1 until closely exam9+ _! composition1 t !y _h be5 inject$ f bel[4 ,! fir/ is /raight1 ) p>allel sides1 & ab\t f\r feet wide2 x consi/s ( :iti%1 indurat$ tuface\s matt]1 precisely l "s ( ! b$s int]sect$ by x4 ,! second dike is m rem>kable2 x is slightly tortu\s1 ab\t eighte5 in*es ?ick1 & c be trac$ = a consid]able di/ance along ! bea*2 x is ( a purpli%-r$ or br[n col\r1 & is =m$ *iefly ( r\nd$ gra9s ( qu>tz1 ) brok5 cry/als ( e>?y feldsp>1 scales ( black mica1 & m9ute fragm5ts ( clay/one porphyry1 all firmly unit$ toge!r 9 a h>d sp>+ base4 ,! /ructure ( ?is dike %[s obvi\sly t x is ( me*anical & s$im5t>y orig92 yet x ?9n$ out upw>ds1 & did n cut ?r\gh ! upp]mo/ /rata 9 ! cliffs4 ,?is fact at fir/ appe>s to indicate t ! matt] c\ld n h be5 wa%$ 9 f above2#aj b if we reflect on ! suction :i* w\ld result f a deep-seat$ fissure be+ =m$1 we may admit t if ! fissure 7 9 any "p op5 to ! surface1 mud & wat] might well be drawn into x along its :ole c\rse4 ,! ?ird dike consi/$ ( a h>d1 r\gh1 :ite rock1 almo/ compos$ ( brok5 cry/als ( glassy feldsp>1 ) num]\s scales ( black mica1 cem5t$ 9 a scanty base2 !re 0 little 9 ! appe>ance ( ?is rock1 to preclude ! idea ( its hav+ be5 a true inject$ feldspa?ic dike4 ,! matt] compos+ ^! ?ree pseudo-dikes1 especially ! second "o1 appe>s to h suff]$1 l ! surr\nd+ /rata1 a c]ta9 degree ( metamorphic action2 & ?is has mu* aid$ ! deceptive appe>ance4 ,at ,bahia1 9 ,brazil1 we h se5 t a true inject$ hornbl5dic dike1 n only has suff]$ metamorphosis1 b has be5 dislocat$ & ev5 diffus$ 9 ! surr\nd+ gneiss1 "u ! =m ( sep>ate cry/als & ( fragm5ts4 #aj ,upfill$ fissures are kn[n to occur bo? 9 volcanic & 9 ord9>y s$im5t>y =mations4 ,at ! ,galapagos ,ar*ipelago 78,volcanic ,isl&s0 etc471 !re are "s /rik+ examples ( pseudo-dikes compos$ ( h>d tuff4 ,falkl& ,isl&s4--,i h describ$ ^! isl&s 9 a pap] publi%$ 9 ! ?ird volume ( ! ,geological ,j\rnal4 ,! m\nta9-ridges consi/ ( qu>tz1 & ! l[] c\ntry ( clay-slate & s&/one1 ! latt] conta9+ ,palozoic fossils4 ,^! fossils h be5 sep>ately describ$ by ,messrs4 ,morris & ,%>pe3 "s ( !m resemble ,silurian1 & o!rs ,devonian =ms4 ,9 ! ea/]n "p ( ! gr\p ! sev]al p>allel ridges ( qu>tz ext5d 9 a we/ & ea/ l9e2 b fur!r we/w>d ! l9e becomes ,w4,n4,w4 & ,e4,s4,e41 & ev5 /ill m nor!rly4 ,! cleavage-planes ( ! clay-slate are highly incl9$1 g5]ally at an angle ( above #ej1 & (t5 v]tical2 !y /rike almo/ inv>iably 9 ! same direction ) ! qu>tz ranges4 ,! outl9e ( ! ind5t$ %ores ( ! two ma9 isl&s1 & ! relative positions ( ! small] islets1 accord ) ! /rike bo? ( ! ma9 axes ( elevation & ( ! cleavage ( ! clay-slate4 ,ti]ra del ,fuego4--,my notes on ! geology ( ?is c\ntry are copi\s1 b z !y are unimportant1 & z fossils 7 f\nd only 9 "o di/rict1 a brief sket* w be "h suffici5t4 ,! ea/ coa/ f ! ,s4 ( ,magellan 7:]e ! b\ld] =mation is l>gely develop$7 to ,/4 ,polyc>p's ,bay is =m$ ( horizontal t]ti>y /rata1 b\nd$ "s way t[>ds ! int]ior by a broad m\nta9\s b& ( clay-slate4 ,?is great clay-slate =mation ext5ds f ,/4 ,le ,maire we/w>d = #adj miles1 along bo? sides ( ! ,beagle ,*annel to ne> its bifurcation4 ,s\? ( ?is *annel1 x =ms all ,nav>9 ,isl&1 & ! ea/]n half ( ,ho/e ,isl& & ( ,h>dy ,p59sula2 nor? ( ! ,beagle ,*annel x ext5ds 9 a nor?-we/ l9e on bo? sides ( ,admiralty ,s\nd to ,brunswick ,p59sula 9 ! ,/4 ( ,magellan1 & ,i h reason to believe1 /ret*es f> up ! ea/]n side ( ! ,cordill]a4 ,! we/]n & brok5 side ( ,ti]ra del ,fuego t[>ds ! ,pacific is =m$ ( metamorphic s*i/s1 granite & v>i\s trappean rocks3 ! l9e ( sep>ation betwe5 ! cry/all9e & clay-slate =mations c g5]ally be di/+ui%$1 z rem>k$ by ,capta9 ,k+1#aa by ! p>allelism 9 ! clay-slate di/ricts ( ! %ores & *annels1 rang+ 9 a l9e betwe5 ,w4 #bj to #dj ,n4 & ,e4 #bj to #dj ,s44 #aa ,geographical ,j\rnal1 vol4 i1 p4 #aee4 ,! clay-slate is g5]ally fissile1 sometimes silice\s or f]rug9\s1 ) ve9s ( qu>tz & calc>e\s sp>2 x (t5 assumes1 especially on ! l(ti] m\nta9s1 an alt]$ feldspa?ic "*1 pass+ into feldspa?ic porphyry3 occasionally x is associat$ ) breccia & grauwacke4 ,at ,good ,success ,bay1 !re is a little int]calat$ black cry/all9e lime/one4 ,at ,port ,fam9e mu* ( ! clay-slate is calc>e\s1 & passes ei!r into a mud/one or into grauwacke1 includ+ odd-%ap$ concretions ( d>k argillace\s lime/one4 ,"h alone1 on ! %ore a few miles nor? ( ,port ,fam9e1 & on ! summit ( ,m\nt ,t>n 7#b1fjj feet high71 ,i f\nd organic rema9s2 !y consi/ (3-- ,ancyloc]as simplex1 d',orbigny1 8,pal ,franc10 ,m\nt ,t>n4 ,fusus 79 imp]fect /ate71 d',orbigny1 8,pal ,franc10 ,m\nt ,t>n4 ,natica1 d',orbigny1 8,pal ,franc10 ,m\nt ,t>n4 ,p5tacrimus1 d',orbigny1 8,pal ,franc10 ,m\nt ,t>n4 ,luc9a exc5trica1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by1 ,port ,fam9e4 ,v5us 79 imp]fect /ate71 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by1 ,port ,fam9e4 ,turb9olia 7871 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by1 ,port ,fam9e4 ,hamites elatior1 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by1 ,port ,fam9e4 ,m4 d',orbigny /ates#ab t ,,mm4 ,hombron & ,grange f\nd 9 ?is neighb\rhood an ,ancyloc]as1 p]haps ,a4 simplex1 an ,ammonite1 a ,plicatula & ,modiola4 ,m4 d',orbigny believes f ! g5]al "* ( ^! fossils1 & f ! ,ancyloc]as be+ id5tical 7z f> z its imp]fect condition all[s ( comp>ison7 ) ! ,a4 simplex ( ,europe1 t ! =mation belongs to an e>ly /age ( ! ,cretace\s sy/em4 ,pr(essor ,e4 ,=bes1 judg+ only f my specim5s1 concurs 9 ! probability ( ?is conclusion4 ,! ,hamites elatior ( ! above li/1 ( :i* a description has be5 giv5 by ,mr4 ,s[]by1 & :i* is rem>kable f its l>ge size1 has n be5 se5 ei!r by ,m4 d',orbigny or ,pr(essor ,e4 ,=bes1 z1 s9ce my return to ,engl&1 ! specim5s h be5 lo/4 ,! great clay-slate =mation ( ,ti]ra del ,fuego be+ cretace\s1 is c]ta9ly a v int]e/+ fact1--:e!r we consid] ! appe>ance ( ! c\ntry1 :i*1 )\t ! evid5ce af=d$ by ! fossils1 w\ld =m ! analogy ( mo/ kn[n di/ricts1 probably h be5 consid]$ z belong+ to ! ,palozoic s]ies1--or :e!r we view x z %[+ t ! age ( ?is t]m9al portion ( ! great axis ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 is ! same 7z w h]eaft] be se57 ) ! ,cordill]a ( ,*ile & ,p]u4 #ab 8,voyage10 ,"p ,golog41 p4 #bdb4 ,! clay-slate 9 _m p>ts ( ,ti]ra del ,fuego1 is brok5 by dikes#ac & by great masses ( gre5/one1 (t5 highly hornbl5dic3 almo/ all ! small islets )9 ! clay-slate di/ricts are ?us compos$4 ,! slate ne> ! dikes g5]ally becomes pal]-col\r$1 h>d]1 less fissile1 ( a feldspa?ic nature1 & passes into a porphyry or gre5/one3 9 "o case1 h[ev]1 x became m fissile1 ( a r$ col\r1 & conta9$ m9ute scales ( mica1 :i* 7 abs5t 9 ! unalt]$ rock4 ,on ! ea/ side ( ,ponsonby ,s\nd "s dikes compos$ ( a pale sonor\s feldspa?ic rock1 porphyritic ) a little feldsp>1 7 rem>kable f _! numb]1--!re be+ )9 ! space ( a mile at lea/ "o hundr$1--f _! ne>ly equall+ 9 bulk ! int]m$iate slate1--& m especially f ! excessive f95ess 7l ! f9e/ inlaid c>p5try7 & p]fect p>allelism ( _! junctions ) ! almo/ v]tical lam9 ( clay-slate4 ,i 0 unable to p]suade myself t ^! great p>allel masses _h be5 inject$1 until ,i f\nd "o dike :i* abruptly ?9n$ out to half its ?ickness1 & _h "o ( its walls jagg$1 ) fragm5ts ( ! slate emb$d$ 9 x4 #ac ,9 a gre5/one-dike 9 ! ,magdal5 ,*annel1 ! feldsp> cleav$ ) ! angle ( albite4 ,?is dike 0 cross$1 z well z ! surr\nd+ slate1 by a l>ge ve9 ( qu>tz1 a circum/ance ( unusual occurr5ce4 ,9 ,s\!rn ,ti]ra del ,fuego1 ! clay-slate t[>ds its ,s4,w4 b\nd>y1 becomes mu* alt]$ & feldspa?ic4 ,?us on ,wolla/on ,isl& slate & grauwacke c be di/9ctly trac$ pass+ into feldspa?ic rocks & gre5/ones1 includ+ iron pyrites & epidote1 b /ill reta9+ traces ( cleavage ) ! usual /rike & dip4 ,"o su* metamorphos$ mass 0 trav]s$ by l>ge ve9-l masses ( a beautiful mixture 7z asc]ta9$ by ,pr(essor ,mill]7 ( gre5 epidote1 g>nets1 & :ite calc>e\s sp>4 ,on ! nor!rn po9t ( ?is same isl&1 !re 7 v>i\s anci5t subm>9e volcanic rocks1 consi/+ ( amygdaloids ) d>k bole & agate1--( basalt ) decompos$ oliv9e--( compact lava ) glassy feldsp>1--& ( a co>se conglom]ate ( r$ scori1 p>ts be+ amygdaloidal ) c>bonate ( lime4 ,! s\!rn "p ( ,wolla/on ,isl& & ! :ole ( ,h]mite & ,horn ,isl&s1 seem =m$ ( cones ( gre5/one2 ! outly+ islets ( ,il ,def5so & ,d4 ,ram9ez are said#ad to consi/ ( porphyritic lava4 ,9 cross+ ,h>dy ,p59sula1 ! slate /ill reta9+ traces ( its usual cleavage1 passes into column> feldspa?ic rocks1 :i* are succe$$ by an irregul> tract ( trappean & basaltic rocks1 conta9+ glassy feldsp> & mu* iron pyrites3 !re is1 also1 "s h>% r$ clay/one porphyry1 & an almo/ true tra*yte1 ) ne$les ( hornbl5de1 & 9 "o spot a curi\s slaty rock divid$ into quadrangul> columns1 hav+ a base almo/ l tra*yte1 ) drusy cavities l9$ by cry/als1 too imp]fect1 accord+ to ,pr(essor ,mill]1 to be measur$1 b resembl+ ,zeagonite4#ae ,9 ! mid/ ( ^! s+ul> rocks1 no d\bt ( anci5t subm>9e volcanic orig91 a high hill ( feldspa?ic clay-slate project$1 reta9+ its usual cleavage4 ,ne> ?is po9t1 !re 0 a small hillock1 hav+ ! aspect ( granite1 b =m$ ( :ite albite1 brilliant cry/als ( hornbl5de 7bo? asc]ta9$ by ! reflect+ goniomet]7 & mica2 b ) no qu>tz4 ,no rec5t volcanic di/rict has be5 obs]v$ 9 any "p ( ,ti]ra del ,fuego4 #ad ,det]m9$ by ,pr(essor ,jameson4 ,w$dell's 8,voyage10 p4 #afi4 #ae ,see ,mr4 ,brooke's ,pap] 9 ! ,london ,phil4 ,mag41 vol4 x4 ,?is m9]al occurs 9 an anci5t volcanic rock ne> ,rome4 ,five miles we/ ( ! bifurcation ( ! ,beagle ,*annel1 ! slate-=mation1 in/ead ( becom+1 z 9 ! m s\!rn p>ts ( ,ti]ra del ,fuego1 feldspa?ic1 & associat$ ) trappean or old volcanic rocks1 passes by alt]nations into a great und]ly+ mass ( f9e gneiss & glossy clay-slate1 :i* at no great di/ance is succe$$ by a gr& =mation ( mica-slate conta9+ g>nets4 ,! folia ( ^! metamorphic s*i/s /rike p>allel to ! cleavage-planes ( ! clay-slate1 :i* h a v uni=m direction ov] ! :ole ( ?is "p ( ! c\ntry3 ! folia1 h[ev]1 are undulatory & tortu\s1 :il/ ! cleavage-lam9 ( ! slate are /raight4 ,^! s*i/s compose ! *ief m\nta9-*a9 ( ,s\!rn ,ti]ra del ,fuego1 rang+ along ! nor? side ( ! nor!rn arm ( ! ,beagle ,*annel1 9 a %ort ,w4,n4,w4 & ,e4,s4,e4 l9e1 ) two po9ts 7,m\nts ,s>mi5to & ,d>w97 ris+ to heights ( #f1hjj & #f1ijj feet4 ,on ! s\?-we/]n side ( ?is nor!rn arm ( ! ,beagle ,*annel1 ! clay-slate is se5 ) its /rata dipp+ f ! great *a91 s t ! metamorphic s*i/s "h =m a ridge bord]$ on ea* side by clay-slate4 ,fur!r nor?1 h[ev]1 to ! we/ ( ?is great range1 !re is no clay-slate1 b only gneiss1 mica1 & hornbl5dic slates1 re/+ on great b>r5 hills ( true granite1 & =m+ a tract ab\t sixty miles 9 wid?4 ,aga91 we/w>d ( ^! rocks1 ! out]mo/ isl&s are ( trappean =mation1 :i*1 f in=mation obta9$ dur+ ! voyages ( ! ,adv5ture & ,beagle1#af seem1 toge!r ) granite1 *iefly to prevail along ! we/]n coa/ z f> nor? z ! entrance ( ! ,/4 ( ,magellan3 a little m inl&1 on ! ea/]n side ( ,cl>5ce ,isl& & ,s4 ,desolation1 granite1 gre5/one1 mica-slate1 & gneiss appe> to pr$om9ate4 ,i am tempt$ to believe1 t :]e ! clay-slate has be5 metamorphos$ at great dep?s b5ea? ! surface1 gneiss1 mica-slate1 & o!r alli$ rocks h be5 =m$1 b :]e ! action has tak5 place ne>] ! surface1 feldspa?ic porphyries1 gre5/ones1 etc41 h result$1 (t5 accompani$ by subm>9e volcanic eruptions4 #af ,see ! ,pap] by ,capta9 ,k+ 9 ! ,geograph4 ,j\rnal2 also a ,lett] to ,dr4 ,fitton 9 8,geolog4 ,proc410 vol4 i1 p4 #bi2 also "s obs]vations by ,capta9 ,fitzroy1 8,voyages10 vol4 i1 p4 #cge4 ,i am indebt$ also to ,mr4 ,lyell = a s]ies ( specim5s collect$ by ,lieut5ant ,graves4 ,only "o o!r rock1 met ) 9 bo? arms ( ! ,beagle ,*annel1 des]ves any notice1 namely a granulo-cry/all9e mixture ( :ite albite1 black hornbl5de 7asc]ta9$ by measurem5t ( ! cry/als1 & confirm$ by ,pr(essor ,mill]71 & m or less ( br[n mica1 b )\t any qu>tz4 ,?is rock occurs 9 l>ge masses1 closely resembl+ 9 ext]nal =m granite or sy5ite3 9 ! s\!rn arm ( ! ,*annel1 "o su* mass und]lies ! mica-slate1 on :i* clay-slate 0 sup]impos$3 ?is peculi> plutonic rock :i*1 z we h se51 occurs also 9 ,h>dy ,p59sula1 is int]e/+1 f its p]fect simil>ity ) t 7h]eaft] (t5 to be ref]r$ to "u ! "n ( &esite7 =m+ ! great inject$ axes ( ! ,cordill]a ( ,*ile4 ,! /ratification ( ! clay-slate is g5]ally v obscure1 :]eas ! cleavage is rem>kably well def9$3 to beg9 ) ! extreme ea/]n p>ts ( ,ti]ra del ,fuego2 ! cleavage-planes ne> ! ,/4 ( ,le ,maire /rike ei!r ,w4 & ,e4 or ,w4,s4,w4 & ,e4,n4,e41 & are highly incl9$2 ! =m ( ! l&1 includ+ ,/at5 ,isl&1 indicates t ! axes ( elevation h run 9 ?is same l9e1 ?\gh ,i 0 unable to di/+ui% ! planes ( /ratification4 ,proce$+ we/w>d1 ,i accurately exam9$ ! cleavage ( ! clay-slate on ! nor!rn1 ea/]n1 & we/]n sides 7?irty-five miles ap>t7 ( ,nav>9 ,isl&1 & ev]y:]e f\nd ! lam9 rang+ ) extreme regul>ity1 ,w4,n4,w4 & ,e4,s4,e41 seldom v>y+ m ?an "o po9t ( ! compass f ?is direction4#ag ,bo? on ! ea/ & we/ coa/s1 ,i cross$ at "r angles ! cleavage-planes = a space ( ab\t eight miles1 & f\nd !m dipp+ at an angle ( betwe5 #de & #ij1 g5]ally to ,s4,s4,w41 sometimes to ,n4,n4,e41 & (t5 q v]tically4 ,! ,s4,s4,w4 dip 0 occasionally succe$$ abruptly by a ,n4,n4,e4 dip1 & ?is by a v]tical cleavage1 or aga9 by ! ,s4,s4,w4 dip2 z 9 a l(ty cliff on ! ea/]n end ( ! isl& ! lam9 ( slate 7 se5 to be fold$ into v l>ge /eep curves1 rang+ 9 ! usual ,w4,n4,w4 l9e1 ,i suspect t ! v>y+ & opposite dips may possibly be acc\nt$ = by ! cleavage-lam91 ?\gh to ! eye appe>+ /raight1 be+ p>ts ( l>ge abrupt curves1 ) _! summits cut (f & worn d[n4 #ag ,! clay-slate 9 ?is isl& 0 9 _m places cross$ by p>allel smoo? jo9ts4 ,out ( five cases1 ! angle ( int]section betwe5 ! /rike ( ^! jo9ts & t ( ! cleavage-lam9 0 9 two cases #de & 9 two o!rs #gi4 ,9 sev]al places ,i 0 p>ticul>ly /ruck ) ! fact1 t ! f9e lam9 ( ! clay-slate1 :]e cutt+ /raight ?r\gh ! b&s ( /ratification1 & !re=e indisputably true cleavage-planes1 diff]$ slightly 9 _! greyi% & gre5i% t9ts ( col\r1 9 compactness1 & 9 "s ( ! lam9 hav+ a r m jasp]y appe>ance ?an o!rs4 ,i h n se5 ?is fact record$1 & x appe>s to me important1 = x %[s t ! same cause :i* has produc$ ! highly fissile /ructure1 has alt]$ 9 a slight degree ! m9]alogical "* ( ! rock 9 ! same planes4 ,! b&s ( /ratification1 j allud$ to1 c be di/+ui%$ 9 _m places1 especially 9 ,nav>9 ,isl&1 b only on ! wea!r$ surfaces ( ! slate2 !y consi/ ( slightly undulatory zones ( diff]5t %ades ( col\r & ( ?icknesses1 & resemble ! m>ks 7m closely ?an any?+ else to :i* ,i c comp>e !m7 left on ! inside ( a vessel by ! dra9+ away ( "s dirty slightly agitat$ liquid3 no diff]5ce 9 composition1 correspond+ ) ^! zones1 c\ld be se5 9 fre%ly fractur$ surfaces4 ,9 ! m level p>ts ( ,nav>9 ,isl&1 ^! b&s ( /ratification 7 ne>ly horizontal2 b on ! flanks ( ! m\nta9s !y 7 incl9$ f !m1 b 9 no in/ance t ,i saw at a v high angle4 ,!re c1 ,i ?9k1 be no d\bt t ^! zones1 :i* appe> only on ! wea!r$ surfaces1 are ! la/ ve/iges ( ! orig9al planes ( /ratification1 n[ almo/ oblit]at$ by ! highly fissile & alt]$ /ructure :i* ! mass has assum$4 ,! clay-slate cleaves 9 ! same ,w4,n4,w4 & ,e4,s4,e4 direction1 z on ,nav>9 ,isl&1 on bo? sides ( ! ,beagle ,*annel1 on ! ea/]n side ( ,ho/e ,isl&1 on ! ,n4,e4 side ( ,h>dy ,p59sula1 & on ! nor!rn po9t ( ,wolla/on ,isl&2 al?\gh 9 ^! two latt] localities ! cleavage has be5 mu* obscur$ by ! metamorphos$ & feldspa?ic condition ( ! slate4 ,)9 ! area ( ^! sev]al isl&s1 includ+ ,nav>9 ,isl&1 ! direction ( ! /ratification & ( ! m\nta9-*a9s is v obscure2 ?\gh ! m\nta9s 9 sev]al places appe>$ to range 9 ! same ,w4,n4,w4 l9e ) ! cleavage3 ! outl9e ( ! coa/1 h[ev]1 does n correspond ) ?is l9e4 ,ne> ! bifurcation ( ! ,beagle ,*annel1 :]e ! und]ly+ metamorphic s*i/s are fir/ se51 !y are foliat$ 7) "s irregul>ities71 9 ?is same ,w4,n4,w4 l9e1 & p>allel1 z be=e /at$1 to ! ma9 m\nta9-axis ( ?is "p ( ! c\ntry4 ,we/w>d ( ?is ma9 range1 ! metamorphic s*i/s are foliat$1 ?\gh less pla9ly1 9 ! same direction1 :i* is likewise common to ! zone ( old erupt$ trappean rocks1 =m+ ! out]mo/ islets4 ,h5ce ! area1 ov] :i* ! cleavage ( ! slate & ! foliation ( ! metamorphic s*i/s ext5ds ) an av]age ,w4,n4,w4 & ,e4,s4,e4 /rike1 is ab\t =ty miles 9 a nor? & s\? l9e1 & n9ety miles 9 an ea/ & we/ l9e4 ,fur!r nor?w>d1 ne> ,port ,fam9e1 ! /ratification ( ! clay-slate & ( ! associat$ rocks1 is well def9$1 & !re alone ! cleavage & /rata-planes are p>allel4 ,a little nor? ( ?is port !re is an anticl9al axis rang+ ,n4,w4 7or a little m we/]ly7 & ,s4,e43 s\? ( ! port1 z f> z ,admiralty ,s\nd & ,gabriel ,*annel1 ! outl9e ( ! l& cle>ly indicates ! exi/5ce ( sev]al l9es ( elevation 9 ?is same ,n4,w4 direction1 :i*1 ,i may add1 is s uni=m 9 ! we/]n half ( ! ,/4 ( ,magellan1 t1 z ,capta9 ,k+#ah has rem>k$1 8a p>allel rul] plac$ on ! map ^u ! project+ po9ts ( ! s\? %ore1 & ext5d$ across ! /rait1 w also t\* ! headl&s on ! opposite coa/40 ,x w\ld appe>1 f ,capta9 ,k+'s obs]vations1 t ov] all ?is area ! cleavage ext5ds 9 ! same l9e4 ,deep-wat] *annels1 h[ev]1 9 all p>ts ( ,ti]ra del ,fuego h bur/ ?r\gh ! trammels bo? ( /ratification & cleavage2 mo/ ( !m may h be5 =m$ dur+ ! elevation ( ! l& by long-cont9u$ erosion1 b o!rs1 = in/ance ! ,beagle ,*annel1 :i* /ret*es l a n>r[ canal = #abj miles obliquely ?r\gh ! m\nta9s1 c h>dly h ?us orig9at$4 #ah ,geograph4 ,j\rnal1 vol4 i1 p4 #agj4 ,f9ally1 we h se5 t 9 ! extreme ea/]n po9t ( ,ti]ra del ,fuego1 ! cleavage & coa/-l9es ext5d ,w4 & ,e4 & ev5 ,w4,s4,w4 & ,e4,n4,e43 ov] a l>ge area we/w>d1 ! cleavage1 ! ma9 range ( m\nta9s1 & "s subord9ate ranges1 b n ! outl9es ( ! coa/1 /rike ,w4,n4,w41 & ,e4,s4,e43 9 ! c5tral & we/]n p>ts ( ! ,/4 ( ,magellan1 ! /ratification1 ! m\nta9-ranges1 ! outl9es ( ! coa/1 & ! cleavage all /rike ne>ly ,n4,w4 & ,s4,e4 ,nor? ( ! /rait1 ! outl9e ( ! coa/1 & ! m\nta9s on ! ma9l&1 run ne>ly nor? & s\?4 ,h5ce we see1 at ?is s\!rn po9t ( ! cont95t1 h[ gradually ! ,cordill]a b5d1 f _! nor? & s\? c\rse ( s _m ?\s& miles 9 l5g?1 into an ,e4 & ev5 ,e4,n4,e4 direction4 ,we/ coa/1 f ! ,s\!rn ,*onos ,isl&s to ,nor!rn ,*ile4--,! fir/ place at :i* we l&$ nor? ( ! ,/4 ( ,magellan 0 ne> ,cape ,tres ,montes1 9 lat4 #dg ,s4 ,betwe5 ?is po9t & ! ,nor!rn ,*onos ,isl&s1 a di/ance ( #bjj miles1 ! ,beagle visit$ sev]al po9ts1 & specim5s 7 collect$ = me f ! int]m$iate spaces by ,lieut5ant ,/okes4 ,! pr$om9ant rock is mica-slate1 ) ?ick folia ( qu>tz1 v frequ5tly alt]nat+ ) & pass+ into a *loritic1 or into a black1 glossy1 (t5 /riat$1 slightly an?racitic s*i/1 :i* soils pap]1 & becomes :ite "u a great heat1 & !n fuses4 ,?9 lay]s ( feldsp>1 swell+ at int]vals into well cry/allis$ k]nels1 are sometimes includ$ 9 ^! black s*i/s2 & ,i obs]v$ "o mass ( ! ord9>y black v>iety ins5sibly lose its fissile /ructure1 & pass into a s+ul> mixture ( *lorite1 epidote1 feldsp>1 & mica4 ,great ve9s ( qu>tz are num]\s 9 ! mica-s*i/s2 :]ev] ^! occur ! folia are mu* convolut$4 ,9 ! s\!rn "p ( ! ,p59sula ( ,tres ,montes1 a compact alt]$ feldspa?ic rock ) cry/als ( feldsp> & gra9s ( qu>tz is ! commone/ v>iety2 ?is rock#ai exhibits occasionally traces ( an orig9al brecciat$ /ructure1 & (t5 pres5ts 7l ! alt]$ /ate ( ,ti]ra del ,fuego7 traces ( cleavage-planes1 :i* /rike 9 ! same direction ) ! folia ( mica-s*i/ fur!r nor?w>d4 ,at ,in*emo ,isl&1 a simil> rock gradually becomes granulo-cry/all9e & acquires scales ( mica2 & ?is v>iety at ,s4 ,e/evan becomes highly lam9at$1 & ?\gh /ill exhibit+ "s r\nd$ gra9s ( qu>tz1 passes into ! black1 glossy1 slightly an?racitic s*i/1 :i*1 z we h se51 repeat$ly alt]nates ) & passes into ! micace\s & *loritic s*i/s4 ,h5ce all ! rocks on ?is l9e ( coa/ belong to "o s]ies1 & ins5sibly v>y f an alt]$ feldspa?ic clay-slate into l>gely foliat$1 true mica-s*i/4 #ai ,! peculi>1 abruptly conical =m ( ! hills 9 ?is neighb\rhood1 w\ld h l$ any "o at fir/ to h suppos$ t !y _h be5 =m$ ( inject$ or intrusive rocks4 ,! cleavage ( ! homog5e\s s*i/s1 ! foliation ( ^? compos$ ( m or less di/9ct m9]als 9 lay]s1 & ! planes ( alt]nation ( ! diff]5t v>ieties or s-call$ /ratification1 are all p>allel1 & pres]ve ov] ?is #bjj miles ( coa/ a rem>kable degree ( uni=mity 9 direction4 ,at ! nor!rn end ( ! gr\p1 at ,l['s ,h>b\r1 ! well-def9$ folia ( mica-s*i/ ev]y:]e rang$ )9 eight degrees 7or less ?an "o po9t ( ! compass7 ( ,n4 #ai ,w4 & ,s4 #ai ,e42 & ev5 ! po9t ( dip v>i$ v little1 be+ always direct$ to ! we/ & g5]ally at an angle ( =ty degrees2 ,i %\ld m5tion t ,i _h "h good opportunities ( obs]vation1 = ,i foll[$ ! nak$ rock on ! bea*1 transv]sely to ! /rike1 = a di/ance ( f\r miles & a half1 & all ! way att5d$ to ! dip4 ,along ! out] isl&s = #ajj miles s\? ( ,l['s ,h>b\r1 ,lieut5ant ,/okes1 dur+ 8 boat-survey1 k9dly obs]v$ = me ! /rike ( ! foliation1 & he assures me t x 0 inv>iably nor!rly1 & ! dip ) "o s+le exception to ! we/4 ,fur!r s\? at ,vall5> ,bay1 ! /rike 0 almo/ univ]sally ,n4 #be ,w4 & ! dip1 g5]ally at an angle ( ab\t #dj to ,w4 #be ,s41 b 9 "s places almo/ v]tical4 ,/ill f>!r s\?1 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! h>b\rs ( ,anna ,p9k1 ,s4 ,e/evan & ,s4 ,&res1 & 7judg+ f a di/ance7 along ! s\!rn "p ( ,tres ,montes1 ! foliation & cleavage ext5d$ 9 a l9e betwe5 ,n4 #aa to #bb ,w4 & ,s4 #aa to #bb ,e42 & ! planes dipp$ g5]ally we/]ly1 b (t5 ea/]ly1 at angles v>y+ f a g5tle incl9ation to v]tical4 ,at ,a4 ,p9k's ,h>b\r1 :]e ! s*i/s g5]ally dipp$ ea/]ly1 :]ev] ! angle became v high1 ! /rike *ang$ f ,n4 #aa ,w4 to ev5 z mu* z ,n4 #de ,w43 9 an analog\s mann] at ,vall5> ,bay1 :]e ! dip 0 we/]ly 7viz4 on an av]age direct$ to ,w4 #be ,s471 z soon z ! angle became v high1 ! planes /ruck 9 a l9e m ?an #be we/ ( nor?4 ,! av]age result f all ! obs]vations on ?is #bjj miles ( coa/1 is a /rike ( ,n4 #ai ,w4 & ,s4 #ai ,e43 consid]+ t 9 ea* specifi$ place my exam9ation ext5d$ ov] an area ( sev]al miles1 & t ,lieut5ant ,/okes' obs]vations apply to a l5g? ( #ajj miles1 ,i ?9k ?is rem>kable uni=mity is pretty well e/abli%$4 ,! preval5ce1 ?r\gh\t ! nor!rn half ( ?is l9e ( coa/1 ( a dip 9 "o direction1 t is to ! we/1 in/ead ( be+ sometimes we/ & sometimes ea/1 is1 judg+ f :at ,i h else:]e se51 an unusual circum/ance4 ,9 ,brazil1 ,la ,plata1 ! ,falkl& ,isl&s1 & ,ti]ra del ,fuego1 !re is g5]ally an obvi\s relation betwe5 ! axis ( elevation1 ! outl9e ( ! coa/1 & ! /rike ( ! cleavage or foliation3 9 ! ,*onos ,ar*ipelago1 h[ev]1 nei!r ! m9or details ( ! coa/-l9e1 nor ! *a9 ( ! ,cordill]a1 nor ! subord9ate transv]se m\nta9-axes1 accord ) ! /rike ( ! foliation & cleavage3 ! seaw>d face ( ! num]\s isl&s compos+ ?is ,ar*ipelago1 & app>5tly ! l9e ( ! ,cordill]a1 range ,n4 #aa ,e41 :]eas1 z we h j se51 ! av]age /rike ( ! foliation is ,n4 #ai ,w4 ,!re is "o int]e/+ exception to ! uni=mity 9 ! /rike ( ! foliation4 ,at ! nor!rn po9t ( ,tres ,montes 7lat4 #de #eb7 a bold *a9 ( granite1 betwe5 two & ?ree ?\s& feet 9 height1 runs f ! coa/ f> into ! int]ior1#bj 9 an ,e4,s4,e4 l9e1 or m /rictly ,e4 #bh ,s4 & ,w4 #bh ,n4 ,9 a bay1 at ! nor!rn foot ( ?is range1 !re are a few islets ( mica-slate1 ) ! folia 9 "s p>ts horizontal1 b mo/ly incl9$ at an av]age angle ( #bj to ! nor?4 ,on ! nor!rn /eep flank ( ! range1 !re are a few pat*es 7"s q isolat$1 & n l>g] ?an half-a-cr[n67 ( ! mica-s*i/1 foliat$ ) ! same nor!rly dip4 ,on ! broad summit1 z f> z ! s\!rn cre/1 !re is mu* mica-slate1 9 "s places ev5 #djj feet 9 ?ickness1 ) ! folia all dipp+ nor?1 at angles v>y+ f #e to #bj1 b sometimes m\nt+ up to #cj4 ,! s\!rn flank consi/s ( b>e granite4 ,! mica-slate is p5etrat$ by small ve9s#ba ( granite1 bran*+ f ! ma9 body4 ,leav+ out ( view ! preval5t /rike ( ! folia 9 o!r p>ts ( ?is ,ar*ipelago1 x might h be5 expect$ t !y w\ld h dipp$ ,n4 #bh ,e41 t is directly f ! ridge1 &1 consid]+ its abruptness1 at a high incl9ation2 b ! real dip1 z we h j se51 bo? at ! foot & on ! nor!rn flank1 & ov] ! entire summit1 is at a small angle1 & direct$ ne>ly due nor?4 ,f ^! consid]ations x occurr$ to me1 t p]haps we "h _h ! novel & curi\s case ( already incl9$ lam9 obliquely tilt$ at a subsequ5t p]iod by ! granitic axis4 ,mr4 ,hopk9s1 s well kn[n f 8 ma!matical inve/igations1 has mo/ k9dly calculat$ ! problem3 ! proposition s5t 01--,take a di/rict compos$ ( lam91 dipp+ at an angle ( #dj degrees to ,w4 #ai ,s41 & let an axis ( elevation trav]se x 9 an ,e4 #bh ,s4 l9e1 :at w ! position ( ! lam9 be on ! nor!rn flank aft] a tilt1 we w fir/ suppose1 ( #de8 ,mr4 ,hopk9s in=ms me1 t ! angle ( ! dip w be #bh #ca1 & its direction to nor? #cj #cc we/4#bb ,by v>y+ ! suppos$ angle ( ! tilt1 our previ\sly incl9$ folia c be ?r[n into any angle betwe5 #bf1 :i* is ! lea/ possible angle1 & #ij2 b if a small incl9ation be ?us giv5 to !m1 _! po9t ( dip w dep>t f> f ! nor?1 & !re=e n accord ) ! actual position ( ! folia ( mica-s*i/ on our granitic range4 ,h5ce x appe>s v difficult1 )\t v>y+ consid]ably ! elem5ts ( ! problem1 ?us to expla9 ! anomal\s /rike & dip ( ! foliat$ mica-s*i/1 especially 9 ^? p>ts1 namely1 at ! base ( ! range1 :]e ! folia are almo/ horizontal4 ,mr4 ,hopk9s1 h[ev]1 adds1 t great irregul>ities & lat]al ?ru/s might be expect$ 9 e great l9e ( elevation1 & t ^! w\ld acc\nt = consid]able deviations f ! calculat$ results3 consid]+ t ! granitic axis1 z %[n by ! ve9s1 has indisputably be5 inject$ aft] ! p]fect =mation ( ! mica-slate1 & consid]+ ! uni=mity ( ! /rike ( ! folia ?r\gh\t ! re/ ( ! ,ar*ipelago1 ,i _c b /ill ?9k t _! anomal\s position at ?is "o po9t is someway directly & me*anically relat$ to ! intrusion ( ?is ,w4,n4,w4 & ,e4,s4,e4 m\nta9-*a9 ( granite4 #bj ,9 ! di/ance1 o!r m\nta9s c\ld be se5 app>5tly rang+ ,n4,n4,e4 & ,s4,s4,w4 at "r angles to ?is "o4 ,i may add1 t n f> f ,vall5> ,bay !re is a f9e range1 app>5tly ( granite1 :i* has bur/ ?r\gh ! mica-slate 9 a ,n4,e4 by ,e4 & ,s4,w4 by ,s4 l9e4 #ba ,! granite )9 ^! ve9s1 z well z g5]ally at ! junction ) ! mica-slate1 is m qu>tzose ?an else:]e4 ,! granite1 ,i may add1 is trav]s$ by dikes runn+ = a v great l5g? 9 ! l9e ( ! m\nta9s2 !y are compos$ ( a some:at lam9at$ eurite1 conta9+ cry/als ( feldsp>1 hornbl5de1 & octagons ( qu>tz4 #bb ,on ! s\? side ( ! axis 7:]e1 h[ev]1 ,i did n see any mica-slate7 ! dip ( ! folia w\ld be at an angle ( #gg #ee1 direct$ to we/ #ce #cc s\?4 ,h5ce ! two po9ts ( dip on ! opposite sides ( ! range1 in/ead ( be+ z 9 ord9>y cases directly oppos$ to ea* o!r at an angle ( #ahj1 w\ld "h be only #hf #ej ap>t4 ,dikes are frequ5t 9 ! metamorphic s*i/s ( ! ,*onos ,isl&s1 & seem feebly to repres5t t great b& ( trappean & anci5t volcanic rocks on ! s\?-we/]n coa/ ( ,ti]ra del ,fuego4 ,at ,s4 ,&res ,i obs]v$ 9 ! space ( half-a-mile1 sev5 broad1 p>allel dikes1 compos$ ( ?ree v>ieties ( trap1 runn+ 9 a ,n4,w4 & ,s4,e4 l9e1 p>allel to ! neighb\r+ m\nta9-ranges ( alt]$ clay-slate2 b !y mu/ be ( long subsequ5t orig9 to ^! m\nta9s2 = !y int]sect$ ! volcanic =mation describ$ 9 ! la/ *apt]4 ,nor? ( ,tres ,montes1 ,i notic$ ?ree dikes diff]+ f ea* o!r 9 composition1 "o ( !m hav+ a euritic base includ+ l>ge octagons ( qu>tz2 ^! dikes1 z well z sev]al ( porphyritic gre5/one at ,vall5> ,bay1 ext5d$ ,n4,e4 & ,s4,w41 ne>ly at "r angles to ! foliation ( ! s*i/s1 b 9 ! l9e ( _! jo9ts4 ,at ,l['s ,h>b\r1 h[ev]1 a set ( great p>allel dikes1 "o n9ety y>ds & ano!r sixty y>ds 9 wid?1 h be5 guid$ by ! foliation ( ! mica-s*i/1 & h5ce are incl9$ we/w>d at an angle ( #de3 ^! dikes are =m$ ( v>i\s porphyritic traps1 "s ( :i* are rem>kable f conta9+ num]\s r\nd$ gra9s ( qu>tz4 ,a porphyritic trap ( ?is latt] k9d1 pass$ 9 "o ( ! dikes into a mo/ curi\s horn/one1 p]fectly :ite1 ) a waxy fracture & pellucid edges1 fusible1 & conta9+ _m gra9s ( qu>tz & specks ( iron pyrites4 ,9 ! n9ety-y>d dike sev]al l>ge1 app>5tly n[ q isolat$1 fragm5ts ( mica-slate 7 emb$d$3 b z _! foliation 0 exactly p>allel to t ( ! surr\nd+ solid rock1 no d\bt ^! new sep>ate fragm5ts orig9ally =m$ w$ge-%ap$ dep5d+ portions ( a cont9u\s vault or cru/1 once ext5d+ ov] ! dike1 b s9ce worn d[n & d5ud$4 ,*iloe1 ,valdivia1 ,concepcion4--,9 ,*iloe1 a great =mation ( mica-s*i/ /rik+ly resembles t ( ! ,*onos ,isl&s4 ,= a space ( elev5 miles on ! ,s4,e4 coa/1 ! folia 7 v di/9ct1 ?\gh slightly convolut$1 & rang$ )9 a po9t ( ,n4,n4,w4 & ,s4,s4,e41 dipp+ ei!r ,e4,n4,e4 or m commonly ,w4,s4,w41 at an av]age angle ( #bb 79 "o spot1 h[ev]1 at #fj71 & !re=e decid$ly at a less] incl9ation ?an among/ ! ,*onos ,isl&s4 ,on ! we/ & nor?-we/]n %ores1 ! foliation 0 (t5 obscure1 ?\gh1 :]e be/ def9$1 x rang$ )9 a po9t ( ,n4 by ,w4 & ,s4 by ,e41 dipp+ ei!r ea/]ly or we/]ly1 at v>y+ & g5]ally v small angles4 ,h5ce1 f ! s\!rn "p ( ,tres ,montes to ! nor!rn end ( ,*iloe1 a di/ance ( #cjj miles1 we h closely alli$ rocks ) _! folia /rik+ on an av]age 9 ! same direction1 namely betwe5 ,n4 #aa & #bb ,w4 ,aga91 at ,valdivia1 we meet ) ! same mica-s*i/1 exhibit+ ne>ly ! same m9]alogical passages z 9 ! ,*onos ,ar*ipelago1 (t51 h[ev]1 becom+ m f]rug9\s1 & conta9+ s mu* feldsp> z to pass into gneiss4 ,! folia 7 g5]ally well def9$2 b n[h]e else 9 ,s\? ,am]ica did ,i see !m v>y+ s mu* 9 direction3 ?is seem$ *iefly caus$ by _! =m+ p>ts1 z ,i c\ld sometimes di/9ctly trace1 ( l>ge flat curves3 nev]!less1 bo? ne> ! settlem5t & t[>ds ! int]ior1 a ,n4,w4 & ,s4,e4 /rike seem$ m frequ5t ?an any o!r direction2 ! angle ( ! dip 0 g5]ally small4 ,at ,concepcion1 a highly glossy clay-slate _h its cleavage (t5 slightly curvil9e>1 & incl9$1 seldom at a high angle1 t[>ds v>i\s po9ts ( ! compass3#bc b "h1 z at ,valdivia1 a ,n4,w4 & ,s4,e4 /rike seem$ to be ! mo/ frequ5t "o4 ,9 c]ta9 spots l>ge qu>tz ve9s 7 num]\s1 & ne> !m1 ! cleavage1 z 0 ! case ) ! foliation ( ! s*i/s 9 ! ,*onos ,ar*ipelago1 became extremely tortu\s4 #bc ,i obs]v$ 9 "s p>ts t ! tops ( ! lam9 ( ! clay-slate 7b ( ! diagram7 "u ! sup]ficial detritus & soil 7a7 7 b5t1 sometimes )\t be+ brok51 z repres5t$ 9 ! accompany+ diagram1 :i* is copi$ f "o giv5 by ,sir ,h4 ,de la ,be*e 7p4 #db 8,geological ,manual07 ( an exactly simil> ph5om5on 9 ,devon%ire4 ,mr4 ,r4 ,a4 ,c4 ,au/51 also1 9 8 excell5t pap] on ,s4,e4 ,devon 78,geolog4 ,transact410 vol4 vi1 p4 #dcg71 has describ$ ?is ph5om5on2 he attributes x to ! action ( fro/s1 b at ! same "t d\bts :e!r ! fro/s ( ! pres5t day p5etrate to a suffici5t dep?4 ,z x is kn[n t e>?quakes p>ticul>ly affect ! surface ( ! gr\nd1 x occurr$ to me t ?is appe>ance might p]haps be due1 at lea/ at ,concepcion1 to _! frequ5t occurr5ce2 ! sup]ficial lay]s ( detritus be+ ei!r j]k$ 9 "o direction1 or1 :]e ! surface 0 incl9$1 pu%$ a little d[nw>ds dur+ ea* /rong vibration4 ,9 ,nor? ,wales ,i h se5 a some:at analog\s b less regul> appe>ance1 ?\gh on a great] scale 7,london ,phil4 ,mag41 vol4 xxi1 p4 #ahd71 & produc$ by a q diff]5t cause1 namely1 by ! /r&+ ( great iceb]gs2 ?is latt] appe>ance has also be5 obs]v$ 9 ,n4 ,am]ica4 ,illu/ration3 ,diagram describ$ 9 note #bc4 ,at ! nor!rn end ( ,quiriqu9a ,isl&1 9 ! ,bay ( ,concepcion1 at lea/ eight rudely p>allel dikes1 :i* h be5 guid$ to a c]ta9 ext5t by ! cleavage ( ! slate1 occur )9 ! space ( a qu>t] ( a mile4 ,!y v>y mu* 9 composition1 resembl+ 9 _m respects ! dikes at ,l['s ,h>b\r3 ! great] numb] consi/ ( feldspa?ic porphyries1 sometimes conta9+ gra9s ( qu>tz3 "o1 h[ev]1 0 black & brilliant1 l an augitic rock1 b really =m$ ( feldsp>2 o!rs ( a feldspa?ic nature 7 p]fectly :ite1 ) ei!r an e>?y or cry/all9e fracture1 & includ+ gra9s & regul> octagons ( qu>tz2 ^! :ite v>ieties pass$ into ord9>y gre5/ones4 ,al?\gh1 bo? "h & at ,l['s ,h>b\r1 ! nature ( ! rock v>i$ consid]ably 9 ! same dike1 yet ,i _c b ?9k t at ^! two places & 9 o!r p>ts ( ! ,*onos gr\p1 :]e ! dikes1 ?\gh close to ea* o!r & runn+ p>allel1 are ( diff]5t composition1 t !y mu/ h be5 =m$ at diff]5t p]iods4 ,9 ! case ( ,quiriqu9a ?is is a r int]e/+ conclusion1 = ^! eight p>allel dikes cut ?r\gh ! metamorphic s*i/s 9 a ,n4,w4 & ,s4,e4 l9e1 & s9ce _! injection ! ov]ly+ cretace\s or t]ti>y /rata h be5 tilt$ 7:il/ /ill "u ! sea7 f a ,n4,w4 by ,n4 & ,s4,e4 by ,s4 l9e2 & aga91 dur+ ! great e>?quake ( ,febru>y #ahce1 ! gr\nd 9 ?is neighb\rhood 0 fissur$ 9 ,n4,w4 & ,s4,e4 l9es2 & f ! mann] 9 :i* build+s 7 ?r[n d[n1 x 0 evid5t t ! surface undulat$ 9 ?is same direction4#bd #bd 8,geolog4 ,trans410 vol4 vi1 pp4 #fjb & #fag4 8,j\rnal ( ,rese>*es0 7#bnd edit471 p4 #cjg4 ,c5tral & ,nor!rn ,*ile4--,nor?w>d ( ,concepcion1 z f> z ,copiapo1 ! %ores ( ! ,pacific consi/1 ) ! exception ( "s small t]ti>y bas9s1 ( gneiss1 mica-s*i/1 alt]$ clay-slate1 granite1 gre5/one & sy5ite3 h5ce ! coa/ f ,tres ,montes to ,copiapo1 a di/ance ( #a1bjj miles1 & ,i h reason to believe = a mu* great] space1 is almo/ simil>ly con/itut$4 ,ne> ,valp>aiso ! prevail+ rock is gneiss1 g5]ally includ+ mu* hornbl5de3 concretion>y balls =m$ ( feldsp>1 hornbl5de & mica1 f two or ?ree feet 9 diamet]1 are 9 v _m places con=mably enfold$ by ! foliat$ gneiss3 ve9s ( qu>tz & feldsp>1 includ+ black s*orl & well-cry/allis$ epidote1 are num]\s4 ,epidote likewise occurs 9 ! gneiss 9 ?9 lay]s1 p>allel to ! foliation ( ! mass4 ,"o l>ge ve9 ( a co>se granitic "* 0 rem>kable f 9 "o "p q *ang+ its "*1 & ins5sibly pass+ into a blacki% porphyry1 includ+ acicul> cry/als ( glassy feldsp> & ( hornbl5de3 ,i h nev] se5 any o!r su* case4#be #be ,humboldt 78,p]sonal ,n>rative10 vol4 iv1 p4 #fj7 has describ$ ) mu* surprise1 concretion>y balls1 ) conc5tric divisions1 compos$ ( p>tially vitre\s feldsp>1 hornbl5de1 & g>nets1 includ$ )9 great ve9s ( gneiss1 :i* cut across ! mica-slate ne> ,v5ezuela4 ,i %all 9 ! few foll[+ rem>ks on ! rocks ( ,*ile allude exclusively to _! foliation & cleavage4 ,9 ! gneiss r\nd ,valp>aiso ! /rike ( ! foliation is v v>iable1 b ,i ?9k ab\t ,n4 by ,w4 & ,s4 by ,e4 is ! commone/ direction2 ?is likewise holds good ) ! cleavage ( ! alt]$ feldspa?ic clay-slates1 occasionally met ) on ! coa/ = n9ety miles nor? ( ,valp>aiso4 ,"s feldspa?ic slate1 alt]nat+ ) /rata ( clay/one porphyry 9 ! ,bell ( ,quillota & at ,jajuel1 & !re=e1 p]haps1 belong+ to a lat] p]iod ?an ! metamorphic s*i/s on ! coa/1 cleav$ 9 ?is same direction4 ,9 ! ,ea/]n ,cordill]a1 9 ! ,portillo ,pass1 !re is a gr& mass ( mica-slate1 foliat$ 9 a nor? & s\? l9e1 & ) a high we/]ly dip3 9 ! ,uspallata range1 clay-slate & grauwacke h a highly incl9$1 ne>ly nor? & s\? cleavage1 ?\gh 9 "s p>ts ! /rike is irregul>3 9 ! ma9 or ,cumbre range1 ! direction ( ! cleavage 9 ! feldspa?ic clay-slate is ,n4,w4 & ,s4,e4 ,betwe5 ,coquimbo & ,guasco !re are two consid]able =mations ( mica-slate1 9 "o ( :i* ! rock pass$ sometimes into common clay-slate & sometimes into a glossy black v>iety1 v l t 9 ! ,*onos ,ar*ipelago4 ,! folia & cleavage ( ^! rocks rang$ betwe5 ,n4 & ,n4,w4 by ,n4 & ,s4 & ,s4,w4 by ,s44 ,ne> ! ,port ( ,guasco sev]al v>ieties ( alt]$ clay-slate h a q irregul> cleavage4 ,betwe5 ,guasco & ,copiapo1 !re are "s silice\s & talcace\s slates cleav+ 9 a nor? & s\? l9e1 ) an ea/]ly dip ( betwe5 #fj & #gj3 high up1 also1 ! ma9 valley ( ,copiapo1 !re is mica-slate ) a high ea/]ly dip4 ,9 ! :ole space betwe5 ,valp>aiso & ,copiapo an ea/]ly dip is mu* m common ?an an opposite or we/]ly "o4 ,conclud+ ,rem>ks on ,cleavage & ,foliation4 ,9 ?is s\!rn "p ( ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 we h se5 t ! cleavage-lam9 range ov] wide areas ) rem>kable uni=mity1 cutt+ /raight ?r\gh ! planes ( /ratification1#bf b yet be+ p>allel 9 /rike to ! ma9 axes ( elevation1 & g5]ally to ! outl9es ( ! coa/4 ,! dip1 h[ev]1 is z v>iable1 bo? 9 angle & 9 direction 7t is1 sometimes be+ incl9$ to ! "o side & sometimes to ! directly opposite side71 z ! /rike is uni=m4 ,9 all ^! respects !re is a close agreem5t ) ! facts giv5 by ,pr(essor ,s$gwick 9 8 celebrat$ memoir 9 ! 8,geological ,transactions10 & by ,sir ,r4 ,i4 ,mur*ison 9 8 v>i\s excell5t discussions on ?is subject4 ,! ,falkl& ,isl&s1 & m especially ,ti]ra del ,fuego1 (f] /rik+ in/ances ( ! l9es ( cleavage1 ! pr9ciple axes ( elevation1 & ! outl9es ( ! coa/1 gradually *ang+ toge!r _! c\rses4 ,! direction :i* prevails ?r\gh\t ,ti]ra del ,fuego & ! ,falkl& ,isl&s1 namely1 f we/ ) "s nor?+ to ea/ ) "s s\?+1 is also common to ! sev]al ridges 9 ,nor!rn ,patagonia & 9 ! we/]n p>ts ( ,b&a ,ori5tal3 9 ?is latt] prov9ce1 9 ! ,si]ra ,tapalgu51 & 9 ! ,we/]n ,falkl& ,isl&1 ! ,w4 by ,n41 or ,w4,n4,w4 & ,e4,s4,e41 ridges1 are cross$ at "r angles by o!rs rang+ ,n4,n4,e4 & ,s4,s4,w4 #bf ,9 my pap] on ! ,falkl& ,isl&s 7,geological ,j\rnal1 vol4 iii1 p4 #bfg71 ,i h giv5 a curi\s case on ! au?ority ( ,capta9 ,sulivan1 ,r4,n41 ( mu* fold$ b$s ( clay-slate1 9 "s ( :i* ! cleavage is p]p5dicul> to ! horizon1 & 9 o!rs x is p]p5dicul> to ea* curvature or fold ( ! b$3 ?is appe>s a new case4 ,! fact ( ! cleavage-lam9 9 ! clay-slate ( ,ti]ra del ,fuego1 :]e se5 cutt+ /raight ?r\gh ! planes ( /ratification1 & :]e consequ5tly !re c\ld be no d\bt ab\t _! nature1 diff]+ slightly 9 col\r1 texture1 & h>dness1 appe>s to me v int]e/+4 ,9 a ?ick mass ( lam9at$1 feldspa?ic & alt]$ clay-slate1 int]pos$ betwe5 two great /rata ( porphyritic conglom]ate 9 ,c5tral ,*ile1 & :]e !re c\ld be b little d\bt ab\t ! b$d+1 ,i obs]v$ simil> slight diff]5ces 9 composition1 & likewise "s di/9ct ?9 lay]s ( epidote1 p>allel to ! highly incl9$ cleavage ( ! mass4 ,aga91 ,i incid5tally notic$ 9 ,nor? ,wales1#bg :]e glaci]s _h pass$ ov] ! truncat$ edges ( ! highly incl9$ lam9 ( clay-slate1 t ! surface1 ?\gh smoo?1 0 worn into small p>allel undulations1 caus$ by ! compet5t lam9 be+ ( slightly diff]5t degrees ( h>dness4 ,) ref]5ce to ! slates ( ,nor? ,wales1 ,pr(essor ,s$gwick describes ! planes ( cleavage1 z 8coat$ ov] ) *lorite & semi-cry/all9e matt]1 :i* n only m]ely def9e ! planes 9 "q1 b /rike 9 p>allel flakes ?r\gh ! :ole mass ( ! rock40#bh ,9 "s ( ^? glossy & h>d v>ieties ( clay-slate1 :i* may (t5 be se5 pass+ into mica-s*i/1 x has appe>$ to me t ! cleavage-planes 7 =m$ ( excessively ?91 g5]ally slight$ convolut$1 folia1 compos$ ( microscopically m9ute scales ( mica4 ,f ^! sev]al facts1 & m especially f ! case ( ! clay-slate 9 ,ti]ra del ,fuego1 x mu/1 ,i ?9k1 be conclud$1 t ! same p[] :i* has impress$ on ! slate its fissile /ructure or cleavage has t5d$ to modify its m9]alogical "* 9 p>allel planes4 #bg ,london ,phil4 ,mag41 vol4 xxi1 p4 #ahb4 #bh 8,geological ,trans410 vol4 iii1 p4 #dga4 ,let u n[ turn to ! foliation ( ! metamorphic s*i/s1 a subject :i* has be5 mu* less att5d$ to4 ,z 9 ! case ( cleavage-lam91 ! folia pres]ve ov] v l>ge areas a uni=m /rike3 ?us ,humboldt#bi f\nd = a di/ance ( #cjj miles 9 ,v5ezuela1 & inde$ ov] a mu* l>g] space1 gneiss1 granite1 mica1 & clay-slate1 /rik+ v uni=mly ,n4,e4 & ,s4,w41 & dipp+ at an angle ( betwe5 #fj & #gj to ,n4,w42 x w\ld ev5 appe> f ! facts giv5 9 ?is *apt]1 t ! metamorphic rocks ?r\gh\t ! nor?-ea/]n "p ( ,s\? ,am]ica are g5]ally foliat$ )9 two po9ts ( ,n4,e4 & ,s4,w4 ,ov] ! ea/]n p>ts ( ,b&a ,ori5tal1 ! foliation /rikes ) a high incl9ation1 v uni=mly ,n4,n4,e4 to ,s4,s4,w41 & ov] ! we/]n p>ts1 9 a ,w4 by ,n4 & ,e4 by ,s4 l9e4 ,= a space ( #cjj miles on ! %ores ( ! ,*onos & ,*iloe ,isl&s1 we h se5 t ! foliation seldom deviates m ?an a po9t ( ! compass f a ,n4 #ai ,w4 & ,s4 #ai ,e4 /rike4 ,z 9 ! case ( cleavage1 ! angle ( ! dip 9 foliat$ rocks is g5]ally high b v>iable1 & alt]nates f "o side ( ! l9e ( /rike to ! o!r side1 sometimes be+ v]tical3 9 ! ,nor!rn ,*onos ,isl&s1 h[ev]1 ! folia are incl9$ almo/ always to ! we/2 9 ne>ly ! same mann]1 ! cleavage-lam9 9 ,s\!rn ,ti]ra del ,fuego c]ta9ly dip mu* m frequ5tly to ,s4,s4,w4 ?an to ! opposite po9t4 ,9 ,ea/]n ,b&a ,ori5tal1 9 p>ts ( ,brazil1 & 9 "s o!r di/ricts1 ! foliation runs 9 ! same direction ) ! m\nta9-ranges & adjo9+ coa/-l9es3 among/ ! ,*onos ,isl&s1 h[ev]1 ?is co9cid5ce fails1 & ,i h giv5 my reasons = suspect+ t "o granitic axis has bur/ ?r\gh & tilt$ ! already incl9$ folia ( mica-s*i/3 9 ! case ( cleavage1#cj ! co9cid5ce betwe5 its /rike & t ( ! ma9 /ratification seems sometimes to fail4 ,foliation & cleavage resemble ea* o!r 9 ! planes w9d+ r\nd concretions1 & 9 becom+ tortu\s :]e ve9s ( qu>tz ab\nd4#ca ,on ! flanks ( ! m\nta9s bo? 9 ,ti]ra del ,fuego & 9 o!r c\ntries1 ,i h obs]v$ t ! cleavage-planes frequ5tly dip at a high angle inw>ds2 & ?is 0 long ago obs]v$ by ,von ,bu* to be ! case 9 ,norway3 ?is fact is p]haps analog\s to ! fold$1 fan-l or radiat+ /ructure 9 ! metamorphic s*i/s ( ! ,alps1#cb 9 :i* ! folia 9 ! c5tral cre/s are v]tical & on ! two flanks incl9$ inw>ds4 ,:]e masses ( fissile & foliat$ rocks alt]nate toge!r1 ! cleavage & foliation1 9 all cases :i* ,i h se51 are p>allel4 ,:]e 9 "o di/rict ! rocks are fissile1 & 9 ano!r adjo9+ di/rict !y are foliat$1 ! planes ( cleavage & foliation are likewise g5]ally p>allel3 ?is is ! case ) ! feldspa?ic homog5e\s slates 9 ! s\!rn "p ( ! ,*onos gr\p1 comp>$ ) ! f9e foliat$ mica-s*i/s ( ! nor!rn "p2 s aga9 ! clay-slate ( ! :ole ea/]n side ( ,ti]ra del ,fuego cleaves 9 exactly ! same l9e ) ! foliat$ gneiss & mica-slate ( ! we/]n coa/2 o!r analog\s in/ances might h be5 adduc$4#cc #bi 8,p]sonal ,n>rative10 vol4 vi1 p4 #ei et seq4 #cj ,cases are giv5 by ,mr4 ,jukes 9 8 8,geology ( ,newf\ndl&10 p4 #acj4 #ca ,i h se5 9 ,brazil & ,*ile concretions ?us enfold$ by foliat$ gneiss2 & ,maccullo* 78,highl&s10 vol4 i1 p4 #fd7 has describ$ a simil> case4 ,= analog\s cases 9 clay-slate1 see ,pr(essor ,h5sl['s ,memoir 9 8,cambridge ,phil4 ,trans410 vol4 i1 p4 #cgi1 & ,maccullo*'s 8,class4 ( ,rocks10 p4 #cea4 ,) respect to bo? foliation & cleavage becom+ tortu\s :]e qu>tz-ve9s ab\nd1 ,i h se5 in/ances ne> ,monte ,video1 at ,concepcion1 & 9 ! ,*onos ,isl&s4 ,see also ,mr4 ,gre5\gh's 8,critical ,exam9ation10 p4 #gh4 #cb ,/ud] 9 ,ed94 ,new ,phil4 ,j\rnal1 vol4 xxiii1 p4 #add4 #cc ,i h giv5 a case 9 ,au/ralia4 ,see my 8,volcanic ,isl&s40 ,) respect to ! orig9 ( ! folia ( qu>tz1 mica1 feldsp>1 & o!r m9]als compos+ ! metamorphic s*i/s1 ,pr(essor ,s$gwick1 ,mr4 ,lyell1 & mo/ au?ors believe1 t ! con/itu5t p>ts ( ea* lay] 7 sep>ately deposit$ z s$im5t1 & !n metamorphos$4 ,?is view1 9 ! majority ( cases1 ,i believe to be q unt5able4 ,9 ^? n uncommon in/ances1 :]e a mass ( clay-slate1 9 approa*+ granite1 gradually passes into gneiss1#cd we cle>ly see t folia ( di/9ct m9]als c orig9ate ?r\gh ! metamorphosis ( a homog5e\s fissile rock4 ,! deposition1 x may be rem>k$1 ( numb]less alt]nations ( pure qu>tz1 & ( ! elem5ts ( mica or feldsp> does n appe> a probable ev5t4#ce ,9 ^? di/ricts 9 :i* ! metamorphic s*i/s are foliat$ 9 planes p>allel to ! cleavage ( ! rocks 9 an adjo9+ di/rict1 are we to believe t ! folia are due to s$im5t>y lay]s1 :il/ ! cleavage-lam91 ?\gh p>allel1 h no relation :atev] to su* planes ( deposition8 ,on ?is view1 h[ c we reconcile ! va/ness ( ! areas ov] :i* ! /rike ( ! foliation is uni=m1 ) :at we see 9 di/urb$ di/ricts compos$ ( true /rata3 & especially1 h[ c we und]/& ! high & ev5 v]tical dip ?r\gh\t _m wide di/ricts1 :i* are n m\nta9\s1 & ?r\gh\t "s1 z 9 ,we/]n ,b&a ,ori5tal1 :i* are n ev5 hilly8 ,are we to admit t 9 ! nor!rn "p ( ! ,*onos ,ar*ipelago1 mica-slate 0 fir/ accumulat$ 9 p>allel horizontal folia to a ?ickness ( ab\t f\r geographical miles1 & !n upturn$ at an angle ( =ty degrees2 :il/1 9 ! s\!rn "p ( ?is same ,ar*ipelago1 ! cleavage-lam9 ( closely alli$ rocks1 :i* none w\ld imag9e _h ev] be5 horizontal1 dip at ne>ly ! same angle1 to ne>ly ! same po9t8 #cd ,i h describ$ 9 8,volcanic ,isl&s0 a good in/ance ( su* a passage at ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope4 #ce ,see "s excell5t rem>ks on ?is subject1 9 ,d',aubuisson's 8,trait de ,gog410 tome i1 p4 #big4 ,also "s rem>ks by ,mr4 ,dana 9 ,silliman's ,am]ican ,j\rn41 vol4 xlv1 p4 #ajh4 ,see+1 !n1 t foliat$ s*i/s indisputably are sometimes produc$ by ! metamorphosis ( homog5e\s fissile rocks2 see+ t foliation & cleavage are s closely analog\s 9 ! sev]al above-enum]at$ respects2 see+ t "s fissile & almo/ homog5e\s rocks %[ incipi5t m9]alogical *anges along ! planes ( _! cleavage1 & t o!r rocks ) a fissile /ructure alt]nate )1 & pass into v>ieties ) a foliat$ /ructure1 ,i _c d\bt t 9 mo/ cases foliation & cleavage are p>ts ( ! same process3 9 cleavage !re be+ only an incipi5t sep>ation ( ! con/itu5t m9]als2 9 foliation a mu* m complete sep>ation & cry/allisation4 ,! fact (t5 ref]r$ to 9 ?is *apt]1 ( ! foliation & ! s-call$ /rata 9 ! metamorphic s]ies1--t is1 ! alt]nat+ masses ( diff]5t v>ieties ( gneiss1 mica-s*i/1 & hornbl5de-slate1 etc41--be+ p>allel to ea* o!r1 at fir/ appe>s q oppos$ to ! view1 t ! folia h no relation to ! planes ( orig9al deposition4 ,:]e ! s-call$ b$s are n v ?ick & ( widely diff]5t m9]alogical composition f ea* o!r1 ,i d n ?9k t !re is any difficulty 9 suppos+ t !y h orig9at$ 9 an analog\s mann] ) ! sep>ate folia4 ,we %\ld be> 9 m9d :at ?ick /rata1 9 ord9>y s$im5t>y masses1 h obvi\sly be5 =m$ by a concretion>y process4 ,9 a pile ( volcanic rocks on ! ,isl& ( ,asc5sion1 !re are /rata1 diff]+ q z mu* 9 appe>ance z ! ord9>y v>ieties ( ! metamorphic s*i/s1 :i* und\bt$ly h be5 produc$1 n by successive fl[+s ( lava1 b by int]nal molecul> *anges4 ,ne> ,monte ,video1 :]e ! /ratification1 z x w\ld be call$1 ( ! metamorphic s]ies is1 9 mo/ p>ts1 p>ticul>ly well develop$1 be+ z usual1 p>allel to ! foliation1 we h se5 t a mass ( *loritic s*i/1 nett$ ) qu>tz-ve9s1 is entangl$ 9 gneiss1 9 su* a mann] z to %[ t x _h c]ta9ly orig9at$ 9 "s process ( segregation3 aga91 9 ano!r spot1 ! gneiss t5d$ to pass into hornbl5dic s*i/ by alt]nat+ ) lay]s ( qu>tz2 b ^! lay]s ( qu>tz almo/ c]ta9ly _h nev] be5 sep>ately deposit$1 = !y 7 absolutely cont9u\s ) ! num]\s int]sect+ ve9s ( qu>tz4 ,i h nev] _h an opportunity ( trac+ = any di/ance1 along ! l9e bo? ( /rike & ( dip1 ! s-call$ b$s 9 ! metamorphic s*i/s1 b ,i /rongly suspect t !y w\ld n be f\nd to ext5d ) ! same "*1 v f> 9 ! l9e ei!r ( _! dip or /rike4 ,h5ce ,i am l$ to believe1 t mo/ ( ! s-call$ b$s are ( ! nature ( complex folia1 & h n be5 sep>ately deposit$4 ,( c\rse1 ?is view _c be ext5d$ to ?ick masses includ$ 9 ! metamorphic s]ies1 :i* are ( totally diff]5t composition f ! adjo9+ s*i/s1 & :i* are f> ext5d$1 z is sometimes ! case ) qu>tz & m>ble2 ^! mu/ g5]ally be ( ! nature ( true /rata4#cf ,su* /rata1 h[ev]1 w almo/ always /rike 9 ! same direction ) ! folia1 ow+ to ! axes ( elevation be+ 9 mo/ c\ntries p>allel to ! /rike ( ! foliation2 b !y w g5]ally dip at a diff]5t angle f t ( ! foliation2 & ! angle ( ! foliation 9 itself almo/ always v>ies mu*3 h5ce1 9 cross+ a metamorphos$ s*i/ose di/rict1 x w\ld require especial att5tion to discrim9ate betwe5 true /rata ( deposition & complex foliat$ masses4 ,! m]e pres5ce ( true /rata 9 ! mid/ ( a set ( metamorphic s*i/s1 is no argum5t t ! foliation is ( s$im5t>y orig91 )\t x be fur!r %[n 9 ea* case1 t ! folia n only /rike1 b dip ?r\gh\t 9 p>allel planes ) ^? ( ! true /ratification4 #cf ,maccullo* /ates 78,classification ( ,rocks10 p4 #cfd7 /ates t prim>y lime/ones are (t5 f\nd 9 irregul> masses or great nodules1 8:i* c sc>cely be said to possess a /ratifi$ %ape60 ,z 9 "s cases x appe>s t :]e a fissile rock has be5 expos$ to p>tial metamorphic action1 = in/ance f ! irruption ( granite1 ! foliation has sup]v5$ on ! already exi/+ cleavage-planes2 s p]haps 9 "s in/ances1 ! foliation ( a rock may h be5 det]m9$ by ! orig9al planes ( deposition or ( oblique curr5t-lam93 ,i h1 h[ev]1 myself1 nev] se5 su* a case1 & ,i mu/ ma9ta9 t 9 mo/ ext5sive metamorphic areas1 ! foliation is ! extreme result ( t process1 ( :i* cleavage is ! fir/ effect4 ,t foliation may arise )\t any previ\s /ructural arrangem5t 9 ! mass1 we may inf] f inject$1 & !re=e once liquifi$1 rocks1 bo? ( volcanic & plutonic orig91 sometimes hav+ a 8gra90 7z express$ by ,pr(essor ,s$gwick71 & sometimes be+ compos$ ( di/9ct folia or lam9 ( diff]5t compositions4 ,9 my "w on 8,volcanic ,isl&s10 ,i h giv5 sev]al in/ances ( ?is /ructure 9 volcanic rocks1 & x is n uncommonly se5 9 plutonic masses--?us1 9 ! ,cordill]a ( ,*ile1 !re are gigantic m\nta9-l masses ( r$ granite1 :i* h be5 inject$ :il/ liquifi$1 & :i*1 nev]!less1 display 9 p>ts a decid$ly lam9> /ructure4#cg #cg ,z rem>k$ 9 a =m] "p ( ?is *apt]1 ,i suspect t ! boldly conical m\nta9s ( gneiss-granite1 ne> ,rio de ,janeiro1 9 :i* ! con/itu5t m9]als are arrang$ 9 p>allel planes1 are ( intrusive orig94 ,we mu/ n1 h[ev]1 =get ! lesson ( caution taught by ! curi\s clay/one porphyries ( ,port ,desire1 9 :i* we h se5 t ! break+ up & aggregation ( a ?9ly /ratifi$ tuface\s mass1 has yield$ a rock semi-porphyritic ) cry/als ( feldsp>1 arrang$ 9 ! planes ( orig9al deposition4 ,f9ally1 we h se5 t ! planes ( cleavage & ( foliation1 t is1 ( ! incipi5t process & ( ! f9al result1 g5]ally /rike p>allel to ! pr9cipal axes ( elevation1 & to ! outl9e ( ! l&3 ! /rike ( ! axes ( elevation 7t is1 ( ! l9es ( fissures ) ! /rata on _! edges upturn$71 accord+ to ! reason+ ( ,mr4 ,hopk9s1 is det]m9$ by ! =m ( ! area und]go+ *anges ( level1 & ! consequ5t direction ( ! l9es ( t5sion & fissure4 ,n[1 9 t rem>kable pile ( volcanic rocks at ,asc5sion1 :i* has sev]al times be5 allud$ to 7& 9 "s o!r cases71 ,i h endeav\r$ to %[1#ch t ! lam9ation ( ! sev]al v>ieties1 & _! alt]nations1 h be5 caus$ by ! mov+ mass1 j be=e its f9al consolidation1 hav+ be5 subject$ 7z 9 a glaci]7 to planes ( diff]5t t5sion2 ?is diff]5ce 9 ! t5sion affect+ ! cry/all9e & concretion>y processes4 ,"o ( ! v>ieties ( rock ?us produc$ at ,asc5sion1 at fir/ sight1 s+ul>ly resembles a f9e-gra9$ gneiss2 x consi/s ( q /raight & p>allel zones ( excessive t5uity1 ( m or less col\r$ cry/allis$ feldsp>1 ( di/9ct cry/als ( qu>tz1 diopside1 & oxide ( iron4 ,^! consid]ations1 not)/&+ ! exp]im5ts made by ,mr4 ,fox1 %[+ ! influ5ce ( electrical curr5ts 9 produc+ a /ructure l t ( cleavage1 & not)/&+ ! app>5tly inexplicable v>iation1 bo? 9 ! incl9ation ( ! cleavage-lam9 & 9 _! dipp+ fir/ to "o side & !n to ! o!r side ( ! l9e ( /rike1 lead me to suspect t ! planes ( cleavage & foliation are intimately connect$ ) ! planes ( diff]5t t5sion1 to :i* ! area 0 long subject$1 aft] ! ma9 fissures or axes ( upheavem5t _h be5 =m$1 b be=e ! f9al consolidation ( ! mass & ! total cessation ( all molecul> movem5t4 #ch ,9 8,volcanic ,isl&s40 ,illu/ration3 ,geological sections ?r\gh ! ,cordill]as4 ,= enl>gem5ts ( ! above plate use ! foll[+ l9ks3 left section c5t] section "r section ,*apt] ,,vii ,,c5tral ,,*ile3--,,/ructure ,,( ,,! ,,cordill]a4 ,c5tral ,*ile4--,basal =mations ( ! ,cordill]a4--,orig9 ( ! porphyritic clay-/one conglom]ate4--,&esite4--,volcanic rocks4--,section ( ! ,cordill]a by ! ,peuqu5es are ,portillo ,pass4--,great gypse\s =mation4--,peuqu5es l9e2 ?ickness ( /rata1 fossils (4--,portillo l9e4--,conglom]ate1 or?itic granite1 mica-s*i/1 volcanic rocks (4--,conclud+ rem>ks on ! d5udation & elevation ( ! ,portillo l9e4--,section by ! ,cumbre1 or ,uspallata ,pass4--,porphyries4--,gypse\s /rata4--,section ne> ! ,pu5te del ,inca2 fossils (4--,great subsid5ce4--,intrusive porphyries4--,pla9 ( ,uspallata4--,section ( ! ,uspallata *a94--,/ructure & nature ( ! /rata4--,silicifi$ v]tical trees4--,great subsid5ce4--,granitic rocks ( axis4--,conclud+ rem>ks on ! ,uspallata range2 orig9 subsequ5t to t ( ! ma9 ,cordill]a2 two p]iods ( subsid5ce2 comp>ison ) ! ,portillo *a94 ,! di/rict betwe5 ! ,cordill]a & ! ,pacific1 on a rude av]age1 is f ab\t eighty to "o hundr$ miles 9 wid?4 ,x is cross$ by _m *a9s ( m\nta9s1 ( :i* ! pr9cipal ones1 9 ! latitude ( ,valp>aiso & s\?w>d ( x1 range ne>ly nor? & s\?2 b 9 ! m nor!rn p>ts ( ! prov9ce1 !y run 9 almo/ e possible direction4 ,ne> ! ,pacific1 ! m\nta9-ranges are g5]ally =m$ ( sy5ite or granite1 & or ( an alli$ euritic porphyry2 9 ! l[ c\ntry1 besides ^! granitic rocks & gre5/one1 & mu* gneiss1 !re are1 especially nor?w>d ( ,valp>aiso1 "s consid]able di/ricts ( true clay-slate ) qu>tz ve9s1 pass+ into a feldspa?ic & porphyritic slate2 !re is also "s grauwacke & qu>tzose & jasp]y rocks1 ! latt] occasionally assum+ ! "* ( ! basis ( clay/one porphyry3 trap-dikes are num]\s4 ,ne>] ! ,cordill]a ! ranges 7su* z ^? ( ,s4 ,f]n&o1 ! ,prado1#a & ,aconcagua7 are =m$ p>tly ( granitic rocks1 & p>tly ( purple porphyritic conglom]ates1 clay/one porphyry1 gre5/one porphyry1 & o!r rocks1 su* z we %all imm$iately see1 =m ! basal /rata ( ! ma9 ,cordill]a4 ,9 ! m nor!rn p>ts ( ,*ile1 ?is porphyritic s]ies ext5ds ov] l>ge tracts ( c\ntry f> f ! ,cordill]a2 & ev5 9 ,c5tral ,*ile su* occasionally occur 9 outly+ positions4 #a ,mey5 8,reise um ,erde0 ,?4 ,i1 s4 #bce4 ,i w describe ! ,campana ( ,quillota1 :i* /&s only fifte5 miles f ! ,pacific1 z an in/ance ( "o ( ^! outly+ masses4 ,?is hill is conspicu\s f ris+ to ! height ( #f1djj feet3 its summit %[s a nucleus1 uncov]$ = a height ( #hjj feet1 ( f9e gre5/one1 includ+ epidote & octah$ral magnetic iron ore2 its flanks are =m$ ( great /rata ( porphyritic clay/one conglom]ate associat$ ) v>i\s true porphyries & amygdaloids1 alt]nat+ ) ?ick masses ( a highly feldspa?ic1 sometimes porphyritic1 pale-col\r$ slaty rock1 ) its cleavage-lam9 dipp+ inw>ds at a high angle4 ,at ! base ( ! hill !re are sy5ites1 a granul> mixture ( qu>tz & feldsp>1 & h>% qu>tzose rocks1 all belong+ to ! basal metamorphic s]ies4 ,i may obs]ve t at ! foot ( sev]al hills ( ?is class1 :]e ! porphyries are fir/ se5 7z ne> ,s4 ,f]n&o1 ! ,prado1 ,las ,vacas1 etc471 simil> h>% qu>tzose rocks & granul> mixtures ( qu>tz & feldsp> occur1 z if ! m fusible con/itu5t p>ts ( ! granitic s]ies _h be5 drawn (f to =m ! ov]ly+ porphyries4 ,9 ,c5tral ,*ile1 ! flanks ( ! ma9 ,cordill]a1 into :i* ,i p5etrat$ by f\r diff]5t valleys1 g5]ally consi/ ( di/9ctly /ratifi$ rocks4 ,! /rata are incl9$ at angles v>y+ f sometimes ev5 "u t51 to tw5ty degrees1 v r>ely exce$+ =ty degrees3 9 "s1 h[ev]1 ( ! q small1 ext]ior1 spur-l ridges1 ! incl9ation 0 n unfrequ5tly great]4 ,! dip ( ! /rata 9 ! ma9 out] l9es 0 usually outw>ds or f ! ,cordill]a1 b 9 ,nor!rn ,*ile frequ5tly inw>ds1--t is1 _! basset-edges front$ ! ,pacific4 ,dikes occur 9 extraord9>y numb]s4 ,9 ! great1 c5tral1 l(tie/ ridges1 ! /rata1 z we %all pres5tly see1 are almo/ always highly incl9$ & (t5 v]tical4 ,be=e giv+ a detail$ acc\nt ( my two sections across ! ,cordill]a1 x w1 ,i ?9k1 be conv5i5t to describe ! basal /rata z se51 (t5 to a ?ickness ( f\r or five ?\s& feet1 on ! flanks ( ! out] l9es4 ,basal /rata ( ! ,cordill]a4--,! prevail+ rock is a purpli% or gre5i%1 porphyritic clay/one conglom]ate4 ,! emb$d$ fragm5ts v>y 9 size f m]e p>ticles to blocks z mu* z six or eight in*es 7r>ely m7 9 diamet]2 9 _m places1 :]e ! fragm5ts 7 m9ute1 ! signs ( aque\s deposition 7 unequivocally di/9ct2 :]e !y 7 l>ge1 su* evid5ce c\ld r>ely be detect$4 ,! basis is g5]ally porphyritic ) p]fect cry/als ( feldsp>1 & resembles t ( a true inject$ clay/one porphyry3 (t51 h[ev]1 x has a me*anical or s$im5t>y aspect1 & sometimes 7z at ,jajuel7 is jasp]y4 ,! includ$ fragm5ts are ei!r angul>1 or p>tially or q r\nd$2#b 9 "s p>ts ! r\nd$1 9 o!rs ! angul> fragm5ts prevail1 & usually bo? k9ds are mix$ toge!r3 h5ce ! ^w breccia ought /rictly to be app5d$ to ! t]m porphyritic conglom]ate4 ,! fragm5ts consi/ ( _m v>ieties ( clay/one porphyry1 usually ( ne>ly ! same col\r ) ! surr\nd+ basis1 namely1 purpli%-r$di%1 br[ni%1 mottl$ or bright gre52 occasionally fragm5ts ( a lam9at$1 pale-col\r$1 feldspa?ic rock1 l alt]$ clay-slate are includ$2 z are sometimes gra9s ( qu>tz1 b only 9 "o in/ance 9 ,c5tral ,*ile 7namely1 at ! m9es ( ,jajuel7 a few pebbles ( qu>tz4 ,i n[h]e obs]v$ mica 9 ?is =mation1 & r>ely hornbl5de2 :]e ! latt] m9]al did occur1 ,i 0 g5]ally 9 d\bt :e!r ! mass really belong$ to ?is =mation1 or 0 ( intrusive orig94 ,calc>e\s sp> occasionally occurs 9 small cavities2 & ne/s & lay]s ( epidote are common4 ,9 "s few places 9 ! f9]-gra9$ v>ieties 7= in/ance1 at ,quillota71 !re 7 %ort1 int]rupt$ lay]s ( e>?y feldsp>1 :i* c\ld be trac$1 exactly z at ,port ,desire1 pass+ into l>ge cry/als ( feldsp>3 ,i d\bt1 h[ev]1 :e!r 9 ?is in/ance ! lay]s _h ev] be5 sep>ately deposit$ z tuface\s s$im5t4 #b ,"s ( ! r\nd$ fragm5ts 9 ! porphyritic conglom]ate ne> ! ,ba?s ( ,cauqu5es1 7 m>k$ ) radii & conc5tric zones ( diff]5t %ades ( col\r3 any "o :o did n "k t pebbles1 = in/ance fl9t pebbles f ! *alk1 are sometimes zon$ conc5trically ) _! worn & r\nd$ surfaces1 might h be5 l$ to inf]1 t ^! balls ( porphyry 7 n true pebbles1 b _h orig9at$ 9 concretion>y action47 ,all ! v>ieties ( porphyritic conglom]ates & breccias pass into ea* o!r1 & by innum]able gradations into porphyries no long] reta9+ ! lea/ trace ( me*anical orig93 ! transition appe>s to h be5 effect$ mu* m easily 9 ! f9]-gra9$1 ?an 9 ! co>s]-gra9$ v>ieties4 ,9 "o in/ance1 ne> ,cauqu5es1 ,i notic$ t a porphyritic conglom]ate assum$ a sph]oidal /ructure1 & t5d$ to become column>4 ,besides ! porphyritic conglom]ates & ! p]fectly *>act]is$ porphyries1 ( metamorphic orig91 !re are o!r porphyries1 :i*1 ?\gh diff]+ n at all or only slightly 9 composition1 c]ta9ly h _h a diff]5t orig93 ^! consi/ ( p9k or purple clay/one porphyries1 sometimes includ+ gra9s ( qu>tz1--( gre5/one porphyry1 & ( o!r dusky rocks1 all g5]ally porphyritic ) f9e1 l>ge1 tabul>1 opaque cry/als1 (t5 plac$ crosswise1 ( feldsp> cleav+ l albite 7judg+ f sev]al measurem5ts71 & (t5 amygdaloidal ) silex1 agate1 c>bonate ( lime1 gre5 & br[n bole4#c ,^! sev]al porphyritic & amygdaloidal v>ieties nev] %[ any signs ( pass+ into masses ( s$im5t>y orig93 !y occur bo? 9 great & small intrusive masses1 & likewise 9 /rata alt]nat+ ) ^? ( ! porphyritic conglom]ate1 & ) ! planes ( junction (t5 q di/9ct1 yet n seldom bl5d$ toge!r4 ,9 "s ( ^! intrusive masses1 ! porphyries exhibit1 m or less pla9ly1 a brecciat$ /ructure1 l t (t5 se5 9 volcanic masses4 ,^! brecciat$ porphyries c\ld g5]ally be di/+ui%$ at once f ! metamorphos$1 porphyritic breccia-conglom]ates1 by all ! fragm5ts be+ angul> & be+ =m$ ( ! same v>iety1 & by ! abs5ce ( e trace ( aque\s deposition4 ,"o ( ! porphyries above specifi$1 namely1 ! gre5/one porphyry ) l>ge tabul> cry/als ( albite1 is p>ticul>ly abundant1 & 9 "s p>ts ( ! ,cordill]a 7z ne> ,/4 ,jago7 seem$ m common ev5 ?an ! purpli% porphyritic conglom]ate4 ,num]\s dikes likewise consi/ ( ?is gre5/one porphyry2 o!rs are =m$ ( v>i\s f9e-gra9$ trappean rocks2 b v few ( clay/one porphyry3 ,i saw no true basaltic dikes4 #c ,?is bole is a v common m9]al 9 ! amygdaloidal rocks2 x is g5]ally ( a gre5i%-br[n col\r1 ) a radiat+ /ructure2 ext]nally x is black ) an almo/ metallic lu/re1 b (t5 coat$ by a bright gre5 film4 ,x is s(t & c be scrat*$ by a quill2 "u ! bl[pipe swells greatly & becomes scaly1 !n fuses easily into a black magnetic bead4 ,?is sub/ance is evid5tly simil> to t :i* (t5 occurs 9 subm>9e volcanic rocks4 ,an exam9ation ( "s v curi\s specim5s ( a f9e porphyry 7f ,jajuel7 leads me to suspect t "s ( ^! amygdaloidal balls1 in/ead ( hav+ be5 deposit$ 9 pre-exi/+ air-vesicles1 are ( concretion>y orig92 = 9 ^! specim5s1 "s ( ! pea-%ap$ little masses 7(t5 ext]nally m>k$ ) m9ute pits7 are =m$ ( a mixture ( gre5 e>? ) /ony matt]1 l ! basis ( ! porphyry1 includ+ m9ute imp]fect cry/als ( feldsp>2 & ^! pea-%ap$ little masses are !mselves amygdaloidal ) m9ute sph]es ( ! gre5 e>?1 ea* envelop$ by a film ( :ite1 app>5tly feldspa?ic1 e>?y matt]3 s t ! porphyry is d\bly amygdaloidal4 ,x %\ld n1 h[ev]1 be ov]look$1 t all ! /rata "h h und]gone metamorphic action1 :i* may h caus$ cry/als ( feldsp> to appe>1 & o!r *anges to be effect$1 9 ! orig9ally simple amygdaloidal balls4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,d4 ,dana1 9 an excell5t pap] on ,trap-rocks 7,ed94 ,new ,phil4 ,j\rn41 vol4 xli1 p4 #aih71 has argu$ ) great =ce1 t all amygdaloidal m9]als h be5 deposit$ by aque\s infiltration4 ,i may take ?is opportunity ( allud+ to a curi\s case1 describ$ 9 my "w on 8,volcanic ,isl&s10 ( an amygdaloid ) _m ( its cells only half fill$ up ) a mesotypic m9]al4 ,m4 ,rose has describ$ an amygdaloid1 br\ght by ,dr4 ,mey5 78,reise um ,erde10 ,?4 ,i1 s4 #caf7 f ,*ile1 z consi/+ ( cry/allis$ qu>tz1 ) cry/als ( /ilbite )91 & l9$ ext]nally by gre5 e>?4 ,9 sev]al places 9 ! l[] "p ( ! s]ies1 b n ev]y:]e1 ?ick masses ( a highly feldspa?ic1 (t5 porphyritic1 slaty rock occur int]/ratifi$ ) ! porphyritic conglom]ate2 ,i believe 9 "o or two cases blacki% lime/one has be5 f\nd 9 a simil> position4 ,! feldspa?ic rock is ( a pale grey or gre5i% col\r2 x is easily fusible2 :]e porphyritic1 ! cry/als ( feldsp> are g5]ally small & vitre\s3 x is di/9ctly lam9at$1 & sometimes includes p>allel lay]s ( epidote2#d ! lam9ation appe>s to be di/9ct f /ratification4 ,occasionally ?is rock is some:at curi\s2 & at "o spot1 namely1 at ! ,c4 ( ,quillota1 x _h a brecciat$ /ructure4 ,ne> ! m9es ( ,jajuel1 9 a ?ick /ratum ( ?is feldspa?ic1 porphyritic slate1 !re 0 a lay] ( h>d1 blacki%1 silice\s1 infusible1 compact clay-slate1 su* z ,i saw n[h]e else2 at ! same place ,i 0 able to foll[ = a consid]able di/ance ! junction betwe5 ! slate & ! con=mably und]ly+ porphyritic conglom]ate1 & !y c]ta9ly pass$ gradually into ea* o!r4 ,:]ev] ^! slaty feldspa?ic rocks ab\nd1 gre5/one seems common2 at ! ,c4 ( ,quillota a b$ ( well-cry/allis$ gre5/one lay con=mably 9 ! mid/ ( ! feldspa?ic slate1 ) ! upp] & l[] junctions pass+ ins5sibly into x4 ,f ?is po9t1 & f ! frequ5tly porphyritic condition ( ! slate1 ,i %\ld p]haps h consid]$ ?is rock z an erupt$ "o 7l c]ta9 lam9at$ feldspa?ic lavas 9 ! tra*ytic s]ies71 _h ,i n se5 9 ,ti]ra del ,fuego h[ readily true clay-slate becomes feldspa?ic & porphyritic1 & _h ,i n se5 at ,jajuel ! includ$ lay] ( black1 silice\s clay-slate1 :i* no "o c\ld h ?\ght ( igne\s orig94 ,! g5tle passage ( ! feldspa?ic slate1 at ,jajuel1 into ! porphyritic conglom]ate1 :i* is c]ta9ly ( aque\s orig91 %\ld also be tak5 9 acc\nt4 #d ,?is m9]al is extremely common 9 all ! =mations ( ,*ile2 9 ! gneiss ne> ,valp>aiso & 9 ! granitic ve9s cross+ x1 9 ! inject$ gre5/one cr[n+ ! ,c4 ( ,quillota1 9 "s granitic porphyries1 9 ! porphyritic conglom]ate1 & 9 ! feldspa?ic clay-slates4 ,! alt]nat+ /rata ( porphyries & porphyritic conglom]ate1 & ) ! occasionally includ$ b$s ( feldspa?ic slate1 toge!r make a gr& =mation2 9 sev]al places )9 ! ,cordill]a1 ,i e/imat$ its ?ickness at f six to sev5 ?\s& feet4 ,x ext5ds = _m hundr$ miles1 =m+ ! we/]n flank ( ! ,*ilean ,cordill]a2 & ev5 at ,iquique 9 ,p]u1 #hej miles nor? ( ! s\!rnmo/ po9t exam9$ by me 9 ,*ile1 ! coa/-esc>pm5t :i* rises to a height ( betwe5 two & ?ree ?\s& feet is ?us compos$4 ,9 sev]al p>ts ( ,nor!rn ,*ile ?is =mation ext5ds mu* fur!r t[>ds ! ,pacific1 ov] ! granitic & metamorphic l[] rocks1 ?an x does 9 ,c5tral ,*ile2 b ! ma9 ,cordill]a may be consid]$ z its c5tral l9e1 & its bread? 9 an ea/ & we/ direction is nev] great4 ,at fir/ ! orig9 ( ?is ?ick1 massive1 long b n>r[ =mation1 appe>$ to me v anomal\s3 :5ce 7 d]iv$1 & h[ 7 disp]s$ ! innum]able fragm5ts1 (t5 ( l>ge size1 sometimes angul> & sometimes r\nd$1 & almo/ inv>iably compos$ ( porphyritic rocks8 ,see+ t ! int]/ratifi$ porphyries are nev] vesicul> & (t5 n ev5 amygdaloidal1 we mu/ conclude t ! pile 0 =m$ 9 deep wat]2 h[ !n came s _m fragm5ts to be well r\nd$ & s _m to rema9 angul>1 sometimes ! two k9ds be+ equally m+l$1 sometimes "o & sometimes ! o!r prepond]at+8 ,t ! clay/one1 gre5/one1 & o!r porphyries & amygdaloids1 :i* lie con=mably betwe5 ! b$s ( conglom]ate1 are anci5t subm>9e lavas1 ,i ?9k !re c be no d\bt2 & ,i believe we mu/ look to ! crat]s :5ce ^! /reams 7 erupt$1 z ! s\rce ( ! breccia-conglom]ate2 aft] ! great explosion1 we may fairly imag9e t ! wat] 9 ! heat$ & sc>cely quiesc5t crat] w\ld rema9 = a consid]able "t#e suffici5tly agitat$ to triturate & r\nd ! loose fragm5ts1 few or _m 9 numb]1 w\ld be %ot =? at ! next eruption1 associat$ ) few or _m angul> fragm5ts1 accord+ to ! /r5g? ( ! explosion4 ,! porphyritic conglom]ate be+ purple or r$di%1 ev5 :5 alt]nat+ ) du/y-col\r$ or bright gre5 porphyries & amygdaloids1 is probably an analog\s circum/ance to ! scori ( ! blacki% basalts be+ (t5 bright r$4 ,! anci5t subm>9e orifices :5ce ! porphyries & _! fragm5ts 7 eject$ hav+ be5 arrang$ 9 a b&1 l mo/ /ill active volcanoes1 acc\nts = ! ?ickness1 ! n>r[ness1 & l9e> ext5sion ( ?is =mation4 #e ,?is c]ta9ly seems to h tak5 place 9 "s rec5t volcanic ar*ipelagos1 z at ! ,galapagos1 :]e num]\s crat]s are exclusively =m$ ( tuff & fragm5ts ( lava4 ,?is :ole great pile ( rock has suff]$ mu* metamorphic action1 z is v obvi\s 9 ! gradual =mation & appe>ance ( ! cry/als ( albitic feldsp> & ( epidote--9 ! b5d+ toge!r ( ! fragm5ts--9 ! appe>ance ( a lam9at$ /ructure 9 ! feldspa?ic slate--&1 la/ly1 9 ! disappe>ance ( ! planes ( /ratification1 :i* c\ld sometimes be se5 on ! same m\nta9 q di/9ct 9 ! upp] "p1 less & less pla9 on ! flanks1 & q oblit]at$ at ! base4 ,p>tly ow+ to ?is metamorphic action1 & p>tly to ! close relation%ip 9 orig91 ,i h se5 fragm5ts ( porphyries--tak5 f a metamorphos$ conglom]ate--f a neighb\r+ /ream ( lava--f ! nucleus or c5tre 7z x appe>$ to me7 ( ! :ole subm>9e volcano--& la/ly f an intrusive mass ( q subsequ5t orig91 all ( :i* 7 absolutely undi/+ui%able 9 ext]nal *>act]s4 ,"o o!r rock1 ( plutonic orig91 & highly important 9 ! hi/ory ( ! ,cordill]a1 f hav+ be5 inject$ 9 mo/ ( ! great axes ( elevation1 & f hav+ app>5tly be5 in/rum5tal 9 metamorphos+ ! sup]9cumb5t /rata1 may be conv5i5tly describ$ 9 ?is prelim9>y discussion4 ,x has be5 call$ by "s au?ors ,&esite3 x ma9ly consi/s ( well-cry/allis$ :ite albite#f 7z det]m9$ ) ! goniomet] 9 num]\s specim5s bo? by ,pr(essor ,mill] & myself71 ( less p]fectly cry/allis$ gre5 hornbl5de1 (t5 associat$ ) mu* mica1 ) *lorite & epidote1 & occasionally ) a few gra9s ( qu>tz3 9 "o in/ance 9 ,nor!rn ,*ile1 ,i f\nd cry/als ( or?itic or pota% feldsp>1 m+l$ ) ^? ( albite4 ,:]e ! mica & qu>tz are abundant1 ! rock _c be di/+ui%$ f granite2 & x may be call$ &esitic granite4 ,:]e ^! two m9]als are q abs5t1 & :51 z (t5 !n happ5s1 ! cry/als ( albite are imp]fect & bl5d toge!r1 ! rock may be call$ &esitic porphyry1 :i* be>s ne>ly ! same relation to &esitic granite t euritic porphyry does to common granite4 ,^! &esitic rocks =m m\nta9 masses ( a :ite col\r1 :i*1 9 _! g5]al outl9e & appe>ance--9 _! jo9ts--9 _! occasionally includ+ d>k-col\r$1 angul> fragm5ts1 app>5tly ( "s pre-exi/+ rock--& 9 ! great dikes bran*+ f !m into ! sup]9cumb5t /rata1 manife/ a close & /rik+ resemblance to masses ( common granite & sy5ite3 ,i nev]1 h[ev]1 saw 9 ^! &esitic rocks1 ^? granitic ve9s ( segregation :i* are s common 9 true granites4 ,we h se5 t &esite occurs 9 ?ree places 9 ,ti]ra del ,fuego2 9 ,*ile1 f ,s4 ,f]n&o to ,copiapo1 a di/ance ( #dej miles1 ,i f\nd x "u mo/ ( ! axes ( elevation2 9 a collection ( specim5s f ! ,cordill]a ( ,lima 9 ,p]u1 ,i imm$iately recognis$ x2 & ,erman#g /ates t x occurs 9 ,ea/]n ,kamts*atka4 ,f its wide range1 & f ! important "p x has play$ 9 ! hi/ory ( ! ,cordill]a1 ,i ?9k ?is rock has well des]v$ its di/9ct "n ( ,&esite4 #f ,i "h1 & else:]e1 call by ?is "n1 ^? feldspa?ic m9]als :i* cleave l albite3 b x n[ appe>s 7,ed94 ,new ,phil4 ,j\rnal41 vol4 xxiv1 p4 #aha7 t ,abi* has analys$ a m9]al f ! ,cordill]a1 associat$ ) hornbl5de & qu>tz 7probably ! same rock ) t "h "u discussion71 :i* cleaves l albite1 b :i* is a new & di/9ct k9d1 call$ by him ,&es9e4 ,x is alli$ to leucite1 ) ! great] proportion ( its pota% replac$ by lime & soda4 ,?is m9]al seems sc>cely di/+ui%able f albite1 except by analysis4 #g ,geograph4 ,j\rnal1 vol4 ix1 p4 #eaj4 ,! few /ill active volcanoes 9 ,*ile are conf9$ to ! c5tral & l(tie/ ranges ( ! ,cordill]a2 & volcanic matt]1 su* z appe>s to h be5 ( suba]ial eruption1 is ev]y:]e r>e4 ,accord+ to ,mey51#h !re is a hill ( pumice high up ! valley ( ! ,maypu1 & likewise a tra*ytic =mation at ,col9a1 a village situat$ nor? ( ,/4 ,jago4 ,close to ?is latt] city1 !re are two hills =m$ ( a pale feldspa?ic porphyry1 rem>kable f be+ d\bly column>1 great cyl9drical columns be+ subdivid$ into small] f\r- or five-sid$ ones2 & a ?ird hillock 7,c]ro ,blanco7 is =m$ ( a fragm5t>y mass ( rock1 :i* ,i believ$ to be ( volcanic orig91 int]m$iate 9 "* betwe5 ! above feldspa?ic porphyry & common tra*yte1 & conta9+ ne$les ( hornbl5de & granul> oxide ( iron4 ,ne> ! ,ba?s ( ,cauqu5es1 betwe5 two %ort p>allel l9es ( elevation1 :]e !y are int]sect$ by ! valley1 !re is a small1 ?\gh di/9ct volcanic di/rict2 ! rock is a d>k grey 7&esitic7 tra*yte1 :i* fuses into a gre5i%-grey bead1 & is =m$ ( long cry/als ( fractur$ glassy albite 7judg+ f "o measurem5t7 m+l$ ) well-=m$ cry/als1 (t5 tw91 ( augite4 ,! :ole mass is vesicul>1 b ! surface is d>k] col\r$ & mu* m vesicul> ?an any o!r "p4 ,?is tra*yte =ms a cliff-b\nd$1 horizontal1 n>r[ /rip on ! /eep s\!rn side ( ! valley1 at ! height ( f\r or five hundr$ feet above ! riv]-b$2 judg+ f an app>5tly correspond+ l9e ( cliff on ! nor!rn side1 ! valley mu/ once h be5 fill$ up to ?is height by a field ( lava4 ,on ! summit ( a l(ty m\nta9 "s leagues high] up ?is same valley ( ! ,ca*apual1 ,i f\nd column> pit*/one porphyritic ) feldsp>2 ,i d n suppose ?is rock to be ( volcanic orig91 & only m5tion x "h1 f its be+ int]sect$ by masses & dikes ( a vesicul> rock1 approa*+ 9 "* to tra*yte2 9 no o!r "p ( ,*ile did ,i obs]ve vesicul> or amygdaloidal dikes1 ?\gh ^! are s common 9 ord9>y volcanic di/ricts4 #h 8,reise um ,erde10 ,?4 ,i1 ss4 #cch & #cfb4 ,passage ( ! ,&es by ! ,portillo or ,pequ5es ,pass4 ,al?\gh ,i cross$ ! ,cordill]a only once by ?is pass1 & only once by t ( ! ,cumbre or ,uspallata 7pres5tly to be describ$71 rid+ sl[ly & halt+ occasionally to asc5d ! m\nta9s1 !re are _m circum/ances fav\rable to obta9+ a m fai?ful sket* ( _! /ructure ?an w\ld at fir/ be ?\ght possible f s %ort an exam9ation4 ,! m\nta9s are /eep & absolutely b>e ( vegetation2 ! atmosph]e is respl5d5tly cle>2 ! /ratification di/9ct2 & ! rocks brightly & v>i\sly col\r$3 "s ( ! natural sections might be truly comp>$ = di/9ctness to ^? col\r$ ones 9 geological works4 ,consid]+ h[ little is kn[n ( ! /ructure ( ?is gigantic range1 to :i* ,i p>ticul>ly att5d$1 mo/ travell]s hav+ collect$ only specim5s ( ! rocks1 ,i ?9k my sket*-sections1 ?\gh necess>ily imp]fect1 possess "s int]e/4 ,plate ,v sections 7betwe5 & #dda7 :i* ,i w n[ describe 9 detail1 is on a horizontal scale ( a ?ird ( an in* to a nautical mile1 & on a v]tical scale ( "o in* to a mile 7or #f1jjj feet74 ,! wid? ( ! range 7exclud+ a few outly+ hillocks71 f ! pla9 on :i* ,/4 ,jago ! capital ( ,*ile /&s1 to ! ,pampas1 is sixty miles1 z f> z ,i c judge f ! maps1 :i* diff] f ea* o!r & are all exce$+ly imp]fect4 ,! ,/4 ,jago pla9 at ! m\? ( ! ,maypu1 ,i e/imate f adjo9+ kn[n po9ts at #b1cjj feet1 & ! ,pampas at #c1ejj feet1 bo? above ! level ( ! sea4 ,! height ( ! ,pequ5es l9e1 accord+ to ,dr4 ,gillies1#i is #ac1baj feet2 & t ( ! ,portillo l9e 7bo? 9 ! gaps :]e ! road crosses !m7 is #ad1cde feet2 ! l[e/ "p ( ! int]m$iate valley ( ,t5uyan is #g1ecj feet--all above ! level ( ! sea4 #i ,j\rnal ( ,nat4 & ,geograph4 ,sci5ce1 ,augu/ #ahcj4 ,! ,cordill]a "h1 & inde$ ,i believe ?r\gh\t ,*ile1 consi/ ( sev]al p>allel1 anticl9al & unicl9al m\nta9-l9es1 rang+ nor?1 or nor? ) a little we/+1 & s\?4 ,"s ext]ior & mu* l[] ridges (t5 v>y consid]ably f ?is c\rse1 project+ l oblique spurs f ! ma9 ranges3 9 ! di/rict t[>ds ! ,pacific1 ! m\nta9s1 z be=e rem>k$1 ext5d 9 v>i\s directions1 ev5 ea/ & we/4 ,9 ! ma9 ext]ior l9es1 ! /rata1 z also be=e rem>k$1 are seldom incl9$ at a high angle2 b 9 ! c5tral l(ty ridges !y are almo/ always highly incl9$1 brok5 by _m great faults1 & (t5 v]tical4 ,z f> z ,i c\ld judge1 few ( ! ranges are ( great l5g?3 & 9 ! c5tral p>ts ( ! ,cordill]a1 ,i 0 frequ5tly able to foll[ ) my eye a ridge gradually becom+ high] & high]1 z ! /ratification increas$ 9 incl9ation1 f "o end :]e its height 0 trifl+ & its /rata g5tly incl9$ to ! o!r end :]e v]tical /rata =m$ sn[-clad p9nacles4 ,ev5 outside ! ma9 ,cordill]a1 ne> ! ba?s ( ,cauqu5es1 ,i obs]v$ "o su* case1 :]e a nor? & s\? ridge _h its /rata 9 ! valley incl9$ at #cg1 & less ?an a mile s\? ( x at #fg3 ano!r p>allel & simil>ly incl9$ ridge rose at ! di/ance ( ab\t five miles1 into a l(ty m\nta9 ) absolutely v]tical /rata4 ,)9 ! ,cordill]a1 ! height ( ! ridges & ! incl9ation ( ! /rata (t5 became d\bl$ & trebl$ 9 mu* %ort] di/ances ?an five miles2 ?is peculi> =m ( upheaval probably indicates t ! /ratifi$ cru/ 0 ?91 & h5ce yield$ to ! und]ly+ intrusive masses unequally1 at c]ta9 po9ts on ! l9es ( fissure4 ,! valleys1 by :i* ! ,cordill]a are dra9$1 foll[ ! anticl9al or r>ely syncl9al tr\ghs1 :i* deviate mo/ f ! usual nor? & s\? c\rse2 or /ill m commonly ^? l9es ( faults or ( unequal curvature 7t is1 l9es ) ! /rata on bo? h&s dipp+ 9 ! same direction1 b at a some:at diff]5t angle7 :i* deviate mo/ f a nor!rly c\rse4 ,occasionally ! torr5ts run = "s di/ance 9 ! nor? & s\? valleys1 & !n recov] _! ea/]n or we/]n c\rse by bur/+ ?r\gh ! ranges at ^? po9ts :]e ! /rata h be5 lea/ incl9$ & ! height consequ5tly is less4 ,h5ce ! valleys1 along :i* ! roads run1 are g5]ally zigzag2 &1 9 draw+ an ea/ & we/ section1 x is necess>y to contract greatly t :i* is actually se5 on ! road4 ,comm5c+ at ! we/]n end ( our section ,plate ,v :]e ! ,r4 ,maypu deb\*es on ! pla9 ( ,/4 ,jago1 we imm$iately ent] on ! porphyritic conglom]ate =mation1 & 9 ! mid/ ( x f9d "s hummocks ,a ( granite & sy5ite1 :i* probably 7= ,i neglect$ to collect specim5s7 belong to ! &esitic class4 ,^! are succe$$ by "s rugg$ hills ,b ( d>k-gre51 cry/all9e1 feldspa?ic & 9 "s p>ts slaty rocks1 :i* ,i believe belong to ! alt]$ clay-slate =mation4 ,f ?is po9t1 great m\nta9s ( purpli% & gre5i%1 g5]ally ?9ly /ratifi$1 highly porphyritic conglom]ates1 includ+ _m /rata ( amygdaloidal & gre5/one porphyries1 ext5d up ! valley to ! junction ( ! riv]s ,yeso & ,volcan4 ,z ! valley "h runs 9 a v s\!rly c\rse1 ! wid? ( ! porphyritic conglom]ate =mation is q conjectural2 & f ! same cause1 ,i 0 unable to make out mu* ab\t ! /ratification4 ,9 mo/ ( ! ext]ior m\nta9s ! dip 0 g5tle & direct$ inw>ds2 & at only "o spot ,i obs]v$ an incl9ation z high z #ej4 ,ne> ! junction ( ! ,r4 ,colorado ) ! ma9 /ream1 !re is a hill ( :iti%1 brecciat$1 p>tially decompos$ feldspa?ic porphyry1 hav+ a volcanic aspect b n be+ really ( t nature3 at ,tolla1 h[ev]1 9 ?is valley1 ,dr4 ,mey5#aj met ) a hill ( pumice conta9+ mica4 ,at ! junction ( ! ,yeso & ,volcan ,d !re is an ext5sive mass1 9 :ite conical hillocks1 ( &esite1 conta9+ "s mica1 & pass+ ei!r into &esitic granite1 or into a spott$1 semi-granul> mixture ( albitic 787 feldsp> & hornbl5de3 9 ! mid/ ( ?is =mation ,dr4 ,mey5 f\nd true tra*yte4 ,! &esite is cov]$ by /rata ( d>k-col\r$1 cry/all9e1 obscurely porphyritic rocks1 & above !m by ! ord9>y porphyritic conglom]ates1--! /rata all dipp+ away at a small angle f ! und]ly+ mass4 ,! surr\nd+ l(ty m\nta9s appe> to be entirely compos$ ( ! porphyritic conglom]ate1 & ,i e/imat$ its ?ickness "h at betwe5 six & sev5 ?\s& feet4 #aj 8,reise um ,erde10 ,?4 ,i1 ss4 #cch1 #cda47 ,beyond ! junction ( ! ,yeso & ,volcan1 ! porphyritic /rata appe> to dip t[>ds ! hillocks ( &esite at an angle ( #dj2 b at "s di/ant po9ts on ! same ridge !y are b5t up & v]tical4 ,foll[+ ! valley ( ! ,yeso1 tr5d+ ,n4,e4 7& !re=e /ill unfav\rable = our transv]se section71 ! same porphyritic conglom]ate =mation is prolong$ to ne> ! ,cue/adel ,indio1 situat$ at ! we/]n end ( ! bas9 7l a dra9$ lake7 ( ,yeso4 ,"s way be=e arriv+ at ?is po9t1 di/ant l(ty p9nacles capp$ by col\r$ /rata belong+ to ! great gypse\s =mation c\ld fir/ be se54 ,f ! summit ( ! ,cue/a1 look+ s\?w>d1 !re is a magnific5t sectional view ( a m\nta9-mass1 at lea/ #b1jjj feet 9 ?ickness ,e1 ( f9e &esite granite 7conta9+ mu* black mica1 a little *lorite & qu>tz71 :i* s5ds great :ite dikes f> into ! sup]9cumb5t1 d>k-col\r$1 porphyritic conglom]ates4 ,at ! l9e ( junction ! two =mations are wond]fully int]lac$ toge!r3 9 ! l[] "p ( ! porphyritic conglom]ate1 ! /ratification has be5 q oblit]at$1 :il/ 9 ! upp] "p x is v di/9ct1 ! b$s compos+ ! cre/s ( ! surr\nd+ m\nta9s be+ incl9$ at angles ( betwe5 #gj & #hj degrees1 & "s be+ ev5 v]tical4 ,on ! nor!rn side ( ! valley1 !re is a great correspond+ mass ( &esitic granite1 :i* is encas$ by porphyritic conglom]ate1 dipp+ bo? on ! we/]n & ea/]n sides1 at ab\t #hj to we/1 b on ! ea/]n side ) ! tips ( ! /rata b5t 9 su* a mann]1 z to r5d] x probable t ! :ole mass has be5 on t side ?r[n ov] & inv]t$4 ,9 ! valley bas9 ( ! ,yeso1 :i* ,i e/imat$ at #g1jjj feet above ! level ( ! sea1 we fir/ rea* at ,f ! gypse\s =mation4 ,its ?ickness is v great4 ,x consi/s 9 mo/ p>ts ( sn[-:ite1 h>d1 compact gypsum1 :i* breaks ) a sac*>9e fracture1 hav+ transluc5t edges2 "u ! bl[pipe gives out mu* vap\r2 x frequ5tly includes ne/s & exce$+ly ?9 lay]s ( cry/allis$1 blacki% c>bonate ( lime4 ,l>ge1 irregul>ly %ap$ concretions 7ext]nally /ill exhibit+ l9es ( aque\s deposition7 ( blacki%-grey1 b sometimes :ite1 co>sely & brilliantly cry/allis$1 h>d anhydrite1 ab\nd )9 ! common gypsum4 ,hillocks1 =m$ ( ! h>de/ & pure/ v>ieties ( ! :ite gypsum1 /& up above ! surr\nd+ p>ts1 & h _! surfaces crack$ & m>k$1 j l newly bak$ bread4 ,!re is mu* pale br[n1 s(t argillace\s gypsum2 & !re 7 "s int]calat$ gre5 b$s :i* ,i _h n "t to rea*4 ,i saw only "o fragm5t ( sel5ite or transp>5t gypsum1 & t p]haps may h come f "s subsequ5tly =m$ ve94 ,f ! m9]alogical *>act]s "h giv51 x is probable t ^! gypse\s b$s h und]gone "s metamorphic action4 ,! /rata are mu* hidd5 by detritus1 b !y appe>$ 9 mo/ p>ts to be highly incl9$2 & 9 an adjo9+ l(ty p9nacle !y c\ld be di/9ctly se5 b5d+ up1 & becom+ v]tical1 con=mably ) ! und]ly+ porphyritic conglom]ate4 ,9 v _m p>ts ( ! great m\nta9-face ,f1 compos$ ( ?9 gypse\s b$s1 !re 7 innum]able masses1 irregul>ly %ap$ & n l dikes1 yet ) well-def9$ edges1 ( an imp]fectly granul>1 pale gre5i%1 or yell[i%-:ite rock1 ess5tially compos$ ( feldsp>1 ) a little *lorite or hornbl5de1 epidote1 iron-pyrites1 & f]rug9\s p[d]3 ,i believe t ^! curi\s trappean masses h be5 inject$ f ! n f> di/ant m\nta9-mass ,e ( &esite :il/ /ill fluid1 & t ow+ to ! s(tness ( ! gypse\s /rata !y h n acquir$ ! ord9>y =ms ( dikes4 ,subsequ5tly to ! injection ( ^! feldspa?ic rocks1 a great dislocation has tak5 place2 & ! mu* %att]$ gypse\s /rata "h ov]lie a hillock ,g1 compos$ ( v]tical /rata ( impure lime/one & ( black highly calc>e\s %ale includ+ ?reads ( gypsum3 ^! rocks1 z we %all pres5tly see1 belong to ! upp] p>ts ( ! gypse\s s]ies1 & h5ce mu/ "h h be5 ?r[n d[n by a va/ fault4 ,proce$+ up ! valley-bas9 ( ! ,yeso1 & tak+ our section sometimes on "o h& & sometimes on ! o!r1 we come to a great hill ( /ratifi$ porphyritic conglom]ate ,h dipp+ at #de to ! we/2 & a few hundr$ y>ds f>!r on1 we h a b$ betwe5 ?ree or f\r hundr$ feet ?ick ( gypsum ,i dipp+ ea/w>d at a v high angle3 "h !n we h a fault & anticl9al axis4 ,on ! opposite side ( ! valley1 a v]tical mass ( r$ conglom]ate1 con=mably und]ly+ ! gypsum1 appe>s gradually to lose its /ratification & passes into a m\nta9 ( porphyry4 ,! gypsum ,i is cov]$ by a b$ ,k1 at lea/ #a1jjj feet 9 ?ickness1 ( a purpli%-r$1 compact1 heavy1 f9e-gra9$ s&/one or mud/one1 :i* fuses easily into a :ite enamel1 & is se5 "u a l5s to conta9 triturat$ cry/als4 ,?is is succe$$ by a b$ ,l1 #a1jjj feet ?ick 7,i believe ,i und]/ate ! ?ickness7 ( gypsum1 exactly l ! b$s be=e describ$2 & ?is aga9 is capp$ by ano!r great b$ ,m ( purpli%-r$ s&/one4 ,all ^! /rata dip ea/w>d2 b ! incl9ation becomes less & less1 z we leave ! fir/ & almo/ v]tical b$ ,i ( gypsum4 ,leav+ ! bas9-pla9 ( ,yeso1 ! road rapidly asc5ds1 pass+ by m\nta9s compos$ ( ! gypse\s & associat$ b$s1 ) _! /ratification greatly di/urb$ & !re=e n easily intelligible3 h5ce ?is "p ( ! section has be5 left uncol\r$4 ,%ortly be=e rea*+ ! great ,pequ5es ridge1 ! l[e/ /ratum visible ,n is a r$ s&/one or mud/one1 capp$ by a va/ ?ickness ( black1 compact1 calc>e\s1 %aly rock ,o1 :i* has be5 ?r[n into f\r l(ty1 ?\gh small ridges3 look+ nor?w>d1 ! /rata 9 ^! ridges are se5 gradually to rise 9 incl9ation1 becom+ 9 "s di/ant p9nacles absolutely v]tical4 ,! ridge ( ,pequ5es1 :i* divides ! wat]s fl[+ into ! ,pacific & ,atlantic ,oceans1 ext5ds 9 a ne>ly ,n4,n4,w4 & ,s4,s4,e4 l9e2 its /rata dip ea/w>d at an angle ( betwe5 #cj & #de1 b 9 ! high] peaks b5d+ up & becom+ almo/ v]tical4 ,:]e ! road crosses ?is range1 ! height is #ac1baj feet above ! sea-level1 & ,i e/imat$ ! neighb\r+ p9nacles at f f\rte5 to fifte5 ?\s& feet4 ,! l[e/ /ratum visible 9 ?is ridge is a r$ /ratifi$ s&/one ,p2 on x are sup]impos$ two great masses ,q & ,s ( black1 h>d1 compact1 ev5 hav+ a con*oidal fracture1 calc>e\s1 m or less lam9at$ %ale1 pass+ into lime/one3 ?is rock conta9s organic rema9s1 pres5tly to be enum]at$4 ,! compact] v>ieties fuse easily 9 a :ite glass2 & ?is ,i may add is a v g5]al "* ) all ! s$im5t>y b$s 9 ! ,cordill]a3 al?\gh ?is rock :5 brok5 is g5]ally q black1 x ev]y:]e wea!rs into an a%-grey t9t4 ,betwe5 ^! two great masses ,q & ,s1 a b$ ,r ( gypsum is int]pos$1 ab\t ?ree hundr$ feet 9 ?ickness1 & hav+ ! same *>act]s z h]et(ore describ$4 ,i e/imat$ ! total ?ickness ( ^! ?ree b$s ,q1 ,r1 ,s at ne>ly ?ree ?\s& feet2 & to ?is mu/ be add$1 z w be imm$iately se51 a great ov]ly+ mass ( r$ s&/one4 ,9 desc5d+ ! ea/]n slope ( ?is great c5tral range1 ! /rata1 :i* 9 ! upp] "p dip ea/w>d at ab\t an angle ( #dj1 become m & m curv$1 till !y are ne>ly v]tical2 & a little fur!r onw>ds !re is se5 on ! fur!r side ( a rav9e1 a ?ick mass ( /rata ( bright r$ s&/one ,t1 ) _! upp] extremities slightly curv$1 %[+ t !y 7 once con=mably prolong$ ov] ! b$s ,s3 on ! s\!rn & opposite side ( ! road1 ?is r$ s&/one & ! und]ly+ black %aly rocks /& v]tical1 & 9 actual juxtaposition4 ,cont9u+ to desc5d1 we come to a syncl9al valley fill$ ) rubbi%1 beyond :i* we h ! r$ s&/one ,t#b correspond+ ) ,t1 & n[ dipp+1 z is se5 bo? nor? & s\? ( ! road1 at #de to ! we/2 & "u x1 ! b$s ,s#b1 ,r#b1 ,q#b1 & ,i believe ,p#b 9 correspond+ ord] & ( simil> composition1 ) ^? on ! we/]n flank ( ! ,pequ5es range1 b dipp+ we/w>d4 ,close to ! syncl9al valley ! dip ( ^! /rata is #de1 b at ! ea/]n or f>!r end ( ! s]ies x increases to #fj4 ,"h ! great gypse\s =mation abruptly t]m9ates1 & is succe$$ ea/w>d by a pile ( m mod]n /rata4 ,consid]+ h[ viol5tly ^! c5tral ranges h be5 dislocat$1 & h[ v num]\s dikes are 9 ! ext]ior & l[] p>ts ( ! ,cordill]a1 x is rem>kable t ,i did n "h notice a s+le dike4 ,! prevail+ rock 9 ?is neighb\rhood is ! black1 calc>e\s1 compact %ale1 :il/ 9 ! valley-bas9 ( ! ,yeso ! purpli% r$ s&/one or mud/one pr$om9ates1--bo? be+ associat$ ) gypse\s /rata ( exactly ! same nature4 ,x w\ld be v difficult to asc]ta9 ! relative sup]position ( ^! sev]al masses1 = we %all aft]w>ds see 9 ! ,cumbre ,pass t ! gypse\s & int]calat$ b$s are l5s-%ap$1 & t !y ?9 out1 ev5 :]e v ?ick1 & disappe> 9 %ort horizontal di/ances3 x is q possible t ! black %ales & r$ s&/ones may be contemporane\s1 b x is m probable t ! =m] compose ! upp]mo/ p>ts ( ! s]ies4 ,! fossils above allud$ to 9 ! black calc>e\s %ales are few 9 numb]1 & are 9 an imp]fect condition2 !y consi/1 z nam$ = me by ,m4 d',orbigny1 (3-- ,ammonite1 indet]m9able1 ne> to ,a4 rectico/atus1 d',orbigny1 8,pal4 ,franc40 7,neocomian =mation74 ,grypha1 ne> to ,g4 ,c\loni 7,neocomian =mations ( ,france & ,neuf*tel74 ,natica1 indet]m9able4 ,cypr9a ro/rata1 d',orbigny1 8,pal4 ,franc40 7,neocomian =mation74 ,ro/ell>ia angulosa 7871 d',orbigny1 8,pal4 de l',amr4 ,m]40 ,t]ebratula 7874 ,"s ( ! fragm5ts ( ,ammonites 7 z ?ick z a man's arm3 ! ,grypha is mu* ! mo/ abundant %ell4 ,^! fossils ,m4 d',orbigny consid]s z belong+ to ! ,neocomian /age ( ! ,cretace\s sy/em4 ,dr4 ,mey51#aa :o asc5d$ ! valley ( ! ,rio ,volcan1 a bran* ( ! ,yeso1 f\nd a ne>ly simil>1 b app>5tly m calc>e\s =mation1 ) mu* gypsum1 & no d\bt ! equival5t ( t "h describ$3 ! b$s 7 v]tical1 & 7 prolong$ up to ! limits ( p]petual sn[2 at ! height ( #i1jjj feet above ! sea1 !y ab\nd$ ) fossils1 consi/+1 accord+ to ,von ,bu*1#ab (3-- ,exogyra 7,grypha7 ,c\loni1 absolutely id5tical ) specim5s f ! ,jura & ,s\? ( ,france4 ,trigonia co/ata1 id5tical ) ^? f\nd 9 ! upp] ,jurassic b$s at ,hilde%eim4 ,pect5 /riatus1 id5tical ) ^? f\nd 9 ! upp] ,jurassic b$s at ,hilde%eim4 ,cuculla1 correspond+ 9 =m to ,c4 longiro/ris1 s frequ5t 9 ! upp] ,jurassic b$s ( ,we/phalia4 ,ammonites resembl+ ,a4 biplex4 #aa 8,reise um ,erde10 etc41 ,?4 ,i1 s4 #cee4 #ab 8,descript4 ,phys4 des ,iles ,can>ies10 p4 #dga4 ,von ,bu* concludes t ?is =mation is int]m$iate betwe5 ! lime/one ( ! ,jura & ! *alk1 & t x is analog\s ) ! upp]mo/ ,jurassic b$s =m+ ! pla9s ( ,switz]l&4 ,h5ce ,m4 ,d',orbigny & ,von ,bu*1 "u diff]5t t]ms1 comp>e ^! fossils to ^? f ! same late /age 9 ! second>y =mations ( ,europe4 ,"s ( ! fossils :i* ,i collect$ 7 f\nd a good way d[n ! we/]n slope ( ! ma9 ridge1 & h5ce mu/ orig9ally h be5 cov]$ up by a great ?ickness ( ! black %aly rock1 indep5d5tly ( ! n[ d5ud$1 ?ick1 ov]ly+ masses ( r$ s&/one4 ,i neglect$ at ! "t to e/imate h[ _m hundr$ or r ?\s& feet ?ick ! sup]9cumb5t /rata mu/ h be53 & ,i w n n[ attempt to d s4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 w\ld h be5 a highly int]e/+ po9t1 z indicative ( a great am\nt ( subsid5ce1 ( hi* we %all h]eaft] f9d 9 o!r p>ts ( ! ,cordill]a analog\s evid5ce dur+ ?is same p]iod4 ,! altitude ( ! ,peuqu5es ,range1 consid]+ its n great antiquity1 is v rem>kable2 _m ( ! fossils 7 emb$d$ at ! height ( #ac1baj feet1 & ! same b$s are prolong$ up to at lea/ f f\rte5 to fifte5 ?\s& feet above ! level ( ! sea4 ,! ,portillo or ,ea/]n ,*a94--,! valley ( ,t5uyan1 sep>at+ ! ,peuqu5es & ,portillo l9es1 is1 z e/imat$ by ,dr4 ,gillies & myself1 ab\t tw5ty miles 9 wid?2 ! l[e/ "p1 :]e ! road crosses ! riv]1 be+ #g1ejj feet above ! sea-level4 ,! pass on ! ,portillo l9e is #ad1cfe feet high 7#a1ajj feet high] ?an t on ! ,peuqu5es71 & ! neighb\r+ p9nacles mu/1 ,i conceive1 rise to ne>ly #af1jjj feet above ! sea4 ,! riv] dra9+ ! int]m$iate valley ( ,t5uyan1 passes ?r\gh ! ,portillo l9e4 ,to return to our section3--%ortly aft] leav+ ! l[] b$s ,p#b ( ! gypse\s =mation1 we come to gr& masses ( a co>se1 r$ conglom]ate ,v1 totally unlike any /rata hi!rto se5 9 ! ,cordill]a4 ,?is conglom]ate is di/9ctly /ratifi$1 "s ( ! b$s be+ well def9$ by ! great] size ( ! pebbles3 ! cem5t is calc>e\s & sometimes cry/all9e1 ?\gh ! mass %[s no signs ( hav+ be5 metamorphos$4 ,! includ$ pebbles are ei!r p]fectly or only p>tially r\nd$3 !y consi/ ( purpli% s&/ones1 ( v>i\s porphyries1 ( br[ni% lime/one1 ( black calc>e\s1 compact %ale precisely l t 9 situ 9 ! ,peuqu5es range1 & conta9+ "s ( ! same fossil %ells2 also v _m pebbles ( qu>tz1 "s ( micace\s s*i/1 & num]\s1 brok51 r\nd$ cry/als ( a r$di% or?itic or pota% feldsp> 7z det]m9$ by ,pr(essor ,mill]71 & ^! f _! size mu/ h be5 d]iv$ f a co>se-gra9$ rock1 probably granite4 ,f ?is feldsp> be+ or?itic1 & ev5 f its ext]nal appe>ance1 ,i v5ture positively to affirm t x has n be5 d]iv$ f ! rocks ( ! we/]n ranges2 b1 on ! o!r h&1 x may well h come1 toge!r ) ! qu>tz & metamorphic s*i/s1 f ! ea/]n or ,portillo l9e1 = ?is l9e ma9ly consi/s ( co>se or?itic granite4 ,! pebbles ( ! fossilif]\s slate & ( ! purple s&/one1 c]ta9ly h be5 d]iv$ f ! ,peuqu5es or we/]n ranges4 ,! road crosses ! valley ( ,t5uyan 9 a ne>ly ea/ & we/ l9e1 & = sev]al miles we h on bo? h&s ! conglom]ate1 ev]y:]e dipp+ we/ & =m+ sep>ate great m\nta9s4 ,! /rata1 :]e fir/ met )1 aft] leav+ ! gypse\s =mation1 are incl9$ we/w>d at an angle ( only #bj1 :i* fur!r on increases to ab\t #de4 ,! gypse\s /rata1 z we h se51 are also incl9$ we/w>d3 h5ce1 :5 look+ f ! ea/]n side ( ! valley t[>ds ! ,peuqu5es range1 a mo/ deceptive appe>ance is pres5t$1 z if ! new] b$s ( conglom]ate dipp$ directly "u ! mu* old] b$s ( ! gypse\s =mation4 ,9 ! middle ( ! valley1 a bold m\nta9 ( un/ratifi$ lilac-col\r$ porphyry 7) cry/als ( hornbl5de7 projects2 & fur!r on1 a little s\? ( ! road1 !re is ano!r m\nta91 ) its /rata incl9$ at a small angle ea/w>ds1 :i* 9 its g5]al aspect & col\r1 resembles ! porphyritic conglom]ate =mation1 s r>e on ?is side ( ! ,peuqu5es l9e & s gr&ly develop$ ?r\gh\t ! we/]n ranges4 ,! conglom]ate is ( great ?ickness3 ,i d n suppose t ! /rata =m+ ! sep>ate m\nta9-masses ,v1 ,v1 ,v h ev] be5 prolong$ ov] ea* o!r1 b t "o mass has be5 brok5 up by sev]al1 di/9ct1 p>allel1 unicl9al l9es ( elevation4 ,judg+ !re=e ( ! ?ickness ( ! conglom]ate1 z se5 9 ! sep>ate m\nta9-masses1 ,i e/imat$ x at lea/ f "o ?\s& five hundr$ to two ?\s& feet4 ,! l[] b$s re/ con=mably on "s s+ul>ly col\r$1 s(t /rata ,w1 :i* ,i c\ld n rea* to exam9e2 & ^! aga9 re/ con=mably on a ?ick mass ( micace\s1 ?9ly lam9at$1 silice\s s&/one ,x1 associat$ ) a little black clay-slate4 ,^! l[] b$s are trav]s$ by sev]al dikes ( decompos+ porphyry4 ,! lam9at$ s&/one is directly sup]impos$ on ! va/ masses ( granite ,y1 ,y :i* ma9ly compose ! ,portillo range4 ,! l9e ( junction betwe5 ?is latt] rock1 :i* is ( a bright r$ col\r1 & ! :iti% s&/one 0 beautifully di/9ct2 ! s&/one be+ p5etrat$ by num]\s1 great1 tortu\s dikes bran*+ f ! granite1 & hav+ be5 conv]t$ into a granul> qu>tz rock 7s+ul>ly l t ( ! ,falkl& ,isl&s71 conta9+ specks ( an o*rey p[d]1 & black cry/all9e atoms1 app>5tly ( imp]fect mica4 ,! qu>tzose /rata 9 "o spot 7 fold$ into a regul> dome4 ,! granite :i* composes ! magnific5t b>e p9nacles & ! /eep we/]n flank ( ! ,portillo *a91 is ( a brick-r$ col\r1 co>sely cry/allis$1 & compos$ ( or?itic or pota% feldsp>1 qu>tz1 & imp]fect mica 9 small quantity1 sometimes pass+ into *lorite4 ,^! m9]als occasionally assume a lam9> or foliat$ arrangem5t4 ,! fact ( ! feldsp> be+ or?itic 9 ?is range1 is v rem>kable1 consid]+ h[ r>e1 or r1 z ,i believe1 entirely abs5t1 ?is m9]al is ?r\gh\t ! we/]n ranges1 9 :i* soda-feldsp>1 or at lea/ a v>iety cleav+ l albite1 is s extremely abundant4 ,9 "o spot on ! we/]n flank1 & on ! ea/]n flank ne> ,los ,manantiales & ne> ! cre/1 ,i notic$ "s great masses ( a :iti% granite1 p>ts ( x f9e- gra9$1 & p>ts conta9+ l>ge cry/als ( feldsp>2 ,i neglect$ to collect specim5s1 s ,i d n "k :e!r ?is feldsp> is also or?itic1 ?\gh ,i am incl9$ to ?9k s f its g5]al appe>ance4 ,i saw also "s sy5ite & "o mass :i* resembl$ &esite1 b ( :i* ,i likewise neglect$ to collect specim5s4 ,f ! mann] 9 :i* ! :iti% granites =m$ sep>ate m\nta9-masses 9 ! mid/ ( ! brick-r$ v>iety1 & f "o su* mass ne> ! cre/ be+ trav]s$ by num]\s ve9s ( fle%-col\r$ & gre5i% eurite 7into :i* ,i occasionally obs]v$ ! brick-r$ granite ins5sibly pass+71 ,i conclude t ! :ite granites probably belong to an old] =mation1 almo/ ov]:elm$ & p5etrat$ by ! r$ granite4 ,on ! cre/ ,i saw also1 at a %ort di/ance1 "s col\r$ /ratifi$ b$s1 app>5tly l ^? ,w at ! we/]n base1 b 0 prev5t$ exam9+ !m by a sn[/orm3 ,mr4 ,caldcleugh1#ac h[ev]1 collect$ "h specim5s ( ribbon$ jasp]1 magnesian lime/one1 & o!r m9]als4 ,a little way d[n ! ea/]n slope a few fragm5ts ( qu>tz & mica-slate are met )2 b ! great =mation ( ?is latt] rock ,z1 :i* cov]s up mu* ( ! ea/]n flank & base ( ! ,portillo range1 _c be conv5i5tly exam9$ until mu* l[] d[n at a place call$ ,mal ,paso4 ,! mica-s*i/ "h consi/s ( ?ick lay]s ( qu>tz1 ) int]v5+ folia ( f9ely-scaly mica1 (t5 pass+ into a sub/ance l black glossy clay-slate3 9 "o spot1 ! lay]s ( ! qu>tz hav+ disappe>$1 ! :ole mass became conv]t$ into glossy clay-slate4 ,:]e ! folia 7 be/ def9$1 !y 7 incl9$ at a high angle we/w>d1 t is1 t[>ds ! range4 ,! l9e ( junction betwe5 ! d>k mica-slate & ! co>se r$ granite 0 mo/ cle>ly di/+ui%able f a va/ di/ance3 ! granite s5t _m small ve9s into ! mica-slate1 & includ$ "s angul> fragm5ts ( x4 ,z ! s&/one on ! we/]n base has be5 conv]t$ by ! r$ granite into a granul> qu>tz-rock1 s ?is great =mation ( mica-s*i/ may possibly h be5 metamorphos$ at ! same "t & by ! same means2 b ,i ?9k x m probable1 consid]+ its m p]fect metamorphic "* & its well-pron\nc$ foliation1 t x belongs to an ant]ior epo*1 connect$ ) ! :ite granites3 ,i am ! m incl9$ to ?is view1 f hav+ f\nd at ! foot ( ! range ! mica-s*i/ surr\nd+ a hummock ,y#b1 exclusively compos$ ( :ite granite4 ,ne> ,los ,ar5ales1 ! m\nta9s on all sides are compos$ ( ! mica-slate2 & look+ backw>ds f ?is po9t up to ! b>e gigantic peaks above1 ! view 0 em95tly int]e/+4 ,! col\rs ( ! r$ granite & ! black mica-slate are s di/9ct1 t ) a bright light ^! rocks c\ld be readily di/+ui%$ ev5 f ! ,pampas1 at a level ( at lea/ #i1jjj feet bel[4 ,! r$ granite1 f be+ divid$ by p>allel jo9ts1 has wea!r$ into %>p p9nacles1 on "s ( :i*1 ev5 on "s ( ! l(tie/1 little caps ( mica-s*i/ c\ld be cle>ly se53 "h & !re isolat$ pat*es ( ?is rock adh]$ to ! m\nta9-flanks1 & ^! (t5 correspond$ 9 height & position on ! opposite sides ( ! imm5se valleys4 ,l[] d[n ! s*i/ prevail$ m & m1 ) only a few q small po9ts ( granite project+ ?r\gh4 ,look+ at ! entire ea/]n face ( ! ,portillo range1 ! r$ col\r f> exce$s 9 area ! black2 yet x 0 sc>cely possible to d\bt t ! granite _h once be5 almo/ :olly encas$ by ! mica-s*i/4 #ac 8,travels10 etc41 vol4 i1 p4 #cjh4 ,at ,los ,ar5ales1 l[ d[n on ! ea/]n flank1 ! mica-slate is trav]s$ by sev]al closely adjo9+1 broad dikes1 p>allel to ea* o!r & to ! foliation ( ! s*i/4 ,! dikes are =m$ ( ?ree diff]5t v>ieties ( rock1 ( :i* a pale br[n feldspa?ic porphyry ) gra9s ( qu>tz 0 mu* ! mo/ abundant4 ,^! dikes ) _! granules ( qu>tz1 z well z ! mica-s*i/ itself1 /rik+ly resemble ! rocks ( ! ,*onos ,ar*ipelago4 ,at a height ( ab\t twelve hundr$ feet above ! dikes1 & p]haps connect$ ) !m1 !re is a range ( cliffs =m$ ( successive lava-/reams ,,aa1 betwe5 ?ree & f\r hundr$ feet 9 ?ickness1 & 9 places f9ely column>4 ,! lava consi/s ( d>k-greyi%1 h>% rocks1 int]m$iate 9 "* betwe5 tra*yte & basalt1 conta9+ glassy feldsp>1 oliv9e1 & a little mica1 & sometimes amygdaloidal ) zeolite3 ! basis is ei!r q compact1 or cr5ulat$ ) air-vesicles arrang$ 9 lam94 ,! /reams are sep>at$ f ea* o!r by b$s ( fragm5t>y br[n scori1 firmly cem5t$ toge!r1 & includ+ a few well-r\nd$ pebbles ( lava4 ,f _! g5]al appe>ance1 ,i suspect t ^! lava-/reams fl[$ at an anci5t p]iod "u ! pressure ( ! sea1 :5 ! ,atlantic cov]$ ! ,pampas & wa%$ ! ea/]n foot ( ! ,cordill]a4#ad ,on ! opposite & nor!rn side ( ! valley !re is ano!r l9e ( lava-cliffs at a correspond+ height2 ! valley betwe5 be+ ( consid]able bread?1 & z ne>ly z ,i c\ld e/imate #a1ejj feet 9 dep?4 ,?is field ( lava is conf9$ on bo? sides by ! m\nta9s ( mica-s*i/1 & slopes d[n rapidly b irregul>ly to ! edge ( ! ,pampas1 :]e1 hav+ a ?ickness ( ab\t two hundr$ feet1 x t]m9ates aga9/ a little range ( clay/one porphyry4 ,! valley 9 ?is l[] "p exp&s into a bay-l1 g5tle slope1 bord]$ by ! cliffs ( lava1 :i* mu/ c]ta9ly once h ext5d$ across ?is wide expanse4 ,! incl9ation ( ! /reams f ,los ,ar5ales to ! m\? ( ! valley is s great1 t at ! "t 7?\gh ignorant ( ,m4 ,elie de ,beaumont's rese>*es on ! extremely small slope ov] :i* lava c fl[1 & yet reta9 a compact /ructure & consid]able ?ickness7 ,i conclud$ t !y mu/ subsequ5tly to _! fl[+ h be5 upheav$ & tilt$ f ! m\nta9s2 ( ?is conclusion ,i c n[ ent]ta9 n ! smalle/ d\bt4 #ad ,?is conclusion might1 p]haps1 ev5 h be5 anticipat$1 f ! g5]al r>ity ( volcanic action1 except ne> ! sea or l>ge bodies ( wat]4 ,con=mably ) ?is rule1 at ! pres5t day1 !re are no active volcanoes on ?is ea/]n side ( ! ,cordill]a2 nor are sev]e e>?quakes exp]i5c$ "h4 ,at ! m\? ( ! valley1 )9 ! cliffs ( ! above lava-field1 !re are remnants1 9 ! =m ( sep>ate small hillocks & ( l9es ( l[ cliffs1 ( a consid]able deposit ( compact :ite tuff 7qu>ri$ = filt]+-/ones71 compos$ ( brok5 pumice1 volcanic cry/als1 scales ( mica1 & fragm5ts ( lava4 ,?is mass has suff]$ mu* d5udation2 & ! h>d mica-s*i/ has be5 deeply worn1 s9ce ! p]iod ( its deposition2 & ?is p]iod mu/ h be5 subsequ5t to ! d5udation ( ! basaltic lava-/reams1 z atte/$ by _! encircl+ cliffs /&+ at a high] level4 ,at ! pres5t day1 "u ! exi/+ arid climate1 ages might roll pa/ )\t a squ>e y>d ( rock ( any k9d be+ d5ud$1 except p]haps 9 ! r>ely moi/5$ dra9age-*annel ( ! valley4 ,mu/ we !n look back to t anci5t p]iod1 :5 ! waves ( ! sea beat aga9/ ! ea/]n foot ( ! ,cordill]a1 = a p[] suffici5t to d5ude ext5sively1 ?\gh sup]ficially1 ?is tuface\s deposit1 s(t al?\gh x be8 ,!re rema9s only to m5tion "s little wat]-worn hillocks ,,bb1 a few hundr$ feet 9 height1 & m]e mole-hills comp>$ ) ! gigantic m\nta9s beh9d !m1 :i* rise out ( ! slop+1 %+le-cov]$ m>g9 ( ! ,pampas4 ,! fir/ little range is compos$ ( a brecciat$ purple porphyritic clay/one1 ) obscurely m>k$ /rata dipp+ at #gj to ! ,s4,w42 ! o!r ranges consi/ (--a pale-col\r$ feldspa?ic porphyry1--a purple clay/one porphyry ) gra9s ( qu>tz1--& a rock almo/ exclusively compos$ ( brick-r$ cry/als ( feldsp>4 ,^! out]mo/ small l9es ( elevation ext5d 9 a ,n4,w4 by ,w4 & ,s4,e4 by ,s4 direction4 ,conclud+ rem>ks on ! ,portillo range4--,:5 on ! ,pampas & look+ s\?w>d1 & :il/ travell+ nor?w>d1 ,i c\ld see = v _m leagues ! r$ granite & d>k mica-s*i/ =m+ ! cre/ & ea/]n flank ( ! ,portillo l9e4 ,?is great range1 accord+ to ,dr4 ,gillies1 c be trac$ ) little int]ruption = #adj miles s\?w>d to ! ,r4 ,diamante1 :]e x unites ) ! we/]n ranges3 nor?w>d1 accord+ to ?is same au?or1 x t]m9ates :]e ! ,r4 ,m5doza deb\*es f ! m\nta9s2 b a little fur!r nor? 9 ! ea/]n "p ( ! ,cumbre section1 !re are1 z we %all h]eaft] see1 "s m\nta9-masses ( a brick-r$ porphyry1 ! la/ inject$ amid/ _m o!r porphyries1 & hav+ s close an analogy ) ! co>se r$ granite ( ! ,portillo l9e1 t ,i am tempt$ to believe t !y belong to ! same axis ( injection2 if s1 ! ,portillo l9e is at lea/ #bjj miles 9 l5g?4 ,its height1 ev5 9 ! l[e/ gap 9 ! road1 is #ad1cfe feet1 & "s ( ! p9nacles app>5tly atta9 an elevation ( ab\t #af1jjj feet above ! sea4 ,! geological hi/ory ( ?is gr& *a9 appe>s to me em95tly int]e/+4 ,we may safely conclude1 t at a =m] p]iod ! valley ( ,t5uyan exi/$ z an arm ( ! sea1 ab\t tw5ty-miles 9 wid?1 bord]$ on "o h& by a ridge or *a9 ( islets ( ! black calc>e\s %ales & purple s&/ones ( ! gypse\s =mation2 & on ! o!r h&1 by a ridge or *a9 ( islets compos$ ( mica-slate1 :ite granite1 & p]haps to a p>tial ext5t ( r$ granite4 ,^! two *a9s1 :il/ ?us bord]+ ! old sea-*annel1 mu/ h be5 expos$ = a va/ lapse ( "t to alluvial & littoral action1 dur+ :i* ! rocks 7 %att]$1 ! fragm5ts r\nd$1 & ! /rata ( conglom]ate accumulat$ to a ?ickness ( at lea/ fifte5 hundr$ or two ?\s& feet4 ,! r$ or?itic granite n[ =ms1 z we h se51 ! ma9 "p ( ! ,portillo *a93 x is inject$ 9 dikes n only into ! mica-s*i/ & :ite granites1 b into ! lam9at$ s&/one1 :i* x has metamorphos$1 & :i* x has ?r[n (f1 toge!r ) ! con=mably ov]ly+ col\r$ b$s & /ratifi$ conglom]ate1 at an angle ( =ty-five degrees4 ,to h ?r[n (f s va/ a pile ( /rata at ?is angle1 is a pro( t ! ma9 "p ( ! r$ granite 7:e!r or n portions1 z p]haps is probable1 previ\sly exi/$7 0 inject$ 9 a liquifi$ /ate aft] ! accumulation bo? ( ! lam9at$ s&/one & ( ! conglom]ate2 ?is conglom]ate1 we "k1 0 accumulat$1 n only aft] ! deposition ( ! fossilif]\s /rata ( ! ,peuqu5es l9e1 b aft] _! elevation & long-cont9u$ d5udation3 & ^! fossilif]\s /rata belong to ! e>ly "p ( ! ,cretace\s sy/em4 ,late1 !re=e1 9 a geological s5se1 z mu/ be ! age ( ! ma9 "p ( ! r$ granite1 ,i c conceive no?+ m impressive ?an ! ea/]n view ( ?is great range1 z =c+ ! m9d to grapple ) ! idea ( ! ?\s&s ( ?\s&s ( ye>s requisite = ! d5udation ( ! /rata :i* orig9ally encas$ x1--= t ! fluidifi$ granite 0 once encas$1 its m9]alogical composition & /ructure1 & ! bold conical %ape ( ! m\nta9-masses1 yield suffici5t evid5ce4 ,( ! encas+ /rata we see ! la/ ve/iges 9 ! col\r$ b$s on ! cre/1 9 ! little caps ( mica-s*i/ on "s ( ! l(tie/ p9nacles1 & 9 ! isolat$ pat*es ( ?is same rock at correspond+ heights on ! n[ b>e & /eep flanks4 ,! lava-/reams at ! ea/]n foot ( ! ,portillo are int]e/+1 n s mu* f ! great d5udation :i* !y h suff]$ at a comp>atively late p]iod z f ! evid5ce !y af=d by _! incl9ation tak5 conjo9tly ) _! ?ickness & compactness1 t aft] ! great range _h assum$ its pres5t g5]al outl9e1 x cont9u$ to rise z an axis ( elevation4 ,! pla9s ext5d+ f ! base ( ! ,cordill]a to ! ,atlantic %[ t ! cont95t has be5 uprais$ 9 mass to a height ( #c1ejj feet1 & probably to a mu* great] height1 = ! smoo? %+le-cov]$ m>g9 ( ! ,pampas is prolong$ 9 a g5tle unbrok5 slope f> up _m ( ! great valleys4 ,nor let x be assum$ t ! ,peuqu5es & ,portillo ranges h und]gone only movem5ts ( elevation2 = we %all h]eaft] see1 t ! bottom ( ! sea subsid$ sev]al ?\s& feet dur+ ! deposition ( /rata1 occupy+ ! same relative place 9 ! ,cordill]a1 ) ^? ( ! ,peuqu5es ridge2 moreov]1 we %all see f ! unequivocal evid5ce ( buri$ upright trees1 t at a some:at lat] p]iod1 dur+ ! =mation ( ! ,uspallata *a91 :i* corresponds geographically ) t ( ! ,portillo1 !re 0 ano!r subsid5ce ( _m ?\s& feet3 "h1 inde$1 9 ! valley ( ,t5uyan1 ! accumulation ( ! co>se /ratifi$ conglom]ate to a ?ickness ( fifte5 hundr$ or two ?\s& feet1 (f]s /rong presumptive evid5ce ( subsid5ce2 = all exi/+ analogies lead to ! belief t l>ge pebbles c be transport$ only 9 %all[ wat]1 liable to be affect$ by curr5ts & movem5ts ( undulation--& if s1 ! %all[ b$ ( ! sea on :i* ! pebbles 7 fir/ deposit$ mu/ necess>ily h sunk to all[ ( ! accumulation ( ! sup]9cumb5t /rata4 ,:at a hi/ory ( *anges ( level1 & ( we> & te>1 all s9ce ! age ( ! latt] second>y =mations ( ,europe1 does ! /ructure ( ?is "o great m\nta9-*a9 reveal6 ,passage ( ! ,&es by ! ,cumbre or ,uspallata ,pass4 ,?is ,pass crosses ! ,&es ab\t sixty miles nor? ( t j describ$3 ! section giv5 9 ,plate ,v1 ,section #a_/b1 see map page #ddj is on ! same scale z be=e1 namely1 at "o-?ird ( an in* to a mile 9 di/ance1 & "o in* to a mile 7or #f1jjj feet7 9 height4 ,l ! la/ section1 x is a m]e sket*1 & _c pret5d to accuracy1 ?\gh made "u fav\rable circum/ances4 ,we w comm5ce z be=e1 ) ! we/]n half1 ( :i* ! ma9 range be>s ! "n ( ! ,cumbre 7t is ! ,ridge71 & corresponds to ! ,peuqu5es l9e 9 ! =m] section2 z does ! ,uspallata range1 ?\gh on a mu* small] scale1 to t ( ! ,portillo4 ,ne> ! po9t :]e ! riv] ,aconcagua deb\*es on ! bas9 pla9 ( ! same "n1 at a height ( ab\t two ?\s& ?ree hundr$ feet above ! sea1 we meet ) ! usual purple & gre5i% porphyritic clay/one conglom]ate4 ,b$s ( ?is nature1 alt]nat+ ) num]\s compact & amygdaloidal porphyries1 :i* h fl[$ z subm>9e lavas1 & associat$ ) great m\nta9-masses ( v>i\s1 inject$1 non-/ratifi$ porphyries1 are prolong$ ! :ole di/ance up to ! ,cumbre or c5tral ridge4 ,"o ( ! commone/ /ratifi$ porphyries is ( a gre5 col\r1 highly amygdaloidal ) ! v>i\s m9]als describ$ 9 ! prelim9>y discussion1 & includ+ f9e tabul> cry/als ( albite4 ,! m\nta9-range nor? 7(t5 ) a little we/+7 & s\?4 ,! /ratification1 :]ev] ,i c\ld cle>ly di/+ui% x1 0 incl9$ we/w>d or t[>ds ! ,pacific1 &1 except ne> ! ,cumbre1 seldom at angles above #be4 ,only at "o spot on ?is we/]n side1 on a l(ty p9nacle n f> f ! ,cumbre1 ,i saw /rata app>5tly belong+ to ! gypse\s =mation1 & con=mably capp+ a pile ( /ratifi$ porphyries4 ,h5ce1 bo? 9 composition & 9 /ratification1 ! /ructure ( ! m\nta9s on ?is we/]n side ( ! divortium aqu>um1 is f> m simple ?an 9 ! correspond+ "p ( ! ,peuqu5es section4 ,9 ! porphyritic clay/one conglom]ate1 ! me*anical /ructure & ! planes ( /ratification h g5]ally be5 mu* obscur$ & ev5 q oblit]at$ t[>ds ! base ( ! s]ies1 :il/ 9 ! upp] p>ts1 ne> ! summits ( ! m\nta9s1 bo? are di/9ctly display$4 ,9 ^! upp] portions ! porphyries are g5]ally light] col\r$4 ,9 ?ree places ,x1 ,y1 ,z masses ( &esite are expos$3 at ,y1 ?is rock conta9$ "s qu>tz1 b ! great] "p consi/$ ( &esitic porphyry1 ) only a few well-develop$ cry/als ( albite1 & =m+ a great :ite mass1 hav+ ! ext]nal aspect ( granite1 capp$ by mu* d>k un/ratifi$ porphyry4 ,9 _m p>ts ( ! m\nta9s1 !re are dikes ( a gre5 col\r1 & o!r :ite ones1 :i* latt] probably spr+ f und]ly+ masses ( &esite4 ,! ,cumbre1 :]e ! road crosses x1 is1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,p5tl&1 #ab1ded feet above ! sea2 & ! neighb\r+ peaks1 compos$ ( d>k purple & :iti% porphyries1 "s obscurely /ratifi$ ) a we/]ly dip1 & o!rs )\t a trace ( /ratification1 mu/ exce$ #ac1jjj feet 9 height4 ,desc5d+ ! ea/]n slope ( ! ,cumbre1 ! /ructure becomes v complicat$1 & g5]ally diff]s on ! two sides ( ! ea/ & we/ l9e ( road & section4 ,fir/ we come to a great mass ,a ( ne>ly v]tical1 s+ul>ly contort$ /rata1 compos$ ( highly compact r$ s&/ones1 & ( (t5 calc>e\s conglom]ates1 & p5etrat$ by gre51 yell[1 & r$di% dikes2 b ,i %all pres5tly h an opportunity ( describ+ 9 "s detail an analog\s pile ( /rata4 ,^! v]tical b$s are abruptly succe$$ by o!rs ,b1 ( app>5tly ne>ly ! same nature b m metamorphos$1 alt]nat+ ) porphyries & lime/ones2 ^! dip = a %ort space we/w>d1 b !re has be5 "h an extraord9>y dislocation1 :i*1 on ! nor? side ( ! road1 appe>s to h det]m9$ ! excavation ( ! nor? & s\? valley ( ! ,r4 de las ,cuevas4 ,on ?is nor!rn side ( ! road1 ! /rata ,b are prolong$ till !y come 9 close contact ) a jagg$ l(ty m\nta9 ,d ( d>k-col\r$1 un/ratifi$1 intrusive porphyry1 :]e ! b$s h be5 m highly incl9$ & /ill m metamorphos$4 ,?is m\nta9 ( porphyry seems to =m a %ort axis ( elevation1 = s\? ( ! road 9 its l9e !re is a hill ,c ( porphyritic conglom]ate ) absolutely v]tical /rata4 ,we n[ come to ! gypse\s =mation3 ,i w fir/ describe ! /ructure ( ! sev]al m\nta9s1 & !n give 9 "o section a detail$ acc\nt ( ! nature ( ! rocks4 ,on ! nor? side ( ! road1 :i* "h runs 9 an ea/ & we/ valley1 ! m\nta9 ( porphyry ,d is succe$$ by a hill ,e =m$ ( ! upp] gypse\s /rata tilt$1 at an angle ( betwe5 #gj & #hj to ! we/1 by a unicl9al axis ( elevation :i* does n run p>allel to ! o!r neighb\r+ ranges1 & :i* is ( %ort l5g?2 = on ! s\? side ( ! valley its prolongation is m>k$ only by a small flexure 9 a pile ( /rata incl9$ by a q sep>ate axis4 ,a little fur!r on ! nor? & s\? valley ( ,horcones ent]s at "r angles our l9e ( section2 its we/]n side is b\nd$ by a hill ( gypse\s /rata ,f dipp+ we/w>d at ab\t #de1 & its ea/]n side by a m\nta9 ( simil> /rata ,g incl9$ we/w>d at #gj1 & sup]impos$ by an oblique fault on ano!r mass ( ! same /rata ,h1 also incl9$ we/w>d1 b at an angle ( ab\t #cj3 ! complicat$ relation ( ^! ?ree masses ,f1 ,g1 ,h is expla9$ by ! /ructure ( a great m\nta9-range ly+ "s way to ! nor?1 9 :i* a regul> anticl9al axis 7repres5t$ 9 ! section by dott$ l9es7 is se51 ) ! /rata on its ea/]n side aga9 b5d+ up & =m+ a di/9ct unicl9al axis1 ( :i* ! b$s m>k$ ,h =m ! l[] "p4 ,?is great unicl9al l9e is int]sect$1 ne> ! ,pu5te del ,inca1 by ! valley along :i* ! road runs1 & ! /rata compos+ x w be imm$iately describ$4 ,on ! s\? side ( ! road1 9 ! space correspond+ ) ! m\nta9s ,e1 ,f1 & ,g1 ! /rata ev]y:]e dip we/w>d g5]ally at an angle ( #cj1 occasionally m\nt+ up to #de1 b n 9 an unbrok5 l9e1 = !re are sev]al v]tical faults1 =m+ sep>ate unicl9al masses1 all dipp+ 9 ! same direction1--a =m ( elevation common 9 ! ,cordill]a4 ,we ?us see t )9 a n>r[ space1 ! gypse\s /rata h be5 upheav$ & cru%$ toge!r by a great unicl9al1 anticl9al1 & "o less] unicl9al l9e ,e ( elevation2 & t betwe5 ^! ?ree l9es & ! ,cumbre1 9 ! s&/ones1 conglom]ates & porphyritic =mation1 !re h be5 at lea/ two or ?ree o!r great elevatory axes4 ,! unicl9al axis ,i int]sect$ ne> ! ,pu5te del ,inca#ae 7( :i* ! /rata at ,h =m a "p7 ranges ,n4 by ,w4 & ,s4 by ,e41 =m+ a *a9 ( m\nta9s1 app>5tly little inf]ior 9 height to ! ,cumbre3 ! /rata1 z we h se51 dip at an av]age angle ( #cj to ! we/4 ,! flanks ( ! m\nta9s are "h q b>e & /eep1 af=d+ an excell5t section2 s t ,i 0 able to inspect ! /rata to a ?ickness ( ab\t #d1jjj feet1 & c\ld cle>ly di/+ui% _! g5]al nature = #a1jjj feet high]1 mak+ a total ?ickness ( #e1jjj feet1 to :i* mu/ be add$ ab\t #a1jjj feet ( ! inf]ior /rata se5 a little l[] d[n ! valley1 ,i w describe ?is "o section 9 detail1 beg9n+ at ! bottom4 #ae ,at ?is place1 !re are "s hot & cold spr+s1 ! w>me/ hav+ a temp]ature1 accord+ to ,lieut5ant ,br& 78,travels10 p4 #bdj71 ( #ia2 !y emit mu* gas4 ,accord+ to ,mr4 ,br&e1 ( ! ,royal ,in/itution1 t5 cubical in*es conta9 =ty-five gra9s ( solid matt]1 consi/+ *iefly ( salt1 gypsum1 c>bonate ( lime1 & oxide ( iron4 ,! wat] is *>g$ ) c>bonic acid & sulphurett$ hydrog54 ,^! spr+s deposit mu* tufa 9 ! =m ( sph]ical balls4 ,!y bur/ =?1 z d ^? ( ,cauqu5es1 & probably ^? ( ,villa ,vic5cio1 on a l9e ( elevation4 #a/4 ,! l[e/ mass is ! alt]$ clay-slate describ$ 9 ! prelim9>y discussion1 & :i* 9 ?is l9e ( section 0 "h fir/ met )4 ,l[] d[n ! valley1 at ! ,r4 de las ,vacas1 ,i _h a bett] opportunity ( exam9+ x2 x is !re 9 "s p>ts well *>act]is$1 hav+ a di/9ct1 ne>ly v]tical1 tortu\s cleavage1 rang+ ,n4,w4 & ,s4,e41 & int]sect$ by qu>tz ve9s3 9 mo/ p>ts1 h[ev]1 x is cry/all9e & feldspa?ic1 & passes into a true gre5/one (t5 includ+ gra9s ( qu>tz4 ,! clay-slate1 9 its upp] half1 is frequ5tly brecciat$1 ! emb$d$ angul> fragm5ts be+ ( ne>ly ! same nature ) ! pa/e4 #bnd4 ,sev]al /rata ( purpli% porphyritic conglom]ate1 ( no v great ?ickness1 re/ con=mably ^u ! feldspa?ic slate4 ,a ?ick b$ ( f9e1 purple1 clay/one porphyry1 obscurely brecciat$ 7b n ( metamorphos$ s$im5t>y orig971 & capp$ by porphyritic conglom]ate1 0 ! l[e/ b$ actually exam9$ 9 ?is section at ! ,pu5te del ,inca4 #crd4 ,a /ratum1 eighty feet ?ick1 ( h>d & v compact impure :iti% lime/one1 wea!r+ bright r$1 ) includ$ lay]s brecciat$ & recem5t$4 ,obscure m>ks ( %ell are di/+ui%able 9 x4 #d?4 ,a r$1 qu>tzose1 f9e-gra9$ conglom]ate1 ) gra9s ( qu>tz1 & ) pat*es ( :ite e>?y feldsp>1 app>5tly due to "s process ( concretion>y cry/all9e action2 ?is b$ is m compact & metamorphos$ ?an any ( ! ov]ly+ conglom]ates4 #e?4 ,a :iti% *]ty lime/one1 ) nodules ( blui% argillace\s lime/one4 #f?4 ,a :ite conglom]ate1 ) _m p>ticles ( qu>tz1 almo/ bl5d+ into ! pa/e4 #g?4 ,highly silice\s1 f9e-gra9$ :ite s&/one4 #h? & #i?4 ,r$ & :ite b$s n exam9$4 #aj?4 ,yell[1 f9e-gra9$1 ?9ly /ratifi$1 magnesian 7judg+ f its sl[ dissolution 9 acids7 lime/one3 x includes "s :ite qu>tz pebbles1 & little cavities1 l9$ ) calc>e\s sp>1 "s reta9+ ! =m ( %ells4 #aa?4 ,a b$ betwe5 tw5ty & ?irty feet ?ick1 q con=mable ) ! und]ly+ ones1 compos$ ( a h>d basis1 t+$ lilac-grey porphyritic ) num]\s cry/als ( :iti% feldsp>1 ) black mica & little spots ( s(t f]rug9\s matt]3 evid5tly a subm>9e lava4 #ab?4 ,yell[ magnesian lime/one1 z be=e1 "p-/a9$ purple4 #ac?4 ,a mo/ s+ul> rock2 basis purpli% grey1 obscurely cry/all9e1 easily fusible into a d>k gre5 glass1 n h>d1 ?ickly speckl$ ) cry/als m or less p]fect ( :ite c>bonate ( lime1 ( r$ hydr\s oxide ( iron1 ( a :ite & transp>5t m9]al l analcime1 & ( a gre5 opaque m9]al l soap-/one2 ! basis is moreov] amygdaloidal ) _m sph]ical balls ( :ite cry/allis$ c>bonate ( lime1 ( :i* "s are coat$ ) ! r$ oxide ( iron4 ,i h no d\bt1 f ! exam9ation ( a sup]9cumb5t /ratum 7#ai71 t ?is is a subm>9e lava2 ?\gh 9 ,nor!rn ,*ile1 "s ( ! metamorphos$ s$im5t>y b$s are almo/ z cry/all9e1 & ( z v>i$ composition4 #ad?4 ,r$ s&/one1 pass+ 9 ! upp] "p into a co>se1 h>d1 r$ conglom]ate1 #cjj feet ?ick1 hav+ a calc>e\s cem5t1 & includ+ gra9s ( qu>tz & brok5 cry/als ( feldsp>2 basis infusible2 ! pebbles consi/ ( dull purpli% porphyries1 ) "s ( qu>tz1 f ! size ( a nut to a man's head4 ,?is is ! co>se/ conglom]ate 9 ?is "p ( ! ,cordill]a3 9 ! middle !re 0 a :ite lay] n exam9$4 #ae?4 ,gr& ?ick b$1 ( a v h>d1 yell[i%-:ite rock1 ) a cry/all9e feldspa?ic base1 includ+ l>ge cry/als ( :ite feldsp>1 _m little cavities mo/ly full ( s(t f]rug9\s matt]1 & num]\s hexagonal plates ( black mica4 ,! upp] "p ( ?is great b$ is slightly cellul>2 ! l[] "p compact3 ! ?ickness v>i$ a little 9 diff]5t p>ts4 ,manife/ly a subm>9e lava2 & is alli$ to b$ #aa4 #af? & #ag?4 ,dull purpli%1 calc>e\s1 f9e-gra9$1 compact s&/ones1 :i* pass into co>se :ite conglom]ates ) num]\s p>ticles ( qu>tz4 #ah?4 ,sev]al alt]nations ( r$ conglom]ate1 purpli% s&/one1 & subm>9e lava1 l t s+ul> rock =m+ b$ #ac4 #ai?4 ,a v heavy1 compact1 gre5i%-black /one1 ) a f9e-gra9$ obvi\sly cry/all9e basis1 conta9+ a few specks ( :ite calc>e\s sp>1 _m specks ( ! cry/allis$ hydr\s r$ oxide ( iron1 & "s specks ( a gre5 m9]al2 !re are ve9s & ne/s fill$ ) epidote3 c]ta9ly a subm>9e lava4 #bj?4 ,_m ?9 /rata ( compact1 f9e-gra9$1 pale purple s&/one4 #ba/4 ,gypsum 9 a ne>ly pure /ate1 ab\t ?ree hundr$ feet 9 ?ickness3 ?is b$1 9 its concretions ( anhydrite & lay]s ( small blacki% cry/als ( c>bonate ( lime1 exactly resembles ! great gypse\s b$s 9 ! ,peuqu5es range4 #bbnd4 ,pale purple & r$di% s&/one1 z 9 b$ #bj3 ab\t ?ree hundr$ feet 9 ?ickness4 #bcrd4 ,a ?ick mass compos$ ( lay]s1 (t5 z ?9 z pap] & convolut$1 ( pure gypsum ) o!rs v impure1 ( a purpli% col\r4 #bd?4 ,pure gypsum1 ?ick mass4 #be?4 ,r$ s&/ones1 ( great ?ickness4 #bf?4 ,pure gypsum1 ( great ?ickness4 #bg?4 ,alt]nat+ lay]s ( pure & impure gypsum1 ( great ?ickness4 ,i 0 n able to asc5d to ^! few la/ great /rata1 :i* compose ! neighb\r+ l(tie/ p9nacles4 ,! ?ickness1 f ! l[e/ to ! upp]mo/ b$ ( gypsum1 _c be less ?an #b1jjj feet3 ! b$s b5ea? ,i e/imat$ at #c1jjj feet1 & ?is does n include ei!r ! l[] p>ts ( ! porphyritic conglom]ate1 or ! alt]$ clay-slate2 ,i conceive ! total ?ickness mu/ be ab\t six ?\s& feet4 ,i di/9ctly obs]v$ t n only ! gypsum1 b ! alt]nat+ s&/ones & conglom]ates 7 l5s-%ap$1 & repeat$ly ?9n$ out & replac$ ea* o!r3 ?us 9 ! di/ance ( ab\t a mile1 a b$ #cjj feet ?ick ( s&/one betwe5 two b$s ( gypsum1 ?9n$ out to no?+ & disappe>$4 ,! l[] "p ( ?is section diff]s rem>kably1--9 ! mu* great] div]sity ( its m9]alogical composition1--9 ! abundance ( calc>e\s matt]1--9 ! great] co>s5ess ( "s ( ! conglom]ates1--& 9 ! num]\s p>ticles & well-r\nd$ pebbles1 sometimes ( l>ge size1 ( qu>tz1-- f any o!r section hi!rto describ$ 9 ,*ile4 ,f ^! peculi>ities & f ! l5s-=m ( ! /rata1 x is probable t ?is great pile ( /rata 0 accumulat$ on a %all[ & v unev5 bottom1 ne> "s pre-exi/+ l& =m$ ( v>i\s porphyries & qu>tz-rock4 ,! =mation ( porphyritic clay/one conglom]ate does n 9 ?is section atta9 ne>ly its ord9>y ?ickness2 ?is may be ,,p>tly attribut$ to ! metamorphic action hav+ be5 "h mu* less en]getic ?an usual1 ?\gh ! l[] b$s h be5 affect$ to a c]ta9 degree4 ,if x _h be5 z en]getic z 9 mo/ o!r p>ts ( ,*ile1 _m ( ! b$s ( s&/one & conglom]ate1 conta9+ r\nd$ masses ( porphyry1 w\ld d\btless h be5 conv]t$ into porphyritic conglom]ate2 & ^! w\ld h alt]nat$ )1 & ev5 bl5d$ into1 cry/all9e & porphyritic /rata )\t a trace ( me*anical /ructure1--namely1 into ^? :i*1 9 ! pres5t /ate ( ! section1 we see are unque/ionably subm>9e lavas4 ,! b$s ( gypsum1 toge!r ) ! r$ alt]nat+ s&/ones & conglom]ates1 pres5t s p]fect & curi\s a resemblance ) ^? se5 9 our =m] section 9 ! bas9-valley ( ,yeso1 t ,i _c d\bt ! id5tity ( ! two =mations3 ,i may add1 t a little we/w>d ( ! ,p4 del ,inca1 a mass ( gypsum pass$ into a f9e-gra9$1 h>d1 br[n s&/one1 :i* conta9$ "s lay]s ( black1 calc>e\s1 compact1 %aly rock1 precisely l t se5 9 su* va/ masses on ! ,peuqu5es range4 ,ne> ! ,pu5te del ,inca1 num]\s fragm5ts ( lime/one1 conta9+ "s fossil rema9s1 7 scatt]$ on ! gr\nd3 ^! fragm5ts s p]fectly resemble ! lime/one ( b$ ,no4 #c1 9 :i* ,i saw impressions ( %ells1 t ,i h no d\bt !y h fall5 f x4 ,! yell[ magnesian lime/one ( b$ ,no4 #aj1 :i* also includes traces ( %ells1 has a diff]5t appe>ance4 ,^! fossils 7z nam$ by ,m4 d',orbigny7 consi/ (3-- ,grypha1 ne> to ,g4 ,c\loni 7,neocomian =mation74 ,arca1 p]haps ,a4 ,gabrielis1 d',orbigny1 8,pal4 ,franc40 7,neocomian =mation74 ,mr4 ,p5tl& made a collection ( %ells f ?is same spot1 & ,von ,bu*#af consid]s !m z consi/+ (3-- ,trigonia1 resembl+ 9 =m ,t4 co/ata4 ,pholadomya1 l "o f\nd by ,m4 ,dufresnoy ne> ,al5con4 ,isoc>di exc5trica1 ,voltz41 id5tical ) t f ! ,jura4 #af 8,description ,phys4 des ,iles ,c410 p4 #dgb4 ,two ( ^! %ells1 namely1 ! ,grypha & ,trigonia1 appe> to be id5tical ) species collect$ by ,mey5 & myself on ! ,peuqu5es range2 & 9 ! op9ion ( ,von ,bu* & ,m4 d',orbigny1 ! two =mations belong to ! same age4 ,i mu/ "h add1 t ,pr(essor ,e4 ,=bes1 :o has exam9$ my specim5s f ?is place & f ! ,peuqu5es range1 has likewise a /rong impression t !y indicate ! ,cretace\s p]iod1 & probably an e>ly epo* 9 x3 s t all ! palontologi/s :o h se5 ^! fossils ne>ly co9cide 9 op9ion reg>d+ _! age4 ,! lime/one1 h[ev]1 ) ^! fossils "h lies at ! v base ( ! =mation1 j above ! porphyritic conglom]ate1 & c]ta9ly sev]al ?\s& feet l[] 9 ! s]ies1 ?an ! equival5t1 fossilif]\s1 black1 %aly rocks high up on ! ,peuqu5es range4 ,x is well wor?y ( rem>k t ^! %ells1 or at lea/ ^? ( :i* ,i saw impressions 9 ! lime/one 7b$ ,no4 #c71 mu/ h be5 cov]$ up1 on ! lea/ computation1 by #d1jjj feet ( /rata3 n[ we "k f ,pr(essor ,e4 ,=bes's rese>*es1 t ! sea at great] dep?s ?an #fjj feet becomes exce$+ly b>r5 ( organic be+s1--a result q 9 accordance ) :at little ,i h se5 ( deep-sea s\nd+s4 ,h5ce1 aft] ?is lime/one ) its %ells 0 deposit$1 ! bottom ( ! sea :]e ! ma9 l9e ( ! ,cordill]a n[ /&s1 mu/ h subsid$ "s ?\s& feet to all[ ( ! deposition ( ! sup]9cumb5t subm>9e /rata4 ,)\t suppos+ a movem5t ( ?is k9d1 x w\ld1 moreov]1 be impossible to und]/& ! accumulation ( ! sev]al l[] /rata ( co>se1 well-r\nd$ conglom]ates1 :i* x is sc>cely possible to believe 7 spread out 9 pr(\ndly deep wat]1 & :i*1 especially ^? conta9+ pebbles ( qu>tz1 c\ld h>dly h be5 r\nd$ 9 subm>9e crat]s & aft]w>ds eject$ f !m1 z ,i believe to h be5 ! case ) mu* ( ! porphyritic conglom]ate =mation4 ,i may add t1 9 ,pr(essor ,=bes's op9ion1 ! above-enum]at$ species ( mollusca probably did n live at a mu* great] dep? ?an tw5ty fa?oms1 t is only #abj feet4 ,to return to our section d[n ! valley2 /&+ on ! great ,n4 by ,w4 & ,s4 by ,e4 unicl9al axis ( ! ,pu5te del ,inca1 ( :i* a section has j be5 giv51 & look+ nor?-ea/1 great] tabul> masses ( gypse\s =mation 7,,kk7 c\ld be se5 9 ! di/ance1 v slightly incl9$ t[>ds ! ea/4 ,l[] d[n ! valley1 ! m\nta9s are almo/ exclusively compos$ ( porphyries1 _m ( !m ( intrusive orig9 & non-/ratifi$1 o!rs /ratifi$1 b ) ! /ratification seldom di/+ui%able except 9 ! upp] p>ts4 ,disreg>d+ local di/urbances1 ! b$s are ei!r horizontal or incl9$ at a small angle ea/w>ds3 h5ce1 :5 /&+ on ! pla9 ( ,uspallata & look+ to ! we/ or backw>ds1 ! ,cordill]a appe> compos$ ( huge1 squ>e1 ne>ly horizontal1 tabul> masses3 s wide a space1 ) su* l(ty m\nta9s s equably elevat$1 is r>ely met ) )9 ! ,cordill]a4 ,9 ?is l9e ( section1 ! int]val betwe5 ! ,pu5te del ,inca & ! neighb\rhood ( ! ,cumbre1 includes all ! *ief axes ( dislocation4 ,! alt]$ clay-slate =mation1 already describ$1 is se5 9 sev]al p>ts ( ! valley z f> d[n z ,las ,vacas1 und]ly+ ! porphyritic conglom]ate4 ,at ! ,casa de ,pujios ,l1 !re is a hummock ( 7&esitic87 granite2 & ! /ratification ( ! surr\nd+ m\nta9s "h *anges f ,w4 by ,s4 to ,s4,w4 ,aga91 ne> ! ,r4 ,vacas !re is a l>g] =mation ( 7&esitic87 granite ,m1 :i* s5ds a me%work ( ve9s into ! sup]9cumb5t clay-slate1 & :i* locally ?r[s (f ! /rata1 on "o side to ,n4,w4 & on ! o!r to ,s4,e4 b n at a high angle3 at ! junction1 ! clay-slate is alt]$ into f9e-gra9$ gre5/one4 ,?is granitic axis is int]sect$ by a gre5 dike1 :i* ,i m5tion1 because ,i d n rememb] hav+ else:]e se5 dikes 9 ?is l[e/ & late/ intrusive rock4 ,f ! ,r4 ,vacas to ! pla9 ( ,uspallata1 ! valley runs ,n4,e41 s t ,i h _h to contract my section2 x runs exclusively ?r\gh porphyritic rocks4 ,z f> z ! ,pass ( ,jaula1 ! clay/one conglom]ate =mation1 9 mo/ p>ts highly porphyritic1 & cross$ by num]\s dikes ( gre5/one porphyry1 atta9s a great ?ickness3 !re is also mu* intrusive porphyry4 ,f ! ,jaula to ! pla91 ! /ratification has be5 9 mo/ places oblit]at$1 except ne> ! tops ( "s ( ! m\nta9s2 & ! metamorphic action has be5 extremely great4 ,9 ?is space1 ! numb] & bulk ( ! intrusive masses ( diff]5tly col\r$ porphyries1 inject$ "o into ano!r & int]sect$ by dikes1 is truly extraord9>y4 ,i saw "o m\nta9 ( :iti% porphyry1 f :i* two huge dikes1 ?9n+ out1 bran*$ d[nw>ds into an adjo9+ blacki% porphyry4 ,ano!r hill ( :ite porphyry1 :i* _h bur/ ?r\gh d>k-col\r$ /rata1 0 itself inject$ by a purple1 brecciat$1 & recem5t$ porphyry1 bo? be+ cross$ by a gre5 dike1 & bo? hav+ be5 upheav$ & inject$ by a granitic dome4 ,"o brick-r$ porphyry1 :i* above ! ,jaula =ms an isolat$ mass 9 ! mid/ ( ! porphyritic conglom]ate =mation1 & l[] d[n ! valley a magnific5t gr\p ( peak$ m\nta9s1 diff]s rem>kably f all ! o!r porphyries4 ,x consi/s ( a r$ feldspa?ic base1 includ+ "s r l>ge cry/als ( r$ feldsp>1 num]\s l>ge angul> gra9s ( qu>tz1 & little bits ( a s(t gre5 m9]al answ]+ 9 mo/ ( its *>act]s to soap/one4 ,! cry/als ( r$ feldsp> resemble 9 ext]nal appe>ance ^? ( or?ite1 ?\gh1 f be+ p>tially decompos$1 ,i 0 unable to measure !m2 & !y c]ta9ly are q unlike ! v>iety1 s abundantly met ) 9 almo/ all ! o!r rocks ( ?is l9e ( section1 & :i*1 :]ev] ,i tri$ x1 cleav$ l albite4 ,?is brick-r$ porphyry appe>s to h bur/ ?r\gh all ! o!r porphyries1 & num]\s r$ dikes trav]s+ ! neighb\r+ m\nta9s h proce$$ f x3 9 "s few places1 h[ev]1 x 0 int]sect$ by :ite dikes4 ,f ?is po/]iority ( intrusive orig91--f ! close g5]al resemblance betwe5 ?is r$ porphyry & ! r$ granite ( ! ,portillo l9e1 ! only diff]5ce be+ t ! feldsp> "h is less p]fectly granul>1 & t soap/one replaces ! mica1 :i* is !re imp]fect & passes into *lorite1--& f ! ,portillo l9e a little s\?w>d ( ?is po9t appe>+ to bl5d 7accord+ to ,dr4 ,gillies7 into ! we/]n ranges1--,i am /rongly urg$ to believe 7z =m]ly rem>k$7 t ! gr& m\nta9-masses compos$ ( ?is brick-r$ porphyry belong to ! same axis ( injection ) ! granite ( ! ,portillo l9e2 if s1 ! injection ( ?is porphyry probably took place1 z long subsequ5tly to ! sev]al axes ( elevation 9 ! gypse\s =mation ne> ! ,cumbre1 z ! injection ( ! ,portillo granite has be5 %[n to h be5 subsequ5t to ! elevation ( ! gypse\s /rata compos+ ! ,peuqu5es range2 & ?is int]val1 we h se51 mu/ h be5 a v long "o4 ,! ,pla9 ( ,uspallata has be5 briefly describ$ 9 ,*apt] #c2 x resembles ! bas9-pla9s ( ,*ile2 x is t5 or fifte5 miles wide1 & is said to ext5d = #ahj miles nor?w>d2 its surface is ne>ly six ?\s& feet above ! sea2 x is compos$1 to a ?ickness ( "s hundr$ feet ( loosely aggregat$1 /ratifi$ %+le1 :i* is prolong$ ) a g5tly slop+ surface up ! valleys 9 ! m\nta9s on bo? sides4 ,"o section 9 ?is pla9 ,z is int]e/+1 f ! unusual#ag circum/ance ( alt]nat+ lay]s ( almo/ loose r$ & :ite s& ) l9es ( pebbles 7f ! size ( a nut to t ( an apple71 & b$s ( gravel1 be+ incl9$ at an angle ( #de1 & 9 "s spots ev5 at a high] angle4 ,^! b$s are dislocat$ by small faults3 & are capp$ by a ?ick mass ( horizontally /ratifi$ gravel1 evid5tly ( subaque\s orig94 ,hav+ be5 accu/om$ to obs]ve ! irregul>ities ( b$s accumulat$ "u curr5ts1 ,i feel sure t ! incl9ation "h has n be5 ?us produc$4 ,! pebbles consi/ *iefly ( ! brick-r$ porphyry j describ$ & ( :ite granite1 bo? probably d]iv$ f ! ranges to ! we/1 & ( alt]$ clay-slate & ( c]ta9 porphyries1 app>5tly belong+ to ! rocks ( ! ,uspallata *a94 ,?is pla9 corresponds geographically ) ! valley ( ,t5uyan betwe5 ! ,portillo & ,peuqu5es ranges2 b 9 t valley ! %+le1 :i* likewise has be5 d]iv$ bo? f ! ea/]n & we/]n ranges1 has be5 cem5t$ into a h>d conglom]ate1 & has be5 ?r\gh\t tilt$ at a consid]able incl9ation2 ! gravel !re app>5tly atta9s a mu* great] ?ickness1 & is probably ( high] antiquity4 #ag ,i f9d t ,mr4 ,smi? ( ,jordan ,hill has describ$ 7,ed9burgh ,new ,phil4 ,j\rn41 vol4 xxv1 p4 #cib7 b$s ( s& & gravel1 ne> ,ed9burgh1 tilt$ at an angle ( #fj1 & dislocat$ by m9iature faults4 ,! ,uspallata range4--,! road by ! ,villa ,vic5cio ,pass does n /rike directly across ! range1 b runs = "s leagues nor?w>d along its we/]n base3 & ,i mu/ briefly describe ! rocks "h se51 be=e cont9u+ ) ! col\r$ ea/ & we/ section4 ,at ! m\? ( ! valley ( ,canota1 & at sev]al po9ts nor?w>ds1 !re is an ext5sive =mation ( a glossy & h>%1 & ( a feldspa?ic clay-slate1 includ+ /rata ( grauwacke1 & hav+ a tortu\s1 ne>ly v]tical cleavage1 trav]s$ by num]\s metallif]\s ve9s & o!rs ( qu>tz4 ,! clay-slate is 9 _m p>ts capp$ by a ?ick mass ( fragm5ts ( ! same rock1 firmly recem5t$2 & bo? toge!r h be5 inject$ & brok5 up by v num]\s hillocks1 rang+ nor? & s\?1 ( lilac1 :ite1 d>k & salmon-col\r$ porphyries3 "o /eep1 n[ d5ud$1 hillock ( porphyry _h its face z di/9ctly impress$ ) ! angles ( a fragm5t>y mass ( ! slate1 ) "s ( ! po9ts /ill rema9+ emb$d$1 z seal+-wax c\ld be by a seal4 ,at ! m\? ( ?is same valley ( ,canota1 9 a f9e esc>pm5t hav+ ! /rata dipp+ f #ej to #fj to ! ,n4,e41#ah ! clay-slate =mation is se5 to be cov]$ by--7#a/7 a purple1 clay/one porphyry re/+ uncon=mably 9 "s p>ts on ! solid slate1 & 9 o!rs on a ?ick fragm5t>y mass2 7#bnd71 a con=mable /ratum ( compact blacki% rock1 hav+ a sph]oidal /ructure1 full ( m9ute acicul> cry/als ( glassy feldsp>1 ) r$ spots ( oxide ( iron2 7#crd71 a great /ratum ( purpli%-r$ clay/one porphyry1 ab\nd+ ) cry/als ( opaque feldsp>1 & lam9at$ ) ?91 p>allel1 (t5 %ort1 lay]s1 & likewise ) great irregul> pat*es ( :ite1 e>?y1 semi-cry/all9e feldsp>2 ?is rock 7:i* ,i notic$ 9 o!r neighb\r+ places7 p]fectly resembles a curi\s v>iety describ$ at ,port ,desire1 & occasionally occurs 9 ! great porphyritic conglom]ate =mation ( ,*ile2 7#d?71 a ?9 /ratum ( gre5i% :ite1 indurat$ tuff1 fusible & conta9+ brok5 cry/als & p>ticles ( porphyries2 7#e?71 a gr& mass1 imp]fectly column> & divid$ into ?ree p>allel & closely jo9$ /rata1 ( cream-col\r$ clay/one porphyry2 7#f?71 a ?ick /ratum ( lilac-col\r$ porphyry1 :i* ,i c\ld see 0 capp$ by ano!r b$ ( ! cream-col\r$ v>iety2 ,i 0 unable to exam9e ! /ill high] p>ts ( ! esc>pm5t4 ,^! con=mably /ratifi$ porphyries1 ?\gh none are ei!r vesicul> are amygdaloidal1 h evid5tly fl[$ z subm>9e lavas3 "s ( !m are sep>at$ f ea* o!r by seams ( indurat$ tuff1 :i*1 h[ev]1 are q insignificant 9 ?ickness comp>$ ) ! porphyries4 ,?is :ole pile resembles1 b n v closely1 "s ( ! less brecciat$ p>ts ( ! great porphyritic conglom]ate =mation ( ,*ile2 b x does n probably belong to ! same age1 z ! porphyries "h re/ uncon=mably on ! alt]$ feldspa?ic clay-slate1 :]eas ! porphyritic conglom]ate =mation alt]nates ) & re/s con=mably on x4 ,^! porphyries1 moreov]1 ) ! exception ( ! "o blacki% /ratum1 & ( ! "o indurat$1 :ite tuface\s b$1 diff] f ! b$s compos+ ! ,uspallata range 9 ! l9e ( ! ,villa ,vic5cio ,pass4 #ah ,ne>ly opposite to ?is esc>pm5t1 !re is ano!r correspond+ "o1 ) ! /rata dipp+ n to ! exactly opposite po9t1 or ,s4,w41 b to ,s4,s4,w43 consequ5tly ! two esc>pm5ts tr5d t[>ds ea* o!r1 & "s miles s\?w>d !y become actually unit$3 ?is is a =m ( elevation :i* ,i h n else:]e se54 ,i w n[ give1 fir/1 a sket* ( ! /ructure ( ! range1 z repres5t$ 9 ! section1 & w !n describe its composition & int]e/+ hi/ory4 ,at its we/]n foot1 a hillock ,n is se5 to rise out ( ! pla91 ) its /rata dipp+ at #gj to ! we/1 front$ by /rata ,o incl9$ at #de to ! ea/1 ?us =m+ a little nor? & s\? anticl9al axis4 ,"s o!r little hillocks ( simil> composition1 ) _! /rata highly incl9$1 range ,n4,e4 & ,s4,w41 obliquely to ! ma9 ,uspallata l9e4 ,! cause ( ^! dislocations1 :i*1 ?\gh on a small scale1 h be5 viol5t & complicat$1 is se5 to lie 9 hummocks ( lilac1 purple & r$ porphyries1 :i* h be5 inject$ 9 a liquifi$ /ate ?r\gh & into ! und]ly+ clay-slate =mation4 ,sev]al dykes 7 expos$ "h1 b 9 no o!r "p1 t ,i saw ( ?is range4 ,z ! /rata consi/ ( black1 :ite1 gre5i% & br[n-col\r$ rocks1 & z ! intrusive porphyries are s brightly t9t$1 a mo/ extraord9>y view 0 pres5t$1 l a col\r$ geological draw+4 ,on ! g5tly incl9$ ma9 we/]n slope ,,pp1 above ! little anticl9al ridges j m5tion$1 ! /rata dip at an av]age angle ( #be to ! we/2 ! incl9ation 9 "s places be+ only #ai1 9 "s few o!rs z mu* z #de4 ,! masses hav+ ^! diff]5t incl9ations1 are sep>at$ f ea* o!r by p>allel v]tical faults z repres5t$ at ,pa1 (t5 giv+ rise to sep>ate1 p>allel1 unicl9al ridges4 ,! summit ( ! ma9 range is broad & undulatory1 ) ! /ratification undulatory & irregul>3 9 a few places granitic & porphyritic masses ,q protrude1 :i*1 f ! small effect !y h locally produc$ 9 d]ang+ ! /rata1 probably =m ! upp] po9ts ( a regul>1 great und]ly+ dome4 ,^! d5ud$ granitic po9ts1 ,i e/imat$ at ab\t n9e ?\s& feet 9 height above ! sea4 ,on ! ea/]n slope1 ! /rata 9 ! upp] "p are regul>ly incl9$ at ab\t #be to ! ea/1 s t ! summit ( ?is *a91 neglect+ small irregul>ities1 =ms a broad anticl9al axis4 ,l[] d[n1 h[ev]1 ne> ,los ,hornillos ,r1 !re is a well-m>k$ syncl9al axis1 beyond :i* ! /rata are incl9$ at ne>ly ! same angle1 namely f #bj to #cj1 inw>ds or we/w>d4 ,ow+ to ! am\nt ( d5udation :i* ?is *a9 has suff]$1 ! outl9e ( ! g5tly incl9$ ea/]n flank sc>cely (f]s ! slighte/ indication ( ?is syncl9al axis4 ,! /ratifi$ b$s1 :i* we h hi!rto foll[$ across ! range1 a little fur!r d[n are se5 to lie1 ,i believe uncon=mably1 on a broad m\nta9\s b& ( clay-slate & grauwacke4 ,! /rata & lam9 ( ?is latt] =mation1 on ! extreme ea/]n flank1 are g5]ally ne>ly v]tical2 fur!r inw>ds !y become incl9$ f #de to #hj to ! we/3 ne> ,villa ,vic5cio ,s !re is app>5tly an anticl9al axis1 b ! /ructure ( ?is out] "p ( ! clay-slate =mation is s obscure1 t ,i h n m>k$ ! planes ( /ratification 9 ! section4 ,on ! m>g9 ( ! ,pampas1 "s l[1 mu* dislocat$ spurs ( ?is same =mation1 project 9 a nor?-ea/]ly l9e1 9 ! same oblique mann] z d ! ridges on ! we/]n foot1 & z is s frequ5tly ! case ) ^? at ! base ( ! ma9 ,cordill]a4 ,i w n[ describe ! nature ( ! b$s1 beg9n+ at ! base on ! ea/]n side4 ,fir/1 = ! clay-slate =mation3 ! slate is g5]ally h>d & blui%1 ) ! lam9 coat$ by m9ute micace\s scales2 x alt]nates _m times ) a co>se-gra9$1 gre5i% grauwacke1 conta9+ r\nd$ fragm5ts ( qu>tz & bits ( slate 9 a slightly calc>e\s basis4 ,! slate 9 ! upp] "p g5]ally becomes purpli%1 & ! cleavage s irregul> t ! :ole consi/s ( m]e spl9t]s4 ,transv]se ve9s ( qu>tz are num]\s4 ,at ! ,cal]a1 "s leagues di/ant1 !re is a d>k cry/all9e lime/one1 app>5tly includ$ 9 ?is =mation4 ,) ! exception ( ! grauwacke be+ "h m abundant1 & ! clay-slate less alt]$1 ?is =mation closely resembles t uncon=mably und]ly+ ! porphyries at ! we/]n foot ( ?is same range2 & likewise t alt]nat+ ) ! porphyritic conglom]ate 9 ! ma9 ,cordill]a4 ,?is =mation is a consid]able "o1 & ext5ds sev]al leagues s\?w>d to ne> ,m5doza3 ! m\nta9s compos$ ( x rise to a height ( ab\t two ?\s& feet above ! edge ( ! ,pampas1 or ab\t sev5 ?\s& feet above ! sea4#ai #ai ,i inf] ?is f ! height ( ,v4 ,vic5cio1 :i* 0 asc]ta9$ by ,mr4 ,mi]s to be #e1cbh feet above ! sea4 ,secondly3 ! mo/ usual b$ on ! clay-slate is a co>se1 :ite1 slightly calc>e\s conglom]ate1 ( no great ?ickness1 includ+ brok5 cry/als ( feldsp>1 gra9s ( qu>tz1 & num]\s pebbles ( brecciat$ clay/one porphyry1 b )\t any pebbles ( ! und]ly+ clay-slate4 ,i n[h]e saw ! actual junction betwe5 ?is b$ & ! clay-slate1 ?\gh ,i sp5t a :ole day 9 endeav\r+ to discov] _! relations4 ,9 "s places ,i di/9ctly saw ! :ite conglom]ate & ov]ly+ b$s incl9$ at f #be to #cj to ! we/1 & at ! bottom ( ! same m\nta91 ! clay-slate & grauwacke incl9$ to ! same po9t1 b at an angle f #gj to #hj3 9 "o in/ance1 ! clay-slate dipp$ n only at a diff]5t angle1 b to a diff]5t po9t f ! ov]ly+ =mation4 ,9 ^! cases ! two =mations c]ta9ly appe>$ q uncon=mable3 moreov]1 ,i f\nd 9 ! clay-slate "o great1 v]tical1 dike-l fissure1 fill$ up ) an indurat$ :iti% tuff1 q simil> to "s ( ! upp] b$s pres5tly to be describ$2 & ?is %[s t ! clay-slate mu/ h be5 consolidat$ & dislocat$ be=e _! deposition4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! /ratification ( ! slate & grauwacke1#bj 9 "s cases gradually & entirely disappe>$ 9 approa*+ ! ov]ly+ :ite conglom]ate2 9 o!r cases ! /ratification ( ! two =mations became /rictly con=mable2 & aga9 9 o!r cases1 !re 0 "s tol]ably well *>act]is$ clay-slate ly+ above ! conglom]ate4 ,! mo/ probable conclusion appe>s to be1 t aft] ! clay-slate =mation _h be5 dislocat$ & tilt$1 b :il/ "u ! sea1 a fre% & m rec5t deposition ( clay-slate took place1 on :i* ! :ite conglom]ate 0 con=mably deposit$1 ) "h & !re a ?9 int]calat$ b$ ( clay-slate4 ,on ?is view ! :ite conglom]ates & ! pres5tly to be describ$ tuffs & lavas are really uncon=mable to ! ma9 "p ( ! clay-slate2 & ?is1 z we h se51 c]ta9ly is ! case ) ! clay-/one lavas 9 ! valley ( ,canota1 at ! we/]n & opposite base ( ! range4 #bj ,! co>se1 me*anical /ructure ( _m grauwackes has always appe>$ to me a difficulty2 = ! texture ( ! associat$ clay-slate & ! nature ( ! emb$d$ organic rema9s :]e pres5t1 indicate t ! :ole has be5 a deep-wat] deposit4 ,:5ce h ! sometimes includ$ angul> fragm5ts ( clay-slate1 & ! r\nd$ masses ( qu>tz & o!r rocks1 be5 d]iv$8 ,_m deep-wat] lime/ones1 x is well kn[n1 h be5 brecciat$1 & !n firmly recem5t$4 ,?irdly3 on ! :ite conglom]ate1 /rata sev]al hundr$ feet 9 ?ickness are sup]impos$1 v>y+ mu* 9 nature 9 %ort di/ances3 ! commone/ v>iety is a :ite1 mu* indurat$ tuff1 sometimes slightly calc>e\s1 ) f]rug9\s spots & wat]-l9es1 (t5 pass+ into :iti% or purpli% compact1 f9e-gra9$ grit or s&/ones2 o!r v>ieties become semi-porcellanic1 & t9t$ fa9t gre5 or blue2 o!rs pass into an indurat$ %ale3 mo/ ( ^! v>ieties are easily fusible4 ,f\r?ly3 a b$1 ab\t "o hundr$ feet ?ick ( a compact1 p>tially column>1 pale-grey1 feldspa?ic lava1 /a9$ ) iron1 includ+ v num]\s cry/als ( opaque feldsp>1 & ) "s cry/allis$ & dissem9at$ calc>e\s matt]4 ,! tuface\s /ratum on :i* ?is feldspa?ic lava re/s is mu* h>d5$1 /a9$ purple1 & has a sph]ico-concretion>y /ructure2 x "h conta9s a good _m pebbles ( clay/one porphyry4 ,fif?ly3 ?9 b$s1 #djj feet 9 ?ickness1 v>y+ mu* 9 nature1 consi/+ ( :ite & f]rug9\s tuffs1 9 "s p>ts hav+ a concretion>y /ructure1 9 o!rs conta9+ r\nd$ gra9s & a few pebbles ( qu>tz2 also pass+ into h>d grit/ones & into gre5i% mud/ones3 !re is1 also1 mu* ( a blui%-grey & gre5 semi-porcellanic /one4 ,six?ly3 a volcanic /ratum1 #bej feet 9 ?ickness1 ( s v>y+ a nature t ,i d n believe a score ( specim5s w\ld %[ all ! v>ieties2 mu* is highly amygdaloidal1 mu* compact2 !re are gre5i%1 blacki%1 purpli%1 & grey v>ieties1 r>ely includ+ cry/als ( gre5 augite & m9ute acicul> ones ( feldsp>1 b (t5 cry/als & amygdaloidal masses ( :ite1 r$1 & black c>bonate ( lime4 ,"s ( ! blacki% v>ieties ( ?is rock h a con*oidal fracture & resemble basalt2 o!rs h an irregul> fracture4 ,"s ( ! grey & purpli% v>ieties are ?ickly speckl$ ) gre5 e>? & ) :ite cry/all9e c>bonate ( lime2 o!rs are l>gely amygdaloidal ) gre5 e>? & calc>e\s sp>4 ,aga91 o!r e>?y v>ieties1 ( gre5i%1 purpli% & grey t9ts1 conta9 mu* iron1 & are almo/ half compos$ ( amygdaloidal balls ( d>k br[n bole1 ( a :iti% indurat$ feldspa?ic matt]1 ( bright gre5 e>?1 ( agate1 & ( black & :ite cry/allis$ c>bonate ( lime4 ,all ^! v>ieties are easily fusible4 ,view$ f a di/ance1 ! l9e ( junction ) ! und]ly+ semi-porcellanic /rata 0 di/9ct2 b :5 exam9$ closely1 x 0 impossible to po9t out )9 a foot :]e ! lava end$ & :]e ! s$im5t>y mass began3 ! rock at ! "t ( junction 0 9 mo/ places h>d1 ( a bright gre5 col\r1 & ab\nd$ ) irregul> amygdaloidal masses ( f]rug9\s & pure calc>e\s sp>1 & ( agate4 ,sev5?ly3 /rata1 eighty feet 9 ?ickness1 ( v>i\s indurat$ tuffs1 z be=e2 _m ( ! v>ieties h a f9e basis includ+ r co>se extrane\s p>ticles2 "s ( !m are compact & semi-porcellanic1 & include vegetable impressions4 ,eigh?ly3 a b$1 ab\t fifty feet ?ick1 ( gre5i%-grey1 compact1 feldspa?ic lava1 ) num]\s small cry/als ( opaque feldsp>1 black augite1 & oxide ( iron4 ,! junction ) ! b$ on :i* x re/$1 0 ill def9$2 balls & masses ( ! feldspa?ic rock be+ enclos$ 9 mu* alt]$ tuff4 ,n9?ly3 indurat$ tuffs1 z be=e4 ,t5?ly3 a con=mable lay]1 less ?an two feet 9 ?ickness1 ( pit*/one1 g5]ally brecciat$1 & trav]s$ by ve9s ( agate & ( c>bonate ( lime3 p>ts are compos$ ( app>5tly concretion>y fragm5ts ( a m p]fect v>iety1 arrang$ 9 horizontal l9es 9 a less p]fectly *>act]is$ v>iety4 ,i h mu* difficulty 9 believ+ t ?is ?9 lay] ( pit*/one fl[$ z lava4 ,elev5?ly3 s$im5t>y & tuface\s b$s z be=e1 pass+ into s&/one1 includ+ "s conglom]ate3 ! pebbles 9 ! latt] are ( clay/one porphyry1 well r\nd$1 & "s z l>ge z cricket-balls4 ,twelf?ly3 a b$ ( compact1 sonor\s1 feldspa?ic lava1 l t ( b$ ,no4 #h1 divid$ by num]\s jo9ts into l>ge angul> blocks4 ,?irte5?ly3 s$im5t>y b$s z be=e4 ,f\rte5?ly3 a ?ick b$ ( gre5i% or greyi% black1 compact basalt 7fus+ into a black enamel71 ) small cry/als1 occasionally di/+ui%able1 ( feldsp> & augite3 ! junction ) ! und]ly+ s$im5t>y b$1 diff]5tly f t 9 mo/ ( ! =ego+ /reams1 "h 0 q di/9ct3--! lava & tuface\s matt] pres]v+ _! p]fect *>act]s )9 two in*es ( ea* o!r4 ,?is rock closely resembles c]ta9 p>ts ( t v>i$ & s+ul> lava-/ream ,no4 #f2 x likewise resembles1 z we %all imm$iately see1 _m ( ! great upp] b$s on ! we/]n flank & on ! summit ( ?is range4 ,! pile ( /rata "h describ$ atta9s a great ?ickness2 & above ! la/-m5tion$ volcanic /ratum1 !re 7 sev]al o!r great tuface\s b$s alt]nat+ ) subm>9e lavas1 :i* ,i _h n "t to exam9e2 b a correspond+ s]ies1 sev]al ?\s& feet 9 ?ickness1 is well exhibit$ on ! cre/ & we/]n flank ( ! range4 ,mo/ ( ! lava-/reams on ! we/]n side are ( a jet-black col\r & basaltic nature2 !y are ei!r compact & f9e-gra9$1 includ+ m9ute cry/als ( augite & feldsp>1 or !y are co>se-gra9$ & ab\nd ) r l>ge copp]y-br[n cry/als ( an augitic m9]al4#ba ,ano!r v>iety 0 ( a dull-r$ col\r1 hav+ a clay/one brecciat$ basis1 includ+ specks ( oxide ( iron & ( calc>e\s sp>1 & amygdaloidal ) gre5 e>?3 !re 7 app>5tly sev]al o!r v>ieties4 ,^! subm>9e lavas (t5 exhibit a sph]oidal1 & sometimes an imp]fect column> /ructure3 _! upp] junctions are mu* m cle>ly def9$ ?an _! l[] junctions2 b ! latt] are n s mu* bl5d$ into ! und]ly+ s$im5t>y b$s z is ! case 9 ! ea/]n flank4 ,on ! cre/ & we/]n flank ( ! range1 ! /reams1 view$ z a :ole1 are mo/ly basaltic2 :il/ ^? on ! ea/]n side1 :i* /& l[] 9 ! s]ies1 are1 z we h se51 mo/ly feldspa?ic4 #ba ,v easily fusible into a jet-black bead1 attract$ by ! magnet3 ! cry/als are too mu* t>ni%$ to be measur$ by ! goniomet]4 ,! s$im5t>y /rata alt]nat+ ) ! lavas on ! cre/ & we/]n side1 are ( an almo/ inf9itely v>y+ nature2 b a l>ge proportion ( !m closely resemble ^? already describ$ on ! ea/]n flank3 !re are :ite & br[n1 indurat$1 easily fusible tuffs1--"s pass+ into pale blue & gre5 semi-porcellanic rocks1--o!rs into br[ni% & purpli% s&/ones & grit/ones1 (t5 includ+ gra9s ( qu>tz1--o!rs into mud/one conta9+ brok5 cry/als & p>ticles ( rock1 & occasionally s+le l>ge pebbles4 ,!re 0 "o /ratum ( a bright r$1 co>se1 volcanic grit/one2 ano!r ( conglom]ate2 ano!r ( a black1 indurat$1 c>bonace\s %ale m>k$ ) imp]fect vegetable impressions2 ?is latt] b$1 :i* 0 ?91 re/$ on a subm>9e lava1 & foll[$ all ! consid]able inequalities ( its upp] surface4 ,mr4 ,mi]s /ates t coal has be5 f\nd 9 ?is range4 ,la/ly1 !re 0 a b$ 7l ,no4 #aj on ! ea/]n flank7 evid5tly ( s$im5t>y orig91 & rem>kable f closely approa*+ 9 "* to an imp]fect pit*/one1 & f includ+ extremely ?9 lay]s ( p]fect pit*/one1 z well z nodules & irregul> fragm5ts 7b n resembl+ extrane\s fragm5ts7 ( ?is same rock arrang$ 9 horizontal l9es3 ,i conceive t ?is b$1 :i* is only a few feet 9 ?ickness1 mu/ h assum$ its pres5t /ate ?r\gh metamorphic & concretion>y action4 ,mo/ ( ^! s$im5t>y /rata are mu* indurat$1 & no d\bt h be5 p>tially metamorphos$3 _m ( !m are extraord9>ily heavy & compact2 o!rs h agate & cry/all9e c>bonate ( lime dissem9at$ ?r\gh\t !m4 ,"s ( ! b$s exhibit a s+ul> concretion>y arrangem5t1 ) ! curves det]m9$ by ! l9es ( fissure4 ,!re are _m ve9s ( agate & calc>e\s sp>1 & innum]able ones ( iron & o!r metals1 :i* h black5$ & curi\sly affect$ ! /rata to consid]able di/ances on bo? sides4 ,_m ( ^! tuface\s b$s resemble1 ) ! exception ( be+ m indurat$1 ! upp] b$s ( ! ,great ,patagonian t]ti>y =mation1 especially ^? v>i\sly col\r$ lay]s high up ! ,riv] ,santa ,cruz1 & 9 a rem>kable degree ! tuface\s =mation at ! nor!rn end ( ,*iloe4 ,i 0 s mu* /ruck ) ?is resemblance1 t ,i p>ticul>ly look$ out = silicifi$ wood1 & f\nd x "u ! foll[+ extraord9>y circum/ances4 ,high up on ?is we/]n flank1#bb at a height e/imat$ at #g1jjj feet above ! sea1 9 a brok5 esc>pm5t ( ?9 /rata1 compos$ ( compact gre5 grit/one pass+ into a f9e mud/one1 & alt]nat+ ) lay]s ( co>s]1 br[ni%1 v heavy mud/one1 includ+ brok5 cry/als & p>ticles ( rock almo/ bl5d$ toge!r1 ,i c\nt$ ! /umps ( fifty-two trees4 ,!y project$ betwe5 two & five feet above ! gr\nd1 & /ood at exactly "r angles to ! /rata1 :i* 7 "h incl9$ at an angle ( ab\t #be to ! we/4 ,elev5 ( ^! trees 7 silicifi$ & well pres]v$2 ,mr4 ,r4 ,br[n has be5 s k9d z to exam9e ! wood :5 slic$ & poli%$2 he says x is conif]\s1 p>tak+ ( ! *>act]s ( ! ,arauc>ian tribe1 ) "s curi\s po9ts ( aff9ity ) ! ,yew4 ,! b>k r\nd ! trunks mu/ h be5 circul>ly furr[$ ) irregul> l9es1 = ! mud/one r\nd !m is ?us pla9ly m>k$4 ,"o ca/ consi/$ ( d>k argillace\s lime/one2 & =ty ( !m ( co>sely cry/allis$ c>bonate ( lime1 ) cavities l9$ by qu>tz cry/als3 ^! latt] :ite calc>e\s columns d n reta9 any int]nal /ructure1 b _! ext]nal =m pla9ly %[s _! orig94 ,all ! /umps h ne>ly ! same diamet]1 v>y+ f "o foot to eighte5 in*es2 "s ( !m /& )9 a y>d ( ea* o!r2 !y are gr\p$ 9 a clump )9 a space ( ab\t sixty y>ds across1 ) a few scatt]$ r\nd at ! di/ance ( #aej y>ds4 ,!y all /& at ab\t ! same level4 ,! longe/ /ump /ood sev5 feet out ( ! gr\nd3 ! roots1 if !y are /ill pres]v$1 are buri$ & conceal$4 ,no "o lay] ( ! mud/one appe>$ mu* d>k] ?an ! o!rs1 z if x _h =m]ly exi/$ z soil1 nor c\ld ?is be expect$1 = ! same ag5ts :i* replac$ ) silex & lime ! wood ( ! trees1 w\ld naturally h remov$ all vegetable matt] f ! soil4 ,besides ! fifty-two upright trees1 !re 7 a few fragm5ts1 l brok5 bran*es1 horizontally emb$d$4 ,! surr\nd+ /rata are cross$ by ve9s ( c>bonate ( lime1 agate1 & oxide ( iron2 & a poor gold ve9 has be5 work$ n f> f ! trees4 #bb ,= ! in=mation ( any future travell]1 ,i w describe ! spot 9 detail4 ,proce$+ ea/w>d f ! ,agua del ,zorro1 & aft]w>ds leav+ on ! nor? side ( ! road a ran*o atta*$ to "s old goldm9es1 y pass ?r\gh a gully ) l[ b /eep rocks on ea* h&3 ! road !n b5ds1 & ! asc5t becomes /eep]4 ,a few hundr$ y>ds f>!r on1 a /one's ?r[ on ! s\? side ( ! road1 ! :ite calc>e\s /umps may be se54 ,! spot is ab\t half a mile ea/ ( ! ,agua del ,zorro4 ,! gre5 & br[n mud/one b$s includ+ ! trees1 are con=mably cov]$ by mu* indurat$1 compact1 :ite or f]rug9\s tuffs1 :i* pass upw>ds into a f9e-gra9$1 purpli% s$im5t>y rock3 ^! /rata1 :i*1 toge!r1 are f f\r to five hundr$ feet 9 ?ickness1 re/ on a ?ick b$ ( subm>9e lava1 & are con=mably cov]$ by ano!r great mass ( f9e-gra9$ basalt1#bc :i* ,i e/imat$ at #a1jjj feet 9 ?ickness1 & :i* probably has be5 =m$ by m ?an "o /ream4 ,above ?is mass ,i c\ld cle>ly di/+ui% five con=mable alt]nations1 ea* sev]al hundr$ feet 9 ?ickness1 ( /ratifi$ s$im5t>y rocks & lavas1 su* z h be5 previ\sly describ$4 ,c]ta9ly ! upright trees h be5 buri$ "u sev]al ?\s& feet 9 ?ickness ( matt]1 accumulat$ "u ! sea4 ,z ! trees obvi\sly mu/ once h gr[n on dry l&1 :at an enorm\s am\nt ( subsid5ce is ?us indicat$6 ,nev]!less1 _h x n be5 = ! trees !re 0 no appe>ance :i* w\ld h l$ any "o ev5 to h conjectur$ t ^! /rata _h subsid$4 ,z ! l&1 moreov]1 on :i* ! trees grew1 is =m$ ( subaque\s deposits1 ( ne>ly if n q equal ?ickness ) ! sup]9cumb5t /rata1 & z ^! deposits are regul>ly /ratifi$ & f9e-gra9$1 n l ! matt] ?r[n up on a sea-bea*1 a previ\s upw>d movem5t1 aid$ no d\bt by ! great accumulation ( lavas & s$im5t1 is also indicat$4#bd #bc ,?is rock is q black1 & fuses into a black bead1 attract$ /rongly by ! magnet2 x breaks ) a con*oidal fracture2 ! includ$ cry/als ( augite are di/+ui%able by ! nak$ eye1 b are n p]fect en\gh to be measur$3 !re are _m m9ute acicul> cry/als ( glassy feldsp>4 #bd ,at fir/ ,i imag9$1 t ! /rata ) ! trees might h be5 accumulat$ 9 a lake3 b ?is seems highly improbable2 =1 fir/1 a v deep lake 0 necess>y to receive ! matt] bel[ ! trees1 !n x mu/ h be5 dra9$ = _! gr[?1 & aft]w>ds re-=m$ & made pr(\ndly deep1 s z to receive a subsequ5t accumulation ( matt] sev]al ?\s& feet 9 ?ickness4 ,& all ?is mu/ h tak5 place necess>ily be=e ! =mation ( ! ,uspallata range1 & !re=e on ! m>g9 ( ! wide level expanse ( ! ,pampas6 ,h5ce ,i conclude1 t x is inf9itely m probable t ! /rata 7 accumulat$ "u ! sea3 ! va/ am\nt ( d5udation1 moreov]1 :i* ?is range has suff]$1 z %[n by ! wide valleys1 by ! exposure ( ! v trees & by o!r appe>ances1 c\ld h be5 effect$1 ,i conceive1 only by ! long-cont9u$ action ( ! sea2 & ?is %[s t ! range 0 ei!r upheav$ f "u ! sea1 or subsequ5tly let d[n into x4 ,f ! natural mann] 9 :i* ! /umps 7fifty-two 9 numb]7 are gr\p$ 9 a clump1 & f _! all /&+ v]tically to ! /rata1 x is sup]flu\s to speculate on ! *ance ( ! trees hav+ be5 drift$ f adjo9+ l&1 & deposit$ upright3 ,i may1 h[ev]1 m5tion t ! late ,dr4 ,malcolmson assur$ me1 t he once met 9 ! ,indian ,ocean1 fifty miles f l&1 sev]al cocoa-nut trees float+ upright1 ow+ to _! roots be+ load$ ) e>?4 ,9 ne>ly ! middle ( ! range1 !re are "s hills ,q1 be=e allud$ to1 =m$ ( a k9d ( granite ext]nally resembl+ &esite1 & consi/+ ( a :ite1 imp]fectly granul>1 feldspa?ic basis1 includ+ "s p]fect cry/als app>5tly ( albite 7b ,i 0 unable to measure !m71 mu* black mica1 epidote 9 ve9s1 & v little or no qu>tz4 ,num]\s small ve9s bran* f ?is rock into ! surr\nd+ /rata2 & x is a s+ul> fact t ^! ve9s1 ?\gh compos$ ( ! same k9d ( feldsp> & small scales ( mica z 9 ! solid rock1 ab\nd ) innum]able m9ute r\nd$ gra9s ( qu>tz3 9 ! ve9s or dikes also1 bran*+ f ! great granitic axis 9 ! p59sula ( ,tres ,montes1 ,i obs]v$ t qu>tz 0 m abundant 9 !m ?an 9 ! ma9 rock3 ,i h he>d ( o!r analog\s cases3 c we acc\nt = ?is fact1 by ! long-cont9u$ vic9ity ( qu>tz#be :5 cool+1 & by its hav+ be5 ?us m easily suck$ into fissures ?an ! o!r con/itu5t m9]als ( granite8 ,! /rata encas+ ! flanks ( ^! granitic or &esite masses1 & =m+ a ?ick cap on "o ( _! summits1 appe> orig9ally to h be5 ( ! same tuface\s nature ) ! b$s already describ$1 b !y are n[ *ang$ into porcellanic1 jasp]y1 & cry/all9e rocks1 & into o!rs ( a :ite col\r ) a h>% texture1 & hav+ a silice\s aspect1 ?\gh really ( a feldspa?ic nature & fusible4 ,bo? ! granitic intrusive masses & ! encas+ /rata are p5etrat$ by innum]able metallic ve9s1 mo/ly f]rug9\s & aurif]\s1 b "s conta9+ copp]-pyrites & a few silv]3 ne> ! ve9s1 ! rocks are black5$ z if bla/$ by gunp[d]4 ,! /rata are only slightly dislocat$ close r\nd ^! hills1 & h5ce1 p]haps1 x may be inf]r$ t ! granitic masses =m only ! project+ po9ts ( a broad cont9u\s axis-dome1 :i* has giv5 to ! upp] p>ts ( ?is range its anticl9al /ructure4 #be ,see a pap] by ,m4 ,elie de ,beaumont1 8,soc4 ,philoma?410 ,may #ahci 78,l',in/itut410 #ahci1 p4 #afa47 ,conclud+ rem>ks on ! ,uspallata range4--,i w n attempt to e/imate ! total ?ickness ( ! pile ( /rata =m+ ?is range1 b x mu/ am\nt to _m ?\s& feet4 ,! s$im5t>y & tuface\s b$s h ?r\gh\t a g5]al simil>ity1 ?\gh ) inf9ite v>iations4 ,! subm>9e lavas 9 ! l[] "p ( ! s]ies are mo/ly feldspa?ic1 :il/ 9 ! upp] "p1 on ! summit & we/]n flank1 !y are mo/ly basaltic4 ,we are ?us rem9d$ ( ! relative position 9 mo/ rec5t volcanic di/ricts ( ! tra*ytic & basaltic lavas1--! latt] f _! great] weight hav+ sunk to a l[] level 9 ! e>?'s cru/1 & hav+ consequ5tly be5 erupt$ at a lat] p]iod ov] ! light] & upp] lavas ( ! tra*ytic s]ies4#bf ,bo? ! basaltic & feldspa?ic subm>9e /reams are v compact2 none be+ vesicul>1 & only a few amygdaloidal3 ! effects :i* "s ( !m1 especially ^? l[ 9 ! s]ies1 h produc$ on ! tuface\s b$s ov] :i* !y h fl[$ is highly curi\s4 ,indep5d5tly ( ?is local metamorphic action1 all ! /rata und\bt$ly display an indurat$ & alt]$ "*2 & all ! rocks ( ?is range--! lavas1 ! alt]nat+ s$im5ts1 ! intrusive granite & porphyries1 & ! und]ly+ clay-slate--are int]sect$ by metallif]\s ve9s4 ,! lava-/rata c (t5 be se5 ext5d+ = great di/ances1 con=mably ) ! "u & ov]ly+ b$s2 & x 0 obvi\s t !y ?ick5$ t[>ds ! we/4 ,h5ce ! po9ts ( eruption mu/ h be5 situat$ we/w>d ( ! pres5t range1 9 ! direction ( ! ma9 ,cordill]a3 z1 h[ev]1 ! flanks ( ! ,cordill]a are entirely compos$ ( v>i\s porphyries1 *iefly clay/one & gre5/one1 "s intrusive1 & o!rs belong+ to ! porphyritic conglom]ate =mation1 b all q unlike ^! subm>9e lava-/reams1 we mu/ 9 all probability look to ! pla9 ( ,uspallata = ! n[ deeply buri$ po9ts ( eruption4 #bf ,see on ?is subject1 8,volcanic ,isl&s10 etc41 by ! ,au?or4 ,comp>+ our section ( ! ,uspallata range ) t ( ! ,cumbre1 we see1 ) ! exception ( ! und]ly+ clay-slate1 & p]haps ( ! intrusive rocks ( ! axes1 a /rik+ dissimil>ity 9 ! /rata compos+ !m4 ,! great porphyritic conglom]ate =mation has n ext5d$ z f> z ?is range2 nor h we "h any ( ! gypse\s /rata1 ! magnesian & o!r lime/ones1 ! r$ s&/ones1 ! silice\s b$s ) pebbles ( qu>tz1 & comp>atively little ( ! conglom]ates1 all ( :i* =m su* va/ masses ov] ! basal s]ies 9 ! ma9 ,cordill]a4 ,on ! o!r h&1 9 ! ,cordill]a1 we d n f9d ^? endless v>ieties ( indurat$ tuffs1 ) _! num]\s ve9s & concretion>y arrangem5t1 & ^? grit & mud /ones1 & s+ul> semi-porcellanic rocks1 s abundant 9 ! ,uspallata range4 ,! subm>9e lavas1 also1 diff] consid]ably2 ! feldspa?ic /reams ( ! ,cordill]a conta9 mu* mica1 :i* is abs5t 9 ^? ( ! ,uspallata range3 9 ?is latt] range we h se5 on h[ gr& a scale1 basaltic lava has be5 p\r$ =?1 ( :i* !re is n a trace 9 ! ,cordill]a4 ,?is dissimil>ity is ! m /rik+1 consid]+ t ^! two p>allel *a9s are sep>at$ by a pla9 only betwe5 t5 & fifte5 miles 9 wid?2 & t ! ,uspallata lavas1 z well z no d\bt ! alt]nat+ tuface\s b$s1 h proce$$ f ! we/1 f po9ts app>5tly betwe5 ! two ranges4 ,to imag9e t ^! two piles ( /rata 7 contemporane\sly deposit$ 9 two closely adjo9+1 v deep1 subm>9e areas1 sep>at$ f ea* o!r by a l(ty ridge1 :]e a pla9 n[ ext5ds1 w\ld be a gratuit\s hypo!sis4 ,& _h !y be5 contemporane\sly deposit$1 )\t any su* divid+ ridge1 surely "s ( ! gypse\s & o!r s$im5t>y matt] =m+ su* imm5sely ?ick masses 9 ! ,cordill]a1 w\ld h ext5d$ ?is %ort di/ance ea/w>ds2 & surely "s ( ! ,uspallata tuffs & basalts also accumulat$ to s great a ?ickness1 w\ld h ext5d$ a little we/w>d4 ,h5ce ,i conclude1 t x is f> f probable t ^! two s]ies are n contemporane\s2 b t ! /rata ( "o ( ! *a9s 7 deposit$1 & ev5 ! *a9 itself uplift$1 be=e ! =mation ( ! o!r3--:i* *a91 !n1 is ! olde/8 ,consid]+ t 9 ! ,uspallata range ! l[e/ /rata on ! we/]n flank lie uncon=mably on ! clay-slate1 z probably is ! case ) ^? on ! ea/]n flank1 :]eas 9 ! ,cordill]a all ! ov]ly+ /rata lie con=mably on ?is =mation3--consid]+ t 9 ! ,uspallata range "s ( ! b$s1 bo? l[ d[n & high up 9 ! s]ies1 are m>k$ ) vegetable impressions1 %[+ ! cont9u$ exi/5ce ( neighb\r+ l&2--consid]+ ! close g5]al resemblance betwe5 ! deposits ( ?is range & ^? ( t]ti>y orig9 9 sev]al p>ts ( ! cont95t2--& la/ly1 ev5 consid]+ ! less] height & outly+ position ( ! ,uspallata range1--,i conclude t ! /rata compos+ x are 9 all probability ( subsequ5t orig91 & t !y 7 accumulat$ at a p]iod :5 a deep sea /udd$ ) subm>9e volcanoes wa%$ ! ea/]n base ( ! already p>tially elevat$ ,cordill]a4 ,?is conclusion is ( mu* importance1 = we h se5 t 9 ! ,cordill]a1 dur+ ! deposition ( ! ,neocomian /rata1 ! b$ ( ! sea mu/ h subsid$ _m ?\s& feet3 we n[ le>n t at a lat] p]iod an adjo9+ area fir/ receiv$ a great accumulation ( /rata1 & 0 upheav$ into l& on :i* conif]\s trees grew1 & t ?is area !n subsid$ sev]al ?\s& feet to receive ! sup]9cumb5t subm>9e /rata1 aft]w>ds be+ brok5 up1 d5ud$1 & elevat$ 9 mass to its pres5t height4 ,i am /r5g!n$ 9 ?is conclusion ( !re hav+ be5 two di/9ct1 great p]iods ( subsid5ce1 by reflect+ on ! ?ick mass ( co>se /ratifi$ conglom]ate 9 ! valley ( ,t5uyan1 betwe5 ! ,peuqu5es & ,portillo l9es2 = ! accumulation ( ?is mass seems to me1 z previ\sly rem>k$1 almo/ necess>ily to h requir$ a prolong$ subsid5ce2 & ?is subsid5ce1 f ! pebbles 9 ! conglom]ate hav+ be5 to a great ext5t d]iv$ f ! gypse\s or ,neocomian /rata ( ! ,peuqu5es l9e1 we "k mu/ h be5 q di/9ct f1 & subsequ5t to1 t s9k+ movem5t :i* probably accompani$ ! deposition ( ! ,peuqu5es /rata1 & :i* c]ta9ly accompani$ ! deposition ( ! equival5t b$s ne> ! ,pu5te del ,inca1 9 ?is l9e ( section4 ,! ,uspallata *a9 corresponds 9 geographical position1 ?\gh on a small scale1 ) ! ,portillo l9e2 & its clay-slate =mation is probably ! equival5t ( ! mica-s*i/ ( ! ,portillo1 !re metamorphos$ by ! old :ite granites & sy5ites4 ,! col\r$ b$s "u ! conglom]ate 9 ! valley ( ,t5uyan1 ( :i* traces are se5 on ! cre/ ( ! ,portillo1 & ev5 ! conglom]ate itself1 may p]haps be syn*ron\s ) ! tuface\s b$s & subm>9e lavas ( ! ,uspallata range2 an op5 sea & volcanic action 9 ! latt] case1 & a conf9$ *annel betwe5 two bord]+ *a9s ( islets 9 ! =m] case1 hav+ be5 suffici5t to acc\nt = ! m9]alogical dissimil>ity ( ! two s]ies4 ,f ?is correspond5ce betwe5 ! ,uspallata & ,portillo ranges1 p]haps 9 age & c]ta9ly 9 geographical position1 "o is tempt$ to consid] ! "o range z ! prolongation ( ! o!r2 b _! axes are =m$ ( totally diff]5t intrusive rocks2 & we h trac$ ! app>5t cont9uation ( ! r$ granite ( ! ,portillo 9 ! r$ porphyries div]g+ into ! ma9 ,cordill]a4 ,:e!r ! axis ( ! ,uspallata range 0 inject$ be=e1 or z p]haps is m probable1 aft] t ( ! ,portillo l9e1 ,i w n pret5d to decide2 b x is well to rememb] t ! highly incl9$ lava-/reams on ! ea/]n flank ( ! ,portillo l9e1 prove t its angul> upheavem5t 0 n a s+le & sudd5 ev5t2 & !re=e t ! anticl9al elevation ( ! ,uspallata range may h be5 contemporane\s ) "s ( ! lat] angul> movem5ts by :i* ! gigantic ,portillo range ga9$ its pres5t height above ! adjo9+ pla94 ,*apt] ,,viii ,,nor!rn ,,*ile4--,,conclusion4 ,section f ,illapel to ,comb>bala2 gypse\s =mation ) silicifi$ wood4--,panuncillo4--,coquimbo2 m9es ( ,arqu]os2 section up valley2 fossils4--,guasco1 fossils (4--,copiapo1 section up valley2 ,las ,amolanas1 silicifi$ wood4--,conglom]ates1 nature ( =m] l&1 fossils1 ?ickness ( /rata1 great subsid5ce4--,valley ( ,despoblado1 fossils1 tuface\s deposit1 complicat$ dislocations (4--,relations betwe5 anci5t orifices ( eruption & subsequ5t axes ( injection4--,iquique1 ,p]u1 fossils (1 salt-deposits4--,metallif]\s ve9s4--,summ>y on ! porphyritic conglom]ate & gypse\s =mations4--,great subsid5ce ) p>tial elevations dur+ ! cretaceo-oolitic p]iod4--,on ! elevation & /ructure ( ! ,cordill]a4--,recapitulation on ! t]ti>y s]ies4--,relation betwe5 movem5ts ( subsid5ce & volcanic action4--,pampean =mation4--,rec5t elevatory movem5ts4 ,long-cont9u$ volcanic action 9 ! ,cordill]a4--,conclusion4 ,valp>aiso to ,coquimbo4 ,i h already describ$ ! g5]al nature ( ! rocks 9 ! l[ c\ntry nor? ( ,valp>aiso1 consi/+ ( granites1 sy5ites1 gre5/ones1 & alt]$ feldspa?ic clay-slate4 ,ne> ,coquimbo !re is mu* hornbl5dic rock & v>i\s dusky-col\r$ porphyries4 ,i w describe only "o section 9 ?is di/rict1 namely1 f ne> ,illapel 9 a ,n4,e4 l9e to ! m9es ( ,los ,hornos1 & !nce 9 a nor? by ea/ direction to ,comb>bala1 at ! foot ( ! ma9 ,cordill]a4 ,ne> ,illapel1 aft] pass+ = "s di/ance ov] granite1 &esite1 & &esitic porphyry1 we come to a gre5i% /ratifi$ feldspa?ic rock1 :i* ,i believe is alt]$ clay-slate1 con=mably capp$ by porphyries & porphyritic conglom]ate ( great ?ickness1 dipp+ at an av]age angle ( #bj to ,n4,e4 by ,n4 ,! upp]mo/ b$s consi/ ( conglom]ates & s&/one only a little metamorphos$1 & con=mably cov]$ by a gypse\s =mation ( v great ?ickness1 b mu* d5ud$4 ,?is gypse\s =mation1 :]e fir/ met )1 lies 9 a broad valley or bas91 a little s\?w>d ( ! m9es ( ,los ,hornos3 ! l[] half alone conta9s gypsum1 n 9 great masses z 9 ! ,cordill]a1 b 9 innum]able ?9 lay]s1 seldom m ?an an in* or two 9 ?ickness4 ,! gypsum is ei!r opaque or transp>5t1 & is associat$ ) c>bonate ( lime4 ,! lay]s alt]nate ) num]\s v>y+ ones ( a calc>e\s clay-%ale 7) /rong alum9\s od\r1 adh]+ to ! tongue1 easily fusible into a pale gre5 glass71 m or less indurat$1 ei!r e>?y & cream-col\r$1 or gre5i% & h>d4 ,! m indurat$ v>ieties h a compact1 homog5e\s1 almo/ cry/all9e fracture1 & conta9 granules ( cry/allis$ oxide ( iron4 ,"s ( ! v>ieties almo/ resemble hone/ones4 ,!re is also a little black1 h>dly fusible1 siliceo-calc>e\s clay-slate1 l "s ( ! v>ieties alt]nat+ ) gypsum on ! ,peuqu5es range4 ,! upp] half ( ?is gypse\s =mation is ma9ly =m$ ( ! same calc>e\s clay-%ale rock1 b )\t any gypsum1 & v>y+ extremely 9 nature3 x passes f a s(t1 co>se1 e>?y1 f]rug9\s /ate1 includ+ p>ticles ( qu>tz1 into compact clay/ones ) cry/allis$ oxide ( iron1--into porcellanic lay]s1 alt]nat+ ) seams ( calc>e\s matt]1--& into gre5 porcela9-jasp]1 excessively h>d1 b easily fusible4 ,/rata ( ?is nature alt]nate ) mu* black & br[n siliceo-calc>e\s slate1 rem>kable f ! wond]ful numb] ( huge emb$d$ logs ( silicifi$ wood4 ,?is wood1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,r4 ,br[n1 is 7judg+ f sev]al specim5s7 all conif]\s4 ,"s ( ! lay]s ( ! black silice\s slate conta9$ irregul> angul> fragm5ts ( imp]fect pit*/one1 :i* ,i believe1 z 9 ! ,uspallata range1 has orig9at$ 9 a metamorphic process4 ,!re 0 "o b$ ( a m>ly tuface\s nature1 & ( little specific gravity4 ,ve9s ( agate & calc>e\s sp> are num]\s4 ,! :ole ( ?is gypse\s =mation1 especially ! upp] half1 has be5 inject$1 metamorphos$1 & locally contort$ by num]\s hillocks ( intrusive porphyries cr[d$ toge!r 9 an extraord9>y mann]4 ,^! hillocks consi/ ( purple clay/one & ( v>i\s o!r porphyries1 & ( mu* :ite feldspa?ic gre5/one pass+ into &esite2 ?is latt] v>iety includ$ 9 "o case cry/als ( or?itic & albitic feldsp> t\*+ ea* o!r1 & o!rs ( hornbl5de1 *lorite1 & epidote4 ,! /rata surr\nd+ ^! intrusive hillocks at ! m9es ( ,los ,hornos1 are int]sect$ by _m ve9s ( copp]-pyrites1 associat$ ) mu* micace\s iron-ore1 & by "s ( gold3 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ^! ve9s ! rocks are black5$ & mu* alt]$4 ,! gypsum ne> ! intrusive masses is always opaque4 ,"o ( ^! hillocks ( porphyry 0 capp$ by "s /ratifi$ porphyritic conglom]ate1 :i* mu/ h be5 br\ght up f bel[1 ?r\gh ! :ole imm5se ?ickness ( ! ov]ly+ gypse\s =mation4 ,! l[] b$s ( ! gypse\s =mation resemble ! correspond+ & probably contemporane\s /rata ( ! ma9 ,cordill]a2 :il/ ! upp] b$s 9 sev]al respects resemble ^? ( ! ,uspallata *a91 & possibly may be contemporane\s ) !m2 = ,i h endeav\r$ to %[ t ! ,uspallata b$s 7 accumulat$ subsequ5tly to ! gypse\s or ,neocomian =mations ( ! ,cordill]a4 ,?is pile ( /rata dips at an angle ( ab\t #bj degrees to ,n4,e4 by ,n41 close up to ! foot ( ! ,cue/a de ,los ,hornos1 a crook$ range ( m\nta9s =m$ ( intrusive rocks ( ! same nature ) ! above describ$ hillocks4 ,only 9 "o or two places1 on ?is s\?-ea/]n side ( ! range1 ,i notic$ a n>r[ fr+e ( ! upp] gypse\s /rata bru%$ up & incl9$ s\?-ea/w>d f x4 ,on its nor?-ea/]n flank1 & likewise on a few ( ! summits1 ! /ratifi$ porphyritic conglom]ate is incl9$ ,n4,e43 s t1 if we disreg>d ! v n>r[ anticl9al fr+e ( gypse\s /rata at its ,s4,e4 foot1 ?is range =ms a second unicl9al axis ( elevation4 ,proce$+ 9 a nor?-by-ea/ direction to ! village ( ,comb>bala1 we come to a ?ird esc>pm5t ( ! porphyritic conglom]ate1 dipp+ ea/w>ds1 & =m+ ! out] range ( ! ma9 ,cordill]a4 ,! l[] b$s 7 "h m jasp]y ?an usual1 & !y includ$ "s :ite *]ty /rata & r$ s&/ones1 alt]nat+ ) purple clay/one porphyry4 ,high] up 9 ! ,cordill]a !re appe>$ to be a l9e ( &esitic rocks2 & beyond !m1 a f\r? esc>pm5t ( ! porphyritic conglom]ate1 aga9 dipp+ ea/w>ds or inw>ds4 ,! ov]ly+ gypse\s /rata1 if !y ev] exi/$ "h1 h be5 entirely remov$4 ,copp] m9es ( ,panuncillo4--,f ,comb>bala to ,coquimbo1 ,i trav]s$ ! c\ntry 9 a zigzag direction1 cross+ & recross+ ! porphyritic conglom]ate & f9d+ 9 ! granitic di/ricts an unusual numb] ( m\nta9-masses compos$ ( v>i\s intrusive1 porphyritic rocks1 _m ( !m &esitic4 ,"o common v>iety 0 gre5i%-black1 ) l>ge cry/als ( blacki% albite4 ,at ,panuncillo a %ort ,n4,n4,w4 & ,s4,s4,e4 ridge1 ) a nucleus =m$ ( gre5/one & ( a slate-col\r$ porphyry includ+ cry/als ( glassy feldsp>1 des]ves notice1 f ! v s+ul> nature ( ! almo/ v]tical /rata compos+ x4 ,^! consi/ *iefly ( a f9] & co>s] granul> mixture1 n v compact1 ( :ite c>bonate ( lime1 ( protoxide ( iron & ( yell[i% g>nets 7asc]ta9$ by ,pr(essor ,mill]71 ea* gra9 be+ an almo/ p]fect cry/al4 ,"s ( ! v>ieties consi/ exclusively ( granules ( ! calc>e\s sp>2 & "s conta9 gra9s ( copp] ore1 &1 ,i believe1 ( qu>tz4 ,^! /rata alt]nate ) a blui%1 compact1 fusible1 feldspa?ic rock4 ,mu* ( ! above granul> mixture has1 also1 a pseudo-brecciat$ /ructure1 9 :i* fragm5ts are obscurely arrang$ 9 planes p>allel to ^? ( ! /ratification1 & are conspicu\s on ! wea!r$ surfaces4 ,! fragm5ts are angul> or r\nd$1 small or l>ge1 & consi/ ( blui% or r$di% compact feldspa?ic matt]1 9 :i* a few acicul> cry/als ( feldsp> c sometimes be se54 ,! fragm5ts (t5 bl5d at _! edges into ! surr\nd+ granul> mass1 & seem due to a k9d ( concretion>y action4 ,^! s+ul> rocks are trav]s$ by _m copp] ve9s1 & appe> to re/ con=mably on ! granul> mixture 79 p>ts z f9e-gra9$ z a s&/one7 ( qu>tz1 mica1 hornbl5de1 & feldsp>2 & ?is on f9e-gra9$1 common gneiss2 & ?is on a lam9at$ mass1 compos$ ( p9ki% or?itic feldsp>1 includ+ a few specks ( hornbl5de2 & la/ly1 ?is on granite1 :i* toge!r ) &esitic rocks1 =m ! surr\nd+ di/rict4 ,coquimbo3 ,m9+ di/rict ( ,arqu]os4--,at ,coquimbo ! porphyritic conglom]ate =mation approa*es ne>] to ! ,pacific ?an 9 any o!r "p ( ,*ile visit$ by me1 be+ sep>at$ f ! coa/ by a tract only a few miles broad ( ! usual plutonic rocks1 ) ! addition ( a porphyry hav+ a r$ euritic base4 ,9 proce$+ to ! m9es ( ,arqu]os1 ! /rata ( porphyritic conglom]ate are at fir/ ne>ly horizontal1 an unusual circum/ance1 & aft]w>ds !y dip g5tly to ,s4,s4,e4 ,aft] hav+ asc5d$ to a consid]able height1 we come to an undulatory di/rict 9 :i* ! fam\s silv] m9es are situat$2 my exam9ation 0 *iefly conf9$ to ^? ( ,s4 ,rosa4 ,mo/ ( ! rocks 9 ?is di/rict are /ratifi$1 dipp+ 9 v>i\s directions1 & _m ( !m are ( s s+ul> a nature1 t at ! risk ( be+ t$i\s ,i mu/ briefly describe !m4 ,! commone/ v>iety is a dull-r$1 compact1 f9ely brecciat$ /one1 conta9+ mu* iron & innum]able :ite cry/allis$ p>ticles ( c>bonate ( lime1 & m9ute extrane\s fragm5ts4 ,ano!r v>iety is almo/ equally common ne> ,s4 ,rosa2 x has a bright gre51 scanty basis1 includ+ di/9ct cry/als & pat*es ( :ite c>bonate ( lime1 & gra9s ( r$1 semi-micace\s oxide ( iron2 9 p>ts ! basis becomes d>k gre51 & assumes an obscure cry/all9e arrangem5t1 & occasionally 9 p>ts x becomes s(t & slightly transluc5t l soap/one4 ,^! r$ & gre5 rocks are (t5 q di/9ct1 & (t5 pass into ea* o!r2 ! passage be+ sometimes affect$ by a f9e brecciat$ /ructure1 p>ticles ( ! r$ & gre5 matt] be+ m+l$ toge!r4 ,"s ( ! v>ieties appe> gradually to become porphyritic ) feldsp>2 & all ( !m are easily fusible into pale or d>k-col\r$ beads1 /rongly attract$ by ! magnet4 ,i %\ld p]haps h mi/ak5 sev]al ( ^! /ratifi$ rocks = subm>9e lavas1 l "s ( ^? describ$ at ! ,pu5te del ,inca1 _h ,i n exam9$1 a few leagues ea/w>d ( ?is po9t1 a f9e s]ies ( analog\s b less metamorphos$1 s$im5t>y b$s belong+ to ! gypse\s =mation1 & probably d]iv$ f a volcanic s\rce4 ,?is =mation is int]sect$ by num]\s metallif]\s ve9s1 runn+1 ?\gh irregul>ly1 ,n4,w4 & ,s4,e41 & g5]ally at "r angles to ! _m dikes4 ,! ve9s consi/ ( native silv]1 ( muriate ( silv]1 an amalgam ( silv]1 cobalt1 antimony1 & ars5ic1#a g5]ally emb$d$ 9 sulphate ( b>ytes4 ,i 0 assur$ by ,mr4 ,lamb]t1 t native copp] )\t a trace ( silv] has be5 f\nd 9 ! same ve9 ) native silv] )\t a trace ( copp]4 ,at ! m9es ( ,ari/eas1 ! silv] ve9s are said to be unproductive z soon z !y pass into ! gre5 /rata1 :]eas at ,s4 ,rosa1 only two or ?ree miles di/ant1 ! rev]se happ5s2 & at ! "t ( my visit1 ! m9]s 7 work+ ?r\gh a r$ /ratum1 9 ! hope ( ! ve9 becom+ productive 9 ! und]ly+ gre5 s$im5t>y mass4 ,i h a specim5 ( "o ( ^! gre5 rocks1 ) ! usual granules ( :ite calc>e\s sp> & r$ oxide ( iron1 ab\nd+ ) dissem9at$ p>ticles ( glitt]+ native & muriate ( silv]1 yet tak5 at ! di/ance ( "o y>d f any ve91--a circum/ance1 z ,i 0 assur$1 ( v r>e occurr5ce4 #a ,see ! ,report on ,m4 ,domeyko's acc\nt ( ^? m9es1 9 ! 8,comptes ,r5dus10 tome xiv1 p4 #efj4 ,section ea/w>d1 up ! ,valley ( ,coquimbo4--,aft] pass+ = a few miles ov] ! coa/ granitic s]ies1 we come to ! porphyritic conglom]ate1 ) its usual *>act]s1 & ) "s ( ! b$s di/9ctly display+ _! me*anical orig94 ,! /rata1 :]e fir/ met )1 are1 z be=e /at$1 only slightly incl9$2 b ne> ! ,haci5da ( ,plucl>o1 we come to an anticl9al axis1 ) ! b$s mu* dislocat$ & %ift$ by a great fault1 ( :i* n a trace is ext]nally se5 9 ! outl9e ( ! hill4 ,i believe t ?is anticl9al axis c be trac$ nor?w>ds1 into ! di/rict ( ,arqu]os1 :]e a conspicu\s hill call$ ,c]ro ,blanco1 =m$ ( a h>%1 cream-col\r$ euritic rock1 includ+ a few cry/als ( r$di% feldsp>1 & associat$ ) "s purpli% clay/one porphyry1 seems to fall on a l9e ( elevation4 ,9 desc5d+ f ! ,arqu]os di/rict1 ,i cross$ on ! nor!rn bord] ( ! valley1 /rata incl9$ ea/w>d f ! ,plucl>o axis3 on ! porphyritic conglom]ate !re re/$ a mass1 "s hundr$ feet ?ick1 ( br[n argillace\s lime/one1 9 p>ts cry/all9e1 & 9 p>ts almo/ compos$ ( ,hippurites ,*il5sis1 d',orbigny2 above ?is came a black calc>e\s %ale1 & on x a r$ conglom]ate4 ,9 ! br[n lime/one1 ) ! ,hippurites1 !re 0 an impression ( a ,pect5 & a coral1 & great numb]s ( a l>ge ,grypha1 v l1 &1 accord+ to ,pr(essor ,e4 ,=bes1 probably id5tical ) ,g4 ,ori5talis1 ,=bes ,,ms41--a cretace\s species 7probably upp] gre5s&7 f ,v]da*ellum1 9 ,s\!rn ,india4 ,^! fossils seem to occupy ne>ly ! same position ) ^? at ! ,pu5te del ,inca1--namely1 at ! top ( ! porphyritic conglom]ate1 & at ! base ( ! gypse\s =mation4 ,a little above ! ,haci5da ( ,plucl>o1 ,i made a det\r on ! nor!rn side ( ! valley1 to exam9e ! sup]9cumb5t gypse\s /rata1 :i* ,i e/imat$ at #f1jjj feet 9 ?ickness4 ,! upp]mo/ b$s ( ! porphyritic conglom]ate1 on :i* ! gypse\s /rata con=mably re/1 are v>i\sly col\r$1 ) "o v s+ul> & beautiful /ratum compos$ ( purple pebbles ( v>i\s k9ds ( porphyry1 emb$d$ 9 :ite calc>e\s sp>1 includ+ cavities l9$ ) bright-gre5 cry/allis$ epidote4 ,! :ole pile ( /rata belong+ to bo? =mations is incl9$1 app>5tly f ! above-m5tion$ axis ( ,plucl>o1 at an angle ( betwe5 #bj & #cj degrees to ! ea/4 ,i w "h give a section ( ! pr9cipal b$s met ) 9 cross+ ! entire ?ickness ( ! gypse\s /rata4 ,fir/ly3 above ! porphyritic conglom]ate =mation1 !re is a f9e-gra9$1 r$1 cry/all9e s&/one4 ,secondly3 a ?ick mass ( smoo?-gra9$1 calc>eo-alum9\s1 %aly rock1 (t5 m>k$ ) d5dritic manganese1 & hav+1 :]e mo/ compact1 ! ext]nal appe>ance ( hone/one4 ,x is easily fusible4 ,i %all = ! future1 = conv5i5ce' sake1 call ?is v>iety pseudo-hone/one4 ,"s ( ! v>ieties are q black :5 fre%ly brok51 b all wea!r into a yell[i%-a% col\r$1 s(t1 e>?y sub/ance1 precisely z is ! case ) ! compact %aly rocks ( ! ,peuqu5es range4 ,?is /ratum is ( ! same g5]al nature ) _m ( ! b$s ne> ,los ,hornos 9 ! ,illapel section4 ,9 ?is second b$1 or 9 ! und]ly+ r$ s&/one 7= ! surface 0 p>tially conceal$ by detritus71 !re 0 a ?ick mass ( gypsum1 hav+ ! same m9]alogical *>act]s ) ! great b$s describ$ 9 our sections across ! ,cordill]a4 ,?irdly3 a ?ick /ratum ( f9e-gra9$1 r$1 s$im5t>y matt]1 easily fusible into a :ite glass1 l ! basis ( clay/one porphyry2 b 9 p>ts jasp]y1 9 p>ts brecciat$1 & includ+ cry/all9e specks ( c>bonate ( lime4 ,9 "s ( ! jasp]y lay]s1 & 9 "s ( ! black silice\s slaty b&s1 !re 7 irregul> seams ( imp]fect pit*/one1 und\bt$ly ( metamorphic orig91 & o!r seams ( br[n1 cry/all9e lime/one4 ,"h1 also1 7 masses1 ext]nally resembl+ ill-pres]v$ silicifi$ wood4 ,f\r?ly & fif?ly3 calc>e\s pseudo-hone/one2 & a ?ick /ratum conceal$ by detritus4 ,six?ly3 a ?9ly /ratifi$ mass ( bright gre51 compact1 smoo?-gra9$1 calc>eo-argillace\s /one1 easily fusible1 & emitt+ a /rong alum9\s od\r3 ! :ole has a highly angulo-concretion>y /ructure2 & x resembles1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 "s ( ! upp] tufaceo-infusorial deposits ( ! ,patagonian t]ti>y =mation4 ,x is 9 its nature alli$ to our pseudo-hone/one1 & x includes well *>act]is$ lay]s ( t v>iety2 & o!r lay]s ( a pale gre51 h>d]1 & brecciat$ v>iety2 & o!rs ( r$ s$im5t>y matt]1 l t ( b$ ,?ree4 ,"s pebbles ( porphyries are emb$d$ 9 ! upp] "p4 ,sev5?ly3 r$ s$im5t>y matt] or s&/one l t ( b$ ,"o1 sev]al hundr$ feet 9 ?ickness1 & includ+ jasp]y lay]s1 (t5 hav+ a f9ely brecciat$ /ructure4 ,eigh?ly3 :ite1 mu* indurat$1 almo/ cry/all9e tuff1 sev]al hundr$ feet 9 ?ickness1 includ+ r\nd$ gra9s ( qu>tz & p>ticles ( gre5 matt] l t ( b$ ,six4 ,p>ts pass into a v pale gre51 semi-porcellanic /one4 ,n9?ly3 r$ or br[n co>se conglom]ate1 ?ree or f\r hundr$ feet ?ick1 =m$ *iefly ( pebbles ( porphyries1 ) volcanic p>ticles1 9 an ar5ace\s1 non-calc>e\s1 fusible basis3 ! upp] two feet are ar5ace\s )\t any pebbles4 ,t5?ly3 ! la/ & upp]mo/ /ratum "h exhibit$1 is a compact1 slate-col\r$ porphyry1 ) num]\s elongat$ cry/als ( glassy feldsp>1 f "o hundr$ & fifty to two hundr$ feet 9 ?ickness2 x lies /rictly con=mably on ! und]ly+ conglom]ate1 & is und\bt$ly a subm>9e lava4 ,?is great pile ( /rata has be5 brok5 up 9 sev]al places by intrusive hillocks ( purple clay/one porphyry1 & by dikes ( porphyritic gre5/one3 x is said t a few poor metallif]\s ve9s h be5 discov]$ "h4 ,f ! fusible nature & g5]al appe>ance ( ! f9]-gra9$ /rata1 !y probably owe _! orig9 7l ! alli$ b$s ( ! ,uspallata range1 & ( ! ,upp] ,patagonian t]ti>y =mations71 to g5tle volcanic eruptions1 & to ! abrasion ( volcanic rocks4 ,comp>+ ^! b$s ) ^? 9 ! m9+ di/rict ( ,arqu]os1 we see at bo? places rocks easily fusible1 ( ! same peculi> bright gre5 & r$ col\rs1 conta9+ calc>e\s matt]1 (t5 hav+ a f9ely brecciat$ /ructure1 (t5 pass+ into ea* o!r1 & (t5 alt]nat+ toge!r3 h5ce ,i _c d\bt t ! only diff]5ce betwe5 !m1 lies 9 ! ,arqu]os b$s hav+ be5 m metamorphos$ 79 con=mity ) _! m dislocat$ & inject$ condition71 & consequ5tly 9 ! calc>e\s matt]1 oxide ( iron & gre5 col\r+ matt]1 hav+ be5 segregat$ "u a m cry/all9e =m4 ,! /rata are incl9$1 z be=e /at$1 f #bj to #cj ea/w>d1 t[>ds an irregul> nor? & s\? *a9 ( &esitic porphyry & ( porphyritic gre5/one1 :]e !y are abruptly cut (f4 ,9 ! valley ( ,coquimbo1 ne> to ! ,h4 ( ,gualliguaca1 simil> plutonic rocks are met )1 app>5tly a s\!rn prolongation ( ! above *a92 & ea/w>d ( x we h an esc>pm5t ( ! porphyritic conglom]ate1 ) ! /rata incl9$ at a small angle ea/w>d1 :i* makes ! ?ird esc>pm5t1 includ+ t ne>e/ ! coa/4 ,proce$+ up ! valley we come to ano!r nor? & s\? l9e ( granite1 &esite1 & blacki% porphyry1 :i* seem to lie 9 an irregul> tr\gh ( ! porphyritic conglom]ate4 ,aga91 on ! s\? side ( ! ,r4 ,cl>o1 !re are "s irregul> granitic hills1 :i* h ?r[n (f ! /rata ( porphyritic conglom]ate to ! ,n4,w4 by ,w42 b ! /ratification "h has be5 mu* di/urb$4 ,i did n proce$ any f>!r up ! valley1 & ?is po9t is ab\t two-?irds ( ! di/ance betwe5 ! ,pacific & ! ma9 ,cordill]a4 ,i w describe only "o o!r section1 namely1 on ! nor? side ( ! ,r4 ,cl>o1 :i* is int]e/+ f conta9+ fossils3 ! /rata are mu* dislocat$ by faults & dikes1 & are incl9$ to ! nor?1 t[>ds a m\nta9 ( &esite & porphyry1 into :i* !y appe> to become almo/ bl5d$4 ,z ! b$s approa* ?is m\nta91 _! incl9ation increases up to an angle ( #gj1 & 9 ! upp] "p1 ! rocks become highly metamorphos$4 ,! l[e/ b$ visible 9 ?is section1 is a purpli% h>d s&/one4 ,secondly1 a b$ two or ?ree hundr$ feet ?ick1 ( a :ite silice\s s&/one1 ) a calc>e\s cem5t1 conta9+ seams ( slaty s&/one1 & ( h>d yell[i%-br[n 7dolomitic87 lime/one2 num]\s1 well-r\nd$1 little pebbles ( qu>tz are includ$ 9 ! s&/one4 ,?irdly1 a d>k col\r$ lime/one ) "s qu>tz pebbles1 f fifty to sixty feet 9 ?ickness1 conta9+ num]\s silicifi$ %ells1 pres5tly to be enum]at$4 ,f\r?ly1 v compact1 calc>e\s1 jasp]y s&/one1 pass+ into 7fif?ly7 a great b$1 sev]al hundr$ feet ?ick1 ( conglom]ate1 compos$ ( pebbles ( :ite1 r$1 & purple porphyries1 ( s&/one & qu>tz1 cem5t$ by calc>e\s matt]4 ,i obs]v$ t "s ( ! f9] p>ts ( ?is conglom]ate 7 mu* indurat$ )9 a foot ( a dike eight feet 9 wid?1 & 7 r5d]$ ( a pal] col\r ) ! calc>e\s matt] segregat$ into :ite cry/allis$ p>ticles2 "s p>ts 7 /a9$ gre5 f ! col\r+ matt] ( ! dike4 ,six?ly1 a ?ick mass1 obscurely /ratifi$1 ( a r$ s$im5t>y /one or s&/one1 full ( cry/all9e calc>e\s matt]1 imp]fect cry/als ( oxide ( iron1 & ,i believe ( feldsp>1 & !re=e closely resembl+ "s ( ! highly metamorphos$ b$s at ,arqu]os3 ?is b$ 0 capp$ by1 & appe>$ to pass 9 its upp] "p into1 rocks simil>ly col\r$1 conta9+ calc>e\s matt]1 & ab\nd+ ) m9ute cry/als1 mo/ly elongat$ & glassy1 ( r$di% albite4 ,sev5?ly1 a con=mable /ratum ( f9e r$di% porphyry ) l>ge cry/als ( 7albitic87 feldsp>2 probably a subm>9e lava4 ,eigh?ly1 ano!r con=mable b$ ( gre5 porphyry1 ) specks ( gre5 e>? & cream-col\r$ cry/als ( feldsp>4 ,i believe t !re are o!r sup]9cumb5t cry/all9e /rata & subm>9e lavas1 b ,i _h n "t to exam9e !m4 ,! upp] b$s 9 ?is section probably correspond ) p>ts ( ! great gypse\s =mation2 & ! l[] b$s ( r$ s&/one conglom]ate & fossilif]\s lime/one no d\bt are ! equival5ts ( ! ,hippurite /ratum1 se5 9 desc5d+ f ,arqu]os to ,plucl>o1 :i* !re lies con=mably ^u ! porphyritic conglom]ate =mation4 ,! fossils f\nd 9 ! ?ird b$1 consi/ (3-- ,pect5 ,dufreynoyi1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage1 ,"p ,pal40 ,?is species1 :i* occurs "h 9 va/ numb]s1 accord+ to ,m4 ,d',orbigny1 resembles c]ta9 cretace\s =ms4 ,o/rea hemisph]ica1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage0 etc4 ,also resembles1 accord+ to ! same au?or1 cretace\s =ms4 ,t]ebratula nigma1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage0 etc4 7,pl4 ,,xxii1 ,figs4 #aj-ab47 ,is alli$1 accord+ to ,m4 d',orbigny1 to ,t4 conc9na f ! ,=e/ ,m>ble4 ,a s]ies ( ?is species1 collect$ 9 sev]al localities h]eaft] to be ref]r$ to1 has be5 laid be=e ,pr(essor ,=bes2 & he in=ms me t _m ( ! specim5s are almo/ undi/+ui%able f our oolitic ,t4 tetrdra1 & t ! v>ieties among/ !m are su* z are f\nd 9 t v>iable species4 ,g5]ally speak+1 ! ,am]ican specim5s ( ,t4 nigma may be di/+ui%$ f ! ,briti% ,t4 tetrdra1 by ! surface hav+ ! ribs %>p & well-def9$ to ! beak1 :il/ 9 ! ,briti% species !y become obsolete & smoo!d d[n2 b ?is diff]5ce is n con/ant4 ,pr(essor ,=bes adds1 t1 possibly1 int]nal *>act]s may exi/1 :i* w\ld di/+ui% ! ,am]ican species f its ,european allies4 ,spirif] l+uif]oides1 ,e4 ,=bes4 ,pr(essor ,=bes /ates t ?is species is v ne> to ,s4 l+uif]a ( ,phillips 7a c>bonif]\s lime/one fossil71 b probably di/9ct4 ,m4 d',orbigny consid]s x z p]haps indicat+ ! ,jurassic p]iod4 ,ammonites1 imp]fect impression (4 ,m4 ,domeyko has s5t to ,france a collection ( fossils1 :i*1 ,i presume1 f ! description giv51 mu/ h come f ! neighb\rhood ( ,arqu]os2 !y consi/ (3-- ,pect5 ,dufreynoyi1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage0 ,"p ,pal4 ,o/rea hemisph]ica1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage0 ,"p ,pal4 ,turritella ,&ii1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage0 ,"p ,pal4 7,pleurotom>ia ,humboldtii ( ,von ,bu*74 ,hippurites ,*il5sis1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage0 ,"p ,pal4 ,! specim5s ( ?is ,hippurite1 z well z ^? ,i collect$ 9 my desc5t f ,arqu]os1 are v imp]fect2 b 9 ,m4 d',orbigny's op9ion !y resemble1 z does ! ,turritella ,&ii1 cretace\s 7upp] gre5s&7 =ms4 ,nautilus ,domeykus1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage0 ,"p ,pal4 ,t]ebratula nigma1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage0 ,"p ,pal4 ,t]ebratula ignaciana1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage0 ,"p ,pal4 ,?is latt] species 0 f\nd by ,m4 ,domeyko 9 ! same block ( lime/one ) ! ,t4 nigma4 ,accord+ to ,m4 d',orbigny1 x comes ne> to ,t4 orni?ocephala f ! ,lias4 ,a s]ies ( ?is species collect$ at ,guasco1 has be5 exam9$ by ,pr(essor ,e4 ,=bes1 & he /ates t x is difficult to di/+ui% betwe5 "s ( ! specim5s & ! ,t4 ha/ata f ! m\nta9 lime/one2 & t x is equally difficult to draw a l9e betwe5 !m & "s ,m>l/one ,t]ebratul4 ,)\t a k ( ! int]nal /ructure1 x is impossible at pres5t to decide on _! id5tity ) analog\s ,european =ms4 ,! rem>ks giv5 on ! sev]al =ego+ %ells1 %[ t1 9 ,m4 d',orbigny's op9ion1 ! ,pect51 ,o/rea1 ,turritella1 & ,hippurite indicate ! cretace\s p]iod2 & ! ,grypha appe>s to ,pr(essor ,=bes to be id5tical ) a species1 associat$ 9 ,s\!rn ,india ) unque/ionably cretace\s =ms4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! two ,t]ebratul & ! ,spirif] po9t1 9 ! op9ion bo? ( ,m4 d',orbigny & ,pr(essor ,=bes1 to ! oolitic s]ies4 ,h5ce ,m4 d',orbigny1 n hav+ himself exam9$ ?is c\ntry1 has conclud$ t !re are "h two di/9ct =mations2 b ! ,spirif] & ,t4 nigma 7 c]ta9ly includ$ 9 ! same b$ ) ! ,pect5 & ,o/rea1 :5ce ,i extract$ !m2 & ! geologi/ ,m4 ,domeyko s5t home ! two ,t]ebratul ) ! o!r-nam$ %ells1 f ! same locality1 )\t specify+ t !y came f diff]5t b$s4 ,aga91 z we %all pres5tly see1 9 a collection ( %ells giv5 me f ,guasco1 ! same species1 & o!rs pres5t+ analog\s diff]5ces1 are m+l$ toge!r1 & are 9 ! same condition2 & la/ly1 9 ?ree places 9 ! valley ( ,copiapo1 ,i f\nd "s ( ^! same species simil>ly gr\p$4 ,h5ce !re _c be any d\bt1 highly curi\s ?\gh ! fact be1 t ^! sev]al fossils1 namely1 ! ,hippurites1 ,grypha1 ,o/rea1 ,pect51 ,turritella1 ,nautilus1 two ,t]ebratul1 & ,spirif] all belong to ! same =mation1 :i* w\ld appe> to =m a passage betwe5 ! oolitic & cretace\s sy/ems ( ,europe4 ,al?\gh aw>e h[ unusual ! t]m mu/ s\nd1 ,i %all1 = conv5i5ce' sake1 call ?is =mation cretaceo-oolitic4 ,comp>+ ! sections 9 ?is valley ( ,coquimbo ) ^? 9 ! ,cordill]a describ$ 9 ! la/ *apt]1 & be>+ 9 m9d ! "* ( ! b$s 9 ! int]m$iate di/rict ( ,los ,hornos1 !re is c]ta9ly a close g5]al m9]alogical resemblance betwe5 !m1 bo? 9 ! und]ly+ porphyritic conglom]ate1 & 9 ! ov]ly+ gypse\s =mation4 ,consid]+ ?is resemblance1 & t ! fossils f ! ,pu5te del ,inca at ! base ( ! gypse\s =mation1 & ?r\gh\t ! great] "p ( its entire ?ickness on ! ,peuqu5es range1 indicate ! ,neocomian p]iod1--t is1 ! dawn ( ! cretace\s sy/em1 or1 z "s h believ$1 a passage betwe5 ?is latt] & ! oolitic s]ies--,i conclude t probably ! gypse\s & associat$ b$s 9 all ! sections hi!rto describ$1 belong to ! same great =mation1 :i* ,i h d5om9at$--cretaceo-oolitic4 ,i may add1 be=e leav+ ,coquimbo1 t ,m4 ,gay f\nd 9 ! neighb\r+ ,cordill]a1 at ! height ( #ad1jjj feet above ! sea1 a fossilif]\s =mation1 includ+ a ,trigonia & ,pholadomya2#b--;bo? ( :i* g5]a occur at ! ,pu5te del ,inca4 #b ,d',orbigny1 8,voyage10 ,"p ,golog41 p4 #bdb4 ,coquimbo to ,guasco4--,! rocks ne> ! coa/1 & "s way inl&1 d n diff] f ^? describ$ nor?w>ds ( ,valp>aiso3 we h mu* gre5/one1 sy5ite1 feldspa?ic & jasp]y slate1 & grauwackes hav+ a basis l t ( clay/one2 !re are "s l>ge tracts ( granite1 9 :i* ! con/itu5t m9]als are sometimes arrang$ 9 folia1 ?us compos+ an imp]fect gneiss4 ,!re are two l>ge di/ricts ( mica-s*i/s1 pass+ into glossy clay-slate1 & resembl+ ! great =mation 9 ! ,*onos ,ar*ipelago4 ,9 ! valley ( ,guasco1 an esc>pm5t ( porphyritic conglom]ate is fir/ se5 high up ! valley1 ab\t two leagues ea/w>d ( ! t[n ( ,ball5>4 ,i he>d ( a great gypse\s =mation 9 ! ,cordill]a2 & a collection ( %ells made !re 0 giv5 me4 ,^! %ells are all 9 ! same condition1 & appe> to h come f ! same b$3 !y consi/ (3-- ,turritella ,&ii1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage10 ,"p ,pal4 ,pect5 ,dufreynoyi1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage10 ,"p ,pal4 ,t]ebatula ignaciana1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage10 ,"p ,pal4 ,! relations ( ^! species h be5 giv5 "u ! head ( ,coquimbo4 ,t]ebratula nigma1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage10 ,"p ,pal4 ,?is %ell ,m4 d',orbigny does n consid] id5tical ) 8 ,t4 nigma1 b ne> to ,t4 obsoleta4 ,pr(essor ,=bes ?9ks t x is c]ta9ly a v>iety ( ,t4 nigma3 we %all meet ) ?is v>iety aga9 at ,copiapo4 ,spirif] ,*il5sis1 ,e4 ,=bes4 ,pr(essor ,=bes rem>ks t ?is fossil resembles sev]al c>bonif]\s lime/one ,spirif]s2 & t x is also relat$ to "s liassic species1 z ,s4 ,wolcotii4 ,if ^! %ells _h be5 exam9$ indep5d5tly ( ! o!r collections1 !y w\ld probably h be5 consid]$1 f ! *>act]s ( ! two ,t]ebratul1 & f ! ,spirif]1 z oolitic2 b consid]+ t ! fir/ species1 & accord+ to ,pr(essor ,=bes1 ! f\r fir/1 are id5tical ) ^? f ,coquimbo1 ! two =mations no d\bt are ! same1 & may1 z ,i h said1 be provisionally call$ cretaceo-oolitic4 ,valley ( ,copiapo4--,! j\rney f ,guasco to ,copiapo1 ow+ to ! utt]ly des]t nature ( ! c\ntry1 0 necess>ily s hurri$1 t ,i d n consid] my notes wor? giv+4 ,9 ! valley ( ,copiapo "s ( ! sections are v int]e/+4 ,f ! sea to ! t[n ( ,copiapo1 a di/ance e/imat$ at ?irty miles1 ! m\nta9s are compos$ ( gre5/one1 granite1 &esite1 & blacki% porphyry1 toge!r ) "s dusky-gre5 feldspa?ic rocks1 :i* ,i believe to be alt]$ clay-slate3 ^! m\nta9s are cross$ by _m br[n-col\r$ dikes1 runn+ nor? & s\?4 ,above ! t[n1 ! ma9 valley runs 9 a s\?-ea/ & ev5 m s\!rly c\rse t[>ds ! ,cordill]a1 :]e x is divid$ into ?ree great rav9es1 by ! nor!rn "o ( :i*1 call$ ,jolqu]a1 ,i p5etrat$ = a %ort di/ance4 ,! section1 ,fig4 #c 9 ,plate ,v1 gives an eye-sket* ( ! /ructure & composition ( ! m\nta9s on bo? sides ( ?is valley3 a /raight ea/ & we/ l9e f ! t[n to ! ,cordill]a is p]haps n m ?an ?irty miles1 b along ! valley ! di/ance is mu* great]4 ,:]ev] ! valley tr5d$ v s\!rly1 ,i h endeav\r$ to contract ! section into its true proportion4 ,?is valley1 ,i may add1 rises mu* m g5tly ?an any o!r valley :i* ,i saw 9 ,*ile4 ,to comm5ce ) our section1 = a %ort di/ance above ! t[n we h hills ( ! granitic s]ies1 toge!r ) "s ( t rock ,a1 :i* ,i suspect to be alt]$ clay-slate1 b :i* ,pr(essor ,g4 ,rose1 judg+ f specim5s collect$ by ,mey5 at ,p4 ,negro1 /ates is s]p5t9e pass+ into gre5/one4 ,we !n come sudd5ly to ! great gypse\s =mation ,b1 )\t hav+ pass$ ov]1 diff]5tly f1 9 all ! sections hi!rto describ$1 any ( ! porphyritic conglom]ate4 ,! /rata are at fir/ ei!r horizontal or g5tly incl9$ we/w>d2 !n highly incl9$ 9 v>i\s directions1 & contort$ by und]ly+ masses ( intrusive rocks2 & la/ly1 !y h a regul> ea/w>d dip1 & =m a tol]ably well pron\nc$ nor? & s\? l9e ( hills4 ,?is =mation consi/s ( ?9 /rata1 ) innum]able alt]nations1 ( black1 calc>e\s slate-rock1 ( calc>eo-alum9\s /ones l ^? at ,coquimbo1 :i* ,i h call$ pseudo-hone/ones ( gre5 jasp]y lay]s1 & ( pale-purpli%1 calc>e\s1 s(t rott5-/one1 includ+ seams & ve9s ( gypsum4 ,^! /rata are con=mably ov]laid by a great ?ickness ( ?9ly /ratifi$1 compact lime/one ) includ$ cry/als ( c>bonate ( lime4 ,at a place call$ ,ti]ra ,am>illa1 at ! foot ( a m\nta9 ?us compos$ !re is a broad ve91 or p]haps /ratum1 ( a beautiful & curi\s cry/allis$ mixture1 compos$1 accord+ to ,pr(essor ,g4 ,rose1#c ( sulphate ( iron "u two =ms1 & ( ! sulphates ( copp] & alum9a3 ! section is s obscure t ,i c\ld n make out :e!r ?is ve9 or /ratum occurr$ 9 ! gypse\s =mation1 or m probably 9 "s und]ly+ masses ,a1 :i* ,i believe are alt]$ clay-slate4 #c ,mey5's 8,reise10 etc41 ,?4 ,i1 s4 #cid4 ,second axis ( elevation4--,aft] ! gypse\s masses ,b1 we come to a l9e ( hills ( un/ratifi$ porphyry ,c1 :i* on _! ea/]n side bl5d into /rata ( great ?ickness ( porphyritic conglom]ate1 dipp+ ea/w>d4 ,?is latt] =mation1 h[ev]1 "h has n be5 ne>ly s mu* metamorphos$ z 9 mo/ p>ts ( ,c5tral ,*ile2 x is compos$ ( b$s ( true purple clay/one porphyry1 repeat$ly alt]nat+ ) ?ick b$s ( purpli%-r$ conglom]ate ) ! well-r\nd$1 l>ge pebbles ( v>i\s porphyries1 n bl5d$ toge!r4 ,?ird axis ( elevation4--,ne> ! rav9e ( ,los ,hornitos1 !re is a well-m>k$ l9e ( elevation1 ext5d+ = _m miles 9 a ,n4,n4,e4 & ,s4,s4,w4 direction1 ) ! /rata dipp+ 9 mo/ p>ts 7z 9 ! second axis7 only 9 "o direction1 namely1 ea/w>d at an av]age angle ( betwe5 #cj & #dj4 ,close to ! m\? ( ! valley1 h[ev]1 !re is1 z repres5t$ 9 ! section1 a /eep & high m\nta9 ,d1 compos$ ( v>i\s gre5 & br[n intrusive porphyries envelop$ ) /rata1 app>5tly belong+ to ! upp] p>ts ( ! porphyritic conglom]ate1 & dipp+ bo? ea/w>d & we/w>d4 ,i w describe ! section se5 on ! ea/]n side ( ?is m\nta9 ,d1 beg9n+ at ! base ) ! l[e/ b$ visible 9 ! porphyritic conglom]ate1 & proce$+ upw>ds ?r\gh ! gypse\s =mation4 ,b$ #a consi/s ( r$di% & br[ni% porphyry v>y+ 9 "*1 & 9 _m p>ts highly amygdaloidal ) c>bonate ( lime1 & ) bright gre5 & br[n bole4 ,its upp] surface is ?r\gh\t cle>ly def9$1 b ! l[] surface is 9 mo/ p>ts indi/9ct1 & t[>ds ! summit ( ! m\nta9 ,d q bl5d$ into ! intrusive porphyries4 ,b$ #b1 a pale lilac1 h>d b n heavy /one1 slightly lam9at$1 includ+ small extrane\s fragm5ts1 & imp]fect z well z "s p]fect & glassy cry/als ( feldsp>2 f "o hundr$ & fifty to two hundr$ feet 9 ?ickness4 ,:5 exam9+ x 9 situ1 ,i ?\ght x 0 c]ta9ly a true porphyry1 b my specim5s n[ lead me to suspect t x possibly may be a metamorphos$ tuff4 ,f its col\r x c\ld be trac$ = a long di/ance1 ov]ly+ 9 "o "p1 q con=mably to ! porphyry ( b$ #a1 & 9 ano!r n di/ant "p1 a v ?ick mass ( conglom]ate1 compos$ ( pebbles ( a porphyry *iefly l t ( b$ #a3 ?is fact %[s h[ ! nature ( ! bottom =m]ly v>i$ 9 %ort horizontal di/ances4 ,b$ #c1 :ite1 mu* indurat$ tuff1 conta9+ m9ute pebbles1 brok5 cry/als1 & scales ( mica1 v>ies mu* 9 ?ickness4 ,?is b$ is rem>kable f conta9+ _m globul> & pe>-%ap$1 ext]nally ru/y balls1 f ! size ( an apple to a man's head1 ( v t\gh1 slate-col\r$ porphyry1 ) imp]fect cry/als ( feldsp>3 9 %ape ^! balls d n resemble pebbles1 & i believe t !y are subaque\s volcanic bombs2 !y diff] f suba]ial bombs only 9 n be+ vesicul>4 ,b$ #d2 a dull purpli%-r$1 h>d conglom]ate1 ) cry/allis$ p>ticles & ve9s ( c>bonate ( lime1 f ?ree hundr$ to f\r hundr$ feet 9 ?ickness4 ,! pebbles are ( clay/one porphyries ( _m v>ieties2 !y are tol]ably well r\nd$1 & v>y 9 size f a l>ge apple to a man's head4 ,?is b$ includes ?ree lay]s ( co>se1 black1 calc>e\s1 some:at slaty rock3 ! upp] "p passes into a compact r$ s&/one4 ,9 a =mation s highly v>iable 9 m9]alogical nature1 any division n f\nd$ on fossil rema9s1 mu/ be extremely arbitr>y3 nev]!less1 ! b$s bel[ ! la/ conglom]ate may1 9 accordance ) all ! sections hi!rto describ$1 be consid]$ z belong+ to ! porphyritic conglom]ate1 & ^? above x to ! gypse\s =mation1 m>k$ ,e 9 ! section4 ,! "p ( ! valley 9 :i* ! foll[+ b$s are se5 is ne> ,potr]o ,seco4 ,b$ #e1 compact1 f9e-gra9$1 pale gre5i%-grey1 non-calc>e\s1 indurat$ mud/one1 easily fusible into a pale gre5 & :ite glass4 ,b$ #f1 purpli%1 co>se-gra9$1 h>d s&/one1 ) brok5 cry/als ( feldsp> & cry/allis$ p>ticles ( c>bonate ( lime2 x possesses a slightly nodul> /ructure4 ,b$ #g1 blacki%-grey1 mu* indurat$1 calc>e\s mud/one1 ) extrane\s p>ticles ( unequal size2 ! :ole be+ 9 p>ts f9ely brecciat$4 ,9 ?is mass !re is a /ratum1 tw5ty feet 9 ?ickness1 ( impure gypsum4 ,b$ #h1 a gre5i% mud/one1 ) sev]al lay]s ( gypsum4 ,b$ #i1 a highly indurat$1 easily fusible1 :ite tuff1 ?ickly mottl$ ) f]rug9\s matt]1 & includ+ "s :ite semi-porcellanic lay]s1 :i* are int]lac$ ) f]rug9\s ve9s4 ,?is /one closely resembles "s ( ! commone/ v>ieties 9 ! ,uspallata *a94 ,b$ #aj1 a ?ick b$ ( r bright gre51 indurat$ mud/one or tuff1 ) a concretion>y nodul> /ructure s /rongly develop$ t ! :ole mass consi/s ( balls4 ,i w n attempt to e/imate ! ?ickness ( ! /rata 9 ! gypse\s =mation hi!rto describ$1 b x mu/ c]ta9ly be v _m hundr$ feet4 ,b$ #aa is at lea/ #hjj feet 9 ?ickness3 x consi/s ( ?9 lay]s ( :iti%1 gre5i%1 or m commonly br[n1 f9e-gra9$1 indurat$ tuffs1 :i* crumble into angul> fragm5ts3 "s ( ! lay]s are semi-porcellanic1 _m ( !m highly f]rug9\s1 & "s are almo/ compos$ ( c>bonate ( lime & iron ) drusy cavities l9$ ) qu>tzf-cry/als4 ,b$ #ab1 dull purpli% or gre5i% or d>k-grey1 v compact & mu* indurat$ mud/one3 e/imat$ at #a1ejj feet 9 ?ickness3 9 "s p>ts ?is rock assumes ! "* ( an imp]fect co>se clay-slate2 b view$ "u a l5s1 ! basis always has a mottl$ appe>ance1 ) ! edges ( ! m9ute compon5t p>ticles bl5d+ toge!r4 ,p>ts are calc>e\s1 & !re are num]\s ve9s ( highly cry/all9e c>bonate ( lime *>g$ ) iron4 ,! mass has a nodul> /ructure1 & is divid$ by only a few planes ( /ratification3 !re are1 h[ev]1 two lay]s1 ea* ab\t eighte5 in*es ?ick1 ( a d>k br[n1 f9]-gra9$ /one1 hav+ a con*oidal1 semi-porcellanic fracture1 :i* c be foll[$ ) ! eye = "s miles across ! c\ntry4 ,i believe ?is la/ great b$ is cov]$ by o!r ne>ly simil> alt]nations2 b ! section is "h obscur$ by a tilt f ! next porphyritic *a91 pres5tly to be describ$4 ,i h giv5 ?is section 9 detail1 z be+ illu/rative ( ! g5]al "* ( ! m\nta9s 9 ?is neighb\rhood2 b x mu/ n be suppos$ t any "o /ratum long pres]ves ! same "*4 ,at a di/ance ( betwe5 only two & ?ree miles ! gre5 mud/ones & :ite indurat$ tuffs are to a great ext5t replac$ by r$ s&/one & black calc>e\s %aly rocks1 alt]nat+ toge!r4 ,! :ite indurat$ tuff1 b$ #aa1 "h conta9s little or no gypsum1 :]eas on ! nor!rn & opposite side ( ! valley1 x is ( mu* great] ?ickness & ab\nds ) lay]s ( gypsum1 "s ( !m alt]nat+ ) ?9 seams ( cry/all9e c>bonate ( lime4 ,! upp]mo/1 d>k-col\r$1 h>d mud/one1 b$ #ab1 is 9 ?is neighb\rhood ! mo/ con/ant /ratum4 ,! :ole s]ies diff]s to a consid]able ext5t1 especially 9 its upp] "p1 f t met ) at ,,bb1 9 ! l[] "p ( ! valley2 nev]!less1 ,i d n d\bt t !y are equival5ts4 ,f\r? axis ( elevation 7,valley ( ,copiapo74--,?is axis is =m$ ( a *a9 ( m\nta9s ,f1 ( :i* ! c5tral masses 7ne> ,la ,punta7 consi/ ( &esite conta9+ gre5 hornbl5de & copp]y mica1 & ! out] masses ( gre5i% & black porphyries1 toge!r ) "s f9e lilac-col\r$ clay/one porphyry2 all ^! porphyries be+ inject$ & brok5 up by small hummocks ( &esite4 ,! c5tral great mass ( ?is latt] rock1 is cov]$ on ! ea/]n side by a black1 f9e-gra9$1 highly micace\s slate1 :i*1 toge!r ) ! succe$+ m\nta9s ( porphyry1 are trav]s$ by num]\s :ite dikes1 bran*+ f ! &esite1 & "s ( !m ext5d+ 9 /raight l9es1 to a di/ance ( at lea/ two miles4 ,! m\nta9s ( porphyry ea/w>d ( ! micace\s s*i/ soon1 b gradually1 assume 7z obs]v$ 9 s _m o!r cases7 a /ratifi$ /ructure1 & c !n be recognis$ z a "p ( ! porphyritic conglom]ate =mation4 ,^! /rata ,g are incl9$ at a high angle to ! ,s4,e41 & =m a mass f fifte5 hundr$ to two ?\s& feet 9 ?ickness4 ,! gypse\s masses to ! we/ already describ$1 dip directly t[>ds ?is axis1 ) ! /rata only 9 a few places 7"o ( :i* is repres5t$ 9 ! section7 ?r[n f x3 h5ce ?is f\r? axis is ma9ly unicl9al t[>ds ! ,s4,e41 & j l our ?ird axis1 only locally anticl9al4 ,! above /rata ( porphyritic conglom]ate ,g ) _! s\?-ea/w>d dip1 come abruptly up aga9/ b$s ( ! gypse\s =mation ,h1 :i* are g5tly1 b irregul>ly1 incl9$ we/w>d3 s t !re is "h a syncl9al axis & great fault4 ,fur!r up ! valley1 "h runn+ ne>ly nor? & s\?1 ! gypse\s =mation is prolong$ = "s di/ance2 b ! /ratification is un9telligible1 ! :ole be+ brok5 up by faults1 dikes1 & metallif]\s ve9s4 ,! /rata consi/ *iefly ( r$ calc>e\s s&/ones1 ) num]\s ve9s 9 ! place ( lay]s1 ( gypsum2 ! s&/one is associat$ ) "s black calc>e\s slate-rock1 & ) gre5 pseudo-hone/ones1 pass+ into porcela9-jasp]4 ,/ill fur!r up ! valley1 ne> ,las ,amolanas ,i1 ! gypse\s /rata become m regul>1 dipp+ at an angle ( betwe5 #cj & #dj degrees to ,w4,s4,w41 & con=mably ov]ly+1 ne> ! m\? ( ! rav9e ( ,jolqu]a1 /rata ,k ( porphyritic conglom]ate4 ,! :ole s]ies has be5 tilt$ by a p>tially conceal$ axis ,l1 ( granite1 &esite1 & a granitic mixture ( :ite feldsp>1 qu>tz1 & oxide ( iron4 ,fif? axis ( elevation 7,valley ( ,copiapo1 ne> ,las ,amolanas74--,i w describe 9 "s detail ! b$s ,i se5 "h1 :i*1 z j /at$1 dip to ,w4,s4,w41 at an angle ( f #cj to #dj4 ,i _h n "t to exam9e ! und]ly+ porphyritic conglom]ate1 ( :i* ! l[e/ b$s1 z se5 at ! m\? ( ! ,jolqu]a1 are highly compact1 ) cry/als ( r$ oxide ( iron2 & ,i am n prep>$ to say :e!r !y are *iefly ( volcanic or metamorphic orig94 ,on ^! b$s !re re/s a co>se purpli% conglom]ate1 v little metamorphos$1 compos$ ( pebbles ( porphyry1 b rem>kable f conta9+ "o pebble ( granite2--( :i* fact no in/ance has occurr$ 9 ! sections hi!rto describ$4 ,above ?is conglom]ate1 !re is a black silice\s clay/one1 & above x num]\s alt]nations ( d>k-purpli% & gre5 porphyries1 :i* may be consid]$ z ! upp]mo/ limit ( ! porphyritic conglom]ate =mation4 ,above ^! porphyries comes a co>se1 ar5ace\s conglom]ate1 ! l[] half :ite & ! upp] half ( a p9k col\r1 compos$ *iefly ( pebbles ( v>i\s porphyries1 b ) "s ( r$ s&/one & jasp]y rocks4 ,9 "s ( ! m ar5ace\s p>ts ( ! conglom]ate1 !re 0 an oblique or curr5t lam9ation2 a circum/ance :i* ,i did n else:]e obs]ve4 ,above ?is conglom]ate1 !re is a va/ ?ickness ( ?9ly /ratifi$1 pale-yell[i%1 silice\s s&/one1 pass+ into a granul> qu>tz-rock1 us$ = gr9d/ones 7h5ce ! "n ( ! place ,las ,amolanas71 & c]ta9ly belong+ to ! gypse\s =mation1 z does probably ! imm$iately und]ly+ conglom]ate4 ,9 ?is yell[i% s&/one !re are lay]s ( :ite & pale-r$ silice\s conglom]ate2 o!r lay]s ) small1 well-r\nd$ pebbles ( :ite qu>tz1 l ! b$ at ! ,r4 ,cl>o at ,coquimbo2 o!rs ( a gre5i%1 f9e-gra9$1 less silice\s /one1 some:at resembl+ ! pseudo-hone/ones l[] d[n ! valley2 & la/ly1 o!rs ( a black calc>e\s %ale-rock4 ,9 "o ( ! lay]s ( conglom]ate1 !re 0 emb$d$ a fragm5t ( mica-slate1 ( :i* ?is is ! fir/ in/ance2 h5ce p]haps1 x is f a =mation ( mica-slate1 t ! num]\s small pebbles ( qu>tz1 bo? "h & at ,coquimbo1 h be5 d]iv$4 ,n only does ! silice\s s&/one include lay]s ( ! black1 ?9ly /ratifi$1 n fissile1 calc>e\s %ale-rock1 b 9 "o place ! :ole mass1 especially ! upp] "p1 01 9 a m>vell\sly %ort horizontal di/ance1 aft] frequ5t alt]nations1 replac$ by x4 ,:5 ?is occurr$1 a m\nta9-mass1 sev]al ?\s& feet 9 ?ickness 0 ?us compos$2 ! black calc>e\s %ale-rock1 h[ev]1 always includ$ "s lay]s ( ! pale-yell[i% silice\s s&/one1 ( ! r$ conglom]ate1 & ( ! gre5i% jasp]y & pseudo-hone/one v>ieties4 ,x likewise includ$ ?ree or f\r widely sep>at$ lay]s ( a br[n lime/one1 ab\nd+ ) %ells imm$iately to be describ$4 ,?is pile ( /rata 0 9 p>ts trav]s$ by _m ve9s ( gypsum4 ,! calc>e\s %ale-rock1 ?\gh :5 fre%ly brok5 q black1 wea!rs into an a%- col\r3 9 :i* respect & 9 g5]al appe>ance1 x p]fectly resembles ^? great fossilif]\s b$s ( ! ,peuqu5es range1 alt]nat+ ) gypsum & r$ s&/one1 describ$ 9 ! la/ *apt]4 ,! %ells out ( ! lay]s ( br[n lime/one1 includ$ 9 ! black calc>e\s %ale-rock1 :i* latt]1 z j /at$1 replaces ! :ite silice\s s&/one1 consi/ (3-- ,pect5 ,dufreynoyi1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage10 ,"p ,pal4 ,turritella ,&ii1 d',orbigny1 8,voyage10 ,"p ,pal4 ,a/>te ,d>w9ii1 ,e4 ,=bes4 ,grypha ,d>w9ii1 ,e4 ,=bes4 ,an int]m$iate =m betwe5 ,g4 gigantea & ,g4 incurva4 ,grypha nov4 spec481 ,e4 ,=bes4 ,p]na ,am]icana1 ,e4 ,=bes4 ,avicula1 nov4 spec4 ,consid]$ by ,mr4 ,g4 ,b4 ,s[]by z ! ,a4 e*9ata1 by ,m4 d',orbigny z c]ta9ly a new & di/9ct species1 hav+ a ,jurassic aspect4 ,! specim5 has be5 un=tunately lo/4 ,t]ebratula nigma1 d',orbigny1 7v>4 ( d4 ,e4 ,=bes47 ,?is is ! same v>iety1 ) t f ,guasco1 consid]$ by ,m4 ,d',orbigny to be a di/9ct species f 8 ,t4 nigma1 & relat$ to ,t4 obsoleta4 ,plagio/oma & ,ammonites1 fragm5ts (4 ,! l[] lay]s ( ! lime/one conta9$ ?\s&s ( ! ,grypha2 & ! upp] ones z _m ( ! ,turritella1 ) ! ,grypha 7nov4 species7 & ,s]pul adh]+ to !m2 9 all ! lay]s1 ! ,t]ebratula & fragm5ts ( ! ,pect5 7 includ$4 ,x 0 evid5t1 f ! mann] 9 :i* species 7 gr\p$ toge!r1 t !y _h liv$ :]e n[ emb$d$4 ,be=e mak+ any fur!r rem>ks1 ,i may /ate1 t high] up ?is same valley we %all aga9 meet ) a simil> association ( %ells2 & 9 ! great ,despoblado ,valley1 :i* bran*es (f ne> ! t[n f t ( ,copiapo1 ! ,pect5 ,dufreynoyi1 "s ,gryphites 7,i believe ,g4 ,d>w9ii71 & ! true ,t]ebratula nigma ( d',orbigny 7 f\nd toge!r 9 an equival5t =mation1 z w be h]eaft] se54 ,a specim5 also1 ,i may add1 ( ! true ,t4 nigma1 0 giv5 me f ! neighb\rhood ( ! fam\s silv] m9es ( ,*anuncillo1 a little s\? ( ! valley ( ! ,copiapo1 & ^! m9es1 f _! position1 ,i h no d\bt1 lie )9 ! great gypse\s =mation3 ! rocks close to "o ( ! silv] ve9s1 judg+ f fragm5ts %[n me1 resemble ^? s+ul> metamorphos$ deposits f ! m9+ di/rict ( ,arqu]os ne> ,coquimbo4 ,i w reit]ate ! evid5ce on ! association ( ^! sev]al %ells 9 ! sev]al localities4 ,coquimbo4 ,9 ! same b$1 ,rio ,cl>o3 ,pect5 ,dufreynoyi4 ,o/rea hemisph]ica4 ,t]ebratula nigma4 ,spirif] l+uif]oides4 ,same b$1 ne> ,arqu]os3 ,hippurites ,*il5sis4 ,grypha ori5talis4 ,collect$ by ,m4 ,domeyko f ! same locality1 app>5tly ne> ,arqu]os3 ,t]ebratula nigma & ,t]ebratula ignaciana1 9 same block ( lime/one4 ,pect5 ,dufreynoyi4 ,o/rea hemisph]ica4 ,hippurites ,*il5sis4 ,turritella ,&ii4 ,nautilus ,domeykus4 ,guasco4 ,9 a collection f ! ,cordill]a1 giv5 me3 ! specim5s all 9 ! same condition3 ,pect5 ,dufreynoyi4 ,turritella ,&ii4 ,t]ebratula ignaciana4 ,t]ebratula nigma1 v>4 ,spirif] ,*il5sis4 ,copiapo4 ,m+l$ toge!r 9 alt]nat+ b$s 9 ! ma9 valley ( ,copiapo ne> ,las ,amolanas1 & likewise high] up ! valley3 ,pect5 ,dufreynoyi4 ,turritella ,&ii4 ,t]ebratula nigma1 v>41 z at ,guasco4 ,a/>te ,d>w9ii4 ,grypha ,d>w9ii4 ,grypha nov4 species8 ,p]na ,am]icana4 ,avicula1 nov4 species4 ,ma9 valley ( ,copiapo1 app>5tly same =mation ) t ( ,amolanas3 ,t]ebratula nigma 7true74 ,9 ! same b$1 high up ! great lat]al valley ( ! ,despoblado1 9 ! rav9e ( ,m>icongo3 ,t]ebratula nigma 7true74 ,pect5 ,dufreynoyi4 ,grypha ,d>w9ii8 ,consid]+ ?is table1 ,i ?9k x is impossible to d\bt t all ^! fossils belong to ! same =mation4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! species f ,las ,amolanas1 9 ! ,valley ( ,copiapo1 _h1 z 9 ! case ( ^? f ,guasco1 be5 sep>ately exam9$1 !y w\ld probably h be5 rank$ z oolitic2 =1 al?\gh no ,spirif]s 7 f\nd "h1 all ! o!r species1 ) ! exception ( ! ,pect51 ,turritella1 & ,a/>te1 h a m anci5t aspect ?an cretace\s =ms4 ,on ! o!r h&1 tak+ into acc\nt ! evid5ce d]iv$ f ! cretace\s "* ( ^! ?ree %ells1 & ( ! ,hippurites1 ,grypha ori5talis1 & ,o/rea1 f ,coquimbo1 we are driv5 back to ! provisional "n already us$ ( cretaceo-oolitic4 ,f geological evid5ce1 ,i believe ?is =mation to be ! equival5t ( ! ,neocomian b$s ( ! ,cordill]a ( ,c5tral ,*ile4 ,to return to our section ne> ,las ,amolanas3--,above ! yell[ silice\s s&/one1 or ! equival5t calc>e\s slate-rock1 ) its b&s ( fossil-%ells1 accord+ z ! "o or o!r prevails1 !re is a pile ( /rata1 :i* _c be less ?an f two to ?ree ?\s& feet 9 ?ickness1 9 ma9 "p compos$ ( a co>se1 bright r$ conglom]ate1 ) _m int]calat$ b$s ( r$ s&/one1 & "s ( gre5 & o!r col\r$ porcela9-jasp]y lay]s4 ,! includ$ pebbles are well-r\nd$1 v>y+ f ! size ( an egg to t ( a cricket-ball1 ) a few l>g]2 & !y consi/ *iefly ( porphyries4 ,! basis ( ! conglom]ate1 z well z "s ( ! alt]nat+ ?9 b$s1 are =m$ ( a r$1 r h>%1 easily fusible s&/one1 ) cry/all9e calc>e\s p>ticles4 ,?is :ole great pile is rem>kable f ! ?\s&s ( huge1 emb$d$1 silicifi$ trunks ( trees1 "o ( :i* 0 eight feet long1 & ano!r eighte5 feet 9 circumf]5ce3 h[ m>vell\s x is1 t e vessel 9 s ?ick a mass ( wood %\ld h be5 conv]t$ into silex6 ,i br\ght home _m specim5s1 & all ( !m1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,r4 ,br[n1 pres5t a conif]\s /ructure4 ,above ?is great conglom]ate1 we h f two to ?ree hundr$ feet 9 ?ickness ( r$ s&/one2 & above ?is1 a /ratum ( black calc>e\s slate-rock1 l t :i* alt]nates ) & replaces ! und]ly+ yell[i%-:ite1 silice\s s&/one4 ,close to ! junction betwe5 ?is upp] black slate-rock & ! upp] r$ s&/one1 ,i f\nd ! ,grypha ,d>w9ii1 ! ,turritella ,&ii1 & va/ numb]s ( a bivalve1 too imp]fect to be recognis$4 ,h5ce we see t1 z f> z ! evid5ce ( ^! two %ells s]ves--& ! ,turritella is an em95tly *>act]i/ic species--! :ole ?ickness ( ?is va/ pile ( /rata belongs to ! same age4 ,aga91 above ! la/-m5tion$ upp] r$ s&/one1 !re 7 sev]al alt]nations ( ! black1 calc>e\s slate-rock2 b ,i 0 unable to asc5d to !m4 ,all ^! upp]mo/ /rata1 l ! l[] ones1 v>y extremely 9 "* 9 %ort horizontal di/ances4 ,! gypse\s =mation1 z "h se51 has a co>s]1 m me*anical texture1 & conta9s mu* m silice\s matt] ?an ! correspond+ b$s l[] d[n ! valley4 ,its total ?ickness1 toge!r ) ! upp] b$s ( ! porphyritic conglom]ate1 ,i e/imat$ at lea/ at #h1jjj feet2 & only a small portion ( ! porphyritic conglom]ate1 :i* on ! ea/]n flank ( ! f\r? axis ( elevation appe>$ to be f fifte5 hundr$ to two ?\s& feet ?ick1 is "h includ$4 ,z corroborative ( ! great ?ickness ( ! gypse\s =mation1 ,i may m5tion t 9 ! ,despoblado ,valley 7:i* bran*es f ! ma9 valley a little above ! t[n ( ,copiapo7 ,i f\nd a correspond+ pile ( r$ & :ite s&/ones1 & ( d>k1 calc>e\s1 semi-jasp]y mud/ones1 ris+ f a ne>ly level surface & ?r[n into an absolutely v]tical position2 s t1 by pac+1 ,i asc]ta9$ _! ?ickness to be ne>ly two ?\s& sev5 hundr$ feet2 tak+ ?is z a /&>d ( comp>ison1 ,i e/imat$ ! ?ickness ( ! /rata above ! porphyritic conglom]ate at #g1jjj feet4 ,! fossils be=e enum]at$1 f ! lime/one-lay]s 9 ! :iti% silice\s s&/one1 are n[ cov]$1 on ! lea/ computation1 by /rata f #e1jjj to #f1jjj feet 9 ?ickness4 ,pr(essor ,e4 ,=bes ?9ks t ^! %ells probably liv$ at a dep? ( f ab\t #cj to #dj fa?oms1 t is f #ahj to #bdj feet2 anyh[1 x is impossible t !y c\ld h liv$ at ! dep? ( f #e1jjj to #f1jjj feet4 ,h5ce 9 ?is case1 z 9 t ( ! ,pu5te del ,inca1 we may safely conclude t ! bottom ( ! sea on :i* ! %ells liv$1 subsid$1 s z to receive ! sup]9cumb5t subm>9e /rata3 & ?is subsid5ce mu/ h tak5 place dur+ ! exi/5ce ( ^! %ells2 =1 z ,i h %[n1 "s ( !m occur high up z well z l[ d[n 9 ! s]ies4 ,t ! bottom ( ! sea subsid$1 is 9 h>mony ) ! pres5ce ( ! lay]s ( co>se1 well-r\nd$ pebbles includ$ ?r\gh\t ?is :ole pile ( /rata1 z well z ( ! great upp] mass ( conglom]ate f #b1jjj to #c1jjj feet ?ick2 = co>se gravel c\ld h>dly h be5 =m$ or spread out at ! pr(\nd dep?s indicat$ by ! ?ickness ( ! /rata4 ,! subsid5ce1 also1 mu/ h be5 sl[ to h all[$ ( ?is (t5-recurr5t spread+ out ( ! pebbles4 ,moreov]1 we %all pres5tly see t ! surfaces ( "s ( ! /reams ( porphyritic lava b5ea? ! gypse\s =mation1 are s highly amygdaloidal t x is sc>cely possible to believe t !y fl[$ "u ! va/ pressure ( a deep ocean4 ,! conclusion ( a great subsid5ce dur+ ! exi/5ce ( ^! cretaceo-oolitic fossils1 may1 ,i believe1 be ext5d$ to ! di/rict ( ,coquimbo1 al?\gh ow+ to ! fossilif]\s b$s !re n be+ directly cov]$ by ! upp] gypse\s /rata1 :i* 9 ! section nor? ( ! valley are ab\t #f1jjj feet 9 ?ickness1 ,i did n !re insi/ on ?is conclusion4 ,! pebbles 9 ! above conglom]ates1 bo? 9 ! upp] & l[] b$s1 are all well r\nd$1 &1 ?\gh *iefly compos$ ( v>i\s porphyries1 !re are "s ( r$ s&/one & ( a jasp]y /one1 bo? l ! rocks int]calat$ 9 lay]s 9 ?is same gypse\s =mation2 !re 0 "o pebble ( mica-slate & "s ( qu>tz1 toge!r ) _m p>ticles ( qu>tz4 ,9 ^! respects !re is a wide diff]5ce betwe5 ! gypse\s conglom]ates & ^? ( ! porphyritic-conglom]ate =mation1 9 :i* latt]1 angul> & r\nd$ fragm5ts1 almo/ exclusively compos$ ( porphyries1 are m+l$ toge!r1 & :i*1 z already (t5 rem>k$1 probably 7 eject$ f crat]s deep "u ! sea4 ,f ^! facts ,i conclude1 t dur+ ! =mation ( ! conglom]ates1 l& exi/$ 9 ! neighb\rhood1 on ! %ores ( :i* ! innum]able pebbles 7 r\nd$ & !nce disp]s$1 & on :i* ! conif]\s =e/s fl\ri%$--= x is improbable t s _m ?\s& logs ( wood %\ld h drift$ f any great di/ance4 ,?is l&1 probably isl&s1 mu/ h be5 ma9ly =m$ ( porphyries1 ) "s mica-slate1 :5ce ! qu>tz 0 d]iv$1 & ) "s r$ s&/one & jasp]y rocks4 ,?is latt] fact is important1 z x %[s t 9 ?is di/rict1 ev5 previ\sly to ! deposition ( ! l[] gypse\s or cretaceo-oolitic b$s1 /rata ( an analog\s nature _h else:]e1 no d\bt 9 ! m c5tral ranges ( ! ,cordill]a1 be5 elevat$2 ?us recall+ to our m9ds ! relations ( ! ,cumbre & ,uspallata *a9s4 ,hav+ already ref]r$ to ! great lat]al valley ( ! ,despoblado1 ,i may m5tion t above ! #b1gjj feet ( r$ & :ite s&/one & d>k mud/one1 !re is a va/ mass ( co>se1 h>d1 r$ conglom]ate1 "s ?\s& feet 9 ?ickness1 :i* conta9s mu* silicifi$ wood1 & evid5tly corresponds ) ! great upp] conglom]ate at ,las ,amolanas3 "h1 h[ev]1 ! conglom]ate consi/s almo/ exclusively ( pebbles ( granite1 & ( dis9tegrat$ cry/als ( r$di% feldsp> & qu>tz firmly recem5t$ toge!r4 ,9 ?is case1 we may conclude t ! l& :5ce ! pebbles 7 d]iv$1 & on :i* ! n[ silicifi$ trees once fl\ri%$1 0 =m$ ( granite4 ,! m\nta9s ne> ,las ,amolanas1 compos$ ( ! cretaceo-oolitic /rata1 are int]lac$ ) dikes l a spid]'s web1 to an ext5t :i* ,i h nev] se5 equall$1 except 9 ! d5ud$ int]ior ( a volcanic crat]3 nor? & s\? l9es1 h[ev]1 pr$om9ate4 ,^! dikes are compos$ ( gre51 :ite1 & blacki% rocks1 all porphyritic ) feldsp>1 & (t5 ) l>ge cry/als ( hornbl5de4 ,! :ite v>ieties approa* closely 9 "* to &esite1 :i* composes z we h se51 ! inject$ axes ( s _m ( ! l9es ( elevation4 ,"s ( ! gre5 v>ieties are f9ely lam9at$1 p>allel to ! walls ( ! dikes4 ,six? axis ( elevation 7,valley ( ,copiapo74--,?is axis consi/s ( a broad m\nta9\s mass ,o ( &esite1 compos$ ( albite1 br[n mica1 & *lorite1 pass+ into &esitic granite1 ) qu>tz3 on its we/]n side x has ?r[n (f1 at a consid]able angle1 a ?ick mass ( /ratifi$ porphyries1 includ+ mu* epidote ,,nn1 & rem>kable only f be+ divid$ into v ?9 b$s1 z highly amygdaloidal on _! surfaces z suba]ial lava-/reams are (t5 vesicul>4 ,?is porphyritic =mation is con=mably cov]$1 z se5 "s way up ! rav9e ( ,jolqu]a1 by a m]e remnant ( ! l[] "p ( ! cretaceo-oolitic =mation ,,mm1 :i* 9 "o "p encases1 z repres5t$ 9 ! col\r$ section1 ! foot ( ! &esitic axis ,l1 ( ! already describ$ fif? l9e1 & 9 ano!r "p entirely conceals x3 9 ?is latt] case1 ! gypse\s or cretaceo-oolitic /rata falsely appe>$ to dip "u ! porphyritic conglom]ate ( ! fif? axis4 ,! l[e/ b$ ( ! gypse\s =mation1 z se5 "h ,m1 is ( yell[i% silice\s s&/one1 precisely l t ( ,amolanas1 int]lac$ 9 p>ts ) ve9s ( gypsum1 & includ+ lay]s ( ! black1 calc>e\s1 non-fissile slate-rock3 ! ,turritella ,&ii1 ,pect5 ,dufreynoyi1 ,t]ebratula nigma1 v>41 & "s ,gryphites 7 emb$d$ 9 ^! lay]s4 ,! s&/one v>ies 9 ?ickness f only tw5ty to eighty feet2 & ?is v>iation is caus$ by ! inequalities 9 ! upp] surface ( an und]ly+ /ream ( purple clay/one porphyry4 ,h5ce ! above fossils "h lie at ! v base ( ! gypse\s or cretaceo-oolitic =mation1 & h5ce !y 7 probably once cov]$ up by /rata ab\t sev5 ?\s& feet 9 ?ickness3 x is1 h[ev]1 possible1 ?\gh f ! nature ( all ! o!r sections 9 ?is di/rict n probable1 t ! porphyritic clay/one lava may 9 ?is case h invad$ a high] level 9 ! s]ies4 ,above ! s&/one !re is a consid]able mass ( mu* indurat$1 purpli%-black1 calc>e\s clay/one1 alli$ 9 nature to ! (t5-m5tion$ black calc>e\s slate-rock4 ,ea/w>d ( ! broad &esitic axis ( ?is six? l9e1 & p5etrat$ by _m dikes f x1 !re is a great =mation ,p ( mica-s*i/1 ) its usual v>iations1 & pass+ 9 "o "p into a f]rug9\s qu>tz-rock4 ,! folia are curv$ & highly incl9$1 g5]ally dipp+ ea/w>d4 ,x is probable t ?is mica-s*i/ is an old =mation1 connect$ ) ! granitic rocks & metamorphic s*i/s ne> ! coa/2 & t ! "o fragm5t ( mica-slate1 & ! pebbles ( qu>tz l[ d[n 9 ! gypse\s =mation at ,las ,amolanas1 h be5 d]iv$ f x4 ,! mica-s*i/ is succe$$ by /ratifi$ porphyritic conglom]ate ,q ( great ?ickness1 dipp+ ea/w>d ) a high incl9ation3 ,i h includ$ ?is latt] m\nta9-mass 9 ! same anticl9al axis ) ! porphyritic /reams ,,nn2 b ,i am f> f sure t ! two masses may n h be5 indep5d5tly upheav$4 ,sev5? axis ( elevation4--,proce$+ up ! rav9e1 we come to ano!r mass ,r ( &esite2 & beyond ?is1 we aga9 h a v ?ick1 /ratifi$ porphyritic =mation ,s1 dipp+ at a small angle ea/w>d1 & =m+ ! basal "p ( ! ma9 ,cordill]a4 ,i did n asc5d ! rav9e any high]2 b "h1 ne> ,ca/ano1 ,i exam9$ sev]al sections1 ( :i* ,i w n give ! details1 only obs]v+1 t ! porphyritic b$s1 or subm>9e lavas1 prepond]ate greatly 9 bulk ov] ! alt]nat+ s$im5t>y lay]s1 :i* h be5 b little metamorphos$3 ^! latt] consi/ ( f9e-gra9$ r$ tuffs & ( :iti% volcanic grit-/ones1 toge!r ) mu* ( a s+ul>1 compact rock1 hav+ an almo/ cry/all9e basis1 f9ely brecciat$ ) r$ & gre5 fragm5ts1 & occasionally includ+ a few l>ge pebbles4 ,! porphyritic lavas are highly amygdaloidal1 bo? on _! upp] & l[] surfaces2 !y consi/ *iefly ( clay/one porphyry1 b ) "o common v>iety1 l "s ( ! /reams at ! ,pu5te del ,inca1 hav+ a grey mottl$ basis1 ab\nd+ ) cry/als ( r$ hydr\s oxide ( iron1 gre5 ones app>5tly ( epidote1 & a few glassy ones ( feldsp>4 ,?is pile ( /rata diff]s consid]ably f ! basal /rata ( ! ,cordill]a 9 ,c5tral ,*ile1 & may possibly belong to ! upp] & gypse\s s]ies3 ,i saw1 h[ev]1 9 ! b$ ( ! valley1 "o fragm5t ( porphyritic breccia-conglom]ate1 exactly l ^? great masses met ) 9 ! m s\!rn p>ts ( ,*ile4 ,f9ally1 ,i mu/ obs]ve1 t ?\gh ,i h describ$ betwe5 ! t[n ( ,copiapo & ! we/]n flank ( ! ma9 ,cordill]a sev5 or eight axes ( elevation1 ext5d+ ne>ly nor? & s\?1 x mu/ n be suppos$ t !y all run cont9u\sly = great di/ances4 ,z 0 /at$ to be ! case 9 our sections across ! ,cordill]a ( ,c5tral ,*ile1 s "h mo/ ( ! l9es ( elevation1 ) ! exception ( ! fir/1 ?ird1 & fif?1 are v %ort4 ,! /ratification is ev]y:]e di/urb$ & intricate2 n[h]e h ,i se5 m num]\s faults & dikes4 ,! :ole di/rict1 f ! sea to ! ,cordill]a1 is m or less metallif]\s2 & ,i he>d ( gold1 silv]1 copp]1 lead1 m]cury1 & iron ve9s4 ,! metamorphic action1 ev5 9 ! l[] /rata1 has c]ta9ly be5 f> less "h ?an 9 ,c5tral ,*ile4 ,valley ( ! ,despoblado4--,?is great b>r5 valley1 :i* has already be5 allud$ to1 ent]s ! ma9 valley ( ,copiapo a little above ! t[n3 x runs at fir/ nor!rly1 !n ,n4,e41 & m ea/]ly into ! ,cordill]a2 ,i foll[$ its dre>y c\rse to ! foot ( ! fir/ ma9 ridge4 ,i w n give a detail$ section1 because x w\ld be ess5tially simil> to t already giv51 & because ! /ratification is exce$+ly complicat$4 ,aft] leav+ ! plutonic hills ne> ! t[n1 ,i met fir/1 z 9 ! ma9 valley1 ) ! gypse\s =mation1 hav+ ! same div]sifi$ "* z be=e1 & soon aft]w>ds ) masses ( porphyritic conglom]ate1 ab\t "o ?\s& feet 9 ?ickness4 ,9 ! l[] "p ( ?is =mation !re 7 v ?ick b$s compos$ ( fragm5ts ( clay/one porphyries1 bo? angul> & r\nd$1 ) ! small] ones p>tially bl5d$ toge!r & ! basis r5d]$ porphyritic2 ^! b$s sep>at$ di/9ct /reams1 f sixty to eighty feet 9 ?ickness1 ( clay/one lavas4 ,ne> ,paipote1 also1 !re 0 mu* true porphyritic breccia-conglom]ate3 nev]!less1 few ( ^! masses 7 metamorphos$ to ! same degree ) ! correspond+ =mation 9 ,c5tral ,*ile4 ,i did n meet 9 ?is valley ) any true &esite1 b only ) imp]fect &esitic porphyry1 includ+ l>ge cry/als ( hornbl5de3 num]\s z h be5 ! v>ieties ( intrusive porphyries already m5tion$1 !re 7 "h m\nta9s compos$ ( a new k9d1 hav+ a compact1 smoo?1 cream-col\r$ basis1 includ+ only a few cry/als ( feldsp>1 & mottl$ ) d5dritic spots ( oxide ( iron4 ,!re 7 also "s m\nta9s ( a porphyry ) a brick-r$ basis1 conta9+ irregul>1 (t5 l5s-%ap$1 pat*es ( compact feldsp>1 & cry/als ( feldsp>1 :i* latt] to my surprise ,i f9d to be or?ite4 ,at ! foot ( ! fir/ ridge ( ! ma9 ,cordill]a1 9 ! rav9e ( ,m>icongo1 & at an elevation :i*1 f ! extreme coldness & appe>ance ( ! vegetation1 ,i e/imat$ at ab\t t5 ?\s& feet1 ,i f\nd b$s ( :ite s&/one & ( lime/one includ+ ! ,pect5 ,dufreynoyi1 ,t]ebratula nigma1 & "s ,gryphites4 ,?is ridge ?r[s ! wat] on ! "o h& into ! ,pacific1 & on ! o!r1 z ,i 0 in=m$1 into a great gravel-cov]$1 bas9-l pla91 includ+ a salt-lake1 & )\t any dra9age-exit4 ,9 cross+ ! ,cordill]a by ?is ,pass1 x is said t ?ree pr9cipal ridges mu/ be trav]s$1 in/ead ( two1 or only "o z 9 ,c5tral ,*ile4 ,! cre/ ( ?is fir/ ma9 ridge & ! surr\nd+ m\nta9s1 ) ! exception ( a few l(ty p9nacles1 are capp$ by a great ?ickness ( a horizontally /ratifi$1 tuface\s deposit4 ,! l[e/ b$ is ( a pale purple col\r1 h>d1 f9e-gra9$1 & full ( brok5 cry/als ( feldsp> & scales ( mica4 ,! middle b$ is co>s]1 & less h>d1 & h5ce wea!rs into v %>p p9nacles2 x includes v small fragm5ts ( granite1 & innum]able ones ( all sizes ( grey vesicul> tra*yte1 "s ( :i* 7 di/9ctly r\nd$4 ,! upp]mo/ b$ is ab\t two hundr$ feet 9 ?ickness1 ( a d>k] col\r & app>5tly h>d3 b ,i _h n "t to asc5d to x4 ,^! ?ree horizontal b$s may be se5 = ! di/ance ( _m leagues1 especially we/w>d or 9 ! direction ( ! ,pacific1 capp+ ! summits ( ! m\nta9s1 & /&+ on ! opposite sides ( ! imm5se valleys at exactly correspond+ heights4 ,if unit$ !y w\ld =m a pla91 incl9$ v slightly t[>ds ! ,pacific2 ! b$s become ?9n] 9 ?is direction1 & ! tuff 7judg+ f "o po9t to :i* ,i asc5d$1 "s way d[n ! valley7 f9]-gra9$ & ( less specific gravity1 ?\gh /ill compact & sonor\s "u ! hamm]4 ,! g5tly incl9$1 almo/ horizontal /ratification1 ! pres5ce ( "s r\nd$ pebbles1 & ! compactness ( ! l[e/ b$1 ?\gh r5d]+ x probable1 w\ld n h conv9c$ me t ?is mass _h be5 ( subaque\s orig91 = x is kn[n t volcanic a%es fall+ on l& & moi/5$ by ra9 (t5 become h>d & /ratifi$2 b b$s ?us orig9at+1 & ow+ _! consolidation to atmosph]ic moi/ure1 w\ld h cov]$ almo/ equally e neighb\r+ summit1 high & l[1 & w\ld n h left ^? above a c]ta9 exact level absolutely b>e2 ?is circum/ance seems to me to prove t ! volcanic ejections 7 arre/$ at _! pres5t1 widely ext5d$1 equable level1 & !re consolidat$ by "s o!r means ?an simple atmosph]ic moi/ure2 & ?is no d\bt mu/ h be5 a %eet ( wat]4 ,a lake at ?is great height1 & )\t a b>ri] on any "o side1 is out ( ! "q2 consequ5tly we mu/ conclude t ! tuface\s matt] 0 anci5tly deposit$ b5ea? ! sea4 ,x 0 c]ta9ly deposit$ be=e ! excavation ( ! valleys1 or at lea/ be=e _! f9al enl>gem5t2#d & ,i may add1 t ,mr4 ,lamb]t1 a g5tleman well acqua9t$ ) ?is c\ntry1 in=ms me1 t 9 asc5d+ ! rav9e ( ,sant&res 7:i* bran*es (f f ! ,despoblado7 he met ) /reams ( lava & mu* erupt$ matt] capp+ all ! hills ( granite & porphyry1 ) ! exception ( "s project+ po9ts2 he also rem>k$ t ! valleys _h be5 excavat$ subsequ5tly to ^! eruptions4 #d ,i h endeav\r$ to %[ 9 my 8,j\rnal10 etc4 7#bnd edit471 p4 #cee1 t ?is arid valley 0 left by ! retreat+ sea1 z ! l& sl[ly rose1 9 ! /ate 9 :i* we n[ see x4 ,?is volcanic =mation1 :i* ,i am in=m$ by ,mr4 ,lamb]t ext5ds f> nor?w>d1 is ( int]e/1 z typify+ :at has tak5 place on a gr&] scale on ! correspond+ we/]n side ( ! ,cordill]a ( ,p]u4 ,"u ano!r po9t ( view1 h[ev]1 x possesses a f> high] int]e/1 z confirm+ t conclusion drawn f ! /ructure ( ! fr+es ( /ratifi$ %+le :i* are prolong$ f ! pla9s at ! foot ( ! ,cordill]a f> up ! valleys1--namely1 t ?is great range has be5 elevat$ 9 mass to a height ( betwe5 eight & n9e ?\s& feet2#e & n[1 judg+ f ?is tuface\s deposit1 we may conclude t ! horizontal elevation has be5 9 ! di/rict ( ,copiapo ab\t t5 ?\s& feet4 #e ,i may "h m5tion t on ! s\? side ( ! ma9 valley ( ,copiapo1 ne> ,potr]o ,seco1 ! m\nta9s are capp$ by a ?ick mass ( horizontally /ratifi$ %+le1 at a height :i* ,i e/imat$ at betwe5 fifte5 hundr$ & two ?\s& feet above ! b$ ( ! valley4 ,?is %+le1 ,i believe1 =ms ! edge ( a wide pla91 :i* /ret*es s\?w>ds betwe5 two m\nta9 ranges4 ,no4 #dj ,illu/ration ,9 ! valley ( ! ,despoblado1 ! /ratification1 z be=e rem>k$ has be5 mu* di/urb$1 & 9 "s po9ts to a great] degree ?an ,i h any:]e else se54 ,i w give two cases3 a v ?ick mass ( ?9ly /ratifi$ r$ s&/one1 includ+ b$s ( conglom]ate1 has be5 cru%$ toge!r 7z repres5t$ 9 figure no4 #bd7 into a yoke or urn-=m$ tr\gh1 s t ! /rata on bo? sides h be5 fold$ inw>ds3 on ! "r h& ! prop]ly und]ly+ porphyritic clay/one conglom]ate is se5 ov]ly+ ! s&/one1 b x soon becomes v]tical1 & !n is incl9$ t[>ds ! tr\gh1 s t ! b$s radiate l ! spokes ( a :eel3 on ! left h&1 ! inv]t$ porphyritic conglom]ate also assumes a dip t[>ds ! tr\gh1 n gradually1 z on ! "r h&1 b by means ( a v]tical fault & syncl9al break2 & a little /ill fur!r on t[>ds ! left1 !re is a second great oblique fault 7bo? %[n by ! arr[-l9es71 ) ! /rata dipp+ to a directly opposite po9t2 ^! m\nta9s are int]sect$ by inf9itely num]\s dikes1 "s ( :i* c be se5 to rise f hummocks ( gre5/one1 & c be trac$ = ?\s&s ( feet4 ,9 ! second case1 two l[ ridges tr5d toge!r & unite at ! head ( a little w$ge-%ap$ valley3 ?r\gh\t ! "r-h& ridge1 ! /rata dip at #de to ! ea/2 9 ! left-h& ridge1 we h ! v same /rata & at fir/ ) exactly ! same dip2 b 9 foll[+ ?is ridge up ! valley1 ! /rata are se5 v regul>ly to become m & m incl9$ until !y /& v]tical1 !y !n gradually fall ov] 7! basset edges =m+ symmetrical s]p5t9e l9es along ! cre/71 till at ! v head ( ! valley !y are rev]s$ at an angle ( #de3 s t at ?is po9t ! b$s h be5 turn$ ?r\gh an angle ( #ace2 & "h !re is a k9d ( anticl9al axis1 ) ! /rata on bo? sides dipp+ to opposite po9ts at an angle ( #de1 b ^? on ! left h& upside d[n4 ,on ! eruptive s\rces ( ! porphyritic clay/one & gre5/one lavas4--,9 ,c5tral ,*ile1 f ! extreme metamorphic action1 x is 9 mo/ p>ts difficult to di/+ui% betwe5 ! /reams ( porphyritic lava & ! porphyritic breccia-conglom]ate1 b "h1 at ,copiapo1 !y are g5]ally p]fectly di/9ct1 & 9 ! ,despoblado1 ,i saw = ! fir/ "t1 two great /rata ( purple clay/one porphyry1 aft] hav+ be5 = a consid]able space closely unit$ toge!r1 "o above ! o!r1 become sep>at$ by a mass ( fragm5t>y matt]1 & !n bo? ?9 out2--! l[] "o m rapidly ?an ! upp] & great] /ream4 ,consid]+ ! numb] & ?ickness ( ! /reams ( porphyritic lava1 & ! great ?ickness ( ! b$s ( breccia-conglom]ate1 !re c be little d\bt t ! s\rces ( eruption mu/ orig9ally h be5 num]\s3 nev]!less1 x is n[ mo/ difficult ev5 to conjecture ! precise po9t ( any "o ( ! anci5t subm>9e crat]s4 ,i h repeat$ly obs]v$ m\nta9s ( porphyries1 m or less di/9ctly /ratifi$ t[>ds _! summits or on _! flanks1 )\t a trace ( /ratification 9 _! c5tral & basal p>ts3 9 mo/ cases1 ,i believe ?is is simply due ei!r to ! oblit]at+ effects ( metamorphic action1 or to su* p>ts hav+ be5 ma9ly =m$ ( intrusive porphyries1 or to bo? causes conjo9$2 9 "s in/ances1 h[ev]1 x appe>$ to me v probable t ! great c5tral un/ratifi$ masses ( porphyry 7 ! n[ p>tially d5ud$ nuclei ( ! old subm>9e volcanoes1 & t ! /ratifi$ p>ts m>k$ ! po9ts :5ce ! /reams fl[$4 ,9 "o case alone1 & x 0 9 ?is ,valley ( ! ,despoblado1 ,i 0 able actually to trace a ?ick /ratum ( purpli% porphyry1 :i* = a space ( "s miles con=mably ov]lay ! usual alt]nat+ b$s ( breccia-conglom]ates & clay/one lavas1 until x became unit$ )1 & bl5d$ into1 a m\nta9\s mass ( v>i\s un/ratifi$ porphyries4 ,! difficulty ( trac+ ! /reams ( porphyries to _! anci5t & d\btless num]\s eruptive s\rces1 may be p>tly expla9$ by ! v g5]al di/urbance :i* ! ,cordill]a 9 mo/ p>ts has suff]$2 b ,i /rongly suspect t !re is a m specific cause1 namely1 t ! orig9al po9ts ( eruption t5d to become ! po9ts ( injection4 ,?is 9 itself does n seem improbable2 = :]e ! e>?'s cru/ has once yield$1 x w\ld be liable to yield aga91 ?\gh ! liquifi$ intrusive matt] might n be any long] enabl$ to rea* ! subm>9e surface & fl[ z lava4 ,i h be5 l$ to ?is conclusion1 f hav+ s frequ5tly obs]v$ t1 :]e "p ( an un/ratifi$ m\nta9-mass resembl$ 9 m9]alogical "* ! adjo9+ /reams or /rata1 !re 7 sev]al o!r k9ds ( intrusive porphyries & &esitic rocks inject$ into ! same po9t4 ,z ^! intrusive m\nta9-masses =m mo/ ( ! axes-l9es 9 ! ,cordill]a1 :e!r anticl9al1 unicl9al1 or syncl9al1 & z ! ma9 valleys h g5]ally be5 holl[$ out along ^! l9es1 ! intrusive masses h g5]ally suff]$ mu* d5udation4 ,h5ce !y are apt to /& 9 "s degree isolat$1 & to be situat$ at ! po9ts :]e ! valleys abruptly b5d1 or :]e ! ma9 tribut>ies ent]4 ,on ?is view ( !re be+ a t5d5cy 9 ! old po9ts ( eruption to become ! po9ts ( subsequ5t injection & di/urbance1 & consequ5tly ( d5udation1 x ceases to be surpris+ t ! /reams ( lava 9 ! porphyritic clay/one conglom]ate =mation1 & 9 o!r analog\s cases1 %\ld mo/ r>ely be traceable to _! actual s\rces4 ,iquique1 ,s\!rn ,p]u4--,diff]5tly f :at we h se5 ?r\gh\t ,*ile1 ! coa/ "h is =m$ n by ! granitic s]ies1 b by an esc>pm5t ( ! porphyritic conglom]ate =mation1 betwe5 two & ?ree ?\s& feet 9 height4#f ,i _h "t only = a v %ort exam9ation2 ! *ief "p ( ! esc>pm5t appe>s to be compos$ ( v>i\s r$di% & purple1 sometimes lam9at$1 porphyries1 resembl+ ^? ( ,*ile2 & ,i saw "s ( ! porphyritic breccia-conglom]ate2 ! /ratification appe>$ b little incl9$4 ,! upp]mo/ "p1 judg+ f ! rocks ne> ! fam\s silv] m9e ( ,huantajaya1#g;consi/s ( lam9at$1 impure1 argillace\s1 purpli%-grey lime/one1 associat$1 ,i believe1 ) "s purple s&/one4 ,9 ! lime/one %ells are f\nd3 ! ?ree foll[+ species 7 giv5 me3-- ,luc9a ,am]icana1 ,e4 ,=bes4 ,t]ebratula inca1 ,e4 ,=bes4 ,t]ebratula nigma1 ,d',orbigny4 #f ,! l[e/ po9t1 :]e ! road crosses ! coa/-esc>pm5t1 is #a1ijj feet by ! b>omet] above ! level ( ! sea4 #g ,mr4 ,bolla]t has describ$ 78,geolog4 ,proce$+s10 vol4 ii1 p4 #eih1 a s+ul> mass ( /ratifi$ detritus1 gravel1 & s&1 eighty-"o y>ds 9 ?ickness1 ov]ly+ ! lime/one1 & ab\nd+ ) loose masses ( silv] ore4 ,! m9]s believe t !y c attribute ^! masses to _! prop] ve9s4 ,?is latt] species we h se5 associat$ ) ! fossils ( :i* li/s h be5 giv5 9 ?is *apt]1 9 two places 9 ! valley ( ,coquimbo1 & 9 ! rav9e ( ,m>icongo at ,copiapo4 ,consid]+ ?is fact1 & ! sup]position ( ^! b$s on ! porphyritic conglom]ate =mation2 &1 z we %all imm$iately see1 f _! conta9+ mu* gypsum1 & f _! o!rwise close g5]al resemblance 9 m9]alogical nature ) ! /rata describ$ 9 ! valley ( ,copiapo1 ,i h little d\bt t ^! fossilif]\s b$s ( ,iquique belong to ! great cretaceo-oolitic =mation ( ,nor!rn ,*ile4 ,iquique is situat$ sev5 degrees latitude nor? ( ,copiapo2 & ,i may "h m5tion1 t an ,ammonites1 nov4 species1 & an ,a/>te1 nov4 species1 7 giv5 me f ! ,c]ro ,pasco1 ab\t t5 degrees ( latitude nor? ( ,iquique1 & ,m4 ,d',orbigny ?9ks t !y probably indicate a ,neocomian =mation4 ,aga91 fifte5 degrees ( latitude nor?w>d1 9 ,colombia1 !re is a gr& fossilif]\s deposit1 n[ well kn[n f ! lab\rs ( ,von ,bu*1 ,lea1 d',orbigny1 & ,=bes1 :i* belongs to ! e>li] /ages ( ! cretace\s sy/em4 ,h5ce1 be>+ 9 m9d ! "* ( ! few fossils f ,ti]ra del ,fuego1 !re is "s evid5ce t a great portion ( ! /ratifi$ deposits ( ! :ole va/ range ( ! ,s\? ,am]ican ,cordill]a belongs to ab\t ! same geological epo*4 ,proce$+ f ! coa/ esc>pm5t inw>ds1 ,i cross$1 9 a space ( ab\t ?irty miles1 an elevat$ undulatory di/rict1 ) ! b$s dipp+ 9 v>i\s directions4 ,! rocks are ( _m k9ds1--:ite lam9at$1 sometimes silice\s s&/one1--purple & r$ s&/one1 sometimes s highly calc>e\s z to h a cry/all9e fracture1--argillace\s lime/one1--black calc>e\s slate-rock1 l t s (t5 describ$ at ,copiapo & o!r places1--?9ly lam9at$1 f9e-gra9$1 gre5i%1 indurat$1 s$im5t>y1 fusible rocks1 approa*+ 9 "* to ! s-call$ pseudo-hone/one ( ,*ile1 includ+ ?9 contemporane\s ve9s ( gypsum1--& la/ly1 mu* calc>e\s1 lam9at$ porcela9 jasp]1 ( a gre5 col\r1 ) r$ spots1 & ( extremely easy fusibility3 ,i notic$ "o con=mable /ratum ( a freckl$-br[n1 feldspa?ic lava4 ,i may "h m5tion t ,i he>d ( great b$s ( gypsum 9 ! ,cordill]a4 ,! only novel po9t 9 ?is =mation1 is ! pres5ce ( innum]able ?9 lay]s ( rock-salt1 alt]nat+ ) ! lam9at$ & h>d1 b sometimes e>?y1 yell[i%1 or bright r$ & f]rug9\s s&/ones4 ,! ?icke/ lay] ( salt 0 only two in*es1 & x ?9n$ out at bo? ends4 ,on "o ( ^! salif]\s masses ,i notic$ a /ratum ab\t twelve feet ?ick1 ( d>k-br[n1 h>d brecciat$1 easily fusible rock1 conta9+ gra9s ( qu>tz & ( black oxide ( iron1 toge!r ) num]\s imp]fect fragm5ts ( %ells4 ,! problem ( ! orig9 ( salt is s obscure1 t e fact1 ev5 geographical position1 is wor? record+4#h ,) ! exception ( ^! salif]\s b$s1 mo/ ( ! rocks z already rem>k$1 pres5t a /rik+ g5]al resemblance ) ! upp] p>ts ( ! gypse\s or cretaceo-oolitic =mation ( ,*ile4 #h ,x is well kn[n t /ratifi$ salt is f\nd 9 sev]al places on ! %ores ( ,p]u4 ,! isl& ( ,san ,lor5zo1 (f ,lima1 is compos$ ( a pile ( ?9 /rata1 ab\t eight hundr$ feet 9 ?ickness1 compos$ ( yell[i% & purpli%1 h>d silice\s1 or e>?y s&/ones1 alt]nat+ ) ?9 lay]s ( %ale1 :i* 9 places passes into a gre5i%1 semi-porcellanic1 fusible rock4 ,!re are "s ?9 b$s ( r$di% mud/one1 & s(t f]rug9\s rott5-/ones1 ) lay]s ( gypsum4 ,9 ne>ly all ^! v>ieties1 especially 9 ! s(t] s&/ones1 !re are num]\s ?9 seams ( rock-salt3 ,i 0 in=m$ t "o lay] has be5 f\nd two in*es 9 ?ickness4 ,! mann] 9 :i* ! m9ute/ fissures ( ! dislocat$ b$s h be5 p5etrat$ by ! salt1 app>5tly by subsequ5t infiltration1 is v curi\s4 ,on ! s\? side ( ! isl&1 lay]s ( coal & ( impure lime/one h be5 discov]$4 ,h5ce we "h h salt1 gypsum1 & coal associat$ toge!r4 ,! /rata include ve9s ( qu>tz1 c>bonate ( lime1 & iron pyrites2 !y h be5 dislocat$ by an inject$ mass ( gre5i%-br[n feldspa?ic trap4 ,n only is salt abundant on ! extreme we/]n limits ( ! di/rict betwe5 ! ,cordill]a & ! ,pacific1 b1 accord+ to ,helms1 x is f\nd 9 ! outly+ l[ hills on ! ea/]n flank ( ! ,cordill]a4 ,^! facts appe> to me oppos$ to ! !ory1 t rock-salt is due to ! s9k+ ( wat]1 *>g$ ) salt1 9 m$it]ranean spaces ( ! ocean4 ,! g5]al "* ( ! geology ( ^! c\ntries w\ld r lead to ! op9ion1 t its orig9 is 9 "s way connect$ ) volcanic heat at ! bottom ( ! sea3 see on ?is subject ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison's 8,anniv]s>y ,address to ,geolog4 ,soc41 #ahdc10 p4 #fe47 ,metallif]\s ,ve9s4 ,i h only a few rem>ks to make on ?is subject3 9 n9e m9+ di/ricts1 "s ( !m ( consid]able ext5t1 :i* ,i visit$ 9 ,c5tral ,*ile1 ,i f\nd ! pr9cipal ve9s runn+ f betwe5 ,n4 & ,n4,w4 to ,s4 & ,s4,e42#i at ! ,c4 de los ,hornos 7fur!r nor?w>d71 x is ,n4,n4,w4 & ,s4,s4,e42 at ,panuncillo1 x is ,n4,n4,w4 & ,s4,s4,e42 &1 la/ly1 at ,arqu]os1 ! direction is ,n4,w4 & ,s4,e473 9 "s o!r places1 h[ev]1 _! c\rses appe>$ q irregul>1 z is said to be g5]ally ! case 9 ! :ole valley ( ,copiapo3 at ,tambillos1 s\? ( ,coquimbo1 ,i saw "o l>ge copp] ve9 ext5d+ ea/ & we/4 ,x is wor?y ( notice1 t ! foliation ( ! gneiss & mica-slate1 :]e su* rocks occur1 c]ta9ly t5d to run l ! metallif]\s ve9s1 ?\gh (t5 irregul>ly1 9 a direction a little we/w>d ( nor?4 ,at ,yaquil1 ,i obs]v$ t ! pr9cipal aurif]\s ve9s ran ne>ly p>allel to ! gra9 or imp]fect cleavage ( ! surr\nd+ granitic rocks4 ,) respect to ! di/ribution ( ! diff]5t metals1 copp]1 gold1 & iron are g5]ally associat$ toge!r1 & are mo/ frequ5tly f\nd 7b ) _m exceptions1 z we %all pres5tly see7 9 ! rocks ( ! l[] s]ies1 betwe5 ! ,cordill]a & ! ,pacific1 namely1 9 granite1 sy5ite1 alt]$ feldspa?ic clay-slate1 gneiss1 & z ne> ,guasco mica-s*i/4 ,! copp]-ores consi/ ( sulphurets1 oxides1 & c>bonates1 sometimes ) lam9 ( native metal3 ,i 0 assur$ t 9 "s cases 7z at ,panuncillo ,s4,e4 ( ,coquimbo71 ! upp] "p ( ! same ve9 conta9s oxides1 & ! l[] "p sulphurets ( copp]4#aj ,gold occurs 9 its native =m2 x is believ$ t1 9 _m cases1 ! upp] "p ( ! ve9 is ! mo/ productive "p3 ?is fact probably is connect$ ) ! abundance ( ?is metal 9 ! /ratifi$ detritus ( ,*ile1 :i* mu/ h be5 *iefly d]iv$ f ! degradation ( ! upp] portions ( ! rocks4 ,^! sup]ficial b$s ( well-r\nd$ gravel & s&1 conta9+ gold1 appe>$ to me to h be5 =m$ "u ! sea close to ! bea*1 dur+ ! sl[ elevation ( ! l&3 ,s*midtmey]#aa rem>ks t 9 ,*ile gold is s\ght = 9 %elv+ banks at ! height ( "s feet on ! sides ( ! /reams1 & n 9 _! b$s1 z w\ld h be5 ! case _h ?is metal be5 deposit$ by common alluvial action4 ,v frequ5tly ! copp]-ores1 includ+ "s gold1 are associat$ ) abundant micace\s specul> iron4 ,gold is (t5 f\nd 9 iron-pyrites3 at two gold m9es at ,yaquil 7ne> ,nancagua71 ,i 0 in=m$ by ! proprietor t 9 "o ! gold 0 always associat$ ) copp]-pyrites1 & 9 ! o!r ) iron-pyrites3 9 ?is latt] case1 x is said t if ! ve9 ceases to conta9 iron-pyrites1 x is yet wor? :ile to cont9ue ! se>*1 b if ! iron-pyrites1 :5 x reappe>s1 is n aurif]\s1 x is bett] at once to give up work+ ! ve94 ,al?\gh ,i believe copp] & gold are mo/ frequ5tly f\nd 9 ! l[] granitic & metamorphic s*i/ose s]ies1 yet ^! metals occur bo? 9 ! porphyritic conglom]ate =mation 7z on ! flanks ( ! ,bell ( ,quillota & at ,jajuel71 & 9 ! sup]9cumb5t /rata4 ,at ,jajuel ,i 0 in=m$ t ! copp]-ore1 ) "s gold1 is f\nd only 9 ! gre5/ones & alt]$ feldspa?ic clay-slate1 :i* alt]nate ) ! purple porphyritic conglom]ate4 ,sev]al gold ve9s & "s ( copp]-ore are work$ 9 sev]al p>ts ( ! ,uspallata range1 bo? 9 ! metamorphos$ /rata1 :i* h be5 %[n to h be5 ( probably subsequ5t orig9 to ! ,neocomian or gypse\s =mation ( ! ma9 ,cordill]a1 & 9 ! intrusive &esitic rocks ( t range4 ,at ,los ,hornos 7,n4,e4 ( ,illapel71 likewise1 !re are num]\s ve9s ( copp]-pyrites & ( gold1 bo? 9 ! /rata ( ! gypse\s =mation & 9 ! inject$ hills ( &esite & v>i\s porphyries4 #i ,^! m9+ di/ricts are ,yaquil ne> ,nancagua1 :]e ! direction ( ! *ief ve9s1 to :i* only 9 all cases ,i ref]1 is nor? & s\?2 9 ! ,uspallata range1 ! prevail+ l9e is ,n4,n4,w4 & ,s4,s4,e42 9 ! ,c4 de ,prado1 x is ,n4,n4,w4 & ,s4,s4,e42 ne> ,illapel1 x is ,n4 by ,w4 & ,s4 by ,e42 at ,los ,hornos ! direction v>ies f betwe5 ,n4 & ,n4,w4 to ,s4 & ,s4,e44 #aj ,! same fact has be5 obs]v$ by ,mr4 ,taylor 9 ,cuba3 ,london ,phil4 ,j\rn41 vol4 xi1 p4 #ba4 #aa 8,travels 9 ,*ile10 p4 #bi4 ,silv]1 9 ! =m ( a *loride1 sulphuret1 or an amalgam1 or 9 its native /ate1 & associat$ ) lead & o!r metals1 & at ,arqu]os ) pure native copp]1 occurs *iefly 9 ! upp] great gypse\s or cretaceo-oolitic =mation :i* =ms probably ! ri*e/ mass 9 ,*ile4 ,we may in/ance ! m9+ di/ricts ( ,arqu]os ne> ,coquimbo1 & ( ne>ly ! :ole valley ( ,copiapo1 & ( ,iquique 7:]e ! pr9cipal ve9s run ,n4,e4 by ,e4 & ,s4,w4 by ,w471 9 ,p]u4 ,h5ce comes ,mol9a's rem>k1 t silv] is born 9 ! cold & solit>y des]ts ( ! ,upp] ,cordill]a4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 exceptions to ?is rule3 at ,p>al 7,s4,e4 ( ,coquimbo7 silv] is f\nd 9 ! porphyritic conglom]ate =mation2 z ,i suspect is likewise ! case at ,s4 ,p$ro de ,nolasko 9 ! ,peuqu5es ,pass4 ,ri* arg5tif]\s lead is f\nd 9 ! clay-slate ( ! ,uspallata range2 & ,i saw an old silv]-m9e 9 a hill ( sy5ite at ! foot ( ! ,bell ( ,quillota3 ,i 0 also assur$ t silv] has be5 f\nd 9 ! &esitic & porphyritic region betwe5 ! t[n ( ,copiapo & ! ,pacific4 ,i h /at$ 9 a previ\s "p ( ?is *apt]1 t 9 two neighb\r+ m9es at ,arqu]os ! ve9s 9 "o 7 productive :5 !y trav]s$ ! s+ul> gre5 s$im5t>y b$s1 & unproductive :5 cross+ ! r$di% b$s2 :]eas at ! o!r m9e exactly ! rev]se takes place2 ,i h also describ$ ! s+ul> & r>e case ( num]\s p>ticles ( native silv] & ( ! *loride be+ dissem9at$ 9 ! gre5 rock at ! di/ance ( a y>d f ! ve94 ,m]cury occurs ) silv] bo? at ,arqu]os & at ,copiapo3 at ! base ( ,c4 de los ,hornos 7,s4,e4 ( ,coquimbo1 a diff]5t place f ,los ,hornos1 be=e m5tion$7 ,i saw 9 a sy5itic rock num]\s qu>tzose ve9s1 conta9+ a little c9nab> 9 ne/s3 !re 7 "h o!r p>allel ve9s ( copp] & ( a f]rug9o-aurif]\s ore4 ,i believe t9 has nev] be5 f\nd 9 ,*ile4 ,f in=mation giv5 me by ,mr4 ,nixon ( ,yaquil1#ab & by o!rs1 x appe>s t 9 ,*ile ^? ve9s are g5]ally mo/ p]man5tly productive1 :i*1 consi/+ ( v>i\s m9]als 7sometimes diff]+ b slightly f ! surr\nd+ rocks71 include p>allel /r+s ri* 9 metals2 su* a ve9 is call$ a veta real4 ,m commonly ! m9es are work$ only :]e "o1 two1 or m ?9 ve9s or /r+s runn+ 9 a diff]5t direction1 int]sect a poor 8veta real30 x is unanim\sly believ$ t at su* po9ts ( int]section 7cruc]os71 ! quantity ( metal is mu* great] ?an t conta9$ 9 o!r p>ts ( ! int]sect+ ve9s4 ,9 "s cruc]os or po9ts ( int]section1 ! metals ext5d ev5 beyond ! walls ( ! ma91 broad1 /ony ve94 ,x is said t ! great] ! angle ( int]section1 ! great] ! produce2 & t ne>ly p>allel /r+s attract ea* o!r2 9 ! ,uspallata range1 ,i obs]v$ t num]\s ?9 auri-f]rug9\s ve9s repeat$ly ran into knots1 & !n bran*$ out aga94 ,i h already describ$ ! rem>kable mann] 9 :i* rocks ( ! ,uspallata range are indurat$ & black5$ 7z if by a bla/ ( gunp[d]7 to a consid]able di/ance f ! metallic ve9s4 #ab ,at ! ,durazno m9e1 ! gold is associat$ ) copp]-pyrites1 & ! ve9s conta9 l>ge prisms ( plumbago4 ,cry/allis$ c>bonate ( lime is "o ( ! commone/ m9]als 9 ! matrix ( ! ,*ilean ve9s4 ,f9ally1 ,i may obs]ve1 t ! pres5ce ( metallic ve9s seems obvi\sly connect$ ) ! pres5ce ( intrusive rocks1 & ) ! degree ( metamorphic action :i* ! diff]5t di/ricts ( ,*ile h und]gone4#ac ,su* metamorphos$ areas are g5]ally accompani$ by num]\s dikes & inject$ masses ( &esite & v>i\s porphyries3 ,i h 9 sev]al places trac$ ! metallif]\s ve9s f ! intrusive masses into ! encas+ /rata4 ,kn[+ t ! porphyritic conglom]ate =mation consi/s ( alt]nate /reams ( subm>9e lavas & ( ! debris ( anci5tly erupt$ rocks1 & t ! /rata ( ! upp] gypse\s =mation sometimes include subm>9e lavas1 & are compos$ ( tuffs1 mud/ones1 & m9]al sub/ances1 probably due to volcanic exhalations1--! ri*ness ( ^! /rata is highly rem>kable :5 comp>$ ) ! erupt$ b$s1 (t5 ( subm>9e orig91 b n metamorphos$1 :i* compose ! num]\s isl&s 9 ! ,pacific1 ,indian1 & ,atlantic ,oceans2 = 9 ^! isl&s metals are entirely abs5t1 & _! nature ev5 unkn[n to ! aborig9es4 #ac ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison & 8 fell[ travell]s h giv5 "s /rik+ facts on ?is subject 9 _! acc\nt ( ! ,ural ,m\nta9s 78,geolog4 ,proc410 vol4 iii1 p4 #gdh4 ,summ>y ( ! ,geological ,hi/ory ( ! ,*ilean ,cordill]a1 & ( ! ,s\!rn ,p>ts ( ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,we h se5 t ! %ores ( ! ,pacific1 = a space ( #a1bjj miles f ,tres ,montes to ,copiapo1 & ,i believe = a v mu* great] di/ance1 are compos$1 ) ! exception ( ! t]ti>y bas9s1 ( metamorphic s*i/s1 plutonic rocks1 & m or less alt]$ clay-slate4 ,on ! floor ( ! ocean ?us con/itut$1 va/ /reams ( v>i\s purpli% clay/one & gre5/one porphyries 7 p\r$ =?1 toge!r ) great alt]nat+ piles ( angul> & r\nd$ fragm5ts ( simil> rocks eject$ f ! subm>9e crat]s4 ,f ! compactness ( ! /reams & fragm5ts1 x is probable t1 ) ! exception ( "s di/ricts 9 ,nor!rn ,*ile1 ! eruptions took place 9 pr(\ndly deep wat]4 ,! orifices ( eruption appe> to h be5 /udd$ ov] a bread?1 ) "s outli]s1 ( f fifty to "o hundr$ miles3 & closely en\gh toge!r1 bo? nor? & s\?1 & ea/ & we/1 = ! eject$ matt] to =m a cont9u\s mass1 :i* 9 ,c5tral ,*ile is m ?an a mile 9 ?ickness4 ,i trac$ ?is m\ld-l mass1 = only #dej miles2 b judg+ f :at ,i saw at ,iquique1 f specim5s1 & f publi%$ acc\nts1 x appe>s to h a manifold great] l5g?4 ,9 ! basal p>ts ( ! s]ies1 & especially t[>ds ! flanks ( ! range1 mud1 s9ce conv]t$ into a feldspa?ic slaty rock1 & sometimes into gre5/one1 0 occasionally deposit$ betwe5 ! b$s ( erupt$ matt]3 ) ?is exception ! uni=mity ( ! porphyritic rocks is v rem>kable4 ,at ! p]iod :5 ! clay/one & gre5/one porphyries ne>ly or q ceas$ be+ erupt$1 t great pile ( /rata :i*1 f (t5 ab\nd+ ) gypsum1 ,i h g5]ally call$ ! gypse\s =mation 0 deposit$1 & feldspa?ic lavas1 toge!r ) o!r s+ul> volcanic rocks1 7 occasionally p\r$ =?3 ,i am f> f pret5d+ t any di/9ct l9e ( dem>cation c be drawn betwe5 ?is =mation & ! und]ly+ porphyries & porphyritic conglom]ate1 b 9 a mass ( su* great ?ickness1 & betwe5 b$s ( su* widely diff]5t m9]alogical nature1 "s division 0 necess>y4 ,at ab\t ! comm5cem5t ( ! gypse\s p]iod1 ! bottom ( ! sea "h seems fir/ to h be5 peopl$ by %ells1 n _m 9 k9d1 b ab\nd+ 9 individuals4 ,at ! ,p4 del ,inca ! fossils are emb$d$ ne> ! base ( ! =mation2 9 ! ,peuqu5es range1 at diff]5t levels1 halfway up1 & ev5 high] 9 ! s]ies2 h5ce1 9 ^! sections1 ! :ole pile ( /rata belongs to ! same p]iod3 ! same rem>k is applicable to ! b$s at ,copiapo1 :i* atta9 a ?ickness ( betwe5 sev5 & eight ?\s& feet4 ,! fossil %ells 9 ! ,cordill]a ( ,c5tral ,*ile1 9 ! op9ion ( all ! palontologi/s :o h exam9$ !m1 belong to ! e>li] /ages ( ! cretace\s sy/em2 :il/ 9 ,nor!rn ,*ile !re is a mo/ s+ul> mixture ( cretace\s & oolitic =ms3 f ! geological relations1 h[ev]1 ( ^! two di/ricts1 ,i _c b ?9k t !y all belong to ne>ly ! same epo*1 :i* ,i h provisionally call$ cretaceo-oolitic4 ,! /rata 9 ?is =mation1 compos$ ( black calc>e\s %aly-rocks ( r$ & :ite1 & sometimes silice\s s&/one1 ( co>se conglom]ates1 lime/ones1 tuffs1 d>k mud/ones1 & ^? s+ul> f9e-gra9$ rocks :i* ,i h call$ pseudo-hone/ones1 va/ b$s ( gypsum1 & _m o!r jasp]y & sc>cely describable v>ieties1 v>y & replace ea* o!r 9 %ort horizontal di/ances1 to an ext5t1 ,i believe1 unequall$ ev5 9 any t]ti>y bas94 ,mo/ ( ^! sub/ances are easily fusible1 & h app>5tly be5 d]iv$ ei!r f volcanoes /ill 9 quiet action1 or f ! attrition ( volcanic products4 ,if we picture to ourselves ! bottom ( ! sea1 r5d]$ unev5 9 an extreme degree1 ) num]\s crat]s1 "s few occasionally 9 eruption1 b ! great] numb] 9 ! /ate ( solfat>as1 dis*>g+ calc>e\s1 silice\s1 f]rug9\s matt]s1 & gypsum or sulphuric acid to an am\nt surpass+1 p]haps1 ev5 ! exi/+ sulphure\s volcanoes ( ,java1#ad we %all probably und]/& ! circum/ances "u :i* ?is s+ul> pile ( v>y+ /rata 0 accumulat$4 ,! %ells appe> to h liv$ at ! quiesc5t p]iods :5 only lime/one or calc>eo-argillace\s matt] 0 deposit+4 ,f ,dr4 ,gillies' acc\nt1 ?is gypse\s or cretaceo-oolitic =mation ext5ds z f> s\? z ! ,pass ( ,plan*on1 & ,i foll[$ x nor?w>d at int]vals = #ejj miles3 judg+ f ! "* ( ! b$s ) ! ,t]ebratula nigma1 at ,iquique1 x ext5ds f f\r to five hundr$ miles fur!r3 & p]haps ev5 = t5 degrees ( latitude nor? ( ,iquique to ! ,c]ro ,pasco1 n f> f ,lima3 aga91 we "k t a cretace\s =mation1 ab\nd+ ) fossils1 is l>gely develop$ nor? ( ! equator1 9 ,colombia3 9 ,ti]ra del ,fuego1 at ab\t ?is same p]iod1 a wide di/rict ( clay-slate 0 deposit$1 :i* 9 its m9]alogical *>act]s & ext]nal features1 might be comp>$ to ! ,silurian regions ( ,nor? ,wales4 ,! gypse\s =mation1 l t ( ! porphyritic breccia-conglom]ate on :i* x re/s1 is ( inconsid]able bread?2 ?\gh ( great] bread? 9 ,nor!rn ?an 9 ,c5tral ,*ile4 #ad ,von ,bu*'s 8,descript4 ,physique des ,iles ,can>ies10 p4 #dbh4 ,z ! fossil %ells 9 ?is =mation are cov]$1 9 ! ,peuqu5es ridge1 by a great ?ickness ( /rata2 at ! ,pu5te del ,inca1 by at lea/ five ?\s& feet2 at ,coquimbo1 ?\gh ! sup]position !re is less pla9ly se51 by ab\t six ?\s& feet2 & at ,copiapo1 c]ta9ly by five or six ?\s&1 & probably by sev5 ?\s& feet 7! same species !re recurr+ 9 ! upp] & l[] p>ts ( ! s]ies71 we may feel confid5t t ! bottom ( ! sea subsid$ dur+ ?is cretaceo-oolitic p]iod1 s z to all[ ( ! accumulation ( ! sup]9cumb5t subm>9e /rata4 ,?is conclusion is confirm$ by1 or p]haps r expla9s1 ! pres5ce ( ! _m b$s at _m levels ( co>se conglom]ate1 ! well-r\nd$ pebbles 9 :i* we _c believe 7 transport$ 9 v deep wat]4 ,ev5 ! und]ly+ porphyries at ,copiapo4 ) _! highly amygdaloidal surfaces1 d n appe> to h fl[$ "u great pressure4 ,! great s9k+ movem5t ?us pla9ly indicat$1 mu/ h ext5d$ 9 a nor? & s\? l9e = at lea/ f\r hundr$ miles1 & probably 0 co-ext5sive ) ! gypse\s =mation4 ,! b$s ( conglom]ate j ref]r$ to1 & ! extraord9>ily num]\s silicifi$ trunks ( fir-trees at ,los ,hornos1 p]haps at ,coquimbo & at two di/ant po9ts 9 ! valley ( ,copiapo1 indicate t l& exi/$ at ?is p]iod 9 ! neighb\rhood4 ,?is l&1 or isl&s1 9 ! nor!rn "p ( ! di/rict ( ,copiapo1 mu/ h be5 almo/ exclusively compos$1 judg+ f ! nature ( ! pebbles ( granite3 9 ! s\!rn p>ts ( ,copiapo1 x mu/ h be5 ma9ly =m$ ( clay/one porphyries1 ) "s mica-s*i/1 & ) mu* s&/one & jasp]y rocks exactly l ! rocks 9 ! gypse\s =mation1 & no d\bt belong+ to its basal s]ies4 ,9 sev]al o!r places also1 dur+ ! accumulation ( ! gypse\s =mation1 its basal p>ts & ! und]ly+ porphyritic conglom]ate mu/ likewise h be5 already p>tially upheav$ & expos$ to we> & te>2 ne> ! ,pu5te del ,inca & at ,coquimbo1 !re mu/ h exi/$ masses ( mica-s*i/ or "s su* rock1 :5ce 7 d]iv$ ! _m small pebbles ( opaque qu>tz4 ,x foll[s f ^! facts1 t 9 "s p>ts ( ! ,cordill]a ! upp] b$s ( ! gypse\s =mation mu/ lie uncon=mably on ! l[] b$s2 & ! :ole gypse\s =mation1 9 p>ts1 uncon=mably on ! porphyritic conglom]ate2 al?\gh ,i saw no su* cases1 yet 9 _m places ! gypse\s =mation is entirely abs5t2 & ?is1 al?\gh no d\bt g5]ally caus$ by q subsequ5t d5udation1 may 9 o!rs be due to ! und]ly+ porphyritic conglom]ate hav+ be5 locally upheav$ be=e ! deposition ( ! gypse\s /rata1 & ?us hav+ become ! s\rce ( ! pebbles ( porphyry emb$d$ 9 !m4 ,9 ! porphyritic conglom]ate =mation1 9 its l[] & middle p>ts1 !re is v r>ely any evid5ce1 ) ! exception ( ! small qu>tz pebbles at ,jajuel ne> ,aconcagua1 & ( ! s+le pebble ( granite at ,copiapo1 ( ! exi/5ce ( neighb\r+ l&3 9 ! upp] p>ts1 h[ev]1 & especially 9 ! di/rict ( ,copiapo1 ! numb] ( ?or\ghly well-r\nd$ pebbles ( compact porphyries make me believe1 t1 z dur+ ! prolong$ accumulation ( ! gypse\s =mation ! l[] b$s _h already be5 locally upheav$ & expos$ to we> & te>1 s x 0 ) ! porphyritic conglom]ate4 ,h5ce 9 foll[+ ?us f> ! geological hi/ory ( ! ,cordill]a1 x may be inf]r$ t ! b$ ( a deep & op51 or ne>ly op51 ocean 0 fill$ up by porphyritic eruptions1 aid$ probably by "s g5]al & "s local elevations1 to t comp>atively %all[ level at :i* ! cretaceo-oolitic %ells fir/ liv$4 ,at ?is p]iod1 ! subm>9e crat]s yield$ at int]vals a prodigi\s supply ( gypsum & o!r m9]al exhalations1 & occasionally1 9 c]ta9 places p\r$ =? lavas1 *iefly ( a feldspa?ic nature3 at ?is p]iod1 isl&s clo!d ) fir-trees & compos$ ( porphyries1 prim>y rocks1 & ! l[] gypse\s /rata _h already be5 locally upheav$1 & expos$ to ! action ( ! waves2--! g5]al movem5t1 h[ev]1 at ?is "t hav+ be5 ov] a v wide area1 "o ( sl[ subsid5ce1 prolong$ till ! b$ ( ! sea sank sev]al ?\s& feet4 ,9 ,c5tral ,*ile1 aft] ! deposition ( a great ?ickness ( ! gypse\s /rata1 & aft] _! upheaval1 by :i* ! ,cumbre & adjo9+ ranges 7 =m$1 a va/ pile ( tuface\s matt] & subm>9e lava 0 accumulat$1 :]e ! ,uspallata *a9 n[ /&s2 also aft] ! deposition & upheaval ( ! equival5t gypse\s /rata ( ! ,peuqu5es range1 ! great ?ick mass ( conglom]ate 9 ! valley ( ,t5uyan 0 accumulat$3 dur+ ! deposition ( ! ,uspallata /rata1 we "k absolutely1 f ! buri$ v]tical trees1 t !re 0 a subsid5ce ( "s ?\s& feet2 & we may inf] f ! nature ( ! conglom]ate 9 ! valley ( ,t5uyan1 t a simil> & p]haps contemporane\s movem5t !re took place4 ,we h1 !n1 evid5ce ( a second great p]iod ( subsid5ce2 &1 z 9 ! case ( ! subsid5ce :i* accompani$ ! accumulation ( ! cretaceo-oolitic /rata1 s ?is latt] subsid5ce appe>s to h be5 complicat$ by alt]nate or local elevatory movem5t-- = ! v]tical trees1 buri$ 9 ! mid/ ( ! ,uspallata /rata1 mu/ h gr[n on dry l&1 =m$ by ! upheaval ( ! l[] subm>9e b$s4 ,pres5tly ,i %all h to recapitulate ! facts1 %[+ t at a /ill lat] p]iod1 namely1 at ne>ly ! comm5cem5t ( ! old t]ti>y deposits ( ,patagonia & ( ,*ile1 ! cont95t /ood at ne>ly its pres5t level1 & !n1 = ! ?ird "t1 sl[ly subsid$ to ! am\nt ( sev]al hundr$ feet1 & 0 aft]w>ds sl[ly re-uplift$ to its pres5t level4 ,! highe/ peaks ( ! ,cordill]a appe> to consi/ ( active or m commonly dormant volcanoes1--su* z ,tupungato1 ,maypu1 & ,aconcagua1 :i* latt] /&s #bc1jjj feet above ! level ( ! sea1 & _m o!rs4 ,! next highe/ peaks are =m$ ( ! gypse\s & porphyritic /rata1 ?r[n into v]tical or highly incl9$ positions4 ,besides ! elevation ?us ga9$ by angul> displacem5ts1 ,i inf]1 )\t any hesitation--f ! /ratifi$ gravel-fr+es :i* g5tly slope up ! valleys ( ! ,cordill]a f ! gravel-capp$ pla9s at _! base1 :i* latt] are connect$ ) ! pla9s1 /ill cov]$ ) rec5t %ells on ! coa/--t ?is great range has be5 upheav$ 9 mass by a sl[ movem5t1 to an am\nt ( at lea/ #h1jjj feet4 ,9 ! ,despoblado ,valley1 nor? ( ,copiapo1 ! horizontal elevation1 judg+ f ! compact1 /ratifi$ tuface\s deposit1 capp+ ! di/ant m\nta9s at correspond+ heights1 0 ab\t t5 ?\s& feet4 ,x is v possible1 or r probable1 t ?is elevation 9 mass may n h be5 /rictly horizontal1 b m en]getic "u ! ,cordill]a1 ?an t[>ds ! coa/ on ei!r side2 nev]!less1 movem5ts ( ?is k9d may be conv5i5tly di/+ui%$ f ^? by :i* /rata h be5 abruptly brok5 & upturn$4 ,:5 view+ ! ,cordill]a1 be=e hav+ read ,mr4 ,hopk9s's pr(\nd 8,rese>*es on ,physical ,geology10 ! conviction 0 impress$ on me1 t ! angul> dislocations1 h[ev] viol5t1 7 q subord9ate 9 importance to ! great upw>d movem5t 9 mass1 & t !y _h be5 caus$ by ! edges ( ! wide fissures1 :i* necess>ily result$ f ! t5sion ( ! elevat$ area1 hav+ yield$ to ! inw>d ru% ( fluidifi$ rock1 & hav+ ?us be5 upturn$4 ,! ridges =m$ by ! angul>ly upheav$ /rata are seldom ( great l5g?3 9 ! c5tral p>ts ( ! ,cordill]a !y are g5]ally p>allel to ea* o!r1 & run 9 nor? & s\? l9es2 b t[>ds ! flanks !y (t5 ext5d m or less obliquely4 ,! angul> displacem5t has be5 mu* m viol5t 9 ! c5tral ?an 9 ! ext]ior ma9 l9es2 b x has likewise be5 viol5t 9 "s ( ! m9or l9es on ! extreme flanks4 ,! viol5ce has be5 v unequal on ! same %ort l9es2 ! cru/ hav+ app>5tly t5d$ to yield on c]ta9 po9ts along ! l9es ( fissures4 ,^! po9ts1 ,i h endeav\r$ to %[1 7 probably fir/ foci ( eruption1 & aft]w>ds ( inject$ masses ( porphyry & &esite4#ae ,! close simil>ity ( ! &esitic granites & porphyries1 ?r\gh\t ,*ile1 ,ti]ra del ,fuego1 & ev5 9 ,p]u1 is v rem>kable4 ,! preval5ce ( feldsp> cleav+ l albite1 is common n only to ! &esites1 b 7z ,i inf] f ! high au?ority ( ,pr(essor ,g4 ,rose1 z well z f my own measurem5ts7 to ! v>i\s clay/one & gre5/one porphyries1 & to ! tra*ytic lavas ( ! ,cordill]a4 ,! &esitic rocks h 9 mo/ cases be5 ! la/ inject$ ones1 & !y probably =m a cont9u\s dome "u ?is great range3 !y /& 9 intimate relation%ip ) ! mod]n lavas2 & !y seem to h be5 ! imm$iate ag5t 9 metamorphos+ ! porphyritic conglom]ate =mation1 & (t5 likewise ! gypse\s /rata1 to ! extraord9>y ext5t to :i* !y h suff]$4 #ae ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison & 8 companions /ate 78,geolog4 ,proc410 vol4 iii1 p4 #gdg71 t no true granite appe>s 9 ! high] ,ural ,m\nta9s2 b t sy5itic gre5/one--a rock closely analog\s to our &esite--is f> ! mo/ abundant ( ! intrusive masses4 ,) respect to ! age at :i* ! sev]al p>allel ridges compos+ ! ,cordill]a 7 up?r[n1 ,i h little evid5ce4 ,_m ( !m may h be5 contemporane\sly elevat$ & inject$ 9 ! same mann]#af z 9 volcanic ar*ipelagoes lavas are contemporane\sly eject$ on ! p>allel l9es ( fissure4 ,b ! pebbles app>5tly d]iv$ f ! we> & te> ( ! porphyritic conglom]ate =mation1 :i* are occasionally pres5t 9 ! upp] p>ts ( ?is same =mation1 & are (t5 pres5t 9 ! gypse\s =mation1 toge!r ) ! pebbles f ! basal p>ts ( ! latt] =mation 9 its upp] /rata1 r5d] x almo/ c]ta9 t portions1 we may inf] ridges1 ( ^! two =mations 7 successively upheav$4 ,9 ! case ( ! gigantic ,portillo range1 we may feel almo/ c]ta9 t a preexi/+ granitic l9e 0 uprais$ 7n by a s+le bl[1 z %[n by ! highly incl9$ basaltic /reams 9 ! valley on its ea/]n flank7 at a p]iod long subsequ5t to ! upheavem5t ( ! p>allel ,peuqu5es range4#ag ,aga91 subsequ5tly to ! upheavem5t ( ! ,cumbre *a91 t ( ,uspallata 0 =m$ & elevat$2 & aft]w>ds1 ,i may add1 9 ! pla9 ( ,uspallata1 b$s ( s& & gravel 7 viol5tly up?r[n4 ,! mann] 9 :i* ! v>i\s k9ds ( porphyries & &esites h be5 inject$ "o into ! o!r1 & 9 :i* ! inf9itely num]\s dikes ( v>i\s composition int]sect ea* o!r1 pla9ly %[ t ! /ratifi$ cru/ has be5 /ret*$ & yield$ _m times ov] ! same po9ts4 ,) respect to ! age ( ! axes ( elevation betwe5 ! ,pacific & ! ,cordill]a1 ,i "k little3 b !re are "s l9es :i* mu/--namely1 ^? runn+ nor? & s\? 9 ,*iloe1 ^? eight or n9e ea/ & we/1 p>allel1 f>-ext5d$1 mo/ symmetrical unicl9al l9es at ,p4 ,rum5a1 & ! %ort ,n4,w4-,s4,e4 & ,n4,e4-,s4,w4 l9es at ,concepcion--h be5 upheav$ long aft] ! =mation ( ! ,cordill]a4 ,ev5 dur+ ! e>?quake ( #ahce1 :5 ! l9e> nor? & s\? islet ( ,/4 ,m>y 0 uplift$ sev]al feet above ! surr\nd+ area1 we p]haps see "o feeble /ep 9 ! =mation ( a subord9ate m\nta9-axis4 ,9 "s cases1 moreov]1 = in/ance1 ne> ! ba?s ( ,cauqu5es1 ,i 0 =cibly /ruck ) ! small size ( ! brea*es cut ?r\gh ! ext]ior m\nta9-ranges1 comp>$ ) ! size ( ! same valleys high] up :]e ent]+ ! ,cordill]a2 & ?is circum/ance appe>$ to me sc>cely explicable1 except on ! idea ( ! ext]ior l9es hav+ be5 subsequ5tly up?r[n1 & !re=e hav+ be5 expos$ to a less am\nt ( d5udation4 ,f ! mann] 9 :i* ! fr+es ( gravel are prolong$ 9 unbrok5 slopes up ! valleys ( ! ,cordill]a1 ,i inf] t mo/ ( ! great] dislocations took place dur+ ! e>li] p>ts ( ! great elevation 9 mass3 ,i h1 h[ev]1 else:]e giv5 a case1 & ,m4 de ,ts*udi#ah has giv5 ano!r1 ( a ridge ?r[n up 9 ,p]u across ! b$ ( a riv]1 & consequ5tly aft] ! f9al elevation ( ! c\ntry above ! level ( ! sea4 #af 8,volcanic ,isl&s10 etc47 #ag ,i h endeav\r$ to %[ 9 my 8,j\rnal0 7#bnd edit41 p4 #cba71 t ! s+ul> fact ( ! riv]1 :i* dra9s ! valley betwe5 ^! two ranges1 pass+ ?r\gh ! ,portillo & high] l9e1 is expla9$ by its sl[ & subsequ5t elevation4 ,!re are _m analog\s cases 9 ! dra9age ( riv]s3 see ,ed9burgh ,new ,phil4 ,j\rnal1 vol4 xxviii1 pp4 #cc & #dd4 #ah 8,reise 9 ,p]u10 ,b& #b1 s4 #h3 ,au?or's 8,j\rnal10 #bnd edit41 p4 #cei4 ,asc5d+ to ! old] t]ti>y =mations1 ,i w n aga9 recapitulate ! rem>ks already giv5 at ! end ( ! ,fif? ,*apt]1--on _! great ext5t1 especially along ! %ores ( ! ,atlantic--on _! antiquity1 p]haps correspond+ ) t ( ! eoc5e deposits ( ,europe1--on ! almo/ entire dissimil>ity1 ?\gh ! =mations are app>5tly contemporane\s1 ( ! fossils f ! ea/]n & we/]n coa/s1 z is likewise ! case1 ev5 9 a /ill m m>k$ degree1 ) ! %ells n[ liv+ 9 ^! opposite ?\gh approximate seas1--on ! climate ( ?is p]iod n hav+ be5 m tropical ?an :at might h be5 expect$ f ! latitudes ( ! places "u :i* ! deposits occur2 a circum/ance r5d]$ well wor?y ( notice1 f ! contra/ ) :at is kn[n to h be5 ! case dur+ ! old] t]ti>y p]iods ( ,europe1 & likewise f ! fact ( ! s\!rn hemisph]e hav+ suff]$ at a mu* lat] p]iod1 app>5tly at ! same "t ) ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 a cold] or m equable temp]ature1 z %[n by ! zones =m]ly affect$ by ice-action4 ,nor w ,i recapitulate ! pro(s ( ! bottom ( ! sea1 bo? on ! ea/]n & we/]n coa/1 hav+ subsid$ sev5 or eight hundr$ feet dur+ ?is t]ti>y p]iod2 ! movem5t hav+ app>5tly be5 co-ext5sive1 or ne>ly co-ext5sive1 ) ! deposits ( ?is age4 ,nor w ,i aga9 give ! facts & reason+ on :i* ! proposition 0 f\nd$1 t :5 ! b$ ( ! sea is ei!r /ation>y or ris+1 circum/ances are f> less fav\rable ?an :5 its level is s9k+1 to ! accumulation ( con*if]\s deposits ( suffici5t ?ickness1 ext5sion1 & h>dness to resi/1 :5 upheav$1 ! ord9>y va/ am\nt ( d5udation4 ,we h se5 t ! highly rem>kable fact ( ! abs5ce ( any ext5sive =mations conta9+ rec5t %ells1 ei!r on ! ea/]n or we/]n coa/s ( ! cont95t1--?\gh ^! coa/s n[ ab\nd ) liv+ mollusca1--?\gh !y are1 & app>5tly h always be51 z fav\rable = ! deposition ( s$im5t z !y 7 :5 ! t]ti>y =mations 7 copi\sly deposit$1--& ?\gh !y h be5 upheav$ to an am\nt q suffici5t to br+ up /rata f ! dep?s ! mo/ f]tile = animal life--c be expla9$ 9 accordance ) ! above proposition4 ,z a d$uction1 x 0 also attempt$ to be %[n1 fir/1 t ! want ( close sequ5ce 9 ! fossils ( successive =mations1 & ( successive /ages 9 ! same =mation1 w\ld foll[ f ! improbability ( ! same area cont9u+ sl[ly to subside f "o :ole p]iod to ano!r1 or ev5 dur+ a s+le entire p]iod2 & secondly1 t c]ta9 epo*s hav+ be5 fav\rable at di/ant po9ts1 9 ! same qu>t] ( ! _w = ! syn*ron\s accumulation ( fossilif]\s /rata1 w\ld foll[ f movem5ts ( subsid5ce hav+ app>5tly1 l ^? ( elevation1 contemporane\sly affect$ v l>ge areas4 ,!re is ano!r po9t :i* des]ves "s notice1 namely1 ! analogy betwe5 ! upp] p>ts ( ! ,patagonian t]ti>y =mation1 z well z ( ! upp] possibly contemporane\s b$s at ,*iloe & ,concepcion1 ) ! great gypse\s =mation ( ,cordill]a2 = 9 bo? =mations1 ! rocks1 9 _! fusible nature1 9 _! conta9+ gypsum1 & 9 _m o!r *>act]s1 %[ a connection1 ei!r intimate or remote1 ) volcanic action2 & z ! /rata 9 bo? 7 accumulat$ dur+ subsid5ce1 x appe>s at fir/ natural to connect ?is s9k+ movem5t ) a /ate ( high activity 9 ! neighb\r+ volcanoes4 ,dur+ ! cretaceo-oolitic p]iod ?is c]ta9ly appe>s to h be5 ! case at ! ,pu5te del ,inca1 judg+ f ! numb] ( int]calat$ lava-/reams 9 ! l[] #c1jjj feet ( /rata2 b g5]ally1 ! volcanic orifices seem at ?is "t to h exi/$ z subm>9e solfat>as1 & 7 c]ta9ly quiesc5t comp>$ ) _! /ate dur+ ! accumulation ( ! porphyritic conglom]ate =mation4 ,dur+ ! deposition ( ! t]ti>y /rata we "k t at ,s4 ,cruz1 deluges ( basaltic lava 7 p\r$ =?2 b z ^! lie 9 ! upp] "p ( ! s]ies1 x is possible t ! subsid5ce may at t "t h ceas$3 at ,*iloe1 ,i 0 unable to asc]ta9 to :at "p ( ! s]ies ! pile ( lavas belong$4 ,! ,uspallata tuffs & great /reams ( subm>9e lavas1 7 probably int]m$iate 9 age betwe5 ! cretaceo-oolitic & old] t]ti>y =mations1 & we "k f ! buri$ trees t !re 0 a great subsid5ce dur+ _! accumulation2 b ev5 9 ?is case1 ! subsid5ce may n h be5 /rictly contemporane\s ) ! great volcanic eruptions1 = we mu/ believe 9 at lea/ "o int]calat$ p]iod ( elevation1 dur+ :i* ! gr\nd 0 uprais$ on :i* ! n[ buri$ trees grew4 ,i h be5 l$ to make ^! rem>ks1 & to ?r[ "s d\bt on ! /rict contemporane\sness ( high volcanic activity & movem5ts ( subsid5ce1 f ! conviction impress$ on my m9d by ! /udy ( coral =mations1#ai t ^! two actions d n g5]ally g on syn*ron\sly2--on ! contr>y1 t 9 volcanic di/ricts1 subsid5ce ceases z soon z ! orifices bur/ =? into r5ew$ action1 & only recomm5ces :5 !y aga9 h become dormant4 #ai 8,! ,/ructure1 etc41 ( ,coral ,reefs40 ,at a lat] p]iod1 ! ,pampean mud1 ( e/u>y orig91 0 deposit$ ov] a wide area1--9 "o di/rict con=mably on ! und]ly+ old t]ti>y /rata1 & 9 ano!r di/rict uncon=mably on !m1 aft] _! upheaval & d5udation4 ,dur+ & be=e ! accumulation1 h[ev]1 ( ^! old t]ti>y /rata1 &1 !re=e1 at a v remote p]iod1 s$im5t1 /rik+ly resembl+ t ( ! ,pampas1 0 deposit$2 %[+ dur+ h[ long a "t 9 ?is case ! same ag5cies 7 at "w 9 ! same area4 ,! deposition ( ! ,pampean e/u>y mud 0 accompani$1 at lea/ 9 ! s\!rn p>ts ( ! ,pampas1 by an elevatory movem5t1 s t ! ,m4 ,h]moso b$s probably 7 accumulat$ aft] ! upheaval ( ^? r\nd ! ,s4 ,v5tana2 & ^? at ,p4 ,alta aft] ! upheaval ( ! ,m4 ,h]moso /rata2 b !re is "s reason to suspect t "o p]iod ( subsid5ce int]v5$1 dur+ :i* mud 0 deposit$ ov] ! co>se s& ( ! ,b>rancas de ,s4 ,gregorio1 & on ! high] p>ts ( ,b&a ,ori5tal4 ,! mammif]\s animals *>act]i/ic ( ?is =mation1 _m ( :i* diff] z mu* f ! pres5t inhabitants ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 z d ! eoc5e mammals ( ,europe f ! pres5t ones ( t qu>t] ( ! globe1 c]ta9ly co-exi/$ at ,b4 ,blanca ) tw5ty species ( mollusca1 "o balanus1 & two corals1 all n[ liv+ 9 ! adjo9+ sea3 ?is is likewise ! case 9 ,patagonia ) ! ,macrau*5ia1 :i* co-exi/$ ) eight %ells1 /ill ! commone/ k9ds on t coa/4 ,i w n repeat :at ,i h else:]e said1 on ! place ( habitation1 food1 wide range1 & ext9ction ( ! num]\s gigantic mammif]s1 :i* at ?is late p]iod inhabit$ ! two ,am]icas4 ,! nature & gr\p+ ( ! %ells emb$d$ 9 ! old t]ti>y =mations ( ,patagonia & ,*ile %[ u1 t ! cont95t at t p]iod mu/ h /ood only a few fa?oms bel[ its pres5t level1 & t aft]w>ds x subsid$ ov] a wide area1 sev5 or eight hundr$ feet4 ,! mann] 9 :i* x has s9ce be5 rebr\ght up to its actual level1 0 describ$ 9 detail 9 ! ,fir/ & ,second ,*apt]s4 ,x 0 !re %[n t rec5t %ells are f\nd on ! %ores ( ! ,atlantic1 f ,ti]ra del ,fuego nor?w>d = a space ( at lea/ #a1ahj nautical miles1 & at ! height ( ab\t #ajj feet 9 ,la ,plata1 & ( #djj feet 9 ,patagonia4 ,! elevatory movem5ts on ?is side ( ! cont95t h be5 sl[2 & ! coa/ ( ,patagonia1 up to ! height 9 "o "p ( #iej feet & 9 ano!r ( #a1bjj feet1 is modell$ into eight great1 /ep-l1 gravel-capp$ pla9s1 ext5d+ = hundr$s ( miles ) ! same heights2 ?is fact %[s t ! p]iods ( d5udation 7:i*1 judg+ f ! am\nt ( matt] remov$1 mu/ h be5 long cont9u$7 & ( elevation 7 syn*ron\s ov] surpris+ly great l5g?s ( coa/s4 ,on ! %ores ( ! ,pacific1 uprais$ %ells ( rec5t species1 g5]ally1 ?\gh n always1 9 ! same proportional numb]s z 9 ! adjo9+ sea1 h actually be5 f\nd ov] a nor? & s\? space ( #b1jge miles1 & !re is reason to believe t !y occur ov] a space ( #b1dhj miles4 ,! elevation on ?is we/]n side ( ! cont95t has n be5 equable2 at ,valp>aiso1 )9 ! p]iod dur+ :i* uprais$ %ells h rema9$ undecay$ on ! surface1 x has be5 #a1cjj feet1 :il/ at ,coquimbo1 #bjj miles nor?w>d1 x has be5 )9 ?is same p]iod only #beb feet4 ,at ,lima1 ! l& has be5 uplift$ at lea/ #hj feet s9ce ,indian man inhabit$ t di/rict2 b ! level )9 hi/orical times app>5tly has subsid$4 ,at ,coquimbo1 9 a height ( #cfd feet1 ! elevation has be5 int]rupt$ by five p]iods ( comp>ative re/4 ,at sev]al places ! l& has be5 lately1 or /ill is1 ris+ bo? ins5sibly & by sudd5 />ts ( a few feet dur+ e>?quake-%ocks2 ?is %[s t ^! two k9ds ( upw>d movem5t are intimately connect$ toge!r4 ,= a space ( #gge miles1 uprais$ rec5t %ells are f\nd on ! two opposite sides ( ! cont95t2 & 9 ! s\!rn half ( ?is space1 x may be safely inf]r$ f ! slope ( ! l& up to ! ,cordill]a1 & f ! %ells f\nd 9 ! c5tral "p ( ,ti]ra del ,fuego1 & high up ! ,riv] ,santa ,cruz1 t ! entire bread? ( ! cont95t has be5 uplift$4 ,f ! g5]al occurr5ce on bo? coa/s ( successive l9es ( esc>pm5ts1 ( s&-dunes & m>ks ( erosion1 we mu/ conclude t ! elevatory movem5t has be5 normally int]rupt$ by p]iods1 :5 ! l& ei!r 0 /ation>y1 or :5 x rose at s sl[ a rate z n to resi/ ! av]age d5ud+ p[] ( ! waves1 or :5 x subsid$4 ,9 ! case ( ! pres5t high sea-cliffs ( ,patagonia & 9 o!r analog\s in/ances1 we h se5 t ! difficulty 9 und]/&+ h[ /rata c be remov$ at ^? dep?s "u ! sea1 at :i* ! curr5ts & oscillations ( ! wat] are deposit+ a smoo? surface ( mud1 s&1 & sift$ pebbles1 leads to ! suspicion t ! =mation or d5udation ( su* cliffs has be5 accompani$ by a s9k+ movem5t4 ,9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 ev]y?+ has tak5 place on a gr& scale1 & all geological ph5om5a are /ill 9 active op]ation4 ,we "k h[ viol5t at ! pres5t day ! e>?quakes are1 we h se5 h[ great an area is n[ ris+1 & ! pla9s ( t]ti>y orig9 are ( va/ dim5sions2 an almo/ /raight l9e c be drawn f ,ti]ra del ,fuego = #a1fjj miles nor?w>d1 & probably = a mu* great] di/ance1 :i* %all int]sect no =mation old] ?an ! ,patagonian deposits2 s equable has be5 ! upheaval ( ! b$s1 t ?r\gh\t ?is long l9e1 n a fault 9 ! /ratification or abrupt dislocation 0 any:]e obs]vable4 ,look+ to ! basal1 metamorphic1 & plutonic rocks ( ! cont95t1 ! areas =m$ ( !m are likewise va/2 & _! planes ( cleavage & foliation /rike ov] surpris+ly great spaces 9 uni=m directions4 ,! ,cordill]a1 ) its p9nacles "h & !re ris+ upw>ds ( tw5ty ?\s& feet above ! level ( ! sea1 ranges 9 an unbrok5 l9e f ,ti]ra del ,fuego1 app>5tly to ! ,arctic circle4 ,?is gr& range has suff]$ bo? ! mo/ viol5t dislocations1 & sl[1 ?\gh gr&1 upw>d & d[nw>d movem5ts 9 mass2 ,i "k n :e!r ! spectacle ( its imm5se valleys1 ) m\nta9-masses ( once liquifi$ & intrusive rocks n[ b>$ & int]sect$1 or :e!r ! view ( ^? pla9s1 compos$ ( %+le & s$im5t h5ce d]iv$1 :i* /ret* to ! bord]s ( ! ,atlantic ,ocean1 is be/ adapt$ to excite our a/oni%m5t at ! am\nt ( we> & te> :i* ^! m\nta9s h und]gone4 ,! ,cordill]a f ,ti]ra del ,fuego to ,mexico1 is p5etrat$ by volcanic orifices1 & ^? n[ 9 action are connect$ 9 great tra9s4 ,! intimate relation betwe5 _! rec5t eruptions & ! sl[ elevation ( ! cont95t 9 mass1#bj appe>s to me highly important1 = no explanation ( ! "o ph5om5on c be consid]$ z satisfactory :i* is n applicable to ! o!r4 ,! p]man5ce ( ! volcanic action on ?is *a9 ( m\nta9s is1 also1 a /rik+ fact2 fir/1 we h ! deluges ( subm>9e lavas alt]nat+ ) ! porphyritic conglom]ate /rata1 !n occasionally feldspa?ic /reams & abundant m9]al exhalations dur+ ! gypse\s or cretaceo-oolitic p]iod3 !n ! eruptions ( ! ,uspallata range1 & at an anci5t b unkn[n p]iod1 :5 ! sea came up to ! ea/]n foot ( ! ,cordill]a1 /reams ( basaltic lava at ! foot ( ! ,portillo range2 !n ! old t]ti>y eruptions2 & la/ly1 !re are "h & !re among/ ! m\nta9s1 mu* worn & app>5tly v anci5t volcanic =mations )\t any crat]s2 !re are1 also1 crat]s q ext9ct1 & o!rs 9 ! condition ( solfat>as1 & o!rs occasionally or habitually 9 fi]ce action4 ,h5ce x w\ld appe> t ! ,cordill]a has be51 probably ) "s quiesc5t p]iods1 a s\rce ( volcanic matt] f an epo* ant]ior to our cretaceo-oolitic =mation to ! pres5t day2 & n[ ! e>?quakes1 daily recurr5t on "s "p ( ! we/]n coa/1 give little hope t ! subt]ranean en]gy is exp5d$4 #bj ,on ! ,connection ( c]ta9 ,volcanic ,ph5om5a 9 ,s\? ,am]ica3 8,geolog4 ,transact410 vol4 v1 p4 #fji4 ,recurr+ to ! evid5ce by :i* x 0 %[n t "s at lea/ ( ! p>allel ridges1 :i* toge!r compose ! ,cordill]a1 7 successively & sl[ly up?r[n at widely diff]5t p]iods2 & t ! :ole range c]ta9ly once1 & almo/ c]ta9ly twice1 subsid$ "s ?\s& feet1 & be+ !n br\ght up by a sl[ movem5t 9 mass1 aga91 dur+ ! old t]ti>y =mations1 subsid$ sev]al hundr$ feet1 & aga9 0 br\ght up to its pres5t level by a sl[ & (t5 int]rupt$ movem5t2 we see h[ oppos$ is ?is complicat$ hi/ory ( *anges sl[ly effect$1 to ! views ( ^? geologi/s :o believe t ?is great m\nta9-*a9 0 =m$ 9 late times by a s+le bl[4 ,i h endeav\r$ else:]e to %[1#ba t ! excessively di/urb$ condition ( ! /rata 9 ! ,cordill]a1 s f> f indicat+ s+le p]iods ( extreme viol5ce1 pres5ts insup]able difficulties1 except on ! admission t ! masses ( once liquifi$ rocks ( ! axes 7 repeat$ly inject$ ) int]vals suffici5tly long = _! successive cool+ & consolidation4 ,f9ally1 if we look to ! analogies drawn f ! *anges n[ 9 progress 9 ! e>?'s cru/1 :e!r to ! mann] 9 :i* volcanic matt] is erupt$1 or to ! mann] 9 :i* ! l& is hi/orically kn[n to h ris5 & sunk3 or aga91 if we look to ! va/ am\nt ( d5udation :i* e "p ( ! ,cordill]a has obvi\sly suff]$1 ! *anges ?r\gh :i* x has be5 br\ght into its pres5t condition1 w appe> nei!r to h be5 too sl[ly effect$1 nor to h be5 too complicat$4 #ba 8,geolog4 ,transact410 vol4 v1 p4 #fbf4 ,,note4--,z1 bo? 9 ,france & ,engl&1 translations ( a passage 9 ,pr(essor ,ehr5b]g's ,memoir1 (t5 ref]r$ to 9 ! ,f\r? ,*apt] ( ?is volume1 h appe>$1 imply+ t ,pr(essor ,ehr5b]g believes1 f ! "* ( ! infusoria1 t ! ,pampean =mation 0 deposit$ by a sea-debacle ru%+ ov] ! l&1 ,i may /ate1 on ! au?ority ( a lett] to me1 t ^! translations are incorrect4 ,! foll[+ is ! passage 9 "q3--8,dur* ,bea*tung d] mikroscopis*5 ,=m5 hat si* nun fe//ell5 lass51 das die ,ma/odont5-,lag] am ,la ,plata und die ,kno*5-,lag] am ,monte ,h]moso1 :o wie die d] ,ries5-,grtel?i]e 9 d5 ,dn5hgeln bei ,bahia ,blanca1 beides 9 ,patagoni51 unv]nd]te brakis*e ,ssswass]bildung5 s9d1 die e9/ wohl smmtli* zum ob]/5 ,flu?gebie! des ,me]es im tief]5 ,fe/l&e gehrt540--,monatsb]i*t5 d] knigl4 ,akad41 etc41 zu ,b]l9 vom ,april #ahde4 ,,index ,,to ,,coral-,,reefs4 ,! names 9 italics are all names ( places1 & ref] exclusively to ! ,app5dix3 9 well-def9$ ar*ipelagoes1 or gr\ps ( isl&s1 ! "n ( ea* sep>ate isl& is n giv54 ,abrolhos1 ,brazil1 coat$ by corals #ej ,abrolhos 7,au/ralia7 #acj ,abs5ce ( coral-reefs f c]ta9 coa/s #ea ,acaba1 gulf ( #adg ,admiralty gr\p #abd ,africa1 ea/ coa/1 fr++-reef ( #dh ---- ,madreporitic rock ( #aja ,africa1 ea/ coa/ #ada ,age ( individual corals #eg1 #fd ,ai\ #abh ,aitutaki #aad ,aldabra #aci ,al]t reef #abc ,alex&]1 ,gr& ,duke1 isl& #aae ,allan1 ,dr41 on ,holu?uri fe$+ on corals #ba ---- on quick gr[? ( corals at ,madagasc> #fb ---- on reefs affect$ by curr5ts #i ,all\fat\ #aai ,alphonse #aci ,am>g\ra 7,am>gura7 #aai ,ambo9a #abh ,am]ica1 we/ coa/ #aaa ,amirantes #ach ,ana*orites #abe ,anambas #acc ,anam\ka1 description ( #ii ,anam\ka #aai ,anadaman isl&s #acb ,antilles #aec ,appoo reef #acd ,arabia ,felix #adc ,areas1 great ext5t (1 int]sp]s$ ) l[ isl&s ---- ( subsid5ce & ( elevation #ajf ---- ( subsid5ce appe> to be elongat$ #ajf ---- ( subsid5ce alt]nat+ ) areas ( elevation #ajh ,arru gr\p #abh ,arzobispo #abg ,ascidia1 dep? at :i* f\nd #fg ,assomption #aci ,a/ova #aci ,atlantic isl&s #aba ,atolls1 brea*es 9 _! reefs #ca1 #ha ---- dim5sions ( #be ---- dim5sions ( gr\ps ( #ga ---- n bas$ on crat]s or on banks ( s$im5t1 or ( ck #fi1 #ga1 #gb1 #gc1 #ajh ---- ( irregul> =ms #be1 #hd ---- /eepness ( _! flanks #bf ---- wid? ( _! reef & islets #be ---- _! l[ness #gj ---- lagoons #bi ---- g5]al range #id ---- ) "p ( _! reef subm]g$1 & !ory ( #bi1 #ha ,augu/9e1 ,/4 #abj ,aurora isl&1 an uprais$ atoll #fd1 #ga1 #ajd ,aurora #aab ,au/ral isl&s1 rec5tly elevat$ #ii ,au/ral isl&s #aad ,au/ralia1 ,n4,w4 coa/ #acj ,au/ralian b>ri]-reef #db1 #ic ,au/ralian b>ri] #abc ,babuyan gr\p #acd ,bahama banks #adi1 #aej ,balahac #acc ,bally #aca ,b>+ #aba ,b>ri]-reef ( ,au/ralia #db1 #ic ---- ( ,new ,cal$onia #dd ,b>ri]-reefs1 brea*es ?r\gh #gg ---- n bas$ on worn d[n m>g9 ( rock #dc ---- on banks ( s$im5t #dc ---- on subm>9e crat]s #dd ---- /eepness ( _! flanks #ci ---- _! probable v]tical ?ickness #dc1 #gf ---- !ory ( _! =mation #gf1 #gh ,bampton %oal #abc ,banks isl&s #abb ,banks 9 ! ,we/ ,indies #adg ,ba%ee isl&s #acd ,bass isl& #aae ,batoa #aai ,beaupr reef #abc ,bee*ey1 ,capta91 obligations ( ! au?or to #bf ---- on subm]g$ reefs #bg ---- acc\nt ( ,matilda isl& #fj ,bel*]1 ,capta91 on bor+ ?r\gh coral-reef #ei ,belize reef1 (f #aea ,bell+haus5 #aac ,b]muda isl&s #aec ,bev]idge reef #aah ,bligh #abb ,bolabola1 view ( #ab ,bombay %oal #acf ,bon9 ,bay #aca ,bon9 gr\p #abg ,bor+s ?r\gh coral-reefs #ei ,borneo1 ,w4 coa/1 rec5tly elevat$ #aja ,borneo1 ,e4 coa/ #aca ---- ,s4,w4 & ,w4 coa/ #acc ---- ,n4 coa/ #acc ---- we/]n bank #acf ,boscaw5 #aai ,bo/on #aba ,b\ka #abd ,b\rbon #ach ,b\r\ #abh ,b\ton #acb ,brazil1 fr++-reefs on coa/ ( #dh ,brea*es ?r\gh b>ri]-reefs #ga ,brook #aae ,bunk] #aae ,bunoa #acc ,byron #aba ,cagayanes #acc ,c&el>ia #abd ,c>gados ,c>ajos #ach ,c>ol9e ar*ipelago #abe ,c>ol9e isl& #aae ,c>t]et %oal #abh ,c>yophyllia1 dep? at :i* x lives #ff ,cavilli #acc ,cayman isl& #aeb ,celebes #abi ,c]am #abh ,ceylon1 rec5tly elevat$ #aja ,ceylon #acg ,*agos ,great ,bank1 description & !ory ( #cg1 #he ,*agos gr\p #hf ,*agos gr\p #acg ,*ama-%ells emb$d$ 9 coral-rock #fh ,*amisso1 on corals pref]r+ ! surf #eb ,*anges 9 ! /ate ( ,keel+ atoll #ba ---- ( atolls #gd ,*annels lead+ into ! lagoons ( atolls #cj1 #hb ---- ---- into ! ,maldiva atolls #cc1 #ce ---- ?r\gh b>ri]-reefs #gg ,*ase #abj ,*9a sea #ace ,*ri/mas atoll #fj1 #ig ,*ri/mas atoll #aaf ,*ri/mas isl& 7,indian ,ocean7 #acg ,cl>5ce #aaf ,clipp]ton rock #aaa ,cocos1 or ,keel+ atoll #ae ,cocos 7or ,keel+7 #acg ,cocos isl& 7,pacific7 #aaa ,co*9 ,*9a1 encroa*m5ts ( ! sea on ! coa/ #ie ,co*9 ,*9a #ahc ,coetivi #aci ,comoro gr\p #aci ,composition ( coral-=mations #hh ,conglom]ate coral-rock on ,keel+ atoll #bj ---- on o!r atolls #bh ---- coral-rock #hh ,cook isl&s1 rec5tly elevat$ #ih1 #ajc ,cook isl&s #aad ,coral-blocks bor$ by v]mi=m animals #ba1 #hh ,coral-reefs1 _! di/ribution & abs5ce f c]ta9 areas #ej ---- de/roy$ by loose s$im5t #ec ,coral-rock at ,keel+ atoll #bj ---- ,mauritius #dg ---- organic rema9s ( #hh ,corals dead b upright 9 ,keel+ lagoon #bb ---- dep?s at :i* !y live #fd ---- (f ,keel+ atoll #ag ---- kill$ by a %ort exposure #af ---- liv+ 9 ! lagoon ( ,keel+ atoll #bj ---- quick gr[? (1 9 ,keel+ lagoon #ba ---- m]ely coat+ ! bottom ( ! sea #ej ---- /&+ expos$ 9 ! ,l[ ar*ipelago #if ,corallian sea #id ,corallian sea #abc ,cornwallis #aba ,cosmol$o #aci ,c\?\y1 ,mr41 alleg$ pro(s ( rec5t elevation ( ! ,l[ ar*ipelago #if ---- on coral-rock at ,mangaia & ,aurora isl&s #fd ---- on ext]nal l$ges r\nd coral-isl&s #hj ---- rem>ks confirmatory ( ! au?or's !ory #if ,cresc5t-=m$ reefs #hd ,cuba #aej ,cum+1 ,mr41 on ! rec5t elevation ( ! ,philipp9es #aja ,dang]\s1 or ,l[ ar*ipelago #aaa ,dang] isl&s #aaf ,dep?s at :i* reef-build+ corals live #fc ---- at ,mauritius1 ! ,r$ ,sea1 & 9 ! ,maldiva ar*ipelago #ff ---- at :i* o!r corals & corall9es c live #fg ,dhalac gr\p #add ,diego ,g>cia1 sl[ gr[? ( reef #ef ,dim5sions ( ! l>g] gr\ps ( atolls #ga ,dissev]m5t ( ! ,maldiva atolls1 & !ory ( #cg1 #hb ,di/ribution ( coral-reefs #ej ,dom+o1 ,/4 #aeb ,dory1 ,port1 rec5tly elevat$ #ajj ,dory1 ,port #abg ,duff isl&s #abb ,dur\r #abe ,eap #abf ar?quakes at ,keel+ atoll #bc ---- 9 gr\ps ( atolls #ge ---- 9 ,navigator ar*ipelago #ajj a/ ,indian ar*ipelago1 rec5tly elevat$ #ajj ,ea/] #aaa ,e*equi] #abe hr5b]g1 on ! banks ( ! ,r$ ,sea #di1 #adc ---- on dep?s at :i* corals live 9 ! ,r$ ,sea #ff ---- on corals pref]r+ ! surf #ec ---- on ! antiquity ( c]ta9 corals #eg ,eimeo #aab levat$ reef ( ,mauritius #dg levations1 rec5t pro(s ( #ih ---- imm5se areas ( #ajf ,elivi #abf lizabe? isl& #ei ---- rec5tly elevat$ #ih1 #ajd ,elizabe? isl& #aab ,ellice gr\p #abj ncircl$ isl&s1 _! height #da ---- geological composition #db1 #dd ua1 description ( #ii ,e\a #aah upt$ matt] probably n associat$ ) ?ick masses ( coral-rock #hi ,fais1 rec5tly elevat$ #ajj1 #ajd ,fais #abf ,fann+ #aaf ,f>allon de ,m$9illa #abg ,f>son gr\p #add ,fataka #abb ,fiji ar*ipelago #aai ,fi%1 fe$+ on corals #ba ---- kill$ 9 ,keel+ lagoon by heavy ra9 #bd ,fissures across coral-isl&s #ge ,fitzroy1 ,capta91 on a subm]g$ %$ at ,keel+ atoll #bc ---- on an inundation 9 ! ,l[ ar*ipelago #gd ,fl9t #aae ,flores #acj ,florida #adi ,folg] #abg ,=mosa #ace ,=/]1 !ory ( coral-=mations #gc ,fr$]ick reef #abc ,freewill #abh ,fri5dly gr\p rec5tly elevat$ #ii1 #aje ,fri5dly ar*ipelago #aah ,fr++-reefs1 abs5t :]e coa/ precipit\s #e ---- brea*$ 9 front ( /reams #ed ---- describ$ by ,,mm4 ,quoy & ,gaim>d #ih ---- n closely atta*$ to %elv+ coa/s #df ---- ( ea/ coa/ ( ,africa ---- ( ,cuba #dh ---- ( ,mauritius #de ---- on worn d[n banks ( rock #i ---- on banks ( s$im5t #di ---- _! appe>ance :5 elevat$ #g ---- _! gr[? influ5c$ by curr5ts #di ---- by %all[ness ( sea #di ,galapagos ar*ipelago #aaa ,galega #aci ,gambi] isl&s1 section ( #dc ,gambi] isl&s #aab ,g>dn] #aaf ,gasp> rico #aba ,geological composition ( coral-=mations ,gilb]t ar*ipelago #abj ,gilolo #abi ,glorioso #aci ,gl\ce/] isl& #gd ,glov] reef #aeb ,gomez #aaa ,g\ap #abf ,g\l\ #abf ,grampus #abg ,gran ,cocal #abj ,great ,*agos ,bank1 description & !ory ( #cg1 #he ,grey1 ,capta91 on s&b>s #df ,gr\p+ ( ! diff]5t classes ( reefs #ic ,gu$es #abh ,hall1 ,capta9 ,b41 on ,loo ,*oo #aja ,h>vey isl&s1 rec5tly elevat$ #ajd ,height ( encircl$ isl&s #da ,h]mites #abe ,h]vey or ,cook isl&s #aad ,hogoleu #abe ,holo?uri 7,holu?uri7 fe$+ on coral #ba ,h\d5 isl&1 height ( #ga ,honduras1 reef (f #aea ,horn #aai ,h\tman ,abrolhos #acj ,huahe9e2 alleg$ pro(s ( its rec5t elevation #ajc ,huahe9e #aac ,humphrey #aae ,hunt] #aai ,hurricanes1 effects (1 on coral-isl&s #gd ,immaum #adc ,indep5d5ce #abj ,india1 we/ coa/1 rec5tly elevat$ #aja ,india #adc ,irregul> reefs 9 %all[ seas #di ,islets ( coral-rock1 _! =mation #ai ---- _! de/ruction 9 ! ,maldiva atolls #cf ,jamaica #aeb ,j>vis #aae ,java1 rec5tly elevat$ #ajj ,java #aca ,john/on isl& #aaf ,juan de ,nova #aci ,juan de ,nova 7,madagasc>7 #adj ,kalatoa #aca ,kamts*atka1 pro(s ( its rec5t elevation #aje ,k>kalang #abi ,keel+ atoll1 section ( reef #ae ,keel+1 s\? atoll #acg ---- nor? atoll #acg ,keff+ #abh ,kem9 #aae1 #aaf ,k5n$y #abc ,keppel #aai ,kumi #ace ,laccadive gr\p #acg ,ladrones1 or ,m>ianas1 rec5tly elevat$ #ajj ,ladrones ar*ipelago #abg ,lagoon ( ,keel+ atoll #bj ,lagoons bord]$ by incl9$ l$ges & walls1 & !ory ( _! =mation #cb1 #gi ---- ( small atolls fill$ up ) s$im5t #cb ,lagoon-*annels )9 b>ri]-reefs #dj ,lagoon-reefs1 all subm]g$ 9 "s atolls1 & ris+ to ! surface 9 o!rs #ee ,lanca/] reef #aae ,latte #aai ,lauglan isl&s #abc ,l$ges r\nd c]ta9 lagoons #cb1 #gi ,lette #abi ,ligh?\se reef #aeb ,lloyd1 ,mr41 on corals refix+ !mselves #fb ,loo ,*oo1 rec5tly elevat$ #aja ,loo ,*oo #ace ,l\isiade #abc ,l[ ar*ipelago1 alleg$ pro(s ( its rec5t elevation #if ,l[ ar*ipelago #aaa ,l[ness ( coral-isl&s #gj ,loyalty gr\p #abc ,lucep>a #acc ,lutk1 ,admiral1 on fissures across coral-isl&s #ge ,luzon1 rec5tly elevat$ #aja ,luzon #acd ,lyell1 ,mr41 on *annels into ! lagoons ( atolls #ca ---- on ! l[ness ( _! leew>d sides #hb ---- on ! antiquity ( c]ta9 corals #eh ---- on ! app>5t cont9uity ( di/9ct coral-isl&s #hi ---- on ! rec5tly elevat$ b$s ( ! ,r$ ,sea #ajb ---- on ! outl9e ( ! areas ( subsid5ce #ajf ,macass> /rait #aca ,macclesfield bank #acf ,madagasc>1 quick gr[? ( corals at #fb ---- madreporitic rock ( #aja ,madagasc> #adj ,madjiko-sima #ace ,madura 7,java7 #aca ,madura 7,india7 #acg ,mahlos ,mahdoo1 !ory ( =mation #hh ,malacca1 rec5tly elevat$ #ajj ,malacca #acc ,malcolmson1 ,dr41 on rec5t elevation ( ,w4 coa/ ( ,india #ajj ---- on rec5t elevation ( ,cam>an isl& #ajb ,mald5 #aae ,maldiva atolls1 & !ory ( _! =mation #cc1 #hj1 #hb ---- /eepness ( _! flanks #bf ---- gr[? ( coral at #fb ,maldiva ar*ipelago #acg ,mangaia isl& #fd ---- rec5tly elevat$ #ii1 #ajd ,mangaia #aad ,mangs #abg ,m>ianas1 rec5tly elevat$ #ajj ,m>iana ar*ipelago #abg ,m>i]e #abf ,m>quesas ar*ipelago #aac ,m>%all ar*ipelago #aba ,m>%all isl& #abg ,m>t9ique #aec ,m>tires #abf ,m>y's ,/4 9 ,madagasc>1 h>b\r made 9 reefs #ed ,m>y isl& #aaf ,matia1 or ,aurora #aab ,matilda atoll #fj ,mauritius1 fr++-reefs ( #de ---- dep?s at :i* corals live !re #fd ---- rec5tly elevat$ #aja ,mauritius #ach ,maurua1 section ( #dc ,maurua #aac ,m5*ik(f atoll #be1 ,m5dana ar*ipelago #aac ,m5dana isles #abb ,mexico1 gulf ( #adi ,millepora complanata at ,keel+ atoll #af ,m9doro #acd ,mohilla 7,mohila7 #aci ,molucca isl&s1 rec5tly elevat$ #ajj ,mopeha #aac ,moresby1 ,capta91 on bor+ ?r\gh coral-reefs #ei ,morty #abi ,mosquito coa/ #aeb ,musquillo atoll #hd ,mysol #abi ,nam\rrek gr\p #hd ,natunas #acc ,navigator ar*ipelago1 elevation ( #ii ,navigator ar*ipelago #aag ,n$]l&is* #abj ,nelson1 ,lieut5ant1 on ! consolidation ( coral-rocks "u wat] #ei ---- !ory ( coral-=mations #gc ---- on ! ,b]muda isl&s #aed ,new ,brita9 #abd ,new ,cal$onia1 /eepness ( its reefs #ci ---- ---- b>ri]-reef ( 1 #gi1 #hc1 #ic ,new ,cal$onia #abc ,new ,gu9ea 7,e4 end7 #abd ,new ,gu9ea 7,w4 end7 #abg ,new ,hanov] #abd ,new ,hebrides1 rec5tly elevat$ #ajj ,new ,hebrides #aba ,new ,irel&1 rec5tly elevat$ #ajj ,new ,irel& #abd ,new ,nantucket #aaf ,nicob> isl&s #acb ,ni\ha #aai ,nullipor at ,keel+ atoll #ah ---- on ! reefs ( atolls #bh ---- on b>ri]-reefs #ci ---- _! wide di/ribution & abundance #fh ,objections to ! !ory ( subsid5ce #g ,ocean isl&s #aag1 #aba ,ono #abj ,on\afu 7,on\af\7 #aai ,ormuz #adc ,osc> gr\p #abj ,oscillations ( level #ajc1 #ajh ,ouallan1 or ,ualan 7,oualan7 #abe ,oulu?y atoll #fj ,outong ,java #abd ,palawan1 ,s4,w4 coa/ #acc ---- ,n4,w4 coa/ #acd ---- we/]n bank #acf ,palm]/on #aad ,palmyra #aaf ,p>acells #acf ,p>aquas #acf ,pat*[ #ace ,pelew isl&s #abf ,pemba isl&1 s+ul> =m ( #ajb ,pemba #adb ,p5rhyn #aae ,p]egr9o #aae ,p]nambuco1 b> ( s&/one at #dg ,p]sian gulf1 rec5tly elevat$ #ajb ,p]sian gulf #adc ,pescado #aae ,pescadores #ace ,pey/] gr\p #abj ,philip #abf ,philipp9e ar*ipelago1 rec5tly elevat$ #aja ,philipp9e ar*ipelago #acd ,phnix #aaf ,piguiram #abf ,pitcairn #aab ,pitt's bank #hf ,pitt isl& #abj ,platte #aci ,pleasant #aba ,porites1 *ief coral on m>g9 ( ,keel+ atoll #af ,po/illions #aca ,p\ynipte #ie ---- its probable subsid5ce #ie ,p\ynipte #abe ,pratas %oal #ace ,proby #aai ,provid5ce #aci ,pu]to ,rico #aeb ,pulo ,anna #abf ,pumice float$ to coral-isl&s #hh ,pyl/a>t #aah ,pyr>d de ,laval1 a/oni%m5t at ! atolls 9 ! ,indian ,ocean #aa ,quoy & ,gaim>d1 dep?s at :i* corals live #ff ---- description ( reefs applicable only to fr++-reefs #ih ,range ( atolls #id ,rapa #aae ,re>son #aae ,r$ ,sea1 banks ( rock coat$ by reefs #di ---- pro(s ( its rec5t elevation #ajb ---- suppos$ subsid5ce ( #ajc ,r$ ,sea #adc ,reefs1 irregul> 9 %all[ seas #di ---- ris+ to ! surface 9 "s lagoons & all subm]g$ 9 o!rs #ee ---- _! di/ribution #ej ---- _! abs5ce f "s coa/s #ea ,revilla-gig$o #aaa ,r+-=m$ reefs ( ! ,maldiva atolls1 & !ory ( 1 #hj ,rodriguez #ach ,ros>io #abg ,rose isl& #aah ,rot*es #abj ,rot\mah #abj ,r\g #abe ,r[ley %oals #acj ,rppell1 ,dr41 on ! rec5t deposits ( ,r$ ,sea #ajb ,sable1 ile de #ach ,sahia de ,malha #acg ,/4 ,pi]re #aci ,sala #aaa ,salomon 7,solomon7 ar*ipelago #abc ,samoa1 or ,navigator ar*ipelago1 elevation ( #ii ,samoa ar*ipelago #aag ,s&-b>s p>allel to coa/s #df ,s&al-wood #abi ,s&wi* ar*ipelago1 rec5tly elevat$ #ih ,s&wi* ar*ipelago #aag ,sans]ot #abf ,santa-,cruz gr\p #abb ,savage isl&1 rec5tly elevat$ #ei1 #ii1 #ajd ,savage #aah ,savu #abi ,saya1 or ,sahia de ,malha #acg ,sc>bor\gh %oal #acf ,sc>us fe$+ on corals #ba ,s*\t5 #abd ,scilly #aac ,scori float$ to coral-isl&s #hi ,scott's reef #acj ,sections ( isl&s encircl$ by b>ri]-reefs #dc1 #agf ---- ( ,bolabola #gf ,s$im5t 9 ,keel+ lagoon #ba ---- 9 o!r atolls #bi1 #ce ---- injuri\s to corals #ec ---- transport$ f coral-isl&s f> seaw>d #hi ,s5iav9e #abe ,s]angani #abi ,sey*elles #ach ,%ip-bottom quickly coat$ ) coral #fb ,smy? isl& #aaf ,society ar*ipelago1 /ation>y condition ( #if ---- alleg$ pro(s ( rec5t elevation #ajc ,society ar*ipelago #aab ,socotra #adc ,solor #acj ,sooloo isl&s1 rec5tly elevat$ #aja ,sooloo isl&s #acc ,s\v>(f #aae ,spani% #abf ,sponge1 dep?s at :i* f\nd #fg ,/>buck 7,sl>buck7 #aae ,/ones transport$ 9 roots ( trees #hi ,/orms1 effects (1 on coral-isl&s #gd ,/ut*bury1 ,mr41 on ! gr[? ( an ,ag>icia #fc ---- on uprais$ corals 9 ,society ar*ipelago #ajc ,subsid5ce ( ,keel+ atoll #bh ---- extreme sl[ness ( #hg1 #ajh ---- areas (1 app>5tly elongat$ #ajf ---- areas ( imm5se #ajf ---- great am\nt ( #ajh ,suez1 gulf ( #adg ,sulphur isl&s #abg ,sumatra1 rec5tly elevat$ #ajj ,sumatra #acb ,sumbawa #acj ,surf fav\rable to ! gr[? ( massive corals #eb ,swall[ %oal #acf ,sydney isl& #aaf ,tahiti1 alleg$ pro(s ( its rec5t elevation #ajc ,tahiti #aab ,temp]ature ( ! sea at ! ,galapagos ar*ipelago #ea ,t5ass]im #acc ,t5imb] isl& #abh ,teturoa #aac ,!ories on coral-=mations #fi1 #gc ,!ory ( subsid5ce1 & objections to #gb1 #hf ,?ickness1 v]tical1 ( b>ri]-reefs #dc1 #gf ,?omas1 ,/4 #aec ,tikopia #abb ,timor1 rec5tly elevat$ #ajj ,timor #abi ,timor-laut #abh ,tokan-,bessees #aca ,tongatab\ #aah ,tonqu9 #acg ,t\bai #aac ,t\foa 7,to(oa7 #aai ,t\p\a #abb ,traditions ( *ange 9 coral-isl&s #gc ,tridacn emb$d$ 9 coral-rock #fc ---- left expos$ 9 ! ,l[ ar*ipelago #if ,tubul>ia1 quick gr[? ( #fc ,tumbelan #acc ,turneffe reef #aeb ,turtle #aai ,ualan #abe ,vanikoro1 section ( #dc ---- its /ate & *anges 9 its reefs #ie ,vanikoro #abb ,v9e reef #abe ,virg9 ,gorda #aec ,viti ar*ipelago #aai ,volcanic isl&s1 ) liv+ corals on _! %ores #ea ---- matt]1 probably n associat$ ) ?ick masses ( coral-rock #hh ,volcanoes1 au?orities = _! position on ! map #ij ---- _! pres5ce det]m9$ by ! movem5ts 9 progress #ajd ---- abs5t or ext9ct 9 ! areas ( subsid5ce #aje ,waigi\ #abh ,wallis isl& #aai ,wa%+ton #aaf ,wells' reef #abc ,well/ead1 ,lieut5ant1 acc\nt ( a %ip coat$ ) corals #fb ,we/ ,indies1 banks ( s$im5t fr+$ by reefs #di ---- rec5tly elevat$ #ajb ,we/ ,indies #adg ,:itsunday isl&1 view ( #ab ---- *anges 9 its /ate #gd ,williams1 ,rev4 ,j41 on traditions ( ! natives reg>d+ coral-isl&s #gd ---- on antiquity ( c]ta9 corals #fd ,wol*onsky #aaa ,wo/ock #aae ,xulla isl&s #abh ,york isl& #aaf ,yucutan1 coa/ ( #aea ,zones ( diff]5t k9ds ( corals outside ! same reefs #ee1 #fj ,,index ,,to ,,volcanic ,,isl&s4 ,abel1 ,m41 on calc>e\s ca/s at ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope #bfa ,ab+don isl& #bcd ,abrolhos isl&s1 incru/ation on #ahh ,a]i=m explosions at ,asc5sion #aia ,albatross1 driv5 f ,/4 ,hel5a #bbe ,albem>le isl& #bcd ,albite1 at ! ,galapagos ar*ipelago #bcd ,amygdaloidal cells1 half fill$ #ahd ,amygdaloids1 calc>e\s orig9 ( #agf ,asc5sion1 arboresc5t incru/ation on rocks ( #ahh ---- abs5ce ( dikes1 fre$om f volcanic action1 & /ate ( lava-/reams #bbf ,ascidia1 ext9ction ( #beh ,atlantic ,ocean1 new volcanic focus 9 #bbf ,augite1 fus$ #bci ,au/ralia #bea ,azores #ahb1 #bdh ,bahia 9 ,brazil1 dikes at #bdg ,bailly1 ,m41 on ! m\nta9s ( ,mauritius #ahe ,bald ,head #bfj ,banks' ,cove #bcd1 #bcf ,b>n1 ,!1 ,/4 ,hel5a #baf ,basalt1 specific gravity ( #bde ,basaltic coa/-m\nta9s at ,mauritiu #ahe ---- at ,/4 ,hel5a #bah ---- at ,/4 ,jago #agh ,beaumont1 ,m4 ,elie de1 on circul> subsid5ces 9 lava #bcc ---- on dikes indicat+ elevation #bbh ---- on incl9ation ( lava-/reams #bbg ---- on lam9at$ dikes #bab ,b]muda1 calc>e\s rocks ( #bfj1 #bfb ,beudant1 ,m41 on bombs #aia ---- on jasp] #aig ---- on lam9at$ tra*yte #baa ---- on obsidian ( ,hung>y #bjg ---- on silex 9 tra*yte #bgj1 #aig ,bole #beg ,bombs1 volcanic #ahi ,bory ,/4 ,v9c5t1 on bombs #aij ,b\ld]s1 abs5ce 9 ,au/ralia & ,cape ( ,good ,hope #bfe ,brattle isl& #bch ,brew/]1 ,sir ,d41 on a calc>eo-animal sub/ance #bja ---- on decompos$ glass #beb ,br[n1 ,mr4 ,r41 on ext9ct plants f ,van ,diem5's l& #beg ---- on sphrulitic bodies 9 silicifi$ wood #bjg ,bu*1 ,von1 on cav]n\s lava #bcc ---- on c5tral volcanoes #bdi ---- on cry/als s9k+ 9 obsidian #bdc ---- on lam9at$ lava #bji ---- on obsidian /reams #bjh ---- on oliv9e 9 basalt #bcd ---- on sup]ficial calc>e\s b$s 9 ! ,can>y isl&s #bbd ,calc>e\s deposit at ,/4 ,jago affect$ by heat #afi1 #aga ---- fibr\s matt]1 entangl$ 9 /reaks 9 scori #agd ---- free/one at ,asc5sion #aih ---- incru/ations at ,asc5sion #aii ---- s&/one at ,/4 ,hel5a #bbb ---- sup]ficial b$s at ,k+ ,george's s\nd #bfj ,cape ( ,good ,hope #bfc ,c>bonic acid1 expulsion (1 by heat #aga1 #agf ,c>mi*ael1 ,capt41 on glassy coat+s to dikes #baf ,ca/s1 calc>e\s1 ( bran*es #bfa ,*alc$onic nodules #beg ,*alc$ony 9 basalt & 9 silicifi$ wood #aif ,*a?am isl& #bca1 #bce1 #bda1 #bdh1 #bei ,*lorophite #beg ,cl>ke1 ,rev4 ,w41 on ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope #beh1 #bfc ,clay-slate1 its decomposition & junction ) granite at ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope #bfd ,cleavage ( clay-slate 9 ,au/ralia #beb ,cleavage1 cross1 9 s&/one #bec ,coa/ d5udation at ,/4 ,hel5a #bbf ,column> basalt #agc 8,comptes ,r5dus10 acc\nt ( volcanic ph5om5a 9 ! ,atlantic #bbf ,concepcion1 e>?quake ( #bbh1 #bdi ,concretions 9 aque\s & igne\s rocks comp>$ #bjf ---- 9 tuff #aig ---- ( obsidian #bjf1 #bjh ,conglom]ate1 rec5t1 at ,/4 ,jago #aha ,coquimbo1 curi\s rock ( #bfa ,corals1 fossil1 f ,van ,diem5's ,l& #bef ,crat]1 segm5t (1 at ! ,galapagos #bch ---- great c5tral "o at ,/4 ,hel5a #bai ---- int]nal l$ges r\nd1 & p>apet on #bbj ,crat]s1 basaltic1 at ,asc5sion #ahi ---- =m (1 affect$ by ! trade w9d #ahi ---- ( elevation #bbg ---- ( tuff at ,t]ceira #ahb ---- ( tuff at ! ,galapagos ar*ipelago #bcj1 #bca1 #bce1 #bcg ---- _! brea*$ /ate #bdj ---- small basaltic at ,/4 ,jago #agg ---- ---- at ! ,galapagos ar*ipelago #bcb ,cry/allisation fav\r$ by space #baa ,d>tigues1 ,m41 on sphrulites #bjg ,daub5y1 ,dr41 on a bas9-=m$ isl& #bcg ---- on fragm5ts 9 tra*yte #aic ,d',aubuisson on hills ( phonolite #bbb ---- on ! composition ( obsidian #bjf ---- on ! lam9ation ( clay-slate #baj ,de la ,be*e1 ,sir ,h41 on magnesia 9 erupt$ lime #agd ---- on specific gravity ( lime/ones #aih ,d5udation ( coa/ at ,/4 ,hel5a #bbf ,diana's ,peak1 ,/4 ,hel5a #bbj ,dieff5ba*1 ,dr41 on ! ,*a?am ,isl&s #bei ,dikes1 truncat$1 on c5tral crat]i=m ridge ( ,/4 ,hel5a #bai ---- at ,/4 ,hel5a2 numb] (2 coat$ by a glossy lay]2 uni=m ?ickness ( #baf ---- great p>allel ones at ,/4 ,hel5a #bbb ---- n obs]v$ at ,asc5sion #bbf ---- ( tuff #bca ---- ( trap 9 ! plutonic s]ies #bdg ---- remnants (1 ext5d+ f> into ! sea r\nd ,/4 ,hel5a #bbf ,dislocations at ,asc5sion #aib ---- at ,/4 ,hel5a #bag1 #bba ,di/ribution ( volcanic isl&s #bdh ,dolomieu1 on decompos$ tra*yte #ahb ---- on lam9at$ lava #baj1 #baa ---- on obsidian #bjh ,dre1 ,m41 on cry/als s9k+ 9 lava #bdc ,dufr5oy1 ,m41 on ! composition ( ! surface ( c]ta9 lava-/reams #bji1 #bdc ---- on ! incl9ation ( tuff-/rata #bcf ,eggs ( birds emb$d$ at ,/4 ,hel5a #bbd ---- ( turtle at ,asc5sion #aih ,eject$ fragm5ts at ,asc5sion #aib ---- at ! ,galapagos ar*ipelago #bci ,elevation ( ,/4 ,hel5a #bbe ---- ! ,galapagos ar*ipelago #bda ---- ,van ,diem5's ,l&1 ,cape ( ,good ,hope1 ,new ,zeal&1 ,au/ralia1 & ,*a?am isl& #beh ---- ( volcanic isl&s #bej ,ellis1 ,rev4 ,w41 on l$ges )9 ! great crat] at ,hawaii #bbj ---- on m>9e rema9s at ,otaheite #ahd ,eruption1 fissures ( #bbd1 #bdi1 #bej ,ext9ction ( l&-%ells at ,/4 ,hel5a #bbd ,f>aday1 ,mr41 on ! expulsion ( c>bonic acid gas #aga ,feldsp>1 fusibility ( #bdf ---- 9 radiat+ cry/als #bfc ---- ,labrador1 eject$ #aic ,feldspa?ic lavas #agi ---- at ,/4 ,hel5a #bai ---- rock1 alt]nat+ ) obsidian #bjb ---- lam9ation1 & orig9 ( #bji ,f]n&o ,noronha #aha1 #baj ,f]rug9\s sup]ficial b$s #bei ,fibr\s calc>e\s matt] at ,/4 ,jago #agd ,fissures ( eruption #bdb1 #bdi1 #bej ,fitton1 ,dr41 on calc>e\s breccia #bfb ,flag/aff ,hill1 ,/4 ,hel5a #baf ,fleurian de ,bellevue on sphrulites #bjg ,fluidity ( lavas #bcd1 #bce ,=bes1 ,pr(essor1 on ! /ructure ( glaci]s #bab ,fragm5ts eject$ at ,asc5sion #aib ---- at ! ,galapagos ar*ipelago #bci ,fre%wat] ,bay #bch1 #bdc ,fu]tev5tura 7,feurtev5tura71 calc>e\s b$s ( #bbd ,galapagos ar*ipelago #bbi ---- p>apets r\nd crat]s #bbj ,gay ,lussac1 on ! expulsion ( c>bonic acid gas #aga ,glaci]s1 _! /ructure #bab ,gloss9ess ( texture1 orig9 ( #bjf ,gneiss1 d]iv$ f clay-slate #bfd ---- ) a great emb$d$ fragm5t #beb ,gneiss-granite1 =m ( hills ( #bei ,good ,hope1 ,cape ( #bfc ,gorges1 n>r[1 at ,/4 ,hel5a #bbe ,granite1 junction ) clay-slate1 at ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope #bfc ,granitic eject$ fragm5ts #aib1 #bci ,gravity1 specific1 ( lavas #bdc-h ,gypsum1 at ,asc5sion #bja ---- 9 volcanic /rata at ,/4 ,hel5a #bae ---- on surface ( ! gr\nd at ditto #bbc ,hall1 ,sir ,j41 on ! expulsion ( c>bonic acid gas #aga ,heat1 action (1 on calc>e\s matt] #agj ,h5nah1 ,mr41 on a%es at ,asc5sion #ahi ,h5sl[1 ,pr(41 on *alc$ony #aig ,h(fmann1 on decompos$ tra*yte #ahb ,holl&1 ,dr41 on ,icel& #bbh ,horn]1 ,mr41 on a calc>eo-animal sub/ance #bja ---- on fusibility ( feldsp> #bdf ,hubb>d1 ,dr41 on dikes #bdg ,humboldt on eject$ fragm5ts #aic ---- on obsidian =mations #bjg1 #bji ---- on p>apets r\nd crat]s #bbj ---- on sphrulites #baj ,hutton on amygdaloids #agf ,hyalite 9 decompos$ tra*yte #ahb ,icel&1 /ratification ( ! circumf]5tial hills #bbh ,isl&s1 volcanic1 di/ribution ( #bdh ---- _! elevation #bej ,incru/ation1 on ,/4 ,paul's rocks #ahg ,incru/ations1 calc>e\s1 at ,asc5sion #aii ,jago1 ,/4 #afg ,james isl& #bcd1 #bcg1 #bdb ,jasp]1 orig9 ( #aif ,jonns1 ,m4 ,moreau de1 on crat]s affect$ by w9d #ahi ,juan ,f]n&ez #bej ,keilhau1 ,m41 on granite #bfd ,kick] ,rock #bcb ,k+ ,george's s\nd #bei ,labrador feldsp>1 eject$ #aic ,lakes at bases ( volcanoes #bbi ,lam9ation ( volcanic rocks #bji ,l&-%ells1 ext9ct1 at ,/4 ,hel5a #bbd ,lanz>ote1 calc>e\s b$s ( #bbc ,lava1 adhesion to sides ( a gorge #agg ---- feldspa?ic #agi ---- ) cells semi-amygdaloidal #ahd ,lavas1 specific gravity ( #bdc1 #bdg ,lava-/reams bl5d+ toge!r at ,/4 ,jago #agg ---- composition ( surface ( #bjh ---- diff]5ces 9 ! /ate ( _! surfaces #bdd ---- extreme ?9ness ( #bch ---- heav$ up into hillocks at ! ,galapagos ar*ipelago #bcc ---- _! fluidity #bcd1 #bce ---- ) irregul> hummocks at ,asc5sion #ahi ,lead1 sep>ation f silv] #bdd ,lesson1 ,m41 on crat]s at ,asc5sion #ahi ,leucite #bcd ,lime1 sulphate (1 at ,asc5sion #bjj ,lonsdale1 ,mr41 on fossil-corals f ,van ,diem5's l& #bef ,lot1 ,/4 ,hel5a #bba ,lyell1 ,mr41 on crat]s ( elevation #bbg ---- on emb$d$ turtles' eggs #aih ---- on glossy coat+ to dikes #baf ,macaulay1 ,dr41 on calc>e\s ca/s at ,madeira #bfb ,mac,culloch1 ,dr41 on an amygdaloid #ahd ---- on *lorophite #bhg ---- on lam9at$ pit*/one #bji ,mack5zie1 ,sir ,g41 on cav]n\s lava-/reams #bcc ---- on glossy coat+s to dikes #baf ---- on obsidian /reams #bjh ---- on /ratification 9 ,icel& #bbh ,madeira1 calc>e\s ca/s at #bfb ,magaz9e1 ,nautical1--acc\nt ( volcanic ph5om5a 9 ! ,atlantic #bbf ,m>ekanite #bjf ,mauritius1 crat] ( elevation ( #ahd1 #bbg ,mica1 9 r\nd$ nodules #afh ---- orig9 9 metamorphic slate #bfd ---- radiat+ =m ( #bfc ,mill]1 ,pr(41 on eject$ ,labrador feldsp> #aic ---- on qu>tz cry/als 9 obsidian b$s #bjb ,mit*ell1 ,sir ,t41 on bombs #aia ---- on ! ,au/ralian valleys #bed ,mud /reams at ! ,galapagos ar*ipelago #bcf ,n>bor\gh isl& #bcd ,nelson1 ,lieut41 on ! ,b]muda isl&s #bfj1 #bfb ,new ,cal$onia #bdh ,new ,r$ s&/one1 cross cleavage ( #bec ,new ,s\? ,wales #bea ,new ,zeal& #bei ,nullipor 7fossil71 resembl+ concretions #afi ,obsidian1 abs5t at ! ,galapagos ar*ipelago #bda ---- bombs ( #aia ---- composition & orig9 ( #bjg1 #bjh ---- cry/als ( feldsp> s9k 9 #bdc ---- its irruption f l(ty crat]s #bdf ---- passage ( b$s into #bjb ---- specific gravity ( #bdc1 #bdf ---- /reams ( #bjh ,oliv9e decompos$ at ,/4 ,jago #agh ---- at ,van ,diem5's l& #beg ---- 9 ! lavas at ! ,galapagos ar*ipelago #bcd ,oolitic /ructure ( rec5t calc>e\s b$s at ,/4 ,hel5a #bbc ,otaheite #ahc ,oy/]s1 ext9ction ( #beh ,panza isl&s1 lam9at$ tra*yte ( #bji ,patt9son1 ,mr41 on ! sep>ation ( lead & silv] #bdd ,paul's1 ,/41 rocks ( #ahg ,pe>l/one #bjf ,pep]9o #bcb ,pron1 ,m41 on calc>e\s rocks ( ,au/ralia #bfb1 #bfc ,phonolite1 hills ( #agi1 #aha1 #bba ---- lam9at$ #baj ---- ) m fusible hornbl5de #bdf ,pit*/one #bjd ---- dikes ( #bji ,plants1 ext9ct #beg ,plutonic rocks1 sep>ation ( con/itu5t p>ts (1 by gravity #bdf ,porto ,praya #afg ,prevo/1 ,m4 ,c41 on r>ity ( great dislocations 9 volcanic isl&s #bag ,prosp]\s hill1 ,/4 ,hel5a #bah ,pumice1 abs5t at ! ,galapagos ar*ipelago #bda ---- lam9at$ #bji1 #baj1 #baa ,puy de ,dome1 tra*yte ( #aic ,quail isl&1 ,/4 ,jago #afh1 #agj1 #agc ,qu>tz1 cry/als (1 9 b$s alt]nat+ ) obsidian #bjb ---- cry/allis$ 9 s&/one #beb ---- fusibility ( #bdf ---- rock1 mottl$ f metamorphic action ) e>?y matt] #agj ,r$ hill #agc ,res9-l alt]$ scori #aga ,rio de ,janeiro1 gneiss ( #beb ,rob]t1 ,m41 on /rata ( ,icel& #bbh ,rog]s1 ,pr(essor1 on curv$ l9es ( elevation #bdi ,salses1 comp>$ ) tuff crat]s #bdj ,salt deposit$ by ! sea #bjj ---- 9 volcanic /rata #bja1 #bae ---- lakes (1 9 crat]s #bdj ,s&/one ( ,brazil #bfe ---- ( ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope #bfe ---- plat=ms (1 9 ,new ,s\? ,wales #beb1 #bfe ,s*orl1 radiat+ #bfc ,scrope1 ,mr4 ,p41 on lam9at$ tra*yte #bji1 #baj1 #bab ---- on obsidian #bjh ---- on sep>ation ( tra*yte & basalt #bdd ---- on silex 9 tra*yte #agf ---- on sphrulites #baj ,seale1 ,mr41 geognosy ( ,/4 ,hel5a #bae ---- on dikes #bbf ---- on emb$d$ birds' bones #bbe ,seale1 on ext9ct %ells ( ,/4 ,hel5a #bbd ,s$gwick1 ,pr(essor1 on concretions #bjf ,sept>ia1 9 concretions 9 tuff #aih ,s]pul on uprais$ rocks #ahe ,sey*elles #bdh ,%ells1 col\r (1 affect$ by light #bja ---- f ,van ,diem5's l& #bef ---- l&1 ext9ct1 at ,/4 ,hel5a #bbd ---- p>ticles (1 drift$ by ! w9d at ,/4 ,hel5a #bbc ,%elly matt] deposit$ by ! waves #bjj ,siau1 ,m41 on ripples #bed ,signal ,po/ ,hill #afh1 #age1 #agf ,silica1 deposit$ by /eam #ahb ---- l>ge proportion (1 9 obsidian #bjf1 #bjh ---- specific gravity ( #bdf ,silice\s s9t] #aif ,smi?1 ,dr4 ,a41 on junction ( granite & clay-slate #bfd ,spallanzani on decompos$ tra*yte #ahb ,specific gravity ( rec5t calc>e\s rocks & ( lime/one #aih ---- ( lavas #bde ,sphrulites 9 glass & 9 silicifi$ wood #bjg ---- 9 obsidian #bjd1 #baj ,s[]by1 ,mr4 ,g4 ,b41 on fossil-%ells f ,van ,diem5's l& #bef ---- f ,/4 ,jago #afi ---- l&-%ells f ,/4 ,hel5a #bbd ,/4 ,hel5a #bad ---- crat] ( elevation ( #bbg ,/4 ,jago1 crat] ( elevation ( #bbg ---- effects ( calc>e\s matt] on lava #bca ,/4 ,paul's rocks #ahg1 #bdh ,/okes1 ,mr41 collections ( sphrulites & ( obsidians #bjg1 #bab ,/ony-top1 ,little #bah1 #bbb ---- ,great #bah ,/ratification ( s&/one 9 ,new ,s\? ,wales #bec1 #bee ,/reams ( obsidian #bjh ,/ut*bury1 ,mr41 on m>9e rema9s at ,otaheite #ahd ,subsid$ space at ,asc5sion #aib ,tahiti #ahc ,talus1 /ratifi$1 )9 tuff crat]s #bcf ,t]ceira #ahb ,t]ti>y deposit ( ,/4 ,jago #afi ,tra*yte1 abs5t at ! ,galapagos ar*ipelago #bda ---- at ,asc5sion #aic ---- at ,t]ceira #ahb ---- decomposition (1 by /eam #ahb ---- its lam9ation #bjj1 #baj ---- its sep>ation f basalt #bdd ---- s(t5$ at ,asc5sion #aid ---- specific gravity ( #bde ---- ) s+ul> ve9s #aie ,trap-dikes 9 ! plutonic s]ies #bdg ---- at ,k+ ,george's s\nd #bei ,trav]t9 at ,van ,diem5's l& #beg ,tropic-bird1 n[ r>e1 at ,/4 ,hel5a #bbe ,tuff1 crat]s ( #bca1 #bce1 #bcf ---- _! brea*$ /ate #bdj ---- peculi> k9d ( #bca ,turn]1 ,mr41 on ! sep>ation ( molt5 metals #bdd ,ty]man & ,b5nett on m>9e rema9s at ,huahe9e #ahd ,valleys1 gorge-l1 at ,/4 ,hel5a #bbe ---- 9 ,new ,s\? ,wales #bed ---- 9 ,/4 ,jago #ahj ,van ,diem5's l& #bef ,ve9s 9 tra*yte #aie ---- ( jasp] #aie ,v9c5t1 ,bory ,/41 on bombs #aij ,volcanic bombs #ahi ---- isl& 9 process ( =mation 9 ! ,atlantic #bbf ---- isl&s1 _! di/ribution #bdh ,wacke1 its passage into lava #ahc1 #beg ,wackes1 argillace\s #afh1 #agh ,web/]1 ,dr41 on a bas9-=m$ isl& #bcg ---- on gypsum at ,asc5sion #bja ,:ite1 ,m>t91 on s\nd+s #bed ,w9d1 effects (1 on ! =m ( crat]s ,,index ,,to ,,s\? ,,am]ican ,,geology4 ,abi*1 on a new v>iety ( feldsp> #ddf ,abrolhos isl&s #dae ,abs5ce ( rec5t =mations on ! ,s4 ,am]ican coa/s #dji ,agu]ros on elevation ( ,imp]ial #cje ,albite1 con/itu5t m9]al 9 &esite #ddf ---- 9 rocks ( ,ti]ra del ,fuego #dbg ---- 9 porphyries #ddd ---- cry/als (1 ) or?ite #ddg ,alison1 ,mr41 on elevation ( ,valp>aiso #cjg1 #caj ,alum9a1 sulphate ( #dci ,ammonites f ,concepcion #djj1 #dje ,amolanas1 ,las #dic ,amygdaloid1 curi\s v>ieties ( #ddd ,amygdaloids ( ! ,uspallata range #dga ---- ( ,copiapo #dih ,&esite ( ,*ile #ddf ---- 9 ! valley ( ,maypu #ddi1 #dej ---- ( ! ,cumbre pass #dfj1 #dff ---- ( ! ,uspallata range #dge ---- ( ,los ,hornos #dhj ---- ( ,copiapo #dhh1 #dia ,anhydrite1 concretions ( #dej1 #dfc ,arauc>ia1 silicifi$ wood ( #cid1 #dgd ,arica1 elevation ( #cbc ,arqu]os1 m9es ( #dha ,asc5sion1 gypsum deposit$ on #cbh ---- lam9at$ volcanic rocks ( #dci1 #ddj ,augite 9 fragm5ts1 9 gneiss #dad ---- ) albite1 9 lava #cdg ,au/91 ,mr4 ,r4 ,a4 ,c41 on b5t cleavage lam9a #dcd ,au/91 ,capta91 on sea-bottom #cjb ,au/ralia1 foliat$ rocks ( #dch ,az>a labiata1 b$s (1 at ,san ,p$ro #bgg1 #ceb ,baculites vag9a #djj ,bahia ,blanca1 elevation ( #bhj ---- =mations ne> #cee ---- "* ( liv+ %ells ( #djh ,bahia 7,brazil71 elevation ne> #bhj ---- cry/all9e rocks ( #dad ,ball>d1 ,m41 on ! precipitation ( sulphate ( soda #cdi ,b&a ,ori5tal1 t]ti>y =mations ( #cfe ---- cry/all9e rocks ( #dah ,b>nacles above sea-level #caa ---- adh]+ to uprais$ %ells #cjf ,basalt ( ,s4 ,cruz #chi ---- /reams (1 9 ! ,portillo range #def ---- 9 ! ,uspallata range #dgb ,bas9 *a9s ( ,*ile #ccc ,beagle ,*annel #dbg1 #dcj ,beaumont1 ,elie de1 on incl9ation ( lava-/reams #cij1 #deg ---- on viscid qu>tz-rocks #dge ,bee*-tree1 leaves ( fossil #cia ,bee*ey1 ,capta91 on sea-bottom #bii ,bel*]1 ,lieut5ant1 on elevat$ %ells f ,concepcion #cjf ,bella ,vi/a1 pla9 ( #cbe ,b5za1 ,dr41 on decompos$ granite #dag ,bett+ton1 ,mr41 on quadrup$s transport$ by riv]s #cgd ,blake1 ,mr41 on ! decay ( elevat$ %ells ne> ,iquique #cbb ---- on nitrate ( soda #cdf ,bole #ddd ,bolla]t1 ,mr41 on m9es ( ,iquique #ejc ,bones1 silicifi$ #djb ---- fossil1 fre% condition ( #cff ,bottom ( sea (f ,patagonia #bib1 #bih ,b\ga9ville1 on elevation ( ! ,falkl& isl&s #bij ,b\ld] =mation ( ,s4 ,cruz #bhe1 #bie ---- ( ,falkl& isl&s #bij ---- ant]ior to c]ta9 ext9ct quadrup$s #cga ---- ( ,ti]ra del ,fuego #cia ,b\ld]s 9 ! ,cordill]a #cci1 #cda ---- transport$ by e>?quake-waves #cdd ---- 9 f9e-gra9$ t]ti>y deposits #dja ,br&e1 ,mr41 on a m9]al spr+ #dfa ,bravais1 ,m41 on elevation ( ,sc&9avia #cbj ,brazil1 elevation ( #bgi ---- cry/all9e rocks ( #dad1 #dah ,brod]ip1 ,mr41 on elevat$ %ells f ,concepcion #cjf ,br[n1 ,mr4 ,r41 on silicifi$ wood ( ,uspallata range #dgd ,br[n1 on silicifi$ wood #die ,bucalema1 elevat$ %ells ne> #cjg ,bu*1 ,von1 on cleavage #dch ---- on cretace\s fossils ( ! ,cordill]a #dec1 #dfe ---- on ! sulphure\s volcanoes ( ,java #eji ,bu5os ,ayres #ceb ,bur*ell1 ,mr41 on elevat$ %ells ( ,brazil #bgi ,byron1 on elevat$ %ells #cjc ,ca*apual1 b\ld]s 9 valley ( #cci1 #cda ,caldcleugh1 ,mr41 on elevation ( ,coquimbo #cad ---- on rocks ( ! ,portillo range #def ,callao1 elevation ne> #cbc ---- old t[n ( #cbg ,cape ( ,good ,hope1 metamorphic rocks ( #dci ,c>*>ias megalodon #djb ,c>p5t]1 ,dr41 on microscopic organisms #ceb ,ca/ro 7,*iloe71 b$s ne> #cid ,cauqu5es ,ba?s1 b\ld]s ne> #cci1 #cda ---- pebbles 9 porphyry ne> #ddc ---- volcanic =mation ne> #ddg ---- /ratification ne> #ddi ,caves above sea-level #cjc1 #cjg1 #cbb ,c]vus pumilus1 fossil-horns ( #cjd ,*evali]1 ,m41 on elevation ne> ,lima #cbc ,*ile1 /ructure ( c\ntry betwe5 ! ,cordill]a & ! ,pacific #ccc ---- t]ti>y =mations ( #ccg ---- cry/all9e rocks 9 #dce ---- c5tral1 geology ( #dda ---- nor!rn1 geology ( #dgi ,*iloe1 gravel on coa/ #bid ---- elevation ( #cjc ---- t]ti>y =mation ( #ccg1 #dje ---- cry/all9e rocks ( #dcc ,*lorite-s*i/1 ne> ,m4 ,video #dai ,*onos ar*ipelago1 t]ti>y =mations ( #cic ---- cry/all9e rocks ( #dcj ,*upat1 ,rio1 scori transport$ by #bhj ,cl>o1 ,rio1 fossilif]\s b$s ( #dhe ,clay-%ale ( ,los ,hornos #dhj ,clay-slate1 =mation (1 ,ti]ra del ,fuego #dbd ---- ( ,concepcion #dcc ---- feldspa?ic1 ( ,*ile #ddb1 #ddd1 #ddh ---- ---- ( ! ,uspallata range #dfh1 #dgj ---- black silice\s1 b& (1 9 porphyritic =mations ( ,*ile #dde ,clay/one porphyry1 =mation (1 9 ,*ile #ddb ---- orig9 ( #dde ---- eruptive s\rces ( #ddd ,cleavage1 def9ition ( #dad ---- at ,bahia #dae ---- ,rio de ,janeiro #dae ---- ,maldonado #dah ---- ,monte ,video #dbj ---- ,s4 ,guitru-gueyu #dba ---- ,falkl& ,i4 #dbd ---- ,ti]ra del ,fuego #dbh ---- ,*onos ,i4 #dcd ---- ,*iloe #dce ---- ,concepcion #dcd ---- ,*ile #dce ---- discussion on #dcf ,cleavage-lam9 sup]ficially b5t #dcd ,cliffs1 =mation ( #cja ,climate1 late *anges 9 #cde ---- ( ,*ile dur+ t]ti>y p]iod #djh ,coal ( ,concepcion #cii ---- ,s4 ,lor5zo #ejd ,coa/-d5udation ( ,/4 ,hel5a #cja ,cobija1 elevation ( #cbb ,colombia1 cretace\s =mation ( #ejd ,colonia del ,sacrami5to1 elevation ( #bgh ---- ,pampean =mation ne> #cee ,colorado1 ,rio1 gravel ( #bie ---- s&-dunes ( #bha1 #bid ---- ,pampean =mation ne> #cee ,comb>bala #dgi1 #dha ,concepcion1 elevation ( #cje ---- deposits ( #cii1 #dje ---- cry/all9e rocks ( #dcc ,con*alee1 gravel-t]races ( #caa ,concretions ( gypsum1 at ,iquique #cde ---- 9 s&/one at ,s4 ,cruz #chg ---- 9 tuface\s tuff ( ,*iloe #chg ---- 9 gneiss #dad ---- 9 clay/one-porphyry at ,port ,desire #dba ---- 9 gneiss at ,valp>aiso #dce ---- 9 metamorphic rocks #dcf ---- ( anhydrite #dej ---- relations (1 to ve9s #dgc ,conglom]ate clay/one ( ,*ile #ddc1 #dde ---- ( ,t5uyan #ded1 #deh1 #dgh ---- ( ! ,cumbre ,pass #dfb1 #dff ---- ( ,rio ,cl>o #dhe ---- ( ,copiapo #dif1 #dii ,cook1 ,capta91 on =m ( sea-bottom #cjj ,copiapo1 elevation ( #cba ---- t]ti>y =mations ( #djc ---- second>y =mations ( #dhi ,copp]1 sulphate ( #dhi ---- native1 at ,arqu]os #dhb ---- m9es (1 at ,panuncillo #dha ---- ve9s1 di/ribution ( #eje ,coquimbo1 elevation & t]races ( #cab ---- t]ti>y =mations ( #djd ---- second>y =mations ( #dhb ,corall9es liv+ on pebbles #bii ,cordill]a1 valleys bord]$ by gravel fr+es #ccg ---- basal /rata ( #ddb ---- fossils ( #dec1 #dfe1 #dhf1 #dhg1 #dic1 #ejc ---- elevation ( #ddb1 #dei1 #dgd1 #dgf1 #ejj1 #ejb1 #eaj1 #eab1 #eag ---- gypse\s =mations ( #dej1 #deb1 #dfa1 #dfc1 #dgi1 #dhc1 #dhi1 #dia1 #ejc ---- clay/one-porphyries ( #ddb ---- &esitic rocks ( #ddf ---- volcanoes ( #ddg1 #eaa1 #eag ,co/e1 ,m41 on elevation ( ,lemus #cjc ,coy inlet1 t]ti>y =mation ( #cij ,crassatella ,lyellii #cib ,cruick%anks1 ,mr41 on elevation ne> ,lima #cbg ,cry/als ( feldsp>1 gradual =mation (1 at ,port ,desire #dbb ,cumbre1 ,pass (1 9 ,cordill]a #ejb ,cum+1 ,mr41 on habits ( ! ,mesodesma #caj ---- on range ( liv+ %ells on we/ coa/ #djg ,dana1 ,mr41 on foliat$ rocks #dch ---- on amygdaloids #ddd ,d>w91 ,m\nt #dbg ,d',aubuisson1 on concretions #cig ---- on foliat$ rocks #dch ,decay1 gradual1 ( uprais$ %ells #cbc1 #cbg ,decomposition ( granite rocks #dag ,de la ,be*e1 ,sir ,h41 8 !oretical rese>*es 9 geology #bii ---- on ! action ( salt on calc>e\s rocks #cbg ---- on b5t cleavage-lam9 #dcd ,d5udation on coa/ ( ,patagonia #bib1 #cjj1 #dji ---- great p[]s ( #daj ---- ( ! ,portillo range #def1 #deh ,deposits1 sal9e #cdd ,despoblado1 valley ( #dif1 #dig1 #dii ,detritus1 nature (1 9 ,cordill]a #cch ,devon%ire1 b5t cleavage 9 #dcd ,dikes1 9 gneiss ( ,brazil #dad1 #dah ---- ne> ,rio de ,janeiro #dag ---- pseudo1 at ,port ,desire #dbc ---- 9 ,ti]ra del ,fuego #dbf ---- 9 ,*onos ar*ipelago1 conta9+ qu>tz #dcb ---- ne> ,concepcion1 ) qu>tz #dcd ---- granitic-porphyritic1 at ,valp>aiso #dce ---- r>ely vesicul> 9 ,cordill]a #cdg ---- abs5t 9 ! c5tral ridges ( ! ,portillo pass #deb ---- ( ! ,portillo range1 ) gra9s ( qu>tz #def ---- int]sect+ ea* o!r (t5 #dff ---- num]\s at ,copiapo #dih ,domeyko1 ,m41 on ! silv] m9es ( ,coquimbo #dhb ---- on ! fossils ( ,coquimbo #dhf ,d',orbigny1 ,m4 ,a41 on uprais$ %ells ( ,monte ,video #bgh ---- on elevat$ %ells at ,/4 ,p$ro #bgh ---- on elevat$ %ells ne> ,b4 ,ayres #bgi ---- on elevation ( ,s4 ,blas #bha ---- on ! sudd5 elevation ( ,la ,plata #bic ---- on elevat$ %ells ne> ,cobija #cbb ---- on elevat$ %ells ne> ,arica #cbb ---- on ! climate ( ,p]u #cbd ---- on salt deposits ( ,cobija #cde ---- on cry/als ( gypsum 9 salt-lakes #cdi ---- on abs5ce ( gypsum 9 ! ,pampean =mation #cec ---- on fossil rema9s f ,bahia ,blanca #cei1 #cfj ---- on fossil rema9s f ! banks ( ! ,p>ana #cfb ---- on ! geology ( ,/4 ,f #cfc ---- on ! age ( ,pampean =mation #cfg1 #cgf ---- on ! ,ma/odon ,&ium #cgi ---- on ! geology ( ! ,rio ,negro #cha ---- on ! "* ( ! ,patagonian fossils #cia ---- on fossils f ,concepcion #cii ---- ---- f ,coquimbo #djd ---- ---- f ,payta #dje ---- on fossil t]ti>y %ells ( ,*ile #djf ---- on cretace\s fossils ( ,ti]ra del ,fuego #dbf ---- ---- f ! ,cordill]a ( ,*ile #dec1 #dfe1 #dhf1 #dhh1 #dic1 #ejd ,e>?1 m>9e orig9 ( #cjd1 #cjh ,e>!nw>e1 fossil #cbf ,e>?quake1 effect (1 at ,s4 ,m>ia #bic ---- elevation dur+1 at ,lemus #cjc ---- ( #ahbb1 at ,valp>aiso #caj ---- effects (1 9 %att]+ surface #cbe ---- fissures made by #cbe ---- probable effects on cleavage #cbe ,e>?quakes 9 ,pampas #bij ,e>?quake-waves1 p[] (1 9 ?r[+ up %ells #caj ---- effects (1 ne> ,lima #cbg ---- p[] (1 9 transport+ b\ld]s #cdd ,edmon/on1 ,mr41 on dep?s at :i* %ells live at ,valp>aiso #cji ,ehr5b]g1 ,pr(essor1 on infusoria 9 ! ,pampean =mation #cee1 #cei1 #cfb ---- on infusoria 9 ! ,patagonian =mation #chc1 #chd1 #chf1 #cia1 #cib ,elevation ( ,la ,plata #bgh ---- ,brazil #bgi ---- ,bahia ,blanca #bhj1 #ceg ---- ,san ,blas #bha ---- ,patagonia #bha1 #bia1 #bic ---- ,ti]ra del ,fuego #bhh ---- ,falkl& isl&s #bij ---- ,pampas #bhi1 #cgg ---- ,*onos ar*ipelago #cjc ---- ,*iloe #cjd ---- ,*ile #cjd ---- ,valp>aiso #cjg1 #caj ---- ,coquimbo #cab1 #cbj ---- ,guasco #cbj ---- ,iquique #cbb ---- ,cobija #cbb ---- ,lima #cbc ---- sudd51 at ,s4 ,m>ia #bic ---- ---- at ,lemus #cjc ---- ins5sible1 at ,*iloe #cjd ---- ---- at ,valp>aiso #caa ---- ---- at ,coquimbo #cad ---- axes (1 at ,*iloe #cih1 #dje ---- ---- at ,p4 ,rum5a #cih1 #dje ---- ---- at ,concepcion #cih1 #dje ---- unfav\rable = ! accumulation ( p]man5t deposits #daj ---- l9es (1 p>allel to cleavage & foliation #daf1 #dag1 #dbd1 #dbh1 #dcb1 #dcd1 #dch ---- l9es (1 oblique to foliation #dca ---- areas (1 caus+ l9es ( elevation & cleavage #dda ---- l9es (1 9 ! ,cordill]a #ddb ---- sl[1 9 ! ,portillo range #dge ---- two p]iods (1 9 ,cordill]a ( ,c5tral ,*ile #dgf ---- ( ! ,uspallata range #dgd ---- two p]iods (1 9 ,cumbre ,pass #dgf ---- horizontal1 9 ! ,cordill]a ( ,copiapo #ejj ---- axes (1 co9cid5t ) volcanic orifices #ejc ---- ( ! ,cordill]a1 summ>y on #eaj1 #eac1 #eag ,elliott1 ,capta91 on human rema9s #bgi ,ens5ada1 elevat$ %ells ( #bgh ,entre ,rios1 geology ( #cfc ,equus curvid5s #cfd1 #cgi ,epidote 9 ,ti]ra del ,fuego #dbf ---- 9 gneiss #dce ---- frequ5t 9 ,*ile #dde ---- 9 ! ,uspallata range #dge ---- 9 porphyry ( ,coquimbo #dhb ,erman1 ,m41 on &esite #cdg ,esc>pm5ts1 rec5t1 ( ,patagonia #cja ,ext9ction ( fossil mammif]s #cgj ,falkl& isl&s1 elevation ( #bij ---- pebbles on coa/ #big1 #bii ---- geology ( #dbd ,falkn]1 on sal9e incru/ations #cdg ,faults1 great1 9 ,cordill]a #dfa1 #dfi ,feldsp>1 e>?y1 metamorphosis (1 at ,port ,desire #dbb ---- albitic #cdg ---- cry/als (1 ) albite #cdg ---- or?itic1 9 conglom]ate ( ,t5uyan #ded ---- 9 granite ( ,portillo range #dee ---- 9 porphyries 9 ! ,cumbre ,pass #dff ,feuille on sea-level at ,coquimbo #cad ,fissures1 relations (1 to concretions #cig ---- upfill$1 at ,port ,desire #dbd ---- 9 clay-slate #dgj ,fitton1 ,dr41 on ! geology ( ,ti]ra del ,fuego #dbg ,fitzroy1 ,capta91 on ! elevation ( ! ,falkl& isl&s #dbg ---- on ! elevation ( ,concepcion #cje ,foliation1 def9ition ( #dad ---- ( rocks at ,bahia #dad ---- ,rio de ,janeiro #dae ---- ,maldonado #dah ---- ,monte ,video #dbj ---- ,s4 ,guitru-gueyu #dba ---- ,falkl& ,i4 #dbd ---- ,ti]ra del ,fuego #dbg ---- ,*onos ar*ipelago #dcj ---- ,*iloe #dcc ---- ,concepcion #dcd ---- ,*ile #dce ---- discussion on #dce ,=bes1 ,pr(essor ,e41 on cretace\s fossils ( ,concepcion #djj ---- on cretace\s fossils & subsid5ce 9 ,cumbre ,pass #dfe ---- on fossils f ,guasco #dhh ---- ---- f ,coquimbo #dhc1 #dhg ---- ---- f ,copiapo #dic ---- on dep?s at :i* %ells live #dji1 #dif ,=mation1 ,pampean #ceb ---- ---- area ( #cga ---- ---- e/u>y orig9 #cgc ---- t]ti>y ( ,entre ,rios #cfc ---- ( ,b&a ,ori5tal #cfe ---- volcanic1 9 ,b&a ,ori5tal #cfg ---- ( ,patagonia #cha ---- summ>y on #cia ---- t]ti>y ( ,ti]ra del ,fuego #cia ---- ---- ( ! ,*onos ar*ipelago #cic ---- ---- ( ,*iloe #cid ---- ---- ( ,*ile #cid ---- ---- ( ,concepcion #cih1 #djd ---- ---- ( ,navidad #djj ---- ---- ( ,coquimbo #djb ---- ---- ( ,p]u #djd ---- ---- subsid5ce dur+ #djb ---- volcanic1 ( ,tres ,montes #cic ---- ---- ( ,*iloe #cid ---- ---- old1 ne> ,maldonado #dah ---- ---- ) lam9> /ructure #ddj ---- ---- anci5t1 9 ,ti]ra del ,fuego #dbf ---- rec5t1 abs5t on ,s4 ,am]ican coa/ #dji ---- metamorphic1 ( clay/one-porphyry ( ,patagonia #dba1 #ddj ---- foliation ( #dcf ---- plutonic1 ) lam9> /ructure #ddj ---- palaeozoic1 ( ! ,falkl& ,i4 #dbd ---- clay/one1 at ,concepcion #dcc ---- ,jurassic1 ( ,cordill]a #eab ---- ,neocomian1 ( ! ,portillo ,pass #dec ---- volcanic1 ( ,cumbre ,pass #dfe ---- gypse\s1 ( ,los ,hornos #dgi1 #dhg ---- ---- ( ,coquimbo #dhb ---- ---- ( ,guasco #dhg ---- ---- ( ,copiapo #dhh ---- ---- ( ,iquique #ejc ---- cretaceo-oolitic1 ( ,coquimbo #dhf1 #die ---- ---- ( ,guasco #dhg1 #did ---- ---- ( ,copiapo #die ---- ---- ( ,iquique #ejd ,fossils1 ,neocomian1 ( ,portillo ,pass #dec ---- ---- ( ,cumbre ,pass #dfe ---- second>y1 ( ,coquimbo #dhe ---- ---- ( ,guasco #dhg ---- ---- ( ,copiapo #did ---- ---- ( ,iquique #ejc ---- palozoic1 f ! ,falkl&s #dbd ,fragm5ts ( hornbl5de-rock 9 gneiss #dad ---- ( gneiss 9 gneiss #daf ,frey]1 ,lieut5ant1 on elevat$ %ells ( ,arica #cbc ,frezi] on sea-level at ,coquimbo #cad ,galapagos ar*ipelago1 pseudo-dikes ( #dbd ,gallegos1 ,port1 t]ti>y =mation ( #cij ,g>nets 9 gneiss #dae ---- 9 mica-slate #dbg ---- at ,panuncillo #dha ,g>di*aud1 ,m41 on granites ( ,brazil #dag ,gay1 ,m41 on elevat$ %ells #cjf ---- on b\ld]s 9 ! ,cordill]a #cci1 #cda ---- on fossils f ,cordill]a ( ,coquimbo #dhg ,gill1 ,mr41 on brickwork transport$ by an e>?quake-wave #cbg ,gillies1 ,dr41 on heights 9 ! ,cordill]a #ddh ---- on ext5sion ( ! ,portillo range #deh ,gl5 ,roy1 p>allel roads ( #cai ---- slop+ t]races ( #cdj ,gneiss1 ne> ,bahia #dad ---- ( ,rio de ,janeiro #dae ---- decomposition ( #dag ,gold1 di/ribution ( #ejf ,gorodona1 =mations ne> #cfb ,granite1 axis ( oblique1 to foliation #dca ---- &esitic #ddf ---- ( ,portillo range #dee ---- ve9s (1 qu>tzose #dcb1 #dge ---- pebble (1 9 porphyritic conglom]ate #dic ---- conglom]ate #dig ,grauwacke ( ,uspallata range #dfh ,gravel at bottom ( sea #bic1 #bih ---- =mation (1 9 ,patagonia #bie ---- means ( transportation ( #bih ---- /rata (1 incl9$ #dfg ,gravel-t]races 9 ,cordill]a #ccg ,gre5\gh1 ,mr41 on qu>tz ve9s #dcg ,gre5/one1 result+ f metamorphose hornbl5de-rock #dai ---- ( ,ti]ra del ,fuego #dbf ---- on ! summit ( ! ,campana ( ,quillota #ddb ---- porphyry #ddc ---- relation (1 to clay-slate #ddc ,grypha ori5talis #dhc ,guasco1 elevation ( #cba ---- second>y =mation ( #dhg ,guitru-gueyu1 ,si]ra #dba ,guyana1 gneissic rocks ( #dae ,gypsum1 nodules (1 9 gravel at ,rio ,negro #bif ---- deposit$ f sea-wat] #cbg ---- deposits (1 at ,iquique #cde ---- cry/als (1 9 salt lakes #cdf ---- 9 ,pampean =mation #cec ---- 9 t]ti>y =mation ( ,patagonia #chb1 1 1 ---- great =mation (1 9 ! ,portillo ,pass #dfa1 #dfc ---- ---- 9 ! ,cumbre ,pass #dfa1 #dfc ---- ---- ne> ,los ,hornos #dgi ---- ---- at ,coquimbo #dhb ---- ---- at ,copiapo #dij1 #dib ---- ---- ne> ,iquique #ejd ---- ( ,san ,lor5zo #ejd ,hall1 ,capta91 on t]races at ,coquimbo #caf ,hamilton1 ,mr41 on elevation ne> ,tacna #cbc ,h>lan1 ,dr41 on human rema9s #bgi ,hayes1 ,mr4 ,a41 on nitrate ( soda #cdf ,h5sl[1 ,pr(essor1 on concretions #dcg ,h]b]t1 ,capta91 on valleys 9 ! ,himalaya #cce ,h]radura ,bay1 elevat$ %ells ( #cae ---- t]ti>y =mations ( #djb ,himalaya1 valleys 9 #cce ,hippurites ,*il5sis #dhc1 #dhf ,hit*cock1 ,pr(essor1 on dikes #dad ,hone/ones1 pseudo1 ( ,coquimbo #dhc ---- ( ,copiapo #dhi ,hook]1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,d41 on fossil bee*-leaves #cia ,hopk9s1 ,mr41 on axes ( elevation oblique to foliation #dcb ---- on orig9 ( l9es ( elevation #ddj1 #eab ,hornbl5de-rock1 fragm5ts (1 9 gneiss #dad ,hornbl5de-s*i/1 ne> ,m4 ,video #dbj ,hornos1 ,los1 section ne> #dgi ,horn/one1 dike ( #dcc1 #dcd ,horse1 fossil too? ( #ceh1 #cfd ,huafo isl& #cic1 #djd ---- subsid5ce at #daa ,huantajaya1 m9es ( #ejc ,humboldt1 on sal9e incru/ations #cdg ---- on foliations ( gneiss #dae ---- on concretions 9 gneiss #dce ,iceb]gs1 action on cleavage #dcd1 #dcf ,illapele1 section ne> #dgi ,imp]ial1 b$s ( %ells ne> #cje ,incru/ations1 sal9e #cdg ,infusoria 9 ,pampean =mation #ceb1 #cee1 #cfj1 #cfc ---- 9 ,patagonian =mation #chb1 #chc1 #chd1 #cia ,iod9e1 salts ( #cdg1 #cdh ,iquique1 elevation ( #cbb ---- salif]\s deposits ( #cdd ---- cretaceo-oolitic =mation ( #ejc ,iron1 oxide (1 9 lavas #dfc1 #dii ---- 9 s$im5t>y b$s #dhj1 #dhb ---- t5d5cy 91 to produce holl[ concretions #cih ---- sulphate ( #dhi ,isabelle1 ,m41 on volcanic rocks ( ,b&a ,ori5tal #cfh ,jo9ts 9 clay-slate #dbh ,jukes1 ,mr41 on cleavage 9 ,newf\ndl& #dcg ,kamts*atka1 &esite ( #cdg ,kane1 ,dr41 on ! production ( c>bonate ( soda #cbh ,k+ ,george's s\nd1 calc>e\s b$s ( #cab ,lakes1 orig9 ( #cjj ---- fre%-wat]1 ne> salt lakes #cej ,lava1 basaltic1 ( ,s4 ,cruz #chi ---- clay/one-porphyry1 at ,*iloe #cie ---- ---- anci5t subm>9e #ddf ---- basaltic1 ( ! ,portillo range #deg ---- feldspa?ic1 ( ! ,cumbre ,pass #dfc ---- subm>9e1 ( ! ,uspallata range #dga1 #dgc1 #dgf ---- basaltic1 ( ! ,uspallata range #dge ---- subm>9e1 ( ,coquimbo #dhd1 #dhf ---- ( ,copiapo #dij1 #dif1 #dii ,lemus isl& #cic1 #djd ,lemuy islet #cid ,lignite ( ,*iloe #cie ---- ( ,concepcion #cih ,lima1 elevation ( #cbc ,lime1 muriate ( #cbh1 #cdd1 #cdg ,lime/one ( ,cumbre ,pass #dfb ---- ( ,coquimbo #dhc1 #dhe ---- ( ,copiapo #dic ,lund & ,claus5 on rema9s ( caves 9 ,brazil #cgh1 #chj ,lund1 ,m41 on granites ( ,brazil #dag ,lyell1 ,m41 on uprais$ %ells reta9+ _! col\rs #bhi ---- on t]races at ,coquimbo #cae ---- on elevation ne> ,lima #cbg ---- on fossil horse's too? #cfd ---- on ! b\ld]-=mation be+ ant]ior to ! ext9ction ( ,nor? ,am]ican mammif]s #cga ---- on quadrup$s wa%$ d[n by floods #cgd ---- on age ( ,am]ican fossil mammif]s #cgi ---- on *anges ( climate #dji ---- on d5udation #daj ---- on foliation #dch ,mac,culloch1 ,dr41 on concretions #dcg ---- on b$s ( m>ble #ddj ,macl>51 ,mr41 lett] to1 on coral-=mations #dac ,macrau*5ia ,pata*onica #ceh1 #cgj ,madeira1 subsid5ce ( #cjb ,magellan1 ,/rait1 elevation ne>1 ( #bhh ,magnesia1 sulphate (1 9 ve9s #chg ,malcolmson1 ,dr41 on trees c>ri$ out to sea #dge ,maldonado1 elevation ( #bgg ---- ,pampean =mation ( #cfe ---- cry/all9e rocks ( #dah ,mammalia1 fossil1 ( ,bahia ,blanca #cef1 #cfd ---- ---- ne> ,/4 ,f #cfc ---- ---- ( ,b&a ,ori5tal #cff ---- ---- ( ,/4 ,julian #cfi ---- ---- at ,port ,gallegos #cia ---- wa%$ d[n by floods #cgc ---- numb] ( rema9s (1 & range (1 9 ,pampas #cgf ,man1 skeletons ( 7,brazil7 #bgi ---- rema9s (1 ne> ,lima #cbe ---- ,indian1 antiquity ( #cbe ,m>ble1 b$s ( #dah ,m>icongo1 rav9e ( #ejj ,m>sd51 on elevation ( ,sumatra #cje ,ma/odon ,&ium1 rema9s ( #cfb ---- range ( #cgh ,maypu1 ,rio1 m\? (1 ) uprais$ %ells #cjg ---- gravel fr+es ( #cci ---- deb\*em5t f ! ,cordill]a #ddi ,megalonyx1 range ( #cgi ,mega!rium1 range ( #cgi ,mi]s1 ,mr41 on elevat$ %ells #caa ---- on ! height ( ! ,uspallata pla9 #cce ,m9as1 ,las #dah ,mo*a ,isl&1 elevation ( #cje ---- t]ti>y =m ( #cih ---- subsid5ce at #daa ,mol9a1 on a great flood #cda ,monte ,h]moso1 elevation ( #bhj ---- fossils ( #cee ,monte ,video1 elevation ( #bgh ---- ,pampean =mation ( #cfe ---- cry/all9e rocks ( #dai ,morris & ,%>pe1 ,messrs41 on ! palozoic fossils ( ! ,falkl&s #dbd ,mud1 ,pampean #ceb ---- long deposit$ on ! same area #cgf ,mur*ison1 ,sir ,r41 on cleavage #dcf ---- on waves transport+ gravel #bii ---- on orig9 ( salt =mations #eje ---- on ! relations ( metallif]\s ve9s & intrusive rocks #ejg ---- on ! abs5ce ( granite 9 ! ,ural #eab ,nautilus d',orbignyanus #djj1 #dje ,navidad1 t]ti>y =mations (1 subsid5ce ( #djj1 #daa ,negro1 ,rio1 pumice ( pebbles ( #bha ---- gravel ( #bie ---- salt lakes ( #bie ---- t]ti>y /rata ( #chd ,nor? ,am]ica1 fossil rema9s ( #cgi ,nor? ,wales1 slop+ t]races abs5t 9 #cdj ---- b5t cleavage ( #dcd ,neuvo ,gulf1 pla9s ( #bhb ---- t]ti>y =mation ( #chd ,ow51 ,pr(essor1 on fossil mammif]\s rema9s #cef1 #ceh1 #cfd1 #cff1 #cgj ,palm]1 ,mr41 on transportation ( gravel #cjj ,pampas1 elevation ( #bij ---- e>?quakes ( #bij ---- =mation ( #bie1 #cej ---- localities 9 :i* fossil mammif]s h be5 f\nd #chj ,panuncillo1 m9es ( #dha ,p>ana1 ,rio1 on sal9e incru/ations #cdg ---- ,pampean =mations ne> #cfa ---- on ! ,s4 ,t&il #dbj ,p>i%1 ,sir ,w41 on elevat$ %ells ne> ,bu5os ,ayres #bgh1 #bgi ---- on e>?quakes 9 ! ,pampas #bij ---- on fre%-wat] ne> salt lakes #cej ---- on orig9 ( ,pampean =mation #cgc ,patagonia1 elevation & pla9s ( #bha ---- d5udation ( #bia ---- gravel-=mation ( #bie ---- sea-cliffs ( #cja ---- subsid5ce dur+ t]ti>y p]iod #daa ---- cry/all9e rocks ( #dba ,payta1 t]ti>y =mations ( #djd ,pebbles ( pumice #bhj ---- decrease 9 size on ! coa/ ( ,patagonia #bic ---- means ( transportation #bih ---- encru/$ ) liv+ corall9es #bii ---- di/ribution (1 at ! ea/]n foot ( ,cordill]a #ccg ---- disp]sal (1 9 ! ,pampas #ced ---- zon$ ) col\r #ddc ,p5tl&1 ,mr41 on heights 9 ! ,cordill]a #dfj ---- on fossils ( ! ,cordill]a #dfe ,p]nambuco #bgi ,p]u1 t]ti>y =mations ( #djc ,peuqu5es1 ,pass (1 9 ! ,cordill]a #ddh ---- ridge ( #deb ,pholas1 elevat$ %ells ( #cjc ,pit*/one ( ,*iloe #cie ---- ( ,port ,desire #dba ---- ne> ,cauqu5es #ddh ---- lay]s (1 9 ! ,uspallata range #dgb ---- ( ,los ,hornos #dhj ---- ( ,coquimbo #dhc ,pla9s ( ,patagonia #bhb1 #bia ---- ( ,*iloe #cjd ---- ( ,*ile #ccc ---- ( ,uspallata #cce ---- on ea/]n foot ( ,cordill]a #ccf ---- ( ,iquique #cdf ,plata1 ,la1 elevation ( #bgg ---- t]ti>y =mation ( #bie1 #cec ---- cry/all9e rocks ( #dah ,playfair1 ,pr(essor1 on ! transportation ( gravel #cjj ,plucl>o1 axis ( #dhc ,pondi*]ry1 fossils ( #djj ,porcela9 rocks ( ,port ,desire #dbb ---- ( ! ,uspallata range #dga1 #dgc1 #dgf ,porphyry1 pebbles (1 /rew$ ov] ,patagonia #bif ,porphyry1 clay/one1 ( ,*iloe #cie ---- ---- ( ,patagonia #dba ---- ---- ( ,*ile #ddb1 #dde ---- gre5/one1 ( ,*ile #ddd ---- d\bly column> #ddh ---- clay/one1 r>e1 on ! ea/]n side ( ! ,portillo ,pass #ded ---- brick-r$ & or?itic1 ( ,cumbre ,pass #deh1 #dfg ---- intrusive1 repeat$ly inject$ #dfg ---- clay/one ( ! ,uspallata range #dfh ---- ---- ( ,copiapo #dhi1 #dii ---- ---- eruptive s\rces ( #ejb ,port ,desire1 elevation & pla9s ( #bhc ---- t]ti>y =mation ( #chc ---- porphyries ( #dba ,portillo ,pass 9 ! ,cordill]a #ddh ,portillo *a9 #ded1 #deh ---- comp>$ ) t ( ! ,uspallata #dgh ,prefil or sea-wall ( ,valp>aiso #caj ,pu5te del ,inca1 section ( #dfa ,pumice1 pebbles ( #bcj ---- conglom]ate ( ,r4 ,negro #chb ---- hills (1 9 ! ,cordill]a #cdg ,punta ,alta1 elevation ( #bhj ---- b$s ( #cef ,qu>tz-rock ( ! ,s4 ,v5tana #dba ---- ,c4 ,blanco #dba ---- ,falkl& isl&s #dbd ---- ,portillo range #dee ---- viscidity ( #dge ---- ve9s (1 ne> ,monte ,video #dbj ---- ---- 9 dike ( gre5/one #dbf ---- gra9s (1 9 mica slate #dcj ---- ---- 9 dikes #dcb1 #dcd ---- ve9s (1 relations to cleavage #dcg ,quillota1 ,campana ( #ddb ,qu9t]o1 elevation ( #caa ,quiriqu9a1 elevation ( #cjf ---- deposits ( #cii ,rancagua1 pla9 ( #ccd ,rapel1 ,r41 elevation ne> #cjg ,reeks1 ,mr4 ,t41 8 analysis ( decompos$ %ells #cbh ---- 8 analysis ( salts #cdd ,rema9s1 human #cbd ,rio de ,janeiro1 elevation ne> #bgi ---- cry/all9e rocks ( #dae ,riv]s1 small p[] ( transport+ pebbles #bih ---- small p[] (1 9 =m+ valleys #cdc ---- dra9age (1 9 ! ,cordill]a #ddi1 #eac ,roads1 p>allel1 ( ,gl5 ,roy #cai ,rocks1 volcanic1 ( ,b&a ,ori5tal #cfg ---- ,tres ,montes #cic ---- ,*iloe #cid ---- ,ti]ra del ,fuego #dbf ---- ) lam9> /ructure #ddj ,rod5ts1 fossil1 rema9s ( #cef ,rog]s1 ,pr(essor1 address to ,association ( ,am]ican ,geologi/s #dab ,rose1 ,pr(essor ,g41 on sulphate ( iron at ,copiapo #dhi ,s4 ,blas1 elevation ( #bha ,s4 ,cruz1 elevation & pla9s ( #bhd ---- valley ( #bhe ---- nature ( gravel 9 valley ( #bif ---- b\ld] =mation ( #cga ---- t]ti>y =mation ( #chf ---- subsid5ce at #dab ,s4 ,f ,bajada1 =mations ( #cfc ,s4 ,george's bay1 pla9s ( #bhb ,s4 ,hel5a isl&1 sea-cliffs1 & subsid5ce ( #cja ,s4 ,josef1 elevation ( #bha ---- t]ti>y =mation ( #chc ,s4 ,juan1 elevation ne> #bgh ,s4 ,julian1 elevation & pla9s ( #bhd ---- salt lake ( #cdh ---- e>?y deposit ) mammif]\s rema9s #cfi ---- t]ti>y =mations ( #chd ---- subsid5ce at #daa ,s4 ,lor5zo1 elevation ( #cbc ---- old salt =mation ( #ejd ,s4 ,m>y1 isl& (1 elevation ( #cje ,s4 ,p$ro1 elevation ( #bgh ,salado1 ,r41 elevat$ %ells ( #bgi ---- ,pampean =mation ( #cec ,sal9es #cdh ,salt1 ) uprais$ %ell #cbd1 #cbg ---- lakes ( #cdh ---- purity (1 9 salt lakes #cdi ---- deliquesc5t1 necess>y = ! pres]vation ( meat #cdi ---- anci5t =mation (1 at ,iquique #ejd ---- ---- at ,s4 ,lor5zo #ejd ---- /rata (1 orig9 ( #eje ,salts1 sup]ficial deposits ( #cdd ,s&-dunes ( ! ,uruguay #bgi ---- ( ! ,pampas #bha ---- ne> ,bahia ,blanca #bha1 #bic ---- ( ! ,colorado #bha1 #bid ---- ( ,s4 ,cruz #bhf ---- ( ,arica #cbc ,s>mi5to1 ,m\nt #dbg ,s*midtmey] on aurif]\s detritus #ejf ,s*omburghk1 ,sir ,r41 on sea-bottom #bii ---- on ! rocks ( ,guyana #dae ,scotl&1 slop+ t]races ( #cdj ,sea1 nature ( bottom (1 (f ,patagonia #bib ---- p[] (1 9 =m+ valleys #cdc ,sea cliffs1 =mation ( #cja ,seale1 ,mr41 model ( ,/4 ,hel5a #cja ,seba/ian ,bay1 t]ti>y =mation ( #cia ,s$gwick1 ,pr(essor1 on cleavage #ccf ,s]p5t9e ( ,copiapo #dhi ,s]pul1 on uprais$ rocks #cbe ,%ale-rock1 ( ! ,portillo ,pass #deb ---- ( ,copiapo #dic ,%ells1 uprais$ /ate (1 9 ,patagonia #bhh ---- elevat$1 too small = human food #cjh ---- transport$ f> inl&1 = food #cji ---- uprais$1 proportional numb]s v>y+ #cab1 #cbd ---- ---- gradual decay ( #cbc1 #cbd1 #cbg ---- ---- abs5t on high pla9s ( ,*ile #cce ---- ---- ne> ,bahia ,blanca #ceh ---- pres]v$ 9 concretions #cid1 #cig ---- liv+ & fossil range (1 on we/ coa/ #djf1 #djh ---- liv+1 diff]5t on ! ea/ & we/ coa/ #daa ,%+le ( ,patagonia #bie ,siau1 ,m41 on sea-bottom #bii ,silv] m9es ( ,arqu]os #dca ---- ( ,*anuncillo #did ---- ( ,iquique #ejc ---- di/ribution ( #ejf ,slip1 great1 at ,s4 ,cruz #chg ,smi?1 ,mr41 ( ,jordan ,hill1 on uprais$ %ells reta9+ _! col\rs #bhi ---- on ,madeira #cjb ---- on elevat$ seawe$ #cbe ---- on incl9$ gravel b$s #dfg ,soda1 nitrate ( #cdf ---- sulphate (1 ne> ,bahia ,blanca #cdh1 #cdi ---- c>bonate ( #cdg ,s\nd+s (f ,patagonia #bic1 #bii ---- 9 ,ti]ra del ,fuego #cjj ,spirif]s #dhf1 #dhh ,spix & ,m>tius on ,brazil #dag ,spr5gel on ! production ( c>bonate ( soda #cbh ,spr+s1 m9]al1 9 ! ,cumbre ,pass #dfa ,/ratification ( s&/one 9 metamorphic rocks #dad ---- ( clay-slate 9 ,ti]ra del ,fuego #dbh ---- ( ! ,cordill]a ( ,c5tral ,*ile #ddb1 #ddh1 #dfa ---- little di/urb$ 9 ,cumbre ,pass #dfj1 #dff ---- di/urbance (1 ne> ,copiapo #eja ,/reams ( lava at ,s4 ,cruz1 incl9ation ( #cij ---- 9 ! ,portillo range #deg ,/r+ ( cotton ) fossil-%ells #cbe ,/ru?iol>ia ornata #cib ,/ud]1 ,m41 on metamorphic rocks #dch ,subsid5ce dur+ =mation ( sea-cliffs #cja ---- ne> ,lima #cbg ---- probable1 dur+ ,pampean =mation #cgf ---- necess>y = ! accumulation ( p]man5t deposits #daa ---- dur+ ! t]ti>y =mations ( ,*ile & ,patagonia #dac ---- probable dur+ ! ,neocomian =mation ( ! ,portillo ,pass #dec ---- probable dur+ ! =mation ( conglom]ate ( ,t5uyan #dei ---- dur+ ! ,neocomian =mation ( ! ,cumbre ,pass #dfe ---- ( ! ,uspallata range #dgd1 #dgg ---- great1 at ,copiapo #dif ---- ---- dur+ ! =mation ( ! ,cordill]a #eaj ,sulphur1 volcanic exhalations ( #eji ,sumatra1 promontories ( #cje ,summ>y on ! rec5t elevatory movem5ts #bei1 #cbi1 #ead ---- on ! ,pampean =mation #cga1 #eae ---- on ! t]ti>y =mations ( ,patagonia & ,*ile #cia1 #djd1 #eac ---- on ! ,*ilean ,cordill]a #ejh ---- on ! cretaceo-oolitic =mation #ejh ---- on ! subsid5ces ( ! ,cordill]a #eji ---- on ! elevation ( ! ,cordill]a #eaa1 #eag ,tacna1 elevation ( #cbc ,tampico1 elevat$ %ells ne> #cbi ,t&il1 cry/all9e rocks ( #dbj ,tapalgu51 ,pampean =mation ( #cec ---- cry/all9e rocks ( #dbj ,taylor1 ,mr41 on copp] ve9s ( ,cuba #ejf ,temp]ature ( ,*ile dur+ ! t]ti>y p]iod #djh ,t5sion1 l9es (1 orig9 (1 axes ( elevation & ( cleavage #ddj ,t5uy ,po9t1 s+ul> section ( #cie ,t5uyan1 valley ( #ded1 #dgh ,t]races ( ! valley ( ,s4 ,cruz #bhf ---- ( equable heights ?r\gh\t ,patagonia #bij ---- ( ,patagonia1 =mation ( #bid ---- ( ,*iloe #cjd ---- at ,con*alee #caa ---- ( ,coquimbo #caf ---- n horizontal at ,coquimbo #cag ---- ( ,guasco #cbj ---- ( ,s4 ,lor5zo #cbc ---- ( gravel )9 ! ,cordill]a #ccg ,!ories on ! orig9 ( ! ,pampean =mation #cgb ,ti]ra ,am>illa #dhi ,ti]ra del ,fuego1 =m ( sea-bottom #cjj ---- t]ti>y =mations ( #cia ---- clay-slate =mation ( #dbd ---- cretace\s =mation ( #dbf ---- cry/all9e rocks ( #dbf ---- cleavage ( clay-slate #dbg1 #dcf ,tosca rock #ceb ,tra*yte ( ,*iloe #cid ---- ( ,port ,desire #dba ---- 9 ! ,cordill]a #cdg ,traditions ( promontories hav+ be5 isl&s #cje ---- on *anges ( level ne> ,lima #cbg ,trees buri$ 9 pla9 ( ,iquique #cdf ---- silicifi$1 v]tical1 ( ! ,uspallata range #dgc ,tres ,montes1 elevation ( #cjc ---- volcanic rocks ( #cic ,trigonocelia insolita #cib ,tri/an ,arroyo1 elevat$ %ells ( #bgh ,ts*udi1 ,mr41 on subsid5ce ne> ,lima #cbg ,tuff1 calc>e\s1 at ,coquimbo #cac ---- on bas9-pla9 ne> ,/4 ,jago #ccd ---- /ructure (1 9 ,pampas #ceb ---- orig9 (1 9 ,pampas #cgd ---- pumice\s1 ( ,r4 ,negro #chb ---- ,nuevo ,gulf #chc ---- ,port ,desire #chc ---- ,s4 ,cruz #chf ---- ,patagonia1 summ>y on ,*iloe #cia ---- =mation (1 9 ,portillo *a9 #cie ---- great deposit (1 at ,copiapo #deg ,tuffs1 volcanic1 metamorphic1 ( ,uspallata #dga ---- ( ,coquimbo #dhd ,ulloa1 on ra9 9 ,p]u #cbd ---- on elevation ne> ,lima #cbg ,uruguay1 ,rio1 elevation ( c\ntry ne> #bgh ,uspallata1 pla9 ( #cce1 #eae ---- pass ( #dei ---- range ( #cfh ---- conclud+ rem>ks on #dgf ,valdivia1 t]ti>y b$s ( #cih ---- mica-slate ( #dcc ,valley ( ,s4 ,cruz1 /ructure ( #bhe ---- ,coquimbo #cad ---- ,guasco1 /ructure ( #cbj ---- ,copiapo1 /ructure ( #cba ---- ,s4 ,cruz1 t]ti>y =mations ( #chf ---- ,coquimbo1 geology ( #dhb ---- ,guasco1 second>y =mations ( #dhg ---- ,copiapo1 second>y =mations ( #dhh ---- ,despoblado #dif1 #dig1 #dii ,valleys 9 ! ,cordill]a bord]$ by gravel fr+es #ccg ---- =mation ( #cch ---- 9 ! ,cordill]a #ddi ,valp>aiso1 elevation ( #cjg ---- gneiss ( #dce ,ve9 ( qu>tz ne> ,monte ,video #dai ---- 9 mica-slate #dcj ---- relations (1 to cleavage #dcg ---- 9 a trap dike #dbf ---- ( granite1 qu>tzose #dcb1 #dge ---- rem>kable1 9 gneiss1 ne> ,valp>aiso #dce ,ve9s1 relations (1 to concretions #cif ---- metallif]\s1 ( ! ,uspallata range #dge ---- metallif]\s1 discussion on #eje ,v5ezuela1 gneissic rocks ( #dae ,v5tana1 ,si]ra1 ,pampean =mation ne> #cec ---- qu>tz-rock ( #dba ,villa ,v9c5cio ,pass #dfh ,volcan1 ,rio1 m\? ( #ddi ---- fossils ( #dec ,volcanoes ( ! ,cordill]a #cib1 #ddg1 #eaa ---- abs5t1 except ne> bodies ( wat] #deg ---- anci5t subm>9e1 9 ,cordill]a #ejb ---- action (1 9 relation to *anges ( level #ead ---- long action (1 9 ! ,cordill]a #eag ,waf] on elevat$ %ells #cbb ,waves caus$ by e>?quakes1 p[] (1 9 transport+ b\ld]s #cbf1 #cdd ---- p[] (1 9 ?r[+ up %ells #cji ,weav]1 ,mr41 on elevat$ %ells #cbi ,:ite1 ,m>t91 on sea-bottom #bii ,wood1 silicifi$1 ( ,entre ,rios #cfd ---- ,s4 ,cruz #chh ---- ,*iloe #cid1 #cif ---- ,uspallata range #dgc ---- ,los ,hornos #dgi ---- ,copiapo #die1 #dig ,yeso1 ,rio1 & pla9 ( #dej ,ypun ,isl&1 t]ti>y =mation ( #cic ,zeagonite #dbf