---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,,transcriber',s ,,notes ,text printed in bold face in the original work is here transcribed between 1 as in text4 ,text printed in italics in the original work is represented by text4 ,text printed in small capitals is represented here in ,,all ,,capitals4 ,superscripts are indicated by the caret character 4 ,where the author used a different type face to indicate a shape rather than a letter or symbol1 the letters or symbols are trans- cribed between square brackets3 ,t1 ,y and 4 ,more ,transcriber's ,notes may be found at the end of this text4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,,science ,,and ,,practice ,,in ,,farm ,,cultivation4 ,,by ,,james ,,buckman1 ,f4,l4,s41 ,f4,g4,s4 ,,late ,,professor ,,of ,,geology ,,and ,,rural ,,economy ,,at ,,the ,,royal ,,agricultural ,,college4 ,,london3 ,,robert ,,hardwicke1 #aib1 ,,piccadilly4 #ahfe4 ,,cox ,,and ,,wyman1 ,,oriental1 ,,classical1 ,,and ,,general ,,printers1 ,,great ,,queen ,,street1 ,,london1 ,w4,c4 ,,to ,,john ,,chalmers ,,morton1 ,,esq41 ,the talented ,editor of the 8,,agricultural ,,gazette10 ,,many ,,of ,,the ,,facts ,,and ,,opinions ,,already ,,detailed ,,in ,,which ,,influential ,,journal ,,are ,,here ,,but ,,repeated1 ,,this ,,work ,,is ,,dedicated ,,as ,a ,,small ,,token ,,of ,,admiration ,,and ,,respect1 ,,by ,,his ,,faithful ,,friend1 ,,the ,,author4 ,,contents4 ,,part ,i4 ,,how ,,to ,,grow ,,good ,,roots4 ,,chapter ,,page ,i4 ,on the ,origin of ,root ,crops #a ,,ii4 ,on the ,origin of ,sorts of ,roots #i ,,iii4 ,on ,trueness of ,sorts in ,roots #ac ,,iv4 ,on ,degenerate ,roots #ah ,v4 ,effects of ,growing ,seed from ,degenerate ,roots #bc ,,vi4 ,on the ,adulteration of ,seed1 more particularly of ,turnips #bi ,,vii4 ,on the ,art and ,mystery of ,turnip-seed ,adulteration #cg ,,viii4 ,general ,conclusions #di ,,part ,,ii4 ,,how ,,to ,,grow ,,good ,,grasses4 ,,ix4 ,on the ,nature of ,meadows and ,pastures #ea ,x4 ,on the ,species of ,meadow ,grasses #ef ,,xi4 ,on ,meadow ,plants other than ,grasses #gc ,,xii4 ,on the ,weeds of ,pastures #gh ,,xiii4 ,on the ,irrigated ,meadow #hg ,,xiv4 ,on the ,laying ,down of ,permanent ,pastures #ib ,,xv4 ,on the ,management of ,permanent ,pastures #ih ,,xvi4 ,on the ,management of ,lawns #ajb ,,part ,,iii4 ,,how ,,to ,,grow ,,good ,,clovers4 ,,xvii4 ,on the ,nature and ,properties of the ,clover ,family of ,plants #aji ,,xviii4 ,on the ,farm ,species of ,clovers #aac ,,xix4 ,on the ,varieties of ,red ,clovers #aba ,,xx4 ,on the ,clover ,allies #abe ,,xxi4 ,on ,clover ,sickness #acg ,,xxii4 ,on the ,weeds of ,clovers #adh ,,xxiii4 ,on the ,parasites of ,clovers #aef ,,part ,,iv4 ,,how ,,to ,,grow ,,good ,,corn4 ,,xxiv4 ,nature of ,corn #afa ,,xxv4 ,wheat3 its ,origin and ,acclimatization #afc ,,xxvi4 ,the ,wild ,oat as the ,origin of the ,cultivated ,varieties #afh ,,xxvii4 ,on the supposed ,origin of ,barley and ,rye #agf ,,xxviii4 ,epiphytical ,parasites 7,vegetable ,blights7 of ,corn ,crops #ahj ,,xxix4 ,insects 7,animal ,blights7 affecting ,corn ,crops #aib ,,xxx4 ,science in the ,cultivation of ,corn #bjd ,,xxxi4 ,on ,harvesting ,corn #bac ,,part ,v4 ,,how ,,to ,,grow ,,good ,,fences4 ,,xxxii4 ,on the ,nature of ,fences #bag ,,xxxiii4 ,on the ,plants for 8,live0 ,fences #bbj ,,xxxiv4 ,on the ,hearing and ,planting of ,hedges #bbg ,,xxxv4 ,weeds of ,hedge-row ,fences #bcd ,,xxxvi4 ,on ,hedge-row ,timber #bci ,,xxxvii4 ,on the ,vermin of ,fences #bdf ,,xxxviii4 ,on the ,management of ,hedge-row ,fences #bed ,,xxxix4 ,covenants with regard to ,fences1 c4 #bei ,,part ,,vi4 ,,how ,,to ,,grow ,,good ,,timber4 ,,xl4 ,on the ,value of ,timber for ,ornament and ,profit #bfe ,,xli4 ,on the ,kinds of ,timber best adapted for different ,situations #bgd ,,xlii4 ,on the ,british ,oak #bgh ,,xliii4 ,on the ,chestnut and ,walnut #bia ,,xliv4 ,on the ,elm #bif ,,xlv4 ,on the ,ash1 ,beech1 and other ,white-wooded ,trees #cjb ,,xlvi4 ,on ,soft-wooded ,forest ,trees #cac ,,part ,,vii4 ,,how ,,to ,,grow ,,good ,,orchards4 ,,xlvii4 ,on the ,apple and ,pear as ,orchard ,fruits #cai ,,xlviii4 ,on the ,production and ,choice of ,fruit ,trees #cbh ,,xlix4 ,on the ,gathering and ,storing of ,fruit #cch ,l4 ,on ,cider-making and ,management #cde ,,li4 ,on the ,uses and ,economy of ,cider and ,perry #cea ,,postscript #ceg ,,the ,,science ,,and ,,practice ,,of ,,root ,,cultivation4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,on ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,root ,,crops4 ,few people who have studied the matter attentively but have arrived at the conclusion that those plants which we cultivate for their roots were not naturally endowed with the root portion of their structure either of the size or form which would now be considered as essential for a perfect crop plant4 ,thus the parsnip1 carrot1 turnip1 beet1 c41 as we find them in nature1 have nowhere the large1 fleshy1 smooth appearance which belongs to their cultivated forms2 and hence all the varieties of these that we meet with in cultivation must be considered as derivatives from original wild forms1 obtained by cultivative processes2 that is1 collecting their seed1 planting it in a prepared bed1 stimulating the growth of the plants with manures1 thinning1 regulating1 weeding1 and such other acts as constitute farming or gardening1 as the case may be4 ,hence1 then1 it is concluded that such plants as are grown for their roots have a peculiar aptitude for laying on tissue1 and thus increasing the bulk of their 8descending axis10 that is1 that portion of their structure which grows downwards--root4 ,besides this1 they are remarkable for their capability of producing varieties--a fact which1 united with a constancy in the maintenance of an induced form1 renders it exceedingly easy to bring out new sorts which will maintain their characteristics under great diversities of climate1 soil1 and treatment4 ,the facility with which different sorts of roots may be procured can readily be understood from the many varieties1 not only of turnip--which may perhaps be considered as an original species--but also of swede1 which is a hybrid of the turnip and rape plant4 ,of the former we have more than thirty sorts grown by the farmer1 and as many peculiar to the garden2 whilst there are probably more than twenty well-recognized sorts of swedes4 ,of beets1 with mangel-wurzel1 we have almost as great a variety2 so also of carrots4 ,of parsnips we have fewer varieties1 to which may now be added the new form called the ,student parsnip1 the growth of which is so interesting that we shall here give a short history of its production1 as an illustration of the origin of root crops4 ,in #ahdg we collected some wild parsnip seed from the top of the ,cotteswolds1 where this is among the most frequent of weeds4 ,this seed1 after having been kept carefully during the winter1 was sown in a prepared bed1 in the spring of #ahdh1 in drills about eighteen inches apart4 ,as the plants grew they were duly thinned out1 leaving for the crop1 as far as it could be done1 the specimens that had leaves with the broadest divisions1 lightest colour1 and fewest hairs4 ,as cultivated parsnips offer a curious contrast with the wild specimens in these respects1 we place the following notes1 side by side1 on the root-leaves of plants of the same period of growth4 #ast4 ,,wild ,,parsnip4 #bnd4 ,,student ,,parsnip4 ,ft4 in4 ,ft4 in4 ,whole length from the ,whole length from the base of the petiole to base of the petiole to the apex of the leaf #j #h the tip of the leaf #b #j ,breadth of leaflets #j #j ,breadth of leaflets #c #j ,length of ditto #j #a ,length of leaflets #j #f ,petiole and leaflets1 ,petiole and leaflets hairy4 ,colour1 dark without hair4 ,colour1 green4 light green4 ,illustration3 ,figures #a and #b4--,roots of ,wild ,parsnips4 ,natural size4 ,we have before remarked that neither in size nor form are the wild roots at all comparable with the cultivated ones4 ,our figures #a and #b were taken from fine roots of the wild parsnip of the first year's growth2 that is to say1 just at the same time as a crop parsnip would be at its best4 ,they were purposely taken from specimens obtained from the same district as the seed with which our experiments were commenced4 ,our first crop of roots from the wild seed presented great diversities in shape1 being for the most part even more forked than the originals1 but still with a general tendency to fleshiness4 ,of these the best shaped were reserved for seeding2 and having been kept the greater part of the winter in sand1 some six of the best were planted in another plot for seed4 ,the seed1 then1 of #ahdi was sown in the spring of #ahej1 in a freshly-prepared bed1 the plants being treated as before1 the results showing a decided improvement1 with tendencies in some examples in the following directions3-- #ast4 ,the round-topped long-root1 having a resemblance to the ,guernsey parsnip4 7,panais long of the ,french47 #bnd4 ,the hollow-crowned long-root4 8,hollow-headed0 of the gardener4 7,panais ,lisbonais type47 #crd4 ,the short1 thick turnip-shaped root4 8,turnip-rooted0 of the gardener4 7,panais rond form47 ,these three forms were all of them much mis-shapen1 with forked roots1 that is1 fingers and toes2 but still each of them offered opportunities of procuring three original varieties from this new source4 ,as an example of progress1 we offer the following engraving of a specimen of our ,round-topped parsnip of #aheb4 ,fig4 #c4 ,this it will be seen has strong1 fleshy forks1 and a tendency to form divided tap-roots2 otherwise the shape is greatly improved1 and the skin is tolerably smooth4 ,at this time our stock was for the most part fleshy and soft on boiling2 the flavour1 too1 though much stronger than that of the usual esculent parsnip1 was rather agreeable than otherwise4 ,this matter of flavour is a subject of interest1 as most lovers of the parsnip1 as a garden esculent1 had got to complain of this root becoming more and more tasteless4 ,that this was so our own experience most fully confirms2 we have now1 however1 mended this root very materially in this respect4 ,our experiments were only carried on with examples of the ,hollow-crowned form1 which following out from year to year1 we at length obtained so perfect in form1 clean in outline1 delicate in skin1 and unexceptionable in flavour1 that we were induced to cause its seed to be distributed through the medium of the trade4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4--,round-topped ,parsnip1 five generations from wild root4 ,in #ahha we sowed a parcel of seed in our own garden obtained from the ,messrs4 ,sutton1 after having received from them the following notes upon the growth of the roots in their grounds3-- ,we are happy to tell you that in lifting some of each of all the varieties of parsnips in our trial-ground1 your 8,student0 was decidedly the best shape1 varying in length1 but always clean and straight4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4--,student ,parsnip of #ahfa4 ,two-thirds of natural size4 ,the engraving 7,fig4 #d7 is taken from our garden stock of #ahfa1 as being a common shape of this new variety4 ,it is not quite so long and slender as the usual ,long-horned parsnip1 but its clean unbranched outline and solidity of structure recommend it as a good variety1 whilst its flavour has been highly extolled by the lover of this1 to some1 favorite root4 ,in size it is scarcely large enough for a field crop1 but though not at present recommenced for the farm1 its history may well serve to explain the origin of crop plants1 as derived from the cultivation and improvement of wild species4#a #a ,it may here be noted that the ,student parsnip took the first prize for this root at the ,international ,show at the ,horticultural ,society's ,gardens in #ahfb4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,on ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,sorts ,,of ,,roots4 ,as crop plants are derived from wild ones1 as the effect of cultivation1 it follows as a matter of course that these will be varied1 both in form and constitution1 according to the circumstances under which they have been produced4 ,thus we may expect that any attempts to ennoble a wild root in different countries would not1 even if successful1 be sure to bring about the same results4 ,much depends even upon the individual root with which our trial may be started1 and more upon the judgment employed in selecting the stock from which the experiments are to be continued4 ,that position and soil may make a great difference may be inferred from the fact that the attempts to improve the wild parsnip and carrot have met with varied success4 ,de ,candolle is reported to have tried to improve the carrot with success1 whilst with the parsnip he utterly failed2 whilst ,professor ,lindley1 in ,morton's 8,cyclopdia of ,agriculture10 tells us that ,m4 ,ponsard has ascertained that 8the wild parsnip becomes improved immediately when cultivated1 and that experiments in improving its quality promise well30 how well1 indeed1 may be seen from the foregoing chapter4 ,but still1 we utterly failed with the wild carrot4 ,having collected seeds of the ,daucus ,carota 7the common wild carrot7 from some fine specimens growing on the road-side between ,cirencester and ,cheltenham1 they were subjected to experiment at the same time as the parsnip1 but with little1 if any1 favourable result4 ,upon this plant ,professor ,lindley observes as follows3-- ,that the hard-rooted wild carrot is really the parent of our cultivated varieties1 remarkable as they are for the succulence and tenderness of their roots1 has been experimentally proved by ,m4 ,vilmorin1 who succeeded in obtaining by cultivation perfectly tender1 eatable roots1 from seeds saved from plants only three or four generations off the wild species4 ,still1 a modern ,french naturalist of great experience1 ,m4 ,decaisne1 tells us that he has tried to ennoble the wild carrot1 and has not succeeded2 and from this he draws the conclusion that our cultivated forms were created specially for the use of man4 ,as we should suppose that very few botanists agree to this theory1 we shall let the facts we have already brought forward stand in maintenance of its opposite1 namely1 that cultivated forms are derived from wild species often apparently very different2 but at the same time it may be well to state1 that in all probability some of the discrepancies of experimenters may have arisen from some confusion in the species operated upon4 ,in #ahfj we gathered some seed of the ,daucus maritima 7sea-side carrot7 at ,bognor1 which1 on being sown in a prepared plot the following spring1 certainly resulted in fairly succulent roots1 which on being cooked were pronounced by our party of four to be excellent4 ,while on this subject1 it may be mentioned as not a little remarkable1 that so many of our garden esculents should be derived from sea-side plants4 ,thus1 probably carrot1 but certainly celery1 sea-kale1 asparagus1 and cabbage4 ,this would seem to point to the fact that cultivation requires a complete change of the circumstances necessary to maintain a wild condition2 and hence cultivated plants can only be kept up by the labours of a cultivator4 ,now1 as regards the sea-side carrot1 we are after all inclined to the belief that it is the parent of the cultivated varieties1 whilst1 on the other hand1 we view the ,daucus ,carota 7the wild inland carrot7 as a probable descendant from the cultivated or garden stock2 and if this be so1 the ,daucus maritima is the original species from which both the wild and cultivated races have descended4 ,bentham1 indeed1 carries this view a little further1 the following remarks tending to throw doubts upon the carrot in any form as being a true native4 ,under the heading of ,daucus ,carota he says3-- ,probably an original native of the sea-coasts of modern ,europe1 but of very ancient cultivation1 and sows itself most readily1 soon degenerating to the wild form1 with a slender root1 and now most abundant in fields1 pastures1 waste places1 c41 throughout ,europe and ,russian ,asia2 common in ,britain1 especially near the sea4 ,flowers the whole summer and autumn4 ,a decidedly maritime variety1 with the leaves somewhat fleshy1 with shorter segments1 more or less thickened peduncles1 more spreading umbels1 and more flattened prickles to the fruits1 is often considered as a distinct species4 ,seeing then that crop plants are derivatives from a wild stock1 we can readily understand how the varying circumstances attendant upon the development of the former should tend to the production of varieties1 and this merely as the result of the treatment of the fairly derived legitimate seed4 ,if1 again1 we take these variations for the purpose of obtaining hybrids1 we need not wonder at the infinite variety of sorts which can be brought about1 but rather that any sort could be maintained in that trueness of character or in that state of permanency which we sometimes find to be the case4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,on ,,trueness ,,of ,,sort ,,in ,,root ,,crops4 ,the importance of trueness and purity of seed arises from the evenness of growth of a good genuine strain2 while if this quality be wanting we have some parts of our crop growing well1 whilst others get on but poorly4 ,thus a free-growing plant beside one over which it has got the advantage1 maintains it for the most part through the whole period of growth4 ,again1 some sorts are of value for being early1 others for lateness of growth1 and some kinds are better fitted for early than late sowing2 if1 therefore1 we have a mixture in these respects1 we may at least expect a partial failure2 for whichever is best for our purpose1 if mixed will be accompanied by those which are not so good4 ,a want of trueness to sort may arise principally from the following causes3-- #ast4 ,want of selection in seeding bulbs4 #bnd4 ,hybridization4 #crd4 ,a mixture of seeds4 #ast4 ,the propriety of selecting the specimens from which seed is to be grown is admitted by all3 by the seedsman1 who always advertises his turnip and swede seed1 for example1 as being 8from selected bulbs20 and by the farmer1 as this announcement is only made to induce him to buy4 ,it is not only important that the roots should be selected1 but that they should be stored and then planted in a fresh soil2 for as these latter are among the cultivative processes by which sorts have been obtained1 so should they be repeated in order to ensure a continuance of the induced condition4 ,seeding upon the same soil and in the same bed in which the seed is sown is hardly the way to keep up a form induced by cultivation1 as this is exactly what would be done by the plants in a state of wildness4 ,in selecting roots for seeding1 care should be taken to choose good-shaped examples1 in which a clean unbranched bulb1 not too large1 with a small tap-root and a small top1 confined to a single central bud2 a branched root and a many-headed top being true signs of degeneracy4 ,and no less so is neckiness in swedes and mangels1 as well as a coarse corrugated skin in roots of all kinds4 ,taking such points as these into consideration1 how absurd must appear most of the huge mis-shapen roots to which prizes are usually awarded at shows1 where the specimens are chosen for size1 and trimmed up with the knife1 to make them look more presentable4 ,as an evidence of the mistaken principles upon which prizes are awarded to bundles of roots1 let any one seed such examples1 and we will venture to assert that such seed would produce a large proportion of degenerate examples1 without affording so good a crop as would seed1 from middle-sized but well-shapen specimens4 #bnd4 ,some of the forms of roots1 and more especially those belonging to the ,brassicace1 such as turnips and swedes1 seem to have a wonderful facility for hybridizing2 and this not only to the extent of one sort of turnip with another1 but sports may be caused by the fertilization of the turnip with rape and its congeners4 ,indeed1 the hybrid with turnip and rape is doubtless the origin of the ,swedish turnip2 but there is reason to believe that mixtures may accidentally be made with such wild plants as charlocks and mustards1 the growth of which in the vicinity of a seeding crop tends to the production of degeneracy4 ,seeding-patches1 then1 and the ground about them1 cannot be kept too clean4 ,again1 if trueness be aimed at1 there should be no mixture of sorts in seeding examples2 all of the same kind should be selected for seeding-plots1 as even one or two of a wrong sort may result in a very mixed sample1 as it would seem that sometimes strange plants exert more than ordinary influence4 ,of course1 the putting seeding-patches of different sorts side by side is to be reprehended4 ,if more than one sort be seeded in a season1 it is advisable to place the patches as remote from each other as possible4 ,and we would here remark1 that1 for seeding1 the roots should1 as a rule1 be farther apart than when grown for bulbs1 both in rows and in sets2 as1 if too close1 the stems grow up thin instead of robust1 and a smaller seed1 with a tendency to the growth of smaller roots1 will be the result4 #crd4 ,mixtures of seeds should be avoided for the reason assigned1 that 8sorts0 do not usually grow evenly2 and when one sees 7as is by no means infrequent7 a patch of swedes overshadowed by a mixture of some large early turnip1--the ,tankard1 for example1 our crop of swedes will certainly suffer for it1 even supposing the turnip to be as useful as the swede1 which is seldom the case4 ,mixtures1 again1 do not come up at the same time2 sorts may differ in this respect1 but especially do old and new seeds vary as to their germinating powers3 two-year-old seeds taking four or five days more to come up than a new sample2 thus giving a greater chance for the ravages of the flea-beetle than where the seed all comes up quickly4 ,now1 as a practical application of these remarks1 we here quote from an article in the ,agricultural ,gazette of ,may #bdth1 #ahfb4 ,who among seedsmen does not profess to offer the seeds of swedes and turnips from selected bulbs8 ,and though it is quite true that the practice is not so universal as is the profession of it1 yet the general assumption of its being so on the part of seed growers and sellers is an admission that it would be for the advantage of the buyer of seeds were the roots from which seeds are to be grown carefully selected4 ,and on the other hand1 let the observant agriculturist take a journey on any of our great lines of railway 7in early summer71 and he will be struck with the many patches of bright yellow flowers which he will not fail to notice on either hand4 ,in nine cases out of ten1 these are fields or portions of fields of turnips1 either the ,swedish or common kinds1 which1 from the abundance of keep1 it has been thought would be more profitable to seed than to eat off1 especially as they have so rapidly grown out of the way4 ,are these patches of selected bulbs8 ,we happen to know1 from a more than ordinarily careful examination1 that not one per cent4 of seeding-patches are from selected roots2 but they are seeded just as they grew1 and we do not know of a single instance where in such seeding the objectionable roots have been removed2 but we do know of plenty of cases where the worst part of a field has been saved for seed1 doubtless as the most profitable way of dealing with it under the circumstances wrought out by the spring of #ahfb4 ,of course1 this will all come into the market1 and too much of it1 under a stereotyped declaration of #8from selected bulbs4' ,that all the seed grown in #ahfb will be sown in #ahfc is simply impossible2 but no matter1 it will find a market somehow1 some time4 ,with such facts as these before us1 who can wonder that any plant should become degenerate8 ,let some of the seed of this year be watched1 and we will answer for its evil results2 and if these be facts1 it then behoves the farmer to look well to pedigree in the matter of his seed4 ,but even here1 his forethought must not end2 for however select the parent may be1 there is still something in #8bringing up2' for1 however good the sort of turnip1 we shall not grow its seed in perfection by selection merely1 but we should transplant well-chosen roots1 and so put them in a new scene1 away from subjects which might contaminate them4 ,this is indeed to bring them up in a good school1 for which their seed will amply repay the trouble and expense4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,on ,,degenerate ,,roots4 ,if the reader revert to page #f1 ,fig4 #c1 he will see that the progress from a wild to a better root-form is marked by a more fleshy1 but still a much forked1 or finger-and-toed example4 ,now as it is held that a clear unbranched outline is essential to a well-formed root crop of every kind1 whenever a crop becomes fingered-and-toed1 it is looked upon as a disease4 ,it must be understood that we are here speaking of finger-and-toe as distinct from anbury1 which latter is a decidedly diseased condition1 whether caused by insects or resulting1 as some affirm1 from a defect in the soil4 ,the difference in the two states may be briefly summed up as follows3-- ,,finger-,,and-,,toe4 ,,anbury4 ,root simply branched or forked1 ,root infested with irregular with tapering fleshy rootlets2 nodular protuberances1 or with occurs in turnips1 parsnips1 tumours suspended by roots1 carrots1 and mangold4 7,see having very much the aspect of figs4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i1 rows of ginger2 occurs in #aj47 turnips alone4 7,see fig4 #ab47 ,the example of a root at page #f is a good form of a parsnip progressing from wildness to a better cultivated form4 ,we now offer an engraving 7fig4 #e7 of a hollow-crowned crop parsnip1 fingered-and-toed1 and evidently of a very objectionable form1 as it will be seen on comparison how nearly alike are figs4 #c and #e4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4--;,finger-and-toed degenerate ,parsnip4 ,half nat4 size4 ,now1 as every degenerate crop of parsnips will be found to offer a large proportion of such roots as fig4 #e1 we seem bound to conclude that1 inasmuch as our fig4 #c represents a root in progress towards ennobling1 so fig4 #e is that of a root declining to its level1--in other words1 degenerating2 seed1 therefore1 that produces such roots can only come from a poor stock4 ,our next fig4 7#f7 is of a parsnip that had prematurely flowered4 ,sending up flowered stems the first year1 in the case of a biennial1 can only be looked upon as an instance of degeneracy4 ,plants that 8run10 as it is termed1 being comparatively useless1 the best use1 indeed1 that can be made of them being that of pulling them up and giving them to the pigs4 ,now this propensity is always accompanied with forked roots1 more especially in carrots1 which roots are even more degenerate than those represented in figs4 #c and #e1 as those were fleshy and succulent2 but when the roots of runners are examined1 they are always found to be tough and woody1 and1 in fact1 they very nearly resemble the wild examples4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,carrot of ,first ,year run to ,seed4 ,half nat4 size4 ,fig4 #g is taken from a carrot that has run1 and its rough1 woody1 nodular1 forked root is fully apparent4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,forked ,carrot run to seed4 ,half nat4 size4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,forked ,belgian ,carrot4 ,half nat4 size4 ,fig4 #h1 from a specimen of ,white ,belgian carrot1 forked as it is1 is yet not uncommon2 still1 here the divided roots are succulent4 ,this differs from the annual or run-to-seed roots1 as this is a real biennial2 but its other mark of degeneracy1 besides that of finger-and-toe1 was in its possessing a top 7removed for experiment before the drawing was made7 of many buds or heads4 ,now a multiheaded root1 whether in turnips1 carrots1 parsnip1 or mangel1 is another sign of degeneracy1 especially in the carrot or mangel1 as the wild examples are remarkable for this condition2 and in ennobling these roots1 one of the difficulties is to get rid of this propensity4 ,hence1 at root shows all forked examples of bulbs1 multiheaded and necky examples1 should be rejected2 they are1 however1 sometimes made so fat with manuring that they pass muster for size1 which indeed seems to be the great quality required at shows3 which is a serious mistake1 as being no sort of criterion of the state of a field of roots1 unless it be an adverse one3 as a #aj lb4 malformed root1 with its huge top1 will require more ground to grow than will half a dozen roots averaging #b lbs4 each2 whilst the latter are certain to be better and will keep longer4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,effects ,,of ,,growing ,,seed ,,from ,,degenerate ,,roots4 ,that the seed of malformed roots would be likely to produce a poor crop was a subject admitted by all2 but neither the form nor extent of the mischief resulting therefrom had been stated upon the authority of exact experiment4 ,in order1 therefore1 to arrive at direct evidence upon a point upon which so much of practical importance depends1 we carefully carried out the following experiments4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,a ,malformed or ,degenerate ,parsnip4 ,two-thirds of nat4 size4 ,on the #bfth of ,march1 #ahfj1 we selected two roots from a store1 namely1 one of a ,student parsnip from our own stock and one of a ,skirving's swede4 ,before committing these to the ground for the growth of seed1 we made careful portraits of the two roots1 of which that of the parsnip will be found in fig4 #i1 that of the swede in fig4 #aj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,a ,malformed or ,degenerate ,swede4 ,two-thirds of nat4 size4 ,now had we been going to grow the best of seed1 we should of course have selected the best-shaped roots for our purpose2 but in this case1 as will be seen1 the most viciously formed examples were chosen4 ,both of the examples whose portraits we have here given1 were planted in our private garden 7where1 it is right to say1 they were the only seeding specimens71 in due time their seed ripened1 which was carefully collected and stored4 ,early in ,april1 #ahfa1 these seeds were sown in our experimental plots1 without manure1 in the following order3-- ,plot a4 ,seed obtained from the malformed parsnip1 fig4 #i4 b4 ,seed of ,student parsnip of the same year as that of plot a4 c4 ,seed of malformed swede4 ,the plot b was sown by way of comparison1 and we can only regret that no plot of good swede seed was sown with the same object1 and we must1 therefore1 compare with a piece of swedes in an adjoining field4 ,the following are the tabulated results3-- ,,table ,,of ,,results ,,of ,,experiments4 lb4 oz4 ,plot a4 #ge roots1 forming the crop from seed of the malformed #g #d parsnip 7fig4 #h7 weighed in all ,plot b4 #fc roots forming the crop #ad #j from seed of good ,student parsnips ,plot c4 #gj roots of swedes from seed of malformed plant 7fig4 #aj47 #ai #h #gj roots from a row in the field1 at a distance of about #cj #ce #j yards ,the roots from plot a may be described as small1 though not so much fingered-and-toed as we had expected2 still there was only about half the crop when compared with plot b1 which latter1 indeed1 was only small in weight1 which may be accounted for from being grown without manure4 ,during their progress of growth the difference was very perceptible--the small leaves of a contrasting most unfavourably with the broader1 brighter coloured ones of b4 ,as regards the swedes1 they were indeed a very poor crop1 presenting all the evils of degeneracy--neckiness1 for which it will be seen that their parent was distinguished--want of a bulboid form2 none of the #gj roots being better than a thin tap-root1 and these were forked1 shapeless1 and fingered-and-toed in endless variety4 ,their spindle-shaped roots were quite remarkable1 and they were the rule1 although in good seed1 however bad the soil1 they would have been the exception4 ,those in the field hard by were bulboid1 and averaged half a pound each--no great weight1 as the land in which they were grown is only second-rate4 ,they1 however1 were grown with manure1 to which1 of course1 much of the difference is due1 and yet not so much as may fairly be imputed to the difference in seed4 ,from these experiments we conclude3-- #ast4 ,that a degenerate stock will1 as a rule1 result from the employment of degenerate or badly-grown seed4 #bnd4 ,that besides ugly1 malformed roots1 degenerated seed does not produce nearly the weight of crop of good seed1 under the same circumstances of growth4 #crd4 ,that by means of selection we may produce roots that are well-shaped1 and have the capabilities of affording the best crop4 #dth4 ,that by designedly selecting malformed degenerate roots for seeding1 we may produce a seed that will result in as great or greater degeneracy4 8,that these are important conclusions0--we quote from the ,agricultural ,gazette--8few will be disposed to deny4 ,they have most interesting bearings on the subject of vegetable physiology1 and consequently should be studied by the farmer40 ,it is a practice much to be desired1 that not only should a proper choice be made of seeding examples1 but that there be a change of situation1 and1 if possible1 a time of storage before being planted for seed4 ,these are all cultivative processes1 and to the care with which they are carried out must we look for permanence in our derivative root-crops4 ,it cannot be too strongly urged1 that1 as an efficient sort of root has only been arrived at as the result of great care--that is1 by successful breeding1--so every care must be taken for its maintenance4 ,defect in seed results in defect in the produce of that seed2 and downward tendencies of this kind are common results of even most careful cultivation4 ,with carelessness in this respect we must not be surprised at rapid degeneracy4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,on ,,the ,,adulteration ,,of ,,seeds1 ,,more ,,particularly ,,of ,,turnips4 ,in order to make the experiments which illustrate this chapter tell their tale to the fullest extent1 we would set out with the two following postulates3-- #ast4 ,all well-grown1 well-preserved new seeds should be capable of germinating to the extent of at least #ij per cent4 #bnd4 ,seeds in general1 and more especially turnip seeds1 as usually delivered to the farmer1 are generally incapable of germinating to the extent of from #be to #cj per cent41 and very frequently even more4 ,we shall hereafter see1 that this want of germinating power is too often the result of mixing charlock1 ,indian rape1 and the like1 by way of adulteration1 which latter are killed to prevent 8their telling tales40 ,but to our experiments3-- ,a number of tin cases were made of the following proportions3 ,length1 #ae inches2 width1 #aj inches2 depth1 #d inches4 ,these1 which were well perforated at the bottom1 were divided across into ten equal parts1 each of which was filled to within an inch of the rim1 with a mixture of fine mould and silver sand4 ,in these1 seeds of different sorts of turnips were sown1 and the whole was put into a bed of sand in our forcing-house4 ,we could1 however1 see no difference in the results1 nor could we trace any in the germinal or cotyledon leaves of swedes1 turnips1 or charlock4 ,but1 of course1 samples of turnip-seed could not be tested as to freedom from charlock by this experiment1 because charlock is killed before being mixed with the turnip4 ,now1 seeing that we could get no trustworthy results by this kind of experiment1 it struck us that our germination-pans might be used to test the germinating power1 not only of the samples we had obtained for a different purpose1 but of others also4 ,we first1 then1 counted a hundred of each of the following sorts of seeds1 and carefully dibbled them in a fresh mixture of soil1 in ,september1 #ahfj2 the results1 which were as carefully noted from day to day1 are shortly given in the following table3-- ,,table #a4--;,germination of ,ten ,sorts of ,turnips4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,came up ,no4 of ,no4 ,name1 ,copy of ,label4 per cent4 ,days4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #a ,mousetail1 #ahei #if #aj #b ,pomeranian1 or ,white ,globe1 #ahei #hf #aa #c ,nimble ,green ,round1 #ahei #if #g #d ,lincolnshire new ,red ,globe1 #ahfj #ij #i #e ,yellow ,tankard1 #ahei #ib #i #f ,smart's ,mousetail1 #ahfj #ih #g #g ,green-topped ,stone1 #ahfj #hd #h #h ,sutton's ,imperial ,green ,globe1 #ahfj #ih #i #i ,green-topped ,scotch1 #ahfj #ij #i #aj ,early ,six-weeks1 #ahfj #ij #aj ,came up #ib ,failed #h ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,we would remark upon these results1 that the temperature of the house was kept at between #fj and #gj1 and the greater part of the seeds came up in four days2 the numbers for the days1 then1 have reference to the time occupied before all that would germinate came up4 ,now this table is not a little instructive1 as showing that samples of turnip-seed can be got in which only a very few of the seeds fail to germinate2 but as experience had taught us that these samples by no means represented the usual market condition of turnip-seeds1 in order to test this we begged to be allowed permission to take samples direct from the bags of a retail seedsman as they were exposed in his shop1 and the following results will speak for themselves4 ,it should1 however1 be here premised that the samples were not grown by the seedsman1 but were said to be just as received from the wholesale dealers4 ,,table #b4--;,germination of ,ten ,sorts of ,turnip ,seeds from ,market ,samples4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,came up ,no4 of ,no4 ,copy of ,label4 per cent4 ,days4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #a ,norfolk ,green round #gf #i #b ,white ,globe #gh #ae #c ,early ,grey-topped ,stone #hj #aj #d ,red ,tankard1 or ,pudding #fb #aa ,taken #e ,orange ,jelly #eb #ae from the #f ,norfolk ,round ,red #hj #aj bags by #g ,purple-topped yellow ,scotch #gf #aa the #h ,white ,dutch #fd #ab ,author4 #i ,early ,green top #fd #ac #aj ,yellow ,tankard ,pudding #dh #ab ,came up #fh ,failed #cb ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,eight samples of swedes from the same source are in the next table associated with a sample of ,skirving's swede1 grown in our own garden 7#h71 of the following table1 and another of turnip 7#i71 grown on a neighbouring farm4 ,we may remark upon the last-named sample1 that we had observed the growth of this seed1 which was from a very poor crop1 half of which had decayed on the ground with the early frost of #ahfj1 and the rest1 without transplanting or selection of any kind1 was allowed to seed4 ,now1 as this whole crop was so degenerated that it ought never to have been seeded at all1 we were anxious to get some of the seed from the bulk1 in order to test from its growth this year whether it will not bring forth a degenerate progeny4 ,its germinating qualities will be seen from the table1 and yet it is by no means the worst sample1 which seems to show that the others are not naturally bad1 but so by mixture4 ,,table #c4--;,germination of ,swedes1 c41 from ,market ,samples1 c4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,came up ,no4 of ,no4 ,copy of ,label4 per cent4 ,days4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #a ,ashcroft's improved ,purple ,top #eh #ab #b ,new ,bangholm #if #aj #c ,skirving's ,liverpool #fb #af #d ,green ,top #gh #aj ,taken #e ,marshall's improved ,purple ,top #ij #aj from the #f ,hewer's ,improved ,white #fh #ag bags by #g ,green ,major #hf #aj the #h ,skirving's ,swede 7own grown7 #if #aj ,author4 #i ,green ,top ,turnip1 neighbour's farm #gh #f #aj ,fosterton ,hybrid ,turnip #fd #aj ,came up #ggf ,failed #bbd ,failed of seedsman's specimens #bdh ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,now1 as 8#j #j #j0 seed is supplied to customers under the designation here given1 for the purpose of mixing1 it is of little consequence whether it be used by the wholesale house or the retail dealer2 if1 however1 it be employed by both1 we should1 indeed1 get a bad sample4 ,as regards the seedsman's samples in the ,tables #b and #c1 we are quite unable to give exact details of their history1 but we have reason to believe that the stock whence they were taken was purchased in the ordinary course of business from different 8wholesale houses10 as1 though the tradesman whence the samples came combines the business of 8nurseryman0 with that of seedsman1 we happen to know that he is not a grower of seeds1 at least of turnip seeds4 ,the average1 then1 of eighteen samples of turnips and swedes from this source is that #bh per cent4 are non-germinating seeds4 ,the next samples are from people in a large way of business1 who are not mere retailers1 but to whom we must accord all the immunities of the trade as seed-growers1 wholesale and retail seed-merchants1 c4 ,before giving the tables with the results as regards these samples1 it is necessary to state that they were not sent to us direct1 but were forwarded through a farmer to whom they were sent in the ordinary small packet samples4 ,we would further remark1 that as all that would germinate took so few days about it1 being an average of six days1 whilst those of ,table #a1 being seeds partly of #ahei and partly of #ahfj1 occupied nine days1 and those of ,table #b1 whose date we do not know1 eleven days2 in all probability the seeds in question were tolerably new1 most probably of the last seed season4 ,,table #d4--;,germination of ,ten ,samples of ,turnips4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,came up ,no4 of ,no4 ,copy of ,label4 per cent4 ,days4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #a ,green ,globe #fb #h #b ,dale's ,hybrid #hd #d #c ,red ,globe #ij #f ,turnips #d ,orange ,jelly #ajj #d from #e ,white round1 or ,norfolk #db #e sample #f ,green ,tankard #ej #f papers #g ,scarisbrick 7sic7 #hh #aa communi- #h ,white ,globe #gd #d cated4 #i ,golden ,yellow #hb #d #aj ,green round #cj #f ,came up #gjb ,failed #bih ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,the specimens in next table were obtained in like manner as those of ,table #d4 ,,table #e4--;,germination of ,samples of ,common and ,swede ,turnips4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,came up ,no4 of ,no4 ,name4 ,copy of ,label4 per cent4 ,days4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #a ,white ,stone or ,stubble #df #f #b ,red ,tankard #fj #e ,swedes #c ,white ,tankard #fj #d ,turnips #d ,yellow ,tankard #hh #e from #e ,green ,top ,yellow ,scotch #hd #f sample #f ,purple ,top ditto #fb #h papers #g ,tankard-shaped ,swede #gd #g communi- #h ,white-fleshed ditto #hd #h cated4 #i ,skirving's ,improved ,purple ,top ditto #fd #h #aj ,lawhead ,green ,top #hj #g ,came up #gjb ,failed #bih ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,of these samples we see that within a fraction of #cj per cent4 is the average of non-germinating seeds1 and this is only so low on account of two or three unusually good samples1 the general range being from #bj to #cj per cent4 of non-germinating seeds for the last twenty samples4 ,if we compare ,no4 #e1 ,table #b1 with ,no4 #d1 ,table #d1 we see a difference in the ,orange ,jelly ,turnip2 in the former little more than half came up1 in the latter every seed4 ,this is of importance1 as showing what genuine seed may be1 the latter being doubtless as unmixed as the former was mixed4 ,now as regards the charge of mixing1 we are not going to make it without some evidence4 ,in looking over the tables we have now given1 it will be seen that genuine seed has but a small per-centage of non-germinating seeds--say from #e to #aj per cent42 but not only the examples herein referred to1 with hosts of separate ones which have fallen under our notice1 show a general amount of dead seeds1 of from #bj to #cj per cent4 ,for these figures compare ,table #a with ,tables #b1 #c1 #d1 and #e4 ,in those of the first lot the samples were sent direct to us from a seedsman1 and their behaviour shows us clearly enough that good seeds are to be obtained1 but the other tables are as clear that from some seedsmen1 at any rate1 though inferior samples1 they are as good as are actually sold4 ,that seeds are mixed we have1 then1 good internal evidence2 but we are also in possession of facts more conclusive upon this important point1 and we shall in this next chapter endeavour to enlighten our readers as to the art and mystery 7especially7 of turnip-seed adulteration4 ,confining our present remarks to turnip seeds1 we assert that if farmers will try the germinating powers from the bulk of the seed which may be sent to them1 they will find pretty nearly one-third to be rubbish4 ,it is of no use to try from samples1 except in comparison with bulk2 and if all the farmers of ,great ,britain did this1 and would communicate the results1 what an extraordinary tale would be unfolded1 more especially if the evidence be completed by notes on the purity or otherwise of the crop grown from such seeds6 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,on ,,the ,,art ,,and ,,mystery ,,of ,,turnip-,,seed ,,adulteration4 ,it has already been shown that turnip-seed is largely adulterated2 it remains now to point out the nature of the admixtures1 which may be summed up under the following heads3-- #ast4 ,old seeds are mixed with new4 #bnd4 ,charlock1 8,indian rape10 and other seeds of the ,brassicace1 are mixed with genuine seed4 #ast4--,the crops of seeds vary so much in their produce per acre1 in one year1 as compared with another1 that in most years there is a superabundance of some kinds and a scarcity of others4 ,now1 as most seeds are of comparatively little use except for sowing1 the surplus stock can only be disposed of at extremely low prices4 ,accordingly some wholesale seedsmen buy large quantities in the 8glut season10 as it is termed1 and store them until the same articles fail in crop4 ,for instance1 swede and turnip seeds1 #aheg crop1 could be bought everywhere at from #ae to #bj shillings per bushel2 but owing to the destruction of the roots in the winter of #ahei1 seedsmen in #ahfj had to pay the growers #ejs4 per bushel4 ,now1 in #ahfj there were wholesale houses selling those seeds which they had by them for the same price4 ,such people can1 it is true1 warrant their seeds to be genuine1 as they well know how much turnip-seeds deteriorate by keeping2 the mixing of this with good seed is still a species of adulteration2 and if not mixed at all1 we can then only say that the evil is so much the greater4 ,as an evidence of the amount of deterioration caused to turnip-seeds by keeping1 we here re-produce the table of trials of ten sorts of good seeds made in ,september1 #ahfj1 in contrast with experiments from the same sample1 in the same month of the present year 7#ahfb71 premising that the samples were kept in what we should consider a dry but not too warm a temperature4 ,,table #f4--;,germination of ,ten ,sorts of ,turnips4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,came up ,came up ,no4 ,name4 ,copy of ,label4 #ahfj4 #ahfb4 ,percent4,percent4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- #a ,mousetail1 #ahei #if #df #b ,pomeranian or ,white ,globe1 #ahei #hf #dd #c ,nimble ,green ,round1 #ahei #if #id #d ,lincolnshire ,new ,red ,globe1 #ahfj #ij #eh #e ,yellow ,tankard1 #ahei #ib #fb #f ,smart's ,mousetail1 #ahfj #ih #ib #g ,green-topped ,stone1 #ahfj #hd #hh #h ,sutton's ,imperial ,green ,globe1 #ahfj #ih #hj #i ,green-topped ,scotch1 #ahfj #ij #hf #aj ,early ,six-weeks1 #ahfj #ij #gj ,came up 7average7 #ib #gb ,failed #h #bh ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,these figures are interesting as showing that though the different sorts are not affected equally1 yet the seed of #ahei failed on the average to the extent of #chh per cent41 as against #bdf for the seed of #ahfj1 and #bh as the average of the whole samples4 ,such is the great difference between two and three year old seeds4 #bnd4--,even the above genuine seeds 767 are not unfrequently mixed1 and we may now examine the nature of some of these mixtures4 ,charlock and ,indian rape are all prepared for this purpose3 that is to say1 they are rendered incapable of germinating before mixture--8,dead men tell no tales40 ,now rubbish1 so prepared1 is well known in the trade as #jjj seed4 ,under this denomination all seedsmen know it1 and it can be procured by the trade at about #gs4 per bushel4 ,with respect to this #jjj seed1 we direct attention to the following letter addressed to a most respectable firm4 ,,southampton1 ,april #bg1 #ahfj4 ,,gentlemen1--,being in possession of a new and improved method of killing seeds without the use of any chemicals1 so that the seed when in a #jjj state has not that unpleasant smell it has when killed by the old method1 and does not look perished if it be crushed4 ,a man by the new process may kill ten or twelve quarters per day1 and the apparatus is so constructed that it is impossible for a single seed to leave it alive2 and one great advantage is1 that if you want a sack of #jjj seed in a hurry you may kill a sack of rape or turnip1 or any seed1 and have it fit for use in an hour4 ,seed in the process of killing increases in measure and weight1 and when you send it out to be killed1 of course1 the seed-killers keep the extra weight and measure4 ,if you think it worth your attention1 ,i will send you a small working model1 so that you may kill a few pounds of kale or cauliflower1 or any small seeds in a few minutes1 and instructions for making a large one on receipt of a ,post-office order for #b4 ,yours truly1 ---- ,to this the ,messrs4 ,sutton append the following remarks3-- ,the writer of the above being unknown to us1 we had the curiosity to call at the address given1 and ascertained that it was no 8hoax10 but was assured by the 8inventor0 that he had supplied several tradesmen with the apparatus1 and that he was formerly in the seed trade himself4 ,we may add1 that we have since heard from the same individual at another sea-port town to which he has removed4 ,having got possession of this circular1 and being desirous of becoming acquainted with so notable an invention1 we lost no time in setting on foot a negotiation for the possession of the secret1 and having traced the inventor in his removal from ,southampton to ,gosport1 we then had letters addressed to him upon the subject1 and1 if promises had been of any avail1 we might possibly at this time have been in possession of a very improved and expeditious method of making #jjj seeds1 only that we have learnt the undesirable nature of pay beforehand4 ,our next inquiry was for a sample of #jjj seed itself2 but1 although it is well known in the trade1 we have hitherto failed in procuring it4 ,we had hoped that our seedsmen might have been able to procure some through some of their friends4 ,the result was1 that we made application to a most respectable ,london firm1 receiving the following reply3-- ,,london1 ,february #bg1 #ahfa4 ,,sir1--,in reply to your favour received this morning1 we take leave to say that we shall have pleasure in complying with your request for a sample of #jjj turnips1 if we can obtain it4 ,but we do not keep it ourselves1 nor do we know the parties who prepare it1 it being something of a trade secret4 ,we will1 however1 apply to some of our friends here to let us have a small quantity1 but doubt if they will let us have it1 as it is a matter they are rather chary respecting1 and although perfectly well known and understood in the trade1 they do not care to have it known beyond1 and our asking for a small quantity will be sure to lead to the question1 8,what do we want it for80 ,we could obtain a large quantity without hesitation4 ,we remain1 c41 ---- ,the sentence we have placed in italics will be quite sufficient to show how well the matter of #jjj seeds is understood in the trade1 and how easy it is to get bushels of it1 no questions being asked1 while a small quantity1 required only for investigation1 may be refused4 ,it appears1 then1 that the machinery exists by which any one in the seed trade may quietly and easily commit enormous frauds4 ,and it is plain that the very notoriety of this machinery1 together with the condition of many of the samples of seed which we have examined 7see ,chap4 ,,vi47 prove that this machinery actually is employed by many seedsmen to the great injury of their customers4 ,we cannot1 then1 be doing wrong in urging any one to make trial of the seeds he is about to buy before he sows them1 or even before he purchases them4 ,where the experience of a number of years already exists1 the character of the seedsman is a guarantee for the good quality of his goods1 and experience of this kind is indeed a more perfect carrying out of the system of preliminary trial or experiment1 which we recommend especially to all new customers4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,on ,,the ,,injuries ,,caused ,,by ,,insects4 ,root-crops are especially liable to injury from the depredations of insects4 ,thus the turnip may have its seed more or less destroyed by weevils4 ,immediately the seed appears above the ground1 commences the attack by the turnip flea-beetles4 ,the bulb is pierced by beetles1 ending in those excrescences called 8turnip-warbles20 and there is reason to think that even the root-fibrils are in some soils made the depositories of the eggs of insects1 which give rise to extraordinary malformations4 ,carrots and parsnips are liable to have the best-grown root made useless by its being pierced and eaten by the larv or grubs of a small fly1 known as the ,psila ros4 ,even the mangel-wurzel1 which has been so strenuously recommended as a substitute for the turnip on account of its freedom from insect attacks1 and connected with which ,curtis only describes a single insect1 a leaf-miner1 called ,anthomyia ,bet1 upon which he remarks that 8these insects will seldom cause any loss to the mangel-wurzel crops should they ever abound to any extent40 ,in spite1 however1 of this1 we find that the increased growth of this crop has caused a corresponding increase in the insect1 to such an extent that1 during the last two seasons1 many crops have entirely failed from its depredations2 as witness the following communication to the ,agricultural ,gazette for ,august #bcrd1 #ahfb3-- ,my mangel crop was drilled the #agth ,may1 and came up most favourably4 ,on ,monday1 the #bnd ,june1 ,i asked my bailiff what was the matter with it2 he said1 8,oh1 it was a sharp frost last night20 but on examination ,i found that instead of frost the leaves had within them a maggot1 which had caused the plant to brown and die off4 ,the late rains and growing weather have enabled the plant somewhat to revive1 and also fresh plants to come up 7for ,i had drilled #g lb4 per acre71 but found to-day several leaves with maggots in them4 ,my man told me 8a quantity had eaten themselves out of the leaf and dropped20 and that he saw 8a vast number of sparrows picking up those maggots40 ,i send you herewith some plants ,i brought up from the farm4 ,my idea is that the seed was damp and bred the maggots1 or that the leaves had been 8struck with a fly10 and then the maggot followed4 ,you will please let me have your ideas upon these points4--,s4 ,s4 ,the maggot1 or larv1 here described is that of a fly called the ,anthomyia 7,pegomyia7 bet1 mangel-wurzel fly4 ,an allied species will sometimes be found on the common dock-leaves1 mining their galleries between the dermal cells of the leaves4 ,we have for some time observed the increase of this pest1 and we are prepared to state that now we seldom see a crop that is not greatly injured by its attacks4 ,mr4 ,curtis thinks that the best method to destroy them is to employ boys to crush the leaves between the thumb and fingers at the part where the larv can be seen2 and with this we fear we must for the present be content1 unless we could devise some means to take the fly before its eggs are laid in the leaves4 ,we need not here dwell at length upon the natural history of those pests of the turnip--the ,haltica nemorum 7striped flea-beetle71 and ,h4 concinna 7black flea-beetle71 as the nature of their ravages are tolerably well known4 ,thus much1 however1 may be said2 namely3-- a4 ,these insects are called fleas because they have the power of hopping on being disturbed1 much after the manner of a flea4 b4 ,they have some five or six broods each year2 the earlier ones probably being bred on charlocks and other weeds of the same natural order as the turnip2 and hence1 then1 charlocks are pests1 not only as being weeds1 but as breeding-places for one of our most mischievous insects4 c4 ,they migrate from their weed-haunts to the first crop of turnips1 where much of their mischief may be prevented by simply dusting over the young plants with any fine powder1 road-dirt answering the purpose as well as anything else4 ,various devices have been employed for keeping away and killing these little creatures4 ,we have used a contrivance for catching them1 which may be described as follows3-- ,some thin board 7or boards71 making a surface of about #d feet long by #b feet wide1 is furnished at one end with a pair of light wheels of just sufficient diameter to lift the board about #b or #c inches above the plants4 ,to the other end may be attached two crooked handles in such a manner that the machine can be wheeled flatly over the plants1 or if four wheels be employed1 one at each corner1 a single handle can be used either to push or pull the implement4 ,when used1 it should have its underside painted over with tar or any handy viscid substance4 ,this should be used on bright days1 the operator pushing it over the rows of turnips1 so as1 if possible1 not to throw his shadow before4 ,the middle of the day will be best1 not only for this reason1 but also because these creatures feed more actively at that time4 ,now1 our experience in the use of this simple contrivance on small experimental plots convinces us that a small boy could easily keep under the enemy in a good-sized field4 ,but now comes a very important question for consideration4 ,cannot we do more than kill a few of these creatures8 cannot we adopt such plans as will render our crops tolerably safe from their depredations8 ,we think so1 and to this end advise the following method of proceeding3-- ,let each turnip-grower prepare for the enemy by sowing from the eighth to a quarter of an acre of turnips in a sunny part of the farm as early as the first week in ,april4 ,these patches would quickly attract all the turnip flea-beetles from the wild crucifer on which the first broods seem to depend1 and in this small compass they can be killed in detail with the simple contrivance just described1 so that when the real crop comes up there will be none1 or at least only a few1 beetles to emigrate to it2 whereas1 as we now manage1 by the time the crop of turnips is sown1 enough of the creatures are too often bred to render it necessary to sow two or three times before we can secure a crop4 ,anbury is an affection to which only the different sorts of turnips are liable1 in which case it differs from finger-and-toe1 with which it has been very much confounded1 as this latter occurs in all kinds of roots2 namely1 turnips1 carrots1 mangel-wurzel1 c41 as well as both the common and ,swedish turnips4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa 7,fig4 #h repeated74 ,finger-and-toe ,carrot4 ,half natural size4 ,as a sample of an extreme case of finger-and-toe--digitate root1--we repeat the following figure of a ,belgian carrot1 in which it will be seen that the forks gradually taper to the extremities2 in fact1 the whole1 instead of being a succulent fleshy tap or fusiform root1 in which case it could readily be stored1 is divided in fingers-and-toes1 which are liable to break off1 and this renders the product next to useless4 ,now1 this affection may occur in any soil1 as it is the result of a degeneracy in the stock of the plant2 but in the affection now to be described the case is wholly different1 as here the bulk of the swede 7fig4 #ab7 is affected with rough1 cancerous knobs1 whilst the rootlets support irregular knobs of a like kind1 which have more the aspect of suspended rows of ginger than fingers-and-toes4 ,roots so affected soon rot1 and have a ftid odour1 so that they are not only useless themselves1 but communicate canker and decay to the whole store4 ,in the putrid mass will be found maggots and flies and beetles of different kinds2 but as yet naturalists are not agreed as to whether the nodules of disease are caused by insects1 or whether these creatures are merely attracted by the ftid matter4 ,we are1 however1 inclined to the belief that some insects are connected with the diseased appearance in the first place1 whilst others afterwards step in to fatten upon the decaying matter1 induced by the first lot2 but still it must be confessed that the subject requires much more attention than it has yet received1 in order to settle these important questions4 ,still it may be observed that one point has been universally admitted2 namely1 that anbury only occurs to any extent in sandy soils1 where there is an absence of lime1 a good dressing of which mineral is the best safeguard against this affection4 ,still1 in soils that are liable to anbury1 we should not recommend the continuance of turnip-growing1 or at least not so frequently in the rotation as has hitherto been the case1 and more especially as the soils which produce anbury to the greatest extent are just those best adapted for parsnips and carrots1 which1 if not wholly1 may occasionally be very profitably grown in the place of the turnip4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,swede affected with ,anbury4 ,nat4 size4 ,having given a few notes on the more prominent forms of insect attacks to which root crops are liable1 we would now close this chapter1 as details of all the insect pests would occupy more space than we can here allot to the subject2 but to those who would inquire further upon this fertile theme1 we would advise the perusal of 8,farm ,insects10 by ,j4 ,curtis1 ,esq41 ,f4,l4,s41 c4 ,,general ,,conclusions4 ,to render our subject as complete as possible1 we direct attention to the following practical conclusions1 to which our whole argument upon the science of root-growing points3-- ,first4--,cultivated roots are improved wild ones1 only to be obtained by gardening on the small1 or farming on the large scale2 this gardening or farming being carried on by certain operations at certain seasons which we have comprehended under the term of cultivation processes4 ,second4--,the difference in sort of roots is caused either by cross-breeding as the result of accident or design1 or of the education of some particular propensity which has been acted upon by the intelligent seed-grower4 ,third4--,the maintenance of sorts in purity depends upon careful selection of the right variety for the seeding examples4 ,fourth4--,the preservation of a good outline or shape of root can only be maintained by selecting those of good form to seed from2 for1 as running to seed1 multiform top1 forkiness1 8finger-and-toe0 in roots1 is evidence of wild growth1 so1 then1 cultivated plants assuming this form are considered as degenerate1 and seed from such roots produces a malformed and poor crop4 ,fifth4--,the difficulties of getting good seed--whether of trueness to sort1 from carefully selected bulbs1 or free from adulteration either of old with new seed1 or a mixture of charlock and others of the same family--are very great4 ,where1 however1 good seed can be depended upon1 it is much cheaper1 though at a considerable increase of first seeds cost1 as not only quality but the quantity of live so considerably depends upon the truth and honesty of the seedsman4 ,sixth4--,injuries from insect attacks1 though serious as affecting the yield1 are yet not due to the seed2 and anbury1 if it be due to insects1 only occurs in the turnip-crops1 and then in particular soils4 ,the true insect attacks to be averted by simultaneous action4 ,in fine4--,good seed1 of a true sort1--care in growth1--and a watchfulness of enemies1 includes the ,,science and ,,practice of ,root ,cultivation4 ,illustration3 ,,furnish ,,your ,,house ,,with ,,the ,,best ,,articles ,,at ,,deane',s ,a4,d #agjj ,,general ,,furnishing ,,ironmongery ,,warehouse ,,an ,,illustrated ,,catalogue ,,post ,,free ,,on ,,application ,,london ,,bridge ,,deane ,co4 7,,opening ,,to ,,the ,,monument7 #df1 ,,king ,,william ,s,t4 ,,city ,,farm ,,and ,,garden ,,seeds ,,carriage ,,free4 ,bangholm ,swede1 ,east ,lothian ,swede1 ,ward's ,beauty ,swede1 ,dropmore ,swede1 ,marshall's ,champion ,swede1 ,green-top ,swede1 ,white ,swede1 ,improved ,skirving's ,swede1 ,white and ,red ,globe1 and ,norfolk ,turnip1 ,scotch ,yellow ,turnip1 ,dobito's ,yellow ,oval ,mangel1 ,ward's ,ditto1 ,improved ,yellow ,globe ,ditto1 ,improved ,orange ,globe ,ditto1 ,improved ,long ,red ,mangel1 ,illustration ,improved ,long ,yellow ,mangel1 ,improved ,red ,globe ,mangel1 ,improved ,white ,field ,beet1 ,red ,clover1 ,cowgrass1 ,white1 ,yellow1 and ,alsike ,clovers4 ,pacey's ,perennial ,rye-grass1 and other sorts4 ,italian ,rye-grass1 ,foreign and ,english ,seed4 ,natural ,grass ,seeds1 in mixture or separate1 suitable for various soils and localities4 ,light ,rye-grass and other ,cheap ,grasses1 for sowing on ,railway ,banks and ,waste ,places4 ,orders for ,exportation promptly attended to4 ,,peter ,,lawson1 ,,son1 ,,the ,,queen',s ,,seedsmen1 #bh1 ,,king ,,street1 ,,cheapside1 ,,near ,,the ,,guildhall1 and #ae1 ,,lawrence ,,lane1 ,,london1 ,e4,c4 ,,established #ahba4 ,,special ,,manures4 ,,griffin1 ,,morris1 ,,and ,,griffin1 ,invite ,attention to their ,manures which are successfully used in ,,forty-,,seven ,,british ,,counties4 ,,manures ,,for ,,all ,,kinds ,,of ,,root ,,crops4 ,surprising results are produced by the use of their well-known ,,grass ,,manures1 ,,turnip1 ,,potatoe1 ,,and ,,mangold ,,manures4 ,agriculturists are invited to send for an ,annual ,circular1 containing ,list of ,prices1 ,particulars of ,premiums1 c4 ,,ceres ,,works1 ,,wolverhampton1 ,january1 #ahfc4 ,,the ,,london ,,manure ,,company1 ,,established #ahdj1 ,supply ,peruvian ,guano1 ,nitrate of ,soda1 ,dissolved ,bones1 ,superphosphate of ,lime1 ,,and ,,all ,,artificial ,,manures ,,guaranteed ,,genuine4 #aaf1 ,fenchurch ,street4 ,,edward ,,purser1 ,secretary4 ,,miller ,,johnson ,manufacture ,special ,manures for ,root1 ,corn1 and ,grass ,crops1 ,which they guarantee to be of the highest quality4 ,,works3 ,,normandy ,,wharf1 ,,rotherhithe2 ,,offices3 #be1 ,,mark ,,lane1 ,,london4 ,,editions ,,for #ahfc4 ,,now ,,ready1 ,,the ,,shilling ,,peerage4 ,,the ,,shilling ,,baronetage4 ,,the ,,shilling ,,knightage4 ,,the ,,shilling ,,house ,,of ,,commons4 ,containing the ,birth1 ,accession1 and ,marriage of each personage1 his ,heir 7,apparent or ,presumptive71 ,family ,name1 ,political ,bias1 and ,patronage2 as also a ,brief ,notice of the ,offices which he has hitherto held1 his ,town ,address and ,country ,residences4 ,compiled by ,,edward ,,walford1 ,m4,a41 ,balliol ,college1 ,oxford4 ,,london3 ,,robert ,,hardwicke1 #aib1 ,,piccadilly4 ,,farmers ,,of ,,england1 ,read the ,,magnet1 ,the largest and best ,agricultural and ,family ,gazette1 and the best ,london newspaper especially devoted to ,agriculture and the ,interest of the ,land4 ,the ,,magnet is published every ,monday evening1 after the close of the ,london ,corn and ,cattle ,markets1 and in time for post4 ,important to ,auctioneers and other ,advertisers from its large and influential circulation4 ,price #d;d4 only4 ,stamped for circulation by post4 ,,office1 #ai1 ,,exeter ,,street1 ,,strand1 ,,london4 ,in ,monthly ,parts1 at #es4 each4 ,,english ,,botany4 ,,edited ,,by ,j4 ,t4 ,b4 ,,syme1 ,f4,l4,s41 c4 ,the first ,volume of this splendid ,work is now ready4 ,,it ,,contains ,,all ,,the ,rues1 ,anemones1 ,crowfoots1 ,spearworts1 ,waterlilies1 ,poppies1 ,fumitories1 ,mustards1 ,rockets1 ,stocks1 ,lady's ,smocks1 ,cresses1 ,,and ,,other ,,plants ,,ranked ,,under ,,the ,,orders ,,ranunculace1 ,,berberace1 ,,nymphiace1 ,,papaverace1 ,,and ,,crucifer4 ,,all ,,the ,,drawings ,,are ,,life-,,size1 ,,and ,,coloured ,,to ,,nature ,,by ,,hand ,,painting4 ,vol4 ,i4 contains seven numbers at #es4 each1 ,,or ,,complete1 ,,bound ,,in ,,cloth1 #chs4 8,mr4 ,syme's ,english ,botany will be the most complete ,flora of ,great ,britain ever brought out4 ,this great work will find a place wherever botanical science is cultivated and the study of our native plants with all their fascinating associations held dear40--,athenum4 ,,london3 ,,robert ,,hardwicke1 #aib1 ,,piccadilly4 ,royal #hvo41 price #a4 #ads4 ,,the ,,grasses ,,of ,,great ,,britain 7,completion of74 ,now ready1 in #a vol41 containing life-size1 full-coloured ,drawings1 with magnified ,organs1 of #add ,british ,grasses1 and ,observations on their ,natural ,history and ,uses4 ,described by ,c4 ,,johnson4 ,illustrated by ,j4 ,e4 ,,sowerby4 ,complete1 bound in cloth1 price #a4 #gs4 ,,the ,,useful ,,plants ,,of ,,great ,,britain3 a ,treatise upon the principal ,native ,vegetables capable of ,application as ,food or ,medicine1 or in the ,arts and ,manufactures4 ,by ,c4 ,p4 ,,johnson4 ,illustrated by ,j4 ,e4 ,,sowerby4 #cjj ,coloured ,illustrations4 ,fcap4 #hvo41 price #fs4 ,,the ,,british ,,fungi 7a ,plain and ,easy ,account of74 ,with especial reference to the ,esculent and other ,economic ,species4 ,by ,m4 ,c4 ,,cooke4 ,with ,coloured ,plates of #dj ,species4 ,also1 by the same ,author1 ,a ,,manual ,,of ,,botanic ,,terms4 ,fcap4 #hvo41 upwards of #cjj ,illustrations1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,manual ,,of ,,structural ,,botany1 for the use of ,students and ,classes4 #bjj ,illustrations1 #as42 bound in cloth1 #as4 #f;d4 ,fully ,illustrated1 price #bs4 #f;d4 plain1 #ds4 coloured4 ,,the ,,british ,,ferns 7a ,plain and ,easy ,account of72 together with their classification1 arrangement of general structure1 and functions1 directions for in-door and out-door cultivation1 and for drying4 ,by ,mrs4 ,,lankester4 ,small edition1 #aa in4 by #h in42 large edition1 #ag in4 by #aa in4 ,,the ,,fern ,,collector',s ,,album3 a ,descriptive ,folio for the ,reception of ,natural ,specimens2 containing on the right-hand page a description of each fern1 the opposite page being left blank for the collector to affix the dried specimen2 forming1 when filled1 an elegant and complete collection of this interesting family of plants4 ,handsomely bound1 price ,one ,guinea4 ,a ,large ,edition1 without descriptive letter-press1 handsomely bound1 ,one ,guinea4 ,fully ,illustrated1 #ds4 coloured by hand1 #bs4 #f;d4 plain4 ,,wild ,,flowers ,,worth ,,notice3 a ,selection from the ,british ,flora of such ,plants as are most attractive from their ,beauty1 ,uses1 or ,associations4 ,by ,mrs4 ,,lankester1 ,author of 8,a ,plain and ,easy ,account of ,british ,ferns40 ,fcap4 #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,horse ,,warranty3 a ,plain and ,comprehensive ,guide to the various points noted1 showing which are essential and which are unimportant4 ,,london3 ,,robert ,,hardwicke1 #aib1 ,,piccadilly4 ,,the ,,london ,,manure ,,company1 ,,established #ahdj1 ,supply ,peruvian ,guano1 ,nitrate of ,soda1 ,dissolved ,bones1 ,superphosphate of ,lime1 ,,and ,,all ,,artificial ,,manures ,,guaranteed ,,genuine4 #aaf1 ,fenchurch ,street4 ,,edward ,,purser1 ,secretary4 ,,miller ,,johnson ,manufacture ,special ,manures for ,root1 ,corn1 and ,grass ,crops1 ,which they guarantee to be of the highest quality4 ,,works3 ,,normandy ,,wharf1 ,,rotherhithe2 ,,offices3 #be1 ,,mark ,,lane1 ,,london4 ,second ,edition1 crown #hvo41 price #fs4 ,subtle ,brains and ,lissom ,fingers4 ,being some of the ,chisel-marks of our ,industrial and ,scientific ,progress2 and other ,papers4 ,by ,,andrew ,,wynter1 ,m4,d41 ,m4,r4,c4,p41 ,london4 ,contains #ci ,articles1 amongst which will be found-- ,fraudulent ,trade ,marks4--,a ,day with the ,coroner4--,undersea ,railroad4--,vivisection4--,restoration of our ,soil4--,railways the ,great ,civilizers4--,physical ,education4--,the ,clerk of the ,weather4--,village ,hospitals4--,air ,traction4--,illuminations4--,boat ,building by ,machinery4--,doctors' ,stuff4--,small ,pox in ,london4--,excursion ,trains4--,early ,warnings1 c4 ,sixth ,edition1 crown #hvo41 cloth1 price #fs4 ,our ,social ,bees2 ,,pictures ,,of ,,town ,,and ,,country1 ,,and ,,other ,,papers4 ,by ,,andrew ,,wynter1 ,m4,d4 ,containing #de entertaining and instructive ,articles1 among which will be found-- ,london ,smoke4--,mock ,auctions4--,the ,suction ,post4--,our ,peck of ,dirt4--,the ,artificial ,man4--,britannia's ,smelling ,bottle4--,the ,post-office4--,commercial ,grief4--,arated ,bread4--,needlemaking4-- ,preserved ,meats4--,wenham ,lake ,ice4--,turkish ,baths4--,who is ,mr4 ,reuter8--,candlemaking4--,london ,stout4--,sewing ,machines4--,physical ,antipathies4--,ocean ,horticulture4--,brain ,difficulties4--,human ,hair1 c4 ,sixth ,edition1 crown #hvo41 cloth1 price #fs4 ,curiosities of ,civilization4 ,by ,dr4 ,,andrew ,,wynter4 ,reprinted from the ,quarterly and ,edinburgh ,reviews4 ,,contents3-- ,the ,london ,commissariat4--,food and its ,adulterations4-- ,advertisements4--,the ,zoological ,gardens4--,rats4--,woolwich ,arsenal4-- ,shipwrecks4--,lodging1 ,food1 and ,dress of ,soldiers4--,the ,electric ,telegraph4--,fires and ,fire ,insurance4--,the ,police and the ,thieves4--,mortality in ,trades and ,professions4--,lunatic ,asylums4 ,,london3 ,,robert ,,hardwicke1 #aib1 ,,piccadilly4 ,price #bs4 #f;d4 ,illustrated by the ,best ,artists4 ,,the ,popular ,science ,review1 ,a ,,quarterly ,,miscellany ,of ,entertaining and ,instructive ,articles on ,scientific ,subjects4 ,,edited ,,by ,,henry ,,lawson1 ,m4,d41 ,professor of ,physiology in ,queen's ,college1 ,birmingham1 and one of the ,lecturers on ,natural ,science under the 8,science and ,art ,department of the ,committee of ,council on ,education40 ,,the ,,popular ,,science ,,review is1 as its name implies1 a ,review conveying scientific knowledge in such a simple and popular form1 that all who read may understand4 ,there is at the present day a numerous and increasing class of intelligent readers who1 without being scientific1 are nevertheless greatly interested in scientific progress4 ,they would willingly become acquainted with scientific truths1 but are too often deterred from the pursuit of such studies by the abstruse or technical language in which these truths are conveyed4 ,in order to meet the requirements of this portion of the community1 every available means has been adopted to procure the most accurate information on all subjects of which the journal treats4 ,no pains or expense has been spared to secure the most skilful artists to illustrate its pages4 ,each number contains systematic1 instructive articles 7illustrated when needful7 on subjects connected with some of the following sciences1 viz43-- ,,astronomy1 ,,geography1 ,,mineralogy1 ,,botany1 ,,geology1 ,,physics1 ,,chemistry1 ,,metallurgy1 ,,zoology1 ,,ethnology1 ,,microscopy1 c4 c41 and ,,science applied to the ,arts1 ,manufactures1 ,commerce1 and ,agriculture4 ,,list ,,of ,,contributors4 ,,andrews1 ,w41 ,m4,r4,i4,a4 7,vice- ,,gosse1 ,,philip ,h41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,president of the ,zoological ,society,,hogg1 ,,jabez1 ,m4,r4,c4,s41 ,f4,l4,s41 of ,ireland74 c4 ,,ansted1 ,professor1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,f4,g4,s4 ,,houghton1 ,rev4 ,w41 ,f4,l4,s4 ,,bond1 ,prof4 ,f41 ,m4,b41 ,f4,c4,s4 ,,hunt1 ,,robert1 ,f4,r4,s4 7,hartley ,institute1 ,southampton74 ,,jesse1 ,e41 ,f4,l4,s4 ,,breen1 ,,james1 ,f4,r4,a4,s4 ,,jones1 ,prof4 ,,rymer1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,buckland1 ,f41 ,f4,z4,s4 ,,king1 ,prof4 ,w4 7,queen's ,college1 ,,buckman1 ,prof4 ,,james1 ,f4,l4,s41 ,galway74 ,f4,g4,s4 ,,lankester1 ,e41 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 c4 ,,collingwood1 ,c41 ,m4,a41 ,m4,b41 ,f4,l4,s4,,lankester1 ,mrs4 ,,cooke1 ,m4,c4 ,,lewes1 ,,george ,h4 ,,coultas1 ,,harland4 ,,plues1 ,miss ,m4 ,,crookes1 ,,william1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,phipson1 ,j41 ,m4,b41 ,,ph4,d41 ,f4,c4,s4 ,,de ,,quartrefages1 ,professor4 ,,seemann1 ,b41 ,,ph4,d41 ,f4,l4,s41 c4 ,,fairbairn1 ,w41 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,tuson1 ,prof41 ,f4,c4,s4 7,royal ,vet4 ,,fraser1 ,w41 ,m4,d41 ,f4,l4,s4 ,col474 ,,gore1 ,,george4 ,,voelcker1 ,prof41 ,f4,c4,s4 7,agricultural ,coll41 ,cirencester74 ,and other writers who take a prominent part in ,scientific ,literature4 8,one of the pleasantest and freshest of the ,quarterlies40--,examiner4 8,this is a wonderful half-crown's worth2 its text1 as well as its excellent and accurate illustrations1 show it to be one of our cheapest and best periodicals4 ,in this its second1 as in its first number1 it is fully up to the very highest standard fixed by its conductors4 ,we wish it every success1 and we heartily commend it to such of our readers as take an interest in the various phases of popular science40--,standard4 8,m4 ,c4 ,cooke writes ably on ,microscopic ,fungi parasitic on living plants4 ,aided by exquisite plates1 he unfolds a curious page of botanical history1 and the study of which is of great importance4 ,these ,microscopic ,fungi are the dread of the farmer and the gardener4 ,when the origin and growth of these parasites are better understood1 a cure for their destructiveness may be found40--,bradford ,observer4 ,the 8,popular ,science ,review0 appears in ,october1 ,january1 ,april1 and ,july1 price ,half-a-,crown4 ,price to ,subscribers1 #ajs4 per ,annum1 ,carriage ,free4 ,,london3 ,,robert ,,hardwicke1 #aib1 ,,piccadilly1 ,w4 ,,science ,,and ,,practice ,,in ,,farm ,,cultivation4 ,,by ,,james ,,buckman1 ,f4,l4,s41 ,f4,g4,s4 ,no4 #b4 ,,how ,,to ,,grow ,,good ,,grasses4 ,,london3 ,,robert ,,hardwicke1 #aib1 ,,piccadilly4 #ahfc4 ,fully ,illustrated1 price #gs4 #f;d4 complete in ,cloth4 ,separate ,parts1 #as4 each4 ,,science ,,and ,,practice ,,in ,,farm ,,cultivation4 ,,by ,,prof4 ,,buckman1 ,f4,l4,s41 ,f4,g4,s4 ,the complete ,series consists of #a4 ,,how ,,to ,,grow ,,good ,,roots4 #b4 ,,how ,,to ,,grow ,,good ,,grasses4 #c4 ,,how ,,to ,,grow ,,good ,,clover4 #d4 ,,how ,,to ,,grow ,,good ,,corn4 #e4 ,,how ,,to ,,grow ,,good ,,hedges4 #f4 ,,how ,,to ,,grow ,,good ,,timber4 #g4 ,,how ,,to ,,grow ,,good ,,orchards4 ,,london3 ,,robert ,,hardwicke1 #aib1 ,,piccadilly4 ,,how ,,to ,,grow ,,good ,,grasses4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,on ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,meadows ,,and ,,pastures4 ,the terms 8meadow0 and 8pasture0 are usually employed together1 as though they were really distinct things2 yet few people think of them as different1--the fact being1 that when a field is occupied with grass1 it may be called a meadow1 in contradistinction to that land under the plough1 or arable3 this yields meadow-hay if mowed for that purpose1 or pasturage when fed off or depastured by our flocks or herds4 ,the meadow1 then1 as being fixed1 is termed 8permanent pasture40 ,pasture-herbage1 however1 is grown in the shifting crops of arable cultivation2 in which case it gets the term of 8artificial pasture40 ,hay from the first of these is called 8meadow-hay10 whilst the mixture of grasses1 clovers1 c41 gets the name of 8artificial grass10 or 8hay10 as the case may be4 ,as regards permanent pasture1 this may be old or new1--some meadows having been in green herbage even for centuries1 whilst others1 though sufficiently old1 yet show traces of having been once arable in the more or less high-backed ridges left by ancient ploughing4 ,viewed in this way1 original pasture is not so extensive as may be supposed2 indeed1 there is scarcely such a thing at all1 as all pastures are the result of something like cultivation1--as1 left to themselves1 that is1 to ,nature1 they would soon resume the aspect of jungle1 moor1 or marsh1 according to soil and situation4 ,meadows and pastures may1 then1 for our present purpose1 be conveniently tabulated as follows3-- ,a4 ,,permanent ,,pastures4 #a4 ,moors and uplands1 unenclosed or but partially fenced in4 #b4 ,commons1 unenclosed land1 usually about villages1 conferring the right of cattle and goose grazing4 #c4 ,river flats and lowlands1 liable to floods4 #d4 ,irrigated ,meadow1 in which the water is controllable4 #e4 ,meadows1 or permanent grass enclosures4 ,b4 ,,artificial ,,pastures4 #f4 ,seeds1 shifting crops of some grasses1 clovers1 saintfoin1 c41 used either mixed or separately4 #a4 ,moors1 uplands1 and downs 7such as ,dartmoor and ,salisbury ,plain7 are more or less wild according to their elevation and the geological formation on which they occur4 ,they consist of large tracts of land either without fences at all1 or only those of the most inefficient kind1 rather boundary-lines than otherwise4 ,they are never used for haymaking1 nor are they cultivated beyond depasturing4 ,these are dotted with patches of rough grass1 thorns1 briers1 and shrubs or stunted trees where the surface is much broken1 and the animals they are made to carry are few2 but on the more rounded and smooth lines of the downs is a finer herbage1 kept so not only from the nature of the case1 but from the fact that such a position favours the more thickly stocking it with that close-grazing animal the sheep4 ,these pasturages1 though very extensive1 are yet being encroached upon by a higher cultivation1 and the hayfields one occasionally meets with around the squatter's cabin even in the wild mountainous parts of ,wales sufficiently testify to the greater productiveness of which the most unfavourable districts are capable4 #b4 ,the village common is sometimes extensive2 it1 too1 as the former1 is only grazed4 ,many of them have of late years been enclosed4 ,where much depastured--and they usually carry as much stock as they can bear--there is a remarkable absence of plants other than grasses4 ,indeed1 grass-herbage1 and usually of the best species1 will prevail1 unless in places where there may be stagnant water1 in which cases a little drainage would produce a large public benefit2 but as what is everybody's business is done by no one1 the common is too often left much wilder1 and thus made poorer than it need be4 #c4 ,the river flats here meant are1 for the most part1 large fields partaking of the nature of common2 that is1 certain farmers and others have the privilege of grazing during the autumn2 but it is aimed up early in spring1 for the purpose of taking a crop of hay4 ,such lands would be impoverished by such constant haymaking2 but the winter floods leave behind them a deposit of silt and fluviatile materials1 and perhaps beside act as a solvent2 so that their fertility is wonderfully maintained4 ,many such wide stretches of meadow occur on the banks of the ,severn1 as in the neighbourhood of ,gloucester1 ,tewkesbury1 ,worcester1 c41 where they get the name of ,ham4 ,it is much to be regretted that these hams are not made the most of1 for the same reason as applies with respect to common1 for the want of some efficient officer to direct improvements2 and so from the water here and there stagnating good herbage is ruined1 and from the floods not being controllable1 even hay is lost with the summer freshets4 ,but where such land is vested in single enterprising proprietors1 not only is drainage insured1 but embankments are made to keep out the waters when not required1 as so much met with on the banks of the ,thames2 and such fields are at once an evidence of the capabilities of river flats1 and the great importance of individual enterprise4 #d4 ,the last case approaches very nearly to that of irrigated meadows2 but these latter are mostly situate on small streams1 which can be directed to flow through1 not over them1 at any time3 they offer a most important means of augmenting our pasturage in certain districts1 and will therefore receive a chapter to themselves4 #e4 ,permanent grass enclosures are of very varied sizes1 from hundreds of acres1 forming perhaps a park1 to the small meadow of the homestead2 they may be seldom or never used for haymaking1 but most of them are aimed up for hay once1 twice1 or thrice in four or five years4 ,these form the greater part of the grass-lands of our country1 and are indeed nowhere greener or more productive than in the ,british ,isles2 still1 as we are an advocate for their cultivation--which1 if it does not quite realize the position of making two blades of grass grow where one grew before1 may at least do much in this direction--we shall reserve further remarks upon this subject until we have particularly analyzed the contents of a meadow4 #f4 ,as shifting crops1 grasses1 and other fodder plants may be made exceedingly useful1 these may therefore well occupy a chapter to themselves4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,on ,,the ,,species ,,of ,,meadow-,,grasses4 ,although we possess more than a hundred species of native grasses1 we shall rarely find a fourth of them even in a wide range of meadows2 and if we do so1 it is rather an argument against than in favour of the quality of their herbage1 as1 so few are the best grasses in number1 that it is almost a law for the best meadows to contain the fewest species of true grasses4 ,if1 then1 the good grasses be so few1 whatever is not of these must be inferior1 and1 indeed1 so bad are some grasses that they can only be considered as weeds4 ,these weed-like forms are known to the farmer from his observing that the cattle usually refuse to eat them1 and hence he has got to call them 8sour grasses10--a term which1 though perhaps meant to convey the idea that such are objectionable in flavour1 yet it is oftener that they are refused from their want of flavour1 or from some mechanical objection arising from their roughness of growth1 some having sharp serrated cutting edges to their leaves1 whilst the spicular awns1 so conspicuous in the beard of barley1 cause great irritation by sticking beneath the tongue and in the gums4 ,of these1 the first are objectionable for pasture1 the last for hay1 and should1 therefore1 not be found in really good meadows4 ,the figures and descriptions which follow are given in illustration of some of the more usual meadow species1 which1 though not fully or botanically described1 will yet aid the practical farmer in estimating the species1 and their value and significance1 which he will commonly find in his fields4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,the ,meadow ,foxtail4 ,the ,meadow ,foxtail 7,alopecurus pratensis1 fig4 #ac7 is an early species of the spicate form--i4e41 the flowers grow close together1 into a more or less dense head4 ,it yields a great quantity of herbage1 especially in moist situations2 and is particularly adapted for the irrigated meadow4 ,it should be distinguished from the ,a4 geniculatus 7,kneeling ,foxtail71 whose spike is only about half the length and size1 as this is particularly a water species1 so that if found when a meadow is dry1 it is yet an evidence that water must have lain where it occurs for a considerable period of the year4 ,also from the ,a4 agrestis 7,slender ,foxtail71 which has a longer and thinner spike1 as this latter is a weed in poor hungry clays1 which is useless except as serving to indicate that the land wants perhaps both drainage and manure4 ,here1 then1 our first genus presents us with species indicating the varied conditions of rich meadow1 wet places1 and poor arable2 and it is this variableness in adaptability that makes the grasses such important indicators of the nature and condition of soils4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,the ,catstail ,grass4 ,the ,catstail ,grass 7,phleum pratense1 fig4 #ad7 in general form is not unlike the preceding1 but it is much rougher in all its parts1 and is one of the latest instead of one of our earliest species4 ,its name of catstail is due to its rough flowers1 an enlarged drawing of one of which is given at a4 ,it has also got the name of ,timothy ,grass1 from one ,mr4 ,timothy ,hanson1 an ,american1 to whom1 probably1 is owing its first introduction as a 8self-crop10 large fields of this useful species1 mostly by itself1 being grown in ,canada and the ,states as a fodder plant4 ,it is very useful in the meadow1 as supplying a late crop of stems and leaves2 greatly augmenting the amount of herbage in some of the colder though not poor districts4 ,we have never seen this grass used as a self-crop in ,england1 but we are convinced that on some of the rich alluvial flats1 as in the lands reclaimed from the ,severn1 and warp soils in general1 it would yield a large bulk of good feeding matter1 which1 though somewhat rough1 would yet mix well with clovers1 c41 in chaff-cutting4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,the ,sweet ,vernal ,grass4 ,the ,sweet ,vernal ,grass 7,anthoxanthum odoratum1 fig4 #ae7 is a very early species1 with a somewhat lax spike of flowers1 which usually become of a bright straw-colour by the time the hayfield is ripe for the scythe4 ,it does not yield much bulk1 but its grateful bitter when fresh1 and the peculiarly sweet hayfield odour which it yields on drying1 would seem to make this grass of importance1 from the flavour which it imparts to the produce of the field2 indeed so much so1 that much of the value of natural meadow hay over that of artificial pasture may be traced to the presence of this grass4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,the ,crested ,dogstail4 ,the ,crested ,dogstail 7,cynosurus cristatus1 fig4 #af7 has its florets arranged in front of a series of abortive branches1 as represented at a1 enlarged4 ,it has a very slender stem1 which is hard and wiry when ripe--a condition which it so universally attains1 even in spite of constant depasturing1 that we never recommend its use in mixtures for permanent pasture1 as its stems are particularly innutritious1 and its herbage is so small as to be of little value4 ,it never prevails much in our best pastures4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,rye ,grass1 or ,ray ,grass4 ,rye ,grass1 or ,ray ,grass 7,lolium perenne1 fig4 #ag71 has no connection with the ,cereal ,rye4 ,it is one of our commonest and most useful species1 both as a plant for the natural meadow or for arable culture1 especially in mixture with clovers1 which has the name of 8seeds40 ,it yields good bulk for the rick1 and will so readily grow after cutting or close depasturing that it commonly affords the greater part of the herbage of a pasture4 ,from being so valuable1 its seed has been much cultivated2 and as it has a tendency to form more or less permanent varieties1 so we find in the market several different sorts2 as 8,pacey's1 ,ruck's1 ,russell's1 ,stickney's1 ,rye ,grass10 c4 ,it should always form part in any mixture in laying down permanent pasture1 in which case it should be distinguished from the ,lolium ,italicum1 the florets and seeds of which are awned-pointed1 as at a4 ,this latter is useful as an annual self-crop1 but seedsmen too often mix it in permanent-pasture collections1 for the reason that it grows faster1 and so makes a show the first year1 and so satisfies the customer2 but it soon dies out1 while its large growth has kept under the more enduring forms4 b represents a bunch of the tumid flowers of the ,lolium temulentum 7,drunken ,darnel71 once a pest in cornfields1 but now1 fortunately1 of rare occurrence1 if we are to believe the tales told of its so-called poisonous seeds4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,the ,cocksfoot4 ,the ,cocksfoot 7,dactylis glomerata1 fig4 #ah71 though a large and somewhat coarse grass1 is by no means inferior in quality1 its hay being highly nutritious1 whilst its cut or cropped herbage is so quick of growth that it is capable of yielding a great deal of keep4 ,it sends its root deep into the soil1 so that it can grow well in poor land if dry2 but it never flourishes in very wet situations4 ,it is constant in good meadows1 unless when they are always depastured1 as there the constant treading greatly interferes with it3 it is1 therefore1 by no means so abundant in sheep pastures2 whence has arisen the idea with some farmers that 8too much sheep-grazing wears out the richer grasses40 ,we should always recommend cocksfoot as a part of mixtures for permanent pasture1 taking care to well roll the meadow once or twice a year--a process of great importance--to keep the turf in an even pile1 and so prevent that growing of large clusters or hassocks of one sort1 a method of growth to which the cocksfoot is somewhat prone4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,the ,rough-stalked ,meadow ,grass4 ,the ,rough-stalked ,meadow ,grass 7,poa trivialis1 fig4 #ai7 is a common species in moist meadows1 where it often forms a considerable portion of the herbage3 it is distinguished from the smooth-stalked by the long-pointed tongue 7ligule7 to the leaves 7a71 and a stem which is somewhat rough to the feel1 especially when drawn downwards through the fingers4 ,this grass yields a quantity of herbage1 but our experience leads us to conclude that it does not possess quite so good a quality as ,sinclair and authors who have copied from him would lead us to suppose1 as we have found it wanting in feeding qualities1 or what the farmer calls 8proof40 ,it usually forms a large part of the hay of the irrigated meadow1 which1 though often large in quantity1 is yet not equal to that of ordinary good meadows in feeding properties4 ,the ,smooth-stalked ,meadow ,grass 7,poa pratensis71 distinguished by a blunt ligule 7b7 and smooth stem1 is as abundant in dry situations as the former is in damp ones4 ,we confess to a great partiality for this grass1 notwithstanding that authors speak slightingly of its value2 but the truth is1 that it varies with soil and situation1 it being a species which1 when growing on a wild moor1 is poor in both quantity and quality4 ,but we know of no better sign of the improvement of a bad meadow than the increase of this grass1 and its putting on1 as it will do under such circumstances1 of its richest green tint4 ,poa nemoralis 7,wood ,meadow ,grass7 is a more slender form1 whose wild habitat is in woods and shady places1 especially on calcareous soils4 ,this points it out as a useful grass for wood-glades and positions beneath trees1 in which it may very properly be employed4 ,in laying down permanent pastures we should1 then1 employ these three poas as follows3-- ,poa trivialis1 for low1 damp situations and irrigated meadows4 ,poa pratensis1 for sound dry pastures and uplands4 ,poa nemoralis1 for rides between woods1 wood-glades1 and shady places4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,meadow ,fescue4 ,meadow ,fescue 7,festuca pratensis1 fig4 #bj7 may be taken as the type of the broad-leaved fescues4 ,it is a common and good succulent grass in rich meadows1 and should always be employed in seed mixtures for such situations1 ,a variety1 botanically known as ,f4 loliacea1 is unbranched1 like the lolium or rye grass4 ,the position of this is on rich river flats3 we have seen it on the banks of the ,isis at ,oxford1 forming a large part of most excellent herbage4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,the ,tall ,fescue4 ,the ,tall ,fescue 7,festuca elatior1 fig4 #ba7 is a larger and coarser form of ,f4 pratensis1 as seed of the latter will become the former by being sown on some stiff sandy clays4 ,it occurs abundantly on the stiff alluvial deposits of our estuaries and river flats4 ,it is an exceedingly coarse grass1 with a tendency to grow in large separate bunches2 and hence its presence is destructive to good pastures3 it may1 however1 be encouraged as a rough growth in its indicated habitats4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,sheep's ,fescue4 ,sheep's ,fescue 7,festuca ovina1 fig4 #bb7 may be taken as the type of the small-leaved fescues4 ,it is a native of our downs1 and forms a large proportion of the sweet down sheep-pastures4 ,it is known by its fine leaves1 which come up immediately after the closest feeding2 and if its quantity equalled its quality1 it would be even more valuable than it is4 ,a larger form1 the ,hard ,fescue 7,f4 duriuscula71 is common to sound meadows and the hill valleys4 ,this has much the same properties as the former1 but it is taller1 with longer and broader leaves4 ,this should always be encouraged1 and in laying down grass for permanent pasture1 it should be plentifully added to the seed mixture4 ,the ,downy ,wild ,oat 7,avena pubescens1 fig4 #bc7 is a common grass on thin calcareous soils4 ,as it is very light in structure1 and yields but little grass1 it is not worth much as a first-rate pasture plant1--and indeed it would scarcely prefer to grow on them4 ,there is1 however1 a smaller-flowered species1 the ,avena flavescens 7,yellow ,oat-grass71 which is better4 ,it1 too1 occurs on chalky soils2 while the ,avena pratensis 7,meadow ,oat-grass7 is found too frequently in poor clays or on starved moors1 in which its rigid leaves and harsh structure render it little1 if any1 better than a weed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,the ,downy ,wild ,oat4 ,one of the most interesting species of the genus is the ,avena fatua 7,wild ,oat71 well known as a weed in stiff arable soils4 ,this is the parent of the crop oats in cultivation1 and there is reason to know that by degeneracy the crop oat in some districts leaves behind a pest of wild oats4#b #b ,see 8,natural ,history of ,british ,meadow and ,pasture ,grasses10 by the ,author4 ,the ,oat-like ,grass 7,arrhenatherum avenaceum1 fig4 #bd71 though a tall1 succulent-looking species1 is still too common in poor soils1 as its herbage is bitter and nauseous1 and not liked by cattle2 and hay from it is always inferior in quality4 ,it is sometimes recommended by seedsmen1 and usually put with their mixtures2 but we should at all times refuse it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,the ,oat-like ,grass4 ,there is a peculiar form of this which occasionally occurs in sandy districts1 called ,a4 avenaceum1 variety bulbosum 7,onion ,couch71 the trivial name of which has been given from the fact that its nodes thicken below the soil1 and present the appearance of small races of onions4 ,this pest is got out of the land by harrowing and hand-picking2 but as every bulb grows like joints of real couch1 it is very difficult to entirely eradicate it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4 ,the ,soft ,brome1 or ,lop ,grasses4 ,the ,soft ,brome1 or ,lop ,grasses 7,bromus mollis1 fig4 #be71 and its congeners1 is an annual grass1 and therefore very objectionable1 whether in the meadow or in 8seeds10 to both of which1 when poor and neglected1 it becomes attached4 ,in both positions it is sometimes mixed with a kind that droops pretty considerably to one side2 from which it has got the name of 8lop40 ,from the meadow it is soon got rid of by manuring and depasturing2 haymaking1 though it cuts off the main stem1 only encourages smaller ones to spring up late1 and so the seed is sown4 ,in 8seeds0 it is frequently mixed with rye-grass seed1 as it too often occurs that a patch of rye-grass with much lop is seeded1 as the most profitable way to deal with it1 as its seeds are heavy and large1 and therefore tell well1 either by weight or measure4 ,our enlarged drawing of a seed with its envelopes is given to contrast with rye-grass seed1 which is narrower and more pointed4 ,within the last few years a species of brome grass1 which was formerly very rare1 has become a common weed3 we mean the ,b4 arvensis1 ,corn ,brome-grass1--a species with smaller and more numerous heads of flowers than the one just described4 ,this has spread with the growth of foreign seeds1 and so suddenly has it appeared in some places as to cause farmers to come to the conclusion that poor cultivation has made the land spontaneously bring forth 8a nasty sort of wild oat10 while others have even concluded that a cereal crop had been transformed into this grass4 ,the ,bromus erectus 7,upright ,brome ,grass7 is very constant to poor calcareous soils4 ,this is a perennial species1 but very poor indeed in feeding qualities2 however1 it looks green in park-glades1 and if kept down by rough stock1 it may then be made useful4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,the ,bent ,grass4 ,the ,bent ,grass 7,agrostis stolonifera1 fig4 #bf7 is probably only a variety of the common marsh species1 ,a4 alba4 ,under the name of ,fiorin ,grass1 this plant has been much extolled for the meadow2 but our experience shows it to vary in value according to the nature of the position in which it is placed3 as thus1 in an irrigated meadow it sends up a large quantity of quite rich pasturage1 whilst in poor or dry districts its herbage is hard and harsh1 and not at all relished by cattle or sheep4 ,the form we have figured is more particularly agrarian where its creeping underground stem forms a kind of mischievous couch1 and this1 united with a tangled growth derived from shoots rooting above the ground1 renders this one of the most pernicious weeds1 especially in thin soils1 on calcareous1 brashy1 or stony soils4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,woolly ,soft ,grass4 ,woolly ,soft ,grass 7,holcus lanatus1 fig4 #bg71 though exceedingly pretty from its contrast in colour and form with its congeners1 is still so worthless in point of feeding properties as to be little1 if any1 better than a weed4 ,it is too abundant in some moist meadows2 and where it forms a very large portion of the herbage1 it speaks of poverty as well as wet1 and would lead to the inference that a little draining1 less frequent haymaking1 and liberal doses of manure1 would have a most decidedly beneficial effect4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4 ,quaking ,grasses4 ,quaking ,grasses 7,briza media1 fig4 #bh1 ,b4 minor1 a1 and ,b4 maxima1 b71 though certainly amongst our pretty species1 are all useless to the farmer4 ,the common species is well known in all wet or poor clay meadows1 and where very abundant we should usually make our calculations for something less than a ton of hay to the acre1 and this would generally be late1 and offer little aftermath4 ,like the preceding1 its indications are want of draining1 manure1 and depasturing4 ,if after the drains begin to act1 sheep be folded upon a quaking-grass meadow1 and fed with turnips1 hay1 pease1 or cake1 it will soon be eradicated4 a1 the smaller species1 is an annual1 and is only noticed here by way of distinction3 its smaller and broader bunches of whitish1 not purple1 flowers1 and rectilinear branches1 will distinguish it from the common form4 ,it is comparatively rare2 but we have had some fine specimens communicated by ,h4 ,c4 ,watson1 ,esq41 from ,thames ,ditton4 b is a garden specimen1 remarkable for its larger flower bunches4 ,the ,hair ,grass 7,aira cspitosa1 fig4 #bi7 is commonly called hassock1 or tussac grass1 or bull-pates--names which its massive bunches of root-leaves clearly indicate the meaning of4 ,its leaves are so rough1 with serrated edges1 that cattle mostly refuse it1 unless when very young4 ,this grass is a never-failing indicator of wet1--so much so1 that if a meadow be drained in which it abounds1 the action of the drains is clearly indicated by its more or less gradual dying out4 ,the quickest way1 then1 to subdue this large1 coarse weed-grass is to drain1 and then fold sheep upon the drying meadow3 these animals tread the tussac grass into manure1 which goes to feed the better species4 ,by this means1 not only this1 but other rough or 8sour0 grasses are more quickly and more certainly removed than by spudding them out2 and this leads us to remark1 in concluding this chapter1 that in the meadow there will usually be found growing together two sets of grasses1 which may be designated as follows3-- a4 ,grasses more or less nutritious--sweet4 b4 ,grasses more or less innutritious--sour4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,the ,hair ,tussac ,grass4 ,in a good meadow1 the section a maintain the ascendancy1 and so keep under those of b4 ,in a bad meadow1 the section b will be master1 and so tyrannize over what would be better4 ,perfect cultivation1 then1 of a meadow--for meadows should be cultivated--whilst it encourages the growth of good herbage1 equally discourages the progress of the bad4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,on ,,meadow ,,plants ,,other ,,than ,,grasses4 ,with the grass of the field will usually be found a large proportion of plants of a very varied1 variable1 and different kind4 ,of these1 many are useful as augmenting the mass1 and even improving the quality of a pasture2 whilst1 as others are altogether objectionable1 we shall presently notice them under the head of 8,meadow ,weeds40 ,of the more useful adjuncts of the meadow we may tabulate the following3-- ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,no4 ,trivial ,names4 ,botanical ,names4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- #a ,red clover ,trifolium pratense4 #b ,zigzag clover medium4 #c ,white or ,dutch clover repens4 #d ,birdsfoot ,lotus corniculatus4 #e ,yellow vetchling ,lathyrus pratensis4 #f ,purple vetchling palustris4 #g ,saintfoin ,onobrychis sativa4 #h ,burnet ,sanguisorba officinalis4 #i ,false burnet ,poterium ,sanguisorba4 #aj ,tormentil ,tormentilla officinalis4 #aa ,yarrow ,achilla millefolia4 #ab ,agrimony ,agrimonia ,eupatoria4 #ac ,plantain ,plantago lanceolata4 ,some of the smaller ,composit4 ,ditto ,umbellifer4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,of these1 which are arranged pretty nearly in their order of merit1 the clovers are by far the most important4 ,these1 as meadow plants1 will usually be found under the following circumstances3-- ,no4 #a4 ,plentiful in good1 rich1 sound meadows4 #b4 ,frequent in meadows on light sandy soils4 #c4 ,on thin but good soil1 upland meadows4 ,the clovers1 and indeed the clover allies1 ,papilionace1 as a whole1 are partial to lime1--so much so1 that a dressing of this mineral to some fields in which clovers are scarcely represented will very quickly cause an accelerated growth of them2 hence road dirt1 when made from calcareous stones1 as are the oolitic and mountain limestones1 affords a good vehicle for the admixture of manures or ameliorators1 such as guano1 burnt ashes1 soot1 nitrate of soda1 c4 ,the following remarks upon these three clovers are from a paper by the author in the ,bath and ,west of ,england ,agricultural ,journal1 vol4 x41 part #b3-- #a4 ,trifolium pratense--,meadow or ,broad-leaved ,clover--in its wild state is too well known to need any lengthened description4 ,a careful examination of field specimens will show that even in the wild state this plant is liable to run into numberless variations2 thus1 we may have the leaflets of one plant broad and almost obcordate at the extremity1 whilst others will be more or less ovate and lancet-shaped4 ,in some we may see dense heads of purple flowers1 varying in shade until almost white1 whilst less dense heads of flowers and general variations in height1 size1 and luxuriance of the whole plant1 are all circumstances in the natural history of this species in the wild state1 which will prepare us duly to understand the nature of the many forms of the plant which are found in cultivation4 ,of these we have1 besides others1 ,english1 ,french1 ,american1 and ,dutch sorts1 which differ in such minor details as a greater or less hairiness1 or variations in the colour and size of the flowers1 leaves1 c4 ,the most important point connected with the broad-leaved clover is its permanency2 some sorts scarcely maintaining a plant for two years1 whilst others are said to be more or less perennial4 ,this1 however1 is a matter which we conceive depends more upon the soil and the kind of cultivation than upon the sort2 for although all seedsmen supply two sorts1 namely1 ,trifolium pratense and ,t4 pratense perenne1 yet they run so much the one into the other1 that it is oftentimes exceedingly difficult to distinguish them4 ,if1 therefore1 a farmer wants a good strain of broad clover1 he should purchase his seed from seedsmen possessing judgment and character2 for experience has taught us that a seed which may be all that is required in one district may result in next to a failure in another4 ,thus1 clover-seed from the warmer parts of ,england does not succeed well when sown in cold1 exposed positions2 but that from the latter is improved on transmission to the former1 whilst good changes are effected by the occasional use of foreign seed4 ,the sort known in the market as ,t4 pratense perenne is probably intermediate between the wild species ,t4 pratense and ,t4 medium4 ,our own experiments have shown that1 on cultivating ,t4 medium1 which is a sand-lover1 in strong land1 in three years it has been very difficult to distinguish it from some of the varieties of ,t4 pratense4 ,we incline1 therefore1 to the opinion that as the ,t4 medium holds to sandy soils in the wild state1 its seed was brought into cultivation with a view to light-soil cropping2 and from this source has probably been derived the so-called ,t4 pratense perenne1 which variety is certainly more perennial in such light soils as would be quite unfit for the true ,t4 pratense4 ,the latter1 indeed1 seems to be more permanent in soils containing a quantity of lime1 while the former1 where it can be got of a good sort1 is certainly best adapted for sandy soils4 #b4 ,trifolium medium--,zigzag ,trefoil--is distinguished from the ,t4 pratense by its larger1 but more lax1 head of reddish pink 7not purple7 flowers1 which are solitary1 on the apex of a stalk1 which at each joint is bent at a considerable angle2 hence its name4 ,its leaflets are elliptical1 and not broader at the upper margin4 ,this plant is a constant denizen of sands and light soils4 ,in fact1 its naturally growing in soils unfitted for the broad-leaved clover seems to recommend it for cultivation2 and though1 as before pointed out1 we more than suspect that the so-called cow-grass clover was originally derived from this source1 and that the ,t4 medium is after all but a variety of the ,t4 pratense1 it is now quite merged as a farm-plant into the broad-clover forms2 so that1 if we are to possess it as a separate plant1 it must be again grown from the wild seed2 and then1 if it is to be kept pure1 it must not be cultivated on clays or limestones1 or1 if our view be correct1 it will soon lose its true distinctive character4 #c4 ,trifolium repens--,white ,dutch ,clover--has been long in cultivation throughout ,europe and ,america4 ,it is one of our commonest native plants1 and appears to have become less changed by cultivation than most other plants2 yet there is reason to think that with careful selection a much improved strain may be brought about4 ,in pastures an immense accession of ,dutch clover is often seen to follow some kind or another of top-dressing1 especially of lime1 old mortar1 or town rubbish4 ,this is accounted for by the fact that this clover is in reality of universal occurrence2 and its creeping habit of growth1 besides seeding1 causes it soon to make a rapid increase where its conditions of growth are made suitable4 ,as an agricultural plant its position is in light soils1 for which it is usually mixed with other clovers and grasses in varied proportions4 #d and #e are often found scattered in meadows1 though not usually in any abundance in those of the richer kind2 still1 in laying down land for permanent pasture1 there can be no objection to a small admixture of their seed4 #f1 the ,purple ,vetchling1 though local in rich river pastures1 is yet a good plant1 and might perhaps be advantageously brought out as an addendum to mixtures designed for good lowland positions4 #g1 ,saintfoin1 is a good pasture plant for chalks and limestones2 and in laying down land for permanent pastures in such position1 should not usually be omitted4 ,it is also a good species to sow on railway banks1 not alone for the beauty of its flowers1 but for the binding effects of its deeply-diving roots4 #h and #i1 the ,burnets1 will be found1--the true in rich damp bottoms and on river flats1 the false on dry1 calcareous soils4 ,they are neither plants that we should care to grow2 but in their wild state in their respective pastures we should1 on the other hand1 not be inclined to make war against them as weeds4 ,the same opinion1 indeed1 might be briefly expressed as regards ,nos4 #aj1 #ab1 and #ac4 ,in fact1 the whole here grouped may be said to possess more or less bitter and astringent qualities1 and so become useful in checking the vapidity which is sometimes found in purely grass herbage4 #aa1 the ,yarrow1 should be encouraged in most pastures1 as it not only possesses the qualities just mentioned1 but its leaves are so small and its stems and flowers so easily dry when cut1 that there is no chance of its smothering out the grass in growing1 or of its retarding the process of haymaking4 ,it also bears constant nibbling with sheep1 which are remarkably fond of it1 without injury1 as it rather becomes finer for being depastured4 #ab4 ,the larger composite plants1 as dandelion1 the hawkweeds1 blackhead1 c41 are1 from their coarseness and the room they take up1 highly objectionable2 but the yellow hawkbits1 thrincia1 and the before-mentioned yarrow1 are by no means objectionable4 #ac4 ,the above remarks will equally apply to the ,umbellifer4 ,large plants like the cow-parsnip and common beaked parsley are objectionable from their size and want of feeding properties1 whilst the small pimpinella and earth-nut do not offer these objections4 ,here1 however1 it must be confessed that we are bordering on the domains of weeds in pasture1 to which we must devote a separate chapter4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,on ,,the ,,weeds ,,of ,,pasture4 8,weeds in pasture60 said an old farmer friend2 8,i thought hay and grass was all weeds40 ,this1 which is by no means an uncommon notion1 sufficiently explains the want of care in the cultivation of the best kinds of meadow produce1 which can only be effected by the destruction of what is useless or mischievous4 ,now1 if we proceed upon the assumption that the best kinds of meadow are remarkable for the possession of little else than the best kinds of the true grasses1 we shall see that pasturage should1 in the main1 be composed of good grass-growth1 with only some few other plants which may be capable of augmenting quantity1 by their nutritive matter1 giving flavour1 or improving quality4 ,it follows1 then1 that all plants having none of these requisites must be1 to all intents and purposes1 only mischievous weeds2 as thus a large useless plant in a meadow1 as in an arable field1 must not only occupy the space that would be better taken up by good plants1 but it appropriates a large quantity of food to the prejudice of the better crop4 ,viewed in this light1 then1 what a mass of weeds some of our pastures will be found to contain6 ,in fact1 what with useless plants1 other than grasses1 and coarse1 sour1 or useless grasses themselves1 we meet with so-called meadows to which the terms of 8barren moor0 or waste land would be especially applicable4 ,the following table is offered as an attempt at the classification of the weeds of pasture1 the different divisions of which we shall presently describe in the order of their arrangement4 ,,table ,,of ,,pasture ,,weeds4 #a4 ,plants which take up space but yield no ,produce4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,trivial ,name4 ,botanical ,name4 ,remarks4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,the leaves of these ,broad-leaved ,plantain4 ,plantago media plants grow too close ,dent-de-lion ,leontodon taraxacum to the ground to be ,daisy ,bellis perennis eaten off by cattle or to cut for hay4 ,these plants take up much room in growing1 ,cowslip ,primula veris they are not eaten by ,primrose vulgaris cattle1 and1 as they ,green-winged ,orchis ,orchis ,morio die before haymaking1 ,early ,purple ,orchis mascula yield little or nothing to the rick4 #b4 ,plants which take up space1 but simply dilute the hay with useless matter4 ,all common1 especially ,blunt-leaved ,dock ,rumex obtusifolius in damp meadows1 are ,crisp-leaved ,dock crispus not usually depastured1 ,marsh ,dock palustris and have little or no ,field ,sorrel acetosa feeding properties when made into hay4 ,burdock ,arctium ,lappa ,common about the borders of fields4 ,butter ,burr ,petasites vulgaris ,common near water courses4 ,cow ,parsnip ,heracleum ,sphondylium ,very common and ,wild-beaked ,parsley ,anthriscus vulgaris unsightly in pastures4 ,ladies' ,smock ,cardamine pratensis ,in damp places4 ,yellow ,rattle ,rhinanthus crista ,in poor cold clays4 galli ,larger ,hawkweeds1 c4 ,hieracium species ,about fields in upland districts4 #c4 ,mechanical ,plants1 those with ,spines1 ,prickles1 ,stings1 c4 ,musk ,thistle ,carduus nutans ,mostly a weed in 8seeds40 ,welted ,thistle acanthoides ,creeping ,thistle arvensis ,in hedgerows1 borders ,cotton ,thistle eriophorus of fields1 or the ,spear ,thistle lanceolatus open meadows4 ,marsh ,plume ,thistle palustris ,damp or marsh ,meadow ,plume ,thistle pratensis meadows4 ,stemless ,thistle acaulis ,common to poor ,carline ,thistle ,carlina vulgaris calcareous uplands4 ,common ,stinging ,nettle ,urtica dioica ,about the homestead1 ,smaller ,stinging urens corners of fields1 ,nettle c4 ,wall ,barley ,hordeum murinum ,about sandy soils1 both in the meadow and arable4 #d4 ,poisonous ,pasture-weeds1 c4 ,meadow ,saffron ,colchicum autumnale ,usual in calcareous soils or marls4 ,upright ,buttercup ,ranunculus acris ,in damp meadows4 ,diseased ,grasses ,secale cornutum ,in places where mist and damp prevail4 #e4 ,ill-favoured ,weeds or ,plants which communicate bad flavour to ,produce4 ,crow ,garlic ,allium vineale ,more or less in ,hogs' ,garlic ursinum meadows and corners of fields4 ,jack-by-the-,hedge ,erysimum ,alliaria ,about the hedgerow4 #f4 ,useless ,grasses1 or ,grass-like ,plants4 ,rough ,grasses ,species ,poor land and wet places4 ,sedges ,species ,in boggy1 marshy1 or wet sandy spots4 ,rushes ,species ,in sandy spots on clays and poor soils4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #a4 ,taking the broad-leaved plantain as the type of this list1 we shall have no difficulty in estimating the amount of mischief which it does4 ,here is a plant1 a single specimen of which not unfrequently occupies nearly a square foot of ground1 and as its leaves grow close to the soil1 it effectually prevents the growth of the grass1 while few1 if any1 leaves are cut with the scythe4 ,the bare patches which result from the cutting up of plantains from a lawn will sufficiently establish the first position1 whilst1 if one occasionally meets with a few of the leaves cut off in haymaking1 it commits the further mischief of being so long in drying as to retard the process of haymaking1 or else to endanger the safety of the rick4 ,it is on account of this that the plantain has in some districts got the name of the 8,fire ,grass40 ,these are easily removed by the spud1 especially if a little salt be added to their crowns4 #b4 ,taking it for granted that grasses are for the most part the best plants for pasturage and hay1 it follows that the plants of this list can only be weeds1 from their taking up space and living at the expense of the wished-for crop1 when1 after all1 the produce is either useless1 or so inferior that the whole product of the field is vitiated by their presence4 ,the best way to eradicate these and other large-leaved and tall-stemmed plants is to pull them early in the season--the true theory being1 that by the repeated destruction of the leaves the rootstock ultimately decays4 ,close depasturing also keeps them under for the same reason1 as the feet of horses and cattle so damage the leaves as to ruin the growth and progress of the other parts of the plant1 which latter are requisite for its continuance4 #c4 ,added to the evils just adverted to1 this group is injurious from its adverse mechanical appliances in spinous leaves1 stings1 and the like4 ,as regards thistles in pasture1 they certainly argue great neglect1 as they may be so readily spudded out1 in which the individual is destroyed1 and all hope of its progeny4 ,it is1 however1 the fact that these plants are sometimes left to seed that makes the matter of destruction appear so hopeless1 as the winged seeds of thistles may even find their way to a clean farm from a dirty one1 and roadsides and waste places are constant sources of annoyance from this cause4 ,so fast has the corn thistle increased in ,tasmania1 as to make the people groan under a 8plague of thistles10 for which they have invoked the aid of special ,state legislation4 ,the spud should be kept in active operation in the field1 so as to prevent these plants seeding1 or indeed at all occupying any space2 and roadsides and waste places should be freed from these pests1 either as part of the duties of some public servant1 or else as a matter of private necessity4 ,as an illustration of the fecundity of thistles1 we append the following estimate of their seeding powers3-- ,,seed-,,development ,,of ,,thistles4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,name4 ,seeds to a ,description4 single plant4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,musk thistle #c1gej #aej seeds to a single flower-head4 ,spear thistle #cj1jjj #cjj seeds to each4 ,corn thistle #e1jjj ,this plant also increases by creeping underground stems4 ,stemless thistle #fjj ,this is sometimes so thick on the downs that we have seen its flying seeds almost like a snowstorm in quantity and whiteness4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,farmers1 however1 mostly refuse an early summer attack both upon thistles and nettles1 quoting the following rustic rhyme for their neglect3-- ,if thistles be cut in ,april1 ,they appear in a little while2 ,if in ,may1 ,they peep out the next day2 ,if cut in ,june1 ,they reappear very soon1 ,if in ,july1 ,they'll hardly die2 ,if cut in ,august1 ,die they must4 ,the truth is1 that with spring-time they will bud forth again1 but always in a weakly condition4 ,however1 towards ,august the thistle has performed all its functions for the year1 and so prepared its larger rootstocks for the future season2 so that he would not be altogether so mad who1 in reference to the cutting of thistles and nettles in ,august and ,september1 should say-- ,kill a fool's head of your own2 ,they'll die of themselves if you let them alone4 ,beating nettles in the early part of the year with lithe ash sticks is more effectual than the cleaner cut with the scythe1 as the injuries are not so easily got over4 #d4 ,that there are many plants in pastures which if eaten exclusively would act as poisons we can have but little doubt1 but there are a few which would seem to be dangerous1 even when partaken of in grass mixtures4 ,of these1 the meadow saffron is one of the most powerful4 ,this plant is abundant on the oolitic rocks of the ,cotteswolds1 about which range we constantly hear of mischief from it4 ,we extract the following from a ,cheltenham paper for ,september1 #ahdd3-- ,it is only a few days since a farmer at ,eyeford1 near ,stow-on-the-,wold 7,gloucestershire71 had ten calves killed by eating of the flowers of the colchicum1 and two or three years since three cows were destroyed by this plant in flower in the same neighbourhood1 whilst we frequently hear of many accidents to cattle in the spring from eating the leaves1 although it is sometimes refused by them on account of its bitter and nauseous taste4 ,yet there is no doubt but that accidents would be still more frequent were it not that farmers keep their cattle from the meadows in which it occurs in any quantity during the spring and autumn months4 ,pulling the leaves of the meadow saffron or colchicum will destroy it2 but a much more simple remedy is that of a thorough rolling with a ,croskill at the season when the flowers begin to expand1 and again when the broad leaves come up in spring2 this so crushes and bruises the whole plant1 that a season or two of such treatment will be enough to keep it under1 if not to destroy it outright4 ,as regards the buttercups1 the most acrid one--viz41 the upright tall species1 a constant plant in marshy meadows and wet places--is the only one to be particular about4 ,cattle do not usually eat it1 but it finds its way into the hay1 and there is reason to think to its prejudice4 ,it is to be got under by draining and close depasturing1 so that by treading down it shall not seed2 but poverty1 induced by frequent haymaking and wet1 by keeping under the growth of what is better1 gives greater facility for the success of trash of this as well as of other kinds4 ,ergotised grasses1 by which we mean those affected with the black spur1 in the place of the seed1 or grain1 is a common affection of grasses in autumn in low-lying or in damp places1 or where fields may be enveloped in mist1 as on some of our hill-ranges4 ,this black spur is largest in the cereal rye1 but it occurs in most other species of grasses1 differing according to the size of their seeds4 ,ergot of rye is used medicinally1 and there is little doubt but that ergot in other grasses is equally active4 ,its effects seem to be to favour abortion2 and there is reason to believe that it has caused many valuable animals to abort4 ,some few years since the late ,earl ,ducie suffered a loss of calves to an extent which he calculated to equal as much as #a1jjj in one year2 at that time the grasses1 consisting mostly of the perennial rye-grass1 were submitted to our inspection1 and they were much affected by ergot4 ,keeping the cattle away from meadows known to present much of this affected grass is the best remedy2 but this will seldom be necessary1 except in unusually wet and warm seasons1 which are sure to produce these fungoid affections4 #e4 ,all the plants in this section are known to give a garlic-like flavour to the dairy produce of the fields in which they grow4 ,the two first especially render butter unfit for market2 so that if abundant they would take off a large portion of the value of the field4 ,they occur mostly in patches1 and should be pulled out as soon as strong enough3 if this be done year by year1 it will be found to diminish in an increased ratio2 and two or three seasons will be enough to rid the field of so great a pest1 and would be well worth doing if it cost much--which it ought not to do--as these weeds usually occur in otherwise tolerably good meadows4 ,the jack-by-the-hedge is usually confined to the vicinity of the fences1 and may be removed by the hand or spud4 ,it is a prolific seeder2 so that on no account should it ever be allowed to ripen its seed4 #f4 ,rough grasses and grass-like weeds are far too common in poor1 wild1 and neglected pastures4 ,in their action they come closely to those of our second section2 they are indications of a want of drainage1 which operation well performed soon causes the death of this group1 which end is greatly facilitated by manuring and depasturing as the drains begin to act4 ,in concluding this description1 it may be well to remark that many more plants might have been included in the different sections2 but enough has been done to show that a pasture1 to be good1 must not consist of any plants which chance1 accident1 or more commonly neglect1 may throw together4 ,in arable culture one-half the expense is1 in one way or other1 connected with weeding1 and we are of opinion1 that if only one shilling per acre was spent on the weeding of pasture1 it would yield #cjj per cent4 profit on the outlay4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,on ,,the ,,irrigated ,,meadow4 ,irrigation1 as a means of increasing the amount of pasturage1 is so important a process that it may be well to describe it in this place4 ,for a perfect irrigated meadow1 we should have full command of water whenever it may be required4 ,this water should be capable of flowing through1 not of pouring over1 and standing on the land1--this latter being flooding4 ,the drainage should be so perfect that the land will be sound enough for us to walk over in the dry in a few hours after the water has been turned off4 ,where these conditions can be secured1 irrigation will be found most useful1 not only in augmenting the supply of grass1 but in producing it so much earlier than in the higher meadows that the farmer hereby gets a fresh green pasture1 of great utility1 especially in fattening and bringing on early lambs4 ,from these circumstances it follows1 that although some land is occupied in the water-conduits1 yet the value is so far increased that meadow at #cjs4 per acre before irrigation has1 under one's own eye1 become worth #e per acre in four years4 ,there are1 however1 some necessary expenses in setting out the work1 making floodgates1 c41 the extent of which will of course depend upon the nature of the ground4 ,in ,gloucestershire1 on the banks of the ,churn1 where irrigation has been successfully carried on for years1 there is a permanent cost of about #fs4 an acre for keeping the works in order1 and charges of the 8drowner10 the name given to the man who overlooks the works1 in some instances of several proprietors or tenants4 ,a peculiarity in irrigated meadow of the best quality is1 the general absence of coarse grasses on the one hand1 and of any plants other than grasses on the other2 hence1 then1 good succulent and nutritious herbage is the rule1 and anything that can be otherwise described is the rare exception4 ,indeed1 so much is this the case1 that a bit of coarse grass--such1 for instance1 as ,aira cspitosa 7,tussac ,grass7--making successful growth in any part of the meadow1 is at once an evidence of a stagnation of water at that spot--a condition that a clever drowner at once looks to when he has discovered it4 ,as an evidence of the changes which go on as the process succeeds1 as well as of their nature1 we give the following as the tabulated result of the irrigation of half of a meadow whose slope was too great to allow of the whole being operated upon4 ,from these it will be seen that the proportionals of different pasture plants before and after irrigation offer a material change2 and it may be added1 that in some cases1 what would otherwise be a bad and useless grass1 may become succulent and useful from the beneficial action of water4 ,one of this kind is the ,agrostis stolonifera 7,fiorin ,grass71 which is in arable couch-grass weed1 but in the irrigated meadow it becomes of a fine green colour1 is nutritive in quality1 and will bear with any amount of clipping4 ,it may here1 too1 be remarked that in cases where only a part of a meadow can be irrigated1 good accrues to the whole1 as in depasturing the whole is ranged over by our cattle and sheep4 ,we here give the following ,,table ,,of ,,changes ,,in ,,grasses ,,and ,,other ,,plants ,,under ,,irrigation4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,trivial ,names4 ,botanical ,names4 ,after ,after ,before#b ,years'#d ,years' --- ,irrigation4 --- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,meadow ,foxtail ,grass ,alopecurus #a #b #c pratensis ,field ,meadow ,grass ,poa pratensis #b #c #d ,rough-stalked ditto trivialis #a #b #a ,quaking ,grass ,briza media #b #j #j ,dogstail ,grass ,cynosurus #b #a #j cristatus ,hassock1 or ,tussac ,aira cspitosa #a #j #j ,grass ,marsh ,bent ,agrostis #a #b #c stolonifera ,cocksfoot ,grass ,dactylis glomerata #a #b #c ,yellow ,oat-grass ,avena flavescens #b #c #c ,soft ditto pubescens #a #a #a ,meadow ,barley ,hordeum pratense #a #b #b ,perennial ,rye-grass ,lolium perenne #b #d #f ,meadow ,crowfoot1 or ,ranunculus acris #a #c #a ,buttercup ,bulbous ditto bulbosus #c #a #j ,narrow-leaved ,plantain,plantago #c #a #a lanceolata ,broad-leaved ditto asiatica #c #j #j ,dutch ,clover ,trifolium repens #b #j #j ,broad ,clover pratense #a #b #b ,common-beaked ,parsley ,anthriscus #a #b #a vulgaris ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,the general conclusions from this table are1 that large and innutritious herbage is1 for the most part1 destroyed by irrigation1 and its place is supplied by grasses2 hence1 then1 the increased value conferred by the regulated action of water is due to an increase in quantity and quality of the grasses1 added to a much more certain1 as well as early1 production of these4 ,of course the districts best adapted to irrigation will be valleys of denudation1 the centres of which are occupied by more or less copious and rapid streamlets4 ,some of these valleys in the ,cotteswolds having been scooped out of the oolitic freestones1 have left the spoils of the rock as a gravelly deposit1 sometimes on the lias1 at others on the fuller's earth1 and then on the ,oxford clays2 so that1 stiff as these soils would be by themselves1 they now only tend to throw out the waters by natural drainage1 which are again conducted over the porous gravels through which they flow with great regularity2 thus fertilizing what would otherwise be but a scanty thin-soil herbage1 and to such an extent that early depasturing1 haymaking1 and later pasturage 7lattermath7 are the rule year by year4 ,these circumstances make water-rights of great value1 and which1 if not in possession1 are secured at a fixed charge per acre2 this1 however1 is usually included in the expenses1 which1 as before stated1 are covered by about #fs4 per acre4 ,before concluding this chapter1 we must say a few words in reference to flooded meadows4 ,these will be found on the banks of the larger rivers or on streams of sufficient importance to be called rivers1 as distinguished from brooks or streamlets4 ,here the flooding is caused by the water overflowing the banks1 as the result of sudden thaws or an unusual quantity of rain4 ,here then the flood is not under control1 and as it may happen at any and all times of the year1 the grass may be spoiled by being covered with silt and drifted materials1 or even the hay may be carried away by the flood4 ,these river flats1 then1 have seldom the requisites for carrying on irrigation1 although the waters are of course more abundant than those supplied by the smaller streams2 for even if we could by embanking so far control the water as to get it over the field when we might wish1 yet alluvial flats like those of much of the ,thames and ,severn would not readily drain4 ,from facts like these it will at once be seen that there is a wide difference between irrigation and flooding2 and we have hence endeavoured to separate what is too often confounded4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,on ,,the ,,laying ,,down ,,of ,,permanent ,,pasture4 ,if we reflect upon the fact that much of the meadow of ,great ,britain is ribbed by the ridge and furrow of former arable culture1 we shall conclude that the laying down of land to permanent pasture is an ancient no less than a modern process4 ,formerly new pastures were made by sowing the collected seeds from a hayloft1 but as in modern farming no one in his senses would let his grass get ripe enough for seed before cutting1 present practice necessitates the mixing of such seeds as may be considered best in suitable quantities for our purpose4 ,we shall have1 then1 in this place to consider3-- #a4 ,the preparation of the land2 #b4 ,the kinds of seed best adapted for different places2 and #c4 ,the after-treatment of the new meadow4 #a4 ,the plan usually adopted in a preparation for grass seeds is that of sowing our mixture with the barley crop4 ,now this1 in the case of a tenant who is not sure of his tenure1 would obviously recommend itself2 but to a proprietor wanting a quicker and surer result it offers many objections4 ,we recommend1 after turnips have been fed off on the land1 to make the ground as level as possible1 then harrow and roll smooth with an iron or wooden roller4 ,upon this surface our mixture should be carefully sown2 then harrow with very light harrows just to cover the seed1 and roll again4 ,by this plan you start the seeds in good soil instead of in that from which you have carried off a crop of ripened grass1 straw1 and seed2 but besides this1 your grass will get a stronger constitution than when grown as seedlings amid taller plants1 which draw up the 8seeds10 and thus make them so weak and attenuated as scarcely to be able to withstand the rigour of winter--a matter of great consequence when our object is to get a vigorously-growing swarth quickly4 #b4 ,we come now to consider the kinds of seeds which should be sown2 these1 though few in number1 will yet vary according to soil and situation4 ,our remark that few kinds of grasses are required in laying down for permanent pasture may surprise those who have seen the usual prescriptions for this purpose2 but if we start in our selection by leaving out coarse grasses1--such1 for instance1 as ,phalaris canariensis 7,reed ,canary ,grass71 for damp meadows2 annual forms1 or at least not permanent ones1 such as ,lolium ,italicum 7,italian ,rye-grass72 and useless varieties1 as ,poa nemoralis sempervirens1 ,phleum pratense majus1 and the like1--we shall be then confined to as few species of grass as we shall ever find will form the best parts of our best meadows4 ,now1 as regards sowing useless or annual species1 we should recollect that the better they come up the more mischief they create1 as they take up the room that the more permanent forms should occupy1 and so smother them out4 ,how often have we seen our friends in ecstasies at the success of their new pasture1 when the smiling face had been suddenly put upon the matter by the quick-growing ,italian rye-grass having taken a possession1 which1 however1 in a year or two it would most probably yield2 and so it has happened1 that while the seedsman has been advertising a certificate vaunting of success1 the pasture is declining1 and the proprietor1 looking for the reason for such a result1 either himself concludes1 or is led so to do1 that as the seeds came up well1 these were not in fault3 it must then be the nature of the soil6 ,in giving such directions for grass mixtures as experience would seem to warrant1 we confess to a great deal of diffidence2 for as scarcely two cases are alike1 the difficulty is as great as would be that of a medical man prescribing for his various patients without seeing them2 indeed1 to profess to do so in either case1 as a general rule1 savours somewhat of quackery4 ,the following tables1 then1 it must be understood1 are only meant to convey some very general notions as to sorts of grasses and other fodder plants1 and their quantities1 which we should employ under the specified conditions of soil2 albeit1 even the quantities should be variable1 depending upon the quality of the seeds1 the season1 and the climate in which they are to be sown3-- #a4 ,proposed selection for rich loams in best grass-growing positions4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,botanical ,name4 ,trivial ,name4 ,quantity ,per ,acre4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- lb4 oz4 ,lolium perenne ,perennial ,rye #aj #j ,poa pratensis ,meadow ,grass #b #j ,dactylis glomerata ,cocksfoot #e #j ,festuca pratensis ,meadow ,fescue #c #j duriuscula ,hard #c #j ,alopecurus pratensis ,foxtail #b #j ,phleum pratense ,catstail #b #j ,anthoxanthum odoratum ,sweet ,vernal #j #h ,trifolium pratense ,common ,clover #d #j repens ,dutch #b #j #b4 ,proposed selection for a poor stiff soil on a clay subsoil4 ,lolium perenne ,perennial ,rye #ab #j ,poa pratensis ,smooth ,meadow ,grass #c #j trivialis ,rough #b #j ,festuca loliacea ,lolium ,fescue #b #j duriuscula ,hard #b #j ,phleum pratense ,catstail #b #j ,dactylis glomerata ,cocksfoot #f #j ,anthoxanthum odoratum ,sweet ,vernal #j #h ,trifolium pratense ,common ,clover #f #j repens ,dutch #b #j #c4 ,proposed selection for thin uplands on calcareous soils4 ,lolium perenne ,perennial ,rye #ab #j ,poa pratensis ,smooth ,meadow ,grass #d #j ,festuca ovina ,sheep's ,fescue #b #j duriuscula ,hard #b #j ,avena flavescens ,yellow ,oat-,grass #a #j pubescens ,soft #a #j ,anthoxanthum odoratum ,sweet ,vernal #a #j ,trifolium pratense ,common ,clover #c #j repens ,dutch #e #j ,achilla millefolia ,yarrow #j #h #d4 ,proposed selection for light soils on sands4 ,lolium perenne ,perennial ,rye #ad #j ,poa pratensis ,smooth ,meadow #c #j ,festuca duriuscula ,hard ,fescue #c #j ,avena flavescens ,soft ,oat-,grass #a #j ,anthoxanthum odoratum ,sweet ,vernal #j #h ,trifolium medium ,zigzag ,clover #d #j pratense ,meadow or ,corn ,clover #b #j repens ,dutch ,clover #e #j ,lotus corniculatus ,birdsfoot ,trefoil #j #h ,achilla millefolia ,yarrow #j #h ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,the above positions may so far be considered to present generic types of land which would be laid down in permanent pasture in the ordinary course of farming4 ,selections for park glades1 covert1 and the like1 are exceptional1 which must be provided for according to circumstances4 ,we should advise care in the selection of these seeds2 the newer and fresher they are the better1 as1 perhaps1 no seeds suffer more from keeping than do those of the grasses4 ,and we would further add that1 as a rule1 we should prefer to procure our seeds separately and mix them ourselves3 for this we should expect to have more to pay at most houses1 but they will be much better4 ,of course1 in all such strictures about seeds1 we mean them to apply only to those who are not sufficiently particular to keep from trade tricks1 or who do not observe that care in selection and mixing that would be necessary to ensure the fullest amount of success2 for1 as we are well aware that seeds1 however old or worthless1 are seldom destroyed1 we should expect to have some of them sold to us if we did not look to the character1 position1 and judgment of our seedsman on the one hand1 and be prepared to go to such1 and so pay a fair price1 on the other4 ,we will now suppose that the seed has come up regularly1 and so must describe the after-treatment4 ,in the first year it will be all-important to look after weeds3 should these make their appearance1 it will be well to hoe or spud them out at once before they can seed1 as then the grass will not only have a better chance1 but little provision will be left for weed-continuance4 ,in the following winter1 say about ,january1 if the weather will suit1 a slight but even dressing of not over-rotten manure will act as a protection to the young plants1 and provide food for their spring growth by its gradual decomposition and mixing with the soil4 ,towards the latter end of ,february1 or early in ,march1 bush-harrowing should be employed to break up and disseminate the manure1 and then the roller should be actively used to consolidate the whole2 and1 if the grasses have at all thrown out1 the croskill will prove a most efficient implement4 ,in the following ,may we should stock with sheep just thick enough to prevent any extent of seeding2 and if the next year should show vacant spaces1 which it would be likely to do from failure or wire-worm 7the latter will be less than when corn is grown71 we must re-sow1 mixing our seeds with a little mixed guano and soot4 ,these1 then1 are some of the simple rules upon which to act in growing a permanent pasture2 and the more rigidly they are kept to at first1 the sooner and the more perfect will our meadow assume the aspect we should desire for permanency4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,on ,,the ,,management ,,of ,,permanent ,,pastures4 ,however good our meadows and pastures may be1 it is but natural that we should wish to keep them in good condition1 and1 if not so good1 our object should be to improve them4 ,we have already adverted to weeding as a requisite in the improvement of meadow2 we are equally clear upon the subject of draining4 ,on both of these points1 however1 we have met with opposition4 ,the farmer who considers that all is hay that he can get together in a rick1 may look more to mass than quality1 though even here we are inclined to think that if we take hay and pasture together1 the more grasses and the less of rubbish we can get a field to grow1 the greater will be our produce in quantity and quality4 ,with regard to draining1 we are told that it takes the goodness out of the meadow2 but if we have a meadow on clay--we will suppose lias or ,oxford clay1--with only a few inches of a stiff soil at the surface1 we shall find that those few inches are the only available root ground4 ,drain1 and then we shall soon see that air will follow the water3 this united1 air and water will decompose plant-feeding matter never before reached4 ,now1 where the mistake has been made is1 that from this time the herbage gets less and less coarse1 and perhaps in some seasons would not produce the weight of hay2 but what there is both of hay and grass would be much improved1 and would become capable of carrying better stock4 ,the following reply#c of ,mr4 ,bailey ,denton to some objectors to draining in ,middlesex is1 we think1 much to the point on this important subject3-- ,mr4 ,denton stated that he had been recently over the estate of ,lord ,northwick1 near ,harrow1 in company with the noble lord and some friends and tenants4 ,on that occasion the question of the reluctance of hay farmers to drain the land was discussed1 and the farmers said that as they always had a great deal of custom in ,london for hay1 of whatever quality it was1 they did not seek so much for quality as for quantity1 and consequently did not think it worth while to drain the land for feeding purposes1 although they admitted that draining made the herbage sweeter and better for cattle4 ,the present system1 under which the grass-land of the ,harrow district had been cultivated for many years1 alike impoverished the hay farmers and the land2 and he was of opinion that if drained1 the latter would produce grass of a much better quality1 and equally as much in quantity4 ,he thought a good plan would be to feed off part of the land and put the other into hay4 #c ,discussion ,royal ,agricultural ,society1 ,march #ba1 #ahfc4 ,if asked what would be our criteria as to the necessity of draining1 we should say stagnant water at any time4 ,plants1 however1 afford evidence to be depended upon2 as thus take the indications of a few weeds common to wet meadows3-- ,sedges ,show a want of ,rushes thorough drainage4 ,bull-pates and other ,perhaps partial coarse ,grasses or grip drainage ,full ,devil's-bit ,scabious may do4 drainage ,buttercups 7,r4 acris7 ,perhaps less certainly ,lousewort haymaking and more required4 ,field ,orchids manure is indicated1 ,cowslips and draining may ,moss be done without4 ,now1 as regards very wet meadows1 it is found that they are seldom if ever manured2 for1 just as ,i was told as regards some of the low lands on the banks of the ,yeo1 in ,somersetshire1 that it did not pay to manure them2 so one might easily imagine that where the land is full of water1 and perhaps of moist humus1 manure would not tend to the increase of good grass1 though it might to that of thistles and buttercups4 ,meadows that are sufficiently sound to yield tolerable hay are too much worked to this end1 and are1 we think1 getting poorer4 ,the ,cheshire pastures offer a good example of the effects of greed in this matter4 ,a century ago we feel sure its grass-producing powers were far beyond what they are now4 ,grass is gone in hay and bones and cheese1 but for generations the farmer has gone on depasturing to make manure2 but as it will be seen1 on reflection1 that cattle can only deposit as manure1 matter which they have taken from the field and converted into manurial substance1 they cannot add any new material3 so then this method of restoration must fail at last4 ,another restoration employed in this county was that of using their salt as a top-dressing4 ,this1 as it killed all the coarse grass1 and so converted it into manure1 recovered the pasture1 by1 out of bad and rough grass1 growing good ones2 but this too would fail in time4 ,hay1 the framework of growing cattle1 and cheese1 have gone on converting the phosphates and the bone matted of the soil into their substances1 and it is now found that returning this in the shape of bones and superphosphates is rapidly effecting an improvement4 ,hence1 then1 we would recommend less of greed in haymaking4 ,do not ripen the grasses too much before cutting4 ,don't trust to grazing for restoring the phosphates and other ingredients of the hay1 but bring them in the shape of manure4 ,use heavy rollers in spring to smooth and consolidate the soil2 replant the roots thrown out by worms2 mat the turf more thoroughly together2 and crush larger but useless plants4 ,there is1 then1 less difference between the cultivation of pasture and of arable land than would at first be thought4 ,drainage1 acts of husbandry1 amelioration of soil by rubbish of all kinds where too tenacious1 manuring them by farmyard dung1 or1 failing this1 such artificial manures as bones1 superphosphates1 guano1 nitrates1 soot1 c41--these are the sheet anchors in the improvement of our pastures2 and by these we should realize the hope of making two blades of good grass grow where one did before4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,on ,,the ,,management ,,of ,,lawns4 ,the homes of our fair country are so much beautified by our nicely-shaven lawns1 which nowhere are so green and smooth as in 8,merrye ,englande10 that a few words upon their management can hardly be out of place in a treatise on grasses2 we would1 therefore1 direct attention to the following questions connected with the maintenance of lawns in a good condition4 #a4 ,lawns should have grasses which combine the finest possible leaf-growth with a capability of restoring growth and colour under constant cutting4 #b4 ,lawns should be entirely free from plants other than grasses1 unless we except the ,dutch clover4 #c4 ,lawn grasses should possess the property of intimately weaving one with the other4 #d4 ,after cutting1 they should grow as near the same height as possible4 #a4 ,fine ,lawn ,grasses4--,the annexed engraving 7,festuca ovina7 represents one of our finest-leaved grasses2 it is one1 too1 that will even bear the constant nibbling of sheep without losing either its vitality or its colour4 ,this1 and a larger variety called the ,f4 duriuscula1 are two forms of this genus well adapted for lawns4 ,if to these we add the ,lolium perenne1 ,poa pratensis1 and ,cynosurus cristatus1 we shall have nearly all the useful lawn grasses4 ,as regards ,poa pratensis1 we should1 however1 leave it out where we have borders cut in the turf1 as its creeping underground stems are mischievous1 from their habit of getting into the borders with the flowers4 ,this1 of course1 would lead us to discourage any couch-like grass4 ,if1 then1 we have plots1 and the soil of the lawn be sufficiently moist1 we should recommend ,poa trivialis to be sought in its stead4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb 7bis74 ,sheep's ,fescue4 ,something like uniformity of colour is desirable2 as1 if we see bunches of the silvery-leaved ,soft ,grass1 or the brown patches of the ,fiorin1 it is so unsightly that we should feel the necessity of introducing a new turf where it occurs4 #b4 ,lawn ,weeds4--,plantains1 dandelions1 and daisies can only be considered weeds whenever they occur in grass1 but especially in the lawn4 ,they are easily guarded against1 if in laying down turf we only choose clean specimens1 or in laying down seeds we obtain pure samples1 and sow them on well-cleaned ground4 ,but however careful we may be1 we shall be sure of a few weeds4 ,these can be kept under by cutting them out with a knife1 taking care to drop a pinch of salt on the crowns that we leave behind2 and then1 if we use a little fine lawn-grass seed to the vacant places1 and well roll after the process1 we shall certainly keep them under4 ,this should be done in spring1 and not in autumn1 as we shall then be more certain of success1 upon the principle before explained4 ,if1 despite all we do1 a few crowns still send up shoots1 our mowing must always be frequent enough to prevent their seeding2 and as in the height of summer1 seeding1 in the case of all three of the plants1 will take place in a few days1 such neglect as our own lawn once got when we were away for a month's vacation1 in not being mowed sufficiently often1 may take years to remedy4 #c4 ,the ,mixture of ,grasses is secured by constant mowing and rolling1 by which means anything like a wild method of grass-growth is avoided4 ,when1 however1 a lawn is left for a long time without such careful treatment1 some of the grasses are sure to stool out and grow bunchy4 ,in this case1 the quickest way of putting the matter to rights will be to remove the offending tufts1 and introduce new turf1 taking care to keep the whole in order by the scythe and the roller4 ,talking1 however1 of these implements of lawn-culture reminds one to remark that with some the scythe and roller are almost discarded1 at least in summer4 ,our own lawn is rolled with an iron roller during the winter and early spring2 but when mowing begins1 we prefer the new lawn-mowing machines4 ,we have now used one of ,samuelson's for four years1 and it has not cost us a single sixpence for repairs2 a strong boy can use it1 and it possesses the advantages of cutting close and evenly1 collecting not only the cut grass but scattered leaves as it goes1 and1 withal1 most completely rolling the turf at the same time4 ,we are1 too1 not awoke by scythe whetting at four o'clock in the morning1 to secure the dew upon the grass1 as the dry part of the day is perhaps the best for the use of the mowing-machine4 ,there is1 then1 no excuse for weeds or bunchy grass with a mowing-machine1 as the whole operation1 as here described1 is done in less time than was formerly occupied in the scythe in mowing alone4 #d4 ,evenness in height is a matter of importance for the lawn2 for if we have grasses together1 some of which make three inches of growth while the majority are growing but one inch1 the whole look uneven and ugly4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,the ,taller ,grasses4 ,the annexed cut 7fig4 #ca7 shows the effects of this1 the taller grass being a root of cocksfoot1 which is not only bunchy1 but its leaves are too broad for a good lawn grass1 and it grows twice as fast as the smaller species 7a72 its colour1 too1 would be so much lighter than that of the surrounding herbage as to be at once visible1 and to strike one as a great blemish4 ,here1 again1 the offending patch should be removed1 and better turf introduced1 which operation should be performed in the autumn if possible1 so as to have the full benefit the following summer4 ,these points in the cultivation of lawns are more particularly applicable in the process of laying down lawns with cut turves1 which is the usual practice1 and especially when an immediate effect is required4 ,in this case1 then1 it cannot be too strongly urged that much trouble and expense may be saved by choosing the finest turf for our purpose2 and the trouble of picking out an objectionable grass or weed before laying down will be amply rewarded4 ,if it be thought desirable to sow grass seeds to get a lawn1 we would propose the following mixture3-- #e4 ,proposed mixture for lawns1 cricket-grounds1 bowling-greens1 c4 ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,botanical ,name4 ,trivial ,name4 ,quantity ,per ,acre4 ---------------------------------------- ------------- lb4 oz4 ,lolium perenne ,perennial ,rye #be #j ,festuca duriuscula ,hard ,fescue #d #j ovina ,sheep's #b #j ,poa pratensis ,smooth ,meadow #a #h trivialis ,rougher #a #h ,cynosurus cristatus ,dogstail #g #j ,trifolium repens#d ,dutch ,clover #h #j ---------------------------------------- ------------- #d ,as some people object to ,clover in a lawn1 we should add a little more ,sheep's ,fescue in its stead4 ,these seeds should be sown upon clean1 well-pulverized1 and smoothly-rolled ground1 and the garden roller should be actively employed from the time the grass seeds have well come up until they are fairly established1 when1 if mown the second year with the machine1 its rolling will be sufficient4 ,occasionally there will be bald places in parks1 such as some of the worn spots in ,hyde ,park1 which it would be advisable to provide seed for1 that should have an immediate effect4 ,in this case we should mix a small quantity of the ,poa annua with the above1 as it not only effects the object of making the whole look green very quickly1 but so small a grass scarcely interferes with the growth of the more permanent species1 which would meanwhile be making their position1 and so ultimately drive out the annual4 ,it now only remains to point out that the constant mowing of lawns1 although it only takes away young grass1 must in time have the effect of impoverishing the lawn4 ,in such case1 the grass will not be of so bright a colour as formerly1 and it will become more or less mixed with moss4 ,in this state of matters the grasses die1 and different species of agarics live upon the decaying roots4 ,in this condition we find that colour and fertility are restored by a good sprinkling of soot1 which usually operates very beneficially for four or five years4 ,after this period a little guano1 say one part to three parts of soot1 will do better4 ,another method of restoring fertility is that of an occasional use of house slops1 diluted with five parts of water2 this showered evenly from a watering-pot1 engine1 or hydropult1 usually has a most beneficial effect4 ,in concluding this subject of 8,how to ,grow ,good ,grass10 the author would wish to impress upon his readers the important fact1 that as our country is so peculiarly adapted for the growth of pasturage1 and as this interesting genus of plants furnishes the best kind of herbage1 so then the grass tribe is deserving of the most careful study of the home-producer of ,,meat1 ,,milk1 ,,cheese1 and ,,butter4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,note4--,belcher's ,plantain ,extractor and ,turf ,inoculator will be found a most efficient implement in extracting plantains1 and preparing good turves to fill up the holes4 ,we fancy1 too1 that it will be found useful in laying down land for permanent pasture by a system of inoculation1 but await the result of experiments before stating more positively4--,the ,author4 ,illustration3 ,trifolium repens4 ,white ,clover4 ,,how ,,to ,,grow ,,good ,,clover4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,on ,,the ,,nature ,,and ,,properties ,,of ,,the ,,clover ,,family ,,of ,,plants4 ,clovers are admitted by all to be such important adjuncts to the fodder plants of the farm as to render a scientific and practical treatise upon them and their allies a matter not only of interest1 but of general agricultural utility2 for1 if we except the grasses1 perhaps no natural order of plants is of greater value to the farmer than that to which the clovers belong2 for1 though they differ in every point of their structure1 yet in their farm products they offer an interesting analogy4 ,thus1 whilst in the ,graminaceous plants we have cereal or corn-seed products1 and meadow and pasture herbs1 in the ,leguminous plants we have a seed-producing group termed pulse1 and a herb-growing green-food or fodder series4 ,on either hand1 in both groups1 there are differently-cultivated forms2 for1 while the grass-cereals are wholly the result of arable culture1 the fodder grasses are for the most part grown under conditions distinguished by the farmer as pasture4 ,so of leguminous plants1 pulse1 such as peas and beans1 belongs exclusively to the arable part of the farm2 but the fodder kinds1 as clover1 either mix with the grass of the meadow1 or are grown by themselves or with grasses in shifting green crops3 indeed1 it is by reason of clovers eking out grass1 or being used as pasturage1 that they have come to be designated 8artificial grasses40 ,the tribe of plants under review forms an exceedingly natural group1 which has been named ,papilionace1 from the fancied resemblance in the arrangement of its flowers to the form and varied colouring of butterflies3 by others it is designated ,leguminos from the two-valved seed-pod1 which by the botanist is termed a legume1--most perfect examples of which are seen in the fruits of our more ordinary pea and bean4 ,though the flowers of the group are infinitely varied in size and in colour1 yet they afford most permanent characters in their irregular petals1 which1 after all1 have the same parts in the variously coloured and showy sweet-pea as in the most minute clover2 so that1 once examine the pea or bean1 and the significance of the name of the order depending upon the flowers1 will be easily understood4 ,again1 varied as is the seed-pod1 yet a little examination will show that its type is simple1 there being no structural difference between the straight legume of the pea and the spirally-twisted one of the lucerne and medicks1 or the many-seeded smooth pod of the common broom and the single-seeded wrinkled pod of the sainfoin4 ,the seeds1 again1 may vary in colour2 some1 like those of the scarlet-runner1 are curious as affording an infinite variety of self-colours for their different sorts1 from pure white to absolute black2 or these may be so pencilled as to make a testa or seed-covering as variously mottled as are the eggs of some of our birds4 ,yet1 whether rounded as in the pea1 flat as in the bean1 lenticular as in the lentil1 or kidney-shaped as in the clovers1 they are all readily referred to one group by the flat1 oval eye 7hilum of the botanist71 and the fact of their ready capability of separating into two valves 7cotyledons71 so observable in our split peas and beans4 ,but of all the varieties in their parts presented by the pea-flowered tribe of plants1--if we except the fact that some are larger trees1 as the locust tree1 ebony1 laburnum1 c41 whilst some are among our smallest plants1 as clovers and medicks1--the principal differences will be found in the foliage4 ,the grass vetchling1 for example1 is so named from its leaves being not unlike those of grasses1 while the yellow vetchling1 in its mature state1 has the whole leaf converted into a tendril and the appendages at the bases of the leaves 7stipules7 are so enlarged as to be often mistaken for leaves3 in another of the vetchlings1 the everlasting sweet-pea1 we find that1 as so much of the leaf is converted into tendrils to enable this handsome plant to climb over the hedges and thickets1 the stem is made four-winged with leaf-matter1 to ensure the due performance of the leaf function4 ,now parts called stipules are present in this whole tribe1 and1 like all other parts of these plants1 they vary in form1 size1 and markings1 and hence afford important aid in the discrimination of species4 ,again1 the old furze-bush will have its leaves converted into spines1 though the seedling started with a trifoliate leaf4 ,points like these1 however1 though most interesting to the student of vegetable physiology1 are beyond the scope of the present work4 ,like every other point connected with this interesting natural order of plants1 their uses and properties are greatly varied1 and perhaps variable4 ,the ,sennas are renowned for their medicinal properties1 being in some kinds aromatic and purgative4 ,a powerful aroma is given off from the ,melilots1 similar to that of the well-known sweet vernal grass 7,anthoxanthum odoratum71 on which account it has been recommended to mix a little of their seeds with clovers1 or to cultivate separate patches of either the white or the yellow ,melilot to place here and there1 sandwich-wise1 in the clover hay-rick4 ,in speaking of this matter of flavour in food for cattle1 we may here mention that the seed of one of this order1 which is now being extensively employed for its flavouring principle1 is the ,fnugrc 7,trigonella fnum-grcum71 which was formerly used in large quantities by horse and cattle doctors as an ingredient in drenches or drinks for horses1 cows1 and pigs4 ,latterly1 however1 it has been still more largely employed as a flavouring matter in the different kinds of 8,cattle ,feeds40#e #e ,we have cultivated these seeds in ,england1 and found them to ripen very well1 and if the flavouring of food be correct in principle1 the seeds might readily be ground with feeding stuffs1 while the dried plant could be mixed with hay and straw in chaff4 ,now1 whether medicinal properties reside as a rule in all of the order1 it would perhaps be difficult to determine2 but1 as we sometimes find that certain clover crops are accused of causing 8scouring10 there is perhaps reason to conclude this1 but that its amount varies according to season1 soil1 and cultivation4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,on ,,the ,,farm ,,species ,,of ,,clovers4 ,all the true clovers belong to the genus ,trifolium1 of which the following may be tabulated as agricultural species3-- 7,flowers red or purple47 #a4 ,trifolium pratense--,broad-leaved clover4 #b4 ,trifolium medium--,zigzag1 or true 8cow-grass0 clover4 #c4 ,trifolium incarnatum--,carnation clover4 7,flowers pink47 #d4 ,trifolium hybridum--,alsike clover4 #e4 ,trifolium fragiferum--,strawberry-headed clover4 7,flowers white47 #f4 ,trifolium repens--,dutch clover4 7,flowers yellow47 #g4 ,trifolium filiforme--,suckling clover4 #h4 ,trifolium procumbens--,hop clover4 #a4 ,trifolium pratense--,meadow or broad-leaved ,clover1--in its wild state1 is too well known to need any lengthened description in order to its being understood4 ,a careful examination of field specimens1 however1 will show that1 even in the wild state1 this plant is liable to run into numberless variations2 thus1 we may have the leaflets of one plant more or less ovate1 whilst those of another may be broad and almost obcordate4 ,in some we may see dense heads of purple flowers1 varying in shade until almost white1 whilst less dense heads of flowers and general variations in height1 size1 and luxuriance of the whole plant1 are all circumstances in the natural history of this species in the wild state which will prepare us duly to understand the nature of the many forms of the plant which are found in cultivation4 ,of these we have1 besides others1 ,english1 ,french1 ,american1 and ,dutch sorts1 which differ in such minor details1 as a greater or lesser hairiness1 or variations in the colour and size of the flowers1 leaves1 c4 ,the most important point connected with the broad-leaved clover is its permanency2 some sorts scarcely maintaining a plant for two years1 whilst others are said to be more or less perennial4 ,this1 however1 is a matter which we conceive depends more upon the soil and the kind of cultivation than upon the sort2 for1 although all seedsmen supply two sorts1 namely1 ,trifolium pratense and ,trifolium pratense perenne1 yet they run so much the one into the other1 that it is oftentimes exceedingly difficult to distinguish them4 ,in order that the reader may see the differences and agreements of the three sorts1--#a1 ,trifolium pratense 7of the meadow72 #b1 ,trifolium pratense 7the arable plant72 and #c1 ,trifolium pratense perenne 7also of the arable71--we give their characters in parallel columns1 on p4 #aae4 ,,characters ,,of ,,clovers4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #a4 ,trifolium #b4 ,trifolium #c4 ,trifolium pratense4 pratense4 pratense1 perenne4 ---- ---- ---- ,from a ,natural ,from ,messrs4 ,sulton's ,from ,messrs4 ,sulton's ,pasture4 ,trial ,grounds4 ,trial ,grounds4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,heads of flowers ,heads of flowers ,heads of flowers dense1 proceeding fromdense1 with from #gj tosomewhat lax1 with two leaves by a very #abj sessile florets4 from #ej to #ajj short stem1 of from #ej florets1 proceeding to #hj sessile florets from leaves by an of a more or less evident stem4 lilac or pink colour4 ,calyx of #e fine ,calyx1 much as #a4 ciliated teeth--the lower of which is the longest--about half the length of the flower4 ,corolla1 ,standard ,corolla1 much as #a4 with a long straight tube4 ,leaves trifoliate1 ,leaves of #c ,leaves of #c ovate more or less hairy2 leaflets1 more or lessleaflets1 with less leaflets ovate1 eitherovate1 with the white distinct triangular broadly lanceolate1 ortriangular marking #c spot than #b1 clothed notched at the apex2 times the size of #a1 with silky hairs4 all having a more or but less hairy4 less triangular white marking in their centre4 ,stem solid1 ,stem sometimes ,stem variable1 channelled or angular1fistular1 more or lesssometimes fistular purple4 channelled or ribbed1 mostly quite round and mostly free from smooth sometimes2 but hairs1 purple upwards4not generally hairy4 ,root descending1 but,root tapering with ,root as #b4 considerably branched4lateral branches4 ,whole plant more or ,whole plant1 smooth1,whole plant1 less clothed with compared with #a1 stillremarkable for its silky hairs4 more or less hairy4 hairy leaves and generally smooth round stems4 ,height from #e to #h ,height #af inches4 ,height #ah inches4 inches4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,now1 although the study of the characters1 as here laid down with the specimens in our hand1 may render it tolerably easy to distinguish the three forms here described1 yet it must be confessed that whether we examine a series of the wilder plants from different positions1 or different samples of the cultivated broad-leaved clovers1 we shall find great variations2 the principal of these will be discussed in another chapter3 we may here1 then1 for the present leave this difficult subject of how to distinguish cow-grass and broad-leaved or red clover1 with the observation that the common red clover is uniformly in flower two or three weeks before the other4 #b4 ,trifolium medium 7see ,plate7--,zigzag ,trefoil--gets its ,english name from the peculiar bends in its stem1 which being at alternate sides1 make up the zigzag outline4 ,the stems are rounded--not channelled1--mostly of a purple colour1 and clothed with short hairs4 ,the leaves are smooth1 with elliptical--not emarginate--leaflets1 sometimes1 but seldom1 with the white lunulate spot4 ,the calyx is smooth4 ,the heads of flowers are solitary1 on very short footstalks2 they are of a bright pinkish red hue1 and not of the lilac colour of the common clover4 ,illustration3 ,trifolium medium4 ,zigzag ,trefoil4 ,in its wild state the zigzag clover will be found in districts remarkable for the absence of lime1 such as the sandstones4 ,in the sandy deposits accompanying the coal in ,wales1 as also in ,staffordshire1 this is the prevailing form of clover4 ,hence1 then1 this species seemed to recommend itself for sandy lands1 in which the common clover does not so well succeed2 and we conceive that1 as a consequence1 it was brought into cultivation for this capability of 8holding on0 to such soils1 which1 if they will not grow the other kind1 is considered clover sick4 ,we have reason to think that the ,t4 medium and ,t4 pratense are not distinct species1 but that the difference in their usual habitats has determined their difference in form1 and we think that the ,t4 pratense perenne of the seedsman is a form intermediate between the two3 if so the position of the three may be expressed as follows3-- ,trifolium pratense4 ,trifolium medium4 ,trifolium pratense perenne4 ,at all events1 if this plant was ever distinct in cultivation1 it has merged into broad clover forms2 so that1 if we are to possess it as a separate plant1 it must again be grown from wild seed1 and then1 if it is to be kept pure1 it must not be cultivated on clays or limestone1 or1 if our view be correct1 it will soon lose its true distinctive characters4 #c4 ,trifolium incarnatum--,annual ,carnation or ,crimson ,clover--is a large species with oblong heads of flowers of a fine carnation colour1 hence its common name of 8,carnation ,clover40 ,it is a native of ,southern ,europe1 and is said to have been found wild at the ,lizard1 in ,cornwall4 ,as a cultivated plant1 it has not long been introduced into ,england1 where it has been much grown in the southern counties1 as there it can be sown soon enough on the wheat stubbles with only just a simple harrowing-in1 when it has time to make a plant sufficiently strong to resist winter2 this soon makes growth in the spring1 giving an early feed1 or it may be mown2 in either case it is off the land sufficiently early to allow of a late sowing of turnips3 so that1 where the climate will allow of it1 we may snatch an intermediate crop by means of the carnation clover4 ,it yields a large crop1 but its feeding qualities1 according to ,dr4 ,voelcker1 are somewhat inferior to those of the broad-leaved clover4 ,it should be noted that varieties having white flowers are in the market1 and of both red and white there are earlier and later sorts which may be useful for succession4 #d4 ,trifolium hybridum--,alsike ,clover--has1 perhaps1 got its specific name from possessing appearances and qualities intermediate between the broad-leaf and the ,dutch clovers4 ,this species has been introduced from ,sweden1 and its growth1 duration1 and feeding qualities certainly entitle it to rank high1 and more especially for growth on some of the stronger soils4 ,in our experience we have not found it to possess such eminent perennial habits as have been claimed for it4 ,it thins very much after the second year1 and almost disappears in three years1 unless it be renovated by being allowed to seed1 when the new plants by no means attain to the vigour of their parents4 #e4 ,trifolium fragiferum--,strawberry-headed ,clover--has been named from the strawberry-like form which its head1 of enlarged coloured calyxes1 assumes after flowering2 its flowers are pinkish1 but otherwise of much the same size and form as those of the ,dutch clover1 which latter it again approaches in its creeping habit and form of its foliage4 ,it is1 however1 here mentioned only to point out the difference of its habits and indications when compared with the ,dutch or white clover4 ,the strawberry trefoil is a native of cold wet pastures1 such as bear the name of 8hungry clays20 when present in quantity it is not to be confounded with ,dutch clover1 which would indicate a sound fertile soil4 #f4 ,trifolium repens--,white ,dutch ,clover--is a plant of very general cultivation1 both at home and in the ,states1 and in both of which quarters of the globe it maintains its character with great constancy4 ,dutch clover is a valuable pasture plant either in meadows or in seeds4 ,in the former it is much increased by the addition of nitrates1 soot1 c41 with guano or superphosphate4 ,as a plant1 in seed mixtures1 it is usually sown with other trifoliate plants and rye grasses1 but if the soil be very light the ,dutch clover may be increased or wholly used4 #g4 ,trifolium filiforme--,small ,yellow ,clover--is one of the least of our small yellow-flowered division4 ,it is a common native species occurring on the waysides1 and has been brought into cultivation to only a limited extent1 under the impression that its small herbage is suitable as a first bite for young stock1 and hence the term 8suckling clover0 has been applied to it4 ,it is of little value1 and does not seem capable of being greatly improved4 ,this species is often mistaken for the following1 even by pretended botanists1 but its lax head of smaller flowers will well distinguish it4 #h4 ,trifolium procumbens is called by the botanist 8,hop ,trefoil10 from the fact that its dried head of persistent flowers#f exactly resembles small bunches of hop strobiles 7fruiting heads74 ,the foliage is much like that of ,medicago lupulina1 nonsuch1 or black medick1 which is the 8hop0 of the farmer2 but the whole plant of the true hop trefoil dries up so quickly under the sunshine1 and is withal so wanting in succulency and quality1 that it cannot be compared with ,m4 lupulina as a fodder plant1 and hence it is but little cultivated in the present day4 #f ,flowers are so called that remain enveloping the seed while it ripens1 which they do in all the clovers4 ,there are other clovers which have been recommended for cultivation1 but they are mostly foreign1 and do not appear to possess those qualities which should lead us to prefer them before those in common use4 ,there are1 too1 several additional wild clovers1 but they possess no agricultural interest1 unless1 perhaps1 as indicators of soil4 ,the ,trifolium pratense 7,hare's-foot ,trefoil7 is a pretty1 wild species1 native to light sandy soils1 the seed of which is sold for growing 8bedding plants40 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,on ,,the ,,varieties ,,of ,,red ,,clovers4 ,the ,trifolium pratense of botanical authors is remarkable for the great number of varieties it assumes1 even in its wild growth2 but these are exceeded in the number of cultivated forms3 thus in any rich meadow we may make out several sorts which may be expected to be more or less permanent1 whilst the market samples of seed will offer us several varieties for the different countries of ,america1 ,england1 ,france1 ,holland1 ,germany1 c4 ,the following are some of the more prominent of our native wild varieties3-- #a4 ,trifolium pratense--,common ,red ,clover4--,head of pink2 flowers1 somewhat compact2 leaves more or less broad2 plant smooth#g in proportion to its size1 the smaller wild specimens being usually very hairy2 stem more or less purple4 #g ,in this1 as well as the generality of forms1 the smoother and larger growth indicates cultivation1 manuring will sometimes make the difference4 #b4 ,trifolium pratense1 var4 pallidum--,pale-flowered ,clover4--,head of very light pink2 flowers large1 full1 and more rotund than #a1 and almost double in size and in the number of its flowers2 whole plant more or less hairy2 stem green4 #c4 ,trifolium pratense1 var4 album--,white ,clover4--,flowers white2 herbage a very light green2 in other respects much the same as the last4 #d4 ,trifolium pratense perenne--,perennial ,red ,clover4--,flowers less compact than the common clover1 whole plant having stems inclining to dark purple2 leaves narrower4 #e4 ,trifolium pratense perenne1 sub-var4 pallidum--,pale ,perennial ,clover4--,a larger plant than the parent form1 and less hairy4 #f4 ,trifolium pratense perenne1 sub-var4 album--,white ,perennial ,clover4--,not common1 but still1 like #c1 an albino form1 and is1 perhaps1 more delicate in constitution than the coloured sorts4 ,now1 it appears to us that the descendants of the two types1 ,trifolium pratense and ,t4 medium 7see ,plate7 form the basis of the red or broad-leaved clover on the one hand1 and the perennial or cow-grass clover on the other2 whilst the market varieties have1 perhaps1 been modified by climate1 soil1 and probably hybridization with other sorts4 ,it may1 indeed1 be that1 after all1 the plants described in chapter ,,xvii4 as two distinct species are only varieties1 for though the common form of ,t4 pratense grows everywhere on mixed soils1 the more sandy positions1 as the sandstones connected with the coal in ,south ,wales1 offer a greater abundance of the ,t4 medium2 and1 from experiments conducted with seed of this latter obtained from near ,swansea1 ,glamorgan1 and sown on forest marble clay of the ,cotteswolds1 we certainly obtained plants differing very much from the typical form of ,t4 medium1 and assuming the usual broad-leaved clover variations4 ,here1 then1 is opened up a curious subject for inquiry1 which the history of the seed trade as it relates to clover-seed may tend in some measure to elucidate4 ,some few years ago ,t4 pratense and ,t4 medium were advertised as on sale by most seedsmen2 in fact1 the latter was the name by which what is now called cow-grass clover was known4 ,now1 however1 it is doubtful if any seedsman would pretend to send out the ,t4 medium2 but the label ,t4 pratense perenne has been substituted for it4 ,sinclair's figure of 8,trifolium medium1 marl-clover1 cow-grass10 in the 8,hortus ,gramineus ,woburnensis10 facing page #ada1 is scarcely a true form of the plant1 as its more or less emarginate leaflets incline to the form of ,t4 pratense2 and yet1 at the time this author wrote1 even this was doubtful4 ,t4 medium was difficult to obtain1 as he says1 8,all the seeds and plants ,i have had for this 7except that from ,messrs4 ,gibbs ,co41 which proved to be the present plant--,t4 medium of ,sinclair7 have turned out only two-year lived plants1 or never exceeding three1 though cultivated on various soils40 ,we have repeatedly written for seed1 and ten years ago were always supplied with samples so labelled2 but in no case did we get it4 ,latterly seedsmen honestly confess that they have not the seed1 but can send ,t4 pratense perenne4 ,now1 that this latter is merely a variety of the broad-leaved clover there can be but little doubt2 still the fact that it is usually more perennial in its habit is of importance4 ,we may easily understand why it should be so1 if we consider that the common broad-leaved clover in its cultivation is so much earlier than the cow-grass form1 so that this enables two cuttings of the former to be made in one season1 two crops of hay being taken very commonly indeed2 and as the plant gets well in flower before it is cut the first time1 and seed is saved from the second crop1 a more exhaustive plan for the crop itself or its future perennial powers could hardly be brought about4 ,the cow-grass clover1 however1 is a fortnight and more later1 which renders it difficult to cut two crops2 and so its method of growth is not so exhaustive4 ,we know that the common wild clover is said to last only two years1 but with constant depasturing we see no reason why the same roots should not send up herbage for five or even ten years4 ,however theoretical such inquiries may be deemed1 yet it must be confessed that they are of great practical importance2 for1 if a plant has a tendency to run into varieties1 it makes it daily more difficult to get its seed true to sort2 and if we are liable to have a sample1 part of which may be less hardy or part more tardy in its development1 it follows that much of it may never arrive at maturity1 whilst if it does1 as the crop will be uneven1 it can never be reckoned upon for so good a yield4 ,much of the variable nature of the sorts which we observe in a clover-field may be the result of the mixing of seeds from different and distant localities3 if so1 it is much to be regretted4 ,but this only tends to show us how important it is that seed should be grown with care1 to which end1 as regards clover-seed1 we sadly want some well-conducted experiments on different varieties1 especially of a wild native plant1 with a view to obtain a sample with good1 permanent1 and even qualities4 ,in fact1 the question of true of sort is altogether different from that of purity of sample2 but that very serious mischief arises from the want of the latter will be discussed in another chapter4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,on ,,the ,,clover ,,allies4 ,besides the clovers proper1 there are many native plants of the same natural order that have been found useful as fodder3 these it is now proposed to comment upon1 premising that as we have had them all under cultivation1 we are enabled to discuss their merits from a practical point of view4 ,of these1 the following is a list of the genera3-- ,i4 ,,ulex4--,a spinous shrub4 ,,ii4 ,,anthyllis4--,flowers in a dense head1 with white expanded calyces4 ,,iii4 ,,lotus4--,flowers in lax heads2 pod straight1 many-seeded4 ,,iv4 ,,medicago4--,flowers various2 pod spirally twisted4 ,v4 ,,melilotus4--,flowers in spikes1 drooping to one side2 pod straight1 few-seeded4 ,,vi4 ,,onobrychis4--,flowers in spikes1 drooping2 pod wrinkled1 one-seeded4 ,,vii4 ,,vicia4--,flowers single or spicate in the axils of the leaves2 pod straight1 many-seeded4 ,,viii4 ,,lathyrus4--,flowers one or many on long footstalks4 ,i4 ,,ulex--,furze4 ,a genus of shrubby1 spinous1 pea-flowered plants1 by far too common on our sandy heaths and wild hilly places1 with varieties occupying wet commons4 ,we possess1 according to authors1 some two or three native species2 but we incline to the belief that they are only varieties of the common ,u4 ,europus1 of which these seem to be large and dwarf forms4 ,this plant1 under the name of furze or gorse1 has been from time to time highly extolled as a fodder plant1 and machines have been invented for bruising its complicated spines2 but although it will doubtless grow where scarcely anything else can be got to succeed1 yet1 taking into consideration the expense attendant upon its growth and utilization1 and the low feeding powers which it possesses1 we cannot at all agree in recommending its general use4 ,it is1 however1 but right here to say that articles are from time to time inserted in such journals as the ,agricultural ,gazette1 the authors of which advocate the growth of furze as an agricultural plant1 and highly extol its feeding qualities2 still1 as our own experience would lead us to conclude that as even young stock scarcely hold their own upon this plant1 we cannot recommend it as possessing very valuable properties4 ,,ii4 ,,anthyllis--,ladies' ,fingers4 ,the ,anthyllis vulneraria is well distinguished in its young state from its sometimes entire lancet-shaped1 at others pinnate leaves1 growing close to the ground4 ,these are usually clothed with long hairs1 and it has expanded downy calyces1 when full grown4 ,in its young condition it has been very much extolled for sheep pasturage1 while its hay is said to be abundant and nutritious1 though grown on the very poorest of soils4 ,that it will grow more upright where sown1 one plant drawing up another1 we know from experience1 but we have little faith in any very superior qualities being found in plants that can grow so well under extremely poor conditions of soil2 still it is just possible that its herbage may improve in quantity and quality by liberal treatment2 yet we must conclude that1 as we already possess much better plants for growing on better soils1 we do not think much can be gained by its cultivation4 ,as a plant for hay it will yield a good cut1 but its extreme hairyness and general want of what the farmer calls 8proof0 will never allow this plant to be extensively grown4 ,,iii4 ,,lotus--,bird's-foot ,trefoil4 ,this plant is well known by its loosely-packed heads of bright yellow flowers1 which are succeeded by long slender pods1 dark-coloured or even black when ripe1 and not inaptly likened to a crow's foot2 and hence the name 8,crowsfoot0 which it commonly bears4 ,we have three species1 as follow3-- #a4 ,lotus corniculatus--,common ,bird's-foot ,trefoil--is common1 especially in dry meadows1 in which its herbage is duly appreciated by sheep and cattle1 if one may judge from the pertinacity with which it is kept down4 ,it is no bad adjunct to the rick4 ,we are so convinced of its value as always to recommend its use in the laying down of light land for permanent pasture1 and a little seed sown in old meadows after a dressing of rubbish--old mortar1 town refuse1 c4--will tend greatly to the improvement of the herbage4 #b4 ,lotus tenuis--,slender-leaved ,bird's-foot ,trefoil--is1 perhaps1 only a variety of the former2 it is1 however1 smaller in all its parts1 and1 though a denizen of stiff soils1 occurs chiefly in a wild state on the margins of fields and on hedge-banks4 ,it might be employed under the same circumstances as the ,l4 corniculatus1 especially in thin clay-beds on upland brashes2 but it hardly possesses such good qualities4 #c4 ,lotus major--,larger ,bird's-foot ,trefoil--is much larger in all its parts than the other species4 ,it occurs in moist situations1 about bushes in wet land1 in ditches1 watercourses1 and damp places generally4 ,we have experimented upon the growth of this plant in artificial meadows1 and from the size which it attains quite early in summer1 and the quantity of wholesome keep it is capable of affording1 we are disposed to think well of it as an occasional shifting crop1 or it might be well combined with rye-grass in deep stiff soils4 ,,iv4 ,,medicago--,medick1 c4 ,this genus is principally distinguished from ,trifolium by its twisted seed-pods1 which in the ,medicago maculata 7,spotted-leaved ,medick7 form quite a spiral coil1 ornamented with a double fringe of stiff spines4 ,this plant is now becoming general as an agrarian weed1 having been greatly spread1 owing to its intermixture with foreign seeds of different kinds4 ,the agricultural species are3-- ,medicago lupulina--,yellow ,sickle ,medick4--8,hop trefoil0 of the farmer1 but not of the botanist1 who gives this name to the ,trifolium procumbens 7which see74 ,from this latter the medick is easily distinguished by its heads of naked1 blackened1 incurved seed-vessels4 ,as an agricultural plant it is of great value1 especially in mixtures called 8seeds40 ,it is a good adjunct to rye-grasses and common clovers1 especially on light soils2 but on good strong land which will bear a full crop of broad-leaved clover it would be mostly smothered out1 and1 if not1 as we think it is properly held to be less nutritious than clover1 its use is not recommended where first-rate clover crops can be grown4 ,we have seen this trefoil grown with sainfoin to great advantage1 as it yields a tolerable crop for the first two years1 and then declines1 just as the sainfoin has got possession of the soil4 #b4 ,medicago sativa--,lucerne--is a perfectly perennial plant1 which1 though not so much grown in ,england as it deserves1 yet scarcely needs description2 however1 its purple flowers and smooth twisted seed-pods serve to distinguish it from the rest of the genus4 ,we have grown this plant upwards of a foot high by the #ast of ,may1 and taken no less than three cuttings of a good succulent herbage in one season4 ,these qualities point out lucerne as an excellent green-food plant1 for which purpose we should always1 where practicable1 recommend that at least a patch should be grown near the stable1 as there is reason to believe that its alterative effects upon the horses are of a most salutary kind4 ,it should be cultivated in drills of from #ae to #ah inches apart2 and1 if properly weeded and not let get too old before cutting1 it will last for many years with an occasional dressing of manure4 ,we once had a patch one half of which was purposely neglected by way of comparison with the other half1 which was well cared for2 that portion left to itself yielded but poor crops1 and almost disappeared at the end of four years1 whilst the other portion scarcely began to decline after ten years4 ,this remark applies with full force to all the green-food crops of this order4 ,weeding early1 mowing when cut1 and an occasional top-dressing1 would increase the durability of all the perennial species4 ,v4 ,,melilotus--,melilot4 ,these are pea-flowered plants1 with ternate leaves1 and spikes of flowers drooping to one side3 it is named from mel1 honey1 in allusion to its flavour1 and the genus ,lotus1 by which we may understand it to be a sweet-scented lotus-like plant4 ,we have two native species1 distinguished thus3-- ,melilotus officinalis1 an annual1 with yellow flowers4 ,m4 leucantha1 a biennial1 with white flowers4 ,of these we may conclude that the flavour1 which is like that of the ,anthoxanthum odoratum--sweet vernal grass--is too strong and bitter to allow of its being recommended for culture alone2 but we are inclined to think that1 if grown in small quantity with seeds1 or if a separate patch be cut and arranged sandwich-wise in the seed-rick1 the melilots would give that sweet flavour which seems to be the principal cause of the superior qualities and sweetness of natural meadow as compared with artificial grasses4 ,seeds have been forwarded to us of what is named 8,cabool ,clover10 and another packet labelled 8,bokhara ,clover10 both of which appear to belong to the ,m4 leucantha1 though certainly of a larger form than our native species1 and probably consisting of the ,m4 leucantha major4 ,this latter must be cut young if used as recommended1 as it soon gets woody4 ,a correspondent of the ,royal ,agricultural ,society has recently recommended the full-grown plant for paper-making2 and1 if of value for this purpose1 we can affirm from experience that a large yield can be got from soils of a very inferior quality1 as our experiments on its growth have been made on a very stiff and poor bed of forest marble clay4 ,,vi4 ,,onobrychis--,sainfoin4 ,sainfoin1 or 8holy fodder0 of the ,french1 is distinguished by its brilliant spike of pink variegated flowers1 which droop to one side1 its winged leaves of from six to eight pairs of oval leaflets1 which are entire1 that is1 undivided at the margin1 and its short1 rounded1 wrinkled1 and spinose seed-vessels4 ,the forms in cultivation are-- ,onobrychis sativa--,common ,sainfoin4 ,onobrychis sativa1 var4 bifera--,giant ,sainfoin4 ,of these the former has the preference in ,england1 whilst the latter is much grown in ,france4 ,our experiments with both lead us to conclude1 that although the former flowers but once and the latter twice in the season1 the ,o4 sativa still gives the greatest amount of food1 as the second crop of the giant sort is usually poor and straggling1 with but little leaf2 while the common sort sends up a thick growth of leaves after being cut4 ,the ,o4 sativa bifera is but a variety of the ,o4 sativa1 as by long continuance of growth from the same seed in this country it reverts to the common form2 and hence the giant sort should be frequently renewed from an imported stock4 ,sainfoin has been much cultivated on calcareous soils1 more especially on the free-stones of the oolite rocks1 and on the chalk1 off which formations it is scarcely known1 except on some calcareous sands in the eastern counties4 ,in the limestone and chalk districts sainfoin is grown as a permanent crop1 and formerly lasted six or eight years4 ,in the eastern counties the little there grown is by way of a shifting crop1 in the same place and manner as common clover4 ,the permanency of sainfoin is yearly becoming greatly diminished from the circumstance that its seed is so much mixed with that of the burnet1 ,poterium sanguisorba1 var4 muricata4 ,to such an extent does this evil occur1 that we have examined samples of sainfoin seed in which there were at the rate of from twenty to forty thousand of burnet seed-pods per bushel2 and when we consider that these pods have for the most part two ripened seeds1 and those of a plant growing so much more rapidly than the sainfoin1 we can form some notion how the desired crop is soon smothered and overpowered by the burnet1 which at best is but a rank weed1 of no agricultural value2 for whatever of good there may be in our ordinary native salad burnet1 which is a smaller and more succulent plant1 this sticky foreign interloper cannot possibly have any claim to our regard4 ,the reason why it has gone on so long unchallenged is that the burnet-seed1 though of an entirely different shape from the sainfoin1 is somewhat of the same colour2 and then in their growth both plants have winged leaves1 and the difference between the entire leaflets of the sainfoin and the toothed leaflets of the burnet did not at first strike the farmer2 now1 however1 the difference is better understood1 and farmers begin to require that the burnet-seed shall be sifted from the sainfoin4 ,this of course will demand the payment of a better price for the better sample1 as in the process of sifting many of the smaller sainfoin seeds go through with the burnet2 but this will be well worth a better price1 as the larger seeds will undoubtedly tend to produce a better crop4 ,if1 however1 there should be any doubt about pure sainfoin seed1 we should recommend the decorticated seed being used1 as in it the burnet could not possibly escape detection4 ,as the history of burnet is so important in connection with the sainfoin crop1 it cannot be out of place to introduce the following description of this weed3-- ,the ,sanguisorba officinalis 7false burnet71 as a wild plant1 never attains any great size1 and as it is a denizen of dry calcareous pastures and broken ground on limestones1 and perfectly harmless in its properties in this condition1 it is scarcely noticeable as a weed2 indeed1 it is sometimes recommended for permanent pasture admixture on calcareous uplands4 ,there is1 however1 a larger form of the false burnet1 which is now attracting considerable attention1 as being by far too constant an attendant upon sainfoin seed4 ,this plant is referred by ,professor ,babington and the ,continental botanists to another species1 viz41 ,poterium muricatum1 which is by them distinguished from the ,p4 sanguisorba2 but is 8usually larger in all its parts0 7,bab471 with a larger and more decidedly four-winged fruit4 ,we1 however1 agree with ,bentham in considering this to be a variety only1 and1 in fact1 an agrarian form1 induced by its seed being gathered with a crop and treated as a crop plant1 so that its larger form may be easily accounted for2 and we are not wanting in evidence to show that1 under cultivation1 the ,p4 sanguisorba greatly increases in size1 while1 if left to grow wild1 the cultivated form relapses into the wilder state4 ,but we incline to think that the agrarian burnet has got into agriculture by being introduced with foreign seeds2 and as its introduction seems to have been small at first1 it attracted but little notice2 for as the leaves both of the burnet and sainfoin were pinnate1 the difference that the botanist would observe in the leaflets1 i4e4 the former being serrate1 and those of the latter having an entire margin1 would hardly attract the attention of the farmer2 however1 it soon became so serious a matter that some crops of so-called sainfoin1 in their second or third year1 presented as much as #ij per cent4 of burnet1 and as the latter grew taller than the sainfoin1 it effectually smothered it out1 and in its place supplied a sticky1 non-succulent1 and innutritious herbage1 that made farmers begin to inquire seriously about the seed4 ,here1 however1 as the seeds1 or rather the fruits1 of both plants were pretty much of the same colour1 and both wrinkled1 samples of fully half burnet passed muster in the seed-market2 and1 though these fruits are so different in shape and size1 yet we were astonished to find that1 during the trial of an action against a seedsman for supplying sainfoin seed containing a large quantity of burnet when good sainfoin seed was paid for1 the judge1 jury1 and most of the farmers present confessed their inability to distinguish them2 it becomes1 therefore1 at this point1 a duty to describe the two4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4 ,fig4 #cb a represents a short wrinkled pea-pod1 broad at the back and thin in front1 as seen in the section b4 ,in the interior is a single pulse-seed1 which is easily freed from its wrinkled shell4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4 ,fig4 #cc a is a drawing of a fruit of false burnet4 ,the section b shows it to be quadrangular1 with a wing at each angle1 and to possess two seeds in each capsule4 ,the capsules are rather muricated 7i4e4 furnished with short excrescences1 and not regularly wrinkled1 like the sainfoin74 ,now the burnet is easily separable from a sample of sainfoin1 as the former readily passes through the sieve2 but the objection to sift it may be well understood when the bulk is diminished by the amount of the burnet1 and also that of the smaller sainfoin seeds1 which pass through at the same time4 ,the best plan1 then1 to pursue is to mill the sainfoin seed1 in which case its outer covering is removed1 and you simply have a sample of kidney-shaped pure seed-like enlarged clover-seeds1 in which the burnet may be detected1 because it will not mill1 but simply gets its wings broken off1 so that the wrinkled two-seeded capsule still remains4 ,now the fact of the burnet being a two-seeded capsule is most important to be noticed1 as1 from analyses we have made of dirty sainfoin crops1 we have estimated as follows3-- ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,crops4 ,sainfoin ,burnet ,other ,plant4 ,plant4 ,weeds4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,crop in ,berkshire1 #crd year #aj #ej #dj #ajj ,crop in ,cirencester1 #crd year #e #be #gj #ajj ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,here1 then1 we have a large proportion of burnet1 surely much more than could be accounted for from the number of capsules1 at least we will hope so2 but when we consider that the capsule of the sainfoin is single-seeded and that of the burnet is two-seeded1 we may readily conceive how each capsule of the latter may at least grow a single seed1 but the best sample of the former could hardly be expected to all come up4 ,now1 as we have as many as #fd1jjj capsules of burnet in a bushel of sainfoin seed1 that #b #abh1jjj seeds1 and when we consider that the burnet grows so much faster than the sainfoin1 we have two elements for the success of the former1 namely1 the certainty of getting its crop1 and the equal certainty of smothering out a large proportional of what may germinate of the seeds of the sainfoin4 ,this matter would not be of such importance if the burnet was equal in point of feeding properties1 but it is not so1 for whatever quality be in the smaller and more succulent ,p4 sanguisorba form1 the ,p4 muricatum is1 on the contrary1 hard and woody1 and almost useless4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,on ,,clover ,,sickness4 ,in considering the important question involved in the term 8,clover sickness10 we would first direct attention to the fact that crop clover is a derivative plant which has been so forced that it is many times larger and more juicy and succulent than the wild plant from which it sprung4 ,this derived nature 7the propensity1 as it were1 for fattening7 can only be maintained by a continuance from one generation to another of those luxuries to which the cultivated family has been accustomed2 hence1 then1 if seed be brought from a richer soil to a poorer1 or from a warmer to a colder climate1 we may expect that its plants grown amid barley and drawn up during the summer would have but a poor constitution to withstand the rigours of winter2 but can we in such a case say that the land is clover-sick1 that is1 sick of growing clover8 ,of course the seed here supposed will grow better in one place than in another1 as1 for example1 we have traced some ,american seed of broad-leaved clover grown by itself in a deep rich soil in the ,vale of ,gloucester1 where the climate is so much milder as to be a fortnight before the elevated land of the ,cotteswold ,hills and producing an abundant crop2 while the same forming part of a mixture of 8seeds0 with rye-grass and plantain on the hills1 the two latter have taken possession of the soil1 and the clover made no progress at all2 whilst other seed1 under precisely the same circumstances1 has done remarkably well4 ,that there is much reason for these conclusions will be found in the fact that the more seed we import from warmer climates the more difficult is it found to make the land produce a plant2 still importation is rapidly on the increase1 because warmer climates can produce seed more certainly and in greater quantity than we can at home4 ,the difficulty of growing from foreign seed increases in proportion to the thinness of the soil and the backwardness of the climate1 so that the elevated districts on the stony ,cotteswolds just adverted to present1 perhaps1 more of the so-called clover-sick land than any other of like extent4 ,the seed of clover1 then1 has become more and more pampered--more the offspring of large crops from deep alluvial soils under the tropical summer heat of the south of ,france and the ,united ,states1 where it is grown as a self-crop and not fed merely on what the corn could not carry away2 and so while this enervation1 or1 if preferred1 this civilization1 of plant has gone on1 we expect its seed all at once to withstand the shock of a lower temperature with constant climatal changes and cutting winds2 and if it does not succeed1 we say that the land is clover-sick1 when1 in truth1 it is the seed that sickens under these new and trying conditions4 ,as well may we say that the ,northern ,states sicken of the negro1 because he there dies out so rapidly1 or that the warm south sickens of humanity1 because those who are unacclimated sicken and die there4 ,another circumstance which has contributed to an increased difficulty in growing clover on thin soils will be found in the farmer discarding as antiquated the practice of paring and burning1 which was formerly the usual preparation for the turnip crop4 ,in a paper on 8,paring and ,burning10 in the #ahth volume of the ,journal of the ,royal ,agricultural ,society1 ,professor ,voelcker remarks3-- ,the ashes produced by paring and burning are especially useful to turnips1 and also to other green crops1 because they contain a large proportion of phosphates and potash--constituents which1 it is well known1 favour in a high degree the luxuriant growth of root-crops4 ,further1 the learned professor closes a most able paper with the following conclusions3-- ,paring and burning1 instead of being an antiquated operation1 is a practice the advantages of which are fully confirmed and explained by modern chemical science4 ,paring and burning1 to judge from our own experience1 had the effect of converting some of the hard limestone brash into lime1 in which case it broke up by the influences of air and rain1 and so restored the lime and alumina which mostly exist together in limestone1 the former of which is quickly lost in thin soils1--so much so1 indeed1 that not unfrequently the whole depth of soil1 even upon a limestone1 will often be curiously devoid of lime1 which is a necessary ingredient in the constitution of a clover crop4 ,again1 we should conclude that the operation under discussion1 from its decomposing that dark vegetable matter called humus1 which is always found in large quantities on some of the soils which are called 8dead10 from their inability to produce crops1 and which often cause astonishment that such black1 nice-looking earth should be unproductive4 ,now this soil1 though it would favour the growth of some species of peat-loving plants1 as ,ling1 ,heath1 c41 is not suitable for clover1 as the wild plant is curiously absent from peaty positions4 ,professor ,voelcker remarks that 8the excess of undecomposed organic matters in soils is decidedly injurious to vegetation4 ,roots1 stems1 and other vegetable matters remain buried in the ground for years without undergoing decomposition1 and if we attentively study the subjoined analysis of soil in the neighbourhood of ,cirencester1 well adapted for burning1 we shall see how the lime1 alumina1 and organic matter might be beneficially affected by the process3-- ,,analysis ,,of ,,soil ,,adapted ,,for ,,burning1 ,,by ,,professor ,,voelcker4 ,moisture #ic ,organic matter #ajfg ,oxides of iron and alumina #acdj ,carbonate of lime with a little sulphate of lime #bcij ,carbonate of magnesia #aaj ,phosphoric acid trace ,potash #ch ,soda #ac ,insoluble silicious matter #diff ------ #ajjag0 ,the ashes1 however1 are obtained by burning a thin slice pared from the surface of the land1 so that they are derived from surface-soil and vegetable matter1 the latter often yielding a sufficient amount of phosphoric acid with which to procure a crop1 and1 what is all important for us to consider is1 that this phosphorus1 the alkalies1 and lime1 are rendered by the burning in a state just fitted for the growth of the plants that are to be grown upon them2 whereas1 before the process1 these ingredients were in a measure locked up1 so that plants could not grow for the want of sustenance2 not that it was not in the soil1 but that it was insoluble4 ,if1 then1 clover or any other plant had not succeeded1 it would have been called 8clover-sick40 ,the following analysis of vegetable ashes from a field in the neighbourhood of ,cirencester will well repay attentive consideration1 as illustrating these points3-- ,,analysis ,,of ,,ashes ,,from ,,paring ,,and ,,burning1 ,,by ,,professor ,,voelcker4 ,moisture and organic matter #iab ,oxides of iron and alumina #adef ,carbonate of lime #agag ,sulphate of lime #agc ,magnesia #dj ,chloride of sodium #jh ,chloride of potassium #cb ,potash #add ,phosphoric acid #ahd ,equal to bone earth 7#cih7 ,soluble silica 7soluble in potash7 #hgj ,insoluble silicious matter #ddfd ------ #ajjjj ,now1 that land so burnt and containing such ingredients would1 after the process1 refuse to grow clovers we cannot at all believe2 but we do know that some of the land of a like composition will not grow even a crop of turnips until prepared as described2 and though the taking a subsequent barley crop off before the clover would not tend to the improvement of the latter1 it will be too often because the barley has taken all the available manurial matter1 so that there is little left for the clover to feed upon4 ,in such cases we have seen the clover saved by top dressing4 ,paring and burning had also a salutary effect upon the clover crop in the destruction which it wrought to various insect pests1 and more especially the wire-worm1 which now makes such increasing inroads upon our crops of wheat and barley1 and so afterwards in the clover2 so that bare patches1 often of great extent1 will be the consequence in every crop in the rotation4 ,now1 these bare patches in the clover crop are often appealed to as evidence of clover-sickness1 whilst we do not at the same time say that land is wheat-sick or barley-sick4 ,insects1 indeed1 are yearly becoming more destructive1 not only on account of the difference in the mode of farming1 but greatly from the determined destruction of birds4 ,the food of birds is in general very mixed1 but at one season of the year1 when they are breeding1 they are most industrious destroyers of insects2 but it is just at this time that they are kept from the crops1 exactly when insects are working the most mischief3 hence1 then1 as the exigencies of a small growing family become more and more pressing1 birds are driven to feed their young upon seeds1 fruits1 buds1 and other vegetable matters1 as unsuitable to build up the constitution of the young bird as bread diet for an infant4 ,let1 however1 our grand birds of prey be encouraged1 instead of being shot by the keeper as vermin1 or knocked over by the prowling bird-stuffer1 in order to be perched up in a box for sale to some ,cockney1 who would fain be considered as fond of sport because his 8den10 perchance1 contains a stuffed owl1 hawk1 magpie1 or some other specimen4 ,on a recent visit to ,dorsetshire1 on our own farm1 we saw a man employed to 8keep the birds0 from a field where several labourers were engaged barley sowing2 and it is quite true that1 unless he had been there1 the rooks would have as industriously followed the drill as they do the plough2 but1 as we thought1 scarcely to pick up barley in the breeding season1 when there was metal more attractive in the recently-hatched ,elater obscurus1 parent of the wireworm1 which were thicker than we ever saw them before1 and1 doubtless1 the disturbance of the soil brought these and two or three generations of wireworms to the surface4 ,now1 we do not hesitate to give as our opinion that this birdkeeper would have done more good to the barley and the succeeding clover crop by picking up a hundred or two of these beetles and destroying them than by blazing away at rooks for a twelvemonth1 and this certainly might have been done in an hour or two4 ,still1 that some soils do get incapable of growing a clover crop is pretty certain2 and it may1 we think1 be equally settled that this does not entirely depend upon their having been exhausted of the ingredients which analysis demonstrates clover to contain1 for we certainly have seen clover succeed after the burning of so-called clover-sick land2 and though there is reason to think that this result was partially due to the setting free of a fresh supply of manurial ingredients1 we are still convinced that the burning out of humus or peaty vegetable matter and the destruction of insects had their share in the induced change4 ,still1 however much we may suppose that the failure of the clover crop is influenced by the alteration of its constitution as the result of cultivation1 the presence of choking weeds1 or by the presence of prejudicial ingredients1 especially in thin soils1 there can be no doubt that the principal cause of the difficulty will be found in the fact that the corn crop with which the clover is grown exhausts the soil1 in the most unsparing manner1 of the very chemical ingredients which the clover requires4 ,thus1 if sheep are folded on a crop of turnips1 the whole of this crop is converted into a manure at once available for the grain crop1 by which it is quickly appropriated and then taken away4 ,here1 then1 we may suppose at starting that the clover is half starved2 and1 with a constitution drawn up in the effort of the plants to obtain a glance of sunshine1 and weakened for the want of nourishment1 it is expected to bear our inclement winters4 ,this argument will be made all the clearer if we place side by side the result of the analyses of barley and clovers1 and especially if we consider what a quantity of mineral matter is taken in a short time1 and by a crop ripening its straw and seed4 ,now1 if we look at these figures we shall see how much of the mineral matter required for the clover has been previously abstracted by the barley1 and if at the same time we reflect that this robbery may1 and too often does1 co-exist with the other causes which we have instanced as tending to clover-sickness1 we should no more call land sick of clover because it will not bear this crop under our exhaustive system of cultivation than we should call a barren sand wheat-sick for refusing to grow corn4 ,,analyses ,,of ,,barley ,,and ,,clover4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,,playfair ,,way4 -------------------------------- ,barley ,barley ,red ,white ,grain4 ,straw4 ,clover4 ,clover4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,silica #bhig #dfcj #ccd #cfh ,phosphoric acid #cefh #cbb #fce #aaec ,sulphuric acid #abb #bfa #dah #gba ,carbonic acid #afic #ahjc ,lime #cjf #gei #ceci #bfda ,magnesia #hjd #cee #aabb #hae and lossand loss ,peroxide of iron #aid8 #dce8 #jig #aif ,potash #aefa #bbag #adhe #adcc ,soda #ejc #jhd #adj #cgb ,chloride of sodium #jde #icg #bcf #did ,chloride of potassium #bif ------ ------ ----- ----- #ajjjj #ajjjj #iiie #iiif ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,we cannot better conclude this chapter than by quoting the following from ,baron ,liebig's ,letters on ,modern ,agriculture1 so ably translated by ,professor ,blyth3-- ,the simplest peasant has sense enough to see1 and all agriculturists agree with him1 that clover1 turnips1 hay1 c41 cannot be sold off from a farm without most materially damaging the cultivation of the corn4 ,every one willingly admits that the sale and exportation of clover1 turnips1 c41 exercise a detrimental influence on the growing of corn4 8,above all1 let us take care to have plenty of fodder2 the corn crop will then take care of itself40 ,but that the exportation of corn may possibly exercise an injurious influence on the cultivation of clover or turnips2 that it is1 above all1 indispensable to restore to the soil the mineral constituents of the corn1 to enable the clover or turnip crop to 8take care of itself20 in other words1 that in order to grow clover1 turnip1 c41 we must manure the land--this is a notion utterly incomprehensible1 nay absolutely impossible1 for most agriculturists4 ,for1 is not the clover grown for the sake of manure8 ,what advantage1 then1 would there be if it were necessary to manure again to produce the clover8 ,this clover the farmer expects to grow for nothing4 ,the mutual relations existing in the order of nature between the two classes of plants are1 however1 as clear as daylight4 ,the mineral constituents of the clover1 turnips1 c41 and of the corn1 form the conditions for the production of the clover1 turnips1 c41 and of the corn1 and they are in their elements quite identical4 ,the clovers1 c41 require for their growth a certain amount of phosphoric acid1 potash1 lime1 magnesia1--so does the corn4 ,the mineral constituents contained in the clover are the same as those in the corn1 plus a certain excess of potash1 lime1 and sulphuric acid4 ,the clover draws these constituents from the soil2 the cereal plant receives them1--we may so represent it from the clover4 ,in selling his clover1 therefore1 the farmer removes from his land the conditions for the production of corn4 ,if1 on the other hand1 he sells his corn1 there will be no clover crop in the following year2 for in his corn he has sold some of the most essential conditions for the production of a clover crop4--pp4 #ahc-e4 ,this discussion1 then1 upon the so-called clover-sickness leads us to adopt the following propositions3-- ,first4 ,that the larger induced plant of our cultivated clovers has not1 as a rule1 that perennial constitution of the smaller wild species4 ,second4 ,even its induced habit is much deteriorated by transportation under adverse climatal circumstances4 ,third4 ,the seed itself is often full of weeds1 which1 by gaining the mastery1 kill out the young clover plant4 ,fourth4 ,this effect is enhanced by growing clover with barley1 in which1 if not smothered1 it must become weakened4 ,fifth4 ,we ought not to expect to grow clover where we have taken away the necessary substances for its growth in the corn crop4 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,on ,,the ,,weeds ,,of ,,clovers4 ,that clover crops are often very full of weeds every farmer must be fully aware1 but few among them have used sufficient penetration to have discovered the source of most of the weed growth1 not only in clovers1 but in other crops3 how much1 then1 may they be expected to be astonished if told that they cultivate weeds by sowing their seeds as carefully as they do those of their crops1 and that they pay the same price for weed as for crop seeds6 ,in the spring of #ahei we published the results of some analyses of the weed admixtures in several samples of different kinds of clover seeds1 which we annex 7table #a1 p4 #adi71 adding to them some further results obtained during the present spring1 #ahfc1 by way of comparison4 ,this presents a formidable array of figures1 as it shows how much of more than mere harmless matter is purchased and sown instead of good seed2 and the fact of the mischief likely to accrue from putting so many enemies in the place of friends will become all the more plain by a careful study of the next table 7,no4 #b1 p4 #aej74 ,now1 in order to make this part of our argument still more complete1 we add another table 7,no4 #c1 p4 #aej71 intending to show the number of weed plants absolutely separated from a single square yard of old seeds taken from a field on the great oolite rock4 #a4 ,,table ,,of ,,weeds ,,in ,,clover ,,seeds4 ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,date4 ,label4 ,number of ,weeds ,average4 per ,bushel4 ---------------------------------------- ------------- #ahei ,red ,clover #ff1efj ,ditto #adj1hhj ,ditto #bde1gfj #gbh1ccc ,ditto #cjg1bjj ,ditto #a1jhe1ddj ,ditto #e1ebd1afj ,cow-grass ,clover #dj1ifj ,ditto #ajb1djj ,ditto #cjg1bjj #dja1jff ,ditto #dji1fjj ,ditto #gfh1jjj ,ditto #ggh1bdj ,white ,dutch ,clover #bef1jjj ,ditto #a1jbd1jjj ,ditto #a1bii1hdj #b1gfh1ajf ,ditto #a1hdc1bjj ,ditto #d1eje1fjj ,ditto #g1fhj1jjj #ahfc ,ditto #a1cca1bjj ,ditto #hai1bjj ,alsike ,clover #a1igf1jhj ,ditto #a1dgd1efj #hbj1adj ,red ,clover #fad1djj ,ditto #bff1bdj ,trefoil ,ditto #gi1ddj ---------------------------------------- ------------- #b4 ,,table ,,of ,,the ,,number ,,of ,,weeds ,,sown ,,in ,,clover ,,seeds4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,weeds ,pints ,weeds ,weeds to to to an to an a ,square a ,pint4,acre ,acre4 ,yard4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,broad ,clover #g1hdj #ac #ajj1ibj #ba ,ditto #h1djj #ac #aji1bjj #bb ,cow-grass ,clover #ab1jjj #ac #aef1jjj #cb ,ditto #f1djj #ac #hc1bjj #ag ,white ,dutch ,clover #bf1efj #ab #cah1gbj #ff ,ditto #gj1djj #ab #hdd1hjj #agd ---------------------------------------- ------------ #c4 ,,table ,,of ,,weeds ,,in ,a ,,square ,,yard ,,of ,,seeds4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,no4 ,botanical ,name4 ,trivial ,name4 ,number of ,weed-plants4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- #a ,plantago lanceolata ,narrow-leaved ,plantain #g #b ,ranunculus repens ,creeping ,crowfoot #h #c ,centaurea scabiosa ,hard ,head #b #d ,leontodon taraxacum ,dandelion #b #e ,apargia autumnalis ,autumnal ,hawkbit #a #f ,glechoma hederacea ,ground ,ivy #f #g ,prunella vulgaris ,self ,heal #d #h ,convolvulus arvensis ,corn ,bindweed #a #i thusa cynapium ,fool's ,parsley #a #aj ,cerastium arvense ,mouse-ear #b #aa ,sherardia arvensis ,field ,madder #f #ab ,triticum repens ,common ,couch #b #ac ,agrostis stolonifera ,creeping ,bent #d -- ,total of weeds in a square yard besides annual grasses4 #df ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,these three tables show us not only the fact that the farmer sows weeds with his crop1 but1 as will be seen from table #b1 quite enough of these in some cases to stock the land1--how effectually1 indeed1 may be seen from table #c1 where in arable land we find no less than forty-six plants other than the crop1 and mostly of those species whose seeds will be traced in dirty samples4 ,to further show that clovers and their mixtures with grasses called 8seeds0 have their own peculiar weeds1 we subjoin one other table of the species of weeds observed in three kinds of seed crops as under3-- #a4 ,old clover and common rye grass 7second year74 #b4 8,old seeds10--clover1 trefoil1 common and ,italian rye grasses 7second year74 #c4 ,new seeds1 clover and rye grass 7first year74 ,no4 #a examined on ,august #ca2 #b and #c on the #bdth ,september1 #ahei4 #d4 ,,table ,,of ,,weed-,,plants ,,in ,,seeds4 ,the dashes 7--7 in three columns intimate the occurrence of the plants signified in the fields #a1 #b1 and #c respectively4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,no4 ,botanical ,name4 ,trivial ,name4 ,old4,old4,new4 #a4 #b4 #c4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- #a,knautia arvensis ,corn ,scabious ---- 44 44 #b;,centaurea ,jacobea ,hard ,head ---- ---- ---- #c nigra ,black ,head ---- 44 44 #d;,achillea millefolium ,milfoil ---- 44 44 #e;,chrysanthemum leucanthemum,ox-eye ---- 44 44 #f,tussilago farfara ,coltsfoot ---- 44 44 #g;,gnaphalium ,germanicum ,cudweed ---- ---- ---- #h;,anthemis arvensis ,corn ,chamomile ---- 44 44 #i;,bellis perennis ,daisy 44 ---- 44 #aj,senecio vulgaris ,groundsel ---- ---- ---- #aa,leontodon taraxacum ,dandelion ---- ---- ---- #ab;,apargia hispida ,rough ,hawkbit ---- 44 44 #ac autumnalis ,autumnal ditto ---- 44 44 #ad,sonchus arvensis ,corn ,sowthistle ---- ---- ---- #ae;,carduus arvensis ,corn ,thistle ---- ---- ---- #af lanceolatus ,lancet-leaved ,thistle 44 ---- 44 #ag nutans ,nodding or ,musk ,thistle ---- ---- ---- #ah acanthoides ,welted ,thistle 44 44 ---- #ai;,arctium lappa ,burdock ---- ---- 44 #bj,sinapis arvensis ,charlock 44 ---- ---- #ba,sisymbrium officinale ,treacle ,mustard 44 44 ---- #bb,rumex obtusifolius ,round-leaved ,dock ---- ---- 44 #bc crispus ,curled-leaf ,dock ---- ---- ---- #bd,veronica serpyllifolia ,thyme-leaved ,speedwell ---- ---- 44 #be agrestis ,field ,speedwell 44 ---- ---- #bf ,buxbaumii ,buxbaum's ditto 44 ---- ---- #bg;,euphorbia exigua ,petty ,spurge ---- ---- ---- #bh;,geum urbanum ,common ,avens ---- 44 44 #bi,prunella vulgaris ,self ,heal ---- ---- ---- #cj;,acinos vulgaris ,bastard ,thyme ---- ---- 44 #ca,polygonum aviculare ,knot ,grass ---- ---- ---- #cb convolvulus ,climbing ,buckwheat 44 44 ---- #cc,plantago media ,broad-leaved ,plantain ---- ---- ---- #cd lanceolata ,lancet-leaved ditto ---- ---- ---- #ce,ranunculus repens ,creeping ,crowfoot ---- ---- ---- #cf;,geranium molle ,soft ,cranesbill ---- ---- ---- #cg ,columbinum ,long-stalked ditto 44 ---- 44 #ch;,galeopsis ,ladanum ,red ,hemp ,nettle 44 44 ---- #ci;,glechoma hederacea ,ground ,ivy ---- ---- 44 #dj,stachys sylvatica ,hedge ,stachys ---- 44 44 #da,stellaria media ,chickweed 44 ---- ---- #db;,cerastium arvense ,mouse-ear ---- ---- ---- #dc;,arenaria serpyllifolia ,thyme-leaved ,sandwort ---- ---- ---- #dd,lychnis dioica ,white ,campion 44 44 ---- #de;,convolvulus arvensis ,small ,bindweed ---- ---- ---- #df,urtica dioica ,nettle ---- 44 44 #dg,petroselinum segetum ,corn ,parsley ---- ---- 44 #dh,torilis anthriscus ,hedge ,parsley 44 44 ---- #di nodosa ,knotted ,parsley ---- ---- 44 #ej;,anagallis arvensis ,pimpernel ---- ---- ---- #ea;,capsella ,bursa-pastoris ,shepherd's ,purse ---- ---- ---- #eb,sherardia arvensis ,field ,madder ---- ---- ---- #ec;,chenopodium polyspermum ,goosefoot ---- 44 ---- #ed,potentilla anserina ,silver ,weed ---- 44 44 #ee;,bartsia odontites ,red ,bartsia 44 ---- ---- #ef,linaria spuria ,round-leaved ,toad ,flax 44 44 ---- #eg elatine ,fluellen ditto 44 44 ---- #eh,myosotis arvensis ,corn ,forget-me-not 44 44 ---- #ei,lamium amplexicaule ,henbit 44 44 ---- #fj,poa annua ,annual ,meadow-grass 44 44 ---- #fa;,agrostis stolonifera ,creeping ,bent ---- ---- 44 #fb;,bromus mollis ,lop or ,soft ,brome-grass ---- 44 44 #fc var4 racemosus,lop or ,smooth ,brome- grass 44 ---- 44 #fd,triticum repens ,couch ---- ---- 44 ------------ #dd #ci #ch ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,these three fields are situate on the ,agricultural ,college ,farm1 the substrata of which are forest marble and great oolite1 and #b and #c were absolutely adjoining each other4 ,how different1 then1 are the species of wild plants in fields so close together1 when out of a list of sixty-four species only twenty-four1 or a little more than one-third1 are common to all three of the fields examined2 and yet we can safely affirm that the aboriginal flora of any three fields of the district would scarcely offer half a dozen species in the one field that could not be found in all2 and1 indeed1 in a field that had lain fallow for several years not half of the present list would be found4 ,that these1 then1 have to a great extent been sown with the seed is quite certain2 but what tends further to strengthen the argument is1 that the ,veronica ,buxbaumii 7,buxbaum's ,speedwell7 and the ,petroselinum segetum 7,corn ,parsley7 are not native to the farm2 and1 indeed1 it is doubtful whether very many of our agrarian weeds are true natives1 as on examination many weeds will only be found in special crops1 and these occur in the same crops all over the world wherever those crops can be cultivated4 ,our own country1 then1 has1 doubtless1 imported a large portion of her weed flora from abroad1 just as we have traced in the ,united ,states1 ,european 7not ,american7 plants1 tracking the settlers from ,england1 ,ireland1 and ,scotland4 ,it is thus that the ,european daisy 7,bellis perennis7 has got the name of the 8,white ,man's ,foot40 ,seeing1 then1 that the clover seeds are so liable to be dirty1 it becomes an important inquiry as to whether it is possible to get pure seed2 and in reply to this query we should answer1 from a long experience1 that though one seldom sees pure clover seed1 yet it sometimes falls in our way1 or at least so pure that its weeds are reduced to a minimum4 ,such samples may be expected to be high-priced2 but still1 how much cheaper than a dirty article6--for1 independently of having only the seed of the crop you wish to cultivate1 you are saved the annoyance which must arise when a weed has taken root1 in that then the clover cannot grow1 and you ultimately see the ground occupied by a spreading noxious plant1 or1 this dying out1 there will be a vacant spot1--in either case resulting in a loss of nutriment4 ,but1 besides the more natural method of selling dirty seed from weedy patches1 seedsmen are too apt to mix the seed of plantain 7,plantago lanceolata7 with that of clover2 for1 as the colours of the seeds are not unlike1 and some people speak favourably of plantain as a sheep-feed1 it is unblushingly mixed and sold with clover seed1 though the plantain at most is only worth about half the price4 ,where it occurs naturally amongst clovers1 it may be separated to make a good sample1 but only to be ultimately mixed again and sold to greenhorns with a cheap sample4 ,we have had before us samples of clover containing plantain as under3-- #e4 ,,table ,,of ,,plantain ,,seeds ,,in ,,clover4 ---------------------------------------- --- ,plantain ,seeds4 ---------------------------------------- --- ,white ,dutch ,clover #a1jbd1jjj ,red ,clover #a1jhe1ddj ,in an ,ditto #a1efh1jjj ,imperial ,ditto #b1ejh1afj ,bushel4 ---------------------------------------- --- ,in the instance where we had estimated as many as #a1efh1jjj plantain seeds to a bushel of clover seed1 the seedsman admitted that he had put it with the clover at the rate of one pound of plantain to eleven pounds of clover1 under the impression that it was a desirable pasture plant4 ,now this we know is often done2 but is it not always charged for as clover in cases where it is used for adulteration8 ,this matter1 then1 of dirty seed is clearly one of importance3 it1 however1 only wants the farmer to become acquainted with the true form of clover seed to enable him to detect any admixture in this2 and then1 if he has this knowledge1 so requisite for his well-doing1 and steadily abstains from purchasing the nasty1 however cheap1 he will soon find that his seedsman will supply him with a genuine article1 which1 all things considered1 will be even cheaper than the opposite4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,on ,,the ,,parasites ,,of ,,clover4 ,of the truly parasitic plants affecting the clover crop1 we have two genera--namely1 ,cuscuta or ,dodder1 and ,orobanche or ,broomrape4 ,both of these1 some few years since1 were comparatively rare as farm pests2 but as they are probably more abundant on ,continental than on our home farms1 they are greatly increasing from the constant influx of foreign seeds4 ,,cuscuta--,dodder4 ,of the genus ,cuscuta we have two species of agricultural importance1--,cuscuta epilinum1 the ,flax ,dodder1 and ,c4 trifolii1 the ,clover ,dodder4 ,in both1 the plant itself consists of a mass of pink and yellowish tendrils1 upon which are placed here and there compact bunches of flowers varying alike in colour4 ,the whole plant1 in both species1 being entirely parasitic--that is1 it lives wholly on the juices of its foster-parent1--it has no leaves of its own2 still1 however1 the ,dodder plant is in the first instance produced from seed1 each flower being succeeded by a capsule containing two small wrinkled seeds1 which1 not being larger or lighter in the ,c4 epilinum than a linseed1 or in the still smaller seed of the clover1 in the case of the ,c4 trifolii1 the seed of flax or clover crops affected with dodder will never be entirely free from it3 as an evidence of its large increase1 we remember once seeing a crop of flax grown from ,riga seed diminished about one-twentieth by the dodder2 but on the seed so produced being sown in another field of the same farm1 the crop of flax was well-nigh destroyed4 ,our friend ,professor ,voelcker had some seed of the flax dodder sent to him for analysis1 the reason being that1 as his correspondent had separated a great number of bushels of this weed pest from a single crop of flax1 he was desirous of ascertaining whether it possessed any feeding properties or the reverse2 and on this head it is satisfactory to learn that it is considered useless1 though innocuous4 ,it was part of this sample with which we experimented on the mode of growth of dodder1 which1 although being the dodder of the flax or linseed plant1 yet its natural history will doubtless be that of the clover dodder2#h we shall1 therefore1 describe the progress of our experiments1 and their results4 #h ,we are desirous of instituting special experiments on the growth of clover dodder1 but have failed to procure ripe seed1 the reason being that the seed does not ripen after the clover has been cut down for its first crop4 ,having prepared some finely-sifted soil in a garden saucer1 we sowed a small quantity of flax seed with which had been purposely mixed a few of the seeds of flax dodder2 this1 on being placed in a hot-house1 showed the progress indicated in the diagram4 ,illustration3 ,a4 ,seed-covering beneath which radicle or young root is pushing4 ,b4 ,leafless stem or tendril growing upwards1 bearing seed-covering on its apex4 ,c4 ,young thread-like plant freed from seed-covering1 on the look-out for a foster-parent4 ,d4 ,not finding a foster-parent1 droops and dies4 ,our next diagram shows the progress of dodder-growth when the parasite has germinated sufficiently near to a young flax plant to be attracted to it4 ,in such case1 instead of dying1 it seems all at once to be animated by new vigour4 ,the highly elastic thread1 which now represents the whole dodder plant1 goes through the following stages3-- ,illustration3 ,a4 ,the dodder1 having just clasped a flax plant1 has made two coils round the stem of the latter4 ,b4 ,meanwhile the flax in growing lifts the dodder out of the soil4 ,c4 ,while the flax is getting still taller1 the dodder sends out rootlets1 which pierce and fix themselves into the flax4 ,during this the dodder sends out buds upwards1 which1 elongating until new flax plants are met with1 explains not only how the dodder commences a growth quite independent of the soil1 but1 by spreading1 from plant to plant1 thus increases to an indefinite extent4 ,in this way1 then1 the dodder of flax1 commencing from seeds at different points1 spreads in more or less extended patches1 which1 if such centre be few1 will be distinct2 if many1 the pest may occupy the greater part of the crop by spreading1 and so becoming confluent4 ,such is the method of growth of flax dodder1 and we have no doubt but that the dodder of the clover progresses in like manner2 at all events1 we see the latter occupying more or less isolated patches in the affected crop2 and in this case1 as in the former1 the crop-plant is not only starved1 from having 8its verdure sucked out10 but it is borne down to the ground and ruined4 ,as regards its destruction1 we should be careful to look at our crops in their early growth1 as1 if the sickly-looking1 wire-like tendril be observed then1 it is easily removed by hand2 if1 however1 it has made head1 the best way would be to make a trench of a foot wide around the plague-spots1 which will prevent its spreading1 as the plant must have contiguous clovers to twist round if it is to extend2 and then burn some straw on the dodder plot1 and it will be wasted to death4 ,probably1 however1 the easiest plan is to depasture the crop1--certainly not to seed it down--in which case it will be impossible for any dodder seeds to ripen4 ,but here1 as in other cases1 the evil will be prevented by sowing pure seed1 whether of flax or of clover2 and as the dodder is a small1 brown1 roundish little seed1 so different from that of either crop1 there is no difficulty in recognizing it where present4 ,,orobanche--,broomrape4 ,the ,broomrape is now becoming a very pernicious clover weed1 especially in lighter soils4 ,we have seen it on clover near ,stonehenge so thick as to have positively spoiled the crop2 and we should expect from its bitter1 disagreeable flavour1 that if cattle did not universally refuse to eat it1 it might prove mischievous to them4 ,the species which attacks clover is the ,orobanche minor--,lesser ,broomrape1--which is at once distinguished in a clover field by its upright brownish spike of dead1 dry-looking1 lipped flowers2 the stem without true leaves1 but clothed with small brown leaf-like processes 7bracts of the botanist71 which1 with the stem1 are clothed with hairs4 ,this plant1 which is much larger and very different from the clover1 is parasitic on the principal division of the clover root2 so that if the soil be carefully removed from the broomrape1 it will be found to swell at the base1 into which the clover root may be detected to be fastened1 and a very odd appearance indeed has the small-stemmed clover united to so comparatively large a parasite4 ,the seeds of the broomrape are so small as scarcely to be detected in a sample of clover seed2 indeed1 several may be fastened to a seed as dust1 so that whatever care may be used in the selection of seed will hardly prevent this pest4 ,any great injury to the clover crop may be speedily stopped by hand-picking the broomrape2 for1 although it will sometimes branch up again1 it will be much lessened1 and the few secondary shoots will usually be very weak4 ,clovers are attacked by ,epiphytes--that is1 minute fungoid plants growing upon the leaves2 but the natural history of these is too obscure for a general treatise1 nor are they of sufficient interest to the practical farmer4#i #i ,to such as may be interested in the study of the 8rusts0 of ,clover1 and some other plants1 we would earnestly recommend a perusal of some most interesting papers on the subject1 by ,m4 ,c4 ,cooke1 ,esq41 beautifully illustrated by ,messrs4 ,west ,sowerby1 which will be found in the ,popular ,science ,review--a serial which should have a place in the house of every country gentleman4 ,illustration3 ,corn4 ,,how ,,to ,,grow ,,good ,,corn4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,nature ,,of ,,corn4 ,by corn1 in its enlarged sense1 the farmer means all such crops as are grown for their seeds2 so that all kinds of grain and pulse1 such as peas and beans1 belong to the corn crop1 as distinguished from roots and green crops4 ,in ,america the word 8corn0 is restricted to maize or ,indian corn1 and other crops are called after their respective names4 ,our dictionaries define corn as 8seeds which grow in ears1 not pods20 and it is to these that the present treatise is meant exclusively to apply1 confining our remarks for the most part to such kinds as are more commonly cultivated in this country4 ,corn1 then1 may be said to be derived from different species of grasses1 whose seeds are sufficiently large to enable them to be threshed from the ear and become stored as grain1 in which case it differs from the smaller kinds1 whose seeds may be grown for pasturage crops4 ,hence1 then1 grasses afford us two sets1 which are differently used1--one1 as affording corn fabled to be the gift of the goddess ,ceres1 and so called cereal or corn grasses2 the other1 not grown for the sake of the grain1 but for herbage1 and named meadow and pasture grasses4 ,corn grasses1 then1 belong exclusively to arable cultivation2 and1 indeed1 it may be concluded that such have been derived from wild species1 and that continued culture has brought them about1 and still maintains them in all their endless varieties1 and also gives us a power to add to these to an extraordinary extent4 ,it is this facility for improvement1 this capability for forming grain on the one hand1 and running into varieties on the other1 which enables corn to be grown under so wide a range of temperature and in such varied and variable climates2 and it is a knowledge of the laws affecting these changes1 and the modes of action in the growth of corn consequent thereupon1 which will constitute 8,science and ,practice in ,corn ,cultivation10 and should lead to a knowledge of 8,how to ,grow ,good ,corn40 ,in following out this inquiry1 we shall1 for the most part1 confine our observations to the following crops3-- #a4 ,wheat1 #b4 ,oats1 ,their ,origin1 ,cultivation1 ,diseases1 #c4 ,barley1 ,enemies1 c4 c4 #d4 ,rye1 ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,,wheat3 ,,its ,,origin ,,and ,,acclimatization4 ,it is a popular belief that wheat1 in a state fit for food1 was a direct gift to man1 and handed down to him unaltered in form1 except in so far as relates to varieties2 but if we consider how varied are the details of this plant1 how very different from each other are the more remote varieties1 and yet how easy it is to fill up the links on the one hand1 or to arrive at equally distinct and yet new forms on the other1 we can only conclude that wheat1 like most1 if not all1 our vegetable esculents1 is but a derivative plant obtained from a wild form of grass1 and in very early times brought into cultivation because of the facilities for change which it was capable of undergoing4 ,nowhere is wheat1 as such1 found wild2 for1 although its grain has been cultivated in all parts of the world1 its scattered seeds cannot maintain a position for any length of time2 for1 as it has been obtained by cultivation1 so its derived status can only be maintained by careful culture1 without which there seems reason to believe that cereal wheat would indeed become extinct4 ,many botanists had arrived at these or kindred views from observation and reasoning upon the subject1 but it was not until a comparatively recent period that we possessed any direct evidence derived from experiment3 this we now have1 and upon it we quote the following from ,mr4 ,bentham1 in the ,cyclopdia of ,agriculture1 article 8,triticum03-- ,it has never been contended that their original types have become extinct1 and various1 therefore1 have been the conjectures as to the transformations they may have successively undergone2 and as no accidental returns towards primitive forms have been observed1 we have till lately had but little to guide us in these vague surmises4 ,within the last few years1 however1 the experiments and observations of ,m4 ,esprit ,fabre1 of ,agde1 in the south of ,france1 seem to prove a fact which had been more than once suggested1 but almost always scouted1 that our agricultural wheats are cultivated varieties of a set of grasses common in the south of ,europe1 which botanists have uniformly regarded as belonging to a different genus1 named gilops4 ,the principal character by which the latter genus had been distinguished1 consisted in the greater fragility of the ear1 and in the glumes 7i4e4 the chaff-scales7 being generally terminated by three or four1 and the pales by two or three points or awns 7beards74 ,but ,m4 ,fabre has shown how readily these characters become modified by cultivation2 and1 wide as is the apparent difference between gilops ovata and common wheat1 he has practically proved their botanical identity2 for1 from the seeds of the gilops first sown in #ahch1 carefully raised in a garden soil1 and re-sown every year from their produce1 he had1 through successive transformations1 by the eighth year 7#ahdf7 obtained crops of real wheat as good as the generality of those cultivated in his neighbourhood4 ,it was the description of the experiments of ,m4 ,fabre1 in the ,journal of the ,agricultural ,society1 which led us to institute independent inquiries1 to which end1 having purchased some seeds of gilops ovata1 we sowed them in our experimental garden at ,cirencester1 in a prepared plot of five yards square1 on a subsoil of forest marble4 ,from this seeds were selected to carry on the experiments1 whilst the mass of the plants in the plot were allowed to seed and come up spontaneously1 which it did year after year1 and so preserved the original type with which we started4 ,the preserved seeds were sown in fresh plots year by year1 but--perhaps owing to the coldness of the soil and the general lower climate of the ,cotteswolds--progress was only slow at first2 however1 in the warm summer of #ahei our plot of the season had made fresh advances1 which will be best understood by an examination of the accompanying drawings4 ,fig4 #c represents a spikelet of the type of gilops ovata1 introduced into our garden in #ahee4 ,in this some of the pales have double awns1 others single ones4 ,fig4 #d1 a spikelet of #ahei1 modified by cultivation4 ,in this the awns are single4 ,fig4 #e1 a spikelet from an ear of bearded wheat4 ,now1 the close affinity of these three forms must strike any one2 but we feel justified in concluding that1 had not our experiments been peremptorily stopped1 and the results1 as far as possible1 spoiled from the ignorance and jealousy of the new ,principal1 we should before this have arrived at results much more satisfactory4 ,the principles of the observed changes will be understood by stating the following facts4 a4 gilops ovata has a seed of sufficient size to be called a corn grain1 and which1 though not so large as that of wheat1 yet rapidly improves by cultivation1 which includes selection4 b4 ,the rachis 7the part on which the spikelets are placed in the wild grass7 is exceedingly brittle1 so that it readily breaks into bits below each spikelet2 this brittleness annually gets less under cultivation4 c4 ,the wild grass has a trailing habit of growth2 but uprightness and a longer culm is at once induced by the closer contact of drilling the seeds in thick rows4 d4 ,the cultivation of gilops1 and especially subjecting it to rich soil1 produces the same kinds of fungoid attacks as are found with wheats under like circumstances1 as thus3--,puccinia graminis 7mildew7 of the leaves and culms2 ,uredo rubigo 7red rust7 of the chaff-scales2 ,uredo caries 7smut or bunt7 of the grain4 ,now1 all these circumstances seem to point to a similarity in essential structure1 and a uniformity of habit somewhat remarkable in plants which at first sight would strike one as being so different2 but as these differences between gilops and any variety of wheat are often all scarcely greater than is to be met with on contrasting two known varieties of wheat1 we may agree in concluding that the evidence warrants the assumption that wheat1 as a cultivated cereal1 has been derived from gilops4 ,if1 then1 we view the wheat plant as a derivative1 we shall be at no loss in understanding how the vast number of varieties have been brought about--varieties applicable1 too1 to a wide range of climatal conditions2 and the ease with which new forms can be brought about by hybridization and selection is a matter of importance1 because older varieties1 too often repeated1 are apt to degenerate both in quality of grain and quantity of crop4 ,but when we speak of acclimatizing wheat1 we think it would be excessively difficult to make any existing form grow well in a climate not congenial to it1 though it might be easy to arrive at a new variety possessing some desired quality4 ,we believe1 however1 that it is not difficult to alter a climate to suit a sort1 and1 in all probability1 this at the present day much-used term of 8acclimatization0 simply means no more than making our cultivation and climate accord as nearly as possible to the habits of the plant or animal to be entertained under new conditions4 ,thus1 when we see the finer white wheats growing good crops on farms where such would have been impossible a few years ago1 we are hardly to conclude that we have at length got this more delicate sort to become more hardy2 but the climate has been ameliorated by draining and better cultivation4 ,we distinctly recollect when the lias clays of the ,vale of ,gloucester could scarcely be made to grow a good crop of even the hardier sorts of red wheat1 the common cone being the sort generally grown4 ,this was succeeded by many sorts of red wheat1 and now only the best-cultivated farms produce white wheats4 ,these1 however1 are facts which will be more strongly brought out when we consider the subject of cultivation2 for the present we would be content with the expression of a belief that wheat1 as a cereal grain1 is derived by cultivation from a wild grass1 and it is due to the effects of cultivation that we have so many sorts1 with such variable adaptability4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,,the ,,wild ,,oat ,,as ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,cultivated ,,varieties4 ,crop oats1 like wheat1 have ever been considered as a direct gift from ,ceres1 and few1 indeed1 amongst scientific men were willing to believe that they were derived from a wild and weed species4 ,still1 the farmer had long maintained that oats1 when cultivated1 often left behind them weed oats2 and in some districts of ,worcester1 ,gloucester1 and ,warwick1 we have known men refuse to grow oats as a crop from their fear of producing the terrible weed1 which1 indeed1 the wild oat is on all hands admitted to be4 ,now1 although we by no means wish to advance the theory of transmutation1 and cannot believe that by any plan barley can be converted into oats1 or oats into barley1 we are yet confident that what has been termed ennobling1 or the producing of a cultivated plant from a wild one1 is oftentimes comparatively easy1 and in none more so than in the production of crop oats from the wild species1 ,avena fatua4 ,professor ,lindley1 in the article 8,avena10 in ,morton's ,cyclopdia of ,agriculture1 suggests that the cultivated oat 8is a domesticated variety of some wild species1 and may be not improbably referred to ,avena strigosa1 bristle-pointed oat20 but our experiments would show that the ,avena fatua is the form from which at least the domestic sorts in general cultivation seem to have sprung4 ,the ,avena fatua 7wild oat7 is an annual grass which almost universally accompanies agrarian circumstances2 that is to say1 it seldom1 if ever1 occurs in a truly wild aboriginal state1 and is therefore not found in uncultivated tracts1 but is the common attendant on tillage1 and in some soils is a most common and disagreeable weed in various agricultural crops1 but more especially amid grain1 whether of wheat1 barley1 or oats4 ,sometimes it is found with beans1 peas1 and vetches1 and1 indeed1 it may be said to be a common weed in some districts in any crop from which it has not been eradicated by the hoe--an operation almost impossible in grain1 as its growth is so much like that of the crop itself4 ,it is a tall grass1 rivalling the height of the finest cultivated oat crop1 from some forms of which1 and especially those with a lax panicle1 it is at first not easily distinguished2 however1 a more careful examination and comparison with the so-called ,avena sativa 7cultivated oat7 enables us to make out the following differences3-- ,avena fatua1 ,l4 ,avena fatua1 var4 sativa4 ,the valves of the inner pales1 ,the valves of the inner pales not which adhere to the seeds1 thick1 not so coarse as in ,a4 fatua1 and covered with stiff hairs1 and quite devoid of hairs4 ,the especially towards the base4 ,the outer valve with or without an external valve has a long stiff awn1 which when present is not so awn1 which in the ripe seed is stiff as in the wild plant1 usually twisted at the lower part1 sometimes twisted at the base1 and bent at nearly right angles but seldom bent4 ,seeds large and at about the middle4 ,the grain- full1 forming the grain for which seed very small and worthless4 the crop is cultivated4 ,the experiments about to be detailed were performed with the ,avena fatua4 ,in #ahea1 a quantity of this plant was noticed by the author on the farm of ,c4 ,lawrence1 ,esq41 near ,cirencester4 ,it was mixed with a patch of mangel-wurzel which had been planted for seed2 and from these specimens sufficient seeds were preserved wherewith to sow one of our experimental plots4 ,it should be noticed that the substratum was forest marble1 and no doubt the seeds of the oat were brought with the manure by which the mangold patch was dressed4 ,in the spring of #aheb a plot of two and a half yards square was sown with seed which had been kept during the winter--a fact which should be carefully noted1 as it forms a first and most important link in the chain of evidence1 and constituting what we term a cultivative process1 inasmuch as in wild growth the seeds are sown as soon as they become ripe4 ,the seeds of the first crop came up well1 and on ripening1 towards autumn1 the plants were tall and robust2 the grains presented a scarcely appreciable difference from the wild examples2 if any1 there may have been a slight tendency to an increased plumpness of grain4 ,the seeds of crop ,no4 #a were again collected and preserved throughout the winter1 and sown in a patch of similar size1 but in a different part of the garden1 in the spring of #ahec1 repeating the process with the successive crops in #ahed and #ahee1 with slight alterations from year to year1 though in some examples the following tendencies seemed from the first to be gaining strength in some few of the specimens3-- #ast4 ,a gradual decrease in the quantity of hairs on the pales4 #bnd4 ,a more tumid grain1 in which the pales were less coarse and the awn not so strong and rigid1 and less black than in the wild example4 #crd4 ,a gradual increased development of kernel or flower4 ,the seeds of #ahee crop1 without selection1 were treated in the same manner during the winter1 and were sown in the spring of #ahef1 the resulting crop in ,august of the same year presenting the following curious circumstances3-- #ast4 ,avena fatua 7typical wild oat71 with large loose panicles of flowers1#aj thin hairy florets1 with a bent awn twisted at the base4 ,five parts of crop4 #aj ,some examples of this plant1 gathered at ,framilode1 in the ,vale of ,gloucester1 in the past autumn1 gave as many as #gej seeds to a root1 from which its rate of increase as a weed may be imagined4 #bnd4 ,avena fatua1 var4 sativa1 with loose panicles of flowers1 florets quite smooth1 tumid1 with or without straight awns1 some few examples slightly hairy towards the base4 ,this is the potato-oat type4 ,six parts of crop4 #crd4 ,avena fatua1 var4 sativa--,panicles more compact1 flowers inclining to one side1 grains more tumid than #bnd1 quite devoid of hairs1 awn straight4 ,these present the type of the white ,tartarian oat4 ,twelve parts of crop4 ,fig4 #b4 ,see plate4 ,having now procured a crop of separate types of oat from the same seed1 we preserved them distinct1 and this year carried on our experiments by cultivating a patch of each1 whilst the plot of #ahef was left with self-sown seeds1 in order that it should again become wild by degeneracy4 ,from these experiments1 then1 we may conclude that different types of crop oats are derived from the ,avena fatua1 or wild oat2 but1 besides this1 they open out a subject for inquiry of great practical interest and importance1 which may be clearly stated as follows3-- ,if by cultivation the wild oat assumes the cultivated form1 then by degeneracy cultivated oats may become wild ones4 ,those who know what a detestable weed is the wild oat wherever it occurs1 and how difficult it is to eradicate1#aa will at once see the cogency of the question involved4 #aa ,the author once went with a rector of a parish in ,gloucestershire to examine the glebe allotments of the poor people1 when1 catching sight of an apparent crop of oats1 the landlord threatened to dispossess the tenant1 8because he had carelessly left his crop without gathering40 ,however1 the matter was explained when it was pointed out that the land was planted with wheat1 which the oats had quite smothered4 ,farmers in some districts1 and more especially on stiff clay soils1 have ever objected to the cultivation of oats1 as they had always maintained that they left behind a crop of weed oats4 ,this1 which was never a favourite idea with the botanist1 who is generally too much inclined to species-making1 seems now to have a basis of truth1 for not only is it confirmed by the experiments described1 but observation of an independent kind points to the same truth4 ,on examining the produce of shed1 or accidentally scattered oat seeds1 the first crop will often present the wild tendency in a partial reversion to the hairy state1 an elongation and thickening of the awn1 and a lessening of the size of the kernel2 and this more particularly on heavy soils4 ,it was1 indeed1 an observation of this change in oats scattered on forest marble clay which induced us to try the experiments above detailed2 and as the subsoil of our botanical garden is the same clay1 we are1 perhaps1 indebted to this cause for arriving so soon at such signal results4 ,again1 it is known in farming that some clay lands will never produce heavy oats2 a sample1 however good1 is sure to degenerate upon such soils4 ,hence1 then1 the foregoing experiments and observations lead to the following conclusions3-- #ast4 ,the wild oat is perhaps not a native of ,britain1 but derived through the degeneracy of the cereal crop2 and hence its occurrence only as an agrarian4 #bnd4 ,the cereal oat1 on the contrary1 is the result of the impress of cultivative processes upon the wild form1 and as such liable to lapse into the wild state with greater or less celerity1 according to the circumstances of soil and situation4 ,these conclusions are of practical value1 as they show the direction in which experiments should be conducted in order to attain to varieties1 it being a well-known fact that one variety is suitable for one soil1 and another for a different kind of land4 ,and again1 as some forms of plants would seem to have the tendency of wearing out by long cultivation1 so we have the means of applying to the original source of their production1 and thus of commencing a new generation4 ,they teach us1 too1 the necessity of avoiding the growth of the oat crop in some situations1 and which in the case before us is not the result of the 8pigheadedness0 with which the farmer is often so thoughtlessly accused1 but a conclusion founded in reason2 and if we consider how robust is the growth of the wild oat1 and that its support is secured by robbing the grain crop with which it occurs as a weed--the difficulty of separating it from the crop where it has gained a footing--and1 above all1 that its succession is secured by its seeds universally ripening a few days before that of the crop with which it is mixed1 and the moment they are ripe they fall and become self-sown1#ab--we can see abundant reason for wholesome fear as to the introduction of cereal oats in districts liable to their degeneracy4 #ab ,the wild forms shed their seeds much more readily than the cultivated ones1 and are1 besides1 earlier in ripening1 and thus much of our wild seed had dropped before the other forms were fully ripe2 and it much assists experiments in transmutation not to let the seeds with which they are to be carried on become dead ripe4 ,this is another cultivative process4 ,the annexed enlarged figure of a bunch of wild oat seeds will sufficiently illustrate the changes necessary to produce the cultivated form4 ,under cultivation1 which supposes the selection1 saving up1 and sowing in a prepared bed of our seed1 the wild oat seed gradually becomes smooth externally1 and its awn less coarse1 while internally the grain becomes larger and heavier2 so that while the seed of the wild oat would weigh about #ae lb4 per bushel1 that of a fine sample of white cultivated oat sown on our farm this year weighed as much as #dh lb4 per bushel4 ,now1 the proof of this theory consists in the facts-- #ast4 ,that heavy oats degenerate by being cultivated in poor soil4 #bnd4 ,by being let go wild1 they sink still lower1 and gradually assume the external hairs1 stiff awns1 and poor grain of the wild oat4 ,illustration3 ,spikelet of the ,wild ,oat4#ac #ac ,from ,popular ,science ,review1 vol4 i4 p4 #aj4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,,on ,,the ,,supposed ,,origin ,,of ,,barley ,,and ,,rye4 ,the cereal barley is found to offer three important forms1 which can be best explained by the annexed diagramatic arrangement3-- ,illustration3 ,two-rowed--by abortion of four ,four-rowed--by abortion of two ,six-rowed--by fruition of all the seeds of a spikelet4 ,the two-rowed barley has been named ,hordeum distichum2 and as we are inclined1 with ,professor ,lindley1 to the belief that this is the original from whence the other forms have sprung1 we here quote the learned ,professor's remarks upon this and the probably allied forms3-- 8,it is probable10 he says1 8that all kinds of barley grown by farmers are varieties of one species1 of which1 the ,h4 distichum of ,linnus is the type4 ,the spikelets of this genus always standing in threes1 and the threes being placed back to back1 it is evident that every ear of barley must consist of six rows of spikelets4 ,if the middle spikelet of each set of threes is alone perfect1 the side spikelets being abortive1 we have ,h4 distichum1 the common two-rowed barley1 and its many varieties2 if the two-tuberal of each set is perfect1 and the central spikelet imperfect1 as sometimes happens1 then we have four-rowed barley2 if1 on the other hand1 all the spikelets are perfect1 we have six-rowed barley1 or ,h4 hexastichum2 but the cases of four-rowed barley have been merely accidental--they may be referred to the six-rowed form2 and thus we have only two principal kinds of barley--namely1 ,h4 distichum and ,h4 hexastichum4 8#a4 ,h4 distichum4--,this is the only kind of barley that has been found apparently wild4 ,we have now before us specimens gathered in ,mesopotamia during ,col4 ,chesney's expedition to the ,euphrates1 with narrow ears1 a little more than an inch long1 exclusive of the awn1 or four and a half inches awns included2 and others from the ruins of ,persepolis1 with ears scarcely so large as starved rye4 ,both are straw-colour1 but that from ,mesopotamia has the glumes much more hairy than the other4 ,the plant is also said to inhabit ,tartary4 ,the report that it grows wild in ,sicily seems to have arisen from the ,mediterranean gilops ovata having been mistaken for it4 ,to this species belong all the varieties1 from one to sixteen1 formerly mentioned under ,barley2 as also does ,no4 #bj1 fig4 #cdad--the ,h4 zeocriton1 sprat or battledore barley1 an undoubted result of domestication1 chiefly remarkable for the ears being so much broader at the base than the point as to produce a long ovate figure4 #ad ,see ,morton's ,cyclopdia of ,agriculture4 8#b4 ,h4 hexastichum4--,we found no record of this having been found wild1 and presume it and its numerous varieties to be domesticated forms of ,h4 distichum4 ,the common bere1 or winter barley1 may be taken as the typical form to which ,nos4 #ah1 #ba1 and #bb1 and figs4 #cg and #chae are evidently referable1 varying in size1 colour1 and hairiness1 more than in any other circumstance deserving botanical appreciation4 #ae ,ibid4 8,the ,h4 vulgare of ,linnus is a form with the grains in four rows1 the naked-eared variety of which is again the ,h4 cleste of some writers4 8,both these forms of barley vary with naked seed1 the pales losing their adhesion to the grain4 ,but this difference is attended with no other peculiarity4 8#c4 ,the ,h4 trifurcatum1 also known under ,dr4 ,royle's name of ,h4 giceras1 is a very remarkable naked-seeded species1 with much the appearance of wheat4 ,it is a tall or glaucous six-rowed sort1 but the rows are not placed in lines with the same exactness as in the two former kinds1 so that the ears are round like wheat4 ,the pales are apparently in a monstrous form1 the ends being three-lobed1 and curved back in the form of horns1 which sometimes extend into awns4 ,it has been introduced from the ,himalaya ,mountains within a few years1 but its economical qualities remain to be determined40#af #af ,cyclopdia of ,agriculture1 vol4 ii4 p4 #fh4 ,we have had opportunities1 through the kindness of ,professor ,lindley1 who contributed seeds1 of cultivating all the forms just described2 but our experiments for two years did not elicit anything new upon the subject3 we therefore feel justified in quoting the above entire1 especially as the different forms in our plots afforded sufficient evidence of an uniformity of origin on the one hand1 with every disposition for forming varieties on the other4 ,rye 7,secale cereale74--,for the little that is known of the natural history and origin of this crop-plant we again quote from the ,cyclopdia of ,agriculture1 which states as follows3-- 8,the common rye is a cereal grass1 distinguished from wheat by its narrow glumes and constantly twin narrow florets1 with a membranous abortion between them4 ,otherwise it is little different in structure1 although the quality of its grain is so inferior4 ,according to ,karl ,koch1 it is found undoubtedly wild on the mountains of the ,crimea1 especially all around the village of ,dshimil1 on granite1 at the elevation of from #e1jjj to #f1jjj feet4 ,in such places1 its ears are not more than #a to #b inches long4 ,its native country explains the reason why it is so much hardier than any variety of wheat1 the southern origin of which is now ascertained40 ,we have not seen any of this so-called wild rye2 it would1 however1 be of great service could some good experiments be made with it1 with a view of noting the changes which take place on cultivation4 ,indeed1 we have long wished for authentic examples of all our wild1 or supposed wild1 cereals1 with a view of examining side by side the nature and amount of the changes which cultivation would most assuredly produce4 ,rye1 unlike either wheat or barley1 is not remarkable for a long list of varieties--a fact which may1 perhaps1 be attributed to the more limited growth of the former than the two latter4 ,its less extended cultivation must be attributed to its inferior qualities as food2 for1 though rye is in the main a hardier plant than wheat1 and therefore could withstand the evils of a colder climate and colder treatment1 yet with the advanced climate--the acclimatization of a country rather than a plant--the superior plant1 wheat1 everywhere prevails2 and this cause also gives rise to the production of finer varieties1 which are thus grown where only coarser ones were possible4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,,epiphytical ,,parasites 7,,vegetable ,,blights7 ,,of ,,corn ,,crops4 ,these forms of parasite are so numerous1 that nearly every species of flowering plant may become the nidus even of several named genera1 with many species1 or1 at least1 varieties of them4 ,we here say attacked1 because the advent of many of their forms passes under the name of 8blight20 a term which at once recognises their injurious tendency4 ,whether these epiphytes are the causes of the so-called blighted conditions1 or merely their effects1 is a subject upon which no little discussion has been expended4 ,we do not1 however1 mean to re-open the question here2 we will only remark1 that in all probability this very wide range of the lower tribes of the vegetable kingdom is very variable in these respects4 ,again3 it will be impossible to enter into details of the different species of epiphytes4 ,we shall hope1 therefore1 to elucidate their natural history1 in so far as the farmer is concerned1 by pointing out the more general facts connected with the following forms3-- #a4 ,uredo segetum--,smut or dust-brand of wheat1 barley1 and grasses4 #b4 ,uredo caries 7,tilletia7--,bunt #c4 ,uredo rubigo--,red gum or red robin of wheat4 #d4 ,uredo linearis --,straw-rust1 or 8mildew0 #e4 ,puccinia graminis #f4 ,puccinia fab--,bean-rust4 #g4 cidium berberidis--,barberry-rust4 #h4 ,cladosporium herbarum--,corn-ear mould4 #i4 ,botrytis infestans--,potato-mould and mildew4 #aj4 ,botrytis--,turnip-mildew4 #aa4 ,odium erysiphioides ,hop-mildew4 #ab4 ,erysiphe macularis #ac4 ,odium abortifaciens--,ergot of grasses4 #a4 ,uredo segetum1 ,smut or ,dust-brand1 is common to barley1 and not unfrequent in wheat2 in both of which crops it is easily recognised from the affected ears of corn appearing as though they had been powdered over from the sweep's soot-bag4 ,on closely examining these blackened ears1 we find that the whole flower has1 as it were1 effloresced into a black powder1 which1 on being placed under the microscope1 is shown to be composed of myriads of granules1 called by the fungologist spores1 in which latter are contained still smaller grains1 or sporidia4 ,these black spores are all washed away by the time the crop is ripe1 leaving the stalks bare and grainless1 so that the sample suffers no injury from this blight1 which1 even if present after threshing1 would only tend to a slight discoloration of the sample1 which is remediable by the smutter4 ,its chief effect1 however1 consists in causing the loss of much grain4 ,we have observed it to the extent of as much as an eighth1 but usually the diminution is about equal to the amount of seed sown2 though it is not improbable that the whole crop may in many cases be greater when the smut is present4 ,sheep-folding previous to barley1 special manuring for this crop1 and other causes of increased fertility1 are constant causes of the increase of the dust-brand4 #b4 ,uredo caries--,bunt1 ,pepper-brand1 ,smut-balls4--,this blight differs from the preceding in the fact that in the grain no flower is formed1 but its interior becomes filled with a dark powder1 which1 when viewed under a high magnifying power1 is found to consist of granules1 with a surface which is rough1 and not smooth as in the dust-brand4 ,in most cases1 the whole grains of the ear will be so affected2 in others1 only a portion of them4 ,they will be gathered in the harvest1 and as the diseased grain is readily crushed1 the black powder materially damages the appearance of the sample4 ,nor is this all3 this blight has a most disagreeable odour and flavour1 both of which are communicated to the sample1 and so1 besides diminishing the amount of produce1 it greatly deteriorates it4 ,its specific name of caries of course refers to this fact1 as also does that of ,u4 ftida1 adopted by ,baur1 an author to whom we are greatly indebted for information upon these curious productions4 ,before considering the remedy for this evil1 it will be well to distinguish it from the 8purples1 ear-cockle1 or peppercorn0 7vibrio tritici7--a name expressive of its animal origin1 and frequently rendered 8wheat-eels40 ,in the purples1 the grain is shorter than a healthy wheat grain1 irregular in shape 7cockled71 and purple externally2 but its interior is filled with what1 to the naked eye1 is like very short white cotton-wool4 ,on placing a bit of this woolly substance with the point of a needle on a slip of glass1 just touching it with water and submitting it to a high magnifying power1 the term 8wheat-eel0 will at once be seen to be justified2 for1 if alive1 thousands of eel-like creatures will be seen writhing in the fluid4 ,the differences of these two affections of wheat may be expressed as follows3-- ,bunt4 ,ear-cockle4 ,grain smooth externally1 sometimes ,grain cockled and irregular in appearing black from blackened shape1 purple externally1 skin interior grains showing through thickened1 interior of the grains the thin epidermis 7bran74 ,these stuffed with a white cottony corns easily crush beneath the substance1 not compressible by finger1 emitting the black fungi4 the finger2 but being opened1 and the interior magnified1 exhibits the living wheat-eels4 ,as regards the ear-cockle1 we incline to the belief that a damp atmosphere and cold soil are chiefly concerned in its spread1 if not in its production4 ,as we have shown the difference between it and bunt1 we now proceed to offer a few remarks upon the production of the latter1 and its remedies4 ,bunt is mainly produced by defective seed4 ,it occurs on all kinds of soils--sands1 clays1 and limestones--and is not peculiar to any climate4 ,professor ,henslow believes the disease to be wholly propagated by the spores of the fungus adhering to the wheat-seed4 ,he says1 8,it has been clearly proved that wheat plants may be easily infected1 and the disease thus propagated1 by simply rubbing the seeds before they are sown with the black powder or spores of the fungus4 ,it is also clearly ascertained that if seeds thus tainted be thoroughly cleansed1 the plants raised from them will not be infected20 and he deduces from this a proof in favour of steeping2 for he says1 8,this fact is now so well established1 that the practice of washing or steeping seed wheat in certain solutions almost universally prevails40#ag #ag ,see an essay on ,diseases of ,wheat1 in the ,journal of the ,royal ,agricultural ,society for #ahda1 by the ,rev4 ,professor ,henslow4 ,our own experiments1 however1 recorded in the 8,journal of the ,royal ,agricultural ,society0 for #ahef1 led us to conclude that the success derived from pickling wheat in different caustic and corrosive solutions arose from the fact of diseased grain being destroyed in the process2 and we extract the following record of experiments made in #ahec1 as explaining this view of the matter4 ,four plots of wheat1 all from the same sample1 were sown in the following order3-- #a4 #b4 #c4 #d4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,much diseased ,much diseased2,perfect picked ,perfect picked wheat1 treated with seed1 seed1 with without pickle4 sulphate of without pickle4 sulphate of copper4 copper4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,the results of these were as under3-- ,plot #a4 ,most of the seed germinated1 but the crop was much blighted1 both in straw and grain2 in fact1 scarcely a perfect ear of the latter4 ,plot #b4 ,a small quantity of the seed germinated2 the few resulting ears were free from blight4 ,plot #c4 ,germinated1 with a good and clean resulting crop4 ,plot #d4 ,the same result as ,plot #c4 ,these experiments seemed to show that the pickling of wheat destroys the seed1 so as to prevent germination when the seed is diseased or ill-formed2 but if perfect seed be always employed1 no pickling at all is necessary1 it being strictly true that a diseased progeny must result from an imperfect stock in plants no less than in animals4 ,we have said that bunt is not peculiar to any climate2 we have1 however1 always observed that employing seed from a warm district on a cold one1 or using the finer white wheats in cold1 exposed1 or ill-drained situations1 is sure to produce a large quantity of this fungus4 ,autumn-sown wheat1 too1 is less liable to the infection than spring wheat1 which we attribute to the fact that many of the weaker plants will succumb to the cold rain and frost4 #c4 ,uredo rubigo 7,red-rust1 ,red-rag1 ,red-robin7 makes its appearance in the inside of the chaff-scales1 and ultimately in the green epidermis of the growing grains of wheat4 ,its first appearance is that of oval pustules1 caused by the raising of the skin1 which1 ultimately bursting1 shows the orange-coloured spores of the epiphyte4 ,this must not be confounded with ,cecidomyia tritici 7wheat-midge71 the larv of which are of a bright orange-colour2 in the latter1 the living moving worms may be easily detected by any common pocket lens or magnifying glass4 ,both these pests1 to which we would apply the distinctive terms of ,uredo rubigo 7red-rust7 and ,cecidomyia tritici 7red-gum71 are exceedingly common in some seasons1 and not unfrequently in the same crop4 ,good deep cultivation is the best remedy for the rust2 but the treatment of the fly is a different matter4 ,we would suggest the burning of smother-heaps on calm days1 just as the wheat is bursting into ear1 as smoke is decidedly obnoxious to these small insects1 which in some seasons may be seen in thousands about the bursting wheat4 #d and #e4 ,uredo linearis2 ,puccinia graminis 7,straw-rust and ,mildew74--,we refer to these epiphytes under one heading1 as there can be but little doubt that the latter is a more advanced state of the former4 ,they both occur in oblong patches on the leaves and straw of wheats and other grasses3 in the uredo stage1 of a dull red colour2 in the puccinia stage1 of a blackish hue4 ,they are both1 as1 indeed1 are all these fungi1 interesting microscopic objects2 but our object now is to describe them popularly4 ,both will always be found in abundance in cold poor soils1 and more especially if the finer wheats be grown in such situations4 ,the application of a dressing of salt to the soil is said to be a preventive4 ,be this as it may1 the disease is said to be rarer in ,cheshire1 where salt is so much used by the farmer1 than in any other county1 in as far as we have observed4 ,here1 again1 we incline to think that these are morbid affections of the plant4 ,they are1 indeed1 viewed as such by ,unger1 in his 8,die ,exantheme ,pflanzen10 in which the very title classes them with eruptive diseases of animals4 ,berkeley and ,henslow1 the two great authorities1 however1 do not accord with this view3 the former remarks in reference to it--8,surely these plants are too distinctly1 too regularly1 and too beautifully organized to be the products of disease like warts or purulent matter in animals40 ,as1 however1 the microscope demonstrates that warts and eruptive diseases have also their special and curiously formed organisms1 such a mode of reasoning is not conclusive4 ,weeds have a great influence in producing mildew1 which perhaps may be accounted for from the fact that weeds are in active growth as the wheat-stalks decline in vigour2 and hence the constant evaporation of moisture from the weeds to the wheat is continually re-moistening an ever-drying surface--a most fertile source of mildew and moulds of several descriptions4 #f4 ,puccinia fab 7,bean-rust74#ah--,the brown pustular rust-looking spots on the foliage of beans1 and1 indeed1 occasionally on the stems and pods of beans1 are sometimes common to this crop4 ,they are usually accompanied by a lessening both in quantity and quality of this pulse1 both in the garden and in field culture1 but certainly more generally in the latter4 ,too gross manuring without well mixing the dung with the soil would seem to be a constant source of the evil4 ,in fact1 highly nitrogenized manures appear to favour the development of all this class of epiphytes1 just as too much meat might bring about different forms of rash or eruptions in the animal4 ,weeds1 which are too much permitted in beans1 here aid in perfecting the mischief2 hence1 then1 we may perhaps take it for granted that the mention of the causes of mischief suggests the remedy4 #ah ,this blight is mentioned here on account of its affinity to the former4 #g4 cidium berberidis 7,barberry-rust7 is here referred to1 from the opinion prevailing that it is the cause of rust and mildew in wheat4 ,we can no more believe that the barberry-rust would produce rust in wheat1 than the rust of any other plant would do so2 for nearly all plants are affected with some kind or other of rust4 ,this epiphyte1 too1 is very different in structure from wheat-rust4 ,still1 that wheat growing under a barberry hedge may be more blighted than in the rest of the field is quite true2 and so it is with wheat grown under any kind of hedge4 ,high fences are known to favour wheat blights2 open1 exposed1 well-cultivated positions1 when not too elevated1 and without trees or hedges1 being those in which the best wheats are grown4 #h4 ,cladosporium herbarum 7,corn-ear ,mould7 is a brown-coloured mildew1 mostly occurring on the exterior of the chaff-scales of wheat1 but common to many plants in a state of decadence4 ,it consists of greenish or blackish tufts1 which appear on the outside of the chaff-scales of wheat under the two following conditions3-- ,on wet soils1 where the ears appear to have been prematurely starved4 ,on dry sands1 where long-continued drought has caused some ears to wither and die before the seed was fully formed4 ,in both these cases we see that the plant has been previously injured4 ,the decay commences under alternations of moisture and drying1 and hence the fungoid attack4 ,here1 then1 the conditions necessary for preventing will be deep cultivation and a due pulverization and mixture of the soils4 #i-ab4 ,botrytis1 c4 7,mildew74--,under this head we include a multitude of epiphytes1 to which the terms mildew1 mealdew1 mehlthau 7,germ47 are applicable4 ,they appear to the naked eye as patches of white dust or meal on the leaves and stems of the affected plants4 ,with the microscope we see that they are beautifully-organized plants1 having a kind of rootlet 7mycelium7 or spawn entering the tissues of the living plants on which they grow1 and delicate pedicels supporting spores at the externally visible portion of the plant4 ,the botrytis of the potato and turnip1 the erysiphe or odium of the hop1 vine1 and other plants1 are only different forms of mildew1 which in some shape or another will be found on most plants4 ,that these attack living tissues is quite certain2 but in the case of the potato1 the turnip1 and the vine1 there is reason to believe that they result1 to a very considerable extent1 from diseased action in their tissues4 ,for example3 the botrytis of the potato seems to attack a crop much over-cultivated1 on the approach of wet and cold nights after a prosperous growth in warm sunshine4 ,so1 the odium seems to us to be most abundant on renewed growth after a season of dry weather4 ,again3 mildew in turnips is sure to follow that check which a long season of dry weather brings after a prosperous and vigorous growth4 ,all these circumstances at least show how these attacks are favoured by the conditions which bring disease4 ,so much1 indeed1 is this the case1 that we found1 upon experimenting with some cucumbers in a warm stove1 that as long as we regularly watered the plants and gave them the requisite air1 they kept healthy2 but1 by neglecting these conditions for a few days1 we obtained mildew with the greatest certainty4 ,the remedies against mildew are--to obtain as healthy a growth as possible1 and to maintain this with as great regularity as circumstances will permit4 ,of late years1 both the mildew of the vine and the hop have been treated with flowers of sulphur4 ,dusting the affected hop-leaves with sulphur certainly arrests the mildew in an incredibly short time2 and we found that by dusting sulphur from a fine sieve on our cucumber plants1 the disease was immediately arrested in its progress4 ,we therefore look upon this as an invaluable remedy in these states of mildew1 whether occurring on the vine1 the hop1 the turnip1 the cucumber1 or on other plants1 as we have frequently seen it in hothouses--a circumstance which shows the near affinity of all those forms of epiphytes1 which1 perhaps1 after all1 only vary with the variations in the structure and economy of the different plants on which they occur4 #ac4 ,odium abortifaciens 7,ergot72 ,secale cornutum 7,ergot of ,rye74--,the black horn-looking spur which occurs in rye and other grasses was formerly looked upon as a distinct fungus2 now1 however1 it is known to be a diseased or malformed condition of the grain or seed1 resulting from an attack by an odium on the immature seed4 ,most of the cereal and even the meadow grasses are liable to attacks of ergot1 which is increased by cold damp fogs and a moist condition of the atmosphere1 the difference of the size of the spur being in accordance with the size of the affected grass seed4 ,thus1 in rye we have seen spurs more than an inch long1 while in the cock's-foot grass it is seldom a quarter of an inch4 ,the ergot1 as it occurs in the rye1 is much used by medical men in difficult cases of parturition2 and we have had evidence before us1 in some cases of abortion in cows1 that the constant depasturing on grasses affected with ergot 7and the ,lolium perenne in aftermaths is often especially so7 has been the predisposing cause4 ,,chapter ,,xxix4 ,,insects 7,,animal ,,blights7 ,,affecting ,,corn ,,crops4 ,the different families and species of insects affecting the various kinds of corn crops in all their stages of growth are so numerous1 that a detailed list of them would occupy greater space than we can devote to this chapter4 ,in this position of affairs we have thought it wise to confine our remarks to some of the commoner and more mischievous species1 choosing those more particularly which are common to the wheat crop1 of which the following may be at once introduced as a summary in itself sufficient to show what the farmer may expect at each stage of growth3-- #a4 ,the ,slug1 ,attacking the plants soon after germination4 ,the ,wire-worm1 #b4 ,the ,gout ,fly1 ,that attacks the wheat stems as they begin to ,the ,saw ,fly1 form4 #c4 ,the ,wheat ,midge--,commencing their injuries in the young flower4 #d4 ,the ,aphis ,flea--,which attacks the rachis and floral envelopes4 #e4 ,the ,ear cockle1 ,which destroys the growing grain4 ,the ,corn ,moth1 #f4 ,the ,corn ,weevil--,which eats the flower from the grain4 #g4 ,the ,little-grain ,moth--,which attacks the grain in store4 #h4 ,the ,meal-worm ,beetle--,living upon ground corn or flour4 ,now1 this list may be said to have reference to eight stages in the growth and preparation of wheat1 and they mostly apply to other grains also--namely1 #a4 ,the germinating plant2 #b4 ,the growing plant2 #c4 ,the growing flower2 #d4 ,the green ear of corn2 #e4 ,the young grain2 #f4 ,the perfected grain2 #g4 ,the stored grain2 and #h4 ,in the state of flour4 #a4 ,the ,slug may be described as a houseless snail4 ,there are several species1 but the milky slug 7,limax agrestis7 and the black slug 7,l4 ater7 are those most common to our corn crops1 and are more especially mischievous to wheat2 for1 as this crop usually succeeds clover or 8seeds10 in which they breed most rapidly1 so1 the older the clover lea1 the more eggs will be ready to hatch in the wheat crop1 and this all the more readily as the wheat is nearly always put in with a single ploughing1 and with as little cultivation as possible4 ,the best remedy will be found in encouraging insectivorous birds--the lark1 rook1 starling1 peewit1 and others1 eating them either in the egg or young state with great avidity2 a good assistance to whose labours may be supplied in a few broods of ducks from the farmyard1 which it will pay well to have tended by a good boy--where such can be found--as these birds are most efficient as destroyers of slugs and caterpillars4 ,store pigs turned into old leas1 where they can do no mischief1 will get no bad living where snails and insects abound4 ,wire-worms4--,the several species of beetle which produce the wire-worm belong to the genus ,elater4 ,they are of a long oval shape3 about half the length belongs to the head and thorax1 and the other to the abdomen4 ,every schoolboy knows that when he holds the insect on its back it elevates the abdominal portion1 and again lets it fall so as to make a beating sound2 and hence its generic name1 and also its common name of click-and-hammer beetle4 ,if he remove his finger when in this position1 the creature immediately skips up and turns on its feet1 from which action it has got the name of 8skipjack40 ,curtis has estimated nearly seventy species of click-beetles as producing wire-worms in this country2 but the three following are those generally met with--,elater lineatus1 ,e4 obscurus1 and ,e4 ruficaudis4 ,these all attack corn and almost every other kind of vegetable4 ,the larv of these are very much alike1 being hard1 leathery1 wiry caterpillars1 which vary in length to about three-quarters of an inch1 according to age4 ,these are mostly smooth1 and have six feet on their thoracic segments1 and a false foot or proleg in the middle of the underpart of the terminal section of the abdomen--characters by which wire-worms may be distinguished from all others4 ,their length varies with age2 as they live for some years in the larva state1 so the different sizes mark so many broods1 which in some fields are annually provided for4 ,it should here be observed that the wire-worm does not breed2 these larv can only be hatched from the eggs of the female click-beetle3 hence1 then1 destroying the worms prevents the development of their parent4 ,now1 as we have seen whole fields of wheat destroyed by wire-worms1 it becomes important to examine the nature of this attack1 with a view to point out a remedy4 ,if1 then1 we go into a corn field in early spring1 and see the young wheat blades looking yellow and sickly1 we shall seldom be long in finding the wire-worm1 on carefully taking up some of the affected plants4 ,its position will be at the base of the plant1 sometimes eating its way into its centre1 and so eating out its very heart2 or perhaps it may nibble away the outer coat of the young stem1 and so prevent any nutriment passing into the blade4 ,one worm will be enough to kill a single blade2 but1 alas6 it frequently happens that he either visits all the blades1 or is assisted by many individuals to each plant4 ,this abundance we have observed more particularly on the breaking up of old pastures1 old seeds1 or saintfoin lea1 in which not only have we many broods of wire-worms1 but the eggs of a fresh lot1 which hatch in time to eat the spring wheats4 ,again1 this large increase we have ever observed in districts where rooks are few or much molested4 ,the rook is a constant visitor to the clover field2 but when the plant is young he is driven off1 because the farmer 8cannot think what else he can come for but the clover buds20 and when he sees some of these strewing the ground where the birds have been1 he is confirmed in his opinion3 but1 if he carefully looked at the buds themselves1 he would find them of a sickly hue1 however recent the attack1 and1 if he looked deeper he might find the real enemy4 ,fortified1 then1 with repeated observations of this kind1 if asked how best to keep under wire-worms1 we say most unhesitatingly1 encourage the rook3 he is one of the farmer's best labourers2 and though1 like ,john1 and ,dick1 and ,hodge1 he will sometimes run into mischief1 it is surely better to institute a judicious police than to condemn and execute without very strong evidence4 ,yarrell1 in his beautiful 8,british ,birds10 has the following remarks upon this highly-important subject3-- ,the attempts occasionally made by man to interfere with the balance of powers as arranged and sustained by ,nature1 are seldom successful4 ,an extensive experiment appears to have been made in some of the agricultural districts on the ,continent1 the result of which has been the opinion that farmers do wrong in destroying rooks1 jays1 sparrows1 and1 indeed1 birds in general on their farms1 particularly where there are orchards4 ,in our own country1 particularly on some very large farms in ,devonshire1 the proprietors determined1 a few summers ago1 to try the result of offering a great reward for heads of rooks2 but the issue proved destructive to the farms1 for nearly the whole of the crops failed for three successive years1 and they have since been forced to import rooks and other birds to stock their farms with4 ,a similar experiment was made a few years ago in a northern county1 particularly in reference to rooks1 but with no better success2 the farmers were obliged to reinstate the rooks to save their crops4 ,but as1 perhaps1 the most interesting account of the value of rooks will be found in an extract from the ,magazine of ,natural ,history1 vol4 vi4 p4 #adb1 we cannot do better than transcribe it3-- 8,in the neighbourhood of my native place 7in the county of ,york710 says the writer1 ,mr4 ,t4 ,clithero1 8is a rookery belonging to ,w4 ,vavasour1 ,esq41 of ,weston1 in ,wharfdale1 in which it is estimated that there are #aj1jjj rooks2 that #a lb4 of food a week is a very moderate allowance for each bird1 and that nine-tenths of their food consists of worms1 insects1 and their larv2 for1 although they do considerable damage to the fields for a few weeks in seed-time1 and a few weeks in harvest1 particularly in backward seasons1 yet a very large proportion of their food1 even at these seasons1 consists of insects and worms1 which 7if we except a few acorns and walnuts in autumn7 compose at all other times the whole of their subsistence4 ,here1 then1 if my data be correct1 there is the enormous quantity of #dfh1jjj lb41 or #bji tons1 of worms1 insects1 and their larv1 destroyed by the rooks of a single rookery in one year4 ,to everyone who knows how very destructive to vegetation are the larv of the tribes of insects1 as well as worms1 fed upon by rooks1 some slight idea may be formed of the devastation which rooks are the means of preventing40 ,let this1 then1 suffice for the rooks2 but starlings1 wagtails1 larks1 and other birds1 are also helpmates to the farmer2 and therefore the wanton destruction of these will certainly bring1 nay1 has already brought1 a great amount of trouble upon the cultivator of the soil4 ,the destruction we speak of has been committed by clubs and societies established for the purpose2 but1 as their members are mostly filled up with all sorts of prejudices--few being naturalists1 or even accurate observers--it becomes daily a matter of more pressing importance that middle-class education1 if not ,national-school teaching1 should recognise the value of the natural sciences4 #b4 ,the ,gout-fly 7,chlorops glabra7 and the ,saw-fly 7,sirex pygmus7 both lay their eggs below the first node or knot of the young plant1 which1 as soon as they hatch1 form maggots that eat out the substance of the stems and the nodes1 which thus become weakened and ultimately break off1 or1 if left standing1 the ears of corn as they appear will be dried1 whitened1 and infertile4 ,in these1 as in most cases of insect attacks1 we have an occasional blight of such extent as to destroy whole crops1 against which we are almost powerless1 as we know so little of the economy of the creatures by whom the mischief is caused2 still1 there can be little doubt but that their periodical appearance1 to the extent to cause them to be recognised as blights1 is due to the thinning of their enemies2 and we have always observed that a paucity of the ,hirundines--the swallow tribe of birds1 their greatest enemies--is coupled with a great increase of the smaller insects which it is the vocation of swallows1 bats1 and others of the hawking insectivorous creatures1 to take on the wing4 #c4 ,the ,wheat-midge 7,cecidomyia tritici71 also called the ,hessian-fly1 is sometimes very destructive to the wheat crop4 ,in #ahfj we observed the effects of this creature to a greater extent than we have before known1 in not a few instances rendering the crop scarcely worth reaping4 ,upon this creature we sent the following notice to the ,agricultural ,gazette for ,august #cj1 #ahfb3-- ,the wheat-midge 7,cecidomyia tritici7 has been so destructive for the last two or three years1 that every fact connected with its history ought to be of great interest4 ,curtis tells us that 8in ,scotland one-third of the crop was lost1 and the farmers suffered severely in #ahbh and the three following years20 whilst 8in ,suffolk the yield#ai of wheat was one-third less in some districts in #ahda than was expected40 #ai ,we believe this creature to be one of the most common causes of deficient yield1 so that a knowledge of its history is all-important in estimating the value of a crop1 which1 as a rule1 we should always put lower in the seasons when this blight abounds4 ,the presence or absence of this insect is so important as affecting the yield1 that we now never fail to look for it in every crop upon which we would offer a judgment in this respect4 ,it is easily detected in the larva state on opening some of the chaff-scales--pales--of affected crops1 as in the interior of these will be found some minute larv 7maggots7 of a bright yellow or orange colour4 ,in the earlier period of the blossom these larv will be found about the stamens and pistils2 later1 upon the grain1 which is always shrivelled and lost where the attack has been made4 ,the colour of the maggots is so much like that of the red-rust as often to be mistaken for it2 the difference1 however1 between the bunches of minute granular fungi and living worms will be made apparent to the most careless observer by the assistance of a common pocket lens4 ,we find two terms in use for these yellow appearances--namely1 red-rust and red-gum2 and as we have so often found them employed indiscriminately1 we would restrict the former to the fungus1#bj thus--,uredo rubigo1 red-rust2 and ,cecidomyia tritici1 red-gum4 ,our observations on the latter this year have chiefly been made in the counties of ,sussex and ,gloucester1 in both of which we have seen this insidious enemy at work to an alarming extent4 ,in the former county1 with a very limited extent of red-rust2 in the latter1 the later and more delicate wheats have both red-rust and red-gum in the same crop3 and the interest of the subject will be the more forcibly apprehended when we say that in some crops1 which1 from a first glance at the straw and ears1 we should have put down as somewhere about thirty bushels per acre1 we have1 after a more minute inspection of the ears1 estimated at less than twenty bushels2 and1 indeed1 in one field which we have examined during the last week 7,august1 #ahfb71 affected by the ,cladosporium1 ,uredo1 and ,cecidomyia1 there will scarcely be a yield in good grains of the amount of the seed sown4 #bj ,see ante1 p4 #ahe4 ,the fly which lays the eggs from which these yellow larv are derived is of about the size of a gnat1 and usually takes the wing in the evening1 in which case1 if its enemies the bats are not numerous1 smother fires lighted towards sundown on the wind side of the fields are not only destructive to large numbers1 but act as an offensive notice to quit to others4 ,curtis says3-- ,with regard to the ,hessian-fly1 even if its presence could be ascertained in the early stages1 it does not seem possible to devise any means of destroying the eggs or young larv1 unless feeding off the blade with sheep would effect the object2 and when their progress is detected by their mischievous works1 at a more advanced period1 nothing1 ,i apprehend1 but sacrificing the crop would arrest them4 ,it appears1 therefore1 to be an evil to which we must occasionally submit2 but1 to guard against its immediate recurrence1 it will only be necessary to collect and burn the stubble after the corn is reaped1 by which means the larv and pup which are concealed at the base of the stalk will1 of course1 be destroyed4 ,now1 in reference to wheat stubbles1 we would remark that the old-fashioned plan of leaving them long as a protection1 and1 we may add1 a preserve of food for partridges1 had its good effects in an agricultural point of view2 but if this be done1 we advocate the burning of the stubs on the soil1 as they will thus act better as a manure1 while the destruction of insects by the process must be enormous4 ,all concur that modern agriculture suffers increasingly from insects2 hence1 then1 an extended study of their habits seems daily more desirable3 and we boldly assert that if our country schoolmasters would teach their pupils to observe insect life1 they may be doing more good to agriculture than all our present so-called agricultural colleges and schools put together4 #d4 ,the ,aphis flea 7,aphis granaria7 is a creature destructive to the grain by 8sucking the verdure out on't40 ,we have this year 7#ahfd7 seen this insect1 more especially the apterous--wingless--females1 sticking on to the green wheat ears to such an extent as to render a walk into the crop a disgustingly dirty process4 ,it would seem that a continuous dry and warm season favours the increase of these creatures2 but1 as we have always observed that the earlier sown wheats nearly always escape1 from their coming into ear and advancing to ripeness before the aphis has increased its countless broods2 so then we should recommend early wheat sowing1 wherever and whenever practicable1 as a preventive of the pest2 in fact1 the being in good time with all farm work has every advantage4 #e4 ,the two affections of the grain in our table are widely different in their modes of attack1 but both tend to lessen the quantity of produce4 ,the first1 the ,ear-,cockle 7,vitrio tritici7 is an affection of the grain1 which at starting it will be well to distinguish from smut or bunt4 ,in the latter1 the grain is filled with what appears a black powder1 the grains of which the microscope shows to be a fungus2#ba whilst in the cockle the seed1 which is purple externally--hence called 8purples0--is filled with what appears to be white cotton wool4 ,this1 under the microscope1 has the appearance of a multitude of eels4 ,these are1 indeed1 minute infusorial worms1 and are exceedingly curious2 the smallest portion of the cottony substance taken on a pin's point and just moistened with water1 often showing thousands of the eels under a good instrument2 for drawings and descriptions of which and good drawings 7after ,bauer71 we should recommend the reader to consult 8,curtis's ,farm ,insects40 ,a damp season favours the production of these2 hence drainage and such conditions as increase the effects of damp and cold are to be guarded against4 #ba ,see ante1 p4 #ahc4 ,the ,corn ,moth is best known by the presence of a small1 slightly hairy maggot1 which is found to eat the flour from the grain2 this is the larva of a small moth1 probably the ,butalis cerealella4 ,it is easily found in the chaff scales2 and during the summer of #ahfa we saw as many as six in a single ear1 and it was1 indeed1 one of the causes of the bad yield of that year4 ,we know of no remedy for this evil2 but1 perhaps1 if we were better acquainted with the habits of the moth itself1 means might be devised for taking it before the eggs are laid in the young ear of corn4 #f4 ,the ,corn or ,granary ,weevil 7,calandra granaria7 and others4--,these attack corn in store1 and probably differ in species according to the kind of corn4 ,this is a small beetle1 the female of which makes a hole in the grain and deposits an egg1 which soon hatches into the maggot2 this eats out the grain with great assiduity until its partial period of rest in the pupa state2 which passed1 the beetle finishes the work1 and may frequently be found in the interior of wheat4 ,the usual structures of granaries and corn-stores contribute to the increase of this pest1 as they are mostly dark and ill-ventilated chambers4 ,the best remedy is to expose the grain to the greatest possible amount of cold1 by spreading it on the floors in hard frosts1 and letting in light and air4 ,curtis quotes the 8,bulletin des ,sciences ,agriculture0 for ,july1 #ahbf1 for the following plan3--8,lay fleeces of wool1 which have not been scoured1 on the grain2 the oily matter attracts the insects amongst the wool1 where they soon die1 from what cause is not exactly known4 ,m4 ,b4 ,c4 ,payrandeau related to the ,philomatic ,society of ,paris that his father had made the discovery in #ahaa1 and had since practised it on a large scale40 #g4 ,the moth that visits granaries 7,tinia granella7 may here be adverted to4 ,the presence of the larv of the little grain moth may soon be ascertained in the granary1 when one finds several grains of corn united by a web1 to which will be attached bunches of small granules1 which are the exuvi of the one or two caterpillars belonging to each group of corns4 ,the best method of preventing this is thorough cleanliness1 light1 and ventilation in the granary4 ,if1 however1 the moth has got possession1 then we recommend sulphur to be burnt in iron pans--old saucepan lids are as good as anything--stopping up all the crevices4 ,this will be an effectual remedy1 not only for the moth1 but for the weevils and other insect pests2 and if a pound of sulphur be occasionally burnt in the barn1 even rats must succumb to the gas which is generated4 #h4 ,the ,meal-worm ,beetle 7,tenebrio molitor71 which generates commonly in the meal-bins of this country1 and the ,t4 obscurus1 which has been introduced in ,american flour1 are two forms of beetle1 the larv of which are 8meal-worms40 ,these are best prevented by not keeping too large a store of flour1 always having this dry and in the best condition1 and storing1 as far as possible1 in a clean1 light1 and airy position4 ,indeed1 as ,curtis remarks1 8,cleanliness is the best guard against these insects20 and we cannot better conclude this chapter than by further quoting the following from this excellent author3-- ,in looking back to the variety of insects that feed upon corn1 and the multitudes that are often congregated in one heap1 there can be no doubt that a very large portion must be occasionally ground up with the corn and consumed by the public4 ,this is not only a disagreeable fact1 but it may be the source of very serious consequences1 for ,i think it not improbable that many diseases might be traced to the insects which are converted with the infested flour into bread1 amounting to such a large percentage1 that if they have the slightest medicinal or deleterious qualities1 it is impossible to deny the influence they must exercise upon the human system4 ,i have known bushels of cocoa-nuts1 which were every one worm-eaten and full of maggots1 with their webs1 excrement1 cast-off skins1 pup1 and cocoons1 all ground down to make chocolate1 flavoured1 ,i suppose1 with vanilla6 ,,chapter ,,xxx4 ,,science ,,in ,,the ,,cultivation ,,of ,,corn4 ,the object of the present chapter will be to point out the principles concerned in the more immediate acts connected with the cultivation of corn4 ,in so doing in the present case1 as in the discussion of the preceding subjects1 it may not be out of place here to state that it has not1 nor will it be1 our object to enter into the every-day practical details of crop-management1 but to dwell more particularly upon those points in cultivation which may be said to belong more especially to the science of the subject4 ,this chapter1 then1 will be more especially devoted to the consideration of the three following subjects3-- #ast4 ,on the uses of special manures for corn crops4 #bnd4 ,on the quality and quantity of corn to be used for seed4 #crd4 ,on the period for harvesting corn4 #ast4 ,on the ,uses of ,manures4--,it is pretty generally agreed that special manuring for corn1 when grown in the ordinary shifting crop system1 is positively injurious1 and more truly so1 if farmyard dung be employed4 ,still1 on our own farm we were over-persuaded to give a dressing of rotted dung to some wheat4 ,as the previous crop1 turnips1 had all but failed1 we yielded on being told that it was a common ,dorset custom1 but1 fortunately1 only to the extent of a few acres down the middle of the field1 on which part1 at harvest1 the main of the crop had fallen to the ground1 with the affection known as knee-bent4 ,there was plenty of straw1 not at all good2 but the yield of plump grains can hardly be half of those of the other parts of the field4 ,as a general rule1 we have never observed special manuring to be useful except as top-dressings in early spring1 at which time soot1 or1 better still1 a mixture of soot and guano1 may be sown on most wheat crops to advantage1 and more especially where the young plant has been injured by the slug or the wire-worm1 as in these cases the lower joint and the winter root are destroyed4 ,if1 then1 the young plant be at this time stimulated with the mixture as advised1 and the crop be afterwards rolled1 we supply nutriment just in the form that it can be readily assimilated1 the injured plants send out new roots from the second joint1 and begin a fresh life1 whilst the uninjured ones push out new buds--stolons--and all grow the better1 because the roller has aided in firmly fixing the plants in the ground4 ,there have been those who would tell us that manure can be best used to wheat by subjecting the seed to various steeps2 but we need hardly stop to question the folly of the assertions which from time to time re-appear1 both at home and abroad1 upon this point4 ,thus far the subject of manures has been treated as for wheat as a shifting crop2 but this crop has been grown year after year on the same soil1 and1 in some cases1 without an apparent diminution in quantity or quality4 ,one instance that came under our own observation was in ,gloucestershire1 where a cottager had grown wheat on the same plot of ground for thirteen years1 and1 for aught ,i know1 it may still be continued4 ,hence the subsoil was ,lias shale2 but it was well drained and cultivated as a garden1 the manure employed being the contents of the garden-house4 ,in cases of this kind1 an annual application of manure is absolutely necessary2 and we are happy to find that different manures and their effects have been experimented upon and duly noted1 for the same plots1 during a period of no less than twenty years1 and that by such careful and reliable inquirers as ,j4 ,b4 ,lawes1 ,esq41 ,f4,r4,s41 and ,dr4 ,gilbert1 ,f4,r4,s42 full details of the results of whose labours upon this subject will be found in ,vol4 ,,xxv4 of the ,journal of the ,royal ,agricultural ,society of ,england1 from which we have extracted some of the following general conclusions as to average yield and weight of corn for the lengthened periods quoted3-- #a4 ,,table ,,of ,,results ,,of ,,experiments ,,at ,,rothamshead1 ,,by ,,messrs4 ,,lawes ,,and ,,gilbert4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,average ,plots4 ,manures used every year4 ,average4 weight ,years4 per bush4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,bush4 ,pecks4 #a ,unmanured every year #af #a #egi #bj years1 #ahdd-fc4 #b ,ammonia salts alone #bd #a #egf #ai years1 #ahde-fc4 #c #ad tons ,farmyard manure #cb #a #fjj #bj years1 #ahdd-fc4 #d ,unmanured every year #ae #b #efe #e ,mixed mineral manure alone #ah #a #egi #f ,ammonia salts alone #bb #b #eei #ab years1 #g ,ammonia salts and mixed #aheb-fc4 mineral manure #cf #a #ehd #h #ad tons ,farmyard manure #ce #a #eic ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,a glance at this table shows us the wonderful results of continuous manuring for the soil operated upon2 we might1 however1 expect that1 though the general conclusions would probably not greatly vary1 yet that there would not be absolute uniformity in these respects in different soils and districts4 #b4 ,on the ,quality and ,quantity of ,seed-corn4--,it seems to be generally concluded that a thin seed1 from poorer soil1 should be preferred for land of a better quality2 but our own experience would lead us to look for seed from as great a change of soil as possible1 and to procure therefrom not a poor1 but as good a sample as we could4 ,we should1 however1 look for our seed1 not from a richer soil or a warmer climate1 but the reverse4 ,oats1 for example1 as previously shown1 degenerate1 even to wild ones1 if the poor seed be brought from a poor1 cold soil1 to be cultivated in land still poorer4 ,we1 however1 on our farm1 sowed oats during the past season weighing #dh lb4 per bushel on a sandy soil2 and1 although our return was not so large in bushels as though we had sown black oats1 yet their weight was but just under that of the seed4 ,now1 these oats were from ,canada1 and1 no doubt1 the warm climate of the west of ,england suited them as to change4 ,as regards barley1 we prefer a good sample for seed1 if it be of home-growth2 at the same time1 very thin samples from ,russia1 or the ,states1 often do well4 ,last season1 we sowed some ,american barley of so poor a quality1 that it was impossible to tell its name1 but which gave for #ej acres an average yield of #dj bushels per acre1 so even and plump1 that only #bh sacks of 8tailing0 were separated1 and the bulk--good ,chevallier barley--was equal to any in the market4 ,in cultivating wheat1 climate must ever be considered1 as only in warm situations can the finest samples of white wheats be grown4 ,upland cold positions are suitable for red wheats1 and so are undrained lowlands2 still1 good farming will render it possible to grow white wheats where1 before drainage and other ameliorating processes1 such was impossible4 ,as regards the quantity to be sown per acre1 it will be seen that the margin is sufficiently wide1 if we say that it lies between half a peck and half a quarter4 ,in garden cultivation1 with deep digging1 and in the absence of weeds1 birds1 or insects1 where you can choose your time for every operation1 dibble in a seed in a place1 the minimum quantity may suffice1 as good crops have been got from a very small quantity of seed2 but garden experimenters rather too positively lay down the law1 when they tell the farmer that this thin seeding will do equally well on broad acres1 where every operation is circumscribed by circumstances4 ,where there is so much to do1 you cannot always get everything done at the right season1 even if the soil were favourable for so doing2 and the period at which you get your land ready for the seed1 and the time of sowing it1 makes a wide difference4 ,but there is another point of even--if possible--greater importance2 namely1 the quality of the seed4 ,now1 on our farm we always ascertain the germinating power of every sample of seed before sowing2 and from this1 as well as from the results of numerous experiments on this subject1 we have arrived at the conclusion1 that there are immense differences in this respect1 which cannot possibly be made out at sight1 but can only be ascertained experimentally4 ,to make this matter clear1 we append a table 7#b7 of the results of experiments on this point upon no less than forty-two samples1 which were tried in #ahfc4 ,now1 these experiments showed a want of germinating power1 in some of the samples1 of more than #ej per cent41 and in the #db samples an average of #bde per cent42 from which it will be seen that sometimes the thick sower is not the thick seeder1 and his failure of a crop is not always due to slugs and wireworms4 ,these experiments were published in the ,agricultural ,gazette1 and they evoked some remarks from a learned divine1 so unfair and uncandid1 as only to be excused by the nature of his professional education and modes of thought4 ,now1 when this gentleman affected to believe that these things could not be so1 and that with him every seed germinated1 we could only conclude that the days of miracles had not quite ceased2 but as1 in later numbers of the ,gazette1 his opinions have been somewhat modified in this respect1 we yet think him capable of riding a hobby too hard1 though not until the pace has thrown him down and broken his knees will he own it4 #b4 ,,table ,,of ,,the ,,germination ,,of ,,wheat4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,no4 ,label4 ,weight ,price ,came ,failed ,remarks4 ,wheats of #ahfb4 per per up per bushel4bushel4pr4 cent4 cent4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- s4 d4 ,these are six #a ,tasmania #ff 444 #df #ed samples from the #b ,ditto #fje 444 #h #ib the ,international #c ,tuscan1 from ,victoria #fh 444 #id #f ,exhibition of #d ,ditto ditto #fc 444 #gh #bb #ahfb1 to which #e ,ditto ditto #fg 444 #ij #aj they were for- #f ,tasmania #fj 444 #cj #gj warded by various colonists4 ,taken by us2 #g ,ditto #eie 444 #bh #gb probably the same as ,no4 #f4 #h ,talavera #ff 444 #ih #b ,four samples from #i ,spalding #fcc 444 #id #f ,hainhault ,farm-- #aj ,thick-set ,rough ,chaff #fe 444 #ajj ,none amongst the best #aa ,morton's ,blood ,straw #fbf 444 #id #f that have come before us4 #ab ,hallett's ,pedigree #fbi 444 #gh #bb ,communicated4 #ac ,creeping ,wheat #ffe 444 #ih #b ,ditto4 #ad ,bland's ,giant #ei 444 #if #d ,ditto4 ,prolific #ae ,fuller's ,red #efh 444 #ih #b ,a poor grain from the ,cotteswolds4 ,samples taken by us from ,cirences- #af ,red ,straw ,lammas #efh #g #j #hb #ah ter ,market4 ,no4 #ag ,hallett's ,pedigree #fdf #aj #f #hh #ab #ba not a seed #ah ,browick #ehe #f #f #hh #ab wheat2 it con- #ai ,red ,chaff ,white #ei #f #f #gh #bb tains #gf1hjj #bj ,free-trade #eie #f #c #hh #ab seeds of corn #ba ,russian #ee #e #g #cb #fh cockle and #fd1jjj seeds of rye in the bushel4 #bb ,burwell #ehe #h #j #ah #hb ,communicated #bc ,rough ,chaff ,talavera #fje #i #j #ij #aj from a well-known seedsman4 #bd ,talavera #fc #aj #j #ch #fb #be ,corner's ,rough ,chaff #fb #aj #j #eb #dh #bf ,red ,browick #fe #h #j #eh #db #bg ,chidham #ffe #aj #j #gj #cj #bh ,lammas #fcc #h #j #eh #db #bi ,britannia1 or ,red #h #j #ed #df ,these formed a ,thickset #ff most interesting #cj ,red ,nursery #fg #i #j #ib #h series of several #ca ,col4 ,quentin's ,giant #fh #i #j #ch #fb sorts of wheat-- #cb ,kessingland #fcc #h #j #hf #ad most of which #cc ,april #fjc #ab #j #hd #af looked remark- #cd ,golden ,drop #fcc #h #j #ib #h ably well as hand #ce ,shirreff's ,bearded #fje #i #j #gd #bf samples4 ,red #cf ,essex ,rough ,chaff #ffc #i #j #if #d #cg ,hunter's ,white #fj #h #j #fj #dj ,out of condition4 #ch ,shirreff's ,bearded #fcb #aj #j #if #d ,white #ci ,white ,trump #fcc #i #j #if #d #dj ,grace's ,white #fe #aj #j #ch #fb #da ,hertfordshire ,white #fbb #h #j #id #f #db ,hallett's ,pedigree #ff #aj #j #ib #h ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- #c4 ,,table ,,of ,,the ,,germination ,,of ,,barley1 #ahfc4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,price ,came ,failed ,no4 ,label4 per up per ,remarks4 quar- pr4 cent4 ter4 cent4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ s4 #a ,from ,sherborne #bi #ih #b #b ,martock #bi #ih #b #c ,lulworth #bd #if #d ,all market samples4 #d ,crewkerne #bh #gf #bd #e ,mr4 ,masters #bh #if #d #f ,odessa #bd #if #d #g ,from ,salisbury #bd #ajj #j ,salisbury is considered #h ,ditto #bd #if #d one of the best places for #i ,ditto #bd #ij #aj seed barley4 ,the samples #aj ,ditto #bd #ib #h are mostly from the ,chalk #aa ,ditto #bd #ajj #j ,rock4 #ab ,from ,langport #bh #ajj #j #ac ,chard #bg #hb #ah ,like most of our speci- #ad ,stiff-straw #bh #hb #ah mens1 market samples4 #ae ,nottingham #cb #ij #aj #af ,chevallier #bf #if #d #ag ,from ,yeovil #bf #gj #cj ,this is a low-germinating #ah ,ditto #bf #gj #cj series2 their uniformity of #ai ,ditto #bf #hd #af price and difference in #bj ,ditto #bf #id #f germination is remarkable4 #ba ,ditto #bf #hd #af #bb ,chevallier1 ,two good samples1 and the sown on farm #bh #if #d yield of the crop of fifty #bc ,american1 ditto #bh #ajj #j acres each about #cf bush4 per acre4 #bd ,ditto #cj #ib #h #be ,new from farm1 #cj #ih #b #ahfd --- --- ,average #ib #h ,in round numbers4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,seeing1 then1 that there were such variations in the germinating powers of wheat1 we determined to try a series of experiments with barley2 and from the results 7table #c71 it will be seen that1 though the margin is not so wide1 yet great differences occur2 still1 with regard to this grain1 we constantly find that in samples too thin and poor for even the farmyard poultry to pick up1 yet that much of this is capable of germination4 ,still1 theory and practice confirm the assumption that in ,england very much seed is wasted by being too thickly sown2 and1 if a farmer can get his land well prepared and in good time1 we conclude1 as a matter of practical experience1 that just half the seed usually sown will be better than the double quantity2 but we should1 as a rule1 make a difference of at least half a peck for each week that we were beyond the best time of wheat-sowing in any particular district4 ,on our own farm we sowed four and six pecks of wheat where double the quantity had been the rule before ,christmas1 and from six to eight pecks afterwards2 six pecks of barley and oats1 where a sack had previously been the rule4 ,with the wheat and barley we were right1 except in the very late-sown of the latter1 when time was only sufficient to grow a single head1 and not to allow of stooling4 ,here a sack would have given a better result4 ,the same with our oats3 thin seeding caused them to run to straw2 they were on a poor sand1 taller than the men who cut them2 but had we doubled our seed1 we conclude we should have had shorter straw and more corn4 ,if1 then1 these things be so1 the judgment of the farmer will be best shown in rightly weighing all the circumstances of his case2 and in the matter of seeding1 as with physic1 he will find that homopathy alone is only quackery4 ,,chapter ,,xxxi4 ,,on ,,harvesting ,,corn4 ,a knowledge of when corn is in the best condition to be harvested is a matter of great importance2 and hence some observations upon this subject may fitly conclude this part of our work4 ,not to enter too deeply into chemical matters1 we may state1 at least as a probable general conclusion1 that there is a period in the growth of grain and pulse crops before they are ripe1 in which all the feeding qualities will be found diffused in the several plants2 a little later1 and the feeding matters will be found more particularly concentrated in the seed4 ,now1 if oats1 peas1 and beans1 be cut in this 8green0 state1 they make either a fresh food1 or can be dried into hay1 which1 when cut into chaff1 is found to be an excellent feeding material2 and as such crops can be quickly cleared and cheaply employed1 there is no doubt but that they will henceforward be more generally used in this way than formerly4 ,but1 again1 in ripening of wheat there would appear to be a point in its progress short of 8dead ripe10 in which every quality is fully stored in the seed2 and1 after this period1 the seed-covering becomes thicker1 and makes more bran in proportion to flour3 facts made out from the following results of experiments of samples in three different states3-- ,,table ,,of ,,the ,,results ,,of ,,experiments ,,with ,,wheat4 ,sample #a4--,wheat gathered when the grain was sweet1 and almost milky4 ,the stalks green4 ,date1 ,july #beth1 #ahef4 ,sample #b4--,wheat from the same field1 gathered when in the state of hardening grain4 ,the stalk just yellowed all the way down4 ,august #bnd4 ,sample #c4--,wheat from the same field1 gathered when what is termed 8dead ripe10 having been1 in fact1 left longer than it otherwise would1 for want of hands4 ,august #ahth4 #d4 ,,table ,,of ,,results ,,for ,,twelve ,,ears ,,of ,,wheat ,,dried4 8,,morton',s ,,red ,,straw ,,white40 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,sample4 ,weight ,no4 of grains,weight of of of grains of the ears4 corn4 corn4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,grains4 ,grains4 #a #djj #efi #bhd ,grain shrivelled4 #b #cgi #dca #bid ,grain plump4 #c #dfh #dec #cgg ,grain coarser4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- #e4 ,,table ,,of ,,analysis ,,of ,,the ,,corn ,,for ,,the ,,twelve ,,ears4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,per-centage,per-centage ,sample4,measure4 of of flour4 bran4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- #a #ge #gjd #bif ,flour of a fine #b #fh #gad #bhf white quality in #c #hh #fcg #cfc all the samples4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,now1 this shows that although the medium ripe ears in sample #b had a less number of grains1 yet their per-centage of flour1 as compared with bran1 was greatly on the increase4 ,still1 it will be seen that sample #c has the advantage in measure3 hence1 then1 unless the miller will agree to give a better price for a 8gay0#bb sample1 it will be to the farmer's advantage to leave it to fully ripen1 if he can make sure that it can be kept from shedding in harvesting1 and the attacks of birds4 #bb ,the farmer's term for early-cut corn1 in both the middle and ,west of ,england4 ,as regards barley1 if our crop is required for home use for feeding purposes1 we should cut at least a week earlier than most people1 and we should have as good feeding quality1 without loss from winds1 loss in harvesting1 and from birds2 but1 if our land grows malting barley1 the sample will be a better1 and more uniform in germinating1 when 8dead ripe40 ,during the last season 7#ahfd71 our pupil1 ,f4 ,witts1 ,esq41 collected bunches of corn from a crop of fine white oats at the under-mentioned dates4 ,from these we counted #ejj seeds1 and took their weights2 and1 though we confess that many such experiments will be required to settle the whole facts of the case1 yet the results given in table #f are so curious1 that we hope in future to direct our pupils in carrying out many similar experiments4 ,the two samples1 each of the #bjth and #bast1 were probably obtained from different parts of the same field1 yet they lead us to conclude1 as do those of the other dates1 that a single day1 if a hot summer1 makes a great deal of difference4 ,now1 the crop was not cut until a week after the #bast1 and yet we are persuaded that we should have gained by cutting on the #bjth rather than later1 and1 at least1 we should have prevented much loss from 8shed0 seeds4 #f4 ,,table ,,of ,,ripening ,,of ,,oats4 ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,no4 ,weight ,date4 of in ,remarks4 seeds4grains4 ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,july #i #ejj #aaj ,the interiors of the grains ,july #i #ejj #abj only milky4 ,july #aa #ejj #afe ,the interiors just beginning ,july #ad #ejj #afe to harden4 ,july #af #ejj #bjge ,seeds ripe1 but not beginning ,july #ah #ejj #bcj to shed4 ,july #bj #ejj #bej ,july #bj #ejj #bfbe ,ripe1 and shedding more ,july #ba #ejj #bege every day4 ,july #ba #ejj #bfge ,dec4 #ae #ejj #bej ,thrashed on the named date4 ,weight1 #dg lb4 per bushel4 ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,illustration3 ,cratgus oxyacanthoides4 ,glabrous ,white-thorn4 ,,how ,,to ,,grow ,,good ,,fences4 ,,chapter ,,xxxii4 ,,on ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,fences4 ,fences1 as boundary lines to estates and as a means of dividing and separating land into convenient parts or fields1 are worthy of greater attention than we think is paid to them either by the landlord or the tenant4 ,but it is perhaps the fact that the landlord on the one hand too often looks upon them as mere boundaries1 or deems that he is only personally concerned in them to that extent2 while the tenant on the other hand--and especially if his holding be precarious--can hardly be expected to take that care and defray those expenses which growing good fences and keeping them in order must necessarily entail4 ,in treating this subject1 then1 we shall endeavour to show that the study of how to grow good fences1 by putting the matter upon correct principles1 will tend to the good of all parties concerned4 ,fences are of two well-known types3 ,dead fences1 such as the natural boundaries of streams1 artificial ditches1 raised mounds1 walls1 railings1 c42 ,live fences1 grown from living trees or shrubs4 ,these latter1 then1 as forming no unimportant part of farm cultivation1 will occupy our attention in the next few chapters4 ,with regard to dead fences1 those in more general farm use may be briefly described under the heads of railings1 mounds1 and stone walls4 ,railings are of various kinds1 according to circumstances2 the simplest form of these consist of piles driven into the ground at about five feet apart and secured by split larch on the top1 and either larch cross pieces below or iron hoops4 ,in making these the landlord usually finds the rough material1 the tenant paying for the work1 the usual cost for cutting-out being a penny for each pile4 ,this kind of fencing is mostly employed as a protection to young live fences1 or to fill up gaps in older ones4 ,mounds are simply lines of raised earthworks1 and are used where stone or fencing materials are expensive1 or where live fences can only be grown with difficulty4 ,sometimes these elevations are crowned with privet or some light hedge-plant4 ,they are occasionally employed as field boundaries by river sides1 where they subserve the purpose of keeping out floods1 but usually the mound is more used as a division of property than as a fence4 ,stone walls are the commonest fences over miles of country in the middle of ,england1 the ,cotteswold hills being remarkable for dry stone walls--the stone for these 8,oolite freestones0 being well adapted for the purpose--of course they are dry1 that is1 built without mortar1 as this would render the work too costly for field boundaries4 ,these walls have a wild and desolate appearance1 but they are commended by some as not harbouring birds or vermin2 but this is a questionable good1 for as regards birds1 we contend that the stone wall districts would be better off if they afforded shelter for a few more2 but stoats1 mice1 snails1 beetles1 and small fry of the kind of no use whatever1 are absolutely protected by the stone wall4 ,it is said again1 that the stone wall offers little chance for weeds1 but to those who have been accustomed to observe about a yard on either side of a wall constantly left unploughed and uncleaned1 stone walls will be considered as nurseries and protectors of weeds1 and those1 too1 of a highly mischievous character1 as couch thistles1 docks1 c4 ,with regard to the couch grass 7,triticum repens71 we have traced it running from this source for a couple of yards into the ploughed field1 with the inevitable consequence that in the furrows it is cut into convenient lengths to multiply the pest2 and it has been on this account that we have ever been careful to direct dragging and harrowing to be done in the direction of the walls1 before proceeding with these operations over the rest of the field1 and we recommend the cutting down of weeds under these walls before a crop of corn be carried4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiii4 ,,on ,,the ,,plants ,,for 8,,live0 ,,fences4 ,the native plants which have been employed for living fences include most of our indigenous trees and shrubs1 with some few which1 if not native1 have yet been for a long time naturalised throughout ,great ,britain4 ,the most important of these will be found in the following list3-- ,oak ,beech ,forest trees usually forming ,group #a4 ,hornbeam fences by means of undergrowth ,ash from lopping and ,elm cutting4 ,maple ,whitethorn ,blackthorn ,trees and shrubs forming fences ,group #b4 ,crab by reason of a thick-growth ,buckthorn and repellant thorns and spines4 ,holly ,nut ,privet ,shrubs which for the most part ,group #c4 ,dogwood fill up badly-grown fences4 ,spearwood ,these are really weeds in ,guelder ,rose good hedges4 ,elder ,in the first group1 it may be remarked1 that oak1 ash1 and elm are seldom1 if ever1 planted for hedges2 for in the first place these plants are usually too expensive1 and in the next they are not esteemed as hedge plants4 ,they mostly find their way in the fence by seeds being sown by the wind1 as is often the case with ash-keys1 or they may start up a bush of underwood after being cut down as hedge-row timber2 in either case they are very unsightly in appearance1 and far from good in hedges4 ,trees should not be grown in hedge-rows where the fence is to be perfect1 as these overshadow the best hedge-plants1 and the sides of the boles always offer weak places4 ,beech and hornbeam are frequently used for garden and smaller fences1 and1 when well grown1 are really useful as a protection1 as their withered leaves are persistent1 that is1 they do not fall off until new ones are formed4 ,they are grown comparatively quickly1 and will flourish in poor light soils1 and if strong plants be made to cross each other in planting1 they may be trained to form a strong fence4 ,in the second group1 the whitethorn 7,cratgus oxyacantha7 stands deservedly at the top of the list2 in fact1 it is the very best hedge-row plant we possess4 ,it is not slow of growth in congenial soil1 especially if well attended to4 ,its thorns render it thoroughly repellant to cattle4 ,it bears cutting1 clipping1 and trimming better than any other2 and though variable in its behaviour in different soils1 it is1 after all1 capable of bearing a greater diversity in this respect than any other of our list4 ,the whitethorn1 then1 is deservedly held in the highest repute for the growth of the most perfect live fence for all ordinary farm purposes2 the blackthorn1 crab1 and buckthorn being tolerated only because they possess some of the same characteristics as the whitethorn4 ,as regards the latter1 it is exceedingly long-lived1 and1 if left to itself1 forms trees of considerable size1 which are occasionally very beautiful as forming part of park scenery2 still in hedges it can be kept to any size1 and cutting it in causes a new wood to spring up1 which has all the characteristics of a young1 quick plant4 ,these are merits of the greatest importance in favour of the whitethorn1 which will ever make this the best hedge-row plant1 as if we succeed to a whitethorn fence1 which has been trimmed and kept within due bounds1 there is no difficulty in continuing the process2 and so if the hedge be left to grow tall and wild it may be cut out either wholly or partially1 some stems cut half through--as in the process of plashing--laid down1 and so a secure though not so tall a fence be formed1 that will only grow thicker year by year4 ,blackthorn--sloe 7,prunus spinosa7 is formidable enough as regards thorns1 but it cannot stand the same amount of cutting as the whitethorn1 and1 when cut1 its young shoots being almost thornless1 makes a hedge of the sloe the less repellant the more vigorous are its shoots4 ,the crab-apple 7,pyrus malus7 and the buckthorn 7,rhamnus catharticus7 may be considered as accidental in fences2 and as1 to a great extent1 they will grow with the quicks and suffer the same treatment without growing as upstarts on the one hand1 or refusing to start again after crippling on the other1 they are both tolerated in fences without quite getting a character for being hedgerow weeds4 ,the holly 7,ilex aquifolium7 possesses a wonderful repellant armour in its spinous1 evergreen leaves1 on which1 account it is esteemed as a plant for fences3-- ,a hedge of holly1 thieves that would invade1 ,repulses like a growing palisade2 ,whose numerous leaves such orient greens invest1 ,as in deep winter do the spring arrest4 ,this is one of our native trees1 frequently attaining to a great size on even wild1 stony places1 with only a thin layer of soil4 ,we have seen some fine examples1 large enough to secure the holly a place among our native forest trees on the 8stony ,cotteswolds10 as ,shakespeare calls the high ,gloucestershire range2 it is1 however1 of slow growth1 or it would1 doubtless1 be more used for fences3 still in poor soils it will1 after all1 grow as fast as the whitethorn1 ,evelyn is eloquent in praise of holly4 ,he says3-- ,is there under heaven a more glorious and refreshing object of the kind than an impregnable hedge of about four hundred feet in length1 nine feet high1 and five in diameter1 which ,i can show in my now ruined gardens at ,saye ,court 7thanks to the ,czar of ,muscovy#bc71 at any time of the year1 glittering with its armed and varnished leaves8 ,the taller standards1 at orderly distances1 blushing with their natural coral2 it mocks the rudest assaults of the weather1 beasts1 or hedge-breakers1-- ,et illum nemo impun lacessit4 #bc ,the ,czar ,peter the ,great resided at ,mr4 ,evelyn's house1 in order that he might be near the yard at ,deptford1 during his stay in ,england2 but we do not see why he should be thanked for the holly hedge4 ,it is with us of two eminent kinds1 the prickly and smoother leaved2 or1 as some term it1 the free holly1 not unwelcome1 when tender1 to sheep and other cattle4 ,there is also of the white berried1 and a golden and silver1 variegated in six or seven differences1 which proceeds from no difference in the species1 but accidentally1 and natur lusu1 as most such variegations do1 since we are taught how to effect it artificially1 namely by sowing the seeds1 and planting in gravelly soil mixed with store of chalk1 pressing it hard down3 it being certain that they return to their native colour when sown in richer mould1 and that all the fibres of the roots recover their natural food4 ,the differences in the colour of the fruit1 as of the colour and shape of the leaves1 is truly a matter of variety4 ,the red-berried holly1 under the name of 8,christmas10 is quite an article of commerce at the festive season--so much so that a friend of ours in the neighbourhood of ,stroud1 who this year 7#ahfd-e7 had a large tree well covered with berries1 assured us that he had great difficulty in preventing it going to market with some of the marauders1 who scour the country in search of anything they can sell4 ,in the ,worcester market we for many years noticed a sprinkling of white1 or1 rather1 yellowish-berried holly1 a spray or two of which was always put with the bundle of the red-berried in effecting the many ,christmas sales4 ,as regards the difference in the leaves1 although it is true that in the gardens we have a smooth and unarmed variety1 however dwarf the specimen may be1 yet in wild examples the smooth leaves will1 for the most part1 only be found on the upper parts of tall trees2 the poet1 then1 has been as true to ,nature as graceful in art in the poem of which the following lines form a part3-- ,below1 a circling fence1 its leaves are seen ,wrinkled and keen4 ,no grazing cattle through their prickly round ,can reach to wound2 ,but as they grow where nothing is to fear1 ,smooth and unarmed1 the pointless leaves appear4 ,southey4 ,in growing hedges1 the clipping to keep them within bounds helps to keep the holly spinous at any age4 ,evelyn further descants upon the excellency of holly for hedges2 and as the following remarks are so truly practical1 we quote them in this place3-- ,the holly is an excellent plant for hedges1 and would claim the preference to the hawthorn1 were it not for the slowness of its growth while young1 and the difficulty of transplanting it when grown to a moderate size4 ,it will grow best in cold1 stony land1 where1 if once it takes well1 the hedges may be rendered so close and thick as to keep out all sorts of animals4 ,these hedges may be raised by sowing the berries in the place where they are designed to remain1 or by plants of three or four years' growth2 but as the berries continue in the ground near eighteen months before the plants appear1 few persons care to wait so long2 therefore1 the usual and best method is to plant the hedges with plants of the before-mentioned age4 ,but where this is practised1 they should be transplanted either early in autumn1 or deferred till toward the end of ,march2 then the surface of the ground should be covered with mulch near their roots1 after they are planted1 to keep the earth moist2 and if the season should prove dry1 the plants should be watered1 at least once a-week1 until they have taken root1 otherwise they will be in danger of miscarrying1 for which reason the autumnal planting is generally preferred to the spring1 especially in dry grounds4 ,columella's description of a good hedge is highly applicable to one made of holly1 8,neu sit pecori1 neu pervia furi40 ,of the rind of this tree birdlime is made4 ,alas6 in vain with warmth and food ,you cheer the songsters of the wood2 ,the barbarous boy from you prepares1 ,on treacherous twigs1 his viscous snares2 ,yes1 the poor bird you nursed shall find ,destruction in your rifled rind4 ,if we except the ,privet1 the examples of plants in our third group are quite unfit for hedge purposes1 as they are entirely without offensive armature4 ,privet hedges are not unfrequent in gardens1 where they are useful for boundaries1 blinds1 and to act as shelter1 but as a farm hedge-plant it is quite useless4 ,the nut1 guelder rose1 and elder have none of the qualities for hedge growth that are required by the former2 on the contrary1 they have large leaves1 and so smother the quicks if they grow with them1 and when cut they shoot rapidly1 especially in the case of the elder 7,sambucus niger71 and so make a hedgerow look ragged by here and there growing a yard or so above the ordinary hedge-plants2 but1 besides this1 the lower stems get free from leaves1 and hence gaps are easily made in bushes of nut1 dogwood1 elder1 c4 ,in the above description of hedgerow plants we have omitted all mention of yew1 holly1 laurustinas1 furze1 and the like1 as being more properly materials for ornamental or garden hedges4 ,the furze1 however1 is sometimes used on the tops of mounds1 in some sandy districts1 as a fence plant1 but the constant dying of the old wood and the consequent exercise by the cottager of a fancied right to pull the hedge to pieces for firing render it almost impossible to employ it to any advantage4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiv4 ,,on ,,the ,,rearing ,,and ,,planting ,,of ,,hedges4 ,the rearing of plants for hedges is a matter of so much importance that one can well understand how it has come to be a business of itself2 and as it is better that it should be so1 both landlords and tenants will do rightly to encourage its being done well4 ,if1 then1 we take it for granted that the whitethorn is the best hedge-plant1 it will be best to inquire--as a contribution to the science of the subject--whether there are not some important varieties of this plant2 if so1 we should determine which is the best1 and encourage its cultivation4 ,as the case at present stands1 nurserymen take no pains in the matter2 they usually employ children to collect the 8haws0--the name by which the fruits are known--and it is a matter of perfect indifference where or how they obtain them4 ,now1 as regards the common hawthorn1 experience has taught us that seeds obtained from trees in cold1 wild1 stony places1 such as have established themselves about old quarries on the ,cotteswold-hills1 more quickly make good plants than those from the pampered hedge-row in the deep vale-lands4 ,but1 in addition to this1 having some years ago observed that certain whitethorn-trees came into flower a full fortnight before others1 and this on the cold forest-marble clays in the exposed country of ,north ,wilts and south of ,cirencester1 we were induced to examine this tree more closely2 and the result of the inquiry was to induce a belief that this is a much hardier1 quicker1 and more certain growing plant for hedge-rows than the commoner form4 ,with these views established in our mind1 we were not a little pleased to find that in the beautiful new edition of 8,english ,botany10 by the accomplished editor1 ,j4 ,t4 ,syme1 ,esq41 ,f4,l4,s41 c41 figures and descriptions are given of the two forms2 and we here reproduce in opposite columns the descriptions referred to with a figure of the early form we have mentioned1 that our readers may compare it with the common whitethorn3-- ,cratgus oxyacantha4 _/-------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,cratgus oxyacanthoides ,cratgus monogyna 7,glabrous ,whitethorn74 7,common ,whitethorn74 ,plate ,,cccclxxix4 7,e4,b47 ,plate ,,cccclxxx4 7,e4,b47 ,leaves obovate or rhomboid- ,leaves rhomboidal or rhomboidal- obovate1 with #c to #e lobes1 ovate1 with #c to #e lobes1 margins margins slightly convex from the straight or concave from the base base to the apex of the first to the apex of the first lobe1 lobe1 usually serrated2 lobes usually entire1 except at the scarcely longer than broad1 tips of the lobes2 lobes longer generally rounded4 ,peduncles than broad1 and acute at the commonly glabrous4 ,calyx-tube apex4 ,peduncles generally downy4 glabrous2 segments glabrous1 ,calyx-tube more or less downy2 ovate-deltoid1 acuminate1 segments slightly downy1 ovate- spreading-reflexed1 with recurved triangular1 acuminate1 suddenly points4 ,styles usually #b or #c4 reflexed4 ,style #a4 ,fruit with ,fruit with #b or #c stones4 #a stone4 7,see plate47 ,that the glabrous whitethorn would make the best hedge-row form we have no doubt1 as its free growth and early leafing particularly recommend it2 and besides1 though not the commonest1 we cannot help thinking it to be the hardiest variety1 and one that would be likely to succeed in soils where the ordinary one would be very slow in growth4 ,we have occasionally met with it in nursery-plantations1 as well as in hedge-rows1 where it is distinguished at a glance by its more freely growing twigs and brighter coloured1 quite smooth leaves2 so also1 but more rarely1 we have met with the ,glastonbury thorn in the hedge-row1 which we look upon as a variety of the glabrous thorn1 a specimen of which is now before us 7,january1 #ahfe71 with both leaves and flowers well in bud1 in the midst of a deep snow and a severe frost4 ,this variety is fabled to have sprung from ,joseph of ,arimatha's staff1 which he is supposed to have planted in the soil at ,glastonbury1 on ,christmas-day1 prior to the foundation of the abbey at that interesting place2 and we have found some natives1 both here and in ,herefordshire--whither perhaps the thorn had spread with sorts of apples1--who adduce the budding of this thorn1 which is usually after our present ,christmas-tide1 as an evidence that ,old ,christmas is the right day4 ,but we must not be too far led away by the legendary lore1 much less the poetry connected with the whitethorn4 ,we come now to a description of the methods to be observed in planting fences1 having taken for granted that quicks be employed for the purpose1 and that we encourage the production of the sort best adapted to our purpose1--an end which1 we conceive1 will be well attained by offering prizes to nurserymen for good and well-grown quicks4 ,in planting hedges1 then1 our first care should be to prepare the ground4 ,this must be done according to the soil2 and here it may be noted that there are two plans of doing this most commonly used1 namely1 raising a mound1 on which the quicks are to be planted without a ditch2 and the making a ditch and planting the quicks on the top of the elevated soil4 ,now1 curiously enough1 the first method is the one usually adopted in light1 porous soils1 as on the sands of ,dorsetshire2 the second1 in porous stones1 where ditches are not required1 as in the oolitic districts2 or else in clay soils1 where alone the ditch is at all advisable4 ,we advise that in light soils1 as sandy loams1 where drainage is not required1 the ground be well dug on the flat before the planting of the quicks2 that in thin soils on brashes the brash be loosened2 and then that some soil be carted on this surface1 making an additional thickness of not more than six inches of soil4 ,as regards the preparation for a fence1 by previously making a ditch1 we object to it on account of the loss of ground2 the ditch1 again1 if forming part of the system of drainage1 is always liable to become choked by weeds1 brambles1 and the like1 with water-plants growing in it4 ,had we to begin the laying-out of ground1 we should make our drainage-system independent of the fences2 and so1 however stiff our clays if well drained1 we should as a rule only raise the soil where a fence was to be planted1 by a few inches4 ,we speak the more strongly on this matter1 because on our own farm we have fences attempted to be grown on the top of mounds five feet high1 and which are made out of some of the lightest agricultural soil in ,england1 so light1 indeed1 as at first to appear to be a nearly pure sand4 ,on the same farm1 again1 we have yawning ditches in oolitic limestone1 which never carried water2 and ,mr4 ,parkes made ditches of this kind on the ,college-farm at ,cirencester1 which have ever been equally dry4 ,these banks and ditches are worse than useless in our own case3 quicks will not grow at all2 and so the bank is covered with all kinds of shrubs1 mixed with weeds1 neither sufficient to keep in cattle1 nor prevent the workmen trespassing in every direction4 ,the next subject for consideration is that of the planting of the quicks4 ,to this end we should choose our plants to be of about four or five years old2 and in all cases1 if possible1 should personally superintend their removal from the nursery4 ,old bundles of quicks1 that have stood it may be two or three weekly markets1 will be sure to cause disappointment4 ,they should be removed so as to secure as many of the rootlets--not merely the larger roots--as possible4 ,in planting1 which should be done as quickly as may be after removal1 avoid the dibble1 or anything which would tend to combine the roots in a small compass4 ,the best plan is to use the spade and to spread the roots carefully2 then cover them up1 and tread the plants firmly into the ground1 taking care1 if it be in a retentive soil1 not to leave holes in which water could stagnate4 ,when so planted1 at about from six to nine inches1 they should annually1 or twice a year if necessary1 be hoed and weeded and have the surface-soil tolerably well stirred1 and1 usually at the end of about the third or fourth year1 be carefully cut down within six or eight inches of the ground1 and the soil well stirred and manured4 ,this would appear to be a waste of time2 but a single year will restore the plants to even a greater height than before1 and with all the elements for a thick impervious bottom1 from which time annual careful trimming--always when the leaves have performed their functions and fall off--will be sufficient to keep the hedge in an improving state4 ,we have here advocated planting in single lines4 ,some1 however1 prefer double rows of quicks2 but the latter are more difficult to keep clean and to cultivate2 and we have ever seen that it is not the quantity1 but the quality and the after-treatment of the plants which result in the compact and repellant hedge4 ,of course1 all young hedges must be protected by a dead fence2 and for this purpose we prefer posts and rails of wood1 or1 if to keep back sheep1 mixed with a line or two of hoop-iron3 this1 according to the situation of the fence1 will be required on only one or on both sides4 ,in planting young beech1 or hornbeam1 or any non-spinous plant1 for hedges1 it is advisable to cross the sets like a series of ,,xxx's1 overlapping each other at about ten or twelve inches apart2 by this means the branches interlace1 and a compact fence1 difficult to penetrate1 will be formed4 ,illustration3 ,e4,b4 #bejd4 ,cratgus monogyna4 ,common ,white-thorn4 ,maple may be used in the same way2 but it never makes a strong fence1 and it has not the advantage of the two former1 as its leaves fall off at the approach of cold weather1 which is not the case with either beech or hornbeam1 whose leaves are eminently persistent1 especially in the earlier part of their lives4 ,if furze hedges be required for any position1 they may easily be grown1 either by taking up young plants from the waste and planting them where wanted1 or by sowing seed1 which can readily be obtained from any seedsman4 ,before sowing1 the ground should be lightly dug1 and the seeds1 after being soaked for a few hours in water1 be thinly sown1 and be only just covered up by the soil4 ,this operation may be done in ,february2 and when the seeds come up1 if they are covered over by branches of cut furze1 or these be stuck here and there in1 or on1 either side of the rows1 the young plants will be protected from cattle and sheep1 which are fond of nibbling the tender furze shoots4 ,,chapter ,,xxxv4 ,,weeds ,,of ,,hedge-,,row ,,fences4 ,as the hawthorn is usually recognized as the best plant for living fences for farm purposes1 it will be expected that this has been almost exclusively employed2 but1 seeing that this is so1 and has been so for many years past1 it is not a little interesting to trace in all hedges a predilection to grow anything else rather than that originally planted4 ,of course1 with anything else we wished to grow1 such interlopers would be eradicated as weeds2 but with hedges it would seem that all kinds of rubbish are left to accumulate1 until a hedge originally all hawthorn has become made up of extraneous matters1 with occasional 8gaps10 which are sure to occur where other plants are allowed1 to the prejudice of the quicks4 ,as examples1 we append the following3-- ,ex4 #a4 ,,analysis ,,of ,a ,,hedge-,,row ,,on ,,the ,,great ,,oolite ,,college ,,farm1 ,,cirencester4 ft4 in4 ,whitethorn #b #f ,maple #d #j ,elder #b #j ,maple and whitethorn confused #d #f ,elder #c #j ,maple1 whitethorn1 and elder1 confused #ab #j ,elder #e #j ,maple1 whitethorn1 and elder1 confused #ba #j ,ash twigs #c #j ,maple #b #j ,ash #c #f ,quicks #ab #j ,elm twigs #c #j ,elder #c #f ,maple #c #j ,elder #c #j ,whitethorn and maple #bd #j ,gap #d #j -------- ,total #aae #j ,ex4 #b4 ,,analysis ,,of ,a ,,hedge ,,on ,,the ,,forest ,,marble1 ,,near ,,cirencester4 ft4 in4 ,whitethorn #c #j ,blackthorn #d #j ,brambles and briars 7,rubus and ,rosa7 #d #f ,ash and gap #d #j ,crab #d #j ,gap and brambles #c #j ,whitethorn #b #f ,crab #b #j ,blackthorn #b #j ,whitethorn #d #j ,blackthorn #g #j ,gap and briars 7,rosa canina7 #d #j ,blackthorn #d #j ,whitethorn #c #j ,rose 7briars7 and brambles #d #f ,whitethorn #c #j ,gap and brambles #b #f ,whitethorn #b #j ,rose 7briars7 #c #j ,whitethorn #b #j ,rose #b #f ,blackthorn #b #f -------- ,total #gc #j ,ex4 #c4 ,,analysis ,,of ,a ,,hedge ,,on ,,the ,,inferior ,,oolite1 ,,bradford ,,abbas4 ft4 in4 ,traveller's ,joy 7clematis7 #c #j ,gap #ab #j ,whitethorn #d #j ,ash #c #f ,whitethorn1 brambles1 c4 #aj #j ,clematis #ah #j ,sycamore stump #d #j ,brambles1 c4 #h #j ,maple brambles1 with occasional whitethorn bush #cc #j ,nut and gaps #aa #j ,blackthorn and brambles #f #f ,guelder rose #c #j ,blackthorn1 c4 #e #j ,elder #c #j ,blackthorn1 maple1 and others1 with occasional whitethorn #bj #j ,the same1 smothered with clematis #bh #j -------- ,total #agb #j ,these three examples will be sufficient to show the fact that1 in the lapse of years1 a hedge originally planted either all or nearly all quicks1 ultimately contains almost everything besides4 ,how this comes about may be easily observed4 ,birds and other creatures are constantly taking fruits of various plants to the hedge-rows1 the seeds of which being dropped there1 soon vegetate2 and if shrubs with heavier twigs and broader leaves once ascend into the hedge1 they overshadow the smaller leaves of the quicks1 and ultimately so discourage them that they all but die out1 and it is not at all difficult to see that the success of the interlopers is only augmented by the injuries to the quicks4 ,a more minute inquiry into the natural history and mode of operation of hedge-row weeds will be best preceded by a list of such plants as may be considered to act as weeds in a properly planted whitethorn hedge4 ,in doing this we may premise that1 if our object has been to plant quicks1 interlopers of all kinds1 whether trees or shrubs--in fact1 all but the plant which we have purchased and planted--can scarcely be considered other than as weeds4 ,to these interlopers1 then1 we may add the following list1 as containing a series of plants that will be1 perhaps1 more generally recognized as weeds3-- ,,list ,,of ,,hedge-,,row ,,weeds4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,no4 ,botanical ,name4 ,trivial ,name4 ,remarks4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #a ,salix species ,willows1 various #b ,berberis vulgaris ,barberry ,spinous under- #c ,rosa species ,wild ,roses 7briars71 shrubs4 various #d ,rubus species ,brambles1 various ,woody climbing #e ,clematis vitalba ,traveller's ,joy plants4 #f ,hedera helix ,ivy #g ,solanum dulcamara ,bitter-sweet ,nightshade,climbing #h ,tamus communis ,black ,bryony herbs1--mostly #i ,bryonia dioica ,white ,bryony twisting around #aj ,humulus lupulus ,wild ,hop the stems of the #aa ,convolvulus sepium ,larger ,bindweed stronger hedge- #ab ,galium species ,bedstraw1 various plants4 ,weeds of the lower #ac ,glechoma hederacea ,ground ,ivy parts of hedges1 #ad ,geranium ,robertianum ,herb1 ,robert ,cranesbillwhich smother out #ae ,carduus varieties ,various ,thistles young quicks1 and #af ,umbellifer varieties,hedge ,parsley1 c4 prevent the old #ag ,graminace varieties ,grasses ones from being thick at 8bottom40 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,as regards the plants of this list1 it will only be necessary to refer to a few of them1 in order the more fully to impress the principles we have laid down4 ,the roses 7briars7 and brambles1 though spinous1 are yet short-lived2 so that their old wood is continually dying out1 thus causing gaps1 inasmuch as such heavily-foliaged plants necessarily prevent the growth of the whitethorn or any other tolerable hedge-plant4 ,but1 besides this1 the bramble has the propensity to root at the ends of its long flexile branches1 and so spreads the pest in every direction1 not escaping the ditch when it forms part of the fence1 that the whole becomes smothered up in a tangled1 inextricable mass1 always out of order and unsightly1 making but a poor fence1 though affording shelter to hares1 rabbits1 and other farm pests4 ,the clematis and ivy are large-foliaged plants1 and their pliant stems interlace on the hedge in such a manner as most surely to kill out the quicks1 and so to become the usurping tenants2 but1 no sooner have they attained the mastery than they begin to decay1 whole branches die1 and the result is a gap1 which must either be patched up with thorns or be newly planted1 and then fenced with post and rails4 ,as regards mending gaps with thorns1 we ought to state that we view it as decidedly injurious1--as dead matter in proximity with the living only prevents the growth of the latter3 at best it is only a makeshift1 which soon gets rotten1 and tempts the petty wood-pilferer to pull the hedge further to pieces for the sake of a few dry sticks4 ,with regard to those plants of which we may take the bryony and the hop as the types1 it is true that their bine is annual2 but each year the quantity and strength of this augments--each year the mass of foliage becomes larger and thicker4 ,the twining arms twist around any branch strong enough to support them1 and then1 once at the top of the fence1 they spread over its surface1 making so thick a mass that the legitimate hedge-plants are no longer visible2 thus sun and air are excluded from them1 and they soon pine away4 ,these are difficult to eradicate1 as they have stout rhizomata 7underground stems7 interlaced with the very roots of the hedge-plants3 still1 if pains be taken to pluck away the bine as soon as it makes its appearance1 it must in time be destroyed2 for1 like even the hawthorn tree1 hardy as it is1 if the leaves be kept from perfecting themselves1 they soon pine away1 and ultimately die altogether4 ,the other plants are more properly weeds of the hedge-bank than of the hedge1 and as such need only be mentioned with weeds in general as pests to be periodically removed by hoeing1 digging1 and otherwise clearing the ground between and about the hedge-row work1 more particularly necessary in the first few years of planting4 ,,chapter ,,xxxvi4 ,,on ,,hedge-,,row ,,timber4 ,of the many sources of mischief to which the farmer may be liable1 we can conceive none greater than that of being overgrown with hedge-row timber4 ,it is scarcely1 if at all1 second to that of being overstocked with game--for as regards game1 there is a chance of getting some compensation for palpable injury2 but the mischief which trees silently but surely effect1 when surrounding fields1 is never allowed for1 as it is not fully appreciated by the tenant1 and never admitted by the landlord2 and so as hedge-row timber is usually thicker in the richer parts of the country1 it is somehow considered as an evidence of fertility on the one hand1 while it is looked upon as a legitimate mode of increasing income on the other4 ,but we are quite sure that hedge-row timber is almost useless in itself1 and a pest to all who must live under it4 ,hedges themselves are usually too many1 and these too thick through them2 and when it comes to be understood that the enclosures are smaller1 the hedges often greater1 and hedge-row timber thicker on good than on bad lands1 some idea may be formed of the mischief which is inflicted by thus hemming in fine land from light and air4 ,the following tables1 by ,mr4 ,j4 ,bravender1 land-surveyor1 of ,cirencester1 are the results of an 8examination of the fields contained in #abj parishes30-- ,,table ,,of ,,admeasurement ,,of ,,fences4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,average ,length ,quantity ,quantity ,geological quantity ,length of ,width occupied per ,formation1 c4 of of fencing1 of by fenceshundred each fencing4per acre4fencing4per acre4 acres4 field4 #bd ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,acres4 ,chains4 ,chains4 ,links4 ,perches4 ,acres4 #a4 ,red ,sand- #e #aeeh #bhc #ae #ije #e8 stone #b4 ,lias #d #abij #cbb #ah #abcf #g #c4 ,oolite #aa #bjge #ahh #ab #dha #c #d4 ,oxford ,clay #f #afde #bec #af #hfc #e8 #e4 ,coralline #aa #bjge #ahh #ad #efa #c ,oolite #f4 ,kimmeridge #h #ahbe #bbh #af #hfe #e ,clay #g4 ,chalk #ac #bcbg #agi #ab #deh #b8 ,the average of the above quantity occupied by fences is 44 #d ,a wall1 #b ft4 wide1 with #a ft4 #c in4 on each side1 between arable fields 7oolite7 #bhj #a ,a wall1 #b ft4 wide1 between pasture fields 7oolite7 #abj #j ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- #bd ,including one-third added for angular sinuosities4 ,the above calculations do not include the strips which are so often found alongside fences1 covered by brambles1 blackthorns1 and other rubbish4 ,now we have seen what is the quantity of land occupied by fences1 it will be our province to ascertain to what extent they may be reduced in size1 and yet remain as useful to the agriculturist4 ,the following table will exhibit the saving per hundred acres1 by reducing the width of fences3-- ,,table ,,of ,,reduction ,,of ,,fences4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,width1 ,width to ,length ,saving ,geological as in the which ,saving per in ,saving ,formation4 preceding fences in hedge1quantity per table4 may be width4 per per cent4 reduced4 acre4 acre4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,links4 ,links4 ,links4,chains4,perches4 #a4 ,red ,sandstone #ae #i #f #bhc #bga #a-g_/aj #b4 ,lias #ah #aj #g #cbb #chf #b-b_/e #c4 ,oolite1 ,forest ,marble1 and #ab #g #d #ahh #ace #j-g_/h ,cornbrash #d4 ,oxford ,clay #af #i #f #bec #bfc #a-b_/c #e4 ,coralline ,oolite #ad #h #e #ahh #afe #a #f4 ,kimmeridge ,clay #af #aj #f #bbh #bah #a-c_/h #g4 ,upper ,lower #ab #g #e #agi #adc #j-i_/aj ,chalk ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,the average quantity of the above saving is #a for every #ajj acres4 ,if this saving were effected1 which is quite practicable1 it would increase the cultivated land in ,england and ,wales #dij1jjj acres1 and would be similar in its effect to the addition of a new county1 nearly equal in extent to ,nottinghamshire1 and somewhat larger than ,berkshire40--,morton's ,cyclopdia of ,agriculture1 p4 #hei4 ,the above is the evidence of a highly practical gentleman as regards the loss by bad1 wide1 and straggling fences2 and if we add to this the additional loss and injury which the land sustains by the growth of hedge-row timber1 we shall find that we have even a greater account to settle4 ,now1 if we inquire into the nature of these evils1 we shall find that they result from shade1 drip1 and exhaustion by roots4 ,there are those who speak in favour of hedge-row timber as affording shade for cattle2 but we should remember that when this is so1 the cattle1 by being thus gathered to one spot1 only aid in manuring those portions of the field where the grass is always more rank than nutritious1 and this to the robbery of other portions of the field4 ,for ourselves1 we would rather have our fields exposed to the influence of sun and air1 and1 if required1 have some contrivances for shade which could be moved about the fields at pleasure4 ,the shade of trees keeps off those refreshing showers so important to vegetation1 but in much wet the trees send down a drip which is sometimes found to be so injurious as to prevent any good growth beneath them1 and then as the leaves fall off they often poison the soil for some distance1 while the roots impoverish the land in every direction4 ,we have just visited a field1 in the southern hedge of which are growing some beech trees2 these not only keep off the southern sun1 but their drip and fallen leaves render fully one-eighth of the field nearly useless4 ,again1 do we not everywhere find twice the number of hedges that are required2 and1 to add to the mischief1 these filled with trees8 ,in many places we see elms not more than three yards apart4 ,here the shade would be intolerable1 but the farmer is allowed to lop them until they look not unlike the stuck-up tails of ,french poodle dogs--a process which certainly diminishes the evils they entail upon the farmer1 but renders the timber comparatively useless4 ,but1 say the advocates of tall hedges and hedge-row timber1 8,how beautiful they make the country look6 ,your plan would leave it all bare and desolate2 no song of birds to cheer the wayfarer10 c4 ,but stop1 good people2 we love trees1 but we do not care so much for straight lines of stuck-up besoms4 ,let the landlord grow his woods and his groves1 and plant his parks4 ,let him put trees in parts which will grow nothing better1 and in belts to keep off malignant winds2 and even here 7the best places for them71 let him be content with their pleasure and profit as a rent for the ground they occupy1 and not1 as some do1 insist upon the tenant yearly planting trees in positions which must injure so much land which he is still to pay rent for4 ,this is about as tyrannical as to make a schoolboy carry a birch1 and ask for its application4 ,as regards the loss of land by the division into smaller fields1 we cannot do better than copy the former outlines of an arable field on our own farm4 ,this1 which is now one field of over fifty acres1 was formerly in fifteen fenced fields1 each with a ragged hedge--of anything but quicks--planted upon raised mounds4 ,now1 the gain in the removal of fences1 indicated by the dotted lines 7see fig4 #a71 may be explained by the following calculations3-- ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,field with its old divisions1 now removed1 as marked by the dotted lines4 ,acr4 ,rds4 ,ground1 #b yards wide1 occupied by the mounds and hedges1 about #a #b ,one foot and a half on either side of the mounds which cannot be ploughed1 about #j #c -------- ,total of gain in #ej acres #b #a ,or1 per cent41 #d;a4 #br4 ,from these data1 then1 we may conclude that if available land equal in extent to a county may be gained by keeping fences within bounds1 this may be more than doubled by grubbing up1 not merely useless1 but mischievous fences1 and discountenancing the growth of hedge-row timber4 ,now1 although we reside in the county of the ,dorsetshire poet1 we are not of those who would curtail the privileges of the poor by closing up all footpaths1 or by too rigidly curtailing the road space2 but as long as the farmer has to pay rent for the ground needlessly occupied by badly-constructed hedge-rows1 we think it due to him1 and even to the poor themselves1 that land now so occupied should in future be made food-producing2 and with these sentiments we would conclude this chapter by quoting the following ,,dorsetshire ,,ditty4 7,from ,poems by ,william ,barnes47 8,they do zay that a travellin chap ,have a-put in the newspeper now ,that the bit o' green ground on the knap ,should be all a-took in vor the plough4 ,he do fancy 'tis easy to show ,that we can be but stunpolls at best1 ,vor to leve a green spot where a flower can grow ,or a foot-weary walker mid rest4 ',tis hedge-grubbn1 ,thomas1 an' ledge-grubbn ,never a done1 ,while a sov'rn mwore's to be won4 8,the road1 he do zay1 is so wide ,as 'tis wanted vor travellers' wheels2 ,as if all that did travel did ride1 ,an' did never get galls on their heels4 ,he would leve sich a thin strip o' groun' ,that if a man's veet in his shoes ,wer a-burnn an' zore1 why he coulden zit down ,but the wheels would run over his tooes4 ,vor 'tis meke money1 ,thomas1 an' teke money1 ,what's zwold an' bought ,is all that is worthy o' thought4 99 99 99 99 99 8,the children will soon have noo plece ,vor to play in1 an' if they do grow1 ,they will have a thin musheroom fece1 ,wi' their bodies so sumple as dough4 ,but a man is a mede ov a child ,an' his limbs do grow worksome by play1 ,an' if the young child's little body's a-spweil'd1 ,why1 the man's wull the zooner decay4 ,but wealth is wo'th now mwore than health is wo'th2 ,let it all goo ,if 't 'ull bring but a sov'rn or two40 ,,chapter ,,xxxvii4 ,,on ,,the ,,vermin ,,of ,,fences4 ,one of the great objections urged to more hedge-row fences than are necessary1 is that of harbouring ,vermin2 it therefore becomes necessary to inquire into the history of those creatures designated by a name everywhere held in reproach4 ,the meaning of the term vermin has not been very accurately defined4 ,johnson considers 8any noxious animal0 to belong to vermin2 whilst ,bailey1 anxious to be more specific1 defines vermin to be 8any kind of hurtful creature or insect1 as rats1 mice1 lice1 fleas1 bugs1 c420 but whatever lexicographers may say upon the subject1 there can be no doubt that1 in country language1 what are known as noxious animals are distinguished from noxious insects1 the first being in most counties known as 8,varment10 to which belong rats1 mice1 stoats1 c41 to which the keeper would add kites1 hawks1 owls1 magpies1 and other birds2 the second term being limited to those parasitic creatures by which both man and some inferior animals may be attacked4 ,the farmer's notion of vermin1 as applied to the hedge-row1 differs from these1 as it includes all beasts1 birds1 reptiles1 insects1 c41 which directly injure the hedge1 together with such as choose the hedge-row or the bank on which it might be grown as a breeding-place1 from which they migrate to farm crops1 and so become injurious1 not to the hedge alone1 but to the farm in general4 ,some notion of these may be inferred from the following list3-- #a4 ,rabbits--,by burrowing in the hedge-bank4 #b4 ,hedge-hog--,ignorantly included with hedge-row vermin by the farmer4 #c4 ,stoats ,these burrow or make the hedge-row or bank ,rats a place of refuge and concealment4 ,mice #d4 ,snakes--,erroneously supposed to be injurious4 #e4 ,slugs ,both breed extensively in hedge-rows1 which ,snails often form these hybernacula4 ,insects injurious to the growing hedge-plants4 ,do4 protected by the hedge1 and migrating to the #f4 farm crops4 ,do4 harboured by hedge-row weeds1 and thence migrating to the crops4 #g4 ,birds in general1 according to the dictum of the ,sparrow ,clubbists4 #a4 ,the rabbit is one of the greatest pests to the bank on which hedges are too often grown1 and therefore is injurious to the growing hedge1 to say nothing of the mischief which these creatures do to the crops4 ,the other day we visited a field in which a hedge-bank had been undermined with no less than fifty holes in the distance of five-and-twenty yards2 these ramified in every direction1 not only through the raised mound1 but into the fields on either side of the hedge1 and out of which rabbits were dug from a depth of as much as four feet4 ,here the ridiculous nature of the mound was the primary cause of the mischief1 and hence we here offer an illustration of the general facts which met our view3-- ,illustration3 ,diagram of a ,mound and ,ditch in ,oolite ,sands4 ft4 in4 a4 ,a rabbit hole4 #a4 and #e4 ,grass and weeds which cannot be ploughed #e #j #b4 ,mound for fence #h #j #c4 ,bottom of ditch #c #j #d4 ,field side of ditch #f #j #f4 ,arable field ---- ----- ,total #bb #j ,here it will be seen that not only has nearly twenty feet of land been taken up with the fence1 but the plan upon which it is made of itself suggests a rabbit-warren1 and especially when we say that the soil is of a loose sandy nature1 and the ditch has never yet been a conduit for running water1 and is therefore perfectly unnecessary4 #b4 ,the hedge-hog is here only mentioned in the hope of dispelling a popular prejudice with regard to him4 ,he is ruthlessly destroyed as vermin1 on the supposition that the hedge screens a traitor who is ever ready to suck eggs or to take a meal from the cow's udder4 ,now1 as regards the first charge1 one would have thought that1 from the pertinacity displayed by those who bring it in destroying birds' eggs and birds of every kind1 they would have little care upon this head4 ,his sucking of cows has never been witnessed by any competent observer1 and with such the idea was never entertained1 nor can it be supposed that a cow would suffer the approach of a creature so thoroughly armed with spines as the hedge-hog4 ,in the words of ,yarrell we may conclude that 8this is about as well-founded an accusation as that of ,pliny1 exaggerated as it is by ,sperling1 who assures us that it ascends trees1 knocks off the apples and pears1 and1 throwing itself down upon them that they may stick to its spines1 trots off with the prize6 lian gives us the same story1 substituting figs for apples1 and omitting the climbing power of the animal40 #c4 ,this section contains creatures for which few of us entertain any affection2 at the same time1 it may perhaps be true that some of the greatest of farm pests1 in the shapes of rats and mice1 have greatly increased since the destruction of the polecat1 stoat1 and other of our smaller carnivorous quadrupeds4 ,as regards mice in general1 one source of alarm connected with their former occupancy of the hedge-row has nearly vanished from among us4 ,we allude to the supposed injury they were thought to inflict on any creature over which they might creep4 ,at one time1 if a cow or sheep offered any symptom of paralysis or injury1 more particularly of the hind-quarters1 the creature was said to be 8mouse-crope10 for which were several popular remedies1 which were used by way of direct applications1 such as a liberal application of rods of wytch-hazel1 drawing twigs of mountain-ash or rowan-tree over the affected parts2 but the more general plan of action was to operate upon the offending creature upon the same principle as pertains to the present day in the case of a bite by a dog--namely1 that the bitten subject is not safe from the direst calamities so long as the author of the mischief is alive2 and acting upon this1 there are few persons in rural districts who would not demand the death of a dog by whom they may have been bitten1 and this not as a measure of precaution1 to prevent the like occurrence happening again1 but as the first thing to be done to ensure a safe cure4 ,so with a 8mouse-crope0 subject3 action was at once taken against the mouse1 but this through the agency of the 8shrew-ash10 which potent remedy is thus described by ,gilbert ,white1 in his charming 8,natural ,history of ,selborne30-- ,now1 a shrew-ash is an ash whose twigs or branches1 when gently applied to the limbs of cattle1 will immediately relieve the pains which a beast suffers from the running of a shrew-mouse over the part affected2 for it is supposed that a shrew-mouse is of so baneful and deleterious a nature1 that wherever it creeps over a beast1 be it horse1 cow1 or sheep1 the suffering animal is afflicted with cruel anguish1 and threatened with the loss of the use of the limb4 ,against this accident1 to which they were continually liable1 our provident forefathers always kept a shrew-ash at hand1 which1 when properly medicated1 would maintain its virtue for ever4 ,a shrew-ash was made thus3--,into the body of the tree a deep hole was bored with an augur1 and a poor devoted shrew-mouse was thrust in alive1 and plugged in1 no doubt1 with several quaint incantations1 long since forgotten4 ,that the shrew-mouse was generally held in the greatest dread1 there is no doubt2 but1 we find in ,dorsetshire1 where this notion still prevails1 that the idea of mischief is not confined to the shrew1 but is believed of any mouse4 ,we had a steer in one of our feeding-pits1 which1 as he did not gain flesh1 was said to be 8moss-crop10 the western vernacular for mouse-crope4 ,still1 field mice1 without regard to species1 are supposed to be the most baneful in this way2 at the same time1 we may trace an evidence of the former generally prevailing belief in the injurious tendencies of even our common mouse1 in the fact that when you have so far convinced a lady friend1 who may have a 8horror of a mouse10 of their harmless nature1 you are sure to be met with the unanswerable remark1 which gains point from the manner of its utterance1 8,but suppose a mouse should creep over me80 ,we may now entirely discard every notion of the evils of mouse-crope cattle as an argument against the hedge-row as a harbour for rats and mice2 still1 these are vermin in the true sense of the word1 and which hedge-rows1 unless kept trim and clean at bottom1 are sure to encourage4 #d4 ,snakes in hedge-rows are very common1 and especially on banks facing the south2 of these1 the common ringed snake and the slow-worm are often met with4 ,they excite great terror in most people2 but still they may be said not merely to be quite harmless1 but absolutely useful1 as they live upon insects and small fry in general1 and so1 in reality1 they ought not to be classed as vermin1 but take their place amongst their most decided enemies4 #e4 ,the land mollusks1 to which belong the snail and the slug1 are sheltered in hedges by thousands2 and highly destructive they are1 and more especially in small overshadowed enclosures4 ,the quantity of vegetation which these consume is enormous1 and we are sorry to think that they are on the increase--a fact which we deem to be due to the indiscriminate slaughter of small birds1 more especially the blackbird1 thrush1 and lark1 which are their most determined enemies4 ,as farmers1 we might well afford them a dessert of small fruit for the good they do in destroying slugs and snails4 #f4 ,hedge-row shrubs are liable to be injured by many insects1 more especially the caterpillars of different kinds of moths and butterflies1 which sometimes eat away all their leaves1 and so greatly retard the growth of the hedge4 ,upon this subject we quote from 8,our ,woodlands1 ,heaths1 and ,hedges10 for the purpose of introducing to our readers a small book by ,w4 ,s4 ,coleman1 which should be in the hands of all country readers3-- ,the foliage of the hawthorn1 remarkable for its elegance1 is the chosen food of a great number of interesting insects1 principally the caterpillars of various lepidoptera4 ,several species of these are of a gregarious nature1 living together in extensive colonies under a thick net-work of silk1 which serves them for a common protection while feeding on the foliage enclosed with themselves in a silken tent4 ,among these social net-weavers are the caterpillars of a fine insect1 the black-veined white butterfly 7,pieris cratgi71 a rarity in some districts1 but in certain localities1 and at certain periods1 abounding to such an extent as entirely to strip the hawthorn hedges of their foliage4 ,similar depredations are committed by the gaily-coloured progeny of the common lackey moth1 and of the gold-tailed and brown-tailed moths2 but the most formidable devastators1 though the tiniest individually1 are the little ermine moths 7,yponomenta71 small silvery-grey creatures1 minutely spotted with black4 ,the curious twig-like caterpillars of the brimstone moth 7a pretty canary-coloured creature1 with brown markings71 and of several other geometers1 are common upon hawthorn4 ,last summer 7#ahfd71 the hawthorn trees and hedges about the parks and squares of ,london were entirely defoliated by caterpillars1 which progressed from tree to tree in squads of numberless individuals1 only seeking a new site of action when the former one had been despoiled of every vestige of leaf and bud4 ,but it is not only the hawthorn which becomes attacked by insects3 all other hedge-row trees and shrubs have their peculiar enemies1 to describe which would take more space than we have to spare1 and we therefore conclude the chapter with a few remarks upon the weeds of dirty hedge-rows4 ,these harbour various insects1 which migrate to our crops1 and do an immense amount of injury4 ,for instance1 such plants as ,jack by the ,hedge 7,erysimum alliaria71 treacle mustard 7,sisymbrium officinale71 wild mustards1 and other forms of ,crucifer1 in hedge-rows1 afford a winter nidus for the turnip flea beetles 7,haltica concinna and ,h4 nemorum71#be from which they take their flight to the more delicate turnip and swede crops as soon as these come up4 #be ,see ,how to ,grow ,good ,roots1 pp4 #dc and #dd of the present work4 ,birds need only here be mentioned incidentally1 as there is still a conflict of opinions as to the use of the bird family to the farmer2 and those species which mostly build in and frequent our hedges are perhaps those upon which evil suspicions are most universally held4 ,amongst these are the hedge-sparrow1 finch1 linnet1 and others--and that these are mischievous at times1 we are not prepared to deny2 but we should be sorry if the curtailment of hedges1 for which we are advocates1 should result in the destruction of our small birds1 as we conclude most of the species to be at times eminently useful4 ,,chapter ,,xxxviii4 ,,on ,,the ,,management ,,of ,,hedge-,,row ,,fences4 ,we shall1 in the first place1 treat the subject of management in reference to fences composed of hawthorn4 ,in the newly-planted hedge we shall find that the better the soil in which it is planted1 the quicker and stronger the young quicks will grow4 ,if1 then1 the soil be not good1 or if it be thin1 it will be worth while to prepare it as well as circumstances will permit4 ,this may be done by deep digging1 by bringing good soil from a distance1 or some aid may be given by means of any kind of manure4 ,it should ever be borne in mind that to start with luxuriant growth is all-important1 as neglect in this matter at first can only be partially remedied afterwards4 ,good quicks1 selected and removed with care1 carefully planted in well-prepared ground1 not elevated several feet on a dry sand-bank1 or carelessly grouted in a gutter of clay1 will soon send out vigorous shoots4 ,these should be well weeded and dug at least for three or four years1 during which time an occasional trimming of a wild shoot here and there with the knife will rightly direct a more even growth4 ,in weeding1 the first advent of briars and brambles should be looked to2 so all seedling ash1 elder1 maple1 and defenceless trees in general1 should be taken out by the roots1 not cut off1 as this only makes a thicket of a twig4 ,after three or four years1 if the growth be sufficiently strong1 the young hedge may be trimmed to a desired shape with the shears or the hook2 but if weak and straggling1 we would strongly recommend that the whole be boldly cut off within a few inches of the base1 the ground to be well dug and even manured about the roots1 and the protecting railings to be put in order1 and a new growth be waited for1 which1 generally speaking1 will not be long--for by this means we believe that a good fence will be sooner arrived at than by allowing weak wood to go on growing still weaker4 ,hawthorn fences are sometimes allowed to get several feet high before being brought into reasonable dimensions1 in which case they get smooth1 unarmed1 and unbranched stems at the base4 ,this state of things is too often attempted to be cured by cutting out a quantity of the wood and laying the rest1 by partially dividing them near the ground--a plan which is called 8plashing40 ,this we think highly objectionable3 it would be far better to cut off the whole to within a few inches of the ground1 and so trim the shoots as they grow again4 ,the truth is1 that plashing gets out of order1 the layered sticks get out of place1 and the whole is aided by stakes of dead wood1 which soon decay1 or1 if not1 are almost certain to be removed by the constant country claimants to dead sticks in general4 ,we prefer that no dead materials should be put to a living fence2 for if there are gaps1 it will be best to dig the ground well and put in some young quicks1 fencing with posts and rails1 to guard the plants as well as impound the cattle4 ,mending gaps with thorns only aggravates the evil1 as the living part of the fence is so interfered with by the dead matter that it grows but imperfectly1 and the dead materials soon rot away1 leaving a greater gap to be re-mended4 ,we have seen gaps tried to be repaired by old quicks1 but this seldom succeeds--for if they grow1 they are never bushy enough to be repellant2 but they often die altogether1 and at best with old plants1 young quicks will repair the mischief in less time4 ,seeing the difficulty there is sometimes in getting quicks to grow well in hedge gaps1 it is not uncommon to fill up with various kinds of hedge-row plants1 such as hazel1 whitebeam1 spindle-tree1 dogwood1 maple1 c42 but the objection to these is1 that they are often not repellant in any way1 and they help to make weaker places broader than they found them1 and1 indeed1 ultimately get possession of the greater part of the hedge-row4 ,there is1 then1 nothing better to mend a whitethorn hedge than quicks1 and they will grow if attended to for the first two or three years2 but why they usually fail is1 that if planted in gaps they are usually closely hemmed in by old thorns1 or allowed to become smothered by weeds4 ,with respect to very old hedges1 made up of all sorts of materials1 we prefer cutting them down about three feet from the ground1 leaving all the stubs to branch out1 than to attempt to layer as shrubs1 and then the whitethorn succeeds even less with plashing4 ,where1 however1 we have rough1 but1 after all1 not repellant fences1 we should like to see them re-planted1 by which they could mostly be curtailed1 and at the same time opportunity may be taken to get rid of some of them altogether1 or to make them in a more convenient direction4 ,we are now in possession of a hedge composed of everything but hawthorn1 and somewhere about twelve feet high4 ,it is without gaps1 but still pregnable at any point1 by reason of the want of armature in the shrubs of which it is composed4 ,still1 as it stands on the top of a bank five feet high1 the mound and hedge together is not so bad a fence as its materials might warrant4 ,we here give a list of the plants of which this fence is composed1 in order to the more clear explanation of what is to follow3-- ,,plants ,,in ,a ,,hedge ,,at ,,bradford ,,abbas1 ,,on ,,the ,,inferior ,,oolite4 ,parts4 ,ash #d ,hazel #bj ,the whole ,cornel #aj intermixed ,spindle-tree #ab with long ,blackthorn #f climbing brambles ,maple #bj and straggling ,mealy ,guelder ,rose #e briars1 and the ,clematis #b bank covered with ,elder #c the usual hedge-row ,elm #c weeds4 ,whitethorn #b ,now1 here is a tall hedge on the north side of our field1 and so capable of affording no slight amount of shelter to stock2 but how much southern sun does it keep off our neighbour's field6 ,and yet we have just succeeded to a lease which contains a clause compelling this hedge to be annually trimmed--a process which has not been performed for many years1 but which we shall hereafter show should be done1 especially where hedges have been properly cared for1 for the due keeping of the fence itself2 but further1 we feel convinced that a proprietor should be able to call upon the owner of a neighbouring estate to keep his portion of the fences within such bounds as may not be injurious4 ,in the case before us1 what is best to be done8 ,custom says1 8,lay it2 plash it40 ,still1 the materials are not suitable for this process4 8,cut it down and it will shoot up again10 says the hedger1 who would be ready to do the work for the wood2 but mark1 that in order to get as much as possible1 it would be cut close to the ground4 ,our plan will be to cut it at about a yard from the top of the mound1 and afterwards to watch the young shoots1 so as carefully to trim them1 in order to induce them to throw out laterals1 and thus make1 at least1 a thick growth1 though of unpromising materials4 ,with regard to trimming by the piece3 if it be really a well-grown quick-set hedge1 the keeping it to a certain standard may be easily accomplished2 but if it be a weakly growth of all kinds of shrubs1 the labourer slashes as close to the ground as he can with the hook1 in order to 8have something to cut against0--a process which only makes the hedges weaker the oftener it is performed4 ,,chapter ,,xxxix4 ,,covenants ,,with ,,regard ,,to ,,fences1 ,,etc4 ,from what has been already advanced1 it will be seen that the matter of fences is most important in connection with the arrangements between landlord and tenant4 ,the landlord for the most part gets the same rent for the land occupied by fences as for the whole of the field1 such land being calculated with the acreage2 and1 further1 with the tenant-at-will he insists upon their being kept in order--that is1 if he cares for or knows anything about order--at the expense of the tenant4 ,in leases there are usually inserted covenants obliging annual trimming of fences and scouring of ditches2 but1 generally speaking1 the tenant does just as much as he likes1 and the landlord knows but little about it4 ,at the same time1 annual trimming of hedges would often be mischievous2 and again1 as some hedges would be well to be let grow tall1 on account of the shelter they might afford1 there will be so many circumstances to be considered in coming to a right conclusion about what should be done to fences1 that it is no wonder that covenants are only insisted upon in a very partial manner1 and the careless farmer1 instead of repairing hedges in a permanent manner1 is content to mend gaps--or 8shards10 as they are called in the midland counties--only when he wants to keep his beasts in any particular meadow or field4 ,we shall shortly discuss these views under the following heads3-- #a4 ,fences should not be kept up to a greater extent than is required4 #b4 ,a tenant-at-will should not be expected to plant or take charge of fences4 #c4 ,evils of bad fences4 #a4 ,the curtailment and removal of fences is1 as already shown1 a matter of great moment1 not only as providing more available land for cultivation1 but as exposing a greater surface even of the cultivated portions of fields to the influence of light and air4 ,but on any estate where this has been deemed advisable1 we have usually seen that as the work has been1 as it were1 divided amongst the tenants1 it has either been done without judgment1 or1 if performed well1 yet by men of different views1 as having different requirements1 so that it has resulted in a patchy and anything rather than an uniform improvement4 ,we would advise that the landlord or his agent take charge of this matter1 with a view to that uniform improvement which would affect the whole estate4 ,in this case it would be to the interest of the proprietor to make the run of the fences as straight as possible1 to plant quicks1 to mend gaps1 and properly to fence them with rails4 ,were this the case1 we should hardly see gaps filled up with dead materials1 only to widen them as time advances by killing more of the living wood1 or1 what is even worse1 left as roadways to tempt the trespasser4 ,in fine1 as the estate would be improved by having perfect fences1 and therefore would fetch a better rent1 it would appear to be the landlord's duty to see it attended to1 and not to expect to charge a tenant for bad fences1 and to insist upon his constantly mending them into the bargain1 or it will naturally follow that they will seldom be up to a high standard of perfection4 #b4 ,a tenant-at-will1 or even a leaseholder1 should not be expected to plant new fences1 or to cultivate those already planted1 when it involves expenses from which he cannot reap the benefit4 ,in the first place1 it is not only the planting1 but weeding and pruning--not merely slashing--that is required1 all involving time1 expense1 and judgment1 which no man would be justified in expending upon a precarious holding4 ,but take the case of a leaseholder for seven years4 ,in our own parish1 on the light oolite sands1 is a quick-set hedge1 which has been badly planted--now entering upon the fourth year since--upon the top of a thin mound of sandy soil1 from four to five feet high4 ,the quicks are not so good as when they were planted2 it can never make a good hedge4 ,briars and brambles1 and various shrubs common to oolite soils1 will smother out the quicks1 and altogether it will result in failure4 ,here the landlord should not expect his tenant to weed1 and it is not worth his while to even find 8rough timber0 for forming a defence of such a hedge from the cattle1 nor will it pay the tenant to employ a carpenter to work it4 ,in this case the landlord should level the soil and re-plant the hedge--not on a mound of sand1 but in the well-dug surface soil--efficiently fence it1 and see to its annual weeding4 ,in this way1 instead of his having to find rough timber for fences for all time1 one set of rails should be enough1 and so he would ultimately save money for time by a present judicious expenditure2 and1 besides1 as he would give his tenant more available land for his acreage1 and this better secured1 so that trespassers are kept from without and his cattle prevented straying from within1 the holding would certainly be more valuable4 #c4 ,with bad fences the land is not at command4 ,there has to be superintendence and mending whenever a field is wanted to be used4 ,we recollect a farmer who1 having bought some pigs1 on being asked by his man where he was to put 'em1 replied1 8,oh1 put 'em in the garden1 for if you don't they'll very soon get there40 ,here was a case of bad fences about the homestead1 and we may be sure everywhere else too4 ,and here we would controvert the assertion that is too often made1 that 8the farmer who is a careful gardener will be a bad farmer40 ,we have ever seen that attention to neatness and order1 at home and in the fields1 will mark the good farmer1 though it may not always assure us of the prosperous one4 ,the truth is1 that neatness is sometimes expensive2 and as it does not always yield any greater reward than gratification to the tenant1 it should at all times be encouraged by the landlord with every possible assistance1 as he can never be a loser thereby1 but must be the gainer4 ,the truth is1 that there is nothing about estates or farms which so much requires remodelling as the system of fences4 ,they want lessening1 as the land is cut up into far too many awkward little pieces4 ,they want straightening and paralleling1 if we may so express it4 ,they should1 too1 be kept within due compass1 both as to breadth and height1 so that altogether1 as to material1 mode of planting1 position1 and general supervision1 the hedge-row really is in want of that kind of treatment which only a far-seeing1 comprehensive overseer can direct1 and which1 were we to come into the possession of a large estate1 would be the first process for its amelioration and improvement that we should attend to4 ,in fact1 it may be said that this subject is daily receiving a greater share of attention1 and that for a reason at first little suspected2 but the truth is1 steam is asserting its power on the farm as on the road1 and as the engine marches into our fields1 fences will be levelled before his mightiness--all sorts of crooked corners and queer-shaped angles will be removed1 and the whole will assume a more regular outline4 ,there are moral evils connected with bad fences which we think have hardly been duly considered4 ,we have hinted at their encouragement of trespassers and fostering of idle habits4 ,in our own parish are gaps leading from one field and from one farm to another4 ,this encourages idle vagabonds to go anywhere--everywhere--on pretence of shooting small birds1 many of which are often of more value than themselves2 and if there is no gap already1 how easy to push through twigs of cornel1 ash1 guelder rose1 c4 c4 ,such hedges1 again1 are mended with dead thorns and stakes and rails of wood1 which soon decay and become a prey to all the old women and idle children in the parish1 the latter of whom hasten the period when they may claim them by climbing through and over them1 and so prematurely despoil what they soon take home as of right4 ,in conclusion1 then1 we hazard the assertion that well-grown and well-kept fences are a boon to all4 ,they benefit the landlord1 by enabling him to give well-secured acres in exchange for his rent4 ,like good 8buildings10 fences benefit the farmer by affording him protection for his property4 ,they benefit the poor1 by removing a great source of lawless habits1 and that commencement of petty larceny which too often leads to a complete negation of conscience4 ,they benefit all1 inasmuch as ,order1 which 8is ,heaven's first law10 is ,man's best friend4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,i4 ,j4,e4 ,sowerby1 sc4 ,w4 ,west1 imp4 ,quercus ,robur ,pedunculata ,,how ,,to ,,grow ,,good ,,timber4 ,,chapter ,,xl4 ,,on ,,the ,,value ,,of ,,timber ,,for ,,ornament ,,and ,,profit4 ,among all the varied productions 7says ,strutt#bf7 with which nature has adorned the surface of the earth1 none awakens our sympathies1 or interests our imagination1 so powerfully as those venerable trees which seem to have stood the lapse of ages--silent witnesses of the successive generations of man1 to whose destiny they bear so touching a resemblance1 alike in their budding1 their pride1 and their decay4 #bf ,introduction to 8,sylva ,britannica40 ,hence1 in all ages1 the earliest dawn of civilization has been marked by a reverence of woods and groves2 devotion has fled to their recesses for the performance of her most solemn rites2 princes have chosen the embowering shade of some wide-spreading tree1 under which to receive the deputations of the neighbouring 8great ones of the earth20 and angels themselves1 it is recorded1 have not disdained to deliver their celestial messages beneath the same verdant canopy4 ,to sit under the shadow of his own fig-tree1 and drink of the fruit of his own vine1 is the reward promised1 in ,holy ,writ1 to the righteous man2 and the gratification arising from the site of a favoured and long-remembered tree is one enjoyed in common by the peer1 whom it reminds1 as its branches wave over his head whilst wandering in his hereditary domains1 of the illustrious ancestors who may have seen it planted2 and by the peasant1 who recalls1 as he looks on it in his way to his daily labours1 the sports of his infancy round its venerable trunk1 and regards it at once as his chronicler and landmark4 ,who indeed amongst us1 in whatever position of life he may be1 or in what land soever his lot may be cast1 does not often find his mind's eye resting upon some favourite tree2 it may be some huge elm on his village green1 where1 in the dim twilight1 he either told or listened to the fairy tale or exciting ghost story2 or the spreading oak1 beneath whose shade he has picnicked2 or the haunted grove1 where his tale1 though only whispered1 yet spoke loudly to a willing listener4 ,now shift the scene to moonlight glade1 ,where dapper elves beneath the shade ,of oak or elm their revels keep1 ,what time we plodding mortals sleep4 ,next lead me to some haunted grove1 ,such as the ,fauns and ,dryads love2 ,or seat me by some brook1 whose swell ,makes music like a ,naiad's shell2 ,then touch the tree 'neath which ,i lie1 ,till it unclose to ear and eye ,whate'er it may have heard or seen ,since spring first clothed its stems with green4 ,spirit of the ,woods4 ,but we must not be led astray by the poetical emotions which are sure to rise up within us at the contemplation of forest trees2 we shall therefore confine ourself1 in this treatise1 more particularly to a general description of the genera and species of trees usually grown in ,great ,britain for timber1 with an explanation of some of the principles connected with the growth of timber4 ,timber in a country where trees are almost1 if not wholly1 planted1 affords a subject for consideration very different from that of wild aboriginal forests2 in the former we have to consider our subjects as objects for cultivation1 and that with a view of yielding profit or pleasure1 or both1 whilst the study of trees in the forest would naturally resolve itself into a botanical and physiological inquiry into specific forms4 ,while1 therefore1 we would not here neglect the latter1 our arrangement of trees and their history will have more particular reference to their cultivation1 a subject which will probably address itself more especially to the landlord than to the tenant farmer4 ,in the main1 then1 the primary object of growing trees is that of profit1 whilst a secondary--or with some even primary--consideration will be that of ornamentation2 and we admit that1 apart from any other consideration1 a landed estate without timber would be as bare1 cold1 and comfortless as a house without furniture2 at the same time1 too many trees1 and these in themselves awkwardly grown and stuck about in all sorts of awkward positions1 would be like an over-furnished and ill-regulated mansion4 ,we would1 then1 have that kind of thought exercised in planting which should result1 if not in profit1 at least in providing ornament without loss1 either to the tenant on the one hand1 or the proprietor on the other4 ,to this end we would advocate setting apart portions of the estate for the cultivation of timber in belt plantations1 or even in woods1 having reference to the nature of the soil and general position1 and this in preference to hedge-row planting1 as long lines of ash or elm can never look ornamental however well-grown2 but1 inasmuch as this mode of growth necessitates lopping1 the timber is so long in growing and then is never good1 that it seldom pays even the expenses attendant upon its utilization4 ,in plantations1 again1 you can adopt such a system of growing nurses that some return for the outlay will not be many years in commencing1 and so profit by way of rent is not delayed as in hedge-row growth4#bg #bg ,we are aware that the landlord too often considers hedge-row timber as costless2 but the injury which it entails upon the farm1 and its nearly useless character1 leads us to view the matter in a different light4 ,in order to understand what we would call a forest nurse1 let us suppose that in a certain position our object is to grow a plantation of oak3 we might in this case mix beech1 elm1 larch1 ,scotch firs1 and spruce with the oak2 these1 by growing together1 would increase an upward development2 they would 8pull each other up10 as usually expressed4 ,soon this lateral growth would cause them to approach each other too closely1 and then the larch would be first cut out1 perhaps for hop-poles2 next the spruce and ,scotch firs for fencing and other purposes2 then the beech and elm as they became useful2 and at last1 all the nurses gone1 the oak would be sufficient to occupy the space1 and1 though many years have passed in the process1 the wood has all the time yielded something towards rent and expenses4 ,in planting1 of course1 the kinds to be planted will depend upon circumstances1 and so to a great extent will the methods to be adopted in planting2 it may1 however1 be here stated that three plans of preparing the soil have been recommended3--#a4 ,trenching2 #b4 ,pitting2 and #c4 ,ploughing4 #a4 ,trenching is a very expensive process1 and1 upon the whole1 is scarcely worth the cost4 ,it is true that digging and turning over the soil will cause a number of weeds to die1 but1 on the other hand1 it encourages the growth of greater numbers than it destroys1 and it is doubtful whether weeding can be done so well in the loosened ground as it could before4 ,supposing1 then1 the young trees to be planted in old turf1 we consider trenching to be quite unnecessary2 but1 as the plants will flourish best when weeds and grass are kept under1 we should advise the skinning of the turf round them annually for about three years with a common mattock1 and at the same time advantage to be taken of the opportunity to tread in the trees more firmly when they may have become loosened2 to remove any broken or decayed matter1 as in the case of conifers1 to see to the training of a single leader1 rather than two or more2 and in all cases where young conifers show an increasing disposition to grow a great quantity of fruits 7cones71 we should either dig around it1 and1 perhaps1 apply a portion of manure1 or sacrifice the plant and put a fresh one in its stead4 ,this premature fruiting arises sometimes from the roots of the plant having been too much crippled1 either by breaking or drying from being kept too long out of the ground2 we may here state1 then1 that1 if only to prevent this1 in all cases of transplantation1 they should be taken out of the nursery with great care1 so as to injure the roots as little as possible1 and further be planted in their new home with the utmost despatch4 ,disappointment is sure to result where trees of any kind have been kept long out of the ground1 as they are when bought at market or in packets at sales4 ,we should never purchase at the latter1 unless they were left in the ground to be fetched as might be required4 ,as we have been led incidentally to remark upon the subject of crippling by means of injured roots1 we may now point out that the same thing occurs where young trees have been topped either for mischief1 or injudiciously pruned4 ,we remember having some larches thus damaged by some vagabond boy1 and in seven years they were only dwarf cone-bearing bushes1 whilst others planted at the same time were #ae feet in height4 ,in this case1 then1 instant removal1 when discovered1 and the being replaced by fresh plants1 would after all be a saving of time in getting useful sticks4 #b4 ,pitting4--,in this process the soil is sometimes dug out so as to make holes about #b feet square1 the soil being left to weather by the sides of the holes1 and returned around the trees when they are planted4 ,this is not nearly so expensive as trenching2 but it1 too1 is not always advisable1 for trees have the tendency to confine their roots to the dug-out space for some years1 and so they do not get the hold upon the ground that they otherwise would4 ,this plan is that of partial trenching1 and we should prefer the former to the pitting process1 unless where stones1 such as those found in the oolite rocks1 come to the surface4 ,in such case1 the removal of some of the larger stones and supplementing them with soil from some other source we have found to be of advantage4 #c4 ,ploughing the soil is as expeditious a plan of preparing and clearing it as we possess2 and now that steam cultivation can be brought into action for a much greater depth than could be done with horses1 smashing-up the land by its means would be no bad preparation for planting where this is to be done on tolerably level ground4 ,while upon this subject we may here quote1 as still worthy of attention1 the directions in the fourth edition of the 8,sylva40 ,let us now see in what manner we are to prepare the ground for their reception4 ,the best way is by trenching1 or double digging1 as deep as the soil will admit of2 but as this is a very expensive proceeding1 and consequently can only be practised upon a small scale1 ,i shall recommend another good method of preparing the ground4 ,this is to be done by proper ploughing1 and1 if agreeable1 the year before the land is planted1 it may bear a crop of oats1 rape1 or turnips4 ,by this means the sward will be effectually destroyed4 ,after the crop is off1 let the ground be trench-ploughed1 and then harrowed with very heavy harrows1 to break the clods2 about the end of ,october let it be again ploughed crossways1 and harrowed as before4 ,this is the season for planting the sets1 for the ground1 by being thus cross-ploughed and well harrowed1 will be in proper order for their reception4 ,the manner of planting the sets is as follows3-- ,first1 carefully take the plants out of the seed-beds1 shorten the tap-root1 and take off part of the side-shoots1 that there may be an equal proportion of strength between the stem and the root4 ,if the wood is designed to be but small1 ten1 twenty1 or thirty acres1 then lines may be drawn1 and the trees planted in rows1 four feet distant from each other1 and the trees two feet asunder in the row3 each line must have a man and a boy for planting4 ,the ground being made light and pliable by cross-ploughing and harrowing1 the man strikes his spade into the earth close to the line2 he then takes it out1 and gives another stroke at right angles with it2 then the boy1 having a parcel of plants under his left arm1 takes one with his right hand1 and readily puts it into the crevice made by the spade at the second stroke2 after this the man gently presses the mould to it with his foot1 and thus the young oakling is planted4 ,he proceeds in the same manner to the next1 and so on till all is finished4 ,an active man with his boy will plant #a1ejj or #b1jjj in a day2 and while they are planting others should be employed in taking up fresh sets from the seed-bed1 sorting them1 and preparing their roots4 ,in short1 a sufficient number of hands should be set to every part of this work1 that the whole may be carried on with despatch and regularity2 for the ground cannot be too soon furnished with its plants after it is in readiness to receive them1 neither can the plants be put too early into the ground after they are taken up from the seminary4 ,those plants which are nearly of the same size should be made to occupy a large quarter together1 and the weakest should be left in the seminary a year longer to gain strength4 ,the trees1 either for small or large plantations1 being in the ground1 the first care should be to fence them well from cattle1 and even1 if possible1 from rabbits and hares4 ,the next should be to keep them clear from weeds1 that they may not be incommoded in their growth4 ,in all lands weeds must be carefully watched and destroyed at their first appearance4 ,in small plantations hoeing may do2 but where the plantations are large and noble1 a double-shelving plough should be provided2 and when the weeds are got two or three inches high1 this must be drawn exactly down the middle of each row by horses with their mouths muzzled1 somebody leading the foremost horse2 this plough will effectually throw a ridge each way1 so that the edge of it will be almost contiguous to the plants on both sides4 ,this being done1 the whole surface of the ground will be changed1 and the weeds all buried1 except a few about the stems of the plants1 which a man following the plough should cut or pluck up4 ,in this manner the ground may lie until a fresh crop of weeds present themselves2 when these are about three inches high1 a common plough should be provided to go up one side of the row and down the other1 to plough the ridges made by the double-shelving plough into their former places1 men following with hoes to destroy such weeds as are near the stems of the trees4 ,thus will the whole scene be changed again2 the ground will appear as new-tilled2 and in this condition it may remain until the weeds call for the double-shelving plough a second time1 which must also be followed alternately with the common plough as occasion may require4 ,by this means the ground will not only be kept clear of weeds1 but the earth1 by constant stirring1 will be more replete with nourishing juices1 the gentle showers will produce their good effects1 the sun will have his influence1 and all the powers of vegetation will combine to nourish and set forward the infant oak4 ,this work must be repeated every year1 until the oaks are of a height sufficient to destroy the weeds1 which may be1 perhaps1 in three or four years1 according to the goodness of the ground in which they are planted4 ,still1 notwithstanding the care sometimes taken in planting1 we have often observed that the simple method of making triangular or cruciform openings with the spade1 thus--,y 1 and carefully dividing the roots in putting the plants in their places1 and afterwards well pressing the turf against them1 has succeeded as well as any other method4 ,indeed1 we have known plants put in with only a single slit2 but this never succeeds so well1 though it is more expeditiously performed4 ,where1 however1 trees are put in at so much an acre1 the plan of action must be specified1 and the proceedings carefully watched1 to ensure its due performance1 or the work will most likely be done in the quickest1 and not best1 manner4 ,,chapter ,,xli4 ,,on ,,the ,,kinds ,,of ,,timber ,,best ,,adapted ,,for ,,different ,,situations4 ,that the growth and quality of timber will be influenced by the nature of the soil is a matter so well understood that it would scarcely require to be treated of in this place1 if we did not daily see examples of planting in which all laws of growth have been set at defiance2 still1 occasionally1 experience has lent her aid and produced some satisfactory results2 and1 as an exemplification of our meaning1 and as showing the influence of geological position upon planting1 we would direct attention to the following section3-- ,illustration3 ,,alice ,,holt ,,forest4 ,beech4 ,hops4 ,larch4 ,oak4 ,larch4 ,hops4 ,beech4 #d4 ,chalk4 #c4 ,chalk ,marl4 #b4 ,upper ,g4 ,s4 #a4 ,gault ,clay4 ,here we have the oak--of both varieties known to planters1 to be hereafter described--flourishing most luxuriantly on the stiff soil of the gault2 the chalk-marl1 upper green sand1 and gault--the two latter only partially--being engaged in hop cultivation4 ,the green sand surrounding the forest is mostly devoted to the growth of larch or spruce1 the thinnings of which are used for hop-poles and the larger trees are left as timber-belts2 whilst the beech will be found to favour the chalk4 ,hops and other cultivated plants flourish according to geological position4 ,that the geology of a district affects vegetation mainly1 according to the mechanical and chemical structure of its individual rocks and the climate in which they are situate1 is quite true2 and yet the following table will show that different formations favour the growth of trees upon other conditions than those named4 ,choosing figures to represent relative values1 the annexed table is intended to show the amount of influence exercised by certain geological rocks in the growth of different fruit and forest trees met with in ,england4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,no4,rocks4 ,apple4,pear4,oak4,elm4,beech4,firs4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,cretaceous #a ,chalk #b #j #b #d #h #e ,rocks4 #b ,green ,sands #c #a #c #g #j #c #c ,gault #d #a #f #f #j #j ,jurassique #d ,oxford ,clay #f #j #aj #h #j #a ,rocks4 #e ,oolite ,freestone #b #j #a #d #aj #e #f ,lias #aj #c #e #aj #j #a #g ,new ,red ,sandstone #h #aj #g #ab #j #b #h ,mountain ,limestone #a #j #b #b #c #a #i ,old ,red ,sandstone #ae #h #h #aj #j #a ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,these figures may serve to express--although roughly--the capacities of different formations for the production of fruit and forest trees1 and it may be curious to note that1 while the chalk and the oolite freestones1 both composed of carbonate of lime1 offer a remarkable agreement in point of dendrological productions1 the mountain limestone1 also consisting of carbonate of lime1 affords very different results2 here1 no doubt1 the different kinds of scenery presented by the rocks themselves have a decided influence on the general results4 ,much1 however1 of any geological influence in the growth of trees must depend upon the material rather than upon the position of the rocks forming the subsoil upon which they occur1 and thus it may be expected that clays1 limestones1 and sands1 and different mixtures of these1 will each favour the growth of a peculiar spontaneous or native vegetation2 so that1 if we looked to a larger list of trees and coupled it with lists of herbaceous plants1 we might make out even a stronger case1 either for the effects of geological or lithological conditions2 but enough has been said to point out that various trees naturally affect one position more than another1 and so they succeed as the results of planting and cultivation in one kind of soil in preference to another1 and it may be laid down as a rule1 that pomaceous fruits and hard-wooded trees1 as oak and elm1 only flourish in strong soils1 though they may be imperfectly grown in all soils1 whilst soft-wooded trees1 as beech1 lime1 and the conifer1 succeed best in lighter soils2 hence1 then1 the planter who would try to grow vigorous oak on sandbeds would be disappointed1 and while beech is the 8weed0 of the ,cotteswold oolite1 whoever tries to grow an orchard upon the freestone rocks is sure to meet with disappointment4 ,as regards forest trees we shall1 for the most part1 confine our remarks to those of the following list1 as1 although of recent years many new genera and species have been introduced1 they are not yet in general cultivation even for ornamental purposes1 much less as a source of profit4 ,,list ,,of ,,native ,,or ,,naturalized ,,forest ,,trees4 ,oak ,chestnut ,our more common timber trees used ,walnut in buildings1 furniture1 cooperage1 ,elm turnery1 c4 ,ash ,beech ,birch ,employed in furniture1 turnery1 c4 ,larch ,the ,british ,conifer are not used ,spruce for timber1 except for fencing and ,scotch ,fir other common purposes4 ,poplar ,plane ,mountain ,ash ,employed for turnery1 picture-frames1 ,maple and occasional useful purposes4 ,lime ,,chapter ,,xlii4 ,,on ,,the ,,british ,,oak4 ,whilst the discussion is still pending1 of iron against wooden bulwarks1 if only for the love we feel towards the 8brave old oak10 a few notes upon the forms of this truly national tree can hardly fail to be acceptable4 ,at starting1 however1 we must bear in mind1 that though we have ever looked upon the oak as so thoroughly ,british that we had almost been brought to think that it was made for the sole glory of our land1 yet there are those who would wish to cast a doubt upon its true aboriginal nature1 and who1 according to their custom1 represent everything great as borrowed from the ,continent4 ,what says1 however1 that pleasant discourser on forest trees1 ,jacob ,george ,strutt1 of imperishable sylvan fame3--8,in proportion as the oak is valued above all other trees1 so is the ,english oak esteemed above that of any other country1 for its particular characteristics of hardness and toughness1 qualities which so peculiarly fit it to be the #8father of ships1' and which are so admirably expressed in two epithets by that great poet1 to whom the book of nature and of the human heart seemed alike laid open3-- ,thou rather with thy sharp and sulph'rous bolt ,splitt'st the unwedgeable and gnarled oak1 ,than the soft myrtle40--,,shakespeare4 ,selby again1 in his 8,history of ,forest ,trees10 a work which should be in the hands of all lovers of the beautiful natural objects of which it treats1 describes the finding of some bog oaks1 which would almost connect the present race with a fossilized past3-- ,at the ,linden1 the seat of ,c4 ,w4 ,bigge1 ,esq41 the trunk of a magnificent oak was extracted from a peat moss that fills a small basin or hollow1 evidently produced by the stagnation of a stream1 which now passes through it1 and which1 at some distant period1 had been dammed back by the fall of the trees upon its margins4 ,this oak was covered by a layer of the peat to the depth of about three feet1 and was discovered by probing the moss4 ,the trunk1 with a small portion of one of the larger limbs1 was with great labour and difficulty dragged from its miry bed4 ,the contents of the portion recovered contained #ede cubic feet1 although the whole of the sap-wood had perished4 ,the timber was perfectly sound1 and the tree1 by whatever accident it had been overthrown1 had fallen in the vigour of its growth4 ,when sawn up1 the interior planks were found of a deep rich brown colour2 those nearer the exterior darker1 or approaching to black4 ,a variety of elegant furniture has been made from the wood2 but it has been found necessary1 for fine cabinet-work1 to have it cut into veneers1 for1 when worked in bulk1 it is apt to crack and become warped4 ,remains of other huge oaks have also been met with on the banks of the ,tyne1 the ,alne1 and other rivers1 as well as in various bogs and morasses2 and we mention these instances to show that in a district where1 at the present day1 nothing but recently-planted oak or dwarfish timber from stock-shoots exists1 in former times the monarch of the forest grew luxuriantly1 and attained a splendid development2 and also as an inducement to the planter not to neglect the liberal insertion of this national tree wherever soil and situation are found congenial to its growth4 ,in other parts of ,england1 the oak still grows in all its native magnificence of form and dimensions1 and the remains of those ancient forests1 which are chronicled by our earliest writers1 and which1 in the time of our ,saxon ancestors1 spread over the greater portion of the country1 are still to be traced in the venerable but living relics of enormous oaks1 many of which are supposed to number more than a thousand years4 ,not to neglect to plant the national tree6 ,we hope indeed that there is no possessor of broad acres who does not esteem it a duty1 regardless of profit1 to provide for a succession of forest kings1 if only to beautify the face of the country1 and to leave the people of the present1 some grand living object to connect them with the history of the past4 ,in fact1 planting of the 8,british oak0 has not only been considered a duty1 but followed out with the keenest pleasure by the country gentleman4 ,in so doing1 the question has scarcely until lately occurred1 is the ,british oak always the same8 or1 are there not different species1 or at least varieties of the genus quercus which have been confounded by the planter8 ,to this question we now propose to address our inquiries4 ,on referring to different authors1 we shall find mention of the following names as applied to the ,british oak3-- #a4 ,quercus robur1 ,linn4 #b4 sessiliflora1 ,salisbury4 #c4 intermedia1 ,don4 ,this method of nomenclature would1 however1 be only tenable on the supposition that we considered the trees so named specifically distinct2 but as we incline to believe them to be only varieties--though highly important as such--we intend to treat of them as follows3-- #ast4 ,,quercus ,,robur ,,pedunculata4 #bnd4 ,,sessiliflora4 #crd4 ,,intermedia4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,ii4 ,j4 ,e4 ,sowerby1 sc4 ,w4 ,west1 imp4 ,quercus ,robur ,sessiliflora4 #ast4 ,quercus ,robur pedunculata is readily distinguished in trees separate from others by its robust habits1 thick1 gnarled1 twisted1 and more or less horizontally inclined branches4 ,the leaves have comparatively few broad1 wavy indentations1 and are set on a short leaf-stalk 7petiole7 7,plate ,i4 fig4 a71 the fruit being situate on long footstalks 7peduncles71 varying from two to upwards of four inches 7fig4 b74 ,this is the typical ,british oak1 the pride of our sailors1 when men fought bravely and did not care to vie with each other as to who should make the most secure skulking-places4 ,the tree-- ,whose roots descend ,as low towards ,pluto's realms1 as high in air ,its massive branches rise4 ,the utmost rage ,of wintry storms howls o'er its strength in vain4 ,successive generations of mankind1 ,revolving ages flourish and decay1 ,yet still immovable it stands1 and throws ,its vigorous limbs around1 and proudly bears ,with firm and solid trunk its stately form1 ,a mighty canopy of thickest shade4 ,,virgil1 ,georg4 ii4 #bia4 ,this is the tree that seems to be longer lived than any other in ,britain1 and though it would appear to be the prey of nearly1 if not quite1 two hundred species of insects1 it has still had vigour of constitution to survive them all2 and in many instances we might point to brave old trees which must have been veterans at the time of the ,norman ,conquest4 ,now1 however1 they are old and staggy1 with hollow trunks truly--but what trunks6--from forty to fifty feet in circumference1 presenting the following picture to us as it did to ,spenser3-- ,there grew an aged tree on the green1 ,a goodly oak some time had it been1 ,with arms full long1 and largely displayed1 ,but of their leaves they were disarrayed2 ,the body big1 and mightily pight1 ,thoroughly rooted1 and of wond'rous height3 ,whilom had been the king of the field1 ,and mockel mast to the husband did yield2 ,and with his nuts larded many a swine1 ,but now the grey moss marred his rine2 ,his bared boughs were beaten with storms1 ,his top was bald and wasted with worms1 ,his honour decay'd1 his branches sere4 ,shepherd's ,calendar4 ,this1 indeed1 is a melancholy sight1 like the ,stag's ,horn ,oak by the roadside between ,farnham and ,woolmer1 in the ancient boundary of ,alice ,holt ,forest2 yet this has a young tree growing by its side1 perhaps one of his own children1 which gracefully conceals much of his gaunt nakedness4 ,in the same forest are many old staggy trees1 their contorted horn-like branches sticking out in a most picturesque manner from the top and sides of a still leafy head4 ,in these the white owls may yet be seen peering out of dark cavernous hollows as they did in ,gilbert ,white's day2 and during the summer of #ahfa we with pleasure watched their motions1 which so minutely agreed with those described by the father of observing naturalists1 that we cannot forbear quoting his remarks thereon in his 8,natural ,history of ,selborne10 a not very distant parish from the ,holt1 and to which he indeed often refers3-- ,as ,i have paid particular attention to the manner of life of these birds 7the ,white ,owl71 during their season of breeding1 which lasts the summer through1 the following remarks may not be unacceptable4 ,about an hour before sunset 7for then the mice begin to run71 they sally forth in quest of prey1 and hunt all round the hedges of meadows and small enclosures for them1 which seem to be their only food4 ,in this irregular country we can stand on an eminence and see them beat the fields over like a setting-dog1 and often drop down in the grass or corn4 ,i have minuted these birds with my watch for an hour together1 and have found that they return to their nest1 the one or the other of them1 about once in five minutes2 reflecting at the same time on the adroitness that every animal is possessed of as far as regards the well-being of itself and offspring4 ,notwithstanding the good done by these birds in keeping under mice1 all our eloquence could scarcely preserve them from the onslaught of the keeper2 they were1 however1 protected during our pleasant sojourn at the ,holt2 but we much fear only1 after all1 to gratify the taste for stuffed birds1 a love which is equally fatal to the feathered race 7and especially the finest examples thereof7 as the hate of the keeper4 ,but we are digressing sadly1 and must return to ,quercus ,robur pedunculata1 and complete our observations thereon with the statement that most1 if not all1 the nobler examples of oaks in ,england belong to this form4 ,selby directs attention to the 8,flitton ,oak1 in ,devonshire1 of the ,sessiliflora variety1 supposed to be one thousand years old1 and which is thirty-three feet in circumference at one foot from the ground40 ,however1 nearly every historical oak is of the pedunculate variety4 ,in the ,holt forest are still left some huge examples2 the same in the ,dean forest2 and ,braydon1 near ,swindon1 ,wilts1 though disafforested1 can yet show noble trees of this form4 ,indeed1 throughout ,england it is difficult to meet with many examples of any other form1 except in ,wyre forest1 ,worcestershire1 where the tree next to be described is perhaps the more general1 and it would also appear that in the ,new ,forest the ,q4 sessiliflora is also frequently met with4 ,quercus ,robur sessiliflora may be generally described as of a more upright and formal habit4 ,limbs straighter and less gnarled4 ,bark usually smoother than the former4 ,the leaf has many sinuosities1 and is set on a comparatively long leaf-stalk 7petiole7 7,plate ,,ii4 fig4 a74 ,the fruit1 on the contrary1 is so nearly sessile that it may be said to have little more than the indication of a peduncle 7fig4 b74 ,we have already stated our opinion that the sessile-fruited oak does not usually attain the huge dimensions of the pedunculate form2 but on the other hand we incline to the belief that it grows more rapidly1 and is best adapted for a lighter soil than the latter4 ,there are conditions which might to a greater or less extent affect the quality of its timber1 but we do not think that there is much difference in this respect4 ,we believe that their wood has been used indifferently1 and the quality is influenced by surrounding circumstances4 ,selby1 in his 8,history of ,forest ,trees10 states on this head3--8,the result1 perhaps1 of some original constitutional defect1 or arising from the nature of the soil1 situation1 or other local peculiarities of the ground upon which the timber has been raised2 such at least is the result of our own experience1 as we have met with oak of the peduncled kind1 its timber possessing all the inferior qualities attributed to1 and supposed to be possessed exclusively by1 ,q4 sessiliflora40 ,the longer1 straighter spars of the ,sessiliflora1 in days when oak was so uniformly used for roofs1 seem to have pointed out this variety for roof-timbering2 and hence some of the finest ancient timbered roofs of this country have been ascertained to have been formed from its wood4 ,with respect to these the opinion long prevailed that they were formed of the wood of the ,spanish chestnut4 ,this1 however1 is but a poor timber tree1 as1 long before it could afford so large a scantling as would be required by the roof of the ,parliament ,house at ,edinburgh or of ,westminster ,abbey 7both of which were supposed to be of chestnut71 the chestnut would begin to decay at the heart2 in fact1 just at the period when the heart-wood of oak begins to harden1 that of the chestnut would appear to deteriorate4 ,quercus ,robur intermedia1 having a petiole intermediate in length between the other two varieties described1 and a peduncle varying from a quarter to one inch in length1 may with propriety be deemed a variety intermediate between 8,sessiliflora0 and 8,pedunculata10 and a comparison of the three will substantiate its claim to this title4 ,as a tree it is impossible to make out any specific character from its mode of growth1 and1 indeed1 without the fruit1 it is extremely difficult even to distinguish it as a variety4 ,it occurs--only occasionally--in the ,cotteswold district1 and we suppose the same elsewhere4 ,one meets with it here and there in the hedge-rows1 and in ,oakley ,park1 the seat of ,earl ,bathurst1 we can point out a few specimens4 ,illustration3 ,galls of the ,cynips ,quercus petiolata4 7,natural size47 ,passing from the subject of the varieties of our ,british oak1 it now remains to mention a most formidable enemy by which it has of late years been attacked1 and so exclusively1 that in plantations where may be found the ,american oaks1 the ,ilex oak1 and ,turkey oak trees1 it has been the only one subjected to the operations of the new gall pest4 ,it has long been known that our native oaks were subject to excrescences of different forms and sizes1 such1 for example1 as oak-apples1 oakleaf galls1 oak spangles1 c41 all of which were ascertained to be caused by several species of cynips2 but lately we have to lament the introduction of a new species of the same insect1 forming a new kind of gall1 which1 instead of attacking the backs of the leaves1 as does the oakleaf gall1 occupies the stem that belongs to the leaf2 in fact1 the attacked leaves seem to be converted into bunches of galls1 as represented in the adjoining figure1 which presents an illustration of the new pest4 ,they are hard galls1 more or less like the 8nut-gall0 from ,aleppo1 of which ink is made1 and it will be seen that the little twig supports no less than five galls1 in the interior of each of which may be found the maggot or larva of an insect2 and1 as this is affected at the expense of the buds and leaves1 the mode of injury must be obvious1 as the new twigs which would have been formed1 had there been no galls1 would in their turn have produced branches and leaves4 ,trees thus infested are crippled as though they had been subjected to constant pruning4 ,as much of the natural history of the cynips1 by which these gall-nuts are formed1 as is necessary for our purpose1 may be gathered from a paper by ,mr4 ,parfitt1 who seems to have well studied the gall insect in ,devon1 its head-quarters4 ,we quote it from the ,journal of the ,bath and ,west of ,england ,agricultural ,society for #ahfa3-- ,the eggs deposited by the females in the oak buds in ,september remain there in a state of apparent quiescence till the following spring2 then1 as soon as the sap begins to flow1 the irritant injected into the wound at the same time the egg was deposited1 or possibly the combined action of the egg and irritant1 causes the sap to diverge2 that portion of the bud which should have formed a young shoot is converted into a spherical ball2 the outer scales of the bud fall away1 and it is the woody secretion which entirely forms the gall4 ,the cells in the gall are not elongated and regular1 as in the young shoot1 but confused and irregular2 and in the centre of each gall lies a young grub of the cynips1 forming a living nucleus1 around which is deposited a thin1 hard1 woody envelope1 much more compact in substance than the sponge-like tissue which fills up the interstice between it and the shining outer coat of the gall4 ,this compactness of structure is a necessary and all-wise provision of nature for protecting the delicate insect which lies within from destruction2 for if the gall were composed entirely of large spongy cells1 the rapid flow of sap in the early spring would be more than the creature could consume1 and it would consequently be drowned4 ,i am aware that some naturalists incline to the opinion that the larv of the cynips feed on the gall4 ,from this view1 however1 ,i venture to dissent2 for not only is it inconsistent with the structure of the creature's mouth1 and the position in which the young larv are invariably found1 with the head tucked under the apex of the abdomen1 but if they fed on the substance or crude material of the gall1 the undigested parts would certainly be found in the interior of its cell3 in other words1 the excrement would be there1 for there is no outlet1 and the lacteals or absorbent vessels of the gall could not take it up4 ,i therefore think that the creature feeds entirely on the sap of the tree--an elaborate food fit for it without the need of mastication4 ,this explains how it happens that the galls of commerce1 with the insects in them1 are so much better and dearer than those from which the cynips has escaped2 in a word1 the tannic acid is more abundant4 ,it has been before observed1 that there are two broods of the insect in a season2 thus1 those which do not emerge from the gall in ,september remain on till the following ,april or ,may4 ,this is a wise provision of nature for continuing the species1 should anything befall the autumn brood2 and it is the more deserving of notice1 because the gall-producing cynips has a deadly enemy which accompanies or follows it in its flight from bud to bud1 and deposits an egg wherever it finds the egg of the cynips4 ,here1 as soon as the cynips larva is hatched1 the larva of the parasite is hatched also2 forthwith the latter proceeds to eat a hole in the skin of the rightful occupant of the nidus1 and the two larv go on growing together till the cynips is ready to assume the pupal state2 then the parasite cuts the vital thread of the cynips1 and uses its skin for a pupal envelope for itself2 and thus1 instead of the gall-fly emerging into day1 a beautiful green insect makes its appearance on the stage of life4 ,i had the pleasure of first discovering this parasite while engaged in studying the cynips2 it belongs to the genus ,callimone1 and from the fact of having discovered it in ,devonshire1 ,i gave it the name of ,callimone ,devoniensis4 ,it is one of the handsomest of our ,british insects2 its costume a brilliant green1 shot with gold2 the abdominal segments green1 gold1 and purple2 legs yellow2 tarsi reddish2 and it has four beautiful transparent and iridescent wings4 ,it has been stated that oak-galls are produced at the expense of acorns4 ,from this view my experience leads me to dissent4 ,in exceptional instances it may have been the case2 but as a rule the cynips confines its attacks to young trees and young growths in hedges1 within a range of ten or twelve feet from the ground1 and the nearer the ground the more numerous the galls4 ,young trees which have not attained a greater height than that ,i have indicated suffer so much that many of them can scarcely make headway against their foe2 and in several nurseries ,i have visited1 where it might be expected that greater care would be paid than in the case of ordinary plantations1 the young stock of oaks has been rendered quite unsaleable by the pest4 ,this year ,i have noticed the progress of the insect on two groups of young ,english and ,turkey oaks growing side by side2 and although there are hundreds of galls on the ,english oaks1 there are none on the ,turkey oaks4 ,from this ,i am led to infer that the species of cynips now under notice is confined in its depredations to the ,english oak2 and as it invariably selects trees of younger or restricted growth--probably because the temperature at a higher elevation than ten or twelve feet from the earth is unfavourable to it--it would seem that children might be advantageously employed in young plantations in collecting the galls by means of cutting-hooks1 such as are used for thistles4 ,the galls1 when once collected1 might either be crushed for tanning purposes1 or consumed by fire1 and if the process were repeated for two or three seasons1 it is more than probable that the plantation would be altogether free from the pest4 ,these able remarks not only well describe the nature of the attack1 but also point to a cure--a matter to which we would direct the most serious attention of the planter2 for we may state that1 in #ahec1 we saw some very small oak trees1 in the neighbourhood of ,dawlish1 ,devon1 from which some hundreds of these galls might have been gathered4 ,this was the first time we had noticed this pest1 though it appears that it had been under ,mr4 ,parfitt's notice as long as a dozen years4 ,since then 7#ahec7 we have traced it in its progress as follows3-- ,having observed the galls in ,devon in #ahec1 we were yearly on the look-out in the ,midland and ,eastern counties for its appearance1 and the following dates will show that its spread1 though gradual1 was sufficiently rapid3-- ,the galls were gathered in ,devon in #ahec ,the same kind in ,somerset1 in #ahed ,in ,gloucester1 on the west side of the river ,severn1 ,forest of ,dean1 in #ahee ,in ,gloucester1 east side of the ,severn1 and as far as ,oakley ,park1 ,cirencester1 in #ahef ,in ,worcestershire1 in #aheg ,in ,north ,wales1 ,beddgelert 7pointed out to us by ,john ,savory1 ,esq471 in #ahei ,in ,sussex1 very sparingly1 in #ahfj ,in ,alice ,holt ,forest1 and far from abundant1 in #ahfa ,about ,hastings1 very plentifully1 in #ahfb ,we have this season observed a lot of the young galls2 but last year1 for the first time1 we discovered that1 in many cases1 the maggot had been extracted by some small bird1 one of the titmice 7,parus cruleus72 and1 if so1 wherever young oaks may be growing1 it should afford an additional reason for the protection of these useful birds4 ,the magnitude of the evil1 unless checked by some means1 may be estimated from the fact that1 in #ahef1 we could scarcely find half a dozen galls within a wide district1 and now all around may be found trees1 not more than #aj feet high1 upon which are no less than from one to five hundred distinct galls4 ,we conclude these remarks upon our native oaks with the fervent hope that in 8,merry ,england0 it may ever be as described by dear old ,chaucer3-- ,a pleasant grove 99 99 99 99 99 ,in which were okes grete1 streight as a line1 ,undir the which the grass so fresh of hew ,was newly sprong1 and an eight fote1 or nine1 ,every tree well from his fellow grew1 ,with branches brode1 laden with levis new1 ,that1 sprongin out agen1 the sonn shene4 ,some very rede2 and some a glad light grene4 ,the ,floure and the ,leafe4 ,,chapter ,,xliii4 ,,on ,,the ,,chestnut ,,and ,,walnut4 ,the ,chestnut and ,walnut are here brought together1 not only as producing two useful kinds of hard-wooded timber1 but from the fact of both being bearers of esteemed kinds of fruit4 ,they are neither grown to the same extent in ,england as on the ,continent1 and probably neither of them is indigenous to this country1 although it is stated by ,sir ,w4 ,hooker to grow in woods apparently wild1 in the south and south-west of ,england4 ,as regards the fruit of the former1 it may be said that in parts of ,spain 8,spanish ,chestnuts0 are a staple article of food4 ,in ,england they are sometimes brought to table as a stuffing for turkeys1 or roasted for dessert2 but their greatest consumption among us is with the poor1 who1 in winter1 with a halfpenny-worth of roasted chestnuts enjoy the double luxury of warm fingers and a sweet nutritious diet4 ,walnuts1 as a fruit1 are highly esteemed by all classes3 as much by those who crack and peel them in a second or third class railway carriage1 as by the squire who takes them as a concomitant with his glass of port4 ,with us they are only cared for while they can be peeled1 but abroad they are carefully dried1 in which state they form an important article of commerce4 ,in the ,portuguese court of the ,international ,exhibition of #ahfa1 in our capacity of juryman1 we had brought before us specimens of dried walnuts from as many as fifty exhibitors4 ,the ,spanish chestnut 7,castanea vulgaris7 has no relationship with the so-called horse-chestnut1 which latter1 we might just mention1 is solely employed as an ornamental tree1 if we except its occasional use in cabinet-work4 ,evelyn1 sixty years ago1 speaks of it as being 8all the mode for the avenues to their country palaces in ,france40 ,it has been much used for this purpose with us1 and its magnificent flowers and fine foliage will ever recommend it as an ornament about country residences4 ,but to return to the ,spanish chestnut4 ,this tree is planted with us both for the growth of timber or as underwood for poles2 for the latter purpose it answers well1 as it soon grows up again after cutting1 and in its young state it goes so soon to heart-wood that the poles are remarkably strong and tough4 ,as a timber tree1 the chestnut has been very extensively extolled both in this country and on the ,continent2 it may1 however1 be concluded that although its wood is exceedingly useful1 it has never been put to the important uses which have been claimed for it4 ,evelyn1 speaking of chestnut-wood1 says3--8,i had once a very large barn near the city1 framed entirely of this timber40 ,sir ,t4 ,d4 ,lauder tells us that the roof of the ,parliament ,house in ,edinburgh is constructed of chestnut1 and we have often seen it stated that the magnificent roof of ,westminster ,hall has been framed of this timber2#bh but to quote from ,selby's admirable 8,history of ,british ,forest ,trees03-- ,the fact is1 as ,buffon first observed1 the wood of the oak1 more particularly that of the sessile-fruited variety1 assumes1 in course of time1 a near resemblance in colour to that of the chestnut in its best condition1 or when young and untainted at heart2 and as few chestnuts could have acquired the scantling frequently observed in the timbers of these ancient buildings at the age dialling or decay almost invariably commences1 this in itself furnishes a strong argument against the use of chestnut timbers and beams by our ancestors1 inasmuch as the trees must become unfit for the purpose long before they had attained the necessary dimensions4--,p4 #cbf4 #bh ,many of the most ancient houses in ,london were built of its 7chestnut7 wood1 as is the roof of ,westminster ,hall1 built by ,william ,rufus1 in the year #ajii1 still free from any appearance of decay4--,sylva ,britannica1 p4 #ha4 ,but although we may safely dismiss the notion that chestnut is of the value formerly supposed1 yet its timber is not without its uses2 it is employed for smaller beams1 gate-posts1 piles1 and other purposes where large timber is not required4 ,its best use is for poles1 for which purpose chestnut may be employed as nurses to oak1 thinning out the former as growth advances4 ,dismissing1 however1 the subject of the economic value of the chestnut1 whether for timber or fruit1 as an ornamental tree it has few equals4 ,there are many fine chestnut-trees in our country1 but perhaps the finest1 as it is supposed to be the oldest1 sylvan veteran in ,england is the one at ,tortworth1 in ,gloucestershire1 of which ,strutt says3-- ,in the reign of ,stephen1 who ascended the throne in #aace1 it was deemed so remarkable for its size1 that1 as appears upon record1 it was well known as a signal boundary to the ,manor of ,tortworth4 ,at the time that it was thus conspicuous for its magnitude and vigour1 we may reasonably suppose it to have been in its prime2 if1 therefore1 we pay any regard to the received opinion which is applied to the chestnut1 equally with the oak1 that it is three hundred years in coming to perfection1 this calculation takes us back to the beginning of the reign of ,egbert1 in the year #hjj1 for the commencement of the existence of the ,tortworth ,chestnut4 ,well then may we exclaim with the poet-- ,hail1 old patrician trees1 so great and good6 ,the ,walnut 7,juglans regia7 is supposed to have been introduced from ,persia by the ,romans2 but although we can have no claim to it as a native1 yet it has thriven so remarkably well1 as for many years since to have furnished us with a large quantity of a highly valuable timber4 ,so much indeed is its wood esteemed1 as to have caused its use only in the better kinds of cabinet-work1 such as drawing-room furniture1 internal fittings1 and where mahogany would now be considered as somewhat common2 it has1 too1 been ever esteemed as a wood for gun-stocks1 as it combines hardness1 toughness1 and an agreeable colour with a great degree of lightness--being of a less specific gravity than that of any other kind of hard wood4 ,fowling-pieces1 gentlemen's rifles1 pistols1 and all the finer kinds of small arms1 usually have stocks of walnut1 as its texture1 colour1 and the sharpness with which fancy carvings can be worked1 peculiarly adapt it for the purpose4 ,during the continental war1 ,english walnut fetched an enormous price4 ,selby tells us that a single tree was sold for #fjj1 owing to which many of the noblest specimens were sacrificed2 and ,loudon tells us that1 about #ahjf1 no less than #ab1jjj trees were annually required for these uses in ,france4 ,in ,england this tree is principally grown for its fruit1 which is a great favourite when ripe as an adjunct to the social glass4 ,still enormous quantities are never allowed to attain to ripeness1 from their being used in a green state for the purposes of pickling1 sauces1 and the like2 indeed1 so much is the green part of the walnut esteemed for its flavouring properties1 that the very 8hulls10 or coverings to the ripened fruits1 are employed as an ingredient in the preparation of sauces and flavourings4 ,another use of the fruit1 especially on the ,continent1 is that of making oil1 which is considered to be little1 if at all1 inferior to fine olive-oil4 ,the walnut-tree1 then1 may be considered as offering many claims for its more extensive cultivation1 for although native growths of timber have been of late years in a measure superseded by ,american walnut and hickory wood1 still it offers no mean inducements to the planter upon this score alone1 at the same time it must be allowed that with us the chief inducement to the culture of this tree is the value of its fruit and the handsome tree which it makes4 ,in the growth of this and the preceding1 it is always best to procure good1 healthy1 young trees from the nurseryman2 indeed1 in planting all forest trees this may be considered as not only the best1 but usually the cheapest mode of proceeding4 ,,chapter ,,xliv4 ,,on ,,the ,,elm4 ,to the critical botanist the study of the different kinds of ,elm is one of the most perplexing subjects he has to cope with1 the fact being1 that if the seed of any one form be cultivated1 the results will seldom or never be uniform1 for not only may several well-known varieties be produced from the seed of a single tree1 but even new forms may thus be obtained4 ,on this account have arisen the great discrepancies one meets with in authors as regards nomenclature2 some making many species of the ,elms commonly met with in ,great ,britain1 while others reduce them to two2 viz4-- ,ulmus campestris--,small-leaved1 ,common ,upright or ,english ,elm4 ,ulmus montana--,large-leaved1 ,spreading ,scotch or ,wych ,elm4 ,but though these are the names used by most authors to distinguish these two well-recognized forms1 yet they have been reversed in ,dr4 ,arnott's edition of ,hooker's 8,flora10 thus3-- ,ulmus suberosa 7,ehrh47--,common or ,english ,elm4 ,ulmus campestris 7,l47--,broad-leaved or ,wych ,hazel4 ,now it is not our object to enter into a discussion on the much-vexed question of species1 and therefore1 without even determining whether the ,english and ,scotch ,elms be absolutely distinct1 we shall yet describe as two well-established forms of forest trees1 and endeavour to put them in their proper position among profitable and ornamental timber trees1 to which end we would distinguish them as follows3-- #a4 ,,ulmus ,,campestris4 #b4 ,,ulmus ,,montana4 7,english ,elm47 7,scotch ,elm47 ,leaves small1 doubly-notched at ,leaves larger1 divided into the margin1 with an alternation segments at the margin1 which of larger and smaller teeth segments are notched with fine 7alternately serrate74 serrated teeth4 ,fruit small and flat1 with a deep ,fruit large and flat1 with a slight notch at the apex2 bunches notch at the apex2 bunches large somewhat small and inconspicuous4 and having the general appearance of bunches of hops4 ,branches more or less spreading1 ,branches more or less upright1 inclining to be rough or even corky smooth1 and even4 ,twigs sometimes 7suberose74 ,twigs more or less clothed with a short down4 hairy4 ,bole more or less towering upwards1 ,bole shorter1 branching at a its divisions having the same moderate elevation into large tendency4 ,arms more like those of spreading arms1 more like those of the beech4 the oak4 ,roots throwing up suckers often at ,roots not stoloniferous4 a great distance from the tree4 #a4 ,ulmus campestris4--,the ,english ,elm1 though not the producer of the most valuable timber1 or of a kind for more refined purposes1 is still one of the most extensively useful of any kind whatsoever4 ,the long straight balks of this ,elm caused it at one time to be employed for water-pipes2 these can be readily cut into boards of great length and width1 which are useful for a variety of purposes4 ,selby sums up an account of its character as follows3-- ,the wood when matured is of a deep-brown colour1 compact and fine-grained2 according to ,loudon1 it loses nearly two-thirds of its weight in drying1 as when cut it weighs nearly seventy pounds the cubic foot1 and when seasoned not more than twenty-eight pounds and a half4 ,in the lateral adhesion of its fibre it surpasses the ,u4 montana1 though perhaps inferior to it in longitudinal toughness1 and therefore not capable of supporting so severe a cross strain4 ,the former property1 however1 eminently qualifies it for every purpose where a strong wood that will not split or crack1 either from concussion or the action of sun and wet1 is required2 on this account1 ,matthew1 in his able treatise on naval timber1 strongly recommends it for the 8blocks1 dead-eyes1 and other wooden furniture of rigging40 ,in country carpentry it is very extensively used in all the ,southern parts of ,england2 but the purposes to which it is applied it is unnecessary to enumerate1 these having already been described by ,evelyn and subsequent authors4 ,its durability under water1 as well as the straightness and great length of its stem1 qualifies it for making the keels of large ships1 for which purpose it sells at a very high price4 ,as an ornamental tree for general purposes1 few can surpass the elm1 as when well-grown and not too much interfered with by the forester1 it has a gracefully aspiring form without a disposition to lankiness3 its foliage is thick enough to afford any amount of shade1 and yet is never of a heavy appearance4 ,it flourishes best in good deep soil1 in which the most solid balks are grown3 when planted on poor land or on gravel-beds it decays at the heart at a very early age4 ,some of the ,english elms in ,hyde ,park have thus decayed1 whilst others have attained a respectable size and age1 having been injured by storms3-- ,the wintry winds had passed ,and swept an arm away1 ,and winter found a wound at last1 ,in which to work decay4 ,in good soil the ,english elm grows to an enormous size1 remaining perfectly solid to a good old age4 ,we remember the felling of a tree called 8,piff's ,elm10 on the high-road between ,cheltenham and ,tewkesbury1 in which the hole measured #bh feet in circumference at #d feet from the ground1 and we counted #aih rings of annual growth4 ,still1 when grown in poor gravelly soils and in the usual hedge mode1 in which they are periodically shrouded and crippled1 they often begin to decay in the centre at less than twenty years of age4 ,there are varieties of the ,u4 campestris1 which1 as they are not of any particular importance as timber trees1 need only be lightly touched upon in this place4 ,they are as follows3-- #a4 ,ulmus suberosa--,cork ,elm1 bark of the limbs exceedingly corky4 #b4 ,ulmus carpinifolia--,hornbeam-leaved ,elm1 leaves strongly-veined1 serratures blunt2 branches nearly smooth4 #c4 ,ulmus stricta--,cornish ,elm1 leaves smooth and shining above1 doubly serrated1 with obtuse teeth2 branches bright-brown1 smooth1 erect4 #d4 ,ulmus glabra--,small-leaved ,elm1 leaves small and smooth2 branches pendulous4 #b4 ,ulmus montana4--,the ,scotch ,elm1 the broad-leaved elm 7wych hazel7 of most parts of ,england and ,scotland1 is well distinguished by its large broad leaves1 hop-like fruits1 large limbs diverging from a less towering trunk at an obtuse angle1 branches more or less lax and pendulous1 bark of the twigs dark brown1 smooth and not corky2 of stem when rough1 not suberose4 ,this tree is reputed wild1 but there seems reason to think that this form1 and certainly the ,u4 campestris1 has been introduced4 ,one reason for this conclusion is that although the ,u4 montana produces such an enormous amount of seed1 yet1 in as far as we know1 none of this produces young trees1 or1 in other words1 this elm does not appear to increase sporadically4 ,even in cultivation it is found to be exceedingly difficult to replenish our nursery stock from seed1 and hence the cost of young plants1 as they have to be produced from suckers1 or otherwise layered1 and occasionally grown from cuttings4 ,evelyn says3-- ,it seems to be so much more addicted to some places than to others1 that ,i have frequently doubted whether it be a pure indigene or translatitious2 and not only because ,i have hardly ever known any considerable woods of them 7besides some few nurseries near ,cambridge1 planted1 ,i suppose1 for store71 but most continually in tufts1 hedge-rows1 and mounds2 and that ,shropshire1 and several other counties1 have rarely any growing in many miles together4--,sylva1 vol4 i4 p4 #abg4 ,to this may be added the fact that the most notable elm trees will usually be found at cross-roads--as ,maul's ,elm at ,cheltenham1 nearly #dj feet in circumference1 or about dwellings2 the fine old trunk at the ,slade ,farm1 near ,stroud1 ,gloucestershire1 as much as #ej feet1 for some time hollow1 and once used as a cider-mill2 the fine elms in our parks1 as at ,hyde ,park1 ,kensington ,gardens1 and others2 and such avenues of elms as seen at ,christchurch4 ,as a timber tree the ,scotch elm is not esteemed so highly as is the ,english sort4 ,to begin with1 it does not grow such straight even balks2 it is more gnarled and knotty in sawing1 and more difficult to work4 ,selby says that ,scottish writers have arrived at a different conclusion1 which he conceives to have arisen from the fact that 8their estimate has been drawn from a comparison of the wood of ,u4 montana with that of ,u4 suberosa 7considered by them to be the ,english elm71 which produces a soft1 spongy wood1 greatly inferior to most other trees of the genus40 ,it is used for flooring and rough country work4 ,the peculiar wen-like excrescences that one sometimes meets with on the sides of wych elms are carefully preserved and cut into veneers for fine loo-tables1 work-boxes1 and other purposes1 when a peculiar mottled fine-coloured wood is required for fancy-work4 ,some of the finest elms we have examined have been ,maul's elm1 ,piff's elm1 the ,slade elm1 before mentioned1 and the following1 measured at one and three feet from the ground4 ,circum4 at ,circum4 at #a foot4 #c feet4 ,ulmus montana1 ,oakley ,park1 ,cirencester #ch #j #cc #f ,ditto1 ,hyde ,park -- #bj #f ,ditto1 ,hyde ,park -- #bj #j ,ditto1 group of twelve in ,kensington ,gardens1 varying to -- #bj #j ,ulmus campestris1 ,hyde ,park1 several varying from #bj ft4 to -- #cj #j ,ditto1 in ,oakley ,park1 from #ae ft4 to -- #bb #j ,,chapter ,,xlv4 ,,on ,,the ,,ash1 ,,beech1 ,,and ,,other ,,white-,,wooded ,,trees4 ,,the ,,ash 7,fraxinus excelsior71 when well-grown and in good foliage1 is one of our most charming trees2 its light1 graceful1 and agreeably-coloured leaves1 united with a graceful disposition of lithe1 smoothly-formed limbs1 altogether fully entitle it to be considered as the 8,venus of the ,forest40 ,the leaves of the common ash are pinnate1 with from three to four pairs of leaflets and one terminal leaflet4 ,this latter is sometimes absent when the apex is bifoliate1 and a form called the double-leaf is produced1 which even at this day is reputed by the rustics to be capable of working various charms4 ,it is this pinnate pendent leaf which1 loosely hanging on the flexile1 more or less pendent branches1 gives so much grace to the tree4 ,we have been much pleased with some groups of ash trees in ,earl ,bathurst's park 7,oakley ,park7 at ,cirencester2 but1 as ,strutt well observes1-- ,it is in mountain scenery that the ash appears to peculiar advantage2 waving its slender branches over some precipice which just affords it soil sufficient for its footing1 or springing between crevices of rock1 a happy emblem of the hardy spirit which will not be subdued by fortune's scantiness4 ,it is likewise a lovely object by the side of some crystal stream1 in which it views its elegant pendent foliage1 bending1 ,narcissus-like1 over its own charms4 ,but charming as is the ash when in its most perfect foliage1 yet as its stivation is usually so late1 and the fall of its leaves so early and rapid1 it often displays all but naked limbs1 even amidst the freshness of spring1 as well as during the autumnal tinting of almost all other trees4 ,it would seem that its buds cannot expand in spring frosts1 whilst the first frost of autumn will frequently make the whole foliage drop in one mass beneath the influence of the succeeding sunshine4 ,this susceptibility to spring cold is doubtless at the base of the country weather predictions which are made to depend upon the behaviour of the ash in respect to its time of displaying its leaves3-- ,when the oak's before the ash1 ,you may then expect a dash4 ,generally held to mean1 that if the leaves of the oak are seen before those of the ash1 a fine dry summer may be expected2 but1 on the contrary1-- ,with the ash before the oak1 ,you may then expect a soak4 ,the truth of all this may be that a cold wet spring1 which would retard the bursting of the buds of the ash1 may be expected to be followed by a fine summer2 whilst1 on the contrary1 a genial forward spring is often succeeded by a wet summer4 ,selby remarks on the early fall of the leaf1 which1 as he says1 is 8after the first autumnal frost1 however early that may happen2 and this1 in general1 without undergoing any change of colour1 or contributing by the 'sear and yellow leaf' to the waning beauty of autumnal foliage40 ,on this account1 ,sir ,t4 ,d4 ,lauder recommends that 8ash trees should be sparingly planted around a gentleman's residence1 to avoid the risk of their giving to it a cold1 late appearance1 at a season when all nature should smile40 ,it should be noted that although the ash seems to be so susceptible of cold1 it nevertheless ripens its seeds most perfectly in any part of ,great ,britain2 and besides this1 these seeds1 or 8keys10 when naturally sown1 come up with the greatest certainty1 so that young ash may be removed from the wood and used for planting4 ,this renders it easy to cultivate young plants from seed2 to which end1 when the ripened keys are gathered in the autumn1 they should be well examined to see that the seed has not been eaten out by the ash-weevil1 as it will most certainly be if a small orifice be observable on one side of the key or samara1 just over the seed4 ,in growing ash with a view to profit1 it is recommended to plant it by itself in belts or plantations1 which are called ash-holts1 as it usually1 when well started1 grows upwards too fast to be a good nurse to other trees1 which latter would suffer from the whipping of the longer heavy flexile stems of the ash4#bi #bi ,selby says1 8,the pitting system should always be adopted in planting the ash1 for the roots1 even in young plants1 are too numerous1 large1 and spreading1 to be properly inserted by the splitting or ,t method40 ,we would also add1 that they should be planted as soon upon removal as possible4 ,it is too often planted in hedge-rows1 where it is exceedingly objectionable1 not only from the ill effects on the scene of interminable rows of one kind of tree1 but the drip and the peculiar growth of the roots render it most destructive to the growth of crops planted beneath its shade4 ,the uses to which the wood of this tree is turned are multifarious in the extreme4 ,walking-sticks are made from ash saplings2 and as1 from youth to age1 it is so tough and elastic1 it is used for handles and other parts of farm implements and machinery of all kinds4 ,the wheelwright and coachmaker employ the wood extensively2 so also the cooper4 ,as a firewood its 8offal0 is always welcome1 as it burns with a clear1 bright flame1 and that nearly as well in the green as in the dry state2 and the whole tree is so rich in potash that this alkali is often made from its trimmings and loppings4 ,we had already mentioned some of the superstitions connected with the ash1 and at p4 #bej will be found directions for making a shrew-ash2 we shall now1 therefore1 only direct attention to another practice which this tree was employed for1 even to a somewhat recent period1 as it will account for some curious growths of ash which will sometimes be met with4 ,evelyn says3-- ,i have heard it affirmed with great confidence1 and upon experience1 that the rupture to which many children are obnoxious1 is healed1 by passing the infant through a wide cleft made in the bole or stem of the growing ash-tree2 it is then carried a second time round the ash1 and caused to repass the same aperture as before4 ,the rupture of the child being bound up1 it is supposed to heal as the cleft of the tree closes and coalesces4 ,as1 then1 the healing of the child would seem to depend upon that of the tree1 this potent charm is not always successful1 as may be gathered from the fact that young trees have been met with which never healed at all1 and we recollect one of these1 of which the accompanying wood-cut is a copy1 having been presented at a ,conversazione of the ,worcestershire ,natural ,history ,society4 ,the tree from whence it was taken was of about ten years of age4 ,selby says that an instance of this use of the ash is 8related by the ,rev4 ,t4 ,bree1 in the ,magazine of ,natural ,history1 where a ruptured child was made to pass through the chasm of a young ash-tree1 split for the purpose1 in ,warwickshire40 ,illustration ,these facts seem to point to the acting upon such superstitions to within a comparatively recent period1 though doubtless the drawing a child beneath the stolon or shoot of a bramble that has rooted at its extremity1 and which we have known to be gravely recommended by a wise 767 woman1 would be equally efficacious1 and1 upon the whole1 easier to perform4 ,evelyn further says that 8the chemists exceedingly commend the seed of the ash to be an admirable remedy for the stone40 8,but10 he adds1 8whether by the power of magic or nature1 ,i determine not40 ,we would suggest that it was by the power its roots possess of riving the natural rock4 ,so stone-crop1 from decomposing the stones on which it grows1 was held to have the like effect4 ,how strange1 then1 it is that with such evidences of the truth of the motto1-- ,similia similibus curantur1 physicians of the present day should refuse to listen to this still 7and very small7 voice of nature1 and not all become homopaths6 ,such may well be the reasoning of many an old woman who still pretends to cures either by magic spells or infinitesimal globules4 ,two interesting varieties of ash are met with3 the pendulous or weeping-ash1 which1 ,sir ,w4 ,hooker informs us1 is said to have been first discovered in a field at ,gamlingay1 and the ,fraxinus heterophylla1 in which the leaf is simple1 that is1 it is in one piece1 more the form of a laurel-leaf than the usual pinnated ash-leaf4 ,these variations are easily perpetuated by grafting1 and are here only mentioned on account of their peculiar habits4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,beech 7,fagus sylvatica7 is admitted by all authors to be a native of ,great ,britain1 and if the many magnificent giants one here and there meets with be admitted as proofs of indigenous origin1 few trees can put in a more imposing claim4 ,the celebrated ,burnham beeches1 so well known to artists and lovers of nature in general1 and the many fine examples of this tree in the ,cotteswolds1 upon which range it is said to grow as a weed1 testify to the age and size to which the beech may attain4 ,the plantations of beeches in ,oakley ,park are well worthy of note in speaking of the ,cotteswolds1 for although they have been planted here1 yet the fine1 tall1 clean balks1 lofty tops1 and the 8twilight shades0 beneath1 will not soon be forgotten by the author1 who1 beneath their boughs1 through the liberality of ,earl ,bathurst1 8has felt them all his own10 as says the poet ,gray of the ,burnham beeches4 ,here1 too1 has he mused1 though not1 like ,pope1 in 8thoughts that burn10 yet much wondering at the curious plants which choose such seclusion for their dwelling4 ,of these the following may be here enumerated1 as they really form part of the natural history of the beech wood3-- ,listera ,nidus-avis--,birds'-nest ,orchis4 ,habenaria chlorantha--,butterfly ,orchis4 ,epipactis grandiflora--,large ,white ,helleborine4 ,epipactis ensifolia--,narrow-leaved ,white ,helleborine4 ,epipactis latifolia--,broad-leaved ,helleborine4 ,monotropa ,hypopithys--,yellow ,birds'-nest4 ,pyrola minor--,lesser ,winter ,green4 ,such a list of plants found in the beech woods is sufficient to make their locality remarkable1 and if we add to them the ,tuber cibarium--,truffle1 ,morchella esculenta--,morell1 ,elaphomyces muricatus--,sharp-warted ,elaphomyces1 --these1 with various other curious fungi1 will be sufficient to make ,oakley ,park and its beeches a botanical habitat of no mean pretension4 ,as regards the truffle1 we may mention that we have heard that a former ,earl ,bathurst kept dogs for the purpose of hunting them4 ,we have partaken of the morells from this park several times1 and always found them delicious1 and can recommend them stuffed with sausage-meat and fried1 as a dish for an epicure3 we have seen them exposed for sale in the greengrocers' shops of the good old town of ,cirencester4 ,but we are sadly digressing from the subject of the beech tree in his history as a forest and ornamental tree4 ,under the latter aspect1 then1 most authors1 except ,gilpin1 view the beech to hold a very high place4 ,coleman1 in his 8,woodlands10 considers that1-- ,among our truly indigenous forest-trees1 the beech must certainly rank as second only to the oak for majesty and picturesqueness2 while1 for the union of grace and nobility1 it may claim precedence over every other member of our sylva4 ,having said this1 we must1 as a matter of course1 dissent from the opinion of ,gilpin1 the highly-gifted author of 8,forest ,scenery10 who has1 as we think1 unjustly impugned the ornamental character of this generally favourite tree1 and this because he had some crotchets of his own about landscape composition1 and the shape that trees ought to take to make them good subjects for the pencil4 ,the beech did not happen to fit itself to his theory1 and so he quarrelled with it1 and called it hard names4 ,any one who has ever seen a well-grown beech tree1 such as was once our delight to visit at ,hartley ,bottom1 near the source of the ,thames1 or who has seen such masses of beech glowing with autumnal tints as may be witnessed in a journey on the ,great ,western ,railway between ,swindon and ,cheltenham1 will never speak disparagingly of the beech1 which we think noble1 alike by itself as in masses1 or as a sylvan denizen with other trees4 ,but it has other claims besides that of ornament2 it is a highly useful wood1 much employed in carpentry1 cabinet-work1 and turnery2 in the making of charcoal2 and increasingly so in the manufacture of wood-spirit4 ,as a firewood it excels most others1 as it burns with a clear flame1 even when wet1 and leaves behind only a small quantity of ash4 ,how1 indeed1 could it possess much ash when it flourishes in positions where scarcely four inches of soil covers up the oolitic stone1 its roots spreading over the rock and occasionally dipping into its fissures in a manner most aptly illustrative of the fact that this tree really derives but little nutrition from the soil1 the rocks upon which it grows1 for the most part1 serving to moor the giant in position that it may spread forth its leaves to feed upon the atmosphere8 ,the beech is easily propagated from its fruit--8mast0--which1 indeed1 so readily grows beneath the trees that thousands might be obtained for the purpose of pricking out in nursery lines1 if looked after4 ,the usual method of cultivation is to gather the mast in the autumn1 to keep it well in sand1 and sow in the spring4 ,after two years it is pricked out in nursery rows1 and is fit for planting in three years more4 ,where once established it will soon spread1 as the mast grows sporadically with great readiness1 and this tree has a faculty for extending undisputed possession2 thus1 in ,america will be found wide-extended forests of scarcely anything but beech1 which1 though perhaps a little varied from our own1 is yet doubtless of the same species4 ,there are several ornamental varieties of beech to be obtained from the nurserymen1 some of which are more curious than useful2 but we must not omit to mention the ,copper ,beech 7,fagus sylvatica1 var4 purpurea74 ,this1 judiciously disposed1 is capable of affording a great charm to the wood1 and more especially in plantations near the homestead4 ,they are fast-growing trees1 and at present are here and there to be met with of considerable size4 ,we once possessed a couple on our lawn1 the largest of which must have been nearly six feet in circumference2 and what from its colour1 the thickness of its foliage1 and the fine sweep of its branches1 it was capable of yielding shade and shelter of a most perfect and agreeable kind4 ,the drip of the beech is prejudicial to cultivation1 we think1 from the circumstance that the hard1 though thin1 leaves are so difficult of decomposition that where they fall they leave a thick carpet covering up the ground4 ,if1 then1 these trees are in such a position as to do mischief from this cause1 the leaves should be removed1 and they will1 if stored1 be found very useful in making hotbeds1 linings to pots1 and other gardening work4 ,beech is less liable to insect attacks than almost any other tree2 the most annoying is that of the ,aphis1 especially when near the house1 as this harbours insects of all kinds1 and the exuding honey-dew much injures the aspect of the tree4 ,beech timber would be more valuable than it is were it not for its liability1 when in panels1 tables1 and furniture1 to be attacked and bored by weevils4 ,we once had our house so infested with these little beetles1 derived from some furniture of this wood1 as to cause considerable alarm2 but fortunately our domestic's knowledge of natural history in the matter of bugs was somewhat defective1 as she had mistaken the nature of the weevil4 ,this pest can be removed by boiling in oil2 but it is a great drawback to the use of a wood which otherwise might be applied to various domestic purposes4 ,,chapter ,,xlvi4 ,,on ,,soft-,,wooded ,,forest ,,trees4 ,in this chapter we shall shortly direct attention to such soft-wooded trees as the sycamore1 plane1 horse-chestnut1 lime1 willow1 poplar1 and others1 which1 though commonly grown1 are yet more so for ornament than profit2 for though their woods are found to be more or less useful1 as a general rule they must take a comparatively low rank as timber trees4 ,both the ,sycamore and the ,plane are introduced trees2 both attain to a large size2 and when judiciously mixed with other trees form a very pleasing contrast4 ,the plane has the property of withstanding the effects of smoke in towns better than any other tree1 and therefore it is recommended for planting in public parks and town enclosures4 ,the ,horse-,chestnut has much of the character of the above2 it grows tall and large1 and its fine foliage and handsome bunches of flowers are very attractive4 ,it is an excellent tree for shade1 and has the merit of quick growth2 but its wood is so brittle as to cause great limbs to be too readily blown off with a high wind4 ,the ,lime 7,tilia ,europa7 is one of our most charming native trees1 for so it has been pretty clearly proved to be by ,e4 ,lees1 ,esq41 ,f4,l4,s41 who says 8that at ,shrawley1 eight miles north from ,worcester1 there is a wood1 remote from any dwelling or public road1 of about five hundred acres in extent1 the greater part of the undergrowth of which is composed of ,tilia ,europa1 var4 ,microphylla20 and the same gentleman1 in a communication to the ,botanical ,society of ,london1 mentioned several places1 in ,worcestershire1 ,herefordshire1 ,gloucestershire1 ,monmouthshire1 and ,south ,wales1 where he considers the lime to be indigenous1 and where he met with many remarkable and aged trees4 ,we shall not here enter into a discussion about species1 but1 from what we saw in ,shrawley wood and its district1 we incline to the belief that several names made to depend mainly upon the leaves1 might well be omitted1 seeing that from ,shrawley itself the leaves on the newly-sprung underwood are fully five times larger than those on an old tree4 ,putting such questions aside1 we may well consider the lime as a truly ornamental tree1 whose varieties give great charm to the forest or the more limited plantation about the homestead1 where its shade1 its perfume when in flower1 and patience under lopping and training1 must ever recommend it4 ,the ,willow1 though usually cultivated in the shape of twigs for basket-making and the like purposes1 for which many species are employed1 is nevertheless grown upon the margins of streams and in damp places about estates and farms for its lop1 which is much used for hurdle-bonds1 thatching-spars1 c4 ,amongst implements from this tree1 the willow-wand of the cricketer has now a fame in the ,new as well as in the ,old world1 and long may its magic continue to develope the muscle and sharpen the faculties of the youth of ,old ,england2 whilst well-developed muscle cannot better maintain its tone than by a well-contested game of cricket4 ,in good situations the ,white ,willow 7,salix alba7 attains to very magnificent proportions4 ,one at ,siddington1 near ,cirencester1 measures #bb feet in girth1 at one foot from the ground2 #ah ft4 #f in4 at three feet2 and #bj ft4 #f in4 at six feet4 ,the principal limb measured #ab ft4 #f in41 and the circumference of its fine top is as much as #gb feet4 ,and four trees by the ,roman ,amphitheatre at ,cirencester1 average somewhere about #ab feet round at six feet from the ground4 ,trees of this size1 from their light1 silvery foliage1 give great character to the surrounding scenery4 ,these soft-wooded trees1 with some poplar and other ornamental trees1 furnish a more or less light1 soft1 spongy wood1 very inferior for timber1 but yet capable of being put to various uses in turnery1 internal work1 c41 in which white wood is employed4 ,the ,conifer 7,cone-bearers74--,the ,fir tribe may well form a subject even for a separate volume1 for not only are some of them employed as timber trees1 but many are grown for their curious and interesting structure4 ,the ,pinetum has become to be a matter of amusement to many a country gentleman throughout the country2 and in these are collected such new forms as may in time become useful to the planter1 as well as such minute species as may illustrate the natural history of a subject well worthy of extended study4 ,amongst our giants of this natural order may be placed the yew 7which has been made a separate order under the name of ,taxace7 and the cedar2 the spruce-fir1 ,scotch-pine1 and larch being the more useful members as timber trees4 ,the ,yew 7,taxus baccata7 is generally considered as an indigenous tree1 and as we can certainly point to individuals that must have weathered nearly1 if not quite a thousand years1 we are not disposed to quarrel with the conclusion4 ,its former use in the construction of the ,english long-bow is now obsolete1 and so too has almost died out the taste for growing this tree to torture into grotesque shapes4 ,still1 as a picturesque tree in woodland and home scenery1 and even as an attendant upon the parish church1 we should like to see the yew more extensively grown4 ,it is also a most useful tree for close hedges and blinds in the garden1 as it will bear being clipped within due bounds with a great amount of patience4 ,the ,cedar 7,cedrus ,libani71 which was probably introduced to this country towards the end of the seventeenth century1 has yet made such progress as to rival in size and importance many of our more stately native timber trees of far greater age4 ,amongst the more stately examples of this tree1 we may mention those at the ,chelsea ,botanical ,garden4 ,there are some fine groups in ,oakley ,park1 ,cirencester1 growing on almost a bare rock of the ,great or ,bath ,oolite1 and in the bleak ,cotteswold country1 attaining the circumference of from #aj to #ab feet1 at three feet from the ground4 ,long may the cedar be cultivated for the size and beauty to which it can attain1 in which1 perhaps1 it may yet be excelled by the ,cedrus deodara1 not many years since introduced from the ,himalayas4 ,we rejoice to see such noble specimens of vegetation grown1 independent of profit1 which1 indeed1 is scarcely needed by a princely possessor of a fine estate handed down1 perhaps1 from generation to generation1 in which each tree may have a history of its own4 ,the ,spruce-,fir 7,abies excelsa7 is an elegant tree in composition1 and grows well on the thinnest and poorest soils4 ,its upright1 tapering mode of growth renders it a good nurse1 with beech1 larch1 and other ,conifer4 ,it may be planted thickly2 the first thinning being used for hop-poles1 the next for spars1 masts1 c42 and ultimately a few may be left to attain size and height as shelter and for effect4 ,the ,scotch ,pine 7,pinus sylvestris7 is a native of ,north ,britain1 where its fine trees in large forests or in great clumps1 form a peculiar and at times magnificent appearance4 ,it is much used in planting in this country1 principally as a nurse2 but its young sticks are not so durable as those of the spruce1 and much inferior to the larch4 ,its larger wood forms the red deal--a timber so much used in all kinds of carpentry as to give this tree a high value among timber trees4 ,the ,larch 7,larix ,europa7 is a deciduous tree of the order1 and though it has not been introduced into general use for very many years1 yet its value is daily becoming more fully developed2 and as a tree for general plantation1 either as a nurse or in belts1 it has few1 if any1 equals4 ,as a curious tree1 it appears to have been grown early in the eighteenth century1 and some fine trees are noticed by ,selby at ,dalwick in ,peeblesshire1 and at ,monzie in ,argyleshire4 ,the largest larch which we have noticed was one which was felled in ,oakley ,park4 ,it had previously been injured by being struck with lightning1 by which large pieces of the bark had been torn away4 ,we examined it at ,lord ,bathurst's desire1 when it was found to be bored into from the base of the trunk to as high as we could see1 by that curious insect the ,sirex gigas1 whose hornet-like appearance causes so much consternation in the pine forests in ,germany1 from which it is often introduced into the dwellings of the peasant with fir logs4 ,it is quite as large as the hornet1 and much of the same bright colours1 but its apparent sting of more than half an inch in length is only an ovipositor1 so that that formidable-looking creature is perfectly harmless after all4 ,this tree was nearly twelve feet in circumference1 at three feet from the ground1 in which condition its lower drooping branches give the larch a fine picturesque appearance4 ,larches1 and1 indeed1 the whole of the ,conifer1 are best procured for planting from the nursery1 and much time will ultimately be saved by planting them as soon after removal as possible1 and that by the pit method2 and so done1 larch1 unlike most other young trees1 shoots away at once1 and soon allows of thinning to profit4 ,we now bring this subject to an end1 for the want of space2 but we cannot part with friends we love so much without a benediction2 in the words of ,cowley then we say1-- ,hail1 old patrician trees6 ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,plates4 ,plate ,i4 ,,quercus ,,robur ,,pedunculata1 nat4 size1 from ,oakley ,park1 ,cirencester4 ,fig4 a4 ,petiole1 or leaf-stalk4 ,fig4 b4 ,peduncle1 or fruit-stalk4 ,plate ,,ii4 ,,quercus ,,robur ,,sessiliflora1 from ,wyre ,forest1 near ,kidderminster4 ,fig4 a4 ,petiole4 ,fig4 b4 ,peduncle4 ,,note4--,the leaf of ,quercus ,robur sessiliflora has a greater number of divisions than that of ,q4 ,robur pedunculata4 ,these lobes are somewhat more acute at the apex4 ,this and its longer petiole1 and general brighter colour of the whole leaf1 gives the former tree1 when in foliage1 a lighter aspect than the latter4 ,,how ,,to ,,grow ,,good ,,orchards ,,chapter ,,xlvii4 ,,on ,,the ,,apple ,,and ,,pear ,,as ,,orchard ,,fruits4 ,in discussing the subject of fruit in relation to the farm1 we shall find that the number of species is exceedingly limited1 being1 indeed1 confined to two3 the apple and the pear4 ,this paucity of species1 however1 is amply compensated for in an extended and constantly extending list of sorts1 or varieties1 which1 in both species1 amount to several hundreds4 ,the apple1 which we shall first describe1 is admitted on all hands to be derived from the wild crab-apple 7,pyrus malus71 which is considered to be a native tree1 to which position its general appearance in woods and hedges all over the island would seem to give it no small claim4 ,the fruit of the crab is exceedingly austere1 and hence sour-tempered people are said to be 8crabbed40 ,the expressed juice makes a strong vinegar1 called 8,verjuice0--in the vulgar1 8,varjes0--and hence ,akerman1 in his 8,wiltshire ,tales10 has given a cross-grained woman the name of 8,mistress ,varjes40 ,verjuice is a very popular remedy for sprains and bruises1 and hence on most farms having trees of crab-apples1 the fruit is made into vinegar1 and kept separately for medicinal or domestic use4 ,the wild crab is very various in the size1 colour1 and flavour of its fruit1 varying in the latter point from an austerity that1 on biting an apple1 would make one wince again1 to that of an agreeable acid flavour1 almost equal to some of our domestic apples4 ,taking into consideration this disposition to run into varieties1 even in a wild state1 we shall not be surprised that1 in cultivation1 the sorts of apples should be endless1 so much so1 indeed1 that ,don1 in his 8,general ,system of ,gardening and ,botany10 has copied a list#cj in which are described no less than one thousand four hundred sorts1 and in a nurseryman's list now before us1 8,descriptive ,catalogue of ,fruit ,trees1 by ,john ,scott1 of ,merriott ,nurseries1 ,crewkerne1 ,somerset10 are described as many as one hundred and sixty-six sorts1 which he is prepared to supply to purchasers4 #cj ,this list was made out by the ,horticultural ,society in #ahcb1 and may now be considerably augmented4 ,as an evidence of the facility with which new sorts can be obtained1 there is scarcely a country town or place in orchard districts but has given its name to some apple4 ,thus we have ,canadian ,pippin1 ,newtown ,pippin1 ,carlisle and ,keswick ,codlin1 ,hawthenden1 c42 and the names of fruit-growers and others attached to apples is almost endless2 as thus3 ,ashmead's ,kernel1 ,nelson's ,codlin1 ,lucombe's ,seedling1 ,lord ,nelson1 ,lord ,raglan1 c41 c4 ,the subject of 8sorts10 as applied to fruit1 is one of great interest1 as the facility with which these can be obtained renders it possible to procure fruit possessing very different properties and capabilities1 adapted1 not only to a great variety of uses1 but with powers of adaptation to different soils1 and a wide range of climatic differences4 ,these powers of adaptation have1 indeed1 resulted in the preservation of many sorts1 but it also causes the neglect of some others2 for as fashion takes up with new favourites old ones are neglected until they die out1 and1 if not become entirely lost1 their stocks are lessened1 so that the chance of a good choice for their continuance becomes more difficult year by year4 ,we believe this to have more to do with the decline of old favourites than any inherent principle of decay with which grafts are said to be endowed4 ,the many sorts of apples differing so much in flavour and keeping powers1 enable this fruit to be employed for a variety of purposes1 such as-- ,culinary ,apples1 used for tarts1 puddings1 c41 c42 ,dessert ,apples1 usually of a sweet sub-acid flavour and crisp texture1 eaten raw2 ,cider ,apples1 the expressed juice of which forms ,english ,cider 7,cidre1 ,french74 ,the same distinctions apply to pears1 with the difference that their juice is termed ,perry4 ,now1 with regard to the two first1 we need here only mention them incidentally1 as their description belongs more properly to the horticulturist1 or pomologist1 than to the farmer2 at the same time it must be confessed that both culinary and dessert apples may be made a source of profit by the farmer1 as they would always find ready purchasers2 but the difficulty a farmer meets with in their cultivation results from the circumstance that it is not easy to exert that watchfulness over broad acres necessary to protect sweet apples from the predatory urchins with which every country parish abounds1 a propensity1 indeed1 not sufficiently checked by the elders1 whose plea that 8it is only a few apples1 and that children will be children10 affords just that amount of encouragement which too often ends in more serious acts of larceny4 ,as regards cider fruit1 we would here dissent from the common belief that sour apples are the best for cider-making4 ,we believe that the sweeter the apple1 and the higher the specific gravity of the juice1 the better the cider4 ,many1 then1 of our culinary and dessert apples would make most excellent drink2 at the same time there are many sorts that will not 8cook10 whose flesh cannot be got to become soft and pulpy1 but rather hard and tough by the processes either of boiling or baking4 ,many sorts whose flavour is not sufficiently agreeable to be eaten raw1 and yet these may yield on expression a sweet juice1 resulting in a strong and agreeable cider4 ,now1 although there can be little doubt but that the quality of cider is much influenced by the sort of fruit from which it is made1 we are inclined to the belief that the nature of the soil has1 if possible1 a still more decided influence upon the result4 ,we therefore now direct attention to some of the best cider districts in ,england1 which may be classed as follows3-- ,devonshire1 ,cider of the sweetest and richest kind2 ,somersetshire1 ,cider rich and not so sweet2 ,dorsetshire1 ,cider somewhat poor2 ,herefordshire1 ,cider and ,perry1 very strong1 but somewhat harsh2 ,worcestershire1 ,perry and ,cider1 rich and not too harsh2 ,gloucestershire1 ,cider and ,perry1 strong but not sweet4 ,the prevailing geological formations of these cider-producing counties may be arranged as follows3-- #a4 ,oolite ,sands--,dorset1 and parts of ,somerset4 #b4 ,lias--,gloucester1 ,somerset1 and ,dorset4 #c4 ,new ,red ,sandstone--,worcester1 ,devon and ,hereford1 in part4 #d4 ,old ,red ,sandstone--,hereford and ,devon4 #e4 ,silurian ,system--,hereford1 in part4 ,hence1 then1 cider and perry are grown on the sub-soils of five geological substrata1 if1 indeed1 ,no4 #a should not here be classed with ,no4 #b1 for the extent of orcharding upon the inferior oolite sands of ,somerset and ,dorset is rather due to its extension from the contiguous lias1 and this on account of an occasional depth and tenacity of soil4 ,its produce1 however1 is usually inferior4 ,in ,gloucestershire orchards always stop when the top of the lias is reached1 and it is curious to see the sides of the ,cotteswolds occupied with well-to-do orchards until the oolite is reached1 and then they cease altogether1 except in some few instances1 which are here referred to by way of warning4 ,gloucestershire1 for our present purpose1 may be said to rest on liassic valleys and oolitic hills4 ,in the valleys are small farms with small enclosures1 much of which is in orchard and meadow1 whilst on the hills are large farms with fields of from #cj to #ajj acres devoted to arable cultivation4 ,hence1 then1 this has brought about two sets of farms3 the vale1 with its fruits and dairy stock1 producing good cider1 perry1 butter1 and cheese2 the hills1 mutton1 wool1 roots1 barley1 c4 ,now1 it happens as a rule that the hill farmer stands higher in his profession than he of the vale1 for on the hills he can say-- 8,ay1 marry1 now my soul hath elbow-room40 ,the skill and enterprise in breeding the magnificent ,cotteswold sheep1 for which there is each year such a spirited competition1 attest to this fact4 ,no sooner1 then1 does a vale farmer become possessed of sufficient capital than he moves to the hills1 and as in his former residence he had imbibed a love for cider1 his first act will be to plant an orchard at his new home2 but1 alas6 the most successful farmer cannot command crops in an uncongenial soil1 and so it is not surprising that we should know of instances where not even enough fruit for an annual apple pudding has been produced from a ,cotteswold orchard which had been planted thirty years4 ,apples only attain to perfection on deep tenacious soils1 and in a genial climate2 the moment the roots get down to stones1 the ends of the branches begin to decay1 and they become covered over with lichens as thickly as in wet ill-drained clays2 besides this the trees look old and knotty1 even in youth1 a sure sign that they are not sufficiently nourished4 ,these facts are so well known that in planting in our gardens we prepare the soil1 if not sufficiently deep and good1 and make the climate more genial by fencing and planting in sheltered situations2 but this is not possible on a large scale4 ,pears prefer a lighter soil than apples1 the new red sandstone deposit1 especially1 the marls of this rock and the lias clays1 when covered up1 as in parts of the valley of the ,severn1 with sand drifts1 suit pears admirably4 ,like the apple1 the pear is rich in sorts4 ,it is said to be derived from the ,pyrus communis1 which is referred to as a native tree2 but though it is really wild in the temperate regions of the ,european continent1 and in parts of ,asia1 there seems reason to conclude that our occasional hedge-row denizen has1 after all1 been derived from pear cultivation4 ,pears for dessert are very numerous1 and each year adds to the list4 ,scott1 of ,crewkerne and ,yeovil ,nurseries1 gives a list of two hundred and thirty sorts cultivated by himself1 as ,standards1 ,pyramids1 and ,dwarf-trained for walls and espaliers4 ,this list abounds in ,french names given by both ,french and ,dutch horticulturists1 with whom the pear is a great favourite4 ,lindley1 in his 8,guide to the ,orchard and ,kitchen ,garden10 describes but six sorts of perry pears1 of which there are doubtless several varieties4 ,they are as follows3-- ,,origin ,,of ,,names4 ,barland1 from ,barland1 in the parish of ,bosbury1 ,herefordshire4 ,holmore1 from the parish of ,holmore1 between ,hereford and ,leominster4 ,huffcap4 ,longland1 from the field in which the tree grew4 ,oldfield1 from ,oldfield1 near ,ledbury4 ,teinton ,squash1 from ,teinton1 in ,gloucestershire4 ,besides these are ,blakeney ,red ,trump ,pear1 ,honey ,pear1 ,moorcroft1 ,malvern ,hill1 c4 ,pears1 like apples1 being named from places and people1 c41 each district having its own favourite sorts2 but perhaps those in the previous list are the favourite4 ,this subject of variety in both apple and pear is interesting1 as it has given rise to innumerable names upon this head4 ,my old pupil1 ,mr4 ,clement ,cadle1 says3-- ,it is almost impossible to give satisfactory information on the sorts of fruit1 because the same sort is not only known by different names in different localities1 but it also assumes a widely different character under the influence of broad distinctions of soil and climate1 and this is more frequently the case with pears than apples4 ,in a tour ,i made last autumn in the south of ,devonshire1 ,i visited several farms in the neighbourhood of ,totnes and ,paignton1 and amongst a great number of sorts that ,i there saw1 ,i could in no instance recognize either an apple or tree as being like those ,i had seen before in ,herefordshire1 ,gloucestershire1 or ,worcestershire4 ,in selecting for producing cider or perry it is very important1 not only to get those kinds which suit the district1 but to get a variety in their character1 especially for making good cider4 ,thus1 some of the apples should be sour1 others sweet1 bitter-sweet1 tart1 and harsh1 as much of the keeping character of the cider depends upon this mixture1 which also makes it fine down well4 ,it may be remarked that sweet or eating sorts of pears seldom make perry that will keep any length of time1 or that fines well4 ,there is another peculiar feature in regard to sorts of fruit1 namely1 that each variety has its day1 then gradually dies out4 ,the trees become non-bearers1 and their places are filled with new sorts4 ,this is especially the case with the ,hagloe crab1 ,fox whelp1 and ,skryme's kernel1 which seldom bear or grow well now1 and are nearly gone4 ,r4 ,a4 ,s4 ,journal ,s4,s41 vol4 ,i4 pp4 #ah1 #ai4 ,as regards pears1 it should be stated that1 while in ,worcester1 ,gloucester1 and ,hereford much perry is made1 and it is highly esteemed1 especially for bottling1 in ,dorset this drink is almost unknown1 and we were last year greatly surprised that a farmer who had an immense crop of pears of a sort that were not fit for dessert or culinary purposes1 could not divine what to do with them1 though he made excellent cider4 ,we conclude this portion of our subject with a quotation from the ,botanical ,looker-out1 by our old friend and fellow worker1 ,e4 ,lees1 ,esq43-- ,a pear orchard in exuberant flower is a vegetable spectacle not easily matched1 for the bending branches of the pear tree give a gracefulness to its outline far exceeding the stiff formality of the apple tree1 and oppressed with a multitudinous crowd of blossoms its branches almost trail the ground1 a bending load of beauty that seems by moonlight a mass of silvery ingots4 ,the ,barland ,orchard1 between ,worcester and ,malvern1 containing more than seventy trees1 lofty as oaks1 cannot be seen by a traveller without admiration1 and is the finest in the kingdom1 though the trees are now getting old4 ,,chapter ,,xlviii4 ,,on ,,the ,,production ,,and ,,choice ,,of ,,fruit ,,trees4 ,although new sorts of fruits are easily obtainable from seeds1 yet this method of production is much too slow for general purposes1 and when kernel trees--that is those raised from seed--are in the slow progress of such events brought to produce fruit1 it is ten to one if it be of any value2 so that even seedling trees1 when they have attained sufficient size1 are best used for stocks upon which to graft any desired sort4 ,in reproducing a constant supply of well-known sorts of fruit1 three plans are usually practised1 namely1 ,budding1 ,grafting1 and ,cutting4 ,budding is usually employed in the case of smaller fruit or flower trees1 and but seldom with apples and pears2 this well-known process1 however1 is frequently had recourse to in the nursery2 it is performed for fruit trees in the same way as for roses1 and therefore needs no description in this place1 as we can scarcely conceive the farmer doing much in this direction1 except as a matter of amusement and experiment4 ,grafting is a common process on most farms with orcharding2 a sort of fruit may be wished to be changed or a promising tree may be broken1 and in either case the farmer should know enough of the process of grafting to be able to do it himself or else to properly direct others4 ,illustration3 #a4 ,the ,graft4 #b4 ,the ,stock4 ,in grafting1 the first thing to be done is to secure good shoots from a healthy tree of the sort you wish to grow--these are called the 8grafts40 ,the stem to receive the graft is called the stock4 ,now a stock may be single1 in which case one graft will be sufficient1 as in the accompanying diagram1 or if an old tree has to be grafted1 a graft may be inserted on as many branches as may seem desirable4 ,our diagram represents the common practice of side grafting1 but different plans are adopted according to the difference in size of the stock on the one hand1 and the graft on the other1 the principle to be aimed at in the process being to get as complete an apposition of as much of the wood and bark of the graft1 with that of the stock1 as is possible by careful cutting and fitting1 and the tact and delicacy in manipulating this matter make that successful result which marks the good grafter4 ,in this as in other matters1 practice and experience ensure success2 and hence it is usually found expedient to employ a person who makes it his profession1 and such are always to be obtained in cider countries4 ,when the grafts have been fitted1 they must be kept in place by some plastic material1 and that most commonly used is a compost of cow-dung and clay1 well kneaded together1 or merely chopped hay and clay2 this is pressed round the united parts in the form of a ball1 and in cases where every care is taken the graft may be further protected by a wicker basket1 as in the diagram4 ,illustration3 ,graft protected by a ,wicker basket4 ,cutting4--,the ease with which apple trees can be multiplied by cuttings was forcibly impressed upon our attention at a very early age4 ,when a boy1 having seen a most promising branch cut from a favourite apple tree in the process of pruning1 the thought struck us that we might get a tree of our own1 and so1 seizing the branch in question1 we planted it in another part of the garden1 only--sad to relate--to have it pulled up the first time the gardener passed that way4 ,with a boy's perseverance or obstinacy--which the reader pleases--again and again did we replant this same branch with a like result1 until finding a quiet corner1 we once more planted our cutting1 and this time1 no evil chance overtaking it1 it took root2 and in two years from that time we enjoyed the taste of apples from what1 we hope not undeservedly1 was allowed to be considered our own tree4 ,this was a matter for frequent reflection in after-life1 for1 besides viewing the result as a reward for perseverance1 it is just possible that our first disappointment may have tended after all to our success1 for doubtless the unexposed sheltered corner was just the place for ensuring this in rooting cuttings4 ,here1 however1 the cutting was a large branch1 but for general purposes we should recommend cuttings to be made of small unbranched shoots2 these may be planted in rows in a somewhat shaded situation1 and when they have become rooted and fit for independent trees1 they may be removed to their permanent places1 and so be either pruned for tall orchard trees1 or1 as they are well adapted to the purpose1 be trained for dwarf orchards4 ,pruning1 in the cultivation and due keeping of an orchard1 is one of the most important operations connected with the subject4 ,its objects are3-- #ast4 ,to circumscribe the growth in any given direction1 to train the tree on the one hand1 and to let in light and air by thinning on the other4 #bnd4 ,by pruning fruit trees we operate so as to check undue growth of wood and leaf1 and thus1 by what the botanist calls the 8arrestation of development10 cause flower and fruit to be formed instead of leaves4 ,in the western counties1 if a tree or plant of any kind grows leaves too freely1 it is said to be too 8frum10 probably derived from the ,saxon from1 strong1 stout4 ,pruning1 then1 hastens the fruiting season in fruit trees1 but at the same time it brings on premature age1 and hence the operation should be performed with judgment1 or else premature decay will be the consequence4 ,in pruning of large trees care should be taken to cut out1 as smoothly as possible1 all awkward or crossing branches1 so as to expose the whole of the fruiting limbs to light1 warmth1 and air4 ,this again is an operation requiring an experienced hand1 and when such an one is known1 it is far better to employ him than to trust the matter to those who know little or nothing of the subject4 ,much has been said and written upon the subject of rearing fruit trees1 and when matter of this kind is addressed to the nurseryman1 it is to be welcomed if based upon sound botanical principles1 but we cannot recommend the farmer to grow his own fruit trees1 as he rarely pays sufficient attention to their youthful training1 and we therefore recommend the purchase of fruit trees from the best growers1 to get the best sorts1 and to get well-grown and healthy examples4 ,these should be carefully lifted and planted as soon as possible after leaving the nursery1 always avoiding trees that have hawked the market week after week1 even if procurable for nothing4 ,some people insist upon the propriety of planting poor trees grown in poor soil1 but our experience has shown that nothing could be a greater mistake4 ,it is true that these often fruit soon2 but getting crops of fruit from trees only a quarter grown1 though sometimes welcome to a tenant with no sure holding1 is a matter which should always be looked to by the landlord1 who1 indeed1 should pay greater attention to his orchards than is usually the case1 if his desire be to hand them down to his successors in anything like a good bearing condition4 ,that fruit trees must in time get old is quite true2 at the same time it may be stated as an important fact1 that poor stunted trees on the one hand1 or those too prodigal of their youth on the other1 will too surely result in decrepitude ere half the span of a healthy tree be attained4 ,feeling so strongly as we do the importance of healthy young trees from a good soil and climate to plant even in an unfavourable district1 instead of1 as is generally sought after1 trees from a poor soil1 we are glad to have our opinion fortified by a successful practical grower of fruit trees1 whose samples of young stock in apple trees1 as we have seen them exhibited in ,yeovil market1 are patterns of healthiness in bark and models of form4 ,the cultivator to whom we refer is ,mr4 ,j4 ,scott1 whose name and place we have before mentioned4 ,he says1 in his ,descriptive ,catalogue of ,fruit ,trees3-- ,there remains one thing the writer would especially guard intending planters against2 that is1 be careful never to purchase trees off a poor soil4 ,i know this is heterodox2 but many years' experience has taught me the fallacy of the popular dogma1 i4e41 8,get your trees off poor soils1 as they will be hardier1 and endure the storms better40 ,i could show examples1 in numbers1 in my nursery1 where the trees came from one of the so-called poor soils1 that never will be anything like healthy trees4 ,they were hide-bound and checked in their natures when ,i received them1 and ,i believe will ever remain so1 less or more4 ,a genial1 moderately rich1 and naturally good soil is the soil ,i would choose my trees from4 ,experience and observation1 both in the garden and the orchard1 fully confirm us in this view of the case1 and we would therefore only add to the direction1 8,get your trees from moderately rich soil10 that of1 8,plant them in a soil of the like kind20 for if trees be brought from a poor soil1 not fit for them1 to a poorer1 they will certainly not succeed1 and indeed the choice of poor land for orchard growth will be seen to end in disappointment4 ,in planting apples we should choose a mixture of several of the best sorts1 and it is recommended that some should be sour2 but we prefer to have those that produce a juice of high specific gravity1 though with all cider and perry fruit there will be great diversities in this respect1 depending upon soil1 climate1 and season4 ,the following list of apples contains such as are met with principally in the counties of ,worcester1 ,hereford1 and ,gloucester2 all may be used for cider1 but some are more especially adapted for house purposes3-- ,i4--,,list ,,of ,,apples4 ,those marked with 7,a7 are good for hoarding1 and those with are good for boiling4 ,skyrme's ,kernel--,tart2 good for cider4 ,royal ,wilding--,bitter sweet2 good for cider4 ,black ,foxwhelp--,moderately tart2 good for cider4 ,red ,foxwhelp 7,a7--,moderately tart2 good for cider4 ,cowan ,red--,sweet2 good for cider4 ,dymock ,red 7,a7--,very sweet2 good for cider4 ,white ,norman--,bitter sweet2 good for cider4 ,red ,norman--,bitter sweet2 good for cider4 ,hagloe ,crab--,tart2 good for cider4 ,pawson--,tart2 good for cider4 ,redstreak--,sweet2 good for cider4 ,yellow ,styre--,sweet2 good for cider4 ,hooper's ,kernel 7,a7--,moderately sweet2 good for cider4 ,hill ,barn ,kernel 7,a7--,sweet2 good for cider4 ,ribston ,pippin 7,a7--,sweet2 good for table and keeping4 ,golden ,harvey 7,a7--,sweet2 good for table and for cider4 ,siberian ,harvey--,sweet2 good for cider4 ,farewell ,blossom--,tart and bitter2 large bearer4 ,upright ,french--,bitter sweet2 large bearer4 ,black or ,red ,french--,bitter sweet4 ,knotted ,kernel--,tart4 ,leather ,apple--,hardly any taste4 ,ironsides 7,a7--,hardly any taste2 good for keeping4 ,cats'-heads 7,a7--,sweet2 good for cider4 ,pigs'-eyes--,sweet4 ,downton ,pippin 7,a7--,sweet2 table and eating4 ,codlings 7,a7--,sweet2 good as boilers and for cider4 ,may ,blooms 7,a7--,sweet2 good for cider1 boiling1 and keeping4 ,rough ,coat 7,a7--,dry and sweet2 good keepers4 ,brandy ,apple 7,a7--,very sweet2 makes strong cider4 ,cowarne ,quinin 7,a7 ,sweet2 good for cider4 ,blenheim ,orange 7,a7--,very sweet2 good for table4 ,golden ,pippin 7,a7--,very sweet2 good for table4 ,old ,pearmain 7,a7--,very sweet2 good for table4 ,brown ,crests--,very sweet4 ,under ,leaves--,sweet2 large bearer4 ,red ,kernel--,sweet2 good for cider4 ,reynolds's ,kernel 7,a7--,sweet2 large pot-fruit4 ,newland ,kernel--,bitter sweet2 good for cider4 ,jackson's ,kernel--,tart4 ,sam's ,crab--,tart4 ,bridgewater ,pippin 7,a7--,sweet4 ,spice ,apple 7,a7--,sweet4 ,white ,beach--,bitter sweet2 good for cider4 ,handsome ,mandy--,bitter sweet2 good for cider4 ,golden ,rennet 7,a7--,sweet4 ,pine ,apple--,moderately tart2 wood cankers4 ,stoke ,pippin 7,a7--,sweet2 good bearers2 pot-fruit and for cider2 and numerous others4 ,from ,prize ,essay on ,orchards1 by ,clement ,cadle1 from the ,journal of the ,royal ,society4 ,the next list is taken from ,scott's ,descriptive ,catalogue1 by way of contrast and comparison with the above1 as it is more particularly adapted to ,devon1 ,somerset1 and ,dorset4 ,,list ,,ii4 ,,cider ,,apples4 ,the following is a list of some of the best ,cider fruit1 cultivated in the best ,cider counties throughout ,england4 #afg4 ,best ,bache1 spec4 grav4 #ajgc4 ,a ,herefordshire fruit of great excellence4 #afh4 ,bringewood1 a good cider fruit4 #afi4 ,bovey ,redstreak4 #agj4 ,cadbury1 supposed to be the same as ,royal ,somerset4 #aga4 ,coccagee1 a splendid cider fruit of first-rate excellence4 #agb4 ,cowrane1 red1 spec4 grav4 #ajfi2 an excellent sort4 #agc4 ,devonshire ,redstreak4 #cg4 ,devonshire ,quarrenden1 a valuable hardy fruit2 well known4 #ce4 ,downton ,pippin1 a most prolific and valuable cider fruit4 #agd4 ,forest ,styre1 spec4 grav4 #ajgf to #ajha1 esteemed fruit4 #age4 ,foxley1 spec4 grav4 #ajhj1 hardy and a great bearer1 excellent cider fruit4 #agf4 ,fox ,whelp1 spec4 grav4 #ajgf to #ajhj1 a celebrated cider fruit of the richest kind4 #ed4 ,golden ,harvey1 spec4 grav4 #ajhe1 a first-rate cider fruit4 ,no orchard should be without this4 #agg4 ,haglo ,crab1 spec4 grav4 #ajha4 #agh4 ,jersey1 early1 very fine cider fruit4 #agi4 ,jersey1 late1 a great bearer1 and excellent2 one of the best4 #gg4 ,isle of ,wight ,pippin1 spec4 gray4 #ajgd1 a fine cider fruit of great excellence4 #ahj4 ,kingston ,black1 first-rate cider fruit of first-rate excellence4 #ig4 ,minchal ,crab1 a very fine fruit4 #aha4 ,red ,must1 very large1 yielding a fine cider from heavy soils4 #ahb4 ,red ,streak1 spec4 grav4 #ajgi1 one of the best cider apples4 #ahc4 ,siberian ,bitter ,sweet1 spec4 grav4 #ajia4 #ahd4 ,sops in ,wine4 #ahe4 ,tom ,potter or ,tom ,put1 a fine fruit4 ,besides the above1 many other choice sorts make splendid ,cider4 ,pears for perry differ in one respect from apples1 in that1 though the best and purest perry is made from only one sort of fruit1 and that generally from fruit utterly unfit for any other purpose4 ,pears1 as has been stated1 delight in a lighter soil than that which is suitable for apples1 and the trees have the advantage of growing so tall that even cereal cultivation is possible under them4 ,it is1 therefore1 curious to note how scarcely any perry pears are grown in the west of ,england1 unless we view ,gloucester as a western county4 ,though ,somerset and ,dorset are particularly adapted for the pear1 there are many places where its culture is never attempted2 we would mention the district of sandy loam around ,sherborne1 ,dorset1 as one well adapted for the growth of perry1 but where it is nevertheless almost unknown4 ,it may be noted that although good cider--even the best--can be made from dessert and culinary fruit1 yet dessert pears are not well adapted for perry1 as their produce is usually watery1 and does not fine well4 ,,chapter ,,xlix4 ,,on ,,fruit-,,gathering1 ,,etc4 ,in making cider and perry there are several important matters to be taken into consideration1 as upon the due observance of these success will mainly depend4 ,these are-- ,the selection1 gathering1 and storing of the fruit4 ,the grinding of the fruit1 and storage of the drink4 ,the after-management1 keeping1 fining1 c4 c4 ,orchard fruit is economized chiefly in the three following methods3-- #a4 ,cooking ,apples--used for culinary purposes4 #b4 ,dessert ,apples--some of the fine-flavoured varieties4 #c4 ,cider ,fruit--which includes all the others4 #a4 ,cooking apples may be hand-picked as they become ripe1 and those that will not keep long1 as the various codlins1 may be disposed of in the lump to the fruiterer1 or sent to market in smaller quantities4 ,the good keeping apples may be sold in the lot when ripe1 or kept in store to be retailed at market4 ,both these sets of apples require to be gathered with some care2 in short1 to be what are called 8hand-picked10 as1 when bruised1 they not only are injured for present use1 but their keeping qualities are greatly affected4 ,for store apples the fruit should be gathered before being what is called 8dead ripe10 that is1 when they are quite crisp and juicy2 one of the best indications of fitness being a bright light-brown kernel as opposed to a dull dark-brown4 ,the fruit should be kept in a dry room1 from which frost is entirely excluded1 and where air can freely ventilate whenever required4 ,the best plan is to fit up such a room with shelves made up of laths three inches wide1 and placed an inch and a half or two inches apart4 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,of ,,shelf ,,for ,,keeping ,,fruit4 ,in this way a represents the laths1 of which there may be many or few to each shelf according to the breadth required2 b1 the interspaces4 ,here1 then1 the fruit is placed in lines over the interspaces1 the object being thus to secure a free passage for the air all around the fruit2 if placed in a single layer1 faulty ones can be seen at a glance1 and these should be removed as soon as detected4 ,if this plan be found too onerous1 and fruit must be put together in larger quantity1 we would advise that they be so placed as that air can get to them from below4 ,keeping fruit in heaps in corners1 or even spreading them between layers of straw1 tends to their destruction rather than preservation4 ,if1 then1 it be borne in mind that the end to aim at1 in order to keep fruit1 is that of exposing sound examples to the free access of the air1 it will be seen that the nearer we can secure this the better will be our result4 ,we say sound fruit1 for it is useless to put spotted and worm-eaten apples or pears in the keeping-room4 ,these had better be put by and used as soon as possible for whatever purpose they may be fit1 for whenever the air can get into the interior of fruit by reason of abrasions1 borings1 c41 decay soon sets in2 and now1 while we are writing1 we have a quantity of apples with the plague-spot of rottenness proceeding from their being 8worm-eaten40 #b4 ,in storing dessert apples these directions are even more important4 ,if1 then1 the farm should produce one or several sorts in quantity1 if they are to be disposed of1 we would advise their sale to the fruiterer with the onus of gathering and managing them4 ,small farmers sometimes make no bad addition to their income by thus disposing of fine fruits1 and we always advise that such should be planted to a greater extent than is usually done about farm homesteads4 ,it is not a heavy matter for the landlord to find a few sorts of choice fruit-trees for his smaller or even larger holdings1 and1 by thus adding to the comfort or even luxuries of his tenants1 he will be benefiting not only himself but the country at large4 ,we believe it to be a duty incumbent upon the landed proprietor thus to foster a love of fruits1 and we honour the names of ,knight1 of ,downton1 and ,williams1 of ,pitmaston1 in that they loved to propagate new fruits1 and to encourage their dissemination4 ,it is said by ,mr4 ,benjamin ,maund1 the author of 8,the ,fruitist03-- ,a propagator of apple and pear trees from seeds may be supposed to possess not only patience1 but a desire to benefit posterity4 ,twelve or fourteen years cast a long shadow before them2 and when1 after waiting this length of time1 the uncertain value of the substance is considered1 it must be confessed that men deserve more than praise1 who originate new fruits4 ,apple trees rarely show the real quality of their fruit in less than fourteen years4 ,all1 however1 who have the convenience of doing so1 should raise seedling trees2 for it is to these only that we can look with any degree of confidence for permanently furnishing our orchards1 and not to old or cankering varieties4 ,it is true that it is not within the province of all1 even of the permanent owners of the soil1 thus to add to the number of ,pomona's gifts1 but all can inquire for and purchase esteemed sorts2 and no tenant that is worth having will grudge them care and attention1 be his tenure ever so precarious4 ,we would assign to the lords of the soil the duty of improving fruit-trees1 while the gentleman who resides in the country1 it may be for only a short season1 should make the best use of it to encourage a love for the garden1 and to increase its various attractions to charm the eye1 and to increase and vary the vegetable food of the people4 #c4 ,fruit for cider-making will consist of 8wind-falls10 that is1 such as has fallen prematurely ripe1 or been shaken off by the wind2 and gathered fruit4 ,as regards wind-falls1 it is only necessary to state that1 although these can only be employed for an inferior kind of drink1 yet even this may be improved by care1 as thus3--,instead of picking up the apples while they are still wet with dew1 they should be gathered in as dry a state as possible1 and then not1 as is too often the case1 huddled together in a heap in the orchard1 exposed to alternations of frost1 and wet1 and dry4 ,such fruit will often require to be kept for some time waiting temperate weather1 which is best for cider-making4 ,it should be kept then under cover1 and in such a manner that the air can get beneath it2 and for this purpose we have found a few wattled hurdles well adapted for keeping fruit on that is waiting to be ground4 ,in gathering cider-fruit we should consider it ripe at that period when a not rude shake of a limb would cause most of it to fall pretty well at one and the same time4 ,we dislike beating off fruit with sticks1 as it damages the bearing shoots4 ,in fine1 in gathering fruit all undue violence should be carefully avoided1 as it is unwise to use that amount of hurry1 which will only secure a large present crop1 unless it can be done in such a manner as not to injure our hopes of the future4 ,it is a curious circumstance that in the garden there is usually something like a crop1 even in a bad season2 but in the orchard we seldom meet with anything like a crop the year following what is called a 8hit of fruit10 and only the finer sorts of apples which are hand-gathered with care are often found to be most constant bearers1 while the rougher cider-fruits seldom afford a good crop oftener than once in from three to five years4 ,surely1 then1 much of this must be the result of the rougher treatment to which cider-fruit is so carelessly subjected4 ,when the fruit is collected1 it should be put in a dry airy place1 to await the process of grinding4 ,for this we adopt the plan of spreading it in sheds or outhouses on wattled hurdles4 ,this keeps it from the rain1 by which it becomes sodden when in exposed heaps3 then the wind will only partially dry it1 and the result will be a general heating of the mass1 which results1 if not in quick decay amounting to absolute rottenness1 yet in that state1 technically called 8moisey10#ca or dead1 in which the juices are nearly dried up and the fruit flavourless4 #ca ,apple moise1 or apple moce1 was an old dish made of pressed apples4 ,in cider counties apples are called moisey when they are juiceless1 dry1 and without flavour--dead4 7,see ,archaic ,dictionaries47 ,we have seen heaps of apples1 consisting of many waggon-loads1 in the orchard at ,christmas1 when wet and frost had so preyed upon them that none of their proper juices remained4 ,this is certain to make a cider which will be of inferior quality2 and though some of our friends boast of the good quality of their cider which has been made in the roughest manner1 yet one cannot help thinking how much better it might have been with the fruit carefully collected1 and kept until it could be ground4 ,still1 with all our care in this matter1 disappointment is sometimes the result2 for it is with cider as with wine1 the season will have a great deal to do with it1 though with both1 the manner of making and storing will be all-important matters1 to which we shall advert in the next chapter4 ,we much object to the gathering of fruit for any purpose in the wet4 ,were it not for the expense1 it would be better to take advantage of dry weather1 and to collect even cider-fruit by hand-picking before it has become dead ripe1 and so let the ripening process be completed in some dry storing-place4 ,in our own experience of cider-making1 the two or three casks made for home consumption from carefully picked and well-kept fruit are usually of the best quality1 and so made we believe cider to be a most agreeable and very wholesome beverage1--to paraphrase ,isaac ,walton1 only fit for farmers or very honest men4 ,as long1 however1 as rough people are about who never know when they have had enough1 the rougher cider made by a ruder process is quite good enough4 ,it must be obvious to all that if a man can drink as much as four gallons of good cider in a day's mowing1 he would be better off with a less quantity of an inferior sort1 supplemented with tea or coffee4 ,,chapter ,l4 ,,on ,,cider-,,making ,,and ,,its ,,management4 ,in making cider or perry it is well not to begin unless the weather be moderately cool1 as in hot weather the changes in the fluid become too rapid1 and it consequently does not keep well4 ,the first process will be to grind the fruit into as perfect a state of pulp as possible4 ,this will be effected when the kernels are decidedly crushed4 ,such a state of pulp usually ensures the best results1 not only from the fact that the whole juice of the fruit is not only set free1 but it is all exposed to the action of the air1 by which both the colour and quality are greatly improved2 and1 besides this1 every good quality is decidedly increased by having the principles and flavour of the kernels mixed with the other juices4 ,the method by which this is best effected is by grinding in the usual circular stone horse-mill4 ,this is confessedly a slow process1 but notwithstanding the newer methods1 to be presently described1 we still prefer it to all others1 and that from the great completeness with which the grinding is effected4 ,of late years cider-mills have been brought out which essentially consist of a combination of gribbling teeth1 by which the fruit is first torn to pieces1 and two cylindrical rollers1 between which it is afterwards crushed with greater or less completeness4 ,in some cases the rollers are of iron1 in others of hard stone3 the latter is preferable1 as contact with iron1 even where but slight1 causes the drink to assume a degree of blackness1 especially on exposure4 ,portable mills of this kind are now very general1 but we so fully agree with the remarks of ,mr4 ,cadle1 that we here quote his description of some portable cider-mills1 with his comments upon their action4 ,about twenty-six years ago1 ,mr4 ,coleman1 of ,chaxhill1 ,westbury-on-,severn1 commenced making an improved cider-mill and press1 which could act either as a fixture or a portable mill4 ,it was found that the cider thus made fined better1 and the process was also more expeditious4 ,these advantages1 together with the cost of keeping the old kind of mills in repair1 which landlords were unwilling to undertake1 led to their being superseded1 as they wore out1 by ,coleman's1 or a similar mill4 ,coleman's mill consists of two pairs of rollers fixed in a strong wooden frame2 it is fed from a hopper1 the apples passing through the first pair of rollers1 which are made of hard wood1 with iron teeth1 so as to break the apples1 which fall next between a pair of stone rollers set close enough to break the kernels1 and from these the pulp drops into a trough placed beneath to receive it4 ,mr4 ,latchem1 of ,hereford1 has also paid considerable attention to the construction of these mills1 and has taken out a patent for doing away with the iron in the feed-rollers1 and substituting steel teeth fitted into one roller1 and working through other steel teeth on a fixed plate1 partly on the same principle as a curd-mill4 ,the fruit1 after passing this 8chewer10 is ground between a pair of stone rollers1 as before described4 ,until the portable apple-mills became general1 we had a mill to almost every farm1 and even to many of the cottages2 but in ,devonshire one mill or pound-house serves for a number of makers1 and sometimes for a parish1 each person paying so much per hogshead for the making4 ,most of the travelling portable machines in ,herefordshire have two presses with each mill1 and are worked by two horses1 making #a1jjj to #a1ejj gallons in a day2 sometimes they are worked by a small portable steam-engine4 ,they are very expeditious1 and do very well for a second-class cider1 but if you would have the best1 they are very objectionable1 because the different sorts of fruit very rarely get ripe at once in sufficient quantities to enable you to make much at a time4 ,much cider is therefore spoiled1 the fruit being ground when too green1 by those who are impatient to finish the process4 ,i think that each farm or holding should have a mill of its own1 even if it be only a small hand-mill4 ,there are several other rude plans of grinding1 such as nut-mills1 graters1 scratchers1 c41 but they are so objectionable that they hardly deserve notice4 ,all metallic substances should be kept from contact with the pulp1 as chemical combinations immediately take place on contact2 for instance1 if you take a clean knife and cut an apple through1 the knife quickly becomes black1 as well as the apple4 ,for this reason ,i think the iron teeth and cast-iron in the rollers are objectionable2 as also the steel ones1 although perhaps not to the same extent4 ,i should recommend that this iron be removed1 and fluted rollers of larger diameter be made of some hard wood1 such as yew-tree1 or ,american iron-wood4 ,no doubt more power would then be required to work the mills1 but this would be of little consequence if the produce was first-class cider4 ,when this new mode of grinding was first tried1 there was great complaint amongst the labourers that the cider did not agree with them1 and this was generally attributed to the iron2 but in my opinion1 the green state of the fruit when ground made the juice harsh1 and caused irritation in the system4--,journal ,r4 ,a4 ,s41 vol4 ,,xxv4 page #a4 ,the next point for consideration is the pressing out of the juice4 ,this has been done with screw-presses of various kinds1 either wood or iron1 with single or double screws4 ,hydraulic presses are now coming into fashion1 and one advantage which they possess is1 that of easily and expeditiously getting all the juice from the pulp4 ,in ,dorsetshire the ground pulp or 8pummy0 is usually put upon a flat stage between layers of straw1 which are deftly turned up at the edges so as to keep the 8cheese0 together4 ,upon the top of the cheese is placed another flat board1 which is acted upon by the press4 ,in ,worcestershire and ,hereford the pulp is pressed in hair cloths1 which plan is much more perfect than with straw4 ,in pressing it is well to observe that the pulp be ground on one day and pressed the next1 as not only colour but general richness in quality results from exposure4 ,the dark colour which an apple assumes on being cut is due to this cause1 not as supposed to the steel knife1 for the change mentioned is equally certain with a silver one4 ,in the now almost exploded plan of scooping apples1 the pulp of even sour apples becomes sweet by the process4 ,as the juice is exuded from the press it falls into a trough beneath1 which is divided into two parts by a grating with small holes1 by which the particles of pulp are separated1 and from this the clearer fluid is conveyed to the cask4 ,as regards straining1 we have seen some of the finer sorts of perry made by a more complete straining than the above2 in fact1 a rough kind of filtering in flannel bags4 ,this would take too long a time for general purposes4 ,it is1 however1 a good way of making drink for bottling4 ,the after-management of cider and perry is a subject upon which much has been both said and written4 ,we1 however1 join in the country opinion1 that 8if it be made well the less it is messed with the better40 ,we prefer putting cider in large casks in a cool cellar--say of from one to two hundred gallons or more1--to each of which should be two tap-holes1 one in the middle and one towards the bottom2 the first tapping from the middle hole insures a clear fluid without disturbing the lower part1 which thus goes on 8settling down40 ,if cider from good fruit be made well1 it will have an agreeable sub-acid flavour1 derived from the malic acid1 which is the principle which gives the refreshing juice of most fruits4 ,fermentation is necessary to make good cider1 as by it the sugar of the fruit is converted into alcohol or spirit2 and if1 when this process is complete1 the fermentation ceases1 we shall have a refreshing1 exciting1 and generous fluid2 if1 however1 it passes from vinous to acetous fermentation1 we get acetic acid1 and the product is sour4 ,cider made from good and well-ordered fruit in temperate weather1 and put in casks in a cool cellar1 will be likely to ferment equably1 and to stop at the right time2 if so1 the product will be of the best2 if1 however1 these conditions have not been complied with1 the cider will be more or less harsh or 8hard10 and no means will avail to improve it4 ,sulphur may be burnt in the casks to check fermentation2 but we would after all prefer acetic to sulphurous acid4 ,chalk and lime will decompose the acid1 but to little purpose4 ,the ,london method of adding sugar or sugar-candy and water to sour cider--and to them all mature cider is sour--is in itself innocent enough4 ,there is1 then1 this consolation3 if the cider be harsh1 farm labourers will drink it2 and as they will not1 as a rule1 drink half so much of the inferior as of the best1 they will after all be the gainers4 ,,chapter ,,li4 ,,on ,,the ,,uses ,,and ,,economy ,,of ,,cider ,,and ,,perry4 ,if we canvass the opinions of the mass of the people in cider-producing and non-cider-producing counties as to the relative merits of cider and beer1 we shall find opinions wider apart than even the counties themselves4 ,the 8,beer-drinking ,briton0 cannot at all understand how the lover of cider can skin his throat with such sour stuff as cider1 whilst the agricultural labourer in cider districts infinitely prefers harsh cider to the finest ale4 ,we recollect1 in one of our geological trips in to ,herefordshire1 in company with an esteemed clerical friend1 that a quarryman1 working in ,wenlock limestone1 tendered us a few shells1 on which we offered him sixpence1 remarking1 8,here's a quart of beer for your trouble40 ,this same man then gave our companion a couple of trilobites1 who presented him with a coin of like value to our own1 but with the remark1 8,here1 my friend1 is a gallon of cider for you40 ,the effect upon the man's whole being will never be forgotten4 ,he was the slave of the ,church for the whole day1 and ever thereafter for all we can tell4 ,in cider districts the farmer1 his family and friends1 all relish cider1 and with all1 its proper use seems to agree in a most remarkable manner2 but it would be fun to a country cousin who could cease to look at the matter in a serious light to see what a face his ,london relative would make at a draught of his 8own peculiar20 and yet he of the town professes to like sweet cider2 but as his knowledge of sweet cider is obtained from the summer drink of the ,london houses1 called 8,prime ,devonshire ,cider10 the following recipe will explain it3-- ,take of ,vinegar 7or sweeter still1 cider7 #a pint4 ,brown sugar 7or treacle7 #a pound4 ,water #g quarts4 ,the following will be found in ,cooley's 8,cyclopdia of ,practical ,receipts30-- ,,cider1 ,,made4--,an article under this name is made in ,devonshire for the supply of the ,london market1 it having been found that the ordinary cider will not stand a voyage to the metropolis without some preparation4 ,the finest quality of made cider is only ordinary cider racked into a clean cask1 and well sulphured2 but the mass of that which is sent to ,london is mixed with water1 treacle1 and alum1 and then fined down1 after which it is racked into well-matched casks 7i4e41 a burnt-sulphur match74 ,the larger portion of the cider sold in ,london1 professing to be ,devonshire cider1 would be rejected even by the farmers' servants in that county4 ,no wonder1 then1 that cider is not a favourite beverage when it is only used as a summer drink in some sophisticated form2 but1 when understood and obtained at all good1 we believe it to be wholesome and palatable1 and1 indeed1 we know it to be preferred before even the best ales in cider districts4 ,there is a common error amongst town-folk who prefer the above mixture that cider is not intoxicating1 that it has no strength in it2 but we regret to say that it is not only intoxicating1 but we believe more exciting than beer3 it is true that its effects pass off sooner4 ,drunkenness with cider would seem to be so far different than in the case of beer1 in that while the latter makes its victim heavy and stupid1 the former incites to motion1 and leads to quarrelling1 fighting1 and foolhardiness4 ,hence1 then1 cider so exhilarates the farm labourer that he will do any amount of work if he is constantly plied with it1 and all the while that it is but stimulating him1 he fancies he is getting strength and vigour from it2 but1 alas6 he is only thus drawing upon his capital2 exhaustion follows a hard day's work got over amid hard drinking1 which requires the following day to be spent on the same high-pressure system1 or else little will be done4 ,hence one of our own labourers1 during barley mowing at so much per acre1 was fain to confess that he 8wanted a pint of cider at four o'clock in the morning worse nor any other time of day40 ,it happens1 then1 that as harvest work is wanted to be done expeditiously1 it is let out by the piece1 by which the labourer gets more money and more cider4 ,but consider1 my masters1 that1 when not under these stimulants1 you can only expect from the workman a languid day's work when the excitement is over2 and too often1 indeed1 the poor man gets a long illness as the result of his forced1 that is1 stimulated labour1 and1 if not1 such a system of drawing upon his capital--strength--is certain to end in premature old age4 ,seeing1 however1 that the labourer has got to believe that drink keeps up his strength1 it too often follows that he concludes that the more he gets of it the better2 and hence1 as a rule1 there is no satisfying him upon this head1 and the result is1 that the labourer too often keeps himself in that state of thirst and muzziness during his work that almost compels him to seek the public-house when work is done4 ,here quarrels ensue1 and it is a wonder that manslaughter is not more frequently the result4 ,expelled from the scene of his debauch1 he finds his way home1 unless1 as is not unfrequent1 he is 8found drowned0 in the river by which he may have to pass4 ,this is no fancied sketch1 as it is derived from the sad experience of the author and the result of events in his own parish4 ,on one melancholy occasion it was indeed sad to hear the ,coroner1 among other remarks1 observe that full four-fifths of the inquests in a cider county were the result of drink4 ,is there not1 then1 a heavy responsibility resting upon the farmer in especial connection with cider1 while his men are partially paid in this fluid8 ,it is different in the beer-drinking counties1 as beer costs more money1 and is never allowed in such quantity as cider4 ,put it down as true that the farmer at times gets more work out of his men by plying them with cider1 yet we feel sure he thereby hastens the time when such men can no longer work1 and they have then to be chargeable to the parish1 if in the mean time nothing worse should happen4 ,mechanics are not paid in drink2 they purchase what they require out of regular wages1 and thus they have the option1 which many of them take advantage of1 of leaving off strong drink altogether2 and though they too are sometimes hard pressed to get a piece of work done1 yet1 by over-hours1 for which they are rightly paid1 not1 as in the country1 wholly by cider1 but in money1 the business is managed1 and the workman can afford extra meat and bread1 by which his worn muscles are truly renovated1 and not merely stimulated to frantic action as by drink4 ,the great rise in the price of meat1 even before cattle disease became rife1 is due to the cause that so much more meat has1 within the last five years1 been eaten by the ,british workman4 ,in this advance1 however1 the farm labourer has had no part2 he rarely gets meat twice a week1 while all this time his wages have advanced so much as #be per cent41 which rise1 in nine cases out of ten1 is only looked upon as a boon1 inasmuch as it enables the recipient to 8enjoy himself10 which simply means he has more to spend at the public-house4 ,we conclude1 as the result of experience1 that each sack of corn that finds its way to market from a cider county costs #as4 7or #c;d4 per bushel7 in drink1 which1 though it is produced on the farm1 might yet have been sold to produce that amount4 ,would it then not be better to sell such farm produce1 and1 by giving extra money instead of drink to the labourers1 and so1 by allowing him the option of taking less drink but more meat1 gradually to withdraw him from the temptations to get drunk1 which beset him under the present system8 ,for1 while we feel quite sure that the morbid craving for the public-house has commenced with drinking on the farm1 we may be certain that if by any means we can check this system1 it will ultimately be a great gain to both master and man4 ,where are farm labourers best off8 ,we say in the non-cider counties4 ,in these he has learnt the use of skim-milk and the value of meat4 ,in cider counties the farm labourer despises skim-milk as 8poor weak tack1 only fit for pigs40 ,he cannot get meat1 as he takes part of his wage in a stimulant which excites him to spend some of his money in falsely 8keeping up his strength40 ,now what are the results8 ,we unhesitatingly assert1 muscle1 longevity1 more robust1 honest1 well-to-do families1 healthier bodies and minds1 beyond the cider limits4 ,if1 then1 these things be so1 some change in the use and economy of this wholesome drink is an object worthy of the deepest and most earnest consideration4 ,one man alone can do no good4 ,beneficial results can only follow upon calm discussion and combined action by the masters1 upon well ascertained facts4 ,we would not stint the labourer of that which is to do him good2 and if we find that he is really willing and capable of taking the whole responsibility connected with his drinking requirements upon his own shoulders1 we cannot help thinking that it would be for the good of all parties to pay increased wages in full rather than any portion in kind1 and more especially of the kind we have thus animadverted upon4 ,,postscript4 ,in bringing these ,papers to a conclusion1 we would1 among other matters1 make a few remarks upon the title under which they have been issued1 namely1 ,science and ,practice of ,farm ,cultivation4 ,now it will be seen that our object has not been to enter into the minuti of practical farming1 but rather to point out some of the more important scientific principles by which much of practice is regulated4 ,hence1 then1 we would beg the reader to amend the title as follows3--8,science of ,practice in ,farm ,cultivation40 ,this will more fully explain the aim and object we have had in view in the series of ,papers now concluded4 ,it is now time to tender our best acknowledgements for the aid we have received in the many drawings with which this small work has been so liberally illustrated4 ,we owe especial thanks to ,mr4 ,hardwicke for several fine plates of interesting agricultural as well as botanical specimens2 to the ,royal ,agricultural ,society of ,england for the loan of the woodcuts of roots2 and to our friend ,mr4 ,wheeler1 of ,gloucester1 for the use of the woodcut illustrations of grasses2 and as both the drawings of roots and grasses were made by us direct on the wood1 rough though they may be1 we yet hope they may be deemed more faithful than any second-hand copy4 ,our labours being ended1 it only remains to add that we hope our little work may have the effect of inducing some of our agricultural friends to look into the principles connected with the various operations which they daily superintend1 as by so doing agriculture will be really elevated to a science2 whereas1 by merely copying what has been done before1 we shall only be empirics1 practising rational empiricism it is true1 but still coming short of that light and knowledge which is the life1--the science of our profession4 ,j4 ,b4 ,,bradford ,,abbas1 ,,dorset1 ,sept4 #be1 #ahfe4 ,,cox ,,and ,,wyman1 ,,printers1 ,,great ,,queen ,,street1 ,,london1 ,w4,c4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,,transcriber',s ,,notes ,the text of the original work has been maintained1 including all inconsistencies in spelling1 lay-out1 hyphenation1 capitalisation etc4 ,these have not been changed1 except as indicated below4 ,notable inconsistencies include ,hagloe_/,haglo1 bird's foot_/ birdsfoot_/birds-foot1 codlin_/codling1 ,cotteswold-hills_/,cotteswold ,hills1 wire-worm_/wireworm1 sainfoin_/saintfoin1 per cent4_/ percent4_/per-cent4_/pr-cent4 ,achilla millefolia 7yarrow7 and ,achillea millefolium 7milfoil7 are both used for the same plant4 ,the tables have been re-arranged to fit in the available width4 ,multi-page tables have been re-combined into single tables4 ,footnotes have been moved to directly under the text to which they refer4 ,illustrations and tables have been moved to before or after the paragraph in which they were printed in the original work4 ,the differences in wording between the table of contents and the text have been left as in the original work because the meaning is clear4 ,changes made to the text3 p4 vi epipitical changed to epiphytical 7page number7 #bah #bag p4 vii 7page number7 #bff #bfe chesnut chestnut 7page number7 #cbj #cai p4 #i be utterly failed he utterly failed p4 #aj that be has tried that he has tried p4 #bd ,skirvings swede ,skirving's swede p4 #da 7see ,chap4 ,,vii47 7see ,chap4 ,,vi47 p4 #aab fnum-grcum fnum-grcum p4 #abg ,bird's-food ,trefoil ,bird's-foot ,trefoil p4 #acf single-seeded single-seeded p4 #adf indentical identical p4 #aea in ,august #ca on ,august #ca p4 #bgf geologial geological p4 #cah first letter missing from 8gives the former tree01 8g0 inserted ---------------------------------------- --------------------------