,,popular ,,technology2        ,,or1    
,,professions ,,and ,,trades4           
,illustration3 ,the ,,author4           
,,by ,,edward ,,hazen1 ,a4 ,m41         
,,author ,,of        ,,the ,,symbolical 
,,spelling-,,book1 ,,the ,,speller ,,and
      ,,definer1 ,,and ,a ,,practical   
,,grammar4        ,,embellished ,,with  
,,eighty-,,one ,,engravings4        ,,in
 ,,two ,,volumes4        ,,vol4 ,,ii4   
,,new ,,york3      ,,harper  ,,brothers1
 ,,publishers4        #ahgj4            
,entered1 according to ,act of          
,congress1 in the year #ahda1 by        
,,harper  ,,brothers1        in the     
,clerk's ,office of the ,southern       
,district of ,new ,york4                
,,contents    of    ,,the ,,second      
,,volume4                               
,page        ,the ,musician1 and the    
,musical ,instrument ,maker     #g      
,the ,sculptor                          
#ah      ,the ,painter                  
#bi      ,the ,engraver                 
#db      ,the ,copperplate ,printer     

#ea      ,the ,lithographer             
#ed      ,the ,author                   
#eh      ,the ,printer                  
#fc      ,the ,type-,founder            
#gc      ,the ,stereotyper              
#gg      ,the ,paper-,maker1 and the    
,bookbinder               #ha      ,the 
,bookseller                             
#ib      ,the ,architect                
#ig      ,the ,carpenter                
#aaa      ,the ,stone-,mason1 the       
,brick-maker1 c4            #aad        
,the ,painter1 and the ,glazier         
#abi      ,the ,turner                  
#acf      ,the ,cabinet-,maker1 and the 
,upholsterer           #adj      ,the   
,chair-,maker                           
#adi      ,the ,carver1 and the ,gilder 
#aec      ,the ,cooper                  
#aeg      ,the ,wheelwright             
#afa      ,the ,potter                  
#afi      ,the ,glass-,blower           
#agh      ,the ,optician                
#ahg      ,the ,goldbeater1 and the     
,jeweller                 #aih      ,the

 ,silversmith1 and the ,watchmaker      
#bac      ,the ,coppersmith1 the        
,button-,maker1 c4           #bbd       
,the ,tin-,plate ,worker1 c4            
#bcc      ,the ,iron-,founder           
#bdb      ,the ,blacksmith1 and the     
,nailer                   #bee      ,the
 ,cutler                                
#bfa      ,the ,gunsmith                
#bff      ,the ,veterinary ,surgeon     
#bga          ,illustration3 ,,musical  
,,instrument ,,maker4    ,,the          
,,musician1 ,,and ,,the ,,musical       
,,instrument ,,maker4      ,,the        
,,musician4    #a4 ,the word ,music1 in 
its modern application1 has reference to
 the  science which treats of the       
combination of sounds4 ,it is founded   
upon  the law of our nature1 that every 
leading passion has its peculiar  tone  
or note of expression understood by all 
human beings4 ,music1  therefore1 may be
 supposed to have been practised in the 
earliest  ages2 although it must have   
been a long time before it arose to the 

importance of a science4    #b4         
,according to the ,mosaic records1      
,jubal1 one of the descendants of       
,cain1 played upon musical instruments1 
many hundred years before the  flood4   
,in the early period of the nations of  
antiquity1 and in fact  among all       
semi-barbarous people of later periods1 
the character of  poet and singer were  
united in the same individual2 and the  
voice was  frequently accompanied by    
musical instruments4 ,the oldest song   
which  has descended to our times1 and  
which is stated to have been exhibited  
in this manner1 was that sung by        
,miriam1 the sister of ,moses1 on the   
occasion of the passage of the ,red ,sea
 by the children of ,israel4    #c4 ,the
 ,hebrews employed music in their       
celebration of religious  worship1 which
 consisted1 in part1 in chanting solemn 
psalms with  instrumental               
accompaniments4 ,it was also used by    
them on the occasion  of entertainments1
 as well as in the family circle4 ,it   

reached its  greatest perfection amongst
 the ,jews1 in the days of ,david and   
,solomon4 ,it is supposed1 that the     
priests of ,egypt were versed in  music1
 before the settlement of the family of 
,jacob in that country2  but how far the
 ,israelites were indebted to them for a
 knowledge of  this pleasing art1 is    
altogether uncertain4    #d4 ,music was 
held in very high estimation among the  
,greeks1 who  attributed to it          
incredible effects4 ,they even assure us
 that it is  the chief amusement of the 
gods1 and the principal employment of   
the  blessed in heaven4 ,many of their  
laws1 and the information relative to   
the gods and heroes1 as well as         
exhortations to virtue1 were written  in
 verse1 and sung publicly in chorus to  
the sound of instruments4    #e4 ,it was
 the opinion of the philosophers of     
,greece1 that music was  necessary to   
mould the character of a nation to      
virtue2 and ,plato  asserts1 that the   
music of his countrymen could not be    

altered1  without affecting the         
constitution of the state itself4 ,but  
in his  time and afterwards1 complaints 
were made of the degeneracy in this     
art1 and a deterioration of national    
manners through its influence4  ,the    
degeneracy probably consisted in its    
application to the  expression of the   
tender passions2 it having been         
previously applied1  in most cases1 to  
awaken patriotic and religious feeling4 
#f4 ,the invention of music and of      
musical instruments1 as in the cases  of
 most of the arts and sciences among the
 ,greeks1 was attributed by  the poets  
to some of the gods1 or else to         
individuals of their own  nation4 ,it   
appears1 however1 from their traditions1
 that they received  this art1 or at    
least great improvements in its         
execution1 from  ,phoenicia or ,asia    
,minor4 ,it began to be cultivated      
scientifically in  ,greece about #fjj   
years before the advent of ,christ4     
#g4 ,the ,romans seem to have derived   

the music which they employed in        
religious services from the ,etruscans1 
but that used in war and on the  stage  
from the ,greeks4 ,at an early period of
 their history1 it was a  great         
impediment to the progress of the art1  
that it was practised  only by slaves4  
#h4 ,the ,roman orators pitched their   
voice1 and regulated the different      
intonations through their speech1 by the
 sound of instruments2 and on  the      
stage1 the song1 as well as part of the 
play itself1 was  accompanied with      
flutes4 ,wind-instruments of various    
kinds1 comprised  under the general name
 of tibi1 and sometimes the cythera and 
harp1  accompanied the chorus4 ,in all  
these applications of music1 the ,romans
  had been preceded by the ,greeks4     
#i4 ,the ,hebrews employed accents to   
express musical tones1 but most  other  
nations of antiquity used letters of the
 alphabet for this  purpose2 and1 as    
they had not yet conceived the idea of  
the octave or  parallel lines1 to       

express a variety of tones in a similar 
manner by  the aid of a key1 they       
required a number of notes that must    
have been  exceedingly perplexing4      
#aj4 ,the ,greeks are said to have had  
about one thousand notes1 half of  which
 were for vocal1 and the other half1 for
 instrumental music4 ,all  these were   
expressed by placing the letters of     
their alphabet1 or  parts of them1 in   
different positions4 ,accents were also 
used1 partly  by themselves1 and in     
connexion with the letters4    #aa4 ,the
 lines of a poem1 set to music1 were    
placed under the letters  expressing the
 tones4 ,the letters for the            
instrumental part were  placed first1   
and under them those for the voice4 ,the
 notes of the  ,greeks and ,romans were 
not required to indicate the time in    
which they  were to be pronounced1 since
 in general the syllables of their      
language had a natural and distinct     
quantity4 ,in the cases in which  there 
was a liability to mistake1 the         

syllables were marked with ,a1 if  long1
 and with ,b1 if short4    #ab4 ,the    
,romans expressed the fifteen chief     
tones of the ,greeks with  the fifteen  
first letters of the ,latin alphabet2   
and these were  reduced to seven1 by    
,pope ,gregory ,i41 towards the end of  
the sixth  century2 so that the first   
seven capital letters were used for the 
first octave1 the small letters for the 
higher octave1 and the small  letters   
doubled1 for the highest octave4        
,parallel lines were soon  after        
invented1 on which the letters were     
written4    #ac4 ,musical sounds were   
expressed in this manner until the year 
#ajbd1  when1 according to some authors1
 ,guido ,aretine1 a monk of ,arezzo1    
invented points and rhombuses4 ,he also 
introduced the use of five  parallel    
lines1 upon and between which his notes 
were written4 ,the  seven letters which 
had formerly been used as notes1 now    
became clefs4    #ad4 ,still1 however1  
the means of determining the duration of

 sound  belonging to each note1 without 
consulting the quantity of syllables  in
 the verses to be sung1 were yet to be  
provided4 ,this desideratum  was        
supplied by one ,franco1 a ,german of   
,cologne1 who lived towards the  end of 
the eleventh century4 ,some1 however1   
attribute this improvement  to ,john de 
,murs4 ,the division of one note into   
others of less value  was invented1 in  
the sixteenth century1 by ,jean ,mouton1
 chapel-master  to ,king ,francis ,i4 of
 ,france4    #ae4 ,the knowledge of     
music1 as a science1 was preserved in   
,europe1  after the overthrow of the    
,western empire1 through the influence  
of  the ,church4 ,the apostles1 and     
,hebrew converts generally1 had been    
accustomed to the sacred music of the   
,jews2 and1 on this account1 it  was    
easy to continue the use of the same    
psalms and hymns in the  ,christian     
,church4    #af4 ,many of the ,grecian  
and ,roman melodies were also set to    
words  adapted to ,christian worship4   

,in regard to the manner of singing1 in 
the early days of the ,church1 it was   
sometimes in solo1 sometimes in         
alternate strains1 and at other times in
 chorus2 in which the  whole assembly   
joined1 repeating what had been before  
sung or read4 ,in  the fourth century1  
with the view of securing the proper    
execution of  this part of divine       
worship1 precentors were instituted1 who
 were  considered regular officers of   
the ,church4    #ag4 ,pope ,gregory ,i41
 surnamed the ,great1 distinguished     
himself by  establishing a new          
singing-school1 which became a model for
 many  others1 in the western division  
of the ,church4 ,in consequence of these
  schools1 the singing became more      
artificial2 and this1 together with  the
 circumstance that the hymns were in    
,latin1 which had become  obsolete1 at  
length excluded the people from any     
participation in this  part of the      
public worship4    #ah4 ,gregory also   
made a selection of the existing songs  

of the ,church1  and introduced a chant1
 which1 through his influence1 and that 
of  his successors1 was at length       
extended throughout ,europe4 ,it        
received  the appellation of the        
,gregorian chant from his name4 ,it was 
also  called the choral song1 because it
 was sung by a choir4 ,this chant  is   
said to be the foundation of our present
 church-music4    #ai4 ,music1 in       
distinct parts1 was not known until     
after the  introduction of the improved 
method of writing music1 invented1 as   
before stated1 by ,guido ,aretine and   
,franco4 ,the development of  harmony1  
in four parts1 was assisted by the      
choral2 but it was more  particularly   
advanced by musical instruments1 and    
especially by the  organ4 ,in the       
fifteenth century1 music began again to 
be treated  scientifically4    #bj4 ,the
 ,reformation produced great changes in 
the character of sacred  music4 ,before 
that event took place1 this part of     
religious worship  was confined to a few

 fixed forms of texts1 as in the mass1  
and this  is still the case in the      
,roman ,catholic ,church2 but the       
,protestants  allow great variety both  
in the poetry and music4 ,luther's      
agency in  the production of these      
changes was very considerable4 ,during  
the  seventeenth and eighteenth         
centuries1 church music became          
continually  more brilliant1 and always 
more corrupted1 by the intermixture of  
profane music4    #ba4 ,in the sixteenth
 and seventeenth centuries1 there grew  
up1 at the  courts of the ,european     
monarchs1 the free chamber style1 from  
which  arose that which was afterwards  
used in the theatre4 ,the opera1 which  
originated with three young noblemen at 
,florence in #aeid1 has  contributed    
especially to the splendor and variety  
of modern vocal  music1 the advancement 
of which is claimed particularly by the 
,italians1 as that of the instrumental  
kind is claimed by the ,germans  and    
,french4    #bb4 ,the composition of    

music1 and its execution either vocally 
or  instrumentally1 as well as the      
business of imparting a knowledge of it 
to others1 are embraced in the          
employment of the musician2 although it 
is seldom1 that all these branches are  
practised by one and the same           
individual4 ,music is one of the fine   
arts1 and1 during the middle  ages1 was 
one of the branches of what was then    
considered a learned  education4    #bc4
 ,since the scientific revival of music1
 the art has had so many  distinguished 
professors1 that we will not even       
attempt to give a list  of their names4 
,their number was increased1 and the art
 greatly  perfected1 by the             
singing-schools1 called conservatories1 
established especially in ,italy1 either
 at the public expense1 or by  the      
liberality of individuals4              
,,musical ,,instrument-,,maker4    #a4  
,this artist unites in his business some
 of the operations of the               
cabinet-maker1 turner1 and brazier4 ,he 

also is dependent upon the  wire-drawer1
 and the tanner and currier1 for some of
 his materials4 ,so  great1 however1 is 
the number of musical instruments1 and  
so different  their nature and          
construction1 that the business of      
making them is  divided into several    
branches1 all of which are never        
pursued1 or  carried on1 by one person4 
,but1 without reference to the several  
divisions of this business1 we will     
proceed to mention or describe the      
principal instruments which are now in  
most common use4    #b4 ,the organ is   
the largest of all musical instruments1 
and1 in its  improved state1 so complex 
that a mere description of it cannot be 
well understood4 ,nevertheless1 we will 
endeavor to give the reader  some idea  
of the general principles on which it is
 constructed4    #c4 ,the most essential
 and prominent parts of this machine are
 the  wind-chest1 the pipes1 and the    
bellows4 ,the former of these is  an    
oblong box1 made perfectly air-tight1   

and placed in a horizontal  position4   
,the top of this chest is perforated    
with several rows of  holes of different
 sizes1 and into these are inserted the 
pipes4 ,those  for the higher notes are 
of a cylindrical form1 and are made of a
  mixture of metals1 chiefly of tin and 
lead2 but those designed for the        
expression of the lowest notes of the   
base are made of wood1 in a  square     
form4 ,the dimensions of these pipes are
 regulated by a  diapason1 or scale4    
#d4 ,there are as many of these rows of 
pipes1 which are called stops1  as there
 are kinds of tones in the organ2 and to
 every row or stop is  a plug1 attached 
to a slide1 which is denominated a      
register1 and  which is designed to     
regulate the admission of wind into the 
pipes4  ,the pipes are also furnished   
with valves1 which can be opened at     
pleasure1 by means of keys similar to   
those of the piano-forte4 ,some  organs 
have few1 others have many stops2 and1  
in order to regulate the  force of      

sound1 most church organs have two or   
three rows of keys1  whereby a greater  
or less number of pipes may be filled1  
and the  powers of the instrument may be
 controlled in what is called the  small
 organ1 or let loose1 so as to become   
the full organ4    #e4 ,the fingering of
 an organ is similar to that of the     
piano-forte1 so  far as relates to the  
position of the keys2 but1 on account of
 the  great number of holding notes in  
organ music1 and the manner in which    
the sound is produced1 the fingers are  
more kept down2 whence it is  considered
 injurious for performers on the        
piano-forte to practise on  the organ1  
lest that lightness of touch1 so        
necessary for the former  instrument1 be
 affected4 ,it is hardly necessary to   
remark that1 during  the performance on 
the organ1 the wind-chest is filled by  
means of the  bellows4    #f4 ,the      
structure of the organ is lofty1        
elegant1 and majestic2 and its          
solemnity1 grandeur1 and volume of tone1

 have obtained for it a  pre-eminence   
over every other instrument for the     
sacred purposes to  which it has been   
applied4 ,the largest organ known is in 
,st4 ,peter's  ,church1 at ,rome4 ,it   
has one hundred stops4    #g4 ,the      
church organ was probably suggested by  
the water organ of the  ,greeks1 which  
was invented five or six hundred years  
before our era4  ,at what period1 organs
 began to be employed in churches1      
cannot now be  ascertained4 ,by some1 it
 is said that ,pope ,vitelianus caused  
them to  be used in ,rome in the seventh
 century4 ,others are of opinion1 that  
they were not introduced until three    
hundred years later4 ,but1 be this  as  
it may1 the church organ was not in     
common use until the fourteenth         
century2 and now it is very different in
 its construction from that of  early   
times4 ,it has received many additions  
and improvements since the  beginning of
 the fifteenth century4    #h4 ,the hand
 or barrel organ consists of a moveable 

cylinder1 on  which1 by means of wires1 
pins1 and staples1 are marked the tunes 
which it is intended to perform4 ,these 
pins and staples1 by the  revolution of 
the barrel1 act upon the keys within1   
and give admission  to the wind from the
 bellows to the pipes4 ,the hand organ  
is so  contrived that the revolution of 
the barrel gives motion to the  bellows4
    #i4 ,there are several instruments  
belonging to the class of horns1  all of
 which are made of brass or silver4     
,those of the latter kind of  metal are 
by far the softest in tone1 but brass is
 the material most  commonly employed4  
,the chief instruments belonging to this
 class are  the trumpet1 the ,french    
horn1 the bugle1 the ,kent bugle1 the   
trombone1  and the bass-horn4 ,the      
serpent seems to be the connecting link 
between the trumpet and the flute4      
#aj4 ,the instruments classed with the  
flute1 are the common flutes of  various
 keys1 ,german flutes1 and several kinds
 of flageolets4 ,nearly  allied to these

 are the clarionet1 the hautboy1 and    
bassoon4 ,the  breath is applied to the 
flageolet through an ivory tube at the  
end2  and1 in the three last named      
instruments1 a thin reed1 capable of a  
free vibration1 is a part of the        
mouth-piece4    #aa4 ,of the instruments
 which produce musical sounds by the    
vibration  of strings1 there are a great
 number1 of which the following are the 
principal2--the lyre1 the harp1 the     
guitar1 the lute1 the dulcimer1  the    
harpsichord1 the spinnet1 the           
piano-forte1 the violin1 the            
violincello1 and the base-viol4 ,the    
strings of the three last are  agitated 
with a bow2 but those of this class     
first mentioned1 are  vibrated by the   
thumb and fingers1 by some little       
instrument held in  the hand1 or by     
little hammers1 moved by keys1 as in the
 piano-forte4    #ab4 ,the piano-forte  
is said to be the invention of ,gottlieb
  ,schroder1 of ,hohenstein1 in ,saxony1
 born in ,dresden1 about the year       

#agag4 ,before the introduction of this 
instrument1 the clavichord1             
harpsichord1 and spinnet1 supplied its  
place4 ,on all of these  instruments    
complete harmony can be produced by a   
single performer1  and the most         
difficult series of tones can be        
executed with rapidity1  by means of a  
simple mechanism4    #ac4 ,the          
piano-forte has been gradually improved1
 until it has become  one of the most   
elegant instruments in the whole compass
 of musical  practice4 ,in firmness and 
strength of tone1 the ,english          
piano-fortes  formerly surpassed all    
others2 but1 within a few years1 they   
have been  equalled1 and in some        
respects excelled1 by those of ,american
  workmanship4 ,the manufacture of this 
instrument constitutes the most         
extensive branch of musical             
instrument-making4    #ad4 ,the         
instruments of percussion are the       
military drum1 base-drum1  kettle-drum1 
tabor1 tamborine1 and the triangle4 ,the

 kettle-drum has  received its name from
 its conformation4 ,it has but one head1
 and is  used in orchestres1 and by the 
cavalry of modern armies1 especially in 
,europe4 ,the tabor has two heads1 about
 three inches apart1 and is  beaten with
 one stick4 ,the tamborine has one head1
 drawn over a hoop1  to which are       
attached small bells and bits of tin1 to
 make a jingling  sound4 ,the time is   
beaten on the head with the hand4       
#ae4 ,the bag-pipe is a wind instrument 
of high antiquity among the  northern   
nations of ,europe2 but it has been so  
long a favorite with  the natives of    
,scotland1 that it may be considered    
their national  instrument4 ,it consists
 of a leather bag and three pipes4 ,the 
first of  the pipes is that by which the
 droning noise is produced1 the second  
emits wind from the bottom of the bag1  
and the third is that on which  the     
music is made4    #af4 ,during the      
performance on the bag-pipes1 the bag is
 placed under  the arm1 and worked like 

a bellows1 while the notes are modulated
 as  on a flute or hautboy1 by stopping 
and opening the holes1 nine in  number1 
with the ends of the fingers and thumb4 
,the bag is filled by  means of the     
breath blown into it through a pipe4 ,in
 ,rome1 at the time  of ,advent1 the    
peasants of the mountains express their 
veneration for  the ,virgin by playing  
on this instrument before her image4    
,illustration3 ,the ,,sculptor4    ,,the
 ,,sculptor4      #a4 ,sculpture is one 
of the fine arts4 ,in its most extended 
sense1 it  includes not only modelling  
figures in clay1 wax1 and plaster of    
,paris1 and carving them in wood1 stone1
 and marble1 but also casting  them in  
bronze1 lead1 or iron1 as well as       
enchasing and engraving4    #b4 ,the    
productions of this art are known under 
various denominations1  but the         
principal are statues1 busts1 and       
bas-reliefs4 ,the first  of these are   
entire representations of men or animals
 in full relief2  the second are upper  

parts of statues2 and the last are      
figures more  or less elevated from the 
body or ground on which they are formed4
    #c4 ,the different degrees of       
elevation in reliefs1 are expressed by  
various terms borrowed from the         
,italian4 ,a figure is said to be in    
alto relievo1 or high relief1 when but a
 small proportion of it is  buried in   
the back-ground2 in mezzo relievo1 or   
middle relief1  when one half of it is  
above the surface2 and in basso relievo1
 or  low relief1 when but little        
elevated1 like figures upon coin4       
,bas-reliefs are usually applied as     
ornaments to buildings1 and to the      
pediments of statues4    #d4 ,the       
subjects of sculpture1 with a few       
exceptions1 are the same as  those of   
painting2 and the course of study       
essential to proficiency in  either1 is 
very similar4 ,they both require much   
taste and practice1  and a thorough     
knowledge of the human form and other   
objects  frequently represented4 ,the   

young artist begins with imitating the  
most perfect models of ,grecian art2    
and1 after having become well           
acquainted with their beauties1 he      
proceeds to the imitation of  nature4   
#e4 ,when any considerable work in stone
 or marble is to be done1 the  sculptor 
forms a model of clay or wax1 to guide  
him in the execution4  ,the soft        
material is moulded to the proposed form
 with the hands and  small instruments  
of ivory4 ,the model is by far the most 
difficult  part of the work1 and it is  
here the genius of the artist is to be  
displayed4 ,the process of copying the  
model in stone or in any other          
substance1 is an operation merely       
mechanical1 and can often be done by    
another person as well as by the        
scientific sculptor himself4    #f4 ,the
 model having been prepared1 the block  
of marble or stone is  marked at certain
 points corresponding to its chief      
elevation and  concavities4 ,the        
material is then wrought to the rough   

outline of the  figure1 by means of     
strong steel points1 drills1 and other  
perforating  tools2 and the asperities  
are afterwards removed with chisels1 and
  with rasps and files of different     
shapes4 ,when a high polish is          
required1 it is produced by friction    
with pumice-stone1 tripoli1 and  straw  
ashes4    #g4 ,marble and stone are     
carved in a similar manner2 but the     
latter1  being softer1 can be wrought   
with less difficulty4 ,the defects which
  may be met with in the stone are      
repaired with a composition of  plaster 
of ,paris and the same stone1 pulverized
 and mixed with water4    #h4 ,casts in 
plaster of ,paris and bronze are taken  
from models1  statues1 busts1           
bas-reliefs1 and living persons4 ,to do 
this1 it is  necessary to form a mould  
from the subject to be copied4 ,this is 
done  by spreading over it some soft    
substance1 which can be readily forced  
into all the cavities1 and which will   
harden by drying or cooling4  ,plaster  

of ,paris is the most usual material    
employed for this purpose4    #i4 ,when 
the subject is a bas-relief1 or any     
other one-sided figure of  a similar    
kind1 the mould can be withdrawn without
 injury1 in a single  piece2 but if it  
is a statue1 or any other figure of like
 form1 it is  necessary to divide the   
mould into several pieces1 in order to a
 safe  removal4 ,these pieces again     
united constitute a perfect mould4      
,while  the artist is forming the mould 
on the face of a living person1 the     
latter breathes through tubes inserted  
into the nostrils4    #aj4 ,in taking   
casts from such a mould1 the internal   
surface is oiled  to prevent adhesion1  
and then plaster mixed with water is    
poured into  it through a small orifice4
 ,the mould is afterwards turned in     
every  direction1 that the plaster may  
cover every part of the surface2 and    
when a sufficiency of it has been       
distributed to produce the requisite    
strength1 and the plaster has acquired  

the proper solidity1 the  several pieces
 are removed from the cast1 which1 of   
course1 is an  exact resemblance of the 
subject on which the mould was formed4  
#aa4 ,superfluous portions of the       
material1 produced by the seams in the  
mould1 are removed with suitable        
instruments1 and applications of  fresh 
plaster are made1 where necessary to    
repair blemishes4 ,the cast  is finished
 by dipping it in a varnish made of     
soap1 white wax1 and  water1 and        
afterwards rubbing it with soft linen4  
,the polish produced  in this manner1   
approaches that of marble4    #ab4 ,the 
durability of plaster casts1 exposed to 
the weather1 is  greatly increased by   
saturating them with linseed oil        
combined with  wax or rosin4 ,they are  
made to resemble bronze by the          
application of a  soap composed of      
linseed oil and soda1 and colored with  
the sulphate  of copper and iron4       
#ac4 ,moulds are1 also1 formed of a warm
 solution of glue1 which hardens  upon  

cooling1 and such are called elastic    
moulds4 ,this material is  sometimes    
preferred on account of its more easy   
separation from  irregular surfaces4    
,for small and delicate impressions in  
bas-relief1  melted sulphur is sometimes
 employed2 also a strong solution of    
isinglass in proof spirits4 ,all three  
of the substances last mentioned  yield 
sharper impressions than plaster of     
,paris4    #ad4 ,statues designed to    
occupy situations in which they may be  
exposed  to the weather and mechanical  
violence1 are often made of bronze cast 
in moulds4 ,the external portions of the
 mould are made on the pattern1  out of 
plaster1 brick-dust1 and water4 ,the    
mould is then covered on  the inside    
with a coating of clay as thick as the  
bronze is intended  to be1 and the      
several pieces are afterwards put       
together1 or  closed4 ,the internal     
cavity is next filled with a composition
 like  that on the other side of the    
clay4    #ae4 ,when this has been done1 

the several pieces forming the outside  
of  the mould are separated1 and the    
clay carefully removed4 ,these having   
been again united1 and the core or      
internal portion of the mould  secured  
in its true position1 the whole is bound
 with iron hoops1 and  thoroughly dried4
 ,the melted bronze is poured into the  
cavity formed  by the removal of the    
clay1 through an aperture made for the  
purpose4  ,the cast is afterwards       
rendered smooth by mechanical means4    
#af4 ,it is conjectured with much       
reason1 that sculpture was one of the   
arts practised before the deluge1 and   
that it was transmitted to  posterity by
 the survivors of that catastrophe4 ,the
 first images were  probably made for   
the purpose of perpetuating the memory  
of the dead2  but1 in process of time1  
they became objects of adoration4 ,as   
the  ,chaldeans were unquestionably the 
first idolators after the flood1 so  are
 they supposed to have been the first   
who made progress in  sculpture4    #ag4

 ,the first notice of this art in the   
,mosaic writings1 is found in  the      
passage relative to the teraphim1 or    
idols1 which ,rachel1 the wife  of      
,jacob1 carried clandestinely from her  
father's house2 and the first  persons  
mentioned in the ,bible1 as artists1 are
 ,aholiab and ,bezaleel1  who formed the
 cherubim which covered the mercy-seat1 
together with  some other furniture of  
the tabernacle1 and the sculptured      
ornaments  of the garments of the       
high-priest4    #ah4 ,from the same     
authority1 we learn that the nations    
expelled from  ,canaan1 by the ,jewish  
people1 were not ignorant of sculpture  
and  painting2 for ,moses repeatedly    
commands the latter to destroy the      
pictures and molten images which might  
be discovered in their  progress through
 the land4 ,the ,israelites crossed the 
river ,jordan  about #aejj years before 
the commencement of our era4    #ai4    
,from this time to the end of the       
,jewish polity1 we often meet in  the   

,scriptures with indications of the fine
 arts2 but the splendor of  ,solomon's  
temple1 clearly points out the days of  
that prince as the  period in which they
 had attained their greatest perfection 
in ,judea4    #bj4 ,the ,babylonians1   
,assyrians1 and ,phoenicians1 became    
considerably  skilful in sculpture1 at a
 very early period1 as we learn from    
early  history1 and some existing       
remains4 ,the same remark is also       
applicable  to the inhabitants of       
,hindostan4 ,but writers have been more 
particular  in noticing the style of    
design among the ,egyptians1 because the
  progress of the arts among that people
 is more easily traced1 and  because it 
is supposed to elucidate that of most   
other ancient  nations4    #ba4 ,the    
chief objects of sculpture1 among the   
,egyptians1 were pillars1  and other    
architectural ornaments1 idols1 the     
human figure1 animals1  and             
hieroglyphics1 engraved in a kind of    
bas-relief on public  edifices1 and the 

forms of animals4 ,most of the great    
works of this  nation are supposed to   
have been executed during and after the 
reign  of ,sesostris1 who lived in the  
days of ,rehoboam1 king of ,israel1 or  
about #ajjj years before the ,christian 
era4    #bb4 ,but of all the nations of 
antiquity1 the ,greeks were the most    
distinguished for sculpture4 ,they      
derived the first rudiments of the  art 
from the ,phoenicians1 or ,egyptians1   
although they assert that they          
themselves were its inventors4 ,its     
existence1 in a rude state1 among  that 
people1 preceded that of letters or     
scientific architecture4    #bc4        
,ddalus1 who lived about #ajj years     
after ,moses1 was the first  sculptor   
among the ,greeks1 of any notoriety4    
,the statues made before  his time1 were
 stiff1 formal figures1 having the arms 
attached to the  body1 and the legs     
united1 like the mummy-shaped           
productions of  ,egyptian art4 ,he      
separated the legs of his statues1 and  

placed them1  and the upper extremities1
 in a natural position4 ,he also was the
  first sculptor who made the eyes of   
his statues open4 ,on account of  these 
improvements1 the ,greeks said1 that his
 divine genius made  statues walk1 and  
see1 and speak4    #bd4 ,the disciples  
and imitators of ,ddalus were called his
 sons1 and  artists1 generally1         
,ddalides4 ,soon after this period1     
schools of  design were established in  
the island of gina1 at ,corinth1 at     
,sicyon1  and in ,etruria1 in ,italy3   
but it seems that no good               
representations of  the human form were 
effected until near the time of         
,phidias1 who was  born #ddd years      
before ,christ4    #be4 ,this most      
distinguished of all the votaries of    
sculpture1  flourished at or near the   
same time with the dramatic poets1      
schylus1  ,euripides1 and ,sophocles2   
the philosophers1 ,socrates1 ,plato1 and
  ,anaxagoras2 and the statesmen and    
commanders1 ,pericles1 ,miltiades1      

,themistocles1 ,cimon1 and ,xenophon4   
,this was the most refined period of    
,grecian history1 and of all others1 the
 most favorable in its moral  and       
political circumstances1 for the        
development of genius4    #bf4 ,phidias 
was the author of the ideal style1      
which1 in the fine  arts1 may be        
defined1 the union of the perfections of
 any class of  figures4 ,among the      
distinguished productions of this       
artist1 the  colossal statues of        
,minerva and ,jupiter ,olympius1 made of
 gold and  ivory1 have excited the      
greatest astonishment4 ,the former1     
executed  for the ,parthenon of ,athens1
 was twenty-six cubits in height2 and   
the  latter1 for a splendid temple at   
,elis1 was about the same height1       
although seated upon a throne4    #bg4  
,the favorite disciples of ,phidias1    
were ,alcamenes1 of ,attica1 and        
,agoracritus1 of ,paros2 and at the same
 time with them1 flourished             
,polycletus1 of ,argos1 ,miron1 of      

,boeotia1 and ,pythagoras1 of ,rhegium4 
,the beautiful style soon succeeded to  
the ideal2 the authors of  which1 were  
,praxiteles and ,scopas1 who brought the
 art to the highest  perfection1--since1
 in their productions1 they united      
beauty and  grace4 ,after the days of   
these two artists1 sculpture began to   
decline2 although it continued to be    
practised with considerable  success1   
for some centuries after this period4   
#bh4 ,the great superiority of the      
,greeks in the art of sculpture1 is     
ascribed to various causes2 among which 
are classed1 their innate love  of      
beauty1 and their own elegance of form1 
combined with the frequent              
opportunities of studying the human     
figure1 in places where youth were  in  
the habit of performing athletic        
exercises in a state of nudity4 ,to     
these may be added1 the practice of     
awarding to citizens a statue of  their 
own persons1 for eminent services to the
 state1 and for  excelling in exercises 

at the public games4    #bi4 ,the fine  
arts were nearly extinguished in        
,greece1 by the conquest  of the        
,romans2 who1 with ruthless rapacity1   
seized upon1 and  transferred to their  
metropolis and villas1 the superb works 
of taste  with which the country        
abounded4 ,by these means1 however1 a   
taste for  the arts was produced among  
the ,romans1 who encouraged with great  
liberality the ,greek artists who       
resorted in great numbers to their      
city4    #cj4 ,the arts at length       
declined at ,rome1 and finally became   
nearly  extinct in that city1 soon after
 ,byzantium was made the capital of the 
,roman empire1 in #cbi of the ,christian
 era4 ,the new capitol was  enriched by 
the most valuable statuary of the old   
metropolis1 and by a  farther pillage of
 ,greece4 ,artists were also encouraged 
with a  munificence similar to that of  
former times2 and many new subjects in  
painting and sculpture1 in illustration 
of the ,christian scriptures1  were     

executed as embellishments for the      
sacred buildings of the city4    #ca4   
,the art of sculpture necessarily       
declined during the time of the         
unsettled state of ,europe1 which       
followed the conquests by the  barbarous
 nations4 ,it1 however1 was not         
altogether lost1 but was  occasionally  
practised1 although in a very rude      
manner1 in several  kingdoms of ,europe4
 ,in the eleventh century1 after the    
terrors of the  northern invasions had  
passed away1 and the governments had    
become  more established1 the arts of   
design began a regular course of        
improvement1 which has been denominated 
their revival4    #cb4 ,this improvement
 was promoted by means of the frequent  
intercourse  which had sprung up between
 the commercial cities of ,italy and the
  ,greek empire4 ,in #ajaf1 the ,pisans 
founded their great church1 called  the 
,dome of ,pisa2 and1 in its             
construction1 they employed many noble  
pillars and other fragments of ,grecian 

edifices4 ,they also engaged  upon the  
work several ,grecian sculptors and     
painters1 who exerted in  their service 
the little skill which had come down    
from antiquity4    #cc4 ,the specimens  
of ancient art thus introduced at ,pisa1
 and the  works of these artists1 at    
length incited several ,italians to     
emulation2 among whom was ,nicolo       
,pisano1 who became the restorer of     
true taste in the arts1 in the          
thirteenth century4 ,at this period1 the
  crusades had diffused such a zeal for 
the ,christian religion1 that           
magnificent churches were built in every
 part of ,italy1 in the  designing of   
which1 and in their decoration with     
sculpture1 ,pisano and  his scholars    
were universally employed4    #cd4 ,john
 ,pisano1 the son of ,nicolo1 was also  
an architect and sculptor  of eminence2 
and by him was built1 for ,king         
,charles1 a castle1 and  several        
churches1 at ,naples4 ,he also executed 
several pieces of  sculpture1 and       

superintended the construction of some  
edifices in  ,tuscany4 ,this sculptor1  
who died in #acbj1 had several pupils1  
of whom  ,agostino and ,agnolo ,sanesi  
were the best sculptors of the time4    
#ce4 ,in #acej1 an academy of design was
 formed at ,florence by the union  of   
several painters1 sculptors1 and        
architects4 ,this institution was       
called after ,st4 ,luke1 whom tradition 
makes a painter by profession4  ,the    
society was afterwards munificently     
patronised by the ,medici1 a  noble and 
wealthy family of that city4    #cf4    
,from this school1 there soon proceeded 
a great number of skilful  artists1     
among whom were the sculptors ,lorenzo  
,ghiberti1 ,donatello1  and             
,brunileschi2 and after these1 others   
perhaps still more  distinguished1 until
 it produced ,michael ,angelo           
,buonarotti1 who1 as a  universal genius
 in the arts of design1 has excelled    
every other  artist1 whether ancient or 
modern4    #cg4 ,this great man was born

 in ,florence1 in #adgd4 ,his father1   
having  discovered his talent for       
designing1 made him a pupil of ,dominic 
,ghirlandaio1 who instructed him in the 
first principles of the art of  drawing4
 ,he studied statuary under ,bartoldo2  
and1 in his sixteenth  year1 copied the 
head of a satyr in marble1 to the       
admiration of all  connoisseurs4 ,on    
account of his great promise1 he was    
liberally  patronised by ,lorenzo de    
,medicis1 who1 besides allowing him a   
pension1  gave him a lodging in the     
palace1 and a place at his table4 ,after
 the  death of this prince1 he enjoyed  
the same favors from his son1 ,pietro   
de ,medicis4    #ch4 ,his reputation as 
an artist having been established at    
,florence1  he was called to ,rome by   
,julius ,,ii4 ,from this time1 he       
remained  chiefly in the service of the 
popes1 for whom he executed many        
inimitable works1 both of sculpture and 
painting4 ,he was also an  architect of 
the first order2 and1 as such1 was      

employed on ,st4  ,peter's ,church1 as  
well as on several other public         
edifices4 ,he died  in #aefd1 at an     
advanced age4    #ci4 ,sculpture1 having
 been brought to as high a state of     
perfection as  it was ever likely to be 
carried1 began to decline in ,italy1 as 
it had  done before1 under similar      
circumstances1 in ancient times2 but as 
barbarism did not again occur to        
overwhelm it1 it did not entirely       
disappear4 ,it continued to be          
practised1 although in a very inferior  
degree1 until it was again revived by   
,antonio ,canoya1 near the close  of the
 eighteenth century4    #dj4 ,the       
,french nation1 from its vicinity and   
intercourse with ,italy1  obtained from 
that country the means of improvement in
 every branch of  the fine arts4        
,accordingly1 native artists of         
considerable merit  occasionally        
appeared4 ,the kings of ,france1 also1  
often employed  ,italian architects and 
sculptors on their great public works4  

,in the  reign of ,francis ,i41         
,leonardo da ,vinci1 and two other      
artists from  ,italy1 established a     
school of fine arts similar to that of  
,st4 ,luke1  at ,florence2 and the      
genius of the people1 added to national 
munificence1 have kept a respectable    
school of sculpture to the  present     
time4    #da4 ,considerable ability in  
sculpture has likewise been exhibited by
  native artists of ,spain1 ,germany1   
,holland1 ,england1 and some other      
countries of ,europe2 but whatever skill
 has been displayed in any of  these    
countries has been derived1 in an       
indirect manner1 at least1  from ,italy4
 ,in the ,united ,states1 the fine arts 
have been cultivated  with considerable 
spirit4 ,an academy for this purpose has
 been  established both in ,new ,york   
and ,philadelphia1 and a picture gallery
  has been connected with the ,athenum  
in ,boston1 in which the annual         
exhibition of paintings is respectable4 
,illustration3 ,the ,,painter4    ,,the 

,,painter4      #a4 ,painting is the art
 of representing visible objects1 by    
means of  lines and colors1 on a plane  
surface1 so as to produce the appearance
  of relief4 ,it is justly ranked among 
the highest of that class of arts       
denominated fine1 or liberal2 and its   
tendencies and powers being  similar to 
those of poetry1 it is considered an    
employment worthy of  men of the most   
exalted rank4    #b4 ,the theory and    
practice of this ingenious and          
delightful art1 are  divided by its     
professors into five distinct           
branches1----invention1  composition1   
design1 chiaro-scuro1 and coloring4     
,invention  relates to the choice of    
subjects to be introduced into a        
picture4 ,it  is this which gives the   
highest character to the artist1 as it  
affords the greatest opportunity to     
display the powers of his mind4    #c4  
,composition regards the general        
distribution and grouping of  figures1  
the choice of attitudes1 the disposal of

 draperies1 the  situation of the scene 
itself1 as well as the arrangement and  
connexion of the various parts of the   
scenery4 ,invention and  composition are
 employed particularly in the first     
rough sketch of a  picture4    #d4      
,design refers to the expression of a   
proposed picture in simple  contour1 or 
outlines4 ,it is applied in making the  
first rough sketch  of the picture1     
whether in miniature or in its full     
size1 as well as  in the more accurate  
expression of the form of the figures1  
in its  final finish4 ,the artist1 in   
making his design1 is guided in drawing 
his lines by the rules of perspective1  
according to which he is able  to       
foreshorten objects1 and thereby        
diminish the space which they  occupy1  
without giving them the appearance of   
diminished magnitude4    #e4            
,perspective has been defined the art of
 delineating the outlines  of objects on
 any given surface1 as they would appear
 to the eye1 if  that surface were      

transparent1 and the objects themselves 
were seen  through it1 from a fixed     
position4 ,for example2 when we look    
through a  window at a mass of          
buildings1 and observe that part of the 
glass to  which each object1 line1 or   
point appears opposite1 we find that    
their  apparent position is very        
different from their real4 ,a           
delineation of  these objects on the    
glass1 as they appear1 would be termed a
  representation in perspective4    #f4 
,correct perspective is the foundation  
of scientific painting2 and1  next in   
importance to this1 is a proper         
distribution of light and  shade4 ,this 
branch of the art is called chiaro      
obscuro1 or1 when  abridged1            
chiaro-scuro4 ,the term is ,italian in  
its origin1 and its  literal meaning is 
clear and obscure4 ,to the skilful      
management of  light and shade1 we are  
indebted for the strength and liveliness
 of  pictures1 and their relief1 or the 
elevation which certain parts  appear to

 assume above the plane upon which the  
objects are  represented4    #g4 ,by the
 aid of perspective and chiaro-scuro1   
very good  representations in one color 
are attained4 ,drawings in ,india-ink   
and  crayons1 as well as pictures taken 
from engraved plates and wood-cuts1  are
 specimens of such productions4 ,but a  
nearer approach to the  appearance of   
nature1 is made by the employment of    
colors analogous to  those which are    
found to exist in the objects to be     
represented4    #h4 ,to produce various 
hues in painting1 the artist employs    
coloring  substances1 which1 either     
alone or by mixture1 are analogous to   
them  all2 and1 in their use1 he is     
careful to apply them in such a manner1 
that the true colors remain distinct    
from the lights and shades  necessary to
 produce the objects in relief4         
,artificial colors are  divided into    
warm and cold4 ,the former are those in 
which red and  yellow predominate2 the  
latter are blue1 gray1 and others allied

 to  them4    #i4 ,before coloring      
substances can be applied in painting1  
they must be  reduced to extreme        
fineness1 and be mixed with some        
tenacious fluid1  to cause them to      
adhere to the surface on which they are 
to be spread4  ,the fluid employed for  
this purpose1 and the mode of applying  
the  colors1 have given rise to the     
different kinds of painting1 of which   
the following are the principal3 crayon1
 water-color1 distemper1  fresco1 and   
oil-painting4    #aj4 ,the most simple  
mode of applying the colors is by means 
of  crayons4 ,they are made of black    
lead1 a species of chalk1 or of a       
mixture of coloring matter with gum1    
size1 or clay4 ,for painting in         
water-colors1 the substances employed in
 communicating the tints  are combined  
with gum1 and formed into cakes or      
lozenges4 ,when about  to be used1 they 
are dissolved in water1 on glass or a   
glazed surface4  ,the application in    
painting1 is made by means of a         

camel's-hair  pencil4    #aa4 ,painting 
in distemper is used for the execution  
of works on a  large scale1 such as     
stage scenery1 and the walls of         
apartments4 ,the  coloring substances   
are mixed with water1 rendered tenacious
 by size  or solutions of glue1 or by   
skimmed milk1 increased in tenacity by a
  small quantity of thyme4 ,linseed or  
poppy oil often serves as a  vehicle for
 the colors1 in this kind of painting4  
#ab4 ,paintings in fresco are executed  
on walls of plaster4 ,the  coloring     
matter mixed with water1 being applied  
to the plaster while  the latter is in a
 fresh state1 sinks in1 and incorporates
 itself with  it1 so as to become very  
durable4 ,during the execution of the   
work1  the plaster is applied to the    
wall in successive portions1 no more    
being added at a time1 than can be      
conveniently painted before it  becomes 
dry4 ,works of this kind must be        
executed with great rapidity2  and1 on  
this account1 patterns1 called cartoons1

 are previously  drawn on large paper1  
to guide the artist in his operations4  
#ac4 ,oil painting derives its name from
 the mixture of the colors in  oil4 ,the
 oils used for this purpose are         
extracted from vegetables2  and1 on     
account of the rapidity with which they 
dry1 are denominated  drying oils4 ,for 
most purposes1 this mode of painting is 
decidedly  superior to all others4 ,it  
admits of a higher finish1 as it allows 
the  artist to retouch his works with   
greater precision4 ,the colors also     
blend together more agreeably1 and      
produce a more delicate effect4 ,oil    
paintings are executed on canvas1 wood1 
or copper4    #ad4 ,paintings are       
imitated with surprising elegance1 by   
cementing  together colored pieces of   
glass and marble1 as well as those of   
wood4  ,representations by these means1 
are called ,mosaics1 or ,mosaic         
paintings4 ,the cause of their having   
received this appellation cannot  be    
ascertained4 ,some1 without much reason1

 attribute the origin and  name of this 
branch of the art to ,moses4 ,others    
suppose that works of  this kind have   
been thus denominated1 because they were
 first employed  in grottoes dedicated  
to the ,muses4    #ae4 ,drawings and    
paintings are divided into classes1     
according to the  nature of the objects 
represented1 the principal of which are 
historical1 architectural1 landscape1   
marine1 portrait1  still life1          
grotesque1 botanical1 and animal4 ,the  
subordinate  divisions of these branches
 are very numerous4    #af4 ,the        
propensity to imitation1 so deeply      
rooted in the human mind1  is the       
foundation of the arts of design2 and   
there can scarcely be  indicated a      
lengthened period in the history of man1
 in which it was  entirely inactive4 ,it
 may have first been accidentally       
exhibited in  tracing the form of some  
object in the sand2 or resemblances in  
sticks  and stones1 may have originally 
suggested the idea of imitations by     

means of lines and colors4    #ag4      
,although painting and sculpture may be 
supposed to have existed1  at least in a
 rude state1 at a very early period1 and
 even before the  deluge1 yet the reign 
of ,semiramis1 queen of ,assyria1 #bjjj 
years  before ,christ1 is the earliest  
to which authentic history extends4     
,diodorus ,siculus relates that the     
queen1 having thrown a bridge across    
the ,euphrates1 at ,babylon1 erected a  
castle at each end of it1 and  inclosed 
them with walls of considerable height1 
with towers upon  them4 ,the bricks of  
which they were constructed1 were       
painted before  they underwent the fire1
 and were so put together1 that single  
figures1 and even groups of them1 were  
represented in colors4    #ah4 ,this    
author supposes also1 that the arts had 
attained nearly an  equal degree of     
cultivation about the same time in      
,egypt1 sculpture1  as best serving     
idolatrous purposes1 being in both      
countries much in  advance of the sister

 art of painting4 ,but1 in neither      
country1 was  painting or sculpture     
brought to a great degree of perfection4
    #ai4 ,in ,egypt1 independent        
selection of objects1 and variety of    
exhibition1 never appear to have been   
much regarded4 ,when a specific  form of
 character had been once adopted1 so it 
remained1 and was  repeated unchanged   
for ages4 ,little action1 and no        
expression1 was  given to figures4 ,the 
chief employment of the ,egyptian       
artists1 seems  to have been the        
painting of the chests of mummies1 and  
the ornaments  on barges and            
earthenware4    #bj4 ,painting1 in the  
early days of its existence1 was        
employed chiefly  in the exhibition and 
preservation of historical facts2 and1  
wherever  it remained faithful to these 
objects1 it was obliged to sacrifice the
  beautiful to the significant4 ,only in
 those countries where  alphabetical    
writing existed1 could painting elevate 
itself to a fine  art4    #ba4 ,the     

,pelasgi1 who expelled or subdued the   
earlier inhabitants of  ,greece1 and    
colonized that country1 probably brought
 with them the  rudiments of this art2  
and it at length grew up with its sister
 arts4  ,in some of the stages of its   
progress1 this intelligent people1 no   
doubt1 received useful hints from other 
countries1 and especially from  ,egypt2 
yet they finally surpassed all the      
nations of antiquity in this  branch of 
art4    #bb4 ,the ,greeks1 with singular
 care1 have preserved the names of their
  artists from the earliest periods of  
their practice4 ,ardens1 of  ,corinth1  
,telephanes and ,crato1 of ,sycion1 and 
some others1 are noticed  as such1 when 
painting had advanced no farther than   
the mere  circumscription of shadows by 
single lines4    #bc4 ,the different    
kinds of painting1 as marked by the     
successive  stages of the art among the 
,greeks1 are as follows2 #a4 ,the       
skiagram1  or drawing in simple         
outlines1 as in the circumscriptions of 

shadows4  #b4 ,the monogram1 including  
both the outlines and others within     
them4  #c4 ,the monochrom1 or picture in
 a single color4 #d4 ,the polychrom1  or
 picture of many colors4    #bd4        
,although the names of the ,grecian     
artists were carefully  preserved1 the  
time in which they lived was not        
distinctly marked  until the #afth      
,olympiad1 or #gai years before the     
commencement of our  era4 ,at this time1
 ,candaules1 king of ,lydia1 purchased a
 picture  called the ,battle of the     
,magnetes1 for which he paid its weight 
in  gold1 although painted on boards4   
,the name of the fortunate artist was   
,bularchus4    #be4 ,notwithstanding the
 fame of this picture1 ,aglaophon and   
,polygnotus1 of ,thasos1 who flourished 
#cjj years after this period1  were the 
first eminent painters4 ,polygnotus is  
said to have been the  first who gave a 
pleasing air to the draperies and       
head-dresses of  females1 and to have   
opened the mouth so far as to exhibit   

the beauty  of the teeth4    #bf4       
,still1 painting is considered to have  
been in an inferior state1  until the   
appearance of ,timanthes1 ,parrhasius1  
and ,zeuxis1 who  flourished about #cge 
years before ,christ4 ,these again were 
surpassed  by their successors1         
,protogenes1 ,pamphilus1 ,melanthius1   
,antiphilus1  ,theon1 ,euphranor1       
,apelles1 and ,aristides1 who carried   
the art to the  greatest perfection to  
which it attained in ancient times4     
#bg4 ,of the preceding list of artists1 
,apelles was the most famous1           
especially as a portrait painter4 ,he   
was the intimate friend of  ,alexander  
the ,great1 who would never permit any  
other person to paint  his likeness4    
,his most celebrated painting1 was this 
prince holding  the lightning with which
 the picture is chiefly illuminated4 ,by
 a  happy application of perspective and
 chiaro-scuro1 the hand with the        
lightning seemed to project from the    
picture4    #bh4 ,from the time of these

 great masters1 painting gradually      
declined1  although the art continued to
 be practised by a succession of eminent
  men1 who contended against the        
blighting influence of the luxury and   
the internal broils of their countrymen4
 ,but soon after ,greece became  subject
 to the ,roman power1 the practice of   
the fine arts nearly  ceased in that    
country4    #bi4 ,before the foundation 
of ,rome1 the arts were cultivated1 to  
some  extent1 in ,etruria and ,calabria2
 but the first ,roman painter mentioned 
in history1 was ,fabius1 a noble        
patrician1 who painted1 in the year of  
the city #dej1 the temple of the goddess
 ,salus1 and thereby obtained  for      
himself and family the surname of       
,pictor4 ,yet the citizens do  not seem 
to have profited by this example2 for no
 other painter  appeared among them     
until #aej years after that period4 ,at 
this time1  ,pacuvius1 the poet1 amused 
himself1 in the decline of life1 with   
painting the temple of ,hercules4       

#cj4 ,they were thus inattentive to the 
cultivation of this1 as well as  of the 
other fine arts1 because they considered
 warfare1 and the arts  which tended    
directly to support this interest1 as   
alone worthy of the  attention of a     
citizen of their republic2 and painting1
 even after the  time of ,pacuvius1 was 
considered effeminate and disgraceful4  
,rome1  therefore1 cannot be said1 at   
any time1 to have produced a single     
artist who could approach the           
excellences of those of its refined     
neighbors1 the ,greeks4    #ca4 ,they1  
however1 having ornamented their        
metropolis and villas with  specimens of
 the arts plundered from the cities of  
,greece and ,sicily1  began1 at length1 
to appreciate their excellences2 and    
finally1 under  the first emperors1 they
 encouraged1 with great munificence1 the
  ,greeks who resorted to their city for
 employment4    #cb4 ,but1 both         
sculpture and painting1 as well as      
architecture1  declined with ,roman     

civilization4 ,still1 they continued to 
exist1  especially in the ,byzantine or 
,eastern empire1 although in a very     
inferior state4 ,the art under          
consideration was preserved chiefly by  
its application to the purposes of      
,christianity4 ,it was revived in       
,italy1 in the beginning of the twelfth 
century1 by means of several  ,grecian  
artists1 who had been employed to       
ornament the churches1 and  other       
edifices at ,pisa1 ,venice1 and         
,florence4    #cc4 ,the works of        
,apollonius1 one of these ,greeks1      
excited in ,giovanni  ,cimabue a spirit 
of emulation2 and1 having been initiated
 into the  practice of the art1 he      
executed a picture of the ,virgin ,mary1
 as  large as life1 for a church        
dedicated to her1 at ,florence4 ,this   
production excited enthusiastic delight 
in his fellow-citizens1 who  carried it 
in procession1 with the sound of        
trumpets1 to its place of  destination1 
and celebrated the day as a public      

feast4    #cd4 ,encouraged by this      
applause1 ,cimabue pursued the art with 
ardor2  and1 although considered a      
prodigy in his time1 his utmost efforts 
failed to produce tolerable specimens of
 the art4 ,he1 however1 far  excelled   
his immediate predecessors2 and1 by     
introducing more correct  proportions1  
by giving more life and expression to   
his figures1 and by  some other         
improvements1 he became the founder of  
the art as it exists  in modern times4  
,he was born at ,florence1 in #abdj1 and
 died at the age  of sixty4    #ce4 ,the
 favorite pupil of ,cimabue1 was        
,giotto1 whom he raised from a  shepherd
 to be a painter2 and by him the art was
 still more relieved  from the ,greek   
imperfections4 ,he abandoned the use of 
labels as means  of distinguishing the  
different figures of a picture1 and     
aimed at1  and attained to1 real        
expression4 ,he marked out to the       
,italians the  course in which the art  
should be pursued1 as ,polygnotus had   

done to  the ,greeks near #ahjj years   
before2 although1 like him1 he failed in
  fully exemplifying his principles4    
#cf4 ,his abilities procured him the    
patronage of ,pope ,boniface ,,viii41   
who employed him at ,rome4 ,from this   
time1 the art of painting became        
attached to the papal dignity1 and few  
succeeding pontiffs have  neglected its 
use4 ,the skill and celebrity of this   
ingenious artist  excited great         
emulation1 and the arts having obtained 
an earnest of  profit and honor1 no     
longer wanted skilful professors or     
illustrious  patrons4    #cg4 ,in #acej1
 fourteen years after the death of      
,giotto1 his disciple1  ,jacopo         
,cassentino1 and nine other artists1    
founded the ,academy of ,st4  ,luke1 at 
,florence4 ,this was a grand epoch of   
the arts2 as from this  institution     
arose a large display of talent1        
increasing in splendor  until1 within   
#aej years1 it gave to the world1       
,masaccio1 ,leonardo da  ,vinci1        

,michael ,angelo ,buonarotti1 and       
,raphael1 besides others of great       
ability4    #ch4 ,the art advanced but  
little after the time of ,giotto1 until 
the  appearance of ,masaccio4 ,under the
 hand of this great master1 painting  is
 said to have been greatly improved2 and
 it was to him1 that the  artists who   
succeeded were indebted for a more sure 
and full direction  of the course in    
which they ought to proceed4 ,he was    
born in #adjb1 and  died in #addc4      
#ci4 ,leonardo da ,vinci1 who was born  
about two years after the death of      
,masaccio1 brought the art to still     
greater perfection2 and being  endowed  
with uncommon genius1 all the arts and  
sciences did not seem  to afford a field
 sufficient for the exertion of his     
talents4 ,he  grasped at all1 and       
succeeded far better than his           
predecessors in  everything he          
undertook2 but he wasted much of his    
time in  experiments4 ,had he confined  
his great powers to the art of painting1

  he would probably have never been     
exceeded4    #dj4 ,about the year #adaj1
 oil came to be used as a vehicle for   
paints4  ,it seems to have been first   
applied to this purpose in ,flanders1 by
  ,john ,van ,eyck1 of ,brussels2 or it 
was1 at least1 first used by him        
successfully4 ,the first hint of its    
utility in this application is  thought1
 with reason1 to have been obtained from
 its use as a varnish  to pictures      
painted in water-colors4    #da4 ,the   
art of painting was introduced into     
,flanders about the time of  ,giotto1 by
 several ,flemings1 who had been to     
,italy for the express  purpose of      
learning it4 ,it was also diffused in   
practice1 about the  same time1 in      
,germany2 and a particular style of the 
art grew up in  each of these countries4
 ,but it was in ,italy alone that the   
art may be  said to have flourished in a
 high state of cultivation2 and even    
there1 the principal productions        
originated from artists of the          

,florentine school4    #db4 ,the art of 
painting was perfected1 perhaps1 as far 
as human  ability can carry it1 in the  
first half of the sixteenth century1 by 
,michael ,angelo ,buonarotti1 ,raphael1 
,titian1 and ,correggio2 although it    
cannot be said that all its excellences 
were united in the productions  of any  
one of these distinguished professors4  
,such a union has never  yet been       
displayed1 nor can it hardly be         
expected4    #dc4 ,the art was          
essentially aided in its progressive    
stages of  advancement by the liberal   
patronage of the family of the ,medici1 
at  ,florence1 and by the pontiffs1 at  
,rome4 ,angelo and ,raphael were both   
employed at ,rome by ,julius ,,ii4 and  
,leo ,x41 as well as by others who      
succeeded them in the papal chair1 in   
ornamenting the palaces and  sacred     
buildings4 ,their productions have never
 been exceeded in any  country1 and they
 still remain the objects of careful    
study by artists  of this profession4   

#dd4 ,titian was also liberally         
patronised at ,rome1 and in other parts 
of ,italy1 as well as in ,spain and     
,germany1 chiefly as a portrait and     
landscape painter4 ,the unrivalled      
productions of these great masters1     
however1 were fatal to the art in       
,italy1 since their superior  excellence
 extinguished emulation1 by destroying  
the prospect of equal  or superior      
success4    #de4 ,the flourishing state 
of the art in ,italy1 for so long a     
period1  might be expected to have      
produced a taste for its cultivation in 
other parts of ,europe2 but this was the
 case only to a limited extent4  ,no    
other countries have yet been           
particularly distinguished for  artists 
in this branch of the fine arts1 except 
,flanders and ,holland2  and these were 
chiefly indebted for the distinction to 
,peter ,paul  ,rubens1 of ,antwerp1 who 
was born at ,cologne1 in #aegg1 and to  
,paul ,van  ,rhyn ,rembrandt1 who was   
born in #afjf1 in his father's mill1    

near  ,leyden4 ,some of the scholars of 
these masters were eminent painters4    
,anthony ,vandyck1 a pupil of the       
former1 in particular1 is said to have  
never yet been equalled as a            
portrait-painter4    #df4 ,very little  
is known of the art in ,spain1 until    
about the year  #aejj1 although it is   
supposed to have been cultivated with   
some  success before that time4 ,the    
examples which were left there by       
,titian  produced a favorable           
impression1 and several native artists  
of  considerable eminence afterwards    
appeared2 but the art became nearly     
extinct in the following age4    #dg4   
,the proximity of ,france to ,italy1 and
 the employment of ,leonardo  da ,vinci 
and other eminent artists of ,italy by  
,francis ,i41 together  with the        
establishment of a school of fine arts1 
as stated in the  preceding article1    
might have been expected to lay the     
foundation of  exalted taste in this    
kingdom4 ,nevertheless1 the only ,french

 painters  whose names have come down to
 us with any pretensions to excellence  
for one hundred and fifty years1 were   
,jean ,cousin1 ,jaques ,blanchard1      
,nicholas ,poussin1 and ,charles ,le    
,brun4 ,the last1 although inferior to  
,poussin1 is at the head of the ,french 
school of painting4    #dh4 ,the        
successors of ,le ,brun were not wanting
 in ability1 yet1 with a  few           
exceptions1 they failed in reaching an  
enviable eminence in the  art1 on       
account of their servile imitation of   
the false taste of their  popular model4
 ,the fantastic style of ,le ,brun      
became unpopular in  ,france some time  
previous to the revolution in that      
country2 and  another1 of an opposite   
character1 and by artists of other      
nations  thought to be equally distant  
from true taste1 has been since adopted4
    #di4 ,very little is known of the   
state of the fine arts in ,england      
until the time of ,henry ,,viii41 who   
encouraged the abilities of ,hans       

,holbein1 an eminent painter from       
,switzerland4 ,but painting and         
sculpture1 and particularly the former1 
having become intimately  interwoven    
with the religion of the ,church of     
,rome1 fell into  disrepute in ,england 
after the change of opinion on this     
subject in  that country4 ,they1        
however1 began to revive in the         
eighteenth  century1 and ,england and   
,english ,america have since produced   
some  eminent painters1 among whom are  
,hogarth1 ,reynolds1 ,opie1 ,west1      
,copley1 ,trumbull1 and ,peale4         
,illustration3 ,the ,,engraver4    ,,the
 ,,engraver4      ,engraving is the art 
of cutting letters or figures in wood1  
metals1 or  stone4 ,it was practised in 
very ancient times1 and in different    
countries1 for the purposes of ornament 
and monumental inscription2  but the    
idea of taking impressions on paper1 or 
on any other  substance1 from engraved  
surfaces1 is comparatively modern4      
,,the ,,wood ,,engraver4    #a4 ,the    

,chinese are said to have been the first
 who engraved figures or  letters on    
wood1 for the purpose of printing4 ,the 
precise time at  which they commenced   
the practice1 is totally unknown2 but a 
book  printed by them in the tenth      
century1 is now extant4 ,it is thought  
by  some antiquarians1 that the         
,europeans derived the art from the     
,chinese1 through the ,venitians1 who   
traded in that part of the world        
earlier than any other ,europeans4      
#b4 ,this opinion is somewhat probable1 
from the circumstance that the  tools   
employed by the early engravers in      
,europe1 are similar to those  used in  
,china2 and also1 like the ,chinese1    
they engraved on the side  of the grain4
 ,however this may be1 it is certain    
that the art was  practised in various  
parts of ,europe in the fourteenth      
century4 ,the  earliest subjects        
executed1 were figures of saints1 rudely
 engraved in  outline4 ,the prints taken
 from them were gaily colored1 and sold 

to  the common people as original       
paintings4 ,the principal persons       
engaged  in this traffic were monks1 to 
whom the art was confined for a         
considerable time4    #c4 ,at length1   
larger subjects1 with inscriptions in   
imitation of  manuscript1 were executed4
 ,the success of these prints gave rise 
to a  more extensive application of the 
art4 ,scriptural subjects1 of many      
figures1 with texts of scripture1 were  
engraved1 and impressions were  taken   
from them on one side of the paper1 two 
sheets being pasted  together to form a 
leaf4 ,entire sets were bound up        
together1 and thus  were formed the     
first printed books1 which1 being       
produced entirely  from wood-cuts1 are  
known by the name of block-books4 ,these
 books  made their appearance about the 
year #adbj4    #d4 ,one of the earliest 
of these productions is denominated ,the
  ,apocalypse of ,st4 ,john2 another1   
,the ,poor ,man's ,bible4 ,but one of   
the latest and most celebrated1 is      

called ,the ,mirror of ,salvation1      
published in #addj4 ,part of the text   
was printed from solid blocks1 and      
part1 from moveable wooden types4 ,from 
this fact1 it is easy to  discover the  
origin of printing4 ,after this1 most1  
if not all1 of the  books1 were printed 
from moveable types2 but1 as they were  
embellished with wood cuts1 the demand  
for such engravings was very  much      
increased1 although they were1 at first1
 by no means elegant4    #e4 ,near the  
close of the fifteenth century1 the art 
began to assume a  higher character1    
principally by the talents of ,michael  
,wolgermuth and  ,william ,pluydenwurf4 
,albert ,durer made still greater       
improvements1  and1 in #adih1 published 
his celebrated ,apocalypse of ,st4      
,john1 printed  from folio blocks4      
,other celebrated engravers succeeded   
him in the  sixteenth century1 which may
 be considered the era when wood        
engraving  was at its highest point of  
elevation4 ,after this1 the art         

declined1  and was considered of little 
importance1 until it was revived in     
#agge1  by the distinguished ,william   
,bewick1 of ,newcastle1 ,england4 ,it is
  still practised1 especially in        
,england and the ,united ,states1 in a  
manner which reflects credit on the     
ingenuity of the age4    #f4 ,the       
earlier artists operated on various     
kinds of wood1 such as the  apple1 pear1
 and beech2 but these1 being too soft1  
are now used only  for calico-printing  
and other common purposes4 ,box-wood1 on
 account of  its superior texture1 is   
used for every subject that can be      
termed a  work of art4 ,that from       
,turkey is the best4    #g4 ,the        
engravers1 in the infancy of the art1   
prepared the wood as the  common        
block-cutters now do4 ,the tree was cut 
the way of the grain1 in  planks1 and of
 course they engraved on the side of the
 grain1 as upon  a board4 ,this mode of 
preparation enabled them to execute     
larger  subjects4 ,the engravers now    

prefer the end of the grain1 and        
therefore  cut the log transversely4    
#h4 ,the end on which the engraver is to
 exert his skill1 is planed and         
scraped1 to render the surface smooth1  
and the block having been cut  to the   
proper size1 the drawing is made upon it
 in ,india ink1 or with  a lead-pencil4 
,the block is now ready for the artist  
who1 in executing  the work1 holds it   
with one hand1 on a cushion made of sand
 and  leather1 while1 with the other1 he
 cuts away the superfluous wood4 ,the   
part intended to make the impression in 
printing1 is left standing4    #i4 ,wood
 engravings1 well executed1 are scarcely
 inferior to those of  copper and steel1
 and1 for many purposes1 they are       
preferred4 ,they are  remarkably        
convenient1 since they can be inserted  
into a page of  types1 where            
illustrations or embellishments may be  
required1 and be  printed without       
separate expense4 ,they will also bear a
 great number  of impressions--generally

 #ajj1jjj4 ,in this respect1 they are   
decidedly  superior to metallic plates4 
,they can likewise be multiplied        
indefinitely by the process of          
stereotyping4      ,,the ,,copperplate  
,,engraver4    #a4 ,the engravers on    
metallic surfaces are termed copperplate
  engravers1 not because copper is the  
only metal on which they exert  their   
skill1 but because it is the one on     
which they usually operate4  ,the plates
 are prepared for the artist by the     
coppersmith1 by rubbing  them with      
brickdust and charcoal1 after having cut
 them of a proper  size from sheets of  
copper4    #b4 ,the instruments employed
 by this artist are few and simple1 the 
principal of which are1 the graver1 the 
dry-point1 the scraper1  and the        
burnisher4 ,the graver is a small bar of
 steel1 of a square  or lozenge form1   
and1 with the short handle into which it
 is inserted1  about five inches in     
length4 ,one of the angles of the bar is
 always on  the under side of the       

instrument1 and the point is formed by  
bevelling  the end from the upper side1 
or angle4 ,the square form is used for  
broad strokes1 and the lozenge for fine 
ones4    #c4 ,the dry-point1 or needle1 
is a steel wire with a long  cylindrical
 handle2 or it is simply a wire of      
sufficient length and  size to be used  
without a handle4 ,the scraper has      
nearly the form of  a triangular        
pyramid2 and the cutting part1 which has
 three edges1 is  two or three inches   
long4 ,the burnisher has a form nearly  
conical1  and1 without the handle1 is   
about three inches long4 ,the last two  
instruments are frequently made of the  
same piece of steel1 properly  forged at
 each end4 ,in such case1 the middle    
part of the steel is the  handle by     
which they are held4    #d4 ,of         
engraving on copper1 the following are  
the principal varieties  or styles3 #a4 
,line engraving2 #b4 ,stippling2 #c4    
,etching2 #d4 ,mezzotinto2  #e4         
,aquatinta4 ,for the purpose of         

conveying some idea of these  different 
branches1 we will describe them under   
distinct heads4    #e4 ,line engraving4 
,the first thing done1 in this species  
of  engraving1 is to transfer to the    
plate an exact copy of the outlines  of 
the design to be executed4 ,in          
accomplishing this1 the plate is        
moderately heated1 and covered with a   
thin coating of white wax4 ,a  piece of 
transparent paper is then laid over the 
design to be copied1  and traced in     
outline with a black-lead pencil4 ,the  
outline thus  sketched is turned down   
upon the coating of white wax1 and the  
whole  is subjected to the action of a  
rolling-press2 or it is kept for a      
while under heavy weights4 ,by the      
application of this pressure1 the  lines
 are transferred from the paper to the  
wax on the plate in a  reversed         
position1 which is necessary to make the
 impression of the  finished plate      
resemble the original4    #f4 ,the      
pencil-marks on the wax having been     

lightly traced on the  copper with the  
dry-point1 and the wax having been      
melted off1 a  perfect outline is found 
on the plate4 ,small subordinate parts  
of the  design are transferred to the   
plate in the same manner1 except that   
the transparent paper is brought in     
forcible contact with the waxed  surface
 by means of the burnisher4    #g4 ,at  
this stage of the process1 the artist   
commences the use of the  graver4 ,while
 operating with this instrument1 he     
holds the handle in  the palm of his    
hand1 and pushes the point forward with 
a firm and  steady motion1 until a line 
is produced by a removal of a portion of
  the metal4 ,by a succession of such   
strokes1 judiciously applied1 the  work 
is completed4 ,the burrs1 or little     
elevations of the copper1  left by the  
graver on each side of the lines1 are   
removed by means of  the scraper and    
burnisher4 ,mistakes or blemishes are   
erased from the  plate1 either with the 
burnisher1 or by friction with charcoal4

    #h4 ,stippling4 ,the second mode of 
engraving is called stippling4 ,this    
resembles the last method in its        
process1 except that the effect is      
produced by means of minute punctures or
 excavations1 instead of  lines4 ,these 
are made either with the dry-point or   
graver4 ,when  produced by the former   
instrument1 they are of a circular form2
 when  by the latter1 they are          
rhomboidal or triangular4 ,this style of
 work  is always more slow1 and         
consequently more expensive1 than       
engraving  in lines4 ,it has1 however1  
some advantages in the softness and     
delicacy of its lights and shades1 and  
the prints struck from it  approach more
 nearly to paintings4    #i4 ,etching4  
,this mode of engraving is far more easy
 than any other1  being performed       
chiefly by chemical corrosion4 ,in fact1
 any person who  can draw1 may etch     
coarse designs tolerably well1 after    
having  learned the theory of the       
operation4 ,to perform it1 the plate is 

first  covered with a thin coating of   
some resinous substance1 upon which the 
acid employed can have no action4 ,the  
design1 and all the lines it  requires1 
are next traced on the plate with steel 
points1 called  etching needles1 which  
are instruments similar to the          
dry-point4    #aj4 ,the second part of  
the process is the corrosion1 or1 as it 
is  technically called1 biting in4 ,this
 is effected by pouring upon the  design
 a quantity of diluted nitric acid1     
after having surrounded the  edges of   
the plate with a wall of soft wax1 to   
prevent the escape of  the fluid4 ,a    
chemical action immediately takes place 
in all the lines  or points where the   
copper has been denuded by the needle4  
,after the  first biting has been       
continued long enough1 in the judgment  
of the  operator1 the acid is poured    
off1 and the plate examined4    #aa4    
,the light shades1 if found sufficiently
 deep1 are then covered  with varnish1  
to protect them from further corrosion4 

,the biting is  then continued for the  
second shades1 in the same manner1 and  
afterwards1 for the third and succeeding
 shades1 until the piece shall  have    
been finished4 ,the plate having been   
cleaned1 and carefully  examined by the 
aid of a proof impression1 the          
deficiencies which may  be discovered   
are supplied with the graver4    #ab4   
,mezzotinto4 ,in the production of this 
kind of engraving1 the  whole surface of
 the plate is first roughened1 or       
covered with minute  prominences and    
excavations too small to be obvious to  
the naked eye2  so that an impression   
taken from it1 in this state1 would     
present a  uniform velvety1 black       
appearance4 ,this roughness is produced 
mechanically by means of a small toothed
 instrument1 called a  cradle4    #ac4  
,when the plate has been thus prepared1 
the rest of the process is              
comparatively easy4 ,it consists in     
pressing down or rubbing out the        
roughness of certain parts of the plate1

 with the burnisher and  scraper4 ,where
 strong lights are required1 the plate  
is restored to a  smooth surface2 for a 
medium light1 it is moderately          
burnished1 or  partially erased2 and1   
for the deepest shades1 the ground is   
left  entire1 and sometimes etched1 and 
corroded with nitric acid4  ,impressions
 from mezzotinto plates approach more   
nearly to oil  paintings than any other 
prints4 ,this kind of engraving was     
invented  by ,prince ,rupert1 in #afdi4 
#ad4 ,aqua-tinta4 ,there are several    
methods by which this kind of  engraving
 can be executed2 we1 however1 will     
describe the one which  seems to be the 
most simple and obvious4 ,the outline of
 the picture  having been etched or     
engraved in the usual manner1 the       
surface of the  copper is sprinkled     
equally with minute particles of rosin4 
,this dust  is fixed to the surface by  
heating the plate until the rosin has   
melted4    #ae4 ,the ground having been 
thus laid1 the parts of the plates not  

intended to be occupied by the design   
are stopped out by means of  thick      
varnish4 ,the plate is now surrounded   
with a wall of wax1 as for  etching1 and
 diluted nitric acid is poured upon it4 
,a chemical action  immediately takes   
place1 by which the surface exposed     
between the  resinous particles is      
minutely excavated4    #af4 ,the lighter
 shades are stopped out at an early     
stage of the  process1 and the biting in
 is continued for the darker ones4      
,after  the plate is judged to be       
sufficiently corroded1 it is cleansed1  
and  an impression is taken on paper4   
,the process is finished by burnishing  
the shades1 to give them greater        
softness1 and by touching up the        
defective parts with the graver4    #ag4
 ,this mode of engraving is well adapted
 to light subjects1  sketches1          
landscapes1 c42 but1 owing to the       
fineness of the ground1  the plates wear
 out rapidly1 and seldom yield1 when of 
ordinary  strength1 more than six       

hundred impressions4 ,the prints taken  
from  such plates bear a strong         
resemblance to paintings in ,indian ink1
 or  to drawings in black-lead pencil4  
,aqua-tinta is the most precarious  kind
 of engraving1 and requires much        
attention on the part of the  artist4   
,it was invented by a ,frenchman1 named 
,leprince1 who1 for a  time1 kept the   
process a secret1 and sold his          
impressions for original  drawings4     
#ah4 ,steel engraving4 ,the process of  
engraving on steel plates  differs but  
little in its details from that on      
copper plates2 and the  chief advantage 
derived from this method1 arises from   
the hardness or  toughness of the       
material1 which renders it capable of   
yielding a  greater number of           
impressions4    #ai4 ,this mode of      
engraving was first practised1 in       
,england1 by the  calico-printers2 but  
steel was first employed for bank-notes1
 and for  common designs1 by ,jacob     
,perkins1 of ,newburyport1              

,massachusetts2 and  by him1 in         
conjunction with ,asa ,spencer1 of      
,new-,london1 and ,gideon  ,fairman1 of 
,philadelphia1 the use of steel in this 
application was  generally introduced1  
not only in the ,united ,states1 but    
also in ,great  ,britain1 some time     
before the year #ahbj4    #bj4 ,the     
plates are prepared for the engraver    
from sheets of steel  about one-sixth of
 an inch in thickness4 ,a plate cut from
 a sheet of  this kind is first softened
 by heating it with charcoal1 and       
suffering  it to cool gradually in the  
atmosphere4 ,it is next planished1 or   
hammered on a peculiar kind of anvil1 to
 make it perfectly level1 and           
afterwards ground on one side upon a    
grindstone4 ,the operation is  completed
 by polishing it with ,scotch stone and 
charcoal4 ,when steel  was first        
substituted for copper1 it was hardened 
before it was used  in printing2 but it 
is now used in its soft state1 as it    
comes from  the hands of the artist4    

,illustration3 ,,copperplate ,,printer4 
,,the ,,copperplate-,,printer4      #a4 
,the copperplate-printer takes          
impressions on paper from engraved      
plates by means of a rolling press4     
,this machine1 together with some  of   
the operations in its application1 are  
well exhibited in the above  picture4   
#b4 ,the period at which the practice of
 printing from engraved plates          
commenced1 cannot be ascertained with   
any degree of certainty4 ,the  ,dutch1  
the ,germans1 and the ,italians1 contend
 for the honor of  introducing it2 but  
the weight of testimony seems to be in  
favor of  the claims of the ,italian    
sculptor and goldsmith1 ,tommaso        
,finiguera1  who flourished at          
,florence1 about the middle of the      
fifteenth century4    #c4 ,it is stated 
that this artist1 accidentally spilling 
some melted  brimstone on an engraved   
plate1 found1 on its removal1 an exact  
impression of the engraving1 marked with
 black1 taken out of the  strokes4 ,this

 suggested to him the idea of taking an 
impression in ink  on paper1 by the aid 
of a roller4 ,it is hardly necessary to 
state1  that the experiment succeeded4  
,copperplate-printing was not used in   
,england until about #aej years after   
its first employment at ,florence1  when
 it was introduced from ,antwerp1 by    
,speed4    #d4 ,the ink used in this    
kind of printing is made of a           
carbonaceous  substance1 called         
,frankfort black1 and linseed or nut    
oil4 ,oil is  used1 instead of water1   
that the ink may not dry during the     
process2  and it is boiled till it has  
become thick and viscid1 that it may not
  spread on the paper4 ,the materials   
are incorporated and prepared with  the 
stone and muller1 as painters prepare   
their colors4    #e4 ,in taking         
impressions from an engraved plate1 it  
is first placed on  an iron frame over a
 heated stove1 or over a charcoal fire  
in a  furnace1 and while in this        
position1 the ink is spread over it with

 a  roller covered with coarse cloth1 or
 with a ball of rubber made of the  same
 material1 and faced with buckskin4 ,the
 heat renders the ink so  thin that it  
can penetrate the minute excavations of 
the engraving4  ,the plate having been  
thus sufficiently charged1 is wiped     
first with a  rag1 then with the hand1  
until the ink has been removed from     
every  portion of it1 except from the   
lines of the engraving4    #f4 ,the     
plate is next placed on the platform of 
the press1 with its  face upwards1 and  
the paper1 which has been previously    
dampened1 is  laid upon it4 ,a turn of  
the cylinders1 by means of the arms of  
the  cross1 carries the plate under a   
strong pressure1 by which portions of   
the paper are forced into all the       
cavities of the engraving4 ,the ink1  or
 part of it1 leaves the plate1 and      
adheres to the paper1 giving an  exact  
representation of the whole work of the 
artist4 ,the roller by  which the       
pressure is applied is covered with     

several thicknesses of  broadcloth4     
#g4 ,the number of good impressions     
yielded by engraved copperplates1       
depends upon various circumstances1 but 
chiefly on the fineness and  depth of   
the work2 and these qualities depend    
mainly upon the style in  which it has  
been executed4 ,line engravings will    
admit of four or five  thousand1 and1   
after having been retouched1 a          
considerable number  more4    #h4       
,plates of steel will yield near ten    
times as many good impressions  as those
 of copper1 and this too without being  
hardened4 ,besides1 an  engraving on    
steel may be transferred to a softened  
steel cylinder1 in  such a manner that  
the lines may stand in relief2 and this 
cylinder1  after having been hardened1  
may be brought in forcible contact with 
another plate1 and thus the design may  
be multiplied at pleasure4    #i4 ,the  
bank-note engravers have now a great    
variety of designs and  figures on steel
 rollers1 which they can easily transfer

 to new  plates4 ,this practice1 as     
applied to plates for bank-notes1       
originated  with ,jacob ,perkins4 ,it is
 supposed that he must have been led to 
it by  an ,english engraver in his      
employ1 who may have explained to him   
the  manner in which the ,british       
calico-printers produced engravings on  
copper cylinders4 ,this is not          
altogether improbable1 since the        
principle in both cases is substantially
 the same4    #aj4 ,in consequence of   
the increased demand for maps and       
pictorial  embellishments in books1 as  
well as for single prints as ornaments  
for  rooms1 engraving and               
copperplate-printing have become        
employments of  considerable importance2
 and these arts must doubtless continue 
to  flourish to an indefinite extent1 in
 a country where the taste for the  fine
 arts is rapidly improving1 and where   
wealth affords the means of  liberal    
patronage4          ,illustration3      
,,lithographer4    ,,the ,,lithographer4

      #a4 ,the word lithography is      
derived from two ,greek words--lithos1 a
  stone1 and grapho1 to write2 and the  
art to which the term is  applied has   
reference to the execution of letters1  
figures1 and  drawings1 on stone1 and   
taking from them fac-simile impressions4
 ,the  art is founded on the property   
which stone possesses1 of imbibing      
fluids by capillary attraction1 and on  
the chemical repulsion which  oil and   
water have for each other4    #b4 ,every
 kind of calcareous stone is capable of 
being used for  lithography4 ,those1    
however1 which are of a compact1 fine1  
and equal  grain1 are best adapted to   
the purpose4 ,the quarries of           
,solenhofen1  near ,pappenheim1 in      
,bavaria1 furnished the first plates1   
and none have  yet been found in any    
other place1 to equal them in quality2  
although  some that answer the purpose  
tolerably well1 have been taken from    
quarries in ,france and ,england4    #c4
 ,in preparing the stones for use1 they 

are first ground to a level  surface1 by
 rubbing two of them face to face1 sand 
and water being  interposed4 ,then1 if  
they are designed for ink drawings1 they
 are  polished with pumice-stone2 but1  
if for chalk drawings1 with fine  sand1 
which produces a grained surface adapted
 to holding the chalk4    #d4 ,when     
stones of proper size and texture cannot
 be conveniently  obtained1 slabs are   
sometimes constructed of lime and sand1 
and united  with the caseous part of    
milk4 ,the first part of the process    
which may  be considered as belonging   
peculiarly to the art1 consists in      
making  the drawing on the stone4 ,this 
is done either in ink1 with steel pens  
and camel's hair pencils1 or with       
crayons made of lithographic chalk4     
,the process of drawing on stone differs
 but little from that on paper1  with   
similar means4    #e4 ,for lithographic 
ink1 a great number of receipts have    
been given2  but the most approved      
composition consists of equal parts of  

wax1  tallow1 shell-lac1 and common     
soap1 with a small proportion of        
lamp-black4 ,lithographic chalk is      
usually composed of the same  materials1
 combined in different proportions4     
#f4 ,when the drawing has been finished1
 the lithographic printer  prepares it  
for giving impressions1 by using upon   
its surface a weak  solution of acid and
 other ingredients1 which corrode the   
surface of  the stone1 except where it  
is defended from its action by the      
grease  of the chalk or ink4 ,as soon as
 the stone has been sufficiently eaten  
away1 the solution is removed by the    
application of spirits of  turpentine   
and water4    #g4 ,the ink employed in  
this kind of printing1 is similar in its
  composition to other kinds of printing
 ink4 ,it is applied to the  drawing by 
means of a small wooden cylinder covered
 with leather4 ,the  paper1 which has   
been suitably dampened1 is laid upon the
 stone1 and  after it has been covered1 
by turning down upon it a thick piece of

  leather stretched upon an iron frame1 
a crank is turned which brings  the     
stone successively under the press4     
#h4 ,an impression of the drawing having
 been thus communicated to the  paper1  
the sheet is removed1 and the process is
 repeated1 until the  proposed number of
 prints have been taken4 ,before each   
application of  the ink1 the whole face 
of the stone is moderately wet with     
water by  means of a sponge2 and        
although the roller passes over the     
whole  surface of the stone1 yet the ink
 adheres to no part of it1 except to    
that which is covered with the drawing4 
#i4 ,the number of impressions which may
 be taken from chalk drawings1  varies  
according to their fineness4 ,a fine    
drawing will give fifteen  hundred2 a   
coarse one1 twice that number4 ,ink     
drawings and writings  give considerably
 more than copperplates1 the finest     
yielding six or  eight thousand1 and    
strong lines and writings many more4    
#aj4 ,impressions from engravings can be

 multiplied indefinitely1 with  very    
little trouble1 in the following manner4
 ,a print is taken in the  usual way    
from the engraved plate1 and immediately
 laid with its face  upon water4 ,when  
sufficiently wet1 it is carefully       
applied to the face  of a stone1 and    
pressed down upon it by the application 
of a roller1  until the ink is          
transferred to the stone4 ,impressions  
are then taken  in the manner before    
described4    #aa4 ,the invention of    
lithography is ascribed to ,aloys       
,senifelder1 the  son of a performer at 
the theatre of ,munich4 ,having become  
an author1  and being too poor to       
publish his works in the usual way1 he  
tried  many plans1 with copperplates and
 compositions1 in order to be his  own  
printer4 ,a trial on stone1 which had   
been accidentally suggested1  succeeded4
 ,his first essays to print for         
publication1 were some pieces  of music1
 executed in #agif4    #ab4 ,the first  
productions of the art were rude1 and of

 little promise2  but1 since #ahjf1 its 
progress has been so rapid1 that it now 
gives  employment to a great number of  
artists2 and works are produced1 which  
rival the finest engravings1 and even   
surpass them in the expression  of      
certain subjects4 ,the earliest date of 
the art in the ,united  ,states1 is     
#ahbf1 when a press was established at  
,boston1 by ,william  ,pendleton4       
,illustration3 ,the ,,author4    ,,the  
,,author4      #a4 ,the word author1 in 
a general sense1 is used to express the 
originator or efficient cause of a      
thing2 but1 in the restricted sense  in 
which it is applied in this article1 it 
signifies the first writer  of a book1  
or a writer in general4 ,the            
indispensable qualifications to  make a 
writer are--a talent for literary       
composition1 an accurate  knowledge of  
language1 and an acquaintance with the  
subject to be  treated4    #b4 ,very few
 persons are educated with the view to  
their becoming  authors4 ,they generally

 write on subjects pertaining to the    
profession  or business in which they   
have been practically engaged3 a        
clergyman  writes on divinity2 a        
physician1 on medicine2 a lawyer1 on    
jurisprudence2 a teacher1 on education2 
and a mechanic1 on his  particular      
trade4 ,there are subjects1 however1    
which occupy common  ground1 on which   
individuals of various professions often
 write4    #c4 ,authorship is founded   
upon the invention of letters1 and the  
art of  combining them into words4 ,in  
the earliest ages of the world1 the     
increase of knowledge was opposed by    
many formidable obstacles4  ,tradition  
was the first means of transmitting     
information to  posterity2 and this1    
depending upon the memory and will of   
individuals1 was exceedingly precarious4
    #d4 ,the chief adventitious aids in 
the perpetuation of the memory of  facts
 by tradition1 were the erection of     
monuments1 the periodical  celebration  
of days or years1 the use of poetry1    

and1 finally1  symbolical drawings and  
hieroglyphical sketches4 ,nevertheless1 
history  must have remained uncertain   
and fabulous1 and science in a state of 
perpetual infancy1 had it not been for  
the invention of written  characters4   
#e4 ,the credit of the invention of     
letters was claimed by the  ,egyptians1 
,phoenicians1 and ,jews1 as well as by  
some other nations2  but as their origin
 preceded all authentic history not     
inspired1 and  as the book of           
inspiration is silent in regard to it1  
no satisfactory  conclusion can be      
formed on this point4 ,some antiquarians
 are of  opinion1 that the strongest    
claims are presented by the             
,phoenicians4    #f4 ,the ,pentateuch   
embraces the earliest specimen of       
phonetic or  alphabetic writing now     
extant1 and this was written about #aejj
 years  before ,christ4 ,many persons   
suppose that1 as the ,deity himself     
inscribed the ten commandments on the   
two tables of stone1 he taught  ,moses  

the use of letters2 and1 on this        
supposition1 is founded the  claim of   
the ,jewish nation to the honor of the  
first human application  of them4    #g4
 ,if we may believe ,pliny1 sixteen     
characters of the alphabet were         
introduced into ,greece by ,cadmus1 the 
,phoenician1 in the days of  ,moses2    
four more were added by ,palamedes      
during the ,trojan war1 and  four       
afterwards1 by ,simonides4 ,alphabetical
 writing evidently sprung  from         
successive improvements in the          
hieroglyphical system1 since a  great   
part of the latter has been lately      
discovered to be syllabic or            
alphabetic4    #h4 ,a considerable      
number of very ancient alphabets still  
exist on the  monumental remains of some
 of the first post-diluvian cities1 and 
several of later date1 in manuscripts   
which have descended to our  times4 ,the
 letters employed in different languages
 have ever been  subject to great       
changes in their conformation4 ,this was

 especially  the case before the        
introduction of the art of printing1    
which has  contributed greatly towards  
permanency in this respect4    #i4 ,the 
mode of arranging the letters in writing
 has1 also1 varied  considerably4 ,some 
nations have written in perpendicular   
lines1 as the  ,chinese and ancient     
,egyptians2 others from right to left1  
as the ,jews2  and others1 again1       
alternately from left to right1 as was  
the method  at one period among the     
,greeks4 ,the mode of writing from left 
to right  now generally practised1 is   
preferable to any other1 since it leaves
  uncovered that portion of the page    
upon which writing has been made4       
#aj4 ,in ancient times1 literary        
productions were considered public      
property2 and1 consequently1 as soon as 
a work was published1  transcribers     
assumed the right to multiply copies at 
pleasure1 without  making the authors   
the least remuneration4 ,they1 however1 
were  sometimes rewarded with great     

liberality1 by princes or wealthy       
patrons4 ,this literary piracy          
continued1 until a long time after the  
introduction of the art of printing4    
#aa4 ,in almost every kingdom of        
,europe1 and in the ,united ,states1 the
  exclusive right of authors to publish 
their own productions1 is now  secured  
to them by law1 at least for a specified
 number of years4 ,the  first           
legislative proceeding on this subject  
in ,england1 took place in  #affb1 when 
the publication of any book was         
prohibited1 except through  the         
permission of the lord-chamberlain4 ,the
 title of the book1 and the  name of the
 proprietor1 were1 also1 required to be 
entered in the  record of the           
,stationers' ,company4    #ab4 ,this and
 some subsequent acts having been       
repealed in #afia1  literary property   
was left to the protection of the common
 law1 by  which the amount of damages   
which could be proved to have actually  
occurred in case of infringement1 could 

be recovered1 and no more4 ,new         
applications were1 therefore1 made to   
parliament2 and1 in #agji1 a  statute   
was passed1 by which the property of    
copyright was guarded for  fourteen     
years1 with severe penalties4 ,this     
privilege was connected  with the       
condition1 that a copy of the work be   
deposited in nine  public libraries     
specified in the act4    #ac4 ,in #aggd1
 the ,parliament decided that1 at the   
end of fourteen  years1 the copyright   
might be renewed1 in case the author    
were still  living4 ,the law continued  
on this footing until #ahad1 when the   
contingency with regard to the last     
fourteen years was removed2 and1  if the
 author still survived1 the privilege of
 publication was  extended to the close 
of his life4    #ad4 ,in the ,united    
,states1 the jurisdiction of this       
subject is vested  by the ,constitution 
in the ,federal ,government2 and1 in    
#agij1 a law was  passed by ,congress1  
securing to the authors of books1       

charts1 maps1  engravings1 c41 being    
citizens of the ,united ,states or      
resident  therein1 privileges like those
 granted in ,england1 in #aggd4 ,in     
#ahca1  the law was altered1 and again  
made to conform to that of ,england in  
regard to the period of the privileges4 
,the ,english and ,american laws  differ
 in no essential provision4 ,until the  
year #ahci1 foreigners were  permitted  
to hold copyrights in ,england4    #ae4 
,in ,france1 the first statute regarding
 literary property was  passed in #agic1
 when the right of authors to their     
works was secured  to them during their 
lives1 and to their heirs for ten years 
after  their decease4 ,the decree of    
#ahaj extended the right of the heirs to
  twenty years4 ,in ,russia1 the period 
of copyright is the same as in  ,france1
 and the property is not liable for the 
payment of the author's  debts4    #af4 
,in some of the ,german states1 the     
right is given for the lifetime  of the 
author2 in others1 it is made perpetual1

 like any other  property2 but then the 
work may be printed with impunity in any
 of the  other states in which a right  
has not been secured4 ,in ,germany and  
,italy1 especially1 authors are very    
poorly remunerated2 and in ,spain1  the 
book trade has been so much oppressed by
 a merciless censorship1  that authors  
are compelled to publish their works on 
their own  account4    #ag4 ,from the   
preceding statement it appears1 that few
 legislators have  been willing to place
 the productions of intellectual labor  
on the  same honorable footing with     
other kinds of property4 ,no reason1    
however1 can be assigned for the        
distinction1 except the unjust and      
piratical usage of two or three thousand
 years4    #ah4 ,authors seldom publish 
their own works4 ,they generally find it
  expedient1 and1 in fact1 necessary1 to
 intrust this part of the  business to  
booksellers and publishers1 from whom   
they usually receive  a specified amount
 for the entire copyright1 or a certain 

sum for each  and every copy which may  
be sold during the term of years which  
may be  agreed upon4 ,the compensation  
is commonly insufficient to pay them for
  preparing the works for the press2 but
 they are as well paid in this  country 
as in any other4 ,in this particular1   
however1 there has been a  manifest     
improvement within the last ten years4  
,illustration    ,,the ,,printer4       
#a4 ,from what has been said in a       
preceding article1 it is manifest that  
the art of printing arose from the      
practice of engraving on wood4  ,letters
 were cut on wood as inscriptions to    
pictures1 and were printed  at the same 
time with them1 by means of a           
hand-roller4 ,the impressions  were     
taken on one side of the paper2 and1 in 
order to hide the  nakedness of the     
blank side1 two leaves were pasted      
together4 ,these  leaves were put up in 
pamphlet form1 and are now known under  
the  denomination of block-books1       
because they were printed from wooden   

blocks4    #b4 ,although the art of     
typographical printing can be clearly   
traced to  wood engraving1 yet so much  
uncertainty rests upon its history1 that
  the honor of its invention is claimed 
by three cities--,harlem1 in  ,holland1 
and ,strasburg and ,mentz1 in ,germany2 
and1 at the present  time1 it is        
difficult to determine satisfactorily   
the merits of their  respective claims4 
,the obscurity on this point has arisen 
from the  desire of the first printers  
to conceal the process of the art1 that 
their productions might pass for        
manuscripts1 and that they might  enjoy 
the full benefit of their invention4    
#c4 ,the advocates of the claims of     
,harlem state1 that ,laurentius ,coster 
applied wooden types1 and some say1 even
 metal types1 as early as  #adbh1 and   
that several persons were employed by   
him in the business up  to the year     
#addj1 when his materials were stolen   
from him by one of  his workmen or      
servants1 named ,john1 while the family 

were engaged in  celebrating the        
festival of ,christmas eve4 ,the thief  
is said to have  fled first to          
,amsterdam1 then to ,cologne1 and1      
finally1 to have  settled in ,mentz1    
where1 within a twelvemonth1 he         
published two small  works1 by means of 
the types which ,laurentius ,coster had 
used4    #d4 ,these claims in favor of  
,harlem1 however1 were not set forth    
until  #abj years after the death of    
,coster2 and the whole story1 as then   
stated by ,hadriamus ,junius1 was       
founded altogether upon traditionary    
testimony4 ,perhaps wood engravings1    
with inscriptions1 may have been        
executed there2 if so1 the account may  
have originated from that  circumstance4
    #e4 ,the statements which seem to be
 the most worthy of credit1 bestow  the 
honor of this invention on a citizen of 
,mentz4 ,here1 it appears1  that ,john  
,geinsfleisch1 or ,guttemburg senior1   
published two small  works for schools1 
in #addb1 on wooden types2 but1 not     

having the funds  necessary to carry on 
the business1 he applied to ,john       
,faust1 a rich  goldsmith1 who became a 
partner1 in #addc1 and advanced the     
requisite  means4 ,soon afterwards1 ,j4 
,meidenbachius and some others were     
admitted  as partners4    #f4 ,in the   
following year1 ,john ,guttemburg1 the  
brother of  ,geinsfleisch1 made an      
addition to the firm4 ,for several years
 before  this union1 or from #adcf1     
,guttemburg had been attempting to      
complete  the invention at ,strasburg2  
but it is said that he had never been   
able  to produce a clean printed sheet4 
,the brothers may1 or may not1 have     
pursued their experiments without       
receiving any hints from each other1    
before their union at ,mentz4    #g4    
,soon after the formation of this       
partnership1 the two brothers  commenced
 cutting metal types1 for the purpose of
 printing an  edition of the ,bible1    
which was published in ,latin1 about the
 year  #adej4 ,before this great        

achievement of the art had been         
effected1  ,geinsfleisch appears to have
 retired from the concern1 some say1 on 
account of blindness4    #h4 ,the       
partnership before mentioned1 was       
dissolved1 in #adej1 and ,faust  and    
,guttemburg entered into a new          
arrangement1 the former supplying       
money1 the latter1 personal services1   
for their mutual benefit2 but  various  
difficulties having arisen1 this        
partnership was also  dissolved1 in     
#adee1 after a lawsuit between them1    
which was decided  against ,guttemburg4 
#i4 ,faust1 having obtained possession  
of the printing materials1  entered into
 partnership with ,peter ,shoeffer1 who 
had been for a long  time a servant1 or 
workman1 in the printing establishment4 
,in #adeg1  they published an edition of
 the ,psalter1 which was then considered
  uncommonly elegant4 ,this book was1 in
 a great measure1 the work of           
,guttemburg1 since1 during the four     
years in which it was in the press1  he 

was1 for two years and a half1 the chief
 operator in the  printing-office4      
#aj4 ,guttemburg1 by the pecuniary aid  
of ,conrad ,humery and others1          
established another press in ,mentz1    
and1 in #adfj1 published the            
,catholicon ,joannis ,januensis4 ,it was
 a very handsome work1 but not  equal in
 beauty to the ,psalter of ,faust and   
,shoeffer4 ,the latter was  the first   
printed book known to have a genuine    
date4 ,from this time1  it has been the 
practice for printers to claim their own
 productions1  by prefixing to them     
their names4    #aa4 ,notwithstanding   
the great advancement which had been    
made in the  art of printing1 the       
invention cannot1 by any means1 be      
considered  complete1 until about the   
year #adeh1 when ,peter ,shoeffer       
contrived a  method of casting types in 
a matrix1 or mould4 ,the first book     
executed  with cast metal types was     
called ,durandi ,ralionale ,divinorum   
,officiorum1 published in #adei4 ,only  

the smaller letters1 however1  were of  
this description1 all the larger        
characters which occur1 being  cut      
types4 ,these continued to be used1 more
 or less1 as late as the  year #adij4   
#ab4 ,in #adfb1 ,faust carried to ,paris
 a number of ,latin ,bibles1 which he   
and ,shoeffer had printed1 and disposed 
of many of them as manuscripts4  ,at    
first1 he sold them at five or six      
hundred crowns1 the sums usually        
obtained by the scribes4 ,he afterwards 
lowered the price to sixty4  ,this      
created universal astonishment2 but1    
when he produced them  according to the 
demand1 and when he had reduced the     
price to thirty1  all ,paris became     
agitated4    #ac4 ,the uniformity of the
 copies increased the wonder of the     
,parisians1 and information was finally 
given against him to the police  as a   
magician4 ,he was accordingly arrested1 
and a great number of his  ,bibles were 
seized4 ,the red ink with which they    
were embellished1 was  supposed to be   

his blood4 ,it was seriously adjudged1  
that the prisoner  was joined in league 
with the devil2 and had he not disclosed
 the  secret of his art1 he would       
probably have shared the fate of those  
whom the magistrates of those           
superstitious times condemned for       
witchcraft4    #ad4 ,it may be well to  
inform the reader1 that1 although the   
story of  ,faust's arrest1 as above     
detailed1 is related as a fact by       
several  authors1 yet by others it is   
thought to be unworthy of credit4 ,it is
  also generally supposed1 that the     
celebrated romance of ,doctor  ,faustus 
and the devil originated in the malice  
of the monks towards  ,faust1 whose     
employment of printing deprived them of 
their gain as  copiers4 ,it seems more  
probable1 however1 that it arose from   
the  astonishing performances of ,doctor
 ,john ,faust1 a dealer in the black    
art1 who lived in ,germany in the       
beginning of the sixteenth century4     
#ae4 ,faust and ,shoeffer continued     

their printing operations together1  at 
least1 until #adhf1 about which time it 
is conjectured1 that the  former died of
 the plague1 at ,paris4 ,geinsfleisch1  
or1 as he is  sometimes called1         
,guttemburg senior1 died in #adfb2 and  
his brother  ,guttemburg junior1 in     
#adfh1 after having enjoyed1 for three  
years1 the  privileges of nobility1     
which1 together with a pension1 had been
  conferred upon him by ,archbishop     
,adolphus1 in consideration of his      
great services to mankind4    #af4 ,more
 copies of the earliest printed books   
were impressed on vellum  than on paper2
 but very soon paper was used for a     
principal part of  the edition1 while a 
few only were printed on vellum1 as     
curiosities1  to be ornamented by the   
illuminators1 whose ingenious art1      
though in  vogue before and at that     
time1 did not long survive the rapid    
improvements in printing4    #ag4 ,we   
are informed1 that the ,mentz printers  
observed the utmost  secrecy in their   

operations2 and1 that the art might not 
be divulged  by the persons whom they   
employed1 they administered to them an  
oath  of fidelity4 ,this appears to have
 been strictly adhered to1 until the    
year #adfb1 when the city was taken and 
plundered by ,archbishop  ,adolphus4    
,amid the consternation which had arisen
 from this event1 the  workmen spread   
themselves in different directions2 and1
 considering  their oath no longer      
obligatory1 they soon divulged the      
secret1 which  was rapidly diffused     
throughout ,europe4    #ah4 ,some idea  
may be formed of the celerity with which
 a knowledge of  printing was extended1 
from the fact that the art was received 
in two  hundred and three places1 prior 
to the year #aejj4 ,it was brought to   
,england1 in #adga1 by ,william ,caxton1
 a mercer of the city of ,london1  who  
had spent many years in ,germany and    
,holland4 ,the place of the  first      
location of his press was ,westminster  
,abbey4 ,the first press in  ,north     

,america was established at ,cambridge1 
,massachusetts1 in #afci4    #ai4       
,printed newspapers had their origin in 
,germany4 ,they first  appeared in      
,augsburg and ,vienna1 in #aebd4 ,they  
were originally without  date or place  
of impression2 nor were they published  
at regular  periods4 ,the first ,german 
paper with numbered sheets was printed1 
in  #afab2 and1 from this time1 must be 
dated periodical publications in  that  
part of ,europe4    #bj4 ,in ,england1  
the first newspaper appeared during the 
reign of  ,elizabeth4 ,it originated in 
a desire to communicate information in  
regard to the expected invasion by the  
,spanish armada1 and was  entitled the  
,english ,mercury1 which1 by authority1 
was printed at  ,london by ,christopher 
,barker1 her highness's printer1 in     
#aehh4    #ba4 ,these1 however1 were    
extraordinary gazettes1 not regularly   
published4 ,periodicals seem to have    
been first extensively used by the      
,english1 during the civil wars in the  

time of the ,commonwealth4 ,the  number 
of newspapers in ,great ,britain and    
,ireland amounted1 in #ahbi1  to #cbe1  
and the sums paid to the government for 
stamps and duties on  advertisements1   
amounted to about #fgh1jjj sterling4    
#bb4 ,no newspaper appeared in the      
,british colonies of ,america until     
#agjd1 when the ,news ,letter was issued
 at ,boston4 ,the first paper  published
 in ,philadelphia1 was issued in #agai2 
the first in ,new-,york1  in #agcc4 ,in 
#agge1 there were #cg2 and in #ahja1    
there were1 in the whole  ,united       
,states1 #bjc2 in #ahaj1 #ceh2 at the   
present time1 there are about  #aejj1   
and the number is annually increasing4  
#bc4 ,the first periodical paper of     
,france originated with ,renaudot1 a    
physician in ,paris1 who1 for a long    
time1 had been in the habit of          
collecting news1 which he communicated  
verbally to his patients1 with  the view
 to their amusement4 ,but1 in #afca1 he 
commenced the  publication of a weekly  

sheet1 called the ,gazette de ,france1  
which  was continued with very little   
interruption1 until #ahbg4 ,there are   
now1 probably1 in ,france1 about #djj   
periodical publications most of  which  
have been established since the         
commencement of the revolution  of      
#agib4    #bd4 ,periodicals devoted to  
different objects have been established 
in  every other kingdom of ,europe2 but1
 in many cases1 they are trammelled  by 
a strict censorship of the respective   
governments4 ,this is  especially the   
case with those devoted to politics or  
religion4 ,but  all ,europe1 with its   
#bjj1jjj1jjj of inhabitants1 does not   
support as  many regular publications as
 the ,united ,states1 with its          
#ag1jjj1jjj4    #be4 ,the workmen       
employed in a printing-office are of two
 kinds3  compositors1 who arrange the   
types according to the copy delivered   
to them2 and pressmen1 who apply ink on 
the types1 and take off  impressions4   
,in many cases1 and especially where the

 business is  carried on upon a small   
scale1 the workmen often practise both  
branches4    #bf4 ,before the types are 
applied to use1 they are placed in the  
cells  or compartments of a wooden      
receptacle called a case1 each species  
of letter1 character and space1 by      
itself4 ,the letters which are  required
 most frequently1 are lodged in the     
largest compartments1  which are located
 nearest to the place where the         
compositor stands1  while arranging the 
types4    #bg4 ,the compositor is       
furnished with a composing-stick1 which 
is  commonly an iron instrument1        
surrounded on three sides with ledges   
about half an inch in height1 one of    
which is moveable1 so that it may  be   
adjusted to any length of line4 ,the    
compositor1 in the performance  of his  
work1 selects the letters from their    
several compartments1 and  arranges them
 in an inverted order from that in which
 they are to  appear in the printed     
page4    #bh4 ,at the end of each word  

is placed a quadrat1 to produce a space 
between that and the one which follows4 
,the quadrats are of various  widths1   
and being considerably shorter than     
types1 they yield no  impression in     
printing4 ,a thin brass rule is placed  
in the stick1 on  which each successive 
line of types is arranged4 ,when the    
composing-stick has been filled1 it is  
emptied into the galley1  which is a    
flat board1 partly surrounded with a    
rim4    #bi4 ,on this galley1 the lines 
are accumulated in long columns1 which  
are afterwards divided into pages1 and  
tied together with a string1 to  prevent
 the types from falling asunder1 or into
 pi1 as the printers  term it4 ,a       
sufficient number of pages having been  
completed to  constitute a form1 or1 in 
other words1 to fill one side of a sheet
  of printing-paper1 they are arranged  
on an imposing-stone1 and  strongly     
locked up1 or wedged together1 in an    
iron chase4    #cj4 ,the first          
impression taken from the types is      

called the proof4  ,this is carefully   
read over by the author or proof-reader1
 or both1  and the errors and           
corrections plainly marked in the       
margin4 ,these  corrections having been 
made by the compositor1 the form is     
again  locked up1 and delivered to the  
pressman4    #ca4 ,the pressman having  
dampened his paper with water1 and put  
every  part of his press in order1 takes
 impressions in the following manner3   
he places the sheet upon the tympan1 and
 confines it there by  turning down upon
 it the frisket2 he then brings them    
both1 together  with the paper1 upon the
 form1 which has been previously inked4 
,he  next turns a crank with his left   
hand1 and thereby places the form       
directly under the platen1 which is     
immediately brought1 in a  perpendicular
 direction1 upon the types1 by means of 
a lever pulled  with his right hand4    
#cb4 ,after the impression has been thus
 communicated1 the form is  returned to 
its former position1 and the printed    

sheet is removed4 ,the  operation just  
described1 is repeated for each side of 
every sheet of  the edition4 ,in the cut
 at the head of this article1 the       
pressman is  represented as in the act  
of turning down the frisket upon the    
tympan4  ,the business of the boy behind
 the press is to apply the ink to the   
types by means of the rollers before    
him4 ,in offices where much  printing is
 executed1 the roller-boy is now        
dispensed with1 simple  machinery1      
attached to the crank of the press1     
called a patent  roller-boy1 being      
substituted in his place4    #cc4       
,within the present century1 great      
improvements have been made in  the     
printing business generally1 especially 
in the presses1 and in the  means of    
applying the ink4 ,in the old ,ramage   
press1 the power was  derived from a    
screw which was moved by a lever2 but1  
in those by  several late inventors1    
from an accumulation of levers4    #cd4 
,in #ahad1 printing by machinery was    

commenced in ,london1 and  rollers      
became necessary for inking the forms4  
,these were made of  molasses1 glue1 and
 tar1 in proportions to suit the        
temperature of the  weather4 ,from these
 originated composition balls in the    
following  year1 and in #ahai1 hand     
rollers4 ,formerly the ink was applied  
by  means of pelt balls stuffed with    
wool4    #ce4 ,the power-press first    
used in this country1 was invented1 in  
#ahbc1  by ,mr4 ,treadwell1 a scientific
 mechanic1 of ,boston1 who was          
originally  a watch-maker by trade4 ,it 
acts on the same principle with the hand
  press1 and is equal to three of these 
of the best construction4 ,daniel       
,fanshaw1 who first applied steam to    
printing in the ,united ,states1        
introduced several of these presses into
 ,new-,york1 in #ahbf4 ,messrs4  ,adams 
and ,tufts1 of ,boston1 have each       
invented a power-press which act  on the
 same principle with ,mr4 ,treadwell's4 
#cf4 ,the presses noticed in the        

preceding paragraph1 are used chiefly   
in printing books and periodicals       
requiring moderate speed in their       
production4 ,but they do not answer the 
purposes of the daily press in  large   
cities1 where from twenty thousand to   
sixty thousand impressions  of a single 
paper are required every day4 ,to supply
 this immense  demand of the public was 
the original aim of the inventors of    
power-presses in ,england4 ,the first   
attempt to construct a printing  machine
 was made1 in #agij1 by ,william        
,nicholson1 of ,london2 but his  machine
 was never brought into use4 ,the next  
attempt was made by ,mr4  ,konig1 an    
ingenious ,german1 who but partially    
succeeded4 ,the first  really useful    
machine was constructed by ,messrs4     
,applegate and ,cowper4    #cg4 ,the    
machines used in this country are       
modifications of that  originally       
invented by ,mr4 ,napier1 of ,england4  
,the paper is brought in  contact with  
the form of types by means of a         

cylinder1 while the form  is passing    
underneath it4 ,the press is constructed
 with one or two  cylinders4 ,a double  
cylinder press will give from #djjj to  
#fjjj  impressions an hour4 ,the        
improvements on this press were made by 
,robert ,hoe  ,co41 who have permitted  
,mr4 ,napier to introduce them into  his
 press in ,england4                     
,illustration    ,,the ,,type-,,founder4
      #a4 ,the types cast by the        
type-founder are oblong square pieces of
  metal1 each having1 on one end of it1 
a letter or character1 in  relief4 ,the 
metal of which these important          
instruments are composed1  is commonly  
an alloy consisting principally of lead 
and antimony1 in  the proportion of     
about five parts of the former to one of
 the latter4  ,this alloy melts at a low
 temperature1 and receives and retains  
with  accuracy the shape of the mould4  
,several hundred pounds of type-metal   
are prepared at a time1 and cast into   
bars filled with notches1 that  they may

 be easily broken into pieces1 when     
about to be applied to  use4    #b4 ,in 
making types1 the letter or character is
 first formed1 by means  of gravers and 
other tools1 on the end of a steel      
punch4 ,with this  instrument1 a matrix 
is formed1 by driving it into a piece of
  copper of suitable size4 ,a punch and 
matrix are required for every  character
 used in printing4 ,a metallic mould for
 the body of the type  is also made2    
and1 that the workman may handle it     
without burning his  hands1 it is       
surrounded with a portion of wood4 ,the 
mould is composed  of two parts1 which  
can be closed and separated with the    
greatest  facility4    #c4 ,the         
type-metal is prepared for immediate use
 by melting it1 as fast  as it may be   
needed1 in a small crucible1 over a coal
 fire4 ,the caster  having placed the   
matrix in the bottom of the mould1      
commences the  operation of casting by  
pouring the metal into the mould with a 
small  ladle4 ,this he performs with his

 right hand1 while with the other he    
throws up the mould with a sudden jerk2 
then1 with both hands he opens  it1 and 
throws out the type4 ,all these         
movements are performed with  such      
rapidity1 that an expert hand can cast  
about fifty types of a  common size in a
 minute4 ,some machines have been lately
 introduced1  which operate with still  
greater rapidity4    #d4 ,each type1    
when thrown from the mould1 has attached
 to it a  superfluous portion of metal1 
called a jet1 which is afterwards       
broken off by hand4 ,the jets are again 
cast into the pot1 or crucible1  and the
 types are carried to another room1     
where the two broad sides  are rubbed on
 a grindstone4 ,they are next arranged  
on flat sticks  about three feet long1  
and delivered to the dresser1 who       
scrapes the  two sides not before made  
smooth on the grindstone1 cuts a groove 
on  the end opposite the letter1 and    
rejects from the row the types which    
may be defective4    #e4 ,the whole     

process is completed by setting up the  
types in a  printer's composing-stick1  
and tying them up with packthread4 ,much
 of  the work in the type-foundry is    
performed by boys and females4 ,in the  
preceding cut are represented a man     
casting types at a furnace1 and a  boy  
breaking off the jets2 also two females 
rubbing types on a large  grindstone4   
,the fumes arising from melted lead in  
the casting-room are  considered        
deleterious to health4    #f4 ,various  
sizes of the same kind of letter are    
extensively used1 of  which the         
following are most employed in printing 
books--,pica1 ,small  ,pica1 ,long      
,primer1 ,bourgeois1 ,brevier1 ,minion1 
,nonpareil1 ,pearl1 and  ,diamond4 ,a   
full assortment of any particular size  
is called a fount1  which may consist of
 any amount1 from five pounds to five   
hundred1 or  more4 ,the master          
type-founder usually supplies the       
printer with all  the materials of his  
art1 embracing not only types1 leads1   

brass  rules1 and ordinary ornaments1   
but also cases1 composing-sticks1       
galleys1 printing-presses1 and other    
articles too numerous to be  mentioned4 
#g4 ,the inventor of the art of casting 
types was ,peter ,shoeffer1 first       
servant or workman employed by          
,guttemburg and ,faust4 ,he privately   
cut  a matrix for each letter of the    
alphabet1 and cast a quantity of the    
types4 ,having shown the products of his
 ingenuity to ,faust1 the latter  was so
 much delighted with the contrivance1   
that he made him a partner  in the      
printing business1 and gave him his only
 daughter1 ,christina1  in marriage4    
#h4 ,the character first employed was a 
rude old ,gothic1 mixed with  secretary1
 designed on purpose to imitate the     
hand-writing of those  times1 and the   
first used in ,england were of this     
kind4 ,to these  succeeded what is      
termed old ,english1 or black letter1   
which is  still occasionally applied to 
some purposes2 but ,roman letter is now 

the national character not only of      
,england1 but of ,france1 ,spain1       
,portugal1 and ,italy4 ,in ,germany1 and
 in the states surrounding the  ,baltic1
 letters are used which owe their       
foundation to the ,gothic1  although    
works are occasionally printed for the  
learned in ,roman4    #i4 ,the ,roman   
letter owes its origin to the nation    
whence it derives  its name1 although   
the faces of the present and ancient    
,roman letters  differ materially1 on   
account of the improvements which they  
have  undergone at various times4 ,for  
the invention of the ,italic character1 
we are indebted to ,aldus ,manutius1 who
 set up a printing-office in  ,venice1  
in #adif1 where he also introduced      
,roman types of a neater cut4    #aj4   
,before the ,american revolution1       
type-founding was carried on at         
,germantown1 ,pennsylvania1 by          
,christopher ,sower1 at ,boston by ,mr4 
,michelson1 and in ,connecticut by ,mr4 
,buel2 but there was too little  demand 

for types1 to afford these enterprising 
individuals much  patronage4 ,soon after
 the close of the revolution1 ,john     
,baine  established a foundery in       
,philadelphia4 ,the printers1 however1  
were  not supplied with every necessary 
material and implement of the art  from 
,american founderies1 until #agif1 when 
,messrs4 ,binny  ,ronaldson  commenced  
the business in the same city4 ,baine   
and ,ronaldson were both  from          
,edinburgh1 ,scotland4 ,the first       
type-foundery was established in        
,new-,york1 in #ahji1 by ,robert        
,lothian1 a ,scotch clergyman1 and      
father  of the ingenious type-founder1  
,george ,b4 ,lothian4    #aa4 ,in the   
year #ahbg1 ,william ,m4 ,johnson1 of   
,new-,york1 invented the  machine for   
casting types now used by ,john ,t4     
,white1 and in #ahch1  ,david ,bruce1   
,junr41 produced another1 which was     
purchased by ,george  ,bruce4 ,george   
,b4 ,lothian has also lately invented a 
machine for the  same purpose1 and      

likewise one for reducing types to an   
equal  thickness4 ,both of these        
machines act with great accuracy4 ,there
 are  now in the ,united ,states sixteen
 type-founderies2 viz41 two in ,boston1 
six in ,new-,york1 three in             
,philadelphia1 one in ,baltimore1 one in
  ,pittsburg1 one in ,cincinnati1 one in
 ,louisville1 and one in ,st4  ,louis4  
,illustration3 ,,stereotyper4    ,,the  
,,stereotyper4      #a4 ,the word       
stereotype is derived from two ,greek   
words--stereos1  solid1 and tupos1 a    
type4 ,it is applied to pages of types  
in a  single piece1 which have been cast
 in moulds formed on common printing    
types or wood-cuts4 ,they are composed  
of lead and antimony1 in the  proportion
 of about six parts of the former to one
 of the latter4  ,sometimes a little tin
 is added4    #b4 ,the types are set up 
by compositors1 as usual in printing1   
and  imposed1 or locked up1 one or      
several pages together1 in an iron      
chase of a suitable size4 ,having been  

sent to the casting-room1  the types are
 slightly oiled1 and surrounded with a  
frame of brass or  type-metal4 ,they are
 then covered with a thin mixture of    
finely  pulverized plaster and water4   
,in about ten minutes1 the plaster      
becomes hard enough to be removed4      
#c4 ,the mould1 thus formed1 having been
 baked in an oven1 is placed in  an iron
 pan of an oblong shape1 and sunk into a
 kettle of the melted  composition above
 mentioned1 which is admitted at the    
four corners of  the cover to the       
cavities of the mould beneath4 ,the pan 
is then raised  from the kettle1 and    
placed over water4 ,when the metal has  
become  cool1 the contents of the pan   
are removed1 and the plaster is broken  
and washed from the plate4    #d4 ,as   
fast as the pages are cast1 they are    
sent to the  finishing-room4 ,here they 
are first planed on the back with a     
machine1 for the purpose of making them 
level and of an equal  thickness4 ,the  
letters are then examined1 and1 when    

deficient1 are  rendered perfect by     
little steel instruments called picks4  
,corrections and alterations are made by
 cutting out original lines1  and       
inserting common printing types1 or     
lines stereotyped for the  purpose4 ,the
 types are cut off close to the back    
with pincers1 and  fastened to the place
 with solder4 ,the plates1 when they are
 finished1  are about one-sixth of an   
inch in thickness4    #e4 ,when all the 
pages of a work have been completed1    
they are packed  in boxes1 which are    
marked with certain letters of the      
alphabet1 to  indicate the form or pages
 which they contain4 ,while the pages   
are  applied in printing1 they are      
fastened to blocks of solid wood1 which1
  with the plates1 are intended to be   
the same in height with common  types4  
#f4 ,the first stereotype plates were   
cast by ,j4 ,van der ,mey1 a  ,dutchman1
 who resided at ,leyden about the year  
#agjj4 ,a quarto and  folio ,bible1 and 
two or three small works1 were printed  

from pages of  his casting2 but at his  
death1 the art appears to have been     
lost1  although the plates of these two 
,bibles are still extant1 the former  at
 ,leyden1 and the latter at ,amsterdam4 
#g4 ,in #agbe1 ,william ,ged1 of        
,edinburgh1 without knowing what had    
been  done in ,holland by ,van der ,mey1
 began to make stereotype plates4 ,but  
being unable to prosecute the business  
alone for want of funds1 he  united in  
partnership with three others4 ,one of  
the partners being a  type-founder1     
supposing that success in the enterprise
 would injure  his business1 employed   
men to compose and print the proposed   
works in  a manner that he thought most 
likely to spoil them4    #h4            
,accordingly1 the compositors1 while    
correcting one error in the  proof1 made
 intentionally several more2 and the    
pressmen battered the  letter1 while    
printing the books4 ,by these dishonest 
and malicious  proceedings1 the useful  
enterprise of ,mr4 ,ged was defeated4   

,he1  however1 afterwards printed1 in an
 accurate manner1 two or three  works4  
,the first of these was a ,sallust1 the 
pages of which were set  up by his son1 
,james ,ged1 who was but an apprentice  
to the  printing-business4 ,this part of
 the work was performed in the night1   
when the workmen were absent from the   
office4    #i4 ,after the death of ,mr4 
,ged1 no attention was paid to the art1 
and a  knowledge of it was lost at the  
decease of his son1 which took place1   
about the year #agga3 but it was a third
 time invented by ,alexander  ,tilloch1 
,esq41 who1 in conjunction with ,mr4    
,foulis1 printer to the  ,university of 
,glasgow1 made many experiments1 until  
plates were  produced yielding          
impressions which could not be          
distinguished from  those of the types  
from which they had been cast4 ,but     
owing to  circumstances unconnected with
 the real utility of the art1 the       
business was not prosecuted to a great  
extent4    #aj4 ,about the year #ahjd1  

the art was again revived by the late   
,earl  ,stanhope1 assisted by ,mr4 ,a4  
,wilson1 a printer1 who turned his whole
  attention that way4 ,in their efforts 
to complete the invention1 they  were   
assisted by ,messrs4 ,tilloch and       
,foulis2 and1 although they  succeeded  
after many experiments1 they were       
strenuously opposed in  their efforts to
 introduce the practice1 the printers   
supposing1  perhaps with some reason1   
that it would prove injurious to their  
business4    #aa4 ,this useful art was  
introduced into the ,united ,states by  
,j4 ,watts1  an ,englishman from        
,london1 who had acquired a knowledge of
 the process  from ,a4 ,wilson4 ,he     
entered into a partnership with ,joseph 
,d4 ,fay and  ,pierre ,c4 ,van ,wyck1   
,esquires4 ,they first stereotyped the  
,westminster  ,catechism1 which was     
printed by ,j4 ,watts  ,co41 for        
,messrs4 ,whiting   ,watson1 in #ahac4  
,they also stereotyped a ,new           
,testament4 ,but the  business proving  

to be unproductive1 ,fay and ,van ,wyck 
retired from the  concern4 ,watts       
afterwards stereotyped about one third  
of an octavo  ,bible4 ,the moulding of  
all the plates produced in ,watts's     
foundery was  executed by ,mrs4 ,watts4 
,on the #bast of ,march1 #ahae1 ,watts  
sold all his  plates1 together with his 
materials and knowledge of the process1 
to  ,b4 ,s4 and ,j4 ,b4 ,collins1 for   
#fejj4 ,the ,messrs4 ,collins afterwards
  carried on the business successfully4 
#ab4 ,in #ahab1 ,david ,bruce went to   
,england for the express purpose of     
obtaining a knowledge of the art1 as it 
was kept a profound secret by  ,watts2  
and having learned the method of one    
,nicholson1 of ,liverpool1  and having  
also acquired some knowledge of ,earl   
,stanhope's plan1 he  returned to       
,new-,york1 and commenced stereotyping1 
in conjunction with  his brother1       
,george ,bruce1 in the year #ahac4 ,they
 soon completed two  setts of #abmo     
plates for the ,new ,testament1 one of  

which they sold to  ,matthew ,carey1    
,nov4 #h1 #ahad4 ,soon afterwards1 they 
finished the whole  ,bible4 ,david      
,bruce invented the machine for planing 
the plates1 in  #ahae4                  
,illustration    ,,the ,,paper-,,maker1 
,,and ,,the ,,bookbinder4      ,,the    
,,paper-,,maker4    #a4 ,the materials  
on which writing was executed1 in the   
early days of  the art1 were the leaves 
and bark of trees and plants1 stones1   
bricks1  sheets of lead1 copper1 and    
brass1 as well as plates of ivory1      
wooden  tablets1 and cotton and linen   
cloth4    #b4 ,the instruments with     
which writing was practised were adapted
 to  the substance on which it was to be
 formed4 ,the stylus1 which the  ,romans
 employed in writing on metallic tablets
 covered with wax1 was  made of iron1   
acute at one end1 for forming the       
letters1 and flat or  round at the      
other1 for erasing what may have been   
erroneously  written4    #c4 ,for       
writing with ink1 the calamus1 a kind of

 reed1 sharpened at  the point1 and     
split like our pens was used4 ,some of  
the ,eastern  nations still write with  
bamboos and canes4 ,the ,chinese        
inscribe their  characters with small   
brushes similar to camel's hair pencils4
 ,we have  no certain evidence of the   
application of quills to this purpose   
until the seventh century4    #d4 ,as   
the literature of antiquity advanced1 a 
material adapted to  works of magnitude 
became necessary1 and this was found    
both in the  skins of animals1 and in   
the celebrated plant papyrus1 of ,egypt2
 but  the time when they were first     
applied to this purpose cannot be       
determined1 although it is probable that
 the former has the preference  as      
regards priority4    #e4 ,the papyrus   
was an aquatic plant1 which grew upon   
the banks of the  ,nile4 ,in the        
manufacture of paper from this reed1 it 
was divested of  its outer covering1 and
 the internal layers1 or lamin1 were    
separated  with the point of a needle or

 knife4 ,these layers were spread       
parallel  to each other on a table1 in  
sufficient numbers to form a sheet2 a   
second layer was then laid with the     
strips crossing those of the first  at  
right angles2 and the whole having been 
moistened with water1 was  subjected to 
pressure between metallic surfaces4 ,the
 pressure1 aided  by a glutinous        
substance in the plant1 caused the      
several pieces to  become one uniform   
sheet4    #f4 ,parchment was            
manufactured from the skins of sheep and
 goats4 ,in  the preparation1 these were
 first steeped in water impregnated with
  lime1 and afterwards stretched upon   
frames1 and reduced by scraping  with   
sharp instruments4 ,they were finished  
by the application of  chalk1 and by    
rubbing them with pumice-stone4 ,the    
skins of very young  calves1 dressed in 
a similar manner1 was called vellum4    
,parchment and  vellum are still used   
for deeds and other important documents4
    #g4 ,when ,attalus1 about #bjj years

 before ,christ1 was about to found a   
library at ,pergamus1 which should rival
 that of ,alexandria1 one of the        
,ptolemies1 then king of ,egypt1 jealous
 of his success1 prohibited the         
exportation of papyrus2 but the spirited
 inhabitants of ,pergamus  manufactured 
parchment as a substitute1 and formed   
their library  principally of           
manuscripts on this material4 ,from this
 fact1 it  received the name of         
,pergamena among the ,romans1 who gave  
it also  the appellation of ,membrana4  
#h4 ,the greatest quantity of paper was 
manufactured at ,alexandria1 and  the   
commerce in this article greatly        
increased the wealth of that  city4 ,in 
the fifth century1 paper was rendered   
very dear by taxation2  and this        
probably was an inducement for an effort
 to produce a  substitute4 ,accordingly1
 in the eighth century1 it began to be  
superseded by cotton paper1 although it 
continued in use in some parts  of      
,europe1 until three hundred years after

 the period last mentioned4    #i4 ,the 
manufacture of cotton paper was         
introduced into ,spain1 in the  eleventh
 century1 by the ,arabians1 who became  
acquainted with it in  ,bucharia as     
early as ,a4,d4 #gjd4 ,about the year   
#acjj1 it was commenced  in ,italy1     
,france1 and ,germany2 and1 in some of  
the paper-mills of  these countries1    
paper was made from cotton rags4 ,linen 
paper is  thought to have originated in 
,germany1 about the year #acah4    #aj4 
,the first paper-mill in ,england was   
erected by a ,german1 named  ,spillman1 
in #aehh2 but no paper1 except the      
coarse brown sorts1 was  made in that   
country1 until about the year #afij4    
,the finer kinds1 both  for writing and 
printing1 were1 before that time1       
imported from the  ,continent4 ,but the 
paper of ,english manufacture will now  
compare with  that of any other country4
 ,the ,french also make very fine paper4
    #aa4 ,in the ,united ,states1 this  
manufacture has rapidly increased in    

amount within a few years4 ,according to
 an estimate made in #ahbi1 it  appears 
that the whole annual product of the    
mills is worth between  five and seven  
millions of dollars1 and that the rags  
collected in  this country amount to    
about two millions4 ,the number of hands
  employed in the business are ten or   
eleven thousand1 of whom about  one-half
 were females4 ,the manufacture has     
since been considerably  increased1     
although the number of operatives may   
have been diminished1  on account of the
 introduction of improved machinery4    
#ab4 ,nature has supplied us with a     
great variety of substances from  which 
paper may be fabricated1 as flax1 hemp1 
cotton1 straw1 grass1  and the bark of  
several kinds of trees2 but the fibres  
of the three  first productions1 in the 
form of rags1 are the most usual        
materials4  ,most of these are primarily
 purchased from the people at large1 by 
retail booksellers1 country merchants1  
and pedlers1 who in turn  dispose of    

them to persons called rag-merchants1 or
 directly to the  paper-makers4 ,when   
the rags come from the original         
collectors1 all  kinds are mixed        
together2 but they are assorted         
according to their  color and the nature
 of their original fibre1 either by the 
rag-merchants1 or by the paper-makers   
themselves4    #ac4 ,in our attempts to 
afford the reader an idea of this       
manufacture  in general1 letter-paper   
has been selected1 as affording the best
  means of illustration2 since for this 
kind of paper1 the best stock is        
employed1 and the greatest skill is     
exerted in every stage of the  process4 
#ad4 ,the process of the manufacture is 
commenced by cutting the rags  into     
small pieces1 by the aid of a sharp     
instrument1 commonly a piece  of a      
scythe1 which is placed in a position   
nearly perpendicular before  the        
operator4 ,in the reduction of very     
coarse rags1 such as  sail-cloth1 a     
cutting machine is also employed4 ,then1

 with the view of  sifting out the loose
 particles of dirt1 the rags are        
deposited in a  large octagonal sieve   
made of coarse wire1 and placed in a    
close box  in a horizontal position4    
,the sieve is moved by machinery1 like  
the  bolt of a flour-mill4    #ae4 ,the 
second stage of the process consists    
chiefly in the reduction  of the rags to
 a pulp4 ,this is effected by the action
 of a cutting  machine1 the essential   
parts of which are two sets of blunt    
knives1  the one stationary1 and the    
other revolving4 ,the machine is placed 
in  a large elliptical tub1 in which the
 rags are also deposited1 with a        
suitable quantity of water4 ,the liquid 
and fibrous contents of the tub  are    
kept moving in a circle by the action of
 the machine1 through  which it passes  
at one point of its revolution4    #af4 
,the maceration occupies from ten to    
twenty hours1 according as the  material
 is more or less rigid2 and1 during part
 of this time1 water  is permitted to   

run in at one side of the tub1 and out  
at the other1  to render the pulp       
perfectly clean4 ,towards the close of  
this process1  the pulp1 if necessary1  
is bleached by means of chloride of     
lime1 and  oil of vitriol4 ,it is also  
sometimes colored by adding a quantity  
of  dye-stuff4 ,the bleaching and       
coloring are effected without           
interrupting the action of the machine4 
,the rags having been thus  reduced1 the
 pulp1 together with a suitable quantity
 of water1 is let  out into a reservoir1
 from which it is drawn off into a vat1 
as fast  as it may be needed for the    
production of the paper4    #ag4 ,with  
this vat is connected the paper-making  
machine2 and the part  of the latter    
which first comes in contact with the   
material is a  hollow cylinder1         
surrounded with a fine web of           
wire-cloth4 ,this  cylinder being       
immersed in the contents of the vat more
 than one-half  of its diameter1 the    
water passes off with a uniform         

rapidity1 and the  fibrous particles    
which had been suspended in it1 settle  
with a  remarkable uniformity on the    
outside of the brazen web4 ,as the      
cylinder revolves1 a continued sheet is 
produced1 which is taken up by  an      
endless web of woollen cloth1 and       
carried round another cylinder of  equal
 diameter1 and then between two more1 by
 which it is partially  pressed4    #ah4
 ,from between these rollers1 the paper 
passes out1 in a continued  sheet1 upon 
a large cylindrical reel1 called the    
lay-boy2 and when a  certain quantity of
 it1 which is determined by a gauge1 has
 been  accumulated1 the lay-boy is      
removed to a low table4 ,the paper is   
then  cut1 with a toothless handsaw1    
into sheets twice the size of           
letter-paper4 ,this part of the         
operation is very quickly performed1 as 
a workman can cut up and pile in heaps1 
to be pressed1 twenty reams in  half    
that number of minutes1 and attend to   
the machine at the same  time4    #ai4  

,after the paper has been successively  
pressed1 and handled by  separating the 
sheets two or three times1 it is hung up
 on small  poles1 in an airy room1 to be
 dried2 and having been again pressed1  
it  is sized by holding a quantity of   
the sheets at a time in a thin  solution
 of glue and alum1 the former of which  
is prepared in the  paper-mill for the  
purpose1 from shreds and parings of raw 
hides4 ,the  paper is freed from        
superfluous portions of the size1 by    
submitting it  to the action of a press4
 ,it is again dried as before1 and again
  pressed2 after which1 the several     
sheets are examined1 and freed from     
lumps and other extraneous substances4  
#bj4 ,they are then severed in half with
 a cutting machine1 and  afterwards     
calendered1 by passing the sheets       
successively between  rollers2 or they  
are pressed between smooth pasteboards4 
,in the latter  case1 hot metallic      
plates are sometimes interposed between 
every few  quires of the sheets4 ,the   

paper1 when treated in this way1 is     
called  hot-pressed4 ,it is next counted
 off into half-quires1 put up into      
reams1 pressed1 trimmed1 and finally    
enveloped in two thick sheets of  paper1
 which completes the whole process of   
the manufacture4    #ba4 ,the           
manufacture of paper1 as just described1
 seems to be a tedious  process2 yet    
with two machines and a suitable number 
of hands1 say  sixty or eighty1 three   
hundred reams of letter-paper can be    
produced  from the raw material in a    
single day4 ,it is hardly necessary to  
remark1 that paper is of various        
qualities1 from the finest bank-note    
paper1 down to the coarsest kinds       
employed in wrapping up merchandise1    
and that1 for every quality1 suitable   
materials are chosen4 ,the  process of  
the manufacture is varied1 of course1 to
 suit the  materials4 ,none but writing 
and drawing paper requires to be sized4 
#bb4 ,until after the beginning of the  
present century1 paper was made         

exclusively by hand1 and this method is 
still continued in a  majority of the   
mills in the ,united ,states1 although  
it is rapidly  going out of use4 ,it    
differs from that just described chiefly
 in the  manner of collecting the pulp  
to form the paper1 this being effected  
by means of a mould1 a frame of wood    
with a fine wire bottom1 of the  size of
 the proposed sheet4 ,in the use of this
 instrument1 a quantity  of the pulp is 
taken up1 and while the vatman1 or      
dipper1 holds it  in a horizontal       
position1 and gives it a gentle shaking1
 the water  runs out through the        
interstices of the wire1 and leaves the 
fibrous  particles upon the mould in the
 form of a sheet4 ,the sheets thus      
produced are pressed between felts1 and 
afterwards treated as if they  had been 
formed by means of a machine4    #bc4   
,the first idea of forming paper in a   
continued sheet originated in  ,france2 
but a machine for this purpose is said  
to have been first made  completely     

successful in ,england1 by ,henry and   
,sealy ,fourdrinier4 ,many  machines    
made after their model1 as well as those
 of a different  construction1 are in   
use in the ,united ,states1 to some of  
which is  attached an apparatus for     
drying1 sizing1 and pressing the paper1 
as  well as for cutting it to the proper
 size4 ,very few machines1 however1     
yield paper equal in firmness and       
tenacity to that produced by hand4      
,,the ,,bookbinder4    #a4 ,bookbinding 
is the art of arranging the pages of a  
book in proper  order1 and confining    
them there by means of thread1 glue1    
paste1  pasteboard1 and leather4    #b4 
,this art is probably as ancient as that
 of writing books2 for1  whatever may   
have been the substance on which the    
work was executed1  some method of      
uniting the parts was absolutely        
necessary4 ,the  earliest method with   
which we are acquainted1 is that of     
gluing the  sheets together1 and rolling
 them upon small cylinders4 ,this mode  

is  still practised in some countries4  
,it is also everywhere used by the      
,jews1 so far as relates to one copy of 
their law deposited in each of  their   
synagogues4    #c4 ,the name ,egyptian  
is applied to this kind of binding1 and 
this  would seem to indicate the place  
of its origin4 ,each volume had two     
rollers1 so that the continued sheet    
could be wound from one to the  other at
 pleasure4 ,the square1 or present form 
of binding1 is also of  great antiquity1
 as it is supposed to have been invented
 at ,pergamus1  about #bjj years before 
,christ1 by ,king ,attalus1 who1 with   
his son  ,eumenes1 established the      
famous library in that city4    #d4 ,the
 first process of binding books consists
 in folding the sheets  according to the
 paging4 ,this is done by the aid of an 
ivory knife1  called a folder2 and the  
operator is guided in the correct       
performance of the work by certain      
letters called signatures1 placed  at   
the bottom of the page1 at regular      

intervals through the book4    #e4      
,piles of the folded sheets are then    
placed on a long table in the  order of 
their signatures1 and gathered1 one from
 each pile1 for every  book4 ,they are  
next beaten on a stone1 or passed       
between steel  rollers1 to render them  
smooth and solid4 ,the latter method has
 been  introduced within a few years4   
,this operation certainly increases the 
intrinsic value of the book2 but it is  
not employed in every case1  since it is
 attended with some additional expense1 
and since it  diminishes the thickness  
of the book1 and consequently its value 
in  the estimation of the public at     
large4    #f4 ,the sheets1 having been  
properly pressed1 are next sewed        
together  upon little cords1 which1 in  
this application1 are called bands4     
,during the operation these are         
stretched in a perpendicular direction1 
at suitable distances from each other1  
as exhibited in the foregoing  cut4 ,the
 folded sheets are usually notched on   

the back by means of a  saw1 and at     
these points they are brought in        
juxta-position with the  bands4 ,after  
the pages of several volumes have been  
accumulated1 the  bands are severed     
between each book4 ,the folding1        
gathering1 and  sewing1 are usually     
performed by females4    #g4 ,at this   
stage of the process1 the books are     
received by the men or  boys1 who       
generally take on one hundred at a time4
 ,the workman first  spreads some glue  
on the backs of each book with a brush4 
,he then  places them1 one after the    
other1 between boards of solid wood1 and
  beats them on the back with a hammer4 
,by this means the back is  rounded1 and
 a groove formed on each side for the   
admission of one  edge of the           
pasteboards4    #h4 ,these having been  
applied1 and partially fastened by means
 of the  bands1 which had been left long
 for the purpose1 the books are         
pressed1 and the leaves of which they   
are composed are trimmed with an        

instrument called a plough4 ,the        
pasteboards are also cut to the  proper 
size by the same means1 or with a huge  
pair of shears4 ,in the  preceding      
picture1 a workman is represented at    
work with the plough4  ,the edges are   
next sprinkled with some kind of        
coloring matter1 or  covered with gold  
leaf4 ,a strip of paper is then glued on
 the back1  and a head-band put upon    
each end4    #i4 ,the book is now ready 
to be covered4 ,this is done either with
 calf1  sheep1 or goat skin1 or some    
kind of paper or muslin2 but1 whatever  
the material may be1 it is cut into     
pieces to suit the size of the  book2   
and1 having been smeared on one side    
with paste1 if paper or  leather1 or    
with glue1 if muslin1 it is drawn over  
the outsides of the  pasteboards1 and   
doubled in upon the inside4    #aj4 ,the
 covers1 if calf or sheep skin1 are next
 sprinkled or marbled4  ,the first      
operation is performed by dipping the   
brush in a kind of  dye1 made for the   

purpose1 and beating it with one hand   
over a stick  held in the other2 the    
second is performed in the same manner1 
with  the difference that they are      
sprinkled first with water1 and then    
with  the coloring matter4    #aa4      
,after a small piece of morocco has been
 pasted on the back1 on  which the title
 is to be printed in gold leaf1 and one 
of the waste  leaves has been pasted    
down on the inside of each of the       
covers1 the  books are pressed for the  
last time4 ,they are then glazed by     
applying  the white of an egg with a    
sponge4    #ab4 ,the books are now ready
 for the reception of the ornaments1    
which  consist chiefly of letters and   
other figures in gold leaf4 ,in         
executing this part of the process1 the 
workman cuts the gold into  suitable    
strips or squares on a cushion4    #ac4 
,these are laid upon the books by means 
of a piece of raw cotton1  and          
afterwards impressed with types         
moderately heated over a charcoal  fire2

 or the strips of gold are taken up1 and
 laid upon the proper  place with       
instruments called stamps and rolls1    
which have on them  figures in relief4  
,the portion of the leaf not impressed  
with the  figures on the tools1 is      
easily removed with a silk rag4 ,the    
books are  finished by applying to the  
covers the white of an egg1 and rubbing 
them with a heated steel polisher4      
#ad4 ,the process of binding books1 as  
just described1 is varied1 of  course1  
in some particulars1 to suit the        
different kinds of binding  and finish4 
,a book stitched together like a common 
almanac1 is called  a pamphlet4 ,those  
which are covered on the back and sides 
with  leather1 are said to be           
full-bound2 and those which have their  
backs  covered with leather1 and the    
sides with paper1 half-bound4    #ae4   
,the different sizes of books are       
expressed by terms indicative of  the   
number of pages printed on one side of a
 sheet of paper2 thus1  when two pages  

are printed on one side1 the book is    
termed a folio2  four pages1 a quarto2  
eight pages1 an octavo2 twelve pages1 a 
duodecimo2 eighteen pages1 an           
octodecimo4 ,all of these terms1 except 
the first1 are abridged by prefixing a  
figure or figures to the last  syllable3
 thus1 #dto for quarto1 #hvo for octavo1
 #abmo for duodecimo1  c4    #af4 ,the  
manufacture of account-books1 and other 
blank or stationary  work1 constitutes  
an extensive branch of the bookbinder's 
business4 ,it  is not necessary1        
however1 to be particular in noticing   
it1 as the  general process is similar  
to that of common bookbinding4 ,those   
binders who devote much attention to    
this branch of the trade1 have a        
machine by which paper is ruled to suit 
any method of keeping books1  or any    
other pattern which may be desired4     
,illustration3 ,,bookseller4    ,,the   
,,bookseller4      #a4 ,the book-trade  
has arisen from small beginnings to its 
present  magnitude and importance4      

,before the invention of typography1 it 
was  carried on by the aid of           
transcribers2 and the booksellers of    
,greece1  ,rome1 and ,alexandria1 during
 the flourishing state of their         
literature1 kept a large number of      
manuscript copyists in constant  employ4
 ,among the ,romans1 the transcribers or
 copyists were chiefly  slaves1 who were
 very valuable to their owners1 on      
account of their  capacity for this     
employment4    #b4 ,in the middle ages1 
when learning was chiefly confined to   
the  precincts of monastic institutions1
 the monks employed much of their  time 
in copying the ancient classics and     
other works2 and this labor  was often  
imposed upon them as a penance for the  
commission of sin4  ,from this cause1   
and from an ignorance of the true       
meaning of the  author1 much of their   
copying was inaccurately performed1 so  
that  great pains have been since       
required in the correction of the       
manuscripts of those times4    #c4 ,this

 mode of multiplying copies of books was
 exceedingly slow1 and1  withal1 so very
 expensive1 that learning was confined  
almost  exclusively to people of rank1  
and the lower orders were only rescued  
from total ignorance by the reflected   
light of their superiors4 ,for a  long  
time1 during the reign of comparative   
barbarism in ,europe1 books  were so    
scarce1 that a present of a single copy 
to a religious house  was thought to be 
so valuable a gift1 that it entitled the
 donor to  the prayers of the community1
 which were considered efficacious in   
procuring for him eternal salvation4    
#d4 ,after the establishment of the     
universities of ,paris and ,bologna1    
there were dealers in books1 called     
stationarii1 who loaned single          
manuscripts at high prices2 and1 in the 
former place1 no person1 after  the year
 #adcb1 could deal in books in any way1 
without permission from  the university1
 by which officers were appointed to    
examine the  manuscripts1 and fix the   

price for which they might be sold or   
hired  out4    #e4 ,for a long time     
after the invention of printing1 the    
printers sold  their own publications2  
and1 in doing this1 especially at some  
distance from their establishments1 they
 were aided by those who had  formerly  
been employed as copyists4 ,some of     
these travelling agents1  at length1    
became stationary1 and procured the     
publication of works on  their own      
account4    #f4 ,the first bookseller   
who purchased manuscripts from the      
authors1  and caused them to be printed 
without owning a press himself1 was     
,john  ,otto1 of ,nuremburg4 ,he        
commenced this mode of doing business1  
in #aeaf4  ,in #aede1 there were1 for   
the first time1 two such booksellers in 
,leipsic4 ,the great mart for the sale  
of their books was ,frankfort on  the   
,maine1 where were held three extensive 
fairs every year4 ,leipsic1  however1   
soon became1 and still continues1 the   
centre of the ,german  book-trade4      

#g4 ,the first ,leipsic catalogue of    
books appeared as early as the year     
#afjj2 but the fairs at that place did  
not become important1 as regards  the   
book-trade1 until #affg1 when it was    
attended by nineteen foreign            
booksellers4 ,the booksellers of        
,germany1 as well as some from distant  
countries1 meet at the semi-annual fairs
 held in that city1 to dispose  of      
books1 and to settle their accounts with
 each other4 ,every ,german  publisher  
has also an agent there1 who receives   
his publications1 and  sends them1      
according as they are ordered1 to any   
part of ,germany4    #h4 ,in no other   
part of the world1 has such a connexion 
of booksellers  been formed1 although   
almost every kingdom of ,europe has some
 city or  cities in which this branch of
 trade is chiefly concentrated2 as      
,london1 in ,england2 ,edinburgh1 in    
,scotland2 and ,amsterdam1 ,utrecht1    
,leyden1 and ,haerlem1 in the           
,netherlands4 ,in ,spain and ,portugal1 

the  price of every book is regulated by
 the government4    #i4 ,a very         
convenient method of effecting the sale 
and exchange of  books among            
booksellers1 has been adopted in the    
,united ,states2 and  this is by        
auction4 ,a sale of this kind is held in
 ,boston once1 and in  ,new-,york and   
,philadelphia twice1 every year2 and    
none are invited to  attend it but the  
trade2 hence such sales are denominated 
trade-sales4    #aj4 ,the sale is       
usually conducted by an auctioneer who  
has been  selected by a committee of the
 trade in the city in which it is to be 
held4 ,in order to obtain a sufficient  
amount of stock for the purpose1  the   
agent issues proposals1 in which he     
informs publishers and others  concerned
 in this branch of business1 of his     
intention1 and solicits  invoices of    
books1 to be sold at the time specified4
 ,a catalogue of  all the books thus    
sent for sale1 is distributed among the 
booksellers4    #aa4 ,the booksellers   

having assembled1 the books which may   
have been  accumulated from different   
parts of the ,union1 are offered in     
convenient lots1 and struck off to the  
highest bidder4 ,each  purchaser holds  
in his hand the printed catalogue1 on   
the broad margin  of which he marks1 if 
he sees fit1 the prices at which the    
books have  been sold2 and the record   
thus kept affords a tolerable means of  
determining their value1 for a          
considerable time afterwards4    #ab4 ,a
 sale of this kind occupies from four to
 six days2 and1 at the  close of it1 a  
settlement takes place1 in which the    
parties are  governed by the terms      
previously published4 ,the payments are 
made in  cash1 or by notes at four or   
six months1 according to the amount     
which  the purchaser may have bought out
 of one invoice4 ,the conductors of  the
 sale are allowed about five per cent4  
commission for their  services4    #ac4 
,a vast number of books is also sold1   
every year1 at auction1 to              

miscellaneous collections of people1 not
 only in the cities and  considerable   
towns1 but likewise in the villages     
throughout the  country4 ,by many       
booksellers1 this method of sale is     
thought to be  injurious to the trade1  
since it has reduced the prices of      
books1 and  interfered with the regular 
method of doing business4 ,these        
disadvantages1 however1 have been far   
overbalanced by the increased  number of
 readers which has been thus created4   
#ad4 ,the circulation of books is       
likewise promoted by means of           
travelling agents1 who either sell them 
at once1 or obtain  subscriptions for   
them with the view to their future      
delivery4 ,these  methods have been     
employed more or less from the very     
commencement of  the printing business2 
and they have probably contributed more 
to the  general extension of knowledge  
than the sale of books by stationary    
booksellers4 ,in fact1 they are among   
the most prominent causes of the  vast  

trade in books1 which is now carried on1
 especially in the ,united  ,states4    
#ae4 ,nevertheless1 publishers1 who do  
not employ agents to vend their  books1 
generally consider them interlopers upon
 their business2 and  the people        
themselves1 who owe a great share of    
their intellectual  cultivation to this 
useful class of men1 are generally      
averse to  afford them the necessary    
patronage1 because they require a small 
advance on the city prices to pay       
travelling expenses4    #af4 ,a         
considerable amount of books is also    
sold by merchants who  reside at some   
distance from the cities and large      
towns4 ,they1  however1 seldom venture  
to purchase those which have not been   
well  known and approved in their       
neighborhood2 and1 in a majority of     
cases1  regard them as mere subjects of 
merchandise1 without taking into        
consideration the effects most likely to
 be produced by these silent1  but      
powerful agents1 when circulated among  

their customers4    #ag4 ,some          
booksellers in ,europe confine their    
trade chiefly to  particular            
departments2 such as law1 theology1 and 
medicine4 ,others  deal in toy-books1   
and books of education1 or in rare and  
scarce  books4 ,this is the case1 to a  
limited extent1 in the ,united ,states1 
although our booksellers commonly keep  
an assortment of miscellaneous          
publications1 as well as various        
articles in the stationary line2 such   
as paper1 quills1 inkstands1 and blank  
work4          ,illustration3 ,the      
,,architect4    ,,the ,,architect4      
#a4 ,architecture1 in the general sense 
of the word1 is the art of  planning and
 erecting buildings of all kinds1       
whether of a public or  private nature2 
and it embraces within its operations a 
variety of  employments1 at the head of 
which must be placed the ,architect4    
,architecture is of several kinds1 such 
as civil1 naval1  military1 and aquatic2
 but it is the first only that we       

propose to  notice in the present       
article4    #b4 ,the construction of    
buildings as means of shelter from the  
weather1  appears to have been among the
 earliest inventions2 and1 from the     
skill exhibited in the construction of  
the ark1 we have reason to  believe that
 architecture had been brought to       
considerable perfection  before the     
deluge4 ,this opinion is also supported 
by the fact stated  in holy writ1 that  
the descendants of ,noah1 not more than 
one hundred  years after the great      
catastrophe just mentioned1 attempted to
 build a  city and a lofty tower with   
bricks burned in the fire4 ,this project
  could never have been thought of1 had 
they not been influenced by the         
knowledge of former centuries4    #c4   
,the confusion of the language of the   
people caused their dispersion  into    
different parts of the earth2 and1 in   
their several locations1  they adopted  
that method of constructing their       
dwellings1 which the  climate required1 

and the materials at hand admitted2 but1
 whatever  the primitive structure may  
have been1 it was continued1 in its     
general features1 from age to age1 by   
the more refined and opulent            
inhabitants2 hence the different styles 
of building1 which have been  continued1
 with various modifications1 to the     
present day4    #d4 ,the essential      
elementary parts of a building are those
 which  contribute to its support1      
inclosure1 and covering2 and of these   
the  most important are the foundation1 
the column1 the wall1 the lintel1  the  
arch1 the vault1 the dome1 and the roof4
 ,ornamental and refined  architecture  
is one of the fine arts2 nevertheless1  
every part of an  edifice must appear to
 have utility for its object1 and show  
the  purpose for which it has been      
designed4    #e4 ,the foundation is     
usually a stone wall1 on which the      
superstructure of the building rests4   
,the most solid basis on which it  is   
placed is rock1 or gravel which has     

never been disturbed2 next to  these are
 clay and sand4 ,in loose or muddy      
situations1 it is always  unsafe to     
build1 unless a solid basis can be      
artificially produced4  ,this is often  
done by means of timber placed in a     
horizontal position1  or by driving     
wooden piles perpendicularly into the   
earth2 on a  foundation of the latter   
description1 the greater part of the    
city of  ,amsterdam has been built4     
#f4 ,the column1 or pillar1 is the      
simplest member of a building1  although
 it is not essential to all4 ,it is not 
employed for the  purpose of inclosure1 
but as a support to some part of the    
superstructure1 and the principal force 
which it has to resist is that  of      
perpendicular pressure4 ,the column is  
more frequently employed in  public than
 in private buildings4    #g4 ,the wall 
may be considered the lateral           
continuation of the  column1 answering  
the purposes both of support and        
inclosure4 ,it is  constructed of       

various materials1 but chiefly of brick1
 stone1 and  marble1 with a suitable    
proportion of mortar or cement4 ,walls  
are also  made of wood1 by first        
erecting a frame of timber and then     
covering it  with boards2 but these are 
more perishable materials1 which require
 to  be defended from the decomposing   
influence of the atmosphere1 by paint   
or some other substance4    #h4 ,the    
lintel is a beam extending in a right   
line from one column or  wall to another
 over a vacant space4 ,the floor is a   
lateral  continuation or connexion of   
beams1 by means of a covering of planks4
  ,the strength of the lintel1 and1 in  
fact1 every other elementary part  of a 
building used as a support1 can be      
mathematically determined by  the       
skilful architect4    #i4 ,the arch     
answers the same purpose as the lintel1 
although it far  exceeds it in strength4
 ,it is composed of several pieces of a 
wedge-like form1 and the joints formed  
by the contact of flat surfaces  point  

to a common centre4 ,while the workmen  
are constructing the arch1  the         
materials are supported by a centring of
 the shape of its  internal surface4    
,the upper stone of an arch is called   
the  key-stone4 ,the supports of an arch
 are called abutments2 and a            
continuation of arches1 an arcade4      
#aj4 ,the vault is the lateral          
continuation of an arch1 and bears the  
same relation to it that a wall bears to
 a column4 ,the construction of  a      
simple vault is the same with that of an
 arch1 and it distributes  its pressure 
equally along the walls or abutments4 ,a
 complex or  groined vault is made by   
the intersection of two of the common   
kind4  ,the groined vault is much used  
in ,gothic architecture4    #aa4 ,the   
dome1 or cupola1 is a hemispherical or  
convex covering to  a building or a part
 of it4 ,when built of stone it is a    
very strong  kind of structure1 even    
more so than the arch1 since the        
tendency of  the parts to fall is       

counteracted by those above and below1  
as well as  by those on each side4      
,during the erection of the cupola1 no  
centring  is required1 as in the case of
 the arch4    #ab4 ,the roof is the most
 common and cheap covering to buildings4
 ,it  is sometimes flat1 but most       
commonly oblique1 in shape4 ,a roof     
consisting of two oblique sides meeting 
at the top1 is denominated a  pent roof2
 that with four oblique sides1 a hipped 
roof2 and that  with two sides1 having  
each two inclinations of different      
obliquities1  a curb or mansard roof4   
,in modern times1 roofs are constructed 
of  wood1 or of wood covered with some  
incombustible material1 such as  tiles1 
slate1 and sheets of lead1 tin1 or      
copper4 ,the elementary parts  of       
buildings1 as just described1 are more  
or less applicable in almost  every kind
 of architecture4    #ac4 ,the          
architecture of different countries has 
been characterized by  peculiarities of 
form and construction1 which1 among     

ancient nations1  were so distinct1 that
 their edifices may be identified at the
 present  day even in a state of ruin2  
and1 although nearly all the buildings  
of  antiquity are in a dilapidated      
state1 many of them have been restored1 
in drawings and models1 by the aid of   
the fragments which remain4    #ad4 ,the
 different styles of building which have
 been recognised by the  architect of   
modern times1 are1 the ,egyptian1 the   
,chinese1 the  ,grecian1 the ,roman1 the
 ,greco-,gothic1 the ,saracenic1 and the
 ,gothic4  ,in all these1 the pillar1   
with its accompaniments1 makes a        
distinguished figure4 ,the following    
picture has therefore been  introduced  
by way of explanation4 ,the columns are 
of the ,corinthian  order of            
architecture4    ,illustration    #ae4  
,the ,egyptian style4--,the first       
inhabitants of ,egypt lived in  mounds1 
caverns1 and houses of mud2 and1 from   
these primitive  structures1 the        
,egyptians1 at a later period1 derived  

their style of  architecture4 ,the walls
 of their buildings were very thick1 and
  sloping on the outside2 the roof was  
flat1 and composed of blocks of  stone1 
extending from one wall or pillar to    
another2 and the columns  were short and
 large1 being sometimes ten or twelve   
feet in diameter4  ,pyramids of         
prodigious magnitude1 and obelisks      
composed of a single  stone1 sometimes  
often exceeding seventy feet in height1 
are  structures peculiarly ,egyptian4   
,the architecture of the ,hindoos seems 
to have been derived from primitive     
structures of a similar character4      
,illustration3 ,,an ,,egyptian ,,temple4
    #af4 ,the ,chinese style4--,the     
ancient ,tartars1 and other wandering   
tribes of ,asia1 appear to have lived in
 tents2 and the ,chinese  buildings1    
even at the present day1 bear a strong  
resemblance to these  original          
habitations1 since their roofs are      
concave on the upper side1  as if made  
of canvas instead of wood4 ,their       

porticoes resemble the  awnings spread  
out on our shop-windows in the summer4  
,the ,chinese  build chiefly of wood1   
although they sometimes use brick and   
stone4    ,illustration3 ,a ,,chinese   
,,pagoda4    #ag4 ,the ,grecian         
style4--,this style of building had its 
origin in the  wooden hut or cabin1 the 
frame of which primarily consisted of   
perpendicular posts1 transverse beams1  
and rafters4 ,this structure was  at    
length imitated in stone1 and by degrees
 it was so modified and  decorated in   
certain parts1 as to give rise to the   
several  distinctions called orders of  
architecture4 ,the ,greeks1 in          
perfecting  their system of             
architecture1 were probably aided by    
,egyptian  examples1 although they      
finally surpassed all other nations in  
this  important art4    #ah4 ,orders of 
architecture4--,by the architectural    
orders are  understood certain modes of 
proportioning and decorating the column 
and entablature4 ,they were in use      

during the best days of ,greece and     
,rome1 for a period of six or seven     
centuries4 ,the ,greeks had three       
orders1 called the ,doric1 the ,ionic1  
and the ,corinthian4 ,these  were       
adopted and modified by the ,romans1 who
 also added two others1  called the     
,tuscan and the ,composite4    #ai4     
,doric order4--,the ,doric is the oldest
 and most massive order of  the ,greeks4
 ,the column1 in the examples at        
,athens1 is about six of its  diameters 
in height2 in those of an earlier date1 
it is but four or  five4 ,the temple    
here adduced to illustrate this order   
was built by  ,cimon1 son of ,miltiades1
 about the year #dej before ,christ4 ,it
 is said  to be in a state of better    
preservation than any other of the      
ancient  ,greek edifices at ,athens4 ,it
 will be seen that the shafts are       
fluted1 that is1 cut in semicircular    
channels1 in a longitudinal  direction4 
,the ,united ,states' ,bank1 at         
,philadelphia1 is a noble  specimen of  

this order4    ,illustration3 ,,the     
,,temple ,,of ,,theseus4    #bj4 ,ionic 
order4--,this order is lighter than the 
,doric1 its column  being eight or nine 
diameters in height4 ,its shaft has     
twenty-four or  more flutings1 separated
 from each other by square edges2 and   
its  capital consists1 in part1 of two  
double scrolls1 called volutes1  usually
 occupying opposite sides4 ,these       
volutes are supposed to have  been      
copied from ringlets of hair1 or from   
the horns of the god  ,jupiter ,ammon4  
,the following example of this order    
consists of three  temples1 each of     
which was dedicated to a different      
individual1 viz41  ,erectheus1 ,minerva 
,polias1 and the nymph ,pandrosus4      
,illustration3 ,,the ,,erectheum ,,at   
,,athens4    #ba4 ,corinthian           
order4--,the ,corinthian is the lightest
 and most  decorated of all the ,grecian
 orders4 ,its column is usually ten     
diameters in height1 and its shaft is   
fluted like that of the ,ionic4  ,its   

capital is shaped like an inverted bell1
 and was covered on the  outside with   
two rows of the leaves of the plant     
acanthus1 above which  are eight pairs  
of small volutes4 ,it is said that this 
beautiful  capital was suggested to the 
sculptor ,callimachus by the growth of  
an  acanthus about a basket1 which had  
been accidentally left in a  garden4    
#bb4 ,the ,greeks sometimes departed so 
far from the strict use of their        
orders1 as to employ the statues of     
slaves1 heroes1 and gods1 in the  place 
of columns4 ,a specimen of this practice
 is exhibited in the cut  illustrative  
of the ,ionic order4 ,it belongs to the 
temple dedicated to  ,pandrosus4    #bc4
 ,the most remarkable buildings of the  
,greeks were their temples4  ,the body  
of these edifices consisted of a walled 
cell1 usually  surrounded by one or more
 rows of pillars4 ,sometimes they had a 
colonnade at one end only1 and sometimes
 at both ends4 ,their form was          
generally oblong1 and as the cells were 

intended as places of resort  for the   
priests rather than for assemblies of   
the people1 they were  but imperfectly  
lighted4 ,windows were seldom employed2 
and light was  admitted at the door at  
one end1 or through an opening in the   
roof4    #bd4 ,grecian architecture is  
supposed to have been at its greatest   
perfection in the days of ,pericles and 
,phidias1 when sculpture is  admitted to
 have attained its highest excellence4  
,it was  distinguished1 in general1 by  
simplicity of structure1 fewness of     
parts1 absence of arches1 and lowness of
 pediments and roofs4    #be4 ,roman    
style4--,the ,romans adopted the three  
,grecian orders1 with  some             
modifications2 and also added two       
others1 called the ,tuscan and          
,composite4 ,the former of these they   
borrowed from the nation whose  name it 
bears1 and the latter they formed by    
uniting the  embellishments of the      
,doric and the ,corinthian4 ,the        
favorite order in  ,rome and its        

colonies was the ,corinthian4 ,examples 
of single pillars  of these orders may  
be seen at the end of this article4     
#bf4 ,the temples of the ,romans        
generally bore a strong resemblance to  
those of the ,greeks1 although they     
often differed from the specimens  of   
that nation in several particulars4 ,the
 stylobate of the latter was  usually a 
succession of platforms1 which likewise 
served the purposes  of steps1 by which 
the building was approached on all      
sides4 ,among the  ,romans1 it was      
usually an elevated structure1 like a   
continued  pedestal1 on three sides1 and
 accessible in front by means of steps4 
,the dome was also very commonly        
employed rather than the pent roof4     
,the following is an example of a temple
 at ,rome4    ,illustration3 ,,temple   
,,of ,,antonius ,,and ,,faustina4       
#bg4 ,greco-,gothic style4--,after the  
dismemberment of the ,roman  empire1 the
 practice of erecting new buildings from
 the fragments of  old ones became      

prevalent4 ,this gave rise to an        
irregular style of  building1 which     
continued in use during the dark ages4  
,it consisted of  ,greek and ,roman     
details combined under new forms1 and   
piled up into  structures wholly unlike 
the original buildings from which the   
materials had been taken4 ,hence the    
appellations ,greco-,gothic and         
,romanesque have been applied to it4    
,the effect of this style of  building  
was very imposing1 especially when      
columns and arches were  piled upon each
 other to a great height4    #bh4       
,saracenic style4--,this appellation has
 been given to the style  of building   
practised by the ,moors and ,saracens in
 ,spain1 ,egypt1 and  ,turkey4 ,it is   
distinguished1 among other things1 by an
 elliptical form  of the arch4 ,a       
similar peculiarity exists in the domes 
of the ,oriental  mosques1 which are    
sometimes large segments of a sphere1   
appearing as  if inflated2 and at other 
times1 they are concavo-convex on the   

outside4 ,several of these domes are    
commonly placed upon one building4  ,the
 minaret is a tall slender tower1       
peculiar to ,turkish  architecture4     
#bi4 ,gothic style4--,the ,goths1 who   
overran a great part of the  ,western   
empire1 were not the inventors of the   
style of architecture  which bears their
 name4 ,the term was first applied with 
the view to  stigmatize the edifices of 
the middle ages1 in the construction of 
which1 the purity of the antique models 
had not been regarded4 ,the  term was at
 first very extensive in its            
application2 but it is now  confined    
chiefly to the style of building which  
was introduced into  various parts of   
,europe six or eight centuries ago1 and 
which was used  in the construction of  
cathedrals1 churches1 abbeys1 and       
similar  edifices4    ,illustration3    
,,gothic ,,cathedral ,,at ,,york4       
#cj4 ,the ,gothic style is peculiarly   
and strongly marked4 ,its principles    
seem to have originated in the imitation

 of groves and bowers1 under  which the 
,druid priests had been accustomed to   
perform their sacred  rites4 ,its       
characteristics are1 pointed arches1    
pinnacles and spires1  large buttresses1
 clustered pillars1 vaulted roofs1 and a
 general  predominance of the           
perpendicular over the horizontal4      
#ca4 ,the ecclesiastical edifices of    
this style of building are commonly  in 
form of a cross1 having a tower1        
lantern1 or spire1 erected at the  point
 of intersection4 ,the part of the cross
 situated towards the west  is called   
the nave2 the eastern part1 the choir2  
and the  transverse portion1 the        
transept4 ,a glance at the following    
diagram  will enable the reader to      
understand the form of the ground-work  
more  fully4    ,illustration    #cb4   
,any high building erected above a roof 
is called a steeple1  which is also     
distinguished by different appellations1
 according to  its form3 if it is square
 topped1 it is a tower2 if long and     

acute1  a spire2 or if short and light1 
a lantern4 ,towers of great height  in  
proportion to their diameter are        
denominated turrets4 ,the walls  of     
,gothic churches are supported on the   
outside by lateral  projections1 called 
buttresses1 which extend from the bottom
 to the  top1 at the corners and between
 the windows4 ,on the top of these are  
slender pyramidal structures or spires1 
called pinnacles4 ,the summit  or upper 
edge of a wall1 if straight1 is called a
 parapet2 if  indented1 a battlement4   
#cc4 ,gothic pillars or columns are     
usually clustered1 appearing as if a    
number were bound together4 ,they are   
confined chiefly to the inside of       
buildings1 and are generally employed in
 sustaining the vaults which  support   
the roof4 ,the parts which are thrown   
out of a perpendicular  to assist in    
forming these vaults1 have received the 
appellation of  pendentives4 ,the       
,gothic style of building is more       
imposing than the  ,grecian2 but        

architects of the present day find it   
difficult to  accomplish what was       
achieved by the builders of the middle  
ages4    #cd4 ,in the erection of       
edifices at the present day1 the        
,grecian and  ,gothic styles are chiefly
 employed1 to the exclusion of the      
others1  especially in ,europe and      
,america4 ,modern dwelling-houses have  
necessarily a style of their own1 so far
 as relates to stories1  windows1 and   
chimneys2 and no more of the styles of  
former ages can be  applied to them1    
than what relates to the unessential and
 decorative  parts4    ,illustration3   
,,doric4 ,,ionic4 ,,corinthian4         
,,composite4 ,,tuscan4    ,,pillars     
,,and ,,entablatures ,,of ,,the ,,five  
,,orders4          ,illustration3       
,,carpenter4    ,,the ,,carpenter4      
#a4 ,it is the business of the carpenter
 to cut out and frame large  pieces of  
timber1 and then to join them together1 
or fit them to brick  or stone walls1 to
 constitute them the outlines or        

skeleton of  buildings or parts of      
buildings4    #b4 ,the joiner executes  
the more minute parts of the wood-work  
of  edifices1 comprehending1 among other
 things1 the floors1  window-frames1    
sashes1 doors1 mantels1 c4 ,carpentry   
and joinery1  however1 are so nearly    
allied to each other1 that they are     
commonly  practised by the same         
individuals2 and1 in this article1 they 
will be  treated together4    #c4       
,carpentry and joinery1 as well as all  
other trades connected with  building1  
are subservient to the architect1 when  
an individual of this  particular       
profession has been employed2 but it    
most commonly  happens1 that the        
master-carpenter acts in this capacity4 
,this is  especially the case in the    
erection of common dwellings1 and1 in   
fact1  of other edifices where nothing  
very splendid is to be attempted4 ,it   
is to be regretted1 however1 that the   
professional architect has not  been    
oftener employed2 for1 had this been the

 case1 a purer taste in  building would 
have generally prevailed4    #d4        
,contracts for the erection of buildings
 are often made with the  carpenter1 as 
master-builder or architect4 ,in such   
cases1 it is his  business to employ    
persons capable of executing every kind 
of work  required on the proposed       
edifice1 from the bricklayer and        
stone-mason  to the painter and glazier4
 ,it not unfrequently happens1 however1 
that  the person himself1 who proposes  
to erect a building1 chooses to  employ 
the workmen in the different branches4  
#e4 ,the constituent parts of buildings 
having been explained in the  article on
 architecture1 it is unnecessary to     
enter here into minute  details on this 
point2 nor would a particular           
description of the  various operations  
of the carpenter and joiner be useful to
 the  general reader1 since1 in every   
place1 means are at hand by which a     
general view of this business may be    
obtained by actual inspection4    #f4   

,the carpenter and joiner are guided1 in
 the performance of their  work1 by     
well-defined rules1 drawn chiefly from  
the science of  ,geometry1 and which    
they have learned from imitation and    
practice1 as  well as1 in many cases1   
from the valuable works which have been 
published on these branches of the art  
of building4    #g4 ,the principal tools
 with which they operate are the axe1   
the adze1  the saw1 the auger1 the      
gauge1 the square1 the compasses1 the   
hammer1  the mallet1 the crow1 the rule1
 the level1 the maul1 and the plane2    
and of many of these there are several  
kinds4    #h4 ,the timbers most employed
 in building in the ,united ,states are 
chiefly pine1 oak1 beech1 black walnut1 
cypress1 larch1 white cedar1  and       
hemlock2 but of these pine is in the    
greatest use4 ,oak and beech  are much  
used in constructing frames1 in which   
great strength is  required4 ,of the    
pine1 there are several species1 of     
which the white  and yellow are the most

 valuable2 the former of these grows in 
the  greatest abundance in the          
,northern1 and the latter1 in the       
,southern  states4    #i4 ,vast         
quantities of timber are annually cut   
into boards in  saw-mills1 and floated  
down the rivers from the interior1      
during the  time of high water in the   
spring and fall1 and sometimes at other 
seasons of the year4 ,the boards1 or1 as
 they are frequently  denominated1      
planks1 are placed in the water1 one    
tier above another1  and fastened       
together with wooden pins4 ,several of  
such rafts are  connected by means of   
withes to form one2 and1 at each end of 
this1  are placed one or two huge oars1 
with which it may be guided down the    
stream4 ,upon these rafts1 shingles and 
laths are also brought to  market4      
#aj4 ,logs and scantling to be employed 
in the frames of buildings are  also    
conveyed down the rivers in the same    
manner4 ,the business  connected with   
the production of shingles1 laths1      

boards or planks1  and staves1 is called
 lumbering2 and it is carried on1 more  
or less  extensively1 in the regions    
near the sources of all the large rivers
  in the ,united ,states1 and in the    
,british possessions in ,north ,america4
    #aa4 ,the trade in lumber has also  
given rise to another class of men1     
called lumber merchants2 these purchase 
the lumber from the original            
proprietors1 who bring it down the      
rivers1 and1 in their turn1 sell it  to 
builders and others4 ,the lumbering     
business employs a large  capital1 and a
 numerous class of our citizens4        
,illustration3 ,,stone-,,mason4    ,,the
 ,,stone-,,mason1 ,,the ,,brickmaker1 c4
      ,,the ,,mason4    #a4 ,the art of 
,masonry includes the sawing and cutting
 of stones into  the various shapes     
required in the multiplied purposes of  
building1  and in placing them in a     
proper manner in the walls and other    
parts of  edifices4 ,it is divided into 
two branches1 one of which consists in  

bringing the stones to the desired form 
and polish1 and the other1 in  laying   
them in mortar or cement4    #b4 ,the   
rocks most used in building in the      
,united ,states1 are marble1  granite1  
greenstone1 scienite1 soap-stone1       
limestone1 gypsum1 and  slate4 ,these   
are found in a great many localities1   
not only on this  continent1 but on the 
other side of the ,atlantic4 ,of these  
stones1  there are many varieties1 which
 are frequently designated by their     
sensible qualities1 or by the name of   
the place or country whence  they are   
obtained2 as variegated1 ,italian1      
,egyptian1 or  ,stockbridge marble1 and 
,quincy stone4    #c4 ,the              
,stone-cutter4--,stone-cutters procure  
their materials from the  quarry-men1   
whose business it is to get out the     
stones from the  quarries1 in which they
 lie in beds1 consisting either of      
strata piled  upon each other1 or of    
solid masses4 ,stones of any desirable  
dimensions are detached from the great  

mass of rock1 by first drilling  holes  
at suitable points1 and then driving    
into them wedges with a  sledge4 ,these 
blocks are usually removed from the     
quarries1 and placed  on vehicles of    
transportation1 by means of huge cranes1
 with which is  connected suitable      
machinery4    #d4 ,the blocks of stone1 
received in their rough state by the    
stone-cutter1 are divided1 if required1 
into pieces of smaller size1  by means  
of a toothless saw1 aided by the        
attrition of sand and water4  ,the other
 rough sides of the blocks are reduced  
to the proper form by  means of steel   
points and chisels driven with a mallet4
 ,a kind of  hammer with a point or     
chisel-like edge1 is also used to effect
 the  same object1 especially in the    
softer kinds of stone4    #e4 ,for some 
purposes1 the stones are required to be 
polished4 ,this is  especially the case 
with those employed in the ornamental   
parts of  buildings4 ,in the execution  
of this part of the work1 the surface is

  rubbed successively with sand1        
freestone1 pumice-stone1 ,scotch stone1 
crocus1 and putty4 ,when the face is a  
plane1 the sand is applied by  means of 
another stone1 which is moved backwards 
and forwards upon it4  ,in this way1 two
 surfaces are affected at the same time4
    #f4 ,in polishing irregular         
surfaces1 the different kinds of stone  
are  used in masses of convenient size2 
and the part applied to the surface  to 
be polished is first brought to a form  
corresponding to it4 ,the  putty is an  
oxyde of tin1 in form of powder4 ,crocus
 is the peroxyde of  iron4 ,the         
building-stone capable of receiving the 
highest polish is  marble2 and it is on 
this material that the stone-cutter1 and
 the  architectural carver or sculptor1 
exert their utmost skill2 but some  of  
the other stones which have been        
mentioned1 possess the same  quality to 
a considerable extent4    #g4 ,carving  
architectural ornaments1 such as pillars
 with their  capitals1 is a refined     

branch of this business2 or it may      
rather be  considered1 of itself1 a     
branch of sculpture4 ,in the execution  
of this  kind of work1 the operator is  
guided by patterns1 formed from the     
well-defined rules of the science of    
building4 ,very few stone-cutters       
attempt the execution of work so very   
difficult4    #h4 ,from the manufacture 
of mantel-pieces and monuments for the  
dead1  the stone-cutter derives a great 
proportion of his profits4 ,this will   
be manifest even to the superficial     
observer who may visit a few of  the    
many stone-cutters' yards1 to be found  
in any of our large cities4  ,in some of
 these1 blocks of marble are cut into   
slabs by the aid of  steam-power4    #i4
 ,in districts of country1 also1 where  
valuable stone is abundant1  water is   
extensively employed for the same       
purpose4 ,this is especially  the case  
in ,berkshire county1 ,massachusetts1   
where marble of a good  quality is      
abundant4 ,a great proportion of the    

marble slabs used by  the stone-cutter  
are obtained from such mills4 ,some     
other operations  of this business are  
also sometimes performed by the aid of  
machinery4      ,,the ,,stone-,,mason4  
#a4 ,in ,philadelphia1 and in many other
 cities not only in this country1  but  
also in ,europe1 the stone-cutters set  
their own work2 and this  practice has  
led to the habit of applying the term   
stone-mason to  both stone-cutters and  
those who lay stone in mortar and       
cement4 ,in  ,new-,york1 however1 as    
well as in some of the cities farther   
east1  these two employments are kept   
more distinct4 ,the stone-cutters in    
,philadelphia are sometimes denominated 
marble-masons4    #b4 ,but1 in every    
city1 there are persons called          
stone-masons1 whose  business consists  
exclusively in constructing the walls   
and some other  parts of buildings with 
stone2 and their operations are         
considerably  enlarged in those places  
where there are no marble-masons4 ,in   

many  cases1 the bricklayer is also so  
far a stone-mason1 as to lay the        
foundation-walls of the buildings which 
he may erect4 ,this is  especially the  
case in the country1 where the divisions
 of labor are  not so minute as in      
cities4 ,it may be well here to remark1 
also1 that  the bricklayers1 in some    
places1 perform the services of the     
marble-mason4    #c4 ,the marble-mason1 
in joining together several pieces in a 
monument1  employs a kind of cement     
composed of about six parts of lime1 one
 of  pure sand1 a little plaster1 and as
 much water as may be necessary to  form
 it to the proper consistency4 ,no more 
of this cement is used than  is required
 to hold the blocks or parts together1  
as one great object  of the artist is to
 hide the joints as much as possible4   
,the substance  thus interposed1 becomes
 as hard as the marble itself4    #d4   
,the cement employed in laying marble in
 common or large edifices1  is somewhat 
different from that just described1 as  

it consists of  about three fourths of  
lime and one of sand4 ,the latter       
substance is  obtained1 in an unmixed   
state1 on the bays in every part of the 
world2  hence it has received the       
appellation of bay sand4    #e4 ,when it
 cannot be conveniently had in a pure   
state1 particles of  the same kind can  
be separated in sufficient quantities   
from their  admixture with other        
substances4 ,this is effected by sifting
 the  compound through a sieve1 into a  
small stream of water1 which carries    
off the lighter particles that are unfit
 for use1 whilst the sand1 by  its      
superior specific gravity1 sinks to the 
bottom4 ,the part which may  be too     
coarse1 remains in the sieve4 ,this1    
however1 except the  rubbish1 can be    
used in the coarser kinds of masonry4   
#f4 ,the mortar1 used in laying bricks  
and common stone1 has a greater         
proportion of sand1 which is generally  
of an inferior quality4  ,besides1 the  
materials are incorporated with less    

care4 ,lime for the  purposes of        
building is procured chiefly by         
calcining limestone in a  kiln1 with    
wood1 coal1 or some other combustible   
substance4 ,it is also  obtained by     
burning chalk1 marble1 and marine       
shells4 ,water poured  upon newly-burnt 
or quick lime1 causes it to swell1 and  
fall to  pieces into a fine powder4 ,in 
this state it is said to be slacked4    
#g4 ,masonry is often required in       
situations under water1 especially in   
the construction of bridges and locks of
 canals4 ,common mortar resists  the    
action of the water very well1 when it  
has become perfectly dry2  yet1 if it is
 immersed before it has had time to     
harden1 it dissolves1  and crumbles     
away4    #h4 ,the ancient ,romans1 who  
practised building in the water to a    
great  extent1 discovered a material1   
which1 when incorporated with lime1     
either with or without sand1 possessed  
the property of hardening in a  few     
minutes even under water4 ,this was a   

kind of earth found at  ,puteoli1 to    
which was given the name of pulvis      
puteolanus1 and which  is the same now  
called puzzolana4    #i4 ,a substance   
denominated tarras1 terras1 or tras1    
found near  ,andernach1 in the vicinity 
of the ,rhine1 possesses the same       
quality  with puzzolana4 ,it is this    
material which has been principally     
employed by the ,dutch1 whose aquatic   
structures are superior to those  of any
 other nation in ,europe4 ,various other
 substances1 such as baked  clay and    
calcined greenstone1 reduced to powder1 
afford a tolerable  material for        
water-cements4 ,several quarries of     
water lime1 which is  similar in        
appearance to common limestone1 has been
 lately discovered  in the ,united      
,states1 which1 being finely pulverized 
and mixed with  sand1 makes very good   
water-cement4    #aj4 ,in buildings     
constructed with marble and other costly
 stones1 the  walls are not composed of 
these materials in their entire         

thickness2  but1 for the sake of        
cheapness1 they are formed on the inside
 with  bricks1 commonly of a poor       
quality1 so that in reality they can be 
considered only brick walls faced with  
stone4 ,these two kinds of  materials   
have no other connexion than what is    
produced by the mortar  which may have  
been interposed1 and the occasional use 
of clamps of  iron4 ,such walls are said
 to be liable to become convex outwardly
 from  the difference in the shrinking  
of the cement employed in laying the    
two walls4    #aa4 ,the principal tools 
employed in cutting and laying stone are
 the  saw1 various kinds of steel       
points1 chisels and hammers1 the mallet1
  the square1 the compasses1 the level1 
the plumb-rule1 the trowel1 and  the    
hod1 to which may be added1 the spade   
and the hoe4 ,the last three            
instruments1 however1 are handled almost
 exclusively by laborers4    #ab4       
,besides these1 contrivances are        
required to raise heavy materials  to   

the various positions which they are to 
occupy4 ,these consist1 for  the most   
part1 of one or two shafts1 commonly the
 mast of an old  vessel1 to which are   
attached tackle extending in various    
directions1  and also those by which the
 blocks are to be raised4 ,the rope     
belonging to the hoisting tackle is     
pulled by a machine worked with a       
crank4    #ac4 ,masonry is one of the   
primitive arts1 and was carried to great
  perfection in ancient times4 ,the     
pyramids of ,egypt are supposed to  have
 stood about three thousand years1 and  
they will probably remain  for centuries
 to come1 monuments as well of the folly
 as of the power  and industry of man4  
,the temples and other magnificent      
structures of  ,greece and ,rome1       
exhibit wonderful skill in masonry1 and 
leave but  little1 if anything new1 to  
be achieved in modern times4      ,,the 
,,brickmaker4    #a4 ,brick is a sort of
 artificial stone1 made principally of  
argillaceous earths formed in moulds1   

dried in the sun1 and burned  with fire4
    #b4 ,the earliest historical notice 
of bricks is found in the book of       
,genesis1 where it is stated that the   
posterity of ,noah undertook to  build a
 city and a lofty tower of this         
material4 ,whether the bricks  were     
really exposed to the action of fire1 as
 the passage referred to  seems to      
imply1 or only dried in the sun1 is an  
unsettled point4 ,but  ,herodotus1 who  
visited the spot many centuries         
afterwards1 states that  the bricks in  
the tower of ,babylon were baked in     
furnaces4    #c4 ,it is evident1        
however1 that the earliest bricks were  
commonly  hardened in the sun2 and1 to  
give them the requisite degree of       
tenacity1 chopped straw was mixed with  
the clay4 ,the manufacture of  such     
bricks was one of the tasks imposed upon
 the ,israelites1 during  their         
servitude with the ,egyptians4    #d4   
,the extreme dryness and heat of the    
climate in some of the eastern          

countries1 rendered the application of  
fire dispensable2 and there are         
structures of unburnt bricks still      
remaining1 which were built two or      
three thousand years ago4 ,bricks both  
sun-dried and burned1 were used  by the 
,greeks and the ,romans4    #e4 ,the    
walls of ,babylon1 some of the ancient  
structures of ,egypt and  ,persia1 the  
walls of ,athens1 the rotunda of the    
,pantheon1 the temple  of ,peace1 and   
the ,therm1 or baths1 at ,rome1 were all
 built of brick4  ,the most common      
bricks among the ,romans were seventeen 
inches long and  eleven broad2 a size1  
certainly1 far preferable1 as regards   
appearance1 to those of modern          
manufacture4    #f4 ,in the ,united     
,states1 a great proportion of the      
edifices1  particularly in the cities   
and towns1 are constructed of bricks1   
which  are usually manufactured in the  
vicinity of the place where they are  to
 be used4 ,the common clay1 of which    
they are made1 consists of a  mixture of

 argillaceous earth and sand1 with a    
little oxyde of iron1  which causes them
 to turn red in burning4 ,the material  
for bricks is  dug up1 and thrown into a
 large heap1 late in the fall or in the 
winter1 and exposed to the influence of 
the frost until spring4    #g4 ,the     
operation of making bricks is conducted 
very systematically2  and1 although     
every part of the work seems to be very 
simple1 it  requires considerable       
dexterity to perform it properly and to 
the best  advantage4 ,the workmen1 in   
the yards about ,philadelphia1 are      
divided  into gangs consisting of three 
men and a boy4 ,the first is called  the
 temperer1 who tempers the material with
 water and mixes it with  a spade2 the  
second is called the wheeler1 who       
conveys it on a  barrow to a table1     
where it is formed in moulds by the     
moulder1  whence it is carried to the   
floor by the boy1 who is denominated the
  off-bearer4    #h4 ,the bricks are    
suffered to remain on the floor a day or

 two1 or  until they have become dry    
enough to be handled with safety4 ,they 
are  then removed and piled into a hack1
 under cover1 in such a manner  that the
 air may circulate freely between them4 
,it is the business of  the whole gang  
to remove the bricks from the floor1 and
 also to place  them in the kiln to be  
burned4 ,in both cases1 each one has his
 due  proportion of labor to perform4   
#i4 ,the day's work of a gang1 when the 
weather is favorable1 is to make  and   
pile in the hack a tale of bricks1 which
 consists of #bccb1 or an  even #bjjj4  
,the former number is called a long     
tale1 and the latter1  a short tale4    
,considerable skill and much care are   
required in  burning the bricks in a    
proper manner2 too much fire would cause
 them  to vitrify1 and too little would 
leave them soft1 and unfit for          
atmospheric exposure4    #aj4 ,in many  
places1 the clay is mixed or prepared   
for the moulder by  driving round upon  
it a yoke of oxen1 or by means of a     

simple machine1  consisting of a beam1  
into which has been driven a great      
number of  spokes4 ,one end of this beam
 is confined in a central position1     
while  the other is moved round in a    
sweep by animal power4    #aa4 ,machines
 have also been invented by the aid of  
which the clay may  be both mixed and   
moulded2 but these have been very little
 used4 ,a  machine1 however1 is often   
employed in pressing bricks which have  
been  formed in the usual manner4 ,the  
pressing is done after the bricks have  
become partially dry4 ,such bricks are  
employed in facing the walls of  the    
better kinds of structures4    #ab4     
,tiles4--,tiles are plates used for     
covering roofs4 ,they resemble  bricks  
in their composition and mode of        
manufacture1 and are shaped in  such a  
manner that when placed upon a building1
 the edge of one tile  receives that    
next to it1 so that water cannot        
percolate between them4  ,tiles1 both of
 burnt clay and marble1 were used by the

 ancients2 and  the former continue to  
be employed in various parts of ,europe4
 ,flat  tiles are used for floors in    
many countries1 and especially in       
,italy4      ,,the ,,bricklayer4    #a4 
,the particular business of the         
bricklayer is to lay bricks in  mortar  
or some other cement1 so as to form one 
solid body2 but he  frequently          
constructs the foundations of buildings 
in rough stones1  and1 in some cities1  
he sets hewn stone in the               
superstructure4 ,in the  country1       
plastering is likewise connected with   
this business4    #b4 ,bricklaying      
consists in placing one brick upon      
another in mortar1  chiefly in the      
construction of walls1 chimneys1 and    
ovens4 ,in  connecting these materials1 
especially in walls1 two methods are    
employed1 one of which is called the    
,english bond1 and the other1  the      
,flemish bond4 ,in the former method1   
the bricks are most commonly  of one    
quality1 and are laid crosswise and     

lengthwise in alternate  rows4 ,the     
bricks which are laid across the wall   
are called headers1  and those which are
 laid in the other direction are called 
stretchers4 ,the brick-work of the      
,romans was of this kind1 and so  are   
the partition-walls of many modern brick
 edifices4    #c4 ,the bricks employed  
in the walls constructed according to   
the  ,flemish method1 are of two1 and   
frequently of three1 qualities4 ,those  
placed in the front1 or on the external 
surface1 are manufactured with  greater 
care1 and1 in some cases1 are formed in 
a larger mould4 ,a wall  put up on this 
principle may be said to consist of two 
thin walls  composed of stretchers1 with
 occasional headers1 to unite them      
together4 ,the space between them1 when 
the wall is thick1 is filled in  with   
the inferior bricks4    #d4 ,the        
inclosing walls of all brick edifices   
are erected on this plan1  although they
 are thought to be more insecure than   
those constructed  on the old ,english  

method4 ,the reasons alleged for the    
preference1 are  its superior beauty1   
and a considerable saving in the most   
expensive  kind of bricks4 ,greater     
security might be attained by the use of
  larger bricks1 say sixteen inches in  
length1 and wide and thick in           
proportion4 ,besides1 an edifice        
constructed of well-made bricks of  this
 size would be but little inferior in   
appearance to marble itself4    #e4     
,most of the instruments used by the    
bricklayer are also employed by  the    
stone-mason2 and they have1 therefore1  
been already mentioned4 ,the  particular
 method of laying bricks1 in their      
various applications1 can  be learned by
 actual inspection in almost every      
village1 city1 or  neighborhood1 in our 
country1 a more particular description  
of the  bricklayer's operations is hence
 unnecessary4    #f4 ,before closing    
this subject1 however1 it may be well to
 state that  the chimney appears to be  
an invention comparatively modern1 since

 the  first certain notice we have of it
 is found in an inscription at  ,venice1
 in which it is stated that1 in #acdg1 a
 great many chimneys  were thrown down  
by an earthquake4 ,it is conjectured    
that this  valuable improvement         
originated in ,italy1 inasmuch as it was
 here that  chimney-sweeping was first  
followed as a business4    #g4 ,before  
the introduction of the chimney1 it was 
customary to make  the fire in a hole or
 pit in the centre or some other part of
 the  floor1 under an opening formed in 
the roof1 which1 in unfavorable         
weather1 could be closed by a moveable  
covering4 ,among the ,romans1 the       
hearth or fire-place was located in the 
atrium or hall1 and around  it the      
lares1 or household gods1 were placed4  
,to avoid being  infested with smoke1   
they burned dry wood soaked in the lees 
of oil4  ,in warming other apartments of
 the house1 they used portable furnaces1
  in which were placed embers and       
burning coals4    #h4 ,it is said by    

,seneca1 who flourished about the middle
 of the first  century of the ,christian
 era1 that in his time1 a particular    
kind of  pipes was invented1 and affixed
 to the walls of buildings1 through     
which heat from a subterranean furnace  
was made to circulate4 ,by this  means1 
the rooms were heated more equally4 ,in 
the southern parts of  ,italy and       
,spain1 there are still very few        
chimneys4 ,the same may be  said of many
 other countries1 where the climate is  
pleasant or very  warm4    #i4          
,hollinshead1 who wrote during the reign
 of ,queen ,elizabeth1 thus  describes  
the rudeness of the preceding generation
 in the arts of  life3 ,there were very 
few chimneys even in capital towns3 the 
fire  was laid to the wall1 and the     
smoke issued out at the roof1 or door1  
or window4 ,the houses were wattled1 and
 plastered over with clay2 and  all the 
furniture and utensils were of wood4    
,the people slept on straw  pallets1    
with a log of wood for a pillow4        

,,the ,,plasterer4    #a4 ,in modern    
practice1 plastering occurs in many     
departments of  architecture4 ,it is    
more particularly applied to the        
ceilings and  interior walls of         
buildings1 and also in rough-casting on 
their  exterior4    #b4 ,in plastering  
the interior parts of buildings1 three  
coatings of  mortar are commonly applied
 in succession4 ,the mortar for the     
first  coat is composed of about twelve 
parts of sand1 six of lime1 and  three  
of hair1 with a sufficient quantity of  
water to bring it to the  proper        
consistence2 that for the second coat   
contains a less  proportion of lime and 
hair2 and that for the third coat is    
composed  exclusively of lime and water4
    #c4 ,the mortar is applied directly 
to the solid wall1 or to thin strips  of
 wood called laths1 which have been     
fastened with small nails to  the       
joists1 and other parts of the frame of 
the building4 ,the tools  with which the
 plasterer applies the mortar are       

trowels of  different sizes and shapes1 
and the hawk4 ,the latter instrument is 
a board about a foot square1 with a     
short handle projecting at right  angles
 from the bottom4    #d4 ,in all        
well-finished rooms1 cornices are run at
 the junction of the  wall and ceiling4 
,the materials of these cornices are    
lime1 water1 and  plaster4 ,the lime and
 water are first incorporated1 and the  
plaster is  added with an additional    
quantity of water1 as it may be needed  
for  immediate application4 ,the        
composition is applied in a semifluid   
state1 but the plaster causes it to set1
 or to become solid  immediately4 ,in   
the mean time1 the workman applies to   
it1 in a  progressive manner1 the edge  
of a solid piece of wood1 in which an   
exact profile of the proposed cornice   
has been cut4    #e4 ,ornaments of      
irregular shape are cast in moulds of   
wax or plaster  of ,paris1 and these are
 formed on models of the proposed       
figures in  clay4 ,such ornaments were  

formerly the productions of manual      
operations performed by ingenious men   
called ornamental plasterers4  ,the     
casts are all made of the purest        
plaster2 and1 after having been         
polished1 they are fastened to the      
proper place with the same  substance   
saturated with water4    #f4 ,the branch
 of this business called rough-casting1 
consists in  applying mortar to the     
exterior walls of houses4 ,the mode in  
which the  work is performed varies but 
little from that adopted in plastering  
the walls of apartments4 ,it1 however1  
requires only two coats of the  cement2 
and1 when these have been applied1 the  
surface is marked off  in imitation of  
masonry4 ,it is likewise sometimes      
colored1 that it may  resemble marble or
 some other stone4    #g4 ,the cement is
 commonly made of sharp sand and lime2  
but sometimes  a kind of argillaceous   
stone1 calcined in kilns and afterwards 
reduced  to powder by mechanical means1 
makes a part of the composition4 ,the   

qualities of this material were first   
discovered by a ,mr4 ,parker1 who       
obtained letters patent for this        
application of it1 in ,england1 in      
#agif2 hence it has been called         
,parker's cement4      ,,the ,,slater4  
#a4 ,slate stone is valuable for the    
property of splitting in one  direction1
 so as to afford fragments of a         
sufficient size and thinness  to answer 
several purposes1 but especially for    
covering houses and for  writing slates4
 ,the best slates are those which are   
even and compact1  and which absorb the 
least water4    #b4 ,the slates used in 
the ,united ,states1 are obtained either
 from our  own quarries1 of which there 
are several1 or from those of ,wales1 in
  the county of ,caernarvonshire4 ,the  
stone is quarried in masses1 which  are 
afterwards split into pieces of suitable
 thinness4 ,these are  trimmed to an    
oblong figure by means of a knife and a 
steel edge1  which act upon the slate   
much in the manner of a large pair of   

shears4    #c4 ,as it is impossible to  
dress all the slates to the same size   
without much waste of material1 those   
engaged in their manufacture  have      
introduced several sizes1 the smallest  
of which are made of the  fragments of  
the larger kinds4 ,these are designated 
by names known to  the trade1 and to    
those practically conversant with the   
art of  building4    #d4 ,the slates1   
when brought to market1 especially those
 from ,wales1  require additional       
dressing to fit them for use4 ,the      
manner of  applying them to roofs       
differs but little from that employed in
  putting on shingles1 as they are      
lapped over each other in the same  way1
 and confined to their place by means of
 nails of a similar kind4  ,the nails1  
however1 have a broader head1 and are   
somewhat larger1  varying in size to    
suit the dimensions of the slate4 ,the  
holes in the  slate for the nails are   
made with a steel point attached to the 
slater's hammer1 or to his knife1       

technically called a saix4    #e4       
,slates are preferable to shingles on   
account of their durability1  and1 in a 
majority of situations1 for their       
fire-proof quality4 ,they1  however1 are
 objectionable on account of their      
weight and  expensiveness1 and are      
therefore beginning to be superseded in 
this  country by sheets of zinc1 and by 
those of iron coated with tin4  ,copper 
and lead are also used for roofs1 but   
the metals just mentioned  are beginning
 to exclude them altogether4    #f4 ,a  
serious objection to metal roofs has    
been their liability to  crack1 caused  
by the contraction and expansion of the 
material1 in  consequence of variations 
in the temperature of the weather2 but a
  particular method of putting the      
sheets together has been lately         
devised1 which appears to obviate the   
difficulty4 ,tiles are not used  in this
 country1 although in ,europe they are  
very common4          ,illustration3    
,,painter  ,,glazier4    ,,the          

,,painter1 ,,and ,,the ,,glazier4       
,,the ,,house ,,and ,,sign ,,painter4   
#a4 ,the painting which is the subject  
of this article relates to  forming     
letters and sometimes ornamental and    
significant figures on  signs1 as well  
as to the application of paints to      
houses and other  structures1 for the   
purpose of improving their appearance1  
and of  preserving them from the        
influence of the atmosphere and other   
destructive agents4    #b4 ,the         
substances capable of being employed by 
the house and sign  painter1 comprise a 
great variety of articles1 derived from 
the  mineral1 vegetable1 and animal     
kingdoms2 but he ordinarily confines    
his selection to but few1 among which   
are white lead1 litharge1  ,spanish     
brown1 yellow ochre1 chrome yellow1 red 
ochre1 terra di  sienna1 lampblack1     
verdigris1 linseed-oil1 spirits of      
turpentine1 and  gold-leaf4    #c4      
,white lead and litharge are            
manufactured in great quantities at     

chemical works1 sometimes established   
for the express purpose of  making these
 and some other preparations of lead4   
,the substances of  which we are now    
speaking1 are produced in the following 
manner3 the  lead1 in form of a         
continued sheet1 about three feet long1 
six inches  wide1 and one line in       
thickness1 is wound spirally up in such 
a  manner1 that the coils may stand     
about half an inch apart4    #d4 ,the   
metal in this form is placed vertically 
in earthen vessels1 at  the bottom of   
which is some strong vinegar4 ,these    
vessels1 being  placed in sand1 horse   
manure1 or tan1 are exposed to a gentle 
heat1  which causes the gradual         
evaporation of the vinegar4 ,the vapor  
thus  produced1 assisted by the oxygen  
which is present1 converts the  exposed 
surface into a carbonate of lead1 the   
substance known as white  lead1 or      
ceruse4    #e4 ,the corrosion of one of 
these sheets occupies from three to six 
weeks1 during which time it is          

repeatedly uncoiled and scraped4        
,litharge1 or flake white1 is nothing   
more than the densest and  thickest     
scales produced in the manner just      
described4 ,it can be  obtained in a    
pure state from the dealers in paints1  
whereas the white  lead of commerce is  
most commonly adulterated with chalk4   
#f4 ,spanish brown1 yellow ochre1 and   
terra di sienna1 are earths  impregnated
 with iron in different degrees of      
oxydation4 ,red ochre is  yellow ochre  
burned4 ,chrome yellow is extensively   
manufactured in  ,baltimore1 from the   
chromate of iron1 found near that city4 
,in  chemical phraseology1 the          
manufactured article is the chromate of 
lead1 since the chromate is separated   
from the iron by the aid of a  solution 
of the nitrate or acetate of lead4      
#g4 ,linseed-oil is obtained from       
flax-seed by pressure4 ,it is           
afterwards filtered1 and then suffered  
to remain at rest1 to  precipitate and  
clarify4 ,this oil improves in quality  

by keeping1 as  it becomes1 in a few    
years1 as transparent as water4 ,in this
 state1 it  is employed in the finest   
painting4    #h4 ,before the oil is     
used1 it is commonly boiled with a small
 quantity  of litharge and red lead1 to 
cause it to dry rapidly1 after the paint
  has been applied4 ,during the boiling1
 the scum is removed as fast as  it     
rises1 and this is mixed with inferior  
paints of a dark color4  ,linseed-oil1  
thus prepared1 is vended by dealers in  
paints1 under the  name of boiled oil4  
#i4 ,spirits of turpentine is produced  
by distilling with water the  resinous  
juice or sap of several species of the  
pine4 ,the residuum1  after             
distillation1 is the turpentine of      
commerce4 ,spirits of  turpentine is    
mixed with paints1 to cause them to dry 
with rapidity4  ,like oil1 it improves  
with age1 and it is sold in the same    
manner by  the common wine measure4     
#aj4 ,white lead1 and several other     
principal paints1 are purchased in      

their crude condition1 and reduced to a 
state of minute division in             
paint-mills4 ,they are afterwards mixed 
with boiled oil1 and put up in  kegs of 
different sizes for sale4 ,many         
articles1 however1 are  pulverized1 and 
sold in a dry state4 ,the preparation of
 paints is  commonly a distinct         
business1 and very few painters seem to 
be  acquainted with the mode in which it
 is performed4    #aa4 ,in mixing colors
 for house and sign painting1 white lead
 forms the  basis of all the            
ingredients4 ,this the color preparer1  
or the painter  himself1 modifies and   
changes by the addition of coloring     
materials1  until it is tinged with the 
proposed hue4 ,the pigments derived from
  vegetable bodies1 produce1 when first 
applied to surfaces1 a  brilliant       
effect2 but they cannot long resist the 
combined influence  of air and light1   
while the mineral colors1 in the same   
exposure1  remain unchanged4    #ab4    
,painters1 in the execution of their    

work1 commonly lay on three  coats of   
paint4 ,in communicating a white1 the   
two first coats are  composed of white  
lead and oil2 and in the last1 spirits  
of turpentine  is substituted for the   
oil1 for the inside work4 ,for the      
outside of  buildings1 especially in    
warm and dry climates1 this liquid is   
inapplicable1 since it causes the paint 
to crack and flake off4 ,it is1         
however1 frequently used1 when the      
painter is compelled to do his work  at 
too low a rate1 or when he is regardless
 of his reputation4    #ac4 ,for other  
colors1 the composition for the         
different coats is the  same1 except for
 the two last1 in which other coloring  
substances are  added to the materials  
just mentioned1 to give the proposed    
hue4 ,the  tools for painting houses are
 few in number1 and consist chiefly of  
brushes of different sizes1 made of     
hog's bristles4    #ad4 ,graining is    
understood1 among painters1 to be the   
imitation of  the different species of  

scarce woods used for the best articles 
of  furniture4 ,but the manner in which 
this kind of work is executed can  be   
hardly gathered from a concise          
description1 although it may be  easily 
learned from a practical exhibition of  
the process by a  painter4    #ae4      
,ornamental painting embraces the       
execution of friezes and other          
decorative parts of architecture on     
walls and ceilings4 ,the ornaments  are 
drawn in outline with a black-lead      
pencil1 and then painted and  shaded1 to
 give the proper effect4 ,some          
embellishments of this kind  are        
executed in gold-leaf1 in the same      
manner with gold letters on  signs4     
,this kind of work is called gilding in 
oil4    #af4 ,painting in oil1 as       
applied to the execution of designs1    
seems to  have been invented1 or at     
least to have been brought into notice1 
in  the early part of the fifteenth     
century1 by ,john ,van ,eyck1 of        
,flanders4 ,before this time1           

house-painting1 so far as the exterior  
was  concerned1 could have been but     
little1 if at all1 practised4    #ag4   
,one profitable branch of common        
painting is that of painting and        
lettering signs4 ,in performing this    
kind of work1 the sign is first  covered
 with two or three uniform coats of     
paint4 ,the letters are next  slightly  
sketched with chalk or a lead-pencil1   
and then formed in  colors with a       
camels'-hair brush4 ,when the letters   
are to be gilt1 the  process1 so far1 is
 precisely the same4 ,the leaf is laid  
upon the  letters1 while the paint is in
 a tenacious state1 and is suffered to  
remain untouched1 until the oil has     
become dry1 after which the  superfluous
 gold is removed4 ,the whole is then    
covered with an oil  varnish1 which1 in 
plain lettering1 completes the          
operation4      ,,the ,,glazier4    #a4 
,glazing1 as practised in this country1 
consists chiefly in setting  panes of   
glass in window-sashes4 ,in the         

performance of this operation1  the     
glazier first fits the panes to the sash
 by cutting away1 if  necessary1 a part 
of the latter with a chisel2 he then    
fastens the  glass slightly with little 
pieces of tin1 which have been cut to a 
triangular shape2 and1 lastly1 he       
applies putty at their junction  with   
the sash1 and by this means confines    
them firmly and permanently  to their   
place4 ,the putty is made of linseed-oil
 and whiting4 ,the  latter of these     
materials is chalk cleared of its       
grosser impurities1  and ground in a    
color-mill4    #b4 ,plain glazing is so 
simple1 that no person need serve an    
apprenticeship to learn it2 and there   
are but few who confine their  attention
 to this business exclusively4 ,it is   
commonly connected with  some other of  
greater difficulty1 such as that of the 
carpenter and  joiner1 or house and sign
 painter1 but with the latter more      
frequently  than any other4    #c4 ,when
 the glass1 as received from the        

manufacturer1 may not be of  the size   
and shape required for a proposed       
application1 the panes are  cut by means
 of a diamond fixed in lead1 and secured
 by a ferrule of  brass1 which is       
fastened to a small cylindrical handle  
of hard wood4  ,this instrument is used1
 in conjunction with a straight edge1   
like a  pencil in ruling lines on paper 
for writing4 ,the glass is afterwards   
broken in the direction of the fracture1
 by a slight pressure  downwards4    #d4
 ,although glass windows seem to us to  
be indispensable to comfort1  yet glass 
had been manufactured many centuries in 
considerable  perfection1 before it was 
applied to this purpose4 ,the houses in 
oriental countries had commonly no      
windows in front1 and those on the      
other sides were provided with curtains1
 or with a moveable  trellis-work in    
summer1 and in winter with oiled paper4 
#e4 ,in ,rome and other cities of the   
empire1 thin leaves of a certain  kind  
of stone called lapis specularis were   

used4 ,windows of this  material1       
however1 were employed only in the      
principal apartments of  great houses1  
in gardens1 sedans1 and the like4 ,paper
 made of the  ,egyptian papyrus1 linen  
cloth1 thin plates of marble1 agate1 and
 horn1  seem likewise to have been used4
    #f4 ,the first certain information  
we have of the employment of glass      
panes in windows1 is found in the       
writings of ,gregory of ,tours1 who     
flourished in the last quarter of the   
sixth century4 ,this prelate  states    
that the churches were furnished with   
windows of colored glass1  in the fourth
 century after ,christ4 ,the oldest     
glass windows now in  existence were of 
the twelfth century1 and are in the     
,church of ,st4  ,denis1 the most       
ancient edifice of this description in  
,france4    #g4 neas ,sylvius accounted 
it one of the most striking instances of
  splendor which he met with in ,vienna1
 in #adeh1 that most of the houses  had 
glass windows4 ,in ,france1 all the     

churches had these conveniences  in the 
sixteenth century1 although there were  
but few in private  dwellings4 ,talc1   
isinglass1 plates of white horn1 oiled  
paper1 and  thinly shaved leather1 were 
used instead of glass4 ,a similar state 
of  things prevailed in ,england4    #h4
 ,the glass used for the windows of     
churches and other public  buildings1   
after the fourth century1 was very      
commonly intrinsically  colored or      
superficially painted4 ,painting on     
glass had its origin in  the third      
century1 and at first it consisted in   
the mere arrangement  of small pieces of
 glass of different colors in some sort 
of symmetry1  and constituted a kind of 
mosaic-work4    #i4 ,afterwards1 when   
more regular designs came to be         
attempted1 such as  the human figure1   
the whole address of the artist went no 
farther than  drawing the outlines of   
the objects in black on glass resembling
 in  color the subjects to be           
represented4 ,the art1 in this state of 

advancement1 was spread over a great    
part of ,europe4    #aj4 ,about the     
beginning of the fifteenth century1 a   
method of fixing  metallic colors in    
glass by means of heat was discovered1  
and from  this the art derived great    
advantages4 ,it flourished most during  
the  fifteenth and sixteenth centuries2 
but it declined in the following  age1  
and in the eighteenth century it was    
very little practised in any  country4  
,it has1 however1 been partially        
revived1 of late1 in ,germany4  ,a very 
good specimen of this kind of painting1 
as well as of colored  glass1 may be    
seen in ,st4 ,john's ,church1 in        
,philadelphia4          ,illustration3  
,,turner4    ,,the ,,turner4      #a4   
,turning is a very useful art1 by which 
a great variety of articles  are almost 
exclusively manufactured4 ,besides this1
 it constitutes a  considerable part of 
the operations of several trades and    
occupations1  such as the chairmaker1   
machinist1 cabinet-maker1 brass-founder1

 c41  since every substance of a solid  
nature can be submitted to the  process4
    #b4 ,turning is performed in a      
lathe1 an apparatus constructed in      
various ways1 according to the          
particular purposes to which it is to   
be applied1 although1 in all cases1 the 
general principle of its  operation is  
the same4 ,the kind represented in the  
above picture1 is  used for plain or    
circular turning in wood4 ,on           
examination1 it will be  perceived1 that
 two wheels of different sizes make     
essential parts of  it4 ,on the extended
 axle of the smaller one1 is fastened   
the piece to  be turned2 and immediately
 in front of this is the rest1 on which 
the cutting instrument is supported     
during the performance of the           
operation4    #c4 ,when the material to 
be turned is wood1 it is commonly cut to
 the  proper length with a saw1 and     
brought to a form approaching to the    
cylindrical by means of an axe or       
drawing-knife4 ,it is next fastened  in 

the lathe4 ,this is done by different   
means1 varying according to  the        
particular form of the thing to be      
turned4 ,in plain circular  turning1 as 
applied to bed-posts1 legs of tables1   
and rounds for  chairs1 the piece is    
supported at each end4 ,that at the left
 hand is  driven upon a piece of steel1 
which has been screwed upon the extended
  axle of the small wheel2 and the other
 end is fixed upon a steel  point1      
placed in an upright moveable piece     
called a puppet-head4    #d4 ,in case   
the wood is to be turned on the inside1 
as in making a  bowl1 cup1 or mortar1   
the piece is supported altogether at one
 end1 by  means of a hollow cylinder of 
wood1 brass1 or iron1 called a chuck1   
which receives it on one side1 and on   
the other is screwed upon the  end of   
the axle4 ,the axle is sometimes called 
the mandril1 and any  extension of it1  
by means of a piece added to it for a   
centre1 on  which anything may be turned
 which will admit of a hole through it1 

is  denominated an arbor4    #e4 ,the   
tools used in turning wood and ivory1   
are gouges and  chisels of different    
sizes and shapes4 ,in using these1 they 
are  placed upon the rest1 and brought  
in contact with the revolving  material 
of the proposed figure4 ,the gouge is   
employed in cutting away  the rough     
exterior1 and the chisel1 in producing a
 still further  reduction1 and a greater
 smoothness of surface4    #f4 ,in      
working in very hard wood and in ivory1 
the grooving tool1 a  sharp pointed     
instrument somewhat similar to the      
graver1 is used in  the first part of   
the operation2 and by this the grain of 
the  substance is cut into contiguous   
grooves1 and prepared for an easy       
reduction by the chisel4 ,the           
instruments for turning metals are      
numerous1 but they differ in some       
respects from those for cutting  wood4  
#g4 ,in almost every kind of turning1 a 
tool called the calipers is  necessary  
for measuring the diameters of the work4

 ,in its form1 it  bears some           
resemblance to the compasses or         
dividers4 ,one or both of  the legs1    
however1 are curved2 and one kind of    
this instrument has  four legs1 two     
curved1 or two straight1 at each end1   
with a pivot in  the centre1 on which it
 is opened and shut4 ,the former of     
these is  employed in measuring the     
dimensions of outside work1 and the     
latter1  for that on the inside4 ,this  
kind is called the in-and-out calipers2 
and it is especially useful in turning a
 cylinder1 or pin1 which shall  exactly 
fit an internal cylinder already made1  
and vice vers4    #h4 ,there is but     
little difference in the management of  
turning  different substances4 ,the     
principal thing to be attended to is to 
adapt the velocity of the motion to the 
nature of the material2 thus  wood will 
work best with the greatest velocity    
that can be given to  it4 ,brass should 
have a motion about half as quick as    
wood1 and iron  and steel still less2   

for1 in operating on metallic           
substances1 the  tool is liable to      
become hot1 and lose its temper2 besides
 which1 a  certain time is requisite for
 the act of cutting to take place4      
#i4 ,when compared with many other      
mechanical operations1 the art of       
turning may be considered as perfect in 
its accuracy and expedition4  ,the lathe
 is1 therefore1 resorted to for the     
performance of every work  of which it  
is capable2 nor is its use confined to  
the production of  forms perfectly      
cylindrical1 for it can be easily made  
to produce  figures of irregular shape1 
such as lasts1 gunstocks1 c4    #aj4    
,the lathe was well known to the ,greeks
 and ,romans1 as well as to  many other 
nations of antiquity4 ,diodorus         
,siculus1 who wrote in the  time of     
,julius ,csar and ,augustus1 says that  
it was invented by one  ,talus1 a nephew
 of ,ddalus4 ,pliny ascribes it to      
,theodore1 of ,samos1  and mentions one 
,thericles1 who had rendered himself    

very famous by  his dexterity in        
managing the lathe4 ,the ,greek and     
,latin authors  frequently mention this 
instrument2 and1 among the ancients1 it 
was  customary to express the accuracy  
and nicety of a thing by saying1 it  was
 formed in a lathe4                     
,illustration3 ,,cabinet ,,maker4       
,,the ,,cabinet-,,maker1 ,,and ,,the    
,,upholsterer4      ,,the               
,,cabinet-,,maker4    #a4 ,it is the    
business of the cabinet-maker to        
manufacture particular  kinds of        
household furniture1 such as tables1    
stands1 bureaus1  sideboards1 desks1    
book-cases1 sofas1 bedsteads1 c41 as    
well as a  certain description of chairs
 made of mahogany and maple4 ,many of   
the  operations of this business are    
similar to those of the carpenter and   
joiner1 although they require to be     
conducted with greater nicety and       
exactness4    #b4 ,the qualifications of
 a finished cabinet-maker are numerous  
and of  difficult acquisition2 so that  

they are seldom concentrated in any     
single individual4 ,he requires not only
 a correct taste1 but also a  knowledge 
of drawing1 architecture1 and mechanics1
 besides the  abilities of a good       
practical workman4    #c4 ,a knowledge  
of drawing is especially useful in      
designing new  articles of furniture1 or
 in improving the form of those which   
have  been already introduced4 ,it also 
enables the artist to determine with    
accuracy what would be the general      
effect of furniture1 were different     
pieces of it placed in any proposed     
apartment2 and1 combined with           
architectural knowledge1 it enables him 
to adapt the style of his  wares to that
 of the building for which they may be  
designed4    #d4 ,in general1 the       
principles of this business are fixed1  
so far as  relates to the mode of       
operating in the execution of the work2 
yet  continual changes are made in the  
form and construction of its various    
articles1 so as to keep pace with the   

advancement of correct taste1 or  with  
the caprices of fashion4 ,in fact1 the  
shapes of furniture are  almost as      
changeable as those of female dress2 and
 this causes many  expensive pieces to  
fall into disuse1 while others are      
introduced1  which1 for a time1 are     
considered indispensable to comfort1 and
 which  in turn enjoy but a temporary   
favor4    #e4 ,the cabinet-maker uses   
various kinds of wood in the manufacture
 of  his wares2 but those which are most
 frequently employed in the ,united     
,states are pine1 maple1 poplar1 cherry1
 black walnut1 white oak1  beach1       
mahogany1 and rose1 all of which are    
abundant in this country1  except the   
last two4 ,mahogany is brought in great 
quantities from the  ,west ,indies and  
,south ,america2 rose-wood is obtained  
chiefly from the  ,west ,indies and     
,brazil1 although it was first          
introduced into notice  from the island 
of ,cyprus4    #f4 ,the applicability of
 mahogany to the manufacture of         

cabinet-ware1  was accidentally         
discovered in ,london1 about the year   
#agbd4 ,a  physician1 named ,gibbons1   
received a present of some of the planks
  from his brother1 a sea-captain1 who  
had brought them from the ,west         
,indies1 chiefly as ballast4 ,the doctor
 was1 at that time1 erecting a  house1  
and1 supposing them to be adapted to the
 purposes of building1  gave them to his
 workmen1 who1 on trial1 rejected them  
as being too  hard to be wrought with   
their tools4    #g4 ,a cabinet-maker was
 next employed to make a candle-box of  
some of  it1 and he also complained of  
the hardness of the timber2 but1 when   
the box was finished1 it outshone in    
beauty all the doctor's other           
furniture4 ,he then required a bureau to
 be made of the same kind of  material2 
and this1 having been finished1 became  
the subject of  exhibition to his       
friends1 as a piece of remarkable       
beauty4 ,the wood  was immediately taken
 into general favor1 and it soon became 

an  article of merchandise of           
considerable importance4    #h4 ,in     
giving the reader a view of the         
operative part of this business1  we    
have selected the bureau as affording   
the best means of  illustration4 ,the   
material which composes the frame and   
drawers of  this piece of furniture1 is 
commonly some kind of soft wood1 such as
  pine or poplar2 and this is faced with
 thin layers of mahogany in  those parts
 which are to be exposed to view4    #i4
 ,the materials for the frame and       
drawers are first marked out1 and  the  
several pieces reduced to the form and  
dimensions required1 with  planes and   
other instruments4 ,thin pieces of      
mahogany are firmly fixed  to the       
surfaces which require them4 ,this part 
of the work is called  veneering4 ,the  
workman prepares the surface of the soft
 wood for the  veneer1 by cutting it    
into small contiguous grooves by means  
of a  small plane1 the cutting edge of  
which is full of little notches and     

teeth4    #aj4 ,melted glue having been 
spread upon both surfaces with a brush1 
the parts are placed in contact1 and    
firmly pressed together by means  of    
hand-screws4 ,before the screws are     
applied1 the surface of the  veneer is  
covered with a piece of heated board1   
termed1 in this  application1 a caul4   
,one piece of this kind commonly serves 
a veneer  on each side of it at the same
 time4    #aa4 ,the mahogany thus       
attached to the softer wood1 is         
afterwards  wrought with the            
toothed-plane1 and others of the common 
kind4 ,it is  then scraped with a flat  
piece of steel1 having edges which act  
upon  the surface in the same manner as 
pieces of broken panes of glass4 ,the   
polishing is finished1 so far as it is  
carried at this stage of the  process1  
by the use of sand-paper4    #ab4 ,the  
several pieces which compose the frame  
of the bureau are put  together with the
 joint called mortice and tenon2 and    
those which  form the four sides of the 

drawers1 with that called dove-tail4    
,the  bottom is united to the sides on  
the right and left1 and sometimes in    
front1 by the groove-and-tongue1 and its
 rear edge is fastened with  a few      
nails4 ,the bearers of the drawers are  
fastened on by means of  nails4    #ac4 
,the joints are made to fit not only by 
the accuracy of the work1  but by the   
application of glue previous to the     
union of the parts2  this is especially 
the case with the mortice and tenon4    
,the back of  the bureau is composed of 
some cheap wood1 such as pine or poplar2
 but  the panel at each end is most     
commonly plain mahogany through its     
entire thickness4    #ad4 ,the parts    
which are to be exposed to view are next
 to be varnished  and polished4 ,the    
material for the former purpose is      
called copal  varnish1 because one of   
the principal ingredients in it is a    
kind of  gum called copal1 which is     
obtained from various parts of ,south   
,america4 ,this kind of varnish is made 

by melting the gum with an equal        
quantity of linseed-oil and spirits of  
turpentine or alcohol4    #ae4 ,to give 
the work a complete finish1 four coats  
of varnish are  successively applied2 in
 addition to these1 a particular kind of
  treatment is used after laying on and 
drying each coat4 ,after the            
application of the first coat1 the      
surface is rubbed with a piece of  wood 
of convenient form2 after the second1   
with sand-paper and  pulverized         
pumice-stone2 after the third1 with     
pumice-stone again2 and  after the      
fourth1 with very finely powdered       
pumice-stone and  rotten-stone4 ,a      
little linseed-oil is next applied1 and 
the whole  process is finished by       
rubbing the surface with the hand       
charged with  flour4    #af4 ,some parts
 of several pieces of furniture are     
turned in the lathe2  and1 in large     
cities1 this part of the work is        
performed by professed  turners4 ,the   
veneering of certain kinds of work of a 

cylindrical form  is1 also1 in some     
cases1 a distinct business2 but1 in     
places distant  from large cities1 the  
whole work is commonly performed by the 
cabinet-maker himself4    #ag4 ,mahogany
 is brought to market in logs hewn to a 
square form2 and  persons who deal in   
it1 commonly purchase it in large       
quantities1 and  cause it to be sawn    
into pieces of suitable dimensions for  
sale4  ,formerly1 and in some cases at  
present1 slabs were sawn into thin      
pieces for veneering by hand2 but1      
within a few years1 a more  expeditious 
method1 by the circular saw1 has been   
adopted4 ,in  performing the operation  
by this means1 the slab is placed upon  
its  edge1 and shoved along against the 
teeth of the rapidly-revolving saw4  ,it
 is kept in the proper position by      
holding the right side of it  firmly    
against an upright plank1 called the    
rest4    #ah4 ,mahogany is either plain1
 mottled1 or crotched2  nevertheless1   
the different kinds expressed by these  

terms are met  with in the same tree4   
,the variegated kinds are found at or   
near the  joining of the limbs to the   
trunk2 and these are used almost        
exclusively for veneering4 ,the plain   
sort is employed for more common        
purposes1 and in those parts of         
furniture required to be less splendid  
in appearance4 ,it may be well to       
remark1 also1 that plain mahogany is    
often veneered1 as well as the softer   
woods4 ,black walnut1 white oak1  rose1 
and several other woods1 are likewise   
used for veneering1  although not so    
much as mahogany4 ,our native woods will
 be hereafter  more used in this way1   
since mahogany is becoming scarce4      
#ai4 ,in ,europe1 particularly in       
,england1 the business of the           
cabinet-maker is commonly united with   
that of the upholsterer2 and  this is   
sometimes the case in the ,united       
,states4 ,all1 however1 who  make sofas 
and chairs1 intrude enough upon the     
latter business to  cover and stuff     

them2 or they employ a journeyman       
upholsterer to  perform this part of the
 work4      ,,the ,,upholsterer4    #a4 
,the upholsterer makes beds1            
sacking-bottoms1 mattresses1 cushions1  
curtains for windows and beds1 and cuts 
out1 sews together1 and  fastens down1  
carpets4 ,one branch of his business1   
also1 consists in  covering or lining   
and stuffing sofas1 and particular kinds
 of chairs1  the frames of which are    
made by cabinet-makers and fancy        
chair-makers4    #b4 ,beds are stuffed  
with the feathers of geese and ducks4   
,the sack  which contains them1 when in 
use1 is called a tick1 and the striped  
stuff of which it is composed1 is called
 ticking4 ,the feathers used  by the    
upholsterer1 are purchased from the     
feather-merchants1 who in  turn procure 
them from country merchants and pedlers4
 ,the dealer in  feathers also employs  
travelling agents to collect them in    
different  parts of the country4    #c4 
,beds and pillows are also made of down 

obtained from the nests of  the         
eider-duck1 which is found in the       
northern parts of ,europe and  ,america1
 above latitude #de4 ,eider-down is     
worth about two dollars  per pound1 and 
five or six times that quantity is      
sufficient for a bed  of common size4   
#d4 ,mattresses are made of curled hair1
 moss1 shavings of ratan1 flock1  straw1
 corn-husks1 and cat-tail flag4 ,the    
hair most employed for this  purpose    
grows upon the tails of cattle1 and upon
 the manes and tails  of horses4 ,it is 
purchased1 in its natural state1 from   
tanners1 by  persons who make it a      
business to prepare it for use4 ,the    
last process  of the preparation        
consists in twisting it into a kind of  
rope4 ,these  ropes are picked to pieces
 by the upholsterer1 and the hair1 in   
its  curled and elastic state1 is       
applied to stuffing mattresses1         
cushions1  chairs1 and sofas4    #e4    
,moss is obtained from the ,southern    
states of our ,union1 where it is  found

 in great abundance1 and of a good      
quality4 ,flock is made by  reducing to 
a degree of fineness1 by machinery1     
coarse tags of wool1  pieces of woollen 
cloth1 old stockings1 and other woollen 
offals of  little or no value in any    
other application4 ,of all the materials
 for  stuffing upholstery1 hair is much 
the best1 and1 although it costs  more  
in its original purchase1 it is much    
cheaper in the end4    #f4 ,in making   
and putting up window and bed curtains1 
considerable  taste is required to      
insure success4 ,a knowledge of drawing 
is  particularly useful here1 in        
improving the taste1 as well as in      
exhibiting to customers the prevailing  
fashions1 or any changes which  may be  
proposed4 ,the trimmings consist chiefly
 of tassels1 fringes1  and gilded or    
brass fixtures4    #g4 ,we have not     
space for a particular description of   
the manner in  which any of the         
operations of the upholsterer are       
performed2 nor is  this necessary1 since

 the work itself1 in almost every       
specimen of it1  affords obvious        
indications of the manner of its        
execution4 ,we will  merely remark1 that
 a great proportion of it is performed  
by females4    #h4 ,in the first ages of
 the world1 it was the universal        
practice to  sleep upon the skins of    
beasts1 and this is still the custom    
among the  savage nations of the present
 day4 ,the ,greeks and the ,romans1 in  
the  early part of their history1 slept 
in this manner1 and so did the  common  
people of some parts of ,germany1 even  
until modern times4    #i4 ,the first   
advancement from the use of skins was   
the substitution of  rushes1 heath1 or  
straw1 which was primarily strewed      
loosely on the  ground or floor1 and    
finally confined with ticking2 and these
 and  similar materials are still used  
by the poor in various parts of the     
world4 ,so late as the close of the     
thirteenth century1 the royal  family of
 ,england slept on beds made of straw4  

#aj4 ,during the civilized periods of   
antiquity1 the wealthy commonly  filled 
their beds with feathers4 ,after the    
,romans had become  luxurious1 they used
 several kinds of beds1 among which were
 the  lectus cubicularis1 or chamber    
bed1 whereon they slept2 the lectus     
discubitorius1 or table bed1 whereon    
they ate2 and the lectus  lucubratorius1
 on which they studied4    #aa4 ,the    
,romans adopted the ,eastern fashion of 
reclining at their  meals1 at the close 
of the second ,punic war1 about #bjj    
years before  ,christ1 when ,scipio     
,africanus brought some little beds from
 ,carthage1  which were thence called   
,punicani4 ,these beds were low1 made of
  wood1 covered with leather1 and       
stuffed with hay or straw4 ,before this 
time1 they sat down to eat on plain     
wooden benches1 in imitation of  the    
heroes of ,homer1 or after the manner of
 the ,cretans and  ,lacedmonians4       
#ab4 ,from the greatest simplicity1 the 
,romans at length carried their  supping

 beds to the most surprising            
magnificence4 ,the bedsteads were       
sometimes made of gold or silver1 and   
very commonly of wood1 adorned  with    
plates of these metals or with tortoise 
shell4 ,on the couch was  laid a        
mattress or quilt1 stuffed with feathers
 or wool4    #ac4 ,three persons        
commonly occupied one couch4 ,they lay  
with the upper  part of the body        
reclined on the left arm1 the head a    
little raised1  the back supported by   
cushions1 and the limbs stretched out at
 full  length or a little bent4 ,the    
feet of the first were placed behind the
  back of the second1 and his feet      
behind the back of the third4           
,reclining at meals was customary in    
,asia1 in the time of our ,savior1  as  
is clearly shown in ,john1 xiii41 #bc   
and #be1 and this rendered it           
convenient for ,mary to anoint the feet 
of ,jesus1 while at the table4    #ad4  
,the ,romans1 during the republic1 made 
their tables of a square  form1 and on  

three sides of it was placed a couch2   
but1 under the  emperors1 a long couch  
of a semicircular form having been      
introduced1  the table was made of a    
similar shape to conform to it4 ,in     
either  case1 one side was left empty1  
to admit of the approach of the         
servants4    #ae4 ,we have no certain   
evidence that carpets were known in the 
civilized periods of antiquity4 ,they   
appear to have originated in  ,persia1  
at a time comparatively modern1 and to  
have spread in a  gradual manner towards
 the ,west4 ,they were unknown in       
,england in the  reign of ,elizabeth2   
for it was then the fashion to strew the
 floor  with hay and rushes4 ,even the  
presence-chamber of this princess was   
covered in this manner4 ,the manufacture
 of carpets was not commenced  in       
,england1 until the year #agej4 ,they   
are now extensively manufactured  in the
 ,united ,states4                       
,illustration3 ,,chair ,,maker4    ,,the
 ,,chair-,,maker4      #a4 ,the chair   

was invented at so early a period1 that 
its origin cannot  now be ascertained4  
,it was used by all the civilized       
nations of  antiquity2 and some of their
 patterns for this species of furniture 
have been revived1 with some            
modifications1 in modern times2 for     
example1 a stool for sitting at the     
piano1 now called the ,x1 is the  lower 
part of a chair used in the ,roman      
empire near two thousand years  ago4    
,the seat and back were stuffed with    
some soft elastic substance4    #b4 ,the
 seats used by the barbarous conquerors 
of the ,roman empire1  hardly deserve   
the name of chairs1 as they commonly    
consisted of  little or nothing more    
than a stool with three or four legs4   
,even the  great ,alfred1 who swayed the
 sceptre of ,england in the latter part 
of  the ninth century1 possessed nothing
 approaching nearer to a chair  than a  
three-legged stool made of oak timber4  
,this species of seat was  at length    
improved into a chair by the addition of

 another leg and a  back4    #c4 ,the   
next step in the art of chair-making was
 to cover the seats  with cloth1 and to 
stuff them with some kind of wadding4   
,the material  of which the frames were 
made was oak2 and for a long period1    
they  were exceedingly heavy and        
inconvenient4 ,the armed-chair is said  
to  have been contrived by an alderman  
of ,cripplegate4 ,such chairs1  however1
 were in use among the ancient ,greeks  
and ,romans4    #d4 ,our old-fashioned  
chair1 with four upright posts1 several 
horizontal rounds and slats1 together   
with wooden splints or flags for  the   
bottom1 is comparatively modern1        
although it is impossible to  state the 
period of its introduction4 ,very few of
 any other kind were  used in the       
,united ,states1 until near the         
beginning of the present  century4      
#e4 ,the ,windsor chair seems to have   
been first used for a rural seat in  the
 grounds about ,windsor castle1         
,england2 whence its name4 ,it was      

originally constructed of round wood1   
with the bark on2 but the  chair-makers 
soon began to make them of turned wood1 
for the common  purposes of             
house-keeping4 ,we cannot learn that any
 were made in this  country before the  
close of the revolution1 in #aghc4      
#f4 ,a great proportion of the          
chair-maker's stuff is brought to the   
proper form by means of the lathe2 and  
this machine is used for this  purpose  
in every practicable case2 but this part
 of the work is not  performed in the   
cities1 since it is found to be less    
expensive and  more convenient1 to      
purchase the timber turned in the       
country4 ,slats  for the back1 bent to  
the proper shape1 are also obtained from
 the  same source4    #g4 ,the ,windsor 
chair is varied in its construction and 
finish1 in  some particulars2 but1 in   
all cases1 it has a seat made of thick  
plank  of cypress1 bass1 or some other  
soft wood4 ,the slats1 when employed1   
are also made of the same wood1 or of   

soft maple4 ,the parts which are        
turned1 are commonly of the wood last   
mentioned4    #h4 ,in constructing      
chairs from these materials1 the workman
 undertakes  several at a time1 say from
 one to two or three dozens4 ,we may    
suppose1 as is frequently the case1 that
 he first cuts up a quantity  of planks 
to the proper size for the seats1 and   
reduces them to the  proposed form and  
smoothness by means of the              
drawing-knife1 adze1  spoke-shaves1 and 
sand-paper4 ,he next cuts the various   
pieces which  are to compose the frame1 
to the proper length1 turns the ends of 
those which need it1 to make the joint1 
and bores the requisite holes  with a   
bit4 ,in putting the parts together1 the
 joints are made to  fit very closely1  
and their union is rendered permanent by
 means of  glue4    #i4 ,the chairs are 
next covered with three coats of paint1 
and with two  coats of copal or some    
other kind of varnish2 and this1 for    
plain  work1 completes the whole process

 of the manufacture4 ,but1 when they    
are to be ornamented1 gold or copper    
leaf or bronze is put on before  the    
application of the last coat of varnish4
 ,the bronze used by  painters1 is      
finely pulverized copper1 tin1 or zinc4 
#aj4 ,the ornamenter uses paper         
patterns1 which he applies to the       
surface to be ornamented1 to guide him  
in the execution of his work4  ,the     
powder is laid on with a camel's-hair   
brush1 or with a piece of  raw cotton4  
,light and shade are produced by a      
proper distribution of  the powder1 or  
by paint of a dark colour4 ,the bronze  
is made to adhere  by means of size1    
which has been previously laid on4      
#aa4 ,several other kinds of chairs are1
 also1 made by the common  chair-maker2 
and the frames1 or some parts of them1  
are sawn out of  planks with a          
narrow-bladed saw1 which can be easily  
guided upon the  line of any pattern4   
,the principal parts of the frame are   
commonly put  together with the mortice 

and tenon2 and the bottoms are composed 
of  cane1 flags1 or a peculiar kind of  
rush4 ,the cane is likewise used in  the
 backs of chairs1 especially in those   
having rockers4    #ab4 ,the manufacture
 of mahogany chairs with stuffed seats1 
sometimes  constitutes a distinct branch
 of business2 at other times1 it is     
connected with that of making sofas2 and
 again1 with cabinet-making in  general4
 ,it is generally supposed1 that rockers
 were first applied to  chairs in this  
country1 but at what time or by whom1 it
 cannot be  determined4                 
,illustration3 ,,carver  ,,gilder4      
,,the ,,carver1 ,,and ,,the ,,gilder4   
,,the ,,carver4    #a4 ,carving1 in its 
widest sense1 is the art of forming     
figures in  various hard substances by  
means of some cutting instruments1 such 
as  a chisel or graver2 but1 in the     
restricted sense in which the term is   
generally applied1 it has reference to  
the production of figures in  wood4     
#b4 ,carving in wood1 in all countries  

where it has been practised1 has  ever  
preceded sculpture1 or carving in stone4
 ,it is1 therefore1 an art  of the      
highest antiquity2 and1 although the    
same with sculpture in  some of its     
applications1 yet it differs from it    
somewhat in the mode  of execution1     
according with the nature of the        
material4    #c4 ,the art of carving is 
very extensive in its application1 being
  used in the decorative parts of       
architecture1 both civil and naval1  and
 likewise in ornamenting cabinet-ware1  
as well as in forming  patterns for     
casting in metals1 particularly in iron 
and brass4 ,the  ,gothic style of       
architecture is peculiarly rich in      
carved work2 and  the productions of    
some ages are more so than those of     
others4    #d4 ,the style of ,louis the 
,fourteenth1 of ,france1 so called      
because  practised in his reign1 was    
more overloaded with ornament than any  
other4 ,a lighter and more beautiful    
style succeeded1 which is still         

employed for some purposes2 but         
generally the chaste and simple line  of
 ,grecian ornament now prevails4    #e4 
,in executing any proposed work1 a      
drawing is first made on paper1         
commonly with a lead-pencil4 ,the part  
of the paper not embraced in the        
outline is then cut away1 and the       
remaining portion is laid upon the      
surface of the wood4 ,the outlines are  
next drawn on the wood1 by  moving the  
pencil around those on the paper4 ,the  
design having been  thus transferred1   
the superfluous portions of the wood are
 cut away  with carving tools1 of which 
there is a considerable variety of both 
size and form4 ,the tools are driven    
with a mallet or with the palm of  the  
hand1 but in most cases with the latter4
    #f4 ,a capacity for designing1 and a
 knowledge of drawing and modelling1    
are particularly necessary to make a    
finished carver4 ,without these         
qualifications1 at least in some degree1
 one may be a mechanic1 but  not an     

artist4 ,the subject most difficult of  
execution1 is the human  figure1 and in 
producing it with accuracy1 the same    
qualifications in  the artist are       
required1 and the same general process  
is pursued1 as  in producing it in      
marble4      ,,the ,,gilder4    #a4     
,carving and gilding are1 in most cases1
 ostensibly united as one  business1    
although in fact they are branches of   
manufacture totally  distinct4 ,the     
gilder1 therefore1 who writes over his  
door1 ,carver and  ,gilder1 seldom has  
any practical knowledge of carving4 ,for
 every  thing in this line of work1 he  
is dependent on the carver1 who         
commonly pursues his business in a      
private way4    #b4 ,the operation of   
gilding1 as performed by those whose    
business is  now under consideration1 is
 executed chiefly on wood4 ,it is       
employed  most frequently for picture   
and looking-glass frames1 and for       
upholstery fixtures4 ,it is a mechanical
 process1 and consists in  applying     

gold-leaf to surfaces1 in such a manner 
as to adhere with  tenacity4    #c4     
,before the application of the metal1 a 
tedious process must be  performed1 by  
way of preparation4 ,the surface to be  
gilded is  successively covered with    
from five to seven coats of glutinous   
size1  made by boiling scraps of        
parchment in water1 with the addition of
 a  little whiting4 ,the average        
thickness of the coat thus produced1 is 
about one-sixteenth of an inch4    #d4  
,the surface is next rubbed with        
freestone and pumice stone1 of a  shape 
corresponding with the pattern of the   
frame1 while a small  quantity of water 
is occasionally applied1 to increase    
their effects4  ,after this1 the sizing 
is rendered still smoother1 by friction 
with  sand-paper4 ,this surface is then 
covered with three coats of  burnished  
gold size1 which is composed of ,english
 pipe clay1 venison  suet1 and ,french  
bole1 or red chalk1 mixed in a suitable 
quantity of  weak parchment size4 ,the  

preparation is completed by rubbing the 
surface with worn sand-paper1 by washing
 it in water with a sponge1  and by     
rubbing it with a piece of cloth4    #e4
 ,the leaf is laid on with a broad1 but 
thin brush1 called a tip4  ,before the  
gold is applied1 however1 the surface is
 well wet with  alcohol and water4 ,when
 dry1 the parts designed to be bright1  
are  burnished with a polished agate or 
flint4 ,in the best kind of work1 a     
second coat of the leaf is required4 ,in
 gilding irregular surfaces1  such as   
the ornaments at the corners of frames1 
a size made of  linseed-oil1 white lead1
 yellow ochre1 and japan1 is laid on a  
few  hours before the application of the
 leaf4 ,this is called gilding in  oil4 
#f4 ,the ornaments on the frames are    
cast in moulds1 and are made of a       
composition of glue1 whiting1 rosin1    
turpentine1 and ,burgundy pitch4  ,the  
moulds are taken from patterns1         
originally executed by the  carver4     
,illustration3 ,,cooper4    ,,the       

,,cooper4      #a4 ,the cooper          
manufactures casks1 tubs1 pails1 and    
various other  articles for domestic    
use1 as well as vessels for containing  
all kinds  of liquids and merchandise of
 a dry nature4 ,he also applies hoops to
  boxes which are to be transported1    
with their valuable contents1 to a      
distance from the cities4    #b4 ,the   
productions of this art being of prime  
necessity1 the trade  must have been    
exercised at a very early period4 ,roman
 writers on  rural economy speak of the 
existence of its productions more than  
two  thousand years ago2 nevertheless   
they are still unknown in some          
countries1 and there the inhabitants    
keep or carry liquids in skins  daubed  
over with pitch4    #c4 ,bottles of this
 kind were used1 more or less1 in all   
parts of the  ,roman empire1 in the days
 of our ,savior2 and to such he alluded1
 when  speaking of putting new wine into
 old bottles4 ,earthen vessels of       
various dimensions1 were also in        

extensive use at the same time4 ,the    
custom of keeping wine in such vessels1 
is still common in the  southern parts  
of ,europe4 ,pliny accords to the       
,piedmontese the merit  of introducing  
casks4 ,in his time1 they were daubed   
with pitch4    #d4 ,cedar and oak are   
the woods chiefly employed as materials 
in this  business2 and the persons who  
carry it on1 as well as journeymen1     
confine their attention to the          
production of wares from one or the     
other of these woods2 hence the division
 of the workmen into cedar  coopers and 
oak coopers4    #e4 ,it is not always   
the case1 however1 that every cooper    
executes all  kinds of work belonging to
 either one of these divisions of the   
trade2  but this is not because there is
 any peculiar difficulty attending any  
part of the business1 but because some  
particular kind of coopering is         
required in preference to others2 for   
example1 in some places1 flour  barrels 
are the casks most needed2 in others1   

those for sugar1  tobacco1 pearlash1 or 
some kind of spirits4    #f4 ,in        
illustrating the general operations of  
this business1 we will  describe the    
process of making a tub4 ,the timber is 
first cut to the  proper length with the
 kind of saw used in the cities for     
cutting  fire-wood4 ,it is next split   
into pieces with a frow1 the curvature  
of which corresponds1 at least with some
 degree of exactness1 to that  of the   
proposed vessel4 ,the several pieces are
 then shaved on the  edges with a       
straight drawing-knife1 on the inside   
with one of a  concave form1 and on the 
outside with one of corresponding       
convexity4    #g4 ,after this1 they are 
jointed on a long plane1 which is placed
 with  its face upwards1 in an inclined 
position4 ,the workman is guided in     
giving the proper angle to the surface  
cut with the plane1 by a  wooden gauge  
of peculiar form4 ,the staves1 having   
been thus prepared1  are set up in a    
truss-hoop2 and after this has been     

driven down1 one  or two others which   
are to remain are put on4 ,the outside  
is then made  smooth with a convex      
drawing-knife1 and the inside with a    
smoothing-plane1 the edge of which is   
circular1 to correspond with the  form  
of the surface4 ,the inside of small    
wooden vessels is generally  made smooth
 with a crooked drawing-knife4    #h4   
,the staves are now sawn off to a       
uniform length at the bottom1 and  a    
groove is cut for the insertion of the  
bottom4 ,the latter operation  is       
performed by means of a cutting         
instrument fixed in a kind of  gauge4   
,the several pieces to compose the      
bottom are brought to the  proper form  
and smoothness with a straight          
drawing-knife2 and1 having  been        
slightly fastened together by wooden    
pins1 the whole1 as one  piece1 is      
inserted in its proper place by driving 
it down from the top  on the inside4    
,the whole process is finished by       
driving on the hoops1  and making the   

holes in the handles4    #i4 ,the cedar 
employed in this business is a          
considerable tree1 which  grows in      
various parts of the world1 but         
especially in the ,united  ,states1     
where it occupies large tracts called   
cedar or cypress  swamps4 ,the wood is  
soft1 smooth1 and of an aromatic smell4 
,it is  likewise much used for shingles4
 ,the ,dismal ,swamp1 lying in ,virginia
  and ,north ,carolina1 contains an     
abundance of this kind of timber4       
#aj4 ,the operations in oak vary from   
those in cedar so far as to  conform to 
the nature of the material1 and the form
 of the vessels  manufactured4 ,in      
bringing the staves to the proper form1 
the workman  is guided altogether by the
 eye2 and1 if they must be bent1 they   
require to be heated4 ,the fire for this
 purpose is made of shavings  and chips 
in a small furnace of sheet iron1 called
 a crusset4 ,the  hoops1 both for cedar 
and oak wares1 are made of thin strips  
of iron1  or of small oak1 hickory1 ash1

 or cedar saplings4 ,within a few years1
  several machines have been invented1  
for getting out staves1 and for         
bringing them to the proper form1 as    
well as for performing several  other   
parts of the cooper's operations4       
#aa4 ,the coopers in ,england derive a  
great deal of their employment  from the
 ,west ,india trade4 ,barrels1          
puncheons1 and hogsheads1 are  carried  
out of the country filled with dry      
goods1 and are returned  filled with rum
 and sugar4 ,in the ,united ,states1    
much work of this  kind is done for the 
same market2 but then the staves and    
heads are  only fitted and marked here1 
to be afterwards put together in the    
,west  ,indies4          ,illustration3 
,,wheelwright4    ,,the ,,wheelwright4  
#a4 ,the artisan who makes the wood-work
 of common wheel carriages1 or  the     
wheels of coaches1 is denominated a     
wheelwright2 but1 under this  head1 we  
propose to include whatever we may say  
on constructing and  finishing wheel    

carriages in general4    #b4 ,it must be
 evident1 even to a superficial         
observer1 that this  business1 in its   
different branches1 occupies a large    
space in our  domestic industry1 since  
almost every farmer in the country owns 
a  vehicle of some sort1 and since the  
streets of our busy cities and  towns   
exhibit1 during a great part of the day1
 scenes of bustle  occasioned1 in a     
great measure1 by the passing and       
repassing of  carriages of different    
kinds4    #c4 ,the principal kinds of   
wheel carriages made in this country1   
are  the cart1 the wagon1 the gig1 and  
the coach2 and of each of these  there  
are various sorts1 differing in strength
 and mode of  construction1 to suit the 
particular purposes to which they are to
 be  applied4 ,the business of making   
these vehicles is divided into a  number
 of branches2 but1 as the manufacture of
 the coach embraces a  greater variety  
of operations than any other species of 
carriage1 we  have selected it as       

affording the best means of explaining  
the  operations of the whole business4  
#d4 ,in large establishments for making 
coaches and other vehicles of  the best 
workmanship1 the operators confine their
 attention to the  execution of         
particular parts of the work2 for       
example1 one man makes  the wheels1     
another the carriage and body1 another  
fashions and  applies the iron1 another 
does the painting and polishing1 and    
another  the trimming4 ,in smaller      
establishments1 a greater proportion of 
the  work is executed by one person4    
#e4 ,the wheels of the coach1 as well as
 those of every other vehicle in  which 
they are used1 are composed of a hub1   
and several spokes1  and felloes4 ,the  
hubs are commonly made of a kind of     
tough wood1  called gum1 which is       
reduced to the desired form in the      
lathe4 ,the  hole through the centre is 
made with a common auger1 and enlarged  
with  one tapering towards the point1   
and having through its whole length  two

 cutting edges4 ,the mortices for the   
spokes are made with a chisel  driven   
with a mallet4    #f4 ,the spokes are   
made of white oak1 and the felloes1 of  
ash or  hickory2 and both are brought to
 the required form and smoothness with  
the saw1 axe1 drawing-knife1            
spoke-shave1 chisel1 and sand-paper4    
,the  constituent parts of the carriage1
 or running gears1 are the  axles1      
perch1 and spring-beds1 or bolsters1 to 
which are  added the tongue1 or pole1   
and some other parts connected with it4 
#g4 ,the joints in this part of the     
vehicle are made perfectly tight by  the
 application of putty2 whereas1 in the  
body1 glue is used for this  purpose4   
,the latter substance will not answer in
 the former case1  since it cannot bear 
exposure to water4 ,the wood generally  
employed  for the carriage part1 as well
 as for the frame of the body1 is ash2  
and the several parts are sawn from     
planks of suitable thickness4 ,in  this 
part of the work1 the operator is guided

 by patterns made of thin  pine boards4 
,the panels of the body are made of thin
 boards of poplar  or bass-wood4 ,the   
manner in which the several parts are   
dressed and  put together is too obvious
 to need description4    #h4 ,the wheels
 and the carriage1 after having received
 one coat of  paint1 are sent to the    
blacksmith to be ironed4 ,the hub is    
bound1 at  each end with hoops of iron1 
commonly plated with brass or silver1   
and  the outside rim or felloes are     
bound with an iron tire1 and fastened   
with strong nails or spikes4 ,the tires 
are made red-hot before they  are       
applied1 that they may be made to fit in
 every part with accuracy4    #i4       
,bands1 bolts1 or strips of iron1 are   
applied to those parts of the  wood-work
 which may be exposed to friction1 or   
which require  additional strength4 ,the
 axles are also made of wrought iron1   
either  by the blacksmith who executes  
the other iron work1 or by persons who  
manufacture them by the quantity for    

sale4 ,the same remark is  applicable to
 the thorough-boxes1 which are inserted 
into the hub to  prevent injury by      
friction1 and to cause the wheel to     
revolve with  freedom and accuracy4     
#aj4 ,the painting1 varnishing1 and     
polishing1 of the body of the coach1    
when done in the best manner1 comprise a
 tedious process4 ,it is first  covered 
with a coat of paint2 the grain of the  
wood is then filled up  with putty1 and 
the surface is again covered with paint4
 ,five coats of  filling1 composed of   
ochre1 japan varnish1 and spirits of    
turpentine1 are next successively       
applied4 ,after the surface has been    
rubbed with a solid piece of            
pumice-stone1 it is again painted1 and  
rubbed with sand-paper4 ,several coats  
of paint are next laid on1 and  the work
 is finished by the application of a few
 coats of  copal-varnish1 and by the use
 of pumice-stone4 ,the painting and     
varnishing of the wheels and carriage   
part1 is far less expensive and         

tedious4    #aa4 ,the nature of the     
trimmings1 and the manner in which they 
are put  together and applied1 need not 
be described1 since a few moments'      
inspection of a finished vehicle of this
 kind1 will give any one a  clear       
conception of the whole of this branch  
of the business4 ,so far  as trimming   
the inside1 and the manufacture of      
cushions are concerned1  the operations 
are similar to those of the upholsterer4
    #ab4 ,wheel carriages may be classed
 among the primitive inventions1        
although the first authentic notice we  
have of their use1 we find in  the      
scripture history of ,joseph1 the son of
 ,jacob1 in which it is  related1 that  
this great and good man was made to ride
 in the second  chariot of the king's1  
and that he sent wagons from ,egypt to  
convey  thither his father and family   
from the land of ,canaan4    #ac4       
,covered wagons were used in the days of
 ,moses2 and the wandering  ,scythians1 
in the time of the ,romans1 had them    

covered with leather4  ,the seat for the
 driver is said to have been invented by
 ,oxylus1 an  tolian1 who took          
possession of the kingdom of ,elis1     
about #aajj years  before ,christ4 ,many
 of the nations of antiquity used       
chariots in the  field of battle1 and   
the axles were sometimes armed with     
scythes or  some other sharp cutting    
instruments4 ,two persons commonly      
occupied  one vehicle1 one of whom drove
 the horses1 and the other fought the   
enemy4 ,the inhabitants of the promised 
land fought in chariots1 even  before   
the settlement of the people of ,israel 
in that country2 and  the ,greeks       
likewise employed them1 for warlike     
purposes1 at the siege  of ,troy4       
#ad4 ,the carriages used by the ,romans 
were of various kinds1 some of  which   
were carried on the shoulders of men1   
and others1 having two or  four wheels1 
were drawn by horses1 asses1 mules1 or  
oxen4  ,nevertheless1 neither they1 nor 
any other nation of antiquity1 ever     

suspended the body of any carriage on   
leathers1 or supported it on  springs2  
and the use of almost every species of  
vehicle for the  conveyance of persons1 
was banished by the policy of the       
barbarous  nations that afterwards      
became masters of civilized ,europe1 the
 feudal  lords conceiving it important1 
that their military vassals should      
serve them on horseback4    #ae4 ,even  
as late as the sixteenth century1       
ministers rode to court1  and           
magistrates of imperial cities to       
council1 on the back of this  animal2   
and1 in the same manner1 kings and lords
 made their public  entry on the most   
solemn occasions4 ,in accounts of papal 
ceremonies  which occurred during       
several centuries1 we find no mention of
 a  state-coach2 but1 instead of it1    
state-horses or state-mules4 ,the  horse
 for his holiness was required to be a  
gentle and tractable nag1  of a gray    
color2 and a stool with three steps was 
necessary to aid him  in mounting4 ,the 

emperor or kings1 if present1 held his  
stirrup1 and  led his beast4 ,bishops   
also made their public entrance on      
horses or  asses richly decorated4      
#af4 ,covered carriages1 however1 were  
known in the principal states of        
,europe in the fifteenth and sixteenth  
centuries2 but they were at  first used 
only by women of rank1 since the men    
thought it disgraceful  to ride in them4
 ,at this period1 when the electors of  
the ,german  empire did not choose to be
 present at the meetings of the states1 
they excused themselves to the emperor  
by stating that their health  would not 
permit them to ride on horseback1 and it
 was not becoming  for them to ride like
 women4    #ag4 ,but1 for a long time1  
the use of carriages was forbidden even 
to  women2 and1 as late as the year     
#aede1 the wife of a certain duke       
obtained from him1 with great           
difficulty1 the privilege of using a    
covered carriage in a journey to the    
baths4 ,the permission was granted  on  

the condition that her attendants should
 not enjoy the same favor4              
,nevertheless1 it is certain that       
emperors1 kings1 and princes1 began  to 
employ covered carriages on journeys1 in
 the fifteenth century2 and  a few      
instances occur of their use in public  
solemnities4 ,ambassadors  appeared1 for
 the first time1 in coaches1 at a public
 solemnity1 in  #afac1 at ,erfurth4     
#ah4 ,in the history of ,france1 we find
 many proofs1 that1 in the  fourteenth1 
fifteenth1 and sixteenth centuries1 the 
,french monarchs  commonly rode on      
horses1 the servants of the court on    
mules1 and the  princesses1 together    
with the principal ladies1 sometimes at 
least1 on  asses4 ,carriages of some    
sort1 however1 appear to have been used 
at a  very early period there4 ,an      
ordinance of ,philip the ,fair1 issued  
in  #abid1 forbids their use by the     
wives of citizens4    #ai4 ,in the year 
#aeej1 three coaches were introduced    
into ,paris2 one of  which belonged to  

the queen1 another to ,diana de         
,poictiers1 and the  third to ,raimond  
de ,laval1 a cavalier of the court of   
,francis ,i41 who  was so large that no 
horse could carry him4 ,it is not       
certain1  however1 that the body of     
these vehicles were suspended on leather
  straps4 ,the inventor of this material
 improvement cannot be  ascertained1 nor
 is it positively determined1 that it   
had been made1  until about the middle  
of the seventeenth century4    #bj4     
,coaches were introduced into ,spain and
 ,portugal1 in the year #aedf1  and into
 ,sweden near the close of the same     
century4 ,in the capital of  ,russia1   
there were elegant coaches as early as  
the beginning of the  seventeenth       
century4 ,in ,switzerland1 they were    
rare1 as late as #afej4  ,carriages     
began to be used at ,naples in the      
thirteenth century2 from  this place    
they spread all over ,italy2 and here1  
also1 glass panels  originated4    #ba4 
,carriages of some sort were used in    

,england at a very early  period1 and   
those first employed by the ladies1 were
 called  whirlicoats4 ,according to some
 authors1 coaches were introduced in    
the year #aeee2 but1 according to       
others1 not until twenty-five years     
after this period4 ,before the latter   
date1 ,queen ,elizabeth1 on public      
occasions1 rode on the same horse with  
her chamberlain1 seated behind  him on a
 pillion2 although1 in the early part of
 her reign1 she owned  a chariot4       
#bb4 ,in #afja1 men were forbidden the  
use of the coach by act of  ,parliament1
 the legislators supposing such         
indulgence to be too  effeminate2 but   
this law seems to have been little      
regarded1 as this  vehicle was in common
 use1 about the year #afje4 ,twenty     
years after  this time1 hackney coaches 
began to ply in ,london2 but these were 
prohibited1 in #afce1 on the alleged    
ground that the support of so many      
horses increased the expense of keeping 
those belonging to the king4  ,two years

 after this1 however1 fifty coaches were
 licensed1 and1 in  #aggj1 there were   
one thousand4    #bc4 ,the stage-coach  
was first employed in ,france1 and was  
introduced  into ,england1 near the     
middle of the eighteenth century1 by    
,jethro  ,tull1 the celebrated          
agriculturist4 ,they were not employed1 
in any  country1 in the transportation  
of the mail1 until the year #aghd4      
,before this time1 it was carried       
chiefly on horseback4    #bd4 ,in the   
,united ,states1 the manufacture of     
carriages of every kind  has greatly    
increased within a few years1 and those 
lately made  exhibit many improvements  
on those of former periods4 ,the places 
which  seem to be most distinguished for
 the manufacture of good carriages1  in 
this country1 are ,philadelphia1        
,newark1 and ,troy4                     
,illustration3 ,,potter4    ,,the       
,,potter4      #a4 ,the artisan called  
the potter converts plastic materials   
into hard  and brittle vessels of       

various kinds1 denominated1 in general  
terms1  earthen ware4    #b4 ,alumine is
 the basis of all clays1 and is the only
 earth that  possesses the degree of    
plasticity which renders the operations 
of the  potter practicable4 ,it is1     
however1 never found or used in a pure  
state1 but in combination with other    
substances1 particularly with  silex1   
lime1 magnesia1 and the oxyde of iron4  
#c4 ,in the manufacture of vessels from 
argillaceous compounds1 the  different  
degrees of beauty and costliness depend 
upon the quality of  the raw materials1 
and the labor and skill expended in the 
operation4  ,the various productions of 
the pottery may be classed under the    
following denominations--common earthen 
ware1 white earthen ware1  stone ware1  
and porcelain2 but of each of these     
there are many  varieties4    #d4       
,common earthen ware4--,this ware is    
made of a kind of clay very  generally  
diffused over the earth1 and which is   
essentially the same  with that employed

 in making bricks4 ,the potters are     
often supplied  with this material by   
the brickmakers1 who select for them    
that which  is too tenacious1 or fat1   
for their own purpose4 ,all common clays
  contain more or less of the oxyde of  
iron1 which causes the wares made  of   
them to turn red in burning4    #e4 ,in 
preparing the clay for use1 the potter  
adds to it1 when  necessary1 a portion  
of fine loam1 in order to lessen its    
tenacity1  and to prevent the vessels to
 be made of it from cracking1 while     
undergoing the fire4 ,when the materials
 have been mixed1 and partially         
incorporated with water1 the mass is    
thrown into a tub1 fixed in the  ground 
about one-half of its depth4 ,in the    
centre of this tub1 is  placed a shaft1 
in a perpendicular position1 from which 
radiate1 in a  horizontal direction1 a  
number of knives or cutters4    #f4     
,this machine is put in motion by       
horse-power1 and by it the clay is      
repeatedly cut1 and properly kneaded4   

,the workman then cuts it into  thin    
slices with a small wire1 and1 having   
rejected all matters not  fit for his   
purpose1 he further kneads it with his  
hands1 and forms it  into lumps1        
corresponding in amount of matter with  
the different  vessels which he proposes
 to make4    #g4 ,for the best kinds of 
this ware1 the same species of clay is  
used2  but then it is differently       
prepared4 ,it is first dissolved in     
water2  and1 when the coarser particles 
have settled to the bottom of the       
vessel1 the fluid suspending the rest is
 drawn off1 and made to pass  through a 
sieve into a reservoir4 ,after the      
particles of the material  have         
precipitated1 the water is drawn off1   
and the residuum is thrown  upon a large
 flat pan or reservoir made of bricks1  
where the mass is  freed from its       
superfluous moisture by evaporation in  
the air1 or by  means of artificial heat
 applied beneath4 ,it is then laid by in
 a damp  place1 for future use4    #h4  

,before the clay1 thus purified from    
extraneous and coarser  particles1 is   
formed into vessels1 it is beaten with a
 stout piece of  wood1 until the mass   
has become of an equal consistence      
throughout1  and then repeatedly cut    
into two pieces with a wire1 and slapped
  together to expel the air4 ,the former
 of these operations is called  wedging1
 and the latter1 slapping4    #i4 ,white
 and cream-colored wares are made of    
clays which contain so  little oxyde of 
iron1 that it does not turn red in      
burning1 but1 on  the contrary1 improves
 in whiteness in the furnace4 ,there are
 several  species of white clay1 found  
in many different localities1 most of   
which1 however1 are known under the     
denomination of pipe-clay2 or  they are 
distinguished by the names of the places
 where they are  obtained4    #aj4 ,in  
preparing these clays for use1 they are 
reduced to a minute  division by        
machinery1 and afterwards dissolved in  
water1 and  otherwise treated in a      

manner similar to that used for the     
better  kinds of common wares1 as       
described in the seventh and eighth     
paragraphs4 ,for the purpose of         
diminishing the shrinkage in the fire1  
and with the view of increasing the     
whiteness of the ware1 pulverized       
flint-stone is added to the clay1 in the
 proportion of about one part  of the   
former to five of the latter4    #aa4   
,in reducing the silex to the requisite 
fineness1 it is first  brought to a red 
heat2 and1 while in this state1 it is   
thrown into  cold water1 to diminish the
 cohesion of its parts4 ,it is then     
pounded  by machinery1 levigated with   
water in a mill1 sifted1 mashed1 and    
otherwise treated like the clay4 ,the   
materials are mixed while in a  state of
 thin pulp4    #ab4 ,the several        
operations performed by the potter1 in  
converting the  clay thus prepared into 
different kinds of vessels1 and in      
completing  the whole process of the    
manufacture of earthen ware1 may be     

included  under the following divisions1
 viz41 throwing1 turning1 pressing1     
burning1 painting and printing1 and     
glazing4 ,they are not1 however1  all   
used in producing and finishing vessels 
of every shape and  quality4    #ac4    
,throwing4--,this operation is performed
 on a potter's wheel1  which consists of
 a round table1 and some simple means to
 put it in  motion4 ,the clay having    
been placed on the centre of this       
machine1 the  workman communicates to   
the latter a rotary motion with his     
foot1 and  gives the proposed form to   
the material with his hands1 which have 
been previously wet with water1 to      
prevent them from sticking4 ,this       
method is used for all vessels and parts
 of vessels of a circular  form2 and1 in
 many cases1 no other operation is      
necessary to give them  the requisite   
finish1 so far as their conformation is 
concerned4    #ad4 ,turning4--,the      
vessels are cut from the thrower's wheel
 with a  small wire2 and when1 by the   

evaporation of moisture1 they have      
become  firm enough to endure the       
operation1 they are turned on a lathe4  
,the  objects of this operation are to  
communicate to them a more exact  shape1
 and to render them more uniform in     
thickness4 ,the potter's  wheel1 with   
the addition of some contrivance to hold
 the pieces in a  proper position1 is   
frequently used for turning4 ,the       
coarser kinds of  common wares are never
 turned4    #ae4 ,pressing4--,vessels1  
or parts of vessels1 which are of an    
irregular shape1 and which cannot be    
formed on the wheel1 are usually  made  
by a process called pressing4 ,this kind
 of work is executed in  moulds made of 
plaster of ,paris1 and these are formed 
on models of  clay or wood1 which have  
been made in the exact shape of the     
proposed  vessel4 ,sometimes individual 
specimens of the wares of one country or
  pottery are used as models in another2
 in such cases1 the expense of  the     
moulds is considerably diminished4      

#af4 ,the moulds frequently consist of  
several parts1 which fit  accurately    
together2 for example1 the mould for a  
pitcher is composed  of two pieces for  
the sides1 and one for the bottom4 ,in  
forming a  pitcher in such a mould1 the 
material1 which has been spread out to a
  proper and uniform thickness1 is laid 
upon the inside of each portion  of it1 
and the superfluous clay is trimmed off 
with a knife4 ,the mould  is then       
closed1 and thin strips of clay are laid
 over the seams2 the  removal of the    
several pieces of the mould1 completes  
the operation4    #ag4 ,handles1 spouts1
 figures in relief1 and other additions 
of this  nature1 are separately made in 
moulds1 and stuck on the vessel with    
the same kind of materials1 sometimes   
mingled with a small proportion  of     
plaster of ,paris4 ,these appendages are
 added after the vessels have  become   
partially solid in the air4    #ah4     
,burning4--,all vessels1 even after they
 have been dried in the  atmosphere1 are

 in a very frangible state2 and1 to     
render them  sufficiently firm for use1 
they are submitted to the process of    
burning in a kiln4 ,to preserve the ware
 from injury while enduring the  fire1  
the several pieces are enclosed in      
cylindrical boxes called  saggers1 which
 are made of baked clay4 ,these boxes   
are placed one  above another around the
 sides of the kiln1 which is of a       
circular  form1 and gradually tapering  
to the top4    #ai4 ,in burning the     
coarser wares1 every piece is not thus  
inclosed2  but1 between every two       
saggers1 a naked piece is placed4 ,a    
moderate  fire is first raised1 which is
 gradually increased1 until the         
contents of the kiln are brought to a   
red heat4 ,the burning occupies  between
 twenty-four and forty-eight hours4 ,all
 wares1 except the  coarsest kinds1 are 
twice1 and sometimes thrice1 burned2    
and1 after  having been once submitted  
to the process1 they are said to be in a
  state of biscuit4    #bj4 ,painting   

and printing4--,when the vessels are to 
be ornamented  with colors1 it is       
necessary1 in most cases1 that this part
 of the  work be done after the first   
burning4 ,in ,china1 and at the         
porcelain  manufactory in ,philadelphia1
 the drawings are executed by hand with 
a  pencil4 ,the same method is used in  
,europe in elaborate pieces of          
workmanship4 ,but1 in the common figured
 wares1 where but one color is  used1   
the designs are first engraved on       
metallic plates1 and  impressions are   
taken from them on thin paper1 by means 
of a  copperplate printing-press4       
#ba4 ,in transferring to vessels designs
 thus produced1 the paper1 while  in a  
damp state1 is applied closely to the   
surface of the biscuit1 and  rubbed on  
with a piece of flannel4 ,the porosity  
of the earthen  material causes the     
immediate absorption of the coloring    
matter1  which1 in all cases1 is some   
metallic oxyde4 ,for a blue color1 the  
oxyde of cobalt is used2 and for a      

black1 those of manganese and iron4     
,the paper is washed from the ware with 
a sponge4    #bb4 ,glazing4--,to prevent
 the penetration of fluids1 and to      
improve  the appearance of the ware1 a  
superficial vitreous coating is         
necessary4 ,this can be produced by the 
aid of various substances2 but1  in a   
majority of cases1 red lead is the basis
 of the mixture employed  for this      
purpose4 ,equal parts of ground flints  
and red lead are used  for the common   
cream-colored wares4 ,these materials   
are mixed with1  and suspended in1      
water1 and each piece is dipped in the  
liquid4 ,the  moisture is soon absorbed 
by the clay1 leaving the glazing        
particles  on the surface1 which1 in the
 burning that follows1 is converted into
  a uniform and durable vitreous        
coating4    #bc4 ,stone ware4--,the     
materials of this ware1 as well as the  
mode of  preparing them1 differ but     
little from those of the common and     
better  kinds of earthen wares4 ,the    

clays1 however1 which contain but little
  or no oxyde of iron are chosen1 since 
this substance would cause the  ware to 
melt and warp1 before a sufficient      
degree of heat could be  applied to give
 it the requisite hardness4    #bd4 ,the
 glazing is formed by a vitrification of
 the surface of the  vessels1 caused by 
the action of common salt thrown into   
the kiln1  when it has been raised to   
its greatest heat4 ,this glazing is more
  perfect than that on ordinary earthen 
wares1 being insoluble by most  chemical
 agents4 ,it is hardly necessary to     
remark that this method of  glazing     
precludes the use of saggers4    #be4   
,porcelain4--,this ware exceeds every   
other kind in the delicacy  of its      
texture1 and is peculiarly distinguished
 by a beautiful  semi-transparency1     
which is conspicuous when held against  
the light4  ,in ,china1 it is made      
chiefly of two kinds of earth2 one of   
which is  denominated petuntze1 and the 
other kaolin2 but both are varieties  of

 feldspar1 found in the mountains1 in   
different localities4 ,they are  brought
 to the manufactories from a distance in
 the form of bricks2  the materials1 as 
taken from the mines1 having been       
reduced to an  impalpable powder in     
mortars1 either by the labor of men or  
by  water-power4    #bf4 ,these         
materials are combined in different     
proportions in the  manufacture1        
according to the quality of the proposed
 ware4 ,in the  best kind1 equal        
quantities are used2 but for those of   
inferior  quality1 a greater proportion 
of petuntze is employed4 ,the           
translucency so much admired in         
porcelain1 or tseki1 as the ,chinese    
call it1 is owing to the petuntze1      
which1 in burning1 partially melts1  and
 envelops the infusible kaolin4    #bg4 
,it is not known who was the inventor of
 porcelain1 as the ,chinese  annals are 
silent with regard to this point2 nor do
 we know more of  the date at which the 
manufacture was commenced4 ,it is       

certain1  however1 that it must have    
been before the fifth century of the    
,christian era4 ,since this ware has    
been known to ,europeans1 it has  been  
manufactured chiefly1 and in the        
greatest perfection1 in the  large and  
populous village of ,king-te-ching4     
#bh4 ,porcelain was first brought to    
,europe from ,japan and ,china1 and  for
 a long time its materials and mode of  
manufacture remained a  secret1 in spite
 of the efforts of the ,jesuit          
missionaries1 who  resided in those     
countries4 ,at length1 in #agab1 ,father
 ,entrecolles  sent home to ,france1    
specimens of petuntze and kaolin1       
together with a  summary description of 
the process of the manufacture4    #bi4 
,shortly after this important event had 
transpired1 it was  discovered that     
materials nearly of the same kind       
existed in abundance  in various parts  
of ,europe4 ,the manufacture of         
porcelain was1  therefore1 soon         
commenced in several places2 and it has 

since been  successfully carried on4    
#cj4 ,the porcelain wares of ,europe are
 superior to those of the  ,chinese1 in 
the variety and elegance of their forms1
 as well as in the  beauty of the       
designs executed upon them2 but1 as some
 of the  processes successfully         
practised in ,china1 remain still to be 
learned  by the ,europeans1 the         
,oriental porcelain has not yet been    
equalled in  the hardness1 strength1 and
 durability of its body1 and in the     
permanency of its glaze4 ,the           
manufacturers of ,saxony are said to    
have  been the most successful in their 
imitations in these respects4    #ca4   
,the porcelain earths are found in      
various parts of the ,united  ,states1  
but particularly at ,wilmington1 in the 
state of ,delaware4  ,nevertheless1     
there is now but one porcelain          
manufactory in our  country1 and this is
 yet in its infancy4 ,the establishment 
is located  in ,philadelphia1 and it has
 been lately incorporated1 with the     

privilege of one hundred thousand       
dollars capital4    #cb4 ,the principle 
of induration by heat1 is the same in   
the  manufacture of earthen wares as in 
making bricks2 and1 as the latter  can  
be more easily dispensed with than the  
former in a primitive state  of society1
 it is but reasonable to suppose that   
earthen ware was  first invented2 but   
the art of making bricks must have been 
practised  before the deluge1 or the    
posterity of ,noah would not have       
attempted  so soon as about one hundred 
years after that catastrophe1 to build a
  city and a tower of these materials4  
,it is1 therefore1 evident1 that  this  
art was of antediluvian origin2 and it  
was probably one of the  earliest       
brought to any degree of perfection4    
#cc4 ,the art of the potter was         
practised more or less by every nation  
of antiquity1 and the degree of         
perfection to which it was carried in   
every country corresponded with the     
state of the arts generally4 ,the       

,greeks were consequently very          
celebrated for their earthen wares4 ,the
  ,etruscans have also been particularly
 noted for their manufacture of  the    
elegant vases which have been dug1 in   
modern times1 from the  depositories of 
the dead1 in ,lower ,italy4    #cd4     
,until the commencement of the          
manufacture of porcelain in ,europe1    
this art continued in a very rude       
condition1 although practised to a      
considerable extent in many places4 ,it 
was much improved in ,england  about the
 year #agbj1 by the addition of flints  
to the usual material2  and1 between    
thirty and forty years after this1 it   
was brought to  great perfection1 in all
 its branches1 chiefly through the      
scientific  exertions of the celebrated 
potter1 ,josiah ,wedgewood4             
,illustration3 ,,glass ,,blower4        
,,the ,,glass-,,blower4      #a4 ,glass 
is a substance produced from a          
combination of silicious  earths with   
alkalies1 and1 in many cases1 with      

metallic oxydes4 ,the  basis of every   
species of glass is silex1 which is     
found in a state  nearly pure in the    
sands of many situations4 ,it is also   
found in the  common flints and quartz  
pebbles4    #b4 ,when quartz pebbles or 
flints are employed1 they must be first 
reduced to powder4 ,this is done by     
grinding them in a mill1 after they     
have been partially reduced1 by heating 
them in the fire1 and plunging  them    
into cold water4 ,sand has the advantage
 of being already in a  state of        
division sufficiently minute for the    
purpose4 ,to prepare it  for            
application1 it only requires to be     
washed and sifted1 in order to  free it 
from the argillaceous and other         
substances unfit for use4 ,a  great     
proportion of the sand employed in the  
manufacture of the better  kinds of     
glass in the ,united ,states1 is taken  
from the banks of the  ,delaware ,river4
    #c4 ,the alkaline substances used   
are potash and soda4 ,for the finer     

kinds of glass1 pearlash1 or soda       
procured by decomposing sea-salt1 is    
used2 but1 for the inferior sorts1      
impure alkalies1 such as barilla1       
,scotch and ,irish kelp1 and even       
wood-ashes1 as well as the refuse of    
the soap-boiler's kettle1 are made to   
answer the purpose4 ,lime1 borax1  and  
common salt1 are also frequently used as
 a flux in aid of some of  the other    
substances just mentioned4    #d4 ,of   
the metallic oxydes which make a part of
 the materials of some  glass1 the      
deutoxyde of lead1 or1 as it is usually 
denominated1 red  lead1 is the most     
common4 ,this substance is employed in  
making flint  glass1 which is rendered  
by it more fusible1 heavy and tough1 and
 more  easy to be ground or cut1 while1 
at the same time1 it increases its      
brilliancy and refractive power4    #e4 
,black oxyde of manganese is also used  
in small quantities1 with the  view of  
rendering the glass more colorless and  
transparent4 ,common  nitre produces the

 same effect4 ,white arsenic is also    
added to the  materials of this kind of 
glass1 to promote its clearness2 but1 if
 too  much is used1 it communicates a   
milky whiteness4 ,the use of this       
substance in drinking vessels is not    
free from danger1 when the glass        
contains so much alkali as to render any
 part of it soluble in acids4    #f4    
,the furnace in which the materials are 
melted is a large conical  stack1 such  
as is represented at the head of this   
article4 ,in some  cases1 it is         
surrounded by a large chimney1 which    
extends above the  roof of the building4
 ,in the sides are several apertures1   
near which  are placed the crucibles1 or
 melting-pots1 containing the materials4
  ,the fuel is applied in an arch1 which
 is considerably lower than the  surface
 of the ground on which the operators   
stand1 while at work4    #g4 ,the       
melting-pots are made chiefly of the    
most refractory clays and  sand4 ,much  
of the clay used for this purpose1 in   

many of the  glass-houses in the ,united
 ,states1 is imported from ,germany4    
,the  materials1 having been sifted1 and
 mixed with a suitable quantity of      
water1 the homogeneous mass is formed   
into crucibles1 by spreading it  on the 
inside of vessels which are much in the 
shape of a common  wash-tub4 ,after the 
clay has become sufficiently solid to   
sustain  itself1 the hoops are removed  
from the vessel1 and the several staves 
taken apart4    #h4 ,the crucibles are  
suffered to dry in the atmosphere for   
two or  three months1 after which they  
are applied to use as they may be       
needed4 ,before they are placed in the  
main furnace1 they are gradually  raised
 to an intense heat in one of smaller   
dimensions1 built for this  express     
purpose4 ,the fuel employed in fusing   
the metal is chiefly  pine wood1 which1 
in all cases1 is previously dried in a  
large oven4  ,four of the five furnaces 
near ,philadelphia1 which belonged to   
,doctor  ,dyott1 were heated with rosin4

    #i4 ,the materials having been      
mixed1 in the proposed proportions1     
which  are determined by weight1 they   
are thrown into the melting-pots1 and1  
by a gradually increasing heat1 reduced 
to a paste1 suitable for  application by
 the blower4 ,this part of the process  
is commonly  performed at night1 while  
the blowers are absent from the works4  
#aj4 ,the applications of glass are so  
exceedingly extensive1 that it is       
inconvenient1 if not impossible1 to     
manufacture every species of it at  one 
glass-house or at one establishment4    
,some1 therefore1 confine  their        
attention to the production of window   
glass1 and such articles  of hollow ware
 as may be made1 with profit1 from the  
same kind of  paste4 ,others make vials 
and other species of ware1 employed by  
the  druggist1 apothecary1 and chemist4 
,and again1 the efforts1 at some        
factories1 are confined entirely to the 
manufacture of flint glass1 or  to that 
of plate glass for mirrors4    #aa4 ,the

 principal operations connected with the
 manufacture of  different species of   
glass1 after the paste has been         
prepared1 may be  included under the    
following heads2 viz41 blowing1 casting1
 moulding1  pressing and grinding2      
although all these are never performed  
in one  and the same establishment4     
#ab4 ,blowing4--,the operation of       
blowing is nearly or quite the same  in 
the production of every species of glass
 ware1 in which it is  employed4 ,the   
manipulations1 however1 connected with  
making different  articles1 are         
considerably varied1 to suit their      
particular  conformation4 ,this         
circumstance renders it impossible for  
us to give  more than a general outline 
of the process of this manufacture4     
#ac4 ,in the formation of window glass1 
the workman gathers upon the end  of an 
iron tube a sufficient amount of the    
metal1 which he brings to a  cylindrical
 form by rolling it upon a cast iron or 
stone table4 ,he  then blows through the

 tube with considerable force1 and thus 
expands  the glass to the form of an    
inflated bladder4 ,the inflation is     
assisted by the heat1 which causes the  
air and moisture of the breath  to      
expand with great power4    #ad4        
,whenever the glass has become too      
stiff1 by cooling1 for  inflation1 it is
 again softened by holding it in the    
blaze of the  fuel1 and the blowing is  
repeated1 until the globe has been      
expanded  to the requisite thinness4    
,another workman next receives it at the
  other end1 upon an iron rod1 called a 
punt1 or punting iron1 when  the blowing
 iron is detached4 ,it is now opened1   
and spread into a  smooth sheet1 by the 
centrifugal force acquired by the rapid 
whirl  given to it1 in the manner       
exhibited in the preceding cut4 ,the    
sheet  thus produced is of a uniform    
thickness1 except at the centre1 where  
the iron rod had been attached4    #ae4 
,an inferior kind of window glass1 the  
materials of which are sand1  kelp1 and 

soap-boilers' waste1 is made by blowing 
the metal into  cones1 about a foot in  
diameter at their base2 and these1 while
 hot1  are touched on one side with a   
cold iron dipped in water4 ,this        
produces a crack1 which runs through the
 whole length of the cone4 ,the  glass  
then expands into a sheet somewhat      
resembling a fan4 ,this is  supposed to 
be the oldest method of manufacturing   
window or plate  glass4    #af4 ,the    
window glass produced in the manner     
first described1 is called  crown glass2
 and the other1 broad glass4 ,but by    
neither of these  methods can the       
largest panes be produced4 ,the blowing 
for these  differs from the methods just
 described1 in that the material is     
blown  into an irregular cylinder1 open 
at its further end4 ,when a sufficient  
number of these cylinders have          
accumulated1 the end to which the       
blowing iron had been attached1 is      
capped off by drawing round it a  circle
 of melted glass1 and the cylinder is   

divided longitudinally by  touching it  
through its whole length with a hot     
iron4 ,the cylinders1  in this state1   
are put into the annealing oven1 where1 
by aid of a  heat which raises the glass
 to redness1 it is expanded into sheets4
  ,these sheets are then broken into    
panes of several sizes by the aid of  a 
diamond and a straight edge1 as in the  
case of glass blown by other  methods4  
#ag4 ,casting4--,plate glass formed by  
the method last mentioned1 is           
denominated cylinder glass2 and it is   
used not only for windows1 but  also for
 mirrors not exceeding four feet in     
length4 ,plates of greater  dimensions  
are produced by a process called        
casting4 ,the casting is  performed by  
pouring the material1 in a high state of
 fusion1 upon a  table of polished      
copper of large size1 and having a rim  
elevated  above its general surface1 as 
high as the proposed plate is to be     
thick4 ,to spread the glass perfectly1  
and to render the two surfaces          

parallel1 a heavy roller of polished    
copper1 resting upon the rim at  the    
edges1 is passed over it4    #ah4       
,plates thus cast are always dull and   
uneven4 ,to render them good            
reflectors1 it is necessary to grind and
 polish them4 ,the plate to be  polished
 is first cemented with plaster of      
,paris to a table of wood or  stone4 ,a 
quantity of wet sand1 emery1 or         
pulverized flints1 is spread  upon it1  
and another glass plate1 similarly      
cemented to a wooden or  stone surface1 
is placed upon it4 ,the two plates are  
then rubbed  together1 until their      
surfaces have become plane and smooth4  
,the last  polish is given by colcothar 
and putty4 ,both sides are polished in  
the  same manner4    #ai4               
,moulding4--,ornamental forms and       
letters are produced on the  external   
surface of vessels1 by means of metallic
 moulds2 and the  process by which this 
kind of work is performed is called     
moulding4 ,in  the execution1 the       

workman gathers upon the end of his iron
 tube1 a  proper amount of the material1
 which he extends1 and brings to a      
cylindrical form1 by rolling it upon his
 table4 ,he then expands it a  little by
 a slight blast1 and afterwards lets it 
down into the mould1  which is          
immediately filled by blowing still     
stronger through the  tube4    #bj4 ,the
 vessel is then taken from the mould1   
and disengaged from the  tube4 ,the same
 tube1 or a punting iron having been    
attached to the  bottom1 the other end  
is softened in the fire1 and brought to 
the  proposed form with appropriate     
tools1 while the iron is rolled up and  
down upon the long arms of the          
glass-blower's chair4 ,the ornamental   
moulds are made of cast iron1 brass1 or 
copper1 and are composed of  two parts1 
which open and shut upon hinges4 ,the   
moulds for plain  vials1 castor oil     
bottles1 small demijohns1 c41 are made  
of the kind  of clay used for the       
crucibles4 ,these consist merely of a   

mass of the  clay1 with a cylindrical   
hole in it of proper diameter and depth4
    #ba4 ,pressing4--,this process is   
applied in the production of vessels  or
 articles which are very thick1 and     
which are not contracted at the  top4   
,the operation is performed in iron     
moulds1 which consist of two  parts1 and
 which have upon their internal surfaces
 the figures to be  impressed upon the  
glass4 ,the material1 while in an       
elastic condition1  is put into the     
lower part of the mould2 and the other  
part1 called  the follower1 is          
immediately brought upon it with        
considerable  force4    #bb4 ,every     
species of glass1 before it can be used 
with safety1 must be  annealed1 to      
diminish its brittleness4 ,the annealing
 consists merely  in letting down the   
temperature by degrees4 ,small boys1    
therefore1  convey the articles1        
whatever they may be1 as fast as they   
are made1  to a moderately heated oven1 
which1 when filled1 is suffered to cool 

by degrees4    #bc4 ,cutting4--,the name
 of cut glass is given to the kind which
 is  ground and polished in figures1    
appearing as if cut with a sharp        
instrument4 ,this operation is confined 
chiefly to flint glass1 which1  being   
more tough and soft than the other      
kinds1 is more easily  wrought4 ,in     
addition to this1 it is considerably    
more brilliant1  producing specimens of 
greater lustre4    #bd4 ,an             
establishment for grinding glass        
contains a great number of  wheels of   
cast iron1 stone1 and wood1 of different
 sizes2 and the  process consists       
entirely in holding the glass against   
these1 while  they are revolving with   
rapidity4 ,when a considerable portion  
of the  material is to be removed1 the  
grinding is commonly commenced on the   
iron wheel1 on which is constantly      
pouring water and sharp sand1 from  a   
vessel above1 which1 from its shape1 is 
called a hopper4    #be4 ,the period of 
the invention of glass is quite unknown2

 but the  following is the usual story  
of its origin4 ,some merchants1 driven  
by  a storm upon the coasts of          
,phoenicia1 near the ,river ,belus1     
kindled a  fire on the sand to cook     
their victuals1 using as fuel some weeds
  which grew near4 ,the ashes produced  
by the incineration of these  plants1   
coming in contact with the sand1 united 
with its particles1  and1 by the        
influence of the heat1 produced glass4  
#bf4 ,this production was accidentally  
picked up by a ,tyrian merchant1  who1  
from its beauty and probable utility1   
was led to investigate the  causes of   
its formation1 and who1 after many      
attempts1 succeeded in  the manufacture 
of glass4 ,the legend probably          
originated in the fact1  that glass was 
very anciently made at ,tyre2 and that  
the sand on the  seashore in the        
immediate neighbourhood of the ,belus1  
was well adapted  to glass-making4      
#bg4 ,it is certainly probable1 that an 
accidental vitrification might  have    

given rise to the discovery2 but the    
circumstance would have been  more      
likely to take place in some operation  
requiring greater heat  than that       
necessary for dressing food in the open 
air4 ,the invention  of glass must have 
been effected as early as fifteen       
hundred years  before our era4 ,it was  
manufactured very anciently in ,egypt2  
but  whether that country or ,phoenicia 
is entitled to the preference1 as       
regards priority in the practice of this
 art1 cannot be determined4    #bh4     
,glass was made in considerable         
perfection at ,alexandria1 and was      
thence supplied to the ,romans as late  
as the first quarter of the  second     
century4 ,before this time1 however1    
,rome had her glass  manufactories1 to  
which a particular street was assigned4 
,the  attention of the workmen was      
directed chiefly to the production of   
bottles and ornamental vases1 specimens 
of which still remain1 as  monuments of 
their extraordinary skill4    #bi4 ,in  

modern times1 the manufacture of glass  
was confined  principally to ,italy and 
,germany4 ,venice became particularly   
celebrated for the beauty of the        
material1 and the skill of its  workmen2
 and as early as the thirteenth century1
 it supplied the  greatest part of the  
glass used in ,europe4 ,the artists of  
,bohemia1  also1 came to be held in     
considerable reputation4    #cj4 ,the   
art was first practised in ,england1 in 
the year #aeeg1 when a  manufactory was 
erected at ,crutched ,friars1 in the    
city of ,london1 and  shortly           
afterwards1 another at the ,savoy1 in   
the ,strand4 ,in these  establishments1 
however1 were made little else than     
common window  glass1 and coarse        
bottles1 all the finer articles being   
still imported  from ,venice4 ,in #afgc1
 the celebrated ,duke of ,buckingham    
brought  workmen from ,italy1 and       
established a manufactory for casting   
plate  glass for mirrors and coach      
windows4 ,the art1 in all its branches1 

is  now extensively practised in great  
perfection1 not only in ,great          
,britain1 but in many of the other      
kingdoms of ,europe4    #ca4 ,before the
 commencement of the late war with      
,england1 very little1  if any1 glass   
was manufactured in the ,united ,states1
 except the most  common window glass1  
and the most ordinary kinds of hollow   
ware4  ,apothecaries' vials and bottles1
 as well as every other variety of the  
better kinds of glass wares1 had been   
imported from ,europe1 and  chiefly from
 ,england4    #cb4 ,our necessities1    
created by the event just mentioned1    
produced  several manufactories1 which1 
however1 did not soon become            
flourishing1 owing1 at first1 to        
inexperience1 and1 after the peace1  to 
excessive importations4 ,but adequate   
protection having been  extended to this
 branch of our national industry1 by the
 tariff of  #ahbh1 it is now in a highly
 prosperous condition--so much so1 that 
importations of glass ware have nearly  

ceased4          ,illustration3         
,,optician4    ,,the ,,optician4        
#a4 ,the word optician is applicable to 
persons who are particularly  skilled in
 the science of vision1 but especially  
to those who devote  their attention to 
the manufacture of optical instruments1 
such as the  spectacles1 the camera     
obscura1 the magic lantern1 the         
telescope1 the  microscope1 and the     
quadrant4    #b4 ,light is an emanation 
from the sun and other luminous bodies1 
and  is that substance which renders    
opaque bodies visible to the eye4 ,it   
diverges in a direct line1 unless       
interrupted by some obstacle1 and  its  
motion has been estimated at two hundred
 thousand miles in a  second4    #c4 ,a 
ray of light is the motion of a single  
particle3 and a parcel  of rays passing 
from a single point1 is called a pencil 
of rays4  ,parallel rays are such as    
always move at the same distance from   
each  other4 ,rays which continually    
approach each other1 are said to        

converge2 and when they continually     
recede from each other1 they are  said  
to diverge4 ,the point at which         
converging rays meet is called  the     
focus4    #d4 ,any pellucid or          
transparent body1 as air1 water1 and    
glass1 which  admits the free passage of
 light1 is called a medium4 ,when rays1 
after having passed through one medium1 
are bent out of their original  course  
by entering another of different        
density1 they are said to be  refracted2
 and when they strike against a surface1
 and are sent back  from it1 they are   
said to be reflected4    #e4 ,a lens is 
glass ground in such a form as to       
collect or disperse  the rays of light  
which pass through it4 ,these are of    
different  shapes2 and they have1       
therefore1 received different           
appellations4 ,a  plano-convex lens has 
one side flat1 and the other convex2 a  
plano-concave lens is flat on one side1 
and concave on the other2 a  double     
convex lens is convex on both sides2 a  

double concave lens  is concave on both 
sides2 a meniscus is convex on one side1
 and  concave on the other4 ,by the     
following cut1 the lenses are exhibited 
in the order in which they have been    
mentioned4    ,illustration    #f4 ,an  
incident ray is that which comes from   
any luminous body to a  reflecting      
surface2 and that which is sent back    
from a reflecting  surface1 is called a 
reflected ray4 ,the angle of incidence  
is the  angle which is formed by the    
incident ray with a perpendicular to the
  reflecting surface2 and the angle of  
reflection is the angle formed  by the  
same perpendicular and the reflected    
ray4    #g4 ,when the light proceeding  
from every point of an object placed    
before a lens is collected in           
corresponding points behind it1 a       
perfect image of the object is there    
produced4 ,the following cut is  given  
by way of illustration4    ,illustration
    #h4 ,the lens1 a1 may be supposed to
 be placed in the hole of a             

window-shutter of a darkened room1 and  
the arrow at the right to be  standing  
at some distance without4 ,all the light
 reflected from the  latter object      
towards the lens1 passes through it1 and
 concentrates1  within the room1 in a   
focal point1 at which1 if a sheet of    
paper1 or  any other plane of a similar 
color1 is placed1 the image of the      
object  will be seen upon it4    #i4    
,this phenomenon is called the camera   
obscura1 or dark chamber1  because it is
 necessary to darken the room to exhibit
 it4 ,the image at  the focal point     
within the room is in an inverted       
position4 ,the reason  why it is thrown 
in this manner will be readily          
understood by  observing the direction  
of the reflected rays1 as they pass from
 the  object through the lens4 ,in the  
camera obscura1 it is customary to      
place a small mirror immediately behind 
the lens1 so as to throw all  the light 
which enters1 downwards upon a whitened 
table1 where the  picture may be        

conveniently contemplated4    #aj4 ,from
 the preceding explanation of the camera
 obscura1 the theory  of vision may be  
readily comprehended1 since the eye     
itself is a  perfect instrument of this 
kind4 ,a careful examination of the     
following representation of the eye will
 render the similarity  obvious4 ,the   
eye is supposed to be cut through the   
middle1 from above  downwards4          
,illustration3 a a1 the sclerotica2 b b1
 the choroides2 c c1  the retina2 d d1  
the cornea2 e1 the pupil2 f f1 the      
iris2 g1 the aqueous humor2 h1 the      
crystalline humor2 i i1  the vitreous   
humor4    #aa4 ,the sclerotica is a     
membranous coat1 to which the muscles   
are  attached which move the eye4 ,the  
cornea is united to the sclerotica      
around the circular opening of the      
latter1 and is that convex part of  the 
eye1 which projects in advance of the   
rest of the organ4 ,the space  between  
this and the crystalline lens is        
occupied by the aqueous humor  and the  

iris4 ,the iris is united to the        
choroides1 and it possesses  the power  
of expanding and contracting1 to admit a
 greater or less  number of rays4       
#ab4 ,the crystalline lens is a small   
body of a crystalline appearance  and   
lenticular shape1 whence its name4 ,it  
is situated between the  aqueous and    
vitreous humors1 and consists of a      
membranous sack filled  with a humor of 
a crystalline appearance4 ,the vitreous 
humor has  been thus denominated on     
account of its resemblance to glass in a
  state of fusion4 ,the retina is a     
membrane which lines the whole  cavity  
of the eye1 and is formed chiefly1 if   
not entirely1 by the  expansion of the  
optic nerve4    #ac4 ,the rays of light 
which proceed from objects pass through 
the  cornea1 aqueous humor1 crystalline 
lens1 and vitreous humor1 and fall  upon
 the retina in a focal point1 to which  
it is brought1 chiefly by  the influence
 of the cornea and the crystalline lens4
 ,the image1 in  an inverted position1  

is painted or thrown on the cornea1     
which  perceives its presence1 and      
conveys an impression of it to the      
brain1  by means of the optic nerve4    
#ad4 ,optical instruments4--,the art of 
constructing optical  instruments is    
founded upon the anatomical structure1  
and  physiological action of the eye1   
and on the laws of light4 ,they are     
designed to increase the powers of the  
eye1 or to remedy some defect  in its   
structure4 ,in the cursory view which we
 may give of a few of  the many optical 
instruments which have been invented1 we
 will begin  with the spectacles1 since 
they are the best known1 and withal the 
most simple4    #ae4 ,the visual point1 
or the distance at which small objects  
can be  distinctly seen1 varies in      
different individuals4 ,as an average1  
it may  be assumed at eight or nine     
inches from the eye4 ,in some persons1  
it is  much nearer1 and in others1      
considerably more distant4 ,the extreme1
 in  the former case1 constitutes myopy1

 or short-sightedness1 and1 in  the     
latter case1 presbyopy1 or              
long-sightedness4    #af4 ,myopy is     
chiefly caused by too great a convexity 
of the cornea  and the crystalline lens1
 which causes the rays to converge to a 
focus1 before they reach the retina4    
,objects are1 therefore1  indistinctly  
seen by myoptic persons1 unless held    
very near the eye to  throw the focus   
farther back4 ,this defect may be       
palliated by the use  of concave        
glasses1 which render the rays          
proceeding from objects more  divergent4
    #ag4 ,presbyopy is principally      
caused by too little convexity of the   
cornea and crystalline lens1 which      
throws the focal point of rays          
reflected from near objects1 beyond the 
retina4 ,this defect is  experienced by 
most people1 to a greater or less       
degree1 after they  have advanced beyond
 the fortieth year1 and occasionally    
even by  youth4 ,a remedy1 or1 at least1
 a palliation1 is found in the use of   

convex glasses1 which render the rays   
more convergent1 and enable the  eye to 
refract them to a focus farther forward1
 at the proper point4    #ah4 ,the      
opticians have their spectacles         
numbered1 to suit different  periods of 
life2 but1 as the short-sighted and     
long-sighted conditions  exist in a     
thousand different degrees1 each person 
should select for  himself such as will 
enable him to read without effort at the
 usual  distance4    #ai4 ,the great    
obstacle to viewing small objects at the
 usual distance1  arises from too great 
a divergence of the light reflected from
 them1  which causes the rays to reach  
the retina before they have converged   
to a focus4 ,this defect is remedied by 
convex lenses1 which bring the  visual  
point nearer to the eye1 and            
consequently cause the rays to          
concentrate in a large focus upon the   
retina4 ,the most powerful  microscopic 
lenses are small globules of glass1     
which permit the eye  to be brought very

 near to the object4    #bj4            
,microscopes are either single or       
double4 ,in the former case1  but one   
lens is used1 and through this the      
object is viewed directly2  but1 in the 
latter case1 two or more glasses are    
employed1 through one  of which a       
magnified image is thrown upon a        
reflecting surface1 and  this is viewed 
through the other glass1 or glasses1 as 
the real object  is seen through a      
single microscope4    #ba4 ,the solar   
microscope1 on account of its great     
magnifying powers1  is the most         
wonderful instrument of this kind4 ,the 
principles of its  construction are the 
same with those of the camera obscura4  
,the  difference consists chiefly in the
 minor circumstance of placing the      
object very near the lens1 by which a   
magnified image is thrown at the  focal 
point within the room4    #bb4 ,in the  
case of the camera obscura1 the objects 
are at a far  greater distance from the 
glass on the outside than the images1 at

 the  focal point1 on the inside4 ,the  
comparatively great distance of the     
object1 in this case1 causes the image  
to be proportionably smaller4  ,in the  
solar microscope1 a small mirror is used
 to receive the rays1  and to reflect   
them directly upon the object4    #bc4  
,the magic lantern is an instrument used
 for magnifying paintings  on glass1 and
 for throwing their images upon a white 
surface in a  darkened room4 ,its       
general construction is the same with   
that of the  solar microscope2 but1 in  
the application1 the light of a lamp is 
employed instead of that from the sun4  
#bd4 ,telescopes are employed for       
viewing objects which from their        
distances appear small1 or are invisible
 to the naked eye4 ,they are of  two    
kinds1 refracting and reflecting4 ,the  
former kind is a  compound of the camera
 obscura and the single microscope4 ,it 
consists  of a tube1 having at the      
further end a double convex lens1 which 
concentrates the rays at a focal point  

within1 where the image is  viewed      
through a microscopic lens1 placed at   
the other end4    #be4 ,in the          
construction of reflecting telescopes1  
concave mirrors1 or  specula1 are       
combined with a double convex lens4 ,a  
large mirror of  this kind is so placed 
in the tube1 that it receives the rays  
of light  from objects1 and reflects    
them upon another of a smaller size4    
,from  this they are thrown to a focal  
point1 where the image is viewed        
through a double convex lens4 ,the      
specula are made of speculum metal1     
which is a composition of certain       
proportions of copper and tin4    #bf4  
,many optical appearances are of such   
frequent recurrence1 that  they could   
not have escaped the earliest observers2
 nevertheless1 ages  appear to have     
elapsed1 before any progress was made   
towards an  explanation of them4        
,empedocles1 a ,greek philosopher1 born 
at  ,agrigentum in ,sicily1 #dfj years  
before ,christ1 is the first person on  

record who attempted to write           
systematically on light4    #bg4 ,the   
subject was successively treated by     
several other  philosophers2 but the    
ancients never attained to a high degree
 of  information upon it4 ,we have      
reason to believe1 however1 that convex 
lenses were1 in some cases1 used as     
magnifiers1 and as burning  glasses1    
although the theory of their refractive 
power was not  understood4    #bh4 ,the 
magnifying power of glasses1 and some   
other optical phenomena1  were largely  
treated by ,al ,hazen1 an ,arabian      
philosopher1 who  flourished about the  
year #aajj of our era2 and1 in #abgj1   
,vitellio1 a  ,polander1 published a    
treatise on optics1 containing all that 
was  valuable in ,al ,hazen's work1     
digested in a better manner1 and with   
more lucid explanations of various      
phenomena4    #bi4 ,roger ,bacon1 an    
,english monk1 who was born in #abad1   
and who lived  to the age of            
seventy-eight1 described very accurately

 the effects of  convex and concave     
lenses1 and demonstrated1 by actual     
experiment1  that a small segment of a  
glass globe would greatly assist the    
sight  of old persons4 ,concerning the  
actual inventor of spectacles1 however1 
we have no certain information2 we only 
know that these useful  instruments were
 generally known in ,europe1 about the  
beginning of the  fourteenth century4   
#cj4 ,in the year #aege1 ,maurolicus1 a 
teacher of mathematics1 at  ,messina1   
published a treatise on optics1 in which
 he demonstrated that  the crystalline  
humor of the eye is a lens1 which       
collects the rays of  light from        
external objects1 and throws them upon  
the retina4 ,having  arrived at a       
knowledge of these facts1 he was enabled
 to assign the  reasons why some people 
were short-sighted1 and others          
long-sighted4    #ca4 ,john ,baptista   
,porta1 of ,naples1 was contemporary    
with ,maurolicus4  ,he invented the     
camera obscura1 and his experiments with

 this  instrument convinced him1 that   
light was a substance1 and that its     
reception into the eye produced vision4 
,these discoveries corresponded  very   
nearly with those by ,maurolicus1       
although neither of these  philosophers 
had any knowledge of what the other had 
done4 ,the  importance of ,porta's      
discoveries will be evident1 when it is 
observed1 that1 before his time1 vision 
was supposed to be dependent  on what   
were termed visual rays1 proceeding from
 the eye4    #cb4 ,the telescope was    
invented towards the latter end of the  
sixteenth  century4 ,of this1 as of many
 other valuable inventions1 accident    
furnished the first hint4 ,it is said1  
that the children of ,zacharias         
,jansen1 a spectacle-maker1 of          
,middleburg in ,holland1 while playing  
with spectacle-glasses in their father's
 shop1 perceived that1 when  the glasses
 were held at a certain distance from   
each other1 the dial  of the clock      
appeared greatly magnified1 but in an   

inverted position4    #cc4 ,this        
incident suggested to their father the  
idea of adjusting two  of these glasses 
on a board1 so as to move them at       
pleasure4 ,two such  glasses inclosed in
 a tube completed the invention of the  
simplest  kind of the refracting        
telescope4 ,galileo greatly improved the
  telescope1 and constructed one that   
magnified thirty-three times1 and  with 
this he made the astronomical           
discoveries which have immortalized  his
 name4    #cd4 ,john ,kepler1 a great   
mathematician and astronomer1 who was   
born at  ,weir1 in ,wurtemburg1 in the  
year #aega1 paid great attention to the 
phenomena of light and vision4 ,he was  
the first who demonstrated that  the    
degree of refraction suffered by light  
in passing through lenses1  corresponds 
with the diameter of the circle of which
 the concavity or  convexity is the     
portion of an arch4 ,he very            
successfully pursued the  discoveries of
 ,maurolicus and ,porta1 and asserted   

that the images of  external objects    
were formed upon the optic nerve by the 
concentration  of rays which proceed    
from them4    #ce4 ,in #afbe1 the       
curious discovery of ,scheiner was      
published1 at ,rome1  which placed      
beyond doubt the fact1 that vision      
depends upon the  formation of the image
 of objects upon the retina4 ,the fact  
was  demonstrated by cutting away1 at   
the back part1 the two outside coats  of
 the eye of an animal1 and by presenting
 different objects before  it4 ,the     
images were distinctly seen painted on  
the naked retina4    #cf4 ,near the     
middle of the seventeenth century1 the  
velocity of light  was discovered by    
,roemer2 and1 in #affc1 ,james ,gregory1
 a celebrated  ,scotch mathematician1   
published the first proposal for a      
reflecting  telescope4 ,but1 as he      
possessed no mechanical dexterity       
himself1 and  as he could find no       
workman capable of executing his        
designs1 he never  succeeded in carrying

 his conceptions into effect4 ,this was 
reserved  for ,sir ,isaac ,newton2 who1 
being remarkable for manual skill1      
executed  two instruments of this kind1 
in the year #afgb1 on a plan1 however1  
somewhat different from that proposed by
 ,gregory4    #cg4 ,in the course of the
 year #afff1 the attention of ,sir      
,isaac ,newton  was drawn to the        
phenomena of the refraction of light    
through the  prism2 and1 having observed
 a certain surprising fact1 he          
instituted a  variety of experiments1 by
 which he was brought to the conclusion1
  that light was not a homogeneous      
substance1 but that it is composed of   
particles1 which are capable of         
different degrees of refrangibility4    
#ch4 ,by the same experiments1 he also  
proved1 that the rays or  particles of  
light differ from each other in         
exhibiting different  colors1 some      
producing the color red1 others that of 
yellow1 blue1 c4  ,he applied his       
principles to the explanation of most of

 the phenomena  of nature1 where light  
and color are concerned2 and almost     
every thing  which we know upon these   
subjects1 was laid open by his          
experiments4    #ci4 ,the splendor of   
,sir ,isaac ,newton's discoveries       
obscures1 in some  measure1 the merits  
of earlier and subsequent philosophers2 
yet  several interesting discoveries in 
regard to light and color1 as well  as  
many important improvements of optical  
instruments1 have been made  since his  
time1 although the light by which these 
have been achieved1  was derived        
principally from his labors4            
,illustration3 ,,goldbeater4    ,,the   
,,gold-,,beater1 ,,and ,,the ,,jeweller4
      ,,gold4    #a4 ,the metals most   
extensively employed in the arts are    
gold1 silver1  copper1 lead1 tin1 and   
iron4 ,these are sometimes found        
uncombined with  any other substance1 or
 combined only with each other2 in      
either of  these cases1 they are said to
 be in a native state4 ,but they are    

more frequently found united with some  
substances which1 in a great  measure1  
disguise their metallic qualities1 or1  
in other words1 in a  state of ore4 ,the
 mode of separating the metals from     
their ores1  will be noticed in         
connexion with some of the trades in    
which they are  prepared for1 or        
practically applied in1 the arts4    #b4
 ,gold is a metal of a yellow color1 a  
characteristic by which it is           
distinguished from all other simple     
metallic bodies4 ,as a  representative  
of property1 it has been used from time 
immemorial2  and1 before coinage was    
invented1 it passed for money in its    
native  state4 ,in this form1 gold is   
still current in some parts of ,africa2 
and even in the ,southern states of our 
own country1 in the vicinity of  the    
gold mines1 the same practice1 in a     
measure1 prevails4    #c4 ,gold is      
rarely employed in a state of perfect   
purity1 but is  generally used in       
combination with some other metal1 which

 renders it  harder1 and consequently   
more capable of enduring the friction to
  which it is exposed4 ,the metal used  
for this purpose is called an  alloy1   
and generally consists of silver or     
copper4    #d4 ,for convenience in      
commerce1 this precious metal is        
supposed to be  divided into twenty-four
 equal parts1 called carats4 ,if        
perfectly  pure1 it is denominated gold 
#bd carats fine2 if alloyed with one    
part  of any other metal or mixture of  
metals1 it is said to be #bc carats     
fine4 ,the standard gold coin of the    
,united ,states and ,great ,britain is  
#bb carats fine2 or1 in other words1 it 
contains one-twelfth part of  alloy4    
,gold1 made standard by equal parts of  
copper and silver1  approaches in color 
more nearly to pure gold than when      
alloyed in any  other manner4    #e4    
,gold is found in veins in mountains1   
most usually associated with  ores of   
silver1 sulphurets of iron1 copper1     
lead1 and other metals4 ,it  is often so

 minutely distributed1 that its presence
 is detected only  by pounding and      
washing the ores in which it exists4    
,but the greatest  part of the gold in  
the possession of mankind1 has been     
found in the  form of grains and small  
detached masses1 amid the sands of      
rivers and  in alluvial lands1 where it 
had been deposited by means of water1   
which had detached it from its original 
position in the mountains4    #f4 ,to   
separate or extract gold from the       
foreign matters with which it  may be   
combined1 the whole is first pounded    
fine1 and then washed by  putting it in 
a stream of water1 which carries off the
 stony  particles1 while the gold1 by   
its specific gravity1 sinks to the      
bottom4 ,to render the separation still 
more perfect1 this sediment is  mixed   
with ten times its weight of            
quicksilver1 and put into a leather     
bag1 in which it is submitted to a      
pressure that forces the fluid part     
through its pores2 while the more solid 

part of the amalgam1 which  contains    
most of the gold1 remains4    #g4 ,to   
separate the quicksilver from the gold1 
the mass is subjected to  the process of
 sublimation in earthen retorts1 which1 
as applied to  metals1 is similar in its
 effects to distillation1 as applied to 
liquids4 ,when gold is contained in the 
ores of other metals1 they are  roasted1
 in order to drive off the volatile     
parts1 and to oxydize the  other metals4
 ,the gold is then extracted by         
amalgamation1 by  liquefaction with     
lead1 by the aid of nitric acid1 or by  
other methods  adapted to the nature of 
the ore4    #h4 ,gold obtained in any of
 these methods is always more or less   
alloyed with some other metal1          
especially with silver or copper2 but a 
separation is produced1 so far as it is 
required for the purposes of  commerce1 
by two processes1 one of which is called
 cupellation1 and  the other parting4   
,the former of these operations consists
 in  melting the gold with a quantity of

 lead1 which readily oxydizes and       
vitrifies1 and which causes the same    
changes to take place in the  metal to  
be detached from the mass of gold4 ,the 
operation is called  cupellation1       
because it is usually performed on a    
cupel1 a vessel  formed of bone-ashes1  
or sometimes of wood-ashes4    #i4      
,cupellation is effectual in removing   
copper1 but not so with regard  to      
silver2 the latter is separated by means
 of a process called  parting4 ,the     
metal is rolled out into thin sheets or 
strips1 and cut  into small pieces4     
,these are put into diluted nitric acid1
 which1 by  the aid of a moderate heat1 
dissolves the silver1 leaving the gold  
in  a porous state4    #aj4 ,another    
process1 called cementation1 is also    
sometimes used4 ,it  is performed by    
beating the alloyed metal into thin     
plates1 and  arranging them in alternate
 layers with a cement containing nitrate
 of  potash1 and sulphate of iron4 ,the 
whole is then exposed to heat1 until  a 

great part of the baser metals has been 
removed by the action of the  nitric    
acid liberated by the nitre4            
,cementation is often employed by       
goldsmiths1 to refine the surface of    
articles in which the gold has  been    
combined1 in too small a proportion1    
with metals of less value4    #aa4 ,the 
average amount of gold annually obtained
 in every part of the  globe cannot fall
 far short of twenty-millions of dollars
 in value1 of  which ,south ,america    
supplies about one half1 and ,europe1   
about one  twenty-fifth part4 ,the      
amount yielded by the ,southern states  
of our  ,union1 cannot be accurately    
ascertained1 but the whole sum coined at
  the ,united ,states' ,mint in #ahcd1  
from gold obtained in this quarter1     
amounted to #hih1jjj1 and since #ahbd to
 that time1 to #c1fgi1jjj4 ,in  #ahbd1  
the sum was but #ejjj4 ,our ,southern   
mines will probably continue  to        
increase in productiveness4      ,,the  
,,gold-,,beater4    #a4 ,gold1 not being

 subject to intrinsic change by         
atmospheric action1  or by that of      
common chemical agents1 is extensively  
used in gilding  various substances1    
either with the view of preserving them 
from  decay1 or for the purpose of      
embellishment4 ,to prepare the gold for 
application in this manner is the       
business of the gold-beater4    #b4 ,the
 metal is first melted with some borax  
in a crucible1 and formed  into an ingot
 by pouring it into an iron mould4 ,the 
mass is next  hammered a little on an   
anvil1 to increase the cohesion of its  
parts1  and afterwards repeatedly passed
 between steel rollers1 until it has    
become a riband as thin as paper4    #c4
 ,two ounces and a half of this riband  
are cut into #aej pieces of  equal      
dimensions4 ,these are hammered a little
 to make them smooth1 and  then         
interlaid with pieces of fine vellum    
four inches square4 ,the  whole1 with   
twenty other pieces of vellum on each   
side1 is inclosed in  two cases of      

parchment4 ,the packet is then beaten on
 a marble anvil  with a hammer weighing 
sixteen pounds1 until the gold has been 
spread  to near the size of the vellum  
leaves1 it1 in the mean time1 being     
often turned over4    #d4 ,the gold     
leaves are next divided into four equal 
squares1 with a  steel knife on a       
leather cushion2 and the #fjj leaves    
thus produced1  are interlaid with a    
kind of leather or parchment made of the
  intestines of the ox1 and beaten with 
a hammer weighing twelve pounds1  until 
the leaves have been extended as before4
 ,they are again  quartered and         
interlaid1 and beaten with a hammer     
weighing six or  eight pounds4    #e4   
,the gold having now been sufficiently  
extended1 the packets are  taken apart1 
and the leaves cut to a proper and      
uniform size1 by means  of a cane frame 
on a leather cushion4 ,the leaves1 as   
fast as they are  trimmed1 are placed in
 a book1 the paper of which has been    
covered  with red bole1 to prevent the  

gold from sticking4 ,of the two ounces  
and a half of gold thus treated1 only   
about one ounce remains in  perfect     
leaves1 which1 altogether1 amount to    
#bjjj three inches and  three-eighths   
square4 ,the books contain twenty-five  
leaves1 so that  one ounce of gold makes
 eighty books4    #f4 ,gold extended    
into leaves1 is alloyed1 in a greater or
 less degree1  with silver or copper1 or
 both1 because1 in a pure state1 it     
would be  too ductile4 ,the newest skins
 will work the purest gold1 and make the
  thinnest leaf1 because they are the   
smoothest4 ,the alloy varies from  three
 to twenty-four grains to the ounce1 but
 in general it is six1 or  one part of  
alloy to eighty of gold4    #g4 ,a kind 
of leaf called party gold1 is formed by 
the union of a  thin leaf of gold and a 
thicker one of silver4 ,the two are laid
  together1 and afterwards heated and   
pressed1 until they have cohered4  ,they
 are then beaten and otherwise treated1 
as in the process just  described4      

,silver1 and likewise copper1 are also  
beaten into leaves1  although they will 
by no means bear so great a reduction as
 gold4  ,considerable quantities of     
copper leaf are brought from ,holland1  
which  in commerce is known by the      
denomination of ,dutch leaf1 or ,dutch  
gold4    #h4 ,the ancient ,romans were  
not ignorant of the process of          
gold-beating1 although they did not     
carry it so far as we do4 ,pliny        
informs us that they sometimes made #gej
 leaves four fingers square1  from an   
ounce of gold4 ,at ,prneste was a statue
 of ,fortune1 gilt with  leaves of a    
certain thickness2 hence those beaten to
 the same degree  of thickness were     
called ,prnestines4 ,those of another   
and less  degree of thickness1 were     
called qustoriales1 for a similar       
reason4    #i4 ,the ,romans began to    
gild the interior of their houses       
immediately  after the destruction of   
,carthage4 ,the wainscots of the        
,capitol were  first ornamented in this 

manner2 and afterwards it became        
fashionable  to gild the walls and      
ceilings of private dwellings1 as well  
as  articles of furniture4    #aj4 ,gold
 wire4--,the ductility of gold is more  
conspicuous in wire  than in leaves4    
,the wire thus denominated1 is in       
reality silver wire  covered with gold4 
,it is formed by covering a silver rod  
with thick  leaves of gold1 and then    
drawing it successively through conical 
holes  of different sizes1 made in      
plates of steel4 ,the wire may be       
reduced1  in this manner1 to a degree of
 extreme fineness1 the gold being drawn 
out with the silver1 and constituting   
for it a perfect coating4    #aa4 ,wire 
thus formed is often used in the        
manufacture of gold  thread4 ,before it 
is applied in this way1 it is flattened 
between  rollers of polished steel1 and 
then wound on yellow silk by machinery4 
,the coating of gold on the silver wire 
employed in this way1 does not  exceed  
the millionth part of an inch in        

thickness4      ,,the ,,jeweller4    #a4
 ,the jeweller makes rings1 lockets1    
bracelets1 brooches1 ear-rings1         
necklaces1 watch-chains1 and trinkets of
 like nature4 ,the materials of  the    
best quality of these ornaments are     
gold1 pearls1 and precious  stones1     
although those of an inferior kind are  
often used4    #b4 ,there are several   
stones to which is applied the epithet  
precious1 of which the following are the
 principal3 the diamond1 the  ruby1 the 
sapphire1 the topaz1 the chrysolite1 the
 beryl1 the emerald1  the hyacinth1 the 
amethyst1 the garnet1 the tourmalin1 and
 the opal4  ,to these may be added rock 
crystal1 the fine flints of pebbles1 the
  cat's-eye1 the oculis mundi or        
hydrophanes1 the chalcedony1 the        
moon-stone1 the onyx1 the carnelian1 the
 sardonyx1 agates1 and the              
,labrador-stone4 ,these stones1 together
 with different kinds of pearl1  are    
also called gems or jewels4    #c4 ,the 
precious stones are valuable1 as        

articles of merchandise1 in  proportion 
to their scarcity1 weight1 transparency1
 lustre1 and  hardness4 ,in most of     
these particulars1 the diamond is       
superior to any  other2 but those of the
 same size are not always of equal      
value1 for  all are not of the same     
color or brilliancy4 ,the very best are 
said to  be diamonds of the first water4
 ,the diamond was called adamant by  the
 ancients1 although this term was not   
confined exclusively to this  stone4    
#d4 ,the weight and consequent value of 
the most precious stones are  estimated 
in carats1 one of which is equal to four
 grains troy  weight1 and the value of  
each carat is increased in proportion to
 the  size of the stone4 ,in ,england1  
the cost of a cut diamond of the first  
water is thus estimated3                
#a carat is            l4#h             
#b  do4  is #b  #b  #h     #cb          
#c  do4  is #c  #c  #h     #gb          
#d  do4  is #d  #d  #h    #abh    ,by   
the foregoing examples1 it will be seen 

that the weight is  multiplied by       
itself1 and the product by the price per
 carat1 which  may be some other sum1   
according to the general characteristics
 of the  stone4    #e4 ,this rule1      
however1 is not extended to diamonds of 
more than #bj  carats in weight2 nor is 
this or any other rule of estimate      
strictly  adhered to in every case2     
nevertheless1 it probably comes pretty  
near  to general usage4 ,in the same    
country1 a perfect ruby of #c-a_/b      
carats  is worth more than a diamond of 
equal weight4 ,a ruby weighing one      
carat may be worth #aj guineas2 two     
carats1 #dj guineas2 three carats1  #aej
 guineas2 six carats #ajjj guineas4 ,a  
ruby of a deep red color1  exceeding #bj
 carats1 is called a carbuncle2 and of  
these1 #ajh1  weighing from #ajj to #bjj
 carats each1 are said to have been in  
the  throne of the ,great ,mogul4    #f4
 ,some of the ,european sovereigns have1
 in their possession1 diamonds  of great
 value1 several of which were originally

 brought to ,england  from ,india4 ,the 
,pitt or ,regent diamond was purchased  
in ,india by  ,robert ,pitt1 grandfather
 of the ,right ,honorable ,william      
,pitt1 for  #ab1ejj sterling4 ,it was   
brought to ,england in a rough state1   
and  #ejjj were there expended in       
cutting it2 but the cuttings themselves 
were worth #gjjj or #hjjj4 ,it was sold 
to the ,duke of ,orleans1 for the  ,king
 of ,france1 at the enormous price of   
#acf1jjj4 ,its weight is #acf  carats2  
and1 before it was cut1 it was as large 
as a common pullet's  egg4    #g4 ,a    
celebrated diamond1 in the possession of
 the emperor of ,russia1  is denominated
 the ,effingham or ,russian diamond4 ,it
 was brought to  ,england by the ,earl  
of ,effingham1 while governor-general of
 ,india1 and  sold to the ,empress      
,catharine for #ij1jjj4 ,it is inferior 
in shape to  the last mentioned1 but    
superior to it in magnitude1 it weighing
 #aih  carats4 ,the ,queen of ,england  
has a diamond which cost #bb1jjj4    #h4

 ,the largest diamond hitherto known was
 found in the island of  ,borneo1 and it
 is now in the possession of the ,rajah 
of ,mattan4 ,many  years ago1 the       
governor of ,batavia offered1 in        
exchange for it1  #aej1jjj1 and two     
large brigs of war with their equipments
 and outfit2  but the rajah refused to  
part with the jewel1 to which the       
,malays  supposed miraculous power      
belonged1 and which they believed to be 
connected with the fate of his family4  
,the weight of this diamond is  #cfg    
carats4    #i4 ,other jewels1 belonging 
to different sovereigns1 as well as to  
private persons1 might be mentioned2 but
 a sufficient number has been  noticed  
to enable the reader to form some idea  
of the extravagant  expenditures often  
made for articles of imaginary value4   
,we will  merely add that the royal     
family of ,portugal is in possession of 
a  stone which was formerly supposed to 
be a diamond1 but which has  lately     
proved to be some kind of crystal of    

little value4 ,the weight  of this stone
 is #afhj carats2 and1 until its real   
character was  discovered1 it was valued
 at #bbd millions sterling4    #aj4 ,the
 value of precious stones was much      
increased in ancient times1  by the     
absurd notion commonly entertained1 that
 they possessed  miraculous powers in   
preventing or curing diseases1 as well  
as in  keeping off witches and evil     
spirits4 ,these notions still prevail   
more  or less in heathen nations2 and   
many1 even in countries called          
,christian1 wear them1 or something     
else1 as amulets for the same or        
similar purposes4    #aa4 ,the          
,gem-sculptor4--,figures and letters are
 often cut in precious  stones by the   
gem-engraver1 or gem-sculptor1 whose    
art1 according to  the opinion of some  
writers1 originated with the            
,babylonians2 but1  according to others1
 it had its commencement in ,india or   
,egypt4 ,in the  latter country1 it was 
first employed in the production of     

hieroglyphical figures on basalt and    
granite rocks4 ,this art1 which is      
denominated lithoglyptics1 or the       
glyptic art1 was held in great          
estimation by the ,greeks in ancient    
times4 ,it arose to eminence with  the  
other fine arts2 and1 like them1 it had 
its zenith of perfection1  was buried   
with them in the ruins of the ,roman    
empire1 and with them  revived towards  
the end of the fifteenth century4       
#ab4 ,the productions of gem-sculpture  
are chiefly of two kinds4 ,the  first of
 these are cameos1 which are little     
bas-reliefs1 or figures  raised above   
the surface4 ,they are commonly made of 
stones1 the strata  of which are of     
different colors1 so that the figure is 
different in  color from the ground on  
which it has been raised4 ,the other    
productions of this art are denominated 
intaglios4 ,the work of these  is the   
reverse of that first mentioned1 since  
the figure is cut below  the surface of 
the stone1 so that they serve as seals  

to produce  impressions in relief upon  
soft substances4    #ac4 ,this artist   
performs his work by means of a lathe1  
with the aid of  diamond dust4 ,the     
instruments are made of soft iron1 and  
are fixed in  leaden chucks1 which can  
be readily fastened to one end of the   
mandril4 ,the diamond dust is made into 
thin paste with olive oil1 and  is      
applied to the point of the instrument4 
,the small invisible  particles         
insinuate themselves into the iron1     
where they remain  permanently fixed4   
,in producing figures and letters with a
 tool thus  charged with the hardest    
substance in nature1 the precious stone 
is  brought in contact with it while in 
rapid motion4    #ad4 ,the engraved gems
 of antiquity have been greatly         
esteemed1 as  works of art1 by the      
curious1 and various methods have1      
therefore1  been devised to imitate     
them4 ,this has been done in glass in   
such  perfection1 both as to form and   
color1 that good judges can scarcely    

distinguish the imitations from the     
originals4 ,the impression of the  gem  
is first taken in some kind of fine     
earth2 and1 upon the mould  thus formed1
 the proposed material is pressed1 while
 in a plastic  state4    #ae4 ,the      
precious stones generally have likewise 
been imitated with  great success4 ,the 
basis of the different compositions is a
 paste  made of the finest flint glass1 
the materials of which have been        
selected and combined with great care4  
,the desired color is produced  with    
metallic oxydes4 ,a great number of     
complex receipts are in use  among      
manufacturers of these articles4    #af4
 ,the ,lapidary4--,the precious stones  
and imitations of them in  glass are    
brought to the desired form by the      
lapidary4 ,the instrument  with which   
this artist chiefly operates is a wheel 
which is made to  revolve horizontally  
before him4 ,it is put in motion by     
means of an  endless rope extending from
 another wheel1 which is moved with the 

left hand of the operator1 while1 with  
his right1 he holds1 in a  proper       
position1 the substance to be reduced4  
#ag4 ,the precious stones1 being of     
small size1 cannot be held with         
steadiness on the wheel with the hand1  
nor with any holding  instrument2 they  
are1 therefore1 first fastened1 by means
 of  sealing-wax1 to the end of small   
sticks4 ,by this simple means1 and a    
small upright post1 against which the   
hand or the other end of the  stick is  
rested1 the workman can hold a stone in 
any position he may  desire4    #ah4    
,the lapidary's wheel is made of        
different kinds of metals4 ,the  diamond
 is cut on a wheel of soft steel1 by the
 aid of its own dust  mixed with olive  
oil4 ,the ,oriental ruby1 sapphire1 and 
topaz1 are cut  on a copper wheel in the
 same manner1 and polished with tripoli 
and  water4 ,stones of a less degree of 
hardness are cut and polished on a      
leaden or tin wheel with emery and      
rotten stone4    #ai4 ,the ancients were

 not acquainted with any method of      
cutting the  diamond1 although they     
applied its powder to polishing1        
cutting1 and  engraving other stones4   
,gems of this kind1 either rough1 or    
polished  by nature1 were set as        
ornaments1 and were valued according to 
the  beauty and perfection of their     
crystallization and transparency4 ,the  
value of any precious stone1 or jewel1  
depends much upon the skill of  the     
lapidary4    #bj4 ,the                  
,pearl-fisherman4--,pearls are obtained 
from a testaceous fish  of the oyster   
kind1 found in the waters of the ,east  
and ,west ,indies1  as well as in other 
seas of different latitudes4 ,these     
oysters grow in  some parts of the      
globe1 in clusters1 on rocks in the     
depths of the  sea4 ,such places are    
called pearl-banks1 of which the most   
celebrated are near the islands of      
,ceylon and ,japan1 and in the  ,persian
 ,gulf4 ,the finest and most costly     
pearls are the ,oriental4    #ba4       

,pearls are considered by some to be    
morbid concretions1 or  calculi1        
produced by the endeavor of the animal  
to fill up the holes  which may have    
been made from without by small worms4  
,others suppose  them to be mere        
concretions of the animal juice about   
some extraneous  matter which may have  
been intruded by some means into the    
shell4    #bb4 ,to collect the shells   
containing these singular productions1  
is  the business of divers1 who have    
been brought up to this dangerous       
occupation4 ,they must generally descend
 from eight to twelve fathoms1  and must
 remain beneath the surface of the water
 for several minutes1  during which time
 they are exposed to the attacks of the 
voracious  shark4 ,in addition to the   
danger from this cause1 the employment  
is  very destructive of health4    #bc4 
,in preparing a diver for his descent1 a
 rope is tied round the  body1 and a    
stone1 weighing twenty or thirty pounds1
 is fastened to  the foot to sink him4  

,his ears and nostrils are filled with  
cotton1  and a sponge dipped in oil is  
fastened to his arm1 to which he may now
  and then apply his mouth1 in order to 
breathe without inhaling water4  ,in    
addition to these equipments1 he is     
furnished with a knife1 with  which the 
shells may be detached from the rocks1  
and with a net or  basket1 in which they
 may be deposited4    #bd4 ,thus        
equipped1 he descends to the bottom1 and
 having filled his  depository1 or      
having stayed below as long as he may be
 able1 he  unlooses the stone1 gives the
 signal to his companions above1 who    
quickly draw him into the boat4 ,at some
 pearl-fisheries1 the  diving-bell is   
employed1 which in some degree obviates 
some of the  dangers before stated4     
#be4 ,the shells thus obtained are laid 
by1 until the body of the animal  has   
putrified1 when they commonly open of   
themselves4 ,those which  contain any   
pearls1 generally have from eight to    
twelve4 ,the pearls  having been dried1 

are assorted according to their various 
magnitudes2  and1 to effect this        
separation1 they are passed through nine
 sieves of  different degrees of        
fineness4 ,the largest pearls are about 
the size  of a small walnut2 but such   
are very rare4 ,the smallest are called 
seed pearls4    #bf4 ,pearls are of     
various colors1 such as white1 yellow1  
lead-color1  blackish1 and totally      
black4 ,the white water is preferred in 
,europe1  and the yellow water1 in      
,arabia and ,india4 ,in regard to their 
form1  they vary considerably1 being    
round1 pear-formed1 onion-formed1 and   
irregular4 ,the inner part of the pearl 
muscle is called nacre or  mother of    
pearl1 and this is manufactured into    
beads1 snuff-boxes1  spoons1 and a      
variety of other articles4    #bg4      
,pearls were objects of luxury among the
 ancients4 ,a pearl valued  by ,pliny at
 a certain sum1 which1 reduced to our   
currency1 amounts to  #cge1jjj1 was     
dissolved by ,cleopatra1 and drunk to   

the health of  ,antony1 at a banquet4   
,these beautiful productions are not    
estimated so  highly at present4 ,the   
largest will sometimes command four or  
five  hundred dollars1 although very    
few1 which are worth over forty or      
fifty dollars1 are ever brought to this 
country4    #bh4 ,the gem-engraver and  
the jeweller were both employed by      
,moses1 in  preparing the ornaments in  
the ephod and breast-plate of the       
high-priest4 ,in the former were set    
onyx stones1 and in the latter1  twelve 
different stones4 ,on the gems of both  
ornaments1 were engraved  the names of  
the twelve tribes of ,israel4    #ci4   
,we1 however1 have evidence of the      
practice of the arts1 connected  with   
the production of jewelry1 long before  
the days of the ,jewish  lawgiver4 ,we  
learn from the twenty-fourth chapter of 
,genesis1 that the  servant of ,abraham 
presented a golden ear-ring1 and        
bracelets for the  hands1 to ,rebecca1  
who afterwards became the wife of       

,isaac4 ,perhaps  these were brought    
from ,egypt by the patriarch1 about     
seventy years  before4    #cj4 ,men have
 ever been fond of personal ornaments1  
and there have been  but few nations    
since the flood1 which have not         
encouraged the  jeweller in some way or 
other4 ,in modern times1 the art has    
been  greatly improved4 ,the ,french1   
for lightness and elegance of design1   
have surpassed other nations2 but the   
,english1 for excellence of             
workmanship1 have been considered1 for  
ages1 unrivalled4    #ca4 ,in the       
,united ,states1 the manufacture of     
jewelry is very  extensive1 there being 
large establishments for this purpose in
  ,philadelphia1 and in ,newark1 ,n4    
,j41 as well as in several other        
places4 ,so extensive have been the     
operations in this branch of  business1 
and to such advantage have they been    
carried on1 that  importations from     
other countries have ceased1 and this1  
too1 without  the influence of          

custom-house duties4    #cb4 ,the       
capital necessary in carrying on the    
business of the jeweller1  is           
considerable1 inasmuch as the materials 
are very expensive4 ,the  operations    
likewise require the exercise of much   
ingenuity4 ,these1  however1 we shall   
not attempt to describe1 since our      
article on this  subject has already    
been extended beyond its proper limits1 
and since1  also1 they could be hardly  
understood without actual inspection4   
,illustration3 ,,watch ,,maker4    ,,the
 ,,silversmith1 ,,and ,,the             
,,watch-,,maker4      ,,silver4    #a4  
,silver is a metal of a fine white      
color1 and1 in brilliancy1  inferior to 
none of the metals except steel4 ,in    
malleability1 it is  next to gold1 it   
being capable of reduction into leaves  
not more than  the #a_/afjjjj of an inch
 in thickness1 and of being drawn into  
wire  much finer than a human hair4     
#b4 ,the relative value of silver and   
gold has varied considerably in         

different ages4 ,in the prosperous      
period of ancient civilization1 one     
pound of gold was worth twelve of       
silver4 ,in ,great ,britain1 the        
relative value of the two metals is one 
to fifteen and one-fifth1 and1  on the  
continent of ,europe1 it is about one to
 fifteen4 ,in the ,united  ,states1 the 
relative value of these two metals has  
been recently  established by ,congress 
at one to sixteen4 ,in ,china and       
,japan1 it is  said to be one to nine or
 ten4    #c4 ,there are two methods of  
separating silver from its various ores1
  and these are called smelting and     
amalgamation4 ,in the former  method1   
the ore and a due proportion of lead are
 heated together2 and  the latter1 from 
its great affinity for silver1 unites   
with it1 and  separates it from other   
substances4 ,the two metals are         
afterwards  separated from each other1  
by melting them on a cupel1 and then    
exposing them to a current of           
atmospheric air1 by which the lead is   

converted into an oxyde1 while the      
silver remains untouched4 ,this  process
 is called cupellation4    #d4 ,in the  
other method1 the first thing done is to
 roast the ore1 to  expel the sulphur   
and other volatile parts4 ,it is then   
reduced to an  impalpable powder by     
machinery2 and having been sifted1 it is
 agitated  sixteen or eighteen hours in 
barrels1 with a quantity of quicksilver1
  water1 and iron1 combined in certain  
proportions4 ,this agitation  causes the
 several substances composing the       
charge1 to unite  according to their    
respective affinities4    #e4 ,the      
silver and mercury combine1 forming an  
amalgam1 which1 having  been put into a 
leather sack1 a part of the latter is   
separated from  the rest by filtration1 
still leaving six parts of this metal to
 one  of the silver4 ,the amalgam is    
next submitted to the action of heat in 
a distilling furnace1 by which the      
mercury is sublimated4    #f4 ,the value
 of the silver annually taken from the  

mines in all parts  of the world1 is    
supposed to be about #bj1jjj1jjj1 of    
which ,mexico and  ,south ,america yield
 the greater part4 ,the several silver  
mines of  ,europe and ,asia produce     
about two millions and a half4          
,,the ,,silversmith4    #a4 ,the artisan
 who forms certain articles of gold and 
silver1 is  called indifferently a      
goldsmith or a silversmith4 ,the former 
denomination is most commonly employed  
in ,england1 and the latter1 in  the    
,united ,states4    #b4 ,the most common
 subjects of manufacture by the         
silversmith are  cups1 goblets1         
chalices1 tankards1 spoons1 knives1     
forks1 waiters1  bread-trays1 tea-pots1 
coffee-pots1 cream-pots1 sugar-bowls1   
sugar-tongs1 and pencil-cases4 ,many of 
these articles he sometimes  makes of   
gold2 this is especially the case in    
,europe1 and some parts  of ,asia4 ,in  
the ,united ,states1 the people are     
commonly satisfied with  the less       
expensive metal4    #c4 ,a great        

proportion of the silver used by this   
mechanic1 has been  previously coined   
into dollars4 ,in working these into    
different  utensils or vessels1 he first
 melts them in a crucible1 and casts the
  silver into solid masses by pouring it
 into iron moulds2 and having  forged it
 on an anvil1 he reduces it still       
further1 and to a uniform  thickness1 by
 passing it several times between steel 
rollers4 ,in  giving additional         
explanations of the operations of the   
silversmith1  we will describe the      
manner in which a plain tea-pot is      
manufactured4    #d4 ,in forming the    
body1 or containing part1 the plate1    
forged and  rolled as just described1 is
 cut into a circular form1 and placed on
 a  block of soft wood with a concave   
face1 where it is beaten with a  convex 
hammer1 until it has been brought to a  
form much like that of a  saucer4 ,it is
 then placed upon an anvil1 and beaten a
 while with a  long-necked hammer with a
 round flattish face4    #e4 ,it is next

 raised to the proposed form by forging 
it on a long  slender anvil1 called a   
stake1 with a narrow-faced hammer1 which
  spreads the metal perpendicularly from
 the bottom1 or laterally1  according to
 the position in which it may be held   
when brought in  contact with the metal4
    #f4 ,after the piece has been thus  
brought to the proposed form1 it is     
planished all over by beating it with a 
small hammer on the outside1  while it  
rests on a small steel head on the      
inside4 ,during the  performance of     
these operations1 the silver is         
occasionally annealed  by heating it in 
the fire2 but it is worked while in a   
cold state1  except in the first        
forging1 when it is wrought while a     
little below  red heat4    #g4 ,the     
several pieces which compose a tea-pot  
of ordinary  construction1 amount to    
about fifteen1 nearly all of which are  
rolled  and forged in the manner just   
described4 ,the knob on the lid1 the    
handle1 and the spout1 are sometimes    

cast1 and at other times1 the two       
pieces of which they are formed are cut 
from a plate1 and brought to a  proper  
figure by impressing them with steel    
dies4    #h4 ,the figures seen on the   
cheaper kinds of silver tea-pots1 as    
well  as on other vessels and utensils1 
are commonly made by passing the  plates
 or strips between engraved steel       
rollers1 or by stamping them  with steel
 dies4 ,the dies are commonly brought in
 sudden and violent  contact with the   
metal by means of an iron drop1 which is
 let fall  from a height upon it4    #i4
 ,after the several parts have been     
brought to the proper shape1 and  to the
 requisite finish1 they are firmly      
united together by means of a  solder   
composed of about three parts of silver 
and one of brass and  copper4 ,before   
the spout and handle are soldered on1   
the other parts1  which have been thus  
united into one piece1 are brought to a 
certain  degree of polish4    #aj4 ,this
 is effected chiefly in a lathe1 by     

holding against the piece1  while in    
rapid motion1 first a file1 then a      
scraper1 and afterwards  pumice stone   
and ,scotch stone4 ,it is then held     
against a rapidly  revolving brush1     
charged with fine brickdust and sweet   
oil4 ,the handle  and spout are next    
soldered on4 ,after this1 the vessel is 
annealed1  and put in pickle1 or1 in    
other words1 into a weak solution of oil
  of vitriol4 ,it is then scoured with  
sand and water1 and the whole  operation
 is completed by burnishing the smooth  
parts with a steel  instrument4    #aa4 
,in the more expensive kinds of wares1  
the raised figures and the  frosty      
appearance are produced by a process    
called chasing4 ,in  executing this kind
 of work1 a drawing is first made on the
 silver  with a lead pencil4 ,the       
several parts are then raised from the  
other  side1 corresponding as nearly as 
possible to it4 ,the vessel or piece  is
 then filled with1 or placed upon1      
melted cement1 composed of pitch  and   

brick-dust2 and1 after the cement has   
become hard by cooling1 the  chaser     
reduces the raised parts to the form    
indicated by the drawing1  by means of  
small steel punches4 ,the roughness of  
surface1 and frosty  appearance1 are    
produced by punches indented on the end4
    #ab4 ,the operations of the         
silversmith are exceedingly various1    
many of  which could be hardly          
understood from mere description4 ,we   
would1  therefore1 recommend to the     
curious1 actual inspection1 assuring    
them  that the ingenuity displayed in   
executing the work in the different     
branches of the business1 is well worthy
 of their attention4 ,we will  merely   
add1 that spoons1 knives1 and forks1 are
 not cast1 as is  frequently supposed1  
but forged from strips of silver cut    
from rolled  sheets4    #ac4 ,the       
earliest historical notice of gold and  
silver is found in the  thirteenth      
chapter of ,genesis1 where it is stated 
that ,abraham  returned to ,canaan from 

,egypt1 rich in cattle1 in silver1 and  
in  gold4 ,this event took place about  
#aibj years before ,christ1 it being    
but little more than #djj years after   
the deluge4 ,from the authority  of the 
same book1 we also learn1 that during   
the life of this  patriarch1 those      
metals were employed as a medium of     
commercial  intercourse1 and as the     
materials for personal ornaments1       
vessels1 and  utensils4    #ad4 ,from   
the preceding facts1 we have reason to  
believe that gold and  silver were known
 to the antediluvians2 for1 had not this
 been the  case1 they could hardly have 
been held in such estimation so early as
  the time of ,abraham4 ,in short1 they 
were probably wrought even in the  days 
of the original progenitor of the human 
race1 as was evidently  the case with   
iron and copper4      ,,the ,,clock     
,,and ,,watch ,,maker4    #a4 ,the great
 divisions of time1 noted by uncivilized
 men1 are those  which are indicated by 
the changes of the moon1 and the annual 

and  diurnal revolutions of the earth2  
but the ingenuity of man was very  early
 exercised in devising methods of       
measuring more minute periods  of       
duration4    #b4 ,the earliest          
contrivance for effecting this object   
was the  sun-dial4 ,this instrument was 
known to the ancient ,egyptians1        
,chaldeans1 ,chinese1 and ,bramins4 ,it 
was likewise known to the ,hebrews1  at 
least as early as #gdj years before     
,christ1 in the days of ,ahaz the  king4
 ,the ,greeks and the ,romans borrowed  
it from their ,eastern  neighbors4 ,the 
first sun-dial at ,rome was set up by   
,papirius ,cursor1  about #cjj years    
before ,christ4 ,before this period1 the
 ,romans  determined the time of day by 
the rude method of observing the length 
of shadows4    #c4 ,the sun-dial1 as it 
is now constructed1 consists of a plate1
  divided into twelve equal parts1 like 
the face of a clock1 on which  the      
falling of a shadow indicates the time  
of day4 ,the shadow is  projected by the

 sun1 through the intervention of a rod 
or the edge  of a plate stile erected on
 the plane of the dial4 ,but1 since the 
dial was useful only in the clear day1  
another instrument was  invented1 which 
could be used at all times1 in every    
variety of  situation2 and to this was  
given the name of clepsydra4    #d4     
,this instrument is supposed to have    
been invented in ,egypt2 but1 at  what  
period1 or by whom1 it is not stated4   
,its construction was  varied1 in       
different ages and countries1 according 
with the particular  modes of reckoning 
time2 but the constant dropping or      
running of water  from one vessel into  
another1 through a small aperture1 is   
the basis  in all the forms which it has
 assumed4 ,the time was indicated by the
  regularly increasing height of the    
water in the receiving vessel4    #e4   
,the clepsydra was introduced into      
,greece by ,plato1 near #djj years      
before ,christ1 and1 about #bjj years   
after this1 into ,rome1 by ,scipio      

,africanus4 ,it is said that ,pompey    
brought a valuable one from the  ,east1 
and that ,julius ,csar met with one in  
,england1 by which he  discovered that  
the summer nights were shorter there    
than in ,italy4    #f4 ,the use which   
,pompey made of his instrument1 was to  
limit the  length of speeches in the    
senate4 ,hence he is said1 by a         
historian of  those times1 to have been 
the first ,roman who put bridles upon   
eloquence4 ,a similar use was made of   
the clepsydra in the courts of  justice1
 first in ,greece1 and afterwards in    
,rome4    #g4 ,a kind of water-clock1 or
 clepsydra1 adapted to the modern       
divisions of time1 was invented near the
 middle of the seventeenth  century2 and
 these were extensively used1 in various
 parts of ,europe1  for a considerable  
time2 but they are now entirely         
superseded by our  common clocks and    
watches1 which are far more perfect in  
their  operation1 and1 in all respects1 
better adapted to the purposes to  which

 they are applied4    #h4 ,the invention
 of the clock is concealed in the       
greatest obscurity4  ,some writers      
attribute it to the monks1 as this      
instrument was used in  the twelfth     
century in the monasteries1 to regulate 
the inmates in  their attendance on     
prayers both by night and by day4       
,others suppose  that a knowledge of    
this valuable instrument was derived    
from the  ,saracens1 through the        
intercourse arising from the crusades4  
,be this  as it may1 clocks were but    
little known in ,europe1 until the      
beginning  of the fourteenth century4   
#i4 ,richard1 abbot of ,st4 ,alban's1   
,england1 made a clock in #acbf1 such   
as had never been heard of until then4  
,it not only indicated the  course of   
the sun and moon1 but also the ebbing   
and flowing of the  tide4 ,large clocks 
on steeples began to be used in this    
century4 ,the  first of this kind is    
supposed to have been made and put up in
 ,padua  by ,jacobus ,dondi4    #aj4 ,a 

steeple clock was set up in ,boulogne1  
in #acef2 and1 in #acfd1  ,henry de     
,wyck1 a ,german artist1 placed one in  
the palace of ,charles  ,v41 king of    
,france4 ,in #acfh1 three ,dutchmen     
introduced clock-work into  ,england1   
under the patronage of ,edward ,,iii4   
,clocks began to be common  both in     
,england and on the ,continent1 about   
the end of the fifteenth  century4      
#aa4 ,the clock of ,henry de ,wyck is   
the most ancient instrument of this     
kind of which we have a description4    
,the wheels were made of wrought  iron1 
and the teeth were cut by hand4 ,in     
other respects1 also1 it was  a rude    
piece of mechanism1 and not at all      
capable of keeping time with  accuracy4 
,but1 rude as it was1 it is not likely  
that it was the  invention of a single  
individual2 but that1 after the first   
rude  machine was put in motion1 it     
received several improvements from      
various persons4 ,this has1 at least1   
been the case with all the  improvements

 made on the clock of ,henry de ,wyck1  
to the present day4    #ab4 ,the        
application of the pendulum to          
clock-work appears to have been  first  
made by ,vincenzo ,galileo1 in #afdi2   
but the improvement was  rendered       
completely successful1 in #afef1 by     
,christian ,huygens1 a ,dutch           
philosopher4 ,the laws of the           
oscillation of the pendulum were first  
investigated by ,galileo1 the great     
,italian philosopher1 and father of  the
 ,galileo just mentioned4 ,his attention
 was attracted to this  subject by the  
swinging of a lamp suspended from the   
ceiling of the  ,cathedral1 at ,pisa1   
his native city4    #ac4 ,the clocks    
first made were of a large size1 and    
were placed only  in public edifices4   
,the works were1 at length1 reduced in  
their  dimensions1 and these useful     
machines were gradually introduced into 
private dwellings4 ,they were finally   
made of a portable size1 and were       
carried about the person4 ,these        

portable clocks had1 for their          
maintaining power1 a main-spring of     
steel1 instead of a weight1 which  was  
used in the larger time-keepers4    #ad4
 ,the original pocket-watches differed  
but little1 if at all1 in the  general  
plan of their construction1 from the    
portable clocks just  mentioned4 ,the   
transition from one kind of instrument  
to the other  was1 therefore1 obvious   
and easy2 but the time of the change    
cannot be  certainly determined4 ,it is 
commonly admitted1 however1 that ,peter 
,hele constructed the first watch1 in   
#aeaj4    #ae4 ,watches appear to have  
been extensively manufactured at        
,nuremburg1  in ,germany1 soon after    
their invention1 as one of the names by 
which  they were designated1 was        
,nuremburg eggs4 ,these instruments1 as 
well  as clocks1 were in common use in  
,france1 in #aedd1 when the company of  
clock and watch makers of ,paris was    
first incorporated4    #af4 ,in #afeh1  
the spring balance was invented by      

,doctor ,nathaniel  ,hooke1 an ,english 
philosopher4 ,at least the invention is 
attributed to  him by his countrymen4   
,on the ,continent it is claimed for    
,christian  ,huygens4 ,before this      
improvement was made1 the performance of
 watches  was so defective1 that the    
best of them could not be relied upon   
for  accurate time an hour together4    
,their owners were obliged to set them  
often to the proper time1 and wind them 
up twice a day4    #ag4 ,after the great
 improvements had been effected in the  
clock and  watch by ,huygens and ,hooke1
 several others of minor importance were
  successively made by different        
persons2 but our limits do not allow us 
to give them a particular notice2 we    
will only state that the  repeating     
apparatus of both clocks and watches was
 invented1 about the  year #afgf1 by one
 ,barlow1 an ,englishman2 that the      
compensation or  gridiron pendulum was  
invented by ,george ,graham1 of ,london1
 in #agae2  and that jewels were applied

 to watches1 to prevent friction1 by one
  ,facio1 a ,german4    #ah4 ,clocks and
 watches are constructed on the same    
general principles4  ,the mechanism of  
both is composed of wheel-work1 with    
contrivances to  put it in motion1 and  
to regulate its movements4 ,the moving  
or  maintaining power in large clocks is
 a weight suspended by a cord to a      
cylinder4 ,in watches1 and sometimes in 
small clocks1 this office is  performed 
by a steel spring4 ,in the clock1 the   
regulation of the  machinery is effected
 by the pendulum1 and in the watch1 by  
the  balance-wheel1 or spring balance4  
,in either case1 the maintaining  power 
is prevented from expending itself1     
except in measured portions4    #ai4    
,the time is indicated by hands1 or     
pointers1 which move on the  dial plate4
 ,the minute hand is attached to the    
axle of the wheel which  makes its      
revolution in sixty minutes1 and the    
hour hand to the one  which makes the   
revolution in twelve hours4 ,greater and

 smaller  divisions of time are kept and
 indicated on the same principle4 ,the  
part of a clock which keeps the time1 is
 called the going part2 and  that which 
strikes the hour1 the striking part4    
#bj4 ,the division of labor is          
particularly conspicuous in the         
manufacture of watches1 as the          
production of almost every part is the  
labor of a distinct artisan4 ,the       
workman who polishes the several  parts1
 and puts them together1 is called1     
among this class of  tradesmen1 the     
finisher or watch-maker4 ,those1        
therefore1 who deal  largely in watches 
in ,england1 purchase the different     
parts from the  several manufacturers1  
and cause them to be put together by the
  finisher4    #ba4 ,watches are        
extensively manufactured in various     
parts of ,europe1  but particularly in  
,french ,switzerland1 ,france1 and      
,england4 ,the  ,london watchmakers have
 been celebrated for good workmanship1  
for more  than a century and a half4    

,this manufacture has not yet been      
commenced  in the ,united ,states1      
although the machinery1 or inside work1 
is  very often imported in tin boxes1   
and afterwards supplied with dial       
plates and cases4 ,this is especially   
the case with the more valuable  kinds  
of watches4    #bb4 ,brass clocks are   
manufactured in most of our cities1 and 
in many  of our villages1 and wooden    
clocks1 in great numbers1 in the state  
of  ,connecticut4 ,these last are       
carried by pedlers into the remotest    
parts  of the country1 so that almost   
every farmer in our land can divide the 
day by the oscillations of the pendulum4
          ,illustration3 ,,coppersmith4 
,,the ,,coppersmith1 ,,the              
,,button-,,maker1 ,,and ,,the           
,,pin-,,maker4      ,,copper4    #a4    
,copper is a ductile and malleable      
metal1 of a pale yellowish red  color4  
,it is sometimes found in a native      
state1 but not in great  quantities4    
,the copper of commerce is principally  

extracted from the  ores called         
sulphurets4 ,copper mines are wrought in
 many countries2  but those of ,sweden  
are said to furnish the purest copper of
 commerce1  although those of the island
 of ,anglesea are said to be the        
richest4    #b4 ,in working sulphureted 
ore1 it is first broken into pieces1 and
  roasted with a moderate heat in a     
kiln1 to free it from sulphur4 ,when    
the ore is also largely combined with   
arsenic1 a greater degree of  heat is   
necessary4 ,in such a case1 it is spread
 upon a large floor of  a reverberatory 
furnace1 and exposed to a greater heat4 
,by this  treatment1 the sulphur and    
arsenic are soon driven off4    #c4 ,the
 ore is then transferred to the fusing  
furnace1 and smelted in  contact with   
fuel4 ,the specific gravity of the      
copper1 causes it to  sink beneath the  
scoria into a receptacle at the bottom  
of the  furnace4 ,to render the metal   
sufficiently pure1 it requires repeated 
fusions1 and1 even after these1 it      

usually contains a little lead1 and  a  
small portion of antimony4    #d4       
,alloys of copper4--,copper is combined 
by fusion with a great  number of       
metals1 and1 in such combinations1 it is
 of great importance  in the arts4 ,when
 added in small quantities to gold and  
silver1 it  increases their hardness1   
without materially injuring their color1
 or  diminishing their malleability4 ,an
 alloy1 called white copper1  imported  
from ,china1 and denominated1 in that   
country1 pakfong1 is  composed of       
copper1 zinc1 nickel1 and iron4 ,it is  
very tough and  malleable1 and is easily
 cast1 hammered1 and polished4 ,when    
well  manufactured1 it is very white1   
and as little liable to oxydation as    
silver4    #e4 ,copper1 with about      
one-fourth of its weight of lead1 forms 
pot-metal4 ,brass is an alloy of copper 
and zinc4 ,the proportion of  the latter
 metal varies from one-eighth to        
one-fourth4 ,mixtures1  chiefly of these
 two metals1 are also employed to form a

 variety of  gold-colored alloys1 among 
which are prince's metal1 pinchbeck1    
tombac1 and bath-metal4    #f4 ,a series
 of alloys is formed by a combination of
 tin and copper4  ,they are all more or 
less brittle1 rigid1 and sonorous1      
according to  the relative proportions  
of the two metals2 these qualities      
increasing  with the amount of tin4 ,the
 principal of these alloys are1 bronze1 
employed in the casting of statues2     
gun-metal1 of which pieces of  artillery
 are made2 bell-metal1 of which bells   
are made2 and  speculum-metal1 which is 
used for the mirrors of reflecting      
telescopes4    #g4 ,the alloys of copper
 were very prevalent among the nations  
of  antiquity1 and were used1 in many   
cases where iron would have answered  a 
much better purpose4 ,the instruments of
 husbandry and of war1 as  well as those
 for domestic uses generally1 were      
usually made of  bronze1 a composition  
which furnishes the best substitute for 
iron and  steel4 ,the ,corinthian brass1

 so celebrated in antiquity1 was a      
mixture  of copper1 gold1 and silver4   
#h4 ,the earliest information of the use
 of this metal by mankind1 is  found in 
the fourth chapter of ,genesis1 in which
 it is stated1 that  ,tubal-,cain was   
the instructer of every artificer in    
brass and iron4  ,this individual was   
the seventh generation from ,adam1 and  
was born  about the year of the world   
#ejj4      ,,the ,,coppersmith4    #a4  
,copper1 being easily wrought1 is       
applied to many useful purposes4  ,it is
 formed into sheets by heating it in a  
furnace1 and compressing  it between    
steel rollers4 ,the operation of rolling
 it constitutes a  distinct business1   
and is performed in mills erected for   
the express  purpose4    #b4 ,the rolled
 sheets are purchased according to      
weight by the  coppersmith1 who employs 
them in sheathing the bottoms of ships1 
in  covering the roofs of houses1 and in
 constructing steam-boilers and  stills4
 ,he also fabricates them into a variety

 of household utensils1  although the   
use of this metal in preparing and      
preserving food1 is  attended with some 
danger1 on account of the poisonous     
quality of the  verdigris which is      
produced on the surface4    #c4 ,an     
attempt has been made to obviate this   
difficulty1 by lining the  vessels with 
a thin coating of tin4 ,this answers the
 purpose fully1 so  long as the covering
 of tin remains entire4 ,but1 in cases  
of exposure  to heat1 it is liable to be
 melted off1 unless it is kept covered  
with  water4    #d4 ,this metal can be  
reduced by forging to any shape2 but1   
during the  process1 it will bear no    
heat greater than a red heat2 and1 as it
 does  not admit of welding1 like iron1 
different pieces are united with  bolts1
 or rivets1 of the same metal1 as in the
 case of the larger  kinds of vessels1  
or by means of solder made of brass and 
zinc1 or  zinc and lead1 as in the case 
of those of smaller dimensions4    #e4  
,brass is applied to a greater variety  

of purposes in the arts than  copper4   
,this preference has arisen from its    
superior beauty1 from the  greater      
facility with which it can be formed    
into any required shape1  and from its  
being less influenced by exposure to the
 ordinary  chemical agents4    #f4 ,some
 of the articles manufactured of brass1 
are forged to the  required form1 and   
others are made of rolled sheets2 but1  
in most  cases1 they pass through the   
hands of the brass-founder1 who         
liquifies  the metal1 and pours it into 
moulds of sand4 ,for the sake of        
lightness1 and economy of material1 many
 articles are made hollow2 in  such     
cases1 they are cast in halves or       
pieces1 and these are  afterwards       
soldered together4    #g4 ,pieces which 
have been cast are generally reduced in 
size1 and  brought more exactly to the  
proposed form1 either in a lathe1 with  
tools adapted to turning1 or in the     
vice1 with files and other  suitable    
instruments4 ,the operators in brass    

form a class of mechanics  distinct from
 those who work in copper4      ,,the   
,,button-,,maker4    #a4 ,trifling as   
the manufacture of buttons may appear1  
there are few  which include a greater  
variety of operations4 ,the number of   
substances of which they are made is    
very great1 among which are  gold1      
silver1 various alloys of copper1 steel1
 tin1 glass1  mother-of-pearl1 bone1    
horn1 and tortoise-shell1 besides those 
which  consist of moulds of wood or     
bone1 covered with silk1 mohair1 or     
similar materials4    #b4 ,in making    
gilt buttons1 the blanks1 or bodies1 are
 cut from  rolled plates of brass1 with 
a circular punch driven by means of a   
fly  wheel4 ,the blanks thus produced1  
are planished with a plain die1 if  they
 are intended for plain buttons2 or with
 one having on it an  engraved figure1  
if they are to be of the ornamental     
kind4 ,in either  case1 the die is      
usually driven with a fly press4    #c4 
,the shanks are next placed on one side 

of the proposed button1 and  held there 
temporarily with a wire clasp4 ,a small 
quantity of solder  and rosin having    
been applied to each shank1 the buttons 
are exposed  to heat on an iron plate1  
until the solder shall have melted4 ,the
  shanks having been thus firmly        
soldered on1 the buttons are turned off 
smoothly on their edges in a lathe4     
#d4 ,the buttons are next freed from    
oxyde1 by immersing them in diluted     
nitric acid1 and by friction in a lathe4
 ,they are then put into a  vessel      
containing a quantity of nitric acid    
supersaturated with  mercury4 ,the      
superior attraction of the copper for   
the acid1 causes a  portion of it to be 
absorbed2 and the mercury held in       
solution by it1  is deposited on the    
buttons1 which are next put into a      
vessel  containing an amalgam of mercury
 and gold4    #e4 ,the amalgam is formed
 by melting the two metals together1 and
  afterwards pouring them into cold     
water4 ,the composition having been  put

 into a bag of chamois leather1 and a   
part of the mercury pressed  through the
 pores1 the remaining portion is left in
 a condition  approaching the           
consistency of butter1 and in a fit     
state for use4  ,before the buttons are 
put into the amalgam1 a small quantity  
of  nitric acid is added4    #f4 ,the   
buttons having been covered with the    
amalgam1 as before stated1  the mercury 
is discharged1 that the gold may adhere 
directly to the  brass4 ,this object is 
effected by heating the buttons in an   
iron pan1  until the amalgam begins to  
melt1 when they are thrown into a large 
felt cap1 and stirred with a brush4     
,this operation is repeated several     
times1 until all the mercury has been   
volatilized4 ,the whole process  is     
finished by again burnishing them1 and  
putting them on cards for  sale4    #g4 
,white metal buttons are made of brass  
alloyed with different  proportions of  
tin4 ,they are cast1 ten or twelve      
dozens at a time1 in  moulds formed in  

sand1 by means of a pattern4 ,the shanks
 are placed in  the centre of the       
moulds1 so that1 when the metal is      
poured in1 they  become a part of the   
buttons4 ,the buttons are next polished 
in a  lathe1 with grindstone dust and   
oil1 rotten stone and crocus martis4    
,they are then boiled with a quantity of
 grained tin1 in a solution of  crude   
red tartar or argol1 and lastly1        
finished with finely-pulverized  crocus1
 applied with buff leather4    #h4      
,glass buttons are made of various      
colors1 in imitation of the opal  and   
other precious stones4 ,while           
manufacturing them1 the glass is kept   
in a state of fusion1 and a portion of  
it for each button is nipped  off out of
 the crucible with a metallic mould1    
somewhat similar to  that used for      
running bullets1 the workman having     
previously inserted  into it the shank4 
,,the ,,pin-,,maker4    #a4 ,there is   
scarcely any commodity cheaper than     
pins1 and none which  passes through the

 hands of a greater number of workmen in
 the  manufacture1 twenty-five persons  
being successively employed upon the    
material1 before it appears in these    
useful articles1 ready for sale4    #b4 
,the wire having been reduced to the    
required size1 is cut into  pieces long 
enough to make six pins4 ,these pieces  
are brought to a  point at each end by  
holding them1 a handful at a time1 on a 
grindstone4 ,this part of the operation 
is performed with great  rapidity1 as a 
boy twelve years of age can sharpen     
#af1jjj in an hour4  ,when the wires    
have been thus pointed1 the length of a 
pin is taken  off at each end1 by       
another hand4 ,the grinding and cutting 
off are  repeated1 until the whole      
length has been used up4    #c4 ,the    
next operation is that of forming the   
heads1 or1 as the  pin-makers term it1  
head-spinning4 ,this is done with a     
spinning-wheel1 by which one piece of   
wire is wound upon another1  the former1
 by this means1 being formed into a     

spiral coil similar to  that of the     
springs formerly used in elastic        
suspenders4 ,the coiled  wire is cut    
into suitable portions with the shears1 
every two turns of  it being designed   
for one head4 ,these heads are fastened 
to the  lengths by means of a hammer1   
which is put in motion with the foot1   
while the hands are employed in taking  
up1 adjusting1 and placing the  parts   
upon the anvil4    #d4 ,the pins are now
 finished1 as to their form2 but still  
they are  merely brass4 ,to give them   
the requisite whiteness1 they are thrown
  into a copper vessel1 containing a    
solution of tin and the lees of  wine4  
,after a while1 the tin leaves the      
liquid1 and fastens on the  pins1 which1
 when taken out1 assume a white         
appearance4 ,they are next  polished by 
agitating them with a quantity of bran  
in a vessel moved  in a rotary manner4  
,the bran is separated from them1 as    
chaff is  separated from wheat4    #e4  
,pins are also made of iron wire1 and   

colored black by a varnish  composed of 
linseed oil and lamp-black4 ,this kind  
is designed for  persons in mourning4   
,pins are likewise made with a head at  
each end1  to be used by females in     
adjusting the hair for the night1       
without the  danger of pricking4        
,several machines have been invented for
 this  manufacture1 one of which makes a
 solid head from the body of the pin    
itself2 but the method just described   
still continues to be the  prevailing   
one4    #f4 ,pins are made of various   
sizes4 ,the smallest are called         
minikins1  the next1 short whites4 ,the 
larger kinds are numbered from three to 
twenty1 each size increasing one half   
from three to five1 one from  five to   
fourteen1 and two from fourteen to      
twenty4 ,they are put up in  papers1    
according to their numbers1 as we       
usually see them1 or in  papers         
containing all sizes4 ,in the latter    
case1 they are sold by  weight4    #g4  
,it is difficult1 or even impossible1 to

 trace the origin of this  useful little
 article4 ,it is probable1 however1 that
 it was invented  in ,france1 in the    
fifteenth century4 ,one of the          
prohibitions of a  statute1 relating to 
the pin-makers of ,paris of the         
sixteenth century1  forbid any          
manufacturer to open more than one shop 
for the sale of his  wares1 except on   
new-year's day1 and on the day previous4
    #h4 ,hence we may infer1 that it was
 customary to give pins as  new-year's  
presents1 or that it was the usual      
practice to make the  chief purchases at
 this time4 ,at length it became a      
practice1 in many  parts of ,europe1 for
 the husband to allow to his wife a sum 
of money  for this purpose4 ,we see here
 the origin of the phrase1 pin-money1   
which is now applied to designate the   
sum allowed to the wife for her         
personal expenses generally4    #i4     
,prior to the year #addc1 the art of    
making pins from brass wire was  not    
known in ,england4 ,until that period1  

they were made of bone1  ivory1 or      
box-wood4 ,brass pins are first         
mentioned in the ,english  statute book1
 in #adhc1 when those of foreign        
manufacture were  prohibited4    #aj4   
,although these useful implements are   
made in ,london1 and in  several other  
places in ,england1 yet ,gloucester is  
the principal seat  of this manufacture 
in that kingdom4 ,it was introduced into
 that  place1 in #afbf1 by ,john        
,silsby1 and it now contains nine       
distinct  manufactories1 in which are   
employed about #aejj persons1 chiefly   
women  and children4 ,pins are also     
manufactured extensively in the villages
  near ,paris1 and in several other     
places in ,france1 as well as in        
,germany4    #aa4 ,the business of      
making pins has been lately commenced in
 the city  of ,new-,york1 and it is said
 that the experiment has been so        
successful1 both in the perfection of   
the workmanship1 and in the  rapidity of
 the production1 that pins of ,american 

manufacture bid fair  to compete1 at    
least1 with those of foreign countries4 
,illustration3 ,,tinplate ,,worker4     
,,the ,,tinplate ,,worker1 c4           
,,tin4    #a4 ,tin is a whitish metal1  
less elastic1 and less sonorous than any
  other metal1 except lead4 ,it is found
 in the mountains which separate        
,gallicia from ,portugal1 and in the    
mountains between ,saxony and  ,bohemia4
 ,it also occurs in the peninsula of    
,molucca1 in ,india1 ,mexico1  and      
,chili4 ,but the mines of ,cornwall and 
,devonshire1 in ,england1 are  more     
productive than those of all other      
countries united4    #b4 ,there are two 
ores of tin1 one of which is called tin 
stone1 and  the other tin pyrites2 the  
former of these is the kind from which  
the metal is extracted4 ,the ore is     
usually found in veins1 which often     
penetrate the hardest rocks4 ,when near 
the surface of the earth1 or at  their  
commencement1 they are very small1 but  
they increase in size1  as they         

penetrate the earth4 ,the direction of  
these veins1 or1 as the  miners call    
them1 lodes1 is usually east and west4  
#c4 ,the miners follow the lode1        
wheresoever it may lead2 and1 when they 
extend to such a depth1 that the waters 
become troublesome in the  mine1 as is  
frequently the case1 they are pumped up 
with machinery  worked by steam1 or     
drawn off by means of a drain1 called an
 adit4  ,the latter method is generally 
adopted1 when practicable4    #d4 ,the  
ore is raised to the surface through    
shafts1 which have been  sunk in a      
perpendicular direction upon the vein4  
,at the top of the  shaft1 is placed a  
windlass1 to draw up the kibbuts1 or    
baskets1  containing the ore4 ,near ,st4
 ,austle1 in ,cornwall1 is a mine which 
has  not less than fifty shafts1 half of
 which are now in use4 ,some of the     
veins have been worked a full mile1 and 
some of the shafts are nearly  seven    
hundred feet deep4    #e4 ,at ,st4      
,austle ,moor1 there is a mine of stream

 tin1 about three  miles in length4 ,the
 tin1 together with other substances1   
has been  deposited in a valley1 by     
means of small streams from the hills4  
,the  deposite is about twenty feet     
deep1 and the several materials of which
  it is composed1 have settled in       
strata1 according to their specific     
gravity4 ,the ore1 being the heaviest1  
is1 of course1 found at the  bottom4    
#f4 ,the ore1 from whatever source it   
may be obtained1 is first  pulverized in
 a stamping mill1 and then washed1 to   
free it from the  stony matter with     
which it may be united4 ,the ore1 thus  
partially  freed from foreign matter1 is
 put into a reverberatory furnace1 with 
fuel and limestone1 and heated          
intensely4 ,the contents of the furnace 
having been brought to a state of       
fusion1 the lime unites with the  earthy
 matters1 and flows with them into a    
liquid glass1 while the  carbon of the  
coal unites with the tin4 ,the metal    
sinks1 by its  specific gravity1 to the 

bottom of the furnace1 and is let out1  
after  having been exposed to the heat  
about ten hours4    #g4 ,the tin thus   
obtained1 is very impure2 it therefore  
requires a  second fusion1 to render it 
fit for use4 ,after having been melted a
  second time1 it is cast into blocks   
weighing about three hundred  pounds4   
,these blocks are taken to places       
designated by law1 and there  stamped1  
by inspectors appointed for the purpose 
by the ,duke of  ,cornwall4 ,in         
performing this operation1 the inspector
 cuts off a  corner1 and stamps the     
block at that place1 with the proper    
seal1 and  with the name of the smelter4
 ,these precautions give assurance1 that
  the metal is pure1 and that the duty  
has been paid4    #h4 ,the duty is four 
shillings sterling per hundred weight1  
which is  paid to the ,duke of          
,cornwall1 who is also ,prince of       
,wales4 ,the revenue  from this source  
amounts to about thirty thousand pounds 
a year4 ,the  owner of the soil also    

receives one sixth1 or one eighth of the
 ore as  his dish1 as the miners call   
it4 ,the miners and the smelters receive
  certain proportions of the metal for  
their services4    #i4 ,tin was procured
 from ,britain at a very early period4  
,the  ,phoenicians are said by ,strabo  
to have passed the ,pillars of          
,hercules1  now the ,straits of         
,gibraltar1 about #abjj years before    
,christ4 ,but the  time at which they   
discovered the tin islands1 which they  
denominated  ,cassorides1 cannot be     
ascertained from history1 although it is
  evident from many circumstances1 that 
the ,scilly ,islands1 and the  western  
ports of ,britain1 were the places from 
which these early  navigators procured  
the tin with which they supplied the    
parts of the  world to which they       
traded4    #aj4 ,for a long time1 the   
,phoenicians and the ,carthaginians     
enjoyed the  tin trade1 to the exclusion
 of all other nations4 ,after the       
destruction of ,carthage by the ,romans1

 a colony of ,phocean ,greeks1          
established at ,marseilles1 carried on  
this trade2 but it came into the  hands 
of the ,romans1 after the conquest of   
,britain by ,julius ,csar4    #aa4 ,the 
,cornish mines furnish incontestable    
proofs of having been  worked many      
hundred years ago4 ,in digging to the   
depth of forty or  fifty fathoms1 the   
miners frequently meet with large       
timbers imbedded  in the ore4 ,tools for
 mining have also been found in the     
same1 or  similar situations4 ,the      
mines1 therefore1 which had been        
exhausted of  the ore1 have1 in the     
course of time1 been replenished by a   
process of  nature4    #ab4 ,to what    
purposes the ancients applied all the   
tin which they  procured at so much     
labor and cost1 is not precisely known4 
,it is  probable1 that the ,tyrians     
consumed a portion of it1 in dyeing     
their  purple and scarlet4 ,it formed   
then1 as it now does1 many important    
alloys with copper4 ,the mirrors of     

antiquity were made of a  composition of
 these metals4    #ac4 ,the method of   
extracting tin from its ores was        
probably very  defective in ancient     
times4 ,at least1 it was so for several 
centuries  before the time of           
,elizabeth1 when ,sir ,francis          
,godolphin introduced  great            
improvements in the tin works4 ,the use 
of the reverberatory  furnace was       
commenced1 about the beginning of the   
eighteenth century1  and soon after     
pit-coal was substituted for charcoal4  
#ad4 ,this metal1 in its solid state1 is
 called block-tin4 ,it is  applied1     
without any admixture with any other    
metal1 to the formation  of vessels1    
which are not to be exposed to a        
temperature much above  that of hot     
water4 ,a kind of ware1 called biddery  
ware1 is made of  tin alloyed with a    
little copper4 ,the vessels made of this
  composition1 are rendered black by the
 application of nitre1 common  salt1 and
 sal ammoniac4 ,foil is also made by    

pressing it between  steel rollers1 or  
by hammering it1 as in the case of gold 
by the  gold-beaters4    #ae4 ,but tin  
is most extensively applied as a coating
 to other metals1  stronger than itself1
 and more subject to oxydation4 ,the    
places which  are usually denominated   
tin1 are thin sheets of iron coated with
 this  metal4 ,the iron is reduced to   
thin plates in a rolling-mill1 and these
  are prepared for being tinned1 by     
first steeping them in water  acidulated
 with muriatic acid1 and then freeing   
them from oxyde by  heating1 scaling1   
and rolling them4    #af4 ,the tin is   
melted in deep oblong vessels1 and kept 
in a state of  fusion by a charcoal     
fire4 ,to preserve its surface from     
oxydation1 a  quantity of fat or oil is 
kept floating upon it4 ,the plates are  
dipped  perpendicularly into the tin1   
and held there for some time4 ,when     
withdrawn1 they are found to have       
acquired a bright coating of the  melted
 metal4 ,the dipping is performed three 

times for single tin  plate1 and six    
times for double tin plate4 ,the tin    
penetrates the  iron1 and forms an      
alloy4    #ag4 ,various articles of     
iron1 such as spoons1 nails1            
bridle-bits1 and  small chains1 are     
coated with tin1 by immersing them in   
that metal1  while in a state of fusion4
 ,the great affinity of tin and copper1 
renders it practicable to apply a thin  
layer of the former metal to  the       
surface of the latter2 and this is often
 done1 as stated in the  article on the 
coppersmith4    #ah4 ,tin and           
quicksilver are applied to the polished 
surface of glass1  for the purpose of   
forming mirrors4 ,in silvering plain    
looking-glasses1  a flat1 horizontal    
slab is used as a table4 ,this is first 
covered with  paper1 and then with a    
sheet of tin foil of the size of the    
glass4 ,a  quantity of quicksilver is   
next laid on the foil1 and spread over  
it  with a roll of cloth1 or with a     
hare's foot4    #ai4 ,after as much     

quicksilver as the surface will hold1   
has been  spread on1 and while it is yet
 in a fluid state1 the glass is shoved  
on the sheet of foil from the edge of   
the table1 driving a part of the  liquid
 metal before it4 ,the glass is then    
placed in an inclined  position1 that   
every unnecessary portion of the        
quicksilver may be  drained off1 after  
which it is again laid flat upon the    
slab1 and  pressed for a considerable   
time with heavy weights4 ,the remaining 
quicksilver amalgamates with the tin1   
and forms a permanent1  reflecting      
surface4      ,,the ,,tin-,,plate       
,,worker4    #a4 ,the materials on which
 the tinner1 or tin-plate worker1       
operates1  are the rolled sheets of     
iron1 coated with tin1 as just          
described4 ,he  procures the sheets by  
the box1 and applies them to the roofs  
and  other parts of houses1 or works    
them up into various utensils1 such as  
pails1 pans1 bake-ovens1 measures1 cups1
 and ducts for conveying water  from the

 roofs of houses4    #b4 ,in making the 
different articles1 the sheets are cut  
into pieces of  proper size1 with a huge
 pair of shears1 and these are brought  
to the  proposed form by different      
tools1 adapted to the purpose4 ,the     
several  parts are united by means of a 
solder made of a composition of tin and 
lead4 ,the solder is melted1 and made to
 run to any part1 at the will  of the   
workman1 by means of a copper           
instrument1 heated for the  purpose in a
 small furnace with a charcoal fire4    
#c4 ,on examining almost any vessel of  
tin ware1 it will be perceived1  that1  
where the parts are united1 one of the  
edges1 at least1 and  sometimes both1   
are turned1 that the solder may be      
easily and  advantageously applied4 ,it 
will also be discovered that iron wire  
is  applied to those parts requiring    
more strength than is possessed by  the 
tin itself4 ,the edges and handles are  
especially strengthened in  this manner4
    #d4 ,the edges of the tin were      

formerly turned on a steel edge1 or a   
kind of anvil called a stock1 with a    
mallet2 and1 in some cases1  this method
 is still pursued2 but this part of the 
work is now more  expeditiously         
performed1 by means of several machines 
invented by ,seth  ,peck1 of ,hartford  
,co41 ,connecticut4 ,these machines     
greatly expedite  the manufacture of tin
 wares1 and have contributed much       
towards  reducing their price4    #e4   
,this manufacture is an extensive branch
 of our domestic industry2  and vast    
quantities of tin1 in the shape of      
various utensils1 are sold  in different
 parts of the ,united ,states1 by a     
class of itinerant  merchants1 called   
tin-pedlers1 who receive in payment for 
their  goods1 rags1 old pewter1 brass1  
and copper1 together with feathers1     
hogs' bristles1 and sometimes ready     
money4      ,,lead4    #a4 ,next to     
iron1 lead is the most extensively      
diffused1 and the most  abundant metal4 
,it is found in various combinations in 

nature2 but  that mineralized by sulphur
 is the most abundant4 ,this ore is     
denominated galena by the mineralogists1
 and is the kind from which  nearly all 
the lead of commerce is extracted4      
#b4 ,the ore having been powdered1 and  
freed1 as far as possible1 from  stony  
matter1 is fused either in a blast or   
reverberatory furnace4 ,in  the         
smelting1 lime is used as a flux1 and   
this combines with the  sulphur and     
earthy matters1 while the lead unites   
with the carbon of  the fuel1 and sinks 
to the bottom of the furnace1 whence it 
is  occasionally let out into a         
reservoir4    #c4 ,lead extracted from  
galena1 often contains a sufficient     
proportion  of silver to render it an   
object to extract it4 ,this is done by  
oxydizing the lead by means of heat1 and
 a current of air4 ,at the end  of this 
operation1 the silver remains with a    
small quantity of lead1  which is       
afterwards separated by the process of  
cupellation4 ,the oxyde  is applied to  

the purposes for which it is used1 or it
 is reduced  again to a metallic state4 
#d4 ,the lead mines on the ,mississippi 
are very productive1 and very           
extensive4 ,the principal mines are in  
the neighborhood of ,galena1 in  the    
north-western part of ,illinois1 and    
these are the richest on the  globe4    
,the lead mines in the vicinity of      
,potosi1 ,missouri1 are also  very      
productive4 ,about #c1jjj1jjj pounds are
 annually smelted in the  ,united       
,states4    #e4 ,lead1 on account of its
 easy fusibility and softness1 can be   
readily applied to a variety of         
purposes4 ,it is cast in moulds1 to     
form weights1 bullets1 and other small  
articles4 ,cisterns are lined1  and     
roofs1 c41 are covered with sheet lead2 
and also in the  construction of pumps  
and aqueducts1 leaden pipes are         
considerably  used4 ,the mechanic who   
applies this metal to these purposes1 is
 called  a plumber4    #f4 ,lead is cast
 into sheets in sand1 on large tables   

having a high  ledge on each side4 ,the 
melted lead is poured out upon the      
surface  from a box1 which is made to   
move on rollers across the table1 and is
  equalized1 by passing over it a       
straight piece of wood called a  strike4
 ,the sheets thus formed1 are afterwards
 reduced in thickness1  and spread to   
greater dimensions1 by compressing them 
between steel  rollers4    #g4 ,leaden  
pipes may be made in various ways4 ,they
 were at first formed  of sheet lead1   
bent round a cylindrical bar1 or        
mandrel1 and then  soldered2 but pipes  
formed in this manner1 were liable to   
crack and  break4 ,the second method    
consists in casting successive portions 
of  the tube in a cylindrical mould1    
having in it a core4 ,as soon as the    
tube gets cold1 it is drawn nearly out  
of the mould1 and more lead is  poured  
in1 which unites with the tube          
previously formed4 ,but pipes  cast in  
this way are found to have              
imperfections1 arising from flaws  and  

air bubbles4    #h4 ,in the third       
method1 which is the one most commonly  
practised1 a  thick tube of lead is cast
 upon one end of a long polished iron   
cylinder1 or mandrel1 of the size of the
 bore of the intended pipe4  ,the lead  
is then reduced1 and drawn out in       
length1 either by drawing  it on the    
mandrel through circular holes of       
different sizes1 in a  steel plate1 or  
by rolling it between contiguous        
rollers1 which have a  semicircular     
groove cut round the circumference of   
each4    #i4 ,the fourth method consists
 in forcing melted lead1 by means of a  
pump1 into one end of a mould1 while it 
is discharged in the form of a  pipe1 at
 the opposite end4 ,care is taken so to 
regulate the  temperature1 that the lead
 is chilled just before it leaves the   
mould4    #aj4 ,shot is likewise made of
 lead4 ,these instruments of death are  
usually cast in high towers constructed 
for the purpose4 ,the lead is           
previously alloyed with a small portion 

of arsenic1 to increase the  cohesion of
 its particles1 and to cause it to      
assume more readily the  globular form4 
,it is melted at the top of the tower1  
and poured into a  vessel perforated at 
the bottom with a great number of holes4
    #aa4 ,the lead1 after running       
through these perforations1 immediately 
separates into drops1 which cool in     
falling through the height of the       
tower4 ,they are received below in a    
reservoir of water1 which breaks  the   
fall4 ,the shot are then proved by      
rolling them down a board placed  in an 
inclined position4 ,those which are     
irregular in shape roll off  at the     
sides1 or stop1 while the spherical ones
 continue on to the  end4               
,illustration3 ,,iron-,,founder4        
,,the ,,iron-,,founder1 c4      ,,iron4 
#a4 ,the properties which iron possesses
 in its various forms1 render it  the   
most useful of all the metals4 ,the     
toughness of malleable iron  renders it 
applicable to purposes1 where great     

strength is required1  while its        
difficult fusibility1 and property of   
softening by heat1 so  as to admit of   
forging and welding1 cause it to be     
easily wrought4    #b4 ,cast iron1 from 
its cheapness1 and from the facility    
with which its  form may be changed1 is 
made the material of numerous           
structures4  ,steel1 which is the most  
important compound of iron1 exceeds all 
other metals in hardness and tenacity2  
and hence it is particularly  adapted to
 the fabrication of cutting instruments4
    #c4 ,iron was discovered1 and       
applied to the purposes of the arts1 at 
a  very early period4 ,tubal-,cain1 who 
was the seventh generation from  ,adam1 
was an instructer of every artificer in 
brass and iron4 ,noah  must have used   
much of this metal in the construction  
of the ark1 and1  of course1 he must    
have transmitted a knowledge of it to   
his  posterity4    #d4 ,nevertheless1   
the mode of separating it from the      
various substances  with which it is    

usually combined1 was but imperfectly   
understood by  the ancients2 and their  
use of it was1 most likely1 confined    
chiefly  to the limited quantity found  
in a state nearly pure4 ,gold1 silver1  
copper1 and tin1 are more easily reduced
 to a state in which they are  available
 in the arts4 ,they were1 therefore1    
often used in ancient  times1 for       
purposes to which iron would have been  
more applicable4  ,this was the case    
especially with copper and tin4    #e4  
,fifteen distinct kinds of iron ore1    
have been discovered by  mineralogists2 
but of these1 not more than four have   
been employed in  making iron4 ,there   
are1 however1 several varieties of the  
latter kind1  all of which are classed  
by the smelters of iron under the       
general  denomination of bog and        
mountain or hard ores4    #f4 ,the      
former has much of the appearance of    
red1 brown1 or yellowish  earth1 and is 
found in beds from one to six feet      
thick1 and in size  from one fourth of a

 rood to twenty acres4 ,the mountain1 or
 hard ore1  to a superficial observer1  
differs but little in its appearance    
from  common rocks or stones4 ,it is    
found in regular strata in hills and    
mountains1 or in detached masses of     
various sizes1 and in hilly land  from  
two to eight feet below the surface4    
#g4 ,the bog-ore is supposed to be a    
deposite from water which has  passed   
over the hard ore4 ,this is evidently   
the case in hilly  countries1 where both
 kinds occur4 ,some iron-masters use the
 bog2  some1 the hard2 and others1 both 
kinds together4 ,in this particular1    
they are governed by the ore1 or ores1  
which may exist in their  vicinity4     
#h4 ,the apparatus in which the ore is  
smelted1 is called a  blast-furnace1    
which is a large pyramidal stack1 built 
of hewn stone  or brick1 from twenty to 
sixty feet in height1 with a cavity of a
  proportionate size4 ,in shape1 this   
cavity is near that of an egg1 with  the
 largest end at the bottom4 ,it is lined

 with fire-brick or stone1  capable of  
resisting an intense heat4    #i4 ,below
 this cavity is placed the hearth1 which
 is composed of four  or five large     
coarse sandstones1 split out of a solid 
rock1 and  chiselled so as to suit each 
other exactly4 ,these form a cavity for 
the reception of the iron and dross1    
when melted above4 ,the hearth  requires
 to be removed at the end of every      
blast1 which is usually  continued from 
six to ten months in succession1 unless 
accidentally  interrupted4    #aj4 ,the 
preparation for a blast1 consists       
principally in providing  charcoal and  
ore4 ,the wood for the former is cut in 
the winter and  spring1 and charred and 
brought to the furnace during the       
spring1  summer1 and autumn4 ,what is   
not used during the time of hauling1 is 
stocked in coal-houses1 provided for the
 purpose4    #aa4 ,the wood is charred  
in the following manner4 ,it is first   
piled in  heaps of a spherical form1 and
 covered with leaves and dirt4 ,the fire

  is applied to the wood1 at the top1   
and when it has been sufficiently       
ignited1 the pit is covered in2 but1 to 
support combustion1 several  air-holes  
are left near the ground4 ,the colliers 
are obliged to  watch the pit night and 
day1 lest1 by the caving in of the dirt1
 too  much air be admitted1 and the wood
 be thereby consumed to ashes4    #ab4  
,when the wood has been reduced to      
charcoal1 the fire is partially         
extinguished by closing the air-holes4  
,the coals are drawn from the  pit with 
an iron-toothed rake1 and1 while this is
 performed1 the dust  mingles with them1
 and smothers the fire which may yet    
remain4 ,wood is  also charred in kilns 
made of brick4    #ac4 ,the hard ore is 
dug by miners1 or1 as they are commonly 
denominated1 ore-diggers4 ,in the       
prosecution of their labor1 they        
sometimes follow a vein into a hill or  
mountain4 ,when the ore is found  in    
strata or lumps near the surface1 they  
dig down to it4 ,this kind of  ore      

commonly contains sulphur and arsenic1  
and to free it from those  substances1  
and to render it less compact1 it is    
roasted in kilns1  with refuse charcoal1
 which is too fine to be used for any   
other  purpose4 ,it is then broken to a 
suitable fineness with a hammer1 or in  
a crushing mill4 ,the bog-ore seldom    
needs any reduction4    #ad4 ,every     
preparation having been made1 the       
furnace is gradually  heated with       
charcoal1 and by degrees filled to the  
top1 when a small  quantity of the ore  
is thrown on1 and the blast is applied  
at the  bottom near the hearth4 ,the    
blast is supplied by means of one or two
  cylindrical bellows1 the piston of    
which is moved by steam or water  power4
    #ae4 ,the coal is measured in       
baskets1 holding about one bushel and a 
half1 and the ore1 in boxes holding     
about one peck4 ,six baskets of  coal1  
and as many boxes of ore as the furnace 
can carry1 is called a  half charge1    
which is renewed as it may be necessary 

to keep the  furnace full4 ,with every  
charge is also thrown in one box of     
limestone4    #af4 ,the limestone is    
used as a flux1 to aid in the fusion of 
the ore1  and to separate its earthy    
portions from the iron4 ,the iron sinks 
by  its specific gravity1 to the bottom 
of the hearth1 and the earthy  portions1
 now converted into glass by the action 
of the limestone and  heat1 also sink1  
and float upon the liquid iron4 ,this   
scum1 or1 as it  is usually called1     
scoria1 slag1 or cinder1 is occasionally
 removed by  instruments made for the   
purpose4    #ag4 ,when the hearth has   
become full of iron1 the metal is let   
out1 at  one corner of it1 into a bed of
 sand1 called a pig-bed1 which is  from 
twenty to thirty feet in length1 and    
five or six in width4 ,one  concave     
channel1 called the sow1 extends the    
whole length of the  bed1 from which    
forty or fifty smaller ones1 called     
pig-moulds1  extend at right angles4    
,the metal1 when cast in these moulds1  

is  called pig-iron1 and the masses of  
iron1 pigs4    #ah4 ,pig-iron1 or1 as it
 is sometimes called1 crude iron1 being 
saturated with carbon and oxygen1 and   
containing also a portion of  scoria1 is
 too brittle for any other purpose than 
castings4 ,many of  these1 such as      
stoves1 grates1 mill-irons1             
plough-irons1 and kitchen  utensils1 are
 commonly manufactured at blast         
furnaces1 and in many  cases nearly all 
the iron is used for these purposes4 ,in
 such cases1  the metal is taken in a   
liquid state1 from the hearth1 in       
ladles4    #ai4 ,in ,great ,britain and 
,ireland1 and perhaps in some other     
parts of  ,europe1 iron-ore is smelted  
with coke1 a fuel which bears the same  
relation to pit-coal1 that charcoal does
 to wood4 ,it is obtained by  heating or
 baking the coal in a sort of oven or   
kiln1 by which it  becomes charred4     
,during the process1 a sort of          
bituminous tar is  disengaged from it1  
which is carefully preserved1 and       

applied to many  useful purposes4       
,,the ,,iron-,,founder4    #a4 ,the     
appellation of founder is given to the  
superintendent of a  blast-furnace1 and 
likewise to those persons who make      
castings either  of iron or any other   
metal4 ,in every case1 the term is      
qualified by a  word prefixed1          
indicating the metal in which he        
operates1 or the kind  of castings which
 he may make2 as brass-founder1         
iron-founder1 or  bell-founder4 ,but    
whatsoever may be the material in which 
he  operates1 or the kind of castings   
which he may produce1 his work is       
performed on the same general principle4
    #b4 ,the sand most generally        
employed by the founder is loam1 which  
possesses a sufficient proportion of    
argillaceous matter1 to render it       
moderately cohesive1 when damp4 ,the    
moulds are formed by burying in  the    
sand1 wooden or metallic patterns1      
having the exact shape of the           
respective articles to be cast4 ,to     

exemplify the general manner of  forming
 moulds1 we will explain the process of 
forming one for the  spider1 a very     
common kitchen utensil4    #c4 ,the     
pattern is laid upon a plain board1     
which in this application  is called a  
follow board1 and surrounded with a     
frame called a  flask1 three or four    
inches deep4 ,this is filled with sand1 
and  consolidated with rammers1 and by  
treading it with the feet4 ,three       
wooden patterns for the legs are next   
buried in the sand1 and a hole  is made 
for pouring in the metal4    #d4 ,one   
side of the mould having been thus      
formed1 the flask1 with its  contents1  
is turned over1 and1 the follow board   
having been removed1  another flask is  
applied to the first1 and filled with   
sand in the  same manner4 ,the two      
flasks are then taken apart1 and the    
main  pattern1 together with those for  
the legs1 removed4 ,the whole  operation
 is finished by again closing the       
flasks4    #e4 ,the mode of proceeding  

in forming moulds for different         
articles1 is  varied1 of course1 to suit
 their conformation4 ,the pattern is    
often  composed of several pieces1 and  
the number and form of the flasks are   
also varied accordingly4 ,cannon-balls  
are sometimes cast in moulds of  iron2  
and to prevent the melted metal from    
adhering to them1 the  inside is covered
 with pulverized black lead4    #f4     
,rollers for flattening iron are also   
cast in iron moulds4 ,this  method is   
called chill-casting1 and has for its   
object the hardening  of the surface of 
the metal1 by the sudden reduction of   
the  temperature1 which takes place in  
consequence of the great power of  the  
mould1 as a conductor of heat4 ,these   
rollers are afterwards turned  in a     
powerful lathe4    #g4 ,several moulders
 work together in one foundery1 and1    
when they  have completed a sufficient  
number of moulds1 they fill them with   
the  liquid metal4 ,the metal for small 
articles is dipped from the hearth  or  

crucible of the furnace with iron ladles
 defended on every side  with a thin    
coating of clay mortar1 and poured      
thence into the moulds4  ,but in casting
 articles requiring a great amount of   
iron1 such as  cannon1 and some parts of
 the machinery for steam engines1 the   
iron is  transferred to the moulds1 in a
 continued stream1 through a channel    
leading from the bottom of the crucible4
 ,in such cases1 the moulds are         
constructed in a pit dug in the earth   
near the furnace4 ,large ladles  full of
 iron are1 in some founderies1 emptied  
into the moulds by the  aid of huge     
cranes4    #h4 ,although the moulders   
have their distinct work to perform1 yet
 they  often assist each other in       
lifting heavy flasks1 and in all cases1 
in  filling the moulds4 ,the latter     
operation is very laborious2 but the    
exertion is continued but a short time1 
since the moulds1 constructed  during a 
whole day1 can be filled in ten or      
fifteen minutes4    #i4 ,iron-founderies

 are usually located in or near large   
cities or  towns1 and are supplied with 
crude iron1 or pig metal1 from the blast
  furnaces in the interior4 ,the metal  
is fused either with charcoal or  with  
pit coal4 ,in the former case1 an       
artificial blast is necessary to  ignite
 the fuel2 but in the latter1 this      
object is often effected in  air        
furnaces1 which are so constructed that 
a sufficient current of  air is obtained
 directly from the atmosphere4    #aj4  
,the practice of making castings of iron
 is comparatively modern2  those of the 
ancients were made of brass1 and other  
alloys of copper4  ,until the beginning 
of the last century1 iron was but little
 applied  in this way4 ,this use of it1 
however1 has extended so rapidly1 that  
cast iron is now the material of almost 
every kind of machinery1 as  well as    
that of innumerable implements of common
 application4 ,even  bridges and        
rail-roads have been constructed of cast
 iron4      ,,the ,,bar ,,iron ,,maker4 

#a4 ,bar-iron is manufactured from      
pig-iron1 from blooms1 and directly     
from the ore2 the process is            
consequently varied in conformity with  
the state of the material on which it is
 commenced4    #b4 ,in producing        
bar-iron from pigs1 the latter are      
melted in a furnace  similar to a       
smith's forge1 with a sloping cavity ten
 or twelve inches  below1 where the     
blast-pipe is admitted4 ,this hearth is 
filled with  charcoal and dross1 or     
scoria2 and upon these is laid the metal
 and  more coal4 ,after the coal has    
become well ignited1 the blast is       
applied4 ,the iron soon begins to melt1 
and as it liquefies1 it runs  into the  
cavity or hearth below4 ,here1 being out
 of the reach of the  blast1 it soon    
becomes solid4    #c4 ,it is then taken 
out1 and fused again in the same manner1
 and  afterwards a third time4 ,after   
the third heat1 when the iron has       
become solid enough to bear beating1 it 
is slightly hammered with a  sledge1 to 

free it from the adhering scoria4 ,it is
 then returned to  the furnace2 but1    
being placed out of the reach of the    
blast1 it soon  becomes sufficiently    
compact to bear the tilt-hammer4    #d4 
,with this instrument1 the iron is      
beaten1 until the mass has been         
considerably extended1 when it is cut   
into several pieces1 which1 by  repeated
 beating and forging1 are extended into 
bars1 as we see them  for sale4 ,the    
tilt-hammer weighs from six to twelve   
hundred pounds1  and is most commonly   
moved by water power4    #e4 ,for       
manufacturing bar-iron directly from the
 ore1 the furnace is  similar in its    
construction to the one just described1 
and the  operations throughout are very 
similar4 ,a fire is first made upon the 
hearth with charcoal2 and1 when the fuel
 has become well ignited1 a  quantity of
 ore is thrown upon it1 and the ore and 
the fuel are  renewed as occasion may   
require4 ,as the iron melts1 and        
separates from  the earthy portions of  

the ore1 it sinks to the bottom of the  
hearth4  ,the scoria is let off         
occasionally1 through holes made for the
  purpose4 ,when iron enough has        
accumulated to make a loop1 as the  mass
 is called1 it is taken out1 and forged 
into bars under the  tilt-hammer4    #f4
 ,this way of making bar-iron is        
denominated the method of the  ,catalan 
forge1 and is by far the cheapest and   
most expeditious4 ,it is  in general use
 in all the southern countries of       
,europe1 and it is  beginning to be     
extensively practised in the ,united    
,states4 ,when a  ,catalan forge is     
employed in making blooms1 it is called 
a  bloomery4    #g4 ,the blooms are     
about eighteen inches long1 and four in 
diameter4  ,they are formed under the   
tilt-hammer1 and differ in substance    
from  bar-iron in nothing1 except that1 
having been imperfectly forged1 the     
fibres of the metal are not fully       
extended1 nor firmly united4 ,the       
blooms are manufactured in the interior 

of the country1 where wood is  abundant1
 and sold by the ton1 frequently1 in the
 cities1 to be  converted into bar or   
sheet iron4    #h4 ,these blooms are    
converted into bar-iron1 by first       
heating them in  an air-furnace1 by     
means of stone coal1 and then passing   
them between  chill cast iron rollers4  
,the rollers are filled with grooves1   
which  gradually decrease in size from  
one side to the other4 ,when the iron   
has passed through these1 the bloom of  
eighteen inches in length1 has  become  
extended to nearly as many feet4 ,the   
bar thus formed1 having  been cut into  
four pieces1 the process is finished by 
welding them  together laterally1 and   
again passing them between another set  
of  rollers1 by which they are brought  
to the form in which they are to        
remain4    #i4 ,blooms are also         
laminated into two sheets1 on the same  
principle1  between smooth rollers1     
which are screwed nearer to each other  
every  time the bloom is passed between 

them4 ,very thin plates1 like those     
which are tinned for the tin-plate      
workers1 are repeatedly doubled1  and   
passed between the rollers1 so that in  
the thinnest plates1  sixteen           
thicknesses are rolled together1 oil    
being interposed to  prevent their      
cohesion4 ,the last rollings are        
performed while the  metal is cold4     
#aj4 ,rolled plates of iron are         
frequently cut into rods and narrow     
strips4 ,this operation is performed by 
means of elevated angular rings  upon   
rollers1 which are so situated that they
 act reciprocally upon  each other1 and 
cut like shears4 ,these rings are       
separately made1 so  that they can be   
removed for the purpose of sharpening   
them1 when  necessary4 ,the mills in    
which the operations of rolling and     
slitting  iron are performed1 are called
 rolling and slitting mills4      ,,the 
,,wire ,,drawer4    #a4 ,iron is reduced
 to the form of wire by drawing rods of 
it through  conical holes in a steel    

plate4 ,to prepare the metal for the    
operation  of drawing1 it is subjected  
to the action of the hammer1 or to that 
of  rollers1 until it has been reduced  
to a rod sufficiently small to be       
forced through the largest hole4 ,the   
best wire is produced from rods  formed 
by the method first mentioned4    #b4   
,various machines are employed to       
overcome the resistance of the  plate to
 the passage of the wire4 ,in general1  
the wire is held by  pinchers1 near the 
end1 and as fast as it is drawn through 
the plate1  it is wound upon a roller1  
by the action of a wheel and axle1 or   
other  power4 ,sometimes1 a rack and    
pinion are employed for this purpose1   
and  sometimes a lever1 which acts at   
intervals1 and which takes fresh hold   
of the wire every time the force is     
applied4    #c4 ,the finer kinds of wire
 are made from the larger by repeated   
drawings1 each of which is performed    
through a smaller hole than the         
preceding4 ,as the metal becomes stiff  

and hard1 by the repetition of  this    
process1 it is occasionally annealed1 to
 restore its ductility4  ,wire is formed
 of other metals by the same general    
method4      ,,the ,,steel              
,,manufacturer4    #a4 ,steel is a      
compound of iron and carbon2 and1 as    
there are several  methods by which the 
combination is produced1 there are      
likewise  several kinds of steel4 ,the  
best steel is said to be made of        
,swedish  or ,russian bar-iron4    #b4  
,the most common method of forming steel
 is by the process of  cementation4 ,the
 operation is performed in a conical    
furnace1 in  which are two large cases  
or troughs1 made of fire-brick1 or good 
fire  stone2 and beneath these is a long
 grate4 ,on the bottom of the cases  is 
placed a layer of charcoal dust1 and    
over this a layer of bar-iron4          
,alternate strata of these materials are
 continued to a considerable  height1   
ten or twelve tons of iron being put in 
at once4    #c4 ,the whole is covered   

with clay or sand1 to exclude the air1  
and  flues are carried through the pile 
from the furnace below1 so as to  heat  
the contents equally and completely4    
,the fire is kindled in the  grate1 and 
continued for eight or ten days1 during 
which time1 the  troughs1 with their    
contents1 are kept red hot4 ,the        
progress of the  cementation is         
discovered by drawing a test bar from an
 aperture in  the side4    #d4 ,when the
 conversion of the iron into steel      
appears to be complete1  the fire is    
extinguished2 and1 after having been    
suffered to cool for  six or eight days1
 it is removed4 ,iron combined with     
charcoal in this  manner1 is denominated
 blistered steel1 from the blisters     
which  appear on its surface1 and in    
this state1 it is much used for common  
purposes4    #e4 ,to render this kind of
 steel more perfect1 the bars are heated
 to  redness1 and then drawn out into   
bars of much smaller dimensions1 by     
means of a hammer moved by water or     

steam power4 ,this instrument is  called
 a tilting hammer1 and the bars formed  
by it1 are called tilted  steel4 ,when  
the bars have been exposed to heat1 and 
afterwards  doubled1 drawn out1 and     
welded1 the product is called shear     
steel4    #f4 ,but steel of cementation1
 however carefully made1 is never quite 
equable in its texture4 ,steel          
possessing this latter quality is made1 
by fusing bars of blistered steel1 in a 
crucible placed in a wind  furnace4     
,when the fusion has been completed1 the
 liquid metal is cast  into small bars  
or ingots1 which are known in commerce  
by the name of  cast steel4 ,cast steel 
is harder1 more elastic1 closer in      
texture1  and capable of receiving a    
higher polish than common steel4    #g4 
,steel is also made directly from cast  
iron1 or at once from the  ore4 ,this   
kind is called natural or ,german steel1
 and is much  inferior to that obtained 
by cementation4 ,the best steel1        
produced  directly from the ore1 comes  

from ,germany1 and is made in ,stiria4  
,it  is usually imported in barrels1 or 
in chests about three feet long4    #h4 
,steel is sometimes alloyed with other  
metals4 ,a celebrated ,indian  steel1   
called wootz1 is supposed to be         
carbonated iron1 combined  with small   
quantities of silicium and aluminum4    
,steel alloyed with a  very small       
proportion of silver1 is superior to    
wootz1 or to the best  cast steel4 ,some
 other metals are also used with        
advantage in the same  application4     
#i4 ,steel was discovered at a very     
early period of the world1 for aught  we
 know1 long before the flood4 ,pliny    
informs us1 that1 in his time1  the best
 steel came from ,china1 and that the   
next best came from  ,parthia4 ,a       
manufactory of steel existed in ,sweden 
as early as #acdj of  the ,christian    
era3 but it is generally thought1 that  
the process of  converting iron into    
steel by cementation originated in      
,england1 at a  later period4 ,the      

method of making cast steel was invented
 at  ,sheffield1 in the latter country1 
in #agej1 and1 for a long time1 it  was 
kept secret4    #aj4 ,it has been but a 
few years1 since this manufacture was   
commenced  in the ,united ,sates4 ,in   
#ahcf1 we had fourteen steel furnaces1  
viz42 at  ,boston1 one2 ,new-,york1     
three2 ,troy1 one2 ,new-,jersey1 two2   
,philadelphia1 three2 ,york ,co41 ,pa41 
one2 ,baltimore1 one2 and  ,pittsburg1  
two4 ,these furnaces together are said  
to be capable of  yielding more than    
#afjj tons of steel in a year4 ,the     
,american steel is  employed in the     
fabrication of agricultural utensils1   
and it has  entirely excluded the common
 ,english blistered steel4              
,illustration3 ,,blacksmith4    ,,the   
,,blacksmith1 ,,and ,,the ,,nailer4     
,,the ,,blacksmith4    #a4 ,the         
blacksmith operates in wrought iron and 
steel1 and1 from these  materials1 he   
fabricates a great variety of articles1 
essential to  domestic convenience1 and 

to the arts generally4    #b4 ,this     
business is one of those trades         
essential in the rudest state  of       
society4 ,even the ,american ,indians   
are so sensible of its  importance1 that
 they cause to be inserted in the       
treaties which they  make with the      
,united ,states1 an article stipulating 
for a blacksmith  to be settled among   
them1 and for a supply of iron4    #c4  
,the utility of this trade will be      
further manifest by the  consideration1 
that almost every other business is     
carried on by its  aid4 ,the            
agriculturist is dependent on it for    
forming utensils1 and  mechanics and    
artists of every description1 for the   
tools with which  they operate2 in      
short1 we can scarcely fix upon a single
 utensil1  vehicle1 or instrument1 which
 does not owe its origin1 either        
directly  or indirectly1 to the         
blacksmith4    #d4 ,this business being 
thus extensive in its application1 it   
cannot be  presumed that any one person 

can be capable of executing every       
species  of work4 ,this1 however1 is not
 necessary1 since the demand for        
particular articles is frequently so    
great1 that the whole attention  may be 
directed to the multiplication of       
individuals of the same kind4  ,some    
smiths make only anchors1 axes1 scythes1
 hoes1 or shovels4    #e4 ,in such      
cases1 the workmen acquire great skill  
and expedition in  the manufacture4 ,a  
tilt hammer is often used in forging    
large masses  of iron1 and even in      
making utensils as small as the hoe1 the
 axe1 and  the sword2 but the hammer    
which may be employed bears a due       
proportion  in its weight to the mass of
 iron to be wrought4 ,in all cases in   
which  a tilt hammer is used1 the       
bellows from which the blast proceeds is
  moved by water or steam power4    #f4 
,in the shop represented at the head of 
this article1 sledges and  hammers are  
used as forging instruments1 and these  
are wielded by the  workmen themselves4 

,the head workman has hold of a piece of
 iron with  a pair of tongs1 and he1    
with a hammer1 and two others1 with each
 a  sledge1 are forging it upon an      
anvil4 ,the two men are guided in their 
disposition of the strokes chiefly by   
the hammer of the  master-workman4      
#g4 ,in ordinary blacksmith shops1 two  
persons commonly work at one  forge1 one
 of whom takes the lead in the          
operations1 and the other  works the    
bellows1 and uses the sledge4 ,from the 
part which the latter  takes in the     
labor1 he is called the blower and      
striker4 ,a man or  youth1 who          
understands but little of the business1 
can1 in many cases1  act in this        
capacity tolerably well4    #h4 ,the    
iron is rendered malleable by heating it
 with charcoal or with  stone coal1     
which is ignited intensely by means of a
 blast from a  bellows4 ,the iron is    
heated more or less1 according to the   
particular  object of the workman4 ,when
 he wishes to reduce it into form1 he   

raises it to a white heat4 ,the welding 
heat is less intense1 and  is used when 
two pieces are to be united by welding4 
,at a red heat1  and at lower           
temperatures1 the iron is rendered more 
compact in its  internal texture1 and   
more smooth upon its surface4    #i4    
,the joint action of the heat and air1  
while the temperature is  rising1 tends 
to produce a rapid oxydation of the     
surface4 ,this result  is measurably    
prevented by immersing the iron in sand 
and common salt1  which1 uniting1 form a
 vitreous coating for its protection4   
,this  coating is no inconvenience in   
the forging1 as its fluidity causes it  
to escape immediately under the action  
of the hammer4    #aj4 ,steel is        
combined with iron in the manufacture of
 cutting  instruments1 and other        
implements1 as well as articles         
requiring1 at  certain parts1 a great   
degree of hardness4 ,this substance     
possesses  the remarkable property of   
changing its degree of hardness by the  

influence of certain degrees of         
temperature4 ,no other substance is     
known to possess this property2 but it  
is the peculiar treatment which  it     
receives from the workman that renders  
it available4    #aa4 ,if steel is      
heated to redness1 and suddenly plunged 
into cold  water1 it is rendered        
extremely hard1 but1 at the same time1  
too  brittle for use4 ,on the other     
hand1 if it is suffered to cool         
gradually1 it becomes too soft and      
ductile4 ,the great object of the       
operator is to give to the steel a      
quality equally distant from            
brittleness and ductility4 ,the         
treatment by which this is effected is  
called tempering1 which will be more    
particularly treated in the  article on 
the cutler1 whose employment is a       
refined branch of this  business4       
,,the ,,nailer4    #a4 ,nail-making     
constitutes an extensive branch of the  
iron business1  as vast quantities of   
nails are annually required by all      

civilized  communities4 ,they are       
divided into two classes1 the names of  
which  indicate the particular manner in
 which they are manufactured2 viz41     
wrought nails and cut nails4    #b4 ,the
 former are usually forged on the anvil1
 and when a finished  head is required1 
as is commonly the case1 it is hammered 
on the  larger end1 after it has been   
inserted into a hole of an instrument   
formed for the purpose4 ,workmen by     
practice acquire surprising  dispatch in
 this business2 and this circumstance   
has prevented the  general introduction 
of the machines which have been invented
 for  making nails of this description4 
,wrought nails can be easily            
distinguished from cut nails1 by the    
indentations of the hammer which  have  
been left upon them4    #c4 ,in making  
cut nails1 the iron is first brought    
into bars between  grooved rollers4 ,the
 size of the bars is varied in          
conformity with  that of the proposed   
nails4 ,these bars are again heated1 and

 passed  between smooth rollers1 which  
soon spread them into thin strips of    
suitable width and thickness4 ,these    
strips1 having been cut into  pieces two
 or three feet in length1 are heated to 
a red heat in a  furnace1 to be         
immediately converted into nails1 when  
designed for  those of a large size4    
,for small nails1 the iron does not     
require  heating4    #d4 ,the end of the
 plate is presented to the machine by   
the workman1  who turns the material    
over1 first one way and then the other2 
and at  each turn a nail is produced4   
,the machine has a rapid reciprocating  
motion1 and cuts off1 at every stroke1 a
 wedge-like piece of iron1  constituting
 a nail without a head4 ,this is        
immediately caught near  the head1 and  
compressed between gripes2 and1 at the  
same time1 a  force is applied to a die 
at the end1 which spreads the iron      
sufficiently to form the head4 ,from one
 to two hundred can be thus  formed in a
 minute4 ,this fact accounts for the low

 rate at which cut  nails are now sold1 
which1 on an average1 is not more than  
two cents  per pound above that of bar  
iron4    #e4 ,on account of the greater 
expense of manufacturing wrought nails1 
they are sold much higher4 ,it is said  
that nine-tenths of all the  nails of   
this kind1 used in the ,united ,states1 
are imported from  ,europe4 ,we thus    
depend upon foreign countries for these 
and many other  articles1 because they  
can be imported cheaper than we can make
 them2  and this circumstance arises    
chiefly from the difference in the price
  of labor4    #f4 ,the first machine   
for making cut nails was invented in    
,massachusetts about the year #ahaf1 by 
a ,mr4 ,odion1 and soon afterwards      
another was contrived1 by a ,mr4 ,reed1 
of the same state4 ,other  machines1 for
 the same purpose1 have likewise been   
constructed by  different persons1 but  
those by ,odion and ,reed are most      
commonly used4  ,before these machines  
were introduced1 the strips of iron just

  described1 were cut into wedgelike    
pieces by an instrument which acted  on 
the principle of the shears2 and these  
were afterwards headed1 one  by one1    
with a hammer in a vice4 ,the fact1 that
 the manufacture of  this kind of nails 
originated in our country1 is worthy of 
recollection4    #g4 ,in #ahda1 ,walter 
,hunt1 of ,new-,york1 invented a double 
reciprocating  nail engine1 which is    
owned by the ,new-,york ,patent ,nail   
,company4 ,this  machine works with     
surprising rapidity1 it being capable of
 cutting  five or six hundred ten-penny 
nails in a minute4 ,one hand can tend   
three engines1 as he has nothing more to
 do than to place the heated  plate in a
 perpendicular position in the machine4 
#h4 ,this manufacture includes1 also1   
that of tacks and spikes2 but  since1 in
 the production of these1 the same      
general methods are  pursued1 they need 
no particular notice4 ,the different    
sizes of tacks  are distinguished by a  
method which indicates the number per   

ounce2 as  two1 three1 or four hundred  
per ounce4 ,spikes are designated by    
their  length in inches1 and nails by   
the terms1 two-penny1 three-penny1      
four-penny1 ten-penny1 and so on up to  
sixty-penny4          ,illustration3    
,,cutler4    ,,the ,,cutler4      #a4   
,under the head of cutlery1 is          
comprehended a great variety of         
instruments designed for cutting and    
penetration1 and the business of        
fabricating them is divided into a great
 number of branches4 ,some  manufacture 
nothing but axes2 others make           
plane-irons and chisels1  augers1 saws1 
or carvers' tools4 ,others1 again1 make 
smaller  instruments1 such as           
table-knives1 forks1 pen-knives1        
scissors1 and  razors4 ,there are also  
cutlers who manufacture nothing but     
surgical  instruments4    #b4 ,the      
coarser kinds of cutlery are made of    
blistered steel welded to  iron4 ,tools 
of a better quality are made of shear   
steel1 while the  sharpest and most     

delicate instruments are formed of cast 
steel4 ,the  several processes          
constituting this business may be       
comprised in  forging1 tempering1 and   
polishing2 and these are performed in   
the  order in which they are here       
mentioned4    #c4 ,the general method of
 forging iron and steel1 in every branch
 of  this business1 is the same with    
that used in the common blacksmith's    
shop1 for more ordinary purposes4 ,the  
process1 however1 is somewhat  varied1  
to suit the particular form of the      
object to be fashioned2 for  example1   
the blades and some other parts of the  
scissors are formed by  hammering the   
steel upon indented surfaces called     
bosses4 ,the bows1  which receive the   
finger and thumb1 are made by first     
punching a hole  in the metal1 and then 
enlarging it by the aid of a tool called
 a  beak-iron4    #d4 ,the steel1 after 
having been forged1 is soft1 like iron1 
and to  give it the requisite degree of 
strength under the uses to which the    

tools or instruments are to be exposed1 
it is hardened4 ,the process by  which  
this is effected is called tempering1   
and the degree of  hardness or strength 
to which the steel is brought is called 
its  temper1 which is required to be    
higher or lower1 according to  the use  
which is to be made of the particular   
instrument4    #e4 ,in giving to the    
different kinds of instruments the      
requisite  temper1 they are first heated
 to redness1 and then plunged into cold 
water4 ,this1 however1 raises the temper
 too high1 and1 if left in this         
condition1 they would be too brittle for
 use4 ,to bring them to a  proper state1
 they are heated to a less degree of    
temperature1 and  again plunged into    
cold water4 ,the degree to which they   
are heated1  the second time1 is varied 
according to the hardness required4     
,that  this particular point may be     
perfectly understood1 a few examples    
will  be given4    #f4 ,lancets are     
raised to #dcj degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,the

 temperature is  indicated by a pale    
color1 slightly inclined to yellow4 ,at 
#dej  degrees1 a pale straw-color       
appears1 which is found suitable for the
  best razors and surgical instruments4 
,at #dgj degrees1 a full color is       
produced1 which is suitable for         
pen-knives1 common razors1 c4 ,at #dij1 
a brown color appears1 which is the     
indication of a temper proper for       
shears1 scissors1 garden hoes1 and      
chisels intended for cutting cold  iron4
    #g4 ,at #eaj degrees1 the brown     
becomes dappled with purple spots1 which
  shows the proper heat for tempering   
axes1 common chisels1 plane-irons1  c4  
,at #ecj degrees1 a purple color is     
established1 and this  temperature is   
proper for table-knives and large       
shears4 ,at #eej  degrees1 a bright blue
 appears1 which is proper for swords and
 watch  springs4 ,at #efj degrees1 the  
color is full blue1 and this is used for
  fine saws1 augers1 c4 ,at #fjj        
degrees1 a dark blue approaching to     

black settles upon the metal1 and this  
produces the softest of all the  grades 
of temper1 which is used only for the   
larger kinds of saws4    #h4 ,other     
methods of determining the degree of    
temperature at which the  different     
kinds of cutlery are to be immersed1 a  
second time1 in cold  water1 are also   
practised4 ,by one method1 the pieces of
 steel are  covered with tallow or oil1 
or put into a vessel containing one of  
these substances1 and heated over a     
moderate fire4 ,the appearance of  the  
smoke indicates the degree of heat to   
which it may have been  raised4 ,a more 
accurate method is found in the         
employment of a fluid  medium1 the      
temperature of which can be regulated by
 a thermometer4  ,thus oil1 which boils 
at #fjj degrees1 may be employed for    
this  purpose1 at any degree of heat    
which is below that number4    #i4 ,the 
grinding of cutlery is effected on      
cylindrical stones of  various kinds1   
among which freestone is the most       

common4 ,these are  made to revolve with
 prodigious velocity1 by means of       
machinery4 ,the  operation is therefore 
quickly performed4 ,the polishing is    
commonly  effected by using1 first1 a   
wheel of wood2 then1 one of pewter2 and1
  lastly1 one covered with buff leather 
sprinkled with an impure oxyde  of iron1
 called colcothar or crocus4 ,the edges 
are set either  with hones or           
whetstones1 or with both1 according to  
the degree of  keenness required4       
#aj4 ,almost every description of       
cutlery requires a handle of some  sort2
 but the nature of the materials1 as    
well as the form and mode of            
application1 will be readily understood 
by a little attention to the  various   
articles of this kind which daily fall  
in our way4    #aa4 ,a process has been 
invented1 by which edge tools1 nails1   
c41 made  of cast iron1 may be converted
 into good steel4 ,it consists in       
stratifying the articles with the oxyde 
of iron1 in a metallic  cylinder1 and   

then submitting the whole to a regular  
heat1 in a  furnace built for the       
purpose4 ,this kind of cutlery1 however1
 will not  bear a very fine edge4       
#ab4 ,the sword and the knife were      
probably the first instruments          
fabricated from iron1 and they still    
continue to be leading subjects  of     
demand1 in all parts of the world4 ,the 
most celebrated swords of  antiquity    
were made at ,damascus1 in ,syria4      
,these weapons never broke  in the      
hardest conflicts1 and were capable of  
cutting through steel  armor without    
sustaining injury4    #ac4 ,the fork1 as
 applied in eating1 is an invention     
comparatively  modern4 ,it appears to   
have had its origin in ,italy1 probably 
in the  fourteenth century2 but it was  
not introduced into ,england1 until the 
reign of ,james the ,first1 in the first
 quarter of the seventeenth4 ,its  use  
was1 at first1 the subject of much      
ridicule and opposition4    #ad4 ,before
 the introduction of the fork1 a piece  

of paper1 or  something in place of it1 
was commonly wrapped round some         
convenient  projection of the piece to  
be carved2 and1 at this place1 the      
operator  placed one hand1 while he used
 the knife with the other4 ,the carver  
cut the mass of meat into slices or     
suitable portions1 and laid them  upon  
the large slices of bread which had been
 piled up near the  platter1 or carving 
dish1 and which1 after having been thus 
served1  were handed about the table1 as
 we now distribute the plates4    #ae4  
,the knives used at table were pointed1 
that the food might be  taken upon them1
 as upon a fork2 and knives of the same 
shape are  still common on the continent
 of ,europe4 ,round-topped knives were  
not  adopted in ,paris1 until after the 
banishment of ,napoleon ,bonaparte to   
,elba1 in #ahae1 when every thing       
,english became fashionable in that     
city4    #af4 ,in ,france1 before the   
revolution of #aghi1 it was customary   
for  every gentleman1 when invited to   

dinner1 to send his knife and fork      
before him by a servant2 or1 if he had  
no servant1 he carried them  himself in 
his breeches pocket4 ,a few of the      
ancient regime still  continue the old  
custom4 ,the peasantry of the ,tyrol1   
and of some parts  of ,germany and      
,switzerland1 generally carry about them
 a case1  containing a knife and fork1  
and a spoon4    #ag4 ,the use of the    
fork1 for a long time1 was considered so
 great a  luxury1 that the members of   
many of the monastic orders were        
forbidden  to indulge in it4 ,the ,turks
 and ,asiatics use no forks1 even to    
this  day4 ,the ,chinese employ1 instead
 of this instrument1 two small sticks1  
which they hold in the same hand1       
between different fingers4    #ah4 ,the 
manufacture of cutlery is carried on    
most extensively in  ,england1 at       
,birmingham1 ,sheffield1 ,walsall1      
,wolverhampton1 and ,london4  ,london   
cutlery has the reputation of being the 
best1 and this  circumstance induces the

 dealers in that city1 to affix the     
,london  mark to articles made at other 
places4 ,in the ,united ,states1 there  
are  many establishments for the        
fabrication of the coarser kinds of     
cutlery1 such as axes1 plane-irons1     
saws1 hoes1 scythes1 c41 but for  the   
finer descriptions of cutting           
instruments1 we are chiefly  dependent  
on ,europe4          ,illustration3     
,,gun-,,smith4    ,,the ,,gun-,,smith4  
#a4 ,it is the business of the gun-smith
 to manufacture fire-arms of the        
smaller sorts2 such as muskets1         
fowling-pieces1 rifles1 and pistols4    
#b4 ,the principal parts of the         
instruments fabricated by this          
artificer1 are the barrel1 the stock1   
and the lock4 ,in performing the        
operations connected with this business1
 great attention is paid to  the        
division of labor1 especially in large  
establishments1 such as  those belonging
 to the ,united ,states1 at ,springfield
 and ,harper's  ,ferry2 for example1 one

 set of workmen forge the barrels1      
ramrods1 or  some part of the lock2     
others reduce some part of the forged   
material  to the exact form required1 by
 means of files2 and again another class
  of operators perform some part of the 
work relating to the stock4    #c4 ,the 
barrel is formed by forging a bar of    
iron into a flat piece of  proper length
 and thickness1 and by turning the plate
 round a  cylindrical rod of tempered   
steel1 called a mandril1 the diameter of
  which is considerably less than the   
intended bore of the barrel4 ,the  edges
 of the plate are made to overlap each  
other about half an inch1  and are      
welded together by heating the tube in  
lengths of two or three  inches at a    
time1 and by hammering them with very   
brisk1 but moderate  strokes1 upon an   
anvil which has a number of semicircular
 furrows upon  it4    #d4 ,in           
constructing barrels of better          
workmanship1 the iron is forged  in     
smaller pieces1 eight or nine inches    

long1 and welded together  laterally1 as
 well as lengthwise4 ,the barrel is now 
finished in the  usual way2 or it is    
first made to undergo the additional    
operation of  twisting1 a process       
employed upon those intended to be of   
superior  quality4 ,the operation is    
performed by heating small portions of  
it at  a time1 and twisting them        
successively1 while one end is held     
fast4    #e4 ,the barrel is next bored  
with several bits1 each a little larger 
than the preceding one4 ,the last bit is
 precisely the size of the  intended    
calibre4 ,after the barrel has been     
polished1 and the breech  closed with a 
screw1 its strength and soundness are   
tested by means of  a ball of the proper
 size1 and a charge of powder equal in  
weight to  the ball4 ,pistol-barrels1   
which are to go in pairs1 are forged in 
one  piece1 which is cut asunder1 after 
it has been bored4    #f4 ,barrels for  
rifles are much thicker than those for  
other small  arms2 and1 in addition to  

the boring in common barrels1 they are  
furrowed with a number of grooves or    
rifles1 which extend from one  end of   
the cavity to the other1 either in a    
straight or spiral  direction4 ,these   
rifles are supposed to prevent the      
rolling of the  ball in its passage out1
 and to direct it more unerringly to the
  object of aim4    #g4 ,the stocks are 
commonly manufactured from the wood of  
the  walnut-tree4 ,these are first      
dressed in a rough manner1 usually in   
the  country4 ,after the wood has been  
properly seasoned1 they are finished  by
 workmen1 who commonly confine their    
attention to this particular  branch of 
the business4 ,in each of the ,united   
,states' armories1 is  employed a       
machine with which the stocks are       
turned1 and also one1  with which the   
place for the lock is made4    #h4 ,the 
several pieces composing the lock are   
forged on anvils1 some of  which have   
indented surfaces1 the more readily to  
give the proposed  form4 ,they are      

reduced somewhat with the file1 and     
polished with  substances usually       
employed for such purposes4 ,the several
 pieces of  the lock having been put    
together1 it is fastened to the stock   
with  screws4 ,other particulars in     
regard to the manufacture of small-arms 
will be readily suggested by a careful  
inspection of the different  kinds1     
which are frequently met with4    #i4   
,the period at which1 and the country   
where1 gunpowder and fire-arms  were    
first invented1 cannot be certainly     
determined4 ,some attribute  their      
invention to the ,chinese2 and1 in      
confirmation of this opinion1  assert   
that there are now cannon in ,china1    
which were made in the  eightieth year  
of the ,christian era4 ,on this         
supposition1 their use  was gradually   
extended to the ,west1 until they were  
finally adopted in  ,europe1 in the     
fourteenth century4    #aj4 ,others1    
however1 attribute the invention of     
gunpowder to ,berthold  ,schwartz1 a    

monk1 who lived at ,mentz1 between the  
years #abij and #acbj4  ,it is said1    
that in some of his alchemistic         
experiments1 he put some  saltpetre1    
sulphur1 and charcoal1 into a mortar1   
and having  accidentally dropped into it
 a spark of fire1 the contents exploded1
  and threw the pestle into the air4    
,this circumstance suggested to his     
mind the employment of the mixture for  
throwing projectiles4 ,some  traditions1
 however1 attribute the invention to    
,constantine ,antlitz1  of ,cologne4    
#aa4 ,the fire-arms first used in       
,europe were cannon1 and these were     
originally made of wood1 wrapped in     
numerous folds of linen1 and well       
secured with iron hoops4 ,they were     
conical in shape1 being widest at  the  
muzzle2 but this form was soon changed  
for the cylindrical4 ,at  length they   
were made of bars of iron1 firmly bound 
together with  hoops of the same metal4 
,in the second half of the fourteenth   
century1  a composition of copper and   

tin1 which was brought to form by       
casting  in sand1 came into use4    #ab4
 ,cannon were formerly dignified with   
great names4 ,charles ,v4 of  ,spain had
 twelve1 which he called after the      
twelve apostles4 ,one at  ,bois-le-,duc 
is called the devil2 a sixty-pounder1 at
 ,dover ,castle1  is called ,queen      
,elizabeth's pocket-pistol2 an          
eighty-pounder1 at  ,berlin1 is called  
the thunderer2 two sixty-pounders1 at   
,bremen1 the  messengers of bad news4   
,but cannon are1 at present1 denominated
 from  the weight of the balls which    
they carry2 as six-pounders1            
eight-pounders1 c4    #ac4 ,fire-arms of
 a portable size were invented1 about   
the beginning of  the sixteenth century4
 ,the musket was the first of this class
 of  instruments that appeared1 and the 
,spanish nation1 the first that  adopted
 its use as a military weapon4 ,it was  
originally very heavy1  and could not be
 well supported in a horizontal position
 without a  rest4 ,the soldiers1 on     

their march1 carried only the rest and  
ammunition1 while each was followed by a
 youth who bore the musket4    #ad4 ,the
 powder was not ignited with a spark    
from a flint1 but with a  match4        
,afterwards1 a lighter match-lock musket
 was introduced1 which  was carried by  
the soldiers themselves4 ,the rest1     
however1 maintained  its ground1 until  
about the middle of the seventeenth     
century4 ,the  troops throughout ,europe
 were furnished with fire-locks1 such as
 are  now used1 a little before the     
beginning of the eighteenth century4    
#ae4 ,the bayonet was invented1 about   
the year #afdj1 at ,bayonne2 but it  was
 not generally introduced1 until the    
pike was entirely  discontinued1 about  
sixty years afterwards4 ,it was first   
carried by  the side1 and was used as a 
dagger in close fight2 but1 in #afij1   
the  custom of fastening it to the      
muzzle of the fire-lock was commenced in
  ,france1 and the example was soon     
followed throughout ,europe4    #af4    

,gunpowder1 on which the use of         
fire-arms depends1 is a composition  of 
salt-petre1 sulphur1 and charcoal4 ,the 
proportion of the  ingredients is varied
 considerably in different countries1   
and by  different manufacturers in the  
same country4 ,but good gunpowder may be
  made of seventy-six parts of          
salt-petre1 fifteen of charcoal1 and    
nine  of sulphur4 ,these materials are  
first reduced to a fine powder          
separately1 and then formed into a      
homogeneous mass by moistening the      
mixture with water1 and pounding it for 
a considerable time in wooden  mortars4 
#ag4 ,after the paste has been suffered 
to dry a little1 it is forced  through a
 kind of sieve4 ,by this process it is  
divided into grains1  the size of which 
depends upon that of the holes through  
which they  have been passed4 ,the      
powder is then dried in ovens1 and      
afterwards  put into barrels1 which are 
made to revolve on their axis4 ,the     
friction produced by this motion        

destroys the asperities of the  grains1 
and renders their surfaces smooth and   
capable of easy  ignition4              
,illustration3 ,,farrier4    ,,the      
,,veterinary ,,surgeon4      #a4 ,the   
horse1 as well as the other domestic    
animals1 is subject to a  great variety 
of diseases1 which1 like those affecting
 the human  system1 are frequently under
 the control of medicinal remedies2 and 
the same general means which are        
efficacious in healing the disorders  of
 our race1 are equally so in controlling
 those of the inferior part  of the     
animal creation4    #b4 ,the great value
 of the domestic animals has rendered   
them1 from the  earliest periods1 the   
objects of study and attention1 not only
 while  in health1 but also when        
laboring under disease4 ,for the latter 
state1  a peculiar system was early     
formed1 including a materia medica1 and 
a general mode of treatment considerably
 different from those for  human        
patients4    #c4 ,of the authors of this

 system1 whether ,greek or ,roman1      
nothing  worthy of notice has been      
transmitted to us1 beyond an occasional 
citation of names1 in the works of      
,columella1 a ,roman writer1 who        
flourished in the reign of ,tiberius    
,csar1 and in ,vegetius ,renatus1  who  
lived two centuries afterwards4 ,the    
former treated at large on the  general 
management of domestic animals1 and the 
latter more  professedly on the diseases
 to which they are liable4    #d4 ,both 
of these writers treated their subject  
in elegant classical  ,latin2 but       
neither they nor any other ancient      
author whose works have  reached us1 had
 any professional acquaintance with     
medicine or  surgery4 ,celsus is the    
only physician of those times who is    
said to  have written on animal         
medicine2 but this part of his works is 
not  extant4    #e4 ,xenophon is the    
oldest veterinary writer whose work     
remains2 but  his treatise is confined  
to the training and management of the   

horse  for war and the chase4 ,the chief
 merit of the ancient writers on this   
subject consists in the dietetic rules  
and domestic management which  they     
propose4 ,their medical prescriptions   
are said to be an  inconsistent and     
often discordant jumble of many         
articles1 devoid of  rational aim or    
probable efficacy4    #f4 ,on the       
revival of learning in ,europe1 when the
 anatomy and  physiology of the human   
body had become grand objects of        
research in  the ,italian schools1      
veterinary anatomy attracted the        
attention of  ,ruini and others1 whose  
descriptive labors on the body of the   
horse  have since served for the        
ground-work and model to all the schools
 in  ,europe4    #g4 ,the works of the  
veterinary writers of antiquity were    
eagerly  sought and translated in ,italy
 and ,france1 and the art was           
extensively  cultivated1 sometimes under
 regular medical professors4 ,every     
branch  of the equine economy was       

pursued with assiduity and success1     
whether  it related to harness and      
trappings1 equitation and military      
menage1  or the methodical treatment of 
the hoof1 and the invention of various  
kinds of iron shoes4 ,evangelista of    
,milan distinguished himself in the     
education or breaking of the horse2 and 
to him is attributed the  invention of  
the martingale4    #h4 ,the new science 
having been extended over a great       
proportion of the  continent of ,europe1
 could scarcely fail of occasional      
communication  with ,england2           
nevertheless1 the medical treatment of  
horses and other  domestic animals      
continued exclusively in the hands of   
farriers and  cow-doctors1 until some   
time in the first quarter of the        
eighteenth  century4    #i4 ,at this    
period1 that branch of this art which   
relates to the  medical and surgical    
treatment of the horse1 attracted the   
attention  of ,william ,gibson1 who had 
acted in the capacity of army surgeon in

  the wars of ,queen ,anne4 ,he was the 
first author of the regular medical     
profession1 in ,england1 who attempted  
to improve veterinary science2  and the 
publication of his work forms an era in 
its annals1 since his  work became1 and 
has continued to the present day1 the   
basis of the  superior practice of the  
,english4    #aj4 ,the eighteenth       
century was abundantly fruitful in      
veterinary  pursuits and publications4  
,france took the lead2 but a zeal for   
this  branch of science pervaded        
,germany and the states north of that   
part  of ,europe1 and colleges were     
established in various countries1 with  
the express view of cultivating this    
branch of the medical art4 ,it is  said 
that the ,french have improved the      
anatomical and surgical  branches of the
 art1 and the ,english1 those which     
relate to the  application of medicines4
    #aa4 ,the first veterinary school   
was instituted at ,lyons1 in #agfb4     
,another was established at ,alfort1 in 

#agff4 ,a similar institution was       
opened at ,berlin1 in #agib1 and in the 
same year1 one at ,st4 ,pancras1  near  
,london4 ,in these colleges1 lectures   
are given1 and degrees  conferred4 ,in  
the diplomas1 the graduate is           
denominated veterinary  surgeon4 ,a     
great number of these surgeons have been
 dispersed in the  armies of ,europe1 as
 well as through the different          
countries1 where  they have been        
employed in the medical and surgical    
treatment of  diseased animals1 to the  
great advantage of their owners4    #ab4
 ,from the preceding account1 it is     
evident1 that the light of  science has 
shone conspicuously1 in ,europe1 on the 
domestic animals1  in relation to their 
treatment1 both while in health1 and    
when  laboring under disease4 ,in the   
,united ,states1 we have no institution 
for the cultivation of this branch of   
knowledge4 ,the press1 however1  has    
been prolific in the production of works
 treating on the various  branches of   

the veterinary art2 and many persons1 by
 their aid1 have  rendered themselves   
competent to administer to animals in   
cases of  disease1 in a rational manner4
    #ac4 ,nevertheless1 the practice of 
animal medicine is confined chiefly  to 
illiterate men1 who1 from their         
laborious habits1 or from other  causes1
 have not attained to that degree of    
information on animal  diseases1 and the
 general effects of medicine1 that might
 enable them  to prescribe their        
remedies on scientific principles4 ,but 
this state  of things is not peculiar to
 our country2 for1 notwithstanding the  
laudable efforts of enlightened men in  
,europe1 the blacksmiths form a  vast   
majority of the horse-surgeons and      
physicians in every part of  it2 and the
 medical treatment of the other domestic
 animals is  commonly intrusted to      
persons who are still more incompetent4 
#ad4 ,the attention of blacksmiths was  
very early turned to the diseases  of   
the horse1 from the practice of         

supplying him with shoes4 ,the  morbid  
affections of the foot were probably the
 first which attracted  their notice2   
and descanting upon these induced the   
general belief1  that they understood   
every other disease which might affect  
the  animal4    #ae4 ,these men1 as     
artificers in iron1 were originally     
termed ferrers  or ferriers1 from the   
,latin word ferrum1 iron2 and their     
craft1  ferriery4 ,these terms1 by a    
usual corruption or improvement in      
language1 have been changed to farrier  
and farriery1 both of which  still      
remain in general use1 the former as    
applied to persons who shoe  horses and 
administer to them medicines and        
surgical remedies1 and the  latter to   
the art itself1 by which they are1 or   
ought to be1 guided4    #af4 ,the       
appellation of veterinary surgeon is    
applicable to persons who  have received
 a diploma from some veterinary college1
 or who have1 at  least1 studied animal 
medicine scientifically4 ,there are a   

few such  individuals in the ,united    
,states2 and the great value of the     
domestic  animals1 and the general      
increase of knowledge1 certainly justify
 the  expectation1 that their number    
will increase4      ,,the ,,end4        
99       99       99       99       99  
,transcriber's ,notes3    ,obvious      
spelling and punctuation errors were    
repaired4 ,period  spellings were       
retained 7for example3 orchestres1      
etc471 along with  valid alternate      
spellings of the same word4 ,stationary 
is used for  stationery consistently in 
this text4 ,retained4    ,there were    
several words that the original included
 in both hyphenated  and non-hyphenated 
forms2 these were retained4    ,heading 
punctuation and formatting1 which varied
 in the original1 has  been             
standardized4    ,illustrations on ,p4  
#fc 7,printer71 #gc 7,type-founder71 and
 #ha  7,paper-maker7 have no captions in
 the original4    ,p4 #ff1 ,durandi     
,ralionale divinorum officiorum in the  

original is the  official title in      
several sources4 ,retained ,ralionale   
spelling4    ,changes not covered by    
notes above were3        ,p4 #aj1 now   
became clefs2 original reads clifs4     
,p4 #aei1 convex drawing-knife2 original
 reads onvex4