,transcriber's note3 ,text in italics has been marked with underscores 7text74 ,further ,transcriber's ,notes will be found at the end of this text4 ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,aircraft ,illustration3 ,copyright ,underwood and ,underwood ,,seaplanes ,,nc-#a1 ,,nc-#c ,,and ,,nc-#d ,,of ,,the ,u4 ,s4 ,,navy ,,starting ,,the ,,trans-,,atlantic ,,flight ,,from ,,rockaway ,illustration3 ,copyright ,underwood and ,underwood ,,the ,,nc-#d ,,on ,,its ,,victorious ,,trans-,,atlantic ,,flight1 ,,sixty ,,miles ,,at ,,sea4 ,,the ,,shadow ,,is ,,made ,,by ,a ,,strut ,,of ,,the ,,photographers' ,,plane ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,aircraft ,,by ,,laurence ,,yard ,,smith ,,with ,,six ,,diagrams ,,and ,,thirty-,,three ,,illustrations ,,from ,,photographs ,,london ,,grant ,,richards1 ,,ltd4 ,,st4 ,,martin',s ,,street ,,mdccccxix ,,printed ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,of ,,america ,,by ,,the ,,prospect ,,press ,,contents ,,part ,i ,,chapter ,,page ,i ,,the ,,conquest ,,of ,,the ,,air #c ,,ii ,a ,b ,c',s ,,of ,a ,,balloon #ad ,,iii ,,early ,,balloon ,,adventures #bj ,,iv ,,the ,,parachute #bh ,v ,,ballooning ,,in ,,the ,,great ,,war #cf ,,part ,,ii ,i ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,dirigible #dg ,,ii ,,forerunners ,,of ,,the ,,allied ,,dirigibles #fj ,,iii ,,dirigibles ,,in ,,the ,,world ,,war #fh ,,part ,,iii ,i ,,early ,,experiments ,,with ,,heavier-,,than-,,air ,,machines #gg ,,ii ,,first ,,principles ,,of ,,an ,,airplane #ia ,,iii ,,the ,,pioneers #ii ,,iv ,,the ,,airplane ,,in ,,the ,,world ,,war #abh ,v ,,some ,,of ,,the ,,problems ,,the ,,inventors ,,had ,,to ,,solve #aej ,,vi ,,famous ,,allied ,,airplanes #agj ,,vii ,,german ,,airplanes ,,in ,,the ,,world ,,war #ahi ,,viii ,,heroes ,,of ,,the ,,air #bje ,,ix ,,the ,,birth ,,of ,,an ,,airplane #bbc ,x ,,the ,,training ,,of ,,an ,,aviator #bcb ,,xi ,,the ,,future ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,air #bdd ,,reading ,,list #bef ,,index #bei ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,seaplanes ,,nc-#a1 ,,nc-#c and ,,nc-#d of the ,u4 ,s4 ,navy starting the trans-,atlantic flight from ,rockaway4 ,the ,,nc-#d on its victorious trans-,atlantic flight1 sixty miles at sea ,frontispiece ,,facing ,,page ,montgolfier experiment at ,versailles1 #aghc #aj ,the first cross-channel trip #aa ,diagram showing the main features of the spherical balloon #af ,cocking's parachute #cj ,a ,german ,zeppelin #ca ,inflating a service balloon on the field #dj ,army balloon ready to ascend #da ,giffard's airship #ed ,santos-,dumont rounding the ,eiffel ,tower #ee ,baldwin ,u4 ,s4 ,dirigible ,no4 #a #ff ,the ,british ,army ,baby dirigible #fg ,cross section of the gas bag of the ,astra-,torres1 showing method of car suspension #gj ,the ,blimp1 ,c-#a1 the largest dirigible of the ,american ,navy #gb ,the balloon of the ,u4 ,s4 ,s4 ,oklahoma #gc ,diagram showing the essential parts of an airplane #ie ,wright starting with passenger #ih ,an early ,farman machine prior to start #ii ,wright machine rising just after leaving the rail #aad ,an early ,wright machine1 showing its method of starting from a rail #aad ,the propeller department in one of the great ,curtiss factories #aae ,a photograph of northern ,france taken at a height of three thousand feet #ach ,an airplane view of the city of ,rheims1 showing the cathedral #aci ,diagram of an internal combustion engine cylinder1 showing principle on which it works #aeg ,this photograph shows the relative size of the giant ,caproni bombing plane and the ,french baby ,nieuport1 used as a speed scout #agj ,the ,spad1 the pride of the ,french air fleet #aga ,a ,handley-,page machine tuning up for a flight #ahb ,the launching of a ,langley1 a giant bombing airplane #ahc ,side view of a ,sopwith triplane #ahg ,an ,american built ,caproni airplane #ahh ,this ,curtiss triplane has a speed of one hundred and sixty miles an hour #ahi ,a giant ,gotha bombing plane brought down by the ,french #aih ,german ,fokker plane captured by the ,french #aii ,captain ,eddie ,rickenbacker #bah ,the first bag of mail carried by the ,u4 ,s4 ,aero ,mail ,service #bai ,a photograph made ten thousand feet in the air1 showing machines in ,v formation at bombing practise #bdb ,a group of ,de ,havilland planes at ,bolling ,field near ,washington #bdc ,,part ,i ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,aircraft ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,conquest ,,of ,,the ,,air ,on a beautiful afternoon in the latter part of the eighteenth century--,june #e1 #agic--;a distinguished company of ,frenchmen were gathered in the public square of the little village of ,annonay1 not far from ,lyons4 ,they had come there by special invitation of the brothers ,stephen and ,joseph ,montgolfier1 respected owners of a paper manufactory in the little town4 ,it was whispered that the brothers had a great surprise in store for them1 a remarkable discovery4 ,yet all their curious gaze could make out was a great linen bag1 that swung1 like a huge limp sail1 from a rope that was suspended between two high poles4 ,by means of this seemingly helpless piece of fabric the brothers ,montgolfier proposed to accomplish the conquest of the air4 ,those who ventured near to this strange object perceived at its base a wide circular opening1 sewed fast to a wooden ring4 ,the ring hung directly over a deep pit1 in which had been heaped fuel for a bonfire1--straw and wood and chopped wool4 ,at a given signal one of the brothers applied a torch to the mass and in an instant the flames shot up4 ,a dense column of smoke arose through the neck of the bag4 ,the latter gradually began to fill1 spreading out in all directions1 until1 before the astonished gaze of the spectators1 it assumed the shape of an enormous ball1 that overshadowed the square1 and that pulled and wrestled feverishly at the restraining ropes4 ,from the ranks of the onlookers a great shout of applause went up4 ,the keepers let go the ropes1 and the globe1 like a live creature1 freed from its bonds1 rose triumphantly before their eyes4 ,up1 up1 higher and higher it went1 so fast that they could scarcely follow it4 ,for a moment it was hidden behind a patch of cloud1 then it reappeared again1 still ascending1 until it rode majestically in the heavens1 seven thousand feet above their heads6 ,the shouts and cries of the onlookers were deafening4 ,like wildfire the news spread from house to house of the little ,french village4 ,grave old legislators who had witnessed the surprising spectacle forgot their dignity and tossed their hats in air4 ,women1 seeing the unusual object from a distance1 fell on their knees to pray1 thinking it a sign in the heavens1 that portended1 who knew what8 ,man's age-old dream of conquering the air was now1 for the first time1 an accomplished fact4 ,those who stood in the little public square of ,annonay on that auspicious afternoon long ago1 watching the first ,montgolfier globe on its victorious ascent1 knew that it could be but a very short time indeed until men would be able to explore at will the dim regions of the upper air4 ,meanwhile picture the consternation and terror among a group of humble peasants1 who were tilling the fields a short distance from the spot where the famous ,montgolfier balloon was launched4 ,suddenly in the sky there appeared a great black moon1 which slowly and ominously descended toward the earth4 ,the village priest himself led forth a little band of his stout-hearted followers to attack this dread instrument of the ,evil ,one4 ,with pitchforks and scythes they rushed upon the unfortunate balloon as it lighted gently on the ground1 heaving this way and that with every puff of breeze that blew against it4 ,with courage born of fear they prodded and beat the unfortunate monster4 ,when the gas had finally escaped through the great gashes in its sides1 and nothing remained but a disordered heap of tatters and shreds1 the proud conqueror of the skies was tied fast to a horse's tail1 and the terrified creature galloped off with it into the open country4 ,but the news of the ,montgolfier brothers' discovery spread throughout the length and breadth of ,france and the civilized world4 ,the ,french king ordered a special demonstration at ,versailles1 before himself and the ,royal family4 ,on this occasion a wicker basket was swung from the richly ornamented balloon4 ,in order to test the safety of travel in the skies there were placed in it a sheep1 a cock and a duck4 ,a fire was lit beneath the base of the balloon and it was filled with heated air4 ,it rose with its strange cargo to a height of #aejj feet1 traveled along peacefully two miles with the breeze and descended slowly into a near-by wood4 ,there two gamekeepers1 hurrying to the scene1 were amazed to find its occupants calmly feeding1 apparently unaffected by their voyage4 ,this incident gave the experimenters renewed courage and enthusiasm4 ,a gallant ,frenchman1 ,piltre de ,rozier1 volunteered to be the first man to make the ascent into the skies4 ,a new and stronger machine was constructed1 this time oval in shape instead of round1 #gd feet high and #dh feet in diameter4 ,at the bottom was a huge circular opening1 #ae feet across4 ,just beneath this there was swung from iron chains an open grate1 on which the fire was built by means of which the balloon was inflated4 ,this grate hung down into a wicker basket or gallery1 in which the occupant stood1 heaping fuel upon the fire4 ,for of course1 as soon as the fire died down1 the heated air in the balloon commenced slowly to escape1 and the whole thing sank to earth4 ,piltre de ,rozier was not at first permitted to set himself free and go voyaging unguarded into the upper air4 ,who knew whether this air above the clouds was fit to breathe8--who1 for that matter1 knew whether there actually was air at any distance above the surface of the earth8 ,it was considered the better part of valor to try the experiment the first few times with the balloon tied firmly to the ground1 with strong cables which only permitted it to rise some eighty or ninety feet4 ,even with these precautions a good deal of apprehension was felt regarding the healthfulness of the sport4 ,but a sigh of relief was breathed by those who had the undertaking in charge when the bold de ,rozier insisted that never in his life before had he known any experience so pleasurable as this of rising far above the housetops and of feeling himself floating1 gently and peacefully1 in a region of noiseless calm4 ,impatient of this mild variety of aerial adventure1 de ,rozier finally won permission to make a free ascent1 and he and his friend1 the ,marquis d',arlandes1 made a number of daring voyages in the ,montgolfier fire balloon4 ,assuring their friends that no harmful results could come to them from ascending into the clouds1 they loosed the ropes and went merrily sailing away until far out of sight4 ,so long as they kept the fire in the grate burning the balloon remained aloft1 and floated along in the direction in which the wind bore it4 ,when they wished to descend they had merely to put out the fire1 and as the heated air gradually escaped1 the balloon sank gently to earth4 ,but the dangers of this sort of aerial adventure were very great indeed1 and it required the most remarkable heroism on the part of de ,rozier to undertake them4 ,a chance spark from the grate might at any moment set fire to the body of the balloon1 and bring it1 a flaming firebrand1 to earth4 ,de ,rozier understood this1 and on his very first voyage carried along in the gallery of the balloon a bucket of water and a sponge4 ,it was late in ,november of #ahic that he and d',arlandes floated over ,paris1--de ,rozier heaping fuel upon the grate and tending the fire which kept the balloon afloat4 ,suddenly d',arlandes heard a slight crackling noise high in the balloon4 ,looking up he caught a sight which turned him cold with horror1--a tiny licking flame far above his head4 ,he seized the wet sponge and reached up to extinguish it4 ,but another and yet another appeared1 little tongues of fire1 eating away at the body of the balloon4 ,as each showed its face water was dashed upon it4 ,from below the balloon could be seen peacefully journeying across the city4 ,but far above1 in its basket1 de ,rozier and d',arlandes were coolly beating off the danger that hung over them like a ,sword of ,damocles4 ,not until they had been in the air twenty-five minutes1 however1 did they put out the fire in the grate and allow themselves to sink to earth4 ,these early experiments of the ,montgolfiers and de ,rozier fired the imaginations of scientific men in every part of the world1 and it was only a very short time before a safer and more reliable type of balloon than the fire balloon was developed4 ,stephen ,montgolfier's invention was based on the idea that smoke and clouds rise in the atmosphere4 ,if1 said he to himself1 it were possible to surround a cloud with a bag which did not permit it to escape1 then both would ascend4 ,of course this was a rather childish explanation of the cause of a balloon ascension1 but it was the best that the ,montgolfiers or any of their learned friends knew at that early day4 ,now it was only a little while before this that an ,englishman had discovered the gas which is now known as hydrogen1 but which was then called inflammable air4 ,this gas1 of which the ,montgolfiers apparently knew nothing1 is exceedingly light1 and therefore rises very quickly in the air4 ,the year before the ,montgolfier balloon was invented1 this ,englishman1 ,cavallo1 tried to fill small bags with hydrogen gas1 on the theory that they would rise in the atmosphere4 ,he failed merely because he did not hit upon the proper material of which to construct his bags4 ,the fabric he chose was porous1 and the gas escaped through it before the balloon could rise4 ,cavallo did1 however1 succeed in blowing hydrogen into ordinary soap bubbles1 which arose with great velocity and burst as they struck the ceiling4 ,the problem of the material to be used in balloon construction had been fairly well solved by the ,montgolfiers4 ,their balloons were of linen fabric1 varnished and lined with paper1 to render them as nearly as possible air-tight4 ,this set the philosophers of ,paris thinking how they might construct a globe which could be successfully inflated with hydrogen4 ,the brothers ,roberts and ,m4 ,charles made the first hydrogen balloon4 ,it was fashioned of very fine silk1 varnished with a solution of gum elastic4 ,this made it impossible for the hydrogen to leak through4 ,the balloon was filled through an opening in the neck1 which was fitted with a stopcock1 so that the gas could be poured in or allowed to escape at will4 ,the funds for constructing this first hydrogen balloon had been raised by popular subscription1 and the whole ,french people were alive with enthusiasm over the success of the experiment4 ,even at that early day ,france was the ardent champion of aerial conquest4 ,the day set for its ascension was the #bgth of ,august1 #aghc4 ,by the night of the #bfth it had been partially filled with gas4 ,it was tied to a cart1 and long before daylight1 started its journey to the ,field of ,mars4 ,throngs of spectators crowded every avenue4 ,from the roof tops thousands of eager men1 women and children peered down upon it through the darkness4 ,every window in every building was crowded with faces4 ,a strong military guard surrounded it1 riding on horseback and carrying flaring torches4 ,all day long multitudes crowded and jostled each other impatiently at the point where the ascension was to take place4 ,at five o'clock in the afternoon the sudden booming of artillery fire gave notice to the hundred thousand waiting that the great event was on4 ,released from its bonds the balloon shot up1 and in two minutes it was over #c1jjj feet above the heads of the watchers4 ,still it continued steadily to rise1 until finally it was lost to sight by the heavy storm clouds through which it had cut its passage4 ,illustration3 ,,montgolfier ,,experiment ,,at ,,versailles1 #aghc ,illustration3 ,,the ,,first ,,cross-,,channel ,,trip ,the spectators were overjoyed1 as on that first occasion when the ,montgolfier balloon rose into the skies4 ,it was pouring rain1 but they did not seem to notice it as they cheered themselves hoarse at the second great air victory4 ,the balloon1 likewise1 was undiscouraged by the rain4 ,far above the clouds1 where all was quiet sunshine1 it journeyed peacefully along for fifteen miles1 and descended in an open field4 ,the first two important chapters in the history of ballooning had now been written4 ,looking back1 we are filled with gratitude to the ,french1 whose courage1 intelligence1 and boundless enthusiasm made possible the conquest of the skies4 ,in other countries1 of course1 experiments were also in progress1 though they lacked to a great extent the popular backing which helped the ,french efforts to bear such splendid results4 ,in ,london1 an ,italian1 ,count ,zambeccari1 constructed a hydrogen balloon of oil silk1 #aj feet in diameter and gilded1 so that in the air it was dazzling to look upon4 ,a few months after the three ,frenchmen launched their hydrogen balloon in ,paris1 this gorgeous affair was sent up in ,london1 in the presence of thousands of spectators4 ,one month later still1 the city of ,philadelphia witnessed the first ascension of a hydrogen balloon in the ,new ,world4 ,it carried a carpenter1 one ,james ,wilcox1 as passenger4 ,what is the use of a balloon1 anyway8 ,benjamin ,franklin was asked when in ,paris at the time of the ,montgolfier experiments4 ,what is the use of a baby8 the great ,american replied1 smiling4 ,perhaps he had some inkling of the remarkable future in store for the science of aeronautics1 then in its infancy6 ,the first really notable ascent in a hydrogen balloon after the early efforts was that of a ,frenchman1 ,m4 ,blanchard1 who rose from ,paris in #aghd1 accompanied by a ,benedictine monk4 ,before they had got far above the ground a slight accident brought the balloon bumping down again4 ,the monk1 thoroughly scared1 abandoned his seat1 and ,m4 ,blanchard ascended alone4 ,this balloon was fitted out with wings and a rudder1 by which it was hoped to steer its course1 but they proved useless1 and its occupant had to allow himself to drift with the wind4 ,he reached a height of #ifjj feet1 remaining in the air an hour and a quarter4 ,suffering from the extreme cold which is experienced so high in the atmosphere1 and almost overcome with numbness and drowsiness1 he was at length compelled to descend4 ,in ,england at about this time1 ,vincent ,lunardi accomplished a free ascent in the presence of the ,prince of ,wales4 ,but again it was the ,frenchman1 ,m4 ,blanchard1 who succeeded in making the first long balloon voyage4 ,in ,january1 #aghe1 he and ,dr4 ,jeffries1 an ,american physician1 sailed across the ,english ,channel from ,dover4 ,it was a perilous adventure1 with the ever present danger of falling into the sea4 ,half way across they found themselves descending4 ,then began a constant throwing out of ballast in a race with time and the wind4 ,when the bags of sand they had brought for the purpose were exhausted they hurled overboard bottles1 boxes1 pieces of rope1 even their compass and the apparatus of the balloon4 ,they were still falling when in the distance they caught sight of the dim outline of the ,french coast1 and in a last effort to keep afloat they began dropping articles of clothing over the basket's edge4 ,suddenly1 however1 the balloon began to mount4 ,they floated in over the land1 coming to earth safely not far from ,calais4 ,piltre de ,rozier at once set about to imitate ,m4 ,blanchard's feat1 and to avoid the danger of falling he constructed a hydrogen balloon with a fire balloon below it1 so that by heaping on fuel he could force it to rise whenever he noticed a tendency to fall4 ,in this ingenious contrivance he attempted to fly the ,channel4 ,at a height of #c1jjj feet both balloons were seen to burst into flames1 and de ,rozier fell4 ,so the gallant ,frenchman who was first to explore the skies came to his unfortunate end4 ,his death cast a gloom over the many aeronautic enthusiasts of ,france1 ,england and ,america4 ,but his splendid pioneer exploits had borne their fruit in a permanent and growing interest in the navigation of the air4 ,the science of aeronautics marched on1 and new and important schemes were invented for conquering the skies4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,a ,b ,c',s ,,of ,a ,,balloon ,why does a balloon rise in the atmosphere8--is the very natural question we are apt to ask as we read the story of these early balloon experiments4 ,the ,montgolfier brothers themselves could probably not have answered it1 for they claimed that some marvelous secret properties existed in ,montgolfier smoke4 ,stephen ,montgolfier seems to have had the idea of holding a cloud captive in a bag1 since he had observed that clouds rise in the air4 ,the real explanation can best be understood by a simple experiment4 ,throw a stone into a pool of water and it will sink1 because it is heavier than water3 that is1 it weighs more in proportion to its volume than the same quantity of water weighs4 ,but throw into the same pool a piece of cork and it will rise1 because it is lighter in proportion to its volume than water4 ,this truth was long ago expressed as a law by the old ,greek philosopher ,archimedes1 who said3 ,every body immersed in a liquid loses part of its weight1 or is acted upon by an upward force equal to the weight of the liquid it displaces4 ,in the case of the cork1 the weight of the water it displaces is greater than the weight of the cork1 and consequently the upward force acting upon it is sufficient to lift it to the surface of the pool2 but with the stone it is different3 the water it displaces weighs less than the stone1 and therefore the upward force acting upon it is not sufficient to prevent it from sinking4 ,now all this applies just as well to a body in the atmosphere as it does to the body immersed in water4 ,the air in this case corresponds to the liquid4 ,therefore any object placed in the air which weighs less in proportion to its volume than the atmosphere1 is bound to rise4 ,every object we see about us1 including ourselves1 which is not fastened down to earth1 would1 if it were not heavier than air1 go flying off toward the skies4 ,imagine a balloon all ready to be inflated1 that is1 ready to be filled with gas4 ,the bag or envelope hangs limp and lifeless4 ,together with the basket1 ropes1 etc41 which are attached to it1 it probably weighs several hundred pounds1 yet because its volume is so small it displaces very little air4 ,now we commence to inflate the balloon4 ,as the gas rushes in1 the envelope commences to swell2 it grows larger and larger1 displacing a greater volume of air every moment4 ,when fully inflated it displaces a volume of air much greater in weight than itself4 ,this weight of displaced air acts upon it with a resistless upward force1 sufficient to lift it into the clouds4 ,the moment its straining bonds are loosed1 it rises with great velocity4 ,of course1 the lighter the gas that is used to inflate the balloon1 the less weight will be added by it to the total weight of the structure1--although a lighter gas adds just as much to the volume as a heavier one would do4 ,if two balloons of exactly the same weight before inflation are filled1 one with the comparatively heavy coal gas which weighs #a_/b oz4 per cubic foot1 and the other with the very light hydrogen1 which weighs #a_/aj oz4 per cubic foot1 it is easy to see that the hydrogen-filled balloon will rise much faster and have a greater lifting power4 ,it is a simple matter to calculate what size balloon will be required to lift one1 two or three passengers and a given weight of cargo1 for we know that the balloon envelope must be large enough when filled with gas1 to displace a greater weight of air than its own weight1 together with the weight of the basket1 equipment1 passengers and cargo4 ,once a balloon has been inflated and begun to ascend it would1 if unchecked1 continue rising indefinitely until it reached a point in the greatly rarefied upper air where it was exactly displacing its own weight1 or1 as science puts it1 was in equilibrium with the air4 ,but this is usually not desirable1 and so in all modern balloons arrangement is made for lessening the volume of the envelope and so decreasing the upward pressure4 ,this is managed from the basket by pulling a cord which connects with a valve at the top and thus allows some of the gas to escape4 ,there is also a valve in the neck of the balloon which opens automatically when the pressure becomes too great1 or which can be operated by a cord4 ,in addition to these two1 balloons to-day have what is known as a ripping panel1 or long slit closed over with a sort of patch or strip of the envelope material4 ,in case it becomes necessary to make a quick descent1 the ripping panel may be torn open by pulling the cord which connects with this ripping strip4 ,a wide rent is thus produced in the envelope and the gas escapes very rapidly4 ,as the balloon becomes deflated 7that is1 loses its gas71 it grows smaller1 displaces less and less air1 and so sinks to the earth4 ,illustration3 ,,diagram ,,showing ,,the ,,main ,,features ,,of ,,the ,,spherical ,,balloon ,the accompanying diagram gives a very good idea of the main features of the spherical balloon4 ,the envelope is usually made of strong cotton diagonal cloth1 cut in pear shaped gores and varnished with a solution of rubber in order to prevent the gas from leaking through4 ,at the bottom it ends in the long neck1--through this the balloon is inflated by joining it securely to a gas pipe which leads to the main supply of gas4 ,over the envelope there is spread a strong net made of heavy cord4 ,from the net hang the stout leading lines4 ,the leading lines in turn are attached to a strong wooden hoop1 and from this hoop the car is suspended by ropes which are called car lines4 ,the cords that connect with the upper and lower valves and the ripping panel hang down into the car and may be operated by the occupants1 or crew4 ,unless the balloon is held captive it is supplied also with a trail rope4 ,this is a very heavy cable which is allowed to hang down from the car during an ascent4 ,when descending1 as the trail rope reaches the ground the balloon is relieved of a portion of its weight and becomes more buoyant4 ,this makes its descent more gradual1 for as it is relieved of one pound of weight of the dragging trail rope1 it gains a slight tendency to rise again which counteracts the severity of its downward motion4 ,the free balloon also has a grapnel or anchor for use in landing4 ,the car or basket of the balloon is usually made of woven willow and bamboo1 which insures strength and lightness4 ,this brief description of the spherical balloon is intended to give the reader an idea of the essential features of any balloon4 ,in modern warfare the captive balloon has proved its usefulness for purposes of observation1 but the old spherical type is passing out4 ,balloons of many shapes and sizes1 all designed for greater stability1 are taking its place4 ,among these the kite or sausage balloon is by far the best known4 ,partly a kite and partly a balloon1 with its long sausage-shaped body1 its air-rudder or small steering ballonet attached to its stern1 it possesses considerable steadiness in the air4 ,the kite balloon is used over the trenches to direct artillery fire and to report movements of the enemy3 and it is likewise used over the sea1 as a guide to direct the movements of the fleet in an attack1 and as a sentinel on the look-out for enemy ships or submarines4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,early ,,balloon ,,adventures ,no sooner had the news of the remarkable balloon exploits of de ,rozier and ,blanchard spread throughout the nations1 than people of all classes became interested in the future of ballooning4 ,there were those who regarded it as the great coming sport1 and there were also those who1 like the ,french military authorities1 saw in this new invention a possible weapon of war whose development they dared not neglect4 ,it was only a short time before the ,french had an army training school for aeronauts1 and a number of military service balloons4 ,the romance of ballooning had captured the imaginations of great masses of people and they proved their eagerness to back up the efforts of sportsmen balloonists with the necessary funds to carry on the many aeronautic projects which were suggested4 ,we have already mentioned ,chevalier ,vincent ,lunardi1 the young ,italian who was the first to accomplish a voyage in a balloon in ,england4 ,the ,english people had read with ever increasing curiosity and impatience the stories of the ,french balloonists4 ,what was their delight when this young ,italian1 poor but clever1 proposed to give them an exhibition of their own4 ,he had little difficulty in obtaining permission for a start to be made from ,london4 ,the next step was to obtain funds by popular subscription for the construction of the balloon4 ,for a time money flowed freely into the coffers2 but a ,frenchman named ,moret came into the limelight as a rival of ,lunardi and announced a balloon ascent some little time before that planned by his opponent4 ,the demonstration promised by ,moret never came off1 his balloon refused utterly to take to the air1 and the indignant spectators went home1 feeling that they had been cleverly hoodwinked out of the price of admission4 ,their wrath naturally turned upon the unfortunate ,lunardi1 and it was only with difficulty and after much discouragement that he actually succeeded in carrying his undertaking to completion4 ,finally1 however1 he had his balloon built4 ,the ,king had withdrawn his permission for a flight from the grounds of the ,chelsea hospital1 but he succeeded in securing another starting place1 and announced that he was ready to demonstrate what the balloon could do4 ,vast crowds gathered to witness the spectacle4 ,the balloon itself was gorgeous to behold4 ,it looked like a mammoth ,christmas-tree ball1 of shining silk1 in brilliant stripes of red and blue4 ,it was filled with hydrogen gas1 and as it gradually took form before their eyes1 the people shouted with excitement and eagerness4 ,it was a pleasant ,september afternoon in the year #aghd4 ,when all was in readiness1 ,lunardi1 no less eager and excited than the masses who had gathered to witness his exploit1 climbed into the car4 ,the cords were loosed and in a few moments the balloon1 in its gala dress1 was soaring far in the sky4 ,lunardi enjoyed his flight immensely4 ,after traveling along without a mishap for a considerable time1 he decided to come down1 but once he had touched the earth he was seized by the desire to soar again4 ,putting out some of his ballast he allowed the balloon to arise once more into the sky4 ,finally in the late afternoon he came to earth for the second time1 landing in a field and greatly terrifying the simple country folk who were at work there4 ,he was cold and hungry after his long journey in the rarefied upper air1 but happy at the remarkable triumph he had achieved4 ,henceforth ballooning would not be regarded with derision and unbelief in ,england4 ,the ,english nation was as wild with joy as the ,french had been at the early balloon ascents4 ,lunardi was lionized and became the favorite of the hour2 his presence was demanded everywhere and he was royally entertained by the foremost people of the realm4 ,the ,british ,isles became1 from this time on1 the scene of many a thrilling adventure with the balloon4 ,it was only a few years later that ,charles ,green1 the most famous of all the early ,english aeronauts1 began his voyages in the ,great ,nassau1 the balloon whose name is even to-day a tradition4 ,in it he started out1 one fall day in the year #ahcf1 carrying provisions for a long voyage1 but with no idea where the winds would carry him4 ,the great balloon passed out over the ,british ,channel and in again over the coast of ,france4 ,day faded into twilight and twilight into the blackness of night1 but still it continued steadily on its way4 ,through the darkness ,green and the friends who accompanied him in the large car of the balloon peered anxiously over the side1 trying to guess where they were being blown4 ,finally after an all night ride1 the dawn began to break1 and in the morning the great balloon was brought to earth on ,german territory4 ,green had accomplished the longest balloon trip of his day4 ,in the years that followed he made many voyages1 but none that won for him more renown than this one4 ,since the days when ,blanchard accomplished the first trip across the ,british ,channel1 and the fearless de ,rozier sought to imitate him1 a number of aeronauts had made interesting voyages between ,france and ,england4 ,one of the most adventurous was that of ,mr4 ,c4 ,f4 ,pollock1 in ,july1 #ahii4 ,accompanied by a friend1 ,mr4 ,pollock ascended early one afternoon1 and after a picturesque and beautiful trip across the ,english countryside1 sailed out over the sea4 ,behind them rose the white cliffs of the ,english coast1 while before them gathering clouds hung like a curtain1 through which they peered anxiously4 ,suddenly the balloon began to fall1 and1 fearful lest they should land in the rough waters of the channel1 they began throwing overboard the sand which they had carried along as ballast4 ,by means of this they succeeded in rising once more to a height of seven or eight thousand feet4 ,it was early evening4 ,far below the sea had ceased to roar4 ,they floated along in a realm of silence where nothing was visible through the veil of mist4 ,at length the veil was broken by the dim outline of the ,french coast4 ,on and on they drifted yet seemed to draw no closer to it4 ,there it remained1 always ahead of them1 tantalizing and provoking4 ,their ballast was almost gone1 and they had unpleasant visions of landing in the water within view of their goal4 ,so calmly and evenly did the balloon move forward that it was practically impossible for its occupants to tell whether it was moving at all4 ,as they peered ahead uncertainly1 searching the sea for a vessel by which they might gauge their progress1 they felt themselves once more commencing to sink4 ,in another few minutes the rest of the sand had been thrown overboard4 ,there was nothing left with which to check the falling of the balloon1 which surely and ominously continued4 ,the ,french coast was still many miles away4 ,almost in despair the two aeronauts cast about them for something which could be hurled over the side to lighten the weight of the balloon4 ,as a last measure they decided upon the anchor4 ,in another moment they had tossed it into the sea4 ,relieved of so great a weight the balloon shot up with lightning speed4 ,the coast was drawing closer1 but after its first swift ascent the balloon commenced to sink again and the aeronauts almost gave up hope of actually reaching shore4 ,but just about eight o'clock they discovered to their great relief that the cliffs that marked the coast were below them4 ,in another few minutes they had sailed in over the land4 ,they opened the valve of the balloon and effected a descent in a field1 where they were soon surrounded by an admiring circle of ,french peasants4 ,it was only about ten years after the pioneer voyages of de ,rozier that the balloon was actually used on the battlefield1 for in #agid the ,french employed it against the ,austrians at ,mayence and at ,charleroi4 ,under the fire of the ,austrians who sought to prevent him from ascending1 the ,french ,captain ,coutelle rose in an observation balloon at ,mayence to a height of over a thousand feet4 ,at that height he was beyond the range of the ,austrian guns and could sit at ease watching their movements and preparations1 at the same time dropping communications to the officers below4 ,by his pluck he made possible a ,french victory1 although the ,austrians1 much chagrined at their own lack of observation balloons1 declared that this sort of warfare was unfair4 ,it may surprise ,americans to know that balloons were used to good purpose for observation work in our own ,civil ,war1 and that they assisted the army of the ,north to keep an eye on the movements of ,confederate troops around ,richmond4 ,they were once more employed by the ,french during the siege of ,paris in #ahgj and #ahga1 when #ff balloons left the city at various times1 bearing messages1 passengers1 and flocks of carrier pigeons1 which were used for delivering return messages4 ,one plucky ,frenchman dropped thousands of messages from his balloon upon the ,german soldiers1 warning them of ,france's determination to fight to the bitter end4 ,the incident reminds us somewhat of similar ones in the ,great ,war1 when the ,allied aviators bombed the cities of ,germany with proclamations4 ,the first notable employment of the balloon by the ,british army occurred during the ,boer ,war4 ,during the siege of ,ladysmith captive balloons were used to good purpose for observation and they were likewise made use of during a number of battles and under heavy fire4 ,the ,french again employed them during the wars in ,madagascar4 ,balloons had by the end of the nineteenth century become an important adjunct of every great army1 and had proved themselves indispensable4 ,strange to relate they have never been driven from the field1 and although we have to-day the swift dirigible and the still swifter airplane1 there are certain military duties which they can perform best4 ,while the balloon was thus becoming a recognized instrument of war it was likewise gaining in favor among sportsmen4 ,in all the great nations ,aero ,clubs were formed and races and contests began to be announced4 ,in #aijf ,gordon ,bennett made the offer of a ,challenge ,cup for the longest trip by balloon4 ,the contestants were to start from ,paris4 ,on ,september #cjth1 #aijf1 sixteen balloons arose from the ,tuileries ,gardens and started on their way4 ,an ,american1 ,lieutenant ,frank ,p4 ,lahm1 carried off the cup1 accomplishing a total distance of #dja miles and landing in ,yorkshire4 ,the second race for the ,gordon ,bennett cup was held in ,america1 and was won by a ,german4 ,the third was held in #aijh in ,germany4 ,the winner1 ,colonel ,schaeck1 made a dangerous descent upon the sea near the coast of ,norway1 where he was rescued by a fishing boat4 ,several other contestants had perilous adventures4 ,the ,american balloon ,conqueror exploded in mid-air1 much to the excitement of the thousands of spectators who had gathered to witness the start of the race4 ,instead of crashing to earth1 however1 as they had expected1 it sank down gently1 the upper part of the envelope forming a parachute4 ,the aeronauts made an amusing landing on a housetop1 little the worse for their sudden drop of several thousand feet4 ,another ,american balloon landed in the branches of a tree1 while several of the remaining contestants came down in the sea and were rescued4 ,on the whole it was a thoroughly exciting race1 and the news of it aroused intense enthusiasm for the sport of ballooning in many lands4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,parachute ,the story of the parachute is inevitably linked in memory with that of the balloon4 ,those who look back a few years can remember when exhibition balloons were in their heyday1 and the sensation the parachutist used to create as he leapt from on high and came flying recklessly through the air4 ,for a breathless moment or two the parachute remained folded1 and when1 finally1 its umbrella-like form spread out protectingly above the hero1 a thrill of relief ran through the anxious crowd of spectators4 ,in the early days of ballooning the parachute was looked on as a sort of life belt the aeronaut might don in the event of a serious accident to his craft in mid-air4 ,many experimenters gave their attention to developing it for this purpose2 but when it was found that the balloonist actually needed no protection1 since the balloon itself would parachute to earth after an explosion1 interest in the matter waned4 ,to-day the parachute has come once more into prominence because of the heroic work it performed in connection with the kite balloon and with the airplane in the war1 and so our concern in it has revived4 ,many stories reached us from the front1 of artillery spotters who jumped to safety when their observation balloons were unexpectedly attacked by enemy airplanes4 ,it has actually become the life-belt of the air4 ,more often in the early days of ballooning it was a source of grave danger to the plucky aeronaut who sought to try it out and improve it1 and its history includes the record of several sad accidents4 ,it was in the very year that the balloon was invented that a ,frenchman1 ,m4 ,le ,normand began experimenting with a contrivance resembling an umbrella1 with which he jumped from the branches of a tree1 and sank gently to earth1 the parachute saving him from injury4 ,successful as his first attempt was it seems that he afterward lost his nerve1 and later attempts were made with animals placed in a basket below the parachute and dropped to earth from a considerable height4 ,blanchard1 the famous balloonist1 became interested in the idea of the parachute1 and made a number of very interesting experiments4 ,while making a public ascent in a balloon at ,strasbourg1 he dropped over the side of his balloon a dog with a parachute attached to him4 ,the spectators were greatly pleased when the little creature came to earth quite unharmed1 and public interest in the contrivance as a means of saving life was aroused4 ,in #agic ,blanchard himself undertook to make a parachute descent4 ,he was not wholly successful1 for before he reached the earth the apparatus gave way and he crashed down heavily1 fortunately escaping with nothing worse than a broken leg4 ,in spite of his injury he did not give up the idea of the parachute as a life belt for the aeronaut1 and looked forward to the time when it should be so improved that it could be relied upon to bring the aeronaut to earth uninjured if any accident should make it necessary for him to escape from his balloon in mid-air4 ,however it was again a ,frenchman1 ,m4 ,andr ,garnerin who accomplished the first descent by parachute from a great height without injury4 ,his parachute was attached to a balloon4 ,at a height of several thousand feet in the air1 he freed himself and descended gradually1 alighting gently upon the earth4 ,that was in #agig and five years later he gave a public demonstration of his parachute in ,england4 ,this time he was not so successful1 for his apparatus broke before he reached the ground and he received a number of injuries by his fall4 ,the parachute actually saved a life1 however1 in #ahjh1 when the aeronaut ,r4 ,jordarki ,kuparanto1 whose balloon caught fire in mid-air during a demonstration at ,warsaw1 leapt over the side with his parachute and came to earth unharmed4 ,illustration3 ,,cocking',s ,,parachute ,the parachute which ,garnerin and the early aeronauts used in their experiments was fashioned to resemble an umbrella4 ,as the aeronaut descended and the swift current of air caused by the fall rushed up under this canopy1 it tended to hold it in the air much as the wind supports a kite1 and thus the force of the descent was broken4 ,in the year #ahcg an ,englishman named ,cocking1 who had been studying the principles of the parachute1 came forward with an idea which differed greatly from this4 ,the parachute he invented resembled an umbrella that had been blown inside out by the wind1--it was in other words an inverted cone1 with a basket for the aeronaut hung from the cone's apex4 ,the upper rim of the cone was made of tin to strengthen it1 and the sides were of cloth4 ,illustration3 ,copyright ,underwood and ,underwood ,a ,,german ,,zeppelin ,cocking was very enthusiastic over his invention1 for he believed that his inverted parachute would descend more smoothly through the air than the old kind1 which1 while it supported the aviator1 had a tendency to rock and pitch in the air after the manner of a kite4 ,he sought an opportunity of giving his idea a public trial1 but experienced aeronauts advised him not to do so1 as they did not trust the safety of his apparatus4 ,however1 he insisted1 and he finally persuaded the famous aeronaut ,green to take him up4 ,on ,july #bdth1 #ahcg1 the famous experiment was made4 ,green ascended in the great ,nassau balloon1 with ,cocking's parachute suspended beneath it4 ,thousands of spectators had gathered to watch the ascent1 but as the balloon was carried away by the breeze it was finally lost to their view1 and so they were spared witnessing the accident which followed4 ,green had been greatly worried over the safety of the parachute and had refused to free it from his balloon1 but this difficulty ,cocking had overcome by arranging a contrivance which permitted him to free himself when he thought the proper moment had arrived for his experiment4 ,finally1 at a height of about #ejjj feet1 he called good-by to ,green and let himself go4 ,relieved of his weight the balloon bounded up with great swiftness1 and it was some time before it recovered its equilibrium4 ,meanwhile the parachute fell earthward with tremendous speed1 rocking from side to side1 until finally1 unable to stand the strain any longer it went to pieces in the air1 and the unfortunate parachutist came crashing to the ground4 ,he died a few moments later4 ,cocking's death cast a gloom over parachute enthusiasts1 and for some time the contrivance fell into disfavor4 ,but the real reason for its disuse was that balloonists found they needed no life belt1 as the balloon itself1 if for any reason an explosion should occur1 would sink gently to earth1 the upper portion of the envelope forming a natural parachute4 ,so for a number of years the parachute was little heard of1 except as a thriller at country fairs4 ,in this connection it was always fairly popular4 ,it was usually a folding umbrella parachute that the performer used on such occasions4 ,as he leapt from the balloon he dropped straight down during a few terrifying seconds4 ,then to the relief of the spectators the parachute slowly and gracefully opened like a huge canopy over his head4 ,from that moment his fall was checked and he sank gracefully and slowly to the earth4 ,with the coming of the ,great ,war the day of the parachute was revived4 ,greatly improved in construction it came into its true and important rle as the life-belt of the aeronaut4 ,the life of the balloon observer in war times is a precarious one4 ,his balloon is not free but is held captive by heavy cables reaching to the ground below4 ,hour after hour he sits watching the situation over the enemy's lines by means of a telescope4 ,in the balloon basket he has a telephone which connects with the ground station1 and thus he is able to send constant instructions to the artillery1 enabling them to hit their objectives1 as well as to keep the officers informed of the general situation4 ,but his stationary position makes him an easy target for enemy bombs and bullets4 ,at any moment he may find himself attacked by a squadron of airplanes4 ,at the first indication of danger his comrades on the ground begin hauling his balloon down1 and this precaution may possibly save his life4 ,but often the emergency is very great4 ,the aeronaut1 attacked1 unexpectedly and with no means of defending himself1 has but one chance of saving his life1 and that is to spring with his parachute from the balloon4 ,thus the parachute was instrumental in saving many lives during the ,great ,war1 and in peace times it will probably be further developed for use in connection with the airplane as well as the balloon4 ,here the great difficulty lies in the fact that the pilot is strapped in his seat1 and that he would not have time1 in case of an accident in mid-air1 to unstrap himself and attach a parachute device to his body4 ,this might be overcome by having an apparatus already attached1 so that all he would have to do would be to free himself from his seat and leap over the side4 ,here again he would run a very great danger of being instantly killed1 as unless he maneuvered his control levers just right before taking the leap1 he would probably be hit by his own machine4 ,the idea has been suggested of a parachute arrangement to be attached to the upper wing of the airplane itself4 ,this parachute would remain closed except in case of accident1 when a lever operated by the pilot would cause it to open and carry the airplane safely to the ground4 ,but the plan has never been worked out and it is impossible to say at this early date whether it would prove of much real benefit4 ,in cases of engine failure the aviator can very often glide down safely to the earth2 while in wartime1 there is always the possibility that if the wings of the airplane were damaged by enemy fire the parachute also might be impaired4 ,an interesting use of the parachute was made by bombing airplanes and ,zeppelins during the ,great ,war4 ,the pilots of these craft dropped flares or lights attached to parachutes1 and by means of these they succeeded in locating their objectives and at the same time in blinding the operators of searchlights and anti-aircraft guns4 ,just what the future of the parachute will be it is hard to predict4 ,if there are to be future wars it will no doubt play an important part in them in the saving of human life4 ,the next few years will probably see the advent of huge aerial liners1 built somewhat on the design of the ,zeppelin4 ,these great airships will travel in regular routes across the important countries of the world1 bearing heavy cargoes of merchandise and large numbers of passengers4 ,and we can easily imagine that in that day every traveler in the air will be supplied with a parachute as the ocean traveler of to-day is provided with a life-belt4 ,thus the simple little parachute will have performed its useful mission in the triumphal progress of aeronautics4 ,,chapter ,v ,,ballooning ,,in ,,the ,,great ,,war ,if you went down ,new ,york ,bay during wartime you probably saw at the entrance of the harbor a ,united ,states cruiser stationed1 with a kite balloon attached to it1 standing sentinel against enemy submarines or aircraft4 ,from their positions high in the basket1 the observers could see far below the surface of the water1 for the higher one rises in the air the clearer the depths of the water become to the vision4 ,they had powerful glasses and by means of them could see far out over the water1 where at any moment a periscope might have shown its face4 ,the observers in that sentinel balloon could spot a submarine while it was still a long way off4 ,a telephone connection reaching from the basket to the ship below made it possible for them to report a danger instantly1 and soon the news would be traveling by wireless to the waiting destroyers and chasers4 ,this was probably the most important war duty that was being performed by a balloon on this side of the ,atlantic4 ,but over in ,europe the kite balloon did valiant service above the trenches4 ,the coming of the heavier-than-air machine1 with its powerful motor1 its bird-like body1 its great speed and lifting power1 seemed at first to have driven the balloon from the field as an implement of war4 ,and in fact1 in the early days of the ,world ,war the airplane was almost exclusively employed by the ,allies for scouting over the lines1 watching enemy movements1 directing artillery fire1 and keeping the general staff informed of the strategic situation4 ,it was the ,hun who first discovered that many of these duties could be far more efficiently performed by the kite or sausage balloon--the drachen balloon1 as the ,germans called it4 ,this was not originally a ,german invention4 ,it was first proposed in #ahde by an ,englishman named ,archibald ,douglas1 but his experiments did not meet with success and the undertaking was allowed to drop4 ,two ,prussian officers1 ,major von ,parseval and ,captain von ,sigsfeld1 seizing upon the idea of the kite balloon as of great military importance1 set themselves to developing it4 ,in #ahid they produced the first drachen balloon1 and it was this that gave the ,german army at the outbreak of the war one of its greatest advantages over the ,allies4 ,the chief requirement for any observation balloon is that it shall rest in the air absolutely steady and motionless1 so that the observer may not be interrupted in his study of the enemy's territory4 ,the spherical balloon is apt to sway and roll with every puff of wind4 ,the kite balloon therefore is a great improvement4 ,long and sausage-shaped1 it combines the features of a kite and a balloon4 ,set at an angle to the wind1 it is supported partly by the gas with which the main envelope is inflated1 and partly by the action of the breeze blowing against its under surface1 exactly as a kite is held in the air4 ,a smaller balloon1 or steering ballonet1 as it is called1 is attached to the stern of the kite balloon and acts as a rudder4 ,this ballonet is not inflated with the gas4 ,it hangs limp while the balloon ascends1 but the breeze quickly rushes into its open end beneath the main envelope and fills it out4 ,this air-rudder1 as it catches the breeze1 acts as a steadier for the balloon4 ,the main envelope has also an air chamber or section at the rear1 which is partitioned off1 and which is not filled with gas but is kept inflated by the action of the breeze2 while on either side of the rudder there are two small rectangular sails1 which help resist any motion of the breeze which might cause the balloon to sway4 ,before the war the other large powers had made no attempts to imitate the ,german drachen1 although they had every opportunity of observing and studying it1 and it seems very likely they actually underestimated its military importance4 ,but when the war began1 ,germany surprised the ,allies by the efficiency of these observation posts in the air4 ,the fact that they were captive gave them certain advantages over the airplane for particular lines of work4 ,they were able to direct artillery fire and keep the general staff informed of the situation over the lines4 ,high in the air these lookouts could spot the tiniest change in the map4 ,provided with the finest instruments for observing1 and connected with the artillery station or the headquarters by telephone1 they could send in momently reports of the progress of the battle4 ,while the airplane was circling the sky to watch the effects of the last artillery fire1 and had to get back to the ground before it could give full instructions to the gunners1 the man in the basket of the kite balloon with a telephone in his hand1 could report every second just where the last shell struck1 whether the shooting was too high or too low1 and how to vary the aim to get closer to the target4 ,he was the eye of his battery4 ,the story of how the ,french military authorities at ,chalais ,meudon succeeded in obtaining plans for the first ,french military kite balloon was one of the carefully guarded secrets of the war4 ,in the spring of #aiae the manufacture of kite balloons was well under way in ,france4 ,in record time whole battalions of them were ready for service on land and on sea4 ,they played a gallant rle in the ,dardanelles in connection with the ,british fleet4 ,soon afterward they were employed over the trenches in ,france4 ,the military kite balloon's first and chief aim is the directing of artillery fire4 ,this it can do better than the airplane1 which travels at high speed and must constantly circle or fly backward and forward in order to keep close to and be able to watch the target that is being aimed at4 ,but the observer in the balloon basket sits practically motionless1 while with the aid of a powerful telescope he watches the results of the firing4 ,before him he has a map on which he can plot the location of the target1 and through a telephone connection he can advise the men in the ground station how to vary the range4 ,think how much easier it is for him to explain to the men below by word of mouth the results of his observations1 than for the observer in an airplane1 soaring through the sky1 to send that same message in a few brief words by means of wireless4 ,as a matter of fact the kite balloon at the front usually carries two observers in its basket3 one to work directly with the artillery and the other to do general look-out work4 ,the first has his eye on the target which the men below are trying to hit1 and watches for the explosions of shells fired by his battery4 ,but his comrade lets his gaze roam all over the horizon4 ,he sees the movements of enemy troop trains1 the massing of men and supplies1 the flashes of the enemy's batteries4 ,should some objective of great importance loom up in the distance1 such as a convoy of ammunition1 the word is passed instantly to the battery below1 and the guns are trained on it4 ,illustration3 ,,inflating ,a ,,service ,,balloon ,,on ,,the ,,field ,after the work in connection with the batteries1 the second great rle of the observation balloon is to keep the commanding officer at headquarters informed of the movements of the enemy1 the effects of the firing and the general situation4 ,the men in a balloon of this sort must know the territory very intimately1 so that they can spot the tiniest change4 ,it is their duty to discover concealed batteries and other objects behind the enemy's lines which may help the ,divisional staff to lay its plans4 ,and remember that they have no landmarks to go by4 ,out in that dread region of battle not a tree nor a mound has been left to vary the dull monotony of the brown earth1 swept clean by the constant rain of shells4 ,so it requires sharp eyes to distinguish the carefully camouflaged batteries of the enemy4 ,illustration3 ,,army ,,balloon ,,ready ,,to ,,ascend ,of course the observation balloon at the front has to be carefully protected1 for it furnishes a good target for the bombs from enemy aircraft4 ,every kite balloon has its detachment of defending airplanes1 which circle round it in wide circles1 on the lookout for approaching bombing planes of the enemy4 ,anti-aircraft guns also stand guard against the danger4 ,nevertheless the observer's life is a perilous one1 the more so because he is a fixed target1 unable to shift his position4 ,a story is told of the heroism of ,emile ,dubonnet1 the wealthy ,french sportsman1 who was observing for the ,french #ge's near ,berry-au-,bac when he was attacked by two ,german taubes4 ,appearing suddenly out of the clouds1 they swooped down upon him1 hovering over his balloon and dropping shells1 which fortunately missed their aim4 ,the taubes were so near to the balloon that the ,french were forced to stop firing lest they hit their own man4 ,coolly ,dubonnet continued his observations of the enemy's territory1 telephoning the results of their fire to the ,french batteries below him1 until a couple of ,french planes arrived on the scene and drove the taubes back to their lines4 ,so severe is the strain of constant scanning of the enemy's territory through high powered glasses that it was found necessary to draw the observation balloon down about every two hours in order to change observers4 ,at dawn the first balloons were sent up4 ,all day long1 except for the brief intervals when observers were changed1 they stood there in the sky4 ,often far into the night they continued to play their silent rle in the great drama of war4 ,some of the observers in fact became so experienced that they were able to do almost as good work at night as by day4 ,it is said that enemy guns so camouflaged that they are not visible by day not infrequently show up in the darkness4 ,the kite balloon is connected with the earth by means of a strong steel cable1 which winds onto an immense reel4 ,to send the balloon up1 the reel is turned and the cable is played out2 when it is necessary to draw the balloon to earth once more1 the cable is again wound about the reel4 ,an electric motor is attached to the reel and turns it in one direction or the other4 ,through the center of the cable runs the telephone wire which connects the observer in the basket with the battery with which he works4 ,the observer is equipped with a parachute for use in case of sudden danger4 ,this parachute has straps like those of a man's suspenders which hold it to his back4 ,when he springs from the balloon the parachute quickly opens and lands him gently and safely on the ground4 ,the kite balloon itself has been greatly improved since it was first constructed by the ,germans4 ,one of its greatest disadvantages lay in the great drag upon the cable1 which when the wind was very high caused such an excessive strain that it was dangerous to use the balloon4 ,the ,german drachen was badly streamlined1 that is to say1 its shape offered great resistance to the wind4 ,this resistance was increased by the rush of air into the open mouth of the steering ballonet4 ,an attempt to improve the design of the kite balloon was made by an ,american firm1 the ,goodyear ,tire and ,rubber ,company of ,akron1 ,ohio4 ,they constructed a balloon which in general outline resembled the ,german drachen1 but which had not the steering ballonet or rudder at the stern4 ,in its place they substituted large flat fins at the stern1 and these1 while they offered less resistance and thus reduced the strain or tug of the balloon upon its cable1 did not hold the balloon absolutely steady in the air1 as the steering ballonet had done4 ,in order to give great steadiness the ,goodyear people designed a tail like that of a kite1 consisting of a number of very small inverted parachutes4 ,these as they caught the breeze produced a resistance which steadied the balloon after the manner of the air rudder4 ,the ,goodyear kite balloon was not an unqualified success1 and it remained for ,captain ,cacquot of the ,french army to produce the most satisfactory design4 ,his was an almost perfect streamline model4 ,long and sausage-shaped like the ,german drachen1 it has1 in place of the steering ballonet1 three small ballonets at the stern which are in reality inflated fins4 ,they are filled with air which is fed to them by a mouth or opening underneath the main envelope4 ,these inflated fins1 while acting as a rudder to hold the balloon steady in the air1 do not offer the resistance that was caused by either the flat fins of the ,goodyear model or the open-mouthed steering ballonet of the old type4 ,thus the ,french streamline balloon came to be the accepted model of the ,allied nations1 and proved itself an efficient arm of the service during the war4 ,ballooning in itself will probably never be the sport that it once was1 for the coming of the swift motor-driven dirigible and the still swifter airplane has made the old wind-driven vessel a hopelessly obsolete contrivance4 ,it is therefore all the more interesting to know that the captive balloon1 developed to highest form of efficiency1 gave good service in the war against ,germany and made itself a reliable and valuable servant of our armies1 accomplishing its mission in a particular field in which neither the airship nor the airplane was able to compete with it successfully4 ,,part ,,ii ,,chapter ,i ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,dirigible ,no sooner had the ,montgolfiers and their colleagues constructed their earliest balloon models than scientific men and the general public1 aroused by the possibilities of navigating the heavens1 set themselves to devising schemes for steering aircraft4 ,for of course the one great faculty which the balloon lacked was the ability to choose its own course4 ,once it arose into the air it was carried along in the direction and at the speed of whatever wind happened to be blowing4 ,interest in the problem waxed so hot that there was scarcely a banker1 farmer or grocer of those early days who did not have his private theory concerning the steering of balloons4 ,many learned essays on the subject were written1 and many foolish solutions were advanced1 among them that of harnessing a flock of birds to the balloon1 with reins for guiding them4 ,but the idea every one thought most likely was that of oars1 sails and a rudder4 ,now there are several very good reasons why this method1 adapted from sailing vessels1 is useless when it comes to a balloon4 ,in the first place1 no sooner has the balloon risen to its maximum height into the atmosphere than it is caught in an air-current and carried along at exactly the same rate of speed as that at which the air itself is moving4 ,to the occupants it seems to be hanging motionless in a dead calm1 where there is no breeze blowing4 ,since its motion and that of the surrounding air are exactly equal1 there is of course no resisting pressure against a sail1 which simply hangs dead and lifeless4 ,to row in the air1 on the other hand1 would require oars of enormous size or else moving at a tremendous speed and a superhuman strength would be needed for moving them4 ,stop to think of the great velocity and power of the wind and then try to imagine the strength that would be necessary to row against this tide4 ,these facts1 however1 did not occur to the early experimenters1 and balloons equipped with sails and oars were actually constructed4 ,in order that they might present less resistance to the air1 they were made egg-shaped1 or long and cylindrical1 sometimes with pointed ends1 and this1 at least1 was an advance4 ,another step in the right direction was the suggestion of paddle wheels1 projecting from each side of the car1 and beating the air as they revolved4 ,this was coming very close to the correct solution1 that of a revolving propeller4 ,but unfortunately at this early date the mechanical sciences were in their infancy1 and although soon afterward the idea of a screw propeller did come up1 the inventors were handicapped by the fact they knew of no other power than hand-power with which to drive it4 ,the man who might almost be called the father of the modern dirigible balloon was the ,french ,general ,meusnier1 an officer in the army and a man of great scientific and technical skill4 ,meusnier just proposed that air-bags or ballonets as they are now called be placed inside the balloon proper4 ,by pumping air into these the balloon envelope could be filled out again when it had become partly deflated by loss of gas1 for one of the great problems was to maintain the shape of the balloon after a quantity of gas had escaped4 ,this was a good idea1 but unfortunately its first public trial almost resulted in a tragedy4 ,one ,duke de ,chartres ordered a balloon of this sort to be built for him by the brothers ,robert1 ,parisian mechanics4 ,accompanied by the ,roberts themselves and another man he ascended in it in ,july1 #aghd4 ,the balloon was fish-shaped and was equipped with oars and a rudder4 ,no sooner had it started on its upward journey than it was caught in a violent swirl of air which tore away the oars4 ,the opening in the neck of the balloon became closed over by the air bag inside1 and there was no outlet for the gas1 which expanded as the balloon rose4 ,undoubtedly a terrific explosion would have occurred1 but the ,duke1 with great presence of mind1 drew his sword and cut a slash ten feet long in the balloon envelope4 ,he saved his own life and that of his comrades4 ,the gas1 escaping through the rent1 allowed the balloon to settle slowly to earth1 without injury to its occupants4 ,but the spectators did not understand the emergency1 and the ,duke was covered with ridicule for his supposed cowardice4 ,the idea of the air-bags1 however1 was a useful one1 and in later experiments worked well4 ,meusnier gave a great deal of earnest study and experiment to the dirigible balloon1 and he originated a design which was far ahead of his day4 ,he decided on an elliptical or egg shape for the envelope1 with small air bags inside it1 and he suggested using a boat shaped car1 which would offer less resistance to the air than the old round basket4 ,the car was attached to the balloon by an absolutely rigid connection1 so that it could not swing backward as the balloon drove ahead4 ,halfway between the car and the envelope he placed three propellers1 and these1 for want of any form of motor1 were driven by hand pulleys4 ,meusnier's design for a dirigible was the cleverest and most practical of its day1 but owing to the cost1 it was never actually carried out4 ,in #agic1 ,general ,meusnier was killed at ,mayence1 fighting against the ,prussians4 ,after his death1 little was heard of the dirigible balloon for another fifty years4 ,except perhaps for the novelty balloons at the country fair1 the science of aeronautics slept4 ,the next appearance of the dirigible in history was in #aheb1 when the work of the ,frenchman ,giffard attracted widespread attention4 ,in #ahea1 ,giffard had constructed a small steam engine1 of about three horsepower1 and weighing only #ajj pounds4 ,he thought it could be used for driving a balloon1 and with the aid of a couple of friends he set to work building an airship1 which was somewhat the shape of a cigar1 pointed at the ends4 ,it was #add feet long and #dj feet in diameter at its thickest part1 and it held #hh1jjj cubic feet of gas4 ,over the envelope was spread a net from which a heavy pole was suspended by ropes4 ,at the end of this pole1 or keel1 as ,giffard called it1 was a triangular sail which acted as a rudder4 ,twenty feet below the pole hung the car1 in which was the steam motor and propeller4 ,with this new means of driving the propeller1 the dirigible began to show signs of proving a success1 although as yet it could not develop any very great speed4 ,one reason was that the engine was too heavy in proportion to the power it generated4 ,giffard's airship under the most favorable conditions could only go at from four to five miles an hour1 when there was no wind4 ,one of the problems ,giffard had to solve was that of preventing an explosion of the gas escaping through the neck of the balloon1 as it came in contact with the heat of the engine4 ,to avoid this1 he placed a piece of wire gauze1 similar to that used in safety lanterns1 in front of the stokehole and the smoke of the furnace was allowed to escape through a chimney at one corner of the car1 pointing downwards4 ,giffard's second airship1 of somewhat different design1 was destroyed by an accident on its very first trip4 ,he at once began working on a design for a giant airship1 which was to be #a1igj feet long1 and #ih feet in diameter at the middle4 ,the motor was to weigh #cj tons1 and he estimated that the airship would fly at #dj miles an hour4 ,he worked out the scheme in every detail1 but owing to the expense the dirigible was never made4 ,the first military dirigible ever built was that constructed by ,dupuy de ,lme for the ,french government during the siege of ,paris1 and tried out in #ahgb4 ,its propeller was driven by a crew of eight men1 a very curious proceeding1 since the steam engine had been successfully tried4 ,a dirigible which was almost modern in design was meanwhile being constructed by ,paul ,haenlein in ,germany1 and made its appearance in #ahgb4 ,it was long and cylindrical1 with pointed ends1 the car placed close to the balloon envelope1 to give a very rigid connection4 ,its really noteworthy feature was the gas engine1 replacing the steam engine that ,giffard had used as a means of driving the propeller4 ,the gas for the engine was taken from the balloon itself and the loss was made good by pumping air into the air-bags4 ,the balloon envelope held #he1jjj cubic feet of gas1 and of this the engine consumed #bej cubic feet an hour4 ,this dirigible1 on trial trips1 attained a very fair speed1 which would have been greater had hydrogen gas been used in the envelope instead of ordinary gas4 ,but lack of funds prevented further experiment1 and ,haenlein had to abandon his attempts4 ,ten years now passed before the next notable effort at dirigible construction4 ,the delay was probably due to the fact that no suitable driving power was yet known4 ,in #ahhb the famous ,french aeronauts ,gaston and ,albert ,tissandier constructed an airship somewhat similar to ,giffard's models1 but containing an electric motor4 ,but although this dirigible cost #b1jjj or almost #aj1jjj to build1 it had the same fault as all that preceded it2 it could not develop speed4 ,the problem of finding an engine of sufficiently light weight and high power was a difficult one1 which has not to-day been wholly solved4 ,the public generally had begun to think of the dirigible balloon as impractical and impossible1 when in #ahhd came the startling news that two ,french officers1 named ,renard and ,krebs1 had performed some remarkable feats in a balloon of their own design4 ,an electric motor of #h-a_/b horsepower drove the propeller4 ,several details of this dirigible are extremely interesting4 ,the axis on which the propeller blades were fixed could be lifted in order to prevent them from being injured in case of a sudden drop4 ,a trail rope was also used so as to break the shock which might result from a sudden fall4 ,at the back between the car and the balloon was fixed the rudder1 of unusual design1 consisting of two four-sided pyramids with their bases placed together4 ,renard and ,krebs christened their dirigible ,la ,france1 and on ,august #i1 #ahhd1 they gave it its first public tryout near ,chalais1 with great success4 ,they traveled some distance against the wind1 turned and came back covering a distance of about #e miles in #bc minutes4 ,never before had a balloon been able to make a trip and return to the place of its ascension4 ,but in spite of the success of ,renard and his comrade1 construction of dirigibles in ,france paused for sometime1 and it was in ,germany that the next attempts were made4 ,in #ahhj1 a cigar-shaped dirigible1 equipped with a benzine motor was demonstrated in ,leipsic4 ,it had been built the year before by ,baumgarten and ,wlfert4 ,at its sides it had wings or sails and three cars were suspended from it instead of one4 ,this airship met with a serious accident on its very first trip4 ,a passenger in one of the cars destroyed the balance1 the whole thing toppled over and crashed to the earth1 the occupants miraculously escaping injury4 ,not long afterward ,baumgarten died4 ,wlfert constructed a new dirigible of his own design containing a benzine motor in which he ascended from the ,tempelhofer ,feld1 near ,berlin1 in ,june1 #ahig4 ,wlfert had neglected to provide against contact of the gas escaping from the envelope with the heated fumes from the engine4 ,an explosion took place in mid-air1 and the machine fell to earth in a mass of flames1 killing ,wlfert and the other occupant4 ,illustration3 ,,giffard',s ,,airship ,next in the long series of attempts came that of an ,austrian named ,david ,schwartz1 who designed a dirigible with one entirely new feature3 a rigid aluminum envelope4 ,this balloon had a petrol engine4 ,it was tried out in ,berlin in #ahig1 but an accident to the propellers brought it crashing to the ground4 ,its occupant jumped for his life and barely escaped killing4 ,up to this time there is little to record in dirigible history but a long series of valiant attempts and failures1 punctuated all too frequently by grewsome disasters4 ,but the nineteenth century was drawing to a close1 the twentieth century with its era of mechanical triumphs was at hand1 and the time was ripe for those champions of the dirigible to appear who should make it a potent factor in modern warfare4 ,illustration3 ,,santos-,,dumont ,,rounding ,,the ,,eiffel ,,tower ,almost at the same time there stepped into the limelight of public interest two men1 representing ,germany and ,france1 whose names are now famous in the aeronautic world4 ,in #ahih there appeared in ,paris a young ,brazilian named ,santos-,dumont1 who began constructing a series of dirigibles whose success astounded the authorities4 ,in exactly the same year ,count von ,zeppelin1 in ,germany1 formed a limited liability company for the purpose of raising funds for airship construction4 ,his first dirigible balloon was the longest and biggest that had ever been built4 ,although the envelope was not1 like ,schwartz's dirigible1 of solid aluminum1 it was practically rigid1 for it was made by stretching a linen and silk covering over an aluminum framework4 ,zeppelin's first airship had two cars1 with a motor in each1 giving about #cj horsepower4 ,on its trial trips it made a better speed than had yet been attained4 ,with the experience he had gained ,zeppelin set to work on a new design4 ,it was five years before he secured enough funds for its construction1 but it was finally ready in #aije4 ,the most important improvement was in the motors1 which were as light in weight as those of the first dirigible but had a greatly increased power4 ,as before1 there were two cars1 with an #hj horsepower motor in each4 ,even this airship1 in spite of its greater speed1 was not an unqualified success1 for it was discovered that it had too great a lifting power1 so that when launched it rose at once to a height of about #aejj feet1 and was impossible to operate at a lower level4 ,santos-,dumont1 meanwhile1 in ,paris1 had been performing feats of aeronautics which had made him the acknowledged hero of the air4 ,santos-,dumont was probably far from being the scientific student of balloon construction that ,zeppelin was1 but while his dirigibles did not attain a great speed or represent a tremendous advance in actual theory1 his public performances served one great purpose1 they aroused the ardor and enthusiasm of the whole ,french people and of many in other countries for the sport of ballooning4 ,santos-,dumont had great wealth1 and a sportsman's courage4 ,he constructed in all #ad dirigibles1 each time seizing upon the experience he had gained and incorporating it into a new model1 casting aside the old4 ,santos-,dumont's airships were altogether different from those of ,zeppelin4 ,while ,zeppelin's had an inner framework to maintain the shape of the envelope1 ,santos-,dumont depended entirely on the linen air bags1 placed inside the balloon1 which as it became flabby through loss of gas1 could be pumped full of air to hold the envelope in place4 ,his balloons were either long and cylindrical with pointed ends1 cigar-shaped1 or else egg-shaped1 with ends rounded4 ,in spite of all the curious accidents that beset this young ,brazilian on his early trips1 in the vicinity of ,paris1 he was never once deterred from his efforts4 ,he almost lost his life several times in his first airship1 but he profited by the mistakes of construction in building the second4 ,his dirigibles increased in size as he installed in each successive model a more powerful and consequently heavier motor1 requiring greater lifting power4 ,in his third balloon ,santos-,dumont ascended from the ,champ de ,mars in ,paris and circled the ,eiffel ,tower amid the cheers of thousands of onlookers1 finally descending in an open field outside ,paris4 ,public interest was now thoroughly aroused4 ,a prize of #d1jjj was offered by ,monsieur ,deutsch to the aeronaut who could circle the ,eiffel ,tower and return to the starting-point at ,saint ,cloud within half an hour4 ,santos-,dumont attempted this with his #dth and #eth machines1 but it was not until he built his #fth model that he finally accomplished it4 ,the ,brazilian government sent him a gold medal and an additional #e1jjj with which to build new balloons4 ,number #i was the most popular of all ,santos-,dumont's machines4 ,he became the idol of the ,french public1 whom he was always surprising with his spectacular and unlooked-for adventures4 ,during the races at ,longchamps he descended on the race course1 stayed to view the performance1 then mounted in his car and rode away4 ,he amazed the passersby by alighting before his own front door in ,paris where he left his airship while he went and ate breakfast4 ,he sailed up opposite the grandstand when ,president ,loubet was reviewing the ,french troops1 fired a salute1 and as unexpectedly departed4 ,santos-,dumont's power of escape from death seems almost uncanny but it was due to his coolness in facing any situation4 ,in the majority of his airships he used a petroleum motor1 and with this there is considerable danger of the petroleum in the reservoir catching fire4 ,on one occasion a fire did start1 but he succeeded in extinguishing it with his panama hat4 ,among all his mishaps1 including that of falling into the ,mediterranean ,sea1 he never really had a serious explosion4 ,another young ,brazilian1 however1 named ,severo1 was killed in a dirigible of his own construction1 when the petroleum in the engine caught fire4 ,he ascended in ,may1 #aijb1 in a balloon which he called the ,pax4 ,his car was seen suddenly to burst in flames1 a violent explosion followed1 and the whole thing crashed to earth4 ,santos-,dumont placed his last three dirigibles at the disposal of the ,french military authorities4 ,actually he had not developed a type suitable for military use4 ,but his public performances had aroused intense popular interest and had succeeded in opening the eyes of the ,french authorities to the possibilities of the airship in time of war4 ,his remarkable aerial feats had attracted the attention in particular of two ,frenchmen of his own fine metal and courage1 who from this time forth left no stone unturned to excel him in his achievements4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,forerunners ,,of ,,the ,,allied ,,dirigibles ,it is to the two ,french brothers ,lebaudy that ,france and the ,allies owe the credit for the development of the big military dirigible such as is used in the present ,war4 ,these brothers were wealthy and full of enthusiasm for aeronautics4 ,from a distance they had watched the achievements of ,santos-,dumont and they determined to expend every possible effort to excel him in the construction of dirigibles4 ,in #ahii they commissioned an experienced engineer named ,jouillot to make a study of the problem1 to discover if possible why previous experimenters had failed to produce a model of satisfactory speed and power1 and to draw up designs for an airship which should correct the faults of those already known4 ,it took two years before a finger could be lifted toward the actual building1 but finally in #aija the work of constructing the first ,lebaudy airship commenced4 ,it was ready for a tryout in ,november1 #aijb4 ,the envelope was of bright yellow calico3 it was cigar-shaped1 #ahg feet long and #cb feet in diameter4 ,the envelope was fastened at the bottom to a rigid floor-work of steel tubing and from this the car was suspended4 ,the dirigible was fitted with a #dj horse power benzine motor2 and its total weight1 including a supply of benzine1 water and ballast1 was two and one-half tons4 ,during the next year this dirigible made at least #cj trips1 at very fair speed4 ,meanwhile the builders were studying it in every detail1 working out ideas for improvements and drawing up plans for their next model4 ,in #aijd they built their second airship4 ,it was somewhat longer than the first and about the same shape1 but the pointed end at the rear had been rounded off4 ,calico was again used for the covering of the envelope1 and it was made absolutely air-tight by coating it inside and out with rubber4 ,besides the main valve there were safety valves in the envelope for allowing the gas to escape when the pressure became too great4 ,the envelope was also provided with two small windows1 so that the inside of the balloon could be easily inspected4 ,it had sails to give it greater stability1 and two movable sail-like rudders1 placed together at a ,v-shaped angle4 ,the driver could alter the position of the sails and the rudder according to the wind4 ,the car of this ,lebaudy airship was boat-shaped with a flat bottom4 ,to diminish the shock in case of a fall steel tubing was placed in a slanting position beneath it in a pyramid arrangement1 the point facing downwards4 ,the car was set very close to the envelope or body of the airship1 and carried the #dj horse power benzine engine4 ,at the front of the car was an electrically worked camera1 a #a1jjj1jjj candle power acetylene projector providing lighting by night4 ,many improvements were later added to this second dirigible which was christened the ,lebaudy4 ,the interest of the ,french ,minister of ,war was aroused and he appointed a commission from the ,balloon ,corps to follow the progress of the experiments4 ,every one now began to look upon the dirigible as a factor to be reckoned with in the event of a war4 ,the ,lebaudy brothers offered their airship to the ,french government1 and after it had accomplished a series of tests to prove its value as an instrument of war1 it was accepted1 and became a model for later airship construction4 ,germany was not far behind1 for already ,count von ,zeppelin's second airship had proved itself a success1 and plans were being laid for a third4 ,from this time on the two ,european nations destined to become powerful adversaries in the ,world ,war1 though working along somewhat different lines1 kept almost neck and neck in their struggle for air supremacy4 ,the ,french military balloon department began at once the work of constructing an airfleet with the ,lebaudy as a model and with the engineer ,jouillot as chief adviser1 this work went forward with great rapidity4 ,the ,lebaudy was followed in design pretty closely1 but a few changes were made which experience had suggested4 ,for one thing the balloon envelope was rounded at the front and pointed at the rear1 exactly the reverse of the ,lebaudy model1 as this arrangement was thought to offer less resistance to the air4 ,it had an internal air-bag or ballonet whose capacity was one-fifth that of the envelope4 ,this ballonet was of course empty on the ascent4 ,it was calculated that the balloon could reach a height of about a mile4 ,to descend1 gas would then be allowed to escape1 and1 in order to keep the envelope fully inflated1 air would be pumped into the ballonet4 ,this first type of dirigible actually constructed by the ,french army was called the ,patrie4 ,it was #aig feet long and carried a benzine motor of from #cj to #dj horse power1 which drove the two double-bladed steel propellers4 ,as in the case of the ,lebaudy1 the ,patrie was protected from injury by a strong steel framework1 coming to a point below the car4 ,in case of a sudden drop1 this point would strike the ground first and ward off the blow from the car1 and the propellers4 ,good as this plan seemed1 it did not always work4 ,the ,patrie1 after many successful journeys1 met with an accident to her motor1 escaped her guard of soldiers and drifted off alone4 ,she crossed the ,english ,channel and fell in ,ireland1 breaking off her propeller4 ,before she could be captured she rose again into the air1 drifted out over the sea and was never again heard from4 ,m4 ,deutsch1 who had done so much to encourage the efforts of ,santos-,dumont1 stepped forward in the emergency and offered the ,french government his airship the ,ville de ,paris4 ,this had been designed for him by an engineer named ,tatin4 ,it was #bjj feet long1 made of ,german ,continental ,rubber ,fabric1 and1 like the ,patrie1 had an internal air-bag of one-fifth its capacity4 ,in one important respect it was different from those that preceded it4 ,at its stern it had eight small cylinders1 or ballonets1 filled with gas1 which added greatly to its stability1 though they detracted from its speed by causing a considerable resistance to the air4 ,while the car of the ,patrie was about #af feet long1 this new airship had a car measuring #aae feet1 and the propeller was at the front1 so that as it revolved it drew rather than pushed the car through the air4 ,a propeller of this sort is termed a tractor1 and figures to-day in many models of aircraft4 ,during these years of experiment in ,france1 ,england and ,america had looked on in comparative idleness4 ,in #aijb ,england did indeed possess one small airship1 designed by ,colonel ,templer of the ,army ,balloon ,department1 and christened the ,nulli ,secundus 7,second to ,none74 ,she was sausage shaped3 rounded at the front and pointed at the stern with a peculiar rudder design4 ,her car was boat-shaped and her propellers were aluminum1 both revolving in the same direction1 which gave her a curious tendency to somersault4 ,in spite of their baby dirigible's rather pretentious title1 the military authorities1 and the ,english public in general1 evidently took slight store in the infant prodigy1 for from #aijb to #aijh1 she only came out of her shed for a few short trips4 ,in #aijh she was completely remodelled1 and emerged for a trial trip4 ,but neither the government nor the public seemed interested in ,colonel ,templer's schemes4 ,the valiant little pioneer ship of ,england's airfleet went back to her sheds1 resigning herself to obscurity4 ,our own country1 which in many other lines has led the world in its mechanical skill and enterprise1 did not have a single army dirigible till as late as #aijh1 when it gave out a contract for an airship which was built by ,captain ,thomas ,s4 ,baldwin4 ,the motor was designed and built by a young mechanic in ,hammondsport1 ,n4 ,y41 who for several years had been manufacturing motors for automobiles4 ,his name was ,glenn ,curtiss and he afterward became one of the world's most famous aviators4 ,united ,states ,army ,dirigible ,no4 #a was long and cylindrical1 pointed at both ends1 and covered with ,japanese silk1 vulcanized with rubber4 ,the water-cooled ,curtiss motor was a #bj horse power1 and the wooden propeller was of the tractor type1 placed in the front of the car4 ,germany1 while ,america and ,england stood idle1 had been rapidly forging ahead4 ,by #aijh ,count von ,zeppelin had constructed his third and fourth models1 and his public demonstrations had aroused the whole ,german people to unbounded enthusiasm4 ,the ,crown ,prince made a trip in ,zeppelin ,no4 #c and its originator was decorated with the ,order of the ,black ,eagle4 ,the ,german ,association for an ,aerial ,fleet was formed1 and within a short time over a million dollars had been contributed by the people for the purpose of building dirigibles4 ,zeppelin ,no4 #d was destroyed by an accident1 but ,zeppelin ,no4 #c was recalled into the national service and in #aiji given the official title of ,s4,m4,s4 ,zeppelin ,i4 ,from this time on dirigible construction in ,germany went forward with the greatest speed4 ,two other names became prominent in the enterprise3 those of ,major von ,parseval and ,major von ,gross4 ,the ,parseval design resembled more the ,french1 for it was covered with ,continental fabric1 was long and cylindrical1 rounded at the front and pointed at the stern1 with a large internal air ballonet4 ,the car was suspended from two steel cables or trolleys1 which it could slide along1 altering its position and the balance of the whole airship4 ,the ,gross type of airship resembled the ,lebaudy and the ,patrie1 with its boat-shaped car hung from a steel platform attached to the bottom of the envelope4 ,out of this brief story of the development of the early airship models of all the nations1 we can1 if we look carefully1 see certain definite types of dirigibles emerging4 ,the experimenters had to solve this problem3 ,what shall we do when owing to loss of gas the balloon envelope begins to get flabby8 ,for of course a flabby1 partially filled envelope would flop from side to side1 destroying the balance of the airship and checking its speed4 ,illustration3 ,,baldwin ,u4 ,s4 ,,dirigible ,,no4 #a ,the ,german inventors settled the problem by making the envelope rigid1 either with a solid covering or with a covering of fabric stretched over an inner framework4 ,thus the rigid type of airship was evolved4 ,the ,french inventors solved the same problem by placing inside the envelope a large empty bag of fabric1 into which air could be pumped when necessary to fill the balloon out and hold the envelope firm4 ,the air could not be pumped directly into the envelope itself as it would produce an explosive mixture with the gas already there4 ,from this method of dealing with difficulty1 the non-rigid type of dirigible was evolved4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,british ,,army ,,baby ,,dirigible ,but the non-rigid dirigible presented a new difficulty3 how could the car be suspended from it in such a way that it would not swing8 ,for only with a rigid connection between the car and the envelope could the greatest speed be obtained4 ,the ,lebaudy solved this problem by attaching to the base of the envelope a rigid steel flooring1 from which the car could then be suspended by an immovable connection4 ,and so was evolved the semi-rigid type of airship4 ,in recent years another solution of this problem of preventing the car from swinging has been employed to some extent3 ,by making the car almost as long as the envelope1 the connecting cables by which the car is suspended hang almost perpendicular1 and there is not the same tendency to swerve as with cables slanting down to a comparatively small car4 ,this type of airship is called the demi-semi-rigid4 ,these then are the four general classes of dirigibles which were used in the ,great ,war4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,dirigibles ,,in ,,the ,,world ,,war ,when in ,august1 #aiad1 the sinister black cloud of a world war appeared on the horizon1 only the ,hun was prepared for the life and death struggle in the air4 ,his formidable fleet of super-,zeppelins had not their match in the world1 and his program of airship construction was being pushed forward with the utmost speed and efficiency4 ,france had the largest fleet of dirigibles among the ,allied nations4 ,they were of the semi-rigid type1 of only medium size and slow speed4 ,they could not hope to compete on equal terms with the swift and powerful ,german airships4 ,great ,britain was far worse off than ,france1 for her airship fleet practically did not exist4 ,the army had only two large modern dirigibles and a few very small vessels like the old ,nulli ,secundus1 of little practical value4 ,the navy had no airships at all4 ,italy had a few good medium sized vessels1 and four large dirigibles were in process of building4 ,russia1 too1 had several airships purchased from the other countries1 of various makes and types1 but she lacked experienced aeronauts with which to operate them4 ,both ,france and ,england had already made extensive plans for the building of dirigibles1 but few of the ships ordered were near to completion in #aiad4 ,only the ,prussian was ready for hostilities2 his airships gave him a great strategic advantage4 ,by means of them he gained information about the movements of ,allied troops and munitions2 directed his artillery1 bombed ,allied positions1 and went his way1 for the most part unchallenged4 ,his naval airships were likewise a terrible menace4 ,one of them1 in the early part of the war1 received an iron cross for its work in connection with a ,german submarine1 in an attack on three ,british cruisers4 ,every one knows of ,germany's record in the bombing of cities and towns by means of ,zeppelins4 ,in the first days of the war the ,allies had no anti-aircraft guns and very few airplanes with which to protect themselves1 and so ,germany went unmolested while she waged her war against defenseless civilians1 women and children4 ,the spirit of the ,allies1 however1 could not be daunted4 ,england put her few small dirigibles on duty over the ,english ,channel1 where they served as patrols against submarines4 ,for this work airships are very effective1 since it is a curious fact that from their height in the atmosphere it is possible to see far below the surface of the water4 ,so during the first tragic weeks1 when ,france and ,belgium were pouring out their life-blood to check the onward sweep of the ,hun1 these tiny aircraft stood guard over the ,channel across which the contemptible little army of ,britain was being hurried on transports to meet the invader4 ,like the contemptible little army itself they proved a factor to be reckoned with4 ,such aerial scouts now form a large arm of the ,british1 ,french and ,american navies4 ,soon after the war began they were constructed in large numbers to serve as patrols against submarines4 ,in the language of the air1 these little dirigibles are known as ,blimps4 ,the ,blimp was first developed for use in the war by the ,british ,naval ,air ,service1 but the ,united ,states soon saw its advantage as a means of patroling and guarding our harbors and coastline1 and so she set to work to manufacture this type of dirigible in large numbers4 ,to-day it is the chief dirigible of our aerial fleet4 ,in some important ways it has the advantage over the airplane in combating the submarine4 ,for the airplane can only remain in the air while it keeps going at high speed4 ,just as soon as its engines are stopped it commences to descend4 ,but the dirigible can sail out over the harbor1 shut off its power and remain motionless in the air for hours1 while its observer keeps a constant lookout for enemy undersea craft4 ,when speed is necessary its powerful motor makes it a fast flying craft1 sometimes considerably faster than the airplane4 ,for the airplane must often travel against the wind1 while the dirigible simply rises until it reaches a current of air moving in the desired direction1 when it has the combined power of the wind and its engine to drive it forward4 ,illustration3 ,,cross ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,gas-,,bag ,,of ,,the ,,astra-,,torres1 ,,showing ,,method ,,of ,,car ,,suspension ,the ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,blimp is about #afj feet long1 rounded in front and tapering to a pointed stern4 ,its stability and balance are increased by five fins at its stern2 and it has also four rudders4 ,the car1 which is exactly like the ordinary airplane body1 has two seats1 for pilot and observer1 suspended directly from the base of the envelope by wire cables4 ,the ,blimp carries a #ajj horse power ,curtiss aviation motor1 and is equipped with wireless for exchanging messages4 ,the ,french have a small airship very much like the ,blimp which they use for scout duty4 ,it is called the ,zodiac1 and before the war was designed as a private pleasure car4 ,because of the fact that it could be easily packed and transported from place to place it was drafted into the service early in the war4 ,naturally1 if an airship has to be kept inflated when not in use it is a constant target for the enemy's gunfire2 and a small dirigible which can be packed up in an hour when not needed and readily inflated when the call for action comes is a very much safer proposition4 ,there are several sizes and slightly different shapes of the ,zodiac1 but the shape of the envelope in all of them is very similar to the ,blimp1 tapering toward the stern with fins to give stability4 ,a large sail-like rudder is set beneath the stern of the ship4 ,probably the most interesting thing about the ,zodiac is the car which in most models has a very long wooden framework4 ,this framework1 or girder1 by its length distributes the weight along the whole length of the envelope4 ,the car1 in which the pilot and observer sit1 is set in this girder4 ,illustration3 ,copyright ,underwood and ,underwood ,,the ,,blimp1 ,c-#a1 ,,the ,,largest ,,dirigible ,,of ,,the ,,american ,,navy ,nothing is more interesting to note in modern airships than the simplification of the method of car suspension4 ,in the early airships the car was hung from the envelope by a large number of cables1 which either connected with a network that fitted over the envelope1 or else1 in a semi-rigid dirigible1 to the platform or keel at the base of the balloon4 ,now of course all these cables offered a great resistance to the air and were an enemy to speed4 ,just as the question of speed affected the shape of the envelope1 until to-day we have the streamline balloon1 tapering to the rear1 and just as it made the question of a rigid or non-rigid envelope so important1 it likewise finally did away with complicated connections between the envelope and the car4 ,illustration3 ,copyright ,international ,film ,service1 ,inc4 ,,the ,,balloon ,,of ,,the ,u4 ,s4 ,s4 ,,oklahoma ,from the point of view of car suspension one of the most interesting of the modern ,french airships is the ,astra-,torres4 ,this is a dirigible of the non-rigid type4 ,canvas partitions are stretched across the interior of the envelope in such a manner as to form a triangle1 its apex facing downwards4 ,the sides of this triangle are strengthened by cables and from its apex hang the cables which support the car4 ,the air resistance produced by the cables is therefore very slight1 since only two lines are exposed4 ,among the aerial war fleets of the ,allied nations1 the ,french offers by far the greatest field for study1 since it possesses many different types of dirigibles4 ,the ,astra and the ,astra-,torres are perhaps the chief representatives of the non-rigid design1 and are generally considered the most successful of the ,french airships4 ,the ,astra is the older model1 and1 like the ,zodiac1 has the long wooden framework or car girder1 hung directly to the base of the envelope and distributing to all parts of it the weight of the car4 ,it can be recognized by this and by its stabilizers or small inflated gas bags around the stern of the envelope4 ,the ,astra is of medium size1 varying in length from #aii to #bge feet4 ,the ,astra-,torres is very much longer1 those of the #aiad type measuring #deg feet from nose to stern4 ,from the exterior1 this airship has a peculiar three-lobed appearance4 ,it tapers very slightly to the stern and is pointed at both ends1 but it has not the ,astra's inflated stabilizers4 ,another ,french airship of non-rigid design is the ,clement-,bayard4 ,it is similar in design and in size to the ,astra1 but without the inflated stabilizers4 ,rounded slightly at the nose1 the envelope tapers to a sharp-pointed stern4 ,the ,lebaudy is the chief example of a ,french semi-rigid airship4 ,the envelope is long and cylindrical1 pointed at the nose and rounded at the stern1 where it is fitted with stabilizing fins4 ,the base of the envelope is fitted to a long keel1 which ends at the rear in a rudder and fins4 ,from this keel the car is suspended by strong cables1 and beneath the car extends a conical structure of steel tubes1 with points falling downward4 ,these serve as a protection in case of a sudden landing4 ,in front of the car and on each side of the keel are planes similar to those of an airplane1 which help to give balance to the ship4 ,among airships of the ,allies1 the ,french ,speiss furnishes an example of the purely rigid design4 ,constructed on the plan of the ,german ,zeppelin1 its envelope has an inner wooden framework which holds it in place4 ,the ,speiss is a large dirigible1 measuring about #dej feet4 ,it carries two cars1 and in each is a two-hundred horse power motor1 giving it great speed4 ,,part ,,iii ,,chapter ,i ,,early ,,experiments ,,with ,,heavier-,,than-,,air ,,machines ,for many centuries before the ascension of the first ,montgolfier balloon1 which1 as we have seen1 marked the beginning of aerial flight1 men had dreamed of a different method of conquering the skies1--in fact1 the very natural one suggested by the flight of birds4 ,to build artificial wings was the ambition of many an old-time scientist4 ,yet practicable as the idea seemed1 its working out was1 as a matter of fact1 beset with difficulties4 ,the ,montgolfier balloon rose in the air because it was lighter than air1--just as a piece of cork rises in water because it weighs less in proportion to its volume than the water4 ,but a man equipped with wings is a fairly heavy object2 where is the force that is to lift him and carry him soaring into the sky8 ,unfortunately the early experimenters in aeronautics were not men who had had the long training in keen observation nor the groundwork of mechanical knowledge which would have fitted them for their task of devising a flying machine4 ,they were dreamers and philosophers1 often with very clever ideas about how man might succeed in flying4 ,but the exact science of mechanics was yet unborn1 and it was not until the nineteenth century1 with its great advance in this direction1 dawned1 that the time was ripe for any measure of success4 ,still1 in many old pictures and medieval manuscripts there are curious examples of the ideas of these old philosophers1 designs which were never actually tried out1 but which show the longing of men1 even in those days1 for the great adventure of sailing above the clouds4 ,all these strange theories of the middle ages were hampered by the superstition that there was some magic connected with the power of birds to fly4 ,cameras were unheard of1 or it would have been a simple matter to have recorded on paper the actual motions of the bird's wings in order to study their significance4 ,the astounding ease with which these little winged creatures were able to float across the heavens was indeed baffling2 it was difficult to determine just how it was accomplished4 ,any one who watches the flight of a seagull realizes that here is an accomplished aeronaut1 able to balance himself with perfect ease in the atmosphere1 to mount upward on flapping wings1 or1 taking advantage of a rising air current which can support him1 to float motionless with wings extended4 ,all this requires an unusual amount of skill1 particularly in balancing4 ,drop a piece of paper and watch how it turns and tumbles at every angle before it reaches the floor4 ,that is just what a bird or an airplane has a tendency to do1 and it takes a perfect system of control and a skilled pilot indeed1 to keep it right side up4 ,the first idea1 of course1 for a heavier-than-air machine1 was that of a pair of wings to be attached directly to the human body1 and to be worked with the arms4 ,as early as #adhj ,leonardi da ,vinci drew up a design for an apparatus of this sort4 ,and the idea was not a bad one3 it would have worked all very well had it not been for one small fact which the philosophers overlooked1 that man is not provided with the powerful shoulder muscles such as the bird possesses for moving his wings4 ,altogether1 it was not until the nineteenth century that any real progress toward flight in a heavier-than-air machine was made4 ,it came when experimenters began to investigate the definite laws of air resistance and air pressure which control the action of a bird just as they do the action of a kite4 ,as a matter of fact1 a bird1 or an airplane1 is nothing more than a complicated kite1 controlled by an intelligence within itself1 rather than by an operator standing on the ground and guiding it by means of a cord4 ,illustration3 ,kite ,every one knows that a kite1 if placed at an angle to the wind1 will be carried upward4 ,the reason for this can be seen from a very simple diagram4 ,the pressure of the wind would1 if unhindered1 push the kite into a horizontal position4 ,but the string prevents the angle of the kite from altering1 and since the pressure on its lower surface is greater than that on its upper1 it naturally rises4 ,this is just what happens when the bird sets his wings at such an angle to the wind that he is lifted into the sky4 ,it is also the principle which governs the airplane or glider1 whose planes are kept at a definite angle to the air current4 ,the bird can of course readjust the angle of his wings when he has risen high enough1 or when he meets a current of air moving in a different direction1 and in the same way the elevating plane of a modern airplane can be lifted or deflected at the will of the flyer1 to produce an upward or a downward motion4 ,the first man to study seriously the effects of air pressure on plane surfaces was an ,englishman named ,sir ,george ,cayley1 who in #ahaj drew up plans for a flying machine somewhat resembling the modern monoplane4 ,in #ahff ,wenham patented a machine which involved an ingenious idea1 that of several parallel planes ranged above each other1 instead of the single surface1 as of the bird's wing4 ,wenham believed that the upward pressure of the wind1 acting on all these surfaces would give a far greater lifting power1 as well as a greatly increased stability1 for the machine could not be so easily overturned4 ,here was the principle of the modern biplane and triplane in its infancy4 ,yet the idea of strict bird-form was more appealing to the imagination1 and the experimenters who came after ,wenham did not adopt his suggestions4 ,the man who may truly be said to have given the airplane its first real start in life1 was a ,german named ,otto ,lilienthal4 ,his figure is a very picturesque one in the long story of the conquest of the air4 ,lilienthal was a very busy engineer1 but from boyhood he had had a consuming interest in the problems of flight1 and as he traveled about ,germany on his business undertakings he cast about in his mind incessantly for some plan of wings which would support the human body and carry it up into the air4 ,he finally began a very systematic study of the wings of birds with the result that he made some unusual and important discoveries4 ,while the men who had preceded him had attempted only flat wings in their plans for flying machines1 ,lilienthal decided that the wings should be arched1 like those of a bird1 heavier in front1 with an abrupt downward dip to the front edge1 and then sloping away gradually to the rear where their weight was comparatively slight4 ,when still quite a young man he began building kites with planes curved in this manner4 ,to his surprise and joy he found that they rose very rapidly when set to the breeze4 ,they even seemed to move forward slightly in the air1 as though they had a tendency to fly4 ,like a bird resting on a current of air with wings motionless1 these little toy wings were carried along gracefully on the breeze4 ,lilienthal was jubilant4 ,a man equipped with wings like these1 he said to himself1 would have no difficulty at all in flying4 ,lilienthal was not a rich man and it was many years before his opportunity to test his ideas with a real flying machine came4 ,when by hard toil at his profession he had accumulated a comfortable fortune1 he turned at last to his beloved study4 ,he had often watched the baby birds in their efforts to fly1 and he knew it would be a long time before he attained any skill with wings1 but he was absolutely confident that with much practise and perseverance he could actually learn to fly like the birds4 ,so he constructed for himself a pair of bird wings1 arched exactly like those which he had studied4 ,they were arranged with a circular strip of wood between them for his body4 ,here he hung1 with his arms outstretched on each side1 so that he could operate the wings4 ,the difficulties ,lilienthal had looked for he experienced in large measure4 ,it was no easy thing to attempt to fly in this crude apparatus1 but day after day he went out upon the road1 turned to face the breeze as he had seen the baby birds do1 ran swiftly a short distance1 and then inclined the wings upward so that they might catch the current of air4 ,for a long time he was unsuccessful1 but imagine his joy when he actually did one day feel himself lifted off his feet1 carried forward a few feet and set down4 ,it was scarcely more than a tiny jump1 but ,lilienthal knew he had commenced to fly4 ,from that time on his efforts were ceaseless4 ,he succeeded in being lifted a number of feet off the ground and carried for some distance4 ,but try as he would he could not get high in the air4 ,he realized that what he lacked was any form of motive power1 and for want of a better1 determined to make use of the force of gravity to start him through the air at greater speed4 ,accordingly he had built for him a hill with a smooth incline1 and from the top of this he jumped in his flying machine4 ,the wings he had first constructed he had since improved on1 adding two tail planes at the rear which gave greater stability and decreased the tendency to turn over in the air4 ,as he sprang from the hilltop in this curious apparatus1 he turned the wings upward slightly to catch the breeze1 which supported him exactly as if he had been a kite while he glided out gracefully and finally came gently to earth4 ,this spectacle of a man gliding through the air attracted large crowds4 ,people assembled from far and wide to behold the flying man1 and his achievements were greeted with wild cheering4 ,on his huge winged glider he floated calmly over the heads of the astounded multitude1 often landing far behind them in the fields4 ,in the difficult matter of balancing himself in mid-air he became exceedingly skilful4 ,every slight gust of wind had a tendency to overturn him1 but ,lilienthal constantly shifted the weight of his body in such a manner as to balance himself4 ,as he gained confidence he began practising in stronger winds4 ,his great longing was to soar like a bird up into the sky1 and so when he felt a rising air current1 he inclined his wings slightly upward to take advantage of it4 ,often he did rise far above the hilltop from which he had sprung1 but he never succeeded in actually flying like a bird4 ,his glider had not the motive power to drive it against the breeze with sufficient velocity to send it up into the air1 and his wings were but crude imitations of the wonderful mechanism on which the bird soars into the sky4 ,undaunted by his failure he set to work on a double set of wings1 very similar to a modern biplane4 ,he thought these would have greater lifting power1 but when he came to try them he found them exceedingly unwieldy and hard to control4 ,for where the biplane has an intricate control system1 ,lilienthal relied entirely upon his own body to operate his glider4 ,lilienthal became more and more reckless in his gliding efforts1 and in #ahif1 while gliding in a strong wind1 he lost control of his winged contrivance and came crashing to the earth from a great height4 ,when the horrified spectators rushed to the spot1 they found the fearless pioneer flier dead beneath the wreck of his machine4 ,what ,lilienthal had done for the cause of aviation1 however1 would be hard to estimate4 ,he had drawn the attention of thinking people the world over to his experiments4 ,he had pointed the way to the real solution of the problem of flying3 that of studying and imitating the birds2 and he had discovered the form of plane which on airplanes to-day is well known to give the greatest lifting power3 that of an arched surface1 deeply curved in front and sloping gradually back to its rear edge where its thickness is very slight4 ,moreover1 his attempts at flight had presented a challenge to engineers and scientists--a challenge which was quickly to bear fruit4 ,an ,englishman named ,percy ,s4 ,pilcher had followed the work of ,lilienthal with the deepest interest1 and he now determined to begin a series of experiments on his own account4 ,like ,lilienthal he realized that it would be useless to attempt a motor driven airplane until the principles of glider construction were fully understood4 ,a glider is simply an airplane without an engine1 and ,lilienthal succeeded in giving it a certain motive power by starting from a high point1 so that the force of gravity could draw him forward and downward4 ,pilcher adopted an even more original scheme for making his glider go4 ,he treated it exactly as if it had been a huge kite1 fastening a rope to it and having it pulled swiftly by a team of horses1 until it had gained sufficient momentum to carry it up in the air4 ,the moment it began to rise1 ,pilcher1 who hung between the two large wings much as ,lilienthal had done1 detached himself from the rope and went soaring into the air like a kite1 attempting to balance himself and prevent his glider from overturning4 ,but he had not the experience that long and careful practise had given to ,lilienthal1 and before he had made very many flights in his glider1 he fell and met his death4 ,in #ahif an ,australian1 ,hargrave1 experimented with kites in order to discover a glider form which possessed both lifting power and stability4 ,he was the originator of the familiar box-kite1 which flies so steadily even in a strong breeze4 ,hargrave connected four very large kites of this sort by a cable1 swung a rope seat beneath them and succeeded in making ascents without fear of accident4 ,chanute1 a ,frenchman1 now devised a biplane glider with which he succeeded in making brief flights of a few seconds4 ,the way was now paved for the coming of two great pioneers in the history of aviation4 ,wilbur and ,orville ,wright were owners of a small bicycle shop in ,dayton1 ,ohio4 ,they were men with an innate mechanical skill and with the same dogged persistence and indifference to physical hardships which might have brought success to ,lilienthal if he had had the time to devote to his experiments4 ,the ,wright brothers had read with fascination accounts of the gliding efforts of ,lilienthal4 ,they determined to set to work to solve the problem of human flight4 ,for two years they read and studied everything that had been written upon the subject1 and then finally they felt ready to make a trial of a glider of their own construction4 ,they had made up their minds that ,chanute's idea of the biplane was most practicable1 and so the machine which they built was not strictly bird form1 but had two long planes extending horizontally and parallel to each other1 attached by wooden supports4 ,the operator or flier lay face downward in the center of the lower plane4 ,their glider was too large to be operated with the arms as ,lilienthal's had been1 and so they had to devise some new method for controlling and balancing it in the air4 ,this they managed by the use of small auxiliary planes1 which were operated by levers and ropes4 ,in front of the two large planes was a small horizontal plane which could be raised or lowered4 ,when raised to catch the wind it gave the glider an upward motion which carried it into the air1 bringing the large planes to an angle with the wind where they could continue the climbing process4 ,one of the great difficulties of the early gliders was their tendency to turn over sidewise4 ,lilienthal counteracted this whenever he felt one side of his glider falling by shifting his weight toward the highest wing and thus pulling it down4 ,this crude method was impossible in the ,wright biplane4 ,the brothers set themselves to seeking a solution from the balancing methods of birds1 and right here they made a discovery which was of the greatest importance to the progress of the airplane4 ,the bird when he feels one of his wings falling below the level of the other1 simply droops the rear portion of the wing which is lowest1 forming a cup or curve at the back which catches the air as it rushes under4 ,this increased pressure of air forces the wing up again until in a second the bird has regained his balance4 ,imitating this method1 the ,wright brothers constructed the planes of their glider in such a manner that a cord fastened to the rear sections of each plane could be pulled to draw the rear edge downward4 ,if the left side of their machine became lower than the right it was a simple matter to pull down the left halves of the rear edges of the two planes1 and so catch the air currents which would force that side upward4 ,this ingenious scheme of obtaining sidewise or lateral balance is used in a modified form in airplanes to-day1 and is known as wing-warping4 ,the brothers chose the coast of ,north ,carolina as the best place for their first attempts to fly1 for there the breezes were usually not too strong4 ,after a good deal of difficulty they learned not only to glide1 as ,lilienthal had done1 but also to soar some distance into the air4 ,they had so far no means of turning around1 but this was remedied by fastening at the rear of the two large planes a small vertical plane which could be moved from side to side and which served to turn the glider4 ,there were three achievements in airplane construction which so far could be placed to the credit of the ,wrights4 ,one was the elevating plane by means of which an upward or downward motion of the glider was obtained4 ,the second was the ingenious wing-warping device1 for securing stability4 ,the third was the rudder1 which enabled the pilot to turn around in mid-air4 ,not satisfied with what they had already accomplished1 the brothers now turned their attention to constructing a motor suitable for use in a flying machine4 ,this had to be exceedingly light and at the same time strong1 and some means had to be discovered for converting its power into motion4 ,the first engine they built was a four-cylinder petrol1 and it was used to revolve two wooden propellers acting in opposite directions4 ,the blades of these propellers as they churned the air1 gave thrust to the airplane exactly as the propellers of a ship drive it through the water4 ,in this new model airplane the flier no longer lay face downward as in the old glider1 but sat on a bench between the planes1 from which he controlled the action of the engine1 the elevating plane1 the rudder and the wing warping arrangement by means of levers and cords4 ,it was in the memorable year of #aijc that this first real airplane was flown by the ,wrights4 ,they continued to work steadily upon the problems of design and construction1 and after many trials in the next two years1 they succeeded by #aije in building an airplane which would actually fly a number of miles4 ,they determined to offer their precious secret to some government1 and decided on ,france1 which has always been the patron of aviation4 ,but the ,french government1 after an investigation did not accept their offer1 and so1 disappointed1 but still dogged1 they retired into silence for a period of several years4 ,in #aijh1 when their inventions had been patented in every country1 they began a series of public demonstrations of their remarkable machine1 ,orville in ,america and ,wilbur in ,france4 ,by that time1 unfortunately1 other pioneers had stepped forward to claim honors in the field which they first had explored1 but the ,wright biplane easily outstripped its contemporaries4 ,their wonderful demonstration flights made them heroes1 acclaimed by millions1 and their achievements aroused immediate and intense interest in aeronautics4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,first ,,principles ,,of ,,an ,,airplane ,it is almost humorous that man1 who for centuries had nourished the secret ambition of acquiring wings1 should have found his dream imperfectly realized in the twentieth century by riding in a kite4 ,for that is all an airplane actually is4 ,yet a kite which is no longer tied to earth by a cord and which is equipped with a motor to drive it forward at a great speed has one decided advantage over the old-fashioned sort4 ,the paper kite had to wait for a favorable breeze to catch it up and bear it aloft4 ,we saw in the last chapter how the push of the air against the underneath side of the kite caused it to rise4 ,if instead of the air current pushing against the kite1 the kite had pushed against the air1 exactly the same result would have been attained4 ,a bird1 flying in a dead calm1 creates an upward pressure of air by his motion which is sufficient to support his weight4 ,but the bird1 as he flies forward against the air creates more resistance under the front portion of his body than under the rear1 and this increased upward pressure would be sufficient to turn him over backward if his weight were not distributed more toward the front of his body1 in order to counterbalance it4 ,this fact can be easily illustrated with a piece of cardboard4 ,take a small oblong sheet of cardboard and mark a dot at its center4 ,if the cardboard is of even thickness this dot will be the center of its weight4 ,now hold the cardboard very carefully in a horizontal position and allow it to drop4 ,it should fall without turning over1 for it is pressing down evenly on the air at all points4 ,you might say it is creating an upward air pressure beneath it1 which is evenly distributed4 ,the center of the supporting air pressure exactly coincides with the center of weight4 ,if you have not held the cardboard in a precisely horizontal position this will not be true4 ,the unequal air pressure will cause it to lose its balance and upset4 ,this is very much the sort of experiment that ,lilienthal tried when he jumped from the top of a hill in his glider1 and it is easy to imagine how much skill he must have required in balancing himself in order to prevent his crude contrivance from overturning4 ,but now suppose that instead of dropping the piece of cardboard straight down1 we give it a forward push into the air4 ,as the cardboard moves forward it naturally creates more air resistance under the front than under the rear1 and this unequal pressure will cause it to do a series of somersaults1 before it reaches the floor4 ,the same thing would happen to the bird or the airplane whose weight was evenly and equally distributed4 ,now since the air pressure is greater under the front of the cardboard1 add a counterbalancing weight by dropping a little sealing wax at the center front4 ,the dot that you made in the middle of the sheet is no longer its center of weight4 ,the center of weight has moved forward1 and if it now corresponds to the center of pressure the cardboard can be made to fly out and across the room without overturning4 ,the whole problem of balancing a glider or an airplane is simply this one of making the center of weight coincide with the center of the supporting air pressure4 ,adding weight at the front of the glider is not the only way of doing this3 perhaps the reader has already thought of another4 ,since the air pressure is caused by the weight of the cardboard and its forward motion1 we could cut the sheet smaller at the front so as to lessen its air resistance there1 or we could add a tail at the stern in order to create more air resistance at that end4 ,either of these plans would move the center of pressure back until it corresponded with the center of weight1 and so would complete the balance of our cardboard glider4 ,in the bird's body all of these methods of obtaining balance are combined4 ,his body and head taper to a point at the front in order to decrease the forward air resistance4 ,the weight of his body is distributed more toward the front1 thus counterbalancing any tendency to whirl over backward4 ,his tail increases the stern resistance1 thus helping to draw the center of pressure back to correspond to the center of weight4 ,we begin to see some reasons why a man equipped with wings could never be taught to fly1--as well as how perfectly the form of the bird is planned to correspond to his mode of travel4 ,no wonder the early experimenters with wings1 finding themselves so utterly helpless and awkward1 attributed the bird's ease and grace of carriage to magic4 ,illustration3 ,,diagram ,,showing ,,the ,,essential ,,parts ,,of ,,an ,,airplane ,the modern airplane is constructed with the most painstaking attention to this principle of balance4 ,next to it in importance is that of wing construction3 that is1 the size1 shape and proper curve of the supporting planes4 ,here again the construction of the airplane follows very closely the general form of the bird4 ,a large bird which flew very high would be found to have his wings arched high in front1 where they would have considerable thickness1 and sloping down very rapidly toward the rear1 while their thickness rapidly diminished4 ,this sort of wing has great lifting power1 and it is the sort that is used on an airplane which is built to climb rather than to develop speed4 ,as the arched wing cuts through the air it leaves above it a partial vacuum4 ,nature always tends to fill a vacuum1 and so the airplane is drawn upward to fill this space4 ,as the wings cut through the air a new vacuum is constantly created and so the airplane mounts higher and higher4 ,the airplane is being carried upward by two forces3 the air pressure beneath it and the vacuum above it which draws it up4 ,the air pressure beneath it increases with the speed at which the airplane is traveling1 and it has a tendency to press the wing into a more horizontal position1 thus destroying its climbing properties4 ,at the same time1 when this happens1 the thick front section of the wing presents a great head resistance which retards progress1 and a very high speed becomes impossible4 ,wings of this type can never be used on an airplane which is intended to travel at high speed4 ,they were used on the heavy bombing and battle planes of the ,great ,war1 for they are capable of lifting a very great weight4 ,but on the scouting planes1 where speed is essential1 a totally different sort of surface was employed4 ,here the plane is very little arched and of almost even thickness1 tapering only very slightly to the rear edge4 ,it also tapers somewhat at the front1 so as to lessen its head resistance as it cuts through the air4 ,such a surface creates little vacuum above it1 and consequently has not a great lifting power4 ,on the other hand it offers little head resistance and so permits a high speed4 ,and right here it should be mentioned that a powerful motor does not in itself make a swift airplane1 unless the wings are right1--for if the wings create a strong resistance in front of the airplane they destroy speed as fast as the motor generates it4 ,remember that the lifting power of the airplane wing is made up of two factors4 ,first1 there is the resistance or the supporting air pressure created by the weight and speed of the wing2 second1 the arch of the wing creates a vacuum above it which tends to lift the airplane up4 ,now when for speed the arch is made very slight1 the lifting power can still be increased by increasing the area of the wing1 thus adding to the upward pressure4 ,thus for certain war duties an airplane with very large1 comparatively flat wings can develop both a very good lifting power and a very high speed4 ,we have already mentioned the head resistance of the airplane wing4 ,if the wing could strike the air in such a way as to sharply divide it into currents flowing above and below1 there would be no head resistance4 ,but the very arch of the wing in front gives it a certain amount of thickness where it strikes the air1 so that instead of flowing above or below1 a portion of the air is pushed along in front1 retarding the progress of the airplane4 ,this resistance is called by aviators the drift4 ,the best wing is the one which has the maximum lifting power with the minimum head resistance1 or1 to use technical language1 the greatest lift in proportion to its drift4 ,of course1 not only the wing but all parts of the airplane offer resistance to the air4 ,in order to reduce this total head resistance to the minimum1 every effort is made to give the body or fuselage of the airplane a streamline form1--that is1 a shape1 such as that of a fish or a bird1 which allows the air to separate and flow past it with little disturbance4 ,for this purpose the fuselage of the airplane is usually somewhat rounded and tapering toward the ends1 often egg shaped at the nose4 ,the method of wing warping invented by the ,wright brothers is still used on all modern airplanes to preserve lateral stability4 ,the part of the wing which can be warped is called the aileron4 ,there are two ailerons on every wing1 one on each side at the rear1 and they may be raised or drawn down by the action of a lever operated by the pilot4 ,if the pilot feels that the left side of his machine is falling1 he draws down the aileron on that side and raises the right hand aileron4 ,the aileron which is lowered catches the air currents flowing beneath the wing on that side4 ,at the same time the raised aileron on the right lessens the pressure under the wing on that side and so gives it a tendency to fall4 ,in this way1 in a fraction of a minute the wings are brought level again and lateral stability is restored4 ,whereas the old ,wright biplane had an elevating plane in front of the main planes1 most machines to-day have the elevating surfaces at the rear4 ,by raising the elevators an upward motion is obtained1 or by lowering them1 a downward motion4 ,illustration3 ,,wright ,,starting ,,with ,,passenger ,steering to right and left is accomplished by a rudder at the rear of the airplane body or fuselage4 ,this rudder may be turned to right or to left1 working on a hinge4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,early ,,farman ,,machine ,,prior ,,to ,,start ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,pioneers ,while the ,wright brothers1 lacking both funds and encouragement to continue their remarkable project1 remained1 from #aije to #aijh in almost total obscurity--their wonderful flying machine packed away ignominiously in a barn1--in ,france a number of eager experimenters were working assiduously to outstrip them1 and it was only by great good fortune that when ,wilbur ,wright arrived in ,france in #aijh he did not find himself beaten from the field4 ,actually the ,wright machine was far in advance of the early ,french models1 and although the ,french1 with true spirit of sportsmanship1 were quick to admit it when the fact was demonstrated1 yet prior to #aijh they had no idea that such was the case1 and were enthusiastically proud of their home-made models4 ,among the very first of the ,french pioneers of flight was that gallant little ,brazilian1 ,santos-,dumont1 whose exploits with the dirigible had done so much to popularize air sports4 ,his name was a household word with the ,french1 who literally lionized him4 ,impatient of the limited opportunities for adventure presented by the dirigible1 ,santos-,dumont cast about in his mind for some means of procuring a more agile steed on which to perform his aerial tricks4 ,in #aijd he became deeply interested in the subject of gliding1 and made up his mind to try a few gliding experiments of his own4 ,like everything else he had attempted his method of attacking this new problem was startlingly original4 ,lilienthal and the other gliders had all made their flights above the solid ground4 ,santos-,dumont liked the idea of rising from the water much better4 ,he ordered built for him a glider of his own design for this particular purpose4 ,on every clear day when the wind was favorable1 the plucky little aeronaut was out1 learning to use his new-found wings4 ,his glider1 which floated on the surface of the water1 had to be towed swiftly for some distance by a boat in order to give it the initial speed which ,lilienthal secured by taking advantage of the force of gravity in his downward jump from the hilltop4 ,once he felt his speed to be sufficient1 ,santos-,dumont gently inclined his wings upward to catch the air current4 ,to the surprise of every one he was remarkably successful4 ,he actually succeeded in soaring short distances1 and after a series of efforts he acquired a fair amount of skill in the use of his glider apparatus4 ,the next step was to attach some motive power to his flying machine4 ,before very long he had ready for trial a much more pretentious biplane glider1 equipped with an #h cylinder motor which drove a two-bladed aluminum propeller1 and fitted with several original appliances to increase its soaring powers and its stability4 ,in front was a curious arrangement resembling a box-kite1 which was intended to fulfil the same purpose as the elevating plane which the ,wright brothers placed in front of the two main planes of their machine4 ,santos-,dumont had experienced the same trouble as all the other gliders3 the difficulty of keeping his machine in a horizontal position4 ,the tiniest gust1 blowing from one side or the other1 was sufficient to cause it to lose its balance1 and over it would topple sidewise4 ,to overcome this obstacle the ,wright brothers had adopted the ingenious method of wing-warping1 imitated directly from the habits of birds4 ,santos-,dumont was not nearly of so scientific a turn of mind as the two great ,american pioneers4 ,without having gone so deeply into the subject1 he determined to place upright planes between his main planes1 to ward off gusts and increase the lateral stability4 ,the idea was not a bad one1 though far from being the best4 ,in the summer of #aijf he flew with his glider successfully very short distances4 ,in ,october of the same year he accomplished a demonstration flight of #bjj feet at ,bagatelle1 near ,paris4 ,at the present day when airplanes go soaring above our heads faster than express trains1 making long1 continuous cross-country flights1 that journey of #bjj feet seems humorous1 but at the time it was the ,european record4 ,it aroused a great deal of popular enthusiasm1 for the ,french1 with their vivid powers of imagination1 were quick to see the possibilities in this new1 heavier-than-air contrivance4 ,at once the ,brazilian set to work to outstrip this first achievement4 ,this time his originality took an entirely new turn4 ,instead of the biplane type he decided on a monoplane1 and he began laying out plans for a monoplane so tiny1 yet so efficient1 that it was destined to become famous4 ,but it was several years before this miniature flier was ready1 and so for a while the idol of the ,french public dropped almost completely out of sight4 ,in the meantime others were up and doing in ,france4 ,henry ,farman1 who already had made his name famous in motor car racing1 was the next to win popular acclaim for exploits in the air4 ,farman was known as a man of the most consummate daring1 cool-headedness in emergency1 and quick judgment4 ,an ,englishman by birth1 he had resided all his life in ,france1 where with his brother ,maurice he had achieved an enviable reputation as a sportsman4 ,farman afterward designed and constructed airplanes of his own1 but it was in one built by the ,voisin brothers that he first took to the air4 ,the ,voisins were very ambitious indeed in their first airplane project4 ,the machine which they built was both large and heavy1 and possessed of many unscientific features4 ,like the ,wrights' machine it had two large horizontal planes1 in front of which was placed a small elevating plane1 which could be inclined up or down to lift the airplane into the air or bring it to earth again4 ,unlike the ,wright model it had a large tail1 or horizontal plane at the rear1 intended to give it increased longitudinal stability4 ,this feature represented an improvement4 ,the ,wrights had to keep their machine on the level by raising or lowering the front elevating plane in such a way as to counteract any pitching motion1 but the tail of the ,voisin biplane gave it a great deal more steadiness in the air4 ,fitted to the tail was a rudder1 by which turning to right or left was accomplished4 ,but the ,voisin brothers had no wing-warping device on their large flier4 ,instead they used the upright curtains or planes between the main planes1 which we have already seen on the machine designed by ,santos-,dumont4 ,their airplane was equipped with an #h-;cylinder motor1 which turned a large propeller4 ,in this large and unwieldy machine1 weighing possibly #adjj pounds1 ,henry ,farman made a short flight in a closed circuit in #aijh4 ,at the time it was the record flight in ,europe1 and the ,french people fondly imagined it was the best in the world4 ,that same year ,wilbur ,wright arrived on ,french soil and showed them in a few astounding experiments what the ,wright biplane could do4 ,the successes of this tall1 untalkative ,american1 who had come over to ,france and with ease made the aerial adventures of ,santos-,dumont and ,farman seem like the first efforts of a baby learning to crawl1 greatly as they surprised1 and1 perhaps1 disappointed the ,french people1 in the outcome had the result of spurring ,frenchmen on to greater effort in the problem of airship design4 ,before the end of #aijh ,henry ,farman1 in an improved ,voisin1 had wrested back the lost honors by flights which were longer than those made by ,wilbur ,wright4 ,and other ,frenchmen were hard at work4 ,after building a number of machines and meeting with many accidents and failures1 ,blriot emerged in the summer of #aiji with a successful monoplane4 ,at almost the same time the ,antoinette monoplane made its appearance1 and soon these two similar machines were pitted against each other in a famous contest4 ,the ,london ,daily ,mail1 with the intention of stimulating progress in aviation1 put up a prize of #ajjj for the first machine to fly the ,british ,channel4 ,in ,july1 ,blriot brought his monoplane to ,calais2 and ,hubert ,latham appeared as his antagonist1 with an ,antoinette machine4 ,both of the contestants were skilled pilots1 and both were men of fearless daring4 ,the feat which they were about to attempt required men with those qualities1 for in these pioneer days of aviation it was not the easy task to fly the ,channel which at first glance it might seem to be4 ,over the ,channel the winds were almost always very severe1 and they represented the greatest danger the airman had to face4 ,the first airplanes had so small a factor of stability that it was almost impossible to fly them in even the gentlest breeze4 ,the most intrepid aviators never once thought of attempting flight in unfavorable weather4 ,to be overturned in crossing the ,channel meant taking a big risk of death1 and both ,blriot and ,latham realized that they were taking their lives in their hands in undertaking the trip4 ,they had a long wait for calm weather1 but on ,july #bdth conditions seemed right for a start the next morning4 ,just at dawn ,latham flew out across the sea and disappeared in the distance4 ,not very long behind him1 ,blriot1 having tested with the utmost care every part of his little machine1 climbed into the pilot's seat1 and with a ,good-by to the little group of mechanics and friends who stood about1 sped away1 hot on the trail4 ,on and on flew ,latham in his larger ,antoinette monoplane1 and the hope of victory began to loom big4 ,far out over the ,channel however1 his engine suddenly went wrong1 as engines in those days had a habit of doing1 and the much feared thing happened3 he began to fall4 ,in a very few moments the plucky pilot was clinging to his airplane1 as it floated for a few moments on the choppy sea4 ,before it could sink a vessel had hurried to the rescue1 and ,latham was hauled on board1 disappointed1 but safe4 ,blriot1 meanwhile1 was far from being sure of his course as he flew on steadily through the early morning haze4 ,but his engine continued to run smoothly1 and finally far ahead1 the white cliffs of ,england began to emerge out of the distance4 ,with joy in his heart the ,frenchman flew proudly in over the land and brought his airplane to the earth in the vicinity of ,dover ,castle4 ,he was greeted as a hero by the ,british and the glad message of his triumph was speeded back to ,calais4 ,loth to be behindhand in airplane activities1 ,america was also busily at work developing the heavier-than-air machine1 and another famous name had by this time been added to that of the ,wright brothers4 ,by #aiji ,glenn ,curtiss with a group of distinguished co-experimenters had succeeded in constructing several very interesting flying machines4 ,curtiss' story is an interesting one4 ,in #aijj he was the owner of a small bicycle shop in ,hammondsport1 ,new ,york4 ,he had a mania for speed1 having ridden in many cycling races1 and it was he who first thought of attaching a motor to a bicycle for greater speed4 ,he soon sprang into the limelight as a motorcyclist and a manufacturer of motorcycles4 ,a small factory went up at ,hammondsport1 and achieved a reputation for the very good motors it turned out4 ,curtiss first became interested in flying through an order he received from ,captain ,thomas ,scott ,baldwin for a motor to be used in a dirigible balloon4 ,he set to work on the problem of constructing a motor suitable for the purpose1 and1 as might be expected1 he became fascinated with the possibilities of flight4 ,curtiss and ,baldwin made some very interesting experiments with the dirigible4 ,then1 in #aije1 ,curtiss made the acquaintance of ,dr4 ,alexander ,bell4 ,the famous inventor of the telephone was engrossed in the study of gliding machines1 and had been carrying on a series of experiments with kites by which he hoped to evolve a scientific airplane4 ,to further these experiments he had called in as associates in the work two engineers1 ,f4 ,w4 ,baldwin1 and ,j4 ,a4 ,d4 ,mc,curdy1 while ,lt4 ,thomas ,selfridge of the ,u4 ,s4 ,army was also greatly interested4 ,thus it came about that in the summer of #aijg this group of capable men formed what they were pleased to call the ,aerial ,experiment ,association1 of which ,curtiss was perhaps the moving spirit4 ,the first machine built by the ,association was christened the ,red ,wing1 the second the ,white ,wing2 the third was called the ,june ,bug1 and it proved so successful a flier that on ,july #dth1 #aijh1 it was awarded the ,scientific ,american trophy for a flight of one kilometer1 or five-eighths of a mile4 ,while1 in ,france1 ,farman and the ,voisin brothers1 ,latham and ,blriot were pushing steadily along the rough road to aviation successes1--in ,america1 the ,wright brothers and ,curtiss with his associates1 were demonstrating to the public on this side of the water what flying machines could do4 ,in fact1 the airplane had definitely begun to assert its superiority as master of the air1 and many eyes in all parts of the world were fixed on it and on the great future possibilities for which it stood4 ,everywhere1 warm interest had been aroused1 and1 at least in ,france1 the military importance of the heavier-than-air machine was coming to be realized4 ,now the time was ripe for the great public demonstration of the world's airplanes which took place at ,rheims in ,august1 #aiji4 ,the ,rheims ,meeting is probably the most memorable event in the history of aviation4 ,it placed the work of a dozen or more earnest experimenters definitely in the limelight1 and gave the chance for comparisons1 for a summing up of knowledge on the subject of flight1 and for a test of strength1 which resulted in the mighty impetus to aerial progress which followed immediately afterward4 ,here at ,rheims were gathered many famous flying men who already had made their names known throughout ,europe and ,america4 ,there were ,farman1 ,latham1 ,paulhan1 ,blriot1 ,curtiss1 and the three who flew ,wright machines1 the ,comte de ,lambert1 ,lefevre and ,tissandier1--as well as many others1 for there were thirty contestants in all4 ,many unusual feats delighted the spectators4 ,lefevre1 a student of the ,wrights1 and up to that time unknown1 amazed the assemblage by his wonderful aerial stunts4 ,he circled gracefully in the air1 making sharp1 unexpected turns with the utmost skill1 and winning round after round of applause4 ,curtiss and ,blriot emerged as contestants for the speed prize over #aj kilometers1 and after several breathless attempts in which records were made and broken1 the honor was finally carried off by ,blriot1 who covered the distance of #aj kilometers 7about #f-a_/d miles7 in #g minutes1 #dg4hj seconds4 ,curtiss replied by beating his famous opponent in the contest for the ,gordon ,bennett ,cup1 offered for the fastest flight over #bj kilometers2 and ,curtiss also was the winner of the #cj kilometer race4 ,it was ,farman1 in a biplane of his own design1 who surprised every one by his remarkable performance1 and turned out to be the victor of the occasion4 ,flying for three hours without stopping1 round the course1 he covered #aab miles without the slightest difficulty1 and was only forced to make a landing because of the rapidly approaching dusk4 ,for his feat he was awarded the ,grand ,prize1 and was hailed as the most successful of all the contestants4 ,finally ,latham1 in an ,antoinette monoplane1 proved he had the machine with the greatest climbing powers1 and carried off the ,altitude prize on the closing day of the meeting4 ,among those who looked on at the famous ,rheims ,meeting of #aiji there were none more keenly and intelligently interested than the representatives of the ,french military authorities4 ,they had come for two reasons3 to ascertain at first hand which were the best machines and to order them for the ,french ,government2 on the other hand1 to encourage to the fullest extent possible all those men present who were earnestly working in the interests of aviation4 ,france was ready and willing to spend money freely for this purpose1 and the ,rheims ,meeting resulted in orders for machines of several makes4 ,some of these were regarded as having great possibilities from a military point of view2 and others1 though not looked on so favorably1 were purchased as a sign of goodwill and support to future experiment4 ,it was this far-seeing patronage which paved the way for ,france's later aerial triumphs1 for it gave her a diversity of machines and a devoted coterie of workers all following original lines of experiment4 ,let us glance for a moment at the little group of machines which stood out by their merits most prominently at that ,rheims ,meeting of #aiji1 and which gave the greatest promise for the future4 ,to-day they seem antiquated indeed1 but for all their rather curious appearance they were the legitimate forefathers of our powerful modern airplanes4 ,among the biplanes1 those especially worthy of note were the ,farman1 the ,wright1 and the ,voisin2 while the ,blriot and ,antoinette monoplanes gave a most excellent account of themselves4 ,farman1 who had first learned to fly in a machine designed and built by the ,voisin brothers1 was far from satisfied with his sluggish1 unmanageable steed and at once set to work on a design of his own4 ,his one idea was to construct a biplane of light weight1 speed and general efficiency4 ,he did away with the box-kite tail of the ,voisin model and substituted two horizontal tail planes with a vertical rudder fitted between them4 ,instead of the vertical planes or curtains between the main planes by which the ,voisins attempted to preserve the lateral stability of their airplane1 ,farman adopted the wing-warping plan of the ,wrights in a somewhat modified form4 ,the ,wright machine1 it will be remembered1 had wings whose rear portions were flexible1 so that they could be drawn down at the will of the pilot4 ,if the latter felt that the left side of his machine was falling he simply drew down or warped the rear edges of the wings on that side4 ,the air rushing under the wing was blocked in its passage and the greater pressure thus created forced the wing upward on the left side until balance had been restored4 ,acting on this principle1 ,farman attached to the rear edges of the main planes at each side a flap1 or as it is called to-day1 an aileron1 which worked on a hinge1 so that it could be raised or lowered4 ,another novel feature of this first ,farman biplane was its method of starting and landing4 ,below the planes had been placed two long wooden skids1 and to these small1 pneumatic tired wheels had been attached by means of strong rubber bands4 ,in rising1 the airplane ran along the ground on these wheels until it had acquired the momentum necessary to lift it into the air4 ,when a descent was made1 the force of contact with the ground sent the wheels flying upward on their flexible bands1 and allowed the strong skids to absorb the shock4 ,this underbody or chassis was a distinct improvement on anything that had yet been devised1 for it was light in weight and efficient4 ,in one other important respect the ,farman machine was superior to all those demonstrated at ,rheims in #aiji1 and that was in its engine4 ,airplane engines up to this time had been nothing more or less than automobile engines built as light in weight as possible4 ,but in ,france a new engine had made its appearance1 designed especially for airplane needs4 ,hooted as a freak at the first1 and rejected by experts as impossible1 it carried ,farman round the course on his three hour flight without a hitch and made him the winner of the ,grand ,prize4 ,this remarkable engine was the ,gnome and the reason for its excellence lay in its unusual system of cooling4 ,the overheating of his motor was a thorn in the flesh of many an early aviator4 ,an engine which gave good service in an automobile would invariably overheat in an airplane because of the constant high speed at which it must run4 ,now motor car engines of whatever type1 and whether water-cooled or air-cooled1 had fixed cylinders and a revolving crankshaft4 ,in the ,gnome motor the cylinders revolved and the crankshaft was stationary4 ,flying through the air at tremendous speed they necessarily cooled themselves4 ,this was the secret of the perfect running of the ,farman biplane4 ,though ,farman had been the first to recognize the merits of the ,gnome and install it in his machine1 he was not the last1 for after the ,rheims ,meeting it rapidly became the favorite of practically all builders4 ,next to the ,farman1 the ,wright machine was probably the best for all-around service of the many demonstrated at the great meeting4 ,its one greatest disadvantage was the fact that it had to be launched from a rail4 ,it carried no wheels--merely skids for landing--and so to gain initial momentum it had to be placed on a small trolley which ran down a rail4 ,such a method of gaining speed was exceedingly complicated1 and the question at once arises3 ,what would the pilot do if forced to make a landing far from his starting point8 ,of course it would have been quite impossible for him to have risen into the air for a return trip1 and his machine1 though in perfect condition1 would have to have been packed and carted back home4 ,the ,voisin biplane1 though improved since ,farman had piloted it in #aijh1 was still in #aiji an overly heavy1 slow flying machine1 more or less difficult to steer4 ,it still had its box-kite tail and its upright curtains between the main planes4 ,and it carried a rather weighty landing chassis built of hollow metal tubing1 to which were attached pneumatic-tired bicycle wheels4 ,small wheels were also placed under the tail1 to support it when running along the ground4 ,the ,blriot monoplane could have claimed the honors for simplicity4 ,it had a body built up of light woodwork1 over part of which fabric had been stretched4 ,on either side of the body extended the two supporting planes1 supported above and below by wires4 ,in the front of the body was the engine and at the rear extremity a small stabilizing plane4 ,at the ends of the stabilizing plane1 on either side1 were two small planes which could be moved up and down4 ,they took the place of the front elevating plane employed on the other machines4 ,just behind the stabilizing plane was the vertical rudder1 which turned to right or left4 ,the wings of the ,blriot had the ,wright brothers' wing warping arrangement4 ,the pilot sat just behind the engine1 operating the controls4 ,larger in wing span and longer in body than the ,blriot was the ,antoinette monoplane4 ,like the ,blriot it had its elevating planes at the rear1 and carried its engine in the bow4 ,instead of the wing warping device it made use of movable flaps or ailerons at the rear edges of the wings4 ,another idea had been incorporated in this machine for the purpose of maintaining lateral stability4 ,its wings1 instead of extending in a horizontal position from the body were inclined slightly upward1--a plan which met with serious condemnation from the engineering experts4 ,these five then1 were the machines which claimed most attention in #aiji1 although many others1--as for instance the ,r4 ,e4 ,p4 monoplane1 built by ,m4 ,esnault-,pelterie1 and the ,breguet biplane--were flown at the famous meeting4 ,the ,rheims event had been hugely successful1 and the news of the splendid achievements of the airplane spread like wildfire throughout the world4 ,smaller meetings were arranged for in other cities1 and everywhere the great aviators were called for to give exhibition flights4 ,in ,september ,santos-,dumont came once more before the public with the tiniest monoplane in existence1 a little machine which he called the ,demoiselle1 and in a series of experiments proved its remarkable capabilities4 ,santos-,dumont had been residing for some time at ,st4 ,cyr1 where he had worked on his designs for the ,demoiselle4 ,one of his aviator friends1 ,m4 ,guffroy1 was also experimenting at ,buc1 five miles away4 ,the two men agreed that the one who first completed an airplane should fly in it to the home of the other and collect #dj4 ,in #f minutes and #a second ,santos-,dumont covered the five miles on the #adth of ,september and claimed his reward4 ,orville ,wright at about this time was exhibiting his airplane in ,berlin and winning new laurels before the ,crown ,prince and ,princess of ,germany4 ,by the middle of ,october he was in ,france1 and was present at the ,juvisy ,meeting1 when the ,comte de ,lambert1 leaving the course unexpectedly1 made his sensational flight over ,paris1 circling round the ,eiffel ,tower at a height of #a1jjj feet4 ,paris was filled with amazement and delight at the sight of an airplane soaring over the city4 ,it was almost an hour before the ,comte de ,lambert1 flying with the greatest ease1 arrived once more at the course1 to be overwhelmed with congratulations4 ,illustration3 ,,wright ,,machine ,,rising ,,just ,,after ,,leaving ,,the ,,rail ,illustration3 ,,an ,,early ,,wright ,,machine1 ,,showing ,,its ,,method ,,of ,,starting ,,from ,a ,,rail ,on ,november #crd1 ,henry ,farman made a world's record of #add miles in #d hours1 #ag minutes and #ec seconds1 wresting from ,wilbur ,wright the coveted ,michelin ,cup4 ,in ,december ,blriot attempted an exhibition of his monoplane in ,constantinople1 but his machine lost its balance in the severe wind which was blowing and came crashing to earth4 ,though severely wounded1 the great aviator recovered rapidly1 justifying the oft-repeated superstition that he was possessed of a charmed life4 ,illustration3 ,copyright ,underwood and ,underwood ,,the ,,propeller ,,department ,,in ,,one ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,curtiss ,,factories ,thus the year which had meant so much in the forward march of aviation drew to a close4 ,beginning at ,rheims1 the reputation of the heavier-than-air machine had spread in ever widening circles throughout all civilized lands4 ,most important of all1 the military authorities of several nations had opened their eyes to tremendous importance of the airplane as an implement of warfare1 and their realization of this fact was destined to bring about new and weighty developments within the next few years4 ,among the great ,european states only one nation slept while the rest were up and doing1 and she saw the day when1 with the shadow of war looming on the horizon1 she had cause for bitter regrets4 ,the beginning of #aiaj saw the famous aviator ,paulhan in the ,united ,states for a series of exhibition flights4 ,on ,january #abth he made a world's record for altitude1 climbing at ,los ,angeles to a height of #d1adj feet1 in a ,farman machine4 ,in the ,spring there occurred in ,england a memorable contest between ,paulhan and a young flier who up to that time was unheard of1 but who rapidly made a reputation for himself in aviation4 ,the ,london ,daily ,mail1 which had already done so much to arouse enthusiasm for the airplane in the ,british ,isles1 now offered a prize of #aj1jjj for the first cross-country flight from ,london to ,manchester4 ,there arose as ,england's champion ,claude ,grahame-,white1 and ,paulhan with his ,farman biplane was on hand to dispute the honors with him4 ,the distance to be covered was about #ahc miles1 and the task seemed almost impossible1 largely owing to the nature of the country over which the flight must be made4 ,it was rough and hilly and thickly sprinkled with towns1 making the task of a forced landing a very perilous one4 ,engines in #aiaj were none too reliable and were apt to play strange tricks4 ,to be forced to descend over a town or in rough country meant a chance of serious accident or death4 ,rough country moreover is apt to be windy country1 with sharp1 unlooked-for gusts blowing from unexpected quarters4 ,it was these above all things which filled the airman's heart with dread1 for he knew only too well the limited stability of his pioneer craft4 ,late in the afternoon of ,april #bgth1 ,paulhan1 whose biplane1 in perfect repair1 was awaiting him at ,hendon1 near ,london1 ascertained that the wind was favorable1 and at once rose into the air and started on his long trip4 ,grahame-,white had assumed that it was too late in the day to make a start1 and had left his machine1 all ready for flight1 at ,wormwood ,scrubbs1 intending to make a start in the early morning4 ,shortly after six the news was brought to ,white that ,paulhan was on his way1 and he immediately rushed to his starting point and hurried after his rival4 ,paulhan had studied every inch of the ground and knew what conditions to expect4 ,his earlier start gave him a great advantage1 for he managed to get farther before nightfall1 and also before any adverse winds arose4 ,with darkness both pilots were forced to make landings1 but ,paulhan was far ahead1 and the prospect of victory began to wane for the plucky young ,english flier4 ,in the emergency he determined on a desperate attempt to overcome his handicap4 ,night flying then was a thing unheard of1 but ,grahame-,white prepared to try it1 however risky4 ,at half past two in the morning1 by the wan light of the moon he arose from the field where his machine had been landed and flew off into the murky night4 ,disappointment awaited the dauntless pilot1 however4 ,he had a stern struggle with the wind1 his engine began to give trouble1 and finally he was compelled to come to earth4 ,paulhan got away at dawn and being the more experienced pilot of the two1 managed1 after a sharp tussle with the wind1 to arrive intact at his destination4 ,he was greeted with wild enthusiasm and was indeed the hero of the day4 ,but ,england was not without gratitude to her defeated airman1 who in the face of enormous difficulties1 had persisted so gallantly in his effort to uphold his country's honor in the records of aviation4 ,though official ,england was slow to recognize the airplane's claims1 the ,british public showed keenest interest in all the exploits of their sportsmen of the air1 and before long there was quite a fair-sized group of such men demanding attention4 ,america also had a remarkable feat to record in the summer of #aiaj4 ,the ,new ,york ,world had offered a #aj1jjj prize for a flight down the ,hudson ,river from ,albany to ,new ,york4 ,the difficulties were even greater than those of the ,london-,manchester contest1 for here the airman had to fly the entire distance over a swift stream4 ,the high hills on either side meant increased peril1 for there were sure to be powerful wind gusts rushing out between the gaps in the hills and seeking to overturn the machine4 ,if the engine should give out1 there was no place to land except in the water itself1 with slight chance of escape for either the pilot or his airplane4 ,nevertheless1 ,glenn ,curtiss1 whose accomplishments at the ,rheims ,meeting we have already witnessed1 determined to try for the prize4 ,his machine was brought from ,hammondsport to ,albany ready for a start1 and on ,may #ca1 after a long wait for favorable atmospheric conditions1 he was on his way4 ,a special train steamed after him1 carrying newspaper reporters and anxious friends1 but he left it far in the distance while he flew swiftly down the ,hudson4 ,villagers and boatmen waved and shouted to him as he passed4 ,at one point he encountered an air whirlpool that almost sucked him down1 but he succeeded in righting his machine and getting on his way again4 ,near ,poughkeepsie he made a landing to obtain more fuel1 and from there he flew straight on to his journey's end1 reaching ,new ,york ,city and descending in a little field near ,inwood4 ,in ,july of #aiaj came the second big ,rheims ,meeting1 to show what unprecedented advances had been made in one short year4 ,almost #hj contestants appeared1 as compared with the #cj of #aiji4 ,machines were in every way better and some very excellent records were made4 ,the ,antoinette monoplane flew the greatest distance 7#bab miles71 and also reached the greatest height2 while a new machine1 the ,morane monoplane1 took the prizes for speed4 ,meanwhile the ,french ,army had been busy training aviators and securing new machines4 ,in the ,fall these were tried out at the ,army ,maneuvers in ,picardy1 and for the first time the world saw what military airplanes really could accomplish4 ,in the sham warfare the army pilots flew over the enemy's lines and brought back astonishingly complete reports of the movements of troops1 disposition of forces1 etc4 ,the ,french military authorities themselves1 enthusiastic as they had been over the development of the airplane1 had not anticipated such complete success4 ,they were delighted with the results of their efforts1 and a strong aerial policy was thereupon mapped out for ,france4 ,england at this date possessed one military airplane1 and it was late before she awakened to the importance of aviation as a branch of warfare4 ,germany1 ,italy1 ,russia1 and ,america were looking on with keen interest1 but for a while ,france maintained supremacy over all in her aerial projects4 ,by the end of the following year she had over #bjj military machines1 with a competent staff of pilots and observers4 ,to follow the course of aviation achievement we must now go back to ,england1 where in ,july1 #aiaa1 another big ,daily ,mail contest took place4 ,this time the newspaper had put up a prize of #aj1jjj to be won by flying what was known as the ,circuit of ,britain4 ,this had been marked out to pass through many of the large cities of ,england1 ,scotland and ,ireland4 ,there were seventeen entrants for the contest1 which was won by a lieutenant of the ,french navy1 named ,conneau4 ,cross-country flights were growing longer and longer1 keeping pace with the rapid strides in the development of the airplane4 ,still another contest during #aiaa was the ,circuit of ,europe1 which lay through ,france1 ,belgium and ,england2 while a flight from ,paris to ,rome and one from ,paris to ,madrid served to demonstrate the growing reliability of the aircraft4 ,money had always flowed freely from ,french coffers for this favorite of all hobbies4 ,at the ,rheims ,meeting in ,october of #aiaa the ,government offered approximately a quarter of a million dollars in prizes for aerial feats and in orders for machines4 ,representatives from many countries visited the meeting to witness the tests of war airplanes4 ,in the two years since the first ,rheims ,meeting many vast changes had taken place4 ,pilots no longer feared to fly in high winds2 machines were reliable1 strong and swift4 ,a number made non-stop flights of close on to #bjj miles1 and showed as well remarkable climbing abilities4 ,it was the ,nieuport monoplane which led all others at this ,rheims ,meeting4 ,to-day the name of ,nieuport is familiar to every one1 for the little scout machines carried some of the bravest pilots of ,france and ,america to victory in the air battles of the ,great ,war4 ,even in #aiaa the ,nieuport monoplane was breaking all records for speed4 ,carrying both a pilot and a passenger it flew as fast as #gj miles an hour at ,rheims4 ,another new machine that attracted attention was the ,breguet biplane1 a heavy general service machine weighing #bdbj pounds and carrying a #adj h4 p4 ,gnome motor4 ,the ,gnome had so far outdistanced all competitors that it had virtually become the universal motor for airplanes1 and1 many of those seen in #aiaa were equipped with it4 ,since then vast improvements have been made in stationary engines but at that time they almost entirely failed to meet the requirements of light weight1 high power and reliability4 ,one development in the biplanes of #aiaa cannot be passed over1 for it bears a very interesting relation to their efficiency as war machines4 ,any one who has seen a photograph of one of the early biplanes must have been struck by the curious kite-like appearance it presented1 due to the fact that it had no body or fuselage1 but only two large planes1 connected by strong wooden supports1 and usually with a seat for the pilot in the center of the lower plane4 ,it was in the monoplane that a car or airplane body first made its appearance1 and to it the wing surfaces of the monoplane were strongly braced with wires4 ,many of the biplanes of #aiaa had adopted the idea and in consequence began to take on a more modern appearance4 ,it was a thoroughly good idea1 for by means of its greater stability and strength1 protection for the pilot and general efficiency were obtained4 ,biplanes of this type now carried their engines in the fuselage bow with the pilot's seat just behind it1 while instead of the front elevating plane of the earlier models1 the elevating surfaces were at the rear of the fixed tail plane4 ,the ,breguet was one of these progressive type biplanes of #aiaa4 ,constructed very largely of steel1 it had a long1 tapering body with its controlling planes--rudder and elevators--at the rear4 ,instead of a number of wooden supports between the planes the ,breguet had exactly four reliable struts4 ,henry ,farman developed a military biplane in #aiaa which had one particularly new feature4 ,instead of the upper main plane being placed exactly above the lower it had been moved slightly forward or staggered--giving it an overhang in front4 ,the idea was that this gave a greater climbing power and was helpful in making descents1 though the point has never been satisfactorily proved4 ,until #aiaa ,germany had pinned her faith almost wholly to the ,zeppelin as the unit for the aerial fleet which she had hoped to build up1 and she had confidently expected it to prove its superiority to the heavier-than-air machine in the event of war4 ,no funds had been spared to rush the work of designing and constructing these huge air monsters4 ,carefully and quietly the perfecting and standardizing of the ,zeppelin under government supervision had moved forward1 and ,german engineers had not been behindhand in designing engines particularly suitable to aircraft4 ,while ,france was amusing herself with the clever little monoplanes and biplanes of the pioneer days--machines which could fly but a few yards at low altitude1 ,germany1 possibly with the dream of world conquest tucked away in her mind1 was sparing no expense to get ready her fleet of lighter-than-air craft4 ,imagine her chagrin when the feeble winged birds of #aijh and #aiji became the soaring eaglets of #aiaa1 swiftly circling the sky1 swooping1 climbing and performing aerial tricks which made the larger and clumsier ,zeppelin appear as agile as a waddling duck4 ,whatever the feelings of the ,german military authorities were on the subject1 they wasted no time in crying over spilt milk1 but at once began a policy of construction by which they hoped soon to outstrip their brainier ,french neighbors4 ,as in everything ,german1 method was the characterizing feature of the airplane program they instituted4 ,france had sought to encourage makers of all types of planes1 and thus obtain a diversity of machines of wide capabilities4 ,the plan did not appeal to ,germany4 ,from the very beginning she aimed at reducing everything to a fixed standard and then turning out airplanes in large numbers4 ,when the ,war broke out it seemed for a time that she had been right1 but it was not long before she looked with sorrow upon the sad lack of versatility of her fleet of standardized biplanes4 ,they were hopelessly outdistanced and outmaneuvered by the small1 fast fighting machines of the ,french1 while they were by no means so strong as the heavy service planes the ,french could put into the air4 ,italy1 ,austria1 ,russia1 ,america and ,japan began also to make plans for the building of aerial fleets about #aiaa4 ,the ,italian ,government relied at first on machines secured from ,france1 or on those copied from ,french designs4 ,soon her own clever engineers began to be heard from and she was responsible for developing several of the powerful modern types4 ,russia would scarcely seem a country where aerial progress might be expected1 yet she has given a good account of herself in aviation1 and one of her machines1 the giant ,sikorsky did splendid work on the several fronts during the war4 ,i4 ,i4 ,sikorsky1 the inventor of the big ,sikorsky machine was a little while ago merely a clever student at the ,kieff ,polytechnic4 ,like many other young men he dreamed of aerial conquest1 but received little encouragement in carrying out his projects4 ,at twenty-four1 however1 he became a student aviator1 and almost immediately began work on original airplane designs4 ,he succeeded in building a small monoplane which in some ways resembled the ,blriot1 except in its habits of flight4 ,in these it was quite balky1 refusing to fly except in short hops and jumps4 ,sikorsky's friends good-naturedly nicknamed it ,the ,hopper4 ,but the young student was not one wit daunted4 ,he plugged along steadily at new designs1 and in the autumn of #aiaj he actually took to the air in a tractor biplane of his own construction4 ,several other machines of somewhat the same type followed1 and his efforts finally won the attention of the great ,russo-,baltic ,works4 ,they offered him financial assistance to carry on his study of the airplane problem4 ,with this backing ,sikorsky moved forward to sure success4 ,in the meantime he had secretly prepared plans for an enormous airplane which at first he dared not divulge for fear of ridicule and disappointment4 ,finally he took courage and laid them before his friends at the ,russo-,baltic ,works4 ,whatever they may have thought of his wild scheme of air supremacy they consented to give it a tryout1 and in the ,spring of #aiac the first of the giant ,sikorsky machines stood awaiting a flight4 ,it was viewed with grave misgivings by a number of experts1 but to their frank surprise it took to the air with ease and flew well4 ,the sight was a strangely impressive one4 ,in wing span the big machine measured almost #ib feet1 while the body or fuselage was over #fb feet long4 ,the weight of the amazing monster flying machine was #d tons4 ,in the forward part of the fuselage cabins had been fitted1 with a small deck on the bow4 ,the fuselage construction was of wood1 with a strong #h-wheeled landing chassis beneath it4 ,four #ajj h4 p4 ,german ,argus engines1 driving four tractor propellers sent it racing triumphantly through the air4 ,its weight lifting ability was enormous1 and it made a world record for flight4 ,prodigious as this first great master of the air had seemed it was followed in #aiac by one still larger4 ,the new machine was to the fullest extent an aerial wonder4 ,its enormous body consisted of a wooden framework covered with canvas1 and in its interior a series of cabins were provided4 ,there were three decks3 the main one in the center of the fuselage1 designed to carry heavy armament of machine guns and a searchlight2 a small deck at the stern2 and one set in the undercarriage1 where additional heavy armament could be placed4 ,only a few months before the storm of war broke over ,europe this ,air ,leviathan was born1 and at the time no one suspected it would so soon be called into active service4 ,in the ,spring of #aiad it made flight after flight1 scoring a succession of triumphs by its record breaking performances1 and winning for its designer a decoration from the ,emperor4 ,sikorsky was a man of wealth but so recklessly did he lavish his personal funds on his airplane ventures that on many occasions he came very near to want as a result4 ,it was no unusual thing to see him during those years of reckless experiment1 braving the bitter winter weather of ,russia in threadbare garments1 shivering1 but grimly and sternly determined4 ,then came the ,war1 and at the first call his machines were ready to prove themselves in the battle against the ,hun4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,airplane ,,in ,,the ,,world ,,war ,picture to yourself a scene outside one of the ,allied hangars or airplane sheds1 just back of the front lines1 while the ,great ,war is in progress4 ,it is early morning1 gray and chilly4 ,small fighting machines1 which their trusty mechanics have carefully gone over for the tiniest flaw1 now stand ready to take to the air4 ,pilots1 wrapped in their heavy clothing--leather jacket1 helmet and overcoat1 gloves1 goggles and muffler--prepare to face the frigid atmosphere above the clouds4 ,the whirr of the motor1 a short run over the ground1 and up they go1 one by one1 until they become so many blackbirds1 driving and looping and skimming through the sky4 ,over in this corner is a large reconnaissance machine1 with pilot and observer1 waiting to ascend4 ,it is one of a squadron that will fly over the ,german lines to take photographs of the enemy's positions4 ,with its rapid-firing machine guns it is prepared to give battle to the swifter enemy craft that will flash out to challenge its onward flight4 ,its rle is a difficult one4 ,it cannot climb to safety as the fighting machine can do and then swoop down on its enemy from a favorable height4 ,its duty is to bring back accurate views of the territory on the other side of ,no ,man's ,land4 ,no matter what the dangers1 it must fly straight on1 sticking close enough to earth to accommodate its camera's range1 and deviating as little as possible from its course1 though the enemy's speed scouts blacken the air with bullets and the anti-aircraft guns spit at it maliciously from below4 ,all the machines in the squadron may not return1 and there will be vacant chairs at the dinner table to-night when those pilots who have braved the stern hardships of the day relate their little experiences with the ,hun4 ,but those who do come back will bring information which will enable the ,allied commanders to plan with intelligence the next move in the battle that is raging4 ,a tour of inspection would disclose still other machines1 large and small1 each designed and equipped for its special duties over the lines4 ,there are heavy1 slower-flying day bombers1 and--silent this morning but waiting patiently for the curtain of night to descend1--enormous night bombing machines1 the fiercest and hugest of all the great birds of the flying force4 ,to-night1 under cover of darkness these machines will speed upon their way1 far over the enemy's lines4 ,they carry fuel for a journey of many hours' duration1 and heavy bombs which they will drop upon railway junctions1 ammunition factories1 staff headquarters and important positions deep in the territory of the ,hun4 ,before they turn their noses homeward they will have crossed over the borders of ,germany1 and along their silent course fires will shoot up and enemy supplies and storehouses will be smoldering ruins when day breaks4 ,unlike the night bombing machines of the ,germans these great ,allied aircraft will not drop their missiles upon open towns along the ,rhine1 nor will they leave behind them any toll of little children and civilians maimed and killed by their brutality4 ,their instructions are to bomb military objectives only1 and when they have done that they will fly back silently through the night1 passing over quiet villages and towns1 where the sleeping inhabitants never will know that the great blackbirds have hovered so close to them4 ,when the ,war broke out airplanes were not planned so carefully nor equipped so fully for their special duties as they are to-day4 ,nobody foresaw exactly what those duties would be1 and nobody once dreamed that the battalions of the air would play the tremendous rle they have played in deciding the great struggle4 ,even ,germany1 who had been secretly planning and working and preparing for so long1 had very little conception of the actual importance of her heavier-than-air machines4 ,she neglected to use them entirely when she began her swift stride across ,belgium4 ,that piece of neglect lost her the prize1 for the plucky ,belgians1 seizing the opportunity1 marshalled their air forces1 a small handful of airplanes1 and used them to good advantage in discovering the intentions of the enemy4 ,by means of her air force1 ,belgium was enabled to hold back for awhile the onrushing tide of the ,hun armies1 until ,france could bring her men into the field and the contemptible little army of ,britain could be hurried across the ,channel4 ,as the air forces were the deciding factor in that first great onslaught1 so they have remained during the whole struggle4 ,they began as mere scouting machines1 but they have taken upon themselves more and more duties1 until at the present time they are used for a multitude of purposes1 and are fitted with the most perfect equipment to carry out their various ends4 ,airplanes have often been called the eyes of the army1 but in war it is not sufficient to be able to see what the enemy is doing or is about to do4 ,you must also be able to keep him from knowing what your plans are4 ,so1 there are the machines whose duty is to see and those whose duty is to put out the eyes of the enemy4 ,these latter must keep an eternal vigilance over the lines1 on the lookout for enemy craft4 ,when one is spotted they dash out after it1 pursue it back to its lines and prevent it from performing its mission of reconnaissance4 ,nor are they satisfied merely to drive it off1 they follow and give fight4 ,over there against the sky you see a little puff of smoke and flame that goes shooting down to the horizon4 ,it is an enemy plane that will never again come spying upon ,allied troops4 ,perhaps a group of fast ,german fighting machines dart out unexpectedly to avenge it1 and then there is a terrible battle in the clouds1 with every machine that is in the air hurrying to the skirmish4 ,you try to follow their swift movements as they loop and dart and dive1 but all you can see is a rapid confusion of wings1 and now and then a machine that separates itself from the general mle and goes crashing to earth4 ,not the least dangerous of the many services the airplane is performing is that of the artillery spotter4 ,it belongs to some particular battery whose guns are thundering away at the enemy4 ,hovering above ,no ,man's ,land1 where its position is a trifle too exposed to be comfortable1 it radiographs back to the gunners the exact locations of important objectives1 then watches the firing and reports the results4 ,thanks to it the big guns do not speak in vain1 and almost every shot is a direct hit4 ,and then there are the dreadnaughts of the sky who actually take part in an attack1 flying low over the lines and attacking the enemy infantry with guns and with death-dealing bombs4 ,they must run the gauntlet of the enemy's fire1 but on the other hand they spread terror and confusion in the ranks of the soldiers massed below1 distracting their attention and leaving them open to the surprise of a sudden onslaught of ,allied troops4 ,there are other machines which help in an attack by keeping the various parts of the long line in close communication with each other1 so that all efforts are in unison4 ,their duties correspond in a way to those of the swift horseback rider we read of in the stories of old wars1 who sped with news of great import from one commander to another4 ,only that the airplanes of to-day are so much more efficient than the gallant horseback rider of old1 that although the line stretches across a nation1 it can act as a man when the moment comes for a big push4 ,long before the war ,germany had been busy turning out airplanes in large numbers in her factories1 and in ,august1 #aiad1 her air force was far superior in numbers to that of her great opponent ,france4 ,she fondly imagined that she would be able with the greatest ease to put out her enemy's eyes1 but in this she failed utterly4 ,in spite of her military program of construction1 according to which airplanes were turned out as if by clock-work1 there was something wrong with her calculations4 ,it is amusing to look back and see how ,german method had been carried to the absurd point of defeating itself4 ,in manner truly characteristic1 the ,hun had standardized his airplane down to the last bolt4 ,every machine turned out was of exactly the same pattern1 and built up of exactly the same parts--parts which could be manufactured in large quantities and put together with unusual speed4 ,it was certainly system raised to the nth degree4 ,and the machines themselves were good enough--sturdy biplanes intended to be maids-of-all-work over the front lines4 ,yet in a little while after the fighting had begun1 ,germany withdrew them in more or less chagrin1 and set herself to constructing others of varied patterns4 ,they were well made and splendidly equipped1 but they were not sufficiently specialized for the many different kinds of work they were called on to perform4 ,france had a motley array of airplanes of every size1 shape and make when the war broke out4 ,they had varying systems of control1 so that a pilot who flew one with ease was nothing more than a novice when he stepped into another4 ,he did not know how its new set of levers operated1 nor how the plane would behave in the air4 ,moreover1 the parts for these ,french airplanes and for their engines had been specially designed by each maker1 and were quite unsuitable for any other type of machine4 ,the result was that when a machine had to be repaired at the front1 it was laid up for a long time1 while the special part it required was being ordered and made for it4 ,when finally it arrived1 very often there had been some mistake1 and so there was another long period of uselessness4 ,france had prided herself on her versatility in airship design4 ,she now had cause to regret it as she viewed the almost helpless confusion it had caused in her air service4 ,her machines1 moreover1 were much inferior to the ,german in armament1 speed and climbing gauges1 cameras1 and all the hundreds of accessories which gave the ,german machines their initial advantage4 ,but experience is the best teacher1 and no sooner had she seen wherein she fell short than dauntless ,france mustered all her resources to correcting past mistakes4 ,order was brought out of confusion1 and it was only a very little while before the ,german war lords had need to look to their laurels1 for the ,frenchmen were far outstripping them in the air4 ,there was one accessory which the airplane of the ,hun lacked1 and which all his mechanical skill and ingenuity were not able to provide3 a pilot with the dash and daring of the ,french6 ,even in those first dark days when the ,french planes were the equals of their adversaries neither in numbers nor in capabilities1--a continuous stream of gallant ,french pilots took to the air and proved that they could surprise and outmaneuver their slower-thinking opponents4 ,while they held the line in their inferior craft1 ,french manufacturers were rushing newer and better equipped machines to reenforce them4 ,great ,britain was far behindhand in aircraft production when the trumpet of war sounded1--in fact1 her air force was considered a negligible quantity by friend and foe alike4 ,by dint of persevering search she managed to scrape up a small group of planes of many makes and for the most part antiquated4 ,she sent them--along with her contemptible little army --to ,france1 and there they succeeded in holding their own during the first great ,german push4 ,when the ,stories of heroic fighting against hopeless odds1 of ,british airmen flinging their lives in challenge against the foe in the great air struggle1 began to reach home1 the ,british lion repented his tardiness and a program of aircraft construction on a large scale was instituted without delay4 ,in carefully standardizing those first airplanes there was one point which the crafty ,germans overlooked3 which is1 that you can't make a dray horse run fast1 nor a race horse draw heavy burdens4 ,the same thing holds good with the steeds of the air4 ,a plane which is designed for great speed is never as good a burden bearer as one which is built to lift heavy weights at the expense of swiftness in flight4 ,as soon as the duties of the airplane began to be specialized1 the airplane itself began to appear in certain definite types4 ,now of course the duties of the airplane in wartime are numberless1 but out of the early confusion three types of machines were finally evolved1 which1 with the addition of equipment1 such as a camera1 machine guns1 etc41 are suitable for practically any sort of work over the land4 ,they are3 #a4 ,the high speed fighting machines4 #b4 ,the reconnaissance machines4 #c4 ,the bombing machines 7including the day and the night bombers74 ,of all military airplanes there is none so fond of aliases as the high speed fighting machine4 ,possibly in order to baffle the uninitiated1 or to surround itself with an atmosphere of uncertainty and romance1 it goes by first one title and then another4 ,most often we hear it called a speed scout1 perhaps for the reason that it does no scouting6 ,at other times it masquerades proudly under the fine ,french titles of ,avions de ,chasse or ,avions de ,combat4 ,it is referred to as a chaser1 a pursuit machine1 a battle plane and a combat machine--but whatever it is called1 in type it is the small1 fast airplane1 usually a single seater1 quick in climbing1 agile as an acrobat1 able to go high and far1--for its duty is to run every enemy machine out of the sky and sweep the board clean before the heavier service machines begin their tasks of the day4 ,it should be able to reach a height of from #ah1jjj to #bc1jjj feet1 or in the language of the air1 it must have a high ceiling4 ,from altitudes so tremendous that they awe the mere earthly pedestrian it swoops down upon its unsuspecting victim1 opening upon him a stream of machine gun fire4 ,for its pilot is also a skilled gunner and a crack shot4 ,upon his ability to maneuver his machine swiftly and cleverly and hit his target unerringly depends his own life and the life of a costly military airplane4 ,the reconnaissance machines and the bombing planes may do valuable service1--and indeed they invariably do--but it is the speed scout that covers itself with glory4 ,the reason is that its career brings it nearer to the personal combat of the knights of old than anything in modern warfare4 ,driving his swift ,nieuport scout as a knight would have ridden his charger1 the beloved ,guynemer went forth to challenge the ,german fighters1--and other ,frenchmen and ,englishmen and ,americans have followed him4 ,it is a fact beyond all question that this branch of the service has produced some of the most truly unselfish and heroic figures of the whole war4 ,the speed scout pilot did not need to be a man deeply versed in military affairs--as for instance the pilot and observer of the reconnaissance machine must be1--but he did need dauntless courage1 unfailing nerves of steel1 dash and daring and contempt for his own safety4 ,so wherever the speed scout has blazed its trail of fire across the sky1 there have sprung up the names of men whose heroic deeds have made them the idols of the whole world4 ,usually they have been very young men--young enough for their ideals to have kept fresh and untarnished from the sordid things of life1 and thus they have written their names among the immortals4 ,illustration3 ,copyright ,underwood and ,underwood ,a ,,photograph ,,of ,,northern ,,france ,,taken ,,at ,a ,,height ,,of ,,three ,,thousand ,,feet ,less appealing to the imagination1 perhaps1 but no less vital to the progress of modern warfare1 is the slower flying reconnaissance craft4 ,this machine is always a two-seater1 and sometimes a three1 for at the very minimum it must carry a pilot and an observer1 while a gunner is a very convenient third party in case of an attack from enemy scouts4 ,this type of machine is used for photographic work1 for artillery spotting1 and for many general service duties over the lines4 ,in the early days of the war it was customary for the photography airplane to be escorted on its mission by a group of fighting machines1 who hovered about it and engaged in battle any airplanes of the enemy that might seek to interrupt its important work4 ,but the last year or so have brought many improvements in airplane construction and it has been found possible to build a machine which can not only carry the heavy photographic apparatus and a couple of machine guns1 but which can also travel at a good speed and climb fast enough to escape from the anti-aircraft guns4 ,instead of the rather helpless1 clumsy1 slow-flying reconnaissance machines of the early part of the war1 we now have powerful aerial dreadnaughts1 which no longer need to run away1 but can stay and fight it out when they are interrupted in the course of their air duties4 ,military photography is one of the most fascinating of the side issues of the war4 ,before the day of the airplane it was the scout or spy who worked his way secretly into the enemy's lines and at great personal risk1--and often after many thrilling adventures1 if the story books are to be believed--brought back to his commanding officer news of the disposition of troops1 etc41 in the opposing camp4 ,to-day the spy's job has been taken away from him4 ,no longer is it necessary for him to creep under cover of night past the guard posts of the enemy4 ,a big1 comfortable and efficient airplane flies over the ground by broad daylight and collects the necessary information a great deal better than the spy ever could have secured it4 ,illustration3 ,copyright ,underwood and ,underwood ,,an ,,airplane ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,city ,,of ,,rheims1 ,,showing ,,the ,,cathedral ,a reconnaissance camera has very little in common with a kodak4 ,the observer does not tilt it over the edge of the machine1 focus it on some interesting object and snap his picture4 ,as a matter of fact it works more after the manner of a gun4 ,it is fixed in the bottom of the airplane1 facing downward4 ,the observer has been instructed before leaving the ground that a certain area or trench is to be photographed4 ,straight to the beginning of that trench line the pilot heads his machine4 ,the observer compares the country over which he is flying with the chart or map which he carries4 ,just as a gunner sights a target1 he locates the beginning of the trench line to be photographed through a bull's eye1 and immediately pushes the button which sets the camera working4 ,from that point the camera operates automatically1 taking a series of overlapping pictures of the country it looks down upon4 ,with calm determination the pilot holds his machine to the course laid out1 in spite of any opposition that may arise in his path1 for the slightest deviation from that fixed line of flight will mean a gap in the reconnaissance report which the pictures represent4 ,but once he has covered the required area1 he turns and flees4 ,in less time than it takes to tell that magazine of films is being developed in a dark room4 ,from there the printed pictures are rushed to an expert interpreter who reads the secret meanings of the things he sees--this or that dark blotch or peculiar looking speck suggests to his trained mind a machine gun nest1 a railroad center1 an observation post1 a barbed wire entanglement1 a camouflaged battery1 an ammunition dump1 or what-not4 ,pasted together so that they give a continuous view of the foe's territory1 the printed pictures are hurried to headquarters1 where in a few brief moments their message has been turned into a command to the troops4 ,by the word that those pictures bring the battle is directed1 and the blow is aimed straight at the enemy's vital spots4 ,occasionally instead of a series of photographs of a trench line or limited area1 a continuous set of pictures of a broad space of country is desired4 ,then instead of a single machine as described above1 a squadron of reconnaissance machines set forth1 flying in ,v formation1 with the leader of the squadron flying in front at the point of the ,v4 ,the moment he reaches the area to be photographed1 he notifies the machines behind him by firing a smoke rocket with a signal pistol4 ,at that signal the ,v broadens instantly1 so that it becomes almost a straight line1 the commander keeping only slightly ahead so that he may lead the way4 ,on and on that broad ,v formation of airplanes sweeps1 every camera registering1 and all keeping close enough together to produce slightly overlapping photographs4 ,each machine will bring home a long line of pictures of the country over which it passed1 and those lines1 pieced together1 will make a large military map of the entire region4 ,that is if everything goes smoothly1 which in war time it seldom does4 ,more likely that plucky ,v will be pounced upon by a herd of fast fighting machines whose duty it is to see that none ever return with their information to headquarters4 ,there will follow a terrific contest2 the observer in the reconnaissance machine becomes a gunner1 and fires away at his pursuers1 while the never-failing camera keeps steadily on with its job of recording4 ,as nearly as possible the ,v formation is held1 for much depends upon it1 but suddenly a great gap appears in the line4 ,done for with a direct hit1 one brave machine goes crashing earthward4 ,that will mean a gap in the map that is in the making4 ,still the ,v presses on relentlessly4 ,one of the planes begins to lag behind4 ,there is something wrong with its engine4 ,it does its best to keep up with its fellows1 but soon it is left behind1 and the enemy craft dive after it4 ,battered and torn1 its numbers depleted sadly1 several of its crew wounded1 its wings perhaps riddled with bullets1 the photographing squadron turns its face toward home1 and1 flying now as high as possible to keep out of sight1 puts on all speed for the safe side of ,no ,man's ,land4 ,military photography sounds easy and comfortable4 ,it demands the type of courage which can make a man stick to a given line of flight1 even when certain death lies straight ahead4 ,sometimes a machine carries both bombs and a camera1 and1 as it drops its missiles1 keeps a continuous record of its hits to carry home4 ,and that brings us to the bombing machine1 last but not least of the trio of military airplanes4 ,the bomber that works by day and near to its own lines1 is similar to the reconnaissance machine1 except that it does not usually carry a radio apparatus or a camera4 ,instead1 the greater part of its cargo consists of bombs1 dread instruments of destruction which will fall on the railroad junctions1 troop trains1 staff headquarters or ammunition dumps of the enemy4 ,the day bomber is never used for long distance work1 and so it does not need to be of tremendous size1 as the machine which must carry fuel for an all night run as well as a large quantity of bombs to drop on a far away important objective4 ,the night bomber is the giant of the sky4 ,the greatest genius of the cleverest designers has been expended upon its construction4 ,more and more its tremendous importance is being recognized4 ,its activities precede every great offensive movement1 for it flies over the enemy's country1 leaving a trail of terrible destruction in its wake1 and preparing the soil for the infantry advance4 ,deep in the territory of the foe it searches out the great supply centers and railway terminals and there it unloads its cargo of bombs4 ,if the ,allies had possessed a sufficient number of these huge bombing planes they could have carried on an aerial warfare against ,germany which would have defeated her without nearly so great a sacrifice of the lives of the infantry4 ,the work is dangerous1 but a single bombing plane could have wreaked more vengeance upon the ,hun than perhaps a whole regiment of the bravest fighters4 ,consequently its use would have meant economy of human lives4 ,these fearful shadows that walk by night require pilots of the utmost skill to navigate the sea of darkness1 as well as bomb droppers and gunners whose training has been perfect4 ,the largest of them are equipped with either two or three powerful engines1 each working a separate propeller4 ,such a machine can carry as much as five tons of explosives1 with fuel for a twelve hours' flight4 ,the night bomber is very often a huge triplane1 for the extra wing surface gives greater lifting power4 ,at the same time the triplane has greater stability and has a fair chance of reaching home even when one of its planes has been badly damaged4 ,it is the same with a machine which has two or more engines3 even when one of these has been put out of order by the shots of the enemy the airplane can still reach home4 ,the night bombers must travel long distances1 carry great cargos1 bomb their objectives and make their escape1 and so in the construction of their machines as much stability1 lifting power and speed as possible has been the aim4 ,usually it is some important munition base or factory center that is supplying the ,german troops1 which the airmen set out to bomb4 ,they travel in squadrons not only for safety1 but because in this way an almost unlimited number of bombs can be carried and dropped simultaneously4 ,often a second squadron follows the first at a short distance4 ,by the light of the terrible fires that the first set of explosives dropped are bound to start1 this second squadron can drop its bombs with greater precision directly on important buildings that must be destroyed4 ,moving slowly under their great load of explosives1 and flying low1 these two squadrons of destroyers start for some point in the heart of the ,german ,empire4 ,like ghosts they feel their way mile after mile4 ,they are not anxious to invite detection1 for under the great weight of their messages to ,germany1 they would not be able to maneuver quickly or to climb to safety4 ,once those tons of explosives have been released and the noise of their dreadful havoc has aroused the anti-aircraft gunners of the enemy1 those bombing planes will find the earth an uninviting sort of region and they will be glad to spring into the protecting silence and darkness of the upper air4 ,and this they can do easily1 for1 rid of their load1 they possess unusual climbing powers4 ,the second squadron of bombers1 flying over the same territory may expect a warm reception1 and they will need to do their work quickly and beat a hasty retreat4 ,such are the mysterious doings of the night4 ,when the early dawn appears1 gray and heavy eyed1 it will find the bombing planes tucked away drowsily in their hangars1 scarcely knowing themselves whether the journey up the ,rhine was a reality or merely a terrifying dream4 ,and with the dawn their daylight sisters will take up the work near home4 ,word has just come that enemy reinforcements are moving up to the front along certain roads4 ,fine1 sings out a young lieutenant1 appearing unexpectedly on the field from a small1 carefully camouflaged office4 ,we will make them dance for us this morning6 ,he talks quickly and determinedly with a group of pilots1 giving instructions1 charging all to keep the formation4 ,machines are gone over to make sure that everything is in perfect condition4 ,then the first bombing plane1 bearing the flight leader1 taxis across the field1 appearing to stagger under its great burden4 ,suddenly it takes to the air1 and like a large graceful bird1 its clumsiness all gone1 it soars up into the blue4 ,rapidly the other big birds follow suit1 and at a signal they are off1 the flight commander heading the group1 and the others following in close formation1 like a huge flock of wild geese4 ,on and on they fly1 until beneath them appears the winding ribbon of road that is their objective4 ,it is crowded with marching troops1 gun wagons1 supplies4 ,as they swoop close to the earth they catch a swift glimpse of white faces turned up at them with terror4 ,then panic falls upon the marching column and1 helter-skelter1 every man tries to break away to a point of safety4 ,in another moment guns are turned upon the bombers1 but they dodge the flying shells and let go their heavy explosives1 which crash to earth with dreadful uproar4 ,where a few moments before the ,huns were following their way undisturbed there is now a road in which great furrows are plowed2 huge holes gape open and a hopeless mass of dbris covers the earth4 ,the columns of the enemy will be blocked for many hours while the mass is being cleared away4 ,satisfied with the results of their exploit the bombing squadron turns swiftly toward home4 ,how simple a matter it seems at first glance to release a bomb and hit a given point below4 ,actually it requires the very highest skill4 ,to begin with1 the airplane is moving at tremendous speed1 and the bombardier 7as the man who drops the bombs is called7 has to know exactly how the forward motion of the airplane will affect the direction that the bomb takes on its course toward the earth4 ,moreover the bomb has a speed at starting equal to the speed of the airplane1 and this beginning speed is increased by the action of gravity drawing it down4 ,it may be aided in its journey by the wind or retarded1 according to the wind's direction1 and this too must be taken into account1 if the target is to be hit4 ,bomb dropping can only be carried out successfully with the aid of the most delicate and complicated range-finding mechanism1 with which every bombing plane is equipped4 ,the ,germans have led the way in inventions for this purpose1 and their ,goertz range finder is perhaps the best in the world4 ,the bombs themselves are generally carried in vertical position1 one-above another1 in the body of the airplane1 and by an automatic arrangement1 as one is released1 another slips into place1 ready to be dropped4 ,now that we have made the acquaintance of the three types of machines that are used over the trenches--the speed scout or small fighting machine2 the larger armed reconnaissance plane2 and largest of all1 the bomber--let us go back and give just a hasty glance at the main points of their construction4 ,first we must recall the ,a ,b ,c facts we learned about wing construction4 ,a wing gains lifting power from two sources3 the upward pressure of the air current underneath it1 and the force of the vacuum above it which is created by the arch of the wing4 ,if a wing is only slightly arched it can move forward through the air more swiftly1 but it will not have the lifting power of the high arched wing4 ,this is the reason that an airplane which must be a weight carrier cannot be as fast in flight as the speed scout1 which has only its pilot and a machine gun to carry4 ,the speed scout is always a small machine1 usually a single-seater1 with a gun in front that fires over or through the propeller4 ,in the early part of the ,great ,war it was most often a monoplane1 but the smaller biplane took its place1 because1 with practically the same speed1 it combines greater stability4 ,the planes of the speed scout are very flat as compared with those of the reconnaissance craft4 ,this airplane must carry machine guns1 photography apparatus1 radio1 and a pilot1 an observer1 and often a gunner4 ,its wings must therefore be arched to give it lifting power1 but at the same time it becomes a much slower flying machine than its smaller sister4 ,lifting power of a wing can of course be increased up to a certain point by increasing the wing area1 so that a greater air pressure is created below4 ,beyond that certain point the machine would become unwieldy and would lose its balancing properties4 ,yet this idea has been put into practise in building the latest types of aerial dreadnaughts used for reconnaissance4 ,these airplanes have gained their lifting power partly by increasing the wing spread and partly by arching the wing4 ,thus a wing has been secured which offers the minimum resistance to forward motion through the air1 together with the maximum weight carrying ability4 ,biplanes of this type are by far the most popular of those designed for general service1 for they combine speed1 climbing ability1 and lifting power1--thanks to their strong armament they can defend themselves or run away quickly as the situation demands4 ,but there is one other method which has not yet been mentioned of increasing the lifting power of an airplane4 ,it is simply to add a third wing4 ,when we have made the wings of the biplane as large as we dare1 and have curved them to make them weight-bearers1 if the resulting machine is still not strong enough to carry as many tons of explosives as we desire1 there is only one thing left to do and that is to add a third wing4 ,thus the triplane made its appearance in answer to the call for planes which could carry vast cargoes of explosives and fuel for journeys of many hours over the enemy's country4 ,the huge night bombing machine of the present time is almost always of the triplane type4 ,,chapter ,v ,,some ,,of ,,the ,,problems ,,the ,,inventors ,,had ,,to ,,solve ,every ,american must feel a glow of pride when he stops to think that it was two of his fellow-countrymen1 ,wilbur and ,orville ,wright1 who invented the airplane4 ,but it is largely to ,france1 our great ally and friend1 that the credit must go for improving upon the invention of the ,wrights1 and making possible the wonderful aerial feats1 the marvelous flights and accomplishments of the airplane of to-day4 ,from the first day they saw an airplane flown1 the ,french were wildly enthusiastic4 ,they gave freely of their money and their encouragement to help the good cause along4 ,french inventors attacked the problems of the heavier-than-air machine with a will1 and their unfailing determination and refusal to accept defeat or failure made final victory inevitable4 ,but before we could have the powerful fighting machines1 the big cross country fliers and the seaplanes of to-day1 there were many difficulties of construction which had to be met and solved4 ,first of all the pioneer designer had to choose between the monoplane1 the biplane and the triplane4 ,the monoplane was light in weight and could fly faster with the same powered engine than the biplane4 ,but it was difficult to know just how to brace and strengthen the single pair of wings4 ,in the biplane the struts between the wings gave strength and firmness4 ,the wings of the monoplane were braced by wires to the body1 but often they did not prove strong enough and the airplane collapsed in mid-air4 ,in spite of this danger the monoplane was much in favor because of its speed4 ,slower in speed1 but stronger and a better weight lifter was the biplane4 ,and in addition to strength it possessed more natural stability1 a much sought after quality in the pioneer days4 ,even more stable and with greater lifting powers than the biplane was the triplane1 but the difficulty here was the lack of an airplane motor of sufficient strength to drive it4 ,until clever engineers came to the rescue with an improved aircraft motor1 the triplane was very much in disfavor4 ,the monoplane1 indeed1 captured most of the early records for speed and it was this type of machine that was generally built by the sportsman type of airman1 while men like the ,wright brothers and others whose aim was to develop an airplane of unusual reliability and suited to many purposes1 turned to the biplane and gave many hours and months and years of their time to its improvement4 ,once the choice of a type had been made1 there were countless other problems4 ,stability was of prime importance and the airmen of a few years ago labored desperately to attain it4 ,they knew all too little about the airplane from a scientific angle4 ,we have seen in our brief study that the method of obtaining balance in a glider or an airplane is to see that its center of weight coincides with the center of the upward pressure of air4 ,how to bring this happy state of things about was a source of much debate4 ,some suggested that instead of a tail at the stern a tail in front of the main planes of the machine would help to balance it in flight4 ,some placed the pilot's seat above both planes of the biplane1 while others thought he should sit below4 ,many of these queer ideas were tried out and by dint of hard practise and many failures certain simple elementary facts were finally weeded out and set down4 ,probably the addition of a fuselage or body to the modern airplane has had something to do with helping in the proper distribution of its weight and increasing its stability4 ,larger at the bow and tapering toward the stern where a fixed tail piece or horizontal stabilizing plane is attached1 it resembled more or less closely the general outlines of a fish or bird4 ,and this streamline form greatly reduces the head resistance1 another important subject on which there was very little known when the first of the airplanes was built4 ,in addition to having only a very slow and inefficient engine the early machine suffered from the head resistance it created as it pushed forward through the air1 and this check to its progress ate up the little speed its motor could develop4 ,for if the airman of #aijh or #aiji was made miserable by his fear of winds1 gusts and aerial whirlpools which might upset him in mid-air1 his fears in this direction were completely overshadowed by his worries about a suitable motor4 ,if the design of his craft was faulty and it proved balky when he attempted flight1 he had only himself to blame4 ,but for an engine he had to rely entirely upon some one else4 ,the airplane could be a home-made article1 but the engine had to be chosen from such as were on the market4 ,the ,wright brothers in their first flying machine used a made-over automobile engine of #ab horsepower4 ,it was not long before this was improved upon1 and later ,wright machines had a four-cylinder1 water-cooled engine developing #ce horsepower4 ,its weight had been reduced as far as possible and its simplicity of design was its greatest recommendation4 ,undoubtedly the engine problem has been the big one in the history of aviation4 ,the coming of the internal combustion engine might be said to have placed practical aviation within the range of possibility1 but at that it took a long time to evolve a motor especially suited to the needs of aircraft4 ,there were three things needed in an airplane motor3 ,light weight1 high power1 and absolute reliability4 ,how important the third factor is we can imagine if we stop to think that nothing keeps the heavier-than-air machine afloat but its own speed1 creating an air pressure beneath its wings4 ,like the boy who runs with his kite in order to make it go up1 the airplane must go if it would rise1 and the moment its engine fails there is nothing to prevent it from falling to the earth4 ,the driver of a motor car1 can1 if his engine goes wrong1 get out and go over it carefully until he finds what the difficulty is4 ,the pilot of an airplane1 soaring thousands of feet above the earth1 is at the mercy of his motor's reliability or lack of it4 ,engine failure was1 and still is1 one of the greatest dangers the airman has to fear4 ,another chief cause of trouble in early airplane motors was overheating4 ,before actual airplane engines had been designed there was nothing to do but to use the type of engine which had been designed for the automobile1 with as much reduction in weight as could be secured4 ,but the automobile engine was never intended to run at top speed continuously and for long periods1 as the airplane engine necessarily must do4 ,in a car the motor has little stops and rests1 as it is throttled down for a moment or changes in speed are made1 and these breathing spells help it very much indeed in the cooling off process4 ,the airplane engine does not have these little between-time naps4 ,the result was that the automobile engine installed in the early airplane invariably overheated and caused serious trouble4 ,under these conditions no flights of any distance could possibly be attempted4 ,yet at the ,rheims ,meeting of #aiji ,henry ,farman surprised the world by remaining in the air two hours in a continuous flight4 ,up to that time the feat had never been equaled or approached4 ,aviators were amazed and sought an explanation4 ,the answer was3 the ,gnome motor4 ,anxious to help the airplane in its forward march1 ,french engineers had good naturedly set to work and the ,gnome motor was their first answer to the anxious question of ,what engine8 ,it involved a new and ingenious system of cooling which made it possible for ,farman to drive his big machine round and round the ,rheims course until stopped by darkness1 but without ever experiencing the slightest difficulty with his motor4 ,before attempting to understand the secret of superiority of this first real airplane motor over others of its day1 we must know a little more about the elementary principles of any internal combustion engine4 ,the diagram on page #aef shows one cylinder of such an engine in action4 ,a mixture of gasoline and air--called carbureted air--is introduced through a valve opening into a chamber or cylinder1 as shown in figure ,a of the diagram4 ,the valve opening then closes1 and the piston moves forward compressing the gases enclosed in the cylinder1 as shown in figure ,b4 ,an electric spark suddenly explodes these compressed gases1 causing them to expand with the greatest violence and drive the piston back4 ,this action1 which is shown in figure ,c1 is called the power stroke1 for1 transmitted by the piston rod to the crankshaft it furnishes the power which turns the propeller and sends the airplane forward through the air4 ,just before the piston reaches the end of the power stroke the exhaust valve opens1 and the exploded gases are forced out of the chamber1 partly by the force of their own tension and partly by the upward stroke of the piston1 as shown in figure ,d4 ,the carbureted air is supplied to the cylinder from a chamber called the carbureter4 ,here it is produced by the mixture of a gasoline spray--similar to the fine spray of an atomizer--with the air4 ,illustration3 ,,diagram ,,of ,,an ,,internal ,,combustion ,,engine ,,cylinder1 ,,showing ,,principle ,,on ,,which ,,it ,,works ,a spark plug is fitted to the cylinder1 and a break current from an electric magneto causes the spark which at the proper instant explodes the compressed gases4 ,since by means of the explosion of the gases the force is produced which drives the airplane propeller1 the violence and frequency of these explosions determine the power of the engine4 ,greater power can be obtained either by increasing the size of the cylinder so that it can hold more of the carbureted air1 making a greater explosion possible2 or else by causing more frequent explosions4 ,the latter is the better method in an airplane engine1 as larger cylinders mean more weight to be carried4 ,in the average airplane engine from #aejj to #bjjj explosions or revolutions occur per minute4 ,the combustion cylinder of an aircraft engine is usually built of steel1 and the piston of cast iron or aluminum1 which furnishes a very smooth gliding surface4 ,the piston rod transmits the power to the crankshaft1 a long rotating piece of steel4 ,every time the piston rod is thrust down by the explosion in the cylinder1 its motion serves to turn the crankshaft and thus the vertical motion of the piston is transformed into the rotary motion which sends the propeller whirling through the air4 ,wherever two surfaces of metal must rub against each other1 as in the case of the piston and the cylinder1 there is bound to be a great amount of friction4 ,this friction causes the parts to heat and in time it wears away the surfaces and destroys the efficiency of the engine4 ,in order to avoid this1 the surfaces must be kept constantly well oiled or lubricated4 ,in some engines all the parts are enclosed in one large box or crank case which is filled with oil4 ,small holes are bored through to the surfaces to be lubricated1 and the oil is splashed upon them by the motions of the piston rod1 the crankshaft1 etc41 as they plunge through the oil bath4 ,but overheating of the cylinder may cause this oil to decompose and in order to prevent this a cooling system is necessary4 ,for only when the engine is kept cool and properly oiled can it be expected to run smoothly or give satisfactory service4 ,so now we come back to the problem of cooling1 which caused so much anxiety and trouble to the early aviators4 ,with their engines running at the great speed which was necessary to keep the airplane in the air1 overheating and engine difficulties were sure to arise4 ,cooling of the cylinder is accomplished in one of two ways3 either by water or by air4 ,if water is used1 a jacket in which the water circulates is placed around the cylinder1--the water as it becomes heated passing out of the jacket to the radiator1 where it is cooled before it returns4 ,the radiator1 at the very front of the airplane body1 is exposed to the swift current of the air as the machine drives forward1 and this air current serves to reduce the temperature of the water4 ,this method was the one originally employed with the automobile engine1 but in the early models the cooling system1 though adequate for the motor car1 was hopelessly insufficient when the same engine was installed in an airplane4 ,it was the ,gnome manufacturers who first thought of a most ingenious scheme for cooling the cylinders of the internal combustion engine4 ,instead of having the piston and the crankshaft move1 it was the cylinder itself which moved in the ,gnome motor1 while the crankshaft and piston were stationary4 ,thus cooling was very easily accomplished1 for the cylinders1 flying through the air1 making as many as #aejj revolutions per minute1 cooled themselves4 ,the crankshaft in the ,gnome motor had been hollowed out to form a tube or pipe1 through which the fuel or carbureted air passed to the cylinder by means of a valve in the head of the piston which worked automatically4 ,the ,gnome could be built up of any number of cylinders1 according to the power required4 ,its cylinders were set in a circle about the crankshaft1 so that the entire engine occupied a minimum of space in the airplane body4 ,scouted at first as a freak engine1 it soon proved its superiority over all those in use and was rapidly adopted by builders of all types of airplanes4 ,to-day the stationary engine has been greatly improved1 its provisions for cooling have been increased and it is once more looked on with favor by many manufacturers of aircraft4 ,the cylinders of an internal combustion engine can be grouped in one of three ways1 and thus there are three main types of airplane engines we should be able to recognize4 ,they are the straight-line engine1 the ,v-type1 and the radial4 ,in the straight-line model four1 six1 or even a larger number of cylinders are placed in a row in one crank case4 ,in the ,v-type of motor they are set instead in two lines1 like a letter ,v2 while in the radial type the cylinders form a circle around the central crankshaft4 ,the radial motor may be stationary or its cylinders may revolve1 in which case it becomes a rotary engine1 as for instance1 the ,gnome4 ,each of these types of motors has its peculiar advantages4 ,the least head resistance is caused by a straight line engine1 and this type also uses less fuel and oil4 ,but it is usually heavier in weight1 owing to the larger cooling system necessary and the longer crankshaft1 and it takes up more room in the airplane fuselage than a motor of the compact radial type4 ,the radial engine is very light in weight1--a big item in the airplane--but it consumes a large quantity of fuel and oil and besides produces a maximum head resistance4 ,the ,v-type motor is a compromise between the two1--lighter in weight than the straight-line1 less wasteful of fuel and causing less head resistance than the radial4 ,the rotary engine1 because of its appetite for fuel and oil is no longer used in airplanes which are intended for long distance flights1 because here the weight of the extra fuel carried has to be considered4 ,in short distance1 high-speed machines it works well1 but in the larger planes the vertical or ,v-type motor has been found to give greater satisfaction4 ,when we read of the enormous trouble the pioneers of aviation went to1 in order to find an engine suitable to drive the propeller of the airplane1 we cannot help wondering just how the revolving of the propeller sends the whole machine flying forward through the air4 ,the matter is very simply explained4 ,the propeller of a ship is often referred to as the ship's screw1 and though few people have ever compared it with the small screws they use about the house1 or with the screw and screw driver in the tool chest1 there is in fact very little difference in principle4 ,take a screw and place it against a block of wood1 and then commence to turn it with a screw driver4 ,straight into the wood its curved edges will cut their way1 dragging the round steel rod of the screw behind them4 ,with every turn they will cut in deeper and carry the screw forward through the wood4 ,that is what the propeller of a ship or an airplane does3 it screws its way through the water or the air4 ,but of course there is this difference1 that the wood offers great resistance to the forward motion of the screw1 while the water offers much less resistance to the ship's propeller1 and the air less still to the propeller of the airplane4 ,if1 as in the case of the screw-driver1 the airplane propeller is in front of the airplane and drags its load along behind it1 it is called a tractor propeller2 but if instead it is placed at the stern of the airplane1 and as it screws through the air it pushes the airplane along ahead of it1 then it is known as a pusher propeller4 ,the little cutting edge that winds round and round an ordinary screw is referred to as its thread1 and the distance between two of these edges or threads is known as the pitch4 ,in some screws the threads are very close or1 to put it another way1 the pitch is small1 while in others it is much greater4 ,each blade of a propeller is really a portion of a screw4 ,to go back to the example of the screw-driver and the block of wood1 every time the screw is turned once around it will advance into the wood a distance equal to its pitch4 ,the same thing is theoretically true of the propeller of an airplane2 at each revolution it might be expected to advance through the air a distance equal to the pitch that has been given to its blades4 ,but the air may allow the propeller to slip back and so lose some of its speed1 a thing which was not possible with the screw-driver4 ,this tendency to slip varies with the pitch of the propeller and the speed of its revolutions4 ,a propeller which works splendidly when turning at a given rate1 may prove worse than useless when the engine is slowed down and it is only making half the number of revolutions per minute4 ,and so we begin to see another of the big problems of the pioneer airmen3 to determine the right pitch for the propeller in relation to the speed which had been determined upon for the airplane4 ,it is a problem that has not been wholly solved to-day1 because of the fact that an airplane cannot always be driven at top speed4 ,if the maximum speed of the machine is #aej miles per hour1 and the propeller has been designed to deal with the air efficiently at this speed1 it is apt to slip and slide and waste away the power of the engine when for any reason it is necessary to slow down to #ajj miles per hour4 ,the only answer to the difficulty is a variable pitch propeller which may be altered to conform with alterations in speed1 but up to the present time nothing really satisfactory along this line has been devised4 ,another question in connection with the propeller has been of what material to make it4 ,wood is most generally used to-day1 for although steel and aluminum have been tried1 they have not been found to stand the strain so well4 ,imagine for one moment the stress upon an airplane propeller beating through the air at the rate of #aejj revolutions per minute4 ,the greatest strength has been secured by building it up of several pieces of wood which are fastened strongly together and varnished4 ,materials have always presented a source of endless experiment and differences of opinion in the construction of the airplane4 ,the problem has come up in connection with the fuselage1 the wings and wing coverings1 the landing chassis--in fact1 each and every part of the heavier-than-air machine has raised the old query3 ,what shall we make it of8 ,in the earlier machines wood was almost entirely used in airplane construction4 ,for one thing it was cheaper1 and for another it was easier to get wood working machinery1 than the complicated and expensive machinery necessary to construct airplanes out of metal4 ,metals are stronger but they cost more and they make the problem of repairs more difficult4 ,the wings of the airplane are usually built up on a wooden framework which gives them their shape and curve4 ,many have been the disputes over the matter of wing coverings4 ,in the pioneer machines they were covered with cotton material which had not been treated to make it water-proof or air-proof4 ,it gave the poorest kind of service1 and an effort was made to improve it by rubberizing it1 but this process did not produce a wing of lasting durability4 ,many other treatments were experimented with1 but with little success until the substance known as dope made its appearance4 ,dope is largely composed of acetyl cellulose4 ,it makes the wing covering proof against rain1 wind1 and the oil thrown off from the airplane engine1 and gives it a fine1 smooth finish and excellent durability4 ,two or three coats of it are usually applied1 with a final coat of varnish on top1 to produce a wing that is sure to prove strong and trustworthy4 ,the problems of starting and landing the airplane have been many4 ,the early ,wright machine had to run on a little trolley down a track in order to gain sufficient momentum to take to the air4 ,later machines showed an improvement on this4 ,henry ,farman attached wooden skids to the bottom of his airplane and fastened wheels to them by means of heavy rubber bands4 ,thus he could start his motor and run over the ground until his speed permitted him to rise1 while in making a descent the wheels flew back on their flexible bands and the stout skids absorbed the shock of the fall4 ,most of the modern machines have a wheeled framework below the fuselage1 which permits them to run over the ground in starting and also in making a descent4 ,the danger of engine failure becomes very important when near to the ground1 as the pilot has no time to get his machine into a gradual glide and avoid a bad accident4 ,this danger is sometimes averted by installing two engines1 so that if one stops the other will carry the airplane on up into the air and prevent a smash-up4 ,but the thing which has greatest effect on the ability of the airplane to land easily is its own design and speed4 ,the wings of the airplane1 its propeller and its whole construction have been planned so that it can support itself best in the air when flying at a certain fixed speed4 ,suppose this speed for a certain type of airplane to be #aej miles per hour4 ,the airplane cannot land while traveling at that rate1 yet its speed while still in the air can only be diminished to a certain point with safety1 and below that point it may not be able to sustain itself in flight4 ,the pilot must be able to land his machine without accident and without throttling his engine below this danger line2 while the designer of airplanes must struggle to produce a machine which1 while flying best at its maximum speed1 will fly at a much lower rate of motion1 when necessary to effect a landing4 ,the supporting power of the wings depends partly on their size and partly on their rate of motion4 ,small wings moving at high speed produce the same supporting pressure of air beneath them as large wings flying at slow speed4 ,the problem of a safe landing could best be solved by building wings whose area could be altered in mid-air4 ,when traveling under full power the pilot would reduce the wing spread1 as the smaller wings would then be sufficient to support the weight of the machine and would create less air resistance4 ,when about to land1 he would increase the spread of the wings1 so that at the slower rate of motion through the air he might take advantage of a larger supporting surface4 ,nothing of this sort has yet been worked out on a practical scale1 but many have been the suggestions for telescoping wings4 ,the reduction of head resistance and the streamlining of the airplane have received their goodly share of attention and experiment4 ,to-day the airplane fuselage is carefully streamlined1 but the landing chassis beneath it creates a good deal of resistance to motion4 ,probably this problem will be solved by devising a landing chassis which1 after the machine has arisen from the ground1 can be drawn up inside the body1 and let down again to make a landing1 but this is another important question which is not yet worked out in the airplanes of the present time4 ,the coming of the ,war caused all nations to stop and take strict account of what had been accomplished in solving the many problems of aviation1 for the war machine had to be as nearly as possible the sum total of all the best that had been worked out up to that time in the difficult matter4 ,in aircraft design and in types of engines ,france undoubtedly stood foremost1 although the knowledge she possessed had not been sorted1 pigeonholed and accurately standardized as was the case in ,germany4 ,germany had some excellent aircraft motors of the water-cooled type1 which were light in weight1 very reliable and high-powered4 ,the ,german government had spent large sums of money for the purpose of encouraging airplane construction and the improvement of designs and engines4 ,yet no country at war found her military airplanes all she had expected them to be4 ,it was not until actual war service brought definite demands from the pilots and definite criticisms of the bad features of the airplanes in use1 that the designers were able to turn out machines of the highest efficiency4 ,there were many things which the pilots asked for4 ,speed and climbing power were among them1 greater ease of operation1 more protection in the way of guns and armament1 the pilot's seat so located that his vision was not obstructed above or below1 and a uniform system of controls4 ,gradually all these requirements have been met by the airplane makers4 ,by #aiag they had turned out machines which could fly as fast as #aej miles per hour and climb to #bb1jjj feet1 while since then even this record has been greatly improved upon4 ,in the field of aviation ,america can claim one big accomplishment since her entrance into the ,world ,war4 ,that is the ,liberty motor1 probably the most successful motor that has ever yet been devised for an airplane4 ,when it was decided that we should begin work building ,american airplanes1 there was one important problem3 the engine4 ,foreign types of engines could not very well be built in this country1 as they required workmen of many years' training in a highly specialized field4 ,it was agreed that we must have a motor of our own1 which could be manufactured rapidly under the conditions of our present industrial system4 ,two of the most capable engineers in the country were summoned to ,washington1 and in order to assist them in their work motor manufacturers from all over the ,united ,states sent draftsmen and consulting engineers4 ,for five days these two men did not leave the rooms that had been engaged for them at the capital4 ,sacrifice was necessary if victory was to be won4 ,engineering companies and companies making motors for automobiles1 etc41 gave up their most carefully-guarded secrets in order to make the ,liberty motor a success4 ,the result was that an engine was produced so much better than anything on the market that our allies ordered it in large quantities for their own airplanes4 ,twenty-eight days after the drawings were started1 the first motor was set up4 ,it was ready on ,independence ,day1 and was demonstrated in ,washington4 ,the parts had been manufactured in many factories1 yet they were assembled without the slightest difficulty4 ,the completed engine was sent to ,washington by special train from the ,west4 ,thirty days later it had passed all tests and was officially the ,liberty motor4 ,one of the most remarkable things about the ,liberty motor is the way in which all of its parts have been carefully standardized so that they can be manufactured according to instructions by factories in all parts of the ,united ,states4 ,the parts can then be rapidly assembled at a central point4 ,the cylinders are exactly the same in every case1 although the ,liberty motor is made in four models1 ranging from #d to #ab cylinders4 ,they can be interchanged and the parts of a wrecked engine can be used to repair another engine4 ,thus ,american wit1 patriotism and energy were able at a most critical time to answer the threat of ,german supremacy in the air4 ,our aircraft production has gone forward with speed which almost baffles understanding1 while the airplane motors we shipped abroad in such overwhelming numbers to be installed in foreign machines gave good service to the cause for which the ,liberty motor was named4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,famous ,,allied ,,airplanes ,airplanes1 like men1 are not all alike1 even when they are in the same line of work and performing the self-same duties4 ,in war time1 every gunner has his own little peculiarities1 every sharpshooter has his personal ideas about catching the enemy napping1 and every infantryman who goes over the top1 in spite of his rigorous training in the art of war1 meets and downs his opponent in a manner all his own4 ,so it is with the machines that in the last few years have won fame for their valiant service over the dread region of battle4 ,roughly they can be lined up as fighting machines1 reconnaissance airplanes and bombers4 ,yet if we look a little closer1 individual types of planes will stand out of the general group1 and it becomes fascinating to study them in their design1 their achievements and their particular capabilities4 ,illustration3 ,copyright ,international ,film ,service1 ,inc4 ,,this ,,photograph ,,shows ,,the ,,relative ,,size ,,of ,,the ,,giant ,,caproni ,,bombing ,,plane ,,and ,,the ,,french ,,baby ,,nieuport1 ,,used ,,as ,a ,,speed ,,scout ,as it would be impossible to mention in one short chapter all the brave pilots who distinguished themselves for their heroism in the war in the air1 so it would be a hopeless task to attempt to do justice to all the airplanes which rendered good service over the front lines4 ,the best we can hope to do is to make the acquaintance of the most famous of them all4 ,illustration3 ,copyright ,international ,film ,service1 ,inc4 ,,the ,,spad1 ,,the ,,pride ,,of ,,the ,,french ,,air ,,fleet ,there is one little machine1 which1 when the final retreat was sounded and accomplishments were reckoned1 had covered itself with glory4 ,like the many famous pilots who have driven it1 it has learned much by experience1 and it has changed considerably in outward appearance since the summer of #aiad4 ,wherever the achievements of the speed scout are mentioned the ,nieuport is bound to come in for its share of the praise4 ,this little fighting machine was greatly relied on by the ,french1 who used it in large numbers over the front lines4 ,although lately another swift scout plane has come into the field to eclipse its reputation1 it probably took part in more aerial battles than any other airplane of the ,great ,war4 ,it was the ,nieuport monoplane whose speed and agility at maneuvers made it a favorite in the early days of the hostilities4 ,for a while it was a match for the ,german scout machines1 but the rapid strides which aviation took under the pressure of war necessity left it behind1 and the more rapid and efficient ,nieuport ,biplane ,scout made its appearance4 ,in several important features it was entirely different from any of the biplanes4 ,it could not quite forget its monoplane construction1 and it had made a compromise with the biplane by adding a very narrow lower wing4 ,it was humorously nicknamed the one and one-half plane1 but it proved itself just the thing the fighting airmen were looking for4 ,its narrow lower plane1 while giving more stability and a girder formation to its wing bracing1 did not interfere with the pilot's range of vision1 a highly important consideration4 ,in order to allow as full a view as possible in all directions1 it had only two ,v-shaped struts between the planes1 while the upper wing1 just above the pilot's seat1 had been cut away in a semi-circle at the rear so that he might be able to see above4 ,the lower wing was in two sections1 one at each side of the fuselage4 ,this little biplane had a top wing span of only #bc feet1 #f inches1 while the distance across the lower plane from tip to tip was a trifle shorter1 measuring just #bc feet4 ,the upper plane measured from the front to the rear edge a trifle less than #d feet1--or to use technical language1 it had a chord of #c feet1 #aa inches2 while the chord of the lower wing was only a little over #b feet4 ,the entire length of the biplane from the tip of its nose to its tail was #ah feet1 #f inches4 ,the fuselage was built with sides and bottom flat but the top rounded off4 ,there was plenty of room for the pilot to move freely in his seat4 ,armed with a machine gun which fired over the propeller1 he was well able to defend himself when enemy craft appeared4 ,the ,nieuport biplane wrote its achievements in large letters during the ,great ,war4 ,it was the machine which ,guynemer and his famous band of ,storks flew in their daring battles against the ,german fast scout1 the ,fokker4 ,it carried many an ,american chap to fame in the ,lafayette ,escadrille4 ,england1 ,italy and ,america all used it over the lines1 and its high speed and quickness at maneuver made it a general favorite4 ,to-day it is made in either the single-seater scout type1 or in a larger1 two-seated model4 ,the gunner's seat in the latter is in front of the pilot1 and a circular opening has been cut in the upper plane above him1 so that in an aerial battle he may stand up1 his head and shoulders above the top wing1 and operate the machine gun1 which fires across the propeller4 ,in spite of all its excellent qualities and its record of victories won1 the ,nieuport has lost its championship among the ,speed scouts4 ,another tiny biplane of still greater speed1 has wrested the honors from it4 ,the first place among fighters is now perhaps held by the ,spad4 ,carrying one or two passengers and equipped with an engine of #aej to #bej horsepower1 with its ,lewis and ,vickers machine guns spitting away at the enemy1 it is a formidable object in the arena of war4 ,not to be left behind1 ,america has developed a small1 fast fighting machine which bids fair to make the other two look to their laurels4 ,it is a tiny ,curtiss triplane1 the span of whose wings is only #be feet4 ,its extra lifting surface gives it remarkable climbing powers without increasing its size as a target4 ,it is always an advantage to a fighting machine to have as small a wing area as possible1 for1 besides being able to maneuver more quickly1 it furnishes a smaller target to the enemy's gunners4 ,the triplane can mount rapidly into the upper air1 so as to command a strategic position above the airplanes of the foe1 while to those attempting to fire upon it from above or below1 its three wings do not present any larger surface than the two of the biplane or the one of the monoplane4 ,the ,curtiss factory has been at work for several years on the problem of the small fast fighter4 ,its first effort was a biplane whose top wing span was only #bj feet4 ,in a test flight by ,victor ,carlstrom at ,sheepshead ,bay ,speedway1 ,new ,york ,city1 its unusual performances amazed the spectators4 ,with startling swiftness the pilot mounted into the blue1 maneuvered his little biplane with the agility of an acrobat1 gave excellent tests of speed1 and descended4 ,reducing the speed of his motor but not cutting it off entirely1 he allowed the little airplane to skim slowly along the ground4 ,then1 alighting1 he took hold of the fuselage close to the tail1 and steered the diminutive craft to a suitable spot from which to make another flight4 ,with the motor still running1 and much to the surprise of the onlookers1 he stepped in once more1 put on full power and was off4 ,this little airplane was nicknamed the ,curtiss ,baby ,speed ,scout4 ,in one interesting respect it was different from the ,nieuport1 whose upper plane had to be cut away to increase the pilot's range of vision4 ,in the ,curtiss machine the pilot sits just behind the planes1 so that he can see above and on all sides with the greatest ease4 ,as a protection in battle his seat and the front portion of the fuselage are surrounded with thin steel1 and the pilot sits close to the floor1 so that he does not offer a very good target to the enemy's stray bullets4 ,the baby biplane is fitted with a standard ,v-type motor of about #ajj horsepower1 and it carries fuel for a run of two and one-half hours4 ,the ,british have done some very fine work in developing airplanes of the speed scout type4 ,their fighting machines flew over the lines and downed the ,german planes in goodly numbers4 ,among those which earned fame for their achievements are the ,bristol ,scout1 familiarly known as the bullet1 one of the fastest of the military airplanes2 and the ,vickers ,scout1 another of the swift eagles that helped to maintain ,allied supremacy in the clouds4 ,one of the interesting features of the ,vickers scout is the high stagger of its planes4 ,by this we mean that the upper plane has been set far forward1 so that it appears to overhang the lower4 ,quite recently another ,british scout machine1 a ,sopwith triplane1 was flown by the ,british ,royal ,flying ,corps1 and it made a splendid record of victories over the lines4 ,in a crack regiment of veteran fighters it is hard to pick out the men who might be said to be the best soldiers4 ,each man excels in some individual way1 and in just the right situation might prove to be the leader of his fellows4 ,so it is bound to be with the long list of valiant little fighting planes that took up the cudgels against the ,hun4 ,no short summary can do justice to them all4 ,there are the ,avro1 for instance1 and the ,de ,havilland ,scout ,biplane of the ,british1 as well as a biplane of the ,sopwith type2 while the list is almost endless of ,british and ,french machines bearing such well known names as ,farman1 ,caudron1 ,dorand1 ,moineau1 ,morane-,saulnier1 etc4 ,but whatever the particular features of these scout machines1 their armament is generally about the same4 ,it usually consists of a machine gun operated by the pilot and firing across the propeller4 ,the pilot directs the nose of his machine straight at the enemy and lets go a rain of bullets4 ,fighting tactics are the subject of the most intense study on the part of every pilot of a scout machine4 ,often he has his pet system of downing the enemy4 ,immelmann1 the famous ,german aviator1 liked to get high in the upper air and there await the approach of a victim1 when he could dive straight down upon the unsuspecting airplane and open fire4 ,every pilot aims to surprise his enemy4 ,to do so he must often perform startling aerial tricks1 looping the loop to come up under the tail of the other machine1 swooping down from above1 or firing from behind while the tail of the enemy machine shields him as he gets in his fatal shot4 ,the aviator learns to hide behind a cloud1 to take advantage of blinding sunlight or any other natural condition in order to take the opposing airplane unawares4 ,it is for this reason that machines are needed which combine speed1 exceptional climbing powers1 and quick maneuvering ability4 ,not only must they be able to practise all manner of tricks and stunts in order to surprise the foe1 but it is quite as important that they be able to move rapidly on their own account1 for a slow moving airplane is more liable to surprise than one which is swift in flight and able to alter its course repeatedly or else climb out of danger's way4 ,how important the agility of these little fighting planes is they are apt themselves to discover when one of their number meets a big reconnaissance machine of the enemy4 ,the latter1 with its big guns1 is a formidable object1 and could easily get the better of the lightly built combat plane1 if it were not for the fact that its weight and slow speed make it unmanageable4 ,the smaller machine drops down upon the big fellow suddenly1 firing a volley at its gunners4 ,if he kills them well and good1 but if not he must perform his cleverest aerial stunts to get out of their way1 or he will soon be a mere ball of fire shooting earthward4 ,fortunately1 he is quick1 and a few acrobatic turns save him from threatening disaster4 ,before the present type of reconnaissance craft1 bristling with machine guns had been developed1 it was customary for the airplane doing photographic work1 artillery spotting and similar duties to rely for its protection on a number of speed scouts1 who flew above and around it and escorted it upon its mission4 ,to-day the airplane that is used for general service duties over the lines is a dreadnaught of the air1 and although it may still take along with it on its errands a few scouts to give battle to the faster airplanes of the enemy1 yet on the whole it is self-reliant and has little to fear4 ,to these slower-flying1 larger general service machines are entrusted some of the gravest duties of war4 ,they are the eyes of the army1 whether they act for the heads of staff1 flying out over the territory of the foe with their trained observers and bringing back accurate information about the movements of troops1 whether they help in spotting targets for the gunners1 or whether during an actual engagement they act as aerial spectators and messengers1 helping to coordinate the efforts of the various bodies of troops4 ,from the beginning of hostilities ,germany strove to overwhelm the ,french in the air and prevent their airplanes from performing these necessary duties4 ,france was at first but poorly equipped with machines of the type so sorely needed to maintain her air supremacy4 ,by the skill and bravery of her airmen she managed to hold out1 however1 and the ,huns were disappointed in never accomplishing their purpose of putting out her eyes4 ,her engineers were in the long run much more clever than those of ,germany1 and by the early part of #aiae they had ready a number of superior machines for reconnaissance and bombing4 ,for the most part they were big ,caudrons and ,farmans1 well armed and a good match for the ,german maid-of-all-work biplanes4 ,and there were large ,voisin biplanes1 suitable for photographic work or for bombing4 ,they were used extensively by ,french1 ,british1 ,belgians and ,italians4 ,the ,voisin1 as in its very earliest models1 is still easily recognizable by its curious tail resembling a box-kite1 placed at the end of a projecting framework of four long beams or outriggers4 ,it is a pusher type of airplane1 with its propeller at the stern instead of at the bow4 ,larger and more formidable grow the aerial destroyers4 ,to-day among the super-dreadnaughts of the sky may be numbered the big biplanes bearing the names of ,moineau1 ,breguet-,michelin1 ,voisin-,peugeot1 and ,farman4 ,heavily armed with machine guns they rendered valuable service to the ,allies in many capacities1 and they were the efficient answer to the struggle of the ,hun for aerial supremacy4 ,when in the ,spring of #aiah the ,germans launched their tremendous offensive at the ,allies1 the latter were well informed in advance of their intentions1 thanks to these powerful reconnaissance planes4 ,swooping down close to the ,german lines in defiance of anti-aircraft guns and fighting machines alike1 they had daily looked on at the massing of troops1 the bringing up of reenforcements for the drive1 and the piling up of ammunition supplies4 ,in spite of every effort of the enemy to make their mission an intolerable one and to prevent them from spying upon preparations for the offensive1 they had succeeded in bringing back to ,allied commanders accurate and detailed information4 ,by their aid the ,allies knew at what points to expect the heaviest blows1 and there they collected their reenforcements4 ,thus the nations lined up against the ,hun were ready when the blow came1 and they were able to check the tremendous onslaught by their land and air forces4 ,what they really lacked perhaps1 was not eyes1 to discover what the ,germans were plotting1 but a large enough number of small fighting machines to keep the enemy reconnaissance craft from spying upon their own preparations2 and a large enough number of huge bombing planes to have completely interfered with the ,german efforts to mass reenforcements and ammunition for the push4 ,in the long run it is perhaps the bombing plane that represents the greatest saving in human life in time of war4 ,an army may be well equipped with reconnaissance machines and speed scouts1 so that it may keep in closest touch with every move of the enemy4 ,but unless it is able to interfere with those moves before they reach the proportions of a direct and staggering blow1 then the best it can do is to concentrate its own troops and supplies in readiness to meet the blow when it does fall4 ,that means that hundreds of thousands of lives of infantrymen will be sacrificed in checking the waves of enemy troops4 ,the ,allies discovered a far better and more economical way of winning the war than this1 and in the last year of the ,war they strained every nerve to put it into actual operation4 ,it was this3 to search out every military base of the enemy1 every munition dump1 nest of guns1 supply train or troop train and drop bombs upon it4 ,two men in a bombing machine can attack and perhaps destroy a force which1 if allowed to reach the front lines1 would have to be met by several thousand infantrymen4 ,two men in a bombing machine can destroy at a single blow the ammunition which1 if it had reached the front1 might have swept out a regiment4 ,that is why so much thought and genius has been expended upon the bombing plane4 ,the day bomber becomes the right arm of the infantry1 flying low over the lines1 attacking troops and striking terror to the heart of the enemy as the huge ,allied tanks did when they first started on their irresistible slow walk across trenches1 troops1 buildings and every manner of obstruction4 ,the big bomber--particularly if the fighting machines have cleared the way ahead of it--is something like that3 it is an invincible weapon of destruction1 wiping out whole bodies of the foe at every stroke1 like a giant sweeping the pigmies of earth ahead of him with his strong right arm4 ,the big dreadnaughts of the air like the ,moineau1 the ,voisin-,peugeot1 the ,breguet1 and the ,farman1 become1 when a bombing apparatus is substituted for their camera and radio1 very efficient day bombers4 ,there is a long list of others3 as for instance1 the ,british ,avro1 ,handley-,page and ,sopwith machines and the ,french ,caudron1 ,dorand and ,letord4 ,many of these big bombing planes were designed for long distance work either by day or by night1 and so they have been made enormous weight-lifters1 with large supporting surfaces1 two or more engines1 and equipped with a fuel supply sufficient for long runs4 ,in order to carry their engines conveniently they very often have more than one fuselage4 ,sometimes the pilot sits in a large fuselage in the center1 while the motors are carried in two smaller cars or bodies called nacelles at either side4 ,the ,british ,avro1 for instance1 is a huge biplane with three fuselages and two rotary engines4 ,its upper and lower wings are equal in span1 and it can readily be distinguished from the ,british ,handley-,page1 whose upper wing has a large overhang4 ,the ,handley-,page is one of the largest machines built4 ,it carries its two #ab-;cylinder ,rolls-,royce engines in small nacelles between the main planes1 and it can be recognized by these and its biplane tail4 ,the ,caudron is another big twin-motored machine1 used by ,french1 ,british and ,italians4 ,its two rotary engines are fixed in small nacelles between the planes1 while the pilot rides in a center fuselage4 ,somewhat after the manner of the ,voisin1 it carries its tail at the end of a projecting framework of four long beams1 the lower two of which act also as landing skids4 ,illustration3 ,copyright ,international ,film ,service1 ,inc4 ,a ,,handley ,,page ,,machine ,,tuning ,,up ,,for ,a ,,flight ,america1 like the rest of the nations1 has had her secret ambition to try her hand at building bombing machines4 ,in #aiah the designs for the ,handley-,page bomber were brought to this country1 and on ,july #fth the first ,american built ,handley-,page bomber was successfully launched into the air at ,elizabeth1 ,new ,jersey4 ,the huge machine was christened the ,langley after one of the early experimenters with the heavier-than-air machine4 ,it had a wing span of #ajj feet1 and a central fuselage #fc feet long4 ,small armored nacelles at either side of the fuselage carried its two #djj horsepower ,liberty motors1 each turning a separate propeller4 ,laden with its full supply of bombs1 its two ,browning machine guns and fuel for a long run1 this giant of the skies weighs about #i1jjj pounds4 ,our country has instituted a program of construction for these super-dreadnaughts1 and before long they will form an enormous aerial weapon in the hands of our airmen4 ,for ,america1 still practically a novice at airplane construction on a large scale1 to be able to produce in her factories the largest and most complicated of the foreign types1 speaks well for her determination and resourcefulness4 ,illustration3 ,copyright ,underwood and ,underwood ,,the ,,launching ,,of ,a ,,langley1 ,a ,,giant ,,bombing ,,airplane ,the ,allied nations have vied with each other in their efforts to produce the king among bombing planes4 ,the ,italians have undoubtedly carried away the prize4 ,their ,caproni triplane is among the largest in the world4 ,the details of its construction were kept secret1 as it was one of the most dreaded weapons of the ,allies4 ,three powerful ,fiat motors drive it at a speed of about #hj miles an hour4 ,with its five tons of bombs1 destined for important objectives in the land of the enemy1 it is an object to inspire awe4 ,the ,caproni makers have long been known for their large bombing machines4 ,their three bombers1 including a smaller triplane and a biplane1 headed the list of their fellows at the front4 ,in ,october1 #aiag a ,caproni biplane was demonstrated in ,america1 covering a distance of almost #djj miles in about #d-a_/b hours4 ,it started its journey from ,norfolk and landed at the ,mineola ,aviation field1 with seven passengers on board4 ,caproni bombing airplanes carried out many historic raids1 among them being that on the famous ,austrian ,base at ,pola4 ,to reach it the ,italian aviators had to travel by night across the ,adriatic1 and they carried out their pre-arranged plan of attack with the utmost punctuality1 in spite of the tremendous difficulties that loomed along their path4 ,two squadrons of machines left the aerodrome1 the first some time before the second1 and each airplane following its fellows at a considerable distance4 ,at #aa o'clock at night the first of the bombers flew over ,pola and discharged its rain of high explosives4 ,in rapid succession the others followed1 letting go their missiles upon stores of ammunition1 docks1 and every object of military importance4 ,in order to aid them in picking out their targets the raiders made use of an ingenious contrivance which so amazed and stupefied the ,austrians that for a while they failed to make any attempt to shoot down the ,italian planes with their anti-aircraft guns4 ,it was a huge parachute1 to which had been attached a powerful chemical light4 ,descending slowly the terrifying object hung as it seemed suspended in mid-air1 lighting the way for the raiding machines1 who took advantage of the terror of the ,austrians to drop #ad tons of high-explosives and make their escape unharmed4 ,the tremendous ,caproni triplane is almost impregnable4 ,its enemies have little chance of downing it1 for it can fly even when one of its planes has been severely damaged1 and with its three powerful motors it is practically immune from any engine trouble1 as in case of an accident or injury to one motor the other two1 or for that matter1 one of them1 will carry it safely home4 ,with the great stability given it by its three supporting surfaces it can go through the stormiest weather without the slightest need for fear4 ,once its load of bombs has been discharged1 it can rise to #g1jjj feet to escape from its pursuers4 ,the story is told of an ,italian aviator1 ,major ,salomone1 who escaped in a ,caproni when attacked after a bombing expedition by a squadron of ,austrian speed scouts4 ,his enemies succeeded in wrecking one of the big engines by their gun fire1 and in killing two of his gunners and a pilot4 ,he himself was severely wounded1 but keeping control of his machine he managed to reach home safely by the power of the remaining two engines4 ,the triplane is by far the best type for these giant raiders that fly by night4 ,their requirements are great lifting power and great stability1 and these1 the triplane with its extra lifting surface1 best fulfills4 ,equipped with two or three engines so that its power-plant can be absolutely relied upon in every emergency1 with accurate bomb-sighting instruments and with a compass1 searchlight and other apparatus necessary for traveling by night1 the triplane can be depended upon to inflict gigantic blows upon enemy bases4 ,the ,british have a big bombing triplane that was heard from in ,germany3 the ,sopwith4 ,its three planes are equal in span1 and have only one strut at each side of the fuselage1 with the wiring also greatly simplified1 in order to reduce the head-resistance to a minimum4 ,illustration3 ,,side ,,view ,,of ,a ,,sopwith ,,triplane ,illustration3 ,,top ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,tail ,,of ,,the ,,sopwith ,the ,sopwith was one of the first triplanes to be used for bombing and general service over the lines4 ,those at the front early in #aiah were equipped with a #aaj horsepower ,clerget rotary engine4 ,a round metal hood or cowl surrounding the motor formed the front of the fuselage1 overhanging the body slightly at the bottom in order to form an air outlet for the engine4 ,america has not actually developed any big bombing planes of the type of the ,sopwith1 although we have one enormous triplane1--the ,curtiss triplane air-cruiser1 built for service over the sea4 ,and although ,russia abandoned the good cause for which she was fighting1 we cannot pass over the subject of big bombing triplanes without mentioning the giant ,sikorsky1 one of the largest and most remarkable weapons of destruction that were employed in the war against the ,hun4 ,the future will no doubt write a new and fascinating chapter in the story of the triplane4 ,the big night bombers are being built on a large scale by all the ,allied nations4 ,their exploits opened every great military operation1 they constituted a reign of terror over the lines of the enemy1 and their death-dealing blows saved countless thousands of allied troops from the need of sacrificing their lives4 ,they could make the journey straight to the heart of the enemy's country and return1 with plenty of surplus fuel4 ,their missiles did enormous damage to railway centers1 docks1 bridges1 aerodromes and arsenals4 ,carrying bombs that weigh anywhere from #af to #ejj pounds1 they spread havoc in their wake1 while the silencers on their engines made them veritable specters of the night4 ,an illustration of their possible accomplishments was the flight of ,italian machines across the ,alps and to ,vienna1 when they dropped manifestos upon the frightened populace4 ,those manifestos reminded the ,austrian people that only the humanity and self-respect of the allied airmen made them drop paper bombs on ,vienna while the ,germans were unloading high explosives in the midst of the civilian populations of ,london and ,paris4 ,it must have shown the people of ,vienna what the machines of their enemies were capable of doing4 ,illustration3 ,copyright ,underwood and ,underwood ,,an ,,american ,,built ,,caproni ,,airplane ,but the airplanes of war whose acquaintance we have made so hastily in this chapter were not used by the ,allies for raiding or terrifying civilians4 ,from the tiny fighting machines that carried so many of our bravest pilots to personal combat over the lines1 to the enormous bombing planes used to scatter destruction and ruin among the military strongholds of the enemy1 our machines were trustworthy and brave1 but they were also machines of honor4 ,illustration3 ,copyright ,underwood and ,underwood ,,this ,,curtiss ,,triplane ,,has ,a ,,speed ,,of ,,one ,,hundred ,,and ,,sixty ,,miles ,,an ,,hour ,,chapter ,,vii ,,german ,,airplanes ,,in ,,the ,,world ,,war ,when we read the story of the wonderful contributions made by ,france1 ,england1 ,italy1 and ,america to the progress of aviation and to the romantic history of the heavier-than-air machine1 we must remember that it is the story of nations which1 a few short years ago1 had no thought of turning the airplane into a mere weapon of destruction and desolation4 ,it was the conquest of the air1 for its own sake1 that appealed to the fiery imaginations of the ,french1 and that made them1 from the day when the first ,montgolfier balloon went soaring into the clouds1 down to the early triumphs of the airplane in ,france and the great contests and meetings that followed them1 ardent enthusiasts over each and every form of aerial sport4 ,england1 in spite of the fact that her sportsmen fliers were winning new triumphs daily1 and in spite of the public interest that was taken from the very beginning in the advance of aviation1 had1 at the beginning of #aiaa1 just one military airplane4 ,america1 ardent devotee of ,peace1 even while the ,world ,war was raging in ,europe1 failed to take steps to provide herself with an aerial fleet4 ,but when we come to ,germany1 the story of aviation takes an entirely different turn4 ,the ,germans as a people were never wildly enthusiastic over airplanes1 for they lacked the fine sportsmanship and love of daring adventure which produced so many clever aviators in other lands4 ,in fact1 until they saw its utter inability to compete with the heavier-than-air machine as a military weapon1 they confined themselves almost entirely to the construction of the safe and comfortable dirigible4 ,with the possible exception of such a man as ,lilienthal1 the ,germans took slight personal interest in the subject of human flight4 ,it was the ,german government that1 by lavish expenditure1 and by every means known to it1 encouraged experiment and progress4 ,the whole thought in ,germany1 both in the days of the dirigible and later1 when the airplane had proved its superiority1 was solely to develop the flying machine as an instrument of war4 ,it was for this that she began her costly and gigantic program of ,zeppelin construction1 it was for this that the best engineers in the ,empire were set to work designing aeronautic engines4 ,it was not without some chagrin that the ,german military authorities gave up their dream of world conquest by means of the ,zeppelin1 and set themselves to building airplanes instead4 ,yet when they did1 they applied to the new problem the same thoroughness1 the same military precision and uniformity that had marked their earlier program4 ,reading of the ,french machines we are fascinated by the many types and patterns that the ingenious ,frenchmen were able to devise4 ,in ,germany everything was carefully systematized by the government1 individual designs were discouraged unless they fitted into the military scheme of things1 and the airplane was produced in large numbers1 like so many blackjacks1 all exactly alike1 to be used in striking the peaceful nations of the world4 ,german thoroughness went a long way in perfecting the airplane as a war instrument4 ,when1 in ,august #aiad1 her sword finally descended1 she had close on to #hjj machines and a thousand trained pilots1 together with a small force of seaplanes and pilots4 ,to-day1 according to an ,english authority1 she has at least #bj1jjj aircraft of all sorts1 manned by a force of #cjj1jjj pilots1 observers1 and bombardiers4 ,the first ,german machines to fly over ,french territory might well have struck terror to the hearts of the plucky ,french1 for they were equipped with the cleverest instruments of destruction that ,germany could devise4 ,the swept-back1 curved wings of these standard biplanes won them the name of ,taube or dove4 ,certainly they were not doves of peace4 ,they were equipped with wireless1 carried cameras for reconnaissance work1 had the most accurate recorders of height and speed1 dependable compasses1 instruments for bomb-dropping1 dual control systems1 so that they could be operated by either pilot or observer1 and dozens of other small improvements and accessories that made them more than a match for the ,french machines sent up to dispute their supremacy in the air4 ,the challenge these machines presented to the genius of the ,french was taken up with vigor4 ,it was not long before they found themselves an obsolete form of aircraft in the great war in the air1 and for all their inventions and improvements1 they were forced back into their hangars4 ,by the ,spring of #aiae1 the ,french were soaring through the sky in fast fighting machines that made the air a very unsafe place for the plodding ,german maid-of-all-work4 ,the ,germans bestirred themselves to think of some method of getting even with these unreasonable ,french pilots1 who somehow refused to admit defeat4 ,the machine which they sent out in answer to the ,nieuport monoplane and others of its type was the invention of a ,dutchman2 it succeeded in creating quite a sensation for a while in ,allied circles1 until like others of its company it was superseded by ,french inventive genius and rendered a more or less harmless craft4 ,this supposedly invincible fighter was the ,fokker4 ,in general construction it was largely an imitation of the ,french ,morane monoplane1 but it had one entirely new feature that rendered it at the time a formidable adversary4 ,that was what was known as a synchronized gun1 firing through the propeller4 ,the problem had been to design a machine which could be operated by one man1 who became both the pilot and the gunner4 ,in order to do this he must necessarily be able to control the direction of his machine in flight and aim his gun at the enemy at the same time4 ,the best way to accomplish this was to point the nose of his machine at his victim and fire straight ahead of him4 ,but here the propeller was the great obstacle4 ,how could he fire a gun from the bow of his machine without striking the propeller blades as they whirled swiftly about in front of him8 ,the ,german ,fokker answered that question4 ,the machine gun with which it was equipped had its shots so synchronized1 or timed1 that1 impossible as it seems1 they passed between the rapidly revolving propeller blades without striking them4 ,the ,fokker was a remarkable climber in its day1 and in addition it had a simple device by which the pilot could lock the control of the elevating planes1 steering only to right or to left1 by means of pedals worked with his feet4 ,early in #aiaf this deadly weapon of aerial warfare made its appearance1 and for a while the civilian population of ,england and ,france read with dismay of its conquests4 ,mounting high into the clouds1 it would await its victim4 ,the moment a machine of the ,allies appeared beneath it1 the ,fokker turned its nose straight down and went speeding in the direction of its prey1 opening fire as soon as it got within range4 ,there was no use of the unfortunate airplane trying to escape4 ,the ,fokker could1 by wobbling its nose slightly in spiral fashion as it descended1 produce1 not a straight stream of bullets ahead of it but a cone of fire from its machine gun1 with the victim in the center of the circle4 ,whichever way the latter turned to escape it met a curtain of bullets which could destroy it4 ,the ,allied machines could only combat it in groups of three and for a time at least it held supremacy in the skies4 ,when itself pursued by a superior number of planes1 it was quick as an acrobat1 and speedy at climbing1 so that it very seldom could be caught4 ,this was the machine in which the two famous ,german airmen1 ,immelmann and ,boelke performed some of their most daring exploits4 ,it traveled at a speed of more than #ajj miles per hour and could perform surprising feats with the most alarming ease4 ,but while the ,fokker's dbut over the trenches caused the ,british ,house of ,commons to debate the new peril gravely1 ,french and ,british airmen sprang quickly and gaily to the challenge4 ,heedless of the danger1 they braved the bullets of the ,fokker in order to get a better view of its mechanism1 and they soon answered it with swift and powerful machines like the ,british ,de ,havilland4 ,it was only a short while before the ,fokker monoplane was behind the times4 ,faster machines with greater climbing powers overtook it in the skies and swooped down upon it from superior altitudes1 as it had swooped down upon so many of its victims4 ,its day of triumph at an end1 it withdrew to the seclusion of its hangar1 and the ,fokker biplane replaced it in the air4 ,this in its turn became the steed of many of ,germany's star aerial performers4 ,now came the days when ,captain ,baron von ,richthofen held forth in the heavens with his squadrons of variegated planes which the ,british airmen nicknamed ,richthofen's circus4 ,these queerly camouflaged planes were ,german ,albatroses4 ,the ,albatros was one of the best designed of the ,german airplanes1 and although the first models produced were not remarkable for their speed1 they were good climbers and weight-carriers and thoroughly reliable4 ,they were later developed in two distinct types3 a fast speed scout biplane single-seater1 equipped with two machine guns both firing across the propeller2 and a slower reconnaissance airplane1 for general service over the lines4 ,the latter carried both a pilot and an observer1 and had two machine guns1 one to be fired by each of them4 ,it was not long before the ,allies had several captured machines of this type in their possession4 ,an ,austrian ,albatros reconnaissance biplane1 taken in #aiaf1 afforded an interesting opportunity to examine what was at that time one of the very best of the enemy's planes4 ,its general construction did not entirely meet with the approval of expert airmen who looked it over4 ,its upper wing was much longer from tip to tip than the lower1 producing a very great overhang4 ,from the point of view of the pilot this had its advantage1 for the shorter plane below him allowed a much better range of vision1 but it undoubtedly weakened the whole structure4 ,the biplane was exceedingly slow in flight1 a great drawback even in a machine not built for fighting purposes4 ,one curious feature was its very large fixed tail plane1 to which the elevating plane was attached2 while a decided defect from a military standpoint was the entirely unprotected position of the pilot and the observer4 ,obviously the ,germans had not yet solved the problem of air supremacy to their complete satisfaction4 ,but their engineers and designers were busy thinking it over1 and soon they had ready a number of swifter airplanes1 foremost among which were probably the ,aviatik and the ,halberstadt4 ,the ,aviatik made great claims of superior accomplishments over the front lines4 ,german pilots boasted that it had a ceiling 7a climbing capacity7 of almost #af1jjj feet with pilot1 observer and a fuel supply4 ,this was over #d1jjj feet greater altitude than that which any other ,allied or enemy machine could reach under similar conditions4 ,the machine had an upper wing span of #dj feet1 #h inches1 while its lower wing measured #ce feet1 #e inches from tip to tip4 ,it had a strong armor of steel tubing surrounding the compartment or cockpit which held the seats of the pilot and observer4 ,the ,aviatik was an efficient bombing biplane of its day1 although larger and more powerful machines have since come into the field to supersede it4 ,it was fitted with metal bomb-launching tubes at either side of the bow1 and the bombs were released by pulling a cable connected with the releasing trigger4 ,the ,aviatik was armed in addition with rotating machine guns1 able to fire in any direction in an aerial battle4 ,the ,halberstadt was a swift fighting machine or speed scout1 which made its appearance in the third year of the war and proved efficient and reliable4 ,this and the combat planes that followed it showed greater and greater speed until by #aiag the scout machines were flying at #aej miles per hour and climbing to altitudes as high as #bb1jjj feet4 ,it was the bombing plane1 however1 that appealed most strongly to the ,german mind as an instrument of destruction4 ,tired1 perhaps1 of their efforts to produce a fighting machine which should be without its match in aerial warfare1 they focussed their attention about this time upon the bomber1 which in #aiag was playing an ever more important role in the struggle for air supremacy4 ,early in #aiag1 the flower of their creative genius took to the air4 ,it was the ,gotha biplane1 and at the time of its dbut it proved one of the most difficult machines to attack and down of any of those flying for the ,hun4 ,the ,gun-tunnel ,gotha it was familiarly called1 owing to the unusual means of defense against pursuers that had been devised for it4 ,up to this time one of the best methods of attacking an enemy plane had been to come up suddenly and fire on it under its tail4 ,the gunner in the machine thus attacked could not get in a single shot at his pursuer without striking the tail planes of his own machine4 ,the portion of an airplane which can be fired on in this way without danger of return fire is said to be its blind spot1 and it was this blind spot that sent many a well-armed and powerful airplane crashing to earth when its pursuers had succeeded in outmaneuvering it4 ,the ,gun-tunnel ,gotha had practically no blind spot4 ,its designers had constructed it with a tunnel that ran the length of the fuselage1 from the cockpit1 or compartment where the pilot and gunners sat1 through to an opening just under the tail planes4 ,a machine gun in the cockpit could be pointed through this tunnel and fired at the unsuspecting victim who came up back of it according to the most approved tactics4 ,the opening of the gun tunnel was carefully camouflaged1 so that at a short distance it could not be seen by an attacking airplane1 especially one which was unprepared for it4 ,the ,gotha practically bristled with machine guns4 ,one in its bow which commanded a fairly large range was operated by the forward observer1 who sat in front of the pilot4 ,a passage-way beside the pilot's seat allowed him to reach gun-tunnel1 where1 stretched flat on the floor of the fuselage he operated the gun which fired out under the tail4 ,above him in the fuselage sat the rear gunner1 and by their combined aid the ,gotha could keep all enemy planes at a safe distance4 ,illustration3 ,copyright ,underwood and ,underwood ,a ,,giant ,,gotha ,,bombing ,,plane ,,brought ,,down ,,by ,,the ,,french ,these1 however1 were merely protective measures4 ,the ,gotha's real mission was bombing1 and for this it carried a bomb-releasing mechanism just in front of the pilot's seat1 on the floor of the fuselage1 while behind the pilot an additional supply of the death-dealing missiles were carried in racks in vertical position4 ,illustration3 ,copyright ,underwood and ,underwood ,,german ,,fokker ,,plane ,,captured ,,by ,,the ,,french ,these were the machines which flew over ,england and ,france in #aiag scattering death and destruction4 ,against them the machines of the ,allies were for a time almost powerless1 for the best of their airplanes were completely outgunned by this new terror of the skies4 ,the new ,german machine was given one of its first tryouts in the ,balkans1 where a squadron of twin-engined ,gothas accomplished the bombing of ,bucharest4 ,its efficiency proved1 it appeared over the lines and was also used extensively by the ,germans for long distance bombing operations4 ,the fact that the ,gothas flew in large squadrons made them still more difficult to attack4 ,yet ,allied airplanes went out to give them fight1 and in spite of what seemed the almost complete hopelessness of the situation1 they did succeed in breaking up ,gotha formations and in downing a few of the dread machines4 ,yet another ,german twin-winged bombing plane was ready about this time4 ,the ,friedrichshafen bomber was not so large as the ,gotha1 but in many points of construction it resembled it4 ,a biplane1 it had wings that tapered somewhat from the center to the tips4 ,the wings were strengthened by center spars of steel tubing1 which was also used in the construction of the rudder and elevators at the tail4 ,the pilot occupied the rear seat in the cockpit and the gunner the forward seat1 while a short passage-way ran between the two4 ,every effort had been made at camouflage4 ,on their upper surfaces the wings were painted as nearly as possible earth color1 so that they might be indistinguishable to a machine looking down upon them from a superior altitude4 ,on their lower surfaces they were painted pale blue1 to blend with the sky and make them invisible to an enemy plane below4 ,the armament of this ,friedrichshafen bomber consisted of three machine guns1 one of them firing downward through a trap door in the fuselage4 ,it was fitted with an automatic bomb-releasing apparatus1 by means of which1 as one bomb was released1 another slipped into place4 ,other bombing machines appeared in #aiag1 as the ,a4,e4,g4 twin-motored tractor biplane1 and the ,a4,g4,o4 twin-bodied biplane4 ,the ,germans also began construction of huge bombing triplanes1 heavily armed with machine guns4 ,with squadrons of these1 the ,gothas1 and the ,friedrichshafens1 they carried out in #aiag and #aiah an established program of bombardment4 ,the night no longer held terrors for their airmen1 who had learned to fly in the darkness4 ,they made their raiding expeditions1 not only against ,allied troops and military bases1 but also on ,english and ,french towns1 killing civilians and children and destroying property of no importance from a military point of view4 ,by these methods the ,hun had hoped to acquire the supremacy of the air which his smaller fighting machines had not yet won for him4 ,fortunately the ,french and ,british had been hard at work1 and in answer to the forays of the ,german bombing planes1 squadrons of ,allied planes dropped their missiles in the heart of ,germany4 ,the ,allied planes1 however1 chose military objectives1 and did not aim their blows at defenseless civilians4 ,stroke for stroke1 and with a little extra for good measure the ,allies beat back their opponents in the air4 ,to-day some of the most remarkable raiding machines in existence1 whether for night or for day work belong to ,france and ,england1 while ,america is leaving no stone unturned to build up an air navy the equal of those by whose side she fought4 ,yet the war in the air1 on the ,allied side1 was always marked by honor1 decency and humanity4 ,the enemy repeatedly showed that not mere military gains1 but the savage pleasure of bombing civilians1 was a part of his air program4 ,in ,march1 #aiah1 nine squadrons of his airplanes flew over ,paris and attacked the city4 ,the raid resulted in #ajj deaths1 besides #gi people injured1 a shocking story to go down in the record of the ,hun's attempt at mastery of the air4 ,mr4 ,baker1 our ,american ,secretary of ,war1 was in ,paris at the time when this historic raid occurred4 ,he was holding a conference at his hotel with ,general ,tasker ,h4 ,bliss1 at the time ,american ,chief of ,staff1 when the ,french warning siren was sounded throughout the city4 ,the city was covered with a deep fog1 that completely shielded from the view of the ,german machines any possible objective4 ,but they had no intention of choosing targets for their bombs1--they let them fall at random upon ,paris4 ,for almost three hours terror reigned among the helpless civilians2 then the raiders1 having lost four of their number to the anti-aircraft gunners1 turned and sped swiftly toward their own lines4 ,it was a revelation1 said ,mr4 ,baker1 of the methods inaugurated by an enemy who wages the same war against women and children as against soldiers4444 ,we are sending our soldiers to ,europe to fight until the world is delivered from these horrors4 ,london as well as ,paris suffered from enemy bombing planes4 ,raid followed raid in the ,spring of #aiah1 but the ,british had so improved their aerial defenses that they were able to meet the attempted ravages of the enemy with the most powerful anti-aircraft guns1 which1 like a wall of fire1 forbade the dread monsters to come within the limits of the metropolis4 ,many machines in the ,german squadrons never got close enough to ,london to bomb it1 but those which did let fall their terrible explosives without aim or object1 killing and maiming a large number of civilians4 ,the ,british were finally forced to take the only course which could have effect with the ,hun4 ,they flew into the heart of the enemy's country and gave him a taste of his own medicine4 ,true1 they chose their objectives carefully1 and the targets which they bombed were munition works1 railways1 factories1 and camps1 but for all their tempered revenge they made the foe smart beneath the stinging lash that descended1 again and again1 upon his back4 ,in answer to the aircraft program of the ,united ,states1 ,germany renewed her energies1 and her construction of airplanes during the last year of the ,war was on a larger scale than ever before4 ,her small fighting machines1 or speed scouts1 include the ,fokker1 the ,halberstadt1 the ,roland1 the ,albatros1 the ,aviatik1 the ,pfalz monoplane1 the ,rumpler1 the ,l4,v4,w4 and a number of others4 ,some of these we have already seen at work4 ,the ,roland is one of the latest types of ,german two-seater scouts4 ,every effort has been made in it to decrease the head resistance by careful streamlining1 reduction of the number of interplane struts1 etc4 ,swift flying and a rapid climber1 it has won for itself the title of ,the ,german ,spad4 ,the ,pfalz is built either as a monoplane or as a biplane4 ,it is a machine somewhat similar to the ,fokker4 ,the monoplane1 however1 has two machine guns1 one on each side of the pilot1 and firing through the propeller4 ,among airplanes used by the enemy for general service duties over the lines1 the ,a4,g4,o41 the ,a4,e4,g4 and the ,gotha undoubtedly take the lead4 ,all are heavily armed with machine guns and bombs and are driven by powerful motors4 ,yet for all the desperate ,german struggle for supremacy1 her machines and her pilots did not prove the equals of the ,allies in the air4 ,the airplanes of ,france1 ,england1 ,italy and ,america maintained a ceaseless vigilance over the lines1 giving chase to every enemy plane or squadron of planes that made its appearance on the horizon4 ,our airmen showed the most dauntless courage1 and they continually outwitted and outmaneuvered the slower thinking ,hun4 ,our speed scouts challenged his reconnaissance and bombing planes1 and prevented them from performing their missions effectively2 our own reconnaissance airplanes gave him a hard time of it2 and our bombing machines proved themselves the strong right arm of the service--taking the place of the big guns in raining heavy explosives upon enemy troops1 bombing his military bases1 and making life in general most uncomfortable for the foe4 ,it is a far cry from those first standardized ,taubes to the many makes and patterns of ,german airplanes of the present day4 ,as the ,allies met those first maids-of-all-work with a mixed company of airplanes of many and untried talents1 so to-day they are meeting her efforts to imitate their own versatility in aircraft with machines which are carefully standardized in every detail4 ,it should be an object lesson to ,germany that the ,allies have triumphed in each case4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,heroes ,,of ,,the ,,air ,heroes of the air in peace times have been numerous4 ,we already know the stories of many of the pioneers of aircraft1 who risked their lives in situations involving the utmost peril4 ,the men who1 in the first frail monoplanes and biplanes attempted to fly the ,british ,channel1 or to make dangerous cross-country flights under adverse weather conditions were heroes indeed4 ,yet undoubtedly the greatest exploits will be told of those heroes who1 in the ,great ,war1 flew daily over the lines1 meeting the aviators of the enemy in mortal combat4 ,every allied nation engaged in the great conflict has her sacred roll of honor of those who fought for her in the air4 ,americans will never grow weary of tales of the great ,lufbery2 ,englishmen will boast of the prowess of ,bishop1 ,mc,cudden and the rest of them2 while ,frenchmen will tell1 with mingling of joy and sadness1 of the immortal ,guynemer1 ,prince of ,aces4 ,georges ,guynemer's name will always stand first on the record of the war's great flying men4 ,his short career was a blaze of triumph against the ,hun1 but with many a hairbreadth escape from death and many a feat of reckless daring4 ,young1 handsome and dashing1 anxious to give his life for his beloved ,france1 he became the adored idol of the ,french nation4 ,on one occasion when he marched in a parade in ,paris1 the people strewed his path with flowers1 and it was necessary for the police to intervene and protect him from the enraptured multitudes who pressed forward to embrace him4 ,yet ,guynemer came near missing the fighting altogether4 ,guynemer was born on ,christmas day1 #ahic1 in the town of ,compigne4 ,he grew up a tall1 delicate boy1 who1 his friends predicted1 would never live to reach maturity4 ,perhaps the fact that he was almost an invalid turned his attention away from the athletic sports of the other boys and gave him his intense interest in mechanics4 ,he had one consuming ambition3 to become a student in the cole ,polytechnique in ,paris2 but when by hard study he had finally prepared himself and came up for his entrance examination1 the professors of the school rejected him on the ground that he might not live to finish the course4 ,to help the lad forget his overwhelming disappointment1 his parents hurried him away to a health resort at ,biarritz4 ,he had been there a year when in ,august1 #aiad1 came the news that his country had been attacked4 ,burning with zeal to help defend his beloved ,france1 ,guynemer offered himself again and again for enlistment in the ,french army4 ,hard pressed as that army was1 its officers did not feel that they needed the sacrifice of a frail youth with one foot in the grave4 ,gently but firmly1 the young candidate was rejected4 ,bitterly humiliated he went back to his life of enforced inaction2 and while he saw his comrades marching forth to war1 he eagerly pondered in his mind what service he could perform in the war against the invader4 ,at length he hit upon an idea4 ,since he could not become a soldier1 why should he not turn his mechanical skill to some account in one of the great airplane factories where ,france was turning out her swift squadrons of the air4 ,he volunteered and was accepted4 ,in a short time he had made his presence felt1 for he had received a thorough preparatory education in mechanics and was far the superior of the majority of his fellow workmen4 ,little by little he won the friendship and admiration of his superiors1 who promoted him to the position of mechanician at one of the big military aviation fields4 ,now for the first time he was living among war scenes4 ,while he performed his humble duties in the hangar he burned with ambition to pilot over the lines one of the swift ,french battle planes4 ,but he hardly dared make the request that he be taught to fly1 fearing the rebuff which he had received on every other occasion when he had sought to enlist4 ,but the officers at the aviation camp had been watching young ,guynemer1 and their respect for his nobility of character and high intelligence finally outweighed their fears that he might prove too delicate for the service in the air4 ,so the happy day finally arrived when he was permitted to enlist as a student airman4 ,in ,january1 #aiaf1 having completed his course of training1 he flew for the first time in a swift scout plane4 ,from the day that he first flew out over the lines1 his higher officers realized that here indeed was a master airman4 ,in three short weeks he had won the distinction of ace1 having downed his fifth enemy machine4 ,the secret of his success lay partly in the frail constitution which had come so near condemning him to inactivity4 ,for the youth was fully convinced that he had not long to live1 and his one idea was to die in such a way as to render the greatest possible service to his native land4 ,perfectly prepared to meet death when the moment came1 he was scrupulously careful never to court it unnecessarily1 for he realized that the longer he lived the more damage he would be able to inflict upon the enemy4 ,the early morning invariably found him in his hangar1 going over with loving care every detail of the mechanism of his swift scout plane4 ,not until every portion of engine1 wings1 struts and stays had been tried and proved in ,a-#a condition1 and every cartridge removed from his machine gun and carefully tested1 did he climb into his pilot's seat and wing his way across the sky in search of enemy planes4 ,and when ,guynemer encountered an enemy plane he maneuvered to overcome it with the same care for exactness of movement4 ,his cool-headed precision made it almost impossible to take him by surprise1 while there was many a hapless machine of the enemy that he pounced upon unawares4 ,he was an accomplished aerial acrobat1 and one of his favorite tactics was to climb to a great altitude and then1 pointing the nose of his plane at his prey1 to suddenly swoop down at enormous speed1 firing as he came4 ,expert as he was1 the great ,french aviator had a number of narrow escapes from death4 ,in ,september1 #aiaf1 seeing one of his fellow aviators engaged in an unequal combat with five ,german ,fokkers1 he sped to the scene of the affray4 ,maneuvering into a favorable position above his opponents he shot down two of them within the space of a few seconds4 ,the remaining three ,fokkers took to flight1 but ,guynemer was hot on their trail4 ,another of them went crashing earthward4 ,suddenly1 as the plucky ,frenchman sped on1 hot on the trail of the two that were still unpunished1 he was startled by the bursting of a shell just under his machine4 ,one of the wings of his plane had been torn completely away1 and from a height of ten thousand feet in the atmosphere1 he began falling rapidly4 ,he struggled bravely with the controls but nothing could check the ever increasing speed of his plunge earthward4 ,at an altitude of five thousand feet the airplane commenced to somersault1 but the pilot was strapped in his seat4 ,then1 as if some unseen force had intervened1 the swiftness of the descent was unexpectedly checked4 ,with speed greatly lessened the airplane came crashing to the earth1 and the plucky aviator was rescued from the dbris1 unconscious but not seriously hurt by his dreadful fall4 ,it was for this exploit that he received the rank of ,lieutenant1 while he was decorated with the much-coveted ,french ,war ,cross4 ,on another occasion ,guynemer's machine was shot down by ,german shells1 and came crashing to earth in ,no ,man's ,land1 between the ,french and the ,german trenches4 ,the ,prussians turned their machine guns on the spot and plowed the area with scorching fire4 ,but the ,french had seen their beloved hero fall1 and without a thought for the consequences the poilus in the trenches went over the top after him4 ,quickly they bore him back to safety1 and if they left some of their comrades fallen out in that dread region1 they did not count it too great a sacrifice to have redeemed their idol with their blood4 ,practically every fighting nation has had not only its favorite airman but also its favorite aerial escadrille4 ,guynemer was the leader of the famous band of ,cignognes or ,storks1 into which had been gathered the pick of all the flying men of ,france4 ,his historic opponent in the war in the air was the ,german ,baron von ,richthofen1 whose squadrons were humorously nicknamed ,richthofen's circus by the ,allies1 because of their curiously camouflaged wings4 ,the ,germans were very jealous of ,guynemer's successes1 and as the record of the number of machines he had downed grew1 they eagerly credited ,richthofen with more victories4 ,guynemer's final score was #ed and his enemy's much higher4 ,yet as a matter of fact the ,frenchman had destroyed many more machines than ,baron von ,richthofen1 for whereas the ,french gave no credit for planes sent to earth where no other witnesses than the pilot could testify to their destruction1 the ,germans were very glad to pile up a huge score for their hero1 and were not by any means critical in seeking proof of a victory4 ,guynemer's remarkable aerial victories made him a hero throughout the world4 ,it was reported that in one day he had been officially credited with the destruction of four airplanes of the enemy4 ,one of his chief ambitions was to bring down an enemy machine within the allied lines1 as little damaged as possible4 ,such a plane gave him an opportunity to indulge his interest in the purely mechanical side of aviation4 ,with the utmost patience he would examine it in every detail1 making note of any features which he regarded as improvements on the ,nieuport he himself flew4 ,such improvements would very shortly appear on his own machine4 ,so while ,guynemer flew a ,nieuport1 it was in reality a different ,nieuport from any doing service over the lines4 ,in its many little individual features and appliances it reflected the active1 eager1 painstaking mind of its famous pilot1 whose mind was ever on the alert to discover the tiniest detail of mechanism which might gain for him an advantage over his adversaries4 ,it was on ,september #aa1 #aiag1 that the beloved aviator fought his last battle in the air4 ,while in flight over ,ypres he caught sight of five ,german ,albatros planes1 and instantly turned the nose of his machine in their direction4 ,as he bore swiftly down upon them1 a flock of enemy machines1 over forty in number1 suddenly made their appearance and swooped down from an enormous height above the clouds4 ,baron von ,richthofen with his flying circus was among them4 ,none of ,guynemer's comrades was near enough to aid him4 ,in the distance a group of ,belgian machines came in view1 rushing to his assistance1 but before they had arrived at the spot the plucky ,french airplane was observed sinking gently to the earth1 where it disappeared behind the ,german lines4 ,guynemer's comrades cherished the hope that he had been forced to descend and had been taken prisoner by the ,germans4 ,such an ending to a glorious career of service would perhaps not have been desired by the aviator himself4 ,he who had used his life to such good advantage for his country had crowned his victories with death4 ,the ,germans themselves1 out of respect for his memory1 undertook to inform his fellow-men of his fate1 and a few days later they dropped a note into the ,french aerodrome stating that he had been shot through the head4 ,the ,german pilot who had killed him was named ,wissemann1 and he was an unknown aviator4 ,when he learned that he had actually killed the great ,guynemer1 he wrote home to say that he need now fear no one1 since he had conquered the king of them all4 ,it was scarcely a fortnight before he was sent to his death by a devoted friend of his renowned victim4 ,the man who avenged the death of ,guynemer was ,ren ,fonck1 likewise a member of the ,french ,cignognes4 ,fonck took up the championship of the air where his comrade had laid it down4 ,he stands to-day as the most remarkable of all the ,french aviators4 ,he has been called the most polished aerial duellist the world has ever seen4 ,with an official record of almost half a hundred enemy machines destroyed1 he has astounded his spectators by his aerial stunts and the absolute accuracy of his aim4 ,many of ,fonck's successful battles have been fought against heavy odds1 quite frequently with as many as five of the enemy's airplanes opposing him4 ,yet with apparent ease he invariably succeeded in warding off his would-be destroyers1 whilst one by one he sent them flaming to the earth4 ,it has been said of ,fonck that in all his battles in the clouds he never received so much as a bullet hole in his machine1 thanks to his unparalleled skill at maneuvering4 ,he made a world's record at ,soissons in ,may1 #aiah1 when he downed five enemy airplanes in one day4 ,he was flying on patrol duty when he came upon three ,german two-seater machines1 and in less than #aj seconds sent two of them flaming to earth4 ,later in the same day he actually succeeded in breaking up a large formation of ,german fighting machines1 and after destroying three1 sent the rest fleeing in confusion4 ,on another occasion ,fonck made a world's record when he brought down three ,german planes in the brief space of #bj seconds4 ,while in flight above the lines he came upon four big biplanes of the enemy1 flying in single file1 one behind the other4 ,he quickly pounced upon the leader1 and in less time than it takes to tell1 had sent him crashing to the earth4 ,the second had no chance to alter its course4 ,training his machine gun on it ,fonck soon sent it1 a mass of flames1 after its fellow4 ,the third big biplane dodged out of the line and sped out of harm's way1 but the fourth was caught by the plucky ,frenchman1 who wheeled his machine round with startling rapidity and fired upon it before it could make good its escape4 ,this remarkable feat1 performed in ,august1 #aiah1 brought ,lieutenant ,ren ,fonck's official total of victories up to sixty1 and made him the premier ,french ace1 at the age of twenty-four4 ,in all his aerial battles he had never been wounded1 passing unscathed through the most formidable encounters by reason of his unparalleled skill at maneuvering4 ,guynemer and ,fonck are perhaps the two greatest names on the ,french roll of heroes of the air4 ,but there were many other ,frenchmen who did valiant service4 ,lieutenant ,ren ,dorine had an official record of #bc victories when he disappeared in ,may1 #aiag4 ,he was nicknamed the ,unpuncturable by his comrades1 since in all his exploits above the lines his machine had only twice received a bullet hole4 ,lieutenant ,jean ,chaput had a record of #af enemy planes destroyed1 when in ,may1 #aiah1 he made the great sacrifice2 and there are many others1 some living and some fallen in battle1 who1 flying for ,france1 day after day and month after month1 helped to make her cause at length a victorious one4 ,the ace of aces among ,british flying men of the war is ,major ,william ,a4 ,bishop1 who holds the record of #gb enemy airplanes downed4 ,second to him on the ,british list stands the name of ,captain ,james ,mc,cudden1 who had disposed of #ef of his enemies when he himself was accidentally killed4 ,mc,cudden had had a most picturesque career4 ,he joined the ,british army as a bugler at the age of fifteen4 ,as a private he fought with the first ,englishmen in ,france in #aiad4 ,his first flying experience came at ,mons1 when owing to the scarcity of observers he was permitted to serve in that capacity4 ,he rapidly made good1 and was soon promoted to the rank of officer4 ,he proved himself a clever aerial gunner1 and so won the opportunity to qualify as a pilot4 ,with a fast fighting machine of his own he became a menace to the ,hun1 with whom he engaged in over #ajj combats during his flying career1 yet never himself received a wound4 ,other ,english fliers made special records in the ,great ,war1 as ,captain ,philip ,f4 ,fullard1 who downed #dh enemy machines2 ,captain ,henry ,w4 ,wollett1 who accounted for #bh2 and ,lieutenants ,john ,j4 ,malone1 ,allan ,wilkinson1 ,stanley ,rosevear and ,robert ,a4 ,little1 all with scores of from #ag to #bj4 ,captain ,albert ,ball1 who was shot down by ,baron von ,richthofen in #aiag1 had an official score of #dc victories over the ,hun1 with the additional honor of having conquered the great ,german aviator ,immelmann4 ,and now we come to the story of ,america's great fliers4 ,long before ,america herself had entered the ,world ,war there had arisen a valiant little company of her sons1 who1 remembering our ancient debt to ,france1 had gone to fight beside her men in the war against the invader4 ,many of these ,americans became skilful aviators and members of the squadron which the ,french had appropriately named the ,lafayette ,escadrille4 ,in #aiaf1 three of its most distinguished fliers--,norman ,price1 ,victor ,chapman and ,kiffen ,rockwell--gave their lives to ,france4 ,probably the name which all ,americans know best is that of ,major ,raoul ,lufbery1 till his death ,american ace of aces1 who flew with the ,escadrille under the flags of both countries4 ,major ,lufbery's personal story is romantic as any fiction4 ,he was a born soldier of fortune4 ,when a very young chap he ran away from home and for several years rode and tramped over ,europe and part of ,africa1 working at anything that came to hand4 ,after his early wanderings there followed two years of strenuous service with the ,u4 ,s4 regulars in the ,philippines2 and after that another long1 aimless jaunt over ,japan and ,china4 ,it was in the ,far ,east that he came by chance upon ,marc ,pourpe1 the ,french aviator who was giving exhibition flights and coining money out of the enthusiasm of the ,orientals4 ,the two men became fast friends and ,pourpe took ,lufbery along with him on his travels4 ,as an airplane mechanic under ,pourpe's direction ,lufbery found his first serious employment and also his first serious interest4 ,he conceived a deep interest in aviation and became an apt pupil4 ,then came the war1 and ,pourpe offered his services to ,france4 ,lufbery went along as his mechanic4 ,it was only a few months before his friend had fallen1 and ,lufbery1 anxious to avenge his death1 sought admission to the ranks of ,french fliers4 ,in #aiaf1 after much excellent service over the lines1 he became a member of the ,lafayette ,escadrille4 ,the spectacular period of his career had now begun4 ,he had soon claimed the five official victories necessary to make him an ace1 and in addition was presented with the ,croix de ,guerre for distinguished bravery in action4 ,with his swift ,nieuport he engaged in combat after combat1 coming through by sheer cool-headedness and skill born of long experience4 ,he was officially described by the ,french ,government as able1 intrepid1 and a veritable model for his comrades4 ,in ,november1 #aiag1 ,america had the honor of claiming back her son1 when he became a major in the ,u4 ,s4 service and commanding officer of the ,lafayette ,escadrille4 ,and it was with the utmost sorrow that the ,american public1 a little over six months later1 read that our great aviator had met his death4 ,he fell on ,may #ai1 #aiah1 in an attack on a ,german armored tank1 which already had sent five ,american airplanes plunging to earth4 ,lufbery's official total was #ag ,german planes destroyed1 but actually he had accounted for many more4 ,he had been made a ,chevalier of the ,legion of ,honor by ,france1 and like others of his ,american comrades had done much to cement the friendship between the two countries4 ,another ,american ace who deserves the gratitude of the ,american people1 not only because he brought down twenty-six ,german aircraft but because of the extraordinary inspiration of his example as a leader at the front to other ,american air fighters1 is the present premier ,american ace1 ,captain ,eddie ,rickenbacker1 idol of the automobile racing world before the war4 ,america's entrance into the war fired ,rickenbacker with an ambition to get into the fighting at all costs and after an attempt to organize a squadron composed of expert auto racing men1 unsuccessful because of lack of funds1 he enlisted in the infantry4 ,he became ,general ,pershing's driver at the front and while serving in this capacity watched his chance to get into the flying end of the air service4 ,an opportunity soon presented itself and ,rickenbacker advanced rapidly4 ,in eighteen months he had1 as commanding officer1 perfected the finest and most efficient flying squadron in the ,allied armies1 and had become ,america's ace of aces4 ,his service was distinguished by untiring energy1 devotion to his men and sacrifice of personal ambition in the demands of his duty as a leader1 for it is a self-evident fact that had ,rickenbacker been a free lance1 he might easily have doubled his score of victories4 ,he is a chevalier of the ,legion of ,honor1 has received the ,croix de ,guerre with three palms1 and also the ,distinguished ,service ,cross with nine palms4 ,illustration3 ,,captain ,,eddie ,,rickenbacker ,a particularly lovable figure in ,american aviation during the war was ,edmond ,genet1 who fell in the ,spring of #aiag while serving under the ,stars and ,stripes4 ,born in ,america1 young ,genet was descended from the first ,french minister to the ,united ,states4 ,the two countries were equally dear to him4 ,when he died1 at his own request the ,tri-color and the ,stars and ,stripes were placed side by side over his grave1 as a mark1 so he said that ,i died for both countries4 ,illustration3 ,copyright ,international ,film ,service1 ,inc4 ,,the ,,first ,,bag ,,of ,,mail ,,carried ,,by ,,the ,u4 ,s4 ,,aero ,,mail ,,service ,it would be impossible to enumerate in one short chapter all the brilliant records that were made during the war by the aviators of the allied nations4 ,the best we can hope to do is to remember those names which stood out most prominently in the long story of victories won and sacrifices made to the cause of the world's liberty4 ,opposing our brave men there was1 from time to time1 a ,german flier who attained considerable renown1 and who1 for a time at least1 baffled his opponents4 ,thus in the early days ,immelmann and ,boelke were much heard of4 ,each had his peculiar method of maneuvering and fighting4 ,immelmann's favorite trick was to loop the loop in order to get out of the way of an enemy's gunfire1 suddenly righting himself before the loop was finished1 in order to fly back and catch the opposing airman unawares4 ,by this stunt he succeeded in sending #cg ,allied aviators to their deaths1 before he himself was shot down by ,captain ,albert ,ball of the ,british ,royal ,flying ,corps4 ,captain ,boelke had a totally different method of attack from that of ,immelmann4 ,his favorite pastime was to lurk behind a cloud at a great altitude1 until he spied an airplane of the ,allies below him1 when he would point the nose of his machine straight at his victim and dive for it1 opening fire4 ,in case he missed his target he never waited to give battle1 but continued his descent until he had made a landing behind the ,german lines4 ,according to the lenient ,german count1 he had scored #dc victories up to the time of his death4 ,it was an ,american1 ,captain ,bonnel1 in the ,british air service1 who finally defeated and killed him in ,october1 #aiaf4 ,early in the war the ,germans discovered that1 however perfect their airplanes might become1 their airmen were not the equals of those who were flying for the ,french and ,british4 ,the ,german works much better under orders than where1 as in aerial combat1 he is required to rely entirely upon his personal initiative4 ,the ,allied airmen therefore soon claimed supremacy over the lines1 and it was in order to wrest it from them that the ,germans began turning over various schemes in their mind4 ,the one which proved acceptable in the end has been credited to ,captain ,boelke4 ,it was that of sending ,german aviators out in groups to meet the ,allied fliers1 each group headed by a commander4 ,this plan at least proved much more successful than the old one of single encounter4 ,thus ,boelke became the commander of a ,german squadron1 which after his death passed to the leadership of ,baron ,max von ,richthofen4 ,richthofen was one of the cleverest of the enemy aviators and in time he made his squadron a formidable aerial weapon4 ,he conceived the idea of camouflaging his planes in order to render them invisible at high altitudes4 ,accordingly he had all the machines under his command gaudily colored4 ,he presented a curious spectacle when he took to flight with his gaudily painted flock of birds and the ,british promptly nicknamed his squadron ,richthofen's circus4 ,the circus usually consisted of about #cj fast scout machines1 with every pilot a picked man4 ,freed from all routine duties over the lines its one object was to destroy1 and so it roved up and down1 appearing now here1 now there1 in an effort to strike terror to the hearts of ,british and ,french airmen4 ,it took a large toll of our best fighters1 although ,richthofen's personal record of #gh victories was undoubtedly exaggerated4 ,the most effective fighters against this powerful organization were the members of the world-famous ,hat-in-the-,ring ,squadron commanded by ,captain ,eddie ,rickenbacker1 ,america's ace of aces4 ,day after day they went out against the boasted champions of the ,german ,air ,service and day after day they came in with ,german planes to their credit4 ,at the close of the war they had won a greater number of victories than any other ,american squadron4 ,the ,hat-in-the-,ring was the first ,american squadron to go over the enemies' lines1 the first to destroy an enemy plane and it brought down the last ,hun aeroplane to fall in the war4 ,after the signing of the armistice it was distinguished by being selected as the only fighting squadron in the forces to move into ,germany with the ,army of ,occupation4 ,it will doubtless go down in history as the greatest flying squadron ,america sent to the war4 ,on ,april #ba1 #aiah1 the circus was in operation over the ,somme ,valley1 over the ,british lines4 ,several of its fighters attacked a couple of ,british planes unexpectedly1 and quite as suddenly the whole squadron swooped down out of the blue4 ,other ,british airplanes rushed to the spot from all directions and there followed a confused battle which spread over a wide area4 ,one of the ,german planes which had been flying low came crashing to earth4 ,when the wreckage was removed and the body of the pilot recovered he was found to be no other than the great ,richthofen himself4 ,thus the greatest of the ,german champions was downed4 ,he was buried with military honors by the ,british1 but the menace which he stood for had happily been destroyed4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,birth ,,of ,,an ,,airplane ,out in the forests of the great ,northwest there stands a giant spruce tree1 tall and straight and strong1 whose top looks out across the gentle slopes of the ,rocky ,mountain foothills to the ,pacific4 ,for eight hundred years1 perhaps1 it has stood guard there4 ,great of girth1 its straight trunk rising like a stately column in the forest1 it is easily king of all it surveys4 ,someday the woodsmen of ,uncle ,sam come and fell that mighty spruce4 ,and then begins the story of its evolution1 from a proud1 immovable personage whose upper foliage seemed to touch the clouds1 to a strong and lithesome bird who goes soaring fearlessly across the sky4 ,uncle ,sam has had an army of over ten thousand men in the woods of ,oregon and ,washington during the past year1 selecting and felling spruces for airplane manufacture4 ,only the finest of the trees are chosen1 and lumber which shows the slightest defect is instantly discarded4 ,the great logs are sawed into long1 flat beams1 and are carefully examined for knots or pitch pockets or other blemishes which might impair their strength when finally they have been fashioned into airplane parts4 ,these beams then start on their journey to the aircraft plants1 where skilled laborers get to work on them4 ,for the days of the homemade airplane have passed4 ,it is only about fifteen years since the ,wright brothers built their first crude flying machine1 and1 not without some misgivings1 made the first trial of their handiwork4 ,since then airplane manufacture has made many a stride4 ,the flying machine of those days was largely a matter of guesswork4 ,nobody knew exactly what it might do when it took to the air4 ,nobody knew whether it would prove strong enough to bear the pilot's weight1 or whether it might suddenly capsize in the air and come crashing with its burden to the earth4 ,for the parts had been crudely fashioned by the inventor's own hands4 ,naturally he was very seldom a skilled cabinet maker1 painter and mechanician4 ,he knew very little about the laws of aerodynamics1 about stress and strain and factors of safety4 ,he just went ahead and did the best he could and took his chance about losing his life when his great bird took to the air4 ,no wonder the early fliers dreaded to set forth in even a gentle breeze6 ,no wonder there used to be so much talk about holes in the air and all the other atmospheric difficulties that beset the pioneers4 ,the wonder is that any of the early fliers ever came off alive with the fickle mounts to whom they trusted their lives4 ,to-day the manufacture of an airplane has been reduced to the most exact of sciences4 ,every part is produced in large quantities by skilled workmen1 and its strength is scientifically determined before it is passed on to become a member of the finished airplane4 ,sometimes whole factories specialize on a particular detail of the airplane4 ,here they make only airplane propellers2 there only engines2 while in this factory the wings and fuselage are produced4 ,let us imagine ourselves on a visit to one of the great aircraft factories which have suddenly sprung up in the ,united ,states and become so busy with the work of turning out a huge aerial fleet4 ,the great trees which were felled in the ,northwestern woods have changed greatly in appearance since we saw them last4 ,as a matter of fact for certain parts of the airplane they should have been allowed to lie out in the sun and rain for several years to season1 but the rush to put planes in the air has made this impossible4 ,instead they have been treated with a special process in order to rid the wood of its impurities4 ,now the big beams go to the carpenters to be fashioned into the airplane fuselage4 ,the separate boards are carefully cut and fitted and trimmed down to perfect smoothness and symmetry4 ,painted and varnished the fuselage resembles a fine automobile body4 ,in the top or roof of the fuselage one or more circular openings have been cut4 ,below1 almost on the floor are the seats for pilot and observer1 in what are known as the cockpits4 ,while the carpenters and cabinet makers have been busy on the fuselage1 more skilled workmen still have been fashioning the airplane wings4 ,this is one of the most difficult and delicate tasks of all4 ,remember that the curve of the wing determines to a large extent the speed and climbing powers of the completed airplane4 ,the wing is built up of a number of ribs which give it the proper curve and shape4 ,each of these ribs must be accurately manufactured from a prescribed formula4 ,first a piece of board is turned out which looks exactly like a cross section of a wing4 ,but there is no need for solid wood to add to the weight of the wing1 and so all over its surface the workman goes1 boring out circular pieces1 until only a framework remains4 ,on its upper and lower edges a flexible strip of wood is bent down to its shape and strongly attached4 ,the rib is now complete4 ,a number of ribs placed in a row begin to suggest the outlines of a wing4 ,they are connected by long beams which run from tip to tip of the wing4 ,when these have been fastened in place the skeleton is completed and the work of the carpenters is over for a little while4 ,the next step is to place upon this wing skeleton its linen covering4 ,the linen is usually cut in gores or strips which are sewed together1 and then the whole piece is stretched as taut as possible upon its framework1 above and below the ribs4 ,sometimes the seams run parallel to the ribs and are tacked down to them1 but seams which run diagonally across the wing have been found more satisfactory4 ,of course it is practically impossible to stretch the fabric absolutely tight over the frame so that it will not sag when subjected to the heavy pressure of the air4 ,various methods were tried in the early days to tauten and strengthen the fabric4 ,to-day the covered wing is treated with a substance known as dope1 which shrinks it till it is tight as a drum4 ,dope renders the wing both air-proof and rainproof4 ,it strengthens the fabric and makes it able to bear the terrible stresses to which it will be subjected when the airplane is racing through the sky4 ,but it cannot be applied carelessly1 and right here the skill of the very best painters is brought into play4 ,these painters spread first two very thin coats of it over the fabric1 filling up the pores so that later coats will not run through into the interior of the wing4 ,next two or three thicker coats are applied4 ,after this the wing may receive several coats of varnish1 while if it is a ,u4 ,s4 service plane it gets a final covering of white enamel1 which protects the fabric from the injurious action of the sun's rays4 ,now the wings and fuselage of our airplane are ready1 and the rudder1 the elevating surfaces and the ailerons are in course of production4 ,they are made in the same manner as the wings1 with a wooden framework over which fabric is stretched and doped4 ,we begin to think our big bird is almost ready to be put together1 but we have forgotten two important items3 the engine and the propeller4 ,the airplane manufacturer usually does not attempt to build his own engines or propellers4 ,he buys his engine all ready to be installed and procures his propeller from a factory which makes this its specialty4 ,for the propeller is one of the most difficult parts of the airplane to produce4 ,above all things it must be strong1 and for this reason steel has been tried in its manufacture4 ,curiously enough it was found that the metal propeller could not stand up under high speeds and stresses as well as one built of wood4 ,many kinds of wood are used in propeller construction1 and the choice depends very largely on the speed and stress--in other words on the horsepower of the engine4 ,sometimes a propeller is built of alternating layers of two different kinds of wood4 ,but with high-powered engines oak is very generally employed on account of its strength4 ,an airplane propeller is not carved out of a single block of wood1 for in this case it would not be strong enough for the difficult task it has to perform of cutting its way through the atmosphere and drawing the airplane after it4 ,instead it is built up of a number of thicknesses of specially seasoned wood1 so arranged that the surface is formed by the cross grains of the various layers4 ,this result is produced by first piling up a number of boards to form a block out of which the propeller can be carved4 ,the boards are glued firmly together and then they are subjected to tremendous pressure4 ,now expert wood carvers begin their delicate task of turning out a propeller of a given pitch4 ,their work requires the utmost skill1 but they succeed1 until gradually the finished article begins to take form out of the crude block4 ,a coat of varnish1 a fine metal hub--and our propeller is ready to be shipped to join the wings and the fuselage and complete the manufacture of a modern airplane4 ,there are several other items--such as the steel landing chassis1 the steering instruments and the upholstery--which we must have on hand before we are ready to commence the work of assembling4 ,when all have been procured the happy task begins4 ,the wings are put in place1 and carefully secured by wires and supporting struts4 ,the steering apparatus is installed1 the cushioned seats are placed in the cockpits1 the fuselage is mounted on the wheeled chassis1 and finally when all is complete the big bird is sent out for its first test flight4 ,if there is any one way in which the airplane of to-day differs radically in its process of manufacture from the airplane of a few years ago it is in this3 that it is a tested machine4 ,the greatest enemy of the aviator was and always will be1 not so much the bullets of an enemy as the hidden flaw in his machine's construction1 which makes it go back on him when he least expects4 ,the pioneer aviator built himself what he considered a strong airplane1 but when he attempted flight under weather conditions not so favorable as those on which he had counted1 some untested part gave way4 ,so in the early days there were many tragedies4 ,to-day1 the airplane has become a safe mount indeed1 for not only is the finished machine tried out before it is put into use1 but each separate part is subjected to the most exacting series of tests4 ,if it does not bear up under at least six times the strain it will ever be called on to endure in flight1 it is rejected as unfit4 ,that is the reason the aviator of to-day dares to perform all the marvelous tricks in the air of which we read4 ,back of the stories of heroism and daring that have come from the battle line during the ,great ,war1 and back of the great commercial feats and enterprises that are being planned for the near future1 we must not lose sight of the remarkable progress in airplane manufacture and the careful painstaking research and experiment that have resulted in greater safety in the air4 ,of course it was the war that spurred every one on to do his best in the design and construction of airplanes4 ,before that time ,england and ,america had made very poor showings1 and ,france1 although deeply interested in aviation1 had nothing in the way of a flying machine that would not seem ancient compared with the airplanes of the present time4 ,america came into the field of action late1 and up to the time she entered the war she had practically no airplane industry whatever4 ,yet when she did get in she set to work with a will1 and as every one knows she succeeded in making a real contribution to aviation in the war4 ,every brain that could be of service in our great country was mobilized4 ,the automobile manufacturers did much for the cause1 some surrendering their trade secrets for the good of the cause1 and others turning over their large organizations to airplane construction4 ,as a result1 a recent report stated that there were #bdh factories in the ,united ,states making planes1 with over #aej1jjj men working on aircraft4 ,in a single year this giant industry has sprung up1 and the mechanical genius of ,america has been focussed upon this latest problem3 the heavier-than-air machine4 ,it is inconceivable that our country1 which can boast the invention of the airplane1 should in peace times allow this great industry to wane4 ,for a long time we slept while ,france was forging ahead in the design and construction of machines4 ,the commercial uses of the airplane will be numberless1 and it is bound to assume an ever more important and practical role in everyday life4 ,america has the natural resources1 and now that she has developed the tools with which to work and has trained a large body of young men to be capable pilots1 she should look forward in the future to maintaining her proper place among the nations in airplane manufacture4 ,the big bird of the sky who had his birth in ,america and who grew to such enormous proportions during the strenuous days of war1 must not be allowed to lose his ,american manners when he turns to peace pursuits4 ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,training ,,of ,,an ,,aviator ,it is a rocky road that leads from the obscurity of civilian life to the glory and achievement of a successful bird-man4 ,the man--or the boy--who elects to follow it must be possessed of brains1 physical perfection1 and iron grit1 for he will need them all if he is to become one of the heroes of the air4 ,with one's feet on solid earth it is easy enough to make mistakes and profit by them1 doing better the next time4 ,the airman seldom profits by his serious blunders1 for he is no longer on the scene when the experts are pointing out what error he was guilty of4 ,the moment his machine1 after a run across the ground1 suddenly lifts and goes skimming off into the blue1 he must depend upon himself4 ,no friend upon the earth can shout to him any advice2 his own unfailing knowledge and quick judgment must dictate in every emergency and see him through until once more he alights upon this old world4 ,fortunately the ,war has proved that there were many young men able to do just that--depend upon themselves in situations so critical that the slightest deviation from the right course1 the slightest hesitation about what to do next1 would have cost them their lives1 and their government a costly airplane4 ,such men have covered themselves with glory1 and have won the love and admiration of their people4 ,but they did not achieve their daring exploits nor make their marvelous records in the air until they had passed through a series of tests and a system of training so rigid that it might well have discouraged the most stout-hearted4 ,why must the aviator be physically perfect8 ,just imagine for one moment some of the hardships and perils he will have to face4 ,the higher the altitude at which he flies1 the more intense becomes the cold4 ,in some regions of the upper air temperatures as low as #hj and #ij below zero have been recorded by fliers4 ,and rushing through the air at such speeds as #aej miles an hour produces a strain upon the lungs which only the strongest and sturdiest can endure4 ,nor is this all4 ,the tiniest defect in the mechanism of the inner ear may cost the airman his life1 if he undertakes night flying4 ,if only he were required to fly in broad daylight when there were neither clouds nor darkness to obstruct his view of ,old ,mother ,earth1 he might manage to get along with a less-than-perfect ear4 ,but at night1--on a cloudy night at that1 when there are no lights on earth to guide him and no stars visible in the sky--the aviator faces some of his gravest perils4 ,strange as it may seem it is often very difficult for him to tell whether his machine is in a horizontal position1 whether he is flying right-side-up or is toppling over at a perilous angle4 ,the only thing which helps him in this extremity is a slight reflex action in the inner ear which warns him of any loss of balance4 ,in the same way perfect vision is absolutely essential to the man who must be prepared for any sort of aerial emergency4 ,this does not mean merely seeing well4 ,it means the absolute working right of the lens and muscles of the eye1 their quick readjustment to normal after any series of loop-the-loops1 after a nose dive or any sort of acrobatic stunt an airplane may be called on to perform4 ,so it goes with every one of the physical requirements laid down by the military authorities for men who would become fliers--they are not just arbitrary requirements1 but are based on long experience of the demands which flying makes upon the system4 ,in peace times the aviator may be able to get along with somewhat less than the physical perfection required of the military aviator1 particularly if he takes up flying merely as a sport1 for he will be able to spare himself the night flying and all the other difficult feats which have been required of the aviators in the war4 ,but the next few years are going to see many new commercial duties opening to the airplane1 and the pilots who guide these great ships of peace and industry will no doubt be chosen by just as high standards as our military aviators4 ,the room in which the would-be military aviator receives his physical examination has been jokingly referred to as the ,chamber of ,horrors1 and he reaches it after a short preliminary test of heart1 lungs1 and ear4 ,as he sits side by side with his fellow applicants in the outer waiting room1 he cannot help a feeling of creepiness4 ,at intervals a doctor appears at the door of that secret chamber and beckons another unfortunate in4 ,he remembers all the grewsome stories he had heard of happenings in that room behind the closed door and his knees commence to shake4 ,gradually the minutes pass and by a supreme effort he begins to recover his nerve4 ,suddenly the door opens and a white faced applicant rushes out4 ,the poor would-be aviator regrets his rashness in deciding to learn to pilot one of the big birds of the air4 ,but it is his turn next1 so1 appearing as unconcerned as possible1 he follows the doctor in4 ,he is ordered to sit down in a small chair to the back of which is attached a bracket for his head4 ,the clamps are adjusted to hold his head firm1 he is told to fix his gaze on a point ahead1 and then suddenly1 he commences to whirl around4 ,round and round he goes1 ten times in #bj seconds4 ,the chair comes abruptly to a halt4 ,he must find that point he fixed his eyes on before starting4 ,he struggles vainly to do so1 imagining that failure means immediate rejection1 but his eyeballs are turning rapidly back and forth4 ,at last they stop1 the physician calls out the number of seconds to his assistant4 ,the same experiment is tried in an opposite direction1 similar ones follow1 and then the unhappy applicant braces himself for one of the most severe of all the physical tests4 ,his head is released from the clamp in which it has been held1 and he is instructed to clench his hands upon his knees and rest his head on them4 ,this done1 the chair begins whirling once more4 ,as it comes to a sudden halt1 he is sharply ordered to raise his head4 ,he has the impression that he is falling rapidly through space1 and a dizzy seasickness almost overcomes him4 ,finally his eyeballs cease their swift gyrations4 ,the instructor has timed them with a stop-watch4 ,he is excused from the room1 and1 feeling like a man who had been through a siege of illness1 he makes a dash for the open air4 ,if the applicant for service in the air has passed his preliminary tests successfully1 he may shortly find himself at one of the government's ground schools1 where his education in airplane science begins4 ,actual flight is still a long way off3 he must first receive some rudimentary drill in ordinary soldiering1 and next be put through an intensive course of training in a positively alarming number of studies1 before he even approaches the joyful moment when he may begin to think of himself as even a fledgling aviator4 ,in the next few weeks he must become something of a gunner1 a telegraph operator1 a map-reader1 a photographer and a bomber2 he must make the acquaintance of the airplane engine in the most minute detail2 go through a course in astronomy and one in meteorology2 and learn the use of the compass and all other instruments necessary in steering an airplane along a definite course4 ,aerial observation forms no small part of his course of studies4 ,sitting in a gallery and looking down upon a large relief map whose raised hills1 buildings1 streams1 and trenches give a very fair reproduction of the earth as it will look to him when he flies over it in a machine1 he learns to pick out the objects of strategic importance1 and to prepare military reports which will help the staff officers in their work of directing hostilities4 ,or he may have to report the results of a mock bombardment1 and thus prepare himself for the duties of the artillery spotter4 ,in order to be able to interpret with a fair degree of intelligence the things he will see as an aerial observer1 he must know a good deal about military science and strategy himself1 and this forms one of the subjects in his curriculum at the ground school4 ,his life here is a strenuous one4 ,he rises soon after five in the morning1 and from then until lights go out for the night at #i3cj he has all too little time to call his own4 ,before he is finally passed out of the ground school the cadet must prove that he understands thoroughly the principle of flight1 the operation of an internal combustion engine1 and the care and repair of a machine4 ,he will be able to recognize the various types of airplanes1 he will have some skill at aerial observation1 and he will be able to operate an airplane camera1 a bomb-dropping instrument and a range-finder1 a wireless or a radio instrument4 ,he will have been instructed in signaling with wigwag and semaphore1 in the operation of a magneto1 in the theory of aerial combat1 and in a number of minor subjects such as sail-making1 rope-splicing1 etc4 ,thus prepared in his ,,abc's1 the would-be aviator finally makes his departure for the actual flying school4 ,here he does not shake off dull class-room routine and launch forth upon a career of aerial adventure4 ,quite to the contrary his intensive training in the technical side of aviation becomes even more exacting4 ,he takes apart and puts together again with his own hands various types of airplane engines1 he practises gunnery at a moving target1 he assembles an airplane out of the dismantled parts4 ,he does1 however1 have that wonderful experience1 his first flight4 ,some fine morning he is told that the instructor will take him up1 and1 thoroughly bundled up for warmth in a leather jacket1 woolen muffler1 heavy cap1 etc41 with goggles and other little essentials of an aviator's dress1 he climbs into the machine4 ,he expects to acquire considerable knowledge of the science of aviation on that first flight4 ,as a matter of fact his mind is so completely overwhelmed by the many new sensations that come to it1 that it is only a long time after that he is able to sort them out and form an accurate conception of the adventure4 ,the roar of the motor is deafening as the big bird of the air goes taxiing across the earth4 ,he does not realize that he has left the ground1 until suddenly1 looking down1 he sees the solid earth receding rapidly from beneath him4 ,then1 unexpectedly the machine gets into the bumps and he has a few nervous moments until finally it rights itself and goes skimming off into the blue4 ,the sun is shining and below the earth looks peaceful and friendly4 ,he settles himself more comfortably in his seat and begins to enjoy his little aerial journey4 ,suddenly1 without a second's warning1 the airplane dives downward4 ,the sickening drop leaves him a trifle paler1 perhaps1 and he no longer has the pleasant sensation of relaxed enjoyment4 ,he hardly knows what to expect next1 and the instructor1 bent on testing his nerve takes him through stunt after stunt1 climbing1 turning1 diving4 ,at length the airplane glides gently to earth4 ,a short run over the ground once more1 followed by a full stop2 and the young gentleman who went up a few minutes ago with a good deal of vim and self-assurance climbs out with a feeling of relief and satisfaction that his feet are once more on terra firma4 ,but do not imagine that he has lost his enthusiasm for the air4 ,if that were the case then he would not be of the stuff of which aviators are made4 ,at the worst reckoning he has acquired an intense ambition to some day try it on the other fellow1 and this in all probability he will do1 when1 in the course of time he has become an experienced and seasoned airman4 ,in the meantime1 however1 he must first accustom himself to the feel of the air1 and next he must learn the operation and control of the airplane in flight4 ,after a few first trips as a passenger1 he will be allowed to try his hand at steering the machine4 ,this is done by what is called a dual control system4 ,instead of the single control-stick and steering-bar of the ordinary airplane1 the training machine has these parts duplicated1 so that any false move on the part of the student flyer may be immediately corrected by the instructor4 ,as long as his movements are the right ones1 the instructor does not interfere1 but the moment he makes a mistake the control of the airplane passes out of his hands4 ,gradually he becomes more and more adept at guiding the big bird through the air1 and can get along nicely without any interference or correction4 ,at each lesson he has mastered some new problem4 ,he knows how to leave the earth at the proper angle after the first short run over the ground1 and how to come down again1 how to turn in the air1 when to cut off the power in alighting and when to apply the brakes4 ,he learns to listen for the rhythmic sound of the engine and to know when anything has gone wrong with it4 ,by far the most difficult of his problems is the art of landing4 ,as we have already seen the speed of an airplane cannot be reduced below a certain danger line if its wings are to continue to support it in the air4 ,this danger line varies with different types of airplanes1 but in all of them the engine must be kept running at a fairly high speed or the whole structure will come crashing to the earth4 ,to bring an airplane to earth while it is traveling at a speed of #ge miles an hour is no mean accomplishment4 ,it must not bump down heavily upon the ground1 or its landing chassis will be broken1 even if no more serious accident occurs4 ,it must settle slowly until its wheels just touch1 while all the time it is moving forward at the rate of a fast express train4 ,this is an art that requires infinite practise to acquire1 but it is one of the most important feats the student airman has to learn4 ,however1 the long wished-for day finally arrives when he can be trusted to go aloft by himself4 ,carefully he goes over every inch of his machine1 to be sure it is in ,a-#a condition4 ,he inspects the engine and tests every strut and wire1 then1 satisfied that it is in prime working order1 he climbs into his seat4 ,that is one of the most thrilling moments connected with his aviation training4 ,in all other flights he has known that the errors he might make could be corrected by the trusty instructor4 ,now he must rely solely upon himself4 ,with a feeling of mastery and conquest1 he goes skimming into the air4 ,he longs to prove himself4 ,probably he does1 and not long after he receives permission to try for an aviator's certificate4 ,this is the certificate issued by the ,aero ,club of ,america2 it does not make him a full-fledged military aviator1 but it marks the completion of the first stage of his progress toward the coveted goal4 ,in order to acquire the aviator's certificate1 the candidate must accomplish two long distance flights and one altitude flight2 he must be able to cut figures of eight and to land without the slightest injury to his machine4 ,in other words he must prove to the satisfaction of his examiners that he is able to handle an airplane skilfully1 barring of course any fancy exploits in the air4 ,he now launches on his advanced course of training4 ,this will require at least three months of hard work1 and during that time he must learn to fly a number of different types of machines which are used in military aviation4 ,in the meantime he may perhaps go up for examination to acquire the much-coveted wings4 ,but do not imagine that they mark the end of his education4 ,with the aviator it is very much as with the schoolboy3 when he finishes one grade or stage of his progress he passes on to a still more difficult4 ,the man who has acquired wings is not immune from the most trying daily routine of studies1 which include the ever important map-reading1 photography1 aerial gunnery and what-not4 ,finally1 however1 there does come a day when the army aviator may be said to pass out of the elementary school of classes and instructors into the broader school of experience4 ,many young ,american aviators who served during the ,war can look back upon such a day with a thrill4 ,they had then their hardest lessons to learn4 ,the map-reading1 the gunnery1 the trying and tedious curriculum of the aviation school become suddenly vital issues1 and the facts which were learned in the classroom have to be mastered anew by living them in the air4 ,the experience of one young airman on his first real assignment goes to show how the problems which seemed so easy of solution on the ground become unexpectedly difficult when the flyer is face to face with them for the first time up there above the clouds4 ,fresh from his course of training1 he had been ordered to take an airplane from one government hangar to another which was close up behind the front lines4 ,he knew his map-reading pretty well1 but he had never made a long cross-country flight before and the ground was unfamiliar4 ,somewhere near his destination he made a false turn1 and the first intimation that reached him of the fact that he was off his course was the appearance below him of white puffs of smoke--cream puffs as the airmen have jokingly nicknamed them4 ,he realized with a start that he was over the enemy's lines and was being fired at4 ,without losing any time he turned his face toward home1 and this time he succeeded in spotting the lost hangar and making a safe landing4 ,but he had learned a little lesson in following his map which no instructor could have taught him half so well4 ,illustration3 ,copyright ,underwood and ,underwood ,a ,,photograph ,,made ,,ten ,,thousand ,,feet ,,in ,,the ,,air1 ,,showing ,,machines ,,in ,v ,,formation ,,at ,,bombing ,,practice ,there are many lessons like that which the airman who is new at the game must master4 ,gradually he becomes more and more expert and more and more self-reliant4 ,then1 if he is of the stuff that heroes are made of1 perhaps he may distinguish himself by his daring accomplishments in the air4 ,the more daring and successful he appears to be1 the more certain it is that he has covered that long road of careful preparation with exacting thoroughness4 ,illustration3 ,copyright ,international ,film ,service1 ,inc4 ,a ,,group ,,of ,,de ,,havilland ,,planes ,,at ,,bolling ,,field ,,near ,,washington ,,chapter ,,xi ,,the ,,future ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,air ,since the days when the first man ascended into the clouds in a ,montgolfier fire balloon1 and since the days when the ,wright brothers tried their first gliding experiments and proved that men might hope to soar with wings into the sky1 many glorious chapters have been written in the story of the air4 ,surely the most inspiring and significant achievement in aerial progress is the great trans-,atlantic flight made in the latter part of ,may1 #aiai1 by a flying boat of the ,u4,s4 ,navy4 ,a force of fliers in three airships under ,commander ,towers attempted the flight from ,new ,york to ,lisbon by way of ,halifax and the ,azores1 in three legs or continuous flights1 but on account of disastrous weather conditions1 only one of these planes1 the ,,nc-#d1 under ,lieutenant-,commander ,a4 ,c4 ,read completed the trip successfully4 ,the enthusiasm of the entire world was fired by this feat and it is difficult to estimate fully its epochal significance4 ,simultaneous with this flight and even more daring in plan1 was the attempt by an ,englishman1 ,harry ,hawker1 to fly direct from ,st4 ,johns1 ,newfoundland1 to ,england in a ,sopwith biplane4 ,through an imperfect action of the water pump of his machine ,hawker was forced to descend and was rescued twelve hundred miles at sea by a ,danish vessel4 ,however1 the highest honor is due to this man of the air who embarked on so brave an adventure4 ,the next trans-,atlantic flight was made about a month after the ,,nc-#d had blazed the air route across the ocean4 ,this was a non-stop1 record-breaking trip of ,capt4 ,john ,alcock and ,lieut4 ,arthur ,w4 ,brown--an ,american--in the ,british ,vickers-,vimy land plane from ,st ,john's1 ,newfoundland1 to ,clifden on the ,irish coast4 ,these daring pilots made the distance of #aijj miles in sixteen hours--an average speed of #aai miles an hour4 ,although these achievements in heavier-than-air machines were of far-reaching importance1 they did not fully solve the problem of trans-,atlantic air passage4 ,it remained for the great dirigible experiment in ,july to demonstrate that in all probability the lighter-than-air craft will prove more effective for this hazardous game with the elements4 ,on ,july #b the ,british naval dirigible1 ,r-#cd1 left ,east ,fortune1 ,scotland1 with thirty-one men on board under command of ,major ,g4 ,h4 ,scott1 and made the journey of #cbjj sea miles1 by way of ,newfoundland and ,nova ,scotia1 to ,mineola1 ,long ,island1 in #ajh hours4 ,the fact that weather conditions during this trip were very unfavorable adds to the value of the accomplishment4 ,the return trip was made a few days later in #ge hours4 ,the ,r-#cd is indeed a mammoth of the air4 ,at the time of its flight it was the largest aircraft in the world1 having a length of #fej feet and a diameter of #gh feet4 ,it has five cars connected by a deck below the rigid bag and is propelled by five engines of #bej ,h4,p4 each4 ,its maximum speed is about sixty miles an hour4 ,the year following the ,great ,war will go down in history as a marvelous period in aeronautic achievement4 ,the ,atlantic was for the first time crossed by aircraft and within ten weeks of its first accomplishment two trans-,atlantic flights were made1 three widely differing types of aircraft being represented4 ,as a matter of fact we have but begun to explore the possibilities of aerial flight4 ,during the last few years we have been thinking of the airplane solely as an instrument of war1 and for that purpose we have bent our entire energies to developing it4 ,when all the wealth of skill we have acquired during strenuous war times is turned to solving the problem of making the airplane useful in times of peace1 there will be new and fascinating chapters to relate4 ,the war has done a lot for the airplane4 ,it has raised up a host of aircraft factories in all the large countries1 with thousands of skilled workers4 ,it has given us a splendid force of trained pilots and mechanics4 ,it has resulted in standardized airplane parts1 instead of the endless confusion of designs and makes that existed a few years ago4 ,and instead of the old haphazard methods of production it has made the building of an airplane an exact science4 ,people used to be afraid of the airplane and it seemed a long road to travel to the time when it would play any important rle in everyday commerce or travel4 ,the war has resulted in making the airplane safe1--so safe that it is apt to win the confidence of the most timid4 ,yet the airplanes that we saw and read of so frequently in war time are not likely to be those which will prove the most popular and useful in the days to come4 ,in war one of the great aims was for speed4 ,now we can afford to sacrifice some speed to greater carrying capacity4 ,the swift tractor biplane may possibly give way to the slower biplane of the pusher type1 which has greater stability4 ,the big triplanes1 such as the ,russian ,sikorsky and the ,italian ,caproni will come into their own1 and yet bigger triplanes will be built1 able to carry passengers and freight on long journeys over land and sea4 ,the three surfaces of the triplane give it great lifting powers1 and on this account it will be a favorite where long trips and heavy cargoes are to be reckoned with4 ,we may expect in the near future to see huge air-going liners of this type1 fitted out with promenade decks and staterooms1 and with all the conveniences of modern travel4 ,there is a strong probability that the airship1 rather than the airplane1 may prove to be the great aerial liner of to-morrow4 ,the large airship of the ,zeppelin type1 traveling at greater speed than the fastest express train1 and carrying a large number of passengers and a heavy cargo1 is apt before long to become the deadly rival of the steamship4 ,a voyage across the ,atlantic in such an airship would be far shorter1 safer and pleasanter than in the finest of the ocean vessels4 ,gliding along smoothly far above the water1 the passengers would suffer no uncomfortable seasickness1 nor would they be rocked and tumbled about when a storm arose and the waves piled up and up into mountains of water on the surface of the deep4 ,their craft would move forward undisturbed by the turbulent seas beneath4 ,we can imagine these fortunate individuals of a few years hence1 leaning over the railing of their promenade deck as we ourselves might on a calm day at sea1 and recalling the great discomforts that used to attend a trans-,atlantic voyage4 ,it is amusing to think that our steamships of to-day will perhaps be recalled by these people of the future about as we ourselves recall the old sailing vessels that used to ply the deep a generation or so ago4 ,the airplane1 if it is to hold its own beside the airship as a large passenger vessel1 will first have to overcome a number of natural handicaps4 ,in the first place1 it is not possible to go on increasing the size of the airplane indefinitely1 as is practically the case with the airship4 ,for remember that the lighter-than-air machine floats in the air1 and only requires its engine to drive it forward3 whereas the heavier-than-air machine depends upon the speed imparted to it by its engine and propeller to keep it up in the air at all4 ,beyond a certain size the airplane would require engines of such enormous size and power to support it that it would be practically impossible to build and operate them4 ,modern invention has taught us that nothing is beyond the range of fancy1 and we have seen many of the wildest dreams of yesterday fulfiled1 yet it is safe to say that the airplane which would in any way approximate an ocean liner will not be built for many a year to come4 ,in the meantime1 however1 we will have huge machines like the ,caproni and the ,sikorsky triplanes1 driven by two or more motors and able to make the trans-,atlantic voyage with a number of passengers1 freight and fuel for the journey4 ,indeed1 though for purposes of long distance travel and commerce the airplane stands a chance of being superseded by the lighter-than-air machine1 there are many other important missions that it can perform in the modern world4 ,one for which it is particularly suited is that of carrying the mail4 ,in #aiaa a ,curtiss airplane flew from ,nassau ,boulevard1 ,long ,island to ,mineola1 bearing the ,hon4 ,frank ,h4 ,hitchcock1 ,postmaster ,general of the ,united ,states1 with a mail bag on his knees4 ,as the machine swooped gently down over the big white circle that had been painted on the ,mineola field1 the ,postmaster-,general let fall his bag4 ,that machine was the pioneer of a system of aerial mail which will soon reach every corner of the country4 ,during the war a mail route was inaugurated between ,new ,york and ,washington4 ,now1 with many fast machines and trained pilots freed from war duties1 a system of routes which will traverse our vast territory has been laid out4 ,it is for work such as this that the small1 fast airplanes developed during the war may prove most successful4 ,traveling over #ajj miles an hour1 in a straight line from their starting point to their destination1 they will be able to deliver the mail with a speed almost equal to that of the telegraph1 and far in excess of anything that can be accomplished by the express train4 ,for not only has the express train much less actual speed1 but it must thread its way through winding valleys1 go far out of its course in order to avoid some impassable mountain district1 climb steep slopes or follow river beds in order to reach its destination4 ,the airplane has no obstacles to overcome4 ,mountains1 rivers1 impenetrable jungles present no difficulty to it4 ,it simply chooses its objective and flies to it1 practically in a straight line4 ,it can jump the ,rocky ,mountains and deliver mail to the western coast with the greatest ease4 ,regions like ,alaska1 where letters from the ,states took weeks or even months to be delivered1 and to which the steamship routes were closed for a portion of the year1 will be brought closer home when mails are arriving and leaving every few days4 ,what use can be made of the large photographing planes that have been developed during the war to such a degree of perfection8 ,in peace times they will have many interesting duties awaiting them4 ,the motion picture producers will no doubt employ them very widely4 ,flying over our country from end to end they will bring back wonderful panoramic views4 ,they will explore the beauties of the ,yukon and show us the peaks of the ,rockies in all their majestic grandeur4 ,they will be taken to other continents and sent on photographing flights into regions that have scarcely been trod by human feet1 and they will bring home to us remarkable views of jungles where wild animals roam4 ,pictures which the motion picture man of to-day with his camera has often risked his life to secure1 the nimble photographing plane will secure with the utmost ease4 ,and that suggests another possible rle of the airplane in times of peace3 that of exploration4 ,as we think of ,peary1 pushing with his valiant party across the ice fields of the far ,north1 struggling month after month to attain his goal1 and returning to the same hard effort each time his expedition failed1 we cannot help wishing for his sake that the airplane had reached its present state of development when his difficult undertaking of finding the ,north ,pole began4 ,who knows but that ,peary the pilot might have attained his objective many years before he did1 providing of course he had had a machine of the modern type to fly in4 ,certainly one of the coming uses of the airplane will be that of penetrating into unknown quarters of the earth4 ,acting on the information which we can thus obtain we may be able to open up new stores of wealth and new territories to man4 ,the enormous boom that has been given to aircraft production by the war ought to have at least one happy result in peace times3 it should reduce the cost of the airplane4 ,when that is brought within the means of the average prosperous citizen1 we may expect to see flying become a popular sport4 ,the man who now sets forth on a cross country pleasure trip in his automobile1 will find still greater enjoyment in a cross country flight4 ,high above the dusty country roads1 he will be able to skim happily through the blue1 enjoying his isolation and able to gaze out for many miles in all directions over the beautiful panorama of the earth4 ,the plane which he pilots will no doubt be so designed as to possess unusual stability4 ,it will to a large extent be fool proof4 ,its owner will enjoy the comfortable feeling which comes from a sense of security1 and at the same time will have all the delightful sensations of an adventurer in the clouds4 ,he will find the air at high altitudes invigorating1 and so he will gain in health as he never could have done by motoring over the solid earth4 ,when men take to flying in large numbers no doubt we will have to have some sort of traffic regulations of the sky1 but these will never need to be so strict as upon the ground1 for the air is not a single track but a wide1 limitless expanse1 in which airplanes can fly in many directions and at many altitudes4 ,there will never be any need of passing to the left of the machine ahead of you or signaling behind that you are slowing down2 for ten chances to one you will never encounter another plane directly in your line of flight1 and if you do it will be a simple matter to dive below or climb over him1 continuing your journey in a higher stratum of air4 ,there will probably be laws controlling flights over cities and communities1 where an accident to the flier might endanger the lives below4 ,what is likely to happen is that certain highways of the air will be established legally1 extending in many directions over the country4 ,in these directions the private airman will be permitted to fly for pleasure1 while at certain intervals along the routes public landing grounds will be maintained4 ,landing is still one of the most serious problems the air pilot has to face1 and it is to be hoped that the aircraft builders of the near future will help him to solve this difficulty4 ,the reason for it1 as we have already seen1 is that the airplane secures its buoyancy largely as a result of its speed4 ,wings which are large enough to support it when flying at #aej miles an hour are too small to hold it in the air when its speed is slowed down4 ,the machine has to be landed while still moving forward at comparatively the rate of an express train1 and this forward motion can only be checked after the wheels are safely on the ground4 ,if the engine should be stopped while the airplane is still forty or fifty feet above the ground1 the wings would be unable to support it and it would come crashing to the earth4 ,but this situation of course makes matters very difficult for the airman who has not had long experience in landing his machine4 ,he must come down on a small landing field and bring his plane to a full stop before he has crashed into the other machines which perhaps are standing about4 ,his difficulty is added to by the fact that his propeller only works efficiently at the full speed for which it was designed4 ,when he slows down in the air preparatory to landing1 it may slip backward through the air1 instead of driving his airplane forward at the rate necessary to support its weight4 ,in that case he is in danger of going into a spin1 from which he may not have time to recover4 ,for these reasons it is to be hoped that the airplane of the future will have some form of telescoping wings and of variable pitch propeller4 ,while these improvements in construction have not been worked out practically at the present moment1 there is every reason to believe that they may be before long4 ,but whatever structural difficulties have yet to be overcome in connection with the airplane1 certain it is that the big birds which we saw so often in the sky during the war1 are going to be yet numerous in peace times4 ,as for the purely military machines1 let us hope that their work is over1 and that they may never be called on to fight another battle in the air4 ,yet if other wars should come1 it is certain that they would play a still more tremendous rle than they have in the present struggle4 ,we can imagine the war of the future being fought almost entirely above the clouds4 ,the one great contest would be for victory in the air1 since the nation which succeeded in driving its enemy from the sky would have complete control of the situation on the ground4 ,all nations will continue to increase their aerial battalions until they possess formidable fleets1 and it will be these1 rather than armies or navies that will go forth to settle future disputes4 ,it is largely to the aerial supremacy of the ,allies that we have to give the credit for the winning of the present war against the ,hun1 and it will be by maintaining their aerial supremacy that the great nations which have taken their stand for justice and humanity will succeed in enforcing the reign of ,right in the world4 ,thus we see man's dream of the conquest of the air become a noble thing1 while the frail-winged birds his imagination pictured to him throughout so many centuries stand ready to bear him onward and upward to still greater achievements in his struggle to make the world a better and cleaner place in which to live4 ,,reading ,,list ,for those who desire a wider knowledge of the history1 theory1 construction and operation of aircraft than this book is intended to supply1 the following reading list may prove suggestive and helpful4 ,the older publications on this list have been found valuable from an historical viewpoint2 while the more recent ones treat from many angles the rapidly advancing science of aviation4 ,,abbot1 ,w4 ,j41 ,aircraft and ,submarines 7#aiah7 ,,alexander1 ,j4 ,h41 ,model ,balloons and ,flying ,machines 7#aiaj7 ,,avion1 ,aeroplanes and ,aero ,engines 7#aiah7 ,,barber1 ,,horatio1 ,the ,aeroplane ,speaks 7#aiag7 ,,barnwell1 ,f4 ,s41 ,aeroplane ,design 7#aiag7 ,,berget1 ,a41 ,the ,conquest of the ,air 7#aiaa7 ,,berry1 ,w4 ,h41 ,aircraft in ,war and ,commerce 7#aiah7 ,,bruce1 ,e4 ,h4 ,s41 ,aircraft in ,war 7#aiad7 ,,cavanagh1 ,,george ,a41 ,model ,aeroplanes and ,their ,motors 7#aiaf7 ,,chatley1 ,,herbert1 ,principles and ,design of ,aeroplanes 7#aiab7 ,,curtiss1 ,g4 ,h41 and ,,post1 ,a41 ,curtiss ,aviation ,book 7#aiab7 ,,corbin1 ,t4 ,w41 ,aircraft1 ,aeroplanes and ,airships 7#aiad7 ,,collins1 ,a4 ,,frederick1 ,the ,boy's ,airplane ,book 7#aiai7 ,,collins1 ,a4 ,,frederick1 ,how to ,fly 7#aiag7 ,,colvin1 ,f4 ,h41 ,aircraft ,mechanic's ,handbook 7#aiah7 ,,dommett1 ,w4 ,e41 ,aeroplanes and ,airships 7#aiaf7 ,,fales1 ,e4 ,n41 ,learning to ,fly in the ,u4 ,s4 ,army 7#aiag7 ,,ferris1 ,r41 ,how it ,flies 7#aiaj7 ,,grahame-,,white1 ,c41 and ,,harper1 ,h41 ,heroes of the ,air 7#aiab7 ,,grahame-,,white1 ,c41 and ,,harper1 ,h41 ,learning to ,fly 7#aiaf7 ,,grahame-,,white1 ,c41 ,the ,story of the ,aeroplane 7#aiaa7 ,,gramont1 ,a4 ,a4 ,,de1 ,aviator's ,elementary ,handbook 7#aiah7 ,,hayward1 ,,chas4 ,b41 ,building and ,flying an ,aeroplane 7#aiah7 ,,hearne1 ,r4 ,p41 ,zeppelins and ,super-,zeppelins 7#aiaf7 ,,hearne1 ,r4 ,p41 ,airships in ,peace and ,war 7#aiaj7 ,,hildebrand1 ,a4 ,l4 ,h41 ,airships ,past and ,present 7#aijh7 ,,jane',s ,,fighting ,,ships1 7,an ,annual7 ,,judge1 ,a4 ,w41 ,design of ,aeroplanes 7#aiaf7 ,,lanchester1 ,f4 ,w41 ,aircraft in ,warfare 7#aiaf7 ,,lilienthal1 ,o41 ,bird ,flights as the ,basis of ,aviation 7#aiag7 ,,loening1 ,g4 ,c41 ,military ,aeroplanes 7#aiaf7 ,,mcconnell1 ,,james ,r41 ,flying for ,france 7#aiag7 ,,mcminnies1 ,w4 ,g41 ,practical ,flying 7#aiah7 ,,maxim1 ,h4 ,s41 ,artificial and ,natural ,flight 7#aijh7 ,,middleton1 ,e4 ,c41 ,the ,way of the ,air 7#aiag7 ,,middleton1 ,e4 ,c41 ,glorious ,exploits of the ,air 7#aiah7 ,,middleton1 ,e4 ,c41 ,airfare of ,today and the ,future 7#aiah7 ,,munday1 ,,albert ,h41 ,the ,eyes of the ,army and ,navy 7#aiag7 ,,orcy1 ,l4 ,d'1 ,editor and ,comp41 ,airship ,manual 7#aiag7 ,,page1 ,,capt4 ,,victor ,,wilfred1 ,the ,a-,b-,c of ,aviation 7#aiah7 ,,peary1 ,r4 ,e41 ,command of the ,air 7,speech delivered before the ,american ,academy of ,political and ,social ,science7 7#aiag7 ,,rathbun1 ,,john ,b41 ,aeroplane ,construction and ,operation 7#aiah7 ,,robson1 ,w4 ,a41 ,aircraft in ,war and ,peace 7#aiaf7 ,,roth1 ,c4 ,w41 ,short ,course in the ,theory and ,operation of the ,free ,balloon 7#aiah7 ,,roustam-,,bek1 ,b41 ,aerial ,russia 7#aiaf7 ,,simmonds1 ,r41 ,all ,about ,aircraft 7#aiae7 ,,stout1 ,,wm4 ,b41 ,acquiring ,wings 7#aiag7 ,,talbot1 ,f4 ,a41 ,aeroplanes and ,dirigibles of ,war 7#aiae7 ,,thurston1 ,a4 ,b41 ,elementary ,aeronautics 7#aiaa7 ,,turner1 ,c4 ,c41 ,aircraft of ,today 7#aiag7 ,,turner1 ,c4 ,c41 ,marvels of ,aviation 7#aiaf7 ,,verrill1 ,a4 ,w41 ,harper's ,aircraft ,book 7#aiac7 ,,walker1 ,s4 ,f41 ,aviation1 ,its ,principles1 ,its ,present and ,future 7#aiab7 ,,walker1 ,f41 ,all ,about ,zeppelins and ,other ,enemy ,aircraft 7#aiae7 ,,widmer1 ,,emil ,j41 ,military ,observation ,balloons 7#aiag7 ,,wood1 ,,walter1 ,thrilling ,deeds of ,british ,airmen 7#aiah7 ,,winchester1 ,c41 ,flying ,men and ,their ,machines 7#aiaf7 ,,woodhouse1 ,,henry1 ,a ,textbook of ,military ,aeronautics 7#aiah7 ,,index ,accidents3 airplane1 #aae balloon1 #ac1 #cb1 #ed gliding1 #hd1 #he ,aerial ,experiment ,association1 #ajg ,aero ,club of ,america1 #bda ,a4 ,e4 ,g4 airplane1 #bjj1 #bjc ,a4 ,g4 ,o4 airplane1 #bjj1 #bjc ,ailerons1 #ac1 #id1 #ih1 #aaa1 #aac ,airplane3 ,a4 ,e4 ,g41 #bjj1 #bjc ,a4 ,g4 ,o41 #bjj1 #bjc ,albatros1 #aie1 #bjc ,antoinette1 #ajd1 #aje1 #aji1 #aaj1 #aac1 #aai ,aviatik1 #aif1 #bjc ,avro1 #aha1 #ahb battle planes1 #abh-adj1 #agg1 #agh1 #aib-aif ,blriot1 #ajd1 #aje1 #aaj1 #aac bombing planes1 #abh-adi1 #ahj-ahh1 #aig-bjd ,breguet1 #aad1 #aha ,breguet-,michelin1 #agi ,bristol ,scout1 #age ,caproni1 #ahc-ahe ,caudron1 #agh1 #ahb chassis1 #aaa1 #afe-afg ,curtiss1 #ajh1 #agc1 #agd1 #ahg1 #bdi ,de ,havilland1 #age1 #aid ,demoiselle1 #aad ,dorand1 #aha drift1 #ig early experiments1 #gg-ij engines 7see engine7 ,farman1 #ajh1 #aaj1 #aab1 #aaf1 #agh1 #aha first principles of1 #ia-ih first real1 #hi flight records 7see records7 ,fokker1 #agb1 #aib-aid1 #bjc ,friedrichshafen1 #aii ,gotha1 #aig-aii1 #bjc ,halberstadt1 #aif1 #bjc ,handley-,page1 #aha1 #ahb head resistance1 #if1 #aea1 #afj ,june ,bug1 #ajg ,langley1 #ahb ,letord1 #aha ,l4 ,v4 ,w41 #bjc making of1 #bbc-bca 7also see fabrics7 ,moineau1 #agi1 #aha ,morane1 #aai1 #aib ,,nc-#d1 #bdd ,nieuport1 #aba1 #aga1 #baa nomenclature1 #id ,pfalz1 #bjc reconnaissance planes1 #abh-adi1 #agg-ahj ,red ,wing1 #ajg ,roland1 #bjc ,rumpler1 #bjc ,santos-,dumont's1 #ajj1 #aad ,sikorsky1 #abe-abg1 #ahg ,sopwith1 #age1 #aha1 #ahe1 #ahf1 #bdd ,spad1 #agc starting and landing problems1 #afe-afg1 #bdj ,taube1 #aia ,vickers1 ,scout1 #age ,vickers-,vimy1 #bde ,voisin1 #ajb1 #ajc1 #aaj1 #aab1 #agh1 #ahb ,voisin-,peugeot1 #agi1 #aha ,white ,wing1 #ajg wings 7see wings7 ,wright 7see ,wright7 ,albatros airplane1 #aie1 #bjc ,alcock1 ,capt4 ,john1 #bde ,annonay1 #c1 #d ,antoinette airplane1 #ajd1 #aje1 #aji1 #aaj1 #aac1 #aai ,archimedes' law of gravity1 #ad ,argus engine1 #abf ,arlandes1 ,marquis d'1 #g1 #h ,ascents1 early balloon1 #c1 #g-ab1 #bj-bc1 #bf1 #bg1 #di ,astra dirigible1 #gc-gd ,astra-,torres dirigible1 #gc-gd ,aviatik airplane1 #aif1 #bjc ,aviator1 training of an1 #bcb-bdc ,avro airplane1 #aha1 #ahb ,baker1 ,secretary of ,war1 #bja ,baldwin1 ,capt4 ,thomas ,s41 #fe1 #ajf ,ball1 ,capt4 ,albert1 #bae1 #bai1 #bbj ,balloon1 dirigible3 ,astra1 #gc1 #gd ,astra-,torres1 #gc1 #gd ,blimps1 #gj car suspension1 #gb1 #gc demi-semi-rigid1 #fg development of1 #dg-gd first1 #ea first military1 #eb first ,u4 ,s4 ,army1 #fe ,la ,france1 #ec ,nulli ,secundus1 #fd1 #fe1 #fh ,patrie1 #fc ,pax1 #eh ,r-#cd1 #bde rigid and non-rigid1 #ff1 #fg semi-rigid1 #fg ,s4 ,m4 ,s4 ,zeppelin ,i1 #ff ,speiss1 #gd trans-,atlantic flight1 #bde use in ,world ,war1 #fh-gd ,ville de ,paris1 #fc ,zeppelins1 #ee1 #ef1 #fb1 #fe-fh1 #abc ,zodiacs1 #gb ,balloon1 passive3 basket of1 #ai captive1 #cf-dd car of1 #ai1 #ej car lines of1 #ah ,channel flights1 #ab1 #bb-bd ,conqueror1 #bg drachen1 #cf-dd early ascents of1 #c-bg1 #di fabrics of 7see fabrics7 first1 #c first use of1 in war1 #be1 #bf gases used for 7see gases7 grapnel of1 #ai hoop of1 #ah kite1 #ai1 #cf-dd neck of1 #ah net of1 #ah observation1 #cf-dd principles of1 #ad-ai ripping panel of1 #ah races1 #bf sausage1 #ai1 #cf-dd trail rope of1 #ah use of1 in ,great ,war1 #cf-dd ,ballonet1 steering1 #ch ,ballooning3 early1 #c-bg in ,boer ,war1 #bf in ,civil ,war1 #be in ,great ,war1 #cf-dd ,basket1 balloon1 #ai ,battle planes1 #abh-adi1 #agg-agh1 #aib-aif ,baumgarten1 #ed ,bell1 ,alexander ,graham1 #ajf ,bennett1 ,gordon1 #bf1 #ajh ,bishop1 ,major ,william ,a41 #bje1 #bad ,blanchard1 #ab1 #ac1 #bi ,blriot1 #ajd1 #aje1 #ajh1 #aae ,blimps1 #gj-gb ,bliss1 ,general ,tasker ,h41 #bja ,boelke1 ,captain1 #aid1 #bai ,boer ,war1 balloons in1 #bf ,bombing planes1 #abh-adi1 #ahj-ahh1 #aig-bjd ,bonnel1 ,captain1 #bbj ,breguet airplane1 #aad1 #aba1 #abb1 #abc1 #aha ,breguet-,michelin airplane1 #agi ,bristol ,scout airplane1 #age ,brown1 ,lieut4 ,arthur ,w41 #bde ,cacquot1 ,captain1 #dc ,caproni airplane1 #ahc1 #ahd1 #ahe ,car1 balloon1 #ai1 #ej1 #gb ,car lines1 balloon1 #ah ,carlstrom1 ,victor1 #agd ,caudron airplane1 #agh1 #ahb ,cavallo1 #i ,cayley1 ,sir ,george1 #hj ,certificate1 aviator's1 #bda ,chamber of ,horrors1 #bcd ,channel flights3 first airplane1 #ajd first balloon1 #ab1 #bb-bd ,chanute1 #hf ,chapman1 ,victor1 #baf ,chaput1 ,lieut4 ,jean1 #bad ,charles1 #i ,chartres1 ,duke de1 #di ,chassis3 first1 #aaa problem of1 #afe-afg ,circuit of ,britain prize1 #abj ,civil ,war1 balloons in1 #be ,clement-,bayard1 #gd ,clerget engine1 #ahg ,cocking1 #ca ,conneau1 ,lieutenant1 #abj ,conqueror1 #bg ,curtiss airplane1 #ajh1 #agc1 #agd1 #ahg1 #bdi ,curtiss ,baby ,speed ,scout1 #agd ,curtiss1 ,glenn ,h41 #fe1 #ajf-ajh1 #aai ,curtiss triplane1 #agc ,daily ,mail1 ,london1 prizes1 #ajd1 #aae1 #abj ,de ,havilland airplane1 #age1 #aid ,demoiselle1 #aad ,deutsch1 #eg1 #fc ,dope1 #afd1 #bbg ,dorand airplane1 #aha ,douglas1 ,archibald1 #cg ,drachen balloon1 #cf-dd ,drift1 airplane1 #ig ,dubonnet1 ,emile1 #da ,eiffel ,tower1 flight around1 #eg1 #aae ,engine3 ,argus1 #abf ,clerget1 #ahg ,curtiss1 #ga development and principles of airplane1 #aec-afi ,fiat1 #ahc first balloon1 #ea ,gnome1 #aaa1 #aba1 #aed1 #aei ,liberty1 #afh1 #ahb ,rolls-,royce1 #ahb ,wright's1 #hi1 #aec ,esnault-,pelterie1 #aad ,fabrics3 calico1 #fj1 #fa cotton1 #ah1 #afd linen1 #i oil silk1 #aa rubber1 #fa1 #fc ,farman airplane1 #ajh1 #aaj1 #aab1 #aaf1 #agh1 #aha ,farman1 ,henry1 #ajb1 #ajc1 #aaj-aab1 #aae1 #abc1 #aed ,fiat motor1 #ahc ,field of ,mars1 #aj ,fokker airplane1 #agb1 #aib-aid1 #bjc ,fonck1 ,ren1 #bab-bad ,franklin1 ,benjamin1 #aa ,friedrichshafen airplane1 #aii ,fullard1 ,capt4 ,philip ,f41 #bae ,fuselage1 development of1 #abb1 #afe-aff ,garnerin1 ,andr1 #cj ,gases3 coal1 #af hydrogen1 #i1 #ba ,genet1 ,edmond1 #bah ,giffard1 #ej ,gliders1 #ha-hh1 #ajj ,gnome engine1 #aaa1 #aba1 #aed1 #aei ,goertz range finder1 #adg ,goodyear ,tire and ,rubber ,co41 #dc ,gotha airplane1 #aig-aii1 #bjc ,grahame-,white1 ,claude1 #aaf ,grapnel1 balloon1 #ai ,great ,nassau1 #bb ,green1 ,charles1 #bb1 #ca ,gross1 ,major von1 #ff ,guffroy1 #aad ,gun-tunnel ,gotha1 #aig-aii ,guynemer1 ,georges1 #acg1 #agb1 #bje-bad ,haenlein1 ,paul1 #eb ,halberstadt airplane1 #aif1 #bjc ,handley-,page airplane1 #aha1 #ahb ,hargrave1 #he ,hat-in-the-,ring ,squadron1 #bba ,hawker1 ,harry1 #bdd ,head resistance1 airplane1 #if1 #aea1 #afj ,hitchcock1 ,hon4 ,frank ,h41 #bdi ,hoop1 balloon1 #ah ,hopper1 #abe ,immelmann1 #agf1 #aid1 #bae1 #bai ,jeffries1 ,dr41 #ab ,jouillot1 #fj ,june ,bug1 #ajg ,juvisy meeting1 #aae ,kite balloon1 #ai1 #cf-dd ,kites3 principles of1 #gi1 #ia ,lilienthal's1 #ha1 #hf ,krebs1 #ec ,kuparanto1 ,r4 ,jordarki1 #cj ,lafayette ,escadrille1 #agb1 #baf1 #bag ,lahm1 ,lieut4 ,frank ,p41 #bf ,lambert1 ,comte de1 #ajh1 #aae ,landing problems1 #afe-afg1 #bdj ,langley1 #ahb ,latham1 ,hubert1 #ajd1 #ajh1 #aji ,lebaudy ,brothers1 #fj-fg ,lefevre1 #ajh ,letord airplane1 #aha ,liberty motor1 #afh1 #ahb ,lilienthal1 ,otto1 #ha-he1 #ib ,little1 ,robert ,a41 #bae ,lme1 ,dupuy de1 #eb ,loubet1 ,president1 #eh ,lufbery1 ,major1 #bje1 #baf1 #bag ,lunardi1 ,vincent1 #ab1 #bj-bb ,l4 ,v4 ,w4 airplane1 #bjc ,malone1 ,lieut4 ,john ,j41 #bae ,materials1 airplane1 problem of1 #afc1 #afd ,mc,cudden1 ,capt4 ,james1 #bje1 #bae ,mc,curdy1 ,j4 ,a4 ,d41 #ajf ,meusnier1 ,general1 #di ,michelin cup1 #aae ,moineau airplane1 #agi1 #aha ,monoplane1 principles of1 #aej-aea ,montgolfier ,brothers1 #c-aa ,morane airplane1 #aai1 #aib ,moret1 #ba ,motor 7see engine7 ,,nc-#d1 #bdd ,neck1 balloon1 #ah ,net balloon1 #ah ,nieuport airplane1 #aba1 #aga1 #baa ,nomenclature of airplane1 #id ,normand1 ,le1 #bi ,nulli ,secundus1 #fd1 #fe1 #fh ,parachute flares1 #cd ,parachutes1 #bh-ce1 #db ,paulhan1 #ajh1 #aaf ,paris1 bombing raid on 7#aiah71 #bja ,parseval1 ,major von1 #cg1 #ff ,patrie1 #fc ,pax1 #eh ,pelcher1 ,percy ,s41 #he ,pershing1 ,general ,john1 #bah ,pfalz airplane1 #bjc ,pola1 bombing raid on1 #ahd ,pollock1 ,c4 ,f41 #bc ,pourpe1 ,marc1 #baf ,price1 ,norman1 #baf ,propeller1 principle of1 #afa-afc ,raids1 famous bombing3 ,paris1 #bja ,pola1 #ahd ,read1 ,lieut4-,com4 ,a4 ,c41 #bdd ,reconnaissance planes1 #abh-adi1 #agg-ahj ,record airplane flights3 altitude1 #aaf1 #afh channel1 #ajd distance1 #aja1 #aae1 #aaf1 #aai1 #aed speed1 #ajh1 #aai1 #aba trans-,atlantic1 #bdd ,red ,wing1 #ajg ,renard1 #ec ,rheims meetings1 #ajg1 #aji1 #aai1 #aba1 #aed ,richthofen1 ,baron von1 #aid1 #baj1 #bab1 #bae1 #bbj-bbb ,rickenbacker1 ,capt4 ,eddie1 #bah-bbj ,ripping panel1 balloon1 #ah ,roberts ,brothers1 #i1 #di ,rockwell1 ,kiffen1 #baf ,roland airplane1 #bjc ,rolls-,royce engine1 #ahb ,rosevear1 ,stanley1 #bae ,rozier1 ,pilat de1 #f1 #ac ,rumpler airplane1 #bjc ,salomone1 ,major1 #ahe ,santos-,dumont1 #ee-ei1 #ii-ajb1 #aad ,sausage balloon1 #ai1 #cf-dd ,schaeck1 ,colonel1 #bg ,schwartz1 ,david1 #ed ,scientific ,american trophy1 #ajg ,scott1 ,major ,g4 ,h41 #bde ,selfridge1 ,lieut4 ,thomas1 #ajf ,severo1 #eh ,sigsfeld1 ,captain von1 #cg ,sikorsky1 ,i4 ,i41 #abe1 #abf1 #abg1 #ahg ,sopwith airplane1 #age1 #aha1 #ahe1 #ahf1 #bdd ,spad airplane1 #agc ,speiss dirigible1 #gd ,steering ballonet1 #ch ,storks1 the1 #agb1 #baj ,taube airplane1 #aia ,templer1 ,colonel1 #fd1 #fe ,tissandier1 ,gaston and ,albert1 #ec1 #ajh ,towers1 ,commander1 #bdd ,trail rope1 balloon1 #ah ,training of an aviator1 #bcb-bdc ,trans-,atlantic flights1 #bdd ,triplane1 development of1 #adh-aea ,vickers ,scout airplane1 #age ,vickers-,vimy airplane1 #bde ,ville de ,paris1 #fc ,vinci1 ,leonardi da1 #gi ,voisin airplane1 #ajb1 #ajc1 #aaj1 #aab1 #agh1 #ahb ,voisin ,brothers1 #ajb1 #aaj ,voisin-,peugeot airplane1 #agi1 #aha ,wenham1 #hj ,white ,wing1 #ajg ,wilcox1 ,james1 #aa ,wilkinson1 ,allan1 #bae ,wings3 ,lilienthal's1 #ha-hd principles of1 #ha1 #ie1 #adg1 #adh1 #adi1 #aff1 #afg ,wing-warping1 #hh1 #ig ,wissemann1 #bab ,wlfert1 #ed ,wollett1 ,capt4 ,henry ,w41 #bae ,world1 ,new ,york1 prize1 #aah ,wright1 ,wilbur and ,orville1 #hf-ij1 #ii1 #aja1 #ajc1 #aad1 #aej1 #aea1 #aec ,zambeccari1 ,count1 #aa ,zeppelin1 ,count von1 #ee1 #fb1 #fe ,zeppelins1 #ee-ef1 #fb1 #fe1 #ff1 #fh1 #abc ,zodiacs1 #gb 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,the original spelling and minor inconsistencies in the spelling and formatting have been maintained4 ,the table below lists all corrections applied to the original text4 p vii3 ,santos ,dumont - ,santos-,dumont p viii3 ,a group of ,de ,haviland - ,havilland p #f3 ,frenchman1 ,pilatre de ,rozier - ,piltre de ,rozier p #f3 ,pilatre de ,rozier - ,piltre de ,rozier p #ac3 ,pilatre de ,rozier - ,piltre de ,rozier p #ai3 more buoyant - buoyant4 p #bh3 the parachute - ,is small caps3 ,,the ,,parachute p #ca3 aeronuat - aeronaut p #cc3 he may find himsell - himself p #ed3 took place in midair - mid-air p #ee3 ,,santos ,,dumont - ,,santos-,,dumont p #fd3 air-bag of onefifth - one-fifth p #fe3 ,n4 ,y41 who far - for p #ff3 with a large interval - internal p #gd3 ,the ,lebandy - ,lebaudy p #ih3 the airplane body or fusilage4 - fuselage4 p #ajj3 resembling a boxkite - box-kite p #aaa3 ,the over-heating - overheating p #abb3 by means of it - its p #abf3 ,in the foreward - forward p #ada3 produce slightly over-lapping - overlapping p #ade3 that enemy reenforcements - reinforcements p #aec3 needs of air-craft - aircraft p #age3 and the ,de ,haviland - ,havilland p #agf3 downing the enemy4 ,immelman - ,immelmann p #agi3 ,brguet-,michelin - ,breguet-,michelin p #aha3 the ,brguet - ,breguet p #aid3 ,british ,de,haviland - ,de ,havilland p #bjf3 in the town of ,compiegne - ,compigne p #bjf3 student in the cole ,polytechnic - ,polytechnique p #bjf3 #aiad1 came the the news - the news p #bai3 the early days ,immelman - ,immelmann p #bai3 and fighting4 ,immelman's - ,immelmann's p #bai3 from that of ,immelman - ,immelmann p #bcf3 and a dizzy sea-sickness - seasickness p #bch3 goes taxi-ing - taxiing p #bdd3 ,a ,,group ,,of ,,de ,,haviland - ,,havilland p #bea3 picture man of today - to-day p #beg3 ,airships in ,peace and ,war - ,war 7#aiaj7 ,p #bei3 balloon1 #ac1 #cb1 #ed1 #ed - balloon1 #ac1 #cb1 #ed p #bei3 ,a4 ,g4 ,o4 - ,a4 ,g4 ,o41 p #bei3 ,de ,haviland - ,havilland p #bei3 engines 7see engines7 - engine p #bfa3 ,de ,haviland - ,havilland p #bfa3 ,esnault-,pelteric - ,pelterie p #bfa3 ,fullard1 ,capt4 ,phillip ,f4 - ,fullard1 ,capt4 ,philip ,f4 p #bfb3 ,immelman - ,immelmann p #bfc3 ,rozier1 ,pilat de - ,rozier1 ,piltre de p #bfd3 ,wollet - ,wollett