,illustration3 ,,head ,,of ,,royal ,,bengal ,,tiger4 ,,mounted ,,by ,,the ,,author4 ,,taxidermy ,,and ,,zoological ,,collecting ,a ,,complete ,,handbook ,,for ,,the ,,amateur ,,taxidermist1 ,,collector1 ,,osteologist1 ,,museum-,,builder1 ,,sportsman1 ,,and ,,traveller ,,by ,,william4 ,t4 ,,hornaday ,for eight years ,chief ,taxidermist of the ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum2 for seven years ,zoological ,collector and ,taxidermist for ,ward's ,natural ,science ,establishment2 late ,superintendent of the ,national ,zoological ,park2 author of ,two ,years in the ,jungle1 etc4 ,,with ,,chapters ,,on ,,collecting ,,and ,,preserving ,,insects ,,by ,w4,j4 ,,holland1 ,,ph4,d41 ,d4,d4 ,chancellor ,western ,university of ,pennsylvania2 ,president of the ,academy of ,science and ,art of ,pittsburg1 and the ,iron ,city ,microscopical ,society2 ,life ,member of the ,ent4 ,soc4 of ,france2 ,fellow of the ,ent4 ,soc4 of ,london1 etc4 ,,illustrated ,,by ,,charles ,,bradford ,,hudson ,,and ,,other ,,artists #bd plates and #he ,text ,illustrations ,,fourth ,,edition ,,new ,,york ,,charles ,,scribner',s ,,sons #ahid ,,copyright1 #ahia ,,by ,,charles ,,scribner',s ,,sons ,,trow ,,directory ,,printing ,,and ,,bookbinding ,,company ,,new ,,york ,to ,g4 ,,brown ,,goode1 ,,ll ,d4 ,,whose ,,liberal ,,policy ,,has ,,done ,,so ,,much ,,for ,,the ,,advancement ,,of ,,american ,,taxidermy ,,this ,,book ,,is ,,inscribed ,,as ,,an ,,expression ,,of ,,appreciation ,,of ,,his ,,valuable ,,public ,,services ,,in ,,the ,,organization1 ,,direction1 ,,and ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,national ,,museum ,,and ,,also ,,of ,,sincere ,,personal ,,regard ,,preface4 ,in these heydays of popular zoology1 when eager young naturalists are coming to the front in crowds1 and fine new scientific museums are starting up on every hand1 there is small need to apologize for the appearance of a work designed expressly for the naturalist and museum-builder4 ,had justice been done1 some one would have written this book ten years ago4 ,the rapid and alarming destruction of all forms of wild animal life which is now going on furiously throughout the entire world1 renders it imperatively necessary for those who would build up great zoological collections to be up and doing before any more of the leading species are exterminated4 ,it is already too late to collect wild specimens of the ,american bison1 ,californian elephant seal1 ,west ,indian seal1 great auk1 and ,labrador duck4 ,very soon it will also be too late to collect walrus1 manatee1 fur seal1 prong-horn antelope1 elk1 moose1 mountain sheep1 and mountain goat4 ,all along the ,atlantic coast and in ,florida the ducks are being exterminated for the metropolitan markets1 and the gulls1 terns1 herons1 egrets1 ibises1 and spoonbills are being slaughtered wholesale for the equally bloodthirsty goddess of ,fashion4 ,if the naturalist would gather representatives of all these forms for perpetual preservation1 and future study1 he must set about it at once4 ,this work is offered as my contribution to the science of zoology and the work of the museum-builder4 ,it is entirely an affair of the heart1 and my only desire in regard to it is that it may be the means of materially increasing the world's store of well-selected and well-preserved examples of the beautiful and interesting animal forms that now inhabit the earth and its waters4 ,the sight of a particularly fine animal1 either alive or dead1 excites within me feelings of admiration that often amount to genuine affection2 and the study and preservation of such forms has for sixteen years been my chief delight4 ,in these pages ,i have sought to give1 in clear language1 the detailed information which ,i have found deplorably lacking in all manuals on this subject that ,i have ever seen1 save one1 in ,french1 published many years ago1 and which1 while very tiresome to write out1 are precisely what the practical worker wants4 ,i hold a permanent grudge against those who have written before me on the subjects here treated of1 because of what they did not write4 ,the average book on taxidermy contains four times too much padding1 and not one quarter enough practical information4 ,if this be treason1 make the most of it4 ,the students of entomology are indebted to ,dr4 ,holland for his admirable chapters on ,insects1 and ,i leave them to make their own acknowledgments4 ,my own very sincere thanks are hereby tendered him for his valuable contribution to this work1 thereby making it complete4 ,i am also under obligations to ,mr4 ,charles ,bradford ,hudson1 the accomplished artist1 whose skill has done so much to explain and embellish the text4 ,the spirit and interest with which he entered into his share of the work very materially lightened and encouraged my own tardy labors4 ,my thanks are also due to my valued friend1 ,mr4 ,frederic ,a4 ,lucas1 of the ,department of ,comparative ,anatomy1 ,national ,museum1 and one of the founders of the ,society of ,american ,taxidermists1 for advice and assistance in the preparation of the illustrations relating to work on skeletons4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,harvey ,brown1 ,naturalist of the ,u4,s4 ,eclipse ,expedition to ,africa1 kindly wrote for me nearly all of the chapter on ,mounting ,disarticulated ,skeletons2 ,messrs4 ,william ,palmer and ,john ,w4 ,hendley1 of the ,national ,museum1 also rendered me valuable services2 for all of which ,i gladly record here an expression of my thanks and appreciation4 ,having already retired from taxidermy forever1 this is positively my last appearance in this field4 ,w4,t4,h4 ,,buffalo1 ,n4,y4 ,,contents4 ,part #a4 ,,collecting ,,and ,,preserving4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,page ,,the ,,worker1 ,,and ,,the ,,work ,,to ,,be ,,done1 #a-g ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,outfits1 ,,and ,,hints ,,on ,,hunting1 #h-ai ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,how ,,to ,,select ,,and ,,study ,,fresh ,,specimens1 #bj-bc ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,treatment ,,of ,,the ,,skins ,,of ,,small ,,mammals1 #bd-cf ,,chapter ,v4 ,,collecting ,,and ,,preserving ,,the ,,skins ,,of ,,large ,,mammals1 #cg-de ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,collecting ,,skins ,,of ,,small ,,birds1 #df-eg ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,collecting ,,skins ,,of ,,large ,,birds1 #eh-fc ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,collecting ,,reptiles1 #ff-gj ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,collecting ,,fishes1 #ga-gi ,,chapter ,x4 ,,collecting ,,marine ,,invertebrates1 #hj-hi ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,collecting ,,birds' ,,eggs ,,and ,,nests1 #ij-ig ,part #b4 ,,taxidermy4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,the ,,laboratory ,,and ,,its ,,appointments1 #ii-aja ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,preliminary ,,work ,,in ,,mounting ,,mammals1 #ajb-ajg ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,principles ,,of ,,universal ,,application ,,in ,,mounting ,,the ,,higher ,,vertebrates1 #ajh-aad ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,mounting ,,small ,,mammals1 #aae-abh ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,mounting ,,large ,,mammals3 ,,ordinary ,,methods1 #abi-aci ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,mounting ,,large ,,mammals3 ,,the ,,construction ,,of ,,manikins1 #adj-adi ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,finishing ,,mounted ,,mammals1 #aej-aeg ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,mounting ,,mammal ,,heads ,,as ,,trophies ,,and ,,ornaments1 #aeh-agj ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,facial ,,expression ,,and ,,mouth ,,modeling1 #aga-agh ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,relaxing ,,dry ,,skins ,,of ,,birds1 #agi-ahb ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,mounting ,,small ,,birds1 #ahc-aij ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,mounting ,,large ,,birds1 #aia-aig ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,cleaning ,,the ,,plumage ,,of ,,birds1 #aih-bja ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,,mounting ,,reptiles1 #bjb-bjg ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,,mounting ,,fishes1 #bjh-baf ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,,mounting ,,lobsters ,,and ,,crabs1 #bag-bai ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,,ornamental ,,taxidermy1 #bai-bbh ,,chapter ,,xxix4 ,,groups ,,and ,,grouping1 #bbi-bce ,,chapter ,,xxx4 ,,general ,,principles ,,of ,,group-,,making1 #bcf-bci ,,chapter ,,xxxi4 ,,groups ,,of ,,mammals1 #bdj-bdg ,,chapter ,,xxxii4 ,,groups ,,of ,,birds ,,and ,,reptiles1 #bdh-bej ,,chapter ,,xxxiii4 ,,hints ,,on ,,painting ,,museum ,,specimens1 #bea-beg ,part #c4 ,,making ,,casts4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiv4 ,,principles ,,of ,,universal ,,application ,,in ,,making ,,moulds ,,and ,,casts1 #bei-bfg ,,chapter ,,xxxv4 ,,casts ,,of ,,mammals1 ,,fishes1 ,,and ,,reptiles1 #bfh-bgj ,part #d4 ,,osteology4 ,,chapter ,,xxxvi4 ,,collecting ,,skeletons1 #bga-bha ,,chapter ,,xxxvii4 ,,cleaning ,,large ,,skeletons ,,by ,,macerating1 #bhb-bhd ,,chapter ,,xxxviii4 ,,cleaning ,,and ,,mounting ,,small ,,skeletons1 #bhe-bie ,,chapter ,,xxxix4 ,,mounting ,a ,,large ,,disarticulated ,,skeleton1 #bif-cjd ,part #e4 ,,the ,,collection ,,and ,,preservation ,,of ,,insects4 ,,chapter ,,xl4 ,,the ,,classification ,,of ,,insects1 #cje-cjh ,,chapter ,,xli4 ,,eggs ,,and ,,larv3 ,,breeding ,,and ,,rearing1 #cji-cai ,,chapter ,,xlii4 ,,collecting ,,imagoes1 #cbj-cbg ,,chapter ,,xliii4 ,,preparation1 ,,care1 ,,and ,,display ,,of ,,insects1 #cbh-cch ,part #f4 ,,general ,,information4 ,,chapter ,,xliv4 ,,insect ,,pests1 ,,and ,,poisoning1 #cci-cde ,,chapter ,,xlv4 ,,useful ,,information1 #cdf-cej ,,chapter ,,xlvi4 ,,the ,,best ,,books ,,of ,,reference1 #cea-cee ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations4 ,,full-,,page ,,plates4 ,,facing ,i4 ,,head ,,of ,,royal ,,bengal ,,tiger4 7,frontispiece47 ,,page ,,ii4 ,,two ,,pages ,,from ,,an ,,old ,,field ,,note-,,book 7,double ,plate71 #bb ,,iii4 ,,measurements ,,of ,a ,,large ,,mammal1 #ch ,,iv4 ,,how ,,to ,,cut ,,open ,,and ,,mount ,a ,,fish1 #gf ,v4 ,,paring ,,down ,a ,,large ,,mammal ,,skin1 #ajd ,,vi4 ,,interior ,,mechanism ,,of ,a ,,half-,,mounted ,,wolf1 #acb ,,vii4 ,,manikin ,,for ,,bengal ,,tiger3 ,,first ,,stage1 #adb ,,viii4 ,,manikin ,,for ,,bengal ,,tiger3 ,,completed1 #adh ,,ix4 ,,manikin ,,for ,,male ,,american ,,bison3 ,,half ,,finished1 #aeb ,x4 ,,manikin ,,for ,,american ,,bison3 ,,completed1 #aef ,,xi4 ,,head ,,of ,,prong-,,horn ,,antelope1 #afh ,,xii4 ,,workshop ,,of ,a ,,bird ,,taxidermist1 #ahb ,,xiii4 ,,mounted ,,bird1 ,,with ,,interior ,,structure ,,exposed1 #aib ,,xiv4 ,,mounting ,,an ,,alligator3 ,,last ,,stage1 #bjf ,,xv4 ,,american ,,lobster1 #bag ,,xvi4 ,,specimens ,,of ,,ornamental ,,taxidermy 7,double ,plate71 #bbb ,,xvii4 ,a ,,fight ,,in ,,the ,,tree-,,tops1 #bca ,,xviii4 ,,group ,,of ,,coyotes1 #bce ,,xix4 ,,group ,,of ,,american ,,bison 7,double ,plate71 #bdf ,,xx4 ,a ,,ligamentary ,,skeleton1 ,,mounted ,,and ,,drying1 #bhh ,,xxi4 ,,skeleton ,,of ,,an ,,american ,,bison1 #bih ,,fig4 #a4--;,,beating ,,the ,,bush1 #cbj ,,xxii4 ,,fig4 #b4--;,a ,,successful ,,stroke1 #cbj ,,fig4 #a4--;,,bottling ,a ,,skipper1 #cbf ,,xxiii4 ,,fig4 #b4--;,,japanese ,,porter ,,with ,,collecting ,,boxes1 #cbf ,,text ,,illustrations4 ,,part ,i4 ,,collecting ,,and ,,preserving4 ,,fig4 ,,page #a4 ,,the ,,best ,,knives ,,for ,a ,,collector ,,or ,,taxidermist1 #ae #b4 ,,squirrel ,,partly ,,skinned #bg #c4 ,,skinning ,a ,,squirrel',s ,,head1 #bh #d4 ,a ,,model ,,mammal ,,skin1 #cd #e4 ,,another ,,form ,,of ,,mammal ,,skin1 #ce #f4 ,,opening ,,cuts ,,on ,a ,,large ,,mammal1 #dj #g4 ,,opening ,,cuts ,,at ,,back ,,of ,,prong-,,horn ,,antelope',s ,,head1 #da #h4 ,a ,,well-,,made ,,dry ,,deer-,,skin1 #dc #i4 ,,foot ,,of ,,an ,,orang-,,utan1 #dd #aj4 ,,names ,,of ,,the ,,external ,,parts ,,of ,a ,,bird1 #dg #aa4 ,,first ,,steps ,,in ,,skinning ,a ,,bird1 #ej #ab4 ,,bird ,,skin1 ,,wrong ,,side ,,out1 #ea #ac4 ,,the ,,bird ,,skin ,,in ,,position1 #ec #ad4 ,,the ,,skin ,,half ,,wrapped1 #ed #ae4 ,,spreading ,,the ,,tail1 #ee #af4 ,,the ,,skin ,,fully ,,wrapped1 #ee #ag4 ,a ,,perfect ,,bird ,,skin1 #ef #ah4 ,,how ,,to ,,shape ,a ,,heron ,,skin1 #fj #ai4 ,,how ,,to ,,open ,a ,,turtle1 #fi #bj4 ,,agassiz ,,tank1 ,,for ,,alcoholics1 #gc #ba4 ,,bird ,,nest1 in situ1 #ib #bb4 ,,wire ,,standard ,,for ,,nests1 #ic #bc4 ,,nest ,,on ,,wire ,,standard1 ,,with ,,labels1 #id ,,part ,,ii4 ,,taxidermy4 #bd4 ,,skin ,,scrapers1 ,,about ,,one-,,fourth ,,actual ,,size1 #ajc #be4 ,,leg ,,making ,,and ,,wiring1 #aag #bf ,,wiring ,,together1 #aai #bf;a4 ,,the ,,legs ,,wired ,,together1 #aba #bg4 ,,the ,,finished ,,specimen1 #abd #bh4 ,,author',s ,,method ,,of ,,mounting ,,bats ,,on ,,glass1 #abh #bi4 ,,artificial ,,skeleton ,,for ,,hand ,,of ,,an ,,orang-,,utan1 #aca #cj4 ,,fillers ,,of ,,various ,,kinds1 #acc #ca4 ,,an ,,iron ,,square1 #acf #cb4 ,,leg ,,irons ,,of ,,an ,,american ,,bison1 #add #cc4 ,,skinning ,a ,,deer',s ,,ear1 #afa #cd4 ,,the ,,ear ,,half-,,skinned1 #afa #ce4 ,,skinning ,,down ,,the ,,inside1 #afb #cf4 ,,the ,,cartilage ,,out1 #afb #cg4 ,,internal ,,mechanism ,,of ,a ,,deer',s ,,head1 #afd #ch4 ,,complete ,,manikin ,,for ,a ,,deer',s ,,head1 #afe #ci4 ,,modeling ,,tools ,,of ,,wood1 #agc #dj4 ,,modeling ,,tools ,,of ,,wood1 #agc #da4 ,,modeling ,,tools ,,of ,,wood1 #agc #db4 ,,steel ,,modeling ,,tool1 #agd #dc4 ,,steel ,,modeling ,,tool1 #agd #dd4 ,,steel ,,modeling ,,tool1 #agd #de4 ,,side ,,view ,,of ,,tiger',s ,,tongue1 #age #df4 ,,end ,,view ,,of ,,tiger',s ,,tongue1 #age #dg4 ,,top ,,view ,,of ,,tiger',s ,,tongue1 #age #dh4 ,,wiring ,a ,,bird',s ,,leg1 #ahd #di4 ,,cross-,,section ,,of ,,artificial ,,body1 #ahe #ej4 ,,the ,,finished ,,body ,,and ,,neck1 #ahe #ea4 ,,how ,,the ,,leg ,,wires ,,are ,,inserted ,,and ,,clinched1 #ahf #eb4 ,,the ,,winding ,,of ,,the ,,bird1 #ahi #ec4 ,,cast ,,of ,,the ,,neck ,,and ,,windpipe ,,of ,a ,,heron1 #aie #ed4 ,,method ,,of ,,mounting ,,alcoholic ,,reptiles1 #bjc #ee4 ,,medallion ,,of ,,yellow ,,pike1 #bac #ef4 ,,cross ,,section1 #bac #eg4 ,,wall ,,case ,,of ,,birds1 #bbc #eh4 ,,wood ,,duck1 #bcb ,,part ,,iii4 ,,making ,,casts4 #ei4 ,,beginning ,,to ,,make ,a ,,piece ,,mould1 #bfj #fj4 ,,second ,,step ,,in ,,making ,a ,,piece ,,mould1 #bfa #fa4 ,,last ,,step ,,in ,,making ,a ,,piece ,,mould1 #bfb #fb4 ,,the ,,finished ,,mould1 #bfb #fc4 ,,the ,,beginning ,,of ,a ,,waste ,,mould1 #bfc #fd4 ,,second ,,step ,,in ,,making ,a ,,waste ,,mould1 #bfd #fe4 ,,chiseling ,,off ,,the ,,waste ,,mould1 #bfe ,,part ,,iv4 ,,osteology4 #ff4 ,,rough ,,skeleton ,,of ,a ,,small ,,animal1 #bgd #fg4 ,,rough ,,skeleton ,,of ,a ,,bird1 #bgg #fh4 ,,steel ,,bone-,,scrapers1 #bhf #fi4 ,,skeleton ,,of ,a ,,bat1 ,,as ,,exhibited1 #bia #gj4 ,,skeleton ,,of ,a ,,bird1 ,,mounted ,,and ,,drying1 #bib #ga4 ,,wiring ,a ,,skeleton ,,wing1 #bic #gb4 ,,skeleton ,,of ,a ,,turtle1 #bid #gc4 ,,the ,,sacrum ,,and ,,spinal ,,rod1 #bih #gd4 ,,attachment ,,of ,,ribs ,,to ,a ,,vertebra1 #bih #ge4 ,,middle ,,joint ,,of ,,the ,,hind ,,leg3 ,,side ,,view1 #cjj #gf4 ,,middle ,,joint ,,of ,,hind ,,leg3 ,,rear ,,view1 #cja #gg4 ,,bones ,,of ,,the ,,foot3 ,,side ,,view1 #cja #gh4 ,,bones ,,of ,,the ,,foot3 ,,rear ,,view1 #cja #gi4 ,,the ,,knee-,,joint1 #cjb #hj4 ,,front ,,view ,,of ,,knee-,,joint1 #cjb #ha4 ,,front ,,view ,,of ,,elbow-,,joint1 #cjb ,,part ,v4 ,,the ,,collection ,,and ,,preservation ,,of ,,insects4 #hb4 ,,apparatus ,,for ,,inflating ,,larv1 #cad #hc4 ,,drying ,,oven1 #cae #hd4 ,,drying ,,oven ,,for ,,larva ,,skin 7,after ,riley71 #cae #he4 ,,wire ,,bent ,,into ,,shape ,,for ,,mounting ,,larva 7,after ,riley71 #caf #hf4 ,,breeding ,,cage 7,after ,riley71 #cag #hg4 ,,breeding ,,cage1 #cah #hh4 ,,net-,,frame 7,after ,riley71 #cbj #hi4 ,,net-,,head1 ,,for ,,removable ,,frame 7,after ,riley71 #cba #ij4 ,,folding ,,net 7,after ,riley71 #cba #ia4 ,,collecting ,,jar1 #cbb #ib4 ,,perforated ,,paper ,,disc ,,for ,,jar1 #cbb #ic4 ,,method ,,of ,,pinching ,a ,,butterfly1 #cbe #id4 ,,manner ,,of ,,folding ,,paper ,,envelope1 #cbh #ie4 ,,butterfly ,,in ,,envelope1 #cbh #if4 ,,double ,,mount1 #ccj #ig4 ,,frame ,,for ,,mounting ,,beetles1 #ccj #ih4 ,,setting-,,board1 #cca #ii4 ,,setting-,,board 7,after ,riley71 #cca #ajj4 ,,setting-,,block1 #cca #aja4 ,,setting-,,block1 ,,with ,,butterfly1 #cca #ajb4 ,,setting-,,needle1 #ccb #ajc4 ,,box ,,for ,,receiving ,,setting-,,boards1 #ccc #ajd4 ,,shingling ,,specimens1 #ccd ,,taxidermy ,,and ,,zoological ,,collecting4 ,,part ,i4--,,collecting ,,and ,,preserving4 ,eternal vigilance is the price of a collection4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,worker ,,and ,,the ,,work ,,to ,,be ,,done4 ,the need of thoroughly skilled collectors is increasing every hour2 and right here let me say to the young naturalist athirst for travel and adventure1 ,there is no other way in which you can so easily find a way to gratify your heart's desire as by becoming a skilful collector4 ,the most important vertebrate forms are being rapidly swept off the face of the earth by firearms1 traps1 and other engines of destruction4 ,in five years' time--perhaps in three--there will not be a wild buffalo left in this country outside of protected limits4 ,there are less than one hundred even now--and yet how very few of our museums have good specimens of this most interesting and conspicuous native species4 ,the rhytina1 the ,californian elephant seal1 the great auk1 and the ,labrador duck have already been exterminated4 ,for many years the ,west ,indian seal was regarded as wholly extinct1 but a small colony has lately been discovered by ,mr4 ,henry ,l4 ,ward on a remote islet in the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,the walrus1 the manatee1 the moose1 mountain goat1 antelope1 mountain sheep1 the sea otter1 the beaver1 elk1 and mule deer are all going fast1 and by the time the museum-builders of the world awake to the necessity of securing good specimens of all these it may be too late to find them4 ,even in ,south ,africa1 where big game once existed in countless thousands1 nothing remains of the larger species save a few insignificant springboks1 and no game worth mentioning can be found nearer than the ,limpopo ,valley1 eight hundred miles north of the ,cape6 ,now is the time to collect4 ,a little later it will cost a great deal more1 and the collector will get a great deal less4 ,sportsmen1 pot-hunters1 and breech-loading firearms are increasing in all parts of the world much faster than the game to be shot1 and it is my firm belief that the time will come when the majority of the vertebrate species now inhabiting the earth in a wild state will be either totally exterminated1 or exist only under protection4 ,but do not launch out as a collector until you know how to collect4 ,the observance of this principle would have saved the useless slaughter of tens of thousands of living creatures1 and prevented the accumulation of tons upon tons of useless rubbish in the zoological museums of the world4 ,it costs just as much to collect and care for scientific rubbish as it would to do the same by an equal number of scientific treasures4 ,between fool collectors on one hand1 and inartistic taxidermists on the other1 the great majority of the world's zoological museums have been filled with objects that are anything but attractive2 and for this state of affairs the collectors are more to blame than the taxidermists4 ,bad work in collecting is1 in nine cases out of ten1 due to one of two causes--ignorance or laziness4 ,by some curious process of reasoning1 many really intelligent men conclude that they can go into the field and collect successfully without having learned a single thing about methods1 or asked a word of advice from a competent instructor4 ,many seem to think that the only thing required is main strength1 and that even that may be exerted by proxy4 ,even now1 men who have travelled and written books go to ,south ,america and dry all their skins in the sun--after having carefully removed all the leg bones--and their small skeletons they boil6 ,some of the worst mammal skins ,i ever saw were made by a professor of natural history1 who actually managed to do nearly everything as it should not have been done4 ,and yet1 collecting all kinds of animal specimens1 in all climates1 is perfectly simple to any one who has enough enterprise to inform himself of the most reliable methods1 and put them in practice4 ,i will confess ,i feel very deeply on this point1 for ,i have toiled1 needlessly1 unnumbered hours1 and days too1 in overcoming1 as far as possible1 the inexcusable blunders of collectors4 ,i have seen thousands of dollars wasted in this way that could have been saved by good work in the field4 ,it is easier to mount two good skins within five per cent of perfection than to mount one poor one not nearly so well4 ,let me advise the directors of all scientific museums1 institutions of learning1 and patrons of natural history generally1 when appealed to by an enthusiastic collector for funds with which to go abroad and collect an untold amount of priceless specimens1 in every case withhold your aid until the would-be collector demonstrates conclusively that he has learned how to collect4 ,if he has not wit enough and grit enough to acquire ability1 and then prove property1 he is not fit to send anywhere1 save back to the bosom of his family4 ,these are the qualities which are required to make a first-class collector3 ,he must have a fair general knowledge of zoology1 especially the vertebrates4 ,he must be a good shot1 a successful hunter1 and capable of great physical endurance4 ,then he must be a neat and skilful operator with the knife1 and conscientious in the details of his work1 down to the smallest particulars1 for without this quality his specimens will always be faulty and disappointing4 ,in addition to all these requirements he must be a man of tireless energy1 incapable of going to bed so long as there are birds to be skinned1 and who1 whenever a doubt arises in his mind in regard to the necessity of more work on a specimen will always give the specimen the benefit of the doubt4 ,i strongly advise every one who becomes a collector to learn to sketch from nature4 ,no matter whether you have any artistic ability or not1 if you are determined about it1 you can learn to make pencil sketches of rare specimens in the field1 and of native houses1 costumes1 weapons1 etc41 and remarkable natural objects of all kinds1 which1 even though crude and inartistic in finish1 may be of permanent value to the scientific world4 ,the camera and dry plate are of great value1 but commend me to the pencil and sketch-book that sticketh closer than a brother1 and that never fail you on account of weather1 weight1 or accidents4 ,therefore ,i say1 sketch2 sketch poorly if you cannot sketch well1 but above all1 sketch4 ,the moment you make up your mind to go on a collecting trip1 even if be only into the next county1 read everything you can get hold of which will tell you aught about the natural history of the country you are to visit4 ,ask what has been written1 search library catalogues for titles of books1 then get all you can1 and read all you get4 ,only the churl will refuse to lend you a book you cannot afford to buy4 ,read all about the physical geography1 geology1 climate1 inhabitants1 fauna and flora1 for all these will have a direct bearing on your work4 ,if you are going to unexplored territory1 about which nothing has been written1 then read up on the adjacent countries1 for even that will be very useful information4 ,,guides ,,and ,,companions4--,no matter where you go1 you will be obliged to have one or more companions1 who know the country1 to act as guides and general assistants4 ,it may be that you can find a single person combining the necessary qualities of a guide and interpreter with those of a boatman1 a teamster1 or porter4 ,the expense of such assistants must be counted upon from the very first4 ,it may be stated as a general rule that in the tropics the services of natives can be had cheaply2 while those of ,europeans are generally dear in comparison with what they do4 ,,clothing ,,and ,,food4--,these subjects ,i propose to leave entirely alone4 ,they make excellent padding for a work of this kind when there is a lack of really useful information with which to fill up2 but every man feeds and clothes himself according to the dictates of his temperament1 his purse1 or his own sweet will4 ,whether his way is the best or the worst1 he will still have food and clothes more or less suitable to his needs1 and time spent in advising him what to wear and to eat is time wasted4 ,these questions are generally controlled by the locality and circumstances4 ,,preservation ,,of ,,health4--,there are certain hygienic principles which apply all the world over1 and since their observance becomes in the tropics a question of life and death1 ,i will record them4 ,their observance has preserved my health intact in unwholesome jungles in a way that ,i consider nothing short of wonderful4 ,never sleep on the ground in the wet portions of the tropics when possible to avoid it1 but keep above the poisonous miasmatic vapors that lie close to the earth4 ,boil water before drinking it1 if it is thought to be bad1 and avoid stagnant water at all times4 ,drink no spirits whatever except when really sick or debilitated1 nor wine1 nor other alcoholic beverages4 ,avoid brandy1 whiskey1 and rum as you would the plague4 ,eat no unripe fruit1 and with moderation of even ripe fruits1 excepting bananas1 which are harmless and most excellent food4 ,avoid eating large quantities of meat1 but give the preference to rice1 and farinaceous foods generally4 ,wear light flannel shirts1 and at all hazards keep the head and nape of the neck well shielded from the sun4 ,pith helmets are best4 ,after getting wet1 do not sit down in the hot sun with your wet clothes on1 but if you must remain in the sun1 keep moving4 ,by means of rubber clothing1 or ponchos1 keep from getting wet whenever you can4 ,on coming into camp with wet garments1 do not sit down in them to rest1 but change immediately to dry clothing and footgear4 ,the strict observance of this rule will save many an attack of fever4 ,,medicines4--,every traveller or collector who goes beyond the ready reach of doctors 7and for that matter also every family living in the country7 should have a small box filled with certain medicines and simple appliances as a resort in all cases of emergency4 ,very often a deal of mischief can be prevented by having the proper remedy at hand and ready for immediate application4 ,who has not seen great suffering endured for the lack of a simple remedy costing only a few cents8 ,no matter where ,i go in the field1 or how much luggage ,i am impeded with1 ,i always carry with me a small1 square1 japanned tin box 7#aj inches long1 #g inches wide1 and #d inches deep7 which contains the following3 #a roll silk court-plaster 7about #a yard74 #a bottle ,collis ,browne's chlorodyne4 #f curved surgeon's needles and silk thread4 #a_/b ounce quinine4 #d ounces spirits of turpentine4 #a package ,epsom salts4 #d ounces tincture of arnica4 #a package senna leaves4 #b ounces syrup of ipecac4 #a package carbonate of soda4 #a ounce paregoric4 #b-ounce bottle of ,squibb's diarrhoea mixture4 #a ounce ammonia4 #a box ,beecham's pills4 #b ounces castor oil4 #a small measuring glass4 #a pint lime-water and linseed oil4 #a piece of small rubber tube1 a foot long4 #a pint best brandy4 #ab doses of tartar emetic4 ,the above makes a formidable showing1 but the whole stock costs only about three dollars and fifty cents1 and the box1 with lock and key1 about one dollar more4 ,i have lately added to this outfit a most valuable and helpful little book1 entitled ,till the ,doctor ,comes1 by ,george ,h4 ,hope 7,g4,p4 ,putnam's ,sons1 ,new ,york71 which to any traveller or country dweller is worth twice its weight in gold4 ,fortunately1 however1 it costs only fifty cents1 and no one need be without it4 ,while a traveller or hunter should never drink brandy or whiskey as a beverage1 it is a most excellent thing to have in many cases of sickness or accident1 when a powerful stimulant is necessary4 ,above all things1 however1 which go farthest toward preserving the life of the traveller against diseases and death by accident1 and which every naturalist especially should take with him wherever he goes1 are habits of strict temperance4 ,in the tropics nothing is so deadly as the drinking habit1 for it speedily paves the way to various kinds of disease which are always charged to the account of the accursed climate4 ,if a temperate man falls ill or meets with an accident1 his system responds so readily to remedies and moderate stimulants that his chances for recovery are a hundred per cent better than those of the man whose constitution has been undermined by strong drink4 ,there are plenty of men who will say that in the tropics a little liquor is necessary1 a good thing1 etc42 but let me tell you it is no such thing1 and if necessary ,i could pile up a mountain of evidence to prove it4 ,the records show most conclusively that it is the men who totally abstain from the use of spirits as a beverage who last longest1 have the least sickness1 and do the most and best work4 ,as a general rule1 an energetic brandy-drinker in the jungle is not worth his salt1 and as a companion in a serious undertaking1 is not even to be regarded as a possible candidate4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,outfits1 ,,and ,,hints ,,on ,,hunting4 ,in making up an outfit with which to work on specimens in the field1 away from civilization perhaps1 you must first decide definitely upon the line of work you intend to do1 for upon this the extent and character of your outfit must depend4 ,the requirements to be met are economy of space1 weight1 and labor1 with no necessary article lacking4 ,the mere item of keeping one's tools in order1 and always accessible1 is much more important than it would at first seem to be4 ,there must be no confusion1 and not a single article must get lost4 ,good tools1 and plenty of them1 in good working order1 go a great way toward the production of faultless specimens1 having the highest possible value4 ,i think ,i may say without boasting that on my third collecting trip abroad 7to the ,east ,indies7 my outfit came as near perfection in size and arrangement as can ever be reached without far greater expense than that entailed4 ,i was obliged to pack and unpack the whole of it at least fifty times1 but its arrangement was so systematic and compact that the complete packing up never required more than fifteen minutes1 and ,i could go to it in the dark and find any article desired1 even to a needle and thread4 ,the whole arrangement was very simple4 ,to start with1 the entire outfit of firearms1 ammunition1 tools1 hunting-gear1 and a good stock of preservatives was contained in an iron-bound black walnut chest about the size of a carpenter's tool-chest4 ,to keep my loading implements and ammunition in order1 ,i had an ammunition-box of walnut1 #ad-a_/b inches long1 #ab-a_/b wide1 and #d-a_/b deep1 outside measurements1 divided inside into five compartments1 which held and kept in order all the appendages belonging to my three guns1 and enough ammunition to last a month for ordinary shooting4 ,another small box1 made of ash1 one-quarter of an inch thick1 and divided into four compartments1 contained an assortment of knives1 labels1 and small tools 7see list below71 and was in every way multum in parvo4 ,both these boxes had their places in the chest1 and my guns1 each in its own box-case1 were provided for in the same receptacle4 ,i have had made for collectors going out from the ,national ,museum nearly a dozen tool-boxes in exact duplication of the original mentioned above1 and ,i can confidently recommend both it and the ammunition-box as serving their purposes most satisfactorily4 ,since my outfit for the ,east ,indies proved very satisfactory1 and with one or two additions is precisely what ,i should take were ,i to go again on a similar expedition1 ,i give below a full list of its contents4 ,the additions ,i should make would be a ,winchester #g-shot repeating rifle1 calibre #de-ge1 with the necessary ammunition1 a double-barrelled breech-loading gun1 ,no4 #ab1 and possibly a wooden tank #b feet #b feet #b feet1 with a screw top1 for the preservation of mammal skins in a salt and alum bath4 ,this last addition is rendered necessary by the fact that ,i have adopted a different method of preserving skins from that ,i had followed up to that time4 ,instead of drying all skins as ,i did then1 ,i now preserve the majority of them in a wet state1 and keep them so1 except such as are desired as skins for study1 and not for mounting4 ,the apparatus necessary for collecting insects will be described in the section devoted to work of that class4 ,,outfit ,,for ,,general ,,collecting1 ,vertebrates and ,invertebrates1 both ,large and ,small1 ,dry and in ,spirits1 and on a ,large ,scale4 #a ,agassiz tank 7copper71 in wooden box1 for alcoholics4 #a chest of black walnut1 iron-bound1 to contain all the articles enumerated below3 #a ,maynard rifle1 two barrels1 calibre #dj1 #dj pounds shot1 assorted sizes4 and #de-he4 #aj pounds ,maynard bullets4 #a double-barrelled breech-loading smooth-bore #a1jjj ,berdan primers4 gun1 ,no4 #aj1 in case 7#cj74 #ab pounds ,orange ducking powder4 #a ,maynard shot-gun1 ,no4 #af4 #cj pounds arsenical soap4 #a ,smith ,wesson revolver1 cal4 #cb4 #ae pounds dry arsenic4 #a cartridge-belt and cartridge-bag4 #a dozen large skinning knives4 #a dozen small skinning-knives4 #b pairs scissors4 #f scalpels4 #a brain hook4 #b claw hatchets4 #a pair long forceps4 #a saw4 #a pair short forceps4 #a large skin scraper4 #a pair cutting-pliers4 #a geological hammer4 #a pair flat pliers4 #a bull's-eye lantern4 #b sets skeleton scrapers4 #a ,a ,no4 #a field-glass4 #a small skin scraper4 #a compass4 #a flat file4 #b brushes for arsenical soap4 #b three cornered files4 #a blow-pipe and set of egg-drills4 #a cold chisel4 #a hydrometer and test-glass4 #b awls4 #a thermometer4 #a #d-;inch saw 7for turtles74 #b pairs hunting-shoes4 #a tape measure4 #b rubber blankets4 #a #b-;foot rule4 #a double woollen blanket4 #a ivory thimble4 #a ,ashanti hammock4 #a oil stone4 #c1jjj labels1 three sizes4 #a spool thread4 #a tool-box1 size #g #ac #c inches1 to contain the following3 #b dozen labels4 #d skinning-knives4 #c papers glover's needles4 ,with this outfit ,i collected1 in two years1 more than #ae1jjj worth of salable skins1 rough skeletons and skulls of mammals1 many of which were very large2 birds1 reptiles1 and fishes1 especially the large and important species2 also fishes and fish skins in alcohol and brine2 crustaceans1 shells1 star-fishes1 corals1 and a few insects4 ,in not a single case did ,i ever fail to collect a desired specimen through lack of implements and preservatives with which to care for it1 and only three or four specimens spoiled on my hands in course of preservation4 ,one of these was an orang skin1 the last one ,i took1 which spoiled because ,i had to pack it up and travel with it without giving it even one day's drying2 and the others were skins which spoiled while ,i was on my back with jungle fever4 ,the outfit listed above is of such a nature that for a trip across ,africa1 ,south ,america1 or even a much shorter distance on foot or horseback1 away from rivers and wagon-roads1 it would be difficult to take the whole of it4 ,but then1 on some expeditions1 for example1 such as are made through ,darkest ,africa1 the travellers are generally glad to get through with their lives1 to say nothing of more cumbersome luggage1 and very little collecting is done4 ,in nine cases out of ten1 however1 it is advisable to take along a good outfit1 even though there are three or four boxes of it1 for1 except in such journeys as those mentioned above1 there will always be a way to get it along4 ,it will cost a few dollars for freight1 and some trouble in management2 but if you are a good collector1 and mean business1 you will not mind that in the least4 ,where there's a will there's locomotion2 and to collect well1 or even at all1 one must have something to collect with4 ,it is an expensive and exceedingly laborious business at best1 so don't go expecting to have your baggage checked through to destination1 free of charge4 ,but there are a great many of my readers who1 while they may never want to go off into a howling wilderness1 might greatly enjoy collecting on such trips as they do take4 ,then1 again1 there are sportsmen and travellers who will willingly carry into good game districts a book of instructions1 and enough tools to enable them successfully to remove and preserve the skins of valuable trophies of the chase1 and other specimens which should be kept on account of their scientific value or their beauty4 ,to meet the requirements of both the amateur and the sportsman ,i recommend3 ,,the ,,traveller',s ,,handy ,,outfit1 ,for a ,collector of ,mammals1 ,heads1 ,trophies1 etc41 and also ,birds4 ,firearms1 as you please4 ,a tool-box of #a_/d inch ash1 size #g #ac #c inches1 containing the following3 #b large skinning-knives 7see ,fig4 #a74 #a tape measure4 #b cartilage knives 7see ,fig4 #a74 #a brain hook4 #a pair scissors4 #a pair #i-;inch forceps4 #a small oil-stone4 #a pair short forceps4 #a spool thread4 ,and if eggs are to be collected1 then must #a package needles4 be added3 #a package labels4 #a blow-pipe4 #a #b-;foot rule4 #a set of egg drills4 ,with the addition of #aj large skinning knives1 this was the identical outfit ,i took with me on two collecting trips to ,montana1 during which we skinned and skeletonized #bd buffaloes1 about #bj antelope1 #aj deer1 #i coyotes1 and a goodly number of birds and small mammals4 ,the points in favor of this outfit are its cheapness1 compactness1 portability1 and great general utility4 ,it can be carried in a knapsack behind a saddle on an overland journey1 and to an explorer it is useful in a hundred ways besides those for which it is specially intended4 ,,firearms4--,the gun question is a good deal like the wife question--every man prefers to choose for himself1 and advice is chiefly superfluous4 ,nevertheless1 to those who have as yet no preferences1 ,i will briefly state mine1 and the reasons for them4 ,if ,i could have but one weapon1 ,i should choose the ,maynard rifle1 calibre #dj1 with extra long cartridge1 and a ,no4 #ab shot-barrel fitting to the same stock1 and interchangeable in less than fifteen seconds of time4 ,the rifle is light and handy2 it hits hard1 and is as true as steel ever gets to be4 ,it will hit every time precisely where you hold it4 ,its construction is so simple it seldom breaks or gets out of order1 the brass shells never wear out1 and when loaded are about as impervious to water as marine torpedoes4 ,should you go under water--rifle1 cartridges1 and all--you have only to bob up serenely1 and go on firing as if nothing had happened4 ,by the addition of a shot-barrel1 at a very slight expense1 you have1 in reality1 two good breech-loading weapons that will serve you well for general purposes4 ,for ordinary large game ,i also prefer the ,maynard rifle1 but of a heavier calibre than the above4 ,calibre #de is the best size1 taking the ,u4,m4,c4 ,co4's ,bullard cartridges loaded with #he grains of powder and #bie grains of lead4 ,these with the ,maynard make a beautiful combination4 ,it carries point-blank up to #agj yards1 if not even #bjj2 the ball has great accuracy and penetration1 with a very low trajectory1 and very little recoil4 ,a heavier bullet means a hearty kick and loss of accuracy1 and one of #ejj grains of lead means occasional blood at your end of the gun1 and a black and blue shoulder4 ,for such great beasts as the elephant1 rhinoceros1 and hippopotamus1 the choice must lie between a double #h-;bore rifle1 and the ,no4 #h smooth-bore4 ,for my part1 ,i would rather hunt my elephants with such a gun as ,i used on them in ,india1 a ,no4 #h smooth-bore1 double-barrelled1 which1 though weighing less than #aj pounds1 never kicked seriously1 even with enough powder 7#f drachms7 to send a zinc bullet through an elephant's skull and brain1 and out on the other side4 ,with such a weapon there will be no need to run after an animal1 nor run away from it either1 after you get one fair shot at it4#a ,for hunting large birds and small mammals a ,no4 #aj shot-gun is the best2 but if you are specially interested in birds and care little for mammals1 a ,no4 #ab breech-loader with top-snap action will be preferable4 ,for my purposes1 however1 my ,no4 #aj double ,werner and ,no4 #af ,maynard always worked beautifully together1 and ,i think these two sizes afford the best combination a collector can find4 ,being very strongly built1 ,i often loaded my ,no4 #aj with a single ball1 and bagged many a fine ,indian bison in that way4 ,i always used heavy brass shells with all my shot-guns1 for the following reason3 ,i could not spare room to carry paper shells1 the rains ,i encountered would have spoiled too many of them1 and away from home they were too expensive a luxury for me to afford4 ,the brass shells are expensive to start with1 but they last forever1 or until they are lost4 ,,hints ,,on ,,hunting4--,the duty of a naturalist to his specimen begins when he levels his gun at it in the field4 ,do not shoot a specimen to pieces1 or mutilate it beyond recognition by its own mother4 ,study the moral principles of your guns1 find out exactly what they will do with what you put into them1 and then don't shoot your specimens too much4 ,what is a tiger worth with the top of his head blown off1 or a deer with a great hole torn in his side by an explosive bullet8 ,three vital principles to be observed in hunting specimens are the following3 ,see everything ahead1 and allow nothing to see you4 ,shoot to kill1 but shoot so as to get your specimen with the least possible mutilation4 ,a squirrel shot with a rifle is usually unfit for a specimen1 and a bird with its legs shot to pieces1 mandibles shot off1 and half its tail feathers torn to pieces is about the same as no bird at all1 unless it happens to be a rare one4 ,in using a rifle1 get as close to your game as you can 7unless it be a tiger or bear671 so as to be sure of getting it4 ,with the shot-gun1 get as far away as you dare1 so as to get no more shot into your bird than is necessary to kill it4 ,it is a disgrace for a collector to shoot a bird to pieces and be obliged to throw it away4 ,i append a showing of what ,i use in collecting1 according to circumstances4 ,it is hardly likely that any two collectors in the world agree on these points1 therefore ,i do not expect that these tables will suit the old hands4 ,i put them forth as mere suggestions to beginners4 ,,recommendations ,,in ,,regard ,,to ,,hunting ,,with ,,the ,,rifle4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- ,animals to kill4 ,weapon to use4,charge of ,weight of ,best powder4 bullet4 dist4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- ,elephant ,smooth-bore1 #f drs4 ,spherical1#cj yds4 ,no4 #h4 pure zinc4 ,tiger1 bear1 elk1 deer1 sheep1 seals1 large crocodiles ,maynard1 #de4 #he grs4 #bie grs4 #ge ,apes1 monkeys1 small ruminants1 and small carnivora ,maynard1 #dj4 #fj #bjj #ej ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- ,,recommendations ,,in ,,regard ,,to ,,hunting ,,with ,,the ,,shot-,,gun4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- ,animals to kill4 ,weapon to use4 ,charge of ,charge of shot4 powder4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- ,deer ,no4 #aj4 #f drs4 #bj1 ,no4 #h buckshot4 ,fox #aj4 #e #a-a_/b oz41 ,no4 #jj4 ,woodchuck #aj4 #c #a-a_/d #b4 ,squirrel #ab4 #c #a-a_/b #f4 ,chipmunk #af4 #b #a #aj4 ,eagle ,duck ,powder4 ,eagle1 crane1 vulture #aj or #ab4 #e drs4 #a-a_/b ,double #jj4 ,turkey buzzard #aj or #ab4 #d #a-a_/d ,no4 #d4 ,crow #ab4 #c #a-a_/d #f4 ,quail #ab4 #c #a-a_/b #h4 ,robin #ab4 #b-a_/b drs4 #a #aj4 ,warbler #af4 #b-a_/b #a #ab4 ,humming-bird #af1 or #b #a oz4 dust shot4 ,auxiliary1 #bb4b ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- ,of course it would be easy to recommend a large assortment of different weapons for different purposes1 but when it comes to providing an outfit of firearms1 ,i must say ,i never cared to take care of more than three or four weapons1 and ,i doubt if the average amateur will feel disposed to maintain a small arsenal4 ,in preparing the above tables ,i have limited the weapons to those ,i have actually used4 ,for my use1 the following constitutes a model collector's outfit of firearms for all purposes in all countries4 ,it is cheap1 but first class1 not cumbersome1 easily cared for in all climates1 and equal to every occasion that can arise3 #a ,no4 #h double breech-loading smooth-bore1 and #a ,auxiliary barrel1 ,no4 #bb1 for very small birds 7price1 #ab74 #a ,calibre #de-he ,maynard rifle1 #a calibre #dj-fj rifle-barrel1 and #a ,no4 #af shot-barrel1 all to fit interchangeably on the same stock4 ,a smaller rifle-barrel might also be added1 but it is not really necessary4 #a ,calibre #de-ge #g-shot ,winchester4 #a ,no4 #ab breech-loading shot-gun4 ,the ,winchester is useful for rapid firing at short range1 but the ,maynard is the weapon to depend upon for perfect accuracy at all ranges4 ,,knives4--,for general use the best knife for the collector or taxidermist is a steel-handled cartilage-knife1 as shown in ,fig4 #a1 ,b4 ,it costs seventy-five cents4 ,there are two kinds of cartilage-knives1 but the one shown has the best-shaped blade4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,the ,best ,knives for a ,collector or ,taxidermist 7about two-thirds actual size74 ,a1 ,russell's killing-knife2 ,b1 ,cartilage-knife4 ,for heavier work the best knife ,i have ever used or seen is the so-called killing-knife1 ,no4 #jaeab1 as shown in ,fig4 #a1 ,a1 made by ,john ,russell1 ,green ,river ,works1 ,turner's ,falls1 ,mass41 the retail price of which is only seventy-five cents4 ,had ,i designed it myself1 especially for collectors' use1 ,i could not have done better4 ,the shape of the blade1 the thickness of it1 and the shape of the handle are all perfect4 ,if you cannot procure one of these knives1 then buy a good butcher-knife1 and grind the blade down to this shape4 ,a knife with a straight edge is not fit to use1 for many reasons4 ,always keep a good coarse 7water7 whetstone for large knives1 and a ,wichita oil-stone and oil for your finer knives1 and the final touches to your large ones4 ,,seasons ,,for ,,collecting4--,mammals4--,in the temperate zone never take fur-bearing or game animals before ,september #ast1 or later than ,february #ast1 if possible to avoid it4 ,on most of these mammals the pelage is the finest during ,november and ,december4 ,it is then at its maximum length1 very clean and well dressed1 and also at its brightest color4 ,the ruminants begin to shed in ,may 7the ,american bison as early as ,march71 and by ,july the new hair upon them is only about half an inch long1 but very fine and sleek4 ,at that time it does not have its natural color4 ,in our country1 ,september1 ,october1 and ,november are the months par excellence for the taking of mammals1 especially the large species1 for after ,december #ast the storms and snows of winter render their haunts untenable for the hunter1 unless he builds a cabin in the woods and makes a winter of it4 ,the haunts of the mountain sheep and goat must be abandoned by ,december #ast1 at the latest1 on account of the snow4 ,the best time to take families of young mammals is from ,may to ,august4 ,if taken earlier they are too young1 and later they have passed their most interesting age4 ,the smaller the species are1 the quicker the young mature1 and in collecting all such1 the naturalist must be on the keen lookout to take them at the precise time they reach the most interesting size and age4 ,birds4--,in the temperate zone the best months for bird collecting are ,march1 ,april1 ,may1 ,june1 ,september1 ,october1 and ,november2 but since the study of migration depends upon collections and observations made all the year round1 there is really no time to begin collecting1 and no time to cease4 ,at the same time the amateur will soon discover that1 aside from the birds that are found only in their particular season1 the greatest number of species to be obtained in the ,northern ,united ,states come in the months mentioned2 and1 of course1 in the cold half of the year they are most plentiful in the ,south1 whither they go to escape the cold weather4 ,in the northern regions bird-collecting naturally begins with the spring migration from the ,south1 and is most active from that time up to the end of ,june4 ,during ,july and ,august the old birds are moulting1 and the young ones have immature plumage and stub tails4 ,a rule which can be safely applied1 to all tropical climates is that the dry season is best for either collecting1 sport1 or travel4 ,never collect in the rainy season if you can help it4 ,animal life is doubly hard to find1 specimens are desperately difficult to preserve1 and field work is very trying on the patience and the constitution4 ,in the ,arctic regions1 hunting and collecting must be done in midsummer1 or not at all4 ,while it is true that in the torrid and temperate zones there is a certain amount of work to be done all the year round1 there is always a particular season which may be regarded as the harvest-time4 ,,collecting ,,by ,,amateurs4--,there is one kind of collecting which should be discouraged in every possible way1 and that is the postage-stamp style of collecting by boys who have no real love for natural history4 ,boys in their teens often make collections of bird-skins1 eggs1 and nests in precisely the same spirit that prompts them to gather coins1 postage stamps1 and autographs--to see who can get the most kinds4 ,this vicious propensity is apt to involve a very good boy in a useless and inexcusable warfare against the feathered tribes4 ,many a time ,i have been saddened by the sight of drawer upon drawer1 full to overflowing1 of poorly made skins of our most beautiful songbirds1--hundreds of them in a single collection1 perhaps not worth ten cents apiece in any market1--each skin merely recording the important fact that it was shot on a certain day in a certain place4 ,there is a way to prove whether a juvenile collector has really a love for the study of birds4 ,let the one who furnishes the sinews of war--parent1 guardian1 or elder brother--demand that he shall mount every good specimen he kills1 and be able to tell all about its habits1 food1 economic value1 etc4 ,this will in any event result in great good4 ,if the collector is not really absorbed in the study of bird-life1 the labor such a course involves will soon deter him from indiscriminate slaughter2 and even if he is destined to become a distinguished member of the ,a4,o4,u41 it will be all the better for him to be taught to place a high value on every bird1 living or dead4 ,,shooting ,,birds ,,as ,a ,,pastime4--,i cannot1 without being profane1 find language strong enough to adequately express my abhorrence of the damnable practice some parents have of providing thoughtless boys with shot-guns and ammunition for the slaughter of birds and small mammals1 just for the fun 767 of the thing1 or to become proficient in the use of the gun4 ,for the killing of birds for food1 or to mount for the cabinet1 or to study intelligently1 there is some excuse2 but for the slaughter of birds as a boyish pastime there is no excuse whatever1 and either boys or parents who have such a disregard for life as to make it possible should be fined as heavily as can be done under the law4 ,firearms and their users are multiplying at such a frightful rate that it seems highly probable the time will come when there will be no more wild birds or quadrupeds left upon the face of the earth4 ,it is a good thing for a boy to be taught to shoot1 and skill in the use of a rifle may fairly be regarded as an accomplishment2 but the taking of life is not in the least necessary to its acquirement4 ,if a boy wants to shoot for the sake of becoming an expert with the gun1 give him a rifle and a target1 or a shot-gun and clay pigeons1 that he may start in the right direction4 ,do this1 and the chances are ten to one that he gets ten times the sport and twenty times the benefit out of rivalry at the target that he would out of roaming over the country and killing every bird he can discover4 ,even in the immediate vicinity of ,washington a song-bird can hardly raise a note without attracting a boy with a gun4 ,,poisoning ,,and ,,trapping ,,mammals4--,inasmuch as there are in print a number of good books that treat this subject exclusively1 ,i may be spared the labor of taking it up here4 ,the reader must be assured1 however1 that traps and strychnine are very valuable allies in collecting1 and he who ignores them will lose much4 ,above all things1 carry with you plenty of strychnine1 use it industriously1 and it will bring you many a fine carnivore you would not get otherwise4 ,poison a skinned carcass by cutting gashes an inch deep in the rump and other fleshy portions1 and putting strychnine in them4 ,also cut up chunks of meat in little cubes1 put poison in the centre of each1 and scatter them around for the benefit of the wily wolf and fox1 the fat and festive badger1 the wary golden eagle and raven1 and other meat-eaters in general4 ,on our hunt for buffaloes in ,montana1 ,mr4 ,w4 ,harvey ,brown was our ,borgia1 and his industry and strychnine laid low some of the finest small specimens we obtained1 including specimens of all the species mentioned above4 ,after putting out poison1 search the vicinity thoroughly for two or three days1 and the chances are your efforts will not be in vain4 ,dr4 ,c4 ,hart ,merriam and his collectors have reduced the trapping of the very small mammalia to an exact science1 the like of which ,i venture to say has never been seen before4 ,they use three kinds of traps--the ,lamb steel-trap1 ,no4 #j2 the ,cyclone1 and the ,climax4 ,these are all small1 all may be used with bait1 or quickly modified to serve as runway traps1 for arvicolas and the like4 ,boiled oatmeal mixed with corn meal is the standard bait used for small rodents4 ,for shrews1 small carnivora1 and omnivorous rodents1 meat baits are used1 such as birds' heads1 intestines1 pieces of skin1 and meat--in fact anything fleshy4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,for further particulars1 see ,two ,years in the ,jungle4 ,new ,york3 ,charles ,scribner's ,sons4 #b ,for ,no4 #bb use wood powder and a gun-cane4 ,it makes no noise1 does not frighten the little birds and mammals1 and1 if you are wicked enough1 you can use it on ,sunday4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,how ,,to ,,select ,,and ,,study ,,fresh ,,specimens4 ,,selection ,,of ,,specimens4--,this is the golden rule in collecting3 ,preserve the first specimen you collect of every species you encounter1 lest you never get another4 ,when you have obtained too many of a kind1 it is an easy matter to throw some away4 ,at all hazards1 try to obtain one really fine adult male and female of each species1 to serve as standards of comparison in your subsequent studies4 ,remember that immature1 undersized specimens are not typical representatives of a species1 nor do they add glory to a collection4 ,at the same time1 quite young specimens1 say one-fifth to one-tenth adult size1 are always very interesting1 and should be collected and preserved whenever possible4 ,collect your mammals and birds during the season when their pelage and plumage are at their finest4 ,especially should every specimen that you propose to mount be strictly first-class4 ,life is short and species many1 and when you do go through with the task of mounting a specimen1 it should be so fine in every way that you will never need to replace it for the reason that it is too poor to keep4 ,of rare species1 the rule is to preserve every specimen taken1 and1 ,i may add1 make as many different kinds of preparations of a rare species as you know how to prepare4 ,for example1 of the guacharo bird1 or cave-bird of ,trinidad 7,steatornis caripensis71 my friend ,jackson and ,i prepared skins1 skeletons1 and alcoholic specimens1 and took a full assortment of nests and eggs4 ,,measurements4--,it is of great importance to acquire a fixed habit of carefully measuring every specimen you prepare1 unless you are already in possession of an abundance of measured specimens of the same kind4 ,after getting into the habit of measuring1 it takes only a very few minutes to do the work1 and the value of the information thus obtained is sure to be equal to ten times its cost4 ,record the measurements on the label bearing the name of the object1 and by all means adopt for each class of objects a certain system of measurements1 which should always be followed4 ,under their respective headings1 in the following chapters on collecting1 ,i will give directions for measuring small mammals1 large mammals1 and birds1 according to the system ,i think most useful4 ,,casts4--,the great value of casts as working models and records cannot be overestimated nor ignored without loss of accuracy4 ,they are especially valuable in preserving records of the forms of mammals2 and the methods of making them--all very simple and easy--will be found fully described and illustrated in the chapters devoted to ,making ,casts 7,part ,,iii474 ,,photographs4--,to the taxidermist and collector1 photographs of dead animals are of very little value unless it be a large picture of the head of a large specimen1 such as a moose4 ,photographs of live animals taken broadside on1 as the sailors say1 are extremely valuable aids in mounting2 but these you get only in the zoological gardens4 ,i never took a camera into the field with me1 and have always been glad of it1 for it would not have repaid the trouble it would have involved4 ,no man who has his hands full of shooting1 preserving1 and packing specimens can afford to waste time on a camera with which to take dead animals1 because it is apt to fail to emphasize the very points you most wish to have recorded4 ,i have had enough dead animals photographed to feel sure on this point4 ,on the other hand1 the taxidermist who permits himself to be wholly unable to make simple sketches1 with a fair degree of accuracy1 from animals in the flesh1 is seriously handicapped4 ,it is only the heaven-born genius--as yet unborn1 ,i believe--who can study animals and remember everything he sees4 ,written descriptions help out a great deal1 especially when particular emphasis is called for1 and in the absence of sketches1 photographs are the next best thing4 ,it is an excellent thing to be able to photograph animals1 both living and dead2 but the trouble is1 one cannot always get the game and the camera together4 ,a note-book and a pencil one can always carry1 and even when you have the camera1 the former often proves the better ally of the two4 ,,outlines4--,for years it has been my constant practice to make outlines of dead animals1 on large sheets of paper1 before skinning them4 ,my plan is to lay the specimen on its side on a sheet of heavy manila paper1 place the legs and feet in an easy walking attitude1 pin or nail them fast in place1 then mark entirely around the animal with a long lead pencil4 ,to get an exact diagram of a rather large mammal1 ,i invented a wooden square1 carrying a pencil point at its outer angle1 with which it was easy to get the exact outline of a large animal1 or large skull4 ,in mounting a specimen1 such an outline is of great value as a check on errors in proportion that might easily be made in putting it together4 ,,field ,,notes4--,there are hundreds of specimens on which you will not need to take notes1 unless you have the time to study their habits1 find out what they eat1 how they live1 etc4 ,but of rare and interesting objects you will want to record all the information you can gather regarding their life history4 ,to determine what they feed upon1 examine the contents of their stomachs4 ,if there is no time to do that in the field1 then preserve the stomachs in alcohol1 carefully labelled1 and examine the contents at your leisure4 ,learn how to observe1 and then put down in black and white1 between substantial leather covers1 all that you do observe1 and all that is told to you by the natives about species with which they are familiar4 ,do not forget to ascertain and record the native names of your specimens1 for after you get home you will be certain to wish to know them4 ,one thing is certain2 when you come to write about your collection1 you will wish you had taken more notes in the field4 ,while a specimen is fresh1 take careful notes as to the color of all the soft parts that will lose their color when the skin is dry4 ,learn to describe colors accurately1 and1 if possible 7though this seems like asking a great deal671 try to describe colors so that afterward1 when your notes get cold1 you yourself will know what they mean6 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,ii4--,,two ,,pages ,,from ,,an ,,old ,,field ,,note-,,book4--,a ,,taxidermist',s ,,notes4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,ii4 ,in describing the colors of soft parts1 ,i would advise you to purchase the following ,windsor ,newton tube colors 7oil7 and use them as standards for reference3 ,ivory black1 ,vandyke brown1 burnt umber1 burnt sienna1 raw sienna1 ,naples yellow1 ,indian yellow1 chrome yellow1 ,indian red1 vermilion1 purple lake1 cobalt blue1 and indigo4 ,,labelling4--,for scientific purposes1 a specimen without a label is not quite so good as no specimen4 ,it takes up room1 and is useless4 ,the most important record to make on a label is the name of the locality in which it was taken4 ,next in importance is the date of its capture4 ,you may leave off everything else if you really must1 for as to its name the specimen can speak for itself4 ,but it is by all means desirable that the label should give the name1 locality1 date1 sex1 and some measurements4 ,i need not mention name of the collector1 for the collector can always be trusted to look out for that without advice from anybody1 even under the most discouraging circumstances4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,treatment ,,of ,,the ,,skins ,,of ,,small ,,mammals4 ,many hundred beautiful and curious quadrupeds are shot every year and allowed to perish utterly for lack of the little knowledge and skill which would enable the hunter to remove and preserve their skins4 ,the operation is simple and easy1 the requirement in tools and materials quite insignificant1 and the operator has only to exercise a little patient industry to achieve good results4 ,there are few circumstances under which a determined individual finds himself thwarted in his desire to remove and preserve the skin of a dead animal4 ,in nineteen cases out of twenty the result hinges on his own disposition4 ,if he is lazy1 a thousand things can hinder his purpose2 if he is determined1 nothing can4 ,a sharp pocket-knife1 a little powdered alum and arsenic in equal parts1 or failing that1 common salt alone1 will do the business in lieu of a better outfit1 for any small mammal that ever lived4 ,i begin with small mammals1 because it is squirrels1 rabbits1 cats1 woodchucks1 weasels1 opossums1 raccoons1 and foxes that the beginner will fall in with long before he is called upon to wrestle with such subjects as deer1 bear1 elk1 or buffalo4 ,these general directions apply to the skinning of all terrestrial quadrupeds up to the size of a setter dog1 and the preservation of their skins in a mountable condition4 ,,measurements4--,the following are the most valuable measurements to take of a small mammal4 #a4 ,length1 from end of nose to root of tail4 ,this is to be taken with the head stretched out straight as far as it will go4 ,measure from the tip end of the nose to the point where the tail joins the body4 ,in my judgment it is always best in determining this latter point to take the angle made by the tail 7underneath7 and the rump when the tail hangs or is bent down at an angle of forty-five degrees to the spinal column4 ,this point is always fixed and constant1 and can be quickly and accurately determined by bending the tail down and sticking a pin or awl at the angle4 ,to measure an animal like a monkey on the top of the tail is to attempt the location of a point which can rarely be determined twice alike4 ,for this reason ,i have always taken this measurement in both large and small mammals underneath the tail4 #b4 ,length of tail1 from root to end of vertebr4 #c4 ,length of hind foot4 ,bend the heel at a right angle1 and measure from the outer extremity of the angle to the tip end of the longest toe1 including the nail4 #d4 ,height at shoulders1 if the animal be not too small4 ,to take this1 lay the animal on its right side1 then1 as nearly as you can1 place the right leg and foot in the position they would assume if the animal were standing erect 7the sole of the foot must be parallel to the axis of the body71 and measure in a straight line from the bottom of the heel to the top of the shoulders4 ,record1 also1 #e4 ,the color of the eyes1 and the other soft parts4 #f4 ,weight1 in certain cases4 ,do not forget what has been said in ,chapter ,,iii4 about outlines and sketches4 ,on one corner of the outline-sheet we record the name of the specimen1 locality1 date1 sex1 measurements1 color of eyes1 lips1 feet1 etc4 ,it takes but a few moments' time1 and the result is a complete and accurate record of what the animal was in the flesh4 ,these sheets are numbered and filed away1 the skin is numbered and put in the bath1 and even though it be not until five years later that we are ready to mount it1 we can tell as accurately what the animal was like as if it had been received only the previous day4 ,if the specimen is a baboon1 for example1 with several colors on its face1 it was for years my practice to make a rough sketch of the face and put upon it the various colors that belong there1 in oil-colors1 usually1 though sometimes with water-colors4 ,it was also my custom to spend half an hour or so in taking a mould1 and making a quick cast in plaster ,paris of the face of every monkey or baboon which came to me1 unless ,i already had one which would answer as a model to copy in finishing the face4 ,,skinning ,,small ,,quadrupeds4--,lay the animal flat upon its back1 head to your right4 ,hold your knife with the edge up1 and push the point through the skin of the throat1 precisely in the middle of the neck4 ,now push the point of the knife forward under the skin1 between it and the flesh1 and divide the skin in a straight1 clean cut along the middle of the neck1 breast1 and body1 quite to the base of the tail4 ,if the animal has a large1 fleshy tail1 like a dog or raccoon1 it must be slit open along the under side 7without cutting the hair7 for its entire length1 except an inch or two at the base4 ,if the tail is small1 slender1 or bony1 like that of a squirrel or a rat1 it can usually be slipped out of the skin by pulling the bony part between two sticks held close together against the skin of the tail4 ,the sole of each foot must be slit open1 lengthwise1 from the base of the middle toe straight back to the heel1 and in case the foot is large and fleshy1 like that of a dog1 the cut must be continued on up the leg1 perhaps one-third of the way to the knee1 to enable the skin of the leg to be turned wrong side out over the foot4 ,having made all the opening cuts1 begin at the abdomen1 catch one edge of the skin between thumb and finger1 and with the knife cut it neatly and cleanly from the body1 leaving as little flesh as possible adhering to the skin4 ,in using the knife do not go at it in a daintily finical way1 as if you were picking birdshot out of the leg of a dear friend2 for1 if you do1 it will take you forever to skin your first specimen1 and there will be no time left for another4 ,learn to work briskly but carefully1 and by and by you will be able to take off a skin with a degree of neatness and rapidity that will astonish the natives4 ,it is not a dissecting touch that is called for in taking off a skin1 but a firm1 sweeping1 shaving stroke instead1 applied to the inside of the skin1 and not to the carcass4 ,this applies to all skinning operations on all vertebrates except birds4 ,after starting at the abdomen1 we come very soon to where the foreleg joins the body at the shoulder1 and the hind leg at the hip4 ,disjoint each there1 and cut through the muscles until each leg is severed from the body4 ,skin each leg by turning the skin wrong side out over the foot quite down to the toes4 ,that done1 cut the flesh away from the bones of the leg and foot1 neatly and thoroughly4 ,never leave the foot of an animal unskinned1 unless it happens to be a very small one1 like a chipmunk1 or smaller1 and the proper way is to skin the flesh out1 even then4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,a ,squirrel partly ,skinned1 showing ,process4 ,be careful to leave all the bones of each leg attached to each other by their ligaments at the joints 7see left hind leg in ,fig4 #b71 and to the skin itself at the toes4 ,never throw away the leg bones1 unless the skin you are preserving is to be kept as a pelt or a rug4 ,detach the skin from the back1 shoulders1 and neck1 and when you come to the ears1 cut them off close down to the head4 ,turn the skin wrong side out over the head1 until you come to the eyes4 ,now be careful or you will do mischief4 ,work slowly with the knife1 keeping close to the edge of the bony orbit1 until you see1 through a thin membrane under your knife edge1 the dark portion of the eyeball--iris and pupil4 ,you may now cut fearlessly through this membrane and expose the eye4 ,if your work has been properly done1 you have not cut the eyelids anywhere4 ,if you are ever in doubt when operating on the eye1 thrust the tip of one finger fairly into the eye and against the ball1 from without1 and cut against it4 ,this is always an excellent plan in skinning large mammals4 ,skin down to the end of the nose1 cut through the cartilage close to the bone1 and cut on down to where the upper lip joins the gum4 ,cut both lips away from the skull1 close to the bone1 all the way around the mouth4 ,the lips are thick and fleshy1 and must be split open from the inside and flattened out so that the flesh in them can be pared off4 ,do not mutilate the lips by cutting them away at the edge of the hair1 but leave the inside skin1 so that in mounting you can fold it in 7with a little clay replacing the flesh7 and thus make a mouth anatomically correct4 ,do not shave off the roots of the whiskers1 or they will fall out4 ,gash the flesh between them 7they are set in rows71 but leave the follicles themselves untouched4 ,pare away the membrane which adheres to the inside of the eyelids1 and turn the ear wrong side out at the base1 in order to cut away the flesh around it4 ,if the ears have hair upon them1 they must be skinned up from the inside and turned wrong side out quite to the tip1 in order to separate the outside skin1 which holds the hair1 from the cartilage which supports the ear4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,skinning a squirrel's head4 ,for a full description of ear skinning1 see another chapter4 ,the great principle which is the foundation of all valuable field work on mammal skins is this3 ,a skin must be so taken off1 cleaned of flesh1 and preserved that the preservative powder or fluid can act directly upon the roots of the hair from the inner side of the skin1 and over every portion of its surface4 ,neither alum1 nor salt1 nor alcohol 7unless it be of great strength7 can strike through a thick layer of flesh and penetrate through the skin to the epidermis quickly enough to save it from decomposition4 ,the epidermis of most animals is of such a close and oily nature that preservatives cannot strike through it from without1 and therefore when a skin is removed it must be cleaned of flesh and fat1 so that the preservative liquid or dry powder can come immediately in contact with the cutis4 ,the skin is now off4 ,if the lips have been opened out1 the ears skinned to the tip 7if they be haired71 and the feet well skinned down1 we are ready to go on4 ,but first we must clean the skull4 ,cut the flesh all off1 or the most of it at least1 for it is not possible to get it all away at the base2 cut out the eyes and tongue1 and with your brain-hook1 or a piece of wire hammered flat at the end and bent up at a right angle1 patiently draw out the brain through the occipital opening at the base of the skull4 ,by this time1 perhaps1 the skin will be bloody in places1 or possibly it was dirty to start with4 ,now is the time to wash it thoroughly in clear water4 ,remember that a skin which has been dried with blood upon it is damaged forever4 ,it stains the hair1 and very often forms a hard1 gummy mass which nothing will dissolve4 ,,preservation ,,of ,,the ,,skin4--,the next step depends upon what you propose to do with the skin1 or it may depend upon the conditions under which you are collecting4 #a4 ,if you are in your laboratory preparing skins to mount1 preserve them all 7except quite young specimens and certain others7 in a soft1 or wet state1 in a salt-and-alum bath4 #b4 ,if you are in the field 7especially the tropics71 making a large collection of mammal skins for mounting1 by all means do the same if possible4 #c4 ,if the skins are for purposes of study as skins1 during which frequent handling and examination is absolutely necessary1 make them up as dry skins4 #d4 ,if you lack facilities for preserving them wet1 then make dry skins of them4 #e4 ,if the necessities of travel and transportation make it necessary to reduce the weight to the lowest possible limit1 and to divide it up for carriage overland1 make up all skins dry1 both little and big4 #f4 ,if you have only one or two skins to preserve1 it will be less trouble to you to make them up dry at once4 ,here are the two methods3 ,a4 ,,the ,,salt-,,and-,,alum ,,bath4--,this is the finest solution ever discovered for the preservation of the skins of quadrupeds that are destined to be mounted4 ,it is inexpensive1 simple1 and easy to make2 its action is perfect2 its strength can be regulated to suit any kind of a skin2 it never gets stale2 and if properly handled will preserve a skin for a hundred years in the same pliable and elastic condition as when it leaves the animal's back4 ,in only two or three instances have ,i ever known it to change the color of the hair in the least4 ,every taxidermist knows that it is far easier to mount a fresh specimen in fine style than an old1 dry skin which has lost all its elasticity4 ,the work on a soft skin 7i4e41 one which has never been dried7 can be done more easily1 more quickly1 and vastly better4 ,with a dry skin you can make only what it will let you2 but with a wet skin you can make just as fine a mount as your skill is capable of producing4 ,and with the latter it makes no difference whether the skin came off the animal last week or ten years ago1 except in the case of very young animals4 ,of these the bath softens the leg bones4 ,for years it has been my custom to preserve all skins that ,i expect to mount 7except the young of the smaller species7 in this salt-and-alum bath1 and it is almost superfluous to add that ,i strongly advise all others to do the same4 ,in many ways it is a great economy to do so4 ,directions for ,making ,it4--,for every gallon of water put in three-quarters of a pound of alum 7one pint7 and a pound and three-quarters of salt 7about one quart71 and heat the liquid to the boiling-point1 stirring occasionally1 so that the salt and alum will dissolve4 ,then pour it into a wooden1 earthen1 or glass vessel1 or a tank lined with lead 7for zinc or galvanized iron will not answer71 and when it is cool1 or even milk warm1 it is ready for use4 ,test it with your salometer 7which you can procure for fifty cents of ,bahmann ,hoehn1 #ba ,park ,place1 ,new ,york71 and see that it stands at #ae4 ,this is the normal strength4 ,if stronger than that1 e4g41 #af or #ag1 the skin will be hardened too much4 ,it can go as low as #ac with safety1 but that is the limit4 ,at #ab skins are liable to lose their hair4 ,directions for ,use4--,if the hair is tight on the skin everywhere1 simply immerse it in the bath1 leg bones and all1 giving it plenty of room at first4 ,move it up and down1 and leave it as much spread out and free from folds as possible4 ,remember that the fluid must act upon the inside of the skin1 for the epidermis is often almost impervious to it4 ,if you allow the skin to lie upon itself in thick folds1 stuck together on the inside1 those spots are liable to lose their hair in a most unaccountable and aggravating way4 ,if the skin is small and thin1 the bath soon does its work2 but if it is a large skin1 move it up and down1 and all about1 every day for the first two or three days4 ,by the end of that time its preservation will be complete4 ,half-spoiled ,specimens4--,very often a subject will be brought to you in the flesh1 several days old1 green on the abdomen1 and the hair starting to slip off between the hind legs4 ,if the hair pulls out readily on various parts of the body and limbs1 it is a gone case2 but if it starts only a little on the lower part of the abdomen1 and is firm everywhere else1 put some bath1 with a little extra alum in it1 on the fire to get warm1 snatch that skin off in a hurry1 and without stopping for any fancy touches whisk it into the warm bath4 ,the bath should not be so hot that you cannot bear your hand in it4 ,it will act like magic4 ,then you can gradually finish your work on the skin1 so as to keep it safe from harm4 ,very often quick work1 and a warm bath with plenty of alum in it1 will save a skin in fine1 mountable shape1 when nothing else will4 ,the alum acts as a powerful astringent1 drawing together the fibres of the epidermis around the root of each individual hair1 and likewise binding together the cutis and epidermis4 ,cleanliness4--,you will observe that as fresh skins are put into a bath it gradually loses its strength1 and it is also liable to become1 in time1 so dirty with blood and grease that it must be thrown away4 ,keep skins that are greasy 7bear1 seal1 etc47 carefully by themselves1 and never put the skin of a deer1 cat1 or any animal with a fine coat in a greasy or dirty bath4 ,if a bath is clean1 but of too low strength1 make some extra strong bath1 say #bj1 and add to it and bring it up to #ae4 ,keep all your bath receptacles tightly closed1 or the liquid will evaporate very rapidly4 ,testing the ,bath4--,if you have no salometer1 and are not overparticular1 you can test your bath by tasting it2 but unless the bath is new and untouched1 ,i prefer the little salometer4 ,by tasting the bath when first made in the proportions given above1 and remembering the degree of its astringency upon the tongue1 you can make that a standard for comparison--if it suits your taste6 ,skulls and ,leg ,bones4--,the leg bones of all small and medium sized mammals1 even up to the deer1 can just as well go into the bath1 after they have been thoroughly cleaned of all flesh and tendons4 ,the skulls1 however1 had better not go into the solution4 ,clean them carefully1 anoint them all over with thin arsenical soap1 put a tag on each to show to what skin it belongs1 and let it dry4 ,don't lay it aside without poisoning1 or it will be swarming with dermestes before you know it4 ,as before stated1 a skin must have room while it is curing1 but when that has been thoroughly accomplished1 which with the largest skins never takes more than four or five days1 they can be packed together like sardines so long as the bath is strong enough4 ,b4 ,,making ,,dry ,,skins4--,poisoning and ,preserving4--,when the skin has been removed and cleaned1 the next step is to sew up from the inside any holes that may have been made in the skin by bullets or knives4 ,then make up a mixture of two-thirds powdered alum and one-third arsenic1 and rub as much of it upon the inside of the skin as will stick there4 ,the alum is to preserve the skin1 the arsenic to poison it against the attacks of insects4 ,apply this mixture thoroughly1 especially in the feet1 ears1 head1 and tail1 for these are the points the dermestes attack first4 ,another ,method1 and one which ,i almost invariably follow when ,i am compelled to make dry skins1 is to anoint the skin with strong arsenical soap1#c--the finest poison for skins yet discovered1--then rub on the skin1 as soon as the soap has been fully absorbed1 a mixture of fine salt and powdered alum1 in equal proportions4 ,though the arsenical soap may be thought mussy at first1 it should not be used thin and watery1 but as a thin paste1 like thick cream4 ,the advantages of this method are--7#a71 that the skin is more thoroughly poisoned1 especially externally1 on the hairless portions2 7#b71 the skin dries without becoming so hard and brittle and inelastic2 and 7#c71 it can be softened and mounted much more easily and successfully than skins prepared by the first method4 ,for skins which are to be mounted1 the advantages of this method are very obvious4 ,the ,simplest ,method4--,if you have neither arsenic nor arsenical soap1 and yet wish to save a skin so it can be sent to a taxidermist in good condition1 prepare it with fine salt alone4 ,use the salt liberally1 and if the weather is warm1 leave the skin turned wrong side out and roll it up in a quantity of it4 ,if you use it sparingly1 the skin will absorb it all in a day or two1 literally cry for more1 and failing to get it will sweat and spoil4 ,it is simply a question of enough salt4 ,even when collecting in the field1 ,i nearly always cure small skins with salt only1 so that they will stay quite soft and fresh until they get to the laboratory1 and then go into the bath without ever having been dried4 ,rats4--,skins preserved with salt only must be carefully guarded from the attacks of mice1 rats1 cats1 dogs1 and other vermin that go about seeking what they may devour4 ,,making ,,up ,a ,,dry ,,skin4--,the ,legs4--,having applied the preservatives1 if you propose to make up your specimen as a dry skin1 wrap a little tow1 oakum1 cotton1 or cotton cloth around the bones of each leg1 to partly replace the flesh1 and keep the skin away from the bone1 so that both can dry quickly4 ,if you have no other material1 paper will do4 ,in the ,east ,indies1 where transportation was difficult1 ,i used to carry with me bundles of coarse brown paper such as the grocers use1 and used it for wrapping the leg bones of monkeys1 foxes1 and the like4 ,but for the small rodents1 one must have either tow1 oakum1 cotton1 or cloth1 the preference being in the order named4 ,on no account should the skin be left to dry down upon the bone4 ,the proper filling out of the legs is desirable in order that they may have a neat1 shapely1 and natural appearance1 so that the hair will lie naturally1 and can be studied to advantage4 ,if this part of the process is neglected1 the skin of the leg shrivels up1 dries down upon the bone1 and looks like a mummy4 ,in the tropics the moisture in a leg bone is sufficient to cause the decay of the skin which surrounds it unless they are separated by some kind of wrapping4 ,to avoid this1 some tropical1 collectors allow their skins to dry wrong side out1 a most lazy and vicious habit1 the results of which are in most cases totally worthless4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--;,a ,model ,mammal ,skin4 ,having wrapped the leg bones enough fairly to replace the flesh1 turn back the skin of the leg until it comes right side out again1 adjust the skin neatly1 and make the member as shapely and natural as you please4 ,the ,skull4--,there are two ways of disposing of the skull4 ,the universal custom has been to replace it in the head1 with a little filling in the cheeks and orbits1 the lips neatly adjusted on the teeth1 and the eyelids also in their place1 half open4 ,this makes the best looking skin1 and unless you wish to study the skull1 is the best method to follow4 ,for skins that are specially designed for study1 the plan lately adopted by the curator of mammals of the ,national ,museum is an excellent one4 ,it is to remove the skull entirely from the head1 and in case of all mammals smaller than a coyote1 put it in the centre of the body1 with the filling1 in the line of the seam along the belly1 so that by cutting a few stitches in the dry specimen it may be readily taken out at any time4 ,the advantages of this arrangement are obvious4 ,the ,tail4--,the tail must be disposed of according to its character4 ,if it is long and slender1 take a small wire1 wrap it with tow or cotton cloth1 so that the skin cannot touch the iron at any point1 insert it in the tail and sew it up with a few long stitches4 ,if you have not the means wherewith to do this1 whittle a slender stick to a point1 and insert it in the tail from within two inches of the body out to the tip4 ,if the tail is large1 and has been split open for its entire length1 it can be left flat4 ,filling4--,begin at the head and fill out the head1 neck1 and body to about the natural size of the animal when alive1 but no larger4 ,better leave it too small than fill it too full1 and stretch the skin out of proportion4 ,with needle and thread sew up the skin to give it a neat appearance1 beginning at the throat4 ,comb and brush the hair so that it will lie naturally1 and show its texture and colors to the best advantage4 ,take a stitch also in the centre of the lips to hold them together4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--;,another ,form of ,mammal ,skin4 ,shaping4--,the ends to be sought in laying out a skin to dry are1 to have it take up a limited amount of space in a drawer1 to have all breakable points protected1 and at the same time to have all parts of the specimen accessible for examination4 ,the shape of a dry skin1 therefore1 must depend upon its character4 ,the handsomest collection of small mammal skins that ,i have ever seen is that of ,dr4 ,c4 ,hart ,merriam1 ,chief of the ,bureau of ,economic ,ornithology and ,mammalogy1 ,department of ,agriculture4 ,although it is purely a private collection1 it contains at this date #e1gej skins4 ,dr4 ,merriam's method of shaping a skin is certainly1 so far as looks are concerned1 the best yet devised4 ,fig4 #d1 on the opposite page1 shows it perfectly4 ,the tail is wired1 and extends straight out behind1 lying between the hind legs1 which also extend directly backward4 ,the forelegs are drawn forward just far enough apart to allow the head to lie between them4 ,the skin is well shaped1 and lies flat upon the belly1 with all the members resting down upon the bottom of the drawer4 ,with specimens having long tails this arrangement is open to one objection4 ,in the rough-and-tumble experiences that collections made in the field almost inevitably go through before they reach safe anchorage in the museum1 a long tail sticking straight out for its full length is very liable to suffer damage in various ways1 especially at the tip4 ,for this reason ,i always bend the tail down and lay it along on the belly1 with a stitch or two to hold it there1 safe from harm 7,fig4 #e74 ,and with such animals as monkeys1 sloths1 cats1 etc41 having long and slender forelegs1 ,i always place those members close alongside the body1 instead of extending them their full length toward the front4 ,,steel ,,combs4--,for dressing the hair of an animal it pays to have a furrier's fine steel comb1 and a coarser comb of ,german silver1 such as can be obtained at seventy-five and fifty cents each1 respectively1 of ,j4 ,ruszits1 ,no4 #gc ,mercer ,street1 ,new ,york4 ,the same furrier also furnishes a very large steel robe-comb 7like an infant garden rake71 which is very useful on large mammals having long1 matted hair1 such as buffaloes1 camels1 llamas1 and the like4 ,,footnote3 #c ,see recipe in ,chapter ,,xlv4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,collecting ,,and ,,preserving ,,the ,,skins ,,of ,,large ,,mammals4 ,the fundamental principles to be observed in skinning a large mammal are1 in general1 precisely the same as those which govern the same process in small mammals1 and which have been recorded in detail in the preceding chapter4 ,having done my best to afford the student a clear and full understanding of those principles1 it is almost unnecessary to say anything about large mammals4 ,a keen-witted worker could skin any mammal and preserve the skin by the light of the directions already given1 with such variations as common-sense would dictate4 ,but1 in order to aid the student to the fullest extent1 we will endeavor to state the exceptions and variations of method which are necessary in disposing of large subjects4 ,,measurements4--,up to this hour there has been a total lack of system and uniformity among naturalists and hunters in taking measurements of large quadrupeds4 ,i have in several important cases found it utterly impossible to interpret the meaning of measurements taken by other collectors--and it is very likely they have experienced the same difficulty in understanding mine4 ,in the hope of securing uniformity hereafter in observations of this kind1 ,i venture to propose the following system1 which will apply to all terrestrial mammals larger than the fox1 except the large quadrumana4 ,if the method here proposed is rigidly adhered to1 it will produce a uniformity in results that will certainly increase the value of specimens collected hereafter4 ,the measurements are listed in the order of their importance1 and are fully indicated in the accompanying illustration 7,plate ,,iii474 ,straight lines indicate straight measurements between two points1 not following curves2 and curved lines indicate circumference measurements4 ,record all measurements in feet and inches1 and fractions of an inch4 ,if you would have your records understood by the few rather than by the many1 then bow to the dictates of the ,french and ,german naturalists1 who1 as a rule1 care not a brass farthing for ,american science or zoological nomenclature1 and employ the metric system4 ,the chances are as twenty to one that no one outside of the ,english language will ever care a continental about your measurements1 and for this reason ,united ,states measurements ought to be good enough for us4 ,there is no more reason why #abj1jjj1jjj ,english-speaking people should adopt the metric system for a few ,europeans who might care for their measurements1 than that we should write all our zoological books and papers in ,french or ,german4 ,if you wish to make your records available to the people who will care for them1 make them in the ,united ,states language4 #a4 ,length of head and body to root of tail 7,plate ,,iii41 ,a-,a74--,in taking this measurement1 lay the animal upon its side1 stretch the head straight forward as far as it will go1 and hold a stick perpendicular against the tip of the nose4 ,erect another perpendicular rod under the tail1 close to where it joins the body1 at the angle formed by the lines ,a and ,h1 then measure between these two perpendiculars4 #b4 ,height at the shoulders 7,b-,b74--,this is a difficult measurement to take1 because it is subject to the management of the operator4 ,plant a perpendicular rod close against the shoulders at the highest point4 ,then hold the foreleg perfectly straight1 at a right angle to the axis of the body1 and bend up the foot into the position it would assume if the animal were standing upon it4 ,in short1 place the foreleg and foot exactly as they would be were the animal alive and standing1 with its weight resting upon it1 and measure from the bottom of the heel in a straight line to the perpendicular at the shoulders4 #c4 ,girth behind foreleg4--,in taking this1 always measure at the point where the girth of a saddle touches the horse1 and draw the tape-line taut upon the skin4 ,if the hair is thick and long1 part it4 #d4 ,circumference of the neck4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iii4 ,,measurements ,,of ,a ,,large ,,mammal4 7,,polar ,,bear ,,on ,,ice-,,floe4 ,,mounted ,,by ,,the ,,author47 #e4 ,depth of flank 7,e-,e74--,to a taxidermist1 this is often a very important guide in the construction of a manikin4 ,there is always a thin fold of skin at the point where the skin of the hind leg passes to the side of a large animal1 as indicated by the dotted line in the figure1 at the lower end of the line ,e-,e4 ,erect a perpendicular at the upper end of the line ,e1 and measure between the two points4 #f4 ,circumference of forearm 7,f-,f74--,to be taken at the point where the forearm has the greatest circumference4 #g4 ,from head of humerus to head of femur4--,this is always of extreme value in building a manikin4 ,as the animal lies upon its side1 hold the foreleg the same as when you measured the height at the shoulders4 ,then feel for the two high points ,g-,g1 where the skin rests on the outer extremity of the arm and thigh bones 7not the pelvis71 at shoulder and hip1 and measure between the two points4 #h4 ,length of tail 7,h-,h74--,hold the tail down at an angle of forty-five degrees with the axis of the body1 or the line ,a-,a1 and measure from the angle ,a-,h to the end of the vertebr of the tail4 ,if you measure to the end of the hair1 let this be a supplementary measurement4 ,these are the measurements which should always be taken on a large animal4 ,of course1 of certain subjects1 there are many other measurements that you will want1 but your own needs will tell you what they are4 ,,weight4--,it is very desirable to ascertain the weight of an animal whenever possible4 ,a thousand times1 at least1 have ,i been asked the weight of my big tiger 7#die pounds71 and that number of times have ,i been glad that in spite of jungle fever1 ,i persevered with my #ej-pound scales1 and weighed the animal piecemeal1 after he had been skinned and cut up4 ,with a particularly fine animal it is well worth the trouble it costs4 ,,skinning ,a ,,large ,,mammal4--,rip the skin open by a clean1 straight cut from the throat along the neck1 breast1 middle of the belly1 and on to the root of the tail4 ,we are now obliged to slit the legs open along their entire length1 so that the cuts will be as much out of sight as possible when the animal is mounted4 ,in making these opening cuts1 always insert the point of the knife under the skin1 edge uppermost1 to avoid cutting the hair4 ,to rip open a leg1 seize the foot in your left hand1 bring the leg against your own knee to hold it tense and firm1 then insert the point of your knife into the middle of the foot at the back1 and cut straight up the back of the leg until you come to the knee on the foreleg1 and hock-joint on the other4 ,at these points gradually change the direction of the cut and run it on up the inside so that it will finally come to the body-cut at a point exactly between the legs1 and as much as possible out of sight4 ,the lines in the accompanying figure 7#f7 show how the cuts in the legs should be made4 ,in skinning the head of an animal having antlers or horns1 it is necessary to make an opening at the back of the neck shaped like a ,y4 ,make the cuts as shown in ,fig4 #g1 on opposite page2 cut completely around each horn at its base1 and skin the head by working downward over the forehead and cheeks4 ,the skull is then taken out through this ,y4#d ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,opening ,cuts on a ,large ,mammal4 ,thoroughness4--,the principles to be observed in skinning the body are precisely the same as those given for small mammals4 ,remember that it is easier to take the skin off clean and free from flesh as you cut it from the animal1 and can stretch it tight with your left hand in order to shave the flesh off clean1 than it will be to clean the skin after it is off4 ,an excess of flesh left on the skin means unnecessary weight1 a waste of preservatives1 and longer time in curing the skin4 ,a clean1 thin skin is more easily and quickly cured and carried than one badly taken off4 ,my habit is to clean a skin so thoroughly in taking it off that no paring down is necessary before curing it--unless1 indeed1 it be the skin of an elephant or other pachyderm4 ,when ,i once preserved the skin of a large1 old elephant in an ,indian jungle1 ,i kept ten native chucklers at work upon it for three days1 thinning it down to a portable degree4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--,opening ,cuts at ,back of ,prong-horn ,antelope's ,head4 ,the ,legs4--,if the specimen is of medium size1 e4g41 not larger than a deer1 disjoint the legs at shoulder and hip1 and leave all the leg bones attached to the skin1 just as with small mammals2 but1 of course1 cutting off the flesh and tendons carefully4 ,if the animal is larger than a deer1 the skin would be too heavy and cumbersome to handle if all the leg bones were left attached to it4 ,therefore1 with your elk1 moose1 buffalo1 etc41 cut off the foreleg at the knee 7so called71 and the hind leg at the hock-joint1 leaving the calcaneum1 or heel-bone1 attached to the canon bone1 and thus remaining with the skin4 ,the bones from the two upper joints of the legs are to be cleaned of flesh1 tied in a bundle1 and sent with the skin--unless the collector happens to be travelling by pack train in mountainous country1 far afield4 ,in such a case we can forgive him for throwing away the large bones of the legs if he will only bring in the skin1 skull1 and lower leg bones all right4 ,the point is1 in mounting a skin we must have leg bones--if not the real ones1 then they must be counterfeits carved out of wood1 to give shape to the legs1 particularly at the joints4 ,and he who tries it once will find it is a two or three days' job to carve a large set of leg bones1 even with patterns by which to work1 to say nothing of having to evolve models from one's inner consciousness4 ,therefore1 ,i say1 save the leg bones4 ,beware of ,blood4--,by all means keep the hair from getting bloody1 but if you cannot possibly keep it clean1 keep it as clean as you can4 ,remember that blood must be washed out on the spot1 no matter how scarce water is1 nor whether the mercury stand at #aaj above zero1 or #aj below4 ,if a wound bleeds profusely1 throw plenty of dry dirt or sand on the hair that has become bloody1 to absorb the blood4 ,the dirt can be knocked out with a stick1 and it will take the blood with it4 ,if the white hair of the prong-horn antelope once gets soaked with blood1 it is impossible to remove all traces of it4 ,the soft1 tubular hairs get filled with blood wherever there is a break1 and enough of it will always remain to mark the catastrophe4 ,in the ,bad ,lands of ,montana ,i once washed three long and bitterly cold hours on a fine antelope skin that had lain twenty-four hours with blood upon it1 but had to give up beaten1 at last1 and throw the skin away4 ,shaping4--,since these directions will be used chiefly in preparing the skins of deer1 antelope1 and kindred ruminants1 the accompanying illustration 7,fig4 #h7 is given to show how such skins should be made up when they are to be preserved dry1 either for study or for mounting4 ,it is best to defer folding up a skin until it is partially dry and has begun to stiffen a little4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--;,a ,well-made ,dry ,deer ,skin4 ,,special ,,and ,,exceptional ,,directions4--,apes and ,monkeys4--,if you are in the jungle1 the chances are that you will have no plaster ,paris with which to make casts1 in which case you must make the sketching-pencil and tape-measure do double duty4 ,with such a wonderful and characteristic form as a gorilla1 chimpanzee1 or orang-utan1 you cannot study it too much1 unless you study it until the skin spoils4 ,above all things1 study every feature of the face1 and also its expression1 so that you can make a copy of it two years afterward which shall be both mathematically and artistically correct4 ,if you have plaster ,paris1 fail not to take a mould of the face1 and also of one hand and foot1 so that later you can make casts4 ,the same advice applies to the great baboons with their fearful and wonderful faces and ischial callosities1 some of them gotten up with all the colors of the rainbow1 and far more brilliancy4 ,remember that when the skin dries all those colors totally disappear1 and the skin turns to the color of parchment4 ,therefore1 out with your box of colors at once1 and make a color-sketch of the face4 ,if you have skill but no colors1 or colors with no skill1 then out with your ,ridgway's ,nomenclature of ,colors1 make a large diagram or sketch of the head1 and mark the names of the respective colors upon it4 ,whenever the skin of any animal has any noticeable color1 record the fact in as definite terms as possible4 ,all the great anthropoid apes should have the opening-cut for the body made along the middle of the back1 up to the back of the head1 instead of along the abdomen and breast1 which are generally but thinly haired1 and on the throat are quite naked4 ,by doing this1 the sewed-up seam comes at the back of the mounted specimen1 in the hair1 and out of sight4 ,with adult specimens of the gorilla1 chimpanzee1 and orang the skeleton is quite as valuable as the skin1 therefore every bone must come forth and be carefully preserved4 ,skinning the fingers is a tedious task1 and one which requires some skill1 especially when it comes to working the end off so that the nail is left in its place in the skin1 and without mutilation4 ,but when the value of a skin and skeleton runs up into hundreds of dollars1 you can well afford to spend a whole hour in skinning a hand1 if you cannot do it in less time4 ,the opening cuts for the hand and foot of any ape or monkey are to be made as shown by the dotted lines in the accompanying sketch of the foot of an orang-utan 7,fig4 #i74 ,this is necessary even in skinning small quadrumanes which are to retain their leg bones1 because the skin of each finger must be separated from the bone so that the preservative powder or liquid can get at the inside of it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--;,foot of ,orang-,utan1 showing ,opening ,cuts4 ,the ,eyes and ,nose4--,be exceedingly careful in skinning the face4 ,the eyes are deeply sunken in their sockets1 and if you are not very careful your knife will make an ugly gash at the corner of the eye before you know it4 ,a finger held in between the lids against the eyeball will be a safe guide4 ,of course1 you will cut the lips away at the gum1 and split them open afterward from the inside to remove the flesh4 ,and1 of course1 the proboscis of the baboon and the long-nosed monkey of ,borneo must be skinned out quite to the tip while the specimen is fresh1 or it will dry up horribly4 ,the ,ear4--,the ear of a quadrumane1 especially that of a chimpanzee1 because of its great size1 is a very miserable part to preserve1 unless you have a salt-and-alum bath at hand4 ,if the cartilage is entirely skinned out--itself a difficult thing to do--it will afterward be almost a practical impossibility to give the ear its proper shape4 ,therefore the cartilage must remain4 ,the skin can be loosened from the cartilage at the back of the ear1 however1 which is a great gain4 ,do this1 and insert a good quantity of powdered alum4 ,then paint the whole ear over on both sides with arsenical soap1 and put on all the powdered alum that will stick--unless the skin is to go in the bath4 ,in that case treat each ear to a little strong alum water for an hour or so4 ,,footnote3 #d ,for detailed instructions in skinning large heads1 see ,chapter ,,xix4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,collecting ,,skins ,,of ,,small ,,birds4 ,the lives of hundreds of thousands of wild birds have been sacrificed to no purpose by persons claiming to be ornithological collectors1 and yet who had not the knowledge1 skill1 or industry to make up good bird skins4 ,there are now in this country numerous large collections of bird skins that are a sight to behold4 ,the ability to make up fine1 clean1 shapely1 well-preserved skins1 and make them rapidly also1 is a prime requisite in anyone who aspires to be sent off to interesting foreign parts to shoot1 collect1 and see the world--at the expense of someone else4 ,an aspiring young friend of the writer1 whose soul yearned to travel and collect1 missed a fine opportunity to make a very interesting voyage on the ,albatross1 for the sole reason that with all his yearning he could not make good bird skins1--and it served him right for his lack of enterprise4 ,let me tell you that1 while twenty years ago any sort of a bird skin was acceptable to a museum1 now such specimens must be first class in order to be well received4 ,fine skins are the rule now with curators and professional ornithologists1 and poor ones the exception4 ,although the work itself is simple enough1 it is no child's play to perform it successfully4 ,it is best for the beginner to learn first how to skin small birds1 and make up their skins1 and when he has mastered these details he is prepared to undertake the preparation of large specimens1 and learn how to overcome the exceptional difficulties they present4 ,to this end the present chapter will be devoted to setting forth the leading principles involved1 which are most easily learned from small specimens4 ,we will first undertake the work of skinning a small bird--a robin1 thrush1 or blackbird1 whichever you happen to have4 ,if in skinning1 skin-making1 and mounting you master the robin1 for example1 which is the highest type of a bird1 you will be well prepared for the great majority of the other members of the feathered tribe4 ,shoot your specimen with as fine shot as possible1 and not too much even of that1 in order to avoid shooting its mandibles1 feet1 legs1 and feathers to pieces4 ,as soon as it is dead1 plug the throat1 nostrils1 and all wounds that bleed1 with bits of cotton1 to keep the blood and other liquids from oozing out upon the feathers1 and putting you to more serious trouble4 ,carry the specimen home in any careful way you choose1 so as to avoid rumpling or soiling the plumage4 ,by all means let your first practice be upon clean birds4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--,names of the ,external ,parts of a ,bird4#e #a1 ,crown2 #b1 forehead2 #c1 nostrils 7or cere72 #d1 upper mandible2 #e1 lower mandible2 #f1 throat2 #g1 neck2 #h1 spurious quills2 #i1 occiput2 #aj1 ear2 #aa1 nape2 #ab1 breast2 #ac1 middle coverts2 #ad1 large coverts2 #ae1 belly2 #af1 tibia2 #ag1 tarsus2 #ah1 inner toe2 #ai1 middle toe2 #bj1 outer toe2 #ba1 thumb2 #bb1 under-tail coverts2 #bc1 tail2 #bd1 primaries2 #be1 secondaries2 #bf1 tertiaries4 ,a bird should lie an hour or two after being shot1 in order that the blood may coagulate4 ,warm specimens bleed very badly in skinning4 ,we are now in our workroom1 with the gun standing quietly in its corner1 and a robin lying on the table before us4 ,look at it4 ,study its form and structure1 and remember what you see4 ,notice how smoothly the feathers lie--how nicely they fall over the angle of the wing at the shoulder--how completely the thigh is buried in the feathers of the breast and side1 and also where the legs emerge from the body feathers4 ,notice how short the neck is1 how the eye does not bulge out of the head1 and note the fact that the breast and belly look full1 round1 and comfortable1 instead of presenting that ghastly1 drawn-up1 eviscerated appearance so often seen in the amateur's mounted specimens4 ,note the color of the eye1 the bill1 the cere1 tarsi1 claws1 and all other parts that will require painting when the specimen is mounted1 if it ever should be4 ,now take the following3 ,,measurements4--,it would be high treason for me to recommend any other system of bird measurement than that directed by ,dr4 ,coues in his incomparable ,key to ,north ,american ,birds1 and it is hereby set forth3 #a4 ,length4--,distance between the tip of the bill and the end of the longest feather of the tail4 #b4 ,extent of wings4--,this means the distance between the tips of the outstretched wings as the bird lies flat upon its back4 #c4 ,length of wing4--,distance from the angle formed at the 7carpus7 bend of the wing to the end of the largest primary4 ,in birds with a convex wing1 do not lay the tape-line over the curve1 but under the wing1 in a straight line4 #d4 ,length of the tail4--,distance from the roots of the tail feathers to the end of the longest one4 ,feel for the pope's nose2 in either a fresh or dried specimen there is more or less of a palpable lump into which the tail feathers stick4 ,guess as near as you can to the middle of this lump2 place the end of the ruler opposite the point1 and see where the tip of the longest tail feather comes4 #e4 ,length of bill4--,dr4 ,coues takes the chord of the culmen1 which is determined thus3 ,place one foot of the dividers on the culmen just where the feathers end2 no matter whether the culmen runs up on the forehead1 or the frontal feathers run out on the culmen1 and no matter whether the culmen is straight or curved4 ,with me the length of the bill is the shortest distance from the point indicated to the tip of the upper mandible4 #f4 ,length of tarsus4--,distance between the joint of the tarsus with the leg above1 and that with the first phalanx of the middle toe below4 ,measure it always with the dividers1 and in front of the leg4 #g4 ,length of toes4--,distance in a straight line along the upper surface of a toe is from the point last indicated to the root of the claw on top4 ,length of toe is to be taken without the claw1 unless otherwise specified4 #h4 ,length of the claws4--,distance in a straight line from the point last indicated to the tip of the claw4 #i4 ,length of head4--,set one foot of the dividers over the base of the culmen1 and allow the other to slip just snugly down over the arch of the occiput4 ,for skinning a small bird1 the only instrument imperatively necessary is a good-sized scalpel or a sharp penknife4 ,you can use a pair of small scissors now and then1 if you have them1 to very good advantage1 in severing legs and wings and clipping off tendons4 ,have ready a dish of corn meal to absorb any blood that is likely to soil the feathers4 ,now push a wad of cotton up the vent1 and we are ready to remove the skin4 ,no1 there is one thing more4 ,the wings lie close to the body1 and will be continually in our way unless we break them so that they will fall back and leave us a clear field4 ,it is the humerus that must be snapped in two1 as close to the body as possible4 ,those of small birds are easily broken with the thumb and finger1 but in a large bird they must be treated to a sharp blow with a heavy stick1 or a hammer4 ,lay the bird upon its back1 with its head toward your left hand2 part the feathers in a straight line1 and divide the skin from the centre of the breast straight down to the end of the breastbone1 and on until the vent is reached4 ,cut through the skin only1 for if you go too deep and cut through the wall of the abdomen you will have the intestines and various other troubles upon your hands4 ,skin down each side of the bird until you come to the knee-joint1 which lies close to the body1 and well within the skin4 ,sever each leg completely at the knee1 leaving the thigh attached to the body1 turn the skin of the leg wrong side out over the fleshy part1 quite down to the joint1 and then cut away every particle of flesh from the bone of the leg4 ,sever the tail from the body close to the ends of the tail feathers1 without cutting through the skin4 ,now take the body between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand1 holding it at the hips1 and with the other hand separate the skin from the back4 ,from this point we proceed to turn the skin wrong side out over the shoulders and head4 ,when the wings are reached1 cut them off where they are broken1 and turn the skin down over the neck4 ,avoid cutting through the crop4 ,if blood flows at any time1 absorb it all with the corn meal or plaster ,paris4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--;,first ,steps in ,skinning a ,bird4 ,almost before you know it you have skinned your bird down to the head1 for it hangs head downward during the latter part of the operation1 suspended on a small wire hook thrust through the pelvis1 so that you can work with both hands4 ,it is a trifle more difficult to turn the skin over the head4 ,push it up from the back of the head with the thumb-nail1 working it patiently1 at all points1 and stretching the skin gradually until it will pass over the widest part of the skull4 ,presently the crisis is past1 the skin slips down without trouble1 and we see by the way it is held at a certain point on each side of the head that we have come to the ears4 ,cut through the skin close up to the head1 and a little farther on we reach the eyes4 ,now be careful4 ,cut very slowly at the eye1 and close to the head1 until you can see through the thin membrane and define the exact position of the eyeball4 ,now cut through the membrane1 but do not cut the eyelid on any account4 ,a little farther and we come to the base of the bill1 where the skin and our skinning stops4 ,cut through the back of the skull so as to sever the head completely from the neck1 and lay bare the base of the brain4 ,remove the brain from the skull2 cut the eyes out of their sockets2 cut out the tongue and remove all flesh from the skull4 ,skin each wing down to the first joint1 or the elbow1 and stop the wrong-side-out process there4 ,the ends of the secondaries must not be separated from the bone of the forearm1 or the ulna4 ,it is possible to clean out the flesh from the forearm and also from the arm bone 7humerus7 without detaching the ends of the secondaries1 as you will readily see4 ,cut away any flesh which has been left at the root of the tail1 but do not cut the ends of the tail feathers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--,the ,skin ,wrong ,side ,out1 and ,ready to be ,poisoned4 ,the next thing is to poison the skin4 ,do this with a mixture of powdered arsenic and alum1 in equal parts4 ,some of our most extensive collectors use no alum1 simply pure arsenic in liberal quantity2 but ,i consider that the use of alum also is always desirable1 and under certain conditions it is extremely so4 ,some collectors use arsenical soap exclusively1 even on small birds1 and on large birds ,i1 too1 have used it quite extensively1 supplemented by an immediate sprinkling of powdered alum1 to do the curing of the skin4 ,for genuine thoroughness in poisoning and preserving1 ,i will back arsenical soap and alum against all other substances the world can produce2 but in treating small birds that are to be made up as dry skins1 ,i prefer and recommend powdered arsenic and alum1 as stated above4 ,whatever poison you decide to use1 apply it thoroughly to every part of the skin1 the skull1 wings1 legs1 and tail4 ,now put a ball of cotton in each eye-socket to fill up the cavity1 and you are ready to reverse the skin and bring it right side out once more4 ,it is usually some trouble to get the skin back over the skull1 and that ,i accomplish in this wise3 ,let the skin rest on the edge of the table1 place both of your thumbs on the back of the skull1 and with all your fingers and finger-nails1 reach forward and begin to crowd the skin of the head back where it belongs4 ,at the same time1 you must push on the skull with your thumbs1 as if trying to push it into the neck1 and in a very short time1 by a combination of coaxing and crowding1 the skin made passes the critical point on the skull1 and1 presto6 the whole skin is right side out once more4 ,now take it by the bill and give it a gentle shaking to stir up the feathers so that they will fall back naturally4 ,pluck outward the cotton in the orbit into the opening of the eye1 to imitate the round fulness of the eyeball4 ,the wing bones of very small birds need not be wrapped with cotton1 but the leg bones should be1 always4 ,now take a bunch of cotton batting of the right size1 and roll it between the palms until it attains the proper size to fill the neck1 and is a trifle longer than the entire body and neck4 ,fold over one end of this1 take it between the points of your forceps1 insert it through the neck1 and into the cavity of the skull4 ,tuck up the other end at the tail1 and give the cotton body its right length4 ,then in the middle of the skin1 pull the cotton roll apart sidewise1 spread it out and lay on it a ball of cotton to form the body4 ,next1 take hold of the broken humerus with the forceps1 and pull it inward until the joint of the wing appears1 and the two humeri lie parallel and close to each other4 ,this draws the wings into place4 ,be sure to put enough cotton in the body of a skin2 for a little plumpness and rotundity is desirable in a small skin4 ,avoid making cylindrical bird skins2 avoid the ,east ,indian native habit of crowding the breast of a bird clear up into its neck1 and also avoid stretching a skin4 ,we have now to finish the head by inserting a little bunch of cotton in the throat1 until that part is properly filled1 and plucking out or cutting off the surplus4 ,the mandibles must be held together by a thread or a pin until they have dried in position4 ,next adjust the wings1 legs1 and tail4 ,the tail should be slightly spread1 and there are two ways of doing this4 ,one is to reverse the natural overlapping of the tail feathers1 which is the quickest way1 and quite satisfactory4 ,the other is to lay the skin on a board1 put a pin through each corner of the pope's nose1 spread the tail1 and thrust the pins into the board until the skin is dry4 ,finally1 tie on your label1 which should be as small as possible to contain the necessary data--locality1 date1 sex1 number1 collector's name1 measurements1 and remarks4 ,some collectors label only with numbers1 corresponding with recorded data in a note-book2 but it is a bad plan4 ,note-books often get lost1 and then such specimens lose half their value4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--,the ,bird ,skin in ,position4 ,,wrapping ,,up ,a ,,skin4--,there are various ways of laying out bird skins4 ,the best is to wrap each skin in a very thin sheet of cotton batting or wadding1 which draws with the softness of down1 and yet1 when pinched or twisted at the ends1 it holds every feather in place4 ,the bird skins prepared by ,mr4 ,william ,palmer1 one of the ,national ,museum taxidermists1 are fine examples of how skins should be made4 ,mr4 ,palmer's method of shaping and wrapping up a small skin is as follows1 and the accompanying figures are from specimens prepared by him3 ,take the skin up between the left thumb and forefinger1 at the shoulders1 and pinch it together1 while with the small forceps you adjust the scapulars over the point of the wings4 ,cross the feet1 lay the skin breast downward on a thin sheet of cotton batting of the proper dimensions1 and arrange the feathers of the back1 the wings1 etc4 7,fig4 #ac74 ,then lift the outer edge of the sheet of cotton1 bring it forward over the skin toward the operator1 so that it will cover the back 7,fig4 #ad74 ,next1 lift the inner edge of the cotton sheet1 draw it with gentle pressure to make the skin of the right size1 and lap it well over the other4 ,the two edges of the cotton sheet will stick together very well by simply overlapping them4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--,the ,skin ,half ,wrapped4 ,the head can be adjusted by pulling on the cotton at that end1 and pinching the end together beyond the head4 ,the bill must be set at the proper angle1 and held by catching the point in the cotton4 ,do not let the bill point straight out1 for it will stretch the skin of the throat too much2 neither should it point up at a right angle to the body1 for the tip will be catching in everything that comes near it4 ,the best way with most short-billed birds is to let the bill point at an angle of about forty-five degrees to the axis of the body4 ,beaks that are very long require special arrangement1 as shown in ,figs4 #ag and #ah4 ,now lift the wrapped-up skin1 lay it with the tail toward you1 breast uppermost1 and with both hands tear the cotton open in a straight line up to the base of the tail 7,fig4 #ae74 ,you can now spread the tail by overlapping the feathers1 or leave it closed if you prefer4 ,see that your label is on1 adjust the toes and legs carefully1 then fold over the edges of the cotton and overlap them1 and the skin is done 7,fig4 #af74 ,always spread the toes of all swimming-birds4 ,another plan is to dispose of each skin in a little cylinder of paper1 made to fit1 of course4 ,this is the best plan when you are far from the conveniences of home1 and in a hurry4 ,the effect of this1 however1 is to produce a cylindrical skin1 which is not a prize shape4 ,still another way is to make a small cornucopia of stiff paper1 and slip the skin into it1 head first1 after which the large end is closed by bending in the edges4 ,the old-fashioned1 corrugated drying-board is an excellent resource when you are in a great hurry with a number of specimens4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--,spreading the ,tail4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--,the ,skin fully ,wrapped4 ,the illustration on p4 #ef 7,fig4 #ag71 from one of ,mr4 ,palmer's specimens1 shows the shape a small skin should have to be considered perfect4 ,freshly made bird skins should never be subjected to crowding or pressure1 nor should old skins either1 for that matter4 ,if you go far afield1 and expect to collect hundreds of skins1 you should go provided with a light and strong chest1 either made to open at one side and contain a series of shallow drawers to receive skins1 or else1 which is the next best thing1 and very easily made1 a box containing a series of shallow tills of varying depth1 standing one upon another from bottom to top4 ,each drawer or till should be made just deep enough to hold skins of a certain size1 but no more1 or else in travelling the skins will tumble about4 ,remember it is useless to try to make large collections of good skins in the field unless you can take care of your finished specimens4 ,this is for specimens freshly prepared and not yet dry4 ,after skins become thoroughly dry1 they can be packed in bulk1 in a chest or trunk1 by putting the largest at the bottom1 and filling the cavities with the small skins which cannot stand so much pressure4 ,bird skins should always be packed in cotton when they are to be shipped1 giving to each a soft1 comfortable resting-place1 and the box must be filled full1 so that there will be no tossing about4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--;,a ,perfect ,bird ,skin4 ,,determination ,,of ,,sex ,,in ,,birds4--,to a collector who is working under difficulties this often seems like the very last straw upon a camel's back2 but it must be attended to in every case wherein the sex of the bird is not clearly and unmistakably indicated by the plumage4 ,if you can1 get an experienced ornithologist to show you how to determine the sex in difficult subjects 7e4g41 young birds1 or birds midway between two breeding seasons74 ,but there are ways in which we can help ourselves4 ,if you begin with birds during or near the breeding season1 you will have plain sailing long enough to become familiar with the subject4 ,in birds the organs of generation lie close up to the lumbar vertebr1 near the kidneys1 in the region called the small of the back4 ,the best way to reach this region for examination is to make a cut clear across the wall of the abdomen1 break the back over at the last pair of ribs1 and the intestines will at once fall down1 exposing the lumbar region4 ,you will then see the kidneys--two large1 dark-brown masses situated in the concavity of the sacrum--and on their surface1 at the upper end1 lie the reproductive organs4 ,the testicles of the male are two dull1 whitish1 ellipsoidal1 or nearly round bodies1 of the same size1 lying close together4 ,the sign for this sex is the astronomical sign for the planet ,mars ,male4 ,the ovary of the female is1 except during the breeding season1 the most difficult to distinguish4 ,look first for a little bunch of minute round globules1 of varying sizes and grayish white color4 ,in the breeding season the eggs are easily found4 ,failing in that1 you must look for the ovary itself1 which1 when found1 will be recognized as a little1 irregular1 flattish bunch of a light gray color4 ,if you search with a magnifying-glass1 you may be able to detect it by its peculiar granulated appearance4 ,the sign for the female is the sign for the planet ,venus ,female4 ,,footnote3 #e ,from ,steele's ,popular ,zoology1 by permission of the ,american ,book ,company4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,collecting ,,skins ,,of ,,large ,,birds4 ,,general ,,principles ,,involved ,,in ,,skinning ,,large ,,birds4--,in skinning a large bird you must have room according to your strength and the size of your subject4 ,you will need the usual materials in quantity1 plenty of table space1 and a stout hook depending from the ceiling at the end of a stout cord1 to hang your half-skinned victim upon at a certain stage of the proceedings4 ,with but few exceptions1 the process in skinning a large bird is1 from start to finish1 precisely similar in principle to that for a small one1 which has already been described4 ,when you get the body about half skinned1 and are well started up the back1 thrust your hanging hook into the top of the pelvis1 and suspend the bird in mid-air1 so that you can work with both hands4 ,be careful1 however1 throughout the whole operation that you do not allow the weight of the body of the skin to stretch the skin of the neck4 ,if the head is small enough that the skin of the neck will pass over it1 skin right over it to the base of the beak itself1 and proceed in every respect as with small birds4 ,if1 however1 the skin of the neck will not go over the head1 then skin the neck as far toward the head as you possibly can 7usually in such cases you can go no farther than the lower end of the axis or second cervical vertebra71 and then cut it off4 ,the next step is to skin the head4 ,turn the skin right side out1 make a clean1 straight cut from the top of the head straight down the back of the neck for a sufficient distance to allow the remaining cervical vertebr to be drawn up through the opening4 ,it is now a very simple matter to skin the head and clean the skull4 ,the wing of a large bird contains1 between the elbow and the so-called shoulder-joint 7carpus71 quite a quantity of flesh lying underneath and between the radius and ulna4 ,whatever you do with the wing1 never cut the ends of the secondaries loose from the ulna4 ,in spacing and adjusting those secondaries nature has done something which1 to save your life1 you cannot do as well1 and if you meddle with her work some one will be sorry4 ,slit open the skin all along the under side of this long joint of the wing1 cut out all the flesh from around the radius and ulna1 and poison the interior thoroughly4 ,put in a little filling of tow or cotton1 and sew up the opening4 ,even in small birds1 except the smallest ones1 it is an excellent plan to slit open the wing on the under side and put some dry poison on the flesh1 without stopping to sew up the cut4 ,clean out the flesh and the oil sac from the root of the tail1 and poison that part so thoroughly that any insect who ever dares to think once of harboring there will instantly drop dead4 ,a bird like a large heron1 with long legs1 or an eagle with very thick legs1 should always have the tendons removed from the legs in order to facilitate curing1 and for the mutual benefit of both specimen and taxidermist when1 a little later1 the two meet in the laboratory and engage in a hand-to-hand struggle for supremacy4 ,to accomplish this1 cut a slit lengthwise in the ball of the foot where its rests upon the ground4 ,cut off the tendons where they branch and attach to the toes1 seize the end of each large tendon with your pliers and pull it forcibly out of the leg4 ,you can do this with a fresh bird in about five minutes1 whereas in a dry skin that has been relaxed it will take you much longer4 ,this removes a fine subject for decomposition1 and also leaves the space necessary for the leg wire when the specimen is mounted4 ,after having removed the tendon ,i always give the legs a coat of rather thin arsenical soap1 both to cure them and protect them from insects4 ,another excellent plan is to lay all such long legs in a pan of salt-and-alum bath solution for a few hours to thoroughly cure them4 ,if there is a layer of fat adhering to the skin1 it must be scraped off and absorbed with corn meal1 and scraped again until it is all off4 ,a layer of fat spoils a skin more quickly and more effectually than any novice can be expected to believe until he sees for himself1 in some of his finest ducks and brants1 just how it is done4 ,if a skin is worth saving at all1 it is worth preserving properly4 ,grease left on a skin burns it4 ,in making up a skin having a long1 slender neck like that of swan1 goose1 heron1 or crane1 it is an excellent plan 7when possible7 to take a stout wire1 as long as the entire neck and body1 wrap a little tow or cotton rags around it to partly form a false neck1 and insert it in the skin4 ,this will often save a neck from being completely broken in two4 ,fill the body of the skin with excelsior1 tow1 cotton1 or crumpled paper1 which1 in distant jungles1 far from civilization1 is an excellent thing4 ,in case of need1 you may fill with dry leaves1 dead grass1 in fact almost anything except wool1 hair1 or other animal products4 ,do not fill the body out to more than two-thirds its natural size1 unless you have abundant storage-room1 and transportation facilities4 ,if filled out full size1 large bird skins fill up boxes and drawers wonderfully fast1 and generally it is best to flatten such skins a little4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--;,how to ,shape a ,heron ,skin4 ,large bird skins should always be sewn up4 ,the head must be properly filled out1 and if cut open at the back1 that also should have a few stitches1 but not too many1 for obvious reasons4 ,in laying out a large skin1 if the neck be long1 bend it around to one side as the specimen lies before you on its back1 and lay it on the side of the body along the edge of the wing4 ,if the legs are long1 they1 too1 must be bent up so that the feet lie upon the body4 ,the accompanying figure1 from a specimen prepared by ,mr4 ,william ,palmer1 shows just how a great blue heron should be done4 ,the wings must be carefully placed1 the plumage dressed and nicely adjusted1 and the finished skin pinned up in a wide strip of thin cotton-cloth1 or anything else you please1 to keep it in perfect shape until it dries4 ,of course1 a large skin requires plenty of air while it is drying1 and several days' time besides4 ,if such specimens are packed and shipped before they are dry1 mould and destruction will be their portion1 and the collector will do well to flee from the wrath to come4 ,in shipping bird skins in the ,east ,indies and similar climates1 it is customary to solder them up1 air tight1 in tin-lined boxes4 ,dr4 ,w4,j4 ,holland advises me1 however1 that dry wooden boxes are good enough if they are tight1 and are first painted over on the inside with melted crystals of carbolic acid4 ,,special ,,and ,,exceptional ,,cases4--,having fully considered the various principles involved in making ordinary bird skins1 it is now necessary to note the exceptional cases1 and state how each is to be disposed of4 ,it is my desire to equip the beginner1 as far as possible1 against every emergency that is likely to arise in ornithological collecting4 ,for convenience we will take a few of the avian orders1 in their natural sequence1 beginning with the lowest4 ,,the ,,struthiones3 ,ostriches1 ,emus1 and ,cassowaries4--,these great birds are prime favorites with the showmen1 and many a fine specimen often falls most unexpectedly into the hands of an astonished local taxidermist1 to the ultimate enrichment of some museum4 ,happy is he to whom falls a beautiful1 glossy1 brown-black cassowary1 with head and neck of rich purple1 and red and yellow1 and what-not--truly a wonderful bird1 and not too large4 ,a full grown ,african ostrich is an avian colossus1 and his enormous size makes him quite a serious matter4 ,with these great birds it is best to open the skin of each leg from the lower end of the tibia all the way down to the foot1 in order to entirely remove the tendons4 ,detach the skin from the bone all the way round1 and cure it with arsenical soap and a little alum4 ,the leg should be cut open on the inside1 well back1 where the seam will be most out of sight4 ,after having removed a skin1 you will need to keep it soft1 sometimes for several days1 perhaps until you can make a suitable manikin1 if it is a large ostrich4 ,cure the skin with arsenical soap and salt 7protecting the feathers carefully meanwhile71 and keep it wrapped up and away from the air until you are ready to put it on the manikin for the last time2 then treat it with dry alum to make it dry and harden properly4 ,,order ,,sphenisci3 ,the ,penguins4--,the penguin of the ,antarctic seas is the king of fat birds1 but such magnificent monsters as those brought home by the ,challenger1 and now in the ,british ,museum1 are worth a long trip to secure4 ,mr4 ,frederick ,pearcy1 who collected and preserved the specimens1 assured me that it required two men to carry one1 and that the removal of the grease from the skins was a dreadful task4 ,of the largest specimens1 the huge legs and feet were cut off at the lower end of the tibi1 and preserved in alcohol until they could be skinned and cleaned4 ,since it is probable that only a very few of my readers will ever visit the rainy1 foggy1 storm-beaten and ,god-forsaken land of the penguin1 ,i will leave the question of grease removal to the paragraph relating to the ,lamellirostres4 ,,longipennes3 ,the ,gulls1 ,albatrosses1 etc4--,the gulls1 terns1 and petrels are so beautiful in flight that they are often mounted with the wings fully spread1 in flying attitudes4 ,when a bird is to be mounted thus1 the large wing-bones must not be broken1 but simply disjointed and cut loose from the body at the shoulders4 ,when it is possible to do so1 an albatross should be mounted with wings1 outspread1 to reveal to the student their enormous length1 and the disproportionate shortness of the primaries and secondaries4 ,if all the albatrosses in a museum collection are mounted with closed wings1 as they nearly always are1 the average observer gains not the faintest conception of the form and size of the bird in motion--its normal condition4 ,,steganopodes3 ,the ,pelicans4--,the great white pelican is one of the most satisfactory and even agreeable birds to mount that could possibly fall into the hands of an able-bodied taxidermist4 ,if ,i ever adopt a shield and an assortment of devices with which to cover it1 one of the latter shall be a figure of a huge white pelican rampant2 for it was a bird of that species that gave me a start in taxidermy4 ,it happened in this wise3 ,the year before ,i penetrated the walls of my ,alma ,mater1 its venerable president sought to find among the students an 7alleged7 taxidermist1 or at least the promise of one4 ,he publicly offered the princely sum of #aj to anyone who could come forward and mount a bird decently4 ,the gauntlet thus recklessly thrown down no one could pick up that year1 and by the year following1 when ,i appeared upon the scene1 it had grown cold4 ,like another ,lochinvar1 ,i came late for that offer4 ,i had seen one bird skinned and mounted1 and ,i knew ,i could do one like it4 ,that was an old1 rusty1 second-hand crow4 ,i petitioned to have a chance to stuff birds1 but it fell on deaf ears4 ,i even went so far as to mount a squirrel1 to show what ,i could do1 and although it was a very fair specimen for that benighted period1 it failed to win4 ,but one day some good genius sent a dead bird to the president1 for the museum1 and with it heaven sent my opportunity4 ,professor ,bessey sent for me and said1 ,now1 young man1 we are going to see how much you know about stuffing birds4 ,we've got a specimen for you to try your hand on1 and if you succeed in mounting it decently1 you may possibly get an opportunity to work in the museum4 ,i replied1 ,show me the victim4 ,he took me to his room1 and there1 spread out upon the carpet1 lay an enormous white pelican4 ,his body was like a great downy pillow1 his bill was as long as a fence-rail1 with a great horny knot atop of it1 and his huge yellow pouch would have held a whole school of mackerel1 teachers and all4 ,and what wings6 ,they were full-grown angel's size1 and as white and spotless as ,gabriel's own4 ,it seemed like sacrilege to touch them4 ,and such feet6 ,enough of them would have covered the college campus4 ,i had never before seen such a bird1 even in my dreams4 ,he really was larger than the maximum measurements given by ,audubon for that species4 ,professor ,bessey informed me that his name was ,pelicanus erythrorhynchos4 ,it was not quite so long as his bill1 nor so rough1 but it was pretty nearly4 ,with a pocket-knife1 an old misfit pair of pliers1 and a smooth1 flat piece of steel that had once been a file1 ,i skinned and mounted that bird1 in the highest style of the art1 as the taxidermic business card always hath it4 ,i have also faint recollections of a great wad of oakum made into a body1 a thimbleful of arsenic1 and a pair of eyes--merely this and nothing more4 ,as ,i hope to live1 ,i believe ,i could feed a live pelican as much arsenic as ,i put upon that great skin without even giving him the stomach-ache2 but the bugs seemed to know that was my first effort1 and they have never touched him4 ,i mounted him as the ,irishman played the fiddle at ,donnybrook fair1 neither by note nor by ear1 but1 be jabers1 by main strength1 and posed and shaped him by ,audubon's superb plate4 ,he was pronounced an unqualified success4 ,i shaped his future1 and he shaped mine at the same time4 ,when ,i saw him again1 seven years later1 he was every bit as good as new1 and ,i was astonished to find how really good he was4 ,he was the first bird ,i ever skinned or mounted1 and a lucky bird he was for me4 ,had he been a dirty1 greasy1 old swan1 think what a scrape ,i should have been in6 ,,lamellirostres3 ,the ,ducks1 ,geese1 ,swans 7and ,flamingoes74--,there are but two points to be spoken of under this head4 ,the first is that all the birds of this order must have their heads skinned through a slit at the back of the head4 ,the other is in regard to cleaning4 ,all ducks1 geese1 and swans are very fat1 even when they are poorest4 ,were they otherwise1 they could not live on the water as they do4 ,nearly the whole body is enveloped in a firm1 tenacious layer of fat1 into which the ends of the body feathers run and take root1 and bind the skin itself down so firmly that it really becomes a part of the fatty layer4 ,to remove the skin1 you must have a keen knife1 and by hard labor slice through the fat as you go4 ,as a general thing1 it is slow and tedious work4 ,when you begin1 and all the way as you proceed1 use plenty of plaster ,paris or cornmeal to absorb the free oil1 and keep it off the feathers4 ,after the skin is off the body1 and before you turn it right side out1 scrape the inside to get the oil off1 absorb it with your absorbent material1 and scrape it again and again until the grease is practically all off1 and you have only the skin remaining4 ,this takes work4 ,there is no royal road to making good duck skins4 ,if you think you can get along all right by overwhelming the grease on the skin with arsenic and alum1 and venture to leave it half cleaned1 you will pay the penalty later1 and it will serve you right4 ,you cannot cure grease with preservatives4 ,you may fill a fat duck skin half full of arsenic1 and yet the oil will ooze out through the skin on the other side1 turning the feathers a dirty yellow color4 ,the dermestes can eat every feather1 and also the skin itself1 from the outside1 without getting a morsel of the arsenic4 ,the fat simply acts as an impervious wall between the poison and the skin4 ,clean a duck skin thoroughly or else throw it away4 ,it used to be a common thing to see duck skins with the breast feathers a solid mass of nasty yellow grease from the oil that had run out from the opening cut1 but such specimens are becoming rare now4 ,if the feathers get soiled with grease1 blood and dirt1 wash the plumage with clean turpentine and a soft tooth-brush1 apply an abundance of plaster ,paris1 rub it into the feathers1 and immediately beat it out with a supple switch1 or piece of stiff wire of proper size4 ,if you have not these materials1 wash the feathers with warm water and a little soap1 and dry as best you can1 according to what you have4 ,manipulate the feathers while they are drying and they will come out soft and fluffy as in life2 but if left to dry without this1 they will remain in a bedraggled1 soaked1 and stringy condition4 ,this subject will be fully considered in a separate chapter 7,,xxv474 ,in making up the skin of a duck or goose1 a piece of wire must be put into the neck1 with the tow or other filling wrapped around it1 or failing that1 the neck filling must be wrapped around a small stick1 the upper end of which is to be thrust forcibly into the skull4 ,the head is large and heavy1 and the neck is very small1 so small that the skin will break in two if there is not a wire or stick run through the body and neck into the head to support the latter when the skin is being handled4 ,the feet of all web-footed birds should be spread while drying4 ,,alectorides3 ,the ,cranes and ,herodiones4--,there is but little to add in regard to birds of either of these orders4 ,the cranes require a slit in the skin at the back of the head1 but the herons do not4 ,the necks of the latter are very often filled too full in making up a skin1 and the neck filling is often made round1 whereas it should always be flat1 like the actual neck of the heron or bittern4 ,it is not necessary to remove the tendons from the legs of the small herons1 ibises1 etc41 but the legs should always be bent up and the feet disposed of on the body4 ,the feet and legs of all the above must be treated to a coat of thin arsenical soap1 for the benefit of insect pests4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,collecting ,,reptiles4 ,,ophidi3 ,serpents4--,all the small and medium-sized serpents should be preserved entire in good1 clean1 ninety-five per cent alcohol1 diluted with one-half its own bulk of water4 ,if the spirits is not as strong as ninety-five per cent41 then dilute with one-third water instead of one-half4 ,there should be from two to four incisions made along the median line of the belly1 each one a few inches in length1 to make openings through which the spirits can reach the abdominal region4 ,give the specimen plenty of room until it is thoroughly penetrated with the alcohol4 ,large serpents must be measured carefully1 slit open underneath in a straight line from the vent up to within six or eight inches of the head1 and completely skinned4 ,a dry snake skin is about as good as none at all for mounting4 ,i have seen many1 but never yet knew of one being mounted well4 ,by all means preserve all snake skins in spirits1 as described above1 or in the salt-and-alum bath4 ,by making a head of cork it is quite easy to take both the complete skin and skeleton of a large serpent4 ,if the head is to be mounted with the mouth open1 an extra skull must be procured4 ,,lacertilia3 ,the ,lizards4--,as with serpents1 the small ones should be opened underneath and preserved entire in spirits1 while the large ones1 if alcohol is scarce1 may be skinned in the field1 and the skins only put into the spirit-tank for preservation4 ,in putting up specimens entire1 the abdominal opening must be large enough fully to insure the entrance of the liquid into the abdominal cavity1 or otherwise the decay of the intestines may cause the epidermis to slip from the outside4 ,,crocodilia3 ,the ,crocodiles and ,alligators4--,a word in regard to shooting saurians4 ,go prepared to hunt and kill whatever specimens you require1 for the chances are you will not get any save what are brought to bag with your own trusty 7or rusty7 rifle4 ,to kill a crocodile1 proceed as follows3 ,find where he is in the habit of coming out on the bank for his daily sun-bath2 then1 at precisely the right time1 ,come where my love lies dreaming4 ,sneak up as close to him as you can1 get a position so that you can attack him broadside on1 and post a couple of natives close by1 primed beforehand with instructions to rush forward and grab the scaly monster by the tail as soon as you fire4 ,estimate the distance carefully1 wipe the perspiration out of your eyes1 aim at the neck-bone1 or the vertebral column anywhere in front of the shoulders1 and let drive4 ,if the reptile's body lies still and his jaws fly wide open1 run for him like a quarter horse1 for you have hit his spine1 and he is your meat if you only get to him in time to lay hold of his tail4 ,take your rifle along1 for you might need it again1 particularly if the crocodile is more than ten feet long4 ,if he requires a coup de grce1 give him another bullet in one of his cervical vertebrae1 and the subsequent proceedings will interest him no more4 ,it is quite a task to skin a ten-foot saurian properly1 and to preserve the skin so successfully that none of the scales will slip off when the time comes for the skin to be softened and stuffed4 ,my method1 which ,i have practised successfully with the skins of eleven species of crocodiles and alligators1 is as follows3 ,for the sake of science in general1 and the taxidermist in particular1 measure the crocodile carefully and record the dimensions4 ,divide the skin along the under side1 following the median line from the throat to the tip of the tail1 in one long1 straight cut4 ,beginning at the end of each middle toe1 divide the skin along the bottom of the foot and the under side of the leg1 up to the point where the leg joins the body1 but no farther4 ,then begin at the edges of the first cut1 and skin as far down the sides of the body as possible4 ,when the legs are reached1 detach them from the body at hip and shoulder without cutting the skin1 and continue on round the body until the backbone is reached and the skin entirely detached4 ,sever the head from the neck at the first cervical vertebra without cutting the skin4 ,skin out the tongue and remove the flesh from the palatal apertures and various cavities of the head4 ,skin each leg by turning the skin wrong side out until the toes are reached4 ,leave all the bones of each leg attached to each other and to the skin itself at the toes1 but cut away the flesh carefully1 the same as in skeletonizing4 ,remove from the skin as much as possible of the flesh which will be found adhering to it4 ,when the skin is thoroughly clean1 immerse it in a strong bath of salt and water1 and allow it to remain twenty-four to thirty hours4 ,then take it out1 rub the inside and the leg bones thoroughly with strong arsenical soap1 after which apply powdered alum liberally over the inner surface1 so that not a single spot is missed4 ,then hang the skin up by the head 7no danger of stretching in this case71 and allow it to dry in the wind and shade4 ,when almost hard and stiff1 take it down and fold it up as carefully as if it were a ,sunday coat1 so that it can be packed in a box of ordinary dimensions4 ,of course small crocodiles1 and the skins of larger ones not exceeding six feet in length1 can best be preserved in alcohol1 as already described for lizards4 ,full instructions for roughing out skeletons will be found in ,chapter ,,xxxvii4 ,i will only add to this paragraph the suggestion that of all the objects that a collector can gather1 nothing so well repays in every way the time and labor spent upon them as a few large1 well-made1 and sufficiently hideous skins of crocodilians4 ,they are at once big1 ugly1 awe-inspiring1 and marketable4 ,the general public is very fond of horrible animals from far-distant countries1 and ,i always gave it crocodiles galore4 ,,chelonia3 ,turtles4--,go where you will in the warm regions of the earth1 you are almost certain to find representatives of this order4 ,in the tropics the species are very numerous1 highly interesting1 and often of commercial value4 ,many a time your own hunger will be appeased by a tender steak of green turtle or loggerhead1 or a terrapin stew1 or a soft-shell fried in batter1 or a peck of terrapin eggs dug out of the sand1 fresh and otherwise4 ,the rare and hideous mata-mata of ,south ,america will make you a good meal1 and afterward bring you in #be in hard cash4 ,the hawksbill1 with the valuable tortoise shell upon his back1 is a thing of beauty and a joy forever1 price1 #ae4 ,wherever you go collecting in the tropics or sub-tropics1 turtles are your lawful prey4 ,how to ,kill a ,turtle4--,mr4 ,lucas says the best way is to do it with chloroform1 by tying a saturated cloth over the victim's head1 and keeping it there until death ensues4 ,this is undoubtedly the most merciful way1 but somehow ,i never had the chloroform to spare4 ,my plan was to do the killing in a short1 sharp1 and decisive onslaught with the knife4 ,with a small1 sharp saw 7a dissecting saw with an adjustable back1 for the small specimens71 saw through the bridge which unites the shell of the back 7carapax7 with that of the under surface 7plastron7 at ,b1 ,b 7,fig4 #ai72 then1 with the quickest of work1 divide the skin around the plastron1 as shown by the dotted line ,a1 ,a1 ,a1 ,a2 with half a dozen quick strokes of the knife detach the plastron from the flesh of the body1 and lift it up until the interior of the body is exposed4 ,except for the sawing through the shell1 the rest is but the work of a moment4 ,now pierce the heart instantly1 and cut the neck in two1 which ends all pain at once4 ,the only merit of this method of killing is that the victim is disposed of and put beyond the power of pain in about three or four minutes4 ,very often it is better to make an incision on the dotted line shown immediately behind the foreleg1 and through this pierce the heart and lungs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--;,how to ,open a ,turtle4 ,the dotted lines in the figure show all the opening cuts that are necessary4 ,the skin is left attached to the front of the plastron for apparent reasons1 but the plastron is turned up and over the head to completely expose the interior4 ,in the case of a sea-turtle1 which has the front limbs developed as broad1 flat flippers instead of feet1 the opening cut must extend on up the leg1 quite out to the extremity of the flipper4 ,the animal's legs1 tail1 and neck are now skinned precisely as those of a mammal would be1 with the exception that each of these members is detached from the body and pulled inward in order to turn the skin wrong side out4 ,of course all flesh is to be removed from the animal1 precisely as with a mammal1 and unless the skeleton is to be preserved1 the shoulder girdles and pelvis may be cut out with the flesh and thrown away4 ,having removed all flesh from the entire subject1 wash it clean1 and if it is not to be preserved in alcohol apply arsenical soap and alum to the skin1 putting some of the latter on the outside as well as inside1 and make up the skin otherwise as directed for dry skins of ordinary mammals4 ,the neck1 legs1 and tail should have the right quantity of filling to prevent their shrinking and shrivelling up to the point of unsightliness4 ,remember that the specimen may remain as you preserve it1 and be studied for years as a dry skin4 ,the box turtles are so constructed that when they desire to retire from the world nothing whatever save the hard shell remains exposed4 ,they cannot be opened up as described above4 ,it is necessary to meet their wants by simply sawing a big rectangular section out of the plastron1 leaving only a rim remaining1 and through the hole thus made the animal can be skinned1 and also stuffed when the time comes4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,collecting ,,fishes4 ,as to the methods of procuring your fish1 ,i have very little to say4 ,in all my collecting ,i have never yet seen the time when it did not pay far better to buy fish specimens of professional fishermen than to turn fisherman myself4 ,with an enterprising set of fishermen1 much may be done by offering to purchase the strange and curious species that are often unfit for food1 and are usually thrown away4 ,be first in the fish-market when the day's catch is being landed2 be on hand persistently1 in season and out of season1 and by so doing you will have the first chance to buy the handsome sharks1 rays1 rhinobati1 etc41 before they are ruthlessly cut up and sold piecemeal4 ,mask your enthusiasm2 learn to dissemble1 and then you will not need to pay more than the ruling market prices1 even for the specimens which are of the highest scientific value4 ,in ,ceylon ,i once bought a remarkable shark-ray for three shillings1 which ,i sold again1 almost immediately1 for #ge2 but it almost cost me a fit of apoplexy to control my feelings while the bargain was being made4 ,i wanted to give three cheers for ,rhamphobatis ancylostomus6 ,,field ,,notes ,,on ,,fishes4--,colors4--,in collecting and preserving fishes1 happy is he who can sketch with a pencil1 and thrice happy is he to whom the gods have given the ability to paint in water-colors4 ,if you are blessed with this ability1 the correct and imperative thing to do in collecting is to make a good outline sketch of each species1 and color it carefully from a perfectly fresh specimen4 ,then1 when the glorious colors of the living fish vanish like magic in the alcohol1 or in the air1 as the case may be1 there is your permanent and indisputable record1 a thing of great value to science until a better one is produced4 ,at the ,national ,museum it has for years been the policy of ,dr4 ,goode to have an accurate water-color drawing made by ,mr4 ,schindler of every species of fish1 cetacean1 and reptile received4 ,the result is a series of exhibition casts in which every detail of color is reproduced with admirable accuracy and life likeness4 ,in preserving your fresh specimens remember that1 no matter what you may do1 the colors will fade1 and the more delicate tints will disappear entirely4 ,labels4--,for alcoholics the best thing to use is a small bit of pure sheet tin1 or else sheet lead1 with a number stamped upon it4 ,the next best thing is a parchment tag having the necessary data written upon it with a lead pencil1 which is much more permanent in alcohol than any ink4 ,scientific ,facts4--,of the many facts the novice should try to ascertain regarding each species1 the following are the most important3 ,all the local names2 degree of abundance2 time when most abundant2 whether it is a permanent resident or is migratory2 if migratory1 the facts relating thereto2 its habits2 the depth and character of bottom preferred2 food2 what fishes prey upon them2 value as food or for other purposes4 ,methods of ,preservation4--,in the field1 fishes may be collected and preserved in four different ways1 according to circumstances1 as follows3 #a4 ,preserved entire in spirits4 #b4 ,as skins1 preserved in spirits4 #c4 ,as skins preserved in brine4 #d4 ,as rough skeletons1 either preserved dry or in spirits4 ,for the purposes of scientific study and close investigation1 the most valuable fish specimens are those which have been preserved entire in alcohol1 or some equally efficient preservative solution4 ,good alcoholic specimens rank next in scientific value to fishes fresh from their native element4 ,ordinarily1 however1 the collector's resources are limited1 and it is necessary for him to preserve only the skins of the large and bulky specimens4 ,tanks for ,alcoholics4--,for years past the ,national ,museum and ,united ,states ,fish ,commission have used square1 box-like tanks1 made of copper and lined with tin1 each tank having a large round hole in its top1 as large as the width of the top will allow1 and which is closed tightly by means of a screw cover4 ,these are known as ,agassiz tanks1 for the reason that the design originated with ,professor ,louis ,agassiz4 ,they are light1 not very costly1 easily managed1 and are about as nearly perfect for their purpose as anything can be in this world4 ,they are made of three sizes1 to hold four1 eight1 or sixteen gallons4 ,to protect them during shipment a strong pine chest is used1 which is provided with wrought-iron handles1 hinged cover1 hasp1 and padlock4 ,the chests are made to contain one sixteen-gallon tank1 two of eight gallons1 and either three or four four-gallon tanks4 ,the tanks used by the ,national ,museum are made by ,w4,s4 ,barker1 ,seventh and ,d ,streets1 ,s4,w41 ,washington1 at the following prices1 exclusive of the chests2 sixteen-gallon tank1 #af4ej2 eight-gallon1 #aj2 four-gallon1 #d4be2 pine chests1 complete1 #c each4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--;,agassiz ,tank1 for ,alcoholics4 ,if ,agassiz tanks are not obtainable1 the next best and the cheapest course is to have some large round cans made of galvanized iron1 with tops that can be soldered on when the time comes to ship specimens4 ,wooden kegs are not of much use in collecting1 but both kegs and barrels are good enough to use in transporting collections4 ,many a time ,i have helped myself out of a difficulty afield by falling back upon the immortal ,american kerosene can1 holding five square gallons1 and which goes to the uttermost parts of the earth4 ,glass ,jars4--,in the field ,i have never found any other sort of a glass jar half as useful and safe as a common ,mason fruit jar1 varying in size from pint to half-gallon4 ,they are infinitely superior to glass-stoppered jars1 and far less liable to be broken4 ,,preserving ,,fishes ,,entire ,,in ,,spirits4--,having taken all the notes on a fresh specimen that you desire1 the next thing is to wash it thoroughly4 ,but before washing the fish1 says ,dr4 ,t4 ,h4 ,bean1 look it over for external parasites2 examine the gills and the inside of the mouth carefully1 as these are favorite situations4 ,these parasites often furnish a clue to the migration of the fish2 remove them if they can be taken off entire2 if not1 let them remain1 and call attention to their presence in your shipping notes4 ,preserve the parasites in vials or bottles1 and provide them with labels1 stating from what fish they came1 and in what situation they were found4 ,many fishes when taken from the water have the entire body and gills covered with a coat of persistent mucus that can be removed only by determined effort4 ,if you have any alum at hand1 you can in a moment make up a pint or quart of alum water1 which will cut the mucus instantly1 and clear it off4 ,use a stiff brush--a large tooth-brush is the best thing--in cleaning off this mucus1 and do not forget to cleanse the gills thoroughly4 ,open the abdominal region of every fish by making a generous cut from the vent straight forward toward the ventral fins4 ,usually the length of the opening should be equal to about one-fifth of the entire length of the fish4 ,if the fish be a large one1 it has always been my practice to open the fleshy interior still farther by working through this cut1 and detaching the skin from the flesh as far up each side as possible4 ,this gives the spirits immediate access to the entire mass of flesh1 and the result is very speedy and perfect preservation without any change whatever in the form or weight of the specimen4 ,dr4 ,bean always directs that the viscera be preserved1 to assist in identification1 even though it becomes necessary to remove them from large fishes and preserve them in separate jars4 ,when there is no particular reason for their preservation1 it is a great advantage to remove them and throw them away4 ,they are--unless of scientific value--an abominable nuisance1 and do more to spoil good alcohol than all the rest of the fish4 ,fishes that have begun to decompose1 and have become offensive1 yet are too valuable to throw away1 may be disinfected by washing them inside and out with a moderately weak solution of pure carbolic acid and water1 or with a solution made by dissolving a tablespoonful of chloride of soda in a pint of water4 ,for years a very common formula for preservative alcohol has been ninety-five per cent alcohol diluted with one-third of its bulk of water1 or1 in other words1 three parts of alcohol and one of water4 ,if there is any fault to be found with this solution1 it is that it is stronger than is really necessary4 ,i have preserved barrels of alcoholic specimens in a solution composed of two parts of proof spirits and one part water1 and have never lost a specimen except through leakage4 ,this solution is strong enough to stand considerable deterioration without the loss of its contents4 ,i have never attempted to collect quantities of alcoholics without an alcoholometer in constant use4 ,this little instrument costs but a trifle1 and affords the only reliable means for testing the strength of alcohol4 ,its use enables the collector to exercise economy in the use of his spirits1 and get the maximum benefit from it4 ,therefore ,i say1 buy an alcoholometer at all hazards1 and carry it and a suitable test-glass with your outfit4 ,test the spirits on your specimens frequently1 and you will then run no risks of loss4 ,keep a receptacle to use as a receiving and curing tank1 into which all fresh specimens are placed1 with abundant room for each to undergo the curing process4 ,every animal contains in its body a heavy percentage of water1 which must be1 in great measure1 replaced by the spirits before the flesh can be preserved from decay4 ,into the first bath a great quantity of blood and abdominal fluids will be soaked out from the specimen1 and it is bound to lose strength rapidly1 and also become foul4 ,as long as it remains clean enough to use1 keep up its strength by the addition of pure spirits1 and in it immerse all specimens until they are thoroughly cured4 ,give them plenty of room at first1 and keep them from settling down to the bottom by putting there a bunch of excelsior1 tow1 or cloth4 ,while the spirits in a can may be strong enough on top to preserve a specimen1 at the bottom1 where the animal impurities settle1 it may be so weak that anything lying in it would soon spoil4 ,often the tail of a fish which hangs upright in a jar will spoil while the remainder will be preserved4 ,after specimens have remained in the receiving-tank for from two to four days1 according to size1 put them in another receptacle in clean1 fresh spirits1 still allowing them plenty of room4 ,finally1 when ready to pack up and make a shipment home1 wrap each fish separately in a piece of thin1 white cotton cloth1 just large enough to cover it well1 dip it in clean spirits1 and without any tying or pinning of the cloths1 lay the fishes in your barrel like sardines in a box1 as closely as they will lie without being squeezed4 ,fill the receptacle full of fishes1 head it up1 and then pour into it all the clean spirits it will hold4 ,in order to proceed with the second and third methods of preserving fish specimens1 it now becomes necessary to describe a process4 ,,how ,,to ,,skin ,a ,,fish4--,of course1 no one aspiring to become a collector of fishes will remain in ignorance of the names of the different fins4 ,and1 more than that1 before he can prepare even the rough skeleton of a fish he must know what its bony structure is like4 ,on the whole1 there is a good deal to be learned about methods in collecting fishes1 and as a beginning we must learn how to skin a scale fish4 ,the methods with cartilaginous fishes will be considered later4 ,the principles with all scale fishes are precisely the same1 the only difference being in the greater amount of cold steel and energy required for such great1 hulking brutes as the jewfish1 and the magnificent tarpon4 ,for convenience we will take a specimen about a foot in length2 for example1 a striped bass1 a pike1 or a red snapper4 ,as is the case with quadrupeds1 the left side of a mounted fish is always expected to be the show side4 ,lay the specimen upon its left side1 start at the vent with a stout pair of sharp-pointed scissors1 and divide the skin in a perfectly straight line along the median line of the belly toward the head1 stopping the cut when you approach close to the narrow1 tongue-like point which terminates between the lower angles of the gill openings4 ,now reverse the fish1 begin again at the vent1 and divide the skin with a clean cut through the scales1 in a line parallel with the base of the anal fin1 and about half an inch from where the scales meet the fin rays4 ,this is really a cut along the side of the fish1 as low down as possible1 made necessary by reason of the anal fin4 ,continue this cut straight back to the tail1 as shown in the dotted line g-h in ,plate ,,iv4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iv4 ,,how ,,to ,,cut ,,open ,,and ,,mount ,a ,,fish4 ,you will find that the ventral fins are joined together in the flesh by a strong bony arch1 called the pubis1 and this must be divided through the middle so as to entirely separate the fins4 ,the anal fin-rays must now be cut loose from the interior rays 7called interhmal spines71 which are really their bony foundation4 ,the ventral fins must also be cut loose from the pubic bones at the point where they are articulated4 ,now take the cut edge of the fish skin between the left thumb and forefinger1 and with the cartilage-knife carefully cut the skin free from the flesh4 ,be careful not to disturb the white layer of color pigment which is spread like a silver lining of feeble tin-foil over the inside of the skin4 ,this is what gives the fish its silvery color1 and if skinned off or scraped away the skin will look like colorless parchment4 ,whatever you do1 do not disturb that color lining4 ,proceed with the skinning until the skin has been detached from the entire upper side of the fish4 ,this brings you to where the dorsal and caudal fins are inserted4#f ,now turn the fish over1 and proceed as before1 as far as you can go4 ,you presently reach the caudal fin1 which must be cut loose from the end of the vertebral column as far back in the skin as possible4 ,when this has been done1 the skin and the fleshy body still hang together by the attachment of the rays of the dorsal fin to the interhmal spines4 ,cut these apart with the scissors1 from back to front1 close up to the skin1 which brings you to where the vertebral column joins the skull4 ,you will make very short work of that1 which frees the fleshy body from the skull4 ,now scrape away the surplus flesh from the inside of the skin1 wash it thoroughly1 remove the gills 7if they are not to be studied71 and lay the skin flat upon its side in your tank of alcohol4 ,by thus preserving the skins of fishes1 instead of whole specimens1 a great number of really large specimens can be preserved in a small quantity of alcohol1 for at the last they can be packed together1 heads and tails1 precisely like sardines4 ,,skinning ,,cartilaginous ,,fishes4--,sharks1 ,rays1 etc4--,the skinning of a shark or saw-fish calls for no special instructions in addition to the foregoing1 except that the long1 narrow1 pointed tail requires to be slit open along the right side of its upper lobe for a considerable distance4 ,remember the principle that wherever there is flesh1 a way must be made so that it can be removed1 or at least reached from the inside by the preservative4 ,of the skull1 nothing is to be left attached to the skin except the jaws4 ,the skeleton is wholly of cartilage instead of bone1 and is easily cut through4 ,the extremely flat1 circular-bodied ray1 also with a cartilaginous skeleton1 must be opened on the underside by two cross cuts at right angles to each other1 one extending from mouth to tail1 and the other from side to side4 ,the fin rays are very long stems of cartilage1 set so closely together as to form a solid sheet of cartilage extending from the thoracic skeleton out to the extremities of the fins1 which taper out to nothing4 ,the thoracic skeleton gives shape to the body of the ray1 particularly the back1 and it must be left in place1 with the skin of the back attached to it4 ,cut through the fin rays where they join the body1 and this will enable you to skin down each side of the fish until you get so near the outer edge there is no longer any flesh4 ,stop at that point1 cut the flesh away from the fin rays1 and cut away as much of the fin rays themselves as you please4 ,clear out all the flesh and preserve the skin in a very strong solution of salt and water 7what is known to chemists as a saturated solution71 or in alcohol if you have it to spare4 ,,preparing ,,rough ,,skeletons4--,in about seven cases out of ten1 it is a far easier and more simple matter to rough out1 clean1 and mount the complete skeleton of a fish than the uninitiated would naturally suppose4 ,a few fishes1 such as the shad1 have more bones than the law allows1 and the preparation of a complete skeleton thus becomes a practical impossibility4 ,fortunately1 however1 most fishes are more reasonable in the matter of bones1 and to these we direct our efforts4 ,first and foremost1 study the bony structure of a typical scale fish1 learn what its principal parts are1 and how they are articulated4 ,learn how the ribs lie1 and how a row of slender1 riblike bones called appendices1 or epipleural spines1 are attached to the true ribs1 and at their outer extremities touch the inside of the skin along the lateral line of the fish4 ,if you will take a good-sized perch as your first subject1 you will not be troubled with any osteological extras1 and the process will be as follows3 ,lay the perch upon its side1 and with a sharp scalpel cut away the skin from the whole of the exposed side4 ,remove all the viscera4 ,by careful examination1 ascertain the exact location of the ribs1 and particularly the row of epipleural spines attached at the upper ends of the former4 ,with a broad1 flat bone-scraper1 or your knife-blade if you have nothing better1 begin at the lateral line of the fish1 and work toward the top of the back1 taking the flesh away in chunks as you go4 ,in a very short time the vertebr and the interhmal spines are exposed1 and with a narrower bone-scraper the flesh is easily removed from them4 ,now turn the fish around1 and with great care cut and scrape the flesh away from the ribs and the epipleural spines4 ,do not on any account detach the latter from the former1 but at this stage leave them attached to each other by a thin strip of flesh for their better protection4 ,do not separate the ventral fins by cutting through the pubic arch1 but with your small1 curve-ended bone-scraper remove the flesh from the angular recesses of these bones1 and leave the anterior end of the pubic arch attached to the coracoid4 ,next1 pick out the flesh from around the base of the pectoral fin1 remove the eye from its socket1 and whatever flesh the skull contains4 ,thus does the bony structure of one entire side stand revealed4 ,the gills are of course to remain in place1 as the skeleton would not be complete without them4 ,there is but one thing more to add4 ,in treating the other side of the fish in a precisely similar manner1 care must be taken to not disturb the attachment of the interneural and interhmal spines which join the dorsal and anal fin rays to the processes of the vertebral column4 ,having thus denuded the fish of its flesh1 lay the skeleton in a pan of water1 and with a moderately soft tooth-brush1 or nailbrush1 brush it carefully to wash away all blood and mucus4 ,if the bones are full of blood 7which is very rarely the case71 the skeleton must be soaked in clear water for an hour or two1 or longer if necessary1 to soak out the blood1 so that it will not dry in the bones and permanently disfigure them4 ,rough skeletons of fishes may be preserved in alcohol1 but for many reasons it is much the best to dry them4 ,poison them with dry arsenic2 do not put upon them either salt1 arsenical soap1 or alum1 hang each one up by the head1 and see that it dries in good shape4 ,the pectoral fins should lie well down upon the ribs for mutual protection4 ,,footnote3 #f ,some operators open a fish in a straight line along the middle of one side1 but ,i have never been able to see any reason for this preference4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,collecting ,,marine ,,invertebrates4 ,,sponges4--,a live sponge is simply a vast colony of protozoan animals1 each member of which lives an independent existence1 but all are at the same time mutually dependent upon each other4 ,the sponge of commerce1 and the cleaned sponge of the museum collection is1 like a branch of coral1 merely the skeleton of the living aggregation4 ,a live sponge is a dark colored1 heavy1 tough gelatinous mass1 cold and clammy to handle1 quickly offensive if left in the open air1 and utterly useless until cleaned1 or rid of its mass of animal matter4 ,the skeleton of a sponge may be horny1 like that of the useful sponges of commerce2 silicious1 like the marvellously beautiful framework of the famous glass sponge of the ,philippine ,islands 7,euplectella72 or calcareous1 like the curious little ,grantia1 which looks like a miniature bouquet-holder1 with a frill of spines around its open end4 ,owing to the extreme scarcity of sponge collections1 very few persons know how great a variety of forms1 and what really remarkable forms1 exist no farther from home than the waters that wash the coast of our own beloved ,florida4 ,i once had the pleasure of collecting no fewer than sixteen distinct species on the beach between ,biscayne ,bay and ,new ,river ,inlet1 some of them of remarkable form1 and all of them nicely cleaned for me by old ,ocean4 ,of course1 ,i searched for sponges1 and found many a fine specimen buried almost out of sight in the sand1--but what glorious fun it was1 to be sure6 ,there ,i obtained the large1 coarse basket sponge 7,hirvina campana71 a hollow1 inverted cone1 often capable of holding a pailful of water2 the remarkable finger sponge 7,tuba vaginalis71 which forms clusters of upright1 hollow cylinders2 a large cylindrical sponge of a rich brown color1 and beautiful wiry texture1 called ,verongia fistularis2 and sponges that were like trees1 like interlocked deer antlers1 and what not4 ,professor ,h4,a4 ,ward's last catalogue of invertebrates enumerated forty-three species of sponges that were on hand when the list went to press4 ,of these1 the largest specimen was a huge ,neptune's cup 7,paterion neptuni71 four feet in height1 and shaped like a gigantic goblet1 which came from the neighborhood of ,singapore4 ,therefore1 ,i say1 when on the seashore1 be on the lookout for sponges4 ,if you can find them on the beach ready cleaned and dried for you1 so much the better2 but if you get them alive1 the soft animal matter must be macerated and washed away1 just as you would macerate the flesh from a large skeleton4 ,soak them in fresh water for a short time to macerate the soft matter1 then wash it out in salt water1 and keep this up until the sponge is at last clean4 ,,corals4--,the bleached white coral cluster of the cabinet is1 like the sponge1 only the skeleton of its former self4 ,when it was forcibly torn from its foothold at the bottom of the sea it was covered with living coral polyps1 which gave it the color which is peculiarly its own4 ,some species1 notably ,madrepores1 when first taken from the water look like colored glass4 ,the main branches are of a yellowish-brown tint1 shading toward the tips to the most delicate and beautiful bluish purple4 ,there is no way to preserve these colors1 because they are due entirely to the presence of the living polyps4 ,when those delicate organisms die1 as die they must1 the color vanishes1 and if not cleaned and bleached1 the coral assumes a dead1 smoky brown appearance1 suggestive of dust and dirt4 ,therefore it is best to clean and bleach your corals at once4 ,this requires a little time1 but the process is so simple a child can use it4 ,small specimens can be cleaned quickly by washing them in dilute muriatic acid1 and afterward in clear water to keep the acid from going too far1 and then placing them out in the sun to bleach4 ,large specimens cannot always be treated in this way1 and the best plan for wholesale operations is to place the coral on the ground1 in a sunny situation1 and dash water upon it daily until the soft animal matter has been washed away1 and the wind and sun combined have bleached the specimens to snowy whiteness4 ,as a general thing1 the natives who live within reach of coral groves are in the habit of gathering it in quantity1 cleaning it very successfully1 and offering it for sale at prices that defy competition on the part of any scientific collector whose time is worth more than fifty cents a day4 ,the best thing the collector can do is to get acquainted with the native fishermen and boatmen1 treat them well and pay fairly1 and then1 if there is anything in the sea that his collectorship wants1 it will soon be forthcoming4 ,thus1 instead of the growth of the collection depending upon one or two men1 there will be from ten to twenty local experts directly interested in it4 ,i once came to a complete deadlock with my interpreter and three boatmen on the translation of the word coral4 ,they were ,singhalese and ,tamils1 and coral was worse than ,sanskrit to them4 ,finally1 as a last despairing effort1 ,i took a pencil and began to make a sketch of a madrepore4 ,the crowd watched its progress in breathless silence until very soon one appreciative auditor shouted triumphantly1 ,koki kalli6 ,the crowd joyfully echoed it1 the mystery was solved1 and in five minutes more we were afloat and on our way to seek ,the treasures of the sea1 ,in the mystic groves of coral ,where her spirit wanders free4 ,the packing and shipping of branching corals is a serious matter4 ,i have tried every way ,i could think of1 and have seen others do the same1 and am firmly convinced that no matter how the large branching clusters are packed1 they are bound to get somewhat broken anyway6 ,of course1 if you care to travel with them and see to their handling at every transfer1 that is another thing1 but who can do that8 ,the trouble is that the individual branches are so very heavy for the diameter of the stems next the base1 a sudden jar causes them to snap in two by their own weight4 ,but then corals are very beautiful1 very interesting1 and no matter though they are troublesome1 we must have them4 ,in packing brain coral1 and other compact forms without branches1 the principal thing is to wrap them in sufficient soft materials that their surfaces cannot get rubbed1 for that would ruin them4 ,do not pack a large chunk of brain coral without putting a partition across the box to hold it firmly in its own place1 no matter how the box is turned4 ,in ,ceylon ,i once took the trouble to divide a large box into twelve separate compartments for the reception of that number of coral specimens4 ,in packing branching coral1 a good quantity of soft1 elastic1 fibrous material like coir1 cotton1 tow1 oakum1 or something similar1 is necessary4 ,from first to last1 take whatever precautions are necessary to keep your corals from getting filled with dirt and litter4 ,each cluster must lie on a thick pad of your fibrous material4 ,in order to get downward pressure upon it1 to hold it in place without breaking the branches1 take some soft paper or cotton cloth1 roll up a long1 cylindrical pad of cotton or something else1 and thrust it far down into the largest opening between the branches1 with one end projecting above the top of the cluster to receive and transmit pressure from above4 ,this principle1 if properly carried out1 will enable the collector to so firmly fix even the most fragile cluster that it is fitted to withstand pretty rough treatment in transit without serious damage4 ,,star-,,fishes4--,when star-fishes are first taken from the water their arms are pliant1 but after a bath in alcohol they become perfectly rigid4 ,if left to themselves when first put into spirits1 the smaller and more spider-like species will almost tie their arms into double bow-knots1 and insist on keeping them so forever after4 ,since the way to cure a star-fish is to soak it in alcohol for from six to twenty-four hours1 according to size1 and then dry it flat and in good shape1 it becomes necessary to pin the small ones firmly in shape upon thin boards before immersing them1 and then they will stay put4 ,see to it that while in the spirits all your star-fishes1 large and small1 cure in proper shape1 flat1 and with each arm flat and extended in the right direction4 ,after removal from the spirits1 pin out all those not already fastened upon boards1 and then let them dry4 ,i have never found it necessary to poison the spirits1 for the reason that dermestes and other insects seem to respect a dried star-fish for his own sake4 ,,echini4--,in all tropic seas the collector is liable to find echinoderms1 sea-urchins1 sea-eggs1 or sea-porcupines4 ,these creatures are usually spherical in shape1 with the mouth underneath1 and the internal structure of the animal is covered with a stout1 calcareous shell of uniform thickness1 which is set all over on the outside with a mass of protecting spines1 usually fine and very sharp-pointed1 but sometimes thick and blunt4 ,in life the spines are movable1 and by means of them the creature walks1 or clings to its native rocks most tenaciously4 ,the best time to seek echini is at low tide1 and the best places are those where the shore line is composed of rough rocks1 scooped out here and there into shallow pools4 ,take with you a large basket1 a large screw-driver1 if you have one1 or failing that1 a knife with a long1 stout blade4 ,wear old clothes1 unless you can afford to spoil new ones4 ,when the tide is low you can wade around in the now peaceful pools1 and find the echini in the sheltered crevices1 clinging to the bottom1 or the perpendicular sides of the rocks1 but always under water4 ,to dislodge them1 the knife-point or the edge of the screw-driver must be neatly and skilfully worked under the victim far enough to enable you1 with the exertion of some force and a steady pull1 to pry him loose from the rock1 whereupon he becomes your lawful prey4 ,next comes the cleaning process4 ,with a small knife1 detach the skin of the mouth parts from the edge of the round hole underneath1 in the middle of which the mouth is situated1 and remove all fluid and fleshy matter from the interior of the shell4 ,that done1 wash it out thoroughly4 ,the bony jaws1 or ,aristotle's lantern1 may also be drawn out through the hole and thrown away--unless you happen to be collecting for someone who is studying the anatomy of echini1 in which case he must speak for himself4 ,having cleaned your sea-urchin1 put it in clean alcohol 7same strength as for fishes7 and let it soak for about twenty-four hours4 ,this will prevent the spines from gently dropping off1 like leaves in autumn1 when you proceed to dry the specimen4 ,after soaking in spirits1 put the specimens out in a shady place to dry4 ,it is a curious fact that all the echini of ,ceylon and ,malayana lose their spines unless soaked in spirits before drying1 whereas those of the ,red ,sea1 the ,mediterranean1 and the ,west ,indies can be dried without soaking1 and the spines will not fall off4 ,,shells4 ,living and ,dead ,specimens4--,the first thing that the amateur needs to learn about a shell is that it may be living or dead4 ,as a general thing1 what is technically called a dead shell is worthless in a cabinet4 ,a live shell is one which has been collected with a living mollusc in it1 and then duly cleaned1 preserving all its beautiful colors4 ,a dead shell is one in which the occupant died a natural death1 has lain and bleached in the sunshine until its colors are entirely gone1 and its form also ruined by the weather4 ,therefore ,i say1 leave dead shells alone1 unless it be that you are making an exhaustive collection of the species in a given locality1 when a dead shell which is identifiable is as good a record as a living one4 ,where a shell is actually devoid of color1 a dead shell is as good as a living one1 provided it is collected before its edges or its angles have been rounded by exposure to the sun and rain4 ,many a living shell has an epidermis1 the same as an animal1 while a dead shell has none4 ,when shells are obtainable1 who can resist the impulse to gather them8 ,the man1 woman1 or child who is proof against the seductive powers of the beautiful and many-colored shells of the seashore is fit for treason1 stratagems1 and spoils4 ,next to the pleasure of collecting shells one's self is that of witnessing the keen delight of children and ladies in gathering these beautiful treasures of the sea4 ,if you have never yet had an opportunity to stroll along the smooth sands of an ocean beach at low tide1 and gather your basketful of beautiful shells1 curious sponges1 bits of coral and coralline1 while your soul is soothed by the rhythmic music of the surf1 then ,i pity you4 ,you have indeed yet something left to live for4 ,hooker has divided the shell-bearing mollusca into three great groups--land1 fresh-water1 and marine--and the shell collector will do well to study each one separately4 ,land ,shells4--,these are most abundant in the tropics1 less so in the subtropical regions1 and are rare elsewhere4 ,they are seldom found where moisture is not abundant4 ,in the tropics they are to be collected all the year round1 but in the temperate zone it is best to collect them in the autumn1 when they are fully grown4 ,it is impossible1 without devoting too much space to this subject1 to give more than a general idea of the situations in which land shells are found4 ,some species are to be looked for on trees and bushes2 others on rocks and stone walls2 others again on the ground1 and others again on the blades or in the roots of grass4 ,in the tropics it is particularly desirable to watch for the beautiful land snails1 which are almost strictly arboreal in their habits4 ,they are to be found on the trunks and leaves of palms1 the banana1 myrtle1 orange1 and scores of other trees and shrubs4 ,fresh-,water ,shells which inhabit clear and shallow water are easily gathered with a stout hand-net4 ,where the water is murky1 or so deep that the bottom cannot be seen1 it is necessary to have an instrument like an iron-toothed rake1 with the teeth set closely together1 to be used as a sort of clam-dredge1 raking the bottom and gathering up the mussels4 ,in our own country the amateur collector will doubtless be surprised at the number of species of ,unio which will repay the labors of a diligent collector4 ,marine ,shells4--,if you would have one of the jolliest picnics in the world1 don a suit of old clothes1 equip yourself with a stout basket1 a screw-driver with a long handle1 and a case-knife with a thin blade1 ,hang up thy lute and hie thee to the sea4 ,go before the tide is at its lowest ebb1 and search in the vicinity of the largest bowlders1 under ledges of rock1 under loose stones1 in shallow pools1 in bunches of sea-weed1 in fact everywhere along the shore4 ,in these various places you will find cowries1 ormers 7,haliotis71 chitons1 limpets1 and more others than ,i could name in an hour4 ,when wading in shallow water it is well to look out for the pestiferous sting-ray1 and not step on one unawares1 lest you find its caudal spine driven through your foot like a poisoned arrow4 ,but1 fortunately1 they seldom trouble the collector4 ,with the limpets1 chitons1 and other small shell-fish1 you must work the point of your case-knife under them1 and with it gradually detach them from the rock4 ,where such prey is plentiful1 the collecting of it is grand fun1 ,i assure you4 ,there are many bivalves which burrow or bury in the mud or sand1 which must be dug out with a stick or trowel1 while other species1 still more enterprising1 bore into wooden piles1 and even into rocks6 ,these1 of course1 can be collected only with the aid of a hatchet1 or chisel1 or stone-hammer1 as the case may be4 ,if you are on the ,florida coast you will do well to search over the coral reefs and the mud flats at low tide4 ,on the latter you will find conch-shells1 pinnas1 and numerous other species4 ,i once made a very successful search for pinnas by wading around barefooted on a sandy flat on which the receding tide had left the water but little over a foot in depth4 ,these shells were always found standing up in the sand1 at bay1 with their sharp edge up4 ,by going barefooted as ,i did1 you find the shells by stepping on them and cutting your feet1 which is to be accomplished1 however1 without hurting the thin edge of the shell4 ,a cut foot will heal up1 but a broken shell never will4 ,,cleaning ,,shells4#g--;,in gathering shells1 particularly the marine species1 many of them will be found covered with a thick1 leathery1 and persistent epidermis1 and many others will be so buried under rough1 limy accretions that their own fathers would scarcely recognize them4 ,however beautiful such shells may be when cleaned1 it is no child's play to clean them and get them ready for the cabinet4 ,to anyone willing to learn1 the processes are really very simple2 and what manual labor under the sun could be more interesting to a lover of natural history8 ,removing the ,animal4--,with a large shell1 such as a conch1 the first step is to remove the living animal4 ,in some cases ,i have accomplished this by hooking a fish-hook into the head of the animal and hanging it up so that the weight of the shell constantly pulling down on the animal would cause it to gradually relax and draw out4 ,an excellent plan is to place the shell for a few days in fresh water and macerate the animal sufficiently that it may be drawn out4 ,fortunately the great majority of molluscs are very small1 and it is possible to prepare them for the cabinet without the necessity of removing the animal4 ,mr4 ,greegor's plan is to soak the shell in alcohol for a few days1 to completely preserve the animal1 and then dry it thoroughly to expel all the water from it4 ,when that is done1 the final step is to pour into the shell1 through a rubber tube1 a little thick varnish1 or hot beeswax mixed with a little vaseline to make it flow readily1 and thus cover the dried-up remains of the animal with an impervious coating which does away with all odors which might otherwise arise from it4 ,this part of the process1 be it understood1 is to be attended to after the cleaning and polishing has been done4 ,removing the ,epidermis4--,the epidermis is so tough and horny1 and sticks so tightly to the shell that tools cannot remove it successfully and it must be done chemically4 ,make a strong solution of chloride of lime and water1 by putting into a jar one-fourth its bulk of chloride of lime1 two-fourths water1 and leaving the remaining fourth part of the space for the froth that will rise4 ,soak shells in this pasty solution for a short time1 and it will eat the epidermis off4 ,removing ,limy ,accretions4--,the bulk of all these thick1 irregular coatings must be removed with steel tools--file1 scraper1 knife1 sand-paper1 or hammer--to suit each individual case4 ,the tool that ,mr4 ,greegor most relies upon is a small and very light hammer1 made especially for him1 which is shaped somewhat like a square-headed tack-hammer1 with the pointed end drawn out to a blunt cutting edge1 like the edge of a cold chisel4 ,with this cutting edge a skilful hand can peck the lime or coral incrustations off a shell very neatly1 and without injury to the surface of the specimen4 ,acid will not remove the thick1 limy deposits1 and they must be cleaned off by mechanical means4 ,after the bulk of the limy deposits have been removed by means of tools1 the shell usually has a dull1 lustreless appearance1 and appears to require something that will remove the remaining particles of lime1 impart to it a permanent gloss1 and bring out its beautiful colors4 ,fortunately there is a way to do this to perfection1 which consists in dipping the shell in a weak solution of muriatic acid and water1 boiling hot4 ,the strength of this solution must vary according to the nature of the specimen4 ,for thick and strong shells1 which by their solid character you are assured cannot be damaged by a maximum of acid1 put #c parts of muriatic acid in #aj parts water4 ,for thin and delicate specimens1 use #a part acid to #aj of water1 varying the amount of acid from #a part to #c1 as your experience will soon teach you is most desirable4 ,put this solution in a porcelain kettle1 bring it to a boil1 and then with a pair of wooden tongs or forceps dip each shell into it and hold it there for a second or more1 as may be necessary4 ,on removing it1 wash it in clear water and dry it1 and if its appearance is not satisfactory dip it again4 ,for very delicate shells1 having a thin surface color1 such as the ,cypreas and ,olivias1 or such shells as have very delicate sculpture1 the weaker solution is best4 ,when it is desired to cut more on one part of a shell than another1 the acid may be applied with a brush1 finishing with a quick dip4 ,never allow any of the acid solution to remain on the shell1 or it will eat into it and dull the lustre4 ,for fine work1 dry each specimen with a towel4 ,shells which have on their exterior a great deal of horny or organic matter1 such as ,haliotis1 ,ostrea1 ,lingula1 and a few others1 work badly in acid1 and require to be brushed constantly while cutting1 to remove the organic matter1 for the reason that the acid acts only on the lime of the shell4 ,chloride of lime and muriatic acid are both very volatile1 and when not in use should be kept in tightly closed vessels4 ,,footnote3 #g ,for the best part of the information given under this heading ,i am indebted to ,mr4 ,i4 ,greegor1 the well-known dealer in sea-shells and ,florida curios1 at #fa ,laura ,street1 ,jacksonville1 ,fla41 who is an acknowledged expert in the treatment of shells1 not only in cleaning1 but in cutting sections1 polishing1 etc4 ,i obtained the facts from him while he occupied a very high position in the ,smithsonian ,institution--in the north tower1 at least fifty feet from the ground4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,collecting ,,birds' ,,eggs ,,and ,,nests4 ,,identification4--,positive and unmistakable identification of the builder and occupant of a nest is quite as imperative on the collector as the gathering of the nest and eggs themselves4 ,there must be no guess-work on this point1 for eggs without a pedigree are often valueless4 ,if an oological expert is within reach--one who can tell to a certainty the species of doubtful eggs1 or if the eggs themselves are so characteristic and unique in their shape1 size1 and markings as to render their certain identification an easy matter1 then is it safe to take home a find without finding the owner4 ,it is only the fledgling oologist who needs to be told that in all cases of doubt regarding the identity 7i4e41 the exact species7 of a nest-builder1 the only proper course is to collect the bird as well as the nest and eggs4 ,this may often involve long watching1 but it relieves the result from all uncertainty4 ,no collector should think of going afield in quest of nests and eggs without taking his gun along4 ,in ,south ,america1 the only way in which ,i could get possession of the wonderful pensile nest of the crested cacique was by cutting off the limb to which it hung1 with a rifle bullet4 ,in all timbered regions the collector must have a pair of good climbing-irons1 such as telegraph linemen use1 to enable him to climb with ease the nest-bearing trees that would otherwise defy him4 ,it was before the days of climbing-irons that aspiring ,sir ,walter ,raleigh wrote for the fair eyes of ,queen ,elizabeth1 ,fain would ,i climb1 but that ,i fear to fall1 to which his august mistress promptly responded with a piece of wisdom which every young oologist will do well to paste in his hat3 ,if thy mind fail thee1 do not climb at all6 ,very good and serviceable climbing-irons can be obtained of ,mr4 ,frank ,b4 ,webster1 #dji ,washington ,street1 ,boston1 for #c4ej per pair4 ,mr4 ,webster also keeps1 at his very complete naturalist's supply depot1 nearly every requisite that an oologist or taxidermist requires1 except one thing that is indispensable in hunting and lofty tree-climbing1--nerve4 ,every collector or taxidermist should send ,mr4 ,webster ten cents for a copy of his illustrated catalogue1 which of itself is probably the finest of its kind ever issued1 and in which all naturalist's and oologist's supplies are pictured1 described1 and priced4 ,the following are the principal articles needed to make up a proper outfit for an egg collector1 and ,mr4 ,webster's prices thereon3 ,collecting-box1 #ge cents4 ,pasteboard trays1 for eggs1 ,egg drills1 six sizes1 #ae cents to #a4ej4 per dozen1 #ab cents4 ,calipers1 for use in measuring1 #fj cents4 ,pocket-case 7leather71 complete1 with drills1 ,embryo hooks1 #be cents4 blower1 hooks1 scissors1 and forceps1 ,embryo scissors1 #be cents to #a4ej4 #e4jj4 ,egg measures1 #ge cents to #a4jj4 ,climbing-irons1 per pair1 #c4ej4 ,,collecting ,,nests4--,our boys pay too much attention to collecting eggs1 and not half enough to nests4 ,to the average observer who takes an interest in perusing the pages of ,nature's story-book1 a fine collection of bird's nests is a joy forever4 ,it is ever ready to unfold chapter after chapter of bird lore1 tales of wonderful intelligence and divine ingenuity in adapting means to ends1 and stories galore of difficulties surmounted by the cunningest little architects in the world4 ,notice1 if you please1 the bewildering variety of materials employed in the construction of these bird-dwellings1 great and small4 ,why1 even the human architects of our own time are completely surpassed by the ,baltimore oriole1 the marsh wren1 and the humming-bird4 ,there is food for thought and cause for admiration in a really good collection of bird's nests4 ,to me there is much more of interest in any nest than in the eggs it contains4 ,the latter is a plain and simple product of nature1 to which the bird is merely an interested party to circumstances beyond its own control4 ,the former is an exhibit of the instinct1 intelligence1 reasoning powers1 industry1 and mechanical and artistic skill of a living creature of a high order4 ,the nest is what the bird makes it1 and it often tells quite a story4 ,boys1 let us give eggs and skins a rest1 and make a fine collection of nests1 in situ1 as the rockologists say4 ,we can do this after the nestlings have flown1 if you like1 without stealing any eggs or shedding any innocent blood4 ,after the young have tumbled out1 the nest is a back number1 and becomes your lawful prey4 ,take it1 and enjoy it1 without remorse over blood that you haven't shed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--;,bird ,nest1 in situ4 ,the most interesting and valuable nests are those that are collected in situ1 or1 in other words1 in the particular crotch1 or bunch of grass1 or bush in which the bird placed it4 ,anything that will show just where a nest was placed by its builder adds immensely to its interest1 and increases its scientific value4 ,the accompanying illustration of such a nest in ,captain ,bendire's collection 7,fig4 #ba71 may be taken as an example of how nests of a certain class can be collected and displayed4 ,the section of the sapling was sawn squarely off a few inches below the nest1 and screwed 7from below7 upon a highly polished ebonized pedestal4 ,in drawing this specimen the label was removed in order that no portion of the principal object should be concealed1 but ,captain ,bendire's system of labelling is fully shown in another figure4 ,the possibilities in collecting and displaying nests in situ are almost endless4 ,indeed1 so far as ,i have observed1 this is a new and very attractive field for the collector1 for although ,i have visited a great many large museums1 and in both the ,new and the ,old ,world have seen many ornithological collections1 ,i have never yet seen a collection of birds' nests which represented a tithe of the possibilities in that direction4 ,every oologist should have in his library a copy of ,rev4 ,j4,g4 ,wood's charming book1 ,homes without ,hands1 which portrays many of the wonders of bird architecture4 ,in collecting nests one must go prepared to saw off branches1 to cut sections of grassy earth1 to gather up big tufts of grass1 and transport all these to some safe destination4 ,very often it will be necessary to protect a nest by filling its cavity with some soft material1 and then with fine thread or wire to wrap it securely to the limb on which it is placed4 ,or again1 it may be necessary to remove a nest temporarily from its resting place1 wrap it thoroughly1 and transport it separately to the museum1 to be put in its place later on4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--,wire ,standard for ,nests4 ,most naked nests1 i4e41 those that have been plucked from their resting-place1 require to be wrapped to keep them from gradually falling to pieces4 ,this may be done with fine thread of the same color as the outside materials of the nest1 or1 what ,captain ,bendire uses and recommends as being better1 the finest kind of wire which1 in large cities1 can be bought1 neatly made up on spools1 at five to ten cents a spool4 ,the wire or thread is wound on quite as one would wind thread on a ball1 except that the wire must never be allowed to cross the cavity of the nest1 which would at once make it conspicuous4 ,put on only enough winding to hold the nest well together1 and distribute it so that the wire will not be noticed when the nest is placed on exhibition4 ,for the display of naked nests1 ,captain ,bendire uses a very simple but ingenious little standard made of four wires twisted together so as to form an upright stem1 a horizontal platform of the right size1 with four perpendicular standards to receive and hold the nest4 ,these standards are easily bent to conform to the shape of the nest1 and if the upper ends project above the nest they are snipped off with a pair of cutting pliers4 ,the illustration on page #ic 7,fig4 #bb7 shows the exact character of the wire standard1 and ,fig4 #bc shows it in use1 supporting a naked nest4 ,captain ,bendire's method of labelling his nests is also shown in full4 ,it is to be noted that the locality of the specimen exhibited1 and the name of the collector1 appears in full upon the label--two features which should never be omitted on a specimen that is of sufficient value to occupy a place in a museum4 ,nevertheless1 by less careful curators both these statements are frequently omitted from labels4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--,nest on ,wire ,standard1 with ,labels4 ,,collecting ,,eggs4--,in connection with a collection of nests1 each nest holding its own lawful and original contents1 a good collection of birds' eggs possesses much interest and beauty4 ,in collecting and preserving eggs1 the most difficult feature of all is to remove the embryos successfully4 ,in the days when ,i diligently collected eggs in many lands1 it seemed to me that out of every dozen eggs ,i gathered1 about thirteen contained from one to two embryos each6 ,but there are ways in which this difficulty can be successfully overcome4 ,the full set of eggs laid by a bird for one brood is called a clutch1 and in collecting it is of scientific importance that whole sets should be collected and always kept separate1 and the number of eggs in each set taken should be recorded4 ,eggs are always blown through a small1 round hole in the middle of one side1 preferably in each instance on the poorest side of the egg1 if it has one4 ,of course1 the smaller the egg1 the smaller the drill must be1 and the greater the care in handling4 ,it is often a good plan to pierce the shell with a needle in order to furnish the drill a point of attack4 ,if an egg is cracked1 or happens to be of such value that it must be saved at all hazards1 reinforce it by pasting narrow strips of goldbeater's skin or court-plaster across the line of fracture4 ,having drilled the hole1 insert the end of a small wire1 having a small portion of the end bent at a right angle1 and if the embryo has not begun to develop1 or happens to be quite small and soft1 twirl the wire rapidly between your thumb and finger1 to thoroughly break up the contents of the egg4 ,having accomplished this1 insert the tip of your blow-pipe 7the best in the world consists of a tube of glass bent at a right angle and terminating in a fine point1 with the large end set in the end of a rubber bulb1 which saves the mouth and lungs all trouble7 and with gentle and gradual pressure blow in air4 ,hold the egg with the hole downward1 of course1 so that the contents will run out freely4 ,go slowly and carefully1 even coaxingly1 for too great pressure will burst any ordinary egg in two parts very neatly4 ,if the embryo is small and disposed to be accommodating1 help it out by inserting the point of your smallest scissors1 snipping it to pieces1 and then drawing out the parts1 one by one1 with your smallest forceps4 ,having emptied the egg of its contents1 introduce some clear water by way of the blow-pipe1 wash out the inside thoroughly1 and in case the egg is in a clean1 healthy condition1 it can now be laid away on cotton or cornmeal1 with the hole downward1 to drain and get dry4 ,observe this point1 however4 ,the thin1 membranous lining of an egg1 which the point of the drill pierces but cannot cut away1 often closes together inside the hole so closely as to retain1 for some time1 whatever water might chance to remain4 ,for this reason it was my custom to cut away this membrane around the edges of the hole4 ,captain ,bendire remarks that eggs that have been thoroughly cleaned will retain their original color much better1 and insects or mice are not so apt to trouble them4 ,,removing ,,large ,,embryos4--,it often happens that eggs are taken quite near the hatching point1 containing embryos so lusty in size1 and so very fillin' that their successful ejectment seems impossible4 ,nil desperandum4 ,the way out of the difficulty is through a very small hole4 ,on this point ,i appealed to the highest authority1 ,captain ,bendire1 and he kindly gave me1 in general substance1 the following directions3 ,in the first place1 make up your mind to go slow1 and take plenty of time4 ,if the egg is valuable and the embryo is large1 reinforce the egg all over with strips of goldbeater's skin or court-plaster4 ,having drilled a fairly large hole1 then insert the head of a needle in a small stick for a handle1 and with the point pierce the embryo in twenty or thirty places4 ,the egg sac1 which is always present1 should be taken out1 if possible with the forceps1 to give room for water4 ,having cleared out the egg as far as possible1 fill it up with water to assist in the decomposition of the embryo4 ,cover the bottom of a box with a layer of cornmeal or sawdust2 lay the egg on this1 with the hole upward 7still full of water71 cover the box1 and place it under a stove or in any other place warm enough to hasten the process of decomposition4 ,work at the egg a little about every alternate day1 but without hurrying matters1 and keep this process in operation until the embryo softens1 falls to pieces1 and is ready to be drawn out piecemeal4 ,in removing a large embryo1 try to get hold of the tip of the mandible with the small forceps1 so that it can be drawn out1 point foremost1 without splitting the shell4 ,eggs that emit an offensive odor after they have been blown need to be rinsed out with carbolic acid and water1 or some equally good disinfectant4 ,it is1 of course1 to be understood that eggs must be clean on the outside before they are fit for the cabinet4 ,usually soap and warm water is sufficient to remove dirt and stains1 but occasionally a particularly hard case calls for the addition of a little washing soda in the water4 ,the last washing1 however1 should always be in clear water4 ,inasmuch as a label cannot be attached to an egg1 the data necessary to give the egg a respectable position in the oological world must be written on the under side of the egg itself1 either in lead pencil or ,india ink1 which is capable of being erased1 at will4 ,the following are the data that should be recorded on every egg collected and kept3 #a4 ,name of species1 or number in ,a4,o4,u4 check list1 if ,north ,american4 #b4 ,collector's number1 which belongs to every egg of a given set1 and refers to his catalogue and field notes4 #c4 ,number of eggs in the set1 or clutch4 #d4 ,date in full4 ,in packing eggs for shipment1 a great many small boxes of wood or tin are absolutely essential1 and in these the eggs must be carefully packed in cotton1 each one separated from the rest of the world by a layer of cotton4 ,it is an excellent plan to wrap every large egg separately in cotton1 as oranges are wrapped in papers4 ,captain ,bendire recommends the making of divisions1 one for each egg1 with strips of pasteboard1 like the crates in which egg producers pack eggs for shipment to market4 ,this gives each egg a compartment by itself1 with a bit of soft cotton cloth at top and bottom4 ,if produce dealers can afford to take such care of eggs worth only thirty cents per dozen1 surely oologists can do the same when they are within the pale of civilization1 and can get the materials4 ,at the ,national ,museum the duplicate eggs are stored in small1 rectangular1 shallow pasteboard trays1 or half boxes1 each of which has its bottom covered very neatly and exactly with a section of cotton wadding1 which gives a soft1 springy cushion for the eggs to lie on without the undesirable fluffy looseness of ordinary cotton batting4 ,,part ,,ii4--,,taxidermy4 ,keeping everlastingly at it brings success4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,the ,,laboratory ,,and ,,its ,,appointments4 ,it would be impossible for me to dwell too strongly upon the importance1 nay1 even the vital necessity to the taxidermist1 of a commodious and suitable workroom1 and a good supply of proper tools and materials4 ,anyone setting up a store of any kind meets the expenditures for fixtures and furniture as a matter of course2 but the average taxidermist would consider it a killing thing to invest from #ajj to #bjj in good tools and materials4 ,first-class tools1 and a good assortment of them1 are indispensable allies in the production of the finest kind of work in the shortest possible time4 ,in taxidermy let us have no making of bricks without straw4 ,as well might an artist attempt to paint a grand picture with a sash tool as a taxidermist attempt to mount fine specimens with a dull knife1 an old file1 and a pair of rusty pliers4 ,let us suppose we are fitting up a taxidermic laboratory in which to mount all kinds of vertebrate animals1 great and small4 ,to begin with1 we must have a good room1 if possible #ae ,x #be feet1 or even larger1 with good light1 a high ceiling1 and an abundant supply of water4 ,there must be somewhere a storeroom for bulky materials1 and a drying-room for freshly mounted specimens4 ,there must be provided somewhere1 for the wet mammal skins1 a big1 box-like tank lined with sheet lead1 for very large objects1 and some alcohol barrels for smaller ones4 ,these must be provided with tight covers1 or the salt-and-alum bath will evaporate with great rapidity4 ,after the above1 our laboratory will require the following ,,furniture ,,and ,,fixtures4--,a heavy work-table1 #h feet long1 #d feet wide1 and #b feet #f inches high2 top #a-a_/b inch thick4 ,a tool case and chest of drawers4 ,a stove1 a chopping-block1 a heavy bench vise4 ,a grindstone1 a blacksmith's anvil1 and portable forge4 ,a water-tight platform on castors1 on which to stand large mammals that are wet and dripping4 ,,tools4 #b killing-knives4 #a machinist's hammer4 #b cartilage-knives4 #a hatchet1 to lend4 #a pair shears1 and #a pair fine scissors4 #a sharp hatchet1 to use4 #a draw-shave1 adjustable handles4 #a cold chisel4 #b skin-scrapers1 of sizes4 #a set stone-cutter's chisels4 #c gouges1 of sizes4 #a punch4 #c chisels1 of sizes4 #a tap wrench4 #a screw-driver4 #a pair calipers4 #a #b-;foot rule4 #a set of hack saws1 for iron and brass4 #a tape-measure1 #ab feet4 #a set iron fillers1 of sizes4 #a thread-cutter1 for iron4 #a set wooden fillers1 of sizes4 #a thread-cutter1 for brass4 #a set modelling tools4 #c pair pliers1 of sizes4 #a set of files4 #c pair cutting nippers4 #a set of paint brushes4 #d pair forceps1 of sizes4 #a set of brushes for hair and teeth4 #a hand vise4 #a gluepot4 #a hand drill4 #a set of awls4 #b monkey wrenches1 of sizes4 #a set of glover's needles1 #c sizes4 #a ratchet brace1 with bits and drills4 ,best linen sewing twine1 or #d gimlet bits1 of sizes4 gilling thread1 of two or three sizes4 #a hand-saw4 #a iron thimble4 #a key-hole saw4 #a spirit-lamp1 or gas-stove4 #a claw hammer4 ,pails1 kettles1 cups1 bowls1 etc4 #a tack hammer4 #ab spools of ,barbour's linen thread4 ,,materials4--,excelsior2 hemp tow of two qualities1 coarse and fine1 both of long fibre2 flax tow1 such as upholsterers use2 cotton batting2 oat straw2 potter's clay2 good glue2 plaster ,paris2 arsenical soap2 spirits of turpentine2 benzine2 salt by the barrel2 ground alum by the hundredweight2 pine and hemlock lumber1 one to two inches thick2 #bd pine scantling2 an assortment of annealed wire2 rods of ,norway iron1 from #c_/af inch to #a inch2 nails1 tacks1 wrought-iron staples1 screws1 nuts1 bolts1 wrapping twine2 rosettes for iron standards2 washers1 all sizes2 alcohol1 shellac1 white hard oil finish 7varnish72 muriatic acid1 sheet wax1 sperm oil2 glass eyes1 all sizes1 kinds and colors2 unlimited pluck1 patience1 and perseverance4 ,if the worker intends to mount only birds and small mammals1 he will need but a very small portion of the tools and materials enumerated above4 ,but fie6 ,where is the taxidermist worthy of the name who will admit that his resources are limited1 or that he is not able and ready to set up any animal that may be brought to him1 no matter how big or how bad it is4 ,perish the thought that he is not able to cope with dog1 deer1 or even elephant4 ,we now start on the supposition that you have acquired all the tools and materials you are likely to need1 and that our subsequent work is not going to halt or hang fire on account of the lack of this or that article4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,preliminary ,,work ,,in ,,mounting ,,mammals4 ,,relaxing ,,dry ,,skins4--,nearly all mammal skins that go from one country to another are sent in a dry state1 and it is a rare exception to obtain a foreign skin in any other condition4 ,it therefore behooves the mammal taxidermist to become a thorough expert in softening dry skins of all kinds and sizes1 and bringing them into mountable condition4 ,to relax a dry skin1 rip it open1 remove the filling material1 and immerse it in a weak but clean salt-and-alum bath 7see ,chapter ,,iv47 until it becomes soft1 be the time required three days or three weeks4 ,if you are in a great hurry1 soak the skin at first for a brief period in clear water1 and if it is milk-warm1 so much the better4 ,sometimes a skin is so old and hard and refractory that the bath of salt and alum seems to make no impression upon it1 in which case try clear water4 ,in a few hours it will yield and collapse1 and then it must be put into the bath1 or the water will soon macerate it1 and cause the hair to slip off4 ,you can leave the skin in the salt-and-alum bath as long as you choose without endangering it in any way4 ,the inside of every dry skin usually has over it a hard1 inelastic coating which1 when once gotten rid of by shaving or scraping1 leaves the skin underneath measurably soft and elastic1 according to its kind4 ,if the skin is a small one1 or no larger than that of a wolf1 the best way to get it in working order is to lay it flat upon the table1 and go at it vigorously with the skin-scraper 7see ,fig4 #bd74 ,in this there must be no half-way measures1 no modesty1 no shirking4 ,bear on hard1 dig away at the same spot with all your energy1 first in one direction1 then crosswise1 then diagonally4 ,scrape as if you were scraping on a wager1 and presently the skin will become so thinned down it will become quite soft1 and even elastic4 ,this is hard work1 it starts the perspiration and keeps it going1 but it will conquer the hardest skin that ever was made4 ,to make a skin sufficiently elastic to mount1 it must be turned wrong-side out and scraped all over thoroughly with a skin-scraper1 from nose to tip of tail1 and phalanges4 ,small skins yield far more readily and kindly than the larger ones4 ,the skins that are hardest1 horniest1 and most refractory are those of the capybara1 all of the ,suid 7hogs71 and tropical deer4 ,i have mounted skins of these that when first softened were precisely like horn1--and at best with such subjects the resulting specimens are only passable4 ,sometimes when the scraper can make no impression1 it becomes necessary to laboriously pare down the inside of an entire skin with the knife before scraping it4 ,this is tedious1 but effective1 for a sharp knife leaves no room for argument4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--,skin-,scrapers1 about one-fourth actual size4 ,all skins larger than a gray wolf1 whether they be fresh or dry1 need to be stretched on a beam1 and pared down with a sharp draw-shave that has adjustable handles4 ,this useful instrument can be bought at any large hardware store for #a4be4 ,keep it thoroughly sharp4 ,the beam should be about seven feet in length1 and six by three inches in size1 and laid flat4 ,one end of it is to be bolted firmly down to your bench by two movable iron bolts1 and the half which projects beyond the edge of the table must have both of its upper edges rounded off so that it will represent half a cylinder with the convexity uppermost4 ,the table itself must be fastened securely in place4 ,throw the skin over the rounded end of this beam1 drive a stout scratch-awl through it1 just beyond the reach of your arms1 stretch and flatten the skin upon the beam1 and with the draw-shave carefully shave down the entire skin until it is thin enough4 ,be very careful at first1 until your hands acquire skill1 or you will cut through the skin1 which1 in the case of an animal like a hair seal means an unsightly1 permanent defect4 ,do not be afraid of paring a skin too thin so long as you stop at the roots of the hair4 ,of course you can not pare down the skin of the head and feet with the draw-shave1 and these must be treated with the knife and scraper4 ,the skin of the head of every mammal must be pared down and scraped particularly thin all over1 especially the eyelids1 lips1 and nostrils1 so that when these parts are backed up with clay you can model them into exquisitely fine form and expression4 ,if you slight the skin of the head1 good-by to all expression2 you will merely be able to stuff it1 and that is all4 ,if its features look coarse1 uncouth1 and wooden1 it will probably be because the thickness and inelasticity of the skin defies your art4 ,of course the joints of the feet must be got into working order4 ,the leg bones and skull require to be thoroughly scraped and cleaned1 and the skin itself worked up as nearly as possible to the condition of a fresh subject4 ,,carving ,,wooden ,,skulls ,,and ,,leg ,,bones4--,it is absolutely essential that every mammal to be mounted should have a skull1 and all save the smallest should have leg bones also4 ,if the skull and leg bones that belong in a skin are missing1 ,i invariably carve others of the same size out of soft pine to replace the lost members4 ,these bones are imperatively necessary to give shape and length to the various joints and angles of the limbs1 to shape the head1 to give a foundation for the attachment of wires1 and to build upon generally4 ,very often the skull of an animal is of such value to science that it must be kept out of the skin at all hazards1 and exhibited separately4 ,then it must be duplicated in wood4 ,every mammal taxidermist must learn how to carve wooden bones1 and the quicker he becomes expert at it1 the better4 ,very few tools are required1 and these are as follows3 ,a small hatchet1 a pair of #h-;inch calipers1 a pair of #h-;inch dividers1 gouges of three sizes1 #a_/d1 #a_/b1 and #c_/d inch2 chisels of about four sizes between #c_/h and #a inch1 a draw-shave1 a spoke-shave1 a good sharp pocket-knife1 and the usual supply of boring tools4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,v4 ,,paring ,,down ,a ,,large ,,mammal ,,skin4 ,to carve a wooden skull1 proceed as follows3 ,if you have not the genuine skull to use as a pattern1 you must procure one from an animal of the same species1 and ascertain its size in comparison with what the wooden skull must be1 e4g41 whether it be larger or smaller4 ,then procure a piece of soft pine timber1 free from knots1 and thick enough to turn out a skull of the proper size4 ,if this can not be found in one piece1 glue together several pieces of pine until they form a block of the proper size4 ,on the top of this block place your genuine skull1 and trace its outline on the wood1 making your outline larger or smaller1 as it may need to be1 and bilaterally symmetrical4 ,now take your hatchet and hew the two sides of the block down exactly to this outline4 ,this represents the ground plan of the skull4 ,to get the side elevation1 sketch out on the side of this block a side-view outline of the skull1 and then hew down to that4 ,with your dividers1 locate exactly the inner edge of the orbits1 and then mark out with a pencil the entire circle of each orbit4 ,with a gouge carve out the hollows neatly1 and then with your flat chisels attack the cranium1 round off its angles1 and so work over the entire skull4 ,measure frequently with the calipers to see that the dimensions are correct4 ,there is no need to go into any of the details of the back part1 or basi-occipital portion of the skull1 nor with any other details except those that lie on the surface4 ,it is important to shape the orbits1 zygomatic arch1 the frontal bones1 the muzzle and lower jaw1 quite accurately1 for these bones bear scarcely any flesh4 ,in making skulls for apes and monkeys the greatest care is necessary to produce the facial angle1 orbits1 and muzzle1 so sharply characteristic of the various families4 ,when a wooden skull is used1 the mouth should always be closed1 unless it is very necessary to have it open4 ,while it is possible to take moulds from a real skull1 and cast a full set of teeth in plaster or lead1 or to set real teeth1 or painted wooden imitations1 into a wooden skull1 the result is generally unsatisfactory to a critical eye4 ,when teeth are cast and painted1 the paint always changes color with age1 causing the teeth to look made up4 ,if you can not have a real skull with genuine teeth in it1 for whatever mammal you are mounting1 no one has any right to require that it be mounted with open mouth1 unless the head is to go on a rug instead of a scientific specimen4 ,observe the following precautions in making a skull3 #a4 ,be sure that it has the proper facial angle4 #b4 ,be sure that it is in no way too large4 ,better have it too small than too large4 #c4 ,be sure that there are no sharp corners upon it anywhere1 lest they come out next to the skin in mounting1 and cause trouble4 ,when a skull is finished1 bore a hole 7or two in some cases7 through it from the occiput to the centre of the nose or mouth1 for the passage of the neck irons or wires that are to support the head4 ,the principles involved in carving skulls apply equally to carving leg bones1 except in this work there is much to be done with the draw-shave and spoke-shave4 ,of course they require to be wired together at the joints1 with two wires at each joint1 so that the space between them may be channelled out with a gouge to receive the leg iron4 ,,sewing ,,up ,,holes ,,in ,,skins4--,after thoroughly cleaning a skin1 take a glover's three-cornered needle of the proper size1 and a waxed thread from a ball of strong linen thread1 or gilling twine1 and sew up all the holes that are to be found in the skin4 ,it requires some little ingenuity sometimes to know just how to trim the edges of a hole so that it can be sewed up without puckering the skin1 but a little experimenting will soon reveal the way4 ,if you have to sew up a cut which has no hair to cover it1 sew tightly with a curve-pointed needle1 starting the stitches on the inside well back from the edge1 and sewing only three-quarters of the way through the skin4 ,draw the edges tightly together4 ,when the sewing is finished1 place a flat bar of iron or wood underneath the seam1 and hammer it with a hammer all the way along4 ,this will flatten the ridge formed by the sewing1 and will render the seam almost invisible4 ,in order to do fine work1 a taxidermist must be quite expert in the use of the needle and thread4 ,in sewing up skins there are two points to be aimed at1 viz43 #a4 ,to sew strongly4 #b4 ,to sew so neatly that the seam will be as nearly invisible as possible4 ,for general work one must also have common round needles1 and ,no4 #cj thread for very fine sewing1 as1 for instance1 torn eye corners or lips1 and holes in the face where the skin is very thin and there is little hair1 or none at all2 three-cornered glover's needles1 ,nos4 #jj1 #a1 #b1 #c2 and three sizes of strong linen sewing twine4 ,in the beginning of your work acquire the habit of being particular about the size of the needle and thread you use upon a skin1 and never let them be larger than necessary4 ,when special strength is needed1 double the thread and wax it with beeswax to prevent its rotting4 ,always sew with the ball stitch1 e4g41 from the inside of the skin to the outside1 every stitch4 ,it is often convenient to use a curved needle1 and this can be made by heating a glover's needle to a red heat in the flame of a spirit lamp and curving it while hot4 ,,how ,,to ,,make ,,long ,,needles4--,in making manikins1 and also for other purposes1 it is necessary to have a set of needles varying in length from six to eighteen inches1 or even longer4 ,you can buy needles up to ten inches in length from anyone who keeps upholsterers' supplies1 but the longer ones you must make for yourself4 ,to do this1 take a piece of ,no4 #ab or #ac steel wire and grind one end to a point4 ,for the eye1 heat the other end red hot1 flatten it with the hammer1 then heat it again1 lay it on a bar of lead1 and with a brad-awl and hammer punch an eye in it while hot4 ,,neck ,,irons ,,in ,,mounting ,,mammals4--,never allow a neck iron to come through the top of the skull1 through the forehead1 or through the face anywhere4 ,the neck iron1 which must support the entire weight of the head and neck1 should pass through the back of the skull and into the nasal cavity4 ,let the iron extend some inches beyond the end of the nose until the neck is made1 and the head placed in position1 for not until then can you tell what length the neck iron should be4 ,when the head is well-nigh finished1 take a small hack-saw and saw off the neck iron close up to the nasal cavity1 so far from the end of the nose that by no possible chance can the animal shrink so much in drying that the end of the iron will protrude through one of the nostrils and into view4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,principles ,,of ,,universal ,,application ,,in ,,mounting ,,the ,,higher ,,vertebrates4 ,,general ,,remarks4--,we may assume that anyone who is ambitious to excel in taxidermic work desires to do so by the high character of his productions1 and the recommendation they silently give him4 ,i am well convinced that any one who takes the trouble to read this book will welcome the following principles that apply very generally in mounting the higher vertebrates1 and are1 at all events1 intended to increase the average of general excellence and permanency in mounted specimens4 ,a place in the front rank of taxidermists is not to be easily won4 ,it can only be accomplished by the studious methods of the sculptor1 the experience and observation of the field naturalist1 and a combination of these with technical and mechanical skill in the laboratory4 ,the painter paints but one side of his animal1 and he is not hampered by bulk or measurements4 ,the sculptor blithely builds up his clay model1 with neither skin1 bones1 nor hair to vex his soul4 ,the taxidermist must not only equal the form of the sculptor's clay model1 but he must also make it to fit a certain skin with exactitude4 ,the ideal taxidermist must be a combination of modeller and anatomist1 naturalist1 carpenter1 blacksmith1 and painter4 ,he must have the eye of an artist1 the back of a hod-carrier1 the touch of a wood-chopper one day1 and of an engraver the next4 ,with increased skill on the part of the workers has come increased appreciation on the part of museum officials1 and higher salaries4 ,let me say to aspiring beginners1 there is plenty of room at the top1 and money and glory to spare for those who get there4 ,but there is no royal road to fortune in this business4 ,success means years of earnest work and study4 ,with the understanding1 therefore1 that we are aiming at perfection1 and that a little knowledge is a dangerous thing1 we will endeavor to call attention to a few principles which underlie all good work in taxidermy4 ,at the same time ,i will try to point out a few of the most common faults generally observable in mounted specimens4 ,,permanency4--,this is the foundation on which every specimen must be built in order to be first class4 ,a preserved and mounted animal that has not enough solidity and stability to stand the test of time is unworthy of a place in any museum or private residence1 for its existence is sure to terminate speedily in disappointment1 disgust1 and loss4 ,during the last eight years the ,national ,museum and ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history have thrown away and otherwise gotten rid of enough stuffed specimens to stock a small museum1 and all because of poor and unstable taxidermic work only twenty years ago4 ,a taxidermist who knows his business can mount a specimen to last ten years or ten hundred1 just as he chooses4 ,if you1 like a certain taxidermist ,i once knew1 believe in quantity not quality1 then you1 like him1 can use small and weak supporting irons 7they work so much easier than heavy ones671 half clean your skins and skulls1 ram a skin full of excelsior1 straw1 paper1 and rubbish from your dirt-box1 sew it up with long stitches and cheap twine1 cram its eyes and nostrils with nasty putty1 and insert the cheapest eyes obtainable4 ,then1 while the specimen may look passably well during its first six months1 by the end of two years its sides will be a succession of hills and hollows1 its seams will be ripped and gaping wide open1 its nose will be shrivelled up and shapeless1 its ears will look like dry autumn leaves2 it will lean over helplessly to one side1 and will also have settled down upon its feet until they are shapeless deformities4 ,this is no fancy picture1 for it fairly represents the condition of many a buffalo1 deer1 and moose that ,i have been called upon to either dismount1 remount1 or destroy4 ,a dishonest taxidermist may slight the interior work of a specimen and have it escape detection for six months1 or even a year1 but time soon tells the story4 ,dishonest or careless work1 like murder1 will out4 ,in a bird1 it expresses itself in a look of roughness1 and a general falling away from grace at all points4 ,to secure perfect stability and permanence in a mounted specimen1 observe conscientiously the following principles in its construction3 #a4 ,pare every skin down thin1 so that its shrinking power will be reduced to a minimum4 ,this will prevent its seams from opening4 #b4 ,poison with the utmost thoroughness1 so that even though the specimen should chance to stand unprotected for years where insect pests are thickest1 they can find nothing to feed upon in its hair or feathers4 #c4 ,use heavy supporting irons or wires1 as heavy as the specimen will accommodate without sacrificing the form and position of legs and feet4 ,the fault of using the lightest possible supports is entirely too common1 and is so thoroughly reprehensible in a taxidermist that it becomes a vice4 #d4 ,make the mechanical structure of every specimen 7e4g41 the fastening together of the body1 limbs1 head1 neck1 and tail71 so firm that the rigidity of all is complete4 ,it is then1 and only then1 in your power to place any member of the body in a desirable attitude and have it remain fixed4 #e4 ,every portion of the skin should rest upon a firm1 smooth surface of clay1 excelsior1 straw1 or tow1 according to circumstances4 ,if there are lumps under the skin1 they will appear soon after it is dry1 and destroy its smoothness4 ,if there are hollows1 the result will be the same4 #f4 ,the larger the specimen the thicker is the skin1 and consequently the harder and more unyielding should be the material it rests upon4 ,do not make a manikin with hoop iron and burlap1 and a little loose filling between that and the skin1 for specimens so mounted nearly always come to grief4 ,if you stuff a skin with straw1 excelsior1 or tow1 pack the filling in a solid mass1 for with the lapse of time all such materials are bound to shrink1 no matter how hard you make them at first4 ,the shrinkage of straw is often remarkable and highly disastrous4 ,,attitude4--,on this subject no fixed rules can be offered4 ,to one fact1 however1 which should always be borne in mind by the preparator1 ,i must call special attention1 and that is as follows3 ,animals of all kinds1 even in a state of nature1 and entirely of their own volition1 often assume attitudes that are highly ungraceful1 unpleasing to the eye1 and anything but fairly representative of the creature's form and habits4 ,this being the case1 do not make the mistake of concluding that because you have seen a particular animal assume a particular attitude1 it is natural1 and therefore you can do no better than to reproduce that attitude in the specimen you are mounting4 ,no1 a thousand times no4 ,this mistake will lead to the reproduction of many an ugly attitude1 even though like life itself4 ,every animal is capable of assuming scores of different attitudes1 and from all these you should choose the one which is most strikingly characteristic of the subject1 most truly representative1 and which does the animal the same sort of justice that you seek at the hands of the artist when you go to have your own picture taken4 ,on such occasions you do not lounge ungracefully1 nor stand stoop-shouldered1 nor look listless2 you stand erect1 at your full height1 and look your very best4 ,make your animal do the same4 ,for your own picture you do not assume a violent and tragic attitude1 nor anything strained4 ,you stand or sit at ease1 quietly but intently regarding something in particular2 or your attitude may with equal propriety represent a moment of rest in the course of some quiet action4 ,pose your mounted specimens according to the same principles1 and the results will be most satisfactory to all4 ,the choice of an attitude depends wholly upon your artistic instincts1 upon your eye1 so to speak4 ,choose that one which is most graceful or grand1 and is at the same time truly characteristic of the subject4 ,to my mind1 the attitude taken by an animal when startled by visible or suspected danger1 is the one par excellence in which it appears at its best when mounted4 ,under such conditions the animal always stands fully erect1 head aloft1 and with every sense keenly on the alert4 ,the next best attitude is that which represents an animal quietly walking or climbing1 according to its habits and modes of progression4 ,the subject of groups and grouping will be considered in full later on in this work4 ,,proportions4--,on this point a single observation will be sufficient4 ,the taxidermist often receives1 from the zoological gardens and menageries1 specimens that are very thin in flesh4 ,in mounting an animal1 do not let your knowledge of anatomy run away with your judgment1 art1 and even nature itself1 by producing a tiger1 panther1 zebra1 or buffalo with all its ribs showing1 and its scapula1 pelvis1 and vertebral column all standing out in bold relief4 ,unless the individuals of a given species are always scrawny1 ,i pray you1 for the sake of truth and justice1 do not make your solitary representative of that species look like a candidate for special honors at a bone-yard4 ,let me assure you1 on the honor of a hunter1 that animals in a state of nature are nearly always well fed and plump-looking1 and show very few bones4 ,it is easy to make ribs on a clay-covered manikin1 but do not do it on a wild animal1 unless you deliberately intend to produce a starveling4 ,according to its nature1 make every animal look well-fed and in good condition1 but not fat4 ,it seldom happens that a wild animal in a state of nature grows really fat1 but it is still more seldom that one looks under-fed and poor4 ,if fatness is a special characteristic of a species1 then fat let it be1 but scrawny never4 ,above all things1 avoid in your birds and quadrupeds the half-filled body which makes the subject look as if it had been eviscerated4 ,the abdomen is always convex1 not concave4 ,,the ,,uses ,,of ,,clay ,,as ,a ,,filling ,,material4--,the value of clay in the mounting of mammals1 reptiles1 and fishes can hardly be overestimated4 ,previous to #ahhj its use among the taxidermists of my acquaintance was unknown1 and when its value was discovered and put to general use by the writer1 in the year mentioned1 many of my rivals predicted all manner of evil from it4 ,they declared it would destroy skins1 go to dust within them1 become soft mud in damp weather1 crack1 etc4 ,i persisted in its use1 disproving all evil prognostications1 and now its general use really marks a new era in ,american taxidermy4 ,by means of this common and cheap material it is not only possible but easy to mount a horse1 a seal1 a hairless dog1 a turtle1 snake1 fish1 or any other animal1 with absolute accuracy in every detail of form and size4 ,not only is this true1 but1 so far as ,i can discover1 there is no other material than clay with which these results can be accomplished4 ,for covering manikins1 coating the skulls of large animals1 and for filling in the nose1 mouth1 eyes1 and ears1 it is everything that could be desired4 ,with it a stretched skin1 ,a world too wide for his shrunk shank1 can be worked together on the clay-covered manikin1 and reduced in size until it fits without the slightest visible wrinkle1 or any cutting out such as used to be necessary by the old methods4 ,to prepare clay for use1 take the clean1 worked chunks of soft potter's clay 7which costs about two cents per pound1 and should be quite free from sand and grit71 put the right quantity in a pail1 and pour a little water upon it4 ,with the hands knead it until the water is taken up1 and it becomes as soft as dough4 ,it will1 of course1 be quite sticky1 and in this state is altogether too soft to use except to cover a large manikin1 in which case it must be soft enough to spread easily with the hand4 ,for ordinary use1 however1 chop up finely1 with the hatchet1 some clean hemp tow of long fibre1 and mix it thoroughly with the clay1 which can be done only with the hand4 ,this makes the clay more stiff1 about like soft putty1 and of the proper consistency for filling into feet1 cheeks1 eyes1 mouth1 nose1 etc4 ,if the clay is too soft1 you will have difficulty in making it retain the proper form under the skin4 ,if it is too stiff1 it balls up1 and you can not work it along under the skin from one part to another4 ,when you learn to make it of just the right consistency it works to perfection1 no matter where you put it1 and will forever retain the form your fingers give it by pressure from without4 ,elsewhere will be given more detailed advice in regard to the various uses of clay4 ,,coloring4--,the time was when ,american curators held it sacrilege to paint the soft parts of birds1 and the hairless portions of certain mammals4 ,for my part1 ,i have always fought that idea unconditionally1 in season and out of season1 and ,i am glad to say that within the last eight years it has been utterly abandoned4 ,clearly1 it is better to reproduce the colors of soft parts as accurately as one can1 rather than let them remain in a colorless1 dry1 and mummified condition1 hideous to the eye and meaningless to the understanding4 ,by all means let us color everything that has color in life1 though the heavens fall4 ,ascertain in some way what the color should be 7this can often be done by reference to books with colored plates71 then paint accordingly4 ,paint with turpentine and oil1 rather than with oil alone1 which leaves an unnatural gloss4 ,you can tone down any oil color1 however1 by stippling it with a stipple brush dipped in a pan of dry color1 or plaster ,paris4 ,the taxidermist who can paint the exposed parts of his specimens accurately and artistically has a very powerful advantage over all those who can not4 ,this subject will also receive special attention elsewhere4 ,,general ,,finish4--,in all work on specimens1 cultivate a delicate and artistic touch1 and then leave its impress upon everything you do4 ,do not leave a specimen looking as if a coal heaver had finished it4 ,work at it1 and keep on working at it until it is perfect2 and then go back to it the next day1 and work at it some more6 ,there is no inferno too deep or too hot for a slovenly1 slatternly taxidermist4 ,the fault with such workers usually lies not so much in their lack of skill as in their lack of patience and the dogged stick-to-itiveness that conquers all difficulties1 no matter whether they come singly1 in platoons1 or by divisions4 ,delicacy is just as essential in the production of good work as originality and strength4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,mounting ,,small ,,mammals4 ,in attempting to give the beginner a fair start in the general work of mounting small mammals of all sorts1 from mice up to small foxes1 ,i will describe in detail the entire process of mounting a typical specimen1 which in this instance will be a squirrel4 ,this will embody all the general principles involved1 and after having laid this foundation we will proceed to consider exceptional cases1 and describe the manner in which they must be met4 ,the exceptional cases are bats1 rabbits1 young animals of the smaller species1 and a few others4 ,we will assume that the subject before us is either a dry skin which has been fully relaxed1 scraped1 and rendered perfectly pliable and elastic1 or else a fresh skin1 i4e41 one which has been preserved in our antiseptic solution 7the salt-and-alum bath7 or possibly in alcohol1 and has therefore never been dried4 ,for the sake of the beginner's courage1 which should never be taken out of him at the very first onset by putting him on a dry skin of doubtful quality1 we will take the skin of a fine1 old1 gray squirrel 7,sciurus carolinensis7 which lies in the bath waiting to be immortalized--or something else4 ,it may easily happen that for good and sufficient reasons the beginner has no salt-and-alum bath1 and can not prepare one4 ,in that event the skin can be mounted immediately after it is taken off the animal1 only it is necessary to apply to it after the arsenical soap1 as directed hereafter1 a copious quantity of powdered alum4 ,if you have no arsenical soap1 then as you proceed with the mounting moisten the inside of the skin with water1 and rub on powdered alum and arsenic1 mixed in equal parts1 and be sure that the skin is everywhere coated with it eventually4 ,this leaves the fur dry and clean1 and will save you the trouble of drying and dressing it4 ,on taking our squirrel skin from the bath to mount it we find its texture is firm1 and it is somewhat shrunken in size1 so that when it is filled out it will not stretch all out of proportion4 ,if either in haste or carelessness you have left a layer of flesh upon the skin1 pare it off until the inside of the skin is quite clean4 ,if any holes have been cut by bullets or knives1 sew then up from the inside with a strong linen thread and a ,no4 #c glover's needle--three-cornered4 ,now for the wires4 ,measure the leg bones from the sole of the foot to the end of the thigh-bone1 add three inches for what the wire must project beyond the sole of the foot1 five inches more at the other end1 and cut a ,no4 #ae annealed iron wire#h of the length thus obtained1 for each hind leg4 ,the length of the wires for the forelegs is obtained in the same way4 ,thus for our squirrel1 the wires for the hind legs must be fourteen inches long1 and for the forelegs twelve4 ,cut another ,no4 #ae wire twice the length from the back of the head to the root of the tail1 and this will be the body wire eighteen inches long4 ,the tail wire must be smaller1 ,no4 #ag1 long enough to reach from the tip of the tail to the centre of the body--seventeen inches4 ,straighten all these wires carefully1 lay them together on the table1 and remember the purpose of each4 ,if they are rusty1 rub them with sand paper4 ,file one end of the tail wire to a tapering point1 for the tip of our squirrel's tail is very slender4 ,we are now ready to make one of the legs1 and will begin with one of the hind legs4 ,take one of the two longest wires1 pass one end of it through the slit in the skin at the bottom of the foot1 let it project three inches beyond the sole of the foot1 and up into the skin of the leg4 ,now bend the wire until it fits closely along the under side of the leg bones as seen in the accompanying illustration4 ,tie it firmly with linen thread to the bones of the foot1 to the tibia and the femur1 as seen in the accompanying illustration4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4--,leg-making and ,wiring4 ,now take fine1 clean tow1 of good long fibre1 and1 beginning at the foot1 proceed to wrap it around the leg bones1 smoothly and evenly1 to replace the muscles which have been cut away4 ,the lower part of the leg is flat on the inside and round on the outside1 almost bare of flesh at the ankle4 ,remember always that the flesh on the calf of the leg1 and the forearm1 lies behind the bones1 swelling out toward the back and the inside of the limb1 and in front the skin lies upon the bone itself4 ,observe this1 and build up the muscles accordingly4 ,the thigh is broad and much flattened1 rounded on the outside only1 as you must have noticed when you skinned it and cut off the flesh1 and the knee-pan is prominent4 ,to make the leg this shape1 first wind some tow around the thigh bone1 then make up a little roll of tow a little larger than your forefinger1 place it along the under side of the thigh and wind it fast there with tow4 ,by a judicious continuation of this process1 you can make the thigh of the proper width and flatness both above and below the bone4 ,at no point is a squirrel's thigh more than three-fourths of an inch thick1 and the calf1 the arm1 and the forearm are even less4 ,by reference to the tracing made of the animal in the flesh1 you will be able to tell the width of the legs at all points and correct your work all the way along4 ,in all thin-haired animals the tendon of the heel must be made by drilling a hole through the end of the heel-bone1 passing a small wire through for half its length1 then twisting the wire together half-way up to the knee4 ,wind a little fine tow around this wire1 gradually increasing the quantity from the heel upward until the false tendon is complete1 and the upper end is wound in with the tow which forms the lower part of the thigh4 ,in small mammals which have long1 thick hair1 as our squirrel for example1 it is not necessary to make the tendon1 as it does not show4 ,remember there is no flesh on the upper part of the foot-bones1 but considerable underneath4 ,it is not best to make the legs extremely hard1 or they will be difficult to bend1 but at the same time the tow must not be put on in a loose1 slovenly manner4 ,avoid making the legs too large2 the opposite extreme is the lesser evil of the two4 ,when the leg is finished1 anoint the skin of that leg with arsenical soap1 rub either a little wet clay or thick soap over the tow leg so that it will slip into the skin easily1 then turn the skin up over it and adjust it from the foot up4 ,if the leg does not fit1 turn the skin back and alter its shape until it does fit perfectly4 ,this done satisfactorily1 insert a little clay or finely chopped tow in the bottom of the foot1 bend the wire so that it leaves the foot at a right angle1 sew up the cut1 and you are ready to proceed in like manner with the three remaining legs4 ,be sure to make both legs of each pair precisely alike if you wish to have a healthy-looking animal when finished4 ,having made all the legs1 the next thing is the tail4 ,take some of your finest tow in your right hand1 the tail wire in your left1 begin at the pointed end1 and by turning the wire constantly from left to right1 let it wind up the tow which runs between your right thumb and finger4 ,make the tail of a regular taper1 perfectly smooth1 and not too large4 ,try it in the skin occasionally to insure accuracy4 ,if the first one is a failure1 discard it and make another4 ,when at last you have what is required1 anoint the inside of the tail skin with arsenical soap1 slip the false tail into its place1 and if the tail has been slit open1 sew it up neatly all the way along1 commencing at the tip4 ,now punch a small hole in the back of the skull a little above the occipital opening1 pass the end of the body wire through it1 force the end through into the nasal cavity and on out at the end of the nose4 ,let the end of the wire also pass through one of the nostrils of the skin for about two inches4 ,now put some soft clay on the sides of the skull and jaw to replace the muscles which have been cut away1 and fill the orbits with the same material4 ,anoint the skin of the head and neck with the arsenical soap1 turn it back over the skull1 and when the skull is once more in its proper position in the skin1 which can best be determined by noticing whether the eye opening comes over the centre of the orbit1 drive a tack over each eye through the skin and into the bone4 ,another tack at the top of the head will also do good service in holding the skull in its place while the grand struggle with the body is going on1 for the head is the last thing finished4 ,life is too short and space too valuable to allow me to explain fully why all these things must be done1 but if you neglect any of these simple directions you will very soon find out why they were given4 ,the legs and tail are wired and made1 the skull is in its place1 with one end of the body wire passing through it1 and we are now ready to wire all the parts of the animal together4 ,the skin lies on the clean table before us1 right side out1 with the legs in the same position as when we drew the outline4 ,bend the inner ends of the foreleg wires back from the head of the humerus at an obtuse angle1 and let them cross each other like the limbs of an ,x1 as seen in the accompanying figure4 ,at the point where they cross each other1 turn a little ring in the body wire1 six inches from the end1 just large enough for the two wires to pass through easily4 ,for this purpose you will find a pair of round-nosed pliers convenient4 ,pass the end of each foreleg wire through the ring1 and let them cross again1 with the wire of the left leg underneath the other4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--,wiring ,together4 ,now refer to your outline1 measure the distance between the extremities of the toes1 and it will tell you exactly how to adjust the leg wires so as to get the right distance between the two ends of the humeri1 or1 in other words1 the shoulders4 ,the wire between the head of the humerus and the ring represents the scapula1 and1 if rightly measured1 will enable us later on to pose the forelegs with ease and success4 ,now1 with the round-nosed pliers in the left hand1 grasp the three wires firmly at the ring1 lay hold of the two leg wires with the flat-nosed pliers and give two complete turns to the right1 twisting the wires together as tightly as possible4 ,bend up the body wire to one of the leg wires1 and1 leaving out the other1 give these two a couple of turns4 ,take the other leg wire and body wire and give them a twist4 ,if the legs are now solidly together1 it is enough1 but if they are not1 this twisting process must be continued until they are perfectly firm4 ,no looseness1 if you please4 ,this done1 straighten out the body wire once more1 arrange the skin as before1 according to your outlines1 and you will soon see that the ring for the hind legs must be turned about five inches below the first one4 ,the ends of the hind-leg wires are bent slightly forward 7toward the head7 from the ends of the femora1 and also cross each other in the ring4 ,after getting the hind legs the right distance apart1 give the wires two turns as before1 then bend the free end of the body wire straight up and over until it points toward the head4 ,proceed with it precisely as with the other leg wires until the hind legs are immovably fixed on it4 ,now give the free ends of the wires each a turn around the middle of the body wire and thus fasten all together1 forming a backbone of twisted iron wire4 ,the end of the tail wire must pass under the hind-leg wires 7as the skin lies on its back71 and after giving a turn or two around the wire backbone1 tie it fast with strong twine4 ,the tail must be as firmly fixed upon the body wire as though it was soldered there4 ,this done1 wrap a goodly quantity of tow tightly and smoothly around the wire backbone1 so that the numerous ends of wire1 and the irregularities in the mass of twisted wire1 will not cause trouble when we come to fill the body4 ,now that you no longer need to put your hands inside the skin1 anoint it most thoroughly with the soap1 from the back of the head to the base of the tail4 ,while the skin is absorbing the soap1 take a hatchet and chop up finely a quantity of coarse tow4 ,with your longest forceps1 cover the inside of the skin with a layer of cut tow1 placing it between the wires and the skin4 ,it is highly important to have a good thick cushion of it next to the skin at the shoulders1 hips1 and along the back4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf;a4--,the ,legs ,wired ,together4 ,this is the time to give the animal the attitude it is to have when finished4 ,all the members are now completely under control1 and we can give the animal any pose we wish4 ,bend up each leg at a right angle to its present position1 making the bend abruptly at the head of each femur1 and thus leave between them the same distance that separated them when they joined the pelvis in life4 ,likewise bend up the foreleg1 by making nearly a right angle in the leg wire at the head of each humerus1 and leave the proper space between the shoulders4 ,with the play that is given to the forelegs1 by means of the distance left between the shoulder point and the ring1 we are able to adjust the forelegs with the greatest freedom1 to move each shoulder either up or down1 and increase or lessen the distance between them at will4 ,the most pert and characteristic attitude of a squirrel is sitting up on its haunches1 either on the alert1 eating something held in its paws1 or1 perhaps1 washing its face with its paws4 ,this attitude is rather difficult to get1 but it is well worth trying for4 ,bend each hind leg at the knee until the thigh touches the calf and rests upon it4 ,bend the ankle-joint until the foot makes an acute angle with the calf4 ,make a very decided curve in the backbone1 so as to throw the body well forward between the knees1 which must come nearly opposite the centre of the body4 ,push the hind legs up into the body so that the squirrel can sit upon his tail4 ,the elbows drop down until they almost touch the knees1 which is partly accomplished by curving the back4 ,just below the shoulders the backbone must be curved1 to throw the head and shoulders up1 and hold them well erect4 ,give the head the pose you wish it to have1 slightly turned to one side1 let us say4 ,the next step1 a very important one1 is filling the body4 ,if you do not do it intelligently1 your squirrel will need to find a grave in the ash barrel4 ,the mechanical part of this filling process is exceedingly simple1 and everything1 or nearly everything1 depends upon how much you know of the anatomy of the animal before you4 ,this is a private matter between yourself and nature4 ,your hand will nearly always be able to keep up with your eye if you give it a fair chance4 ,with your long forceps1 which work like a dextrous thumb and finger eight inches long1 pick up the chopped tow1 and little by little insert it in the skin where it is needed4 ,first fill out above the backbone until you get the desired outline1 in profile1 of the back and shoulders from tail to head4 ,then fill out the shoulders and form them properly4 ,fill in the neck1 first around the base of the skull1 and sew up the neck skin from the end of the cut downward for about two inches1 and without cutting off your thread insert more chopped tow in the neck and shoulders1 packing it firmly1 if you have the proportions right4 ,do not allow the tow to roll up into wads and make the skin full of hills and hollows on the outside4 ,the pressure of the tow on all points of the skin should be the same1 and the filling must be packed firmly and evenly1 so that the finished animal will keep its shape tenaciously in the struggle for existence1 and not collapse at a firm touch4 ,one secret of success in filling the body lies in gradually and equally filling out the entire body to fair proportions before finishing any one part4 ,give the animal its exact attitude1 then proceed4 ,if there is an apparent lack of skin at any particular point1 attack that first1 and fill it out4 ,you will soon find how easy it is to draw skin from one part of the body to another by judicious filling4 ,having finished the neck and shoulders1 leave that part and go to the haunches4 ,fill around the base of the tail1 the hips1 the upper part of the thighs1 and the abdomen4 ,be careful to make both sides alike4 ,commence at the root of the tail and sew up the opening for about two inches1 without catching the hair in your stitches1 after which you may bore two small holes in a pine board1 the proper distance apart1 pass the two hind leg wires through1 and set the little animal up4 ,this is only a trial trip1 and if you find the feet are not the proper distance apart 7or the squirrel does not walk properly1 if you have put him in a walking attitude71 or does not sit properly1 take him off the board and remedy the defects4 ,when you have corrected his attitude1 proceed with the filling1 sewing up from both below and above1 until the body is properly shaped1 filled full of tow1 and the opening entirely sewn up4 ,now comb the tow out of the damp fur1 and1 if it is dirty1 wash it with washing soda1 soap and water until it is thoroughly clean4 ,place the animal upon its board pedestal1 and correct the attitude with the utmost care before you bend the wires up underneath the board and clinch them fast4 ,if the specimen is even a moderate success thus far1 we will go on with it4 ,if the animal you are mounting is a tree-climber1 and you wish to mount it upon a tree limb1 select one for the purpose1 and1 according to your desire to have it nearly perpendicular1 slanting1 or horizontal1 saw it off at the lower end1 plant it firmly upon a rough board pedestal1 and fasten it by putting two long1 stout screws through the board and up into the base of the branch4 ,put your specimen upon the branch as nearly in position as possible1 mark the places where the holes should be bored1 and bore them with a bit of the proper size4 ,you can then run the ends of the leg wires through1 draw the feet down closely1 and clinch the wires on the opposite side4 ,as soon as the little animal is firmly fixed on his temporary pedestal1 or his branch1 which must be permanent1 we are ready to give the final touches to the body4 ,we will1 with thumb and finger1 press in the shoulders if they are too high or wide1 flatten the body by pressure if it is too round on the sides1 and emphasize the undulating outline of the sides also by pressure4 ,if there is a hollow spot where the surface should be smooth1 thrust a sharp awl through the skin1 catch some tow on the point of the awl1 and1 with a sharp lifting motion1 pull the fibre up until it fills out the hollow4 ,if there is a lump of tow under the skin1 making an unsightly hump1 thrust the point of the awl through into it1 and spread it out underneath until the skin lies flat4 ,it is often necessary to work all over the body of an animal with the awl in this way4 ,we have now to finish the head4 ,with the cutting pliers1 cut off the end of the body wire close up to the skull1 so that the end will be hidden4 ,adjust the skin so that it fits naturally and easily on the skull and around the mouth1 and see that the eyes come over the centre of the orbits4 ,if the clay which was put upon the skull does not fill out the jaws and sides of the head quite naturally1 push in a little chopped tow until the proper form is obtained4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--,the ,finished ,specimen4 ,avoid getting one jaw fuller than the other2 it is only boys and men who chew tobacco who have cheeks that are not bilaterally symmetrical4 ,avoid getting one eye too far back1 forward1 up or down1 but match the one that is correctly placed4 ,fill in the end of the nose1 the lips1 and the chin with clay1 fold the lips naturally and press them into place4 ,if the skin around the mouth is not unnaturally drawn back1 the lips will stay in place1 and dry there without any fastening4 ,if the skin is drawn too far back1 the lips must be pinned in place until they dry4 ,the advantage in using clay for filling out the head is that it enables you to press the skin down upon it and mould all the parts into their natural shape and size1 without giving to the head that unnatural1 puffed out1 stuffed appearance1 which is almost unavoidable when tow only is used4 ,introduce clay at the eye opening until the addition of the glass eye inside will make the organ sufficiently prominent4 ,insert the glass eye edgewise through the opening1 turn it in position and embed it in the clay4 ,with a large needle1 or your awl1 adjust the eyelids upon the glass1 and if the eye is not right1 work it into its proper position4 ,adjust both eyes alike1 and1 above all1 see to it that they both look at the same point1 be that point real or imaginary4 ,the same amount of iris must show in each eye1 and the position of the pupils must correspond exactly4 ,do not make them unusually staring1 as though about to burst from their sockets4 ,it is the eye more than any other one feature that gives any animal1 living or stuffed1 its expression1 and this is due entirely to the arrangement of the lid and brow4 ,the eyeball has1 in itself1 no more power of varied expression than a glass marble2 therefore the facial expression of a mounted animal is wholly under the control of the taxidermist1 provided he takes the trouble to procure good glass eyes of the right size and quality4 ,unless the ears of your specimen are very small and insignificant1 it will be necessary to cut two pieces of thin card-board the shape of each ear1 but larger1 and after getting the ear in position1 pin it between them1 so that it will be held in a natural position and good shape until it dries4 ,do not thrust the pins through the ear1 but through the card-board around the edge4 ,the last thing is to arrange the toes and feet naturally1 and pin each toe in place until it dries4 ,since our squirrel is to be holding a nut1 we will cut off the foreleg wires1 all but half an inch1 and bring the paws close together at the proper elevation4 ,we must now drill two small holes in opposite sides of a hickory nut1 force the wires into them until the nut rests nicely in the paws1 and there let it remain4 ,if necessary1 we will tie the toes in position around the nut until they are dry4 ,it is a common fault with beginners in taxidermy to slight the toes of their specimens1 both birds and mammals1 and1 as a result1 all such specimens have a slovenly1 tramp-like appearance4 ,nature alone can tell you how to pose the tail to represent the state of the animal's feelings4 ,try to look at your work with the eye of an artist1 analyze it1 and catalogue its faults1 so that you will be sure to avoid them in the next specimen4 ,if the hair needs no more washing1 comb it out carefully at the last moment1 and set your specimen on a shelf to dry1 out of the dust if possible1 and out of the sunshine1 and watch it while it is drying to see that the head and feet dry in good shape4 ,at the end of two weeks1 or perhaps three1 the little mammal will be dry and hard1 and ready for the last touches4 ,pull out all the pins which have been holding the toes1 ears1 lips1 or eye corners in place1 and if they leave any holes1 fill them up with putty4 ,i have not told you how to stuff a head with the mouth open1 and model the soft parts in papier-mach and wax1 because you will hardly want to try anything so difficult at present1 and it involves processes which cannot be described within the limits of this chapter4 ,when your mammal is quite dry1 dress the fur with a fine comb and brush1 and beat it with a small piece of whalebone or a little switch1 to make it stand out from the skin1 full and fluffy1 as in life4 ,this end must be accomplished1 no matter how long it takes4 ,procure some tube colors1 oil and turpentine1 equal parts1 and a small sable brush1 with which to tint the eyelids and the end of the nose their natural color4 ,put a little varnish and turpentine1 equal parts of each1 on the toe-nails1 and1 in short1 do everything you can that will give the specimen the look of a living animal4 ,if it looks stuffed1 put it in the darkest corner of your cabinet1 and try another4 ,the glass eyes must be cleaned with great care1 and polished with a soft cotton rag until they glisten4 ,at the last moment change the rough board pedestal for a permanent one1 either of black walnut1 polished1 or ash1 planed and sand-papered very smooth1 and covered with two coats of shellac4 ,if you have perched your squirrel on the top of a small stump1 sawed off square at the bottom1 or upon a large branch1 with a section of the trunk serving as a base1 of course no artificial base is necessary4 ,artificial branches for mounted birds are bad enough1 but for mammals they are altogether too bad1 and should never be used4 ,in conclusion1 do not expect that your first mammal is going to be an overpowering success4 ,do not take a cat for your first subject1 for a cat is the most difficult of all small quadrupeds to mount successfully4 ,a tough old squirrel is the best thing for you to wrestle with until you have learned the method thoroughly4 ,,exceptional ,,cases4--,there are certain classes of small mammals whose skins should not be put through the salt and alum bath1 if possible to avoid it1 for several reasons4 ,these are the young of the smaller mammalia1 especially such as rabbits1 squirrels1 and other familiar forms4 ,it is by far the best plan to mount all such skins as soon as they are taken off1 without wetting the hair1 and using dry arsenic and alum1 equal parts1 to preserve and poison them4 ,the bones of young animals become quite soft in the bath1 and the hair is difficult to dress to look like life4 ,the fur of a rabbit is the meanest fur in the world to comb out and dress to look fluffy and immaculate after it has once been wet with salt-and-alum water4 ,mount them without wetting when you can1 only poison them well against moths4 ,alcohol is far preferable to the bath for the skins of such species as the above1 and1 as our ,english cousins would say1 is not half bad4 ,,mounting ,,bats4--,having tried all known methods of mounting and displaying these pestiferous little subjects1 ,i finally evolved an arrangement which ,i now conceitedly believe is the only satisfactory solution of the difficulties they present4 ,my plan is to mount the bat without any wires1 save in the legs of the larger species1 and when finished lay it on its back on a smooth board1 spread the wings1 put pieces of pasteboard over the membrane until all is covered1 and pin them down4 ,of course the wings must be in perfect position4 ,when the specimen is dry1 apply some royal glue of the best quality to the back of each wing1 and stick his batship permanently on a strip of thick plate glass1 which has been prepared previously by being cut to the proper size1 and ground on the edges4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--;,author's ,method of ,mounting ,bats on ,glass4 ,the accompanying cut 7,fig4 #bh7 was drawn from a specimen as exhibited1 omitting the label4 ,the advantages of this arrangement are as follows3 ,it shows the specimen perfectly on both sides2 the wings do not warp and shrivel up2 it is possible to repair breaks in the wing membrane1 and the most delicate specimen is well protected4 ,the strip of glass stands on edge in a deep groove which has been cut to fit it tightly in the top of a flat1 narrow pedestal having the usual moulded edge4 ,,footnote3 #h ,if you can not procure annealed wire1 take hard iron wire1 heat it to redness1 and as soon as it reaches that state remove it from the fire and allow it to cool slowly4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,mounting ,,large ,,mammals4--,,ordinary ,,methods4 ,,section #a4 ,,long-,,haired ,,mammals ,,of ,,medium ,,size4--,examples3 ,wolves1 certain dogs1 large apes1 baboons and monkeys2 the smaller bears1 hair seals1 all long-haired quadrupeds from the size of the fox to the ,newfoundland dog2 also1 all old dry skins of mammals between the two sizes mentioned4 ,while it will be advised in ,section ,,iii4 of this subject to mount short-haired skins of the above sizes upon clay-covered manikins1 it is very often an impossibility to pursue this course with a dry skin1 no matter what its pelage may be like4 ,dry skins more than one year old are usually so shrunken1 hard1 and inelastic1 that in circumference they are one or two sizes smaller than life1 and it is very often impossible to stretch them sufficiently to make them fit over a manikin of the right size4 ,the only way in which enough power can be brought to bear upon them to force them to stretch to their proper size in neck and body1 is to fill them with straw1 and ram it so hard that the skin is forced to stretch4 ,even if you fill a shrunken body so full that it will stretch no more1 if you keep it thoroughly moist1 or even wet1 in wet cloths1 and return to the charge next day with more straw and muscle1 you will find that the skin yields a good deal more1 and perhaps reaches the right size without further protest4 ,very often this is the only treatment that will save an old1 dry skin from becoming a total loss4 ,in all such cases fill out the worst shrunken parts first1 to make sure of conquering them1 and leave the less difficult portions to the last4 ,the chief differences between the method described in the previous chapter for mounting small mammals1 and that for the subjects included in this section are simply these3 7#a47 ,the larger animals require leg wires or irons that are too large to be bent at will and twisted together4 7#b47 ,where rods are used1 a thread must be cut on the lower end of each to receive a nut under the pedestal1 because leg rods can not be fastened in any other way4 7#c47 ,a stout wooden bar must be used in the body for the leg1 head1 and tail wires1 or irons1 to run through1 and upon which all these can be stapled down firmly4 7#d47 ,for various reasons1 it is best that all these animals should be filled with straw by the old process of stuffing4 ,to mount a specimen belonging in this section1 proceed precisely as directed in the previous chapter1 with wiring and making each leg1 except where the specimen is so large that it requires rods for the legs instead of wires4 ,it is only the larger and heavier animals of this section1 viz41 the wolves1 large dogs1 large kangaroos1 anthropoid apes1 and the like1 that require rods instead of wires4 ,for your foxes1 baboons1 and small kangaroos1 you can use wires of the large sizes1 of about the same proportionate length as for your squirrel4 ,in getting out the rods for the legs of your large specimens1 use ,norway iron1 because it is toughest1 and proceed as follows3 ,decide upon the attitude of your specimen1 then lay the bones of each leg in its intended position on the table1 take a straight wire of large size 7,no4 #i7 and bend it to fit the back of the leg bones1 precisely where you wish your rod to go4 ,leave an end about two and one-half inches long1 projecting straight downward from the centre of the foot1 to go through the pedestal and receive a nut underneath4 ,cut a thread on this lower end1 and fit a hexagonal nut4 ,for the hind legs1 let the upper end of each rod project beyond the upper end of the femur for a distance equal to about two-thirds the length of that bone4 ,the irons to support the head should be two in number1 and should be long enough to reach from the end of the nose to the centre of the body4 ,the tail iron will be regulated by circumstances4 ,,the ,,hand ,,of ,,an ,,anthropoid ,,ape4--,it nearly always happens that every skin of a large gorilla1 chimpanzee1 or orang utan is totally destitute of bones4 ,now the hand of such an animal is a very important feature4 ,do not attempt to make it with wires and tow alone1 for if you do1 the fingers will be semicircles1 resembling the half of an over-brown doughnut4 ,each joint must show an angle1 and each finger be flat on the inside4 ,the accompanying cut 7,fig4 #bi7 shows how to make the hand of an anthropoid ape so that it shall be as natural as life4 ,the wooden bones give the proper angles at the joints1 and the tow-wrapped wire underneath gives the finger its proper breadth4 ,when all is ready1 cover each finger manikin with clay1 make the palm hollow and flat1 and let the end of the iron rod come out in the centre of the palm4 ,this method gives a hand that is beyond criticism4 ,for hand and foot studies of apes and monkeys1 see ,the ,standard ,natural ,history1 vol4 v41 page #eab4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--;,artificial ,skeleton for ,hand of an ,orang ,utan4 ,the following animals1 when of adult size1 require leg supports of the following sizes3 ,large foxes1 ,no4 #h wire2 olive baboon1 ,no4 #e or #f2 small kangaroo1 ,no4 #d to #f2 wolverine1 ,no4 #f2 coyote1 #a_/d inch rod2 setter dog1 #a_/d inch2 peccary1 #a_/d inch2 great ant-eater1 #a_/d inch2 gray wolf1 #e_/af inch2 giant kangaroo1 #c_/h inch for hind legs2 harp seal1 #c_/h inch4 ,having made the legs complete1 lay the skin upon its back1 with the legs spread out1 make the irons or wires cross each other as shown in the accompanying figure 7,plate ,,vi471 and then hew out a piece of tough wood of the general shape and proportion as that shown in the cut4 ,let this be as small as practicable to avoid splitting when the irons are stapled down upon it4 ,round off the corners and the ends1 so that you can easily work all around this wooden backbone1 when filling the animal4 ,now lay this piece of wood in the skin1 upon the crossed leg irons1 mark the points at which the irons need to pass through it1 and bore holes accordingly1 slanting each hole through the stick1 for good reasons4 ,the next step is to pass the irons through these holes 7by bending them a little1 and straightening them afterward7 and when all are through1 adjust the legs so that there is plenty of loose skin in the body1 both in length and breadth4 ,remember that the stick is to be in the centre of the body1 not the top4 ,when the adjustment is complete1 bend the end of each iron sharply down upon the stick1 and staple it down with the utmost firmness4 ,next pass one of your neck irons through the skull from back to front1 boring a hole at the back for the purpose1 so as to make the end of the iron pass out at the nasal cavity4 ,replace the missing flesh of the skull with tow or excelsior1 bound down with thread1 cover all with clay1 poison the inside of the head and neck skin with arsenical soap1 insert the skull in the head1 and fasten the lower end of each neck iron firmly upon the centre stick4 ,the tail must now be made1 but it is wise to fasten the tail iron so that it can be made to slip out or in1 until it is known precisely how long it shall be1 and then the end may be fastened securely with staples4 ,now bend up the legs into position1 and give the animal its attitude4 ,procure your pedestal1 or limb of a tree1 and place the animal in attitude upon it2 mark where the iron supports are to pass through1 bore the necessary holes1 and see if the animal will stand just as you wish it to4 ,if not1 work at its legs1 and bore new holes until it does2 then take it off1 poison the inside of the skin liberally with strong arsenical soap1 and proceed to stuff it with straw1 or chopped tow1 or excelsior if you prefer that1 but ,i never do4 ,for my own use ,i prefer soft straw1 chopped fine4 ,fill the neck first1 using your wooden filler1 then the body4 ,if the body threatens to be too small1 fill that first4 ,before going far1 fill out the hind-quarters properly4 ,work on the body all over at the same time1 and do not finish one-half of the animal before you have touched the other half1 for this course would get you into endless trouble4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,vi4 ,,interior ,,mechanism ,,of ,a ,,half-,,mounted ,,wolf4 ,having filled the body full1 and shaped it the best you can1 and sewn it up at all points save two1--a hole between the forelegs and one under the tail1--now put it in final position on its pedestal1 and fasten it there4 ,having done this and surveyed the scene1 you will observe that the form of the animal is very faulty1 and the skin not nearly full enough4 ,something more must be done4 ,unless the specimen is a seal1 or something else with short1 close hair1 part the hair carefully and make a long1 perpendicular slit in the skin behind each foreleg and in each flank1 as shown in ,plate ,,iii41 ,i-,i1 and ,k-,k4 ,through these openings you can introduce your metal filling tools1 and also filling materials ad libitum1 and give the interior a complete overhauling4 ,you can easily push your iron filler through the straw1 and raise the line of the back1 shoulders1 or hind-quarters1 and lower the line of the breast and abdomen until both are right4 ,then1 fill with more straw1 or tow1 if you like now4 ,through these holes you command the entire body of the animal at every point1 and now you must work out your own salvation4 ,when all is finished and the body is quite full and solid1 sew up the openings carefully1 and unite the hair over them so that they will be hidden4 ,if you are careless in filling1 and pull out a lot of hair around each of the openings1 so much the worse for you4 ,for full instructions in regard to work on heads1 see a special chapter4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--;,fillers of ,various ,kinds1 ,one-sixth ,actual ,size4 a1 ,filler of hard wood1 #c ft4 long 7another should be #b ft4 long72 b1 filler of steel1 #e_/af inch x #c ft4 for long reaches in large mammals2 c1 filler of iron1 #c_/h inch x #b-a_/b ft41 for heavy work 7another should be #ah in4 long72 d1 filler of brass1 or galvanized iron wire1 ,no4 #e1 for light work 7another should be still smaller1 for very fine work74 ,cutting out ,pieces of ,skin4--,it not infrequently happens that in mounting an old skin it will be found to have been unduly stretched in drying1 and in spite of one's best efforts there will be too much skin in a flank1 or behind a shoulder1 or that the body itself will be entirely too large4 ,in such cases1 when the animal is clothed with hair which can be made to hide the seams1 it is necessary and permissible to cut a long slit in the skin where the looseness occurs1 and cut out a strip so that when the edges are brought together the wrinkle no longer exists4 ,usually such cuts are made in the shape of a triangle running out to a very fine point1 so that when the incision is sewn up the entire adjacent surface will be quite smooth4 ,when a taxidermist has a fresh skin1 or one which has been but recently prepared dry1 it is very seldom that any skin-cutting is necessary4 ,with a good elastic skin there are ways of working away from any part a superabundance of skin1 or forcing the skin on parts adjacent to the wrinkles to contract sufficiently to cause their disappearance4 ,on close-haired animals1 wrinkles must be worked away1 which can in a majority of cases be accomplished by hard1 persevering work with the filler4 ,with long-haired animals which have no stripes or spots1 and on which the hair can be made to hide all seams1 it is best to cut out triangular strips of skin4 ,in the latter case it saves much time and hard labor4 ,it certainly gives a better specimen1 and if such tricks leave no visible trace upon the animal1 where is the harm8 ,i care not if a skin be slit in twenty places so long as the cuts are tightly sewn up1 and are invisible to the eye of the observer4 ,bird skins must never be cut in this way1 for to the ornithologist who diligently studies every specimen1 the presence of every feather and every bare spot naturally belonging to the bird is of importance4 ,do not forget this caution1 unless you wish to call down upon your head the just wrath of the ornithologist4 ,neither is it possible to do any skin-cutting upon reptiles1 for there is no natural covering to hide seams1 and to cut out any scales is to mutilate a specimen4 ,,section ,,ii4 ,,mounting ,,long-,,haired ,,mammals ,,of ,,large ,,size1 ,,for ,,which ,,the ,,manikin ,,is ,,unnecessary4--,examples3 ,musk ox1 bears 7except large polars and grizzlies71 yak1 ,bactrian camel in winter coat1 llamas and their allies2 also old1 dry shins generally1 which require forcible stretching4 ,while the manikin process is the one par excellence for the great majority of large quadrupeds1 it is also1 until you get perfectly familiar with it1 the longest4 ,there are various large animals whose long1 thick1 and matted hair so completely hides the surface of the wearer that a shorter method of mounting can be followed with very satisfactory results4 ,this is simply stuffing with straw in the same manner as described in detail in the previous section1 with but one exception--the manner of attaching the leg irons to the central beam of the body4 ,the leg irons are cut and fitted to the leg bones precisely as shown in ,plate ,,vii4 ,but the legs are made with the skin attached at the foot1 the skin is drawn over1 fitted and sewn up1 and each leg is completely finished while the skin lies in a heap upon the table4 ,for a large animal this takes some time1 and as fast as the legs are finished each must be carefully wrapped up in ice blankets that have been wet in salt-and-alum water1 and kept soft until all are done4 ,oil the threads on the rods1 to keep them from rusting4 ,the next step is to procure the centre board1 which should be about one-third as wide1 from top to bottom as the depth of the animal's body4 ,in the illustration showing the manikin of a tiger 7,plate ,,vii47 the body board is wider than is desirable for the same animal were the body to be filled with straw4 ,if the board is too wide1 it is impossible to get around it with the fillers1 and work through the specimen from one side to the other4 ,to put the members of the body together1 lay the skin upon the floor on its back1 in the same general shape as shown in ,plate ,,vi4 ,put the body board in place and mark the points where the ends of the leg irons strike it4 ,now for the iron squares4 ,the old and antiquated way to fasten leg irons to a centre board consisted in leaving a long end projecting1 bending it like the letter ,u1 and stapling it to the board4 ,that was always a poor way1 and in the light of a perfect arrangement it now seems poorer than ever4 ,when ,mr4 ,john ,martens came over from ,hamburg to work as a mammal taxidermist in ,professor ,h4,a4 ,ward's great ,natural ,science ,establishment1 at ,rochester1 ,n4,y41 the most valuable luggage he brought with him was the idea of the iron square for attaching leg irons to a centre board4 ,for that particular purpose it would be hard to devise a more perfect arrangement1 and ,i shall be at some pains to describe it4 ,it requires four irons to fasten the legs to the centre board1 one for each leg1 and to make a set for an animal the size of a large mountain sheep ram1 proceed as follows3 ,procure four pieces of flat bar iron1 #a_/d of an inch thick1 #a-a_/d or #a-a_/b inch wide1 and #i inches long4 ,at a point #c-a_/b inches from one end1 bend each iron at a perfect right angle1 which1 of course1 can only be done by heating it4 ,now heat the short arm red hot1 clamp the end of it in a vise1 and make a twist of exactly a quarter of a turn in the short arm1 as close up to the angle as you can4 ,this will make the end of the short arm stand out in a horizontal plane against the side of the body board4 ,at the end of the short arm1 with its centre exactly #c inches from the inner face of the long arm1 drill or punch a hole of the right size to receive the threaded end of the leg iron1 but no larger4 7,for our ,ovis montana ram it should be half an inch in diameter47 ,file off the sharp corners of this end4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--;,an ,iron ,square4 ,at a point about #a-a_/d inch from the inner angle of the square1 and in the long arm1 drill a hole about #g_/af or #a_/b an inch in diameter1 for a stout bolt to pass through4 ,between that and the end of the long arm1 drill 7or punch7 two screw-holes1 and countersink them4 ,that is all there is to the making of the square1 and the accompanying cut 7,fig4 #ca7 accurately represents it4 ,each pair of squares is put on with a single square-headed bolt1 the length of which varies according to the thickness of the body board4 ,for our mountain ram1 the bolts should be #c_/h of an inch in diameter1 and about #b-a_/b inches long4 ,it is useless and unnecessary for me to attempt to describe the different sizes of squares necessary for animals of various sizes1 for circumstances must be the instructor in that4 ,i will remark1 however1 that for a large bison or moose1 where the finished specimen will weigh perhaps #fjj or #gjj pounds1 and the strain on the irons is very considerable1 ,i have found it necessary to make squares of flat iron #c_/h or #g_/af of an inch thick by #a-c_/d inch wide4 ,caution4--,do not make1 the short1 or outer arm1 too long4 ,if too long1 and the hole once drilled1 you will hardly be able to make it shorter2 but if too short1 it can easily be made longer by putting a piece of board between the long arm of the square and the body board4 ,the length of the outer arm of the squares for the hind legs is gauged by the width of the pelvis4 ,the measurement to be taken is the distance between the centres of the two femora when both are in their natural positions in the skeleton1 and with this distance once ascertained it is easy to deduct the thickness of the centre board1 and calculate how long each outer arm shall be4 ,the distance between the heads of the two humeri is practically the same as the distance between the femora4 ,in making the hind leg1 the iron should be no longer at the upper end than the end of the femur1 and once this is determined the upper end of the femur must be cut off with a saw1 to give room for the squares and two nuts4 ,the end of the iron for the front leg may project three inches or so above the head of the humerus1 and be bent slightly backward2 to point upward in the same direction as the scapula4 ,remember that at first the squares of the two pairs are set on exactly opposite each other1 by means of the single bolt for each pair4 ,insert the upper end of each leg iron1 screw the upper nut down firmly1 then lift the half-made animal and stand it on its legs4 ,being free to move1 the legs are very shaky1 and you proceed at once to put them in position4 ,you now adjust the legs according to your original design1 bore holes in the rough pedestal for the lower ends of the rods to pass through1 and shift and change the different members1 now here1 now there1 until you are satisfied that the leg's are in precisely the right attitudes4 ,if the leg that is stepping out in front is too short1 run up the two nuts at the square1 and thus make the leg an inch or two longer4 ,those that are too long are easily shortened by shifting their nuts lower down4 ,you have such absolute control over the legs that you can shift and change them just as much as you please1 and that very easily4 ,if the whole animal is coupled too short or too long1 it is but five minutes' work to take out a bolt1 bore another hole1 and shift the forelegs farther forward or back4 ,when everything is perfectly to your liking1 tighten up every nut to its very tightest1 and insert screws through the screw-holes that have been provided in the long arm of each square4 ,each leg is now a fixture4 ,the great beauty of this method1 which appears to its greatest perfection in the construction of a manikin1 lies in the fact that you have1 from first to last1 the most perfect control over the different parts of the entire animal4 ,when you discover as you proceed that something is wrong1 it is an easy matter to change it1 provided the skin has not been put on the manikin4 ,in putting together an animal with the legs in the skin1 you are necessarily troubled somewhat by the skin of the body1 which hinders the turning of your wrench1 etc42 but all such difficulties exist only to be overcome4 ,put the neck irons through the skull1 and fasten the inner end of each to the body board1 as shown in the tiger manikin1 or in any other solid way you prefer4 ,as to the tail1 ditto1 and when the attitude is perfect1 and all parts fastened together1 then1 and not until then1 anoint the inside of the skin with arsenical soap1 all that it will hold1 and give it time to be absorbed4 ,put the head in position by bending the neck irons1 place the feet in position1 and tighten the nuts under the pedestal4 ,now turn the animal upside down1 put a rope under each end of the pedestal1 and hang the whole affair up to the ceiling1 or to a beam1 by means of the ropes1 so that it will swing clear of the floor4 ,next sew up the skin of the abdomen and breast1 and proceed to fill the neck1 shoulders1 and hind-quarters with soft straw4 ,oat straw is the best1 if you can get it4 ,if you can procure no soft straw1 then have a boy take your wheat straw1 bunch by bunch1 and with a mallet pound it upon a block to crush it and make it soft4 ,in filling the animal1 the first thing to do is to fill it out at all points1 loosely at first1 to get the general proportions4 ,the skin should not touch your iron squares or the body board at any point1 for if it does1 something is wrong4 ,at first you will work with your large wooden fillers1 but as the straw gets packed1 and the wooden tool will not go through it1 take your iron fillers4 ,no matter how hard straw may be packed1 with a burrowing1 twisting motion you can force that wedge-pointed instrument through the straw so as to reach any point that needs more filling out4 ,be careful about the line of the back1 and keep it exactly in place1 along the centre of the body1 and always at the highest point4 ,do not let the back line of a feline animal1 especially a tiger or a leopard1 get down upon one side1 as will be sure to happen if you are not watchful4 ,when the outline of the back is fixed1 then fill out the breast and abdomen1 and get the lower line of the body just as it should be4 ,as you proceed with all this1 keep sewing up the skin from time to time until only two holes remain1 one at the breast and one between the hind legs well back4 ,now take the animal down1 stand it upon the floor1 cut slits in the sides1 as directed in the previous section1 and through them finish the filling and shaping of the body4 ,all this takes work1 hard work1 intelligent work1 and a great deal of it4 ,make the body hard and firm1 and as smooth on the outside as ,nature does4 ,to secure smoothness1 and to lower the unnatural knobs that are sure to appear1 beat the animal from time to time with a flat club4 ,when all is done1 fill in the last bit of straw at the various holes1 sew them up strongly but neatly with stout linen twine1 or gilling thread1 well waxed1 and dress the fur4 ,this will be treated elsewhere in a separate section1 as also will the treatment of the head4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,mounting ,,large ,,mammals3 ,,the ,,construction ,,of ,,manikins4 ,,section ,,iii4 ,,short-,,haired ,,or ,,hairless ,,mammals1 ,,and ,,others ,,of ,,great ,,size4--,examples3 ,lion1 tiger1 zebra1 horse1 giraffe1 bison and buffalo1 camel1 all deer and antelopes2 elephant1 rhinoceros1 hippopotamus1 tapir1 etc4 ,of the numerous processes described in this work there are two which ,i must mention as being distinctively and particularly my own4 ,one is the general use of clay as a filling material1 and the other is the evolution and development of the clay-covered manikin1 on the principles now to be described and illustrated4 ,already this method of mounting quadrupeds has been quite generally adopted by the new school of ,american taxidermists1 and ,i think it is destined to fill our museums with more perfect mounted mammals than the rest of the world can show4 ,i have always willingly taught the advantages of the clay-covered manikin1 and the various processes involved in its construction1 to every enterprising taxidermist who desired to learn it1 and it was my intention to have published a full description of it years ago4 ,now it comes as a sort of farewell performance1 and positively the last appearance4 ,among taxidermists1 the term manikin is applied to the made up figure of an animal over which a skin is to be adjusted1 and made to counterfeit the actual form and size of a living animal4 ,while it is well adapted to the successful treatment of mammals1 reptiles1 and fishes in general1 it is impossible to employ it in mounting bird skins unless they are very badly torn1 and require to be put together a piece at a time1 or else are of the very largest size4 ,the worst torn and mutilated bird skin can be put together on a manikin with perfect success1 provided the skin is all present4 ,speaking from my own experience1 ,i must say that my clay-covered manikin process seems to possess important and undisputed advantages over all other methods ,i have ever seen employed or described for the mounting of not only the most difficult mammalian subjects1 but also reptiles of many kinds1 and fishes4 ,by it the most perfect results attainable by the taxidermic art are not only possible1 but may be achieved without even a risk of failure save through lack of anatomical knowledge4 ,nearly all the mechanical difficulties which beset the other methods are eliminated1 and the result becomes chiefly a question of knowledge and artistic sense4 ,by this method1 ,i have successfully mounted such mammals as the following3 ,elephant1#i ,american bison1 polar bear1 zebra1 tiger1 puma1 elephant seal1 hairless ,mexican dog1 etc4 ,the last-named specimen was in competition against the elephant in a competitive exhibition1 and ,i learned afterward from the judges that it came near wresting the grand prize from its lordly competitor4 ,this fact is mentioned to show that the process was equally successful in the treatment of a thick-hided elephant and a small dog with a skin as thin as writing-paper1 and utterly destitute of hair4 ,a plaster cast of the unskinned body of the dog was exhibited with the mounted specimen1 to enable the observer to judge of the success of the process4 ,the unchallenged superiority of the clay-covered manikin process is due to the following reasons3 #a4 ,the absolute control the operator is able to exercise over the form of his subject from first to last1 without prejudice to the safety of the skin to be mounted4 #b4 ,the possibility of working out anatomical details which it is useless to attempt by other methods4 #c4 ,the absolute permanency of the form produced4 #d4 ,the ability of the operator to place his subjects in attitudes so difficult that by ordinary methods they would be unattainable4 #e4 ,the most perfect preservation of the skin and its covering from damage by excessive handling1 beating1 and wetting4 #f4 ,the absolute perfection of form and attitude which is attainable by this method only4 ,until you have fully learned the principles of manikin-making1 do not attempt to mount by this process a skin that has come to you with no measurements nor leg bones4 ,choose for your first attempt a good-sized dog or sheep1 or some quadruped of similar size which you have in the flesh1 and from which you can take a full series of outlines1 measurements1 casts1 etc4 ,i can probably teach you as well as any living man how to proceed when you have no measurements whatever1 and will give you a few hints presently2 but now ,i say1 you must have your first subject in the flesh4 ,it is then within your power to secure to yourself all possible advantages in what you are about to do4 ,it is desirable to take the usual measurements before the skin is removed1 but by all means make another series of the skinned body and limbs4 ,in skinning1 disjoint the leg bones at the carpal joint1#aj which leaves only the bones of the foot attached to the skin4 ,when the skin is put on for the last time1 this joint must be re-articulated with two wires4 ,when the skin is out of the way1 you can take the length of the body from the back part of the thigh to the point of the shoulder2 the distance between elbow and knee1 from the elbow to the top of the shoulder2 the circumference and diameter of the body1 neck1 and limbs1 at various points2 the depth of the body1 etc4 ,you can also measure from the highest point of the head of the femur to a similar point on the humerus1 and when the hind legs have been cut off1 you can easily determine the proper length for your iron squares by measuring between the two hip sockets 7os inominata74 ,observe1 now1 if you never did before1 that the front edges of the tibia and the ulna have no flesh whatever upon them1 nor has the angle of the elbow1 the knee-cap1 nor the front of the metacarpal bones4 ,save the bones of each leg complete1 and without any farther disjointing2 but1 of course1 the flesh must be carefully trimmed and scraped away4 ,save the skull1 of course1 and it will be a great help if you will hastily rough out the bones of the entire body and save them for reference until the manikin is complete4 ,the pelvis and the thorax will help you greatly by and by4 ,we will now assume that we are ready to proceed with the manikin1 which we will follow out by successive steps4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,vii4 ,,manikin ,,for ,,tiger4--,,first ,,stage4 #a4 ,the first thing to do is to cut a deep groove in the bones of the heel1 close alongside the base of the calcaneum1 also in the bones of the foot at the joints1 and in the head of the humerus from the back1 so that the iron can fit in snugly1 and not create a great1 awkward1 rounded hump at each of those joints4 ,in a hoofed animal1 the centre of the hoof must be cut out so that the iron can pass through it quite out of sight where it enters the pedestal4 ,the lower joints of the foreleg must be channelled out in the same way4 ,study the shape of each joint and you will then see precisely what is needed4 ,in cutting out these grooves1 ,i use a saw for certain bones1 and gouges and stone-mason's chisels for others1 according to circumstances4 ,remember that between the tendon of ,achilles and the lower end of the tibia there is always a deep hollow1 where the skin of the two sides actually comes together4 ,keep your leg iron out of that hollow at all hazards1--and this can be done only by sinking the iron into the tibia4 #b4 ,if you have an outline of the animal's body1 lay it upon the floor1 and draw a straight line to represent the top of your pedestal4 ,if you have no sketches1 then you must draw an outline in chalk upon the floor1 choosing a certain crack as the line of the pedestal4 ,now lay down the skeleton of each leg in its own place1 in the position the leg is to have in the finished animal4 ,measure the height of the missing bones of the foot1 and leave a space accordingly above the top of your assumed pedestal4 ,it is highly important these leg bones should each have the right attitude4 #c4 ,take four straight ,no4 #f wires1 and with the first leg laid out carefully in position1 bend the wire to fit the back of the leg bones very exactly1 cut it off the right length1 and so make an exact pattern for the leg rod4 ,remember to allow for its going through a good thick pedestal1 and having about two inches to spare underneath for a nut and washer4 ,the rod for the foreleg may project above the upper end of the humerus one-third to one-half the length of that bone1 but the rod for the hind leg must not be the least bit longer than the upper end of the femur4 ,remember also to bury the iron well in the centre of the lowest joint of the leg and the foot1 so that it will not be seen when the animal is finished4 ,in order to show the bends that are necessary in the leg irons of a ruminant1 ,i have taken the trouble to photograph and reproduce herewith 7,fig4 #cb7 the identical leg irons which now support the huge bull buffalo in the ,national ,museum group1 the manikin of which is also shown in this chapter4 ,before bending1 the irons for the forelegs were each #d feet #a_/b inch in length1 and those for the hind legs were #d feet #f-a_/b inches2 diameter1 #e_/h inch4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--,leg ,irons of an ,american ,bison4 #d4 ,having made your four patterns exact in length and bend1 cut four leg irons to match1 from round rods of ,norway iron1 or best ,american1 if ,norway cannot be procured4 ,i can give you no fixed rule by which to determine the size that leg irons should be1 but ,i can at least mention the sizes ,i use in certain animals3 ,adult moose1 male or female1 and giraffe1 #c_/d inch4 ,bull bison1 cow bison1 horse1 #e_/h inch4 ,male caribou1 black-tail deer1 and large mountain sheep1 #a_/b inch4 ,male ,virginia deer1 antelope1 tiger1 #g_/af inch4 ,all these sizes1 except the two largest1 can be bent cold in a strong vise4 #e4 ,having bent the irons to match the patterns1 and to fit the bones also1 cut a long thread on each end of each rod1 and fit two large hexagonal nuts on each end so that they turn readily1 but not loosely4 #f4 ,with soft but strong twine1 or annealed wire1 bind each leg iron firmly to the leg bones from top to bottom4 ,you may now take a saw and cut off the upper third of the femur4 #g4 ,during the course of the foregoing work1 you have had a blacksmith at work making your four iron squares 7see previous chapter7 according to a hoop-iron pattern furnished by you1 and now they are ready to use in attaching the leg irons4 #h4 ,now comes the question of a centre board for the body4 ,if the animal is a dog1 a small deer or antelope1 a tiger1 or anything so small that you can reach around its body with your arms1 make the body board as narrow as you please1 or as wide as the entire depth of the animal's body1 if you choose4 ,i think it better to make it similar in proportions to that shown in the accompanying illustration 7,plate ,,vii47 of the first stage of a tiger manikin1 in order that with a long needle one can sew through the body from side to side4 ,it is well1 for the same reason1 to cut a hole in the board1 as shown1 at a point opposite the iliac region4 ,i mounted this tiger with a decided curve in the middle of his body1 which obliged me to cut the centre board in two1 and unite the two parts again at an angle by means of two bent pieces of iron screwed on either side4 ,in most animals1 however1 this is unnecessary4 ,the centre board need not be over #g_/h of an inch in thickness in any save very large animals1 when it is best to have it #a-a_/b inch1 or nearly that4 ,it is best to use dry white pine1 because it is light and works easily4 #i4 ,lay the body board on your chalk outline1 lay the iron legs in position1 put the squares down and mark the place where the bolt for each pair should pass through4 ,bore the holes1 bolt on the squares quite firmly 7but leave the screws out as yet71 then insert the leg rods1 and tighten the nuts4 ,set the legs on as nearly right as possible while the skeleton form lies on the floor1 then stand it up1 put it on a rough pedestal1 and see how it looks4 ,now comes the crucial test of your knowledge and artistic sense4 ,a number of things are wrong1 and the shaky skeleton of the manikin don't look right4 ,what is the matter8 ,is one of the front legs bent forward at the carpal joint8 ,then straighten it4 ,is the animal coupled too short8 ,then move one pair of legs a trifle on the centre board1 to increase the length of the body4 ,do not the legs walk naturally8 ,then make them4 ,are the forelegs1 and hind legs also1 too close together8 ,then your squares are too short1 and they must be lengthened by placing a bit of board under each one1 as seen under the hind-leg square of the tiger manikin4 ,you will probably need to shift the feet on the pedestal also1 by boring new holes4 ,you can make any leg longer or shorter1 make the stride shorter or longer1 and1 in fact1 make any change that your eye1 or your picture or cast tells you is necessary4 ,the vital necessity is that your eye must be so trained and educated that it detects a fault instantly1 no matter how slight1 and sees what is required to remedy it4 ,the eye of a successful taxidermist must be educated just as thoroughly as the hand of a pianist4 ,for a large animal1 it is1 for me1 several hours' work to attach the legs to the body board1 and make the changes necessary to bring everything into perfect position4 ,the last thing is to take the cleaned skin out of the bath1 throw it over the skeleton manikin1 and see how it fits4 ,if1 when it is adjusted1 the feet do not touch the pedestal1 you know that the manikin is too high1 and you must either cut down the top of the centre board with a draw-shave1 or else lower it by attaching the squares nearer the top4 ,in this trial the feet should stand loosely upon the floor4 ,having got everything finally adjusted1 put the screws in the squares1 tighten up all nuts1 and put a washer under each nut that strikes the pedestal1 both above and below1 and make all secure4 ,there must be no looseness1 or the manikin will lean over immediately4 ,the centre board should stand exactly perpendicular4 ,test it with a plumb-line1 and see if it does so4 ,is the manikin now so secure that you can sit upon it without racking it8 ,if not1 it should be4 ,to test the manikin for my big buffalo1 shown in this chapter1 ,i climbed upon it1 and stood with my full weight1 first on the outer end of one iron square1 then on another1 and to test the strength of the neck irons ,i put a large anvil on the top of the skull without making the slightest permanent impression on the irons4 #aj4 ,it is unnecessary to speak further of the irons for the head and tail1 and their attachment4 ,see figures4 #aa4 ,next comes the making of the legs4 ,the lower joints1 where there is scarcely any flesh1 had best be made of clean1 long-fibre tow4 ,where the thick muscles lie1 bunch up some tow1 put it where the muscle was1 and bind on with thread or twine4 ,continue this process until this muscle has been built up to its proper size1 and wrapped at all points until it is smooth1 firm1 and properly shaped4 ,higher up1 where the muscles are thicker and lie in larger masses1 use excelsior in precisely the same way4 ,little by little1 but with much excelsior and twine1 the muscles are gradually built up4 ,leave the bones bare at the points where nature does4 ,the hind leg must have its tendon of ,achilles before it can be finished4 ,to make this1 drill a hole through the end of the calcaneum1 or heel bone2 pass a long wire through for half its length1 twist the two halves tightly together until they will reach half-way up the thigh1 then wrap tow around the twisted wire from the heel bone up1 making the tendon larger as you proceed4 ,presently you are ready to merge it into the flesh of the leg so that its upper end disappears4 ,to give form to a leg1 and bring out the prominent muscles1 take a very long needle and a very long piece of twine1 and sew through and through the leg on certain lines1 putting on pressure to produce certain depressions that exist between the larger muscles4 ,to give detailed directions on this point would oblige me to go into the subject of musculation at great and tiresome length1 and since this is not a work on anatomy1 ,i will not attempt a dissertation on the form of each genera of the mammalia4 ,the illustrations of the tiger and bison manikins show the form of the external muscles of ,felis tigris and ,bison americanus1 and what is possible in a manikin4 ,,making ,,the ,,body ,,of ,a ,,manikin4--,the centre board of a large mammal1 like the bison1 moose1 and all such animals1 should accurately represent a section through the centre of the body from top to bottom4 ,in the absence of measurements and living models1 the closest approximation to the desired form is obtained by laying the skin upon the floor1 hair inside1 and folding it loosely upon itself so as to get what looks like the general shape of the animal1 and then taking the outline thus obtained4 ,a very large manikin may be made hollow in the manner represented in the accompanying plate 7,plate ,,ix471 which is self-explanatory4 ,this is often desirable to avoid making the figure too heavy1 as would be the case were the entire bulk to be made a solid mass of excelsior4 ,for the smaller buffaloes1 ,i made the bodies of excelsior alone4 ,each side was built up separately by driving a row of nails along the top of the centre board1 and another along the bottom to carry the twine over in binding on the layers of excelsior4 ,at the last1 these nails were driven home4 ,during all this process the skin has been tried on the manikin from time to time1 to make sure that the structure is of the right size in every respect4 ,beginners nearly always make a manikin too large1 especially in circumference4 ,it is the commonest trick in the world for legs and necks to be made so large they have to be reduced4 ,if a skin does not fit when it is tried on1 the manikin is generally to blame1 though sometimes the skin is badly shrunken1 and requires to be further thinned down to make it more elastic4 ,it is easy enough to make a manikin larger or higher1 especially on the hind quarters1 even while the skin is being put on for the last time2 but woe to him whose manikin is too large at the last moment4 ,that means serious delay4 ,when the manikin is finished at every point1 shear it all over with a large pair of shears to clip off the ends of the wisps of excelsior1 and then poison the skin thoroughly on the inside with arsenical soap1 and on the outside with arsenic water1 if the hair be long4 ,while the poison is being absorbed1 mix up enough clay to cover the entire animal with a coat an eighth or a quarter of an inch thick1 and smear it on with the hand4 ,have it soft and pasty1 so that it will rub into the excelsior1 and catch hold of it4 ,if the clay is too stiff1 it will neither spread nor stick4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,viii4 ,,manikin ,,for ,,tiger4--,,completed4 ,when the manikin has been fully covered with clay from end of nose to tip of tail1 not a single inch of surface having been missed1 you then have a complete clay statue of the animal1 except the feet4 ,now put the skin over and adjust it carefully4 ,leave no air-bubbles under it4 ,catch it together between the fore legs1 hind legs1 under the belly1 the throat and neck1 and around the legs1 and make it fit everywhere4 ,then begin at the feet and sew it up with short1 strong stitches in the manner already described1 shaping and filling out wherever necessary1 as you go4 ,on a large mammal it is very desirable for two persons to work at the same time1 to keep the skin from drying up prematurely4 ,of course1 the skin must be kept wrapped up in wet cloths until finished4 ,finish all the legs first1 and then the body4 ,you can actually model the skin down upon the body1 and it will not only take the exact form of the manikin--every depression and every elevation--but it will also keep it4 ,if there is too much skin on one side of the animal1 work it together with your hand1 and coax it to shrink until the superfluous skin is distributed over the animal1 and finally disappears4 ,once1 when mounting the skin of a ,burchell's zebra in a peculiar attitude 7at bay71 ,i found that1 owing to its elasticity1 there was a superabundance of about ten inches of skin in front of the left hind leg1 which was placed very far forward1 under the body4 ,but for the saving grace of a clay-covered manikin ,i should have been in a fix4 ,as it was1 ,i started in half-way up the neck1 to work together and stow away the surplus skin from that point backward1 and by the time ,i reached the seat of the difficulty 7at the flank7 the surplus skin was all taken up1 and the side of the animal was as smooth and immaculate as if nothing had happened4 ,there is supreme pleasure in crowning a well-made manikin with a handsome skin1 and seeing a specimen take on perfect form and permanent beauty as if by magic4 ,it is then that you begin to be proud of your work2 and finally you revel in it4 ,you say to yourself1 ,this is art6--and so it is1--but let your work speak for itself4 ,the head is the last thing to be finished1 and this feature of the work will be treated in detail in another chapter4 ,,footnotes3 #i ,this specimen received the silver specialty medal awarded for the best piece in entire ,exhibition1 at the ,new ,york ,exhibition of the ,society of ,american ,taxidermists1 in #ahhc4 #aj ,at the hoof in the case of all hoofed animals4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,finishing ,,mounted ,,mammals4 ,,drying ,,and ,,shrinking4--,after the actual mounting of a mammal is finished1 the specimen should be put aside in a separate room1 away from the dust1 and allowed to stand for from three or four weeks to three or four months1 according to its size4 ,it must have time to dry thoroughly1 and shrink as much as it will4 ,every specimen is bound to shrink in drying1 and it is better for this to occur before it leaves the workroom1 and before the finishing touches are put on1 rather than after it goes on exhibition1 and is practically beyond your reach4 ,in shrinking1 all the seams open1 more or less2 the eyelids draw away a trifle from the glass eye2 usually the lips open somewhat2 and in ruminants the inner skin of the ear often draws straight across the inside4 ,,cleaning ,,up ,a ,,specimen4--,in finishing a specimen1 the first thing is to dig the clay and tow out of all open seams1 cracks1 and small holes1 preparatory to filling them with papier-mach4 ,with the sharp point of a pointed bone-scraper1 dig out the clay1 or whatever filling material is in sight1 very thoroughly1 so as to give the papier-mach a chance to enter deeply and catch firmly underneath the edges of the skin4 ,with a stiff brush1 brush out the seams and openings1 so that no clay-dust remains1 for there is nothing so good as clay-dust to prevent papier-mach from sticking to a skin4 ,it is often well to use a bellows in getting dirt out of holes and seams4 ,beat the dust out of the hair1 or blow it out with the hand bellows1 or brush it out1 or wash it out if necessary1 any way to get it out4 ,if the hair has been poisoned with arsenic water1 do as little to it as possible in getting out the accumulated dust1 for too vigorous treatment will bring out the arsenic with the dust1 and send it into your lungs4 ,if1 however1 the hair has not yet been poisoned1 as soon as the cleaning is finished lay the animal upon its back1 or on its side1 and pour into the hair1 so that it will run immediately down to the roots1 a solution of alcohol1 water1 and corrosive sublimate made as follows3 ,if you wish to make four gallons of the solution1 take two gallons of ninety-five per cent alcohol1 dissolve in it all the corrosive sublimate it will take up1 making what chemists call a saturated solution4 ,in this there will always be a little of the sublimate left on the bottom of the jar4 ,this is1 of course1 too strong to use thus1 under any circumstances4 ,carefully pour off the clear liquid so as to leave the sediment remaining in the jar1 and then dilute the former with an equal quantity of water1 which thus yields the desired four gallons4 ,it is most effectually applied by pouring it from a small watering-pot1 with the sprinkler off the spout1 into the hair1 so that it will fill it and cover the skin without being wasted4 ,the corrosive sublimate is deposited at the roots of the hair1 and also on the hair1 in quantity sufficient to prevent the ravages of insects1 but not to be injurious to the health of the taxidermist4 ,strong arsenic water may be used for this purpose1 instead of the other solution1 if preferred4 ,in case the solution used should leave a gray deposit on the hair1 it should be sponged off with a little warm water4 ,,papier-,,mach4--,how to ,make and ,use ,it4--,every taxidermist must know how to make good papier-mach before his education can be considered complete4 ,this material is absolutely indispensable in taxidermic work1 and its composition should be thoroughly understood4 ,it is used in filling up holes1 seams1 and cracks1 in modeling the mouth parts of specimens that have been mounted with the mouth open1 in restoring missing parts of various specimens1 in modeling bones to go in restored skeletons1 etc4 ,it is also of great value in modeling groundwork to be made in imitation of rock or wood4 ,there is really no good substitute for this material4 ,when properly made it sticks tightly to its place1 is easily modeled1 can be crowded into the smallest crack1 dries quickly when exposed to the air1 is hard and smooth when dry1 takes paint readily1 and yet when kept wrapped in a wet cloth under an inverted bowl can be kept soft for several days4 ,there are several ways of making papier-mach1 according to the use to which it is to be put4 ,i have taken pains to prepare an exact formula for making the finest and best quality1 and from that the worker will undoubtedly be able to work out variations in quality1 according to his needs4 ,the most important ingredient is the paper pulp4 ,the finest pulp for papier-mach is that made by the ton in the ,bureau of ,engraving and ,printing in ,washington1 from mutilated paper currency1 but not from tobacco stamps1 which is coarse and not fit for fine work4 ,a hundred pounds of this pulp would cost1 in ,washington1 about #a4ej1 and could be made into sheets of small bulk1 and dried for use as needed4 ,it is a great advantage to have it in this form4 ,when needed for use1 take a dry sheet or ball of the right size1 dissolve and beat it up into a thin mush in a bowl of water1 until the particles are all well separated1 then pour it on a sieve to run the water out without losing the pulp4 ,the water is then squeezed out of it by gentle pressure with the hand1 but it should not1 by any means1 be squeezed as dry as possible1 for the water is an important factor4 ,pulp prepared thus can be stirred up with glue into a perfectly homogeneous paste1 free from all lumps1 and so fine it can be pressed into the smallest crack4 ,if you have no manufactured pulp1 then you must make it yourself4 ,procure a lot of old newspapers1 of as soft paper as possible1 tear them to bits1 put the pieces in a kettle of boiling water and beat the mass in any way you please1 boiling it meanwhile1 until it becomes paper pulp4 ,it should be free from lumps and small pieces of paper1 or it will not work well4 ,the following are the ingredients necessary to make a lump of papier-mach a little larger than an ordinary base-ball1 and weighing #ag ounces4 ,,fine ,,papier-,,mach4 dry paper1 #a ounce ,wet paper pulp1 #d ounces 7avoirdupois74 water1 #c ounces ,dry plaster ,paris1 #h ounces ,hot glue1 #a_/b gill1 or #d-a_/b tablespoonfuls4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,ix4 ,,manikin ,,for ,,male ,,american ,,bison4--,,half ,,completed4 ,while the paper pulp is being prepared1 melt some best ,irish glue in the gluepot1 and make it of the same thickness and general consistency as that used by cabinet-makers4 ,measure the different ingredients to be used1 until the result teaches you what good papier-mach is like1 and after that you can be guided by your judgment as you proceed4 ,on taking the paper pulp from the water1 give it a gentle squeeze1 but by no means squeeze it as dry as you can4 ,now put it in a bowl1 put over it about three tablespoonfuls of your hot glue1 and stir the mass up into a soft and very sticky paste4 ,next add your plaster ,paris1 and mix it thoroughly4 ,by the time you have used about three ounces of the plaster1 the mass is so dry and thick you can hardly work it4 ,now add the remainder of your glue1 work it up again until it becomes sticky once more1 then add the remainder of your plaster4 ,squeeze it vigorously through your fingers to thoroughly mix the mass1 and work it until it is free from lumps1 is finely kneaded1 and is sticky enough to stick fast to the surface of a planed board when you rub a bit on it by firm pressure of the finger4 ,if it is too dry to stick fast1 add a few drops of either glue or water1 it makes little difference which1 and work it up again4 ,when the paper pulp is poor1 and the mach is inclined to be lumpy1 lay the mass upon a smooth board1 take a hammer and pound it hard to grind it up fine4 ,if the papier-mach is not sticky enough to stick fast to whatever a bit of it is rubbed upon1 it is a failure1 and requires more glue4 ,in using it the mass should be kept in a lump1 and used as soon as possible after it is made4 ,keep the surface of the lump moist by means of a wet cloth laid over it1 for if you do not1 the surface will dry rapidly4 ,if you wish to keep it overnight1 or longer1 wrap it up in several thicknesses of wet cotton cloth1 and put it under an inverted bowl4 ,if it should by accident or delay become a trifle too stiff to work well1 add a few drops of water to the mass1 pound it with the hammer1 and work it over again4 ,if you wish to keep a lump for a week1 to use daily1 add a few drops of glycerine when you make it1 so that it will dry more slowly4 ,the papier-mach made when the above formula was prepared had the following qualities3 ,when tested by rubbing between the thumb and finger1 it was sticky and covered the thumb with a thin coating4 7,had it left the thumb clean1 it would have been because it contained too much water47 ,when rubbed upon a pane of glass1 it stuck tightly and dried hard in three hours1 without cracking1 and could only be removed with a knife4 ,when spread in a layer1 as thin as writing-paper1 it dried in half an hour4 ,a mass actually used dried hard enough to coat with wax in eighteen hours1 and1 without cracking1 became as hard as wood2 yet a similar quantity wrapped in a wet cloth and placed under an inverted bowl kept soft and fit for use for an entire week4 ,such are the qualities of first-class papier-mach1 and the manner of producing them all4 ,i have dwelt at great length on this material because it is such an important and indispensable factor in general taxidermic work4 ,it will pay any taxidermist to become an expert in making it and using it1 and a little later1 when we get to modeling intricate mouth parts1 and making all sorts of restorations and repairs1 we shall see what a valuable servant is papier-mach4 ,,mach,,ing ,,mounted ,,mammals4--,surely it is unnecessary for me to devote much space to directing how to fill up with papier-mach the holes1 seams1 and cracks in a mounted mammal4 ,of course all cavities opened by shrinkage or accident must be filled up4 ,use a sharp-pointed knife1 press the fine and soft mach deeply into every opening1 make it catch underneath the skin1 so that when dry it cannot flake off1 or be knocked off2 and smooth it on the outside to the level of the skin4 ,use the mach liberally1 and it will be more certain always to remain as you leave it4 ,fill up rough seams until they are smooth1 so that the hair can be glued on if necessary4 ,wherever dry clay shows1 dig it out and replace with the other more durable material1 which can be painted1 whereas dry clay can not4 ,,putty4--,in the days of my youth ,i was taught by my ,european teachers to use putty for all such work as that described above2 but ,i very soon became disgusted with it1 and years ago ceased to use it for any purpose whatever4 ,it is greasy1 inert1 and yet purely temporary stuff4 ,it never gets really hard unless used in a great mass1 and when used in small quantities for fine work it is utterly worthless4 ,do not use it unless you are so situated that you are positively unable to make papier-mach--and ,i cannot imagine any such situation as being possible within the pale of civilization4 ,,painting ,,on ,,papier-,,mach4--,of course this material dries white1 and must be painted4 ,if paint is put directly upon it1 the oil and color is absorbed at once1 and it takes many coats to properly fill it up4 ,to save time and give the best results1 first give your papier-mach work two coats of shellac1 which dries in a few minutes and fills up all the pores1 so that your paint will stay as you put it on4 ,use oil colors1 but put them on with turpentine to avoid the unnatural gloss that oil will give4 ,in another chapter 7,,xxvi47 will be found detailed hints in regard to painting mounted specimens4 ,,gluing ,,hair ,,upon ,,mammals4--,it is very seldom that a dry skin is mounted without there being upon it some spot or spots destitute of hair1 which must be repaired4 ,sometimes it is only a small spot1 sometimes it is nearly the entire head1 or an entire leg from which the epidermis has come loose1 carrying the hair with it1 and leaving an unsightly bare spot4 ,it requires a good deal of ingenuity1 much skill1 and tireless patience to glue hair upon an animal so that it will so closely resemble the natural growth that no one will notice the difference4 ,but in every case1 except some of the seals and sea-lions1 this can be accomplished1 if it be necessary1 although very often it requires good judgment and the hand of an artist to do it4 ,each mammal has its own peculiarities in regard to the quality1 thickness1 length1 and general set of its hair1 all of which must be carefully studied4 ,when the hair grows long and thickly1 the task is much easier than if it be thin or short4 #ast4 ,procure a pair of very small curve-pointed forceps1 so fine they will hold a single hair if necessary4 7,price1 #ge cents47 #b;d4 ,procure a pair of small and sharp scissors1 with sharp points4 #c;d4 ,procure a bottle of common fish-glue1 or royal glue4 #dth4 ,if possible1 procure a piece of useless skin1 from which to cut the hair necessary to use in making the repairs4 ,very often it is impossible to procure any pieces of skin with hair suitable for the purpose1 and then the only way is to cut hair from the specimen which is to be repaired1 picking out with the forceps a tiny bunch here and there in such a way that the bunches cut out will not show4 ,this can nearly always be done in making slight repairs upon thick-haired animals1 such as bears1 wolves1 monkeys1 etc4 ,but with such short-haired animals as the tiger1 zebra1 and giraffe1 the hair must be procured elsewhere4 ,use the hair of any animal to repair the coat of another1 so long as it will answer perfectly1 no matter what the genus or species may be4 ,use tow1 or jute1 painted or dyed the proper color1 if it is sufficiently like the hair which will surround it4 ,in order to treat this subject intelligibly1 we will undertake to separate all terrestrial mammals into three classes1 as follows3 #ast4 ,animals with very close1 short hair2 as the tiger1 zebra1 horse1 and giraffe4 ,upon such animals as the above1 the hair lies almost flat upon the skin1 completely covering it with a very smooth1 glossy coat4 ,to repair hair upon such animals1 procure pieces of skin having hair of the requisite quality1 and soak them in clear water until decomposition sets in1 and the hair easily comes out by the roots4 ,the hair must not be cut off1 or it will not answer4 ,be sure that your fish-glue is good and strong1 and about as thick as castor-oil4 ,clean the bare surface of the skin by scraping it with a knife to remove all dirt1 and give the glue a chance to take hold4 ,with your small forceps1 pull from the pieces of half-macerated skin a small bunch of hair of the proper tint1 and with a small camel's-hair brush apply a drop of glue to the roots of the hair4 ,begin at the side of the bare spot where the hair grows directly away from it1 and lay down your little bunch of hairs so that their tips shall fairly cover the roots of those nearest the edge4 ,then press down the bunch of hair thus placed in position1 work the hairs slightly apart1 and make them lie quite flat upon the skin4 ,follow up this process with untiring patience1 and the result will be entirely satisfactory4 ,i have seen large patches of hair glued upon a tiger so successfully that when finished the sharpest eye could not detect the repaired spots4 ,but it was very slow work1 requiring an hour's steady work to cover a spot of not quite two square inches4 #b;d4 ,animals with thick1 long hair2 as most monkeys1 bears1 wolves1 all the ruminants of cold climates1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,x4 ,,manikin ,,for ,,american ,,bison4--,,completed4 ,in repairing the coats of such as the above1 the necessary hair may be cut off in bunches1 either from the animal itself1 or from old pieces of skin1 so long as the hair is of the proper length4 ,notice carefully the set of the hair1 and imitate it very exactly4 ,the glue may be applied quite plentifully to the roots of each bunch of hairs while you hold it in your forceps1 and usually quite a large bunch may be set on at a time1 and afterward spread out a little4 ,in repairing the mountain sheep 7,ovis montana7 and prong-horn antelope 7,antilocapra americana71 the point of vital importance is to get every hair to set in precisely the right direction1 so that the surface will be smooth4 ,if the hair is put on carelessly1 and without due observance of the above caution1 upon the repaired spot it will stick stiffly out like the bristles of a shoe-brush1 and the imperfection of the coat will be painfully apparent4 #c;d4 ,animals with long hair growing very thinly2 as upon certain portions of orang utans1 chimpanzees1 and all members of the hog family4 ,upon the animals indicated above1 it will be found that the hair grows in little bunches of three or four hairs in a bunch1 but so thinly distributed that the skin shows through quite distinctly4 ,furthermore1 in such cases the hairs stand out from the skin1 and their roots are plainly visible4 ,successfully to repair such a skin is very slow1 tedious work1 and cannot be done by a man whose time is very valuable4 ,a boy working for small wages is the best means to employ1 but he must be watched closely4 ,procure the hair necessary for making the repairs4 ,then with a sharp awl1 or coarse needle1 prick the skin full of holes to correspond in number and distribution with the arrangement of the tiny hair bunches upon the skin surrounding the spot4 ,prick the little holes rather deeply and slanting in the right direction4 ,then take a bunch of three or four hairs in your smallest forceps1 dip the end in the fish-glue1 and keeping the hairs well together1 set the bunch into one of the little holes4 ,see that the hairs stand out in the right direction1 and proceed in this way until the bare spot is covered4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,mounting ,,mammal ,,heads ,,as ,,trophies ,,and ,,ornaments4 ,sportsmen1 if you really must kill all the large mammalia from off the face of the earth1 do at least preserve the heads that are brought low by your skill and prowess4 ,now that our elk1 moose1 deer1 caribou1 antelope1 mountain sheep1 and mountain goat are all disappearing so rapidly1 and nearly all these species are doomed to speedy extermination1 head collecting has become quite the fashion4 ,there are in this country probably two score of taxidermists who live by heads alone2 and many hunters who once lived by buffalo robes and beaver pelts now make a business of hunting for heads to sell4 ,i know many such1 and their scale of prices for heads1 according to size and points1 shows that they have got the business down fine4 ,and why should not heads be collected and made much of1 as well as pelts and meat8 ,a naturally handsome mammal head which has been skilfully mounted is a thing of beauty and a joy forever4 ,wearied with the survey of inane and meaningless pictures1 stiff portraits1 cheap statuettes1 and tawdry fancy decorations1 the eye rests gladly and gratefully upon a fine head on a handsome shield1 hanging in a good light1 and blesses the hand that placed it there4 ,such an ornament calls forth endless admiration and query1 even from those who know no other chase than that of the mighty dollar1 and who1 alas6 have never found out by experience that ,there is a pleasure in the pathless woods4 ,and therefore ,i say1 if you must go and kill things1 save their heads and mount them as an atonement for your deeds of blood4 ,they will give pleasure to you and your friends long after you have hung up your rifle forever4 ,i have gathered numerous curiosities and works of art in foreign lands1 but they do not excite one-half the admiration that is called forth by the series of really fine heads of buffalo1 deer1 mountain sheep1 elk1 antelope1 and mountain goat of which ,i am the fortunate possessor4 ,inasmuch as this chapter is intended chiefly for the benefit of sportsmen and amateur taxidermists1 we must begin at the beginning1 and treat the subject in somewhat full detail4 ,we will consider that we have a deer as our subject4 ,many a fine deer head is spoiled forever by being cut off too close behind the ears4 ,with such animals as the lion1 tiger1 leopard1 puma1 and bear1 a long neck is not desirable unless the head is to be mounted in a glass case1 looking out of a thicket2 and neither is it best for a buffalo head to have a long neck4 ,it may be set down as a safe rule1 however1 that the heads of all deer1 antelopes1 sheep1 goats1 and the like1 should have moderately long necks4 ,having experimented fully with necks of all lengths1 ,i find that the most satisfactory to competent critics1 and therefore the handsomest1 are those which strike a happy medium1 such as the antelope head shown in ,plate ,,xi4 ,to secure this length1 the head should be cut off well back toward the shoulders1 so as to leave a little surplus to be trimmed off when the head is mounted4 ,to ,skin and ,preserve a ,deer ,head1 proceed as follows3 #a4 ,start at the back of the neck 7on top7 just in front of the shoulders1 or withers1 keep the point of the knife under the skin1 with the edge up1 and divide the skin in a circle all the way around the neck1 keeping down to the point where the neck sets on the shoulders4 ,you need not cut through the flesh and bone of the neck at that point4 #b4 ,never slit the skin open along the under side of the throat4 ,cut it open in a straight line along the back of the neck1 all the way along1 up to a point midway between the ears4 ,from that point run two cuts like the arms of a ,y1 one to the base of each antler or horn1 as seen in ,fig4 #g4 ,run the point of the knife close around the base of each antler1 and cut through the skin all the way4 #c4 ,begin at the back of the neck1 and skin downward on each side until the entire neck is free4 ,as you proceed you will presently come to the ear1 which stands up like a tree-trunk covered with bark4 ,cut the ear off close to the skull1 leave it for the present just as it is1 and go right on down toward the cheeks and throat1 as far as you can go4 #d4 ,begin next at the angle of the ,y1 on the top of the head1 and skin down between the antlers and over the forehead until you reach the eye4 ,now proceed carefully4 ,in many ruminants there is a deep cavity in the bone directly in front of the anterior corner of the eye1 called an eye-pit4 ,the skin lines this eye-pit quite down to the bottom4 ,do not cut through the skin1 but get down to the very bottom of the eye-pit1 and detach the skin from the bone4 #e4 ,be careful not to cut the corners of the eye1 or the edge of the eyelid4 ,keep close to the bony orbit1 and insert the end of one finger in the eye from the outside1 to cut against when you sever the thin membrane that surrounds the eyeball4 #f4 ,the nostrils must be cut through so far back from the end of the nose that the cut will not be visible in the open nostril when viewed from in front4 ,the cartilaginous septum that divides the nostrils like a partition wall must be split in two1 edgewise1 from inside1 clear down to the very tip of the nose1 so that all the flesh can be cut away4 ,many a fine head is spoiled by having the flesh left in the end of the nose4 ,it seems all right for a short time1 but when it dries1 it shrinks and shrivels up1 and the nose not only loses all character and beauty1 but becomes an eyesore4 #g4 ,the lips must be cut from the jaw close to the bone1 and afterward slit open along the inside1 laid out flat1 and the flesh pared off carefully with a sharp knife4 ,leave one-half to three-quarters of an inch of the inner skin of the lip all the way around1 so that the form of the lip can be presently reproduced by replacing the flesh with clay4 #h4 ,a deer's ear consists of a big1 leaf-shaped piece of cartilage1 thick at the base and centre1 very thin at the edges and the upper end1 and rolled together on itself at the base to form a half cone1 like a funnel with one side partly cut away4 ,over this sheet of cartilage is stretched the skin1 with no flesh whatever between the two4 ,this cartilage can be completely skinned out and replaced with a leaden imitation4 ,it must be skinned out2 for if it is not done1 the hair will probably all slip off the ear2 but1 even supposing that it does not1 an equally bad thing happens4 ,when the head is mounted and dry1 the ears will begin to shrink and shrivel up like a pair of dry autumn leaves1 and the beauty of the head is gone forever6 ,in skinning out the ear cartilage1 a sharp scalpel of large size1 or a cartilage-knife1 is the best instrument1 and it should be held in the fingers precisely as one holds a pen in writing4 ,a good1 keen pocket-knife is plenty good enough for all emergencies4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--,skinning a ,deer's ,ear4 ,begin at the fleshy base of the ear1 detach the skin from the cartilage by cutting1 and by pulling and pushing the two apart with the thumb and fingers 7,fig4 #cc74 ,of course you must stop at the edge of the cartilage1 and be very careful not to cut through the skin there4 ,keep right on up the back of the ear1 gradually turning the ear wrong side out1 until you reach the tip 7,fig4 #cd74 ,the ear is now wrong side out1 and the skin is detached from the back of the cartilage1 but still adheres on the inside4 ,now begin at the tip1 where the cartilage is thinnest 7,fig4 #ce71 peel it up1 and by the same process as before gradually work the inside skin loose without cutting through the skin at any point1 until it is free quite down to the base of the ear1 so far within that when the skin is cut straight across and turned right side out again1 the point of detachment cannot be seen 7,fig4 #cf74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--,the ,ear ,half-skinned4 ,it is likely that the beginner will find this a difficult operation1 for it really is so until one has done at least one pair of ears4 ,after that1 with a fresh specimen1 the process is simple and easy4 ,save the ear cartilage in your salt-and-alum bath1 for you will need it presently as a model in making a leaden imitation to take its place4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--,skinning down the ,inside4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--,the ,cartilage ,out4 #i4 ,the skin is now off4 ,to preserve it in the field1 first pare away the flesh that may have been left adhering to it1 especially at the lips and end of the nose1 and wash it clean4 ,if you have arsenical soap1 anoint it thoroughly over the inside1 then literally smother it in salt4 ,you need not dry the skin if you have plenty of salt for it4 ,if you have but a limited quantity1 attend to the poisoning to keep off insects1 then rub on as much salt as you have to spare1 hang the skin up in a shady place over a pole1 open it out widely so that the air will circulate freely upon all parts of it1 and let it dry4 ,in a dry climate a skin can be dried in this way and successfully preserved 7temporarily7 even when you have neither poison nor preservative of any kind to put on it2 but it must be watched and guarded with jealous care until you get it safely home1 or in the hands of a taxidermist1 to prevent its being eaten up by insects1 rats1 or dogs4 ,in moist climates1 ground alum is to be used in lieu of salt1 and all skins must be dried unless you have a salt-and-alum bath for them4 ,in preserving heads1 the sportsman will find that ten pounds of salt1 or in the tropics ten pounds of alum1 will go a long ways1 if care is taken to keep a skin open until it is nearly dry4 ,never1 save as a last resort1 dry a skin in the sun1 and never hang one up by the nose4 ,the ,skull4--,of course the skull must always be cleaned and saved1 as directed elsewhere4 ,paring down the skin1 preparatory to mounting4 ,see ,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,work ,,of ,,mounting4--,we will suppose that the head skin has been fully cured or relaxed in the salt-and-alum bath1 pared down quite thin with draw-shave and knife1 the holes have been neatly sewn up1 and the ear cartilages skinned out4 ,we will also suppose that the skull has been cleaned with the knife in the first place1 and afterward boiled and scraped to remove the last vestiges of animal matter4 ,if the skin and skull have been thus attended to1 the mounted head will be clean enough and free enough from all animal odors1 when dry1 to go into my lady's boudoir1 or into the dining-room of the ,white ,house4 ,there are almost as many different methods of mounting mammal heads as there are taxidermists1 but ,i shall describe only my own4 ,i have tried various other methods than that to be described1 but without satisfactory results1 and ,i offer this as being at once the simplest and easiest for the amateur1 as well as the professional worker1 and above all1 the one by which the finest results are obtainable4 ,the operator retains full control of the shape of the specimen almost up to the last moment1 which ,i consider a sine qua non in any method4 ,the method should be your servant1 not your master4 ,judging from the extent to which this method has been adopted among the taxidermists of this country since ,i first described it in a paper read before the ,society of ,american ,taxidermists1 in ,new ,york1 in #ahhc1 it may be considered to possess some merit4 #a4 ,we have before us the clean skull4 ,procure about two pounds of plaster ,paris1 and a piece of board an inch or an inch and a half thick1 three or four inches wide1 and about two feet long4 ,this is to be the neck standard4 ,with the hatchet round off the corners of one end4 ,then1 with a saw and cold chisel1 cut a long1 narrow hole in the base of the skull1 so that the end of the neck standard can pass through it into the brain cavity1 and strike against the top of the skull 7,fig4 #cg74 ,the opening should be cut lengthwise with the skull1 and only just large enough to receive the end of the board comfortably4 ,in case it is desired to have the head turned to one side1 looking to the right or left1 the neck standard must be fitted into the skull accordingly4 ,an iron rod may be used instead of a wooden standard1 if the operator finds it more convenient4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--;,internal ,mechanism of a ,deer ,head4 #b4 ,now place the skull upside down on the table1 with the forehead on a level with the table-top1 and proceed to set one end of the neck standard in the skull4 ,this is done as follows3 ,into about a quart of water1 placed in a basin or large bowl1 sprinkle the plaster ,paris1 a handful at a time1 until the water is filled with it and will take up no more4 ,then stir it thoroughly with a spoon1 and after placing the end of the neck standard in the skull cavity in a perpendicular position1 pour the plaster around the end of it1 filling the brain cavity1 and piling it up on the base of the skull in a copious mass1 so that when it hardens the board will be immovably fixed4 ,the plaster should also fill around the articulations of the lower jaw1 to make that also a fixture in its place4 ,the neck standard should be set at a right angle with the axis of the skull4 ,this may seem strange to you at first1 but you will presently see that the angle is correct4 ,while the plaster is hardening1 which it will do in about twenty minutes1 you must leave the head undisturbed and busy yourself with giving the final touches to the skin1 or to the preparation of some clay and tow for future use4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--;,complete ,manikin for ,deer ,head1 without ,clay ,covering4 #c4 ,when the plaster has fully set1 you are ready to decide upon the length of neck to be shown1 and the general pose of the head4 ,having decided upon the former1 which is a matter of taste1 you can have an assistant hold the side of the neck standard up against the side of a door-post in about the pose you wish it to have1 while you stand off and survey it at a distance1 and change the elevation until it suits you4 ,then1 mark where the neck standard is to be sawn off1 and also the precise angle1 and saw it off4 ,having done this1 have the head held up against the wall as it will be when mounted1 and see that the elevation of the nose is right4 ,if it is too high or too low1 saw off the end of the neck standard at a different angle1 and be sure that the attitude is right before proceeding farther4 #d4 ,the next step is to cut a board to fit into the lower end of the neck4 ,its approximate circumference can be determined by measuring the width and depth of the neck the proper distance down4 ,the shape of the board must be about like that shown in ,fig4 #cg--;a broad oval1 broadest at the top1 or else an ellipse4 ,bevel off the upper and lower ends on opposite sides to match the outline of the neck1 and then screw it firmly to the lower end of the neck standard4 ,it may be necessary to alter the shape of the neck-board a little later on1 which is easily done4 #e4 ,now take some excelsior1 or straw1 or fine1 soft hay1 and build up a false neck of the proper shape and size to fit the skin by placing the material around the neck standard and winding it down with cotton twine 7,fig4 #ch74 ,it is a very pleasing task to form a neck by this easy process1 and impart to it the graceful curves1 the taper1 and flatness near the head so characteristic of the deer4 ,you can show the windpipe and gullet by sewing through the neck from side to side1 and forming a hollow from the corner of the jaw down the side of the neck1 as shown in the figure4 ,you now have the form of the neck wholly under your control1 and your eye and hand will be held accountable for the result4 ,be careful to make the neck much smaller than it is to be when the skin is on4 ,the thick coat of hair makes a vast difference in the size1 and adds perhaps half an inch1 or more1 all around4 ,if you are mounting an old skin that has for years been in a dry state and requires much powerful stretching to bring it out to its proper size1 you will be compelled to stuff the neck with straw in the old way1 so as to put great pressure upon it from within1 and stretch the skin by sheer force4 ,of course you will lose many of the fine points1 but very often a skin is so hard and refractory that it can be mounted in no other way4 ,in working by this method the neck is stuffed from the lower end1 and the neck-board fitted and screwed into place afterward4 #f4 ,make the neck smooth by winding2 make it symmetrical and true to nature1 and try the skin on it occasionally to test the proportions of your manikin4 ,there is to be no stuffing of the neck after the skin is once on1 therefore the manikin must be made correctly4 #g4 ,when the neck is at last finished1 work up about half a pailful of potters' clay until it forms a soft1 sticky paste1 and cover the neck with a coat of it about an eighth of an inch thick1 to insure absolute smoothness4 #h4 ,put a proper quantity of clay on each side of the skull to form the animal's cheeks1 and enough upon the back of the skull1 forehead1 and muzzle to replace the flesh and skin that has been cut away4 ,on no account attempt to stuff a fresh head with tow1 or any fibrous material1 for it is a practical impossibility to keep it from becoming too large4 ,instead of clay you might possibly use papier-mach1 putty1 or plaster ,paris1 if you prefer either2 but clay has many and great advantages over all other materials4 ,plaster ,paris acts too quickly to be of much real use1 putty is greasy and inert1 and papier-mach dries too slowly when underneath a skin4 #i4 ,before putting the skin in place1 sew up whatever rents there may be in it1 and replace the cartilage of the ear with thin sheet lead1 or sheet tin1 cut the proper shape and trimmed down thin at the edges4 ,rub a little clay on the metal to enable the skin to stick to it4 ,sheet lead can be purchased at about #aj cents per pound at almost any large plumbing establishment4 ,the finest material1 however1 and which ,i have used for years1 is pure sheet tin1 which the ,national ,museum procures of ,the ,john ,j4 ,cooke ,co41 ,mulberry ,street1 ,new ,york1 at #bf cents per pound4 ,it is thin1 easily cut and shaped1 and just stiff enough to work perfectly in imitating the shape of an ear cartilage4 ,good1 firm1 card-board can be used for the ears instead of lead1 when you can not get either of the sheet metals4 #aj4 ,anoint the skin copiously with arsenical soap1 give it time to absorb the poison1 then put it in place on the skull and neck1 and adjust it carefully4 ,fasten the lips together at the end of the muzzle by taking a stitch in each and tying the thread4 ,see that the eyes come exactly over the orbits1 and then put two or three tacks through the skin of the forehead1 into the skull1 to hold it in place4 ,sew the skin tightly together around the base of the antlers1 and sew up both arms of the ,y4 #aa4 ,sometimes the skin of the neck is so much stretched that to fill it out would make the neck1 when finished1 entirely too large4 ,in such cases1 with a clay-covered manikin1 it is possible to make a fresh skin contract mechanically by crowding it together in minute wrinkles in order to make an undue fulness disappear4 #ab4 ,before sewing up the skin along the back of the neck1 7which must be done with very strong linen gilling thread1 well waxed to keep it from rotting7 put enough clay at the base of each ear and on the back of the skull to properly form those parts4 ,observe that in a live deer the base of the ear is quite close up to the burr of the antler1 and it also has a peculiar shape1 which should be studied and faithfully reproduced1 but can hardly be described4 #ac4 ,if the manikin is of the right size and shape1 you are now ready to sew up the skin2 nail it fast with small brads around the lower edge of the neck-board1 and trim the surplus off neatly and evenly4 ,screw the head upon a rough shield or piece of board1 so that it will stand alone on your table while you are working at the face4 #ad4 ,unless you have carefully studied a deer's head in the flesh1 or have a cast to work by1 you can not reasonably expect to be able to make the head precisely as it should be4 ,fifteen minutes of close and studious examination and note-taking of a head in the flesh will do for you what my poor pen could not hope to accomplish with ten pages of written matter4 #ae4 ,there yet remains that part of the work which requires the most artistic treatment4 ,in finishing the face1 the first thing is to shape the cheeks1 which is quickly done provided they are filled with precisely the proper quantity of clay4 ,by trial you will find whether more clay must be put in1 or some taken out4 ,after the cheeks1 form the eyebrow1 fill the orbit with clay1 and with a small wire nail fasten the skin down in that deep pit which is found in front of the anterior corner of the eye4 ,press the skin down upon the muzzle1 fill in the lips with clay1 and fold them as they were before skinning4 ,before bringing the lips together1 fill out the nose1 the chin1 and corners of the mouth--but not too full1 however4 ,that done satisfactorily1 bring the lips together as they were in life4 ,no wiring or sewing is necessary1 nor even pinning4 ,it is to be supposed that you have kept the skin of the lower jaw pulled well forward into place1 and if so1 the lips will go together easily and stay there for all time to come4 ,in modeling the end of the nose and the nostrils1 give the latter good depth4 ,make the opening so deep that no one can ever see the bottom of it4 ,no little fault disgusts me more than to see the nostrils of a deer1 buffalo1 or elk all plastered up with putty1 as if the animal had never drawn a breath4 ,make your animal look as if it were breathing1 rather than standing up with rods in its legs1 and its hide full of rubbish4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xi4 ,,head ,,of ,,prong-,,horn ,,antelope4 ,,mounted ,,by ,,the ,,author4 #af4 ,the eyes come next4 ,arrange the lids carefully over the clay1 which nearly fills the orbit1 then insert the glass eye1 7which in every ruminant should have an elongated pupil and white corners71 and work it into its exact position4 ,do not have too much clay behind it1 or it will have a bulging1 overfed1 or choked-to-death expression4 ,do not let it protrude until it could be knocked off the head with a bean-pole1 or lassoed with a grape-vine4 ,keep the eye well down in the orbit1 and the front corner well sunken4 ,an animal's expression depends upon the eye more than any other one thing1 and the expression of the eye is dependent upon the disposition of the eyelid and the line of sight4 ,a good glass eye has just as much power of varied expression as has a living1 naked eyeball--which is no power whatever--unless it be the eyeball of an angry cat4 #ag4 ,see that both eyes look at the same point1 in front1 about eight feet distant2 that precisely the same amount of iris shows in each1 in short1 that both are exactly alike in every respect4 ,a deer should have a mild1 but wide-awake--not staring--expression1 and the attitude should not be unpleasantly strained1 either in the curve of the neck or the carriage of the head4 ,avoid the common error of making a deer's head too proud4 ,no goose-necks or goitre on your deer1 if you please4 ,having finished the eyes and fashioned the nostrils1 cut some pieces of pasteboard1 bend them to the right shape1 and either sew or pin them upon the ears to hold them in precisely the right attitude until they dry4 ,if the ears have lead in them they will support themselves4 ,lastly1 wash the head thoroughly to get all the dirt and clay out of the hair1 and comb it until it lays naturally4 ,now hang the head up in a dry room and leave it for a month1 if possible1 two weeks at all hazards4 ,when quite dry and shrunken1 brush it well1 and rub around the mouth1 nose1 eyes1 and ears with a tooth-brush to remove the last remaining suggestions of clay4 7,see chapter on ,finishing ,mounted ,mammals474 ,paint the end of the nose and edges of the eyelids with vandyke brown and black1 using oil colors4 ,the hairless parts of the lips are entirely concealed1 consequently there is no painting to be done around the mouth unless the shrinkage has slightly parted the lips4 ,if this has occurred put some black paint in the crack4 ,by all means mount a handsome head upon a rich and handsome shield4 ,tastes differ widely1 but for my part ,i dislike a thin1 light shield1 and one not nicely finished is also an eyesore4 ,the wood should be of a color that will harmonize best with the color of the head upon it4 ,the finest shields are made of cherry ebonized1 or red-wood1 black walnut1 oak1 mahogany1 or maple1 and highly polished4 ,the best shape for a shield is such as that seen behind the caribou head in ,plate ,,xvi4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,facial ,,expression ,,and ,,mouth ,,modeling4 ,we have now reached one of the most interesting features of all taxidermic work4 ,there is no royal road to success in this direction1 nor aught else that leads thither save hard study1 hard work1 and an artistic sense of the eternal fitness of things4 ,the large ,felid 7tiger1 lion1 leopard1 etc47 are the finest subjects for the taxidermist that the whole animal kingdom can produce4 ,they offer the finest opportunities for the development of muscular anatomy1 and the expression of the various higher passions4 ,the best that ,i can do with the space at my disposal for this subject is to offer the reader a few hints on how to produce certain expressions1 illustrated by an accurate drawing from one of my mounted specimens4 ,in the first place1 strive to catch the spirit of your subject4 ,it frequently happens that the attitude desired for a feline or other carnivorous animal is one expressive of anger1 rage1 or defiance4 ,for a single specimen1 the most striking attitude possible is that of a beast at bay4 ,unless a carnivorous animal is to be represented in the act of seizing something1 the mouth should not be opened very wide4 ,it is a common fault with taxidermists to open the jaws of such an animal too widely1 so that the effect striven for is lost1 and the animal seems to be yawning prodigiously1 instead of snarling4 ,open the jaws a moderate distance1 indicating a readiness to open wider without an instant's warning4 ,the thick1 fleshy part of the upper lip is lifted up to clear the teeth for action1 and the mustached portion is bunched up until it shows two or three curving wrinkles1 with the middle of the curve upward4 ,this crowds the nostril opening together1 and changes its shape very materially4 ,in most carnivora1 but most strikingly so in bears1 the end of the lower lip falls away slightly from the lower incisors4 ,in old lions and tigers the face wrinkles pretty much all over1 especially across the nose and under the eyes4 ,in all the ,felid the opening of the eye changes most strikingly4 ,when angry1 the eye of a ruminant animal opens its widest1 and shows portions of the eyeball that are never seen otherwise4 ,in the carnivora1 the reverse is the case4 ,as if to protect the eye from being clawed or bitten1 the upper eyelid is drawn well down over the ball1 as seen in ,plate ,i4 7,frontispiece71 and the eyebrows are bunched up and drawn near together until the scowl becomes frightful4 ,the decks are further cleared for action in the disposition of the ears4 ,instead of leaving them up ready to be bitten off1 they are unshipped1 and laid back as far as possible1 close down upon the neck1 and out of harm's way4 ,the tongue also pulls itself together1 contracts in the middle1 curves up at the edges1 and makes ready to retire farther back between the jaws at the instant of seizure4 ,all this time the body is not by any means standing idly and peacefully at ease4 ,the attitude must match the expression of the face1 or the tragedy becomes a farce4 ,the body must stand firmly on its legs1 alert1 ready either to attack or defend1 head turned1 body slightly bent1 or slightly crouching1 and1 unless the animal is walking1 with the tail switching nervously from side to side4 ,if the animal is walking forward1 the tail should be held still and in the same vertical plane as the body4 ,the finest attitude for a large carnivore is one which represents it at bay1 and awaiting attack4 ,a cat is an animal of a thousand attitudes4 ,very many of them1 if reproduced exactly in a mounted specimen1 would look very uncouth and devoid of beauty2 therefore1 choose those which are at once characteristic and pleasing to the eye4 ,,modeling ,,an ,,open ,,mouth4--,in mounting a feline animal with mouth open and teeth showing1 beware what you do1 or you will make the animal laughing instead of snarling4 ,this is often done6 ,in fact1 in my younger days ,i did it once myself--but without any extra charge4 ,in modeling an open mouth1 first fill the inside of the lips with clay1 and also back them up underneath with clay until the lips1 when fixed in position1 have the expression desired4 ,the inner edge of the hairless portion of the lower lip should fit up close against the jaw bone1 and perhaps be tacked down upon it temporarily4 ,very often it is necessary to hold the lips in position1 while drying1 by sewing through the edges and passing the thread across the jaws from side to side4 ,the skin of the nose must be fully backed up with clay1 so that no hollows are left into which the skin can shrink away in drying4 ,it is often desirable to hold the end of the lower lip up to its place1 while drying1 by driving a small wire nail through it into the bone4 ,do not fill the mouth full of clay1 for it must be borne in mind that the final modeling of the soft parts of the mouth must be done in papier-mach4 ,it is no small task to dig out of a mouth a quantity of clay and tow after it has become hard2 therefore1 leave a place for the tongue4 ,illustration3 ,modeling ,tools of ,wood4 ,a head must be thoroughly dry and shrunken before the mouth can be finished and made permanent4 ,in drying1 the lips draw away from the gums somewhat1 which is just as it should be4 ,the first step is to clear away the dry clay from around the teeth and lips1 and get everything clean and ready for the mach4 ,then make some fine papier-mach1 as described elsewhere1 that is sticky enough to adhere firmly to smooth bone1 and of such consistency that it works well in modeling4 ,with this1 and your modeling spatulas and other tools of steel1 zinc1 or hard wood 7see ,figs4 #ci-dd71 cover the jaw bones to replace the fleshy gums1 and fill up to the edges of the lips so that they seem to be attached to the gums as in life4 ,coat the roof of the mouth1 and model its surface into the same peculiar corrugations that you saw in the mouth immediately after death4 ,this is slow work4 ,it requires a good eye1 a skilful1 artistic touch1 and unlimited patience4 ,if you are an artist1 prove it now by the fidelity with which you copy nature in this really difficult work4 ,in modeling the surface of papier-mach1 you must have a clean1 well-polished modeling-tool1 like ,fig4 #db1 and by wetting it now and then so that it will slip over the surface1 your work can be made very smooth4 ,next comes the tongue4 ,the only perfect tongue for a feline animal is a natural tongue1 skinned1 and stuffed with clay4 ,the papill on the tongue of a lion1 tiger1 leopard1 or puma simply defy imitation1 and after many experiments with many different animals ,i found that with the real tongue1 and with that only1 one can reproduce nature itself and defy criticism4 ,of course1 this is possible only when you have the animal in the flesh1 and can cut out the tongue and preserve it in alcohol until you are ready to mount it4 ,illustration3 ,modeling ,tools of ,steel4 ,to prepare a tiger's tongue1 for example1 first preserve the whole tongue in alcohol1 for safe keeping4 ,when ready to proceed1 slit it open lengthwise underneath1 and skin it carefully4 ,take a piece of sheet lead1 cut it and hammer it into the right size and shape1 and fit it in the mouth as nearly as possible in the shape the finished tongue is to have4 ,by judicious hammering with the round end of a machinist's hammer you can give it any shape you desire4 ,when it is just right1 cover it with clay to replace the flesh of the tongue1 treat the skin with arsenical soap1 put it over1 and sew it up4 ,now fit the tongue into the mouth1 and by pressure with the fingers change its shape wherever necessary in order to make it fit exactly as you wish to have it4 ,when finished1 lay it aside to dry4 ,the accompanying figures were drawn from the finished tongue of the tiger represented in ,plate ,i41 where it is seen in place4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4--,side ,view of ,tiger's ,tongue4 ,when the tongue is dry it must be painted with oil colors1 using a little turpentine so that the surface shall not be too glossy1 nor have a varnished look4 ,vermilion and white are the best colors to use1 and above all do not make the tongue or lips look like pink candy1 or red flannel1 or red sealing-wax4 ,call up the household cat at an early stage of the proceedings1 and use her mouth as a model1 whether she will or no4 ,a patient old tabby is an invaluable ally in the mounting of feline animals of all sorts1 and ,towser will also help you out with your ,canid4 ,when modeling the mouth or muscles of a gorilla or orang utan1 catch the first amateur taxidermist you can lay your hands on--the wilder and greener the better--and use him as your model4 ,study him1 for he is fearfully and wonderfully made4 ,the way some of my good-natured colleagues used to pose for me as 7partly7 nude models at ,ward's1 when ,i once had a ten-months' siege with orangs1 gorillas1 and chimpanzees1 was a constant source of wonder and delight to the ribald crew of osteologists who knew nothing of high art4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4--;,end ,view4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--,tiger's ,tongue1 ,top ,view4 ,fortunately the tongues of most large mammals are smooth1 and are easily reproduced by using the same leaden core as described above1 and covering it first with papier-mach1 drying it1 and coating with tinted wax1 laid on hot with a small flat paint-brush called a fitch4 ,with small specimens it is not necessary to make the tongue as a separate piece1 or put a leaden core in it4 ,fill into the mouth a sufficient quantity of papier-mach1 pack it down1 and then proceed to model the surface of it into a tongue1 shaped to suit the subject4 ,such a tongue is1 of course1 a fixture in the mouth4 ,cleaning ,teeth4--,before finishing a mouth with wax1 the teeth must be washed clean with a stiff brush4 ,if they will not come out white enough to suit you1 wash them with a solution of two parts muriatic acid and one part water1 applied with a tooth-brush if possible4 ,let it stay on the teeth about a quarter of a minute1 when it must be washed off with an abundance of clear water4 ,if the acid stays on too long1 it will destroy the entire outer surface 7enamel7 of the teeth4 ,waxing a ,mouth4--,of course it will answer1 and sometimes quite well enough1 perhaps1 when a mouth has been handsomely and smoothly modeled in fine papier-mach1 to sand-paper it and paint it over when dry with two or three coats of oil color4 ,you can hardly do otherwise1 in fact1 when you are not prepared to work with wax4 ,but the really fine way1 however1 is to coat your dry papier-mach with tinted wax as follows3 ,procure from the nearest dealer in artists' materials some cakes of white wax4 ,you must also have a small oil or gas stove1 or a spirit-lamp1 and rig above it a wire frame on which you can set your wax cup4 ,the wax cups should be small1 and made of pressed tin1 so that they contain no soldered joints4 ,the wax is to be applied hot1 or at least quite warm1 for bear in mind that if you heat your wax too hot it changes its color quite perceptibly1 and makes it dark and yellow4 ,wax should always be clear and transparent1 and when the excess of heat turns it yellow1 throw it away4 ,regulate the heat carefully1 so as to make it gentle4 ,melt a small portion of a cake of wax in one of your clean tin cups1 and if it is the tongue1 roof of the mouth or gums1 that you have to cover1 color the wax a delicate flesh tint by putting into it a very little vermilion1 or other suitable color1 from your ,windsor ,newton oil-color tube4 ,oil colors mix very well with hot wax2 but in using it1 it is necessary to keep the wax well stirred with the brush1 or the color will settle to the bottom4 ,take a clean1 dry bristle brush1 of the right size 7the flat brushes are always best for wax71 with a good1 compact point1 dip it into the hot wax1 stir from the bottom1 and then1 before the wax on your brush has even two seconds in which to get cool1 apply it to the surface to be covered1 with a quick1 dextrous touch1 sweeping it on broadly to keep it from piling up and making the surface rough4 ,this wax business requires genuine skill1 and1 after beginning1 one must not be discouraged because it does not go right at first1 but try1 try again4 ,after your hand has acquired the trick1 the beauty of the results will amply repay your labor4 ,it is very difficult to change the surface of a coat of wax after it is once on2 therefore try to get it right with the brush4 ,of course1 if the color or surface does not suit you1 scrape it all off1 and to 't again4 ,to treat the roof of the mouth1 the specimen must be turned upside down4 ,at the point where the black lip joins the pink gums1 the two colors can be nicely blended by letting the last layers of pink wax lap over a trifle1 upon the black1 so that the latter will show through the former here and there1 and give the line of demarcation a mottled appearance1 with the two colors thus blended together4 ,much can be done by taking advantage of the transparency of thin layers of wax when its color is light4 ,after the wax has cooled1 something can be done to smooth the surface1 and give it a very shiny appearance1 by carefully scraping the surface over smoothly with the edge of a knife1 or a sharp bone-scraper4 ,the latter tool will be found of great value in modeling a mouth in papier-mach1 and also in trimming up the wax after it has been applied4 ,cleaning ,glass ,eyes4--,always have the glass eyes of a finished specimen faultlessly clean and well-polished1 to give the brilliancy of life4 ,if paint gets on the glass1 remove it with a drop of turpentine1 and polish afterward with a bit of cotton cloth4 ,some of the old-fashioned taxidermists have the habit of smearing a lot of nasty lamp-black in the eyes of every mounted mammal1 for what purpose no one knows--but possibly in imitation of actresses1 some of whom have the same unaccountable trick1 and a hideous one it is in its results1 in both cases4 ,there is only one point in its favor--it is the easiest way in the world to give an animal a black eye4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,relaxing ,,dry ,,skins ,,of ,,birds4 ,as usual with most processes in taxidermy1 there are several ways in which a dry bird skin may be softened1 and made ready to mount or make over4 ,i will first describe the one ,i consider the best in all respects4 ,,treatment ,,of ,,small ,,skins4--,open the skin and remove the filling from the body1 neck1 and head4 ,tear some old cotton cloth into strips from one to two inches wide1 wet them in warm water and wrap one around each leg and foot until it is completely covered with several thicknesses of the wet cloth4 ,lift up the wing and put two or three thicknesses of wet cloth1 or else thoroughly wet cotton batting1 around the carpal joints1 and also between the wing and the body4 ,put some more wet cotton1 or rags1 inside the skin1 in the body and neck1 wrap the whole specimen completely in several thicknesses of wet cloth1 so as to exclude the air1 and lay it aside4 ,if the skin is no larger than a robin1 in about twelve to fourteen hours it will be soft enough to mount4 ,the scraping and cleaning will be considered later4 ,,treatment ,,of ,,large ,,skins4--,under this heading it is necessary to place nearly all birds above the size of a robin1 for the reason that the legs and feet1 being large and thick in comparison with the skin of the body1 require special treatment in advance4 ,the legs and wings of some birds require several days' soaking1 and were the thin skin of the body to be relaxed for the same length of time1 it would macerate1 and the feathers would fall off4 ,the legs and wings of large birds must1 therefore1 be started first in the relaxing process4 ,let us take1 for example1 the skin of a ruffed grouse 7,bonasa umbellus74 ,if the skin is an old one1 cover the toe-nails and beak with hot wax1 or else by much soaking the horny sheaths will flake off4 ,wrap the feet and legs with wet cloths1 as described above1 and let the skin lie without any other wrapping for one day4 ,by the end of that time the joints can be bent somewhat1 and they should be manipulated until they bend easily4 ,when they will do this1 put wet cloths around the joints of the wings1 under the wings1 inside of the body and the neck1 and wrap the whole skin in a wet cloth of the proper size4 ,by the end of the second day the entire skin will be soft and pliable1 and smelling like an ,african shanty--damp and musty4 ,of course the larger the skin the longer it will take to completely relax4 ,sometimes the wings of very large birds require soaking half as long as the legs1 but care must be exercised not to soak any feathered parts too long1 or the feathers are liable to fall out and cause trouble4 ,by this process skins may be softened and made ready to mount1 according to their size1 as follows3 ,wren to robin1 in twelve to fourteen hours2 ruffed grouse1 two days2 great blue heron1 three days2 bald eagle1 four days2 condor1 five days2 ostrich1 six to seven days4 ,skins which are less than one year old soften in about half the time they would require if five years old1 and if properly made in the first place1 will make as handsome mounted specimens as would fresh skins4 ,,wet ,,sand4--,some taxidermists soften dry bird skins by burying them in wet sand after the legs and wings have been relaxed in the way already described4 ,i have tried it occasionally with small skins1 and found that the results were quite satisfactory4 ,a ,,good ,,sweat-,,box4--,professor ,l4,l4 ,dyche1 of the ,university of ,kansas1 described to me a sweat-box which he has used1 and which is certainly a good one for the creation of a damp atmosphere for the softening of skins1 and also to keep half-finished birds in over night1 to prevent them from drying up4 ,what a deal of trouble the bird taxidermists of my acquaintance might have saved themselves during the last ten years had they known of1 or devised1 this simple but perfect contrivance4 ,it is made by selecting a wooden box1 of the right size to suit1 providing a hinged cover1 and coating the entire inside with plaster ,paris an inch or so in thickness4 ,to make use of it1 it is filled with water and allowed to stand until the plaster lining has soaked full1 when the rest of the water is emptied out4 ,if a layer of wet sand is spread over the bottom1 the saturation of the air inside the box1 when closed1 will be still more complete4 ,a ,,heroic ,,method ,,of ,,relaxation4--,mr4 ,william ,brewster thus describes ,a ,new ,wrinkle in ,taxidermy1 in ,messrs4 ,southwick ,jencks' ,random ,notes1 vol4 ii41 ,no4 #a3 ,wishing to turn a mounted bird into a skin1 and having but a limited time to devote to the task1 ,i tried an experiment4 ,taking a funnel1 and inserting the pointed end in the stuffing between the edges of the skin on the abdomen1 ,i poured in a quantity of hot water 7nearly boiling hot7 taking care to regulate the injection so that it should be rather slowly absorbed by the stuffing1 and holding the bird at various angles1 that every portion of the anterior might become soaked4 ,the effect was magical2 the skin quickly relaxed1 and within fifteen minutes ,i could bend the neck and make other required changes without any risk of a break4 ,my first experiment was with a gull2 afterward ,i tried other birds1 both large and small1 with equal success4 ,i found also that the plan worked equally well with skins which had been overstuffed1 or otherwise badly made4 ,in a very few minutes they would become nearly as tractable as when freshly taken from the birds1 and much more so than ,i have ever succeeded in making them by the use of a damping-box4 ,the only difficulty experienced was that the water1 especially if turned in too fast1 would escape through shot-holes and other rents in the skin1 thus wetting the plumage in places4 ,of course1 after the required improvements or changes have been made1 the stuffing is so thoroughly saturated that the skin must be placed in a very warm place to dry4 ,i dried mine most successfully by placing them on a furnace register1 and leaving them exposed to the full blast of heat for several days4 ,,scraping ,,and ,,cleaning ,,relaxed ,,skins4--,after a dry bird skin has been softened1 it then remains to scrape it clean and manipulate it all over to get it into thoroughly elastic working order1 as soft and pliable 7if possible7 as when first taken off4 ,small skins should be scraped with the round end of a small bone-scraper1 which has a sharp chisel edge1 but the large ones must be scraped with a small-toothed skin-scraper such as is used on small mammals4 ,of the many thousand species of recent birds1 only the ostriches1 penguins1 and a few others have the feathers distributed evenly over the whole body4 ,in all the ,euornithes they are arranged in regular patches or groups1 called pteryl1 between which lie the naked or downy spaces1 called apteria4 ,in thin-skinned birds it is the pteryl that need to be attacked with the scraper1 and so scraped and stretched and pulled apart that the skin widens1 and each feather is free1 as in life1 to move on its own root independently1 and take whatever position it should have on the mounted bird4 ,turn the skin completely wrong side out1 scrape it all over1 and get every part fully relaxed1 and into thorough working order4 ,large birds1 or birds with thick1 fat skins1 require plenty of work to get out all the grease1 and get the wings1 legs1 and head into a thorough state of collapse4 ,in large1 long-legged birds1 the tendons must be removed from the leg1 the same as if the specimen were a fresh one1 for otherwise the wire may split the skin of the tarsus wide open1 and make a very bad and unsightly turn at the heel besides4 ,it is a difficult task to remove the tendon from the leg of an old1 dry heron or crane1 but it must be done4 ,damaged ,skins4--,it not infrequently happens that in cleaning and scraping a rare and valuable old skin it proves to be burnt with grease1 and goes to pieces like so much brown paper4 ,now is the winter of our discontent4 ,if the skin is not torn too badly it may be lined with thin cotton or linen cloth1 which must be cut and fitted within1 and sewed fast to the skin all over4 ,this plan1 though rather tedious to work out1 develops admirably when determinedly and carefully pursued4 ,if the skin goes all to pieces1 a manikin must be made1 and the pieces glued upon it1 one by one1 beginning at the tail1--a process which is so simple it is unnecessary to describe it in detail4 ,in ,fig4 #ej is seen a manikin all ready to receive its feathers1 wings1 and head4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xii4 ,,workshop ,,of ,a ,,bird ,,taxidermist4 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,mounting ,,small ,,birds4 ,we will suppose that the skin of a small bird--a robin1 blackbird1 or thrush--now lies on the table before us all ready for mounting4 ,perhaps it is a dry skin which has been thoroughly relaxed1 scraped1 and worked into pliant shape2 but1 for the sake of the beginner1 we will assume that it is a fresh skin which has just been taken off1 poisoned1 and turned right side out again1 in accordance with the directions for skinning small birds which have been given in ,chapter ,,vi4 ,the body of the bird lies before you1 and instead of making up the subject as a dry skin1 we will mount it4 ,in mounting small birds the following tools are absolutely necessary to the production of good results3 ,a pair of flat-nosed pliers six inches long1 for bending and clinching wires1 price sixty cents2 a pair of six-inch cutting pliers1 for cutting wire1 eighty-five cents2 a pair of bird-stuffer's forceps1 four to six inch1 price twenty to seventy-five cents2 a nine-inch flat file1 twenty-two cents4 ,make for yourself a stuffing-rod1 by taking a piece of stiff brass or iron wire1 a little larger and longer than a knitting-needle1 hammering one end flat1 with a slight upward curve1 and inserting the other in an awl-handle4 ,of materials you will need some excelsior2 some clean1 fine tow2 a little putty or potter's clay2 a spool of cotton thread1 ,no4 #dj1 and some suitable glass eyes4 ,with our tools and materials ready at hand1 and the skin of our bird lying before us right side out1 we are ready to begin a new operation1--mounting4 ,for a bird the size of a robin or cat-bird1 cut two pieces of ,no4 #ah soft or annealed iron wire 7hard wire heated red hot and allowed to cool slowly71 each three times the length of the bird's legs1 from foot to end of long leg-bone1 or tarsus4 ,file one end of each wire to a slender and very sharp point1 and rub a little oil or grease on each so that it will easily slip when inside the leg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--,wiring a ,bird's ,leg4 ,now take one of the bird's legs between the thumb and finger of the left hand1 holding it at the foot with the back part uppermost1 and with the other hand enter the point of one of the sharpened wires at the centre of foot1 push the wire up the back of the leg and over the heel until the point reaches to where the leg has been skinned4 ,be sure that you do not run the wire up the side of the leg1 either at foot or knee1 for if you do it will show badly when the bird is dry4 ,also be careful not to run the sharpened wire out through the skin just above the heel4 ,to avoid this1 grasp the leg at the heel between the thumb and middle finger of left hand1 and by strong upward pressure of the first finger under the end of the leg-bone1 and of the fourth finger under the foot1 both joints of the leg can be held exactly in line until the wire passes the heel safely and enters the open skin above 7,fig4 #dh74 ,then we turn back the skin of the leg till we see the point of the wire1 after which we push the wire on up until the point passes the end of the leg bone4 ,we now cut off the thick upper end of this bone1 7the tibia71 and wrap a little fine tow smoothly around the bone and the wire1 to replace the flesh cut away4 ,the other leg must1 of course1 be similarly treated4 ,we are now ready to make the body4 ,we have kept the body of our specimen for reference1 and now we measure the length of both body and neck1 cut another wire not quite twice their length and file it sharp at both ends4 ,this will be the neck-wire4 ,now take a handful of excelsior 7tow or oakum will also serve71 compress it into an egg-shaped ball--smaller and more pointed at one end than the other1 and wrap a very little fine tow loosely around it1 to make it smooth on the outside when finished4 ,now wind stout linen thread around it1 shaping it all the time by pressing it between your left thumb and forefinger1 until at last you have a firm body1 smoothly wound1 of the same general shape and size as the natural one4 ,when the body is half made you may run the neck-wire through it lengthwise1 letting it come out above the centre of the larger end1 because the neck is but a continuation of the backbone1 which lies at the top of the body4 ,when the wire is inserted1 the upper side of the body--the back--must be pinched together and made more narrow than the breast1 which is round and full4 ,be sure that the body is not too large4 ,better have it too small and too short than too large or long1 for the former can be remedied later on by filling out4 ,when the body is finished1 bend up the end of the neck wire for an inch and a half at the lower end of the body1 enter the point in the lower part of the body and force it down and backward until the end is firmly clinched and will forever remain so1 no matter what is done with the other end4 ,make the neck by wrapping fine1 soft tow smoothly and evenly around the neck wire from the body upward for the proper distance4 ,make the false neck a trifle larger than the real one1 but no longer4 ,the body is now ready for insertion4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4--;,cross ,section of ,body4 ,the next step is to take a thread and tie the elbows together1 fastening to each humerus just above the elbow-joint4 ,now take the false body in the right hand1 open the skin1 introduce the sharp end of the neck-wire into the neck skin1 force the wire through the top of the skull in the centre1 and push it through until the neck and body come nicely into place4 ,now see whether the body is of the right size4 ,it should not be so large as to fill the skin precisely1 for if so it is too large4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--,the ,finished ,body and ,neck1 with ,legs in ,position4 ,we must now fasten the legs to the body1 and will take the left one first4 ,the leg is still perfectly straight4 ,hold the lower part firmly between the thumb and finger1 grasp the leg-wire1 push it on through the leg and enter the sharp point at about the centre of the left side of the false body1 and slanting a little forward4 7,see ,fig4 #ea47 ,now push the wire through the body until it projects more than twice the thickness of the body on the right side4 ,bend the end of the wire until it forms a hook1 with the point just touching the body4 ,now pull the wire back until the point is again forced through and out on the left side for half an inch1 which is then bent down and forced firmly into the excelsior1 and securely clinched4 ,wire both legs in this way1 and the bird will be so firmly put together it would be almost impossible to pull it asunder4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--;,how the ,leg ,wires are ,inserted and ,clinched in the ,false ,body4 ,the legs move freely up and down the leg-wires4 ,push them up toward the body until the heels are in precisely the same places they were before you skinned the bird--almost hidden in the feathers at a point about opposite the middle of the bird's wing4 ,now bend the legs forward at a proper angle 7see a living bird or a good picture7 and push some finely cut tow down on each side of the body to fill out the place of the thighs4 ,insert a little more cut tow1 evenly distributed1 in the breast1 where the crop would properly be1 and some more at the base of the tail4 ,be sure there are no lumps or wrongly placed masses of chopped tow anywhere in the skin1 for if there are any you can not expect to get a smooth and well-shaped bird4 ,now take a needle and thread1 begin at the upper end of the opening in the bird--on the breast1--and with careful fingers sew the skin together without tearing it or catching the feathers fast4 ,fill in a little tow1 if necessary1 as you proceed1 but not enough to fill the skin hard and full1 and when you reach the lower end of the cut draw the skin of the tail sharply forward for half an inch to take up what it has lengthened by stretching1 and sew it fast by several long cross-stitches4 ,at the last moment fill in a little more tow at the base of the tail1 sew up the opening1 and cut off the thread4 ,the most difficult part of the whole operation is now before us4 ,it now remains to put the specimen on a perch1 pin the wings fast to the body1 adjust the feathers and wind them down1 stuff the head1 pin the tail1 and put in the eyes4 ,with a piece of pine board four inches square1 and two round pine sticks1 each about three inches long1 make a rough ,t perch1 similar to the one standing vacant on the table in ,plate ,,xii4 ,the cross-piece should not be too large for the bird's feet to grasp comfortably4 ,with a small gimlet1 or awl1 bore two holes in the cross-bar1 on a slant1 about an inch apart1 run the leg-wires through them1 perch the bird naturally1 and twist the wires together once underneath1 to hold it firmly4 ,study a living bird or a good picture1 and give your specimen a correct and natural attitude4 ,cut a piece of wire five inches long1 sharpen one end1 bend it into a ,t shape1 as in ,fig4 #ej1 and run the sharp end through the base of the tail underneath1 and on up into the body4 ,the tail feathers are to rest on and be evenly supported by the cross part at the lower end1 which may be either straight or curved1 as occasion requires4 ,with the small forceps1 plume and dress the feathers all over the bird1 catching them near the root1 a bunch at a time1 and pulling them into place where necessary4 ,work them against the grain by lifting them up and letting them fall back into place4 ,it will be a great help if you can at this stage procure a dead bird of the same kind to examine1 and see precisely how the feathers lie4 ,one such specimen will aid you more than pages of description4 ,it often happens that the back1 breast1 or side of the bird is not quite full enough at some point1 or1 in other words1 is too hollow4 ,now is the time to remedy such defects4 ,lift the wing and cut a slit lengthwise in the skin of the body underneath it1 and through this opening insert fine clipped tow wherever needed4 ,the forceps is the best instrument to use in doing this4 ,the opening under the wing is of great importance1 for it gives you command of one entire side of the bird's body4 ,you can by means of this hole fill out the back1 breast1 or shoulders1 if not full enough1 and make other important changes in the bird's form4 ,there is no need to sew up the opening when you have finished1 for when the wing is pinned in place it will be entirely hidden4 ,the wings must be fastened to the body before the feathers can be fully adjusted4 ,cut six small wires1 each two inches long1 and sharpen at one end4 ,let us wire the left wing first4 ,hold it between the left thumb and forefinger1 and with the right hand push the point of one of the small wires through the angle of the wing1 commonly called the shoulder4 ,when the point is well through1 hold the wing in place against the body1 adjust it with great care1 and when you see that the feathers of the shoulder fall properly over the angle of the wing1 push the wire through into the excelsior body until it holds firmly4 ,push another wire through at the base of the large quills 7primaries71 and another through the upper part of the wing1 just below where it leaves the body4 ,these wires are well shown in ,fig4 #eb4 ,the wing now fits closely against the body1 and the feathers fall over it smoothly1 so as to completely cover the upper part of it4 ,wire the other wing in the same way1 taking great care that one is not placed farther ahead than the other1 nor farther up or down on the body4 ,the tips of the wings should touch each other exactly at the point4 ,look at your bird from all sides before finally securing the second wing4 ,with the wings firmly wired and the feathers nicely adjusted1 we next proceed to stuff the head4 ,with the scissors cut up some fine tow or cotton1 and by inserting it through the mouth with the forceps1 a pinch at a time1 fill out around the back and sides of the head1 the upper part of the neck and the throat4 ,do not fill the skin too full1 and take care that both sides of the head are precisely the same shape and size4 ,take plenty of time and do your work nicely4 ,when the head has been properly filled out1 fill in each eye-socket with a little soft clay or putty1 insert the glass eyes1 and embed them in it4 ,study the eyes of your dead bird1 and imitate their appearance and position with those of your mounted specimen4 ,it is a good plan to put a drop of mucilage around the inside of each eyelid and thus gum it down upon the glass eye4 ,be sure that the eyes are exactly opposite one another1 and that one is not higher nor farther back than the other4 ,fasten the mandibles together by thrusting a pin up through the lower mandible into the skull1 or else by passing a pin through the upper mandible at the nostrils and tying around the bill behind it with a thread4 ,it now remains to wind down the feathers with thread to give the bird the exact outline we desire1 and to make the feathers lie smoothly4 ,attend to this with the closest attention and care1 for on the success of this process depends the smoothness of your specimen when finished4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--,the ,winding of the ,bird4 ,the best method of winding ever known is that developed and practised by ,mr4 ,f4,s4 ,webster1 whose wonderful skill in the treatment of birds is already widely known4 ,his birds are marvels of smoothness and symmetry1 and ,i take great pleasure in describing his method of winding as the best known4 ,first make six hook-wires by filing six pieces of wire1 each two inches long1 to a sharp point at one end1 and bending the other with the pliers in the form of a double hook4 7,see ,fig4 #eb47 ,insert three of these in a line along the middle of the back1 and two along the middle of the breast1 as seen in the cut4 ,the wing-wires are not to be cut off1 but left sticking out for half an inch4 ,the bird is now divided into equal halves1 and there are three wing-wires on each side1 so that it will not be very difficult to wind both sides alike4 ,now take a spool of white thread1 ,no4 #dj1 fasten the end to the hook-wire on the top of the back2 take the base of the pedestal in the left hand and proceed to wind down the feathers4 ,by means of the hook-wires you can wind from point to point at will1 so as to bind down the feathers where they lie too high1 and skip them entirely where they lie low enough4 ,get the general outline of the bird first1 and apply the thread with a light and skilful touch1 so that it will not make creases in the bird4 ,a little practice will enable one to wind a bird with gratifying success4 ,the next thing is to spread the feathers of the tail evenly1 and pin them between two strips of thin card-board placed crosswise to hold the feathers in position until they dry4 ,lastly1 adjust the toes so that they grasp the perch properly1 and set the specimen away to dry where it will not be touched4 ,in about two or three weeks1 when it is thoroughly dry1 cut the threads off with a pair of scissors1 pull out the hook-wires1 cut off the projecting ends of the wing-wires close down to the wing1 and cut off the wire at the top of the head close down into the feathers4 ,mix a little varnish and turpentine together in equal parts1 and with a paint-brush paint the feet and bill in case they happen to require it4 ,clean the eyes and rub them until they shine4 ,you can perch the specimen now permanently on the artificial twig1 turned ,t perch1 or natural twig1 or whatever else you have had in mind4 ,in doing this1 clinch the leg-wires together underneath the perch1 and cut off the ends so that no portion of the wire will show4 ,be neat in everything1 and study to make the bird look alive4 ,do not be discouraged if your first bird is a dead failure1 nor even if your first dozen birds are fit only for immediate destruction4 ,if you get discouraged because your first attempt at anything is not a complete success1 you are not fit to succeed4 ,better never begin than stop short of success4 ,if you have a love for taxidermy1 and the patience and perseverance to back it up1 you are bound to succeed4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,mounting ,,large ,,birds4 ,after all that has been said in regard to mounting small birds1 and relaxing and cleaning dry bird skins1 there remains but little to add on the subject of bird-mounting1 and that little relates to large birds4 ,for all birds1 up to the emu and ostrich1 the principles remain about the same as those illustrated in the mounting of a robin4 ,moreover1 the mounting of birds is now so generally understood it is unnecessary to dwell at great length on this subject4 ,professor ,l4,l4 ,dyche has called my attention to the great desirability of taking a series of measurements of every large bird before it is skinned1 and another series of the skinned body1 as a check on possible errors in making the false body and in mounting4 ,the idea is a good one1 and the following are the measurements that should be taken3 ,,before ,,skinning4--,total length2 distance from angle of wing at the carpal joint to the eye2 distance from the end of the closed wing to the tip of the tail2 distance from the base of the middle toe to the carpal joint of the wing4 ,,measurements ,,of ,,the ,,skinned ,,carcass4--,length of the body2 length of the neck2 circumference of the body around the breast2 circumference around the abdomen4 ,the notes should also state whether the body and the neck are respectively round or flat4 ,,the ,,false ,,body4--,in starting out to make a body for a large bird1 particularly one with a long neck1 take a piece of wood about the size of a large ear of corn1 and much the same shape1 through one end of which pass one end of the neck-wire and firmly staple it down4 ,the purpose of this is to give the firmest attachment possible for the neck4 ,the false body is then made by firmly winding successive layers or bunches of excelsior or straw upon this wooden core1 and binding each successive layer down with fine twine from start to finish1 so that the finished body shall be firm enough4 ,if the false body is not made hard enough1 the leg-wires can not be firmly fastened1 and the bird will wabble4 ,if you have the fleshy body before you1 or even the measurements of it1 it will be easy enough to reproduce its form and size4 ,it is desirable to copy the form of the natural body as closely as possible1 which in many cases necessitates the use of a long needle to sew through and through it1 in reproducing certain hollows and corresponding elevations4 ,professor ,dyche lays great stress upon this point1 and always makes the false body of a bird with such care and attention to every detail of form that when the skin is put over it it fits perfectly1 the feathers fall into position and lie properly1 no extra filling being necessary anywhere save at the tail2 and1 what is more1 he considers that it is unnecessary to wind down the plumage with thread4 ,the most life-like snowy owl ,i have ever seen is one which ,professor ,dyche mounted for me as a practical demonstration of his method1 the virtue of which was thus handsomely proven4 ,the skin was the same as a fresh one1 having been made less than a year1 and the excelsior body was made to fit it without the aid of measurements4 ,as the result of repeated ocular demonstration1 ,i am convinced that ,professor ,dyche's method of making every body with extreme care1 as to form and details1 is well worthy of universal adoption4 ,the necessity of removing the tendons from the legs of all large birds has already been mentioned4 ,when this has been done1 the wiring of the leg is an easy matter1 for the wire will take the place of the tendon so perfectly that there will be no outward sign of its presence4 ,use as large leg-wires as you can without disfiguring the leg of the bird4 ,when any animal is mounted in a walking attitude1 the foot which is represented in the act of leaving the ground must always have its centre well elevated1 and only the toes touching4 ,this being the case1 surely no intelligent taxidermist will ever be guilty of so unpardonable an offence against the eye as to run the supporting-iron straight down from the ball of the foot to the pedestal1 with a ghastly section of it exposed to view4 ,no matter how you manage it1 the iron must follow the bones of the foot until it reaches the toes1 and then it can be bent down to a perpendicular line and passed through the pedestal1 always out of sight4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xiii4 ,,mounted ,,bird1 ,,with ,,interior ,,structure ,,exposed4 ,in all but the largest birds1 the leg-wires are fastened in the body in precisely the same way as described and illustrated in the previous chapter1 except that it requires stouter pliers and more strength to bend them and clinch them firmly in the body4 ,in inserting the leg-wires in the artificial body1 be sure to enter them about the middle of the body1 on each side1 and not near the tail1 as nearly all beginners are prone to do4 ,this is by all odds the commonest and worst fault in mounted birds that fall short of perfection4 ,it arises from the fact that the beginner makes the mistake of entering the leg-wires at the same point where the bird's humerus joins the pelvis1 which is too far back by just one-third of the length of the entire body6 ,the humerus is not represented on your wire at all1 and the wire should enter the body precisely where the knee-joint comes in the living bird4 ,the flesh and bone of the thigh is made up 7or should be1 at least7 on the artificial body1 not on your leg-wire4 ,lay out a dead bird in a walking attitude1 or study a skeleton 7see ,fig4 #gj71 and see where the knee-joint comes2 then you will never again be in danger of spoiling a bird by making its legs come out from under its tail4 ,in mounting large birds1 the sizes of the wires ,i have used were as follows3 ,great horned owl1 ,no4 #h or #i2 bald eagle1 ,no4 #g or #h2 peacock1 ,no4 #g2 great blue heron1 ,no4 #f2 sandhill crane1 ,no4 #e4 ,an ostrich or emu requires a manikin constructed on the same principles as that built for the tiger1 except that each leg-rod should have two iron squares instead of one4 ,the upper extremity of the leg-rod is clamped tightly to one square1 with two nuts1 as usual2 but in addition to this there should be a second square with a hole in its short arm large enough for the smooth rod to slip through1 and this should be screwed to the body-board as low down as the anatomy of the bird will allow4 ,the object of this second iron is to prevent the bipedal specimen from swaying and leaning over1 as it would otherwise be very apt to do4 ,inasmuch as the legs of an ostrich or emu always require to be cut open and completely skinned1 the manikin method is perfectly adapted to their wants4 ,if the skin is so shrunken that it requires vigorous stretching1 its body must be stuffed with straw after the neck and legs have been made and joined to a centre-board1 precisely as directed for long-haired mammals above medium size4 ,i may also remark in this connection that ,i have seen both the complete skin and skeleton of a large ostrich preserved and mounted to stand side by side1 but ,i pitied the operator when he had to make a full set of bones for the legs and feet1 and a wooden skull with the horny shell of the beak fastened upon it4 ,at one stage of the proceedings the outlook for the skin seemed anything but promising1 and on the whole ,i would not advise anyone save an expert to attempt a similar task4 ,,mounting ,,birds ,,with ,,wings ,,spread4--,in the first place1 each wing must have a wire large enough to adequately support it4 ,this should be straight1 bright1 well-oiled1 and filed sharp at both ends4 ,one end is to be inserted inside the skin1 passed along next to the wing-bones as far as the carpal joint1 from thence it is forced on as far as possible between the skin and the under surface of the metacarpal bones until it emerges from the feathers not far from the end of the fleshy portion of the wing4 ,the wing must be so straight that the wire can be slipped through it freely backward and forward4 ,it must next be passed through the artificial body at the point where the upper end of the humerus is attached to the coracoid in the complete skeleton1 and very firmly clinched in the same way as described for the leg-wires4 ,then lay the bird upon its back1 place the wing exactly in position1 bend the wing-wires so they will fit snugly against the wing-bones1 and tie them firmly down4 ,after that1 the middle joint of each wing is to be poisoned1 stuffed with fine tow1 and sewn up neatly4 ,of course the wings can not be given their correct elevation and pose until the bird is placed firmly upon its temporary perch1 unless it is to be represented as flying4 ,now is the time to properly dispose of the feet4 ,if the talons are to be grasping any kind of prey1 the object must be placed at once1 before the feet begin to dry4 ,if the bird is to be in full flight1 they must be drawn up1 clinched1 and almost concealed in the feathers4 ,to keep the feathers of a spread wing in place while the specimen is drying1 thrust a long1 sharpened wire into the body under the wing1 and another on top1 bend both until they conform to the curve of the wing1 twist their outer ends together1 and then slip under each wire a long1 narrow strip of pasteboard4 ,such a specimen requires constant watching lest something get awry by accident1 and dry so4 ,the winding of a bird with its wings spread1 to say nothing of laying the plumage1 is a difficult and delicate matter1 and the chances are that he who takes the greatest pains will produce the best bird4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--;,cast of the ,neck and ,windpipe of a ,heron4 ,,making ,,the ,,neck ,,of ,a ,,heron4--,ordinarily the anatomy of a bird is well concealed by its feathers1 but to this rule the neck of a heron is a marked exception4 ,in this remarkable member there is room for the most ambitious operator to show his skill4 ,the neck is very long1 very thin and flat1 the joints of the vertebr often show very plainly1 and the windpipe has a way of shifting over the sides of the neck in a most free-and-easy way4 7,see ,fig4 #ec47 ,if you wish to mount a bird that will show your skill to the best advantage1 by all means choose a heron1 and mount him in a stooping posture1 with his head thrown back1 in the act of spearing a fish with his sharp beak4 ,one of the artistic triumphs of the ,new ,york exhibition of the ,society of ,american ,taxidermists was ,mr4 ,f4,s4 ,webster's ,wounded ,heron1 which was awarded a specialty medal as being one of the best pieces in the entire exhibition4 ,it was presented by ,mr4 ,webster to the ,national ,museum1 for the ,society's exhibit1 and is represented in ,plate ,,xvi4 ,ordinarily you can make a good neck for a heron by taking two wires of suitable length1 winding fine tow very smoothly and evenly around each one until it has attained very nearly the required thickness of the neck1 then putting the two together and winding a thin1 even layer of fine1 soft tow around both4 ,this doubles the width of the neck1 without materially increasing its thickness4 ,the necks of some herons are so excessively wide and thin that it requires three tow-wrapped wires wound together thus to give the necessary width4 ,all this winding should be done quite firmly1 and when finished1 if the neck is of the right size1 it should be wrapped with spool cotton from end to end to make it keep its shape4 ,one of the neck-wires should be thrust through the skull1 but the end of the other should be bent down1 and 7if the beak is to be closed7 passed out of the throat1 into the mouth1 one-third of the way to the tip of the beak4 ,if1 however1 you wish to produce a prize bird and challenge criticism1 then make a neck which will show the joints of the vertebr1 and show them plainly and strikingly4 ,now there may be a dozen different ways in which that could be done1 but the best is to make the neck over a hard skeleton that will show its joints willy-nilly4 ,your best plan is to clean the neck vertebr without disjointing them1 tie your neck-wire firmly underneath them1 wrap with fine tow to replace the flesh1 bind down with thread1 and cover all at the last moment with clay4 ,the windpipe is easily reproduced by wrapping fine tow around a small annealed wire1 and then sewing it in its place on the neck4 ,if you have not the cervical vertebr1 the next best thing is to make them roughly and quickly out of wood1 wire them together1 and use as you would the real bones4 ,the reason why this is necessary to success is that it is very difficult to make a wire bend in angles instead of curves after it has been wrapped with tow and inserted in the neck of the bird4 ,,setting ,,the ,,eyes4--,on this point ,i have always been at war with most of my taxidermic friends4 ,they insist that it is not best to insert the eyes in a bird as soon as it is finished otherwise1 but leave the bird to dry without them4 ,afterward1 they insert wet cotton1 soften the eyelids1 and then insert the clay backing and the eyes4 ,they claim that this is necessary to prevent the skin from being drawn away from the eye by shrinkage in the general drying4 ,i hold that it is best to set the eyes at once1 before the bird dries1 in order to secure the greatest degree of elasticity in shaping the eyelids1 and thereby have a more perfect mastery of the situation4 ,but having seen my friends secure as good results by their method as ,i do by mine1 ,i naturally conclude that it is only a matter of personal preference1 and either way is good enough4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,cleaning ,,the ,,plumage ,,of ,,birds4 ,i shall never forget how vainly ,i sought1 when a lonesome and isolated amateur1 to find somewhere in print some useful information about how to remove grease1 dirt1 and blood-stains from the plumage of birds4 ,i remember well my disgust and anger at the makers of the so-called complete manuals of taxidermy that left me groping in ,egyptian darkness on that subject1 and most others also2 and ,i registered a solemn vow that should ,i ever write on taxidermy ,i would do my best to afford some practical information on cleaning the plumage of birds4 ,as has been previously stated1 the time to clean the plumage of a bird is while you are making up the fresh skin 7,chapter ,,vi471 before the skin has been laid away to dry1 before the blood dries and imparts a permanent stain 7to white feathers1 at least71 and before the oil has had a chance to ooze out into the feathers to gather dirt1 and presently form a nasty1 yellow oil-cake upon the skin4 ,in cleaning the skin of a fat or oily bird1 scrape all the grease from the inside of the skin1 and absorb it with corn meal or plaster ,paris4 ,scrape the skin until it looks as if the feathers are about to fall out1 until no more oil is raised1 and then you may call it clean4 ,when you have done this1 you need not fear that any oil will ever exude upon the feathers4 ,,fresh ,,specimens4--,if a freshly killed bird has blood upon its plumage1 separate the bloody feathers from the others1 lift them on your fingers1 and with warm water and a sponge gently sponge them off4 ,give the blood a little time to soften1 and when the feathers are as clean as you can get them with water1 wipe them as dry as you can1 then sponge them over with clear spirits of turpentine or benzine1 and absorb this with plaster ,paris4 ,the manner of managing plaster ,paris will be described in detail in another paragraph4 ,very often the plumage of a freshly killed swan1 gull1 or duck1 becomes so covered with dirt1 blood1 and grease by the time it reaches the taxidermist that it is a sight to behold4 ,never mind if it is1 you can make it as good as new1 in every respect1 so far as cleanliness is concerned4 ,the thing to do is to skin the bird1 and clean the skin before either mounting it or making it up as a skin4 ,the cleaning is often made easier1 however1 by hastily filling the loose skin with excelsior or tow1 to give a firm foundation to work upon when cleaning the plumage4 ,if you have no turpentine1 as will probably happen to you many a time when you least expect it1 take some warm water1 as warm as you can bear your hand in1 rub some castile soap in it1 and with a sponge1 or a soft cotton cloth1 wash the soiled feathers4 ,do not scrub them as you would a greasy floor1 and utterly destroy the perfect set of the feathers1 but sponge them with the grain1 as far as possible1 treating them as a compact layer4 ,now1 if you have turpentine1 wipe the feathers as dry as you can1 and give them a sponging with that1 for they will come out better from the plaster ,paris than otherwise4 ,when the plaster is put upon feathers that are wet with water1 it acts too quickly in its drying1 and the feathers are often dried before they have had time to become fluffy as in life4 ,but if you have no turpentine1 you must finish without it4 ,whichever liquid you use1 at the finish fill the feathers full of plaster ,paris1 and almost immediately lift the bird and beat it gently to knock out the saturated plaster4 ,that done1 put on more plaster1 filling the feathers full of it down to their very roots1 and presently whip that out also4 ,by the time you have made the third application1 the feathers are almost dry1 and the plaster falls out almost dry also4 ,now is your time to whip the feathers with a supple switch1 or a light filler of stiff wire1 to make each bedraggled feather fluff up at the base of its shaft1 and spread its web for all it is worth4 ,this treatment is also vitally necessary to knock the plaster out of the plumage4 ,work the feathers with your long forceps1 lifting them up a bunch at a time and letting them fall back into place4 ,by this time the plaster flies out in a cloud of white dust1 and the whipping of the feathers must be kept up without intermission until the plaster is all out4 ,if any plaster remains in the feathers1 you may count with certainty that it will always be sifting out upon the pedestal1 and1 what is even worse1 if the plumage is black1 or dark-colored1 it will impart to it a gray and dusty appearance4 ,caution4--,remember that if you leave the first application of plaster1 or even the second1 too long in the feathers it will set or harden there1 and make you wish you were dead before you get it out4 ,,dry ,,skins4--,the hardest subjects to deal with are old1 dry skins4 ,while fresh1 fat is merely so much clean oil smeared on the feathers4 ,an old1 dry duck1 goose1 swan1 penguin1 auk1 or albatross skin is liable to have the feathers of the breast and abdomen all caked together in a solid mass of rancid1 yellow grease1 to which time has added a quantity of museum dirt4 ,in mounting one of the charming specimens of this too numerous class1 it is not always safe to clean the feathers before inserting the body4 ,there is danger that the skin will go to pieces4 ,for this1 and other reasons1 the skin should be scraped clean inside1 poisoned1 furnished with a body1 and sewn up before you attempt to clean the feathers4 ,when feathers are badly caked with old1 dry grease1 it is an excellent plan to apply a jet of steam to the afflicted region1 which quickly warms and moistens the grease1 and allows the turpentine to cut it in less than half the time it would otherwise require4 ,there is nothing that starts dry grease as quickly as a little well-directed steam2 but steam is a powerful shrinking agency1 and it must be used with judgment4 ,usually an old skin is so dirty that it requires to be plastered all over4 ,if you have no steam1 attack the greasy portions first with warm water 7but no soap71 to warm up the grease and soften it4 ,time and patience are both necessary4 ,next1 wipe off the water1 and with a wad of cotton cloth1 tow1 or cotton batting1 dip from your dish of turpentine1 and apply it as a wash upon the feathers1 always rubbing with the grain1 of course4 ,when1 after repeated applications1 you see that the turpentine has dissolved the grease to quite an extent1 go rapidly over the remainder of the bird1 then lay it down upon a sheet of heavy paper1 upon its back1 and cover it completely with plaster ,paris4 ,it takes two or three quarts to do this usually1 and for a swan it requires a pailful4 ,as soon as the plaster has had time to absorb the greasy turpentine1 which it does in about a minute1 lift the bird from its burial-place1 and holding it head upward hit it several sharp blows with a light stick to knock the plaster out of the feathers4 ,devote from three to five minutes to this1 then examine the feathers and see whether they are perfectly clean4 ,most likely they are not1 if it is a case of old grease1 and a repetition of the dose is necessary4 ,start again with your wash of turpentine and do precisely as before 7without the use of any water74 ,if this does not bring the feathers out clean and white from roots to tips1 then give it a third going over1 with unabated vigor and thoroughness4 ,the third time is usually the charm1 even with the worst cases4 ,this time the plaster must be thoroughly beaten out of the feathers1 even if takes you an hour to accomplish it4 ,all this is rather disagreeable work4 ,of course you will put on old clothes and get out doors to windward of your bird while beating it1 so that the plaster will fly off upon some other fellow4 ,soft feathers may be handled more carelessly than the stiffer sorts4 ,of course great care must be taken to not separate the web of the tail and wing feathers1 nor to break the shafts of even the small ones4 ,beware getting any of the body feathers twisted during this operation1 or they will not lie down where they belong4 ,benzine can be used instead of turpentine in cleaning plumage1 but it is too volatile1 and evaporates too quickly to render the best service4 ,it is practically useless to attempt to remove clotted blood from the feathers of old dry skins4 ,even if by persistent effort the blood itself is removed1 it leaves a lasting stain upon the feathers1 and they are also permanently awry4 ,the universal custom with taxidermists in such case is to obey the 7paraphrased7 scriptural injunction--if a feather offend thee1 pluck it out4 ,if this course leaves a vacancy in the plumage1 steal a perfect feather from some suitable portion of the bird's body1 and glue it fast in the place of the missing one4 ,fortunately1 however1 collectors have about ceased to make up skins to dry with blood upon them1 and there is not much trouble to apprehend hereafter from that source4 ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,,mounting ,,reptiles4 ,,ophidia3 ,the ,serpents4--,there are several methods of mounting snakes1 but only one that ,i can recommend4 ,such processes as ramming a rubber-like snake skin full of sawdust1 or cotton1 or tow1 are to be mentioned only to be condemned4 ,in my opinion1 the only proper way to mount a serpent is to make a manikin of tow1 carefully wound on a wire and afterward shaped with thread1 and cover it with clay at the finish4 ,it is necessary to attach small wires to the body-wire at given intervals1 so that they can be passed down through the pedestal1 and afford a means by which a finished specimen may be drawn down and made to lie naturally4 ,a manikin for a large snake1 like an anaconda or python1 is best made of excelsior1 and its exact form secured by sewing through it with a needle4 ,in the field notes printed in ,chapter ,,iii4 something may be learned of the form of the python4 ,if a snake is stuffed1 it stretches the scales apart most unnaturally1 and never looks like life4 ,for this reason1 the clay-covered manikin is necessary1 in order that any excess of skin may be modeled down upon it1 and the scales be made to form an unbroken covering4 ,,lacertilia3 ,the ,lizards4--,with the exception of the iguana1 the gila monster1 mastigure1 and a few others1 the lizards are so small and slender1 and have tails so tapering out into thin air that they are altogether too small to be mounted by the ordinary methods of taxidermy4 ,the finest method ever devised for the preservation and display of small reptiles and batrachians is that adopted by the ,museum of ,comparative ,zoology1 ,cambridge1 ,mass4 ,each specimen is preserved in clear spirits in a jar by itself1 and instead of being dropped in head first to sink or swim1 and tie itself into a bow-knot if it can1 the reptile is placed 7in the flesh7 on a thin1 rectangular slab of plaster ,paris or cement1 of the tint best suited to the display of the specimen4 ,the object is placed in a life-like attitude and held in place by threads which pass through holes in the slab and tie the feet down securely4 ,the accompanying illustration 7,fig4 #ed71 drawn from a specimen1 and the following description1 both of which have been kindly furnished me by ,mr4 ,samuel ,garman1 ,curator of ,reptiles1 ,museum of ,comparative ,zoology1 will enable any intelligent preparator to adopt this admirable method3 ,it was in #ahge we began to mount the reptiles and batrachians of the ,museum of ,comparative ,zoology on tablets1 in alcohol4 ,before that date they had been stuffed and dried1 a method which proved rather unsatisfactory1 especially so in regard to color1 and the shrivelling of digits and tails4 ,however varied at first1 the appearance soon became uniform and dusty4 ,mounting in the alcohol does away with the most serious objections2 we can give the specimens life-like attitudes1 or arrange them in groups as if playing1 courting1 or fighting2 and the liquid heightens their beauty1 as the water does that of the pebble at the seashore1 while ravages of insects are entirely out of the question4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--,method of ,mounting ,alcoholic ,reptiles at the ,museum of ,comparative ,zoology4 ,the tablets are made of plaster ,paris1 or if a harder one with finer finish is desired1 of cement mixed with water and spread on a glass plate to set4 ,holes are bored through them wherever necessary to fasten the specimen1 which is simply tied on4 ,with the tints used in fresco painting they are colored to suit4 ,experiments now under way convince me there is less fading on plates of certain colors than on the white ones4 ,for black tablets1 common slate is good4 ,a mixture of plaster and cement makes a fine quality4 ,the larger lizards are generally so round and plump-bodied they may very properly be mounted with tow and clay legs1 and a body-filling of clean and soft chopped tow1 the same as small mammals4 ,if one is encountered which has a high1 sharp1 spinal crest1 which cannot be reproduced with loose filling1 then it is necessary to make the legs and tail1 wire all together1 and make an excelsior manikin in two halves1 so that each side may be inserted in the body independently1 and then the two may be sewed together and covered with clay as necessary4 ,at ,professor ,ward's celebrated establishment ,i once saw ,mr4 ,webster remove the entire skeleton from a ,hatteria punctata1 a rare ,new ,zealand lizard about sixteen inches in length1 replace the leg bones and skull with wooden counterfeits1 and successfully mount the skin4 ,this was quite a feat1 and was the only instance of the kind that ever came to my knowledge4 ,the chief difficulty lay in removing the skull from the skin1 which grew tightly upon it1 and in successfully replacing it with a wooden imitation4 ,,crocodilia3 ,the ,crocodiles and ,alligators4--,these great saurians--thick-hided1 case-hardened1 and always fat--require no carefully made manikins1 no clay save in the small ones1 nor very gentle treatment of any kind1 unless the specimens happen to be young and tender4 ,small crocodilians should be mounted in the same way as the larger lizards1 using clay next to the skin of the body and tail4 ,i once achieved success with a tiny alligator1 and delighted its bereaved owner1 by filling it with clay on a core of excelsior1 and modeling the form into perfect shape4 ,large saurians should be mounted on the same general plan as wolves and small bears1 viz41 by cutting the leg-irons long1 passing the inner ends through a rather small centre board1 bending them down to the wood1 and fastening with staples4 ,of course the leg-irons must fasten underneath the pedestal by means of nuts4 ,the legs are made of tow1 and so is the tail1 which must have in its centre a stout iron rod1 cut about four inches shorter than the end of the tail to allow for shrinkage4 ,at two or three points equidistant from the end of the tail1 and from each other1 fasten a stout wire to the tail rod1 so that when the specimen is finished these wires can be passed down through holes bored in the pedestal1 and used to draw the tail down tightly and hold it there4 ,if this is forgotten the tail will spring up in spite of you1 and show daylight underneath1 which never happens with the tail of a living saurian4 ,as to attitude1 one or two hints will suffice4 ,a live saurian1 either crawling or at rest1 nearly always carries his legs well up to his body4 ,do not spread his legs far out1 but bend them up rather close to the animal's body1 as if he expected to use them to walk with4 ,the body should always rest down upon the ground4 ,give the tail two or three curves sidewise to relieve its stiffness4 ,the head should be held well up1 but the elevation should be given by the neck alone1 with the head itself in a horizontal position1 turned a trifle to the right or left to avoid extreme stiffness in the attitude4 ,when your large alligator has been put together1 suspend it from the ceiling1 bottom upward1 and stuff the thick part of the tail1 the body1 and the neck with straw4 ,begin at the end of the tail1 and fill and sew up until the head is reached4 ,it is necessary to use stout and very sharp glover's needles of large size in sewing through the horny-hide of an old saurian1 and the thread should be the best of linen twine1 doubled and waxed until it is in the best possible condition for holding4 ,sometimes a skin is so horny it is necessary to pierce holes for the needle with an awl4 ,the shrinking power of a big saurian is something fearful to behold1 therefore prepare your seams accordingly4 ,the centre-board of the body should be placed low enough that two screw-bolts1 six inches long1 may be put through the pedestal from underneath1 and screwed into the board to bring the body of the animal down upon the pedestal as closely as possible1 and also to hold it more securely4 ,of course1 each leg-iron must pass downward through the foot1 and fasten with a nut underneath the pedestal4 ,the tongue of a saurian is not free1 but the skin may be removed from its upper surface1 the flesh replaced with clay1 and the skin sewed down again4 ,the color of the tongue and roof of the mouth of a saurian is pale yellow1 a little lighter than ,naples yellow1 but never pink4 ,in young specimens the inside of the mouth is white4 ,bear in mind this fact1 that the eye of an alligator or crocodile is of a dark greenish color1 and the pupil is vertical4 ,the thin serrated scales1 which form the crest of the tail1 must be clamped firmly between thick pieces of card-board while they are drying1 so that they will retain their proper shape and erectness1 for otherwise they will curl up and become very unsightly4 ,after a saurian has dried properly1 and has been machd1 it should be varnished all over with a coat of white varnish and turpentine1 to bring out the colors4 ,if the teeth of an alligator need to be cleaned and whitened1 brush them with muriatic acid1 washing it off again almost immediately with plenty of clear water4 ,,chelonia3 ,the ,turtles4--,this group embraces the sea-turtles1 having the fore limbs developed as long1 flat1 triangular flippers1 with large head1 small under shell1 and with head and flippers non-retractile1--the terrapins1 soft-shelled turtles1 and tortoises4 ,of the large1 sea-going species1 our ocean waters produce the huge leather-back or harp-turtle1 the loggerhead1 next in size1 the green turtle and the hawksbill1 which last yields the valuable tortoise-shell of commerce4 ,to the taxidermist1 a fresh hawksbill to be mounted is a thing of beauty and a joy forever2 the smooth and succulent green turtle is also a welcome guest2 the big loggerhead is a serious affair1 and the huge1 lumbering1 greasy #hjj-pound leather-back is a first class calamity4 ,shun him1 unless there is plenty of money behind him4 ,i once had the misfortune to be chief mourner over a leather-back which pulled down #idj pounds dead weight--mostly oil4 ,we conquered1 but ,bozzaris fell1 vowing that neither gold nor glory 7neither of which is yielded by ,sphargis coriacea7 should ever again tempt us to strike oil in that manner4 ,the soft and gelatinous shell of that monster dripped clear oil for three months1 and actually yielded several gallons4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xiv4 ,,mounting ,,an ,,alligator4--,,last ,,stage4 ,fig4 #ai shows the underside of a turtle1 and the dotted line indicates where the cut has been made in the skin near the posterior edge of the plastron1 where the shell bridge that unites the upper with the under shell has been sawn through with a small saw4 ,the process of skinning such a subject has been already described1 and the process of mounting is to be carried out on precisely the same general principles as described and illustrated in the mounting of mammals with long hair1 with but slight variations4 ,after the legs and neck have been made with tow1 the tow wrapping should be covered with a quarter of an inch of soft clay1 so the skin can afterward be modeled down upon it1 either smoothly or wrinkled1 as in life4 ,the body should be stuffed with straw to keep the shell from collapsing while drying4 ,the divided portions of the shell must then be joined and wired together firmly with soft brass wires passed through small holes1 as shown in the figure4 ,of course1 the cuts in the skin must be sewn up neatly but firmly4 ,when the specimen has been placed on its pedestal1 it then remains to shape the legs1 neck1 and feet1 which the soft clay underneath renders quite easy4 ,folds and wrinkles in the skin must be exaggerated1 to provide for what is sure to disappear by shrinkage in drying4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,,mounting ,,fishes4 ,,general ,,observations4--,judging from specimens generally1 it would seem that taxidermists1 the world over1 either do not know how to mount fish specimens with the same degree of excellence as mammals and birds1 or else they are universally slighted by intention4 ,certain it is1 that in nearly every large zoological museum the stuffed fishes are the least attractive1 and the least like life of all the vertebrates4 ,in many instances the reptiles are not far behind in unsightliness1 although as a rule they are a little more life-like than the fishes4 ,in only one natural history museum out of twenty-seven have ,i found a collection of stuffed fishes which surpassed in number and quality of specimens the collection of birds and mammals1 and formed the most attractive feature of the entire museum4 ,that fish collection is to be seen in the ,government ,museum at ,madras1 ,india4 ,the specimens were all mounted while fresh from the ocean1 which1 of course1 has been a great advantage to the taxidermist4 ,i was somewhat surprised to learn that the taxidermist in question was an ,indian native1 named ,p4 ,anthony ,pillay1 because ,east ,indian natives are1 almost without exception1 very indifferent taxidermists4 ,none of the specimens are mounted on standards1 but either lie flat in table cases1 or1 if too large for that1 hang against the wall4 ,the common scaly fishes always lie upon one side1 usually the right1 with tail curved upward4 ,mr4 ,pillay assured me that the exquisite smoothness of his specimens was due to the use of silk cotton as a filling material1 plucked from the pod and cleaned by hand4 ,his scale fishes and sharks were very life-like1 but his rays and ray-like ,rhinobati were somewhat faulty4 ,being filled with fibrous material1 they lacked that extreme flatness so characteristic of fishes of this type4 ,numerous methods for the preparation of fishes have been devised4 ,in the collection in the ,national ,museum made by the ,society of ,american ,taxidermists there is a series of six specimens1 representing five different methods1 mostly bad4 ,one is a fish carved in wood and painted2 another is a flimsy paper cast of ,dutch extraction2 a third is a painted plaster cast2 the fourth is a half fish1 or fish medallion1 and the fifth is an entire stuffed fish4 ,it is necessary to add1 however1 that the last-mentioned specimen falls far short of properly representing its class--the most common of all in museums4 ,in disposing of this subject it is not my purpose to waste time in the discussion of obsolete and valueless methods1 but to describe only those of practical utility4 ,,mounting ,,small ,,and ,,medium-,,sized ,,fishes ,,with ,,scales4--,the process of skinning a fish has been described in a previous chapter1 and on this subject but few other points remain to be noticed4 ,these are the following3 ,from some fishes the scales fall off so very easily while they are being skinned and mounted1 it is necessary to wipe the specimen dry1 and before starting to remove the skin1 paste a piece of thin but tough writing-paper over the whole fish excepting the fins1 and let it dry before proceeding further4 ,with a pen1 line out the course of the opening cut1 and make a mark across it here and there to guide you in joining the edges again after mounting4 ,this paper covering will fully protect the scales from displacement1 and it is to remain on until the mounting is completed1 when its removal is easily accomplished with water and a sponge4 ,on the great majority of scaled fishes1 however1 the scales are sufficiently persistent that the above is unnecessary4 ,but keep the fish wet while you are at work upon it1 and handle it with care and delicacy4 ,if you let the scales get dry1 their edges begin at once to curl up1 which must not be permitted4 ,it is generally of great advantage to allow the skin of a fish to lie over night in spirits 7two parts of ninety-five per cent alcohol to one of water7 for the sake of curing and toughening the integument1 and curing whatever particles of flesh may chance to remain in the skull4 ,after having removed the skin1 it must be cleaned most carefully4 ,with a keen-bladed knife1 pare and scrape off all the adherent flesh from the skin1 cut out the gills1 and remove the flesh from the interior of the skull1 and the base of the fins4 ,of course the eyes must come out also4 ,with a stout pair of scissors trim off the projecting bases of the rays of the dorsal and anal fins1 so that the fin itself may set squarely upon the top of the centre-board4 ,i will now describe1 step by step1 the entire process of mounting a fish by what ,i consider the simplest1 easiest1 and most practical method known4 ,be advised in the beginning1 however1 that you can not mount fishes on nice brass standards with nothing at all in the way of special materials and tools4 ,you must have an assortment of hard brass wire1 ,nos4 #c to #aj1 a hack-saw1 some brass rosettes1 a small die for cutting threads on brass wire1 and taps of corresponding sizes for cutting threads in the brass nuts and rosettes4 ,the outfit is by no means expensive1 but it is indispensable if you wish to mount your specimens on standards1 and thus have them show off to the finest advantage4 #a4 ,procure a piece of soft wood1 pine preferred1 and with the skinned body of the fish before you1 whittle the wood down to the general shape of the body1 but one-fourth smaller in actual size4 ,in ,plate ,,iv4 the outline a1 b1 c represents the wooden centre-board1 which is really the foundation upon which the mounted specimen is to be constructed4 #b4 ,prepare two small brass standards 7e1 e71 and screw the upper end of each firmly into a gimlet-hole bored into the centre-board at d1 d4 ,at the lower end of each standard the thread should be cut for a little more than an inch of its length1 and a turned brass rosette screwed on1 to rest on top of the pedestal1 and hold the rod from slipping down through the hole4 ,underneath the pedestal a square nut is screwed on tightly4 ,these rods should be exactly perpendicular1 and the axis of the fish 7an imaginary line running lengthwise through the centre of the bulk71 should be as nearly as possible horizontal4 ,a fish mounted with its tail too high in the air seems to be taking a header1 and when the reverse is the case1 it suggests a ship sinking stern foremost4 #c4 ,having thoroughly cleaned the inside of the skin1 anoint it liberally with arsenical soap1 or if you have not that1 with a plentiful sprinkling of powdered arsenic4 #d4 ,for the fourth step--filling--,i shall describe two very different processes1 advising the beginner to make a fair trial of both1 and then adopt the one he succeeds best with4 ,the filling which ,i infinitely prefer for a fish is clay and chopped tow1 mixed together1 and used as stiff as may be to work well4 ,clay which is too soft when used shrinks as the excess of water dries out of it1 and is liable to leave an uneven surface4 ,with a flat modeling-tool1 coat the centre-board evenly with the clay until you have reproduced the form and size of the fleshy body of the fish4 ,then put the skin over this1 press it down firmly to exclude all air-bubbles1 working it from the back downward4 ,when you find that the skin fits perfectly and without any drawing or straining1 begin at the tail and sew the skin together1 making1 as you proceed1 a perfect finish of the specimen4 ,draw the edges closely together1 and the more perfectly the scales can be made to hide the opening the better4 ,the other filling process is to use fine1 soft tow1 chopped up finely4 ,with a goodly quantity of tow before you1 open the fish skin1 and with your forceps insert a layer of tow all along the back1 and also on the side which lies next to the table4 ,then put the centre-board in its place1 while the skin still lies before you1 and with the forceps distribute an equal quantity of tow between the upper side of the board and the skin4 ,thus a perfect and even cushion of tow is provided to lie between the skin and the board at all points save below4 ,begin at the tail1 and with your needle and thread sew up the skin for an inch or two2 then with your small forceps or filler1 stuff to the right size and shape the portion that has been sewn up4 ,that done1 sew up another section1 and stuff as before1 proceeding thus until the head is reached and the entire fish has been filled and shaped4 ,notches must be cut in the skin at the points where the brass rods enter it4 ,all this time the fish has been kept wet so that the fins are soft and elastic1 and the scales are perfectly smooth4 ,the fins must now be spread1 and each one enclosed between two bits of pasteboard cut to the right shape1 and held firmly together by sticking pins through them around the edge of the fin4 ,do not on any account stick pins through the fins1 or you will afterward have the trouble of filling up the pin-holes4 ,force the pins through the two thicknesses of pasteboard with your small pliers1 and whatever may be the shape1 or size1 or position of a fin1 you must so shape your pasteboard that the fin will be spread1 and have the same position it would on a live fish4 #f4 ,the last thing at this stage is to mix together equal quantities of white varnish and turpentine1 sponge off the fish carefully1 removing every particle of clay1 tow1 or dirt1 and varnish it all over4 ,this prevents the scales from curling up when they dry1 and it also goes far toward fixing the colors of the fish4 ,the fins are to be varnished afterward when they get dry4 #g4 ,while the fish is drying1 the eyes should be prepared4 ,every one knows that the eyes of different genera of fishes vary in shape1 size1 and color1 to as great a degree as do the eyes of quadrupeds4 ,for mounted specimens1 one of two things may be done2 insert a conventional silver or golden glass eye1 or else keep on hand a lot of uncolored fish eyes1 and paint each pair from nature1 in oil colors of course1 to suit the particular specimen it is to adorn4 ,when the paint has had time to dry and harden1 cover it with two or three coats of shellac to protect the colors from any changes which might be effected by the material in which the eye is to be set4 ,if the coating of paint is left unprotected1 it is very apt to undergo chemical changes1 and the eye may thereby be ruined4 #h4 ,the eye may be set in clay or putty provided none of the setting material is to be exposed4 ,if the glass eye is smaller than the opening1 which is very often the case1 set it in fine papier-mach1 which must be nicely modeled around the glass1 and afterward coated with shellac1 and painted4 #aj4 ,the subject of painting fishes will be considered in a separate chapter4 ,simple as it may appear1 and really is1 the above processes may be applied with slight modifications to even the largest scale fishes1 and to the sharks and saw-fishes4 ,such large subjects as the jewfish require strong iron rods for standards1 and the skin may either be mounted over a manikin1 made of excelsior tied down upon a central beam1 or it may be stuffed with soft straw1 which1 considering the great thickness of the skin and scales1 is quite satisfactory4 ,,mounting ,,fish ,,medallions4--,a fish with but one side mounted and exhibited may be called a fish medallion4 ,it may lie flat in a table-case1 or be screwed to the back of an upright case1 or it may even be set up on standards fastened to it at the back4 ,as a specimen1 either to prepare or exhibit1 it has its advantages1 and ,i will briefly describe my process4 ,,fig4 #ee4--,medallion of ,yellow ,pike4 ,,fig4 #ef4--;,cross-,section4 ,we will suppose that our fish is a fresh subject1 or an entire specimen from alcohol4 ,the first thing is to procure a pine board of proper thickness1 lay the fish flat upon it1 and with a pencil mark out its outline4 ,although only one side of the fish is to show1 it is desirable to mount a little more than precisely one-half of it4 ,therefore1 select the side to be displayed1 and remove the skin from the other to within a short distance of the median line of the back and abdomen4 ,this extra margin of skin is to give the skin an appearance of entirety and rotundity1 rather than flatness such as would be the case if an exact half were represented4 ,the head of the fish must be sawn through with a fine saw1 and1 of course1 the observance of the directions already given will leave the dorsal and anal fins on the portion to be exhibited4 ,having carefully skinned1 cleaned1 and preserved the portion to be exhibited1 the centre-board is cut out with a short bevel on the inside1 and on the other the full shape of one side of the fish4 ,when this fits the skin properly1 the right quantity of clay is put upon it1 the skin is then put on1 and fastened at the back according to circumstances4 ,with a small fish1 the edges of the skin may be sewn together from top to bottom1 across the exposed surface of the centre board1 but with large specimens it is best to nail the edges to the board4 ,,mounting ,,cartilaginous ,,fishes3 ,sharks1 rays1 saw-fish1 etc4--,the only failures ,i have ever made during my thirteen years of taxidermic work have been with subjects of this class4 ,i call them failures because1 after taking infinite pains and mounting my specimens to the complete satisfaction of all concerned1 the best ones1 the very ones ,i had considered most perfect when finished1 for two or three years afterward continued to shrink and shrink1 until the skin burst open1 and the tail and fins warped out of shape by the same process until it was maddening to look upon them4 ,i once spent a week of diligent labor in mounting over a clay-covered excelsior manikin the skin of a ten-and-a-half foot gray shark 7,hexanchus griseus71 which came to me in the flesh4 ,it was a beautiful specimen1 and ,i mounted it according to elaborate measurements1 and a cast of the head4 ,the result was all that could be desired4 ,three years later that shark was a sight to behold4 ,around the body1 just back of the gill openings1 the skin had burst open in a crack an inch wide4 ,the tail had been ripped open by the terrible strain of shrinkage1 so had the seam underneath the belly1 and at first the damage seemed beyond repair4 ,we did repair it1 however1 very fairly1 but to me the specimen has ever since been an eyesore4 ,by the bitterest of experiences ,i have learned that a shark1 ray1 or saw-fish is bound to keep shrinking and shrinking1 in both length and circumference1 from the day it is finished to the crack of doom4 ,the fins and tail will warp and twist out of shape1 and ,i defy any man to prevent it4 ,since finding it impossible to mount a fish of this class substantially1 and have it retain its original size1 ,i have adopted a plan which allows shrinkage4 ,the rod which supports the tail is fastened to the centre-board by two staples so loosely that when the strain of shrinkage comes upon it1 it will gradually slip through the staples and allow the specimen to shorten instead of bursting4 ,it is best not to mount a shark too well4 ,stuff it with soft straw instead of making a firm manikin1 and do not fill the body any harder than is necessary to secure smoothness4 ,as the specimen gets old1 and its circumference grows smaller by degrees1 and beautifully 787 less1 the mass of straw will also shrink to accommodate the lawless tendencies of the skin4 ,i have successively tried the effect of curing skins of sharks in brine1 in alcohol1 and in the salt-and-alum bath1 but the result is always the same4 ,it is easy enough to mount them to perfection1 but to make them remain as mounted for five years is beyond my powers4 ,the rays are the meanest of all subjects that vex the soul of the taxidermist4 ,shun them as you would the small-pox or the devil4 ,such abominable animated pancakes1 with razor edges that taper out to infinite nothingness1 were never made to be mounted by any process known to mortal man4 ,to mount the skin of a vile ray1 and make it really perfect and life-like is to invite infinite shrinkage1 rips1 tears1 warps1 defeat1 and humiliation at the hands of your envious rivals4 ,if you must mount a ray1 by all means get square with it at the start4 ,stuff his miserable old skin with tow or straw1 the more the better4 ,ram him1 cram him full to the very jaws1 like the famous rattlesnake skin that taxidermist ,miles ,standish stuffed with powder and bullets4 ,if you can burst him wide open from head to tail1 by all means do so1 and you may call me your slave for the rest of my life4 ,make him nice and round1 like a balloon1 and then no matter what he does afterward to mortify and disgrace you1 and to drag your fair standard in the dust1 you will always have the satisfaction of knowing you are square with him4 ,once when ,i was young and innocent1 ,i encountered an enormous ray4 ,he was not thrust upon me1 for ,i achieved him--and my own ruin also1 at one fell stroke4 ,i mounted him willingly1 nay1 eagerly1 as ,phton mounted his chariot1 to show the rest of the world how all rays should be done4 ,i mounted his vast1 expansive skin over a clay-covered manikin that had edges like a ,damascus razor1 and ,i made him flat4 ,he was flat enough to navigate the ,platte ,river at low water1 which even a thick shingle can not do4 ,he was life-like1 and likewise was a great triumph4 ,but almost the moment my back was turned upon him forever1 he went back on me4 ,i had put him up to stay put1 so far as my part was concerned1 so he just got mad and literally tore himself to tatters4 ,he became almost a total wreck1 and to make my defeat a more genuine and unmitigated crusher1 ,professor ,ward sent word to me1 all the way to ,washington1 that he would sell me that large ray for #e4 ,i never forgave him for that4 ,the best way to mount a ray is to make a nice plaster cast of it1 paint it1 and then bury the accursed ray in a compost heap4 ,as a class these fishes are remarkable1 and highly interesting1 and there is a far greater variety of them than anyone who is not an ichthyologist might suppose4 ,to me there is no other group of fishes more interesting1 and1 ,i may add1 there is no other group that is1 as a general thing1 so poorly represented in museum collections4 ,they exhibit all possible intermediate forms between the ordinary shark and the perfectly round1 flat ray4 ,the intermediate forms1 ,rhynobatii and ,rhamphobatis1 are naturally the most interesting4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xv4 ,,american ,,lobster4--,,showing ,,location ,,of ,,wires4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,,mounting ,,lobsters ,,and ,,crabs4 ,the following directions were written from the mounting of a large lobster1 but apply equally to all crustaceans large enough to be stuffed4 #a4 ,remove the shell of the back 7carapax7 in one piece1 by cutting under its lower edges1 and with steel bone-scrapers clean out all the flesh from the body and tail4 #b4 ,take a long1 stiff wire 7about ,no4 #aj for a lobster71 flatten it out at one end1 and bend up a quarter of an inch of it1 to form a scraper with a sharp chisel edge4 ,insert this in the legs 7or walking feet71 one by one1 and clean out all the flesh they contain1 quite to their tips4 ,with a strong syringe inject water into each leg to thoroughly wash out the inside4 #c4 ,take off the movable claw from the big pincer1 also make a hole in the joint at ,a 7,plate ,,xv471 and through these two openings remove all the flesh from the large claws1 and syringe them out4 #d4 ,having thoroughly cleaned the specimen1 either soak it in some liquid poison1 such as arsenic water 7the easiest to prepare--by dissolving arsenic in boiling water71 or a corrosive sublimate solution1 or else poison it by injecting diluted arsenical soap into the legs1 claws1 and body with a syringe4 #e4 ,insert in each leg and claw a soft wire of zinc1 galvanized iron1 or brass1 and bend the end in the body at very nearly a right angle 7,b-,b74 ,in large specimens the wire should be wrapped smoothly with a little tow1 so that the claws will not be loose upon it4 #f4 ,insert a wire in each feeler as far up as possible1 and let the lower end extend well down into the body4 ,to hold the specimen on its pedestal1 take another wire1 as long as the entire specimen from head to tail1 pass one end of it down through the centre of the body1 bend the wire down at a right angle1 and in the same manner pass the other end down through the middle abdominal segment4 ,the ends are to pass through the pedestal and be clinched below4 #g4 ,the claws need not be stuffed4 #h4 ,when all the various members have been wired1 bend all the inner ends of the wires down in the body1 and pour in a lot of plaster ,paris1 which1 as soon as it hardens will hold all the wires in place4 #i4 ,stuff the cavity of the abdominal segments with tow1 put what filling is necessary into the thorax1 then put the shell back in its place and glue it fast all around the edges4 #aj4 ,replace the movable claws1 and with glue and cotton fasten them firmly where they belong4 #aa4 ,put a wire around the end of each claw to hold it down1 or1 what is better still1 wire it down from the under side in such a way that the wire will not be visible4 #ab4 ,when the specimen is dry and its colors have partly faded out1 procure a fresh specimen of the same species1 and with your oil colors paint the shell carefully and artistically from your model4 ,learn to blend the colors together as nature does in such objects1 softening all the lines4 ,when the paint is dry1 if the specimen has a dead1 opaque appearance1 give its surface both lustre and transparency by applying a thin coat of white varnish and turpentine4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,,ornamental ,,taxidermy4 ,until within a very few years1 the taxidermist produced but little purely ornamental work1 and the most of that little was rather crude and unattractive4 ,now1 however1 decorative pieces are produced in bewildering variety1 and many of them are justly regarded as works of art4 ,the productions of the ,society of ,american ,taxidermists are now to be seen in thousands of the finest homes in the ,united ,states1 and in art galleries1 both public and private4 ,in all the exhibitions of the ,society1 the display of ,articles for ,ornament or ,use has always been the most attractive feature1 and the one which has elicted from visitors the most surprise1 admiration1 and hard cash4 ,the beautiful exhibits made by ,messrs4 ,f4,s4 ,webster and ,f4,a4 ,lucas1 of ,washington2 ,thomas ,w4 ,fraine and ,w4,j4 ,critchley1 of ,rochester1 ,n4,y42 ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,george ,h4 ,hedley1 of ,medina1 ,n4,y42 ,mr4 ,john ,wallace1 of ,new ,york2 ,david ,bruce1 of ,brockport1 ,n4,y42 and ,messrs4 ,f4,t4 ,jencks1 and ,aldrich ,capen1 of ,boston1 will certainly never be forgotten by those who saw them4 ,it is impossible to describe here the precise methods by which the various kinds of decorative objects may be produced1 and surely in the light of all the methods and details that have already been given1 it is unnecessary4 ,it will be sufficient to describe by word and picture the character of the various classes of objects1 and leave their production to be worked out according to the principles already laid down4 ,the accompanying plate represents a carefully selected group of decorative objects which were displayed in the ,new ,york exhibition of the ,society of ,american ,taxidermists1 and were afterward presented by their respective owners to the ,national ,museum at ,washington1 where they are now displayed in the ,society's exhibit4 ,,wall ,,cases4--,the shallow box case with glass front1 sheltering one specimen or a group1 and garnished with certain accessories1 is one of the most popular and pleasing of all pieces of decorative taxidermy4 ,its evolution is due directly to the desire to protect from destruction the more cherished of the single specimens that first began to grace the homes of the lovers of animated nature4 ,in ,american homes there are to-day thousands of pretty wall-cases of choice birds mounted with suitable accessories1 either natural or artificial1 many with painted backgrounds1 and an equal number without4 ,there are also hundreds of cases of small mammals mounted in the same way4 ,artificial ,leaves4--,the accessories most available are grasses and ferns carefully pressed1 dried1 and painted green1 and set in the foundation work4 ,natural moss is used in the same way1 and for bushes with foliage1 artificial leaves are easily procured and wired on to the twigs of the branch that has been selected for use4 ,these can be procured of any first-class dealer in taxidermists' supplies1 or at large artificial flower establishments4 ,if leaves of some special kind are desired1 or leaves in great quantity1 it will be best to procure them direct of ,c4 ,pelletier1 #ace ,wooster ,street1 ,new ,york ,city1 who has supplied me for eight years4 ,the cost of leaves varies from #be cents to #b4jj per gross2 and for some kinds even more4 ,water and ,ice4--,to represent water1 use a sheet of clear glass1 and build up underneath it a bottom of sand1 or gravel1 or weeds1 as may be necessary4 ,ice is easily counterfeited by coating a sheet of glass or wood with paraffin1 which is quite white1 and sufficiently transparent to give the proper effect4 ,icicles are manufactured by ,demuth ,brothers1 #hi ,walker ,street1 ,new ,york1 especially for taxidermists1 at very moderate prices1 and are infinitely better than anything the taxidermist can produce4 ,they are fastened to the sides of snow-covered rocks1 or wherever they belong1 by setting them at the base in stiff papier-mach with sinew glue4 ,snow is made by flowing plaster ,paris over the surface to be covered1 and dressing its surface at once2 and then1 before it becomes quite hard1 sprinkling its surface with painter's frosting1 which is exceedingly thin flakes of clear glass1 and must be ground up in a mortar to get it fine enough to use4 ,if ground too finely1 it becomes a dull white powder1 like marble dust1 and is useless4 ,in order to give a glistening appearance to the surface the particles must be large enough to reflect light4 ,mica is of no use for this purpose4 ,in making the snow that covers the ground underneath the group of musk ox in the ,national ,museum1 ,mr4 ,joseph ,palmer invented a compound composed of the pulp of white blotting-paper1 starch1 and plaster ,paris1 which made a white1 fluffy-looking mass that could be sprinkled over the ground by hand1 and closely resembles a light fall of snow4 ,for the preparation of boughs of evergreens for use in groups1 so that the needles will not fall off the twigs1 ,mr4 ,jenness ,richardson1 taxidermist to the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history1 in ,new ,york1 has1 by long and patient experimenting1 evolved a solution in which he actually effects the complete preservation of coniferous foliage4 ,when the branches to be used have been put through this liquid and dried1 they are afterward painted1 and are really as perfect as when living on the parent stem4 ,mr4 ,richardson has kindly put me in possession of the knowledge of his entire process1 but ,i am not at liberty to publish it at present4 ,painted ,backgrounds4--,the beauty of a wall-case1 or indeed of any group in a flat case1 is greatly enhanced by the addition of a painted background of the proper character to represent the home surroundings of the living creatures in front of it4 ,of course the back must seem to be a harmonious continuation of the bottom1 where the real objects are4 ,the tints of the picture should be very quiet1 and by no means gaudy or striking1 and should not attract attention away from the zoological specimens4 ,the objects to be gained in a painted background are distance1 airiness1 and1 above all1 a knowledge of the country inhabited by the bird or mammal4 ,as an example of the value of a painted background in the production of a pleasing effect1 the reader is respectfully referred to a group the writer produced nine years ago1 entitled ,coming to the ,point1 and now in the ,national ,museum 7see ,fig4 #a1 ,plate ,,xvi474 ,it is not boasting to say that that simple group1 composed of a white setter dog1 six partridges1 a bush full of autumn-tinted leaves1 and a really handsome painted background 7by ,mary ,e4,w4 ,jeffrey7 has given more pleasure than anything else the writer ever produced4 ,the case is only ten inches deep1 but the apparent distance is about a mile1 and the autumn scene is very acceptable to the public1 sportsmen especially4 ,as yet the museums will have no painted backgrounds4 ,ten years ago they would have no groups1 and no birds with painted legs and beaks4 ,they have all come to the two latter1 and they will all come to painted backgrounds also1 in due time1 and it will be a good thing for them when they do4 ,if ,i am ever at the head of a museum1 it shall have groups with painted backgrounds galore1 and there will be imitators thereof in plenty4 ,there is in this direction a vast field which has hardly been touched1 and when it is once developed the world will be the gainer4 ,museum managers the world over are too conservative by half4 ,some of them will get out of the ruts they are in by following others2 some will not get out until they are dragged out1 and a few others will never get out at all4 ,twenty-five years hence the zoological museums of this country will be as attractive and pleasing as the picture galleries1 and they will teach ten times as many object-lessons as they do now4 ,to-day the average museum is as lifeless as a dictionary2 but the museum of the future will be life itself4 ,in ,plate ,,xvi4 are shown three other examples of wall-cases1 of different kinds4 ,fig4 #aj is a group of humming-birds1 with choice accessories1 under a hemispherical glass shade1 surrounded by a black velvet mat1 and set in a rich gold frame4 ,this exceedingly artistic arrangement is designed either to stand on an easel or hang on the wall1 and is the work of ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,george ,h4 ,hedley4 ,no4 #aa represents a group of gray squirrels in a rustic case made of papier-mach1 with glass front1 top1 and sides1 and natural accessories1 the work of ,mr4 ,joseph ,palmer1 of the ,national ,museum4 ,no4 #ab represents a group of south southerly ducks at the edge of a marsh1 in a square case with closed back1 and painted background4 ,this was prepared by ,mr4 ,william ,palmer4 ,in ,fig4 #eg appears a representation of a very pretty wall-case1 by ,mr4 ,f4,a4 ,lucas4 ,this was one of a series of four companion cases representing the four seasons1 and it is only the very unscientific who need to be informed that the blue-birds building their nest are meant to represent ,spring4 ,,explanation ,,of ,,plate ,,xvi4 ,,contributions ,,of ,,ornamental ,,taxidermy ,,from ,,the ,,new ,,york ,,exhibition ,,of ,,the ,,society ,,of ,,american ,,taxidermists ,,to ,,the ,u4,s4 ,,national ,,museum4 ,fig4 #a4 ,coming to the ,point ,by ,w4,t4 ,hornaday4 ,special ,medal at ,third ,exhibition of ,s4,a4 ,t42 also medal at ,cincinnati ,exposition1 #ahhd4 #b4 ,an ,interrupted ,dinner ,by ,frederic ,a4 ,lucas4 ,diploma of ,honor at ,first ,exhibition4 #c4 ,head of ,caribou ,by ,w4,j4 ,critchley4 7,presented by ,professor ,henry ,a4 ,ward47 #d4 ,peacock ,screen ,by ,thos4 ,w4 ,fraine4 #e4 ,wounded ,heron ,by ,f4,s4 ,webster4 ,second ,specialty ,medal1 ,third ,exhibition1 ,s4,a4,t4 #f4 ,dead ,gull ,by ,edwin ,a4 ,capen4 #g4 ,frightened ,owl ,by ,john ,wallace4 ,special ,medal1 ,third ,exhibition4 #h4 ,bald ,eagle ,by ,john ,wallace4 #i4 ,fox ,squirrel ,by ,p4,w4 ,aldrich4 #aj4 ,humming-,bird ,group ,by ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,geo4 ,h4 ,hedley4 #aa4 ,group of ,gray ,squirrels ,by ,joseph ,palmer4 #ab4 ,group of ,ducks ,by ,william ,palmer4 #ac4 ,grotesque ,group of ,frogs ,by ,j4,f4,d4 ,bailly4 #ad4 ,frogs ,skating ,by ,j4,f4,d4 ,bailly4 #ae4 ,snowy ,heron ,by ,thomas ,rowland4 #af4 ,portrait of ,jules ,verreaux ,by ,j4,f4,d4 ,bailly4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xvi4 ,,ornamental ,illustration3 ,,taxidermy4 ,,table ,,groups4--,very fine specimens are often furnished with cases having glass on all sides1 including the top1 permitting inspection from all points4 ,of course every group of this kind requires a small table for its base4 ,the most striking table group ,i have ever seen is one that was prepared by ,mr4 ,f4,a4 ,lucas1 entitled ,an ,interrupted ,dinner1 and represented by ,fig4 #b1 ,plate ,,xvi4 ,a red-tailed hawk has just killed a ruffed grouse1 and has scarcely begun his meal when a goshawk swoops down upon him with outstretched talons to seize the quarry4 ,the hawk has turned upon his back1 shielding his prey with one wing1 and with beak and talons at full cock is ready to receive his assailant1 who hovers in mid-air immediately above him4 ,the goshawk is supported on an invisible brass standard1 which enters his body by way of the tail1 and the illusion is perfect4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg4--,wall-case of ,birds1 by ,frederic ,a4 ,lucas4 ,mr4 ,frederic ,s4 ,webster has in his ,washington studio a table-case single specimen which is in every sense a masterpiece4 ,it is very nearly a replica1 but with a heron of a larger species1 of his prize piece1 ,the ,wounded ,heron1 represented in ,plate ,,xvi41 ,fig4 #e4 ,a snowy heron lies on its back 7on a black velvet panel71 its breast pierced by a gilt arrow1 which the wounded bird has seized with its right foot1 and is endeavoring to withdraw4 ,the subject is a difficult one1 and its treatment in every detail is masterly4 ,,dead-,,game ,,panels4--,game birds of all kinds--particularly the handsomest ducks1 geese1 grouse1 woodcock1 and snipe--made to represent bunches of dead game1 are very popular as dining-room ornaments1 and during the last ten years the taxidermists of this country have produced thousands of them1 many of great beauty4 ,in regard to their proper make-up ,i will offer a few suggestions4 ,while the bird is yet warm1 or at least relaxed1 hang it up by one leg1 pose it carefully1 and mark out its outline on paper4 ,see that the bird hangs like a dead bird1 and not like a stuffed bird4 ,in mounting the skin1 make the body flat rather than round1 and have the eyes three-quarters closed4 ,the majority of dead-game birds are mounted with their eyes wide open4 ,birds close their eyes when dying4 ,the ,dead ,gull1 shown in ,plate ,,xvi41 ,fig4 #e1 which is the work of ,mr4 ,e4,a4 ,capen1 of ,boston1 author of ,oology of ,new ,england1 may be taken as a perfect model of its kind4 ,in every line it is a dead bird1 one that has been killed with small shot in a sportsman-like manner1 and has fallen dead without a feather awry4 ,,fire-,,screens4--,probably no handsomer fire-screens were ever produced by a taxidermist than those of ,mr4 ,thomas ,w4 ,fraine4 ,the specimen presented by him to the ,national ,museum is represented in ,plate ,,xvi41 ,fig4 #d4 ,it is made of the mounted head and neck of a peacock1 set against a background of the ocellated tail feathers1 of which the magnificent metallic feather shield from the bird's back forms the centre4 ,the framework is a very thin board of tough but light wood1 the back of which is covered with satin or raw silk1 and the whole is supported on an elegant gilt tripod standard4 ,the effect of this arrangement as a whole is truly superb1 and it is no wonder that ,mr4 ,fraine's peacock screens have been very popular4 ,the wings of the roseate spoonbill1 the scarlet ibis1 pelican1 egret1 great blue heron1 and many other birds1 are often made into fire-screens1 either with or without the mounted head and neck4 ,of these the two first mentioned are the most beautiful1 especially the roseate spoonbill4 ,there is one form of screen produced in the west against which ,i protest4 ,an entire bird is mounted standing on a perch-standard1 its wings are spread full stretch1 and drawn upward1 regardless of the laws of anatomy1 until the front edges meet and touch on a perpendicular line above the bird's back4 ,such an arrangement of wings for a bird that is otherwise naturally mounted is painful to look upon1 to say the least4 ,the bird seems to be undergoing torture1 and the general effect is not pretty4 ,,bird ,,medallions4--,in #ahhj ,mr4 ,f4,s4 ,webster's genius evolved one of the most beautiful designs in ornamental taxidermy ever produced1 viz41 the bird medallion4 ,the idea of mounting one-half of a bird was not of itself a new one1 but ,mr4 ,webster's development of that suggestion was entirely new and novel4 ,instead of mounting one side of a bird with the rotundity that an actual half of a fully mounted bird should possess1 he studiously flattened the subject1 carefully preserving all the while a perfect uniformity in proportions1 and in each case produced the proportions of an ordinary medallion4 ,of course both legs appeared on the specimen1 and every specimen so mounted was the finest of its kind1 and faultless in form and finish4 ,the first specimen of this sort may be described as a type of all the rest4 ,the subject chosen was a snowy heron 7,ardea caudidissima7 of extra fine quality4 ,in the centre of a massive and very deep gold and velvet frame1 with a glass across its top1 against a background of black velvet of the heaviest and finest quality stood the snow-white bird1 in relief1--a genuine medallion4 ,the exquisite plumes of the head1 breast1 and back lay against the rich black cloth like threads of spun glass4 ,the head was raised1 and the beak slightly elevated in a very life-like attitude2 the body rested on one leg1 which stood on a little gilt log1 modeled in papier-mach1 and the other foot was held up near the breast in an attitude characteristic of the herons4 ,the effect as a whole was charming4 ,there was nothing gaudy1 nor cheap1 nor hard in the arrangement1 and the idea was a great success4 ,the receiving-frame used by ,mr4 ,webster was also his own design1 called forth by the necessity of fully protecting the work4 ,other birds that became popular subjects for treatment in this way were the wood duck1 scarlet ibis1 white ibis1 roseate spoonbill1 ,english pheasant1 and resplendent trogon4 ,of course the color and quality of the material used as a background was varied to suit the colors of each subject1 but of all the materials tried1 plush proved to be most acceptable4 ,,heads4--,this subject has been fully discussed in another chapter4 ,an additional example1 showing a particularly fine head of a barren ground caribou1 on a shield of a very artistic pattern1 is to be seen in ,plate ,,xvi41 ,fig4 #c1 the original of which was mounted by ,mr4 ,william ,j4 ,critchley1 and presented to the ,society1 for its exhibit in the ,national ,museum1 by ,professor ,henry ,a4 ,ward4 ,,single ,,specimens4--,eagles1 owls1 hawks1 ravens1 crows1 herons1 ducks1 grouse1 and other game birds in general1 mounted singly1 on either plain or fancy pedestals1 make very interesting and proper ornaments for the tops of book-cases1 wall-brackets1 easels1 and the like4 ,good examples of objects of this class are represented in ,plate ,,xvi4 as follows3 ,fig4 #h1 ,bald ,eagle2 ,fig4 #g1 ,frightened ,owl1 by ,mr4 ,john ,wallace1 of ,new ,york ,city2 ,fig4 #ae1 ,snowy ,egret1 by ,mr4 ,thomas ,rowland2 and ,no4 #i1 ,gray ,squirrel1 by ,mr4 ,p4,w4 ,aldrich1 of ,boston4 ,,grotesque ,,groups4--,no one who has ever visited one of the exhibitions of the ,s4,a4,t4 is likely to forget the exceedingly droll and mirth-provoking groups of stuffed frogs1 caricaturing poor humanity1 produced by ,mr4 ,j4,f4,d4 ,bailly1 now of ,montreal1 ,canada4 ,as a humorist and satirist our old friend ,bailly has few equals1 and1 in conjunction with his fine mechanical skill1 his love of the ridiculous took permanent form in groups of frogs4 ,the frog seems to have been created for the especial purpose of enabling ,monsieur ,bailly to caricature mankind4 ,the results must be seen to be appreciated4 ,we have had groups of frogs duelling1 playing billiards1 making love1 getting drunk1 smoking1 dancing1 fishing1 gaming1 electioneering1 and what not4 ,for frogs1 however1 there is only one taxidermist1 for ,i have never seen anyone else1 either ,french or ,american1 who could even rival our old friend4 ,he skinned every frog through its mouth1 without breaking the skin1 turned it wrong side out1 wired it1 made its legs of cotton1 turned it back1 filled its body with cotton1 set it up in position1 varnished it all over1 and fitted it out with miniature furniture to suit the subject4 ,mr4 ,bailly used to cut similar taxidermic capers with squirrels1 and ,messrs4 ,critchley1 ,lucas1 and others have produced some very amusing grotesque pieces with cats and kittens4 ,in ,plate ,,xvi41 ,fig4 #ae1 is shown 7indistinctly7 one of ,mr4 ,bailly's frog groups1 entitled ,sold ,again4 ,a fisherman is in the act of pulling out a big fish1 which the attending small boy reaches out to take in with a dip-net1 when the fish turns out to be only an old shoe4 ,,fur ,,rugs ,,with ,,mounted ,,heads4--,before a raw pelt or skin can be made up as a rug1 it must be sent to a first-class tanner1 and thoroughly tanned and dressed4 ,this process should make the skin clean1 soft1 and pliable4 ,if the head is to be mounted1 that part should not be tanned1 nor put through any process4 ,after the skin has been properly tanned1 relax the head1 and mount it in such a manner that the head will lie as flat as possible upon the floor4 ,when the skull is present1 it is customary to mount tiger1 leopard1 and bear rugs with the mouth open1 snarling4 ,some prefer to have a head mounted with the lower jaw entirely off1 and only the upper half of the head filled out4 ,this makes of the head what is known as a mask4 ,every rug requires to have an inner lining of buckram to give it body and stiffness sufficient to keep it spread out flat4 ,underneath that must come the lining proper1 of quilted felt of suitable color1 which is generally left projecting an inch or two beyond the skin all around4 ,this projecting edge is pinked with a pinking iron1 to make it more ornamental4 ,the finest work on rugs1 particularly the finer kinds1 such as lion1 tiger1 leopard1 and bear1 is done by ,mr4 ,f4,s4 ,webster1 of ,washington1 who has developed this line of work most handsomely and systematically1 and who does an immense amount of it4 ,elsewhere in this book appears full directions for the preservation of skins for sale as pelts for furriers' use4 ,,how ,,to ,,make ,,imitation ,,rocks4--,in making a rockwork pedestal1 the first thing is to build your foundation1 of wood if it be very large1 of wood covered with very stiff and strong paper1 if it be small4 ,in the latter case there must be a wooden skeleton to which the paper may be tacked4 ,having tacked the paper on in large sheets1 and duly crumpled it to get the proper form of the rocky mass1 give the paper a coat of thick glue4 ,when dry it will be quite stiff and strong4 ,now apply papier-mach of a coarse quality1 and model its surface to show the proper angles or lines of stratification4 ,procure some granite or sandstone1 or whatever rock you choose to imitate1 pound it up as finely as necessary1 and after giving the surface of the papier-mach a coat of thick glue1 apply your rock material by throwing it against the surface to be covered1 so that the particles indent the surface and stick fast4 ,in this way the whole surface can be completely covered1 and when it is done with the actual material1 no painting is necessary4 ,the possibilities and variations in this line are infinite1 and so much depends upon circumstances it is unprofitable to go further into details4 ,very pretty single pieces1 or small masses of rock1 may be made by using peat1 or coke1 or cork1 either in large pieces or smaller pieces glued together1 and covering the surface with fine sand mixed with various dry colors1 and adding colored lichens in spots here and there4 ,cloth is poor stuff to use in making rockwork4 ,it draws in straight lines1 and in smooth1 plain surfaces4 ,it generally shows up the wooden framework to perfection4 ,use manila paper instead1 by all means1 and take great pains in shaping your wooden foundation4 ,always avoid straight lines and plain surfaces4 ,,chapter ,,xxix4 ,,groups ,,and ,,grouping4 ,the rapidity with which the art of taxidermy has won its way to public favor in the ,united ,states during the last two decades is certainly very gratifying4 ,less than twenty years ago a great naturalist declared that a skin stuffed is a skin spoiled4 ,even ten years ago the only specimens permitted in museums were those that were mounted singly1 in stereotyped attitudes1 on polished pedestals of hard wood4 ,between the years #ahfj and #ahgf a few of the more ambitious taxidermists of ,europe produced various groups of mammals1 large and small4 ,of these1 one of the most noteworthy was the ,lion and ,tiger ,struggle1 by ,edwin ,ward1 of ,london1 and another was ,jules ,verreaux's ,arab ,courier attacked by ,lions4 ,the most of these groups represented animals in theatrical attitudes1 usually fighting4 ,while they were of much interest for certain purposes1 they were of but little value to persons desiring to study typical forms of the species which were represented4 ,it would have been quite as appropriate to place the ,dying ,gladiator or ,the ,laocoon in an ethnological museum1 as it would have been to place such groups as the ,lion and ,tiger ,struggle of ,edwin ,ward1 or ,rowland ,ward's ,combat of ,red ,deer1 in a collection of mounted mammals in a scientific museum4 ,up to the year #ahgi no large groups of mammals had been prepared in this country which were considered appropriate for scientific display collections4 ,furthermore1 the production of groups of mammals or birds suitable for scientific museums was generally considered an impossibility4 ,in #ahgi the writer returned from a collecting trip to the ,east ,indies1 having in mind numerous designs for groups of mammals1 both large and small4 ,it was believed then that many of these would not only be suitable for scientific museums1 but would also be far more attractive and instructive than ordinary specimens4 ,a design for a group of orang utans was prepared and submitted to ,professor ,henry ,a4 ,ward1 with whom the writer was then associated1 at his ,natural ,history ,establishment1 with a proposition to prepare such a group as was there represented4 ,after considerable hesitation ,professor ,ward finally decided to let the experiment be tried1 and the group was prepared according to the design4 ,i do not deny the soft impeachment that in one respect this design was highly suggestive of the methods adopted by my ,european rivals to secure attention to their work1 or1 in other words1 it was a trifle sensational4 ,the group in question represented a pair of immense and hideously ugly male orang utans fighting furiously while they hung suspended in the tree-tops4 ,the father of an interesting family was evidently being assailed by a rival for the affection of the female orang utan1 who1 with a small infant clinging to her breast1 had hastily quitted her nest of green branches1 and was seeking taller timber4 ,the nest which she had just quitted was an accurate representation of the nest constructed by this great ape4 ,in the middle of the group1 and at the highest point1 was another nest in the top of a sapling1 on the edge of which another interesting young orang utan--a production evidently of the previous year1 was gazing down with wide-eyed wonder at the fracas going on below4 ,the accessories to this were so designed and arranged as to represent an actual section of the top of a ,bornean forest1 at a height of about thirty feet from the ground1 representing the natural trees1 with leaves1 orchids1 pepper-vines1 moss1 and vegetation galore4 ,for such a subject an unusual amount of care was bestowed on the accessories4 ,although the design of this group included the theatrical feature of a combat between animals1 there was method in this madness4 ,this feature was introduced for the specific purpose of attracting attention to the group and inviting discussion4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xvii4 ,reproduced from ,two ,years in the ,jungle4 ,a ,,fight ,,in ,,the ,,tree-,,tops4 7,,part ,,of ,,the ,,group ,,in ,,the ,,national ,,museum1 ,,mounted ,,by ,,the ,,author47 ,the remainder of the group was of such a character that it seemed no scientific observer could find fault with its naturalness4 ,all the various members of the group were represented in natural attitudes 7the result of elaborate life-studies in the ,bornean jungles71 and each one told its own story of the orang utan's life and habits 7,plate ,,xvii47 ,it is not too much to say that the group caught the popular fancy4 ,it was completed in ,september1 #ahgi1 just in time to be sent to ,saratoga1 for exhibition before the meeting of the ,american ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 ostensibly for the purpose of illustrating a paper by the author on ,the ,species of ,bornean ,orangs4 ,naturally it attracted considerable attention1 and it seemed to meet the approval of the members of the ,association1 particularly the museum directors and superintendents1 who were especially interested in such work4 ,although it may be the reverse of modest in me to say so1 ,i cannot help believing that the production of that group marked the beginning of an era in the progress of museum taxidermy in the ,united ,states4 ,the price placed upon this group 7#b1jjj7 prevented its immediate sale2 but in a short time another group of orang utans1 similar in composition but of a very different design1 was ordered by ,mr4 ,robert ,colgate1 of ,new ,york1 for the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history1 and prepared by the writer at ,professor ,ward's establishment4 ,this group represented the orang at home--a perfectly peaceful scene in the top of a ,bornean forest4 ,it included five orang utans1 of various sizes and ages1 feeding on durions1 sleeping in a nest1 climbing1 sitting1 and swinging4 ,this group was also very well received by the public4 ,as in the case of the first production1 the accessories were all carefully worked out4 ,the price paid for this group was #a1ejj4 ,in the year #ahhj1 when the ,society of ,american ,taxidermists was organized in ,rochester1 ,n4,y41 for the development of the art of taxidermy1 the museum-group idea was much discussed by its founders at ,ward's ,natural ,science ,establishment4 ,mr4 ,frederic ,s4 ,webster determined to make a further test of public sentiment by the production of a large group of birds1 designed especially for a place in some scientific museum4 ,with most praiseworthy enterprise he accordingly prepared1 at his own expense1 and with great care and skill1 a group of three flamingoes of the largest size4 ,two of the birds were represented as standing at the edge of a shallow lagoon1 and the third was sitting on its nest of mud4 ,the water of the lagoon was successfully represented1 as also were certain aquatic plants by artificial productions of the finest kinds4 ,at the first exhibition of the ,society1 which was held in ,rochester1 in #ahhj1 this group1 and also the first group of orang utans1 ,a ,battle in the ,tree-tops1 was exhibited4 ,to the group of orang utans was awarded the specialty medal1 offered for the best piece in the entire exhibition2 but to the surprise of everyone1 save the judges themselves1 and to the consternation and chagrin of the founders of the ,society1 the group of flamingoes was entirely ignored1 and the medal offered for the second best piece in the entire exhibition was awarded to a solitary wood-duck1 mounted by ,mr4 ,webster1 and figured herewith 7,fig4 #eh74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh4--,mr4 ,webster's ,prize ,wood-,duck4 ,the failure of the flamingo group to receive any recognition caused deep disappointment to all those who had watched its production with so much interest and hopeful anticipation4 ,it had been fondly hoped that it might prove to be the predecessor of a long series of bird groups of the most varied and interesting character4 ,the judges of this exhibition were men of high scientific attainments1 and their honesty of purpose in making their awards could not be questioned for a moment4 ,on being mildly taken to task for their failure to appreciate the group of flamingoes1 the judges maintained that such groups were not suitable for scientific museums1 as was the evident intention in its preparation4 ,arguments to the contrary were of no avail1 and the believers in such groups were obliged for the time being to hang their harps on the willows4 ,it is a pleasure to record the fact that1 although the time had not then arrived1 subsequent events have proved that the idea of the group-makers was a good one2 and1 although the production of groups did not come to pass precisely as was then anticipated1 time has wrought its perfect work1 and groups are now the order of the day4 ,in #ahhb the writer was appointed chief taxidermist of the ,national ,museum4 ,in the year following1 the first group of orang utans1 ,the ,fight in the ,tree-tops1 was purchased of ,professor ,ward by that institution1 and after being partly reconstructed was placed on exhibition in the ,hall of ,mammals1 where it now is4 ,since it left his establishment1 ,professor ,ward has been pleased to call it the king of groups4 ,the group idea was frequently advanced by the writer to the directors of the ,national ,museum1 but the time for its practical adoption on a liberal scale did not arrive until #ahhf4 ,it is true that in #ahhd ,professor ,goode had six groups of ducks prepared by ,mr4 ,webster1 and six bird groups of the same size prepared by ,mr4 ,marshall at the ,museum2 but with the completion of these the mounting of bird groups there came to an end4 ,the condition of the regular exhibition series of mounted mammals demanded several years' uninterrupted work before any attention could be devoted to such exceptional work as the preparation of groups either large or small4 ,finally1 in the year #ahhf1 the auspicious moment arrived4 ,the collecting by the writer of a very large series of specimens of the ,american bison resulted in his receiving permission to prepare a large mounted group after his own design4 ,to his intense gratification he was given carte blanche as to time and expense1 and no limit was placed on the size of the group1 the character or extent of the accessories1 or the cost of the case to contain all4 ,the experiment was to be regarded as a crucial test of the group idea as adapted to the purposes of scientific museums4 ,while the group of buffaloes was still in course of preparation1 the writer prepared1 as a feeler1 a very simple group1 consisting of three coyotes1 a large male and female and one young specimen4 ,the attitudes and grouping was simplicity itself1 and the ground was nothing but gravelly sod1 bearing a few stunted bunches of bad-lands grass4 ,in order that familiarity might not breed contempt1 this group was kept carefully secluded from the observation of the ,assistant ,director until it was finished and in its case in the mammal hall of the museum4 ,its character was about as follows3 ,a young specimen--a puppy about four weeks old--was playfully endeavoring to pull the jawbone of an antelope out of its mother's mouth4 ,standing a trifle behind these two stood the father of the family1 a really noble specimen of the species1 if by any stretch of the imagination a coyote--the king of sneaks--can be considered noble4 ,his head was held high in the air1 and he was undoubtedly looking afar off1 as if watching for the coming of the man with a gun4 7,see ,plate ,,xviii47 ,this little group was heartily approved1 and the question of groups in the ,national ,museum was settled forever before the production of the buffalo group was fully accomplished4 ,the idea as a whole was pronounced not only satisfactory1 but exceedingly desirable1 and orders were given that groups of all the more important ,american mammals should be designed and produced as rapidly as practicable4 ,work was immediately commenced on several other groups1 and by the time the group of buffaloes was completed and ready for exhibition1 which occurred in ,march1 #ahhh1 three other groups were ready to be displayed at the same time1 viz41 of antelopes1 prairie-dogs1 and opossums4 ,the reception accorded the group of buffaloes settled all doubt that might have previously existed regarding the estimation in which such productions would be held by the public4 ,at present the only trouble which the taxidermic department of the ,national ,museum labors under is that it is unable to produce groups of mammals half fast enough4 ,in ,march1 #ahij1 a large group of moose1 of the same dimensions as the group of buffaloes1 was completed1 and a group of musk oxen was completed a month later4 ,many other groups are in course of preparation4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xviii4 ,,group ,,of ,,coyotes4 ,,mounted ,,by ,,the ,,author4 ,by a curious coincidence1 within three years from the time the ,society of ,american ,taxidermists found its first group of birds so frowned upon by museum officers1 the ,british ,museum undertook the preparation of a large series of mounted groups of birds1 with accessories both natural and manufactured4 ,precisely in line with our idea1 these groups were intended to show the birds in their haunts1 and1 as far as possible1 to show their nesting habits4 ,naturally enough they were produced with the care which such subjects merit1 and the results are truly admirable4 ,when some of these groups were seen by the enterprising and far-sighted ,president of the ,board of ,trustees of the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history1 ,mr4 ,morris ,k4 ,jesup1 he immediately determined to have a series of bird groups prepared for the great institution he has for many years so ably directed4 ,he engaged ,mr4 ,jenness ,richardson1 then in the taxidermic department of the ,national ,museum1 and the work was begun in #ahhf4 ,mr4 ,richardson never saw any of the bird groups of the ,british ,museum1 and the work he has produced is as much his own as though the ,british ,museum collection had never existed4 ,going as he did from the ,national ,museum1 the group idea was by no means new to him1 and the seventy beautiful groups he has since produced stand as a lasting monument to his skill as a taxidermist1 his artistic conception in designing1 and his energy as a collector4 ,no other feature in the entire ,museum of ,natural ,history at ,new ,york is so attractive and pleasing to the general public as are the groups of mounted birds4 ,,chapter ,,xxx4 ,,general ,,principles ,,of ,,group-,,making4 ,there are several vital principles which apply to all kinds of groups1 both large and small1 and we must consider these before proceeding to discuss the different kinds of groups4 ,,specimens4--,the specimens selected to compose a group should by all means be the finest procurable4 ,it is a mistake to go to the trouble and expense of mounting a number of specimens in a group unless each object is entirely satisfactory in quality4 ,if the group is to represent a family1 let the old male and female specimens be of the largest size1 and with the finest possible pelage or plumage1 as the case may be4 ,do not begin the mounting of a group until you have in hand a series of specimens that is entirely satisfactory4 ,let them be so fine that their quality will be remarked by all observers4 ,it will then be a pleasure to lavish work upon them4 ,even if you should mount a specimen and afterward discover that it is inferior1 discard it by all means in favor of a better one4 ,a large group of either mammals or birds represents a very considerable outlay in money and time1 and unless the quality of the specimens is above criticism1 the group is by no means a success4 ,i have found that it is a work of from one to two years' time to procure the specimens necessary for a complete group of large mammals of any kind4 ,the best of all ways to procure specimens for groups is to go into the field1 find them in their haunts1 study them alive1 study their habitat and their habits2 shoot1 measure1 and preserve them with your own hands4 ,if you are unable to do this yourself1 then it must be done for you by some competent person1 under your direction4 ,in procuring young animals1 which are very necessary in nearly all groups for scientific purposes1 the greatest vigilance is required to enable the collector to secure the specimens just when they reach the right age and size4 ,,design4--,when you have determined to prepare a group of a certain species1 study the character and size of the subjects to compose it1 and then begin by sketching1 to the best of your ability1 a design in which each specimen shall have its place and attitude4 ,in the preparation of large groups1 ,i have always found the satisfactory arrangement of the specimens the most puzzling and perplexing feature of the work4 ,but however difficult it may be to satisfy myself with a design1 ,i never proceed with a group until the composition of my sketch group is satisfactory4 ,the two largest and finest specimens in a group should constitute its central and commanding figures4 ,put as little life as possible in the corners of a group1 and by all means make the specimens show an interest in1 and a relation to1 each other4 ,the design must be dominated by one central idea or purpose1 which should never be lost sight of in the arrangement of the group4 ,it is unnecessary to say that each group should form a perfect picture1 compact1 well rounded1 and the relationship of the different specimens to each other should be so clearly defined as to leave no room for the suggestion that the specimens have been mounted independently1 and simply placed together4 ,,space4--,no matter how small or large a group may be1 to be perfect in effect it must have abundant case-room4 ,let there be some room to spare in the corners and above the group4 ,the top of the case should by all means be of glass4 ,an airy1 light1 out-door effect can not be secured in a small1 cramped cage1 in which the specimens appear like caged circus animals4 ,if you wish to have your specimens look alive1 and as if they are really on their native heath1 they must not be cabin'd1 cribb'd1 confin'd4 ,,accessories4--,although poor accessories are better than none1 you will1 of course1 have them all as nearly perfect as possible4 ,spare neither time1 trouble1 nor expense in procuring the finest collection of accessories that you can possibly gather4 ,do not think you must be satisfied with the first that comes to hand1 but search far and wide until you have obtained precisely what you want4 ,do not be too lavish in the use of accessory material4 ,remember that enough is as good as a feast1 and too much is good for nothing4 ,there are two principles1 either one of which can govern you in your selection of accessory material4 ,one is to select a given spot of ground of precisely the same area as the section you propose to use as the groundwork of your group1 and reproduce only such materials as are found on that particular square of mother earth4 ,this is the idea which has been strictly followed in the preparation of the groups of birds in the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history by ,mr4 ,richardson4 ,i hold to a different principle4 ,i believe that it is best to select from a given locality such material as will best represent an ideal section of the country to be represented as the habitat of the group4 ,of course1 it is necessary to exercise care not to bring together too great an assortment of materials4 ,by acting on this principle we secure a limited selection of the most common and familiar species of plants in a given locality1 and at the same time have the advantage of arranging them for the best artistic effect on the ground which has been prepared to accommodate the group according to the design4 ,with small groups1 in which a nest or burrow is to be represented1 it is an easy and simple matter to reproduce the exact situation in which the home of the animal was situated4 ,in the preparation of large groups this is a practicable impossibility4 ,,special ,,exhibition ,,groups4--,to this class properly belongs such subjects as ,verreaux's ,arab ,courier attacked by ,lions2 ,edwin ,ward's ,lion and ,tiger ,struggle2 and the two groups1 ,lions ,fighting and ,horseman attacked by ,tigers1 prepared by ,john ,wallace1 of ,new ,york4 ,such groups are bold in design1 theatrical in effect1 and each one is supposed to represent a tour de force on the part of the originator4 ,they are valuable for great expositions1 for show-windows1 fairs1 crystal palaces1 and the like4 ,for such purposes the more startling they are1 the better4 ,animals are usually chosen which will admit of a representation of vigorous action4 ,the most favorite theme is large animals in combat4 ,he who has the boldness to introduce the human form divine in such a composition will oftener than otherwise have occasion to wish he hadn't4 ,the human figure is1 at best1 a difficult subject to handle1 and in its introduction with mounted quadrupeds the designer often finds1 to his sorrow1 how very short is the step from the sublime to the ridiculous4 ,in general ,i should say that the human figure is an excellent thing to leave out of a group of mounted quadrupeds1 unless it happens to be an ,esquimau completely enveloped in thick furs4 ,in the preparation of groups of this class1 the ambitious taxidermist has before him almost as great a variety of subjects as has the sculptor1 since his work is subject to precisely the same general rules4 ,,chapter ,,xxxi4 ,,groups ,,of ,,mammals4 ,,grouping ,,small ,,mammals4--,since our small mammals can not migrate south in winter1 as do the birds1 each species must provide itself with a winter home1 or perish4 ,the nesting and burrowing habits of these builders of homes without hands afford a most interesting field for investigation and study1 and one which is of great interest to everyone4 ,almost without exception1 every mammalian species found in the ,united ,states below the size of the coyote1 establishes for itself during a part1 if not the whole1 of the year1 a fixed habitation4 ,some of the more enterprising species1 notably the squirrels and rabbits1 enjoy the luxury of a summer residence as well as a winter home4 ,the groups of small mammals which the ,national ,museum is now producing and placing upon exhibition have for one of their principal features the illustration of the homemaking habits of the species represented4 ,a mention of one or two examples will serve to convey an idea of the type of each class4 ,a group of ,american opossums may be taken as a good example4 ,the case which encloses the entire group is #d feet long1 #c feet wide1 and #c feet high4 ,the frame of the case is as light as possible1 and all four sides and the top are of glass4 ,on the side of a sloping bank stands the base of a small gum-tree1 with the roots on the lower side exposed by the crumbling away of the bank4 ,of course the trunk rises to the top of the case1 where it is cut squarely off4 ,at the bottom of the sloping bank1 between two of the roots1 is an opening1 which is recognized at once as the doorway to the opossum's home4 ,the burrow winds upward between the roots of the tree1 and finally turns off to the left into the bank1 where1 after running through a passage-way of two or three feet in length1 the nest itself is found4 ,it is in a pocket-like excavation1 and a circular section is cut out of the front of the bank so as to make an opening through which the nest can be seen4 ,the nest is lined with dead leaves1 in which lies an opossum curled up and sound asleep4 ,at the back of the case a sectional view of the bank is represented1 and by means of an opening cut here and there1 the course of the burrow is plainly seen4 ,in the foreground is an old mother opossum with several young ones riding on her back1 clinging to her gray coat1 while the head of another protrudes from her pouch4 ,this represents the manner in which the opossum carries her young after they have reached a certain age4 ,from a small branch hangs another opossum1 suspended by its prehensile tail1 sprawling in mid-air4 ,this specimen is a female1 and shows the size and location of the wonderful marsupial pouch4 ,another individual is climbing up the trunk of the tree4 ,a fourth specimen1 which has been disturbed by another1 is pausing to protest with widely opened mouth1 while in the act of creeping into the mouth of the burrow4 ,please notice the number of facts that are taught by this simple little group4 ,it shows that the opossum is a marsupial1 and the female carries her young in a pouch in her own body2 that when the young reach a certain age1 they ride upon the mother's back1 clinging to her fur2 that the animal is arboreal in habit1 and has a prehensile tail1 by which it is capable of suspending itself2 that it burrows in banks in dry situations1 and sleeps curled up like a ball in a bed of dry leaves4 ,it also shows the full size of the adult1 the young of the previous year1 and the recent brood4 ,but for an unfortunate accident1 which has yet to be repaired1 it would also show the number born at one birth4 ,of course in this group the grass and moss is properly represented1 and there are artificial leaves on the tree branches which enter the group4 ,groups of this class can easily be made to show the ordinary nesting and breeding habits of the animals represented4 ,now it happens that animals of some species make a variety of nests1 according to circumstances or caprice4 ,in #ahhi we prepared a group in three sections1 each of which shows one of the habits of the gray squirrel in nesting4 ,each is composed of an actual nest1 and in the identical tree in which it was built by ,bunny himself4 ,one represents a nest in a hollow beech tree1 in which a pair of gray squirrels bred for years4 ,another is what might be called a summer nest1 made of cedar bark1 in the top of a cedar tree4 ,it is a round ball1 and in size and shape much resembles a hornet's nest4 ,the third section represents an outside nest of green oak-leaves1 placed on a branch of an oak tree4 ,these three groups are exhibited in one case1 but while each is separated from the others by a plate of heavy tinted glass1 it is made apparent that they all illustrate the habits of the same animal4 ,the specimens composing the three groups were all collected within a radius of ten miles of the city of ,washington4 ,besides teaching what the nesting habits of the gray squirrel are1 it also impresses upon the observer the very important fact that the habits of different individuals of a given species are capable of wide variation4 ,they show how dangerous it is for a student or scientific investigator to generalize too freely from one or two facts1 and that it is dangerous for anyone to say what an animal will not do6 ,in beginning the preparation of small mammal groups 7for a museum7 the following hints may be of service3 ,it is not necessary that a small group should be designed and sketched out in advance4 ,the first step1 therefore1 is the finding of a typical family of specimens1 and a suitable burrow or nest4 ,the character of the creature's home will largely determine the design of your group4 ,by all means endeavor to secure a nest or burrow which can be fitly shown as a typical home of the creature represented4 ,when the nest of an animal is situated in a tree1 it is nearly always possible to cut out a section of the tree1 and introduce it bodily into your case1 with appropriate leaf settings4 ,when an animal burrows in the ground1 as do the fox and the woodchuck1 the best that can be done is to dig out the spot carefully1 taking measurements and diagrams as you proceed1 to show the direction and size of the entrance and the exact shape and size of the nest4 ,you can then manufacture a bank and reproduce a perfect fac-simile4 ,of course all the nest materials--refuse bones1 hair1 and feathers--must be taken along bodily1 and used in the manufactured nest4 ,in displaying a portion of a tree-trunk which contains a nest1 it has been our custom to saw out a rectangular section at one side of the hollow1 and hang the piece on hinges at one side of the opening1 like an open door1 so that the entire interior and the situation of the nest can be seen4 ,of course it is in order to place a number of the young specimens in the nest in characteristic attitudes4 ,when you have collected a number of young specimens1 mount them at once while the forms and attitudes are fresh in your mind and the skins are in good condition4 ,if you are lucky enough to get the young alive1 you can mount some of the skins while the others serve as living models4 ,now comes an important point4 ,it usually happens that at the time when the young are of the best age to display in a group1 the fur of the adult specimen is at its poorest4 ,worse than that1 shedding is often in progress4 ,no matter what hypercritics may say1 do not hesitate to perpetrate an anachronism by taking adult specimens later in the season1 when their fur is at its best4 ,it would be an injustice to the group1 to the species1 and to yourself1 to include adult specimens in their poorest pelage4 ,along with your groups of young animals1 which necessarily represent conditions during spring or summer1 do not forget to represent some of your species in their winter homes1 with their stores of nuts1 acorns1 etc41 for winter use4 ,the field open to the conscientious and really artistic taxidermist in the preparation of groups is a wide and deeply interesting one4 ,i know of no branch of taxidermy which ought to be more interesting than this4 ,its possibilities are open to all4 ,while it is impossible for everyone to prepare groups of large mammals1 in the matter of small groups you can say1 ,the world's mine oyster4 ,,groups ,,of ,,large ,,mammals4--,in creating a high-class group of large mammals1 it is1 as has been stated before1 extremely desirable to prepare the design first1 and collect the specimens to suit it4 ,there is no burrow or nest to reproduce1 and this course is not only possible1 but usually very necessary4 ,there is one important fact which should never be lost sight of in the preparation of a design for a group of large quadrupeds4 ,if the animals are purely terrestrial1 as will be the case in nearly all large groups1 the largest and finest adult male and female should each stand on a flat and horizontal surface1 in easy and conventional attitudes4 ,this is necessary in order that the form1 height1 and back outline of each of the typical adult specimens can be studied by the technical zoologist with as much certainty and accuracy as any ordinary case specimen standing on a flat pedestal of hard wood4 ,to illustrate the point3 ,if the huge bull bison in our large group had been put walking up hill1 or walking down hill1 it would now be practically impossible for anyone wishing to draw a picture of him to accurately determine the precise angle of his hump4 ,furthermore1 his height at the shoulders would be either exaggerated or diminished1 almost unavoidably4 ,as it is1 he was with deliberate intention mounted on a flat and horizontal surface1 as was the cow also1 so that even though they are in a group they lose nothing whatever of their value to the technical zoologist1 who demands that all specimens shall be mounted on flat surfaces1 and in conventional attitudes for the sake of comparison4 ,having done this much for pure science1 we are at liberty to vary the attitudes of the remaining specimens of the group4 ,in a museum group suppress all tendency to the development of violent action on the part of your specimens4 ,in a well-regulated museum no fighting is allowed4 ,represent every-day1 peaceful1 home scenes in the lives of your animals4 ,seek not to startle and appal the beholder1 but rather to interest and instruct him4 ,surely there are enough quiet and peaceful attitudes to supply all your specimens without exhausting the stock4 ,let them be feeding1 walking1 climbing up1 lying down1 standing on the alert1 playing with each other1 or sleepily ruminating--in fact1 anything but fighting1 leaping1 and running4 ,if you do not happen to know the habits of the animals which form the subject of your group1 and it is impossible for you to learn them by observation1 then must you throw aside all reserve1 and appeal to some one who has seen and studied them in their haunts4 ,it is no child's play to prepare a group of large mammals4 ,it invariably costs several hundreds of dollars1 perhaps even thousands1 and the work is supposed to last a century or longer4 ,judge1 therefore1 how important it is that every detail of the work should be absolutely above criticism4 ,if you mount such a group in haste1 you are certain to repent at leisure4 ,having prepared your design1 collected your specimens1 and made all your studies for the entire group1 the next step1 of course1 is mounting each individual specimen4 ,it is an excellent plan1 and one which we have found particularly satisfactory in grouping ruminants1 to prepare all the manikins before putting any skin on permanently4 ,we begin with the most important specimen4 ,by mounting the manikins one by one1 and grouping them1 we are able to secure the precise artistic effect that was intended in our design4 ,the grouping of the naked manikins from time to time enables you to eliminate errors1 and make such changes in the attitudes as the eye may suggest4 ,a few facts in relation to the work done in setting up the buffalo group will serve as a fair index to work of this kind4 ,of course it is to be understood that every case is to have a wooden floor1 and that one end can be opened bodily4 ,each of our buffaloes stood on a strong1 thick base by itself1 a rough pedestal1 in fact1 of a very substantial character4 ,with pine boards we built a miniature hill1 on which stands the spike bull1 placed him upon it1 and fastened him there permanently4 ,the final work of arrangement was not undertaken until a trial grouping in the case had been satisfactorily made1 and the exact position of each specimen definitely settled4 ,a hole was cut in the bottom of the case1 to give depth to the pool of water4 ,the bottom of this pool was carefully modeled in papier-mach1 and painted4 ,the specimens standing farthest from the end containing the doors were first put in place1 and the groundwork built up around them4 ,the face of the cut bank was made by nailing wire cloth to a skeleton framework of boards1 and covering this with a coarse sort of papier-mach1 made of sawdust1 plaster ,paris1 glue1 and hair1 and used in large quantities4 ,as fast as a specimen was put in place and fastened1 the rough groundwork of boards was covered with the papier-mach composition to make a perfectly smooth foundation to receive the prairie sod4 ,from first to last1 between three and four barrels of this coarse papier-mach was used4 ,it was made to set quickly1 and the modeling which was done on the surface of the cut bank1 and in the bed of the stream1 was done as soon as the soft material was put on4 ,the surface of the pool was represented by a sheet of plate glass1 a quarter of an inch thick4 ,the entire groundwork of the case was covered with genuine prairie sod1 each piece about one inch thick and a foot square1 cut on the buffalo range in ,montana1 and shipped in barrels to ,washington4 ,when this sod became perfectly dry1 it lost all color and had the appearance of cured hay4 ,in order to give it the right tone1 it was necessary to spray it with a thin mixture of green paint in turpentine1 to impart to it a pale green tint4 ,as soon as the papier-mach was dry1 the sod was cut neatly1 matched carefully1 and laid upon it--the joints being skilfully closed4 ,a number of clumps of sage brush and bunches of broom sedge1 grubbed up in ,montana and carefully dried1 were set here and there through the group4 ,a bed of cactus was also introduced in the foreground4 ,the sage brush required no preparation except to pack it carefully1 and dry it after it reached ,washington1 with the branches in position4 ,the leaves were of the right color when dry1 and remained attached to the stems4 ,montana dirt was used in the bottom of the buffalo trail1 and on the side of the cut bank4 ,a few buffalo bones were stuck in the side of the bank to represent fossil bones as they are often seen protruding from the faces of cut banks in ,montana4 ,while the papier-mach around the edge of the pool was yet soft1 tracks were made in it with genuine buffalo hoofs of various sizes1 and many more tracks were made in the dust in the bottom of the buffalo trail4 ,of all the accessories in the buffalo case1 everything in sight came from the ,montana buffalo range1 except the sheet of glass forming the surface of the pool4 ,the last six months of my connection with the ,national ,museum witnessed the completion of the great group of moose1 which we began in #ahhi4 ,in size and general make-up it is a companion piece to the group of buffaloes1 and is a memorial worthy of the colossal species it represents4 ,the setting represents a section of the moose woods of ,upper ,canada1 in which the larger animals are browsing on the tender twigs of the white birch4 ,the animals have come together at the edge of a bog1 which is growing full of a gigantic species of grayish moss1 peculiar to that locality4 ,the time represented is the middle of autumn4 ,the few leaves that remain on the maple saplings have been painted with ,october's most gorgeous tints of crimson and yellow1 mixed with green1 and the leaves of the white birch have turned pale yellow4 ,the ground is plentifully strewn with leaves of bright tints1 through which the green moss of moist banks shows in patches here and there4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xix4 ,drawn by ,c4,b4 ,hudson4 ,,group ,,of ,,american ,,bison ,,in ,,the ,,national ,illustration3 ,,museum4--,,collected ,,and ,,mounted ,,by ,,the ,,author4 ,of the animals1 the three largest--and huge beasts they are1 truly--are feeding upon the birch twigs4 ,a yearling calf is licking the head of a tiny brown-coated younger brother1 while a two-year-old bull is in the act of riding down a stout birch sapling in order to get at the branches of its top1 which would otherwise be beyond his reach4 ,three of these fine specimens were collected by ,colonel ,cecil ,clay1 of ,washington1 and by him presented to the ,museum for this group1 together with the trees1 moss1 and other accessories1 which he collected with infinite labor and care in the moose woods4 ,he also furnished us with field notes and critical advice throughout1 which had much to do in making the group what it is--a monument to ,colonel ,clay's skill and prowess as a sportsman1 and to his deep interest in ,alces malchis4 ,it is to be sincerely hoped that other sportsmen will follow the ,colonel's admirable example1 and aid the museums in which they are most interested to secure some attractive groups4 ,the moose group was followed immediately by the group of musk-oxen1 and there are others of ,rocky ,mountain goat1 mountain sheep1 and sea-lions in course of preparation4 ,,chapter ,,xxxii4 ,,groups ,,of ,,birds ,,and ,,reptiles4 ,the principles which underlie the production of successful groups of birds are precisely the same as those which have already been set forth under the head of ,groups of ,small ,mammals4 ,in addition1 however1 there is another which should be kept constantly in mind1 viz41 to guard against the temptation to permit the accessories of a group to completely overshadow1 and1 ,i might say1 overwhelm1 the specimens themselves4 ,be careful to make the birds conspicuous1 and to avoid the appearance of an exhibit of artificial plants and flowers1 instead of mounted birds4 ,of course each species must be represented by itself in a case which shall contain its nest1 displayed in the identical bough1 or bunch of grass1 or hole in the bank which it occupied when found by the collector4 ,except when a nest is situated in a bank of earth1 the collector should cut a square section out of nature1 of the proper dimensions for casing1 and convey bodily the nest and its situation to the museum4 ,occasionally circumstances will prevent this1 when it becomes necessary to collect the nest and the material surrounding it1 so that with their aid the situation of the nest can be built up in the laboratory4 ,the finest groups of birds to be found in this country are those in the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history in ,new ,york1 which are the work of ,mr4 ,jenness ,richardson4 ,at present 7#ahia7 the series consists of groups composed almost wholly of species found in the ,state of ,new ,york4 ,each group1 except in a few instances1 occupies a light1 iron-framed case by itself1 and stands on an ebonized table-base1 raised on legs about eighteen inches from the floor4 ,the framework of the case1 and the wood-work of the base is painted black4 ,when the home of a ground-nesting bird is shown1 a section has been cut from mother earth1 placed on the base as the foundation1 and all the perishable plants growing thereon have been carefully reproduced in wax by casting1 and put back in place4 ,where a nest was situated in a low bush1 the bush and its foliage1 and the ground beneath have all been included in its transfer4 ,when a nest was placed on the end of a bough1 the difficulty has been surmounted very satisfactorily by cutting off as much of the bough as could be put in the case1 then reproducing1 on the bottom of the case1 the ground exactly as it was under the tree1 and simply laying carelessly upon it the cut branch containing the nest and the birds4 ,of course watery situations call for the introduction of the plate-glass imitation4 ,the feature of these groups that is so pleasing is that each one appears to have been cut out of its place in field or forest1 and brought to the museum within an hour4 ,the life-like birds1 the earth and water1 the natural wood1 and the beautiful foliage of spring combine to impart to each group the breezy freshness of the forest1 the very soul of ,nature all unchanged4 ,to see these charming productions1 fresh from the hand of a true artist-naturalist1 and lay aside the spirit of carping criticism which would find fault with even a heavenly harp1 is the next thing to finding one's self in the actual haunts of our native birds1 with their songs trilling in our ears4 ,mr4 ,richardson's groups lack but one thing--the song of the birds4 ,they are so many pretty pages from ,nature's choicest book1 and actually bring the life of the forest into the otherwise dead and silent museum hall4 ,the time will yet come when our wealthy lovers of art and animated nature will find places in their houses for such groups as these1 and the money to pay for them will be forthcoming4 ,at present they are tired of the old-fashioned glass shade1 covering a stiff and utterly unnatural pyramid of small stuffed birds on an impossible tree4 ,the old-fashioned wall-case of birds also fails to satisfy the sthete1 for the simple reason that something better is wanted4 ,we are all ready to step up to a higher plane4 ,,groups ,,of ,,reptiles4--,i know of but one good group of reptiles1 and that is a group of turtles which was prepared by ,mr4 ,f4,a4 ,lucas1 and displayed at the exhibition of the ,s4,a4,t41 in ,new ,york1 in #ahhc1 where it received a medal1 and afterward was presented by him to the ,national ,museum4 ,this altogether unique and pretty group teaches one very important lesson1 viz41 that even the most commonplace animals are interesting when they are well mounted1 and grouped with a setting which represents their natural haunts4 ,some of the specimens in this group are represented above water1 and some beneath it1 while one enterprising individual is caught in the act of diving1 with part of his body under water and the other half out4 ,the situation represents the successful accomplishment of a very neat mechanical feat1 and is of itself an illustration of the possibilities in such matters4 ,after the quadrupeds of ,north ,america have been gathered and grouped until there remain in that direction no more worlds to conquer1 it will be quite in order for our enterprising taxidermists then to proceed to the mounting of groups of reptiles4 ,there are possibilities with such subjects as the crocodiles1 iguanas1 lizards of various kinds1 serpents1 and turtles that few dream of4 ,already ,professor ,goode has under consideration the production of a series of reptilian groups for the ,national ,museum1 and within a short time the work will be undertaken4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiii4 ,,hints ,,on ,,painting ,,museum ,,specimens4 ,in the preparation of museum specimens in general there is1 from first to last1 a great deal of painting to be done1 and a knowledge of how to paint specimens properly is quite as necessary as a knowledge of how to mount them4 ,materials ,necessary for ,general ,work4 ,brushes for ,fine ,work4 ,artists' round ,sable1 ,no4 #b1 each #h cts4 #d1 #ab cts4 #f1 #ae cts4 #g1 #ah cts4 #i1 #bj cts4 #aa1 #bg cts4 ,brushes for ,ordinary ,work4 ,flat ,fitch 7bristles71 ,no4 #a1 each #g cts4 #b1 #g cts4 #c1 #h cts4 #d1 #aj cts4 #e1 #aj cts4 #f1 #ab cts4 ,brushes for ,coarse ,work4 ,sash tool1 ,no4 #e1 each #bj cts4 #f1 #be cts4 ,sash tool1 ,no4 #g1 each #cj cts4 #h1 #ce cts4 ,palette #be cts4 ,palette knife #be cts4 ,palette cups1 each #aj cts4 ,spirits of turpentine1 per qt4 #ae cts4 ,boiled linseed oil1 per qt4 #bj cts4 ,hard oil finish 7white1 for varnishing7 per pt4 #be cts4 ,windsor ,newton's ,tube ,colors1 as follows3 ,ivory black1 #h cts42 ,vandyke brown1 #h cts42 ,burnt sienna1 #h cts42 ,raw sienna1 #h cts42 ,burnt umber1 #h cts42 ,raw umber1 #h cts42 ,naples yellow1 #h cts42 ,chrome yellow1 #h cts42 ,yellow ochre1 #h cts42 ,indigo1 #h cts42 ,indian red1 #h cts42 ,vermilion1 #ae cts42 ,flake white1 #h cts42 ,sugar of lead1 #h cts4 ,for coarse work1 all these colors1 except the finer ones1 should be bought in one-pound cans1 ground in oil4 ,in addition to colors ground in oil1 it is extremely desirable to have from one to two pounds of each of the following3 ,,dry ,,colors1 ,,and ,,cost ,,per ,,pound4 ,zinc white #aj cts4 ,vandyke brown #ae cts4 ,chrome yellow #be cts4 ,lamp-black #ce cts4 ,plumbago #aj cts4 ,raw sienna #ae cts4 ,burnt umber #ae cts4 ,raw umber #ae cts4 ,burnt sienna #ae cts4 ,to the enterprising taxidermist a few dollars judiciously expended in such materials as the above are bread cast upon the waters1 that will be sure to return to him before many days1 buttered on both sides4 ,no matter what it costs1 have the right kind of brushes1 and a good assortment of coloring materials4 ,do not try to get along with whatever you happen to have1 if it happens to be not the right thing4 ,don't try to paint fish scales with a sash tool1 or delicate fin-rays with a fitch4 ,use for such purposes delicate1 little sable pencils 7flat71 ,nos4 #a to #d4 ,take good care of them after use1 wash them out with soap and water1 or benzine1 and keep them in good working order by keeping them clean and soft4 ,do not let the colors on your palette get in a nasty mess1 fit to turn an artist's stomach inside out1 but keep your palette clean and in good order4 ,take from the tubes only as much color as you are likely to use4 ,keep the centre of your palette free from masses of color1 so that you can have that space for mixing4 ,only those who have first been taught the slipshod ways of the slouch1 and afterward learned the methods of the artist1 can realize the advantages in favor of the latter as revealed in results4 ,,general ,,principles4--,the skins and fleshy parts of all mammals and birds become shrunken1 mummified and colorless when dry1 and if not covered with hair or feathers require to be painted with the colors which have disappeared4 ,as to what the colors should be1 the taxidermist must learn by observation from living specimens1 or those freshly killed1 or from good colored illustrations4 ,,surface4--,whatever the subject to be painted1 the first care is to see that the surface is properly prepared to receive the color4 ,if it be skin1 it must be perfectly clean1 and free from dirt1 dust1 or loose scales4 ,if a skin has any sort of powdery deposit upon it1 it must be scraped clean with a knife4 ,holes and seams must be filled up with papier-mach1 long enough in advance that it will have time to dry4 ,papier-mach which is to be painted should always be given two coats of white shellac1 mixed rather thin1 before putting on any paint4 ,if this is not done1 the mach will absorb two or three coats of paint1 like a sponge1 and the surface will dry perfectly dead4 ,,gloss4--,the colors on terrestrial mammals and birds 7except the mouth parts and noses of the former7 are very seldom1 if ever1 what may be called glossy4 ,the mouth parts of mammals1 or at least such as are wet by the animal's saliva1 are always glossy1 as also are the edges of the eyelids1 and the bare end of the nose in ruminants4 ,to give paint a perpetual gloss1 like varnish1 use colors ground in oil1 and mixed with boiled linseed oil only when applied4 ,to give paint a faint gloss1 use colors ground in oil1 and mix with a mixture of boiled linseed oil and turpentine1 equal parts4 ,to have paint dry without gloss1 mix with turpentine only when it is applied4 ,to have paint dry flat and dead1 use dry colors1 and mix with turpentine4 ,to make paint dry quickly and be very hard1 mix with it a little sugar of lead 7ground in oil7 fresh from the tube4 ,to paint the skin of an animal1 and yet make it look as if the skin contained the color instead of bearing it upon its surface1 use oil colors1 mix with boiled linseed oil and turpentine1 equal parts1 and apply4 ,when the paint is beginning to dry1 so that it is sticky1 take some dry color of a corresponding tint1 dip into it a clean1 dry1 square-ended bristle brush of good size1 and twirl it about until it becomes filled with the dry powder1 then1 with light and delicate strokes1 apply it directly upon the painted surface so that the dry color will fall upon the wet paint like a shower of colored dust4 ,this is to be done with the motion that painters use in stippling1 and may very well be done with a stippling brush1 if you have one4 ,do not get on too much of the dry color1 or the effect will be spoiled4 ,your eye must teach you when to stop4 ,in this process of stippling dry color into wet paint1 plaster ,paris may very frequently be used to good advantage to deaden gloss1 and soften effects4 ,in coloring the hairless portions of the faces1 hands1 etc41 of apes1 baboons1 and monkeys1 and on many other subjects1 this process is of very great value4 ,,blending ,,colors4--,if two colors are laid down1 one against the other1 each in a solid mass1 up to the imaginary line that lies between them1 the effect is hard and unpleasing1 because unnatural4 ,nature never joins two contrasting-colors without a blending together and softening of the two tones where they touch each other4 ,if it be red and brown1 the red merges a little way into the brown1 imperceptibly1 perhaps1 and the line of demarcation between the two is thus softened1 and naturalized1 if you please4 ,therefore1 in your painting have no hard lines where your colors meet1 but always blend adjoining colors together by passing a small brush over the line where they meet4 ,,strength ,,of ,,tones4--,the colors that ,nature puts on an animal are not hard1 crude1 and staring1 like bright red in the mouth of a mounted quadruped1 but they are always in harmony with the other parts of the object4 ,a bird may have yellow legs1 but if it does1 you may be sure they will not be a bright1 glossy1 chrome yellow1 so gaudy as to instantly catch the eye4 ,the chances are1 they will be ,naples yellow1 with only a tinge of chrome4 ,learn to soften tints so they will not be staring1 gaudy1 and offensive to the eye4 ,examine the tongue of a live tiger or lion1 and you will notice its color is a pale pink4 ,in all painting1 study the harmony of colors1 the strength of tones1 and the blending of tints4 ,do not get your colors too gaudy1 too sharply contrasted1 nor laid on roughly2 but paint evenly1 and keep all your colors in perfect harmony4 ,,painting ,,the ,,skin ,,of ,,thinly ,,haired ,,mammals4--,it very often happens that the skin of a thin-haired mammal has a decided color of its own1 which must be imparted to it by painting4 ,this is particularly the case with our next of kin--the apes and monkeys4 ,the orang utan has a chocolate-colored skin1 except the old males1 in which it is black2 the mona monkey has a bluish skin1 and the faces of nearly all primates require painting4 ,to paint a skin through thin hair1 use oil colors mixed with turpentine1 and made so thin that the mixture runs over the skin as soon as it touches it1 like water4 ,by separating the hair1 it is often possible to get the paint on the skin without saturating the hair save at its roots2 but if the turpentine color does get on the hair it must be sponged off with benzine4 ,do not mix your colors with oil1 or you will get into serious trouble2 but the oil in which the tube color has been ground will be just sufficient to give a natural tone to the skin4 ,if the color when put on appears too strong and conspicuous1 stipple the surface with a little plaster ,paris1 to tone it down4 ,,painting ,,legs ,,and ,,beaks ,,of ,,birds4--,paint the legs and beaks of such birds as require it1 with a mixture of boiled linseed oil and turpentine1 equal parts of each1 and have your paint thin enough on the legs that it will not obscure the scales4 ,on the beak1 a thicker coat is necessary1 and1 in fact1 it is nearly always necessary to put on two coats4 ,in coloring the beaks of toucans and hornbills1 blend adjoining colors very deeply but evenly1 and let there be no hard boundary lines anywhere4 ,a little white wax softened and cut with turpentine and mixed with the paint on a bird's beak gives the color a depth and transparency quite similar to the appearance of the beak of a living bird4 ,,painting ,,mounted ,,fishes4--,a fish must be perfectly dry before it is touched with a brush4 ,time spent in painting a half-dry specimen is so much thrown away4 ,the repairs with papier-mach must be complete and dry1 and the specimen perfectly clean4 ,nearly every fish possesses in its coloring pigment a quality which imparts to it a silvery1 metallic lustre2 therefore1 to secure the finest result attainable in painting a fish1 either an actual specimen or a plaster cast1 all those that are silvery must first be coated over the entire scaly surface with nickel leaf1 laid on sizing1 similar to the treatment of gold leaf in gilding4 ,with dark-colored fishes satisfactory work may be done without the use of nickel leaf1 except on the under parts1 which are nearly always silvery white4 ,it is absolutely impossible to reproduce the brilliant lustre so characteristic of white scales by the use of white paint alone1 or even silver bronze1 or silver paint4 ,without the nickel underneath the paint looks dead and artificial4 ,if you are called upon to make a large collection with as little outlay as possible1 it will be sufficient to omit the nickel leaf1 for your paint will still faithfully record the colors4 ,but if you wish to have your fish look as brilliantly beautiful as when taken struggling from the water1 put on the leaf first1 and paint on it1 thinly1 so that the silver will show through your colors and impart to them the desired lustre4 ,if you paint too thickly1 the leaf will be covered up1 and its lustre obscured4 ,do not attempt to use silver bronze1 silver paint1 or even silver leaf1 for nickel leaf is the only substance which has sufficient lustre and will not oxidize1 and turn yellow4 ,if the whole body of a fish is dark1 and without silvery tints1 it is1 of course1 unnecessary to use leaf1 for the lustre can be obtained by varnishing over the paint4 ,in many fishes1 such as the scaled carp1 for example1 ,marsching's gold paint or ,japanese gold can be used directly on the scales 7after the entire fish has had a thin coat of ,hendley's enamel varnish71 and the silver paint can be used to good effect in edging the scales4 ,on the belly1 however1 which is silvery white1 nickel leaf must be used4 ,the heads of most fishes are so dark as to render the use of leaf unnecessary upon them1 and of course it need not be used on the fins4 ,,painting ,,plaster ,,casts ,,of ,,fishes1 ,,reptiles1 ,,etc4--,when a cast is first taken from the mould1 it will nearly always be found that its surface is pitted here and there with little round holes caused by air-bubbles4 ,the process of wetting the inside of these holes1 and carefully filling each one with mixed plaster ,paris is called pointing up a cast4 ,after this has been carefully done1 and the form and surface of the white cast is perfect1 if the cast is thoroughly dry we are ready to begin to paint it1 and proceed as described in the preceding section4 ,in case you find it impossible to use nickel leaf on your fishes1 you can do very good work without it1 except that the silvery parts will not be really silvery1 and the white paint put on will gradually turn yellow with age4 ,after you have given the specimen a good coat of colors 7using zinc white for the silvery parts1 because it is more permanent than other whites71 varnish the specimen all over with a kind of heavy white varnish called ,siccatif de ,harlem1 or1 lacking that1 enamel varnish4 ,this will dry in about twenty minutes1 after which paint the object over again1 this time with extreme care in the final touches4 ,in painting fishes and reptiles1 there is a vast amount of detail to be wrought out1 and constant blending of colors4 ,on many fishes each scale must be marked off and painted separately4 ,in blending the edges of two adjoining colors1 it must be done with a clean brush--a small one1 of course--with either a quick1 nervous motion along the line of contact1 or else a steady sweep1 according to circumstances4 ,when the brush gets full of paint1 wash it out in benzine 7not turpentine71 because it quickly becomes clean1 and dries perfectly in a moment4 ,the eyes of fishes and reptiles are so peculiar1 and vary so exceedingly1 that it is a practical impossibility to provide glass eyes that will be exactly right for each species4 ,for fishes1 as good a way as any is to let the eye be cast in situ1 and when you paint the fish1 paint the eye also as it should be1 and when dry1 varnish it over with a thick coat of soluble glass or enamel varnish4 ,,part ,,iii4--,,making ,,casts4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiv4 ,,principles ,,of ,,universal ,,application ,,in ,,making ,,moulds ,,and ,,casts4 ,the processes employed in making plaster ,paris moulds and casts are very simple1 and easily learned1 even by one who has had no previous knowledge of the subject4 ,to be sure1 a certain degree of intelligence and skill is necessary in the operator2 but we are not writing for the edification of duffers who do not know how to use their hands1 or follow plain directions4 ,the first thing to understand is the difference between a mould that will draw1 and one that will not4 ,a mould may be made on one side of a base-ball1 and it will draw off the object at once1 because there is no point on the ball behind which1 or under which1 the plaster can catch1 and hang fast until something breaks4 ,a mould of one full side of an apple will not draw1 because the apple has a hollow at each end1 and when these are set full of plaster the mould and the apple are held firmly together4 ,a hollow or a protuberance on an object which would prevent a mould from drawing away makes what is called an undercut1 and necessitates the making of a separate piece in the mould4 ,to cast several copies of a human head and neck necessitates the making of a mould in several pieces1 all fitting very nicely together1 with countersink joints1 to accommodate the undercuts behind the ears1 under the chin1 the hollows of the eyes1 etc4 ,a mould made in more than two pieces is called a piece mould4 ,it may have any number of pieces1 of course1 according to the nature of the object4 ,perhaps the most remarkable piece mould in existence is that used by ,professor ,h4,a4 ,ward in making casts of the tail of the great fossil armadillo called the glyptodon4 ,the tail is a mass of big conical tubercles1 and the mould contains1 as nearly as ,i can remember1 about one hundred and twenty-five pieces1 all fitting into a big jacket of plaster which holds them all in place while a cast is being made4 ,in the case of a piece mould the cast is not taken out of the mould1 but the latter is dissected and taken off the cast1 piece by piece4 ,the principles involved in making moulds and casts are best explained by brief descriptions of the processes1 and if they are learned by carefully following the directions here given1 the operator will be able to apply them1 indefinitely1 to all classes of objects1 large or small4 ,,how ,,to ,,make ,a ,,piece ,,mould4--,let us take a good-sized apple as our subject1 and follow out the process1 step by step4 #a4 ,in making a mould of any kind of fruit1 first soak the fruit in water an hour or two1 to plump it up1 so that it will not swell in the mould and cause trouble4 #b4 ,wipe it dry1 and with a small paint-brush give it a thin coat of lard oil1 so that the plaster will not stick to it4 ,some objects should be coated with clay water1 or very thin clay1 instead of oil4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei4--;,beginning to ,make a ,piece ,mould4 #c4 ,bed one end of the apple in damp sand1 precisely as shown in the illustration 7,fig4 #ei74 ,if you have no sand1 use fine sawdust1 or wet corn meal4 ,some objects require clay4 ,do not have the sand wet and water soaked1 for it will not yield so readily to the palette knife4 #d4 ,dot a line on the sand all round1 to show how far out to run the plaster1 and avoid making the mould too thick4 #e4 ,take two-thirds of a teacup of water1 and put in plaster ,paris until it becomes about as thick as ,new ,orleans molasses4 ,stir thoroughly with a spoon1 and let it stand two or three minutes4 #f4 ,dip the plaster out with a teaspoon1 and cover the exposed part of the apple4 ,it will run down all over the horizontal surface of the sand1 but never mind that4 ,make it cover the apple everywhere to a depth of a quarter of an inch4 ,in some places it will be thicker4 ,after about three or four minutes the plaster will be as stiff as modeling clay4 ,while it is in this state take your palette knife and neatly smooth and shape the outer surface4 ,finish smoothing with the finger1 and let the plaster harden4 ,this will take about seven minutes longer1 or until the plaster has warmed and cooled again4 ,the time varies according to the humidity of the atmosphere4 #g4 ,take the apple from the sand1 with the half mould on it1 wash off the sand1 and neatly trim the edge of the mould with a knife4 #h4 ,with a blunt-pointed knife make three countersunk holes in the edge of the mould4 #i4 ,with a brush1 anoint the edge of the mould with thin clay1 clay-water1 or soft soap1 or lard oil1 or even lard4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--,second ,step in ,making a ,piece ,mould4 #aj4 ,turn the mould up on edge1 and bed half of the exposed portion of the apple in the sand1 as seen in ,fig4 #fj4 ,fill in this space with plaster1 precisely the same as when the first piece was made1 which produces the second piece of the mould4 #aa4 ,make the countersunk holes in the edge of the second piece as before2 fill in with plaster all the remaining space between pieces #a and #b1 and we have the third piece1 which completes the mould4 ,as soon as this hardens1 tap the mould lightly all over with a small mallet1 to loosen it from the object1 then take out piece ,no4 #c1 and the mould is easily separated and the apple taken out4 ,take one part of gum sandarac 7dissolved in ninety-five per cent alcohol7 and three parts of white shellac1 also dissolved1 and mix them4 ,they will form a solution a little thicker than water4 ,have the mould perfectly dry1 and apply this solution to the entire inner surface of it with a small paint-brush4 ,the solution will be absorbed at first1 and you must continue to apply it until the inner surface has an egg-shell gloss1 which is sufficient4 ,then oil the inside with lard oil4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa4--,last ,step in ,making a ,piece ,mould4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb4--,the ,finished ,mould4 #ab4 ,put together pieces #a and #b of the mould1 cut a groove around them to hold a stout string1 and tie it tightly to hold them together4 ,then mix some plaster1 and fill each piece 7#a and #b7 about half full1 walling it up the sides with the finger1 a quarter of an inch thick1 or as the plaster will make it4 ,then wipe off the exposed edges of the mould so they will fit snugly together with ,no4 #c4 ,now mix up a little more plaster1 about one-fourth the quantity first used1 pour into the hollow1 then put on the third piece2 tie all tightly together1 and turn the mould round and round slowly4 ,this fills the third piece1 and holds it in its place4 ,keep turning the mould slowly1 and tapping it with the left hand4 ,leave a little of the plaster on the outside1 on a piece of glass or paper1 so that you can tell when it gets hard and flinty in the mould4 ,do not take off the mould until the cast is perfectly hard4 ,,how ,,to ,,make ,a ,,waste ,,mould4--,when a soft or fleshy object is to be cast1 one which will yield1 and draw out of the mould regardless of undercuts1 a very quick and satisfactory process 7provided a second copy of the cast will never be wanted7 is to make what is called a waste mould4 ,this1 with a fleshy subject1 is a short cut to a perfect cast1 and often saves hours of valuable time4 ,in obtaining casts of mammal heads1 legs1 or other parts1 or casts of fishes and reptiles1 it is the method par excellence4 ,let us learn the principles of it by making a waste mould and cast of a human hand4 #a4 ,bed the hand in damp sand 7i4e41 one-half of it71 as shown in the accompanying figure1 ,no4 #fc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fc4--,the ,beginning of a ,waste ,mould4 #b4 ,give the exposed portion of the hand a good coat of lard oil4 #c4 ,take two-thirds of a gill of water in a teacup1 put into it half a teaspoonful of dry ,indian red 7to be bought for five cents at any paint store71 and mix it up4 ,this is to color some plaster with which to make a thin1 colored lining for our mould1 the purpose of which will be appreciated later on4 #d4 ,mix with this red water one and one-half gills of plaster ,paris1 stir it up thoroughly to get it well mixed and free from air-bubbles1 then with a teaspoon distribute it all over the hand until it is completely covered with a coat of the pink plaster about one-eighth of an inch thick4 #e4 ,after this thin coat has hardened1 anoint the surface of it with lard oil or clay water1 so that the plaster which is to be put upon it will not stick to it1 but separate readily when the outer case of the mould is chiseled off4 #f4 ,take one and one-half gills of water1 and three-quarters of a pint of plaster1 mix for outer case of mould1 and apply on top of the pink lining to a thickness of about half an inch4 ,let this get perfectly hard4 7,fig4 #fd47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd4--,second ,step in ,making a ,waste ,mould4 #g4 ,take the subject out of the sand4 ,turn it over1 anoint the edge of the mould with clay water or lard oil1 and treat the other side in precisely the same manner4 ,this is the course when the whole object is to be cast4 ,if half the object is sufficient1 as is the case in taking a record cast of one side of an animal's head and body1 then take the subject from the mould1 and #h4 ,wash the inside of the mould thoroughly to get out the clay and sand4 #i4 ,anoint the inside of the mould with clay water1 thin clay1 or lard oil1 and lay it in position to receive the plaster4 #aj4 ,mix a proper quantity of plaster1 pour it into the mould and let it harden4 ,lay the mould 7with the cast inside7 on a cushion1 or on your lap2 take a half-inch chisel and a light mallet1 and1 beginning at the end nearest your left hand1 chisel away the case of the mould1 bit by bit1 until you come down to the pink lining coat1 which shows that you are close to the cast4 ,great care is necessary to avoid breaking the cast1 which of course is very easily cut or broken4 ,in cutting off the pink lining be exceedingly careful not to go too deep 7,fig4 #fe74 ,the purpose of this lining is to show you when you are close to the cast4 ,if the case of the mould is quite thick1 hold the chisel on a slant of about fifty degrees from a perpendicular1 and pare off the upper surface gradually4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe4--;,chiseling off the ,waste ,mould4 ,,making ,,gelatine ,,moulds4--,there are many objects which can not be copied in plaster by either of the above methods without great difficulty4 ,these are hard substances1 the surfaces of which are extremely irregular and full of little hollows1 such as meteorites1 statuettes1 sculptured rocks1 or models such as those of the ,aztec calendar stone and sacrificial stone4 ,when a number of copies are required1 the making of a waste mould for each copy is out of the question1 and the manufacture of a piece mould that will draw off is also a long task1 to say nothing of making the casts themselves and cleaning them up4 ,the solution of all such difficulties is the gelatine or glue mould1 which is elastic1 pliant1 and yet keeps its shape perfectly4 ,this is how to make it3 ,let us suppose we are to make a gelatine mould of a flattened meteorite1 eight inches in diameter and about three inches thick4 ,take some potter's clay1 or modeling clay1 which has been nicely worked up in a square lump1 and is not wet enough to be too sticky4 ,with a small wire1 cut it into slabs about three-quarters of an inch thick1 and with these cover the entire object to the depth mentioned4 ,put the clay on everywhere the same thickness1 making it conform to the irregularities of the surface4 ,this clay will presently be exactly replaced with gelatine4 ,having coated the object as described1 make a plaster ,paris mould of the whole of it1 in two parts1 which separate horizontally around the outermost edge4 ,when you make a plaster mould of the upper half1 erect a high cone of clay over the centre of the meteorite as it lies flat upon the table1 so that it will make a funnel-shaped hole in the upper half of the mould1 through which you can pour in the gelatine4 ,of course the two pieces of this plaster mould must fit nicely together1 with countersunk holes4 ,this plaster mould of the clay-covered object is called the jacket1 and its use will soon be apparent4 ,now for the gelatine4 ,recipe for ,gelatine ,moulds4--,the gelatine compound is made by taking glue and glycerine in the following proportions1 varying the quantity to suit the size of the object3 ,of best ,irish glue1 #c pounds2 glycerine1 #a-a_/d pounds2 and about #a-a_/b ounces of white-wax4 ,dip the glue in water1 and then roll it up overnight in several thicknesses of wet cloth1 so as to soften it without soaking it in water1 which is an element to be kept out4 ,in the morning the glue will be soft4 ,procure a large-sized gluepot1 or improvise one by putting a small tin pail in a larger one1 with water between1 and in this put the glue and glycerine and cook it up4 ,melt the wax separately1 and pour it in after the other is well mixed and hot4 ,a gelatine mould can be made of any degree of hardness by adding dry white zinc which has been carefully ground in a mortar1 but ordinarily none is necessary4 ,to make the gelatine mould the clay must all be taken off the object1 and the latter washed clean4 ,lay the lower half of the jacket upon the table1 inside uppermost1 and drive four small wire nails into it at different points1 allowing each one to project just three-fourths of an inch1 for the meteorite to rest upon1 and give space for the gelatine to flow underneath and form that part of the mould4 ,now put the meteorite carefully in place1 resting on these nail-heads1 and then put on the upper half of the jacket4 ,cord the jacket tightly together without disturbing the position of the object inside4 ,if there are any cracks at the edges1 fill them up with clay4 ,now pour in the hot gelatine at the funnel-shaped hole in the upper half of the jacket1 until the mould is quite full4 ,let the mould stand two hours to cool and harden2 then remove the upper half of the jacket4 ,to get the object out1 take a sharp knife and slit the coating of gelatine fully half-way round1 so that the two halves can be opened like an oyster1 and the object lifted out4 ,the inside of the gelatine mould must now have a coating to make it impervious to the water in the plaster ,paris4 ,mix up the following3 #a teacupful of spirits of turpentine4 ,about #d level teaspoonfuls of white lead4 ,about #a teaspoonful of lightning dryer4 ,mix this well1 paint the inside of the mould with it1 two coats1 which makes the gelatine waterproof4 ,to make a cast1 oil the inside of the mould with lard oil1 put the plaster jacket around it1 so that it fits perfectly1 and tie the two pieces of the jacket firmly together to prevent a disaster when the plaster begins to heat in the mould4 ,mix your plaster with ice-water for the same reason1 and you will have no trouble4 ,for irregular objects1 the working of a gelatine mould is perfection itself4 ,it yields gracefully in coming out of the undercuts and around corners1 takes every detail perfectly1 and in the jacket its shape is always the same4 ,a careful operator can make from twenty to fifty copies of a cast in a single mould before its loss of sharpness necessitates its abandonment4 ,,chapter ,,xxxv4 ,,casts ,,of ,,mammals1 ,,fishes1 ,,and ,,reptiles4 ,,casting ,,parts ,,of ,,mammals ,,in ,,the ,,flesh4--,although it is usually impossible to carry more than ten or fifteen pounds of plaster into the field when you go off on a collecting trip1 a quantity sufficient for a special purpose is often worth its weight in silver dollars4 ,but many a fine subject comes entire to the laboratory1 where the taxidermist can work his will upon it4 ,if ,i have never done any other good thing in my life1 ,i believe ,i have at least taught some of our best ,american taxidermists the usefulness and value of plaster casts taken from the flesh4 ,it is only a few hours' work to make a mould and cast of the entire side of an animal as large as a large dog1 or even a lion1 and still less to take half the head1 or the nose1 a fore leg1 or hind leg4 ,once we had an opportunity to cast the entire head of an immense bull moose1 and right greedily did we seize it4 ,the resultant cast has been of priceless value to us as an exact record of the form of a wonderful head4 ,if you wish to do a fine piece of work1 and have the animal in the flesh1 by all means make a cast of one whole side of it4 ,it will repay its cost ten times over4 ,no record of form is equal to a cast1 even though it be a poor one4 ,i once made a mould of one entire side of the head of a large leopard in twenty minutes4 ,it is about an hour's work to make a good mould of the entire head of a monkey1 or two legs of a tiger4 ,the principles of this work have already been stated1 and there is little more to be said4 ,if the specimen is a large one1 lay it upon the floor1 build up around it with sand1 or even wet sawdust1 and arrange to take one side of the animal's head1 or entire form1 as the case may be4 ,to take the two legs it will be necessary to first fill plaster under each one to make a separate piece4 ,in order to keep the plaster from sticking to the hair1 fill the hair full of thick clay-water1 or thin clay1 and plaster it down with the pasty mass so that the plaster ,paris will not run into it4 ,coat the whiskers and eyelids with warm wax1 or fill them full of clay4 ,do this thoroughly1 to save the hair and save trouble4 ,a little hair will stick in the mould anyway1 but when you take the mould off1 work the animal slowly and carefully from the mould1 perhaps pouring in a little water to facilitate matters4 ,always make a waste mould in these cases1 to save time4 ,if your cast breaks in two while you are chiseling the mould off1 go ahead more carefully1 and when you are done1 chip the broken edges at the back1 wet them with water1 and stick them together with plaster4 ,small casts can be stuck together with shellac4 ,if your mould breaks in pieces while you are taking it off1 don't be discouraged1 but simply put the pieces together1 back them up with more plaster1 and come up smiling for the next round4 ,it is often necessary to cast skulls or teeth1 to put in skins that are being mounted1 though it is better to carve a skull out of soft wood4 ,,casting ,,fishes4--,fishes are easy and interesting subjects to cast4 ,usually only one side is taken1 and the cast is then mounted on a flat slab1 or perhaps on two brass standards4 ,the full method of procedure is as follows3 ,wash off the mucus with alum-water4 ,put some dry alum on the side to be cast1 to harden the soft edges of the fins1 and make every scale stand out distinctly4 ,clean the fish carefully1 close the mouth1 adjust the eye and the gills4 ,lay the fish on its side1 with the side to be cast uppermost4 ,take some modeling clay1 beat it out1 and roll it into a smooth1 square cake with parallel sides4 ,with a small wire cut a section of this cake1 and place it under each fin1 so that the fin will be held in position as in life4 ,to make a piece mould1 make it in three pieces1 thus3 ,put up a wall of clay around the head from the base of the dorsal fin to the base of the anal fin1 keeping the clay wall a little distance away from the head and body4 ,with plaster ,paris fill in the space thus left1 up to the median line of the fish1 but no higher4 ,with a knife work the plaster under the edge of the fish1 and let it harden2 then put two countersinks in each side4 ,for the main piece1 mix some dry color in enough plaster to coat the fish one-eighth of an inch thick1 make it thin1 and pour over with a spoon4 ,when covered thinly1 blow hard upon it1 all over1 to make it take the scales sharply2 then put on enough more to make the colored coat an eighth of an inch thick4 ,let this harden1 then put on the thick coat of white plaster1 which is to be chiseled off1 as this is supposed to be a waste mould4 ,in making the cast1 if it be possible make it before the mould gets dry1 so that the latter will chisel off easily4 ,pour the mould nearly full of plaster1 then set a piece of wood in at the back to afford a means of screwing the cast to a panel1 or inserting standards4 ,after the cast is made it must1 of course1 be carefully painted1 which is another matter1 and is treated elsewhere4 ,,casting ,,reptiles4--,after all the detailed directions that have been already given on this subject it is not necessary to speak further of methods4 ,mr4 ,joseph ,palmer1 of the ,national ,museum1 has produced such pleasing and artistic representations of reptiles of all sorts1 especially serpents and tortoises1 it would seem that perfection in this line has been reached4 ,his serpents are all on imitation rocks1 trees1 or earth1 and in about all the attitudes they would assume in life4 ,they are represented as crawling1 sleeping1 fighting1 striking1 and threatening4 ,by the introduction of wires in the moulds while making the casts1 they are made to act quite naturally4 ,of course they have been carefully and artistically painted1 and half the credit for their beauty is therefore due to the colorist4 ,lizards of many species1 large and small1 and also tortoises and turtles of every ,american species1 are thus represented with great success4 ,this interesting collection is well worthy of study2 but to the taxidermist who is not also a first-rate artist in oil colors1 this method is beyond his powers4 ,,part ,,iv4--,,osteology4 ,,chapter ,,xxxvi4 ,,collecting ,,skeletons4 ,it is really strange that so few ,american collectors are taught the scientific value of skeletons1 and the need to collect them1 especially when in the haunts of rare animals4 ,while hundreds of collectors gather bird skins by the cord1 perhaps not one out of the whole lot saves a rough skeleton4 ,any one who is wholly unaccustomed to the preparation of skeletons is apt to stand appalled at the thought of preparing one from the beginning2 and1 indeed1 the final work of cleaning and mounting is no child's play4 ,but let me assure you that1 so far as the field work is concerned1 you can easily become a successful collector of skeletons of all kinds1 even though you may never learn to clean and mount one4 ,all you have to do in the field is to rough out skeletons from the flesh1 and dry them in compact bundles for shipment4 ,a ,,rough ,,skeleton of a mammal1 bird1 reptile1 or fish1 is simply the complete bony framework of the body1 from which the most of the flesh has been cut away with a common knife1 after which the skeleton and remaining flesh has been dried preparatory to its being1 at some indefinite time in the future1 taken in hand by a professional osteologist4 ,the work of preparation on such specimens is very simple1 and when once learned is easily performed4 ,,selection ,,of ,,specimens4--,when a choice is possible1 select large and perfect adult male specimens as subjects to be skeletonized4 ,the skeletons of young animals are always imperfect in development1 do not properly represent a species1 and are seldom valuable except for comparison with other specimens of the same species4 ,very often a fine adult specimen has its skin so badly torn by shot or bullets1 or the skin covering is in such a bad state of shedding1 moulting1 and the like1 that the skin is totally unfit for preservation4 ,in such a case the preservation of a fine perfect skeleton becomes a clear gain of one specimen to the collector and to science4 ,a perfect skeleton is one in which not a bone is missing1 and in which no substitutions have been made4 ,but it is by no means always possible to secure a wild animal without breaking some portion of its osteological anatomy4 ,when a bone is broken1 the best thing to do is to supply it with a corresponding bone from an animal of similar size and age4 ,sometimes the closet naturalist1 who generally thinks that rare wild animals are gathered like berries1 will grumble because a broken bone has thus been replaced1 and find fault with the size of the substitute1 but that need not trouble the collector's conscience in the least4 ,i once shot a fine prong-horn antelope buck1 skeletonized it carefully1 cut up the skeleton1 and carried the whole of it for three days attached to my saddle1 while ,i rode a very restive and dangerous horse1 and also carried two blankets and a ,maynard rifle4 ,that skeleton1 thus earned1 had some broken bones supplied from another specimen4 ,it finally went to ,europe1 and fell into the hands of a closet naturalist1 who blithely found fault with the collector because of the supplied bones4 ,again1 when ,i once risked drowning in order to enter a cave on a dangerous sea-coast to collect guacharo birds1 and got a goodly number1 a ,german closet naturalist complained bitterly because a skin that was sent to him had two missing tail-feathers supplied by two other feathers that were a trifle smaller than the missing ones4 ,but ,i did once perform a feat in ,south ,america which filled the souls of my friends at ,ward's with wonder1 and even admiration4 ,in collecting about half a dozen skeletons of capybara1 each of which ,i took care should be absolutely perfect1 by some brilliant manoeuvre ,i contrived to send home to the establishment one skeleton which was the happy possessor of two left forelegs and two left hind legs1 but never a right one2 and in the language of the ,old ,testament1 his bones are there to this day6 ,,skeletons ,,of ,,mammals3 ,,small ,,objects4--,the smallest quadrupeds--such as bats1 small rodents1 shrews1 and the like--should be eviscerated1 and preserved in alcohol1 without being skinned2 but each specimen should be fully labeled4 ,as a general thing it is best1 for various reasons1 not to dry such small carcasses4 ,for all mammals below the size of the ,virginia deer1 proceed as follows3 #a4 ,remove the skin as expeditiously as possible1 in order to have a fair show at the skeleton4 #b4 ,if the skeleton is smaller than a fox1 leave the legs attached to the body1 for convenience1 until you have cut the flesh away from them with your scalpel or pocket-knife1 without any disjointing4 ,when all the legs have been thus roughly denuded of flesh1 cut them loose from the body and lay aside for the moment4 #c4 ,if the specimen is larger than a fox1 cut off the legs from the body1 lay each one flat upon the ground1 inside uppermost1 divide the flesh all the way along it directly over the bones1 and literally dissect the bones out of the mass of flesh1 instead of cutting the flesh away piece by piece4 ,this is the quickest and neatest way4 ,the scapula must come off with the fore leg1 and be left attached to the humerus4 ,be sure you cut off all the masses of flesh1 but don't cut off the knee-pan1 as you may easily do if you are not watchful4 #d4 ,now for the carcass4 ,hold it on its back1 begin at the breastbone1 flake off the flesh from the sides of the body close down to the ribs1 until the backbone is reached4 ,cut off as much flesh as you can 7hurriedly7 from along the backbone4 #e4 ,next attack the abdomen4 ,beginning at the lower point of the breastbone1 detach the walls of the abdomen from the ends of the short ribs1 down to the lumbar vertebr1 and so on around the iliac margin of the pelvis4 ,cut through the diaphragm close up to where it is attached to the ribs1 and remove at one effort the entrails and vital organs4 #f4 ,cut away the flesh from the pelvis1 both inside and out1 and the flesh of the tenderloin from underneath the lumbar vertebr4 #g4 ,cut the flesh from the thick portion of the tail4 #h4 ,cut off the head at the first cervical vertebra1 and clean the skull as previously described elsewhere1 but leave the hyoid bone in its place4 #i4 ,cut the flesh away from the neck vertebr as well as you can4 ,be careful not to cut the sternum 7or breastbone71 which is soft cartilage1 and easily cut2 nor the ends of any vertebral processes1 nor any soft bones4 #aj4 ,if the skeleton is a small one1 it is apt to get quite bloody during the operation4 ,wash it clean1 and if necessary soak it in clear water for an hour or two4 ,it will come all the whiter for it in the end4 ,skeletons of ruminant animals are generally clean enough without that4 #aa4 ,do not poison a rough skeleton with arsenical soap1 nor put salt upon it2 so says ,mr4 ,lucas1 the osteologist of the ,national ,museum4 ,the former has a tendency to prevent skeletons from properly macerating and coming white4 ,sprinkle dry arsenic upon a skeleton1 if anything is necessary to protect it from ,dermestes and other insects4 ,never put alum on a skeleton4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ff4--,rough ,skeleton of a ,small ,animal4 7,after ,f4,a4 ,lucas47 #ab4 ,the last thing is to make up the skeleton into a small1 compact bundle1 that will pack nicely and economically when dry1 and withstand some pressure without breakage4 ,put the skull in the chest cavity4 ,fold up the upper joints of the legs1 put the foot of each in the pelvis1 and the other end in the cavity of the chest4 ,now tie all the legs tightly to the spinal column4 7,see ,fig4 #ff47 ,bend the tail under the pelvis and tie it fast also4 ,finally1 hang the specimen up in the shade and wind1 so that it will dry quickly4 ,it will be observed that the above process leaves the body of the skeleton entire1 and all the bones of each leg and foot united by their natural ligaments4 ,a skeleton prepared thus may ultimately be mounted as a ligamentary skeleton1 or it may be disjointed throughout1 macerated1 and mounted as a disarticulate skeleton4 ,except for skeletons of bison1 elk1 and other animals which are entirely too large to admit of transporting their bodies whole1 it is much the best to prepare all others in the field as described above1 and disarticulate some of them afterward2 for this reduces to a minimum the chance of losing some of the parts4 ,,skeletons ,,of ,,large ,,mammals4--,the process of roughing out the skeletons of large mammals1 no matter how large they may be1 is precisely the same as described above for small ones2 but to make it possible to transport and box them1 they must be cut to pieces1 or1 ,i had better say1 disjointed1 for fear some zealous partisan might interpret my words too literally1 and go at a valuable skeleton with an axe4 ,and right here let me publish a law which is as fixed and unalterable as the laws of the ,medes and ,persians1 and admits of no exception3 ,in disarticulating a large skeleton1 no matter how large1 an axe or hatchet must never be used for any purpose whatever4 ,use nothing but the knife1 and in a few cases a small saw to separate the sternum from the ends of the ribs4 ,to come down to the details of cutting up a large skeleton in1 the field1 and making it up into a number of separate bundles1 let us suppose that the skeleton lies before us1 completely roughed out1 in accordance with previous advice4 ,the bones of each leg must be dislocated 7at the knees in ruminant animals7 either once or twice1 so that the parts can be easily handled4 ,in a full-grown elephant the leg bones are so large it is necessary to cut the ligaments at each joint1 so that the scapula1 humerus1 radius and ulna1 and foot may each be handled separately4 ,of course1 the head is to be cut off at the first cervical vertebra4 ,then1 by careful work1 and much coaxing with the sharp point of the knife1 dislocate the spinal column just where the neck joins the body4 ,at first this will bother you1 but have patience and you will soon learn how to do it easily and quickly4 ,in dislocating the spinal column1 take hold of the neck1 move it backward and forward1 and strain it a bit to see just where the articulating surfaces of the vertebral process are1 so that you can cut them4 ,when your intelligence has made some headway on the joint1 then you may put forth a little main strength and tear the vertebr apart1 but do not attempt this too soon4 ,the next thing is to cut off the ribs1 and the first step toward this is to cut out the sternum1 or breastbone4 7,see ,plate ,,xx47 ,this so-called bone is really cartilage1 soft enough in a fresh skeleton to cut on the outside1 and in thin places1 like cheese rind4 ,it must be cut out in one piece1 the same as may be seen in the figure of the mounted skeleton1 and the dotted line ,a ,b shows where the cartilaginous ribs of the sternum join the bony ribs that form the main arch of the thorax4 ,at the points marked by the dotted line1 cut the two apart4 ,i have never found it necessary to use a saw for this work in a perfectly fresh skeleton1 but in dry ones a saw is necessary4 ,when you come to the short1 or floating ribs1 as they are called1 it will be found that their cartilages are only attached weakly to the cartilages of the previous ribs1 or else are altogether free4 ,these must be cut from the ribs and preserved with great care4 ,after the ribs have been cut free from the sternum1 separate them from the backbone1 one by one1 make them up into bundles1 and tie them up4 ,the pelvis is to be separated from the spinal column at the last lumbar vertebra2 and if necessary the spinal column may be again dislocated about the middle4 ,formerly it was my practice to poison all rough skeletons with a thin wash of arsenical soap1 to make them dry without smelling badly1 and to keep off the myriads of insects that the shreds of flesh would naturally attract4 ,now1 however1 in obedience to the mandates of ,mr4 ,lucas1 ,i have eschewed the use of arsenical soap for this purpose1 and recommend the use of dry arsenic instead1 which does not retard the cleaning of the bones4 ,,rough ,,skeletons ,,of ,,birds4--,as in the case of a small mammal1 first remove the skin from the body2 but if the identity of the bird is in doubt1 leave the large tail feathers and the primaries in place1 for future reference4 ,in fact1 it is a good plan to always leave the primaries and spurious quills on the wing1 for then there will be no danger that some of the small bones of the last joint will get lost or cut away by mistake4 ,moreover1 when you come to tie up the skeleton1 the primaries will afford valuable protection to the ribs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fg4--,rough ,skeleton of a ,bird4 7,after ,f4,a4 ,lucas47 ,with a bird1 the entire skeleton should be roughed out before any disjointing is done1 and even then none is necessary1 save to cut off the legs of large birds1 especially those with long legs4 ,study carefully the accompanying figure of a bird skeleton 7,fig4 #fg71 and then it will be hardly necessary to say more than to roughly1 but carefully1 cut off the flesh with a cartilage knife or scalpel1 and remove all the viscera4 ,look out for those delicate little points on the neck vertebr1 and also be very careful not to cut off those curious little appendages 7called uncinate processes7 that project backward from the middle of each rib4 ,leave the hyoid bone in its place1 and also the bony ring surrounding the eyeball of the great blue heron1 the owl1 and other birds of prey4 ,if any portion of the windpipe reveals any bony structure1 the entire windpipe should be saved4 ,whenever any tendons are found to be partly ossified1 as they will certainly prove to be in the drumstick of your ,thanksgiving turkey1 leave them in place for the osteologist to do with as he pleases4 ,when in doubt about any special part1 give the osteologist the benefit of the doubt by saving the special part for him4 ,if the bird is a large one1 cut off the head1 and after cleaning it pack it away in the chest cavity4 ,if the bird is small1 you can leave it attached to the neck1 and remove the brain by bending the head down and cutting it half off from above1 thus exposing the occipital opening at the back of the skull1 through which the brain may be drawn out4 ,after the skeleton has been roughed out1 it should always be cleaned by washing it in a basin of water and brushing it meanwhile with a soft tooth-brush4 ,if blood is left on the skeleton1 the bones will absorb it1 and become permanently discolored thereby4 ,the cleansing done1 make the skeleton up into a compact bundle by folding the wings naturally against the body1 bending the neck down in some way so that it can be tied upon the body1 and either cutting off the legs and putting them into the thorax and pelvis1 or leaving them on and folding them up as compactly as possible4 ,then tie the bundle up thoroughly by passing a light string many times around it1 so that it can never lose its compactness4 ,sprinkle it with dry arsenic1 or wash over with thin arsenical soap1 and hang it up in the shade to dry4 ,,skeletons ,,of ,,reptiles4--,after all the foregoing directions1 it surely is unnecessary to describe1 in detail1 the skeletonizing of reptiles4 ,the principles are precisely the same as already set forth for birds and mammals4 ,wherever special bones or cartilages are found1 as in the abdominal-cartilaginous ribs of crocodilians and certain lizards1 they must be carefully saved whole and in situ4 ,with large skeletons1 take whatever means are necessary to get them1 while fresh1 into compact shape for drying and packing4 ,with large crocodiles and alligators1 the neck1 legs1 head1 and tail all go nicely inside the body1 as ,i have proved scores of times4 ,the skeleton of a large serpent is easily done up in a close coil1 by which it not only takes compact shape1 but the ribs are well protected4 ,with serpents1 do not attempt to cut the flesh from between the ribs1 for it is desirable that it should remain4 ,on each rib of a crocodilian there is a strange1 flat piece of cartilage attached to the posterior edge at the middle of the rib1 and projecting backward1 quite overlapping the next rib1 as sure as the world the reptilian development of what in the full-fledged bird becomes a bony uncinate process4 ,you will soon discover this in skeletonizing your first crocodilian1 and be sure to respect its anatomy4 ,it surely is superfluous to say that every skeleton must be carefully and fully labeled1 and in a substantial way4 ,,fishes4--,this subject has been treated in ,chapter ,,ix4 7,collecting ,fishes74 ,skeletonizing ,cetaceans4--,the rough skeleton of a cetacean--porpoise1 blackfish1 whale1 and the like--is the bloodiest1 greasiest1 nastiest specimen the collector ever has to prepare4 ,nevertheless1 they are necessary evils1 and fortunately their structure is so simple that their roughing out is not a difficult matter4 ,the vertebral column terminates in a point1 there being no bones in the flukes of the tail1 or the dorsal fin4 ,the best way to operate is to split the body open along the middle of the back all the way from head to tail1 and carve the flesh away until you reach the vertebral column1 and after that the ribs4 ,the vertebral column must be cut in two in two or more places1 according to its size4 ,midway between the last pair of ribs and the tail1 and underneath the vertebral column1 lie two very useless and absurd little ossifications known as the pelvic bones4 ,they are called pelvic bones because that happens to be a handy name4 ,they bear about as much resemblance to a genuine pelvis as a cigarette does to a locomotive4 ,they are so small that it takes an expert with a search-warrant to find them1 and1 for my part1 ,i always consider their loss a real gain to the cause of science4 ,of course the scapula and flipper1 the ribs and the sternum1 must each in turn be cut away1 cleaned as well as possible1 and bundled up to go with the head and the three sections of the vertebral column4 ,,packing ,,skeletons4--,all rough skeletons1 skulls1 etc4 7as well as all skins7 must be thoroughly dry when packed1 or they will sweat1 soften up1 smell offensively1 and spoil any dry skins1 or other perishable objects that may be packed with them4 ,skeletons should always be packed in tight boxes1 so that rats and mice cannot get into them and gnaw the small bones4 ,tie some soft material over the teeth of separate skulls to save them from getting broken4 ,put the largest skeletons and skulls at the bottom1 and use hay1 straw1 or excelsior for filling4 ,of course the small and fragile specimens will be put in the protected corners and crevices between the larger objects1 and1 as before remarked1 dry skeletons that have been made up into compact bundles will stand a very considerable amount of pressure without breaking4 ,,collecting ,,fossil ,,skeletons4--,the vertebrate zoologist glories in the skeleton of almost any living species of vertebrate1 but a fossil skeleton he fairly worships4 ,the more of previous theories it upsets1 the dearer it is4 ,if it is a reptile with feathers on its tail1 a bird with teeth1 or a scientific what-is-it1 as was the gigantic megatherium1 it is simply canonized4 ,beware1 then1 red-handed hunter of living species1 how you recklessly pass by a bit of bone protruding from a cut bank beside some stream1 for you know not the day and the hour when you may touch elbows with ,his ,mysterious ,highness1 the ,missing ,link4 ,the tertiary deposits of the ,united ,states contain the fossil remains of many magnificent vertebrates1 impossible even to mention here4 ,very often huge bones and tusks of the mastodon are unearthed in well or ditch digging1 and before they receive proper attention are exposed to the air and allowed to crumble into dust in a few hours4 ,if a fossil bone is very soft when dug up1 it will crumble in a short time unless properly cared for4 ,if this is likely to be its fate1 cover it up again without delay1 to keep the air from it until you are ready to preserve it4 ,to accomplish this1 prepare a kettle of glue water 7simply hot water with a little glue dissolved in it7 and wrap the bone tightly from end to end with an abundance of twine4 ,then with a ladle or large spoon pour the glue water over the bone or tusk1 gradually1 but continuously1 so that it will soak in1 and when dry1 it will bind together the weak material and form a hard shell of some thickness and protect the form of the bone intact4 ,this will often save a fossil which would otherwise fall into countless tiny fragments in a few hours4 ,if a skeleton or portion thereof is embedded in a matrix of hard rock1 do not attempt to work it out fully in the field4 ,that is work for the laboratory--and a very good one at that1 sometimes requiring costly tools1 much skill1 and plenty of time to chip away the surrounding rock4 ,oftentimes the fossil remains of a fish1 small reptile1 or mammal are uncovered bodily by the removal of the slab of rock which has covered it for ages1 like a blanket4 ,in such cases do not attempt to pick the bones1 one by one1 out of their resting-place1 but procure the necessary tools1 cut out the entire slab of rock which contains the skeleton1 and keep it in one piece forever4 ,such specimens have a good market value in cash1 which will well repay the care and labor bestowed upon them2 but at the same time a novice should not make the very common mistake of supposing that a fossil which is new to him must necessarily be worth its weight in gold4 ,if you wish to sell any good fossils1 you will get a fair valuation by offering them to ,professor ,henry ,a4 ,ward1 ,rochester1 ,n4,y4 ,,chapter ,,xxxvii4 ,,cleaning ,,large ,,skeletons ,,by ,,macerating4 ,there are two ways to clean the skeletons of large mammals3 7#a7 by boiling the bones1 and 7#b7 by maceration4 ,the first is short1 cleanly1 and agreeable2 but the skeleton produced by it is sure to be full of grease1 and is anything but white and pleasing to look upon when mounted4 ,the boiling process is also detrimental to the texture of the bone4 ,the professional osteologist1 to whom a greasy bone in a mounted skeleton is an unpardonable offence1 never thinks of boiling a skeleton to get the flesh off1 for the reason that the grease is boiled into the bone instead of out of it4 ,cleaning by boiling is permissible only under exceptional circumstances4 ,if you wish a particular skeleton for a special purpose within a very short time1 or if you are so situated that macerating a skeleton is impossible then boiling is excusable1 but steaming is far preferable4 ,,preparing ,a ,,skeleton ,,for ,,maceration4--,it is1 of course1 to be understood that it is only the skeletons that are too large to be scraped and mounted as ligamentous skeletons that are to be macerated1 bleached1 and afterward articulated with wire4 ,the first thing to do is to cut out the sternum in one piece1 as already shown in ,plate ,,xxi41 poison it in arsenic water1 and hang it away to dry and be scraped afterward4 ,a sternum must never be macerated1 for it is so soft the cartilaginous framework would be entirely destroyed4 ,the skeleton must now be cut completely to pieces1 excepting that it is not necessary to separate all the vertebr of the spinal column4 ,the ribs must be cut off1 and the joints of the legs cut asunder4 ,the large bones of the legs contain marrow1 and of these bones each one must have a large hole drilled in each end on the face of the articulating surface1 so that when mounted the holes will not show4 ,these holes are to afford the water access to the interior of the bone4 ,,macerating ,,and ,,cleaning4--,the maceration of a skeleton is a question of time as compared with eternity4 ,procure a wooden barrel or keg large enough to contain the entire skeleton1 knock the head out and see that there are no nails1 nor any other metal anywhere on the inside to stain and discolor the bones4 ,pack the skeleton closely in the empty barrel1 fill it up with water and let it stand4 ,in a few days its offence1 like ,othello's1 is rank1 and smells to heaven4 ,but that is no matter1 provided your barrel has no neighbors4 ,let it stand for four months1 six months1 a year1 or two years if need be1 until every particle of fleshy matter on the bones has disintegrated and become a pulp4 ,keep the barrel covered1 and when the water evaporates and the bones on top are about to be exposed1 fill up with water and keep the bones always covered4 ,if a skeleton is very bloody1 it is well to soak it for a week in salt water to dissolve the blood-corpuscles4 ,then it may be macerated as directed above4 ,the odor will be horrible1 but if you are going to study bones you must not mind that4 ,when you find upon examining the bones that the flesh has totally disappeared from them1 leaving them dark-colored or even black1 but without any fleshy matter upon them1 they are then to be taken out4 ,pour off the water1 place the entire contents of the barrel in a large sieve-bottomed tray1 and wash the bones thoroughly4 ,when that has been done1 put them in a large tub of boiling water1 and keep them in warm water while you scrape all the bones1 one by one1 with your bone-scraper1 and scrub them with a stiff brush1 going over the entire surface1 and washing them meanwhile in the warm water4 ,the interior of each of the large leg bones must be washed out with a strong syringe1 and every cavity in the vertebr must be carefully scraped out4 ,,bleaching4--,having carefully scraped and washed the bones1 the entire skeleton is now to be soaked for a short time1 the length of time varying according to the size and age of the skeleton1 in a solution of chloride of lime and water4 ,to make this of the proper strength1 dissolve about two or three ounces of chloride of lime in a barrel of water4 ,bones of young or immature animals must not be left in this solution as long as those of old specimens4 ,young bones are soft and porous1 and the chloride of lime will soon destroy them if they remain in it too long4 ,the following skeletons1 adult in every case1 require to be left in this solution a length of time as stated herewith3 ,dog1 #f hours2 sheep1 #f hours2 deer1 #h2 buffalo1 #ab2 elephant1 #ab4 ,after removing the bones from this bath1 wash them with clear water1 lay them in slat-bottomed trays1 with cheese-cloth above the slats1 without piling one bone upon another1 and expose them a number of days in the hot sun4 ,after they have bleached on the upper side1 turn them over4 ,if it does not rain upon them occasionally1 they should be sprinkled with water1 late in the evening or early in the morning1 to hasten the process4 ,great care is necessary to keep the tiny carpal1 tarsal1 and phalangeal bones from getting lost4 ,when the bones are white as chalk1 or nearly so1 tie the parts of each skeleton in a stout paper bag by itself1 label it1 and put it away until you are ready to mount it4 ,the sternum is to be soaked in clear water1 with a little washing soda to cut the grease1 until it is soft1 and then scraped the same as the bones of a ligamentary skeleton1 which process will be described in the next chapter4 ,,chapter ,,xxxviii4 ,,cleaning ,,and ,,mounting ,,small ,,skeletons4 ,the skeletons of small vertebrates should never be macerated previous to mounting1 for the reason that their complete rearticulation would be a practical impossibility4 ,the bones must be left united at the joints by their natural ligaments1 which when dry become quite hard1 and with the aid of either one or two small brass standards will hold the entire skeleton erect and in proper shape4 ,skeletons mounted thus1 with the parts attached to each other by their own dried ligaments instead of wires1 are called ligamentous1 or ligamentary1 skeletons4 ,all mammals smaller than a large fox1 all birds smaller than a small ostrich1 all turtles1 lizards1 iguanas1 serpents1 crocodilians1 and all fishes are mounted in this way4 ,fortunately it is possible to clean to perfect whiteness the skeletons of almost all these subjects without putting them through the maceration process1 which resolves everything into its component parts4 ,,drying ,,before ,,mounting4--,in order to have a skeleton so that it will scrape to the best advantage and become as white as possible1 every ligamentary skeleton must be dried before it is finally cleaned and mounted4 ,in a perfectly fresh skeleton the epiphyses and ligaments are so soft the operator would find it hard to keep from destroying them with his keen-edged steel scrapers1 and the smaller bones and cartilaginous members would also be in great danger of mutilation in the same way4 ,when a skeleton dries1 all these soft portions harden1 and when afterward the skeleton is soaked in clear water for two or three days1 or longer as may be necessary1 the flesh quickly softens so that you can scrape it all away without encroaching on the framework1 and the ligaments at the joints are just soft enough that a portion of it may be scraped or trimmed away1 and yet leave sufficient to hold each joint together4 ,,relaxing ,a ,,dry ,,skeleton4--,as intimated above1 this is accomplished simply by soaking the specimen in clear water until its joints are pliable1 and the flesh upon the bones is soft enough to scrape off4 ,in order that the specimen should not become offensive and disagreeable to work upon1 it must not soak long enough for decomposition to set in1 for that is the first stage of maceration4 ,therefore1 scraping should begin just as soon as the flesh is soft enough to be readily removed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh4--,steel ,bone-scrapers4 ,,scraping ,a ,,ligamentary ,,skeleton4--,the removal of the flesh and other animal matter from a small skeleton is accomplished by scraping the bones with various chisel-edged scrapers specially designed for this work1 and by clipping and trimming on the joints with either curve-pointed or straight scissors4 ,the principles to be learned in skeleton-scraping are comparatively few and simple4 ,in the first place1 a sufficient quantity of the connecting ligament at each joint must be left to hold the two bones together in proper shape when the specimen dries4 ,this must not be left in a thick1 unsightly mass1 but requires to be scraped and trimmed down so that it is reduced to as small a quantity as will serve the purpose4 ,in scraping the flesh off the main stem of a bone1 such as the humerus1 for example1 always begin at the end and scrape toward the middle4 ,the skeletons of turtles1 lizards1 and the like are an exception to this rule by reason of their structure1 and should be scraped from the middle toward each end4 ,if you scrape from the middle of a mammalian or avian bone toward either end1 before you are aware of it1 you have loosened the attachment of the ligament1 and have nothing left to hold the joint together4 ,by beginning on the ligament itself1 and working away from it1 you can scrape it down so thin at the point of attachment that its identity is quite lost1 and the point where it ends is hardly visible4 ,this principle applies to the scraping of all ligamentary skeletons1 except a few reptiles4 ,in cleaning bird skeletons beware of injuring the little tack like points which project downward from each of the cervical vertebr4 ,have a care also for the soft bones of the coccyx1 and the uncinate process which projects backward from the posterior edge of each rib4 ,in fishes the greatest difficulty lies in leaving the ribs attached to the remainder of the skeleton1 for if the operator is at all as the writer used to be in the days of his youth1 he will be prone to scrape some of the ribs loose1 and be obliged to glue them in place in the dry skeleton1 with glue and cotton batting that has been clipped up finely with a sharp pair of scissors4 ,while a small skeleton is undergoing the scraping process it must not be allowed to get dry until it is finally set up in position4 ,when the skeleton is not being worked upon1 it must be kept soaking in clean water2 but remember that this cannot go on very long1 or maceration will set in1 the ligaments will give way1 and the bones will all come apart4 ,a little borax in the water serves to arrest decomposition1 and will allow a skeleton to remain soaking for several days longer than could otherwise be allowed4 ,after a skeleton has been well scraped1 in order to get it as white as possible and free from grease1 it must be treated with ,,javelle ,,water4 #a_/b pound chloride of lime4 #a pound common washing soda4 #a gallon of boiling water4 ,keep this on hand in a glass-stoppered jar1 in the dark4 ,in using it1 draw off a small quantity in a broad1 shallow1 earthen dish4 ,lay every small skeleton in it1 and with a soft tooth-brush of the right size1 brush all the bones thoroughly for about five minutes4 ,at the end of that process wash the skeleton thoroughly with clear water1 and perhaps it is then ready to mount4 ,often the bones of a small skeleton contain an inordinate amount of grease4 ,the easiest and simplest way to remove it is to soak the greasy bones for several days or weeks1 as may be necessary1 in a jar of pure naphtha4 ,,mounting ,a ,,small ,,skeleton4--,the skeleton of every bird1 mammal1 and reptile requires to have the spinal cord replaced by a stout zinc wire1 to give both strength and rigidity to the structure4 ,zinc wire is necessary because iron wire will rust1 and brass wire is too expensive to use when something cheaper and better is obtainable4 ,if you cannot procure zinc wire1 use good galvanized iron wire4 ,for very large specimens you may use iron wire1 but it must be covered with two coats of asphaltum1 applied with a brush1 like black paint4 ,after inserting the wire the full length of the cavity of the spinal cord1 leave enough of the end protruding beyond the first vertebra of the neck to afford a means for the attachment of the skull4 ,the extra length to be allowed should always be nearly equal to the lateral depth of the brain cavity4 ,,attitude4--,it is often somewhat difficult to decide upon the attitude the skeleton is to have when finished4 ,the possibilities in this line are extensive1 and the result depends entirely upon the character of the subject1 and the knowledge and good taste of the operator4 ,in the first place1 the position of the skeleton must be a correct representation of some characteristic attitude of the species4 ,for example1 a sloth skeleton should hang underneath a branch2 a monkey should be climbing1 or walking on a stout bough2 a hyena should sneak and crouch2 a passerine bird should always perch1 while the penguins and the auks must stand erect on flat pedestals4 ,if the young osteologist can do so1 it will pay him well to travel several hundred miles1 if need be1 to see the beautiful1 and even elegant1 collection of skeletons and other preparations in ,mr4 ,f4,a4 ,lucas's ,department of ,comparative ,anatomy in the ,national ,museum1 all of the specimens in which have been prepared1 mounted and displayed by ,mr4 ,lucas and his assistant1 ,mr4 ,joseph ,w4 ,schollick4 ,i know of no other osteological collection which in the beauty and scientific accuracy of mounting1 and exhibition arrangement of its specimens1 can be considered equal to this4 ,the museum-builder may well consider it a model of its kind4 ,every skeleton1 from that of a tiny humming-bird to a whale forty-eight feet long1 is as nearly perfect as human skill can make it1 and the variety of the characteristic attitudes represented in the smaller species makes this collection a particularly attractive one4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xx4 ,,ligamentary ,,skeleton 7,,domestic ,,cat74--,,mounted ,,and ,,drying4 ,,process ,,with ,,mammals4--,we will assume that the skeleton has been carefully scraped1 and is now ready for mounting4 ,the successive steps in this work from start to finish are about as follows3 #a4 ,in case the skeleton has been dried after scraping1 as is often done1 it must be soaked in clear water until the ligaments are relaxed4 #b4 ,cut a zinc or galvanized iron wire of the right length and size to replace the spinal marrow1 and long enough that the upper end of it will project beyond the axis into the brain cavity of the skull4 ,sharpen one end of this wire so that you can force it well down into the sacrum1 and insert it in its place in the spinal column4 #c4 ,bend the vertebral column to its permanent shape4 ,in doing this1 draw the sternum well forward so that the ribs will spread out1 and show a chest cavity of the right size for inflated lungs4 ,if you are not careful in this regard1 the chest cavity will be too narrow4 #d4 ,hang the body in a frame made of light strips of wood1 as shown in the accompanying plate4 ,let the body hang at just the right height from the pedestal to receive the legs 7,plate ,,xx474 #e4 ,space the ribs carefully by starting a thread from the neck1 and taking a turn around each rib from the first to the last1 finally making fast the remaining end of the thread to one of the lumbar vertebr4 #f4 ,put on each hind leg by drilling a small hole straight through the head of the femur and the socket of the pelvis 7innominate bone71 through which a small brass wire is to be passed and clinched down closely at each end1 to hold the head of the femur firmly in place4 #g4 ,place each leg in the attitude chosen for it1 plant the foot according to its osteological character1 and pin each toe in its proper place1 as shown in the accompanying plate4 ,the leg must be held in place by attaching threads to it1 and making them fast to the various parts of the gallows4 #h4 ,in putting on the foreleg1 the position of the scapula must be defined with accuracy1 in order to avoid placing it too low or too high1 and thus making an incorrect representation of the height of the animal4 ,bear in mind that the scapula never lies prone upon the ribs1 but is separated from them by a cushion of muscle4 ,it is therefore necessary to leave a certain space between ribs and scapula4 #i4 ,next cut two stiff brass wires of the proper length for the two standards that must support the skeleton 7see ,a ,a and ,b ,b in ,plate ,,xx474 ,to make the ,u-shaped fork at the upper end of each standard1 to clasp the vertebral column1 heat one end of the rod red-hot1 and plunge it into cold water1 which softens the metal4 ,now put it in a vise1 and with a hack-saw split the rod down the middle as far from the end as necessary4 ,finish neatly by rounding off the ends with a fine file1 and bending them in shape with the pliers4 ,the lower end must have a thread cut on it an inch or so in length1 a neat brass rosette screwed upon it 7,r7 to do duty on the top of the pedestal1 and a small brass nut made to screw on underneath the pedestal1 to hold the standard firmly upright4 ,these standards need not be put in place under the skeleton until it is mounted finally on its handsomely polished1 permanent exhibition pedestal4 #aj4 ,mr4 ,lucas has two methods for attaching a small skull to the skeleton4 ,one is to cut a piece of cork to fit snugly in the occipital hole of the skull 7foramen magnum71 then pierce a hole through its centre1 and fit it tightly on the projecting end of the vertebral wire1 close up to the first cervical vertebra 7the axis74 ,the cork thus becomes stationary1 and the skull may be put in place and removed at will4 ,the other method is to place the skull exactly in position on the skeleton1 fitting it closely to the axis4 ,then drill a small hole through each side of the axis in such a manner that in its passage from top to bottom the drill will also pass through the occipital condyle of the skull4 ,by fitting a wire through each of these holes the skull will be held fast in position so long as the skeleton remains in its place1 right side up4 ,if the skeleton is to be packed for shipment1 the skull 7unless it be very small and light7 must be taken off1 wrapped1 and packed separately for safety in transit4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fi4--,skeleton of a ,bat1 as exhibited by ,mr4 ,lucas4 #aa4 ,if any bones have been broken1 they must now be repaired1 either by gluing them together1 or by joining with a short wire fitted into the axis of each piece1 and the missing particles of bone may be restored by a filling of best sinew glue mixed with plaster ,paris into a paste1 and applied hot1 so that it will adhere4 ,as it cools it can be shaped properly1 and when thoroughly dry and hard1 its surface must be dressed down with a fine file and sand-paper until the form of the bone is once more perfect4 ,this is work which very often calls for considerable skill in the operator1 but the process itself is a very simple one4 ,if ligaments are missing and a small bone is completely detached1 it should be put on as follows3 ,procure some fine cotton batting1 cut it up very finely with the scissors1 then apply some hot glue to the joint1 lay a bit of clipped cotton upon it1 and work it into the glue so that when dry it will form a false ligament and hold the bone firmly in its place without attracting any attention to the fact that the ligament has been made for the occasion4 #ab4 ,finally1 transfer each skeleton to its permanent pedestal1 which we will assume has been prepared while the specimen has been drying4 ,mr4 ,lucas puts all his small skeletons on handsome ebonized pedestals1 which are the thing par excellence4 ,the limbs for his climbing animals1 and the thin1 black boards for his bat skeletons are also ebonized4 ,the illustration on page #bia 7,fig4 #fi7 shows one of his bat skeletons complete1 as it stands in its case1 bearing a label of black letters on an olive-gray card1 with no ornamentation4 ,in the final mounting the standards are put in place1 and the upper end of each fitted fast to the backbone4 ,each toe is fixed firmly in its place1 and held down by the bent-over end of a headless pin1 or by having a pin put through it1 and cut off close down to the bone4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj4--,skeleton of a ,bird ,mounted and ,drying4 ,,cautions ,,and ,,exceptions4--,it is only the tiny skeletons1 such as mice1 shrews1 small squirrels1 and the like1 that can safely be mounted without standards4 ,to be sure1 a large cat skeleton can be mounted on its own legs1 without any standards1 and so can a man drink a pint of bad whiskey2 but in each case the falling from grace will be in about the same degree1 if not the same in kind also4 ,in long-continued moist weather1 ligaments are apt to soften and let large unsupported skeletons come down1 without neatness1 but plenty of despatch4 ,,birds4--,the foregoing principles1 which have been described in detail for small mammals1 apply so fully and with such complete general similarity to birds1 that it is only necessary to add the two accompanying illustrations4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ga4--,wiring a ,skeleton ,wing4 ,,reptiles4--,serpents4--,the skeletons of serpents should always be scraped and mounted as ligamentary specimens1 and not macerated4 ,the skeleton should be supported on from three to five low brass standards clasping the vertebral column at proper intervals1 the body curved naturally1 and the ribs spread out and spaced evenly as in life1 according to the curves of the body4 ,the skeleton looks best when placed low down on the pedestal4 ,the ribs must be spaced with threads where the ligaments are soft1 but when dry require no wires4 ,the skeleton may be mounted in any life-like attitude1 either coiled or in motion4 ,lizards4--,small species are to be treated the same as small mammals4 ,crocodiles and ,alligators4--,it is best that all saurian skeletons1 even the largest1 should be scraped and mounted without maceration1 on account of the elaborate cartilaginous sternum and false ribs4 ,the head requires a special standard1 and the tail requires a pair1 while the tip of the latter is to be pinned down with a wire4 ,of course the feet must rest down on the pedestal as in life4 ,one thing which would greatly enhance the scientific value of every crocodile and alligator skeleton would be the preparation and display1 in its proper place1 of one side of the skin of the back with its wonderful shield of bony plates nicely articulated together4 ,this remarkable covering of the vital organs seems to have been specially designed to ward off glancing bullets1 and it has saved the lives of thousands of crocodilians4 7,of course this shield is not proof against a bullet fired squarely against it47 ,so far1 all collectors and osteologists have ignored this remarkable feature of the saurians1 but it should have the attention it deserves4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gb4--,skeleton of ,turtle1 as ,exhibited4 ,turtles and ,tortoises4--,the skeleton of a tortoise1 if mounted on its feet in a life-like attitude1 has the best part of its anatomy concealed by its shell4 ,this difficulty ,mr4 ,lucas meets occasionally by sawing out and laying back one-half the carapace1 to expose the interior4 ,the commonest method1 however1 is that shown in the accompanying illustration 7,fig4 #gb71 which is self-explanatory4 ,the plastron is hinged at one side1 furnished with a latch1 and opens like a door4 ,the skeleton is mounted on a single standard1 which is split at the upper end like a ,y1 the arms bent to fit the curvature of the shell1 and riveted to the carapace4 ,each leg is held in place by a small wire attached to the shell at its edge4 ,,fishes4--,there is nothing in the mounting of fish skeletons that has not been fully described in the foregoing pages4 ,of course fish skeletons are never macerated1 but must be scraped and mounted with their natural ligaments in place4 ,each skeleton requires two brass standards1 one clasping the vertebral column close to the tail1 the other near the head4 ,a very long fish1 or one with a large skull1 requires three standards1 one for the skull and one for the middle of the body4 ,where only two are used for a large fish1 the head requires to be supported by a wire running from the centre of the backbone4 ,,chapter ,,xxxix4 ,,mounting ,a ,,large ,,disarticulated ,,skeleton4 ,it will be well for anyone who intends to mount a large skeleton1 if he has not already a fair knowledge of osteology1 to take some book which contains a description of the skeleton1 for example1 of the domestic cow1 and familiarize himself with the names of the various bones and the different anatomical terms used in describing them4 ,in fact it is next to impossible to describe the process of mounting a skeleton without making use of quite an array of technical terms4 ,in order to make our description of this intricate process as clear as possible1 we will choose as our typical subject the skeleton of an ,american bison1 and go through with it in detail1 aided by an abundant supply of illustrations4 ,we of course assume that the macerating1 cleaning1 and bleaching has been done4 ,in mounting a disarticulated skeleton1 begin with the vertebral column as the key to the situation4 ,it is1 in point of fact1 the keel upon which the whole structure is to be built4 ,the vertebr should be arranged1 each in its place1 and1 then they should be numbered with pen and ink on the anterior articulating surface of the body of each one1 beginning with the first vertebra in front of the sacrum4 ,this vertebra 7the last lumbar7 should be marked ,no4 #a1 the next in front ,no4 #b1 and so on to the axis4 ,the next step consists in boring two holes through the sacrum from its under surface 7,fig4 #gc1 a1 a7 to its anterior articulating surface 7b1 b71 and these holes should be continued on through the body of each of the succeeding vertebrae to the axis4 ,they should come out underneath that vertebra 7the axis71 where the wires which pass through all these holes are afterward to be twisted together4 ,the holes should be somewhat larger than the brass wires which are to pass through them4 ,it is necessary to mark the place for starting the drill into the posterior surface of each vertebra by fitting two articulating surfaces together1 and passing the drill through the holes already made4 ,the points at which the drill should come out on the anterior surface of a vertebra should be marked with a lead pencil4 ,the beginner will find some difficulty in making the drill come through at precisely the right spot4 ,the greatest difficulty will be experienced in getting these holes through the cervical vertebrae4 ,when the axis is reached1 bore the holes so that they will come out underneath1 about half way between each extremity of the vertebra1 and about three-fourths of an inch apart4 ,it is just as well to now bore the holes through which the wires which fasten the axis and atlas together are to pass1 though these need not be actually united until the remainder of the spinal column has been1 articulated4 ,the wires uniting the atlas and axis are smaller than those passing through the spinal column4 ,the holes for these wires are made by boring two of them through each of the two surfaces by which the axis articulates with the atlas4 ,these holes should come out underneath the axis4 ,then1 placing the axis and atlas together1 mark on the atlas the places through which the holes are to pass by running the drill through each of the holes already made4 ,the next thing to be done is to cut pieces of artificial cartilage1 called buffle1 to fit the posterior articulating surface of the body of each vertebra1 and each piece should be fastened to the vertebra to which it belongs by a small wire nail through its centre4 ,the holes in each vertebra should be continued straight on through the false cartilage4 ,now cut a brass wire three times the length of the spinal column1 double it1 pull it straight1 pass the two ends through the sacrum1 and so on forward through all the vertebr4 ,when the vertebr have all been strung on the two wires and tightened up1 it will be seen that the spinal column assumes a curve approximating very nearly to the natural one4 ,mark this curve with chalk on a table or a board4 ,unstring the vertebr from the wire4 ,then take a square rod of iron1 a foot or so longer than the spinal column1 and over which each of the vertebra will fit easily4 ,have the blacksmith flatten out one end into a sort of spear1 so that it will fit snugly in the spinal canal of the sacrum 7,fig4 #gc1 c74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gc4--,the ,sacrum and ,spinal ,rod4 ,drill a hole through the under surface of the sacrum1 and on through the iron rod3 ,into this a brass pin is to be fitted at d4 ,bend the iron rod to correspond exactly with the curve previously marked with chalk on the board4 ,paint the rod black1 and when it has dried place it again in the sacrum1 drive in the brass pin1 leaving enough of the end exposed to be seized with a pair of pliers and pulled out if desired4 ,now string the vertebr over the rod and wires4 ,if all fit properly they can then be unstrung preparatory to attaching the ribs to them4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gd4--,the ,attachment of the ,ribs to a ,vertebra4 ,each rib should have a hole bored through its lower end at the middle1 to come out on the inner surface 7,fig4 #gd1 b1 b74 ,through these holes wires are to pass1 as seen in the accompanying figure1 and to these wires the sternum is presently to be attached4 ,having arranged the ribs so that you know the place of each1 take the first pair1 and the first dorsal vertebra to which this pair attaches4 ,bore a hole with the drilling machine through the rib1 beginning at the centre of the articular surface of the tubercle of the rib1 directing the drill so that it will come out on the under side 7,fig4 #gd1 c1 c72 then drill a hole through the head of the rib 7d1 d74 ,now fit the rib to the vertebra1 and with a small awl1 a sharp-pointed wire1 or drill1 mark1 through the holes already made1 the points on the articular surface of the vertebra through which the holes should be drilled 7a1 a74 ,bore similar holes through the rib of the opposite side1 then through the vertebra at the points marked1 and the wire will pass through as in the figure4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxi4 ,,skeleton ,,of ,,an ,,american ,,bison4 ,continue this same process for the remaining ribs4 ,it will be found1 however1 that the process of carrying a single wire through the heads of both ribs and the anterior portion of the body of the vertebra cannot be continued with all4 ,in the last of the dorsal vertebrae the wires will have to be put through the head of the rib and the pedicles of the vertebrae into the neural canal4 ,make a loop on the end of each wire1 as at a1 a1 ,fig4 #gd1 and put the ribs on each vertebra as they belong1 having only one end of the wire--the one on which is made a double loop--pulled up snugly4 ,the other end of the wire should be left a few inches in length1 but bent slightly close to the rib1 to hold the latter in place4 ,the innominate bones should be attached to the sacrum either by two brass bolts1 one passing through each side at about the middle of the articular surfaces between the sacrum and each ilium1 or by passing a heavy double wire through each of these places4 ,before tightening permanently1 apply plaster-glue 7the mixture of glue and plaster ,paris already described7 to the articular surfaces between the sacrum and ilia1 thus when dry making the pelvis firm4 ,now that the ribs are attached to the vertebr1 and the innominate bones to the sacrum1 proceed to string the vertebr again on the wires and rod4 ,the atlas can now be attached to the axis by passing wires through the holes previously made1 after which the wires are to be twisted firmly together4 ,when all the vertebr with their ribs attached have been put in place1 hang the backbone to a framework similar to that used for suspending the alligator 7,plate ,,xiv471 or1 what is much better1 to the ceiling1 by two small ropes attached at the neck and pelvis4 ,with the pliers now twist tightly together the wires under the axis1 then take a screw-driver and work between each pair of vertebrae from underneath1 beginning with the last lumbar1 and prying back toward the sacrum4 ,by the time you have reached the axis a considerable space will have been gained4 ,shorten the wires by twisting them1 and continue this process until the vertebrae all fit snugly together1 and are tight one against the other4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--,middle ,joint of the ,hind ,leg4 ,the next step is to put on the sternum1 which has been soaked in water containing a little washing soda1 and thus made flexible4 ,of course it has been previously cleaned by the scraping process4 ,a hole should be bored through the end of each sternal rib1 coming out on the inner surface4 ,the sternum is suspended temporarily by strings attached to the vertebral column1 and the single wires that have previously been placed through the end of each rib are now run1 one by one1 through the end of the sternal rib it is to support4 ,now space the ribs temporarily with a string that will hold each one of them exactly in its place4 ,having done this1 two brass wires can now be used to hold the ribs permanently in place1 running them on each side from the inferior process of the last cervical vertebr to the transverse process of some one of the lumbar vertebra1 or to the pelvis4 ,what is much better for a large skeleton1 because it is both firmer and more elegant1 is a long1 narrow strip of polished brass on the inside1 bent carefully to fit the curve of the ribs1 and fastened by a brass pin through each rib1 the posterior end of the brass strip being attached to a transverse process of one of the lumbar vertebr 7see ,plate ,,xxi474 ,after this has been done1 each rib can then be permanently fastened at top and bottom by making the loop and cutting off the long end of each wire4 ,the next step is to put on the tail4 ,a hole should have been bored into the middle of the articular surface of the posterior end of the sacrum1 and on each side a little hole coming out below 7see ,fig4 #gc74 ,the large middle wire 7e1 e7 should be of stiff brass1 and extend through the entire length of the tail1 the tapering end being filed small so that the small vertebr can fit over it4 ,the small side wires of soft brass 7f1 f7 should only extend through a few of the larger tail vertebr1 and are for making things firm4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--,middle ,joint of ,hind ,leg3 ,rear ,view4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gg4--;,bones of the ,foot3 ,side ,view4 ,to articulate the bones of the hind leg1 first arrange them so as to know the precise place of each4 ,take first the tarsal and metatarsal bones4 ,in articulating these it is necessary for one to use his judgment largely1 and put wires through so as to make the joint firm4 ,bore holes through the astragalus and os calcis 7,fig4 #ge1 a1 a7 so as to put a double wire through these and hold them together firmly4 ,next send two strong double wires through these and through the other tarsal bones1 and bring them out on the posterior surface of the metatarsal or canon bone 7c and d74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gh4--;,bones of the ,foot3 ,rear ,view4 ,next articulate the bones of the feet4 ,this is very simply done by passing a single heavy wire through the lower end of each half of the canon bone to each set of phalanges1 making a loop at each end of the wire 7see ,figs4 #gg and #gh74 ,in large skeletons it will frequently be found necessary to further strengthen the articulations of the phalanges by means of brass pins1 as shown in the figure at a4 ,the sesamoids are fastened on by two stiff brass pins through each at b4 ,the femur and tibia can be fastened together by a double brass wire passing through each condyle of the femur1 and through each side of the head of the tibia1 or1 what is better1 a strip of brass set into the middle of the joint1 and fastened firmly by two stout brass pins driven transversely through from side to side1 as indicated in ,fig4 #gi4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gi4--,the ,knee-,joint4 ,the patella is fastened on by passing a wire through it and twisting it1 or erecting it on a small strip of brass set into the tubercle of the tibia4 ,the joint is further strengthened by putting a brass pin through the patella into the end of the femur4 ,the tibia is articulated to the lower portion of the leg1 or1 more properly1 the pes1 by putting stiff wire pins into it4 ,the femur is articulated to the pelvis by a brass bolt4 ,the front foot is articulated on the same principles as the hind foot4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hj4--;,front ,view of ,knee-,joint4 ,in articulating the knee-joint1 as it is called1 send two heavy wires through1 letting them come out on the posterior surface of the radius and metacarpal bone1 and insert two wire pins diagonally through the joint1 as shown in ,fig4 #ha4 ,the scapula is fastened to the humerus by brass pins4 ,the humerus1 radius1 and ulna are also fastened by brass pins1 three in number4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ha4--;,elbow ,joint3 ,front ,view4 ,the scapula is attached to the body by two brass bolts attached to the ribs4 ,sections of spiral spring wire or pieces of brass tube are placed on the bolts between the scapula and the ribs1 to hold the former off the latter the same distance as when the flesh surrounding the scapula was all present4 ,as to the position of the legs1 the operator must use his own judgment4 ,it is of course to be understood that the attitude of the legs has been decided upon before their articulation began1 and that the work of wiring together has been carried out in accordance with this plan4 ,it is hard to do more with a large skeleton than to place the legs in an easy walking attitude1 of which the buffalo skeleton already figured may fairly be taken as a model4 ,the rod extending through the spinal canal is cut off so that the head will hang on it properly4 ,two brass pins are passed through the atlas1 one into each occipital condyle4 ,two iron rods1 with lacquered brass shoulders1 are used to support the skeleton1 as shown in the figure4 ,these rods should be painted black4 ,the lower jaw is fastened to the skull by means of brass spiral spring wire1 which permits it to be moved freely up and down by any one who is studying the animal's dentition4 ,the method of mounting any large disarticulated skeleton of a quadruped is essentially the same as that described for the buffalo1 the principle variation occurring in the feet4 ,in articulating the feet of a wolf1 for example1 the method of wiring the tarsal bones1 carpal bones1 metatarsals1 metacarpals1 and the phalanges1 is very similar to that described for the buffalo1 but the workman must here also depend largely on his own ingenuity4 ,a single wire passes through the phalanges of each digit1 and two sesamoids are fastened on by a single wire4 ,where the digits are more than two in number1 a wire is passed transversely through the lower ends of the metacarpals and metatarsals1 and on this are placed short pieces of fine coiled brass spring1 to hold the digits at proper distances from one another4 ,the tools used in mounting large skeletons are by no means so numerous or costly that any one need be deterred from trying his hand at practical osteology on the score of facilities or the lack of them4 ,of course the complete outfit of a professional osteologist includes an extensive array of tools1 some of which are rather costly4 ,the most important item is a good drilling machine1 chuck and lathe1 to work by foot-power4 ,this can be procured of ,goodnow ,wightman1 of ,boston1 and in ordering it will be necessary to have a #a_/d-;inch hole drilled through the centre of the axle1 to receive the long1 steel drills of various sizes that are to drill the many holes required in the various bones4 ,the amateur who can not afford an expensive plant and a first-class drilling machine1 can get along very well with a ,millers' ,falls hand-drill and a good assortment of first-class steel drills to fit it4 ,i once saw an old ,german anatomist mount a cow skeleton for a ,western college with hardly more tools than ,i could hold in one hand--but1 of course1 that skeleton was not mounted la ,lucas1 by a considerable difference4 ,,part ,v4--,,the ,,collection ,,and ,,preservation ,,of ,,insects4 ,,by ,w4,j4 ,,holland1 ,,ph4,d4 ,,chapter ,,xl4 ,,the ,,classification ,,of ,,insects4 ,it is estimated that four-fifths of the species comprised within the animal kingdom belong to the class of the ,insecta4 ,fully one hundred and seventy-five thousand species of insects have already been named and described4 ,nevertheless vast territories teeming with insect life have been as yet only very imperfectly explored4 ,the life-history and habits of only a few thousands of species have as yet been accurately investigated4 ,there remains1 therefore1 a broad field for discovery and research in this portion of the animal creation4 ,many insects are polygoneutic1 that is1 the species is represented by two or more annual broods1 or generations1 and thousands of individuals may1 by careful treatment1 be reared from the eggs of a single female4 ,in the case of the higher animals the development and multiplication of individuals takes place but slowly1 and it is obvious1 therefore1 that there is in the domain of insect life a far more convenient field for the investigation of the great problems of variation in animal forms1 than among the vertebrate animals4 ,aberrant forms are not uncommon1 especially among butterflies and moths1 and are worthy of careful study4 ,the various broods often present great and striking differences4 ,the phenomena of seasonal and sexual dimorphism are nowhere more clearly developed than among the lepidoptera4 ,hybridization also often takes place between allied species of insects1 especially in the case of the bombycid moths1 and it is possible for the skilful entomologist to conduct investigations in this interesting department of inquiry with almost as much freedom and success as have attended the labors of the botanist in the domain of plant life4 ,the economic importance of the study of entomology can scarcely be overestimated4 ,some of the best friends of the agriculturist1 as well as multitudes of his worst enemies1 are found among the insects4 ,the silkworm1 the cochineal insect1 and the bee have aided in the accumulation of many fortunes1 and their culture has provided employment for millions of human beings4 ,on the other hand1 property worth millions of dollars is annually destroyed by insect ravages4 ,it has been asserted by competent authorities that the depredations of the ,codling moth 7,carpocapsa ,pomonella7 have resulted1 in a single year1 within the limits of the ,state of ,pennsylvania alone1 in the destruction of fruit worth over a million of dollars1 and the terrible ,phylloxera at one time threatened the total overthrow of viticulture in ,southern ,europe4 ,various schemes have been proposed for the classification of insects1 and there is as yet only partial agreement among students upon this subject4 ,insects belong to that great group of animals designated by zoologists as the ,,arthropoda4 ,as a means of assisting to a better understanding of the practical hints and suggestions which follow1 a sketch of the classification of the ,arthropoda is here given4 ,,arthropoda4 ,animals possessing an external skeleton composed of chitinous rings1 or somites1 and provided with articulated limbs4 ,ceratophora4 ,class ,i4 ,,peripatidea 7,genus ,peripatus74 ,class ,,ii4 ,,myriapoda4 ,orders3 #a4 ,diplopoda 7,galley-worms1 etc474 #b4 ,pauropida 7,genus ,pauropus1 etc474 #c4 ,chilopoda 7,centipedes1 etc474 ,class ,,iii4 ,,hexapoda 7,insects proper74 ,orders3 #a4 ,thysanura4 ,sub-orders3 ,collembola 7,podura1 ,spring-tails74 ,symphyla 7,scolopendrella74 ,cinura 7,bristle-tails1 etc474 #b4 ,dermatoptera 7,ear-wigs74 #c4 ,pseudoneuroptera4 ,sub-orders3 ,mallophaga 7,bird-lice74 ,platyptera 7,stone-flies1 ,termites1 etc47 ,odonata 7,dragon-flies1 etc474 ,ephemerina 7,may-flies1 etc474 #d4 ,neuroptera 7,corydalis1 ,ant-lion1 ,caddis-flies1 etc474 ,heterometabola4 ,for #e4 ,orthoptera 7,cockroach1 ,mantis1 the most part undergoing ,mole-cricket1 ,grasshopper1 ,katydid1 etc474 only a partial metamorphosis #f4 ,hemiptera4 in the development ,sub-orders3 from the egg to the ,parasita 7,lice74 imago4 ,sternorhyncha 7,aphids1 ,mealy-bugs1 etc474 ,homoptera 7,cicada1 ,tree-hoppers1 etc474 ,heteroptera 7,ranatra1 ,belostoma1 ,water spiders1 ,squash-bugs1 ,bed-bugs1 etc474 #g4 ,coleoptera4 ,sub-orders3 ,cryptotetramera 7,lady-birds1 etc474 ,cryptopentamera 7,leaf-beetles1 ,long-horns1 ,weevils1 etc474 ,heteromera 7,blister-beetles1 ,meal-bugs1 etc474 ,pentamera 7,fire-flies1 ,skip-jacks1 ,june-bugs1 ,dung-beetles1 ,stag-beetles1 ,rove-beetles1 ,water-beetles1 ,tiger-beetles1 etc474 #h4 ,aphaniptera 7,fleas74 #i4 ,diptera4 ,sub-orders3 ,orthorhapha 7,hessian-fly1 ,buffalo ,gnats1 ,mosquitoes1 ,crane-flies1 ,horse-flies74 ,cyclorhapha 7,syrphis1 ,bot-flies1 ,tsetze1 ,metabola4 ,undergoing ,housefly1 etc474 for the most part a #aj4 ,lepidoptera4 complete metamorphosis ,sub-orders3 from egg through larva ,rhopalocera 7,butterflies74 and pupa to imago4 ,heterocera 7,moths74 #aa4 ,hymenoptera4 ,sub-orders3 ,terebrantia 7,saw-flies1 ,gall-wasps1 ,ichneumon-flies1 etc474 ,aculeata 7,ants1 ,cuckoo-flies1 ,digger-wasps1 ,true ,wasps1 ,bees74 ,acerata4 ,class ,i4 ,,crustacea 7,barnacles1 ,crabs1 etc474 ,class ,,ii4 ,,arachnida4 ,orders3 #a4 ,acarina 7,mites74 #b4 ,araneina 7,spiders74 #c4 ,pedipalpi 7,whip-scorpions1 etc474 #d4 ,solpug 7,whip-scorpions74 #e4 ,pseudoscorpii 7,false ,scorpions74 #f4 ,scorpiodea 7,true ,scorpions74 ,class ,,iii4 ,,pantopoda 7,pyenogonida1 ,sea-spiders74 ,class ,,iv4 ,,tardigrada 7,macrobiotus1 etc474 ,class ,v4 ,,gigantostraca 7,horse-shoe ,crabs1 ,trilobites1 etc474 ,class ,,vi4 ,,linguatulina 7,pentastoma1 etc474 ,,chapter ,,xli4 ,,eggs ,,and ,,larv3 ,,breeding ,,and ,,rearing4 ,,the ,,egg4--,the ,arthropoda are developed from eggs4 ,the eggs of these animals are often exceedingly curious in form and remarkable in color4 ,the eggs of insects are generally deposited upon those substances upon which the animal feeds during its larval or rudimentary stage of existence4 ,they are most frequently found attached to the leaves and twigs of plants and trees4 ,some insects are carnivorous as larv1 and deposit their eggs upon dead animal matter1 or even1 as the ichneumon-flies and other parasitic forms1 upon the tissues of living animals4 ,some lay their eggs upon decaying wood1 or upon the ordure of animals4 ,some deposit their eggs in water4 ,the female of some of the myriapoda deposits her eggs in a mass under the bark of decaying trees1 and1 coiling up about them1 apparently guards them with maternal instinct until they are hatched4 ,the spawn of many of the crustacea is carried about by the female1 attached in masses to the lower surface of the body4 ,the eggs of some insects1 as the cockroach and the mantis1 are deposited in masses concealed within cases1 and so united as to appear to form composite or multiple eggs4 ,these are conspicuous objects4 ,a similar arrangement is found in the case of the ova of ,hydrophilus and allied aquatic ,coleoptera4 ,the eggs of the mosquito are deposited upon the surface of the water in small1 boat-shaped masses1 composed of from fifty to one hundred ova4 ,the eggs of the ,lepidoptera1 which are generally deposited upon the leaves and blossoms of trees and plants1 are not difficult to find1 and have been more carefully observed and described than those of other orders4 ,by confining impregnated females of many species of butterflies and moths in nets of gauze drawn over the branches of the food-plant1 it is often possible to obtain their eggs in considerable numbers4 ,the insects thus confined should be supplied with food and drink4 ,this may be done by sprinkling upon the leaves water sweetened with sugar1 or preferably honey4 ,the females of many of the bombycid moths and hawk-moths will lay freely1 if enclosed in a dark box1 without the presence of the food-plant4 ,when eggs are found and their parentage is unknown1 a few should be preserved as hereafter described1 and the remainder should be retained and kept until they have been hatched and the perfect insect has been reared therefrom4 ,insect eggs may often be obtained by dissecting the gravid female1 but it is always preferable to obtain them1 if possible1 after oviposition has taken place1 since in many cases the color of the egg in the oviduct is somewhat different from what it is after having been laid4 ,the eggs of insects may be deprived of their vitality by immersion in alcohol or by exposure to heat4 ,the albumen of ova coagulates at #afj ,f41 and the temperature of the egg should not be raised above #age4 ,they are best killed by being placed in the stove used for drying the skins of larv1 which is described on page #cae4 ,it is better to kill by means of a gentle heat than by immersion in alcohol1 as by the latter process a change in color is sometimes produced4 ,after they have been deprived of their vitality they may be preserved in small phials in dilute glycerine1 or1 if this cannot be had1 in a solution of common salt4 ,the phials should be kept tightly corked1 and should be numbered by a label1 written in lead pencil and placed within the bottle1 to correspond with the note made in the collector's note-book giving an account of the place of discovery1 the food-plant1 the date when found1 and the name of the insect which deposited them1 if known4 ,in the latter case it is best to put the name of the insect in the phial with the number4 ,unless insect eggs are preserved in a fluid they are apt in many cases to shrivel with the lapse of time and become distorted1 through the drying up of their contents1 which1 on account of their small size1 it is impossible to void4 ,the shell of some eggs is often very neatly voided by the escape of the larva1 but there is generally a large orifice left1 the color is frequently materially altered1 and great vigilance in securing the shell must be exercised1 as the young larv of many species have the curious habit of whetting their appetites for future meals by turning about1 as soon as they have been hatched1 and eating the shell which they have just left4 ,the eggs of insects are best mounted in the form of microscopic slides in glycerine jelly contained in cells of appropriate depth and diameter4 ,it is well to mount several upon the same slide1 exhibiting the lateral as well as the terminal aspect of the eggs4 ,at the upper end of all insect eggs there are one or more curious structures1 known as micropyles 7little doors71 through which the spermatozoa of the male find ingress and they are fertilized4 ,the peculiar1 and often very beautiful1 features of this part of the egg are1 in a well-mounted specimen1 exposed to view4 ,in some cases it is advisable to slice off the end of the egg with the micropyle and mount it microscopically4 ,the best display of this curious structure is thus often obtained4 ,the slides should be kept in a cabinet arranged in shallow trays4 ,they should be accurately named1 and have references to a book into which1 from time to time1 should be carefully transcribed from the field-book the observations of the collector1 or his assistants and correspondents4 ,such a collection of insect ova is not only valuable but intensely interesting4 ,,the ,,larva4--,by reference to the table of the classification of the ,arthropoda1 given in ,chapter ,,xl41 it will be observed that the ,insecta are broadly divisible into two groups1 the ,heterometabola and the ,metabola4 ,the animals classified in the first group do not undergo metamorphosis in the development from the egg to the perfect insect to the same extent and in the same manner as the ,metabola4 ,in this respect the ,peripatidea1 the ,myriapoda1 and the various classes included under the ,acerata agree with them4 ,the young myriapod and the young spider are found immediately after they have emerged from the egg to present most of the features of the mature insect1 and so also the immature grasshopper and squash-bug resemble the perfect insect in nearly everything but size and the absence of fully developed wings4 ,in preparing a suite of specimens of these insects1 designed to illustrate their life-history1 the directions which are given for the preparation of the imago apply equally well to the larva4 ,it is simply necessary1 for instance1 in preparing a series of specimens of the ,rocky ,mountain ,locust1 to make sure that a specimen representing the creature after each successive moult has been secured1 and these are mounted upon pins1 and treated exactly as specimens of the adult insect are treated4 ,be careful not to pin1 however1 too soon after the moult4 ,in the case of many of the ,coleoptera1 and of all the ,metabola the work of the collector is rendered far more laborious1 for these pass from the egg into vermiform larv1 which undergo in some cases many moults1 are then transformed into pup1 which are either naked or contained in a protecting envelope known as the cocoon1 and then finally1 after a longer or shorter period in the pupal state1 are transformed into the perfect insect4 ,the student and collector1 if intending to benefit science by their efforts1 dare not neglect these rudimentary forms4 ,the larv of most insects which undergo a complete metamorphosis are very small when first emerging from the egg1 and before they make the first moult are1 for the most part1 best preserved as microscopic objects in cells filled with glycerine4 ,in the case of the larv of the great bombycid moths1 which at the time of hatching are dark in color1 it is possible to make a fairly good specimen by piercing the anal extremity of the caterpillar1 and spitting it upon the extremity of a thick1 black bristle1 or a fine copper wire wrapped with black silk4 ,specimens so mounted will not shrivel greatly1 and may be attached to pins and placed in the cabinet after the slide containing the egg1 as the first in the series of slowly maturing forms4 ,after each successive moult the larv increase rapidly in size4 ,the method of preparing the larger forms which is now preferred by good collectors is that of inflation4 ,in inflating larv the first step is to carefully remove the contents of the larval skin4 ,this is best effected by making an incision with a stout pin or needle at the anus1 and then1 between the folds of a soft towel1 gently pressing out the contents of the abdominal cavity4 ,the pressure should be first applied near the point where the pellicle has been punctured1 and then be carried forward until the region of the head is reached4 ,great care must be exercised not to apply such a degree of pressure as will expel those tissues lying nearest to the epidermis1 in which the pigments are located1 and in the case of hairy larv not to rob them of their hair4 ,practice can alone make perfect in this regard4 ,the contents of the larva having been removed1 the next step is to inflate and dry the empty skin4 ,some persons1 as preliminary to this step1 recommend that the empty skin be soaked for a period of a few hours in pure alcohol4 ,by this process undoubtedly a certain portion of the watery matter contained in the pellicle is removed1 and the process of desiccation is facilitated1 but it is objectionable in the case of all larv having light colors1 because these are more or less effaced by the action of the alcohol4 ,the simplest method of inflating the skins of larv after the contents have been withdrawn is to insert a straw or grass stem of appropriate thickness into the opening through which the contents have been removed1 and then by the breath to inflate1 while holding over the chimney of an ,argand lamp1 the flame of which must be regulated so as not to scorch or singe the specimen4 ,care must be taken in the act of inflating not to unduly extend the larval skin1 thus producing a distortion1 and also to dry it thoroughly4 ,unless the latter precaution is observed a subsequent shrinking and disfigurement will take place4 ,the process of inflating in the manner just described is somewhat laborious1 and while some of the finest specimens1 which the writer has ever seen1 were prepared in this primitive manner1 various expedients for lessening the labor involved have been devised1 some of which are to be highly commended4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hb4--;,apparatus for ,inflating ,larv4 ,b1 ,foot-bellows2 ,k1 rubber tube2 ,c1 flask2 ,d1 anhydrous sulphuric acid2 ,e1 overflow flask2 ,f1 rubber tube from flask2 ,g1 standard with cock to regulate flow of air2 ,h1 glass tube with larva upon it2 ,i1 copper drying-plate2 ,j1 spirit-lamp4 ,a comparatively inexpensive arrangement for inflating larv is a modification of that described in the ,entomologische ,nachrichten1 #ahgi1 vol4 v41 p4 #g1 devised by ,mr4 ,fritz ,a4 ,wachtel4 ,it consists of a foot-bellows such as is used by chemists in the laboratory1 or1 better still1 of a small cylinder such as is used for holding gas in operating the oxy-hydrogen lamp of a sciopticon4 ,in the latter case the compressed air should not have a pressure exceeding fifty pounds to the square inch1 and the cock regulating the flow from the cylinder should be capable of very fine adjustment4 ,by means of a rubber tube the air is conveyed from the cylinder to a couple of flasks1 one of which contains concentrated sulphuric acid and the other is intended for the reception of any overflow of the hydrated sulphuric acid which may occur4 ,the object of passing the air through sulphuric acid is to rob it1 so far as possible1 of its moisture4 ,it is then conveyed into a flask1 which is heated upon a sand-bath1 and thence by a piece of flexible tubing to a tip mounted on a joint allowing vertical and horizontal motion and secured by a standard to the working-table4 ,the flow of air through the tip is regulated by a cock4 ,upon the tip is fastened a small rubber tube1 into the free extremity of which is inserted a fine-pointed glass tube4 ,this is provided with an armature consisting of two steel springs fastened upon opposite sides1 and their ends bent at right angles in such a way as to hold the larval skin firmly to the extremity of the tube4 ,the skin having been adjusted upon the fine point of the tube1 the bellows is put into operation and the skin is inflated4 ,a drying apparatus is provided in several ways4 ,a copper plate mounted upon four legs1 and heated by an alcohol lamp placed below1 has been advocated by some4 ,a better arrangement1 used by the writer1 consists of a small oven heated by the flame of an alcohol lamp1 or by jets of natural gas1 and provided with circular openings of various sizes1 into which the larval skin is introduced4 7,see ,fig4 #hc47 ,a modification of the oven is given in ,fig4 #hd4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hc4--;,drying ,oven4 ,a1 ,lamp2 ,b1 pin to hold door open2 ,c1 door open2 ,d1 glass cover4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hd4--,oven for ,drying ,larva-skin1 made of tin joined without solder and with top made of glass4 7,after ,riley47 ,a less commendable method of preserving larv is to place them in alcohol4 ,the larv should be tied up in sacks of light gauze netting1 and a label of tough paper with the date and locality of capture1 and the name1 if known1 written with a lead pencil1 should be attached to each such little sack4 ,do not use ink on labels to be immersed1 but a hard lead pencil4 ,alcoholic specimens are liable to become shrivelled and discolored1 and are not nearly as valuable as well-inflated and dried skins4 ,when the skins have been inflated they may be mounted readily by being placed upon wires wrapped with green silk1 or upon annealed aluminium wire4 ,the wires are bent and twisted together for a short distance and then made to diverge as in ,fig4 #he4 ,the diverging ends are pressed together1 a little shellac is placed upon their tips1 and they are then inserted into the opening at the anal extremity of the larval skin4 ,upon the release of pressure they spread apart1 and after the shellac has dried the skin is firmly held by them4 ,they may then be attached to pins by simply twisting the free end of the wire about the pin1 or they may be placed upon artificial imitations of the leaves and twigs of their appropriate food-plants4 ,this method of preparation is applicable to the larv of ,coleoptera and ,diptera as well as to those of the ,lepidoptera4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #he4--,wire ,bent into ,shape for ,mounting ,larva4 7,after ,riley47 ,an account of the manner of preserving larv would not be complete without an account of the manner of rearing them4 ,in rearing the larv of ,coleoptera1 ,diptera1 and ,hymenoptera1 the student must be left in a large degree to his own devices4 ,a few large glass jars capable of being closed with a gauze top are necessary1 though in the case of the ,hymenoptera reliance must be mainly placed upon finding the larv in their nests4 ,bees and wasps construct various larval edifices1 and these must be explored as found in nature for a knowledge of the immature insect4 ,breeding them in captivity is attended by difficulties which are rarely overcome by the most expert1 except in a few isolated cases4 ,this is also true1 but to a less extent of the larv of the ,coleoptera4 ,the larv of many beetles which are carnivorous may be reared in glass jars1 or boxes1 covered with fine wire gauze1 at the bottom of which earth or sand has been placed1 and in which a supply of appropriate food can be put1 such as the soft larv of beetles1 maggots1 and bits of meat4 ,it is best to previously scald the earth and sand placed at the bottom of the breeding cages in order to destroy the eggs and small larv of other species which might be introduced4 ,the cages should have a sufficient supply of moisture1 and1 so far as possible1 the circumstances should be made to approximate those under which the larv were found4 ,the larv of wood-boring beetles may be bred in portions of the wood which they frequent4 ,a tight barrel with a cover made of wire gauze fitting closely over the top is a good device4 ,in the fall of the year it may be filled with fallen twigs and pieces of branches from the forest1 on which beetles have oviposited1 and in the spring there will be generally found a large number of beautiful specimens of species1 some of which are otherwise very difficult to secure4 ,the barrels should be placed in a covered spot in the open air1 and the twigs and wood occasionally lightly moistened with water4 ,the larv of leaf-eating beetles may be bred as the larv of lepidoptera4 ,the larv of neuropterous insects1 such as ,myrmeleon1 may be easily reared in boxes at the bottom of which sand to the depth of six inches has been placed4 ,they may be fed with house-flies which have been deprived of their wings1 and soft bodies of coleopterous larv1 and the larv of ants4 ,the larv of the ,odonata and aquatic beetles must be reared in aquaria in which there is a muddy bottom provided1 and in which there are a few pieces of rotting wood1 with loose bark upon it1 so that they protrude some inches above the surface of the water1 and in which aquatic plants are kept growing4 ,many aquatic insects pupate under the bark of trees growing at the edge of the water4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hf4--;,breeding ,cage4 7,after ,riley47 a1 ,bottom board2 g g1 battens to prevent warping2 f f1 zinc pan four inches deep2 d1 zinc tube soldered to bottom of pan and intended to hold jar of water for food-plants2 e1 earth in pan2 b1 box with glass sides and hinged door2 c1 removable cap of box covered with wire gauze4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hg4--;,breeding ,cage4 ,b1 ,jar with food-plant2 ,e1 box with soil2 ,g1 gauze lid4 ,the breeding of the larv of lepidopterous insects has received far greater attention than that of other insects1 and many modifications of devices for this purpose have been suggested4 ,the simplest devices are often the best1 and in the early stages of the smaller forms the best plan is to pot a specimen of the appropriate food-plant1 when it is low and herbaceous and capable of being thus treated1 and then put it under a cover of tarletan or under a bell glass4 ,when the larva undergoes its transformations in the ground a bed of earth several inches in depth1 upon which some dead leaves and litter are placed1 should be provided4 ,a convenient form of a breeding-cage is represented in ,fig4 #hf4 ,mr4 ,w4,h4 ,edwards1 who has done more than any other person to elucidate the life-history of ,north ,american butterflies1 often uses a breeding-cage made of a nail keg1 the top of which has been knocked out1 and over which gauze netting is tied4 ,the writer has successfully employed1 for breeding moths upon a large scale1 common store boxes1 with about eight inches in depth of good soil at the bottom1 covered with a close-fitting frame lid over which mosquito-netting is tacked4 ,branches of the food-plant are set into the box in jars of water1 in which they remain fresh for several days 7see ,fig4 #hg74 ,if possible1 and if operations are to be prosecuted upon a large scale1 it is well to appropriate to breeding purposes a small room from which all the furniture and carpets have been removed4 ,the windows should be closed with gauze netting tacked over them1 and the doors should also be made tight so as to prevent the escape of the insects4 ,when the caterpillars descend from the food-plants which are placed in the apartment in jars of water1 or in pots1 and thus indicate their readiness to undergo transformation1 they should be secured and placed in smaller boxes fitted up as before described1 and1 in case the insect pupates in the soil1 provided with a sufficient depth of earth4 ,in case it is desired to go to still greater expense1 a small house1 arranged after the manner of a greenhouse1 and with suitable cages and compartments1 may be provided4 ,such an insect-house exists at ,cornell ,university1 and is under the care of that admirable investigator1 ,professor ,comstock1 who no doubt would be glad to furnish students with a knowledge of the details of its construction4 ,the larv of many lepidopterous insects emerge from the egg in the fall of the year1 and after feeding for a time and undergoing one or two moults1 hibernate1 and upon the return of the springtime begin feeding again1 and finally pupate4 ,it is best in the case of such to leave the larv in the fall in a cold place1 as an icehouse1 and to suffer them to remain there until an abundant supply of the proper food-plant can be obtained4 ,in the breeding of larv experience must be the great instructor1 and practice can alone make perfect4 ,no department of entomological study is1 however1 quite so fascinating as this1 even though its prosecution may be somewhat laborious4 ,,chapter ,,xlii4 ,,collecting ,,imagoes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hh4--,net ,frame4 7,after ,riley47 a1 ,wire ring with ends bent to insert in ferule b2 c1 point where plug and net-handle meet4 ,the name imago is applied by naturalists to the perfect form of insects1 which is revealed at the conclusion of the round of metamorphoses4 ,in the collection and the preservation of these the most necessary implement at the outset is the net4 ,a simple way of making a serviceable and strong net is to take a piece of brass or galvanized iron wire about three feet and six inches in length1 and about three-sixteenths of an inch in diameter1 and having bent it into the form of a hoop1 with the two ends forming shanks1 to insert these into the end of a brass ferule such as is used on fishing-rods1 and fix them there by pouring in melted lead or solder in such a way that the handle can be inserted into the other end of the ferule4 ,this can be easily accomplished by plugging the handle end of the ferule with a piece of soft wood or with clay4 ,the handle should be light1 and not more than four or five feet in length for ordinary use4 ,to the ring of the net a sack made of green tarletan1 or less preferably mosquito-netting1 about two and a half times as deep as the diameter of the ring1 should be sewn4 ,a piece of green muslin should be then stitched on as a binding over the ring4 ,green is to be always preferred to any other color as less likely to alarm the insects4 ,nets with folding rings and jointed bamboo handles are to be had of most dealers1 and are to be highly recommended for convenience1 if well made4 ,in collecting about electric lights which hang high1 and along the woodland walks of tropical forests1 it is well to be able to add to the length of the handle by inserting more joints of bamboo4 ,some butterflies are highfliers4 ,nets made of stout muslin are useful for sweeping the tops of grass and low herbage1 and in this way multitudes of small insects of various orders may be taken4 ,such nets should be larger than the ordinary net4 ,nets made of stout lace cloth are used for capturing aquatic insects in pools and ditches4 ,for this purpose a scoop made of wire gauze may also be advantageously employed4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxii4 ,,fig4 #a4--;,,beating ,,the ,,bush4 ,,fig4 #b4--;,a ,,successful ,,stroke4 ,in the capture of insects the umbrella plays1 in the hands of a skilful collector1 a very important part4 ,it is used as a receptacle for insects which are beaten from the overhanging branches1 under which it is held in an inverted position while the operation of beating is going on4 ,as the insects fall they must be caught and placed in the collecting-jars4 7,see ,plate ,,xxii41 ,fig4 #a47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hi4--,net-head for ,removable ,frame4 7,after ,riley47 ,the frame is made of elastic brass ribbon1 and may be put inside of the hat when not in use1 and the handle used as a cane4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ij4--;,folding ,net4 7,after ,riley47 a1 ,net-ring open2 b1 enlarged view of joint and check2 c1 ring folded and detached from ferule2 d1 nut sunk into end of ferule2 e1 screw to hold ring in place2 f1 illustrating manner of putting ring and rod together4 ,collecting-jars are of various sizes4 ,for ,lepidoptera the one-pound jars used by ,schering for hydrate of chloral1 which have nicely ground glass stoppers1 are admirable4 ,in preparing the jars the following directions should be closely attended to3 ,place at the bottom of the jar some lumps of cyanide of potash1 over these place a few pieces of paper loosely crumpled and rammed down so as to hold the lumps of the cyanide in position4 ,pour in two or three drops of water4 ,take a piece of stout and clean writing-paper and describe upon it a circle of the same size as the inside of the bottle1 and around this another circle three-quarters of an inch greater in diameter4 ,cut out a circular disc of paper1 following with the scissors the line of the outer circle4 ,at intervals of a quarter of an inch cut slits all around the disc of paper extending them inwardly only as far as the first circle drawn upon the paper4 ,fold back the outer edge of the disc upon the side of the paper which is to come uppermost in the bottle4 ,with a pin1 or a small punch1 pierce a number of holes through the middle of the paper4 ,apply some gum to the edge of the disc which has been folded back1 and fix it securely on the top of the mass of cyanide and paper at the bottom of the jar1 by pressing the gummed edge against the sides of the bottle4 ,this method is infinitely preferable to the old way of fixing the cyanide in the bottom of the jar by pouring in a cement of plaster of ,paris4 ,instead of lumps of cyanide of potash1 lumps of carbonate of ammonia may be used to charge the poisoning-jar1 but a jar so charged must never be used to kill insects which are green in color1 as the fumes of the ammonia often serve to bleach these and make them white or brown4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ia4--;,collecting ,jar4 ,cy41 ,cyanide of potash wedged into place with soft paper2 ,p1 perforated paper disc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ib4--,perforated ,disc of ,paper for ,holding ,cyanide in ,place at ,bottom of ,jar4 ,in the case of large insects1 or insects which struggle violently1 a few drops of chloroform may be poured into the collecting-jar1 to prevent them from injuring themselves4 ,chloroform is not1 however1 to be commended as a killing agent1 inasmuch as it induces thoracic spasms1 which make the specimen difficult to set after death4 ,in the case of the larger moths and beetles death may be instantaneously induced by injecting a solution of cyanide of potash with a hypodermic syringe4 ,the use of oxalic acid in solution1 administered by making an incision into the thorax of the insect with the point of a crow-quill pen dipped into the solution1 is not to be highly commended1 as the acid changes the color of the specimen1 and1 after it has been pinned1 corrodes the pin4 ,likewise when specimens have been kept too long in a jar charged with ammonia1 and are pinned immediately after they have been taken out1 the pins are liable to be corroded and eaten through4 ,the collector having provided himself with nets and killing-jars1 will not be thoroughly equipped for field work until he have added to his outfit the necessary conveniences for carrying his captures with him uninjured4 ,the writer1 after long experience as a collector in many lands1 is inclined to think that the best appliance is a tin box lined with cork1 and provided with a compartment in which a cyanide cake#aa may be placed before going to the field1 and in which1 after the return1 when the cyanide cake has been withdrawn1 a sponge may be put1 which should be saturated with a weak solution of carbolic acid for the double purpose of keeping the specimens from drying out too rapidly and from moulding4 ,the box should not be more than #aj #h #c-a_/b inches inside measurement1 and should be divided into two equal parts1 hinged at the side which is carried uppermost1 and hung over the shoulder by a strap4 ,a pincushion filled with pins may be attached to the belt4 ,a belt arranged like a cartridge-belt1 with pockets to carry pillboxes about one and one-half inch square and three-quarters of an inch deep should also be provided4 ,these boxes should have glass bottoms4 ,they are to be used in boxing the smaller lepidoptera and other delicate insects which1 if killed and pinned on the field1 would be too dry upon return from the chase to make good cabinet specimens4 ,boxed specimens may be kept for a day or two1 and killed and mounted at leisure4 ,a bag containing several small boxes may also be carried4 ,these boxes should have in them a supply of paper envelopes1 for papering specimens in the way hereafter to be described4 ,a loose sack-coat1 with an abundance of capacious pockets inside and out1 is indispensable4 ,a small poisoning-jar for beetles should be carried in the right-hand pocket of the pantaloons1 a similar jar in the left-hand pocket for hymenoptera and diptera4 ,in the right-hand pocket of the sack-coat should be carried the large jar for killing lepidoptera1 and in the left-hand pocket a smaller jar for neuroptera and orthoptera4 ,thus arrayed the collector is completely furnished for the chase4 ,it will1 however1 be well for him1 if he can1 to secure the attendance of an assistant to carry some of his traps and assist him4 ,we will now go out with him into the field and give him a few practical instructions as to the best mode of procedure4 ,first of all1 it is proper to observe that it is advisable not to be in a hurry and not to rush over the ground4 ,the representations in comic newspapers of the entomologist1 wildly tearing about the fields and in mad haste chasing a butterfly over hills and meadows1 are not drawn from a study of the methods of experts4 ,all things come to him who waits4 ,slyness1 coolness1 a keen eye1 and adroit quickness in the use of the net are the qualities which yield the largest returns to the collector4 ,in the use of the net the habits of insects must be noted4 ,those which alight upon the ground or low herbage may be caught by clapping the net over them4 ,most butterflies and moths have the habit1 when caught1 of flying upward in the net4 ,therefore so soon as the insect1 if a lepidopteron1 is enclosed in the net1 hold up the closed end of the sack1 and1 introducing the poison jar1 from which the stopper has been removed1 take the insect4 ,a little practice will soon enable the collector to do this without allowing the fly to beat and injure its wings1 and without touching them in the least with the fingers4 7,plate ,,xxiii41 ,fig4 #a47 ,a convenient way of securing small insects in the net is by a rapid motion hither and thither1 with the mouth open to the wind1 to drive them back into the bottom of the sack1 and then to place this in the bottle and leave it there a few seconds until the insects are stunned1 when they may be shaken into the jar4 ,when the insect alights within reach upon the ends of branches or the tops of flowering plants1 it may be swept into the net by a dexterous movement and thus secured4 ,a similar stroke will often1 when well-aimed1 secure specimens flying past the station of the collector4 7,plate ,,xxiii41 ,fig4 #b47 ,beetles and insects of other orders than the lepidoptera may be placed in the jars appropriated to them and left there until the return from the fields4 ,with the ,lepidoptera it is necessary to exercise greater care4 ,the smaller specimens1 such as the ,tortricid and ,phycitid and ,tineid should be boxed in the pillboxes provided for this purpose4 ,the ,lycnid1 ,hesperid1 and most of the moths1 should be caught in the large jar in the manner just described1 and when stunned1 pinned and placed in the cork-lined box1 where the process of completely depriving them of life will be completed4 ,the larger1 and even some of the smaller1 butterflies may be killed while in the net by gently pinching them through its folds1 between the first finger and the thumb at the point where the wings are attached to the thorax 7see ,fig4 #ic74 ,the pressure should be applied when the wings are folded back to back1 as the insect sits when in repose4 ,if applied in any other way the specimen is likely to be seriously damaged1 and moths should never be thus killed4 ,in pinning specimens in the tin box used for transportation while upon the hunt1 the storage power of the box will be increased by pinning a number of specimens upon one pin1 thrusting the pin through the insect horizontally and not perpendicularly through the upper surface of the thorax4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ic4--,method of ,pinching a ,butterfly4 ,the labors of the collector should not be confined to the day4 ,multitudes of the rarest and most desirable species are nocturnal in their habits4 ,some of them are readily attracted to light1 though1 strangely enough1 the individuals among the lepidoptera thus attracted are mainly of the male sex4 ,by placing a lamp at an open window many moths may be secured4 ,electric lights are good points for the collector1 if they are within reach4 ,the burnt and ragged refuse which the cleaner finds in the globes in the morning1 half-buried in the dust of the disintegrated carbons1 is of little or no value4 ,various traps lighted with lanterns have been suggested1 but so far few of them have equalled the simple device of a friend of mine1 who1 living in a tropical country1 has set apart a small room for this purpose1 and having cleared it of all furniture1 and whitewashed the walls1 keeps a powerful lamp burning in it every night opposite a large window facing the forest4 ,his captures vary from a dozen to a hundred specimens of lepidoptera every night of the year1 and multitudes of insects of other orders4 ,in the temperate zones a favorite method of collecting lepidoptera is by sugaring4 ,for this a mixture of sugar and stale beer1 or molasses and water1 flavored with rum1 and of about the consistency of thin maple syrup1 should be used4 ,it is best applied to the trunks of trees upon the edge of clearings1 and on moonlight nights on the side of the wood toward the moon4 ,apply the mixture to from forty to eighty trees1 stumps1 or stakes1 with a whitewash brush1 and then go over the beat with a dark lantern and capture the moths in the wide-mouthed cyanide jar4 ,in this way the writer has taken as many as three or four hundred moths in a single evening4 ,the same trees should be sugared and visited night after night1 and the best results are often only obtained after a beat has been in operation for some time and the insects have learned to know it4 ,the best catch is generally to be had in the two hours immediately following sunset4 ,in tropical countries1 aside from the ,erebid and allied moths1 few species appear to be attracted to sugar1 and in warm climates plenty of rum should be added to the mixture4 ,to keep ants off from trees which have been sugared1 the writer finds it good to tie a band of dark cloth which has been treated with a saturated solution of corrosive sublimate about the trunk near the ground4 ,this only is to be done where a regular route has been selected for nightly visitation1 and it has the disadvantage of keeping away from the baits many beetles which are attracted to sugar4 ,trees which have been sugared and visited at night should be revisited in the daytime1 and many day-flying species will be found feasting upon what has been left by the revellers who attended the banquet of the night before4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxiii4 ,,fig4 #a4--;,,bottling ,a ,,skipper4 ,,fig4 #b4--;,,japanese ,,porter ,,with ,,collecting ,,boxes4 ,some insects have quite revolting tastes1 and may be captured by pandering to them4 ,the ordure of wild animals has a charm for many1 and by placing the dung of dogs1 or civet-cats1 or any of the ,felid1 in the woodland paths of tropical forests many great rarities may be secured4 ,carrion and dead fish in particular are attractive baits4 ,it has been recently claimed by a writer that painted decoys representing butterflies1 placed upon flowers1 or kept in motion at the tip of a switch1 may be effectively used in securing rare and wild species4 ,the writer has no personal knowledge of the merit of the plan4 ,it might be worth trying1 however1 in the case of monstrous rarities4 ,,footnote3 #aa ,the cyanide cake is made by pouring plaster of ,paris into a mould of proper size and imbedding in it before setting a number of lumps of cyanide of potash4 ,,chapter ,,xliii4 ,,preparation1 ,,care1 ,,and ,,display ,,of ,,insects4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #id4--,manner of ,folding ,paper ,envelope4 ,a-,b1 ,first fold2 ,b-,c1 second fold2 ,a-,d1 third fold2 ,b-,f1 fourth fold2 ,a-,e1 fifth fold4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ie4--;,butterfly in ,envelope4 ,the next step after the capture of the specimens is to prepare them either for transportation or for the cabinet4 ,if collecting upon a journey1 or where facilities for the preparation of specimens for the cabinet are lacking1 the insects may be preserved in papers4 ,common druggists' envelopes are a very convenient resource for the preservation of lepidoptera4 ,they may be purchased by the thousand at about sixty-five cents4 ,if these cannot be had1 envelopes may easily be made from pieces of paper1 preferably stiff newspaper or common writing-paper upon which ink has not been used4 ,the manner of folding these is illustrated by ,figures #id and #ie4 ,care should be taken to write upon the envelope1 before the insect is placed in it1 the date and the locality of capture4 ,beetles1 if black and devoid of hairy vestiture1 may be preserved in alcohol1 and the same course may be taken with many insects of other orders4 ,it is preferable1 however1 to pack beetles and other hard-bodied insects in layers of cotton batting4 ,a small box may be made to contain an immense number of insects in envelopes or in cotton1 and they may thus be safely transported anywhere4 ,in case alcohol is used as a preservative all the specimens of a species should be sorted out and tied together in a small sack made out of thin netting1 and to this should be attached a label giving the date and place of capture and a reference to the note-book4 ,in case cotton layers are employed all the specimens of a species1 if numerous1 should be placed in one layer1 and a memorandum to the same purport as the label inserted4 ,insects are prepared for the cabinet by being mounted upon pins and expanded4 ,there are various sorts and sizes of insect-pins1 but those made by ,klaeger1 of ,berlin1 are generally preferred at the present time by the leading entomologists of the world4 ,the ,french pins and the so-called ,carlsbader pins are too long and the points are too fine1 and1 therefore1 too likely to be injured to make them desirable4 ,the ,english pins are too short1 and except in the case of very small insects1 are not used by the best collectors4 ,insects should be mounted high upon the pin1 i4e41 in such a way that not more than one-fifth or at the most one-fourth of the pin shall be exposed above the body of the specimen4 ,dr4 ,staudinger1 the celebrated lepidopterist of ,germany1 makes it his rule to mount all his specimens in such a way that the wings are elevated upon a plane one inch above the tip of the pin4 ,the writer has had the greater part of his collection1 of over fifty thousand specimens of lepidoptera1 mounted at an average height of seven-eighths of an inch above the points of the pins4 ,the ,english method of mounting low down1 and only leaving enough of the pin exposed below to permit of fixing the specimens in the cork at the bottoms of the drawers of the cabinet1 is rapidly passing out of vogue1 even in ,england1 and is giving place to the ,continental ,method4 ,insect pins are of various sizes2 adapted to the size of the insect which they are to carry4 ,the most serviceable sizes and which will be proportioned to the majority of the insects which the collector is likely to take1 are ,klaeger's ,no4 #c and ,no4 #e4 ,for very large insects higher numbers may be employed1 and for smaller insects lower numbers1 though in the case of the latter it is perhaps better to use the short ,english pins and then to mount the specimens upon the bits of cork or pith which are themselves mounted upon the longer ,german pins4 ,such mounts are known as double mounts 7see ,fig4 #if74 ,the writer desires to utter a caution against the use of the common black insect-pins so often sold by dealers1 and the sole stock in trade of one or two firms of opticians in this country4 ,they are very liable to rust at the point and to bend1 and are totally unsuited for use in humid1 tropical1 and semi-tropical climates1 or for collections which are to be transported far over the seas4 ,beetles should always be pinned through the right elytron4 ,bugs should be pinned through the scutellum1 as the small triangular piece between the elytra is called4 ,all other insects should be pinned in the middle of the thorax1 and care should always be taken to set the pins perpendicularly4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #if4--;,double ,mount4 ,c1 ,long pin2 ,p1 pith2 ,s1 specimen mounted on short pin2 ,l1 label4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ig4--;,frame for ,mounting ,beetles4 a1 a1 ,wooden frame2 ,a1 ,b1 paper drumhead4 ,having pinned the specimen the next step is to expand it properly4 ,in the case of beetles this is done by simply arranging the feet and the antenn in such a way that they can easily be inspected4 ,in doing this it is well to have a frame seven-eighths of an inch deep1 or thereabouts1 backed by a thin piece of soft pine1 and covered on top by a sheet of paper1 which has been first moistened and then pasted around the edges1 and which when dry expands like a drumhead4 7,fig4 #ig47 ,upon this a number of beetles may be pinned1 their feet drawn out1 and there be left to dry4 ,in the case of lepidopterous insects1 and other insects having considerable expanse of wing1 setting-boards are required4 ,these are boards provided with a groove in the middle capable of receiving the body of the insect1 and permitting of the expansion of their wings laterally4 ,these boards should be of various widths1 so as to be adapted to insects having various expanse of wings1 and the grooves also should be of various depths1 adapted to insects having bodies of various size4 ,the best form of a setting-board1 with which the writer is acquainted1 is that given in ,fig4 #ih4 ,the narrow slit below the groove1 which is intended for the reception of the body of the insect1 admits of passing the pin down to a proper depth1 and the depth is regulated of course by the piece at the bottom of the setting-board4 ,the two side pieces should always be from seven-eighths of an inch to an inch thick4 ,the best material is soft1 clean pine1 or1 better still1 the wood of the ,kiri-no-,ki 7,paulownia regalis74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ih4--,setting-,board4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ii4--,setting-,board4 7,after ,riley47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajj4--,setting-,block4 ,a1 ,groove for body of insect2 ,b1 nick for holding thread2 ,c1 cork to receive point of pin passing through holes in bottom of ,a4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aja4--;,butterfly ,expanded upon ,setting-,block4 ,instead of setting-boards1 setting-blocks 7see ,figs4 #ajj and #aja71 may be advantageously employed in setting smaller specimens1 especially of the ,hesperid and the ,noctuid1 the wings of which are refractory1 and refuse to be treated in the method that has just been described4 ,instead of using strips of tracing muslin it is necessary1 in the case of setting-blocks1 to use threads or cords1 which may be adjusted1 as is shown in the figure4 ,care should1 however1 be taken not to draw the thread or cord so tightly about the wings of the specimens as to cut into their vestiture and thus leave marks4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajb4--,setting-,needle4 ,the insects having been adjusted upon the board1 care being taken that the pin is set perpendicularly1 the next step is to draw out the wings in the position which they are to maintain when the specimen is thoroughly dry4 ,this is accomplished by means of what are known as setting-needles 7see ,fig4 #ajb74 ,they can easily be made by inserting ordinary needles into handles1 which may be made of some soft wood4 ,the writer generally employs as handles for his setting-needles matches1 from which the sulphur tip has been removed4 ,in drawing the wings into position care should be taken to plant the setting-needle immediately behind the strong nervure of the costal margin of the wing4 ,otherwise the wings are likely to be torn and disfigured4 ,the rule in setting lepidoptera is to draw the anterior wings forward in such a way that their posterior margins form a right angle with the axis of the body1 which rests in the groove in the middle of the setting-board4 ,the posterior wings are then drawn forward in such a way as fully to expose their outline4 ,the next step is to firmly fix the wings in position1 as they have been placed4 ,some writers recommend for this purpose using short strips of paper over the wings1 others recommend placing upon the wings pieces of glass1 of a size sufficient to cover the entire wing4 ,a far better plan is to employ strips of tracing muslin1 such as is used by draughtsmen and engineers4 ,these strips may be secured at the ends of the setting-board by thumb-tacks1 and may be drawn down over the wings of the specimen and securely held by pins in place4 ,care should be always taken to nicely turn up the edge of the strips nearest to the body1 so that a crease or depression may not be left upon the scales covering the wings of the insects when the specimen has been thoroughly dried4 ,the wings having been arranged1 the antenn and the feet may be brought forward and displayed in a natural position4 ,care should be always taken to lower the antenn so that they do not stand erect above the head4 ,in the latter position they are very apt to become broken4 ,a number of such boards may be conveniently arranged in a box1 as shown in ,fig4 #ajc1 and if strips of muslin are used1 and are firmly held in place by pins1 such a box may be transported from place to place1 upon the backs of men or beasts1 and the process of drying the insects may go on en route1 while the naturalist is conducting his investigations4 ,in this manner the writer carried four or five large boxes with him through the interior of ,japan 7,plate ,,xxiii41 ,fig4 #b71 and succeeded in bringing home with him nearly six thousand specimens1 dried and ready to place in the cabinet4 ,the length of time which is required for drying1 varies of course a little with the temperature1 and the amount of humidity in the atmosphere4 ,in some climates it is almost impossible to absolutely dry the specimens1 in others they dry very quickly4 ,in the ,united ,states a week or ten days will generally suffice to secure that rigidity which is necessary in a cabinet specimen4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajc4--;,box for ,receiving ,setting-,boards4 a1 ,board partly withdrawn2 b1 ,t-shaped strip to hold board in place2 c1 sliding door of box2 d1 tongue on edge of door working in groove at front of sides4 ,the process of drying may be hastened advantageously by placing the setting-boards in a cool oven4 ,the temperature1 however1 should not be above #acj ,f4 ,some insects lose their color when dried1 and it is impossible in certain cases to retain them4 ,in some cases also the bodies of insects shrivel up very greatly and become distorted4 ,it is very often advisable in such cases to make an incision into the abdomen and withdraw the viscera and stuff the body with cotton4 ,spiders should always be treated in this way1 and so also the larger ,mantid and ,locustid4 ,when the insects have become thoroughly dry1 and their wings are rigid1 they may be removed from the setting-board1 and are now ready for the cabinet4 ,in case1 however1 it is desired to transport them1 as is the case with specimens that have been collected upon a journey1 they may be pinned in boxes lined with cork or pith1 with their wings shingled as in ,fig4 #ajd1 and they may1 if firmly secured to the bottom of the boxes1 be in this shape transported for long distances2 but it is always necessary to pack the box in which they are contained in an outer box1 separating the inner box from the outer case by at least two inches of straw1 excelsior1 or some other light and elastic substance1 to save the specimens from being jarred in transport4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajd4--;,butterflies ,pinned with their ,wings ,shingled4 ,specimens that have been preserved in paper1 as described on page #cbh1 in order to fit them for the cabinet1 should be relaxed and then expanded4 ,in order to relax them1 one of the best methods is to place the envelope which contains the specimen between layers of cloth that have been dampened in pure water1 to which has been added a small quantity of carbolic acid1 enough to prevent mould4 ,be careful not to add too much carbolic acid4 ,another method is to lay the specimens at the bottom of a jar1 half-filled with sand1 which has been moistened and well carbolized4 ,the jar should be tightly closed1 so as to retain the moisture4 ,specimens that have been fastened with pins may be placed on pieces of board1 and then set in a jar1 prepared in the way that has been described4 ,after exposure to the moist atmosphere of the jar1 or to the moisture contained within the towelling1 for a period varying from a few hours to a day1 the specimens will be sufficiently relaxed to permit of them being treated as if they had been freshly taken1 and mounted and expanded upon the setting-board as described on page #cca4 ,it is well to have the top of the jar1 before the lid is placed upon it1 covered with a layer of blotting-paper1 or some other substance which will absorb the moisture which otherwise might drip from the lid upon the specimens below4 ,this is a precaution which is especially necessary in the case of butterflies which are of a bright blue or a pale green color1 and which are much disfigured by water stains4 ,mould is one of the great enemies of the collector1 and strenuous efforts should be made to prevent its appearance in the cabinet or among the specimens4 ,in order to do this1 it is well to secure a thorough desiccation of the specimens1 but where it is impossible to thoroughly dry them1 moulding may be prevented to a greater or less extent by placing between the paper envelopes pieces of blotting-paper which have been saturated with carbolic acid and permitted to dry4 ,the sides of the boxes containing the specimens may also be painted with carbolic acid4 ,naphthaline in crystals may be introduced among the envelopes1 and this appears in many cases to serve as a partial preventive of mould4 ,when a specimen has been attacked by mould1 the mould may be largely removed by thorough drying in a cool oven and then dusting off the specimen with a soft camel's-hair pencil that has been rubbed in carbolic acid and dried4 ,specimens sometimes become greasy1 and it is then desirable1 if possible1 to remove the grease with which their bodies and wings are saturated4 ,the only method which can be employed advantageously is that of washing out the grease by means of benzoline1 or some of the allied volatile mineral oils4 ,by immersing a greasy specimen for a considerable time in gasoline1 it is possible to remove the grease4 ,the specimen having been thus exposed should be placed in a cool spot1 free from dust1 and all the gasoline should be allowed to evaporate4 ,care should be taken to conduct this process away from fire and lights1 in order to prevent an explosion4 ,the writer has found that the best method for removing grease is to allow the gasoline to fall drop by drop upon the thorax of the specimen4 ,the specimen is therefore placed in a very large glass jar1 say six inches in diameter1 and is fixed at the bottom upon a piece of cork1 tightly secured in place4 ,the gasoline is placed above and is allowed to filter down from the bottle in which it is contained upon the specimen drop by drop4 ,in this way the grease is gradually washed out1 and will be found after a while at the bottom of the jar in the form of thick globules1 the density of which causes them to sink to the bottom4 ,in the case of some large bombycid moths the writer has washed out as much as a teaspoonful of animal fat from the body and wings of the specimen1 in the manner that has been described4 ,the receptacles into which entomologists place their collections vary somewhat according to the taste and the length of the purse of the collector4 ,some large collections are contained in boxes1 and most of the coleopterists of this country1 so far as the writer knows1 have adopted these as receptacles for their collections4 ,the boxes should be about two inches deep in the clear1 the bottom should be lined with the best quality of cork1 about one-fourth of an inch in thickness1 and the whole papered inside with white paper4 ,the lid should be fastened upon the lower part of the box1 either by a tongue and groove or by thin strips nailed around on the inside and projecting above the margin of the bottom portion at least half an inch4 ,these boxes should also be hinged4 ,the material should be well-seasoned4 ,double boxes with cork on the top and on the bottom are sometimes used1 and these may be prepared with backs resembling books1 and may be placed upon their ends upon shelves4 ,they should not be laid one upon the other1 as the insects pinned upon the upper side are liable sometimes1 through jarring1 to become detached1 and falling out to cause a breakage among the specimens4 ,the writer employs in his own collection drawers twenty-two inches long1 eighteen inches wide1 and two inches deep1 covered with glass1 the glass cover being attached to the bottom by a tongue and groove4 ,the specimens should be kept in the dark1 as exposure to light bleaches them1 sooner or later4 ,great pains should be taken to keep out dust1 mould1 and insect pests1 such as ,anthrenus and ,dermestes4 ,naphthaline crystals destroy mites and they cannot exist where it is abundantly present4 ,anthrenus and ,dermestes may be kept out of collections by naphthaline1 but when they have been once introduced they will remain and propagate in spite of the presence of the drug4 ,in order to exterminate them various agents are employed4 ,the best is perhaps chloroform1 and next to this carbon bisulphide4 ,in buying the latter drug1 care should be taken to purchase the washed and purified article1 which is not as malodorous as the common varieties which used formerly to be sold by druggists4 ,it is1 however1 highly explosive when mixed in quantity with the air1 and care should be taken not to use it in proximity to a light4 ,it has the advantage of destroying at once the imago1 the larva1 and1 perhaps1 the eggs of museum-pests4 ,the writer makes it a point annually1 in the early summer1 to place sufficient chloroform or carbon bichloride in his cabinet drawers to exterminate anything that may be living there1 and thus secures comparative immunity from insect attacks4 99 99 99 99 99 ,instructions as to the use of labels may be restricted to the simple advice to make them small enough to permit of their being placed upon the pins bearing the insects1 and to have them written legibly4 ,of course every label should bear1 if it is possible for the student to determine them1 the generic and the specific names of the insects1 and that of the author of the specific name1 together with the date and locality of capture4 ,in writing labels a small crow-quill pen is to be preferred4 ,a great many instruments of different sorts will suggest themselves to the collector in the process of his labors as being more or less useful1 but none will prove more so than the forceps4 ,it is impossible to do good work in the cabinet without a forceps1 and those made by ,blake1 of ,philadelphia1 are the very best4 ,books to be ,consulted by the ,collector for further ,information as to ,methods of ,manipulating ,specimens4 ,packard3 ,guide to the ,study of ,insects4 #hvo4 ,henry ,holt ,co41 ,new ,york4 ,scudder3 ,butterflies4 #hvo4 ,henry ,holt ,co41 ,new ,york4 ,kirby and ,spence3 ,introduction to ,entomology4 ,various editions4 ,mc,cook3 ,american ,spiders4 ,strecker3 ,american ,moths and ,butterflies4 ,a great deal of practical and valuable information is to be derived from the pages of the following journals3 ,the ,canadian ,entomologist4 ,the ,bulletin of the ,brooklyn ,entomological ,society4 ,psyche4 ,names of ,dealers in ,entomological ,supplies who are to be ,recommended4 ,john ,akhurst1 #gh ,ashland ,place1 ,brooklyn1 ,n4,y42 pins1 etc4 ,john ,burr1 ,north ,fifth ,street1 ,camden1 ,n4,j42 boxes1 cabinets1 etc4 ,armstrong1 ,brother ,co41 ,pittsburgh1 ,pa42 cork4 ,the largest cork manufacturing firm in the ,united ,states4 ,will cut cork of any size which may be ordered1 within practical limits4 ,blake ,co41 #ee ,north ,seventh ,street1 ,philadelphia2 forceps4 ,,part ,,vi4--,,general ,,information4 ,,chapter ,,xliv4 ,,insect ,,pests ,,and ,,poisoning4 ,,the ,,pests4--,if an island of bare rock should be born to-day in the middle of the ,pacific ,ocean1 and an unpoisoned skin of bird or mammal laid down upon it to-morrow morning1 ,i would wager that ,dermestes lardarius would find that skin before sunset4 ,if you were to prepare a skin without poison1 and lock it up immediately in the bowels of a burglar-proof safe1 not to be opened for six months1 at the end of that time you would find it swarming with ,dermestes4 ,if you ever omit to poison anything in the shape of a vertebrate specimen1 be sure your sin and the beastly bugs will find you out4 ,,dermestes4--,the greatest enemy of the zoological collector and conservator1 and one which is world-wide in its distribution1 is a small beetle1 one-third of an inch in length1 commonly called the bacon beetle4 ,its flight is rather feeble1 but it gets there just the same4 ,the most common species1 ,dermestes lardarius1 is of a dark1 dirty-brown color1 with a broad1 transverse band of dull gray encircling the middle of the body4 ,the imago is not of much consequence as a destroyer1 but the larva1 a nasty1 hairy1 brown-backed1 and white-bellied abomination half an inch long1 and with an appetite like a hog1 is the incarnation of all that is pestiferous4 ,a skull that has been roughed out and put away without poisoning will soon be literally swarming with ,dermestes larv1 and half-buried with the brown1 powdery excrementation they leave behind4 ,if the curator ever sees a fine1 brown dust falling in little heaps out of any part of a mounted specimen1 he may know that ,dermestes larv are at work4 ,not long ago the ,national ,museum was visited by another species of the bacon beetle1 ,dermestes maculatus1 a gray-colored variety1 beside which his congener seemed harmless and inoffensive4 ,maculatus was an unmitigated terror4 ,he disdained to graze modestly on the outside of a specimen1 as did lardarius1 but simply began to eat wherever he lit1 and went straight in to a depth of an inch or so1 as if shot out of a gun4 ,an unhappy stuffed monkey that once crossed the track of this little fiend had half a dozen neat round holes eaten through the dry skin of his side1 and straight on into the hard tow filling for quite an inch4 ,a gimlet could not have done the work half so well4 ,the most ridiculous thing was that this insatiable little monster attacked a plaster cast1 and bored it full of holes also6 ,fortunately for the ,national ,museum1 the stay of this highly interesting stranger was of brief duration4 ,he came in #ahhe1 and vanished that same year--so far as my observations went4 ,,moths4--,next in destructiveness are the tiny moths1 of which four species are to be fought in the museum and the household4 ,these are the clothes moth 7,tinea flavifrontella71 the fur moth 7,t4 pelionella71 the carpet moth 7,t4 tapetzella71 and the grain moth 7,t4 granella74 ,the perfect moth is of course by preference a night-flying insect1 and very seldom flies in the daytime except when disturbed4 ,the imago is harmless1 but the larva--a tiny1 white worm no thicker than a pin1 and about one-tenth of an inch in length--will soon shave the hair off an unpoisoned elk or deer head more smoothly than you could do it with the best razor ever made4 ,of course moth larv are most active and destructive during the breeding season--the warm months from ,may to ,october--but in warm rooms they sometimes keep at work all through the winter4 ,in one sense the moth is the zoologist's most dreaded foe1 for the reason that its work is so subtle and unseen4 ,often the first intimation the victim has of the presence of his enemy is when dusting a favorite head he suddenly knocks off a section of hair half a foot square1 exposing underneath the smooth1 bare skin covered with fine gray dust4 ,the larv of the moth attack birds and quadrupeds in one way only1 that is by eating the roots of the hair or feathers1 and the epidermis4 ,mounted heads of large ruminant animals are the particular prey of these abominable pests1 because they cannot be protected by glass cases1 and are seldom touched save with a feather duster4 ,in ethnological collections all the garments of skin and leather1 and all the textile fabrics are subject to the attacks of the ,tineids1 as they also are to those of the species to be noticed next4 ,,anthrenus4--,although ,i have seen this buffalo bug try hard to make an impression on mounted mammals1 ,i have not yet seen it do harm except to furs and leather or woolen garments4 ,the adult buffalo bug 7,anthrenus lepidus7 is a tiny1 round1 brown beetle1 with white spots on its elytra1 and1 as usual1 it is the larv that do the mischief4 ,,symptoms ,,of ,,the ,,presence ,,of ,,insect ,,pests4--,whenever little heaps of brown dust are seen accumulating here and there on a pedestal underneath a mounted specimen1 know that dermestes are actively at work somewhere above4 ,sometimes the larv will even show themselves on the hair1 which means a bad case4 ,if a perfect moth is seen flying in a case1 or resting on a specimen1 search at once for the larv4 ,the best way to do this is to go over a specimen with a rough brush1 or a comb1 to see if the hair pulls out at any point4 ,if a tuft of hair gives way at its roots1 and you see a bare spot underneath1 it means moth larv4 ,,poisoning4--,let us take first the case of a mounted specimen which is known to be infested with the larv of either ,dermestes or ,tineids4 ,it must be treated thoroughly all over with a powerful poison1 not only to kill the insects already there1 but to poison any larv that may be hatched hereafter and seek to attack it4 ,if possible1 remove the specimen from its pedestal1 and beat out of it whatever dust it may contain4 ,procure a quantity of alcohol sufficient when diluted with fifty per cent of water to completely saturate the hair 7or feathers7 of the specimen1 and dissolve in it some corrosive sublimate--about one ounce to every three pints of the liquid4 ,the point to strive for in making up such a solution is to make it as strong with the corrosive sublimate as it can be without leaving on dark hair a gray 7or white7 deposit when the liquid has evaporated4 ,in practice ,i always mix the liquid1 and then test it with a tuft of black or brown hair4 ,if the deposit left is quite apparent to the eye1 a little more alcohol and water must be added4 ,the principle of the process is simply this3 ,the alcohol1 being at once very penetrating and very volatile1 and also capable of combining chemically with the corrosive sublimate1 is used as a vehicle for the distribution of the poison4 ,the poison is carried to the roots of the hair and left there as a deposit when the liquid evaporates4 ,in ,chapter ,,xviii4 the method of applying this solution is described4 ,arsenic water1 also described there1 is equally good1 and any intelligent person can make up either solution and apply it successfully without the slightest difficulty4 ,when the specimen has dried1 the hair must be dressed by brushing and combing it4 ,if the white poison shows on the hair1 take a sponge1 and with either hot water or alcohol sponge off the surface of the hair1 leaving all the unseen poison undisturbed4 ,if your solution contains the proper amount of poison1 and is thoroughly applied1 ,i warrant that insects will never again touch that specimen1 even though it should exist a thousand years4 ,it often happens that moths get into cases of birds1 or mammals1 or insects1 which cannot be treated as above without damaging the specimens4 ,in such an event there are several poisons of a volatile character which give off fumes so deadly that no insect can live in them4 ,the best for this purpose is naphthaline crystals1 exposed in the cases in little bags made of musquito-netting1 used in abundant quantity1 and left in the cases1 which must of course be kept closed as tightly as possible4 ,in insect collections each box should have a little cone of crystals1#ab as a standing menace to all would-be marauders4 ,liquid or crystal bisulphide of carbon1 exposed in saucers on the bottom of a tightly closed case will also kill whatever living insects may be found therein2 but it does not destroy eggs1 and by the time it has evaporated another generation of destroyers may have been born1 hungrier than the first4 ,a half-ounce bag of naphthaline crystals will last about three months4 ,mr4 ,john ,b4 ,smith1 who published in the ,proceedings of the ,entomological ,society of ,washington1 vol4 i41 ,no4 #b1 p4 #aac1 a very interesting paper on ,museum ,pests1 found in treating some boxes of coleoptera that were infested with ,trogoderma that both bisulphide of carbon and naphthaline killed all larv and imagoes1 and held all the eggs in a dormant condition1 even through the summer months1 until the poison had all evaporated1 when the eggs began to hatch4 ,at present naphthaline in the form of crystals has become the most popular of the various volatile poisons1 and among ornithologists1 mammalogists1 and entomologists is very generally used4 ,it prevents mould1 destroys bacteria and schizomycetes2 the salt is perfectly neutral1 is not poisonous to man1 and is cheap1 costing only twenty-five cents per pound4 ,,poisoning ,,textile ,,fabrics ,,and ,,skin ,,clothing4--,objects of this class can not be put through any liquid poison1 for the reason that some would be made hard and stiff1 some would lose their colors1 and all would come out in bad shape generally4 ,to meet the exigencies of such cases one alternative is to poison the atmosphere of an air-tight case with some of the volatile poisons already mentioned1 and the other is to treat each article with some powerful liquid poison1 applied as a fine spray with an ordinary atomizer of gutta-percha1 which can be purchased for from one to two dollars4 ,the immense collections of the department of ethnology in the ,national ,museum have necessitated a great amount of poisoning in both these ways1 especially the latter1 which has the merit of being permanent4 ,in the ,smithsonian ,report for #ahhg1 vol4 ii41 pp4 #edi-eeh1 ,mr4 ,walter ,hough has published a very complete1 lucid1 and valuable paper on ,the ,preservation of ,museum ,specimens from ,insects1 and the ,effects of ,dampness1 which every zoological conservator should read and hold for ready reference4 ,in spraying large objects ,mr4 ,hough uses either a ,shaw ,geary ,no4 #b air-compressor 7cost1 #ae7 or a four-nozzle gutta-percha atomizer 7#b4ej71 and the spray is from the following solution3 ,saturated solution of arsenic acid and alcohol #a pint4 ,strong carbolic acid #be drops4 ,strychnine #bj grains4 ,alcohol 7strong7 #a quart4 ,naphtha1 crude or refined #a pint4 ,for treating specimens of ordinary size with the concentrated fumes of bisulphide of carbon1 the ,national ,museum uses a galvanized sheet-iron tank #c #b #b feet1 which has around its upper edge a deep groove filled with water1 into which the rim of the cover fits when the tank is closed4 ,the centre of the cover contains an air-hole1 which is also capable of being hermetically closed in the same way4 ,this tank should be used in the open air1 if possible1 so that the fumes will not injure the health of the operator4 ,,poisoning ,,rugs4--,it has long been a problem how to poison a fur rug to protect it from insects1 and yet to keep out of it the dry mineral poisons which would be injurious to the health of the little ones1 the dog1 and the cat1 who are tenants in common of the bear-skin on the floor4 ,mr4 ,f4,s4 ,webster has solved the difficulty by poisoning all his rugs on the inside with our old and valued friend1 arsenical soap4 ,it strikes into and through the skin1 of course1 and1 contrary to previous expectations1 it is by no means offensive1 or even noticeable by odor in the finished rug4 ,,furs4--,even in ,washington1 the ,city of ,moths1 ,mrs4 ,hornaday carried the family rugs and furs1 and all woolen clothing1 through eight summers1 unscathed1 by the liberal use of camphor gum alone4 ,if the crumbled gum is sprinkled liberally into the folds of anything when it is being folded or rolled up1 its protection against moths is assured4 ,,insect ,,powders4--,for the benefit of the ,american housewife ,i will mention the fact that for the complete annihilation of ants1 roaches1 water-bugs1 and the like1 there is nothing that ,i know of that is so far-reaching and so deadly as a powder produced in ,california called buhac1 costing sixty cents per pound4 ,the price is high1 but the powder is well worth it--and this is an absolutely free advertisement4 ,,the ,,effect ,,of ,,poisons ,,on ,,the ,,taxidermist4--,arsenical soap is by all odds the safest poison that can possibly be used4 ,it gives off no poisonous fumes whatsoever1 its presence in the mouth1 nose1 or eyes is always detected instantly1 and the worst that it ever does is to get into a cut or under the ends of the finger-nails of the careless taxidermist1 and make a festering sore which is well in a few days--a purely local ill4 ,dry arsenic is more injurious4 ,it sometimes poisons the fingers of a careless operator1 and if it is inhaled in the form of dust the effect may be serious4 ,a few persons are very susceptible to the effects of dry arsenic1 others are not4 ,if the blood is in a healthy condition there is little to fear from it1 except through gross carelessness4 ,i have used1 all told1 probably more than a hundred and fifty pounds of arsenic in various forms1 and never had an hour's illness in consequence1 nor anything more serious than a sore finger4 ,corrosive sublimate is much more powerful and more dangerous4 ,it should never be used in the preparation of a skin before it is mounted2 after mounting it may1 with care1 be used quite safely4 ,strychnine is far too dangerous to be used by a taxidermist save in poisoning animals he wishes to secure as scientific specimens4 ,,footnote3 #ab ,made and sold by ,blake ,co41 ,philadelphia4 ,,chapter ,,xlv4 ,,useful ,,information4 ,recipe for ,making ,arsenical ,soap4 ,white bar soap1 soft rather than hard #b pounds4 ,powdered arsenic #b ,camphor #e ounces4 ,subcarbonate of potash #f ,alcohol #h ,directions3 ,the soap should be the best quality of laundry soap1 and of such composition that it can be reduced with water to any degree of thinness4 ,soap which becomes like jelly when melted will not answer1 and should never be used4 ,slice the soap and melt it in a small quantity of water over a slow fire1 stirring sufficiently to prevent its burning4 ,when melted add the potash1 and stir in the powdered arsenic4 ,next add the camphor1 which should be dissolved in the alcohol at the beginning of the operation4 ,stir the mass thoroughly1 boil it down to the consistency of thick molasses1 and pour it into an earthen or wooden jar to cool and harden4 ,stir it occasionally while cooling to prevent the arsenic from settling at the bottom4 ,when cold it should be like lard or butter4 ,for use1 mix a small quantity with water until it resembles buttermilk1 and apply with a common paint-brush4 ,the prices charged for the manufactured article by chemists who make arsenical soap to sell are out of all proportion to the cost and labor involved1 and every taxidermist who uses much of it should by all means manufacture his own supply4 ,hendley's ,enamel ,varnish4--,take equal parts of ether and alcohol1 mix them1 and add one-third as much gun-cotton4 ,to every gill of this mixture add six drops of olive-oil to give elasticity4 ,it is a good plan to keep two bottles1 one containing the varnish ready for use1 and the other containing the proper mixture of ether1 alcohol and olive oil1 to use in thinning the varnish when it gets too thick4 ,this is a very superior varnish being absolutely colorless1 and of high gloss4 ,the ,wickersheimer ,solution for the ,preservation of ,fleshy ,objects ,entire4-- ,alum #ejj grains4 ,salt #abe ,saltpetre #fj ,potash #cjj ,arsenic trioxide 7white arsenic7 #ajj ,dissolve in one quart of boiling water4 ,cool and filter1 and for every quart of solution add four quarts of glycerine and one quart of alcohol4 ,immerse the objects to be preserved in this solution1 and keep them in it4 ,it is but little else than our old familiar friend1 the salt-and-alum bath1 with enough glycerine added to prevent the excess of alum from unduly hardening and shriveling the specimens4 ,composition for ,use in ,modeling ,tongues1 ,mouths1 and in ,general ,fancy-,work4--,procure #c pounds white glue1 #a pint raw linseed oil1 and #a pound of resin4 ,heat the oil and resin1 then add hot glue and stir thoroughly4 ,thicken with ,paris white until the mixture has the proper consistency to mould when warm4 ,this composition soon dries1 becomes very hard1 and can be colored or gilded4 ,fancy decorations of any design can readily be made from moulds of plaster or wood1 and be glued on to shields and cases1 thereby saving the expense of carving4 ,the above is my own composition1 which ,i have successfully employed for many years4--7,j4,h4 ,batty47 ,composition for ,snow ,scenes4--,crush burnt alum with a roller1 and remove small lumps4 ,add frosting1 which has been pulverized in a mortar to the proper degree of fineness4--7,batty47 ,varnish ,cutter 7to remove old varnish from antlers1 teeth1 wood1 or from the surface of an old oil-painting74--,take a sufficient quantity of eighty or ninety per cent alcohol1 and slowly pour into it clear spirits of turpentine until the mixture becomes of a milky color4 ,then cork the bottle and shake the mixture thoroughly1 and it is ready for use4 ,apply it with a small sponge1 rub the surface vigorously for a moment only1 then dip a rag in boiled linseed-oil and apply it to the cleaned surface4 ,the varnish cutter acts almost instantly1 and if left on too long the surface of a painting might be injured4 ,to ,prevent ,mould in ,boxes of ,specimens4--,take some carbolic acid crystals 7forty cents per pound71 melt them in the sun1 and with the resulting liquid acid paint the entire inside of each box1 and1 if possible1 pack contents with naphthaline crystals4 ,this is efficacious in boxes of small skins of birds and mammals1 of insects and the like1 even in hot climates1 but of course does not apply to boxes of large specimens which contain a great amount of moisture4 ,to ,polish ,hard ,wood4--#ast4 ,rub the surface thoroughly with raw linseed-oil1 turpentine1 and powdered pumice-stone4 #b;d4 ,give the surface a smooth coat of shellac4 #c;d4 ,when dry1 take fine sand-paper and go over it rather lightly4 #dth4 ,give the surface a good coat of hard oil finish 7a white varnish71 and let it harden4 #eth4 ,when quite dry rub down with raw oil1 turpentine1 and pumice-stone1 to soften the gloss of the varnish1 and give a polish instead4 ,for rubbing1 use a piece of hair-cloth1 or clean burlaps4 ,cement for ,gumming ,labels to ,minerals and ,shells4--,pulverized gum ,arabic1 #d ounces2 pulverized white sugar1 #b ounces2 starch1 #d drachms4 ,dissolve all separately in as little water as convenient4 ,dissolve starch in cold water1 then stir it into sugar water1 and then that mixture into the gum water4 ,boil with great care1 as burning will spoil the whole4 ,it is well to use a tin vessel raised from the bottom of another vessel containing water4 ,after the starch ceases to make the mixture look milky it is cooked1 but at least an hour's time will be required4 ,keep in large mouthed1 tightly corked bottles1 or when done pour into a tray covered with strong paper1 spreading it evenly over the paper1 and allow it to dry4 ,when dry enough1 moisten back of paper and remove it from the gum1 dry again thoroughly1 break into fragments and preserve for use in wide-mouth stoppered jar4--7,southwick ,jenck's ,random ,notes47 ,arsenic ,water 7for poisoning mammal skins1 etc474--,water1 #d quarts2 arsenic1 #d ounces4 ,mix1 stir and boil until the arsenic is all taken up4 ,,the ,,treatment ,,of ,,furs ,,and ,,peltries4--,inasmuch as the readers of this book may sometime desire to preserve a few mammal skins as furs1 or to be made up as rugs1 ,i will quote entire1 verbatim et literatim1 a circular of instructions lately issued by one of the largest fur houses in this country1 ,messrs4 ,william ,macnaughtan's ,sons1 of ,new ,york ,city4 ,observe particularly1 however1 that skins prepared thus are utterly worthless to the taxidermist and the scientific museum4 ,they are good for furs only3 ,directions for ,fur ,collectors and ,trappers1 to ,insure ,high ,prices1 ,ready ,sales1 and ,save from ,losses through ,ignorance4--',cased3' ,ermine1 fisher1 fox1 lynx1 martin1 mink1 opossum1 otter1 skunk1 must be 'cased1' that is1 not cut open4 ,in skinning1 cut at the rump1 and turn the skin inside out 7like a glove7 over the body of the animal1 leaving the pelt side out4 ,then after scraping1 cleaning1 and drying1 turn the skin back again while it is soft and easily managed1 leaving the fur side out4 ,then put a thin board inside the skin1 cut the natural shape of it1 stretching the skin to its fullest extent1 but not so much as to make the fur thin4 ,too much stretching spreads the fur over a large surface1 and makes it thin and lacking in richness4 ,a liberal supply of good boards should be kept on hand4 ,never use bent sticks1 bows1 or anything irregular in shape or that yields4 ,when the above are 'opened' they have a ,southern appearance that lessens the value greatly4 ',open3' badger1 bear1 beaver1 cats1 raccoon1 wolves1 wolverine1 must be 'open2' that is1 cut open1 up the belly from rump to head4 ,after scraping1 cleaning1 and drying1 stretch a uniformly oblong shape1 to the fullest extent of the skin1 but not so much as to make the fur thin4 ,when thoroughly dry1 trim off legs1 shanks1 flippers1 and any little pieces that spoil the appearance of skin4 ,exceptions3 ,skunk1 long stripe1 such as come from the ,territories and sections of ,california1 ,wisconsin1 ,minnesota1 and ,iowa1 cut open and stretch oblong1 as explained4 ,skunk1 with the white stripe 7or any portion7 shaved out1 blackened1 or tampered with1 must be collected at half price4 ,opossum from ,indian ,territory1 cut open1 and stretch oblong as explained4 ,chop off the tails where the fur ends1 as they make opossum look poorly and lessen their value4 ,beaver are sometimes stretched almost round1 but appear very much better stretched oblong4 ,value by the skin1 never by the pound4 ,they rapidly lose heavily in weight4 ,they bring most sold by the skin4 ,muskrats must be 'cased1' but with fur side in4 ,chop off the tails as explained4 ,skin at the nose and make rumps square4 ,round tails have less value and do not sell well4 ,muskrats must not be injured by shooting or spearing4 ,trap them4 ,skins that have dried without proper care can be treated same as fresh1 green skins4 ,otherwise they have no value4 ,dissolve a handful of common salt in a pail of fresh water1 and apply frequently with brush or rag 7to pelt side only1 as it spoils appearance to wet the fur7 until the pelt becomes perfectly soft4 ,then handle as explained4 ,the same with 'open' skins4 ,cautions3 ,do not cure with alum or salt4 ,it injures them for dressing and spoils their sale4 ,do not dry skins at a fire1 or in the sun1 or in smoke4 ,it often 'burns' them2 when they then spoil1 and ruin on being dressed4 ,dry in the open air where shady4 ,meaty skins often 'burn4' ,the meat and fat on them heats and 'burns' them1 and they then go to pieces and rot on being dressed4 ,too much warmth curls and spoils the top fur or hair4 ,never stuff furs of any kind2 dry and stretch as explained4 ,do not stretch out the noses and make them pointed4 ,it gives a ,southern appearance and lessens value4 ,do not cut off heads1 ears1 or noses1 or mutilate in any way4 ,it lessens value and injures sales4 ,remove as much of bone from tail as possible1 otherwise the tail rots4 ,trapping3 ,fur-bearing animals must not be killed till they have at least a fair growth of fur4 ,stop trapping as soon in early spring as the fur begins to shed or becomes thin1 or a little faded4 ,these too early or too late caught furs are a disgrace to fur trappers and collectors1 and a wasteful1 worthless slaughter4 ,,chapter ,,xlvi4 ,,the ,,best ,,books ,,of ,,reference ,,for ,,the ,,taxidermist ,,and ,,collector4 ,it is manifestly impossible even to name under this head a tenth part of the excellent books which might well be given place4 ,it is also inexpedient to include in a list1 that must of necessity be brief1 the names of special works relating to the fauna of other countries than ,north ,america4 ,having been from first to last a diligent user of books in the course of my work1 and ever on the alert for something new in printed word or picture that would be of practical use1 ,i will give here the titles of the books that have proven of the greatest practical value to me4 ,i must also in this connection strongly urge the young taxidermist and collector to supply himself with as many of these standard works as he can possibly procure4 ,if diligently studied they are bound to save him from many an error1 and richly repay their cost4 ,,general ,,zoology ,,and ,,classification4 ,steele's ,popular ,zoology4 ,by ,professor ,j4,w4,p4 ,jenks4 ,american ,book ,company1 ,new ,york4 #a4jj4 ,a model manual2 of great value to the student because of its clearness1 conciseness1 and wealth of information4 ,copiously and elegantly illustrated4 ,proceedings of the ,zoological ,society of ,london2 also ,transactions4 ,contains a great number of fine animal plates of much value to professional taxidermists4 ,the series is extensive and very costly1 and is therefore usually inaccessible except when it can be reached in some scientific library4 ,,on ,,mammals4 ,illustrated ,natural ,history3 ,mammals4 ,rev4 ,j4,g4 ,wood4 ,routledge1 ,london1 #ahfa4 ,price about #d4jj4 ,get the original edition if possible4 ,this book has been of more help to me than any other ,i have ever found4 ,quadrupeds of ,north ,america4 ,audubon and ,bachman4 ,out of print and difficult to obtain1 but very valuable4 ,the ,mammalia1 in ,word and ,picture4 ,by ,carl ,vogt and ,f4 ,specht4 ,translated from the ,german by ,geo4 ,g4 ,chisholm4 ,d4 ,appleton ,co41 #a-e ,bond ,street1 ,new ,york1 #ahij4 ,super royal #dto4 #ab4jj4 ,this great work contains the finest illustrations of mammals1 both singly and in groups1 ever published in any country4 ,the groups represented are wonderfully fine and life-like1 and must be seen to be appreciated4 ,no mammal taxidermist can afford to be without this work4 ,,on ,,birds4 ,the ,american ,ornithologist's ,union ,code of ,nomenclature1 and ,check-,list of ,north ,american ,birds4 ,l4,s4 ,foster1 #ce ,pine ,street1 ,new ,york ,city4 #c4jj4 ,indispensable to the ,american collector1 because it is the highest authority on the classification and nomenclature of ,north ,american birds4 ,thanks to this work1 it is no longer necessary to take a daily paper in order to keep posted on the latest changes in bird nomenclature4 ,the names adopted by ,baird 7#aheh71 ,coues 7#ahgc71 ,ridgway 7#ahhj71 and ,coues 7#ahhb7 are all given4 ,no illustrations4 ,key to ,north ,american ,birds4 ,by ,dr4 ,elliott ,coues4 ,estes ,lauriat1 ,boston4 #g4ej4 ,this great work--indispensable to every ornithologist--consists of a masterly treatise on systematic ornithology and the anatomy of birds1 a key by which even the tyro can learn to analyze any ,american bird and identify it1 and also a valuable treatise on ,field ,ornithology1 or bird-collecting4 ,nomenclature of ,north ,american ,birds4 ,robert ,ridgway4 ,sold by ,f4,b4 ,webster1 #dji ,washington ,street1 ,boston4 #g4ej4 ,especially designed for use in the determination of species4 ,illustrated ,natural ,history3 ,birds4 ,rev4 ,j4,g4 ,wood4 ,routledge1 ,london1 #ahfa4 ,price about #d4jj4 ,get the original edition4 ,to a bird taxidermist this is the most valuable book ever published in a single volume1 because of its wealth of excellent illustrations4 ,of special value in mounting strange foreign birds4 ,beware of the later editions4 ,studer's ,birds of ,north ,america4 ,illustrated by ,theodore ,jasper4 ,large royal quarto4 ,jacob ,h4 ,studer1 ,new ,york4 #be4jj4 ,contains #aai plates1 and a colored figure of every species of ,north ,american bird known at the date of its publication4 ,a notable work4 ,the illustrations are of great value to young taxidermists as models by which to mount birds4 ,birds of ,north ,america4 ,j4,j4 ,audubon4 ,this superb work is out of print2 rare and costly4 ,the octavo edition is to be found in most large libraries1 however1 and every bird taxidermist should at least know where the copy nearest to him is to be found1 and how to gain access to it in time of need4 ,oology of ,new ,england4 ,e4,a4 ,capen4 ,sold by ,frank ,b4 ,webster1 #dji ,washington ,street1 ,boston4 #h4ge4 ,this is the finest illustrated work on birds' eggs ever published in this country4 ,,on ,,reptiles4 ,illustrated ,natural ,history3 ,reptiles4 ,rev4 ,j4,g4 ,wood4 ,routledge1 ,london1 #ahfa4 ,uniform with volumes on ,mammals and ,birds4 ,,on ,,fishes4 ,american ,fishes4 ,g4 ,brown ,goode4 ,standard ,book ,co41 ,new ,york1 #ahhh4 #e4jj4 ,an elegant work1 of convenient size4 ,comprehensive and eminently useful4 ,fully illustrated4 ,no collector or student of ,american fishes can afford to be without it4 ,the ,fishery ,industries of the ,united ,states4 ,section ,i4 ,by ,g4 ,brown ,goode and ,associates4 #b vols4 ,complete and exhaustive1 both in text and plates1 and very valuable4 ,government publication4 ,sold at cost by the ,u4,s4 ,fish ,commission1 ,washington4 ,introduction to the ,study of ,fishes4 ,albert ,gunther4 ,a4 ,c4 ,black1 ,edinburgh4 ,,on ,,insects4 ,see the end of ,chapter ,,xliv4 ,,on ,,invertebrates4 ,the ,ocean ,world4 ,louis ,figuier4 ,cassell ,co41 ,new ,york4 #b4ej4 ,recent and ,fossil ,shells4 ,s4,p4 ,woodward1 ,london4 ,john ,weale1 #ahef4 7,apply to ,bernard ,quaritch1 ,london47 ,a very handy and useful manual for the field4 ,many illustrations4 ,price about #a4ej4 ,structural and ,systematic ,conchology4 ,geo4 ,w4 ,tryon4 ,philadelphia ,academy of ,natural ,sciences4 #ab4jj4 ,a great work2 complete1 exhaustive1 and richly illustrated4 ,,for ,,suggestions ,,of ,,groups ,,of ,,animals4 ,homes ,without ,hands4 ,rev4 ,j4,g4 ,wood4 ,longmans1 ,green ,co41 ,london4 ,price about #c4jj4 ,mammalia in ,word and ,picture4 ,specht and ,vogt1 already described4 ,,miscellaneous4 ,the ,sportsman's ,library1 as advertised by the ,forest and ,stream ,publishing ,company1 #cah ,broadway1 ,new ,york1 contains an attractive and valuable selection of books on subjects of special interest to the sportsman1 naturalist1 and traveller4 ,it includes books by specialists on such subjects as ,camping and ,trapping1 ,hunting and ,shooting1 ,angling1 ,boating and ,yachting1 ,guide-,books and ,maps1 ,horse1 ,kennel1 ,natural ,history1 and miscellaneous works4 ,the list1 as a whole1 is an excellent one to select from4 ,of course no one with a spark of interest in hunting and the natural history of the higher vertebrates will be without ,forest and ,stream--a whole sportsman's and naturalist's library in itself1--or ,the ,field1 or ,sports ,afield4 ,no young ornithologist can get along without his best friend1 the ,ornithologist and ,oologist1 and it would indeed be rank heresy for the professional bird-man to ignore the stately and infallible ,auk4 ,,index4 ,accessories1 artificial1 #cch-cci natural1 #bdg ,africa1 destruction of game in1 #b ,agassiz1 ,professor ,louis1 #gb ,agassiz ,tank1 for alcoholic specimens1 #gb-gc ,albatross1 #fb ,alces malchis1 #bdh ,alcohol1 preservation of specimens in1 #ff1 #gj1 #ga-ge1 #hc1 #abg1 #bjb-bjd ,alcoholometer1 #ge ,aldrich1 ,p4,w41 #bai ,alectorides1 treatment of1 #fe ,alligators1 collecting1 #ff-fh mounting1 #bjd-bjf skeletons of1 #bic-bid ,alum1 use of1 #cb1 #de1 #ea1 #fa1 #fh1 #aae1 #afb ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history1 #aji1 #bcf1 #bdi ,ammonia1 use of1 #cbb ,anatomy1 caution against detailed external1 #aab ,antenn1 #ccb ,anthrenus1 #ccf1 #cda ,apes1 treatment of large1 #dc-de ,apparatus for drying larv1 #cae for inflating larv1 #cad for mounting larv1 #cae ,arsenic1 use of1 #cb1 #ea1 #fd1 #aae1 #adh1 #aea1 #cdd-cde ,arsenic water1 #cdb1 #cdh ,arsenical soap1 use of1 #cb1 #de1 #ea1 #fa1 #fe1 #fh1 #aah1 #acb1 #adh1 #afb1 #afg recipe for making1 #cdf ,artificial branches1 #abg foliage in group1 #bch-bci ,attitudes of animals1 #aaa1 #aba1 #aga-agb1 #aib1 #bje of skeletons1 #bhh ,backgrounds1 painted1 for cases and groups1 #bba-bbb ,bailly1 ,jules ,f4,d41 grotesque groups by1 #bbg ,bath1 see ,salt-and-alum bath ,batrachians1 #bjb-bjc ,bats1 mounting1 on glass1 #abg-abh mounting skeletons of1 #bia ,battle in the ,tree-tops1 #bcc1 #bcd ,beetles1 collecting1 in alcohol1 #cbh frame for mounting1 #ccj ,bird1 names of external parts of1 #dg ,birds1 arrangement of feathers on1 #ahb collecting1 best season for1 #af collecting skins of small1 #df-eg determination of sex in1 #ef groups of1 #bbd1 #bcb1 #bce1 #bdi-bej mounting large1 #aia-aig mounting small1 #ahc-aij mounting skeletons of1 #bhg1 #bib-bic painting mounted1 #bef relaxing dry skins of1 #agi-ahb shooting1 as a pastime1 #ah skeletonizing1 #bgf-bgh skinning large1 #eh-fe wrapping skins of1 #ec-ee ,bison1 ,american1 extermination of the1 #a group of1 by the author1 #bcd-bce1 #bde1 #bdf manikin for1 #adh mounting the skeleton of1 #bif specimens of1 collected by author1 #bcd ,blood on specimens1 #db1 #dg1 #aih1 #bja ,body1 artificial1 for birds1 #ahd1 #aia-aib ,bone-scrapers1 #bhf ,books of reference on birds1 #ceb on fishes1 #ced on general zoology1 #cea on groups of animals1 #cee on insects1 #ccg on invertebrates1 #ced on mammals1 #ceb in ,sportsman's ,library1 #cee miscellaneous1 #cee ,boxes for collecting insects1 #cbc1 #cbd1 #ccb for exhibiting insects1 #cce-ccf for relaxing skins1 #ahj for tools1 #aa ,breeding-cages1 #cag1 #cah ,breeding larv1 #caf-cai ,brushes for painting specimens1 #beb ,buffalo1 see ,bison ,butterflies1 breeding larv of1 #cag collecting1 #cbe1 #ccb ,cages for breeding larv1 #cag1 #cah ,capybara1 #ajc ,carbon bisulphide1 use of1 #ccf1 #cdb ,carbolic acid1 use of1 #fa1 #cbc crystals prevent mould1 #cdh ,carving wooden skulls and leg bones1 #ajd-ajf ,carpocapsa1 #cjf ,cases of ornamental taxidermy1 #bbj-bbd ,casts1 #ba1 #be making moulds and1 #bei-bgj of mammals in the flesh1 #bfh of fishes and reptiles1 #bfi-bgj painting plaster1 #beg ,cassowary1 #fa ,cat a difficult subject1 #abg ,chimpanzee1 #dc-dd ,chloroform1 use of1 #cbb1 #ccf ,chelonia1 collecting1 #fh-gj mounting1 #bjf-bjg ,chloride of lime1 #hh1 #hi ,clay1 ,colonel ,cecil1 moose collected and presented by1 #bdh ,clay as a filling material1 #aab-aac1 #aai1 #abd1 #afg1 #bjg1 #baa preparation of1 for use1 #aac1 #adh ,cleaning feathers1 #fe skins of mammals1 #ajb-ajd ,clothing and food1 #d ,collecting1 best seasons for1 #af -boxes for insects1 #cbc-cbd by amateurs1 #ag eggs of insects1 #cji-caa fishes1 #ga-gi insects1 #cbj-cbg jar for insects1 #cba large mammal skins1 #cg-de marine invertebrates1 #hj-hi nests and eggs1 #ij-ig reptiles1 #ff-gj small birds1 #df-eg small mammal skins1 #bd-cf shells1 #he-hi specimens for groups1 #bcg1 #bdc-bdd ,collectors1 character of ideal1 #c1 #df firearms for1 #i1 #ab golden rule for1 #bj need of skilful1 #a-c outfits for1 #h-ae ,colors1 how to handle1 #bec-bee kinds of1 #beb list of1 #bc necessity of recording1 #bb1 #be1 #dc1 #dh1 #ga-gb ,coloring soft parts1 #aac-aad1 #bec-bee ,combs1 furrier's steel1 #cf ,coming to the ,point1 #bba-bbb ,composition for use in modeling1 #cdg for snow scenes1 #cdg ,corals1 collecting and cleaning1 #ha-hc ,corn meal as an absorbent1 #ei1 #fd1 #aih ,cornell ,university insect-house1 #cah ,corrosive sublimate solution1 #aea1 #cda1 #cde ,cotton1 use of1 in making bird skins1 #eb-ed ,crabs1 cleaning and mounting1 #bag-bah ,cranes1 #fe ,crocodiles1 collecting1 #ff-fh mounting1 #bjd-bjf skeletons of1 #bic-bid ,crustaceans1 cleaning and mounting1 #bag-bah ,cyanide of potash1 #cba1 #cbc ,dead game panels1 #bbd ,dermestes lardarius1 #fd1 #ccf1 #cci maculatus1 #cdj ,designing groups1 #bcg1 #bdc1 #bdd-bde ,ducks and their treatment1 #fd ,ear1 treatment of the1 #de1 #abe1 #afj-afb1 #afg ,echini1 collecting and preserving1 #hd ,eggs1 blowing1 #ie collecting and preserving1 #id-ig removing embryos from1 #if ,eggs of insects1 #cji-caa how deposited1 #cji-caj how devitalized1 #caj how preserved1 #caj-caa ,elephant1 prize won by1 #ada ,elephants1 firearms for hunting1 #ab preserving skin of1 #da ,embryos1 removal of1 #ie1 #if ,emu1 #fa ,enamel varnish1 ,hendley's1 #cdf ,entomological supplies1 #ccg ,entomology1 economic1 #cjf ,envelopes for insects1 #cbh ,excelsior1 use of1 #adg1 #adh ,expression1 #afi1 #aga-agb ,extermination1 animals threatened with1 #a ,eye1 treatment of the1 #dd1 #abd1 #afj1 #afi1 #agb1 #ahh1 #aif1 #bab ,eyes1 cleaning glass1 #agg ,feathers1 cleaning1 #fe1 #aih-bja distribution of1 on bird's body1 #ahb ,felid as taxidermic subjects1 #aga ,filling for dry skins1 #cc1 #eb1 #fj1 #aff for necks1 #aff skins of mammals1 #abi1 #acj1 #acb1 #ach small mammals1 #abb-abe ,finishing a small mammal1 #abc-abg large mounted mammals1 #aej-aee ,firearms1 #i1 #ab ,fire-screens1 feather1 #bbe ,fish medallions1 #bac ,fishes1 cartilaginous1 treatment of1 #gg-gh1 #bad-baf field notes on1 #ga museum collections of1 #bjh-bji mounting1 #bjh-baf painting casts of1 #beg painting mounted1 #bef preserving entire1 #gc-ge skeletons of1 #gh1 #bid skinning1 #gf-gg ,flamingoes1 group of1 #bcb-bcc ,florida1 collecting in1 #hj-hg ,foot1 treatment of the1 #dd1 #aib1 #aid ,fossil skeletons1 #bhj ,fraine1 ,thomas ,w41 #bai fire-screens by1 #bbe ,frogs1 grotesque groups of1 #bbg ,furniture of taxidermic laboratory1 #ajj ,furs and peltries1 treatment of1 #cdi ,game panels1 #bbd ,garman1 ,samuel1 quotation from1 #bjc ,gasoline1 #cce ,geese1 #fd-fe ,gelatine moulds1 #bfe ,goode1 ,dr4 ,g4 ,brown1 #gb1 #bcd1 #bea ,american ,fishes1 by1 #ced ,fishery ,industries of the ,united ,states1 by1 #ced ,gorilla1 #dc1 #dd1 #acj ,government ,museum at ,madras1 #bjh ,grease1 on skins1 #ei1 #fd1 #fe removal of1 from insects1 #cce removal of1 from birds1 #aia-bja ,grotesque groups1 #bbg ,group of antelope1 #bce of buffaloes1 #bcd-bce1 #bdf of coyotes1 #bcd of flamingoes1 #bcb-bcc of moose1 #bce1 #bdg of musk oxen1 #bce ,groups by ,european taxidermists1 #bcj1 #bci for special exhibition1 #bci of birds1 #bcb1 #bcd of orang-utans1 #bca1 #bcb ,group-making1 general principles of1 #bcg-bdj with birds1 #bdi-bej with large mammals1 #bdd-bdh with small mammals1 #bda-bdd with reptiles1 #bej-bea ,guides in hunting and collecting1 #d ,gum for labels1 #cdh ,hair1 treatment of1 #abf1 #abg1 #aej1 #afi gluing on1 #aee-aeg ,hand of anthropoid ape1 #acj ,hares1 see ,rabbits ,hatteria punctata1 #bjd ,hawks1 group of1 by ,f4,a4 ,lucas1 #bbd ,head1 finishing a small mammal's1 #abd finishing a bird's1 #ahh ,heads1 exhortation to sportsmen regarding1 #aeh how to cut off1 #aei how to skin1 preserve1 and mount1 #aei-agh ,health1 preservation of1 #d ,heron1 neck of a1 #aie-aif prize won by ,f4,s4 ,webster with1 #aie-aif skins1 #ei1 #fj1 #fe ,hexanchus griseus1 #bad ,holland1 ,dr4 ,w4,j41 author of ,part ,v41 #fa1 #cje-cch advice from1 to insect collectors1 #cbd1 #cbg collecting-boxes devised by1 #cbc ,japanese insects collected by1 #ccc ,homes ,without ,hands1 #ic ,hornaday1 ,william ,t41 advocacy of painted backgrounds by1 #bba-bbc use of clay by1 #aab prizes won by1 #ada1 #bbb1 #bcc new method of mounting bats by1 #abg development of clay-covered manikin by1 #adj method of head-mounting developed by1 #afc ,hornaday1 ,william ,t41 new treatment of feline tongues by1 #agd new method of making ape's hands by1 #acj-aca new method of mounting fishes by1 #baa1 #bac-bad museum groups advocated by1 #bca1 #bcb1 #bcd groups of mammals mounted by1 #bca1 #bcd-bce ,human figure in groups1 #bci-bdj ,hunting1 hints on1 #ac1 #ad the alligator and crocodile1 #fg ,hygiene1 principles of1 #e ,ice1 artificial1 #bbj ,inflation of larv1 #cab-caf ,insect labels1 #cbi1 #ccg nets1 #cbj pests1 #ccf1 #cci-cda pins1 #cbi-ccj ,insects1 boxes for1 #cce-ccf breeding-cages for1 #cag1 #cah carrying-boxes for1 #ccc classification of1 #cje-cjh collecting perfect1 #cbj-cbg collecting-boxes for1 #cbc-cbd drying1 #ccc eggs of1 #cji-caa effect of light on1 #ccf house for breeding1 #cah killing1 best methods of1 #cba-cbb mounts for1 #cbi mounting1 #cbi-ccb mould in collections of1 #ccd-cce pinning1 #ccj-ccb poisoning collections of1 #ccf ravages of1 #cjf relaxing dried1 #ccd removing grease from1 #cce setting-boards for1 #ccj-cca stuffing1 #ccc ,invertebrates1 marine1 #hj-hi ,ward's catalogue of1 #ha ,iron square1 the1 #acf-acg ,irons for necks of mammals1 #acb legs of mammals1 #acj1 #aca1 #ade ,javelle water1 for skeletons1 #bhg ,jenks1 ,professor ,j4,w4,p41 author of ,steele's ,popular ,zoology1 #cea ,jesup1 ,morris ,k41 bird groups ordered by1 #bce ,key to ,north ,american ,birds1 #dh1 #ceb ,killing-knife1 #ae -jar1 for insects1 #cba ,knives for a collector1 #ae1 #di ,labeling1 #bc1 #gb1 #id1 #ig1 #chg1 #cdh ,laboratory1 taxidermic1 #ii-aja ,lacertilia1 #ff1 #bjb-bjc ,lamellirostres1 treatment of1 #fd ,larv1 breeding and rearing1 #caf-cai collecting1 #caa ,larv1 drying1 #cae inflation of1 #caf mounting1 #cae preparation of1 #cab transformation of1 #cab ,leaves1 artificial1 #bbj ,leg-bones1 value of1 #cb1 #cc1 #db ,leg-irons1 best attachment for1 #acf-acg how to prepare and attach1 #adc-adg ,leg-wires1 attachment of1 in birds1 #aic ,legs1 of large mammals1 making1 #acj-adg of small bird1 wiring1 #ahd-ahf of small mammals1 making1 #aaf-aah treatment of1 in skinning1 #cc1 #ei1 #fj1 #fa ,lepidoptera1 #cag-cah ,ligamentary skeletons1 cleaning1 #bhf mounting1 #bhh ,lion1 #aga-agb ,liquors1 hurtfulness of intoxicating1 #f ,lizards1 #ff1 #bjb-bjd ,lobster1 how to clean and mount1 #bag-bah ,longipennes1 treatment of1 #fb ,lucas1 ,frederic ,a41 #fi1 #bai1 #bbc1 #bgf work in ,national ,museum by1 #bhh group of turtles by1 #bej group of hawks by1 #bbd wall-cases of birds by1 #bbd ,macerating skeletons1 #bhb-bhd ,mammals1 collecting1 best seasons for1 #af gluing hair on mounted1 #aee-aeg groups of large1 #bca1 #bcd groups of small1 #bcd1 #bda1 #bdd mounting1 general principles of1 #aji-aad mounting groups of1 see ,groups mounting heads of1 #afc-agh mounting medium-sized1 #abi-acd mounting large1 #ace-adi mounting small1 #aae-abh mounting skeletons of1 #bhi-bic painting mounted1 #bed-bee relaxing dry skins of1 #ajb skeletonizing1 #bgc-bgi trapping and poisoning small1 #ah treatment of skins of small1 #bd-cf treatment of skins of large1 #cg-de ,manikin1 advantages of the1 #ada1 #adb how to construct the best1 #adb-adi required for largest birds1 #aic ,maynard rifle1 recommendation of the1 #ab1 #ac1 #ae ,medallions1 bird1 by ,f4,s4 ,webster1 #bbe fish1 #bac ,measurements1 of birds1 #bj1 #dh1 #aia of large mammals1 #cg-ci of small mammals1 #bd ,medicines1 collector's outfit of1 #e1 #f ,microscopic slides of insects' eggs1 #caa ,modeling an open mouth1 #agb-agg -tools1 #agc ,monkeys1 treatment of1 #dc-dd ,moose1 group of1 in ,national ,museum1 #bdg ,montana1 natural accessories from1 #bdg ,moth1 destructiveness of the codling1 #cjf ,moths in museum collections1 #cdj1 #cda ,mould1 in insect collections1 #cdd1 #cde precautions against1 #fa1 #cdh ,moulds1 gelatine1 #bfe making piece1 #bei-bfc making waste1 #bfc-bfe ,mouth1 expression of the1 #aga modeling the1 #agb ,muriatic acid1 use of1 #ha1 #hh1 #hi ,museum1 ,american1 #aji1 #bcf1 #bdi ,british1 #bce ,comparative ,zoology1 #bjb1 #bjc ,government1 at ,madras1 #bjh ,united ,states ,national1 #ig1 #aji1 #bji1 #bba1 #bcd1 #bce1 #bda1 #bea1 #bgj1 #cdc ,naphthaline crystals1 use of1 #cce1 #cdb1 #cdc ,neck irons1 #ajg1 #acj1 #acb1 #ach treatment of the1 #fj1 #fe1 #aei1 #afe1 #aff1 #afi1 #aie of a heron1 #aie of a trophy head1 #aei1 #afe ,needles1 extra long1 for sewing manikins1 #ajg ,nests1 collecting1 #ia-ic displaying1 #id ,nets for insects1 #cbj ,nose1 treatment of the1 #dd ,nostrils1 treatment of the1 #afi ,notes1 field1 #bb ,oologist1 outfit for an1 #ia work of an1 #ij-ig ,oology of ,new ,england1 #bbe1 #cec ,ophidi1 #ff1 #bjb ,opossums1 group of1 #bda ,orang utans1 groups of1 #bca1 #bcc treatment of1 #dc1 #acj ,ornithologist and ,oologist1 #cee ,ostrich1 #fa1 #aic ,outfit for collecting insects1 #cbj-cbd for general collecting1 #i of medicines1 #f for an oologist1 #ia for sportsmen and travellers1 #aa ,outlines of dead animals1 #bb1 #be ,owl1 snowy1 #aib ,packing bird-skins1 #ef1 #fa corals1 #hb eggs1 #ig insects1 #ccb-ccc skeletons1 #bia4 ,painting finished specimens1 #agj1 #bah1 #beb-beh materials1 #beb on papier-mach1 #aee plaster casts1 #beg ,papier-mach1 how to make1 #aea-aec rustic case made of1 #bbc use of1 #aea1 #aed1 #agc1 #bdf ,parasites1 #gc ,passions1 expression of the higher1 #aga ,pedestals1 for skeletons1 #bib ,pelican1 #fb ,peltries and furs1 treatment of1 #cdi ,penguin1 #fb ,photographing animals1 #ba ,pinning insects1 #ccj-ccb ,plaster ,paris as an absorbent1 #ej-fd1 #fe1 #aih-bja casts1 #ba1 #be tablets for reptiles1 #bjb-bjd use of1 #afc-afd1 #aih-bja1 #bbj ,plumage1 cleaning soiled1 #aih-bja ,poison1 effects of1 on taxidermist1 #cdd ,poisoning furs and rugs1 #cdd -jar for insects1 #cba mounted specimens and collections1 #cda skins and mammals1 #cb1 #aaj1 #adh1 #aea textiles and skin clothing1 #cdc wild animals1 #ah ,polishing hardwood1 #cdh ,principles of bird-mounting1 #ahh-aij of group-making1 #bcg-bdj1 #bdi-bea of mammal-mounting1 #aji-aad ,proportions of animals1 #aab ,pulp1 paper1 #aeb ,python1 #bjb ,rabbits1 mounting1 #abg ,rats1 necessity of guarding against1 #cc ,ray1 author vanquished by a villainous1 #bae ,rays1 treatment of1 #gg-gh1 #bad-baf ,relaxing skins of mammals1 #ajb-ajd ,reptiles1 casts of1 by ,joseph ,palmer1 #bgj collecting1 #ff-gj groups of1 #bej mounting1 #bjb-bjg new method for alcoholic1 #bjb-bjc ,rhinobati1 #baf ,ribs1 attachment of1 #bih-bii ,richardson1 ,jenness1 groups of birds by1 #bcf1 #bdi1 #bej preservation of evergreens by1 #bba ,rocks1 artificial1 #bbh-bbi ,rugs1 #bbg ,salometer1 use of the1 #cj1 #ca ,salt1 use of1 #cj1 #cc1 #afb ,salt-and-alum bath1 #cj1 #ca1 #ajb1 #aae1 #abg ,saurians1 #ff-fh ,saw-fish1 #bad-bae ,scapula1 attachment of1 #cjb ,screens1 feather fire-1 #bbe ,sea-eggs1 #hd -porcupines and -urchins1 #hd ,serpents1 #ff1 #bjb1 #bic ,setting-boards for insects1 #ccj ,setting-needle1 #ccb ,sewing skins1 hints on1 #ajf ,sex in birds1 determination of1 #ef ,sharks1 #gg difficulties in preserving1 #bad1 #bae ,shells1 cleaning1 #hg-hi fresh-water1 #hc land1 #he living and dead1 #he marine1 #hc ,shooting1 hints on1 #ac1 #ad ,shot-gun1 use of the1 #ad1 #ae ,shields for trophy heads1 #agj ,shrinkage in mounted specimens1 #aej1 #bad ,skeletons1 bleaching1 #bhc collecting1 #bga-bgi cleaning by macerating1 #bhb-bhh fish1 #gh1 #bid1 #bie field-work on small mammal1 #bgc-bge fossil1 #bhj mounting large disarticulated1 #bif-cjc mounting small1 #bhh1 #bie packing1 #bgi repairing damaged1 #bgb rough1 #bga selection of1 #bga snake1 #ff tools for mounting1 #cjc various methods of cleaning1 #bhb1 #bhe1 #bhg ,skeletonizing birds1 #bgf-bgh cetaceans1 #bgi fishes1 #gh mammals1 #bgc-bgi reptiles1 #bgh ,sketching from nature1 #c1 #d1 #ba1 #bb1 #ga ,skin1 superfluous folds of1 #acd1 #adi1 #afg ,skins1 cleaning bird-1 #aha1 #ahb cloth lining for old1 #ahb making alcoholic fish1 #gf-gh making alligator and crocodile1 #ff-fh making dry mammal1 #cb-cf making large bird1 #eh-fe making small bird1 #dg-ej relaxing bird-1 #agi-aha shrinking power of1 #bad-bae ,skinning apes and monkeys1 #dc crocodilians1 #fg deer's ear1 #afa fishes1 #gf large birds1 #eh-fe large mammals1 #ci-db and preserving mammal heads1 #dj1 #aei1 #afb sharks1 etc41 #gg small birds1 #dg-ej small mammals1 #bf-bi reptiles1 #ff-gj turtles1 #fi ,skulls1 how to dispose of small1 #cd value of1 #cb ,snakes1 #ff ,snow1 artificial1 #bbj ,society of ,american ,taxidermists1 #ada1 #afc1 #aif1 #bbb ,space in groups1 #bch ,specimens1 half-spoiled1 #ca selection of1 #bj ,sphargis coriacea1 author's struggle with1 #bjf ,sphenisci1 treatment of1 #fb ,spirits1 use of1 see ,alcohol ,sponges1 collecting and cleaning1 #ha-hb ,squirrels1 groups of1 #bdb1 #bdc ,star-fishes1 collecting and preparing1 #hc ,steam1 use of1 #bjj ,steele's ,popular ,zoology1 #dg1 #cea ,steganopodes1 #fb ,straw1 use of1 #abi1 #acb1 #acc1 #bje1 #bjg ,struthiones1 treatment of1 #fa ,strychnine1 #ah1 #cde ,sugaring to capture insects1 #cbf ,suid1 #ajc ,swan1 #fd1 #fe ,sweat-box1 for relaxing skins1 #ahj ,table groups1 #bbd ,tail1 wiring the1 #aah1 #acb attitude of1 #abf1 #agb treatment of a bird's1 #ed1 #aij ,taxidermy1 ornamental1 #bai-bbi1 #bej possibilities in1 #adi1 #bbb1 #bbd1 #bej common faults in1 #aji ,taxidermist1 #ec materials necessary for1 #ajj-aja requirements in successful1 #ajd1 #ajh1 #aed tools necessary for1 #ajj ,taxidermists1 ,society of ,american1 #bca organization of1 #bcb exhibitions of1 #bbg gifts by1 #bai prizes awarded by1 #ada1 #aie1 #bbb1 #bbc1 #bbd productions of1 #bai ,teeth1 how to clean1 #agf1 #bjf ,temperance1 value of habits of1 #f ,thread1 #afh ,tiger1 facial expression of1 #aga-agb ,till the ,doctor ,comes1 #f ,tin1 sheet1 in ears1 #afg ,tinea1 #cdj ,tongue1 treatment of the1 #agd-agf1 #bjf ,tools1 for bird taxidermist1 #ahc for general taxidermist1 #ajj ,tools1 for oologist1 #ia for professional collector1 #i for traveller and sportsman1 #aa ,tow1 use of1 #adg1 #ahg1 #bjg1 #baa ,trappers1 directions for1 #cdd ,trapping mammals1 #ai ,turpentine1 use of1 in cleaning feathers1 #fe1 #aih-bja in painting1 #aad ,turtles1 collecting1 #fh-gj mounting1 #bjf-bjg skeletons of1 #bid ,umbrella1 use of1 in catching insects1 #cba ,varnish cutter1 #cdg ,hendley's enamel1 #cdf ,wall cases1 #bbj-bbc ,ward1 ,professor ,henry ,a41 #bbf1 #bcd first large mammal group ordered by1 #bcb ,ward1 ,henry ,l41 ,west ,indian seals collected by1 #b ,ward's ,natural ,science ,establishment1 #acf1 #bjd1 #bca ,water1 artificial1 #bbj ,wax1 use of1 in mouth modeling1 #agf-agg ,webster1 ,frederic ,s41 #ahi1 #bjd1 #bai1 #bbh1 #bcb1 #bcc bird medallions by1 #bbe-bbf prize won by1 #aie1 #bbd ,wounded ,heron1 by1 #bbd ,weight of animals1 #ci ,wickersheimer solution1 #cdg ,winding a mounted bird1 #ahi-aij ,wing1 treatment of the1 #ei1 #ahh ,wings1 spread1 mounting birds with1 #aid ,wire1 how to anneal iron1 #aaf ,wire supports for mammals1 #aca supports for birds1 #ahc ,wiring a bird1 #ahd-ahf a small mammal1 #aaf-abj ,wood duck1 by ,f4,s4 ,webster1 #bcc ,,george ,h4 ,,sowdon4 ,,frederic ,s4 ,,webster4 7,formerly of ,washington47 ,,sowdon ,,webster1 #gch ,,broadway1 ,,new ,,york1 ,,experts ,,in ,,the ,,preparation ,,of ,zoological ,material4 ,our new firm will now successfully compete with the best establishments of a similar kind in this country4 ,we are ready to furnish and prepare ,groups of ,mammals and ,birds1 for museums and the trade2 also1 heads of large game1 artistic articles for household ornament and utility1 such as picture groups1 panels1 screens1 and many original novelties in fur and feather1 unique in design1 ,,all ,,of ,,which ,,will ,,be ,,absolutely ,,moth ,,proof6 ,mr4 ,webster's long professional experience and reputation as an expert taxidermist is well known and established4 ,under his personal superintendence of the large trained force employed by us in this important branch of our business1 the very best work obtainable is guaranteed4 ,,we ,,are ,,also ,,manufacturing ,,furriers4 ,with ,mr4 ,sowdon's #cj years experience in the trade1 we offer a full line of ,fur ,garments1 ,animal ,rugs1 ,robes and ,fine ,furs of every description4 ,we carry a full line of fur stock1 raw and dressed4 ,with competent designers1 fitters and cutters1 our patrons are assured of good fitting and well-made garments at reasonable prices4 ,correspondence solicited4 ,in ,mounting ,mammals1 ,birds1 ,reptiles and ,fishes1 ,,enterprising ,,taxidermists ,,will ,,use ,,good ,,glass ,,eyes ,,that ,,are ,,true ,,to ,,nature ,,in ,,shape1 ,,color1 ,,and ,,size4 ,the best procurable are those made by ,,demuth ,,brothers1 #hi ,walker ,street1 ,new ,york4 ,manufacturers of ,,fine ,,glass ,,eyes of every description1 from life studies of living animals4 ,,white ,,cornered ,,eyes for the larger animals a specialty1 and eyes are made to order on short notice when colored sketches are furnished4 ,the attention of ,american taxidermists is called to the fact that for eight years past our glass eyes have been used exclusively by ,mr4 ,hornaday in all the animals mounted by him and under his direction in the ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum1 and reference to him as to the quality and cost of our goods is hereby made1 by permission4 ,send for our price-list and diagram of sizes4 ,,we ,,also ,,manufacture ,,glass ,,shades of all shapes and sizes for the protection of mounted birds1 flowers1 wax fruit1 etc4 ,,scientific ,,glassware of every description4 ,,gauge ,,tubing ,,and ,,cylinders1 for ,distillers1 ,brewers1 etc4 ,all kinds of glass work done to order4 ,established #ahfb4 ,the oldest and best firm on the continent in the manufacture of ,artificial ,eyes and ,glass ,shades4 ,catalogue free upon application1 and careful attention given to mail orders4 ,glass ,factory on ,newtown ,creek1 near ,penny ,bridge1 ,brooklyn1 ,e4,d41 ,new ,york4 ,,standard,,specialties ,,in ,,museum ,,hardware4 ,the undersigned manufactures the ,patent ,brackets and ,racks for adjustable shelves 7,fig4 #a71 also ,patent ,monitor ,locks 7,fig4 #b74 ,these are arranged for all styles of ,museum and ,book ,cases1 ,french ,windows1 etc4 ,adopted and recommended by the principal ,museums in the ,united ,states4 ,special new and improved machinery for cutting and polishing ,minerals1 ,petrified ,wood1 etc41 by steam or foot power1 on hand or furnished to order 7,fig4 #c74 ,full information given on application to ,,elisha ,t4 ,,jenks4 ,middleborough1 ,plymouth ,co41 ,mass4 ,the ,best are the ,cheapest4 ,,the ,,unrivalled ,,superiority ,,of ,,these ,museum ,case ,locks1 ,brackets and ,racks1 is fully attested by their adoption and general use in such ,institutions as the following3 ,smithsonian ,institution1 ,united ,states ,national ,museum1 ,museum of ,comparative ,zoology1 ,peabody ,museum1 ,cambridge4 ,boston ,society of ,natural ,history1 ,college of ,new ,jersey1 ,princeton4 ,yale ,college1 ,vassar ,college1 ,brown ,university1 ,peabody ,academy of ,science1 ,college of ,charleston1 ,s4,c41 and many others4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,,fig #b4 ,illustration3 ,,fig #c4 ,illustration ,,in ,,making ,,up ,,your ,groups of ,mammals1 ,birds and ,reptiles1 ,,order ,,all ,,your ,artificial ,leaves1 ,plants and ,vines1 ,,of ,,every ,,description1 ,,from ,,pelletier ,,co41 ,successors to ,c4 ,,pelletier1 ,,manufacturers ,,and ,,importers1 7,,established #ahef17 #ace ,wooster ,street1 ,new ,york4 ,for the last eight years we have supplied the ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum with all the artificial leaves used by ,mr4 ,hornaday in his animal groups1 and refer to him by permission4 ,the most of the leaves thus used were made to order1 on short notice and at reasonable prices1 from samples furnished us4 ,fine leaves and tropical plants are our specialty4 ,let us know your wants1 and we will supply them promptly1 and to your satisfaction4 ,,of ,,special ,,interest ,,to ,,museum ,,builders4 ,c4 ,,dorflinger ,,sons1 ,,glass ,,manufacturers1 ,white ,mills1 ,wayne ,co41 ,penn4 ,,new ,,york ,,office3 #cf ,,murray ,,street4 ,,anatomical ,,and ,,specimen ,,jars ,,of ,,every ,,description ,a ,,specialty4 ,our ,jars are used largely by the ,smithsonian ,institution and ,united ,states ,national ,museum1 and give such satisfaction as is found only in first-class productions4 ,,skins ,,of ,,mammals1 ,,birds1 ,,reptiles1 ,,etc4 ,we have always on hand a large assortment of well prepared ,skins for ,taxidermists1 also finely mounted specimens of native and foreign ,mammals1 ,birds1 ,reptiles1 ,fishes1 etc4 ,catalogue #aej pages4 ,price #cj cents4 ,,mounted ,,heads1 ,,of ,,deer1 ,,elk1 ,,moose1 ,,caribou1 ,,buffalo1 ,,elephant1 ,,african ,,antelope1 ,,etc4 ,also ,,head ,,skins ,,and ,,antlers4 ,custom work done in ,taxidermy1 and in preparing and mounting skeletons4 ,,ward',s ,natural ,science ,establishment1 ,,rochester1 ,n4,y4 ,minerals1 ,rocks1 ,fossils1 ,casts of ,fossils1 ,geological ,relief ,maps1 ,models and ,diagrams1 ,archological ,specimens1 and ,birds' ,eggs4 ,skins and ,skeletons of ,animals1 ,invertebrates1 ,crustaceans1 ,shells1 ,corals1 etc41 ,anatomical ,models1 ,human ,skeletons1 ,skulls and ,skeletons of ,races1 etc4 ,,write ,,for ,,circular4 ,taxidermists3 ,naturalists3 ,before you can properly understand the practice of ,taxidermy1 it will be necessary to engage in the work1 and attain efficiency by actual practice4 ,to accomplish the best results1 it is of vital importance to have the proper tools and materials4 ,poor tools and materials produce poor results4 ,see to it then1 that you are amply provided1 and before you purchase1 write us for our #bd page ,catalogue1 devoted entirely to ,,supplies ,,for ,,the ,,naturalist4 ,we can not only supply any and all of the materials named in the preceding pages1 but we can also supply you with ,,birds' ,,eggs1 ,,birds' ,,skins1 ,,mounted ,,birds ,,and ,,mammals1 ,,and ,,land ,,and ,,marine ,,curiosities1 of which we carry thousands of specimens in stock4 ,we specially desire to call your attention to our line of supplies for the ,ornithologist1 ,oologist1 ,entomologist1 ,botanist and ,taxidermist1 ,such as glass eyes of fine grades1 leaves and grasses for case decorations1 tools of all kinds from a skinning knife to an engine lathe1 collecting paraphernalia1 and a large line of books treating on ,natural ,history4 ,,also ,,publishers ,,of ,,the ,,ornithologist ,,and ,,oologist4 ,the only periodical in this country treating directly on matters of special interest to the ,field ,collector4 ,price1 #a4jj per year4 ,frank ,blake ,webster ,company1 ,,museum ,,and ,,supply ,,depot1 ,,hyde ,,park1 ,,mass4 ,office3 #dji ,,washington ,,st41 ,,boston1 ,,mass4 ,,forest ,,and ,,stream ,,rod ,,and ,,gun4 ,you may go shooting and get no game1 or fishing and catch no fish2 but you cannot buy a copy of the ,forest and ,stream 7this week or next week or any week7 without finding it brimful of capital sketches of shooting and fishing1 and papers on natural history and sportsman's travel and experiences1 and discussions of yachting and canoeing4 ,a paper for men4 ,forest and ,stream believes in the recreation found in the haunts of deer and grouse1 and trout and bass4 ,it believes in the common sense that calls a halt in business drive and professional grind1 for a holiday with gun1 rod1 and paddle--if only afterward to drive the faster and grind the harder4 ,it is a journal for those who love the country and life out of doors4 ,it reflects the spirit and records the experiences of the great army of outers4 ,if you have any sympathy with these things1 the ,forest and ,stream is just the paper you would like to have come into your home every week4 ,send for a specimen copy 7free on mention of this book71 or #d4jj for a year's subscription4 ,sold by all newsdealers4 ,,books ,,for ,,sportsmen ,,and ,,naturalists4 ,we make a specialty of books on ,,natural ,,history1 ,,angling1 ,,shooting1 ,,woodcraft1 ,,yachting1 ,,canoeing1 ,,the ,,dog1 ,,and ,,outdoor ,,life1 ,,recreation1 ,,and ,,study4 ,send for our free illustrated ,catalogue of ,forest and ,stream ,books ,,forest ,,and ,,stream ,,publishing ,,company1 ,no4 #cah ,,broadway1 ,,new ,,york4 ,,two ,,years ,,in ,,the ,,jungle4 ,the ,experiences of a ,hunter and ,naturalist in ,india1 ,ceylon1 the ,malay ,peninsula1 and ,borneo4 ,by ,,william ,t4 ,,hornaday1 ,chief ,taxidermist ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum4 ,one vol41 #hvo1 pp4 xxii4 #eab1 two folding maps and #ea illustrations4 ,price1 #c4jj4 ,,the ,,expedition ,,and ,,its ,,object4 ,the author relates the experiences of a hunter and naturalist in ,india1 ,ceylon1 the ,malay ,peninsula1 and ,borneo2 and certainly no richer hunting-ground could be found anywhere else in the world4 ,mr4 ,hornaday is chief taxidermist in the ,united ,states ,national ,museum4 ,he was formerly connected with ,professor ,ward's ,natural ,science ,museum of ,rochester1 ,n4,y41 and his expedition to the ,east was in the interests of that establishment4 ,while his book is in some respects like such works as those which ,du ,chaillu and ,sir ,samuel ,w4 ,baker have written to delight and interest a multitude of readers1 he has imparted a vast amount of information1 a large part of which is new and of the greatest moment to the naturalist4 ,mr4 ,hornaday started from ,new ,york in #ahgf4 ,from ,england he went finally south to ,india1 arriving at ,bombay2 he went across country to ,benares2 from here he made an expedition to the north to ,cawnpore and ,agra4 ,from ,benares he worked his way to ,calcutta1 journeyed down the ,bay of ,bengal to ,madras2 southward again1 he made a complete circuit of ,ceylon1 than to the ,malay ,peninsula1 and finally to ,borneo1 where his adventures with the oran-gutan were met1 ending his two years of fruitful and entirely successful search4 ,the illustrations are many1 and most of them are taken from ,mr4 ,hornaday's own sketches4 ,though it may seem to be stating much1 it certainly may be truly said that a more interesting book of travel and adventures was never published4 ,decidedly the most interesting and instructive book of travel and adventure in the ,east ,indies it has ever been our good fortune to read4--,baltimore ,news4 ,an entertaining volume4444 ,the author has proved his ability to write a good book of travel4--,morning ,post 7,london74 ,to the naturalist1 ,mr4 ,hornaday's book cannot but be as deeply interesting as to the sportsman and traveller4444 ,it deserved to be distinguished from among the mass of books of sporting adventure4--,melbourne ,argus4 ,one of the most entertaining and instructive books of its kind that has been published4--,san ,francisco ,post4 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's ,notes ,obvious punctuation and spelling errors repaired4 ,in the table ,,recommendations ,,in ,,regard ,,to ,,hunting ,,with ,,the ,,rifle4 on page #ad1 column heading ,best distance41 had to be changed to ,best dist4 for space requirements4 ,in ambiguous cases1 the text has been left as it appears in the original book4 ,in particular1 many mismatched quotation marks have not been changed4 ,inconsistent hyphenation has been repaired4 corn-meal changed to cornmeal some one changed to someone over night changed to overnight well polished changed to well-polished well aimed changed to well-aimed well seasoned changed to well-seasoned