,transcriber's ,note3 ,italic text is denoted by underscores and bold text by equal signs4 ,,home ,,university ,,library ,,of ,,modern ,,knowledge ,no4 #g ,editors3 ,,herbert ,,fisher1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,b4,a4 ,,prof4 ,,gilbert ,,murray1 ,,litt4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,b4,a4 ,,prof4 ,j4 ,,arthur ,,thomson1 ,m4,a4 ,,prof4 ,,william ,t4 ,,brewster1 ,m4,a4 ,a complete classified list of the volumes of ,,the ,,home ,,university ,,library already published will be found at the back of this book4 ,,modern ,,geography ,,by ,,marion ,i4 ,,newbigin ,d4,,sc4 7,,lond47 ,,editor ,,of ,,the ,,scottish ,,geographical ,,magazine ,illustration ,,new ,,york ,,henry ,,holt ,,and ,,company ,,london ,,williams ,,and ,,norgate ,,copyright1 #aiaa1 ,,by ,,henry ,,holt ,,and ,,company ,,contents ,,chap4 ,,page ,i ,,the ,,beginnings ,,of ,,modern ,,geography #g ,,ii ,,surface-,,relief ,,and ,,the ,,process ,,of ,,erosion #ai ,,iii ,,ice ,,and ,,its ,,work #ea ,,iv ,,climate ,,and ,,weather #hb ,v ,,the ,,principles ,,of ,,plant ,,geography ,,and ,,the ,,chief ,,plant ,,formations ,,of ,,europe ,,and ,,north ,,america #aab ,,vi ,,the ,,distribution ,,of ,,animal ,,life #adc ,,vii ,,cultivated ,,plants ,,and ,,domesticated ,,animals #afh ,,viii ,,the ,,races ,,of ,,europe ,,and ,,their ,,origin #aif ,,ix ,,the ,,distribution ,,of ,,minerals ,,and ,,the ,,localisation ,,of ,,industries ,,and ,,of ,,towns #bai ,,notes ,,on ,,books #bdi ,,index #bea ,,modern ,,geography ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,beginnings ,,of ,,modern ,,geography ,in the year #ahei there occurred three events which1 though not all comparable to one another1 yet make the year one of such importance that we may take it as marking the beginning of the distinctively modern period of geographical science4 ,these three events were1 first1 the deaths of ,humboldt and ,ritter1 two great geographical pioneers who hewed tracks through the tangled jungle of unsystematised geographical facts1 and second1 the publication of the ,origin of ,species1 by ,charles ,darwin1 a book which supplied the compass which has made further road-making in that same jungle possible4 ,in other words1 as a result of the life-work of the two great geographers named1 and of the throwing by ,charles ,darwin of a new ferment into the mass of contemporary thought1 what had been a mere collection of facts began to be a reasoned and ordered science4 ,both ,humboldt and ,ritter lived to a great age1 so that at the time of their deaths not only was their work done1 but there had been time also for their influence to permeate the literature of the subject4 ,humboldt was1 above all1 a great traveller1 but he was also a man of science in the largest sense1 interested not in one group of facts1 but in many4 ,the extent of his knowledge and the breadth of his interests enabled him to observe a vast number of phenomena while his particular genius was manifest in the way in which he correlated these1 and considered them in their relation to each other4 ,though it is true that his influence was most direct in the case of natural history1 yet in this respect also he pointed to the future1 for the geographers of to-day are indebted to the naturalists for some of their finest generalisations4 ,ritter was a great teacher1 the prototype of those who alike by their personal influence and by their books have enriched geographical science within the last fifty years4 ,he had not ,humboldt's breadth of knowledge and interest1 but in the stress which he laid upon the earth as above all interesting in that it is the field of the activity of man1 he emphasised an aspect of the subject in which perhaps the most interesting modern developments have taken place4 ,darwin had a twofold effect upon the progress of geography4 ,in the first place1 in his detailed work1 e4 g4 in connection with coral reefs1 and with the distribution of animals1 and less directly in his investigation of the part played by earthworms in the formation of soil1 he himself added to geographical knowledge4 ,but he did much more than this4 ,the doctrine of evolution which he made common property has had and is having an enormous effect upon geographical science1 both directly and indirectly4 ,as is well known1 in connection with his own theory of the cause of evolution1 ,darwin laid great stress upon the ,struggle for ,existence4 ,but he himself expressly stated that he used the term in a large and metaphorical sense1 a sense which in popular language it has tended to lose4 ,from the geographer's standpoint1 therefore1 it is better to say that ,darwin's work has added a new interest to the study of interrelations4 ,humboldt1 as we have indicated1 was greatly interested in such subjects as the connection between the climate of a region and the vegetation1 between the activities of man in a particular region and the physical conditions1 and so on4 ,but ,darwin added a new interest to such studies4 ,for example1 it is a curious fact that desert plants have often spiny leaves1 long roots1 and so forth1 and it is interesting to note how these peculiarities fit the plants for life in an arid climate4 ,but when ,darwin showed that there was evidence that the physical conditions of the desert gave rise to certain types of vegetation1 it became worth while to study both the physical conditions and the characters of the plants in much greater detail than before4 ,if we simply lay it down as an axiom that1 e4 g4 cactuses live in deserts1 the fact has only a moderate interest1 but when we find that almost any natural group of plants1 if exposed through long ages to gradually increasing conditions of drought1 will produce cactus types1 then the whole subject acquires new importance4 ,this illustration may serve to suggest what ,darwin has done for geography4 ,he showed that there is a delicately adjusted balance between organisms and their surroundings1 taken in their widest sense4 ,but geology proves that through the ages there have been constant1 if slight1 changes in the physical conditions1 and the effort of the organisms to readjust the balance thus disturbed has led to evolution4 ,thus to some extent at least the characters of organisms can be explained by the nature of their surroundings4 ,a further interest is added by the fact that in this respect human societies and settlements can be shown to behave like organisms4 ,therefore we can hope to explain at least partially the manifold differences in man and his societies in different parts of the globe by the minor differences in physical conditions4 ,in other words1 the doctrine of evolution has added a unifying and co-ordinating principle which has not only prevented geography from being crushed by the enormous recent increase in known facts1 but has also for the first time raised it to the level of a science4 ,this addition of a co-ordinating principle may be said to be the direct effect of the publication of the ,origin of ,species1 but there has been an indirect effect almost as important4 ,the principles enunciated in that book had a stimulating effect1 not upon one science only but upon every department of thought4 ,phenomena of no importance suddenly became interesting1 and the result of this interest was an enormous addition to known facts4 ,not only has research been stimulated in every direction1 but as this research has been largely directed by the desire to discover the interrelation of phenomena1 we find that many of the old barriers between the sciences are breaking down4 ,the botanists are no longer content to study the facts of plant distribution2 they now want to be able to give reasons for particular distributions4 ,therefore they must seek the aid of the meteorologists to explain differences of climate2 of the physical geographer to make clear the effects of relief1 of differences of soil1 and of drainage2 of the cartographer to represent the facts which emerge from their surveys1 and so on4 ,the physician must now seek the assistance of the zoologist before he can deal adequately with tropical disease1 and the zoologist must have the help of the physical geographer before he can give adequate aid4 ,the result is that in all directions geography is being enriched by facts brought from the collateral sciences1 while at the same time its position as a central unifying science is becoming more and more established2 as a science which can deal with all these varied facts1 but deal with them from a standpoint peculiarly its own4 ,at the present time1 geography may be compared to one of ,rodin's statues in which we see a beautiful figure as it were struggling to escape from the marble in which it is imprisoned4 ,so the geography of to-day is in the act of escaping from the matrix of mere facts in which it has been too long imprisoned4 ,it is now displaying itself as a great unity in the making of which all the sciences have played their part4 ,but even in this general survey of recent developments two other sets of facts must be touched upon4 ,we have given fifty years as the period within which most of what is distinctively modern in geography has developed4 ,it must not be forgotten that within the same period there has been a remarkable renewal of interest in geographical exploration4 ,roughly speaking1 within this period ,africa has ceased to be an unknown continent2 the innermost recesses of ,asia have been largely explored2 the ,arctic and ,antarctic areas have yielded many1 though by no means the whole1 of their secrets2 a great deal of exploration has been done in ,america as a whole1 as well as much detailed survey work in the ,united ,states and ,canada2 the oceans have been investigated by successive series of expeditions4 ,generally it may be said that in its broad outlines our knowledge of the world has been completed1 so that geographical science is free to pass from the mere collection of raw material to the higher task of arranging1 classifying1 and making deductions1 as well as to the more detailed surveys which are still necessary4 ,the other point of interest is that the last fifty years have seen an enormous increase in the facilities for travel1 a fact which has led to a great increase in the number of people to whom geography appeals4 ,the decade between #ahcj and #ahdj saw the beginning of two great series of guide-books1 ,murray's ,handbooks and ,baedeker's ,guides1 whose importance for the travelling public can hardly be over-estimated4 ,the first ,baedeker was a little guide to the ,rhine1 and since it was first published this firm of publishers has not only extended its field of operations over nearly the whole world1 but has issued a constant stream of new editions1 which for the most frequented tourist regions are practically annual4 ,that great tourist agency whose name is now a household word began operations in the early forties1 and like the firm of ,baedeker has now taken the world as its sphere of action4 ,we may say1 then1 that during the course of the nineteenth century1 travel1 previously a pastime of the rich1 was brought within the reach of very moderate purses4 ,this democratisation of travel is still going on1 and in certain recent visits of ,british working men to ,germany and elsewhere we may perhaps see the beginning of a process which will eventually bring some amount of journeying abroad within the reach of all4 ,as yet the effect upon geography of this increase in travelling has been chiefly to enhance popular interest in the science1 rather than to enrich it1 for the vast majority of popular travel books have added little1 if anything1 to the sum total of knowledge4 ,but this is partly because geographical teaching has hitherto been badly organised1 and the greater number of travellers have started on their journeys without having been taught what to observe or how to observe4 ,there are already indications that this condition of affairs is passing away1 and that the traveller of the future will start better equipped1 and will demand in his guide-books a new point of view4 ,starting from a higher level he will bring back more from his travels4 ,meantime it should be noted that some knowledge of the generalisations laid down by geographers during the course of the last half century adds enormously to the interest of travel1 both at home and abroad1 and that for this reason1 if for no other1 geography is worth study by all4 ,in the following chapters we shall look1 so far as possible1 at those aspects of the subject which make the widest appeal1 and which are best fitted to enable the ordinary man to understand his surroundings1 whatever they may be1 and so aid him in that delicate task of adjustment which1 consciously or unconsciously1 is the task of every living thing4 ,as limitations of space involve a similar limitation of subject-matter1 it has been thought best to lay most stress upon the conditions which prevail in ,europe and ,north ,america1 the areas which have been most thoroughly studied4 ,europe has the special interest that it has given origin to the type of civilisation which has most profoundly modified the earth's surface4 ,this limitation cannot1 however1 be made rigid1 for it is of the essence of the modern standpoint that no area can be understood without reference to the world at large4 ,the geography of ,europe no less than of ,north ,america is determined by the position of the respective continents on the surface of the globe1 and cannot be understood without a consideration of this position and its implications4 ,the standpoint adopted here is frankly anthropological1 that is1 the world is considered as the home of man1 its physical peculiarities being regarded as interesting chiefly in their relation to man and his activities4 ,finally1 we may note that the development of the subject within recent years has been such that it is quite impossible1 even within the limitations already laid down1 to give a complete survey of the subject4 ,all that will be attempted1 therefore1 is to suggest some of the lines along which research is proceeding most actively at the present time1 special stress being laid upon those aspects of the subject which are not as yet fully treated in the smaller text-books4 ,the list of books of reference at the end will1 it is hoped1 enable those interested to fill in the blanks which such a scheme necessarily leaves4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,surface-,,relief ,,and ,,the ,,process ,,of ,,erosion ,it is not necessary here to consider the various formal definitions of geography which have been proposed in the last few years4 ,as is only natural with a developing subject1 much discussion has taken place as to the exact limits of its field of action1 and many definitions have been proposed with the object of setting forth these limits as clearly as possible4 ,but it is sufficient for our purpose to note that geography deals with the surface-relief of the earth1 and with the influence which that relief exercises upon the distribution of other phenomena1 and especially upon the life of man4 ,before we proceed to study detailed problems1 then1 it is obviously necessary to look at some general points connected with the relief of the earth's surface and its causes4 ,in the words of the physical geographer1 the earth's surface consists of the solid crust1 or lithosphere1 of the mass of water forming the seas and oceans and constituting the hydrosphere1 and of that envelope of gas which we call the atmosphere4 ,considered separately1 each of these is the concern of special sciences1 and not of the geographer proper4 ,his business it is to take the facts furnished by the meteorologists1 the physicists1 the geologists1 and so forth1 and with these facts in hand to proceed to consider the effect of the interaction of earth and water and air in a way which the separate sciences cannot do4 ,we must further note that it is the interactions of these three which make the earth a possible home for life as we know it1 and it is these interactions therefore which influence the distribution of life on the surface of the globe4 ,there may have been a period when the crust of the earth was clothed in a uniform sheet of water1 just as the globe is now enveloped in a complete covering of air1 but at present1 as through the long ages of geological time1 the lithosphere consists of elevations and hollows1 and it is in the hollows that the water accumulates1 so that we can distinguish between the dry land and the ocean beds4 ,both chemically and physically the fluid hydrosphere differs markedly from the solid lithosphere1 and it is1 above all1 the physical differences which are of supreme importance to the geographer4 ,because of them sea and land respond differently to the stream of solar energy which pours down upon our globe1 and it is this different response which is the predominating factor in the production of the different climates1 which again determine in its main outlines the distribution of living organisms4 ,this being so1 it is clear that it is of great importance to the geographer to know exactly the distribution of land and water over the surface of the earth4 ,as the ,north ,polar regions are still inadequately known1 and the ,south ,polar regions hardly known at all1 we cannot as yet determine exactly this distribution1 but any globe will show that land and ocean are very unequally distributed4 ,the great land masses cluster round the ,north ,pole1 while the southern hemisphere consists largely of water4 ,we thus have a land hemisphere and a water one4 ,according to recent calculations the oceans occupy some #gb per cent4 of the entire surface of the globe1 leaving only #bh per cent4 of land4 ,but while in the northern hemisphere there is about one and a half times more water than land1 in the southern there is about six times more water1 both figures being liable to error1 as indicated above1 owing to our uncertainty as to the land and water of the ,polar zones4 ,this distribution is of great importance in connection with certain theories as to the actual plan of the earth1 but this is a difficult subject which need not concern us here4 ,it is discussed in ,prof4 ,j4 ,w4 ,gregory's volume on ,the ,making of the ,earth4 ,more interesting is the effect which the arrangement of land and water has had upon that part of the life of the earth which was evolved in late geological time4 ,though the geographer for convenience' sake recognizes three separate continents in the ,old ,world--,europe1 ,asia and ,africa--yet these form practically one land mass1 which in its turn approaches ,america very nearly at ,bering ,straits1 and1 less nearly1 in the ,north ,atlantic through the intervention of the ,british ,isles1 the ,faeroes1 ,iceland1 ,greenland1 etc4 ,the centre of this land mass lies in ,europe1 a point not without its importance4 ,in this great land mass of the northern hemisphere life has reached its highest degree of development1 both as regards animal form and as regards human societies4 ,it was in the northern hemisphere that the highest mammals1 the placentals1 arose4 ,there are many remarkable resemblances between the faunas of ,europe1 of ,asia and of ,africa1 and a similar1 if less marked1 resemblance between those of ,north ,america on the one hand and of ,europe and temperate ,asia on the other4 ,on the other hand1 the two great land masses which occur in the southern hemisphere1 ,south ,america and ,australia1 show very marked differences in their fauna1 both from each other and from the northern land masses1 and in both cases the fauna has a primitive aspect1 which is best marked in ,australia4 ,when we come to consider man1 somewhat similar conditions present themselves4 ,the great civilisations developed in the land mass of the ,old ,world1 though the waterless desert of the ,sahara cut off much of ,africa from participation in them4 ,america developed a relatively high civilisation of its own1 but as the icefields and ice-pack of the north formed a greater barrier to the migrations of man than to those of the northern animals1 this ,american civilisation was for long cut off from that of the ,old ,world1 and when free communication became possible1 it went down before that of the eastern world4 ,we must connect these facts directly with the peculiar distribution of land and water in the northern hemisphere1 which made free intercourse possible1 alike for the land animals and for man4 ,the importance of this intercourse may be suggested in a few words4 ,when a group of organisms is limited1 from whatever cause1 to a particular zone of the earth's surface1 the members of the group tend to acquire characters fitting them for this restricted area4 ,but if the area is open1 constantly or periodically1 to incursions of organisms from adjacent areas1 then1 with the widening of the environment1 and the greater intensity of the struggle for existence1 evolution is quickened and new characters appear4 ,the men of the ,eurasian continent learnt1 on the fierce battle-grounds of that continent1 lessons which enabled them to conquer without difficulty the more isolated human groups of the southern hemisphere4 ,the fact that they took south with them the mammals of the north1 who also have thriven at the expense of the native forms1 shows that the hold of the southern animals upon their habitat was no less precarious than that of man himself4 ,one other point is worth notice in connection with the distribution of land and water over the surface of the globe4 ,we have seen that the northern hemisphere is the region where organic evolution has been most marked4 ,it is1 as it were1 a great biological laboratory4 ,on the other hand1 in the southern hemisphere1 which has fewer land masses to interfere with the circulation of the atmosphere1 many physical phenomena occur in a more marked and orderly fashion than to the north4 ,the westerly winds of the south blow with a force and a constancy which makes it impossible to compare them with the more variable westerlies of the north4 ,even the ocean currents of the south seem to show more constancy than those of the north4 ,if the northern hemisphere is a great biological laboratory1 the southern may be described as a physical one1 and one of the great interests of the further exploration of the ,antarctic is that it will probably cast light upon some important meteorological problems4 7,see ,dr4 ,w4 ,s4 ,bruce's volume on ,polar ,exploration47 ,the distribution of land and water1 with all its effects on climate and on the distribution of life1 is1 as we have seen1 caused by the main features of the relief of the earth1 by the existence of vast depressions in which the water accumulates1 and of relative elevations from which it flows4 ,but the minor details of relief1 hill and valley1 ocean depth and continental shelf1 are also important1 and exercise a very marked effect upon distribution4 ,they therefore demand in their turn some consideration4 ,taking first the prime distinction between land surface and ocean floor1 we note that the two differ from one another markedly1 alike in their characteristics and in the conditions to which they are exposed4 ,the land is subjected to constantly varying conditions3 to the alternation of day and night1 and to the changes of the seasons1 with corresponding variations in temperature2 to the fluctuations of the weather2 to running water1 and so forth4 ,in the great ocean depths at least1 on the other hand1 the conditions are remarkably uniform4 ,neither diurnal nor seasonal changes have here any effect2 the temperature seems to fluctuate but little2 the water is almost still4 ,this uniformity of physical conditions is reflected in the uniformity of the surface over wide areas4 ,while the land surface shows marked irregularities1 the ocean floor has a monotonous character1 with more gentle outlines4 ,in its most general form the characters of the sea bottom may be briefly stated4 ,round the great land masses there is an area of relatively shallow water1 which is sometimes only a few miles wide1 and at other times extends outwards for hundreds of miles4 ,this region is the ,continental ,shelf1 and its seaward boundary for convenience' sake is taken at a depth of #ajj fathoms1 or #fjj feet4 ,within this zone the influence of the land is still felt1 and some of the characters of land surfaces appear4 ,thus we sometimes find that river valleys are prolonged outwards over the ,continental ,shelf1 giving a markedly irregular appearance to the ocean floor4 ,the ,british ,islands lie upon a ,continental ,shelf of this kind1 and this is one of our reasons for knowing that they are really only a part of the continent of ,europe1 separated from it by a slight depression4 ,the ,continental ,shelf slopes away from the land gently1 and is widest where it fringes low continents1 and narrowest where mountains approach the coast4 ,over it is spread the waste of the land1 the coarser lying near the shore-line1 the finer extending outwards to the steep seaward slope4 ,this rapid slope leads down to the more or less uniform ocean plateau1 whose surface is broken by the great ocean abysses1 the greatest of which has a depth of about six miles4 ,relative but not absolute uniformity thus characterises all that part of the ocean floor which lies below about #ajj fathoms4 ,again1 though the ocean floor is doubtless being slowly raised by the deposition upon it of the oceanic oozes1 yet it is also true that as compared with the land surface it displays great constancy4 ,while the land surface is constantly changing owing to the varying forces which act upon it1 the floor of the ocean can vary but little from age to age1 unless it is acted upon by the internal forces of the earth4 ,turn now to the land4 ,we note at once the two characters of marked irregularity of surface1 and of changeableness4 ,the changeableness is due to the forces of erosion which act upon the surface1 and of these forces the most important to the geographer is running water4 ,it is running water1 aided by other agents1 which carves the land into hill and valley1 which produces gorge and lake1 only ultimately to fill up the lake and plane away the gorge4 ,it is running water which spreads out on the lower ground the waste of the higher1 and thus prepares the way for the operations of man4 ,the result of the long-continued action of the varied forces of erosion must necessarily be to reduce the surface to an almost level condition4 ,the denuding agents first produce irregularities and then finally remove these1 until the whole surface is once again almost level4 ,the whole globe would thus be reduced to the condition of a plain were it not for the intervention of the internal forces which raise up the surface anew into folds1 or which produce volcanoes and outbursts of molten rock4 ,this constantly repeated series of changes may be said to be chiefly the concern of the geologist1 especially as it is a series which has repeated itself in all time4 ,but it is to be noted that at various parts of the surface of the globe at the present time every stage in the process occurs1 and everywhere the question whether a particular land area has been exposed for a relatively long or for a relatively short period to the forces of erosion1 has a profound influence upon life4 ,it is therefore important for the geographer to be able to recognise the different stages4 ,this he cannot hope to do without some detailed knowledge of the effects of erosion4 ,theoretically every land surface elevated above sea-level should pass through what has been called a cycle of erosion4 ,there should be a period when the active forces are working upon a surface as yet but little modified2 this is the period called by analogy youth4 ,at a later stage the drainage has been well established1 and the rivers run in broad valleys1 from which lakes and waterfalls have largely disappeared4 ,to this condition the term mature has been applied4 ,at a still later stage the land surface has been so worn by the eroding forces that the whole process of erosion is slackened1 and an uplift must occur before the erosive forces regain their lost strength4 ,this is the so-called cycle of normal erosion1 but it is constantly liable to variations due to local crust movements1 to changes in climate1 and to local conditions1 though at the same time the distinction of the various stages has value for the geographer because of their varying effects upon human life4 ,it is necessary for us1 therefore1 to consider how the different stages may be recognized1 and how the forces of erosion act4 ,let us begin our study of erosion by a general survey of the striking features of the earth's surface at the present day4 ,we know that at various parts of the surface there rise lofty mountain chains1 whose summits are often permanently snow-clad1 and which1 from the sharpness of their forms and from the masses of rock rubbish which are accumulating round them1 have obviously only been exposed for a geologically short period to the action of the atmosphere and of running water4 ,when examined such mountain chains are all found to have the same peculiarities of internal form1 the rocks composing them being elaborately folded and fractured4 ,careful investigation has convinced geologists that all the existing great chains owe their origin to a series of earth movements which occurred in the period called ,tertiary1 that is1 in the third of the great geological periods1 the one immediately preceding that in which we live4 ,these lofty mountain chains of ,tertiary origin are most familiar in the great series of folds which appear at the surface to form the ,pyrenees1 the ,alps1 the ,caucasus and the ,himalayas1 but the ,atlas ,mountains belong to the same series1 as does also that great mountain chain which1 under various names1 runs down the western coast of the ,american continent4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4--,the main points in regard to the structure of ,europe4 ,the shaded areas 7#a7 are regions of ancient rocks1 much folded and crumpled1 which once formed mountain regions but are now mostly worn down to uplands4 ,the lines 7#b7 show the regions affected by ,tertiary folding1 largely occupied by mountain chains4 ,the unshaded areas are mostly plains and basins1 only slightly affected by folding1 and made up of rocks which are often almost horizontal4 ,as already indicated1 these areas are recognised not only by the fact that there appear at the surface a great number of peaks forming a mountain chain1 but also by the internal structure1 the characteristically complex folding of the rocks4 ,now outside of these recently elevated areas in1 for example1 the continent of ,europe1 we find two conditions4 ,on the one hand1 there are regions of upland type but with rounded and smoothed forms1 which are sometimes almost reduced to the condition of a plain4 ,such regions occur in ,ireland1 in the west of ,great ,britain generally1 in ,brittany1 in the central plateau of ,france1 in the ,ardennes1 in ,bohemia1 in the central plateau of ,spain1 in ,scandinavia1 and so forth4 ,between these relatively elevated areas we have plains and low-lying river basins1 such as the ,london basin1 the ,paris basin1 and so on4 ,when the rocks are examined in both cases it is found that in the basins and plains the rocks1 as a general rule1 are only slightly inclined1 while in the uplands and plateaux there are obvious remnants of folding1 and the rocks are of ancient types1 not relatively modern like those of the ,alps1 ,himalayas1 etc4 7see fig4 #a74 ,if1 then1 the existing mountain chains show complex folding in their constituent rocks1 and though geologically but of yesterday have been already deeply affected by the denuding agents1 must we not suppose that the folded and contorted uplands of ,europe and elsewhere are the last remnants of very ancient mountain chains8 ,it is they which form the framework of the continents1 and by their wear and tear the low grounds have been formed1 owing to the filling in of the great gulfs which ran between the old mountain chains4 ,we may elaborate a little further this very interesting subject4 ,let us first note that the geologists group the rocks composing the earth's crust into three great divisions4 ,we have1 first1 the ,primary rocks1 which are the oldest1 and include as their most generally interesting member the ,carboniferous rocks1 with their coal-bearing beds1 so important in the modern industrial world4 ,second1 we have the ,secondary beds1 the most interesting members of which is the ,chalk1 so well-developed in parts of ,england and ,france4 ,finally1 the ,tertiary series includes the rocks of the period immediately preceding that in which the first undoubted remains of man occur4 ,each of these periods was of enormous length1 and the labours of successive generations of geologists have brought to light1 at least in broad outline1 the general appearance of the globe in so far as affected by the distribution of land and water1 and the main earth movements1 in each separate period4 ,thus we know that during that long period of time which is included in the ,primary epoch1 very extensive earth movements1 resulting in extensive folding and mountain formation1 took place4 ,the geologists distinguish no less than three separate periods of folding in ,primary times4 ,it is not necessary for us to consider these in detail2 their total result was to produce the mountain regions whose worn-down stumps now form those uplands which we have described in ,europe4 ,but they do not occur in ,europe alone4 ,that vast and relatively infertile area in ,eastern ,canada which geologists call the ,canadian ,shield is a region of very old rocks1 once folded into a mountain region1 but long since worn down to an upland4 ,in the eastern ,united ,states that long1 but interrupted1 range of hills1 which1 under various names1 runs from the mouth of the ,st4 ,lawrence to ,alabama and ,georgia1 and partially shuts the seaboard off from the prairies and plains beyond1 is a region where the folding is still well marked1 in spite of long denudation4 ,the ,secondary period seems to have been one in which comparatively little folding took place1 while1 as already indicated1 the ,tertiary was one in which there was enormous folding in almost all parts of the globe1 the result being the appearance at the surface of the great mountain chains of the present day4 ,the structure of these chains makes them relatively unstable1 and the forces of erosion are now acting upon them with extraordinary activity1 beginning that process of wearing down which has reduced their prototypes of the ,primary period to mere remnants of their former greatness4 ,extensive as the ,tertiary folding was1 however1 it left great areas unaffected1 or but slightly affected1 and such areas form plains or basins1 where the rocks are but slightly tilted1 or show a very simple form of folding4 ,in ,europe such slightly modified rocks occur1 e4 g4 in the ,paris basin1 and in the fertile plains of south-eastern ,england4 ,in the ,united ,states beds of a similar character occur right over the great plains1 filling what seems once to have been a great gulf between the old highlands to the east and the towering modern mountain chains of the west4 ,it must be realised that this is only a very summary and partial account of a difficult and complicated problem2 but from the standpoint of pure geography it seems desirable to distinguish between those remnants of ancient mountains which form the backbone of the continents1 the recently elevated mountain chains where enormously rapid erosion is taking place1 and the largely unmodified rocks which often form fertile plains4 ,let us next proceed to consider how the eroding agents act upon the surface of the land as soon as it is exposed4 ,we may begin with the effect of running water upon a recently exposed surface1 e4 g4 upon land slowly emerging above sea-level1 or even with the effect of heavy rain upon sloping ground unprotected by a covering of vegetation4 ,alike in the one case and in the other the first effect is the formation of a number of shallow rills1 which at first run parallel to one another4 ,sooner or later1 however1 these parallel channels tend to converge1 and a torrent is formed such as may be seen in any mountain region4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4--;,an ideal profile of a mature river 7,,ac71 showing the increase in the slope towards the source4 ,the dotted line ,,bc shows an earlier stage1 when there are smooth reaches and rapid reaches with waterfalls1 etc4 ,note that progressive erosion causes the source to retreat 7i4 e4 from ,b to ,a74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4--;,an actual profile of the ,loire4 ,it will be noted that the ,loire is a mature river1 its profile nearly coinciding with the ideal condition4 7,after de ,martonne47 ,such a torrent consists of three often well-defined parts4 ,first we have the numerous tiny rills which collect together to form what the ,french physiographers call a receiving basin 7bassin de rception72 then there is the stream proper forming a canal which drains the basin1 while below1 where the torrent debouches on the low ground1 we find that it spreads out fanwise and throws down its load of dbris to form a cone 7cne de djection74 ,the torrent therefore already imitates a full-grown river1 with its threefold division into mountain track1 valley track1 and plain track4 ,it further illustrates the twofold work of the river1 that of erosion and deposition4 ,observation on an unprotected surface after a heavy rainfall will illustrate another point which is of much interest in connection with the work of rivers4 ,this is that the water has most excavating power1 not1 as might be supposed1 in the collecting basin1 but in the valley region1 where the slope is still great1 where the volume of the water is at its maximum1 and where it has acquired a load of dbris by means of which it carves out its bed4 ,the excavation of the bed therefore proceeds from below upwards towards the collecting basin4 ,the result is that the slope of the valley floor diminishes as we pass from the upper region to the lower1 owing to the levelling effect of erosion4 ,the process of levelling down cannot be carried beyond a certain point1 the so-called base level of erosion1 which in a lateral stream is determined by the point of junction with the main stream1 and in a main stream by the point which marks sea or lake level1 for obviously no point in the river valley can be worn down much below its mouth4 ,when the work of a river is completed1 the line which marks the profile of its bed should have a gentle and continuous slope downwards to base level4 ,the existence of irregularities1 of breaks in the smoothness of the slope1 means that the work of excavation has not proceeded far1 that the river is young4 ,but it is not necessary to proceed to the laborious drawing of a profile in order to determine the extent to which the process of excavation has been carried4 ,the existence of rapids1 of waterfalls1 the alternation of swift and slow-flowing reaches are all proofs that it has not been carried far4 ,in short1 if a river is navigable1 the navigable reach at least is mature2 if it is capable of furnishing power1 that region at least is youthful4 ,if1 as sometimes happens1 the middle course is navigable and slow-flowing1 and the lower course broken by rapids and falls1 then the probability is that earth movements have occurred1 so that the two regions are of different age4 ,this is a condition which occurs relatively often in the case of large rivers4 ,one other point is worth notice1 because it illustrates another way in which the analogy of youth and maturity holds good4 ,the youthful river1 with its interrupted slope1 its lakes and falls1 does not permit the water to flow off with the same regularity as the mature river with its smoothed outlines4 ,the mature river is thus a more perfect instrument of drainage4 ,it is not necessary for our purpose to consider in detail the characteristic forms of river erosion4 ,it may be sufficient to notice that rapids and waterfalls are due to the varying hardness of the rocks forming the bed of the river1 and that the normal course of events is the transition from waterfall to rapid1 and from rapid to stream flowing quietly at the bottom of a rocky gorge4 ,long gorges or canyons tend to occur in regions where river erosion is not greatly assisted by the other eroding agents4 ,as a general rule1 as the river cuts its way down1 the other agents cut back the walls so exposed1 so that a wide valley is formed4 ,but a river does not only eat out its bed in its valley track4 ,a necessary consequence of this erosion is that it is also able to eat back the slope on which it is rising1 as a result of the smoothing out of the curves of its bed1 so that its source retreats further and further into the mountain4 ,in regions of abundant rainfall every slope is abundantly supplied with streams1 and therefore those streams which cut back their region of origin most rapidly will necessarily encroach upon their neighbours' territory4 ,they therefore tend to tap some of the tributaries of the other streams1 a phenomenon which has sometimes considerable human importance1 and has been extensively studied of late years under the name of river-capture4 ,some examples may serve to make the phenomenon clear4 ,every one who has travelled up the ,rhone valley in ,switzerland has noted the enormous number of lateral streams1 of all sizes1 which tumble down the mountain sides into the ,rhone4 ,these streams on1 e4 g41 the south side1 are1 roughly speaking1 parallel to each other1 and to a large extent enter the main stream independently4 ,that is1 for the most part they are very youthful streams4 ,in some cases1 however1 e4 g4 in the case of the ,dranse and the ,visp1 the drainage is of a more advanced character1 and we find a large stream with tributaries of considerable size as distinct from mere torrents4 ,a glance at any great river system on the map1 e4 g4 the ,mississippi1 the ,amazon1 etc41 will show that the condition of a great stream with many tributaries is normal in a district where the drainage is of the developed type4 ,how are the two conditions1 that of numerous parallel mountain torrents and that of a great river system1 related to one another8 ,there is no doubt that capture1 the encroachment of one stream upon the territory of another1 has played an important part in the process4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4--,sketch-map to illustrate river-capture4 ,a very simple example of this widespread phenomenon may be taken in illustration4 ,the accompanying sketch-map1 drawn by ,mr4 ,lionel ,hinxman1 shows part of the course of the ,river ,feshie1 one of the tributaries of the ,spey1 and part of the ,geldie ,burn1 one of the tributaries of the ,aberdeenshire ,dee4 ,it will be noted that the ,feshie shows a very curious bend1 or elbow4 ,mr4 ,hinxman points out that this curious condition can be explained on the supposition that the ,river ,eidart1 shown on the map to the north of the bend1 once formed the headwaters of the ,feshie1 which cut its valley back until it captured the headwaters of the ,geldie1 and thus brought water which formerly flowed into the ,dee into the ,spey valley4 ,the boundary between the two counties of ,aberdeen and ,inverness is shown on the map by a dotted line1 and it is seen that the march follows the watershed1 which between the present ,geldie and the bend on the ,feshie is very low4 ,formerly1 however1 this watershed lay much further to the west1 and its shifting is due to the capture4 ,a careful study of large scale maps will show many examples of similar river-capture1 some old and some recent4 ,a sharp bend1 the so-called elbow of capture1 on a river in close proximity to another stream affords in itself a certain presumption that capture has taken place1 though this presumption can only be verified by study on the spot4 ,it may be noted that before the capture is finally accomplished there may be an intermediate stage when the water has the choice of two channels1 both of which may be utilised in a time of flood4 ,a very curious case is that of the ,casiquiare1 a river in ,south ,america which connects together the two systems of the ,amazon and the ,orinoco1 while another is the connection recently discovered by ,captain ,lenfant1 a ,french explorer1 between the systems of the ,shari and the ,niger in ,africa4 ,such conditions are obviously unstable1 for one stream must sooner or later predominate over the other1 and deprive it even of flood water4 ,another example may help to explain the evolution of a complex river system with many tributaries4 ,a glance at the map of ,england 7see diagram7 shows that while the rivers of ,northumberland and ,durham flow independently into the sea1 those of ,yorkshire are united into a characteristic bunch1 and all reach the ocean by means of the ,humber4 ,this estuary breaks through the high ground formed by the ,wolds of ,yorkshire and ,lincolnshire1 which consists of hard rock4 ,at one time it is probable that the rivers of ,yorkshire entered the sea separately1 while the other great factor of the ,humber1 the ,trent1 mingled its waters with the present ,witham4 ,at this time the weathering of the land surface had not reached its present stage so the land would lie higher4 ,in what is now the vale of ,york the rocks are much softer than where the ,wolds now stand1 and the present ,ouse1 which was at first a longitudinal tributary of a transverse stream1 eating its way back through these soft rocks1 tapped successively the streams flowing eastwards from the ,pennines1 and with the help of the abundant water so obtained was enabled to cut out the wide estuary of the ,humber4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4--,sketch-map of northern ,england1 to show the position of the ,tyne and ,aire ,gaps1 and the peculiar character of the rivers of ,yorkshire4 ,the black areas are heights above #fjj feet4 ,one other important point in connection with river-capture has been already suggested in the account given of the ,feshie4 ,in the little sketch-map we see clearly the shift of the watershed to the east4 ,the ultimate cause of this shift is doubtless the fact that in ,great ,britain the rainfall diminishes to the east1 so that1 generally speaking1 the westerly streams have more erosive power than the easterly4 ,but the special interest of the case is simply that it may serve to suggest a fact not at first sight obvious1 which is that water-partings are excessively unstable features4 ,one set of streams is continually striving to encroach upon the others1 and by capturing their headwaters to reduce their erosive power4 ,a very striking example of capture on the large scale is seen in southern ,patagonia1 where the water-parting does not lie near the summit of the chain of the ,andes1 as might be expected1 but considerably to the east1 the western streams 7or glaciers7 having captured all the headwaters of the eastern streams1 which lie in a region of much lower rainfall4 ,the net result is that running water not only scours valleys in the sides of mountain chains1 but also1 sooner or later1 wears away the crest itself1 and with the assistance of the other agents of denudation tends to reduce the mountains to plains--or at least peneplains4 ,the deduction is1 of course1 old enough1 but the recent emphasis placed upon river-capture helps us to realise it1 showing us the actual shift of the divide1 or1 in other words1 the wearing down of the summit levels4 ,this is a theoretical matter1 but there is another point which has practical significance4 ,referring once again to the sketch-map on p4 #dc1 we note that just at the sharp bend in the ,feshie1 that is1 at the elbow of capture1 there is a narrow region1 crossed by the boundary line1 which was once traversed by the headwaters of the ,geldie1 but is now a dry valley4 ,such gaps1 as they are called1 are present where recent capture has occurred1 and where they occur in hilly country they sometimes form useful passes1 permitting the construction of an easy road across the hills4 ,a good example is the ,aire ,gap 7see fig4 #e7 in the ,pennine range of ,great ,britain1 apparently connected with the fact that the ,ribble has captured the headwaters of the ,aire4 ,another interesting example is the so-called ,tyne ,gap1 that breach in the ,pennines which occurs near the present head of the ,south ,tyne2 it was traversed by the ,roman wall1 and is now crossed by the road and the railway from ,newcastle to ,carlisle4 ,as we shall see1 ice appears to have this power of cutting passes through mountain chains to a much greater extent than running water2 but here1 as in many other respects1 there does not appear to be a sharp breach between the action of the two4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,ice ,,and ,,its ,,work ,in the last chapter we have spoken of the moulding of the surface of the earth by means of running water and the agents summed up in the term weathering4 ,the process is sometimes called normal erosion1 to distinguish it from that other form of surface moulding in which ice and frost play a prominent part4 ,at the present time ice1 in the form of ice-sheets or glaciers1 is confined to relatively small areas of the globe1 so that we are justified in regarding its action as exceptional when compared with the work of running water4 ,it is1 however1 well known that this limitation of the field of action of ice is very recent1 and that during a period which geologically is only yesterday1 a much greater part of the surface than at present was ice-clad4 ,in point of fact1 much of ,europe1 especially the northern parts and those regions which lie close to the lofty mountain chains1 much of ,north ,america1 and1 probably1 considerable parts of the southern hemisphere1 were subjected to the action of ice so recently that the processes of normal erosion have not had time to obliterate1 hardly even to blur1 the tracks which the ice left4 ,the results of the great extension of ice action in that period which geologists call ,pleistocene were twofold4 ,in the first place1 as the result of the presence of the ice-sheet1 we have vast accumulations of dbris spread over the lower grounds4 ,these accumulations sometimes form great sheets of boulder clay2 sometimes they are collected into the curious sandy and gravelly mounds called kames which in parts of1 e4 g4 ,scotland1 have a great extension2 sometimes they have formed great heaps of material at the entrances of valleys4 ,again1 these deposits have sometimes blocked valleys and so formed lakes1 and they have supplied the post-glacial rivers with a vast amount of material which has been used to scour out the river-beds1 and has been often re-sorted and re-arranged by running water4 ,secondly1 the fact that the northern region and the high grounds further south1 in both ,europe and ,north ,america1 have been recently clad in ice is associated with many peculiarities of surface form1 some of which have exercised a marked influence on human settlements and ways of communication4 ,these peculiarities of surface moulding have been the object of singularly detailed study in late years1 and from this detailed study many interesting facts have emerged4 ,it may be well to state at once that this study has been largely stimulated by the fact that there is at present a great want of unanimity of opinion as to the exact cause of these peculiarities of form4 ,according to one school ice is a more powerful eroding agent than water2 according to another its action is largely conservative1 and its power of erosion is slight as compared with that of water4 ,the beginnings of a possible solution of the problem are perhaps to be seen in the suggestions of those who seek the causes of the peculiar features of glaciated regions in the way in which running water works when it is controlled and modified by the existence of ice2 but we must admit that1 on the whole1 the conflict is still hot and many members of the opposing schools will have no compromise4 ,to the geographer1 however1 the very fierceness of the controversy has been useful4 ,the question as to the exact part played respectively by water and by ice in surface moulding is really a question for the geologist4 ,it is1 however1 of great importance to the geographer that recently glaciated surfaces should be studied from every point of view1 for from this detailed study are emerging many important generalisations4 ,we shall1 therefore1 in this chapter only touch very lightly upon the actual points in dispute1 but shall lay stress upon the interesting facts admitted by both parties4 ,when the conception of a just-vanished period of great glaciation was being established by the labours of many geologists1 stress was naturally laid upon the obvious resemblances between parts of1 e4 g4 ,scotland and ,wales1 and those parts of the ,alps which have been exposed by the retreat of the existing glaciers4 ,thus we find that most of the text-books emphasise the occurrence of perched blocks1 of erratics1 i4 e4 of blocks of rock which must have been carried from a distance1 of the phenomenon of crag and tail1 of giants' kettles1 and so on4 ,all these are of more geological than geographical importance2 they do not in themselves greatly affect the distribution of other phenomena over the surface4 ,we shall not1 therefore1 stop to consider them in detail4 ,it is otherwise with those indications of recent glaciation which have been studied within the last few years1 and they demand the geographer's most careful consideration4 ,the most active discussion has taken place in regard to the peculiar features of the valleys in recently-glaciated districts1 and we shall discuss especially this point4 ,we have already described the general features presented by valleys which owe their origin to running water4 ,in such valleys1 as we have seen1 the longer the forces work the more nearly is the valley floor reduced to an even slope1 whose angle decreases in passing from the mountain to the plain track4 ,in the ordinary river valley the shape of the valley approximates to that of a ,v1 that is1 the valley narrows downwards1 the river occupying the narrowest region4 ,again1 as a general rule there is no great difference of level between the tributary valleys--at least at their extremities--and the main valley1 that is1 there is no sharp discordance between the two4 ,while1 however1 the mature river valley shows a gentle1 continuous slope1 we usually find that young rivers1 at least in their mountain track1 show an alternation of plain and gorge1 which is very easily observed in any hilly region4 ,in other words1 we find that1 owing to the inclination of the rocks1 or to their varying hardness1 or to other causes1 particular reaches are less easily eroded than others4 ,these form waterfalls1 which ultimately1 as we have seen1 give place to gorges4 ,beyond the waterfall the diminishing slope checks the rapidity of flow1 and the stream tends to widen out1 and also to throw down its load of dbris1 so that an alluvial plain may be formed4 ,one other character of an ordinary river valley may be noted4 ,it heads1 as we have seen1 in a collecting basin1 which receives the surface runnels and the outflows of the springs which form the beginning of the river4 ,let us now turn to the valleys in a recently glaciated country4 ,we omit any description of existing glaciers2 these will be found described in the volume on the ,alps1 and further1 photography and the picture postcard have rendered the main features of a glacier familiar to every one4 ,almost every large railway station now shows fine coloured photographs of some of the important ,swiss glaciers4 ,taking1 then1 a valley known to have been occupied by a ,pleistocene glacier1 we find the following features4 ,as contrasted with an ordinary river valley1 the glacial valley is usually flat-bottomed1 a condition described as ,u-shaped to point the contrast with the river valley4 ,examples in ,great ,britain and elsewhere are frequent1 but some of the ,alpine valleys show the phenomenon in a very striking form4 ,two good examples are the ,aar valley at ,meiringen1 and the ,lauterbrunnen valley at the village of the same name4 ,both have been rendered more or less familiar by constant photographing 7see fig4 #g74 ,the reason why they have been so much photographed leads us to consider another peculiarity of the glaciated valley4 ,in both the cases named a steep cliff wall rises from either side of the broad1 flat valley floor1 and from the summit of this cliff the lateral streams leap into the main valley by often superb waterfalls4 ,this is a very important feature of glaciated valleys--the fact that their tributaries are markedly discordant1 that is1 that there is marked difference of level between the beds of the side and main streams4 ,because the side valleys lie high above the main they are said to hang1 and are called hanging valleys1 while the main valley is said to be over-deepened4 ,the rocky height over which the water springs may be called the junction step1 as an attempt to translate the ,french term gradin de confluence which is applied to it4 ,incidentally we may note that in the ,alps the junction step is of great human importance4 ,its presence gives the water the power which is used in lighting the ,alpine villages with electricity1 and in driving the trains which often carry the tourist to those villages4 ,in the ,french and ,italian ,alps especially1 the power is being more and more used to supply the motive force for various minor manufactures1 notably for the production of nitrogenous manure from the air4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4--;,a diagrammatic cross-section of a recently glaciated valley4 ,,ab1 the mountain slope which rose above the ancient glacier and has therefore retained the sharp1 unrounded forms due to ordinary weathering4 ,,bc1 the shelf or shoulder1 formerly covered by the ice1 and therefore strewn with glacial dbris4 ,it now usually forms a pasture or alp4 ,the dotted line connecting ,,cc shows the probable form of the pre-glacial valley2 ,,cd1 the rocky wall of the existing ,u-shaped valley on whose floor the river now flows4 ,associated with the hanging valleys of ,alpine regions is the presence of a curious shelf1 shoulder1 or bench1 which frequently lies on the top of the cliff from which the lateral streams spring 7see figs4 #f and #g74 ,any one who has done some walking in the ,alps1 must have noticed a peculiar and often trying feature of any walk which leads up the side of the valley4 ,this is that the walk begins with a very steep ascent1 where the road or track zig-zags to and fro4 ,after this steep and trying climb the walker reaches a broad shelf 7,,bc in figs4 #f and #g71 where the slope is much less1 and where the extent of relatively level ground gives room for the erection of a huge hotel1 or perhaps only of a group of chalets4 ,this shelf is covered with fine herbage1 destined to be cropped by the cows of the community4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4--;,an actual cross-section of the ,lauterbrunnen valley4 ,the vertical and horizontal scales are the same4 ,b marks the edge of the cliff wall over which the streams leap in cascades4 ,a is the position of the stream at the bottom of the ,u-shaped valley4 ,,bc marks the position of the shelf1 largely occupied by the pastures or alps4 ,above them are rocky1 unsmoothed slopes4 ,if the traveller continue his walk he will find that above this pasture ground or alp the slopes are again steep up to the mountain summits4 ,possibly1 however1 his walk has been to see a famous waterfall from above1 and he will find that the streams which flow with relative slowness over the comparatively gentle slopes of the alp or shelf1 will at some point tumble over the region up which he climbed1 probably in a series of leaps or cascades4 ,the ,u-shaped valley1 the hanging tributaries1 the shelf or shoulder running along the upper part of the cliff wall which bounds the main valley1 all these are striking features of glaciated regions4 ,we shall not here discuss the probable causes of this striking break of slope1 so different from the characteristically continuous slopes of an ordinary mature river valley4 ,as has been indicated1 it is here that active controversy rages4 ,it is1 however1 important to note that the shoulder or bench of which we have spoken was almost certainly once covered by the ice1 its gentle slope indicating the original valley floor1 before over-deepening took place4 ,the reason why pasture now grows upon it is that it is covered with fine glacial dbris1 which makes fertile soil4 ,the fertile soil1 which is often irrigated by milky water from existing glaciers1 combined with the effect of altitude upon the plants1 produces rich pasturage1 and makes cattle-rearing an important alpine industry4 ,the next interesting feature of glaciated regions is the occurrence of those curious mountain forms which have special names in nearly every recently-glaciated region4 ,those gigantic arm-chair-shaped notches1 high up on the mountain sides1 which the ,welsh call cwms1 the ,scotch corries1 the ,french cirques1 and the ,germans kare1 are very widespread in the ,highlands of ,scotland1 in the mountains of ,wales1 in the ,tyrol1 and in other parts of the ,alps 7though they are not common in the ,central region71 and in ,north ,america as well as elsewhere4 ,a cirque 7fig4 #h7 is shaped something like an office arm-chair4 ,the floor has only a gentle downward slope1 and often lodges a lake2 or in other cases it is marshy1 showing that a lake was once present4 ,the back and sides are steep and precipitous4 ,in some instances1 if several cirques occur near together1 the side walls may be eroded through1 so that a shelf is produced1 as one might produce a bench by putting two chairs side by side1 and cutting away the contiguous arms4 ,very often1 as one may easily see in the ,highlands of ,scotland1 a series of cirques occur1 one above the other1 so that a climber proceeding from the valley floor upwards has a succession of steep pitches1 to use a mountaineering term1 alternating with easy if wet walks across the floors of the successive cirques4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4--;,diagram showing two glacial cirques4 ,it quite often happens in the case of high mountains in the ,alps that the topmost of such a series of cirques still retains a glacier1 what is called a dead glacier1 that is1 one which has practically ceased to move4 ,in other cases1 again1 we may find that what should be the flat floor of the cirque has been largely eaten away1 as it were1 by a huge rounded trough1 which occupies what would be the extreme front of the seat of the arm-chair4 ,in this trough a stream runs1 and the trough has the characteristic ,u-shaped rounding characteristic of glacial forms4 ,further1 at the top of the wall of the trough a bench or shelf exists1 which is obviously the remains of the old cirque floor4 ,in the case of all characteristic glacial cirques1 however1 the special feature is that the flat bottom of the cirque is discontinuous with the valley below2 they are not parts of the same system of drainage4 ,what we may call an unconformity appears between the two regions1 more or less marked according as running water has or has not had time to begin the work of the removal of the unconformity4 ,the immediate human importance of these corries or cirques is not so apparent as in the case of hanging valleys1 but they must be mentioned1 if only because of their extraordinary abundance in glaciated regions1 and especially in ,great ,britain4 ,there are two views as to their origin1 and we shall indicate both here without making any attempt to decide which is the correct one4 ,a very full and clear statement of one position will be found in an article by ,prof4 ,garwood in the ,geographical ,journal for ,september #aiaj1 while previous articles by ,prof4 ,davis and others in this journal formulate the opposed view4 ,to the first school the corrie is simply in origin the collecting basin of a pre-glacial stream1 such a basin tending to acquire1 roughly speaking1 a flattish bottom and somewhat steep sides4 ,with the onset of the ice the floor of the basin was protected by the ice from further erosion1 while the frost ate back the wall and so steepened it1 and the glacier carried away all dbris as it formed4 ,at a later stage the lower part of the glacier disappeared and only the cirque glacier was left4 ,it continued its protective action1 while below the powerful torrents hollowed out a trough4 ,this process was perhaps repeated several times1 with the final result that the protected cirque was left as a much-modified remnant of pre-glacial conditions1 while the valley below was powerfully eroded by the glacial torrents4 ,thus a cirque lying above an existing valley is to be regarded as the beheaded end of an old valley1 preserved by its ice covering1 while below the old valley has been fundamentally modified by the scour of the glacial torrents4 ,on this view the sharp distinction between the two angles of slope marks the distinction between the work of ice 7protective7 and the work of water 7erosive74 ,a series of cirques means a succession of glacial and interglacial periods4 ,according to the other school1 for whom ice is a more powerful eroding agent than water1 the cirque was produced by the ice1 its presence or absence1 in e4 g4 the ,alps1 being determined by the shape of the pre-glacial mountains4 ,cirques are believed to have been produced by the ice wherever the form of the mountains conduced to the accumulation of snow1 and the occurrence of a series of cirques1 and of the troughs which seem sometimes to eat into their floors1 is ascribed to the successive retreat of the great ice-plough1 i4 e4 to the action of the retreating ice itself1 and not to the water which flows from beneath it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,another striking feature of many glacial valleys is a very marked want of continuity in the slope of the main valley4 ,not only do the side valleys hang over the main valleys1 but1 further1 this main valley itself often consists of relatively level reaches alternating with rocky bars1 through which the river has sometimes later cut a gorge4 ,examples of this are very frequent4 ,the famous gorge of the ,aar above ,meiringen is a river gorge cut through a rocky bar of this kind4 ,the ,pyrenees are somewhat less familiar1 both to tourists and in the form of pictures1 but there1 also1 the same thing occurs4 ,above the health resort of ,cauterets lies the little ,lac de ,gaube1 whose mouth is blocked by a rocky bar through which the little torrent is cutting a tiny gorge4 ,if the tourist crosses the lake in a boat and begins to walk up the valley above it1 he will find that it has the form of a staircase1 the huge steps being separated from one another by broad plateaux1 which are flat and swampy1 and have obviously been occupied by lakes not long ago4 ,above each plateau there is a rocky wall1 almost precipitous1 down which the stream flows in cascades4 ,in other parts of the ,pyrenees the same phenomenon occurs1 and the lakes sometimes persist1 lying one above the other in a series4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4--,profile of the ,maderaner thal in ,switzerland1 to show the staircase arrangement peculiar to recently glaciated valleys4 7,from ,garwood47 ,the phenomenon is so common that it markedly affects human life in the ,alps4 ,the landings1 as the ,french call them1 usually afford good pasture ground1 while those which lie at no great elevation can be cultivated4 ,further1 as the ground is level there is room for houses or even for a considerable village4 ,the intervening region or step is too rocky to give level ground for human habitations or for pasture and cultivation4 ,where the river has had time to cut a gorge1 the road must leave the stream1 and can often be constructed only with difficulty4 ,the result is that an ,alpine valley often consists of a chain of villages1 linked together by a difficult mule track or path4 ,the abundant water-power1 however1 makes mechanical traction relatively easy1 and we have sometimes the curious condition that a mule track is replaced by a railway1 without the intervention of a road fit for wheeled traffic4 ,we need not stop to discuss the probable cause of this step and stair arrangement1 which presents much the same problem as the series of cirques at the head of the valley4 ,it is enough to indicate that according to one group of physical geographers the flat landings are due to the way in which the gradually decreasing glacier protected its bed from erosion1 while the torrent which issued from it eroded very rapidly below2 according to another school the landings are due to direct glacial erosion4 ,there are other observers1 again1 who lay especial stress upon the modifications of the erosive powers of running water1 due to the presence of the ice4 ,for us it is of interest to notice that1 as has been already indicated1 the staircase effect occurs also1 though on a smaller scale1 in the case of mountain streams generally1 some of which must be post-glacial in origin4 ,in other words1 there seems to be fundamental similarity between the work of ice and of water1 the differences being differences of degree rather than of kind1 and due largely to the varying fluidity of the two4 ,there is still one other feature of glaciated regions to which reference must be made4 ,this is the occurrence of peculiarly open passes in considerable numbers across mountain regions which have been recently glaciated4 ,in the geography books and in some maps1 the ,alps1 for example1 are represented as a great barrier1 shutting off the fertile plains of ,italy from the countries of ,central ,europe4 ,but history shows that they have never been such a barrier1 and the phrase of splendid traitor has been applied to the whole mountain range1 in order to emphasise its total inadequacy as a barrier1 either to armed or to peaceful invasion4 ,since the time of ,napoleon ,i public attention has been focussed upon a few great ,alpine passes1 notably the ,mont ,cenis1 the ,simplon and the ,st4 ,gothard1 which are crossed by great carriage roads1 now functionally replaced by railway tunnels beneath4 ,but we must not forget that in addition to these and the other great passes there are almost innumerable ways of crossing the ,alps on foot1 and the presence either of ,hospices or of small inns on many of the smaller passes shows that they are constantly used at the present time1 in spite of railway tunnels and carriage roads elsewhere4 ,even a pass relatively so difficult as the ,thodule1 was used by very large numbers of ,italian peasants during the time when work on the ,simplon railway made great demands on ,italian labour4 ,any one of the passes1 great or small1 shows in outline the same characters4 ,there is a steep ascent1 often steeper on the ,italian than on the other side1 then a broad1 windswept1 open summit1 sometimes almost level1 below which the rapid descent begins4 ,not infrequently a lake1 or lakes1 may be found near the summit4 ,on a smaller scale the same phenomenon occurs in such glaciated regions as ,scotland1 the relatively low connections between one valley system and another greatly facilitating communication1 and usually carrying both road and railway1 where the latter exists4 ,such connections between two drainage systems 7that is1 the existence of a very low divide between the two7 only exist on a small scale outside glaciated regions1 so that they1 with all their effects upon communications1 must be largely ascribed to ice-action4 ,we shall describe one case in a little detail1 with the proviso that while no one denies the frequency of such passes in glaciated regions1 some authorities believe that their production was due more to glacial torrents than to the erosive action of ice itself4 ,a very pretty example is the picturesque pass known as the ,gemmi1 which is traversed only by a mule path1 and connects ,kandersteg1 and thus the lake of ,thun and the town of ,berne1 with the ,rhone valley1 which the path enters at the village of ,leuk4 ,the walk proper is1 however1 over at the ,baths of ,leuk1 a small health resort lying at the foot of the great ,gemmiwand1 a wall of rock over #a1fjj feet in height on the summit of which is the ,gemmi pass4 ,readers of ,mark ,twain's ,a ,tramp ,abroad will remember his interesting description of the crossing of the pass1 which is part of the regulation tour in ,switzerland4 ,the excursion may be very briefly described4 ,the traveller starts from the village of ,kandersteg1 and almost immediately begins a steep climb1 which after a rise of over #b1jjj feet leads him over a ridge to a pasture1 once swept by an avalanche4 ,another short but steep rise 7note the staircase arrangement7 leads him to the lonely ,daubensee1 a little lake which is frozen for more than half the year and has no outlet4 ,it is itself fed by a glacier lying to the traveller's right1 the ,laemmern glacier1 which is shrinking and exposing more and more of its old bed4 ,even to the most inexperienced traveller it is obvious that this present day shrinkage is1 as it were1 the last remnant of a shrinkage which has been going on for a prolonged period1 so that the route by which the traveller ascended from ,kandersteg is but a remnant of the bed of the old glacier4 ,the point of special interest1 however1 is that at the end of the ,daubensee the traveller leaves the glacial valley by which he has ascended1 and passing through a great notch or gateway in a wall of rock1 begins the almost precipitous descent to ,leukerbad1 which lies at his feet1 #a1fjj feet below4 ,it is this notch which makes the pass1 and it is fundamentally a breach in the mountain wall which separates the drainage of the ,rhine from that of the ,rhone4 ,comparing small things with great we may note that this gateway presents some resemblance to the ,tyne and ,aire ,gaps in the ,pennines1 already mentioned1 which may also have been modified by ice-action4 ,the explanation given is as follows3--,at the time when the glaciation reached its maximum height the mass of ice in what is now the ,laemmern glacier was so great that it could not be contained within its own valley4 ,the ice was piled up so high that it over-rode the watershed1 rose up beyond the containing wall of its own valley1 and pushed a long arm over the valley wall1 down into the ,rhone valley4 ,this tongue of ice1 either by its own erosive power1 or because of the glacial and sub-glacial streams which it produced1 wore out a notch in the wall as it crossed1 and it is this notch which makes the pass4 ,as the glacier gradually shrank1 it could no longer send this tributary over the wall into the valley below1 and was constrained to send all its drainage into its own valley1 that is ultimately into the ,rhine4 ,but the ,gemmi pass persists as a proof of its former magnitude1 of the fact that once part of the ,laemmern drainage reached the ,mediterranean instead of the ,north ,sea1 that there was once a communication between the ,rhine and the ,rhone drainage systems4 ,many at least of the great ,alpine passes are believed to have been produced in this way1 and therefore we must add to the peculiarities of recently-glaciated countries1 the fact that passes are likely to be frequent across their hills and valleys1 owing to the power which ice possesses1 when enormously developed1 of rising above valley walls1 and streaming down into another valley system4 ,some of the great ,alpine passes1 perhaps1 arose in other ways1 but this brief description may be of interest as suggesting one1 probably common1 mode of origin4 ,if we sum up what has been said as to the special features of glaciated regions1 we may note that their valleys tend to be ,u-shaped1 and to be discontinuous with their tributary valleys1 which hang over them4 ,on the top of the cliff from which these tributary streams leap is a shelf1 which is clearly a portion of the floor of the pre-glacial valley and is covered by glacial dbris4 ,at the heads of the valleys there are often cirques or plateaux1 which again are markedly discordant1 hanging high above the valley below4 ,in the main valley itself there are similar discordances1 giving rise to a staircase arrangement4 ,finally1 different valley systems often communicate with each other by passes1 natural highways which hang high above both valley systems alike4 ,obviously1 however1 we might replace this detailed summary by the simple statement that whereas in a region subjected only to the action of running water1 there is a marked tendency to continuity of slopes throughout1 a tendency more and more marked the longer the water acts1 in glaciated regions there is an equally obvious discordance1 a discontinuity of slope1 most marked where water has not had time to begin its smoothing action4 ,as every glaciated valley which we can study in detail has been subjected to the action both of ice and of water1 it is a simple deduction that the discontinuity is due to the differential action of the two4 ,this is the point of geographical importance1 and to the geographer it is of minor importance to know whether it is the passive resistance of the ice which has caused the discontinuity1 or whether it is the water which has been unable to keep pace with the activity of the ice4 99 99 99 99 99 ,there is one other point which must be alluded to even in this very brief consideration of the effect of the ice age upon the physical geography of the glaciated regions4 ,this is the fact that it greatly modified the numbers and distribution of plants and animals throughout the areas affected4 ,obviously the covering of ice must have rendered a large part of ,europe uninhabitable both for man and for the vast majority of animals and plants4 ,in ,europe1 therefore1 as also in ,north ,america1 there must have been a southward sweep of all living organisms1 driven from their original habitat by the onset of the cold period4 ,but the conditions in the two continents differed greatly4 ,in ,north ,america1 especially in the east1 there are no transverse chains of mountains1 there is no southern sea until the ,gulf of ,mexico is reached in lat4 #cj1 and even here ,florida almost touches the tropic1 and ,mexico extends far beyond it4 ,in this continent1 therefore1 the plants and animals1 though driven far to the south1 still found room to live and multiply1 and had no great obstacle to cross either in their southward journey1 or when they strove to re-annex their old territory as the cold conditions passed away again4 ,it is a curious fact that the forest trees of eastern ,asia and of eastern ,north ,america show a remarkable resemblance to one another1 and both regions are very rich in species and in genera4 ,it is believed that this rich ,north ,american flora is a remnant of pre-glacial conditions1 and that its persistence is due to the ease with which the trees obtained an asylum to the south during the period when the climate was most severe4 ,in ,europe1 in spite of the fact that the winter climate is much milder than in corresponding latitudes in ,north ,america1 the number of kinds of forest trees is much less1 there is little resemblance to those of ,asia and the eastern ,united ,states1 and the trees have generally a less southern aspect4 ,this is the more remarkable in that trees of southern facies introduced from ,china and ,japan and from the ,united ,states thrive admirably in ,europe1 showing that there is no climatic obstacle to their presence there4 ,to mention only a few examples1 the ,tree of ,heaven 7,ailanthus glandulosa71 so very common1 even as a wild tree in many parts of the continent of ,europe1 was introduced from ,china1 while the beautiful ,sophora japonica1 so frequently planted in towns1 comes1 as its name indicates1 from ,japan1 and the various species of those beautiful flowering trees known as ,catalpa are either ,american or ,asiatic4 ,the western plane 7,platanus occidentalis71 another favourite town tree1 comes from the ,united ,states1 and other ,american trees which are found very abundantly in towns in the warmer parts of ,europe are the black walnut and the honey locust 7,gleditschia tricanthos74 ,perhaps more striking than any of these is the case of the so-called false acacia 7,robinia pseudacacia71 which is as common over a great part of the continent of ,europe as hawthorn bushes or wild roses are with us1 and yet is a ,north ,american species1 introduced less than three hundred years ago4 ,generally1 we may say that all the more beautiful trees now growing in the warmer parts of ,europe come either from eastern ,asia or from the ,united ,states4 ,in other words1 the ,ice ,age seems to have greatly impoverished the flora of ,europe4 ,to a less extent this is also true of western ,north ,america1 which has fewer species of trees than the east4 ,why had the ice this impoverishing effect upon ,europe8 ,the topography of the continent supplies the answer4 ,in the first place1 in ,europe there are numerous transverse chains of mountains4 ,the ,pyrenees1 the ,alps1 the ,caucasus1 each with its load of ice1 each with glaciers deploying on the low ground at its feet1 must have been obstacles in the way of the southern migration alike of plants and of animals4 ,again1 even if these obstacles were passed or turned1 the great inland sea formed another barrier further south4 ,in consequence of this difficulty in finding asylums the pre-glacial plants and animals must have perished in considerable numbers1 and thus a general impoverishment took place4 ,one must not of course exaggerate4 ,a proportion of the pre-glacial forms did succeed in living through the period of stress1 but many must have been1 as it were1 squeezed out of ,europe or out of existence by the unfavourable climatic conditions4 ,as the climate improved the lands swept bare once again became inhabitable1 and there was a recolonisation by movements from the south and from the east4 ,we shall indicate later how man himself came from the south and the east to colonise the west and north1 but his movements were only part of a great series which included also those of plants and animals4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,climate ,,and ,,weather ,to the superficial observer those daily variations in the atmospheric conditions in any one locality which we sum up under the term weather1 may appear to occur without order or regularity1 but detailed quantitive study soon shows that even ,british weather displays constancy in its irregularity4 ,the existence of such basal constancy1 indeed1 lies at the root of all intelligent utilisation of the soil4 ,the irresponsible amateur gardener may lightheartedly assume that a particular spring will be early1 but the professional is not easily induced to abandon his rule that such and such operations must not be undertaken before certain fixed dates4 ,the farmer1 if he is to avoid bankruptcy1 must know within what limits the first autumn frost is likely to make its appearance1 and when the last spring one may be expected4 ,collective experience1 then1 whether expressed in the meteorologist's figures or in a less accurate form1 leads us to the conclusion that for every locality on the earth's surface there is a certain fixed average succession of weather1 which we sum up in the term climate4 ,in the case of both climate and weather our knowledge may be summed up in such general terms as wet or dry1 warm or cold1 and so forth1 or we may borrow the meteorologist's notations1 and express the facts in degrees of temperature1 inches of rainfall and of pressure1 percentages of humidity1 and so on4 ,but it should be understood that such figures can be used by the geographer with justification only when he is himself aware1 and can assume that his audience is aware1 of the significance of the figures in connection with the processes of erosion and the phenomena of life4 ,to say that the mean ,january temperature of a particular place is #cj ,f41 is only a convenient shorthand way of saying that in this place in winter plant life is arrested1 water is ice-bound1 and most animals sleep or migrate4 ,in other words1 the use of the figures assumes a certain knowledge of biology and of physics on the part of the audience4 ,we do not propose here to treat either climate or weather with any fullness1 for there is a volume in the series specially devoted to these and kindred subjects4 ,all that will be attempted1 therefore1 is to discuss one or two important climates with the object of considering later their respective effects on the distribution of other phenomena on the surface of the globe4 ,this is the more worth doing in that the subject is one which has had a great deal of attention devoted to it in recent years4 ,certain points in regard to climate1 e4 g4 the fact that the regions of the earth near the equator get more solar heat than those nearer the poles1 and that parts of the globe are subjected to variable winds1 as contrasted with those regions where the extraordinarily regular winds called trades blow1 have of course been known for long enough4 ,but not till the latter half of the nineteenth century did the civilised nations begin regular meteorological observations1 and these observations are still scanty for the uncivilised and partially civilised regions4 ,the meteorological raw material necessary for the exact study of climates has thus only been available for a comparatively short period1 and is still incomplete4 ,we may begin with that type of climate which has so profoundly influenced the civilisation of western ,europe1 and therefore also the new civilisations of ,america1 ,australia1 ,south ,africa1 and so on4 ,this is the type called ,mediterranean1 because it reaches its best development and has been most studied round the ,mediterranean area4 ,but it also occurs in ,california1 in parts of ,chile1 in ,south ,africa round ,cape ,colony1 and in south and south-western ,australia4 ,generally1 it is characteristic of lands lying on the western side of continents1 in the latitudes between tropical and temperate1 and is therefore sometimes called the maritime sub-tropical climate4 ,the term maritime is applied because1 as we shall see1 for some part of the year oceanic influences prevail1 sub-tropical indicates the position in latitude4 ,a very curious illustration of the similarity of climate in the different regions named is to be found in the fact that in parts of the ,mediterranean area two introduced ,american plants1 the agave and the prickly pear1 are more obvious and abundant than most native plants2 while in ,california1 ,cape ,colony and southern ,australia the cultivated plants are chiefly of ,mediterranean origin4 ,the main features of the ,mediterranean climate may be briefly summarised4 ,the most important character1 next to the mild temperature1 is the fact that no rain 7or very little7 falls in summer1 the growing season further north1 which is here largely a period of cessation of plant growth4 ,the rain1 which tends to be scanty or even absent in the interior of land masses1 e4 g4 in ,spain and ,asia ,minor1 and also to the south1 e4 g4 in the ,desert of ,sahara1 in the ,mediterranean region proper falls in the winter months4 ,it is this winter rainfall and the summer drought which define the ,mediterranean type of climate4 ,the reason for this seasonal distribution of rainfall is as interesting as the fact itself1 and to understand it we must turn to the circulation of air on the surface of the globe4 ,in the following description we shall restrict ourselves1 for the sake of clearness1 to the ,mediterranean region itself1 the region where the ,mediterranean type of climate is developed over the largest area1 and where1 for many reasons1 it is most important4 ,but it must be noted that the conditions which give rise to the ,mediterranean type of climate are the same wherever it occurs1 though in the ,mediterranean area they are greatly modified by the great inland sea of that name1 which carries oceanic conditions far into the land4 ,we must note1 first1 that at all seasons those regions of the earth which are directly beneath the vertical rays of the sun are heated most intensely4 ,therefore the air over these regions1 being rendered light by heating1 rises1 and a belt of low pressure is thus formed4 ,only at the equinoxes does this belt of high temperature1 low pressure1 and light winds or calms1 coincide with the equator4 ,in the northern summer it moves north with the sun2 in the northern winter it travels south with the sun1 being always over what is called the heat equator4 ,into this belt of low pressure air from north and south1 where the pressure is greater1 tends to rush in1 and we have thus formed the constant or trade winds1 which1 owing to the deflection produced by the earth's rotation1 appear as the north-east trades in the northern hemisphere and the south-east in the south4 ,these winds are dry winds1 because they blow from colder to warmer latitudes1 and they accompany the equatorial low-pressure belt in its north and south movements4 ,in the northern summer the trade winds may extend northward to lat4 #ce or even #dj1 while in winter their northern limit is #aj to #ae further south4 ,a glance at the map1 then1 will show that in summer the ,mediterranean area is within or near the sphere of action of the dry trade winds1 which are continental1 sweeping into the region after having blown over land surfaces4 ,we must next consider the atmospheric movements in the region to the north of the trade wind belt4 ,an area of more or less permanent low pressure1 best marked in winter1 exists in the ,north ,atlantic1 in about #fj ,n4 lat41 and draws the air into it in the direction known as counterclockwise1 that is1 in the direction opposite to that of the hands of the clock4 ,the result is the production of the winds which appear off the coast of western ,europe as the warm south-westerly winds of winter1 while they appear off the coast of ,north ,america as cold northerly winds4 ,in the southern hemisphere1 where1 as we have seen1 there is less land to interfere with the development of the atmospheric circulation1 these winds form the prevailing westerlies4 ,in the ,atlantic these south-westerly winds obviously blow in a direction opposite to the north-east trades1 whence the name of anti-trades often given to them4 ,as they blow across the broad ,atlantic they arrive off ,europe saturated with moisture4 ,as they come from lower latitudes they are warmth bringing4 ,in winter these winds reach the ,mediterranean area owing to the southern shift of the trades1 and bring moisture with them2 while in summer they lie more to the north1 and though their moisture affects the coast of ,portugal it does not reach the greater part of the ,mediterranean area4 ,within that area the northern limit of the rainless summer may be said1 in a rough sense1 to correspond with about the #djth parallel of latitude1 though it varies according to local conditions in the different peninsulas4 ,to the north of this line1 therefore1 the climate is more or less affected even in summer by the anti-trades4 ,it must not be supposed that the region of the trade winds and of the anti-trades lie side by side4 ,between the two there is a zone of variable winds1 but in general terms we can explain the peculiarities of the ,mediterranean rainfall by saying that the region lies within or just at the edge of the dry trades in summer1 and within the zone of the moist anti-trades in winter4 ,let us next consider how the area is demarcated from the surrounding regions4 ,there is of course no hard and fast line1 but we can indicate in broad outline the meteorological limits4 ,to take the absolutely rainless summer as the limit would cut out1 as we have suggested above1 the greater part of the northern shore of the ,mediterranean1 except the southern halves of all the great peninsulas4 ,quite generally1 however1 we may say that the northern limit of the ,mediterranean region1 in its western half1 is defined by the occurrence of considerable summer rain4 ,that is1 it is bounded to the north by a region which is within reach of the rain-bringing anti-trades in summer as well as in winter1 and which has a lower temperature than the ,mediterranean region proper4 ,to the east the region is limited by deserts1 for the westerlies of winter can only carry their moisture a certain distance inwards1 and though they are greatly assisted by the long1 eastward-stretching1 inland sea1 yet there comes a time when all their load of moisture is lost1 and desert conditions supervene4 ,to the south the desert again forms the boundary1 though here for a different cause4 ,north ,africa behind the ,atlas is permanently within the trade-wind belt1 that is1 it is permanently subjected to the action of drying winds1 and its rainfall is therefore small or nil4 ,similarly in ,california the southern limit of the ,mediterranean zone of climate is the desert region of ,arizona1 ,mexico1 and the north of ,lower ,california4 ,a similar band of desert separates the ,mediterranean zone from the tropical region of summer rain in the other places where the ,mediterranean type occurs4 ,this may be summed up as follows3--,defining the ,mediterranean climate only by its rainfall1 we may say that it prevails over lands both to the north and south of that sea1 and these have all or most of their rainfall in winter1 when the winds1 though typically westerly1 are often stormy and rendered variable by local conditions4 ,in the summer there may be no rain at all1 or1 to the north1 small amounts4 ,to the north the region passes gradually into that colder zone where rain occurs abundantly both in summer and winter1 while to the east and south the rainfall diminishes greatly1 and there is a gradual transition to desert conditions4 ,to the west the boundary of the region is theoretically the ocean1 but the western coastline owes to its peculiar position a more abundant precipitation1 which makes the vegetation of1 e4 g41 ,portugal present quite a different appearance from that of southern ,italy or ,algiers4 ,these peculiarities of rainfall the region owes to its position between two great wind systems1 of which one gains the mastery in winter and the other in summer4 ,so far in this discussion we have spoken only of the distribution of the rainfall throughout the year1 but there are other features of the ,mediterranean climate which are almost as important in considering the effects of the climate on the life of the region4 ,these are the amount of the rainfall1 and the temperature4 ,beginning with general points1 it is very important to notice that the rainfall throughout the area as a whole is relatively scanty1 except where special conditions1 e4 g4 great elevation1 or local rain-bringing winds1 increase it4 ,translated into terms of plant life this means that continuous forests of the type so characteristic of the greater part of ,europe till man interfered1 are relatively rare within the limits of the ,mediterranean region4 ,looking at the same fact from the human standpoint we may say that the rainfall is often so scanty that irrigation is necessary before man can prosper4 ,these two facts1 that ,mediterranean man had not to clear forests before he planted and sowed1 as the ,teutons were obliged to do1 and that he had often to bring water artificially before his crops would grow1 have been of supreme importance in the evolution of ,mediterranean civilisation4 ,even at this stage it is interesting to note that ,france in this1 as in many other respects1 has shared in two civilisations1 for her territory to the south shows ,mediterranean characters1 and elsewhere resembles the cool temperate zone of ,europe4 ,the next general point of importance is that of temperature4 ,as was to be expected from its latitude the basin of the ,mediterranean is a relatively warm region4 ,local conditions1 and especially the presence of a great mass of water1 make the winter exceptionally mild1 while the summers1 though not excessively hot they are considerably cooler than those of similar latitudes in ,asia1 are yet warm and sunny4 ,the result is that1 given water artificially supplied1 or given crops which can take water from the deeper layers of the soil1 the region is productive1 the destructive frost of the north not being a menace4 ,this relative easiness of life in the more favoured parts of the region has been of great importance in its history4 ,we may give next some actual figures to illustrate what has been said about temperature and rainfall4 ,let us begin with rainfall1 and in order to have a basis of comparison we may first note that ,edinburgh has a mean annual rainfall of about #bh inches1 and ,london one of about #be inches4 ,in other words1 when the total amount of rain which falls in any one year is estimated for many years in either of these places1 these totals added together and divided by the number of years of observation1 the quotient is the figure given4 ,the figures show that the rainfall in ,london is less than that in ,edinburgh1 while in ,paris it is less than in either4 ,passing now to consider the ,mediterranean area we find that1 speaking generally1 the rainfall diminishes1 for the reasons already explained1 in passing from west to east1 and in passing from north to south4 ,thus ,gibraltar1 at one end of the basin has a fall of #cb per annum1 as compared with one of #ae at ,athens near the other extremity4 ,genoa in the north has the heavy fall of #ea1 while ,biskra in ,algiers has only #h4 ,there are many local variations1 due to local causes1 and in comparing the falls with those of ,edinburgh and ,london we must remember that the higher temperatures mean much greater evaporation4 ,sunny ,naples has about #d more rain in the year than ,edinburgh1 and has #g more than foggy ,london1 but yet has not a wet climate4 ,for temperatures a few figures may suffice4 ,in ,london the mean ,january temperature is #ci ,f41 while it is only #cf ,f4 at ,paris4 ,in ,nice the mean ,january temperature is #de1 which is about the same as that of ,athens1 and rather less than that of ,naples4 ,in ,january1 then1 the temperature of ,nice is only #f higher than that of ,london4 ,in ,july the mean temperature at ,london is #fb1 as against #gc at ,nice and over #hj at ,athens4 ,in other words1 owing to our mild winters and cool summers1 there is far more difference between ,british and ,mediterranean temperatures in summer than in winter4 ,in the ,mediterranean region itself the difference between the temperatures of summer and winter increases as we pass eastwards1 so that it is especially to the west that characteristically ,mediterranean conditions occur1 i4 e4 mild1 frost-free winters1 and summers which for the latitude are not excessively hot4 ,this feature also has been of importance in the development of the ,mediterranean civilisations4 ,we have treated the climate of the ,mediterranean area in some detail1 as an example of the methods and results of modern climatology4 ,we may note much more briefly the characteristics of one or two other climatic provinces4 ,mediterranean influences1 expressed in winter rains1 are continued eastward into ,mesopotamia and even into ,persia1 the rain always becoming scantier1 and desert conditions tending to supervene4 ,still further east1 however1 we come to a region where the rainfall is abundant1 and where the population is once more dense4 ,these are the monsoon countries1 including ,india and ,china1 where the usually plentiful rainfall again permits the land to nourish man abundantly4 ,excluding ,africa south of the ,sahara from consideration1 we may indeed say that the ,old ,world has two regions of abundant rainfall and dense population1 the one to the west and the other to the south-east1 separated from each other by warm and cold deserts4 ,each of these two regions has given rise to its own civilisation1 each has produced its own types of cultivated plants and domestic animals1 and the root differences between the two must be regarded as largely the result of climatic conditions4 ,the monsoon countries are so named because of the regular seasonal reversal of the winds1 which blow from land to sea in winter and from sea to land in summer1 affording an example of a land and sea breeze on the gigantic scale4 ,the result is that1 subject to local modifications1 the summer winds are moisture-bringing1 and the winter winds are dry4 ,whereas1 then1 in the ,mediterranean the heat of summer is largely wasted1 from the agriculturist's point of view1 on account of the scarcity of the water necessary for growth1 in monsoon regions1 unless the rain fail1 as it sometimes does1 the hot season is the moist season1 and1 therefore1 other things being equal1 growth must be faster here than in the ,mediterranean area4 ,the monsoon countries extend over a great stretch of latitude1 and therefore temperature conditions vary greatly1 while the great variety of surface-relief produces here abnormally heavy rainfall1 and there desert conditions4 ,the essential contrast with the ,mediterranean type is1 however1 the summer rainfall4 ,taking the globe as a whole we find that summer rainfall is more common than winter1 and in addition to occurring in monsoon regions1 it tends to occur in tropical regions generally4 ,as we approach the equator from the tropics we find that the total fall increases1 and tends to show two maxima1 which occur when the sun is overhead1 i4 e4 at the equinoxes4 ,for our particular purpose1 however1 the climatic conditions in tropical and equatorial regions generally1 though of great importance to the climatologist1 are not of great interest1 for except in monsoon countries the hot parts of the earth do not show the most highly developed human societies4 ,let us turn next to that part of ,europe which is outside the reach of ,mediterranean influences4 ,here we find that the rain is distributed throughout the year1 and is usually abundant1 though it decreases in passing eastwards from the seaboard4 ,temperatures are naturally lower than in the ,mediterranean basin1 and winter frost plays an important part in determining the choice of cultivated plants4 ,as the figures which we have already quoted for ,london and ,paris suggest1 the winter cold increases on passing eastward4 ,paris is colder in winter than ,london1 though it lies south of it4 ,vienna is again colder than ,paris4 ,but the increase in winter cold is compensated for by an increase in the summer heat4 ,in other words1 as the distance from the sea increases in ,europe the climate becomes drier and more extreme4 ,this observation naturally leads up to a consideration of the effect of the proximity of the sea upon climate4 ,water heats more slowly than land1 but also cools more slowly1 and therefore the proximity of large masses of water has1 speaking generally1 a moderating influence upon climate1 producing the so-called maritime climate4 ,in the case of the ,british ,isles this effect is very marked1 because the ocean to the west of us is unusually warm1 and the circulation of the atmosphere is such that the prevailing winds of winter blow towards us from the warmer parts of this ocean1 while the fact that the summer winds often have a northerly component helps to keep the summer temperatures down4 ,the peculiar conditions of the ,british ,islands illustrate the fact that climate does not depend upon latitude alone1 but may be greatly modified by local conditions1 especially by the distribution of land and water1 and the direction of the wind4 ,let us now sum up what has been said in regard to the main types of climate found in ,europe4 ,round the ,mediterranean basin we have an area with mild winters and warm summers1 where the rain tends to fall during the winter season1 making summer a period of drought4 ,this climate extends beyond the limits of ,europe into ,northern ,africa and ,western ,asia1 and is separated from the regions of tropical climate1 which have no winter and have rains at the hottest season1 by a belt of desert4 ,the western seaboard of ,europe has a maritime climate1 the sea tempering the winter1 but diminishing the summer heat4 ,the prevailing winds are westerly1 and the rainfall is typically abundant and distributed throughout the year4 ,on passing inwards this type of climate changes into the continental type1 with cold winters and hot summers1 and diminishing rainfall4 ,though precipitation occurs at all seasons of the year1 it tends to be greatest in summer1 giving1 e4 g4 in parts of the ,balkan ,states1 a type eminently suited to the cereal maize1 which needs more summer rain than wheat4 ,if we bear in mind that ,north ,america is a large continent1 and ,europe a very small one1 and that while ,europe has no eastern seaboard1 it is the eastern seaboard of ,america which faces ,europe1 we may realise that the climates of ,north ,america show a remarkable analogy to the ,european4 ,on the western side we have in ,british ,columbia and ,california respectively the same two types of maritime climate which occur in ,europe1 that is1 ,british ,columbia has a mild equable climate with abundant and equally distributed rainfall1 and ,california has a ,mediterranean climate4 ,at the eastern side the conditions are a little different1 and show us that the mere presence of the sea is not sufficient to produce a maritime climate4 ,the prevailing winds in eastern ,north ,america are off the shore2 they cannot therefore carry oceanic influences landwards4 ,to the north the winds tend to have a northerly component1 and cold currents of water also stream out of the ,arctic and chill eastern ,north ,america4 ,the result is that we find that ,labrador1 though lying in the latitude of ,great ,britain1 has a very severe climate4 ,further south the conditions are of the continental character even on the seaboard1 the winters being very cold and the summers hot4 ,rainfall is equally distributed throughout the year1 but on passing inland it diminishes in amount and tends to be limited to the warm season4 ,the diminution would be much more obvious than it actually is were it not that the existence of the large ,gulf of ,mexico1 and also the size of the ,north ,american continent1 give rise in the south to a monsoon effect1 which greatly increases the rainfall of the south-eastern corner of the ,states4 ,further to the west1 in the lee of the great barrier of the ,rocky ,mountains1 the rainfall is slight4 ,incidentally1 we may notice that the eastern seaboard of the great ,eurasian continent also has a more extreme climate than the western1 offering in this respect an analogy to the conditions which prevail on the eastern and western halves of temperate ,north ,america4 ,the cause in both cases is the same--the direction of the prevailing winds4 ,we cannot close this chapter without some reference to weather1 a subject of more geographical importance than is generally realised4 ,in speaking of climate we have used figures which were invariably means1 i4 e4 have been obtained by averaging a great number of observations4 ,but where a great number of mean figures are used in a discussion1 it is always found that the different averages are based upon varying numbers of observations1 and are therefore not strictly comparable with one another4 ,there is always a risk that such figures may mask facts of real geographical importance4 ,no doubt some of the difficulties will disappear with the progress of meteorological science1 which will enable the geographer only to select figures which are strictly comparable4 ,meantime1 however1 observations for long periods are rare1 and the meteorologist must be content to take the figures which are available4 ,for this reason as well as for others1 it is advisable to add to the somewhat abstract study of means1 that is1 of climate1 some note upon the actual conditions1 that is1 upon weather4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4--;,diagram to illustrate a cyclone travelling towards the east4 ,the two concentric circles represent isobars1 that is1 they are lines drawn through points where the barometer registers the same 7low7 pressure4 ,into the area of low pressure so formed the winds blow strongly in the direction known as counterclockwise1 and are represented by the arrows whose double barbs signify their strength4 ,it will be noted that in the rear of the cyclone the winds are northerly4 ,they thus chill the air here1 and by chilling it raise the pressure4 ,the winds to the front of the cyclone are warm because southerly1 they therefore tend to lower the pressure here by warming the air1 and the result is that the isobars tend to be displaced towards the east1 and at the same time become deformed4 ,in other words1 the cyclone moves to the east4 ,we may take ,british weather1 which has become a proverb on account of its variableness1 as a text for a brief discussion of the subject4 ,the daily variations in our weather1 as all who have read weather reports know1 are chiefly determined by the movements of areas of low pressure or cyclones1 which mostly come to us from the ,atlantic1 and continue eastwards past us1 often towards the ,baltic4 ,we have already noted the occurrence of what we have called a permanent area of low pressure in the ,north ,atlantic1 but this permanent area in point of fact is due chiefly to the constant passage here of cyclones1 or moving areas of low pressure4 ,the causes of the eastward displacement of these depressions are interesting4 ,one cause is the general eastward movement of the atmosphere in this region1 produced in the fashion already described4 ,this movement necessarily raises the pressure to the west of the depression1 owing to the influx of fresh air1 while the onward movement of the air in front of the depression lowers the pressure there1 and so produces displacement4 ,again1 the air is sucked into a depression in the direction opposite to the hands of a clock1 and a moment's reflection will show that this means that the winds to the east of the depression are southerly and those to the west of it northerly4 ,the warm southerly winds in front tend to lower the pressure by warming the air1 while the cold northerly winds behind it raise the pressure by cooling the air4 ,this again produces a displacement of the depression towards the east 7see fig4 #aj74 ,the fact just described has an interesting practical result4 ,if after a day or night of storm and rain1 the temperature falls1 we know that the depression causing the storm has passed us1 and that we are feeling the effects of the colder winds in its rear4 ,if the thermometer suddenly rises again1 then a new depression is approaching1 and we are feeling its warm breath before its winds reach us4 ,the clearness and chilliness of the air after a stormy or windy period gives us one of our commonest meteorological sensations1 and produces a marked psychical effect1 reflected in much of our literature4 ,one other reason for the eastward motion of the cyclones with us is that they seem to prefer damp air1 and so tend to follow the ,north ,sea and pass towards the ,baltic1 where they often die away4 ,in the ,british area1 though the depressions move faster in winter than in summer1 they have only a mean speed of about #af miles an hour1 while in the ,united ,states their mean speed is #be miles per hour1 and their effects are often disastrous except when discounted by the warnings of the ,weather ,bureau4 ,in the case of the ,british ,isles cyclones are most frequent and best marked in winter1 and they are of great importance in producing our mild and windy winters4 ,in summer they travel further northwards1 and as a rule affect our climate less4 ,when1 however1 from causes still inadequately known1 they are better marked in summer than usual1 we have a bad summer1 that is1 one which is wet and relatively windy4 ,the fact that the ,english ,channel is one of the favourite tracks of cyclones has been an important element in protecting the ,british ,islands from foreign invasion1 while we all know that it is also a factor in diminishing free intercourse with the ,continent4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4--;,diagram showing the changes in temperature1 pressure and wind due to a cyclone passing to the north of a point of observation ,a4 ,the passage of the cyclone figured occupied a period of six days4 ,it will be noted that as it approaches ,a the wind is southerly and light 7arrows with single barbs7 and the temperature high4 ,as it passes the winds become violent 7arrows with double barbs71 and shift to the south-west1 and the barometer falls rapidly4 ,as it disappears the pressure rises1 the temperature falls1 and the wind veers to the north-west1 while remaining violent4 ,the fall of the wind and its shifting to a south-westerly direction mark the return to the normal condition of affairs1 the influence of the cyclone being past4 ,the second point of importance about our weather is the periodic occurrence at some part of our area of anticyclones1 or areas of high pressure1 out of which the winds stream gently in the same direction as the hands of the clock4 ,these areas of high pressure do not display the same tendency to move as do the cyclones1 and are most frequently merely displaced by advancing cyclones4 ,for reasons into which space does not permit us to go fully here1 anticyclones have a very different effect in summer and in winter4 ,in winter they may bring to us the continental cold1 and make our weather abnormally severe1 though often bright and fine4 ,on the other hand1 in summer they bring to us continental warmth1 so that good summers are those in which anticyclonic conditions are most frequent1 while severe winters are due to the same cause4 ,anticyclones also sometimes induce a curious form of inversion1 in that places to the north of a given spot may have temporarily a higher temperature than places to the south4 ,it is such facts which are entirely masked by mean figures4 ,we do not as yet understand the causes which make cyclones sometimes more numerous or better marked than usual1 which cause them sometimes to cross our area1 and at other times to travel too far north or too far south to influence our weather4 ,it is possible that further investigation in the future may unravel this problem2 it is practically certain that a freer use of wireless telegraphy1 and the establishing of meteorological stations in northern seas1 would give weather forecasting a definiteness and accuracy which it does not yet possess4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4--;,british weather map for ,nov4 #bi1 #aiaj4 ,a cyclone lies over the south of ,scandinavia1 and into it the winds are sweeping strongly in a counterclockwise direction4 ,an anticyclone lies over ,iceland1 and from it the winds are streaming gently in a clockwise direction4 ,we cannot follow this interesting subject further here1 but we have said enough to illustrate its geographical significance4 ,as a science or sub-science by itself it will form the subject of a special volume in this series4 ,it may be enough to point out that the ,daily ,weather ,report1 published by the ,meteorological ,office at a cost of one penny1 and reproduced in some daily newspapers1 is a document well worth the careful study of those with any interest in geography4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,principles ,,of ,,plant ,,geography ,,and ,,the ,,chief ,,plant ,,formations ,,of ,,europe ,,and ,,north ,,america ,we have now taken a general survey of the earth's surface1 have noted its mountain heights and its ocean depths1 watched the formation of hills and valleys which is due to the joint action of atmospheric agents1 running water and ice1 and considered briefly some of the points of interest about climate4 ,we next pass to that most characteristic feature of the surface1 its clothing of plants4 ,except where the surface of the ground has been artificially sterilised by man1 or is rendered unproductive by ice1 by lava1 by a total lack of water1 or by the existence of poisonous salts1 it is clothed with vegetation1 and it is the presence of this vegetation which is its most obvious character4 ,here1 however1 as in other regions of thought1 the geographical standpoint has only been reached slowly4 ,man's habit of analysis made him study grasses and trees for long generations before he got back to the forest and to the grassland as they occur in nature4 ,plants as individuals are the province of the botanist1 but those plant groups which are the expression of the interaction of climatic factors1 soil1 and surface relief1 are the concern of the geographer4 ,when we take a general survey of the face of the earth from the point of view of plant geography1 we note three main conditions4 ,in certain regions1 alike in the tropics and in temperate zones1 we find that plants reach their maximum size1 combined with great differentiation of structure1 and the formation of woody stems which offer great resistance to varying conditions of climate and weather4 ,such highly-organised plants form forests1 which still dominate over a large part of the earth's surface4 ,man's nearest allies1 the anthropoid apes and the monkeys1 are for the most part forest animals1 and the lowest races of men are still forest dwellers4 ,where man is a forest dweller he seems not to reach his full size1 as we see in the case of the pigmies of the ,congo forest1 and the negritos of the ,philippines1 and he suffers from a chronic insufficiency of food1 which acts as a check both to his mental and physical development4 ,there has1 therefore1 always been war between evolving man and the giants of the plant world1 a war which has swept the forests away from many of the more civilised parts of the globe1 and which still continues1 though man's victory is now so complete that he can afford to be generous1 and give protection to the remnants of his former foe4 ,but over parts of the globe the climate1 and especially the amount or distribution of the rainfall1 makes it difficult or impossible for forests to grow naturally4 ,here other types of plants1 lower in stature1 and evading rather than facing the problems of winter cold or summer drought1 flourish and form what we call the grasslands4 ,the grasslands favour man in several respects4 ,they feed the animals upon which he depends for food1 for clothing1 and for the conveyance of his person or property1 and they offer much less resistance than the forest to his agricultural operations4 ,even the large herbivorous mammals which in their wild state haunt the forests1 usually leave these at night to feed upon the grasslands1 so that it is the grasslands which have largely fed man at every stage of civilisation4 ,the atmospheric conditions within the woodlands also1 the deficient sunlight1 the humidity1 and so forth1 seem unfavourable to human development4 ,where the conditions are especially unfavourable to plant life1 we find that even the grassland plants are unable to keep up the struggle1 and diminish in number1 losing their power of forming a complete covering for the soil1 and thus the grassland passes into desert1 whether the hot waterless desert of low latitudes1 or the cold frozen desert of northern ones4 ,in the most general sense1 then1 we may say that these three formations1 woodland1 grassland and desert1 divide the surface of the land among them1 and between them there is constant conflict4 ,the grasslands are for ever attempting to encroach upon the woodlands1 and in this attempt they have been assisted1 sometimes to too great an extent1 by the operations of man4 ,similarly the desert is always striving to encroach upon the grassland1 and in this endeavour it has been sometimes involuntarily aided by man1 who has also done much voluntarily to reclaim the desert land for the grasses4 ,let us note next the particular conditions which favour woodland1 grassland and desert respectively4 ,the distribution of plants over the surface of the earth at large is determined by a number of factors1 by the amount of heat1 by the amount and distribution of precipitation1 by the nature and strength of the winds1 by the characters of the soil1 and so on4 ,but forests occur under the equator and also far to the north2 we have cold deserts as well as hot ones2 there are extensive grasslands in the ,sudan as well as in the ,canadian ,far ,west4 ,this proves that the varying amounts of heat may be neglected in considering the cause of the distribution of the three great plant formations4 ,again1 the soil is of minor importance1 for different types of forest and of grassland occur on different types of soils4 ,we are thus led to the conclusion that it is the precipitation and the wind which determine the distribution4 ,to understand the reason for this we must consider the needs of different types of plants in the matter of water4 ,plants can only take in the mineral constituents of their food in the form of a solution1 and this solution must be weak1 or it has a poisonous effect4 ,for example1 sulphate of ammonia is a valuable manure1 but if a considerable amount be dissolved in water and applied to the roots of a growing plant1 death may very likely take place4 ,it is a necessary consequence of the fact that plants can only absorb weak solutions of their food salts1 that their roots take in more water than is actually needed by the plant4 ,one of the functions of the leaves is therefore to get rid of surplus water1 the process being called transpiration4 ,transpiration takes place faster in a tall plant like a tree1 which grows up into dry layers of the air1 than in a low plant like a grass4 ,it takes place faster in windy weather than in calm4 ,other things being equal it takes place faster in warm weather than in cold1 and the larger the plant and the more numerous its leaves the more water is given off1 that is1 the more water is returned to the air from the soil4 ,the result of all this is that forest trees require far more water than grassland4 ,it has been calculated that a beech wood aged #ej to #fj years gives off during the growing season #ced tons of water per acre1 which illustrates the drying effect of the presence of the wood4 ,similarly1 the effect of tree-planting in the marshy regions of ,france and ,italy1 where the soil as a consequence has dried and the marshes disappeared1 shows how great a demand upon ground water trees make1 as compared with grasses and low growing herbs4 ,on the other hand1 although trees take an enormous amount of water from the soil1 they can draw their supplies from a large area4 ,it is the extremities of the fine branches of the roots which take in the water1 and these pass deep down into the soil1 and spread out over a vast area4 ,in other words1 trees avail themselves of the water in the deeper layers of the soil1 and can tolerate relatively long periods of drought1 if the surface drying of the soil does not extend to the deeper layers4 ,in hot summer weather grasslands brown and wither long before the trees show any signs of water-famine4 ,in consequence1 we may say that as long as the total rainfall of a region is sufficient to ensure a constant supply of moisture in the subsoil during the growing season1 trees can thrive1 even if little or no rain falls during this season4 ,on the other hand1 drying winds are very hurtful to trees1 especially if they occur at a period when the tree is unable1 either because of the coldness of the subsoil1 or because of its dryness1 to take in fresh water to replace that which is lost4 ,the hurtfulness of late frosts is largely due to the cold suddenly checking root absorption at a time when the growing parts1 acted upon by the spring winds1 are giving out water freely4 ,grasses transpire less freely than trees1 but their root system is much shallower and less well-developed4 ,they depend upon the water in the upper layers of soil1 and must have frequent1 even if gentle1 showers during their growing season1 while they are quite indifferent to drought and even to cutting winds during their resting period4 ,a little reflection will show that it results from these facts that woodland1 grassland and desert do not form a continuous series4 ,it may quite well be that woodland passes through scrub into desert without the intervention of grassland4 ,right across ,europe there is 7or was7 a broad belt of forest4 ,southward towards the ,mediterranean this thins out into a characteristic form of scrub1 called maquis1 whose characters we shall describe later1 and this scrub passes in all directions into desert land4 ,here no belt of grassland intervenes1 for the rainless ,mediterranean summer makes the growth of grass virtually impossible1 except where special conditions1 e4 g4 hills1 introduce modifications4 ,contrasted with this we have the conditions in ,north ,america where1 e4 g4 in ,canada1 the western coast is densely forest-clad1 as is also the eastern region4 ,in journeying eastward after crossing the ,rocky ,mountains the forest dies away into grassland1 and the same thing happens1 though more slowly1 in a westward journey4 ,the reason is that in this case there is a steady diminution of precipitation on passing to the interior1 but what precipitation remains is1 as we have seen1 largely1 though not wholly1 summer rain1 and is1 therefore1 sufficient to determine the growth of grass1 though not of trees4 ,again1 in ,north ,africa the forests of the ,atlas ,mountains pass directly1 without intervening grassland1 into the ,sahara desert1 but to the south of the desert the grassy and park-like ,sudan separates the desert from the luxuriant tropical forest4 ,in the latter case1 however1 it is possible that man's influence has counted for something4 ,on mountains1 in whatever latitude1 the conditions are much more uniform1 partly because it is wind1 assisted by temperature variations1 which is the dominating factor4 ,moisture is usually abundant1 but high up what is called physiological drought occurs2 that is1 the temperature is too low for the plants to be able to absorb the abundant water4 ,in ascending any mountain1 the following are the chief changes which occur4 ,the lower slopes will probably be cultivated4 ,as we ascend the precipitation increases1 and forests appear4 ,first we have probably a belt of deciduous trees1 passing above into the more resistant conifers4 ,this belt usually ascends higher on the south than on the north side1 and higher on mountains which occur in a group than on isolated peaks4 ,as the wind is more and more felt1 and increases the dangerous transpiration of winter the trees become more and more dwarfed to escape its force4 ,there may be a belt of prostrate mountain pines above1 marking the tree limit2 in any case the trees are gradually replaced by dwarfed shrubs4 ,then comes the zone of ,alpine plants1 the grasses making a complete sward1 but being accompanied by many other plants4 ,gradually1 as the soil becomes scantier1 and the surface more rocky and exposed1 the continuous sward disappears1 and the conditions of a cold desert appear4 ,a few scattered plants occur1 ceasing near the snow-line1 the highest being usually plants of simple structure like mosses and lichens4 ,as we have already indicated1 in the case of the mountains of ,europe there are often glacial shelves at considerable elevations1 whose covering of fine dbris determines the growth of peculiarly fine grass4 ,the economic value of this grassland has in many cases in the ,alps induced man to destroy the forest in order to increase pasture land4 ,the result has often been disastrous1 for once the trees are cut down the forest soil is rapidly destroyed by weathering1 especially on slopes1 the courses of streams are altered by the more rapid run-off1 and widespread flooding and destruction of pastures have sometimes resulted4 ,in ,north ,america1 similarly1 man's attempt to increase pasture land or arable land at the expense of woodland has often led to disastrous consequences4 ,we have already spoken of the special features of the ,mediterranean climate1 and indicated that its peculiarities are reflected in its vegetation2 we must now consider this vegetation in a little more detail4 ,the fact that the region is chiefly visited by the inhabitants of more northern climates in spring gives rise to a somewhat erroneous impression in regard to the plants4 ,in spring the ,mediterranean vegetation is at its best4 ,the mild winters permit the plants which further north die down or cease to grow1 to go on blooming4 ,the rains so moisten the soil that the first warm days cause very rapid growth in those plants which finish their activities before the hot1 dry summer begins4 ,they must flower and seed in spring1 and die down till the rains of autumn awaken them again4 ,in our own country we have a few plants which hurry through their activities in this way4 ,the lesser celandine1 the wood anemone and a few others strive to flower and fruit before the forest trees are thickly clad with leaves4 ,the snowdrop1 even the wild hyacinth1 though it is much later1 similarly limit their active life to a short period in spring4 ,this phenomenon1 only suggested in our climate1 is very marked in the ,mediterranean area4 ,that region is especially characterised by its richness in bulbous and tuberous plants4 ,these1 as all who have grown hyacinths or narcissuses know1 demand relatively large amounts of water during their short growing period4 ,in spring1 therefore1 the shores of the ,mediterranean are bright with many kinds of anemones1 with narcissus1 asphodel1 bell hyacinth1 ,allium1 tulips1 and so on1 all awakened by the spring warmth and the spring rains4 ,accompanying them are many bright-coloured annuals1 also in a hurry to race through their life-history before the terrible drought of summer4 ,now also the grass grows1 and the autumn-sown corn becomes tall4 ,as the weather grows hotter and drier1 the plants with bulbous and tuberous roots die down to the ground1 the annuals die altogether1 leaving their seeds to wait till the autumn rains before they sprout4 ,the grasses turn brown1 and the peculiar parched appearance of the ,mediterranean summer spreads over the land4 ,to a northern visitor at this season it is not luxuriance but desolation which is the prevailing note4 ,except on the hill slopes there are no masses of broad-leafed foliage trees--there is not the deep bright green characteristic of the summer woods further north4 ,the trees do not reach a great size2 the leaves are usually small1 and the fact that they strive to avoid the sun by arranging themselves with the edge upwards instead of the flat surface1 makes them appear smaller than they are4 ,they are often needle-shaped1 sometimes shining and coated with resin1 sometimes silvery owing to a coating of hairs on the under surface4 ,many plants have spines or thorns1 and succulent plants like agave1 aloe and prickly pear are common4 ,the absence of a complete covering of vegetation causes the surface soil to dry completely1 and so form clouds of dust which adds to the generally desolate appearance4 ,indeed1 the brown powdery appearance of the soil is one of the points which especially strikes the stranger1 accustomed to the darker1 moister soil of the north1 always covered with vegetation1 except where man has interfered4 ,here and there1 however1 are indications that even this parched brown earth holds wealth for man4 ,the vines1 if dusty and far less luxuriant than one expects1 are loaded with ripening fruit4 ,the gorgeous scarlet flowers of the double pomegranate gleam amid the dark foliage2 the gnarled and twisted olives show on close inspection masses of small green fruits2 the oleander bushes are covered with pink flowers2 there are great round balls on the orange and lemon trees1 and many other fruit trees are loaded with produce4 ,let us sum up first what man gains from the plants of the ,mediterranean1 and then look at some points in regard to the wild plants4 ,in the first place1 we see that man takes advantage of the rapid growth of annuals in the early part of the year4 ,the annuals most useful to him1 here as elsewhere1 are1 of course1 the cereals1 especially wheat1 which1 if sown in autumn1 is nourished by the winter rains1 and grows rapidly with the warmth of spring to ripen in ,may1 ,june or ,july1 according to the locality4 ,in the second place1 certain trees or shrubs1 by reason of their resistance to drought1 and their elaborate root system1 which enables them to gather water from the deeper layers of the soil1 will produce succulent fruits without needing artificial supplies of water4 ,the most important of these1 throughout the whole ,mediterranean area1 are the vine and the olive4 ,the olive supplies the oil which is all the more necessary in that the absence of grass makes pastoral industries1 and therefore the production of cheese and butter difficult or impossible except in the high grounds1 while the vine supplies the wine which with bread and oil form the essential parts of the diet of ,mediterranean man4 ,the olive tree1 which is indigenous1 may be regarded as one of the most characteristic trees of the area1 and it is interesting to note that the novice not infrequently confuses it with another tree1 almost as characteristic the evergreen or holm oak4 ,the two are not nearly related1 the olive belonging to the same family as the lilac and privet1 while the evergreen oak is a true oak4 ,both trees1 however1 show similar adaptations to summer drought1 and their resemblance to one another is a good example of convergence due to a similar environment4 ,both have small evergreen leaves2 small that they may not lose too much water in summer1 evergreen that they may assimilate even during the winter4 ,both have their leaves silvery beneath1 which again prevents loss of water2 both have gnarled trunks1 branching low down1 in order that the leaves may avoid the dry upper layers of the air4 ,adaptations of this kind are present to a greater or less degree in all the trees which are tolerant of ,mediterranean conditions1 and many of these trees yield useful fruits4 ,in addition to the cultivated plants mentioned1 a great number of others are grown within the area1 as we shall see later1 but the point of interest is that the plants which have been of importance in the history of the region have been either annuals which ripened early1 or fruit-bearing trees with special adaptations to resist drought4 ,apart from the annuals and the bulbous and tuberous plants already described1 the wild plants are chiefly shrubs or stunted trees with similar drought-resisting characters4 ,during the long ages he has inhabited the ,mediterranean1 man has doubtless contributed largely to the destruction of the forests which are now1 as we have seen1 represented by the stunted scrub or maquis4 ,but on climatic grounds we cannot suppose that the ,mediterranean forests had ever the luxuriance of those further north1 or of the tropical forests of the south4 ,where there is sufficient rain chestnut woods occur1 but this is only on the hill slopes4 ,above the chestnut1 beech may occur1 as in ,sicily4 ,the maritime pine and the ,corsican pine form open woods in the damper places1 and the picturesque stone pine1 with its rounded head1 is very characteristic4 ,we have already mentioned the evergreen or holm oak as common1 and the cork oak occurs abundantly in some places4 ,these trees1 with the cypress1 must have formed the primitive forests1 and they still constitute the most important forest trees of the area4 ,the occurrence of a native palm 7,chamrops7 is interesting as suggesting the warmth of the climate1 and even on the ,european shores the date palm is extensively planted1 though its true home is the margin of the ,african and ,arabian deserts4 ,of the characteristic shrubs the most striking are perhaps the many species of ,cistus1 with large almost rose-like flowers1 and leaves which attempt to adapt themselves to the climate by many different devices4 ,sometimes they are stiff and leathery1 sometimes resinous1 sometimes hairy4 ,many plants in the area have a coating of resin on their leaves4 ,this1 no doubt1 preserves them against loss of water1 but also probably protects against grazing animals4 ,goats thrive in the ,mediterranean partly because of the catholicity of their taste in vegetation1 and in consequence the plants have had to protect themselves against their appetite as well as against drought4 ,only those with some disagreeable quality1 hairs1 spines1 resin1 strong flavour1 etc41 could hope to protect themselves in the dry season1 when grass is virtually absent4 ,it is in consequence common to find aromatic or strongly-flavoured plants with glandular leaves2 lavender1 rosemary1 myrtle1 etc41 are examples4 ,other shrubby plants associated with the ,mediterranean are oleander1 the noble laurel1 the tree heath1 arbutus1 many kinds of broom1 and generally evergreen shrubs specially adapted to resist drought4 ,let us turn from this picture to the appearance presented by ,central and ,northern ,europe4 ,as we have seen1 the forest which once covered most of the area1 except the steppe region of southern ,russia1 has largely disappeared1 but enough remains to enable us to reconstruct the picture of the original forest4 ,as contrasted with the 7chiefly7 evergreen woodland of the ,mediterranean1 the forests of the low grounds are here deciduous4 ,in summer clothed in magnificent foliage1 well adapted to give off enormous quantities of water1 in winter the trees stand tall and bare1 exposing nothing but their branches to the winter blasts4 ,while the buds of ,mediterranean plants have no special means of protection1 the typical forest trees of ,central ,europe have their buds carefully sheathed in scales1 clothed in hairs1 or coated with resin1 to keep out alike the cold and the damp of the northern winter4 ,while the leaves of ,mediterranean plants are usually small1 often coated with hairs beneath1 often resinous1 and so on1 the forest trees further north have large leaves of delicate texture1 with no special protection against drought4 ,again1 while the luxuriant forest of the tropics includes many different species of trees1 the deciduous forests of cool temperate regions contain few species1 and are often pure woods1 that is1 consist of one dominant species1 forming beech woods or oak woods1 and so on4 ,the dense shade of the beech makes undergrowth difficult or impossible1 but the other woods have a complicated undergrowth of many different kinds of plants1 especially pronounced in spring before the leaves appear on the trees4 ,but this undergrowth never reaches the luxuriance that it does in the tropical forest1 and creepers and climbing plants are few4 ,as we ascend from the low ground to the higher1 or as we travel northwards to high latitudes1 the broad-leafed deciduous forests are replaced by coniferous ones4 ,european conifers1 with the exception of the larch1 are evergreen1 and all are more tolerant of cold and wind than deciduous trees4 ,pines1 spruce1 fir1 larch1 and silver fir are the most important kinds4 ,both at high altitudes and in high latitudes these conifers are often accompanied by birch1 which is not a cone-bearing tree1 but is very tolerant of cold and wind4 ,to the north there comes sooner or later a limit beyond which the cold and winds make further tree growth impossible4 ,here we come to a tundra region1 where the place of trees is taken by low-growing shrubs1 with small leaves and other adaptations to ensure against excessive loss of water4 ,it is1 as it were1 the reappearance of the ,mediterranean type1 but here the cause is1 not the absence of water1 but the fact that the cold makes it impossible for the roots to absorb it4 ,a condition of physiological drought results1 and only plants well adapted to prevent undue loss of water can resist such conditions of life4 ,a somewhat similar type of vegetation occurs over vast areas in the more northern parts of ,europe1 forming the moors and heaths of much of ,scotland1 of parts of ,england and ,ireland1 of parts of ,germany1 and so on4 ,here the presence of peat produces conditions very unfavourable to plant life1 except to certain shrubby plants such as heather and other plants of the heather family1 juniper1 bog myrtle1 and so on1 and some grasses and sedges1 etc41 all of which have special adaptations to life in a peaty soil4 ,over the large areas1 therefore1 covered by these heaths1 trees are absent1 or few1 and this stunted shrubby vegetation takes their place4 ,large areas of natural grassland1 except for the tracts of pasture land already described in the mountain regions1 are infrequent in ,europe4 ,they occur in ,southern ,russia and in the ,hungarian plain1 and form part of that great series of steppes and plains which stretches into ,asia1 and passes into a region of deserts4 ,the conditions favourable to the growth of grass here1 instead of trees1 seem to be purely climatic4 ,very important is the prevalence of strong cold winds during winter1 which is a period of drought4 ,the scanty rains come in early summer1 which suits grasses admirably1 while the total precipitation is too slight for trees4 ,the summers are hot1 and the rains cease early and give place to a period of drought1 very injurious to trees1 while it injures the grasses little1 owing to the fact that they have had time to make their growth4 ,the abundant natural growth of grass makes these steppe regions well suited to the pastoral industries1 which tend1 as civilisation progresses1 to give place to agriculture4 ,to sum up1 we have seen that looking at ,europe as a whole three great plant formations are represented4 ,we have1 first1 the cool temperate forest1 which once extended over the greater part of the continent1 wherever the conditions were suitable4 ,this has now largely given place to arable land4 ,next1 we find round the ,mediterranean sea1 and in those great peninsulas and islands which are bathed by it1 a zone of modified woodland passing into scrub1 remarkable for the rapid growth of annuals in the early part of the year1 and for the abundance of trees bearing useful fruits4 ,finally1 linking ,europe to temperate ,asia1 we have belts of steppe land1 characterised by a luxuriant growth of grass in the early summer1 and fitted by nature for pastoral industries1 which do not thrive near the ,mediterranean4 ,another way of putting the same facts would be to say that ,europe proper is a region of temperate forest1 linked to ,africa by scrub land passing into desert1 and to ,asia by steppe land passing into desert4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the flora of ,north ,america1 owing to the size of the continent1 offers more resemblance to that of ,asia than to ,europe4 ,bearing in mind what has been already said about the structure of ,north ,america--with its western mountain range and eastern uplands enclosing between them a region of moderate relief--and also what has been said in regard to its climates and to the influence of climate upon vegetation1 it is relatively easy to deduce the main points in regard to the flora4 ,to the far north there is a treeless tundra region1 quite comparable to that which occurs over vast areas in ,north ,asia1 and on a reduced scale in the northern part of the continent of ,europe4 ,next we have a wide band of predominantly coniferous forest1 which1 although its species are different1 yet in broad outline is entirely homologous with the coniferous forest found in northern ,asia1 south of the tundra region4 ,in ,canada this forest consists of spruces and larches1 the species being peculiar to the continent4 ,mingled with the conifers are smaller numbers of the hardier deciduous trees1 such as birches1 poplars1 and willows4 ,what we have already said as to the climatic differences between the eastern and western sides of continents will at once suggest that this band of forest is not likely to run directly across the continent from east to west4 ,in point of fact it stretches from ,labrador in a north-westerly direction to ,alaska1 leaving almost the whole of the western seaboard to be occupied by another type4 ,this type is the extraordinarily luxuriant and beautiful western forest1 consisting for the most part of conifers4 ,it is largely these conifers which have enriched ,european parks and gardens within recent years1 and although it is perhaps the great ,sequoia 7,wellingtonia7 gigantea which has most impressed popular imagination1 it must be remembered that size and luxuriance are characteristic of many species4 ,this western forest stretches down the western seaboard to the ,state of ,california1 and1 indeed1 persists until increasing aridity makes forest growth impossible4 ,its great luxuriance1 compared with the scantier forests of the ,mediterranean region in ,europe1 is partly to be ascribed to a greater rainfall1 and doubtless partly to man's interference1 for the original forests of the ,mediterranean must have been largely destroyed1 as the western ,american forests are in process of being4 ,one must remember also that the proximity of mountain ranges to the seaboard in western ,north ,america gives a heavy rainfall1 and suitable places for forest growth4 ,the fact that the trees are predominantly coniferous gives them great resistance to the summer drought4 ,in front of the mountain ranges the coastal plain is occupied by an evergreen scrub vegetation comparable to that of the lowlands of the ,mediterranean basin4 ,in ,british ,columbia1 where the ,cascade ,range lies at no great distance from the ,rocky ,mountains1 the western coniferous forest practically clothes the whole area from the coast to the main range1 but further south1 where the ,cascade ,range and its continuation the ,sierra ,nevada are widely separated from the main range1 a dry and semi-desert region occurs1 between the two1 which bears a desert type of vegetation1 including especially a plant related to our wormwood1 called sagebrush1 with cactuses in the warmer parts4 ,another area which is too arid to carry trees1 except where local conditions raise the rainfall1 extends from ,texas northwards to about the latitude of ,edmonton or ,battleford1 and lies in the rain shadow of the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,this is the region of the ,great ,plains1 mostly too arid to carry anything but herds of cattle1 and mostly forming natural pasture1 being thus analogous to the steppes of ,asia4 ,eastward the rainfall increases1 and we pass from the area of unreclaimed pasture to the prairies1 now largely laid down to wheat and other food plants4 ,southward the ,great ,plains pass into the deserts of ,mexico1 but northwards they are separated from the northern coniferous forest by a belt of aspen1 and it is in this region that the ,canadians are steadily pushing the cultivation of wheat into the plains1 wherever the local rainfall makes this possible4 ,so far we have left south-eastern ,canada and the whole of the eastern and south-eastern ,states out of consideration4 ,speaking very broadly1 we may say that all this area is clothed by a forest of mixed coniferous and broad-leaved trees which is comparable to the forest which covers the greater part of temperate ,europe4 ,but it is not to be expected that a forest which extends from the northern shores of the ,gulf of ,st4 ,lawrence to the extremity of the peninsula of ,florida1 that is1 through about #be degrees of latitude1 should be uniform throughout4 ,in point of fact1 botanists distinguish three separate zones4 ,in south-eastern ,canada and the ,new ,england states the ,weymouth pine 7,pinus strobus7 predominates1 being accompanied by limes1 ashes1 maples1 oaks1 elms1 chestnuts1 and so forth4 ,further south1 and especially further west1 extending to the ,mississippi plains1 there is a deciduous forest extraordinarily rich in species4 ,practically all our common genera of forest trees are represented1 sometimes by very fine species1 but in addition there are many genera with no ,european representatives4 ,very striking is the abundance of magnolias 7whence the name of magnolia forest sometimes given to this type71 and species of the laurel family1 as well as of liquidambar4 ,the magnolias and liquidambar are especially interesting1 because they once occurred in ,europe1 their disappearance there being probably caused by the glacial period as explained on p4 #gh4 ,we have emphasised above 7p4 #acg7 the luxuriance of the forests of the west coast of the ,states1 but it should be noticed that luxuriant as its conifers are1 there is a remarkable poverty in broad-leaved forms1 as compared with these eastern forests1 and this even in the warmer parts of the west coast4 ,the reason is probably the same as in the ,mediterranean region in ,europe4 ,the existence of a belt of desert to the south of the present ,mediterranean region of western ,america made it difficult for the trees to migrate southwards at the onset of cold conditions in the glacial period1 and thus many forms1 which are known to have existed in ,california in ,tertiary times1 have now completely disappeared from the region1 while they persist in the eastern forests to this day4 ,the third type of forest which occurs in the eastern half of ,north ,america is the rain forest of ,florida and parts of the adjacent states4 ,here the rainfall is abundant all the year round1 with a summer maximum1 and the temperature is high4 ,there is thus no need to economise water1 and where the soil permits there is a luxuriant type of forest1 which recalls that of the tropics1 although it is poorer4 ,where soil conditions are unfavourable we have pine woods1 conifers throughout the eastern ,united ,states always taking advantage of conditions relatively unfavourable to the broad-leafed trees4 ,thus if we follow the eastern seaboard of the ,united ,states from ,labrador to ,florida we pass through the following floral regions3-- 7#a7 ,coniferous forest1 with relatively few species1 7#b7 mixed coniferous and deciduous forest with chiefly the harder types of deciduous trees1 7#c7 predominantly deciduous forest with many of the larger-leafed and more delicate forms1 and finally 7#d7 forest of the sub-tropical rainy type1 intermixed with coniferous woods on the barren sandy soil and in the swamps4 ,the western coast shows more uniformity1 the western type of coniferous forest stretching from ,alaska to ,california1 though it is richer1 and more luxuriant in the warmer regions when moisture is still obtainable4 ,as the moisture diminishes the forest dies away and desert or semi-desert conditions supervene4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,distribution ,,of ,,animal ,,life ,in the last chapter we looked at a few of the interesting generalisations which have emerged of late years from the study of plant distribution4 ,an enormous amount of detailed investigation had been done before these generalisations were arrived at1 and though still much remains to be done1 yet the broad lines of a science of plant distribution may now be said to be established4 ,the scientific study of animal distribution has not yet reached a corresponding stage of advancement1 partly no doubt because the dependence of the more highly organised and active animal upon the physical conditions is less close than that of the stationary plant1 so that the subject is more difficult4 ,facts are accumulating on all sides1 but the subject is still rather at the level of collecting information than at that of laying down broad generalisations4 ,there are1 however1 indications of progress in many directions1 and an attempt will be made here to suggest some of the lines along which research is especially busy at the present time4 ,in speaking of plants we confined our attention exclusively to land plants1 for the reason that aquatic plants are usually small in size1 relatively simple in structure1 of somewhat limited vertical distribution1 owing to their dependence upon light1 and of little direct importance to man4 ,in considering animals1 on the other hand1 we cannot exclude the aquatic forms1 which are often of great human importance4 ,in many regions man depends largely1 sometimes even exclusively1 on the animals of the sea for his food4 ,we shall1 then1 begin with some account of aquatic animals1 considering the subject1 as before1 especially from the point of view of the inhabitants of ,europe and ,north ,america4 ,beginning with the sea we find that the scientific study of marine animals received an enormous impetus from the work of the ,challenger expedition4 ,the results of that expedition appeared in many large volumes1 which form a conspicuous feature in any complete scientific library and contain a mass of useful material4 ,the ,challenger expedition was followed by many others1 ,european and ,american1 and the result is that we now know a great deal about marine animals and their distribution4 ,further1 the ,fishery ,boards of various ,governments carry on continuous observations on the conditions of life in the seas near their coasts1 which have added and are adding enormously to our knowledge4 ,we cannot here consider in detail the various facts brought to light by these means4 ,only a few general points can be touched upon4 ,one interesting generalisation is that the life of the ocean can be divided into three groups3 the life of the littoral or shore zone1 the life of the open ocean 7pelagic fauna71 and the life of the great ocean depths 7abyssal fauna74 ,the last1 though of great zoological interest1 is so remote from human life that we need not consider it4 ,the pelagic forms include both the small delicate organisms which float passively with the ocean currents1 and also powerful swimmers like many fish1 and aquatic mammals such as whales and seals4 ,the littoral forms live in the region which is within the reach of land influences1 that is1 from low-tide mark to the edge of the ,continental ,shelf 7cf4 p4 #bg74 ,among forms directly important to man they include many fish2 crustaceans such as crabs and lobsters2 shell-fish such as oysters1 mussels1 clams1 etc42 less important forms such as sea-urchins1 which are extensively eaten in the ,mediterranean2 sponges1 an important article of commerce2 the various corals1 especially the precious coral1 and so on4 ,of the useful marine animals1 those which are most readily captured are the littoral forms1 many of which1 on shores where the tides are well marked1 are exposed1 or at least brought within easy reach1 by the daily ebb and flow of the tide1 and can be obtained with the minimum of apparatus4 ,the extensive shell-mounds found on many shores1 e4 g4 on those of ,denmark1 show at how early a date man availed himself of the abundant food supply to be obtained on the shore rocks4 ,all edible animals found in the sea are fish to maritime populations1 but fish in the restricted sense are usually more active1 and require more skill for their capture than the less intelligent molluscs or crustaceans1 and were probably not used at so early a date4 ,they are by no means equally distributed in all seas1 and their distribution shows many points of interest4 ,we must notice1 in the first instance1 that the waste of the land is of great importance in feeding marine forms1 whether directly or indirectly4 ,marine animals1 therefore1 occur most abundantly over the ,continental ,shelf1 where they are within reach of the food brought down by the rivers from the land4 ,again1 many fish1 or the organisms upon which fish feed1 depend largely upon those minute plants called diatoms which float in the upper layers of the waters of the ocean4 ,these are especially abundant in the colder seas1 which doubtless helps to explain the abundance of fish in high latitudes4 ,these diatoms1 like many other small organisms in the sea1 are swept about by the ocean currents1 whose course greatly influences the movements of fish4 ,we saw in the case of forests that hot climates conduce to a great variety of species1 while in colder climates the species are few1 but the number of individuals very great4 ,something of the same sort seems to occur with fishes4 ,in warm seas the number of species is very great1 while in colder seas there are fewer species1 but those which do occur are sometimes found in vast numbers4 ,fortunately for man these prolific northern species are often edible1 whereas in warm seas poisonous or inedible forms are common4 ,the valuable cod family is found chiefly in high latitudes4 ,the consequence of the facts just described is that valuable fisheries tend to occur in cool or cold climates rather than hot ones1 and because of the dependence of so many forms on the ,continental ,shelf1 they occur in the northern or land hemisphere rather than in the southern or oceanic one4 ,the most valuable fisheries in the world seem to be those off ,newfoundland1 where the broad ,continental ,shelf1 forming the so-called banks1 feeds myriads of cod4 ,the mingling of the waters brought by the cold ,labrador currents with those brought by the warm ,gulf ,stream perhaps influences this marvellous abundance of fish1 as does also the waste brought by the icebergs4 ,next to the banks of ,newfoundland the most valuable fishing ground is the shallow ,north ,sea1 which1 as we have seen1 lies on the surface of the ,continental ,shelf4 ,fish are much more abundant here than on the narrower shelf on the western coast of ,britain1 and the wealth of the ,north ,sea has been an important factor in the development of the countries bordering it4 ,the warm1 salt1 relatively deep1 and tide-less ,mediterranean is not nearly so rich in food fishes as the more northerly seas1 a fact reflected in the large importation of dried fish alike from ,newfoundland and from the region of the ,north ,sea4 ,but this is an economic and not a zoological statement1 for the ,mediterranean is in reality richer in fish species than the ,north ,sea1 in this respect1 as in some others1 approaching tropical regions4 ,among the economically important fish are the tunny1 a very large form allied to the mackerel1 which is dried1 and sardines and anchovies1 which are preserved in oil4 ,otherwise the fish are eaten fresh1 and do not enter into general trade4 ,fresh-water fish are abundant all over ,europe1 but with some exceptions they are not greatly prized in those countries where the better-flavoured marine fish can be obtained4 ,elsewhere1 as in ,russia1 ,germany1 and parts of ,france1 they become important4 ,much more valuable than fresh-water fish in the strict sense are the various kinds of salmon1 which come up the rivers to breed1 but spend much time also in salt water4 ,in the rivers of ,scotland and ,scandinavia salmon are still very important1 but the fisheries in both cases are insignificant when compared with those of western ,north ,america4 ,salmon are inhabitants of temperate waters1 and in ,north ,america do not extend further south than the rivers flowing into the north of the ,gulf of ,california4 ,off the coast of ,alaska and ,british ,columbia1 especially the former1 they are enormously abundant1 and being caught in quantities which far exceed the local demand are largely canned for export4 ,it is interesting to note that in regard to fresh-water fish1 as with marine forms1 the northern part of the world is especially rich in edible species1 as compared alike with the southern hemisphere and with the tropics4 ,the salmon family is confined to the northern hemisphere1 and the carp family1 though not peculiar1 is largely represented in the north4 ,to it belong the whitefish1 which form important food fish in many parts of ,america4 ,sturgeon1 which are important in ,russia1 occur in the great rivers of eastern ,europe1 and in parts of ,asia1 and also on the eastern coast of ,north ,america1 and off ,california4 ,turning next to the distribution of land animals within the ,european area1 the first point is to note that for the globe at large zoologists employ zoogeographical divisions based chiefly upon the distribution of the land mammals4 ,the reasons for this are manifold4 ,in the first place1 mammals are of relatively recent origin1 and in taking account of their spread over the globe1 we may assume that in broad outline the continents1 or at least the deep oceans1 were much the same when the existing mammals were evolved as at present4 ,this naturally simplifies the problem1 for if we divided the globe into regions on the basis of the distribution of reptiles1 for example1 we should find it necessary to take account of many differences between the world in which the first reptiles arose and the world as it is at present4 ,again1 the chances of land mammals passing from one region to another1 except by the crossing of land surfaces1 are small4 ,thus the occurrence of similar land mammals in two regions now widely separated is almost certain proof of a former land connection between the two regions4 ,the difficulty which most land mammals find in crossing mountain chains1 or deserts1 or considerable extents of water1 makes it easy to define zoogeographical regions separated from one another by the existence of such barriers to distribution as they are called4 ,finally1 mammals are highly organised animals of relatively large size1 and their distribution is more easily studied than that of insects1 for instance4 ,without going into the zoogeographical regions in detail1 we may note that there is1 as already stated1 considerable resemblance between the mammals of ,europe1 ,asia1 ,africa and ,north ,america1 that is1 of the land hemisphere1 while ,south ,america1 which was for long isolated from ,north ,america1 has a peculiar and relatively primitive fauna1 and ,australia1 whose isolation has lasted longer1 has an even more peculiar and a much more primitive fauna4 ,when we look at the fauna of the great land mass formed by the continents of ,europe1 ,asia1 ,africa and ,north ,america1 sometimes called by zoogeographers the ,arctogic realm1 we find that ,north ,america differs from the eastern land mass as regards its land mammals in several respects4 ,though long separated from ,south ,america it has been connected long enough for some of the southern forms to find their way northwards1 so that we find skunks1 raccoons1 and other mammals strikingly different from analogous forms found in the ,old ,world4 ,again1 it is relatively so long since there was any free communication between the eastern and western hemispheres that the two faunas have had time to diverge without destroying the fundamental resemblance4 ,beginning with the fauna of the ,old ,world1 we find that no effective barrier of any sort separates the animals of ,europe1 even of western ,europe1 from the animals of temperate ,asia1 even of eastern ,asia4 ,right across from the ,british ,isles to ,japan1 through about a hundred and fifty degrees of longitude1 there is great general similarity in the land animals4 ,to the south1 on the other hand1 the ,atlas mountains and the ,african desert cut off the greater part of the continent of ,africa1 and eastwards the transverse mountain chains1 no less than the difference of climate and the cold1 barren nature of the uplands of central ,asia1 cut off the rich fauna of the peninsula of ,india with ,further ,india1 etc41 from the habitable regions of temperate ,asia1 with their scantier fauna4 ,we are thus left with the conception of a very large and tolerably uniform zoological region1 stretching right across ,europe and temperate and northern ,asia4 ,this is the ,palarctic region of zoogeographers4 ,the ,european section of it is somewhat impoverished as compared with the ,asiatic section1 partly perhaps because of the effects of the ice1 and certainly also because for long ages ,europe has been densely populated1 and the larger wild animals have thus been exterminated4 ,asia1 with its northern forests and its more southerly steppes1 has always been a great reservoir of life1 which has periodically overflowed into ,europe4 ,some of these overflowing animals1 like the black and the brown rats1 succeeded in establishing themselves very firmly2 others1 like the saiga antelope1 died out rapidly except in the extreme east of the ,european area4 ,it is possible that further investigation will show that not the mammals only1 but land animals in general can be grouped according to their habitat like plants1 but so far the attempts made in this direction have been tentative only4 ,generally1 we may say that the mammals of ,central ,europe are of the woodland type1 but no detailed classification into steppe and woodland animals exists4 ,it may be useful1 therefore1 to indicate the chief kinds of mammals found in the ,european area1 grouped according to affinity1 in the absence of a geographical classification4 ,mammals1 apart from the egg-laying monotremes1 and the marsupials of ,australia1 are divided into nine orders1 and of these1 one1 that including the anteaters1 etc41 of ,south ,america1 ,africa and ,india1 is entirely unrepresented in ,europe4 ,another1 the ,cetaceans1 or whales1 has no land representatives2 and the same is true of the aberrant sea-cows1 though their ancestors lived on land and occurred in ,egypt4 ,excluding these orders we are left with six which have ,european representatives4 ,these are the following3-- ,primates1 or monkeys and apes4 ,insectivores1 or insect-eating mammals1 such as moles1 shrews and hedgehogs4 ,chiroptera1 or bats4 ,ungulates1 or hoofed animals1 including horses1 cattle1 sheep1 deer1 pigs1 etc4 ,carnivores1 or flesh-eaters1 including lions1 cats1 foxes1 dogs1 etc4 ,rodents1 or gnawing animals1 among which are rats1 mice1 squirrels1 etc4 ,the ,primates are represented by one form only1 the ,barbary ape1 found in ,gibraltar4 ,bats are numerous1 but are of less geographical interest than land forms4 ,the remaining four orders are all important4 ,the ,ungulates include the largest land mammals1 and their size and conspicuous nature have led to the gradual replacement of the wild forms by domesticated ones4 ,only a very few1 such as deer1 wild goats 7ibex71 the wild boar1 the wild sheep 7moufflon7 of ,corsica1 manage to survive1 and that mostly by aid of special protection4 ,the presence of the large wild forms is incompatible with almost any form of agriculture as is often proved disastrously in ,africa1 hence man's ruthless warfare upon them4 ,but if man has destroyed the large ungulates he has found himself unable even to reduce the numbers of the ,rodents1 who gain in many ways by civilisation4 ,the destruction of their rivals1 the grass-eating ungulates1 increases their natural food-supply4 ,in ,south ,america1 where there were very few ungulates till the white man brought his flocks and herds1 the rodents were very numerous and reached a great size4 ,again1 the operations of agriculture give the rodents enormous artificial sources of food-supply1 and the number of man's domesticated or semi-domesticated animals makes him wage a bitter war against the small carnivores1 the natural enemies of the rodents4 ,protected from their enemies1 abundantly fed by man's providence1 it is no wonder that these small animals have multiplied greatly4 ,their multiplication has been assisted by the fact that they inherit from their early days1 when the struggle was keen1 an enormous fertility4 ,many of the rodents are steppe animals1 and share with steppe organisms in general the power of periodic multiplication in enormous numbers4 ,the steppe is a region where the rainfall is normally just enough to ensure a free growth of grass at certain seasons4 ,variations in rainfall1 which perhaps occur in great cycles1 may at one time produce a luxuriance of growth which increases the food-supply all round1 and at another give rise to semi-desert conditions with a resulting enormous death-rate4 ,the steppe organisms1 then1 must be very fertile because of the risks of their environment1 and the ,asiatic overflow is possibly determined by successions of years of abundant rainfall1 which increase the number of individuals1 followed by a series of years of scanty rain1 which make it necessary for the overflow of population to migrate4 ,among examples of ,european rodents we may mention the very destructive rats1 mice and voles1 which practically feed everywhere at man's expense2 and the hamster1 an ,asiatic form which reaches as far west as the ,rhine1 and stores large quantities of corn and other food in an elaborately made burrow4 ,the hamster has the rodent power of rapid multiplication1 and is often terribly destructive to cultivated crops4 ,rabbits are similarly very destructive where special precautions are not taken4 ,even the porcupine of southern ,europe is capable of doing considerable damage4 ,less serious enemies of man are such forms as the following3--lemmings2 marmots1 of which there are two forms1 an ,alpine and an ,asiatic1 the latter extending like the other steppe animals into the plains of central ,europe2 beavers2 squirrels2 dormice2 etc4 ,these examples may be sufficient to illustrate the important points in regard to the rodents--their destructiveness1 their fertility1 and the fact that many were originally inhabitants of steppes and open plains1 but tend1 as man clears the forest-land for his own purposes1 to extend their range to the cleared land1 and to appropriate the new and extensive food-supply furnished by man's industry4 ,while the ungulates1 because of the nature of their food1 must almost necessarily be rather large animals1 the carnivores occur both in large and small forms4 ,the tendency is for the large forms to be killed out with the progress of civilisation2 thus the lion has wholly disappeared from ,europe1 wolf and bear are almost gone1 but a considerable number of smaller forms still remain1 such as badger1 genet1 wolverene1 lynx1 wild cat1 stoat1 marten1 weasel1 etc4 ,the last order to be mentioned1 that of the ,insectivores1 includes small mammals1 such as moles1 shrews1 and hedgehogs1 which feed largely on insects1 but may be partially vegetarians4 ,as was to be expected from the climate and from the peculiar flora1 the ,mediterranean region possesses a richer fauna than central ,europe1 both as regards mammals and lower forms4 ,even the ,european portion shows considerable ,african influence4 ,a few words must be said about other land animals apart from mammals4 ,in regard to birds it is noticeable that the habit of migration1 and the fact that the greater part of the continent of ,europe lies on the direct line between the northern breeding grounds of many species and the southern winter quarters1 gives ,europe a very rich bird fauna4 ,the ,british ,islands owe to their peculiarly mild climate a rich bird fauna at all seasons1 for while the summer climate attracts many forms for nesting purposes1 the mild winter brings many migrants flying from the cold of continental ,europe4 ,in regard to birds as well as to other animals1 the ,mediterranean owes to its warm climate a richer fauna than countries farther north4 ,some interesting southern forms1 such as pelican1 flamingo and ibis1 reach this region1 though not extending into central ,europe1 except as stragglers4 ,the climate of ,europe is not hot enough anywhere to lead to the presence of a rich reptilian fauna1 but there is1 again1 a marked increase to the south4 ,it is stated that there are only twenty-one species of reptiles in central ,europe1 while there are fifty-nine in southern ,europe1 and no less than a hundred and forty in the ,mediterranean region taken in the large sense4 ,poisonous forms are few1 and do not1 as in hotter countries1 constitute a serious menace to man4 ,very interesting is the presence of the chameleon in southern ,spain1 as in north ,africa4 ,perhaps the most important human aspect of the ,european reptiles is the presence of numbers of insect-eating forms4 ,in the warmer parts of ,europe every wall or patch of rock seems alive with lizards in the summer sunshine1 and these must play a not inconsiderable part in the keeping down of noxious insects4 ,omitting a great number of other groups1 we may say something about insects1 which are of enormous importance in human life1 both directly and indirectly4 ,it has been shown of late years that many insects are the sole means by which certain very deadly diseases are transmitted from man to man1 or from one animal to another4 ,almost every few months a new announcement of an insect-carried disease is made1 but the most important forms are the following3--,mosquitoes and gnats transmit such diseases as malaria1 yellow fever1 and more horrible diseases still1 due to the presence in the blood of small parasitic worms4 ,tsetse flies carry sleeping sickness1 and also transmit the very fatal fly disease of domesticated animals1 a fact which has been and is of great importance in the settlement of ,africa4 ,in the case of most diseases there seems to be a close connection between one particular species of insect and a particular disease4 ,mosquitoes and gnats are very abundant in many parts of ,europe1 and the forms belonging to the genus ,anopheles1 which carry the germ of malaria1 are widely distributed4 ,in parts of the ,mediterranean area their presence is associated with the prevalence of malaria1 which has existed there for a prolonged period1 and is believed by some to have had an important bearing upon the fates of the ancient civilisations of the ,mediterranean basin4 ,the regions in ,europe affected1 or seriously affected1 by malaria are diminishing yearly4 ,this is now due to conscious efforts1 but a similar process has been going on probably for a long period1 for many obscure diseases1 notably ague1 seem to have been forms of malaria4 ,their disappearance seems to be due to drainage1 which diminishes the breeding places of the mosquitoes1 and also to the progress of agriculture1 for ponds which form on rich1 well-manured land are apparently unsuited to mosquito larv4 ,the subject is of great geographical importance1 for the spread of man over the surface of the globe1 and the progress of civilisation must have been influenced in all time by the prevalence of fly-borne disease4 ,such diseases have hitherto been the greatest obstacle in the way of the civilisation of ,africa4 ,in ,uganda extensive tracts of fertile wooded land have had to be abandoned on account of the presence there of the tsetse fly1 while1 prior to this abandonment1 there were districts in which every living soul had been destroyed by the deadly sleeping sickness transmitted by this fly4 ,we can hardly suppose that such facts are without a parallel in human history2 and man's distribution over the surface of the globe1 and in detail the distribution of his settlements within a country1 have doubtless been greatly influenced by the distribution even of such insignificant creatures as the various kinds of flies4 ,even apart from their power of transmitting disease1 the blood-sucking flies must have influenced man in his choice of localities for settlements1 and must have been an important factor in the process of adjustment to his surroundings4 ,the naturalist ,brehm gives an appalling picture of the number and blood-thirstiness of the mosquitoes of the ,siberian tundra1 which render life almost intolerable there for both man and beast in summer4 ,even within the ,british ,islands the uncultivated and undrained regions are often badly infested with small blood-sucking flies1 and their numbers must have been vastly greater in the old days before drainage and intensive cultivation had reduced them4 ,it is quite possible that some of the anomalies in regard to the spread of particular races of men over the surface can be explained by the varying susceptibility of different races to insect attack1 and there can be no doubt that the blood-sucking insects must have had some effect in determining the rapidity or slowness with which particular tracts were colonised by man4 ,apart from the blood-sucking flies1 there are many other interesting points about the insects of ,europe1 notably the wealth of beautiful and striking forms which occur round the ,mediterranean basin4 ,one of these1 which extends northwards and westwards to northern ,france1 is the curious ,praying ,mantis1 a predatory insect belonging to the same order as the locust4 ,it is an eastern form1 which1 like so many others1 has taken advantage of the mild climate of western ,europe to extend its range far beyond what we must regard as its natural limits4 ,in ,france it shows the effect of relatively unfavourable conditions in the fact that it takes some nine to ten months for the eggs to hatch1 whereas in hotter countries the process may take place in a few weeks4 ,in the warmer parts of ,europe a very striking feature is the number and large size of the members of the locust and grasshopper families1 whose shrill noise is so characteristic a sound in1 for example1 the pastures of ,switzerland in summer-time4 ,among the locusts there occur1 in many parts of ,europe1 those migratory forms which possess that power of periodic enormous multiplication which we have already noted so frequently among grassland animals4 ,the migratory instinct only seems to develop when the numbers have greatly increased in any given locality1 and in ,europe generally the climate does not permit this to take place4 ,it does1 however1 occur in the south-east of the ,mediterranean basin1 notably in the island of ,cyprus1 in ,syria1 and also in ,northern ,africa1 where locusts sometimes reach the dimensions of a plague4 ,we may add to this account of land animals a few details on the land mammals of ,north ,america4 ,the great point of contrast here is that ,europe1 from the beginning of the historic period1 has always been a relatively well-peopled region1 while in ,america1 prior to the advent of the white man1 the population was scanty4 ,there was thus far more room in ,north ,america than in ,europe for great flocks of large mammals4 ,thus the plains and prairies carried great herds of bison1 while to the north there were other herds of reindeer1 which were never tamed by the inhabitants of ,north ,america as they were in the ,old ,world by the ,lapps and others4 ,the musk-ox is another interesting animal found in the north of ,america4 ,it once also lived in ,europe1 but died out long ago4 ,just as the coniferous forest and tundra in ,asia produce many small fur-bearing animals1 so do the forest and tundra of ,north ,america4 ,deer are present as in the ,old ,world1 though they are of different types1 and there is a curious animal known as the prong-buck which is peculiar4 ,wild sheep occur as they do in ,europe1 but no wild horse nor ass roams the plains of ,america as they roam to-day the wastes of ,asia4 ,without going into further detail1 we may say generally that as regards wild animals1 no less than as regards wild plants1 ,north ,america shows a closer resemblance to ,asia than to that favoured peninsula of ,asia which the geographers call ,europe4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,cultivated ,,plants ,,and ,,domesticated ,,animals ,before proceeding to discuss the chief races of men in ,europe1 something must be said of its cultivated plants and animals4 ,originally1 doubtless1 the various human groups which have mingled in ,europe had each their own type of culture1 based upon the possession and cultivation of particular animals and plants4 ,the lapse of time has caused so complete an intermixture that it is only possible to a very small extent to disentangle the different elements which have gone to the making of present day civilisation4 ,nevertheless1 as climatic differences remain and still determine minor differences1 it seems worth while to consider briefly the distribution of cultivated plants and domesticated animals at the present day4 ,europe has been so strongly influenced by the neighbouring land-masses of which it forms a part1 that we must begin with a few words about them4 ,the great continent of ,asia1 of which ,europe1 as we have seen1 is but a peninsula1 can be divided into a series of zones1 distinguished alike by climate and by vegetation4 ,to the north we have the cold tundra region1 passing to the south into the forest region4 ,the ,asiatic forest region is continuous with that of ,europe1 but while the ,european forest extends southward till ,mediterranean conditions intervene1 close to the sea of that name1 the ,asiatic forest has its southern limit in about the latitude of ,london4 ,to the south of the ,asiatic forest stretches a zone of steppes passing into desert1 and even into tundra in the elevated regions of ,central ,asia4 ,the steppe region1 as we have already indicated1 enters ,europe by way of ,russia and pushes a long arm up the ,danube into ,hungary4 ,south of the ,asiatic steppes and deserts comes an interrupted band of warm temperate or tropical forest1 luxuriant to the east where there are summer rains1 scanty and scrub-like to the west1 where ,asia meets the ,mediterranean4 ,the steppes and desert of ,asia are populated1 scantily enough1 with wandering pastoral nomads1 who constantly tend to overflow from their own region into those of the surrounding agricultural populations4 ,these agricultural populations are concentrated in three areas1 all specially favoured by nature4 ,to the east the summer rains1 the luxuriant indigenous flora1 and the presence of great river valleys1 that is1 of naturally fertile regions1 led to the early establishment of agricultural populations in ,china and ,india4 ,further to the west1 the fertile valleys of the ,tigris and ,euphrates early saw the founding of a great civilisation4 ,this region1 the ,mesopotamia of geographers1 is very near the third area1 the ,mediterranean1 though far enough removed to have a very scanty rainfall1 which made irrigation a necessity for agriculture4 ,its inter-relations with the ,mediterranean must have begun early1 and1 remembering that part of the ,mediterranean itself is in ,asia1 we need not stop to discuss the vexed question as to whether the ,mediterranean civilisation was largely indigenous1 or originated in the continent of ,asia4 ,it is often difficult to ascertain whether plants which have long been grown in the ,mediterranean area1 and are well-fitted to it1 are really indigenous there1 or were brought to it from the ,mesopotamian countries4 ,there is much similarity of climatic conditions1 and for our purpose it is sufficient to note that the cultivated plants of the ,mediterranean basin fall into three main categories4 ,there are1 first1 the plants specially adapted to its climate2 these are either native or were introduced from the countries close at hand4 ,second1 there are many plants1 much less perfectly adapted to conditions of drought1 and therefore often demanding irrigation in summer1 which were introduced from the ,far ,east1 after they had been cultivated there for long periods4 ,thirdly1 and much fewer in number1 there are the plants introduced1 at a relatively late date1 from ,america4 ,of the first group the most important are the cereals barley and wheat1 and the olive and the vine4 ,these four have been known in the area from the earliest times1 and they still form the basis of the diet of ,mediterranean peoples4 ,bread1 olive oil to replace the butter used by pastoral peoples1 wine as a beverage1 with fresh grapes and the dried forms of raisins and currants1 these early made life possible in the ,mediterranean area4 ,barley is older than wheat1 and is more productive but less valuable4 ,it is now largely grown in the basin of the ,mediterranean as a food for horses1 instead of oats which1 like rye1 is a cereal not well suited to the ,mediterranean climate4 ,as a bread plant it was early replaced in the ,mediterranean by wheat1 but it is still used to make bread in some other parts of ,europe1 e4 g4 in ,scandinavia1 and is also of importance outside the ,mediterranean as the origin of fermented beverages4 ,wheat is the most valuable bread plant which exists1 both on account of its proteid content and on account of its digestibility4 ,it demands a warm dry period for ripening1 with much sunshine1 and is well adapted to ,mediterranean conditions4 ,here it is sown in the autumn1 to enable it to take advantage of the early and the latter rain1 i4 e4 the autumn and spring rains1 and ripens early before the excessive drought of summer sets in4 ,like barley it has always been associated with plough culture1 the animal used being the ox4 ,according to most authorities plough culture originated in ,mesopotamia4 ,the vine and olive are apparently both indigenous to the ,mediterranean1 and both are well adapted to withstand drought4 ,in regard to the vine there are several interesting points4 ,to the traveller from the north it is most familiar in ,france or ,germany1 where it is grown on sunny slopes1 usually terraced to prevent stagnant water from lying4 ,in the ,mediterranean1 on the other hand1 it is planted in hollows1 or low-lying ground1 which permits of the collection of water1 for it will receive no summer rain4 ,the vintage is more secure than further north1 and the resistance to the attacks of parasites is greater1 yet1 curiously enough1 the ,mediterranean countries do not produce the finest wines4 ,this seems to be partly because the climate does not permit of the long storage necessary for maturing to take place4 ,the cool cellars1 so important in the wine industry further north1 are here absent4 ,to the four plants which we have mentioned we must add such forms as the fig1 which if not indigenous was of very early introduction2 garlic1 greatly valued as a flavouring matter2 various kinds of pulse2 sesame2 millet1 once widely grown though no longer important1 and flax1 known from remote antiquity4 ,the second group1 that comprising plants introduced from the ,far ,east1 includes many valuable fruit trees1 which in the region of the absolutely rainless summer mostly require irrigation4 ,the peach came from ,china in the time of ,alexander the ,great2 the various citrus fruits1 lemon1 orange1 lime1 citron1 etc41 now so characteristic a feature1 were introduced from ,china or ,india4 ,india also gave rice1 extensively cultivated during long ages1 and still extensively consumed1 though the facility with which communication with the ,east is now effected makes it relatively little grown1 except in the plain of ,lombardy1 which is easily irrigated4 ,china sent the white mulberry1 and with it the cultivation of the silkworm1 so important in many regions4 ,from the ,far ,east also came the sugar-cane1 very important till the recent development of the sugar beet industry4 ,cotton also was probably introduced from the ,far ,east1 which thus supplied many cultivated plants and has enormously enriched life for ,mediterranean man4 ,of the ,american plants of late introduction the most interesting is maize1 which fed the somewhat limited indigenous civilisation of ,north ,america4 ,maize requires a warm climate with much sunshine1 but needs much moisture during its short growing season4 ,it is not a very valuable cereal1 but it is enormously productive and therefore cheap4 ,generally it may be said to be used as food by man only when necessity compels its use4 ,it is thus employed by subject races1 e4 g4 negroes1 and by the poor in the warmer parts of ,europe4 ,in the ,mediterranean it is not sufficiently valuable to be grown on irrigated land1 and it will not grow without irrigation where the summer is rainless4 ,where there are summer rains1 however1 as in ,north ,italy1 or where mountain slopes increase the rainfall1 as in parts of ,greece1 or where the land is rendered valueless for wheat by winter flooding1 there maize is grown4 ,generally it occurs within the ,mediterranean area wherever the necessary water occurs naturally or can be supplied cheaply4 ,it forms a very important part of the food of the poor in ,north ,italy1 for example1 but not in the south1 where water is too costly4 ,two other important plants of ,american origin are tobacco and the potato4 ,the latter plant is little grown in the ,mediterranean1 but a considerable amount of tobacco is produced4 ,another ,american plant1 the prickly pear1 besides furnishing an edible fruit1 is important as a hedge plant within the area4 ,cereals in the ,mediterranean are grown1 as we have seen1 on ploughed land1 as elsewhere4 ,a more characteristic form of cultivation is garden-culture1 practised where water can be obtained for irrigation4 ,such gardens consist primarily of fruit trees1 all the citrus fruits1 peaches1 apricots1 pomegranates1 pistachio1 almonds1 and many other forms of nuts1 plums1 even apples and pears1 being grown in this way4 ,so productive is the ground once water is supplied1 that plants are grown in association in a fashion hardly suggested in the north4 ,thus among the fruit trees many different kinds of vegetables1 such as garlic1 cucumbers1 leeks1 salad plants1 many sorts of melons1 tomatoes1 egg-plants1 beans1 and peas1 etc41 are grown4 ,elsewhere one may see corn sown beneath the olive trees1 and the vine sharing the same ground with them4 ,the picture of ,mediterranean life may be completed by adding a few words about the domesticated animals4 ,these are naturally in essence the same as those further north1 but their relative numbers and the uses to which they are put are different4 ,the dog and cat both occur1 but the former has little importance in the pastoral industries1 and is largely a watch animal1 insufficiently fed1 and therefore important as a sanitary agent in that it devours garbage4 ,among the ungulates or hoofed animals1 the ass was domesticated in the region long before the horse1 and it and the mule are still more important than the horse1 partly1 no doubt1 because both are hardier1 and the problem of food is a difficulty in the largely pastureless ,mediterranean region4 ,few camels now occur in ,europe1 where they have been always closely associated with ,mahometans1 appearing and disappearing with them4 ,the pasturage difficulty greatly reduces the importance of cattle1 which are draught animals rather than a source of food4 ,as draught animals cattle go back to the dawn of history1 but their numbers are small and the use of either their flesh or their milk as food is insignificant4 ,philippson in his book on the ,mediterranean gives some striking figures to illustrate the difference in numbers between the cattle of the ,mediterranean countries and those of ,central ,europe4 ,spain has only #b4a million cattle1 and yet it is scarcely smaller than ,germany1 which has #ai millions2 ,switzerland has #a1cdj1jjj head of cattle1 and ,greece1 which is about half as large again1 has only #cfj1jjj4 ,it is to be noted1 however1 that the irrigated plains of ,north ,italy now support a considerable amount of cattle1 whose milk gives rise to a considerable cheese industry2 but1 then1 the olive will not grow in ,north ,italy1 which is therefore not strictly within the ,mediterranean area4 ,the ,arabs introduced the ,indian buffalo which has spread considerably1 and is now found in ,south ,italy and the ,balkan peninsula4 ,the pig has been banished from parts of the region on religious grounds1 but elsewhere it chiefly thrives where oak forests grow1 the acorn being an important part of its food4 ,the really important ungulates1 however1 are sheep and goats1 which are often very numerous1 and which1 apart from birds and fish1 furnish the most important part of the animal food of the inhabitants4 ,the milk furnishes cheese1 which is an important element of diet1 while leather1 wool and hair are also important products4 ,the goats chiefly feed upon the young shoots of shrubs1 and frequent the denser thickets1 while the sheep browse upon the grasses and herbs to be found in the more open forms of maquis4 ,the climate permits the animals to remain in the open during the whole year1 and this prevents the collection of the manure for the arable lands4 ,further1 the summer drought makes it difficult for even these hardy animals to obtain food1 and necessitates in many regions a curious form of nomadism1 to which the name of transhumance is given4 ,transhumance1 still well developed in ,spain1 is the periodic and alternating displacement of flocks and herds between two regions of different climate4 ,as we have had frequent reason to remark1 the rainlessness of the ,mediterranean summer is locally modified by many causes1 notably by elevation4 ,mountains may receive frequent showers1 while the plains are parched and brown1 and therefore there may be pasture on the mountains while there is none in the plains4 ,on lofty mountains also the winter snow lingers long enough to promote the growth of summer pasture4 ,while there are considerable herds of sheep and goats1 then1 it may be necessary for the flocks and their keepers to travel to the mountains in summer and back to the plains in winter4 ,in ,spain these periodic migrations1 now largely made by means of the railway1 formerly took place by well-defined routes1 along which the immense army of sheep1 accompanied by a smaller army of attendants1 passed twice a year1 causing enormous destruction to the cultivated lands through which they passed4 ,everywhere the conflict between shepherd and husbandman is more or less acute1 but it seems to have been especially acute in ,spain1 which is in some respects a link between ,africa and ,europe4 ,its constant liability to ,arab invasion made agriculture especially difficult1 while frequent wars favoured the pastoral industry2 for flocks may be removed to a place of safety on an alarm1 but agriculture must have some security before it can develop4 ,in the semi-desert regions of ,north ,africa some form of pastoral nomadism1 with the social polity which comes from pastoral nomadism1 was the natural result of the physical and climatic conditions1 and ,spain1 like the lands of the eastern part of ,europe1 has been constantly liable to have its nascent agriculture destroyed by incursions of such pastoral nomads4 ,in both cases the slow victory of the agriculturists1 marked by many temporary reverses1 affords an extraordinarily interesting chapter in human history4 ,a stable civilisation must always be based upon agriculture1 but every disturbance of an old and stable civilisation has temporarily encouraged the pastoral as contrasted with the agricultural industries4 ,in regard to the other animals of the ,mediterranean1 mention need only be made of the domesticated birds4 ,the fowl has long been known2 it is believed to have been introduced from the ,east eight centuries ,b4,c4 ,both the eggs and the flesh are of great importance as a source of food4 ,in spite of ,roman history1 geese are relatively unimportant1 as are also ducks1 but the turkey1 late introduction from ,america1 is well suited to the climate and has become important4 ,pigeons are everywhere abundant1 sometimes so much so that their manure is extensively used as a fertiliser4 ,we have already mentioned silkworms1 and students of classical history know that bees have long been kept4 99 99 99 99 99 ,if we sum up what has been said about ,mediterranean cultivated plants1 we may note that these have been derived partly from native plants1 partly from plants native to the warm forest country of eastern ,asia1 and partly from ,american plants4 ,regarding for a moment the ,eurasiatic continent as a whole1 we may say that the old civilisations1 both to the east and to the west1 arose in the forest regions--in the monsoon forests to the east1 in the drought-resisting forest or scrub of the west4 ,the temperate forest of ,asia has produced no great civilisation1 and the civilisation of the temperate forest zone of ,europe has owed much to the earlier civilisation of the ,mediterranean1 with which it has always had free communication4 ,this free communication has taken place chiefly by means of the ,mediterranean seaboard of ,france1 especially by means of the great ,rhone valley1 which forms a natural highway to the north4 ,france1 with both an ,atlantic and a ,mediterranean seaboard1 has been the natural intermediary between the ,mediterranean scrub land1 with its characteristic civilisation1 and the temperate forest region1 with its colder climate1 and its greater rainfall1 which produce a corresponding difference in the cultivated plants4 ,we have seen that wheat is the great bread plant of the ,mediterranean1 and it is interesting to note that in this respect ,france is almost purely ,mediterranean4 ,it is1 above all1 the country of white bread1 which plays a very important part in the dietary of the people4 ,in ordinary years the country produces nearly as much wheat as it consumes4 ,in addition to this large use of wheat as a bread plant1 ,france shows strong ,mediterranean influence in the part which wine plays in the dietary of the people1 in the variety of vegetables1 especially kinds of pulse1 which are grown2 in the fact that fowls and pork form a large part of the animal food consumed1 and in that flax has been grown in considerable amounts for long ages1 so that linen is an important part of household wealth4 ,the ,midi is of course definitely ,mediterranean in culture1 but just as the vine extends far to the north and west so also do ,mediterranean influences extend far beyond the region of ,mediterranean climate and ,mediterranean flora4 ,but fertile as much of ,france is1 it must not be regarded as consisting of nothing but fields of waving wheat4 ,to complete and correct the picture we must add that1 as in ,russia1 considerable amounts of buckwheat are grown for use as human food4 ,buckwheat1 the black wheat of the ,french1 perhaps introduced by the ,arabs1 is not a true cereal1 but a relative of the knot-grass of ,british fields4 ,it is very easily grown1 even on poor land1 and in ,france replaces wheat where the conditions are unfavourable1 or where agriculture is backward4 ,it is not without interest to note that while its use in ,france as human food is an indication of extreme poverty1 in the ,united ,states buckwheat cakes take a place as a luxury4 ,oatcakes in lowland ,scotland1 black bread in well-to-do households in ,germany1 are other similar instances of the reappearance of a despised food-stuff as a luxury4 ,such foods become luxuries when they can be used to supplement1 not to replace1 white bread4 ,most of the buckwheat of ,france1 however1 is now grown as food for domesticated animals4 ,again1 fruit trees are extensively grown in ,france as in the ,mediterranean region1 with a gradual increase in the forms which require more moisture and less heat as we travel northwards4 ,the typically ,mediterranean forms early disappear1 while many kinds of plums1 pears and apples increase in numbers and in value4 ,as we travel northwards also1 the various forms of berries1 scarcely represented in the south1 increase in importance4 ,the strawberries of ,brittany form a good example1 but throughout ,europe generally this change takes place1 culminating in the enormous wealth of wild berries--cranberries1 whortleberries1 and so on1 which is a characteristic feature of the ,scandinavian uplands in late summer4 ,as we travel to the north-west also1 with the increase in the rainfall and the consequent increase in pasturage1 the number of cattle increases1 and with them the increased use of beef as food1 and the increased use of cows' milk and milk products4 ,this is well seen in the broad fields of ,normandy1 while still further west1 in the ,british ,islands1 pastures become more and more extensive1 and only the existence of a well-marked rain shadow on the eastern seaboard1 which is robbed of much of its rainfall by the hills of the west1 makes the extensive growth of wheat possible in south-eastern ,england4 ,with the increase of pasture1 and the increased cold of winter1 as compared with the ,mediterranean area1 we have stall-feeding1 with the possibility of collecting manure for the fields4 ,the consequence is that ,england1 with a climate very different from that which wheat experiences elsewhere1 has a yield per acre greater than that of any other country in the world4 ,france1 despite her warmth and sunshine1 only gets an average of #ai bushels to the acre from her wheat fields1 while in ,england1 where wheat can only be grown at a profit when the conditions are especially favourable1 the average yield is #cj bushels per acre4 ,in those parts of ,europe where the climate or soil does not suit cereals1 even such cereals as oats and rye1 there is a tendency for these to be partially replaced as the basis of the diet by plants requiring less sunshine and tolerant of greater moisture4 ,thus in ,ireland and ,north ,germany1 the potato is a very important article of diet1 while in ,france and in ,mediterranean regions generally it is unimportant4 ,similarly1 towards the north the fowl in the pot tends to be replaced by fish1 in the case of those who cannot afford beef or mutton4 ,in the more northern regions also1 with their relatively large rainfall1 root crops play a very important part4 ,most of these are grown for the domestic animals1 as turnips1 mangels1 swedes1 etc41 a phenomenon which does not occur in the ,mediterranean area to any extent2 but the sugar beet1 whose cultivation is spreading greatly in northern and central ,europe1 is of course grown for its yield of sugar4 ,we have seen that wine is the universal drink through the greater part of ,france1 and this in spite of the fact that the northern limit of the vine1 so far as wine-making is concerned1 is in ,france about lat4 #dg-a_/b1 that is1 about the north of the ,loire4 ,in ,germany1 the vine reaches to the east1 in the ,province of ,posen1 a latitude of nearly #ec ,n41 owing to the fact that the summers grow warmer as we pass eastward4 ,nevertheless1 in ,germany1 as a general rule1 wine is a luxury1 the influence of ,mediterranean culture being less felt than in ,france4 ,throughout ,germany1 as throughout northern ,europe generally1 wine is replaced by beverages made by the fermentation of cereals or other plant products rich in starch4 ,throughout ,germany1 as throughout much of ,england1 beer is the characteristic drink1 and associated with it we have the growth of hops1 used as a flavouring material4 ,further north stronger beverages tend to be used4 ,another plant which is widely grown in the more northerly parts of ,europe1 especially in ,russia and the ,baltic countries1 is flax1 which1 though originally ,mediterranean1 is now grown for its fibre chiefly in the north1 partly because it is especially suited for flat moist land4 ,having now looked at the cultivated plants of the ,mediterranean in their bearing on the life of the inhabitants1 and compared with them the plants cultivated in extra-,mediterranean areas1 let us conclude this chapter by a few words on the purely pastoral peoples4 ,these do not now occur in ,europe in unmodified form1 but the ,asiatic steppes still contain pastoral folk1 diminishing with the progress of civilisation4 ,there can be no doubt that such pastoral folk have repeatedly invaded ,europe1 and have there undergone modifications owing to the different conditions which prevail4 ,of pastoral folk in the unmodified form the ,kirghiz of the ,asiatic steppes form perhaps the best example4 ,they are pure nomads1 wandering about in search of pasture for their numerous herds1 and dwelling in a movable tent1 or yurt1 which can be readily carried from one place to another4 ,the herds consist of horses1 sheep1 goats1 cattle1 and camels1 and the females of all these animals are milked4 ,the ,kirghiz do not cultivate land1 or only to a very slight extent1 and practically do not eat bread1 though flour and rice1 obtained by barter1 are employed by the richer4 ,milk and milk-products1 with the flesh of the flocks1 form the basis of the diet1 and a milk-wine or koumiss1 produced by the fermentation of milk1 is the characteristic drink4 ,this brief description is based upon that of the traveller ,brehm1 and as it was written some fifty years ago1 matters have doubtless changed considerably since1 but it remains as the typical picture of the nomadic pastoral life4 ,in the smaller spaces of densely populated ,europe it would of course be impossible1 and here pastoral nomadism is mostly replaced by that modified form known as transhumance upon which we have already touched4 ,as the ,european peoples of ,asiatic origin are specially found on high ground1 we may conclude by contrasting briefly with the above the life of the pastoral folk of ,switzerland4 ,here there is no yurt or movable tent1 but the old conditions are suggested by the fact that each family may possess as many as four houses4 ,thus in some of the valleys tributary to the ,rhone in the canton ,valais the following conditions occur4 ,there is first the true village1 where each house is a miniature homestead1 with dwelling1 cow-house1 hayloft1 and granaries or store-houses4 ,round about are fields1 where rye1 the characteristic cereal1 is grown1 with some fodder plants4 ,higher up the valley is the spring pasture or mayen1 whither the cows are driven in ,may1 to feed until the alps or high pastures are clear of snow4 ,at the mayen there are cow-houses1 and also human habitations1 though not of an elaborate type4 ,further up1 again1 there are necessarily huts near the high pastures1 whither a few men only go with the cows as herds1 and where the cheese is made4 ,the fourth village is placed on the hot plain of the ,rhone valley1 and here are the vineyards whose produce gives the much-prized wine1 and orchards which yield fruit4 ,we find here therefore a curious combination of pastoral and agricultural life4 ,mostly of the race called ,alpine1 believed to be of ,asiatic origin1 these ,swiss folk have borrowed the vine and the use of wine from the ,mediterranean peoples4 ,the large part played in their diet by milk products1 especially various forms of cheese1 must be an inheritance from their nomad ancestors1 while the rye1 which is their bread plant1 is also a heritage from ,asiatic ancestors4 ,the occurrence of four sets of dwellings instead of a movable one is an adaptation to life in a settled community1 confined to a limited space4 ,the whole social polity is thus a curious example of a transitional condition4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we have thus1 in successive chapters1 shown that in ,europe three chief zones of vegetation exist1 the ,mediterranean scrub land1 the temperate forest zone1 the steppe or pasture land1 and that as each of these is determined by climate1 each1 again1 has special types of cultivated plants and domesticated animals1 involving a special social polity in each case4 ,now it is interesting to note1 what cannot be a pure coincidence1 that in ,europe three races of men exist1 which show a certain rough correspondence to the three zones of vegetation4 ,the ,mediterranean type of vegetation and climate is associated with a particular race1 to which the name of ,mediterranean has been given4 ,the race is by no means confined to the ,mediterranean region--we find representatives of it1 e4 g4 in western ,ireland1--nor does it occupy the whole of that region1 for in many places it is pressed hard by other races1 but it reaches its fullest development within the ,mediterranean basin4 ,curiously enough1 also1 its presence in western ,ireland is associated with the presence of certain representatives of the ,mediterranean flora1 notably the arbutus or strawberry tree and ,st4 ,dabeoc's heath4 ,the characteristic inhabitants of the temperate forest region of ,europe are the members of the race called ,teutonic or ,nordic1 whose particular type of civilisation is deeply stamped by the lessons they learnt in their early struggle with the forest4 ,finally1 the steppe and pasture lands1 whether in parts of ,russia1 in the ,hungarian plain1 or in the ,alps and in the uplands of ,brittany and ,central ,europe1 etc41 tend to be occupied by a third race1 which seems to have originated in the steppes of ,asia1 and to which the somewhat inappropriate name of ,alpine has been given1 though it occurs in lowlands to the east as well as in uplands to the west4 ,this race seems to be accompanied throughout ,europe by plants and animals of ,asiatic origin4 ,the full meaning of this association between racial peculiarities and types of vegetation cannot perhaps be formulated meantime1 but it is interesting to note that there are some curiously close connections between human life and the distribution of vegetation4 ,for instance1 all travellers in ,switzerland must have been struck by the curious fact that in following up the ,rhone valley from the lake of ,geneva to the ,rhone glacier the ,french language is found to extend up to the town of ,sion1 and beyond1 without any obvious cause1 ,german prevails4 ,it has been pointed out recently that the eastward extension of the ,french language here marks also the eastward extension of the sweet chestnut--a curious coincidence4 ,again1 the same writer points out that the battle-ground between the ,french and ,german peoples round the ,rhine is the region where the growth of the sweet chestnut as a planted tree reaches its eastward limit4 ,such facts must not1 of course1 be over-emphasised4 ,both must indicate a climatic change1 but it can hardly be supposed that this change of climate is sufficient to affect man directly4 ,it seems at least justifiable to point out that every human group which reaches any degree of civilisation and stability must depend for its permanence in the early stages on some special skill in the growing of certain cultivated plants1 and the rearing of certain domesticated animals4 ,we have much reason to believe that this skill is often difficult to acquire by other groups4 ,the great difficulties which have been experienced in introducing e4 g4 ,smyrna figs and dates into the ,united ,states2 the fact that ,europeans seem to find it impossible to manage camels without native help1 and that they have been hitherto unable1 despite most elaborate and costly experiments1 to tame the ,african elephant1 seem to be minor illustrations of this fact4 ,given1 then1 an evolving group spreading over the surface of the globe1 and taking with it its characteristic plants and animals1 it is probable enough that such a change of climate1 even a minor change1 as may be sufficient to render it impossible to cultivate these plants1 or to rear these animals1 may give a definite and more or less permanent check to the spread of the race4 ,there is at least some evidence to this effect1 and it gives an additional interest to the study of plant geography4 ,we have limited ourselves in this chapter practically to a consideration of the ,european area1 because the existing cultivated plants and domesticated animals of ,north ,america are almost all derived from ,europe1 with the exceptions already indicated1 and a few others not of great importance1 and their distribution in ,america is determined by the same conditions as in ,europe4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,races ,,of ,,europe ,,and ,,their ,,origin ,we have spoken in the previous chapter of the three chief races of ,europe1 but before proceeding to discuss them in detail it is necessary to clear the ground of certain misconceptions and difficulties4 ,the first of these is the notion that nationality has anything to do with race1 in the anthropological sense4 ,there is much to be said for the view that the ,european civilisations owe their development largely to the mingling of races which has occurred within the area2 it is at least certain that no ,european nation1 whatever the fervour of its citizens' patriotism1 is of anthropologically pure race4 ,there is no ,british race1 no ,french race1 no ,german race1 even though the word ,germanic is sometimes applied to one of the strains which occurs in the ,german ,empire4 ,we recognise this fact1 of course1 in our popular language1 for the contrast between the ,briton of ,saxon race and the ,briton of ,celtic race is a favourite literary topic4 ,unfortunately for accuracy1 the people within the ,british area who speak ,celtic languages are not all of the same race1 and there is nothing more certain than the fact that few of them1 if any1 have any distinct trace of ,celtic blood4 ,although in literature also the comparison between the ,celts of ,brittany and the ,celts of ,wales and western ,great ,britain generally is a favourite one1 upon which many deductions have been based1 it is certain that the ,bretons are not homogeneous1 and that they have language but not race in common with the dark-haired ,welsh4 ,this naturally leads us to the second point of importance--that language has nothing to do with race4 ,in his book on the ,races of ,europe1 ,ripley illustrates this in a very interesting way by a consideration of the languages and races of the ,iberian ,peninsula4 ,this peninsula shows at the present time relative purity of race--not absolute purity1 for a mingling has certainly occurred1 but nevertheless one race1 that which we have called ,mediterranean1 enormously predominates4 ,yet in spite of this relative purity of race1 the peninsula is divided between two nationalities and no less than three languages4 ,portugal forms a separate nation with its own language1 while ,spain1 though forming one nation1 has two languages1 ,castilian or ,spanish1 and ,catalan4 ,catalan is nearly related to ,langue d'oc1 the language of ,provence across the ,french border4 ,provenal again1 before its gradual displacement by the ,langue d'oeil1 or true ,french1 was spoken by men of the ,mediterranean as well as of the ,alpine race4 ,within both ,french and ,spanish territory still another language1 ,basque1 is spoken4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4--,the ,iberian ,peninsula and part of ,france1 to show the distribution of languages1 and their independence of political boundaries4 7,after ,ripley47 ,in other words1 the almost uniform race of the ,iberian peninsula speaks four separate tongues1 the ,portuguese1 ,castilian1 ,catalan1 and ,basque languages1 and the political boundary of the ,pyrenees separates at its eastern end two groups of ,mediterranean man1 speaking similar languages1 ,catalan or ,provenal1 the latter of which is also spoken1 or was spoken1 in ,france by the men of another race1 the ,alpine1 found in the uplands of southern and central ,france1 as well as elsewhere4 ,ripley's explanation of the heterogeneity of language combined with homogeneity of race in ,spain and ,portugal is interesting4 ,the peninsula was peopled from ,africa before the dawn of history1 by a division of the ,mediterranean race called ,iberian1 which traversed the ,strait of ,gibraltar4 ,this race established itself firmly in the peninsula and has persisted there despite infusions of other races from the north and north-east4 ,but the road from ,africa remained open1 and the region was constantly liable to new invasions from the area of its prime origin4 ,differences of culture produced fierce warfare between the incoming and the old established race1 and led temporarily to the triumph of the invaders1 known to history as ,saracens and ,moors4 ,the original ,iberians1 like the people of the same stock in ,wales and parts of the ,scottish ,highlands1 were pushed back to the mountains of ,galicia1 to the hill country of ,castile1 to the hills of ,aragon and round and over the ,pyrenees to ,languedoc and the south of ,france generally4 ,ultimately they reasserted themselves1 and drove the ,moors out of ,europe1 but the driving force was exerted from three different centres1 ,galicia1 ,castile1 and ,aragon1 which1 owing to the configuration of the country1 were isolated from each other4 ,a political accident united ,castile and ,aragon1 and imposed ,castilian ,spanish on a united ,spain as the official language1 but the geographical conditions have led to the long retention of the ,catalan speech1 though not of a ,catalan nation4 ,the ,iberians who found a refuge in the mountains of ,galicia1 at a later date1 formed the nucleus of the ,portuguese nation4 ,with these preliminary considerations we may pass to the discussion of what is known1 or surmised1 as to the different races of ,europe and their origin4 ,the earliest man who has left traces in ,europe is he of the ,palolithic ,period1 or ,old ,stone ,age1 a hunter and cave-dweller without domesticated animals1 whose traces are especially found in southern ,europe4 ,no traces of his presence have yet been found in ,scandinavia or in ,scotland1 where the climatic conditions perhaps made his existence impossible4 ,not much is known of this early race1 but it seems to have been long-headed1 and was probably dark4 ,it is no longer believed that there was a complete rupture between the culture of the ,palolithic period1 with its unpolished stone implements1 and that of the ,neolithic age1 with its polished implements1 but the relations of the two remain somewhat uncertain4 ,the remains of the ,neolithic period are much more extensive and enable us to draw much more satisfactory conclusions as to racial characters4 ,we shall describe briefly some of these ,neolithic remains as they appear in ,great ,britain4 ,before doing this1 however1 it is necessary to say a few words about the means of recognising different races of men4 ,the criterion most employed is that of head form1 and especially what is known as the cephalic index1 that is1 the ratio between the breadth of the skull between the ears and its length from front to back4 ,the ratio is expressed as a percentage1 the length being taken as #ajj1 and the breadth stated as a fraction of it4 ,when the index rises above #hj1 the skull is said to be brachycephalic1 or rounded2 when it is below #ge1 the skull is long1 or dolichocephalic4 ,the ,italian anthropologist1 ,sergi1 adopts another classification of skulls1 based upon the shape1 but this is only a refinement of the ordinary distinction between long and round skulls4 ,another important character1 which1 like the shape of the skull1 can be measured either in the living person or in the skeleton1 is the height1 which has some racial significance4 ,a third character1 of much importance1 is the colouring of the skin1 eyes and hair4 ,this can only be inferred in the case of pre-historic peoples4 ,finally1 the shape of the features1 especially of the nose1 has some racial significance4 ,in the west of ,great ,britain generally1 and extending northwards to ,orkney1 there occur the burying-places of a ,neolithic people1 which have yielded abundant remains1 including skeletons4 ,the cairns1 tumuli1 or barrows of this people are recognised by their elongated shape1 by the fact that they are chambered1 and by the contained skeletons1 which are always those of a dolichocephalic people4 ,long barrows1 long skulls is an anthropological rule for ,england and ,scotland1 no less than for the other parts of ,europe in which these tumuli occur4 ,the skeletons within the barrows show no marks of fire1 so that inhumation not cremation was practised1 and a very curious feature found in ,scotland1 in ,sicily1 in ,egypt and elsewhere1 in tombs supposed to be of similar age1 is that the body is usually placed in a doubled-up position4 ,the position corresponds to the pre-natal position of the human infant1 and this method of burial is supposed to imply some belief in a future life--is a record of a nave hope that man could enter a second time into his mother's womb and be born again4 ,graves of this type1 containing the skeletons of long-headed men1 believed to be of the race which we have called ,mediterranean1 occur not only in western ,great ,britain1 but also in ,france1 in ,scandinavia1 in ,germany1 in the ,mediterranean basin1 and elsewhere4 ,there seems reason to believe that they prove that in ,neolithic times the ,mediterranean race was widely distributed1 especially in the west2 it seems1 further1 tolerably certain that ,mediterranean man himself was an immigrant from the north of ,africa1 and established himself first in the ,mediterranean basin4 ,the members of this race have now1 and apparently have always had1 the following characters3--,the skull is markedly dolichocephalic1 the skin tends to be brown1 the eyes and hair are dark1 the stature is medium and the build slight1 and the nose is rather broad4 ,according to ,prof4 ,sergi there are four great stocks of this race2 of these1 one remained within ,africa1 and has been known under various names1 the ancient ,egyptians1 the ,libyans1 the ,berbers being all of this stock4 ,the other three stocks invaded ,europe1 entering by the three natural routes which present themselves1 that is1 by the three regions where the sea is most easily crossed4 ,the most western group1 the ,iberians1 crossed1 as we have seen1 via ,gibraltar1 and occupied the ,iberian peninsula4 ,the next group1 the ,ligurians1 found an entrance into ,europe via ,sicily1 and passing up into ,italy extended westwards along the ,riviera1 till they encountered the ,iberians in southern ,france4 ,finally1 the third group1 the ,pelasgians1 reached ,greece by means of the islands of that part of the ,mediterranean4 ,it still remains uncertain whether an earlier migration still had peopled ,europe with ,palolithic man1 who1 on this theory1 would belong also to the ,mediterranean race1 or whether the immigrant ,african race displaced some earlier unrelated population4 ,in any case1 it is tolerably certain that the first peopling of ,europe on any considerable scale was the result of this immigration of ,mediterranean man4 ,he doubtless first established himself on the margin of the great sea1 and there became thoroughly suited to his environment4 ,later he spread northwards1 being no doubt especially attracted by the relatively mild climate of the west1 by what has been called the winter gulf of warmth which extends over north-western ,europe4 ,whatever was the cause of his northward trend1 however1 ,mediterranean man does not appear to have been left long in undisturbed possession of his acquired territory4 ,in ,scotland1 in the ,clyde valley1 which is typical of many other parts of ,europe1 round barrows or cairns are found side by side with the long ones4 ,these are of later origin1 as is shown by the nature of the pottery1 by the occurrence of ornaments1 and especially by the presence of bronze weapons--a great advance upon stone4 ,the skeletons in these cairns mostly show marks of fire1 suggesting that cremation was practised1 and the skulls are those of a round-headed race4 ,round barrows mean round skulls is a second anthropological maxim for ,britain4 ,these barrows are the first traces of the second great ,european race1 called ,alpine1 ,celtic1 ,eurasiatic1 or ,celto-,slavic by different anthropologists4 ,the members of this race are of medium height1 but are more stoutly built than ,mediterranean man4 ,though generally resembling him in the coloration of hair and eyes1 they are lighter in tint1 the hair tending to be chestnut-coloured1 and the eyes hazel grey1 instead of both being very dark as in the former race4 ,the nose1 though variable1 is in living types usually rather broad1 and the special feature is of course the round head and broad face4 ,as one of the names given indicates1 this race is supposed by most anthropologists to have been of ,asiatic origin4 ,where the two sets of barrows occur there are indications that the incoming race greatly influenced the culture of the old4 ,the use of bronze must have given its members an enormous advantage in the struggle for existence1 and they seem to have imposed their customs1 burial and other1 and apparently also their language1 on the older race4 ,this conflict of races which has left its traces in the ,clyde valley apparently occurred in other parts of ,europe4 ,everywhere the new race imposed its language and its customs upon the old1 and everywhere its appearance is associated with a change and a rise in culture4 ,it is presumed by the majority that this ,alpine race brought with it the use of bronze1 and was therefore at a higher level than ,mediterranean man1 but ,prof4 ,sergi believes that the appearance of bronze and of the new race simultaneously was a mere coincidence1 and that the ,mediterranean race itself originated the use of metals4 ,meantime there is no means of deciding this question1 which in any case is not of supreme importance1 but what seems clear is that everywhere1 except in the ,mediterranean basin1 the new race pressed the old one hard1 whether by its skill in the arts of peace or in those of war remains uncertain4 ,even in the ,mediterranean the old languages went down before that of ,alpine man4 ,in the ,mediterranean area the new-comers seized the upland regions1 that is1 as we have suggested1 the regions of pasture1 and ousted the longheads permanently from them4 ,in ,spain and ,portugal1 perhaps because of the vicinity of the reservoir of the race in ,north ,africa1 ,mediterranean man kept his hold1 and the brachycephalic forms did not succeed in obtaining much foothold4 ,but they are strongly represented in parts of southern ,france4 ,in southern ,italy1 in ,sicily1 ,corsica and ,sardinia ,mediterranean man largely kept out the intruders1 though they appear again on the ,alpine slopes of the north of ,italy4 ,but in the eastern ,mediterranean the dark longheads are hard pressed and have kept little save the seaboard from the broadheads4 ,outside the ,mediterranean area1 the success of ,alpine man was more checkered1 but we are met with the difficulty that here a third race supervened later1 so that existing conditions are not necessarily comparable to earlier conditions4 ,at the present time ,alpine man occupies almost all the upland and therefore relatively infertile regions of ,france1 especially ,savoy and the ,dauphiny1 the central uplands1 and parts 7not the whole7 of ,brittany4 ,outliers of this race also occur in other regions1 e4 g4 in parts of the ,sane valley1 which is not infertile4 ,in ,great ,britain1 despite their first success1 the broadlands have left little trace on the existing population4 ,we thus see the absurdity of talking about ,british ,celts1 for ,celts in the true sense are almost extinct in ,britain though their language remains and is spoken by types of ,mediterranean man as well as by others4 ,in ,scandinavia ,alpine man was more successful1 for he has left traces in various parts1 especially on the coast of ,norway4 ,throughout ,belgium and in ,southern ,germany the broad-headed element in the population is very strong1 while in ,austria1 the ,balkan ,states and ,russia this race predominates and is no longer confined to elevated or infertile regions4 ,this increase in numbers and in dominance towards the east is one of the facts which lead anthropologists to believe that ,alpine man is of ,asiatic origin4 ,we shall return to him in a moment1 but meantime it is necessary to speak of the third element in ,europe1 the race variously called ,nordic1 ,teutonic1 or even ,germanic1 in spite of the fact that many ,germans belong to the ,alpine race4 ,the members of this race are remarkable for their tall stature1 for their long skulls and face1 for their blue eyes and fair hair1 their light complexions1 and their narrow aquiline noses4 ,the resemblance in skull form leads many anthropologists to regard them as derived from a common stock with the ,mediterranean race1 but the race seems to have originated in ,europe4 ,the place and date of its origin are still quite uncertain4 ,it is possible that it was produced from an early form of the ,mediterranean race in adaptation to the moist climate of western ,europe4 ,ripley gives ,scandinavia as the probable place of origin1 but meantime there can be no certainty4 ,what we do know is that this race shows as perfect an adaptation to the climate of forest-clad temperate ,europe as ,mediterranean man does to the dry climate of that region4 ,just as the border of the ,mediterranean is the province of ,mediterranean man1 and has been his for countless ages1 so north-western ,europe is the almost unchallenged possession of ,nordic man4 ,between the two1 along the great wedge of uplands1 is the land of ,alpine man1 which widens to the east1 his original home4 ,just as ,mediterranean man in the days of his prime pushed north wherever conditions permitted1 so ,nordic man has pushed south1 across the ,alpine barrier1 both in the literal and anthropological sense1 and has left traces of his coming even within the territory of ,mediterranean man4 ,just as the dark-haired ,welsh and the dark-haired strain of ,scottish ,highlanders bear witness to the old exploits of ,mediterranean man1 so do the fair-haired1 tall-statured ,lombards bear witness to the former activity of ,nordic man4 ,nevertheless1 the main territory of the two races is widely separated4 ,the relation of these two types1 at least1 to their zones of distribution is relatively easy to explain4 ,mediterranean man is highly susceptible to diseases of the breathing-organs to which the fair-haired ,nordic type is more resistant4 ,here is one possible explanation of their command of their respective habitats1 and there are many others4 ,the forest-dwelling ,nordic type1 as ,prof4 ,penck points out1 must necessarily have had the family as the unit1 for only by dwelling in small family groups can primitive man war against the forest4 ,mediterranean man1 with his early use of irrigation1 had necessarily to evolve a larger unit1 for irrigation means extensive co-operation1 so that political organisations would arise early in the ,mediterranean4 ,we can hardly doubt that these two facts had some bearing on the survival rate of the two races4 ,the ,nordic race with their strong family life1 and with their abundant pasturage1 had doubtless a relatively low death-rate among the children1 though1 as ,prof4 ,myres points out1 the struggle in adult life must have been keen4 ,in the ,mediterranean1 as he also notes1 the dry summer means difficulties with the water supply1 difficulties in sanitation1 and the risk of pestilence1 which1 with the abundant supply of fruit and the absence or scarcity of milk1 has probably always meant a very high death-rate among the children4 ,but the fact that the struggle for existence among adults was much less keen than among the forest folk1 perhaps prevented this high infantile death-rate from being a great handicap4 ,once the geographical surroundings of the two peoples were changed by migration1 the qualities which aided them to survive in their native habitat might become a positive hindrance4 ,in brief1 as two types evolved in harmony with well-defined geographical conditions1 the very perfectness of their respective adaptations would hinder either from appropriating the territory of the other1 while leaving a considerable margin for struggle on the debatable land between the two geographical regions4 ,if it seems at the present day that the ,nordic race has more than passed the ,mediterranean in the race of life1 we must remember that the fact that coal is chiefly found in the territory of the former1 has given it an enormous economic advantage in recent times1 an advantage which it may not be able to keep4 ,the ,alpine race presents a much more difficult problem4 ,we have said nothing here of the so-called ,aryan problem1 because the whole conception of an ,aryan race advancing from ,asia with a ready-made culture1 and imposing it upon a barbarian ,europe1 is somewhat out of date1 and much that has been written on the subject of the ,aryans preceded in time the disentanglement of the complex problems presented by ,european races4 ,but with all deductions made1 the incoming ,asiatic race which we have called ,alpine presents many curious problems4 ,it seems probable that the languages of ,europe are largely due to the grafting of ,alpine or ,eurasian tongues upon the different tongues already spoken by ,mediterranean man4 ,we have still in ,britain a ,celtic language1 though it is spoken by people of ,mediterranean characters1 and it is an extraordinary fact that a people should impose its language and culture upon another race1 and yet be itself unable to keep its footing among that race4 ,it has been suggested that the new-comers1 in ,britain at least1 were never more than an aristocracy1 and that they disappeared by the mingling of their blood with the indigenous people1 after having long dominated them4 ,that is1 it was as if we might suppose that the ,british population in ,india was cut off from the mother country1 and ultimately disappeared owing to intermarriage1 while their language and their customs remained in greatly modified form and replaced the existing languages and customs4 ,the difficulties in regard to this hypothesis are twofold4 ,in the first place1 such a hypothesis of mingling seems inconsistent with the extraordinary persistency which this race has manifested in other parts of ,europe1 where it came into contact with the same races as in ,britain2 and1 second1 the position of the ,alpine race in western ,europe generally1 its virtual limitation to relatively infertile land1 seems inconsistent with the notion that it ever formed an aristocracy1 apart from and above the other races4 ,to-day in ,germany it is so far from occupying the position of an aristocracy that it sometimes forms the lower classes to a ,nordic dominant class1 though the ,alpine race is sometimes stated to be better adapted to town life than the ,nordic4 ,of the three races1 ,mediterranean man seems to be perfectly adapted to a dry region1 with deficient pasture1 naturally clothed with a drought-resisting type of forest4 ,as he prospered he spread beyond his own region1 with the result that he reached a region markedly different in climate and vegetation from his own1 to which his adaptation was never very perfect4 ,where1 as in ,ireland and western ,great ,britain1 the conditions permitted the natural growth of some of the ,mediterranean plants1 there his hold was fairly firm1 elsewhere it must always have been loose and uncertain4 ,into a ,europe thus peopled1 with probably large vacant spaces1 came a pastoral type of man from ,asia1 certainly a transporter1 if not an originator1 of a higher culture1 best fitted for a region of pasture land1 but better fitted than ,mediterranean man to withstand cold4 ,he filled the spaces which ,mediterranean man could not fill1 and pressed him hard in many places4 ,ultimately the forest region of ,europe evolved its own type1 perhaps from some aberrant strain of ,mediterranean man1 and this type1 perfectly fitted to the forest regions1 conquered the north and west1 driving ,alpine man up to the hills1 and largely displacing ,mediterranean man except where distinctively ,mediterranean influences prevailed4 ,to the east1 as the ,european forest dies away into the steppes of ,asia1 ,nordic man can no longer compete successfully with ,alpine man1 and diminishes in numbers and in strength4 ,thus while in ,germany the tendency is for the tall1 fair longheads of the north to dominate the short1 darker broadheads of the south1 further to the east this same broad-headed race1 under the banner of ,panslavism1 strives1 not unsuccessfully1 to dominate the longheads of ,finland and elsewhere4 ,thus below and beneath the warfare of race is the contrast of physical conditions1 which have produced the various types of man1 no less than of plants and animals1 and from which man cannot fully emancipate himself4 ,the ,new ,world was first colonised by ,mediterranean man1 but later all the ,european races contributed their part to its peopling4 ,when we add a strong negro element in the southern ,united ,states1 a remnant of the original ,indian population1 and an infusion of eastern races1 it is obvious that the mingling of blood which has apparently produced good results in ,europe1 is being carried out on a much more elaborate scale across the ,atlantic4 ,one other point may be touched upon4 ,we have shown that the nations of ,europe are not races in the pure sense4 ,but1 at the same time1 it may be noted that in the western nations one or other of the two chief races tends to predominate at the expense of the other4 ,thus broadly we may say that the antagonism between the ,french and ,german nationalities is fed by the fact that in race1 in culture1 in tradition1 the one is predominantly ,mediterranean1 and the other predominantly ,teutonic4 ,in the ,iberian peninsula1 as we have seen1 the ,mediterranean strain enormously predominates1 while in the countries of the north-west the ,teutonic race tends to overbalance the other4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,distribution ,,of ,,minerals ,,and ,,the ,,localisation ,,of ,,industries ,,and ,,of ,,towns ,the distribution of minerals over the surface of the earth is much less obvious phenomenon than that of plants and animals1 but it has always been of great importance in determining the distribution of man and his settlements4 ,except in the most primitive communities man must have tools and implements2 probably never since he became man has he been without weapons4 ,the first sign of emergence from the rudest barbarism is the use of metals1 instead of stone or bone1 to construct these tools and weapons and the necessity for finding the metals best suited to his use at each stage of civilisation has always influenced the movements and settlements of man4 ,the existence of useful metals in a particular area must always attract population to that spot1 and it is obvious in the case of ,australia1 of ,california1 and later of ,alaska1 how strong the attractive power of metals is1 even when the other conditions are distinctly unfavourable4 ,as metals have always had this attractive power1 the study of their distribution must always be important to the geographer4 ,we have seen that the first men whose remains have been preserved in ,europe used only implements of stone1 but that at a later state bronze was used1 and corresponded to a marked rise in civilisation1 as shown by the improved pottery1 the nature of the ornaments used1 and so on4 ,now bronze is not a metal but an alloy or mixture of two metals1 copper and tin4 ,this alloy is very hard1 and possesses qualities which make it more valuable for weapons and tools than the relatively soft metal copper4 ,but we can hardly suppose that the first metal-workers discovered1 immediately after they had learnt how to smelt metals1 that a mixture of metals was more useful than a pure one4 ,in point of fact1 it is clear that in some places1 at least1 the age of bronze was preceded by a period when developing man used pure copper for his implements4 ,our word copper is derived from the name of the island of ,cyprus1 which is particularly rich in copper ores4 ,in this island they were smelted at a very early date1 the process being aided by two facts1 first1 that copper ores are relatively easy to smelt1 and1 second1 that the necessary fuel for the process was furnished by the forests which formerly covered the island1 and which were largely destroyed by the early smiths4 ,for our purpose it is quite unnecessary to discuss the difficult and debated question as to where the use of copper and bronze originated4 ,it is sufficient to note that the island of ,cyprus1 placed near early centres of civilisation seems to have been the region from which a knowledge of the pure metal and of its more useful alloy radiated over the ,mediterranean and ultimately over ,europe generally4 ,it is more than probable that the use of copper or of bronze spread faster than the knowledge of the method of producing either4 ,it is at least clear that in many cases the ,stone and ,bronze ,ages co-existed1 suggesting that the new type of implements was at first very difficult to obtain4 ,no doubt for long ages they occupied the position which firearms long occupied among savage races1 and which they still occupy among those most remote from civilisation4 ,in ,cyprus itself very few stone implements occur1 suggesting that the ,stone ,age was very short1 and rapidly gave place to a metal one4 ,we do not know how the discovery was made that the addition of tin improved copper for human purposes4 ,bronzes of very varying composition have been found1 including many which contain antimony1 a somewhat rare metal1 still employed in making many useful alloys4 ,it is suggested that the first smiths tried a great number of combinations before they found one which was satisfactory1 and finally fixed upon tin as the most suitable addition4 ,the next point of interest is the source of the tin4 ,this is a question of great interest1 for long after iron had been used1 and used extensively in the manufacture of implements1 the demand for bronze continued1 for the iron1 even of late ,roman days1 was very costly and probably very troublesome to make4 ,bronze also became of importance in connection with the coinage of civilised nations4 ,tin is not a very abundant metal1 and it is rare in the ,mediterranean4 ,the deposits which were utilised by the first makers of bronze have doubtless completely disappeared1 for from the early days of civilisation the tin deposits even of ,far ,britain were sought4 ,within the ,mediterranean region at the present time only one tin deposit of any importance is known4 ,this occurs in the village of ,montecatini1 which is situated near ,volterra in ,italy1 in the ancient ,etruria4 ,it perhaps played a part in connection with the development of the civilisation of ancient ,etruria4 ,outside of the ,mediterranean the main deposits of tin in ,europe occur1 or occurred1 in three separate areas1 which formed as it were three stages in one journey1 and whose position certainly made them a factor in promoting the spread of ,mediterranean culture to the north-west4 ,these three rich tin-bearing areas were3 7#a7 ,galicia in north-western ,spain1 7#b7 the south of ,brittany1 especially between the estuaries of the ,loire and the ,vilaine1 a deposit long since exhausted1 and 7#c7 the still-important deposits of southern ,england1 in ,cornwall and parts of ,devon1 which are believed to have been visited by the ,phoenicians4 ,just as the gold of ,california brought population and civilisation to the ,far ,west of ,north ,america long before the natural increase of eastern peoples would have led to a westward movement1 so the rich tin deposits of south-western ,britain1 with the other metals of those favoured islands1 brought merchants and navigators to what was the ,far ,west of ancient ,europe4 ,the bold navigators who had learnt their craft in the ,mediterranean ,sea left its basin by the ,strait of ,gibraltar1 and visited successively those masses of ancient rocks which project out into the ocean1 and form the western extremities of ,spain1 ,france and ,britain4 ,but it was not only the sea route which was utilised1 at least in later times4 ,perhaps so long ago as five centuries before our era a land route was organised which carried ,british tin to ,marseilles1 and thus to the ,mediterranean4 ,the great valley of the ,rhone renders such a traverse of ,france feasible1 and the passage from the valley to the ,rhone to that of the ,loire or of the ,seine is easy4 ,the existence of a commerce in tin thus ensured that ,france was early and deeply permeated by ,mediterranean civilisation1 for it involved the existence of high roads through her land1 at a time when northern ,europe generally was cut off from the civilisation of the ,mediterranean4 ,there is even reason to believe that trade in tin led to the founding of an early maritime power on the barren shores of ,brittany4 ,the trade in tin certainly did much to open the way for the future civilisation of ,france4 ,though1 as we have indicated1 bronze was for long of relatively great importance1 yet the use of iron dates back to great antiquity4 ,it seems to have been a rare and precious metal when the ,homeric poems took shape1 and for long afterwards its use was partial and limited4 ,the fact1 however1 that it is very readily destroyed by rust when exposed to air and damp1 makes it difficult to draw any certain conclusions from its absence in ancient remains4 ,the slow growth of the use of iron must be largely ascribed to the great difficulties in smelting it1 especially when it occurs in impure forms4 ,iron does not occur in the pure state1 as copper does to a small extent1 but it is enormously abundant1 being found1 to a greater or less extent1 in almost all rocks4 ,relatively pure ores are rare1 most iron-bearing minerals containing a large number of impurities1 some of which are very difficult to remove4 ,further1 the process of smelting always requires much fuel1 and1 in the case of the more impure ores1 remarkable skill and science4 ,the result was that the early smiths could only employ a very high grade of ore2 all others were useless to them4 ,even with a high grade of ore1 they could only extract a relatively small amount of the iron present4 ,a very curious little proof of this latter fact is furnished by the ,roman iron workings in the ,forest of ,dean in ,gloucestershire4 ,the refuse thrown out of the ancient furnaces worked by the ,romans here1 was re-smelted by the ,british smiths long centuries afterwards1 and this refuse fed their furnaces for a period of between two and three hundred years4 ,the next point of interest in regard to iron is the source of the necessary fuel4 ,at first wood or charcoal was always employed1 and therefore iron could only be smelted in the vicinity of forests4 ,thus the ,forest of ,dean1 already mentioned1 supplied the wood used by the ,romans in smelting1 and the trees of the ,weald or wood of ,sussex and ,kent were completely removed during the long centuries when the iron ores of that region were smelted4 ,the ,forest of ,arden1 near ,birmingham1 is another region where iron was long smelted by the aid of charcoal4 ,the amount of fuel required1 especially in the early days1 was very great1 and as the forests were cleared without any regard for scientific forestry1 it naturally followed that in many districts the destruction of the necessary fuel led to a diminution of the industry4 ,in ,england coal was not generally employed in the smelting of iron until after the middle of the eighteenth century1 and long before that the ,british forests had been largely destroyed4 ,the result was that the ,british iron industry had declined1 and in the early part of that century considerably more iron was imported than was made in ,england4 ,the countries which at this time were specially favoured in connection with the industry were those in which pure iron ores co-existed with extensive forests4 ,this condition occurred especially in ,germany1 where the iron deposits formerly worked were those of the upland regions which have kept their forests till this day4 ,thus the wood and the ores of the ,harz ,mountains and of the ,erzgebirge1 or ,iron ,mountains1 were of great importance before the industrial revolution1 and up till the early part of the eighteenth century the ,german iron industry was more important than the ,british4 ,the replacement of charcoal by coal led to a great diminution of the cost of production1 and permitted the use of low-grade ores1 but it was not in itself a great improvement4 ,charcoal is a singularly pure form of carbon1 and its use as the reducing agent gives a high quality of iron4 ,coal1 on the other hand1 often contains impurities which spoil the iron1 and have to be provided against in various ways4 ,not all coal1 indeed1 is suitable for iron smelting4 ,the result is that where charcoal can still be obtained cheaply1 as in the ,scandinavian countries and in parts of ,russia1 it is still used in smelting1 and the iron so produced is particularly valuable4 ,the original demand for iron1 as we have seen1 was very small1 and even down to the middle of the eighteenth century remained insignificant4 ,but with the use of machinery1 the spread of railways1 the replacement of wood by iron in shipbuilding and for the framework of buildings1 etc41 the demand in all civilised communities has become enormous1 has become too great to permit of any forests supplying the necessary fuel4 ,with the far increased demand has come an elaboration of methods which means very costly installations and much skill and training among the workers4 ,from the time of the industrial revolution till the present1 then1 a well-developed iron industry has demanded the following3--fuel1 usually furnished by coal2 an abundant supply of the ore1 either furnished locally or easily obtained by water carriage1 ores being so bulky that land carriage is rarely profitable2 certain accessories1 notedly limestone to serve as a flux1 and ganister1 a kind of sandstone used to form a lining in parts of the apparatus used2 capital1 necessary for the purchase and fitting up of the costly plant2 the tradition and skill which come from the long practice of the industry4 ,the significance of these various necessaries may perhaps be realised by a few examples4 ,let us consider first the ,mediterranean area4 ,we have seen that it was civilised from a very early date1 that a considerable part at least of that civilisation was indigenous1 and that its early smiths showed no lack of skill4 ,but with the advent of the age of iron its natural handicap became obvious4 ,the forests of the region never had the luxuriance of those further north1 and must have been early destroyed1 and coal is virtually absent4 ,iron ores are present and are widely distributed2 some1 like those of ,elba and of northern ,spain1 which is outside the area1 are even rich2 but the absence of fuel is a terrible handicap1 and to its absence we must ascribe the present poverty and backwardness of ,mediterranean countries4 ,it is to be noted1 however1 that electricity is coming to be used in smelting1 and especially for making particular kinds of steel1 used for special purposes4 ,to generate this electricity water power is being used1 and the appearance of small factories in the valleys of the ,alpine border1 both in ,france and ,italy1 perhaps marks the beginning of a change which will restore to some of the ,mediterranean countries their ancient glory4 ,these small factories are not only employed in manufacturing high-grade steel1 but also in making nitrogenous manure from the air1 and in other processes4 ,in the valleys in which they occur the inhabitants are forsaking their phylloxera-infested vineyards for the factories1 and the association of the neglected land with the busy factories offers a very curious spectacle1 and suggests that the twentieth century may see great changes in the present distribution of population4 ,meantime this distribution has been almost everywhere in western ,europe enormously influenced by the distribution of coal4 ,everywhere the coal has had an attractive influence1 dragging population1 wealth1 and intelligence from the agricultural regions1 even the fertile regions1 to the vicinity of the coal measures1 where alone great industries can be profitably established4 ,in ,great ,britain1 where the coal-bearing beds are not only numerous1 but in some instances crop out at the surface1 coal seems to have been worked earlier than elsewhere in ,europe4 ,to its earlier utilisation of coal on a large scale ,britain owes its long lead in the struggle for industrial supremacy1 and we thus find the effect of coal upon the distribution of the population illustrated in a more striking way here than elsewhere4 ,further1 ,great ,britain is especially fortunate in that iron usually occurs in close proximity to coal1 and that the other necessities for an iron industry are easily obtainable4 ,its position1 sheltered by ,ireland1 gives it good ports1 and it is rich in other minerals as well as in iron ores and coal4 ,the nature of the change introduced by the great industrial revolution may be realised1 for example1 by thinking of the great cathedrals of ,england1 and noting how insignificant the towns in which they are placed are at the present day when compared with the great centres which have sprung up near the coalfields4 ,yet the very existence of these magnificent monuments of the past means that in the old days the towns in which they were placed were not only centres of population and of wealth1 but had also prestige enough to draw men's eyes towards them4 ,their very peace and cleanliness to-day means that the life of the nation is eddying round other centres4 ,the emotions which found expression in their lofty spires now seek another outlet in the magnificent municipal buildings1 the art galleries1 the hospitals1 the universities and schools of the industrial centres4 ,the same lesson may be learnt by considering the county towns of some of the counties where the change wrought by the industrial revolution has been greatest4 ,what do the towns of ,alnwick1 ,durham1 ,york1 ,lancaster1 ,appleby1 ,carlisle now signify beside the great towns in ,yorkshire and ,lancashire1 which depend for their existence upon the coalfields8 ,the great development of ,north ,america is similarly the product of the age of iron and coal1 and therefore here also population tends to congregate round mineralised regions1 and to be sucked away from the early centres1 which were determined by other causes4 ,in brief we say that it is true generally of the civilised world that the attraction of the towns1 of which we hear so much1 is in reality the attraction of minerals1 especially of coal and iron4 ,this attractive power of minerals is no new thing4 ,when the men armed with bronze or copper weapons and tools conquered those with stone implements1 when iron was found to be better than all three1 then first began that long process which now acts by sucking the countryman into the large industrial towns4 ,when coal became supremely important the small industries1 previously scattered over the localities where some specially favourable conditions presented themselves1 began to concentrate near the coalfields4 ,with the cheap power they developed out of all proportion to their old state1 and new industries were added to the old4 ,thus began that process which made the great manufacturing nations seek markets far beyond their own shores1 and produce far in excess of their own needs4 ,this1 again1 has led to enormous improvements in the means of communication4 ,it must itself1 however1 be necessarily a more or less temporary phenomenon1 to be replaced sooner or later by other conditions1 as the new nations become manufacturers in their turn1 and cease to offer unlimited markets to the old4 ,in regard to the localisation of industries1 it is interesting to note that though the industries are attracted towards coal1 local conditions generally determine which industry or industries shall prosper round a particular coalfield4 ,the moist climate of ,lancashire1 with the relative proximity of the cotton supplies of the ,southern ,united ,states1 has determined the cotton industry of ,lancashire4 ,once established the advantages associated with a going concern make it very difficult for other districts to capture trade1 even when they have greater natural advantages1 e4 g4 the ,southern ,states themselves are now manufacturing areas1 but cannot compete on equal terms with ,lancashire4 ,it is indeed remarkable that the proximity of raw material1 except in cases when this is very bulky1 as with ores1 seems often to be of minor importance in localising industries4 ,thus1 though ,belfast may be said to owe its linen industry primarily to local supplies of flax1 it is noticeable that the local supply is very limited1 and several towns on the east coast of ,scotland1 as ,dunfermline1 ,montrose1 ,arbroath1 etc41 have a flourishing linen industry maintained entirely by imported raw material4 ,a whole host of facts of this kind emphasise the importance of power in the case of a modern industry1 as contrasted with the supreme importance of abundant raw material in the old days when man himself chiefly supplied the motive force4 ,in other words1 modern industry has been very closely associated with improved means of communication1 which alone make it possible to carry cheap raw material over great distances1 without excessive expense for freight4 ,the study of the development of the means of communication is therefore a problem well worth the attention of the geographer1 and is one which has many interesting facts to disclose4 ,man himself is an animal relatively ill-adapted for continuous rapid movement or for the transport of goods4 ,as a transport animal he is the costliest and most inefficient known1 and were it not for the intelligence which enabled him first to utilise other animals for his own purposes1 and later to find mechanical means1 the progress of civilisation would have been impossible4 ,progress in ,africa has been greatly checked by the fact that over a large area man is the only transport animal available1 a fact which brings in its train the slave trade1 and many other serious evils4 ,except in certain special localities the surface of the earth is so uneven that progression1 especially for a loaded man or animal1 is very difficult except on a prepared surface4 ,on the other hand1 the diminution of friction over a water surface makes transport over it relatively easy4 ,it has been pointed out that1 as a result of this fact1 the great civilisations have developed in regions where water transport was possible1 and have involved the progressive utilisation of larger and larger masses of water4 ,the first civilisations developed in river valleys1 where water transport in one direction at least is very easy4 ,the next stage was that which saw man settled on the shores of the great inland sea1 and witnessed his gradual acquisition of greater and greater skill in navigation4 ,as we have seen1 he was soon not content with that sea alone1 but launched out into the open1 and1 hugging the coastline1 found his way to far ,britain4 ,only at a very much later date1 however1 did he conquer the vast ,atlantic outside1 which1 as ,prof4 ,myres points out1 has now become a mere inland sea in its turn1 when compared with the greater oceans beyond4 ,to this day1 however1 the part which water transport plays in human life is reflected in the way in which the denser masses of mankind cluster round the shores of the seas and oceans1 as any map of the distribution of population will show4 ,in water transport the method of propelling the vessel employed is of great importance4 ,in river navigation it is natural to allow the boat to drift with the current1 and the use of a pole to steer with would naturally suggest its use as a paddle or oar in order to move against the current4 ,in ,north ,america up till the appearance of the white man1 the aborigines had not got past the paddle stage1 in spite of the fact that they were very skilful navigators1 and had a considerable variety of vessels4 ,the next stage is of course the sail1 used by most races who venture on open water1 as contrasted with flowing streams and rivers4 ,although before its virtual replacement by steam1 the civilised races had carried the development of the sail to a very high pitch1 yet the difficulties associated with it militated against bold navigation1 more especially in the early days when there was no science of meteorology4 ,thus it has been pointed out that the reason why the effective discovery of ,america was delayed so long was largely due to two meteorological facts4 ,the first of these is that to the north1 the place where the crossing is narrowest1 the ice which streams down the west coast of ,greenland1 and even to this day presents difficulties to navigation off the coasts of ,newfoundland1 formed an effective barrier to early navigators4 ,to the south the great difficulty was the constant north-east trade wind4 ,what ship dare set out towards the unknown blown by a constant wind against which she could not return home again8 ,to ,columbus first1 says ,mr4 ,mackinder1 came the brilliant inspiration that1 while travelling outwards with the trade1 it would be possible to return with the westerly breezes of more northern latitudes4 ,when1 later1 the sail was functionally replaced by steam1 man became virtually independent of the wind1 and only the name of trade wind remains to carry us back to the period when the ocean breezes determined his movements and his commerce4 ,turning now to the surface of the land1 we may note that regions which are snow-covered in winter offer special facilities for rapid locomotion4 ,in the northern part of ,north ,america1 both in the tundra and the forest region1 the aborigines used both snow-shoes and sledges4 ,the ,eskimos to the north use dogs to draw their heavy sledges1 but to the south the ,indians used a lighter form of sledge1 which was dragged by women1 and therefore represents a much more primitive form of transport4 ,even down to the present time the conditions in ,arctic ,america are such that transport facilities are very much greater in winter than in summer1 except in regions close to navigable rivers4 ,snow-sledges and snow-shoes of course occur also on the ,european side of the ,atlantic to the north1 but the domesticated reindeer replaces the dog in ,lapland as the means of traction1 though dogs are used in other parts of the tundra region of the old world4 ,apart from snow-covered regions deserts afford another example of areas in which the surface is frequently so uniform that friction is greatly reduced1 and rapid movement is possible without specially prepared tracks4 ,in the ,sahara1 for example1 which is far from being the waste of sand which is popularly imagined1 there are great areas of almost level surface1 where the soil is firm and elastic1 strewn with gravel1 and like a garden walk4 ,in ,algiers it is possible to drive in high dog-carts over the plateau region in any direction1 regardless of roads1 and in parts of the ,north ,american desert the same thing is true4 ,it has been suggested1 indeed1 that wheeled vehicles were invented by races living near desert regions1 and that the invention thus preceded the making of roads4 ,in the general case1 however1 rapid movement is bound up with the existence of roads or tracks4 ,in parts of ,north ,america1 notably in the region south and east of the ,great ,lakes1 where the rivers are generally unsuitable for navigation by very primitive forms of boats1 the original ,indian inhabitants mostly moved by means of trails through the woods4 ,these trails were the lines of migration of the larger mammals1 especially of the bison1 and it is a remarkable fact that the roads made later by the white immigrants sometimes followed these old trails1 which proved to be the most convenient routes4 ,this suggests one method in which roads and paths might originate1 but the ,indian trails1 like the ,african negroes' paths through the forest1 were excessively narrow and inconvenient4 ,another stage in road evolution is well illustrated in many mountain regions1 i4 e4 in the less-frequented parts of the ,alps4 ,here the mountains are crossed by narrow tracks1 which die away at intervals and then reappear4 ,they are chiefly used by the herdsmen and cattle1 during the periodical migrations to the higher pastures1 and this fact gives rise to certain peculiarities4 ,where the region traversed is very steep the path is usually well marked1 and there may be even attempts to improve difficult parts so as to render it more practicable4 ,when the ground becomes more level the path dies away1 or divides up into a multitude of minor tracks4 ,the reason is obvious4 ,in the steep regions the cows must keep together1 and their constant journeyings render the road well marked4 ,it must also be easy enough to permit of the passage of the animals1 whose agility has its limits4 ,where the ground is level grass usually grows1 and here the cattle spread out in all directions to feed1 and the path naturally dies away4 ,it may be marked on the map as going on to cross a col and so reach another valley1 but as the number of persons making the traverse is likely to be small1 the track is badly marked1 as many a tourist has found to his cost4 ,from such tracks1 which are little more than aids in crossing specially difficult areas1 to the well-made roads which traverse the civilised countries of the world the gap is great1 for1 though the ,romans made magnificent roads1 after their time there was a rapid decay in the art1 and the well-kept roads of the western countries of ,europe are things but of yesterday4 ,with the development of tracks and roads1 as distinct from a mere animal trail through the bush1 there comes the possibility of using pack-animals and wheeled vehicles for transport4 ,the two do not necessarily occur together4 ,thus in ,china and ,japan wheeled vehicles are drawn by human beings1 though in ,china the wheelbarrows drawn by human porters have also sails to aid their propulsion4 ,the use of animals1 whether as pack-animals or for traction1 means a relatively high degree of civilisation1 and means also a food supply normally more than enough for the human members of the community4 ,in many parts of tropical ,africa1 despite the tropical luxuriance of many of the food plants1 and the absence of winter1 there is practically no food reserve1 and the normal condition is that the whole group is within measurable reach of starvation1 should any one of a whole series of probable or possible accidents happen to the plantations4 ,under such conditions large domestic animals1 requiring great quantities of food1 cannot be kept4 ,again1 where the population is dense1 and all the land is required to grow food for man1 it is not possible to set aside regions for the pasturage of domestic animals1 whose numbers must necessarily then be small4 ,this is true of ,china and ,japan1 where domestic hoofed animals are few in number4 ,the contrary condition is of course seen in new countries1 like ,australia and the ,argentine1 where there are far fewer men than sheep and cattle4 ,the ,united ,states is beginning to pass from this condition1 and there have been published already warnings to the community that it cannot go on giving up much of its fertile land to the growth of crops for its domestic animals1 instead of for its citizens directly4 ,of the domestic animals which have assisted man in the work of transport there can be no doubt that the horse is by far the most valuable4 ,it is the strongest1 the swiftest1 and the best fitted for man's purposes4 ,the camel1 of which so much has been written1 is in point of fact a poor substitute for the more valuable animal1 rendered necessary by desert conditions4 ,among the other animals which have played their part as beasts of burden or of traction are many kinds of ox1 including the yak of ,tibet2 the llama of ,south ,america2 the elephant2 the reindeer2 the dog2 and the animals which rank as horses to the zoologist though not to the owner--that is the ass and the mule4 ,just as the use of beasts of burden is an enormous improvement upon human porters1 and that of wheeled vehicles upon beasts of burden1 so is the use of steam an enormous improvement upon wheeled vehicles drawn by animals4 ,railways have practically revolutionised the problem of land transport1 though their cost1 especially in countries of marked relief1 is a great drawback to their universal use4 ,the last few years have seen in the development of motor-driven vehicles a new change1 which has given back to the roads their old importance1 and which will probably in the future greatly aid the development of new countries1 and take from the railways some of their importance4 ,it is too soon yet to say whether the last development of means of transport1 the aeroplane1 is destined to affect greatly man's movements and methods of exchanging commodities4 ,in connection with means of communication a few words must be said about towns and their position1 a subject in which the new geography has been greatly interested4 ,in this chapter we have assumed that the progress of civilisation means1 and has always meant1 an increasing desire on the part of man for freedom of movement1 and an increasing number of wants1 which have led in their turn to an increasing desire for the exchange of commodities4 ,the desire to possess efficient tools and weapons first attracted him1 as we have seen1 to the localities where useful minerals occurred4 ,the new powers so obtained increased his desires1 and also his mobility1 and tended to make him cluster round the spots where his new desires could best be gratified4 ,at a very early stage the desire to exchange commodities must have led to the founding of towns1 whose number and size have increased with the passage of time4 ,of the various causes which have led to the founding of towns at certain spots1 some are obvious4 ,that which has always attracted most attention perhaps is the fortress town1 placed on some rocky peak1 and commanding a well-marked route4 ,but though such towns are imposing1 and seem easily explained1 it is obvious that at no stage of his history has warfare been man's chronic state4 ,even at the worst period1 if there had been no busy group of traders at the foot of the fortress-crowned rock1 its significance could only have been trifling1 and almost all fortress towns show1 in the proximity of another agglomeration more suited to normal human activities1 that the fortress itself was always rather spectacular than significant4 ,edinburgh1 with the old city sloping down to the plain from the great rock1 ,carcassonne with the real city some distance from the theatrical erection on the hill1 are two examples which illustrate this fact4 ,one or two of the chief economic causes of towns may be noted4 ,they tend to occur where there is a break of bulk in goods being carried from one region to another4 ,such break of bulk now takes place at the great ports where the liners unload1 but in the old days the small ships came up the rivers with the tide1 and towns tended to occur at the tidal limit1 as1 e4 g4 at ,newcastle-on-,tyne4 ,towns tend also to occur near natural obstacles to easy transport4 ,thus we have in ,england a great number of bridge towns1 placed at the point where an important river was easily bridged or forded1 and thus where co-operative effort was necessary to smooth over an obstacle4 ,towns tend to occur also where two regions of different natural products meet1 for here the inhabitants of the two regions meet for the purpose of exchange of goods4 ,milan1 at the foot of the ,alps and yet in the plain1 is a good example1 for the products of the plains are not those of the mountains4 ,many cities owe their origin and their fame to some event1 often some religious association which draws great numbers of pilgrims and others4 ,it is often doubtful1 however1 to what extent the supposed cause is the real cause of the city's importance4 ,not every saint founds a city1 not every holy city keeps its fame1 and in the struggle for existence those cities will persist whose natural advantages are greatest4 ,another very important cause of cities is a junction of routes1 for this means that many different types of merchandise will pass this way1 and will give abundant raw material for many minor industries4 ,london is a good example of a town upon which many routes converge1 these being both land routes and water routes4 ,even these few examples may serve to suggest the point of view from which the modern geographer regards towns1 and to illustrate the fact that in this as in other branches of his subject his interest is in the study of causes and of interrelations4 ,,notes ,,on ,,books ,most of the subjects which have been treated in this book fall under the heading of physical geography1 and therefore we may begin these notes by recommending two large works of reference on this subject4 ,salisbury's ,physiography 7,new ,york3 ,henry ,holt ,co41 #aijg1 #c4ej net7 is the most comprehensive work on the subject in ,english4 ,in ,french there is an admirable book by ,e4 de ,martonne1 ,trait de ,gographie ,physique 7,paris3 ,armand ,colin1 #aiji1 price #bb fr471 to be especially recommended for its beautiful plates and diagrams1 and for its copious references4 ,for the subjects treated in the individual chapters the following1 among others1 may be consulted4 ,suess's book translated as ,the ,face of the ,earth 7,oxford3 ,clarendon ,press1 still in course of publication1 price #d net7 is the classical book on earth structure and relief1 and has stimulated research enormously1 but it is not easy to read4 ,for climatology the classical book is ,hann's ,handbuch1 of which the general part has been translated by ,ward as ,handbook of ,climatology 7,new ,york3 ,the ,macmillan ,co41 #aijc1 price #abs4 #f;d474 ,for plant geography reference should be made to ,schimper's ,plant ,geography1 translated by ,fisher 7,oxford3 ,clarendon ,press1 #aijc1 price #dbs4 net71 which is again the classical treatise1 and the basis of most of the later work4 ,for the races of ,europe we have in ,w4 ,z4 ,ripley's ,races of ,europe 7,london3 ,kegan ,paul1 ,trench1 ,trbner ,co41 #aijj1 price #ahs4 net7 a most interesting book1 not difficult and full of most instructive diagrams4 ,another aspect of the same subject is treated in ,sergi's ,the ,mediterranean ,race 7,contemporary ,science ,series1 ,london3 ,walter ,scott1 #aija1 price #fs471 but this is very controversial in tone4 ,for the work of ice1 the most important book is ,die ,alpen im ,eiszeitalter by ,a4 ,penck and ,g4 ,brckner 7,leipzig3 ,tauchnitz1 #aiji1 price #ee marks71 but the line of reasoning followed in it does not convince all geographers1 and the subject is still fiercely debated4 ,turning now to more general aspects of the subject we have in ,the ,international ,geography1 edited by ,h4 ,r4 ,mill1 and written by many authors 7now published by ,macmillan1 ,london--new edition #aijg1 price #abs4 net2 also published in parts for school use71 a most comprehensive and authoritative work1 which includes the whole globe in its survey1 and has also general chapters on various aspects of geography4 ,it is1 however1 a difficult book1 intended for study rather than for general reading1 and is very much condensed4 ,a book which1 though dealing only with a very limited region1 yet contrives in discussing that area to give the essentials of modern geographical science1 is ,mackinder's ,britain and the ,british ,seas 7second edition4 #aijg4 ,oxford3 ,clarendon ,press1 price #gs4 #f;d474 ,it should be in all geographical libraries4 ,as commercial geography is one of the sides from which geography appeals most strongly to the general reader1 we may note that the classic is ,g4 ,g4 ,chisholm's ,handbook of ,commercial ,geography 7,new ,york3 ,longmans1 ,green ,co41 price #d4hj net74 ,first published in #ahhi it is brought up to date in successive editions1 and is full of interest for the general public as well as for the geographer4 ,in the same connection we may note ,j4 ,g4 ,bartholomew's admirable ,atlas of the ,world's ,commerce 7,london3 ,george ,newnes1 #aijg1 price #ajs4 #f;d471 which is of great assistance in studying the subject owing to its very clear maps and diagrams4 ,a smaller and cheaper work by the same author is ,a ,school ,economic ,atlas 7,oxford3 ,university ,press1 #aiaj1 price #bs4 #f;d4 net74 ,there are an enormous number of small books on geographical subjects1 for these as well as for others reference may be made to a useful little volume called ,guide to ,geographical ,books and ,appliances1 which is compiled by members of the ,geographical ,association 7,london3 ,geo4 ,philip1 #aiaj1 price #es474 ,this is especially intended for teachers1 but gives full descriptions1 with critical notes1 of a great number of books4 ,to the list given there we may add one book which1 though intended for school use1 may be noted as containing a great deal of information of the kind which is just beginning to find its way into the smaller text-books4 ,this is ,unstead and ,taylor's ,general and ,regional ,geography for ,students 7,london3 ,geo4 ,philip1 #aiaj1 price #fs474 ,an excellent practical book is ,simmons and ,richardson's ,introduction to ,practical ,geography 7,new ,york3 ,the ,macmillan ,co41 #aijg1 price #ij cts474 ,finally1 we may note that the ,geographical ,journal1 published monthly by the ,royal ,geographical ,society in ,london1 and the ,scottish ,geographical ,magazine1 published monthly by the ,royal ,scottish ,geographical ,society in ,edinburgh1 both give reviews and accounts of all important geographical books1 as they appear1 with abstracts of important articles and papers1 as well as publishing original papers4 ,both are obtainable at most libraries4 ,,index ,aar valley1 #eg1 #fg ,aberdeen1 #dd ,abyssal fauna1 #ade ,abysses of ocean1 #bh ,acacia1 #gi ,africa1 climate of1 #ia1 #ajj2 exploration of1 #ac2 fauna of1 #bc1 #aeb2 forests of1 #abj2 position of1 #bb2 slave trade in1 #bcf ,agave1 #he1 #abe ,ague1 #afb ,ailanthus1 #gh ,aire gap1 #dg 7fig4 #e71 #di1 #gc ,alabama1 #ce ,alaska1 forests of1 #acf2 minerals of1 #bbj ,algiers1 means of communication in1 #bdj2 rainfall of1 #ie2 vegetation of1 #ib ,allium1 #abd ,almonds1 #agf ,alnwick1 #bcb ,aloe1 #abe ,alp1 #ei1 #fj1 #aij ,alpine plants1 #abb ,alpine race1 #aij1 #aib1 #aii1 #bjf-baf ,alps1 #cb1 #cc1 #eg1 #eh1 #ei1 #fh1 #gj1 #hj1 #abb1 #aib1 #bda ,amazon1 #dc1 #de ,america1 exploration of1 #ad ,america1 ,north1 climate of1 #aja-ajb2 fauna of1 #bc1 #aeb2 flora of1 #ace-adb2 glaciation of1 #eb1 #ec1 #gg2 mammals of1 #aff2 position of1 #ag2 primitive means of communication in1 #bci-bda2 trees of1 #gh1 #gi2 vegetation of1 #abb ,america1 ,south1 fauna of1 #bc ,anchovies1 #adi ,andes1 #dh ,anemone1 #abd ,annuals1 #abd1 #abf1 #abh1 #acd ,anopheles1 #afb ,antarctic1 exploration of1 #ad ,anticyclones1 #ajg-aaj 7fig4 #ab7 ,anti-trade winds1 #hh1 #hi1 #ij ,apes1 #aee ,appleby1 #bcb ,apples1 #agf1 #ahd ,apricots1 #agf ,aquatic animals1 #add et seq4 ,arabs1 #agh1 #ahj ,aragon1 #bjj ,arbroath1 #bce ,arbutus1 #acj1 #aib ,arctic1 exploration of1 #ad ,arctogic realm1 #aeb ,ardennes1 #cc ,area of low pressure in ,n4 ,atlantic1 #hh1 #aje ,argentine1 #bdc ,arizona1 climate of1 #ia ,aryans1 #bac1 #bad ,ash1 #aci ,asia1 climate of1 #ic1 #ajj2 exploration of1 #ad2 fauna of1 #bc1 #aeb2 position of1 #bb2 trees of1 #gh1 #gi ,asia ,minor1 rainfall of1 #hf ,aspen1 #ach ,asphodel1 #abd ,ass1 #aff1 #agg1 #bdd ,athens1 rainfall of1 #ie ,atlantic1 #hh1 #hi1 #aje ,atlas ,mountains1 #cb1 #ia1 #abj1 #aec ,atmosphere1 #bj ,australia1 cattle and sheep of1 #bdc2 climate of1 #he2 fauna of1 #bc1 #aeb2 minerals of1 #bbj ,austria1 people of1 #bji ,badger1 #aei ,balkan ,states1 buffalo in1 #agh2 climate of1 #aja2 people of1 #bji ,baltic1 #aje1 #ajf ,banks of ,newfoundland1 #adh ,barbary1 #aee ,barley1 #aga1 #agb ,barrows in ,scotland1 #bjc1 #bjf1 #bjg ,base level of erosion1 #ci ,basque1 #aih1 #aii ,baths of ,leuk1 #gb ,bats1 #aee ,bear1 #aei ,beavers1 #aeh ,beech1 #abi ,beech woods1 #aca ,bees1 #aha ,belfast1 #bce ,belgium1 people of1 #bji ,berbers1 #bjd ,berne1 #gb ,birch1 #acb1 #acf ,birds of ,europe1 #afj ,biskra1 rainfall of1 #ie ,bison1 #aff1 #bdj ,black rat1 #aed ,black walnut1 #gi ,bog myrtle1 #acc ,boulder clay1 #eb ,brachycephalic race1 #bjb1 #bjh ,brehm1 quoted1 #afc1 #ahi ,bridge towns1 #bdg ,british ,columbia1 climate of1 #aja2 flora of1 #acg ,british ,isles1 birds of1 #afj2 climate of1 #ii1 #ajj2 fauna of1 #aec2 insects of1 #afd2 position of1 #bg2 weather of1 #ajg1 #ajh ,brittany1 minerals of1 #bbe2 people of1 #aib-ig1 #bji2 strawberries of1 #ahd2 structure of1 #cc ,broad-headed race1 #bji-bag ,bronze1 #bjf1 #bjg1 #bbj1 #bba1 #bbb1 #bbc1 #bbe1 #bcc ,bronze ,age1 #bba ,broom1 #acj ,brown rat1 #aed ,buckwheat1 #ahc1 #ahd ,buffalo1 #agh ,cactuses1 #aj1 #ach ,california1 climate of1 #he1 #ia1 #aja2 forests of1 #acg1 #adb2 minerals of1 #bbj1 #bbc ,camels1 #agg1 #ahh1 #aid1 #bdd ,canada1 forests of1 #acf1 #aci2 structure of1 #ce2 survey work in1 #ad ,canadian ,far ,west1 #aaf ,canadian ,shield1 #ce ,cape ,colony1 climate of1 #he ,carboniferous rocks1 #cd ,carcassonne1 #bdf ,carlisle1 #di1 #bcb ,carnivores1 #aee ,carp1 #aej ,cascade ,range1 #ach ,casiquiare river1 #de ,castile1 #bjj ,castilian language1 #aih1 #aii1 #bjj ,cat1 #aee1 #agg ,catalan language1 #aih1 #aii ,catalpa1 #gi ,cattle1 #aee1 #agg1 #agh1 #ahe1 #ahh1 #aij1 #bda1 #bdb1 #bdc ,caucasus1 #cb1 #hj ,cauterets1 #fg ,celtic language1 #aig2 race1 #aig1 #bjf1 #bji ,celto-,slavic race1 #bjf ,central ,plateau of ,france1 #cc2 of ,spain1 #cc ,cephalic index1 #bjb ,cetaceans1 #aee ,chalk1 #cd ,challenger expedition1 #add1 #ade ,chamrops1 #abi ,chameleon1 #afa ,charcoal as fuel1 #bbf1 #bbg1 #bbh ,chestnuts1 #aci1 #aic ,chile1 climate of1 #he ,china1 agriculture in1 #agj2 climate of1 #if2 cultivated plants from1 #agd2 means of communication in1 #bdb2 trees of1 #gh1 #gi ,chiroptera1 #aee ,cirques1 #fb1 #fc 7fig4 #h71 #fd1 #fe1 #ff ,cistus1 #abi ,citron1 #agd ,citrus1 #agd1 #agf ,clams1 #adf ,climate1 #hb et seq4 ,clyde valley1 #bjf1 #bjg ,coal1 #cd1 #bbg-bcd ,cod1 #adh ,congo forest1 #aad ,conifers1 of ,america1 #acf-adb2 of ,europe1 #acb2 of mountains1 #aba ,coniferous forests1 #acb1 #acf1 #acg1 #ach1 #ada1 #adb ,continental climate1 #ajb ,continental shelf1 #bg1 #adf1 #adg1 #adh ,copper1 #bbj1 #bba1 #bbb1 #bcc ,corals1 #adf ,cork oak1 #abi ,cornwall1 #bbc ,corries1 #fb1 #fd1 #fe ,corsica1 people of1 #bjh2 wild sheep of1 #aef ,corsican pine1 #abi ,cotton1 #agd1 #bcd ,crabs1 #adf ,cranberries1 #ahe ,crustaceans1 #adf ,cucumbers1 #agf ,cwms1 #fb ,cycle of erosion1 #cj ,cyclones1 #ajd-aaj 7figs4 #aj1 #aa1 #ab7 ,cyprus1 locusts in1 #afe2 minerals of1 #bba1 #bbb ,darwin1 ,charles1 #g1 #i1 #aj ,date palm1 #abi ,daubensee1 #gc ,dauphiny1 #bji ,davis1 quoted1 #fe ,deciduous forests1 #aba1 #aca1 #acb1 #acf1 #aci1 #ada ,dee1 #dd ,deer1 #aee1 #aff ,denmark1 shell-mounds of1 #adf ,deserts1 #aj1 #ia1 #aae1 #aaf1 #agj1 #bbj ,devon1 #bbc ,diatoms1 #adg ,dog1 #aee1 #agg1 #bci1 #bdd ,dolichocephalic skulls1 #bjb1 #bjc1 #bjd ,dormice1 #aeh ,dranse1 #db ,dunfermline1 #bce ,durham1 #bcb ,edinburgh1 #id1 #bdf ,eidart1 #dd ,egypt1 fossil sea-cows in1 #aee2 ,neolithic man in1 #bjc ,egyptians1 ancient1 #bjd ,elba1 #bcj ,elbow of capture1 #de ,elephant1 #aid1 #bdd ,elms1 #aci ,england1 minerals of1 #bbg2 rivers of1 #df1 #dg 7fig4 #e72 rocks of1 #cf2 wheat in1 #ahe ,english ,channel1 #ajg ,erratic blocks1 #ed ,erzgebirge1 #bbg ,etruria1 #bbc ,euphrates1 #agj ,eurasiatic race1 #bjf ,europe1 civilisation of1 #ag2 climate of1 #ih-aja2 effect of glacial period on plants of1 #gg-ha2 fauna of1 #bc1 #aeb-aei2 flora of1 #gh2 forests of1 #ib1 #aai1 #acj-acb2 glacial period in1 #eb1 #ec2 mountain pastures of1 #abb2 plant formations of1 #aed2 position of1 #bb2 reptiles of1 #afj2 rodents of1 #aeg2 structure of1 #cb 7fig4 #a71 #cc-cf ,evergreen oak1 #abg1 #abi ,feshie river1 #dc 7fig4 #d71 #dd1 #dg1 #di ,fig1 #agc ,fir1 #acb ,fish1 #ade-aej2 of ,mediterranean1 #adi2 of ,north ,sea1 #adh ,flax1 #agc1 #ahc1 #ahg1 #bce ,flamingo1 #afj ,florida1 #gg1 #aci1 #ada ,forest of ,arden1 #bbf ,forest of ,dean1 #bbf ,forests1 #gh1 #aac-abb1 #abh1 #abi1 #acj-acb1 #acd1 #ace1 #acf-adb1 #afi1 #ahb1 #aia1 #aib1 #baa1 #bab1 #bae1 #baf1 #bba1 #bbf1 #bbg1 #bbi ,fowl1 #aha1 #ahc ,foxes1 #aee ,france1 civilisation of1 #bbe2 climate of1 #ic2 people of1 #bji2 structure of1 #bbd2 trees of1 #aah2 use of water power in1 #bcj2 wheat in1 #ahf ,french language1 #aic ,fresh-water fish1 #adi1 #aej ,galicia1 #bjj1 #bja1 #bbc ,garden-culture1 #agf ,garlic1 #agc1 #agf ,garwood1 quoted1 #fe1 #fh 7fig4 #i7 ,geese1 #aha ,geldie burn1 #dd1 #di ,gemmi ,pass1 #gb-gd ,gemmiwand1 #gb ,genet1 #aei ,geneva1 lake of1 #aic ,genoa1 #ie ,geography1 definition of1 #ai ,georgia1 #ce ,germanic race1 #aif1 #baj ,german language1 #aic ,germany1 cattle of1 #agh2 minerals of1 #bbg2 people of1 #bjd1 #bji1 #bae1 #bah ,gibraltar1 #id1 #aee ,glacial shelves1 #ei 7fig4 #f71 #fj 7fig4 #g71 #fa1 #abb ,glaciers1 #ea1 #eg1 #gc ,gleditschia1 #gi ,gloucestershire1 #bbf ,gnats1 #afa1 #afb ,goats1 #acj1 #agh1 #agi1 #ahh ,gradin de confluence1 #eh ,grasshopper1 #afe ,grasslands1 #aad-abj1 #acc ,great ,britain1 glaciation of1 #fd2 minerals of1 #bca2 people of1 #bjb1 #bjc1 #bjd1 #bji2 rainfall of1 #dh2 structure of1 #cc ,great ,plains1 #ach ,greece1 cattle in1 #agh2 people of1 #bje ,greenland1 #bch ,guide-books1 #ad ,gulf of ,mexico1 #gg1 #ajb ,gulf of ,st4 ,lawrence1 #aci ,gulf ,stream1 #adh ,hamster1 #aeh ,hanging valleys1 #eh1 #fa ,harz ,mountains1 #bbg ,heat equator1 #hg ,heath1 #acj1 #aib ,heather1 #acc ,hedgehogs1 #aee1 #aei ,highlands of ,scotland1 #fb1 #bjj1 #baa ,himalayas1 #cb1 #cc ,hinxman1 ,l41 quoted1 #dd ,holm oak1 #abg1 #abi ,honey locust1 #gi ,horse1 #aee1 #agg1 #ahh1 #bdd ,humber1 #df ,humboldt1 #g1 #h ,hungarian plain1 #acc1 #aib ,hungary1 #afi ,hyacinth1 #abd ,hydrosphere1 #bj1 #ba ,iberian peninsula1 peoples of1 #aig1 #aih 7fig4 #ac71 #aii1 #bje1 #bah ,iberian race1 #bjj1 #bje ,ibis1 #afj ,ice1 #ea et seq4 ,ice ,age1 #gi ,iceland1 weather of1 #aaj 7fig4 #ab7 ,india1 agriculture in1 #agj2 climate of1 #if2 cultivated plants from1 #agd2 fauna of1 #aec ,insectivores1 #aee ,insects1 #afa ,inverness1 #dd ,iron1 #bbe-bca1 #bcc ,isobars1 #ajd 7fig4 #aj7 ,italy1 cattle in1 #agh2 people of1 #bje1 #bjh2 trees of1 #aah2 vegetation of1 #ib ,japan1 fauna of1 #aec2 means of communication in1 #bdb1 #bdc2 trees of1 #gh ,junction step1 #eh ,juniper1 #acc ,kames1 #eb ,kirghiz1 #ahh ,kandersteg1 #gb ,labrador1 climate of1 #ajb2 current1 #adh2 vegetation of1 #acf1 #ada ,lac de ,gaube1 #fg ,laemmern glacier1 #gc1 #gd ,lancashire1 #bcb1 #bcd ,lancaster1 #bcb ,land animals1 distribution of1 #aej et seq4 ,land1 area of1 #ba ,land hemisphere1 #ba ,languedoc1 #bjj ,langue d'oc1 #aih 7fig4 #ac71 #aii ,langue d'oeil1 #aih 7fig4 #ac71 #aii ,lapland1 #bci ,larch1 #acb1 #acf ,laurel1 #acj ,lauterbrunnen valley1 #eg1 #fj 7fig4 #g7 ,lavender1 #acj ,lemmings1 #aeh ,lemon1 #abf1 #agd ,lesser ,celandine1 #abc ,leukerbad1 #gc ,libyans1 #bjd ,lime1 #agd ,limes1 #aci ,lincolnshire1 ,wolds of1 #df ,linen ,industry1 #bce ,liquidambar1 #adj ,lithosphere1 #bj1 #ba ,littoral fauna1 #ade ,lizards1 #afa ,llama1 #bdd ,lobsters1 #adf ,locust1 #afd1 #afe ,loire1 #ahg1 #bbc1 #bbd ,lombards1 #baa ,london1 #id1 #ie1 #ii1 #bdh ,london basin1 #cc ,long-headed races1 #bjc1 #bjh1 #bag ,low pressure area in ,n4 ,atlantic1 #hh1 #aje ,lynx1 #aei ,mackerel1 #adi ,mackinder1 quoted1 #bch ,maderaner thal1 #fh 7fig4 #i7 ,magnolias1 #adj ,maize1 #aja1 #agd1 #age ,malaria1 #afa1 #afb ,maples1 #aci ,maquis1 #aai1 #abj1 #abh1 #agi ,maritime climate1 #he1 #ii1 #aja ,maritime pine1 #abi ,marmots1 #aeh ,marseilles1 #bbd ,marsupials1 #aee ,marten1 #aei ,mature rivers1 #cj1 #ch 7fig4 #c71 #dj1 #ef ,mediterranean region1 cattle in1 #agg2 civilisation of1 #agj2 climate of1 #he-if2 fauna of1 #aei2 fishes of1 #adi2 palms in1 #abi2 reptiles of1 #afj2 vegetation of1 #abc-acj ,mediterranean race1 #aia1 #aih1 #aii1 #bjd1 #bjf1 #bjh1 #baa-bah ,meiringen1 #eg1 #fg ,mesopotamia1 #if1 #agj1 #agb ,mexico1 #ia1 #ach ,mice1 #aee1 #aeh ,milan1 #bdg ,millet1 #agc ,moles1 #aee1 #aei ,monkeys1 #aac1 #aee ,monotremes1 #aee ,monsoon countries1 #if1 #ig1 #ih ,monsoon winds1 #ajb ,moors and heaths1 #acc ,montrose1 #bce ,mosquitoes1 #afa1 #afb ,moufflon1 #aef ,mountain chains1 origin of1 #ca-cg ,mountain pines1 #aba ,mulberry1 #agd ,mule1 #agg1 #bdd ,musk-ox1 #aff ,mussels1 #adf ,myres1 quoted1 #bab1 #bcg ,myrtle1 #acj ,naples1 #ie ,narcissus1 #abd ,negritos1 #aad ,neolithic man1 #bja1 #bjb1 #bjc1 #bjd ,newcastle-on-,tyne1 #di1 #bdg ,new ,england ,states1 #aci ,newfoundland1 #adh1 #adi1 #bch ,nice1 #ie ,niger1 #de ,nordic race1 #aib1 #baj1 #baa1 #bab1 #bac1 #bae1 #baf ,normal erosion1 #ea ,north ,america4 ,see ,america1 ,north ,north ,pole1 #ba ,north ,sea1 #ajf1 #adh1 #adi ,norway1 people of1 #bji ,nuts1 #agf ,oaks1 #aci ,oak woods1 #aca1 #agh ,oats1 #agb1 #ahf ,oceans1 area of1 #ba ,olive1 #abf1 #abg1 #aga1 #agb ,orange1 #abf1 #agd ,origin of ,species1 #g1 #aa ,orinoco1 #de ,ouse1 #df ,ox1 #agb ,oysters1 #adf ,palarctic region1 #aed ,palolithic man1 #bja1 #bje ,paris1 #id1 #ie1 #ii ,paris basin1 #cc1 #cf ,passes1 #gj-ge ,pastoral industries1 #ace1 #agg ,pastoral nomadism1 #agi1 #ahj1 #ahi ,pasture lands1 #acc1 #aib ,pastures1 on mountains1 #ei 7fig4 #f71 #fj 7fig4 #g71 #fa1 #abb ,patagonia1 #dh ,peach1 #agd1 #agf ,pears1 #agf1 #ahd ,peat1 #acc ,pelagic fauna1 #ade ,pelasgians1 #bje ,pelican1 #afj ,penck1 quoted1 #bab ,peneplain1 #dh ,pennines1 #df1 #di ,persia1 climate of1 #if ,philippines1 #aad ,philippson1 quoted1 #agg ,phoenicians1 #bbc ,physiological drought1 #aba ,pigeons1 #aha ,pigmies1 #aad ,pigs1 #aee ,pines1 #acb ,pistachio1 #agf ,placental mammals1 #bc ,plain of ,lombardy1 #agd ,plane1 #gi ,plant formations1 #aae1 #aaf ,platanus1 #gi ,pleistocene1 #eb1 #eg ,plough culture1 #agb ,plums1 #agf1 #ahd ,pomegranates1 #abf1 #agf ,poplars1 #acf ,porcupines1 #aeh ,portugal1 climate of1 #hi2 rainfall of1 #ib ,portuguese1 #aih1 #aii1 #bja ,potato1 #age1 #ahf ,praying mantis1 #afd ,prickly pear1 #he1 #abe1 #agf ,primary epoch1 #cd1 #ce1 #cf ,primates1 #aee ,prong-buck1 #aff ,profiles of rivers1 #ch 7figs4 #b1 #c71 #dj ,pulse1 #agc ,pyrenees1 #ca1 #cb1 #fg1 #hj1 #aii1 #bjj ,rabbits1 #aeh ,races of ,europe1 #aig1 #bdi ,raccoons1 #aec ,railways1 #bdd ,rain forest1 #ada1 #adb ,rain-shadow1 #ach1 #ahe ,rats1 #aee ,reindeer1 #aff1 #bci1 #bdd ,rhine1 #gc1 #gd1 #aeh1 #aic ,rhone valley1 in ,france1 #ahb1 #bbd2 in ,switzerland1 #db1 #gb1 #gc1 #gd1 #ahi1 #aij1 #aic ,ripley1 quoted1 #aig1 #aih1 #aii1 #baj ,ritter1 #g1 #h ,river-capture1 #db-di ,roads1 #bda1 #bdb ,robinia1 #gi ,rocky ,mountains1 #ajb1 #abj1 #ach ,rodents1 #aee1 #aef ,rosemary1 #acj ,round-headed race1 #bjf1 #bjg ,round skulls1 #bjb1 #bjf ,running-water1 its effect1 #bh1 #cg et seq4 ,russia1 minerals of1 #bbh2 people of1 #bji ,rye1 #agb1 #ahf ,sagebrush1 #ach ,sahara1 #bc1 #hf1 #abj1 #bdj ,saiga antelope1 #aed ,salmon1 #adi1 #aej ,sane valley1 #bji ,saracens1 #bjj ,sardines1 #adi ,sardinia1 #bjh ,savoy1 #bji ,scandinavia1 barley in1 #agb2 berries in1 #ahe2 minerals of1 #bbh2 people of1 #bjd1 #bji1 #baj2 structure of1 #cc2 weather of1 #aaj 7fig4 #ab7 ,scotland1 glaciation of1 #eb1 #ed1 #fb1 #ga2 ,highlands of1 #fb1 #bjj2 linen industry in1 #bce2 ,neolithic man in1 #bjc1 #bjf ,scrub1 #aai1 #abh1 #ace1 #acg1 #afi1 #aia ,sea-cows1 #aee ,seals1 #ade ,sea-urchins1 #adf ,secondary period1 #cd1 #ce1 #cf ,seine1 #bbd ,sequoia1 #acf ,sergi1 quoted1 #bjb1 #bjd1 #bjg ,sesame1 #agc ,shari river1 #de ,sheep1 #aee1 #agh1 #agi1 #ahh1 #bdc ,shell-fish1 #adf ,shrews1 #aee1 #aei ,sicily1 #bjc1 #bjh ,sierra ,nevada1 #ach ,silkworms1 #agd1 #aha ,silver fir1 #acb ,simplon ,pass1 #gj1 #ga ,sion1 #aic ,skunks1 #aec ,slave trade1 #bcf ,sledges1 #bci ,sleeping sickness1 #afa1 #afc ,snowdrop1 #abc ,snow-shoes1 #bci ,sophora1 #gi ,south ,america1 rodents1 of1 #aef ,south ,pole1 #ba ,spain1 cattle in1 #agg2 languages of1 #aii2 minerals of1 #bcj2 people of1 #aii1 #bjh2 rainfall of1 #hf2 structure of1 #cc1 #bbd2 transhumance in1 #agi ,spey1 #dd ,sponges1 #adf ,spruce1 #acb1 #acf ,squirrels1 #aee1 #aeh ,steam1 #bdd ,step arrangement ,in ,alpine valleys1 #fg-fi 7fig4 #i7 ,steppes1 climate of1 #aeg2 fauna of1 #aed1 #aeg2 of ,asia1 #ace1 #afi1 #agj2 of ,europe1 #ace2 of ,hungary1 #acc2 of ,russia1 #acc2 peoples of1 #aib ,st4 ,gothard ,pass1 #gj ,st4 ,lawrence1 #ce ,stoat1 #aei ,stone ,age1 #bja1 #bba1 #bbb ,stone pine1 #abi ,strawberries1 #ahd ,sturgeon1 #aej ,sugar beet1 #agd1 #ahf ,sugar-cane1 #agd ,sudan1 #aaf1 #abj ,switzerland1 cattle in1 #agh2 pastoral life in1 #ahi ,syria1 #afe ,tertiary period1 #ca 7fig4 #a71 #cb1 #cd1 #cf ,teutonic race1 #aib1 #baj1 #bah ,thodule ,pass1 #ga ,thun1 lake of1 #gb ,tibet1 #bdd ,tigris1 #agj ,tin1 #bbb1 #bbc1 #bbd1 #bbe ,tobacco1 #age ,torrents1 characters of1 #cg-ci ,trade winds1 #hd1 #hg1 #hh1 #hi ,trails1 #bdj1 #bda ,transhumance1 #agi1 #ahi ,tree of ,heaven1 #gh ,tropical forest1 #abj1 #aca1 #afi ,tsetse flies1 #afa ,tulip1 #abd ,tundra1 #acb1 #acf1 #afd1 #afi1 #bci ,tunny1 #adi ,turkey1 #aha ,tyne gap1 #dg 7fig4 #e71 #di1 #gc ,tyrol1 #fb ,uganda1 #afc ,ungulates1 #aee1 #aef1 #aeg ,united ,states1 cotton of1 #bcd2 flora of1 #adj1 #ada2 numbers of hoofed animals in1 #bdc1 #bdd2 people of1 #bag2 rainfall of1 #ajb2 structure of1 #ce1 #cf2 survey work in1 #ad2 trees of1 #gh1 #gi2 weather of1 #ajg ,u-shaped valleys1 #eg1 #fa1 #fd ,vienna1 temperature of1 #ii ,vilaine1 #bbc ,vine1 #abf1 #abg1 #aga1 #agb1 #agc1 #ahc1 #ahg1 #aij ,visp1 #db ,voles1 #aeh ,v-shaped valleys1 #ee ,wales1 #ed1 #aig1 #bjj ,waterfalls1 #dj1 #da1 #ef1 #eh1 #fj ,water hemisphere1 #ba ,water power1 #eh1 #fi1 #bcj ,watersheds1 shifting of1 #dg ,water transport1 #bcf-bch ,weald1 #bbf ,weasel1 #aei ,weather1 #ajc et seq4 ,weathering1 #df1 #ea ,wellingtonia1 #acf ,welsh1 #baa ,weymouth pine1 #aci ,whales1 #ade ,wheat1 #abf1 #ach1 #aci1 #aga1 #agb1 #ahb1 #ahc1 #ahe ,whitefish1 #aej ,whortleberries1 #ahe ,wild boar1 #aef ,wild cat1 #aei ,wild horse1 #aff ,wild sheep1 #aef1 #aff ,willows1 #acf ,wine1 #ahc1 #ahg1 #aij ,winter gulf of warmth1 #bjf ,wood anemone1 #abc ,woodland1 #aae1 #aaf2 see also ,forests ,wolf1 #aei ,wolverene1 #aei ,yak1 #bdd ,yellow fever1 #afa ,york1 #bcb ,yorkshire1 #df1 #dg 7fig4 #e71 #bcb ,young rivers1 #cj1 #dj1 #ef ,yurt1 #ahi ,zoogeographical regions1 #aea-aed ,,the ,,home ,,university ,,library of ,modern ,knowledge ,is made up of absolutely new books by leading authorities ,the editors are ,professors ,gilbert ,murray1 ,h4 ,a4 ,l4 ,fisher1 ,w4 ,t4 ,brewster and ,j4 ,arthur ,thomson4 ,cloth bound1 good paper1 clear type1 #bef pages per volume1 bibliographies1 indices1 also maps or illustrations1 where needed4 ,each complete and sold separately4 ,per volume1 #ij cents4 ,,literature ,,and ,,art4 ,order ,number #gc4 ,,euripides ,,and ,,his ,,age4 ,by ,gilbert ,murray1 ,regius ,professor of ,greek1 ,oxford4 #aja4 ,,dante4 ,by ,jefferson ,b4 ,fletcher1 ,columbia ,university4 ,an interpretation of ,dante and his teaching from his writings4 #b4 ,,shakespeare4 ,by ,john ,masefield4 ,one of the very few indispensable adjuncts to a ,shakespearean ,library4--,boston ,transcript4 #ha4 ,,chaucer ,,and ,,his ,,times4 ,by ,grace ,e4 ,hadow1 ,lecturer1 ,lady ,margaret ,hall1 ,oxford2 ,late ,reader1 ,bryn ,mawr4 #ig4 ,,milton4 ,by ,john ,bailey4 #ei4 ,,dr4 ,,johnson ,,and ,,his ,,circle4 ,by ,john ,bailey4 ,johnson's life1 character1 works1 and friendships are surveyed2 and there is a notable vindication of the ,genius of ,boswell4 #hc4 ,,william ,,morris3 ,,his ,,work ,,and ,,influence4 ,by ,a4 ,clutton ,brock1 author of ,shelley3 ,the ,man and the ,poet4 ,william ,morris believed that the artist should toil for love of his work rather than the gain of his employer1 and so he turned from making works of art to remaking society4 #ge4 ,,shelley1 ,,godwin ,,and ,,their ,,circle4 ,by ,h4 ,n4 ,brailsford4 ,the influence of the ,french ,revolution on ,england4 #gj4 ,,ancient ,,art ,,and ,,ritual4 ,by ,jane ,e4 ,harrison1 ,,ll4 ,d41 ,d4 ,litt4 ,one of the #ajj most important books of #aiac4--,new ,york ,times ,review4 #de4 ,,medieval ,,english ,,literature4 ,by ,w4 ,p4 ,ker1 ,professor of ,english ,literature1 ,university ,college1 ,london4 ,one of the soundest scholars4 ,his style is effective1 simple1 yet never dry4--,the ,athenaeum4 #hg4 ,,the ,,renaissance4 ,by ,edith ,sichel1 author of ,catherine de ,medici1 ,men and ,women of the ,french ,renaissance4 #hi4 ,,elizabethan ,,literature4 ,by ,j4 ,m4 ,robertson1 ,m4 ,p41 author of ,montaigne and ,shakespeare1 ,modern ,humanists4 #bg4 ,,modern ,,english ,,literature4 ,by ,g4 ,h4 ,mair4 ,from ,wyatt and ,surrey to ,synge and ,yeats4 ,one of the best of this great series4--,chicago ,evening ,post4 #fa4 ,,the ,,victorian ,,age ,,in ,,literature4 ,by ,g4 ,k4 ,chesterton4 #dj4 ,,the ,,english ,,language4 ,by ,l4 ,p4 ,smith4 ,a concise history of its origin and development4 #ff4 ,,writing ,,english ,,prose4 ,by ,william ,t4 ,brewster1 ,professor of ,english1 ,columbia ,university4 ,should be put into the hands of every man who is beginning to write and of every teacher of ,english who has brains enough to understand sense4--,new ,york ,sun4 #eh4 ,,the ,,newspaper4 ,by ,g4 ,binney ,dibblee4 ,the first full account from the inside of newspaper organization as it exists to-day4 #dh4 ,,great ,,writers ,,of ,,america4 ,by ,w4 ,p4 ,trent and ,john ,erskine1 ,columbia ,university4 #ic4 ,,an ,,outline ,,of ,,russian ,,literature4 ,by ,maurice ,baring1 author of ,the ,russian ,people1 etc4 ,tolstoi1 ,tourgenieff1 ,dostoieffsky1 ,pushkin 7the father of ,russian ,literature17 ,saltykov 7the satirist17 ,leskov1 and many other authors4 #ca4 ,,landmarks ,,in ,,french ,,literature1 ,by ,g4 ,l4 ,strachey1 ,scholar of ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,it is difficult to imagine how a better account of ,french ,literature could be given in #bej pages4--,london ,times4 #fd4 ,,the ,,literature ,,of ,,germany4 ,by ,j4 ,g4 ,robertson4 #fb4 ,,painters ,,and ,,painting4 ,by ,sir ,frederick ,wedmore4 ,with #af half-tone illustrations4 #cc4 ,,architecture4 ,by ,prof4 ,w4 ,r4 ,lethaby4 ,an introduction to the history and theory of the art of building4 ,,natural ,,science4 #fh4 ,,disease ,,and ,,its ,,causes4 ,by ,w4 ,t4 ,councilman1 ,m4 ,d41 ,,ll4 ,d41 ,professor of ,pathology1 ,harvard ,university4 #he4 ,,sex4 ,by ,j4 ,arthur ,thompson and ,patrick ,geddes1 joint authors of ,the ,evolution of ,sex4 #ga4 ,,plant ,,life4 ,by ,j4 ,b4 ,farmer1 ,d4 ,sc41 ,f4 ,r4 ,s41 ,professor of ,botany in the ,imperial ,college of ,science1 ,london4 ,this very fully illustrated volume contains an account of the salient features of plant form and function4 #fc4 ,,the ,,origin ,,and ,,nature ,,of ,,life4 ,by ,benjamin ,m4 ,moore1 ,professor of ,bio-,chemistry1 ,liverpool4 #ij4 ,,chemistry4 ,by ,raphael ,meldola1 ,f4 ,r4 ,s41 ,professor of ,chemistry1 ,finsbury ,technical ,college4 ,presents the way in which the science has developed and the stage it has reached4 #ec4 ,,electricity4 ,by ,gisbert ,kapp1 ,professor of ,electrical ,engineering1 ,university of ,birmingham4 #ed4 ,,the ,,making ,,of ,,the ,,earth4 ,by ,j4 ,w4 ,gregory1 ,professor of ,geology1 ,glasgow ,university4 #ch maps and figures4 ,describes the origin of the earth1 the formation and changes of its surface and structure1 its geological history1 the first appearance of life1 and its influence upon the globe4 #ef4 ,,man3 ,a ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,human ,,body4 ,by ,a4 ,keith1 ,m4 ,d41 ,hunterian ,professor1 ,royal ,college of ,surgeons1 ,london4 ,shows how the human body developed4 #gd4 ,,nerves4 ,by ,david ,fraser ,harris1 ,m4 ,d41 ,professor of ,physiology1 ,dalhousie ,university1 ,halifax4 ,explains in non-technical language the place and powers of the nervous system4 #ba4 ,,an ,,introduction ,,to ,,science4 ,by ,prof4 ,j4 ,arthur ,thomson1 ,science ,editor of the ,home ,university ,library4 ,for those unacquainted with the scientific volumes in the series1 this should prove an excellent introduction4 #ad4 ,,evolution4 ,by ,prof4 ,j4 ,arthur ,thomson and ,prof4 ,patrick ,geddes4 ,explains to the layman what the title means to the scientific world4 #bc4 ,,astronomy4 ,by ,a4 ,r4 ,hinks1 ,chief ,assistant at the ,cambridge ,observatory4 ,decidedly original in substance1 and the most readable and informative little book on modern astronomy we have seen for a long time4--,nature4 #bd4 ,,psychical ,,research4 ,by ,prof4 ,w4 ,f4 ,barrett1 formerly ,president of the ,society for ,psychical ,research4 #i4 ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,plants4 ,by ,dr4 ,d4 ,h4 ,scott1 ,president of the ,linnean ,society of ,london4 ,the story of the development of flowering plants1 from the earliest zoological times1 unlocked from technical language4 #dc4 ,,matter ,,and ,,energy4 ,by ,f4 ,soddy1 ,lecturer in ,physical ,chemistry and ,radioactivity1 ,university of ,glasgow4 ,brilliant4 ,can hardly be surpassed4 ,sure to attract attention4--,new ,york ,sun4 #da4 ,,psychology1 ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,behaviour4 ,by ,william ,mc,dougall1 of ,oxford4 ,a well digested summary of the essentials of the science put in excellent literary form by a leading authority4 #db4 ,,the ,,principles ,,of ,,physiology4 ,by ,prof4 ,j4 ,g4 ,mc,kendrick4 ,a compact statement by the ,emeritus ,professor at ,glasgow1 for uninstructed readers4 #cg4 ,,anthropology4 ,by ,r4 ,r4 ,marett1 ,reader in ,social ,anthropology1 ,oxford4 ,seeks to plot out and sum up the general series of changes1 bodily and mental1 undergone by man in the course of history4 ,excellent4 ,so enthusiastic1 so clear and witty1 and so well adapted to the general reader4--,american ,library ,association ,booklist4 #ag4 ,,crime ,,and ,,insanity4 ,by ,dr4 ,c4 ,mercier1 author of ,crime and ,criminals1 etc4 #ab4 ,,the ,,animal ,,world4 ,by ,prof4 ,f4 ,w4 ,gamble4 #ae4 ,,introduction ,,to ,,mathematics4 ,by ,a4 ,n4 ,whitehead1 author of ,universal ,algebra4 ,,philosophy ,,and ,,religion4 #fi4 ,a ,,history ,,of ,,freedom ,,of ,,thought4 ,by ,john ,b4 ,bury1 ,m4 ,a41 ,,ll4 ,d41 ,regius ,professor of ,modern ,history in ,cambridge ,university4 ,summarizes the history of the long struggle between authority and reason and of the emergence of the principle that coercion of opinion is a mistake4 #if4 ,a ,,history ,,of ,,philosophy4 ,by ,clement ,c4 ,j4 ,webb1 ,oxford4 #ce4 ,,the ,,problems ,,of ,,philosophy4 ,by ,bertrand ,russell1 ,lecturer and ,late ,fellow1 ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge4 #fj4 ,,comparative ,,religion4 ,by ,prof4 ,j4 ,estlin ,carpenter1 ,one of the few authorities on this subject compares all the religions to see what they have to offer on the great themes of religion4--,christian ,work and ,evangelist4 #dd4 ,,buddhism4 ,by ,mrs4 ,rhys ,davids1 ,lecturer on ,indian ,philosophy1 ,manchester4 #df4 ,,english ,,sects3 ,a ,,history ,,of ,,nonconformity4 ,by ,w4 ,b4 ,selbie4 ,principal of ,manchester ,college1 ,oxford4 #ee4 ,,missions3 ,,their ,,rise ,,and ,,development4 ,by ,mrs4 ,mandell ,creighton1 author of ,history of ,england4 ,the author seeks to prove that missions have done more to civilize the world than any other human agency4 #eb4 ,,ethics4 ,by ,g4 ,e4 ,moore1 ,lecturer in ,moral ,science1 ,cambridge4 ,discusses what is right and what is wrong1 and the whys and wherefores4 #fe4 ,,the ,,literature ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,testament4 ,by ,george ,f4 ,moore1 ,professor of the ,history of ,religion1 ,harvard ,university4 ,a popular work of the highest order4 ,will be profitable to anybody who cares enough about ,bible study to read a serious book on the subject4--,american ,journal of ,theology4 #hh4 ,,religious ,,development ,,between ,,old ,,and ,,new ,,testaments4 ,by ,r4 ,h4 ,charles1 ,canon of ,westminster4 ,shows how religious and ethical thought between #ahj ,b4 ,c4 and #ajj ,a4 ,d4 grew naturally into that of the ,new ,testament4 #ej4 ,,the ,,making ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,testament4 ,by ,b4 ,w4 ,bacon1 ,professor of ,new ,testament ,criticism1 ,yale4 ,an authoritative summary of the results of modern critical research with regard to the origins of the ,new ,testament4 ,,social ,,science4 #ia4 ,,the ,,negro4 ,by ,w4 ,e4 ,burghardt ,du,bois1 author of ,souls of ,black ,folks1 etc4 ,a history of the black man in ,africa1 ,america or wherever else his presence has been or is important4 #gg4 ,,co-,,partnership ,,and ,,profit ,,sharing4 ,by ,aneurin ,williams1 ,chairman1 ,executive ,committee1 ,international ,co-operative ,alliance1 etc4 ,explains the various types of co-partnership and profit-sharing1 and gives details of the arrangements now in force in many of the great industries4 #ii4 ,,political ,,thought3 ,,the ,,utilitarians4 ,,from ,,bentham ,,to ,j4 ,s4 ,,mill4 ,by ,william ,l4 ,p4 ,davidson4 #ih4 ,,political ,,thought3 ,,from ,,herbert ,,spencer ,,to ,,the ,,present ,,day4 ,by ,ernest ,barker1 ,m4 ,a4 #gi4 ,,unemployment4 ,by ,a4 ,c4 ,pigou1 ,m4 ,a41 ,professor of ,political ,economy at ,cambridge4 ,the meaning1 measurement1 distribution1 and effects of unemployment1 its relation to wages1 trade fluctuations1 and disputes1 and some proposals of remedy or relief4 #hj4 ,,common-,,sense ,,in ,,law4 ,by ,prof4 ,paul ,vinogradoff1 ,d4 ,c4 ,l41 ,,ll4 ,d4 ,social and ,legal ,rules--,legal ,rights and ,duties--,facts and ,acts in ,law--,legislation--,custom--,judicial ,precedents--,equity--,the ,law of ,nature4 #di4 ,,elements ,,of ,,political ,,economy4 ,by ,s4 ,j4 ,chapman1 ,professor of ,political ,economy and ,dean of ,faculty of ,commerce and ,administration1 ,university of ,manchester4 #aa4 ,,the ,,science ,,of ,,wealth4 ,by ,j4 ,a4 ,hobson1 author of ,problems of ,poverty4 ,a study of the structure and working of the modern business world4 #a4 ,,parliament4 ,,its ,,history1 ,,constitution1 ,,and ,,practice4 ,by ,sir ,courtenay ,p4 ,ilbert1 ,clerk of the ,house of ,commons4 #af4 ,,liberalism4 ,by ,prof4 ,l4 ,t4 ,hobhouse1 author of ,democracy and ,reaction4 ,a masterly philosophical and historical review of the subject4 #e4 ,,the ,,stock ,,exchange4 ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,hirst1 ,editor of the ,london ,economist4 ,reveals to the non-financial mind the facts about investment1 speculation1 and the other terms which the title suggests4 #aj4 ,,the ,,socialist ,,movement4 ,by ,j4 ,ramsay ,macdonald1 ,chairman of the ,british ,labor ,party4 #bh4 ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,industry4 ,by ,d4 ,h4 ,mac,gregor1 ,professor of ,political ,economy1 ,university of ,leeds4 ,an outline of the recent changes that have given us the present conditions of the working classes and the principles involved4 #bi4 ,,elements ,,of ,,english ,,law4 ,by ,w4 ,m4 ,geldart1 ,vinerian ,professor of ,english ,law1 ,oxford4 ,a simple statement of the basic principles of the ,english legal system on which that of the ,united ,states is based4 #cb4 ,,the ,,school3 ,,an ,,introduction ,,to ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,education4 ,by ,j4 ,j4 ,findlay1 ,professor of ,education1 ,manchester4 ,presents the history1 the psychological basis1 and the theory of the school with a rare power of summary and suggestion4 #f4 ,,irish ,,nationality4 ,by ,mrs4 ,j4 ,r4 ,green4 ,a brilliant account of the genius and mission of the ,irish people4 ,an entrancing work1 and ,i would advise every one with a drop of ,irish blood in his veins or a vein of ,irish sympathy in his heart to read it4--,new ,york ,times ,review4 ,,general ,,history ,,and ,,geography4 #ajb4 ,,serbia4 ,by ,l4 ,f4 ,waring1 with preface by ,j4 ,m4 ,jovanovitch1 ,serbian ,minister to ,great ,britain4 ,the main outlines of ,serbian history1 with special emphasis on the immediate causes of the war1 and the question which will be of greatest importance in the after-the-war settlement4 #cc4 ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,england4 ,by ,a4 ,f4 ,pollard1 ,professor of ,english ,history1 ,university of ,london4 #ie4 ,,belgium4 ,by ,r4 ,c4 ,k4 ,ensor1 ,sometime ,scholar of ,balliol ,college4 ,the geographical1 linguistic1 historical1 artistic and literary associations4 #ajj4 ,,poland4 ,by ,j4 ,alison ,phillips1 ,university of ,dublin4 ,the history of ,poland with special emphasis upon the ,polish question of the present day4 #cd4 ,,canada4 ,by ,a4 ,g4 ,bradley4 #gb4 ,,germany ,,of ,,to-,,day4 ,by ,charles ,tower4 #gh4 ,,latin ,,america4 ,by ,william ,r4 ,shepherd1 ,professor of ,history1 ,columbia4 ,with maps4 ,the historical1 artistic1 and commercial development of the ,central ,south ,american republics4 #ah4 ,,the ,,opening ,,up ,,of ,,africa4 ,by ,sir ,h4 ,h4 ,johnston4 #ai4 ,,the ,,civilization ,,of ,,china4 ,by ,h4 ,a4 ,giles1 ,professor of ,chinese1 ,cambridge4 #cf4 ,,peoples ,,and ,,problems ,,of ,,india4 ,by ,sir ,t4 ,w4 ,holderness4 ,the best small treatise dealing with the range of subjects fairly indicated by the title4--,the ,dial4 #bf4 ,,the ,,dawn ,,of ,,history4 ,by ,j4 ,l4 ,myers1 ,professor of ,ancient ,history1 ,oxford4 #ib4 ,,the ,,ancient ,,east4 ,by ,d4 ,g4 ,hogarth1 ,m4 ,a41 ,f4 ,b4 ,a41 ,f4 ,s4 ,a4 ,connects with ,prof4 ,myers's ,dawn of ,history 7,no4 #bf7 at about #ajjj ,b4 ,c4 and reviews the history of ,assyria1 ,babylon1 ,cilicia1 ,persia and ,macedon4 #cj4 ,,rome4 ,by ,w4 ,warde ,fowler1 author of ,social ,life at ,rome1 etc4 #ac4 ,,medieval ,,europe4 ,by ,h4 ,w4 ,c4 ,davis1 ,fellow at ,balliol ,college1 ,oxford1 author of ,charlemagne1 etc4 #c4 ,,the ,,french ,,revolution4 ,by ,hilaire ,belloc4 #eg4 ,,napoleon1 ,by ,h4 ,a4 ,l4 ,fisher1 ,vice-,chancellor of ,sheffield ,university4 ,author of ,the ,republican ,tradition in ,europe4 #bj4 ,,history ,,of ,,our ,,time4 7#ahhe-aiaa74 ,,by ,c4 ,p4 ,gooch4 #bb4 ,,the ,,papacy ,,and ,,modern ,,times4 ,by ,rev4 ,william ,barry1 ,d4 ,d41 author of ,the ,papal ,monarchy1 etc4 ,the story of the rise and fall of the ,temporal ,power4 #d4 ,a ,,short ,,history ,,of ,,war ,,and ,,peace4 ,by ,g4 ,h4 ,perris1 author of ,russia in ,revolution1 etc4 #id4 ,,the ,,navy ,,and ,,sea ,,power4 ,by ,david ,hannay1 author of ,short ,history of the ,royal ,navy1 etc4 ,a brief history of the navies1 sea ,power1 and ship growth of all nations1 including the rise and decline of ,america on the sea1 and explaining the present ,british supremacy4 #h4 ,,polar ,,exploration4 ,by ,dr4 ,w4 ,s4 ,bruce1 ,leader of the ,scotia expedition4 ,emphasizes the results of the expeditions4 #ea4 ,,master ,,mariners4 ,by ,john ,r4 ,spears1 author of ,the ,history of ,our ,navy1 etc4 ,a history of sea craft adventure from the earliest times4 #hf4 ,,exploration ,,of ,,the ,,alps4 ,by ,arnold ,lunn1 ,m4 ,a4 #g4 ,,modern ,,geography4 ,by ,dr4 ,marion ,newbigin4 ,shows the relation of physical features to living things and to some of the chief institutions of civilization4 #gf4 ,,the ,,ocean4 ,a ,,general ,,account ,,of ,,the ,,science ,,of ,,the ,,sea4 ,by ,sir ,john ,murray1 ,k4 ,c4 ,b41 ,naturalist ,h4 ,m4 ,s4 ,challenger1 #ahgb-ahgf1 joint author of ,the ,depths of the ,ocean1 etc4 #hd4 ,,the ,,growth ,,of ,,europe4 ,by ,granville ,cole1 ,professor of ,geology1 ,royal ,college of ,science1 ,ireland4 ,a study of the geology and physical geography in connection with the political geography4 ,,american ,,history4 #dg4 ,,the ,,colonial ,,period 7#afjg-agff74 ,by ,charles ,mc,lean ,andrews1 ,professor of ,american ,history1 ,yale4 #hb4 ,,the ,,wars ,,between ,,england ,,and ,,america 7#agfc-ahae74 ,by ,theodore ,c4 ,smith1 ,professor of ,american ,history1 ,williams ,college4 ,a history of the period1 with especial emphasis on ,the ,revolution and ,the ,war of #ahab4 #fg4 ,,from ,,jefferson ,,to ,,lincoln 7#ahae-ahfj74 ,by ,william ,mac,donald4 ,professor of ,history1 ,brown ,university4 ,the author makes the history of this period circulate about constitutional ideas and slavery sentiment4 #be4 ,,the ,,civil ,,war 7#ahed-ahfe74 ,by ,frederick ,l4 ,paxson1 ,professor of ,american ,history1 ,university of ,wisconsin4 #fi4 ,,reconstruction ,,and ,,union 7#ahfe-aiab74 ,by ,paul ,leland ,haworth4 ,a ,history of the ,united ,states in our own times4 ,,other ,,volumes ,,in ,,preparation ,,henry ,,holt ,,and ,,company #ai ,west #ddth ,street ,new ,york 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,punctuation has been standardised4 ,most inconsistencies in the original text were retained1 including3 civilise and civilize colour and color food supply and food-supply1 ice action and ice-action1 interrelations and inter-relations1 land masses and land-masses1 low growing and low-growing1 milk products and milk-products1 organise and organize recently glaciated and recently-glaciated1 recognise and recognize summarises and summarizes surface relief and surface-relief1 trade wind and trade-wind1 water power and water-power1 well developed and well-developed ,the following is a list of changes made to the original text3 ,page #ca3 call changed to called 7in the period called ,tertiary17 ,page #da3 canons changed to canyons 7,long gorges or canyons tend7 ,page #ec3 facts changed to fact 7,secondly1 the fact that the7 ,page #ee3 effect changed to affect 7greatly affect the distribution7 ,page #eh3 preglacial changed to pre-glacial 7form of the pre-glacial valley27 ,page #ajc3 italic markup added to i4 e4 7which were invariably means1 i4 e47 ,page #ajg3 effect changed to affect 7rule affect our climate less7 ,page #acf3 sea-board changed to seaboard 7western seaboard to be occupied7 ,page #aib3 vegetion changed to vegetation 7and types of vegetation7 ,page #bbe3 parial changed to partial 7afterwards its use was partial7 ,page #bbi3 accessaries changed to accessories 7certain accessories1 notedly7 ,page #bdd3 fisted changed to fitted 7the best fitted for man's purposes47 ,page #bec3 ,hartz changed to ,harz 7,harz ,mountains1 #bbg7 ,page #bec3 #a1 #b changed to #g1 #h 7,humboldt1 #g1 #h7 ,page #bed3 d'ol changed to d'oeil 7,langue d'oeil1 #aih7 ,page #bed3 ,liquidamber changed to ,liquidambar 7,liquidambar1 #adj7 ,page #bed3 ,maderanertal changed to ,maderaner thal 7,maderaner thal1 #fh 7fig4 #i77 ,page #bed3 ,marmosets changed to ,marmots 7,marmots1 #aeh7 ,page #bee3 ,saone changed to ,sane 7,sane valley1 #bji7 ,page #bef3 ,theodule changed to ,thodule 7,thodule ,pass1 #ga7 ,page #bei3 ,bottany changed to ,botany 7,professor of ,botany7 ,page #bfc3 qustion changed to question 7,polish question of the present day7