,,popul> ,,te*nology2 ,,or1 ,,pr(essions ,,& ,,trades4 ,illu/ration3 ,! ,,au?or4 ,,by ,,edw>d ,,haz51 ,a4 ,m41 ,,au?or ,,( ,,! ,,symbolical ,,spell+-,,book1 ,,! ,,spell] ,,& ,,def9]1 ,,& ,a ,,practical ,,gramm>4 ,,embelli%$ ,,) ,,eighty-,,"o ,,engrav+s4 ,,9 ,,two ,,volumes4 ,,vol4 ,,ii4 ,,new ,,york3 ,,h>p] ,,bro!rs1 ,,publi%]s4 #ahgj4 ,ent]$1 accord+ to ,act ( ,congress1 9 ! ye> #ahda1 by ,,h>p] ,,bro!rs1 9 ! ,cl]k's ,(fice ( ! ,s\!rn ,di/rict ( ,new ,york4 ,,cont5ts ( ,,! ,,second ,,volume4 ,page ,! ,musician1 & ! ,musical ,in/rum5t ,mak] #g ,! ,sculptor #ah ,! ,pa9t] #bi ,! ,engrav] #db ,! ,copp]plate ,pr9t] #ea ,! ,li?ograph] #ed ,! ,au?or #eh ,! ,pr9t] #fc ,! ,type-,f\nd] #gc ,! ,/]eotyp] #gg ,! ,pap]-,mak]1 & ! ,bookb9d] #ha ,! ,booksell] #ib ,! ,ar*itect #ig ,! ,c>p5t] #aaa ,! ,/one-,mason1 ! ,brick-mak]1 c4 #aad ,! ,pa9t]1 & ! ,glazi] #abi ,! ,turn] #acf ,! ,cab9et-,mak]1 & ! ,uphol/]] #adj ,! ,*air-,mak] #adi ,! ,c>v]1 & ! ,gild] #aec ,! ,coop] #aeg ,! ,:eelwright #afa ,! ,pott] #afi ,! ,glass-,bl[] #agh ,! ,optician #ahg ,! ,goldbeat]1 & ! ,jewell] #aih ,! ,silv]smi?1 & ! ,wat*mak] #bac ,! ,copp]smi?1 ! ,button-,mak]1 c4 #bbd ,! ,t9-,plate ,work]1 c4 #bcc ,! ,iron-,f\nd] #bdb ,! ,blacksmi?1 & ! ,nail] #bee ,! ,cutl] #bfa ,! ,gunsmi? #bff ,! ,vet]9>y ,surgeon #bga ,illu/ration3 ,,musical ,,in/rum5t ,,mak]4 ,,! ,,musician1 ,,& ,,! ,,musical ,,in/rum5t ,,mak]4 ,,! ,,musician4 #a4 ,! ^w ,music1 9 its mod]n application1 has ref]5ce to ! sci5ce :i* treats ( ! comb9ation ( s\nds4 ,x is f\nd$ ^u ! law ( our nature1 t e lead+ passion has its peculi> tone or note ( expression und]/ood by all human be+s4 ,music1 !re=e1 may be suppos$ to h be5 practis$ 9 ! e>lie/ ages2 al?\gh x mu/ h be5 a long "t be=e x arose to ! importance ( a sci5ce4 #b4 ,accord+ to ! ,mosaic records1 ,jubal1 "o ( ! desc5dants ( ,ca91 play$ ^u musical in/rum5ts1 _m hundr$ ye>s be=e ! flood4 ,9 ! e>ly p]iod ( ! nations ( antiquity1 & 9 fact among all semi-b>b>\s p ( lat] p]iods1 ! "* ( poet & s+] 7 unit$ 9 ! same individual2 & ! voice 0 frequ5tly accompani$ by musical in/rum5ts4 ,! olde/ song :i* has desc5d$ to our times1 & :i* is /at$ to h be5 exhibit$ 9 ?is mann]1 0 t sung by ,miriam1 ! si/] ( ,moses1 on ! occasion ( ! passage ( ! ,r$ ,sea by ! *ildr5 ( ,israel4 #c4 ,! ,hebrews employ$ music 9 _! celebration ( religi\s wor%ip1 :i* consi/$1 9 "p1 9 *ant+ solemn psalms ) in/rum5tal accompanim5ts4 ,x 0 also us$ by !m on ! occasion ( ent]ta9m5ts1 z well z 9 ! family circle4 ,x rea*$ its greate/ p]fection among/ ! ,jews1 9 ! days ( ,david & ,solomon4 ,x is suppos$1 t ! prie/s ( ,egypt 7 v]s$ 9 music1 be=e ! settlem5t ( ! family ( ,jacob 9 t c\ntry2 b h[ f> ! ,israelites 7 indebt$ to !m = a k ( ?is pleas+ art1 is altoge!r unc]ta94 #d4 ,music 0 held 9 v high e/imation among ! ,greeks1 :o attribut$ to x incr$ible effects4 ,!y ev5 assure u t x is ! *ief amusem5t ( ! gods1 & ! pr9cipal employm5t ( ! bless$ 9 heav54 ,_m ( _! laws1 & ! in=mation relative to ! gods & h]oes1 z well z exhortations to virtue1 7 writt5 9 v]se1 & sung publicly 9 *orus to ! s\nd ( in/rum5ts4 #e4 ,x 0 ! op9ion ( ! philosoph]s ( ,greece1 t music 0 necess>y to m\ld ! "* ( a nation to virtue2 & ,plato ass]ts1 t ! music ( 8 c\ntrym5 c\ld n be alt]$1 )\t affect+ ! con/itution ( ! /ate itself4 ,b 9 8 "t & aft]w>ds1 compla9ts 7 made ( ! deg5]acy 9 ?is art1 & a det]ioration ( national mann]s ?r\gh its influ5ce4 ,! deg5]acy probably consi/$ 9 its application to ! expression ( ! t5d] passions2 x hav+ be5 previ\sly appli$1 9 mo/ cases1 to awak5 patriotic & religi\s feel+4 #f4 ,! inv5tion ( music & ( musical in/rum5ts1 z 9 ! cases ( mo/ ( ! arts & sci5ces among ! ,greeks1 0 attribut$ by ! poets to "s ( ! gods1 or else to individuals ( _! own nation4 ,x appe>s1 h[ev]1 f _! traditions1 t !y receiv$ ?is art1 or at lea/ great improvem5ts 9 its execution1 f ,pho5icia or ,asia ,m9or4 ,x began to be cultivat$ sci5tifically 9 ,greece ab\t #fjj ye>s be=e ! adv5t ( ,*ri/4 #g4 ,! ,romans seem to h d]iv$ ! music :i* !y employ$ 9 religi\s s]vices f ! ,etruscans1 b t us$ 9 w> & on ! /age f ! ,greeks4 ,at an e>ly p]iod ( _! hi/ory1 x 0 a great imp$im5t to ! progress ( ! art1 t x 0 practis$ only by slaves4 #h4 ,! ,roman orators pit*$ _! voice1 & regulat$ ! diff]5t intonations ?r\gh _! spee*1 by ! s\nd ( in/rum5ts2 & on ! /age1 ! song1 z well z "p ( ! play itself1 0 accompani$ ) flutes4 ,w9d-in/rum5ts ( v>i\s k9ds1 compris$ "u ! g5]al "n ( tibi1 & sometimes ! cy!ra & h>p1 accompani$ ! *orus4 ,9 all ^! applications ( music1 ! ,romans _h be5 prec$$ by ! ,greeks4 #i4 ,! ,hebrews employ$ acc5ts to express musical tones1 b mo/ o!r nations ( antiquity us$ lett]s ( ! alphabet = ?is purpose2 &1 z !y _h n yet conceiv$ ! idea ( ! octave or p>allel l9es1 to express a v>iety ( tones 9 a simil> mann] by ! aid ( a key1 !y requir$ a numb] ( notes t mu/ h be5 exce$+ly p]plex+4 #aj4 ,! ,greeks are said to h _h ab\t "o ?\s& notes1 half ( :i* 7 = vocal1 & ! o!r half1 = in/rum5tal music4 ,all ^! 7 express$ by plac+ ! lett]s ( _! alphabet1 or p>ts ( !m1 9 diff]5t positions4 ,acc5ts 7 also us$1 p>tly by !mselves1 & 9 connexion ) ! lett]s4 #aa4 ,! l9es ( a poem1 set to music1 7 plac$ "u ! lett]s express+ ! tones4 ,! lett]s = ! in/rum5tal "p 7 plac$ fir/1 & "u !m ^? = ! voice4 ,! notes ( ! ,greeks & ,romans 7 n requir$ to indicate ! "t 9 :i* !y 7 to be pron\nc$1 s9ce 9 g5]al ! syllables ( _! language _h a natural & di/9ct quantity4 ,9 ! cases 9 :i* !re 0 a liability to mi/ake1 ! syllables 7 m>k$ ) ,a1 if long1 & ) ,b1 if %ort4 #ab4 ,! ,romans express$ ! fifte5 *ief tones ( ! ,greeks ) ! fifte5 fir/ lett]s ( ! ,lat9 alphabet2 & ^! 7 r$uc$ to sev51 by ,pope ,gregory ,i41 t[>ds ! end ( ! six? c5tury2 s t ! fir/ sev5 capital lett]s 7 us$ = ! fir/ octave1 ! small lett]s = ! high] octave1 & ! small lett]s d\bl$1 = ! highe/ octave4 ,p>allel l9es 7 soon aft] inv5t$1 on :i* ! lett]s 7 writt54 #ac4 ,musical s\nds 7 express$ 9 ?is mann] until ! ye> #ajbd1 :51 accord+ to "s au?ors1 ,guido ,aret9e1 a monk ( ,arezzo1 inv5t$ po9ts & rhombuses4 ,he also introduc$ ! use ( five p>allel l9es1 ^u & betwe5 :i* 8 notes 7 writt54 ,! sev5 lett]s :i* _h =m]ly be5 us$ z notes1 n[ became clefs4 #ad4 ,/ill1 h[ev]1 ! means ( det]m9+ ! duration ( s\nd belong+ to ea* note1 )\t consult+ ! quantity ( syllables 9 ! v]ses to be sung1 7 yet to be provid$4 ,?is desid]atum 0 suppli$ by "o ,franco1 a ,g]man ( ,cologne1 :o liv$ t[>ds ! end ( ! elev5? c5tury4 ,"s1 h[ev]1 attribute ?is improvem5t to ,john de ,murs4 ,! division ( "o note into o!rs ( less value 0 inv5t$1 9 ! sixte5? c5tury1 by ,jean ,m\ton1 *apel-ma/] to ,k+ ,francis ,i4 ( ,france4 #ae4 ,! k ( music1 z a sci5ce1 0 pres]v$ 9 ,europe1 aft] ! ov]?r[ ( ! ,we/]n empire1 ?r\gh ! influ5ce ( ! ,*ur*4 ,! apo/les1 & ,hebrew conv]ts g5]ally1 _h be5 accu/om$ to ! sacr$ music ( ! ,jews2 &1 on ?is acc\nt1 x 0 easy to cont9ue ! use ( ! same psalms & hymns 9 ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur*4 #af4 ,_m ( ! ,grecian & ,roman melodies 7 also set to words adapt$ to ,*ri/ian wor%ip4 ,9 reg>d to ! mann] ( s++1 9 ! e>ly days ( ! ,*ur*1 x 0 sometimes 9 solo1 sometimes 9 alt]nate /ra9s1 & at o!r times 9 *orus2 9 :i* ! :ole assembly jo9$1 repeat+ :at _h be5 be=e sung or read4 ,9 ! f\r? c5tury1 ) ! view ( secur+ ! prop] execution ( ?is "p ( div9e wor%ip1 prec5tors 7 in/itut$1 :o 7 consid]$ regul> (fic]s ( ! ,*ur*4 #ag4 ,pope ,gregory ,i41 surnam$ ! ,great1 di/+ui%$ himself by e/abli%+ a new s++-s*ool1 :i* became a model = _m o!rs1 9 ! we/]n division ( ! ,*ur*4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ^! s*ools1 ! s++ became m artificial2 & ?is1 toge!r ) ! circum/ance t ! hymns 7 9 ,lat91 :i* _h become obsolete1 at l5g? exclud$ ! p f any p>ticipation 9 ?is "p ( ! public wor%ip4 #ah4 ,gregory also made a selection ( ! exi/+ songs ( ! ,*ur*1 & introduc$ a *ant1 :i*1 ?r\gh 8 influ5ce1 & t ( 8 successors1 0 at l5g? ext5d$ ?r\gh\t ,europe4 ,x receiv$ ! appellation ( ! ,gregorian *ant f 8 "n4 ,x 0 also call$ ! *oral song1 because x 0 sung by a *oir4 ,?is *ant is said to be ! f\ndation ( our pres5t *ur*-music4 #ai4 ,music1 9 di/9ct p>ts1 0 n kn[n until aft] ! introduction ( ! improv$ me?od ( writ+ music1 inv5t$1 z be=e /at$1 by ,guido ,aret9e & ,franco4 ,! developm5t ( h>mony1 9 f\r p>ts1 0 assi/$ by ! *oral2 b x 0 m p>ticul>ly advanc$ by musical in/rum5ts1 & especially by ! organ4 ,9 ! fifte5? c5tury1 music began aga9 to be treat$ sci5tifically4 #bj4 ,! ,re=mation produc$ great *anges 9 ! "* ( sacr$ music4 ,be=e t ev5t took place1 ?is "p ( religi\s wor%ip 0 conf9$ to a few fix$ =ms ( texts1 z 9 ! mass1 & ?is is /ill ! case 9 ! ,roman ,ca?olic ,*ur*2 b ! ,prote/ants all[ great v>iety bo? 9 ! poetry & music4 ,lu!r's ag5cy 9 ! production ( ^! *anges 0 v consid]able4 ,dur+ ! sev5te5? & eighte5? c5turies1 *ur* music became cont9ually m brilliant1 & always m corrupt$1 by ! int]mixture ( pr(ane music4 #ba4 ,9 ! sixte5? & sev5te5? c5turies1 !re grew up1 at ! c\rts ( ! ,european mon>*s1 ! free *amb] /yle1 f :i* arose t :i* 0 aft]w>ds us$ 9 ! !atre4 ,! op]a1 :i* orig9at$ ) ?ree "y noblem5 at ,flor5ce 9 #aeid1 has contribut$ especially to ! spl5dor & v>iety ( mod]n vocal music1 ! advancem5t ( :i* is claim$ p>ticul>ly by ! ,italians1 z t ( ! in/rum5tal k9d is claim$ by ! ,g]mans & ,fr5*4 #bb4 ,! composition ( music1 & its execution ei!r vocally or in/rum5tally1 z well z ! bus9ess ( imp>t+ a k ( x to o!rs1 are embrac$ 9 ! employm5t ( ! musician2 al?\gh x is seldom1 t all ^! bran*es are practis$ by "o & ! same individual4 ,music is "o ( ! f9e arts1 &1 dur+ ! middle ages1 0 "o ( ! bran*es ( :at 0 !n consid]$ a le>n$ education4 #bc4 ,s9ce ! sci5tific revival ( music1 ! art has _h s _m di/+ui%$ pr(essors1 t we w n ev5 attempt to give a li/ ( _! names4 ,_! numb] 0 increas$1 & ! art greatly p]fect$1 by ! s++-s*ools1 call$ cons]vatories1 e/abli%$ especially 9 ,italy1 ei!r at ! public exp5se1 or by ! lib]ality ( individuals4 ,,musical ,,in/rum5t-,,mak]4 #a4 ,?is arti/ unites 9 8 bus9ess "s ( ! op]ations ( ! cab9et-mak]1 turn]1 & brazi]4 ,he also is dep5d5t ^u ! wire-draw]1 & ! tann] & curri]1 = "s ( 8 mat]ials4 ,s great1 h[ev]1 is ! numb] ( musical in/rum5ts1 & s diff]5t _! nature & con/ruction1 t ! bus9ess ( mak+ !m is divid$ into sev]al bran*es1 all ( :i* are nev] pursu$1 or c>ri$ on1 by "o p]son4 ,b1 )\t ref]5ce to ! sev]al divisions ( ?is bus9ess1 we w proce$ to m5tion or describe ! pr9cipal in/rum5ts :i* are n[ 9 mo/ common use4 #b4 ,! organ is ! l>ge/ ( all musical in/rum5ts1 &1 9 its improv$ /ate1 s complex t a m]e description ( x _c be well und]/ood4 ,nev]!less1 we w endeavor to give ! read] "s idea ( ! g5]al pr9ciples on :i* x is con/ruct$4 #c4 ,! mo/ ess5tial & prom95t p>ts ( ?is ma*9e are ! w9d-*e/1 ! pipes1 & ! bell[s4 ,! =m] ( ^! is an oblong box1 made p]fectly air-tight1 & plac$ 9 a horizontal position4 ,! top ( ?is *e/ is p]=at$ ) sev]al r[s ( holes ( diff]5t sizes1 & into ^! are ins]t$ ! pipes4 ,^? = ! high] notes are ( a cyl9drical =m1 & are made ( a mixture ( metals1 *iefly ( t9 & lead2 b ^? design$ = ! expression ( ! l[e/ notes ( ! base are made ( wood1 9 a squ>e =m4 ,! dim5sions ( ^! pipes are regulat$ by a diapason1 or scale4 #d4 ,!re are z _m ( ^! r[s ( pipes1 :i* are call$ /ops1 z !re are k9ds ( tones 9 ! organ2 & to e r[ or /op is a plug1 atta*$ to a slide1 :i* is d5om9at$ a regi/]1 & :i* is design$ to regulate ! admission ( w9d into ! pipes4 ,! pipes are also furni%$ ) valves1 :i* c be op5$ at pleasure1 by means ( keys simil> to ^? ( ! piano-=te4 ,"s organs h few1 o!rs h _m /ops2 &1 9 ord] to regulate ! =ce ( s\nd1 mo/ *ur* organs h two or ?ree r[s ( keys1 :]eby a great] or less numb] ( pipes may be fill$1 & ! p[]s ( ! in/rum5t may be controll$ 9 :at is call$ ! small organ1 or let loose1 s z to become ! full organ4 #e4 ,! f+]+ ( an organ is simil> to t ( ! piano-=te1 s f> z relates to ! position ( ! keys2 b1 on acc\nt ( ! great numb] ( hold+ notes 9 organ music1 & ! mann] 9 :i* ! s\nd is produc$1 ! f+]s are m kept d[n2 :5ce x is consid]$ injuri\s = p]=m]s on ! piano-=te to practise on ! organ1 le/ t lightness ( t\*1 s necess>y = ! =m] in/rum5t1 be affect$4 ,x is h>dly necess>y to rem>k t1 dur+ ! p]=mance on ! organ1 ! w9d-*e/ is fill$ by means ( ! bell[s4 #f4 ,! /ructure ( ! organ is l(ty1 elegant1 & maje/ic2 & its solemnity1 gr&eur1 & volume ( tone1 h obta9$ = x a pre-em95ce ov] e o!r in/rum5t = ! sacr$ purposes to :i* x has be5 appli$4 ,! l>ge/ organ kn[n is 9 ,/4 ,pet]'s ,*ur*1 at ,rome4 ,x has "o hundr$ /ops4 #g4 ,! *ur* organ 0 probably sugge/$ by ! wat] organ ( ! ,greeks1 :i* 0 inv5t$ five or six hundr$ ye>s be=e our era4 ,at :at p]iod1 organs began to be employ$ 9 *ur*es1 _c n[ be asc]ta9$4 ,by "s1 x is said t ,pope ,vitelianus caus$ !m to be us$ 9 ,rome 9 ! sev5? c5tury4 ,o!rs are ( op9ion1 t !y 7 n introduc$ until ?ree hundr$ ye>s lat]4 ,b1 be ?is z x may1 ! *ur* organ 0 n 9 common use until ! f\rte5? c5tury2 & n[ x is v diff]5t 9 its con/ruction f t ( e>ly times4 ,x has receiv$ _m additions & improvem5ts s9ce ! beg9n+ ( ! fifte5? c5tury4 #h4 ,! h& or b>rel organ consi/s ( a moveable cyl9d]1 on :i*1 by means ( wires1 p9s1 & /aples1 are m>k$ ! tunes :i* x is int5d$ to p]=m4 ,^! p9s & /aples1 by ! revolution ( ! b>rel1 act ^u ! keys )91 & give admission to ! w9d f ! bell[s to ! pipes4 ,! h& organ is s contriv$ t ! revolution ( ! b>rel gives motion to ! bell[s4 #i4 ,!re are sev]al in/rum5ts belong+ to ! class ( horns1 all ( :i* are made ( brass or silv]4 ,^? ( ! latt] k9d ( metal are by f> ! s(te/ 9 tone1 b brass is ! mat]ial mo/ commonly employ$4 ,! *ief in/rum5ts belong+ to ?is class are ! trumpet1 ! ,fr5* horn1 ! bugle1 ! ,k5t bugle1 ! trombone1 & ! bass-horn4 ,! s]p5t seems to be ! connect+ l9k betwe5 ! trumpet & ! flute4 #aj4 ,! in/rum5ts class$ ) ! flute1 are ! common flutes ( v>i\s keys1 ,g]man flutes1 & sev]al k9ds ( flageolets4 ,ne>ly alli$ to ^! are ! cl>ionet1 ! hautboy1 & bassoon4 ,! brea? is appli$ to ! flageolet ?r\gh an ivory tube at ! end2 &1 9 ! ?ree la/ nam$ in/rum5ts1 a ?9 re$1 capable ( a free vibration1 is a "p ( ! m\?-piece4 #aa4 ,( ! in/rum5ts :i* produce musical s\nds by ! vibration ( /r+s1 !re are a great numb]1 ( :i* ! foll[+ are ! pr9cipal2--! lyre1 ! h>p1 ! guit>1 ! lute1 ! dulcim]1 ! h>psi*ord1 ! sp9net1 ! piano-=te1 ! viol91 ! viol9cello1 & ! base-viol4 ,! /r+s ( ! ?ree la/ are agitat$ ) a b[2 b ^? ( ?is class fir/ m5tion$1 are vibrat$ by ! ?umb & f+]s1 by "s little in/rum5t held 9 ! h&1 or by little hamm]s1 mov$ by keys1 z 9 ! piano-=te4 #ab4 ,! piano-=te is said to be ! inv5tion ( ,gottlieb ,s*rod]1 ( ,hoh5/e91 9 ,saxony1 born 9 ,dresd51 ab\t ! ye> #agag4 ,be=e ! introduction ( ?is in/rum5t1 ! clavi*ord1 h>psi*ord1 & sp9net1 suppli$ its place4 ,on all ( ^! in/rum5ts complete h>mony c be produc$ by a s+le p]=m]1 & ! mo/ difficult s]ies ( tones c be execut$ ) rapidity1 by means ( a simple me*anism4 #ac4 ,! piano-=te has be5 gradually improv$1 until x has become "o ( ! mo/ elegant in/rum5ts 9 ! :ole compass ( musical practice4 ,9 firmness & /r5g? ( tone1 ! ,engli% piano-=tes =m]ly surpass$ all o!rs2 b1 )9 a few ye>s1 !y h be5 equall$1 & 9 "s respects excell$1 by ^? ( ,am]ican workman%ip4 ,! manufacture ( ?is in/rum5t con/itutes ! mo/ ext5sive bran* ( musical in/rum5t-mak+4 #ad4 ,! in/rum5ts ( p]cussion are ! milit>y drum1 base-drum1 kettle-drum1 tabor1 tambor9e1 & ! triangle4 ,! kettle-drum has receiv$ its "n f its con=mation4 ,x has b "o head1 & is us$ 9 or*e/res1 & by ! cavalry ( mod]n armies1 especially 9 ,europe4 ,! tabor has two heads1 ab\t ?ree in*es ap>t1 & is beat5 ) "o /ick4 ,! tambor9e has "o head1 drawn ov] a hoop1 to :i* are atta*$ small bells & bits ( t91 to make a j+l+ s\nd4 ,! "t is beat5 on ! head ) ! h&4 #ae4 ,! bag-pipe is a w9d in/rum5t ( high antiquity among ! nor!rn nations ( ,europe2 b x has be5 s long a favorite ) ! natives ( ,scotl&1 t x may be consid]$ _! national in/rum5t4 ,x consi/s ( a lea!r bag & ?ree pipes4 ,! fir/ ( ! pipes is t by :i* ! dron+ noise is produc$1 ! second emits w9d f ! bottom ( ! bag1 & ! ?ird is t on :i* ! music is made4 #af4 ,dur+ ! p]=mance on ! bag-pipes1 ! bag is plac$ "u ! arm1 & work$ l a bell[s1 :ile ! notes are modulat$ z on a flute or hautboy1 by /opp+ & op5+ ! holes1 n9e 9 numb]1 ) ! ends ( ! f+]s & ?umb4 ,! bag is fill$ by means ( ! brea? bl[n into x ?r\gh a pipe4 ,9 ,rome1 at ! "t ( ,adv5t1 ! peasants ( ! m\nta9s express _! v5]ation = ! ,virg9 by play+ on ?is in/rum5t be=e h] image4 ,illu/ration3 ,! ,,sculptor4 ,,! ,,sculptor4 #a4 ,sculpture is "o ( ! f9e arts4 ,9 its mo/ ext5d$ s5se1 x includes n only modell+ figures 9 clay1 wax1 & pla/] ( ,p>is1 & c>v+ !m 9 wood1 /one1 & m>ble1 b also ca/+ !m 9 bronze1 lead1 or iron1 z well z en*as+ & engrav+4 #b4 ,! productions ( ?is art are kn[n "u v>i\s d5om9ations1 b ! pr9cipal are /atues1 bu/s1 & bas-reliefs4 ,! fir/ ( ^! are entire repres5tations ( m5 or animals 9 full relief2 ! second are upp] p>ts ( /atues2 & ! la/ are figures m or less elevat$ f ! body or gr\nd on :i* !y are =m$4 #c4 ,! diff]5t degrees ( elevation 9 reliefs1 are express$ by v>i\s t]ms borr[$ f ! ,italian4 ,a figure is said to be 9 alto relievo1 or high relief1 :5 b a small proportion ( x is buri$ 9 ! back-gr\nd2 9 mezzo relievo1 or middle relief1 :5 "o half ( x is above ! surface2 & 9 basso relievo1 or l[ relief1 :5 b little elevat$1 l figures ^u co94 ,bas-reliefs are usually appli$ z ornam5ts to build+s1 & to ! p$im5ts ( /atues4 #d4 ,! subjects ( sculpture1 ) a few exceptions1 are ! same z ^? ( pa9t+2 & ! c\rse ( /udy ess5tial to pr(ici5cy 9 ei!r1 is v simil>4 ,!y bo? require mu* ta/e & practice1 & a ?or\gh k ( ! human =m & o!r objects frequ5tly repres5t$4 ,! "y arti/ beg9s ) imitat+ ! mo/ p]fect models ( ,grecian art2 &1 aft] hav+ become well acqua9t$ ) _! beauties1 he proce$s to ! imitation ( nature4 #e4 ,:5 any consid]able "w 9 /one or m>ble is to be done1 ! sculptor =ms a model ( clay or wax1 to guide him 9 ! execution4 ,! s(t mat]ial is m\ld$ to ! propos$ =m ) ! h&s & small in/rum5ts ( ivory4 ,! model is by f> ! mo/ difficult "p ( ! "w1 & x is "h ! g5ius ( ! arti/ is to be display$4 ,! process ( copy+ ! model 9 /one or 9 any o!r sub/ance1 is an op]ation m]ely me*anical1 & c (t5 be done by ano!r p]son z well z by ! sci5tific sculptor himself4 #f4 ,! model hav+ be5 prep>$1 ! block ( m>ble or /one is m>k$ at c]ta9 po9ts correspond+ to its *ief elevation & concavities4 ,! mat]ial is !n wr\ght to ! r\gh outl9e ( ! figure1 by means ( /rong /eel po9ts1 drills1 & o!r p]=at+ tools2 & ! asp]ities are aft]w>ds remov$ ) *isels1 & ) rasps & files ( diff]5t %apes4 ,:5 a high poli% is requir$1 x is produc$ by friction ) pumice-/one1 tripoli1 & /raw a%es4 #g4 ,m>ble & /one are c>v$ 9 a simil> mann]2 b ! latt]1 be+ s(t]1 c be wr\ght ) less difficulty4 ,! defects :i* may be met ) 9 ! /one are repair$ ) a composition ( pla/] ( ,p>is & ! same /one1 pulv]iz$ & mix$ ) wat]4 #h4 ,ca/s 9 pla/] ( ,p>is & bronze are tak5 f models1 /atues1 bu/s1 bas-reliefs1 & liv+ p]sons4 ,to d ?is1 x is necess>y to =m a m\ld f ! subject to be copi$4 ,?is is done by spread+ ov] x "s s(t sub/ance1 :i* c be readily =c$ into all ! cavities1 & :i* w h>d5 by dry+ or cool+4 ,pla/] ( ,p>is is ! mo/ usual mat]ial employ$ = ?is purpose4 #i4 ,:5 ! subject is a bas-relief1 or any o!r "o-sid$ figure ( a simil> k9d1 ! m\ld c be )drawn )\t injury1 9 a s+le piece2 b if x is a /atue1 or any o!r figure ( l =m1 x is necess>y to divide ! m\ld into sev]al pieces1 9 ord] to a safe removal4 ,^! pieces aga9 unit$ con/itute a p]fect m\ld4 ,:ile ! arti/ is =m+ ! m\ld on ! face ( a liv+ p]son1 ! latt] brea!s ?r\gh tubes ins]t$ into ! no/rils4 #aj4 ,9 tak+ ca/s f su* a m\ld1 ! int]nal surface is oil$ to prev5t adhesion1 & !n pla/] mix$ ) wat] is p\r$ into x ?r\gh a small orifice4 ,! m\ld is aft]w>ds turn$ 9 e direction1 t ! pla/] may cov] e "p ( ! surface2 & :5 a suffici5cy ( x has be5 di/ribut$ to produce ! requisite /r5g?1 & ! pla/] has acquir$ ! prop] solidity1 ! sev]al pieces are remov$ f ! ca/1 :i*1 ( c\rse1 is an exact resemblance ( ! subject on :i* ! m\ld 0 =m$4 #aa4 ,sup]flu\s portions ( ! mat]ial1 produc$ by ! seams 9 ! m\ld1 are remov$ ) suitable in/rum5ts1 & applications ( fre% pla/] are made1 :]e necess>y to repair blemi%es4 ,! ca/ is f9i%$ by dipp+ x 9 a v>ni% made ( soap1 :ite wax1 & wat]1 & aft]w>ds rubb+ x ) s(t l954 ,! poli% produc$ 9 ?is mann]1 approa*es t ( m>ble4 #ab4 ,! durability ( pla/] ca/s1 expos$ to ! wea!r1 is greatly increas$ by saturat+ !m ) l9se$ oil comb9$ ) wax or ros94 ,!y are made to resemble bronze by ! application ( a soap compos$ ( l9se$ oil & soda1 & color$ ) ! sulphate ( copp] & iron4 #ac4 ,m\lds are1 also1 =m$ ( a w>m solution ( glue1 :i* h>d5s ^u cool+1 & su* are call$ ela/ic m\lds4 ,?is mat]ial is sometimes pref]r$ on acc\nt ( its m easy sep>ation f irregul> surfaces4 ,= small & delicate impressions 9 bas-relief1 melt$ sulphur is sometimes employ$2 also a /rong solution ( is+lass 9 pro( spirits4 ,all ?ree ( ! sub/ances la/ m5tion$ yield %>p] impressions ?an pla/] ( ,p>is4 #ad4 ,/atues design$ to occupy situations 9 :i* !y may be expos$ to ! wea!r & me*anical viol5ce1 are (t5 made ( bronze ca/ 9 m\lds4 ,! ext]nal portions ( ! m\ld are made on ! patt]n1 out ( pla/]1 brick-du/1 & wat]4 ,! m\ld is !n cov]$ on ! inside ) a coat+ ( clay z ?ick z ! bronze is int5d$ to be1 & ! sev]al pieces are aft]w>ds put toge!r1 or clos$4 ,! int]nal cavity is next fill$ ) a composition l t on ! o!r side ( ! clay4 #ae4 ,:5 ?is has be5 done1 ! sev]al pieces =m+ ! outside ( ! m\ld are sep>at$1 & ! clay c>efully remov$4 ,^! hav+ be5 aga9 unit$1 & ! core or int]nal portion ( ! m\ld secur$ 9 its true position1 ! :ole is b\nd ) iron hoops1 & ?or\ghly dri$4 ,! melt$ bronze is p\r$ into ! cavity =m$ by ! removal ( ! clay1 ?r\gh an ap]ture made = ! purpose4 ,! ca/ is aft]w>ds r5d]$ smoo? by me*anical means4 #af4 ,x is conjectur$ ) mu* reason1 t sculpture 0 "o ( ! arts practis$ be=e ! deluge1 & t x 0 transmitt$ to po/]ity by ! survivors ( t cata/rophe4 ,! fir/ images 7 probably made = ! purpose ( p]petuat+ ! memory ( ! dead2 b1 9 process ( "t1 !y became objects ( adoration4 ,z ! ,*aldeans 7 unque/ionably ! fir/ idolators aft] ! flood1 s are !y suppos$ to h be5 ! fir/ :o made progress 9 sculpture4 #ag4 ,! fir/ notice ( ?is art 9 ! ,mosaic writ+s1 is f\nd 9 ! passage relative to ! t]aphim1 or idols1 :i* ,ra*el1 ! wife ( ,jacob1 c>ri$ cl&e/9ely f h] fa!r's h\se2 & ! fir/ p]sons m5tion$ 9 ! ,bible1 z arti/s1 are ,aholiab & ,bezaleel1 :o =m$ ! *]ubim :i* cov]$ ! m]cy-seat1 toge!r ) "s o!r furniture ( ! tab]nacle1 & ! sculptur$ ornam5ts ( ! g>m5ts ( ! high-prie/4 #ah4 ,f ! same au?ority1 we le>n t ! nations expell$ f ,canaan1 by ! ,jewi% p1 7 n ignorant ( sculpture & pa9t+2 = ,moses repeat$ly comm&s ! latt] to de/roy ! pictures & molt5 images :i* might be discov]$ 9 _! progress ?r\gh ! l&4 ,! ,israelites cross$ ! riv] ,jordan ab\t #aejj ye>s be=e ! comm5cem5t ( our era4 #ai4 ,f ?is "t to ! end ( ! ,jewi% polity1 we (t5 meet 9 ! ,scriptures ) indications ( ! f9e arts2 b ! spl5dor ( ,solomon's temple1 cle>ly po9ts out ! days ( t pr9ce z ! p]iod 9 :i* !y _h atta9$ _! greate/ p]fection 9 ,judea4 #bj4 ,! ,babylonians1 ,assyrians1 & ,pho5icians1 became consid]ably skilful 9 sculpture1 at a v e>ly p]iod1 z we le>n f e>ly hi/ory1 & "s exi/+ rema9s4 ,! same rem>k is also applicable to ! inhabitants ( ,h9do/an4 ,b writ]s h be5 m p>ticul> 9 notic+ ! /yle ( design among ! ,egyptians1 because ! progress ( ! arts among t p is m easily trac$1 & because x is suppos$ to elucidate t ( mo/ o!r anci5t nations4 #ba4 ,! *ief objects ( sculpture1 among ! ,egyptians1 7 pill>s1 & o!r ar*itectural ornam5ts1 idols1 ! human figure1 animals1 & hi]oglyphics1 engrav$ 9 a k9d ( bas-relief on public edifices1 & ! =ms ( animals4 ,mo/ ( ! great works ( ?is nation are suppos$ to h be5 execut$ dur+ & aft] ! reign ( ,seso/ris1 :o liv$ 9 ! days ( ,rehoboam1 k+ ( ,israel1 or ab\t #ajjj ye>s be=e ! ,*ri/ian era4 #bb4 ,b ( all ! nations ( antiquity1 ! ,greeks 7 ! mo/ di/+ui%$ = sculpture4 ,!y d]iv$ ! fir/ rudim5ts ( ! art f ! ,pho5icians1 or ,egyptians1 al?\gh !y ass]t t !y !mselves 7 its inv5tors4 ,its exi/5ce1 9 a rude /ate1 among t p1 prec$$ t ( lett]s or sci5tific ar*itecture4 #bc4 ,ddalus1 :o liv$ ab\t #ajj ye>s aft] ,moses1 0 ! fir/ sculptor among ! ,greeks1 ( any notoriety4 ,! /atues made be=e 8 "t1 7 /iff1 =mal figures1 hav+ ! arms atta*$ to ! body1 & ! legs unit$1 l ! mummy-%ap$ productions ( ,egyptian art4 ,he sep>at$ ! legs ( 8 /atues1 & plac$ !m1 & ! upp] extremities1 9 a natural position4 ,he also 0 ! fir/ sculptor :o made ! eyes ( 8 /atues op54 ,on acc\nt ( ^! improvem5ts1 ! ,greeks said1 t 8 div9e g5ius made /atues walk1 & see1 & speak4 #bd4 ,! disciples & imitators ( ,ddalus 7 call$ 8 sons1 & arti/s1 g5]ally1 ,ddalides4 ,soon aft] ?is p]iod1 s*ools ( design 7 e/abli%$ 9 ! isl& ( g9a1 at ,cor9?1 at ,sicyon1 & 9 ,etruria1 9 ,italy3 b x seems t no good repres5tations ( ! human =m 7 effect$ until ne> ! "t ( ,phidias1 :o 0 born #ddd ye>s be=e ,*ri/4 #be4 ,?is mo/ di/+ui%$ ( all ! vot>ies ( sculpture1 fl\ri%$ at or ne> ! same "t ) ! dramatic poets1 s*ylus1 ,euripides1 & ,sophocles2 ! philosoph]s1 ,socrates1 ,plato1 & ,anaxagoras2 & ! /atesm5 & comm&]s1 ,p]icles1 ,miltiades1 ,!mi/ocles1 ,cimon1 & ,x5ophon4 ,?is 0 ! mo/ ref9$ p]iod ( ,grecian hi/ory1 & ( all o!rs1 ! mo/ favorable 9 its moral & political circum/ances1 = ! developm5t ( g5ius4 #bf4 ,phidias 0 ! au?or ( ! ideal /yle1 :i*1 9 ! f9e arts1 may be def9$1 ! union ( ! p]fections ( any class ( figures4 ,among ! di/+ui%$ productions ( ?is arti/1 ! colossal /atues ( ,m9]va & ,jupit] ,olympius1 made ( gold & ivory1 h excit$ ! greate/ a/oni%m5t4 ,! =m]1 execut$ = ! ,p>!non ( ,a!ns1 0 tw5ty-six cubits 9 height2 & ! latt]1 = a spl5did temple at ,elis1 0 ab\t ! same height1 al?\gh seat$ ^u a ?rone4 #bg4 ,! favorite disciples ( ,phidias1 7 ,alcam5es1 ( ,attica1 & ,agoracritus1 ( ,p>os2 & at ! same "t ) !m1 fl\ri%$ ,polycletus1 ( ,argos1 ,miron1 ( ,boeotia1 & ,py?agoras1 ( ,rhegium4 ,! beautiful /yle soon succe$$ to ! ideal2 ! au?ors ( :i*1 7 ,praxiteles & ,scopas1 :o br\ght ! art to ! highe/ p]fection1--s9ce1 9 _! productions1 !y unit$ beauty & grace4 ,aft] ! days ( ^! two arti/s1 sculpture began to decl9e2 al?\gh x cont9u$ to be practis$ ) consid]able success1 = "s c5turies aft] ?is p]iod4 #bh4 ,! great sup]iority ( ! ,greeks 9 ! art ( sculpture1 is ascrib$ to v>i\s causes2 among :i* are class$1 _! innate love ( beauty1 & _! own elegance ( =m1 comb9$ ) ! frequ5t opportunities ( /udy+ ! human figure1 9 places :]e y\? 7 9 ! habit ( p]=m+ a?letic ex]cises 9 a /ate ( nudity4 ,to ^! may be add$1 ! practice ( aw>d+ to citiz5s a /atue ( _! own p]sons1 = em95t s]vices to ! /ate1 & = excell+ 9 ex]cises at ! public games4 #bi4 ,! f9e arts 7 ne>ly ext+ui%$ 9 ,greece1 by ! conque/ ( ! ,romans2 :o1 ) ru?less rapacity1 seiz$ ^u1 & transf]r$ to _! metropolis & villas1 ! sup]b works ( ta/e ) :i* ! c\ntry ab\nd$4 ,by ^! means1 h[ev]1 a ta/e = ! arts 0 produc$ among ! ,romans1 :o enc\rag$ ) great lib]ality ! ,greek arti/s :o resort$ 9 great numb]s to _! city4 #cj4 ,! arts at l5g? decl9$ at ,rome1 & f9ally became ne>ly ext9ct 9 t city1 soon aft] ,byzantium 0 made ! capital ( ! ,roman empire1 9 #cbi ( ! ,*ri/ian era4 ,! new capitol 0 enri*$ by ! mo/ valuable /atu>y ( ! old metropolis1 & by a f>!r pillage ( ,greece4 ,arti/s 7 also enc\rag$ ) a munific5ce simil> to t ( =m] times2 & _m new subjects 9 pa9t+ & sculpture1 9 illu/ration ( ! ,*ri/ian scriptures1 7 execut$ z embelli%m5ts = ! sacr$ build+s ( ! city4 #ca4 ,! art ( sculpture necess>ily decl9$ dur+ ! "t ( ! unsettl$ /ate ( ,europe1 :i* foll[$ ! conque/s by ! b>b>\s nations4 ,x1 h[ev]1 0 n altoge!r lo/1 b 0 occasionally practis$1 al?\gh 9 a v rude mann]1 9 sev]al k+doms ( ,europe4 ,9 ! elev5? c5tury1 aft] ! t]rors ( ! nor!rn invasions _h pass$ away1 & ! gov]nm5ts _h become m e/abli%$1 ! arts ( design began a regul> c\rse ( improvem5t1 :i* has be5 d5om9at$ _! revival4 #cb4 ,?is improvem5t 0 promot$ by means ( ! frequ5t int]c\rse :i* _h sprung up betwe5 ! comm]cial cities ( ,italy & ! ,greek empire4 ,9 #ajaf1 ! ,pisans f\nd$ _! great *ur*1 call$ ! ,dome ( ,pisa2 &1 9 its con/ruction1 !y employ$ _m noble pill>s & o!r fragm5ts ( ,grecian edifices4 ,!y also engag$ ^u ! "w sev]al ,grecian sculptors & pa9t]s1 :o ex]t$ 9 _! s]vice ! little skill :i* _h come d[n f antiquity4 #cc4 ,! specim5s ( anci5t art ?us introduc$ at ,pisa1 & ! works ( ^! arti/s1 at l5g? incit$ sev]al ,italians to emulation2 among :om 0 ,nicolo ,pisano1 :o became ! re/or] ( true ta/e 9 ! arts1 9 ! ?irte5? c5tury4 ,at ?is p]iod1 ! crusades _h diffus$ su* a zeal = ! ,*ri/ian religion1 t magnific5t *ur*es 7 built 9 e "p ( ,italy1 9 ! design+ ( :i*1 & 9 _! decoration ) sculpture1 ,pisano & 8 s*ol>s 7 univ]sally employ$4 #cd4 ,john ,pisano1 ! son ( ,nicolo1 0 also an ar*itect & sculptor ( em95ce2 & by him 0 built1 = ,k+ ,*>les1 a ca/le1 & sev]al *ur*es1 at ,naples4 ,he also execut$ sev]al pieces ( sculpture1 & sup]9t5d$ ! con/ruction ( "s edifices 9 ,tuscany4 ,?is sculptor1 :o di$ 9 #acbj1 _h sev]al pupils1 ( :om ,ago/9o & ,agnolo ,sanesi 7 ! be/ sculptors ( ! "t4 #ce4 ,9 #acej1 an academy ( design 0 =m$ at ,flor5ce by ! union ( sev]al pa9t]s1 sculptors1 & ar*itects4 ,?is in/itution 0 call$ aft] ,/4 ,luke1 :om tradition makes a pa9t] by pr(ession4 ,! society 0 aft]w>ds munific5tly patronis$ by ! ,m$ici1 a noble & weal?y family ( t city4 #cf4 ,f ?is s*ool1 !re soon proce$$ a great numb] ( skilful arti/s1 among :om 7 ! sculptors ,lor5zo ,ghib]ti1 ,donatello1 & ,bruniles*i2 & aft] ^!1 o!rs p]haps /ill m di/+ui%$1 until x produc$ ,mi*ael ,angelo ,buon>otti1 :o1 z a univ]sal g5ius 9 ! arts ( design1 has excell$ e o!r arti/1 :e!r anci5t or mod]n4 #cg4 ,?is great man 0 born 9 ,flor5ce1 9 #adgd4 ,8 fa!r1 hav+ discov]$ 8 tal5t = design+1 made him a pupil ( ,dom9ic ,ghirl&aio1 :o in/ruct$ him 9 ! fir/ pr9ciples ( ! art ( draw+4 ,he /udi$ /atu>y "u ,b>toldo2 &1 9 8 sixte5? ye>1 copi$ ! head ( a satyr 9 m>ble1 to ! admiration ( all connoisseurs4 ,on acc\nt ( 8 great promise1 he 0 lib]ally patronis$ by ,lor5zo de ,m$icis1 :o1 besides all[+ him a p5sion1 gave him a lodg+ 9 ! palace1 & a place at 8 table4 ,aft] ! dea? ( ?is pr9ce1 he enjoy$ ! same favors f 8 son1 ,pietro de ,m$icis4 #ch4 ,8 reputation z an arti/ hav+ be5 e/abli%$ at ,flor5ce1 he 0 call$ to ,rome by ,julius ,,ii4 ,f ?is "t1 he rema9$ *iefly 9 ! s]vice ( ! popes1 = :om he execut$ _m inimitable works1 bo? ( sculpture & pa9t+4 ,he 0 also an ar*itect ( ! fir/ ord]2 &1 z su*1 0 employ$ on ,/4 ,pet]'s ,*ur*1 z well z on sev]al o!r public edifices4 ,he di$ 9 #aefd1 at an advanc$ age4 #ci4 ,sculpture1 hav+ be5 br\ght to z high a /ate ( p]fection z x 0 ev] likely to be c>ri$1 began to decl9e 9 ,italy1 z x _h done be=e1 "u simil> circum/ances1 9 anci5t times2 b z b>b>ism did n aga9 occur to ov]:elm x1 x did n entirely disappe>4 ,x cont9u$ to be practis$1 al?\gh 9 a v inf]ior degree1 until x 0 aga9 reviv$ by ,antonio ,canoya1 ne> ! close ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 #dj4 ,! ,fr5* nation1 f its vic9ity & int]c\rse ) ,italy1 obta9$ f t c\ntry ! means ( improvem5t 9 e bran* ( ! f9e arts4 ,accord+ly1 native arti/s ( consid]able m]it occasionally appe>$4 ,! k+s ( ,france1 also1 (t5 employ$ ,italian ar*itects & sculptors on _! great public works4 ,9 ! reign ( ,francis ,i41 ,leon>do da ,v9ci1 & two o!r arti/s f ,italy1 e/abli%$ a s*ool ( f9e arts simil> to t ( ,/4 ,luke1 at ,flor5ce2 & ! g5ius ( ! p1 add$ to national munific5ce1 h kept a respectable s*ool ( sculpture to ! pres5t "t4 #da4 ,consid]able ability 9 sculpture has likewise be5 exhibit$ by native arti/s ( ,spa91 ,g]many1 ,holl&1 ,engl&1 & "s o!r c\ntries ( ,europe2 b :atev] skill has be5 display$ 9 any ( ^! c\ntries has be5 d]iv$1 9 an indirect mann]1 at lea/1 f ,italy4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! f9e arts h be5 cultivat$ ) consid]able _s4 ,an academy = ?is purpose has be5 e/abli%$ bo? 9 ,new ,york & ,philadelphia1 & a picture gall]y has be5 connect$ ) ! ,a!num 9 ,bo/on1 9 :i* ! annual exhibition ( pa9t+s is respectable4 ,illu/ration3 ,! ,,pa9t]4 ,,! ,,pa9t]4 #a4 ,pa9t+ is ! art ( repres5t+ visible objects1 by means ( l9es & colors1 on a plane surface1 s z to produce ! appe>ance ( relief4 ,x is ju/ly rank$ among ! highe/ ( t class ( arts d5om9at$ f9e1 or lib]al2 & its t5d5cies & p[]s be+ simil> to ^? ( poetry1 x is consid]$ an employm5t wor?y ( m5 ( ! mo/ exalt$ rank4 #b4 ,! !ory & practice ( ?is +5i\s & delightful art1 are divid$ by its pr(essors into five di/9ct bran*es1----inv5tion1 composition1 design1 *i>o-scuro1 & color+4 ,inv5tion relates to ! *oice ( subjects to be introduc$ into a picture4 ,x is ?is :i* gives ! highe/ "* to ! arti/1 z x af=ds ! greate/ opportunity to display ! p[]s ( 8 m9d4 #c4 ,composition reg>ds ! g5]al di/ribution & gr\p+ ( figures1 ! *oice ( attitudes1 ! disposal ( drap]ies1 ! situation ( ! sc5e itself1 z well z ! arrangem5t & connexion ( ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! sc5]y4 ,inv5tion & composition are employ$ p>ticul>ly 9 ! fir/ r\gh sket* ( a picture4 #d4 ,design ref]s to ! expression ( a propos$ picture 9 simple cont\r1 or outl9es4 ,x is appli$ 9 mak+ ! fir/ r\gh sket* ( ! picture1 :e!r 9 m9iature or 9 its full size1 z well z 9 ! m accurate expression ( ! =m ( ! figures1 9 its f9al f9i%4 ,! arti/1 9 mak+ 8 design1 is guid$ 9 draw+ 8 l9es by ! rules ( p]spective1 accord+ to :i* he is able to =e%ort5 objects1 & !reby dim9i% ! space :i* !y occupy1 )\t giv+ !m ! appe>ance ( dim9i%$ magnitude4 #e4 ,p]spective has be5 def9$ ! art ( del9eat+ ! outl9es ( objects on any giv5 surface1 z !y w\ld appe> to ! eye1 if t surface 7 transp>5t1 & ! objects !mselves 7 se5 ?r\gh x1 f a fix$ position4 ,= example2 :5 we look ?r\gh a w9d[ at a mass ( build+s1 & obs]ve t "p ( ! glass to :i* ea* object1 l9e1 or po9t appe>s opposite1 we f9d t _! app>5t position is v diff]5t f _! real4 ,a del9eation ( ^! objects on ! glass1 z !y appe>1 w\ld be t]m$ a repres5tation 9 p]spective4 #f4 ,correct p]spective is ! f\ndation ( sci5tific pa9t+2 &1 next 9 importance to ?is1 is a prop] di/ribution ( light & %ade4 ,?is bran* ( ! art is call$ *i>o obscuro1 or1 :5 abridg$1 *i>o-scuro4 ,! t]m is ,italian 9 its orig91 & its lit]al mean+ is cle> & obscure4 ,to ! skilful managem5t ( light & %ade1 we are indebt$ = ! /r5g? & livel9ess ( pictures1 & _! relief1 or ! elevation :i* c]ta9 p>ts appe> to assume above ! plane ^u :i* ! objects are repres5t$4 #g4 ,by ! aid ( p]spective & *i>o-scuro1 v good repres5tations 9 "o color are atta9$4 ,draw+s 9 ,india-ink & crayons1 z well z pictures tak5 f engrav$ plates & wood-cuts1 are specim5s ( su* productions4 ,b a ne>] approa* to ! appe>ance ( nature1 is made by ! employm5t ( colors analog\s to ^? :i* are f\nd to exi/ 9 ! objects to be repres5t$4 #h4 ,to produce v>i\s hues 9 pa9t+1 ! arti/ employs color+ sub/ances1 :i*1 ei!r alone or by mixture1 are analog\s to !m all2 &1 9 _! use1 he is c>eful to apply !m 9 su* a mann]1 t ! true colors rema9 di/9ct f ! lights & %ades necess>y to produce ! objects 9 relief4 ,artificial colors are divid$ into w>m & cold4 ,! =m] are ^? 9 :i* r$ & yell[ pr$om9ate2 ! latt] are blue1 gray1 & o!rs alli$ to !m4 #i4 ,be=e color+ sub/ances c be appli$ 9 pa9t+1 !y mu/ be r$uc$ to extreme f95ess1 & be mix$ ) "s t5aci\s fluid1 to cause !m to adh]e to ! surface on :i* !y are to be spread4 ,! fluid employ$ = ?is purpose1 & ! mode ( apply+ ! colors1 h giv5 rise to ! diff]5t k9ds ( pa9t+1 ( :i* ! foll[+ are ! pr9cipal3 crayon1 wat]-color1 di/emp]1 fresco1 & oil-pa9t+4 #aj4 ,! mo/ simple mode ( apply+ ! colors is by means ( crayons4 ,!y are made ( black lead1 a species ( *alk1 or ( a mixture ( color+ matt] ) gum1 size1 or clay4 ,= pa9t+ 9 wat]-colors1 ! sub/ances employ$ 9 communicat+ ! t9ts are comb9$ ) gum1 & =m$ into cakes or loz5ges4 ,:5 ab\t to be us$1 !y are dissolv$ 9 wat]1 on glass or a glaz$ surface4 ,! application 9 pa9t+1 is made by means ( a camel's-hair p5cil4 #aa4 ,pa9t+ 9 di/emp] is us$ = ! execution ( works on a l>ge scale1 su* z /age sc5]y1 & ! walls ( ap>tm5ts4 ,! color+ sub/ances are mix$ ) wat]1 r5d]$ t5aci\s by size or solutions ( glue1 or by skimm$ milk1 increas$ 9 t5acity by a small quantity ( ?yme4 ,l9se$ or poppy oil (t5 s]ves z a vehicle = ! colors1 9 ?is k9d ( pa9t+4 #ab4 ,pa9t+s 9 fresco are execut$ on walls ( pla/]4 ,! color+ matt] mix$ ) wat]1 be+ appli$ to ! pla/] :ile ! latt] is 9 a fre% /ate1 s9ks 91 & incorporates itself ) x1 s z to become v durable4 ,dur+ ! execution ( ! "w1 ! pla/] is appli$ to ! wall 9 successive portions1 no m be+ add$ at a "t1 ?an c be conv5i5tly pa9t$ be=e x becomes dry4 ,works ( ?is k9d mu/ be execut$ ) great rapidity2 &1 on ?is acc\nt1 patt]ns1 call$ c>toons1 are previ\sly drawn on l>ge pap]1 to guide ! arti/ 9 8 op]ations4 #ac4 ,oil pa9t+ d]ives its "n f ! mixture ( ! colors 9 oil4 ,! oils us$ = ?is purpose are extract$ f vegetables2 &1 on acc\nt ( ! rapidity ) :i* !y dry1 are d5om9at$ dry+ oils4 ,= mo/ purposes1 ?is mode ( pa9t+ is decid$ly sup]ior to all o!rs4 ,x admits ( a high] f9i%1 z x all[s ! arti/ to ret\* 8 works ) great] precision4 ,! colors also bl5d toge!r m agreeably1 & produce a m delicate effect4 ,oil pa9t+s are execut$ on canvas1 wood1 or copp]4 #ad4 ,pa9t+s are imitat$ ) surpris+ elegance1 by cem5t+ toge!r color$ pieces ( glass & m>ble1 z well z ^? ( wood4 ,repres5tations by ^! means1 are call$ ,mosaics1 or ,mosaic pa9t+s4 ,! cause ( _! hav+ receiv$ ?is appellation _c be asc]ta9$4 ,"s1 )\t mu* reason1 attribute ! orig9 & "n ( ?is bran* ( ! art to ,moses4 ,o!rs suppose t works ( ?is k9d h be5 ?us d5om9at$1 because !y 7 fir/ employ$ 9 grottoes d$icat$ to ! ,muses4 #ae4 ,draw+s & pa9t+s are divid$ into classes1 accord+ to ! nature ( ! objects repres5t$1 ! pr9cipal ( :i* are hi/orical1 ar*itectural1 l&scape1 m>9e1 portrait1 /ill life1 grotesque1 botanical1 & animal4 ,! subord9ate divisions ( ^! bran*es are v num]\s4 #af4 ,! prop5sity to imitation1 s deeply root$ 9 ! human m9d1 is ! f\ndation ( ! arts ( design2 & !re c sc>cely be indicat$ a l5g!n$ p]iod 9 ! hi/ory ( man1 9 :i* x 0 entirely inactive4 ,x may h fir/ be5 accid5tally exhibit$ 9 trac+ ! =m ( "s object 9 ! s&2 or resemblances 9 /icks & /ones1 may h orig9ally sugge/$ ! idea ( imitations by means ( l9es & colors4 #ag4 ,al?\gh pa9t+ & sculpture may be suppos$ to h exi/$1 at lea/ 9 a rude /ate1 at a v e>ly p]iod1 & ev5 be=e ! deluge1 yet ! reign ( ,semiramis1 que5 ( ,assyria1 #bjjj ye>s be=e ,*ri/1 is ! e>lie/ to :i* au!ntic hi/ory ext5ds4 ,diodorus ,siculus relates t ! que51 hav+ ?r[n a bridge across ! ,euphrates1 at ,babylon1 erect$ a ca/le at ea* end ( x1 & inclos$ !m ) walls ( consid]able height1 ) t[]s ^u !m4 ,! bricks ( :i* !y 7 con/ruct$1 7 pa9t$ be=e !y und]w5t ! fire1 & 7 s put toge!r1 t s+le figures1 & ev5 gr\ps ( !m1 7 repres5t$ 9 colors4 #ah4 ,?is au?or supposes also1 t ! arts _h atta9$ ne>ly an equal degree ( cultivation ab\t ! same "t 9 ,egypt1 sculpture1 z be/ s]v+ idolatr\s purposes1 be+ 9 bo? c\ntries mu* 9 advance ( ! si/] art ( pa9t+4 ,b1 9 nei!r c\ntry1 0 pa9t+ or sculpture br\ght to a great degree ( p]fection4 #ai4 ,9 ,egypt1 indep5d5t selection ( objects1 & v>iety ( exhibition1 nev] appe> to h be5 mu* reg>d$4 ,:5 a specific =m ( "* _h be5 once adopt$1 s x rema9$1 & 0 repeat$ un*ang$ = ages4 ,little action1 & no expression1 0 giv5 to figures4 ,! *ief employm5t ( ! ,egyptian arti/s1 seems to h be5 ! pa9t+ ( ! *e/s ( mummies1 & ! ornam5ts on b>ges & e>!nw>e4 #bj4 ,pa9t+1 9 ! e>ly days ( its exi/5ce1 0 employ$ *iefly 9 ! exhibition & pres]vation ( hi/orical facts2 &1 :]ev] x rema9$ fai?ful to ^! objects1 x 0 oblig$ to sacrifice ! beautiful to ! significant4 ,only 9 ^? c\ntries :]e alphabetical writ+ exi/$1 c\ld pa9t+ elevate itself to a f9e art4 #ba4 ,! ,pelasgi1 :o expell$ or subdu$ ! e>li] inhabitants ( ,greece1 & coloniz$ t c\ntry1 probably br\ght ) !m ! rudim5ts ( ?is art2 & x at l5g? grew up ) its si/] arts4 ,9 "s ( ! /ages ( its progress1 ?is intellig5t p1 no d\bt1 receiv$ useful h9ts f o!r c\ntries1 & especially f ,egypt2 yet !y f9ally surpass$ all ! nations ( antiquity 9 ?is bran* ( art4 #bb4 ,! ,greeks1 ) s+ul> c>e1 h pres]v$ ! names ( _! arti/s f ! e>lie/ p]iods ( _! practice4 ,ard5s1 ( ,cor9?1 ,telephanes & ,crato1 ( ,sycion1 & "s o!rs1 are notic$ z su*1 :5 pa9t+ _h advanc$ no f>!r ?an ! m]e circumscription ( %ad[s by s+le l9es4 #bc4 ,! diff]5t k9ds ( pa9t+1 z m>k$ by ! successive /ages ( ! art among ! ,greeks1 are z foll[s2 #a4 ,! skiagram1 or draw+ 9 simple outl9es1 z 9 ! circumscriptions ( %ad[s4 #b4 ,! monogram1 includ+ bo? ! outl9es & o!rs )9 !m4 #c4 ,! mono*rom1 or picture 9 a s+le color4 #d4 ,! poly*rom1 or picture ( _m colors4 #bd4 ,al?\gh ! names ( ! ,grecian arti/s 7 c>efully pres]v$1 ! "t 9 :i* !y liv$ 0 n di/9ctly m>k$ until ! #af? ,olympiad1 or #gai ye>s be=e ! comm5cem5t ( our era4 ,at ?is "t1 ,c&aules1 k+ ( ,lydia1 pur*as$ a picture call$ ! ,battle ( ! ,magnetes1 = :i* he paid its weight 9 gold1 al?\gh pa9t$ on bo>ds4 ,! "n ( ! =tunate arti/ 0 ,bul>*us4 #be4 ,not)/&+ ! fame ( ?is picture1 ,aglaophon & ,polygnotus1 ( ,?asos1 :o fl\ri%$ #cjj ye>s aft] ?is p]iod1 7 ! fir/ em95t pa9t]s4 ,polygnotus is said to h be5 ! fir/ :o gave a pleas+ air to ! drap]ies & head-dresses ( females1 & to h op5$ ! m\? s f> z to exhibit ! beauty ( ! tee?4 #bf4 ,/ill1 pa9t+ is consid]$ to h be5 9 an inf]ior /ate1 until ! appe>ance ( ,timan!s1 ,p>rhasius1 & ,zeuxis1 :o fl\ri%$ ab\t #cge ye>s be=e ,*ri/4 ,^! aga9 7 surpass$ by _! successors1 ,protog5es1 ,pamphilus1 ,melan?ius1 ,antiphilus1 ,!on1 ,euphranor1 ,apelles1 & ,ari/ides1 :o c>ri$ ! art to ! greate/ p]fection to :i* x atta9$ 9 anci5t times4 #bg4 ,( ! prec$+ li/ ( arti/s1 ,apelles 0 ! mo/ fam\s1 especially z a portrait pa9t]4 ,he 0 ! intimate fri5d ( ,alex&] ! ,great1 :o w\ld nev] p]mit any o!r p]son to pa9t 8 lik5ess4 ,8 mo/ celebrat$ pa9t+1 0 ?is pr9ce hold+ ! lightn+ ) :i* ! picture is *iefly illum9at$4 ,by a happy application ( p]spective & *i>o-scuro1 ! h& ) ! lightn+ seem$ to project f ! picture4 #bh4 ,f ! "t ( ^! great ma/]s1 pa9t+ gradually decl9$1 al?\gh ! art cont9u$ to be practis$ by a succession ( em95t m51 :o cont5d$ aga9/ ! blight+ influ5ce ( ! luxury & ! int]nal broils ( _! c\ntrym54 ,b soon aft] ,greece became subject to ! ,roman p[]1 ! practice ( ! f9e arts ne>ly ceas$ 9 t c\ntry4 #bi4 ,be=e ! f\ndation ( ,rome1 ! arts 7 cultivat$1 to "s ext5t1 9 ,etruria & ,calabria2 b ! fir/ ,roman pa9t] m5tion$ 9 hi/ory1 0 ,fabius1 a noble patrician1 :o pa9t$1 9 ! ye> ( ! city #dej1 ! temple ( ! goddess ,salus1 & !reby obta9$ = himself & family ! surname ( ,pictor4 ,yet ! citiz5s d n seem to h pr(it$ by ?is example2 = no o!r pa9t] appe>$ among !m until #aej ye>s aft] t p]iod4 ,at ?is "t1 ,pacuvius1 ! poet1 amus$ himself1 9 ! decl9e ( life1 ) pa9t+ ! temple ( ,h]cules4 #cj4 ,!y 7 ?us inatt5tive to ! cultivation ( ?is1 z well z ( ! o!r f9e arts1 because !y consid]$ w>f>e1 & ! arts :i* t5d$ directly to support ?is int]e/1 z alone wor?y ( ! att5tion ( a citiz5 ( _! republic2 & pa9t+1 ev5 aft] ! "t ( ,pacuvius1 0 consid]$ effem9ate & disgraceful4 ,rome1 !re=e1 _c be said1 at any "t1 to h produc$ a s+le arti/ :o c\ld approa* ! excell5ces ( ^? ( its ref9$ neighbors1 ! ,greeks4 #ca4 ,!y1 h[ev]1 hav+ ornam5t$ _! metropolis & villas ) specim5s ( ! arts plund]$ f ! cities ( ,greece & ,sicily1 began1 at l5g?1 to appreciate _! excell5ces2 & f9ally1 "u ! fir/ emp]ors1 !y enc\rag$1 ) great munific5ce1 ! ,greeks :o resort$ to _! city = employm5t4 #cb4 ,b1 bo? sculpture & pa9t+1 z well z ar*itecture1 decl9$ ) ,roman civilization4 ,/ill1 !y cont9u$ to exi/1 especially 9 ! ,byzant9e or ,ea/]n empire1 al?\gh 9 a v inf]ior /ate4 ,! art "u consid]ation 0 pres]v$ *iefly by its application to ! purposes ( ,*ri/ianity4 ,x 0 reviv$ 9 ,italy1 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! twelf? c5tury1 by means ( sev]al ,grecian arti/s1 :o _h be5 employ$ to ornam5t ! *ur*es1 & o!r edifices at ,pisa1 ,v5ice1 & ,flor5ce4 #cc4 ,! works ( ,apollonius1 "o ( ^! ,greeks1 excit$ 9 ,giovanni ,cimabue a _s ( emulation2 &1 hav+ be5 initiat$ into ! practice ( ! art1 he execut$ a picture ( ! ,virg9 ,m>y1 z l>ge z life1 = a *ur* d$icat$ to h]1 at ,flor5ce4 ,?is production excit$ en?usia/ic delight 9 8 fell[-citiz5s1 :o c>ri$ x 9 procession1 ) ! s\nd ( trumpets1 to its place ( de/9ation1 & celebrat$ ! day z a public fea/4 #cd4 ,enc\rag$ by ?is applause1 ,cimabue pursu$ ! art ) ardor2 &1 al?\gh consid]$ a prodigy 9 8 "t1 8 utmo/ ef=ts fail$ to produce tol]able specim5s ( ! art4 ,he1 h[ev]1 f> excell$ 8 imm$iate pr$ecessors2 &1 by introduc+ m correct proportions1 by giv+ m life & expression to 8 figures1 & by "s o!r improvem5ts1 he became ! f\nd] ( ! art z x exi/s 9 mod]n times4 ,he 0 born at ,flor5ce1 9 #abdj1 & di$ at ! age ( sixty4 #ce4 ,! favorite pupil ( ,cimabue1 0 ,giotto1 :om he rais$ f a %eph]d to be a pa9t]2 & by him ! art 0 /ill m reliev$ f ! ,greek imp]fections4 ,he ab&on$ ! use ( labels z means ( di/+ui%+ ! diff]5t figures ( a picture1 & aim$ at1 & atta9$ to1 real expression4 ,he m>k$ out to ! ,italians ! c\rse 9 :i* ! art %\ld be pursu$1 z ,polygnotus _h done to ! ,greeks ne> #ahjj ye>s be=e2 al?\gh1 l him1 he fail$ 9 fully exemplify+ 8 pr9ciples4 #cf4 ,8 abilities procur$ him ! patronage ( ,pope ,boniface ,,viii41 :o employ$ him at ,rome4 ,f ?is "t1 ! art ( pa9t+ became atta*$ to ! papal dignity1 & few succe$+ pontiffs h neglect$ its use4 ,! skill & celebrity ( ?is +5i\s arti/ excit$ great emulation1 & ! arts hav+ obta9$ an e>ne/ ( pr(it & honor1 no long] want$ skilful pr(essors or illu/ri\s patrons4 #cg4 ,9 #acej1 f\rte5 ye>s aft] ! dea? ( ,giotto1 8 disciple1 ,jacopo ,cass5t9o1 & n9e o!r arti/s1 f\nd$ ! ,academy ( ,/4 ,luke1 at ,flor5ce4 ,?is 0 a gr& epo* ( ! arts2 z f ?is in/itution arose a l>ge display ( tal5t1 increas+ 9 spl5dor until1 )9 #aej ye>s1 x gave to ! _w1 ,masaccio1 ,leon>do da ,v9ci1 ,mi*ael ,angelo ,buon>otti1 & ,raphael1 besides o!rs ( great ability4 #ch4 ,! art advanc$ b little aft] ! "t ( ,giotto1 until ! appe>ance ( ,masaccio4 ,"u ! h& ( ?is great ma/]1 pa9t+ is said to h be5 greatly improv$2 & x 0 to him1 t ! arti/s :o succe$$ 7 indebt$ = a m sure & full direction ( ! c\rse 9 :i* !y ought to proce$4 ,he 0 born 9 #adjb1 & di$ 9 #addc4 #ci4 ,leon>do da ,v9ci1 :o 0 born ab\t two ye>s aft] ! dea? ( ,masaccio1 br\ght ! art to /ill great] p]fection2 & be+ end[$ ) uncommon g5ius1 all ! arts & sci5ces did n seem to af=d a field suffici5t = ! ex]tion ( 8 tal5ts4 ,he grasp$ at all1 & succe$$ f> bett] ?an 8 pr$ecessors 9 ev]y?+ he und]took2 b he wa/$ mu* ( 8 "t 9 exp]im5ts4 ,_h he conf9$ 8 great p[]s to ! art ( pa9t+1 he w\ld probably h nev] be5 exce$$4 #dj4 ,ab\t ! ye> #adaj1 oil came to be us$ z a vehicle = pa9ts4 ,x seems to h be5 fir/ appli$ to ?is purpose 9 ,fl&]s1 by ,john ,van ,eyck1 ( ,brussels2 or x 01 at lea/1 fir/ us$ by him successfully4 ,! fir/ h9t ( its utility 9 ?is application is ?\ght1 ) reason1 to h be5 obta9$ f its use z a v>ni% to pictures pa9t$ 9 wat]-colors4 #da4 ,! art ( pa9t+ 0 introduc$ into ,fl&]s ab\t ! "t ( ,giotto1 by sev]al ,flem+s1 :o _h be5 to ,italy = ! express purpose ( le>n+ x4 ,x 0 also diffus$ 9 practice1 ab\t ! same "t1 9 ,g]many2 & a p>ticul> /yle ( ! art grew up 9 ea* ( ^! c\ntries4 ,b x 0 9 ,italy alone t ! art may be said to h fl\ri%$ 9 a high /ate ( cultivation2 & ev5 !re1 ! pr9cipal productions orig9at$ f arti/s ( ! ,flor5t9e s*ool4 #db4 ,! art ( pa9t+ 0 p]fect$1 p]haps1 z f> z human ability c c>ry x1 9 ! fir/ half ( ! sixte5? c5tury1 by ,mi*ael ,angelo ,buon>otti1 ,raphael1 ,titian1 & ,correggio2 al?\gh x _c be said t all its excell5ces 7 unit$ 9 ! productions ( any "o ( ^! di/+ui%$ pr(essors4 ,su* a union has nev] yet be5 display$1 nor c x h>dly be expect$4 #dc4 ,! art 0 ess5tially aid$ 9 its progressive /ages ( advancem5t by ! lib]al patronage ( ! family ( ! ,m$ici1 at ,flor5ce1 & by ! pontiffs1 at ,rome4 ,angelo & ,raphael 7 bo? employ$ at ,rome by ,julius ,,ii4 & ,leo ,x41 z well z by o!rs :o succe$$ !m 9 ! papal *air1 9 ornam5t+ ! palaces & sacr$ build+s4 ,_! productions h nev] be5 exce$$ 9 any c\ntry1 & !y /ill rema9 ! objects ( c>eful /udy by arti/s ( ?is pr(ession4 #dd4 ,titian 0 also lib]ally patronis$ at ,rome1 & 9 o!r p>ts ( ,italy1 z well z 9 ,spa9 & ,g]many1 *iefly z a portrait & l&scape pa9t]4 ,! unrivall$ productions ( ^! great ma/]s1 h[ev]1 7 fatal to ! art 9 ,italy1 s9ce _! sup]ior excell5ce ext+ui%$ emulation1 by de/roy+ ! prospect ( equal or sup]ior success4 #de4 ,! fl\ri%+ /ate ( ! art 9 ,italy1 = s long a p]iod1 might be expect$ to h produc$ a ta/e = its cultivation 9 o!r p>ts ( ,europe2 b ?is 0 ! case only to a limit$ ext5t4 ,no o!r c\ntries h yet be5 p>ticul>ly di/+ui%$ = arti/s 9 ?is bran* ( ! f9e arts1 except ,fl&]s & ,holl&2 & ^! 7 *iefly indebt$ = ! di/9ction to ,pet] ,paul ,rub5s1 ( ,antw]p1 :o 0 born at ,cologne1 9 #aegg1 & to ,paul ,van ,rhyn ,rembr&t1 :o 0 born 9 #afjf1 9 8 fa!r's mill1 ne> ,leyd54 ,"s ( ! s*ol>s ( ^! ma/]s 7 em95t pa9t]s4 ,an?ony ,v&yck1 a pupil ( ! =m]1 9 p>ticul>1 is said to h nev] yet be5 equall$ z a portrait-pa9t]4 #df4 ,v little is kn[n ( ! art 9 ,spa91 until ab\t ! ye> #aejj1 al?\gh x is suppos$ to h be5 cultivat$ ) "s success be=e t "t4 ,! examples :i* 7 left !re by ,titian produc$ a favorable impression1 & sev]al native arti/s ( consid]able em95ce aft]w>ds appe>$2 b ! art became ne>ly ext9ct 9 ! foll[+ age4 #dg4 ,! proximity ( ,france to ,italy1 & ! employm5t ( ,leon>do da ,v9ci & o!r em95t arti/s ( ,italy by ,francis ,i41 toge!r ) ! e/abli%m5t ( a s*ool ( f9e arts1 z /at$ 9 ! prec$+ article1 might h be5 expect$ to lay ! f\ndation ( exalt$ ta/e 9 ?is k+dom4 ,nev]!less1 ! only ,fr5* pa9t]s ^: names h come d[n to u ) any pret5sions to excell5ce = "o hundr$ & fifty ye>s1 7 ,jean ,c\s91 ,jaques ,blan*>d1 ,ni*olas ,p\ss91 & ,*>les ,le ,brun4 ,! la/1 al?\gh inf]ior to ,p\ss91 is at ! head ( ! ,fr5* s*ool ( pa9t+4 #dh4 ,! successors ( ,le ,brun 7 n want+ 9 ability1 yet1 ) a few exceptions1 !y fail$ 9 rea*+ an enviable em95ce 9 ! art1 on acc\nt ( _! s]vile imitation ( ! false ta/e ( _! popul> model4 ,! fanta/ic /yle ( ,le ,brun became unpopul> 9 ,france "s "t previ\s to ! revolution 9 t c\ntry2 & ano!r1 ( an opposite "*1 & by arti/s ( o!r nations ?\ght to be equally di/ant f true ta/e1 has be5 s9ce adopt$4 #di4 ,v little is kn[n ( ! /ate ( ! f9e arts 9 ,engl& until ! "t ( ,h5ry ,,viii41 :o enc\rag$ ! abilities ( ,hans ,holbe91 an em95t pa9t] f ,switz]l&4 ,b pa9t+ & sculpture1 & p>ticul>ly ! =m]1 hav+ become intimately int]wov5 ) ! religion ( ! ,*ur* ( ,rome1 fell into disrepute 9 ,engl& aft] ! *ange ( op9ion on ?is subject 9 t c\ntry4 ,!y1 h[ev]1 began to revive 9 ! eighte5? c5tury1 & ,engl& & ,engli% ,am]ica h s9ce produc$ "s em95t pa9t]s1 among :om are ,hog>?1 ,reynolds1 ,opie1 ,we/1 ,copley1 ,trumbull1 & ,peale4 ,illu/ration3 ,! ,,engrav]4 ,,! ,,engrav]4 ,engrav+ is ! art ( cutt+ lett]s or figures 9 wood1 metals1 or /one4 ,x 0 practis$ 9 v anci5t times1 & 9 diff]5t c\ntries1 = ! purposes ( ornam5t & monum5tal inscription2 b ! idea ( tak+ impressions on pap]1 or on any o!r sub/ance1 f engrav$ surfaces1 is comp>atively mod]n4 ,,! ,,wood ,,engrav]4 #a4 ,! ,*9ese are said to h be5 ! fir/ :o engrav$ figures or lett]s on wood1 = ! purpose ( pr9t+4 ,! precise "t at :i* !y comm5c$ ! practice1 is totally unkn[n2 b a book pr9t$ by !m 9 ! t5? c5tury1 is n[ extant4 ,x is ?\ght by "s antiqu>ians1 t ! ,europeans d]iv$ ! art f ! ,*9ese1 ?r\gh ! ,v5itians1 :o trad$ 9 t "p ( ! _w e>li] ?an any o!r ,europeans4 #b4 ,?is op9ion is some:at probable1 f ! circum/ance t ! tools employ$ by ! e>ly engrav]s 9 ,europe1 are simil> to ^? us$ 9 ,*9a2 & also1 l ! ,*9ese1 !y engrav$ on ! side ( ! gra94 ,h[ev] ?is may be1 x is c]ta9 t ! art 0 practis$ 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ,europe 9 ! f\rte5? c5tury4 ,! e>lie/ subjects execut$1 7 figures ( sa9ts1 rudely engrav$ 9 outl9e4 ,! pr9ts tak5 f !m 7 gaily color$1 & sold to ! common p z orig9al pa9t+s4 ,! pr9cipal p]sons engag$ 9 ?is traffic 7 monks1 to :om ! art 0 conf9$ = a consid]able "t4 #c4 ,at l5g?1 l>g] subjects1 ) inscriptions 9 imitation ( manuscript1 7 execut$4 ,! success ( ^! pr9ts gave rise to a m ext5sive application ( ! art4 ,scriptural subjects1 ( _m figures1 ) texts ( scripture1 7 engrav$1 & impressions 7 tak5 f !m on "o side ( ! pap]1 two %eets be+ pa/$ toge!r to =m a leaf4 ,entire sets 7 b\nd up toge!r1 & ?us 7 =m$ ! fir/ pr9t$ books1 :i*1 be+ produc$ entirely f wood-cuts1 are kn[n by ! "n ( block-books4 ,^! books made _! appe>ance ab\t ! ye> #adbj4 #d4 ,"o ( ! e>lie/ ( ^! productions is d5om9at$ ,! ,apocalypse ( ,/4 ,john2 ano!r1 ,! ,poor ,man's ,bible4 ,b "o ( ! late/ & mo/ celebrat$1 is call$ ,! ,mirror ( ,salvation1 publi%$ 9 #addj4 ,"p ( ! text 0 pr9t$ f solid blocks1 & "p1 f moveable wood5 types4 ,f ?is fact1 x is easy to discov] ! orig9 ( pr9t+4 ,aft] ?is1 mo/1 if n all1 ( ! books1 7 pr9t$ f moveable types2 b1 z !y 7 embelli%$ ) wood cuts1 ! dem& = su* engrav+s 0 v mu* increas$1 al?\gh !y 71 at fir/1 by no means elegant4 #e4 ,ne> ! close ( ! fifte5? c5tury1 ! art began to assume a high] "*1 pr9cipally by ! tal5ts ( ,mi*ael ,wolg]mu? & ,william ,pluyd5wurf4 ,alb]t ,dur] made /ill great] improvem5ts1 &1 9 #adih1 publi%$ 8 celebrat$ ,apocalypse ( ,/4 ,john1 pr9t$ f folio blocks4 ,o!r celebrat$ engrav]s succe$$ him 9 ! sixte5? c5tury1 :i* may be consid]$ ! era :5 wood engrav+ 0 at its highe/ po9t ( elevation4 ,aft] ?is1 ! art decl9$1 & 0 consid]$ ( little importance1 until x 0 reviv$ 9 #agge1 by ! di/+ui%$ ,william ,bewick1 ( ,newca/le1 ,engl&4 ,x is /ill practis$1 especially 9 ,engl& & ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 a mann] :i* reflects cr$it on ! +5uity ( ! age4 #f4 ,! e>li] arti/s op]at$ on v>i\s k9ds ( wood1 su* z ! apple1 pe>1 & bee*2 b ^!1 be+ too s(t1 are n[ us$ only = calico-pr9t+ & o!r common purposes4 ,box-wood1 on acc\nt ( its sup]ior texture1 is us$ = e subject t c be t]m$ a "w ( art4 ,t f ,turkey is ! be/4 #g4 ,! engrav]s1 9 ! infancy ( ! art1 prep>$ ! wood z ! common block-cutt]s n[ d4 ,! tree 0 cut ! way ( ! gra91 9 planks1 & ( c\rse !y engrav$ on ! side ( ! gra91 z ^u a bo>d4 ,?is mode ( prep>ation enabl$ !m to execute l>g] subjects4 ,! engrav]s n[ pref] ! end ( ! gra91 & !re=e cut ! log transv]sely4 #h4 ,! end on :i* ! engrav] is to ex]t 8 skill1 is plan$ & scrap$1 to r5d] ! surface smoo?1 & ! block hav+ be5 cut to ! prop] size1 ! draw+ is made ^u x 9 ,india ink1 or ) a lead-p5cil4 ,! block is n[ ready = ! arti/ :o1 9 execut+ ! "w1 holds x ) "o h&1 on a cu%ion made ( s& & lea!r1 :ile1 ) ! o!r1 he cuts away ! sup]flu\s wood4 ,! "p int5d$ to make ! impression 9 pr9t+1 is left /&+4 #i4 ,wood engrav+s1 well execut$1 are sc>cely inf]ior to ^? ( copp] & /eel1 &1 = _m purposes1 !y are pref]r$4 ,!y are rem>kably conv5i5t1 s9ce !y c be ins]t$ into a page ( types1 :]e illu/rations or embelli%m5ts may be requir$1 & be pr9t$ )\t sep>ate exp5se4 ,!y w also be> a great numb] ( impressions--g5]ally #ajj1jjj4 ,9 ?is respect1 !y are decid$ly sup]ior to metallic plates4 ,!y c likewise be multipli$ indef9itely by ! process ( /]eotyp+4 ,,! ,,copp]plate ,,engrav]4 #a4 ,! engrav]s on metallic surfaces are t]m$ copp]plate engrav]s1 n because copp] is ! only metal on :i* !y ex]t _! skill1 b because x is ! "o on :i* !y usually op]ate4 ,! plates are prep>$ = ! arti/ by ! copp]smi?1 by rubb+ !m ) brickdu/ & *>coal1 aft] hav+ cut !m ( a prop] size f %eets ( copp]4 #b4 ,! in/rum5ts employ$ by ?is arti/ are few & simple1 ! pr9cipal ( :i* are1 ! grav]1 ! dry-po9t1 ! scrap]1 & ! burni%]4 ,! grav] is a small b> ( /eel1 ( a squ>e or loz5ge =m1 &1 ) ! %ort h&le into :i* x is ins]t$1 ab\t five in*es 9 l5g?4 ,"o ( ! angles ( ! b> is always on ! "u side ( ! in/rum5t1 & ! po9t is =m$ by bevell+ ! end f ! upp] side1 or angle4 ,! squ>e =m is us$ = broad /rokes1 & ! loz5ge = f9e ones4 #c4 ,! dry-po9t1 or ne$le1 is a /eel wire ) a long cyl9drical h&le2 or x is simply a wire ( suffici5t l5g? & size to be us$ )\t a h&le4 ,! scrap] has ne>ly ! =m ( a triangul> pyramid2 & ! cutt+ "p1 :i* has ?ree edges1 is two or ?ree in*es long4 ,! burni%] has a =m ne>ly conical1 &1 )\t ! h&le1 is ab\t ?ree in*es long4 ,! la/ two in/rum5ts are frequ5tly made ( ! same piece ( /eel1 prop]ly =g$ at ea* end4 ,9 su* case1 ! middle "p ( ! /eel is ! h&le by :i* !y are held4 #d4 ,( engrav+ on copp]1 ! foll[+ are ! pr9cipal v>ieties or /yles3 #a4 ,l9e engrav+2 #b4 ,/ippl+2 #c4 ,et*+2 #d4 ,mezzot9to2 #e4 ,aquat9ta4 ,= ! purpose ( convey+ "s idea ( ^! diff]5t bran*es1 we w describe !m "u di/9ct heads4 #e4 ,l9e engrav+4 ,! fir/ ?+ done1 9 ?is species ( engrav+1 is to transf] to ! plate an exact copy ( ! outl9es ( ! design to be execut$4 ,9 accompli%+ ?is1 ! plate is mod]ately heat$1 & cov]$ ) a ?9 coat+ ( :ite wax4 ,a piece ( transp>5t pap] is !n laid ov] ! design to be copi$1 & trac$ 9 outl9e ) a black-lead p5cil4 ,! outl9e ?us sket*$ is turn$ d[n ^u ! coat+ ( :ite wax1 & ! :ole is subject$ to ! action ( a roll+-press2 or x is kept = a :ile "u heavy weights4 ,by ! application ( ?is pressure1 ! l9es are transf]r$ f ! pap] to ! wax on ! plate 9 a rev]s$ position1 :i* is necess>y to make ! impression ( ! f9i%$ plate resemble ! orig9al4 #f4 ,! p5cil-m>ks on ! wax hav+ be5 lightly trac$ on ! copp] ) ! dry-po9t1 & ! wax hav+ be5 melt$ (f1 a p]fect outl9e is f\nd on ! plate4 ,small subord9ate p>ts ( ! design are transf]r$ to ! plate 9 ! same mann]1 except t ! transp>5t pap] is br\ght 9 =cible contact ) ! wax$ surface by means ( ! burni%]4 #g4 ,at ?is /age ( ! process1 ! arti/ comm5ces ! use ( ! grav]4 ,:ile op]at+ ) ?is in/rum5t1 he holds ! h&le 9 ! palm ( 8 h&1 & pu%es ! po9t =w>d ) a firm & /eady motion1 until a l9e is produc$ by a removal ( a portion ( ! metal4 ,by a succession ( su* /rokes1 judici\sly appli$1 ! "w is complet$4 ,! burrs1 or little elevations ( ! copp]1 left by ! grav] on ea* side ( ! l9es1 are remov$ by means ( ! scrap] & burni%]4 ,mi/akes or blemi%es are eras$ f ! plate1 ei!r ) ! burni%]1 or by friction ) *>coal4 #h4 ,/ippl+4 ,! second mode ( engrav+ is call$ /ippl+4 ,?is resembles ! la/ me?od 9 its process1 except t ! effect is produc$ by means ( m9ute punctures or excavations1 in/ead ( l9es4 ,^! are made ei!r ) ! dry-po9t or grav]4 ,:5 produc$ by ! =m] in/rum5t1 !y are ( a circul> =m2 :5 by ! latt]1 !y are rhomboidal or triangul>4 ,?is /yle ( "w is always m sl[1 & consequ5tly m exp5sive1 ?an engrav+ 9 l9es4 ,x has1 h[ev]1 "s advantages 9 ! s(tness & delicacy ( its lights & %ades1 & ! pr9ts /ruck f x approa* m ne>ly to pa9t+s4 #i4 ,et*+4 ,?is mode ( engrav+ is f> m easy ?an any o!r1 be+ p]=m$ *iefly by *emical corrosion4 ,9 fact1 any p]son :o c draw1 may et* co>se designs tol]ably well1 aft] hav+ le>n$ ! !ory ( ! op]ation4 ,to p]=m x1 ! plate is fir/ cov]$ ) a ?9 coat+ ( "s res9\s sub/ance1 ^u :i* ! acid employ$ c h no action4 ,! design1 & all ! l9es x requires1 are next trac$ on ! plate ) /eel po9ts1 call$ et*+ ne$les1 :i* are in/rum5ts simil> to ! dry-po9t4 #aj4 ,! second "p ( ! process is ! corrosion1 or1 z x is te*nically call$1 bit+ 94 ,?is is effect$ by p\r+ ^u ! design a quantity ( dilut$ nitric acid1 aft] hav+ surr\nd$ ! edges ( ! plate ) a wall ( s(t wax1 to prev5t ! escape ( ! fluid4 ,a *emical action imm$iately takes place 9 all ! l9es or po9ts :]e ! copp] has be5 d5ud$ by ! ne$le4 ,aft] ! fir/ bit+ has be5 cont9u$ long en\gh1 9 ! judgm5t ( ! op]ator1 ! acid is p\r$ (f1 & ! plate exam9$4 #aa4 ,! light %ades1 if f\nd suffici5tly deep1 are !n cov]$ ) v>ni%1 to protect !m f fur!r corrosion4 ,! bit+ is !n cont9u$ = ! second %ades1 9 ! same mann]1 & aft]w>ds1 = ! ?ird & succe$+ %ades1 until ! piece %all h be5 f9i%$4 ,! plate hav+ be5 clean$1 & c>efully exam9$ by ! aid ( a pro( impression1 ! defici5cies :i* may be discov]$ are suppli$ ) ! grav]4 #ab4 ,mezzot9to4 ,9 ! production ( ?is k9d ( engrav+1 ! :ole surface ( ! plate is fir/ r\gh5$1 or cov]$ ) m9ute prom95ces & excavations too small to be obvi\s to ! nak$ eye2 s t an impression tak5 f x1 9 ?is /ate1 w\ld pres5t a uni=m velvety1 black appe>ance4 ,?is r\ghness is produc$ me*anically by means ( a small too!d in/rum5t1 call$ a cradle4 #ac4 ,:5 ! plate has be5 ?us prep>$1 ! re/ ( ! process is comp>atively easy4 ,x consi/s 9 press+ d[n or rubb+ out ! r\ghness ( c]ta9 p>ts ( ! plate1 ) ! burni%] & scrap]4 ,:]e /rong lights are requir$1 ! plate is re/or$ to a smoo? surface2 = a m$ium light1 x is mod]ately burni%$1 or p>tially eras$2 &1 = ! deepe/ %ades1 ! gr\nd is left entire1 & sometimes et*$1 & corrod$ ) nitric acid4 ,impressions f mezzot9to plates approa* m ne>ly to oil pa9t+s ?an any o!r pr9ts4 ,?is k9d ( engrav+ 0 inv5t$ by ,pr9ce ,rup]t1 9 #afdi4 #ad4 ,aqua-t9ta4 ,!re are sev]al me?ods by :i* ?is k9d ( engrav+ c be execut$2 we1 h[ev]1 w describe ! "o :i* seems to be ! mo/ simple & obvi\s4 ,! outl9e ( ! picture hav+ be5 et*$ or engrav$ 9 ! usual mann]1 ! surface ( ! copp] is spr9kl$ equally ) m9ute p>ticles ( ros94 ,?is du/ is fix$ to ! surface by heat+ ! plate until ! ros9 has melt$4 #ae4 ,! gr\nd hav+ be5 ?us laid1 ! p>ts ( ! plates n int5d$ to be occupi$ by ! design are /opp$ out by means ( ?ick v>ni%4 ,! plate is n[ surr\nd$ ) a wall ( wax1 z = et*+1 & dilut$ nitric acid is p\r$ ^u x4 ,a *emical action imm$iately takes place1 by :i* ! surface expos$ betwe5 ! res9\s p>ticles is m9utely excavat$4 #af4 ,! light] %ades are /opp$ out at an e>ly /age ( ! process1 & ! bit+ 9 is cont9u$ = ! d>k] ones4 ,aft] ! plate is judg$ to be suffici5tly corrod$1 x is cleans$1 & an impression is tak5 on pap]4 ,! process is f9i%$ by burni%+ ! %ades1 to give !m great] s(tness1 & by t\*+ up ! defective p>ts ) ! grav]4 #ag4 ,?is mode ( engrav+ is well adapt$ to light subjects1 sket*es1 l&scapes1 c42 b1 ow+ to ! f95ess ( ! gr\nd1 ! plates we> out rapidly1 & seldom yield1 :5 ( ord9>y /r5g?1 m ?an six hundr$ impressions4 ,! pr9ts tak5 f su* plates be> a /rong resemblance to pa9t+s 9 ,indian ink1 or to draw+s 9 black-lead p5cil4 ,aqua-t9ta is ! mo/ prec>i\s k9d ( engrav+1 & requires mu* att5tion on ! "p ( ! arti/4 ,x 0 inv5t$ by a ,fr5*man1 nam$ ,lepr9ce1 :o1 = a "t1 kept ! process a secret1 & sold 8 impressions = orig9al draw+s4 #ah4 ,/eel engrav+4 ,! process ( engrav+ on /eel plates diff]s b little 9 its details f t on copp] plates2 & ! *ief advantage d]iv$ f ?is me?od1 arises f ! h>dness or t\ghness ( ! mat]ial1 :i* r5d]s x capable ( yield+ a great] numb] ( impressions4 #ai4 ,?is mode ( engrav+ 0 fir/ practis$1 9 ,engl&1 by ! calico-pr9t]s2 b /eel 0 fir/ employ$ = bank-notes1 & = common designs1 by ,jacob ,p]k9s1 ( ,newburyport1 ,massa*usetts2 & by him1 9 conjunction ) ,asa ,sp5c]1 ( ,new-,london1 & ,gideon ,fairman1 ( ,philadelphia1 ! use ( /eel 9 ?is application 0 g5]ally introduc$1 n only 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 b also 9 ,great ,brita91 "s "t be=e ! ye> #ahbj4 #bj4 ,! plates are prep>$ = ! engrav] f %eets ( /eel ab\t "o-six? ( an in* 9 ?ickness4 ,a plate cut f a %eet ( ?is k9d is fir/ s(t5$ by heat+ x ) *>coal1 & suff]+ x to cool gradually 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,x is next plani%$1 or hamm]$ on a peculi> k9d ( anvil1 to make x p]fectly level1 & aft]w>ds gr\nd on "o side ^u a gr9d/one4 ,! op]ation is complet$ by poli%+ x ) ,scot* /one & *>coal4 ,:5 /eel 0 fir/ sub/itut$ = copp]1 x 0 h>d5$ be=e x 0 us$ 9 pr9t+2 b x is n[ us$ 9 its s(t /ate1 z x comes f ! h&s ( ! arti/4 ,illu/ration3 ,,copp]plate ,,pr9t]4 ,,! ,,copp]plate-,,pr9t]4 #a4 ,! copp]plate-pr9t] takes impressions on pap] f engrav$ plates by means ( a roll+ press4 ,?is ma*9e1 toge!r ) "s ( ! op]ations 9 its application1 are well exhibit$ 9 ! above picture4 #b4 ,! p]iod at :i* ! practice ( pr9t+ f engrav$ plates comm5c$1 _c be asc]ta9$ ) any degree ( c]ta9ty4 ,! ,dut*1 ! ,g]mans1 & ! ,italians1 cont5d = ! honor ( introduc+ x2 b ! weight ( te/imony seems to be 9 favor ( ! claims ( ! ,italian sculptor & goldsmi?1 ,tommaso ,f9igu]a1 :o fl\ri%$ at ,flor5ce1 ab\t ! middle ( ! fifte5? c5tury4 #c4 ,x is /at$ t ?is arti/1 accid5tally spill+ "s melt$ brim/one on an engrav$ plate1 f\nd1 on its removal1 an exact impression ( ! engrav+1 m>k$ ) black1 tak5 out ( ! /rokes4 ,?is sugge/$ to him ! idea ( tak+ an impression 9 ink on pap]1 by ! aid ( a roll]4 ,x is h>dly necess>y to /ate1 t ! exp]im5t succe$$4 ,copp]plate-pr9t+ 0 n us$ 9 ,engl& until ab\t #aej ye>s aft] its fir/ employm5t at ,flor5ce1 :5 x 0 introduc$ f ,antw]p1 by ,spe$4 #d4 ,! ink us$ 9 ?is k9d ( pr9t+ is made ( a c>bonace\s sub/ance1 call$ ,frank=t black1 & l9se$ or nut oil4 ,oil is us$1 in/ead ( wat]1 t ! ink may n dry dur+ ! process2 & x is boil$ till x has become ?ick & viscid1 t x may n spread on ! pap]4 ,! mat]ials are incorporat$ & prep>$ ) ! /one & mull]1 z pa9t]s prep>e _! colors4 #e4 ,9 tak+ impressions f an engrav$ plate1 x is fir/ plac$ on an iron frame ov] a heat$ /ove1 or ov] a *>coal fire 9 a furnace1 & :ile 9 ?is position1 ! ink is spread ov] x ) a roll] cov]$ ) co>se clo?1 or ) a ball ( rubb] made ( ! same mat]ial1 & fac$ ) bucksk94 ,! heat r5d]s ! ink s ?9 t x c p5etrate ! m9ute excavations ( ! engrav+4 ,! plate hav+ be5 ?us suffici5tly *>g$1 is wip$ fir/ ) a rag1 !n ) ! h&1 until ! ink has be5 remov$ f e portion ( x1 except f ! l9es ( ! engrav+4 #f4 ,! plate is next plac$ on ! plat=m ( ! press1 ) its face upw>ds1 & ! pap]1 :i* has be5 previ\sly damp5$1 is laid ^u x4 ,a turn ( ! cyl9d]s1 by means ( ! arms ( ! cross1 c>ries ! plate "u a /rong pressure1 by :i* portions ( ! pap] are =c$ into all ! cavities ( ! engrav+4 ,! ink1 or "p ( x1 leaves ! plate1 & adh]es to ! pap]1 giv+ an exact repres5tation ( ! :ole "w ( ! arti/4 ,! roll] by :i* ! pressure is appli$ is cov]$ ) sev]al ?icknesses ( broadclo?4 #g4 ,! numb] ( good impressions yield$ by engrav$ copp]plates1 dep5ds ^u v>i\s circum/ances1 b *iefly on ! f95ess & dep? ( ! "w2 & ^! qualities dep5d ma9ly ^u ! /yle 9 :i* x has be5 execut$4 ,l9e engrav+s w admit ( f\r or five ?\s&1 &1 aft] hav+ be5 ret\*$1 a consid]able numb] m4 #h4 ,plates ( /eel w yield ne> t5 times z _m good impressions z ^? ( copp]1 & ?is too )\t be+ h>d5$4 ,besides1 an engrav+ on /eel may be transf]r$ to a s(t5$ /eel cyl9d]1 9 su* a mann] t ! l9es may /& 9 relief2 & ?is cyl9d]1 aft] hav+ be5 h>d5$1 may be br\ght 9 =cible contact ) ano!r plate1 & ?us ! design may be multipli$ at pleasure4 #i4 ,! bank-note engrav]s h n[ a great v>iety ( designs & figures on /eel roll]s1 :i* !y c easily transf] to new plates4 ,?is practice1 z appli$ to plates = bank-notes1 orig9at$ ) ,jacob ,p]k9s4 ,x is suppos$ t he mu/ h be5 l$ to x by an ,engli% engrav] 9 8 employ1 :o may h expla9$ to him ! mann] 9 :i* ! ,briti% calico-pr9t]s produc$ engrav+s on copp] cyl9d]s4 ,?is is n altoge!r improbable1 s9ce ! pr9ciple 9 bo? cases is sub/antially ! same4 #aj4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ! increas$ dem& = maps & pictorial embelli%m5ts 9 books1 z well z = s+le pr9ts z ornam5ts = rooms1 engrav+ & copp]plate-pr9t+ h become employm5ts ( consid]able importance2 & ^! arts mu/ d\btless cont9ue to fl\ri% to an indef9ite ext5t1 9 a c\ntry :]e ! ta/e = ! f9e arts is rapidly improv+1 & :]e weal? af=ds ! means ( lib]al patronage4 ,illu/ration3 ,,li?ograph]4 ,,! ,,li?ograph]4 #a4 ,! ^w li?ography is d]iv$ f two ,greek words--li?os1 a /one1 & grapho1 to write2 & ! art to :i* ! t]m is appli$ has ref]5ce to ! execution ( lett]s1 figures1 & draw+s1 on /one1 & tak+ f !m fac-simile impressions4 ,! art is f\nd$ on ! prop]ty :i* /one possesses1 ( imbib+ fluids by capill>y attraction1 & on ! *emical repulsion :i* oil & wat] h = ea* o!r4 #b4 ,e k9d ( calc>e\s /one is capable ( be+ us$ = li?ography4 ,^?1 h[ev]1 :i* are ( a compact1 f9e1 & equal gra91 are be/ adapt$ to ! purpose4 ,! qu>ries ( ,sol5h(51 ne> ,papp5heim1 9 ,bav>ia1 furni%$ ! fir/ plates1 & none h yet be5 f\nd 9 any o!r place1 to equal !m 9 quality2 al?\gh "s t answ] ! purpose tol]ably well1 h be5 tak5 f qu>ries 9 ,france & ,engl&4 #c4 ,9 prep>+ ! /ones = use1 !y are fir/ gr\nd to a level surface1 by rubb+ two ( !m face to face1 s& & wat] be+ int]pos$4 ,!n1 if !y are design$ = ink draw+s1 !y are poli%$ ) pumice-/one2 b1 if = *alk draw+s1 ) f9e s&1 :i* produces a gra9$ surface adapt$ to hold+ ! *alk4 #d4 ,:5 /ones ( prop] size & texture _c be conv5i5tly obta9$1 slabs are sometimes con/ruct$ ( lime & s&1 & unit$ ) ! case\s "p ( milk4 ,! fir/ "p ( ! process :i* may be consid]$ z belong+ peculi>ly to ! art1 consi/s 9 mak+ ! draw+ on ! /one4 ,?is is done ei!r 9 ink1 ) /eel p5s & camel's hair p5cils1 or ) crayons made ( li?ographic *alk4 ,! process ( draw+ on /one diff]s b little f t on pap]1 ) simil> means4 #e4 ,= li?ographic ink1 a great numb] ( receipts h be5 giv52 b ! mo/ approv$ composition consi/s ( equal p>ts ( wax1 tall[1 %ell-lac1 & common soap1 ) a small proportion ( lamp-black4 ,li?ographic *alk is usually compos$ ( ! same mat]ials1 comb9$ 9 diff]5t proportions4 #f4 ,:5 ! draw+ has be5 f9i%$1 ! li?ographic pr9t] prep>es x = giv+ impressions1 by us+ ^u its surface a weak solution ( acid & o!r +r$i5ts1 :i* corrode ! surface ( ! /one1 except :]e x is def5d$ f its action by ! grease ( ! *alk or ink4 ,z soon z ! /one has be5 suffici5tly eat5 away1 ! solution is remov$ by ! application ( spirits ( turp5t9e & wat]4 #g4 ,! ink employ$ 9 ?is k9d ( pr9t+1 is simil> 9 its composition to o!r k9ds ( pr9t+ ink4 ,x is appli$ to ! draw+ by means ( a small wood5 cyl9d] cov]$ ) lea!r4 ,! pap]1 :i* has be5 suitably damp5$1 is laid ^u ! /one1 & aft] x has be5 cov]$1 by turn+ d[n ^u x a ?ick piece ( lea!r /ret*$ ^u an iron frame1 a crank is turn$ :i* br+s ! /one successively "u ! press4 #h4 ,an impression ( ! draw+ hav+ be5 ?us communicat$ to ! pap]1 ! %eet is remov$1 & ! process is repeat$1 until ! propos$ numb] ( pr9ts h be5 tak54 ,be=e ea* application ( ! ink1 ! :ole face ( ! /one is mod]ately wet ) wat] by means ( a sponge2 & al?\gh ! roll] passes ov] ! :ole surface ( ! /one1 yet ! ink adh]es to no "p ( x1 except to t :i* is cov]$ ) ! draw+4 #i4 ,! numb] ( impressions :i* may be tak5 f *alk draw+s1 v>ies accord+ to _! f95ess4 ,a f9e draw+ w give fifte5 hundr$2 a co>se "o1 twice t numb]4 ,ink draw+s & writ+s give consid]ably m ?an copp]plates1 ! f9e/ yield+ six or eight ?\s&1 & /rong l9es & writ+s _m m4 #aj4 ,impressions f engrav+s c be multipli$ indef9itely1 ) v little tr\ble1 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 ,a pr9t is tak5 9 ! usual way f ! engrav$ plate1 & imm$iately laid ) its face ^u wat]4 ,:5 suffici5tly wet1 x is c>efully appli$ to ! face ( a /one1 & press$ d[n ^u x by ! application ( a roll]1 until ! ink is transf]r$ to ! /one4 ,impressions are !n tak5 9 ! mann] be=e describ$4 #aa4 ,! inv5tion ( li?ography is ascrib$ to ,aloys ,s5ifeld]1 ! son ( a p]=m] at ! !atre ( ,muni*4 ,hav+ become an au?or1 & be+ too poor to publi% 8 works 9 ! usual way1 he tri$ _m plans1 ) copp]plates & compositions1 9 ord] to be 8 own pr9t]4 ,a trial on /one1 :i* _h be5 accid5tally sugge/$1 succe$$4 ,8 fir/ essays to pr9t = publication1 7 "s pieces ( music1 execut$ 9 #agif4 #ab4 ,! fir/ productions ( ! art 7 rude1 & ( little promise2 b1 s9ce #ahjf1 its progress has be5 s rapid1 t x n[ gives employm5t to a great numb] ( arti/s2 & works are produc$1 :i* rival ! f9e/ engrav+s1 & ev5 surpass !m 9 ! expression ( c]ta9 subjects4 ,! e>lie/ date ( ! art 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 is #ahbf1 :5 a press 0 e/abli%$ at ,bo/on1 by ,william ,p5dleton4 ,illu/ration3 ,! ,,au?or4 ,,! ,,au?or4 #a4 ,! ^w au?or1 9 a g5]al s5se1 is us$ to express ! orig9ator or effici5t cause ( a ?+2 b1 9 ! re/rict$ s5se 9 :i* x is appli$ 9 ?is article1 x signifies ! fir/ writ] ( a book1 or a writ] 9 g5]al4 ,! indisp5sable qualifications to make a writ] are--a tal5t = lit]>y composition1 an accurate k ( language1 & an acqua9tance ) ! subject to be treat$4 #b4 ,v few p]sons are educat$ ) ! view to _! becom+ au?ors4 ,!y g5]ally write on subjects p]ta9+ to ! pr(ession or bus9ess 9 :i* !y h be5 practically engag$3 a cl]gyman writes on div9ity2 a physician1 on m$ic9e2 a lawy]1 on jurisprud5ce2 a tea*]1 on education2 & a me*anic1 on 8 p>ticul> trade4 ,!re are subjects1 h[ev]1 :i* occupy common gr\nd1 on :i* individuals ( v>i\s pr(essions (t5 write4 #c4 ,au?or%ip is f\nd$ ^u ! inv5tion ( lett]s1 & ! art ( comb9+ !m into words4 ,9 ! e>lie/ ages ( ! _w1 ! increase ( k 0 oppos$ by _m =midable ob/acles4 ,tradition 0 ! fir/ means ( transmitt+ in=mation to po/]ity2 & ?is1 dep5d+ ^u ! memory & w ( individuals1 0 exce$+ly prec>i\s4 #d4 ,! *ief adv5titi\s aids 9 ! p]petuation ( ! memory ( facts by tradition1 7 ! erection ( monum5ts1 ! p]iodical celebration ( days or ye>s1 ! use ( poetry1 &1 f9ally1 symbolical draw+s & hi]oglyphical sket*es4 ,nev]!less1 hi/ory mu/ h rema9$ unc]ta9 & fabul\s1 & sci5ce 9 a /ate ( p]petual infancy1 _h x n be5 = ! inv5tion ( writt5 *>act]s4 #e4 ,! cr$it ( ! inv5tion ( lett]s 0 claim$ by ! ,egyptians1 ,pho5icians1 & ,jews1 z well z by "s o!r nations2 b z _! orig9 prec$$ all au!ntic hi/ory n inspir$1 & z ! book ( inspiration is sil5t 9 reg>d to x1 no satisfactory conclusion c be =m$ on ?is po9t4 ,"s antiqu>ians are ( op9ion1 t ! /ronge/ claims are pres5t$ by ! ,pho5icians4 #f4 ,! ,p5tateu* embraces ! e>lie/ specim5 ( phonetic or alphabetic writ+ n[ extant1 & ?is 0 writt5 ab\t #aejj ye>s be=e ,*ri/4 ,_m p]sons suppose t1 z ! ,deity himself inscrib$ ! t5 comm&m5ts on ! two tables ( /one1 he taught ,moses ! use ( lett]s2 &1 on ?is supposition1 is f\nd$ ! claim ( ! ,jewi% nation to ! honor ( ! fir/ human application ( !m4 #g4 ,if we may believe ,pl9y1 sixte5 *>act]s ( ! alphabet 7 introduc$ into ,greece by ,cadmus1 ! ,pho5ician1 9 ! days ( ,moses2 f\r m 7 add$ by ,palam$es dur+ ! ,trojan w>1 & f\r aft]w>ds1 by ,simonides4 ,alphabetical writ+ evid5tly sprung f successive improvem5ts 9 ! hi]oglyphical sy/em1 s9ce a great "p ( ! latt] has be5 lately discov]$ to be syllabic or alphabetic4 #h4 ,a consid]able numb] ( v anci5t alphabets /ill exi/ on ! monum5tal rema9s ( "s ( ! fir/ po/-diluvian cities1 & sev]al ( lat] date1 9 manuscripts :i* h desc5d$ to our times4 ,! lett]s employ$ 9 diff]5t languages h ev] be5 subject to great *anges 9 _! con=mation4 ,?is 0 especially ! case be=e ! introduction ( ! art ( pr9t+1 :i* has contribut$ greatly t[>ds p]man5cy 9 ?is respect4 #i4 ,! mode ( arrang+ ! lett]s 9 writ+ has1 also1 v>i$ consid]ably4 ,"s nations h writt5 9 p]p5dicul> l9es1 z ! ,*9ese & anci5t ,egyptians2 o!rs f "r to left1 z ! ,jews2 & o!rs1 aga91 alt]nately f left to "r1 z 0 ! me?od at "o p]iod among ! ,greeks4 ,! mode ( writ+ f left to "r n[ g5]ally practis$1 is pref]able to any o!r1 s9ce x leaves uncov]$ t portion ( ! page ^u :i* writ+ has be5 made4 #aj4 ,9 anci5t times1 lit]>y productions 7 consid]$ public prop]ty2 &1 consequ5tly1 z soon z a "w 0 publi%$1 transcrib]s assum$ ! "r to multiply copies at pleasure1 )\t mak+ ! au?ors ! lea/ remun]ation4 ,!y1 h[ev]1 7 sometimes rew>d$ ) great lib]ality1 by pr9ces or weal?y patrons4 ,?is lit]>y piracy cont9u$1 until a long "t aft] ! introduction ( ! art ( pr9t+4 #aa4 ,9 almo/ e k+dom ( ,europe1 & 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! exclusive "r ( au?ors to publi% _! own productions1 is n[ secur$ to !m by law1 at lea/ = a specifi$ numb] ( ye>s4 ,! fir/ legislative proce$+ on ?is subject 9 ,engl&1 took place 9 #affb1 :5 ! publication ( any book 0 prohibit$1 except ?r\gh ! p]mission ( ! "l-*amb]la94 ,! title ( ! book1 & ! "n ( ! proprietor1 71 also1 requir$ to be ent]$ 9 ! record ( ! ,/ation]s' ,company4 #ab4 ,?is & "s subsequ5t acts hav+ be5 repeal$ 9 #afia1 lit]>y prop]ty 0 left to ! protection ( ! common law1 by :i* ! am\nt ( damages :i* c\ld be prov$ to h actually occurr$ 9 case ( infr+em5t1 c\ld be recov]$1 & no m4 ,new applications 71 !re=e1 made to p>liam5t2 &1 9 #agji1 a /atute 0 pass$1 by :i* ! prop]ty ( copyright 0 gu>d$ = f\rte5 ye>s1 ) sev]e p5alties4 ,?is privilege 0 connect$ ) ! condition1 t a copy ( ! "w be deposit$ 9 n9e public libr>ies specifi$ 9 ! act4 #ac4 ,9 #aggd1 ! ,p>liam5t decid$ t1 at ! end ( f\rte5 ye>s1 ! copyright might be r5ew$1 9 case ! au?or 7 /ill liv+4 ,! law cont9u$ on ?is foot+ until #ahad1 :5 ! cont+5cy ) reg>d to ! la/ f\rte5 ye>s 0 remov$2 &1 if ! au?or /ill surviv$1 ! privilege ( publication 0 ext5d$ to ! close ( 8 life4 #ad4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! jurisdiction ( ?is subject is ve/$ by ! ,con/itution 9 ! ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t2 &1 9 #agij1 a law 0 pass$ by ,congress1 secur+ to ! au?ors ( books1 *>ts1 maps1 engrav+s1 c41 be+ citiz5s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates or resid5t !re91 privileges l ^? grant$ 9 ,engl&1 9 #aggd4 ,9 #ahca1 ! law 0 alt]$1 & aga9 made to con=m to t ( ,engl& 9 reg>d to ! p]iod ( ! privileges4 ,! ,engli% & ,am]ican laws diff] 9 no ess5tial provision4 ,until ! ye> #ahci1 =eign]s 7 p]mitt$ to hold copyrights 9 ,engl&4 #ae4 ,9 ,france1 ! fir/ /atute reg>d+ lit]>y prop]ty 0 pass$ 9 #agic1 :5 ! "r ( au?ors to _! works 0 secur$ to !m dur+ _! lives1 & to _! heirs = t5 ye>s aft] _! decease4 ,! decree ( #ahaj ext5d$ ! "r ( ! heirs to tw5ty ye>s4 ,9 ,russia1 ! p]iod ( copyright is ! same z 9 ,france1 & ! prop]ty is n liable = ! paym5t ( ! au?or's debts4 #af4 ,9 "s ( ! ,g]man /ates1 ! "r is giv5 = ! lifetime ( ! au?or2 9 o!rs1 x is made p]petual1 l any o!r prop]ty2 b !n ! "w may be pr9t$ ) impunity 9 any ( ! o!r /ates 9 :i* a "r has n be5 secur$4 ,9 ,g]many & ,italy1 especially1 au?ors are v poorly remun]at$2 & 9 ,spa91 ! book trade has be5 s mu* oppress$ by a m]ciless c5sor%ip1 t au?ors are compell$ to publi% _! works on _! own acc\nt4 #ag4 ,f ! prec$+ /atem5t x appe>s1 t few legislators h be5 will+ to place ! productions ( intellectual labor on ! same honorable foot+ ) o!r k9ds ( prop]ty4 ,no reason1 h[ev]1 c be assign$ = ! di/9ction1 except ! unju/ & piratical usage ( two or ?ree ?\s& ye>s4 #ah4 ,au?ors seldom publi% _! own works4 ,!y g5]ally f9d x exp$i5t1 &1 9 fact1 necess>y1 to intru/ ?is "p ( ! bus9ess to booksell]s & publi%]s1 f :om !y usually receive a specifi$ am\nt = ! entire copyright1 or a c]ta9 sum = ea* & e copy :i* may be sold dur+ ! t]m ( ye>s :i* may be agre$ ^u4 ,! comp5sation is commonly insuffici5t to pay !m = prep>+ ! works = ! press2 b !y are z well paid 9 ?is c\ntry z 9 any o!r4 ,9 ?is p>ticul>1 h[ev]1 !re has be5 a manife/ improvem5t )9 ! la/ t5 ye>s4 ,illu/ration ,,! ,,pr9t]4 #a4 ,f :at has be5 said 9 a prec$+ article1 x is manife/ t ! art ( pr9t+ arose f ! practice ( engrav+ on wood4 ,lett]s 7 cut on wood z inscriptions to pictures1 & 7 pr9t$ at ! same "t ) !m1 by means ( a h&-roll]4 ,! impressions 7 tak5 on "o side ( ! pap]2 &1 9 ord] to hide ! nak$ness ( ! blank side1 two leaves 7 pa/$ toge!r4 ,^! leaves 7 put up 9 pamphlet =m1 & are n[ kn[n "u ! d5om9ation ( block-books1 because !y 7 pr9t$ f wood5 blocks4 #b4 ,al?\gh ! art ( typographical pr9t+ c be cle>ly trac$ to wood engrav+1 yet s mu* unc]ta9ty re/s ^u its hi/ory1 t ! honor ( its inv5tion is claim$ by ?ree cities--,h>lem1 9 ,holl&1 & ,/rasburg & ,m5tz1 9 ,g]many2 &1 at ! pres5t "t1 x is difficult to det]m9e satisfactorily ! m]its ( _! respective claims4 ,! obscurity on ?is po9t has aris5 f ! desire ( ! fir/ pr9t]s to conceal ! process ( ! art1 t _! productions might pass = manuscripts1 & t !y might enjoy ! full b5efit ( _! inv5tion4 #c4 ,! advocates ( ! claims ( ,h>lem /ate1 t ,laur5tius ,co/] appli$ wood5 types1 & "s say1 ev5 metal types1 z e>ly z #adbh1 & t sev]al p]sons 7 employ$ by him 9 ! bus9ess up to ! ye> #addj1 :5 8 mat]ials 7 /ol5 f him by "o ( 8 workm5 or s]vants1 nam$ ,john1 :ile ! family 7 engag$ 9 celebrat+ ! fe/ival ( ,*ri/mas eve4 ,! ?ief is said to h fl$ fir/ to ,am/]dam1 !n to ,cologne1 &1 f9ally1 to h settl$ 9 ,m5tz1 :]e1 )9 a twelvemon?1 he publi%$ two small works1 by means ( ! types :i* ,laur5tius ,co/] _h us$4 #d4 ,^! claims 9 favor ( ,h>lem1 h[ev]1 7 n set =? until #abj ye>s aft] ! dea? ( ,co/]2 & ! :ole /ory1 z !n /at$ by ,hadriamus ,junius1 0 f\nd$ altoge!r ^u tradition>y te/imony4 ,p]haps wood engrav+s1 ) inscriptions1 may h be5 execut$ !re2 if s1 ! acc\nt may h orig9at$ f t circum/ance4 #e4 ,! /atem5ts :i* seem to be ! mo/ wor?y ( cr$it1 be/[ ! honor ( ?is inv5tion on a citiz5 ( ,m5tz4 ,"h1 x appe>s1 t ,john ,ge9sfleis*1 or ,guttemburg s5ior1 publi%$ two small works = s*ools1 9 #addb1 on wood5 types2 b1 n hav+ ! funds necess>y to c>ry on ! bus9ess1 he appli$ to ,john ,fau/1 a ri* goldsmi?1 :o became a p>tn]1 9 #addc1 & advanc$ ! requisite means4 ,soon aft]w>ds1 ,j4 ,meid5ba*ius & "s o!rs 7 admitt$ z p>tn]s4 #f4 ,9 ! foll[+ ye>1 ,john ,guttemburg1 ! bro!r ( ,ge9sfleis*1 made an addition to ! firm4 ,= sev]al ye>s be=e ?is union1 or f #adcf1 ,guttemburg _h be5 attempt+ to complete ! inv5tion at ,/rasburg2 b x is said t he _h nev] be5 able to produce a clean pr9t$ %eet4 ,! bro!rs may1 or may n1 h pursu$ _! exp]im5ts )\t receiv+ any h9ts f ea* o!r1 be=e _! union at ,m5tz4 #g4 ,soon aft] ! =mation ( ?is p>tn]%ip1 ! two bro!rs comm5c$ cutt+ metal types1 = ! purpose ( pr9t+ an edition ( ! ,bible1 :i* 0 publi%$ 9 ,lat91 ab\t ! ye> #adej4 ,be=e ?is great a*ievem5t ( ! art _h be5 effect$1 ,ge9sfleis* appe>s to h retir$ f ! conc]n1 "s say1 on acc\nt ( bl9dness4 #h4 ,! p>tn]%ip be=e m5tion$1 0 dissolv$1 9 #adej1 & ,fau/ & ,guttemburg ent]$ into a new arrangem5t1 ! =m] supply+ money1 ! latt]1 p]sonal s]vices1 = _! mutual b5efit2 b v>i\s difficulties hav+ aris51 ?is p>tn]%ip 0 also dissolv$1 9 #adee1 aft] a lawsuit betwe5 !m1 :i* 0 decid$ aga9/ ,guttemburg4 #i4 ,fau/1 hav+ obta9$ possession ( ! pr9t+ mat]ials1 ent]$ into p>tn]%ip ) ,pet] ,%oeff]1 :o _h be5 = a long "t a s]vant1 or workman1 9 ! pr9t+ e/abli%m5t4 ,9 #adeg1 !y publi%$ an edition ( ! ,psalt]1 :i* 0 !n consid]$ uncommonly elegant4 ,?is book 01 9 a great measure1 ! "w ( ,guttemburg1 s9ce1 dur+ ! f\r ye>s 9 :i* x 0 9 ! press1 he 01 = two ye>s & a half1 ! *ief op]ator 9 ! pr9t+-(fice4 #aj4 ,guttemburg1 by ! pecuni>y aid ( ,conrad ,hum]y & o!rs1 e/abli%$ ano!r press 9 ,m5tz1 &1 9 #adfj1 publi%$ ! ,ca?olicon ,joannis ,janu5sis4 ,x 0 a v h&some "w1 b n equal 9 beauty to ! ,psalt] ( ,fau/ & ,%oeff]4 ,! latt] 0 ! fir/ pr9t$ book kn[n to h a g5u9e date4 ,f ?is "t1 x has be5 ! practice = pr9t]s to claim _! own productions1 by prefix+ to !m _! names4 #aa4 ,not)/&+ ! great advancem5t :i* _h be5 made 9 ! art ( pr9t+1 ! inv5tion _c1 by any means1 be consid]$ complete1 until ab\t ! ye> #adeh1 :5 ,pet] ,%oeff] contriv$ a me?od ( ca/+ types 9 a matrix1 or m\ld4 ,! fir/ book execut$ ) ca/ metal types 0 call$ ,dur&i ,ralionale ,div9orum ,(ficiorum1 publi%$ 9 #adei4 ,only ! small] lett]s1 h[ev]1 7 ( ?is description1 all ! l>g] *>act]s :i* occur1 be+ cut types4 ,^! cont9u$ to be us$1 m or less1 z late z ! ye> #adij4 #ab4 ,9 #adfb1 ,fau/ c>ri$ to ,p>is a numb] ( ,lat9 ,bibles1 :i* he & ,%oeff] _h pr9t$1 & dispos$ ( _m ( !m z manuscripts4 ,at fir/1 he sold !m at five or six hundr$ cr[ns1 ! sums usually obta9$ by ! scribes4 ,he aft]w>ds l[]$ ! price to sixty4 ,?is creat$ univ]sal a/oni%m5t2 b1 :5 he produc$ !m accord+ to ! dem&1 & :5 he _h r$uc$ ! price to ?irty1 all ,p>is became agitat$4 #ac4 ,! uni=mity ( ! copies increas$ ! wond] ( ! ,p>isians1 & in=mation 0 f9ally giv5 aga9/ him to ! police z a magician4 ,he 0 accord+ly arre/$1 & a great numb] ( 8 ,bibles 7 seiz$4 ,! r$ ink ) :i* !y 7 embelli%$1 0 suppos$ to be 8 blood4 ,x 0 s]i\sly adjudg$1 t ! prison] 0 jo9$ 9 league ) ! devil2 & _h he n disclos$ ! secret ( 8 art1 he w\ld probably h %>$ ! fate ( ^? :om ! magi/rates ( ^? sup]/iti\s times condemn$ = wit*craft4 #ad4 ,x may be well to in=m ! read]1 t1 al?\gh ! /ory ( ,fau/'s arre/1 z above detail$1 is relat$ z a fact by sev]al au?ors1 yet by o!rs x is ?\ght to be unwor?y ( cr$it4 ,x is also g5]ally suppos$1 t ! celebrat$ romance ( ,doctor ,fau/us & ! devil orig9at$ 9 ! malice ( ! monks t[>ds ,fau/1 ^: employm5t ( pr9t+ depriv$ !m ( _! ga9 z copi]s4 ,x seems m probable1 h[ev]1 t x arose f ! a/oni%+ p]=mances ( ,doctor ,john ,fau/1 a deal] 9 ! black art1 :o liv$ 9 ,g]many 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! sixte5? c5tury4 #ae4 ,fau/ & ,%oeff] cont9u$ _! pr9t+ op]ations toge!r1 at lea/1 until #adhf1 ab\t :i* "t x is conjectur$1 t ! =m] di$ ( ! plague1 at ,p>is4 ,ge9sfleis*1 or1 z he is sometimes call$1 ,guttemburg s5ior1 di$ 9 #adfb2 & 8 bro!r ,guttemburg junior1 9 #adfh1 aft] hav+ enjoy$1 = ?ree ye>s1 ! privileges ( nobility1 :i*1 toge!r ) a p5sion1 _h be5 conf]r$ ^u him by ,ar*bi%op ,adolphus1 9 consid]ation ( 8 great s]vices to mank9d4 #af4 ,m copies ( ! e>lie/ pr9t$ books 7 impress$ on vellum ?an on pap]2 b v soon pap] 0 us$ = a pr9cipal "p ( ! edition1 :ile a few only 7 pr9t$ on vellum1 z curiosities1 to be ornam5t$ by ! illum9ators1 ^: +5i\s art1 ?\gh 9 vogue be=e & at t "t1 did n long survive ! rapid improvem5ts 9 pr9t+4 #ag4 ,we are in=m$1 t ! ,m5tz pr9t]s obs]v$ ! utmo/ secrecy 9 _! op]ations2 &1 t ! art might n be divulg$ by ! p]sons :om !y employ$1 !y adm9i/]$ to !m an oa? ( fidelity4 ,?is appe>s to h be5 /rictly adh]$ to1 until ! ye> #adfb1 :5 ! city 0 tak5 & plund]$ by ,ar*bi%op ,adolphus4 ,amid ! con/]nation :i* _h aris5 f ?is ev5t1 ! workm5 spread !mselves 9 diff]5t directions2 &1 consid]+ _! oa? no long] obligatory1 !y soon divulg$ ! secret1 :i* 0 rapidly diffus$ ?r\gh\t ,europe4 #ah4 ,"s idea may be =m$ ( ! cel]ity ) :i* a k ( pr9t+ 0 ext5d$1 f ! fact t ! art 0 receiv$ 9 two hundr$ & ?ree places1 prior to ! ye> #aejj4 ,x 0 br\ght to ,engl&1 9 #adga1 by ,william ,caxton1 a m]c] ( ! city ( ,london1 :o _h sp5t _m ye>s 9 ,g]many & ,holl&4 ,! place ( ! fir/ location ( 8 press 0 ,we/m9/] ,abbey4 ,! fir/ press 9 ,nor? ,am]ica 0 e/abli%$ at ,cambridge1 ,massa*usetts1 9 #afci4 #ai4 ,pr9t$ newspap]s _h _! orig9 9 ,g]many4 ,!y fir/ appe>$ 9 ,augsburg & ,vi5na1 9 #aebd4 ,!y 7 orig9ally )\t date or place ( impression2 nor 7 !y publi%$ at regul> p]iods4 ,! fir/ ,g]man pap] ) numb]$ %eets 0 pr9t$1 9 #afab2 &1 f ?is "t1 mu/ be dat$ p]iodical publications 9 t "p ( ,europe4 #bj4 ,9 ,engl&1 ! fir/ newspap] appe>$ dur+ ! reign ( ,elizabe?4 ,x orig9at$ 9 a desire to communicate in=mation 9 reg>d to ! expect$ invasion by ! ,spani% armada1 & 0 entitl$ ! ,engli% ,m]cury1 :i*1 by au?ority1 0 pr9t$ at ,london by ,*ri/oph] ,b>k]1 h] highness's pr9t]1 9 #aehh4 #ba4 ,^!1 h[ev]1 7 extraord9>y gazettes1 n regul>ly publi%$4 ,p]iodicals seem to h be5 fir/ ext5sively us$ by ! ,engli%1 dur+ ! civil w>s 9 ! "t ( ! ,commonweal?4 ,! numb] ( newspap]s 9 ,great ,brita9 & ,irel& am\nt$1 9 #ahbi1 to #cbe1 & ! sums paid to ! gov]nm5t = /amps & duties on adv]tisem5ts1 am\nt$ to ab\t #fgh1jjj /]l+4 #bb4 ,no newspap] appe>$ 9 ! ,briti% colonies ( ,am]ica until #agjd1 :5 ! ,news ,lett] 0 issu$ at ,bo/on4 ,! fir/ pap] publi%$ 9 ,philadelphia1 0 issu$ 9 #agai2 ! fir/ 9 ,new-,york1 9 #agcc4 ,9 #agge1 !re 7 #cg2 & 9 #ahja1 !re 71 9 ! :ole ,unit$ ,/ates1 #bjc2 9 #ahaj1 #ceh2 at ! pres5t "t1 !re are ab\t #aejj1 & ! numb] is annually increas+4 #bc4 ,! fir/ p]iodical pap] ( ,france orig9at$ ) ,r5audot1 a physician 9 ,p>is1 :o1 = a long "t1 _h be5 9 ! habit ( collect+ news1 :i* he communicat$ v]bally to 8 pati5ts1 ) ! view to _! amusem5t4 ,b1 9 #afca1 he comm5c$ ! publication ( a weekly %eet1 call$ ! ,gazette de ,france1 :i* 0 cont9u$ ) v little int]ruption1 until #ahbg4 ,!re are n[1 probably1 9 ,france1 ab\t #djj p]iodical publications mo/ ( :i* h be5 e/abli%$ s9ce ! comm5cem5t ( ! revolution ( #agib4 #bd4 ,p]iodicals devot$ to diff]5t objects h be5 e/abli%$ 9 e o!r k+dom ( ,europe2 b1 9 _m cases1 !y are trammell$ by a /rict c5sor%ip ( ! respective gov]nm5ts4 ,?is is especially ! case ) ^? devot$ to politics or religion4 ,b all ,europe1 ) its #bjj1jjj1jjj ( inhabitants1 does n support z _m regul> publications z ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ) its #ag1jjj1jjj4 #be4 ,! workm5 employ$ 9 a pr9t+-(fice are ( two k9ds3 compositors1 :o arrange ! types accord+ to ! copy deliv]$ to !m2 & pressm51 :o apply ink on ! types1 & take (f impressions4 ,9 _m cases1 & especially :]e ! bus9ess is c>ri$ on ^u a small scale1 ! workm5 (t5 practise bo? bran*es4 #bf4 ,be=e ! types are appli$ to use1 !y are plac$ 9 ! cells or comp>tm5ts ( a wood5 receptacle call$ a case1 ea* species ( lett]1 "* & space1 by itself4 ,! lett]s :i* are requir$ mo/ frequ5tly1 are lodg$ 9 ! l>ge/ comp>tm5ts1 :i* are locat$ ne>e/ to ! place :]e ! compositor /&s1 :ile arrang+ ! types4 #bg4 ,! compositor is furni%$ ) a compos+-/ick1 :i* is commonly an iron in/rum5t1 surr\nd$ on ?ree sides ) l$ges ab\t half an in* 9 height1 "o ( :i* is moveable1 s t x may be adju/$ to any l5g? ( l9e4 ,! compositor1 9 ! p]=mance ( 8 "w1 selects ! lett]s f _! sev]al comp>tm5ts1 & arranges !m 9 an inv]t$ ord] f t 9 :i* !y are to appe> 9 ! pr9t$ page4 #bh4 ,at ! end ( ea* ^w is plac$ a quadrat1 to produce a space betwe5 t & ! "o :i* foll[s4 ,! quadrats are ( v>i\s wid?s1 & be+ consid]ably %ort] ?an types1 !y yield no impression 9 pr9t+4 ,a ?9 brass rule is plac$ 9 ! /ick1 on :i* ea* successive l9e ( types is arrang$4 ,:5 ! compos+-/ick has be5 fill$1 x is empti$ into ! galley1 :i* is a flat bo>d1 p>tly surr\nd$ ) a rim4 #bi4 ,on ?is galley1 ! l9es are accumulat$ 9 long columns1 :i* are aft]w>ds divid$ into pages1 & ti$ toge!r ) a /r+1 to prev5t ! types f fall+ asund]1 or into pi1 z ! pr9t]s t]m x4 ,a suffici5t numb] ( pages hav+ be5 complet$ to con/itute a =m1 or1 9 o!r words1 to fill "o side ( a %eet ( pr9t+-pap]1 !y are arrang$ on an impos+-/one1 & /rongly lock$ up1 or w$g$ toge!r1 9 an iron *ase4 #cj4 ,! fir/ impression tak5 f ! types is call$ ! pro(4 ,?is is c>efully read ov] by ! au?or or pro(-read]1 or bo?1 & ! errors & corrections pla9ly m>k$ 9 ! m>g94 ,^! corrections hav+ be5 made by ! compositor1 ! =m is aga9 lock$ up1 & deliv]$ to ! pressman4 #ca4 ,! pressman hav+ damp5$ 8 pap] ) wat]1 & put e "p ( 8 press 9 ord]1 takes impressions 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 he places ! %eet ^u ! tympan1 & conf9es x !re by turn+ d[n ^u x ! frisket2 he !n br+s !m bo?1 toge!r ) ! pap]1 ^u ! =m1 :i* has be5 previ\sly ink$4 ,he next turns a crank ) 8 left h&1 & !reby places ! =m directly "u ! plat51 :i* is imm$iately br\ght1 9 a p]p5dicul> direction1 ^u ! types1 by means ( a lev] pull$ ) 8 "r h&4 #cb4 ,aft] ! impression has be5 ?us communicat$1 ! =m is return$ to its =m] position1 & ! pr9t$ %eet is remov$4 ,! op]ation j describ$1 is repeat$ = ea* side ( e %eet ( ! edition4 ,9 ! cut at ! head ( ?is article1 ! pressman is repres5t$ z 9 ! act ( turn+ d[n ! frisket ^u ! tympan4 ,! bus9ess ( ! boy beh9d ! press is to apply ! ink to ! types by means ( ! roll]s be=e him4 ,9 (fices :]e mu* pr9t+ is execut$1 ! roll]-boy is n[ disp5s$ )1 simple ma*9]y1 atta*$ to ! crank ( ! press1 call$ a pat5t roll]-boy1 be+ sub/itut$ 9 8 place4 #cc4 ,)9 ! pres5t c5tury1 great improvem5ts h be5 made 9 ! pr9t+ bus9ess g5]ally1 especially 9 ! presses1 & 9 ! means ( apply+ ! ink4 ,9 ! old ,ramage press1 ! p[] 0 d]iv$ f a screw :i* 0 mov$ by a lev]2 b1 9 ^? by sev]al late inv5tors1 f an accumulation ( lev]s4 #cd4 ,9 #ahad1 pr9t+ by ma*9]y 0 comm5c$ 9 ,london1 & roll]s became necess>y = ink+ ! =ms4 ,^! 7 made ( molasses1 glue1 & t>1 9 proportions to suit ! temp]ature ( ! wea!r4 ,f ^! orig9at$ composition balls 9 ! foll[+ ye>1 & 9 #ahai1 h& roll]s4 ,=m]ly ! ink 0 appli$ by means ( pelt balls /uff$ ) wool4 #ce4 ,! p[]-press fir/ us$ 9 ?is c\ntry1 0 inv5t$1 9 #ahbc1 by ,mr4 ,treadwell1 a sci5tific me*anic1 ( ,bo/on1 :o 0 orig9ally a wat*-mak] by trade4 ,x acts on ! same pr9ciple ) ! h& press1 & is equal to ?ree ( ^! ( ! be/ con/ruction4 ,daniel ,fan%aw1 :o fir/ appli$ /eam to pr9t+ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 introduc$ sev]al ( ^! presses into ,new-,york1 9 #ahbf4 ,messrs4 ,adams & ,tufts1 ( ,bo/on1 h ea* inv5t$ a p[]-press :i* act on ! same pr9ciple ) ,mr4 ,treadwell's4 #cf4 ,! presses notic$ 9 ! prec$+ p>agraph1 are us$ *iefly 9 pr9t+ books & p]iodicals requir+ mod]ate spe$ 9 _! production4 ,b !y d n answ] ! purposes ( ! daily press 9 l>ge cities1 :]e f tw5ty ?\s& to sixty ?\s& impressions ( a s+le pap] are requir$ e day4 ,to supply ?is imm5se dem& ( ! public 0 ! orig9al aim ( ! inv5tors ( p[]-presses 9 ,engl&4 ,! fir/ attempt to con/ruct a pr9t+ ma*9e 0 made1 9 #agij1 by ,william ,ni*olson1 ( ,london2 b 8 ma*9e 0 nev] br\ght into use4 ,! next attempt 0 made by ,mr4 ,konig1 an +5i\s ,g]man1 :o b p>tially succe$$4 ,! fir/ really useful ma*9e 0 con/ruct$ by ,messrs4 ,applegate & ,c[p]4 #cg4 ,! ma*9es us$ 9 ?is c\ntry are modifications ( t orig9ally inv5t$ by ,mr4 ,napi]1 ( ,engl&4 ,! pap] is br\ght 9 contact ) ! =m ( types by means ( a cyl9d]1 :ile ! =m is pass+ und]nea? x4 ,! press is con/ruct$ ) "o or two cyl9d]s4 ,a d\ble cyl9d] press w give f #djjj to #fjjj impressions an h\r4 ,! improvem5ts on ?is press 7 made by ,rob]t ,hoe ,co41 :o h p]mitt$ ,mr4 ,napi] to introduce !m into 8 press 9 ,engl&4 ,illu/ration ,,! ,,type-,,f\nd]4 #a4 ,! types ca/ by ! type-f\nd] are oblong squ>e pieces ( metal1 ea* hav+1 on "o end ( x1 a lett] or "*1 9 relief4 ,! metal ( :i* ^! important in/rum5ts are compos$1 is commonly an alloy consi/+ pr9cipally ( lead & antimony1 9 ! proportion ( ab\t five p>ts ( ! =m] to "o ( ! latt]4 ,?is alloy melts at a l[ temp]ature1 & receives & reta9s ) accuracy ! %ape ( ! m\ld4 ,sev]al hundr$ p\nds ( type-metal are prep>$ at a "t1 & ca/ into b>s fill$ ) not*es1 t !y may be easily brok5 into pieces1 :5 ab\t to be appli$ to use4 #b4 ,9 mak+ types1 ! lett] or "* is fir/ =m$1 by means ( grav]s & o!r tools1 on ! end ( a /eel pun*4 ,) ?is in/rum5t1 a matrix is =m$1 by driv+ x into a piece ( copp] ( suitable size4 ,a pun* & matrix are requir$ = e "* us$ 9 pr9t+4 ,a metallic m\ld = ! body ( ! type is also made2 &1 t ! workman may h&le x )\t burn+ 8 h&s1 x is surr\nd$ ) a portion ( wood4 ,! m\ld is compos$ ( two p>ts1 :i* c be clos$ & sep>at$ ) ! greate/ facility4 #c4 ,! type-metal is prep>$ = imm$iate use by melt+ x1 z fa/ z x may be ne$$1 9 a small crucible1 ov] a coal fire4 ,! ca/] hav+ plac$ ! matrix 9 ! bottom ( ! m\ld1 comm5ces ! op]ation ( ca/+ by p\r+ ! metal into ! m\ld ) a small ladle4 ,?is he p]=ms ) 8 "r h&1 :ile ) ! o!r he ?r[s up ! m\ld ) a sudd5 j]k2 !n1 ) bo? h&s he op5s x1 & ?r[s out ! type4 ,all ^! movem5ts are p]=m$ ) su* rapidity1 t an exp]t h& c ca/ ab\t fifty types ( a common size 9 a m9ute4 ,"s ma*9es h be5 lately introduc$1 :i* op]ate ) /ill great] rapidity4 #d4 ,ea* type1 :5 ?r[n f ! m\ld1 has atta*$ to x a sup]flu\s portion ( metal1 call$ a jet1 :i* is aft]w>ds brok5 (f by h&4 ,! jets are aga9 ca/ into ! pot1 or crucible1 & ! types are c>ri$ to ano!r room1 :]e ! two broad sides are rubb$ on a gr9d/one4 ,!y are next arrang$ on flat /icks ab\t ?ree feet long1 & deliv]$ to ! dress]1 :o scrapes ! two sides n be=e made smoo? on ! gr9d/one1 cuts a groove on ! end opposite ! lett]1 & rejects f ! r[ ! types :i* may be defective4 #e4 ,! :ole process is complet$ by sett+ up ! types 9 a pr9t]'s compos+-/ick1 & ty+ !m up ) pack?read4 ,mu* ( ! "w 9 ! type-f\ndry is p]=m$ by boys & females4 ,9 ! prec$+ cut are repres5t$ a man ca/+ types at a furnace1 & a boy break+ (f ! jets2 also two females rubb+ types on a l>ge gr9d/one4 ,! fumes aris+ f melt$ lead 9 ! ca/+-room are consid]$ delet]i\s to heal?4 #f4 ,v>i\s sizes ( ! same k9d ( lett] are ext5sively us$1 ( :i* ! foll[+ are mo/ employ$ 9 pr9t+ books--,pica1 ,small ,pica1 ,long ,prim]1 ,b\rgeois1 ,brevi]1 ,m9ion1 ,nonp>eil1 ,pe>l1 & ,diamond4 ,a full assortm5t ( any p>ticul> size is call$ a f\nt1 :i* may consi/ ( any am\nt1 f five p\nds to five hundr$1 or m4 ,! ma/] type-f\nd] usually supplies ! pr9t] ) all ! mat]ials ( 8 art1 embrac+ n only types1 leads1 brass rules1 & ord9>y ornam5ts1 b also cases1 compos+-/icks1 galleys1 pr9t+-presses1 & o!r articles too num]\s to be m5tion$4 #g4 ,! inv5tor ( ! art ( ca/+ types 0 ,pet] ,%oeff]1 fir/ s]vant or workman employ$ by ,guttemburg & ,fau/4 ,he privately cut a matrix = ea* lett] ( ! alphabet1 & ca/ a quantity ( ! types4 ,hav+ %[n ! products ( 8 +5uity to ,fau/1 ! latt] 0 s mu* delight$ ) ! contrivance1 t he made him a p>tn] 9 ! pr9t+ bus9ess1 & gave him 8 only daught]1 ,*ri/9a1 9 m>riage4 #h4 ,! "* fir/ employ$ 0 a rude old ,go?ic1 mix$ ) secret>y1 design$ on purpose to imitate ! h&-writ+ ( ^? times1 & ! fir/ us$ 9 ,engl& 7 ( ?is k9d4 ,to ^! succe$$ :at is t]m$ old ,engli%1 or black lett]1 :i* is /ill occasionally appli$ to "s purposes2 b ,roman lett] is n[ ! national "* n only ( ,engl&1 b ( ,france1 ,spa91 ,portugal1 & ,italy4 ,9 ,g]many1 & 9 ! /ates surr\nd+ ! ,baltic1 lett]s are us$ :i* owe _! f\ndation to ! ,go?ic1 al?\gh works are occasionally pr9t$ = ! le>n$ 9 ,roman4 #i4 ,! ,roman lett] owes its orig9 to ! nation :5ce x d]ives its "n1 al?\gh ! faces ( ! pres5t & anci5t ,roman lett]s diff] mat]ially1 on acc\nt ( ! improvem5ts :i* !y h und]gone at v>i\s times4 ,= ! inv5tion ( ! ,italic "*1 we are indebt$ to ,aldus ,manutius1 :o set up a pr9t+-(fice 9 ,v5ice1 9 #adif1 :]e he also introduc$ ,roman types ( a neat] cut4 #aj4 ,be=e ! ,am]ican revolution1 type-f\nd+ 0 c>ri$ on at ,g]mant[n1 ,p5nsylvania1 by ,*ri/oph] ,s[]1 at ,bo/on by ,mr4 ,mi*elson1 & 9 ,connecticut by ,mr4 ,buel2 b !re 0 too little dem& = types1 to af=d ^! ent]pris+ individuals mu* patronage4 ,soon aft] ! close ( ! revolution1 ,john ,ba9e e/abli%$ a f\nd]y 9 ,philadelphia4 ,! pr9t]s1 h[ev]1 7 n suppli$ ) e necess>y mat]ial & implem5t ( ! art f ,am]ican f\nd]ies1 until #agif1 :5 ,messrs4 ,b9ny ,ronaldson comm5c$ ! bus9ess 9 ! same city4 ,ba9e & ,ronaldson 7 bo? f ,ed9burgh1 ,scotl&4 ,! fir/ type-f\nd]y 0 e/abli%$ 9 ,new-,york1 9 #ahji1 by ,rob]t ,lo?ian1 a ,scot* cl]gyman1 & fa!r ( ! +5i\s type-f\nd]1 ,george ,b4 ,lo?ian4 #aa4 ,9 ! ye> #ahbg1 ,william ,m4 ,johnson1 ( ,new-,york1 inv5t$ ! ma*9e = ca/+ types n[ us$ by ,john ,t4 ,:ite1 & 9 #ahch1 ,david ,bruce1 ,junr41 produc$ ano!r1 :i* 0 pur*as$ by ,george ,bruce4 ,george ,b4 ,lo?ian has also lately inv5t$ a ma*9e = ! same purpose1 & likewise "o = r$uc+ types to an equal ?ickness4 ,bo? ( ^! ma*9es act ) great accuracy4 ,!re are n[ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates sixte5 type-f\nd]ies2 viz41 two 9 ,bo/on1 six 9 ,new-,york1 ?ree 9 ,philadelphia1 "o 9 ,baltimore1 "o 9 ,pittsburg1 "o 9 ,c9c9nati1 "o 9 ,l\isville1 & "o 9 ,/4 ,l\is4 ,illu/ration3 ,,/]eotyp]4 ,,! ,,/]eotyp]4 #a4 ,! ^w /]eotype is d]iv$ f two ,greek words--/]eos1 solid1 & tupos1 a type4 ,x is appli$ to pages ( types 9 a s+le piece1 :i* h be5 ca/ 9 m\lds =m$ on common pr9t+ types or wood-cuts4 ,!y are compos$ ( lead & antimony1 9 ! proportion ( ab\t six p>ts ( ! =m] to "o ( ! latt]4 ,sometimes a little t9 is add$4 #b4 ,! types are set up by compositors1 z usual 9 pr9t+1 & impos$1 or lock$ up1 "o or sev]al pages toge!r1 9 an iron *ase ( a suitable size4 ,hav+ be5 s5t to ! ca/+-room1 ! types are slightly oil$1 & surr\nd$ ) a frame ( brass or type-metal4 ,!y are !n cov]$ ) a ?9 mixture ( f9ely pulv]iz$ pla/] & wat]4 ,9 ab\t t5 m9utes1 ! pla/] becomes h>d en\gh to be remov$4 #c4 ,! m\ld1 ?us =m$1 hav+ be5 bak$ 9 an ov51 is plac$ 9 an iron pan ( an oblong %ape1 & sunk into a kettle ( ! melt$ composition above m5tion$1 :i* is admitt$ at ! f\r corn]s ( ! cov] to ! cavities ( ! m\ld b5ea?4 ,! pan is !n rais$ f ! kettle1 & plac$ ov] wat]4 ,:5 ! metal has become cool1 ! cont5ts ( ! pan are remov$1 & ! pla/] is brok5 & wa%$ f ! plate4 #d4 ,z fa/ z ! pages are ca/1 !y are s5t to ! f9i%+-room4 ,"h !y are fir/ plan$ on ! back ) a ma*9e1 = ! purpose ( mak+ !m level & ( an equal ?ickness4 ,! lett]s are !n exam9$1 &1 :5 defici5t1 are r5d]$ p]fect by little /eel in/rum5ts call$ picks4 ,corrections & alt]ations are made by cutt+ out orig9al l9es1 & ins]t+ common pr9t+ types1 or l9es /]eotyp$ = ! purpose4 ,! types are cut (f close to ! back ) p9c]s1 & fa/5$ to ! place ) sold]4 ,! plates1 :5 !y are f9i%$1 are ab\t "o-six? ( an in* 9 ?ickness4 #e4 ,:5 all ! pages ( a "w h be5 complet$1 !y are pack$ 9 boxes1 :i* are m>k$ ) c]ta9 lett]s ( ! alphabet1 to indicate ! =m or pages :i* !y conta94 ,:ile ! pages are appli$ 9 pr9t+1 !y are fa/5$ to blocks ( solid wood1 :i*1 ) ! plates1 are int5d$ to be ! same 9 height ) common types4 #f4 ,! fir/ /]eotype plates 7 ca/ by ,j4 ,van d] ,mey1 a ,dut*man1 :o resid$ at ,leyd5 ab\t ! ye> #agjj4 ,a qu>to & folio ,bible1 & two or ?ree small works1 7 pr9t$ f pages ( 8 ca/+2 b at 8 dea?1 ! art appe>s to h be5 lo/1 al?\gh ! plates ( ^! two ,bibles are /ill extant1 ! =m] at ,leyd51 & ! latt] at ,am/]dam4 #g4 ,9 #agbe1 ,william ,g$1 ( ,ed9burgh1 )\t kn[+ :at _h be5 done 9 ,holl& by ,van d] ,mey1 began to make /]eotype plates4 ,b be+ unable to prosecute ! bus9ess alone = want ( funds1 he unit$ 9 p>tn]%ip ) ?ree o!rs4 ,"o ( ! p>tn]s be+ a type-f\nd]1 suppos+ t success 9 ! ent]prise w\ld injure 8 bus9ess1 employ$ m5 to compose & pr9t ! propos$ works 9 a mann] t he ?\ght mo/ likely to spoil !m4 #h4 ,accord+ly1 ! compositors1 :ile correct+ "o error 9 ! pro(1 made int5tionally sev]al m2 & ! pressm5 batt]$ ! lett]1 :ile pr9t+ ! books4 ,by ^! di%one/ & malici\s proce$+s1 ! useful ent]prise ( ,mr4 ,g$ 0 defeat$4 ,he1 h[ev]1 aft]w>ds pr9t$1 9 an accurate mann]1 two or ?ree works4 ,! fir/ ( ^! 0 a ,sallu/1 ! pages ( :i* 7 set up by 8 son1 ,james ,g$1 :o 0 b an appr5tice to ! pr9t+-bus9ess4 ,?is "p ( ! "w 0 p]=m$ 9 ! night1 :5 ! workm5 7 abs5t f ! (fice4 #i4 ,aft] ! dea? ( ,mr4 ,g$1 no att5tion 0 paid to ! art1 & a k ( x 0 lo/ at ! decease ( 8 son1 :i* took place1 ab\t ! ye> #agga3 b x 0 a ?ird "t inv5t$ by ,alex&] ,tillo*1 ,esq41 :o1 9 conjunction ) ,mr4 ,f\lis1 pr9t] to ! ,univ]sity ( ,glasg[1 made _m exp]im5ts1 until plates 7 produc$ yield+ impressions :i* c\ld n be di/+ui%$ f ^? ( ! types f :i* !y _h be5 ca/4 ,b ow+ to circum/ances unconnect$ ) ! real utility ( ! art1 ! bus9ess 0 n prosecut$ to a great ext5t4 #aj4 ,ab\t ! ye> #ahjd1 ! art 0 aga9 reviv$ by ! late ,e>l ,/anhope1 assi/$ by ,mr4 ,a4 ,wilson1 a pr9t]1 :o turn$ 8 :ole att5tion t way4 ,9 _! ef=ts to complete ! inv5tion1 !y 7 assi/$ by ,messrs4 ,tillo* & ,f\lis2 &1 al?\gh !y succe$$ aft] _m exp]im5ts1 !y 7 /r5u\sly oppos$ 9 _! ef=ts to introduce ! practice1 ! pr9t]s suppos+1 p]haps ) "s reason1 t x w\ld prove injuri\s to _! bus9ess4 #aa4 ,?is useful art 0 introduc$ into ! ,unit$ ,/ates by ,j4 ,watts1 an ,engli%man f ,london1 :o _h acquir$ a k ( ! process f ,a4 ,wilson4 ,he ent]$ into a p>tn]%ip ) ,joseph ,d4 ,fay & ,pi]re ,c4 ,van ,wyck1 ,esquires4 ,!y fir/ /]eotyp$ ! ,we/m9/] ,cate*ism1 :i* 0 pr9t$ by ,j4 ,watts ,co41 = ,messrs4 ,:it+ ,watson1 9 #ahac4 ,!y also /]eotyp$ a ,new ,te/am5t4 ,b ! bus9ess prov+ to be unproductive1 ,fay & ,van ,wyck retir$ f ! conc]n4 ,watts aft]w>ds /]eotyp$ ab\t "o ?ird ( an octavo ,bible4 ,! m\ld+ ( all ! plates produc$ 9 ,watts's f\nd]y 0 execut$ by ,mrs4 ,watts4 ,on ! #ba/ ( ,m>*1 #ahae1 ,watts sold all 8 plates1 toge!r ) 8 mat]ials & k ( ! process1 to ,b4 ,s4 & ,j4 ,b4 ,coll9s1 = #fejj4 ,! ,messrs4 ,coll9s aft]w>ds c>ri$ on ! bus9ess successfully4 #ab4 ,9 #ahab1 ,david ,bruce w5t to ,engl& = ! express purpose ( obta9+ a k ( ! art1 z x 0 kept a pr(\nd secret by ,watts2 & hav+ le>n$ ! me?od ( "o ,ni*olson1 ( ,liv]pool1 & hav+ also acquir$ "s k ( ,e>l ,/anhope's plan1 he return$ to ,new-,york1 & comm5c$ /]eotyp+1 9 conjunction ) 8 bro!r1 ,george ,bruce1 9 ! ye> #ahac4 ,!y soon complet$ two setts ( #abmo plates = ! ,new ,te/am5t1 "o ( :i* !y sold to ,mat!w ,c>ey1 ,nov4 #h1 #ahad4 ,soon aft]w>ds1 !y f9i%$ ! :ole ,bible4 ,david ,bruce inv5t$ ! ma*9e = plan+ ! plates1 9 #ahae4 ,illu/ration ,,! ,,pap]-,,mak]1 ,,& ,,! ,,bookb9d]4 ,,! ,,pap]-,,mak]4 #a4 ,! mat]ials on :i* writ+ 0 execut$1 9 ! e>ly days ( ! art1 7 ! leaves & b>k ( trees & plants1 /ones1 bricks1 %eets ( lead1 copp]1 & brass1 z well z plates ( ivory1 wood5 tablets1 & cotton & l95 clo?4 #b4 ,! in/rum5ts ) :i* writ+ 0 practis$ 7 adapt$ to ! sub/ance on :i* x 0 to be =m$4 ,! /ylus1 :i* ! ,romans employ$ 9 writ+ on metallic tablets cov]$ ) wax1 0 made ( iron1 acute at "o end1 = =m+ ! lett]s1 & flat or r\nd at ! o!r1 = eras+ :at may h be5 errone\sly writt54 #c4 ,= writ+ ) ink1 ! calamus1 a k9d ( re$1 %>p5$ at ! po9t1 & split l our p5s 0 us$4 ,"s ( ! ,ea/]n nations /ill write ) bamboos & canes4 ,! ,*9ese inscribe _! *>act]s ) small bru%es simil> to camel's hair p5cils4 ,we h no c]ta9 evid5ce ( ! application ( quills to ?is purpose until ! sev5? c5tury4 #d4 ,z ! lit]ature ( antiquity advanc$1 a mat]ial adapt$ to works ( magnitude became necess>y1 & ?is 0 f\nd bo? 9 ! sk9s ( animals1 & 9 ! celebrat$ plant papyrus1 ( ,egypt2 b ! "t :5 !y 7 fir/ appli$ to ?is purpose _c be det]m9$1 al?\gh x is probable t ! =m] has ! pref]5ce z reg>ds priority4 #e4 ,! papyrus 0 an aquatic plant1 :i* grew ^u ! banks ( ! ,nile4 ,9 ! manufacture ( pap] f ?is re$1 x 0 dive/$ ( its out] cov]+1 & ! int]nal lay]s1 or lam91 7 sep>at$ ) ! po9t ( a ne$le or knife4 ,^! lay]s 7 spread p>allel to ea* o!r on a table1 9 suffici5t numb]s to =m a %eet2 a second lay] 0 !n laid ) ! /rips cross+ ^? ( ! fir/ at "r angles2 & ! :ole hav+ be5 moi/5$ ) wat]1 0 subject$ to pressure betwe5 metallic surfaces4 ,! pressure1 aid$ by a glut9\s sub/ance 9 ! plant1 caus$ ! sev]al pieces to become "o uni=m %eet4 #f4 ,p>*m5t 0 manufactur$ f ! sk9s ( %eep & goats4 ,9 ! prep>ation1 ^! 7 fir/ /eep$ 9 wat] impregnat$ ) lime1 & aft]w>ds /ret*$ ^u frames1 & r$uc$ by scrap+ ) %>p in/rum5ts4 ,!y 7 f9i%$ by ! application ( *alk1 & by rubb+ !m ) pumice-/one4 ,! sk9s ( v "y calves1 dress$ 9 a simil> mann]1 0 call$ vellum4 ,p>*m5t & vellum are /ill us$ = de$s & o!r important docum5ts4 #g4 ,:5 ,attalus1 ab\t #bjj ye>s be=e ,*ri/1 0 ab\t to f\nd a libr>y at ,p]gamus1 :i* %\ld rival t ( ,alex&ria1 "o ( ! ,ptolemies1 !n k+ ( ,egypt1 jeal\s ( 8 success1 prohibit$ ! exportation ( papyrus2 b ! spirit$ inhabitants ( ,p]gamus manufactur$ p>*m5t z a sub/itute1 & =m$ _! libr>y pr9cipally ( manuscripts on ?is mat]ial4 ,f ?is fact1 x receiv$ ! "n ( ,p]gam5a among ! ,romans1 :o gave x also ! appellation ( ,membrana4 #h4 ,! greate/ quantity ( pap] 0 manufactur$ at ,alex&ria1 & ! comm]ce 9 ?is article greatly increas$ ! weal? ( t city4 ,9 ! fif? c5tury1 pap] 0 r5d]$ v de> by taxation2 & ?is probably 0 an inducem5t = an ef=t to produce a sub/itute4 ,accord+ly1 9 ! eigh? c5tury1 x began to be sup]s$$ by cotton pap]1 al?\gh x cont9u$ 9 use 9 "s p>ts ( ,europe1 until ?ree hundr$ ye>s aft] ! p]iod la/ m5tion$4 #i4 ,! manufacture ( cotton pap] 0 introduc$ into ,spa91 9 ! elev5? c5tury1 by ! ,arabians1 :o became acqua9t$ ) x 9 ,bu*>ia z e>ly z ,a4,d4 #gjd4 ,ab\t ! ye> #acjj1 x 0 comm5c$ 9 ,italy1 ,france1 & ,g]many2 &1 9 "s ( ! pap]-mills ( ^! c\ntries1 pap] 0 made f cotton rags4 ,l95 pap] is ?\ght to h orig9at$ 9 ,g]many1 ab\t ! ye> #acah4 #aj4 ,! fir/ pap]-mill 9 ,engl& 0 erect$ by a ,g]man1 nam$ ,spillman1 9 #aehh2 b no pap]1 except ! co>se br[n sorts1 0 made 9 t c\ntry1 until ab\t ! ye> #afij4 ,! f9] k9ds1 bo? = writ+ & pr9t+1 71 be=e t "t1 import$ f ! ,cont95t4 ,b ! pap] ( ,engli% manufacture w n[ comp>e ) t ( any o!r c\ntry4 ,! ,fr5* also make v f9e pap]4 #aa4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ?is manufacture has rapidly increas$ 9 am\nt )9 a few ye>s4 ,accord+ to an e/imate made 9 #ahbi1 x appe>s t ! :ole annual product ( ! mills is wor? betwe5 five & sev5 millions ( doll>s1 & t ! rags collect$ 9 ?is c\ntry am\nt to ab\t two millions4 ,! numb] ( h&s employ$ 9 ! bus9ess are t5 or elev5 ?\s&1 ( :om ab\t "o-half 7 females4 ,! manufacture has s9ce be5 consid]ably increas$1 al?\gh ! numb] ( op]atives may h be5 dim9i%$1 on acc\nt ( ! introduction ( improv$ ma*9]y4 #ab4 ,nature has suppli$ u ) a great v>iety ( sub/ances f :i* pap] may be fabricat$1 z flax1 hemp1 cotton1 /raw1 grass1 & ! b>k ( sev]al k9ds ( trees2 b ! fibres ( ! ?ree fir/ productions1 9 ! =m ( rags1 are ! mo/ usual mat]ials4 ,mo/ ( ^! are prim>ily pur*as$ f ! p at l>ge1 by retail booksell]s1 c\ntry m]*ants1 & p$l]s1 :o 9 turn dispose ( !m to p]sons call$ rag-m]*ants1 or directly to ! pap]-mak]s4 ,:5 ! rags come f ! orig9al collectors1 all k9ds are mix$ toge!r2 b !y are assort$ accord+ to _! color & ! nature ( _! orig9al fibre1 ei!r by ! rag-m]*ants1 or by ! pap]-mak]s !mselves4 #ac4 ,9 our attempts to af=d ! read] an idea ( ?is manufacture 9 g5]al1 lett]-pap] has be5 select$1 z af=d+ ! be/ means ( illu/ration2 s9ce = ?is k9d ( pap]1 ! be/ /ock is employ$1 & ! greate/ skill is ex]t$ 9 e /age ( ! process4 #ad4 ,! process ( ! manufacture is comm5c$ by cutt+ ! rags into small pieces1 by ! aid ( a %>p in/rum5t1 commonly a piece ( a scy!1 :i* is plac$ 9 a position ne>ly p]p5dicul> be=e ! op]ator4 ,9 ! r$uction ( v co>se rags1 su* z sail-clo?1 a cutt+ ma*9e is also employ$4 ,!n1 ) ! view ( sift+ out ! loose p>ticles ( dirt1 ! rags are deposit$ 9 a l>ge octagonal sieve made ( co>se wire1 & plac$ 9 a close box 9 a horizontal position4 ,! sieve is mov$ by ma*9]y1 l ! bolt ( a fl\r-mill4 #ae4 ,! second /age ( ! process consi/s *iefly 9 ! r$uction ( ! rags to a pulp4 ,?is is effect$ by ! action ( a cutt+ ma*9e1 ! ess5tial p>ts ( :i* are two sets ( blunt knives1 ! "o /ation>y1 & ! o!r revolv+4 ,! ma*9e is plac$ 9 a l>ge elliptical tub1 9 :i* ! rags are also deposit$1 ) a suitable quantity ( wat]4 ,! liquid & fibr\s cont5ts ( ! tub are kept mov+ 9 a circle by ! action ( ! ma*9e1 ?r\gh :i* x passes at "o po9t ( its revolution4 #af4 ,! mac]ation occupies f t5 to tw5ty h\rs1 accord+ z ! mat]ial is m or less rigid2 &1 dur+ "p ( ?is "t1 wat] is p]mitt$ to run 9 at "o side ( ! tub1 & out at ! o!r1 to r5d] ! pulp p]fectly clean4 ,t[>ds ! close ( ?is process1 ! pulp1 if necess>y1 is blea*$ by means ( *loride ( lime1 & oil ( vitriol4 ,x is also sometimes color$ by add+ a quantity ( dye-/uff4 ,! blea*+ & color+ are effect$ )\t int]rupt+ ! action ( ! ma*9e4 ,! rags hav+ be5 ?us r$uc$1 ! pulp1 toge!r ) a suitable quantity ( wat]1 is let out into a res]voir1 f :i* x is drawn (f into a vat1 z fa/ z x may be ne$$ = ! production ( ! pap]4 #ag4 ,) ?is vat is connect$ ! pap]-mak+ ma*9e2 & ! "p ( ! latt] :i* fir/ comes 9 contact ) ! mat]ial is a holl[ cyl9d]1 surr\nd$ ) a f9e web ( wire-clo?4 ,?is cyl9d] be+ imm]s$ 9 ! cont5ts ( ! vat m ?an "o-half ( its diamet]1 ! wat] passes (f ) a uni=m rapidity1 & ! fibr\s p>ticles :i* _h be5 susp5d$ 9 x1 settle ) a rem>kable uni=mity on ! outside ( ! braz5 web4 ,z ! cyl9d] revolves1 a cont9u$ %eet is produc$1 :i* is tak5 up by an endless web ( wooll5 clo?1 & c>ri$ r\nd ano!r cyl9d] ( equal diamet]1 & !n betwe5 two m1 by :i* x is p>tially press$4 #ah4 ,f betwe5 ^! roll]s1 ! pap] passes out1 9 a cont9u$ %eet1 ^u a l>ge cyl9drical reel1 call$ ! lay-boy2 & :5 a c]ta9 quantity ( x1 :i* is det]m9$ by a gauge1 has be5 accumulat$1 ! lay-boy is remov$ to a l[ table4 ,! pap] is !n cut1 ) a too?less h&saw1 into %eets twice ! size ( lett]-pap]4 ,?is "p ( ! op]ation is v quickly p]=m$1 z a workman c cut up & pile 9 heaps1 to be press$1 tw5ty reams 9 half t numb] ( m9utes1 & att5d to ! ma*9e at ! same "t4 #ai4 ,aft] ! pap] has be5 successively press$1 & h&l$ by sep>at+ ! %eets two or ?ree times1 x is hung up on small poles1 9 an airy room1 to be dri$2 & hav+ be5 aga9 press$1 x is siz$ by hold+ a quantity ( ! %eets at a "t 9 a ?9 solution ( glue & alum1 ! =m] ( :i* is prep>$ 9 ! pap]-mill = ! purpose1 f %r$s & p>+s ( raw hides4 ,! pap] is fre$ f sup]flu\s portions ( ! size1 by submitt+ x to ! action ( a press4 ,x is aga9 dri$ z be=e1 & aga9 press$2 aft] :i*1 ! sev]al %eets are exam9$1 & fre$ f lumps & o!r extrane\s sub/ances4 #bj4 ,!y are !n sev]$ 9 half ) a cutt+ ma*9e1 & aft]w>ds cal5d]$1 by pass+ ! %eets successively betwe5 roll]s2 or !y are press$ betwe5 smoo? pa/ebo>ds4 ,9 ! latt] case1 hot metallic plates are sometimes int]pos$ betwe5 e few quires ( ! %eets4 ,! pap]1 :5 treat$ 9 ?is way1 is call$ hot-press$4 ,x is next c\nt$ (f into half-quires1 put up into reams1 press$1 trimm$1 & f9ally envelop$ 9 two ?ick %eets ( pap]1 :i* completes ! :ole process ( ! manufacture4 #ba4 ,! manufacture ( pap]1 z j describ$1 seems to be a t$i\s process2 yet ) two ma*9es & a suitable numb] ( h&s1 say sixty or eighty1 ?ree hundr$ reams ( lett]-pap] c be produc$ f ! raw mat]ial 9 a s+le day4 ,x is h>dly necess>y to rem>k1 t pap] is ( v>i\s qualities1 f ! f9e/ bank-note pap]1 d[n to ! co>se/ k9ds employ$ 9 wrapp+ up m]*&ise1 & t1 = e quality1 suitable mat]ials are *os54 ,! process ( ! manufacture is v>i$1 ( c\rse1 to suit ! mat]ials4 ,none b writ+ & draw+ pap] requires to be siz$4 #bb4 ,until aft] ! beg9n+ ( ! pres5t c5tury1 pap] 0 made exclusively by h&1 & ?is me?od is /ill cont9u$ 9 a majority ( ! mills 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 al?\gh x is rapidly go+ out ( use4 ,x diff]s f t j describ$ *iefly 9 ! mann] ( collect+ ! pulp to =m ! pap]1 ?is be+ effect$ by means ( a m\ld1 a frame ( wood ) a f9e wire bottom1 ( ! size ( ! propos$ %eet4 ,9 ! use ( ?is in/rum5t1 a quantity ( ! pulp is tak5 up1 & :ile ! vatman1 or dipp]1 holds x 9 a horizontal position1 & gives x a g5tle %ak+1 ! wat] runs out ?r\gh ! int]/ices ( ! wire1 & leaves ! fibr\s p>ticles ^u ! m\ld 9 ! =m ( a %eet4 ,! %eets ?us produc$ are press$ betwe5 felts1 & aft]w>ds treat$ z if !y _h be5 =m$ by means ( a ma*9e4 #bc4 ,! fir/ idea ( =m+ pap] 9 a cont9u$ %eet orig9at$ 9 ,france2 b a ma*9e = ?is purpose is said to h be5 fir/ made completely successful 9 ,engl&1 by ,h5ry & ,sealy ,f\rdr9i]4 ,_m ma*9es made aft] _! model1 z well z ^? ( a diff]5t con/ruction1 are 9 use 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 to "s ( :i* is atta*$ an app>atus = dry+1 siz+1 & press+ ! pap]1 z well z = cutt+ x to ! prop] size4 ,v few ma*9es1 h[ev]1 yield pap] equal 9 firmness & t5acity to t produc$ by h&4 ,,! ,,bookb9d]4 #a4 ,bookb9d+ is ! art ( arrang+ ! pages ( a book 9 prop] ord]1 & conf9+ !m !re by means ( ?read1 glue1 pa/e1 pa/ebo>d1 & lea!r4 #b4 ,?is art is probably z anci5t z t ( writ+ books2 =1 :atev] may h be5 ! sub/ance on :i* ! "w 0 execut$1 "s me?od ( unit+ ! p>ts 0 absolutely necess>y4 ,! e>lie/ me?od ) :i* we are acqua9t$1 is t ( glu+ ! %eets toge!r1 & roll+ !m ^u small cyl9d]s4 ,?is mode is /ill practis$ 9 "s c\ntries4 ,x is also ev]y:]e us$ by ! ,jews1 s f> z relates to "o copy ( _! law deposit$ 9 ea* ( _! synagogues4 #c4 ,! "n ,egyptian is appli$ to ?is k9d ( b9d+1 & ?is w\ld seem to indicate ! place ( its orig94 ,ea* volume _h two roll]s1 s t ! cont9u$ %eet c\ld be w\nd f "o to ! o!r at pleasure4 ,! squ>e1 or pres5t =m ( b9d+1 is also ( great antiquity1 z x is suppos$ to h be5 inv5t$ at ,p]gamus1 ab\t #bjj ye>s be=e ,*ri/1 by ,k+ ,attalus1 :o1 ) 8 son ,eum5es1 e/abli%$ ! fam\s libr>y 9 t city4 #d4 ,! fir/ process ( b9d+ books consi/s 9 fold+ ! %eets accord+ to ! pag+4 ,?is is done by ! aid ( an ivory knife1 call$ a fold]2 & ! op]ator is guid$ 9 ! correct p]=mance ( ! "w by c]ta9 lett]s call$ signatures1 plac$ at ! bottom ( ! page1 at regul> int]vals ?r\gh ! book4 #e4 ,piles ( ! fold$ %eets are !n plac$ on a long table 9 ! ord] ( _! signatures1 & ga!r$1 "o f ea* pile1 = e book4 ,!y are next beat5 on a /one1 or pass$ betwe5 /eel roll]s1 to r5d] !m smoo? & solid4 ,! latt] me?od has be5 introduc$ )9 a few ye>s4 ,?is op]ation c]ta9ly increases ! intr9sic value ( ! book2 b x is n employ$ 9 e case1 s9ce x is att5d$ ) "s additional exp5se1 & s9ce x dim9i%es ! ?ickness ( ! book1 & consequ5tly its value 9 ! e/imation ( ! public at l>ge4 #f4 ,! %eets1 hav+ be5 prop]ly press$1 are next sew$ toge!r ^u little cords1 :i*1 9 ?is application1 are call$ b&s4 ,dur+ ! op]ation ^! are /ret*$ 9 a p]p5dicul> direction1 at suitable di/ances f ea* o!r1 z exhibit$ 9 ! =ego+ cut4 ,! fold$ %eets are usually not*$ on ! back by means ( a saw1 & at ^! po9ts !y are br\ght 9 juxta-position ) ! b&s4 ,aft] ! pages ( sev]al volumes h be5 accumulat$1 ! b&s are sev]$ betwe5 ea* book4 ,! fold+1 ga!r+1 & sew+1 are usually p]=m$ by females4 #g4 ,at ?is /age ( ! process1 ! books are receiv$ by ! m5 or boys1 :o g5]ally take on "o hundr$ at a "t4 ,! workman fir/ spreads "s glue on ! backs ( ea* book ) a bru%4 ,he !n places !m1 "o aft] ! o!r1 betwe5 bo>ds ( solid wood1 & beats !m on ! back ) a hamm]4 ,by ?is means ! back is r\nd$1 & a groove =m$ on ea* side = ! admission ( "o edge ( ! pa/ebo>ds4 #h4 ,^! hav+ be5 appli$1 & p>tially fa/5$ by means ( ! b&s1 :i* _h be5 left long = ! purpose1 ! books are press$1 & ! leaves ( :i* !y are compos$ are trimm$ ) an in/rum5t call$ a pl\gh4 ,! pa/ebo>ds are also cut to ! prop] size by ! same means1 or ) a huge pair ( %e>s4 ,9 ! prec$+ picture1 a workman is repres5t$ at "w ) ! pl\gh4 ,! edges are next spr9kl$ ) "s k9d ( color+ matt]1 or cov]$ ) gold leaf4 ,a /rip ( pap] is !n glu$ on ! back1 & a head-b& put ^u ea* end4 #i4 ,! book is n[ ready to be cov]$4 ,?is is done ei!r ) calf1 %eep1 or goat sk91 or "s k9d ( pap] or musl92 b1 :atev] ! mat]ial may be1 x is cut into pieces to suit ! size ( ! book2 &1 hav+ be5 sme>$ on "o side ) pa/e1 if pap] or lea!r1 or ) glue1 if musl91 x is drawn ov] ! outsides ( ! pa/ebo>ds1 & d\bl$ 9 ^u ! inside4 #aj4 ,! cov]s1 if calf or %eep sk91 are next spr9kl$ or m>bl$4 ,! fir/ op]ation is p]=m$ by dipp+ ! bru% 9 a k9d ( dye1 made = ! purpose1 & beat+ x ) "o h& ov] a /ick held 9 ! o!r2 ! second is p]=m$ 9 ! same mann]1 ) ! diff]5ce t !y are spr9kl$ fir/ ) wat]1 & !n ) ! color+ matt]4 #aa4 ,aft] a small piece ( morocco has be5 pa/$ on ! back1 on :i* ! title is to be pr9t$ 9 gold leaf1 & "o ( ! wa/e leaves has be5 pa/$ d[n on ! inside ( ea* ( ! cov]s1 ! books are press$ = ! la/ "t4 ,!y are !n glaz$ by apply+ ! :ite ( an egg ) a sponge4 #ab4 ,! books are n[ ready = ! reception ( ! ornam5ts1 :i* consi/ *iefly ( lett]s & o!r figures 9 gold leaf4 ,9 execut+ ?is "p ( ! process1 ! workman cuts ! gold into suitable /rips or squ>es on a cu%ion4 #ac4 ,^! are laid ^u ! books by means ( a piece ( raw cotton1 & aft]w>ds impress$ ) types mod]ately heat$ ov] a *>coal fire2 or ! /rips ( gold are tak5 up1 & laid ^u ! prop] place ) in/rum5ts call$ /amps & rolls1 :i* h on !m figures 9 relief4 ,! portion ( ! leaf n impress$ ) ! figures on ! tools1 is easily remov$ ) a silk rag4 ,! books are f9i%$ by apply+ to ! cov]s ! :ite ( an egg1 & rubb+ !m ) a heat$ /eel poli%]4 #ad4 ,! process ( b9d+ books1 z j describ$1 is v>i$1 ( c\rse1 9 "s p>ticul>s1 to suit ! diff]5t k9ds ( b9d+ & f9i%4 ,a book /it*$ toge!r l a common almanac1 is call$ a pamphlet4 ,^? :i* are cov]$ on ! back & sides ) lea!r1 are said to be full-b\nd2 & ^? :i* h _! backs cov]$ ) lea!r1 & ! sides ) pap]1 half-b\nd4 #ae4 ,! diff]5t sizes ( books are express$ by t]ms indicative ( ! numb] ( pages pr9t$ on "o side ( a %eet ( pap]2 ?us1 :5 two pages are pr9t$ on "o side1 ! book is t]m$ a folio2 f\r pages1 a qu>to2 eight pages1 an octavo2 twelve pages1 a duodecimo2 eighte5 pages1 an octodecimo4 ,all ( ^! t]ms1 except ! fir/1 are abridg$ by prefix+ a figure or figures to ! la/ syllable3 ?us1 #dto = qu>to1 #hvo = octavo1 #abmo = duodecimo1 c4 #af4 ,! manufacture ( acc\nt-books1 & o!r blank or /ation>y "w1 con/itutes an ext5sive bran* ( ! bookb9d]'s bus9ess4 ,x is n necess>y1 h[ev]1 to be p>ticul> 9 notic+ x1 z ! g5]al process is simil> to t ( common bookb9d+4 ,^? b9d]s :o devote mu* att5tion to ?is bran* ( ! trade1 h a ma*9e by :i* pap] is rul$ to suit any me?od ( keep+ books1 or any o!r patt]n :i* may be desir$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,booksell]4 ,,! ,,booksell]4 #a4 ,! book-trade has aris5 f small beg9n+s to its pres5t magnitude & importance4 ,be=e ! inv5tion ( typography1 x 0 c>ri$ on by ! aid ( transcrib]s2 & ! booksell]s ( ,greece1 ,rome1 & ,alex&ria1 dur+ ! fl\ri%+ /ate ( _! lit]ature1 kept a l>ge numb] ( manuscript copyi/s 9 con/ant employ4 ,among ! ,romans1 ! transcrib]s or copyi/s 7 *iefly slaves1 :o 7 v valuable to _! own]s1 on acc\nt ( _! capacity = ?is employm5t4 #b4 ,9 ! middle ages1 :5 le>n+ 0 *iefly conf9$ to ! prec9cts ( mona/ic in/itutions1 ! monks employ$ mu* ( _! "t 9 copy+ ! anci5t classics & o!r works2 & ?is labor 0 (t5 impos$ ^u !m z a p5ance = ! commission ( s94 ,f ?is cause1 & f an ignorance ( ! true mean+ ( ! au?or1 mu* ( _! copy+ 0 inaccurately p]=m$1 s t great pa9s h be5 s9ce requir$ 9 ! correction ( ! manuscripts ( ^? times4 #c4 ,?is mode ( multiply+ copies ( books 0 exce$+ly sl[1 &1 )al1 s v exp5sive1 t le>n+ 0 conf9$ almo/ exclusively to p ( rank1 & ! l[] ord]s 7 only rescu$ f total ignorance by ! reflect$ light ( _! sup]iors4 ,= a long "t1 dur+ ! reign ( comp>ative b>b>ism 9 ,europe1 books 7 s sc>ce1 t a pres5t ( a s+le copy to a religi\s h\se 0 ?\ght to be s valuable a gift1 t x entitl$ ! donor to ! pray]s ( ! community1 :i* 7 consid]$ efficaci\s 9 procur+ = him et]nal salvation4 #d4 ,aft] ! e/abli%m5t ( ! univ]sities ( ,p>is & ,bologna1 !re 7 deal]s 9 books1 call$ /ation>ii1 :o loan$ s+le manuscripts at high prices2 &1 9 ! =m] place1 no p]son1 aft] ! ye> #adcb1 c\ld deal 9 books 9 any way1 )\t p]mission f ! univ]sity1 by :i* (fic]s 7 appo9t$ to exam9e ! manuscripts1 & fix ! price = :i* !y might be sold or hir$ out4 #e4 ,= a long "t aft] ! inv5tion ( pr9t+1 ! pr9t]s sold _! own publications2 &1 9 do+ ?is1 especially at "s di/ance f _! e/abli%m5ts1 !y 7 aid$ by ^? :o _h =m]ly be5 employ$ z copyi/s4 ,"s ( ^! travell+ ag5ts1 at l5g?1 became /ation>y1 & procur$ ! publication ( works on _! own acc\nt4 #f4 ,! fir/ booksell] :o pur*as$ manuscripts f ! au?ors1 & caus$ !m to be pr9t$ )\t own+ a press himself1 0 ,john ,otto1 ( ,nuremburg4 ,he comm5c$ ?is mode ( do+ bus9ess1 9 #aeaf4 ,9 #aede1 !re 71 = ! fir/ "t1 two su* booksell]s 9 ,leipsic4 ,! great m>t = ! sale ( _! books 0 ,frank=t on ! ,ma9e1 :]e 7 held ?ree ext5sive fairs e ye>4 ,leipsic1 h[ev]1 soon became1 & /ill cont9ues1 ! c5tre ( ! ,g]man book-trade4 #g4 ,! fir/ ,leipsic catalogue ( books appe>$ z e>ly z ! ye> #afjj2 b ! fairs at t place did n become important1 z reg>ds ! book-trade1 until #affg1 :5 x 0 att5d$ by n9ete5 =eign booksell]s4 ,! booksell]s ( ,g]many1 z well z "s f di/ant c\ntries1 meet at ! semi-annual fairs held 9 t city1 to dispose ( books1 & to settle _! acc\nts ) ea* o!r4 ,e ,g]man publi%] has also an ag5t !re1 :o receives 8 publications1 & s5ds !m1 accord+ z !y are ord]$1 to any "p ( ,g]many4 #h4 ,9 no o!r "p ( ! _w1 has su* a connexion ( booksell]s be5 =m$1 al?\gh almo/ e k+dom ( ,europe has "s city or cities 9 :i* ?is bran* ( trade is *iefly conc5trat$2 z ,london1 9 ,engl&2 ,ed9burgh1 9 ,scotl&2 & ,am/]dam1 ,utre*t1 ,leyd51 & ,ha]lem1 9 ! ,ne!rl&s4 ,9 ,spa9 & ,portugal1 ! price ( e book is regulat$ by ! gov]nm5t4 #i4 ,a v conv5i5t me?od ( effect+ ! sale & ex*ange ( books among booksell]s1 has be5 adopt$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 & ?is is by auction4 ,a sale ( ?is k9d is held 9 ,bo/on once1 & 9 ,new-,york & ,philadelphia twice1 e ye>2 & none are invit$ to att5d x b ! trade2 h5ce su* sales are d5om9at$ trade-sales4 #aj4 ,! sale is usually conduct$ by an auctione] :o has be5 select$ by a committee ( ! trade 9 ! city 9 :i* x is to be held4 ,9 ord] to obta9 a suffici5t am\nt ( /ock = ! purpose1 ! ag5t issues proposals1 9 :i* he in=ms publi%]s & o!rs conc]n$ 9 ?is bran* ( bus9ess1 ( 8 int5tion1 & solicits invoices ( books1 to be sold at ! "t specifi$4 ,a catalogue ( all ! books ?us s5t = sale1 is di/ribut$ among ! booksell]s4 #aa4 ,! booksell]s hav+ assembl$1 ! books :i* may h be5 accumulat$ f diff]5t p>ts ( ! ,union1 are (f]$ 9 conv5i5t lots1 & /ruck (f to ! highe/ bidd]4 ,ea* pur*as] holds 9 8 h& ! pr9t$ catalogue1 on ! broad m>g9 ( :i* he m>ks1 if he sees fit1 ! prices at :i* ! books h be5 sold2 & ! record ?us kept af=ds a tol]able means ( det]m9+ _! value1 = a consid]able "t aft]w>ds4 #ab4 ,a sale ( ?is k9d occupies f f\r to six days2 &1 at ! close ( x1 a settlem5t takes place1 9 :i* ! p>ties are gov]n$ by ! t]ms previ\sly publi%$4 ,! paym5ts are made 9 ca%1 or by notes at f\r or six mon?s1 accord+ to ! am\nt :i* ! pur*as] may h b\ght out ( "o invoice4 ,! conductors ( ! sale are all[$ ab\t five p] c5t4 commission = _! s]vices4 #ac4 ,a va/ numb] ( books is also sold1 e ye>1 at auction1 to miscellane\s collections ( p1 n only 9 ! cities & consid]able t[ns1 b likewise 9 ! villages ?r\gh\t ! c\ntry4 ,by _m booksell]s1 ?is me?od ( sale is ?\ght to be injuri\s to ! trade1 s9ce x has r$uc$ ! prices ( books1 & int]f]$ ) ! regul> me?od ( do+ bus9ess4 ,^! disadvantages1 h[ev]1 h be5 f> ov]balanc$ by ! increas$ numb] ( read]s :i* has be5 ?us creat$4 #ad4 ,! circulation ( books is likewise promot$ by means ( travell+ ag5ts1 :o ei!r sell !m at once1 or obta9 subscriptions = !m ) ! view to _! future deliv]y4 ,^! me?ods h be5 employ$ m or less f ! v comm5cem5t ( ! pr9t+ bus9ess2 & !y h probably contribut$ m to ! g5]al ext5sion ( k ?an ! sale ( books by /ation>y booksell]s4 ,9 fact1 !y are among ! mo/ prom95t causes ( ! va/ trade 9 books1 :i* is n[ c>ri$ on1 especially 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 #ae4 ,nev]!less1 publi%]s1 :o d n employ ag5ts to v5d _! books1 g5]ally consid] !m int]lop]s ^u _! bus9ess2 & ! p !mselves1 :o owe a great %>e ( _! intellectual cultivation to ?is useful class ( m51 are g5]ally av]se to af=d !m ! necess>y patronage1 because !y require a small advance on ! city prices to pay travell+ exp5ses4 #af4 ,a consid]able am\nt ( books is also sold by m]*ants :o reside at "s di/ance f ! cities & l>ge t[ns4 ,!y1 h[ev]1 seldom v5ture to pur*ase ^? :i* h n be5 well kn[n & approv$ 9 _! neighborhood2 &1 9 a majority ( cases1 reg>d !m z m]e subjects ( m]*&ise1 )\t tak+ into consid]ation ! effects mo/ likely to be produc$ by ^! sil5t1 b p[]ful ag5ts1 :5 circulat$ among _! cu/om]s4 #ag4 ,"s booksell]s 9 ,europe conf9e _! trade *iefly to p>ticul> dep>tm5ts2 su* z law1 !ology1 & m$ic9e4 ,o!rs deal 9 toy-books1 & books ( education1 or 9 r>e & sc>ce books4 ,?is is ! case1 to a limit$ ext5t1 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 al?\gh our booksell]s commonly keep an assortm5t ( miscellane\s publications1 z well z v>i\s articles 9 ! /ation>y l9e2 su* z pap]1 quills1 ink/&s1 & blank "w4 ,illu/ration3 ,! ,,ar*itect4 ,,! ,,ar*itect4 #a4 ,ar*itecture1 9 ! g5]al s5se ( ! ^w1 is ! art ( plann+ & erect+ build+s ( all k9ds1 :e!r ( a public or private nature2 & x embraces )9 its op]ations a v>iety ( employm5ts1 at ! head ( :i* mu/ be plac$ ! ,ar*itect4 ,ar*itecture is ( sev]al k9ds1 su* z civil1 naval1 milit>y1 & aquatic2 b x is ! fir/ only t we propose to notice 9 ! pres5t article4 #b4 ,! con/ruction ( build+s z means ( %elt] f ! wea!r1 appe>s to h be5 among ! e>lie/ inv5tions2 &1 f ! skill exhibit$ 9 ! con/ruction ( ! ark1 we h reason to believe t ar*itecture _h be5 br\ght to consid]able p]fection be=e ! deluge4 ,?is op9ion is also support$ by ! fact /at$ 9 holy writ1 t ! desc5dants ( ,noah1 n m ?an "o hundr$ ye>s aft] ! great cata/rophe j m5tion$1 attempt$ to build a city & a l(ty t[] ) bricks burn$ 9 ! fire4 ,?is project c\ld nev] h be5 ?\ght (1 _h !y n be5 influ5c$ by ! k ( =m] c5turies4 #c4 ,! confusion ( ! language ( ! p caus$ _! disp]sion into diff]5t p>ts ( ! e>?2 &1 9 _! sev]al locations1 !y adopt$ t me?od ( con/ruct+ _! dwell+s1 :i* ! climate requir$1 & ! mat]ials at h& admitt$2 b1 :atev] ! primitive /ructure may h be51 x 0 cont9u$1 9 its g5]al features1 f age to age1 by ! m ref9$ & opul5t inhabitants2 h5ce ! diff]5t /yles ( build+1 :i* h be5 cont9u$1 ) v>i\s modifications1 to ! pres5t day4 #d4 ,! ess5tial elem5t>y p>ts ( a build+ are ^? :i* contribute to its support1 inclosure1 & cov]+2 & ( ^! ! mo/ important are ! f\ndation1 ! column1 ! wall1 ! l9tel1 ! ar*1 ! vault1 ! dome1 & ! ro(4 ,ornam5tal & ref9$ ar*itecture is "o ( ! f9e arts2 nev]!less1 e "p ( an edifice mu/ appe> to h utility = its object1 & %[ ! purpose = :i* x has be5 design$4 #e4 ,! f\ndation is usually a /one wall1 on :i* ! sup]/ructure ( ! build+ re/s4 ,! mo/ solid basis on :i* x is plac$ is rock1 or gravel :i* has nev] be5 di/urb$2 next to ^! are clay & s&4 ,9 loose or muddy situations1 x is always unsafe to build1 unless a solid basis c be artificially produc$4 ,?is is (t5 done by means ( timb] plac$ 9 a horizontal position1 or by driv+ wood5 piles p]p5dicul>ly into ! e>?2 on a f\ndation ( ! latt] description1 ! great] "p ( ! city ( ,am/]dam has be5 built4 #f4 ,! column1 or pill>1 is ! simple/ memb] ( a build+1 al?\gh x is n ess5tial to all4 ,x is n employ$ = ! purpose ( inclosure1 b z a support to "s "p ( ! sup]/ructure1 & ! pr9cipal =ce :i* x has to resi/ is t ( p]p5dicul> pressure4 ,! column is m frequ5tly employ$ 9 public ?an 9 private build+s4 #g4 ,! wall may be consid]$ ! lat]al cont9uation ( ! column1 answ]+ ! purposes bo? ( support & inclosure4 ,x is con/ruct$ ( v>i\s mat]ials1 b *iefly ( brick1 /one1 & m>ble1 ) a suitable proportion ( mort> or cem5t4 ,walls are also made ( wood1 by fir/ erect+ a frame ( timb] & !n cov]+ x ) bo>ds2 b ^! are m p]i%able mat]ials1 :i* require to be def5d$ f ! decompos+ influ5ce ( ! atmosph]e1 by pa9t or "s o!r sub/ance4 #h4 ,! l9tel is a beam ext5d+ 9 a "r l9e f "o column or wall to ano!r ov] a vacant space4 ,! floor is a lat]al cont9uation or connexion ( beams1 by means ( a cov]+ ( planks4 ,! /r5g? ( ! l9tel1 &1 9 fact1 e o!r elem5t>y "p ( a build+ us$ z a support1 c be ma!matically det]m9$ by ! skilful ar*itect4 #i4 ,! ar* answ]s ! same purpose z ! l9tel1 al?\gh x f> exce$s x 9 /r5g?4 ,x is compos$ ( sev]al pieces ( a w$ge-l =m1 & ! jo9ts =m$ by ! contact ( flat surfaces po9t to a common c5tre4 ,:ile ! workm5 are con/ruct+ ! ar*1 ! mat]ials are support$ by a c5tr+ ( ! %ape ( its int]nal surface4 ,! upp] /one ( an ar* is call$ ! key-/one4 ,! supports ( an ar* are call$ abutm5ts2 & a cont9uation ( ar*es1 an arcade4 #aj4 ,! vault is ! lat]al cont9uation ( an ar*1 & be>s ! same relation to x t a wall be>s to a column4 ,! con/ruction ( a simple vault is ! same ) t ( an ar*1 & x di/ributes its pressure equally along ! walls or abutm5ts4 ,a complex or gro9$ vault is made by ! int]section ( two ( ! common k9d4 ,! gro9$ vault is mu* us$ 9 ,go?ic ar*itecture4 #aa4 ,! dome1 or cupola1 is a hemisph]ical or convex cov]+ to a build+ or a "p ( x4 ,:5 built ( /one x is a v /rong k9d ( /ructure1 ev5 m s ?an ! ar*1 s9ce ! t5d5cy ( ! p>ts to fall is c\nt]act$ by ^? above & bel[1 z well z by ^? on ea* side4 ,dur+ ! erection ( ! cupola1 no c5tr+ is requir$1 z 9 ! case ( ! ar*4 #ab4 ,! ro( is ! mo/ common & *eap cov]+ to build+s4 ,x is sometimes flat1 b mo/ commonly oblique1 9 %ape4 ,a ro( consi/+ ( two oblique sides meet+ at ! top1 is d5om9at$ a p5t ro(2 t ) f\r oblique sides1 a hipp$ ro(2 & t ) two sides1 hav+ ea* two incl9ations ( diff]5t obliquities1 a curb or mans>d ro(4 ,9 mod]n times1 ro(s are con/ruct$ ( wood1 or ( wood cov]$ ) "s incombu/ible mat]ial1 su* z tiles1 slate1 & %eets ( lead1 t91 or copp]4 ,! elem5t>y p>ts ( build+s1 z j describ$1 are m or less applicable 9 almo/ e k9d ( ar*itecture4 #ac4 ,! ar*itecture ( diff]5t c\ntries has be5 *>act]iz$ by peculi>ities ( =m & con/ruction1 :i*1 among anci5t nations1 7 s di/9ct1 t _! edifices may be id5tifi$ at ! pres5t day ev5 9 a /ate ( ru92 &1 al?\gh ne>ly all ! build+s ( antiquity are 9 a dilapidat$ /ate1 _m ( !m h be5 re/or$1 9 draw+s & models1 by ! aid ( ! fragm5ts :i* rema94 #ad4 ,! diff]5t /yles ( build+ :i* h be5 recognis$ by ! ar*itect ( mod]n times1 are1 ! ,egyptian1 ! ,*9ese1 ! ,grecian1 ! ,roman1 ! ,greco-,go?ic1 ! ,s>ac5ic1 & ! ,go?ic4 ,9 all ^!1 ! pill>1 ) its accompanim5ts1 makes a di/+ui%$ figure4 ,! foll[+ picture has !re=e be5 introduc$ by way ( explanation4 ,! columns are ( ! ,cor9?ian ord] ( ar*itecture4 ,illu/ration #ae4 ,! ,egyptian /yle4--,! fir/ inhabitants ( ,egypt liv$ 9 m\nds1 cav]ns1 & h\ses ( mud2 &1 f ^! primitive /ructures1 ! ,egyptians1 at a lat] p]iod1 d]iv$ _! /yle ( ar*itecture4 ,! walls ( _! build+s 7 v ?ick1 & slop+ on ! outside2 ! ro( 0 flat1 & compos$ ( blocks ( /one1 ext5d+ f "o wall or pill> to ano!r2 & ! columns 7 %ort & l>ge1 be+ sometimes t5 or twelve feet 9 diamet]4 ,pyramids ( prodigi\s magnitude1 & obelisks compos$ ( a s+le /one1 sometimes (t5 exce$+ sev5ty feet 9 height1 are /ructures peculi>ly ,egyptian4 ,! ar*itecture ( ! ,h9doos seems to h be5 d]iv$ f primitive /ructures ( a simil> "*4 ,illu/ration3 ,,an ,,egyptian ,,temple4 #af4 ,! ,*9ese /yle4--,! anci5t ,t>t>s1 & o!r w&]+ tribes ( ,asia1 appe> to h liv$ 9 t5ts2 & ! ,*9ese build+s1 ev5 at ! pres5t day1 be> a /rong resemblance to ^! orig9al habitations1 s9ce _! ro(s are concave on ! upp] side1 z if made ( canvas in/ead ( wood4 ,_! porticoes resemble ! awn+s spread out on our %op-w9d[s 9 ! summ]4 ,! ,*9ese build *iefly ( wood1 al?\gh !y sometimes use brick & /one4 ,illu/ration3 ,a ,,*9ese ,,pagoda4 #ag4 ,! ,grecian /yle4--,?is /yle ( build+ _h its orig9 9 ! wood5 hut or cab91 ! frame ( :i* prim>ily consi/$ ( p]p5dicul> po/s1 transv]se beams1 & raft]s4 ,?is /ructure 0 at l5g? imitat$ 9 /one1 & by degrees x 0 s modifi$ & decorat$ 9 c]ta9 p>ts1 z to give rise to ! sev]al di/9ctions call$ ord]s ( ar*itecture4 ,! ,greeks1 9 p]fect+ _! sy/em ( ar*itecture1 7 probably aid$ by ,egyptian examples1 al?\gh !y f9ally surpass$ all o!r nations 9 ?is important art4 #ah4 ,ord]s ( ar*itecture4--,by ! ar*itectural ord]s are und]/ood c]ta9 modes ( proportion+ & decorat+ ! column & entablature4 ,!y 7 9 use dur+ ! be/ days ( ,greece & ,rome1 = a p]iod ( six or sev5 c5turies4 ,! ,greeks _h ?ree ord]s1 call$ ! ,doric1 ! ,ionic1 & ! ,cor9?ian4 ,^! 7 adopt$ & modifi$ by ! ,romans1 :o also add$ two o!rs1 call$ ! ,tuscan & ! ,composite4 #ai4 ,doric ord]4--,! ,doric is ! olde/ & mo/ massive ord] ( ! ,greeks4 ,! column1 9 ! examples at ,a!ns1 is ab\t six ( its diamet]s 9 height2 9 ^? ( an e>li] date1 x is b f\r or five4 ,! temple "h adduc$ to illu/rate ?is ord] 0 built by ,cimon1 son ( ,miltiades1 ab\t ! ye> #dej be=e ,*ri/4 ,x is said to be 9 a /ate ( bett] pres]vation ?an any o!r ( ! anci5t ,greek edifices at ,a!ns4 ,x w be se5 t ! %afts are flut$1 t is1 cut 9 semicircul> *annels1 9 a longitud9al direction4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates' ,bank1 at ,philadelphia1 is a noble specim5 ( ?is ord]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,temple ,,( ,,!seus4 #bj4 ,ionic ord]4--,?is ord] is light] ?an ! ,doric1 its column be+ eight or n9e diamet]s 9 height4 ,its %aft has tw5ty-f\r or m flut+s1 sep>at$ f ea* o!r by squ>e edges2 & its capital consi/s1 9 "p1 ( two d\ble scrolls1 call$ volutes1 usually occupy+ opposite sides4 ,^! volutes are suppos$ to h be5 copi$ f r+lets ( hair1 or f ! horns ( ! god ,jupit] ,ammon4 ,! foll[+ example ( ?is ord] consi/s ( ?ree temples1 ea* ( :i* 0 d$icat$ to a diff]5t individual1 viz41 ,erec!us1 ,m9]va ,polias1 & ! nymph ,p&rosus4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,erec!um ,,at ,,a!ns4 #ba4 ,cor9?ian ord]4--,! ,cor9?ian is ! lighte/ & mo/ decorat$ ( all ! ,grecian ord]s4 ,its column is usually t5 diamet]s 9 height1 & its %aft is flut$ l t ( ! ,ionic4 ,its capital is %ap$ l an inv]t$ bell1 & 0 cov]$ on ! outside ) two r[s ( ! leaves ( ! plant acan?us1 above :i* are eight pairs ( small volutes4 ,x is said t ?is beautiful capital 0 sugge/$ to ! sculptor ,callima*us by ! gr[? ( an acan?us ab\t a basket1 :i* _h be5 accid5tally left 9 a g>d54 #bb4 ,! ,greeks sometimes dep>t$ s f> f ! /rict use ( _! ord]s1 z to employ ! /atues ( slaves1 h]oes1 & gods1 9 ! place ( columns4 ,a specim5 ( ?is practice is exhibit$ 9 ! cut illu/rative ( ! ,ionic ord]4 ,x belongs to ! temple d$icat$ to ,p&rosus4 #bc4 ,! mo/ rem>kable build+s ( ! ,greeks 7 _! temples4 ,! body ( ^! edifices consi/$ ( a wall$ cell1 usually surr\nd$ by "o or m r[s ( pill>s4 ,sometimes !y _h a colonnade at "o end only1 & sometimes at bo? ends4 ,_! =m 0 g5]ally oblong1 & z ! cells 7 int5d$ z places ( resort = ! prie/s r ?an = assemblies ( ! p1 !y 7 b imp]fectly light$4 ,w9d[s 7 seldom employ$2 & light 0 admitt$ at ! door at "o end1 or ?r\gh an op5+ 9 ! ro(4 #bd4 ,grecian ar*itecture is suppos$ to h be5 at its greate/ p]fection 9 ! days ( ,p]icles & ,phidias1 :5 sculpture is admitt$ to h atta9$ its highe/ excell5ce4 ,x 0 di/+ui%$1 9 g5]al1 by simplicity ( /ructure1 fewness ( p>ts1 abs5ce ( ar*es1 & l[ness ( p$im5ts & ro(s4 #be4 ,roman /yle4--,! ,romans adopt$ ! ?ree ,grecian ord]s1 ) "s modifications2 & also add$ two o!rs1 call$ ! ,tuscan & ,composite4 ,! =m] ( ^! !y borr[$ f ! nation ^: "n x be>s1 & ! latt] !y =m$ by unit+ ! embelli%m5ts ( ! ,doric & ! ,cor9?ian4 ,! favorite ord] 9 ,rome & its colonies 0 ! ,cor9?ian4 ,examples ( s+le pill>s ( ^! ord]s may be se5 at ! end ( ?is article4 #bf4 ,! temples ( ! ,romans g5]ally bore a /rong resemblance to ^? ( ! ,greeks1 al?\gh !y (t5 diff]$ f ! specim5s ( t nation 9 sev]al p>ticul>s4 ,! /ylobate ( ! latt] 0 usually a succession ( plat=ms1 :i* likewise s]v$ ! purposes ( /eps1 by :i* ! build+ 0 approa*$ on all sides4 ,among ! ,romans1 x 0 usually an elevat$ /ructure1 l a cont9u$ p$e/al1 on ?ree sides1 & accessible 9 front by means ( /eps4 ,! dome 0 also v commonly employ$ r ?an ! p5t ro(4 ,! foll[+ is an example ( a temple at ,rome4 ,illu/ration3 ,,temple ,,( ,,antonius ,,& ,,fau/9a4 #bg4 ,greco-,go?ic /yle4--,aft] ! dismemb]m5t ( ! ,roman empire1 ! practice ( erect+ new build+s f ! fragm5ts ( old ones became preval5t4 ,?is gave rise to an irregul> /yle ( build+1 :i* cont9u$ 9 use dur+ ! d>k ages4 ,x consi/$ ( ,greek & ,roman details comb9$ "u new =ms1 & pil$ up into /ructures :olly unlike ! orig9al build+s f :i* ! mat]ials _h be5 tak54 ,h5ce ! appellations ,greco-,go?ic & ,romanesque h be5 appli$ to x4 ,! effect ( ?is /yle ( build+ 0 v impos+1 especially :5 columns & ar*es 7 pil$ ^u ea* o!r to a great height4 #bh4 ,s>ac5ic /yle4--,?is appellation has be5 giv5 to ! /yle ( build+ practis$ by ! ,moors & ,s>ac5s 9 ,spa91 ,egypt1 & ,turkey4 ,x is di/+ui%$1 among o!r ?+s1 by an elliptical =m ( ! ar*4 ,a simil> peculi>ity exi/s 9 ! domes ( ! ,ori5tal mosques1 :i* are sometimes l>ge segm5ts ( a sph]e1 appe>+ z if inflat$2 & at o!r times1 !y are concavo-convex on ! outside4 ,sev]al ( ^! domes are commonly plac$ ^u "o build+4 ,! m9>et is a tall sl5d] t[]1 peculi> to ,turki% ar*itecture4 #bi4 ,go?ic /yle4--,! ,go?s1 :o ov]ran a great "p ( ! ,we/]n empire1 7 n ! inv5tors ( ! /yle ( ar*itecture :i* be>s _! "n4 ,! t]m 0 fir/ appli$ ) ! view to /igmatize ! edifices ( ! middle ages1 9 ! con/ruction ( :i*1 ! purity ( ! antique models _h n be5 reg>d$4 ,! t]m 0 at fir/ v ext5sive 9 its application2 b x is n[ conf9$ *iefly to ! /yle ( build+ :i* 0 introduc$ into v>i\s p>ts ( ,europe six or eight c5turies ago1 & :i* 0 us$ 9 ! con/ruction ( ca!drals1 *ur*es1 abbeys1 & simil> edifices4 ,illu/ration3 ,,go?ic ,,ca!dral ,,at ,,york4 #cj4 ,! ,go?ic /yle is peculi>ly & /rongly m>k$4 ,its pr9ciples seem to h orig9at$ 9 ! imitation ( groves & b[]s1 "u :i* ! ,druid prie/s _h be5 accu/om$ to p]=m _! sacr$ rites4 ,its *>act]i/ics are1 po9t$ ar*es1 p9nacles & spires1 l>ge buttresses1 clu/]$ pill>s1 vault$ ro(s1 & a g5]al pr$om9ance ( ! p]p5dicul> ov] ! horizontal4 #ca4 ,! ecclesia/ical edifices ( ?is /yle ( build+ are commonly 9 =m ( a cross1 hav+ a t[]1 lant]n1 or spire1 erect$ at ! po9t ( int]section4 ,! "p ( ! cross situat$ t[>ds ! we/ is call$ ! nave2 ! ea/]n "p1 ! *oir2 & ! transv]se portion1 ! transept4 ,a glance at ! foll[+ diagram w enable ! read] to und]/& ! =m ( ! gr\nd-"w m fully4 ,illu/ration #cb4 ,any high build+ erect$ above a ro( is call$ a /eeple1 :i* is also di/+ui%$ by diff]5t appellations1 accord+ to its =m3 if x is squ>e topp$1 x is a t[]2 if long & acute1 a spire2 or if %ort & light1 a lant]n4 ,t[]s ( great height 9 proportion to _! diamet] are d5om9at$ turrets4 ,! walls ( ,go?ic *ur*es are support$ on ! outside by lat]al projections1 call$ buttresses1 :i* ext5d f ! bottom to ! top1 at ! corn]s & betwe5 ! w9d[s4 ,on ! top ( ^! are sl5d] pyramidal /ructures or spires1 call$ p9nacles4 ,! summit or upp] edge ( a wall1 if /raight1 is call$ a p>apet2 if ind5t$1 a battlem5t4 #cc4 ,go?ic pill>s or columns are usually clu/]$1 appe>+ z if a numb] 7 b\nd toge!r4 ,!y are conf9$ *iefly to ! inside ( build+s1 & are g5]ally employ$ 9 su/a9+ ! vaults :i* support ! ro(4 ,! p>ts :i* are ?r[n out ( a p]p5dicul> to assi/ 9 =m+ ^! vaults1 h receiv$ ! appellation ( p5d5tives4 ,! ,go?ic /yle ( build+ is m impos+ ?an ! ,grecian2 b ar*itects ( ! pres5t day f9d x difficult to accompli% :at 0 a*iev$ by ! build]s ( ! middle ages4 #cd4 ,9 ! erection ( edifices at ! pres5t day1 ! ,grecian & ,go?ic /yles are *iefly employ$1 to ! exclusion ( ! o!rs1 especially 9 ,europe & ,am]ica4 ,mod]n dwell+-h\ses h necess>ily a /yle ( _! own1 s f> z relates to /ories1 w9d[s1 & *imneys2 & no m ( ! /yles ( =m] ages c be appli$ to !m1 ?an :at relates to ! uness5tial & decorative p>ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,,doric4 ,,ionic4 ,,cor9?ian4 ,,composite4 ,,tuscan4 ,,pill>s ,,& ,,entablatures ,,( ,,! ,,five ,,ord]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,c>p5t]4 ,,! ,,c>p5t]4 #a4 ,x is ! bus9ess ( ! c>p5t] to cut out & frame l>ge pieces ( timb]1 & !n to jo9 !m toge!r1 or fit !m to brick or /one walls1 to con/itute !m ! outl9es or skeleton ( build+s or p>ts ( build+s4 #b4 ,! jo9] executes ! m m9ute p>ts ( ! wood-"w ( edifices1 compreh5d+1 among o!r ?+s1 ! floors1 w9d[-frames1 sa%es1 doors1 mantels1 c4 ,c>p5try & jo9]y1 h[ev]1 are s ne>ly alli$ to ea* o!r1 t !y are commonly practis$ by ! same individuals2 &1 9 ?is article1 !y w be treat$ toge!r4 #c4 ,c>p5try & jo9]y1 z well z all o!r trades connect$ ) build+1 are subs]vi5t to ! ar*itect1 :5 an individual ( ?is p>ticul> pr(ession has be5 employ$2 b x mo/ commonly happ5s1 t ! ma/]-c>p5t] acts 9 ?is capacity4 ,?is is especially ! case 9 ! erection ( common dwell+s1 &1 9 fact1 ( o!r edifices :]e no?+ v spl5did is to be attempt$4 ,x is to be regrett$1 h[ev]1 t ! pr(essional ar*itect has n be5 (t5] employ$2 =1 _h ?is be5 ! case1 a pur] ta/e 9 build+ w\ld h g5]ally prevail$4 #d4 ,contracts = ! erection ( build+s are (t5 made ) ! c>p5t]1 z ma/]-build] or ar*itect4 ,9 su* cases1 x is 8 bus9ess to employ p]sons capable ( execut+ e k9d ( "w requir$ on ! propos$ edifice1 f ! bricklay] & /one-mason to ! pa9t] & glazi]4 ,x n unfrequ5tly happ5s1 h[ev]1 t ! p]son himself1 :o proposes to erect a build+1 *ooses to employ ! workm5 9 ! diff]5t bran*es4 #e4 ,! con/itu5t p>ts ( build+s hav+ be5 expla9$ 9 ! article on ar*itecture1 x is unnecess>y to ent] "h into m9ute details on ?is po9t2 nor w\ld a p>ticul> description ( ! v>i\s op]ations ( ! c>p5t] & jo9] be useful to ! g5]al read]1 s9ce1 9 e place1 means are at h& by :i* a g5]al view ( ?is bus9ess may be obta9$ by actual inspection4 #f4 ,! c>p5t] & jo9] are guid$1 9 ! p]=mance ( _! "w1 by well-def9$ rules1 drawn *iefly f ! sci5ce ( ,geometry1 & :i* !y h le>n$ f imitation & practice1 z well z1 9 _m cases1 f ! valuable works :i* h be5 publi%$ on ^! bran*es ( ! art ( build+4 #g4 ,! pr9cipal tools ) :i* !y op]ate are ! axe1 ! adze1 ! saw1 ! aug]1 ! gauge1 ! squ>e1 ! compasses1 ! hamm]1 ! mallet1 ! cr[1 ! rule1 ! level1 ! maul1 & ! plane2 & ( _m ( ^! !re are sev]al k9ds4 #h4 ,! timb]s mo/ employ$ 9 build+ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates are *iefly p9e1 oak1 bee*1 black walnut1 cypress1 l>*1 :ite c$>1 & hemlock2 b ( ^! p9e is 9 ! greate/ use4 ,oak & bee* are mu* us$ 9 con/ruct+ frames1 9 :i* great /r5g? is requir$4 ,( ! p9e1 !re are sev]al species1 ( :i* ! :ite & yell[ are ! mo/ valuable2 ! =m] ( ^! gr[s 9 ! greate/ abundance 9 ! ,nor!rn1 & ! latt]1 9 ! ,s\!rn /ates4 #i4 ,va/ quantities ( timb] are annually cut into bo>ds 9 saw-mills1 & float$ d[n ! riv]s f ! int]ior1 dur+ ! "t ( high wat] 9 ! spr+ & fall1 & sometimes at o!r seasons ( ! ye>4 ,! bo>ds1 or1 z !y are frequ5tly d5om9at$1 planks1 are plac$ 9 ! wat]1 "o ti] above ano!r1 & fa/5$ toge!r ) wood5 p9s4 ,sev]al ( su* rafts are connect$ by means ( )es to =m "o2 &1 at ea* end ( ?is1 are plac$ "o or two huge o>s1 ) :i* x may be guid$ d[n ! /ream4 ,^u ^! rafts1 %+les & la?s are also br\ght to m>ket4 #aj4 ,logs & scantl+ to be employ$ 9 ! frames ( build+s are also convey$ d[n ! riv]s 9 ! same mann]4 ,! bus9ess connect$ ) ! production ( %+les1 la?s1 bo>ds or planks1 & /aves1 is call$ lumb]+2 & x is c>ri$ on1 m or less ext5sively1 9 ! regions ne> ! s\rces ( all ! l>ge riv]s 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & 9 ! ,briti% possessions 9 ,nor? ,am]ica4 #aa4 ,! trade 9 lumb] has also giv5 rise to ano!r class ( m51 call$ lumb] m]*ants2 ^! pur*ase ! lumb] f ! orig9al proprietors1 :o br+ x d[n ! riv]s1 &1 9 _! turn1 sell x to build]s & o!rs4 ,! lumb]+ bus9ess employs a l>ge capital1 & a num]\s class ( our citiz5s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,/one-,,mason4 ,,! ,,/one-,,mason1 ,,! ,,brickmak]1 c4 ,,! ,,mason4 #a4 ,! art ( ,masonry includes ! saw+ & cutt+ ( /ones into ! v>i\s %apes requir$ 9 ! multipli$ purposes ( build+1 & 9 plac+ !m 9 a prop] mann] 9 ! walls & o!r p>ts ( edifices4 ,x is divid$ into two bran*es1 "o ( :i* consi/s 9 br++ ! /ones to ! desir$ =m & poli%1 & ! o!r1 9 lay+ !m 9 mort> or cem5t4 #b4 ,! rocks mo/ us$ 9 build+ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 are m>ble1 granite1 gre5/one1 sci5ite1 soap-/one1 lime/one1 gypsum1 & slate4 ,^! are f\nd 9 a great _m localities1 n only on ?is cont95t1 b on ! o!r side ( ! ,atlantic4 ,( ^! /ones1 !re are _m v>ieties1 :i* are frequ5tly designat$ by _! s5sible qualities1 or by ! "n ( ! place or c\ntry :5ce !y are obta9$2 z v>iegat$1 ,italian1 ,egyptian1 or ,/ockbridge m>ble1 & ,qu9cy /one4 #c4 ,! ,/one-cutt]4--,/one-cutt]s procure _! mat]ials f ! qu>ry-m51 ^: bus9ess x is to get out ! /ones f ! qu>ries1 9 :i* !y lie 9 b$s1 consi/+ ei!r ( /rata pil$ ^u ea* o!r1 or ( solid masses4 ,/ones ( any desirable dim5sions are deta*$ f ! great mass ( rock1 by fir/ drill+ holes at suitable po9ts1 & !n driv+ into !m w$ges ) a sl$ge4 ,^! blocks are usually remov$ f ! qu>ries1 & plac$ on vehicles ( transportation1 by means ( huge cranes1 ) :i* is connect$ suitable ma*9]y4 #d4 ,! blocks ( /one1 receiv$ 9 _! r\gh /ate by ! /one-cutt]1 are divid$1 if requir$1 into pieces ( small] size1 by means ( a too?less saw1 aid$ by ! attrition ( s& & wat]4 ,! o!r r\gh sides ( ! blocks are r$uc$ to ! prop] =m by means ( /eel po9ts & *isels driv5 ) a mallet4 ,a k9d ( hamm] ) a po9t or *isel-l edge1 is also us$ to effect ! same object1 especially 9 ! s(t] k9ds ( /one4 #e4 ,= "s purposes1 ! /ones are requir$ to be poli%$4 ,?is is especially ! case ) ^? employ$ 9 ! ornam5tal p>ts ( build+s4 ,9 ! execution ( ?is "p ( ! "w1 ! surface is rubb$ successively ) s&1 free/one1 pumice-/one1 ,scot* /one1 crocus1 & putty4 ,:5 ! face is a plane1 ! s& is appli$ by means ( ano!r /one1 :i* is mov$ backw>ds & =w>ds ^u x4 ,9 ?is way1 two surfaces are affect$ at ! same "t4 #f4 ,9 poli%+ irregul> surfaces1 ! diff]5t k9ds ( /one are us$ 9 masses ( conv5i5t size2 & ! "p appli$ to ! surface to be poli%$ is fir/ br\ght to a =m correspond+ to x4 ,! putty is an oxyde ( t91 9 =m ( p[d]4 ,crocus is ! p]oxyde ( iron4 ,! build+-/one capable ( receiv+ ! highe/ poli% is m>ble2 & x is on ?is mat]ial t ! /one-cutt]1 & ! ar*itectural c>v] or sculptor1 ex]t _! utmo/ skill2 b "s ( ! o!r /ones :i* h be5 m5tion$1 possess ! same quality to a consid]able ext5t4 #g4 ,c>v+ ar*itectural ornam5ts1 su* z pill>s ) _! capitals1 is a ref9$ bran* ( ?is bus9ess2 or x may r be consid]$1 ( itself1 a bran* ( sculpture4 ,9 ! execution ( ?is k9d ( "w1 ! op]ator is guid$ by patt]ns1 =m$ f ! well-def9$ rules ( ! sci5ce ( build+4 ,v few /one-cutt]s attempt ! execution ( "w s v difficult4 #h4 ,f ! manufacture ( mantel-pieces & monum5ts = ! dead1 ! /one-cutt] d]ives a great proportion ( 8 pr(its4 ,?is w be manife/ ev5 to ! sup]ficial obs]v] :o may visit a few ( ! _m /one-cutt]s' y>ds1 to be f\nd 9 any ( our l>ge cities4 ,9 "s ( ^!1 blocks ( m>ble are cut into slabs by ! aid ( /eam-p[]4 #i4 ,9 di/ricts ( c\ntry1 also1 :]e valuable /one is abundant1 wat] is ext5sively employ$ = ! same purpose4 ,?is is especially ! case 9 ,b]k%ire c\nty1 ,massa*usetts1 :]e m>ble ( a good quality is abundant4 ,a great proportion ( ! m>ble slabs us$ by ! /one-cutt] are obta9$ f su* mills4 ,"s o!r op]ations ( ?is bus9ess are also sometimes p]=m$ by ! aid ( ma*9]y4 ,,! ,,/one-,,mason4 #a4 ,9 ,philadelphia1 & 9 _m o!r cities n only 9 ?is c\ntry1 b also 9 ,europe1 ! /one-cutt]s set _! own "w2 & ?is practice has l$ to ! habit ( apply+ ! t]m /one-mason to bo? /one-cutt]s & ^? :o lay /one 9 mort> & cem5t4 ,9 ,new-,york1 h[ev]1 z well z 9 "s ( ! cities f>!r ea/1 ^! two employm5ts are kept m di/9ct4 ,! /one-cutt]s 9 ,philadelphia are sometimes d5om9at$ m>ble-masons4 #b4 ,b1 9 e city1 !re are p]sons call$ /one-masons1 ^: bus9ess consi/s exclusively 9 con/ruct+ ! walls & "s o!r p>ts ( build+s ) /one2 & _! op]ations are consid]ably enl>g$ 9 ^? places :]e !re are no m>ble-masons4 ,9 _m cases1 ! bricklay] is also s f> a /one-mason1 z to lay ! f\ndation-walls ( ! build+s :i* he may erect4 ,?is is especially ! case 9 ! c\ntry1 :]e ! divisions ( labor are n s m9ute z 9 cities4 ,x may be well "h to rem>k1 also1 t ! bricklay]s1 9 "s places1 p]=m ! s]vices ( ! m>ble-mason4 #c4 ,! m>ble-mason1 9 jo9+ toge!r sev]al pieces 9 a monum5t1 employs a k9d ( cem5t compos$ ( ab\t six p>ts ( lime1 "o ( pure s&1 a little pla/]1 & z mu* wat] z may be necess>y to =m x to ! prop] consi/5cy4 ,no m ( ?is cem5t is us$ ?an is requir$ to hold ! blocks or p>ts toge!r1 z "o great object ( ! arti/ is to hide ! jo9ts z mu* z possible4 ,! sub/ance ?us int]pos$1 becomes z h>d z ! m>ble itself4 #d4 ,! cem5t employ$ 9 lay+ m>ble 9 common or l>ge edifices1 is some:at diff]5t f t j describ$1 z x consi/s ( ab\t ?ree f\r?s ( lime & "o ( s&4 ,! latt] sub/ance is obta9$1 9 an unmix$ /ate1 on ! bays 9 e "p ( ! _w2 h5ce x has receiv$ ! appellation ( bay s&4 #e4 ,:5 x _c be conv5i5tly _h 9 a pure /ate1 p>ticles ( ! same k9d c be sep>at$ 9 suffici5t quantities f _! admixture ) o!r sub/ances4 ,?is is effect$ by sift+ ! comp\nd ?r\gh a sieve1 into a small /ream ( wat]1 :i* c>ries (f ! light] p>ticles t are unfit = use1 :il/ ! s&1 by its sup]ior specific gravity1 s9ks to ! bottom4 ,! "p :i* may be too co>se1 rema9s 9 ! sieve4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 except ! rubbi%1 c be us$ 9 ! co>s] k9ds ( masonry4 #f4 ,! mort>1 us$ 9 lay+ bricks & common /one1 has a great] proportion ( s&1 :i* is g5]ally ( an inf]ior quality4 ,besides1 ! mat]ials are incorporat$ ) less c>e4 ,lime = ! purposes ( build+ is procur$ *iefly by calc9+ lime/one 9 a kiln1 ) wood1 coal1 or "s o!r combu/ible sub/ance4 ,x is also obta9$ by burn+ *alk1 m>ble1 & m>9e %ells4 ,wat] p\r$ ^u newly-burnt or quick lime1 causes x to swell1 & fall to pieces into a f9e p[d]4 ,9 ?is /ate x is said to be slack$4 #g4 ,masonry is (t5 requir$ 9 situations "u wat]1 especially 9 ! con/ruction ( bridges & locks ( canals4 ,common mort> resi/s ! action ( ! wat] v well1 :5 x has become p]fectly dry2 yet1 if x is imm]s$ be=e x has _h "t to h>d51 x dissolves1 & crumbles away4 #h4 ,! anci5t ,romans1 :o practis$ build+ 9 ! wat] to a great ext5t1 discov]$ a mat]ial1 :i*1 :5 incorporat$ ) lime1 ei!r ) or )\t s&1 possess$ ! prop]ty ( h>d5+ 9 a few m9utes ev5 "u wat]4 ,?is 0 a k9d ( e>? f\nd at ,puteoli1 to :i* 0 giv5 ! "n ( pulvis puteolanus1 & :i* is ! same n[ call$ puzzolana4 #i4 ,a sub/ance d5om9at$ t>ras1 t]ras1 or tras1 f\nd ne> ,&]na*1 9 ! vic9ity ( ! ,rh9e1 possesses ! same quality ) puzzolana4 ,x is ?is mat]ial :i* has be5 pr9cipally employ$ by ! ,dut*1 ^: aquatic /ructures are sup]ior to ^? ( any o!r nation 9 ,europe4 ,v>i\s o!r sub/ances1 su* z bak$ clay & calc9$ gre5/one1 r$uc$ to p[d]1 af=d a tol]able mat]ial = wat]-cem5ts4 ,sev]al qu>ries ( wat] lime1 :i* is simil> 9 appe>ance to common lime/one1 has be5 lately discov]$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 :i*1 be+ f9ely pulv]iz$ & mix$ ) s&1 makes v good wat]-cem5t4 #aj4 ,9 build+s con/ruct$ ) m>ble & o!r co/ly /ones1 ! walls are n compos$ ( ^! mat]ials 9 _! entire ?ickness2 b1 = ! sake ( *eapness1 !y are =m$ on ! inside ) bricks1 commonly ( a poor quality1 s t 9 reality !y c be consid]$ only brick walls fac$ ) /one4 ,^! two k9ds ( mat]ials h no o!r connexion ?an :at is produc$ by ! mort> :i* may h be5 int]pos$1 & ! occasional use ( clamps ( iron4 ,su* walls are said to be liable to become convex outw>dly f ! diff]5ce 9 ! %r9k+ ( ! cem5t employ$ 9 lay+ ! two walls4 #aa4 ,! pr9cipal tools employ$ 9 cutt+ & lay+ /one are ! saw1 v>i\s k9ds ( /eel po9ts1 *isels & hamm]s1 ! mallet1 ! squ>e1 ! compasses1 ! level1 ! plumb-rule1 ! tr[el1 & ! hod1 to :i* may be add$1 ! spade & ! hoe4 ,! la/ ?ree in/rum5ts1 h[ev]1 are h&l$ almo/ exclusively by labor]s4 #ab4 ,besides ^!1 contrivances are requir$ to raise heavy mat]ials to ! v>i\s positions :i* !y are to occupy4 ,^! consi/1 = ! mo/ "p1 ( "o or two %afts1 commonly ! ma/ ( an old vessel1 to :i* are atta*$ tackle ext5d+ 9 v>i\s directions1 & also ^? by :i* ! blocks are to be rais$4 ,! rope belong+ to ! hoi/+ tackle is pull$ by a ma*9e work$ ) a crank4 #ac4 ,masonry is "o ( ! primitive arts1 & 0 c>ri$ to great p]fection 9 anci5t times4 ,! pyramids ( ,egypt are suppos$ to h /ood ab\t ?ree ?\s& ye>s1 & !y w probably rema9 = c5turies to come1 monum5ts z well ( ! folly z ( ! p[] & indu/ry ( man4 ,! temples & o!r magnific5t /ructures ( ,greece & ,rome1 exhibit wond]ful skill 9 masonry1 & leave b little1 if any?+ new1 to be a*iev$ 9 mod]n times4 ,,! ,,brickmak]4 #a4 ,brick is a sort ( artificial /one1 made pr9cipally ( argillace\s e>?s =m$ 9 m\lds1 dri$ 9 ! sun1 & burn$ ) fire4 #b4 ,! e>lie/ hi/orical notice ( bricks is f\nd 9 ! book ( ,g5esis1 :]e x is /at$ t ! po/]ity ( ,noah und]took to build a city & a l(ty t[] ( ?is mat]ial4 ,:e!r ! bricks 7 really expos$ to ! action ( fire1 z ! passage ref]r$ to seems to imply1 or only dri$ 9 ! sun1 is an unsettl$ po9t4 ,b ,h]odotus1 :o visit$ ! spot _m c5turies aft]w>ds1 /ates t ! bricks 9 ! t[] ( ,babylon 7 bak$ 9 furnaces4 #c4 ,x is evid5t1 h[ev]1 t ! e>lie/ bricks 7 commonly h>d5$ 9 ! sun2 &1 to give !m ! requisite degree ( t5acity1 *opp$ /raw 0 mix$ ) ! clay4 ,! manufacture ( su* bricks 0 "o ( ! tasks impos$ ^u ! ,israelites1 dur+ _! s]vitude ) ! ,egyptians4 #d4 ,! extreme dryness & heat ( ! climate 9 "s ( ! ea/]n c\ntries1 r5d]$ ! application ( fire disp5sable2 & !re are /ructures ( unburnt bricks /ill rema9+1 :i* 7 built two or ?ree ?\s& ye>s ago4 ,bricks bo? sun-dri$ & burn$1 7 us$ by ! ,greeks & ! ,romans4 #e4 ,! walls ( ,babylon1 "s ( ! anci5t /ructures ( ,egypt & ,p]sia1 ! walls ( ,a!ns1 ! rotunda ( ! ,pan!on1 ! temple ( ,peace1 & ! ,!rm1 or ba?s1 at ,rome1 7 all built ( brick4 ,! mo/ common bricks among ! ,romans 7 sev5te5 in*es long & elev5 broad2 a size1 c]ta9ly1 f> pref]able1 z reg>ds appe>ance1 to ^? ( mod]n manufacture4 #f4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 a great proportion ( ! edifices1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! cities & t[ns1 are con/ruct$ ( bricks1 :i* are usually manufactur$ 9 ! vic9ity ( ! place :]e !y are to be us$4 ,! common clay1 ( :i* !y are made1 consi/s ( a mixture ( argillace\s e>? & s&1 ) a little oxyde ( iron1 :i* causes !m to turn r$ 9 burn+4 ,! mat]ial = bricks is dug up1 & ?r[n into a l>ge heap1 late 9 ! fall or 9 ! w9t]1 & expos$ to ! influ5ce ( ! fro/ until spr+4 #g4 ,! op]ation ( mak+ bricks is conduct$ v sy/ematically2 &1 al?\gh e "p ( ! "w seems to be v simple1 x requires consid]able dext]ity to p]=m x prop]ly & to ! be/ advantage4 ,! workm51 9 ! y>ds ab\t ,philadelphia1 are divid$ into gangs consi/+ ( ?ree m5 & a boy4 ,! fir/ is call$ ! temp]]1 :o temp]s ! mat]ial ) wat] & mixes x ) a spade2 ! second is call$ ! :eel]1 :o conveys x on a b>r[ to a table1 :]e x is =m$ 9 m\lds by ! m\ld]1 :5ce x is c>ri$ to ! floor by ! boy1 :o is d5om9at$ ! (f-be>]4 #h4 ,! bricks are suff]$ to rema9 on ! floor a day or two1 or until !y h become dry en\gh to be h&l$ ) safety4 ,!y are !n remov$ & pil$ into a hack1 "u cov]1 9 su* a mann] t ! air may circulate freely betwe5 !m4 ,x is ! bus9ess ( ! :ole gang to remove ! bricks f ! floor1 & also to place !m 9 ! kiln to be burn$4 ,9 bo? cases1 ea* "o has 8 due proportion ( labor to p]=m4 #i4 ,! day's "w ( a gang1 :5 ! wea!r is favorable1 is to make & pile 9 ! hack a tale ( bricks1 :i* consi/s ( #bccb1 or an ev5 #bjjj4 ,! =m] numb] is call$ a long tale1 & ! latt]1 a %ort tale4 ,consid]able skill & mu* c>e are requir$ 9 burn+ ! bricks 9 a prop] mann]2 too mu* fire w\ld cause !m to vitrify1 & too little w\ld leave !m s(t1 & unfit = atmosph]ic exposure4 #aj4 ,9 _m places1 ! clay is mix$ or prep>$ = ! m\ld] by driv+ r\nd ^u x a yoke ( ox51 or by means ( a simple ma*9e1 consi/+ ( a beam1 into :i* has be5 driv5 a great numb] ( spokes4 ,"o end ( ?is beam is conf9$ 9 a c5tral position1 :ile ! o!r is mov$ r\nd 9 a sweep by animal p[]4 #aa4 ,ma*9es h also be5 inv5t$ by ! aid ( :i* ! clay may be bo? mix$ & m\ld$2 b ^! h be5 v little us$4 ,a ma*9e1 h[ev]1 is (t5 employ$ 9 press+ bricks :i* h be5 =m$ 9 ! usual mann]4 ,! press+ is done aft] ! bricks h become p>tially dry4 ,su* bricks are employ$ 9 fac+ ! walls ( ! bett] k9ds ( /ructures4 #ab4 ,tiles4--,tiles are plates us$ = cov]+ ro(s4 ,!y resemble bricks 9 _! composition & mode ( manufacture1 & are %ap$ 9 su* a mann] t :5 plac$ ^u a build+1 ! edge ( "o tile receives t next to x1 s t wat] _c p]colate betwe5 !m4 ,tiles1 bo? ( burnt clay & m>ble1 7 us$ by ! anci5ts2 & ! =m] cont9ue to be employ$ 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ,europe4 ,flat tiles are us$ = floors 9 _m c\ntries1 & especially 9 ,italy4 ,,! ,,bricklay]4 #a4 ,! p>ticul> bus9ess ( ! bricklay] is to lay bricks 9 mort> or "s o!r cem5t1 s z to =m "o solid body2 b he frequ5tly con/ructs ! f\ndations ( build+s 9 r\gh /ones1 &1 9 "s cities1 he sets hewn /one 9 ! sup]/ructure4 ,9 ! c\ntry1 pla/]+ is likewise connect$ ) ?is bus9ess4 #b4 ,bricklay+ consi/s 9 plac+ "o brick ^u ano!r 9 mort>1 *iefly 9 ! con/ruction ( walls1 *imneys1 & ov5s4 ,9 connect+ ^! mat]ials1 especially 9 walls1 two me?ods are employ$1 "o ( :i* is call$ ! ,engli% bond1 & ! o!r1 ! ,flemi% bond4 ,9 ! =m] me?od1 ! bricks are mo/ commonly ( "o quality1 & are laid crosswise & l5g?wise 9 alt]nate r[s4 ,! bricks :i* are laid across ! wall are call$ head]s1 & ^? :i* are laid 9 ! o!r direction are call$ /ret*]s4 ,! brick-"w ( ! ,romans 0 ( ?is k9d1 & s are ! p>tition-walls ( _m mod]n brick edifices4 #c4 ,! bricks employ$ 9 ! walls con/ruct$ accord+ to ! ,flemi% me?od1 are ( two1 & frequ5tly ( ?ree1 qualities4 ,^? plac$ 9 ! front1 or on ! ext]nal surface1 are manufactur$ ) great] c>e1 &1 9 "s cases1 are =m$ 9 a l>g] m\ld4 ,a wall put up on ?is pr9ciple may be said to consi/ ( two ?9 walls compos$ ( /ret*]s1 ) occasional head]s1 to unite !m toge!r4 ,! space betwe5 !m1 :5 ! wall is ?ick1 is fill$ 9 ) ! inf]ior bricks4 #d4 ,! inclos+ walls ( all brick edifices are erect$ on ?is plan1 al?\gh !y are ?\ght to be m insecure ?an ^? con/ruct$ on ! old ,engli% me?od4 ,! reasons alleg$ = ! pref]5ce1 are its sup]ior beauty1 & a consid]able sav+ 9 ! mo/ exp5sive k9d ( bricks4 ,great] security might be atta9$ by ! use ( l>g] bricks1 say sixte5 in*es 9 l5g?1 & wide & ?ick 9 proportion4 ,besides1 an edifice con/ruct$ ( well-made bricks ( ?is size w\ld be b little inf]ior 9 appe>ance to m>ble itself4 #e4 ,mo/ ( ! in/rum5ts us$ by ! bricklay] are also employ$ by ! /one-mason2 & !y h1 !re=e1 be5 already m5tion$4 ,! p>ticul> me?od ( lay+ bricks1 9 _! v>i\s applications1 c be le>n$ by actual inspection 9 almo/ e village1 city1 or neighborhood1 9 our c\ntry1 a m p>ticul> description ( ! bricklay]'s op]ations is h5ce unnecess>y4 #f4 ,be=e clos+ ?is subject1 h[ev]1 x may be well to /ate t ! *imney appe>s to be an inv5tion comp>atively mod]n1 s9ce ! fir/ c]ta9 notice we h ( x is f\nd 9 an inscription at ,v5ice1 9 :i* x is /at$ t1 9 #acdg1 a great _m *imneys 7 ?r[n d[n by an e>?quake4 ,x is conjectur$ t ?is valuable improvem5t orig9at$ 9 ,italy1 inasmu* z x 0 "h t *imney-sweep+ 0 fir/ foll[$ z a bus9ess4 #g4 ,be=e ! introduction ( ! *imney1 x 0 cu/om>y to make ! fire 9 a hole or pit 9 ! c5tre or "s o!r "p ( ! floor1 "u an op5+ =m$ 9 ! ro(1 :i*1 9 unfavorable wea!r1 c\ld be clos$ by a moveable cov]+4 ,among ! ,romans1 ! he>? or fire-place 0 locat$ 9 ! atrium or hall1 & ar\nd x ! l>es1 or h\sehold gods1 7 plac$4 ,to avoid be+ infe/$ ) smoke1 !y burn$ dry wood soak$ 9 ! lees ( oil4 ,9 w>m+ o!r ap>tm5ts ( ! h\se1 !y us$ portable furnaces1 9 :i* 7 plac$ emb]s & burn+ coals4 #h4 ,x is said by ,s5eca1 :o fl\ri%$ ab\t ! middle ( ! fir/ c5tury ( ! ,*ri/ian era1 t 9 8 "t1 a p>ticul> k9d ( pipes 0 inv5t$1 & affix$ to ! walls ( build+s1 ?r\gh :i* heat f a subt]ranean furnace 0 made to circulate4 ,by ?is means1 ! rooms 7 heat$ m equally4 ,9 ! s\!rn p>ts ( ,italy & ,spa91 !re are /ill v few *imneys4 ,! same may be said ( _m o!r c\ntries1 :]e ! climate is pleasant or v w>m4 #i4 ,holl9%ead1 :o wrote dur+ ! reign ( ,que5 ,elizabe?1 ?us describes ! rud5ess ( ! prec$+ g5]ation 9 ! arts ( life3 ,!re 7 v few *imneys ev5 9 capital t[ns3 ! fire 0 laid to ! wall1 & ! smoke issu$ out at ! ro(1 or door1 or w9d[4 ,! h\ses 7 wattl$1 & pla/]$ ov] ) clay2 & all ! furniture & ut5sils 7 ( wood4 ,! p slept on /raw pallets1 ) a log ( wood = a pill[4 ,,! ,,pla/]]4 #a4 ,9 mod]n practice1 pla/]+ occurs 9 _m dep>tm5ts ( ar*itecture4 ,x is m p>ticul>ly appli$ to ! ceil+s & int]ior walls ( build+s1 & also 9 r\gh-ca/+ on _! ext]ior4 #b4 ,9 pla/]+ ! int]ior p>ts ( build+s1 ?ree coat+s ( mort> are commonly appli$ 9 succession4 ,! mort> = ! fir/ coat is compos$ ( ab\t twelve p>ts ( s&1 six ( lime1 & ?ree ( hair1 ) a suffici5t quantity ( wat] to br+ x to ! prop] consi/5ce2 t = ! second coat conta9s a less proportion ( lime & hair2 & t = ! ?ird coat is compos$ exclusively ( lime & wat]4 #c4 ,! mort> is appli$ directly to ! solid wall1 or to ?9 /rips ( wood call$ la?s1 :i* h be5 fa/5$ ) small nails to ! joi/s1 & o!r p>ts ( ! frame ( ! build+4 ,! tools ) :i* ! pla/]] applies ! mort> are tr[els ( diff]5t sizes & %apes1 & ! hawk4 ,! latt] in/rum5t is a bo>d ab\t a foot squ>e1 ) a %ort h&le project+ at "r angles f ! bottom4 #d4 ,9 all well-f9i%$ rooms1 cornices are run at ! junction ( ! wall & ceil+4 ,! mat]ials ( ^! cornices are lime1 wat]1 & pla/]4 ,! lime & wat] are fir/ incorporat$1 & ! pla/] is add$ ) an additional quantity ( wat]1 z x may be ne$$ = imm$iate application4 ,! composition is appli$ 9 a semifluid /ate1 b ! pla/] causes x to set1 or to become solid imm$iately4 ,9 ! mean "t1 ! workman applies to x1 9 a progressive mann]1 ! edge ( a solid piece ( wood1 9 :i* an exact pr(ile ( ! propos$ cornice has be5 cut4 #e4 ,ornam5ts ( irregul> %ape are ca/ 9 m\lds ( wax or pla/] ( ,p>is1 & ^! are =m$ on models ( ! propos$ figures 9 clay4 ,su* ornam5ts 7 =m]ly ! productions ( manual op]ations p]=m$ by +5i\s m5 call$ ornam5tal pla/]]s4 ,! ca/s are all made ( ! pure/ pla/]2 &1 aft] hav+ be5 poli%$1 !y are fa/5$ to ! prop] place ) ! same sub/ance saturat$ ) wat]4 #f4 ,! bran* ( ?is bus9ess call$ r\gh-ca/+1 consi/s 9 apply+ mort> to ! ext]ior walls ( h\ses4 ,! mode 9 :i* ! "w is p]=m$ v>ies b little f t adopt$ 9 pla/]+ ! walls ( ap>tm5ts4 ,x1 h[ev]1 requires only two coats ( ! cem5t2 &1 :5 ^! h be5 appli$1 ! surface is m>k$ (f 9 imitation ( masonry4 ,x is likewise sometimes color$1 t x may resemble m>ble or "s o!r /one4 #g4 ,! cem5t is commonly made ( %>p s& & lime2 b sometimes a k9d ( argillace\s /one1 calc9$ 9 kilns & aft]w>ds r$uc$ to p[d] by me*anical means1 makes a "p ( ! composition4 ,! qualities ( ?is mat]ial 7 fir/ discov]$ by a ,mr4 ,p>k]1 :o obta9$ lett]s pat5t = ?is application ( x1 9 ,engl&1 9 #agif2 h5ce x has be5 call$ ,p>k]'s cem5t4 ,,! ,,slat]4 #a4 ,slate /one is valuable = ! prop]ty ( splitt+ 9 "o direction1 s z to af=d fragm5ts ( a suffici5t size & ?9ness to answ] sev]al purposes1 b especially = cov]+ h\ses & = writ+ slates4 ,! be/ slates are ^? :i* are ev5 & compact1 & :i* absorb ! lea/ wat]4 #b4 ,! slates us$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 are obta9$ ei!r f our own qu>ries1 ( :i* !re are sev]al1 or f ^? ( ,wales1 9 ! c\nty ( ,ca]n>von%ire4 ,! /one is qu>ri$ 9 masses1 :i* are aft]w>ds split into pieces ( suitable ?9ness4 ,^! are trimm$ to an oblong figure by means ( a knife & a /eel edge1 :i* act ^u ! slate mu* 9 ! mann] ( a l>ge pair ( %e>s4 #c4 ,z x is impossible to dress all ! slates to ! same size )\t mu* wa/e ( mat]ial1 ^? engag$ 9 _! manufacture h introduc$ sev]al sizes1 ! smalle/ ( :i* are made ( ! fragm5ts ( ! l>g] k9ds4 ,^! are designat$ by names kn[n to ! trade1 & to ^? practically conv]sant ) ! art ( build+4 #d4 ,! slates1 :5 br\ght to m>ket1 especially ^? f ,wales1 require additional dress+ to fit !m = use4 ,! mann] ( apply+ !m to ro(s diff]s b little f t employ$ 9 putt+ on %+les1 z !y are lapp$ ov] ea* o!r 9 ! same way1 & conf9$ to _! place by means ( nails ( a simil> k9d4 ,! nails1 h[ev]1 h a broad] head1 & are some:at l>g]1 v>y+ 9 size to suit ! dim5sions ( ! slate4 ,! holes 9 ! slate = ! nails are made ) a /eel po9t atta*$ to ! slat]'s hamm]1 or to 8 knife1 te*nically call$ a saix4 #e4 ,slates are pref]able to %+les on acc\nt ( _! durability1 &1 9 a majority ( situations1 = _! fire-pro( quality4 ,!y1 h[ev]1 are objectionable on acc\nt ( _! weight & exp5siv5ess1 & are !re=e beg9n+ to be sup]s$$ 9 ?is c\ntry by %eets ( z9c1 & by ^? ( iron coat$ ) t94 ,copp] & lead are also us$ = ro(s1 b ! metals j m5tion$ are beg9n+ to exclude !m altoge!r4 #f4 ,a s]i\s objection to metal ro(s has be5 _! liability to crack1 caus$ by ! contraction & expansion ( ! mat]ial1 9 consequ5ce ( v>iations 9 ! temp]ature ( ! wea!r2 b a p>ticul> me?od ( putt+ ! %eets toge!r has be5 lately devis$1 :i* appe>s to obviate ! difficulty4 ,tiles are n us$ 9 ?is c\ntry1 al?\gh 9 ,europe !y are v common4 ,illu/ration3 ,,pa9t] ,,glazi]4 ,,! ,,pa9t]1 ,,& ,,! ,,glazi]4 ,,! ,,h\se ,,& ,,sign ,,pa9t]4 #a4 ,! pa9t+ :i* is ! subject ( ?is article relates to =m+ lett]s & sometimes ornam5tal & significant figures on signs1 z well z to ! application ( pa9ts to h\ses & o!r /ructures1 = ! purpose ( improv+ _! appe>ance1 & ( pres]v+ !m f ! influ5ce ( ! atmosph]e & o!r de/ructive ag5ts4 #b4 ,! sub/ances capable ( be+ employ$ by ! h\se & sign pa9t]1 comprise a great v>iety ( articles1 d]iv$ f ! m9]al1 vegetable1 & animal k+doms2 b he ord9>ily conf9es 8 selection to b few1 among :i* are :ite lead1 li?>ge1 ,spani% br[n1 yell[ o*re1 *rome yell[1 r$ o*re1 t]ra di si5na1 lampblack1 v]digris1 l9se$-oil1 spirits ( turp5t9e1 & gold-leaf4 #c4 ,:ite lead & li?>ge are manufactur$ 9 great quantities at *emical works1 sometimes e/abli%$ = ! express purpose ( mak+ ^! & "s o!r prep>ations ( lead4 ,! sub/ances ( :i* we are n[ speak+1 are produc$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 ! lead1 9 =m ( a cont9u$ %eet1 ab\t ?ree feet long1 six in*es wide1 & "o l9e 9 ?ickness1 is w\nd spirally up 9 su* a mann]1 t ! coils may /& ab\t half an in* ap>t4 #d4 ,! metal 9 ?is =m is plac$ v]tically 9 e>!n vessels1 at ! bottom ( :i* is "s /rong v9eg>4 ,^! vessels1 be+ plac$ 9 s&1 horse manure1 or tan1 are expos$ to a g5tle heat1 :i* causes ! gradual evaporation ( ! v9eg>4 ,! vapor ?us produc$1 assi/$ by ! oxyg5 :i* is pres5t1 conv]ts ! expos$ surface into a c>bonate ( lead1 ! sub/ance kn[n z :ite lead1 or c]use4 #e4 ,! corrosion ( "o ( ^! %eets occupies f ?ree to six weeks1 dur+ :i* "t x is repeat$ly uncoil$ & scrap$4 ,li?>ge1 or flake :ite1 is no?+ m ?an ! d5se/ & ?icke/ scales produc$ 9 ! mann] j describ$4 ,x c be obta9$ 9 a pure /ate f ! deal]s 9 pa9ts1 :]eas ! :ite lead ( comm]ce is mo/ commonly adult]at$ ) *alk4 #f4 ,spani% br[n1 yell[ o*re1 & t]ra di si5na1 are e>?s impregnat$ ) iron 9 diff]5t degrees ( oxydation4 ,r$ o*re is yell[ o*re burn$4 ,*rome yell[ is ext5sively manufactur$ 9 ,baltimore1 f ! *romate ( iron1 f\nd ne> t city4 ,9 *emical phraseology1 ! manufactur$ article is ! *romate ( lead1 s9ce ! *romate is sep>at$ f ! iron by ! aid ( a solution ( ! nitrate or acetate ( lead4 #g4 ,l9se$-oil is obta9$ f flax-se$ by pressure4 ,x is aft]w>ds filt]$1 & !n suff]$ to rema9 at re/1 to precipitate & cl>ify4 ,?is oil improves 9 quality by keep+1 z x becomes1 9 a few ye>s1 z transp>5t z wat]4 ,9 ?is /ate1 x is employ$ 9 ! f9e/ pa9t+4 #h4 ,be=e ! oil is us$1 x is commonly boil$ ) a small quantity ( li?>ge & r$ lead1 to cause x to dry rapidly1 aft] ! pa9t has be5 appli$4 ,dur+ ! boil+1 ! scum is remov$ z fa/ z x rises1 & ?is is mix$ ) inf]ior pa9ts ( a d>k color4 ,l9se$-oil1 ?us prep>$1 is v5d$ by deal]s 9 pa9ts1 "u ! "n ( boil$ oil4 #i4 ,spirits ( turp5t9e is produc$ by di/ill+ ) wat] ! res9\s juice or sap ( sev]al species ( ! p9e4 ,! residuum1 aft] di/illation1 is ! turp5t9e ( comm]ce4 ,spirits ( turp5t9e is mix$ ) pa9ts1 to cause !m to dry ) rapidity4 ,l oil1 x improves ) age1 & x is sold 9 ! same mann] by ! common w9e measure4 #aj4 ,:ite lead1 & sev]al o!r pr9cipal pa9ts1 are pur*as$ 9 _! crude condition1 & r$uc$ to a /ate ( m9ute division 9 pa9t-mills4 ,!y are aft]w>ds mix$ ) boil$ oil1 & put up 9 kegs ( diff]5t sizes = sale4 ,_m articles1 h[ev]1 are pulv]iz$1 & sold 9 a dry /ate4 ,! prep>ation ( pa9ts is commonly a di/9ct bus9ess1 & v few pa9t]s seem to be acqua9t$ ) ! mode 9 :i* x is p]=m$4 #aa4 ,9 mix+ colors = h\se & sign pa9t+1 :ite lead =ms ! basis ( all ! +r$i5ts4 ,?is ! color prep>]1 or ! pa9t] himself1 modifies & *anges by ! addition ( color+ mat]ials1 until x is t+$ ) ! propos$ hue4 ,! pigm5ts d]iv$ f vegetable bodies1 produce1 :5 fir/ appli$ to surfaces1 a brilliant effect2 b !y _c long resi/ ! comb9$ influ5ce ( air & light1 :ile ! m9]al colors1 9 ! same exposure1 rema9 un*ang$4 #ab4 ,pa9t]s1 9 ! execution ( _! "w1 commonly lay on ?ree coats ( pa9t4 ,9 communicat+ a :ite1 ! two fir/ coats are compos$ ( :ite lead & oil2 & 9 ! la/1 spirits ( turp5t9e is sub/itut$ = ! oil1 = ! inside "w4 ,= ! outside ( build+s1 especially 9 w>m & dry climates1 ?is liquid is inapplicable1 s9ce x causes ! pa9t to crack & flake (f4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 frequ5tly us$1 :5 ! pa9t] is compell$ to d 8 "w at too l[ a rate1 or :5 he is reg>dless ( 8 reputation4 #ac4 ,= o!r colors1 ! composition = ! diff]5t coats is ! same1 except = ! two la/1 9 :i* o!r color+ sub/ances are add$ to ! mat]ials j m5tion$1 to give ! propos$ hue4 ,! tools = pa9t+ h\ses are few 9 numb]1 & consi/ *iefly ( bru%es ( diff]5t sizes1 made ( hog's bri/les4 #ad4 ,gra9+ is und]/ood1 among pa9t]s1 to be ! imitation ( ! diff]5t species ( sc>ce woods us$ = ! be/ articles ( furniture4 ,b ! mann] 9 :i* ?is k9d ( "w is execut$ c be h>dly ga!r$ f a concise description1 al?\gh x may be easily le>n$ f a practical exhibition ( ! process by a pa9t]4 #ae4 ,ornam5tal pa9t+ embraces ! execution ( friezes & o!r decorative p>ts ( ar*itecture on walls & ceil+s4 ,! ornam5ts are drawn 9 outl9e ) a black-lead p5cil1 & !n pa9t$ & %ad$1 to give ! prop] effect4 ,"s embelli%m5ts ( ?is k9d are execut$ 9 gold-leaf1 9 ! same mann] ) gold lett]s on signs4 ,?is k9d ( "w is call$ gild+ 9 oil4 #af4 ,pa9t+ 9 oil1 z appli$ to ! execution ( designs1 seems to h be5 inv5t$1 or at lea/ to h be5 br\ght into notice1 9 ! e>ly "p ( ! fifte5? c5tury1 by ,john ,van ,eyck1 ( ,fl&]s4 ,be=e ?is "t1 h\se-pa9t+1 s f> z ! ext]ior 0 conc]n$1 c\ld h be5 b little1 if at all1 practis$4 #ag4 ,"o pr(itable bran* ( common pa9t+ is t ( pa9t+ & lett]+ signs4 ,9 p]=m+ ?is k9d ( "w1 ! sign is fir/ cov]$ ) two or ?ree uni=m coats ( pa9t4 ,! lett]s are next slightly sket*$ ) *alk or a lead-p5cil1 & !n =m$ 9 colors ) a camels'-hair bru%4 ,:5 ! lett]s are to be gilt1 ! process1 s f>1 is precisely ! same4 ,! leaf is laid ^u ! lett]s1 :ile ! pa9t is 9 a t5aci\s /ate1 & is suff]$ to rema9 unt\*$1 until ! oil has become dry1 aft] :i* ! sup]flu\s gold is remov$4 ,! :ole is !n cov]$ ) an oil v>ni%1 :i*1 9 pla9 lett]+1 completes ! op]ation4 ,,! ,,glazi]4 #a4 ,glaz+1 z practis$ 9 ?is c\ntry1 consi/s *iefly 9 sett+ panes ( glass 9 w9d[-sa%es4 ,9 ! p]=mance ( ?is op]ation1 ! glazi] fir/ fits ! panes to ! sa% by cutt+ away1 if necess>y1 a "p ( ! latt] ) a *isel2 he !n fa/5s ! glass slightly ) little pieces ( t91 :i* h be5 cut to a triangul> %ape2 &1 la/ly1 he applies putty at _! junction ) ! sa%1 & by ?is means conf9es !m firmly & p]man5tly to _! place4 ,! putty is made ( l9se$-oil & :it+4 ,! latt] ( ^! mat]ials is *alk cle>$ ( its gross] impurities1 & gr\nd 9 a color-mill4 #b4 ,pla9 glaz+ is s simple1 t no p]son ne$ s]ve an appr5tice%ip to le>n x2 & !re are b few :o conf9e _! att5tion to ?is bus9ess exclusively4 ,x is commonly connect$ ) "s o!r ( great] difficulty1 su* z t ( ! c>p5t] & jo9]1 or h\se & sign pa9t]1 b ) ! latt] m frequ5tly ?an any o!r4 #c4 ,:5 ! glass1 z receiv$ f ! manufactur]1 may n be ( ! size & %ape requir$ = a propos$ application1 ! panes are cut by means ( a diamond fix$ 9 lead1 & secur$ by a f]rule ( brass1 :i* is fa/5$ to a small cyl9drical h&le ( h>d wood4 ,?is in/rum5t is us$1 9 conjunction ) a /raight edge1 l a p5cil 9 rul+ l9es on pap] = writ+4 ,! glass is aft]w>ds brok5 9 ! direction ( ! fracture1 by a slight pressure d[nw>ds4 #d4 ,al?\gh glass w9d[s seem to u to be indisp5sable to com=t1 yet glass _h be5 manufactur$ _m c5turies 9 consid]able p]fection1 be=e x 0 appli$ to ?is purpose4 ,! h\ses 9 ori5tal c\ntries _h commonly no w9d[s 9 front1 & ^? on ! o!r sides 7 provid$ ) curta9s1 or ) a moveable trellis-"w 9 summ]1 & 9 w9t] ) oil$ pap]4 #e4 ,9 ,rome & o!r cities ( ! empire1 ?9 leaves ( a c]ta9 k9d ( /one call$ lapis specul>is 7 us$4 ,w9d[s ( ?is mat]ial1 h[ev]1 7 employ$ only 9 ! pr9cipal ap>tm5ts ( great h\ses1 9 g>d5s1 s$ans1 & ! l4 ,pap] made ( ! ,egyptian papyrus1 l95 clo?1 ?9 plates ( m>ble1 agate1 & horn1 seem likewise to h be5 us$4 #f4 ,! fir/ c]ta9 in=mation we h ( ! employm5t ( glass panes 9 w9d[s1 is f\nd 9 ! writ+s ( ,gregory ( ,t\rs1 :o fl\ri%$ 9 ! la/ qu>t] ( ! six? c5tury4 ,?is prelate /ates t ! *ur*es 7 furni%$ ) w9d[s ( color$ glass1 9 ! f\r? c5tury aft] ,*ri/4 ,! olde/ glass w9d[s n[ 9 exi/5ce 7 ( ! twelf? c5tury1 & are 9 ! ,*ur* ( ,/4 ,d5is1 ! mo/ anci5t edifice ( ?is description 9 ,france4 #g4 neas ,sylvius acc\nt$ x "o ( ! mo/ /rik+ in/ances ( spl5dor :i* he met ) 9 ,vi5na1 9 #adeh1 t mo/ ( ! h\ses _h glass w9d[s4 ,9 ,france1 all ! *ur*es _h ^! conv5i5ces 9 ! sixte5? c5tury1 al?\gh !re 7 b few 9 private dwell+s4 ,talc1 is+lass1 plates ( :ite horn1 oil$ pap]1 & ?9ly %av$ lea!r1 7 us$ in/ead ( glass4 ,a simil> /ate ( ?+s prevail$ 9 ,engl&4 #h4 ,! glass us$ = ! w9d[s ( *ur*es & o!r public build+s1 aft] ! f\r? c5tury1 0 v commonly intr9sically color$ or sup]ficially pa9t$4 ,pa9t+ on glass _h its orig9 9 ! ?ird c5tury1 & at fir/ x consi/$ 9 ! m]e arrangem5t ( small pieces ( glass ( diff]5t colors 9 "s sort ( symmetry1 & con/itut$ a k9d ( mosaic-"w4 #i4 ,aft]w>ds1 :5 m regul> designs came to be attempt$1 su* z ! human figure1 ! :ole address ( ! arti/ w5t no f>!r ?an draw+ ! outl9es ( ! objects 9 black on glass resembl+ 9 color ! subjects to be repres5t$4 ,! art1 9 ?is /ate ( advancem5t1 0 spread ov] a great "p ( ,europe4 #aj4 ,ab\t ! beg9n+ ( ! fifte5? c5tury1 a me?od ( fix+ metallic colors 9 glass by means ( heat 0 discov]$1 & f ?is ! art d]iv$ great advantages4 ,x fl\ri%$ mo/ dur+ ! fifte5? & sixte5? c5turies2 b x decl9$ 9 ! foll[+ age1 & 9 ! eighte5? c5tury x 0 v little practis$ 9 any c\ntry4 ,x has1 h[ev]1 be5 p>tially reviv$1 ( late1 9 ,g]many4 ,a v good specim5 ( ?is k9d ( pa9t+1 z well z ( color$ glass1 may be se5 9 ,/4 ,john's ,*ur*1 9 ,philadelphia4 ,illu/ration3 ,,turn]4 ,,! ,,turn]4 #a4 ,turn+ is a v useful art1 by :i* a great v>iety ( articles are almo/ exclusively manufactur$4 ,besides ?is1 x con/itutes a consid]able "p ( ! op]ations ( sev]al trades & occupations1 su* z ! *airmak]1 ma*9i/1 cab9et-mak]1 brass-f\nd]1 c41 s9ce e sub/ance ( a solid nature c be submitt$ to ! process4 #b4 ,turn+ is p]=m$ 9 a la!1 an app>atus con/ruct$ 9 v>i\s ways1 accord+ to ! p>ticul> purposes to :i* x is to be appli$1 al?\gh1 9 all cases1 ! g5]al pr9ciple ( its op]ation is ! same4 ,! k9d repres5t$ 9 ! above picture1 is us$ = pla9 or circul> turn+ 9 wood4 ,on exam9ation1 x w be p]ceiv$1 t two :eels ( diff]5t sizes make ess5tial p>ts ( x4 ,on ! ext5d$ axle ( ! small] "o1 is fa/5$ ! piece to be turn$2 & imm$iately 9 front ( ?is is ! re/1 on :i* ! cutt+ in/rum5t is support$ dur+ ! p]=mance ( ! op]ation4 #c4 ,:5 ! mat]ial to be turn$ is wood1 x is commonly cut to ! prop] l5g? ) a saw1 & br\ght to a =m approa*+ to ! cyl9drical by means ( an axe or draw+-knife4 ,x is next fa/5$ 9 ! la!4 ,?is is done by diff]5t means1 v>y+ accord+ to ! p>ticul> =m ( ! ?+ to be turn$4 ,9 pla9 circul> turn+1 z appli$ to b$-po/s1 legs ( tables1 & r\nds = *airs1 ! piece is support$ at ea* end4 ,t at ! left h& is driv5 ^u a piece ( /eel1 :i* has be5 screw$ ^u ! ext5d$ axle ( ! small :eel2 & ! o!r end is fix$ ^u a /eel po9t1 plac$ 9 an upright moveable piece call$ a puppet-head4 #d4 ,9 case ! wood is to be turn$ on ! inside1 z 9 mak+ a b[l1 cup1 or mort>1 ! piece is support$ altoge!r at "o end1 by means ( a holl[ cyl9d] ( wood1 brass1 or iron1 call$ a *uck1 :i* receives x on "o side1 & on ! o!r is screw$ ^u ! end ( ! axle4 ,! axle is sometimes call$ ! m&ril1 & any ext5sion ( x1 by means ( a piece add$ to x = a c5tre1 on :i* any?+ may be turn$ :i* w admit ( a hole ?r\gh x1 is d5om9at$ an arbor4 #e4 ,! tools us$ 9 turn+ wood & ivory1 are g\ges & *isels ( diff]5t sizes & %apes4 ,9 us+ ^!1 !y are plac$ ^u ! re/1 & br\ght 9 contact ) ! revolv+ mat]ial ( ! propos$ figure4 ,! g\ge is employ$ 9 cutt+ away ! r\gh ext]ior1 & ! *isel1 9 produc+ a /ill fur!r r$uction1 & a great] smoo?ness ( surface4 #f4 ,9 work+ 9 v h>d wood & 9 ivory1 ! groov+ tool1 a %>p po9t$ in/rum5t some:at simil> to ! grav]1 is us$ 9 ! fir/ "p ( ! op]ation2 & by ?is ! gra9 ( ! sub/ance is cut into contigu\s grooves1 & prep>$ = an easy r$uction by ! *isel4 ,! in/rum5ts = turn+ metals are num]\s1 b !y diff] 9 "s respects f ^? = cutt+ wood4 #g4 ,9 almo/ e k9d ( turn+1 a tool call$ ! calip]s is necess>y = measur+ ! diamet]s ( ! "w4 ,9 its =m1 x be>s "s resemblance to ! compasses or divid]s4 ,"o or bo? ( ! legs1 h[ev]1 are curv$2 & "o k9d ( ?is in/rum5t has f\r legs1 two curv$1 or two /raight1 at ea* end1 ) a pivot 9 ! c5tre1 on :i* x is op5$ & %ut4 ,! =m] ( ^! is employ$ 9 measur+ ! dim5sions ( outside "w1 & ! latt]1 = t on ! inside4 ,?is k9d is call$ ! 9-&-out calip]s2 & x is especially useful 9 turn+ a cyl9d]1 or p91 :i* %all exactly fit an int]nal cyl9d] already made1 & vice v]s4 #h4 ,!re is b little diff]5ce 9 ! managem5t ( turn+ diff]5t sub/ances4 ,! pr9cipal ?+ to be att5d$ to is to adapt ! velocity ( ! motion to ! nature ( ! mat]ial2 ?us wood w "w be/ ) ! greate/ velocity t c be giv5 to x4 ,brass %\ld h a motion ab\t half z quick z wood1 & iron & /eel /ill less2 =1 9 op]at+ on metallic sub/ances1 ! tool is liable to become hot1 & lose its temp]2 besides :i*1 a c]ta9 "t is requisite = ! act ( cutt+ to take place4 #i4 ,:5 comp>$ ) _m o!r me*anical op]ations1 ! art ( turn+ may be consid]$ z p]fect 9 its accuracy & exp$ition4 ,! la! is1 !re=e1 resort$ to = ! p]=mance ( e "w ( :i* x is capable2 nor is its use conf9$ to ! production ( =ms p]fectly cyl9drical1 = x c be easily made to produce figures ( irregul> %ape1 su* z la/s1 gun/ocks1 c4 #aj4 ,! la! 0 well kn[n to ! ,greeks & ,romans1 z well z to _m o!r nations ( antiquity4 ,diodorus ,siculus1 :o wrote 9 ! "t ( ,julius ,cs> & ,augu/us1 says t x 0 inv5t$ by "o ,talus1 a nephew ( ,ddalus4 ,pl9y ascribes x to ,!odore1 ( ,samos1 & m5tions "o ,!ricles1 :o _h r5d]$ himself v fam\s by 8 dext]ity 9 manag+ ! la!4 ,! ,greek & ,lat9 au?ors frequ5tly m5tion ?is in/rum5t2 &1 among ! anci5ts1 x 0 cu/om>y to express ! accuracy & nicety ( a ?+ by say+1 x 0 =m$ 9 a la!4 ,illu/ration3 ,,cab9et ,,mak]4 ,,! ,,cab9et-,,mak]1 ,,& ,,! ,,uphol/]]4 ,,! ,,cab9et-,,mak]4 #a4 ,x is ! bus9ess ( ! cab9et-mak] to manufacture p>ticul> k9ds ( h\sehold furniture1 su* z tables1 /&s1 bureaus1 sidebo>ds1 desks1 book-cases1 s(as1 b$/eads1 c41 z well z a c]ta9 description ( *airs made ( mahogany & maple4 ,_m ( ! op]ations ( ?is bus9ess are simil> to ^? ( ! c>p5t] & jo9]1 al?\gh !y require to be conduct$ ) great] nicety & exactness4 #b4 ,! qualifications ( a f9i%$ cab9et-mak] are num]\s & ( difficult acquisition2 s t !y are seldom conc5trat$ 9 any s+le individual4 ,he requires n only a correct ta/e1 b also a k ( draw+1 ar*itecture1 & me*anics1 besides ! abilities ( a good practical workman4 #c4 ,a k ( draw+ is especially useful 9 design+ new articles ( furniture1 or 9 improv+ ! =m ( ^? :i* h be5 already introduc$4 ,x also enables ! arti/ to det]m9e ) accuracy :at w\ld be ! g5]al effect ( furniture1 7 diff]5t pieces ( x plac$ 9 any propos$ ap>tm5t2 &1 comb9$ ) ar*itectural k1 x enables him to adapt ! /yle ( 8 w>es to t ( ! build+ = :i* !y may be design$4 #d4 ,9 g5]al1 ! pr9ciples ( ?is bus9ess are fix$1 s f> z relates to ! mode ( op]at+ 9 ! execution ( ! "w2 yet cont9ual *anges are made 9 ! =m & con/ruction ( its v>i\s articles1 s z to keep pace ) ! advancem5t ( correct ta/e1 or ) ! caprices ( fa%ion4 ,9 fact1 ! %apes ( furniture are almo/ z *angeable z ^? ( female dress2 & ?is causes _m exp5sive pieces to fall into disuse1 :ile o!rs are introduc$1 :i*1 = a "t1 are consid]$ indisp5sable to com=t1 & :i* 9 turn enjoy b a tempor>y favor4 #e4 ,! cab9et-mak] uses v>i\s k9ds ( wood 9 ! manufacture ( 8 w>es2 b ^? :i* are mo/ frequ5tly employ$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates are p9e1 maple1 popl>1 *]ry1 black walnut1 :ite oak1 bea*1 mahogany1 & rose1 all ( :i* are abundant 9 ?is c\ntry1 except ! la/ two4 ,mahogany is br\ght 9 great quantities f ! ,we/ ,indies & ,s\? ,am]ica2 rose-wood is obta9$ *iefly f ! ,we/ ,indies & ,brazil1 al?\gh x 0 fir/ introduc$ into notice f ! isl& ( ,cyprus4 #f4 ,! applicability ( mahogany to ! manufacture ( cab9et-w>e1 0 accid5tally discov]$ 9 ,london1 ab\t ! ye> #agbd4 ,a physician1 nam$ ,gibbons1 receiv$ a pres5t ( "s ( ! planks f 8 bro!r1 a sea-capta91 :o _h br\ght !m f ! ,we/ ,indies1 *iefly z balla/4 ,! doctor 01 at t "t1 erect+ a h\se1 &1 suppos+ !m to be adapt$ to ! purposes ( build+1 gave !m to 8 workm51 :o1 on trial1 reject$ !m z be+ too h>d to be wr\ght ) _! tools4 #g4 ,a cab9et-mak] 0 next employ$ to make a c&le-box ( "s ( x1 & he also compla9$ ( ! h>dness ( ! timb]2 b1 :5 ! box 0 f9i%$1 x out%one 9 beauty all ! doctor's o!r furniture4 ,he !n requir$ a bureau to be made ( ! same k9d ( mat]ial2 & ?is1 hav+ be5 f9i%$1 became ! subject ( exhibition to 8 fri5ds1 z a piece ( rem>kable beauty4 ,! wood 0 imm$iately tak5 into g5]al favor1 & x soon became an article ( m]*&ise ( consid]able importance4 #h4 ,9 giv+ ! read] a view ( ! op]ative "p ( ?is bus9ess1 we h select$ ! bureau z af=d+ ! be/ means ( illu/ration4 ,! mat]ial :i* composes ! frame & draw]s ( ?is piece ( furniture1 is commonly "s k9d ( s(t wood1 su* z p9e or popl>2 & ?is is fac$ ) ?9 lay]s ( mahogany 9 ^? p>ts :i* are to be expos$ to view4 #i4 ,! mat]ials = ! frame & draw]s are fir/ m>k$ out1 & ! sev]al pieces r$uc$ to ! =m & dim5sions requir$1 ) planes & o!r in/rum5ts4 ,?9 pieces ( mahogany are firmly fix$ to ! surfaces :i* require !m4 ,?is "p ( ! "w is call$ v5e]+4 ,! workman prep>es ! surface ( ! s(t wood = ! v5e]1 by cutt+ x into small contigu\s grooves by means ( a small plane1 ! cutt+ edge ( :i* is full ( little not*es & tee?4 #aj4 ,melt$ glue hav+ be5 spread ^u bo? surfaces ) a bru%1 ! p>ts are plac$ 9 contact1 & firmly press$ toge!r by means ( h&-screws4 ,be=e ! screws are appli$1 ! surface ( ! v5e] is cov]$ ) a piece ( heat$ bo>d1 t]m$1 9 ?is application1 a caul4 ,"o piece ( ?is k9d commonly s]ves a v5e] on ea* side ( x at ! same "t4 #aa4 ,! mahogany ?us atta*$ to ! s(t] wood1 is aft]w>ds wr\ght ) ! too!d-plane1 & o!rs ( ! common k9d4 ,x is !n scrap$ ) a flat piece ( /eel1 hav+ edges :i* act ^u ! surface 9 ! same mann] z pieces ( brok5 panes ( glass4 ,! poli%+ is f9i%$1 s f> z x is c>ri$ at ?is /age ( ! process1 by ! use ( s&-pap]4 #ab4 ,! sev]al pieces :i* compose ! frame ( ! bureau are put toge!r ) ! jo9t call$ mortice & t5on2 & ^? :i* =m ! f\r sides ( ! draw]s1 ) t call$ dove-tail4 ,! bottom is unit$ to ! sides on ! "r & left1 & sometimes 9 front1 by ! groove-&-tongue1 & its re> edge is fa/5$ ) a few nails4 ,! be>]s ( ! draw]s are fa/5$ on by means ( nails4 #ac4 ,! jo9ts are made to fit n only by ! accuracy ( ! "w1 b by ! application ( glue previ\s to ! union ( ! p>ts2 ?is is especially ! case ) ! mortice & t5on4 ,! back ( ! bureau is compos$ ( "s *eap wood1 su* z p9e or popl>2 b ! panel at ea* end is mo/ commonly pla9 mahogany ?r\gh its entire ?ickness4 #ad4 ,! p>ts :i* are to be expos$ to view are next to be v>ni%$ & poli%$4 ,! mat]ial = ! =m] purpose is call$ copal v>ni%1 because "o ( ! pr9cipal +r$i5ts 9 x is a k9d ( gum call$ copal1 :i* is obta9$ f v>i\s p>ts ( ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,?is k9d ( v>ni% is made by melt+ ! gum ) an equal quantity ( l9se$-oil & spirits ( turp5t9e or alcohol4 #ae4 ,to give ! "w a complete f9i%1 f\r coats ( v>ni% are successively appli$2 9 addition to ^!1 a p>ticul> k9d ( treatm5t is us$ aft] lay+ on & dry+ ea* coat4 ,aft] ! application ( ! fir/ coat1 ! surface is rubb$ ) a piece ( wood ( conv5i5t =m2 aft] ! second1 ) s&-pap] & pulv]iz$ pumice-/one2 aft] ! ?ird1 ) pumice-/one aga92 & aft] ! f\r?1 ) v f9ely p[d]$ pumice-/one & rott5-/one4 ,a little l9se$-oil is next appli$1 & ! :ole process is f9i%$ by rubb+ ! surface ) ! h& *>g$ ) fl\r4 #af4 ,"s p>ts ( sev]al pieces ( furniture are turn$ 9 ! la!2 &1 9 l>ge cities1 ?is "p ( ! "w is p]=m$ by pr(ess$ turn]s4 ,! v5e]+ ( c]ta9 k9ds ( "w ( a cyl9drical =m is1 also1 9 "s cases1 a di/9ct bus9ess2 b1 9 places di/ant f l>ge cities1 ! :ole "w is commonly p]=m$ by ! cab9et-mak] himself4 #ag4 ,mahogany is br\ght to m>ket 9 logs hewn to a squ>e =m2 & p]sons :o deal 9 x1 commonly pur*ase x 9 l>ge quantities1 & cause x to be sawn into pieces ( suitable dim5sions = sale4 ,=m]ly1 & 9 "s cases at pres5t1 slabs 7 sawn into ?9 pieces = v5e]+ by h&2 b1 )9 a few ye>s1 a m exp$iti\s me?od1 by ! circul> saw1 has be5 adopt$4 ,9 p]=m+ ! op]ation by ?is means1 ! slab is plac$ ^u its edge1 & %ov$ along aga9/ ! tee? ( ! rapidly-revolv+ saw4 ,x is kept 9 ! prop] position by hold+ ! "r side ( x firmly aga9/ an upright plank1 call$ ! re/4 #ah4 ,mahogany is ei!r pla91 mottl$1 or crot*$2 nev]!less1 ! diff]5t k9ds express$ by ^! t]ms are met ) 9 ! same tree4 ,! v>iegat$ k9ds are f\nd at or ne> ! jo9+ ( ! limbs to ! trunk2 & ^! are us$ almo/ exclusively = v5e]+4 ,! pla9 sort is employ$ = m common purposes1 & 9 ^? p>ts ( furniture requir$ to be less spl5did 9 appe>ance4 ,x may be well to rem>k1 also1 t pla9 mahogany is (t5 v5e]$1 z well z ! s(t] woods4 ,black walnut1 :ite oak1 rose1 & sev]al o!r woods1 are likewise us$ = v5e]+1 al?\gh n s mu* z mahogany4 ,our native woods w be h]eaft] m us$ 9 ?is way1 s9ce mahogany is becom+ sc>ce4 #ai4 ,9 ,europe1 p>ticul>ly 9 ,engl&1 ! bus9ess ( ! cab9et-mak] is commonly unit$ ) t ( ! uphol/]]2 & ?is is sometimes ! case 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,all1 h[ev]1 :o make s(as & *airs1 intrude en\gh ^u ! latt] bus9ess to cov] & /uff !m2 or !y employ a j\rneyman uphol/]] to p]=m ?is "p ( ! "w4 ,,! ,,uphol/]]4 #a4 ,! uphol/]] makes b$s1 sack+-bottoms1 mattresses1 cu%ions1 curta9s = w9d[s & b$s1 & cuts out1 sews toge!r1 & fa/5s d[n1 c>pets4 ,"o bran* ( 8 bus9ess1 also1 consi/s 9 cov]+ or l9+ & /uff+ s(as1 & p>ticul> k9ds ( *airs1 ! frames ( :i* are made by cab9et-mak]s & fancy *air-mak]s4 #b4 ,b$s are /uff$ ) ! fea!rs ( geese & ducks4 ,! sack :i* conta9s !m1 :5 9 use1 is call$ a tick1 & ! /rip$ /uff ( :i* x is compos$1 is call$ tick+4 ,! fea!rs us$ by ! uphol/]]1 are pur*as$ f ! fea!r-m]*ants1 :o 9 turn procure !m f c\ntry m]*ants & p$l]s4 ,! deal] 9 fea!rs also employs travell+ ag5ts to collect !m 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! c\ntry4 #c4 ,b$s & pill[s are also made ( d[n obta9$ f ! ne/s ( ! eid]-duck1 :i* is f\nd 9 ! nor!rn p>ts ( ,europe & ,am]ica1 above latitude #de4 ,eid]-d[n is wor? ab\t two doll>s p] p\nd1 & five or six times t quantity is suffici5t = a b$ ( common size4 #d4 ,mattresses are made ( curl$ hair1 moss1 %av+s ( ratan1 flock1 /raw1 corn-husks1 & cat-tail flag4 ,! hair mo/ employ$ = ?is purpose gr[s ^u ! tails ( cattle1 & ^u ! manes & tails ( horses4 ,x is pur*as$1 9 its natural /ate1 f tann]s1 by p]sons :o make x a bus9ess to prep>e x = use4 ,! la/ process ( ! prep>ation consi/s 9 twi/+ x into a k9d ( rope4 ,^! ropes are pick$ to pieces by ! uphol/]]1 & ! hair1 9 its curl$ & ela/ic /ate1 is appli$ to /uff+ mattresses1 cu%ions1 *airs1 & s(as4 #e4 ,moss is obta9$ f ! ,s\!rn /ates ( our ,union1 :]e x is f\nd 9 great abundance1 & ( a good quality4 ,flock is made by r$uc+ to a degree ( f95ess1 by ma*9]y1 co>se tags ( wool1 pieces ( wooll5 clo?1 old /ock+s1 & o!r wooll5 (fals ( little or no value 9 any o!r application4 ,( all ! mat]ials = /uff+ uphol/]y1 hair is mu* ! be/1 &1 al?\gh x co/s m 9 its orig9al pur*ase1 x is mu* *eap] 9 ! end4 #f4 ,9 mak+ & putt+ up w9d[ & b$ curta9s1 consid]able ta/e is requir$ to insure success4 ,a k ( draw+ is p>ticul>ly useful "h1 9 improv+ ! ta/e1 z well z 9 exhibit+ to cu/om]s ! prevail+ fa%ions1 or any *anges :i* may be propos$4 ,! trimm+s consi/ *iefly ( tassels1 fr+es1 & gild$ or brass fixtures4 #g4 ,we h n space = a p>ticul> description ( ! mann] 9 :i* any ( ! op]ations ( ! uphol/]] are p]=m$2 nor is ?is necess>y1 s9ce ! "w itself1 9 almo/ e specim5 ( x1 af=ds obvi\s indications ( ! mann] ( its execution4 ,we w m]ely rem>k1 t a great proportion ( x is p]=m$ by females4 #h4 ,9 ! fir/ ages ( ! _w1 x 0 ! univ]sal practice to sleep ^u ! sk9s ( bea/s1 & ?is is /ill ! cu/om among ! savage nations ( ! pres5t day4 ,! ,greeks & ! ,romans1 9 ! e>ly "p ( _! hi/ory1 slept 9 ?is mann]1 & s did ! common p ( "s p>ts ( ,g]many1 ev5 until mod]n times4 #i4 ,! fir/ advancem5t f ! use ( sk9s 0 ! sub/itution ( ru%es1 hea?1 or /raw1 :i* 0 prim>ily /rew$ loosely on ! gr\nd or floor1 & f9ally conf9$ ) tick+2 & ^! & simil> mat]ials are /ill us$ by ! poor 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! _w4 ,s late z ! close ( ! ?irte5? c5tury1 ! royal family ( ,engl& slept on b$s made ( /raw4 #aj4 ,dur+ ! civiliz$ p]iods ( antiquity1 ! weal?y commonly fill$ _! b$s ) fea!rs4 ,aft] ! ,romans _h become luxuri\s1 !y us$ sev]al k9ds ( b$s1 among :i* 7 ! lectus cubicul>is1 or *amb] b$1 :]eon !y slept2 ! lectus discubitorius1 or table b$1 :]eon !y ate2 & ! lectus lucubratorius1 on :i* !y /udi$4 #aa4 ,! ,romans adopt$ ! ,ea/]n fa%ion ( recl9+ at _! meals1 at ! close ( ! second ,punic w>1 ab\t #bjj ye>s be=e ,*ri/1 :5 ,scipio ,africanus br\ght "s little b$s f ,c>?age1 :i* 7 !nce call$ ,punicani4 ,^! b$s 7 l[1 made ( wood1 cov]$ ) lea!r1 & /uff$ ) hay or /raw4 ,be=e ?is "t1 !y sat d[n to eat on pla9 wood5 b5*es1 9 imitation ( ! h]oes ( ,hom]1 or aft] ! mann] ( ! ,cretans & ,lac$monians4 #ab4 ,f ! greate/ simplicity1 ! ,romans at l5g? c>ri$ _! supp+ b$s to ! mo/ surpris+ magnific5ce4 ,! b$/eads 7 sometimes made ( gold or silv]1 & v commonly ( wood1 adorn$ ) plates ( ^! metals or ) tortoise %ell4 ,on ! c\* 0 laid a mattress or quilt1 /uff$ ) fea!rs or wool4 #ac4 ,?ree p]sons commonly occupi$ "o c\*4 ,!y lay ) ! upp] "p ( ! body recl9$ on ! left arm1 ! head a little rais$1 ! back support$ by cu%ions1 & ! limbs /ret*$ out at full l5g? or a little b5t4 ,! feet ( ! fir/ 7 plac$ beh9d ! back ( ! second1 & 8 feet beh9d ! back ( ! ?ird4 ,recl9+ at meals 0 cu/om>y 9 ,asia1 9 ! "t ( our ,savior1 z is cle>ly %[n 9 ,john1 xiii41 #bc & #be1 & ?is r5d]$ x conv5i5t = ,m>y to ano9t ! feet ( ,jesus1 :ile at ! table4 #ad4 ,! ,romans1 dur+ ! republic1 made _! tables ( a squ>e =m1 & on ?ree sides ( x 0 plac$ a c\*2 b1 "u ! emp]ors1 a long c\* ( a semicircul> =m hav+ be5 introduc$1 ! table 0 made ( a simil> %ape to con=m to x4 ,9 ei!r case1 "o side 0 left empty1 to admit ( ! approa* ( ! s]vants4 #ae4 ,we h no c]ta9 evid5ce t c>pets 7 kn[n 9 ! civiliz$ p]iods ( antiquity4 ,!y appe> to h orig9at$ 9 ,p]sia1 at a "t comp>atively mod]n1 & to h spread 9 a gradual mann] t[>ds ! ,we/4 ,!y 7 unkn[n 9 ,engl& 9 ! reign ( ,elizabe?2 = x 0 !n ! fa%ion to /rew ! floor ) hay & ru%es4 ,ev5 ! pres5ce-*amb] ( ?is pr9cess 0 cov]$ 9 ?is mann]4 ,! manufacture ( c>pets 0 n comm5c$ 9 ,engl&1 until ! ye> #agej4 ,!y are n[ ext5sively manufactur$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,illu/ration3 ,,*air ,,mak]4 ,,! ,,*air-,,mak]4 #a4 ,! *air 0 inv5t$ at s e>ly a p]iod1 t its orig9 _c n[ be asc]ta9$4 ,x 0 us$ by all ! civiliz$ nations ( antiquity2 & "s ( _! patt]ns = ?is species ( furniture h be5 reviv$1 ) "s modifications1 9 mod]n times2 = example1 a /ool = sitt+ at ! piano1 n[ call$ ! ,x1 is ! l[] "p ( a *air us$ 9 ! ,roman empire ne> two ?\s& ye>s ago4 ,! seat & back 7 /uff$ ) "s s(t ela/ic sub/ance4 #b4 ,! seats us$ by ! b>b>\s conqu]ors ( ! ,roman empire1 h>dly des]ve ! "n ( *airs1 z !y commonly consi/$ ( little or no?+ m ?an a /ool ) ?ree or f\r legs4 ,ev5 ! great ,alfr$1 :o sway$ ! sceptre ( ,engl& 9 ! latt] "p ( ! n9? c5tury1 possess$ no?+ approa*+ ne>] to a *air ?an a ?ree-legg$ /ool made ( oak timb]4 ,?is species ( seat 0 at l5g? improv$ into a *air by ! addition ( ano!r leg & a back4 #c4 ,! next /ep 9 ! art ( *air-mak+ 0 to cov] ! seats ) clo?1 & to /uff !m ) "s k9d ( wadd+4 ,! mat]ial ( :i* ! frames 7 made 0 oak2 & = a long p]iod1 !y 7 exce$+ly heavy & inconv5i5t4 ,! arm$-*air is said to h be5 contriv$ by an ald]man ( ,cripplegate4 ,su* *airs1 h[ev]1 7 9 use among ! anci5t ,greeks & ,romans4 #d4 ,our old-fa%ion$ *air1 ) f\r upright po/s1 sev]al horizontal r\nds & slats1 toge!r ) wood5 spl9ts or flags = ! bottom1 is comp>atively mod]n1 al?\gh x is impossible to /ate ! p]iod ( its introduction4 ,v few ( any o!r k9d 7 us$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 until ne> ! beg9n+ ( ! pres5t c5tury4 #e4 ,! ,w9dsor *air seems to h be5 fir/ us$ = a rural seat 9 ! gr\nds ab\t ,w9dsor ca/le1 ,engl&2 :5ce its "n4 ,x 0 orig9ally con/ruct$ ( r\nd wood1 ) ! b>k on2 b ! *air-mak]s soon began to make !m ( turn$ wood1 = ! common purposes ( h\se-keep+4 ,we _c le>n t any 7 made 9 ?is c\ntry be=e ! close ( ! revolution1 9 #aghc4 #f4 ,a great proportion ( ! *air-mak]'s /uff is br\ght to ! prop] =m by means ( ! la!2 & ?is ma*9e is us$ = ?is purpose 9 e practicable case2 b ?is "p ( ! "w is n p]=m$ 9 ! cities1 s9ce x is f\nd to be less exp5sive & m conv5i5t1 to pur*ase ! timb] turn$ 9 ! c\ntry4 ,slats = ! back1 b5t to ! prop] %ape1 are also obta9$ f ! same s\rce4 #g4 ,! ,w9dsor *air is v>i$ 9 its con/ruction & f9i%1 9 "s p>ticul>s2 b1 9 all cases1 x has a seat made ( ?ick plank ( cypress1 bass1 or "s o!r s(t wood4 ,! slats1 :5 employ$1 are also made ( ! same wood1 or ( s(t maple4 ,! p>ts :i* are turn$1 are commonly ( ! wood la/ m5tion$4 #h4 ,9 con/ruct+ *airs f ^! mat]ials1 ! workman und]takes sev]al at a "t1 say f "o to two or ?ree doz5s4 ,we may suppose1 z is frequ5tly ! case1 t he fir/ cuts up a quantity ( planks to ! prop] size = ! seats1 & r$uces !m to ! propos$ =m & smoo?ness by means ( ! draw+-knife1 adze1 spoke-%aves1 & s&-pap]4 ,he next cuts ! v>i\s pieces :i* are to compose ! frame1 to ! prop] l5g?1 turns ! ends ( ^? :i* ne$ x1 to make ! jo9t1 & bores ! requisite holes ) a bit4 ,9 putt+ ! p>ts toge!r1 ! jo9ts are made to fit v closely1 & _! union is r5d]$ p]man5t by means ( glue4 #i4 ,! *airs are next cov]$ ) ?ree coats ( pa9t1 & ) two coats ( copal or "s o!r k9d ( v>ni%2 & ?is1 = pla9 "w1 completes ! :ole process ( ! manufacture4 ,b1 :5 !y are to be ornam5t$1 gold or copp] leaf or bronze is put on be=e ! application ( ! la/ coat ( v>ni%4 ,! bronze us$ by pa9t]s1 is f9ely pulv]iz$ copp]1 t91 or z9c4 #aj4 ,! ornam5t] uses pap] patt]ns1 :i* he applies to ! surface to be ornam5t$1 to guide him 9 ! execution ( 8 "w4 ,! p[d] is laid on ) a camel's-hair bru%1 or ) a piece ( raw cotton4 ,light & %ade are produc$ by a prop] di/ribution ( ! p[d]1 or by pa9t ( a d>k col\r4 ,! bronze is made to adh]e by means ( size1 :i* has be5 previ\sly laid on4 #aa4 ,sev]al o!r k9ds ( *airs are1 also1 made by ! common *air-mak]2 & ! frames1 or "s p>ts ( !m1 are sawn out ( planks ) a n>r[-blad$ saw1 :i* c be easily guid$ ^u ! l9e ( any patt]n4 ,! pr9cipal p>ts ( ! frame are commonly put toge!r ) ! mortice & t5on2 & ! bottoms are compos$ ( cane1 flags1 or a peculi> k9d ( ru%4 ,! cane is likewise us$ 9 ! backs ( *airs1 especially 9 ^? hav+ rock]s4 #ab4 ,! manufacture ( mahogany *airs ) /uff$ seats1 sometimes con/itutes a di/9ct bran* ( bus9ess2 at o!r times1 x is connect$ ) t ( mak+ s(as2 & aga91 ) cab9et-mak+ 9 g5]al4 ,x is g5]ally suppos$1 t rock]s 7 fir/ appli$ to *airs 9 ?is c\ntry1 b at :at "t or by :om1 x _c be det]m9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,c>v] ,,gild]4 ,,! ,,c>v]1 ,,& ,,! ,,gild]4 ,,! ,,c>v]4 #a4 ,c>v+1 9 its wide/ s5se1 is ! art ( =m+ figures 9 v>i\s h>d sub/ances by means ( "s cutt+ in/rum5ts1 su* z a *isel or grav]2 b1 9 ! re/rict$ s5se 9 :i* ! t]m is g5]ally appli$1 x has ref]5ce to ! production ( figures 9 wood4 #b4 ,c>v+ 9 wood1 9 all c\ntries :]e x has be5 practis$1 has ev] prec$$ sculpture1 or c>v+ 9 /one4 ,x is1 !re=e1 an art ( ! highe/ antiquity2 &1 al?\gh ! same ) sculpture 9 "s ( its applications1 yet x diff]s f x some:at 9 ! mode ( execution1 accord+ ) ! nature ( ! mat]ial4 #c4 ,! art ( c>v+ is v ext5sive 9 its application1 be+ us$ 9 ! decorative p>ts ( ar*itecture1 bo? civil & naval1 & likewise 9 ornam5t+ cab9et-w>e1 z well z 9 =m+ patt]ns = ca/+ 9 metals1 p>ticul>ly 9 iron & brass4 ,! ,go?ic /yle ( ar*itecture is peculi>ly ri* 9 c>v$ "w2 & ! productions ( "s ages are m s ?an ^? ( o!rs4 #d4 ,! /yle ( ,l\is ! ,f\rte5?1 ( ,france1 s call$ because practis$ 9 8 reign1 0 m ov]load$ ) ornam5t ?an any o!r4 ,a light] & m beautiful /yle succe$$1 :i* is /ill employ$ = "s purposes2 b g5]ally ! *a/e & simple l9e ( ,grecian ornam5t n[ prevails4 #e4 ,9 execut+ any propos$ "w1 a draw+ is fir/ made on pap]1 commonly ) a lead-p5cil4 ,! "p ( ! pap] n embrac$ 9 ! outl9e is !n cut away1 & ! rema9+ portion is laid ^u ! surface ( ! wood4 ,! outl9es are next drawn on ! wood1 by mov+ ! p5cil ar\nd ^? on ! pap]4 ,! design hav+ be5 ?us transf]r$1 ! sup]flu\s portions ( ! wood are cut away ) c>v+ tools1 ( :i* !re is a consid]able v>iety ( bo? size & =m4 ,! tools are driv5 ) a mallet or ) ! palm ( ! h&1 b 9 mo/ cases ) ! latt]4 #f4 ,a capacity = design+1 & a k ( draw+ & modell+1 are p>ticul>ly necess>y to make a f9i%$ c>v]4 ,)\t ^! qualifications1 at lea/ 9 "s degree1 "o may be a me*anic1 b n an arti/4 ,! subject mo/ difficult ( execution1 is ! human figure1 & 9 produc+ x ) accuracy1 ! same qualifications 9 ! arti/ are requir$1 & ! same g5]al process is pursu$1 z 9 produc+ x 9 m>ble4 ,,! ,,gild]4 #a4 ,c>v+ & gild+ are1 9 mo/ cases1 o/5sibly unit$ z "o bus9ess1 al?\gh 9 fact !y are bran*es ( manufacture totally di/9ct4 ,! gild]1 !re=e1 :o writes ov] 8 door1 ,c>v] & ,gild]1 seldom has any practical k ( c>v+4 ,= e ?+ 9 ?is l9e ( "w1 he is dep5d5t on ! c>v]1 :o commonly pursues 8 bus9ess 9 a private way4 #b4 ,! op]ation ( gild+1 z p]=m$ by ^? ^: bus9ess is n[ "u consid]ation1 is execut$ *iefly on wood4 ,x is employ$ mo/ frequ5tly = picture & look+-glass frames1 & = uphol/]y fixtures4 ,x is a me*anical process1 & consi/s 9 apply+ gold-leaf to surfaces1 9 su* a mann] z to adh]e ) t5acity4 #c4 ,be=e ! application ( ! metal1 a t$i\s process mu/ be p]=m$1 by way ( prep>ation4 ,! surface to be gild$ is successively cov]$ ) f five to sev5 coats ( glut9\s size1 made by boil+ scraps ( p>*m5t 9 wat]1 ) ! addition ( a little :it+4 ,! av]age ?ickness ( ! coat ?us produc$1 is ab\t "o-sixte5? ( an in*4 #d4 ,! surface is next rubb$ ) free/one & pumice /one1 ( a %ape correspond+ ) ! patt]n ( ! frame1 :ile a small quantity ( wat] is occasionally appli$1 to increase _! effects4 ,aft] ?is1 ! siz+ is r5d]$ /ill smoo!r1 by friction ) s&-pap]4 ,?is surface is !n cov]$ ) ?ree coats ( burni%$ gold size1 :i* is compos$ ( ,engli% pipe clay1 v5ison suet1 & ,fr5* bole1 or r$ *alk1 mix$ 9 a suitable quantity ( weak p>*m5t size4 ,! prep>ation is complet$ by rubb+ ! surface ) worn s&-pap]1 by wa%+ x 9 wat] ) a sponge1 & by rubb+ x ) a piece ( clo?4 #e4 ,! leaf is laid on ) a broad1 b ?9 bru%1 call$ a tip4 ,be=e ! gold is appli$1 h[ev]1 ! surface is well wet ) alcohol & wat]4 ,:5 dry1 ! p>ts design$ to be bright1 are burni%$ ) a poli%$ agate or fl9t4 ,9 ! be/ k9d ( "w1 a second coat ( ! leaf is requir$4 ,9 gild+ irregul> surfaces1 su* z ! ornam5ts at ! corn]s ( frames1 a size made ( l9se$-oil1 :ite lead1 yell[ o*re1 & japan1 is laid on a few h\rs be=e ! application ( ! leaf4 ,?is is call$ gild+ 9 oil4 #f4 ,! ornam5ts on ! frames are ca/ 9 m\lds1 & are made ( a composition ( glue1 :it+1 ros91 turp5t9e1 & ,burgundy pit*4 ,! m\lds are tak5 f patt]ns1 orig9ally execut$ by ! c>v]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,coop]4 ,,! ,,coop]4 #a4 ,! coop] manufactures casks1 tubs1 pails1 & v>i\s o!r articles = dome/ic use1 z well z vessels = conta9+ all k9ds ( liquids & m]*&ise ( a dry nature4 ,he also applies hoops to boxes :i* are to be transport$1 ) _! valuable cont5ts1 to a di/ance f ! cities4 #b4 ,! productions ( ?is art be+ ( prime necessity1 ! trade mu/ h be5 ex]cis$ at a v e>ly p]iod4 ,roman writ]s on rural economy speak ( ! exi/5ce ( its productions m ?an two ?\s& ye>s ago2 nev]!less !y are /ill unkn[n 9 "s c\ntries1 & !re ! inhabitants keep or c>ry liquids 9 sk9s daub$ ov] ) pit*4 #c4 ,bottles ( ?is k9d 7 us$1 m or less1 9 all p>ts ( ! ,roman empire1 9 ! days ( our ,savior2 & to su* he allud$1 :5 speak+ ( putt+ new w9e into old bottles4 ,e>!n vessels ( v>i\s dim5sions1 7 also 9 ext5sive use at ! same "t4 ,! cu/om ( keep+ w9e 9 su* vessels1 is /ill common 9 ! s\!rn p>ts ( ,europe4 ,pl9y accords to ! ,pi$montese ! m]it ( introduc+ casks4 ,9 8 "t1 !y 7 daub$ ) pit*4 #d4 ,c$> & oak are ! woods *iefly employ$ z mat]ials 9 ?is bus9ess2 & ! p]sons :o c>ry x on1 z well z j\rneym51 conf9e _! att5tion to ! production ( w>es f "o or ! o!r ( ^! woods2 h5ce ! division ( ! workm5 into c$> coop]s & oak coop]s4 #e4 ,x is n always ! case1 h[ev]1 t e coop] executes all k9ds ( "w belong+ to ei!r "o ( ^! divisions ( ! trade2 b ?is is n because !re is any peculi> difficulty att5d+ any "p ( ! bus9ess1 b because "s p>ticul> k9d ( coop]+ is requir$ 9 pref]5ce to o!rs2 = example1 9 "s places1 fl\r b>rels are ! casks mo/ ne$$2 9 o!rs1 ^? = sug>1 tobacco1 pe>la%1 or "s k9d ( spirits4 #f4 ,9 illu/rat+ ! g5]al op]ations ( ?is bus9ess1 we w describe ! process ( mak+ a tub4 ,! timb] is fir/ cut to ! prop] l5g? ) ! k9d ( saw us$ 9 ! cities = cutt+ fire-wood4 ,x is next split into pieces ) a fr[1 ! curvature ( :i* corresponds1 at lea/ ) "s degree ( exactness1 to t ( ! propos$ vessel4 ,! sev]al pieces are !n %av$ on ! edges ) a /raight draw+-knife1 on ! inside ) "o ( a concave =m1 & on ! outside ) "o ( correspond+ convexity4 #g4 ,aft] ?is1 !y are jo9t$ on a long plane1 :i* is plac$ ) its face upw>ds1 9 an incl9$ position4 ,! workman is guid$ 9 giv+ ! prop] angle to ! surface cut ) ! plane1 by a wood5 gauge ( peculi> =m4 ,! /aves1 hav+ be5 ?us prep>$1 are set up 9 a truss-hoop2 & aft] ?is has be5 driv5 d[n1 "o or two o!rs :i* are to rema9 are put on4 ,! outside is !n made smoo? ) a convex draw+-knife1 & ! inside ) a smoo?+-plane1 ! edge ( :i* is circul>1 to correspond ) ! =m ( ! surface4 ,! inside ( small wood5 vessels is g5]ally made smoo? ) a crook$ draw+-knife4 #h4 ,! /aves are n[ sawn (f to a uni=m l5g? at ! bottom1 & a groove is cut = ! ins]tion ( ! bottom4 ,! latt] op]ation is p]=m$ by means ( a cutt+ in/rum5t fix$ 9 a k9d ( gauge4 ,! sev]al pieces to compose ! bottom are br\ght to ! prop] =m & smoo?ness ) a /raight draw+-knife2 &1 hav+ be5 slightly fa/5$ toge!r by wood5 p9s1 ! :ole1 z "o piece1 is ins]t$ 9 its prop] place by driv+ x d[n f ! top on ! inside4 ,! :ole process is f9i%$ by driv+ on ! hoops1 & mak+ ! holes 9 ! h&les4 #i4 ,! c$> employ$ 9 ?is bus9ess is a consid]able tree1 :i* gr[s 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! _w1 b especially 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 :]e x occupies l>ge tracts call$ c$> or cypress swamps4 ,! wood is s(t1 smoo?1 & ( an aromatic smell4 ,x is likewise mu* us$ = %+les4 ,! ,dismal ,swamp1 ly+ 9 ,virg9ia & ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 conta9s an abundance ( ?is k9d ( timb]4 #aj4 ,! op]ations 9 oak v>y f ^? 9 c$> s f> z to con=m to ! nature ( ! mat]ial1 & ! =m ( ! vessels manufactur$4 ,9 br++ ! /aves to ! prop] =m1 ! workman is guid$ altoge!r by ! eye2 &1 if !y mu/ be b5t1 !y require to be heat$4 ,! fire = ?is purpose is made ( %av+s & *ips 9 a small furnace ( %eet iron1 call$ a crusset4 ,! hoops1 bo? = c$> & oak w>es1 are made ( ?9 /rips ( iron1 or ( small oak1 hickory1 a%1 or c$> sapl+s4 ,)9 a few ye>s1 sev]al ma*9es h be5 inv5t$1 = gett+ out /aves1 & = br++ !m to ! prop] =m1 z well z = p]=m+ sev]al o!r p>ts ( ! coop]'s op]ations4 #aa4 ,! coop]s 9 ,engl& d]ive a great deal ( _! employm5t f ! ,we/ ,india trade4 ,b>rels1 pun*eons1 & hog%eads1 are c>ri$ out ( ! c\ntry fill$ ) dry goods1 & are return$ fill$ ) rum & sug>4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 mu* "w ( ?is k9d is done = ! same m>ket2 b !n ! /aves & heads are only fitt$ & m>k$ "h1 to be aft]w>ds put toge!r 9 ! ,we/ ,indies4 ,illu/ration3 ,,:eelwright4 ,,! ,,:eelwright4 #a4 ,! artisan :o makes ! wood-"w ( common :eel c>riages1 or ! :eels ( coa*es1 is d5om9at$ a :eelwright2 b1 "u ?is head1 we propose to include :atev] we may say on con/ruct+ & f9i%+ :eel c>riages 9 g5]al4 #b4 ,x mu/ be evid5t1 ev5 to a sup]ficial obs]v]1 t ?is bus9ess1 9 its diff]5t bran*es1 occupies a l>ge space 9 our dome/ic indu/ry1 s9ce almo/ e f>m] 9 ! c\ntry owns a vehicle ( "s sort1 & s9ce ! /reets ( our busy cities & t[ns exhibit1 dur+ a great "p ( ! day1 sc5es ( bu/le occasion$1 9 a great measure1 by ! pass+ & repass+ ( c>riages ( diff]5t k9ds4 #c4 ,! pr9cipal k9ds ( :eel c>riages made 9 ?is c\ntry1 are ! c>t1 ! wagon1 ! gig1 & ! coa*2 & ( ea* ( ^! !re are v>i\s sorts1 diff]+ 9 /r5g? & mode ( con/ruction1 to suit ! p>ticul> purposes to :i* !y are to be appli$4 ,! bus9ess ( mak+ ^! vehicles is divid$ into a numb] ( bran*es2 b1 z ! manufacture ( ! coa* embraces a great] v>iety ( op]ations ?an any o!r species ( c>riage1 we h select$ x z af=d+ ! be/ means ( expla9+ ! op]ations ( ! :ole bus9ess4 #d4 ,9 l>ge e/abli%m5ts = mak+ coa*es & o!r vehicles ( ! be/ workman%ip1 ! op]ators conf9e _! att5tion to ! execution ( p>ticul> p>ts ( ! "w2 = example1 "o man makes ! :eels1 ano!r ! c>riage & body1 ano!r fa%ions & applies ! iron1 ano!r does ! pa9t+ & poli%+1 & ano!r ! trimm+4 ,9 small] e/abli%m5ts1 a great] proportion ( ! "w is execut$ by "o p]son4 #e4 ,! :eels ( ! coa*1 z well z ^? ( e o!r vehicle 9 :i* !y are us$1 are compos$ ( a hub1 & sev]al spokes1 & felloes4 ,! hubs are commonly made ( a k9d ( t\gh wood1 call$ gum1 :i* is r$uc$ to ! desir$ =m 9 ! la!4 ,! hole ?r\gh ! c5tre is made ) a common aug]1 & enl>g$ ) "o tap]+ t[>ds ! po9t1 & hav+ ?r\gh its :ole l5g? two cutt+ edges4 ,! mortices = ! spokes are made ) a *isel driv5 ) a mallet4 #f4 ,! spokes are made ( :ite oak1 & ! felloes1 ( a% or hickory2 & bo? are br\ght to ! requir$ =m & smoo?ness ) ! saw1 axe1 draw+-knife1 spoke-%ave1 *isel1 & s&-pap]4 ,! con/itu5t p>ts ( ! c>riage1 or runn+ ge>s1 are ! axles1 p]*1 & spr+-b$s1 or bol/]s1 to :i* are add$ ! tongue1 or pole1 & "s o!r p>ts connect$ ) x4 #g4 ,! jo9ts 9 ?is "p ( ! vehicle are made p]fectly tight by ! application ( putty2 :]eas1 9 ! body1 glue is us$ = ?is purpose4 ,! latt] sub/ance w n answ] 9 ! =m] case1 s9ce x _c be> exposure to wat]4 ,! wood g5]ally employ$ = ! c>riage "p1 z well z = ! frame ( ! body1 is a%2 & ! sev]al p>ts are sawn f planks ( suitable ?ickness4 ,9 ?is "p ( ! "w1 ! op]ator is guid$ by patt]ns made ( ?9 p9e bo>ds4 ,! panels ( ! body are made ( ?9 bo>ds ( popl> or bass-wood4 ,! mann] 9 :i* ! sev]al p>ts are dress$ & put toge!r is too obvi\s to ne$ description4 #h4 ,! :eels & ! c>riage1 aft] hav+ receiv$ "o coat ( pa9t1 are s5t to ! blacksmi? to be iron$4 ,! hub is b\nd1 at ea* end ) hoops ( iron1 commonly plat$ ) brass or silv]1 & ! outside rim or felloes are b\nd ) an iron tire1 & fa/5$ ) /rong nails or spikes4 ,! tires are made r$-hot be=e !y are appli$1 t !y may be made to fit 9 e "p ) accuracy4 #i4 ,b&s1 bolts1 or /rips ( iron1 are appli$ to ^? p>ts ( ! wood-"w :i* may be expos$ to friction1 or :i* require additional /r5g?4 ,! axles are also made ( wr\ght iron1 ei!r by ! blacksmi? :o executes ! o!r iron "w1 or by p]sons :o manufacture !m by ! quantity = sale4 ,! same rem>k is applicable to ! ?or\gh-boxes1 :i* are ins]t$ into ! hub to prev5t injury by friction1 & to cause ! :eel to revolve ) fre$om & accuracy4 #aj4 ,! pa9t+1 v>ni%+1 & poli%+1 ( ! body ( ! coa*1 :5 done 9 ! be/ mann]1 comprise a t$i\s process4 ,x is fir/ cov]$ ) a coat ( pa9t2 ! gra9 ( ! wood is !n fill$ up ) putty1 & ! surface is aga9 cov]$ ) pa9t4 ,five coats ( fill+1 compos$ ( o*re1 japan v>ni%1 & spirits ( turp5t9e1 are next successively appli$4 ,aft] ! surface has be5 rubb$ ) a solid piece ( pumice-/one1 x is aga9 pa9t$1 & rubb$ ) s&-pap]4 ,sev]al coats ( pa9t are next laid on1 & ! "w is f9i%$ by ! application ( a few coats ( copal-v>ni%1 & by ! use ( pumice-/one4 ,! pa9t+ & v>ni%+ ( ! :eels & c>riage "p1 is f> less exp5sive & t$i\s4 #aa4 ,! nature ( ! trimm+s1 & ! mann] 9 :i* !y are put toge!r & appli$1 ne$ n be describ$1 s9ce a few mom5ts' inspection ( a f9i%$ vehicle ( ?is k9d1 w give any "o a cle> conception ( ! :ole ( ?is bran* ( ! bus9ess4 ,s f> z trimm+ ! inside1 & ! manufacture ( cu%ions are conc]n$1 ! op]ations are simil> to ^? ( ! uphol/]]4 #ab4 ,:eel c>riages may be class$ among ! primitive inv5tions1 al?\gh ! fir/ au!ntic notice we h ( _! use1 we f9d 9 ! scripture hi/ory ( ,joseph1 ! son ( ,jacob1 9 :i* x is relat$1 t ?is great & good man 0 made to ride 9 ! second *>iot ( ! k+'s1 & t he s5t wagons f ,egypt to convey ?i!r 8 fa!r & family f ! l& ( ,canaan4 #ac4 ,cov]$ wagons 7 us$ 9 ! days ( ,moses2 & ! w&]+ ,scy?ians1 9 ! "t ( ! ,romans1 _h !m cov]$ ) lea!r4 ,! seat = ! driv] is said to h be5 inv5t$ by ,oxylus1 an tolian1 :o took possession ( ! k+dom ( ,elis1 ab\t #aajj ye>s be=e ,*ri/4 ,_m ( ! nations ( antiquity us$ *>iots 9 ! field ( battle1 & ! axles 7 sometimes arm$ ) scy!s or "s o!r %>p cutt+ in/rum5ts4 ,two p]sons commonly occupi$ "o vehicle1 "o ( :om drove ! horses1 & ! o!r f\ght ! enemy4 ,! inhabitants ( ! promis$ l& f\ght 9 *>iots1 ev5 be=e ! settlem5t ( ! p ( ,israel 9 t c\ntry2 & ! ,greeks likewise employ$ !m1 = w>like purposes1 at ! siege ( ,troy4 #ad4 ,! c>riages us$ by ! ,romans 7 ( v>i\s k9ds1 "s ( :i* 7 c>ri$ on ! %\ld]s ( m51 & o!rs1 hav+ two or f\r :eels1 7 drawn by horses1 asses1 mules1 or ox54 ,nev]!less1 nei!r !y1 nor any o!r nation ( antiquity1 ev] susp5d$ ! body ( any c>riage on lea!rs1 or support$ x on spr+s2 & ! use ( almo/ e species ( vehicle = ! conveyance ( p]sons1 0 bani%$ by ! policy ( ! b>b>\s nations t aft]w>ds became ma/]s ( civiliz$ ,europe1 ! feudal lords conceiv+ x important1 t _! milit>y vassals %\ld s]ve !m on horseback4 #ae4 ,ev5 z late z ! sixte5? c5tury1 m9i/]s rode to c\rt1 & magi/rates ( imp]ial cities to c\ncil1 on ! back ( ?is animal2 &1 9 ! same mann]1 k+s & lords made _! public entry on ! mo/ solemn occasions4 ,9 acc\nts ( papal c]emonies :i* occurr$ dur+ sev]al c5turies1 we f9d no m5tion ( a /ate-coa*2 b1 in/ead ( x1 /ate-horses or /ate-mules4 ,! horse = 8 hol9ess 0 requir$ to be a g5tle & tractable nag1 ( a gray color2 & a /ool ) ?ree /eps 0 necess>y to aid him 9 m\nt+4 ,! emp]or or k+s1 if pres5t1 held 8 /irrup1 & l$ 8 bea/4 ,bi%ops also made _! public entrance on horses or asses ri*ly decorat$4 #af4 ,cov]$ c>riages1 h[ev]1 7 kn[n 9 ! pr9cipal /ates ( ,europe 9 ! fifte5? & sixte5? c5turies2 b !y 7 at fir/ us$ only by wom5 ( rank1 s9ce ! m5 ?\ght x disgraceful to ride 9 !m4 ,at ?is p]iod1 :5 ! electors ( ! ,g]man empire did n *oose to be pres5t at ! meet+s ( ! /ates1 !y excus$ !mselves to ! emp]or by /at+ t _! heal? w\ld n p]mit !m to ride on horseback1 & x 0 n becom+ = !m to ride l wom54 #ag4 ,b1 = a long "t1 ! use ( c>riages 0 =bidd5 ev5 to wom52 &1 z late z ! ye> #aede1 ! wife ( a c]ta9 duke obta9$ f him1 ) great difficulty1 ! privilege ( us+ a cov]$ c>riage 9 a j\rney to ! ba?s4 ,! p]mission 0 grant$ on ! condition t h] att5dants %\ld n enjoy ! same favor4 ,nev]!less1 x is c]ta9 t emp]ors1 k+s1 & pr9ces1 began to employ cov]$ c>riages on j\rneys1 9 ! fifte5? c5tury2 & a few in/ances occur ( _! use 9 public solemnities4 ,ambassadors appe>$1 = ! fir/ "t1 9 coa*es1 at a public solemnity1 9 #afac1 at ,erfur?4 #ah4 ,9 ! hi/ory ( ,france1 we f9d _m pro(s1 t1 9 ! f\rte5?1 fifte5?1 & sixte5? c5turies1 ! ,fr5* mon>*s commonly rode on horses1 ! s]vants ( ! c\rt on mules1 & ! pr9cesses1 toge!r ) ! pr9cipal ladies1 sometimes at lea/1 on asses4 ,c>riages ( "s sort1 h[ev]1 appe> to h be5 us$ at a v e>ly p]iod !re4 ,an ord9ance ( ,philip ! ,fair1 issu$ 9 #abid1 =bids _! use by ! wives ( citiz5s4 #ai4 ,9 ! ye> #aeej1 ?ree coa*es 7 introduc$ into ,p>is2 "o ( :i* belong$ to ! que51 ano!r to ,diana de ,poicti]s1 & ! ?ird to ,raimond de ,laval1 a cavali] ( ! c\rt ( ,francis ,i41 :o 0 s l>ge t no horse c\ld c>ry him4 ,x is n c]ta91 h[ev]1 t ! body ( ^! vehicles 7 susp5d$ on lea!r /raps4 ,! inv5tor ( ?is mat]ial improvem5t _c be asc]ta9$1 nor is x positively det]m9$1 t x _h be5 made1 until ab\t ! middle ( ! sev5te5? c5tury4 #bj4 ,coa*es 7 introduc$ into ,spa9 & ,portugal1 9 ! ye> #aedf1 & into ,sw$5 ne> ! close ( ! same c5tury4 ,9 ! capital ( ,russia1 !re 7 elegant coa*es z e>ly z ! beg9n+ ( ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,9 ,switz]l&1 !y 7 r>e1 z late z #afej4 ,c>riages began to be us$ at ,naples 9 ! ?irte5? c5tury2 f ?is place !y spread all ov] ,italy2 & "h1 also1 glass panels orig9at$4 #ba4 ,c>riages ( "s sort 7 us$ 9 ,engl& at a v e>ly p]iod1 & ^? fir/ employ$ by ! ladies1 7 call$ :irlicoats4 ,accord+ to "s au?ors1 coa*es 7 introduc$ 9 ! ye> #aeee2 b1 accord+ to o!rs1 n until tw5ty-five ye>s aft] ?is p]iod4 ,be=e ! latt] date1 ,que5 ,elizabe?1 on public occasions1 rode on ! same horse ) h] *amb]la91 seat$ beh9d him on a pillion2 al?\gh1 9 ! e>ly "p ( h] reign1 %e own$ a *>iot4 #bb4 ,9 #afja1 m5 7 =bidd5 ! use ( ! coa* by act ( ,p>liam5t1 ! legislators suppos+ su* indulg5ce to be too effem9ate2 b ?is law seems to h be5 little reg>d$1 z ?is vehicle 0 9 common use1 ab\t ! ye> #afje4 ,tw5ty ye>s aft] ?is "t1 hackney coa*es began to ply 9 ,london2 b ^! 7 prohibit$1 9 #afce1 on ! alleg$ gr\nd t ! support ( s _m horses increas$ ! exp5se ( keep+ ^? belong+ to ! k+4 ,two ye>s aft] ?is1 h[ev]1 fifty coa*es 7 lic5s$1 &1 9 #aggj1 !re 7 "o ?\s&4 #bc4 ,! /age-coa* 0 fir/ employ$ 9 ,france1 & 0 introduc$ into ,engl&1 ne> ! middle ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 by ,je?ro ,tull1 ! celebrat$ agriculturi/4 ,!y 7 n employ$1 9 any c\ntry1 9 ! transportation ( ! mail1 until ! ye> #aghd4 ,be=e ?is "t1 x 0 c>ri$ *iefly on horseback4 #bd4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! manufacture ( c>riages ( e k9d has greatly increas$ )9 a few ye>s1 & ^? lately made exhibit _m improvem5ts on ^? ( =m] p]iods4 ,! places :i* seem to be mo/ di/+ui%$ = ! manufacture ( good c>riages1 9 ?is c\ntry1 are ,philadelphia1 ,new>k1 & ,troy4 ,illu/ration3 ,,pott]4 ,,! ,,pott]4 #a4 ,! artisan call$ ! pott] conv]ts pla/ic mat]ials into h>d & brittle vessels ( v>i\s k9ds1 d5om9at$1 9 g5]al t]ms1 e>!n w>e4 #b4 ,alum9e is ! basis ( all clays1 & is ! only e>? t possesses ! degree ( pla/icity :i* r5d]s ! op]ations ( ! pott] practicable4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 nev] f\nd or us$ 9 a pure /ate1 b 9 comb9ation ) o!r sub/ances1 p>ticul>ly ) silex1 lime1 magnesia1 & ! oxyde ( iron4 #c4 ,9 ! manufacture ( vessels f argillace\s comp\nds1 ! diff]5t degrees ( beauty & co/l9ess dep5d ^u ! quality ( ! raw mat]ials1 & ! labor & skill exp5d$ 9 ! op]ation4 ,! v>i\s productions ( ! pott]y may be class$ "u ! foll[+ d5om9ations--common e>!n w>e1 :ite e>!n w>e1 /one w>e1 & porcela92 b ( ea* ( ^! !re are _m v>ieties4 #d4 ,common e>!n w>e4--,?is w>e is made ( a k9d ( clay v g5]ally diffus$ ov] ! e>?1 & :i* is ess5tially ! same ) t employ$ 9 mak+ bricks4 ,! pott]s are (t5 suppli$ ) ?is mat]ial by ! brickmak]s1 :o select = !m t :i* is too t5aci\s1 or fat1 = _! own purpose4 ,all common clays conta9 m or less ( ! oxyde ( iron1 :i* causes ! w>es made ( !m to turn r$ 9 burn+4 #e4 ,9 prep>+ ! clay = use1 ! pott] adds to x1 :5 necess>y1 a portion ( f9e loam1 9 ord] to less5 its t5acity1 & to prev5t ! vessels to be made ( x f crack+1 :ile und]go+ ! fire4 ,:5 ! mat]ials h be5 mix$1 & p>tially incorporat$ ) wat]1 ! mass is ?r[n into a tub1 fix$ 9 ! gr\nd ab\t "o-half ( its dep?4 ,9 ! c5tre ( ?is tub1 is plac$ a %aft1 9 a p]p5dicul> position1 f :i* radiate1 9 a horizontal direction1 a numb] ( knives or cutt]s4 #f4 ,?is ma*9e is put 9 motion by horse-p[]1 & by x ! clay is repeat$ly cut1 & prop]ly knead$4 ,! workman !n cuts x into ?9 slices ) a small wire1 &1 hav+ reject$ all matt]s n fit = 8 purpose1 he fur!r kneads x ) 8 h&s1 & =ms x into lumps1 correspond+ 9 am\nt ( matt] ) ! diff]5t vessels :i* he proposes to make4 #g4 ,= ! be/ k9ds ( ?is w>e1 ! same species ( clay is us$2 b !n x is diff]5tly prep>$4 ,x is fir/ dissolv$ 9 wat]2 &1 :5 ! co>s] p>ticles h settl$ to ! bottom ( ! vessel1 ! fluid susp5d+ ! re/ is drawn (f1 & made to pass ?r\gh a sieve into a res]voir4 ,aft] ! p>ticles ( ! mat]ial h precipitat$1 ! wat] is drawn (f1 & ! residuum is ?r[n ^u a l>ge flat pan or res]voir made ( bricks1 :]e ! mass is fre$ f its sup]flu\s moi/ure by evaporation 9 ! air1 or by means ( artificial heat appli$ b5ea?4 ,x is !n laid by 9 a damp place1 = future use4 #h4 ,be=e ! clay1 ?us purifi$ f extrane\s & co>s] p>ticles1 is =m$ into vessels1 x is beat5 ) a /\t piece ( wood1 until ! mass has become ( an equal consi/5ce ?r\gh\t1 & !n repeat$ly cut into two pieces ) a wire1 & slapp$ toge!r to expel ! air4 ,! =m] ( ^! op]ations is call$ w$g+1 & ! latt]1 slapp+4 #i4 ,:ite & cream-color$ w>es are made ( clays :i* conta9 s little oxyde ( iron1 t x does n turn r$ 9 burn+1 b1 on ! contr>y1 improves 9 :it5ess 9 ! furnace4 ,!re are sev]al species ( :ite clay1 f\nd 9 _m diff]5t localities1 mo/ ( :i*1 h[ev]1 are kn[n "u ! d5om9ation ( pipe-clay2 or !y are di/+ui%$ by ! names ( ! places :]e !y are obta9$4 #aj4 ,9 prep>+ ^! clays = use1 !y are r$uc$ to a m9ute division by ma*9]y1 & aft]w>ds dissolv$ 9 wat]1 & o!rwise treat$ 9 a mann] simil> to t us$ = ! bett] k9ds ( common w>es1 z describ$ 9 ! sev5? & eigh? p>agraphs4 ,= ! purpose ( dim9i%+ ! %r9kage 9 ! fire1 & ) ! view ( increas+ ! :it5ess ( ! w>e1 pulv]iz$ fl9t-/one is add$ to ! clay1 9 ! proportion ( ab\t "o "p ( ! =m] to five ( ! latt]4 #aa4 ,9 r$uc+ ! silex to ! requisite f95ess1 x is fir/ br\ght to a r$ heat2 &1 :ile 9 ?is /ate1 x is ?r[n into cold wat]1 to dim9i% ! cohesion ( its p>ts4 ,x is !n p\nd$ by ma*9]y1 levigat$ ) wat] 9 a mill1 sift$1 ma%$1 & o!rwise treat$ l ! clay4 ,! mat]ials are mix$ :ile 9 a /ate ( ?9 pulp4 #ab4 ,! sev]al op]ations p]=m$ by ! pott]1 9 conv]t+ ! clay ?us prep>$ into diff]5t k9ds ( vessels1 & 9 complet+ ! :ole process ( ! manufacture ( e>!n w>e1 may be includ$ "u ! foll[+ divisions1 viz41 ?r[+1 turn+1 press+1 burn+1 pa9t+ & pr9t+1 & glaz+4 ,!y are n1 h[ev]1 all us$ 9 produc+ & f9i%+ vessels ( e %ape & quality4 #ac4 ,?r[+4--,?is op]ation is p]=m$ on a pott]'s :eel1 :i* consi/s ( a r\nd table1 & "s simple means to put x 9 motion4 ,! clay hav+ be5 plac$ on ! c5tre ( ?is ma*9e1 ! workman communicates to ! latt] a rot>y motion ) 8 foot1 & gives ! propos$ =m to ! mat]ial ) 8 h&s1 :i* h be5 previ\sly wet ) wat]1 to prev5t !m f /ick+4 ,?is me?od is us$ = all vessels & p>ts ( vessels ( a circul> =m2 &1 9 _m cases1 no o!r op]ation is necess>y to give !m ! requisite f9i%1 s f> z _! con=mation is conc]n$4 #ad4 ,turn+4--,! vessels are cut f ! ?r[]'s :eel ) a small wire2 & :51 by ! evaporation ( moi/ure1 !y h become firm en\gh to endure ! op]ation1 !y are turn$ on a la!4 ,! objects ( ?is op]ation are to communicate to !m a m exact %ape1 & to r5d] !m m uni=m 9 ?ickness4 ,! pott]'s :eel1 ) ! addition ( "s contrivance to hold ! pieces 9 a prop] position1 is frequ5tly us$ = turn+4 ,! co>s] k9ds ( common w>es are nev] turn$4 #ae4 ,press+4--,vessels1 or p>ts ( vessels1 :i* are ( an irregul> %ape1 & :i* _c be =m$ on ! :eel1 are usually made by a process call$ press+4 ,?is k9d ( "w is execut$ 9 m\lds made ( pla/] ( ,p>is1 & ^! are =m$ on models ( clay or wood1 :i* h be5 made 9 ! exact %ape ( ! propos$ vessel4 ,sometimes individual specim5s ( ! w>es ( "o c\ntry or pott]y are us$ z models 9 ano!r2 9 su* cases1 ! exp5se ( ! m\lds is consid]ably dim9i%$4 #af4 ,! m\lds frequ5tly consi/ ( sev]al p>ts1 :i* fit accurately toge!r2 = example1 ! m\ld = a pit*] is compos$ ( two pieces = ! sides1 & "o = ! bottom4 ,9 =m+ a pit*] 9 su* a m\ld1 ! mat]ial1 :i* has be5 spread out to a prop] & uni=m ?ickness1 is laid ^u ! inside ( ea* portion ( x1 & ! sup]flu\s clay is trimm$ (f ) a knife4 ,! m\ld is !n clos$1 & ?9 /rips ( clay are laid ov] ! seams2 ! removal ( ! sev]al pieces ( ! m\ld1 completes ! op]ation4 #ag4 ,h&les1 sp\ts1 figures 9 relief1 & o!r additions ( ?is nature1 are sep>ately made 9 m\lds1 & /uck on ! vessel ) ! same k9d ( mat]ials1 sometimes m+l$ ) a small proportion ( pla/] ( ,p>is4 ,^! app5dages are add$ aft] ! vessels h become p>tially solid 9 ! air4 #ah4 ,burn+4--,all vessels1 ev5 aft] !y h be5 dri$ 9 ! atmosph]e1 are 9 a v frangible /ate2 &1 to r5d] !m suffici5tly firm = use1 !y are submitt$ to ! process ( burn+ 9 a kiln4 ,to pres]ve ! w>e f injury :ile endur+ ! fire1 ! sev]al pieces are enclos$ 9 cyl9drical boxes call$ sagg]s1 :i* are made ( bak$ clay4 ,^! boxes are plac$ "o above ano!r ar\nd ! sides ( ! kiln1 :i* is ( a circul> =m1 & gradually tap]+ to ! top4 #ai4 ,9 burn+ ! co>s] w>es1 e piece is n ?us inclos$2 b1 betwe5 e two sagg]s1 a nak$ piece is plac$4 ,a mod]ate fire is fir/ rais$1 :i* is gradually increas$1 until ! cont5ts ( ! kiln are br\ght to a r$ heat4 ,! burn+ occupies betwe5 tw5ty-f\r & =ty-eight h\rs4 ,all w>es1 except ! co>se/ k9ds1 are twice1 & sometimes ?rice1 burn$2 &1 aft] hav+ be5 once submitt$ to ! process1 !y are said to be 9 a /ate ( biscuit4 #bj4 ,pa9t+ & pr9t+4--,:5 ! vessels are to be ornam5t$ ) colors1 x is necess>y1 9 mo/ cases1 t ?is "p ( ! "w be done aft] ! fir/ burn+4 ,9 ,*9a1 & at ! porcela9 manufactory 9 ,philadelphia1 ! draw+s are execut$ by h& ) a p5cil4 ,! same me?od is us$ 9 ,europe 9 elaborate pieces ( workman%ip4 ,b1 9 ! common figur$ w>es1 :]e b "o color is us$1 ! designs are fir/ engrav$ on metallic plates1 & impressions are tak5 f !m on ?9 pap]1 by means ( a copp]plate pr9t+-press4 #ba4 ,9 transf]r+ to vessels designs ?us produc$1 ! pap]1 :ile 9 a damp /ate1 is appli$ closely to ! surface ( ! biscuit1 & rubb$ on ) a piece ( flannel4 ,! porosity ( ! e>!n mat]ial causes ! imm$iate absorption ( ! color+ matt]1 :i*1 9 all cases1 is "s metallic oxyde4 ,= a blue color1 ! oxyde ( cobalt is us$2 & = a black1 ^? ( manganese & iron4 ,! pap] is wa%$ f ! w>e ) a sponge4 #bb4 ,glaz+4--,to prev5t ! p5etration ( fluids1 & to improve ! appe>ance ( ! w>e1 a sup]ficial vitre\s coat+ is necess>y4 ,?is c be produc$ by ! aid ( v>i\s sub/ances2 b1 9 a majority ( cases1 r$ lead is ! basis ( ! mixture employ$ = ?is purpose4 ,equal p>ts ( gr\nd fl9ts & r$ lead are us$ = ! common cream-color$ w>es4 ,^! mat]ials are mix$ )1 & susp5d$ 91 wat]1 & ea* piece is dipp$ 9 ! liquid4 ,! moi/ure is soon absorb$ by ! clay1 leav+ ! glaz+ p>ticles on ! surface1 :i*1 9 ! burn+ t foll[s1 is conv]t$ into a uni=m & durable vitre\s coat+4 #bc4 ,/one w>e4--,! mat]ials ( ?is w>e1 z well z ! mode ( prep>+ !m1 diff] b little f ^? ( ! common & bett] k9ds ( e>!n w>es4 ,! clays1 h[ev]1 :i* conta9 b little or no oxyde ( iron are *os51 s9ce ?is sub/ance w\ld cause ! w>e to melt & w>p1 be=e a suffici5t degree ( heat c\ld be appli$ to give x ! requisite h>dness4 #bd4 ,! glaz+ is =m$ by a vitrification ( ! surface ( ! vessels1 caus$ by ! action ( common salt ?r[n into ! kiln1 :5 x has be5 rais$ to its greate/ heat4 ,?is glaz+ is m p]fect ?an t on ord9>y e>!n w>es1 be+ insoluble by mo/ *emical ag5ts4 ,x is h>dly necess>y to rem>k t ?is me?od ( glaz+ precludes ! use ( sagg]s4 #be4 ,porcela94--,?is w>e exce$s e o!r k9d 9 ! delicacy ( its texture1 & is peculi>ly di/+ui%$ by a beautiful semi-transp>5cy1 :i* is conspicu\s :5 held aga9/ ! light4 ,9 ,*9a1 x is made *iefly ( two k9ds ( e>?2 "o ( :i* is d5om9at$ petuntze1 & ! o!r kaol92 b bo? are v>ieties ( feldsp>1 f\nd 9 ! m\nta9s1 9 diff]5t localities4 ,!y are br\ght to ! manufactories f a di/ance 9 ! =m ( bricks2 ! mat]ials1 z tak5 f ! m9es1 hav+ be5 r$uc$ to an impalpable p[d] 9 mort>s1 ei!r by ! labor ( m5 or by wat]-p[]4 #bf4 ,^! mat]ials are comb9$ 9 diff]5t proportions 9 ! manufacture1 accord+ to ! quality ( ! propos$ w>e4 ,9 ! be/ k9d1 equal quantities are us$2 b = ^? ( inf]ior quality1 a great] proportion ( petuntze is employ$4 ,! transluc5cy s mu* admir$ 9 porcela91 or tseki1 z ! ,*9ese call x1 is ow+ to ! petuntze1 :i*1 9 burn+1 p>tially melts1 & envelops ! infusible kaol94 #bg4 ,x is n kn[n :o 0 ! inv5tor ( porcela91 z ! ,*9ese annals are sil5t ) reg>d to ?is po9t2 nor d we "k m ( ! date at :i* ! manufacture 0 comm5c$4 ,x is c]ta91 h[ev]1 t x mu/ h be5 be=e ! fif? c5tury ( ! ,*ri/ian era4 ,s9ce ?is w>e has be5 kn[n to ,europeans1 x has be5 manufactur$ *iefly1 & 9 ! greate/ p]fection1 9 ! l>ge & popul\s village ( ,k+-te-*+4 #bh4 ,porcela9 0 fir/ br\ght to ,europe f ,japan & ,*9a1 & = a long "t its mat]ials & mode ( manufacture rema9$ a secret1 9 spite ( ! ef=ts ( ! ,jesuit mission>ies1 :o resid$ 9 ^? c\ntries4 ,at l5g?1 9 #agab1 ,fa!r ,entrecolles s5t home to ,france1 specim5s ( petuntze & kaol91 toge!r ) a summ>y description ( ! process ( ! manufacture4 #bi4 ,%ortly aft] ?is important ev5t _h transpir$1 x 0 discov]$ t mat]ials ne>ly ( ! same k9d exi/$ 9 abundance 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ,europe4 ,! manufacture ( porcela9 01 !re=e1 soon comm5c$ 9 sev]al places2 & x has s9ce be5 successfully c>ri$ on4 #cj4 ,! porcela9 w>es ( ,europe are sup]ior to ^? ( ! ,*9ese1 9 ! v>iety & elegance ( _! =ms1 z well z 9 ! beauty ( ! designs execut$ ^u !m2 b1 z "s ( ! processes successfully practis$ 9 ,*9a1 rema9 /ill to be le>n$ by ! ,europeans1 ! ,ori5tal porcela9 has n yet be5 equall$ 9 ! h>dness1 /r5g?1 & durability ( its body1 & 9 ! p]man5cy ( its glaze4 ,! manufactur]s ( ,saxony are said to h be5 ! mo/ successful 9 _! imitations 9 ^! respects4 #ca4 ,! porcela9 e>?s are f\nd 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 b p>ticul>ly at ,wilm+ton1 9 ! /ate ( ,delaw>e4 ,nev]!less1 !re is n[ b "o porcela9 manufactory 9 our c\ntry1 & ?is is yet 9 its infancy4 ,! e/abli%m5t is locat$ 9 ,philadelphia1 & x has be5 lately incorporat$1 ) ! privilege ( "o hundr$ ?\s& doll>s capital4 #cb4 ,! pr9ciple ( induration by heat1 is ! same 9 ! manufacture ( e>!n w>es z 9 mak+ bricks2 &1 z ! latt] c be m easily disp5s$ ) ?an ! =m] 9 a primitive /ate ( society1 x is b reasonable to suppose t e>!n w>e 0 fir/ inv5t$2 b ! art ( mak+ bricks mu/ h be5 practis$ be=e ! deluge1 or ! po/]ity ( ,noah w\ld n h attempt$ s soon z ab\t "o hundr$ ye>s aft] t cata/rophe1 to build a city & a t[] ( ^! mat]ials4 ,x is1 !re=e1 evid5t1 t ?is art 0 ( ant$iluvian orig92 & x 0 probably "o ( ! e>lie/ br\ght to any degree ( p]fection4 #cc4 ,! art ( ! pott] 0 practis$ m or less by e nation ( antiquity1 & ! degree ( p]fection to :i* x 0 c>ri$ 9 e c\ntry correspond$ ) ! /ate ( ! arts g5]ally4 ,! ,greeks 7 consequ5tly v celebrat$ = _! e>!n w>es4 ,! ,etruscans h also be5 p>ticul>ly not$ = _! manufacture ( ! elegant vases :i* h be5 dug1 9 mod]n times1 f ! depositories ( ! dead1 9 ,l[] ,italy4 #cd4 ,until ! comm5cem5t ( ! manufacture ( porcela9 9 ,europe1 ?is art cont9u$ 9 a v rude condition1 al?\gh practis$ to a consid]able ext5t 9 _m places4 ,x 0 mu* improv$ 9 ,engl& ab\t ! ye> #agbj1 by ! addition ( fl9ts to ! usual mat]ial2 &1 betwe5 ?irty & =ty ye>s aft] ?is1 x 0 br\ght to great p]fection1 9 all its bran*es1 *iefly ?r\gh ! sci5tific ex]tions ( ! celebrat$ pott]1 ,josiah ,w$gewood4 ,illu/ration3 ,,glass ,,bl[]4 ,,! ,,glass-,,bl[]4 #a4 ,glass is a sub/ance produc$ f a comb9ation ( silici\s e>?s ) alkalies1 &1 9 _m cases1 ) metallic oxydes4 ,! basis ( e species ( glass is silex1 :i* is f\nd 9 a /ate ne>ly pure 9 ! s&s ( _m situations4 ,x is also f\nd 9 ! common fl9ts & qu>tz pebbles4 #b4 ,:5 qu>tz pebbles or fl9ts are employ$1 !y mu/ be fir/ r$uc$ to p[d]4 ,?is is done by gr9d+ !m 9 a mill1 aft] !y h be5 p>tially r$uc$1 by heat+ !m 9 ! fire1 & plung+ !m into cold wat]4 ,s& has ! advantage ( be+ already 9 a /ate ( division suffici5tly m9ute = ! purpose4 ,to prep>e x = application1 x only requires to be wa%$ & sift$1 9 ord] to free x f ! argillace\s & o!r sub/ances unfit = use4 ,a great proportion ( ! s& employ$ 9 ! manufacture ( ! bett] k9ds ( glass 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 is tak5 f ! banks ( ! ,delaw>e ,riv]4 #c4 ,! alkal9e sub/ances us$ are pota% & soda4 ,= ! f9] k9ds ( glass1 pe>la%1 or soda procur$ by decompos+ sea-salt1 is us$2 b1 = ! inf]ior sorts1 impure alkalies1 su* z b>illa1 ,scot* & ,iri% kelp1 & ev5 wood-a%es1 z well z ! refuse ( ! soap-boil]'s kettle1 are made to answ] ! purpose4 ,lime1 borax1 & common salt1 are also frequ5tly us$ z a flux 9 aid ( "s ( ! o!r sub/ances j m5tion$4 #d4 ,( ! metallic oxydes :i* make a "p ( ! mat]ials ( "s glass1 ! deutoxyde ( lead1 or1 z x is usually d5om9at$1 r$ lead1 is ! mo/ common4 ,?is sub/ance is employ$ 9 mak+ fl9t glass1 :i* is r5d]$ by x m fusible1 heavy & t\gh1 & m easy to be gr\nd or cut1 :ile1 at ! same "t1 x increases its brilliancy & refractive p[]4 #e4 ,black oxyde ( manganese is also us$ 9 small quantities1 ) ! view ( r5d]+ ! glass m colorless & transp>5t4 ,common nitre produces ! same effect4 ,:ite ars5ic is also add$ to ! mat]ials ( ?is k9d ( glass1 to promote its cle>ness2 b1 if too mu* is us$1 x communicates a milky :it5ess4 ,! use ( ?is sub/ance 9 dr9k+ vessels is n free f dang]1 :5 ! glass conta9s s mu* alkali z to r5d] any "p ( x soluble 9 acids4 #f4 ,! furnace 9 :i* ! mat]ials are melt$ is a l>ge conical /ack1 su* z is repres5t$ at ! head ( ?is article4 ,9 "s cases1 x is surr\nd$ by a l>ge *imney1 :i* ext5ds above ! ro( ( ! build+4 ,9 ! sides are sev]al ap]tures1 ne> :i* are plac$ ! crucibles1 or melt+-pots1 conta9+ ! mat]ials4 ,! fuel is appli$ 9 an ar*1 :i* is consid]ably l[] ?an ! surface ( ! gr\nd on :i* ! op]ators /&1 :ile at "w4 #g4 ,! melt+-pots are made *iefly ( ! mo/ refractory clays & s&4 ,mu* ( ! clay us$ = ?is purpose1 9 _m ( ! glass-h\ses 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 is import$ f ,g]many4 ,! mat]ials1 hav+ be5 sift$1 & mix$ ) a suitable quantity ( wat]1 ! homog5e\s mass is =m$ into crucibles1 by spread+ x on ! inside ( vessels :i* are mu* 9 ! %ape ( a common wa%-tub4 ,aft] ! clay has become suffici5tly solid to su/a9 itself1 ! hoops are remov$ f ! vessel1 & ! sev]al /aves tak5 ap>t4 #h4 ,! crucibles are suff]$ to dry 9 ! atmosph]e = two or ?ree mon?s1 aft] :i* !y are appli$ to use z !y may be ne$$4 ,be=e !y are plac$ 9 ! ma9 furnace1 !y are gradually rais$ to an int5se heat 9 "o ( small] dim5sions1 built = ?is express purpose4 ,! fuel employ$ 9 fus+ ! metal is *iefly p9e wood1 :i*1 9 all cases1 is previ\sly dri$ 9 a l>ge ov54 ,f\r ( ! five furnaces ne> ,philadelphia1 :i* belong$ to ,doctor ,dyott1 7 heat$ ) ros94 #i4 ,! mat]ials hav+ be5 mix$1 9 ! propos$ proportions1 :i* are det]m9$ by weight1 !y are ?r[n into ! melt+-pots1 &1 by a gradually increas+ heat1 r$uc$ to a pa/e1 suitable = application by ! bl[]4 ,?is "p ( ! process is commonly p]=m$ at night1 :ile ! bl[]s are abs5t f ! works4 #aj4 ,! applications ( glass are s exce$+ly ext5sive1 t x is inconv5i5t1 if n impossible1 to manufacture e species ( x at "o glass-h\se or at "o e/abli%m5t4 ,"s1 !re=e1 conf9e _! att5tion to ! production ( w9d[ glass1 & su* articles ( holl[ w>e z may be made1 ) pr(it1 f ! same k9d ( pa/e4 ,o!rs make vials & o!r species ( w>e1 employ$ by ! druggi/1 apo!c>y1 & *emi/4 ,& aga91 ! ef=ts1 at "s factories1 are conf9$ entirely to ! manufacture ( fl9t glass1 or to t ( plate glass = mirrors4 #aa4 ,! pr9cipal op]ations connect$ ) ! manufacture ( diff]5t species ( glass1 aft] ! pa/e has be5 prep>$1 may be includ$ "u ! foll[+ heads2 viz41 bl[+1 ca/+1 m\ld+1 press+ & gr9d+2 al?\gh all ^! are nev] p]=m$ 9 "o & ! same e/abli%m5t4 #ab4 ,bl[+4--,! op]ation ( bl[+ is ne>ly or q ! same 9 ! production ( e species ( glass w>e1 9 :i* x is employ$4 ,! manipulations1 h[ev]1 connect$ ) mak+ diff]5t articles1 are consid]ably v>i$1 to suit _! p>ticul> con=mation4 ,?is circum/ance r5d]s x impossible = u to give m ?an a g5]al outl9e ( ! process ( ?is manufacture4 #ac4 ,9 ! =mation ( w9d[ glass1 ! workman ga!rs ^u ! end ( an iron tube a suffici5t am\nt ( ! metal1 :i* he br+s to a cyl9drical =m by roll+ x ^u a ca/ iron or /one table4 ,he !n bl[s ?r\gh ! tube ) consid]able =ce1 & ?us exp&s ! glass to ! =m ( an inflat$ bladd]4 ,! inflation is assi/$ by ! heat1 :i* causes ! air & moi/ure ( ! brea? to exp& ) great p[]4 #ad4 ,:5ev] ! glass has become too /iff1 by cool+1 = inflation1 x is aga9 s(t5$ by hold+ x 9 ! blaze ( ! fuel1 & ! bl[+ is repeat$1 until ! globe has be5 exp&$ to ! requisite ?9ness4 ,ano!r workman next receives x at ! o!r end1 ^u an iron rod1 call$ a punt1 or punt+ iron1 :5 ! bl[+ iron is deta*$4 ,x is n[ op5$1 & spread into a smoo? %eet1 by ! c5trifugal =ce acquir$ by ! rapid :irl giv5 to x1 9 ! mann] exhibit$ 9 ! prec$+ cut4 ,! %eet ?us produc$ is ( a uni=m ?ickness1 except at ! c5tre1 :]e ! iron rod _h be5 atta*$4 #ae4 ,an inf]ior k9d ( w9d[ glass1 ! mat]ials ( :i* are s&1 kelp1 & soap-boil]s' wa/e1 is made by bl[+ ! metal into cones1 ab\t a foot 9 diamet] at _! base2 & ^!1 :ile hot1 are t\*$ on "o side ) a cold iron dipp$ 9 wat]4 ,?is produces a crack1 :i* runs ?r\gh ! :ole l5g? ( ! cone4 ,! glass !n exp&s into a %eet some:at resembl+ a fan4 ,?is is suppos$ to be ! olde/ me?od ( manufactur+ w9d[ or plate glass4 #af4 ,! w9d[ glass produc$ 9 ! mann] fir/ describ$1 is call$ cr[n glass2 & ! o!r1 broad glass4 ,b by nei!r ( ^! me?ods c ! l>ge/ panes be produc$4 ,! bl[+ = ^! diff]s f ! me?ods j describ$1 9 t ! mat]ial is bl[n into an irregul> cyl9d]1 op5 at its fur!r end4 ,:5 a suffici5t numb] ( ^! cyl9d]s h accumulat$1 ! end to :i* ! bl[+ iron _h be5 atta*$1 is capp$ (f by draw+ r\nd x a circle ( melt$ glass1 & ! cyl9d] is divid$ longitud9ally by t\*+ x ?r\gh its :ole l5g? ) a hot iron4 ,! cyl9d]s1 9 ?is /ate1 are put into ! anneal+ ov51 :]e1 by aid ( a heat :i* raises ! glass to r$ness1 x is exp&$ into %eets4 ,^! %eets are !n brok5 into panes ( sev]al sizes by ! aid ( a diamond & a /raight edge1 z 9 ! case ( glass bl[n by o!r me?ods4 #ag4 ,ca/+4--,plate glass =m$ by ! me?od la/ m5tion$1 is d5om9at$ cyl9d] glass2 & x is us$ n only = w9d[s1 b also = mirrors n exce$+ f\r feet 9 l5g?4 ,plates ( great] dim5sions are produc$ by a process call$ ca/+4 ,! ca/+ is p]=m$ by p\r+ ! mat]ial1 9 a high /ate ( fusion1 ^u a table ( poli%$ copp] ( l>ge size1 & hav+ a rim elevat$ above its g5]al surface1 z high z ! propos$ plate is to be ?ick4 ,to spread ! glass p]fectly1 & to r5d] ! two surfaces p>allel1 a heavy roll] ( poli%$ copp]1 re/+ ^u ! rim at ! edges1 is pass$ ov] x4 #ah4 ,plates ?us ca/ are always dull & unev54 ,to r5d] !m good reflectors1 x is necess>y to gr9d & poli% !m4 ,! plate to be poli%$ is fir/ cem5t$ ) pla/] ( ,p>is to a table ( wood or /one4 ,a quantity ( wet s&1 em]y1 or pulv]iz$ fl9ts1 is spread ^u x1 & ano!r glass plate1 simil>ly cem5t$ to a wood5 or /one surface1 is plac$ ^u x4 ,! two plates are !n rubb$ toge!r1 until _! surfaces h become plane & smoo?4 ,! la/ poli% is giv5 by colco?> & putty4 ,bo? sides are poli%$ 9 ! same mann]4 #ai4 ,m\ld+4--,ornam5tal =ms & lett]s are produc$ on ! ext]nal surface ( vessels1 by means ( metallic m\lds2 & ! process by :i* ?is k9d ( "w is p]=m$ is call$ m\ld+4 ,9 ! execution1 ! workman ga!rs ^u ! end ( 8 iron tube1 a prop] am\nt ( ! mat]ial1 :i* he ext5ds1 & br+s to a cyl9drical =m1 by roll+ x ^u 8 table4 ,he !n exp&s x a little by a slight bla/1 & aft]w>ds lets x d[n into ! m\ld1 :i* is imm$iately fill$ by bl[+ /ill /rong] ?r\gh ! tube4 #bj4 ,! vessel is !n tak5 f ! m\ld1 & dis5gag$ f ! tube4 ,! same tube1 or a punt+ iron hav+ be5 atta*$ to ! bottom1 ! o!r end is s(t5$ 9 ! fire1 & br\ght to ! propos$ =m ) appropriate tools1 :ile ! iron is roll$ up & d[n ^u ! long arms ( ! glass-bl[]'s *air4 ,! ornam5tal m\lds are made ( ca/ iron1 brass1 or copp]1 & are compos$ ( two p>ts1 :i* op5 & %ut ^u h+es4 ,! m\lds = pla9 vials1 ca/or oil bottles1 small demijohns1 c41 are made ( ! k9d ( clay us$ = ! crucibles4 ,^! consi/ m]ely ( a mass ( ! clay1 ) a cyl9drical hole 9 x ( prop] diamet] & dep?4 #ba4 ,press+4--,?is process is appli$ 9 ! production ( vessels or articles :i* are v ?ick1 & :i* are n contract$ at ! top4 ,! op]ation is p]=m$ 9 iron m\lds1 :i* consi/ ( two p>ts1 & :i* h ^u _! int]nal surfaces ! figures to be impress$ ^u ! glass4 ,! mat]ial1 :ile 9 an ela/ic condition1 is put into ! l[] "p ( ! m\ld2 & ! o!r "p1 call$ ! foll[]1 is imm$iately br\ght ^u x ) consid]able =ce4 #bb4 ,e species ( glass1 be=e x c be us$ ) safety1 mu/ be anneal$1 to dim9i% its brittl5ess4 ,! anneal+ consi/s m]ely 9 lett+ d[n ! temp]ature by degrees4 ,small boys1 !re=e1 convey ! articles1 :atev] !y may be1 z fa/ z !y are made1 to a mod]ately heat$ ov51 :i*1 :5 fill$1 is suff]$ to cool by degrees4 #bc4 ,cutt+4--,! "n ( cut glass is giv5 to ! k9d :i* is gr\nd & poli%$ 9 figures1 appe>+ z if cut ) a %>p in/rum5t4 ,?is op]ation is conf9$ *iefly to fl9t glass1 :i*1 be+ m t\gh & s(t ?an ! o!r k9ds1 is m easily wr\ght4 ,9 addition to ?is1 x is consid]ably m brilliant1 produc+ specim5s ( great] lu/re4 #bd4 ,an e/abli%m5t = gr9d+ glass conta9s a great numb] ( :eels ( ca/ iron1 /one1 & wood1 ( diff]5t sizes2 & ! process consi/s entirely 9 hold+ ! glass aga9/ ^!1 :ile !y are revolv+ ) rapidity4 ,:5 a consid]able portion ( ! mat]ial is to be remov$1 ! gr9d+ is commonly comm5c$ on ! iron :eel1 on :i* is con/antly p\r+ wat] & %>p s&1 f a vessel above1 :i*1 f its %ape1 is call$ a hopp]4 #be4 ,! p]iod ( ! inv5tion ( glass is q unkn[n2 b ! foll[+ is ! usual /ory ( its orig94 ,"s m]*ants1 driv5 by a /orm ^u ! coa/s ( ,pho5icia1 ne> ! ,riv] ,belus1 k9dl$ a fire on ! s& to cook _! victuals1 us+ z fuel "s we$s :i* grew ne>4 ,! a%es produc$ by ! inc9]ation ( ^! plants1 com+ 9 contact ) ! s&1 unit$ ) its p>ticles1 &1 by ! influ5ce ( ! heat1 produc$ glass4 #bf4 ,?is production 0 accid5tally pick$ up by a ,tyrian m]*ant1 :o1 f its beauty & probable utility1 0 l$ to inve/igate ! causes ( its =mation1 & :o1 aft] _m attempts1 succe$$ 9 ! manufacture ( glass4 ,! leg5d probably orig9at$ 9 ! fact1 t glass 0 v anci5tly made at ,tyre2 & t ! s& on ! sea%ore 9 ! imm$iate neighb\rhood ( ! ,belus1 0 well adapt$ to glass-mak+4 #bg4 ,x is c]ta9ly probable1 t an accid5tal vitrification might h giv5 rise to ! discov]y2 b ! circum/ance w\ld h be5 m likely to take place 9 "s op]ation requir+ great] heat ?an t necess>y = dress+ food 9 ! op5 air4 ,! inv5tion ( glass mu/ h be5 effect$ z e>ly z fifte5 hundr$ ye>s be=e our era4 ,x 0 manufactur$ v anci5tly 9 ,egypt2 b :e!r t c\ntry or ,pho5icia is entitl$ to ! pref]5ce1 z reg>ds priority 9 ! practice ( ?is art1 _c be det]m9$4 #bh4 ,glass 0 made 9 consid]able p]fection at ,alex&ria1 & 0 !nce suppli$ to ! ,romans z late z ! fir/ qu>t] ( ! second c5tury4 ,be=e ?is "t1 h[ev]1 ,rome _h h] glass manufactories1 to :i* a p>ticul> /reet 0 assign$4 ,! att5tion ( ! workm5 0 direct$ *iefly to ! production ( bottles & ornam5tal vases1 specim5s ( :i* /ill rema91 z monum5ts ( _! extraord9>y skill4 #bi4 ,9 mod]n times1 ! manufacture ( glass 0 conf9$ pr9cipally to ,italy & ,g]many4 ,v5ice became p>ticul>ly celebrat$ = ! beauty ( ! mat]ial1 & ! skill ( its workm52 & z e>ly z ! ?irte5? c5tury1 x suppli$ ! greate/ "p ( ! glass us$ 9 ,europe4 ,! arti/s ( ,bohemia1 also1 came to be held 9 consid]able reputation4 #cj4 ,! art 0 fir/ practis$ 9 ,engl&1 9 ! ye> #aeeg1 :5 a manufactory 0 erect$ at ,crut*$ ,fri>s1 9 ! city ( ,london1 & %ortly aft]w>ds1 ano!r at ! ,savoy1 9 ! ,/r&4 ,9 ^! e/abli%m5ts1 h[ev]1 7 made little else ?an common w9d[ glass1 & co>se bottles1 all ! f9] articles be+ /ill import$ f ,v5ice4 ,9 #afgc1 ! celebrat$ ,duke ( ,buck+ham br\ght workm5 f ,italy1 & e/abli%$ a manufactory = ca/+ plate glass = mirrors & coa* w9d[s4 ,! art1 9 all its bran*es1 is n[ ext5sively practis$ 9 great p]fection1 n only 9 ,great ,brita91 b 9 _m ( ! o!r k+doms ( ,europe4 #ca4 ,be=e ! comm5cem5t ( ! late w> ) ,engl&1 v little1 if any1 glass 0 manufactur$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 except ! mo/ common w9d[ glass1 & ! mo/ ord9>y k9ds ( holl[ w>e4 ,apo!c>ies' vials & bottles1 z well z e o!r v>iety ( ! bett] k9ds ( glass w>es1 _h be5 import$ f ,europe1 & *iefly f ,engl&4 #cb4 ,our necessities1 creat$ by ! ev5t j m5tion$1 produc$ sev]al manufactories1 :i*1 h[ev]1 did n soon become fl\ri%+1 ow+1 at fir/1 to inexp]i5ce1 &1 aft] ! peace1 to excessive importations4 ,b adequate protection hav+ be5 ext5d$ to ?is bran* ( our national indu/ry1 by ! t>iff ( #ahbh1 x is n[ 9 a highly prosp]\s condition--s mu* s1 t importations ( glass w>e h ne>ly ceas$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,optician4 ,,! ,,optician4 #a4 ,! ^w optician is applicable to p]sons :o are p>ticul>ly skill$ 9 ! sci5ce ( vision1 b especially to ^? :o devote _! att5tion to ! manufacture ( optical in/rum5ts1 su* z ! spectacles1 ! cam]a obscura1 ! magic lant]n1 ! telescope1 ! microscope1 & ! quadrant4 #b4 ,light is an emanation f ! sun & o!r lum9\s bodies1 & is t sub/ance :i* r5d]s opaque bodies visible to ! eye4 ,x div]ges 9 a direct l9e1 unless int]rupt$ by "s ob/acle1 & its motion has be5 e/imat$ at two hundr$ ?\s& miles 9 a second4 #c4 ,a ray ( light is ! motion ( a s+le p>ticle3 & a p>cel ( rays pass+ f a s+le po9t1 is call$ a p5cil ( rays4 ,p>allel rays are su* z always move at ! same di/ance f ea* o!r4 ,rays :i* cont9ually approa* ea* o!r1 are said to conv]ge2 & :5 !y cont9ually rec$e f ea* o!r1 !y are said to div]ge4 ,! po9t at :i* conv]g+ rays meet is call$ ! focus4 #d4 ,any pellucid or transp>5t body1 z air1 wat]1 & glass1 :i* admits ! free passage ( light1 is call$ a m$ium4 ,:5 rays1 aft] hav+ pass$ ?r\gh "o m$ium1 are b5t out ( _! orig9al c\rse by ent]+ ano!r ( diff]5t d5sity1 !y are said to be refract$2 & :5 !y /rike aga9/ a surface1 & are s5t back f x1 !y are said to be reflect$4 #e4 ,a l5s is glass gr\nd 9 su* a =m z to collect or disp]se ! rays ( light :i* pass ?r\gh x4 ,^! are ( diff]5t %apes2 & !y h1 !re=e1 receiv$ diff]5t appellations4 ,a plano-convex l5s has "o side flat1 & ! o!r convex2 a plano-concave l5s is flat on "o side1 & concave on ! o!r2 a d\ble convex l5s is convex on bo? sides2 a d\ble concave l5s is concave on bo? sides2 a m5iscus is convex on "o side1 & concave on ! o!r4 ,by ! foll[+ cut1 ! l5ses are exhibit$ 9 ! ord] 9 :i* !y h be5 m5tion$4 ,illu/ration #f4 ,an incid5t ray is t :i* comes f any lum9\s body to a reflect+ surface2 & t :i* is s5t back f a reflect+ surface1 is call$ a reflect$ ray4 ,! angle ( incid5ce is ! angle :i* is =m$ by ! incid5t ray ) a p]p5dicul> to ! reflect+ surface2 & ! angle ( reflection is ! angle =m$ by ! same p]p5dicul> & ! reflect$ ray4 #g4 ,:5 ! light proce$+ f e po9t ( an object plac$ be=e a l5s is collect$ 9 correspond+ po9ts beh9d x1 a p]fect image ( ! object is !re produc$4 ,! foll[+ cut is giv5 by way ( illu/ration4 ,illu/ration #h4 ,! l5s1 a1 may be suppos$ to be plac$ 9 ! hole ( a w9d[-%utt] ( a d>k5$ room1 & ! arr[ at ! "r to be /&+ at "s di/ance )\t4 ,all ! light reflect$ f ! latt] object t[>ds ! l5s1 passes ?r\gh x1 & conc5trates1 )9 ! room1 9 a focal po9t1 at :i*1 if a %eet ( pap]1 or any o!r plane ( a simil> color1 is plac$1 ! image ( ! object w be se5 ^u x4 #i4 ,?is ph5om5on is call$ ! cam]a obscura1 or d>k *amb]1 because x is necess>y to d>k5 ! room to exhibit x4 ,! image at ! focal po9t )9 ! room is 9 an inv]t$ position4 ,! reason :y x is ?r[n 9 ?is mann] w be readily und]/ood by obs]v+ ! direction ( ! reflect$ rays1 z !y pass f ! object ?r\gh ! l5s4 ,9 ! cam]a obscura1 x is cu/om>y to place a small mirror imm$iately beh9d ! l5s1 s z to ?r[ all ! light :i* ent]s1 d[nw>ds ^u a :it5$ table1 :]e ! picture may be conv5i5tly contemplat$4 #aj4 ,f ! prec$+ explanation ( ! cam]a obscura1 ! !ory ( vision may be readily compreh5d$1 s9ce ! eye itself is a p]fect in/rum5t ( ?is k9d4 ,a c>eful exam9ation ( ! foll[+ repres5tation ( ! eye w r5d] ! simil>ity obvi\s4 ,! eye is suppos$ to be cut ?r\gh ! middle1 f above d[nw>ds4 ,illu/ration3 a a1 ! scl]otica2 b b1 ! *oroides2 c c1 ! ret9a2 d d1 ! cornea2 e1 ! pupil2 f f1 ! iris2 g1 ! aque\s humor2 h1 ! cry/all9e humor2 i i1 ! vitre\s humor4 #aa4 ,! scl]otica is a membran\s coat1 to :i* ! muscles are atta*$ :i* move ! eye4 ,! cornea is unit$ to ! scl]otica ar\nd ! circul> op5+ ( ! latt]1 & is t convex "p ( ! eye1 :i* projects 9 advance ( ! re/ ( ! organ4 ,! space betwe5 ?is & ! cry/all9e l5s is occupi$ by ! aque\s humor & ! iris4 ,! iris is unit$ to ! *oroides1 & x possesses ! p[] ( exp&+ & contract+1 to admit a great] or less numb] ( rays4 #ab4 ,! cry/all9e l5s is a small body ( a cry/all9e appe>ance & l5ticul> %ape1 :5ce its "n4 ,x is situat$ betwe5 ! aque\s & vitre\s humors1 & consi/s ( a membran\s sack fill$ ) a humor ( a cry/all9e appe>ance4 ,! vitre\s humor has be5 ?us d5om9at$ on acc\nt ( its resemblance to glass 9 a /ate ( fusion4 ,! ret9a is a membrane :i* l9es ! :ole cavity ( ! eye1 & is =m$ *iefly1 if n entirely1 by ! expansion ( ! optic n]ve4 #ac4 ,! rays ( light :i* proce$ f objects pass ?r\gh ! cornea1 aque\s humor1 cry/all9e l5s1 & vitre\s humor1 & fall ^u ! ret9a 9 a focal po9t1 to :i* x is br\ght1 *iefly by ! influ5ce ( ! cornea & ! cry/all9e l5s4 ,! image1 9 an inv]t$ position1 is pa9t$ or ?r[n on ! cornea1 :i* p]ceives its pres5ce1 & conveys an impression ( x to ! bra91 by means ( ! optic n]ve4 #ad4 ,optical in/rum5ts4--,! art ( con/ruct+ optical in/rum5ts is f\nd$ ^u ! anatomical /ructure1 & physiological action ( ! eye1 & on ! laws ( light4 ,!y are design$ to increase ! p[]s ( ! eye1 or to rem$y "s defect 9 its /ructure4 ,9 ! cursory view :i* we may give ( a few ( ! _m optical in/rum5ts :i* h be5 inv5t$1 we w beg9 ) ! spectacles1 s9ce !y are ! be/ kn[n1 & )al ! mo/ simple4 #ae4 ,! visual po9t1 or ! di/ance at :i* small objects c be di/9ctly se51 v>ies 9 diff]5t individuals4 ,z an av]age1 x may be assum$ at eight or n9e in*es f ! eye4 ,9 "s p]sons1 x is mu* ne>]1 & 9 o!rs1 consid]ably m di/ant4 ,! extreme1 9 ! =m] case1 con/itutes myopy1 or %ort-sight$ness1 &1 9 ! latt] case1 presbyopy1 or long-sight$ness4 #af4 ,myopy is *iefly caus$ by too great a convexity ( ! cornea & ! cry/all9e l5s1 :i* causes ! rays to conv]ge to a focus1 be=e !y rea* ! ret9a4 ,objects are1 !re=e1 indi/9ctly se5 by myoptic p]sons1 unless held v ne> ! eye to ?r[ ! focus f>!r back4 ,?is defect may be palliat$ by ! use ( concave glasses1 :i* r5d] ! rays proce$+ f objects m div]g5t4 #ag4 ,presbyopy is pr9cipally caus$ by too little convexity ( ! cornea & cry/all9e l5s1 :i* ?r[s ! focal po9t ( rays reflect$ f ne> objects1 beyond ! ret9a4 ,?is defect is exp]i5c$ by mo/ p1 to a great] or less degree1 aft] !y h advanc$ beyond ! =tie? ye>1 & occasionally ev5 by y\?4 ,a rem$y1 or1 at lea/1 a palliation1 is f\nd 9 ! use ( convex glasses1 :i* r5d] ! rays m conv]g5t1 & enable ! eye to refract !m to a focus f>!r =w>d1 at ! prop] po9t4 #ah4 ,! opticians h _! spectacles numb]$1 to suit diff]5t p]iods ( life2 b1 z ! %ort-sight$ & long-sight$ conditions exi/ 9 a ?\s& diff]5t degrees1 ea* p]son %\ld select = himself su* z w enable him to read )\t ef=t at ! usual di/ance4 #ai4 ,! great ob/acle to view+ small objects at ! usual di/ance1 arises f too great a div]g5ce ( ! light reflect$ f !m1 :i* causes ! rays to rea* ! ret9a be=e !y h conv]g$ to a focus4 ,?is defect is rem$i$ by convex l5ses1 :i* br+ ! visual po9t ne>] to ! eye1 & consequ5tly cause ! rays to conc5trate 9 a l>ge focus ^u ! ret9a4 ,! mo/ p[]ful microscopic l5ses are small globules ( glass1 :i* p]mit ! eye to be br\ght v ne> to ! object4 #bj4 ,microscopes are ei!r s+le or d\ble4 ,9 ! =m] case1 b "o l5s is us$1 & ?r\gh ?is ! object is view$ directly2 b1 9 ! latt] case1 two or m glasses are employ$1 ?r\gh "o ( :i* a magnifi$ image is ?r[n ^u a reflect+ surface1 & ?is is view$ ?r\gh ! o!r glass1 or glasses1 z ! real object is se5 ?r\gh a s+le microscope4 #ba4 ,! sol> microscope1 on acc\nt ( its great magnify+ p[]s1 is ! mo/ wond]ful in/rum5t ( ?is k9d4 ,! pr9ciples ( its con/ruction are ! same ) ^? ( ! cam]a obscura4 ,! diff]5ce consi/s *iefly 9 ! m9or circum/ance ( plac+ ! object v ne> ! l5s1 by :i* a magnifi$ image is ?r[n at ! focal po9t )9 ! room4 #bb4 ,9 ! case ( ! cam]a obscura1 ! objects are at a f> great] di/ance f ! glass on ! outside ?an ! images1 at ! focal po9t1 on ! inside4 ,! comp>atively great di/ance ( ! object1 9 ?is case1 causes ! image to be proportionably small]4 ,9 ! sol> microscope1 a small mirror is us$ to receive ! rays1 & to reflect !m directly ^u ! object4 #bc4 ,! magic lant]n is an in/rum5t us$ = magnify+ pa9t+s on glass1 & = ?r[+ _! images ^u a :ite surface 9 a d>k5$ room4 ,its g5]al con/ruction is ! same ) t ( ! sol> microscope2 b1 9 ! application1 ! light ( a lamp is employ$ in/ead ( t f ! sun4 #bd4 ,telescopes are employ$ = view+ objects :i* f _! di/ances appe> small1 or are invisible to ! nak$ eye4 ,!y are ( two k9ds1 refract+ & reflect+4 ,! =m] k9d is a comp\nd ( ! cam]a obscura & ! s+le microscope4 ,x consi/s ( a tube1 hav+ at ! fur!r end a d\ble convex l5s1 :i* conc5trates ! rays at a focal po9t )91 :]e ! image is view$ ?r\gh a microscopic l5s1 plac$ at ! o!r end4 #be4 ,9 ! con/ruction ( reflect+ telescopes1 concave mirrors1 or specula1 are comb9$ ) a d\ble convex l5s4 ,a l>ge mirror ( ?is k9d is s plac$ 9 ! tube1 t x receives ! rays ( light f objects1 & reflects !m ^u ano!r ( a small] size4 ,f ?is !y are ?r[n to a focal po9t1 :]e ! image is view$ ?r\gh a d\ble convex l5s4 ,! specula are made ( speculum metal1 :i* is a composition ( c]ta9 proportions ( copp] & t94 #bf4 ,_m optical appe>ances are ( su* frequ5t recurr5ce1 t !y c\ld n h escap$ ! e>lie/ obs]v]s2 nev]!less1 ages appe> to h elaps$1 be=e any progress 0 made t[>ds an explanation ( !m4 ,emp$ocles1 a ,greek philosoph]1 born at ,agrig5tum 9 ,sicily1 #dfj ye>s be=e ,*ri/1 is ! fir/ p]son on record :o attempt$ to write sy/ematically on light4 #bg4 ,! subject 0 successively treat$ by sev]al o!r philosoph]s2 b ! anci5ts nev] atta9$ to a high degree ( in=mation ^u x4 ,we h reason to believe1 h[ev]1 t convex l5ses 71 9 "s cases1 us$ z magnifi]s1 & z burn+ glasses1 al?\gh ! !ory ( _! refractive p[] 0 n und]/ood4 #bh4 ,! magnify+ p[] ( glasses1 & "s o!r optical ph5om5a1 7 l>gely treat$ by ,al ,haz51 an ,arabian philosoph]1 :o fl\ri%$ ab\t ! ye> #aajj ( our era2 &1 9 #abgj1 ,vitellio1 a ,pol&]1 publi%$ a treatise on optics1 conta9+ all t 0 valuable 9 ,al ,haz5's "w1 dige/$ 9 a bett] mann]1 & ) m lucid explanations ( v>i\s ph5om5a4 #bi4 ,rog] ,bacon1 an ,engli% monk1 :o 0 born 9 #abad1 & :o liv$ to ! age ( sev5ty-eight1 describ$ v accurately ! effects ( convex & concave l5ses1 & demon/rat$1 by actual exp]im5t1 t a small segm5t ( a glass globe w\ld greatly assi/ ! sight ( old p]sons4 ,conc]n+ ! actual inv5tor ( spectacles1 h[ev]1 we h no c]ta9 in=mation2 we only "k t ^! useful in/rum5ts 7 g5]ally kn[n 9 ,europe1 ab\t ! beg9n+ ( ! f\rte5? c5tury4 #cj4 ,9 ! ye> #aege1 ,maurolicus1 a tea*] ( ma!matics1 at ,mess9a1 publi%$ a treatise on optics1 9 :i* he demon/rat$ t ! cry/all9e humor ( ! eye is a l5s1 :i* collects ! rays ( light f ext]nal objects1 & ?r[s !m ^u ! ret9a4 ,hav+ arriv$ at a k ( ^! facts1 he 0 enabl$ to assign ! reasons :y "s p 7 %ort-sight$1 & o!rs long-sight$4 #ca4 ,john ,bapti/a ,porta1 ( ,naples1 0 contempor>y ) ,maurolicus4 ,he inv5t$ ! cam]a obscura1 & 8 exp]im5ts ) ?is in/rum5t conv9c$ him1 t light 0 a sub/ance1 & t its reception into ! eye produc$ vision4 ,^! discov]ies correspond$ v ne>ly ) ^? by ,maurolicus1 al?\gh nei!r ( ^! philosoph]s _h any k ( :at ! o!r _h done4 ,! importance ( ,porta's discov]ies w be evid5t1 :5 x is obs]v$1 t1 be=e 8 "t1 vision 0 suppos$ to be dep5d5t on :at 7 t]m$ visual rays1 proce$+ f ! eye4 #cb4 ,! telescope 0 inv5t$ t[>ds ! latt] end ( ! sixte5? c5tury4 ,( ?is1 z ( _m o!r valuable inv5tions1 accid5t furni%$ ! fir/ h9t4 ,x is said1 t ! *ildr5 ( ,za*>ias ,jans51 a spectacle-mak]1 ( ,middleburg 9 ,holl&1 :ile play+ ) spectacle-glasses 9 _! fa!r's %op1 p]ceiv$ t1 :5 ! glasses 7 held at a c]ta9 di/ance f ea* o!r1 ! dial ( ! clock appe>$ greatly magnifi$1 b 9 an inv]t$ position4 #cc4 ,?is incid5t sugge/$ to _! fa!r ! idea ( adju/+ two ( ^! glasses on a bo>d1 s z to move !m at pleasure4 ,two su* glasses inclos$ 9 a tube complet$ ! inv5tion ( ! simple/ k9d ( ! refract+ telescope4 ,galileo greatly improv$ ! telescope1 & con/ruct$ "o t magnifi$ ?irty-?ree times1 & ) ?is he made ! a/ronomical discov]ies :i* h immortaliz$ 8 "n4 #cd4 ,john ,kepl]1 a great ma!matician & a/ronom]1 :o 0 born at ,weir1 9 ,wurtemburg1 9 ! ye> #aega1 paid great att5tion to ! ph5om5a ( light & vision4 ,he 0 ! fir/ :o demon/rat$ t ! degree ( refraction suff]$ by light 9 pass+ ?r\gh l5ses1 corresponds ) ! diamet] ( ! circle ( :i* ! concavity or convexity is ! portion ( an ar*4 ,he v successfully pursu$ ! discov]ies ( ,maurolicus & ,porta1 & ass]t$ t ! images ( ext]nal objects 7 =m$ ^u ! optic n]ve by ! conc5tration ( rays :i* proce$ f !m4 #ce4 ,9 #afbe1 ! curi\s discov]y ( ,s*e9] 0 publi%$1 at ,rome1 :i* plac$ beyond d\bt ! fact1 t vision dep5ds ^u ! =mation ( ! image ( objects ^u ! ret9a4 ,! fact 0 demon/rat$ by cutt+ away1 at ! back "p1 ! two outside coats ( ! eye ( an animal1 & by pres5t+ diff]5t objects be=e x4 ,! images 7 di/9ctly se5 pa9t$ on ! nak$ ret9a4 #cf4 ,ne> ! middle ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 ! velocity ( light 0 discov]$ by ,roem]2 &1 9 #affc1 ,james ,gregory1 a celebrat$ ,scot* ma!matician1 publi%$ ! fir/ proposal = a reflect+ telescope4 ,b1 z he possess$ no me*anical dext]ity himself1 & z he c\ld f9d no workman capable ( execut+ 8 designs1 he nev] succe$$ 9 c>ry+ 8 conceptions into effect4 ,?is 0 res]v$ = ,sir ,isaac ,newton2 :o1 be+ rem>kable = manual skill1 execut$ two in/rum5ts ( ?is k9d1 9 ! ye> #afgb1 on a plan1 h[ev]1 some:at diff]5t f t propos$ by ,gregory4 #cg4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ! ye> #afff1 ! att5tion ( ,sir ,isaac ,newton 0 drawn to ! ph5om5a ( ! refraction ( light ?r\gh ! prism2 &1 hav+ obs]v$ a c]ta9 surpris+ fact1 he in/itut$ a v>iety ( exp]im5ts1 by :i* he 0 br\ght to ! conclusion1 t light 0 n a homog5e\s sub/ance1 b t x is compos$ ( p>ticles1 :i* are capable ( diff]5t degrees ( refrangibility4 #ch4 ,by ! same exp]im5ts1 he also prov$1 t ! rays or p>ticles ( light diff] f ea* o!r 9 exhibit+ diff]5t colors1 "s produc+ ! color r$1 o!rs t ( yell[1 blue1 c4 ,he appli$ 8 pr9ciples to ! explanation ( mo/ ( ! ph5om5a ( nature1 :]e light & color are conc]n$2 & almo/ e ?+ :i* we "k ^u ^! subjects1 0 laid op5 by 8 exp]im5ts4 #ci4 ,! spl5dor ( ,sir ,isaac ,newton's discov]ies obscures1 9 "s measure1 ! m]its ( e>li] & subsequ5t philosoph]s2 yet sev]al int]e/+ discov]ies 9 reg>d to light & color1 z well z _m important improvem5ts ( optical in/rum5ts1 h be5 made s9ce 8 "t1 al?\gh ! light by :i* ^! h be5 a*iev$1 0 d]iv$ pr9cipally f 8 labors4 ,illu/ration3 ,,goldbeat]4 ,,! ,,gold-,,beat]1 ,,& ,,! ,,jewell]4 ,,gold4 #a4 ,! metals mo/ ext5sively employ$ 9 ! arts are gold1 silv]1 copp]1 lead1 t91 & iron4 ,^! are sometimes f\nd uncomb9$ ) any o!r sub/ance1 or comb9$ only ) ea* o!r2 9 ei!r ( ^! cases1 !y are said to be 9 a native /ate4 ,b !y are m frequ5tly f\nd unit$ ) "s sub/ances :i*1 9 a great measure1 disguise _! metallic qualities1 or1 9 o!r words1 9 a /ate ( ore4 ,! mode ( sep>at+ ! metals f _! ores1 w be notic$ 9 connexion ) "s ( ! trades 9 :i* !y are prep>$ =1 or practically appli$ 91 ! arts4 #b4 ,gold is a metal ( a yell[ color1 a *>act]i/ic by :i* x is di/+ui%$ f all o!r simple metallic bodies4 ,z a repres5tative ( prop]ty1 x has be5 us$ f "t immemorial2 &1 be=e co9age 0 inv5t$1 x pass$ = money 9 its native /ate4 ,9 ?is =m1 gold is /ill curr5t 9 "s p>ts ( ,africa2 & ev5 9 ! ,s\!rn /ates ( our own c\ntry1 9 ! vic9ity ( ! gold m9es1 ! same practice1 9 a measure1 prevails4 #c4 ,gold is r>ely employ$ 9 a /ate ( p]fect purity1 b is g5]ally us$ 9 comb9ation ) "s o!r metal1 :i* r5d]s x h>d]1 & consequ5tly m capable ( endur+ ! friction to :i* x is expos$4 ,! metal us$ = ?is purpose is call$ an alloy1 & g5]ally consi/s ( silv] or copp]4 #d4 ,= conv5i5ce 9 comm]ce1 ?is preci\s metal is suppos$ to be divid$ into tw5ty-f\r equal p>ts1 call$ c>ats4 ,if p]fectly pure1 x is d5om9at$ gold #bd c>ats f9e2 if alloy$ ) "o "p ( any o!r metal or mixture ( metals1 x is said to be #bc c>ats f9e4 ,! /&>d gold co9 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,great ,brita9 is #bb c>ats f9e2 or1 9 o!r words1 x conta9s "o-twelf? "p ( alloy4 ,gold1 made /&>d by equal p>ts ( copp] & silv]1 approa*es 9 color m ne>ly to pure gold ?an :5 alloy$ 9 any o!r mann]4 #e4 ,gold is f\nd 9 ve9s 9 m\nta9s1 mo/ usually associat$ ) ores ( silv]1 sulphurets ( iron1 copp]1 lead1 & o!r metals4 ,x is (t5 s m9utely di/ribut$1 t its pres5ce is detect$ only by p\nd+ & wa%+ ! ores 9 :i* x exi/s4 ,b ! greate/ "p ( ! gold 9 ! possession ( mank9d1 has be5 f\nd 9 ! =m ( gra9s & small deta*$ masses1 amid ! s&s ( riv]s & 9 alluvial l&s1 :]e x _h be5 deposit$ by means ( wat]1 :i* _h deta*$ x f its orig9al position 9 ! m\nta9s4 #f4 ,to sep>ate or extract gold f ! =eign matt]s ) :i* x may be comb9$1 ! :ole is fir/ p\nd$ f9e1 & !n wa%$ by putt+ x 9 a /ream ( wat]1 :i* c>ries (f ! /ony p>ticles1 :ile ! gold1 by its specific gravity1 s9ks to ! bottom4 ,to r5d] ! sep>ation /ill m p]fect1 ?is s$im5t is mix$ ) t5 times its weight ( quicksilv]1 & put into a lea!r bag1 9 :i* x is submitt$ to a pressure t =ces ! fluid "p ?r\gh its pores2 :ile ! m solid "p ( ! amalgam1 :i* conta9s mo/ ( ! gold1 rema9s4 #g4 ,to sep>ate ! quicksilv] f ! gold1 ! mass is subject$ to ! process ( sublimation 9 e>!n retorts1 :i*1 z appli$ to metals1 is simil> 9 its effects to di/illation1 z appli$ to liquids4 ,:5 gold is conta9$ 9 ! ores ( o!r metals1 !y are roa/$1 9 ord] to drive (f ! volatile p>ts1 & to oxydize ! o!r metals4 ,! gold is !n extract$ by amalgamation1 by liquefaction ) lead1 by ! aid ( nitric acid1 or by o!r me?ods adapt$ to ! nature ( ! ore4 #h4 ,gold obta9$ 9 any ( ^! me?ods is always m or less alloy$ ) "s o!r metal1 especially ) silv] or copp]2 b a sep>ation is produc$1 s f> z x is requir$ = ! purposes ( comm]ce1 by two processes1 "o ( :i* is call$ cupellation1 & ! o!r p>t+4 ,! =m] ( ^! op]ations consi/s 9 melt+ ! gold ) a quantity ( lead1 :i* readily oxydizes & vitrifies1 & :i* causes ! same *anges to take place 9 ! metal to be deta*$ f ! mass ( gold4 ,! op]ation is call$ cupellation1 because x is usually p]=m$ on a cupel1 a vessel =m$ ( bone-a%es1 or sometimes ( wood-a%es4 #i4 ,cupellation is effectual 9 remov+ copp]1 b n s ) reg>d to silv]2 ! latt] is sep>at$ by means ( a process call$ p>t+4 ,! metal is roll$ out into ?9 %eets or /rips1 & cut into small pieces4 ,^! are put into dilut$ nitric acid1 :i*1 by ! aid ( a mod]ate heat1 dissolves ! silv]1 leav+ ! gold 9 a por\s /ate4 #aj4 ,ano!r process1 call$ cem5tation1 is also sometimes us$4 ,x is p]=m$ by beat+ ! alloy$ metal into ?9 plates1 & arrang+ !m 9 alt]nate lay]s ) a cem5t conta9+ nitrate ( pota%1 & sulphate ( iron4 ,! :ole is !n expos$ to heat1 until a great "p ( ! bas] metals has be5 remov$ by ! action ( ! nitric acid lib]at$ by ! nitre4 ,cem5tation is (t5 employ$ by goldsmi?s1 to ref9e ! surface ( articles 9 :i* ! gold has be5 comb9$1 9 too small a proportion1 ) metals ( less value4 #aa4 ,! av]age am\nt ( gold annually obta9$ 9 e "p ( ! globe _c fall f> %ort ( tw5ty-millions ( doll>s 9 value1 ( :i* ,s\? ,am]ica supplies ab\t "o half1 & ,europe1 ab\t "o tw5ty-fif? "p4 ,! am\nt yield$ by ! ,s\!rn /ates ( our ,union1 _c be accurately asc]ta9$1 b ! :ole sum co9$ at ! ,unit$ ,/ates' ,m9t 9 #ahcd1 f gold obta9$ 9 ?is qu>t]1 am\nt$ to #hih1jjj1 & s9ce #ahbd to t "t1 to #c1fgi1jjj4 ,9 #ahbd1 ! sum 0 b #ejjj4 ,our ,s\!rn m9es w probably cont9ue to increase 9 productiv5ess4 ,,! ,,gold-,,beat]4 #a4 ,gold1 n be+ subject to intr9sic *ange by atmosph]ic action1 or by t ( common *emical ag5ts1 is ext5sively us$ 9 gild+ v>i\s sub/ances1 ei!r ) ! view ( pres]v+ !m f decay1 or = ! purpose ( embelli%m5t4 ,to prep>e ! gold = application 9 ?is mann] is ! bus9ess ( ! gold-beat]4 #b4 ,! metal is fir/ melt$ ) "s borax 9 a crucible1 & =m$ into an +ot by p\r+ x into an iron m\ld4 ,! mass is next hamm]$ a little on an anvil1 to increase ! cohesion ( its p>ts1 & aft]w>ds repeat$ly pass$ betwe5 /eel roll]s1 until x has become a rib& z ?9 z pap]4 #c4 ,two ounces & a half ( ?is rib& are cut into #aej pieces ( equal dim5sions4 ,^! are hamm]$ a little to make !m smoo?1 & !n int]laid ) pieces ( f9e vellum f\r in*es squ>e4 ,! :ole1 ) tw5ty o!r pieces ( vellum on ea* side1 is inclos$ 9 two cases ( p>*m5t4 ,! packet is !n beat5 on a m>ble anvil ) a hamm] weigh+ sixte5 p\nds1 until ! gold has be5 spread to ne> ! size ( ! vellum leaves1 x1 9 ! mean "t1 be+ (t5 turn$ ov]4 #d4 ,! gold leaves are next divid$ into f\r equal squ>es1 ) a /eel knife on a lea!r cu%ion2 & ! #fjj leaves ?us produc$1 are int]laid ) a k9d ( lea!r or p>*m5t made ( ! inte/9es ( ! ox1 & beat5 ) a hamm] weigh+ twelve p\nds1 until ! leaves h be5 ext5d$ z be=e4 ,!y are aga9 qu>t]$ & int]laid1 & beat5 ) a hamm] weigh+ six or eight p\nds4 #e4 ,! gold hav+ n[ be5 suffici5tly ext5d$1 ! packets are tak5 ap>t1 & ! leaves cut to a prop] & uni=m size1 by means ( a cane frame on a lea!r cu%ion4 ,! leaves1 z fa/ z !y are trimm$1 are plac$ 9 a book1 ! pap] ( :i* has be5 cov]$ ) r$ bole1 to prev5t ! gold f /ick+4 ,( ! two ounces & a half ( gold ?us treat$1 only ab\t "o ounce rema9s 9 p]fect leaves1 :i*1 altoge!r1 am\nt to #bjjj ?ree in*es & ?ree-eigh?s squ>e4 ,! books conta9 tw5ty-five leaves1 s t "o ounce ( gold makes eighty books4 #f4 ,gold ext5d$ into leaves1 is alloy$1 9 a great] or less degree1 ) silv] or copp]1 or bo?1 because1 9 a pure /ate1 x w\ld be too ductile4 ,! newe/ sk9s w "w ! pure/ gold1 & make ! ?9ne/ leaf1 because !y are ! smoo!/4 ,! alloy v>ies f ?ree to tw5ty-f\r gra9s to ! ounce1 b 9 g5]al x is six1 or "o "p ( alloy to eighty ( gold4 #g4 ,a k9d ( leaf call$ p>ty gold1 is =m$ by ! union ( a ?9 leaf ( gold & a ?ick] "o ( silv]4 ,! two are laid toge!r1 & aft]w>ds heat$ & press$1 until !y h coh]$4 ,!y are !n beat5 & o!rwise treat$1 z 9 ! process j describ$4 ,silv]1 & likewise copp]1 are also beat5 into leaves1 al?\gh !y w by no means be> s great a r$uction z gold4 ,consid]able quantities ( copp] leaf are br\ght f ,holl&1 :i* 9 comm]ce is kn[n by ! d5om9ation ( ,dut* leaf1 or ,dut* gold4 #h4 ,! anci5t ,romans 7 n ignorant ( ! process ( gold-beat+1 al?\gh !y did n c>ry x s f> z we d4 ,pl9y in=ms u t !y sometimes made #gej leaves f\r f+]s squ>e1 f an ounce ( gold4 ,at ,prne/e 0 a /atue ( ,=tune1 gilt ) leaves ( a c]ta9 ?ickness2 h5ce ^? beat5 to ! same degree ( ?ickness 7 call$ ,prne/9es4 ,^? ( ano!r & less degree ( ?ickness1 7 call$ qu/oriales1 = a simil> reason4 #i4 ,! ,romans began to gild ! int]ior ( _! h\ses imm$iately aft] ! de/ruction ( ,c>?age4 ,! wa9scots ( ! ,capitol 7 fir/ ornam5t$ 9 ?is mann]2 & aft]w>ds x became fa%ionable to gild ! walls & ceil+s ( private dwell+s1 z well z articles ( furniture4 #aj4 ,gold wire4--,! ductility ( gold is m conspicu\s 9 wire ?an 9 leaves4 ,! wire ?us d5om9at$1 is 9 reality silv] wire cov]$ ) gold4 ,x is =m$ by cov]+ a silv] rod ) ?ick leaves ( gold1 & !n draw+ x successively ?r\gh conical holes ( diff]5t sizes1 made 9 plates ( /eel4 ,! wire may be r$uc$1 9 ?is mann]1 to a degree ( extreme f95ess1 ! gold be+ drawn out ) ! silv]1 & con/itut+ = x a p]fect coat+4 #aa4 ,wire ?us =m$ is (t5 us$ 9 ! manufacture ( gold ?read4 ,be=e x is appli$ 9 ?is way1 x is flatt5$ betwe5 roll]s ( poli%$ /eel1 & !n w\nd on yell[ silk by ma*9]y4 ,! coat+ ( gold on ! silv] wire employ$ 9 ?is way1 does n exce$ ! million? "p ( an in* 9 ?ickness4 ,,! ,,jewell]4 #a4 ,! jewell] makes r+s1 lockets1 bracelets1 broo*es1 e>-r+s1 necklaces1 wat*-*a9s1 & tr9kets ( l nature4 ,! mat]ials ( ! be/ quality ( ^! ornam5ts are gold1 pe>ls1 & preci\s /ones1 al?\gh ^? ( an inf]ior k9d are (t5 us$4 #b4 ,!re are sev]al /ones to :i* is appli$ ! epi!t preci\s1 ( :i* ! foll[+ are ! pr9cipal3 ! diamond1 ! ruby1 ! sapphire1 ! topaz1 ! *rysolite1 ! b]yl1 ! em]ald1 ! hyac9?1 ! ame?y/1 ! g>net1 ! t\rmal91 & ! opal4 ,to ^! may be add$ rock cry/al1 ! f9e fl9ts ( pebbles1 ! cat's-eye1 ! oculis mundi or hydrophanes1 ! *alc$ony1 ! moon-/one1 ! onyx1 ! c>nelian1 ! s>donyx1 agates1 & ! ,labrador-/one4 ,^! /ones1 toge!r ) diff]5t k9ds ( pe>l1 are also call$ gems or jewels4 #c4 ,! preci\s /ones are valuable1 z articles ( m]*&ise1 9 proportion to _! sc>city1 weight1 transp>5cy1 lu/re1 & h>dness4 ,9 mo/ ( ^! p>ticul>s1 ! diamond is sup]ior to any o!r2 b ^? ( ! same size are n always ( equal value1 = all are n ( ! same color or brilliancy4 ,! v be/ are said to be diamonds ( ! fir/ wat]4 ,! diamond 0 call$ adamant by ! anci5ts1 al?\gh ?is t]m 0 n conf9$ exclusively to ?is /one4 #d4 ,! weight & consequ5t value ( ! mo/ preci\s /ones are e/imat$ 9 c>ats1 "o ( :i* is equal to f\r gra9s troy weight1 & ! value ( ea* c>at is increas$ 9 proportion to ! size ( ! /one4 ,9 ,engl&1 ! co/ ( a cut diamond ( ! fir/ wat] is ?us e/imat$3 #a c>at is l4#h #b d4 is #b #b #h #cb #c d4 is #c #c #h #gb #d d4 is #d #d #h #abh ,by ! =ego+ examples1 x w be se5 t ! weight is multipli$ by itself1 & ! product by ! price p] c>at1 :i* may be "s o!r sum1 accord+ to ! g5]al *>act]i/ics ( ! /one4 #e4 ,?is rule1 h[ev]1 is n ext5d$ to diamonds ( m ?an #bj c>ats 9 weight2 nor is ?is or any o!r rule ( e/imate /rictly adh]$ to 9 e case2 nev]!less1 x probably comes pretty ne> to g5]al usage4 ,9 ! same c\ntry1 a p]fect ruby ( #c-a_/b c>ats is wor? m ?an a diamond ( equal weight4 ,a ruby weigh+ "o c>at may be wor? #aj gu9eas2 two c>ats1 #dj gu9eas2 ?ree c>ats1 #aej gu9eas2 six c>ats #ajjj gu9eas4 ,a ruby ( a deep r$ color1 exce$+ #bj c>ats1 is call$ a c>buncle2 & ( ^!1 #ajh1 weigh+ f #ajj to #bjj c>ats ea*1 are said to h be5 9 ! ?rone ( ! ,great ,mogul4 #f4 ,"s ( ! ,european sov]eigns h1 9 _! possession1 diamonds ( great value1 sev]al ( :i* 7 orig9ally br\ght to ,engl& f ,india4 ,! ,pitt or ,reg5t diamond 0 pur*as$ 9 ,india by ,rob]t ,pitt1 gr&fa!r ( ! ,"r ,honorable ,william ,pitt1 = #ab1ejj /]l+4 ,x 0 br\ght to ,engl& 9 a r\gh /ate1 & #ejjj 7 !re exp5d$ 9 cutt+ x2 b ! cutt+s !mselves 7 wor? #gjjj or #hjjj4 ,x 0 sold to ! ,duke ( ,orleans1 = ! ,k+ ( ,france1 at ! enorm\s price ( #acf1jjj4 ,its weight is #acf c>ats2 &1 be=e x 0 cut1 x 0 z l>ge z a common pullet's egg4 #g4 ,a celebrat$ diamond1 9 ! possession ( ! emp]or ( ,russia1 is d5om9at$ ! ,eff+ham or ,russian diamond4 ,x 0 br\ght to ,engl& by ! ,e>l ( ,eff+ham1 :ile gov]nor-g5]al ( ,india1 & sold to ! ,empress ,ca?>9e = #ij1jjj4 ,x is inf]ior 9 %ape to ! la/ m5tion$1 b sup]ior to x 9 magnitude1 x weigh+ #aih c>ats4 ,! ,que5 ( ,engl& has a diamond :i* co/ #bb1jjj4 #h4 ,! l>ge/ diamond hi!rto kn[n 0 f\nd 9 ! isl& ( ,borneo1 & x is n[ 9 ! possession ( ! ,rajah ( ,mattan4 ,_m ye>s ago1 ! gov]nor ( ,batavia (f]$1 9 ex*ange = x1 #aej1jjj1 & two l>ge brigs ( w> ) _! equipm5ts & outfit2 b ! rajah refus$ to "p ) ! jewel1 to :i* ! ,malays suppos$ miracul\s p[] belong$1 & :i* !y believ$ to be connect$ ) ! fate ( 8 family4 ,! weight ( ?is diamond is #cfg c>ats4 #i4 ,o!r jewels1 belong+ to diff]5t sov]eigns1 z well z to private p]sons1 might be m5tion$2 b a suffici5t numb] has be5 notic$ to enable ! read] to =m "s idea ( ! extravagant exp5ditures (t5 made = articles ( imag9>y value4 ,we w m]ely add t ! royal family ( ,portugal is 9 possession ( a /one :i* 0 =m]ly suppos$ to be a diamond1 b :i* has lately prov$ to be "s k9d ( cry/al ( little value4 ,! weight ( ?is /one is #afhj c>ats2 &1 until its real "* 0 discov]$1 x 0 valu$ at #bbd millions /]l+4 #aj4 ,! value ( preci\s /ones 0 mu* increas$ 9 anci5t times1 by ! absurd notion commonly ent]ta9$1 t !y possess$ miracul\s p[]s 9 prev5t+ or cur+ diseases1 z well z 9 keep+ (f wit*es & evil spirits4 ,^! notions /ill prevail m or less 9 hea!n nations2 & _m1 ev5 9 c\ntries call$ ,*ri/ian1 we> !m1 or some?+ else1 z amulets = ! same or simil> purposes4 #aa4 ,! ,gem-sculptor4--,figures & lett]s are (t5 cut 9 preci\s /ones by ! gem-engrav]1 or gem-sculptor1 ^: art1 accord+ to ! op9ion ( "s writ]s1 orig9at$ ) ! ,babylonians2 b1 accord+ to o!rs1 x _h its comm5cem5t 9 ,india or ,egypt4 ,9 ! latt] c\ntry1 x 0 fir/ employ$ 9 ! production ( hi]oglyphical figures on basalt & granite rocks4 ,?is art1 :i* is d5om9at$ li?oglyptics1 or ! glyptic art1 0 held 9 great e/imation by ! ,greeks 9 anci5t times4 ,x arose to em95ce ) ! o!r f9e arts2 &1 l !m1 x _h its z5i? ( p]fection1 0 buri$ ) !m 9 ! ru9s ( ! ,roman empire1 & ) !m reviv$ t[>ds ! end ( ! fifte5? c5tury4 #ab4 ,! productions ( gem-sculpture are *iefly ( two k9ds4 ,! fir/ ( ^! are cameos1 :i* are little bas-reliefs1 or figures rais$ above ! surface4 ,!y are commonly made ( /ones1 ! /rata ( :i* are ( diff]5t colors1 s t ! figure is diff]5t 9 color f ! gr\nd on :i* x has be5 rais$4 ,! o!r productions ( ?is art are d5om9at$ intaglios4 ,! "w ( ^! is ! rev]se ( t fir/ m5tion$1 s9ce ! figure is cut bel[ ! surface ( ! /one1 s t !y s]ve z seals to produce impressions 9 relief ^u s(t sub/ances4 #ac4 ,?is arti/ p]=ms 8 "w by means ( a la!1 ) ! aid ( diamond du/4 ,! in/rum5ts are made ( s(t iron1 & are fix$ 9 lead5 *ucks1 :i* c be readily fa/5$ to "o end ( ! m&ril4 ,! diamond du/ is made into ?9 pa/e ) olive oil1 & is appli$ to ! po9t ( ! in/rum5t4 ,! small invisible p>ticles ins9uate !mselves into ! iron1 :]e !y rema9 p]man5tly fix$4 ,9 produc+ figures & lett]s ) a tool ?us *>g$ ) ! h>de/ sub/ance 9 nature1 ! preci\s /one is br\ght 9 contact ) x :ile 9 rapid motion4 #ad4 ,! engrav$ gems ( antiquity h be5 greatly e/eem$1 z works ( art1 by ! curi\s1 & v>i\s me?ods h1 !re=e1 be5 devis$ to imitate !m4 ,?is has be5 done 9 glass 9 su* p]fection1 bo? z to =m & color1 t good judges c sc>cely di/+ui% ! imitations f ! orig9als4 ,! impression ( ! gem is fir/ tak5 9 "s k9d ( f9e e>?2 &1 ^u ! m\ld ?us =m$1 ! propos$ mat]ial is press$1 :ile 9 a pla/ic /ate4 #ae4 ,! preci\s /ones g5]ally h likewise be5 imitat$ ) great success4 ,! basis ( ! diff]5t compositions is a pa/e made ( ! f9e/ fl9t glass1 ! mat]ials ( :i* h be5 select$ & comb9$ ) great c>e4 ,! desir$ color is produc$ ) metallic oxydes4 ,a great numb] ( complex receipts are 9 use among manufactur]s ( ^! articles4 #af4 ,! ,lapid>y4--,! preci\s /ones & imitations ( !m 9 glass are br\ght to ! desir$ =m by ! lapid>y4 ,! in/rum5t ) :i* ?is arti/ *iefly op]ates is a :eel :i* is made to revolve horizontally be=e him4 ,x is put 9 motion by means ( an endless rope ext5d+ f ano!r :eel1 :i* is mov$ ) ! left h& ( ! op]ator1 :ile1 ) 8 "r1 he holds1 9 a prop] position1 ! sub/ance to be r$uc$4 #ag4 ,! preci\s /ones1 be+ ( small size1 _c be held ) /ead9ess on ! :eel ) ! h&1 nor ) any hold+ in/rum5t2 !y are1 !re=e1 fir/ fa/5$1 by means ( seal+-wax1 to ! end ( small /icks4 ,by ?is simple means1 & a small upright po/1 aga9/ :i* ! h& or ! o!r end ( ! /ick is re/$1 ! workman c hold a /one 9 any position he may desire4 #ah4 ,! lapid>y's :eel is made ( diff]5t k9ds ( metals4 ,! diamond is cut on a :eel ( s(t /eel1 by ! aid ( its own du/ mix$ ) olive oil4 ,! ,ori5tal ruby1 sapphire1 & topaz1 are cut on a copp] :eel 9 ! same mann]1 & poli%$ ) tripoli & wat]4 ,/ones ( a less degree ( h>dness are cut & poli%$ on a lead5 or t9 :eel ) em]y & rott5 /one4 #ai4 ,! anci5ts 7 n acqua9t$ ) any me?od ( cutt+ ! diamond1 al?\gh !y appli$ its p[d] to poli%+1 cutt+1 & engrav+ o!r /ones4 ,gems ( ?is k9d1 ei!r r\gh1 or poli%$ by nature1 7 set z ornam5ts1 & 7 valu$ accord+ to ! beauty & p]fection ( _! cry/allization & transp>5cy4 ,! value ( any preci\s /one1 or jewel1 dep5ds mu* ^u ! skill ( ! lapid>y4 #bj4 ,! ,pe>l-fi%]man4--,pe>ls are obta9$ f a te/ace\s fi% ( ! oy/] k9d1 f\nd 9 ! wat]s ( ! ,ea/ & ,we/ ,indies1 z well z 9 o!r seas ( diff]5t latitudes4 ,^! oy/]s gr[ 9 "s p>ts ( ! globe1 9 clu/]s1 on rocks 9 ! dep?s ( ! sea4 ,su* places are call$ pe>l-banks1 ( :i* ! mo/ celebrat$ are ne> ! isl&s ( ,ceylon & ,japan1 & 9 ! ,p]sian ,gulf4 ,! f9e/ & mo/ co/ly pe>ls are ! ,ori5tal4 #ba4 ,pe>ls are consid]$ by "s to be morbid concretions1 or calculi1 produc$ by ! endeavor ( ! animal to fill up ! holes :i* may h be5 made f )\t by small worms4 ,o!rs suppose !m to be m]e concretions ( ! animal juice ab\t "s extrane\s matt] :i* may h be5 intrud$ by "s means into ! %ell4 #bb4 ,to collect ! %ells conta9+ ^! s+ul> productions1 is ! bus9ess ( div]s1 :o h be5 br\ght up to ?is dang]\s occupation4 ,!y mu/ g5]ally desc5d f eight to twelve fa?oms1 & mu/ rema9 b5ea? ! surface ( ! wat] = sev]al m9utes1 dur+ :i* "t !y are expos$ to ! attacks ( ! voraci\s %>k4 ,9 addition to ! dang] f ?is cause1 ! employm5t is v de/ructive ( heal?4 #bc4 ,9 prep>+ a div] = 8 desc5t1 a rope is ti$ r\nd ! body1 & a /one1 weigh+ tw5ty or ?irty p\nds1 is fa/5$ to ! foot to s9k him4 ,8 e>s & no/rils are fill$ ) cotton1 & a sponge dipp$ 9 oil is fa/5$ to 8 arm1 to :i* he may n[ & !n apply 8 m\?1 9 ord] to brea! )\t inhal+ wat]4 ,9 addition to ^! equipm5ts1 he is furni%$ ) a knife1 ) :i* ! %ells may be deta*$ f ! rocks1 & ) a net or basket1 9 :i* !y may be deposit$4 #bd4 ,?us equipp$1 he desc5ds to ! bottom1 & hav+ fill$ 8 depository1 or hav+ /ay$ bel[ z long z he may be able1 he unlooses ! /one1 gives ! signal to 8 companions above1 :o quickly draw him into ! boat4 ,at "s pe>l-fi%]ies1 ! div+-bell is employ$1 :i* 9 "s degree obviates "s ( ! dang]s be=e /at$4 #be4 ,! %ells ?us obta9$ are laid by1 until ! body ( ! animal has putrifi$1 :5 !y commonly op5 ( !mselves4 ,^? :i* conta9 any pe>ls1 g5]ally h f eight to twelve4 ,! pe>ls hav+ be5 dri$1 are assort$ accord+ to _! v>i\s magnitudes2 &1 to effect ?is sep>ation1 !y are pass$ ?r\gh n9e sieves ( diff]5t degrees ( f95ess4 ,! l>ge/ pe>ls are ab\t ! size ( a small walnut2 b su* are v r>e4 ,! smalle/ are call$ se$ pe>ls4 #bf4 ,pe>ls are ( v>i\s colors1 su* z :ite1 yell[1 lead-color1 blacki%1 & totally black4 ,! :ite wat] is pref]r$ 9 ,europe1 & ! yell[ wat]1 9 ,arabia & ,india4 ,9 reg>d to _! =m1 !y v>y consid]ably1 be+ r\nd1 pe>-=m$1 onion-=m$1 & irregul>4 ,! inn] "p ( ! pe>l muscle is call$ nacre or "m ( pe>l1 & ?is is manufactur$ into beads1 snuff-boxes1 spoons1 & a v>iety ( o!r articles4 #bg4 ,pe>ls 7 objects ( luxury among ! anci5ts4 ,a pe>l valu$ by ,pl9y at a c]ta9 sum1 :i*1 r$uc$ to our curr5cy1 am\nts to #cge1jjj1 0 dissolv$ by ,cleopatra1 & drunk to ! heal? ( ,antony1 at a banquet4 ,^! beautiful productions are n e/imat$ s highly at pres5t4 ,! l>ge/ w sometimes comm& f\r or five hundr$ doll>s1 al?\gh v few1 :i* are wor? ov] =ty or fifty doll>s1 are ev] br\ght to ?is c\ntry4 #bh4 ,! gem-engrav] & ! jewell] 7 bo? employ$ by ,moses1 9 prep>+ ! ornam5ts 9 ! ephod & brea/-plate ( ! high-prie/4 ,9 ! =m] 7 set onyx /ones1 & 9 ! latt]1 twelve diff]5t /ones4 ,on ! gems ( bo? ornam5ts1 7 engrav$ ! names ( ! twelve tribes ( ,israel4 #ci4 ,we1 h[ev]1 h evid5ce ( ! practice ( ! arts1 connect$ ) ! production ( jewelry1 long be=e ! days ( ! ,jewi% lawgiv]4 ,we le>n f ! tw5ty-f\r? *apt] ( ,g5esis1 t ! s]vant ( ,abraham pres5t$ a gold5 e>-r+1 & bracelets = ! h&s1 to ,rebecca1 :o aft]w>ds became ! wife ( ,isaac4 ,p]haps ^! 7 br\ght f ,egypt by ! patri>*1 ab\t sev5ty ye>s be=e4 #cj4 ,m5 h ev] be5 fond ( p]sonal ornam5ts1 & !re h be5 b few nations s9ce ! flood1 :i* h n enc\rag$ ! jewell] 9 "s way or o!r4 ,9 mod]n times1 ! art has be5 greatly improv$4 ,! ,fr5*1 = lightness & elegance ( design1 h surpass$ o!r nations2 b ! ,engli%1 = excell5ce ( workman%ip1 h be5 consid]$1 = ages1 unrivall$4 #ca4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! manufacture ( jewelry is v ext5sive1 !re be+ l>ge e/abli%m5ts = ?is purpose 9 ,philadelphia1 & 9 ,new>k1 ,n4 ,j41 z well z 9 sev]al o!r places4 ,s ext5sive h be5 ! op]ations 9 ?is bran* ( bus9ess1 & to su* advantage h !y be5 c>ri$ on1 t importations f o!r c\ntries h ceas$1 & ?is1 too1 )\t ! influ5ce ( cu/om-h\se duties4 #cb4 ,! capital necess>y 9 c>ry+ on ! bus9ess ( ! jewell]1 is consid]able1 inasmu* z ! mat]ials are v exp5sive4 ,! op]ations likewise require ! ex]cise ( mu* +5uity4 ,^!1 h[ev]1 we %all n attempt to describe1 s9ce our article on ?is subject has already be5 ext5d$ beyond its prop] limits1 & s9ce1 also1 !y c\ld be h>dly und]/ood )\t actual inspection4 ,illu/ration3 ,,wat* ,,mak]4 ,,! ,,silv]smi?1 ,,& ,,! ,,wat*-,,mak]4 ,,silv]4 #a4 ,silv] is a metal ( a f9e :ite color1 &1 9 brilliancy1 inf]ior to none ( ! metals except /eel4 ,9 malleability1 x is next to gold1 x be+ capable ( r$uction into leaves n m ?an ! #a_/afjjjj ( an in* 9 ?ickness1 & ( be+ drawn into wire mu* f9] ?an a human hair4 #b4 ,! relative value ( silv] & gold has v>i$ consid]ably 9 diff]5t ages4 ,9 ! prosp]\s p]iod ( anci5t civilization1 "o p\nd ( gold 0 wor? twelve ( silv]4 ,9 ,great ,brita91 ! relative value ( ! two metals is "o to fifte5 & "o-fif?1 &1 on ! cont95t ( ,europe1 x is ab\t "o to fifte54 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! relative value ( ^! two metals has be5 rec5tly e/abli%$ by ,congress at "o to sixte54 ,9 ,*9a & ,japan1 x is said to be "o to n9e or t54 #c4 ,!re are two me?ods ( sep>at+ silv] f its v>i\s ores1 & ^! are call$ smelt+ & amalgamation4 ,9 ! =m] me?od1 ! ore & a due proportion ( lead are heat$ toge!r2 & ! latt]1 f its great aff9ity = silv]1 unites ) x1 & sep>ates x f o!r sub/ances4 ,! two metals are aft]w>ds sep>at$ f ea* o!r1 by melt+ !m on a cupel1 & !n expos+ !m to a curr5t ( atmosph]ic air1 by :i* ! lead is conv]t$ into an oxyde1 :ile ! silv] rema9s unt\*$4 ,?is process is call$ cupellation4 #d4 ,9 ! o!r me?od1 ! fir/ ?+ done is to roa/ ! ore1 to expel ! sulphur & o!r volatile p>ts4 ,x is !n r$uc$ to an impalpable p[d] by ma*9]y2 & hav+ be5 sift$1 x is agitat$ sixte5 or eighte5 h\rs 9 b>rels1 ) a quantity ( quicksilv]1 wat]1 & iron1 comb9$ 9 c]ta9 proportions4 ,?is agitation causes ! sev]al sub/ances compos+ ! *>ge1 to unite accord+ to _! respective aff9ities4 #e4 ,! silv] & m]cury comb9e1 =m+ an amalgam1 :i*1 hav+ be5 put into a lea!r sack1 a "p ( ! latt] is sep>at$ f ! re/ by filtration1 /ill leav+ six p>ts ( ?is metal to "o ( ! silv]4 ,! amalgam is next submitt$ to ! action ( heat 9 a di/ill+ furnace1 by :i* ! m]cury is sublimat$4 #f4 ,! value ( ! silv] annually tak5 f ! m9es 9 all p>ts ( ! _w1 is suppos$ to be ab\t #bj1jjj1jjj1 ( :i* ,mexico & ,s\? ,am]ica yield ! great] "p4 ,! sev]al silv] m9es ( ,europe & ,asia produce ab\t two millions & a half4 ,,! ,,silv]smi?4 #a4 ,! artisan :o =ms c]ta9 articles ( gold & silv]1 is call$ indiff]5tly a goldsmi? or a silv]smi?4 ,! =m] d5om9ation is mo/ commonly employ$ 9 ,engl&1 & ! latt]1 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 #b4 ,! mo/ common subjects ( manufacture by ! silv]smi? are cups1 goblets1 *alices1 tank>ds1 spoons1 knives1 =ks1 wait]s1 bread-trays1 tea-pots1 c(fee-pots1 cream-pots1 sug>-b[ls1 sug>-tongs1 & p5cil-cases4 ,_m ( ^! articles he sometimes makes ( gold2 ?is is especially ! case 9 ,europe1 & "s p>ts ( ,asia4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! p are commonly satisfi$ ) ! less exp5sive metal4 #c4 ,a great proportion ( ! silv] us$ by ?is me*anic1 has be5 previ\sly co9$ into doll>s4 ,9 work+ ^! into diff]5t ut5sils or vessels1 he fir/ melts !m 9 a crucible1 & ca/s ! silv] into solid masses by p\r+ x into iron m\lds2 & hav+ =g$ x on an anvil1 he r$uces x /ill fur!r1 & to a uni=m ?ickness1 by pass+ x sev]al times betwe5 /eel roll]s4 ,9 giv+ additional explanations ( ! op]ations ( ! silv]smi?1 we w describe ! mann] 9 :i* a pla9 tea-pot is manufactur$4 #d4 ,9 =m+ ! body1 or conta9+ "p1 ! plate1 =g$ & roll$ z j describ$1 is cut into a circul> =m1 & plac$ on a block ( s(t wood ) a concave face1 :]e x is beat5 ) a convex hamm]1 until x has be5 br\ght to a =m mu* l t ( a sauc]4 ,x is !n plac$ ^u an anvil1 & beat5 a :ile ) a long-neck$ hamm] ) a r\nd flatti% face4 #e4 ,x is next rais$ to ! propos$ =m by =g+ x on a long sl5d] anvil1 call$ a /ake1 ) a n>r[-fac$ hamm]1 :i* spreads ! metal p]p5dicul>ly f ! bottom1 or lat]ally1 accord+ to ! position 9 :i* x may be held :5 br\ght 9 contact ) ! metal4 #f4 ,aft] ! piece has be5 ?us br\ght to ! propos$ =m1 x is plani%$ all ov] by beat+ x ) a small hamm] on ! outside1 :ile x re/s on a small /eel head on ! inside4 ,dur+ ! p]=mance ( ^! op]ations1 ! silv] is occasionally anneal$ by heat+ x 9 ! fire2 b x is work$ :ile 9 a cold /ate1 except 9 ! fir/ =g+1 :5 x is wr\ght :ile a little bel[ r$ heat4 #g4 ,! sev]al pieces :i* compose a tea-pot ( ord9>y con/ruction1 am\nt to ab\t fifte51 ne>ly all ( :i* are roll$ & =g$ 9 ! mann] j describ$4 ,! knob on ! lid1 ! h&le1 & ! sp\t1 are sometimes ca/1 & at o!r times1 ! two pieces ( :i* !y are =m$ are cut f a plate1 & br\ght to a prop] figure by impress+ !m ) /eel dies4 #h4 ,! figures se5 on ! *eap] k9ds ( silv] tea-pots1 z well z on o!r vessels & ut5sils1 are commonly made by pass+ ! plates or /rips betwe5 engrav$ /eel roll]s1 or by /amp+ !m ) /eel dies4 ,! dies are commonly br\ght 9 sudd5 & viol5t contact ) ! metal by means ( an iron drop1 :i* is let fall f a height ^u x4 #i4 ,aft] ! sev]al p>ts h be5 br\ght to ! prop] %ape1 & to ! requisite f9i%1 !y are firmly unit$ toge!r by means ( a sold] compos$ ( ab\t ?ree p>ts ( silv] & "o ( brass & copp]4 ,be=e ! sp\t & h&le are sold]$ on1 ! o!r p>ts1 :i* h be5 ?us unit$ into "o piece1 are br\ght to a c]ta9 degree ( poli%4 #aj4 ,?is is effect$ *iefly 9 a la!1 by hold+ aga9/ ! piece1 :ile 9 rapid motion1 fir/ a file1 !n a scrap]1 & aft]w>ds pumice /one & ,scot* /one4 ,x is !n held aga9/ a rapidly revolv+ bru%1 *>g$ ) f9e brickdu/ & sweet oil4 ,! h&le & sp\t are next sold]$ on4 ,aft] ?is1 ! vessel is anneal$1 & put 9 pickle1 or1 9 o!r words1 into a weak solution ( oil ( vitriol4 ,x is !n sc\r$ ) s& & wat]1 & ! :ole op]ation is complet$ by burni%+ ! smoo? p>ts ) a /eel in/rum5t4 #aa4 ,9 ! m exp5sive k9ds ( w>es1 ! rais$ figures & ! fro/y appe>ance are produc$ by a process call$ *as+4 ,9 execut+ ?is k9d ( "w1 a draw+ is fir/ made on ! silv] ) a lead p5cil4 ,! sev]al p>ts are !n rais$ f ! o!r side1 correspond+ z ne>ly z possible to x4 ,! vessel or piece is !n fill$ )1 or plac$ ^u1 melt$ cem5t1 compos$ ( pit* & brick-du/2 &1 aft] ! cem5t has become h>d by cool+1 ! *as] r$uces ! rais$ p>ts to ! =m indicat$ by ! draw+1 by means ( small /eel pun*es4 ,! r\ghness ( surface1 & fro/y appe>ance1 are produc$ by pun*es ind5t$ on ! end4 #ab4 ,! op]ations ( ! silv]smi? are exce$+ly v>i\s1 _m ( :i* c\ld be h>dly und]/ood f m]e description4 ,we w\ld1 !re=e1 recomm5d to ! curi\s1 actual inspection1 assur+ !m t ! +5uity display$ 9 execut+ ! "w 9 ! diff]5t bran*es ( ! bus9ess1 is well wor?y ( _! att5tion4 ,we w m]ely add1 t spoons1 knives1 & =ks1 are n ca/1 z is frequ5tly suppos$1 b =g$ f /rips ( silv] cut f roll$ %eets4 #ac4 ,! e>lie/ hi/orical notice ( gold & silv] is f\nd 9 ! ?irte5? *apt] ( ,g5esis1 :]e x is /at$ t ,abraham return$ to ,canaan f ,egypt1 ri* 9 cattle1 9 silv]1 & 9 gold4 ,?is ev5t took place ab\t #aibj ye>s be=e ,*ri/1 x be+ b little m ?an #djj ye>s aft] ! deluge4 ,f ! au?ority ( ! same book1 we also le>n1 t dur+ ! life ( ?is patri>*1 ^? metals 7 employ$ z a m$ium ( comm]cial int]c\rse1 & z ! mat]ials = p]sonal ornam5ts1 vessels1 & ut5sils4 #ad4 ,f ! prec$+ facts1 we h reason to believe t gold & silv] 7 kn[n to ! ant$iluvians2 =1 _h n ?is be5 ! case1 !y c\ld h>dly h be5 held 9 su* e/imation s e>ly z ! "t ( ,abraham4 ,9 %ort1 !y 7 probably wr\ght ev5 9 ! days ( ! orig9al prog5itor ( ! human race1 z 0 evid5tly ! case ) iron & copp]4 ,,! ,,clock ,,& ,,wat* ,,mak]4 #a4 ,! great divisions ( "t1 not$ by unciviliz$ m51 are ^? :i* are indicat$ by ! *anges ( ! moon1 & ! annual & diurnal revolutions ( ! e>?2 b ! +5uity ( man 0 v e>ly ex]cis$ 9 devis+ me?ods ( measur+ m m9ute p]iods ( duration4 #b4 ,! e>lie/ contrivance = effect+ ?is object 0 ! sun-dial4 ,?is in/rum5t 0 kn[n to ! anci5t ,egyptians1 ,*aldeans1 ,*9ese1 & ,bram9s4 ,x 0 likewise kn[n to ! ,hebrews1 at lea/ z e>ly z #gdj ye>s be=e ,*ri/1 9 ! days ( ,ahaz ! k+4 ,! ,greeks & ! ,romans borr[$ x f _! ,ea/]n neighbors4 ,! fir/ sun-dial at ,rome 0 set up by ,papirius ,cursor1 ab\t #cjj ye>s be=e ,*ri/4 ,be=e ?is p]iod1 ! ,romans det]m9$ ! "t ( day by ! rude me?od ( obs]v+ ! l5g? ( %ad[s4 #c4 ,! sun-dial1 z x is n[ con/ruct$1 consi/s ( a plate1 divid$ into twelve equal p>ts1 l ! face ( a clock1 on :i* ! fall+ ( a %ad[ indicates ! "t ( day4 ,! %ad[ is project$ by ! sun1 ?r\gh ! int]v5tion ( a rod or ! edge ( a plate /ile erect$ on ! plane ( ! dial4 ,b1 s9ce ! dial 0 useful only 9 ! cle> day1 ano!r in/rum5t 0 inv5t$1 :i* c\ld be us$ at all times1 9 e v>iety ( situation2 & to ?is 0 giv5 ! "n ( clepsydra4 #d4 ,?is in/rum5t is suppos$ to h be5 inv5t$ 9 ,egypt2 b1 at :at p]iod1 or by :om1 x is n /at$4 ,its con/ruction 0 v>i$1 9 diff]5t ages & c\ntries1 accord+ ) ! p>ticul> modes ( reckon+ "t2 b ! con/ant dropp+ or runn+ ( wat] f "o vessel into ano!r1 ?r\gh a small ap]ture1 is ! basis 9 all ! =ms :i* x has assum$4 ,! "t 0 indicat$ by ! regul>ly increas+ height ( ! wat] 9 ! receiv+ vessel4 #e4 ,! clepsydra 0 introduc$ into ,greece by ,plato1 ne> #djj ye>s be=e ,*ri/1 &1 ab\t #bjj ye>s aft] ?is1 into ,rome1 by ,scipio ,africanus4 ,x is said t ,pompey br\ght a valuable "o f ! ,ea/1 & t ,julius ,cs> met ) "o 9 ,engl&1 by :i* he discov]$ t ! summ] nights 7 %ort] !re ?an 9 ,italy4 #f4 ,! use :i* ,pompey made ( 8 in/rum5t1 0 to limit ! l5g? ( spee*es 9 ! s5ate4 ,h5ce he is said1 by a hi/orian ( ^? times1 to h be5 ! fir/ ,roman :o put bridles ^u eloqu5ce4 ,a simil> use 0 made ( ! clepsydra 9 ! c\rts ( ju/ice1 fir/ 9 ,greece1 & aft]w>ds 9 ,rome4 #g4 ,a k9d ( wat]-clock1 or clepsydra1 adapt$ to ! mod]n divisions ( "t1 0 inv5t$ ne> ! middle ( ! sev5te5? c5tury2 & ^! 7 ext5sively us$1 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ,europe1 = a consid]able "t2 b !y are n[ entirely sup]s$$ by our common clocks & wat*es1 :i* are f> m p]fect 9 _! op]ation1 &1 9 all respects1 bett] adapt$ to ! purposes to :i* !y are appli$4 #h4 ,! inv5tion ( ! clock is conceal$ 9 ! greate/ obscurity4 ,"s writ]s attribute x to ! monks1 z ?is in/rum5t 0 us$ 9 ! twelf? c5tury 9 ! mona/]ies1 to regulate ! inmates 9 _! att5dance on pray]s bo? by night & by day4 ,o!rs suppose t a k ( ?is valuable in/rum5t 0 d]iv$ f ! ,s>ac5s1 ?r\gh ! int]c\rse aris+ f ! crusades4 ,be ?is z x may1 clocks 7 b little kn[n 9 ,europe1 until ! beg9n+ ( ! f\rte5? c5tury4 #i4 ,ri*>d1 abbot ( ,/4 ,alban's1 ,engl&1 made a clock 9 #acbf1 su* z _h nev] be5 he>d ( until !n4 ,x n only indicat$ ! c\rse ( ! sun & moon1 b also ! ebb+ & fl[+ ( ! tide4 ,l>ge clocks on /eeples began to be us$ 9 ?is c5tury4 ,! fir/ ( ?is k9d is suppos$ to h be5 made & put up 9 ,padua by ,jacobus ,dondi4 #aj4 ,a /eeple clock 0 set up 9 ,b\logne1 9 #acef2 &1 9 #acfd1 ,h5ry de ,wyck1 a ,g]man arti/1 plac$ "o 9 ! palace ( ,*>les ,v41 k+ ( ,france4 ,9 #acfh1 ?ree ,dut*m5 introduc$ clock-"w into ,engl&1 "u ! patronage ( ,edw>d ,,iii4 ,clocks began to be common bo? 9 ,engl& & on ! ,cont95t1 ab\t ! end ( ! fifte5? c5tury4 #aa4 ,! clock ( ,h5ry de ,wyck is ! mo/ anci5t in/rum5t ( ?is k9d ( :i* we h a description4 ,! :eels 7 made ( wr\ght iron1 & ! tee? 7 cut by h&4 ,9 o!r respects1 also1 x 0 a rude piece ( me*anism1 & n at all capable ( keep+ "t ) accuracy4 ,b1 rude z x 01 x is n likely t x 0 ! inv5tion ( a s+le individual2 b t1 aft] ! fir/ rude ma*9e 0 put 9 motion1 x receiv$ sev]al improvem5ts f v>i\s p]sons4 ,?is has1 at lea/1 be5 ! case ) all ! improvem5ts made on ! clock ( ,h5ry de ,wyck1 to ! pres5t day4 #ab4 ,! application ( ! p5dulum to clock-"w appe>s to h be5 fir/ made by ,v9c5zo ,galileo1 9 #afdi2 b ! improvem5t 0 r5d]$ completely successful1 9 #afef1 by ,*ri/ian ,huyg5s1 a ,dut* philosoph]4 ,! laws ( ! oscillation ( ! p5dulum 7 fir/ inve/igat$ by ,galileo1 ! great ,italian philosoph]1 & fa!r ( ! ,galileo j m5tion$4 ,8 att5tion 0 attract$ to ?is subject by ! sw++ ( a lamp susp5d$ f ! ceil+ ( ! ,ca!dral1 at ,pisa1 8 native city4 #ac4 ,! clocks fir/ made 7 ( a l>ge size1 & 7 plac$ only 9 public edifices4 ,! works 71 at l5g?1 r$uc$ 9 _! dim5sions1 & ^! useful ma*9es 7 gradually introduc$ into private dwell+s4 ,!y 7 f9ally made ( a portable size1 & 7 c>ri$ ab\t ! p]son4 ,^! portable clocks _h1 = _! ma9ta9+ p[]1 a ma9-spr+ ( /eel1 in/ead ( a weight1 :i* 0 us$ 9 ! l>g] "t-keep]s4 #ad4 ,! orig9al pocket-wat*es diff]$ b little1 if at all1 9 ! g5]al plan ( _! con/ruction1 f ! portable clocks j m5tion$4 ,! transition f "o k9d ( in/rum5t to ! o!r 01 !re=e1 obvi\s & easy2 b ! "t ( ! *ange _c be c]ta9ly det]m9$4 ,x is commonly admitt$1 h[ev]1 t ,pet] ,hele con/ruct$ ! fir/ wat*1 9 #aeaj4 #ae4 ,wat*es appe> to h be5 ext5sively manufactur$ at ,nuremburg1 9 ,g]many1 soon aft] _! inv5tion1 z "o ( ! names by :i* !y 7 designat$1 0 ,nuremburg eggs4 ,^! in/rum5ts1 z well z clocks1 7 9 common use 9 ,france1 9 #aedd1 :5 ! company ( clock & wat* mak]s ( ,p>is 0 fir/ incorporat$4 #af4 ,9 #afeh1 ! spr+ balance 0 inv5t$ by ,doctor ,na?aniel ,hooke1 an ,engli% philosoph]4 ,at lea/ ! inv5tion is attribut$ to him by 8 c\ntrym54 ,on ! ,cont95t x is claim$ = ,*ri/ian ,huyg5s4 ,be=e ?is improvem5t 0 made1 ! p]=mance ( wat*es 0 s defective1 t ! be/ ( !m c\ld n be reli$ ^u = accurate "t an h\r toge!r4 ,_! own]s 7 oblig$ to set !m (t5 to ! prop] "t1 & w9d !m up twice a day4 #ag4 ,aft] ! great improvem5ts _h be5 effect$ 9 ! clock & wat* by ,huyg5s & ,hooke1 sev]al o!rs ( m9or importance 7 successively made by diff]5t p]sons2 b our limits d n all[ u to give !m a p>ticul> notice2 we w only /ate t ! repeat+ app>atus ( bo? clocks & wat*es 0 inv5t$1 ab\t ! ye> #afgf1 by "o ,b>l[1 an ,engli%man2 t ! comp5sation or gridiron p5dulum 0 inv5t$ by ,george ,graham1 ( ,london1 9 #agae2 & t jewels 7 appli$ to wat*es1 to prev5t friction1 by "o ,facio1 a ,g]man4 #ah4 ,clocks & wat*es are con/ruct$ on ! same g5]al pr9ciples4 ,! me*anism ( bo? is compos$ ( :eel-"w1 ) contrivances to put x 9 motion1 & to regulate its movem5ts4 ,! mov+ or ma9ta9+ p[] 9 l>ge clocks is a weight susp5d$ by a cord to a cyl9d]4 ,9 wat*es1 & sometimes 9 small clocks1 ?is (fice is p]=m$ by a /eel spr+4 ,9 ! clock1 ! regulation ( ! ma*9]y is effect$ by ! p5dulum1 & 9 ! wat*1 by ! balance-:eel1 or spr+ balance4 ,9 ei!r case1 ! ma9ta9+ p[] is prev5t$ f exp5d+ itself1 except 9 measur$ portions4 #ai4 ,! "t is indicat$ by h&s1 or po9t]s1 :i* move on ! dial plate4 ,! m9ute h& is atta*$ to ! axle ( ! :eel :i* makes its revolution 9 sixty m9utes1 & ! h\r h& to ! "o :i* makes ! revolution 9 twelve h\rs4 ,great] & small] divisions ( "t are kept & indicat$ on ! same pr9ciple4 ,! "p ( a clock :i* keeps ! "t1 is call$ ! go+ "p2 & t :i* /rikes ! h\r1 ! /rik+ "p4 #bj4 ,! division ( labor is p>ticul>ly conspicu\s 9 ! manufacture ( wat*es1 z ! production ( almo/ e "p is ! labor ( a di/9ct artisan4 ,! workman :o poli%es ! sev]al p>ts1 & puts !m toge!r1 is call$1 among ?is class ( tradesm51 ! f9i%] or wat*-mak]4 ,^?1 !re=e1 :o deal l>gely 9 wat*es 9 ,engl&1 pur*ase ! diff]5t p>ts f ! sev]al manufactur]s1 & cause !m to be put toge!r by ! f9i%]4 #ba4 ,wat*es are ext5sively manufactur$ 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ,europe1 b p>ticul>ly 9 ,fr5* ,switz]l&1 ,france1 & ,engl&4 ,! ,london wat*mak]s h be5 celebrat$ = good workman%ip1 = m ?an a c5tury & a half4 ,?is manufacture has n yet be5 comm5c$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 al?\gh ! ma*9]y1 or inside "w1 is v (t5 import$ 9 t9 boxes1 & aft]w>ds suppli$ ) dial plates & cases4 ,?is is especially ! case ) ! m valuable k9ds ( wat*es4 #bb4 ,brass clocks are manufactur$ 9 mo/ ( our cities1 & 9 _m ( our villages1 & wood5 clocks1 9 great numb]s1 9 ! /ate ( ,connecticut4 ,^! la/ are c>ri$ by p$l]s into ! remote/ p>ts ( ! c\ntry1 s t almo/ e f>m] 9 our l& c divide ! day by ! oscillations ( ! p5dulum4 ,illu/ration3 ,,copp]smi?4 ,,! ,,copp]smi?1 ,,! ,,button-,,mak]1 ,,& ,,! ,,p9-,,mak]4 ,,copp]4 #a4 ,copp] is a ductile & malleable metal1 ( a pale yell[i% r$ color4 ,x is sometimes f\nd 9 a native /ate1 b n 9 great quantities4 ,! copp] ( comm]ce is pr9cipally extract$ f ! ores call$ sulphurets4 ,copp] m9es are wr\ght 9 _m c\ntries2 b ^? ( ,sw$5 are said to furni% ! pure/ copp] ( comm]ce1 al?\gh ^? ( ! isl& ( ,anglesea are said to be ! ri*e/4 #b4 ,9 work+ sulphuret$ ore1 x is fir/ brok5 into pieces1 & roa/$ ) a mod]ate heat 9 a kiln1 to free x f sulphur4 ,:5 ! ore is also l>gely comb9$ ) ars5ic1 a great] degree ( heat is necess>y4 ,9 su* a case1 x is spread ^u a l>ge floor ( a rev]b]atory furnace1 & expos$ to a great] heat4 ,by ?is treatm5t1 ! sulphur & ars5ic are soon driv5 (f4 #c4 ,! ore is !n transf]r$ to ! fus+ furnace1 & smelt$ 9 contact ) fuel4 ,! specific gravity ( ! copp]1 causes x to s9k b5ea? ! scoria into a receptacle at ! bottom ( ! furnace4 ,to r5d] ! metal suffici5tly pure1 x requires repeat$ fusions1 &1 ev5 aft] ^!1 x usually conta9s a little lead1 & a small portion ( antimony4 #d4 ,alloys ( copp]4--,copp] is comb9$ by fusion ) a great numb] ( metals1 &1 9 su* comb9ations1 x is ( great importance 9 ! arts4 ,:5 add$ 9 small quantities to gold & silv]1 x increases _! h>dness1 )\t mat]ially injur+ _! color1 or dim9i%+ _! malleability4 ,an alloy1 call$ :ite copp]1 import$ f ,*9a1 & d5om9at$1 9 t c\ntry1 pakfong1 is compos$ ( copp]1 z9c1 nickel1 & iron4 ,x is v t\gh & malleable1 & is easily ca/1 hamm]$1 & poli%$4 ,:5 well manufactur$1 x is v :ite1 & z little liable to oxydation z silv]4 #e4 ,copp]1 ) ab\t "o-f\r? ( its weight ( lead1 =ms pot-metal4 ,brass is an alloy ( copp] & z9c4 ,! proportion ( ! latt] metal v>ies f "o-eigh? to "o-f\r?4 ,mixtures1 *iefly ( ^! two metals1 are also employ$ to =m a v>iety ( gold-color$ alloys1 among :i* are pr9ce's metal1 p9*beck1 tombac1 & ba?-metal4 #f4 ,a s]ies ( alloys is =m$ by a comb9ation ( t9 & copp]4 ,!y are all m or less brittle1 rigid1 & sonor\s1 accord+ to ! relative proportions ( ! two metals2 ^! qualities increas+ ) ! am\nt ( t94 ,! pr9cipal ( ^! alloys are1 bronze1 employ$ 9 ! ca/+ ( /atues2 gun-metal1 ( :i* pieces ( artill]y are made2 bell-metal1 ( :i* bells are made2 & speculum-metal1 :i* is us$ = ! mirrors ( reflect+ telescopes4 #g4 ,! alloys ( copp] 7 v preval5t among ! nations ( antiquity1 & 7 us$1 9 _m cases :]e iron w\ld h answ]$ a mu* bett] purpose4 ,! in/rum5ts ( husb&ry & ( w>1 z well z ^? = dome/ic uses g5]ally1 7 usually made ( bronze1 a composition :i* furni%es ! be/ sub/itute = iron & /eel4 ,! ,cor9?ian brass1 s celebrat$ 9 antiquity1 0 a mixture ( copp]1 gold1 & silv]4 #h4 ,! e>lie/ in=mation ( ! use ( ?is metal by mank9d1 is f\nd 9 ! f\r? *apt] ( ,g5esis1 9 :i* x is /at$1 t ,tubal-,ca9 0 ! in/ruct] ( e artific] 9 brass & iron4 ,?is individual 0 ! sev5? g5]ation f ,adam1 & 0 born ab\t ! ye> ( ! _w #ejj4 ,,! ,,copp]smi?4 #a4 ,copp]1 be+ easily wr\ght1 is appli$ to _m useful purposes4 ,x is =m$ into %eets by heat+ x 9 a furnace1 & compress+ x betwe5 /eel roll]s4 ,! op]ation ( roll+ x con/itutes a di/9ct bus9ess1 & is p]=m$ 9 mills erect$ = ! express purpose4 #b4 ,! roll$ %eets are pur*as$ accord+ to weight by ! copp]smi?1 :o employs !m 9 %ea?+ ! bottoms ( %ips1 9 cov]+ ! ro(s ( h\ses1 & 9 con/ruct+ /eam-boil]s & /ills4 ,he also fabricates !m into a v>iety ( h\sehold ut5sils1 al?\gh ! use ( ?is metal 9 prep>+ & pres]v+ food1 is att5d$ ) "s dang]1 on acc\nt ( ! poison\s quality ( ! v]digris :i* is produc$ on ! surface4 #c4 ,an attempt has be5 made to obviate ?is difficulty1 by l9+ ! vessels ) a ?9 coat+ ( t94 ,?is answ]s ! purpose fully1 s long z ! cov]+ ( t9 rema9s entire4 ,b1 9 cases ( exposure to heat1 x is liable to be melt$ (f1 unless x is kept cov]$ ) wat]4 #d4 ,?is metal c be r$uc$ by =g+ to any %ape2 b1 dur+ ! process1 x w be> no heat great] ?an a r$ heat2 &1 z x does n admit ( weld+1 l iron1 diff]5t pieces are unit$ ) bolts1 or rivets1 ( ! same metal1 z 9 ! case ( ! l>g] k9ds ( vessels1 or by means ( sold] made ( brass & z9c1 or z9c & lead1 z 9 ! case ( ^? ( small] dim5sions4 #e4 ,brass is appli$ to a great] v>iety ( purposes 9 ! arts ?an copp]4 ,?is pref]5ce has aris5 f its sup]ior beauty1 f ! great] facility ) :i* x c be =m$ into any requir$ %ape1 & f its be+ less influ5c$ by exposure to ! ord9>y *emical ag5ts4 #f4 ,"s ( ! articles manufactur$ ( brass1 are =g$ to ! requir$ =m1 & o!rs are made ( roll$ %eets2 b1 9 mo/ cases1 !y pass ?r\gh ! h&s ( ! brass-f\nd]1 :o liquifies ! metal1 & p\rs x into m\lds ( s&4 ,= ! sake ( lightness1 & economy ( mat]ial1 _m articles are made holl[2 9 su* cases1 !y are ca/ 9 halves or pieces1 & ^! are aft]w>ds sold]$ toge!r4 #g4 ,pieces :i* h be5 ca/ are g5]ally r$uc$ 9 size1 & br\ght m exactly to ! propos$ =m1 ei!r 9 a la!1 ) tools adapt$ to turn+1 or 9 ! vice1 ) files & o!r suitable in/rum5ts4 ,! op]ators 9 brass =m a class ( me*anics di/9ct f ^? :o "w 9 copp]4 ,,! ,,button-,,mak]4 #a4 ,trifl+ z ! manufacture ( buttons may appe>1 !re are few :i* include a great] v>iety ( op]ations4 ,! numb] ( sub/ances ( :i* !y are made is v great1 among :i* are gold1 silv]1 v>i\s alloys ( copp]1 /eel1 t91 glass1 "m-(-pe>l1 bone1 horn1 & tortoise-%ell1 besides ^? :i* consi/ ( m\lds ( wood or bone1 cov]$ ) silk1 mohair1 or simil> mat]ials4 #b4 ,9 mak+ gilt buttons1 ! blanks1 or bodies1 are cut f roll$ plates ( brass1 ) a circul> pun* driv5 by means ( a fly :eel4 ,! blanks ?us produc$1 are plani%$ ) a pla9 die1 if !y are int5d$ = pla9 buttons2 or ) "o hav+ on x an engrav$ figure1 if !y are to be ( ! ornam5tal k9d4 ,9 ei!r case1 ! die is usually driv5 ) a fly press4 #c4 ,! %anks are next plac$ on "o side ( ! propos$ button1 & held !re tempor>ily ) a wire clasp4 ,a small quantity ( sold] & ros9 hav+ be5 appli$ to ea* %ank1 ! buttons are expos$ to heat on an iron plate1 until ! sold] %all h melt$4 ,! %anks hav+ be5 ?us firmly sold]$ on1 ! buttons are turn$ (f smoo?ly on _! edges 9 a la!4 #d4 ,! buttons are next fre$ f oxyde1 by imm]s+ !m 9 dilut$ nitric acid1 & by friction 9 a la!4 ,!y are !n put into a vessel conta9+ a quantity ( nitric acid sup]saturat$ ) m]cury4 ,! sup]ior attraction ( ! copp] = ! acid1 causes a portion ( x to be absorb$2 & ! m]cury held 9 solution by x1 is deposit$ on ! buttons1 :i* are next put into a vessel conta9+ an amalgam ( m]cury & gold4 #e4 ,! amalgam is =m$ by melt+ ! two metals toge!r1 & aft]w>ds p\r+ !m into cold wat]4 ,! composition hav+ be5 put into a bag ( *amois lea!r1 & a "p ( ! m]cury press$ ?r\gh ! pores1 ! rema9+ portion is left 9 a condition approa*+ ! consi/5cy ( butt]1 & 9 a fit /ate = use4 ,be=e ! buttons are put into ! amalgam1 a small quantity ( nitric acid is add$4 #f4 ,! buttons hav+ be5 cov]$ ) ! amalgam1 z be=e /at$1 ! m]cury is dis*>g$1 t ! gold may adh]e directly to ! brass4 ,?is object is effect$ by heat+ ! buttons 9 an iron pan1 until ! amalgam beg9s to melt1 :5 !y are ?r[n into a l>ge felt cap1 & /irr$ ) a bru%4 ,?is op]ation is repeat$ sev]al times1 until all ! m]cury has be5 volatiliz$4 ,! :ole process is f9i%$ by aga9 burni%+ !m1 & putt+ !m on c>ds = sale4 #g4 ,:ite metal buttons are made ( brass alloy$ ) diff]5t proportions ( t94 ,!y are ca/1 t5 or twelve doz5s at a "t1 9 m\lds =m$ 9 s&1 by means ( a patt]n4 ,! %anks are plac$ 9 ! c5tre ( ! m\lds1 s t1 :5 ! metal is p\r$ 91 !y become a "p ( ! buttons4 ,! buttons are next poli%$ 9 a la!1 ) gr9d/one du/ & oil1 rott5 /one & crocus m>tis4 ,!y are !n boil$ ) a quantity ( gra9$ t91 9 a solution ( crude r$ t>t> or argol1 & la/ly1 f9i%$ ) f9ely-pulv]iz$ crocus1 appli$ ) buff lea!r4 #h4 ,glass buttons are made ( v>i\s colors1 9 imitation ( ! opal & o!r preci\s /ones4 ,:ile manufactur+ !m1 ! glass is kept 9 a /ate ( fusion1 & a portion ( x = ea* button is nipp$ (f out ( ! crucible ) a metallic m\ld1 some:at simil> to t us$ = runn+ bullets1 ! workman hav+ previ\sly ins]t$ into x ! %ank4 ,,! ,,p9-,,mak]4 #a4 ,!re is sc>cely any commodity *eap] ?an p9s1 & none :i* passes ?r\gh ! h&s ( a great] numb] ( workm5 9 ! manufacture1 tw5ty-five p]sons be+ successively employ$ ^u ! mat]ial1 be=e x appe>s 9 ^! useful articles1 ready = sale4 #b4 ,! wire hav+ be5 r$uc$ to ! requir$ size1 is cut into pieces long en\gh to make six p9s4 ,^! pieces are br\ght to a po9t at ea* end by hold+ !m1 a h&ful at a "t1 on a gr9d/one4 ,?is "p ( ! op]ation is p]=m$ ) great rapidity1 z a boy twelve ye>s ( age c %>p5 #af1jjj 9 an h\r4 ,:5 ! wires h be5 ?us po9t$1 ! l5g? ( a p9 is tak5 (f at ea* end1 by ano!r h&4 ,! gr9d+ & cutt+ (f are repeat$1 until ! :ole l5g? has be5 us$ up4 #c4 ,! next op]ation is t ( =m+ ! heads1 or1 z ! p9-mak]s t]m x1 head-sp9n+4 ,?is is done ) a sp9n+-:eel1 by :i* "o piece ( wire is w\nd ^u ano!r1 ! =m]1 by ?is means1 be+ =m$ into a spiral coil simil> to t ( ! spr+s =m]ly us$ 9 ela/ic susp5d]s4 ,! coil$ wire is cut into suitable portions ) ! %e>s1 e two turns ( x be+ design$ = "o head4 ,^! heads are fa/5$ to ! l5g?s by means ( a hamm]1 :i* is put 9 motion ) ! foot1 :ile ! h&s are employ$ 9 tak+ up1 adju/+1 & plac+ ! p>ts ^u ! anvil4 #d4 ,! p9s are n[ f9i%$1 z to _! =m2 b /ill !y are m]ely brass4 ,to give !m ! requisite :it5ess1 !y are ?r[n into a copp] vessel1 conta9+ a solution ( t9 & ! lees ( w9e4 ,aft] a :ile1 ! t9 leaves ! liquid1 & fa/5s on ! p9s1 :i*1 :5 tak5 out1 assume a :ite appe>ance4 ,!y are next poli%$ by agitat+ !m ) a quantity ( bran 9 a vessel mov$ 9 a rot>y mann]4 ,! bran is sep>at$ f !m1 z *aff is sep>at$ f :eat4 #e4 ,p9s are also made ( iron wire1 & color$ black by a v>ni% compos$ ( l9se$ oil & lamp-black4 ,?is k9d is design$ = p]sons 9 m\rn+4 ,p9s are likewise made ) a head at ea* end1 to be us$ by females 9 adju/+ ! hair = ! night1 )\t ! dang] ( prick+4 ,sev]al ma*9es h be5 inv5t$ = ?is manufacture1 "o ( :i* makes a solid head f ! body ( ! p9 itself2 b ! me?od j describ$ /ill cont9ues to be ! prevail+ "o4 #f4 ,p9s are made ( v>i\s sizes4 ,! smalle/ are call$ m9ik9s1 ! next1 %ort :ites4 ,! l>g] k9ds are numb]$ f ?ree to tw5ty1 ea* size increas+ "o half f ?ree to five1 "o f five to f\rte51 & two f f\rte5 to tw5ty4 ,!y are put up 9 pap]s1 accord+ to _! numb]s1 z we usually see !m1 or 9 pap]s conta9+ all sizes4 ,9 ! latt] case1 !y are sold by weight4 #g4 ,x is difficult1 or ev5 impossible1 to trace ! orig9 ( ?is useful little article4 ,x is probable1 h[ev]1 t x 0 inv5t$ 9 ,france1 9 ! fifte5? c5tury4 ,"o ( ! prohibitions ( a /atute1 relat+ to ! p9-mak]s ( ,p>is ( ! sixte5? c5tury1 =bid any manufactur] to op5 m ?an "o %op = ! sale ( 8 w>es1 except on new-ye>'s day1 & on ! day previ\s4 #h4 ,h5ce we may inf]1 t x 0 cu/om>y to give p9s z new-ye>'s pres5ts1 or t x 0 ! usual practice to make ! *ief pur*ases at ?is "t4 ,at l5g? x became a practice1 9 _m p>ts ( ,europe1 = ! husb& to all[ to 8 wife a sum ( money = ?is purpose4 ,we see "h ! orig9 ( ! phrase1 p9-money1 :i* is n[ appli$ to designate ! sum all[$ to ! wife = h] p]sonal exp5ses g5]ally4 #i4 ,prior to ! ye> #addc1 ! art ( mak+ p9s f brass wire 0 n kn[n 9 ,engl&4 ,until t p]iod1 !y 7 made ( bone1 ivory1 or box-wood4 ,brass p9s are fir/ m5tion$ 9 ! ,engli% /atute book1 9 #adhc1 :5 ^? ( =eign manufacture 7 prohibit$4 #aj4 ,al?\gh ^! useful implem5ts are made 9 ,london1 & 9 sev]al o!r places 9 ,engl&1 yet ,gl\ce/] is ! pr9cipal seat ( ?is manufacture 9 t k+dom4 ,x 0 introduc$ into t place1 9 #afbf1 by ,john ,silsby1 & x n[ conta9s n9e di/9ct manufactories1 9 :i* are employ$ ab\t #aejj p]sons1 *iefly wom5 & *ildr54 ,p9s are also manufactur$ ext5sively 9 ! villages ne> ,p>is1 & 9 sev]al o!r places 9 ,france1 z well z 9 ,g]many4 #aa4 ,! bus9ess ( mak+ p9s has be5 lately comm5c$ 9 ! city ( ,new-,york1 & x is said t ! exp]im5t has be5 s successful1 bo? 9 ! p]fection ( ! workman%ip1 & 9 ! rapidity ( ! production1 t p9s ( ,am]ican manufacture bid fair to compete1 at lea/1 ) ^? ( =eign c\ntries4 ,illu/ration3 ,,t9plate ,,work]4 ,,! ,,t9plate ,,work]1 c4 ,,t94 #a4 ,t9 is a :iti% metal1 less ela/ic1 & less sonor\s ?an any o!r metal1 except lead4 ,x is f\nd 9 ! m\nta9s :i* sep>ate ,gallicia f ,portugal1 & 9 ! m\nta9s betwe5 ,saxony & ,bohemia4 ,x also occurs 9 ! p59sula ( ,molucca1 9 ,india1 ,mexico1 & ,*ili4 ,b ! m9es ( ,cornwall & ,devon%ire1 9 ,engl&1 are m productive ?an ^? ( all o!r c\ntries unit$4 #b4 ,!re are two ores ( t91 "o ( :i* is call$ t9 /one1 & ! o!r t9 pyrites2 ! =m] ( ^! is ! k9d f :i* ! metal is extract$4 ,! ore is usually f\nd 9 ve9s1 :i* (t5 p5etrate ! h>de/ rocks4 ,:5 ne> ! surface ( ! e>?1 or at _! comm5cem5t1 !y are v small1 b !y increase 9 size1 z !y p5etrate ! e>?4 ,! direction ( ^! ve9s1 or1 z ! m9]s call !m1 lodes1 is usually ea/ & we/4 #c4 ,! m9]s foll[ ! lode1 :]esoev] x may lead2 &1 :5 !y ext5d to su* a dep?1 t ! wat]s become tr\blesome 9 ! m9e1 z is frequ5tly ! case1 !y are pump$ up ) ma*9]y work$ by /eam1 or drawn (f by means ( a dra91 call$ an adit4 ,! latt] me?od is g5]ally adopt$1 :5 practicable4 #d4 ,! ore is rais$ to ! surface ?r\gh %afts1 :i* h be5 sunk 9 a p]p5dicul> direction ^u ! ve94 ,at ! top ( ! %aft1 is plac$ a w9dlass1 to draw up ! kibbuts1 or baskets1 conta9+ ! ore4 ,ne> ,/4 ,au/le1 9 ,cornwall1 is a m9e :i* has n less ?an fifty %afts1 half ( :i* are n[ 9 use4 ,"s ( ! ve9s h be5 work$ a full mile1 & "s ( ! %afts are ne>ly sev5 hundr$ feet deep4 #e4 ,at ,/4 ,au/le ,moor1 !re is a m9e ( /ream t91 ab\t ?ree miles 9 l5g?4 ,! t91 toge!r ) o!r sub/ances1 has be5 deposit$ 9 a valley1 by means ( small /reams f ! hills4 ,! deposite is ab\t tw5ty feet deep1 & ! sev]al mat]ials ( :i* x is compos$1 h settl$ 9 /rata1 accord+ to _! specific gravity4 ,! ore1 be+ ! heavie/1 is1 ( c\rse1 f\nd at ! bottom4 #f4 ,! ore1 f :atev] s\rce x may be obta9$1 is fir/ pulv]iz$ 9 a /amp+ mill1 & !n wa%$1 to free x f ! /ony matt] ) :i* x may be unit$4 ,! ore1 ?us p>tially fre$ f =eign matt]1 is put into a rev]b]atory furnace1 ) fuel & lime/one1 & heat$ int5sely4 ,! cont5ts ( ! furnace hav+ be5 br\ght to a /ate ( fusion1 ! lime unites ) ! e>?y matt]s1 & fl[s ) !m into a liquid glass1 :ile ! c>bon ( ! coal unites ) ! t94 ,! metal s9ks1 by its specific gravity1 to ! bottom ( ! furnace1 & is let out1 aft] hav+ be5 expos$ to ! heat ab\t t5 h\rs4 #g4 ,! t9 ?us obta9$1 is v impure2 x !re=e requires a second fusion1 to r5d] x fit = use4 ,aft] hav+ be5 melt$ a second "t1 x is ca/ into blocks weigh+ ab\t ?ree hundr$ p\nds4 ,^! blocks are tak5 to places designat$ by law1 & !re /amp$1 by inspectors appo9t$ = ! purpose by ! ,duke ( ,cornwall4 ,9 p]=m+ ?is op]ation1 ! inspector cuts (f a corn]1 & /amps ! block at t place1 ) ! prop] seal1 & ) ! "n ( ! smelt]4 ,^! precautions give assurance1 t ! metal is pure1 & t ! duty has be5 paid4 #h4 ,! duty is f\r %ill+s /]l+ p] hundr$ weight1 :i* is paid to ! ,duke ( ,cornwall1 :o is also ,pr9ce ( ,wales4 ,! rev5ue f ?is s\rce am\nts to ab\t ?irty ?\s& p\nds a ye>4 ,! own] ( ! soil also receives "o six?1 or "o eigh? ( ! ore z 8 di%1 z ! m9]s call x4 ,! m9]s & ! smelt]s receive c]ta9 proportions ( ! metal = _! s]vices4 #i4 ,t9 0 procur$ f ,brita9 at a v e>ly p]iod4 ,! ,pho5icians are said by ,/rabo to h pass$ ! ,pill>s ( ,h]cules1 n[ ! ,/raits ( ,gibralt>1 ab\t #abjj ye>s be=e ,*ri/4 ,b ! "t at :i* !y discov]$ ! t9 isl&s1 :i* !y d5om9at$ ,cassorides1 _c be asc]ta9$ f hi/ory1 al?\gh x is evid5t f _m circum/ances1 t ! ,scilly ,isl&s1 & ! we/]n ports ( ,brita91 7 ! places f :i* ^! e>ly navigators procur$ ! t9 ) :i* !y suppli$ ! p>ts ( ! _w to :i* !y trad$4 #aj4 ,= a long "t1 ! ,pho5icians & ! ,c>?ag9ians enjoy$ ! t9 trade1 to ! exclusion ( all o!r nations4 ,aft] ! de/ruction ( ,c>?age by ! ,romans1 a colony ( ,phocean ,greeks1 e/abli%$ at ,m>seilles1 c>ri$ on ?is trade2 b x came into ! h&s ( ! ,romans1 aft] ! conque/ ( ,brita9 by ,julius ,cs>4 #aa4 ,! ,corni% m9es furni% inconte/able pro(s ( hav+ be5 work$ _m hundr$ ye>s ago4 ,9 digg+ to ! dep? ( =ty or fifty fa?oms1 ! m9]s frequ5tly meet ) l>ge timb]s imb$d$ 9 ! ore4 ,tools = m9+ h also be5 f\nd 9 ! same1 or simil> situations4 ,! m9es1 !re=e1 :i* _h be5 exhau/$ ( ! ore1 h1 9 ! c\rse ( "t1 be5 repl5i%$ by a process ( nature4 #ab4 ,to :at purposes ! anci5ts appli$ all ! t9 :i* !y procur$ at s mu* labor & co/1 is n precisely kn[n4 ,x is probable1 t ! ,tyrians consum$ a portion ( x1 9 dye+ _! purple & sc>let4 ,x =m$ !n1 z x n[ does1 _m important alloys ) copp]4 ,! mirrors ( antiquity 7 made ( a composition ( ^! metals4 #ac4 ,! me?od ( extract+ t9 f its ores 0 probably v defective 9 anci5t times4 ,at lea/1 x 0 s = sev]al c5turies be=e ! "t ( ,elizabe?1 :5 ,sir ,francis ,godolph9 introduc$ great improvem5ts 9 ! t9 works4 ,! use ( ! rev]b]atory furnace 0 comm5c$1 ab\t ! beg9n+ ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 & soon aft] pit-coal 0 sub/itut$ = *>coal4 #ad4 ,?is metal1 9 its solid /ate1 is call$ block-t94 ,x is appli$1 )\t any admixture ) any o!r metal1 to ! =mation ( vessels1 :i* are n to be expos$ to a temp]ature mu* above t ( hot wat]4 ,a k9d ( w>e1 call$ bidd]y w>e1 is made ( t9 alloy$ ) a little copp]4 ,! vessels made ( ?is composition1 are r5d]$ black by ! application ( nitre1 common salt1 & sal ammoniac4 ,foil is also made by press+ x betwe5 /eel roll]s1 or by hamm]+ x1 z 9 ! case ( gold by ! gold-beat]s4 #ae4 ,b t9 is mo/ ext5sively appli$ z a coat+ to o!r metals1 /rong] ?an itself1 & m subject to oxydation4 ,! places :i* are usually d5om9at$ t91 are ?9 %eets ( iron coat$ ) ?is metal4 ,! iron is r$uc$ to ?9 plates 9 a roll+-mill1 & ^! are prep>$ = be+ t9n$1 by fir/ /eep+ !m 9 wat] acidulat$ ) muriatic acid1 & !n free+ !m f oxyde by heat+1 scal+1 & roll+ !m4 #af4 ,! t9 is melt$ 9 deep oblong vessels1 & kept 9 a /ate ( fusion by a *>coal fire4 ,to pres]ve its surface f oxydation1 a quantity ( fat or oil is kept float+ ^u x4 ,! plates are dipp$ p]p5dicul>ly into ! t91 & held !re = "s "t4 ,:5 )drawn1 !y are f\nd to h acquir$ a bright coat+ ( ! melt$ metal4 ,! dipp+ is p]=m$ ?ree times = s+le t9 plate1 & six times = d\ble t9 plate4 ,! t9 p5etrates ! iron1 & =ms an alloy4 #ag4 ,v>i\s articles ( iron1 su* z spoons1 nails1 bridle-bits1 & small *a9s1 are coat$ ) t91 by imm]s+ !m 9 t metal1 :ile 9 a /ate ( fusion4 ,! great aff9ity ( t9 & copp]1 r5d]s x practicable to apply a ?9 lay] ( ! =m] metal to ! surface ( ! latt]2 & ?is is (t5 done1 z /at$ 9 ! article on ! copp]smi?4 #ah4 ,t9 & quicksilv] are appli$ to ! poli%$ surface ( glass1 = ! purpose ( =m+ mirrors4 ,9 silv]+ pla9 look+-glasses1 a flat1 horizontal slab is us$ z a table4 ,?is is fir/ cov]$ ) pap]1 & !n ) a %eet ( t9 foil ( ! size ( ! glass4 ,a quantity ( quicksilv] is next laid on ! foil1 & spread ov] x ) a roll ( clo?1 or ) a h>e's foot4 #ai4 ,aft] z mu* quicksilv] z ! surface w hold1 has be5 spread on1 & :ile x is yet 9 a fluid /ate1 ! glass is %ov$ on ! %eet ( foil f ! edge ( ! table1 driv+ a "p ( ! liquid metal be=e x4 ,! glass is !n plac$ 9 an incl9$ position1 t e unnecess>y portion ( ! quicksilv] may be dra9$ (f1 aft] :i* x is aga9 laid flat ^u ! slab1 & press$ = a consid]able "t ) heavy weights4 ,! rema9+ quicksilv] amalgamates ) ! t91 & =ms a p]man5t1 reflect+ surface4 ,,! ,,t9-,,plate ,,work]4 #a4 ,! mat]ials on :i* ! t9n]1 or t9-plate work]1 op]ates1 are ! roll$ %eets ( iron1 coat$ ) t91 z j describ$4 ,he procures ! %eets by ! box1 & applies !m to ! ro(s & o!r p>ts ( h\ses1 or works !m up into v>i\s ut5sils1 su* z pails1 pans1 bake-ov5s1 measures1 cups1 & ducts = convey+ wat] f ! ro(s ( h\ses4 #b4 ,9 mak+ ! diff]5t articles1 ! %eets are cut into pieces ( prop] size1 ) a huge pair ( %e>s1 & ^! are br\ght to ! propos$ =m by diff]5t tools1 adapt$ to ! purpose4 ,! sev]al p>ts are unit$ by means ( a sold] made ( a composition ( t9 & lead4 ,! sold] is melt$1 & made to run to any "p1 at ! w ( ! workman1 by means ( a copp] in/rum5t1 heat$ = ! purpose 9 a small furnace ) a *>coal fire4 #c4 ,on exam9+ almo/ any vessel ( t9 w>e1 x w be p]ceiv$1 t1 :]e ! p>ts are unit$1 "o ( ! edges1 at lea/1 & sometimes bo?1 are turn$1 t ! sold] may be easily & advantage\sly appli$4 ,x w also be discov]$ t iron wire is appli$ to ^? p>ts requir+ m /r5g? ?an is possess$ by ! t9 itself4 ,! edges & h&les are especially /r5g!n$ 9 ?is mann]4 #d4 ,! edges ( ! t9 7 =m]ly turn$ on a /eel edge1 or a k9d ( anvil call$ a /ock1 ) a mallet2 &1 9 "s cases1 ?is me?od is /ill pursu$2 b ?is "p ( ! "w is n[ m exp$iti\sly p]=m$1 by means ( sev]al ma*9es inv5t$ by ,se? ,peck1 ( ,h>t=d ,co41 ,connecticut4 ,^! ma*9es greatly exp$ite ! manufacture ( t9 w>es1 & h contribut$ mu* t[>ds r$uc+ _! price4 #e4 ,?is manufacture is an ext5sive bran* ( our dome/ic indu/ry2 & va/ quantities ( t91 9 ! %ape ( v>i\s ut5sils1 are sold 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 by a class ( it9]ant m]*ants1 call$ t9-p$l]s1 :o receive 9 paym5t = _! goods1 rags1 old pewt]1 brass1 & copp]1 toge!r ) fea!rs1 hogs' bri/les1 & sometimes ready money4 ,,lead4 #a4 ,next to iron1 lead is ! mo/ ext5sively diffus$1 & ! mo/ abundant metal4 ,x is f\nd 9 v>i\s comb9ations 9 nature2 b t m9]aliz$ by sulphur is ! mo/ abundant4 ,?is ore is d5om9at$ gal5a by ! m9]alogi/s1 & is ! k9d f :i* ne>ly all ! lead ( comm]ce is extract$4 #b4 ,! ore hav+ be5 p[d]$1 & fre$1 z f> z possible1 f /ony matt]1 is fus$ ei!r 9 a bla/ or rev]b]atory furnace4 ,9 ! smelt+1 lime is us$ z a flux1 & ?is comb9es ) ! sulphur & e>?y matt]s1 :ile ! lead unites ) ! c>bon ( ! fuel1 & s9ks to ! bottom ( ! furnace1 :5ce x is occasionally let out into a res]voir4 #c4 ,lead extract$ f gal5a1 (t5 conta9s a suffici5t proportion ( silv] to r5d] x an object to extract x4 ,?is is done by oxydiz+ ! lead by means ( heat1 & a curr5t ( air4 ,at ! end ( ?is op]ation1 ! silv] rema9s ) a small quantity ( lead1 :i* is aft]w>ds sep>at$ by ! process ( cupellation4 ,! oxyde is appli$ to ! purposes = :i* x is us$1 or x is r$uc$ aga9 to a metallic /ate4 #d4 ,! lead m9es on ! ,mississippi are v productive1 & v ext5sive4 ,! pr9cipal m9es are 9 ! neighborhood ( ,gal5a1 9 ! nor?-we/]n "p ( ,ill9ois1 & ^! are ! ri*e/ on ! globe4 ,! lead m9es 9 ! vic9ity ( ,potosi1 ,miss\ri1 are also v productive4 ,ab\t #c1jjj1jjj p\nds are annually smelt$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 #e4 ,lead1 on acc\nt ( its easy fusibility & s(tness1 c be readily appli$ to a v>iety ( purposes4 ,x is ca/ 9 m\lds1 to =m weights1 bullets1 & o!r small articles4 ,ci/]ns are l9$1 & ro(s1 c41 are cov]$ ) %eet lead2 & also 9 ! con/ruction ( pumps & aqu$ucts1 lead5 pipes are consid]ably us$4 ,! me*anic :o applies ?is metal to ^! purposes1 is call$ a plumb]4 #f4 ,lead is ca/ into %eets 9 s&1 on l>ge tables hav+ a high l$ge on ea* side4 ,! melt$ lead is p\r$ out ^u ! surface f a box1 :i* is made to move on roll]s across ! table1 & is equaliz$1 by pass+ ov] x a /raight piece ( wood call$ a /rike4 ,! %eets ?us =m$1 are aft]w>ds r$uc$ 9 ?ickness1 & spread to great] dim5sions1 by compress+ !m betwe5 /eel roll]s4 #g4 ,lead5 pipes may be made 9 v>i\s ways4 ,!y 7 at fir/ =m$ ( %eet lead1 b5t r\nd a cyl9drical b>1 or m&rel1 & !n sold]$2 b pipes =m$ 9 ?is mann]1 7 liable to crack & break4 ,! second me?od consi/s 9 ca/+ successive portions ( ! tube 9 a cyl9drical m\ld1 hav+ 9 x a core4 ,z soon z ! tube gets cold1 x is drawn ne>ly out ( ! m\ld1 & m lead is p\r$ 91 :i* unites ) ! tube previ\sly =m$4 ,b pipes ca/ 9 ?is way are f\nd to h imp]fections1 aris+ f flaws & air bubbles4 #h4 ,9 ! ?ird me?od1 :i* is ! "o mo/ commonly practis$1 a ?ick tube ( lead is ca/ ^u "o end ( a long poli%$ iron cyl9d]1 or m&rel1 ( ! size ( ! bore ( ! int5d$ pipe4 ,! lead is !n r$uc$1 & drawn out 9 l5g?1 ei!r by draw+ x on ! m&rel ?r\gh circul> holes ( diff]5t sizes1 9 a /eel plate1 or by roll+ x betwe5 contigu\s roll]s1 :i* h a semicircul> groove cut r\nd ! circumf]5ce ( ea*4 #i4 ,! f\r? me?od consi/s 9 =c+ melt$ lead1 by means ( a pump1 into "o end ( a m\ld1 :ile x is dis*>g$ 9 ! =m ( a pipe1 at ! opposite end4 ,c>e is tak5 s to regulate ! temp]ature1 t ! lead is *ill$ j be=e x leaves ! m\ld4 #aj4 ,%ot is likewise made ( lead4 ,^! in/rum5ts ( dea? are usually ca/ 9 high t[]s con/ruct$ = ! purpose4 ,! lead is previ\sly alloy$ ) a small portion ( ars5ic1 to increase ! cohesion ( its p>ticles1 & to cause x to assume m readily ! globul> =m4 ,x is melt$ at ! top ( ! t[]1 & p\r$ into a vessel p]=at$ at ! bottom ) a great numb] ( holes4 #aa4 ,! lead1 aft] runn+ ?r\gh ^! p]=ations1 imm$iately sep>ates into drops1 :i* cool 9 fall+ ?r\gh ! height ( ! t[]4 ,!y are receiv$ bel[ 9 a res]voir ( wat]1 :i* breaks ! fall4 ,! %ot are !n prov$ by roll+ !m d[n a bo>d plac$ 9 an incl9$ position4 ,^? :i* are irregul> 9 %ape roll (f at ! sides1 or /op1 :ile ! sph]ical ones cont9ue on to ! end4 ,illu/ration3 ,,iron-,,f\nd]4 ,,! ,,iron-,,f\nd]1 c4 ,,iron4 #a4 ,! prop]ties :i* iron possesses 9 its v>i\s =ms1 r5d] x ! mo/ useful ( all ! metals4 ,! t\ghness ( malleable iron r5d]s x applicable to purposes1 :]e great /r5g? is requir$1 :ile its difficult fusibility1 & prop]ty ( s(t5+ by heat1 s z to admit ( =g+ & weld+1 cause x to be easily wr\ght4 #b4 ,ca/ iron1 f its *eapness1 & f ! facility ) :i* its =m may be *ang$1 is made ! mat]ial ( num]\s /ructures4 ,/eel1 :i* is ! mo/ important comp\nd ( iron1 exce$s all o!r metals 9 h>dness & t5acity2 & h5ce x is p>ticul>ly adapt$ to ! fabrication ( cutt+ in/rum5ts4 #c4 ,iron 0 discov]$1 & appli$ to ! purposes ( ! arts1 at a v e>ly p]iod4 ,tubal-,ca91 :o 0 ! sev5? g5]ation f ,adam1 0 an in/ruct] ( e artific] 9 brass & iron4 ,noah mu/ h us$ mu* ( ?is metal 9 ! con/ruction ( ! ark1 &1 ( c\rse1 he mu/ h transmitt$ a k ( x to 8 po/]ity4 #d4 ,nev]!less1 ! mode ( sep>at+ x f ! v>i\s sub/ances ) :i* x is usually comb9$1 0 b imp]fectly und]/ood by ! anci5ts2 & _! use ( x 01 mo/ likely1 conf9$ *iefly to ! limit$ quantity f\nd 9 a /ate ne>ly pure4 ,gold1 silv]1 copp]1 & t91 are m easily r$uc$ to a /ate 9 :i* !y are available 9 ! arts4 ,!y 71 !re=e1 (t5 us$ 9 anci5t times1 = purposes to :i* iron w\ld h be5 m applicable4 ,?is 0 ! case especially ) copp] & t94 #e4 ,fifte5 di/9ct k9ds ( iron ore1 h be5 discov]$ by m9]alogi/s2 b ( ^!1 n m ?an f\r h be5 employ$ 9 mak+ iron4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 sev]al v>ieties ( ! latt] k9d1 all ( :i* are class$ by ! smelt]s ( iron "u ! g5]al d5om9ation ( bog & m\nta9 or h>d ores4 #f4 ,! =m] has mu* ( ! appe>ance ( r$1 br[n1 or yell[i% e>?1 & is f\nd 9 b$s f "o to six feet ?ick1 & 9 size f "o f\r? ( a rood to tw5ty acres4 ,! m\nta91 or h>d ore1 to a sup]ficial obs]v]1 diff]s b little 9 its appe>ance f common rocks or /ones4 ,x is f\nd 9 regul> /rata 9 hills & m\nta9s1 or 9 deta*$ masses ( v>i\s sizes1 & 9 hilly l& f two to eight feet bel[ ! surface4 #g4 ,! bog-ore is suppos$ to be a deposite f wat] :i* has pass$ ov] ! h>d ore4 ,?is is evid5tly ! case 9 hilly c\ntries1 :]e bo? k9ds occur4 ,"s iron-ma/]s use ! bog2 "s1 ! h>d2 & o!rs1 bo? k9ds toge!r4 ,9 ?is p>ticul>1 !y are gov]n$ by ! ore1 or ores1 :i* may exi/ 9 _! vic9ity4 #h4 ,! app>atus 9 :i* ! ore is smelt$1 is call$ a bla/-furnace1 :i* is a l>ge pyramidal /ack1 built ( hewn /one or brick1 f tw5ty to sixty feet 9 height1 ) a cavity ( a proportionate size4 ,9 %ape1 ?is cavity is ne> t ( an egg1 ) ! l>ge/ end at ! bottom4 ,x is l9$ ) fire-brick or /one1 capable ( resi/+ an int5se heat4 #i4 ,bel[ ?is cavity is plac$ ! he>?1 :i* is compos$ ( f\r or five l>ge co>se s&/ones1 split out ( a solid rock1 & *isell$ s z to suit ea* o!r exactly4 ,^! =m a cavity = ! reception ( ! iron & dross1 :5 melt$ above4 ,! he>? requires to be remov$ at ! end ( e bla/1 :i* is usually cont9u$ f six to t5 mon?s 9 succession1 unless accid5tally int]rupt$4 #aj4 ,! prep>ation = a bla/1 consi/s pr9cipally 9 provid+ *>coal & ore4 ,! wood = ! =m] is cut 9 ! w9t] & spr+1 & *>r$ & br\ght to ! furnace dur+ ! spr+1 summ]1 & autumn4 ,:at is n us$ dur+ ! "t ( haul+1 is /ock$ 9 coal-h\ses1 provid$ = ! purpose4 #aa4 ,! wood is *>r$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 ,x is fir/ pil$ 9 heaps ( a sph]ical =m1 & cov]$ ) leaves & dirt4 ,! fire is appli$ to ! wood1 at ! top1 & :5 x has be5 suffici5tly ignit$1 ! pit is cov]$ 92 b1 to support combu/ion1 sev]al air-holes are left ne> ! gr\nd4 ,! colli]s are oblig$ to wat* ! pit night & day1 le/1 by ! cav+ 9 ( ! dirt1 too mu* air be admitt$1 & ! wood be !reby consum$ to a%es4 #ab4 ,:5 ! wood has be5 r$uc$ to *>coal1 ! fire is p>tially ext+ui%$ by clos+ ! air-holes4 ,! coals are drawn f ! pit ) an iron-too!d rake1 &1 :ile ?is is p]=m$1 ! du/ m+les ) !m1 & smo!rs ! fire :i* may yet rema94 ,wood is also *>r$ 9 kilns made ( brick4 #ac4 ,! h>d ore is dug by m9]s1 or1 z !y are commonly d5om9at$1 ore-digg]s4 ,9 ! prosecution ( _! labor1 !y sometimes foll[ a ve9 into a hill or m\nta94 ,:5 ! ore is f\nd 9 /rata or lumps ne> ! surface1 !y dig d[n to x4 ,?is k9d ( ore commonly conta9s sulphur & ars5ic1 & to free x f ^? sub/ances1 & to r5d] x less compact1 x is roa/$ 9 kilns1 ) refuse *>coal1 :i* is too f9e to be us$ = any o!r purpose4 ,x is !n brok5 to a suitable f95ess ) a hamm]1 or 9 a cru%+ mill4 ,! bog-ore seldom ne$s any r$uction4 #ad4 ,e prep>ation hav+ be5 made1 ! furnace is gradually heat$ ) *>coal1 & by degrees fill$ to ! top1 :5 a small quantity ( ! ore is ?r[n on1 & ! bla/ is appli$ at ! bottom ne> ! he>?4 ,! bla/ is suppli$ by means ( "o or two cyl9drical bell[s1 ! pi/on ( :i* is mov$ by /eam or wat] p[]4 #ae4 ,! coal is measur$ 9 baskets1 hold+ ab\t "o bu%el & a half1 & ! ore1 9 boxes hold+ ab\t "o peck4 ,six baskets ( coal1 & z _m boxes ( ore z ! furnace c c>ry1 is call$ a half *>ge1 :i* is r5ew$ z x may be necess>y to keep ! furnace full4 ,) e *>ge is also ?r[n 9 "o box ( lime/one4 #af4 ,! lime/one is us$ z a flux1 to aid 9 ! fusion ( ! ore1 & to sep>ate its e>?y portions f ! iron4 ,! iron s9ks by its specific gravity1 to ! bottom ( ! he>?1 & ! e>?y portions1 n[ conv]t$ into glass by ! action ( ! lime/one & heat1 also s9k1 & float ^u ! liquid iron4 ,?is scum1 or1 z x is usually call$1 scoria1 slag1 or c9d]1 is occasionally remov$ by in/rum5ts made = ! purpose4 #ag4 ,:5 ! he>? has become full ( iron1 ! metal is let out1 at "o corn] ( x1 into a b$ ( s&1 call$ a pig-b$1 :i* is f tw5ty to ?irty feet 9 l5g?1 & five or six 9 wid?4 ,"o concave *annel1 call$ ! s[1 ext5ds ! :ole l5g? ( ! b$1 f :i* =ty or fifty small] ones1 call$ pig-m\lds1 ext5d at "r angles4 ,! metal1 :5 ca/ 9 ^! m\lds1 is call$ pig-iron1 & ! masses ( iron1 pigs4 #ah4 ,pig-iron1 or1 z x is sometimes call$1 crude iron1 be+ saturat$ ) c>bon & oxyg51 & conta9+ also a portion ( scoria1 is too brittle = any o!r purpose ?an ca/+s4 ,_m ( ^!1 su* z /oves1 grates1 mill-irons1 pl\gh-irons1 & kit*5 ut5sils1 are commonly manufactur$ at bla/ furnaces1 & 9 _m cases ne>ly all ! iron is us$ = ^! purposes4 ,9 su* cases1 ! metal is tak5 9 a liquid /ate1 f ! he>?1 9 ladles4 #ai4 ,9 ,great ,brita9 & ,irel&1 & p]haps 9 "s o!r p>ts ( ,europe1 iron-ore is smelt$ ) coke1 a fuel :i* be>s ! same relation to pit-coal1 t *>coal does to wood4 ,x is obta9$ by heat+ or bak+ ! coal 9 a sort ( ov5 or kiln1 by :i* x becomes *>r$4 ,dur+ ! process1 a sort ( bitum9\s t> is dis5gag$ f x1 :i* is c>efully pres]v$1 & appli$ to _m useful purposes4 ,,! ,,iron-,,f\nd]4 #a4 ,! appellation ( f\nd] is giv5 to ! sup]9t5d5t ( a bla/-furnace1 & likewise to ^? p]sons :o make ca/+s ei!r ( iron or any o!r metal4 ,9 e case1 ! t]m is qualifi$ by a ^w prefix$1 indicat+ ! metal 9 :i* he op]ates1 or ! k9d ( ca/+s :i* he may make2 z brass-f\nd]1 iron-f\nd]1 or bell-f\nd]4 ,b :atsoev] may be ! mat]ial 9 :i* he op]ates1 or ! k9d ( ca/+s :i* he may produce1 8 "w is p]=m$ on ! same g5]al pr9ciple4 #b4 ,! s& mo/ g5]ally employ$ by ! f\nd] is loam1 :i* possesses a suffici5t proportion ( argillace\s matt]1 to r5d] x mod]ately cohesive1 :5 damp4 ,! m\lds are =m$ by bury+ 9 ! s&1 wood5 or metallic patt]ns1 hav+ ! exact %ape ( ! respective articles to be ca/4 ,to exemplify ! g5]al mann] ( =m+ m\lds1 we w expla9 ! process ( =m+ "o = ! spid]1 a v common kit*5 ut5sil4 #c4 ,! patt]n is laid ^u a pla9 bo>d1 :i* 9 ?is application is call$ a foll[ bo>d1 & surr\nd$ ) a frame call$ a flask1 ?ree or f\r in*es deep4 ,?is is fill$ ) s&1 & consolidat$ ) ramm]s1 & by tread+ x ) ! feet4 ,?ree wood5 patt]ns = ! legs are next buri$ 9 ! s&1 & a hole is made = p\r+ 9 ! metal4 #d4 ,"o side ( ! m\ld hav+ be5 ?us =m$1 ! flask1 ) its cont5ts1 is turn$ ov]1 &1 ! foll[ bo>d hav+ be5 remov$1 ano!r flask is appli$ to ! fir/1 & fill$ ) s& 9 ! same mann]4 ,! two flasks are !n tak5 ap>t1 & ! ma9 patt]n1 toge!r ) ^? = ! legs1 remov$4 ,! :ole op]ation is f9i%$ by aga9 clos+ ! flasks4 #e4 ,! mode ( proce$+ 9 =m+ m\lds = diff]5t articles1 is v>i$1 ( c\rse1 to suit _! con=mation4 ,! patt]n is (t5 compos$ ( sev]al pieces1 & ! numb] & =m ( ! flasks are also v>i$ accord+ly4 ,cannon-balls are sometimes ca/ 9 m\lds ( iron2 & to prev5t ! melt$ metal f adh]+ to !m1 ! inside is cov]$ ) pulv]iz$ black lead4 #f4 ,roll]s = flatt5+ iron are also ca/ 9 iron m\lds4 ,?is me?od is call$ *ill-ca/+1 & has = its object ! h>d5+ ( ! surface ( ! metal1 by ! sudd5 r$uction ( ! temp]ature1 :i* takes place 9 consequ5ce ( ! great p[] ( ! m\ld1 z a conductor ( heat4 ,^! roll]s are aft]w>ds turn$ 9 a p[]ful la!4 #g4 ,sev]al m\ld]s "w toge!r 9 "o f\nd]y1 &1 :5 !y h complet$ a suffici5t numb] ( m\lds1 !y fill !m ) ! liquid metal4 ,! metal = small articles is dipp$ f ! he>? or crucible ( ! furnace ) iron ladles def5d$ on e side ) a ?9 coat+ ( clay mort>1 & p\r$ !nce into ! m\lds4 ,b 9 ca/+ articles requir+ a great am\nt ( iron1 su* z cannon1 & "s p>ts ( ! ma*9]y = /eam eng9es1 ! iron is transf]r$ to ! m\lds1 9 a cont9u$ /ream1 ?r\gh a *annel lead+ f ! bottom ( ! crucible4 ,9 su* cases1 ! m\lds are con/ruct$ 9 a pit dug 9 ! e>? ne> ! furnace4 ,l>ge ladles full ( iron are1 9 "s f\nd]ies1 empti$ into ! m\lds by ! aid ( huge cranes4 #h4 ,al?\gh ! m\ld]s h _! di/9ct "w to p]=m1 yet !y (t5 assi/ ea* o!r 9 lift+ heavy flasks1 & 9 all cases1 9 fill+ ! m\lds4 ,! latt] op]ation is v labori\s2 b ! ex]tion is cont9u$ b a %ort "t1 s9ce ! m\lds1 con/ruct$ dur+ a :ole day1 c be fill$ 9 t5 or fifte5 m9utes4 #i4 ,iron-f\nd]ies are usually locat$ 9 or ne> l>ge cities or t[ns1 & are suppli$ ) crude iron1 or pig metal1 f ! bla/ furnaces 9 ! int]ior4 ,! metal is fus$ ei!r ) *>coal or ) pit coal4 ,9 ! =m] case1 an artificial bla/ is necess>y to ignite ! fuel2 b 9 ! latt]1 ?is object is (t5 effect$ 9 air furnaces1 :i* are s con/ruct$ t a suffici5t curr5t ( air is obta9$ directly f ! atmosph]e4 #aj4 ,! practice ( mak+ ca/+s ( iron is comp>atively mod]n2 ^? ( ! anci5ts 7 made ( brass1 & o!r alloys ( copp]4 ,until ! beg9n+ ( ! la/ c5tury1 iron 0 b little appli$ 9 ?is way4 ,?is use ( x1 h[ev]1 has ext5d$ s rapidly1 t ca/ iron is n[ ! mat]ial ( almo/ e k9d ( ma*9]y1 z well z t ( innum]able implem5ts ( common application4 ,ev5 bridges & rail-roads h be5 con/ruct$ ( ca/ iron4 ,,! ,,b> ,,iron ,,mak]4 #a4 ,b>-iron is manufactur$ f pig-iron1 f blooms1 & directly f ! ore2 ! process is consequ5tly v>i$ 9 con=mity ) ! /ate ( ! mat]ial on :i* x is comm5c$4 #b4 ,9 produc+ b>-iron f pigs1 ! latt] are melt$ 9 a furnace simil> to a smi?'s =ge1 ) a slop+ cavity t5 or twelve in*es bel[1 :]e ! bla/-pipe is admitt$4 ,?is he>? is fill$ ) *>coal & dross1 or scoria2 & ^u ^! is laid ! metal & m coal4 ,aft] ! coal has become well ignit$1 ! bla/ is appli$4 ,! iron soon beg9s to melt1 & z x liquefies1 x runs into ! cavity or he>? bel[4 ,"h1 be+ out ( ! rea* ( ! bla/1 x soon becomes solid4 #c4 ,x is !n tak5 out1 & fus$ aga9 9 ! same mann]1 & aft]w>ds a ?ird "t4 ,aft] ! ?ird heat1 :5 ! iron has become solid en\gh to be> beat+1 x is slightly hamm]$ ) a sl$ge1 to free x f ! adh]+ scoria4 ,x is !n return$ to ! furnace2 b1 be+ plac$ out ( ! rea* ( ! bla/1 x soon becomes suffici5tly compact to be> ! tilt-hamm]4 #d4 ,) ?is in/rum5t1 ! iron is beat51 until ! mass has be5 consid]ably ext5d$1 :5 x is cut into sev]al pieces1 :i*1 by repeat$ beat+ & =g+1 are ext5d$ into b>s1 z we see !m = sale4 ,! tilt-hamm] weighs f six to twelve hundr$ p\nds1 & is mo/ commonly mov$ by wat] p[]4 #e4 ,= manufactur+ b>-iron directly f ! ore1 ! furnace is simil> 9 its con/ruction to ! "o j describ$1 & ! op]ations ?r\gh\t are v simil>4 ,a fire is fir/ made ^u ! he>? ) *>coal2 &1 :5 ! fuel has become well ignit$1 a quantity ( ore is ?r[n ^u x1 & ! ore & ! fuel are r5ew$ z occasion may require4 ,z ! iron melts1 & sep>ates f ! e>?y portions ( ! ore1 x s9ks to ! bottom ( ! he>?4 ,! scoria is let (f occasionally1 ?r\gh holes made = ! purpose4 ,:5 iron en\gh has accumulat$ to make a loop1 z ! mass is call$1 x is tak5 out1 & =g$ into b>s "u ! tilt-hamm]4 #f4 ,?is way ( mak+ b>-iron is d5om9at$ ! me?od ( ! ,catalan =ge1 & is by f> ! *eape/ & mo/ exp$iti\s4 ,x is 9 g5]al use 9 all ! s\!rn c\ntries ( ,europe1 & x is beg9n+ to be ext5sively practis$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,:5 a ,catalan =ge is employ$ 9 mak+ blooms1 x is call$ a bloom]y4 #g4 ,! blooms are ab\t eighte5 in*es long1 & f\r 9 diamet]4 ,!y are =m$ "u ! tilt-hamm]1 & diff] 9 sub/ance f b>-iron 9 no?+1 except t1 hav+ be5 imp]fectly =g$1 ! fibres ( ! metal are n fully ext5d$1 nor firmly unit$4 ,! blooms are manufactur$ 9 ! int]ior ( ! c\ntry1 :]e wood is abundant1 & sold by ! ton1 frequ5tly1 9 ! cities1 to be conv]t$ into b> or %eet iron4 #h4 ,^! blooms are conv]t$ into b>-iron1 by fir/ heat+ !m 9 an air-furnace1 by means ( /one coal1 & !n pass+ !m betwe5 *ill ca/ iron roll]s4 ,! roll]s are fill$ ) grooves1 :i* gradually decrease 9 size f "o side to ! o!r4 ,:5 ! iron has pass$ ?r\gh ^!1 ! bloom ( eighte5 in*es 9 l5g?1 has become ext5d$ to ne>ly z _m feet4 ,! b> ?us =m$1 hav+ be5 cut into f\r pieces1 ! process is f9i%$ by weld+ !m toge!r lat]ally1 & aga9 pass+ !m betwe5 ano!r set ( roll]s1 by :i* !y are br\ght to ! =m 9 :i* !y are to rema94 #i4 ,blooms are also lam9at$ into two %eets1 on ! same pr9ciple1 betwe5 smoo? roll]s1 :i* are screw$ ne>] to ea* o!r e "t ! bloom is pass$ betwe5 !m4 ,v ?9 plates1 l ^? :i* are t9n$ = ! t9-plate work]s1 are repeat$ly d\bl$1 & pass$ betwe5 ! roll]s1 s t 9 ! ?9ne/ plates1 sixte5 ?icknesses are roll$ toge!r1 oil be+ int]pos$ to prev5t _! cohesion4 ,! la/ roll+s are p]=m$ :ile ! metal is cold4 #aj4 ,roll$ plates ( iron are frequ5tly cut into rods & n>r[ /rips4 ,?is op]ation is p]=m$ by means ( elevat$ angul> r+s ^u roll]s1 :i* are s situat$ t !y act reciprocally ^u ea* o!r1 & cut l %e>s4 ,^! r+s are sep>ately made1 s t !y c be remov$ = ! purpose ( %>p5+ !m1 :5 necess>y4 ,! mills 9 :i* ! op]ations ( roll+ & slitt+ iron are p]=m$1 are call$ roll+ & slitt+ mills4 ,,! ,,wire ,,draw]4 #a4 ,iron is r$uc$ to ! =m ( wire by draw+ rods ( x ?r\gh conical holes 9 a /eel plate4 ,to prep>e ! metal = ! op]ation ( draw+1 x is subject$ to ! action ( ! hamm]1 or to t ( roll]s1 until x has be5 r$uc$ to a rod suffici5tly small to be =c$ ?r\gh ! l>ge/ hole4 ,! be/ wire is produc$ f rods =m$ by ! me?od fir/ m5tion$4 #b4 ,v>i\s ma*9es are employ$ to ov]come ! resi/ance ( ! plate to ! passage ( ! wire4 ,9 g5]al1 ! wire is held by p9*]s1 ne> ! end1 & z fa/ z x is drawn ?r\gh ! plate1 x is w\nd ^u a roll]1 by ! action ( a :eel & axle1 or o!r p[]4 ,sometimes1 a rack & p9ion are employ$ = ?is purpose1 & sometimes a lev]1 :i* acts at int]vals1 & :i* takes fre% hold ( ! wire e "t ! =ce is appli$4 #c4 ,! f9] k9ds ( wire are made f ! l>g] by repeat$ draw+s1 ea* ( :i* is p]=m$ ?r\gh a small] hole ?an ! prec$+4 ,z ! metal becomes /iff & h>d1 by ! repetition ( ?is process1 x is occasionally anneal$1 to re/ore its ductility4 ,wire is =m$ ( o!r metals by ! same g5]al me?od4 ,,! ,,/eel ,,manufactur]4 #a4 ,/eel is a comp\nd ( iron & c>bon2 &1 z !re are sev]al me?ods by :i* ! comb9ation is produc$1 !re are likewise sev]al k9ds ( /eel4 ,! be/ /eel is said to be made ( ,sw$i% or ,russian b>-iron4 #b4 ,! mo/ common me?od ( =m+ /eel is by ! process ( cem5tation4 ,! op]ation is p]=m$ 9 a conical furnace1 9 :i* are two l>ge cases or tr\ghs1 made ( fire-brick1 or good fire /one2 & b5ea? ^! is a long grate4 ,on ! bottom ( ! cases is plac$ a lay] ( *>coal du/1 & ov] ?is a lay] ( b>-iron4 ,alt]nate /rata ( ^! mat]ials are cont9u$ to a consid]able height1 t5 or twelve tons ( iron be+ put 9 at once4 #c4 ,! :ole is cov]$ ) clay or s&1 to exclude ! air1 & flues are c>ri$ ?r\gh ! pile f ! furnace bel[1 s z to heat ! cont5ts equally & completely4 ,! fire is k9dl$ 9 ! grate1 & cont9u$ = eight or t5 days1 dur+ :i* "t1 ! tr\ghs1 ) _! cont5ts1 are kept r$ hot4 ,! progress ( ! cem5tation is discov]$ by draw+ a te/ b> f an ap]ture 9 ! side4 #d4 ,:5 ! conv]sion ( ! iron into /eel appe>s to be complete1 ! fire is ext+ui%$2 &1 aft] hav+ be5 suff]$ to cool = six or eight days1 x is remov$4 ,iron comb9$ ) *>coal 9 ?is mann]1 is d5om9at$ bli/]$ /eel1 f ! bli/]s :i* appe> on its surface1 & 9 ?is /ate1 x is mu* us$ = common purposes4 #e4 ,to r5d] ?is k9d ( /eel m p]fect1 ! b>s are heat$ to r$ness1 & !n drawn out into b>s ( mu* small] dim5sions1 by means ( a hamm] mov$ by wat] or /eam p[]4 ,?is in/rum5t is call$ a tilt+ hamm]1 & ! b>s =m$ by x1 are call$ tilt$ /eel4 ,:5 ! b>s h be5 expos$ to heat1 & aft]w>ds d\bl$1 drawn out1 & weld$1 ! product is call$ %e> /eel4 #f4 ,b /eel ( cem5tation1 h[ev] c>efully made1 is nev] q equable 9 its texture4 ,/eel possess+ ?is latt] quality is made1 by fus+ b>s ( bli/]$ /eel1 9 a crucible plac$ 9 a w9d furnace4 ,:5 ! fusion has be5 complet$1 ! liquid metal is ca/ into small b>s or +ots1 :i* are kn[n 9 comm]ce by ! "n ( ca/ /eel4 ,ca/ /eel is h>d]1 m ela/ic1 clos] 9 texture1 & capable ( receiv+ a high] poli% ?an common /eel4 #g4 ,/eel is also made directly f ca/ iron1 or at once f ! ore4 ,?is k9d is call$ natural or ,g]man /eel1 & is mu* inf]ior to t obta9$ by cem5tation4 ,! be/ /eel1 produc$ directly f ! ore1 comes f ,g]many1 & is made 9 ,/iria4 ,x is usually import$ 9 b>rels1 or 9 *e/s ab\t ?ree feet long4 #h4 ,/eel is sometimes alloy$ ) o!r metals4 ,a celebrat$ ,indian /eel1 call$ wootz1 is suppos$ to be c>bonat$ iron1 comb9$ ) small quantities ( silicium & alum9um4 ,/eel alloy$ ) a v small proportion ( silv]1 is sup]ior to wootz1 or to ! be/ ca/ /eel4 ,"s o!r metals are also us$ ) advantage 9 ! same application4 #i4 ,/eel 0 discov]$ at a v e>ly p]iod ( ! _w1 = aught we "k1 long be=e ! flood4 ,pl9y in=ms u1 t1 9 8 "t1 ! be/ /eel came f ,*9a1 & t ! next be/ came f ,p>?ia4 ,a manufactory ( /eel exi/$ 9 ,sw$5 z e>ly z #acdj ( ! ,*ri/ian era3 b x is g5]ally ?\ght1 t ! process ( conv]t+ iron into /eel by cem5tation orig9at$ 9 ,engl&1 at a lat] p]iod4 ,! me?od ( mak+ ca/ /eel 0 inv5t$ at ,%effield1 9 ! latt] c\ntry1 9 #agej1 &1 = a long "t1 x 0 kept secret4 #aj4 ,x has be5 b a few ye>s1 s9ce ?is manufacture 0 comm5c$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,sates4 ,9 #ahcf1 we _h f\rte5 /eel furnaces1 viz42 at ,bo/on1 "o2 ,new-,york1 ?ree2 ,troy1 "o2 ,new-,j]sey1 two2 ,philadelphia1 ?ree2 ,york ,co41 ,pa41 "o2 ,baltimore1 "o2 & ,pittsburg1 two4 ,^! furnaces toge!r are said to be capable ( yield+ m ?an #afjj tons ( /eel 9 a ye>4 ,! ,am]ican /eel is employ$ 9 ! fabrication ( agricultural ut5sils1 & x has entirely exclud$ ! common ,engli% bli/]$ /eel4 ,illu/ration3 ,,blacksmi?4 ,,! ,,blacksmi?1 ,,& ,,! ,,nail]4 ,,! ,,blacksmi?4 #a4 ,! blacksmi? op]ates 9 wr\ght iron & /eel1 &1 f ^! mat]ials1 he fabricates a great v>iety ( articles1 ess5tial to dome/ic conv5i5ce1 & to ! arts g5]ally4 #b4 ,?is bus9ess is "o ( ^? trades ess5tial 9 ! rude/ /ate ( society4 ,ev5 ! ,am]ican ,indians are s s5sible ( its importance1 t !y cause to be ins]t$ 9 ! treaties :i* !y make ) ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 an article /ipulat+ = a blacksmi? to be settl$ among !m1 & = a supply ( iron4 #c4 ,! utility ( ?is trade w be fur!r manife/ by ! consid]ation1 t almo/ e o!r bus9ess is c>ri$ on by its aid4 ,! agriculturi/ is dep5d5t on x = =m+ ut5sils1 & me*anics & arti/s ( e description1 = ! tools ) :i* !y op]ate2 9 %ort1 we c sc>cely fix ^u a s+le ut5sil1 vehicle1 or in/rum5t1 :i* does n owe its orig91 ei!r directly or indirectly1 to ! blacksmi?4 #d4 ,?is bus9ess be+ ?us ext5sive 9 its application1 x _c be presum$ t any "o p]son c be capable ( execut+ e species ( "w4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is n necess>y1 s9ce ! dem& = p>ticul> articles is frequ5tly s great1 t ! :ole att5tion may be direct$ to ! multiplication ( individuals ( ! same k9d4 ,"s smi?s make only an*ors1 axes1 scy!s1 hoes1 or %ovels4 #e4 ,9 su* cases1 ! workm5 acquire great skill & exp$ition 9 ! manufacture4 ,a tilt hamm] is (t5 us$ 9 =g+ l>ge masses ( iron1 & ev5 9 mak+ ut5sils z small z ! hoe1 ! axe1 & ! sword2 b ! hamm] :i* may be employ$ be>s a due proportion 9 its weight to ! mass ( iron to be wr\ght4 ,9 all cases 9 :i* a tilt hamm] is us$1 ! bell[s f :i* ! bla/ proce$s is mov$ by wat] or /eam p[]4 #f4 ,9 ! %op repres5t$ at ! head ( ?is article1 sl$ges & hamm]s are us$ z =g+ in/rum5ts1 & ^! are wield$ by ! workm5 !mselves4 ,! head workman has hold ( a piece ( iron ) a pair ( tongs1 & he1 ) a hamm]1 & two o!rs1 ) ea* a sl$ge1 are =g+ x ^u an anvil4 ,! two m5 are guid$ 9 _! disposition ( ! /rokes *iefly by ! hamm] ( ! ma/]-workman4 #g4 ,9 ord9>y blacksmi? %ops1 two p]sons commonly "w at "o =ge1 "o ( :om takes ! lead 9 ! op]ations1 & ! o!r works ! bell[s1 & uses ! sl$ge4 ,f ! "p :i* ! latt] takes 9 ! labor1 he is call$ ! bl[] & /rik]4 ,a man or y\?1 :o und]/&s b little ( ! bus9ess1 c1 9 _m cases1 act 9 ?is capacity tol]ably well4 #h4 ,! iron is r5d]$ malleable by heat+ x ) *>coal or ) /one coal1 :i* is ignit$ int5sely by means ( a bla/ f a bell[s4 ,! iron is heat$ m or less1 accord+ to ! p>ticul> object ( ! workman4 ,:5 he wi%es to r$uce x into =m1 he raises x to a :ite heat4 ,! weld+ heat is less int5se1 & is us$ :5 two pieces are to be unit$ by weld+4 ,at a r$ heat1 & at l[] temp]atures1 ! iron is r5d]$ m compact 9 its int]nal texture1 & m smoo? ^u its surface4 #i4 ,! jo9t action ( ! heat & air1 :ile ! temp]ature is ris+1 t5ds to produce a rapid oxydation ( ! surface4 ,?is result is measurably prev5t$ by imm]s+ ! iron 9 s& & common salt1 :i*1 unit+1 =m a vitre\s coat+ = its protection4 ,?is coat+ is no inconv5i5ce 9 ! =g+1 z its fluidity causes x to escape imm$iately "u ! action ( ! hamm]4 #aj4 ,/eel is comb9$ ) iron 9 ! manufacture ( cutt+ in/rum5ts1 & o!r implem5ts1 z well z articles requir+1 at c]ta9 p>ts1 a great degree ( h>dness4 ,?is sub/ance possesses ! rem>kable prop]ty ( *ang+ its degree ( h>dness by ! influ5ce ( c]ta9 degrees ( temp]ature4 ,no o!r sub/ance is kn[n to possess ?is prop]ty2 b x is ! peculi> treatm5t :i* x receives f ! workman t r5d]s x available4 #aa4 ,if /eel is heat$ to r$ness1 & sudd5ly plung$ into cold wat]1 x is r5d]$ extremely h>d1 b1 at ! same "t1 too brittle = use4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if x is suff]$ to cool gradually1 x becomes too s(t & ductile4 ,! great object ( ! op]ator is to give to ! /eel a quality equally di/ant f brittl5ess & ductility4 ,! treatm5t by :i* ?is is effect$ is call$ temp]+1 :i* w be m p>ticul>ly treat$ 9 ! article on ! cutl]1 ^: employm5t is a ref9$ bran* ( ?is bus9ess4 ,,! ,,nail]4 #a4 ,nail-mak+ con/itutes an ext5sive bran* ( ! iron bus9ess1 z va/ quantities ( nails are annually requir$ by all civiliz$ communities4 ,!y are divid$ into two classes1 ! names ( :i* indicate ! p>ticul> mann] 9 :i* !y are manufactur$2 viz41 wr\ght nails & cut nails4 #b4 ,! =m] are usually =g$ on ! anvil1 & :5 a f9i%$ head is requir$1 z is commonly ! case1 x is hamm]$ on ! l>g] end1 aft] x has be5 ins]t$ into a hole ( an in/rum5t =m$ = ! purpose4 ,workm5 by practice acquire surpris+ dispat* 9 ?is bus9ess2 & ?is circum/ance has prev5t$ ! g5]al introduction ( ! ma*9es :i* h be5 inv5t$ = mak+ nails ( ?is description4 ,wr\ght nails c be easily di/+ui%$ f cut nails1 by ! ind5tations ( ! hamm] :i* h be5 left ^u !m4 #c4 ,9 mak+ cut nails1 ! iron is fir/ br\ght into b>s betwe5 groov$ roll]s4 ,! size ( ! b>s is v>i$ 9 con=mity ) t ( ! propos$ nails4 ,^! b>s are aga9 heat$1 & pass$ betwe5 smoo? roll]s1 :i* soon spread !m into ?9 /rips ( suitable wid? & ?ickness4 ,^! /rips1 hav+ be5 cut into pieces two or ?ree feet 9 l5g?1 are heat$ to a r$ heat 9 a furnace1 to be imm$iately conv]t$ into nails1 :5 design$ = ^? ( a l>ge size4 ,= small nails1 ! iron does n require heat+4 #d4 ,! end ( ! plate is pres5t$ to ! ma*9e by ! workman1 :o turns ! mat]ial ov]1 fir/ "o way & !n ! o!r2 & at ea* turn a nail is produc$4 ,! ma*9e has a rapid reciprocat+ motion1 & cuts (f1 at e /roke1 a w$ge-l piece ( iron1 con/itut+ a nail )\t a head4 ,?is is imm$iately caught ne> ! head1 & compress$ betwe5 gripes2 &1 at ! same "t1 a =ce is appli$ to a die at ! end1 :i* spreads ! iron suffici5tly to =m ! head4 ,f "o to two hundr$ c be ?us =m$ 9 a m9ute4 ,?is fact acc\nts = ! l[ rate at :i* cut nails are n[ sold1 :i*1 on an av]age1 is n m ?an two c5ts p] p\nd above t ( b> iron4 #e4 ,on acc\nt ( ! great] exp5se ( manufactur+ wr\ght nails1 !y are sold mu* high]4 ,x is said t n9e-t5?s ( all ! nails ( ?is k9d1 us$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 are import$ f ,europe4 ,we ?us dep5d ^u =eign c\ntries = ^! & _m o!r articles1 because !y c be import$ *eap] ?an we c make !m2 & ?is circum/ance arises *iefly f ! diff]5ce 9 ! price ( labor4 #f4 ,! fir/ ma*9e = mak+ cut nails 0 inv5t$ 9 ,massa*usetts ab\t ! ye> #ahaf1 by a ,mr4 ,odion1 & soon aft]w>ds ano!r 0 contriv$1 by a ,mr4 ,re$1 ( ! same /ate4 ,o!r ma*9es1 = ! same purpose1 h likewise be5 con/ruct$ by diff]5t p]sons1 b ^? by ,odion & ,re$ are mo/ commonly us$4 ,be=e ^! ma*9es 7 introduc$1 ! /rips ( iron j describ$1 7 cut into w$gelike pieces by an in/rum5t :i* act$ on ! pr9ciple ( ! %e>s2 & ^! 7 aft]w>ds head$1 "o by "o1 ) a hamm] 9 a vice4 ,! fact1 t ! manufacture ( ?is k9d ( nails orig9at$ 9 our c\ntry1 is wor?y ( recollection4 #g4 ,9 #ahda1 ,walt] ,hunt1 ( ,new-,york1 inv5t$ a d\ble reciprocat+ nail eng9e1 :i* is own$ by ! ,new-,york ,pat5t ,nail ,company4 ,?is ma*9e works ) surpris+ rapidity1 x be+ capable ( cutt+ five or six hundr$ t5-p5ny nails 9 a m9ute4 ,"o h& c t5d ?ree eng9es1 z he has no?+ m to d ?an to place ! heat$ plate 9 a p]p5dicul> position 9 ! ma*9e4 #h4 ,?is manufacture includes1 also1 t ( tacks & spikes2 b s9ce1 9 ! production ( ^!1 ! same g5]al me?ods are pursu$1 !y ne$ no p>ticul> notice4 ,! diff]5t sizes ( tacks are di/+ui%$ by a me?od :i* indicates ! numb] p] ounce2 z two1 ?ree1 or f\r hundr$ p] ounce4 ,spikes are designat$ by _! l5g? 9 in*es1 & nails by ! t]ms1 two-p5ny1 ?ree-p5ny1 f\r-p5ny1 t5-p5ny1 & s on up to sixty-p5ny4 ,illu/ration3 ,,cutl]4 ,,! ,,cutl]4 #a4 ,"u ! head ( cutl]y1 is compreh5d$ a great v>iety ( in/rum5ts design$ = cutt+ & p5etration1 & ! bus9ess ( fabricat+ !m is divid$ into a great numb] ( bran*es4 ,"s manufacture no?+ b axes2 o!rs make plane-irons & *isels1 aug]s1 saws1 or c>v]s' tools4 ,o!rs1 aga91 make small] in/rum5ts1 su* z table-knives1 =ks1 p5-knives1 scissors1 & razors4 ,!re are also cutl]s :o manufacture no?+ b surgical in/rum5ts4 #b4 ,! co>s] k9ds ( cutl]y are made ( bli/]$ /eel weld$ to iron4 ,tools ( a bett] quality are made ( %e> /eel1 :ile ! %>pe/ & mo/ delicate in/rum5ts are =m$ ( ca/ /eel4 ,! sev]al processes con/itut+ ?is bus9ess may be compris$ 9 =g+1 temp]+1 & poli%+2 & ^! are p]=m$ 9 ! ord] 9 :i* !y are "h m5tion$4 #c4 ,! g5]al me?od ( =g+ iron & /eel1 9 e bran* ( ?is bus9ess1 is ! same ) t us$ 9 ! common blacksmi?'s %op1 = m ord9>y purposes4 ,! process1 h[ev]1 is some:at v>i$1 to suit ! p>ticul> =m ( ! object to be fa%ion$2 = example1 ! blades & "s o!r p>ts ( ! scissors are =m$ by hamm]+ ! /eel ^u ind5t$ surfaces call$ bosses4 ,! b[s1 :i* receive ! f+] & ?umb1 are made by fir/ pun*+ a hole 9 ! metal1 & !n enl>g+ x by ! aid ( a tool call$ a beak-iron4 #d4 ,! /eel1 aft] hav+ be5 =g$1 is s(t1 l iron1 & to give x ! requisite degree ( /r5g? "u ! uses to :i* ! tools or in/rum5ts are to be expos$1 x is h>d5$4 ,! process by :i* ?is is effect$ is call$ temp]+1 & ! degree ( h>dness or /r5g? to :i* ! /eel is br\ght is call$ its temp]1 :i* is requir$ to be high] or l[]1 accord+ to ! use :i* is to be made ( ! p>ticul> in/rum5t4 #e4 ,9 giv+ to ! diff]5t k9ds ( in/rum5ts ! requisite temp]1 !y are fir/ heat$ to r$ness1 & !n plung$ into cold wat]4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 raises ! temp] too high1 &1 if left 9 ?is condition1 !y w\ld be too brittle = use4 ,to br+ !m to a prop] /ate1 !y are heat$ to a less degree ( temp]ature1 & aga9 plung$ into cold wat]4 ,! degree to :i* !y are heat$1 ! second "t1 is v>i$ accord+ to ! h>dness requir$4 ,t ?is p>ticul> po9t may be p]fectly und]/ood1 a few examples w be giv54 #f4 ,lancets are rais$ to #dcj degrees ,fahr5heit4 ,! temp]ature is indicat$ by a pale color1 slightly incl9$ to yell[4 ,at #dej degrees1 a pale /raw-color appe>s1 :i* is f\nd suitable = ! be/ razors & surgical in/rum5ts4 ,at #dgj degrees1 a full color is produc$1 :i* is suitable = p5-knives1 common razors1 c4 ,at #dij1 a br[n color appe>s1 :i* is ! indication ( a temp] prop] = %e>s1 scissors1 g>d5 hoes1 & *isels int5d$ = cutt+ cold iron4 #g4 ,at #eaj degrees1 ! br[n becomes dappl$ ) purple spots1 :i* %[s ! prop] heat = temp]+ axes1 common *isels1 plane-irons1 c4 ,at #ecj degrees1 a purple color is e/abli%$1 & ?is temp]ature is prop] = table-knives & l>ge %e>s4 ,at #eej degrees1 a bright blue appe>s1 :i* is prop] = swords & wat* spr+s4 ,at #efj degrees1 ! color is full blue1 & ?is is us$ = f9e saws1 aug]s1 c4 ,at #fjj degrees1 a d>k blue approa*+ to black settles ^u ! metal1 & ?is produces ! s(te/ ( all ! grades ( temp]1 :i* is us$ only = ! l>g] k9ds ( saws4 #h4 ,o!r me?ods ( det]m9+ ! degree ( temp]ature at :i* ! diff]5t k9ds ( cutl]y are to be imm]s$1 a second "t1 9 cold wat]1 are also practis$4 ,by "o me?od1 ! pieces ( /eel are cov]$ ) tall[ or oil1 or put into a vessel conta9+ "o ( ^! sub/ances1 & heat$ ov] a mod]ate fire4 ,! appe>ance ( ! smoke indicates ! degree ( heat to :i* x may h be5 rais$4 ,a m accurate me?od is f\nd 9 ! employm5t ( a fluid m$ium1 ! temp]ature ( :i* c be regulat$ by a !rmomet]4 ,?us oil1 :i* boils at #fjj degrees1 may be employ$ = ?is purpose1 at any degree ( heat :i* is bel[ t numb]4 #i4 ,! gr9d+ ( cutl]y is effect$ on cyl9drical /ones ( v>i\s k9ds1 among :i* free/one is ! mo/ common4 ,^! are made to revolve ) prodigi\s velocity1 by means ( ma*9]y4 ,! op]ation is !re=e quickly p]=m$4 ,! poli%+ is commonly effect$ by us+1 fir/1 a :eel ( wood2 !n1 "o ( pewt]2 &1 la/ly1 "o cov]$ ) buff lea!r spr9kl$ ) an impure oxyde ( iron1 call$ colco?> or crocus4 ,! edges are set ei!r ) hones or :et/ones1 or ) bo?1 accord+ to ! degree ( ke5ness requir$4 #aj4 ,almo/ e description ( cutl]y requires a h&le ( "s sort2 b ! nature ( ! mat]ials1 z well z ! =m & mode ( application1 w be readily und]/ood by a little att5tion to ! v>i\s articles ( ?is k9d :i* daily fall 9 our way4 #aa4 ,a process has be5 inv5t$1 by :i* edge tools1 nails1 c41 made ( ca/ iron1 may be conv]t$ into good /eel4 ,x consi/s 9 /ratify+ ! articles ) ! oxyde ( iron1 9 a metallic cyl9d]1 & !n submitt+ ! :ole to a regul> heat1 9 a furnace built = ! purpose4 ,?is k9d ( cutl]y1 h[ev]1 w n be> a v f9e edge4 #ab4 ,! sword & ! knife 7 probably ! fir/ in/rum5ts fabricat$ f iron1 & !y /ill cont9ue to be lead+ subjects ( dem&1 9 all p>ts ( ! _w4 ,! mo/ celebrat$ swords ( antiquity 7 made at ,damascus1 9 ,syria4 ,^! weapons nev] broke 9 ! h>de/ conflicts1 & 7 capable ( cutt+ ?r\gh /eel armor )\t su/a9+ injury4 #ac4 ,! =k1 z appli$ 9 eat+1 is an inv5tion comp>atively mod]n4 ,x appe>s to h _h its orig9 9 ,italy1 probably 9 ! f\rte5? c5tury2 b x 0 n introduc$ into ,engl&1 until ! reign ( ,james ! ,fir/1 9 ! fir/ qu>t] ( ! sev5te5?4 ,its use 01 at fir/1 ! subject ( mu* ridicule & opposition4 #ad4 ,be=e ! introduction ( ! =k1 a piece ( pap]1 or some?+ 9 place ( x1 0 commonly wrapp$ r\nd "s conv5i5t projection ( ! piece to be c>v$2 &1 at ?is place1 ! op]ator plac$ "o h&1 :ile he us$ ! knife ) ! o!r4 ,! c>v] cut ! mass ( meat into slices or suitable portions1 & laid !m ^u ! l>ge slices ( bread :i* _h be5 pil$ up ne> ! platt]1 or c>v+ di%1 & :i*1 aft] hav+ be5 ?us s]v$1 7 h&$ ab\t ! table1 z we n[ di/ribute ! plates4 #ae4 ,! knives us$ at table 7 po9t$1 t ! food might be tak5 ^u !m1 z ^u a =k2 & knives ( ! same %ape are /ill common on ! cont95t ( ,europe4 ,r\nd-topp$ knives 7 n adopt$ 9 ,p>is1 until aft] ! bani%m5t ( ,napoleon ,bonap>te to ,elba1 9 #ahae1 :5 e ?+ ,engli% became fa%ionable 9 t city4 #af4 ,9 ,france1 be=e ! revolution ( #aghi1 x 0 cu/om>y = e g5tleman1 :5 invit$ to d9n]1 to s5d 8 knife & =k be=e him by a s]vant2 or1 if he _h no s]vant1 he c>ri$ !m himself 9 8 bree*es pocket4 ,a few ( ! anci5t regime /ill cont9ue ! old cu/om4 ,! peasantry ( ! ,tyrol1 & ( "s p>ts ( ,g]many & ,switz]l&1 g5]ally c>ry ab\t !m a case1 conta9+ a knife & =k1 & a spoon4 #ag4 ,! use ( ! =k1 = a long "t1 0 consid]$ s great a luxury1 t ! memb]s ( _m ( ! mona/ic ord]s 7 =bidd5 to indulge 9 x4 ,! ,turks & ,asiatics use no =ks1 ev5 to ?is day4 ,! ,*9ese employ1 in/ead ( ?is in/rum5t1 two small /icks1 :i* !y hold 9 ! same h&1 betwe5 diff]5t f+]s4 #ah4 ,! manufacture ( cutl]y is c>ri$ on mo/ ext5sively 9 ,engl&1 at ,birm+ham1 ,%effield1 ,walsall1 ,wolv]hampton1 & ,london4 ,london cutl]y has ! reputation ( be+ ! be/1 & ?is circum/ance induces ! deal]s 9 t city1 to affix ! ,london m>k to articles made at o!r places4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 !re are _m e/abli%m5ts = ! fabrication ( ! co>s] k9ds ( cutl]y1 su* z axes1 plane-irons1 saws1 hoes1 scy!s1 c41 b = ! f9] descriptions ( cutt+ in/rum5ts1 we are *iefly dep5d5t on ,europe4 ,illu/ration3 ,,gun-,,smi?4 ,,! ,,gun-,,smi?4 #a4 ,x is ! bus9ess ( ! gun-smi? to manufacture fire-arms ( ! small] sorts2 su* z muskets1 f[l+-pieces1 rifles1 & pi/ols4 #b4 ,! pr9cipal p>ts ( ! in/rum5ts fabricat$ by ?is artific]1 are ! b>rel1 ! /ock1 & ! lock4 ,9 p]=m+ ! op]ations connect$ ) ?is bus9ess1 great att5tion is paid to ! division ( labor1 especially 9 l>ge e/abli%m5ts1 su* z ^? belong+ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 at ,spr+field & ,h>p]'s ,f]ry2 = example1 "o set ( workm5 =ge ! b>rels1 ramrods1 or "s "p ( ! lock2 o!rs r$uce "s "p ( ! =g$ mat]ial to ! exact =m requir$1 by means ( files2 & aga9 ano!r class ( op]ators p]=m "s "p ( ! "w relat+ to ! /ock4 #c4 ,! b>rel is =m$ by =g+ a b> ( iron into a flat piece ( prop] l5g? & ?ickness1 & by turn+ ! plate r\nd a cyl9drical rod ( temp]$ /eel1 call$ a m&ril1 ! diamet] ( :i* is consid]ably less ?an ! int5d$ bore ( ! b>rel4 ,! edges ( ! plate are made to ov]lap ea* o!r ab\t half an in*1 & are weld$ toge!r by heat+ ! tube 9 l5g?s ( two or ?ree in*es at a "t1 & by hamm]+ !m ) v brisk1 b mod]ate /rokes1 ^u an anvil :i* has a numb] ( semicircul> furr[s ^u x4 #d4 ,9 con/ruct+ b>rels ( bett] workman%ip1 ! iron is =g$ 9 small] pieces1 eight or n9e in*es long1 & weld$ toge!r lat]ally1 z well z l5g?wise4 ,! b>rel is n[ f9i%$ 9 ! usual way2 or x is fir/ made to und]go ! additional op]ation ( twi/+1 a process employ$ ^u ^? int5d$ to be ( sup]ior quality4 ,! op]ation is p]=m$ by heat+ small portions ( x at a "t1 & twi/+ !m successively1 :ile "o end is held fa/4 #e4 ,! b>rel is next bor$ ) sev]al bits1 ea* a little l>g] ?an ! prec$+ "o4 ,! la/ bit is precisely ! size ( ! int5d$ calibre4 ,aft] ! b>rel has be5 poli%$1 & ! bree* clos$ ) a screw1 its /r5g? & s\ndness are te/$ by means ( a ball ( ! prop] size1 & a *>ge ( p[d] equal 9 weight to ! ball4 ,pi/ol-b>rels1 :i* are to g 9 pairs1 are =g$ 9 "o piece1 :i* is cut asund]1 aft] x has be5 bor$4 #f4 ,b>rels = rifles are mu* ?ick] ?an ^? = o!r small arms2 &1 9 addition to ! bor+ 9 common b>rels1 !y are furr[$ ) a numb] ( grooves or rifles1 :i* ext5d f "o end ( ! cavity to ! o!r1 ei!r 9 a /raight or spiral direction4 ,^! rifles are suppos$ to prev5t ! roll+ ( ! ball 9 its passage out1 & to direct x m un]r+ly to ! object ( aim4 #g4 ,! /ocks are commonly manufactur$ f ! wood ( ! walnut-tree4 ,^! are fir/ dress$ 9 a r\gh mann]1 usually 9 ! c\ntry4 ,aft] ! wood has be5 prop]ly season$1 !y are f9i%$ by workm51 :o commonly conf9e _! att5tion to ?is p>ticul> bran* ( ! bus9ess4 ,9 ea* ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates' armories1 is employ$ a ma*9e ) :i* ! /ocks are turn$1 & also "o1 ) :i* ! place = ! lock is made4 #h4 ,! sev]al pieces compos+ ! lock are =g$ on anvils1 "s ( :i* h ind5t$ surfaces1 ! m readily to give ! propos$ =m4 ,!y are r$uc$ some:at ) ! file1 & poli%$ ) sub/ances usually employ$ = su* purposes4 ,! sev]al pieces ( ! lock hav+ be5 put toge!r1 x is fa/5$ to ! /ock ) screws4 ,o!r p>ticul>s 9 reg>d to ! manufacture ( small-arms w be readily sugge/$ by a c>eful inspection ( ! diff]5t k9ds1 :i* are frequ5tly met )4 #i4 ,! p]iod at :i*1 & ! c\ntry :]e1 gunp[d] & fire-arms 7 fir/ inv5t$1 _c be c]ta9ly det]m9$4 ,"s attribute _! inv5tion to ! ,*9ese2 &1 9 confirmation ( ?is op9ion1 ass]t t !re are n[ cannon 9 ,*9a1 :i* 7 made 9 ! eightie? ye> ( ! ,*ri/ian era4 ,on ?is supposition1 _! use 0 gradually ext5d$ to ! ,we/1 until !y 7 f9ally adopt$ 9 ,europe1 9 ! f\rte5? c5tury4 #aj4 ,o!rs1 h[ev]1 attribute ! inv5tion ( gunp[d] to ,b]?old ,s*w>tz1 a monk1 :o liv$ at ,m5tz1 betwe5 ! ye>s #abij & #acbj4 ,x is said1 t 9 "s ( 8 al*emi/ic exp]im5ts1 he put "s saltpetre1 sulphur1 & *>coal1 into a mort>1 & hav+ accid5tally dropp$ into x a sp>k ( fire1 ! cont5ts explod$1 & ?rew ! pe/le into ! air4 ,?is circum/ance sugge/$ to 8 m9d ! employm5t ( ! mixture = ?r[+ projectiles4 ,"s traditions1 h[ev]1 attribute ! inv5tion to ,con/ant9e ,antlitz1 ( ,cologne4 #aa4 ,! fire-arms fir/ us$ 9 ,europe 7 cannon1 & ^! 7 orig9ally made ( wood1 wrapp$ 9 num]\s folds ( l951 & well secur$ ) iron hoops4 ,!y 7 conical 9 %ape1 be+ wide/ at ! muzzle2 b ?is =m 0 soon *ang$ = ! cyl9drical4 ,at l5g? !y 7 made ( b>s ( iron1 firmly b\nd toge!r ) hoops ( ! same metal4 ,9 ! second half ( ! f\rte5? c5tury1 a composition ( copp] & t91 :i* 0 br\ght to =m by ca/+ 9 s&1 came into use4 #ab4 ,cannon 7 =m]ly dignifi$ ) great names4 ,*>les ,v4 ( ,spa9 _h twelve1 :i* he call$ aft] ! twelve apo/les4 ,"o at ,bois-le-,duc is call$ ! devil2 a sixty-p\nd]1 at ,dov] ,ca/le1 is call$ ,que5 ,elizabe?'s pocket-pi/ol2 an eighty-p\nd]1 at ,b]l91 is call$ ! ?und]]2 two sixty-p\nd]s1 at ,brem51 ! mess5g]s ( bad news4 ,b cannon are1 at pres5t1 d5om9at$ f ! weight ( ! balls :i* !y c>ry2 z six-p\nd]s1 eight-p\nd]s1 c4 #ac4 ,fire-arms ( a portable size 7 inv5t$1 ab\t ! beg9n+ ( ! sixte5? c5tury4 ,! musket 0 ! fir/ ( ?is class ( in/rum5ts t appe>$1 & ! ,spani% nation1 ! fir/ t adopt$ its use z a milit>y weapon4 ,x 0 orig9ally v heavy1 & c\ld n be well support$ 9 a horizontal position )\t a re/4 ,! soldi]s1 on _! m>*1 c>ri$ only ! re/ & ammunition1 :ile ea* 0 foll[$ by a y\? :o bore ! musket4 #ad4 ,! p[d] 0 n ignit$ ) a sp>k f a fl9t1 b ) a mat*4 ,aft]w>ds1 a light] mat*-lock musket 0 introduc$1 :i* 0 c>ri$ by ! soldi]s !mselves4 ,! re/1 h[ev]1 ma9ta9$ its gr\nd1 until ab\t ! middle ( ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,! troops ?r\gh\t ,europe 7 furni%$ ) fire-locks1 su* z are n[ us$1 a little be=e ! beg9n+ ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 #ae4 ,! bayonet 0 inv5t$1 ab\t ! ye> #afdj1 at ,bayonne2 b x 0 n g5]ally introduc$1 until ! pike 0 entirely discont9u$1 ab\t sixty ye>s aft]w>ds4 ,x 0 fir/ c>ri$ by ! side1 & 0 us$ z a dagg] 9 close fight2 b1 9 #afij1 ! cu/om ( fa/5+ x to ! muzzle ( ! fire-lock 0 comm5c$ 9 ,france1 & ! example 0 soon foll[$ ?r\gh\t ,europe4 #af4 ,gunp[d]1 on :i* ! use ( fire-arms dep5ds1 is a composition ( salt-petre1 sulphur1 & *>coal4 ,! proportion ( ! +r$i5ts is v>i$ consid]ably 9 diff]5t c\ntries1 & by diff]5t manufactur]s 9 ! same c\ntry4 ,b good gunp[d] may be made ( sev5ty-six p>ts ( salt-petre1 fifte5 ( *>coal1 & n9e ( sulphur4 ,^! mat]ials are fir/ r$uc$ to a f9e p[d] sep>ately1 & !n =m$ into a homog5e\s mass by moi/5+ ! mixture ) wat]1 & p\nd+ x = a consid]able "t 9 wood5 mort>s4 #ag4 ,aft] ! pa/e has be5 suff]$ to dry a little1 x is =c$ ?r\gh a k9d ( sieve4 ,by ?is process x is divid$ into gra9s1 ! size ( :i* dep5ds ^u t ( ! holes ?r\gh :i* !y h be5 pass$4 ,! p[d] is !n dri$ 9 ov5s1 & aft]w>ds put into b>rels1 :i* are made to revolve on _! axis4 ,! friction produc$ by ?is motion de/roys ! asp]ities ( ! gra9s1 & r5d]s _! surfaces smoo? & capable ( easy ignition4 ,illu/ration3 ,,f>ri]4 ,,! ,,vet]9>y ,,surgeon4 #a4 ,! horse1 z well z ! o!r dome/ic animals1 is subject to a great v>iety ( diseases1 :i*1 l ^? affect+ ! human sy/em1 are frequ5tly "u ! control ( m$ic9al rem$ies2 & ! same g5]al means :i* are efficaci\s 9 heal+ ! disord]s ( our race1 are equally s 9 controll+ ^? ( ! inf]ior "p ( ! animal creation4 #b4 ,! great value ( ! dome/ic animals has r5d]$ !m1 f ! e>lie/ p]iods1 ! objects ( /udy & att5tion1 n only :ile 9 heal?1 b also :5 labor+ "u disease4 ,= ! latt] /ate1 a peculi> sy/em 0 e>ly =m$1 includ+ a mat]ia m$ica1 & a g5]al mode ( treatm5t consid]ably diff]5t f ^? = human pati5ts4 #c4 ,( ! au?ors ( ?is sy/em1 :e!r ,greek or ,roman1 no?+ wor?y ( notice has be5 transmitt$ to u1 beyond an occasional citation ( names1 9 ! works ( ,columella1 a ,roman writ]1 :o fl\ri%$ 9 ! reign ( ,tib]ius ,cs>1 & 9 ,vegetius ,r5atus1 :o liv$ two c5turies aft]w>ds4 ,! =m] treat$ at l>ge on ! g5]al managem5t ( dome/ic animals1 & ! latt] m pr(ess$ly on ! diseases to :i* !y are liable4 #d4 ,bo? ( ^! writ]s treat$ _! subject 9 elegant classical ,lat92 b nei!r !y nor any o!r anci5t au?or ^: works h rea*$ u1 _h any pr(essional acqua9tance ) m$ic9e or surg]y4 ,celsus is ! only physician ( ^? times :o is said to h writt5 on animal m$ic9e2 b ?is "p ( 8 works is n extant4 #e4 ,x5ophon is ! olde/ vet]9>y writ] ^: "w rema9s2 b 8 treatise is conf9$ to ! tra9+ & managem5t ( ! horse = w> & ! *ase4 ,! *ief m]it ( ! anci5t writ]s on ?is subject consi/s 9 ! dietetic rules & dome/ic managem5t :i* !y propose4 ,_! m$ical prescriptions are said to be an inconsi/5t & (t5 discordant jumble ( _m articles1 devoid ( rational aim or probable efficacy4 #f4 ,on ! revival ( le>n+ 9 ,europe1 :5 ! anatomy & physiology ( ! human body _h become gr& objects ( rese>* 9 ! ,italian s*ools1 vet]9>y anatomy attract$ ! att5tion ( ,ru9i & o!rs1 ^: descriptive labors on ! body ( ! horse h s9ce s]v$ = ! gr\nd-"w & model to all ! s*ools 9 ,europe4 #g4 ,! works ( ! vet]9>y writ]s ( antiquity 7 eag]ly s\ght & translat$ 9 ,italy & ,france1 & ! art 0 ext5sively cultivat$1 sometimes "u regul> m$ical pr(essors4 ,e bran* ( ! equ9e economy 0 pursu$ ) assiduity & success1 :e!r x relat$ to h>ness & trapp+s1 equitation & milit>y m5age1 or ! me?odical treatm5t ( ! ho(1 & ! inv5tion ( v>i\s k9ds ( iron %oes4 ,evangeli/a ( ,milan di/+ui%$ himself 9 ! education or break+ ( ! horse2 & to him is attribut$ ! inv5tion ( ! m>t+ale4 #h4 ,! new sci5ce hav+ be5 ext5d$ ov] a great proportion ( ! cont95t ( ,europe1 c\ld sc>cely fail ( occasional communication ) ,engl&2 nev]!less1 ! m$ical treatm5t ( horses & o!r dome/ic animals cont9u$ exclusively 9 ! h&s ( f>ri]s & c[-doctors1 until "s "t 9 ! fir/ qu>t] ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 #i4 ,at ?is p]iod1 t bran* ( ?is art :i* relates to ! m$ical & surgical treatm5t ( ! horse1 attract$ ! att5tion ( ,william ,gibson1 :o _h act$ 9 ! capacity ( army surgeon 9 ! w>s ( ,que5 ,anne4 ,he 0 ! fir/ au?or ( ! regul> m$ical pr(ession1 9 ,engl&1 :o attempt$ to improve vet]9>y sci5ce2 & ! publication ( 8 "w =ms an era 9 its annals1 s9ce 8 "w became1 & has cont9u$ to ! pres5t day1 ! basis ( ! sup]ior practice ( ! ,engli%4 #aj4 ,! eighte5? c5tury 0 abundantly fruitful 9 vet]9>y pursuits & publications4 ,france took ! lead2 b a zeal = ?is bran* ( sci5ce p]vad$ ,g]many & ! /ates nor? ( t "p ( ,europe1 & colleges 7 e/abli%$ 9 v>i\s c\ntries1 ) ! express view ( cultivat+ ?is bran* ( ! m$ical art4 ,x is said t ! ,fr5* h improv$ ! anatomical & surgical bran*es ( ! art1 & ! ,engli%1 ^? :i* relate to ! application ( m$ic9es4 #aa4 ,! fir/ vet]9>y s*ool 0 in/itut$ at ,lyons1 9 #agfb4 ,ano!r 0 e/abli%$ at ,al=t1 9 #agff4 ,a simil> in/itution 0 op5$ at ,b]l91 9 #agib1 & 9 ! same ye>1 "o at ,/4 ,pancras1 ne> ,london4 ,9 ^! colleges1 lectures are giv51 & degrees conf]r$4 ,9 ! diplomas1 ! graduate is d5om9at$ vet]9>y surgeon4 ,a great numb] ( ^! surgeons h be5 disp]s$ 9 ! armies ( ,europe1 z well z ?r\gh ! diff]5t c\ntries1 :]e !y h be5 employ$ 9 ! m$ical & surgical treatm5t ( diseas$ animals1 to ! great advantage ( _! own]s4 #ab4 ,f ! prec$+ acc\nt1 x is evid5t1 t ! light ( sci5ce has %one conspicu\sly1 9 ,europe1 on ! dome/ic animals1 9 relation to _! treatm5t1 bo? :ile 9 heal?1 & :5 labor+ "u disease4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 we h no in/itution = ! cultivation ( ?is bran* ( k4 ,! press1 h[ev]1 has be5 prolific 9 ! production ( works treat+ on ! v>i\s bran*es ( ! vet]9>y art2 & _m p]sons1 by _! aid1 h r5d]$ !mselves compet5t to adm9i/] to animals 9 cases ( disease1 9 a rational mann]4 #ac4 ,nev]!less1 ! practice ( animal m$ic9e is conf9$ *iefly to illit]ate m51 :o1 f _! labori\s habits1 or f o!r causes1 h n atta9$ to t degree ( in=mation on animal diseases1 & ! g5]al effects ( m$ic9e1 t might enable !m to prescribe _! rem$ies on sci5tific pr9ciples4 ,b ?is /ate ( ?+s is n peculi> to our c\ntry2 =1 not)/&+ ! laudable ef=ts ( enlight5$ m5 9 ,europe1 ! blacksmi?s =m a va/ majority ( ! horse-surgeons & physicians 9 e "p ( x2 & ! m$ical treatm5t ( ! o!r dome/ic animals is commonly intru/$ to p]sons :o are /ill m incompet5t4 #ad4 ,! att5tion ( blacksmi?s 0 v e>ly turn$ to ! diseases ( ! horse1 f ! practice ( supply+ him ) %oes4 ,! morbid affections ( ! foot 7 probably ! fir/ :i* attract$ _! notice2 & descant+ ^u ^! induc$ ! g5]al belief1 t !y und]/ood e o!r disease :i* might affect ! animal4 #ae4 ,^! m51 z artific]s 9 iron1 7 orig9ally t]m$ f]r]s or f]ri]s1 f ! ,lat9 ^w f]rum1 iron2 & _! craft1 f]ri]y4 ,^! t]ms1 by a usual corruption or improvem5t 9 language1 h be5 *ang$ to f>ri] & f>ri]y1 bo? ( :i* /ill rema9 9 g5]al use1 ! =m] z appli$ to p]sons :o %oe horses & adm9i/] to !m m$ic9es & surgical rem$ies1 & ! latt] to ! art itself1 by :i* !y are1 or ought to be1 guid$4 #af4 ,! appellation ( vet]9>y surgeon is applicable to p]sons :o h receiv$ a diploma f "s vet]9>y college1 or :o h1 at lea/1 /udi$ animal m$ic9e sci5tifically4 ,!re are a few su* individuals 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 & ! great value ( ! dome/ic animals1 & ! g5]al increase ( k1 c]ta9ly ju/ify ! expectation1 t _! numb] w increase4 ,,! ,,end4 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcrib]'s ,notes3 ,obvi\s spell+ & punctuation errors 7 repair$4 ,p]iod spell+s 7 reta9$ 7= example3 or*e/res1 etc471 along ) valid alt]nate spell+s ( ! same ^w4 ,/ation>y is us$ = /ation]y consi/5tly 9 ?is text4 ,reta9$4 ,!re 7 sev]al words t ! orig9al includ$ 9 bo? hyph5at$ & non-hyph5at$ =ms2 ^! 7 reta9$4 ,head+ punctuation & =matt+1 :i* v>i$ 9 ! orig9al1 has be5 /&>diz$4 ,illu/rations on ,p4 #fc 7,pr9t]71 #gc 7,type-f\nd]71 & #ha 7,pap]-mak]7 h no captions 9 ! orig9al4 ,p4 #ff1 ,dur&i ,ralionale div9orum (ficiorum 9 ! orig9al is ! (ficial title 9 sev]al s\rces4 ,reta9$ ,ralionale spell+4 ,*anges n cov]$ by notes above 73 ,p4 #aj1 n[ became clefs2 orig9al reads clifs4 ,p4 #aei1 convex draw+-knife2 orig9al reads onvex4