,transcrib]'s ,note3 ,italic text is d5ot$ by und]scores & bold text by equal signs4 ,,home ,,univ]sity ,,libr>y ,,( ,,mod]n ,,k ,no4 #g ,editors3 ,,h]b]t ,,fi%]1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,b4,a4 ,,pr(4 ,,gilb]t ,,murray1 ,,litt4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,b4,a4 ,,pr(4 ,j4 ,,ar?ur ,,?omson1 ,m4,a4 ,,pr(4 ,,william ,t4 ,,brew/]1 ,m4,a4 ,a complete classifi$ li/ ( ! volumes ( ,,! ,,home ,,univ]sity ,,libr>y already publi%$ w be f\nd at ! back ( ?is book4 ,,mod]n ,,geography ,,by ,,m>ion ,i4 ,,newbig9 ,d4,,sc4 7,,lond47 ,,editor ,,( ,,! ,,scotti% ,,geographical ,,magaz9e ,illu/ration ,,new ,,york ,,h5ry ,,holt ,,& ,,company ,,london ,,williams ,,& ,,norgate ,,copyright1 #aiaa1 ,,by ,,h5ry ,,holt ,,& ,,company ,,cont5ts ,,*ap4 ,,page ,i ,,! ,,beg9n+s ,,( ,,mod]n ,,geography #g ,,ii ,,surface-,,relief ,,& ,,! ,,process ,,( ,,erosion #ai ,,iii ,,ice ,,& ,,its ,,"w #ea ,,iv ,,climate ,,& ,,wea!r #hb ,v ,,! ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,plant ,,geography ,,& ,,! ,,*ief ,,plant ,,=mations ,,( ,,europe ,,& ,,nor? ,,am]ica #aab ,,vi ,,! ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,animal ,,life #adc ,,vii ,,cultivat$ ,,plants ,,& ,,dome/icat$ ,,animals #afh ,,viii ,,! ,,races ,,( ,,europe ,,& ,,_! ,,orig9 #aif ,,ix ,,! ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,m9]als ,,& ,,! ,,localisation ,,( ,,indu/ries ,,& ,,( ,,t[ns #bai ,,notes ,,on ,,books #bdi ,,index #bea ,,mod]n ,,geography ,,*apt] ,i ,,! ,,beg9n+s ,,( ,,mod]n ,,geography ,9 ! ye> #ahei !re occurr$ ?ree ev5ts :i*1 ?\gh n all comp>able to "o ano!r1 yet make ! ye> "o ( su* importance t we may take x z m>k+ ! beg9n+ ( ! di/9ctively mod]n p]iod ( geographical sci5ce4 ,^! ?ree ev5ts 71 fir/1 ! dea?s ( ,humboldt & ,ritt]1 two great geographical pione]s :o hew$ tracks ?r\gh ! tangl$ jungle ( unsy/ematis$ geographical facts1 & second1 ! publication ( ! ,orig9 ( ,species1 by ,*>les ,d>w91 a book :i* suppli$ ! compass :i* has made fur!r road-mak+ 9 t same jungle possible4 ,9 o!r words1 z a result ( ! life-"w ( ! two great geograph]s nam$1 & ( ! ?r[+ by ,*>les ,d>w9 ( a new f]m5t into ! mass ( contempor>y ?\ght1 :at _h be5 a m]e collection ( facts began to be a reason$ & ord]$ sci5ce4 ,bo? ,humboldt & ,ritt] liv$ to a great age1 s t at ! "t ( _! dea?s n only 0 _! "w done1 b !re _h be5 "t also = _! influ5ce to p]meate ! lit]ature ( ! subject4 ,humboldt 01 above all1 a great travell]1 b he 0 also a man ( sci5ce 9 ! l>ge/ s5se1 int]e/$ n 9 "o gr\p ( facts1 b 9 _m4 ,! ext5t ( 8 k & ! bread? ( 8 int]e/s enabl$ him to obs]ve a va/ numb] ( ph5om5a :ile 8 p>ticul> g5ius 0 manife/ 9 ! way 9 :i* he correlat$ ^!1 & consid]$ !m 9 _! relation to ea* o!r4 ,?\gh x is true t 8 influ5ce 0 mo/ direct 9 ! case ( natural hi/ory1 yet 9 ?is respect also he po9t$ to ! future1 = ! geograph]s ( to-day are indebt$ to ! naturali/s = "s ( _! f9e/ g5]alisations4 ,ritt] 0 a great tea*]1 ! prototype ( ^? :o alike by _! p]sonal influ5ce & by _! books h enri*$ geographical sci5ce )9 ! la/ fifty ye>s4 ,he _h n ,humboldt's bread? ( k & int]e/1 b 9 ! /ress :i* he laid ^u ! e>? z above all int]e/+ 9 t x is ! field ( ! activity ( man1 he emphasis$ an aspect ( ! subject 9 :i* p]haps ! mo/ int]e/+ mod]n developm5ts h tak5 place4 ,d>w9 _h a tw(old effect ^u ! progress ( geography4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 9 8 detail$ "w1 e4 g4 9 connection ) coral reefs1 & ) ! di/ribution ( animals1 & less directly 9 8 inve/igation ( ! "p play$ by e>?worms 9 ! =mation ( soil1 he himself add$ to geographical k4 ,b he did mu* m ?an ?is4 ,! doctr9e ( evolution :i* he made common prop]ty has _h & is hav+ an enorm\s effect ^u geographical sci5ce1 bo? directly & indirectly4 ,z is well kn[n1 9 connection ) 8 own !ory ( ! cause ( evolution1 ,d>w9 laid great /ress ^u ! ,/ruggle = ,exi/5ce4 ,b he himself expressly /at$ t he us$ ! t]m 9 a l>ge & metaphorical s5se1 a s5se :i* 9 popul> language x has t5d$ to lose4 ,f ! geograph]'s /&po9t1 !re=e1 x is bett] to say t ,d>w9's "w has add$ a new int]e/ to ! /udy ( int]relations4 ,humboldt1 z we h indicat$1 0 greatly int]e/$ 9 su* subjects z ! connection betwe5 ! climate ( a region & ! vegetation1 betwe5 ! activities ( man 9 a p>ticul> region & ! physical conditions1 & s on4 ,b ,d>w9 add$ a new int]e/ to su* /udies4 ,= example1 x is a curi\s fact t des]t plants h (t5 sp9y leaves1 long roots1 & s =?1 & x is int]e/+ to note h[ ^! peculi>ities fit ! plants = life 9 an arid climate4 ,b :5 ,d>w9 %[$ t !re 0 evid5ce t ! physical conditions ( ! des]t gave rise to c]ta9 types ( vegetation1 x became wor? :ile to /udy bo? ! physical conditions & ! *>act]s ( ! plants 9 mu* great] detail ?an be=e4 ,if we simply lay x d[n z an axiom t1 e4 g4 cactuses live 9 des]ts1 ! fact has only a mod]ate int]e/1 b :5 we f9d t almo/ any natural gr\p ( plants1 if expos$ ?r\gh long ages to gradually increas+ conditions ( dr\ght1 w produce cactus types1 !n ! :ole subject acquires new importance4 ,?is illu/ration may s]ve to sugge/ :at ,d>w9 has done = geography4 ,he %[$ t !re is a delicately adju/$ balance betwe5 organisms & _! surr\nd+s1 tak5 9 _! wide/ s5se4 ,b geology proves t ?r\gh ! ages !re h be5 con/ant1 if slight1 *anges 9 ! physical conditions1 & ! ef=t ( ! organisms to readju/ ! balance ?us di/urb$ has l$ to evolution4 ,?us to "s ext5t at lea/ ! *>act]s ( organisms c be expla9$ by ! nature ( _! surr\nd+s4 ,a fur!r int]e/ is add$ by ! fact t 9 ?is respect human societies & settlem5ts c be %[n to behave l organisms4 ,!re=e we c hope to expla9 at lea/ p>tially ! manifold diff]5ces 9 man & 8 societies 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! globe by ! m9or diff]5ces 9 physical conditions4 ,9 o!r words1 ! doctr9e ( evolution has add$ a unify+ & co-ord9at+ pr9ciple :i* has n only prev5t$ geography f be+ cru%$ by ! enorm\s rec5t increase 9 kn[n facts1 b has also = ! fir/ "t rais$ x to ! level ( a sci5ce4 ,?is addition ( a co-ord9at+ pr9ciple may be said to be ! direct effect ( ! publication ( ! ,orig9 ( ,species1 b !re has be5 an indirect effect almo/ z important4 ,! pr9ciples enunciat$ 9 t book _h a /imulat+ effect1 n ^u "o sci5ce only b ^u e dep>tm5t ( ?\ght4 ,ph5om5a ( no importance sudd5ly became int]e/+1 & ! result ( ?is int]e/ 0 an enorm\s addition to kn[n facts4 ,n only has rese>* be5 /imulat$ 9 e direction1 b z ?is rese>* has be5 l>gely direct$ by ! desire to discov] ! int]relation ( ph5om5a1 we f9d t _m ( ! old b>ri]s betwe5 ! sci5ces are break+ d[n4 ,! botani/s are no long] cont5t to /udy ! facts ( plant di/ribution2 !y n[ want to be able to give reasons = p>ticul> di/ributions4 ,!re=e !y mu/ seek ! aid ( ! meteorologi/s to expla9 diff]5ces ( climate2 ( ! physical geograph] to make cle> ! effects ( relief1 ( diff]5ces ( soil1 & ( dra9age2 ( ! c>tograph] to repres5t ! facts :i* em]ge f _! surveys1 & s on4 ,! physician mu/ n[ seek ! assi/ance ( ! zoologi/ be=e he c deal adequately ) tropical disease1 & ! zoologi/ mu/ h ! help ( ! physical geograph] be=e he c give adequate aid4 ,! result is t 9 all directions geography is be+ enri*$ by facts br\ght f ! collat]al sci5ces1 :ile at ! same "t its position z a c5tral unify+ sci5ce is becom+ m & m e/abli%$2 z a sci5ce :i* c deal ) all ^! v>i$ facts1 b deal ) !m f a /&po9t peculi>ly its own4 ,at ! pres5t "t1 geography may be comp>$ to "o ( ,rod9's /atues 9 :i* we see a beautiful figure z x 7 /ruggl+ to escape f ! m>ble 9 :i* x is imprison$4 ,s ! geography ( to-day is 9 ! act ( escap+ f ! matrix ( m]e facts 9 :i* x has be5 too long imprison$4 ,x is n[ display+ itself z a great unity 9 ! mak+ ( :i* all ! sci5ces h play$ _! "p4 ,b ev5 9 ?is g5]al survey ( rec5t developm5ts two o!r sets ( facts mu/ be t\*$ ^u4 ,we h giv5 fifty ye>s z ! p]iod )9 :i* mo/ ( :at is di/9ctively mod]n 9 geography has develop$4 ,x mu/ n be =gott5 t )9 ! same p]iod !re has be5 a rem>kable r5ewal ( int]e/ 9 geographical exploration4 ,r\ghly speak+1 )9 ?is p]iod ,africa has ceas$ to be an unkn[n cont95t2 ! inn]mo/ recesses ( ,asia h be5 l>gely explor$2 ! ,arctic & ,ant>ctic areas h yield$ _m1 ?\gh by no means ! :ole1 ( _! secrets2 a great deal ( exploration has be5 done 9 ,am]ica z a :ole1 z well z mu* detail$ survey "w 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,canada2 ! oceans h be5 inve/igat$ by successive s]ies ( exp$itions4 ,g5]ally x may be said t 9 its broad outl9es our k ( ! _w has be5 complet$1 s t geographical sci5ce is free to pass f ! m]e collection ( raw mat]ial to ! high] task ( arrang+1 classify+1 & mak+ d$uctions1 z well z to ! m detail$ surveys :i* are /ill necess>y4 ,! o!r po9t ( int]e/ is t ! la/ fifty ye>s h se5 an enorm\s increase 9 ! facilities = travel1 a fact :i* has l$ to a great increase 9 ! numb] ( p to :om geography appeals4 ,! decade betwe5 #ahcj & #ahdj saw ! beg9n+ ( two great s]ies ( guide-books1 ,murray's ,h&books & ,ba$ek]'s ,guides1 ^: importance = ! travell+ public c h>dly be ov]-e/imat$4 ,! fir/ ,ba$ek] 0 a little guide to ! ,rh9e1 & s9ce x 0 fir/ publi%$ ?is firm ( publi%]s has n only ext5d$ its field ( op]ations ov] ne>ly ! :ole _w1 b has issu$ a con/ant /ream ( new editions1 :i* = ! mo/ frequ5t$ t\ri/ regions are practically annual4 ,t great t\ri/ ag5cy ^: "n is n[ a h\sehold ^w began op]ations 9 ! e>ly =ties1 & l ! firm ( ,ba$ek] has n[ tak5 ! _w z its sph]e ( action4 ,we may say1 !n1 t dur+ ! c\rse ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 travel1 previ\sly a pa/ime ( ! ri*1 0 br\ght )9 ! rea* ( v mod]ate purses4 ,?is democratisation ( travel is /ill go+ on1 & 9 c]ta9 rec5t visits ( ,briti% work+ m5 to ,g]many & else:]e we may p]haps see ! beg9n+ ( a process :i* w ev5tually br+ "s am\nt ( j\rney+ abroad )9 ! rea* ( all4 ,z yet ! effect ^u geography ( ?is increase 9 travell+ has be5 *iefly to enhance popul> int]e/ 9 ! sci5ce1 r ?an to enri* x1 = ! va/ majority ( popul> travel books h add$ little1 if any?+1 to ! sum total ( k4 ,b ?is is p>tly because geographical tea*+ has hi!rto be5 badly organis$1 & ! great] numb] ( travell]s h />t$ on _! j\rneys )\t hav+ be5 taught :at to obs]ve or h[ to obs]ve4 ,!re are already indications t ?is condition ( affairs is pass+ away1 & t ! travell] ( ! future w />t bett] equipp$1 & w dem& 9 8 guide-books a new po9t ( view4 ,/>t+ f a high] level he w br+ back m f 8 travels4 ,meantime x %\ld be not$ t "s k ( ! g5]alisations laid d[n by geograph]s dur+ ! c\rse ( ! la/ half c5tury adds enorm\sly to ! int]e/ ( travel1 bo? at home & abroad1 & t = ?is reason1 if = no o!r1 geography is wor? /udy by all4 ,9 ! foll[+ *apt]s we %all look1 s f> z possible1 at ^? aspects ( ! subject :i* make ! wide/ appeal1 & :i* are be/ fitt$ to enable ! ord9>y man to und]/& 8 surr\nd+s1 :atev] !y may be1 & s aid him 9 t delicate task ( adju/m5t :i*1 consci\sly or unconsci\sly1 is ! task ( e liv+ ?+4 ,z limitations ( space involve a simil> limitation ( subject-matt]1 x has be5 ?\ght be/ to lay mo/ /ress ^u ! conditions :i* prevail 9 ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica1 ! areas :i* h be5 mo/ ?or\ghly /udi$4 ,europe has ! special int]e/ t x has giv5 orig9 to ! type ( civilisation :i* has mo/ pr(\ndly modifi$ ! e>?'s surface4 ,?is limitation _c1 h[ev]1 be made rigid1 = x is ( ! ess5ce ( ! mod]n /&po9t t no area c be und]/ood )\t ref]5ce to ! _w at l>ge4 ,! geography ( ,europe no less ?an ( ,nor? ,am]ica is det]m9$ by ! position ( ! respective cont95ts on ! surface ( ! globe1 & _c be und]/ood )\t a consid]ation ( ?is position & its implications4 ,! /&po9t adopt$ "h is frankly an?ropological1 t is1 ! _w is consid]$ z ! home ( man1 its physical peculi>ities be+ reg>d$ z int]e/+ *iefly 9 _! relation to man & 8 activities4 ,f9ally1 we may note t ! developm5t ( ! subject )9 rec5t ye>s has be5 su* t x is q impossible1 ev5 )9 ! limitations already laid d[n1 to give a complete survey ( ! subject4 ,all t w be attempt$1 !re=e1 is to sugge/ "s ( ! l9es along :i* rese>* is proce$+ mo/ actively at ! pres5t "t1 special /ress be+ laid ^u ^? aspects ( ! subject :i* are n z yet fully treat$ 9 ! small] text-books4 ,! li/ ( books ( ref]5ce at ! end w1 x is hop$1 enable ^? int]e/$ to fill 9 ! blanks :i* su* a s*eme necess>ily leaves4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,surface-,,relief ,,& ,,! ,,process ,,( ,,erosion ,x is n necess>y "h to consid] ! v>i\s =mal def9itions ( geography :i* h be5 propos$ 9 ! la/ few ye>s4 ,z is only natural ) a develop+ subject1 mu* discussion has tak5 place z to ! exact limits ( its field ( action1 & _m def9itions h be5 propos$ ) ! object ( sett+ =? ^! limits z cle>ly z possible4 ,b x is suffici5t = our purpose to note t geography deals ) ! surface-relief ( ! e>?1 & ) ! influ5ce :i* t relief ex]cises ^u ! di/ribution ( o!r ph5om5a1 & especially ^u ! life ( man4 ,be=e we proce$ to /udy detail$ problems1 !n1 x is obvi\sly necess>y to look at "s g5]al po9ts connect$ ) ! relief ( ! e>?'s surface & its causes4 ,9 ! words ( ! physical geograph]1 ! e>?'s surface consi/s ( ! solid cru/1 or li?osph]e1 ( ! mass ( wat] =m+ ! seas & oceans & con/itut+ ! hydrosph]e1 & ( t envelope ( gas :i* we call ! atmosph]e4 ,consid]$ sep>ately1 ea* ( ^! is ! conc]n ( special sci5ces1 & n ( ! geograph] prop]4 ,8 bus9ess x is to take ! facts furni%$ by ! meteorologi/s1 ! physici/s1 ! geologi/s1 & s =?1 & ) ^! facts 9 h& to proce$ to consid] ! effect ( ! int]action ( e>? & wat] & air 9 a way :i* ! sep>ate sci5ces _c d4 ,we mu/ fur!r note t x is ! int]actions ( ^! ?ree :i* make ! e>? a possible home = life z we "k x1 & x is ^! int]actions !re=e :i* influ5ce ! di/ribution ( life on ! surface ( ! globe4 ,!re may h be5 a p]iod :5 ! cru/ ( ! e>? 0 clo!d 9 a uni=m %eet ( wat]1 j z ! globe is n[ envelop$ 9 a complete cov]+ ( air1 b at pres5t1 z ?r\gh ! long ages ( geological "t1 ! li?osph]e consi/s ( elevations & holl[s1 & x is 9 ! holl[s t ! wat] accumulates1 s t we c di/+ui% betwe5 ! dry l& & ! ocean b$s4 ,bo? *emically & physically ! fluid hydrosph]e diff]s m>k$ly f ! solid li?osph]e1 & x is1 above all1 ! physical diff]5ces :i* are ( supreme importance to ! geograph]4 ,because ( !m sea & l& respond diff]5tly to ! /ream ( sol> en]gy :i* p\rs d[n ^u our globe1 & x is ?is diff]5t response :i* is ! pr$om9at+ factor 9 ! production ( ! diff]5t climates1 :i* aga9 det]m9e 9 its ma9 outl9es ! di/ribution ( liv+ organisms4 ,?is be+ s1 x is cle> t x is ( great importance to ! geograph] to "k exactly ! di/ribution ( l& & wat] ov] ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,z ! ,nor? ,pol> regions are /ill inadequately kn[n1 & ! ,s\? ,pol> regions h>dly kn[n at all1 we _c z yet det]m9e exactly ?is di/ribution1 b any globe w %[ t l& & ocean are v unequally di/ribut$4 ,! great l& masses clu/] r\nd ! ,nor? ,pole1 :ile ! s\!rn hemisph]e consi/s l>gely ( wat]4 ,we ?us h a l& hemisph]e & a wat] "o4 ,accord+ to rec5t calculations ! oceans occupy "s #gb p] c5t4 ( ! entire surface ( ! globe1 leav+ only #bh p] c5t4 ( l&4 ,b :ile 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e !re is ab\t "o & a half times m wat] ?an l&1 9 ! s\!rn !re is ab\t six times m wat]1 bo? figures be+ liable to error1 z indicat$ above1 ow+ to our unc]ta9ty z to ! l& & wat] ( ! ,pol> zones4 ,?is di/ribution is ( great importance 9 connection ) c]ta9 !ories z to ! actual plan ( ! e>?1 b ?is is a difficult subject :i* ne$ n conc]n u "h4 ,x is discuss$ 9 ,pr(4 ,j4 ,w4 ,gregory's volume on ,! ,mak+ ( ! ,e>?4 ,m int]e/+ is ! effect :i* ! arrangem5t ( l& & wat] has _h ^u t "p ( ! life ( ! e>? :i* 0 evolv$ 9 late geological "t4 ,?\gh ! geograph] = conv5i5ce' sake recognizes ?ree sep>ate cont95ts 9 ! ,old ,_w--,europe1 ,asia & ,africa--yet ^! =m practically "o l& mass1 :i* 9 its turn approa*es ,am]ica v ne>ly at ,b]+ ,/raits1 &1 less ne>ly1 9 ! ,nor? ,atlantic ?r\gh ! int]v5tion ( ! ,briti% ,isles1 ! ,fa]oes1 ,icel&1 ,gre5l&1 etc4 ,! c5tre ( ?is l& mass lies 9 ,europe1 a po9t n )\t its importance4 ,9 ?is great l& mass ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e life has rea*$ its highe/ degree ( developm5t1 bo? z reg>ds animal =m & z reg>ds human societies4 ,x 0 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e t ! highe/ mammals1 ! plac5tals1 arose4 ,!re are _m rem>kable resemblances betwe5 ! faunas ( ,europe1 ( ,asia & ( ,africa1 & a simil>1 if less m>k$1 resemblance betwe5 ^? ( ,nor? ,am]ica on ! "o h& & ( ,europe & temp]ate ,asia on ! o!r4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! two great l& masses :i* occur 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 ,s\? ,am]ica & ,au/ralia1 %[ v m>k$ diff]5ces 9 _! fauna1 bo? f ea* o!r & f ! nor!rn l& masses1 & 9 bo? cases ! fauna has a primitive aspect1 :i* is be/ m>k$ 9 ,au/ralia4 ,:5 we come to consid] man1 some:at simil> conditions pres5t !mselves4 ,! great civilisations develop$ 9 ! l& mass ( ! ,old ,_w1 ?\gh ! wat]less des]t ( ! ,sah>a cut (f mu* ( ,africa f p>ticipation 9 !m4 ,am]ica develop$ a relatively high civilisation ( its own1 b z ! icefields & ice-pack ( ! nor? =m$ a great] b>ri] to ! migrations ( man ?an to ^? ( ! nor!rn animals1 ?is ,am]ican civilisation 0 = long cut (f f t ( ! ,old ,_w1 & :5 free communication became possible1 x w5t d[n be=e t ( ! ea/]n _w4 ,we mu/ connect ^! facts directly ) ! peculi> di/ribution ( l& & wat] 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 :i* made free int]c\rse possible1 alike = ! l& animals & = man4 ,! importance ( ?is int]c\rse may be sugge/$ 9 a few words4 ,:5 a gr\p ( organisms is limit$1 f :atev] cause1 to a p>ticul> zone ( ! e>?'s surface1 ! memb]s ( ! gr\p t5d to acquire *>act]s fitt+ !m = ?is re/rict$ area4 ,b if ! area is op51 con/antly or p]iodically1 to incursions ( organisms f adjac5t areas1 !n1 ) ! wid5+ ( ! environm5t1 & ! great] int5sity ( ! /ruggle = exi/5ce1 evolution is quick5$ & new *>act]s appe>4 ,! m5 ( ! ,eurasian cont95t le>nt1 on ! fi]ce battle-gr\nds ( t cont95t1 lessons :i* enabl$ !m to conqu] )\t difficulty ! m isolat$ human gr\ps ( ! s\!rn hemisph]e4 ,! fact t !y took s\? ) !m ! mammals ( ! nor?1 :o also h ?riv5 at ! exp5se ( ! native =ms1 %[s t ! hold ( ! s\!rn animals ^u _! habitat 0 no less prec>i\s ?an t ( man himself4 ,"o o!r po9t is wor? notice 9 connection ) ! di/ribution ( l& & wat] ov] ! surface ( ! globe4 ,we h se5 t ! nor!rn hemisph]e is ! region :]e organic evolution has be5 mo/ m>k$4 ,x is1 z x 71 a great biological laboratory4 ,on ! o!r h&1 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 :i* has few] l& masses to int]f]e ) ! circulation ( ! atmosph]e1 _m physical ph5om5a occur 9 a m m>k$ & ord]ly fa%ion ?an to ! nor?4 ,! we/]ly w9ds ( ! s\? bl[ ) a =ce & a con/ancy :i* makes x impossible to comp>e !m ) ! m v>iable we/]lies ( ! nor?4 ,ev5 ! ocean curr5ts ( ! s\? seem to %[ m con/ancy ?an ^? ( ! nor?4 ,if ! nor!rn hemisph]e is a great biological laboratory1 ! s\!rn may be describ$ z a physical "o1 & "o ( ! great int]e/s ( ! fur!r exploration ( ! ,ant>ctic is t x w probably ca/ light ^u "s important meteorological problems4 7,see ,dr4 ,w4 ,s4 ,bruce's volume on ,pol> ,exploration47 ,! di/ribution ( l& & wat]1 ) all its effects on climate & on ! di/ribution ( life1 is1 z we h se51 caus$ by ! ma9 features ( ! relief ( ! e>?1 by ! exi/5ce ( va/ depressions 9 :i* ! wat] accumulates1 & ( relative elevations f :i* x fl[s4 ,b ! m9or details ( relief1 hill & valley1 ocean dep? & cont95tal %elf1 are also important1 & ex]cise a v m>k$ effect ^u di/ribution4 ,!y !re=e dem& 9 _! turn "s consid]ation4 ,tak+ fir/ ! prime di/9ction betwe5 l& surface & ocean floor1 we note t ! two diff] f "o ano!r m>k$ly1 alike 9 _! *>act]i/ics & 9 ! conditions to :i* !y are expos$4 ,! l& is subject$ to con/antly v>y+ conditions3 to ! alt]nation ( day & night1 & to ! *anges ( ! seasons1 ) correspond+ v>iations 9 temp]ature2 to ! fluctuations ( ! wea!r2 to runn+ wat]1 & s =?4 ,9 ! great ocean dep?s at lea/1 on ! o!r h&1 ! conditions are rem>kably uni=m4 ,nei!r diurnal nor seasonal *anges h "h any effect2 ! temp]ature seems to fluctuate b little2 ! wat] is almo/ /ill4 ,?is uni=mity ( physical conditions is reflect$ 9 ! uni=mity ( ! surface ov] wide areas4 ,:ile ! l& surface %[s m>k$ irregul>ities1 ! ocean floor has a monoton\s "*1 ) m g5tle outl9es4 ,9 its mo/ g5]al =m ! *>act]s ( ! sea bottom may be briefly /at$4 ,r\nd ! great l& masses !re is an area ( relatively %all[ wat]1 :i* is sometimes only a few miles wide1 & at o!r times ext5ds outw>ds = hundr$s ( miles4 ,?is region is ! ,cont95tal ,%elf1 & its seaw>d b\nd>y = conv5i5ce' sake is tak5 at a dep? ( #ajj fa?oms1 or #fjj feet4 ,)9 ?is zone ! influ5ce ( ! l& is /ill felt1 & "s ( ! *>act]s ( l& surfaces appe>4 ,?us we sometimes f9d t riv] valleys are prolong$ outw>ds ov] ! ,cont95tal ,%elf1 giv+ a m>k$ly irregul> appe>ance to ! ocean floor4 ,! ,briti% ,isl&s lie ^u a ,cont95tal ,%elf ( ?is k9d1 & ?is is "o ( our reasons = kn[+ t !y are really only a "p ( ! cont95t ( ,europe1 sep>at$ f x by a slight depression4 ,! ,cont95tal ,%elf slopes away f ! l& g5tly1 & is wide/ :]e x fr+es l[ cont95ts1 & n>r[e/ :]e m\nta9s approa* ! coa/4 ,ov] x is spread ! wa/e ( ! l&1 ! co>s] ly+ ne> ! %ore-l9e1 ! f9] ext5d+ outw>ds to ! /eep seaw>d slope4 ,?is rapid slope leads d[n to ! m or less uni=m ocean plateau1 ^: surface is brok5 by ! great ocean abysses1 ! greate/ ( :i* has a dep? ( ab\t six miles4 ,relative b n absolute uni=mity ?us *>act]ises all t "p ( ! ocean floor :i* lies bel[ ab\t #ajj fa?oms4 ,aga91 ?\gh ! ocean floor is d\btless be+ sl[ly rais$ by ! deposition ^u x ( ! oceanic oozes1 yet x is also true t z comp>$ ) ! l& surface x displays great con/ancy4 ,:ile ! l& surface is con/antly *ang+ ow+ to ! v>y+ =ces :i* act ^u x1 ! floor ( ! ocean c v>y b little f age to age1 unless x is act$ ^u by ! int]nal =ces ( ! e>?4 ,turn n[ to ! l&4 ,we note at once ! two *>act]s ( m>k$ irregul>ity ( surface1 & ( *angeabl5ess4 ,! *angeabl5ess is due to ! =ces ( erosion :i* act ^u ! surface1 & ( ^! =ces ! mo/ important to ! geograph] is runn+ wat]4 ,x is runn+ wat]1 aid$ by o!r ag5ts1 :i* c>ves ! l& into hill & valley1 :i* produces gorge & lake1 only ultimately to fill up ! lake & plane away ! gorge4 ,x is runn+ wat] :i* spreads out on ! l[] gr\nd ! wa/e ( ! high]1 & ?us prep>es ! way = ! op]ations ( man4 ,! result ( ! long-cont9u$ action ( ! v>i$ =ces ( erosion mu/ necess>ily be to r$uce ! surface to an almo/ level condition4 ,! d5ud+ ag5ts fir/ produce irregul>ities & !n f9ally remove ^!1 until ! :ole surface is once aga9 almo/ level4 ,! :ole globe w\ld ?us be r$uc$ to ! condition ( a pla9 7 x n = ! int]v5tion ( ! int]nal =ces :i* raise up ! surface anew into folds1 or :i* produce volcanoes & outbur/s ( molt5 rock4 ,?is con/antly repeat$ s]ies ( *anges may be said to be *iefly ! conc]n ( ! geologi/1 especially z x is a s]ies :i* has repeat$ itself 9 all "t4 ,b x is to be not$ t at v>i\s p>ts ( ! surface ( ! globe at ! pres5t "t e /age 9 ! process occurs1 & ev]y:]e ! "q :e!r a p>ticul> l& area has be5 expos$ = a relatively long or = a relatively %ort p]iod to ! =ces ( erosion1 has a pr(\nd influ5ce ^u life4 ,x is !re=e important = ! geograph] to be able to recognise ! diff]5t /ages4 ,?is he _c hope to d )\t "s detail$ k ( ! effects ( erosion4 ,!oretically e l& surface elevat$ above sea-level %\ld pass ?r\gh :at has be5 call$ a cycle ( erosion4 ,!re %\ld be a p]iod :5 ! active =ces are work+ ^u a surface z yet b little modifi$2 ?is is ! p]iod call$ by analogy y\?4 ,at a lat] /age ! dra9age has be5 well e/abli%$1 & ! riv]s run 9 broad valleys1 f :i* lakes & wat]falls h l>gely disappe>$4 ,to ?is condition ! t]m mature has be5 appli$4 ,at a /ill lat] /age ! l& surface has be5 s worn by ! erod+ =ces t ! :ole process ( erosion is slack5$1 & an uplift mu/ occur be=e ! erosive =ces rega9 _! lo/ /r5g?4 ,?is is ! s-call$ cycle ( normal erosion1 b x is con/antly liable to v>iations due to local cru/ movem5ts1 to *anges 9 climate1 & to local conditions1 ?\gh at ! same "t ! di/9ction ( ! v>i\s /ages has value = ! geograph] because ( _! v>y+ effects ^u human life4 ,x is necess>y = u1 !re=e1 to consid] h[ ! diff]5t /ages may be recogniz$1 & h[ ! =ces ( erosion act4 ,let u beg9 our /udy ( erosion by a g5]al survey ( ! /rik+ features ( ! e>?'s surface at ! pres5t day4 ,we "k t at v>i\s p>ts ( ! surface !re rise l(ty m\nta9 *a9s1 ^: summits are (t5 p]man5tly sn[-clad1 & :i*1 f ! %>pness ( _! =ms & f ! masses ( rock rubbi% :i* are accumulat+ r\nd !m1 h obvi\sly only be5 expos$ = a geologically %ort p]iod to ! action ( ! atmosph]e & ( runn+ wat]4 ,:5 exam9$ su* m\nta9 *a9s are all f\nd to h ! same peculi>ities ( int]nal =m1 ! rocks compos+ !m be+ elaborately fold$ & fractur$4 ,c>eful inve/igation has conv9c$ geologi/s t all ! exi/+ great *a9s owe _! orig9 to a s]ies ( e>? movem5ts :i* occurr$ 9 ! p]iod call$ ,t]ti>y1 t is1 9 ! ?ird ( ! great geological p]iods1 ! "o imm$iately prec$+ t 9 :i* we live4 ,^! l(ty m\nta9 *a9s ( ,t]ti>y orig9 are mo/ famili> 9 ! great s]ies ( folds :i* appe> at ! surface to =m ! ,pyr5ees1 ! ,alps1 ! ,caucasus & ! ,himalayas1 b ! ,atlas ,m\nta9s belong to ! same s]ies1 z does also t great m\nta9 *a9 :i*1 "u v>i\s names1 runs d[n ! we/]n coa/ ( ! ,am]ican cont95t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a4--,! ma9 po9ts 9 reg>d to ! /ructure ( ,europe4 ,! %ad$ areas 7#a7 are regions ( anci5t rocks1 mu* fold$ & crumpl$1 :i* once =m$ m\nta9 regions b are n[ mo/ly worn d[n to upl&s4 ,! l9es 7#b7 %[ ! regions affect$ by ,t]ti>y fold+1 l>gely occupi$ by m\nta9 *a9s4 ,! un%ad$ areas are mo/ly pla9s & bas9s1 only slightly affect$ by fold+1 & made up ( rocks :i* are (t5 almo/ horizontal4 ,z already indicat$1 ^! areas are recognis$ n only by ! fact t !re appe> at ! surface a great numb] ( peaks =m+ a m\nta9 *a91 b also by ! int]nal /ructure1 ! *>act]i/ically complex fold+ ( ! rocks4 ,n[ outside ( ^! rec5tly elevat$ areas 91 = example1 ! cont95t ( ,europe1 we f9d two conditions4 ,on ! "o h&1 !re are regions ( upl& type b ) r\nd$ & smoo!d =ms1 :i* are sometimes almo/ r$uc$ to ! condition ( a pla94 ,su* regions occur 9 ,irel&1 9 ! we/ ( ,great ,brita9 g5]ally1 9 ,brittany1 9 ! c5tral plateau ( ,france1 9 ! ,ard5nes1 9 ,bohemia1 9 ! c5tral plateau ( ,spa91 9 ,sc&9avia1 & s =?4 ,betwe5 ^! relatively elevat$ areas we h pla9s & l[-ly+ riv] bas9s1 su* z ! ,london bas91 ! ,p>is bas91 & s on4 ,:5 ! rocks are exam9$ 9 bo? cases x is f\nd t 9 ! bas9s & pla9s ! rocks1 z a g5]al rule1 are only slightly incl9$1 :ile 9 ! upl&s & plateaux !re are obvi\s remnants ( fold+1 & ! rocks are ( anci5t types1 n relatively mod]n l ^? ( ! ,alps1 ,himalayas1 etc4 7see fig4 #a74 ,if1 !n1 ! exi/+ m\nta9 *a9s %[ complex fold+ 9 _! con/itu5t rocks1 & ?\gh geologically b ( ye/]day h be5 already deeply affect$ by ! d5ud+ ag5ts1 mu/ we n suppose t ! fold$ & contort$ upl&s ( ,europe & else:]e are ! la/ remnants ( v anci5t m\nta9 *a9s8 ,x is !y :i* =m ! framework ( ! cont95ts1 & by _! we> & te> ! l[ gr\nds h be5 =m$1 ow+ to ! fill+ 9 ( ! great gulfs :i* ran betwe5 ! old m\nta9 *a9s4 ,we may elaborate a little fur!r ?is v int]e/+ subject4 ,let u fir/ note t ! geologi/s gr\p ! rocks compos+ ! e>?'s cru/ into ?ree great divisions4 ,we h1 fir/1 ! ,prim>y rocks1 :i* are ! olde/1 & include z _! mo/ g5]ally int]e/+ memb] ! ,c>bonif]\s rocks1 ) _! coal-be>+ b$s1 s important 9 ! mod]n indu/rial _w4 ,second1 we h ! ,second>y b$s1 ! mo/ int]e/+ memb]s ( :i* is ! ,*alk1 s well-develop$ 9 p>ts ( ,engl& & ,france4 ,f9ally1 ! ,t]ti>y s]ies includes ! rocks ( ! p]iod imm$iately prec$+ t 9 :i* ! fir/ und\bt$ rema9s ( man occur4 ,ea* ( ^! p]iods 0 ( enorm\s l5g?1 & ! lab\rs ( successive g5]ations ( geologi/s h br\ght to light1 at lea/ 9 broad outl9e1 ! g5]al appe>ance ( ! globe 9 s f> z affect$ by ! di/ribution ( l& & wat]1 & ! ma9 e>? movem5ts1 9 ea* sep>ate p]iod4 ,?us we "k t dur+ t long p]iod ( "t :i* is includ$ 9 ! ,prim>y epo*1 v ext5sive e>? movem5ts1 result+ 9 ext5sive fold+ & m\nta9 =mation1 took place4 ,! geologi/s di/+ui% no less ?an ?ree sep>ate p]iods ( fold+ 9 ,prim>y times4 ,x is n necess>y = u to consid] ^! 9 detail2 _! total result 0 to produce ! m\nta9 regions ^: worn-d[n /umps n[ =m ^? upl&s :i* we h describ$ 9 ,europe4 ,b !y d n occur 9 ,europe alone4 ,t va/ & relatively inf]tile area 9 ,ea/]n ,canada :i* geologi/s call ! ,canadian ,%ield is a region ( v old rocks1 once fold$ into a m\nta9 region1 b long s9ce worn d[n to an upl&4 ,9 ! ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates t long1 b int]rupt$1 range ( hills1 :i*1 "u v>i\s names1 runs f ! m\? ( ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce to ,alabama & ,georgia1 & p>tially %uts ! seabo>d (f f ! prairies & pla9s beyond1 is a region :]e ! fold+ is /ill well m>k$1 9 spite ( long d5udation4 ,! ,second>y p]iod seems to h be5 "o 9 :i* comp>atively little fold+ took place1 :ile1 z already indicat$1 ! ,t]ti>y 0 "o 9 :i* !re 0 enorm\s fold+ 9 almo/ all p>ts ( ! globe1 ! result be+ ! appe>ance at ! surface ( ! great m\nta9 *a9s ( ! pres5t day4 ,! /ructure ( ^! *a9s makes !m relatively un/able1 & ! =ces ( erosion are n[ act+ ^u !m ) extraord9>y activity1 beg9n+ t process ( we>+ d[n :i* has r$uc$ _! prototypes ( ! ,prim>y p]iod to m]e remnants ( _! =m] greatness4 ,ext5sive z ! ,t]ti>y fold+ 01 h[ev]1 x left great areas unaffect$1 or b slightly affect$1 & su* areas =m pla9s or bas9s1 :]e ! rocks are b slightly tilt$1 or %[ a v simple =m ( fold+4 ,9 ,europe su* slightly modifi$ rocks occur1 e4 g4 9 ! ,p>is bas91 & 9 ! f]tile pla9s ( s\?-ea/]n ,engl&4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates b$s ( a simil> "* occur "r ov] ! great pla9s1 fill+ :at seems once to h be5 a great gulf betwe5 ! old highl&s to ! ea/ & ! t[]+ mod]n m\nta9 *a9s ( ! we/4 ,x mu/ be realis$ t ?is is only a v summ>y & p>tial acc\nt ( a difficult & complicat$ problem2 b f ! /&po9t ( pure geography x seems desirable to di/+ui% betwe5 ^? remnants ( anci5t m\nta9s :i* =m ! backbone ( ! cont95ts1 ! rec5tly elevat$ m\nta9 *a9s :]e enorm\sly rapid erosion is tak+ place1 & ! l>gely unmodifi$ rocks :i* (t5 =m f]tile pla9s4 ,let u next proce$ to consid] h[ ! erod+ ag5ts act ^u ! surface ( ! l& z soon z x is expos$4 ,we may beg9 ) ! effect ( runn+ wat] ^u a rec5tly expos$ surface1 e4 g4 ^u l& sl[ly em]g+ above sea-level1 or ev5 ) ! effect ( heavy ra9 ^u slop+ gr\nd unprotect$ by a cov]+ ( vegetation4 ,alike 9 ! "o case & 9 ! o!r ! fir/ effect is ! =mation ( a numb] ( %all[ rills1 :i* at fir/ run p>allel to "o ano!r4 ,soon] or lat]1 h[ev]1 ^! p>allel *annels t5d to conv]ge1 & a torr5t is =m$ su* z may be se5 9 any m\nta9 region4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4--;,an ideal pr(ile ( a mature riv] 7,,ac71 %[+ ! increase 9 ! slope t[>ds ! s\rce4 ,! dott$ l9e ,,bc %[s an e>li] /age1 :5 !re are smoo? rea*es & rapid rea*es ) wat]falls1 etc4 ,note t progressive erosion causes ! s\rce to retreat 7i4 e4 f ,b to ,a74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c4--;,an actual pr(ile ( ! ,loire4 ,x w be not$ t ! ,loire is a mature riv]1 its pr(ile ne>ly co9cid+ ) ! ideal condition4 7,aft] de ,m>tonne47 ,su* a torr5t consi/s ( ?ree (t5 well-def9$ p>ts4 ,fir/ we h ! num]\s t9y rills :i* collect toge!r to =m :at ! ,fr5* physiograph]s call a receiv+ bas9 7bass9 de rception72 !n !re is ! /ream prop] =m+ a canal :i* dra9s ! bas91 :ile bel[1 :]e ! torr5t deb\*es on ! l[ gr\nd1 we f9d t x spreads out fanwise & ?r[s d[n its load ( dbris to =m a cone 7cne de djection74 ,! torr5t !re=e already imitates a full-gr[n riv]1 ) its ?reefold division into m\nta9 track1 valley track1 & pla9 track4 ,x fur!r illu/rates ! tw(old "w ( ! riv]1 t ( erosion & deposition4 ,obs]vation on an unprotect$ surface aft] a heavy ra9fall w illu/rate ano!r po9t :i* is ( mu* int]e/ 9 connection ) ! "w ( riv]s4 ,?is is t ! wat] has mo/ excavat+ p[]1 n1 z might be suppos$1 9 ! collect+ bas91 b 9 ! valley region1 :]e ! slope is /ill great1 :]e ! volume ( ! wat] is at its maximum1 & :]e x has acquir$ a load ( dbris by means ( :i* x c>ves out its b$4 ,! excavation ( ! b$ !re=e proce$s f bel[ upw>ds t[>ds ! collect+ bas94 ,! result is t ! slope ( ! valley floor dim9i%es z we pass f ! upp] region to ! l[]1 ow+ to ! levell+ effect ( erosion4 ,! process ( levell+ d[n _c be c>ri$ beyond a c]ta9 po9t1 ! s-call$ base level ( erosion1 :i* 9 a lat]al /ream is det]m9$ by ! po9t ( junction ) ! ma9 /ream1 & 9 a ma9 /ream by ! po9t :i* m>ks sea or lake level1 = obvi\sly no po9t 9 ! riv] valley c be worn d[n mu* bel[ its m\?4 ,:5 ! "w ( a riv] is complet$1 ! l9e :i* m>ks ! pr(ile ( its b$ %\ld h a g5tle & cont9u\s slope d[nw>ds to base level4 ,! exi/5ce ( irregul>ities1 ( breaks 9 ! smoo?ness ( ! slope1 means t ! "w ( excavation has n proce$$ f>1 t ! riv] is "y4 ,b x is n necess>y to proce$ to ! labori\s draw+ ( a pr(ile 9 ord] to det]m9e ! ext5t to :i* ! process ( excavation has be5 c>ri$4 ,! exi/5ce ( rapids1 ( wat]falls1 ! alt]nation ( swift & sl[-fl[+ rea*es are all pro(s t x has n be5 c>ri$ f>4 ,9 %ort1 if a riv] is navigable1 ! navigable rea* at lea/ is mature2 if x is capable ( furni%+ p[]1 t region at lea/ is y\?ful4 ,if1 z sometimes happ5s1 ! middle c\rse is navigable & sl[-fl[+1 & ! l[] c\rse brok5 by rapids & falls1 !n ! probability is t e>? movem5ts h occurr$1 s t ! two regions are ( diff]5t age4 ,?is is a condition :i* occurs relatively (t5 9 ! case ( l>ge riv]s4 ,"o o!r po9t is wor? notice1 because x illu/rates ano!r way 9 :i* ! analogy ( y\? & maturity holds good4 ,! y\?ful riv]1 ) its int]rupt$ slope1 its lakes & falls1 does n p]mit ! wat] to fl[ (f ) ! same regul>ity z ! mature riv] ) its smoo!d outl9es4 ,! mature riv] is ?us a m p]fect in/rum5t ( dra9age4 ,x is n necess>y = our purpose to consid] 9 detail ! *>act]i/ic =ms ( riv] erosion4 ,x may be suffici5t to notice t rapids & wat]falls are due to ! v>y+ h>dness ( ! rocks =m+ ! b$ ( ! riv]1 & t ! normal c\rse ( ev5ts is ! transition f wat]fall to rapid1 & f rapid to /ream fl[+ quietly at ! bottom ( a rocky gorge4 ,long gorges or canyons t5d to occur 9 regions :]e riv] erosion is n greatly assi/$ by ! o!r erod+ ag5ts4 ,z a g5]al rule1 z ! riv] cuts its way d[n1 ! o!r ag5ts cut back ! walls s expos$1 s t a wide valley is =m$4 ,b a riv] does n only eat out its b$ 9 its valley track4 ,a necess>y consequ5ce ( ?is erosion is t x is also able to eat back ! slope on :i* x is ris+1 z a result ( ! smoo?+ out ( ! curves ( its b$1 s t its s\rce retreats fur!r & fur!r into ! m\nta94 ,9 regions ( abundant ra9fall e slope is abundantly suppli$ ) /reams1 & !re=e ^? /reams :i* cut back _! region ( orig9 mo/ rapidly w necess>ily encroa* ^u _! neighb\rs' t]ritory4 ,!y !re=e t5d to tap "s ( ! tribut>ies ( ! o!r /reams1 a ph5om5on :i* has sometimes consid]able human importance1 & has be5 ext5sively /udi$ ( late ye>s "u ! "n ( riv]-capture4 ,"s examples may s]ve to make ! ph5om5on cle>4 ,e "o :o has travell$ up ! ,rhone valley 9 ,switz]l& has not$ ! enorm\s numb] ( lat]al /reams1 ( all sizes1 :i* tumble d[n ! m\nta9 sides into ! ,rhone4 ,^! /reams on1 e4 g41 ! s\? side1 are1 r\ghly speak+1 p>allel to ea* o!r1 & to a l>ge ext5t ent] ! ma9 /ream indep5d5tly4 ,t is1 = ! mo/ "p !y are v y\?ful /reams4 ,9 "s cases1 h[ev]1 e4 g4 9 ! case ( ! ,dranse & ! ,visp1 ! dra9age is ( a m advanc$ "*1 & we f9d a l>ge /ream ) tribut>ies ( consid]able size z di/9ct f m]e torr5ts4 ,a glance at any great riv] sy/em on ! map1 e4 g4 ! ,mississippi1 ! ,amazon1 etc41 w %[ t ! condition ( a great /ream ) _m tribut>ies is normal 9 a di/rict :]e ! dra9age is ( ! develop$ type4 ,h[ are ! two conditions1 t ( num]\s p>allel m\nta9 torr5ts & t ( a great riv] sy/em1 relat$ to "o ano!r8 ,!re is no d\bt t capture1 ! encroa*m5t ( "o /ream ^u ! t]ritory ( ano!r1 has play$ an important "p 9 ! process4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d4--,sket*-map to illu/rate riv]-capture4 ,a v simple example ( ?is widespread ph5om5on may be tak5 9 illu/ration4 ,! accompany+ sket*-map1 drawn by ,mr4 ,lionel ,h9xman1 %[s "p ( ! c\rse ( ! ,riv] ,fe%ie1 "o ( ! tribut>ies ( ! ,spey1 & "p ( ! ,geldie ,burn1 "o ( ! tribut>ies ( ! ,ab]de5%ire ,dee4 ,x w be not$ t ! ,fe%ie %[s a v curi\s b5d1 or elb[4 ,mr4 ,h9xman po9ts out t ?is curi\s condition c be expla9$ on ! supposition t ! ,riv] ,eid>t1 %[n on ! map to ! nor? ( ! b5d1 once =m$ ! headwat]s ( ! ,fe%ie1 :i* cut its valley back until x captur$ ! headwat]s ( ! ,geldie1 & ?us br\ght wat] :i* =m]ly fl[$ into ! ,dee into ! ,spey valley4 ,! b\nd>y betwe5 ! two c\nties ( ,ab]de5 & ,inv]ness is %[n on ! map by a dott$ l9e1 & x is se5 t ! m>* foll[s ! wat]%$1 :i* betwe5 ! pres5t ,geldie & ! b5d on ! ,fe%ie is v l[4 ,=m]ly1 h[ev]1 ?is wat]%$ lay mu* fur!r to ! we/1 & its %ift+ is due to ! capture4 ,a c>eful /udy ( l>ge scale maps w %[ _m examples ( simil> riv]-capture1 "s old & "s rec5t4 ,a %>p b5d1 ! s-call$ elb[ ( capture1 on a riv] 9 close proximity to ano!r /ream af=ds 9 itself a c]ta9 presumption t capture has tak5 place1 ?\gh ?is presumption c only be v]ifi$ by /udy on ! spot4 ,x may be not$ t be=e ! capture is f9ally accompli%$ !re may be an int]m$iate /age :5 ! wat] has ! *oice ( two *annels1 bo? ( :i* may be utilis$ 9 a "t ( flood4 ,a v curi\s case is t ( ! ,casiqui>e1 a riv] 9 ,s\? ,am]ica :i* connects toge!r ! two sy/ems ( ! ,amazon & ! ,or9oco1 :ile ano!r is ! connection rec5tly discov]$ by ,capta9 ,l5fant1 a ,fr5* explor]1 betwe5 ! sy/ems ( ! ,%>i & ! ,nig] 9 ,africa4 ,su* conditions are obvi\sly un/able1 = "o /ream mu/ soon] or lat] pr$om9ate ov] ! o!r1 & deprive x ev5 ( flood wat]4 ,ano!r example may help to expla9 ! evolution ( a complex riv] sy/em ) _m tribut>ies4 ,a glance at ! map ( ,engl& 7see diagram7 %[s t :ile ! riv]s ( ,nor?umb]l& & ,durham fl[ indep5d5tly into ! sea1 ^? ( ,york%ire are unit$ into a *>act]i/ic bun*1 & all rea* ! ocean by means ( ! ,humb]4 ,?is e/u>y breaks ?r\gh ! high gr\nd =m$ by ! ,wolds ( ,york%ire & ,l9coln%ire1 :i* consi/s ( h>d rock4 ,at "o "t x is probable t ! riv]s ( ,york%ire ent]$ ! sea sep>ately1 :ile ! o!r great factor ( ! ,humb]1 ! ,tr5t1 m+l$ its wat]s ) ! pres5t ,)am4 ,at ?is "t ! wea!r+ ( ! l& surface _h n rea*$ its pres5t /age s ! l& w\ld lie high]4 ,9 :at is n[ ! vale ( ,york ! rocks are mu* s(t] ?an :]e ! ,wolds n[ /&1 & ! pres5t ,ouse1 :i* 0 at fir/ a longitud9al tribut>y ( a transv]se /ream1 eat+ its way back ?r\gh ^! s(t rocks1 tapp$ successively ! /reams fl[+ ea/w>ds f ! ,p5n9es1 & ) ! help ( ! abundant wat] s obta9$ 0 enabl$ to cut out ! wide e/u>y ( ! ,humb]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #e4--,sket*-map ( nor!rn ,engl&1 to %[ ! position ( ! ,tyne & ,aire ,gaps1 & ! peculi> "* ( ! riv]s ( ,york%ire4 ,! black areas are heights above #fjj feet4 ,"o o!r important po9t 9 connection ) riv]-capture has be5 already sugge/$ 9 ! acc\nt giv5 ( ! ,fe%ie4 ,9 ! little sket*-map we see cle>ly ! %ift ( ! wat]%$ to ! ea/4 ,! ultimate cause ( ?is %ift is d\btless ! fact t 9 ,great ,brita9 ! ra9fall dim9i%es to ! ea/1 s t1 g5]ally speak+1 ! we/]ly /reams h m erosive p[] ?an ! ea/]ly4 ,b ! special int]e/ ( ! case is simply t x may s]ve to sugge/ a fact n at fir/ sight obvi\s1 :i* is t wat]-p>t+s are excessively un/able features4 ,"o set ( /reams is cont9ually /riv+ to encroa* ^u ! o!rs1 & by captur+ _! headwat]s to r$uce _! erosive p[]4 ,a v /rik+ example ( capture on ! l>ge scale is se5 9 s\!rn ,patagonia1 :]e ! wat]-p>t+ does n lie ne> ! summit ( ! *a9 ( ! ,&es1 z might be expect$1 b consid]ably to ! ea/1 ! we/]n /reams 7or glaci]s7 hav+ captur$ all ! headwat]s ( ! ea/]n /reams1 :i* lie 9 a region ( mu* l[] ra9fall4 ,! net result is t runn+ wat] n only sc\rs valleys 9 ! sides ( m\nta9 *a9s1 b also1 soon] or lat]1 we>s away ! cre/ itself1 & ) ! assi/ance ( ! o!r ag5ts ( d5udation t5ds to r$uce ! m\nta9s to pla9s--or at lea/ p5epla9s4 ,! d$uction is1 ( c\rse1 old en\gh1 b ! rec5t emphasis plac$ ^u riv]-capture helps u to realise x1 %[+ u ! actual %ift ( ! divide1 or1 9 o!r words1 ! we>+ d[n ( ! summit levels4 ,?is is a !oretical matt]1 b !re is ano!r po9t :i* has practical significance4 ,ref]r+ once aga9 to ! sket*-map on p4 #dc1 we note t j at ! %>p b5d 9 ! ,fe%ie1 t is1 at ! elb[ ( capture1 !re is a n>r[ region1 cross$ by ! b\nd>y l9e1 :i* 0 once trav]s$ by ! headwat]s ( ! ,geldie1 b is n[ a dry valley4 ,su* gaps1 z !y are call$1 are pres5t :]e rec5t capture has occurr$1 & :]e !y occur 9 hilly c\ntry !y sometimes =m useful passes1 p]mitt+ ! con/ruction ( an easy road across ! hills4 ,a good example is ! ,aire ,gap 7see fig4 #e7 9 ! ,p5n9e range ( ,great ,brita91 app>5tly connect$ ) ! fact t ! ,ribble has captur$ ! headwat]s ( ! ,aire4 ,ano!r int]e/+ example is ! s-call$ ,tyne ,gap1 t brea* 9 ! ,p5n9es :i* occurs ne> ! pres5t head ( ! ,s\? ,tyne2 x 0 trav]s$ by ! ,roman wall1 & is n[ cross$ by ! road & ! railway f ,newca/le to ,c>lisle4 ,z we %all see1 ice appe>s to h ?is p[] ( cutt+ passes ?r\gh m\nta9 *a9s to a mu* great] ext5t ?an runn+ wat]2 b "h1 z 9 _m o!r respects1 !re does n appe> to be a %>p brea* betwe5 ! action ( ! two4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,ice ,,& ,,its ,,"w ,9 ! la/ *apt] we h spok5 ( ! m\ld+ ( ! surface ( ! e>? by means ( runn+ wat] & ! ag5ts summ$ up 9 ! t]m wea!r+4 ,! process is sometimes call$ normal erosion1 to di/+ui% x f t o!r =m ( surface m\ld+ 9 :i* ice & fro/ play a prom95t "p4 ,at ! pres5t "t ice1 9 ! =m ( ice-%eets or glaci]s1 is conf9$ to relatively small areas ( ! globe1 s t we are ju/ifi$ 9 reg>d+ its action z exceptional :5 comp>$ ) ! "w ( runn+ wat]4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 well kn[n t ?is limitation ( ! field ( action ( ice is v rec5t1 & t dur+ a p]iod :i* geologically is only ye/]day1 a mu* great] "p ( ! surface ?an at pres5t 0 ice-clad4 ,9 po9t ( fact1 mu* ( ,europe1 especially ! nor!rn p>ts & ^? regions :i* lie close to ! l(ty m\nta9 *a9s1 mu* ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 &1 probably1 consid]able p>ts ( ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 7 subject$ to ! action ( ice s rec5tly t ! processes ( normal erosion h n _h "t to oblit]ate1 h>dly ev5 to blur1 ! tracks :i* ! ice left4 ,! results ( ! great ext5sion ( ice action 9 t p]iod :i* geologi/s call ,plei/oc5e 7 tw(old4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 z ! result ( ! pres5ce ( ! ice-%eet1 we h va/ accumulations ( dbris spread ov] ! l[] gr\nds4 ,^! accumulations sometimes =m great %eets ( b\ld] clay2 sometimes !y are collect$ into ! curi\s s&y & gravelly m\nds call$ kames :i* 9 p>ts (1 e4 g4 ,scotl&1 h a great ext5sion2 sometimes !y h =m$ great heaps ( mat]ial at ! entrances ( valleys4 ,aga91 ^! deposits h sometimes block$ valleys & s =m$ lakes1 & !y h suppli$ ! po/-glacial riv]s ) a va/ am\nt ( mat]ial :i* has be5 us$ to sc\r out ! riv]-b$s1 & has be5 (t5 re-sort$ & re-arrang$ by runn+ wat]4 ,secondly1 ! fact t ! nor!rn region & ! high gr\nds fur!r s\?1 9 bo? ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica1 h be5 rec5tly clad 9 ice is associat$ ) _m peculi>ities ( surface =m1 "s ( :i* h ex]cis$ a m>k$ influ5ce on human settlem5ts & ways ( communication4 ,^! peculi>ities ( surface m\ld+ h be5 ! object ( s+ul>ly detail$ /udy 9 late ye>s1 & f ?is detail$ /udy _m int]e/+ facts h em]g$4 ,x may be well to /ate at once t ?is /udy has be5 l>gely /imulat$ by ! fact t !re is at pres5t a great want ( unanimity ( op9ion z to ! exact cause ( ^! peculi>ities ( =m4 ,accord+ to "o s*ool ice is a m p[]ful erod+ ag5t ?an wat]2 accord+ to ano!r its action is l>gely cons]vative1 & its p[] ( erosion is slight z comp>$ ) t ( wat]4 ,! beg9n+s ( a possible solution ( ! problem are p]haps to be se5 9 ! sugge/ions ( ^? :o seek ! causes ( ! peculi> features ( glaciat$ regions 9 ! way 9 :i* runn+ wat] works :5 x is controll$ & modifi$ by ! exi/5ce ( ice2 b we mu/ admit t1 on ! :ole1 ! conflict is /ill hot & _m memb]s ( ! oppos+ s*ools w h no compromise4 ,to ! geograph]1 h[ev]1 ! v fi]c5ess ( ! controv]sy has be5 useful4 ,! "q z to ! exact "p play$ respectively by wat] & by ice 9 surface m\ld+ is really a "q = ! geologi/4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 ( great importance to ! geograph] t rec5tly glaciat$ surfaces %\ld be /udi$ f e po9t ( view1 = f ?is detail$ /udy are em]g+ _m important g5]alisations4 ,we %all1 !re=e1 9 ?is *apt] only t\* v lightly ^u ! actual po9ts 9 dispute1 b %all lay /ress ^u ! int]e/+ facts admitt$ by bo? p>ties4 ,:5 ! conception ( a j-vani%$ p]iod ( great glaciation 0 be+ e/abli%$ by ! lab\rs ( _m geologi/s1 /ress 0 naturally laid ^u ! obvi\s resemblances betwe5 p>ts (1 e4 g4 ,scotl& & ,wales1 & ^? p>ts ( ! ,alps :i* h be5 expos$ by ! retreat ( ! exi/+ glaci]s4 ,?us we f9d t mo/ ( ! text-books emphasise ! occurr5ce ( p]*$ blocks1 ( erratics1 i4 e4 ( blocks ( rock :i* mu/ h be5 c>ri$ f a di/ance1 ( ! ph5om5on ( crag & tail1 ( giants' kettles1 & s on4 ,all ^! are ( m geological ?an geographical importance2 !y d n 9 !mselves greatly affect ! di/ribution ( o!r ph5om5a ov] ! surface4 ,we %all n1 !re=e1 /op to consid] !m 9 detail4 ,x is o!rwise ) ^? indications ( rec5t glaciation :i* h be5 /udi$ )9 ! la/ few ye>s1 & !y dem& ! geograph]'s mo/ c>eful consid]ation4 ,! mo/ active discussion has tak5 place 9 reg>d to ! peculi> features ( ! valleys 9 rec5tly-glaciat$ di/ricts1 & we %all discuss especially ?is po9t4 ,we h already describ$ ! g5]al features pres5t$ by valleys :i* owe _! orig9 to runn+ wat]4 ,9 su* valleys1 z we h se51 ! long] ! =ces "w ! m ne>ly is ! valley floor r$uc$ to an ev5 slope1 ^: angle decreases 9 pass+ f ! m\nta9 to ! pla9 track4 ,9 ! ord9>y riv] valley ! %ape ( ! valley approximates to t ( a ,v1 t is1 ! valley n>r[s d[nw>ds1 ! riv] occupy+ ! n>r[e/ region4 ,aga91 z a g5]al rule !re is no great diff]5ce ( level betwe5 ! tribut>y valleys--at lea/ at _! extremities--& ! ma9 valley1 t is1 !re is no %>p discordance betwe5 ! two4 ,:ile1 h[ev]1 ! mature riv] valley %[s a g5tle1 cont9u\s slope1 we usually f9d t "y riv]s1 at lea/ 9 _! m\nta9 track1 %[ an alt]nation ( pla9 & gorge1 :i* is v easily obs]v$ 9 any hilly region4 ,9 o!r words1 we f9d t1 ow+ to ! incl9ation ( ! rocks1 or to _! v>y+ h>dness1 or to o!r causes1 p>ticul> rea*es are less easily erod$ ?an o!rs4 ,^! =m wat]falls1 :i* ultimately1 z we h se51 give place to gorges4 ,beyond ! wat]fall ! dim9i%+ slope *ecks ! rapidity ( fl[1 & ! /ream t5ds to wid5 out1 & also to ?r[ d[n its load ( dbris1 s t an alluvial pla9 may be =m$4 ,"o o!r "* ( an ord9>y riv] valley may be not$4 ,x heads1 z we h se51 9 a collect+ bas91 :i* receives ! surface runnels & ! outfl[s ( ! spr+s :i* =m ! beg9n+ ( ! riv]4 ,let u n[ turn to ! valleys 9 a rec5tly glaciat$ c\ntry4 ,we omit any description ( exi/+ glaci]s2 ^! w be f\nd describ$ 9 ! volume on ! ,alps1 & fur!r1 photography & ! picture po/c>d h r5d]$ ! ma9 features ( a glaci] famili> to e "o4 ,almo/ e l>ge railway /ation n[ %[s f9e col\r$ photographs ( "s ( ! important ,swiss glaci]s4 ,tak+1 !n1 a valley kn[n to h be5 occupi$ by a ,plei/oc5e glaci]1 we f9d ! foll[+ features4 ,z contra/$ ) an ord9>y riv] valley1 ! glacial valley is usually flat-bottom$1 a condition describ$ z ,u-%ap$ to po9t ! contra/ ) ! riv] valley4 ,examples 9 ,great ,brita9 & else:]e are frequ5t1 b "s ( ! ,alp9e valleys %[ ! ph5om5on 9 a v /rik+ =m4 ,two good examples are ! ,a> valley at ,meir+51 & ! ,laut]brunn5 valley at ! village ( ! same "n4 ,bo? h be5 r5d]$ m or less famili> by con/ant photograph+ 7see fig4 #g74 ,! reason :y !y h be5 s mu* photograph$ leads u to consid] ano!r peculi>ity ( ! glaciat$ valley4 ,9 bo? ! cases nam$ a /eep cliff wall rises f ei!r side ( ! broad1 flat valley floor1 & f ! summit ( ?is cliff ! lat]al /reams leap into ! ma9 valley by (t5 sup]b wat]falls4 ,?is is a v important feature ( glaciat$ valleys--! fact t _! tribut>ies are m>k$ly discordant1 t is1 t !re is m>k$ diff]5ce ( level betwe5 ! b$s ( ! side & ma9 /reams4 ,because ! side valleys lie high above ! ma9 !y are said to hang1 & are call$ hang+ valleys1 :ile ! ma9 valley is said to be ov]-deep5$4 ,! rocky height ov] :i* ! wat] spr+s may be call$ ! junction /ep1 z an attempt to translate ! ,fr5* t]m grad9 de conflu5ce :i* is appli$ to x4 ,incid5tally we may note t 9 ! ,alps ! junction /ep is ( great human importance4 ,its pres5ce gives ! wat] ! p[] :i* is us$ 9 light+ ! ,alp9e villages ) electricity1 & 9 driv+ ! tra9s :i* (t5 c>ry ! t\ri/ to ^? villages4 ,9 ! ,fr5* & ,italian ,alps especially1 ! p[] is be+ m & m us$ to supply ! motive =ce = v>i\s m9or manufactures1 notably = ! production ( nitrog5\s manure f ! air4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #f4--;,a diagrammatic cross-section ( a rec5tly glaciat$ valley4 ,,ab1 ! m\nta9 slope :i* rose above ! anci5t glaci] & has !re=e reta9$ ! %>p1 unr\nd$ =ms due to ord9>y wea!r+4 ,,bc1 ! %elf or %\ld]1 =m]ly cov]$ by ! ice1 & !re=e /rewn ) glacial dbris4 ,x n[ usually =ms a pa/ure or alp4 ,! dott$ l9e connect+ ,,cc %[s ! probable =m ( ! pre-glacial valley2 ,,cd1 ! rocky wall ( ! exi/+ ,u-%ap$ valley on ^: floor ! riv] n[ fl[s4 ,associat$ ) ! hang+ valleys ( ,alp9e regions is ! pres5ce ( a curi\s %elf1 %\ld]1 or b5*1 :i* frequ5tly lies on ! top ( ! cliff f :i* ! lat]al /reams spr+ 7see figs4 #f & #g74 ,any "o :o has done "s walk+ 9 ! ,alps1 mu/ h notic$ a peculi> & (t5 try+ feature ( any walk :i* leads up ! side ( ! valley4 ,?is is t ! walk beg9s ) a v /eep asc5t1 :]e ! road or track zig-zags to & fro4 ,aft] ?is /eep & try+ climb ! walk] rea*es a broad %elf 7,,bc 9 figs4 #f & #g71 :]e ! slope is mu* less1 & :]e ! ext5t ( relatively level gr\nd gives room = ! erection ( a huge hotel1 or p]haps only ( a gr\p ( *alets4 ,?is %elf is cov]$ ) f9e h]bage1 de/9$ to be cropp$ by ! c[s ( ! community4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g4--;,an actual cross-section ( ! ,laut]brunn5 valley4 ,! v]tical & horizontal scales are ! same4 ,b m>ks ! edge ( ! cliff wall ov] :i* ! /reams leap 9 cascades4 ,a is ! position ( ! /ream at ! bottom ( ! ,u-%ap$ valley4 ,,bc m>ks ! position ( ! %elf1 l>gely occupi$ by ! pa/ures or alps4 ,above !m are rocky1 unsmoo!d slopes4 ,if ! travell] cont9ue 8 walk he w f9d t above ?is pa/ure gr\nd or alp ! slopes are aga9 /eep up to ! m\nta9 summits4 ,possibly1 h[ev]1 8 walk has be5 to see a fam\s wat]fall f above1 & he w f9d t ! /reams :i* fl[ ) relative sl[ness ov] ! comp>atively g5tle slopes ( ! alp or %elf1 w at "s po9t tumble ov] ! region up :i* he climb$1 probably 9 a s]ies ( leaps or cascades4 ,! ,u-%ap$ valley1 ! hang+ tribut>ies1 ! %elf or %\ld] runn+ along ! upp] "p ( ! cliff wall :i* b\nds ! ma9 valley1 all ^! are /rik+ features ( glaciat$ regions4 ,we %all n "h discuss ! probable causes ( ?is /rik+ break ( slope1 s diff]5t f ! *>act]i/ically cont9u\s slopes ( an ord9>y mature riv] valley4 ,z has be5 indicat$1 x is "h t active controv]sy rages4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 important to note t ! %\ld] or b5* ( :i* we h spok5 0 almo/ c]ta9ly once cov]$ by ! ice1 its g5tle slope indicat+ ! orig9al valley floor1 be=e ov]-deep5+ took place4 ,! reason :y pa/ure n[ gr[s ^u x is t x is cov]$ ) f9e glacial dbris1 :i* makes f]tile soil4 ,! f]tile soil1 :i* is (t5 irrigat$ by milky wat] f exi/+ glaci]s1 comb9$ ) ! effect ( altitude ^u ! plants1 produces ri* pa/urage1 & makes cattle-re>+ an important alp9e indu/ry4 ,! next int]e/+ feature ( glaciat$ regions is ! occurr5ce ( ^? curi\s m\nta9 =ms :i* h special names 9 ne>ly e rec5tly-glaciat$ region4 ,^? gigantic arm-*air-%ap$ not*es1 high up on ! m\nta9 sides1 :i* ! ,wel% call cwms1 ! ,scot* corries1 ! ,fr5* cirques1 & ! ,g]mans k>e1 are v widespread 9 ! ,highl&s ( ,scotl&1 9 ! m\nta9s ( ,wales1 9 ! ,tyrol1 & 9 o!r p>ts ( ! ,alps 7?\gh !y are n common 9 ! ,c5tral region71 & 9 ,nor? ,am]ica z well z else:]e4 ,a cirque 7fig4 #h7 is %ap$ some?+ l an (fice arm-*air4 ,! floor has only a g5tle d[nw>d slope1 & (t5 lodges a lake2 or 9 o!r cases x is m>%y1 %[+ t a lake 0 once pres5t4 ,! back & sides are /eep & precipit\s4 ,9 "s in/ances1 if sev]al cirques occur ne> toge!r1 ! side walls may be erod$ ?r\gh1 s t a %elf is produc$1 z "o might produce a b5* by putt+ two *airs side by side1 & cutt+ away ! contigu\s arms4 ,v (t51 z "o may easily see 9 ! ,highl&s ( ,scotl&1 a s]ies ( cirques occur1 "o above ! o!r1 s t a climb] proce$+ f ! valley floor upw>ds has a succession ( /eep pit*es1 to use a m\nta9e]+ t]m1 alt]nat+ ) easy if wet walks across ! floors ( ! successive cirques4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #h4--;,diagram %[+ two glacial cirques4 ,x q (t5 happ5s 9 ! case ( high m\nta9s 9 ! ,alps t ! topmo/ ( su* a s]ies ( cirques /ill reta9s a glaci]1 :at is call$ a dead glaci]1 t is1 "o :i* has practically ceas$ to move4 ,9 o!r cases1 aga91 we may f9d t :at %\ld be ! flat floor ( ! cirque has be5 l>gely eat5 away1 z x 71 by a huge r\nd$ tr\gh1 :i* occupies :at w\ld be ! extreme front ( ! seat ( ! arm-*air4 ,9 ?is tr\gh a /ream runs1 & ! tr\gh has ! *>act]i/ic ,u-%ap$ r\nd+ *>act]i/ic ( glacial =ms4 ,fur!r1 at ! top ( ! wall ( ! tr\gh a b5* or %elf exi/s1 :i* is obvi\sly ! rema9s ( ! old cirque floor4 ,9 ! case ( all *>act]i/ic glacial cirques1 h[ev]1 ! special feature is t ! flat bottom ( ! cirque is discont9u\s ) ! valley bel[2 !y are n p>ts ( ! same sy/em ( dra9age4 ,:at we may call an uncon=mity appe>s betwe5 ! two regions1 m or less m>k$ accord+ z runn+ wat] has or has n _h "t to beg9 ! "w ( ! removal ( ! uncon=mity4 ,! imm$iate human importance ( ^! corries or cirques is n s app>5t z 9 ! case ( hang+ valleys1 b !y mu/ be m5tion$1 if only because ( _! extraord9>y abundance 9 glaciat$ regions1 & especially 9 ,great ,brita94 ,!re are two views z to _! orig91 & we %all indicate bo? "h )\t mak+ any attempt to decide :i* is ! correct "o4 ,a v full & cle> /atem5t ( "o position w be f\nd 9 an article by ,pr(4 ,g>wood 9 ! ,geographical ,j\rnal = ,septemb] #aiaj1 :ile previ\s articles by ,pr(4 ,davis & o!rs 9 ?is j\rnal =mulate ! oppos$ view4 ,to ! fir/ s*ool ! corrie is simply 9 orig9 ! collect+ bas9 ( a pre-glacial /ream1 su* a bas9 t5d+ to acquire1 r\ghly speak+1 a flatti% bottom & some:at /eep sides4 ,) ! onset ( ! ice ! floor ( ! bas9 0 protect$ by ! ice f fur!r erosion1 :ile ! fro/ ate back ! wall & s /eep5$ x1 & ! glaci] c>ri$ away all dbris z x =m$4 ,at a lat] /age ! l[] "p ( ! glaci] disappe>$ & only ! cirque glaci] 0 left4 ,x cont9u$ its protective action1 :ile bel[ ! p[]ful torr5ts holl[$ out a tr\gh4 ,?is process 0 p]haps repeat$ sev]al times1 ) ! f9al result t ! protect$ cirque 0 left z a mu*-modifi$ remnant ( pre-glacial conditions1 :ile ! valley bel[ 0 p[]fully erod$ by ! glacial torr5ts4 ,?us a cirque ly+ above an exi/+ valley is to be reg>d$ z ! behead$ end ( an old valley1 pres]v$ by its ice cov]+1 :ile bel[ ! old valley has be5 fundam5tally modifi$ by ! sc\r ( ! glacial torr5ts4 ,on ?is view ! %>p di/9ction betwe5 ! two angles ( slope m>ks ! di/9ction betwe5 ! "w ( ice 7protective7 & ! "w ( wat] 7erosive74 ,a s]ies ( cirques means a succession ( glacial & int]glacial p]iods4 ,accord+ to ! o!r s*ool1 = :om ice is a m p[]ful erod+ ag5t ?an wat]1 ! cirque 0 produc$ by ! ice1 its pres5ce or abs5ce1 9 e4 g4 ! ,alps1 be+ det]m9$ by ! %ape ( ! pre-glacial m\nta9s4 ,cirques are believ$ to h be5 produc$ by ! ice :]ev] ! =m ( ! m\nta9s conduc$ to ! accumulation ( sn[1 & ! occurr5ce ( a s]ies ( cirques1 & ( ! tr\ghs :i* seem sometimes to eat into _! floors1 is ascrib$ to ! successive retreat ( ! great ice-pl\gh1 i4 e4 to ! action ( ! retreat+ ice itself1 & n to ! wat] :i* fl[s f b5ea? x4 99 99 99 99 99 ,ano!r /rik+ feature ( _m glacial valleys is a v m>k$ want ( cont9uity 9 ! slope ( ! ma9 valley4 ,n only d ! side valleys hang ov] ! ma9 valleys1 b1 fur!r1 ?is ma9 valley itself (t5 consi/s ( relatively level rea*es alt]nat+ ) rocky b>s1 ?r\gh :i* ! riv] has sometimes lat] cut a gorge4 ,examples ( ?is are v frequ5t4 ,! fam\s gorge ( ! ,a> above ,meir+5 is a riv] gorge cut ?r\gh a rocky b> ( ?is k9d4 ,! ,pyr5ees are some:at less famili>1 bo? to t\ri/s & 9 ! =m ( pictures1 b !re1 also1 ! same ?+ occurs4 ,above ! heal? resort ( ,caut]ets lies ! little ,lac de ,gaube1 ^: m\? is block$ by a rocky b> ?r\gh :i* ! little torr5t is cutt+ a t9y gorge4 ,if ! t\ri/ crosses ! lake 9 a boat & beg9s to walk up ! valley above x1 he w f9d t x has ! =m ( a /aircase1 ! huge /eps be+ sep>at$ f "o ano!r by broad plateaux1 :i* are flat & swampy1 & h obvi\sly be5 occupi$ by lakes n long ago4 ,above ea* plateau !re is a rocky wall1 almo/ precipit\s1 d[n :i* ! /ream fl[s 9 cascades4 ,9 o!r p>ts ( ! ,pyr5ees ! same ph5om5on occurs1 & ! lakes sometimes p]si/1 ly+ "o above ! o!r 9 a s]ies4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #i4--,pr(ile ( ! ,mad]an] ?al 9 ,switz]l&1 to %[ ! /aircase arrangem5t peculi> to rec5tly glaciat$ valleys4 7,f ,g>wood47 ,! ph5om5on is s common t x m>k$ly affects human life 9 ! ,alps4 ,! l&+s1 z ! ,fr5* call !m1 usually af=d good pa/ure gr\nd1 :ile ^? :i* lie at no great elevation c be cultivat$4 ,fur!r1 z ! gr\nd is level !re is room = h\ses or ev5 = a consid]able village4 ,! int]v5+ region or /ep is too rocky to give level gr\nd = human habitations or = pa/ure & cultivation4 ,:]e ! riv] has _h "t to cut a gorge1 ! road mu/ leave ! /ream1 & c (t5 be con/ruct$ only ) difficulty4 ,! result is t an ,alp9e valley (t5 consi/s ( a *a9 ( villages1 l9k$ toge!r by a difficult mule track or pa?4 ,! abundant wat]-p[]1 h[ev]1 makes me*anical traction relatively easy1 & we h sometimes ! curi\s condition t a mule track is replac$ by a railway1 )\t ! int]v5tion ( a road fit = :eel$ traffic4 ,we ne$ n /op to discuss ! probable cause ( ?is /ep & /air arrangem5t1 :i* pres5ts mu* ! same problem z ! s]ies ( cirques at ! head ( ! valley4 ,x is en\gh to indicate t accord+ to "o gr\p ( physical geograph]s ! flat l&+s are due to ! way 9 :i* ! gradually decreas+ glaci] protect$ its b$ f erosion1 :ile ! torr5t :i* issu$ f x erod$ v rapidly bel[2 accord+ to ano!r s*ool ! l&+s are due to direct glacial erosion4 ,!re are o!r obs]v]s1 aga91 :o lay especial /ress ^u ! modifications ( ! erosive p[]s ( runn+ wat]1 due to ! pres5ce ( ! ice4 ,= u x is ( int]e/ to notice t1 z has be5 already indicat$1 ! /aircase effect occurs also1 ?\gh on a small] scale1 9 ! case ( m\nta9 /reams g5]ally1 "s ( :i* mu/ be po/-glacial 9 orig94 ,9 o!r words1 !re seems to be fundam5tal simil>ity betwe5 ! "w ( ice & ( wat]1 ! diff]5ces be+ diff]5ces ( degree r ?an ( k9d1 & due l>gely to ! v>y+ fluidity ( ! two4 ,!re is /ill "o o!r feature ( glaciat$ regions to :i* ref]5ce mu/ be made4 ,?is is ! occurr5ce ( peculi>ly op5 passes 9 consid]able numb]s across m\nta9 regions :i* h be5 rec5tly glaciat$4 ,9 ! geography books & 9 "s maps1 ! ,alps1 = example1 are repres5t$ z a great b>ri]1 %utt+ (f ! f]tile pla9s ( ,italy f ! c\ntries ( ,c5tral ,europe4 ,b hi/ory %[s t !y h nev] be5 su* a b>ri]1 & ! phrase ( spl5did traitor has be5 appli$ to ! :ole m\nta9 range1 9 ord] to emphasise its total inadequacy z a b>ri]1 ei!r to arm$ or to peaceful invasion4 ,s9ce ! "t ( ,napoleon ,i public att5tion has be5 focuss$ ^u a few great ,alp9e passes1 notably ! ,mont ,c5is1 ! ,simplon & ! ,/4 ,go?>d1 :i* are cross$ by great c>riage roads1 n[ functionally replac$ by railway tunnels b5ea?4 ,b we mu/ n =get t 9 addition to ^! & ! o!r great passes !re are almo/ innum]able ways ( cross+ ! ,alps on foot1 & ! pres5ce ei!r ( ,hospices or ( small inns on _m ( ! small] passes %[s t !y are con/antly us$ at ! pres5t "t1 9 spite ( railway tunnels & c>riage roads else:]e4 ,ev5 a pass relatively s difficult z ! ,?odule1 0 us$ by v l>ge numb]s ( ,italian peasants dur+ ! "t :5 "w on ! ,simplon railway made great dem&s on ,italian lab\r4 ,any "o ( ! passes1 great or small1 %[s 9 outl9e ! same *>act]s4 ,!re is a /eep asc5t1 (t5 /eep] on ! ,italian ?an on ! o!r side1 !n a broad1 w9dswept1 op5 summit1 sometimes almo/ level1 bel[ :i* ! rapid desc5t beg9s4 ,n infrequ5tly a lake1 or lakes1 may be f\nd ne> ! summit4 ,on a small] scale ! same ph5om5on occurs 9 su* glaciat$ regions z ,scotl&1 ! relatively l[ connections betwe5 "o valley sy/em & ano!r greatly facilitat+ communication1 & usually c>ry+ bo? road & railway1 :]e ! latt] exi/s4 ,su* connections betwe5 two dra9age sy/ems 7t is1 ! exi/5ce ( a v l[ divide betwe5 ! two7 only exi/ on a small scale outside glaciat$ regions1 s t !y1 ) all _! effects ^u communications1 mu/ be l>gely ascrib$ to ice-action4 ,we %all describe "o case 9 a little detail1 ) ! proviso t :ile no "o d5ies ! frequ5cy ( su* passes 9 glaciat$ regions1 "s au?orities believe t _! production 0 due m to glacial torr5ts ?an to ! erosive action ( ice itself4 ,a v pretty example is ! picturesque pass kn[n z ! ,gemmi1 :i* is trav]s$ only by a mule pa?1 & connects ,k&]/eg1 & ?us ! lake ( ,?un & ! t[n ( ,b]ne1 ) ! ,rhone valley1 :i* ! pa? ent]s at ! village ( ,leuk4 ,! walk prop] is1 h[ev]1 ov] at ! ,ba?s ( ,leuk1 a small heal? resort ly+ at ! foot ( ! great ,gemmiw&1 a wall ( rock ov] #a1fjj feet 9 height on ! summit ( :i* is ! ,gemmi pass4 ,read]s ( ,m>k ,twa9's ,a ,tramp ,abroad w rememb] 8 int]e/+ description ( ! cross+ ( ! pass1 :i* is "p ( ! regulation t\r 9 ,switz]l&4 ,! excursion may be v briefly describ$4 ,! travell] />ts f ! village ( ,k&]/eg1 & almo/ imm$iately beg9s a /eep climb1 :i* aft] a rise ( ov] #b1jjj feet leads him ov] a ridge to a pa/ure1 once swept by an avalan*e4 ,ano!r %ort b /eep rise 7note ! /aircase arrangem5t7 leads him to ! lonely ,daub5see1 a little lake :i* is froz5 = m ?an half ! ye> & has no outlet4 ,x is itself f$ by a glaci] ly+ to ! travell]'s "r1 ! ,laemm]n glaci]1 :i* is %r9k+ & expos+ m & m ( its old b$4 ,ev5 to ! mo/ inexp]i5c$ travell] x is obvi\s t ?is pres5t day %r9kage is1 z x 71 ! la/ remnant ( a %r9kage :i* has be5 go+ on = a prolong$ p]iod1 s t ! r\te by :i* ! travell] asc5d$ f ,k&]/eg is b a remnant ( ! b$ ( ! old glaci]4 ,! po9t ( special int]e/1 h[ev]1 is t at ! end ( ! ,daub5see ! travell] leaves ! glacial valley by :i* he has asc5d$1 & pass+ ?r\gh a great not* or gateway 9 a wall ( rock1 beg9s ! almo/ precipit\s desc5t to ,leuk]bad1 :i* lies at 8 feet1 #a1fjj feet bel[4 ,x is ?is not* :i* makes ! pass1 & x is fundam5tally a brea* 9 ! m\nta9 wall :i* sep>ates ! dra9age ( ! ,rh9e f t ( ! ,rhone4 ,comp>+ small ?+s ) great we may note t ?is gateway pres5ts "s resemblance to ! ,tyne & ,aire ,gaps 9 ! ,p5n9es1 already m5tion$1 :i* may also h be5 modifi$ by ice-action4 ,! explanation giv5 is z foll[s3--,at ! "t :5 ! glaciation rea*$ its maximum height ! mass ( ice 9 :at is n[ ! ,laemm]n glaci] 0 s great t x c\ld n be conta9$ )9 its own valley4 ,! ice 0 pil$ up s high t x ov]-rode ! wat]%$1 rose up beyond ! conta9+ wall ( its own valley1 & pu%$ a long arm ov] ! valley wall1 d[n into ! ,rhone valley4 ,?is tongue ( ice1 ei!r by its own erosive p[]1 or because ( ! glacial & sub-glacial /reams :i* x produc$1 wore out a not* 9 ! wall z x cross$1 & x is ?is not* :i* makes ! pass4 ,z ! glaci] gradually %rank1 x c\ld no long] s5d ?is tribut>y ov] ! wall into ! valley bel[1 & 0 con/ra9$ to s5d all its dra9age into its own valley1 t is ultimately into ! ,rh9e4 ,b ! ,gemmi pass p]si/s z a pro( ( its =m] magnitude1 ( ! fact t once "p ( ! ,laemm]n dra9age rea*$ ! ,m$it]ranean in/ead ( ! ,nor? ,sea1 t !re 0 once a communication betwe5 ! ,rh9e & ! ,rhone dra9age sy/ems4 ,_m at lea/ ( ! great ,alp9e passes are believ$ to h be5 produc$ 9 ?is way1 & !re=e we mu/ add to ! peculi>ities ( rec5tly-glaciat$ c\ntries1 ! fact t passes are likely to be frequ5t across _! hills & valleys1 ow+ to ! p[] :i* ice possesses1 :5 enorm\sly develop$1 ( ris+ above valley walls1 & /ream+ d[n into ano!r valley sy/em4 ,"s ( ! great ,alp9e passes1 p]haps1 arose 9 o!r ways1 b ?is brief description may be ( int]e/ z sugge/+ "o1 probably common1 mode ( orig94 ,if we sum up :at has be5 said z to ! special features ( glaciat$ regions1 we may note t _! valleys t5d to be ,u-%ap$1 & to be discont9u\s ) _! tribut>y valleys1 :i* hang ov] !m4 ,on ! top ( ! cliff f :i* ^! tribut>y /reams leap is a %elf1 :i* is cle>ly a portion ( ! floor ( ! pre-glacial valley & is cov]$ by glacial dbris4 ,at ! heads ( ! valleys !re are (t5 cirques or plateaux1 :i* aga9 are m>k$ly discordant1 hang+ high above ! valley bel[4 ,9 ! ma9 valley itself !re are simil> discordances1 giv+ rise to a /aircase arrangem5t4 ,f9ally1 diff]5t valley sy/ems (t5 communicate ) ea* o!r by passes1 natural highways :i* hang high above bo? valley sy/ems alike4 ,obvi\sly1 h[ev]1 we might replace ?is detail$ summ>y by ! simple /atem5t t :]eas 9 a region subject$ only to ! action ( runn+ wat]1 !re is a m>k$ t5d5cy to cont9uity ( slopes ?r\gh\t1 a t5d5cy m & m m>k$ ! long] ! wat] acts1 9 glaciat$ regions !re is an equally obvi\s discordance1 a discont9uity ( slope1 mo/ m>k$ :]e wat] has n _h "t to beg9 its smoo?+ action4 ,z e glaciat$ valley :i* we c /udy 9 detail has be5 subject$ to ! action bo? ( ice & ( wat]1 x is a simple d$uction t ! discont9uity is due to ! diff]5tial action ( ! two4 ,?is is ! po9t ( geographical importance1 & to ! geograph] x is ( m9or importance to "k :e!r x is ! passive resi/ance ( ! ice :i* has caus$ ! discont9uity1 or :e!r x is ! wat] :i* has be5 unable to keep pace ) ! activity ( ! ice4 99 99 99 99 99 ,!re is "o o!r po9t :i* mu/ be allud$ to ev5 9 ?is v brief consid]ation ( ! effect ( ! ice age ^u ! physical geography ( ! glaciat$ regions4 ,?is is ! fact t x greatly modifi$ ! numb]s & di/ribution ( plants & animals ?r\gh\t ! areas affect$4 ,obvi\sly ! cov]+ ( ice mu/ h r5d]$ a l>ge "p ( ,europe un9habitable bo? = man & = ! va/ majority ( animals & plants4 ,9 ,europe1 !re=e1 z also 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 !re mu/ h be5 a s\?w>d sweep ( all liv+ organisms1 driv5 f _! orig9al habitat by ! onset ( ! cold p]iod4 ,b ! conditions 9 ! two cont95ts diff]$ greatly4 ,9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 especially 9 ! ea/1 !re are no transv]se *a9s ( m\nta9s1 !re is no s\!rn sea until ! ,gulf ( ,mexico is rea*$ 9 lat4 #cj1 & ev5 "h ,florida almo/ t\*es ! tropic1 & ,mexico ext5ds f> beyond x4 ,9 ?is cont95t1 !re=e1 ! plants & animals1 ?\gh driv5 f> to ! s\?1 /ill f\nd room to live & multiply1 & _h no great ob/acle to cross ei!r 9 _! s\?w>d j\rney1 or :5 !y /rove to re-annex _! old t]ritory z ! cold conditions pass$ away aga94 ,x is a curi\s fact t ! =e/ trees ( ea/]n ,asia & ( ea/]n ,nor? ,am]ica %[ a rem>kable resemblance to "o ano!r1 & bo? regions are v ri* 9 species & 9 g5]a4 ,x is believ$ t ?is ri* ,nor? ,am]ican flora is a remnant ( pre-glacial conditions1 & t its p]si/5ce is due to ! ease ) :i* ! trees obta9$ an asylum to ! s\? dur+ ! p]iod :5 ! climate 0 mo/ sev]e4 ,9 ,europe1 9 spite ( ! fact t ! w9t] climate is mu* mild] ?an 9 correspond+ latitudes 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 ! numb] ( k9ds ( =e/ trees is mu* less1 !re is little resemblance to ^? ( ,asia & ! ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates1 & ! trees h g5]ally a less s\!rn aspect4 ,?is is ! m rem>kable 9 t trees ( s\!rn facies introduc$ f ,*9a & ,japan & f ! ,unit$ ,/ates ?rive admirably 9 ,europe1 %[+ t !re is no climatic ob/acle to _! pres5ce !re4 ,to m5tion only a few examples1 ! ,tree ( ,heav5 7,ailan?us gl&ulosa71 s v common1 ev5 z a wild tree 9 _m p>ts ( ! cont95t ( ,europe1 0 introduc$ f ,*9a1 :ile ! beautiful ,sophora japonica1 s frequ5tly plant$ 9 t[ns1 comes1 z its "n indicates1 f ,japan1 & ! v>i\s species ( ^? beautiful fl[]+ trees kn[n z ,catalpa are ei!r ,am]ican or ,asiatic4 ,! we/]n plane 7,platanus occid5talis71 ano!r fav\rite t[n tree1 comes f ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & o!r ,am]ican trees :i* are f\nd v abundantly 9 t[ns 9 ! w>m] p>ts ( ,europe are ! black walnut & ! honey locu/ 7,gl$its*ia trican?os74 ,p]haps m /rik+ ?an any ( ^! is ! case ( ! s-call$ false acacia 7,rob9ia pseudacacia71 :i* is z common ov] a great "p ( ! cont95t ( ,europe z haw?orn bu%es or wild roses are ) u1 & yet is a ,nor? ,am]ican species1 introduc$ less ?an ?ree hundr$ ye>s ago4 ,g5]ally1 we may say t all ! m beautiful trees n[ gr[+ 9 ! w>m] p>ts ( ,europe come ei!r f ea/]n ,asia or f ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,9 o!r words1 ! ,ice ,age seems to h greatly impov]i%$ ! flora ( ,europe4 ,to a less ext5t ?is is also true ( we/]n ,nor? ,am]ica1 :i* has few] species ( trees ?an ! ea/4 ,:y _h ! ice ?is impov]i%+ effect ^u ,europe8 ,! topography ( ! cont95t supplies ! answ]4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 9 ,europe !re are num]\s transv]se *a9s ( m\nta9s4 ,! ,pyr5ees1 ! ,alps1 ! ,caucasus1 ea* ) its load ( ice1 ea* ) glaci]s deploy+ on ! l[ gr\nd at its feet1 mu/ h be5 ob/acles 9 ! way ( ! s\!rn migration alike ( plants & ( animals4 ,aga91 ev5 if ^! ob/acles 7 pass$ or turn$1 ! great inl& sea =m$ ano!r b>ri] fur!r s\?4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ?is difficulty 9 f9d+ asylums ! pre-glacial plants & animals mu/ h p]i%$ 9 consid]able numb]s1 & ?us a g5]al impov]i%m5t took place4 ,"o mu/ n ( c\rse exagg]ate4 ,a proportion ( ! pre-glacial =ms did succe$ 9 liv+ ?r\gh ! p]iod ( /ress1 b _m mu/ h be51 z x 71 squeez$ out ( ,europe or out ( exi/5ce by ! unfav\rable climatic conditions4 ,z ! climate improv$ ! l&s swept b>e once aga9 became inhabitable1 & !re 0 a recolonisation by movem5ts f ! s\? & f ! ea/4 ,we %all indicate lat] h[ man himself came f ! s\? & ! ea/ to colonise ! we/ & nor?1 b 8 movem5ts 7 only "p ( a great s]ies :i* includ$ also ^? ( plants & animals4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,climate ,,& ,,wea!r ,to ! sup]ficial obs]v] ^? daily v>iations 9 ! atmosph]ic conditions 9 any "o locality :i* we sum up "u ! t]m wea!r1 may appe> to occur )\t ord] or regul>ity1 b detail$ quantitive /udy soon %[s t ev5 ,briti% wea!r displays con/ancy 9 its irregul>ity4 ,! exi/5ce ( su* basal con/ancy1 inde$1 lies at ! root ( all intellig5t utilisation ( ! soil4 ,! irresponsible amateur g>d5] may ligh!>t$ly assume t a p>ticul> spr+ w be e>ly1 b ! pr(essional is n easily induc$ to ab&on 8 rule t su* & su* op]ations mu/ n be und]tak5 be=e c]ta9 fix$ dates4 ,! f>m]1 if he is to avoid bankruptcy1 mu/ "k )9 :at limits ! fir/ autumn fro/ is likely to make its appe>ance1 & :5 ! la/ spr+ "o may be expect$4 ,collective exp]i5ce1 !n1 :e!r express$ 9 ! meteorologi/'s figures or 9 a less accurate =m1 leads u to ! conclusion t = e locality on ! e>?'s surface !re is a c]ta9 fix$ av]age succession ( wea!r1 :i* we sum up 9 ! t]m climate4 ,9 ! case ( bo? climate & wea!r our k may be summ$ up 9 su* g5]al t]ms z wet or dry1 w>m or cold1 & s =?1 or we may borr[ ! meteorologi/'s notations1 & express ! facts 9 degrees ( temp]ature1 in*es ( ra9fall & ( pressure1 p]c5tages ( humidity1 & s on4 ,b x %\ld be und]/ood t su* figures c be us$ by ! geograph] ) ju/ification only :5 he is himself aw>e1 & c assume t 8 audi5ce is aw>e1 ( ! significance ( ! figures 9 connection ) ! processes ( erosion & ! ph5om5a ( life4 ,to say t ! mean ,janu>y temp]ature ( a p>ticul> place is #cj ,f41 is only a conv5i5t %or?& way ( say+ t 9 ?is place 9 w9t] plant life is arre/$1 wat] is ice-b\nd1 & mo/ animals sleep or migrate4 ,9 o!r words1 ! use ( ! figures assumes a c]ta9 k ( biology & ( physics on ! "p ( ! audi5ce4 ,we d n propose "h to treat ei!r climate or wea!r ) any fullness1 = !re is a volume 9 ! s]ies specially devot$ to ^! & k9dr$ subjects4 ,all t w be attempt$1 !re=e1 is to discuss "o or two important climates ) ! object ( consid]+ lat] _! respective effects on ! di/ribution ( o!r ph5om5a on ! surface ( ! globe4 ,?is is ! m wor? do+ 9 t ! subject is "o :i* has _h a great deal ( att5tion devot$ to x 9 rec5t ye>s4 ,c]ta9 po9ts 9 reg>d to climate1 e4 g4 ! fact t ! regions ( ! e>? ne> ! equator get m sol> heat ?an ^? ne>] ! poles1 & t p>ts ( ! globe are subject$ to v>iable w9ds1 z contra/$ ) ^? regions :]e ! extraord9>ily regul> w9ds call$ trades bl[1 h ( c\rse be5 kn[n = long en\gh4 ,b n till ! latt] half ( ! n9ete5? c5tury did ! civilis$ nations beg9 regul> meteorological obs]vations1 & ^! obs]vations are /ill scanty = ! uncivilis$ & p>tially civilis$ regions4 ,! meteorological raw mat]ial necess>y = ! exact /udy ( climates has ?us only be5 available = a comp>atively %ort p]iod1 & is /ill incomplete4 ,we may beg9 ) t type ( climate :i* has s pr(\ndly influ5c$ ! civilisation ( we/]n ,europe1 & !re=e also ! new civilisations ( ,am]ica1 ,au/ralia1 ,s\? ,africa1 & s on4 ,?is is ! type call$ ,m$it]ranean1 because x rea*es its be/ developm5t & has be5 mo/ /udi$ r\nd ! ,m$it]ranean area4 ,b x also occurs 9 ,cali=nia1 9 p>ts ( ,*ile1 9 ,s\? ,africa r\nd ,cape ,colony1 & 9 s\? & s\?-we/]n ,au/ralia4 ,g5]ally1 x is *>act]i/ic ( l&s ly+ on ! we/]n side ( cont95ts1 9 ! latitudes betwe5 tropical & temp]ate1 & is !re=e sometimes call$ ! m>itime sub-tropical climate4 ,! t]m m>itime is appli$ because1 z we %all see1 = "s "p ( ! ye> oceanic influ5ces prevail1 sub-tropical indicates ! position 9 latitude4 ,a v curi\s illu/ration ( ! simil>ity ( climate 9 ! diff]5t regions nam$ is to be f\nd 9 ! fact t 9 p>ts ( ! ,m$it]ranean area two introduc$ ,am]ican plants1 ! agave & ! prickly pe>1 are m obvi\s & abundant ?an mo/ native plants2 :ile 9 ,cali=nia1 ,cape ,colony & s\!rn ,au/ralia ! cultivat$ plants are *iefly ( ,m$it]ranean orig94 ,! ma9 features ( ! ,m$it]ranean climate may be briefly summ>is$4 ,! mo/ important "*1 next to ! mild temp]ature1 is ! fact t no ra9 7or v little7 falls 9 summ]1 ! gr[+ season fur!r nor?1 :i* is "h l>gely a p]iod ( cessation ( plant gr[?4 ,! ra91 :i* t5ds to be scanty or ev5 abs5t 9 ! int]ior ( l& masses1 e4 g4 9 ,spa9 & ,asia ,m9or1 & also to ! s\?1 e4 g4 9 ! ,des]t ( ,sah>a1 9 ! ,m$it]ranean region prop] falls 9 ! w9t] mon?s4 ,x is ?is w9t] ra9fall & ! summ] dr\ght :i* def9e ! ,m$it]ranean type ( climate4 ,! reason = ?is seasonal di/ribution ( ra9fall is z int]e/+ z ! fact itself1 & to und]/& x we mu/ turn to ! circulation ( air on ! surface ( ! globe4 ,9 ! foll[+ description we %all re/rict ourselves1 = ! sake ( cle>ness1 to ! ,m$it]ranean region itself1 ! region :]e ! ,m$it]ranean type ( climate is develop$ ov] ! l>ge/ area1 & :]e1 = _m reasons1 x is mo/ important4 ,b x mu/ be not$ t ! conditions :i* give rise to ! ,m$it]ranean type ( climate are ! same :]ev] x occurs1 ?\gh 9 ! ,m$it]ranean area !y are greatly modifi$ by ! great inl& sea ( t "n1 :i* c>ries oceanic conditions f> into ! l&4 ,we mu/ note1 fir/1 t at all seasons ^? regions ( ! e>? :i* are directly b5ea? ! v]tical rays ( ! sun are heat$ mo/ int5sely4 ,!re=e ! air ov] ^! regions1 be+ r5d]$ light by heat+1 rises1 & a belt ( l[ pressure is ?us =m$4 ,only at ! equ9oxes does ?is belt ( high temp]ature1 l[ pressure1 & light w9ds or calms1 co9cide ) ! equator4 ,9 ! nor!rn summ] x moves nor? ) ! sun2 9 ! nor!rn w9t] x travels s\? ) ! sun1 be+ always ov] :at is call$ ! heat equator4 ,into ?is belt ( l[ pressure air f nor? & s\?1 :]e ! pressure is great]1 t5ds to ru% 91 & we h ?us =m$ ! con/ant or trade w9ds1 :i*1 ow+ to ! deflection produc$ by ! e>?'s rotation1 appe> z ! nor?-ea/ trades 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e & ! s\?-ea/ 9 ! s\?4 ,^! w9ds are dry w9ds1 because !y bl[ f cold] to w>m] latitudes1 & !y accompany ! equatorial l[-pressure belt 9 its nor? & s\? movem5ts4 ,9 ! nor!rn summ] ! trade w9ds may ext5d nor?w>d to lat4 #ce or ev5 #dj1 :ile 9 w9t] _! nor!rn limit is #aj to #ae fur!r s\?4 ,a glance at ! map1 !n1 w %[ t 9 summ] ! ,m$it]ranean area is )9 or ne> ! sph]e ( action ( ! dry trade w9ds1 :i* are cont95tal1 sweep+ into ! region aft] hav+ bl[n ov] l& surfaces4 ,we mu/ next consid] ! atmosph]ic movem5ts 9 ! region to ! nor? ( ! trade w9d belt4 ,an area ( m or less p]man5t l[ pressure1 be/ m>k$ 9 w9t]1 exi/s 9 ! ,nor? ,atlantic1 9 ab\t #fj ,n4 lat41 & draws ! air into x 9 ! direction kn[n z c\nt]clockwise1 t is1 9 ! direction opposite to t ( ! h&s ( ! clock4 ,! result is ! production ( ! w9ds :i* appe> (f ! coa/ ( we/]n ,europe z ! w>m s\?-we/]ly w9ds ( w9t]1 :ile !y appe> (f ! coa/ ( ,nor? ,am]ica z cold nor!rly w9ds4 ,9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 :]e1 z we h se51 !re is less l& to int]f]e ) ! developm5t ( ! atmosph]ic circulation1 ^! w9ds =m ! prevail+ we/]lies4 ,9 ! ,atlantic ^! s\?-we/]ly w9ds obvi\sly bl[ 9 a direction opposite to ! nor?-ea/ trades1 :5ce ! "n ( anti-trades (t5 giv5 to !m4 ,z !y bl[ across ! broad ,atlantic !y arrive (f ,europe saturat$ ) moi/ure4 ,z !y come f l[] latitudes !y are w>m? br++4 ,9 w9t] ^! w9ds rea* ! ,m$it]ranean area ow+ to ! s\!rn %ift ( ! trades1 & br+ moi/ure ) !m2 :ile 9 summ] !y lie m to ! nor?1 & ?\gh _! moi/ure affects ! coa/ ( ,portugal x does n rea* ! great] "p ( ! ,m$it]ranean area4 ,)9 t area ! nor!rn limit ( ! ra9less summ] may be said1 9 a r\gh s5se1 to correspond ) ab\t ! #dj? p>allel ( latitude1 ?\gh x v>ies accord+ to local conditions 9 ! diff]5t p59sulas4 ,to ! nor? ( ?is l9e1 !re=e1 ! climate is m or less affect$ ev5 9 summ] by ! anti-trades4 ,x mu/ n be suppos$ t ! region ( ! trade w9ds & ( ! anti-trades lie side by side4 ,betwe5 ! two !re is a zone ( v>iable w9ds1 b 9 g5]al t]ms we c expla9 ! peculi>ities ( ! ,m$it]ranean ra9fall by say+ t ! region lies )9 or j at ! edge ( ! dry trades 9 summ]1 & )9 ! zone ( ! moi/ anti-trades 9 w9t]4 ,let u next consid] h[ ! area is dem>cat$ f ! surr\nd+ regions4 ,!re is ( c\rse no h>d & fa/ l9e1 b we c indicate 9 broad outl9e ! meteorological limits4 ,to take ! absolutely ra9less summ] z ! limit w\ld cut out1 z we h sugge/$ above1 ! great] "p ( ! nor!rn %ore ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 except ! s\!rn halves ( all ! great p59sulas4 ,q g5]ally1 h[ev]1 we may say t ! nor!rn limit ( ! ,m$it]ranean region1 9 its we/]n half1 is def9$ by ! occurr5ce ( consid]able summ] ra94 ,t is1 x is b\nd$ to ! nor? by a region :i* is )9 rea* ( ! ra9-br++ anti-trades 9 summ] z well z 9 w9t]1 & :i* has a l[] temp]ature ?an ! ,m$it]ranean region prop]4 ,to ! ea/ ! region is limit$ by des]ts1 = ! we/]lies ( w9t] c only c>ry _! moi/ure a c]ta9 di/ance inw>ds1 & ?\gh !y are greatly assi/$ by ! long1 ea/w>d-/ret*+1 inl& sea1 yet !re comes a "t :5 all _! load ( moi/ure is lo/1 & des]t conditions sup]v5e4 ,to ! s\? ! des]t aga9 =ms ! b\nd>y1 ?\gh "h = a diff]5t cause4 ,nor? ,africa beh9d ! ,atlas is p]man5tly )9 ! trade-w9d belt1 t is1 x is p]man5tly subject$ to ! action ( dry+ w9ds1 & its ra9fall is !re=e small or nil4 ,simil>ly 9 ,cali=nia ! s\!rn limit ( ! ,m$it]ranean zone ( climate is ! des]t region ( ,arizona1 ,mexico1 & ! nor? ( ,l[] ,cali=nia4 ,a simil> b& ( des]t sep>ates ! ,m$it]ranean zone f ! tropical region ( summ] ra9 9 ! o!r places :]e ! ,m$it]ranean type occurs4 ,?is may be summ$ up z foll[s3--,def9+ ! ,m$it]ranean climate only by its ra9fall1 we may say t x prevails ov] l&s bo? to ! nor? & s\? ( t sea1 & ^! h all or mo/ ( _! ra9fall 9 w9t]1 :5 ! w9ds1 ?\gh typically we/]ly1 are (t5 /ormy & r5d]$ v>iable by local conditions4 ,9 ! summ] !re may be no ra9 at all1 or1 to ! nor?1 small am\nts4 ,to ! nor? ! region passes gradually into t cold] zone :]e ra9 occurs abundantly bo? 9 summ] & w9t]1 :ile to ! ea/ & s\? ! ra9fall dim9i%es greatly1 & !re is a gradual transition to des]t conditions4 ,to ! we/ ! b\nd>y ( ! region is !oretically ! ocean1 b ! we/]n coa/l9e owes to its peculi> position a m abundant precipitation1 :i* makes ! vegetation (1 e4 g41 ,portugal pres5t q a diff]5t appe>ance f t ( s\!rn ,italy or ,algi]s4 ,^! peculi>ities ( ra9fall ! region owes to its position betwe5 two great w9d sy/ems1 ( :i* "o ga9s ! ma/]y 9 w9t] & ! o!r 9 summ]4 ,s f> 9 ?is discussion we h spok5 only ( ! di/ribution ( ! ra9fall ?r\gh\t ! ye>1 b !re are o!r features ( ! ,m$it]ranean climate :i* are almo/ z important 9 consid]+ ! effects ( ! climate on ! life ( ! region4 ,^! are ! am\nt ( ! ra9fall1 & ! temp]ature4 ,beg9n+ ) g5]al po9ts1 x is v important to notice t ! ra9fall ?r\gh\t ! area z a :ole is relatively scanty1 except :]e special conditions1 e4 g4 great elevation1 or local ra9-br++ w9ds1 increase x4 ,translat$ into t]ms ( plant life ?is means t cont9u\s =e/s ( ! type s *>act]i/ic ( ! great] "p ( ,europe till man int]f]$1 are relatively r>e )9 ! limits ( ! ,m$it]ranean region4 ,look+ at ! same fact f ! human /&po9t we may say t ! ra9fall is (t5 s scanty t irrigation is necess>y be=e man c prosp]4 ,^! two facts1 t ,m$it]ranean man _h n to cle> =e/s be=e he plant$ & s[$1 z ! ,teutons 7 oblig$ to d1 & t he _h (t5 to br+ wat] artificially be=e 8 crops w\ld gr[1 h be5 ( supreme importance 9 ! evolution ( ,m$it]ranean civilisation4 ,ev5 at ?is /age x is int]e/+ to note t ,france 9 ?is1 z 9 _m o!r respects1 has %>$ 9 two civilisations1 = h] t]ritory to ! s\? %[s ,m$it]ranean *>act]s1 & else:]e resembles ! cool temp]ate zone ( ,europe4 ,! next g5]al po9t ( importance is t ( temp]ature4 ,z 0 to be expect$ f its latitude ! bas9 ( ! ,m$it]ranean is a relatively w>m region4 ,local conditions1 & especially ! pres5ce ( a great mass ( wat]1 make ! w9t] exceptionally mild1 :ile ! summ]s1 ?\gh n excessively hot !y are consid]ably cool] ?an ^? ( simil> latitudes 9 ,asia1 are yet w>m & sunny4 ,! result is t1 giv5 wat] artificially suppli$1 or giv5 crops :i* c take wat] f ! deep] lay]s ( ! soil1 ! region is productive1 ! de/ructive fro/ ( ! nor? n be+ a m5ace4 ,?is relative eas9ess ( life 9 ! m fav\r$ p>ts ( ! region has be5 ( great importance 9 its hi/ory4 ,we may give next "s actual figures to illu/rate :at has be5 said ab\t temp]ature & ra9fall4 ,let u beg9 ) ra9fall1 & 9 ord] to h a basis ( comp>ison we may fir/ note t ,ed9burgh has a mean annual ra9fall ( ab\t #bh in*es1 & ,london "o ( ab\t #be in*es4 ,9 o!r words1 :5 ! total am\nt ( ra9 :i* falls 9 any "o ye> is e/imat$ = _m ye>s 9 ei!r ( ^! places1 ^! totals add$ toge!r & divid$ by ! numb] ( ye>s ( obs]vation1 ! quoti5t is ! figure giv54 ,! figures %[ t ! ra9fall 9 ,london is less ?an t 9 ,ed9burgh1 :ile 9 ,p>is x is less ?an 9 ei!r4 ,pass+ n[ to consid] ! ,m$it]ranean area we f9d t1 speak+ g5]ally1 ! ra9fall dim9i%es1 = ! reasons already expla9$1 9 pass+ f we/ to ea/1 & 9 pass+ f nor? to s\?4 ,?us ,gibralt>1 at "o end ( ! bas9 has a fall ( #cb p] annum1 z comp>$ ) "o ( #ae at ,a!ns ne> ! o!r extremity4 ,g5oa 9 ! nor? has ! heavy fall ( #ea1 :ile ,biskra 9 ,algi]s has only #h4 ,!re are _m local v>iations1 due to local causes1 & 9 comp>+ ! falls ) ^? ( ,ed9burgh & ,london we mu/ rememb] t ! high] temp]atures mean mu* great] evaporation4 ,sunny ,naples has ab\t #d m ra9 9 ! ye> ?an ,ed9burgh1 & has #g m ?an foggy ,london1 b yet has n a wet climate4 ,= temp]atures a few figures may suffice4 ,9 ,london ! mean ,janu>y temp]ature is #ci ,f41 :ile x is only #cf ,f4 at ,p>is4 ,9 ,nice ! mean ,janu>y temp]ature is #de1 :i* is ab\t ! same z t ( ,a!ns1 & r less ?an t ( ,naples4 ,9 ,janu>y1 !n1 ! temp]ature ( ,nice is only #f high] ?an t ( ,london4 ,9 ,july ! mean temp]ature at ,london is #fb1 z aga9/ #gc at ,nice & ov] #hj at ,a!ns4 ,9 o!r words1 ow+ to our mild w9t]s & cool summ]s1 !re is f> m diff]5ce betwe5 ,briti% & ,m$it]ranean temp]atures 9 summ] ?an 9 w9t]4 ,9 ! ,m$it]ranean region itself ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! temp]atures ( summ] & w9t] increases z we pass ea/w>ds1 s t x is especially to ! we/ t *>act]i/ically ,m$it]ranean conditions occur1 i4 e4 mild1 fro/-free w9t]s1 & summ]s :i* = ! latitude are n excessively hot4 ,?is feature also has be5 ( importance 9 ! developm5t ( ! ,m$it]ranean civilisations4 ,we h treat$ ! climate ( ! ,m$it]ranean area 9 "s detail1 z an example ( ! me?ods & results ( mod]n climatology4 ,we may note mu* m briefly ! *>act]i/ics ( "o or two o!r climatic prov9ces4 ,m$it]ranean influ5ces1 express$ 9 w9t] ra9s1 are cont9u$ ea/w>d into ,mesopotamia & ev5 into ,p]sia1 ! ra9 always becom+ scanti]1 & des]t conditions t5d+ to sup]v5e4 ,/ill fur!r ea/1 h[ev]1 we come to a region :]e ! ra9fall is abundant1 & :]e ! population is once m d5se4 ,^! are ! monsoon c\ntries1 includ+ ,india & ,*9a1 :]e ! usually pl5tiful ra9fall aga9 p]mits ! l& to n\ri% man abundantly4 ,exclud+ ,africa s\? ( ! ,sah>a f consid]ation1 we may inde$ say t ! ,old ,_w has two regions ( abundant ra9fall & d5se population1 ! "o to ! we/ & ! o!r to ! s\?-ea/1 sep>at$ f ea* o!r by w>m & cold des]ts4 ,ea* ( ^! two regions has giv5 rise to its own civilisation1 ea* has produc$ its own types ( cultivat$ plants & dome/ic animals1 & ! root diff]5ces betwe5 ! two mu/ be reg>d$ z l>gely ! result ( climatic conditions4 ,! monsoon c\ntries are s nam$ because ( ! regul> seasonal rev]sal ( ! w9ds1 :i* bl[ f l& to sea 9 w9t] & f sea to l& 9 summ]1 af=d+ an example ( a l& & sea breeze on ! gigantic scale4 ,! result is t1 subject to local modifications1 ! summ] w9ds are moi/ure-br++1 & ! w9t] w9ds are dry4 ,:]eas1 !n1 9 ! ,m$it]ranean ! heat ( summ] is l>gely wa/$1 f ! agriculturi/'s po9t ( view1 on acc\nt ( ! sc>city ( ! wat] necess>y = gr[?1 9 monsoon regions1 unless ! ra9 fail1 z x sometimes does1 ! hot season is ! moi/ season1 &1 !re=e1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 gr[? mu/ be fa/] "h ?an 9 ! ,m$it]ranean area4 ,! monsoon c\ntries ext5d ov] a great /ret* ( latitude1 & !re=e temp]ature conditions v>y greatly1 :ile ! great v>iety ( surface-relief produces "h abnormally heavy ra9fall1 & !re des]t conditions4 ,! ess5tial contra/ ) ! ,m$it]ranean type is1 h[ev]1 ! summ] ra9fall4 ,tak+ ! globe z a :ole we f9d t summ] ra9fall is m common ?an w9t]1 & 9 addition to occurr+ 9 monsoon regions1 x t5ds to occur 9 tropical regions g5]ally4 ,z we approa* ! equator f ! tropics we f9d t ! total fall increases1 & t5ds to %[ two maxima1 :i* occur :5 ! sun is ov]head1 i4 e4 at ! equ9oxes4 ,= our p>ticul> purpose1 h[ev]1 ! climatic conditions 9 tropical & equatorial regions g5]ally1 ?\gh ( great importance to ! climatologi/1 are n ( great int]e/1 = except 9 monsoon c\ntries ! hot p>ts ( ! e>? d n %[ ! mo/ highly develop$ human societies4 ,let u turn next to t "p ( ,europe :i* is outside ! rea* ( ,m$it]ranean influ5ces4 ,"h we f9d t ! ra9 is di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! ye>1 & is usually abundant1 ?\gh x decreases 9 pass+ ea/w>ds f ! seabo>d4 ,temp]atures are naturally l[] ?an 9 ! ,m$it]ranean bas91 & w9t] fro/ plays an important "p 9 det]m9+ ! *oice ( cultivat$ plants4 ,z ! figures :i* we h already quot$ = ,london & ,p>is sugge/1 ! w9t] cold increases on pass+ ea/w>d4 ,p>is is cold] 9 w9t] ?an ,london1 ?\gh x lies s\? ( x4 ,vi5na is aga9 cold] ?an ,p>is4 ,b ! increase 9 w9t] cold is comp5sat$ = by an increase 9 ! summ] heat4 ,9 o!r words1 z ! di/ance f ! sea increases 9 ,europe ! climate becomes dri] & m extreme4 ,?is obs]vation naturally leads up to a consid]ation ( ! effect ( ! proximity ( ! sea ^u climate4 ,wat] heats m sl[ly ?an l&1 b also cools m sl[ly1 & !re=e ! proximity ( l>ge masses ( wat] has1 speak+ g5]ally1 a mod]at+ influ5ce ^u climate1 produc+ ! s-call$ m>itime climate4 ,9 ! case ( ! ,briti% ,isles ?is effect is v m>k$1 because ! ocean to ! we/ ( u is unusually w>m1 & ! circulation ( ! atmosph]e is su* t ! prevail+ w9ds ( w9t] bl[ t[>ds u f ! w>m] p>ts ( ?is ocean1 :ile ! fact t ! summ] w9ds (t5 h a nor!rly compon5t helps to keep ! summ] temp]atures d[n4 ,! peculi> conditions ( ! ,briti% ,isl&s illu/rate ! fact t climate does n dep5d ^u latitude alone1 b may be greatly modifi$ by local conditions1 especially by ! di/ribution ( l& & wat]1 & ! direction ( ! w9d4 ,let u n[ sum up :at has be5 said 9 reg>d to ! ma9 types ( climate f\nd 9 ,europe4 ,r\nd ! ,m$it]ranean bas9 we h an area ) mild w9t]s & w>m summ]s1 :]e ! ra9 t5ds to fall dur+ ! w9t] season1 mak+ summ] a p]iod ( dr\ght4 ,?is climate ext5ds beyond ! limits ( ,europe into ,nor!rn ,africa & ,we/]n ,asia1 & is sep>at$ f ! regions ( tropical climate1 :i* h no w9t] & h ra9s at ! hotte/ season1 by a belt ( des]t4 ,! we/]n seabo>d ( ,europe has a m>itime climate1 ! sea temp]+ ! w9t]1 b dim9i%+ ! summ] heat4 ,! prevail+ w9ds are we/]ly1 & ! ra9fall is typically abundant & di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! ye>4 ,on pass+ inw>ds ?is type ( climate *anges into ! cont95tal type1 ) cold w9t]s & hot summ]s1 & dim9i%+ ra9fall4 ,?\gh precipitation occurs at all seasons ( ! ye>1 x t5ds to be greate/ 9 summ]1 giv+1 e4 g4 9 p>ts ( ! ,balkan ,/ates1 a type em95tly suit$ to ! c]eal maize1 :i* ne$s m summ] ra9 ?an :eat4 ,if we be> 9 m9d t ,nor? ,am]ica is a l>ge cont95t1 & ,europe a v small "o1 & t :ile ,europe has no ea/]n seabo>d1 x is ! ea/]n seabo>d ( ,am]ica :i* faces ,europe1 we may realise t ! climates ( ,nor? ,am]ica %[ a rem>kable analogy to ! ,european4 ,on ! we/]n side we h 9 ,briti% ,columbia & ,cali=nia respectively ! same two types ( m>itime climate :i* occur 9 ,europe1 t is1 ,briti% ,columbia has a mild equable climate ) abundant & equally di/ribut$ ra9fall1 & ,cali=nia has a ,m$it]ranean climate4 ,at ! ea/]n side ! conditions are a little diff]5t1 & %[ u t ! m]e pres5ce ( ! sea is n suffici5t to produce a m>itime climate4 ,! prevail+ w9ds 9 ea/]n ,nor? ,am]ica are (f ! %ore2 !y _c !re=e c>ry oceanic influ5ces l&w>ds4 ,to ! nor? ! w9ds t5d to h a nor!rly compon5t1 & cold curr5ts ( wat] also /ream out ( ! ,arctic & *ill ea/]n ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,! result is t we f9d t ,labrador1 ?\gh ly+ 9 ! latitude ( ,great ,brita91 has a v sev]e climate4 ,fur!r s\? ! conditions are ( ! cont95tal "* ev5 on ! seabo>d1 ! w9t]s be+ v cold & ! summ]s hot4 ,ra9fall is equally di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! ye>1 b on pass+ inl& x dim9i%es 9 am\nt & t5ds to be limit$ to ! w>m season4 ,! dim9ution w\ld be mu* m obvi\s ?an x actually is 7 x n t ! exi/5ce ( ! l>ge ,gulf ( ,mexico1 & also ! size ( ! ,nor? ,am]ican cont95t1 give rise 9 ! s\? to a monsoon effect1 :i* greatly increases ! ra9fall ( ! s\?-ea/]n corn] ( ! ,/ates4 ,fur!r to ! we/1 9 ! lee ( ! great b>ri] ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 ! ra9fall is slight4 ,incid5tally1 we may notice t ! ea/]n seabo>d ( ! great ,eurasian cont95t also has a m extreme climate ?an ! we/]n1 (f]+ 9 ?is respect an analogy to ! conditions :i* prevail on ! ea/]n & we/]n halves ( temp]ate ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,! cause 9 bo? cases is ! same--! direction ( ! prevail+ w9ds4 ,we _c close ?is *apt] )\t "s ref]5ce to wea!r1 a subject ( m geographical importance ?an is g5]ally realis$4 ,9 speak+ ( climate we h us$ figures :i* 7 inv>iably means1 i4 e4 h be5 obta9$ by av]ag+ a great numb] ( obs]vations4 ,b :]e a great numb] ( mean figures are us$ 9 a discussion1 x is always f\nd t ! diff]5t av]ages are bas$ ^u v>y+ numb]s ( obs]vations1 & are !re=e n /rictly comp>able ) "o ano!r4 ,!re is always a risk t su* figures may mask facts ( real geographical importance4 ,no d\bt "s ( ! difficulties w disappe> ) ! progress ( meteorological sci5ce1 :i* w enable ! geograph] only to select figures :i* are /rictly comp>able4 ,meantime1 h[ev]1 obs]vations = long p]iods are r>e1 & ! meteorologi/ mu/ be cont5t to take ! figures :i* are available4 ,= ?is reason z well z = o!rs1 x is advisable to add to ! some:at ab/ract /udy ( means1 t is1 ( climate1 "s note ^u ! actual conditions1 t is1 ^u wea!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aj4--;,diagram to illu/rate a cyclone travell+ t[>ds ! ea/4 ,! two conc5tric circles repres5t isob>s1 t is1 !y are l9es drawn ?r\gh po9ts :]e ! b>omet] regi/]s ! same 7l[7 pressure4 ,into ! area ( l[ pressure s =m$ ! w9ds bl[ /rongly 9 ! direction kn[n z c\nt]clockwise1 & are repres5t$ by ! arr[s ^: d\ble b>bs signify _! /r5g?4 ,x w be not$ t 9 ! re> ( ! cyclone ! w9ds are nor!rly4 ,!y ?us *ill ! air "h1 & by *ill+ x raise ! pressure4 ,! w9ds to ! front ( ! cyclone are w>m because s\!rly1 !y !re=e t5d to l[] ! pressure "h by w>m+ ! air1 & ! result is t ! isob>s t5d to be displac$ t[>ds ! ea/1 & at ! same "t become de=m$4 ,9 o!r words1 ! cyclone moves to ! ea/4 ,we may take ,briti% wea!r1 :i* has become a prov]b on acc\nt ( its v>iabl5ess1 z a text = a brief discussion ( ! subject4 ,! daily v>iations 9 our wea!r1 z all :o h read wea!r reports "k1 are *iefly det]m9$ by ! movem5ts ( areas ( l[ pressure or cyclones1 :i* mo/ly come to u f ! ,atlantic1 & cont9ue ea/w>ds pa/ u1 (t5 t[>ds ! ,baltic4 ,we h already not$ ! occurr5ce ( :at we h call$ a p]man5t area ( l[ pressure 9 ! ,nor? ,atlantic1 b ?is p]man5t area 9 po9t ( fact is due *iefly to ! con/ant passage "h ( cyclones1 or mov+ areas ( l[ pressure4 ,! causes ( ! ea/w>d displacem5t ( ^! depressions are int]e/+4 ,"o cause is ! g5]al ea/w>d movem5t ( ! atmosph]e 9 ?is region1 produc$ 9 ! fa%ion already describ$4 ,?is movem5t necess>ily raises ! pressure to ! we/ ( ! depression1 ow+ to ! influx ( fre% air1 :ile ! onw>d movem5t ( ! air 9 front ( ! depression l[]s ! pressure !re1 & s produces displacem5t4 ,aga91 ! air is suck$ into a depression 9 ! direction opposite to ! h&s ( a clock1 & a mom5t's reflection w %[ t ?is means t ! w9ds to ! ea/ ( ! depression are s\!rly & ^? to ! we/ ( x nor!rly4 ,! w>m s\!rly w9ds 9 front t5d to l[] ! pressure by w>m+ ! air1 :ile ! cold nor!rly w9ds beh9d x raise ! pressure by cool+ ! air4 ,?is aga9 produces a displacem5t ( ! depression t[>ds ! ea/ 7see fig4 #aj74 ,! fact j describ$ has an int]e/+ practical result4 ,if aft] a day or night ( /orm & ra91 ! temp]ature falls1 we "k t ! depression caus+ ! /orm has pass$ u1 & t we are feel+ ! effects ( ! cold] w9ds 9 its re>4 ,if ! !rmomet] sudd5ly rises aga91 !n a new depression is approa*+1 & we are feel+ its w>m brea? be=e its w9ds rea* u4 ,! cle>ness & *ill9ess ( ! air aft] a /ormy or w9dy p]iod gives u "o ( our commone/ meteorological s5sations1 & produces a m>k$ psy*ical effect1 reflect$ 9 mu* ( our lit]ature4 ,"o o!r reason = ! ea/w>d motion ( ! cyclones ) u is t !y seem to pref] damp air1 & s t5d to foll[ ! ,nor? ,sea & pass t[>ds ! ,baltic1 :]e !y (t5 die away4 ,9 ! ,briti% area1 ?\gh ! depressions move fa/] 9 w9t] ?an 9 summ]1 !y h only a mean spe$ ( ab\t #af miles an h\r1 :ile 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates _! mean spe$ is #be miles p] h\r1 & _! effects are (t5 disa/r\s except :5 disc\nt$ by ! w>n+s ( ! ,wea!r ,bureau4 ,9 ! case ( ! ,briti% ,isles cyclones are mo/ frequ5t & be/ m>k$ 9 w9t]1 & !y are ( great importance 9 produc+ our mild & w9dy w9t]s4 ,9 summ] !y travel fur!r nor?w>ds1 & z a rule affect our climate less4 ,:51 h[ev]1 f causes /ill inadequately kn[n1 !y are bett] m>k$ 9 summ] ?an usual1 we h a bad summ]1 t is1 "o :i* is wet & relatively w9dy4 ,! fact t ! ,engli% ,*annel is "o ( ! fav\rite tracks ( cyclones has be5 an important elem5t 9 protect+ ! ,briti% ,isl&s f =eign invasion1 :ile we all "k t x is also a factor 9 dim9i%+ free int]c\rse ) ! ,cont95t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aa4--;,diagram %[+ ! *anges 9 temp]ature1 pressure & w9d due to a cyclone pass+ to ! nor? ( a po9t ( obs]vation ,a4 ,! passage ( ! cyclone figur$ occupi$ a p]iod ( six days4 ,x w be not$ t z x approa*es ,a ! w9d is s\!rly & light 7arr[s ) s+le b>bs7 & ! temp]ature high4 ,z x passes ! w9ds become viol5t 7arr[s ) d\ble b>bs71 & %ift to ! s\?-we/1 & ! b>omet] falls rapidly4 ,z x disappe>s ! pressure rises1 ! temp]ature falls1 & ! w9d ve]s to ! nor?-we/1 :ile rema9+ viol5t4 ,! fall ( ! w9d & its %ift+ to a s\?-we/]ly direction m>k ! return to ! normal condition ( affairs1 ! influ5ce ( ! cyclone be+ pa/4 ,! second po9t ( importance ab\t our wea!r is ! p]iodic occurr5ce at "s "p ( our area ( anticyclones1 or areas ( high pressure1 out ( :i* ! w9ds /ream g5tly 9 ! same direction z ! h&s ( ! clock4 ,^! areas ( high pressure d n display ! same t5d5cy to move z d ! cyclones1 & are mo/ frequ5tly m]ely displac$ by advanc+ cyclones4 ,= reasons into :i* space does n p]mit u to g fully "h1 anticyclones h a v diff]5t effect 9 summ] & 9 w9t]4 ,9 w9t] !y may br+ to u ! cont95tal cold1 & make our wea!r abnormally sev]e1 ?\gh (t5 bright & f9e4 ,on ! o!r h&1 9 summ] !y br+ to u cont95tal w>m?1 s t good summ]s are ^? 9 :i* anticyclonic conditions are mo/ frequ5t1 :ile sev]e w9t]s are due to ! same cause4 ,anticyclones also sometimes induce a curi\s =m ( inv]sion1 9 t places to ! nor? ( a giv5 spot may h tempor>ily a high] temp]ature ?an places to ! s\?4 ,x is su* facts :i* are entirely mask$ by mean figures4 ,we d n z yet und]/& ! causes :i* make cyclones sometimes m num]\s or bett] m>k$ ?an usual1 :i* cause !m sometimes to cross our area1 & at o!r times to travel too f> nor? or too f> s\? to influ5ce our wea!r4 ,x is possible t fur!r inve/igation 9 ! future may unravel ?is problem2 x is practically c]ta9 t a fre] use ( wireless telegraphy1 & ! e/abli%+ ( meteorological /ations 9 nor!rn seas1 w\ld give wea!r =eca/+ a def9it5ess & accuracy :i* x does n yet possess4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ab4--;,briti% wea!r map = ,nov4 #bi1 #aiaj4 ,a cyclone lies ov] ! s\? ( ,sc&9avia1 & into x ! w9ds are sweep+ /rongly 9 a c\nt]clockwise direction4 ,an anticyclone lies ov] ,icel&1 & f x ! w9ds are /ream+ g5tly 9 a clockwise direction4 ,we _c foll[ ?is int]e/+ subject fur!r "h1 b we h said en\gh to illu/rate its geographical significance4 ,z a sci5ce or sub-sci5ce by itself x w =m ! subject ( a special volume 9 ?is s]ies4 ,x may be en\gh to po9t out t ! ,daily ,wea!r ,report1 publi%$ by ! ,meteorological ,(fice at a co/ ( "o p5ny1 & reproduc$ 9 "s daily newspap]s1 is a docum5t well wor? ! c>eful /udy ( ^? ) any int]e/ 9 geography4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,! ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,plant ,,geography ,,& ,,! ,,*ief ,,plant ,,=mations ,,( ,,europe ,,& ,,nor? ,,am]ica ,we h n[ tak5 a g5]al survey ( ! e>?'s surface1 h not$ its m\nta9 heights & its ocean dep?s1 wat*$ ! =mation ( hills & valleys :i* is due to ! jo9t action ( atmosph]ic ag5ts1 runn+ wat] & ice1 & consid]$ briefly "s ( ! po9ts ( int]e/ ab\t climate4 ,we next pass to t mo/ *>act]i/ic feature ( ! surface1 its clo?+ ( plants4 ,except :]e ! surface ( ! gr\nd has be5 artificially /]ilis$ by man1 or is r5d]$ unproductive by ice1 by lava1 by a total lack ( wat]1 or by ! exi/5ce ( poison\s salts1 x is clo!d ) vegetation1 & x is ! pres5ce ( ?is vegetation :i* is its mo/ obvi\s "*4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 z 9 o!r regions ( ?\ght1 ! geographical /&po9t has only be5 rea*$ sl[ly4 ,man's habit ( analysis made him /udy grasses & trees = long g5]ations be=e he got back to ! =e/ & to ! grassl& z !y occur 9 nature4 ,plants z individuals are ! prov9ce ( ! botani/1 b ^? plant gr\ps :i* are ! expression ( ! int]action ( climatic factors1 soil1 & surface relief1 are ! conc]n ( ! geograph]4 ,:5 we take a g5]al survey ( ! face ( ! e>? f ! po9t ( view ( plant geography1 we note ?ree ma9 conditions4 ,9 c]ta9 regions1 alike 9 ! tropics & 9 temp]ate zones1 we f9d t plants rea* _! maximum size1 comb9$ ) great diff]5tiation ( /ructure1 & ! =mation ( woody /ems :i* (f] great resi/ance to v>y+ conditions ( climate & wea!r4 ,su* highly-organis$ plants =m =e/s1 :i* /ill dom9ate ov] a l>ge "p ( ! e>?'s surface4 ,man's ne>e/ allies1 ! an?ropoid apes & ! monkeys1 are = ! mo/ "p =e/ animals1 & ! l[e/ races ( m5 are /ill =e/ dwell]s4 ,:]e man is a =e/ dwell] he seems n to rea* 8 full size1 z we see 9 ! case ( ! pigmies ( ! ,congo =e/1 & ! negritos ( ! ,philipp9es1 & he suff]s f a *ronic insuffici5cy ( food1 :i* acts z a *eck bo? to 8 m5tal & physical developm5t4 ,!re has1 !re=e1 always be5 w> betwe5 evolv+ man & ! giants ( ! plant _w1 a w> :i* has swept ! =e/s away f _m ( ! m civilis$ p>ts ( ! globe1 & :i* /ill cont9ues1 ?\gh man's victory is n[ s complete t he c af=d to be g5]\s1 & give protection to ! remnants ( 8 =m] foe4 ,b ov] p>ts ( ! globe ! climate1 & especially ! am\nt or di/ribution ( ! ra9fall1 makes x difficult or impossible = =e/s to gr[ naturally4 ,"h o!r types ( plants1 l[] 9 /ature1 & evad+ r ?an fac+ ! problems ( w9t] cold or summ] dr\ght1 fl\ri% & =m :at we call ! grassl&s4 ,! grassl&s fav\r man 9 sev]al respects4 ,!y fe$ ! animals ^u :i* he dep5ds = food1 = clo?+1 & = ! conveyance ( 8 p]son or prop]ty1 & !y (f] mu* less resi/ance ?an ! =e/ to 8 agricultural op]ations4 ,ev5 ! l>ge h]bivor\s mammals :i* 9 _! wild /ate haunt ! =e/s1 usually leave ^! at night to fe$ ^u ! grassl&s1 s t x is ! grassl&s :i* h l>gely f$ man at e /age ( civilisation4 ,! atmosph]ic conditions )9 ! woodl&s also1 ! defici5t sunlight1 ! humidity1 & s =?1 seem unfav\rable to human developm5t4 ,:]e ! conditions are especially unfav\rable to plant life1 we f9d t ev5 ! grassl& plants are unable to keep up ! /ruggle1 & dim9i% 9 numb]1 los+ _! p[] ( =m+ a complete cov]+ = ! soil1 & ?us ! grassl& passes into des]t1 :e!r ! hot wat]less des]t ( l[ latitudes1 or ! cold froz5 des]t ( nor!rn ones4 ,9 ! mo/ g5]al s5se1 !n1 we may say t ^! ?ree =mations1 woodl&1 grassl& & des]t1 divide ! surface ( ! l& among !m1 & betwe5 !m !re is con/ant conflict4 ,! grassl&s are = ev] attempt+ to encroa* ^u ! woodl&s1 & 9 ?is attempt !y h be5 assi/$1 sometimes to too great an ext5t1 by ! op]ations ( man4 ,simil>ly ! des]t is always /riv+ to encroa* ^u ! grassl&1 & 9 ?is endeav\r x has be5 sometimes involunt>ily aid$ by man1 :o has also done mu* volunt>ily to reclaim ! des]t l& = ! grasses4 ,let u note next ! p>ticul> conditions :i* fav\r woodl&1 grassl& & des]t respectively4 ,! di/ribution ( plants ov] ! surface ( ! e>? at l>ge is det]m9$ by a numb] ( factors1 by ! am\nt ( heat1 by ! am\nt & di/ribution ( precipitation1 by ! nature & /r5g? ( ! w9ds1 by ! *>act]s ( ! soil1 & s on4 ,b =e/s occur "u ! equator & also f> to ! nor?2 we h cold des]ts z well z hot ones2 !re are ext5sive grassl&s 9 ! ,sudan z well z 9 ! ,canadian ,f> ,we/4 ,?is proves t ! v>y+ am\nts ( heat may be neglect$ 9 consid]+ ! cause ( ! di/ribution ( ! ?ree great plant =mations4 ,aga91 ! soil is ( m9or importance1 = diff]5t types ( =e/ & ( grassl& occur on diff]5t types ( soils4 ,we are ?us l$ to ! conclusion t x is ! precipitation & ! w9d :i* det]m9e ! di/ribution4 ,to und]/& ! reason = ?is we mu/ consid] ! ne$s ( diff]5t types ( plants 9 ! matt] ( wat]4 ,plants c only take 9 ! m9]al con/itu5ts ( _! food 9 ! =m ( a solution1 & ?is solution mu/ be weak1 or x has a poison\s effect4 ,= example1 sulphate ( ammonia is a valuable manure1 b if a consid]able am\nt be dissolv$ 9 wat] & appli$ to ! roots ( a gr[+ plant1 dea? may v likely take place4 ,x is a necess>y consequ5ce ( ! fact t plants c only absorb weak solutions ( _! food salts1 t _! roots take 9 m wat] ?an is actually ne$$ by ! plant4 ,"o ( ! functions ( ! leaves is !re=e to get rid ( surplus wat]1 ! process be+ call$ transpiration4 ,transpiration takes place fa/] 9 a tall plant l a tree1 :i* gr[s up into dry lay]s ( ! air1 ?an 9 a l[ plant l a grass4 ,x takes place fa/] 9 w9dy wea!r ?an 9 calm4 ,o!r ?+s be+ equal x takes place fa/] 9 w>m wea!r ?an 9 cold1 & ! l>g] ! plant & ! m num]\s its leaves ! m wat] is giv5 (f1 t is1 ! m wat] is return$ to ! air f ! soil4 ,! result ( all ?is is t =e/ trees require f> m wat] ?an grassl&4 ,x has be5 calculat$ t a bee* wood ag$ #ej to #fj ye>s gives (f dur+ ! gr[+ season #ced tons ( wat] p] acre1 :i* illu/rates ! dry+ effect ( ! pres5ce ( ! wood4 ,simil>ly1 ! effect ( tree-plant+ 9 ! m>%y regions ( ,france & ,italy1 :]e ! soil z a consequ5ce has dri$ & ! m>%es disappe>$1 %[s h[ great a dem& ^u gr\nd wat] trees make1 z comp>$ ) grasses & l[ gr[+ h]bs4 ,on ! o!r h&1 al?\gh trees take an enorm\s am\nt ( wat] f ! soil1 !y c draw _! supplies f a l>ge area4 ,x is ! extremities ( ! f9e bran*es ( ! roots :i* take 9 ! wat]1 & ^! pass deep d[n into ! soil1 & spread out ov] a va/ area4 ,9 o!r words1 trees avail !mselves ( ! wat] 9 ! deep] lay]s ( ! soil1 & c tol]ate relatively long p]iods ( dr\ght1 if ! surface dry+ ( ! soil does n ext5d to ! deep] lay]s4 ,9 hot summ] wea!r grassl&s br[n & )] long be=e ! trees %[ any signs ( wat]-fam9e4 ,9 consequ5ce1 we may say t z long z ! total ra9fall ( a region is suffici5t to ensure a con/ant supply ( moi/ure 9 ! subsoil dur+ ! gr[+ season1 trees c ?rive1 ev5 if little or no ra9 falls dur+ ?is season4 ,on ! o!r h&1 dry+ w9ds are v hurtful to trees1 especially if !y occur at a p]iod :5 ! tree is unable1 ei!r because ( ! coldness ( ! subsoil1 or because ( its dryness1 to take 9 fre% wat] to replace t :i* is lo/4 ,! hurtfulness ( late fro/s is l>gely due to ! cold sudd5ly *eck+ root absorption at a "t :5 ! gr[+ p>ts1 act$ ^u by ! spr+ w9ds1 are giv+ out wat] freely4 ,grasses transpire less freely ?an trees1 b _! root sy/em is mu* %all[] & less well-develop$4 ,!y dep5d ^u ! wat] 9 ! upp] lay]s ( soil1 & mu/ h frequ5t1 ev5 if g5tle1 %[]s dur+ _! gr[+ season1 :ile !y are q indiff]5t to dr\ght & ev5 to cutt+ w9ds dur+ _! re/+ p]iod4 ,a little reflection w %[ t x results f ^! facts t woodl&1 grassl& & des]t d n =m a cont9u\s s]ies4 ,x may q well be t woodl& passes ?r\gh scrub into des]t )\t ! int]v5tion ( grassl&4 ,"r across ,europe !re is 7or 07 a broad belt ( =e/4 ,s\?w>d t[>ds ! ,m$it]ranean ?is ?9s out into a *>act]i/ic =m ( scrub1 call$ maquis1 ^: *>act]s we %all describe lat]1 & ?is scrub passes 9 all directions into des]t l&4 ,"h no belt ( grassl& int]v5es1 = ! ra9less ,m$it]ranean summ] makes ! gr[? ( grass virtually impossible1 except :]e special conditions1 e4 g4 hills1 introduce modifications4 ,contra/$ ) ?is we h ! conditions 9 ,nor? ,am]ica :]e1 e4 g4 9 ,canada1 ! we/]n coa/ is d5sely =e/-clad1 z is also ! ea/]n region4 ,9 j\rney+ ea/w>d aft] cross+ ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s ! =e/ dies away into grassl&1 & ! same ?+ happ5s1 ?\gh m sl[ly1 9 a we/w>d j\rney4 ,! reason is t 9 ?is case !re is a /eady dim9ution ( precipitation on pass+ to ! int]ior1 b :at precipitation rema9s is1 z we h se51 l>gely1 ?\gh n :olly1 summ] ra91 & is1 !re=e1 suffici5t to det]m9e ! gr[? ( grass1 ?\gh n ( trees4 ,aga91 9 ,nor? ,africa ! =e/s ( ! ,atlas ,m\nta9s pass directly1 )\t int]v5+ grassl&1 into ! ,sah>a des]t1 b to ! s\? ( ! des]t ! grassy & p>k-l ,sudan sep>ates ! des]t f ! luxuriant tropical =e/4 ,9 ! latt] case1 h[ev]1 x is possible t man's influ5ce has c\nt$ = some?+4 ,on m\nta9s1 9 :atev] latitude1 ! conditions are mu* m uni=m1 p>tly because x is w9d1 assi/$ by temp]ature v>iations1 :i* is ! dom9at+ factor4 ,moi/ure is usually abundant1 b high up :at is call$ physiological dr\ght occurs2 t is1 ! temp]ature is too l[ = ! plants to be able to absorb ! abundant wat]4 ,9 asc5d+ any m\nta91 ! foll[+ are ! *ief *anges :i* occur4 ,! l[] slopes w probably be cultivat$4 ,z we asc5d ! precipitation increases1 & =e/s appe>4 ,fir/ we h probably a belt ( decidu\s trees1 pass+ above into ! m resi/ant conif]s4 ,?is belt usually asc5ds high] on ! s\? ?an on ! nor? side1 & high] on m\nta9s :i* occur 9 a gr\p ?an on isolat$ peaks4 ,z ! w9d is m & m felt1 & increases ! dang]\s transpiration ( w9t] ! trees become m & m dw>f$ to escape its =ce4 ,!re may be a belt ( pro/rate m\nta9 p9es above1 m>k+ ! tree limit2 9 any case ! trees are gradually replac$ by dw>f$ %rubs4 ,!n comes ! zone ( ,alp9e plants1 ! grasses mak+ a complete sw>d1 b be+ accompani$ by _m o!r plants4 ,gradually1 z ! soil becomes scanti]1 & ! surface m rocky & expos$1 ! cont9u\s sw>d disappe>s1 & ! conditions ( a cold des]t appe>4 ,a few scatt]$ plants occur1 ceas+ ne> ! sn[-l9e1 ! highe/ be+ usually plants ( simple /ructure l mosses & li*5s4 ,z we h already indicat$1 9 ! case ( ! m\nta9s ( ,europe !re are (t5 glacial %elves at consid]able elevations1 ^: cov]+ ( f9e dbris det]m9es ! gr[? ( peculi>ly f9e grass4 ,! economic value ( ?is grassl& has 9 _m cases 9 ! ,alps induc$ man to de/roy ! =e/ 9 ord] to increase pa/ure l&4 ,! result has (t5 be5 disa/r\s1 = once ! trees are cut d[n ! =e/ soil is rapidly de/roy$ by wea!r+1 especially on slopes1 ! c\rses ( /reams are alt]$ by ! m rapid run-(f1 & widespread flood+ & de/ruction ( pa/ures h sometimes result$4 ,9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 simil>ly1 man's attempt to increase pa/ure l& or arable l& at ! exp5se ( woodl& has (t5 l$ to disa/r\s consequ5ces4 ,we h already spok5 ( ! special features ( ! ,m$it]ranean climate1 & indicat$ t its peculi>ities are reflect$ 9 its vegetation2 we mu/ n[ consid] ?is vegetation 9 a little m detail4 ,! fact t ! region is *iefly visit$ by ! inhabitants ( m nor!rn climates 9 spr+ gives rise to a some:at errone\s impression 9 reg>d to ! plants4 ,9 spr+ ! ,m$it]ranean vegetation is at its be/4 ,! mild w9t]s p]mit ! plants :i* fur!r nor? die d[n or cease to gr[1 to g on bloom+4 ,! ra9s s moi/5 ! soil t ! fir/ w>m days cause v rapid gr[? 9 ^? plants :i* f9i% _! activities be=e ! hot1 dry summ] beg9s4 ,!y mu/ fl[] & se$ 9 spr+1 & die d[n till ! ra9s ( autumn awak5 !m aga94 ,9 our own c\ntry we h a few plants :i* hurry ?r\gh _! activities 9 ?is way4 ,! less] cel&9e1 ! wood anemone & a few o!rs /rive to fl[] & fruit be=e ! =e/ trees are ?ickly clad ) leaves4 ,! sn[drop1 ev5 ! wild hyac9?1 ?\gh x is mu* lat]1 simil>ly limit _! active life to a %ort p]iod 9 spr+4 ,?is ph5om5on1 only sugge/$ 9 our climate1 is v m>k$ 9 ! ,m$it]ranean area4 ,t region is especially *>act]is$ by its ri*ness 9 bulb\s & tub]\s plants4 ,^!1 z all :o h gr[n hyac9?s or n>cissuses "k1 dem& relatively l>ge am\nts ( wat] dur+ _! %ort gr[+ p]iod4 ,9 spr+1 !re=e1 ! %ores ( ! ,m$it]ranean are bright ) _m k9ds ( anemones1 ) n>cissus1 asphodel1 bell hyac9?1 ,allium1 tulips1 & s on1 all awak5$ by ! spr+ w>m? & ! spr+ ra9s4 ,accompany+ !m are _m bright-col\r$ annuals1 also 9 a hurry to race ?r\gh _! life-hi/ory be=e ! t]rible dr\ght ( summ]4 ,n[ also ! grass gr[s1 & ! autumn-s[n corn becomes tall4 ,z ! wea!r gr[s hott] & dri]1 ! plants ) bulb\s & tub]\s roots die d[n to ! gr\nd1 ! annuals die altoge!r1 leav+ _! se$s to wait till ! autumn ra9s be=e !y spr\t4 ,! grasses turn br[n1 & ! peculi> p>*$ appe>ance ( ! ,m$it]ranean summ] spreads ov] ! l&4 ,to a nor!rn visitor at ?is season x is n luxuriance b desolation :i* is ! prevail+ note4 ,except on ! hill slopes !re are no masses ( broad-leaf$ foliage trees--!re is n ! deep bright gre5 *>act]i/ic ( ! summ] woods fur!r nor?4 ,! trees d n rea* a great size2 ! leaves are usually small1 & ! fact t !y /rive to avoid ! sun by arrang+ !mselves ) ! edge upw>ds in/ead ( ! flat surface1 makes !m appe> small] ?an !y are4 ,!y are (t5 ne$le-%ap$1 sometimes %9+ & coat$ ) res91 sometimes silv]y ow+ to a coat+ ( hairs on ! "u surface4 ,_m plants h sp9es or ?orns1 & succul5t plants l agave1 aloe & prickly pe> are common4 ,! abs5ce ( a complete cov]+ ( vegetation causes ! surface soil to dry completely1 & s =m cl\ds ( du/ :i* adds to ! g5]ally desolate appe>ance4 ,inde$1 ! br[n p[d]y appe>ance ( ! soil is "o ( ! po9ts :i* especially /rikes ! /rang]1 accu/om$ to ! d>k]1 moi/] soil ( ! nor?1 always cov]$ ) vegetation1 except :]e man has int]f]$4 ,"h & !re1 h[ev]1 are indications t ev5 ?is p>*$ br[n e>? holds weal? = man4 ,! v9es1 if du/y & f> less luxuriant ?an "o expects1 are load$ ) rip5+ fruit4 ,! gorge\s sc>let fl[]s ( ! d\ble pomegranate gleam amid ! d>k foliage2 ! gn>l$ & twi/$ olives %[ on close inspection masses ( small gre5 fruits2 ! ole&] bu%es are cov]$ ) p9k fl[]s2 !re are great r\nd balls on ! orange & lemon trees1 & _m o!r fruit trees are load$ ) produce4 ,let u sum up fir/ :at man ga9s f ! plants ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 & !n look at "s po9ts 9 reg>d to ! wild plants4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 we see t man takes advantage ( ! rapid gr[? ( annuals 9 ! e>ly "p ( ! ye>4 ,! annuals mo/ useful to him1 "h z else:]e1 are1 ( c\rse1 ! c]eals1 especially :eat1 :i*1 if s[n 9 autumn1 is n\ri%$ by ! w9t] ra9s1 & gr[s rapidly ) ! w>m? ( spr+ to rip5 9 ,may1 ,june or ,july1 accord+ to ! locality4 ,9 ! second place1 c]ta9 trees or %rubs1 by reason ( _! resi/ance to dr\ght1 & _! elaborate root sy/em1 :i* enables !m to ga!r wat] f ! deep] lay]s ( ! soil1 w produce succul5t fruits )\t ne$+ artificial supplies ( wat]4 ,! mo/ important ( ^!1 ?r\gh\t ! :ole ,m$it]ranean area1 are ! v9e & ! olive4 ,! olive supplies ! oil :i* is all ! m necess>y 9 t ! abs5ce ( grass makes pa/oral indu/ries1 & !re=e ! production ( *eese & butt] difficult or impossible except 9 ! high gr\nds1 :ile ! v9e supplies ! w9e :i* ) bread & oil =m ! ess5tial p>ts ( ! diet ( ,m$it]ranean man4 ,! olive tree1 :i* is indig5\s1 may be reg>d$ z "o ( ! mo/ *>act]i/ic trees ( ! area1 & x is int]e/+ to note t ! novice n infrequ5tly confuses x ) ano!r tree1 almo/ z *>act]i/ic ! ev]gre5 or holm oak4 ,! two are n ne>ly relat$1 ! olive belong+ to ! same family z ! lilac & privet1 :ile ! ev]gre5 oak is a true oak4 ,bo? trees1 h[ev]1 %[ simil> adaptations to summ] dr\ght1 & _! resemblance to "o ano!r is a good example ( conv]g5ce due to a simil> environm5t4 ,bo? h small ev]gre5 leaves2 small t !y may n lose too mu* wat] 9 summ]1 ev]gre5 t !y may assimilate ev5 dur+ ! w9t]4 ,bo? h _! leaves silv]y b5ea?1 :i* aga9 prev5ts loss ( wat]2 bo? h gn>l$ trunks1 bran*+ l[ d[n1 9 ord] t ! leaves may avoid ! dry upp] lay]s ( ! air4 ,adaptations ( ?is k9d are pres5t to a great] or less degree 9 all ! trees :i* are tol]ant ( ,m$it]ranean conditions1 & _m ( ^! trees yield useful fruits4 ,9 addition to ! cultivat$ plants m5tion$1 a great numb] ( o!rs are gr[n )9 ! area1 z we %all see lat]1 b ! po9t ( int]e/ is t ! plants :i* h be5 ( importance 9 ! hi/ory ( ! region h be5 ei!r annuals :i* rip5$ e>ly1 or fruit-be>+ trees ) special adaptations to resi/ dr\ght4 ,ap>t f ! annuals & ! bulb\s & tub]\s plants already describ$1 ! wild plants are *iefly %rubs or /unt$ trees ) simil> dr\ght-resi/+ *>act]s4 ,dur+ ! long ages he has inhabit$ ! ,m$it]ranean1 man has d\btless contribut$ l>gely to ! de/ruction ( ! =e/s :i* are n[1 z we h se51 repres5t$ by ! /unt$ scrub or maquis4 ,b on climatic gr\nds we _c suppose t ! ,m$it]ranean =e/s _h ev] ! luxuriance ( ^? fur!r nor?1 or ( ! tropical =e/s ( ! s\?4 ,:]e !re is suffici5t ra9 *e/nut woods occur1 b ?is is only on ! hill slopes4 ,above ! *e/nut1 bee* may occur1 z 9 ,sicily4 ,! m>itime p9e & ! ,corsican p9e =m op5 woods 9 ! damp] places1 & ! picturesque /one p9e1 ) its r\nd$ head1 is v *>act]i/ic4 ,we h already m5tion$ ! ev]gre5 or holm oak z common1 & ! cork oak occurs abundantly 9 "s places4 ,^! trees1 ) ! cypress1 mu/ h =m$ ! primitive =e/s1 & !y /ill con/itute ! mo/ important =e/ trees ( ! area4 ,! occurr5ce ( a native palm 7,*amrops7 is int]e/+ z sugge/+ ! w>m? ( ! climate1 & ev5 on ! ,european %ores ! date palm is ext5sively plant$1 ?\gh its true home is ! m>g9 ( ! ,african & ,arabian des]ts4 ,( ! *>act]i/ic %rubs ! mo/ /rik+ are p]haps ! _m species ( ,ci/us1 ) l>ge almo/ rose-l fl[]s1 & leaves :i* attempt to adapt !mselves to ! climate by _m diff]5t devices4 ,sometimes !y are /iff & lea!ry1 sometimes res9\s1 sometimes hairy4 ,_m plants 9 ! area h a coat+ ( res9 on _! leaves4 ,?is1 no d\bt1 pres]ves !m aga9/ loss ( wat]1 b also probably protects aga9/ graz+ animals4 ,goats ?rive 9 ! ,m$it]ranean p>tly because ( ! ca?olicity ( _! ta/e 9 vegetation1 & 9 consequ5ce ! plants h _h to protect !mselves aga9/ _! appetite z well z aga9/ dr\ght4 ,only ^? ) "s disagreeable quality1 hairs1 sp9es1 res91 /rong flav\r1 etc41 c\ld hope to protect !mselves 9 ! dry season1 :5 grass is virtually abs5t4 ,x is 9 consequ5ce common to f9d aromatic or /rongly-flav\r$ plants ) gl&ul> leaves2 lav5d]1 rosem>y1 myrtle1 etc41 are examples4 ,o!r %rubby plants associat$ ) ! ,m$it]ranean are ole&]1 ! noble laurel1 ! tree hea?1 arbutus1 _m k9ds ( broom1 & g5]ally ev]gre5 %rubs specially adapt$ to resi/ dr\ght4 ,let u turn f ?is picture to ! appe>ance pres5t$ by ,c5tral & ,nor!rn ,europe4 ,z we h se51 ! =e/ :i* once cov]$ mo/ ( ! area1 except ! /eppe region ( s\!rn ,russia1 has l>gely disappe>$1 b en\gh rema9s to enable u to recon/ruct ! picture ( ! orig9al =e/4 ,z contra/$ ) ! 7*iefly7 ev]gre5 woodl& ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 ! =e/s ( ! l[ gr\nds are "h decidu\s4 ,9 summ] clo!d 9 magnific5t foliage1 well adapt$ to give (f enorm\s quantities ( wat]1 9 w9t] ! trees /& tall & b>e1 expos+ no?+ b _! bran*es to ! w9t] bla/s4 ,:ile ! buds ( ,m$it]ranean plants h no special means ( protection1 ! typical =e/ trees ( ,c5tral ,europe h _! buds c>efully %ea!d 9 scales1 clo!d 9 hairs1 or coat$ ) res91 to keep out alike ! cold & ! damp ( ! nor!rn w9t]4 ,:ile ! leaves ( ,m$it]ranean plants are usually small1 (t5 coat$ ) hairs b5ea?1 (t5 res9\s1 & s on1 ! =e/ trees fur!r nor? h l>ge leaves ( delicate texture1 ) no special protection aga9/ dr\ght4 ,aga91 :ile ! luxuriant =e/ ( ! tropics includes _m diff]5t species ( trees1 ! decidu\s =e/s ( cool temp]ate regions conta9 few species1 & are (t5 pure woods1 t is1 consi/ ( "o dom9ant species1 =m+ bee* woods or oak woods1 & s on4 ,! d5se %ade ( ! bee* makes und]gr[? difficult or impossible1 b ! o!r woods h a complicat$ und]gr[? ( _m diff]5t k9ds ( plants1 especially pron\nc$ 9 spr+ be=e ! leaves appe> on ! trees4 ,b ?is und]gr[? nev] rea*es ! luxuriance t x does 9 ! tropical =e/1 & creep]s & climb+ plants are few4 ,z we asc5d f ! l[ gr\nd to ! high]1 or z we travel nor?w>ds to high latitudes1 ! broad-leaf$ decidu\s =e/s are replac$ by conif]\s ones4 ,european conif]s1 ) ! exception ( ! l>*1 are ev]gre51 & all are m tol]ant ( cold & w9d ?an decidu\s trees4 ,p9es1 spruce1 fir1 l>*1 & silv] fir are ! mo/ important k9ds4 ,bo? at high altitudes & 9 high latitudes ^! conif]s are (t5 accompani$ by bir*1 :i* is n a cone-be>+ tree1 b is v tol]ant ( cold & w9d4 ,to ! nor? !re comes soon] or lat] a limit beyond :i* ! cold & w9ds make fur!r tree gr[? impossible4 ,"h we come to a tundra region1 :]e ! place ( trees is tak5 by l[-gr[+ %rubs1 ) small leaves & o!r adaptations to ensure aga9/ excessive loss ( wat]4 ,x is1 z x 71 ! reappe>ance ( ! ,m$it]ranean type1 b "h ! cause is1 n ! abs5ce ( wat]1 b ! fact t ! cold makes x impossible = ! roots to absorb x4 ,a condition ( physiological dr\ght results1 & only plants well adapt$ to prev5t undue loss ( wat] c resi/ su* conditions ( life4 ,a some:at simil> type ( vegetation occurs ov] va/ areas 9 ! m nor!rn p>ts ( ,europe1 =m+ ! moors & hea?s ( mu* ( ,scotl&1 ( p>ts ( ,engl& & ,irel&1 ( p>ts ( ,g]many1 & s on4 ,"h ! pres5ce ( peat produces conditions v unfav\rable to plant life1 except to c]ta9 %rubby plants su* z hea!r & o!r plants ( ! hea!r family1 junip]1 bog myrtle1 & s on1 & "s grasses & s$ges1 etc41 all ( :i* h special adaptations to life 9 a peaty soil4 ,ov] ! l>ge areas1 !re=e1 cov]$ by ^! hea?s1 trees are abs5t1 or few1 & ?is /unt$ %rubby vegetation takes _! place4 ,l>ge areas ( natural grassl&1 except = ! tracts ( pa/ure l& already describ$ 9 ! m\nta9 regions1 are infrequ5t 9 ,europe4 ,!y occur 9 ,s\!rn ,russia & 9 ! ,hung>ian pla91 & =m "p ( t great s]ies ( /eppes & pla9s :i* /ret*es into ,asia1 & passes into a region ( des]ts4 ,! conditions fav\rable to ! gr[? ( grass "h1 in/ead ( trees1 seem to be purely climatic4 ,v important is ! preval5ce ( /rong cold w9ds dur+ w9t]1 :i* is a p]iod ( dr\ght4 ,! scanty ra9s come 9 e>ly summ]1 :i* suits grasses admirably1 :ile ! total precipitation is too slight = trees4 ,! summ]s are hot1 & ! ra9s cease e>ly & give place to a p]iod ( dr\ght1 v injuri\s to trees1 :ile x injures ! grasses little1 ow+ to ! fact t !y h _h "t to make _! gr[?4 ,! abundant natural gr[? ( grass makes ^! /eppe regions well suit$ to ! pa/oral indu/ries1 :i* t5d1 z civilisation progresses1 to give place to agriculture4 ,to sum up1 we h se5 t look+ at ,europe z a :ole ?ree great plant =mations are repres5t$4 ,we h1 fir/1 ! cool temp]ate =e/1 :i* once ext5d$ ov] ! great] "p ( ! cont95t1 :]ev] ! conditions 7 suitable4 ,?is has n[ l>gely giv5 place to arable l&4 ,next1 we f9d r\nd ! ,m$it]ranean sea1 & 9 ^? great p59sulas & isl&s :i* are ba!d by x1 a zone ( modifi$ woodl& pass+ into scrub1 rem>kable = ! rapid gr[? ( annuals 9 ! e>ly "p ( ! ye>1 & = ! abundance ( trees be>+ useful fruits4 ,f9ally1 l9k+ ,europe to temp]ate ,asia1 we h belts ( /eppe l&1 *>act]is$ by a luxuriant gr[? ( grass 9 ! e>ly summ]1 & fitt$ by nature = pa/oral indu/ries1 :i* d n ?rive ne> ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,ano!r way ( putt+ ! same facts w\ld be to say t ,europe prop] is a region ( temp]ate =e/1 l9k$ to ,africa by scrub l& pass+ into des]t1 & to ,asia by /eppe l& pass+ into des]t4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! flora ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 ow+ to ! size ( ! cont95t1 (f]s m resemblance to t ( ,asia ?an to ,europe4 ,be>+ 9 m9d :at has be5 already said ab\t ! /ructure ( ,nor? ,am]ica--) its we/]n m\nta9 range & ea/]n upl&s enclos+ betwe5 !m a region ( mod]ate relief--& also :at has be5 said 9 reg>d to its climates & to ! influ5ce ( climate ^u vegetation1 x is relatively easy to d$uce ! ma9 po9ts 9 reg>d to ! flora4 ,to ! f> nor? !re is a treeless tundra region1 q comp>able to t :i* occurs ov] va/ areas 9 ,nor? ,asia1 & on a r$uc$ scale 9 ! nor!rn "p ( ! cont95t ( ,europe4 ,next we h a wide b& ( pr$om9antly conif]\s =e/1 :i*1 al?\gh its species are diff]5t1 yet 9 broad outl9e is entirely homolog\s ) ! conif]\s =e/ f\nd 9 nor!rn ,asia1 s\? ( ! tundra region4 ,9 ,canada ?is =e/ consi/s ( spruces & l>*es1 ! species be+ peculi> to ! cont95t4 ,m+l$ ) ! conif]s are small] numb]s ( ! h>di] decidu\s trees1 su* z bir*es1 popl>s1 & will[s4 ,:at we h already said z to ! climatic diff]5ces betwe5 ! ea/]n & we/]n sides ( cont95ts w at once sugge/ t ?is b& ( =e/ is n likely to run directly across ! cont95t f ea/ to we/4 ,9 po9t ( fact x /ret*es f ,labrador 9 a nor?-we/]ly direction to ,alaska1 leav+ almo/ ! :ole ( ! we/]n seabo>d to be occupi$ by ano!r type4 ,?is type is ! extraord9>ily luxuriant & beautiful we/]n =e/1 consi/+ = ! mo/ "p ( conif]s4 ,x is l>gely ^! conif]s :i* h enri*$ ,european p>ks & g>d5s )9 rec5t ye>s1 & al?\gh x is p]haps ! great ,sequoia 7,well+tonia7 gigantea :i* has mo/ impress$ popul> imag9ation1 x mu/ be rememb]$ t size & luxuriance are *>act]i/ic ( _m species4 ,?is we/]n =e/ /ret*es d[n ! we/]n seabo>d to ! ,/ate ( ,cali=nia1 &1 inde$1 p]si/s until increas+ aridity makes =e/ gr[? impossible4 ,its great luxuriance1 comp>$ ) ! scanti] =e/s ( ! ,m$it]ranean region 9 ,europe1 is p>tly to be ascrib$ to a great] ra9fall1 & d\btless p>tly to man's int]f]5ce1 = ! orig9al =e/s ( ! ,m$it]ranean mu/ h be5 l>gely de/roy$1 z ! we/]n ,am]ican =e/s are 9 process ( be+4 ,"o mu/ rememb] also t ! proximity ( m\nta9 ranges to ! seabo>d 9 we/]n ,nor? ,am]ica gives a heavy ra9fall1 & suitable places = =e/ gr[?4 ,! fact t ! trees are pr$om9antly conif]\s gives !m great resi/ance to ! summ] dr\ght4 ,9 front ( ! m\nta9 ranges ! coa/al pla9 is occupi$ by an ev]gre5 scrub vegetation comp>able to t ( ! l[l&s ( ! ,m$it]ranean bas94 ,9 ,briti% ,columbia1 :]e ! ,cascade ,range lies at no great di/ance f ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 ! we/]n conif]\s =e/ practically clo!s ! :ole area f ! coa/ to ! ma9 range1 b fur!r s\?1 :]e ! ,cascade ,range & its cont9uation ! ,si]ra ,nevada are widely sep>at$ f ! ma9 range1 a dry & semi-des]t region occurs1 betwe5 ! two1 :i* be>s a des]t type ( vegetation1 includ+ especially a plant relat$ to our wormwood1 call$ sagebru%1 ) cactuses 9 ! w>m] p>ts4 ,ano!r area :i* is too arid to c>ry trees1 except :]e local conditions raise ! ra9fall1 ext5ds f ,texas nor?w>ds to ab\t ! latitude ( ,edmonton or ,battle=d1 & lies 9 ! ra9 %ad[ ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s4 ,?is is ! region ( ! ,great ,pla9s1 mo/ly too arid to c>ry any?+ b h]ds ( cattle1 & mo/ly =m+ natural pa/ure1 be+ ?us analog\s to ! /eppes ( ,asia4 ,ea/w>d ! ra9fall increases1 & we pass f ! area ( unreclaim$ pa/ure to ! prairies1 n[ l>gely laid d[n to :eat & o!r food plants4 ,s\?w>d ! ,great ,pla9s pass into ! des]ts ( ,mexico1 b nor?w>ds !y are sep>at$ f ! nor!rn conif]\s =e/ by a belt ( asp51 & x is 9 ?is region t ! ,canadians are /eadily pu%+ ! cultivation ( :eat into ! pla9s1 :]ev] ! local ra9fall makes ?is possible4 ,s f> we h left s\?-ea/]n ,canada & ! :ole ( ! ea/]n & s\?-ea/]n ,/ates out ( consid]ation4 ,speak+ v broadly1 we may say t all ?is area is clo!d by a =e/ ( mix$ conif]\s & broad-leav$ trees :i* is comp>able to ! =e/ :i* cov]s ! great] "p ( temp]ate ,europe4 ,b x is n to be expect$ t a =e/ :i* ext5ds f ! nor!rn %ores ( ! ,gulf ( ,/4 ,lawr5ce to ! extremity ( ! p59sula ( ,florida1 t is1 ?r\gh ab\t #be degrees ( latitude1 %\ld be uni=m ?r\gh\t4 ,9 po9t ( fact1 botani/s di/+ui% ?ree sep>ate zones4 ,9 s\?-ea/]n ,canada & ! ,new ,engl& /ates ! ,weym\? p9e 7,p9us /robus7 pr$om9ates1 be+ accompani$ by limes1 a%es1 maples1 oaks1 elms1 *e/nuts1 & s =?4 ,fur!r s\?1 & especially fur!r we/1 ext5d+ to ! ,mississippi pla9s1 !re is a decidu\s =e/ extraord9>ily ri* 9 species4 ,practically all our common g5]a ( =e/ trees are repres5t$1 sometimes by v f9e species1 b 9 addition !re are _m g5]a ) no ,european repres5tatives4 ,v /rik+ is ! abundance ( magnolias 7:5ce ! "n ( magnolia =e/ sometimes giv5 to ?is type71 & species ( ! laurel family1 z well z ( liquidamb>4 ,! magnolias & liquidamb> are especially int]e/+1 because !y once occurr$ 9 ,europe1 _! disappe>ance !re be+ probably caus$ by ! glacial p]iod z expla9$ on p4 #gh4 ,we h emphasis$ above 7p4 #acg7 ! luxuriance ( ! =e/s ( ! we/ coa/ ( ! ,/ates1 b x %\ld be notic$ t luxuriant z its conif]s are1 !re is a rem>kable pov]ty 9 broad-leav$ =ms1 z comp>$ ) ^! ea/]n =e/s1 & ?is ev5 9 ! w>m] p>ts ( ! we/ coa/4 ,! reason is probably ! same z 9 ! ,m$it]ranean region 9 ,europe4 ,! exi/5ce ( a belt ( des]t to ! s\? ( ! pres5t ,m$it]ranean region ( we/]n ,am]ica made x difficult = ! trees to migrate s\?w>ds at ! onset ( cold conditions 9 ! glacial p]iod1 & ?us _m =ms1 :i* are kn[n to h exi/$ 9 ,cali=nia 9 ,t]ti>y times1 h n[ completely disappe>$ f ! region1 :ile !y p]si/ 9 ! ea/]n =e/s to ?is day4 ,! ?ird type ( =e/ :i* occurs 9 ! ea/]n half ( ,nor? ,am]ica is ! ra9 =e/ ( ,florida & p>ts ( ! adjac5t /ates4 ,"h ! ra9fall is abundant all ! ye> r\nd1 ) a summ] maximum1 & ! temp]ature is high4 ,!re is ?us no ne$ to economise wat]1 & :]e ! soil p]mits !re is a luxuriant type ( =e/1 :i* recalls t ( ! tropics1 al?\gh x is poor]4 ,:]e soil conditions are unfav\rable we h p9e woods1 conif]s ?r\gh\t ! ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates always tak+ advantage ( conditions relatively unfav\rable to ! broad-leaf$ trees4 ,?us if we foll[ ! ea/]n seabo>d ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates f ,labrador to ,florida we pass ?r\gh ! foll[+ floral regions3-- 7#a7 ,conif]\s =e/1 ) relatively few species1 7#b7 mix$ conif]\s & decidu\s =e/ ) *iefly ! h>d] types ( decidu\s trees1 7#c7 pr$om9antly decidu\s =e/ ) _m ( ! l>g]-leaf$ & m delicate =ms1 & f9ally 7#d7 =e/ ( ! sub-tropical ra9y type1 int]mix$ ) conif]\s woods on ! b>r5 s&y soil & 9 ! swamps4 ,! we/]n coa/ %[s m uni=mity1 ! we/]n type ( conif]\s =e/ /ret*+ f ,alaska to ,cali=nia1 ?\gh x is ri*]1 & m luxuriant 9 ! w>m] regions :5 moi/ure is /ill obta9able4 ,z ! moi/ure dim9i%es ! =e/ dies away & des]t or semi-des]t conditions sup]v5e4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,! ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,animal ,,life ,9 ! la/ *apt] we look$ at a few ( ! int]e/+ g5]alisations :i* h em]g$ ( late ye>s f ! /udy ( plant di/ribution4 ,an enorm\s am\nt ( detail$ inve/igation _h be5 done be=e ^! g5]alisations 7 arriv$ at1 & ?\gh /ill mu* rema9s to be done1 yet ! broad l9es ( a sci5ce ( plant di/ribution may n[ be said to be e/abli%$4 ,! sci5tific /udy ( animal di/ribution has n yet rea*$ a correspond+ /age ( advancem5t1 p>tly no d\bt because ! dep5d5ce ( ! m highly organis$ & active animal ^u ! physical conditions is less close ?an t ( ! /ation>y plant1 s t ! subject is m difficult4 ,facts are accumulat+ on all sides1 b ! subject is /ill r at ! level ( collect+ in=mation ?an at t ( lay+ d[n broad g5]alisations4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 indications ( progress 9 _m directions1 & an attempt w be made "h to sugge/ "s ( ! l9es along :i* rese>* is especially busy at ! pres5t "t4 ,9 speak+ ( plants we conf9$ our att5tion exclusively to l& plants1 = ! reason t aquatic plants are usually small 9 size1 relatively simple 9 /ructure1 ( some:at limit$ v]tical di/ribution1 ow+ to _! dep5d5ce ^u light1 & ( little direct importance to man4 ,9 consid]+ animals1 on ! o!r h&1 we _c exclude ! aquatic =ms1 :i* are (t5 ( great human importance4 ,9 _m regions man dep5ds l>gely1 sometimes ev5 exclusively1 on ! animals ( ! sea = 8 food4 ,we %all1 !n1 beg9 ) "s acc\nt ( aquatic animals1 consid]+ ! subject1 z be=e1 especially f ! po9t ( view ( ! inhabitants ( ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,beg9n+ ) ! sea we f9d t ! sci5tific /udy ( m>9e animals receiv$ an enorm\s impetus f ! "w ( ! ,*all5g] exp$ition4 ,! results ( t exp$ition appe>$ 9 _m l>ge volumes1 :i* =m a conspicu\s feature 9 any complete sci5tific libr>y & conta9 a mass ( useful mat]ial4 ,! ,*all5g] exp$ition 0 foll[$ by _m o!rs1 ,european & ,am]ican1 & ! result is t we n[ "k a great deal ab\t m>9e animals & _! di/ribution4 ,fur!r1 ! ,fi%]y ,bo>ds ( v>i\s ,gov]nm5ts c>ry on cont9u\s obs]vations on ! conditions ( life 9 ! seas ne> _! coa/s1 :i* h add$ & are add+ enorm\sly to our k4 ,we _c "h consid] 9 detail ! v>i\s facts br\ght to light by ^! means4 ,only a few g5]al po9ts c be t\*$ ^u4 ,"o int]e/+ g5]alisation is t ! life ( ! ocean c be divid$ into ?ree gr\ps3 ! life ( ! littoral or %ore zone1 ! life ( ! op5 ocean 7pelagic fauna71 & ! life ( ! great ocean dep?s 7abyssal fauna74 ,! la/1 ?\gh ( great zoological int]e/1 is s remote f human life t we ne$ n consid] x4 ,! pelagic =ms include bo? ! small delicate organisms :i* float passively ) ! ocean curr5ts1 & also p[]ful swimm]s l _m fi%1 & aquatic mammals su* z :ales & seals4 ,! littoral =ms live 9 ! region :i* is )9 ! rea* ( l& influ5ces1 t is1 f l[-tide m>k to ! edge ( ! ,cont95tal ,%elf 7cf4 p4 #bg74 ,among =ms directly important to man !y include _m fi%2 cru/aceans su* z crabs & lob/]s2 %ell-fi% su* z oy/]s1 mussels1 clams1 etc42 less important =ms su* z sea-ur*9s1 :i* are ext5sively eat5 9 ! ,m$it]ranean2 sponges1 an important article ( comm]ce2 ! v>i\s corals1 especially ! preci\s coral1 & s on4 ,( ! useful m>9e animals1 ^? :i* are mo/ readily captur$ are ! littoral =ms1 _m ( :i*1 on %ores :]e ! tides are well m>k$1 are expos$1 or at lea/ br\ght )9 easy rea*1 by ! daily ebb & fl[ ( ! tide1 & c be obta9$ ) ! m9imum ( app>atus4 ,! ext5sive %ell-m\nds f\nd on _m %ores1 e4 g4 on ^? ( ,d5m>k1 %[ at h[ e>ly a date man avail$ himself ( ! abundant food supply to be obta9$ on ! %ore rocks4 ,all edible animals f\nd 9 ! sea are fi% to m>itime populations1 b fi% 9 ! re/rict$ s5se are usually m active1 & require m skill = _! capture ?an ! less intellig5t molluscs or cru/aceans1 & 7 probably n us$ at s e>ly a date4 ,!y are by no means equally di/ribut$ 9 all seas1 & _! di/ribution %[s _m po9ts ( int]e/4 ,we mu/ notice1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 t ! wa/e ( ! l& is ( great importance 9 fe$+ m>9e =ms1 :e!r directly or indirectly4 ,m>9e animals1 !re=e1 occur mo/ abundantly ov] ! ,cont95tal ,%elf1 :]e !y are )9 rea* ( ! food br\ght d[n by ! riv]s f ! l&4 ,aga91 _m fi%1 or ! organisms ^u :i* fi% fe$1 dep5d l>gely ^u ^? m9ute plants call$ diatoms :i* float 9 ! upp] lay]s ( ! wat]s ( ! ocean4 ,^! are especially abundant 9 ! cold] seas1 :i* d\btless helps to expla9 ! abundance ( fi% 9 high latitudes4 ,^! diatoms1 l _m o!r small organisms 9 ! sea1 are swept ab\t by ! ocean curr5ts1 ^: c\rse greatly influ5ces ! movem5ts ( fi%4 ,we saw 9 ! case ( =e/s t hot climates conduce to a great v>iety ( species1 :ile 9 cold] climates ! species are few1 b ! numb] ( individuals v great4 ,some?+ ( ! same sort seems to occur ) fi%es4 ,9 w>m seas ! numb] ( species is v great1 :ile 9 cold] seas !re are few] species1 b ^? :i* d occur are sometimes f\nd 9 va/ numb]s4 ,=tunately = man ^! prolific nor!rn species are (t5 edible1 :]eas 9 w>m seas poison\s or in$ible =ms are common4 ,! valuable cod family is f\nd *iefly 9 high latitudes4 ,! consequ5ce ( ! facts j describ$ is t valuable fi%]ies t5d to occur 9 cool or cold climates r ?an hot ones1 & because ( ! dep5d5ce ( s _m =ms on ! ,cont95tal ,%elf1 !y occur 9 ! nor!rn or l& hemisph]e r ?an 9 ! s\!rn or oceanic "o4 ,! mo/ valuable fi%]ies 9 ! _w seem to be ^? (f ,newf\ndl&1 :]e ! broad ,cont95tal ,%elf1 =m+ ! s-call$ banks1 fe$s myriads ( cod4 ,! m+l+ ( ! wat]s br\ght by ! cold ,labrador curr5ts ) ^? br\ght by ! w>m ,gulf ,/ream p]haps influ5ces ?is m>vell\s abundance ( fi%1 z does also ! wa/e br\ght by ! iceb]gs4 ,next to ! banks ( ,newf\ndl& ! mo/ valuable fi%+ gr\nd is ! %all[ ,nor? ,sea1 :i*1 z we h se51 lies on ! surface ( ! ,cont95tal ,%elf4 ,fi% are mu* m abundant "h ?an on ! n>r[] %elf on ! we/]n coa/ ( ,brita91 & ! weal? ( ! ,nor? ,sea has be5 an important factor 9 ! developm5t ( ! c\ntries bord]+ x4 ,! w>m1 salt1 relatively deep1 & tide-less ,m$it]ranean is n ne>ly s ri* 9 food fi%es z ! m nor!rly seas1 a fact reflect$ 9 ! l>ge importation ( dri$ fi% alike f ,newf\ndl& & f ! region ( ! ,nor? ,sea4 ,b ?is is an economic & n a zoological /atem5t1 = ! ,m$it]ranean is 9 reality ri*] 9 fi% species ?an ! ,nor? ,sea1 9 ?is respect1 z 9 "s o!rs1 approa*+ tropical regions4 ,among ! economically important fi% are ! tunny1 a v l>ge =m alli$ to ! mack]el1 :i* is dri$1 & s>d9es & an*ovies1 :i* are pres]v$ 9 oil4 ,o!rwise ! fi% are eat5 fre%1 & d n ent] into g5]al trade4 ,fre%-wat] fi% are abundant all ov] ,europe1 b ) "s exceptions !y are n greatly priz$ 9 ^? c\ntries :]e ! bett]-flav\r$ m>9e fi% c be obta9$4 ,else:]e1 z 9 ,russia1 ,g]many1 & p>ts ( ,france1 !y become important4 ,mu* m valuable ?an fre%-wat] fi% 9 ! /rict s5se are ! v>i\s k9ds ( salmon1 :i* come up ! riv]s to bre$1 b sp5d mu* "t also 9 salt wat]4 ,9 ! riv]s ( ,scotl& & ,sc&9avia salmon are /ill v important1 b ! fi%]ies 9 bo? cases are insignificant :5 comp>$ ) ^? ( we/]n ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,salmon are inhabitants ( temp]ate wat]s1 & 9 ,nor? ,am]ica d n ext5d fur!r s\? ?an ! riv]s fl[+ into ! nor? ( ! ,gulf ( ,cali=nia4 ,(f ! coa/ ( ,alaska & ,briti% ,columbia1 especially ! =m]1 !y are enorm\sly abundant1 & be+ caught 9 quantities :i* f> exce$ ! local dem& are l>gely cann$ = export4 ,x is int]e/+ to note t 9 reg>d to fre%-wat] fi%1 z ) m>9e =ms1 ! nor!rn "p ( ! _w is especially ri* 9 edible species1 z comp>$ alike ) ! s\!rn hemisph]e & ) ! tropics4 ,! salmon family is conf9$ to ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 & ! c>p family1 ?\gh n peculi>1 is l>gely repres5t$ 9 ! nor?4 ,to x belong ! :itefi%1 :i* =m important food fi% 9 _m p>ts ( ,am]ica4 ,/urgeon1 :i* are important 9 ,russia1 occur 9 ! great riv]s ( ea/]n ,europe1 & 9 p>ts ( ,asia1 & also on ! ea/]n coa/ ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 & (f ,cali=nia4 ,turn+ next to ! di/ribution ( l& animals )9 ! ,european area1 ! fir/ po9t is to note t = ! globe at l>ge zoologi/s employ zoogeographical divisions bas$ *iefly ^u ! di/ribution ( ! l& mammals4 ,! reasons = ?is are manifold4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 mammals are ( relatively rec5t orig91 & 9 tak+ acc\nt ( _! spread ov] ! globe1 we may assume t 9 broad outl9e ! cont95ts1 or at lea/ ! deep oceans1 7 mu* ! same :5 ! exi/+ mammals 7 evolv$ z at pres5t4 ,?is naturally simplifies ! problem1 = if we divid$ ! globe into regions on ! basis ( ! di/ribution ( reptiles1 = example1 we %\ld f9d x necess>y to take acc\nt ( _m diff]5ces betwe5 ! _w 9 :i* ! fir/ reptiles arose & ! _w z x is at pres5t4 ,aga91 ! *ances ( l& mammals pass+ f "o region to ano!r1 except by ! cross+ ( l& surfaces1 are small4 ,?us ! occurr5ce ( simil> l& mammals 9 two regions n[ widely sep>at$ is almo/ c]ta9 pro( ( a =m] l& connection betwe5 ! two regions4 ,! difficulty :i* mo/ l& mammals f9d 9 cross+ m\nta9 *a9s1 or des]ts1 or consid]able ext5ts ( wat]1 makes x easy to def9e zoogeographical regions sep>at$ f "o ano!r by ! exi/5ce ( su* b>ri]s to di/ribution z !y are call$4 ,f9ally1 mammals are highly organis$ animals ( relatively l>ge size1 & _! di/ribution is m easily /udi$ ?an t ( insects1 = in/ance4 ,)\t go+ into ! zoogeographical regions 9 detail1 we may note t !re is1 z already /at$1 consid]able resemblance betwe5 ! mammals ( ,europe1 ,asia1 ,africa & ,nor? ,am]ica1 t is1 ( ! l& hemisph]e1 :ile ,s\? ,am]ica1 :i* 0 = long isolat$ f ,nor? ,am]ica1 has a peculi> & relatively primitive fauna1 & ,au/ralia1 ^: isolation has la/$ long]1 has an ev5 m peculi> & a mu* m primitive fauna4 ,:5 we look at ! fauna ( ! great l& mass =m$ by ! cont95ts ( ,europe1 ,asia1 ,africa & ,nor? ,am]ica1 sometimes call$ by zoogeograph]s ! ,arctogic realm1 we f9d t ,nor? ,am]ica diff]s f ! ea/]n l& mass z reg>ds its l& mammals 9 sev]al respects4 ,?\gh long sep>at$ f ,s\? ,am]ica x has be5 connect$ long en\gh = "s ( ! s\!rn =ms to f9d _! way nor?w>ds1 s t we f9d skunks1 raccoons1 & o!r mammals /rik+ly diff]5t f analog\s =ms f\nd 9 ! ,old ,_w4 ,aga91 x is relatively s long s9ce !re 0 any free communication betwe5 ! ea/]n & we/]n hemisph]es t ! two faunas h _h "t to div]ge )\t de/roy+ ! fundam5tal resemblance4 ,beg9n+ ) ! fauna ( ! ,old ,_w1 we f9d t no effective b>ri] ( any sort sep>ates ! animals ( ,europe1 ev5 ( we/]n ,europe1 f ! animals ( temp]ate ,asia1 ev5 ( ea/]n ,asia4 ,"r across f ! ,briti% ,isles to ,japan1 ?r\gh ab\t a hundr$ & fifty degrees ( longitude1 !re is great g5]al simil>ity 9 ! l& animals4 ,to ! s\?1 on ! o!r h&1 ! ,atlas m\nta9s & ! ,african des]t cut (f ! great] "p ( ! cont95t ( ,africa1 & ea/w>ds ! transv]se m\nta9 *a9s1 no less ?an ! diff]5ce ( climate & ! cold1 b>r5 nature ( ! upl&s ( c5tral ,asia1 cut (f ! ri* fauna ( ! p59sula ( ,india ) ,fur!r ,india1 etc41 f ! habitable regions ( temp]ate ,asia1 ) _! scanti] fauna4 ,we are ?us left ) ! conception ( a v l>ge & tol]ably uni=m zoological region1 /ret*+ "r across ,europe & temp]ate & nor!rn ,asia4 ,?is is ! ,palarctic region ( zoogeograph]s4 ,! ,european section ( x is some:at impov]i%$ z comp>$ ) ! ,asiatic section1 p>tly p]haps because ( ! effects ( ! ice1 & c]ta9ly also because = long ages ,europe has be5 d5sely populat$1 & ! l>g] wild animals h ?us be5 ext]m9at$4 ,asia1 ) its nor!rn =e/s & its m s\!rly /eppes1 has always be5 a great res]voir ( life1 :i* has p]iodically ov]fl[$ into ,europe4 ,"s ( ^! ov]fl[+ animals1 l ! black & ! br[n rats1 succe$$ 9 e/abli%+ !mselves v firmly2 o!rs1 l ! saiga antelope1 di$ out rapidly except 9 ! extreme ea/ ( ! ,european area4 ,x is possible t fur!r inve/igation w %[ t n ! mammals only1 b l& animals 9 g5]al c be gr\p$ accord+ to _! habitat l plants1 b s f> ! attempts made 9 ?is direction h be5 t5tative only4 ,g5]ally1 we may say t ! mammals ( ,c5tral ,europe are ( ! woodl& type1 b no detail$ classification into /eppe & woodl& animals exi/s4 ,x may be useful1 !re=e1 to indicate ! *ief k9ds ( mammals f\nd 9 ! ,european area1 gr\p$ accord+ to aff9ity1 9 ! abs5ce ( a geographical classification4 ,mammals1 ap>t f ! egg-lay+ monotremes1 & ! m>supials ( ,au/ralia1 are divid$ into n9e ord]s1 & ( ^!1 "o1 t includ+ ! anteat]s1 etc41 ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 ,africa & ,india1 is entirely unrepres5t$ 9 ,europe4 ,ano!r1 ! ,cetaceans1 or :ales1 has no l& repres5tatives2 & ! same is true ( ! ab]rant sea-c[s1 ?\gh _! ance/ors liv$ on l& & occurr$ 9 ,egypt4 ,exclud+ ^! ord]s we are left ) six :i* h ,european repres5tatives4 ,^! are ! foll[+3-- ,primates1 or monkeys & apes4 ,insectivores1 or insect-eat+ mammals1 su* z moles1 %rews & h$gehogs4 ,*iropt]a1 or bats4 ,ungulates1 or ho($ animals1 includ+ horses1 cattle1 %eep1 de]1 pigs1 etc4 ,c>nivores1 or fle%-eat]s1 includ+ lions1 cats1 foxes1 dogs1 etc4 ,rod5ts1 or gnaw+ animals1 among :i* are rats1 mice1 squirrels1 etc4 ,! ,primates are repres5t$ by "o =m only1 ! ,b>b>y ape1 f\nd 9 ,gibralt>4 ,bats are num]\s1 b are ( less geographical int]e/ ?an l& =ms4 ,! rema9+ f\r ord]s are all important4 ,! ,ungulates include ! l>ge/ l& mammals1 & _! size & conspicu\s nature h l$ to ! gradual replacem5t ( ! wild =ms by dome/icat$ ones4 ,only a v few1 su* z de]1 wild goats 7ibex71 ! wild bo>1 ! wild %eep 7m\fflon7 ( ,corsica1 manage to survive1 & t mo/ly by aid ( special protection4 ,! pres5ce ( ! l>ge wild =ms is incompatible ) almo/ any =m ( agriculture z is (t5 prov$ disa/r\sly 9 ,africa1 h5ce man's ru?less w>f>e ^u !m4 ,b if man has de/roy$ ! l>ge ungulates he has f\nd himself unable ev5 to r$uce ! numb]s ( ! ,rod5ts1 :o ga9 9 _m ways by civilisation4 ,! de/ruction ( _! rivals1 ! grass-eat+ ungulates1 increases _! natural food-supply4 ,9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 :]e !re 7 v few ungulates till ! :ite man br\ght 8 flocks & h]ds1 ! rod5ts 7 v num]\s & rea*$ a great size4 ,aga91 ! op]ations ( agriculture give ! rod5ts enorm\s artificial s\rces ( food-supply1 & ! numb] ( man's dome/icat$ or semi-dome/icat$ animals makes him wage a bitt] w> aga9/ ! small c>nivores1 ! natural enemies ( ! rod5ts4 ,protect$ f _! enemies1 abundantly f$ by man's provid5ce1 x is no wond] t ^! small animals h multipli$ greatly4 ,_! multiplication has be5 assi/$ by ! fact t !y inh]it f _! e>ly days1 :5 ! /ruggle 0 ke51 an enorm\s f]tility4 ,_m ( ! rod5ts are /eppe animals1 & %>e ) /eppe organisms 9 g5]al ! p[] ( p]iodic multiplication 9 enorm\s numb]s4 ,! /eppe is a region :]e ! ra9fall is normally j en\gh to ensure a free gr[? ( grass at c]ta9 seasons4 ,v>iations 9 ra9fall1 :i* p]haps occur 9 great cycles1 may at "o "t produce a luxuriance ( gr[? :i* increases ! food-supply all r\nd1 & at ano!r give rise to semi-des]t conditions ) a result+ enorm\s dea?-rate4 ,! /eppe organisms1 !n1 mu/ be v f]tile because ( ! risks ( _! environm5t1 & ! ,asiatic ov]fl[ is possibly det]m9$ by successions ( ye>s ( abundant ra9fall1 :i* increase ! numb] ( individuals1 foll[$ by a s]ies ( ye>s ( scanty ra91 :i* make x necess>y = ! ov]fl[ ( population to migrate4 ,among examples ( ,european rod5ts we may m5tion ! v de/ructive rats1 mice & voles1 :i* practically fe$ ev]y:]e at man's exp5se2 & ! ham/]1 an ,asiatic =m :i* rea*es z f> we/ z ! ,rh9e1 & /ores l>ge quantities ( corn & o!r food 9 an elaborately made burr[4 ,! ham/] has ! rod5t p[] ( rapid multiplication1 & is (t5 t]ribly de/ructive to cultivat$ crops4 ,rabbits are simil>ly v de/ructive :]e special precautions are n tak54 ,ev5 ! porcup9e ( s\!rn ,europe is capable ( do+ consid]able damage4 ,less s]i\s enemies ( man are su* =ms z ! foll[+3--lemm+s2 m>mots1 ( :i* !re are two =ms1 an ,alp9e & an ,asiatic1 ! latt] ext5d+ l ! o!r /eppe animals into ! pla9s ( c5tral ,europe2 beav]s2 squirrels2 dormice2 etc4 ,^! examples may be suffici5t to illu/rate ! important po9ts 9 reg>d to ! rod5ts--_! de/ructiv5ess1 _! f]tility1 & ! fact t _m 7 orig9ally inhabitants ( /eppes & op5 pla9s1 b t5d1 z man cle>s ! =e/-l& = 8 own purposes1 to ext5d _! range to ! cle>$ l&1 & to appropriate ! new & ext5sive food-supply furni%$ by man's indu/ry4 ,:ile ! ungulates1 because ( ! nature ( _! food1 mu/ almo/ necess>ily be r l>ge animals1 ! c>nivores occur bo? 9 l>ge & small =ms4 ,! t5d5cy is = ! l>ge =ms to be kill$ out ) ! progress ( civilisation2 ?us ! lion has :olly disappe>$ f ,europe1 wolf & be> are almo/ gone1 b a consid]able numb] ( small] =ms /ill rema91 su* z badg]1 g5et1 wolv]5e1 lynx1 wild cat1 /oat1 m>t51 weasel1 etc4 ,! la/ ord] to be m5tion$1 t ( ! ,insectivores1 includes small mammals1 su* z moles1 %rews1 & h$gehogs1 :i* fe$ l>gely on insects1 b may be p>tially veget>ians4 ,z 0 to be expect$ f ! climate & f ! peculi> flora1 ! ,m$it]ranean region possesses a ri*] fauna ?an c5tral ,europe1 bo? z reg>ds mammals & l[] =ms4 ,ev5 ! ,european portion %[s consid]able ,african influ5ce4 ,a few words mu/ be said ab\t o!r l& animals ap>t f mammals4 ,9 reg>d to birds x is noticeable t ! habit ( migration1 & ! fact t ! great] "p ( ! cont95t ( ,europe lies on ! direct l9e betwe5 ! nor!rn bre$+ gr\nds ( _m species & ! s\!rn w9t] qu>t]s1 gives ,europe a v ri* bird fauna4 ,! ,briti% ,isl&s owe to _! peculi>ly mild climate a ri* bird fauna at all seasons1 = :ile ! summ] climate attracts _m =ms = ne/+ purposes1 ! mild w9t] br+s _m migrants fly+ f ! cold ( cont95tal ,europe4 ,9 reg>d to birds z well z to o!r animals1 ! ,m$it]ranean owes to its w>m climate a ri*] fauna ?an c\ntries f>!r nor?4 ,"s int]e/+ s\!rn =ms1 su* z pelican1 flam+o & ibis1 rea* ?is region1 ?\gh n ext5d+ into c5tral ,europe1 except z /raggl]s4 ,! climate ( ,europe is n hot en\gh any:]e to lead to ! pres5ce ( a ri* reptilian fauna1 b !re is1 aga91 a m>k$ increase to ! s\?4 ,x is /at$ t !re are only tw5ty-"o species ( reptiles 9 c5tral ,europe1 :ile !re are fifty-n9e 9 s\!rn ,europe1 & no less ?an a hundr$ & =ty 9 ! ,m$it]ranean region tak5 9 ! l>ge s5se4 ,poison\s =ms are few1 & d n1 z 9 hott] c\ntries1 con/itute a s]i\s m5ace to man4 ,v int]e/+ is ! pres5ce ( ! *ameleon 9 s\!rn ,spa91 z 9 nor? ,africa4 ,p]haps ! mo/ important human aspect ( ! ,european reptiles is ! pres5ce ( numb]s ( insect-eat+ =ms4 ,9 ! w>m] p>ts ( ,europe e wall or pat* ( rock seems alive ) liz>ds 9 ! summ] sun%9e1 & ^! mu/ play a n inconsid]able "p 9 ! keep+ d[n ( noxi\s insects4 ,omitt+ a great numb] ( o!r gr\ps1 we may say some?+ ab\t insects1 :i* are ( enorm\s importance 9 human life1 bo? directly & indirectly4 ,x has be5 %[n ( late ye>s t _m insects are ! sole means by :i* c]ta9 v deadly diseases are transmitt$ f man to man1 or f "o animal to ano!r4 ,almo/ e few mon?s a new ann\ncem5t ( an insect-c>ri$ disease is made1 b ! mo/ important =ms are ! foll[+3--,mosquitoes & gnats transmit su* diseases z mal>ia1 yell[ fev]1 & m horrible diseases /ill1 due to ! pres5ce 9 ! blood ( small p>asitic worms4 ,tsetse flies c>ry sleep+ sickness1 & also transmit ! v fatal fly disease ( dome/icat$ animals1 a fact :i* has be5 & is ( great importance 9 ! settlem5t ( ,africa4 ,9 ! case ( mo/ diseases !re seems to be a close connection betwe5 "o p>ticul> species ( insect & a p>ticul> disease4 ,mosquitoes & gnats are v abundant 9 _m p>ts ( ,europe1 & ! =ms belong+ to ! g5us ,anopheles1 :i* c>ry ! g]m ( mal>ia1 are widely di/ribut$4 ,9 p>ts ( ! ,m$it]ranean area _! pres5ce is associat$ ) ! preval5ce ( mal>ia1 :i* has exi/$ !re = a prolong$ p]iod1 & is believ$ by "s to h _h an important be>+ ^u ! fates ( ! anci5t civilisations ( ! ,m$it]ranean bas94 ,! regions 9 ,europe affect$1 or s]i\sly affect$1 by mal>ia are dim9i%+ ye>ly4 ,?is is n[ due to consci\s ef=ts1 b a simil> process has be5 go+ on probably = a long p]iod1 = _m obscure diseases1 notably ague1 seem to h be5 =ms ( mal>ia4 ,_! disappe>ance seems to be due to dra9age1 :i* dim9i%es ! bre$+ places ( ! mosquitoes1 & also to ! progress ( agriculture1 = ponds :i* =m on ri*1 well-manur$ l& are app>5tly unsuit$ to mosquito l>v4 ,! subject is ( great geographical importance1 = ! spread ( man ov] ! surface ( ! globe1 & ! progress ( civilisation mu/ h be5 influ5c$ 9 all "t by ! preval5ce ( fly-borne disease4 ,su* diseases h hi!rto be5 ! greate/ ob/acle 9 ! way ( ! civilisation ( ,africa4 ,9 ,ug&a ext5sive tracts ( f]tile wood$ l& h _h to be ab&on$ on acc\nt ( ! pres5ce !re ( ! tsetse fly1 :ile1 prior to ?is ab&onm5t1 !re 7 di/ricts 9 :i* e liv+ s\l _h be5 de/roy$ by ! deadly sleep+ sickness transmitt$ by ?is fly4 ,we c h>dly suppose t su* facts are )\t a p>allel 9 human hi/ory2 & man's di/ribution ov] ! surface ( ! globe1 & 9 detail ! di/ribution ( 8 settlem5ts )9 a c\ntry1 h d\btless be5 greatly influ5c$ by ! di/ribution ev5 ( su* insignificant creatures z ! v>i\s k9ds ( flies4 ,ev5 ap>t f _! p[] ( transmitt+ disease1 ! blood-suck+ flies mu/ h influ5c$ man 9 8 *oice ( localities = settlem5ts1 & mu/ h be5 an important factor 9 ! process ( adju/m5t to 8 surr\nd+s4 ,! naturali/ ,brehm gives an appall+ picture ( ! numb] & blood-?ir/9ess ( ! mosquitoes ( ! ,sib]ian tundra1 :i* r5d] life almo/ intol]able !re = bo? man & bea/ 9 summ]4 ,ev5 )9 ! ,briti% ,isl&s ! uncultivat$ & undra9$ regions are (t5 badly infe/$ ) small blood-suck+ flies1 & _! numb]s mu/ h be5 va/ly great] 9 ! old days be=e dra9age & int5sive cultivation _h r$uc$ !m4 ,x is q possible t "s ( ! anomalies 9 reg>d to ! spread ( p>ticul> races ( m5 ov] ! surface c be expla9$ by ! v>y+ susceptibility ( diff]5t races to insect attack1 & !re c be no d\bt t ! blood-suck+ insects mu/ h _h "s effect 9 det]m9+ ! rapidity or sl[ness ) :i* p>ticul> tracts 7 colonis$ by man4 ,ap>t f ! blood-suck+ flies1 !re are _m o!r int]e/+ po9ts ab\t ! insects ( ,europe1 notably ! weal? ( beautiful & /rik+ =ms :i* occur r\nd ! ,m$it]ranean bas94 ,"o ( ^!1 :i* ext5ds nor?w>ds & we/w>ds to nor!rn ,france1 is ! curi\s ,pray+ ,mantis1 a pr$atory insect belong+ to ! same ord] z ! locu/4 ,x is an ea/]n =m1 :i*1 l s _m o!rs1 has tak5 advantage ( ! mild climate ( we/]n ,europe to ext5d its range f> beyond :at we mu/ reg>d z its natural limits4 ,9 ,france x %[s ! effect ( relatively unfav\rable conditions 9 ! fact t x takes "s n9e to t5 mon?s = ! eggs to hat*1 :]eas 9 hott] c\ntries ! process may take place 9 a few weeks4 ,9 ! w>m] p>ts ( ,europe a v /rik+ feature is ! numb] & l>ge size ( ! memb]s ( ! locu/ & gras%opp] families1 ^: %rill noise is s *>act]i/ic a s\nd 91 = example1 ! pa/ures ( ,switz]l& 9 summ]-"t4 ,among ! locu/s !re occur1 9 _m p>ts ( ,europe1 ^? migratory =ms :i* possess t p[] ( p]iodic enorm\s multiplication :i* we h already not$ s frequ5tly among grassl& animals4 ,! migratory in/9ct only seems to develop :5 ! numb]s h greatly increas$ 9 any giv5 locality1 & 9 ,europe g5]ally ! climate does n p]mit ?is to take place4 ,x does1 h[ev]1 occur 9 ! s\?-ea/ ( ! ,m$it]ranean bas91 notably 9 ! isl& ( ,cyprus1 9 ,syria1 & also 9 ,nor!rn ,africa1 :]e locu/s sometimes rea* ! dim5sions ( a plague4 ,we may add to ?is acc\nt ( l& animals a few details on ! l& mammals ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,! great po9t ( contra/ "h is t ,europe1 f ! beg9n+ ( ! hi/oric p]iod1 has always be5 a relatively well-peopl$ region1 :ile 9 ,am]ica1 prior to ! adv5t ( ! :ite man1 ! population 0 scanty4 ,!re 0 ?us f> m room 9 ,nor? ,am]ica ?an 9 ,europe = great flocks ( l>ge mammals4 ,?us ! pla9s & prairies c>ri$ great h]ds ( bison1 :ile to ! nor? !re 7 o!r h]ds ( re9de]1 :i* 7 nev] tam$ by ! inhabitants ( ,nor? ,am]ica z !y 7 9 ! ,old ,_w by ! ,lapps & o!rs4 ,! musk-ox is ano!r int]e/+ animal f\nd 9 ! nor? ( ,am]ica4 ,x once also liv$ 9 ,europe1 b di$ out long ago4 ,j z ! conif]\s =e/ & tundra 9 ,asia produce _m small fur-be>+ animals1 s d ! =e/ & tundra ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,de] are pres5t z 9 ! ,old ,_w1 ?\gh !y are ( diff]5t types1 & !re is a curi\s animal kn[n z ! prong-buck :i* is peculi>4 ,wild %eep occur z !y d 9 ,europe1 b no wild horse nor ass roams ! pla9s ( ,am]ica z !y roam to-day ! wa/es ( ,asia4 ,)\t go+ into fur!r detail1 we may say g5]ally t z reg>ds wild animals1 no less ?an z reg>ds wild plants1 ,nor? ,am]ica %[s a clos] resemblance to ,asia ?an to t fav\r$ p59sula ( ,asia :i* ! geograph]s call ,europe4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,cultivat$ ,,plants ,,& ,,dome/icat$ ,,animals ,be=e proce$+ to discuss ! *ief races ( m5 9 ,europe1 some?+ mu/ be said ( its cultivat$ plants & animals4 ,orig9ally1 d\btless1 ! v>i\s human gr\ps :i* h m+l$ 9 ,europe _h ea* _! own type ( culture1 bas$ ^u ! possession & cultivation ( p>ticul> animals & plants4 ,! lapse ( "t has caus$ s complete an int]mixture t x is only possible to a v small ext5t to dis5tangle ! diff]5t elem5ts :i* h gone to ! mak+ ( pres5t day civilisation4 ,nev]!less1 z climatic diff]5ces rema9 & /ill det]m9e m9or diff]5ces1 x seems wor? :ile to consid] briefly ! di/ribution ( cultivat$ plants & dome/icat$ animals at ! pres5t day4 ,europe has be5 s /rongly influ5c$ by ! neighb\r+ l&-masses ( :i* x =ms a "p1 t we mu/ beg9 ) a few words ab\t !m4 ,! great cont95t ( ,asia1 ( :i* ,europe1 z we h se51 is b a p59sula1 c be divid$ into a s]ies ( zones1 di/+ui%$ alike by climate & by vegetation4 ,to ! nor? we h ! cold tundra region1 pass+ to ! s\? into ! =e/ region4 ,! ,asiatic =e/ region is cont9u\s ) t ( ,europe1 b :ile ! ,european =e/ ext5ds s\?w>d till ,m$it]ranean conditions int]v5e1 close to ! sea ( t "n1 ! ,asiatic =e/ has its s\!rn limit 9 ab\t ! latitude ( ,london4 ,to ! s\? ( ! ,asiatic =e/ /ret*es a zone ( /eppes pass+ into des]t1 & ev5 into tundra 9 ! elevat$ regions ( ,c5tral ,asia4 ,! /eppe region1 z we h already indicat$1 ent]s ,europe by way ( ,russia & pu%es a long arm up ! ,danube into ,hung>y4 ,s\? ( ! ,asiatic /eppes & des]ts comes an int]rupt$ b& ( w>m temp]ate or tropical =e/1 luxuriant to ! ea/ :]e !re are summ] ra9s1 scanty & scrub-l to ! we/1 :]e ,asia meets ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,! /eppes & des]t ( ,asia are populat$1 scantily en\gh1 ) w&]+ pa/oral nomads1 :o con/antly t5d to ov]fl[ f _! own region into ^? ( ! surr\nd+ agricultural populations4 ,^! agricultural populations are conc5trat$ 9 ?ree areas1 all specially fav\r$ by nature4 ,to ! ea/ ! summ] ra9s1 ! luxuriant indig5\s flora1 & ! pres5ce ( great riv] valleys1 t is1 ( naturally f]tile regions1 l$ to ! e>ly e/abli%m5t ( agricultural populations 9 ,*9a & ,india4 ,fur!r to ! we/1 ! f]tile valleys ( ! ,tigris & ,euphrates e>ly saw ! f\nd+ ( a great civilisation4 ,?is region1 ! ,mesopotamia ( geograph]s1 is v ne> ! ?ird area1 ! ,m$it]ranean1 ?\gh f> en\gh remov$ to h a v scanty ra9fall1 :i* made irrigation a necessity = agriculture4 ,its int]-relations ) ! ,m$it]ranean mu/ h begun e>ly1 &1 rememb]+ t "p ( ! ,m$it]ranean itself is 9 ,asia1 we ne$ n /op to discuss ! vex$ "q z to :e!r ! ,m$it]ranean civilisation 0 l>gely indig5\s1 or orig9at$ 9 ! cont95t ( ,asia4 ,x is (t5 difficult to asc]ta9 :e!r plants :i* h long be5 gr[n 9 ! ,m$it]ranean area1 & are well-fitt$ to x1 are really indig5\s !re1 or 7 br\ght to x f ! ,mesopotamian c\ntries4 ,!re is mu* simil>ity ( climatic conditions1 & = our purpose x is suffici5t to note t ! cultivat$ plants ( ! ,m$it]ranean bas9 fall into ?ree ma9 categories4 ,!re are1 fir/1 ! plants specially adapt$ to its climate2 ^! are ei!r native or 7 introduc$ f ! c\ntries close at h&4 ,second1 !re are _m plants1 mu* less p]fectly adapt$ to conditions ( dr\ght1 & !re=e (t5 dem&+ irrigation 9 summ]1 :i* 7 introduc$ f ! ,f> ,ea/1 aft] !y _h be5 cultivat$ !re = long p]iods4 ,?irdly1 & mu* few] 9 numb]1 !re are ! plants introduc$1 at a relatively late date1 f ,am]ica4 ,( ! fir/ gr\p ! mo/ important are ! c]eals b>ley & :eat1 & ! olive & ! v9e4 ,^! f\r h be5 kn[n 9 ! area f ! e>lie/ times1 & !y /ill =m ! basis ( ! diet ( ,m$it]ranean peoples4 ,bread1 olive oil to replace ! butt] us$ by pa/oral peoples1 w9e z a bev]age1 ) fre% grapes & ! dri$ =ms ( rais9s & currants1 ^! e>ly made life possible 9 ! ,m$it]ranean area4 ,b>ley is old] ?an :eat1 & is m productive b less valuable4 ,x is n[ l>gely gr[n 9 ! bas9 ( ! ,m$it]ranean z a food = horses1 in/ead ( oats :i*1 l rye1 is a c]eal n well suit$ to ! ,m$it]ranean climate4 ,z a bread plant x 0 e>ly replac$ 9 ! ,m$it]ranean by :eat1 b x is /ill us$ to make bread 9 "s o!r p>ts ( ,europe1 e4 g4 9 ,sc&9avia1 & is also ( importance outside ! ,m$it]ranean z ! orig9 ( f]m5t$ bev]ages4 ,:eat is ! mo/ valuable bread plant :i* exi/s1 bo? on acc\nt ( its proteid cont5t & on acc\nt ( its dige/ibility4 ,x dem&s a w>m dry p]iod = rip5+1 ) mu* sun%9e1 & is well adapt$ to ,m$it]ranean conditions4 ,"h x is s[n 9 ! autumn1 to enable x to take advantage ( ! e>ly & ! latt] ra91 i4 e4 ! autumn & spr+ ra9s1 & rip5s e>ly be=e ! excessive dr\ght ( summ] sets 94 ,l b>ley x has always be5 associat$ ) pl\gh culture1 ! animal us$ be+ ! ox4 ,accord+ to mo/ au?orities pl\gh culture orig9at$ 9 ,mesopotamia4 ,! v9e & olive are app>5tly bo? indig5\s to ! ,m$it]ranean1 & bo? are well adapt$ to )/& dr\ght4 ,9 reg>d to ! v9e !re are sev]al int]e/+ po9ts4 ,to ! travell] f ! nor? x is mo/ famili> 9 ,france or ,g]many1 :]e x is gr[n on sunny slopes1 usually t]rac$ to prev5t /agnant wat] f ly+4 ,9 ! ,m$it]ranean1 on ! o!r h&1 x is plant$ 9 holl[s1 or l[-ly+ gr\nd1 :i* p]mits ( ! collection ( wat]1 = x w receive no summ] ra94 ,! v9tage is m secure ?an fur!r nor?1 & ! resi/ance to ! attacks ( p>asites is great]1 yet1 curi\sly en\gh1 ! ,m$it]ranean c\ntries d n produce ! f9e/ w9es4 ,?is seems to be p>tly because ! climate does n p]mit ( ! long /orage necess>y = matur+ to take place4 ,! cool cell>s1 s important 9 ! w9e indu/ry fur!r nor?1 are "h abs5t4 ,to ! f\r plants :i* we h m5tion$ we mu/ add su* =ms z ! fig1 :i* if n indig5\s 0 ( v e>ly introduction2 g>lic1 greatly valu$ z a flav\r+ matt]2 v>i\s k9ds ( pulse2 sesame2 millet1 once widely gr[n ?\gh no long] important1 & flax1 kn[n f remote antiquity4 ,! second gr\p1 t compris+ plants introduc$ f ! ,f> ,ea/1 includes _m valuable fruit trees1 :i* 9 ! region ( ! absolutely ra9less summ] mo/ly require irrigation4 ,! pea* came f ,*9a 9 ! "t ( ,alex&] ! ,great2 ! v>i\s citrus fruits1 lemon1 orange1 lime1 citron1 etc41 n[ s *>act]i/ic a feature1 7 introduc$ f ,*9a or ,india4 ,india also gave rice1 ext5sively cultivat$ dur+ long ages1 & /ill ext5sively consum$1 ?\gh ! facility ) :i* communication ) ! ,ea/ is n[ effect$ makes x relatively little gr[n1 except 9 ! pla9 ( ,lomb>dy1 :i* is easily irrigat$4 ,*9a s5t ! :ite mulb]ry1 & ) x ! cultivation ( ! silkworm1 s important 9 _m regions4 ,f ! ,f> ,ea/ also came ! sug>-cane1 v important till ! rec5t developm5t ( ! sug> beet indu/ry4 ,cotton also 0 probably introduc$ f ! ,f> ,ea/1 :i* ?us suppli$ _m cultivat$ plants & has enorm\sly enri*$ life = ,m$it]ranean man4 ,( ! ,am]ican plants ( late introduction ! mo/ int]e/+ is maize1 :i* f$ ! some:at limit$ indig5\s civilisation ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,maize requires a w>m climate ) mu* sun%9e1 b ne$s mu* moi/ure dur+ its %ort gr[+ season4 ,x is n a v valuable c]eal1 b x is enorm\sly productive & !re=e *eap4 ,g5]ally x may be said to be us$ z food by man only :5 necessity compels its use4 ,x is ?us employ$ by subject races1 e4 g4 negroes1 & by ! poor 9 ! w>m] p>ts ( ,europe4 ,9 ! ,m$it]ranean x is n suffici5tly valuable to be gr[n on irrigat$ l&1 & x w n gr[ )\t irrigation :]e ! summ] is ra9less4 ,:]e !re are summ] ra9s1 h[ev]1 z 9 ,nor? ,italy1 or :]e m\nta9 slopes increase ! ra9fall1 z 9 p>ts ( ,greece1 or :]e ! l& is r5d]$ valueless = :eat by w9t] flood+1 !re maize is gr[n4 ,g5]ally x occurs )9 ! ,m$it]ranean area :]ev] ! necess>y wat] occurs naturally or c be suppli$ *eaply4 ,x =ms a v important "p ( ! food ( ! poor 9 ,nor? ,italy1 = example1 b n 9 ! s\?1 :]e wat] is too co/ly4 ,two o!r important plants ( ,am]ican orig9 are tobacco & ! potato4 ,! latt] plant is little gr[n 9 ! ,m$it]ranean1 b a consid]able am\nt ( tobacco is produc$4 ,ano!r ,am]ican plant1 ! prickly pe>1 besides furni%+ an edible fruit1 is important z a h$ge plant )9 ! area4 ,c]eals 9 ! ,m$it]ranean are gr[n1 z we h se51 on pl\gh$ l&1 z else:]e4 ,a m *>act]i/ic =m ( cultivation is g>d5-culture1 practis$ :]e wat] c be obta9$ = irrigation4 ,su* g>d5s consi/ prim>ily ( fruit trees1 all ! citrus fruits1 pea*es1 apricots1 pomegranates1 pi/a*io1 almonds1 & _m o!r =ms ( nuts1 plums1 ev5 apples & pe>s1 be+ gr[n 9 ?is way4 ,s productive is ! gr\nd once wat] is suppli$1 t plants are gr[n 9 association 9 a fa%ion h>dly sugge/$ 9 ! nor?4 ,?us among ! fruit trees _m diff]5t k9ds ( vegetables1 su* z g>lic1 cucumb]s1 leeks1 salad plants1 _m sorts ( melons1 tomatoes1 egg-plants1 beans1 & peas1 etc41 are gr[n4 ,else:]e "o may see corn s[n b5ea? ! olive trees1 & ! v9e %>+ ! same gr\nd ) !m4 ,! picture ( ,m$it]ranean life may be complet$ by add+ a few words ab\t ! dome/icat$ animals4 ,^! are naturally 9 ess5ce ! same z ^? fur!r nor?1 b _! relative numb]s & ! uses to :i* !y are put are diff]5t4 ,! dog & cat bo? occur1 b ! =m] has little importance 9 ! pa/oral indu/ries1 & is l>gely a wat* animal1 insuffici5tly f$1 & !re=e important z a sanit>y ag5t 9 t x dev\rs g>bage4 ,among ! ungulates or ho($ animals1 ! ass 0 dome/icat$ 9 ! region long be=e ! horse1 & x & ! mule are /ill m important ?an ! horse1 p>tly1 no d\bt1 because bo? are h>di]1 & ! problem ( food is a difficulty 9 ! l>gely pa/ureless ,m$it]ranean region4 ,few camels n[ occur 9 ,europe1 :]e !y h be5 always closely associat$ ) ,mahometans1 appe>+ & disappe>+ ) !m4 ,! pa/urage difficulty greatly r$uces ! importance ( cattle1 :i* are draught animals r ?an a s\rce ( food4 ,z draught animals cattle g back to ! dawn ( hi/ory1 b _! numb]s are small & ! use ( ei!r _! fle% or _! milk z food is insignificant4 ,philippson 9 8 book on ! ,m$it]ranean gives "s /rik+ figures to illu/rate ! diff]5ce 9 numb]s betwe5 ! cattle ( ! ,m$it]ranean c\ntries & ^? ( ,c5tral ,europe4 ,spa9 has only #b4a million cattle1 & yet x is sc>cely small] ?an ,g]many1 :i* has #ai millions2 ,switz]l& has #a1cdj1jjj head ( cattle1 & ,greece1 :i* is ab\t half z l>ge aga91 has only #cfj1jjj4 ,x is to be not$1 h[ev]1 t ! irrigat$ pla9s ( ,nor? ,italy n[ support a consid]able am\nt ( cattle1 ^: milk gives rise to a consid]able *eese indu/ry2 b1 !n1 ! olive w n gr[ 9 ,nor? ,italy1 :i* is !re=e n /rictly )9 ! ,m$it]ranean area4 ,! ,arabs introduc$ ! ,indian buffalo :i* has spread consid]ably1 & is n[ f\nd 9 ,s\? ,italy & ! ,balkan p59sula4 ,! pig has be5 bani%$ f p>ts ( ! region on religi\s gr\nds1 b else:]e x *iefly ?rives :]e oak =e/s gr[1 ! acorn be+ an important "p ( its food4 ,! really important ungulates1 h[ev]1 are %eep & goats1 :i* are (t5 v num]\s1 & :i*1 ap>t f birds & fi%1 furni% ! mo/ important "p ( ! animal food ( ! inhabitants4 ,! milk furni%es *eese1 :i* is an important elem5t ( diet1 :ile lea!r1 wool & hair are also important products4 ,! goats *iefly fe$ ^u ! "y %oots ( %rubs1 & frequ5t ! d5s] ?ickets1 :ile ! %eep br[se ^u ! grasses & h]bs to be f\nd 9 ! m op5 =ms ( maquis4 ,! climate p]mits ! animals to rema9 9 ! op5 dur+ ! :ole ye>1 & ?is prev5ts ! collection ( ! manure = ! arable l&s4 ,fur!r1 ! summ] dr\ght makes x difficult = ev5 ^! h>dy animals to obta9 food1 & necessitates 9 _m regions a curi\s =m ( nomadism1 to :i* ! "n ( tran%umance is giv54 ,tran%umance1 /ill well develop$ 9 ,spa91 is ! p]iodic & alt]nat+ displacem5t ( flocks & h]ds betwe5 two regions ( diff]5t climate4 ,z we h _h frequ5t reason to rem>k1 ! ra9lessness ( ! ,m$it]ranean summ] is locally modifi$ by _m causes1 notably by elevation4 ,m\nta9s may receive frequ5t %[]s1 :ile ! pla9s are p>*$ & br[n1 & !re=e !re may be pa/ure on ! m\nta9s :ile !re is none 9 ! pla9s4 ,on l(ty m\nta9s also ! w9t] sn[ l+]s long en\gh to promote ! gr[? ( summ] pa/ure4 ,:ile !re are consid]able h]ds ( %eep & goats1 !n1 x may be necess>y = ! flocks & _! keep]s to travel to ! m\nta9s 9 summ] & back to ! pla9s 9 w9t]4 ,9 ,spa9 ^! p]iodic migrations1 n[ l>gely made by means ( ! railway1 =m]ly took place by well-def9$ r\tes1 along :i* ! imm5se army ( %eep1 accompani$ by a small] army ( att5dants1 pass$ twice a ye>1 caus+ enorm\s de/ruction to ! cultivat$ l&s ?r\gh :i* !y pass$4 ,ev]y:]e ! conflict betwe5 %eph]d & husb&man is m or less acute1 b x seems to h be5 especially acute 9 ,spa91 :i* is 9 "s respects a l9k betwe5 ,africa & ,europe4 ,its con/ant liability to ,arab invasion made agriculture especially difficult1 :ile frequ5t w>s fav\r$ ! pa/oral indu/ry2 = flocks may be remov$ to a place ( safety on an al>m1 b agriculture mu/ h "s security be=e x c develop4 ,9 ! semi-des]t regions ( ,nor? ,africa "s =m ( pa/oral nomadism1 ) ! social polity :i* comes f pa/oral nomadism1 0 ! natural result ( ! physical & climatic conditions1 & ,spa91 l ! l&s ( ! ea/]n "p ( ,europe1 has be5 con/antly liable to h its nasc5t agriculture de/roy$ by incursions ( su* pa/oral nomads4 ,9 bo? cases ! sl[ victory ( ! agriculturi/s1 m>k$ by _m tempor>y rev]ses1 af=ds an extraord9>ily int]e/+ *apt] 9 human hi/ory4 ,a /able civilisation mu/ always be bas$ ^u agriculture1 b e di/urbance ( an old & /able civilisation has tempor>ily enc\rag$ ! pa/oral z contra/$ ) ! agricultural indu/ries4 ,9 reg>d to ! o!r animals ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 m5tion ne$ only be made ( ! dome/icat$ birds4 ,! f[l has long be5 kn[n2 x is believ$ to h be5 introduc$ f ! ,ea/ eight c5turies ,b4,c4 ,bo? ! eggs & ! fle% are ( great importance z a s\rce ( food4 ,9 spite ( ,roman hi/ory1 geese are relatively unimportant1 z are also ducks1 b ! turkey1 late introduction f ,am]ica1 is well suit$ to ! climate & has become important4 ,pigeons are ev]y:]e abundant1 sometimes s mu* s t _! manure is ext5sively us$ z a f]tilis]4 ,we h already m5tion$ silkworms1 & /ud5ts ( classical hi/ory "k t bees h long be5 kept4 99 99 99 99 99 ,if we sum up :at has be5 said ab\t ,m$it]ranean cultivat$ plants1 we may note t ^! h be5 d]iv$ p>tly f native plants1 p>tly f plants native to ! w>m =e/ c\ntry ( ea/]n ,asia1 & p>tly f ,am]ican plants4 ,reg>d+ = a mom5t ! ,eurasiatic cont95t z a :ole1 we may say t ! old civilisations1 bo? to ! ea/ & to ! we/1 arose 9 ! =e/ regions--9 ! monsoon =e/s to ! ea/1 9 ! dr\ght-resi/+ =e/ or scrub ( ! we/4 ,! temp]ate =e/ ( ,asia has produc$ no great civilisation1 & ! civilisation ( ! temp]ate =e/ zone ( ,europe has ow$ mu* to ! e>li] civilisation ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 ) :i* x has always _h free communication4 ,?is free communication has tak5 place *iefly by means ( ! ,m$it]ranean seabo>d ( ,france1 especially by means ( ! great ,rhone valley1 :i* =ms a natural highway to ! nor?4 ,france1 ) bo? an ,atlantic & a ,m$it]ranean seabo>d1 has be5 ! natural int]m$i>y betwe5 ! ,m$it]ranean scrub l&1 ) its *>act]i/ic civilisation1 & ! temp]ate =e/ region1 ) its cold] climate1 & its great] ra9fall1 :i* produce a correspond+ diff]5ce 9 ! cultivat$ plants4 ,we h se5 t :eat is ! great bread plant ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 & x is int]e/+ to note t 9 ?is respect ,france is almo/ purely ,m$it]ranean4 ,x is1 above all1 ! c\ntry ( :ite bread1 :i* plays a v important "p 9 ! diet>y ( ! p4 ,9 ord9>y ye>s ! c\ntry produces ne>ly z mu* :eat z x consumes4 ,9 addition to ?is l>ge use ( :eat z a bread plant1 ,france %[s /rong ,m$it]ranean influ5ce 9 ! "p :i* w9e plays 9 ! diet>y ( ! p1 9 ! v>iety ( vegetables1 especially k9ds ( pulse1 :i* are gr[n2 9 ! fact t f[ls & pork =m a l>ge "p ( ! animal food consum$1 & 9 t flax has be5 gr[n 9 consid]able am\nts = long ages1 s t l95 is an important "p ( h\sehold weal?4 ,! ,midi is ( c\rse def9itely ,m$it]ranean 9 culture1 b j z ! v9e ext5ds f> to ! nor? & we/ s also d ,m$it]ranean influ5ces ext5d f> beyond ! region ( ,m$it]ranean climate & ,m$it]ranean flora4 ,b f]tile z mu* ( ,france is1 x mu/ n be reg>d$ z consi/+ ( no?+ b fields ( wav+ :eat4 ,to complete & correct ! picture we mu/ add t1 z 9 ,russia1 consid]able am\nts ( buck:eat are gr[n = use z human food4 ,buck:eat1 ! black :eat ( ! ,fr5*1 p]haps introduc$ by ! ,arabs1 is n a true c]eal1 b a relative ( ! knot-grass ( ,briti% fields4 ,x is v easily gr[n1 ev5 on poor l&1 & 9 ,france replaces :eat :]e ! conditions are unfav\rable1 or :]e agriculture is backw>d4 ,x is n )\t int]e/ to note t :ile its use 9 ,france z human food is an indication ( extreme pov]ty1 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates buck:eat cakes take a place z a luxury4 ,oatcakes 9 l[l& ,scotl&1 black bread 9 well-to-d h\seholds 9 ,g]many1 are o!r simil> in/ances ( ! reappe>ance ( a despis$ food-/uff z a luxury4 ,su* foods become luxuries :5 !y c be us$ to supplem5t1 n to replace1 :ite bread4 ,mo/ ( ! buck:eat ( ,france1 h[ev]1 is n[ gr[n z food = dome/icat$ animals4 ,aga91 fruit trees are ext5sively gr[n 9 ,france z 9 ! ,m$it]ranean region1 ) a gradual increase 9 ! =ms :i* require m moi/ure & less heat z we travel nor?w>ds4 ,! typically ,m$it]ranean =ms e>ly disappe>1 :ile _m k9ds ( plums1 pe>s & apples increase 9 numb]s & 9 value4 ,z we travel nor?w>ds also1 ! v>i\s =ms ( b]ries1 sc>cely repres5t$ 9 ! s\?1 increase 9 importance4 ,! /rawb]ries ( ,brittany =m a good example1 b ?r\gh\t ,europe g5]ally ?is *ange takes place1 culm9at+ 9 ! enorm\s weal? ( wild b]ries--cranb]ries1 :ortleb]ries1 & s on1 :i* is a *>act]i/ic feature ( ! ,sc&9avian upl&s 9 late summ]4 ,z we travel to ! nor?-we/ also1 ) ! increase 9 ! ra9fall & ! consequ5t increase 9 pa/urage1 ! numb] ( cattle increases1 & ) !m ! increas$ use ( beef z food1 & ! increas$ use ( c[s' milk & milk products4 ,?is is well se5 9 ! broad fields ( ,norm&y1 :ile /ill fur!r we/1 9 ! ,briti% ,isl&s1 pa/ures become m & m ext5sive1 & only ! exi/5ce ( a well-m>k$ ra9 %ad[ on ! ea/]n seabo>d1 :i* is robb$ ( mu* ( its ra9fall by ! hills ( ! we/1 makes ! ext5sive gr[? ( :eat possible 9 s\?-ea/]n ,engl&4 ,) ! increase ( pa/ure1 & ! increas$ cold ( w9t]1 z comp>$ ) ! ,m$it]ranean area1 we h /all-fe$+1 ) ! possibility ( collect+ manure = ! fields4 ,! consequ5ce is t ,engl&1 ) a climate v diff]5t f t :i* :eat exp]i5ces else:]e1 has a yield p] acre great] ?an t ( any o!r c\ntry 9 ! _w4 ,france1 despite h] w>m? & sun%9e1 only gets an av]age ( #ai bu%els to ! acre f h] :eat fields1 :ile 9 ,engl&1 :]e :eat c only be gr[n at a pr(it :5 ! conditions are especially fav\rable1 ! av]age yield is #cj bu%els p] acre4 ,9 ^? p>ts ( ,europe :]e ! climate or soil does n suit c]eals1 ev5 su* c]eals z oats & rye1 !re is a t5d5cy = ^! to be p>tially replac$ z ! basis ( ! diet by plants requir+ less sun%9e & tol]ant ( great] moi/ure4 ,?us 9 ,irel& & ,nor? ,g]many1 ! potato is a v important article ( diet1 :ile 9 ,france & 9 ,m$it]ranean regions g5]ally x is unimportant4 ,simil>ly1 t[>ds ! nor? ! f[l 9 ! pot t5ds to be replac$ by fi%1 9 ! case ( ^? :o _c af=d beef or mutton4 ,9 ! m nor!rn regions also1 ) _! relatively l>ge ra9fall1 root crops play a v important "p4 ,mo/ ( ^! are gr[n = ! dome/ic animals1 z turnips1 mangels1 sw$es1 etc41 a ph5om5on :i* does n occur 9 ! ,m$it]ranean area to any ext5t2 b ! sug> beet1 ^: cultivation is spread+ greatly 9 nor!rn & c5tral ,europe1 is ( c\rse gr[n = its yield ( sug>4 ,we h se5 t w9e is ! univ]sal dr9k ?r\gh ! great] "p ( ,france1 & ?is 9 spite ( ! fact t ! nor!rn limit ( ! v9e1 s f> z w9e-mak+ is conc]n$1 is 9 ,france ab\t lat4 #dg-a_/b1 t is1 ab\t ! nor? ( ! ,loire4 ,9 ,g]many1 ! v9e rea*es to ! ea/1 9 ! ,prov9ce ( ,pos51 a latitude ( ne>ly #ec ,n41 ow+ to ! fact t ! summ]s gr[ w>m] z we pass ea/w>d4 ,nev]!less1 9 ,g]many1 z a g5]al rule1 w9e is a luxury1 ! influ5ce ( ,m$it]ranean culture be+ less felt ?an 9 ,france4 ,?r\gh\t ,g]many1 z ?r\gh\t nor!rn ,europe g5]ally1 w9e is replac$ by bev]ages made by ! f]m5tation ( c]eals or o!r plant products ri* 9 />*4 ,?r\gh\t ,g]many1 z ?r\gh\t mu* ( ,engl&1 be] is ! *>act]i/ic dr9k1 & associat$ ) x we h ! gr[? ( hops1 us$ z a flav\r+ mat]ial4 ,fur!r nor? /rong] bev]ages t5d to be us$4 ,ano!r plant :i* is widely gr[n 9 ! m nor!rly p>ts ( ,europe1 especially 9 ,russia & ! ,baltic c\ntries1 is flax1 :i*1 ?\gh orig9ally ,m$it]ranean1 is n[ gr[n = its fibre *iefly 9 ! nor?1 p>tly because x is especially suit$ = flat moi/ l&4 ,hav+ n[ look$ at ! cultivat$ plants ( ! ,m$it]ranean 9 _! be>+ on ! life ( ! inhabitants1 & comp>$ ) !m ! plants cultivat$ 9 extra-,m$it]ranean areas1 let u conclude ?is *apt] by a few words on ! purely pa/oral peoples4 ,^! d n n[ occur 9 ,europe 9 unmodifi$ =m1 b ! ,asiatic /eppes /ill conta9 pa/oral folk1 dim9i%+ ) ! progress ( civilisation4 ,!re c be no d\bt t su* pa/oral folk h repeat$ly invad$ ,europe1 & h !re und]gone modifications ow+ to ! diff]5t conditions :i* prevail4 ,( pa/oral folk 9 ! unmodifi$ =m ! ,kirghiz ( ! ,asiatic /eppes =m p]haps ! be/ example4 ,!y are pure nomads1 w&]+ ab\t 9 se>* ( pa/ure = _! num]\s h]ds1 & dwell+ 9 a movable t5t1 or yurt1 :i* c be readily c>ri$ f "o place to ano!r4 ,! h]ds consi/ ( horses1 %eep1 goats1 cattle1 & camels1 & ! females ( all ^! animals are milk$4 ,! ,kirghiz d n cultivate l&1 or only to a v slight ext5t1 & practically d n eat bread1 ?\gh fl\r & rice1 obta9$ by b>t]1 are employ$ by ! ri*]4 ,milk & milk-products1 ) ! fle% ( ! flocks1 =m ! basis ( ! diet1 & a milk-w9e or k\miss1 produc$ by ! f]m5tation ( milk1 is ! *>act]i/ic dr9k4 ,?is brief description is bas$ ^u t ( ! travell] ,brehm1 & z x 0 writt5 "s fifty ye>s ago1 matt]s h d\btless *ang$ consid]ably s9ce1 b x rema9s z ! typical picture ( ! nomadic pa/oral life4 ,9 ! small] spaces ( d5sely populat$ ,europe x w\ld ( c\rse be impossible1 & "h pa/oral nomadism is mo/ly replac$ by t modifi$ =m kn[n z tran%umance ^u :i* we h already t\*$4 ,z ! ,european peoples ( ,asiatic orig9 are specially f\nd on high gr\nd1 we may conclude by contra/+ briefly ) ! above ! life ( ! pa/oral folk ( ,switz]l&4 ,"h !re is no yurt or movable t5t1 b ! old conditions are sugge/$ by ! fact t ea* family may possess z _m z f\r h\ses4 ,?us 9 "s ( ! valleys tribut>y to ! ,rhone 9 ! canton ,valais ! foll[+ conditions occur4 ,!re is fir/ ! true village1 :]e ea* h\se is a m9iature home/ead1 ) dwell+1 c[-h\se1 hayl(t1 & gran>ies or /ore-h\ses4 ,r\nd ab\t are fields1 :]e rye1 ! *>act]i/ic c]eal1 is gr[n1 ) "s fodd] plants4 ,high] up ! valley is ! spr+ pa/ure or may51 :i!r ! c[s are driv5 9 ,may1 to fe$ until ! alps or high pa/ures are cle> ( sn[4 ,at ! may5 !re are c[-h\ses1 & also human habitations1 ?\gh n ( an elaborate type4 ,fur!r up1 aga91 !re are necess>ily huts ne> ! high pa/ures1 :i!r a few m5 only g ) ! c[s z h]ds1 & :]e ! *eese is made4 ,! f\r? village is plac$ on ! hot pla9 ( ! ,rhone valley1 & "h are ! v9ey>ds ^: produce gives ! mu*-priz$ w9e1 & or*>ds :i* yield fruit4 ,we f9d "h !re=e a curi\s comb9ation ( pa/oral & agricultural life4 ,mo/ly ( ! race call$ ,alp9e1 believ$ to be ( ,asiatic orig91 ^! ,swiss folk h borr[$ ! v9e & ! use ( w9e f ! ,m$it]ranean peoples4 ,! l>ge "p play$ 9 _! diet by milk products1 especially v>i\s =ms ( *eese1 mu/ be an inh]itance f _! nomad ance/ors1 :ile ! rye1 :i* is _! bread plant1 is also a h]itage f ,asiatic ance/ors4 ,! occurr5ce ( f\r sets ( dwell+s in/ead ( a movable "o is an adaptation to life 9 a settl$ community1 conf9$ to a limit$ space4 ,! :ole social polity is ?us a curi\s example ( a transitional condition4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we h ?us1 9 successive *apt]s1 %[n t 9 ,europe ?ree *ief zones ( vegetation exi/1 ! ,m$it]ranean scrub l&1 ! temp]ate =e/ zone1 ! /eppe or pa/ure l&1 & t z ea* ( ^! is det]m9$ by climate1 ea*1 aga91 has special types ( cultivat$ plants & dome/icat$ animals1 involv+ a special social polity 9 ea* case4 ,n[ x is int]e/+ to note1 :at _c be a pure co9cid5ce1 t 9 ,europe ?ree races ( m5 exi/1 :i* %[ a c]ta9 r\gh correspond5ce to ! ?ree zones ( vegetation4 ,! ,m$it]ranean type ( vegetation & climate is associat$ ) a p>ticul> race1 to :i* ! "n ( ,m$it]ranean has be5 giv54 ,! race is by no means conf9$ to ! ,m$it]ranean region--we f9d repres5tatives ( x1 e4 g4 9 we/]n ,irel&1--nor does x occupy ! :ole ( t region1 = 9 _m places x is press$ h>d by o!r races1 b x rea*es its fulle/ developm5t )9 ! ,m$it]ranean bas94 ,curi\sly en\gh1 also1 its pres5ce 9 we/]n ,irel& is associat$ ) ! pres5ce ( c]ta9 repres5tatives ( ! ,m$it]ranean flora1 notably ! arbutus or /rawb]ry tree & ,/4 ,dabeoc's hea?4 ,! *>act]i/ic inhabitants ( ! temp]ate =e/ region ( ,europe are ! memb]s ( ! race call$ ,teutonic or ,nordic1 ^: p>ticul> type ( civilisation is deeply /amp$ by ! lessons !y le>nt 9 _! e>ly /ruggle ) ! =e/4 ,f9ally1 ! /eppe & pa/ure l&s1 :e!r 9 p>ts ( ,russia1 9 ! ,hung>ian pla91 or 9 ! ,alps & 9 ! upl&s ( ,brittany & ,c5tral ,europe1 etc41 t5d to be occupi$ by a ?ird race1 :i* seems to h orig9at$ 9 ! /eppes ( ,asia1 & to :i* ! some:at inappropriate "n ( ,alp9e has be5 giv51 ?\gh x occurs 9 l[l&s to ! ea/ z well z 9 upl&s to ! we/4 ,?is race seems to be accompani$ ?r\gh\t ,europe by plants & animals ( ,asiatic orig94 ,! full mean+ ( ?is association betwe5 racial peculi>ities & types ( vegetation _c p]haps be =mulat$ meantime1 b x is int]e/+ to note t !re are "s curi\sly close connections betwe5 human life & ! di/ribution ( vegetation4 ,= in/ance1 all travell]s 9 ,switz]l& mu/ h be5 /ruck by ! curi\s fact t 9 foll[+ up ! ,rhone valley f ! lake ( ,g5eva to ! ,rhone glaci] ! ,fr5* language is f\nd to ext5d up to ! t[n ( ,sion1 & beyond1 )\t any obvi\s cause1 ,g]man prevails4 ,x has be5 po9t$ out rec5tly t ! ea/w>d ext5sion ( ! ,fr5* language "h m>ks also ! ea/w>d ext5sion ( ! sweet *e/nut--a curi\s co9cid5ce4 ,aga91 ! same writ] po9ts out t ! battle-gr\nd betwe5 ! ,fr5* & ,g]man peoples r\nd ! ,rh9e is ! region :]e ! gr[? ( ! sweet *e/nut z a plant$ tree rea*es its ea/w>d limit4 ,su* facts mu/ n1 ( c\rse1 be ov]-emphasis$4 ,bo? mu/ indicate a climatic *ange1 b x c h>dly be suppos$ t ?is *ange ( climate is suffici5t to affect man directly4 ,x seems at lea/ ju/ifiable to po9t out t e human gr\p :i* rea*es any degree ( civilisation & /ability mu/ dep5d = its p]man5ce 9 ! e>ly /ages on "s special skill 9 ! gr[+ ( c]ta9 cultivat$ plants1 & ! re>+ ( c]ta9 dome/icat$ animals4 ,we h mu* reason to believe t ?is skill is (t5 difficult to acquire by o!r gr\ps4 ,! great difficulties :i* h be5 exp]i5c$ 9 introduc+ e4 g4 ,smyrna figs & dates into ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 ! fact t ,europeans seem to f9d x impossible to manage camels )\t native help1 & t !y h be5 hi!rto unable1 despite mo/ elaborate & co/ly exp]im5ts1 to tame ! ,african elephant1 seem to be m9or illu/rations ( ?is fact4 ,giv51 !n1 an evolv+ gr\p spread+ ov] ! surface ( ! globe1 & tak+ ) x its *>act]i/ic plants & animals1 x is probable en\gh t su* a *ange ( climate1 ev5 a m9or *ange1 z may be suffici5t to r5d] x impossible to cultivate ^! plants1 or to re> ^! animals1 may give a def9ite & m or less p]man5t *eck to ! spread ( ! race4 ,!re is at lea/ "s evid5ce to ?is effect1 & x gives an additional int]e/ to ! /udy ( plant geography4 ,we h limit$ ourselves 9 ?is *apt] practically to a consid]ation ( ! ,european area1 because ! exi/+ cultivat$ plants & dome/icat$ animals ( ,nor? ,am]ica are almo/ all d]iv$ f ,europe1 ) ! exceptions already indicat$1 & a few o!rs n ( great importance1 & _! di/ribution 9 ,am]ica is det]m9$ by ! same conditions z 9 ,europe4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,! ,,races ,,( ,,europe ,,& ,,_! ,,orig9 ,we h spok5 9 ! previ\s *apt] ( ! ?ree *ief races ( ,europe1 b be=e proce$+ to discuss !m 9 detail x is necess>y to cle> ! gr\nd ( c]ta9 misconceptions & difficulties4 ,! fir/ ( ^! is ! notion t nationality has any?+ to d ) race1 9 ! an?ropological s5se4 ,!re is mu* to be said = ! view t ! ,european civilisations owe _! developm5t l>gely to ! m+l+ ( races :i* has occurr$ )9 ! area2 x is at lea/ c]ta9 t no ,european nation1 :atev] ! f]v\r ( its citiz5s' patriotism1 is ( an?ropologically pure race4 ,!re is no ,briti% race1 no ,fr5* race1 no ,g]man race1 ev5 ?\gh ! ^w ,g]manic is sometimes appli$ to "o ( ! /ra9s :i* occurs 9 ! ,g]man ,empire4 ,we recognise ?is fact1 ( c\rse1 9 our popul> language1 = ! contra/ betwe5 ! ,briton ( ,saxon race & ! ,briton ( ,celtic race is a fav\rite lit]>y topic4 ,un=tunately = accuracy1 ! p )9 ! ,briti% area :o speak ,celtic languages are n all ( ! same race1 & !re is no?+ m c]ta9 ?an ! fact t few ( !m1 if any1 h any di/9ct trace ( ,celtic blood4 ,al?\gh 9 lit]ature also ! comp>ison betwe5 ! ,celts ( ,brittany & ! ,celts ( ,wales & we/]n ,great ,brita9 g5]ally is a fav\rite "o1 ^u :i* _m d$uctions h be5 bas$1 x is c]ta9 t ! ,bretons are n homog5e\s1 & t !y h language b n race 9 common ) ! d>k-hair$ ,wel%4 ,?is naturally leads u to ! second po9t ( importance--t language has no?+ to d ) race4 ,9 8 book on ! ,races ( ,europe1 ,ripley illu/rates ?is 9 a v int]e/+ way by a consid]ation ( ! languages & races ( ! ,ib]ian ,p59sula4 ,?is p59sula %[s at ! pres5t "t relative purity ( race--n absolute purity1 = a m+l+ has c]ta9ly occurr$1 b nev]!less "o race1 t :i* we h call$ ,m$it]ranean1 enorm\sly pr$om9ates4 ,yet 9 spite ( ?is relative purity ( race1 ! p59sula is divid$ betwe5 two nationalities & no less ?an ?ree languages4 ,portugal =ms a sep>ate nation ) its own language1 :ile ,spa91 ?\gh =m+ "o nation1 has two languages1 ,ca/ilian or ,spani%1 & ,catalan4 ,catalan is ne>ly relat$ to ,langue d'oc1 ! language ( ,prov5ce across ! ,fr5* bord]4 ,prov5al aga91 be=e its gradual displacem5t by ! ,langue d'oeil1 or true ,fr5*1 0 spok5 by m5 ( ! ,m$it]ranean z well z ( ! ,alp9e race4 ,)9 bo? ,fr5* & ,spani% t]ritory /ill ano!r language1 ,basque1 is spok54 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ac4--,! ,ib]ian ,p59sula & "p ( ,france1 to %[ ! di/ribution ( languages1 & _! indep5d5ce ( political b\nd>ies4 7,aft] ,ripley47 ,9 o!r words1 ! almo/ uni=m race ( ! ,ib]ian p59sula speaks f\r sep>ate tongues1 ! ,portuguese1 ,ca/ilian1 ,catalan1 & ,basque languages1 & ! political b\nd>y ( ! ,pyr5ees sep>ates at its ea/]n end two gr\ps ( ,m$it]ranean man1 speak+ simil> languages1 ,catalan or ,prov5al1 ! latt] ( :i* is also spok51 or 0 spok51 9 ,france by ! m5 ( ano!r race1 ! ,alp9e1 f\nd 9 ! upl&s ( s\!rn & c5tral ,france1 z well z else:]e4 ,ripley's explanation ( ! het]og5eity ( language comb9$ ) homog5eity ( race 9 ,spa9 & ,portugal is int]e/+4 ,! p59sula 0 peopl$ f ,africa be=e ! dawn ( hi/ory1 by a division ( ! ,m$it]ranean race call$ ,ib]ian1 :i* trav]s$ ! ,/rait ( ,gibralt>4 ,?is race e/abli%$ itself firmly 9 ! p59sula & has p]si/$ !re despite infusions ( o!r races f ! nor? & nor?-ea/4 ,b ! road f ,africa rema9$ op51 & ! region 0 con/antly liable to new invasions f ! area ( its prime orig94 ,diff]5ces ( culture produc$ fi]ce w>f>e betwe5 ! incom+ & ! old e/abli%$ race1 & l$ tempor>ily to ! triumph ( ! invad]s1 kn[n to hi/ory z ,s>ac5s & ,moors4 ,! orig9al ,ib]ians1 l ! p ( ! same /ock 9 ,wales & p>ts ( ! ,scotti% ,highl&s1 7 pu%$ back to ! m\nta9s ( ,galicia1 to ! hill c\ntry ( ,ca/ile1 to ! hills ( ,aragon & r\nd & ov] ! ,pyr5ees to ,langu$oc & ! s\? ( ,france g5]ally4 ,ultimately !y reass]t$ !mselves1 & drove ! ,moors out ( ,europe1 b ! driv+ =ce 0 ex]t$ f ?ree diff]5t c5tres1 ,galicia1 ,ca/ile1 & ,aragon1 :i*1 ow+ to ! configuration ( ! c\ntry1 7 isolat$ f ea* o!r4 ,a political accid5t unit$ ,ca/ile & ,aragon1 & impos$ ,ca/ilian ,spani% on a unit$ ,spa9 z ! (ficial language1 b ! geographical conditions h l$ to ! long ret5tion ( ! ,catalan spee*1 ?\gh n ( a ,catalan nation4 ,! ,ib]ians :o f\nd a refuge 9 ! m\nta9s ( ,galicia1 at a lat] date1 =m$ ! nucleus ( ! ,portuguese nation4 ,) ^! prelim9>y consid]ations we may pass to ! discussion ( :at is kn[n1 or surmis$1 z to ! diff]5t races ( ,europe & _! orig94 ,! e>lie/ man :o has left traces 9 ,europe is he ( ! ,paloli?ic ,p]iod1 or ,old ,/one ,age1 a hunt] & cave-dwell] )\t dome/icat$ animals1 ^: traces are especially f\nd 9 s\!rn ,europe4 ,no traces ( 8 pres5ce h yet be5 f\nd 9 ,sc&9avia or 9 ,scotl&1 :]e ! climatic conditions p]haps made 8 exi/5ce impossible4 ,n mu* is kn[n ( ?is e>ly race1 b x seems to h be5 long-head$1 & 0 probably d>k4 ,x is no long] believ$ t !re 0 a complete rupture betwe5 ! culture ( ! ,paloli?ic p]iod1 ) its unpoli%$ /one implem5ts1 & t ( ! ,neoli?ic age1 ) its poli%$ implem5ts1 b ! relations ( ! two rema9 some:at unc]ta94 ,! rema9s ( ! ,neoli?ic p]iod are mu* m ext5sive & enable u to draw mu* m satisfactory conclusions z to racial *>act]s4 ,we %all describe briefly "s ( ^! ,neoli?ic rema9s z !y appe> 9 ,great ,brita94 ,be=e do+ ?is1 h[ev]1 x is necess>y to say a few words ab\t ! means ( recognis+ diff]5t races ( m54 ,! crit]ion mo/ employ$ is t ( head =m1 & especially :at is kn[n z ! cephalic index1 t is1 ! ratio betwe5 ! bread? ( ! skull betwe5 ! e>s & its l5g? f front to back4 ,! ratio is express$ z a p]c5tage1 ! l5g? be+ tak5 z #ajj1 & ! bread? /at$ z a fraction ( x4 ,:5 ! index rises above #hj1 ! skull is said to be bra*ycephalic1 or r\nd$2 :5 x is bel[ #ge1 ! skull is long1 or doli*ocephalic4 ,! ,italian an?ropologi/1 ,s]gi1 adopts ano!r classification ( skulls1 bas$ ^u ! %ape1 b ?is is only a ref9em5t ( ! ord9>y di/9ction betwe5 long & r\nd skulls4 ,ano!r important "*1 :i*1 l ! %ape ( ! skull1 c be measur$ ei!r 9 ! liv+ p]son or 9 ! skeleton1 is ! height1 :i* has "s racial significance4 ,a ?ird "*1 ( mu* importance1 is ! col\r+ ( ! sk91 eyes & hair4 ,?is c only be inf]r$ 9 ! case ( pre-hi/oric peoples4 ,f9ally1 ! %ape ( ! features1 especially ( ! nose1 has "s racial significance4 ,9 ! we/ ( ,great ,brita9 g5]ally1 & ext5d+ nor?w>ds to ,orkney1 !re occur ! bury+-places ( a ,neoli?ic p1 :i* h yield$ abundant rema9s1 includ+ skeletons4 ,! cairns1 tumuli1 or b>r[s ( ?is p are recognis$ by _! elongat$ %ape1 by ! fact t !y are *amb]$1 & by ! conta9$ skeletons1 :i* are always ^? ( a doli*ocephalic p4 ,long b>r[s1 long skulls is an an?ropological rule = ,engl& & ,scotl&1 no less ?an = ! o!r p>ts ( ,europe 9 :i* ^! tumuli occur4 ,! skeletons )9 ! b>r[s %[ no m>ks ( fire1 s t inhumation n cremation 0 practis$1 & a v curi\s feature f\nd 9 ,scotl&1 9 ,sicily1 9 ,egypt & else:]e1 9 tombs suppos$ to be ( simil> age1 is t ! body is usually plac$ 9 a d\bl$-up position4 ,! position corresponds to ! pre-natal position ( ! human infant1 & ?is me?od ( burial is suppos$ to imply "s belief 9 a future life--is a record ( a nave hope t man c\ld ent] a second "t into 8 "m's womb & be born aga94 ,graves ( ?is type1 conta9+ ! skeletons ( long-head$ m51 believ$ to be ( ! race :i* we h call$ ,m$it]ranean1 occur n only 9 we/]n ,great ,brita91 b also 9 ,france1 9 ,sc&9avia1 9 ,g]many1 9 ! ,m$it]ranean bas91 & else:]e4 ,!re seems reason to believe t !y prove t 9 ,neoli?ic times ! ,m$it]ranean race 0 widely di/ribut$1 especially 9 ! we/2 x seems1 fur!r1 tol]ably c]ta9 t ,m$it]ranean man himself 0 an immigrant f ! nor? ( ,africa1 & e/abli%$ himself fir/ 9 ! ,m$it]ranean bas94 ,! memb]s ( ?is race h n[1 & app>5tly h always _h1 ! foll[+ *>act]s3--,! skull is m>k$ly doli*ocephalic1 ! sk9 t5ds to be br[n1 ! eyes & hair are d>k1 ! /ature is m$ium & ! build slight1 & ! nose is r broad4 ,accord+ to ,pr(4 ,s]gi !re are f\r great /ocks ( ?is race2 ( ^!1 "o rema9$ )9 ,africa1 & has be5 kn[n "u v>i\s names1 ! anci5t ,egyptians1 ! ,libyans1 ! ,b]b]s be+ all ( ?is /ock4 ,! o!r ?ree /ocks invad$ ,europe1 ent]+ by ! ?ree natural r\tes :i* pres5t !mselves1 t is1 by ! ?ree regions :]e ! sea is mo/ easily cross$4 ,! mo/ we/]n gr\p1 ! ,ib]ians1 cross$1 z we h se51 via ,gibralt>1 & occupi$ ! ,ib]ian p59sula4 ,! next gr\p1 ! ,ligurians1 f\nd an entrance into ,europe via ,sicily1 & pass+ up into ,italy ext5d$ we/w>ds along ! ,rivi]a1 till !y enc\nt]$ ! ,ib]ians 9 s\!rn ,france4 ,f9ally1 ! ?ird gr\p1 ! ,pelasgians1 rea*$ ,greece by means ( ! isl&s ( t "p ( ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,x /ill rema9s unc]ta9 :e!r an e>li] migration /ill _h peopl$ ,europe ) ,paloli?ic man1 :o1 on ?is !ory1 w\ld belong also to ! ,m$it]ranean race1 or :e!r ! immigrant ,african race displac$ "s e>li] unrelat$ population4 ,9 any case1 x is tol]ably c]ta9 t ! fir/ peopl+ ( ,europe on any consid]able scale 0 ! result ( ?is immigration ( ,m$it]ranean man4 ,he d\btless fir/ e/abli%$ himself on ! m>g9 ( ! great sea1 & !re became ?or\ghly suit$ to 8 environm5t4 ,lat] he spread nor?w>ds1 be+ no d\bt especially attract$ by ! relatively mild climate ( ! we/1 by :at has be5 call$ ! w9t] gulf ( w>m? :i* ext5ds ov] nor?-we/]n ,europe4 ,:atev] 0 ! cause ( 8 nor?w>d tr5d1 h[ev]1 ,m$it]ranean man does n appe> to h be5 left long 9 undi/urb$ possession ( 8 acquir$ t]ritory4 ,9 ,scotl&1 9 ! ,clyde valley1 :i* is typical ( _m o!r p>ts ( ,europe1 r\nd b>r[s or cairns are f\nd side by side ) ! long ones4 ,^! are ( lat] orig91 z is %[n by ! nature ( ! pott]y1 by ! occurr5ce ( ornam5ts1 & especially by ! pres5ce ( bronze weapons--a great advance ^u /one4 ,! skeletons 9 ^! cairns mo/ly %[ m>ks ( fire1 sugge/+ t cremation 0 practis$1 & ! skulls are ^? ( a r\nd-head$ race4 ,r\nd b>r[s mean r\nd skulls is a second an?ropological maxim = ,brita94 ,^! b>r[s are ! fir/ traces ( ! second great ,european race1 call$ ,alp9e1 ,celtic1 ,eurasiatic1 or ,celto-,slavic by diff]5t an?ropologi/s4 ,! memb]s ( ?is race are ( m$ium height1 b are m /\tly built ?an ,m$it]ranean man4 ,?\gh g5]ally resembl+ him 9 ! coloration ( hair & eyes1 !y are light] 9 t9t1 ! hair t5d+ to be *e/nut-col\r$1 & ! eyes hazel grey1 in/ead ( bo? be+ v d>k z 9 ! =m] race4 ,! nose1 ?\gh v>iable1 is 9 liv+ types usually r broad1 & ! special feature is ( c\rse ! r\nd head & broad face4 ,z "o ( ! names giv5 indicates1 ?is race is suppos$ by mo/ an?ropologi/s to h be5 ( ,asiatic orig94 ,:]e ! two sets ( b>r[s occur !re are indications t ! incom+ race greatly influ5c$ ! culture ( ! old4 ,! use ( bronze mu/ h giv5 its memb]s an enorm\s advantage 9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce1 & !y seem to h impos$ _! cu/oms1 burial & o!r1 & app>5tly also _! language1 on ! old] race4 ,?is conflict ( races :i* has left its traces 9 ! ,clyde valley app>5tly occurr$ 9 o!r p>ts ( ,europe4 ,ev]y:]e ! new race impos$ its language & its cu/oms ^u ! old1 & ev]y:]e its appe>ance is associat$ ) a *ange & a rise 9 culture4 ,x is presum$ by ! majority t ?is ,alp9e race br\ght ) x ! use ( bronze1 & 0 !re=e at a high] level ?an ,m$it]ranean man1 b ,pr(4 ,s]gi believes t ! appe>ance ( bronze & ( ! new race simultane\sly 0 a m]e co9cid5ce1 & t ! ,m$it]ranean race itself orig9at$ ! use ( metals4 ,meantime !re is no means ( decid+ ?is "q1 :i* 9 any case is n ( supreme importance1 b :at seems cle> is t ev]y:]e1 except 9 ! ,m$it]ranean bas91 ! new race press$ ! old "o h>d1 :e!r by its skill 9 ! arts ( peace or 9 ^? ( w> rema9s unc]ta94 ,ev5 9 ! ,m$it]ranean ! old languages w5t d[n be=e t ( ,alp9e man4 ,9 ! ,m$it]ranean area ! new-com]s seiz$ ! upl& regions1 t is1 z we h sugge/$1 ! regions ( pa/ure1 & ou/$ ! longheads p]man5tly f !m4 ,9 ,spa9 & ,portugal1 p]haps because ( ! vic9ity ( ! res]voir ( ! race 9 ,nor? ,africa1 ,m$it]ranean man kept 8 hold1 & ! bra*ycephalic =ms did n succe$ 9 obta9+ mu* foo?old4 ,b !y are /rongly repres5t$ 9 p>ts ( s\!rn ,france4 ,9 s\!rn ,italy1 9 ,sicily1 ,corsica & ,s>d9ia ,m$it]ranean man l>gely kept out ! intrud]s1 ?\gh !y appe> aga9 on ! ,alp9e slopes ( ! nor? ( ,italy4 ,b 9 ! ea/]n ,m$it]ranean ! d>k longheads are h>d press$ & h kept little save ! seabo>d f ! broadheads4 ,outside ! ,m$it]ranean area1 ! success ( ,alp9e man 0 m *eck]$1 b we are met ) ! difficulty t "h a ?ird race sup]v5$ lat]1 s t exi/+ conditions are n necess>ily comp>able to e>li] conditions4 ,at ! pres5t "t ,alp9e man occupies almo/ all ! upl& & !re=e relatively inf]tile regions ( ,france1 especially ,savoy & ! ,dauph9y1 ! c5tral upl&s1 & p>ts 7n ! :ole7 ( ,brittany4 ,outli]s ( ?is race also occur 9 o!r regions1 e4 g4 9 p>ts ( ! ,sane valley1 :i* is n inf]tile4 ,9 ,great ,brita91 despite _! fir/ success1 ! broadl&s h left little trace on ! exi/+ population4 ,we ?us see ! absurdity ( talk+ ab\t ,briti% ,celts1 = ,celts 9 ! true s5se are almo/ ext9ct 9 ,brita9 ?\gh _! language rema9s & is spok5 by types ( ,m$it]ranean man z well z by o!rs4 ,9 ,sc&9avia ,alp9e man 0 m successful1 = he has left traces 9 v>i\s p>ts1 especially on ! coa/ ( ,norway4 ,?r\gh\t ,belgium & 9 ,s\!rn ,g]many ! broad-head$ elem5t 9 ! population is v /rong1 :ile 9 ,au/ria1 ! ,balkan ,/ates & ,russia ?is race pr$om9ates & is no long] conf9$ to elevat$ or inf]tile regions4 ,?is increase 9 numb]s & 9 dom9ance t[>ds ! ea/ is "o ( ! facts :i* lead an?ropologi/s to believe t ,alp9e man is ( ,asiatic orig94 ,we %all return to him 9 a mom5t1 b meantime x is necess>y to speak ( ! ?ird elem5t 9 ,europe1 ! race v>i\sly call$ ,nordic1 ,teutonic1 or ev5 ,g]manic1 9 spite ( ! fact t _m ,g]mans belong to ! ,alp9e race4 ,! memb]s ( ?is race are rem>kable = _! tall /ature1 = _! long skulls & face1 = _! blue eyes & fair hair1 _! light complexions1 & _! n>r[ aquil9e noses4 ,! resemblance 9 skull =m leads _m an?ropologi/s to reg>d !m z d]iv$ f a common /ock ) ! ,m$it]ranean race1 b ! race seems to h orig9at$ 9 ,europe4 ,! place & date ( its orig9 are /ill q unc]ta94 ,x is possible t x 0 produc$ f an e>ly =m ( ! ,m$it]ranean race 9 adaptation to ! moi/ climate ( we/]n ,europe4 ,ripley gives ,sc&9avia z ! probable place ( orig91 b meantime !re c be no c]ta9ty4 ,:at we d "k is t ?is race %[s z p]fect an adaptation to ! climate ( =e/-clad temp]ate ,europe z ,m$it]ranean man does to ! dry climate ( t region4 ,j z ! bord] ( ! ,m$it]ranean is ! prov9ce ( ,m$it]ranean man1 & has be5 8 = c\ntless ages1 s nor?-we/]n ,europe is ! almo/ un*all5g$ possession ( ,nordic man4 ,betwe5 ! two1 along ! great w$ge ( upl&s1 is ! l& ( ,alp9e man1 :i* wid5s to ! ea/1 8 orig9al home4 ,j z ,m$it]ranean man 9 ! days ( 8 prime pu%$ nor? :]ev] conditions p]mitt$1 s ,nordic man has pu%$ s\?1 across ! ,alp9e b>ri]1 bo? 9 ! lit]al & an?ropological s5se1 & has left traces ( 8 com+ ev5 )9 ! t]ritory ( ,m$it]ranean man4 ,j z ! d>k-hair$ ,wel% & ! d>k-hair$ /ra9 ( ,scotti% ,highl&]s be> witness to ! old exploits ( ,m$it]ranean man1 s d ! fair-hair$1 tall-/atur$ ,lomb>ds be> witness to ! =m] activity ( ,nordic man4 ,nev]!less1 ! ma9 t]ritory ( ! two races is widely sep>at$4 ,! relation ( ^! two types1 at lea/1 to _! zones ( di/ribution is relatively easy to expla94 ,m$it]ranean man is highly susceptible to diseases ( ! brea?+-organs to :i* ! fair-hair$ ,nordic type is m resi/ant4 ,"h is "o possible explanation ( _! comm& ( _! respective habitats1 & !re are _m o!rs4 ,! =e/-dwell+ ,nordic type1 z ,pr(4 ,p5ck po9ts out1 mu/ necess>ily h _h ! family z ! unit1 = only by dwell+ 9 small family gr\ps c primitive man w> aga9/ ! =e/4 ,m$it]ranean man1 ) 8 e>ly use ( irrigation1 _h necess>ily to evolve a l>g] unit1 = irrigation means ext5sive co-op]ation1 s t political organisations w\ld arise e>ly 9 ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,we c h>dly d\bt t ^! two facts _h "s be>+ on ! survival rate ( ! two races4 ,! ,nordic race ) _! /rong family life1 & ) _! abundant pa/urage1 _h d\btless a relatively l[ dea?-rate among ! *ildr51 ?\gh1 z ,pr(4 ,myres po9ts out1 ! /ruggle 9 adult life mu/ h be5 ke54 ,9 ! ,m$it]ranean1 z he also notes1 ! dry summ] means difficulties ) ! wat] supply1 difficulties 9 sanitation1 & ! risk ( pe/il5ce1 :i*1 ) ! abundant supply ( fruit & ! abs5ce or sc>city ( milk1 has probably always meant a v high dea?-rate among ! *ildr54 ,b ! fact t ! /ruggle = exi/5ce among adults 0 mu* less ke5 ?an among ! =e/ folk1 p]haps prev5t$ ?is high infantile dea?-rate f be+ a great h&icap4 ,once ! geographical surr\nd+s ( ! two peoples 7 *ang$ by migration1 ! qualities :i* aid$ !m to survive 9 _! native habitat might become a positive h9drance4 ,9 brief1 z two types evolv$ 9 h>mony ) well-def9$ geographical conditions1 ! v p]fectness ( _! respective adaptations w\ld h9d] ei!r f appropriat+ ! t]ritory ( ! o!r1 :ile leav+ a consid]able m>g9 = /ruggle on ! debatable l& betwe5 ! two geographical regions4 ,if x seems at ! pres5t day t ! ,nordic race has m ?an pass$ ! ,m$it]ranean 9 ! race ( life1 we mu/ rememb] t ! fact t coal is *iefly f\nd 9 ! t]ritory ( ! =m]1 has giv5 x an enorm\s economic advantage 9 rec5t times1 an advantage :i* x may n be able to keep4 ,! ,alp9e race pres5ts a mu* m difficult problem4 ,we h said no?+ "h ( ! s-call$ ,aryan problem1 because ! :ole conception ( an ,aryan race advanc+ f ,asia ) a ready-made culture1 & impos+ x ^u a b>b>ian ,europe1 is some:at out ( date1 & mu* t has be5 writt5 on ! subject ( ! ,aryans prec$$ 9 "t ! dis5tanglem5t ( ! complex problems pres5t$ by ,european races4 ,b ) all d$uctions made1 ! incom+ ,asiatic race :i* we h call$ ,alp9e pres5ts _m curi\s problems4 ,x seems probable t ! languages ( ,europe are l>gely due to ! graft+ ( ,alp9e or ,eurasian tongues ^u ! diff]5t tongues already spok5 by ,m$it]ranean man4 ,we h /ill 9 ,brita9 a ,celtic language1 ?\gh x is spok5 by p ( ,m$it]ranean *>act]s1 & x is an extraord9>y fact t a p %\ld impose its language & culture ^u ano!r race1 & yet be itself unable to keep its foot+ among t race4 ,x has be5 sugge/$ t ! new-com]s1 9 ,brita9 at lea/1 7 nev] m ?an an ari/ocracy1 & t !y disappe>$ by ! m+l+ ( _! blood ) ! indig5\s p1 aft] hav+ long dom9at$ !m4 ,t is1 x 0 z if we might suppose t ! ,briti% population 9 ,india 0 cut (f f ! "m c\ntry1 & ultimately disappe>$ ow+ to int]m>riage1 :ile _! language & _! cu/oms rema9$ 9 greatly modifi$ =m & replac$ ! exi/+ languages & cu/oms4 ,! difficulties 9 reg>d to ?is hypo!sis are tw(old4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 su* a hypo!sis ( m+l+ seems inconsi/5t ) ! extraord9>y p]si/5cy :i* ?is race has manife/$ 9 o!r p>ts ( ,europe1 :]e x came into contact ) ! same races z 9 ,brita92 &1 second1 ! position ( ! ,alp9e race 9 we/]n ,europe g5]ally1 its virtual limitation to relatively inf]tile l&1 seems inconsi/5t ) ! notion t x ev] =m$ an ari/ocracy1 ap>t f & above ! o!r races4 ,to-day 9 ,g]many x is s f> f occupy+ ! position ( an ari/ocracy t x sometimes =ms ! l[] classes to a ,nordic dom9ant class1 ?\gh ! ,alp9e race is sometimes /at$ to be bett] adapt$ to t[n life ?an ! ,nordic4 ,( ! ?ree races1 ,m$it]ranean man seems to be p]fectly adapt$ to a dry region1 ) defici5t pa/ure1 naturally clo!d ) a dr\ght-resi/+ type ( =e/4 ,z he prosp]$ he spread beyond 8 own region1 ) ! result t he rea*$ a region m>k$ly diff]5t 9 climate & vegetation f 8 own1 to :i* 8 adaptation 0 nev] v p]fect4 ,:]e1 z 9 ,irel& & we/]n ,great ,brita91 ! conditions p]mitt$ ! natural gr[? ( "s ( ! ,m$it]ranean plants1 !re 8 hold 0 fairly firm1 else:]e x mu/ always h be5 loose & unc]ta94 ,into a ,europe ?us peopl$1 ) probably l>ge vacant spaces1 came a pa/oral type ( man f ,asia1 c]ta9ly a transport]1 if n an orig9ator1 ( a high] culture1 be/ fitt$ = a region ( pa/ure l&1 b bett] fitt$ ?an ,m$it]ranean man to )/& cold4 ,he fill$ ! spaces :i* ,m$it]ranean man c\ld n fill1 & press$ him h>d 9 _m places4 ,ultimately ! =e/ region ( ,europe evolv$ its own type1 p]haps f "s ab]rant /ra9 ( ,m$it]ranean man1 & ?is type1 p]fectly fitt$ to ! =e/ regions1 conqu]$ ! nor? & we/1 driv+ ,alp9e man up to ! hills1 & l>gely displac+ ,m$it]ranean man except :]e di/9ctively ,m$it]ranean influ5ces prevail$4 ,to ! ea/1 z ! ,european =e/ dies away into ! /eppes ( ,asia1 ,nordic man c no long] compete successfully ) ,alp9e man1 & dim9i%es 9 numb]s & 9 /r5g?4 ,?us :ile 9 ,g]many ! t5d5cy is = ! tall1 fair longheads ( ! nor? to dom9ate ! %ort1 d>k] broadheads ( ! s\?1 fur!r to ! ea/ ?is same broad-head$ race1 "u ! bann] ( ,panslavism1 /rives1 n unsuccessfully1 to dom9ate ! longheads ( ,f9l& & else:]e4 ,?us bel[ & b5ea? ! w>f>e ( race is ! contra/ ( physical conditions1 :i* h produc$ ! v>i\s types ( man1 no less ?an ( plants & animals1 & f :i* man _c fully emancipate himself4 ,! ,new ,_w 0 fir/ colonis$ by ,m$it]ranean man1 b lat] all ! ,european races contribut$ _! "p to its peopl+4 ,:5 we add a /rong negro elem5t 9 ! s\!rn ,unit$ ,/ates1 a remnant ( ! orig9al ,indian population1 & an infusion ( ea/]n races1 x is obvi\s t ! m+l+ ( blood :i* has app>5tly produc$ good results 9 ,europe1 is be+ c>ri$ out on a mu* m elaborate scale across ! ,atlantic4 ,"o o!r po9t may be t\*$ ^u4 ,we h %[n t ! nations ( ,europe are n races 9 ! pure s5se4 ,b1 at ! same "t1 x may be not$ t 9 ! we/]n nations "o or o!r ( ! two *ief races t5ds to pr$om9ate at ! exp5se ( ! o!r4 ,?us broadly we may say t ! antagonism betwe5 ! ,fr5* & ,g]man nationalities is f$ by ! fact t 9 race1 9 culture1 9 tradition1 ! "o is pr$om9antly ,m$it]ranean1 & ! o!r pr$om9antly ,teutonic4 ,9 ! ,ib]ian p59sula1 z we h se51 ! ,m$it]ranean /ra9 enorm\sly pr$om9ates1 :ile 9 ! c\ntries ( ! nor?-we/ ! ,teutonic race t5ds to ov]balance ! o!r4 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,! ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,m9]als ,,& ,,! ,,localisation ,,( ,,indu/ries ,,& ,,( ,,t[ns ,! di/ribution ( m9]als ov] ! surface ( ! e>? is mu* less obvi\s ph5om5on ?an t ( plants & animals1 b x has always be5 ( great importance 9 det]m9+ ! di/ribution ( man & 8 settlem5ts4 ,except 9 ! mo/ primitive communities man mu/ h tools & implem5ts2 probably nev] s9ce he became man has he be5 )\t weapons4 ,! fir/ sign ( em]g5ce f ! rude/ b>b>ism is ! use ( metals1 in/ead ( /one or bone1 to con/ruct ^! tools & weapons & ! necessity = f9d+ ! metals be/ suit$ to 8 use at ea* /age ( civilisation has always influ5c$ ! movem5ts & settlem5ts ( man4 ,! exi/5ce ( useful metals 9 a p>ticul> area mu/ always attract population to t spot1 & x is obvi\s 9 ! case ( ,au/ralia1 ( ,cali=nia1 & lat] ( ,alaska1 h[ /rong ! attractive p[] ( metals is1 ev5 :5 ! o!r conditions are di/9ctly unfav\rable4 ,z metals h always _h ?is attractive p[]1 ! /udy ( _! di/ribution mu/ always be important to ! geograph]4 ,we h se5 t ! fir/ m5 ^: rema9s h be5 pres]v$ 9 ,europe us$ only implem5ts ( /one1 b t at a lat] /ate bronze 0 us$1 & correspond$ to a m>k$ rise 9 civilisation1 z %[n by ! improv$ pott]y1 ! nature ( ! ornam5ts us$1 & s on4 ,n[ bronze is n a metal b an alloy or mixture ( two metals1 copp] & t94 ,?is alloy is v h>d1 & possesses qualities :i* make x m valuable = weapons & tools ?an ! relatively s(t metal copp]4 ,b we c h>dly suppose t ! fir/ metal-work]s discov]$1 imm$iately aft] !y _h le>nt h[ to smelt metals1 t a mixture ( metals 0 m useful ?an a pure "o4 ,9 po9t ( fact1 x is cle> t 9 "s places1 at lea/1 ! age ( bronze 0 prec$$ by a p]iod :5 develop+ man us$ pure copp] = 8 implem5ts4 ,our ^w copp] is d]iv$ f ! "n ( ! isl& ( ,cyprus1 :i* is p>ticul>ly ri* 9 copp] ores4 ,9 ?is isl& !y 7 smelt$ at a v e>ly date1 ! process be+ aid$ by two facts1 fir/1 t copp] ores are relatively easy to smelt1 &1 second1 t ! necess>y fuel = ! process 0 furni%$ by ! =e/s :i* =m]ly cov]$ ! isl&1 & :i* 7 l>gely de/roy$ by ! e>ly smi?s4 ,= our purpose x is q unnecess>y to discuss ! difficult & debat$ "q z to :]e ! use ( copp] & bronze orig9at$4 ,x is suffici5t to note t ! isl& ( ,cyprus1 plac$ ne> e>ly c5tres ( civilisation seems to h be5 ! region f :i* a k ( ! pure metal & ( its m useful alloy radiat$ ov] ! ,m$it]ranean & ultimately ov] ,europe g5]ally4 ,x is m ?an probable t ! use ( copp] or ( bronze spread fa/] ?an ! k ( ! me?od ( produc+ ei!r4 ,x is at lea/ cle> t 9 _m cases ! ,/one & ,bronze ,ages co-exi/$1 sugge/+ t ! new type ( implem5ts 0 at fir/ v difficult to obta94 ,no d\bt = long ages !y occupi$ ! position :i* fire>ms long occupi$ among savage races1 & :i* !y /ill occupy among ^? mo/ remote f civilisation4 ,9 ,cyprus itself v few /one implem5ts occur1 sugge/+ t ! ,/one ,age 0 v %ort1 & rapidly gave place to a metal "o4 ,we d n "k h[ ! discov]y 0 made t ! addition ( t9 improv$ copp] = human purposes4 ,bronzes ( v v>y+ composition h be5 f\nd1 includ+ _m :i* conta9 antimony1 a some:at r>e metal1 /ill employ$ 9 mak+ _m useful alloys4 ,x is sugge/$ t ! fir/ smi?s tri$ a great numb] ( comb9ations be=e !y f\nd "o :i* 0 satisfactory1 & f9ally fix$ ^u t9 z ! mo/ suitable addition4 ,! next po9t ( int]e/ is ! s\rce ( ! t94 ,?is is a "q ( great int]e/1 = long aft] iron _h be5 us$1 & us$ ext5sively 9 ! manufacture ( implem5ts1 ! dem& = bronze cont9u$1 = ! iron1 ev5 ( late ,roman days1 0 v co/ly & probably v tr\blesome to make4 ,bronze also became ( importance 9 connection ) ! co9age ( civilis$ nations4 ,t9 is n a v abundant metal1 & x is r>e 9 ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,! deposits :i* 7 utilis$ by ! fir/ mak]s ( bronze h d\btless completely disappe>$1 = f ! e>ly days ( civilisation ! t9 deposits ev5 ( ,f> ,brita9 7 s\ght4 ,)9 ! ,m$it]ranean region at ! pres5t "t only "o t9 deposit ( any importance is kn[n4 ,?is occurs 9 ! village ( ,montecat9i1 :i* is situat$ ne> ,volt]ra 9 ,italy1 9 ! anci5t ,etruria4 ,x p]haps play$ a "p 9 connection ) ! developm5t ( ! civilisation ( anci5t ,etruria4 ,outside ( ! ,m$it]ranean ! ma9 deposits ( t9 9 ,europe occur1 or occurr$1 9 ?ree sep>ate areas1 :i* =m$ z x 7 ?ree /ages 9 "o j\rney1 & ^: position c]ta9ly made !m a factor 9 promot+ ! spread ( ,m$it]ranean culture to ! nor?-we/4 ,^! ?ree ri* t9-be>+ areas 73 7#a7 ,galicia 9 nor?-we/]n ,spa91 7#b7 ! s\? ( ,brittany1 especially betwe5 ! e/u>ies ( ! ,loire & ! ,vila9e1 a deposit long s9ce exhau/$1 & 7#c7 ! /ill-important deposits ( s\!rn ,engl&1 9 ,cornwall & p>ts ( ,devon1 :i* are believ$ to h be5 visit$ by ! ,pho5icians4 ,j z ! gold ( ,cali=nia br\ght population & civilisation to ! ,f> ,we/ ( ,nor? ,am]ica long be=e ! natural increase ( ea/]n peoples w\ld h l$ to a we/w>d movem5t1 s ! ri* t9 deposits ( s\?-we/]n ,brita91 ) ! o!r metals ( ^? fav\r$ isl&s1 br\ght m]*ants & navigators to :at 0 ! ,f> ,we/ ( anci5t ,europe4 ,! bold navigators :o _h le>nt _! craft 9 ! ,m$it]ranean ,sea left its bas9 by ! ,/rait ( ,gibralt>1 & visit$ successively ^? masses ( anci5t rocks :i* project out into ! ocean1 & =m ! we/]n extremities ( ,spa91 ,france & ,brita94 ,b x 0 n only ! sea r\te :i* 0 utilis$1 at lea/ 9 lat] times4 ,p]haps s long ago z five c5turies be=e our era a l& r\te 0 organis$ :i* c>ri$ ,briti% t9 to ,m>seilles1 & ?us to ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,! great valley ( ! ,rhone r5d]s su* a trav]se ( ,france feasible1 & ! passage f ! valley to ! ,rhone to t ( ! ,loire or ( ! ,se9e is easy4 ,! exi/5ce ( a comm]ce 9 t9 ?us ensur$ t ,france 0 e>ly & deeply p]meat$ by ,m$it]ranean civilisation1 = x involv$ ! exi/5ce ( high roads ?r\gh h] l&1 at a "t :5 nor!rn ,europe g5]ally 0 cut (f f ! civilisation ( ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,!re is ev5 reason to believe t trade 9 t9 l$ to ! f\nd+ ( an e>ly m>itime p[] on ! b>r5 %ores ( ,brittany4 ,! trade 9 t9 c]ta9ly did mu* to op5 ! way = ! future civilisation ( ,france4 ,?\gh1 z we h indicat$1 bronze 0 = long ( relatively great importance1 yet ! use ( iron dates back to great antiquity4 ,x seems to h be5 a r>e & preci\s metal :5 ! ,hom]ic poems took %ape1 & = long aft]w>ds its use 0 p>tial & limit$4 ,! fact1 h[ev]1 t x is v readily de/roy$ by ru/ :5 expos$ to air & damp1 makes x difficult to draw any c]ta9 conclusions f its abs5ce 9 anci5t rema9s4 ,! sl[ gr[? ( ! use ( iron mu/ be l>gely ascrib$ to ! great difficulties 9 smelt+ x1 especially :5 x occurs 9 impure =ms4 ,iron does n occur 9 ! pure /ate1 z copp] does to a small ext5t1 b x is enorm\sly abundant1 be+ f\nd1 to a great] or less ext5t1 9 almo/ all rocks4 ,relatively pure ores are r>e1 mo/ iron-be>+ m9]als conta9+ a l>ge numb] ( impurities1 "s ( :i* are v difficult to remove4 ,fur!r1 ! process ( smelt+ always requires mu* fuel1 &1 9 ! case ( ! m impure ores1 rem>kable skill & sci5ce4 ,! result 0 t ! e>ly smi?s c\ld only employ a v high grade ( ore2 all o!rs 7 useless to !m4 ,ev5 ) a high grade ( ore1 !y c\ld only extract a relatively small am\nt ( ! iron pres5t4 ,a v curi\s little pro( ( ?is latt] fact is furni%$ by ! ,roman iron work+s 9 ! ,=e/ ( ,dean 9 ,gl\ce/]%ire4 ,! refuse ?r[n out ( ! anci5t furnaces work$ by ! ,romans "h1 0 re-smelt$ by ! ,briti% smi?s long c5turies aft]w>ds1 & ?is refuse f$ _! furnaces = a p]iod ( betwe5 two & ?ree hundr$ ye>s4 ,! next po9t ( int]e/ 9 reg>d to iron is ! s\rce ( ! necess>y fuel4 ,at fir/ wood or *>coal 0 always employ$1 & !re=e iron c\ld only be smelt$ 9 ! vic9ity ( =e/s4 ,?us ! ,=e/ ( ,dean1 already m5tion$1 suppli$ ! wood us$ by ! ,romans 9 smelt+1 & ! trees ( ! ,weald or wood ( ,sussex & ,k5t 7 completely remov$ dur+ ! long c5turies :5 ! iron ores ( t region 7 smelt$4 ,! ,=e/ ( ,ard51 ne> ,birm+ham1 is ano!r region :]e iron 0 long smelt$ by ! aid ( *>coal4 ,! am\nt ( fuel requir$1 especially 9 ! e>ly days1 0 v great1 & z ! =e/s 7 cle>$ )\t any reg>d = sci5tific =e/ry1 x naturally foll[$ t 9 _m di/ricts ! de/ruction ( ! necess>y fuel l$ to a dim9ution ( ! indu/ry4 ,9 ,engl& coal 0 n g5]ally employ$ 9 ! smelt+ ( iron until aft] ! middle ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 & long be=e t ! ,briti% =e/s _h be5 l>gely de/roy$4 ,! result 0 t ! ,briti% iron indu/ry _h decl9$1 & 9 ! e>ly "p ( t c5tury consid]ably m iron 0 import$ ?an 0 made 9 ,engl&4 ,! c\ntries :i* at ?is "t 7 specially fav\r$ 9 connection ) ! indu/ry 7 ^? 9 :i* pure iron ores co-exi/$ ) ext5sive =e/s4 ,?is condition occurr$ especially 9 ,g]many1 :]e ! iron deposits =m]ly work$ 7 ^? ( ! upl& regions :i* h kept _! =e/s till ?is day4 ,?us ! wood & ! ores ( ! ,h>z ,m\nta9s & ( ! ,erzgebirge1 or ,iron ,m\nta9s1 7 ( great importance be=e ! indu/rial revolution1 & up till ! e>ly "p ( ! eighte5? c5tury ! ,g]man iron indu/ry 0 m important ?an ! ,briti%4 ,! replacem5t ( *>coal by coal l$ to a great dim9ution ( ! co/ ( production1 & p]mitt$ ! use ( l[-grade ores1 b x 0 n 9 itself a great improvem5t4 ,*>coal is a s+ul>ly pure =m ( c>bon1 & its use z ! r$uc+ ag5t gives a high quality ( iron4 ,coal1 on ! o!r h&1 (t5 conta9s impurities :i* spoil ! iron1 & h to be provid$ aga9/ 9 v>i\s ways4 ,n all coal1 inde$1 is suitable = iron smelt+4 ,! result is t :]e *>coal c /ill be obta9$ *eaply1 z 9 ! ,sc&9avian c\ntries & 9 p>ts ( ,russia1 x is /ill us$ 9 smelt+1 & ! iron s produc$ is p>ticul>ly valuable4 ,! orig9al dem& = iron1 z we h se51 0 v small1 & ev5 d[n to ! middle ( ! eighte5? c5tury rema9$ insignificant4 ,b ) ! use ( ma*9]y1 ! spread ( railways1 ! replacem5t ( wood by iron 9 %ipbuild+ & = ! framework ( build+s1 etc41 ! dem& 9 all civilis$ communities has become enorm\s1 has become too great to p]mit ( any =e/s supply+ ! necess>y fuel4 ,) ! f> increas$ dem& has come an elaboration ( me?ods :i* means v co/ly in/allations & mu* skill & tra9+ among ! work]s4 ,f ! "t ( ! indu/rial revolution till ! pres5t1 !n1 a well-develop$ iron indu/ry has dem&$ ! foll[+3--fuel1 usually furni%$ by coal2 an abundant supply ( ! ore1 ei!r furni%$ locally or easily obta9$ by wat] c>riage1 ores be+ s bulky t l& c>riage is r>ely pr(itable2 c]ta9 accessories1 not$ly lime/one to s]ve z a flux1 & gani/]1 a k9d ( s&/one us$ to =m a l9+ 9 p>ts ( ! app>atus us$2 capital1 necess>y = ! pur*ase & fitt+ up ( ! co/ly plant2 ! tradition & skill :i* come f ! long practice ( ! indu/ry4 ,! significance ( ^! v>i\s necess>ies may p]haps be realis$ by a few examples4 ,let u consid] fir/ ! ,m$it]ranean area4 ,we h se5 t x 0 civilis$ f a v e>ly date1 t a consid]able "p at lea/ ( t civilisation 0 indig5\s1 & t its e>ly smi?s %[$ no lack ( skill4 ,b ) ! adv5t ( ! age ( iron its natural h&icap became obvi\s4 ,! =e/s ( ! region nev] _h ! luxuriance ( ^? fur!r nor?1 & mu/ h be5 e>ly de/roy$1 & coal is virtually abs5t4 ,iron ores are pres5t & are widely di/ribut$2 "s1 l ^? ( ,elba & ( nor!rn ,spa91 :i* is outside ! area1 are ev5 ri*2 b ! abs5ce ( fuel is a t]rible h&icap1 & to its abs5ce we mu/ ascribe ! pres5t pov]ty & backw>dness ( ,m$it]ranean c\ntries4 ,x is to be not$1 h[ev]1 t electricity is com+ to be us$ 9 smelt+1 & especially = mak+ p>ticul> k9ds ( /eel1 us$ = special purposes4 ,to g5]ate ?is electricity wat] p[] is be+ us$1 & ! appe>ance ( small factories 9 ! valleys ( ! ,alp9e bord]1 bo? 9 ,france & ,italy1 p]haps m>ks ! beg9n+ ( a *ange :i* w re/ore to "s ( ! ,m$it]ranean c\ntries _! anci5t glory4 ,^! small factories are n only employ$ 9 manufactur+ high-grade /eel1 b also 9 mak+ nitrog5\s manure f ! air1 & 9 o!r processes4 ,9 ! valleys 9 :i* !y occur ! inhabitants are =sak+ _! phyllox]a-infe/$ v9ey>ds = ! factories1 & ! association ( ! neglect$ l& ) ! busy factories (f]s a v curi\s spectacle1 & sugge/s t ! tw5tie? c5tury may see great *anges 9 ! pres5t di/ribution ( population4 ,meantime ?is di/ribution has be5 almo/ ev]y:]e 9 we/]n ,europe enorm\sly influ5c$ by ! di/ribution ( coal4 ,ev]y:]e ! coal has _h an attractive influ5ce1 dragg+ population1 weal?1 & intellig5ce f ! agricultural regions1 ev5 ! f]tile regions1 to ! vic9ity ( ! coal measures1 :]e alone great indu/ries c be pr(itably e/abli%$4 ,9 ,great ,brita91 :]e ! coal-be>+ b$s are n only num]\s1 b 9 "s in/ances crop out at ! surface1 coal seems to h be5 work$ e>li] ?an else:]e 9 ,europe4 ,to its e>li] utilisation ( coal on a l>ge scale ,brita9 owes its long lead 9 ! /ruggle = indu/rial supremacy1 & we ?us f9d ! effect ( coal ^u ! di/ribution ( ! population illu/rat$ 9 a m /rik+ way "h ?an else:]e4 ,fur!r1 ,great ,brita9 is especially =tunate 9 t iron usually occurs 9 close proximity to coal1 & t ! o!r necessities = an iron indu/ry are easily obta9able4 ,its position1 %elt]$ by ,irel&1 gives x good ports1 & x is ri* 9 o!r m9]als z well z 9 iron ores & coal4 ,! nature ( ! *ange introduc$ by ! great indu/rial revolution may be realis$1 = example1 by ?9k+ ( ! great ca!drals ( ,engl&1 & not+ h[ insignificant ! t[ns 9 :i* !y are plac$ are at ! pres5t day :5 comp>$ ) ! great c5tres :i* h sprung up ne> ! coalfields4 ,yet ! v exi/5ce ( ^! magnific5t monum5ts ( ! pa/ means t 9 ! old days ! t[ns 9 :i* !y 7 plac$ 7 n only c5tres ( population & ( weal?1 b _h also pre/ige en\gh to draw m5's eyes t[>ds !m4 ,_! v peace & cleanl9ess to-day means t ! life ( ! nation is eddy+ r\nd o!r c5tres4 ,! emotions :i* f\nd expression 9 _! l(ty spires n[ seek ano!r outlet 9 ! magnific5t municipal build+s1 ! art gall]ies1 ! hospitals1 ! univ]sities & s*ools ( ! indu/rial c5tres4 ,! same lesson may be le>nt by consid]+ ! c\nty t[ns ( "s ( ! c\nties :]e ! *ange wr\ght by ! indu/rial revolution has be5 greate/4 ,:at d ! t[ns ( ,alnwick1 ,durham1 ,york1 ,lanca/]1 ,appleby1 ,c>lisle n[ signify beside ! great t[ns 9 ,york%ire & ,lanca%ire1 :i* dep5d = _! exi/5ce ^u ! coalfields8 ,! great developm5t ( ,nor? ,am]ica is simil>ly ! product ( ! age ( iron & coal1 & !re=e "h also population t5ds to congregate r\nd m9]alis$ regions1 & to be suck$ away f ! e>ly c5tres1 :i* 7 det]m9$ by o!r causes4 ,9 brief we say t x is true g5]ally ( ! civilis$ _w t ! attraction ( ! t[ns1 ( :i* we he> s mu*1 is 9 reality ! attraction ( m9]als1 especially ( coal & iron4 ,?is attractive p[] ( m9]als is no new ?+4 ,:5 ! m5 arm$ ) bronze or copp] weapons & tools conqu]$ ^? ) /one implem5ts1 :5 iron 0 f\nd to be bett] ?an all ?ree1 !n fir/ began t long process :i* n[ acts by suck+ ! c\ntryman into ! l>ge indu/rial t[ns4 ,:5 coal became supremely important ! small indu/ries1 previ\sly scatt]$ ov] ! localities :]e "s specially fav\rable conditions pres5t$ !mselves1 began to conc5trate ne> ! coalfields4 ,) ! *eap p[] !y develop$ out ( all proportion to _! old /ate1 & new indu/ries 7 add$ to ! old4 ,?us began t process :i* made ! great manufactur+ nations seek m>kets f> beyond _! own %ores1 & produce f> 9 excess ( _! own ne$s4 ,?is1 aga91 has l$ to enorm\s improvem5ts 9 ! means ( communication4 ,x mu/ itself1 h[ev]1 be necess>ily a m or less tempor>y ph5om5on1 to be replac$ soon] or lat] by o!r conditions1 z ! new nations become manufactur]s 9 _! turn1 & cease to (f] unlimit$ m>kets to ! old4 ,9 reg>d to ! localisation ( indu/ries1 x is int]e/+ to note t ?\gh ! indu/ries are attract$ t[>ds coal1 local conditions g5]ally det]m9e :i* indu/ry or indu/ries %all prosp] r\nd a p>ticul> coalfield4 ,! moi/ climate ( ,lanca%ire1 ) ! relative proximity ( ! cotton supplies ( ! ,s\!rn ,unit$ ,/ates1 has det]m9$ ! cotton indu/ry ( ,lanca%ire4 ,once e/abli%$ ! advantages associat$ ) a go+ conc]n make x v difficult = o!r di/ricts to capture trade1 ev5 :5 !y h great] natural advantages1 e4 g4 ! ,s\!rn ,/ates !mselves are n[ manufactur+ areas1 b _c compete on equal t]ms ) ,lanca%ire4 ,x is inde$ rem>kable t ! proximity ( raw mat]ial1 except 9 cases :5 ?is is v bulky1 z ) ores1 seems (t5 to be ( m9or importance 9 localis+ indu/ries4 ,?us1 ?\gh ,belfa/ may be said to owe its l95 indu/ry prim>ily to local supplies ( flax1 x is noticeable t ! local supply is v limit$1 & sev]al t[ns on ! ea/ coa/ ( ,scotl&1 z ,dunf]ml9e1 ,montrose1 ,arbroa?1 etc41 h a fl\ri%+ l95 indu/ry ma9ta9$ entirely by import$ raw mat]ial4 ,a :ole ho/ ( facts ( ?is k9d emphasise ! importance ( p[] 9 ! case ( a mod]n indu/ry1 z contra/$ ) ! supreme importance ( abundant raw mat]ial 9 ! old days :5 man himself *iefly suppli$ ! motive =ce4 ,9 o!r words1 mod]n indu/ry has be5 v closely associat$ ) improv$ means ( communication1 :i* alone make x possible to c>ry *eap raw mat]ial ov] great di/ances1 )\t excessive exp5se = freight4 ,! /udy ( ! developm5t ( ! means ( communication is !re=e a problem well wor? ! att5tion ( ! geograph]1 & is "o :i* has _m int]e/+ facts to disclose4 ,man himself is an animal relatively ill-adapt$ = cont9u\s rapid movem5t or = ! transport ( goods4 ,z a transport animal he is ! co/lie/ & mo/ ineffici5t kn[n1 & 7 x n = ! intellig5ce :i* enabl$ him fir/ to utilise o!r animals = 8 own purposes1 & lat] to f9d me*anical means1 ! progress ( civilisation w\ld h be5 impossible4 ,progress 9 ,africa has be5 greatly *eck$ by ! fact t ov] a l>ge area man is ! only transport animal available1 a fact :i* br+s 9 its tra9 ! slave trade1 & _m o!r s]i\s evils4 ,except 9 c]ta9 special localities ! surface ( ! e>? is s unev5 t progression1 especially = a load$ man or animal1 is v difficult except on a prep>$ surface4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! dim9ution ( friction ov] a wat] surface makes transport ov] x relatively easy4 ,x has be5 po9t$ out t1 z a result ( ?is fact1 ! great civilisations h develop$ 9 regions :]e wat] transport 0 possible1 & h involv$ ! progressive utilisation ( l>g] & l>g] masses ( wat]4 ,! fir/ civilisations develop$ 9 riv] valleys1 :]e wat] transport 9 "o direction at lea/ is v easy4 ,! next /age 0 t :i* saw man settl$ on ! %ores ( ! great inl& sea1 & witness$ 8 gradual acquisition ( great] & great] skill 9 navigation4 ,z we h se51 he 0 soon n cont5t ) t sea alone1 b laun*$ out into ! op51 &1 hugg+ ! coa/l9e1 f\nd 8 way to f> ,brita94 ,only at a v mu* lat] date1 h[ev]1 did he conqu] ! va/ ,atlantic outside1 :i*1 z ,pr(4 ,myres po9ts out1 has n[ become a m]e inl& sea 9 its turn1 :5 comp>$ ) ! great] oceans beyond4 ,to ?is day1 h[ev]1 ! "p :i* wat] transport plays 9 human life is reflect$ 9 ! way 9 :i* ! d5s] masses ( mank9d clu/] r\nd ! %ores ( ! seas & oceans1 z any map ( ! di/ribution ( population w %[4 ,9 wat] transport ! me?od ( propell+ ! vessel employ$ is ( great importance4 ,9 riv] navigation x is natural to all[ ! boat to drift ) ! curr5t1 & ! use ( a pole to /e] ) w\ld naturally sugge/ its use z a paddle or o> 9 ord] to move aga9/ ! curr5t4 ,9 ,nor? ,am]ica up till ! appe>ance ( ! :ite man1 ! aborig9es _h n got pa/ ! paddle /age1 9 spite ( ! fact t !y 7 v skilful navigators1 & _h a consid]able v>iety ( vessels4 ,! next /age is ( c\rse ! sail1 us$ by mo/ races :o v5ture on op5 wat]1 z contra/$ ) fl[+ /reams & riv]s4 ,al?\gh be=e its virtual replacem5t by /eam1 ! civilis$ races _h c>ri$ ! developm5t ( ! sail to a v high pit*1 yet ! difficulties associat$ ) x militat$ aga9/ bold navigation1 m especially 9 ! e>ly days :5 !re 0 no sci5ce ( meteorology4 ,?us x has be5 po9t$ out t ! reason :y ! effective discov]y ( ,am]ica 0 delay$ s long 0 l>gely due to two meteorological facts4 ,! fir/ ( ^! is t to ! nor?1 ! place :]e ! cross+ is n>r[e/1 ! ice :i* /reams d[n ! we/ coa/ ( ,gre5l&1 & ev5 to ?is day pres5ts difficulties to navigation (f ! coa/s ( ,newf\ndl&1 =m$ an effective b>ri] to e>ly navigators4 ,to ! s\? ! great difficulty 0 ! con/ant nor?-ea/ trade w9d4 ,:at %ip d>e set out t[>ds ! unkn[n bl[n by a con/ant w9d aga9/ :i* %e c\ld n return home aga98 ,to ,columbus fir/1 says ,mr4 ,mack9d]1 came ! brilliant inspiration t1 :ile travell+ outw>ds ) ! trade1 x w\ld be possible to return ) ! we/]ly breezes ( m nor!rn latitudes4 ,:51 lat]1 ! sail 0 functionally replac$ by /eam1 man became virtually indep5d5t ( ! w9d1 & only ! "n ( trade w9d rema9s to c>ry u back to ! p]iod :5 ! ocean breezes det]m9$ 8 movem5ts & 8 comm]ce4 ,turn+ n[ to ! surface ( ! l&1 we may note t regions :i* are sn[-cov]$ 9 w9t] (f] special facilities = rapid locomotion4 ,9 ! nor!rn "p ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 bo? 9 ! tundra & ! =e/ region1 ! aborig9es us$ bo? sn[-%oes & sl$ges4 ,! ,eskimos to ! nor? use dogs to draw _! heavy sl$ges1 b to ! s\? ! ,indians us$ a light] =m ( sl$ge1 :i* 0 dragg$ by wom51 & !re=e repres5ts a mu* m primitive =m ( transport4 ,ev5 d[n to ! pres5t "t ! conditions 9 ,arctic ,am]ica are su* t transport facilities are v mu* great] 9 w9t] ?an 9 summ]1 except 9 regions close to navigable riv]s4 ,sn[-sl$ges & sn[-%oes ( c\rse occur also on ! ,european side ( ! ,atlantic to ! nor?1 b ! dome/icat$ re9de] replaces ! dog 9 ,lapl& z ! means ( traction1 ?\gh dogs are us$ 9 o!r p>ts ( ! tundra region ( ! old _w4 ,ap>t f sn[-cov]$ regions des]ts af=d ano!r example ( areas 9 :i* ! surface is frequ5tly s uni=m t friction is greatly r$uc$1 & rapid movem5t is possible )\t specially prep>$ tracks4 ,9 ! ,sah>a1 = example1 :i* is f> f be+ ! wa/e ( s& :i* is popul>ly imag9$1 !re are great areas ( almo/ level surface1 :]e ! soil is firm & ela/ic1 /rewn ) gravel1 & l a g>d5 walk4 ,9 ,algi]s x is possible to drive 9 high dog-c>ts ov] ! plateau region 9 any direction1 reg>dless ( roads1 & 9 p>ts ( ! ,nor? ,am]ican des]t ! same ?+ is true4 ,x has be5 sugge/$1 inde$1 t :eel$ vehicles 7 inv5t$ by races liv+ ne> des]t regions1 & t ! inv5tion ?us prec$$ ! mak+ ( roads4 ,9 ! g5]al case1 h[ev]1 rapid movem5t is b\nd up ) ! exi/5ce ( roads or tracks4 ,9 p>ts ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 notably 9 ! region s\? & ea/ ( ! ,great ,lakes1 :]e ! riv]s are g5]ally unsuitable = navigation by v primitive =ms ( boats1 ! orig9al ,indian inhabitants mo/ly mov$ by means ( trails ?r\gh ! woods4 ,^! trails 7 ! l9es ( migration ( ! l>g] mammals1 especially ( ! bison1 & x is a rem>kable fact t ! roads made lat] by ! :ite immigrants sometimes foll[$ ^! old trails1 :i* prov$ to be ! mo/ conv5i5t r\tes4 ,?is sugge/s "o me?od 9 :i* roads & pa?s might orig9ate1 b ! ,indian trails1 l ! ,african negroes' pa?s ?r\gh ! =e/1 7 excessively n>r[ & inconv5i5t4 ,ano!r /age 9 road evolution is well illu/rat$ 9 _m m\nta9 regions1 i4 e4 9 ! less-frequ5t$ p>ts ( ! ,alps4 ,"h ! m\nta9s are cross$ by n>r[ tracks1 :i* die away at int]vals & !n reappe>4 ,!y are *iefly us$ by ! h]dsm5 & cattle1 dur+ ! p]iodical migrations to ! high] pa/ures1 & ?is fact gives rise to c]ta9 peculi>ities4 ,:]e ! region trav]s$ is v /eep ! pa? is usually well m>k$1 & !re may be ev5 attempts to improve difficult p>ts s z to r5d] x m practicable4 ,:5 ! gr\nd becomes m level ! pa? dies away1 or divides up into a multitude ( m9or tracks4 ,! reason is obvi\s4 ,9 ! /eep regions ! c[s mu/ keep toge!r1 & _! con/ant j\rney+s r5d] ! road well m>k$4 ,x mu/ also be easy en\gh to p]mit ( ! passage ( ! animals1 ^: agility has its limits4 ,:]e ! gr\nd is level grass usually gr[s1 & "h ! cattle spread out 9 all directions to fe$1 & ! pa? naturally dies away4 ,x may be m>k$ on ! map z go+ on to cross a col & s rea* ano!r valley1 b z ! numb] ( p]sons mak+ ! trav]se is likely to be small1 ! track is badly m>k$1 z _m a t\ri/ has f\nd to 8 co/4 ,f su* tracks1 :i* are little m ?an aids 9 cross+ specially difficult areas1 to ! well-made roads :i* trav]se ! civilis$ c\ntries ( ! _w ! gap is great1 =1 ?\gh ! ,romans made magnific5t roads1 aft] _! "t !re 0 a rapid decay 9 ! art1 & ! well-kept roads ( ! we/]n c\ntries ( ,europe are ?+s b ( ye/]day4 ,) ! developm5t ( tracks & roads1 z di/9ct f a m]e animal trail ?r\gh ! bu%1 !re comes ! possibility ( us+ pack-animals & :eel$ vehicles = transport4 ,! two d n necess>ily occur toge!r4 ,?us 9 ,*9a & ,japan :eel$ vehicles are drawn by human be+s1 ?\gh 9 ,*9a ! :eelb>r[s drawn by human port]s h also sails to aid _! propulsion4 ,! use ( animals1 :e!r z pack-animals or = traction1 means a relatively high degree ( civilisation1 & means also a food supply normally m ?an en\gh = ! human memb]s ( ! community4 ,9 _m p>ts ( tropical ,africa1 despite ! tropical luxuriance ( _m ( ! food plants1 & ! abs5ce ( w9t]1 !re is practically no food res]ve1 & ! normal condition is t ! :ole gr\p is )9 measurable rea* ( />vation1 %\ld any "o ( a :ole s]ies ( probable or possible accid5ts happ5 to ! plantations4 ,"u su* conditions l>ge dome/ic animals1 requir+ great quantities ( food1 _c be kept4 ,aga91 :]e ! population is d5se1 & all ! l& is requir$ to gr[ food = man1 x is n possible to set aside regions = ! pa/urage ( dome/ic animals1 ^: numb]s mu/ necess>ily !n be small4 ,?is is true ( ,*9a & ,japan1 :]e dome/ic ho($ animals are few 9 numb]4 ,! contr>y condition is ( c\rse se5 9 new c\ntries1 l ,au/ralia & ! ,arg5t9e1 :]e !re are f> few] m5 ?an %eep & cattle4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates is beg9n+ to pass f ?is condition1 & !re h be5 publi%$ already w>n+s to ! community t x _c g on giv+ up mu* ( its f]tile l& to ! gr[? ( crops = its dome/ic animals1 in/ead ( = its citiz5s directly4 ,( ! dome/ic animals :i* h assi/$ man 9 ! "w ( transport !re c be no d\bt t ! horse is by f> ! mo/ valuable4 ,x is ! /ronge/1 ! swifte/1 & ! be/ fitt$ = man's purposes4 ,! camel1 ( :i* s mu* has be5 writt51 is 9 po9t ( fact a poor sub/itute = ! m valuable animal1 r5d]$ necess>y by des]t conditions4 ,among ! o!r animals :i* h play$ _! "p z bea/s ( burd5 or ( traction are _m k9ds ( ox1 includ+ ! yak ( ,tibet2 ! llama ( ,s\? ,am]ica2 ! elephant2 ! re9de]2 ! dog2 & ! animals :i* rank z horses to ! zoologi/ ?\gh n to ! own]--t is ! ass & ! mule4 ,j z ! use ( bea/s ( burd5 is an enorm\s improvem5t ^u human port]s1 & t ( :eel$ vehicles ^u bea/s ( burd51 s is ! use ( /eam an enorm\s improvem5t ^u :eel$ vehicles drawn by animals4 ,railways h practically revolutionis$ ! problem ( l& transport1 ?\gh _! co/1 especially 9 c\ntries ( m>k$ relief1 is a great drawback to _! univ]sal use4 ,! la/ few ye>s h se5 9 ! developm5t ( motor-driv5 vehicles a new *ange1 :i* has giv5 back to ! roads _! old importance1 & :i* w probably 9 ! future greatly aid ! developm5t ( new c\ntries1 & take f ! railways "s ( _! importance4 ,x is too soon yet to say :e!r ! la/ developm5t ( means ( transport1 ! a]oplane1 is de/9$ to affect greatly man's movem5ts & me?ods ( ex*ang+ commodities4 ,9 connection ) means ( communication a few words mu/ be said ab\t t[ns & _! position1 a subject 9 :i* ! new geography has be5 greatly int]e/$4 ,9 ?is *apt] we h assum$ t ! progress ( civilisation means1 & has always meant1 an increas+ desire on ! "p ( man = fre$om ( movem5t1 & an increas+ numb] ( wants1 :i* h l$ 9 _! turn to an increas+ desire = ! ex*ange ( commodities4 ,! desire to possess effici5t tools & weapons fir/ attract$ him1 z we h se51 to ! localities :]e useful m9]als occurr$4 ,! new p[]s s obta9$ increas$ 8 desires1 & also 8 mobility1 & t5d$ to make him clu/] r\nd ! spots :]e 8 new desires c\ld be/ be gratifi$4 ,at a v e>ly /age ! desire to ex*ange commodities mu/ h l$ to ! f\nd+ ( t[ns1 ^: numb] & size h increas$ ) ! passage ( "t4 ,( ! v>i\s causes :i* h l$ to ! f\nd+ ( t[ns at c]ta9 spots1 "s are obvi\s4 ,t :i* has always attract$ mo/ att5tion p]haps is ! =tress t[n1 plac$ on "s rocky peak1 & comm&+ a well-m>k$ r\te4 ,b ?\gh su* t[ns are impos+1 & seem easily expla9$1 x is obvi\s t at no /age ( 8 hi/ory has w>f>e be5 man's *ronic /ate4 ,ev5 at ! wor/ p]iod1 if !re _h be5 no busy gr\p ( trad]s at ! foot ( ! =tress-cr[n$ rock1 its significance c\ld only h be5 trifl+1 & almo/ all =tress t[ns %[1 9 ! proximity ( ano!r agglom]ation m suit$ to normal human activities1 t ! =tress itself 0 always r spectacul> ?an significant4 ,ed9burgh1 ) ! old city slop+ d[n to ! pla9 f ! great rock1 ,c>cassonne ) ! real city "s di/ance f ! !atrical erection on ! hill1 are two examples :i* illu/rate ?is fact4 ,"o or two ( ! *ief economic causes ( t[ns may be not$4 ,!y t5d to occur :]e !re is a break ( bulk 9 goods be+ c>ri$ f "o region to ano!r4 ,su* break ( bulk n[ takes place at ! great ports :]e ! l9]s unload1 b 9 ! old days ! small %ips came up ! riv]s ) ! tide1 & t[ns t5d$ to occur at ! tidal limit1 z1 e4 g4 at ,newca/le-on-,tyne4 ,t[ns t5d also to occur ne> natural ob/acles to easy transport4 ,?us we h 9 ,engl& a great numb] ( bridge t[ns1 plac$ at ! po9t :]e an important riv] 0 easily bridg$ or =d$1 & ?us :]e co-op]ative ef=t 0 necess>y to smoo? ov] an ob/acle4 ,t[ns t5d to occur also :]e two regions ( diff]5t natural products meet1 = "h ! inhabitants ( ! two regions meet = ! purpose ( ex*ange ( goods4 ,milan1 at ! foot ( ! ,alps & yet 9 ! pla91 is a good example1 = ! products ( ! pla9s are n ^? ( ! m\nta9s4 ,_m cities owe _! orig9 & _! fame to "s ev5t1 (t5 "s religi\s association :i* draws great numb]s ( pilgrims & o!rs4 ,x is (t5 d\btful1 h[ev]1 to :at ext5t ! suppos$ cause is ! real cause ( ! city's importance4 ,n e sa9t f\nds a city1 n e holy city keeps its fame1 & 9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce ^? cities w p]si/ ^: natural advantages are greate/4 ,ano!r v important cause ( cities is a junction ( r\tes1 = ?is means t _m diff]5t types ( m]*&ise w pass ?is way1 & w give abundant raw mat]ial = _m m9or indu/ries4 ,london is a good example ( a t[n ^u :i* _m r\tes conv]ge1 ^! be+ bo? l& r\tes & wat] r\tes4 ,ev5 ^! few examples may s]ve to sugge/ ! po9t ( view f :i* ! mod]n geograph] reg>ds t[ns1 & to illu/rate ! fact t 9 ?is z 9 o!r bran*es ( 8 subject 8 int]e/ is 9 ! /udy ( causes & ( int]relations4 ,,notes ,,on ,,books ,mo/ ( ! subjects :i* h be5 treat$ 9 ?is book fall "u ! head+ ( physical geography1 & !re=e we may beg9 ^! notes by recomm5d+ two l>ge works ( ref]5ce on ?is subject4 ,salisbury's ,physiography 7,new ,york3 ,h5ry ,holt ,co41 #aijg1 #c4ej net7 is ! mo/ compreh5sive "w on ! subject 9 ,engli%4 ,9 ,fr5* !re is an admirable book by ,e4 de ,m>tonne1 ,trait de ,gographie ,physique 7,p>is3 ,arm& ,col91 #aiji1 price #bb fr471 to be especially recomm5d$ = its beautiful plates & diagrams1 & = its copi\s ref]5ces4 ,= ! subjects treat$ 9 ! individual *apt]s ! foll[+1 among o!rs1 may be consult$4 ,suess's book translat$ z ,! ,face ( ! ,e>? 7,ox=d3 ,cl>5don ,press1 /ill 9 c\rse ( publication1 price #d net7 is ! classical book on e>? /ructure & relief1 & has /imulat$ rese>* enorm\sly1 b x is n easy to read4 ,= climatology ! classical book is ,hann's ,h&bu*1 ( :i* ! g5]al "p has be5 translat$ by ,w>d z ,h&book ( ,climatology 7,new ,york3 ,! ,macmillan ,co41 #aijc1 price #abs4 #f;d474 ,= plant geography ref]5ce %\ld be made to ,s*imp]'s ,plant ,geography1 translat$ by ,fi%] 7,ox=d3 ,cl>5don ,press1 #aijc1 price #dbs4 net71 :i* is aga9 ! classical treatise1 & ! basis ( mo/ ( ! lat] "w4 ,= ! races ( ,europe we h 9 ,w4 ,z4 ,ripley's ,races ( ,europe 7,london3 ,kegan ,paul1 ,tr5*1 ,trbn] ,co41 #aijj1 price #ahs4 net7 a mo/ int]e/+ book1 n difficult & full ( mo/ in/ructive diagrams4 ,ano!r aspect ( ! same subject is treat$ 9 ,s]gi's ,! ,m$it]ranean ,race 7,contempor>y ,sci5ce ,s]ies1 ,london3 ,walt] ,scott1 #aija1 price #fs471 b ?is is v controv]sial 9 tone4 ,= ! "w ( ice1 ! mo/ important book is ,die ,alp5 im ,eiszeitalt] by ,a4 ,p5ck & ,g4 ,brckn] 7,leipzig3 ,tau*nitz1 #aiji1 price #ee m>ks71 b ! l9e ( reason+ foll[$ 9 x does n conv9ce all geograph]s1 & ! subject is /ill fi]cely debat$4 ,turn+ n[ to m g5]al aspects ( ! subject we h 9 ,! ,int]national ,geography1 edit$ by ,h4 ,r4 ,mill1 & writt5 by _m au?ors 7n[ publi%$ by ,macmillan1 ,london--new edition #aijg1 price #abs4 net2 also publi%$ 9 p>ts = s*ool use71 a mo/ compreh5sive & au?oritative "w1 :i* includes ! :ole globe 9 its survey1 & has also g5]al *apt]s on v>i\s aspects ( geography4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 a difficult book1 int5d$ = /udy r ?an = g5]al read+1 & is v mu* cond5s$4 ,a book :i*1 ?\gh deal+ only ) a v limit$ region1 yet contrives 9 discuss+ t area to give ! ess5tials ( mod]n geographical sci5ce1 is ,mack9d]'s ,brita9 & ! ,briti% ,seas 7second edition4 #aijg4 ,ox=d3 ,cl>5don ,press1 price #gs4 #f;d474 ,x %\ld be 9 all geographical libr>ies4 ,z comm]cial geography is "o ( ! sides f :i* geography appeals mo/ /rongly to ! g5]al read]1 we may note t ! classic is ,g4 ,g4 ,*i%olm's ,h&book ( ,comm]cial ,geography 7,new ,york3 ,longmans1 ,gre5 ,co41 price #d4hj net74 ,fir/ publi%$ 9 #ahhi x is br\ght up to date 9 successive editions1 & is full ( int]e/ = ! g5]al public z well z = ! geograph]4 ,9 ! same connection we may note ,j4 ,g4 ,b>?olomew's admirable ,atlas ( ! ,_w's ,comm]ce 7,london3 ,george ,newnes1 #aijg1 price #ajs4 #f;d471 :i* is ( great assi/ance 9 /udy+ ! subject ow+ to its v cle> maps & diagrams4 ,a small] & *eap] "w by ! same au?or is ,a ,s*ool ,economic ,atlas 7,ox=d3 ,univ]sity ,press1 #aiaj1 price #bs4 #f;d4 net74 ,!re are an enorm\s numb] ( small books on geographical subjects1 = ^! z well z = o!rs ref]5ce may be made to a useful little volume call$ ,guide to ,geographical ,books & ,appliances1 :i* is compil$ by memb]s ( ! ,geographical ,association 7,london3 ,geo4 ,philip1 #aiaj1 price #es474 ,?is is especially int5d$ = tea*]s1 b gives full descriptions1 ) critical notes1 ( a great numb] ( books4 ,to ! li/ giv5 !re we may add "o book :i*1 ?\gh int5d$ = s*ool use1 may be not$ z conta9+ a great deal ( in=mation ( ! k9d :i* is j beg9n+ to f9d its way into ! small] text-books4 ,?is is ,un/ead & ,taylor's ,g5]al & ,regional ,geography = ,/ud5ts 7,london3 ,geo4 ,philip1 #aiaj1 price #fs474 ,an excell5t practical book is ,simmons & ,ri*>dson's ,introduction to ,practical ,geography 7,new ,york3 ,! ,macmillan ,co41 #aijg1 price #ij cts474 ,f9ally1 we may note t ! ,geographical ,j\rnal1 publi%$ mon?ly by ! ,royal ,geographical ,society 9 ,london1 & ! ,scotti% ,geographical ,magaz9e1 publi%$ mon?ly by ! ,royal ,scotti% ,geographical ,society 9 ,ed9burgh1 bo? give reviews & acc\nts ( all important geographical books1 z !y appe>1 ) ab/racts ( important articles & pap]s1 z well z publi%+ orig9al pap]s4 ,bo? are obta9able at mo/ libr>ies4 ,,index ,a> valley1 #eg1 #fg ,ab]de51 #dd ,abyssal fauna1 #ade ,abysses ( ocean1 #bh ,acacia1 #gi ,africa1 climate (1 #ia1 #ajj2 exploration (1 #ac2 fauna (1 #bc1 #aeb2 =e/s (1 #abj2 position (1 #bb2 slave trade 91 #bcf ,agave1 #he1 #abe ,ague1 #afb ,ailan?us1 #gh ,aire gap1 #dg 7fig4 #e71 #di1 #gc ,alabama1 #ce ,alaska1 =e/s (1 #acf2 m9]als (1 #bbj ,algi]s1 means ( communication 91 #bdj2 ra9fall (1 #ie2 vegetation (1 #ib ,allium1 #abd ,almonds1 #agf ,alnwick1 #bcb ,aloe1 #abe ,alp1 #ei1 #fj1 #aij ,alp9e plants1 #abb ,alp9e race1 #aij1 #aib1 #aii1 #bjf-baf ,alps1 #cb1 #cc1 #eg1 #eh1 #ei1 #fh1 #gj1 #hj1 #abb1 #aib1 #bda ,amazon1 #dc1 #de ,am]ica1 exploration (1 #ad ,am]ica1 ,nor?1 climate (1 #aja-ajb2 fauna (1 #bc1 #aeb2 flora (1 #ace-adb2 glaciation (1 #eb1 #ec1 #gg2 mammals (1 #aff2 position (1 #ag2 primitive means ( communication 91 #bci-bda2 trees (1 #gh1 #gi2 vegetation (1 #abb ,am]ica1 ,s\?1 fauna (1 #bc ,an*ovies1 #adi ,&es1 #dh ,anemone1 #abd ,annuals1 #abd1 #abf1 #abh1 #acd ,anopheles1 #afb ,ant>ctic1 exploration (1 #ad ,anticyclones1 #ajg-aaj 7fig4 #ab7 ,anti-trade w9ds1 #hh1 #hi1 #ij ,apes1 #aee ,appleby1 #bcb ,apples1 #agf1 #ahd ,apricots1 #agf ,aquatic animals1 #add et seq4 ,arabs1 #agh1 #ahj ,aragon1 #bjj ,arbroa?1 #bce ,arbutus1 #acj1 #aib ,arctic1 exploration (1 #ad ,arctogic realm1 #aeb ,ard5nes1 #cc ,area ( l[ pressure 9 ,n4 ,atlantic1 #hh1 #aje ,arg5t9e1 #bdc ,arizona1 climate (1 #ia ,aryans1 #bac1 #bad ,a%1 #aci ,asia1 climate (1 #ic1 #ajj2 exploration (1 #ad2 fauna (1 #bc1 #aeb2 position (1 #bb2 trees (1 #gh1 #gi ,asia ,m9or1 ra9fall (1 #hf ,asp51 #ach ,asphodel1 #abd ,ass1 #aff1 #agg1 #bdd ,a!ns1 ra9fall (1 #ie ,atlantic1 #hh1 #hi1 #aje ,atlas ,m\nta9s1 #cb1 #ia1 #abj1 #aec ,atmosph]e1 #bj ,au/ralia1 cattle & %eep (1 #bdc2 climate (1 #he2 fauna (1 #bc1 #aeb2 m9]als (1 #bbj ,au/ria1 p (1 #bji ,badg]1 #aei ,balkan ,/ates1 buffalo 91 #agh2 climate (1 #aja2 p (1 #bji ,baltic1 #aje1 #ajf ,banks ( ,newf\ndl&1 #adh ,b>b>y1 #aee ,b>ley1 #aga1 #agb ,b>r[s 9 ,scotl&1 #bjc1 #bjf1 #bjg ,base level ( erosion1 #ci ,basque1 #aih1 #aii ,ba?s ( ,leuk1 #gb ,bats1 #aee ,be>1 #aei ,beav]s1 #aeh ,bee*1 #abi ,bee* woods1 #aca ,bees1 #aha ,belfa/1 #bce ,belgium1 p (1 #bji ,b]b]s1 #bjd ,b]ne1 #gb ,bir*1 #acb1 #acf ,birds ( ,europe1 #afj ,biskra1 ra9fall (1 #ie ,bison1 #aff1 #bdj ,black rat1 #aed ,black walnut1 #gi ,bog myrtle1 #acc ,b\ld] clay1 #eb ,bra*ycephalic race1 #bjb1 #bjh ,brehm1 quot$1 #afc1 #ahi ,bridge t[ns1 #bdg ,briti% ,columbia1 climate (1 #aja2 flora (1 #acg ,briti% ,isles1 birds (1 #afj2 climate (1 #ii1 #ajj2 fauna (1 #aec2 insects (1 #afd2 position (1 #bg2 wea!r (1 #ajg1 #ajh ,brittany1 m9]als (1 #bbe2 p (1 #aib-ig1 #bji2 /rawb]ries (1 #ahd2 /ructure (1 #cc ,broad-head$ race1 #bji-bag ,bronze1 #bjf1 #bjg1 #bbj1 #bba1 #bbb1 #bbc1 #bbe1 #bcc ,bronze ,age1 #bba ,broom1 #acj ,br[n rat1 #aed ,buck:eat1 #ahc1 #ahd ,buffalo1 #agh ,cactuses1 #aj1 #ach ,cali=nia1 climate (1 #he1 #ia1 #aja2 =e/s (1 #acg1 #adb2 m9]als (1 #bbj1 #bbc ,camels1 #agg1 #ahh1 #aid1 #bdd ,canada1 =e/s (1 #acf1 #aci2 /ructure (1 #ce2 survey "w 91 #ad ,canadian ,f> ,we/1 #aaf ,canadian ,%ield1 #ce ,cape ,colony1 climate (1 #he ,c>bonif]\s rocks1 #cd ,c>cassonne1 #bdf ,c>lisle1 #di1 #bcb ,c>nivores1 #aee ,c>p1 #aej ,cascade ,range1 #ach ,casiqui>e riv]1 #de ,ca/ile1 #bjj ,ca/ilian language1 #aih1 #aii1 #bjj ,cat1 #aee1 #agg ,catalan language1 #aih1 #aii ,catalpa1 #gi ,cattle1 #aee1 #agg1 #agh1 #ahe1 #ahh1 #aij1 #bda1 #bdb1 #bdc ,caucasus1 #cb1 #hj ,caut]ets1 #fg ,celtic language1 #aig2 race1 #aig1 #bjf1 #bji ,celto-,slavic race1 #bjf ,c5tral ,plateau ( ,france1 #cc2 ( ,spa91 #cc ,cephalic index1 #bjb ,cetaceans1 #aee ,*alk1 #cd ,*all5g] exp$ition1 #add1 #ade ,*amrops1 #abi ,*ameleon1 #afa ,*>coal z fuel1 #bbf1 #bbg1 #bbh ,*e/nuts1 #aci1 #aic ,*ile1 climate (1 #he ,*9a1 agriculture 91 #agj2 climate (1 #if2 cultivat$ plants f1 #agd2 means ( communication 91 #bdb2 trees (1 #gh1 #gi ,*iropt]a1 #aee ,cirques1 #fb1 #fc 7fig4 #h71 #fd1 #fe1 #ff ,ci/us1 #abi ,citron1 #agd ,citrus1 #agd1 #agf ,clams1 #adf ,climate1 #hb et seq4 ,clyde valley1 #bjf1 #bjg ,coal1 #cd1 #bbg-bcd ,cod1 #adh ,congo =e/1 #aad ,conif]s1 ( ,am]ica1 #acf-adb2 ( ,europe1 #acb2 ( m\nta9s1 #aba ,conif]\s =e/s1 #acb1 #acf1 #acg1 #ach1 #ada1 #adb ,cont95tal climate1 #ajb ,cont95tal %elf1 #bg1 #adf1 #adg1 #adh ,copp]1 #bbj1 #bba1 #bbb1 #bcc ,corals1 #adf ,cork oak1 #abi ,cornwall1 #bbc ,corries1 #fb1 #fd1 #fe ,corsica1 p (1 #bjh2 wild %eep (1 #aef ,corsican p9e1 #abi ,cotton1 #agd1 #bcd ,crabs1 #adf ,cranb]ries1 #ahe ,cru/aceans1 #adf ,cucumb]s1 #agf ,cwms1 #fb ,cycle ( erosion1 #cj ,cyclones1 #ajd-aaj 7figs4 #aj1 #aa1 #ab7 ,cyprus1 locu/s 91 #afe2 m9]als (1 #bba1 #bbb ,d>w91 ,*>les1 #g1 #i1 #aj ,date palm1 #abi ,daub5see1 #gc ,dauph9y1 #bji ,davis1 quot$1 #fe ,decidu\s =e/s1 #aba1 #aca1 #acb1 #acf1 #aci1 #ada ,dee1 #dd ,de]1 #aee1 #aff ,d5m>k1 %ell-m\nds (1 #adf ,des]ts1 #aj1 #ia1 #aae1 #aaf1 #agj1 #bbj ,devon1 #bbc ,diatoms1 #adg ,dog1 #aee1 #agg1 #bci1 #bdd ,doli*ocephalic skulls1 #bjb1 #bjc1 #bjd ,dormice1 #aeh ,dranse1 #db ,dunf]ml9e1 #bce ,durham1 #bcb ,ed9burgh1 #id1 #bdf ,eid>t1 #dd ,egypt1 fossil sea-c[s 91 #aee2 ,neoli?ic man 91 #bjc ,egyptians1 anci5t1 #bjd ,elba1 #bcj ,elb[ ( capture1 #de ,elephant1 #aid1 #bdd ,elms1 #aci ,engl&1 m9]als (1 #bbg2 riv]s (1 #df1 #dg 7fig4 #e72 rocks (1 #cf2 :eat 91 #ahe ,engli% ,*annel1 #ajg ,erratic blocks1 #ed ,erzgebirge1 #bbg ,etruria1 #bbc ,euphrates1 #agj ,eurasiatic race1 #bjf ,europe1 civilisation (1 #ag2 climate (1 #ih-aja2 effect ( glacial p]iod on plants (1 #gg-ha2 fauna (1 #bc1 #aeb-aei2 flora (1 #gh2 =e/s (1 #ib1 #aai1 #acj-acb2 glacial p]iod 91 #eb1 #ec2 m\nta9 pa/ures (1 #abb2 plant =mations (1 #aed2 position (1 #bb2 reptiles (1 #afj2 rod5ts (1 #aeg2 /ructure (1 #cb 7fig4 #a71 #cc-cf ,ev]gre5 oak1 #abg1 #abi ,fe%ie riv]1 #dc 7fig4 #d71 #dd1 #dg1 #di ,fig1 #agc ,fir1 #acb ,fi%1 #ade-aej2 ( ,m$it]ranean1 #adi2 ( ,nor? ,sea1 #adh ,flax1 #agc1 #ahc1 #ahg1 #bce ,flam+o1 #afj ,florida1 #gg1 #aci1 #ada ,=e/ ( ,ard51 #bbf ,=e/ ( ,dean1 #bbf ,=e/s1 #gh1 #aac-abb1 #abh1 #abi1 #acj-acb1 #acd1 #ace1 #acf-adb1 #afi1 #ahb1 #aia1 #aib1 #baa1 #bab1 #bae1 #baf1 #bba1 #bbf1 #bbg1 #bbi ,f[l1 #aha1 #ahc ,foxes1 #aee ,france1 civilisation (1 #bbe2 climate (1 #ic2 p (1 #bji2 /ructure (1 #bbd2 trees (1 #aah2 use ( wat] p[] 91 #bcj2 :eat 91 #ahf ,fr5* language1 #aic ,fre%-wat] fi%1 #adi1 #aej ,galicia1 #bjj1 #bja1 #bbc ,g>d5-culture1 #agf ,g>lic1 #agc1 #agf ,g>wood1 quot$1 #fe1 #fh 7fig4 #i7 ,geese1 #aha ,geldie burn1 #dd1 #di ,gemmi ,pass1 #gb-gd ,gemmiw&1 #gb ,g5et1 #aei ,g5eva1 lake (1 #aic ,g5oa1 #ie ,geography1 def9ition (1 #ai ,georgia1 #ce ,g]manic race1 #aif1 #baj ,g]man language1 #aic ,g]many1 cattle (1 #agh2 m9]als (1 #bbg2 p (1 #bjd1 #bji1 #bae1 #bah ,gibralt>1 #id1 #aee ,glacial %elves1 #ei 7fig4 #f71 #fj 7fig4 #g71 #fa1 #abb ,glaci]s1 #ea1 #eg1 #gc ,gl$its*ia1 #gi ,gl\ce/]%ire1 #bbf ,gnats1 #afa1 #afb ,goats1 #acj1 #agh1 #agi1 #ahh ,grad9 de conflu5ce1 #eh ,gras%opp]1 #afe ,grassl&s1 #aad-abj1 #acc ,great ,brita91 glaciation (1 #fd2 m9]als (1 #bca2 p (1 #bjb1 #bjc1 #bjd1 #bji2 ra9fall (1 #dh2 /ructure (1 #cc ,great ,pla9s1 #ach ,greece1 cattle 91 #agh2 p (1 #bje ,gre5l&1 #bch ,guide-books1 #ad ,gulf ( ,mexico1 #gg1 #ajb ,gulf ( ,/4 ,lawr5ce1 #aci ,gulf ,/ream1 #adh ,ham/]1 #aeh ,hang+ valleys1 #eh1 #fa ,h>z ,m\nta9s1 #bbg ,heat equator1 #hg ,hea?1 #acj1 #aib ,hea!r1 #acc ,h$gehogs1 #aee1 #aei ,highl&s ( ,scotl&1 #fb1 #bjj1 #baa ,himalayas1 #cb1 #cc ,h9xman1 ,l41 quot$1 #dd ,holm oak1 #abg1 #abi ,honey locu/1 #gi ,horse1 #aee1 #agg1 #ahh1 #bdd ,humb]1 #df ,humboldt1 #g1 #h ,hung>ian pla91 #acc1 #aib ,hung>y1 #afi ,hyac9?1 #abd ,hydrosph]e1 #bj1 #ba ,ib]ian p59sula1 peoples (1 #aig1 #aih 7fig4 #ac71 #aii1 #bje1 #bah ,ib]ian race1 #bjj1 #bje ,ibis1 #afj ,ice1 #ea et seq4 ,ice ,age1 #gi ,icel&1 wea!r (1 #aaj 7fig4 #ab7 ,india1 agriculture 91 #agj2 climate (1 #if2 cultivat$ plants f1 #agd2 fauna (1 #aec ,insectivores1 #aee ,insects1 #afa ,inv]ness1 #dd ,iron1 #bbe-bca1 #bcc ,isob>s1 #ajd 7fig4 #aj7 ,italy1 cattle 91 #agh2 p (1 #bje1 #bjh2 trees (1 #aah2 vegetation (1 #ib ,japan1 fauna (1 #aec2 means ( communication 91 #bdb1 #bdc2 trees (1 #gh ,junction /ep1 #eh ,junip]1 #acc ,kames1 #eb ,kirghiz1 #ahh ,k&]/eg1 #gb ,labrador1 climate (1 #ajb2 curr5t1 #adh2 vegetation (1 #acf1 #ada ,lac de ,gaube1 #fg ,laemm]n glaci]1 #gc1 #gd ,lanca%ire1 #bcb1 #bcd ,lanca/]1 #bcb ,l& animals1 di/ribution (1 #aej et seq4 ,l&1 area (1 #ba ,l& hemisph]e1 #ba ,langu$oc1 #bjj ,langue d'oc1 #aih 7fig4 #ac71 #aii ,langue d'oeil1 #aih 7fig4 #ac71 #aii ,lapl&1 #bci ,l>*1 #acb1 #acf ,laurel1 #acj ,laut]brunn5 valley1 #eg1 #fj 7fig4 #g7 ,lav5d]1 #acj ,lemm+s1 #aeh ,lemon1 #abf1 #agd ,less] ,cel&9e1 #abc ,leuk]bad1 #gc ,libyans1 #bjd ,lime1 #agd ,limes1 #aci ,l9coln%ire1 ,wolds (1 #df ,l95 ,indu/ry1 #bce ,liquidamb>1 #adj ,li?osph]e1 #bj1 #ba ,littoral fauna1 #ade ,liz>ds1 #afa ,llama1 #bdd ,lob/]s1 #adf ,locu/1 #afd1 #afe ,loire1 #ahg1 #bbc1 #bbd ,lomb>ds1 #baa ,london1 #id1 #ie1 #ii1 #bdh ,london bas91 #cc ,long-head$ races1 #bjc1 #bjh1 #bag ,l[ pressure area 9 ,n4 ,atlantic1 #hh1 #aje ,lynx1 #aei ,mack]el1 #adi ,mack9d]1 quot$1 #bch ,mad]an] ?al1 #fh 7fig4 #i7 ,magnolias1 #adj ,maize1 #aja1 #agd1 #age ,mal>ia1 #afa1 #afb ,maples1 #aci ,maquis1 #aai1 #abj1 #abh1 #agi ,m>itime climate1 #he1 #ii1 #aja ,m>itime p9e1 #abi ,m>mots1 #aeh ,m>seilles1 #bbd ,m>supials1 #aee ,m>t51 #aei ,mature riv]s1 #cj1 #ch 7fig4 #c71 #dj1 #ef ,m$it]ranean region1 cattle 91 #agg2 civilisation (1 #agj2 climate (1 #he-if2 fauna (1 #aei2 fi%es (1 #adi2 palms 91 #abi2 reptiles (1 #afj2 vegetation (1 #abc-acj ,m$it]ranean race1 #aia1 #aih1 #aii1 #bjd1 #bjf1 #bjh1 #baa-bah ,meir+51 #eg1 #fg ,mesopotamia1 #if1 #agj1 #agb ,mexico1 #ia1 #ach ,mice1 #aee1 #aeh ,milan1 #bdg ,millet1 #agc ,moles1 #aee1 #aei ,monkeys1 #aac1 #aee ,monotremes1 #aee ,monsoon c\ntries1 #if1 #ig1 #ih ,monsoon w9ds1 #ajb ,moors & hea?s1 #acc ,montrose1 #bce ,mosquitoes1 #afa1 #afb ,m\fflon1 #aef ,m\nta9 *a9s1 orig9 (1 #ca-cg ,m\nta9 p9es1 #aba ,mulb]ry1 #agd ,mule1 #agg1 #bdd ,musk-ox1 #aff ,mussels1 #adf ,myres1 quot$1 #bab1 #bcg ,myrtle1 #acj ,naples1 #ie ,n>cissus1 #abd ,negritos1 #aad ,neoli?ic man1 #bja1 #bjb1 #bjc1 #bjd ,newca/le-on-,tyne1 #di1 #bdg ,new ,engl& ,/ates1 #aci ,newf\ndl&1 #adh1 #adi1 #bch ,nice1 #ie ,nig]1 #de ,nordic race1 #aib1 #baj1 #baa1 #bab1 #bac1 #bae1 #baf ,normal erosion1 #ea ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,see ,am]ica1 ,nor? ,nor? ,pole1 #ba ,nor? ,sea1 #ajf1 #adh1 #adi ,norway1 p (1 #bji ,nuts1 #agf ,oaks1 #aci ,oak woods1 #aca1 #agh ,oats1 #agb1 #ahf ,oceans1 area (1 #ba ,olive1 #abf1 #abg1 #aga1 #agb ,orange1 #abf1 #agd ,orig9 ( ,species1 #g1 #aa ,or9oco1 #de ,ouse1 #df ,ox1 #agb ,oy/]s1 #adf ,palarctic region1 #aed ,paloli?ic man1 #bja1 #bje ,p>is1 #id1 #ie1 #ii ,p>is bas91 #cc1 #cf ,passes1 #gj-ge ,pa/oral indu/ries1 #ace1 #agg ,pa/oral nomadism1 #agi1 #ahj1 #ahi ,pa/ure l&s1 #acc1 #aib ,pa/ures1 on m\nta9s1 #ei 7fig4 #f71 #fj 7fig4 #g71 #fa1 #abb ,patagonia1 #dh ,pea*1 #agd1 #agf ,pe>s1 #agf1 #ahd ,peat1 #acc ,pelagic fauna1 #ade ,pelasgians1 #bje ,pelican1 #afj ,p5ck1 quot$1 #bab ,p5epla91 #dh ,p5n9es1 #df1 #di ,p]sia1 climate (1 #if ,philipp9es1 #aad ,philippson1 quot$1 #agg ,pho5icians1 #bbc ,physiological dr\ght1 #aba ,pigeons1 #aha ,pigmies1 #aad ,pigs1 #aee ,p9es1 #acb ,pi/a*io1 #agf ,plac5tal mammals1 #bc ,pla9 ( ,lomb>dy1 #agd ,plane1 #gi ,plant =mations1 #aae1 #aaf ,platanus1 #gi ,plei/oc5e1 #eb1 #eg ,pl\gh culture1 #agb ,plums1 #agf1 #ahd ,pomegranates1 #abf1 #agf ,popl>s1 #acf ,porcup9es1 #aeh ,portugal1 climate (1 #hi2 ra9fall (1 #ib ,portuguese1 #aih1 #aii1 #bja ,potato1 #age1 #ahf ,pray+ mantis1 #afd ,prickly pe>1 #he1 #abe1 #agf ,prim>y epo*1 #cd1 #ce1 #cf ,primates1 #aee ,prong-buck1 #aff ,pr(iles ( riv]s1 #ch 7figs4 #b1 #c71 #dj ,pulse1 #agc ,pyr5ees1 #ca1 #cb1 #fg1 #hj1 #aii1 #bjj ,rabbits1 #aeh ,races ( ,europe1 #aig1 #bdi ,raccoons1 #aec ,railways1 #bdd ,ra9 =e/1 #ada1 #adb ,ra9-%ad[1 #ach1 #ahe ,rats1 #aee ,re9de]1 #aff1 #bci1 #bdd ,rh9e1 #gc1 #gd1 #aeh1 #aic ,rhone valley1 9 ,france1 #ahb1 #bbd2 9 ,switz]l&1 #db1 #gb1 #gc1 #gd1 #ahi1 #aij1 #aic ,ripley1 quot$1 #aig1 #aih1 #aii1 #baj ,ritt]1 #g1 #h ,riv]-capture1 #db-di ,roads1 #bda1 #bdb ,rob9ia1 #gi ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 #ajb1 #abj1 #ach ,rod5ts1 #aee1 #aef ,rosem>y1 #acj ,r\nd-head$ race1 #bjf1 #bjg ,r\nd skulls1 #bjb1 #bjf ,runn+-wat]1 its effect1 #bh1 #cg et seq4 ,russia1 m9]als (1 #bbh2 p (1 #bji ,rye1 #agb1 #ahf ,sagebru%1 #ach ,sah>a1 #bc1 #hf1 #abj1 #bdj ,saiga antelope1 #aed ,salmon1 #adi1 #aej ,sane valley1 #bji ,s>ac5s1 #bjj ,s>d9es1 #adi ,s>d9ia1 #bjh ,savoy1 #bji ,sc&9avia1 b>ley 91 #agb2 b]ries 91 #ahe2 m9]als (1 #bbh2 p (1 #bjd1 #bji1 #baj2 /ructure (1 #cc2 wea!r (1 #aaj 7fig4 #ab7 ,scotl&1 glaciation (1 #eb1 #ed1 #fb1 #ga2 ,highl&s (1 #fb1 #bjj2 l95 indu/ry 91 #bce2 ,neoli?ic man 91 #bjc1 #bjf ,scrub1 #aai1 #abh1 #ace1 #acg1 #afi1 #aia ,sea-c[s1 #aee ,seals1 #ade ,sea-ur*9s1 #adf ,second>y p]iod1 #cd1 #ce1 #cf ,se9e1 #bbd ,sequoia1 #acf ,s]gi1 quot$1 #bjb1 #bjd1 #bjg ,sesame1 #agc ,%>i riv]1 #de ,%eep1 #aee1 #agh1 #agi1 #ahh1 #bdc ,%ell-fi%1 #adf ,%rews1 #aee1 #aei ,sicily1 #bjc1 #bjh ,si]ra ,nevada1 #ach ,silkworms1 #agd1 #aha ,silv] fir1 #acb ,simplon ,pass1 #gj1 #ga ,sion1 #aic ,skunks1 #aec ,slave trade1 #bcf ,sl$ges1 #bci ,sleep+ sickness1 #afa1 #afc ,sn[drop1 #abc ,sn[-%oes1 #bci ,sophora1 #gi ,s\? ,am]ica1 rod5ts1 (1 #aef ,s\? ,pole1 #ba ,spa91 cattle 91 #agg2 languages (1 #aii2 m9]als (1 #bcj2 p (1 #aii1 #bjh2 ra9fall (1 #hf2 /ructure (1 #cc1 #bbd2 tran%umance 91 #agi ,spey1 #dd ,sponges1 #adf ,spruce1 #acb1 #acf ,squirrels1 #aee1 #aeh ,/eam1 #bdd ,/ep arrangem5t ,9 ,alp9e valleys1 #fg-fi 7fig4 #i7 ,/eppes1 climate (1 #aeg2 fauna (1 #aed1 #aeg2 ( ,asia1 #ace1 #afi1 #agj2 ( ,europe1 #ace2 ( ,hung>y1 #acc2 ( ,russia1 #acc2 peoples (1 #aib ,/4 ,go?>d ,pass1 #gj ,/4 ,lawr5ce1 #ce ,/oat1 #aei ,/one ,age1 #bja1 #bba1 #bbb ,/one p9e1 #abi ,/rawb]ries1 #ahd ,/urgeon1 #aej ,sug> beet1 #agd1 #ahf ,sug>-cane1 #agd ,sudan1 #aaf1 #abj ,switz]l&1 cattle 91 #agh2 pa/oral life 91 #ahi ,syria1 #afe ,t]ti>y p]iod1 #ca 7fig4 #a71 #cb1 #cd1 #cf ,teutonic race1 #aib1 #baj1 #bah ,?odule ,pass1 #ga ,?un1 lake (1 #gb ,tibet1 #bdd ,tigris1 #agj ,t91 #bbb1 #bbc1 #bbd1 #bbe ,tobacco1 #age ,torr5ts1 *>act]s (1 #cg-ci ,trade w9ds1 #hd1 #hg1 #hh1 #hi ,trails1 #bdj1 #bda ,tran%umance1 #agi1 #ahi ,tree ( ,heav51 #gh ,tropical =e/1 #abj1 #aca1 #afi ,tsetse flies1 #afa ,tulip1 #abd ,tundra1 #acb1 #acf1 #afd1 #afi1 #bci ,tunny1 #adi ,turkey1 #aha ,tyne gap1 #dg 7fig4 #e71 #di1 #gc ,tyrol1 #fb ,ug&a1 #afc ,ungulates1 #aee1 #aef1 #aeg ,unit$ ,/ates1 cotton (1 #bcd2 flora (1 #adj1 #ada2 numb]s ( ho($ animals 91 #bdc1 #bdd2 p (1 #bag2 ra9fall (1 #ajb2 /ructure (1 #ce1 #cf2 survey "w 91 #ad2 trees (1 #gh1 #gi2 wea!r (1 #ajg ,u-%ap$ valleys1 #eg1 #fa1 #fd ,vi5na1 temp]ature (1 #ii ,vila9e1 #bbc ,v9e1 #abf1 #abg1 #aga1 #agb1 #agc1 #ahc1 #ahg1 #aij ,visp1 #db ,voles1 #aeh ,v-%ap$ valleys1 #ee ,wales1 #ed1 #aig1 #bjj ,wat]falls1 #dj1 #da1 #ef1 #eh1 #fj ,wat] hemisph]e1 #ba ,wat] p[]1 #eh1 #fi1 #bcj ,wat]%$s1 %ift+ (1 #dg ,wat] transport1 #bcf-bch ,weald1 #bbf ,weasel1 #aei ,wea!r1 #ajc et seq4 ,wea!r+1 #df1 #ea ,well+tonia1 #acf ,wel%1 #baa ,weym\? p9e1 #aci ,:ales1 #ade ,:eat1 #abf1 #ach1 #aci1 #aga1 #agb1 #ahb1 #ahc1 #ahe ,:itefi%1 #aej ,:ortleb]ries1 #ahe ,wild bo>1 #aef ,wild cat1 #aei ,wild horse1 #aff ,wild %eep1 #aef1 #aff ,will[s1 #acf ,w9e1 #ahc1 #ahg1 #aij ,w9t] gulf ( w>m?1 #bjf ,wood anemone1 #abc ,woodl&1 #aae1 #aaf2 see also ,=e/s ,wolf1 #aei ,wolv]5e1 #aei ,yak1 #bdd ,yell[ fev]1 #afa ,york1 #bcb ,york%ire1 #df1 #dg 7fig4 #e71 #bcb ,"y riv]s1 #cj1 #dj1 #ef ,yurt1 #ahi ,zoogeographical regions1 #aea-aed ,,! ,,home ,,univ]sity ,,libr>y ( ,mod]n ,k ,is made up ( absolutely new books by lead+ au?orities ,! editors are ,pr(essors ,gilb]t ,murray1 ,h4 ,a4 ,l4 ,fi%]1 ,w4 ,t4 ,brew/] & ,j4 ,ar?ur ,?omson4 ,clo? b\nd1 good pap]1 cle> type1 #bef pages p] volume1 bibliographies1 indices1 also maps or illu/rations1 :]e ne$$4 ,ea* complete & sold sep>ately4 ,p] volume1 #ij c5ts4 ,,lit]ature ,,& 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,b>rett1 =m]ly ,presid5t ( ! ,society = ,psy*ical ,rese>*4 #i4 ,,! ,,evolution ,,( ,,plants4 ,by ,dr4 ,d4 ,h4 ,scott1 ,presid5t ( ! ,l9nean ,society ( ,london4 ,! /ory ( ! developm5t ( fl[]+ plants1 f ! e>lie/ zoological times1 unlock$ f te*nical language4 #dc4 ,,matt] ,,& ,,en]gy4 ,by ,f4 ,soddy1 ,lectur] 9 ,physical ,*emi/ry & ,radioactivity1 ,univ]sity ( ,glasg[4 ,brilliant4 ,c h>dly be surpass$4 ,sure to attract att5tion4--,new ,york ,sun4 #da4 ,,psy*ology1 ,,! ,,/udy ,,( ,,behavi\r4 ,by ,william ,mc,dougall1 ( ,ox=d4 ,a well dige/$ summ>y ( ! ess5tials ( ! sci5ce put 9 excell5t lit]>y =m by a lead+ au?ority4 #db4 ,,! ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,physiology4 ,by ,pr(4 ,j4 ,g4 ,mc,kendrick4 ,a compact /atem5t by ! ,em]itus ,pr(essor at ,glasg[1 = un9/ruct$ read]s4 #cg4 ,,an?ropology4 ,by ,r4 ,r4 ,m>ett1 ,read] 9 ,social ,an?ropology1 ,ox=d4 ,seeks to plot out & sum up ! g5]al s]ies ( *anges1 bodily & m5tal1 und]gone by man 9 ! c\rse ( hi/ory4 ,excell5t4 ,s en?usia/ic1 s cle> & witty1 & s well adapt$ to ! g5]al read]4--,am]ican ,libr>y ,association ,bookli/4 #ag4 ,,crime ,,& ,,insanity4 ,by ,dr4 ,c4 ,m]ci]1 au?or ( ,crime & ,crim9als1 etc4 #ab4 ,,! ,,animal ,,_w4 ,by ,pr(4 ,f4 ,w4 ,gamble4 #ae4 ,,introduction ,,to ,,ma!matics4 ,by ,a4 ,n4 ,:itehead1 au?or ( ,univ]sal ,algebra4 ,,philosophy ,,& ,,religion4 #fi4 ,a ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,fre$om ,,( ,,?\ght4 ,by ,john ,b4 ,bury1 ,m4 ,a41 ,,ll4 ,d41 ,regius ,pr(essor ( ,mod]n ,hi/ory 9 ,cambridge ,univ]sity4 ,summ>izes ! hi/ory ( ! long /ruggle betwe5 au?ority & reason & ( ! em]g5ce ( ! pr9ciple t co]cion ( op9ion is a mi/ake4 #if4 ,a ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,philosophy4 ,by ,clem5t ,c4 ,j4 ,webb1 ,ox=d4 #ce4 ,,! ,,problems ,,( ,,philosophy4 ,by ,b]tr& ,russell1 ,lectur] & ,late ,fell[1 ,tr9ity ,college1 ,cambridge4 #fj4 ,,comp>ative ,,religion4 ,by ,pr(4 ,j4 ,e/l9 ,c>p5t]1 ,"o ( ! few au?orities on ?is subject comp>es all ! religions to see :at !y h to (f] on ! great !mes ( religion4--,*ri/ian ,"w & ,evangeli/4 #dd4 ,,buddhism4 ,by ,mrs4 ,rhys ,davids1 ,lectur] on ,indian ,philosophy1 ,man*e/]4 #df4 ,,engli% ,,sects3 ,a ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,noncon=mity4 ,by ,w4 ,b4 ,selbie4 ,pr9cipal ( ,man*e/] ,college1 ,ox=d4 #ee4 ,,missions3 ,,_! ,,rise ,,& ,,developm5t4 ,by ,mrs4 ,m&ell ,creighton1 au?or ( ,hi/ory ( ,engl&4 ,! au?or seeks to prove t missions h done m to civilize ! _w ?an any o!r human ag5cy4 #eb4 ,,e?ics4 ,by ,g4 ,e4 ,moore1 ,lectur] 9 ,moral ,sci5ce1 ,cambridge4 ,discusses :at is "r & :at is wrong1 & ! :ys & :]e=es4 #fe4 ,,! ,,lit]ature ,,( ,,! ,,old ,,te/am5t4 ,by ,george ,f4 ,moore1 ,pr(essor ( ! ,hi/ory ( ,religion1 ,h>v>d ,univ]sity4 ,a popul> "w ( ! highe/ ord]4 ,w be pr(itable to anybody :o c>es en\gh ab\t ,bible /udy to read a s]i\s book on ! subject4--,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,!ology4 #hh4 ,,religi\s ,,developm5t ,,betwe5 ,,old ,,& ,,new ,,te/am5ts4 ,by ,r4 ,h4 ,*>les1 ,canon ( ,we/m9/]4 ,%[s h[ religi\s & e?ical ?\ght betwe5 #ahj ,b4 ,c4 & #ajj ,a4 ,d4 grew naturally into t ( ! ,new ,te/am5t4 #ej4 ,,! ,,mak+ ,,( ,,! ,,new ,,te/am5t4 ,by ,b4 ,w4 ,bacon1 ,pr(essor ( ,new ,te/am5t ,criticism1 ,yale4 ,an au?oritative summ>y ( ! results ( mod]n critical rese>* ) reg>d to ! orig9s ( ! ,new ,te/am5t4 ,,social ,,sci5ce4 #ia4 ,,! ,,negro4 ,by ,w4 ,e4 ,burgh>dt ,du,bois1 au?or ( ,s\ls ( ,black ,folks1 etc4 ,a hi/ory ( ! black man 9 ,africa1 ,am]ica or :]ev] else 8 pres5ce has be5 or is important4 #gg4 ,,co-,,p>tn]%ip ,,& ,,pr(it ,,%>+4 ,by ,aneur9 ,williams1 ,*airman1 ,executive ,committee1 ,int]national ,co-op]ative ,alliance1 etc4 ,expla9s ! v>i\s types ( co-p>tn]%ip & pr(it-%>+1 & gives details ( ! arrangem5ts n[ 9 =ce 9 _m ( ! great indu/ries4 #ii4 ,,political ,,?\ght3 ,,! ,,utilit>ians4 ,,f ,,b5?am ,,to ,j4 ,s4 ,,mill4 ,by ,william ,l4 ,p4 ,davidson4 #ih4 ,,political ,,?\ght3 ,,f ,,h]b]t ,,sp5c] ,,to ,,! ,,pres5t ,,day4 ,by ,erne/ ,b>k]1 ,m4 ,a4 #gi4 ,,unemploym5t4 ,by ,a4 ,c4 ,pig\1 ,m4 ,a41 ,pr(essor ( ,political ,economy at ,cambridge4 ,! mean+1 measurem5t1 di/ribution1 & effects ( unemploym5t1 its relation to wages1 trade fluctuations1 & disputes1 & "s proposals ( rem$y or relief4 #hj4 ,,common-,,s5se ,,9 ,,law4 ,by ,pr(4 ,paul ,v9ograd(f1 ,d4 ,c4 ,l41 ,,ll4 ,d4 ,social & ,legal ,rules--,legal ,rights & ,duties--,facts & ,acts 9 ,law--,legislation--,cu/om--,judicial ,prec$5ts--,equity--,! ,law ( ,nature4 #di4 ,,elem5ts ,,( ,,political ,,economy4 ,by ,s4 ,j4 ,*apman1 ,pr(essor ( ,political ,economy & ,dean ( ,faculty ( ,comm]ce & ,adm9i/ration1 ,univ]sity ( ,man*e/]4 #aa4 ,,! ,,sci5ce ,,( ,,weal?4 ,by ,j4 ,a4 ,hobson1 au?or ( ,problems ( ,pov]ty4 ,a /udy ( ! /ructure & work+ ( ! mod]n bus9ess _w4 #a4 ,,p>liam5t4 ,,its ,,hi/ory1 ,,con/itution1 ,,& ,,practice4 ,by ,sir ,c\rt5ay ,p4 ,ilb]t1 ,cl]k ( ! ,h\se ( ,commons4 #af4 ,,lib]alism4 ,by ,pr(4 ,l4 ,t4 ,hobh\se1 au?or ( ,democracy & ,reaction4 ,a ma/]ly philosophical & hi/orical review ( ! subject4 #e4 ,,! ,,/ock ,,ex*ange4 ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,hir/1 ,editor ( ! ,london ,economi/4 ,reveals to ! non-f9ancial m9d ! facts ab\t inve/m5t1 speculation1 & ! o!r t]ms :i* ! title sugge/s4 #aj4 ,,! ,,sociali/ ,,movem5t4 ,by ,j4 ,ramsay ,macdonald1 ,*airman ( ! ,briti% ,labor ,p>ty4 #bh4 ,,! ,,evolution ,,( ,,indu/ry4 ,by ,d4 ,h4 ,mac,gregor1 ,pr(essor ( ,political ,economy1 ,univ]sity ( ,le$s4 ,an outl9e ( ! rec5t *anges t h giv5 u ! pres5t conditions ( ! work+ classes & ! pr9ciples involv$4 #bi4 ,,elem5ts ,,( ,,engli% ,,law4 ,by ,w4 ,m4 ,geld>t1 ,v9]ian ,pr(essor ( ,engli% ,law1 ,ox=d4 ,a simple /atem5t ( ! basic pr9ciples ( ! ,engli% legal sy/em on :i* t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates is bas$4 #cb4 ,,! ,,s*ool3 ,,an ,,introduction ,,to ,,! ,,/udy ,,( ,,education4 ,by ,j4 ,j4 ,f9dlay1 ,pr(essor ( ,education1 ,man*e/]4 ,pres5ts ! hi/ory1 ! psy*ological basis1 & ! !ory ( ! s*ool ) a r>e p[] ( summ>y & sugge/ion4 #f4 ,,iri% ,,nationality4 ,by ,mrs4 ,j4 ,r4 ,gre54 ,a brilliant acc\nt ( ! g5ius & mission ( ! ,iri% p4 ,an entranc+ "w1 & ,i w\ld advise e "o ) a drop ( ,iri% blood 9 8 ve9s or a ve9 ( ,iri% sympa?y 9 8 he>t to read x4--,new ,york ,times ,review4 ,,g5]al ,,hi/ory ,,& ,,geography4 #ajb4 ,,s]bia4 ,by ,l4 ,f4 ,w>+1 ) preface by ,j4 ,m4 ,jovanovit*1 ,s]bian ,m9i/] to ,great ,brita94 ,! ma9 outl9es ( ,s]bian hi/ory1 ) special emphasis on ! imm$iate causes ( ! w>1 & ! "q :i* w be ( greate/ importance 9 ! aft]-!-w> settlem5t4 #cc4 ,,! ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,engl&4 ,by ,a4 ,f4 ,poll>d1 ,pr(essor ( ,engli% ,hi/ory1 ,univ]sity ( ,london4 #ie4 ,,belgium4 ,by ,r4 ,c4 ,k4 ,ensor1 ,sometime ,s*ol> ( ,balliol ,college4 ,! geographical1 l+ui/ic1 hi/orical1 arti/ic & lit]>y associations4 #ajj4 ,,pol&4 ,by ,j4 ,alison ,phillips1 ,univ]sity ( ,dubl94 ,! hi/ory ( ,pol& ) special emphasis ^u ! ,poli% "q ( ! pres5t day4 #cd4 ,,canada4 ,by ,a4 ,g4 ,bradley4 #gb4 ,,g]many ,,( ,,to-,,day4 ,by ,*>les ,t[]4 #gh4 ,,lat9 ,,am]ica4 ,by ,william ,r4 ,%eph]d1 ,pr(essor ( ,hi/ory1 ,columbia4 ,) maps4 ,! hi/orical1 arti/ic1 & comm]cial developm5t ( ! ,c5tral ,s\? ,am]ican republics4 #ah4 ,,! ,,op5+ ,,up ,,( ,,africa4 ,by ,sir ,h4 ,h4 ,john/on4 #ai4 ,,! ,,civilization ,,( ,,*9a4 ,by ,h4 ,a4 ,giles1 ,pr(essor ( ,*9ese1 ,cambridge4 #cf4 ,,peoples ,,& ,,problems ,,( ,,india4 ,by ,sir ,t4 ,w4 ,hold]ness4 ,! be/ small treatise deal+ ) ! range ( subjects fairly indicat$ by ! title4--,! ,dial4 #bf4 ,,! ,,dawn ,,( ,,hi/ory4 ,by ,j4 ,l4 ,my]s1 ,pr(essor ( ,anci5t ,hi/ory1 ,ox=d4 #ib4 ,,! ,,anci5t ,,ea/4 ,by ,d4 ,g4 ,hog>?1 ,m4 ,a41 ,f4 ,b4 ,a41 ,f4 ,s4 ,a4 ,connects ) ,pr(4 ,my]s's ,dawn ( ,hi/ory 7,no4 #bf7 at ab\t #ajjj ,b4 ,c4 & reviews ! hi/ory ( ,assyria1 ,babylon1 ,cilicia1 ,p]sia & ,mac$on4 #cj4 ,,rome4 ,by ,w4 ,w>de ,f[l]1 au?or ( ,social ,life at ,rome1 etc4 #ac4 ,,m$ieval ,,europe4 ,by ,h4 ,w4 ,c4 ,davis1 ,fell[ at ,balliol ,college1 ,ox=d1 au?or ( ,*>lemagne1 etc4 #c4 ,,! ,,fr5* ,,revolution4 ,by ,hilaire ,belloc4 #eg4 ,,napoleon1 ,by ,h4 ,a4 ,l4 ,fi%]1 ,vice-,*ancellor ( ,%effield ,univ]sity4 ,au?or ( ,! ,republican ,tradition 9 ,europe4 #bj4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,our ,,"t4 7#ahhe-aiaa74 ,,by ,c4 ,p4 ,goo*4 #bb4 ,,! ,,papacy ,,& ,,mod]n ,,times4 ,by ,rev4 ,william ,b>ry1 ,d4 ,d41 au?or ( ,! ,papal ,mon>*y1 etc4 ,! /ory ( ! rise & fall ( ! ,temporal ,p[]4 #d4 ,a ,,%ort ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,w> ,,& ,,peace4 ,by ,g4 ,h4 ,p]ris1 au?or ( ,russia 9 ,revolution1 etc4 #id4 ,,! ,,navy ,,& ,,sea ,,p[]4 ,by ,david ,hannay1 au?or ( ,%ort ,hi/ory ( ! ,royal ,navy1 etc4 ,a brief hi/ory ( ! navies1 sea ,p[]1 & %ip gr[? ( all nations1 includ+ ! rise & decl9e ( ,am]ica on ! sea1 & expla9+ ! pres5t ,briti% supremacy4 #h4 ,,pol> ,,exploration4 ,by ,dr4 ,w4 ,s4 ,bruce1 ,lead] ( ! ,scotia exp$ition4 ,emphasizes ! results ( ! exp$itions4 #ea4 ,,ma/] ,,m>9]s4 ,by ,john ,r4 ,spe>s1 au?or ( ,! ,hi/ory ( ,our ,navy1 etc4 ,a hi/ory ( sea craft adv5ture f ! e>lie/ times4 #hf4 ,,exploration ,,( ,,! ,,alps4 ,by ,arnold ,lunn1 ,m4 ,a4 #g4 ,,mod]n ,,geography4 ,by ,dr4 ,m>ion ,newbig94 ,%[s ! relation ( physical features to liv+ ?+s & to "s ( ! *ief in/itutions ( civilization4 #gf4 ,,! ,,ocean4 ,a ,,g5]al ,,acc\nt ,,( ,,! ,,sci5ce ,,( ,,! ,,sea4 ,by ,sir ,john ,murray1 ,k4 ,c4 ,b41 ,naturali/ ,h4 ,m4 ,s4 ,*all5g]1 #ahgb-ahgf1 jo9t au?or ( ,! ,dep?s ( ! ,ocean1 etc4 #hd4 ,,! ,,gr[? ,,( ,,europe4 ,by ,granville ,cole1 ,pr(essor ( ,geology1 ,royal ,college ( ,sci5ce1 ,irel&4 ,a /udy ( ! geology & physical geography 9 connection ) ! political geography4 ,,am]ican ,,hi/ory4 #dg4 ,,! ,,colonial ,,p]iod 7#afjg-agff74 ,by ,*>les ,mc,lean ,&rews1 ,pr(essor ( ,am]ican ,hi/ory1 ,yale4 #hb4 ,,! ,,w>s ,,betwe5 ,,engl& ,,& ,,am]ica 7#agfc-ahae74 ,by ,!odore ,c4 ,smi?1 ,pr(essor ( ,am]ican ,hi/ory1 ,williams ,college4 ,a hi/ory ( ! p]iod1 ) especial emphasis on ,! ,revolution & ,! ,w> ( #ahab4 #fg4 ,,f ,,jeff]son ,,to ,,l9coln 7#ahae-ahfj74 ,by ,william ,mac,donald4 ,pr(essor ( ,hi/ory1 ,br[n ,univ]sity4 ,! au?or makes ! hi/ory ( ?is p]iod circulate ab\t con/itutional ideas & slav]y s5tim5t4 #be4 ,,! ,,civil ,,w> 7#ahed-ahfe74 ,by ,fr$]ick ,l4 ,paxson1 ,pr(essor ( ,am]ican ,hi/ory1 ,univ]sity ( ,wiscons94 #fi4 ,,recon/ruction ,,& ,,union 7#ahfe-aiab74 ,by ,paul ,lel& ,hawor?4 ,a ,hi/ory ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 our own times4 ,,o!r ,,volumes ,,9 ,,prep>ation ,,h5ry ,,holt ,,& ,,company #ai ,we/ #dd? ,/reet ,new ,york 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcrib]'s ,notes3 ,punctuation has be5 /&>dis$4 ,mo/ inconsi/5cies 9 ! orig9al text 7 reta9$1 includ+3 civilise & civilize col\r & color food supply & food-supply1 ice action & ice-action1 int]relations & int]-relations1 l& masses & l&-masses1 l[ gr[+ & l[-gr[+1 milk products & milk-products1 organise & organize rec5tly glaciat$ & rec5tly-glaciat$1 recognise & recognize summ>ises & summ>izes surface relief & surface-relief1 trade w9d & trade-w9d1 wat] p[] & wat]-p[]1 well develop$ & well-develop$ ,! foll[+ is a li/ ( *anges made to ! orig9al text3 ,page #ca3 call *ang$ to call$ 79 ! p]iod call$ ,t]ti>y17 ,page #da3 canons *ang$ to canyons 7,long gorges or canyons t5d7 ,page #ec3 facts *ang$ to fact 7,secondly1 ! fact t !7 ,page #ee3 effect *ang$ to affect 7greatly affect ! di/ribution7 ,page #eh3 preglacial *ang$ to pre-glacial 7=m ( ! pre-glacial valley27 ,page #ajc3 italic m>kup add$ to i4 e4 7:i* 7 inv>iably means1 i4 e47 ,page #ajg3 effect *ang$ to affect 7rule affect our climate less7 ,page #acf3 sea-bo>d *ang$ to seabo>d 7we/]n seabo>d to be occupi$7 ,page #aib3 vegetion *ang$ to vegetation 7& types ( vegetation7 ,page #bbe3 p>ial *ang$ to p>tial 7aft]w>ds its use 0 p>tial7 ,page #bbi3 access>ies *ang$ to accessories 7c]ta9 accessories1 not$ly7 ,page #bdd3 fi/$ *ang$ to fitt$ 7! be/ fitt$ = man's purposes47 ,page #bec3 ,h>tz *ang$ to ,h>z 7,h>z ,m\nta9s1 #bbg7 ,page #bec3 #a1 #b *ang$ to #g1 #h 7,humboldt1 #g1 #h7 ,page #bed3 d'ol *ang$ to d'oeil 7,langue d'oeil1 #aih7 ,page #bed3 ,liquidamb] *ang$ to ,liquidamb> 7,liquidamb>1 #adj7 ,page #bed3 ,mad]an]tal *ang$ to ,mad]an] ?al 7,mad]an] ?al1 #fh 7fig4 #i77 ,page #bed3 ,m>mosets *ang$ to ,m>mots 7,m>mots1 #aeh7 ,page #bee3 ,saone *ang$ to ,sane 7,sane valley1 #bji7 ,page #bef3 ,!odule *ang$ to ,?odule 7,?odule ,pass1 #ga7 ,page #bei3 ,bottany *ang$ to ,botany 7,pr(essor ( ,botany7 ,page #bfc3 qu/ion *ang$ to "q 7,poli% "q ( ! pres5t day7