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 the default font4            ,the      
,christian ,faith ,under ,modern        
,searchlights            ,the ,l4 ,p4   
,stone ,lectures ,delivered at          
,princeton ,theological ,seminary       
,the ,christian ,faith ,under ,modern   
,searchlights      ,by ,,william        
,,hallock ,,johnson1 ,ph4 ,d41 ,d4,d4   
,professor of ,greek and ,new           
,testament ,literature in ,lincoln      
,university1 ,pennsylvania      ,with an
 ,introduction by ,,francis ,,landey    
,,patton1 ,d4,d41 ,,ll4,d4 ,president   
,emeritus of ,princeton ,theological    
,seminary      ,illustration      ,,new 
,,york ,,chicago ,,toronto      ,fleming

 ,h4 ,revell ,company      ,,london     
,,and ,,edinburgh            ,copyright1
 #aiaf1 by ,,fleming ,h4 ,,revell       
,,company      ,new ,york3 #aeh ,fifth  
,avenue    ,chicago3 #ag ,north ,wabash 
,ave4    ,toronto3 #be ,richmond        
,street1 ,w4    ,london3 #ba            
,paternoster ,square    ,edinburgh3 #ajj
 ,princes ,street      ,to      ,v4 ,s4 
,f4          ,introduction      ,it was 
my good fortune to hear the lectures    
contained in this volume  when they were
 given in the ,miller ,chapel of        
,princeton ,theological  ,seminary4 ,the
 high estimate ,i then formed of them   
has since been  enhanced by the reading 
of the proof-sheets4    ,professor      
,johnson is a well-trained student of   
philosophy and for some  years has been 
professionally engaged in the teaching  
of ,new ,testament  criticism4 ,he may  
therefore be trusted as a competent     
judge of the  issues that are raised by 
anti-,christian thought in the two great
 fields  of contemporary controversy4   

,the only view of ,christianity worth   
contending for in any serious way is    
that which regards it as a supernatural 
revelation4 ,the author states  his own 
position in the first lecture4 ,this    
position is antagonized by  those who   
hold a naturalistic or pantheistic view 
of the world and also  by those who1    
whatever may be their philosophy1 are   
using the weapons of  historical        
criticism to discredit miraculous       
,christianity4    ,i can imagine that   
there are two classes of ,christians for
 whom these  lectures will have only a  
moderate interest3 those who are        
possessed of  a strong and aggressive   
faith and who are impatient of all      
discussion  that seems to carry with it 
the implication that their religious    
convictions stand in need of any        
defense2 and those who1 by reason of    
their easy acquiescence in the          
conclusions of a minimizing theology1   
look upon such discussions as having a  
tendency to divide the household  of    

faith and to divert attention from the  
activities of the ,church4    ,there is1
 however1 ,i am confident1 a large class
 of men in and out of  the ,church who  
would welcome a clear statement of the  
case of  ,christianity in the light of  
current debate and to men of this class 
,i  have great pleasure in commending   
the present volume4    ,the merit of    
these lectures consists largely in the  
fact that the author  takes a           
comprehensive survey of the latest      
phases of anti-,christian  thought1 that
 he has a firm hold upon the central and
 vital questions  involved in the great 
debate1 and that he does not allow      
himself to be  hampered by dealing      
needlessly with side issues4 ,he is keen
 and  penetrating in his criticism of   
those who belittle the evidence in      
support of revealed religion1 and       
generous1 sometimes to a fault1 in his  
appreciation of writers with whose      
dominant ideas he has but scant         
sympathy4 ,of his learning and logical  

acumen there is no doubt and his        
fairness in controversy is above        
reproach4    ,as the title of this      
volume suggests1 we have no reason to   
fear that the  ,christian faith will    
suffer loss by reason of the fierce     
light of  criticism which now beats upon
 it4 ,we must not undervalue learning   
nor  shrink from a searching scrutiny of
 our beliefs4 ,the truth of             
,christianity is not hard to discover   
when truth is sought through the  medium
 of normal vision4 ,but our opponents   
must remember that when  inquiry is     
entered upon amid the blinding mists of 
philosophic  preconception and historic 
prejudice the best instruments of       
investigation will fail to overcome the 
condition of low visibility  which      
confronts the seeker4 ,the searchlight  
is of little use in a fog4              
,,francis ,l4 ,,patton4                 
,preface      ,a deep unsettlement of   
belief is characteristic of our age4 ,we
 prize the  doubt that low kinds and    

simpler ages existed without2 an        
interrogation  point is held to be the  
badge of mental superiority4 ,while this
  unsettlement is to be deplored when it
 leads1 as it does in so many  cases1 to
 the shipwreck of faith and even of     
morals1 there is yet a  certain         
exhilaration in living in a critical    
age4 ,the challenge to  faith1 meeting  
us at every point1 rouses from dogmatic 
slumber and dead  orthodoxy4 ,we realize
 that the faith which is to survive must
 be not  simply a traditional faith1 but
 an intelligent faith1 sending its roots
  down deep into reason and experience1 
and blossoming upward in the  flowers   
and fruits of character and of good     
works4 ,as character receives  its crown
 in the times of persecution1 so perhaps
 faith may grow  strongest in an age of 
doubt3 it was the doubter among the     
disciples who  at last made the boldest 
confession of faith4 ,a restless age may
 at last  heed the invitation1 ,come    
unto ,me2 ,i will give you rest4        

,these lectures1 delivered at ,princeton
 ,theological ,seminary in ,february1   
#aiad1 under the title of ,the          
,christian ,faith in the ,light of      
,modern  ,knowledge1 have now been      
revised with the addition of new matter4
 ,they  were written in the conviction  
that what ,christianity has most to fear
  is ignorance and prejudice and        
presupposition2 that the ,christian     
,faith1  with its motto1 ,come and see1 
welcomes the fullest investigation2 and 
that every advance in knowledge1        
whatever temporary perplexities it may  
occasion1 will in the end reveal more   
fully the intrinsic excellence of  the  
,christian religion and establish more  
firmly its sovereign claim to  be from  
heaven and not from men4        ,w4 ,h4 
,j4        ,lincoln ,university1 ,pa4   
,contents        ,,chapter ,i           
,,what ,,is ,,the ,,christian ,,faith8  
,need of a definition #ae      ,i4 ,the 
,christianity of the ,new ,testament    
,writers #af       ,their emphasis upon 

the ,passion and ,resurrection #af      
,their emphasis upon the ,person of     
,christ #bj      ,,ii4 ,primitive       
,christianity and ,pauline ,christianity
 #ba        ,was ,paul the ,founder of  
,christianity8 #ba        ,lines of     
connection between ,paul and the        
,primitive ,apostles #bb      ,,iii4    
,the ,christianity of ,jesus and of     
,paul #bf         ,harmony in their     
,ethical ,teaching and in their blending
           of ,doctrine with ,ethics #bg
         ,the ,christological passage1  
,matthew xi4 #be-cj3 its exegesis       
and its alleged isolation #ce           
,the ,passion narrative in ,mark3 views 
of ,bousset #da                         
,self-authenticating contrasts in the   
,character of ,christ #dc      ,,iv4    
,the ,dilemma of ,historical ,criticism 
#dd        ,jesus as viewed by the      
,liberal and the ,radical ,schools #dd  
,the ,dilemma of ,liberal ,criticism #de
        ,lessening ,significance of a   
merely human ,jesus #di        ,harnack 

and von ,dobschtz on the ,double ,gospel
 #ec        ,the ,essence of            
,christianity #ed        ,,chapter ,,ii 
,,the ,,christian ,,faith ,,and ,,modern
 ,,science      ,the ,darwinian ,theory3
 inferences unfavourable and favourable 
to        religion #ef    ,evolution and
 the ,copernican ,revolution #fj        
,i4 ,the ,method of ,evolution3 the     
biological discussion #fa       ,state  
of opinion after fifty years of         
,darwinism #fa       ,laws of ,variation
 and ,heredity #fb       ,weismann's    
theory of ,germinal ,selection #fc      
,significance of the variety in opinions
 #fe      ,,ii4 ,the ,meaning of        
,evolution3 the philosophical discussion
 #ff        #a4 ,mechanism and ,design  
#ff        ,in the organic world in     
general2 the fitness of the environment 
#fg        ,in the organic world        
including man #gj        #b4            
,preformation and ,epigenesis #gc       
,preformation and the infinite regress  
#gd        ,the ,origin of ,life3       

various theories #ge        ,the ,origin
 of ,man as viewed from different       
standpoints #gh        ,the ,generatio  
quivoca #hj      ,,iii4 ,theism and     
,evolution #hb         ,the causal      
demand #hb         ,theism and the ideas
 of ,continuity and ,progress #hc       
,religion and scientific advance #he    
,,chapter ,,iii      ,the ,christian    
,faith and ,psychology      ,the        
,psychology of ,religion3 its precursors
 and founders #hi      ,i4 ,the         
,psychology of ,religious ,experience3  
points emphasized          in the       
discussion #ib       #a4 ,the normality 
of religion #ib       #b4 ,the power of 
religion in the individual and in       
society #if       #c4 ,the need of      
salvation #ajj       #d4 ,the way of    
salvation #ajb      ,,ii4 ,the          
,metaphysical ,implicates of ,religious 
,experience #aje       #a4 ,the         
,physical ,explanation3 religion the    
result of bodily          conditions2   
religion and sex #ajf       #b4 ,the    

,psychological ,explanation3 religion   
and the subconscious #aaa       #c4 ,the
 ,social ,explanation3 religion and     
society #aad       #d4 ,the ,theistic   
,infer enc #aai          ,the ,pragmatic
 ,argument for ,theism #aai             
,the ,mystical ,argument3 its strength  
and its weakness #abj          ,the     
,evidence of ,christian ,experience #abb
        ,,chapter ,,iv      ,,the       
,,christian ,,faith ,,and ,,recent      
,,philosophy      ,the philosophical    
situation at the opening of the century 
#abe    ,leading representatives of     
present day philosophy #abg      ,i4    
,bergson and ,creative ,evolution #abg  
,creative ,evolution a drama in three   
acts #abh         ,features of          
,bergson's system3 the vital impulse    
#abi         ,his rejection of          
,finalism3 is it compatible with        
,theism8 #acb      ,,ii4 ,eucken and the
 ,truth of ,religion #acg         ,his  
critique of ,naturalism1 of ,pragmatism 
and of ,absolutism #ach                 

,universal ,religion and ,characteristic
 ,religion #adj         ,eucken's       
relation to ,christianity3 ,can we still
 be           ,christians8 #adb         
,bergson and ,eucken as prophets of a   
new era #adf      ,,iii4 ,ward and the  
,realm of ,ends #adf         ,his       
transition from ,pluralism to ,theism   
#adg         ,his argument for          
,immortality #aeb         ,pampsychism  
and ,metempsychosis #aec                
,difficulties in the doctrine of        
,pampsychism #aed      ,,iv4 ,royce and 
the ,problem of ,christianity #aee      
,christianity as a ,religion of ,loyalty
 #aeg        ,what is vital in          
,christianity8 #aeh        ,the         
,christian ideas of ,sin and of         
,atonement or ,grace #aei        ,the   
,church as a source of salvation3 its   
origin #afa        ,philosophical       
interest in ,christianity and its       
significance #afd        ,,chapter ,v   
,,the ,,christian ,,faith ,,and ,,other 
,,religions      ,the ,universal        

,mission of ,christianity #afe      ,i4 
,christianity and ,ancient ,religions   
#afe         ,the resemblances and their
 significance #aff         ,clemen's    
religious-historical principles #afh    
#a4 ,the ,virgin ,birth and its alleged 
parallels #afi         #b4 ,the worship 
of ,christ and the worship of the       
,emperor3 origin of the ,kyrios title   
#agb         #c4 ,paul and the ,mystery 
,religions #agg         ,pauline        
doctrine of the ,sacraments and of dying
 and            rising with ,christ #ahj
         ,the ,pauline vocabulary3 views
 of ,reitzenstein #ahe         ,why did 
,christianity conquer the ,roman        
,empire8 #aib      ,,ii4 ,christianity  
and ,modern ,religions #aic        ,the 
missionary propaganda #aid              
,dangers of compromise #aie        ,the 
,christian ,plerosis3 the fulfillment of
 the great           religious ideas of 
the race #aig        ,,chapter ,,vi     
,,the ,,christian ,,faith ,,and         
,,biblical ,,criticism      ,the value  

and significance of ,biblical ,criticism
 #bjj    ,relation between the ,old     
,testament and the ,new ,testament #bja 
,i4 ,the ,pauline ,epistles #bjc        
,the ,tbingen view and later criticism  
#bjd       ,the ,epistle to the         
,ephesians #bjd      ,,ii4 ,the ,acts of
 the ,apostles #bje        ,evidences of
 trustworthiness #bjf        ,harnack on
 the ,lukan authorship #bjh             
,harnack and ,koch on the date #baj     
,did ,luke use ,josephus8 #bac          
,,iii4 ,the ,synoptic ,problem #baf     
,the ,two-,document theory #bag         
,modifications of the theory by the     
assumption3           7#a7 of a larger  
dependence on oral tradition #bai       
7#b7 of the use of ,q by ,mark #bbj     
7#c7 of different editions of ,mark #bbj
         ,secondary elements in ,mark   
#bba         ,bearing of ,harnack's     
early dating of the ,lukan writings #bbe
         ,the inter-,synoptic           
differences #bbf      ,,iv4 ,the        
,johannine ,problem #bbg                

,evidence for ,apostolic authorship #bbh
        ,rejection of ,apostolic        
authorship on the assumption3           
7#a7 that ,john never lived at ,ephesus 
#bcj           7#b7 that there were two 
,johns at ,ephesus #bcb        ,the     
partition theory #bcd        ,the       
internal evidence3 style and contents of
 the ,fourth ,gospel #bcd               
,relation to the ,synoptic ,gospels as  
supplementary1           explanatory and
 independent #bcf        ,concluding    
remarks #bdb      ,,bibliography ,,of   
,,recent ,,important ,,works #bdd       
,,index #bdi          ,i      ,what ,is 
the ,christian ,faith8    ,if every     
rational discussion1 as ,cicero has     
said1 should begin with a  definition1  
it would be well at the outset to try to
 answer the question  which forms the   
title of this lecture4 ,of the          
definitions which may be  given of the  
,christian ,faith two may be selected as
 typical3 7#a7 it is  the faith in the  
providence and love of ,god which ,jesus

 exercised and  exemplified2 or 7#b7 it 
is the faith of which ,jesus ,himself is
 the  object4 ,in the one case the      
essence of ,christianity will be found  
in the  simple precepts of the          
,peasant-,prophet of ,galilee1 in the   
other in the  developed ,christology of 
the ,apostle ,paul4    ,it is safe to   
say that the average ,christian will not
 be satisfied with  either of these     
definitions4 ,he looks to ,jesus1 it is 
true1 as his  ,teacher and ,example1 but
 he also trusts ,him as his ,redeemer   
and worships  ,him as his ,lord4 ,the   
real question at issue is whether       
original  ,christianity1 the religion   
which ,jesus taught1 was thus inclusive 
of  doctrine as well as ethics4 ,does   
,christianity in its essence include    
,christology8 ,the attempt to answer    
this question will not only introduce   
our general theme but will bring us into
 the heart of it4 ,it will be           
convenient to consider in order3 ,i4    
,the ,christianity of the ,new          

,testament ,writers2 ,,ii4 ,primitive   
,christianity and ,pauline              
,christianity2  ,,iii4 ,the             
,christianity of ,jesus and of ,paul2   
and ,,iv4 ,the ,dilemma of  ,historical 
,criticism4      ,i4 ,,the              
,,christianity ,,of ,,the ,,new         
,,testament ,,writers    ,the scientific
 study of the ,new ,testament has       
brought clearly to light  the individual
 traits of the various writers1 but has 
shown at the same  time the striking    
agreement of these writers in their     
fundamental  conception of the          
,christian ,faith4 ,for those who set   
forth objectively  the words and        
ministry of ,jesus as well as for those 
who deal more  explicitly with doctrinal
 interpretation1 the centre of interest 
lies in  the ,person1 the ,passion and  
the ,resurrection of ,christ4 ,it may be
 well  to illustrate this unity of      
standpoint1 while the fact of it is so  
generally conceded that it needs no     
elaborate proof4    ,in the ,apocalypse 

the sacrificial expression1 the ,lamb1  
occurs at  least twenty-eight times2 and
 the central figure is that of the ,lamb
  that was slain but is now seated upon 
the throne4 ,in the ,first ,epistle  of 
,john1 ,jesus is described as the       
propitiation for sin 7ii4 #b2 iv4 #aj71 
and as the ,son of ,god throughout the  
book4 ,in ,first ,peter the readers  are
 addressed as those who have been       
begotten again to a living hope by  the 
,resurrection 7i4 #c71 and redeemed by  
the precious blood of ,christ  7i4 #ai74
 ,the ,epistle to the ,hebrews is       
saturated with the language of  the     
sacrificial ritual1 and describes the   
priestly work of ,christ who  tasted    
death1 put away sin1 and ever lives in  
the heavenly sanctuary to  make         
intercession4 ,the ,christological      
element is of course very  prominent in 
,paul's ,epistles4 ,according to the    
,book of ,acts1 the  ,apostles preached 
,jesus and the ,resurrection 7iv4 #b2   
xvii4 #ah1 etc474  ,the death of        

,christ1 mentioned some thirteen times1 
the ,resurrection1  mentioned or implied
 twenty times1 and the forgiveness of   
sins1  mentioned in more or less close  
connection with these eight times1#a    
were the central themes of apostolic    
preaching1 which included in the  case  
of ,peter1 an eye-witness1 the teaching 
and mighty words of ,jesus  7ii4 #bb2 x4
 #cf-ch74      #a3 ,see especially v4   
#cj1 #ca2 x4 #ci1 #dj1 #dc2 xiii4       
#cg-ci4    ,in the ,gospels it will be  
found that almost exactly one-third of  
the  textual material 7in the ,westcott 
and ,hort edition about eighty out of   
the two hundred and forty pages7 is     
taken up with events connected with  the
 ,passion and ,resurrection1 including  
the incidents and teachings of  the     
,passion week4 ,in ,luke the proportion 
is somewhat smaller 7some  sixteen out  
of seventy-three pages7 than in the     
other ,gospels2 but that  the ,passion  
is equally prominent in the mind of the 
writer is shown by  the fact that the   

shadow of it is projected back even to  
chapter ix4  #ea1 and that in ,luke     
alone the exodus at ,jerusalem is the   
theme of  conversation in the           
,transfiguration scene 7ix4 #ca74 ,even 
,mark1 showing  least of all1 it used to
 be said1 the influence of later        
theological  reflection1 has been called
 a history of the ,passion with an      
introduction4 ,as ,harnack has said3    
,the whole work of ,mark is so  disposed
 and composed that death and            
resurrection appear as the aim of  the  
entire presentation4#b      #b3 ,aus    
,wissenschaft und ,leben1 ,,ii1 #aiaa1  
p4 #bag4    ,the centre of interest for 
the ,evangelists as well as for ,paul   
and the  author of ,hebrews is ,christ  
and ,him crucified1 the ,passion and    
,resurrection4 ,it may be said1 though1 
that the interest of the  ,evangelists  
is a biographical one1 an interest in a 
beloved teacher or  martyred leader1    
comparable with that of ,plato and      
,xenophon in the last  days and words of

 ,socrates1 and not a distinctly        
theological interest  such as ,paul felt
 in the death of ,christ1 as intimately 
connected with  his own experience of   
redemption from sin4    ,one answer to  
this is that the interest of the        
,evangelists is not merely  in the death
 but in the resurrection of ,jesus4 ,it 
is worthy also of note  that the author 
of the ,fourth ,gospel and ,first       
,epistle of ,john has shown  that1 to   
one ,new ,testament writer at least1    
description and  interpretation were    
equally important4 ,john's description  
of the death  of ,christ is as detailed 
and as objective as that of the other   
,gospel  writers2 yet his interpretation
 of the ,passion as a propitiation for  
sin  7,i ,john ii4 #b2 iv4 #aj7 is the  
same as that of the ,apostle ,paul4     
,while  ,john places the words ,lamb of 
,god in the mouth of the ,baptist 7i4   
#bi1  #cf71 and uses the expression1 the
 blood of ,jesus his ,son who cleanses  
us from all sin 7,i ,john i4 #g71 he    

never1 except possibly in a veiled  way1
 places the language of sacrifice in the
 mouth of ,jesus ,himself4  ,there is no
 reason to doubt that the other         
,evangelists who record the  thrice     
repeated prediction of the ,crucifixion 
7see ,mark viii4 #ca2 ix4  #ab2 x4 #cc1 
and parallels7 would1 equally with      
,john1 be interested in its  doctrinal  
interpretation4 ,such an interpretation 
is in fact suggested by  the words of   
,jesus ,himself4 ,at the ,last ,supper1 
,he brought ,his death  into connection 
with the forgiveness of sins1 and when  
,he spoke of it as  a ransom for many#c 
used language which is naturally        
interpreted in a  sacrificial sense4    
,luke1 it is true1 nowhere uses the word
 ransom1 but  there is no reason to     
doubt that he shared the ,pauline view  
of the death  of ,christ4 ,this is      
clearly indicated by the expression1    
purchased with  his own blood1 contained
 in one of the we-sections of ,acts 7xx4
 #bh71  and in fact by the words of the 

risen ,jesus 7,luke xxiv4 #df1 #dg74 ,as
 the  altar was central in the ,old     
,testament1 so1 from the standpoint of  
its  writers1 is the ,passion in the    
,new ,testament4      #c3    lytron anti
 polln4 ,mark x4 #de2 ,matt4 xx4 #bh4   
,it is needless to show in detail that  
an exalted view of the person of        
,christ is with the ,new ,testament     
writers connected with the central      
place which they assign to ,his death   
and resurrection4 ,mark1 whose          
,christology is thought to be least     
developed1 may be taken as a single     
example4 ,in the opening scene of the   
ministry1 as in the ,transfiguration    
scene1 the divine voice says3 ,thou art 
7this is7 my beloved ,son 7i4  #aa2 ix4 
#g72 and in the closing scene the       
centurion exclaims1 ,truly this  man was
 the ,son of ,god 7or a son of ,god1    
,mark xv4 #ci74 ,the climax of  the     
narrative is said to be the confession  
of ,peter1 ,thou art the  ,christ 7viii4
 #bi72 and ,jesus alludes to ,himself as

 the ,son1 above  prophets and men and  
angels 7xii4 #f2 xiii4 #cb74 ,at the    
trial1 in answer  to the solemn question
 of the high priest1 ,art thou the      
,christ1 the ,son  of the blessed8 ,he  
said1 ,i am 7xiv4 #fa-fb74 ,bousset     
admits that the  three first ,gospels   
differ from the ,fourth only in         
degree1#d and in his  latest work he    
says that if the phrase ,son of ,god 7i4
 #a71 omitted in  many manuscripts of   
,mark1 is really an interpolation1 it is
 a suitable  one as indicating the theme
 of the book4#e ,wrede even says the    
,gospel  of ,mark belongs in a sense to 
the history of dogma4#f      #d3 ,was   
,wissen ,wir von ,jesus8 #aijd1 p4 #ed4 
#e3 ,kyrios ,christos1 #aiac1 p4 #gj1   
note #a1 and p4 #fe4      #f3 ,see      
,schweitzer3 ,von ,reimarus zu ,wrede1  
p4 #ccf2 ,e4 ,t41 ,quest of    the      
,historical ,jesus1 p4 #ccg4    ,for the
 writers of the ,new ,testament1 leaving
 out for the present the  question of   
sources1 in spite of differences in time

 and place and race  and circumstances1 
and by implication for the various      
circles of  readers1 ,jewish1 ,greek and
 ,roman1 whom they addressed1 there was 
but one  kind of ,christianity1 one     
gospel of the ,kingdom and the ,cross   
and the  ,son of ,god4      ,,ii4       
,,primitive ,,christianity ,,and        
,,pauline ,,christianity    ,it is      
asserted that the striking unanimity of 
the ,new ,testament writers  in their   
view of ,christianity is not due to the 
teaching of ,jesus1 but  to the powerful
 influence of the ,apostle ,paul4 ,the  
statement is made in  many quarters that
 not ,jesus but ,paul was the virtual   
founder of  ,christianity1 so far as its
 central doctrines1 its institutions1   
its  worship of a divine ,christ1 and   
its world-wide propaganda are concerned4
  ,in ,paul1 it is said1 the gospel of a
 simple piety and a pure ethic1 the     
gospel of ,jesus1 was so overlaid by the
 incrustations of dogma that its  true  
nature was hidden until rediscovered by 

modern criticism2 and it  had thus lost 
the simplicity that is in ,christ4 ,it  
was ,paul himself1  whose missionary    
labours carried the gospel throughout   
,europe1 that  really preached another  
gospel4 ,as ,schweitzer1 following      
,kalthoff1  suggests with some irony1   
there was1 under this supposition1 an   
immediate declension from and           
falsification of a pure original        
principle in ,christianity1 comparable  
only to the ,fall in the moral  history 
of mankind4#g      #g3 ,von ,reimarus zu
 ,wrede1 p4 #cab2 ,e4 ,t41 ,quest1 etc41
 p4 #cad4    ,the teaching of the       
primitive apostles is sometimes declared
 to be an  intermediate step between the
 gospel of ,jesus and the doctrinal     
,christianity of ,paul4 ,it is desirable
 then to compare the ,pauline  teaching1
 first with the teaching of the other   
apostles and the  ,jerusalem church1 and
 then with the teaching of ,jesus4      
,when we examine the historical         
situation1 the lines of connection      

between ,paul and the primitive apostles
 and the ,jerusalem church are so  many 
and so strong as practically to negative
 the supposition of a  fundamental      
difference between them in their        
conception of the gospel4    7#a7 ,if   
,luke had written the ,fourth ,gospel1  
the case would be different2  but ,luke 
wrote 7assuming his authorship of the   
,third ,gospel and the  ,acts7#h the    
,gospel which contains the ,sermon on   
the ,mount and the  parables of the     
,good ,samaritan and the ,prodigal ,son4
 ,when one remembers  that ,luke was the
 intimate companion of ,paul and his    
co-labourer in  missionary work before  
he wrote his ,gospel1 that he derived   
his material  largely from eye-witnesses
 of the word1 and that afterwards he    
recorded the teaching of both ,peter and
 ,paul in the ,acts1 it is clear  that  
,luke himself saw no essential          
difference between the ,christianity  of
 the primitive apostles and that of     
,paul1 and it becomes improbable  that  

such a difference existed4      #h3 ,see
 ,chapter ,,vi4    7#b7 ,paul took with 
him on his missionary journeys ,barnabas
 and ,silas1  accredited leaders and    
representatives of the primitive        
,jerusalem church  7,acts xiii4 #b;f42  
xv4 #dj74 ,paul's work for years was    
carried on under the  surveillance of   
these men1 and ,barnabas stood sponsor  
for ,paul before  the ,jerusalem        
authorities 7,acts xv4 #ab74 ,the close 
connection of these  two men with both  
parties excludes the supposition of any 
radical  difference in their doctrines4 
7#c7 ,paul's ,christology was accepted  
by his ,jewish-,christian opponents at  
,jerusalem1 and never questioned by     
them4 ,paul we know to have been        
bitterly assailed by a ,pharisaic party 
in the ,jerusalem church4 ,they  dogged 
his steps wherever he went2 they        
impugned his orthodoxy from the  ,mosaic
 standpoint2 they called in question his
 apostleship and his  sincerity4 ,but it
 is significant that they never assailed

 as an  innovation the ,christological  
views in which he is supposed to differ 
from them4 ,certain from ,james 7,gal4  
ii4 #ab71 in the bitter polemic  over   
circumcision1 never accused ,paul1 as   
they would have done if his  views were 
different in this respect1 of a         
declension from ,jewish  monotheism4    
,paul doubtless used the name current in
 ,jerusalem when he  spoke1 in a context
 in which he puts ,christ above men and 
above angels  and on an equality with   
,god as a source of grace1 of ,james1   
the ,lord's  brother 7,gal4 i4 #c1 #ab1 
#ai74 ,he used the same titles as did   
those at  ,jerusalem1 and a difference  
in ,christological dogma can only be    
made out  by saying that the names are  
used in different senses4#i ,this is to 
admit that the difference discovered by 
modern critical acumen was so  small as 
not to be recognized by either party at 
the time4 ,in ,paul's  controversial    
encounter with ,peter1 in a context full
 of the  characteristic ,pauline ideas  

of ,justification1 of the ,cross1 of the
  indwelling ,christ1 and of ,jesus as  
the ,son of ,god1 ,paul appealed to the 
essential unity of their ,christian     
faith and experience 7,gal4 ii4         
#aa-ba74      #i3 ,so ,wernle3 ,die     
,anfnge unserer ,religion1 #b;d ed41    
#aijd1 p4 #agg4    ,he says that ,paul  
makes of ,jesus an almost new creation1 
yet uses    the same titles as the other
 apostles4    7#d7 ,paul asserts the    
identity of his gospel with that of the 
primitive  apostles as well known to his
 readers4 ,he preached the faith of     
which he  once made havoc 7,gal4 i4     
#bc74 ,his gospel of a crucified and    
risen  ,christ1 he declares1 was        
received1 not invented 7,i ,cor4 xv4    
#c71 was  in accordance with ,jewish    
,scriptures1 and the inference is       
unavoidable  that it was held and taught
 in common by ,peter and ,james1 the    
,jerusalem  leaders4 ,both ,peter and   
,paul taught ,jesus and the             
,resurrection 7,acts ii4  #ca2 xiii4    

#cd2 xvii4 #ca72 and as ,harnack says1  
there is no reason to  doubt the        
representations of the first chapter of 
the ,acts as to early  apostolic        
belief4#aj      #aj3 ,aus ,wissenschaft 
und ,leben1 ,,ii1 p4 #bag4 ,he adds that
 herewith    is the problem 7of a       
'second gospel' in the ,new ,testament7 
pushed    back in time from ,paul to the
 earliest disciples of ,jesus4    ,the  
,resurrection is emphasized alike in the
 speeches of ,peter in ,acts  and in the
 ,first ,epistle 7,i ,peter i4 #c2 ii4  
#bd2 iii4 #ba74 ,in ,romans the         
,resurrection is mentioned seven times  
7i4 #d2 iv4 #be2 vi4 #d2 vii4 #d2  viii4
 #cd2 x4 #i2 xiv4 #i71 and enters into  
the warp and woof of ,paul's  teaching4 
,the thought of ,paul is doubtless more 
systematic and  constructive1 but it is 
unnatural to believe either that ,paul  
had a  different view of the nature of  
the ,resurrection1 or that he drew      
doctrinal inferences from it which the  
other apostles would not  accept4#aa ,it

 is hard to see1 moreover1 how the      
theory that ,paul's  teaching was       
essentially different from that of the  
,jerusalem church1  and the theory that 
,paul profoundly influenced all of the  
,new ,testament  writers can            
consistently be held at the same time4  
#aa3 ,if ,paul taught not a bodily but a
 spiritual resurrection1 as    some     
interpreters think that his language in 
,i ,cor4 xv4 #ej implies1    the        
emphasis upon the supernatural would be 
greater in the case of    the primitive 
church4 ,in his ,historical ,evidence   
for the    ,resurrection of ,jesus      
,christ1 #aijg1 ,kirsopp ,lake says that
 the    affirmation of an empty tomb was
 made by most early ,christians1 and    
almost certainly by ,st4 ,paul 7p4      
#bdb74 ,he contends1 however1 that      
the story of the empty tomb must be     
fought out on doctrinal1 not on         
historical or critical grounds 7p4      
#bec74      ,,iii4 ,,the ,,christianity 
,,of ,,jesus ,,and ,,of ,,paul    ,a    

more serious question meets us when we  
come to the relation of ,paul's         
teaching to that of ,jesus ,himself4    
,behind the writers of the ,new         
,testament and behind the teaching of   
the apostles1 is there not in the       
authentic words of ,jesus as determined 
by criticism a simpler gospel of  the   
love of ,god and the duty of man1 from  
which ,christology and the  doctrines of
 the ,cross are excluded8 ,may we not   
lighten the distressed  ship of the     
gospel by casting overboard its cargo of
 doctrine8 ,harnack  thinks that we may2
 and in his famous lectures on the      
,essence of  ,christianity has set forth
 the seeming anomaly of the gospel of   
,christ  with ,christology omitted1 a   
gospel which includes only the ,father  
and  not the ,son4    ,the essence of   
,christianity according to ,paul would  
be contained in the  statements1 ,while 
we were yet sinners ,christ died for us 
7,rom4 v4 #h72  ,god was in ,christ     
reconciling the world 7#b ,cor4 v4 #ai72

 ,he loved me  and gave himself for me  
7,gal4 ii4 #bj74 ,paul's gospel was the 
gospel of  ,christ and ,him crucified4  
,the essence of ,christianity according 
to  ,harnack consists in the truths of  
the fatherly love of ,god and the value 
of the individual soul4 ,it is indeed a 
gospel preached by ,christ1 but in  the 
content of its message is the ,father   
only--not the ,son4#ab ,the  contrast   
thus asserted suggests the need of a    
closer examination of the  relation of  
,jesus and ,paul4      #ab3 ,the        
,gospel1 as ,jesus proclaimed it1 has to
 do with the    ,father only and not    
with the ,son4 ,das ,wesen des          
,christentums1 #aijj1    p4 #ia2 ,e4    
,t41 ,what is ,christianity8 p4 #aed4   
,nothing is more striking in the        
comparison between ,jesus and ,paul than
  the difference in their personality   
and yet the similarity in their  ethical
 teaching4 ,jesus was a ,galilean1 born 
in humble circumstances1  belonging to  
the peasant or working class1 a stranger

 to the training of  the schools1 a     
layman1 and an ,oriental in ,his mode of
 thought and  expression4 ,paul was a   
native of ,tarsus1 a ,greek city which  
was noted as  the seat of a             
philosophical school2 his father was a  
man of consequence1  a ,roman citizen1  
who gave his son the best education that
 the ,jewish  schools could afford4 ,he 
was a typical member of the proudest    
caste of a  proud nation1 proud of his  
race1 of his learning1 of his strictness
 in  religion and his zeal for the ,law 
7,phil4 iii4 #f71 trained in the        
refinements of ,rabbinical dialectic1   
but an ,occidental in his method of     
thought4 ,yet in ethics ,paul stands    
very near to ,jesus4 ,both emphasized   
the same virtues1 and these the very    
virtues most foreign to ,paul's  early  
,grco-,roman environment and his later  
,pharisaic prejudice4 ,where  ,jesus    
said1 ,blessed are the poor in spirit1  
,paul1 blameless in the  law1 said1     
,boasting is excluded4 ,by grace are ye 

saved 7,rom4 iii4 #bg2  ,eph4 ii4 #e74  
,where ,jesus said1 ,he that exalteth   
himself shall be  humbled 7,luke xviii4 
#ad71 ,paul1 the ,pharisee1 said1 ,in   
lowliness of  mind let each esteem other
 better than themselves 7,phil4 ii4 #c74
 ,where  ,jesus said1 ,love your        
enemies1 ,paul1 the persecutor now the  
persecuted1 repeated the command so     
foreign to the moral ideals of his  time
 7,rom4 xii4 #bj74 ,both taught that in 
the command to love one's  neighbour was
 a summary of the moral law 7,rom4 xiii4
 #aj2 ,matt4 xxii4 #ch1  #ci74          
,paul's great ethical passages1 such as 
,romans xii4 and ,i ,corinthians  xiii41
 are but republications in ,pauline     
language of the ,sermon on the  ,mount4 
,in moral teaching ,jesus and ,paul are 
at one1 although there can  be no doubt 
which was the originator of the         
,christian philosophy of  life4 ,jesus  
whose code was but the transcript of    
,his character is the  original2 and    
,paul1 conformed in thought and spirit  

to the image of  ,jesus1 was the echo4  
,but ,paul's moral teaching was by no   
means merely an echo or reminiscence  of
 the ethics of ,jesus2 it was           
organically connected with his own      
doctrinal teaching4 ,in ,paul's letters 
there is usually an ethical  section1   
but this is preceded by a didactic or   
doctrinal section4  ,doctrine with him1 
in the words of ,phillips ,brooks1 was  
the child of  faith and the mother of   
duty4 ,admittedly his doctrine is used  
to  enforce and to inspire his ethics4  
,a high ,christology--,christ also      
pleased not himself 7,rom4 xv4          
#c7--;enforces the appeal not to please 
oneself4 ,the ,incarnation is the       
supreme example of generosity to the    
poor1 and the death upon the ,cross of  
lowliness of mind and obedience 7#b     
,cor4 viii4 #i2 ,phil4 ii4 #e-h74 ,his  
own sacrifice for our sins grounds the  
plea for a life of unselfishness 7#b    
,cor4 v4 #ad1 #ae2 ,rom4 xii4 #a74 ,we  
should walk in love as ,christ loved us 

and gave ,himself for us 7,eph4 v4  #b72
 and should walk in newness of life1 as 
,christ was raised from the  dead by the
 glory of the ,father 7,rom4 vi4 #d74   
,doctrine with ,paul and  ethics in its 
solemn sanctions and its inspiring      
motivation are  inextricably            
intertwined4 ,paul's doctrine about the 
person of ,christ and  ,his death and   
resurrection can be disentangled from   
his ethical teaching  as little as it   
can from his experience4 ,certainly the 
doctrine was no  alien or extraneous    
element in ,paul's system1 and certainly
 it  strengthened rather than weakened  
his ethical appeal4    ,is there a      
similar blending of ethics and doctrine 
in the teaching of  ,jesus8 ,for the    
gospel of ,jesus in its purity we must1 
according to a  popular school of       
criticism1 go back of the ,fourth       
,gospel to the  ,synoptics1 and back of 
these to their sources1 practically to  
,mark and  to the source called ,q      
7,quelle71 or the ,logia1 representing  

the  non-,markan agreements of ,matthew 
and ,luke4 ,even in these sources1 it is
  often maintained1 caution must be     
used1 and foreign elements must be      
eliminated4 ,let us see1 then1 whether  
there is such a mingling of the  ethical
 and the ,christological in the         
authentic teaching of ,jesus as we  have
 noticed in that of ,paul4 ,the ,sermon 
on the ,mount1 the words to the         
disciples after the confession of ,peter
 7,mark viii4 #cd-ch71 and the  teaching
 on true greatness 7,mark x4 #db-de71   
may be taken as typical  examples of    
,jesus' ethical teaching4 ,in these     
passages are not merely  disconnected   
maxims1 but an ethical system1          
containing a profound and1  as we may   
say1 fully thought out philosophy of    
life1 in which the  religious and       
ethical elements are organically united4
    ,the ,beatitudes begin with passive 
virtue1 humility1 meekness1 longing  for
 righteousness2 they pass on to the     
possession of righteousness and  purity 

of heart2 ascend to works of active     
benevolence2 and culminate in  a        
character so positive and pronounced in 
goodness as to excite  opposition from  
the forces of evil4 ,at least one       
element in the  consciousness of ,jesus 
as ,he spoke these words may be compared
 with the  ,christological standpoint of
 ,paul4 ,the impression which ,his      
teaching  made upon ,his hearers is     
summed up in the words3 ,he taught them 
as one  having authority 7,matt4 vii4   
#bi74 ,if we seek to analyze this       
authority1  we find it to be1 first1 the
 authority of perfect moral insight4 ,a 
flaw  discovered in the character of a  
teacher easily neutralizes the force of 
his moral appeal4 ,the ethic of ,jesus  
is not merely a system of rules1  but   
the blending of a code which has guided 
human progress and a  character in which
 men have found their supreme ideal of  
moral  excellence4 ,his sureness of     
touch1 ,his clearness of moral insight1 
,his  transparent beauty of character1  

betray a consciousness unique among     
men4 ,the verdict of mankind as they    
have studied the character of ,jesus1   
and studied themselves in the light of  
it1 is that that character is as  much a
 miracle in the moral sphere1--that is1 
opposed to a uniform  experience--as is 
the birth from a virgin1 for example1 in
 the physical  sphere4 ,the             
consciousness of ,jesus1 at the very    
least1 must have been  profoundly       
influenced by the fact1 assuming it to  
be a fact1 that ,he  alone among the    
children of men did perfectly the will  
of the ,father4    ,the authority of    
,jesus1 again1 was that of a lawgiver   
from whose words  there could be no     
appeal4 ,his words superseded all       
previous legislation1  in the sense of  
completing it1 and all current          
interpretation4 ,the  imperial ,i say   
unto you implied the power1 not simply  
of judicial  interpretation1 but of     
repealing old laws and enacting new     
ones4 ,nor was  ,his teaching in ,his   

own conception of it a mere phase1      
albeit the  highest at the time1 of     
moral development4 ,his legislation was 
final1  and never to be superseded2 and 
obedience to it1 or neglect of it1 was  
to be the decisive factor in human      
welfare and destiny 7,matt4 vii4        
#bd-bg74    ,but the authority of ,jesus
 was not merely that of a lawgiver4 ,he 
inaugurated the ,kingdom whose coming   
,he proclaimed and whose laws ,he       
formulated1 and ,he is to be the final  
judge of the worthiness of its  members4
 ,these members were not merely pious   
,jews in general or ,john's  disciples1 
but were ,his disciples4 ,they were the 
light of the world  because they were   
,his disciples1 and the crowning element
 in their  character was endurance of   
persecution for ,his sake 7,matt4 v4    
#aa1 for  my sake2 ,luke vi4 #bb1 for   
the ,son of man's sake74 ,his teaching  
instead of pointing away from ,himself  
to ,god1 in the spirit of the other     
wisest teachers of men1 pointed to      

,himself as the ,one by whom fully and  
finally ,god's will and purpose were to 
be made known4 ,he plainly taught  or   
clearly implied that men's relations to 
,himself as ,teacher1 ,lord1  ,lawgiver 
and ,judge1 were supremely important for
 human destiny 7,matt4  vii4 #ba-bd74   
,no words in the ethical-religious      
message of ,jesus are more striking in  
form and thought1 and no others have    
more deeply impressed the minds of  men1
 than those in which ,he asserted that  
the value of the soul  outweighs all    
earthly good3 ,what shall it profit a   
man if he shall gain  the whole world   
and lose his own soul8 ,these words1    
says ,eucken1 have  given the soul a    
history4 ,in the startling paradox in   
the context1 ,he  that saveth his life  
shall lose it1 we have the saying of    
,jesus most  often repeated in the      
,gospels1 occurring six times1 and      
assigned to four  different occasions   
7,mark viii4 #ce2 ,matt4 x4 #ci2 xvi4   
#be2 ,luke ix4 #bd2  xvii4 #cc2 ,john   

xii4 #be74    ,the study of these       
sayings in their context 7,mark viii4   
#cd-ch and  parallels7 shows that the   
thought which was uppermost in the mind 
of  ,jesus1 and in fact dominated at    
this point the ethical teaching1 was    
precisely that of ,his own person and   
death and resurrection4 ,his  question  
to ,peter1 ,whom say ye that ,i am8     
7,mark viii4 #bi7 shows that  ,he was   
dissatisfied with the title of prophet  
given ,him by others1 and  that ,he     
would draw from the disciples a         
confession that they had come to  hold a
 higher view of ,his mission4 ,when     
,peter1 according to the  accounts in   
,mark and ,matthew1 refused to accept   
the prediction of ,his  death1 ,he      
showed that it was necessary for all    
,his disciples to take up  the cross and
 follow ,him4 ,the goal of life is to be
 reached only by  those who follow ,him 
in spirit in ,his death and             
resurrection1 and  confess ,him before  
men4 ,the losing of the highest in life 

is for those  who are ashamed of ,him in
 this generation4 ,the destiny of men   
hinges  upon their relation to ,himself4
 ,the connection between the most       
oft-repeated and self-authenticating    
maxims of ,jesus and ,his own person1   
death1 and resurrection is as clear and 
organic as the connection  between the  
ethical and doctrinal1 or               
,christological1 teaching of ,paul4     
,it remains to consider the passage     
7,mark x4 #db-de2 ,matt4 xx4 #be-bh7 on 
true greatness and service4 ,here we    
have a characteristic teaching of       
,jesus cutting athwart the ordinary     
opinion of mankind4 ,but the maxim1     
,whosoever would become great among you1
 is connected with ,himself as  the     
example of true greatness4 ,he1 the     
teacher and example of humility1  refers
 to ,himself as the supreme illustration
 of true greatness4 ,his  death is the  
supreme expression of self-sacrifice for
 the good of  others1 and in it by      
implication is the highest service done 

to  man4#ac ,ethics and doctrine about  
,himself and ,his death are as          
inextricably blended in this saying of  
,jesus as in ,paul's statement1  ,though
 he was rich yet for your sakes became  
poor1 or ,john's1 ,he laid  down his    
life for us and we ought to lay down our
 lives for the  brethren 7#b ,cor4 viii4
 #i2 ,i ,john iii4 #af74 ,in ,his       
deepest ethical  teaching ,jesus points 
not away from ,himself1 as do other     
moral teachers4  ,his words in the      
,synoptics are not essentially different
 from those in  ,john3 ,if ,i your ,lord
 and teacher have washed your feet1 you 
ought also  to wash one another's feet  
7xiii4 #ad74      #ac3 ,recent exegesis 
finds a ,pauline meaning in the words   
whether it    refers them to ,jesus or  
to the influence of ,paul4 ,plummer     
7,matthew1 p4 #bhj7 says3 ',the ,son of 
,man came' implies the    prexistence of
 the ,son2 it is not merely a synonym   
for being born4    7,cf4 ,john xviii4   
#cg47 ,in the use of the word  lytron1  

,bacon    thinks that1 here and in xiv4 
#bd ,mark goes beyond ,paul's careful   
use of language 7,beginnings of ,gospel 
,story1 p4 #adi74 ,bousset1 on    the   
other hand1 emphasizing the many1 thinks
 that ,paul was the    first to give the
 full reach to the thought4 7,op4 cit41 
p4 #b47    ,according to ,wendling1 in  
,mark x4 #de1 the fully developed       
,pauline    doctrine of the  apolytrsis 
7,rom4 iii4 #bc ff47 is    crystallized 
into an aphorism and put into the mouth 
of ,jesus2 ,the    ,son of ,man came not
 to be ministered unto1 etc4 7,see      
,sanday's    ,oxford ,studies1 p4 #cii47
    ,the ,christology of ,jesus finds   
expression in the familiar words in     
,matthew xi4 #be-cj 7,luke x4 #ba1 #bb73
 ,all things have been delivered unto   
me of my ,father1 etc4 ,these words are 
often spoken of as the climax of  ,his  
self-revelation in the ,synoptic        
,gospels1 and modern criticism unites   
with ,christian devotion in recognizing 
their importance4 ,the conviction  is   

growing that the words1 as they stand in
 all the ,greek texts1 cannot  have been
 the utterance of a merely human ,jesus1
 the pattern of  truthfulness and the   
example of humility4    ,a few examples 
will show the trend of recent           
interpretation4 ,plummer  thinks that   
the self-revelation of ,jesus in the    
expression1 ,all things  were delivered 
unto ,me1 etc41 contains the whole of   
the ,christology of  the ,fourth        
,gospel2#ad and he believes that the    
aorist verb points  back to a moment in 
eternity1 and implies the prexistence of
 the  ,messiah4#ae      #ad3 ,commentary
 on ,st4 ,luke1 #aijj1 p4 #bhb4         
#ae3 ,commentary on ,st4 ,matthew1      
#aiaj1 p4 #afh4    ,critical acumen1    
says ,lemme1 may seek to empty the      
saying of its  content1 but there       
remains the exclusiveness of the        
mediatorial work of  ,jesus for the     
totality of mankind1 there remains the  
absolute uniqueness  of ,his redemption1
 there remains ,his lonely elevation    

above the entire  realm of the human1   
there remains ,his unique fellowship of 
life with the  ,father1 which enabled   
,him1 and ,him alone1 to know ,god      
adequately1 or1  what is the same thing1
 to reveal the truth4 ,we must take our 
choice3  such an utterance is either the
 delirium of a reckless self-exaltation1
  or the appropriate testimony of a     
divine ,being demanding unreserved      
faith4#af      #af3 ,jesu               
,irrtumlosigkeit1 #aijg1 pp4 #g1 #h4    
,the logion has been made the subject of
 an exhaustive monograph by             
,schumacher1 who concludes that the     
reciprocal knowledge of the ,father  and
 the ,son implies the consciousness of  
divine ,sonship in a full  metaphysical 
sense4#ag      #ag3 ,die                
,selbstoffenbarung ,jesu bei ,mat #aa1  
#bg 7,luc #aj1 #bb71     #aiab1         
7,freiburger ,theologische ,studien1    
,heft4 #f71 pp4 #bjb1 #bai1 etc4    ,in 
his lectures on the ,essence of         
,christianity1 ,harnack takes the text  

as it stands1 but1 ignoring the         
implications of reciprocal knowledge1   
says3 ,the consciousness he possessed of
 being the ,son of ,god is1  therefore1 
nothing but the practical consequence of
 knowing ,god as the  ,father and as    
,his ,father4 ,rightly understood1 the  
name of ,son means  nothing but the     
knowledge of ,god4#ah ,in his critique  
of ,harnack1 ,loisy  objects to this    
interpretation as being artificial and  
superficial1#ai and says3 ,obviously the
 text indicates a  transcendental       
relationship1 whence springs the lofty  
dignity of ,christ1  and not a          
psychological reality1 which in regard  
to ,god is clearly  impossible4 ,father 
and ,son are not here simply religious  
terms1 but have  already become         
metaphysical theological expressions1   
and dogmatic  speculation has been able 
to take possession of them1 without much
  modification of their sense4#bj ,loisy
 takes the meaning as  fundamentally the
 same as ,john i4 #ah1 and cannot accept

 it in the form  we have it as a genuine
 word of ,jesus4#ba      #ah3 ,das      
,wesen des ,christentums1 p4 #ha2 ,what 
is    ,christianity8 p4 #ach4      #ai3 
,l'vangile et ,l'glise1 #aijd1 p4 #hb2  
,e4 ,t41 ,the ,gospel and    the        
,church1 p4 #ig4      #bj3 ,l'vangile et
 ,l'glise1 #aijd1 p4 #gh2 ,e4 ,t41 p4   
#id4      #ba3 ,l'vangile et ,l'glise1  
#aijd1 p4 #hj2 ,e4 ,t41 pp4 #if1 #ig4   
,in his ,sayings of ,jesus1 ,harnack    
omits from the text1 on what seem to  be
 slender grounds1 the first clause of   
the parallel1 ,no one knoweth  the ,son 
but the ,father4#bb ,he candidly admits1
 however1 that if the  text stands no   
fair exegesis can prevent a             
,christological reference4 ,it  must    
mean a relationship of ,father and ,son 
which never had a beginning1  but       
remains ever the same4 ,we cannot by any
 method of interpretation  make it much 
less metaphysical4#bc      #bb3         
,preferring the indirect evidence of the
 patristic quotations1    itself        

divided1 to the direct evidence of the  
,greek manuscripts4      #bc3 ,sprche   
und ,reden ,jesu1 #aijg1 pp4 #baj1 #baa2
 ,e4 ,t41 ,the    ,sayings of ,jesus1   
#aijh1 p4 #cjb4    ,bousset1 who in his 
,jesus 7#aijd7 accepted the utterance as
 spoken by  ,jesus1#bd now sees in it   
the expression of a high ,christology4  
,he  believes1 against ,harnack1 that   
the expression1 ,all things have been   
delivered to me1 refers to power1 not   
simply to knowledge2 and1  retaining    
both clauses expressing reciprocal      
knowledge of the ,father and  the ,son1 
he finds in this majestic self-testimony
 in its present form  the work of the   
,church4#be      #bd3 ,jesus1 p4 #hi4   
#be3 ,kyrios ,christos1 #aiac1 pp4 #eh1 
#fj1 #fb4    ,we may speak1 then1 of a  
consensus of opinion in the recent      
interpretation of this saying of ,jesus4
 ,when we remember that the  verbal     
resemblance between ,matthew xi4 #be-bg 
and ,luke x4 #ba1 #bb is  remarkably    
close1 and that the saying thus belongs 

to the earliest  strata of ,gospel      
tradition1 that is1 to the conjectural  
,q1 it is  significant that the minute  
examination to which it has been        
subjected  has convinced critics of     
different dogmatic standpoints that they
 can  only interpret it in a high       
,christological sense4 ,it is agreed    
that the  words as they stand imply the 
prexistence of the ,messiah1 a relation 
which can properly be called            
metaphysical between the ,father and the
  ,son1 and a unique relation to men as 
the only bearer of the full  revelation 
of ,god4 ,the saying1 often called an   
aerolite from the  ,johannine heavens   
7,hase71 contains in a nutshell1 if     
taken with verses  #bh-cj1 the teaching 
of the fourteenth chapter of ,john1     
revealing ,jesus  in similar relation   
alike to ,god and to men1 and as        
supplying all the  deepest needs of men4
 ,sanday has even said that we might    
describe the  teaching of the ,fourth   
,gospel as a series of variations upon  

the one  theme which has its classical  
expression in a verse of the ,synoptics4
  ',all things have been delivered unto 
me1 etc'#bf      #bf3 ,criticism of the 
,new ,testament1 #aijb1 by various      
authors1 pp4    #af1 #ag4    ,it has    
been argued that the saying of ,jesus1  
,johannine in style and  substance1 is  
so isolated in the ,synoptic narrative  
that1 in spite of  its secure position  
in the sources1 doubts of its           
genuineness must  arise4 ,bousset       
employs this argument1 remarking that   
the thoughts of our  logion in the      
remaining ,synoptic tradition are       
scarcely found at  all4#bg ,it is       
noticeable1 however1 that the isolation 
is established  only by cutting away a  
large portion of the ,synoptic material4
 ,the  parable of the ,vineyard1 in     
which ,jesus speaks of ,himself as a    
beloved  son1 the heir 7,mark xii4 #f1  
#g71 is objected to because never thus  
did  ,jesus elsewhere in ,his parables  
force ,his person into the              

foreground4#bh ,the ,markan saying in   
which ,jesus distinguishes ,himself1  as
 ,son1 from men and angels 7xiii4 #cb7  
is set aside2#bi the filial             
consciousness implied in the repeated   
use by ,jesus of the expressions1  ,my  
,father1 your ,father1 the ,father1 but 
never our ,father1 is  attributed to    
later theological reflection1#cj and the
 narratives of  the divine voice at the 
,baptism and the ,transfiguration are   
discredited4  ,similarly the incidental 
claims which ,jesus makes for ,himself  
in  forgiving sin1 in speaking of       
,himself as the ,bridegroom1 the        
,physician  who came to cure the moral  
ills of men1 and as ,lord of the        
,sabbath1 are  all referred to secondary
 strata of tradition or to dogmatic     
overworking  of the facts4#ca      #bg3 
,kyrios ,christos1 p4 #fa4      #bh3    
,ibid41 p4 #ea4      #bi3 ,ibid41 p4    
#eb4      #cj3 ,ibid41 p4 #fd4      #ca3
 ,ibid41 pp4 #dh1 #di4    ,so drastic is
 the process by which ,bousset attempts 

to reduce the  consciousness of ,jesus  
to a purely human level that he even    
rejects the  major part of the narrative
 of the ,trial and ,crucifixion4        
,whatever  differences there may be in  
detail1 there is no room for doubt that 
the  charge upon which ,jesus was put to
 death is correctly given by ,john4 ,we 
have a law1 and by that law he ought to 
die1 because he made himself the  ,son  
of ,god 7,john xix4 #g74 ,we may believe
 that the result would have  been       
different if for one moment ,he had     
disclaimed divine prerogatives1  and    
said1 ,i am of thy brethren the         
prophets3 worship ,god4    ,if it be    
denied that ,jesus made these claims    
before and at ,his trial1  the cause of 
,his death is unknown4 ,this is admitted
 by ,bousset1 who  rejects the whole    
account of the trial1 including the     
question of  ,pilate1 ,art thou the     
,king of the ,jews8 7,mark xv4 #b71 and 
the title on  the cross1 retaining only 
the accusation that ,he said ,i will    

destroy  this temple 7,mark xiv4 #eh2   
xv4 #bi74 ,apart from this concrete     
accusation1 not in itself sufficient1   
because not blasphemy in the  strict    
juristic sense of the word1 it is       
admitted that we cannot say  any more   
with exactness why ,jesus was condemned 
by ,pilate4#cb ,in the  answer of ,jesus
 to the high priest1 telling of the ,son
 of ,man sitting  at the right hand of  
power1 and coming with the clouds of    
heaven1 it  is said that we hear        
directly the ,christian confession1     
'seated on the  right hand of ,god1 from
 whence ,he shall come to judge the     
quick and the  dead4'#cc ,it is to be   
noted that these passages1 implying in  
,bousset's  opinion the substitution of 
the day of ,jesus for the ,old          
,testament  day of ,jahweh1#cd and      
implying the metaphysics of the creeds1 
are to  be found in ,mark1 not in ,john1
 and in the narrative of the trial of   
,jesus1 not in that of ,his             
resurrection4      #cb3 ,kyrios         

,christos1 pp4 #ed note1 #ef4      #cc3 
,ibid41 p4 #ee4      #cd3 ,ibid41 p4    
#ab4    ,the isolation of the great     
passage in ,matthew and ,luke1 as to its
  essential content1 is thus made out   
only by a thoroughgoing process of      
elimination running through the whole   
story of the ,gospels4 ,every page  of  
the ,gospels testifies1 in fact1 to     
,jesus' consciousness of a unique       
relation to ,god and to men2 and an     
examination of ,his teaching in         
whatever part or whatever context       
confirms the judgment of von ,dobschtz  
that ,jesus implicitly stands everywhere
 in the centre of ,his gospel4  ,the ',i
 am ,he1' which is recognized as the    
leading motive of the ,fourth  ,gospel1 
runs through all ,his words also in the 
,synoptics4#ce ,the  self-revelation of 
,jesus and the great invitation of      
,matthew xi4 #be-cj  may be the climax  
of ,synoptic teaching as to the relation
 of ,jesus  alike to the ,father and to 
mankind 7unless the words of the risen  

,christ1 ,matt4 xxviii4 #ah-bj1 are so  
regarded71 but the passage is no  alien 
or intrusive element in its context4 ,if
 it is the high point of  ,synoptic     
teaching1 it is the capstone of a       
pyramid firmly and broadly  supported by
 the whole ,synoptic narrative4         
#ce3 ,gibt es ein doppeltes ,evangelium 
in ,n4 ,t48 ,theol4 ,studien u4         
,kritiken1 #he 7#aiab71 p4 #cej4        
,carlyle has said that the greatness of 
a character is measured by the          
contrasts it exhibits4 ,the words of    
,jesus we have been studying1 taken  in 
their entirety and in their context1    
show the contrasts between  knowledge   
and humility1 between power and         
humility1 and1 when the woes  on the    
cities are contrasted with the          
invitation1 ,come unto me1  between     
sternness and tenderness4 ,when         
,socrates was told by the oracle  that  
he was the wisest of men1 he was in     
perplexity for a time1 but  finally     
decided that he was wise because he     

recognized his own  ignorance4 ,in ,his 
knowledge of the ,father and in the     
mystery of ,his own  person1 ,jesus     
places ,himself on an equality with     
,god4 ,yet this knowledge  did not puff 
up4 ,there was no need with ,jesus as   
with ,peter for the  moment of spiritual
 insight to be followed by a rebuke for 
presumption2  nor did ,he need like     
,paul1 because of the greatness of the  
revelation1  to have the thorn in the   
flesh lest ,he be exalted above measure4
 ,these  contrasts1 not found in any    
other historical character1 are a       
self-authenticating feature of the words
 of ,jesus4 ,all of ,his actions1  in   
fact1 and all of ,his attitudes towards 
men1 whether they were friends  or foes1
 and all ,his words1 whether of         
compassion1 forgiveness1 warning  or    
indignation1 were those of a ,prince and
 a ,saviour1 a ,prince in  majesty and  
power and a ,saviour in pity4 ,both     
deeds and words showed  that union of   
qualities which it would be impossible  

to invent1 the  self-assertion of the   
great example of humility4      ,,iv4   
,,the ,,dilemma ,,of ,,historical       
,,criticism    ,an indirect evidence of 
transcendent elements in the            
consciousness of  ,jesus1 and of the    
essential harmony between ,his teaching 
and that of  ,paul1 is furnished by the 
increasingly skeptical tendency of      
liberal  criticism and the complete     
skepticism in which that criticism has  
culminated4 ,we must discount1 say the  
extreme ,liberal critics in effect1  the
 ,ascension and ,resurrection           
narratives1 because they were written   
under the belief that ,jesus was the    
exalted ,son of ,god4 ,we must discount 
the ,passion narrative because dominated
 by the belief that ,jesus was and      
claimed to be the ,messiah2 we must     
discount the miracles1 and must take    
from the ,gospel page everything that   
indicates that ,jesus claimed divine    
prerogatives1 or ,messianic honours1 or 
used titles such as the ,christ1  the   

,son of ,god1 ,lord1 or even the ,son of
 ,man1 because these betray  the        
dogmatic views of the ,church4 ,but why 
not go further with the  mythical school
 and discount the whole narrative       
because written under  the prepossession
 that ,jesus was an historical          
character8 ,if the faith  of the        
,church--the enemy of history--has been 
able to create those  features in the   
portrait of ,christ which have been     
regarded as  significant for religion   
during the ages of ,christendom1 why    
cannot its  creative activity have      
extended to the historical foundation8  
,why could  it not have created its     
portrait of ,jesus out of nothing1 or at
 least  out of the social strivings and 
religious needs and practices of a      
syncretic age8    ,the mythical         
hypothesis1 it is clear1 is not a mere  
eccentricity of  criticism4 ,it is more 
than an effort of youthful audacity in  
scholarship  striving to gain public    
attention4 ,it is the natural1 if not   

the  inevitable1 outcome of the         
direction in which criticism1 discarding
 more  and more of the ,gospel          
narrative1 and deserting more and more1 
it may be  said1 the sure ground of     
historical evidence1 has been moving4   
,the  method of a progressive reduction 
of the sources and elimination of       
unacceptable material has been only     
pushed by the ,radicals to an  extreme4 
,the ,radicals1 avowedly basing         
themselves on the ,liberals1  contend   
that the latter have stopped at an      
untenable half-way position4  ,thus     
,drews says that since the days of      
,strauss doubts of the historical       
existence of ,jesus have never been     
lulled to rest2#cf and ,reinach1        
avoiding ,drews' extreme1 yet declares  
that it is contrary to every  sound     
method to compose1 as ,renan did1 a life
 of ,jesus1 eliminating the  marvellous 
elements of the ,gospel story4 ,it is no
 more possible to make  real history    
with myths than to make bread with the  

pollen of  flowers4#cg ,it was thought  
that an irreducible minimum had been    
reached in ,schmiedel's famous nine     
foundation-pillars for a scientific     
life of ,christ1#ch but even these are  
shattered by the modern critical        
artillery4#ci      #cf3 ,the            
,christ-,myth1 p4 #g4      #cg3 ,orpheus
 7,e4 ,t471 p4 #bca4      #ch3 ,encycl4 
,bibl41 art41 ,gospels1 sec4 #aci4      
#ci3 ,bousset1 op4 cit41 will not admit 
that we have the actual    words of     
,jesus in ,mark xiii4 #cb 7p4 #eb71 in  
,matt4 xi4 #e 7p4 #ga1 note    #c71 in  
,matt4 xii4 #cb 7p4 #i71 in ,mark xv4   
#cd 7p4 #hg71 or in viii4    #ad-bj 7p4 
#hb74    ,when ,schmiedel finds the     
bed-rock of historical truth in a few   
expressions or incidents which run      
counter to the general intention of  the
 ,gospel writers1 it is open to ,w4 ,b4 
,smith to base an elaborate  argument   
upon a single phrase or even word the   
things concerning  ,jesus1 or the       
,jesus1 ,acts xviii4 #be2 xxviii4 #ba1  

etc41 in favour of a  pre-,christian    
,jesus-cult4#dj ,and when ,bousset with 
the ,gospels before  him confesses that 
we cannot know certainly why ,jesus was 
put to death1  it is open for ,frazer   
and ,reinach to transform the           
,crucifixion into a  sort of            
,haman-and-,mordecai play2#da or even   
for ,j4 ,m4 ,robertson1  criticizing    
,frazer1 to say that the capital error  
of the latter is in  the postulate that 
,jesus existed at all4#db ,it must be   
confessed that  there is a facile       
descent from the reduced ,christianity  
of the extreme  ,liberals to the        
reductio ad absurdum of the ,radicals1  
and that the  difference between them is
 often one of degree rather than of     
principle4  ,the astringents used to    
remove the brilliant colours of miracle 
and  transcendence have proved so strong
 as to destroy the portrait they were   
intended to restore4 ,by proposing the  
dilemma1 ,a miraculous ,christ or a     
mythical ,christ1 the ,radicals have    

shown the difficulty of drawing the     
picture of an historical ,jesus from    
which the transcendent elements have    
been removed4 ,it should be noticed     
further that the historical ,jesus  who 
is left has a diminishing importance for
 religion1 and even for  ethics4 ,when  
,jesus is reduced to the level of mere  
humanity1 that  humanity is apt to be of
 an inferior order4 ,he accepts the     
title and  rle of ,messiah unwillingly1 
as a burden and under compulsion from   
,his  followers1 or under the strong    
delusion that1 defeated in ,his earthly 
mission1 ,he would immediately come in  
glory4 ,in either case there is an      
element of weakness1 whether            
intellectual or moral1 in ,his          
character2 ,he  cannot be the supreme   
example and moral leader of humanity4   
,or else1  relieved of the ,messianic   
burden in the imagination of the critic1
 ,he  becomes a warrior for the         
truth1#dc a sort of ,galilean ,socrates1
 the  wisest and best of men1 but with  

no clear outlines in ,his personality   
and no distinctive traits in ,his       
message4      #dj3 ,der ,vorchristliche 
,jesus1 #aijf1 ,chapter ,i4      #da3   
,golden ,bough1 #b;d ed4 7#aijj71 ,,iii1
 pp4 #ahg ff42 ,orpheus 7,e4    ,t471   
pp4 #bbi ff4 ,it is interesting to note 
that ,frazer's section on    the death  
of ,christ has in the third edition1    
#aiaj-aiad1 been placed    in an        
appendix1 with the remark3 ,the         
hypothesis which it sets forth    has   
not been confirmed by subsequent        
research and is admittedly in a    high 
degree speculative and uncertain4 7,part
 ,,vi1 ,the ,scapegoat1    p4 #dab1 note
 #a47      #db3 ,pagan ,christs1 #aijc1 
pp4 #ach1 #aci4      #dc3 ,bousset1 op4 
cit41 p4 #ij4    ,whether the ,founder  
of the ,christian religion be pictured  
as merely a  pious preacher of morality 
in the sense of present day             
liberalism1#dd  or a psychopathic       
anomaly1 obsessed with the idea that ,he
 was the  ,messiah1 the picture is not  

convincing to the historian any more    
than it  is consoling to the ,christian4
 ,in neither picture can the ,christ of 
the  ,gospels or the ,christ of         
,christian experience be recognized4    
,matters are  not mended when extremes  
meet1 and ,jesus is pictured as at once 
the  sunny and serene ,galilean pietist1
 and the rapt ecstatic obsessed by the  
thought of ,his own immediate and       
glorious return--a deluded enthusiast   
who saw life steadily and saw it whole4 
,if the representation is not  that of a
 moral or mental weakling1 below the    
level of the normal in  clearness of    
outlook upon life or in sincerity and   
decision of  character1 we are left with
 a largely imaginary figure1 from which 
most  of the concrete features have been
 removed4 ,we do not know what manner   
of man ,he was1 nor1 it must be         
acknowledged1 does it matter very much  
for religion whether ,he was at all2 for
 with the increasing vagueness in  the  
historical portrait of ,jesus1 there    

comes inevitably a weakening of  ,his   
influence as a teacher whether of       
religion or morals4      #dd3 ,drews1   
op4 cit41 p4 #ae4    ,his gospel1 in the
 first place1 was never intended to     
become universal1  since the ,gentile   
mission is attributed to the influence  
of later  ecclesiastical ideas4 ,but is 
not the content of ,jesus' religious    
teaching1 the ,fatherhood of ,god and   
the value of the soul1 unaffected by    
any views which are held as to ,his     
,person8 ,tendencies are observable in  
modern thought which are not reassuring 
upon this point2 and1 in fact1  the     
history of thought shows that theism1   
apart from the support of  ,christian   
doctrine1 is apt to pass into a         
pantheistic mysticism or a  semi-deistic
 naturalism4 ,the ,fatherhood of ,god   
may be regarded as too  anthropomorphic 
a conception1 and a semi-pantheistic    
all-,father may be  substituted for the 
,god and ,father of our ,lord ,jesus    
,christ4 ,strauss1  while he is the     

classical example1 is not alone in this 
passage from  ,liberal ,christianity to 
a more complete skepticism which gives  
up  theistic belief4 ,it is not         
surprising that in certain circles the  
expression ,christian pantheism is now  
heard1 and that a sympathetic  attitude 
towards pantheism should be shown by the
 ,liberal critic4 ,thus  ,j4 ,weiss     
says3 ,pantheism may1 indeed1 have its  
limitations and defects1  yet1 without  
doubt1 it lies very near to our time1   
inspired as it is by  both scientific   
and artistic ideas4 ,why should we not  
recognize this  form of religious life  
alongside of other forms1 in case it    
finds vital  expression in emotion and  
action8#de      #de3 ,significance of   
,paul for ,modern ,christianity1        
,american    ,journal of ,theology1     
,july1 #aiac1 p4 #ceh4    ,on the other 
hand1 the theistic content of ,jesus'   
teaching is  immeasurably strengthened  
when enforced by ,his divine authority1 
and  read in the light of ,his          

,incarnation1 ,passion and              
,resurrection4 ,as ,drews  remarks3 ,the
 chief obstacle to a monistic religion  
and attitude is the  belief             
irreconcilable with reason or history1  
in the historical reality  of a         
'unique1' ideal1 and unsurpassable      
redeemer4#df ,certainly the  assurance  
that ,god is a loving ,father and that  
we are ,his children1 said  to be the   
essence of ,christianity1 is wonderfully
 safeguarded and  buttressed by the     
doctrines1 or facts1 of an ,incarnate1  
,crucified1 and  ,risen ,christ4        
#df3 ,the ,christ-,myth1 p4 #cjj4       
,whatever happens to the ,christian     
doctrines and the ,christian history1   
many will declare that the ethical      
teaching of ,jesus will remain1 and     
will continue to exercise its empire    
over the lives of men4 ,but such an     
inference finds little support in       
present conditions4 ,an aggressive      
militarism maintains that each nation   
should be free to develop its own       

religious ideas1 and chides ,strauss    
with half-way measures in holding to    
,christian ethics while discarding      
,christian doctrines and miracles4 ,a   
militant feminism which objects to the  
marriage service1 and a militant        
socialism which sees in the family the  
main support of the right of  private   
property1 will not1 if they have their  
way1 leave the marriage  relation       
unaffected4 ,jesus taught1 we are       
reminded1 in a pre-scientific  and a    
pre-,darwinian age4 ,his teaching1 in   
fact1 whatever its  acknowledged        
excellence and importance1 was but a    
phase1 and that not  the final phase1 of
 moral evolution4 ,his teaching1 as many
 hold1 was  only an ,interimsethik1 not 
intended to be the norm for all men and 
all  time4 ,there is no assurance that  
even the character of ,christ will      
remain undimmed in splendour1 and       
undiminished in power of appeal1 for    
there is no evidence for sinlessness1   
except evidence which is rejected  on   

the ground of exaggeration or           
idealization in the case of miracles1   
and other claims implying the           
supernatural4 ,christian ethics         
doubtless  makes an appeal of its own1  
but apart from the support of           
,christology  its supremacy is by no    
means assured4 ,if we go back to the    
moral  teaching or to the example of    
,jesus alone1 there will be no teaching 
with authority1 no divine ,teacher who  
is the ,truth1 and no regenerative      
power of the ,spirit behind the         
teaching4 ,the power of ,christ's       
example  lies in the union of humility  
and authority4 ,take ,christ's          
difference  from us out of ,christianity
 and ,his identity with us loses all its
  glorious power4 ,if their ,lord and   
,master washes the disciples' feet1  the
 example comes with the force of a      
divine command3 ,ye ought also to  wash 
one another's feet4 ,it is not merely a 
beautiful act to be admired  7or perhaps
 by some to be despised72 it is a divine

 imperative to be  obeyed4    ,the      
strongest argument for a doctrinal      
,christianity is not the indirect  one  
to be found in the lessening            
significance of a merely                
human-historical ,jesus1 and the        
tendency of ,his figure to become dim   
upon the field of history1 and of ,his  
voice to die away as an echo over  the  
,judean hills4 ,it is rather to be found
 in the positive evidence of  the       
,christian documents1 in the testimony  
of ,christian experience1 and  in the   
broader effects of a doctrinal          
,christianity in the course of the      
centuries4    ,the statements of        
,harnack in his later essays show the   
inadequacy of a  gospel which does not  
include in its content the ,person of   
the ,redeemer4  ,only ,god is the       
,redeemer--and yet ,christendom calls   
,jesus of ,nazareth  its ,redeemer4 ,how
 is this contradiction to be solved8#dg 
,it is a fact  that ,he is the inner    
possession of ,his own4 ,but that which 

lies behind  this fact1 which is        
expressed in the confession ',christ    
liveth in me1'  the persuasion of the   
eternal life of ,christ1 of ,his power  
and glory1  that is a secret of the     
faith which mocks all explanation4#dh   
,when  there is such a contradiction    
between experience and theory1 it will  
be  natural to question the adequacy of 
a theory which finds no  interpretation 
for the deepest experiences of religion4
 ,harnack1 indeed1  goes far towards    
admitting the harmony between the gospel
 of ,jesus and  that of ,paul when he   
says3 ,the 'first' gospel contains the  
truth1 the  'second' ,paul's gospel of  
redemption the way1 and both together   
the  life4#di      #dg3 ,aus            
,wissenschaft und ,leben1 ,,ii1 p4 #hg4 
#dh3 ,ibid41 p4 #ia4      #di3 ,ibid41  
p4 #bbd4    ,there is in essence but one
 gospel1 differently presented by ,jesus
 and  ,paul1 whose focal point in the   
teaching of both is ,christ and ,him    
crucified4 ,the differences1 as shown by

 von ,dobschtz in a notable  essay1     
explain themselves naturally from the   
situation4 ,in ,john and ,paul  there is
 only expansion and repetition of what  
was contained implicitly  in the words  
of ,jesus in the ,synoptists4 ,the later
 time was not  creative1 but only       
selected and developed2 its message was 
an echo1 not  a new utterance4 ,in the  
teaching of ,paul as compared with that 
of ,jesus  there are three points of    
difference3 7#a7 the person of ,jesus is
 much  more strongly emphasized2 7#b7   
,his death and resurrection appear as   
basal  redemptive acts2 and 7#c7        
everything is brought into connection   
with  redemption from sin4 ,all three of
 these differences are explained by the 
historical situation4 ,jesus ,himself   
had brought them to ,god1 and ,his      
resurrection had brought them out of    
their despair and strengthened  their   
faith and given them courage for        
preaching4 ,as to the differences1  two 
considerations should be borne in mind3 

,that the gospel should be  differently 
set forth before the death of ,jesus    
than it was after that  event is not to 
be wondered at2 and1 secondly1 it is    
also natural that  the standpoint and   
exposition of the recipients of grace   
should be  different from the attitude  
of ,one who was free from sin1 and knew 
that  ,he was sent to bring man to      
,god4#ej      #ej3 ,gibt es ein         
doppeltes ,evangelium in ,n4 ,t48       
,theol4 ,studien u4    ,kritiken1 #he   
7#aiab71 pp4 #cfb1 #cfc4    ,in the     
future as in the past1 we may believe1  
doctrinal ,christianity1  that is a     
,christianity broad enough to include   
the teaching and example1  and the      
person and passion and resurrection of  
,christ1 will be for men  and nations   
the power of ,god unto salvation4 ,if   
the essence of a thing  is shown in its 
activity1 the essence of ,christianity  
cannot be  separated from its doctrinal 
content4 ,certainly it was ,christianity
 in a  doctrinal form that inspired the 

greatest achievements of the ,christian 
,church in the course of her history4   
,it was doctrinal ,christianity that    
loosed the bonds of ,jewish legalism1   
inspired the missionary enterprise  of  
the primitive and the modern church1    
raised the standard of the              
,reformation1 laid the foundations of   
modern democracy1 and guided the  sanest
 and bravest attempts at social reform4 
,our argument has been that the         
primitive gospel which began to be      
preached by the ,lord was a doctrinal   
gospel1 a gospel of the ,kingdom1  the  
,cross and the ,son of ,god1 that no    
other message can be found with  any    
distinctness within or beneath the      
,gospel records1 and that this has  been
 at the basis of ,christian experience  
and of the life of the  ,christian      
,church4 ,the gospel of the grace of    
,god is the gospel of the  glory of     
,christ4          ,,ii      ,the        
,christian ,faith and ,modern ,science  
,a discussion of the present relations  

between science and the ,christian      
,faith must be very largely a discussion
 of the theory of evolution4 ,our  age  
has been called evolution-mad2 we can   
scarcely speak or even think  except in 
biological terms and under biological   
categories4 ,the  evolution theory has  
influenced every department of thought  
and even the  science of thought itself1
 and it is often assumed that everything
  pre-,darwinian must be thrown to the  
intellectual scrap-heap4    ,half a     
century ago the time was ripe for a new 
generalization in science  which should 
include the organic world4 ,newton had  
extended the reign of  mechanism in     
space1 and ,lyell1 by substituting the  
uniformitarian for  the catastrophic    
theory of the formation of the earth's  
crust1 had  effected the same extension 
in time4 ,men's minds had become        
familiar  with the thought of immense   
reaches of space and of vast periods of 
time1 and with the idea in both spheres 
of the reign of natural law  instead of 

immediate divine intervention4 ,the     
,darwinian hypothesis of  ,natural      
,selection came as the culmination of   
this movement of a  progressive         
substitution of a natural for a         
supernatural explanation of  things4    
,the motions of planets and heavenly    
bodies1 the formation of the  strata of 
the earth's crust1 and now the kingdom  
of organic life were  brought within the
 domain of natural and general law4     
,it is not necessary to describe in     
detail the ferment in religious  thought
 which followed the publication of the  
,origin of ,species1 #ahei2  but we may 
notice briefly the extreme inferences   
which were drawn  unfavourable to       
religion1 and then the inevitable       
reaction4 ,on the one  hand there were  
loud claims at first that the           
death-knell of religion  had been       
sounded4 ,a cause other than creation   
had been discovered for  the origin of  
species and by analogy for other origins
 formerly assigned  to the ,creator4    

,chance1 not only blind but apparently  
cruel1 was  enthroned in the place of   
design in the production of the various 
forms  of life4 ,the higher was evolved 
from the lower1 but in a way that gave  
to the higher the quality of the lower4 
,man was no longer the child of  ,god1  
not even the prodigal child4 ,he was the
 progeny of the brute and  shared his   
destiny4 ,the obligation to be moral1 or
 even decent1 had no  higher sanction   
than the fierce struggle for existence4 
,theism was  derived from animal-or     
ancestor-worship1 and had no higher     
authority or  credibility4 ,man1 no     
longer made in the divine image1 could  
lay no  claim to a divine inheritance2  
not fallen1 but rising out of his brute 
inheritance1 he had no need for the     
divine mercy4    ,renan in ,france1     
,haeckel in ,germany1 and ,grant ,allen 
in ,england agreed  that religion was   
doomed4#ea ,religious beliefs1 according
 to the last  named1 were destined to be
 entirely discredited as grotesque1     

fungoid  growths which had clustered    
around the thread of primitive          
ancestor-worship4 ,renan inferred as one
 result of ,darwinism the gradual  dying
 out of religion2 while the fundamental 
postulates of religion1  ,god1 ,freedom 
and ,immortality1 were1 according to    
,haeckel1 all given the  coup de grace4 
,the life of man1 entangled by descent  
with lower orders  of being1 seemed     
divorced from the wisdom and purpose of 
,god1 and an  all-engulfing mechanism   
threatened to swallow up the hopes and  
aspirations of mankind4 ,the situation  
illustrated the statement of  ,emerson3 
,the very hopes of man1 the thoughts of 
his heart1 the religion  of nations1 the
 manners and morals of mankind1 are all 
at the mercy of a  new generalization4  
#ea3 ,see ,benjamin ,kidd in article1   
,darwinism1 in ,hastings'    ,dictionary
 of ,religion and ,ethics1 ,vol4 ,,iv1  
p4 #djd4    ,from this extreme position 
there was an inevitable reaction4       
,evolution  was seen to present a face  

not so unfavourable to religion4 ,origin
 and  destiny were two questions2 the   
higher might be evolved from the lower1 
but not in such a way as to deprive the 
higher of its proper quality4 ,if       
nature and man were so closely related1 
our idea of the worth of nature  could  
be exalted without depriving man of his 
dignity4 ,a man's a man  for a' that1   
whether sprung from the dust of the     
earth1 as had been  always held1 or     
derived from organic material below him4
 ,an orthodox  evolutionist developed a 
new and powerful argument for           
immortality2 if  man had gone so far1   
why not farther8 ,the meaning of the    
whole  evolutionary process1 of the long
 travail of nature1 was obviously1 if   
it had a meaning 7and why deny this to  
our intellectual confusion871 the       
production of man with his endowments1  
aspirations and hopes4 ,descent  may    
become ascent1 and the meaning of       
evolution may well be the  development  
of freedom1 and immortality but         

evolution at the end of its  journey4 ,a
 new and grander teleology was          
discernible in nature1 not seen  in the 
details of its products so much as in   
the great tendencies and  lines of its  
development and the outworking of its   
laws4 ,most impressive  of all1 it was  
found that devout ,christians1 like     
,charles ,kingsley1  could become       
evolutionists without losing their      
faith2 and that  evolutionists like     
,romanes 7who had spoken1 during his    
eclipse of faith1  of the evolutionary  
theory as a deluge1 uprooting our most  
cherished  hopes1 engulfing our most    
precious creed1 and burying our highest 
life  in mindless destruction#eb7 could 
become ,christians1 or regain their     
faith1 without affecting their          
scientific views4      #eb3 ,a ,candid  
,examination of ,theism1 p4 #ea4        
,with all the problems which evolution  
has set for religious thought1 it       
should be noticed that it has distinctly
 relieved the pressure of one           

difficulty which has been felt1 though  
now much less acutely than  formerly1   
since the time of ,copernicus4 ,in the  
words of ,aubrey ,de ,vere3        ,this
 sphere is not ,god's ocean1 but one    
drop      ,showered from its spray4     
,came ,god from heaven for that8        
,life1 and life upon the earth1 is the  
centre of attention in the thought  of  
the day4 ,with the physicist who sees   
the promise and potency of all          
terrestrial life in the primitive       
star-dust1 with the biologist who       
speaks of the fitness of the environment
 to sustain life1 or with the           
philosopher who sees in the vital       
impulse the most important thing in  the
 history of the universe1 the viewpoint 
is necessarily biocentric4  ,yet it has 
been pointed out that the sum of        
organized matter is but an  atom in the 
mass of the solar system1 it occupies   
but a moment in its  duration2 it has   
hardly a place in space2 it is but a    
temporary film on  one of the smaller   

planets4 ,it can exist only in a very   
small part of  the scale of temperatures
 through which the spheres pass from    
their  first to their last state4 ,set  
against the visible universe it is as   
near to nothing as we can well conceive 
anything to be4#ec ,a  distinguished    
evolutionist has developed an argument  
to prove that the  earth alone in the   
solar system or elsewhere fulfills the  
conditions of  the existence of any high
 form of life4#ed ,it is not necessary  
to  estimate the value of ,wallace's    
argument in order to emphasize1 from an 
evolutionary point of view1 the         
importance of life and of man in the    
universe4 ,if the standpoint of science 
to-day is frankly biocentric1 in  spite 
of the insignificant bulk of organized  
matter1 religious thought  need not be  
accused of provincialism because it is  
anthropocentric in  its interest4       
#ec3 ,n4 ,s4 ,shaler3 ,the ,individual1 
#aiaj1 p4 #ajc4      #ed3 ,a4 ,r4       
,wallace3 ,man's ,place in the          

,universe4    ,in studying a little more
 closely the religious bearings of      
evolution1  it will be convenient to    
notice1 ,i4 ,the ,method of ,evolution1 
or the  biological discussion2 ,,ii4    
,the ,meaning of ,evolution1 or the     
philosophical discussion2 and ,,iii4    
,theism and ,evolution1 or the more     
directly religious aspects of the       
theory4      ,i4 ,,the ,,method ,,of    
,,evolution    ,while there is general  
agreement among biologists that species 
have been  derived from one another by  
natural causes1 there is a wide         
diversity of  opinion as to the method  
by which this result has been brought   
about4  ,darwin's theory of natural     
selection has a struggle for existence  
of its  own1 a fight for life with other
 evolutionary theories4 ,emphatic       
protests are made from the side of      
experimental biology 7de ,vries71 of    
paleontology 7,osborn71 and of          
philosophical evolution 7,bergson7      
against  the ,darwinian hypothesis that 

the selection of minute fortuitous      
variations can account for the rise of  
new species or explain the great  lines 
of development4 ,it is only necessary to
 read the two volumes  published in     
,england and ,america#ee in honour of   
the hundredth  anniversary of ,darwin's 
birth and the fiftieth anniversary of   
the  publication of the ,origin of      
,species to see that scientific opinion 
upon the question of the method of      
evolution is widely divided4      #ee3  
,darwin and ,modern ,science1           
,cambridge1 #aiji2 ,fifty ,years of     
,darwinism1 ,new ,york1 #aiji4    ,in   
,biblical language1 the question of the 
hour in biology is1 ,who 7or  what7 made
 thee to differ8 ,it is the question1 in
 the words of ,c4 ,h4  ,eigenmann1 of   
how the straight line of exact          
hereditary repetition may  be caused to 
swerve in a definite direction to reach 
an adaptive point4  ,this is the        
question of the present generation1     
perhaps of the entire  twentieth        

century4#ef      #ef3 ,fifty ,years of  
,darwinism1 p4 #aia4    ,the ,newton of 
biology1 who will discover the laws of  
variation and  heredity1 has not1 it is 
safe to say1 yet appeared4 ,variation in
 a  definite direction in virtue of an  
internal tendency in the organism       
7,ngeli72 variation in response to the  
specific stimulus of the  environment   
7,eimer72 variation due1 at least in    
animals1 to the  conscious effort of the
 individual 7,lamarck72 variation       
inciting a  corresponding strengthening 
of parts of the individual organism1    
until  time should be given for         
hereditary strengthening of these parts 
7organic selection as taught by         
,baldwin1 ,osborn and ,lloyd ,morgan72  
variation due to the preservation and   
accumulation of minute  fluctuations by 
natural selection 7,darwinism in its    
usual form72  variation from unknown    
causes suddenly and discontinuously 7the
  mutationism of de ,vries72 variation  
due to a mystical vital impulse in      

organic life as a whole 7the creative   
evolution of ,bergson73--no one of      
these views1 if we take scientific      
opinion as a whole1 can be said to  have
 torn aside the veil behind which nature
 carries on her creative  works4    ,the
 most notable attempt to supplement and 
strengthen the theory of  natural       
selection has been made by ,weismann in 
his theory of ,germinal  ,selection4 ,in
 ,weismann's hypothesis1 which has      
furnished in a sense the  philosophical 
basis for the popular ,eugenics         
movement1 the struggle for  existence is
 transferred to a struggle among the    
constituents of the  germ-plasm4 ,the   
minute invisible determinants of the    
germ-plasm1 which  give rise to the     
variations in the organ1 or cell1 which 
they determine1  are unequally nourished
 by the nutritive stream4 ,a determinant
 at first  favoured by chance may at    
length gain strength actively to nourish
  itself to the detriment of its        
fellow-determinants1 and thus attain a  

permanent upward movement4 ,with        
,weismann the fluctuations within the   
germ-plasm are the real root of all     
hereditary variations1 and the          
preliminary condition for the occurrence
 of the ,darwin-,wallace factor of      
selection4 ,the struggle for existence1 
or the struggle for possession  of the  
mate in sexual selection1 practically   
goes back to the struggle  between the  
determinants within the germ-plasm#eg   
for food and space4      #eg3 ,darwin   
and ,modern ,science3 ,the ,selection   
,theory1 p4#di4    ,let us see how this 
theory of determinants will apply to the
 famous case  of the antlers of the elk 
or stag4 ,the antlers would increase in 
size1  in this case1 only because the   
determinants1 corresponding in the      
germ-plasm to the antlers in the adult  
organism1 attracted nourishment  to     
themselves1 and withdrew it to a certain
 extent from their fellows4  ,instead1  
therefore1 of a corresponding           
strengthening in the whole  anterior    

half of the animal1 which ,weismann     
admits would be  necessary1#eh we should
 have1 with the increased weight of the 
antlers1  a decrease in weight and      
strength of other parts of the body4    
,the  problem1 instead of being solved1 
seems to be involved in deeper  mystery1
 and there will be hesitation in        
accepting the statement that  thus in   
our time the great riddle has been      
solved--the riddle of the  origin of    
what is suited to its purpose without   
the coperation of  purposive forces4#ei 
,t4 ,h4 ,morgan thinks it unfortunate   
that ,weismann  should seek to supply   
the deficiencies of ,darwin's theory by 
new  speculative matter skilfully       
removed from the field of               
verification4#fj      #eh3 ,darwin and  
,modern ,science3 ,the ,selection       
,theory1 p4 #cb4      #ei3 ,the         
,evolution ,theory1 ,,ii1 p4 #cia4      
#fj3 ,evolution and ,adaptation1 pp4    
#afe f4    ,biologists are generally    
agreed in holding the doctrine of       

descent with  modifications1 but there  
is no agreement as to the method by     
which  variations in species are brought
 about4 ,bateson even declares that     
evolutionary orthodoxy developed too    
fast1 and that the time is not  ripe for
 the discussion of the origin of        
species4#fa ,s4 ,herbert  concludes3 ,in
 short1 while natural selection can be  
looked upon as the  efficient cause of  
the progress of evolutionary lines1     
their first  beginnings must still be   
attributed to a still 'unknown factor in
  evolution4'#fb      #fa3 ,darwin and  
,modern ,science1 pp4 #ii1 #aja4        
#fb3 ,first ,principles of ,evolution1  
#aiac1 p4 #bbd4    ,the neo-,darwinian  
who sees in the accumulation of minute  
chance  variations a sufficient         
explanation of the origin of species1   
cannot be  said to hold the field in    
such a way as to call for the           
unquestioning  acceptance of his views  
by the lay public2 far less need the    
more remote  philosophical inferences   

sometimes drawn from his premises be    
accepted  without challenge as the      
teaching of science4 ,while the central 
mystery1  in the opinion of leading     
biologists1 remains unsolved in the     
biological  field1 evolution or natural 
selection should be used with caution as
 the  solvent of all the problems of the
 universe4 ,the masterkey should  first 
unlock the doors nearer home4      ,,ii4
 ,,the ,,meaning ,,of ,,evolution       
,the more philosophical discussion of   
the ,meaning of ,evolution includes  in 
its scope the questions of mechanism and
 design and of preformation  and        
epigenesis4    #a4 ,is the doctrine of  
evolution a foe to design1 or does      
evolution make  more teleology than it  
destroys8 ,let us assume for the present
 the  neo-,darwinian position1 and ask  
whether design can be excluded1 first   
from the organic world without man1 and 
then from the organic world  including  
man4 ,the whole system of things so     
ordered that through the  operation of  

the laws of variability1 struggle for   
existence1  inheritance1 elimination and
 selection1 there should be worked out  
the  myriad forms of life in ever       
increasing complexity1 calls more loudly
  for the postulate of intelligence than
 do the special contrivances and        
adaptations in nature when viewed from  
the standpoint of their separate        
origin4 ,if ,paley's watch calls for a  
watchmaker1 a system or arrangement  of 
nature which has been likened1 not to a 
simple watch1 but rather to a  watch 7or
 a sundial7 which makes all other       
watches1 and these watches of  a        
constantly improved quality and         
increased complexity1 cannot            
permanently be regarded in any other    
than a teleological light4 ,if the      
whole process should prove to be        
mechanical1 the evidence for design is  
seen even more strikingly in the complex
 machinery itself than in the  product4 
,huxley says that there is a wider      
teleology which is not touched by the   

doctrine of evolution1 but is actually  
based upon the fundamental  proposition 
of evolution4#fc ,when ,a4 ,r4 ,wallace 
at first argued that  many of the       
characteristic human qualities were not 
due to natural  selection1 because of no
 value in the struggle for existence1#fd
 his  view incurred the ridicule of his 
critics1 who interpreted it to mean     
that our brains are made by ,god and our
 lungs by natural selection4  ,after    
forty years of reflection1 ,wallace now 
takes a broader view of the  place of   
purpose in evolution1 and says3 ,i now  
uphold the doctrine that  not man alone1
 but the whole ,world of ,life1 in      
almost all its varied  manifestations1  
leads us to the same conclusion--that to
 afford any  rational explanation of its
 phenomena1 we require to postulate the 
continuous action and guidance of higher
 intelligences2 and further1  that these
 have probably been working towards a   
single end1 the  development of         
intellectual1 moral1 and spiritual      

beings4#fe ,a  distinguished biologist  
has said that to believe that all the   
countless  myriads of centres of        
coperation and cordination which have   
been  required for this cosmos could    
have been originated and maintained by  
unintelligent force acting fortuitously 
makes an immensely greater  strain upon 
faith than the alternative              
hypothesis4#ff      #fc3 ,darwiniana1 p4
 #aaj4      #fd3 ,contributions to the  
,theory of ,natural ,selection1 #ahgj4  
#fe3 ,the ,world of ,life1 #aiaa1 pp4   
#cdj f4      #ff3 ,a4 ,macalister1 ,m4  
,d41 ,f4 ,r4 ,s41 in ,expositor1 ,vol4  
ix41    #aiaj1 p4 #e4    ,the           
teleological argument has shown of late 
unusual vitality1 and its  renewed      
support has come1 singularly enough1    
from the evolutionary  quarter4 ,thus   
,l4 ,j4 ,henderson1 inquiring into the  
biological  significance of the         
properties of matter1 concludes that the
 process of  cosmic 7inorganic7         
evolution is indissolubly linked with   

the fundamental  characteristics of the 
organism2 that logically1 in some       
obscure manner1  cosmic and biological  
evolution are one4#fg ,the biologist1 he
 thinks1  may now rightly regard the    
universe in its very essence as         
biocentric4#fh ,wallace1 in his ,world  
of ,life1 draws the inference  which    
,henderson suggests but1 as a scientist1
 feels that he cannot  adopt3 ,the      
remote but more fundamental cause of the
 living world1  which has been          
comparatively little attended to1 is the
 existence of a  special group of       
elements possessing such exceptional and
 altogether  extraordinary properties as
 to render possible the existence of    
vegetable and animal life-forms4 ,these 
elements are like the fuel1 iron  and   
water in a steam-engine4 ,we may presume
 that the ,mind which first  caused     
these elements to exist1 and built them 
up into such marvellous  living1 moving1
 self-supporting1 and self-reproducing  
structures1 must  be many million times 

greater than those which conceived and  
executed  the modern steam-engine4#fi   
#fg3 ,the ,fitness of the ,environment1 
#aiac1 pp4 #bgh f4      #fh3 ,ibid41 p4 
#cab4      #fi3 ,the ,world of ,life1 p4
 #daf4    ,it does not appear1 then1    
that biological evolution at all        
necessitates  the acceptance of a       
mechanical view of the universe from    
which the  action of purpose is         
excluded4 ,protests against such a view 
have1 in  fact1 been coming of late from
 the scientific philosophers and the    
philosophical scientists4 ,bergson1 a   
type of the former1 insists that        
spontaneity1 movement1 indeterminateness
 are the differentia of life4  ,among   
the scientists1 ,ostwald thinks that an 
absolutely determined world  is not the 
real world1 but an ideal world2#gj and  
,sir ,o4 ,lodge speaks  of the theory   
that everything in the world is         
mechanically determined  as a modern    
superstition4#ga ,how is the southward  
flight of the bird  and its return in   

the spring to its own nest1 or the      
journey of an eel  thousands of miles up
 an inland river and its return thence  
to spawn in  the deep waters of the     
ocean1 to be explained as the result of 
purely  mechanical causes8 ,driesch     
insists that the chemical-physical      
processes  do not constitute life1 they 
are used by life4#gb      #gj3 ,natural 
,philosophy1 p4 #ej4      #ga3 ,hibbert 
,journal1 ,october1 #aiaa1 p4 #gjd4     
#gb3 ,see ,j4 ,a4 ,thomson1 ibid41 p4   
#aaf4    ,the mechanical interpretation 
of things1 however useful for some      
purposes it may be1 appears increasingly
 thin and ghostly as we advance  into   
the realms of life1 consciousness and   
freedom4 ,it becomes a  caricature of   
reality4 ,it is not merely a colourless 
photograph as over  against a           
portrait--everything reduced to black   
and white2 but it is  like an ,x-ray    
photograph of a living man1 a mere      
skeleton without flesh  and blood4      
,mechanism is independent of time1 but  

time is1 in a sense1 of  the essence of 
the organism4 ,the mechanical movement  
can be reversed1  while life processes  
are irreversible4    ,the life and      
career of a great scientist such as     
,pasteur1 it has been  said1 is a more  
impressive evidence of design than any  
adduced by ,paley  and the ,bridgwater  
treatises4#gc ,man has been called      
,nature's rebel1  and the endowments of 
man and his achievements in controlling 
nature and  understanding nature are a  
disturbing element in any theory which  
would  exclude the operation of         
intelligence from the course of         
evolution4  ,romanes tells us3 ,when ,i 
wrote the preceding treatise ,the       
,candid  ,examination1 ,i did not       
sufficiently appreciate the immense     
importance  of human nature1 as         
distinguished from physical nature1 in  
an inquiry  touching ,theism4#gd        
#gc3 ,s4 ,paget3 ,another ,device1 p4   
#aja4      #gd3 ,thoughts on ,religion1 
p4 #afd4    ,the drama of evolution as  

unfolded by science inevitably suggests 
that  in the fortunes and life of       
humanity is to be heard the motif of    
nature's music1 unless indeed all is    
chaos and discord4 ,the diapason  ends  
full in man1 or rather begins in man and
 the history of his life  upon the      
earth4 ,it may still be                 
believed--because of evolution avowedly1
  or in spite of evolution--that man is 
a happy or an unhappy accident1 a       
sport1 a monstrosity1 the miscarriage of
 an ape1 a faux pas of nature1  the     
strangest event in a purposeless series2
 or man may be regarded1  with much to  
support such an interpretation1 as the  
intended goal of  evolution1 giving     
significance1 rationality and purpose to
 the whole  history4 ,however slow and  
gradual the steps by which man has been 
produced1 and however mechanical in one 
aspect the process1 it may be  insisted 
that a mechanism so perfect as to       
produce the varied forms of  organic    
life1 culminating in man1 with his      

mental and moral endowments1  is as     
strong evidence as could be produced of 
purpose as the ultimate  and only       
explanation of the mechanism4           
,certainly the difficulty of evolving   
the fit from the fortuitous becomes     
accentuated when man is included within 
the series4 ,man1 a purposive and  moral
 being1 sees in himself and the         
structure of his mind and the           
experience of his life the crowning     
evidence of the action of purpose4  ,if 
the cause must be adequate to produce   
the effect1 man cannot regard  himself  
as the product of an accidental or      
mechanical process from whose  inception
 and operation the action of            
intelligence is excluded4 ,in a  word1 a
 purposive being cannot have been the   
result of a purposeless  process4    ,it
 is significant that those who have     
interpreted evolution to the  masses    
have quite uniformly done so in terms of
 progress4 ,but progress  is a          
teleological conception4 ,in a world    

where atoms shift unceasingly1  but     
without the guidance of intelligence or 
will1 there may be change  but there    
will be no progress2 for one arrangement
 of atoms will be as  high in the scale 
of values as another4 ,evolutionists    
who1 as  evolutionists1 are inspired    
with an ideal of human progress must in 
some  sense be finalists4 ,if the       
history of the world and of man presents
 any  real progress1 it can only be     
because it is in so far an expression of
  purpose4    #b4 ,it is an example of  
what ,cardinal ,newman called the       
development of  doctrine that the theory
 of ,evolution has come to mean1 in     
popular  regard1 quite the opposite of  
what it meant etymologically or in the  
mind of its early advocates4 ,evolution 
means the unfolding of what was         
enfolded1 either in primordial living   
germs or1 to go still further  back1 in 
the primitive star-dust4 ,whatever is in
 the product must be  read back into the
 elements from which it emerged1 and a  

complete  knowledge of these elements   
and their properties would thus disclose
  potencies for the production1 under   
suitable conditions1 of the  completed  
development4    ,a glance1 almost at    
random1 at current literature in which  
the  conception of evolution is employed
 in philosophical and theological       
discussion1 shows that the theory has   
suffered a sea-change4 ,it has now  come
 to mean1 to many who use it freely1 not
 the unfolding of the  implicit1 but the
 production or appearance of something  
essentially new1  a creative synthesis  
or epigenesis4 ,bergson1 ,james ,ward1  
,baron von ,hgel  and ,loisy are among  
those who use the term in this sense4   
,thus the last  named writer says3 ,that
 which constitutes man as a human being 
is that  which he possesses more than   
the beasts1 and not that which he       
possesses in common with them4 ,from the
 fact that humanity proceeds  from      
animality1 it does not follow that it is
 explained and defined  altogether by   

animality1 otherwise evolution must be  
denied4#ge      #ge3 ,histoire des      
,religions1 #aiaa1 pp4 #fa f4    ,this  
modification of meaning is important    
when the doctrine of evolution  is      
extended downward into the inorganic    
sphere4 ,since species are  derived from
 one another1 it used to be argued1 life
 must be derived  from the lifeless2 and
 it is obvious that if this process is  
pursued it  will lead to an infinite    
regress4 ,we go back from the civilized 
to the  savage1 from the conscious to   
the unconscious1 from the organic to the
  inorganic1 till finally the evolution 
of the atom becomes the problem of      
problems4 ,we go back in an infinite    
regress1 approaching the ideal  limit3  
,in the beginning1 nothing4 ,the goal   
would seem to be the  evolution of      
primitive matter out of nothing1 as     
,alfred ,noyes has  suggested in his    
poem1 ,the ,origin of ,life3        ,in 
the beginning8--,slowly grope we back   
,along the narrowing track1      ,back  

to the deserts of the world's pale      
prime1            ,the mire1 the clay1  
the slime2      ,and then 444 what then8
 ,surely to something less2             
,back1 back1 to ,nothingness6           
99       99       99       99       99  
,will you have courage1 then1 to bow the
 head1            ,and say1 when all is 
said--      ,out of this ,nothingness   
arose our thought6            ,this     
blank abysmal ,nought      ,woke1 and   
brought forth that lighted city street1 
,those towers1 that armoured fleet8     
99       99       99       99       99  
,will you have courage1 then1 to front  
that law            7,from which your   
sophists draw      ,their only right to 
flout one human creed7            ,that 
nothing can proceed--      ,not even    
thought1 not even love--from less       
,than its own nothingness8      ,the law
 is yours6 ,but dare you waive your     
pride1            ,and kneel where you  
denied8      ,the law is yours6 ,dare   
you rekindle1 then1            ,one     

faith for faithless men1      ,and say  
you found1 on that dark road you trod1  
,in the beginning--,god8    ,the        
principle of continuity urges the       
evolutionist to extend his theory       
downward into the inorganic world and   
upward into the sphere of the  moral and
 the spiritual4 ,at the crucial points  
of the origin of life and  of the human 
race1 the advocate of preformation has  
greater difficulty  than the supporter  
of epigenesis or creative evolution1    
which is a sort  of rapprochement       
between evolutionism and creationism4   
,let us see how  the case stands at     
present as regards the origin of life   
and the origin  of man4    ,life may be 
generated any day in the laboratory1 but
 as yet this has  not been done4#gf ,in 
fact so great are the difficulties that 
,arrhenius  thinks that there was no    
beginning of life1 life being eternal   
and  persisting1 in spite of            
acknowledged scientific difficulties in 
the  conception1 amid the vicissitudes  

of cosmic changes and flights through   
interstellar space4#gg ,weismann does   
not think that a living germ could  be  
conveyed in the crevices of meteorites  
to our planet1 because it  could neither
 endure the excessive cold nor the      
absolute desiccation to  which it would 
be exposed in cosmic space1 which       
contains absolutely no  water4 ,this    
could not be endured even for a few     
days1 much less for  immeasurable       
periods of time4#gh      #gf3 ,jacques  
,loeb says that whoever claims to have  
succeeded in    making living matter    
from inanimate will have to prove that  
he has    succeeded in producing nuclein
 material which acts as a ferment for   
its own synthesis and thus reproduces   
itself4 ,nobody has thus far            
succeeded in this1 although nothing     
warrants us in taking it for    granted 
that this task is beyond the power of   
science4--,darwin and    ,modern        
,science1 p4 #bgj4      #gg3 ,worlds in 
the ,making1 #aijh1 ,chapter ,,viii4    

#gh3 ,the ,evolution ,theory1 ,,ii1 p4  
#cfe4    ,lord ,kelvin will not go as   
far as ,arrhenius1 but believes that a  
meteorite brought the first living germs
 to this planet4 ,k4 ,pearson  thinks   
that under favourable conditions in the 
remote past life arose1  but arose only 
once1 out of the non-living4#gi ,the    
bridge was so  slender that it was      
crossed but once under imaginary        
conditions not  controllable by         
experiment2 and as a unique event even  
in imaginary  history it cannot be said 
to be subject to any general law4 ,it is
  questionable1 in fact1 whether in     
scientific merit the hypothesis is      
superior to that of special creation4   
#gi3 ,grammar of ,science1 one volume   
edition1 pp4 #daj ff4    ,dr4 ,schfer   
sees this and points it out very clearly
 in his ,presidential  ,address4#hj ,a  
scientific account of the origin of life
 must refer it to  causes operating     
to-day2 so1 instead of ,arrhenius'      
eternity of life1 or  of ,pearson's     

spontaneous production of life but once 
under inaccessible  conditions1 or ,lord
 ,kelvin's meteoric conveyance of life1 
he believes  that life is constantly    
being produced1 and has always been     
produced1  from certain colloidal       
substances which he describes4 ,but what
 has  become of all this life1          
constantly generated8 ,he admits there  
is trace  of only one paleontological   
series4 ,while assuming that it is the  
nature  of life to evolve1 he admits    
that there is no evidence accessible to 
the  senses or discerned as yet by the  
most delicate instruments for the       
existence of these countless beginnings 
of life4 ,the real question then        
concerns not this kind of life1 which   
eye hath not seen1 but the origin  of   
the life which we know1 and whose       
marvellous development evolution        
traces4 ,ostwald thinks that it is      
undecided whether originally there  were
 one or several forms from which the    
present forms sprang1 nor is  it known  

how life first made its appearance on   
earth4 ,so long as the  various         
assumptions with regard to this question
 have not led to  decisive1 actually    
demonstrable differences in the results1
 a discussion  of it is fruitless1 and  
therefore unscientific4#ha      #hj3    
,science1 ,september #f1 #aiab1 pp4 #bid
 ff4      #ha3 ,natural ,philosophy1 p4 
#age4    ,a comparison has often been   
drawn between the birth of the          
individual  and that of the race4       
,theologians have discussed the question
 whether  the child in his spiritual    
nature is to be referred to a special   
act of  creative power1 or whether all  
of his endowments are derived from his  
parents4    ,to the poet the birth of   
the child suggests the presence of      
forces other  than those of the seen and
 temporal4 ,the new life is out of the  
deep1  from the true world1 within the  
world we see4 ,its roots are in another 
dimension of being than that of nature  
or the world of time and sense4  ,in    

moments of insight1 though inland far we
 be1 our souls have sight of  that      
immortal sea which brought us hither4   
,again to the philosopher there is in   
the individual something  indescribable1
 unique1 not to be compressed within the
 compass of any  general law1 something 
in each individual which his ancestry or
  antecedents will not explain nor his  
environment produce4#hb      #hb3 ,see  
,royce3 ,the ,world and the ,individual1
 ,,ii1 p4 #cbe4    ,says a distinguished
 professor of biology#hc3 ,familiarity  
with  development does not remove the   
real mystery which lies back of it4 ,the
  development of a human being1 of a    
personality1 from a germ cell seems  to 
me the climax of all wonders1 greater   
even than that involved in the          
evolution of a species or the making of 
a world4 ,he remarks that if            
personality is determined by heredity   
alone1 all teaching1 preaching1         
government1 is useless4 ,the only hope  
for the race1 he says1 is in            

eugenics--always supposing that enough  
freedom is left to carry out its        
program4      #hc3 ,e4 ,g4 ,conklin3    
,heredity and ,responsibility1 in       
,science1    ,january #aj1 #aiac4    ,if
 the birth of the individual and the    
full story of his origin is thus        
enveloped in mystery for theologian1    
poet1 philosopher and even  scientist1  
it is not to be expected that the       
problem of the origin of  the human race
 can be solved by a neat formula4 ,here 
the mystery of the  birth of the        
individual from parents of the same     
species is intensified  many fold4 ,here
 the problems of mind and body1 of their
 genetic and  metaphysical relations to 
each other1 and of the ultimate relation
 of  the spirit world to each1 press for
 solution before there can be any  full 
and final answer to the question of the 
origin of man4 ,is it any  wonder that  
the single occurrence upon which was    
based the birth of all  future          
generations which have peopled the earth

 should be thought to  involve more than
 can be included in any scientific      
hypothesis8#hd      #hd3 ,no other      
animal types1 says ,wallace1 make the   
slightest    approach to any of these   
high faculties such as are seen in man  
or    show any indication of the        
possibility of their development4 ,in   
very    many directions they have       
reached a limit of organic perfection   
beyond which there is no apparent scope 
for further advancement4    ,such       
perfect types we see in the dog1 the    
horse1 the cat-tribe1 the    deer and   
the antelopes1 the elephants1 the beaver
 and the greater    apes2 while many    
others have become extinct because they 
were so    highly specialized as to be  
incapable of adaptation to new          
conditions4 ,all these are probably     
about equal in their mental             
faculties1 and there is no indication   
that any of them are or have    been    
progressing towards man's elevation1 or 
that such progression1    either        

physically or mentally1 is              
possible4--,man's ,place in the         
,universe1 #c;d 7popular7 ed41 pp4 #cbh1
 #cbi4    ,when we seek to interpret    
these critical points in the history of 
the  world1 such as the origin of life  
and of man1 two roads are open before   
us4 ,we may emphasize1 with the         
advocates of preformation1 the principle
  of continuity alone2 and1 explaining  
the higher by the lower1 we may go  back
 as ,mr4 ,noyes would carry us1 back on 
the dwindling track1  explaining        
civilization by savagery1 the non-moral 
by the moral1 the  conscious by the     
unconscious1 the living by the          
non-living4 ,in this  process1 it has   
been often pointed out1 there lurks a   
sort of generatio  quivoca2 primitive   
star-dust is endowed with the attributes
 of life1  of consciousness1 and even of
 purpose and morality4 ,thus ,j4 ,a4    
,thomson  says that if we see any good  
reason for believing in the erstwhile   
origin of the living from the           

not-living1 we give a greater continuity
  to the course of events1 and we must  
again read something into the  common   
denominator of science--,matter1        
,energy1 and the ,ether4 ,we have       
already read into this ,wonder and      
,mystery1 ,harmony and ,order1 and we   
must now read into it--,progress and1   
from a philosophical standpoint1        
,purpose4#he      #he3 ,the ,bible of   
,nature1 pp4 #aca1 #acb4    ,the        
objection will be made that to regard   
the primitive atoms or cells  as        
practically self-preserving1            
self-repairing and self-improving1 the  
fountain of all life1 of all            
consciousness and morality and          
civilization1 is to endow these entities
 with attributes that are  manifestly   
inappropriate4    ,seeing the           
difficulties of a theory of evolution   
based upon the  principle of continuity 
alone1 we may emphasize1 with many      
popular  interpreters1 not so much this 
principle of continuity1 as that of     

progress4 ,evolution would then mean not
 a mere shifting of the elements1  a    
redistribution of matter and motion1 but
 a creative synthesis1 an  epigenesis4  
,it will then mean1 not ,there is       
nothing new under the sun1  but rather1 
,what next8 ,the descent of man will no 
longer suggest the  inference that as   
the progeny of the brute man must share 
his destiny1  but rather the thought    
that it doth not yet appear what we     
shall be4    ,but how to explain the new
 element which has arisen1 not out of1  
but  alongside of1 the others8 ,we would
 not be content to say1 ,now the        
inorganic elements incapable of         
producing life2 and now1 presto6 living 
matter2 for this after all would be a   
break in continuity not  explained1 and 
would lead once more to a sort of       
creation ex nihilo4  ,the necessities of
 the case seem to call for some new     
conception which  shall unite the two   
great principles of continuity and      
progress4      ,,iii4 ,,theism ,,and    

,,evolution    ,we have reached the     
point where it can be seen that         
evolution1 when  elevated from a        
biological hypothesis into a theory of  
the universe1 is  in need of the        
theistic postulate in order to make it  
workable4 ,theism1  in fact1 offers a   
twofold advantage to the evolution      
theory4 ,it  satisfies the causal       
demand1 and it furnishes the means of   
combining the  two ideas of continuity  
and progress which have impressed       
themselves so  deeply upon the mind of  
our generation4    ,in the first place  
it satisfies the causal demand4 ,if     
evolution is but  the unfolding of the  
implicit1 as the preformation view would
 have it1  an explanation is naturally  
sought for the marvellous properties of 
the  original star-dust1 or mind-stuff1 
or the primordial living germ4 ,the     
more mechanical the interpretation of   
the course of things becomes1 the  more 
insistent1 again1 will be the questions1
 ,who made the mechanism8  ,who drives  

the mechanism8 ,even from the standpoint
 of epigenesis1 the  appearance of an   
entirely new element1 which by          
hypothesis is not merely  implicit in   
the previous state of things1 must be   
referred to some  adequate cause or     
ground4 ,evolution1 in any of its forms1
 is the name of  a method rather than of
 a cause2 and logic compels the         
evolutionist to  assume a force that was
 not evolved1 but which existed before  
evolution  began4#hf      #hf3 ,f4 ,h4  
,headley1 ,problems of ,evolution1 p4   
#aee4    ,if we interpret the power     
behind evolution in a theistic sense1   
and  believe that ,god is immanent in   
nature and in the life of man1 we are   
not absolved from the task of tracing as
 far as possible the natural  history of
 life and mind1 but we may view that    
history from a standpoint  from which   
both origin and progressive development 
become intelligible4  ,no scientific    
hypothesis is able in itself to carry us
 all the way from  concentrating nebul  

to the thoughts of poets4 ,a theory of  
the  universe which shall do justice to 
the conceptions both of continuity  and 
progress can best be framed with the aid
 of the category of purpose4    ,the    
continuity is preserved in the unity of 
the developing plan1 no  stage of which 
is sudden or abrupt1 but is related     
filially to the  stage and the stages   
which preceded4 ,the relation between   
two stages is  not like that between the
 two members of an equation1 a relation 
of  exact equivalence between the       
evolved and the involved4 ,there is a   
really new element in the later stage if
 there is a real progress4 ,but  the new
 factor comes not in dramatic or        
spectacular fashion2 it comes  without  
observation1 and comes not to destroy   
but to fulfill4    ,if the evolution    
theory is to cover the whole history of 
the world and  of man1 it must be       
hospitable to the ideas both of         
continuity and  progress4 ,an           
interpretation of evolution so framed   

would be opposed1  indeed1 to the       
conception of a ,creator touching the   
world only with ,his  finger-tips1 and  
exhausting ,his creative power in its   
initial exercise4  ,it would be opposed 
to materialistic monism1 as well as to  
an idealistic  or pantheistic monism    
which would reduce the evolutionary and 
historic  process to mere appearance4   
,evolution in its theistic construction 
sees  in the lower orders of existence  
and in the earlier stages of life the   
promise1 but not the potency1 of the    
higher4 ,it assumes the existence of  a 
power immanent in the universe and      
adequate to account for the  appearance 
of new forces4 ,it can interpret alike  
the continuity of the  evolutionary     
process1 and the appearance once for all
 in the  irreversible moments of        
progress of new forms and forces of     
life4 ,it  admits the possibility of the
 appearance of new spiritual forces in  
the  course of history1 and opens a     
vista of illimitable progress4    ,no   

one was more certain than ,huxley1 when 
speaking of the relation of  man to the 
lower animals1 that whether from them or
 not1 he is  assuredly not of them4#hg  
,man's peculiar endowments1 his sense of
  law and beauty1 his spiritual         
capacities and aspirations1 all of      
these1  if laws of analogy and causation
 are to hold1 point to a different      
dimension of being from that of nature  
below him4 ,if man still bears in  his  
bodily frame the indelible stamp of his 
lowly origin1#hh he bears  in the       
framework of his mind and moral nature  
the indelible stamp of his  spiritual   
origin4 ,his spiritual endowments can   
find their explanation  only in a       
spiritual world4 ,they have arisen1 not 
from the lair of the  wild beast1 but   
rather from the bosom of ,god4 ,no      
ascertained fact of  science1 nor any   
legitimate or necessary inference from  
any such fact1  forbids the affirmation 
of faith1 ,it is ,he that hath made us1 
and we  are ,his people4      #hg3      

,man's ,place in ,nature1 p4 #hg4       
#hh3 ,descent of ,man1 p4 #fai4    ,with
 each advance of science the thoughts of
 men are disturbed4 ,the  discoveries of
 ,copernicus and ,galileo seemed to     
destroy the foundations  of the         
,christian1 or even the theistic1 view  
of the world2 but the  astronomer to-day
 can see anew ,god's glory in the       
heavens and more  impressive evidence of
 ,his greatness and majesty4 ,when      
,newton's laws of  motion displaced the 
idea that the planets were conveyed     
about their  orbits by angelic beings1  
it was feared that atheism was the      
logical  inference4 ,but ,newton himself
 remained a devout theist1 and even     
,voltaire1 his admirer1 was ready       
,to follow ,newton in that boundless    
road1      ,where nature's lost1 and    
ev'rything but ,god4    ,so when        
evolution1 through the genius of        
,darwin1 came into popular  discussion  
and acceptance1 it was feared that      
chance had been enthroned  in the       

universe1 and that religion was destined
 to extinction4 ,but in  the progress of
 the evolution theory1 as its advocates 
have split into  various camps1 the     
sense of the mystery in the origins and 
laws of the  organic world has deepened1
 and many can see in nature the evidence
 of a  diviner wisdom than before4      
,dr4 ,schfer in his presidential address
 before the ,british ,association1  in  
#aiab1 spoke in one sense of the        
continuity of life1 giving to it what   
seemed like a mechanical or             
materialistic interpretation4 ,the      
following  presidential address1 by ,sir
 ,oliver ,lodge1 spoke of the continuity
 of  life in another sense1 a           
continuation of life after death2 and   
argued  that mechanism is inadequate to 
explain the facts of life1 and asserted 
that genuine religion has its roots deep
 down in the heart of humanity1  and in 
the reality of things4 ,at each stage of
 advance in science1  says a recent     
writer1 this joyful overestimate of the 

possibilities of  mechanism becomes a   
marked feature of contemporary thought4 
,as each  piece of knowledge becomes    
assimilated1 it is seen that the old    
problems  are in their essence          
unaltered2 the poet1 the seer and the   
mystic again  come to their own1 and1 in
 new language1 and from a higher ground 
of  vantage1 proclaim their message to  
mankind4#hi      #hi3 ,science and the  
,human ,mind1 by ,w4 ,c4 ,d4 ,whetham   
and ,c4 ,d4    ,whetham1 #aiab1 pp4     
#bah1 #bai4    ,the horizons of mystery 
are not at the confines of telescopic   
vision1 or  at the far boundaries of the
 material universe1 but are in the      
objects  which are most familiar1 in the
 meanest flower that blows1 in the      
minutest seed and in the smallest atom4 
,as the poet finds in the flower        
thoughts too deep for tears1 so the     
scientist sees in it problems too  vast 
and far-reaching for human              
comprehension4 ,he can see in the very  
atom minute solar systems1 and in       

electricity a mystery lying at the  very
 heart of material things4    ,it is the
 paradox of science that the more the   
world is understood1 the  deeper does   
the mystery of its existence become4    
,with the enlarging  boundaries of      
knowledge there is a growing            
appreciation of mysteries  perhaps      
insoluble which lie beyond4 ,science1 in
 fact1 only deals with  the connections 
of things1 and the processes by which   
they came to be  what they are1 but not 
with the ultimate origins and the final 
ends4 ,the  deeper study of nature will 
lead men1 we may believe1 in the future 
as  it has done in the past1 to the     
reverent attitude of a ,kepler1 a       
,newton1  a ,clerk-,maxwell1 and a ,lord
 ,kelvin4 ,they will see in the bird's  
feather  and the butterfly's wing1 in   
the constitution of the cell and the    
atom1  in the stellar universe and the  
mind of man1 evidences of creative      
,power  and ,purpose2 and1 turning from 
the study of nature1 will exclaim1 ,how 

wonderful are ,thy works2 in wisdom hast
 ,thou made them all6          ,,iii    
,the ,christian ,faith and ,psychology  
,the ,psychology of ,religion as a      
branch of scientific study was made in  
,america1 and is not yet twenty years   
old4 ,its virtual founder and           
popularizer was ,william ,james1 who    
furnished the introduction to           
,starbuck's ,psychology of ,religion    
7#aijj7 and published his ,varieties  of
 ,religious ,experience1 the quarry in  
which all subsequent writers  have      
mined1 in #aijc4 ,an earlier ,american  
philosopher1 ,jonathan ,edwards1  gained
 the right to be called the precursor of
 the science by his  treatise on the    
,religious ,emotions4 ,of ,edwards1     
named with ,emerson and  ,james as one  
of three representative ,american       
philosophers1 ,royce has  said that he  
actually rediscovered some of the       
world's profoundest  ideas regarding    
,god and humanity simply by reading for 
himself the  meaning of his own         

religious experiences4#ij      #ij      
,william ,james and ,other ,essays1 p4  
#d4    ,the way for a scientific study  
of religious experience had been        
prepared  by the development of modern  
psychology and by the growing popular   
interest in religious phenomena4 ,we    
recall the wide-spread interest in      
,drummond's ,natural ,law in the        
,spiritual ,world1 dealing with personal
  religion1 and in ,kidd's ,social      
,evolution1 which dealt with the place  
of religion on the broader field of     
human progress4 ,the popularity of      
monographs on mysticism1 such as those  
by ,w4 ,r4 ,inge and ,miss ,a4          
,underhill1 and of lives of the saints1 
such as ,paul ,sabatier's ,life of      
,francis of ,assisi and ,mc,cabe's ,life
 of ,augustine1 showed by the           
personality of their authors and the    
wide circle of their readers that       
religious experiences1 especially if    
they be profound and unusual1 are       
matters of deep human interest even to  

those not closely connected with  the   
churches4 ,the saints have been taken   
from the church historians1 and  made to
 live before us as men of like passions 
with ourselves4 ,for many  months       
recently a religious novel1 ,the ,inside
 of the ,cup1 held its  place as the    
best seller4    ,since the pioneer work 
of ,starbuck1 ,coe#ia and ,james1 the   
literature of  the subject1 largely by  
,american writers1 has grown apace4     
,established  in the college course1 the
 psychology of religion has threatened  
to  disturb vested rights even in the   
theological schools4 ,conversion and    
sanctification1 once regarded as themes 
for the theological cloister1  the      
revival service or the closet of        
devotion1 have become familiar  topics  
of the text-books and commonplaces of   
the lecture room4      #ia3 ,the        
,spiritual ,life1 #aijj4    ,will this  
study of religion from the psychological
 standpoint prove to  be an ally to the 
,christian ,faith1 or will it put new   

weapons into the  hands of its enemies8 
,it may be too early for a positive     
answer1 but the  advertising value of   
the new movement cannot be denied1 and  
several  specific entries at least may  
be made on the credit side of the       
ledger4  ,the materials for religious   
psychology have been drawn mainly from  
,christian biography and ,christian     
experience4 ,impressive stories of      
conversion1 gathered from the ages of   
,christendom and from the work of  city 
and foreign missions1 have strengthened 
the argument from ,christian            
experience4 ,taken from religious       
biographies and devotional books and    
missionary annals and modern            
questionnaires1 the testimony of the    
saints  of all ages has been marshalled 
as they have told what the ,lord has    
done  for their souls4 ,the very fact   
that it has been worth while to write   
psychologies of religion is in itself   
significant4 ,christianity1 says        
,eucken1 has been the first to give the 

soul a history2 in comparison  with the 
interest of the soul1 it has reduced all
 events in the outer  world to mere     
incidentals1 according to the words of  
,jesus3 ',what shall  it profit a man if
 he gain the whole world and lose his   
own soul4'#ib      #ib3 ,knnen wir noch 
,christen sein8 #aiaa1 p4 #aj2 ,can ,we 
,still ,be    ,christians8 p4 #i4       
,separating as far as possible the      
descriptive from the metaphysical       
aspects of our subject1 we may consider 
,i4 ,the ,psychology of ,religious      
,experience2 and ,,ii4 ,the             
,metaphysical ,implicates of ,religious 
,experience4  ,under the first head we  
shall find that the study of religious  
experience has been favourable to the   
,christian ,faith in at least four      
respects4      ,i4 ,,the ,,psychology   
,,of ,,religious ,,experience    ,i4    
,the scientific study of religion shows 
that religion belongs to the  essence   
rather than the accidents of human      
nature4 ,man is the praying1  the       

believing1 and the hoping-to-survive    
animal4 ,it is not the office of        
psychology to prove the existence of    
,god1 but it may show that belief in    
,his existence is natural to man1 and is
 favoured by natural selection4  ,it may
 show that religious experiences have1  
in the words of ,james1  enormous       
biological worth1#ic and that1 to quote 
again the same  writer1 the strenuous   
type of character will on the           
battle-field of  human history always   
outwear the easy-going type1 and        
religion will  drive irreligion to the  
wall4#id      #ic3 ,varieties of        
,religious ,experience1 p4 #eji4        
#id3 ,the ,will to ,believe1 p4 #bac4   
,one evidence of the normality of       
religious faith is the vacuum or sense  
of loss which continues to be felt in   
the life of those who have lost  it4 ,if
 we need ,god1 as ,augustine says1 in   
order that the soul may live1  it is    
natural that there should be a feeling  
of spiritual starvation  without ,god4  

,the two classical instances of this    
aching void the world  can never fill   
are those of two well-known scientists1 
one writing in  the eclipse1 apparently 
permanent1 of his faith1 and the other  
after its  restoration4 ,says ,w4 ,k4   
,clifford3 ,whether or no it be         
reasonable and  satisfying to the       
conscience1 it cannot be doubted that   
theistic belief  is a comfort and a     
solace to those who hold it1 and that   
the loss of it  is a very painful       
loss4444 ,we have seen the spring sun   
shine out of an  empty heaven1 to light 
up a soulless earth2 we have felt with  
utter  loneliness that the ,great       
,companion is dead4 ,our children1 it   
may be  hoped1 will know that sorrow    
only by the reflex light of a wondering 
compassion4#ie ,it is a sad consolation 
that children will be spared the  loss1 
because they have not known the joy1 of 
religious faith4      #ie3 ,lectures and
 ,essays1 #b;d ed41 p4 #chi4            
,romanes1 during the eclipse of his     

faith1 found that success1  intellectual
 distraction1 reputation and artistic   
pleasure were all  taken together and   
well sweetened to taste 444 but as high 
confectionery  to a starving man4 ,he   
adds3 ,i take it then as unquestionably 
true that  this whole negative side of  
the subject proves a vacuum in the soul 
of  man which nothing can fill save     
faith in ,god4#if ,such modern instances
  show the normality of religion1 and   
are an impressive commentary upon  the  
words of the ,psalmist1 ,my soul is     
athirst for ,god1 and upon those  of    
,augustine1 ,our hearts are restless    
until they rest in ,thee4      #if3     
,thoughts on ,religion1 #b;d ed41 pp4   
#afa1 #afb4    ,the normality of        
religion is further shown in the        
instinctive turning of  the soul to     
,god1 or to some higher power1 in times 
of crisis and danger4  ,the religious   
consciousness is best interrogated1 not 
in times of  mechanical routine or      
worldly preoccupation1 but in those     

moments when  we seem to ourselves to be
 most religious1 in moments of clearest 
insight1 or of deepest emotion1 or of   
some crisis in action4 ,the story  of   
one of the survivors of the ,titanic    
disaster is in point3    ,the second    
thing that stands out prominently in the
 emotions produced  by the disaster is  
that in moments of urgent need men and  
women turn for  help to something       
entirely outside themselves4444 ,to     
those men standing  on the top deck with
 the boats all lowered1 and still more  
when the  boats had all left1 there came
 the realization that human resources   
were  exhausted and human avenues of    
escape closed4 ,with it came the appeal 
to  whatever consciousness each had of a
 ,power that had created the  universe4 
,after all1 some ,power had made the    
brilliant stars above 444  had made each
 one of the passengers with ability to  
think and act1 with  the best proof1    
after all1 of being created--knowledge  
of their own  existence2 and now1 if at 

any time1 was the time to appeal to that
  ,power4 ,when the boats had left and  
it was seen the ship was going down     
rapidly1 men stood in groups on the deck
 engaged in prayer1 and later1  as some 
of them lay on the overturned           
collapsible boat1 they repeated         
together over and over again the ,lord's
 ,prayer4444 ,and this was not  because 
it was a habit4444 ,it must have been   
because each one 444 saw  laid bare his 
utter dependence on something that had  
made him and given  him power to        
think4444 ,men do practical things in   
times like that3 they  would not waste a
 moment on mere words if those words    
were not an  expression of the most     
intensely real conviction of which they 
were  capable4 ,again1 like the feeling 
of heroism1 this appeal is innate and   
intuitive1 and it certainly has its     
foundation on a knowledge--largely      
concealed1 no doubt--of immortality4 ,i 
think this must be obvious3 there  could
 be no other explanation of such a      

general sinking of all the  emotions of 
the human mind expressed in a thousand  
different ways by a  thousand different 
people in favour of this single         
appeal4#ig      #ig3 ,the ,loss of the  
,,ss4 ,titanic3 ,its ,story and ,its    
,lessons1 by    ,lawrence ,beasley1 ,b4 
,a4 7,cantab471 ,scholar of ,gonville   
and ,caius    ,college1 one of the      
survivors4 ,boston1 #aiab4    ,the      
instinctive place and biological value  
of religion in human life1  the         
restlessness and hunger of the soul     
without religion1 show that it  is not  
an excrescence upon human nature4 ,the  
exclamation of a recent  writer seems   
justified3 ,the age of scientific       
materialism is past4444  ,the religious 
instinct has been adjudged normal4#ih   
#ih3 ,j4 ,b4 ,carter3 ,the ,religious   
,life of ,ancient ,rome1 p4 #ie4    #b4 
,the study of religious experience has  
shown the power of religion  7and       
certainly for the most part its power   
for good7 in the life of the  individual

 and of society4 ,the psychologists have
 thrust upon our  attention with        
unmistakable emphasis the fact of       
conversion1 however  they may theorize  
about the fact4 ,the recorded           
experiences of saints1  reformers and   
missionaries1 the testimony collected by
 the  questionnaires and the cases of   
conversion described in such books as   
,begbie's ,twice-,born ,men have shown  
beyond a peradventure that men  can be  
born again4 ,it only remains for the    
church to say1 ,ye must  be born again4 
,the records show that men who are the  
slaves of appetite and vice1 too        
degraded to be reached by appeals to    
pride or to prudence1 can by the  gospel
 be restored to hope and self-respect   
and to lives of singular  usefulness4   
,as ,begbie says3 ,there is no medicine1
 no ,act of ,parliament1  no moral      
treatise1 and no invention of           
philanthropy1 which can  transform a man
 radically bad into a man radically     
good4444 ,science  despairs of these    

people1 pronounces them 'hopeless' and  
'incurable4'  ,politicians find         
themselves at the end of their          
resources4 ,philanthropy  begins to     
wonder whether its charity could not be 
turned into a more  fertile channel4    
,the law speaks of 'criminal classes4'  
,it is only  religion that is not in    
despair about this mass of profitless   
evil  dragging at the heels of          
progress--the religion which still      
believes in  miracle4#ii      #ii3      
,twice-,born ,men1 #aiji1 pp4 #ah;f4    
,the psychologists have emphasized not  
only the facts of conversion but  the   
variety in its mode4 ,it has been       
pointed out that conversion for  males  
is a more violent incident than for     
females1 and more sudden4#ajj  ,uhlhorn 
has observed that it is characteristic  
of a period of conflict  that sudden    
conversions are more frequent then than 
at other times1  that the marvel        
inherent in every conversion becomes    
more evident1 and1  so to speak1 more   

palpable4#aja ,a child brought up under 
strong  religious influences will not   
have the intense struggles which are    
natural when a hardened criminal or a   
scoffing unbeliever is converted4       
,count ,zinzendorf raised serious       
misgivings in the minds of the          
,moravians  when he insisted that he    
could not tell the day when he first    
decided  for ,christ1 and had no        
knowledge of a time when he did not love
  ,him4#ajb ,the mother of ,edmund      
,gosse1 a woman singularly devoted in   
her  labours by tongue and pen to the   
cause of evangelical religion1 wrote in 
her thirtieth year3 ,i cannot recollect 
the time ,i did not love  religion4 ,if 
,i must date my conversion from my first
 wish and trial to  be holy1 ,i may go  
back to infancy2 if ,i am to postpone it
 till after my  last willful sin1 it is 
scarcely yet begun4#ajc      #ajj3      
,starbuck3 ,psychology of ,religion1 p4 
#ie4      #aja3 ,conflict of            
,christianity with ,heathenism1 p4 #afh4

      #ajb3 ,see ,stevens3 ,psychology  
of the ,christian ,soul1 pp4 #aei1 #afj4
      #ajc3 ,father and ,son1 by ,edmund
 ,gosse1 #aijg1 p4 #c4    ,it would be  
equally one-sided to insist that all    
conversions must be of  the sudden or   
cataclysmic type1 and to ignore the     
tremendous  significance of some sudden 
and dramatic experiences of conversion4 
,paul  and ,augustine are cases in      
point1 and it will scarcely do to       
dismiss  them with the remark that ,paul
 was probably a neurotic1 and that      
,augustine was a sensualist with a      
highly developed nervous                
temperament4#ajd ,the true nature of    
conversion may best be seen1 as  ,james 
suggests1 in those experiences which are
 exaggerated and  intense4#aje          
#ajd3 ,ames3 ,the ,psychology of        
,religious ,experience1 p4 #bfe4        
#aje3 ,varieties1 p4 #de4               
,conversions of the sudden and dramatic 
type have1 as a matter of fact1  exerted
 the most far-reaching influence in     

history4 ,the secular  historian is apt 
nowadays to magnify the influence of    
,paul upon the  life of ,europe1 but the
 church historian must add that ,paul1  
as apostle  or theologian or missionary1
 cannot be understood apart from the    
experience at ,damascus4 ,augustine's   
conversion inspired his thought and     
determined his theology4 ,of ,luther1   
whose conversion may not have been  of  
quite so dramatic a type1 a recent      
writer says3 ,indeed1 the  ,reformation 
in ,germany was the spiritual biography 
of ,luther writ large1  a spiritual     
experience materialized in institutions 
and intellectualized  in                
confessions4#ajf      #ajf3 ,h4 ,h4     
,walker3 ,harvard ,theological ,review1 
,april1 #aiac1 p4 #agi4    ,the         
psychologists unite with the historians 
in describing the broad  objective      
effects of religion upon the field of   
history4 ,christianity in  its ,pauline 
form presented1 in the ,west1 a         
successful obstacle to the  flood of    

,eastern thought and culture4 ,when the 
structure of the ,roman  ,empire was    
crumbling1 it was ,christianity in its  
,roman organization that  resisted the  
disintegrating influences of the        
barbarian invasion4 ,it was             
,christianity in its ,calvinistic form  
that became the seed-plot of  modern    
democracy4 ,no student of ,american     
history1 says a writer on  the          
psychology of religion1 can fail to     
recognize the immense value of  religion
 as a factor in our national            
development1 keeping us in some  measure
 true to the ideals of our fathers4444  
,the fact that our moral  conceptions   
have at all stood the strain of this    
rapid material  development1 and that   
political and social corruption and     
decay in  ,america to-day are not       
hopeless and irremediable as they were  
in ,rome  during the last century of the
 ,republic1 is due1 ,i believe1 chiefly 
to  the vitality of religion among us as
 a factor effectively conservative  of  

our socially recognized values4#ajg     
#ajg3 ,w4 ,k4 ,wright3 ,a ,psychological
 ,definition of ,religion1    ,american 
,journal of ,theology1 ,july1 #aiab1 p4 
#djf4    #c4 ,at a time when the sense  
of sin is declining1 it is interesting  
to  find the psychologists pressing upon
 our attention the facts of the         
disorder1 the wrongness1 the uneasiness1
 or frankly the need of  salvation1 of  
human kind4 ,it would be out of place   
for the psychologist1  as such1 to      
dogmatize upon the subject of original  
sin1 but in his  analysis of human      
nature he cannot overlook the fact of   
moral discord1 a  fact often politely   
ignored in the text-books on ethics4    
,thus when ,james  speaks unreservedly  
and autobiographically1 he confesses    
that we all  need mercy4 ,the morally   
athletic attitude tends to break down at
 last  even in the most stalwart2 and1  
in the condition of moral helplessness1 
all our morality appears as a plaster   
hiding a sore it can never cure1  and   

all our well-doing as the hollowest     
substitute for that well-being  that our
 lives ought to be grounded in1 but     
alas6 are not4#ajh ,the  essential fact 
of religion1 for ,royce1 is man's quest 
for salvation2  and the central and     
essential postulate which he considers  
in his recent  lectures1 is the         
postulate that man needs to be          
saved4#aji      #ajh3 ,varieties1 p4    
#dg4      #aji3 ,sources of ,religious  
,insight1 #aiab1 pp4 #h f4    ,a        
distinction is sometimes drawn between a
 once-born and a  twice-born type of    
religious experience1 but the           
distinction is not  absolute4 ,we have  
already noticed that those who can trace
 no abrupt  change in their experience1 
nor tell the day or even the year of    
their  conversion1 may be zealous in    
evangelistic labour1 and emphatic in    
their  insistence upon the need of      
regeneration4 ,a well-known example of  
the  once-born type of religion is the  
late ,edward ,everett ,hale1 whose words

  are often quoted3 ,i observe1 with    
profound regret1 the religious          
struggles which come into many          
biographies1 as if almost essential to  
the formation of a hero4 ,i ought to    
speak of these1 to say that any man  has
 an advantage1 not to be estimated1 who 
is born1 as ,i was1 into a  family where
 the religion is simple and rational2   
etc4#aaj ,and yet ,dr4  ,hale's son1    
brought up in such an atmosphere1 has   
himself described in  the public press  
an experience under revival preaching   
which belongs to  the twice-born        
type4#aaa      #aaj3 ,quoted in         
,starbuck1 pp4 #cje f4      #aaa3 ,see  
,the ,literary ,digest1 ,february #aj1  
#aijf1 p4 #baj4    ,the secrets of every
 heart are not revealed to the          
psychologist1 and we  should not expect 
of him the deepest insight into the     
sinfulness of  sin2 but in emphasizing  
man's sense of need1 of incompleteness1 
of  restlessness and of disharmony1     
psychology has done much to confirm1 if 

it cannot of itself affirm1 the         
,scriptural statement that all have     
sinned4    #d4 ,is man saved by faith or
 by works1 by faith or by character8 ,as
  between the evangelical and the legal 
schemes of salvation1 the answer  of    
religious psychology is emphatically in 
favour of the former4  ,psychologists of
 all schools unite in insisting that    
those who pass from  restlessness and   
impotence to peace and fullness of life 
do so in  wonderful accord with the     
,scriptural method of salvation by      
faith4 ,the  witnesses may be called1   
even though to a tedious degree one     
witness  only confirms the testimony of 
another4    ,we are advised by ,jastrow 
that it is necessary for the life that  
we  live that we should frequently      
permit the focus of our concerns and of 
our struggles to fade away1 and allow   
the surgings from below to assert       
themselves4#aab ,james remarks that     
there is a state of mind known to       
religious men1 but to no others1 in     

which the will to assert ourselves  and 
hold our own has been displaced by a    
willingness to close our mouths  and be 
as nothing in the floods and waterspouts
 of ,god4444 ,the time for  tension in  
our souls is over1 and that of happy    
relaxation1 of calm  deep breathing1 of 
an eternal present1 with no discordant  
future to be  anxious about1 has        
arrived4#aac      #aab3 ,the            
,subconscious1 #aijf1 p4 #edc4          
#aac3 ,varieties1 p4 #dg4    ,starbuck  
emphasizes the surrender of the will in 
conversion even when  the will has been 
consciously exercised4 ,we are          
confronted with the  paradox 444 that in
 the same persons who strive towards the
 higher life1  self-surrender is often  
necessary before the sense of assurance 
comes4  ,the personal will must be given
 up4 ,in many cases relief persistently 
refuses to come until the person ceases 
to resist1 or to make an effort  in the 
direction he desires to go4#aad ,he adds
 that faith is the next  step after     

self-surrender1 or even the             
accompaniment of it4444 ,then  faith    
comes in1 which means that the soul is  
in a receptive attitude4444  ,one throws
 oneself completely on the world-will1  
so that one may become  a 'receiver of  
its truth and an organ of its           
activity4'#aae      #aad3 ,psychology of
 ,religion1 pp4 #aac1 #aad4      #aae3  
,ibid41 p4 #aag4    ,royce remarks that 
our religious need is supreme1 and is   
accompanied  with the perfectly         
well-warranted assurance that we cannot 
attain the  goal unless we can get into 
some sort of communion with a real life 
infinitely richer than our own4444 ,the 
religious ideal grows out of the  vision
 of a spiritual freedom and peace which 
are not naturally  ours4#aaf ,the little
 will of the conscious and limited      
individual1  says ,j4 ,b4 ,pratt1 must  
simply give up before the deeper will of
 the  larger personality1 stretching out
 from the conscious centre no one  knows
 how far1 can take control4#aag         

#aaf3 ,sources of ,religious ,insight1  
pp4 #ec1 #ed4      #aag3 ,psychology of 
,religious ,belief1 #aijg1 p4 #afa4     
,it is clear that the evangelical scheme
 of salvation1 ,heaven's easy1  artless1
 unencumber'd plan1 has found strong and
 unexpected support  from the modern    
study of religious experience4 ,the     
impressive  testimonies above1 if       
translated into ,pauline language1 mean 
that  salvation is by faith and not by  
works of the law4 ,the examples from    
which the generalizations are made are  
taken mostly from orthodox  circles1 but
 even those who are but loosely attached
 to ,christianity in  its usual forms   
are saved in the same way4 ,thus ,james 
says of the  mind-curers that they have 
demonstrated that a form of regeneration
 by  relaxing1 by letting go1           
psychologically indistinguishable from  
the  ,lutheran justification by faith   
and the ,wesleyan acceptance of free    
grace1 is within the reach of persons   
who have no conviction of sin and  care 

nothing for the ,lutheran theology4#aah 
,the theologian might  contend that     
,christianity is a sort of sleeping     
partner in these  schemes1 and that they
 contain the mustard seed of faith      
sufficient to  save2 but1 however this  
may be1 the fact remains that the       
mind-cure  schemes teach a form of      
salvation by faith1 not by works4       
#aah3 ,varieties1 p4 #aaa4    ,the      
strain of attention and constant        
anxiety1 involved in the effort to  keep
 the law and save oneself1 leads to     
exhaustion and despair4 ,the  struggle  
is hopeless1 the psychologist would say1
 because the nervous  centres become    
exhausted4 ,man cannot1 however zealous 
for the law1 by  conscious activity and 
moral struggle attain inward peace4     
,salvation by  works is psychologically 
as well as theologically impossible4    
,,ii4 ,,metaphysical ,,implicates ,,of  
,,religious ,,experience    ,the        
students of religious experience are to 
a remarkable degree in  agreement with  

one another and with the teachings of   
evangelical  ,christianity in their view
 of the place and power of religion in  
human  life1 and of the need of         
salvation and the way of salvation4     
,disagreements arise when they seek no  
longer to describe religious  experience
 but to interpret that experience4 ,our 
authorities1 in  technical language1    
agree very largely when they study the  
phenomenology  of religion1 but differ  
widely as to its metaphysical           
implicates4    ,it may properly be asked
 whether the psychology of religion1    
while  dealing with the deep things of  
man1 is competent to reveal the deep    
things of ,god4 ,should the psychologist
 venture to draw any inferences  in the 
metaphysical sphere8 ,strictly speaking 
he is studying only  subjective         
phenomena1 and the self-imposed         
limitations of his subject  should      
forbid him from launching into          
metaphysical speculation4 ,if he        
cannot1 as a psychologist1 call his soul

 his own1 much less can he infer  that  
,god exists or that ,christianity is    
true4 ,he must remain1 perforce1  in the
 outer courts of the temple1 and cannot 
enter the inner shrine4    ,as a matter 
of fact no writer on the psychology of  
religious experience  really confines   
himself within strictly empirical       
limits4 ,metaphysical  inferences are in
 fact drawn1 or very plainly suggested1 
and the  important question becomes what
 inferences of this nature1 whether     
positive or negative1 are proper and    
legitimate4 ,religious experience is  at
 any rate not self-explanatory1 but     
points to something beyond itself1      
whether that something be merely a      
disordered nervous system1 or a  natural
 impulse such as that of sex1 or a      
department of consciousness  outside of 
the normal1 or a ,great ,beyond1 whether
 conceived as ,humanity  or as the      
living ,god4 ,we may consider then1 7#a7
 the physical explanation  of religion1 
including the sexual2 7#b7 the          

psychological explanation2  7#c7 the    
social explanation2 and 7#d7 the        
theological explanation4    #a4 ,lowest 
in the scale is the view of religion    
which regards it as the  result of      
abnormal physical or psychophysical     
conditions4 ,this theory  is the        
expression of a robust secularism1 which
 can quote the proverb1  ,when the devil
 was sick1 the devil a monk would be1   
and would  prescribe a dose of physic   
7as his friends did for ,george ,fox7   
for those  in distress on account of    
their sins4 ,for the modern materialist1
 as  for the ancient ,manichee1 sin is a
 question of physiology2 moral          
depravity only a manifestation of       
corporeal disorder4#aai ,religion and   
crime1 in this view1 both depart from   
the line of normal existence1 and  are  
pathological phenomena4 ,but if religion
 is a disease1 it afflicts  men in all  
sorts of physical and mental states1 and
 is practically a  universal disease1   
taking the world at large4      #aai3   

,robert ,law3 ,the ,tests of ,life1 p4  
#aca4    ,akin to this pathological     
explanation of religion is that which   
sees in  it either a natural expression1
 or else a perversion1 of the sexual    
instinct4 ,in a certain sense the       
religious life is an irradiation of  the
 reproductive instinct1#abj says        
,starbuck2 and ,g4 ,s4 ,hall says that  
in its most fundamental aspect1         
conversion is a natural1 normal1        
universal1 and necessary process at the 
stage when life pivots over from  an    
autocentric to a heterocentric          
basis4#aba ,this view is popular with   
those who would give a naturalistic     
account of the religious life1          
especially of conversion4      #abj3    
,psychology of ,religion1 p4 #dja4      
#aba3 ,adolescence1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cja4
    ,in assuming a close connection     
between human and divine love1 the      
mystics and the materialists join hands4
 ,with both the sexual is  transmuted   
into the spiritual4 ,plato made the     

transition in his  ,phdrus1 comparing   
divine with human love and even with the
 latter in  a degraded form4 ,the sexual
 passion and the passion for purity both
  alike stir human nature to its depths1
 and the love of ,god and the love  of  
woman are somehow akin4 ,religion in all
 ages has made free use of the  imagery 
of love and marriage4 ,the close        
connection has been emphasized  by the  
statistics which show that the period   
between twelve and twenty  years is     
preminently the age of conversion4      
,on the other hand1 the relations       
between the sexual and the religious    
life are so various that it does not    
seem possible to place them in the      
simple relation of cause and effect4 ,in
 ancient religions there were  examples 
of phallic worship and the mutilation of
 priests1 of temple  prostitutes and    
vestal virgins4 ,polygamy and celibacy  
have both alike  been enjoined in the   
name of religion4 ,the imagery of the   
bride and the  bridegroom has been      

freely used by the mystics1 but it is   
employed as  well by those who are      
thought to oppose religion4#abb ,it is  
true that in  ,christian circles the    
curve of conversion rises suddenly and  
is at its  height during the adolescent 
period2 but again the facts are not so  
clear as to warrant the inference that  
conversion is an effect of the          
development of the sexual life4 ,the    
adolescent period is the time also  of  
the awakening of the intellectual and   
sthetic faculties1 of the  feeling of   
responsibility and the stirring of      
ambition4 ,unless all of  these are     
irradiations of the sexual impulse1 it  
cannot be said that the  religious      
awakening1 coming within this period1   
must be so regarded4 ,the  adolescent   
period is one of peculiar religious     
susceptibility1 but in  part this may be
 due to the influence of social         
pressure1 brought to  bear very strongly
 at this period by parents and teachers4
 ,again1 the  exceptions on both sides  

are too many4 ,adolescents1 even those  
under  religious influences1 are not    
always converted2 indeed this period is 
one of peculiar susceptibility to doubt4
 ,it is notorious that this is  the time
 when the ,sunday-school and the church 
are apt to lose their  hold on the boys1
 and the questionnaires show juvenile   
atheism as well  as juvenile piety4 ,sex
 development cannot well be the cause   
both of  religion and irreligion4       
#abb3 ,in an appreciation of the late   
,john ,davidson1 it is said that    an  
obsession by sexual metaphors was his   
imaginative besetting    sin4--,a4 ,s4  
,mories1 in ,westminster ,review1 ,july1
 #aiac1 p4 #ha4    ,while conversions   
are most frequent in the adolescent     
period1 they occur  both before and     
after it1 as the statistics show4 ,the  
notable  conversions which have been    
most far-reaching in their effects1 such
 as  those of ,paul1 ,augustine1 and    
,luther1 have occurred after            
adolescence4  ,conversion with          

,augustine meant the repression of sex  
desires and a  celibate life1 while in  
the case of ,luther it meant freedom to 
marry4  ,james observes that the effects
 are infinitely wider than the alleged  
causes1 and for the most part opposite  
in nature4#abc ,paul's conversion  and  
that of multitudes after him have no    
suggestion of a sexual element1  and it 
is notable that men are apt to become   
increasingly occupied with  religion in 
advancing age as the sexual impulse     
wanes4      #abc3 ,varieties1 p4 #aa1   
note4    ,the adolescent theory of      
conversion has1 indeed1 a lesson for    
,christian  parents and teachers4 ,they 
should urge upon boys and girls decision
 and  public identification with the    
church during this period2 but it would 
be a loss to religion if religious      
teachers should forget the profound     
psychology of the motto3 ,give me a     
child for his first seven years1 and    
you can have him for the rest of his    
life4 ,as ,stevens says3 ,we cannot     

wait till adolescence is reached before 
we win the soul for ,god4 ,that  would  
be fatally late4 ,the boy must know that
 the highest is the highest  when he    
sees it1 and must have been prepared to 
love it4#abd ,the  profound emotional   
disturbance of puberty is not           
regeneration in the  ,christian sense1  
while at that time the conditions for it
 may be  peculiarly favourable4         
#abd3 ,psychology of the ,christian     
,soul1 p4 #agc4    #b4 ,midway between  
those explanations of religion which    
refer it to a  physical and to a        
supernatural cause is the psychological 
theory  advocated by ,james1 that the   
special seat or source of the religious 
life is in the ,subconscious4 ,while the
 subliminal and the  subconscious are   
newcomers in psychology1 they have      
already played a  considerable rle in   
religious discussion1 and have been used
 in  illustration and even in           
reconstruction of theological doctrine4 
,multiple personality illustrates the   

,trinity2 the subconscious is made1  as 
in ,sanday's ,christologies ,ancient and
 ,modern1 the sphere of the  divine     
nature of ,christ2 and psychical        
research is looked to by some as  a     
hopeful reinforcement or scientific     
demonstration of the doctrine of a      
future life4    ,the subconscious is    
used in a rather loose way by popular   
and even by  scientific writers4 ,james 
regards it as nowadays a well-accredited
  psychological entity1#abe while ,pratt
 refers to the use that is made of  it  
as rather questionable psychology4#abf  
,some of its possible and  legitimate   
meanings are3 7a7 ,those hereditary     
dispositions which1  unknown to the man 
himself1 largely shape his actions2 or  
7b7 the  psychophysical machinery of    
habitualized action4 ,as ,jastrow says3 
,we  rise upon steps of our habitualized
 selves1 grown familiar to their        
task4#abg ,the subconscious again 7c7   
may mean that subliminal  activity of   
the mind which1 when the conscious      

strain of effort and  attention has been
 unsuccessful1 often1 as it seems1 does 
the work for  one1 recalling the        
forgotten name1 solving the problem1 or 
even creating  a new product such as a  
finished song or poem4      #abe3       
,varieties1 p4 #eaa4      #abf3 ,hibbert
 ,journal1 ,october1 #aiaa1 p4 #bca4    
#abg3 ,the ,subconscious1 p4 #dcc4      
,lastly 7d7 the subconscious may refer  
to that more occult sphere to  which    
belong the phenomena of hypnotism1      
automatism1 multiple  personality1 and  
perhaps telepathy1 in virtue of which   
the subject  performs actions or has    
ideas to which his ordinary             
consciousness gives  no clew4 ,the      
subconscious in any or all of these     
senses is at least the  dwelling place  
of mystery4 ,starbuck admits that what  
happens below the  threshold of         
consciousness must1 in the nature of the
 case1 evade  analysis4#abh ,it is a    
mysterious region of shadows1 a twilight
 zone in  which the divine and human may

 meet4 ,it may be in itself the source  
of  the religious life1 or at least the 
channel through which revelation and    
redemptive influence may come4          
#abh3 ,psychology of ,religion1 p4 #ajg4
    ,in ,james' exposition the          
subconscious part of a man is the higher
 part2  and man is conscious that this  
higher part of himself is co-terminous  
and continuous with a ,,more of the same
 quality1 which is operative in  the    
universe outside of him4#abi ,what is   
this more8 ,our point of  contact with  
it is the subconscious self2 and without
 asking for the  farther limits of the  
,more1 and disregarding the             
over-beliefs1 we  have in the fact that 
the conscious person is continuous with 
a wider  self through which saving      
experiences come1 a positive content of 
religious experience1 which1 it seems to
 me1 is literally and  objectively true 
as far as it goes4#acj      #abi3       
,varieties1 p4 #ejh4      #acj3 ,ibid41 
p4 #eae4    ,james' theory of the       

subconscious as the organ of religion   
can appeal to  many undoubted facts1 but
 if it means1 as the tendency of his    
exposition  indicates1 that the         
subconscious as the organ of religion   
has superior  moral worth to the life of
 full consciousness1 it may be insisted 
that  the subliminal sphere is the      
source of evil as well as of good4 ,the 
subconscious may be identified with the 
flesh as well as with the  spirit4 ,if  
the subconscious1 to use ,pauline       
language1 is the medium of  higher      
spiritual influences1 it is also the    
seat of the old ,adam1 of  sin that     
dwelleth in me4 ,in this region is to be
 found the source  alike of the         
unexpected heroisms and weaknesses of   
men1 of ,peter's  courage before the    
,council and of his cowardice before the
 serving maid4  ,hereditary and         
habitualized dispositions and tendencies
 are like the  submerged part of an     
iceberg1 and the winds of conscious     
resolution and  effort are often        

powerless against the sweep of the      
hidden current  beneath4    ,it may be  
admitted that if the grace of ,god      
miraculously operates1 it  probably     
operates through the subliminal         
door1#aca but it should be  remembered  
that in this region of the subliminal   
there are dragons as  well as seraphim4 
,hypnotic influences may be therapeutic 
or they may be  baleful1 and in the     
region of the subconscious1 it is       
hinted1 insane  delusions and           
psychopathic obsessions may find their  
source4#acb ,the  subconscious is a     
battle-field rather than itself a source
 of help1 and  it cannot be said that   
the subconscious man of the shadows1 if 
he exists  in any of the rles assigned  
to him1 is any better or more religious 
than the man who has his being in the   
full sunlight of conscious  activity4   
,the psychological explanation of       
religion1 like the  pathological and the
 sexual1 really proves too much4 ,from  
all these  alleged sources of religious 

life1 not only saving influences but    
destructive influences flow4 ,royce's   
criticism is that the new  doctrine1    
viewed in one aspect1 seems to leave    
religion in the  comparatively trivial  
position of a play with whimsical       
powers--a prey  to endless psychological
 caprices4#acc      #aca3 ,varieties1 p4
 #bgj4      #acb3 ,ibid41 p4 #bce4      
#acc3 ,william ,james and ,other        
,essays1 p4 #bc4    #c4 ,another theory 
of religion1 now popular1 seeks its     
explanation not in  any bodily condition
 or stage of growth1 nor in any special 
department  of the mental life1 but in  
the social relationships of men4        
,religion  becomes a recognition of     
social values1 a consciousness of the   
highest  social values1#acd and is      
practically to be identified with       
patriotism1  altruism and the vision of 
the future of society4 ,to-day1 says    
,leuba1  most men and women derive      
whatever strength they may have to      
maintain  their integrity and to devote 

themselves to the public good from their
  respect and love for their family1    
their friends1 their business           
associates1 and the state1 and from     
their desire for the respect and  love  
of men1 much more than from any         
religious conviction4 ,it is no  longer 
the consciousness of ,god1 but the      
consciousness of ,man that is  the power
 making for righteousness4#ace ,no      
metaphysical assumptions  need be made  
by this view of religion except that of 
the existence of a  world of one's      
fellow-men1 a postulate which seems     
necessary even to a  functional         
psychology4      #acd3 ,ames3           
,psychology of ,religious ,experiences1 
p4 viii4      #ace3 ,a ,psychological   
,study of ,religion1 p4 #caa4           
,however much in harmony with the spirit
 of the age1 the social  explanation of 
religion is one-sided and is inadequate 
to the depth and  massiveness and       
infinite perspective of religious       
experience4 ,religion  is a triangle    

with ,god1 the self and one's brother at
 its three angles4    7a7 ,the ,social  
theory of religion gives no adequate    
recognition of  the worth either of the 
individual or of society4 ,the deepest  
message of  religion is that the soul is
 worth something to ,god4 ,man1 in spite
 of  his social obligations1 is not made
 simply for his brother4 ,we die  alone1
 ,pascal says1 and there is a sense in  
which we live alone4 ,as a  writer on   
the psychology of the ,new ,testament   
says3 ,the self1 according  to the ,new 
,testament1 is not merely a social self 
developing in a  community of other     
finite selves2 it is a divine self      
realizing its  ideal powers of service1 
and fulfilling its destiny only in a    
fellowship  with the ,father and with   
,his ,son1 ,jesus ,christ4#acf ,unless  
,humanity is  endowed with the          
attributes of ,deity1 as it almost seems
 to be in the  ,positivist ritual1 the  
estimate of society is also lowered when
 men are  viewed as having relations and

 obligations only to one another4 ,as   
,james  ,ward has pointed out1 ,humanity
 can only have the significance and     
sacredness of the individuals from whom 
it is abstracted1 and if these  have no 
permanent or enduring worth1 no more has
 ,humanity4#acg      #acf3 ,m4 ,s4      
,fletcher3 ,the ,psychology of the ,new 
,testament1 p4 #bde4      #acg3 ,the    
,realm of ,ends1 p4 #chg4    7b7 ,the   
humanitarian view narrows too much the  
horizons of religion4  ,it would exclude
 from religion the sense of infinite    
dependence1 and of  devotion to and     
communion with a personal higher ,power4
 ,a religion of  humanity merely will   
seem superficial to the mood which cries
 out1 ,my  soul is athirst for ,god1 or 
,i seek ,thee in order that my soul may 
live4 ,if the religion of the anchorite 
was one-sided1 so equally is  that of   
the humanitarian4#ach ,neither sin nor  
righteousness can be  interpreted in    
exclusively social terms1 unless the    
conception of the  community be so      

enlarged as to include the ,great       
,companion and the ,great  ,demander4   
,the social theory1 again1 has no       
apparent place for the  religion of     
solitude which finds ,god in nature4 ,a 
,new ,england writer  says of ,mount    
,ranier3      #ach3 ,the hermit saints1 
from this modern standpoint1 would not  
deserve to be called religious at all1  
as witness this remark of    ,ames3 ,if 
religion is participation in the ideal  
values of the    social consciousness1  
then those who do not share in this     
consciousness are                       
non-religious4--,psychology of          
,religious    ,experiences1 p4 #cef4    
,i saw the mountain three years ago3    
,would that it might ever be my lot  to 
see it again6 ,i love to dream of its   
glory1 and its vast whiteness is  a     
moral force in my life4 ,climb the      
mountains1 says one of the best  known  
of ,american mountaineers1 ,john ,muir1 
and get their good tidings4  ,nature's  
peace will flow into you as sunshine    

flows into trees4 ,the  winds will blow 
their freshness into you1 and the storms
 their energy1  while care will drop off
 like autumn leaves4#aci      #aci3 ,see
 ,j4 ,h4 ,williams3 ,the ,mountain ,that
 ,was ',god1' pp4 #dj1 #aac4    7c7 ,the
 religion of humanity must look outside 
itself for its highest  inspiration for 
social service and for the norm of      
social progress4 ,it  was ,christianity 
that created the atmosphere in which the
 enthusiasm of  humanity and zeal for   
social service could flourish4          
,christianity has  emphasized the value 
of the individual1 and the sacredness of
 family  relationships and the          
brother-hood of the children of the one 
,father4  ,without divine love as its   
pattern and inspiration human love would
 lose  in comprehension and in          
intensity4    ,society in its progress  
has ever waited for the signal to be    
given by  some prophet from the deserts1
 or some seer who has brought from the  
mount of vision the pattern of a better 

social order4 ,those who see in  social 
service the essence of religion are     
faced with the paradox that  the wisest 
and most beneficent social influences   
have flowed from those  experiences in  
which the individual turned his back on 
society and  flaunted its ideals4 ,a    
declaration of independence of society  
seems  needed before there can be the   
most effective social service4 ,by an   
unsocial act ,abraham left his country  
and his kindred and his father's  house1
 and yet in him all the families of the 
earth have been blessed2  through       
,paul's unsocial act in deserting the   
traditions of his fathers1  the course  
of ,western civilization has been       
profoundly influenced2  ,george ,fox's  
unsocial act in depriving his town of   
the services of a  useful tradesman1 and
 making for himself a suit of leather1  
has been  called by an acute observer1  
,carlyle1 doubtless by an over-emphasis1
 the  greatest event of modern history4 
,religion1 in fact1 first asserts       

itself as something over and above all  
social relations before its  social     
mission can be performed4    #d4 ,the   
interpretation of religious experience  
by the psychologists has  not always    
been favourable to theistic or          
,christian belief1 but the  failure of  
other explanations1 if established1 will
 lead us to seek a  more adequate one by
 referring to a ,reality transcending   
human  experience and social            
relationships4 ,the study of religious  
psychology  has1 in fact1 furnished a   
broad basis from which a metaphysical or
  theistic inference can be drawn4 ,such
 an inference1 cumulative in its        
effect1 may be drawn from the           
universality of religious belief1 from  
the  imperativeness of social           
obligations implying a supersocial      
sanction1  and from the regenerative    
effects of religion to an adequate      
cause4 ,god  is real since ,he produces 
real effects4#adj ,but the study of     
religious  experience has not only      

strengthened the older theistic         
arguments1 but  has in effect formulated
 two new arguments1 the pragmatic and   
the  mystical4      #adj3 ,varieties1 p4
 #eag4    ,the ,pragmatic ,argument for 
theism has been stated by ,james in the 
spirit  of his later philosophy4 ,taking
 religions as including creeds and      
faith-states1 ,james says that without  
regard to their truth we are  obliged1  
on account of their extraordinary       
influence on action and  endurance1 to  
class them amongst the most important   
biological functions  of mankind4#ada   
,the pragmatic argument would then run3 
,the uses of  religion1 its uses to the 
individual who has it1 and the uses of  
the  individual himself to the world1   
are the best arguments that truth is in 
it4#adb ,there is a satisfaction1 a     
fullness of life1 an energy and an      
expansiveness flowing from religion     
which are not enjoyed apart from it1    
and its usefulness1 from this           
standpoint1 is a guarantee of its truth4

  ,it is merely to state this argument  
in the more familiar terms of cause  and
 effect to say as ,james does elsewhere 
that work is actually done  upon our    
finite personalities1 for we are turned 
into new men1 and  consequences in the  
way of conduct follow in the natural    
world upon our  regenerative change4#adc
 ,god is real since ,he produces real   
effects4      #ada3 ,varieties1 p4 #ejf4
      #adb3 ,ibid41 p4 #dei4      #adc3 
,ibid41 p4 #eaf4    ,the ,mystical      
,argument for theism is based on the    
claim that in religious  experience     
there is a more immediate certainty of  
the presence of ,god  and a stronger    
assurance of ,his existence than can be 
gained from purely  intellectual        
processes4 ,this evidence1 it is clear1 
may be of the  strongest possible kind  
to the mystic himself1 but may seem to  
be weak  or even negligible to the      
outsider1 since the experience in the   
nature  of the case is private and      
incommunicable4 ,before the mystical    

claim is  appraised we must distinguish 
further the various kinds of mysticism4 
,we  must distinguish between the       
absorption of the ,buddhist with his    
passion  for annihilation1 and the      
,christian's delight in the ,lord2 and  
between a  mysticism which means        
identity of substance and the           
deification of man1  and a moral        
mysticism which realizes at once that   
,god is infinitely near  in ,his grace  
but infinitely far in ,his holiness4    
,it is fair to ask whether the assurance
 of the presence of ,god enjoyed  by    
many ,christians in all ages1 according 
to their testimony1 is  immediate or    
inferred knowledge1 and whether it      
should be called  knowledge or faith4   
,the answer of the mystic might be that 
there is a  felt indubitable certainty  
of experience which is not dependent on 
the  solution of epistemological        
problems4 ,otherwise we could not be    
sure of  our own existence or of that of
 our fellows until we had specialized in

  the theory of knowledge and solved the
 problem1 which has haunted modern      
philosophy1 of the knowledge of other   
selves4 ,if it be objected again  that a
 subjective experience cannot ground an 
inference to an objective1  and much    
less to a supernatural1 cause1#add it   
may be said that the  experience itself1
 if correctly reported1 is supernatural 
in character4  ,whether it be ,paul's   
peace that passes understanding1 or     
,peter's joy  unspeakable and full of   
glory1 or ,edwards' inward sweet delight
 in ,god  and divine things1 or a modern
 scientist's consciousness of the       
presence of ,god1 said to be as strong  
and real to me as that of any  bodily   
presence1#ade it is of such a character 
that no other inference  than that to a 
supernatural cause can properly be      
drawn4 ,the mystical  argument is not   
based like the other arguments of       
natural theology upon  the regular      
course of things1 but upon what claims  
to be a new  supernatural experience1 a 

new life with new capacities and powers1
 and  new emotions and insights4        
#add3 ,see ,hffding3 ,philosophy of     
,religion1 p4 #ii4      #ade3 ,a        
,scientist's ,confession of ,faith1 by  
,e4 ,l4 ,gregory1 #ahih1 p4#ba4    ,it  
must be noticed1 in conclusion1 that the
 evidence which the  psychologists have 
so industriously collected1 showing that
 religion is  good for the individual   
and for society1 has been taken almost  
exclusively from the circle of          
,christian influences4 ,we might        
paraphrase  ,james' pragmatic argument  
and say that ,christianity is true      
because it  is good for the individual  
and for society4 ,his argument from     
cause  might also be applied to         
,christianity1 for the mystical         
experiences  adduced are in great       
measure not merely those of communion   
with ,god but  of communion with ,god in
 and through ,christ4 ,by no analysis in
 fact1 as  ,d4 ,w4 ,forrest says1 is the
 ,christian able to distinguish his     

communion  with the ,father from his    
communion with ,christ4 ,they are       
blended as  consciously real in one     
indivisible experience4#adf ,the        
testimony of  ,christian experience is  
to a ,power and a ,presence which the   
,christian  feels only as he hears and  
accepts the gospel message and looks to 
,christ for forgiveness1 guidance1 and  
help4 ,a man who is converted1 in  the  
,new ,testament sense1 is one who has   
surrendered to a force  immeasurably    
greater than anything he has of himself2
 one who has  awakened to the           
overwhelming consciousness of a         
spiritual world brought  to a focus     
before him in the ,person of ,jesus     
,christ4#adg ,the ,christian  believes  
that he receives grace from the ,father 
and the ,son4 ,when ,jesus  deals with  
us and works within us1 ,he does what   
only ,god can do4 ,all  ,christian      
experience is nothing if it is not      
this4#adh      #adf3 ,the ,christ of    
,history and of ,experience1 p4 #aff4   

#adg3 ,h4 ,wheeler ,robinson3 ,the      
,christian ,doctrine of ,man1 #aiaa1    
p4 #cbb4      #adh3 ,p4 ,c4 ,simpson3   
,the ,fact of ,christ1 pp4 #acj1 #aca4  
,after all the secret of the ,lord1     
known to ,christians in the catacombs   
at ,rome as they sang1 ,jesu1 ,amor     
,meus1 known to medieval ,christians as 
they sang ,jesu1 ,dulcis ,memoria1 and  
known equally to modern ,christians  who
 sing ,jesus1 ,lover of ,my ,soul1 is   
with them that fear ,him4 ,it has  been 
well said that ,christianity must be    
known from the inside1 if it  is to be  
known at its full worth4 ,in the nature 
of the case the evidence  of ,christian 
experience is not demonstrative to an   
outsider4 ,it can come  to him only in  
the way of an appeal3 ,come and see2    
taste and see that  the ,lord is good4  
,,iv    ,,the ,,christian ,,faith ,,and 
,,recent ,,philosophy    ,the two       
systems of philosophy which were        
dominant at the turn of the  century    
were unfriendly to theistic and         

,christian belief4 ,naturalism on  the  
one hand and ,absolutism on the other   
could find no place for a  positive     
faith in ,god1 freedom and immortality4 
,the opening years of the  century      
witnessed a revolt against these two    
systems2 and the leading  characteristic
 of twentieth century thought1 over     
against an agnostic  naturalism and a   
pantheistic or impersonal absolutism1   
has been its  reaffirmation of spiritual
 values4 ,there has been a new emphasis 
upon  the rights of personality1 as     
against the enmeshing and enchaining    
forces of nature on the one hand and an 
all-engulfing ,absolute on the  other4  
,philosophical readers will remember the
 moral tonic of ,james' collection  of  
essays1 ,the ,will to ,believe 7#aijb71 
with its picturesque style1 its         
originality of standpoint and its moral 
enthusiasm4 ,here was a  philosopher of 
medical training and of unquestioned    
scientific standing1  and yet with the  
insight and earnestness of a prophet1   

making a valiant  defense of spiritual  
realities1 of human freedom1 and the    
rights of the  volitional and moral     
sides of our nature4 ,as an evolutionist
 he  contended that the strenuous type  
of character will on the battle-field   
of human history always outwear the     
easy-going type1 and religion will      
drive irreligion to the wall4#adi ,and  
as a psychologist he found that  theism 
appealed to every energy of our active  
nature and released the  springs of     
every emotion1 and held that            
infra-theistic conceptions1  materialism
 and agnosticism1 are irrational because
 they are inadequate  stimuli to man's  
practical nature4#aej      #adi3 ,the   
,will to ,believe1 p4 #bac4      #aej3  
,ibid41 p4 #acd4    ,readers who had    
been breathing the stifling air of      
naturalism1 so fatal  to spiritual      
aspiration1 or the too rarified         
atmosphere of absolutism  with its      
transcendence of personality and moral  
distinctions1 will  remember also the   

sense of satisfaction and relief with   
which they read  that other volume of   
protest1 from the other side of the     
water1  ,personal ,idealism 7#aijb74 ,it
 was refreshing to find that there was a
  body of brilliant young thinkers1     
alive to the scientific atmosphere of   
the time1 and trained in the philosophic
 orthodoxy of the ,english  schools1 and
 yet boldly asserting the rights of     
personality in ,god and  man4    ,this  
twofold protest against a denial1 from  
whatever side1 of the rights  of        
personality was organized into the      
movement we call ,pragmatism1  under the
 leadership of ,william ,james1 ably    
assisted by ,f4 ,c4 ,s4  ,schiller in   
,oxford and ,john ,dewey in this        
country4#aea ,it is not to be  wondered 
at if this reaction went too far1 as the
 pendulum swung from  the extreme of    
,being to that of ,becoming4 ,we find   
,pragmatism1 reacting  against monism1  
whether materialistic or idealistic1    
going over to  pluralism2 from the      

extreme of a block universe in which    
time is  nothing passing to the other   
extreme of a strung-along universe in   
which time is everything2 from pantheism
 going over to a vaguely  indicated     
polytheism2 from an absolute truth and  
an absolute ,being  sitting in smiling  
repose above the strife of time to a    
,god in the  dirt and a truth that could
 be made1 or unmade1 perhaps too easily4
      #aea3 ,for fuller discussion of   
this movement1 the writer may refer to  
his article1 ,pragmatism1 ,humanism and 
,religion1 in the ,princeton            
,theological ,review1 ,october1 #aijh4  
,our discussion will be more concrete if
 we select leading  representatives from
 the four nations most addicted to      
philosophy1 and  examine their attitude 
towards the ,christian ,faith and       
towards its  theistic foundations4      
,i4 ,,bergson ,,and ,,creative          
,,evolution    ,in close relation to the
 pragmatic movement1 and set forth with 
a  wonderful magic of style1 is the     

philosophy of ,henri ,bergson which     
finds its mature expression in his      
,creative ,evolution4 ,it is a          
remarkable testimony to the wealth of   
suggestion and many-sidedness of        
,bergson's philosophy that its support  
has been claimed by a number of         
movements of diverse aim4 ,modernists in
 theology1 syndicalists in the  sphere  
of social agitation1 and even1 it is    
said1 cubists in art1 appeal  to        
,bergson for philosophical support2 and 
affinities have been pointed  out       
between his lan vital and               
,schopenhauer's will-to-live1 ,von      
,hartmann's philosophy of the           
unconscious1 and ,nietzsche's aggressive
  individualism4 ,we must ask whether   
his lan vital can be baptized1 and  his 
,creative ,evolution be made the basis  
for a spiritual philosophy4    ,it will 
be useful to notice some features of    
,bergson's system before  attempting to 
estimate its bearings upon religious    
problems4 ,the story  of evolution as   

,bergson describes it1 certainly in an  
engaging manner1  is a drama in three   
acts4 ,the lan vital1 or otherwise      
consciousness1  is the hero1 but is     
imprisoned by matter 7the villain71 and 
is striving  blindly for release4 ,in   
the first act1 the vital impulse tunnels
 its way  through the opposing element  
of matter into the vegetable world4 ,the
  result is only the lethargy and       
immobility of vegetable forms1 and is so
  far a failure4 ,the next act finds    
consciousness working its way into the  
animal world and attaining mobility and 
becoming in so far free from the        
entanglements of matter2 but here again 
there is partial failure4               
,consciousness is arrested at the stage 
of instinct1 and1 resting content  with 
a response to the environment which is  
patterned after the  mechanical action  
of matter1 fails to attain freedom4 ,in 
the third act1  by a tremendous leap1   
consciousness1 in spite of the efforts  
of matter  to drag it down to the plane 

of mechanism1 reaches at last           
spontaneity  and freedom in man4 ,the   
drama reaches its dnouement in man and  
his  ability not only to move in        
response to environment1 but to control 
the  environment4 ,it is intimated that 
there may be a sequel1 in which life    
pursues its career in another stage of  
existence4    #a4 ,it is evident at a   
glance that the view of evolution here  
set forth  in barest outline offers many
 points of contrast to what has been    
accepted as evolutionary orthodoxy4 ,the
 history of life with both ,darwin  and 
,bergson is a struggle3 but with ,darwin
 it is a struggle for  existence1 with  
,bergson a struggle for freedom1 for    
efficiency1 for  complexity4 ,with      
,darwin there is a struggle of living   
beings with one  another1 conceived     
after the analogy of economic           
competition2 with  ,bergson there is a  
struggle of life against matter and     
necessity4 ,the  struggle for existence1
 in a sense1 has been moralized4 ,it is 

a struggle  for the existence and higher
 life of consciousness4    #b4 ,creative
 evolution is not materialistic         
evolution1 for life is not a            
development from matter but is an upward
 tendency opposing the downward  current
 of matter4 ,the increasing complexity  
of living forms is not the  result of   
the movements of matter1 or of          
chemical-physical laws1 but of  an      
opposition1 successful in a unique      
degree in men1 to the imprisoning  and  
entangling forces of matter4    #c4 ,the
 later stages in evolution1 while       
connected with the earlier in           
continuity of development1 may contain  
elements that are essentially  new4 ,a  
living being is a reservoir of          
indetermination and                     
unforeseeability4#aeb ,the new species  
cannot be explained1 except by an       
illegitimate process of thought1 by what
 is presented in the old4 ,the          
appearance of a new species is something
 as new as the composition of a         

symphony of ,beethoven4 ,man1 then1 in  
his powers and destinies is not to  be  
judged by his likeness to the brutes1   
but by what he possesses over  and above
 the qualities of animal life1 by those 
achievements and  endowments to which   
animals have failed to attain4 ,since   
man1 and man  alone1 has come so far1   
and in him alone consciousness has      
broken the  chains of mechanical        
necessity1 we shall have no repugnance  
in  admitting that in man1 though       
perhaps in man alone1 consciousness     
pursues its path beyond this earthly    
life4#aec      #aeb3 ,life and          
,consciousness1 ,hibbert ,journal1      
,october1 #aiaa1 p4 #cd4      #aec3     
,ibid41 p4 #dc4    #d4 ,creative        
evolution is the antithesis of          
mechanical evolution4 ,bergson  protests
 that the conception of mechanism as    
applied to life is  inadequate1 because 
7#a7 it is artificial1 growing out of   
our habits of  controlling matter4 ,it  
is an instrument of the intelligence1   

not giving  us an insight into life1    
which we must gain rather in intuition1 
the  higher faculty in ,bergson's       
system4 ,a mechanical representation of 
nature is always a representation       
necessarily artificial and              
symbolic4#aed 7#b7 ,mechanical          
conceptions are inapplicable to living  
beings1 because of the irreversibility  
of the movements of living forms2  and  
7#c7 the mechanical theory is negatived 
by the facts of the  psychophysical     
connection4 ,the hypothesis of an       
equivalence between the  psychical state
 and the cerebral state implies a       
veritable absurdity1 as  we tried to    
prove in a former work4#aee ,no         
mechanical theory and no  theory of     
accidental variations1 whether          
insensible or abrupt1 can  account for  
the production of so complex an organ as
 the eye4#aef      #aed3 ,l'volution    
,cratrice1 #gth ed41 #aiaa1 p4 iv42 ,e4 
,t41    ,creative ,evolution1 #aiaa1 p4 
xii4      #aee3 ,ibid41 p4 #chd2 ,e4    

,t41 p4 #cee4      #aef3 ,ibid41 pp4 #hb
 ff42 ,e4 ,t41 pp4 #ge ff4    ,his      
critique of other theories prepares the 
way for ,bergson's own view  that the   
forms of living beings are due to an    
original vital impulsion1  not in the   
single organism1 but in life as a whole1
 seeking1 without  foresight of the     
result1 to overcome the downward        
tendency of matter4    ,bergson's       
suggested via media between creationism 
and evolutionism1  his rejection of a   
theory of chance variations1 and his    
vigorous polemic  against mechanism1 all
 seem to prepare the way for a          
spiritualistic  philosophy4 ,it is true 
that the land of the spirit has not yet 
been  explored1 but ,bergson1 as one    
writer expresses it1 has at least thrown
 a  bridge across the chasm between the 
material and the spiritual4 ,while  his 
,creative ,evolution has been placed    
upon the ,index1 we must  remember that 
he himself claims that this work and    
those that preceded  it have resulted in

 the conceptions of liberty1 of spirit  
and of  creation4 ,from all this1 as he 
says1 we derive a clear idea of a free  
and creating ,god1 producing matter and 
life at once1 whose creative  effort is 
continued1 in a vital direction1 by the 
evolution of species  and the           
construction of human personalities4#aeg
      #aeg3 ,see ,edouard ,le ,roy3 ,the
 ,new ,philosophy of ,henri ,bergson1   
,e4    ,t41 pp4 #bbd f4    ,the point in
 ,bergson's system which seems least in 
harmony with theistic  belief is his    
criticism and rejection of finalism4    
,bergson fears that  the temporal series
 will be swallowed up in the dark       
backward and abysm  of time1 or rather  
of eternity4 ,the finalism of a foreseen
 end means  with him fatalism1 fixity1  
with no play for freedom1 and a reality 
in  time only of a secondary order4     
,again1 in opposition to finalism he    
urges the variety of living forms4      
,could the end of all the varied        
history be merely the production of man8

 ,this cannot be proved1 because        
everywhere we see in nature contingency 
and variety1 and apparent               
cross-purposes if purpose at all4 ,there
 is no single line of evolution  leading
 up to man4 ,some fossil forms from     
remote periods show exactly  the same   
structure as living forms to-day4       
,further1 the vital impulse  striving   
towards freedom meets with obstacles1   
and failure and arrest  are manifest in 
the lethargy of vegetables and the      
mechanical reflexes  of animals1 if     
these are viewed with reference to the  
assumed end of the  creation of man4    
,the only finalism which ,bergson will  
admit is that of a  push towards freedom
 in virtue of an original vital impulse1
 blindly and  often vainly seeking to   
overcome the movement of matter towards 
necessity4 ,it is a vis a tergo         
happening at last to issue1 without any 
foresight of the result1 in the         
appearance of man4    ,it is not clear1 
however1 that ,bergson has been able to 

dispose of  finalism1 or to find some   
conception between it and the theory of 
chance  which he rejects4 ,the disc of a
 talking machine1 to one not familiar   
with it1 with its spiral lines broken in
 a haphazard way1 would seem to  exclude
 purpose2 but when it is properly       
adjusted the voice of a ,melba  or a    
,caruso can be heard4 ,so there may be  
some standpoint from which the          
bewildering variety of nature will      
reveal some unitary purpose4 ,it may    
be1 to use the figure of the artist1    
that the purpose is not solely the      
production of man1 but that the variety 
and beauty of the natural world  is an  
expression of the joy of the ,creative  
,artist in his work4 ,the  purpose may  
be more comprehensive1 and the fact that
 all natural history  does not plainly  
lead to the production of man is not in 
itself a proof  that man was not the    
intended consummation of the process4   
,it is noteworthy that ,bergson1 a      
master in the use of illustration1      

cannot find any exact illustration of   
the kind of evolution he wishes to      
describe4 ,he compares the course of    
evolution to a road1 leading to a  city1
 but hastens to add that1 for evolution1
 the end of the road is not  seen4#aeh  
,he says again that if one wished to    
express himself in terms  of finality1  
it must be said that consciousness 444  
has sought an issue  in the double      
direction of instinct and intelligence4 
,it has not found  it in instinct and it
 has not obtained it upon the side of   
intelligence1  except by a sudden leap  
from animal to man4 ,so that1 in the    
last  analysis1 man would be the raison 
d' tre of the entire organization  of   
life upon our planet4#aei ,he adds      
again1 however1 that this would  be but 
a manner of speaking1 and that there is 
nothing in reality but a  certain       
current of existence and an antagonistic
 current1 whence all the  evolution of  
life4 ,once more it will be asked1 how  
is this sudden leap1  so tremendous in  

its consequences1 to be conceived8 ,is  
it a leap in the  dark1 like the leap of
 a fish from the water into a rowboat8  
,is man thus  only a happy accident8 ,or
 must we see in the vital impulse1 or   
behind  it1 some real instrumentality of
 guidance8 ,if the original current of  
life is wholly blind and purposeless1 it
 would arrive nowhere1 or else  its     
arrival at humanity would be as much the
 result of chance as if it  were due to 
a fortuitous collocation of atoms4      
#aeh3 ,l'volution ,cratrice1 p4 #aab2   
,e4 ,t41 p4 #ajb4      #aei3 ,ibid41 pp4
 #bjj f42 ,e4 ,t41 pp4 #ahd f4    ,but  
let us return to ,bergson's favourite   
and beautiful figure of the  artist4    
,the effort to objectify the ideal1 and 
to put it in concrete  form in words or 
upon canvas1 is said to be precious     
though painful4 ,it  is precious and    
more precious than the work it results  
in1 because1  thanks to it1 we have     
drawn from ourselves not only all there 
was there1  but more than was there3 we 

have raised ourselves above             
ourselves4#afj      #afj3 ,hibbert      
,journal1 ,october1 #aiaa1 p4 #da4      
,is the ,divine ,artist subject to this 
kind of evolution8 ,in moments of       
creative activity does ,he thus avail   
,himself of a plus-power in the         
universe1 to use ,emerson's expression1 
and does ,he thus1 like the human       
artist1 raise ,himself above ,himself8  
,if so1 we must think of ,god as        
altogether such a one as we are1 rather 
than as the source and ground of  being 
and the life and light of men4 ,such a  
deity is rather to be  identified with  
the stream of life than with the        
,ultimate lying behind  both life and   
matter4 ,the ,divine ,artist1 so        
conceived1 would lack the  clearness of 
human prevision of ends1 and would be of
 a relatively lower  order of endowment4
 ,the striving of the vital impulse     
without foresight  of an end is of an   
infra-human rather than a super-human   
kind2 for even  a complete and perfect  

humanity1 ,bergson says1 would be that  
in which  these two forms of conscious  
activity intuition and intelligence     
attain their full development4#afa      
#afa3 ,l'volution ,cratrice1 p4 #bhi2   
,e4 ,t41 p4 #bfg4    ,a recent critic   
has said that while ,bergson has removed
 the mechanical  obstacles to liberty he
 has not discovered the spiritual       
conditions  requisite for it1 and that  
he has1 most unintentionally1 brought us
  back1 in this anti-,finalism1 to that 
,naturalism which he has so             
successfully resisted when it           
masqueraded as a sheer ,mechanism4#afb  
,there can be no doubt that the spirit  
of his philosophy is one of  progress1  
and that the tendency of his thought is 
spiritualistic2 his  lan vital is an lan
 en avant1 and his ,god 7if one be      
admitted in  his system7 is a ,god of   
hope4 ,but the questions will still     
arise  whether the vital impulse means  
for society a destructive radicalism or 
a constructive renewal2 whether1 in its 

ethical aspect1 it means a  will-to-live
 no matter what happens to any one else1
 or a  will-to-live-better2 and whether 
it will eventually be transformed into  
a pessimistic resignation or transmuted 
into spiritual aspiration4      #afb3   
,f4 von ,hgel3 ,eternal ,life1 p4 #cja4 
,in the religious aspect of his         
philosophy1 ,bergson stands at the      
parting  of the ways4 ,he must associate
 with creation not merely an impulse    
vaguely psychical1 but the personal     
attributes of will1 intelligence and    
purpose1 and so advance towards theism2 
or else he must be content to  rest in  
naturalism1 albeit of a glorified type4 
,,ii4 ,,eucken ,,and ,,the ,,truth ,,of 
,,religion    ,since the death of       
,william ,james1 the brightest stars in 
the  philosophical firmament have been  
,henri ,bergson of ,paris and ,rudolf   
,eucken of ,jena4 ,one reason for the   
popularity of both is that the centre   
of interest in their best-known works is
 not in epistemology4 ,they do  not     

approach the problem of existence as    
beholders1 merely asking how  they can  
see1 and whether what they see is real1 
but their standpoint is  that of        
intimate1 vital human experience4 ,both 
writers place themselves  in the stream 
of life1 and find that the moments of   
deepest insight into  reality are those 
of creative activity in art or other    
constructions of  the mind1 or else1    
with ,eucken1 of moral achievement and  
victory4    ,eucken has been called the 
,german ,emerson1 and his message to his
 time  is that of a seer rather than of 
a systematizer4 ,he is the prophet of a 
spiritual life1 protesting against      
materialism and secularism1 and         
vindicating the sovereign rights of the 
spiritual aspects of existence4  ,in the
 term ,activism1 which he applies to his
 philosophy1 he intimates  that there   
must be an activity of the soul upon its
 material and social  environment1      
before the insights of philosophy and   
the achievements of  art and the        

experiences of religion can be attained4
 ,there must be an  assertion by the    
soul of its own spiritual nature4 ,the  
conviction that  man is not merely the  
product of nature1 but in his spiritual 
life is  independent and supreme1 is not
 the result of a revelation to a passive
  recipient4 ,it is an achievement1 a   
venture of faith1 a self-assertion of   
the soul in the face of hostile forces  
which would confine it within the       
trivial and the phenomenal4    ,eucken's
 relation to ,christianity will appear  
if we notice briefly 7#a7  his critique 
of other philosophical theories2 7#b7   
his own constructive  theory of         
religion2 and 7#c7 his answer to the    
question1 ,can we still be  ,christians8
    #a4 ,as an exponent of the monistic 
trinity of the ,good1 the ,beautiful1   
and the ,true1 ,eucken is brought into  
comparison with his famous  colleague1  
,haeckel1 with whose brand-new monism he
 has little  sympathy4 ,against         
,naturalism1 ,eucken holds that the life

 of man in its  ideal constructions such
 as science1 art1 morality and religion1
 cannot  be explained from below1 but   
only from the ,higher in him and above  
him4  ,from the material supplied to it 
by nature the soul1 out of its own      
activity1 builds the more stately       
mansions of science1 philosophy1 art1   
social organization and religion4 ,a    
consistent naturalism1 he  contends1 is 
not able to permit science of any kind4 
,science is  constructed through the    
activity of the human mind alone4#afc   
#afc3 ,der ,wahrheitsgehalt der         
,religion1 #c;d ed41 #aiab1 p4 #cf2     
,e4 ,t41 ,the ,truth of ,religion1      
#aiac1 p4 #eb4    ,against ,pragmatism1 
with which ,eucken's ,activism has some 
superficial  resemblance1 he argues for 
the independent character of reality    
over  against our experience of it4 ,he 
believes that our deepest nature can  be
 called into action only by the         
recognition of an ,ought1 which has an  
existence and value of its own1         

regardless of the opinions of any group 
of individuals or of the whole human    
race4 ,when the good of the  individual 
and of humanity becomes the highest aim 
and the guiding  principle1 truth sinks 
to the level of a merely utilitarian    
opinion4444  ,truth can exist only as an
 end in itself4 ',instrumental' truth is
 no  truth at all4#afd      #afd3 ,main 
,currents of ,modern ,thought1 p4 #gh4  
,the method of the intellectualist as   
well as of the voluntarist is           
inadequate to reach the truth of        
religion4 ,religion should be a fact of 
the whole man1 and of his own decision1 
and it should recognize by a  unique    
experience1 which cannot be called      
exclusively feeling or thought  or will1
 an encompassing and basal whole4       
,thought left simply to its  own        
resources would never be able to get    
beyond empty forms and highly  abstract 
conceptions4#afe ,no merely intellectual
 form of religion is  able to overcome  
doubt4 ,thus the transformation of the  

,spiritual ,life  into an impersonal    
thought-process destroys it to its very 
foundation4      #afe3 ,der             
,wahrheitsgehalt der ,religion1 p4 #aba2
 ,e4 ,t41 ,the    ,truth of ,religion1  
p4 #agf4    #b4 ,this effort1 already in
 part described1 to assert an           
independent  spiritual world over       
against a natural world1 this           
recognition of  over-individual         
standards and of an absolute1           
self-subsistent ,spiritual  ,life       
7,geistesleben71 is called ,universal   
,religion4 ,the term ,godhead to        
indicate this conception is in some ways
 preferable to that of ,god4 ,a  higher 
stage of religion is indicated by       
,eucken's term ,characteristic          
,religion1 by which is meant a deeper   
insight into the divine1 a more         
personal experience of the divine energy
 of ,spiritual ,life4 ,universal        
,religion1 it may be said1 is the demand
 or the feeling after ,god2 while       
,characteristic ,religion is the supply 

or the finding of ,god4 ,in the  effort 
to conform to the over-individual       
standards and to attain harmony  with   
the divine1 there is an inevitable sense
 of weakness and failure4  ,it becomes  
evident that man's own energy cannot    
save him from inner  discord4 ,if a     
rescue is possible1 ,divine power and   
grace must do the  work4 ,that such     
power and grace really accomplish this1 
is the  fundamental conviction of       
religion4#aff ,there originates a mutual
  intercourse with the soul and ,god as 
between an ,i and a ,thou2 and          
consequently1 there culminates here a   
movement away from the colourless       
conception of the ,godhead to that of a 
living and personal ,god4#afg      #aff3
 ,der ,wahrheitsgehalt der ,religion1 p4
 #bie2 ,e4 ,t41 p4 #dbe4      #afg3     
,ibid41 p4 #bii2 ,e4 ,t41 p4 #dcj4      
,eucken's teaching has been called a    
philosophical restatement of            
,christianity4 ,he reiterates in        
philosophical language the theological  

doctrines of sin1 of the new birth1 of  
divine grace1 and of the  supremacy of  
,christian love4 ,his argument for      
immortality is the  religious argument3 
,the ,infinite ,power and ,love that has
 grounded a new  spontaneous nature in  
man1 over against a dark and hostile    
world1 will  conserve such a new nature 
and its spiritual nucleus1 and shelter  
it  against all perils and assaults1 so 
that life as the bearer of life  eternal
 can never be wholly lost in the stream 
of time4#afh      #afh3 ,der            
,wahrheitsgehalt der ,religion1 p4 #cjc2
 ,e4 ,t41 pp4 #dce f4    #c4 ,from our  
exposition thus far it would seem       
unnecessary to ask the  question1 ,can  
we still be ,christians8 and we are not 
surprised that  ,eucken's answer is1 ,we
 not only can but must be               
,christians4#afi ,a  closer examination 
of his teaching shows that this         
question1 and even  the previous        
question1 ,can we still be theists8 may 
naturally be raised4  ,it is true that  

,eucken recoils from pantheism as       
lessening the energy of  life1#agj and  
declares that the transcendence of the  
,divine must be  asserted2 but on the   
other hand we are warned that the notion
 of the  personal is here only a symbol 
for something transcending all          
conceptions and words4#aga ,it is too   
emotional and anthropomorphic4  ,eucken 
will not declare unqualified allegiance 
either to pantheism1 to  theism in its  
usual form or to agnosticism4 ,in the   
,spiritual ,life the  opposition of     
monism and dualism1 and apparently of   
the personal and the  impersonal1 are   
transcended4 ,the overcoming of         
opposites in a way  impossible for      
reason is precisely the office and      
prerogative of  religion4 ,it is to be  
noticed in his account of spiritual life
 that  prayer1 the core of religion1 is 
singularly absent2 and in his           
exposition of ,christianity he gives no 
prominence to the ,fatherhood of  ,god1 
central as that conception was in the   

teaching of ,jesus4      #afi3 ,knnen   
wir noch ,christen sein8 #aiaa1 p4 #bcf2
 ,e4 ,t41 ,can    ,we ,still ,be        
,christians8 p4 #bah4      #agj3 ,ibid41
 p4 #aed2 ,e4 ,t41 p4 #adc4      #aga3  
,ibid41 p4 #abi2 ,e4 ,t41 p4 #abj4      
,with the doctrine of personality thus  
loosely held1 it is no wonder that      
there are many elements in ,christianity
 as usually understood which are        
uncongenial to ,eucken's mode of        
thought4 ,we cannot1 he says1 confine   
the  union of ,god and man to one unique
 instance1 and we must demand an        
immediate relationship between ,god and 
man throughout the whole breadth  of the
 ,spiritual ,life2 nor can we make the  
expression of divine love and  grace    
dependent upon its one expression in    
,jesus ,christ4#agb ,one time  cannot   
set the standard for all time1#agc nor  
one historical person1  absolutely1 for 
all persons4 ,the denial of sensible    
miracle1 he allows1  cuts deep into     
historical ,christianity1 but such a    

denial is  necessary4#agd ,to affirm    
miracle is to make the spiritual too    
dependent  on the sensible1 and such a  
central miracle as the ,resurrection    
would  mean an overthrow of the total   
order of nature1 as this has been set   
forth through the work of modern        
investigation4#age      #agb3 ,knnen wir
 noch ,christen sein8 p4 #ahf2 ,e4 ,t41 
p4 #agb4      #agc3 ,ibid41 p4 #bh2 ,e4 
,t41 p4 #bg4      #agd3 ,ibid41 p4 #afg2
 ,e4 ,t41 p4 #aee4      #age3 ,der      
,wahrheitsgehalt der ,religion1 p4 #cgj2
 ,e4 ,t41 p4 #ebg4    ,however great the
 figure of ,jesus may be1 ,his greatness
 must be confined  to the realm of      
humanity4 ,if ,jesus1 therefore1 is not 
,god1 if ,christ  is not the second     
,person in the ,trinity1 then ,he is    
man2 not a man like  any average man    
among us1 but still man4 ,we can1 then1 
revere ,him as a  leader1 a hero1 a     
martyr2 but we cannot directly bind     
ourselves to ,him  or root ourselves in 
,him 7bei ihm festlegen72 we cannot     

submit to ,him  unconditionally4 ,still 
less can we make ,him the object of a   
cult4 ,to do  so would be nothing less  
than an intolerable deification of a    
human  being4#agf      #agf3 ,knnen wir 
noch ,christen sein8 p4 #cg2 ,e4 ,t41   
pp4 #cd f4    ,what of those1 we may    
ask1 who in religious experience find   
themselves  rooted and grounded in      
,christ8 ,eucken's readers cannot expect
 relief  from this quarter1 for         
religious experience1 he holds1 is too  
subjective  and human to ground an      
inference to the nature of ,spiritual   
,life4#agg ,it  is evident that ,eucken 
has cut deep into ,christianity alike on
 its  historical1 its doctrinal and its 
experiential sides4 ,he distinguishes   
between form and substance1 but         
acknowledges that religion has lost     
unspeakably much through the upheaval of
 the old form2#agh and that  this must  
somehow be made good4 ,we might1 without
 violence in the  comparison1 imagine   
the case of a ,mohammedan who1 trained  

in modern  modes of thought but clinging
 to old associations1 asked himself the 
question1 ,can we still be ,mohammedans8
 ,yes1 he might reply1 but we  must     
retain only the essence or soul of      
,mohammedanism--its monotheism4  ,the   
historical body or existential form of  
,mohammedanism1 namely1 that  ,mohammed 
was the prophet of ,god and that the    
,koran is a revelation from  heaven1    
must be given up4 ,and even when we     
speak of the unity and  personality of  
,god1 we must remember that we are      
employing symbol and  metaphor4         
#agg3 ,eucken's neglect of the          
experiential standpoint is a common     
complaint among his critics4 ,see ,m4   
,booth3 ,r4 ,eucken3 ,his    ,philosophy
 and ,influence1 p4 #aii4      #agh3    
,the ,truth of ,religion1 p4 #egg4 ,the 
,german1 p4 #djd1 is    less emphatic4  
,eucken presents the remarkable         
phenomenon of a man whose thought is    
saturated with ,christian influence1 who
 appreciates the moral power and        

splendour of ,christianity and its      
regenerative effects in history1 and    
yet is unable to reconcile its          
distinctive features with the           
fundamental  concepts of his philosophy4
 ,he shows the close connection of the  
questions1 ,what think ye of ,christ8   
and1 ,what think ye of ,god8 and that   
assured belief in the personality of    
,god and in ,his incarnation in a       
,person belong together4 ,no one cometh 
to the ,father but by me4 ,that a       
,christianity such as ,eucken preaches1 
removed from supports in history1  in   
authoritative doctrine1 in religious    
experience1 perhaps even in a  rational 
theism1 can retain its moral power and  
act as a spiritual lever  for the       
elevation either of the masses or the   
classes1 remains to be  proved4    ,our 
twentieth century philosophers are the  
prophets of a new age4  ,bergson's      
teaching opens before each individual   
and before humanity new  possibilities  
of achievement1 as1 in obedience to the 

vital impulse1 the  army of humanity    
rushes on in an overwhelming charge1    
able to beat down  every resistance and 
clear the most formidable obstacles1    
perhaps even  death4#agi ,eucken1 with  
the more serious burden of a moral      
message1 has  proclaimed with voice and 
pen the gospel of a new spiritual life  
and a  new spiritual world4 ,do not     
these twentieth century prophets recho  
in a  certain sense1 each in his own    
language1 the message which was heard   
among the ,galilean hills in an age from
 which the centuries are  measured1     
,repent1 for the ,kingdom of ,heaven is 
at hand8      #agi3 ,l'volution         
,cratrice1 p4 #bid2 ,e4 ,t41 p4 #bga4   
,,iii4 ,,ward ,,and ,,the ,,realm ,,of  
,,ends    ,our ,english speaking        
philosophers1 in the more usual fashion1
 base their  religious philosophy upon a
 theory of knowledge4 ,it is noticeable1
  however1 that both ,james ,ward and   
,josiah ,royce1 while belonging to the  
idealistic tradition coming down from   

,kant and ,hegel1 show the influence  of
 a revolt from that tradition4 ,ward    
begins with the many1 with  pluralism1  
while he ends with the one2 and ,royce  
declares himself an  advocate of        
,absolute ,pragmatism4    ,the great    
services of ,ward to religious          
philosophy in his ,realm of  ,ends are1 
first1 his transition from pluralism to 
theism1 and1 second1  his demonstration 
anew of the strength of the             
philosophical argument for  immortality4
    #a4 ,his theistic argument in a     
nutshell is this1 that while there is no
  road from the ,one to the ,many1 there
 is an open road from the ,many to  the 
,one1 with sign-posts upon the way4 ,we 
must start with pluralism1  says ,ward1 
because no reason can be given why the  
,one1 in whatever way  conceived1 should
 become the ,many4 ,why should the      
homogeneous become  heterogeneous1 or   
the indeterminate determinate1 or why   
should the  absolute become split up    
into finite spirits8 ,a creation out of 

nothing  cannot1 for ,ward1 solve the   
problem1 for his conception of creation 
is  that of intellective intuition1 in  
which ,god as subject is necessary  to  
the existence of the world as object1   
but the world1 from this  standpoint1 is
 equally necessary to ,god4    ,there is
 no way of passing1 then1 from an       
absolute ,one to the ,many1 from        
singularism to pluralism4 ,we must start
 with ,babel and achieve1 if we  can1   
one language and one speech4 ,in its    
modern form ,pluralism is a  revolt     
alike from nineteenth century           
,absolutism1 which was the dominant     
school in ,germany and ,england1 and    
from the ,naturalism brought to the     
fore by the advance of scientific       
research1 and interpreting mind in      
terms of nature4 ,pluralism has been    
called a means of escape alike from     
,naturalism's desert and the barren     
summit of the ,absolute4 ,the ancient   
pluralism took the form of atomism1 but 
the concourse of atoms may  account for 

rigidity and uniformity but not for     
spontaneity4 ,the modern  type of       
pluralism1 starting at the level of     
self-consciousness1 posits a  multitude 
of monads or individuals acting towards 
self-conservation and  self-realization1
 and can1 it is believed1 do full       
justice alike to law  and contingency1  
to spontaneity and fixity4 ,the         
pluralist1 operating on  the principle  
of continuity1 assumes that there are   
conscious  individuals or monads in     
various degrees lower than man down to  
the  minimal point of complete          
unconsciousness2 and higher             
consciousnesses  than man up to a being 
who may be called in a sense supreme1   
but is  never more than one of the many1
 not inclusive of them1 and1 however    
exalted1 is never more than primus inter
 pares4    ,the modern pluralist as     
described by ,ward is a pampsychist2 he 
believes that all existence is          
soul-like4 ,there is a multiplicity of  
soul-like beings of various grades of   

development1 some dominating1 some      
serving1 conative and cognitive         
individuals bent on self-conservation   
and seeking the good4#ahj ,all existence
 is soul-like1 although1 in what  we    
call inorganic matter1 these cognitive  
and conative monads have  been largely  
denatured and reduced to the semblance  
of mechanism and  routine4 ,they have   
become finished and finite clods1       
untroubled by a  spark4      #ahj3 ,the 
,realm of ,ends1 #aiaa1 p4 #bbc4    ,the
 pluralist assumes at the outset a      
multiplicity of soul-like beings2  but  
he cannot explain satisfactorily their  
inter-action1 or their action  towards a
 common end4 ,if1 indeed1 a pluralistic 
standpoint were  hopelessly infected    
with contradictions1 as the ,eleatics   
might hold1  then the way to theism     
would be hopelessly barred2 for from    
pluralism  speculation really always has
 and always must begin4#aha ,pluralism  
begins with the many and ends with the  
many4 ,but did it really begin at  the  

beginning1 and does it really reach the 
end8 ,pluralism1 ,ward  insists1 points 
both theoretically and practically and  
both forward  and backward beyond       
itself4#ahb      #aha3 ,the ,realm of   
,ends1 p4 #bbd4      #ahb3 ,ibid41 p4   
#dcf4    ,following ,ward in his        
transition from pluralism to theism1 we 
notice3  7#a7 ,the pluralist stops with 
the totality of a ,many in their        
inter-action regarded as the ultimate   
reality4 ,but this position is          
incomplete and unsatisfying4 ,a         
plurality of beings primarily           
independent  as regards their existence 
and yet always mutually acting and      
reacting  upon each other1 an           
ontological plurality that is somehow a 
cosmological  unity1 seems clearly to   
suggest some ground beyond itself4 ,the 
idea of  ,god presents itself to meet   
this lack4 ,but this idea of ,god would 
be  meaningless unless ,god were        
regarded as transcending the ,many2 so  
there  can be no talk of ,god as merely 

primus inter pares4#ahc ,there can be   
no democratic idea of ,god1 for by its  
very nature the idea of ,god  implies   
something unique and incomparable and   
sovereign4 ,the existence  of the ,many 
then looks back to the existence of the 
,one as ground or  creator4      #ahc3  
,the ,realm of ,ends1 p4 #bda4    ,the  
pluralistic view1 then1 does not1 apart 
from theism1 make a unified  world2 a   
pluralistic universe is in fact a       
contradiction in terms4 ,such  a        
unifying conception as theism affords   
answers to the subject in  relation to  
the manifold objects of experience2 in  
fact it is doubtful  if an absolute     
pluralism is a possible conception since
 we never know of  the ,many apart from 
the ,one4 ,theism1 again1 in its        
doctrine of a  dominant monad and a     
supreme world spirit1 is in agreement   
with the  generalizations of science4   
,all theories of the derivation of      
finite  spirits1 whether evolutionist1  
creationist1 or traducian1 agree in     

deriving the ,many from the ,one4       
7#b7 ,the coperation of the ,many also  
points in the direction of the ,one  if1
 as is generally assumed1 this          
coperation is towards any common  goal4 
,the coperation1 it may be said1 is due 
to chance1 a fortuitous  concourse of   
purposes2 but if there is a tendency to 
one end1 the  question is inevitable1   
,why should the ,many tend towards one  
end unless  they had in the ,one their  
source8 ,theism is reached as the       
alternative  of supposing that the      
inter-actions of the ,many are a mere   
welter of  happenings without meaning or
 purpose4 ,evolution and history show an
  increase of complexity and coperation1
 and if all things work together  it is 
natural to believe that all things work 
together for good4 ,the  ,god who knows 
all loves all1 and only the immanence of
 ,god in the world  as defined by theism
 can give assurance that the pluralist's
 ideal will  be fulfilled4#ahd ,apart   
from theistic belief there would be no  

reason to  expect progress on the whole1
 for a world entering upon a fresh      
evolution cannot start where it left off
 and may even begin in less  favourable 
conditions than before4 ,in a word1     
without such spiritual  continuity as   
theism alone seems able to ensure1 it   
looks as if a  pluralistic world were   
condemned to a ,sisyphean task4 ,per    
aspera ad  astra may be its motto1 but  
facilis descensus ,averno seems to be   
its  fate4#ahe      #ahd3 ,the ,realm of
 ,ends1 pp4 #bbi f4      #ahe3 ,ibid41  
pp4 #bad f4    ,further 7#c7 theism     
enriches and enhances the pluralist's   
ideal by all  the ineffable blessedness 
that the presence of ,god must yield4   
,to sum  up3 ,the theoretical demand for
 the ground of the world1 then1 as well 
as the practical demand for the good of 
the world1 is met by the idea  of       
,god4#ahf ,as related to the ,many the  
,one is the ultimate source of  their   
being and ultimate end of their         
ends4#ahg      #ahf3 ,the ,realm of     

,ends1 p4 #dbc4      #ahg3 ,ibid41 p4   
#ddb4    #b4 ,while ,ward is a          
,platonist alike in his belief in       
immortality and in  connecting that     
belief with the doctrines of the        
prexistence and  transmigration of      
souls1 his general argument for a future
 life follows  the more usual lines4 ,it
 is based upon both rational and moral  
grounds  and expressed with unusual     
beauty and power4    ,man's native      
capacities and preminently the moral law
 within him point  far beyond any       
ability he has in the present life1 and 
it is to be  assumed1 with ,kant1 that  
no organ1 no faculty1 no impulse1 in    
short  nothing superfluous or           
disproportionate to its use1 and        
therefore  aimless1 is to be met        
with4#ahh ,against a continuance of life
 there are  no valid objections to be   
raised4 ,we cannot prove a negative1 and
 the  burden of proof rests with those  
who deny its possibility4 ,the          
immortality of influence or of the race 

cannot be substituted for  personal     
immortality4 ,if humanity or society is 
an end in itself1 then  the persons who 
constitute it must share in this        
end4#ahi ,the  wearisome procession of  
generation after generation of mortals  
in  pursuit of an ignis fatuus1 all     
hoping1 all working for what none       
attain1 might divert a ,mephistopheles  
but would certainly not be a  realm of  
ends4#aij      #ahh3 ,the ,realm of     
,ends11 p4 #daa4      #ahi3 ,ibid41 p4  
#chi4      #aij3 ,ibid41 p4 #dbh4       
,the moral arguments for a future life  
are bound up with an estimate of  the   
worth of human personality1 but are     
ultimately rational as well4 ,if  death 
ends all1 not only are we of all        
creatures most miserable1 but ,god      
also1 if in this case ,he exists1 is    
mocked1 and the world whose highest     
ideals are not and cannot be fulfilled  
is without ultimate meaning4 ,we  have  
then the dilemma3 ,either the world is  
not rational or man does not  stand     

alone and this life is not all4 ,but it 
cannot be rational to  conclude that the
 world is not rational1 least of all    
when an  alternative is open to us that 
leaves room for its rationality--the    
alternative of postulating ,god and a   
future life4#aia      #aia3 ,the ,realm 
of ,ends11 pp4 #dji f4    ,a belief in  
transmigration is with ,ward organically
 connected with his  pluralism and      
pampsychism4 ,for the pluralist all the 
individuals there  are have existed from
 the first and will continue to exist   
indefinitely2#aib and it follows that   
'metempsychosis' in some form  seems an 
unavoidable corollary of thoroughgoing  
pampsychism1 so long as  we look broadly
 at the facts of life as a whole4#aic   
,the same doctrine  that all the        
individuals there are have existed from 
the first  affects1 it should be        
noticed1 the quality of ,ward's theism4 
,god is not  transcendent in time1 for  
we cannot conceive ,god without the     
world4 ,he  is not transcendent as being

 in ,his existence independent of the   
world1  for a ,god who is not a creator 
is an abstraction4#aid ,again ,he is not
  transcendent in the sense that ,he can
 now exercise creative power1 for  there
 can be no new creation since the       
beginning4      #aib3 ,the ,realm of    
,ends11 p4 #bjd4      #aic3 ,ibid41 p4  
#bac4      #aid3 ,ibid41 p4 #bde4       
,before pampsychism1 with its           
unavoidable corollary of metempsychosis1
  is adopted this theory itself should  
be subjected to a closer  examination4  
,while pampsychism has undoubted        
advantages as a  philosophical theory1  
it has serious difficulties as well4 ,it
 appears to  have but slight relation to
 the progress of science in any of its  
lines4  ,the whole scheme of evolution1 
from the inorganic through the vegetable
  to animal and man1 is seriously       
modified4 ,the movement is from         
consciousness to what is called matter1 
but consciousness seems to have         
suffered a sort of a fall2 for in the   

geologic and astronomic ages  before the
 introduction of life consciousness was 
at any rate reduced to  the vanishing   
point4 ,what1 then1 of the reality of   
those processes which  geology and      
astronomy describe8 ,their reality as   
more than an imaginary  prelude to human
 or animal life is open to question4    
,the physiologist1  moreover1 will      
contend that there is no evidence of the
 presence of  consciousness except in   
connection with a nervous system1 or    
will at  most admit a kind of diffused  
consciousness in all organic matter4    
,the  astronomer1 finally1 will think it
 strange to be told that while we       
cannot1 of course1 affirm that a star or
 a meteor or a cluster of  particles is 
an individual1 we must as pluralists    
believe that the  real beings these     
phenomena imply have some spontaneity   
and some  initiative4#aie      #aie3    
,the ,realm of ,ends1 p4 #dee4    ,both 
pampsychism and mechanism may be accused
 of pushing the principle  of continuity

 too far4 ,it is an error to reduce all 
objects and all  activities1 all        
thinking beings and all objects of our  
thought1 to  mechanism and its products 
and by-products1 thus explaining away   
the  peculiar nature of man as a        
conative and cognitive being4 ,but it is
  equally an error in the other         
direction1 it may be contended1 to      
reduce  all of reality1 by an           
exaggeration of anthropomorphism and a  
return  though in a refined form to the 
method of primitive animism1 to the     
analogy of social intercourse4    ,it is
 hazardous to stake the interests of    
theism upon a technical theory  of      
knowledge such as that upon which       
pampsychism is based4 ,one may          
gratefully appreciate the cogency and   
value of ,ward's theistic argument  in  
its general aspects without being       
convinced that the doctrine of          
pampsychism is the only1 or indeed the  
firmest1 basis upon which  theistic     
belief can be reared4      ,,iv4 ,,royce

 ,,and ,,the ,,problem ,,of             
,,christianity    ,our ,american        
philosopher1 ,josiah ,royce1 has always 
been occupied with  the religious       
aspects of philosophy1 but has of late  
shown a special  interest in the        
philosophical interpretation of the     
doctrines of the  ,christian ,faith4    
,his mature views are expressed in his  
essay on ,what is  ,vital in            
,christianity8 in his volume1 ,william  
,james and ,other ,essays  7#aiaa71 and 
in his ,lowell lectures1 ,the ,problem  
of ,christianity  7#aiac74    ,royce    
believes that if there is to be a       
philosophy of religion at all1  such a  
philosophy must include in its task the 
office of a positive and  of a deeply   
sympathetic interpretation of the spirit
 of ,christianity1  and must be just to 
the fact that the ,christian religion   
is1 thus far at  least1 man's most      
impressive vision of salvation1 and his 
principal  glimpse of the homeland of   
the spirit4#aif      #aif3 ,the ,problem

 of ,christianity1 ,i1 p4 #aa4    ,in   
,christianity ,royce finds a religion of
 loyalty1 defined as the  practically   
devoted love of an individual for a     
community4 ,christianity  is in its     
essence the most typical1 and so far in 
human history1 the  most highly         
developed religion of loyalty2#aig and  
it was in ,pauline  ,christianity that  
the ,christian ideas of the community1  
the lost state  of the individual and of
 atonement or grace first received their
 full  statement1 though not their      
complete formulation4 ,paul's addition  
to the  doctrine of love1 thought by    
himself to be inspired by the ,spirit of
 the  ,ascended ,lord1 consisted in his 
placing love to the church side by side 
with love to ,god and to one's          
neighbour4 ,christian love1 as ,paul    
conceived it1 takes on the form of      
,loyalty4 ,this is ,paul's simple but   
vast transformation of ,christian       
love4#aih      #aig3 ,the ,problem of   
,christianity1 ,i1 pp4 xvii4 f4         

#aih3 ,the ,problem of ,christianity1   
,i1 p4 #ih4    ,the reduction of what is
 vital in ,christianity to the so-called
 pure  gospel of ,christ1 as recorded in
 the body of the presumably authentic   
sayings and parables1 is to ,royce      
profoundly unsatisfactory4 ,if ,he had  
so viewed the matter1 the ,messianic    
tragedy in which ,his life-work         
culminated would have been needless and 
unintelligible4#aii ,what is  most vital
 in ,christianity is contained in       
whatever is essential and  permanent    
about the doctrines of the incarnation  
and atonement4#bjj      #aii3 ,william  
,james and ,other ,essays1 pp4 #adj f4  
#bjj3 ,ibid41 p4 #aee4    ,in these     
respects ,royce shows his sympathy with 
traditional ,christianity  as over      
against the standpoint of modern        
liberalism4 ,he protests in  effect1 in 
the first place1 against a reduced      
,christianity based upon  the ,synoptic 
teaching of ,jesus alone1 and upon this 
teaching only after  alleged ,johannine 

and ,pauline elements have been cut out4
 ,secondly1 he  finds that ,christianity
 includes doctrine as well as ethics4   
,and1 third1  he finds in ,paul's       
teaching not a perversion of the gospel1
 but a  developed statement of the      
central ideas of ,christianity4         
,unlike many philosophers1 ,royce takes 
an austere view of the misery and       
tragedy of sin1 as grave with the       
gravity of life1 and stern only as  the 
call of life1 to any awakened mind1     
ought to be stern4#bja ,the  sinner     
cannot save himself4 ,by his own deed he
 has banished himself to  the hell of   
the irrevocable4 ,if there is to be     
atonement which shall  reconcile the    
traitor to his own deed and the         
community to the act of  treachery      
against it1 an atonement stated in      
purely human terms1 it must  be an      
objective atonement1 not merely one of  
moral influence upon the  traitor4 ,it  
must be by some creative deed of loving 
ingenuity by which  the world is made   

better than it would have been had the  
treason never  been done4 ,thus the     
family of ,jacob was reunited in        
peculiarly tender  ties after the       
reconciliation4 ,through ,joseph's work 
all is made better  than it would have  
been had there been no treason at       
all4#bjb      #bja3 ,the ,problem of    
,christianity1 ,i1 p4 #abj4      #bjb3  
,ibid41 ,i1 p4 #cgj4    ,in his purely  
human and untheological treatment of sin
 and grace1  ,royce's thought has       
professedly moved within the limits of  
social  relationships4 ,sin is an act of
 broken faith or disloyalty to the      
community4 ,the sinner is restored from 
his estate of misery by the  saving     
grace of the community4#bjc ',atonement'
 and ',divine ,grace' may  be considered
 as if they were expressions of the     
purely human process  whereby the       
community seeks and saves1 through its  
suffering servants  and its ,spirit1    
that which is lost4#bjd      #bjc3 ,the 
,problem of ,christianity1 ,i1 p4 #cij4 

#bjd3 ,ibid41 ,i1 p4 xxxviii4    ,while 
,royce's exposition of sin and grace is 
full of suggestion and  insight1 it is  
more philosophical than ,biblical4 ,thus
 at important  points the contrast      
between ,paul and ,royce's              
interpretation of ,paul is  very        
striking4 ,royce hints at the divinity  
of the community1 while ,paul  asserts  
the divinity of ,christ4 ,royce says1   
,be loyal to the community1  while ,paul
 would say primarily1 ,believe in       
,christ and be loyal to ,him4  ,loyalty 
to the personal ,christ1 says a reviewer
 of ,royce's work1 has  been 7and surely
 is7 even a more vital element in       
,christianity than  loyalty to the      
community4#bje ,royce would say that by 
the grace of the  community we are      
saved2 while with ,paul the ,saviour is 
personal and it  was the vision of      
,christ1 not of the community1 that     
transformed his  life4      #bje3 ,h4   
,rashdall in ,mind1 ,n4 ,s4 #ia 7,july1 
#aiad71 p4 #daa4    ,again it is not    

easy to read the doctrine of the beloved
 community and  of the community as the 
source of grace into the words or the   
spirit of  the teaching of ,jesus4 ,the 
attempt1 however1 is made4 ,in the      
parable of  the ,prodigal ,son1 the     
voice of the father1 who is for the     
moment simply  the incarnation of the   
spirit of this community1#bjf is said to
 be the  voice of the family1 welcoming 
the wanderer2 and the joy of the father 
is the joy of the family in his return4 
,if this be so the father should  have  
said1 ,the family fellowship is         
restored1 instead of saying1 ,this  my  
son was dead and is alive again4        
#bjf3 ,the ,problem of ,christianity1   
,i1 p4 #cec4    ,even ,royce's ,old     
,testament illustration from the story  
of ,joseph1 where  we find a grievous   
betrayal and then a deed which leaves   
the community1  in this case the family1
 richer in love and more united in heart
 than if  the deed of betrayal had not  
been done1 does not support ,royce's    

principle that the ideal community is   
the saviour and the source of  atoning  
grace4 ,the story to be illustrative    
should have been reversed2  ,joseph     
should have been the betrayer and       
destroyer of the family life1  and then 
the brethren unitedly by their love and 
ingenuity should have  won him back4    
,how then does the loyal community which
 is to be the source of grace           
originate8 ,royce admits that it can    
only be by some miracle of  grace1#bjg  
and the problem becomes acute when we   
consider the origin of  the historical  
community of the ,christian ,church4    
,the usual view is that  here a miracle 
of grace has happened in the person of  
,jesus1 the author  and finisher of     
loyalty1 but in that case there could be
 no such  simplification of the problems
 of ,christology1#bjh as ,royce desires4
  ,who1 then1 was the founder of the    
,christian ,community8 ,it was not      
,paul1  for he found a community already
 in existence4 ,it was not the human    

,jesus1 though ,he gave the signal1 for 
we cannot say that1 speaking of  ,jesus 
as an individual man1 we know that ,he  
explicitly intended to found  the       
,christian ,church4#bji ,it was not the 
divine ,christ1 for the human  source of
 all later ,christologies must be found 
in the early ,christian  community      
itself4#baj ,we must in fact renounce   
our quest for the origin  of the        
,christian ,church1 for its foundation  
depended upon motives which  we cannot  
fathom by means of any soundings that   
our historical materials  or our        
knowledge of social psychology permit us
 to make4#baa ,such  recourse to a      
convenient agnosticism1 however         
rhetorically it may be  expressed1 does 
not bring us out of the circle1 that the
 church founded  itself1 and in that    
case1 as a source of grace1 saves       
itself4 ,the modern  man1 under ,royce's
 guidance1 is relieved from the problems
 of  ,christology only to find that     
those of ecclesiology are equally       

pressing4      #bjg3 ,the ,problem of   
,christianity1 ,i1 p4 #ahe4      #bjh3  
,ibid41 ,i1 p4 xxiii4      #bji3 ,ibid41
 ,i1 p4 #dah4      #baj3 ,ibid41 ,i1 p4 
#dae4      #baa3 ,ibid41 ,i1 p4 #dai4   
,the conception of the community is     
obviously fruitful alike in its  ethical
 and its theological implications1 and  
,royce's discussion of it1  so elevated 
in its tone1 will doubtless be for the  
strengthening of  hearts as he desires4 
,but inferences foreign to ,christian   
thought are  drawn when it is suggested 
that ,man the community may prove to be 
,god1#bab and that in this essentially  
social universe the community  is the   
,absolute4#bac ,this is the voice of    
,hegel rather than that of  ,paul4      
#bab3 ,the ,problem of ,christianity1   
,i1 p4 #dji4      #bac3 ,ibid41 ,,ii1 p4
 #bif4    ,in an essay on ,browning's   
theism ,royce has remarked3 ,to say ,god
 is ,love  is1 then1 the same as to say 
that ,god is1 or has been1 or will be   
incarnate1 perhaps once1 perhaps--for so

 ,browning's always monistic  intuitions
 about the relation of ,god and the     
world always suggest to  him--perhaps   
always1 perhaps in all our life1 perhaps
 in all men4#bad  ,the doctrine of the  
incarnation is thus acknowledged to be  
vital not  only for ,christianity but   
for theism as well4 ,the fact of the    
,incarnation1 as ,westcott has said1    
gives reality to that moral  conception 
of ,god as active ,love without which   
,theism becomes a  formula4#bae ,but the
 meaning of incarnation and its support 
of theistic  belief is weakened in      
proportion as it is interpreted not in  
an  historical sense but as an          
incarnation perhaps always1 perhaps in  
all  men4      #bad3 ,the ,new ,world1  
,vol4 ,v1 #ahif1 p4 #daf4      #bae3    
,the ,epistles of ,john1 p4 #ge4    ,in 
his emphasis upon the incarnation and   
atonement1 ,royce has shown a  profound 
appreciation of what is vital in        
,christianity1 but his  discussion shows
 also that these doctrines themselves1  

in being removed  from their historic   
setting and adapted to the requirements 
of a  philosophical theory1 may easily  
lose what is for religion their most    
vital elements4    ,each of our four    
philosophers has performed an important 
service for  religious thought4 ,bergson
 has made an effective protest against  
materialism4 ,eucken has asserted the   
reality of the spiritual world4  ,ward  
has strengthened the philosophical      
foundations of belief in ,god and       
immortality4 ,royce has found in the    
distinctive ideas of ,christianity  the 
crown of religious philosophy4    ,the  
deeper thought of our age1 judged by its
 leading exponents1 has been  working   
towards ,christianity and not in the    
opposite direction4 ,it has  broken away
 from materialism with its denial of a  
spiritual world4 ,it  has broken away   
from an idealism which denies           
personality in ,god and  man4 ,it has   
been strongly attracted to              
,christianity1 and influenced in  its   

intellectual constructions by the       
teaching of ,christ and of the          
,apostles4 ,it is at one with           
,christianity in its ethical standpoint 
and  emphasis4 ,the ,cross is no longer 
foolishness to the ,greek1 when leaders 
of philosophic thought find in          
,christianity their brightest glimpse   
into  the homeland of the spirit1 the   
source of their deepest insights into   
truth1 the inspiration of their most    
fruitful activity and the key to  the   
solution of their profoundest problems4 
,v      ,the ,christian ,faith and      
,other ,religions    ,four universals   
were contained in the last commands of  
the ,risen ,christ3  ,all authority has 
been given unto me4 ,go1 disciple all   
the nations1  teaching them to observe  
all things that ,i have commanded you3  
and lo1 ,i  am with you all the days4   
,if the marching orders of the ,church  
were to  be obeyed1 the ,christian      
,faith must be brought into contact and 
into  conflict not only with ,judaism   

but with all the ethnic faiths4 ,if its 
program is to be carried out            
successfully1 ,christianity must        
supersede  all other religions4 ,in this
 lecture we must consider the relation  
of  ,christianity to ancient religions1 
or those prevalent in the ,roman        
,empire at the time of its founding1 and
 then its relation to modern  religions4
      ,i4 ,,christianity ,,and ,,ancient
 ,,religions    ,that the religion of   
the cross1 which started in a despised  
and  persecuted sect among a people     
without intellectual or military        
prestige1 should in three centuries     
become the state religion of the  ,roman
 ,empire1 is often spoken of as the     
miracle of history4 ,the early          
missionary could not appeal to military 
force or to an obviously  superior type 
of civilization1 and the wonder is not  
that ,christianity  conquered the ,roman
 world but that it ever secured a       
foothold at all4  ,the familiar argument
 has been3 ,we can account for the      

progress of  ,christianity1 against     
obstacles and without outward aids1 only
 upon the  assumption that a divine     
power was working within4    ,since the 
rise of the religious-historical school 
in ,germany some  dozen years ago1 the  
question of ,christianity's relation to 
contemporary  religions has come up in a
 new form1 and has been brought into the
  foreground of theological discussion4 
,the victory of early ,christianity1  it
 is asserted1 is due to the fact that   
,paul not merely presented it to  the   
,romans in a juridical form1 but that he
 preached the myth or mystery  of a     
dying and rising ,saviour to the myth   
loving ,greeks2 and it is even  said    
that the ,new ,testament portrait of    
,christ1 whatever historical  reality   
lies behind it1 is in fact a sort of    
glorified composite  photograph made out
 of the elements of a ,jewish ,messiah1 
a ,greek ,apollo  or ,adonis and an     
,egyptian ,osiris4 ,the claim is made by
 the more extreme  members of the       

religious-historical school that every  
feature of  ,christianity that was      
supposed to be original1 and indeed     
practically  the whole ,gospel          
narrative1 can be parallelled closely or
 remotely in  ,persian1 ,hindu1 ,syrian1
 ,egyptian or ,greek religious          
literature1 or in  the ,old ,testament  
and the teaching of the philosophers4   
,the reasons for ,christianity's triumph
 over other religions may be still  to  
seek1 but its claim to supernatural     
authority is called in question  by the 
recent movement in scholarship which has
 taken as its motto1 ,the  study of the 
,christian ,faith in the light of the   
history of religions4  ,it would be     
strange indeed1 a writer has remarked1  
if such parallels  did not raise new    
questionings in the place of old        
certainties4 ,if the  accounts of       
miraculous births and resurrections are 
plainly fabulous  when we meet with them
 in other faiths1 are they necessarily  
historical  when they occur in the      

,christian ,scriptures8 ,at any rate we 
feel that  stringent evidence will be   
required to prove them so4#baf          
#baf3 ,j4 ,warschauer3 ,american        
,journal of ,theology1 ,july1 #aiab1    
p4 #ccf4    ,when we study the relation 
between early ,christianity and the     
religions  of the time it is clear that 
some established principles are needed  
to  control the comparison4 ,when it is 
discovered1 for instance1 that          
,confucius had seventy-two disciples and
 an inner circle of ten select  ones1   
and that he spoke the ,golden ,rule in a
 negative form1 does it  follow that the
 ,gospel accounts of the choice of the  
twelve and of the  seventy were borrowed
 from ,confucius8 ,clemen's formulation 
of the  principles that must govern the 
comparison will be generally accepted3  
7#a7 ,a religious-historical explanation
 is impossible if it leads to  untenable
 consequences or proceeds from untenable
 presuppositions4 7#b7  ,the sense of   
the ,new ,testament passage1 as well as 

the contents of the  non-,jewish idea1  
must first be fully ascertained4 7#c7   
,we ought never to  assume that ideas of
 an advanced religion have been         
altogether borrowed1  until we have done
 our best to discover any germs of them 
in the native  religious literature4    
7#d7 ,the non-,jewish idea that is      
brought in as an  explanation must      
really in some degree correspond to the 
,christian one4  7#e7 ,this element must
 have been already in existence3 an idea
 that is  subsequent in its emergence   
cannot1 of course1 have given rise to   
one  previously existent4 7#f7 ,it must 
be shown in regard to any foreign idea  
that it was really in a position to     
influence ,christianity1 or ,judaism    
before it1 and how4#bag ,to these might 
be added that the possibility of        
coincidence must not be overlooked4     
#bag3 ,primitive ,christianity and ,its 
,non-,jewish ,sources1 #aiac1    pp4    
#ag1 #ah4 ,principle 7#c7 is quoted from
 ,cheyne4    ,with these principles1    

most of them self-evident1 in our minds1
 let us  glance at the topics of        
immediate interest in our present field3
 7#a7  ,the ,virgin ,birth and its      
parallels2 7#b7 the worship of ,christ  
and the  ,emperor-cult2 and 7#c7        
,christianity and the ,mystery          
,religions4    #a4 ,in its relation to  
the stories of current mythology1 the   
,virgin ,birth  was a subject of active 
discussion in the time of the fathers4  
,the  patristic apologists make two     
points in referring to the mythological 
parallels4 ,on the one hand1 the        
similarity of the ,gospel story in its  
supernatural element to the stories     
prevalent at the time is appealed to  in
 order to commend it to the acceptance  
of the ,greeks4 ,thus ,justin  says3 ,we
 propound nothing different from what   
you believe regarding  those whom you   
esteem sons of ,jupiter4#bah ,similarly 
,origen says3 ,there  is no absurdity in
 employing ,grecian histories to answer 
,greeks with a  view to showing that we 

are not the only persons who have       
recourse to  miraculous narratives of   
this kind4#bai ,on the other hand1 the  
difference between the ,christian and   
the heathen stories is appealed to  as  
proof of the moral and historical       
superiority of the ,gospel  narratives4 
,justin says that the ,virgin conceived 
not by intercourse  but by power2#bbj   
and ,origen1 referring to a tradition   
about the birth  of ,plato1 says that   
such stories are veritable fables4#bba  
#bah3 ,apol41 ,i1 #ba4      #bai3       
,contra ,cels41 ,i1 #cg4      #bbj3     
,apol41 ,i1 #cc4      #bba3 ,contra     
,cels41 ,i1 #cg4    ,the notion is      
popular to-day that stories of the birth
 of a god or a  hero from a virgin are  
common in non-,christian religions1 and 
the remark  is heard that the ,virgin   
,birth of ,jesus would be credible were 
it not  for these parallels4 ,a closer  
examination shows1 however1 that while  
supernatural births were the common     
property of most ancient religions1  the

 ,virgin ,birth was a distinctive and   
spontaneous feature of  ,christianity4  
,thus ,clemen remarks that what we find 
in ,indian thought  7at any rate in     
earlier times7 is not a ,virgin ,birth  
in the proper sense  of that term1 but  
only a miraculous birth1 and one of     
quite a different  type from the birth  
of ,jesus4#bbb ,alluding to the fact    
that ,buddhism was  so entirely outside 
the western range of vision as to be    
noticed very  meagrely in the ,greek and
 ,roman literature1 ,clemen says that if
 there  are similarities that cannot be 
accidental between this later           
,buddhistic  literature and the ,new    
,testament1 the question would arise    
whether the  former could not be        
dependent upon the latter1#bbc since    
,christianity  penetrated early to      
,india4      #bbb3 ,primitive           
,christianity1 pp4 #bid1 #bie4 ,clemen  
would himself    trace the idea of the  
,virgin ,birth to a passage in ,philo   
7,de4    ,cher4 #ac f47 in which the    

wives of the ,patriarchs represent      
virtues    7p4 #big74      #bbc3 ,ibid41
 p4 #cg4    ,clemen quotes ,franckh to  
the effect that none of these personages
 that  play the part of a mother-goddess
 is thought of as a virgin4 ,it is only 
in the course of time that ,ishtar is   
everywhere put in the place of the      
earlier mother-goddesses4444 ,as        
mother-goddess1 ,ishtar has no male god 
who permanently corresponds to her4     
,this is the reason why she is  vaguely 
spoken of as the 'virgin' ,ishtar4 ,but 
it must be emphatically  asserted that  
here the idea of virginity undergoes a  
vague  deflection4#bbd      #bbd3       
,primitive ,christianity1 p4 #bib4      
,of the parallels adduced1 only two are 
clearly cases of birth from a  virgin3  
,simon ,magus 7,clem4 ,recog4 ,,ii1 #ad7
 and a certain ,terebinthus  7,acta     
,archelai et ,manetis1 c4 #eb71 both of 
whom claimed to be born  from a virgin2 
but1 as ,grtzmacher remarks1 these      
stories arose under  ,christian         

influences and are found in             
post-,christian writings so that  they  
are not the root but the product of the 
,gospel narratives2#bbe and  ,e4        
,petersen admits that in these cases    
there may be a simple taking over  of   
the supernatural birth of ,jesus4#bbf   
#bbe3 ,die ,jungfrauengeburt1 #aijf1 p4 
#ca4      #bbf3 ,die wunderbare ,geburt 
des ,heilandes1 #aiji1 p4 #da4    ,in   
the ,grco-,roman myths there is always  
some fleshly or sensible  medium4 ,both 
the essential difference in the ,gospel 
narratives1 and the  lack of any proved 
avenue of influence leading to these    
narratives1 with  their strongly ,jewish
 colouring1 from heathen sources1 makes 
the theory  of derivation from these    
sources most improbable4    #b4 ,the    
famous ,priene inscription1 dated about 
the year #i ,b4 ,c41 has  shown that the
 titles given to the ,emperor ,augustus 
were strikingly  similar to those       
addressed by ,christians to ,christ4    
,the day of the  ,emperor's birth was of

 great significance for the human race2 
he is  called ,saviour of men1 he is to 
abolish war and bring general happiness2
  and the inscription declares that the 
birthday of the god was for the  world  
the beginning of tidings of joy on his  
account4#bbg ,both  religions again1 the
 worship of ,christ and the             
,emperor-cult1 were  universal          
religions1 the essential difference     
being that the former  excluded1 while  
the latter tolerated1 other forms of    
worship4 ,did the  ,christian ,church   
derive its worship of ,christ as ,lord1 
or even such  titles as ,saviour and    
,lord1 from the ,emperor-worship of the 
time8      #bbg3 ,see ,deissmann3 ,light
 from the ,ancient ,east1 p4 #cga4      
,the deification of a king was by no    
means an unfamiliar thing in the        
ancient and especially in the oriental  
world4 ,the kings of ,egypt are  said to
 have worshipped themselves4 ,to the    
offer of ,alexander the ,great  to      
rebuild the burnt temple of ,diana at   

,ephesus1 the shrewd reply of the       
priests1 not wishing to offend either   
,persia or ,greece1 was that it was  not
 fitting for one deity to build the     
temple of another4 ,the ascription  of  
divine honours to the ,emperor was a    
victory of eastern influences  over     
,roman thought4 ,emperor worship was    
7#a7 a compliment to the ruler2  7#b7 a 
kind of personification of the genius of
 the ,empire1 as perhaps in  the case of
 the ,mikado to-day2 and 7#c7 a         
convenient neutral religion1  since no  
existing cult could be universal1       
binding all peoples together  in a      
necessary religious bond4 ,while not    
taken very seriously by the  astute     
rulers themselves1 it may also have been
 to many minds an actual  breaking out  
of religious longing1 such as seems to  
be expressed in  ,vergil's ,fourth      
,eclogue1 for a heaven-sent deliverer   
and saviour4    ,to ,jews and           
,christians alike1 however1 the idea of 
the worship of the  ,emperor was in the 

highest degree abhorrent4 ,this is shown
 by the fierce  opposition to the       
setting up of the statue of ,caligula in
 the ,temple1 by  the refusal of the    
early ,christians to worship the genius 
of the ,csars  under pain of death1 and 
by the parallel accounts in the ,acts   
and  ,josephus of the death of ,herod1  
both ,jewish and ,christian authors     
describing his sudden death as a        
judgment upon his impiety in accepting  
divine honours4 ,with ,paul the setting 
himself forth as ,god was a mark  of the
 man of sin 7#b ,thess4 ii4 #c1 #d74 ,it
 is then improbable in the  highest     
degree that an idea so repellent alike  
to ,jewish and ,christian  thought could
 have been in any way responsible for   
the worship of ,christ  as divine4      
,but was it not possible that such      
titles as ,lord and ,saviour should  on 
,gentile soil have been unconsciously   
taken over by the ,christians1          
suggested to them by the growing use of 
these terms as addressed to the         

,emperor and their free ascription to   
heathen deities8 ,this position has     
been defended by ,bousset1 who says that
 it was in the air that the  first      
,hellenistic ,christian community should
 give to its cult-hero the  title       
,kyrios 7,lord74#bbh ,even this theory  
of an unconscious verbal  influence     
exerted on ,gentile soil is full of     
difficulty4 ,to maintain  that the title
 ,lord originated in the                
,gentile-,christian church it is        
necessary1 of course1 to discard the    
evidence of all the documents1 the      
,gospels1 the ,acts and the ,epistles4  
,it must be denied that ,jesus called   
,himself ,lord1 or that the title was   
given ,him in the ,jerusalem church4    
,doubt must be thrown upon the whole    
record of the apostolic days in the     
,acts2 and the evidence1 in ,paul's     
allusion to ,james1 the ,lord's  brother
 7,gal4 i4 #ai71 of the use of the title
 in the ,jerusalem church  must be      
ignored4      #bbh3 ,kyrios ,christos1  

#aiac1 p4 #aai4    ,bousset's theory is 
that ,paul did not originate the title  
but found it  already in use by the     
,gentile church4 ,but there is no       
evidence that at  the time of ,paul's   
conversion there was any church on      
,gentile soil that  was not composed1 in
 the main1 of former ,jews and of ,jews 
who had come  from ,jerusalem4 ,when it 
is said that between ,paul and the      
primitive  church of ,palestine stand   
the ,hellenistic churches in ,antioch1  
,damascus1  ,tarsus1#bbi it must be     
remembered that the church at ,damascus 
was  composed primarily of ,jerusalem   
,christians who were persecuted to      
foreign cities2 that the church at      
,antioch was founded by those from      
,judea1 and grew under the leadership of
 ,barnabas1 a priest and leader of  the 
,jerusalem church 7,acts xi4 #ai f42    
,gal4 ii4 #a1 #ab72 and that there is   
no evidence that there were any         
,christians at ,tarsus until the time of
  ,paul's visit 7,acts ix4 #cj2 ,gal4 i4

 #ba74 ,it is hard to see how there can 
be any question of an entirely new title
 spontaneously arising from the  heathen
 environment1 and free from the         
influence of the church at  ,jerusalem4 
#bbi3 ,kyrios ,christos1 p4 #ib4    ,if 
it be asked how ,jews could dare to     
apply the name ,kyrios1 the holy        
cult-name of the ,old ,testament ,jahwe1
 to ,jesus1 the answer is suggested  by 
,bousset himself when he says3 ,therein 
lay a piece of monotheistic  feeling3   
,god alone should be prayed to and      
worshipped4 ,this powerful  religious   
feeling1 free from all reflection1 has  
once and again in the  history of       
,christological dogma asserted          
itself4#bcj ,the essence of the  matter 
is that ,christian converts both ,jewish
 and ,gentile called upon  the name of  
the ,lord1 and worshipped ,him2 but it  
is evident that ,jesus  was first       
worshipped on ,jewish soil as ,king of  
,israel1 and ,lord in the  sense made   
familiar in the ,old ,testament 7,rom4  

x4 #i-ac2 ,acts ii4 #ag1  #ba71 before  
,he was worshipped on ,gentile soil as  
,king of ,kings and ,lord  of ,lords4   
#bcj3 ,kyrios ,christos1 p4 #cjb4       
,aside from all else it is highly       
improbable that in the time of ,paul's  
conversion the use of the title ,lord   
7,kyrios1 ,dominus7 as applied to the   
,emperor was so wide-spread as to have  
exercised any appreciable  influence    
upon ,christianity4 ,it would after all1
 ,bousset himself  acknowledges1 in     
spite of all analogies in substance and 
words1 be an  erroneous and over-hasty  
inference1 were we to bring the         
,christian  ,kyrios-cult and its origin 
into immediate connection with the cult 
of  the ,csars4 ,in the time and in the 
regions in which the ,kyrios-,jesus     
cult arose1 the worship of the ruler    
scarcely as yet had possessed so        
dominating a rle that the worship of    
,jesus as ,lord must be regarded as     
having arisen in conscious opposition to
 it4#bca      #bca3 ,kyrios ,christos1  

p4 #aac4    ,the conscious opposition no
 doubt came later1 as ,deissmann has    
suggested1 when the cult of the ,christ 
went forth into the ,roman world  and   
endeavoured to reserve for itself words 
which had just been  transferred to the 
deified emperors1 or had been invented  
for that  worship4 ,thus there arises1  
he says1 a polemical parallelism between
  the cult of the emperor and the cult  
of ,christ1 which makes itself felt     
where ancient words derived by          
,christianity from the treasury of the  
,septuagint and the ,gospels happen to  
coincide with solemn concepts of  the   
,imperial cult which sounded the same or
 similar4#bcb ,it was  inevitable that1 
as ,paul preached ,jesus ,christ as     
,lord1 the contrast  between the        
,christian worship and the worship of   
the ,csars should  suggest itself1      
together with their irreconcilable      
antagonism4 ,this  polemical parallelism
 is probably expressed in such titles as
 our  only ,master and ,lord 7,jude #d71

 ,every tongue shall confess that ,jesus
  ,christ is ,lord 7,phil4 ii4 #aa71 and
 ,king of ,kings and ,lord of ,lords    
7,rev4 xix4 #af74      #bcb3 ,light from
 the ,ancient ,east1 p4 #cdf4    #c4    
,the relation of ,paul to the ,mystery  
,religions of his time is a topic  which
 has of late been actively discussed4 ,a
 thesis now widely  maintained has been 
expressed by ,loisy in an epigrammatic  
form3 ,the  mystery of ,paul's          
conversion is his conversion to the     
mysteries4 ,to  discuss the question in 
all its bearings1 one would need a      
general  acquaintance with classical    
literature1 a special knowledge of      
religious  conditions in the early      
,roman ,empire1 and1 most important of  
all1 a  first-hand exegetical knowledge 
of ,paul's epistles4    ,a marked       
feature of the age in which the ,apostle
 lived was a merging of  deities1 and   
the practice of oriental cults side by  
side with the  official ,roman religion 
and the worship of the ,csar4 ,this     

syncretism  was promoted by the         
tolerance of an official religious      
indifferentism1  and by a pantheistic   
philosophy which was hospitable to the  
worship of a  multiplicity of deities as
 aspects of the ,one and the ,all4 ,at a
 time  when the ,orontes was pouring its
 waters into the ,tiber1 the mysteries  
of  the oriental religions were actively
 propagated in the ,west and  coalesced 
with the mysteries practiced among the  
,greeks4    ,in spite of the labours of 
philologists and archologists1 our      
knowledge  of the ritual of the various 
mysteries and even of the ideas         
symbolized  is comparatively slight4 ,it
 can still be said with ,cumont that1   
shut  out from the sanctuary like       
profane outsiders1 we hear only the     
indistinct echo of the sacred songs and 
not even in imagination can we  attend  
the celebration of the mysteries4#bcc   
#bcc3 ,les ,religions ,orientales dans  
le ,paganisme ,romain1 #b;d ed41        
#aiji1 p4 #ag2 ,e4 ,t41 ,the ,oriental  

,religions in ,roman ,paganism1         
#aiaa1 p4 #aa4    ,the moral effect of  
the mystery cults is also a matter of   
some doubt4  ,plato1 as we know 7,phdo1 
#fi ,d1 #ha ,a71 had a high opinion of  
the ,greek  mysteries2 but the cruel and
 sensual rites of the oriental religions
  scandalized the ,latin writers as well
 as the ,christian apologists4 ,even    
,cumont1 who thinks that the mystery    
cults were superior in their  religious 
appeal and influence to the cold1       
prosaic and austere ,roman  religion1   
admits that by the adoption of the      
mysteries barbarous1 cruel  and obscene 
practices were undoubtedly spread4#bcd  
,it is evident that  the oriental       
religions became spiritualized in course
 of time1 and that  the various deities 
at least of ,egypt and of ,syria came to
 be conceived1  in accordance with the  
dominant philosophy1 in a henotheistic  
or  pantheistic way4 ,uhlhorn thinks    
that oriental worship with all its      
distortions was more profound1 and      

contained unconscious presages of the   
,deity who has indeed in birth and death
 descended to redeem us4#bce      #bcd3 
,les ,religions ,orientales dans le     
,paganisme ,romain1 #b;d ed41 p4        
#cjh2 ,e4 ,t41 p4 #bjh4      #bce3      
,conflict of ,christianity with         
,heathenism1 p4 #cc4    ,when ,paul     
preached the mystery of ,god which is   
,christ 7,col4 ii4 #b71 he  incorporated
 into ,christianity1 it is said1 in     
adapting it to the  ,gentile world1     
features which were common to the       
mystery brotherhoods of  the day1 and   
virtually transformed it into a mystery 
religion4 ,pauline  ,christianity1 say  
the extreme advocates of this view1     
adopted its  vocabulary1 its missionary 
methods1 its philosophical and religious
  ideas1 its sacraments and symbolism1  
its mystical experiences and even  its  
organization1 from the compound of      
oriental mysticism and ,greek           
philosophy which was popular in the     
cities which ,paul visited4    ,the     

points in dispute will appear if we     
glance at the ,pauline doctrine  of the 
sacraments1 and of dying and rising with
 ,christ1 and then at the  ,pauline     
vocabulary4    ,that the ritual of the  
mysteries had something in common with  
the  ,christian sacraments is shown by  
the fact that the charge of borrowing   
was made from both sides in early times4
 ,the ,christian writers accuse  the    
heathen priests of a blasphemous parody 
of the ,christian sacraments  inspired  
by the spirit of lies1 and the priests  
retorted that the  sacraments were a    
plagiarism from the mysteries4 ,cumont  
believes that  both were much mistaken4 
,the material for comparison is somewhat
 meagre because baptism is not          
prominent in ,paul's epistles4 ,he never
 mentions his own baptism1 and1  aside  
from ,i ,corinthians i41 in which he    
says that he was not sent to  baptize1  
he uses the verb in but four passages   
7,i ,cor4 x4 #b2 xii4 #ac2  xv4 #bi2    
,gal4 iii4 #bg72 the noun in two 7,eph4 

iv4 #e2 ,col4 ii4 #ab72 and  both verb  
and noun in one passage 7,rom4 vi4      
#c-d74 ,in the mysteries there  were    
lustrations with salt water1 water of   
the ,nile and sacred water1  but little 
is known of the exact significance of   
the rituals4 ,kennedy is  not persuaded 
that it meant regeneration4#bcf ,there  
was no baptizing in  the name of the    
gods4      #bcf3 ,st4 ,paul and the     
,mystery ,religions1 #aiac1 pp4 #bbi ff4
    ,on the other hand we know little of
 any sacrificial meal in the  mysteries 
corresponding to the ,eucharist4        
,reitzenstein observes that  unless a   
happy chance sheds more light upon the  
use and meaning of the  mystery-meals   
common in most cults1 a comparison with 
the sacraments  remains only a play with
 possibilities4#bcg ,clemen thinks that 
both  the institution of the ,lord's    
,supper by ,jesus and its continued     
observance are fully explained without  
bringing in foreign  influences4#bch    
#bcg3 ,die ,hellenistische              

,mysterienreligionen1 #aiaj1 p4 #ea4    
#bch3 ,primitive ,christianity1 p4 #bdb4
    ,it is probable that the mystery    
cults exerted an influence upon the     
later development of sacramental        
doctrine1 but this is aside from our    
question4 ,thus ,wendt would place the  
influence of the mystery religions  upon
 the ,christian sacraments in the       
post-,pauline age1 and thinks that  to  
,acts we owe the undoubtedly correct    
tradition that these ,christian  rites  
go back to a date preceding the         
,hellenistic mission of ,paul1 and  must
 be sought for in the very earliest     
practice of the ,apostolic              
community4#bci ,hatch also believes that
 between apostolic and  post-apostolic  
times the sacraments were modified in   
important respects  under the influence 
of the mysteries4 ,the primitive 'see   
here is water1  what doth hinder me to  
be baptized8' passed into a ritual which
 at  every turn recalls the ritual of   
the mysteries4#bdj      #bci3           

,historical ,trustworthiness of the     
,book of ,acts1 ,hibbert    ,journal1   
,october1 #aiac1 pp4 #adf1 #adg4        
#bdj3 ,hibbert ,lectures1 #ahhh1 p4     
#bii4    ,those who push back the       
influence of the mysteries upon the     
sacraments  to the teaching of ,paul    
himself are compelled to interpret the  
,apostle's  language1 contrary1 we      
believe1 to the best exegetical         
tradition1 in a  physical or what is    
called an ex opere operato sense4 ,it is
  significant that when the sacraments  
are so interpreted they appear to  be a 
foreign element in ,paul's system4 ,it  
is no wonder that  interpreters like    
,heitmller and ,weinel1 who attribute a 
magical view of  the sacraments to      
,paul1 are concerned to point out that  
his  sacramentalism is a sort of erratic
 boulder in his system as a  whole4#bda 
,we are reminded of ,clemen's principle 
that the sense of the  ,new ,testament  
passage should be fully ascertained     
before dependence is  assumed4          

#bda3 ,kennedy3 ,st4 ,paul and the      
,mystery ,religions1 p4 #bhc4    ,when  
von ,dobschtz says that the unique      
sacramental conception of the  ,early   
,church1 which has no analogy in the    
history of religion because it  belongs 
essentially to the ,christian religion1 
has its origin solely in  ,christian    
faith and ,christian experience1#bdb the
 same may be said of  ,paul's doctrine  
of dying and rising again with ,christ4 
,when ,paul says  buried with him in    
baptism 7,rom4 vi4 #d and ,col4 ii4     
#ab71 he speaks of  no pantheistic or   
magical union with the deity such as    
seemed to  dominate the thought of the  
mysteries1 so far as their meaning can  
be  ascertained4 ,in both contexts ,paul
 immediately goes on to exhortation4    
,let not sin reign 7,rom4 vi4 #ab71     
,seek the things above2 mortify your    
members 7,col4 iii4 #a-e74 ,it should   
further be noticed that the passage     
most relied upon to prove ,paul's       
borrowing from the mysteries 7,rom4 vi47

  was addressed to a church which ,paul 
did not found1 composed of both  ,jewish
 and ,gentile ,christians4 ,the doctrine
 in question was not put  forth as a    
novelty1 but is assumed to be known to  
them3 ,are ye  ignorant1 etc48 7,rom4   
vi4 #c74      #bdb3 ,kennedy3 ,st4 ,paul
 and the ,mystery ,religions1 quoted1 p4
 #bgi4    ,paul's doctrine of dying and 
rising with ,christ is ethical rather   
than  metaphysical or magical or        
sacramental4 ,it is surprising to find  
how  little sacramental it is4 ,with no 
allusion to his own baptism or to the   
,lord's ,supper he says1 ,i have been   
crucified with ,christ4 ,the world is   
crucified to me and ,i to the world     
7,gal4 ii4 #bj2 vi4 #ad74 ,christ died  
for all1 therefore all died 7#b ,cor4 v4
 #ad74 ,to know ,christ1 to be  found in
 him1 to be transformed into his death  
7,phil4 iii4 #h f474 ,his  doctrine is  
based upon a personal experience of     
grace1 and this is  associated with the 
,cross rather than with the sacraments4 

,the bond  which mediated his union with
 ,christ in ,his death was faith4 ,it   
was  through faith that the ,spirit is  
to be received 7,gal4 iii4 #ad71 and    
even when he says1 ,christ liveth in me1
 he adds1 ,i live in the faith  of the  
,son of ,god 7,gal4 ii4 #bj1 and see    
,eph4 iii4 #ag74 ,he would gain  ,christ
 that he might have the righteousness of
 ,god through faith  7,phil4 iii4 #i74  
,the ,cross and not the sacraments was  
central alike in  the ,apostle's        
experience and in his doctrine of dying 
and rising with  ,christ1 and the bond  
of union between him and ,christ was    
faith4 ,there  was no mystical          
absorption of personality as in the     
,hermetic prayers3  ,thou art ,i1 and ,i
 am thou4    ,finally the ,pauline      
mystery was distinguished from the      
heathen mysteries  by its connection    
with an historical ,person4 ,in the     
,pauline mystery1 it  has been said1 the
 divine appeared in a concrete and      
comprehensible  guise1 and this         

connection of a religious principle with
 a ,person who  had walked upon earth   
and suffered death was a phenomenon of  
singular  power and originality4#bdc    
,there is a world of difference between 
the  nature-myths1 underlying the       
mysteries1 of the annually dying and    
rising  vegetation gods1 without        
historical reality1 and promising to the
  initiated release from transitoriness 
and mortality1 and the record of        
,christ who died for our sins1 and who  
being raised from the dead dieth  no    
more4 ,to say that ,paul not only       
conformed the ,lord's ,supper to the    
heathen mysteries1 but invented it in   
imitation of the mysteries1 is to       
accuse him of deliberate misstatement2  
for in a passage of unusual  solemnity  
7,i ,cor4 xi4 #bc ff471 he says that he 
received it of the ,lord1  and relates  
the circumstances of the institution of 
the ,supper by ,jesus  ,himself4        
#bdc3 ,bousset3 ,kyrios ,christos1 p4   
#adh4    ,the argument from vocabulary  

is relied upon by ,reitzenstein to prove
 the  influence of heathen ideas upon   
the thought of the ,apostle4 ,it is his 
theory that ,paul spent the two years of
 inner disturbance1 in part at  least1  
in the study of ,hellenistic religion   
and philosophy1 and that  this influence
 helped him in the construction of a new
 religion4 ,in  substance               
,reitzenstein's argument is that ,paul  
shows the use of  technical religious   
terms found in the ,hermetic writings1  
especially in  the ,poimandres2 and that
 the ,poimandres is to be dated earlier 
than  the ,shepherd of ,hermas2 and that
 the conceptions it embodies were       
current in the ,roman ,empire1 and in a 
literary form1 in the time of  ,paul4   
,the argument is twofold1 first1 that   
the ,hermetic writings were  current in 
the time of ,paul1 and1 second1 that    
,paul shows their  influence in his     
vocabulary4 ,as the date of the         
,poimandres1 the most  important of the 
,hermetic writings1 is in dispute1 the  

latter point may  be considered first4  
,in the ,pauline vocabulary             
,reitzenstein believes that we have an  
absolutely certain proof of the         
immediate influence of ,hellenism upon  
the ,apostle1 and at the same time a    
measure of its strength4#bdd ,only  when
 the existence and meaning of a         
religious literature in ,hellenism is   
assured and the sort of linguistic      
dependence is seen to depend on         
literary mediation is the opportunity of
 an explanation afforded4#bde  ,many    
words thought to be characteristically  
,pauline are said to have  been         
technical terms in the popular mystery  
cults of the day1 before the  ,apostle  
adopted them as the expression of his   
own religious teaching4      #bdd3 ,die 
,hellenistische ,mysterienreligionen1 p4
 #eh4 7,afterward    referred to for    
convenience as ,h4 ,m4 ,r47      #bde3  
,h4 ,m4 ,r41 p4 #bji4    ,without       
attempting to follow the argument in    
detail1 we may observe  7a7 that ,paul  

uses many of these terms in a different 
sense from that  of the ,hermetic       
literature4 ,compare1 for example1      
,paul's use of familiar  words such as  
salvation1 glory1 grace1 with that of   
the ,magic  ,papyri4 ,in ,hermes-,prayer
 ,i1 the petition is for health1        
salvation1  prosperity1 glory1 victory1 
power1 loveliness4#bdf ,so in ,prayer   
,,ii1  ,give me grace1 food1 victory1   
good luck1 loveliness1 etc4#bdg ,again  
in  ,hermes-,prayer ,,iii1 we read1     
,save me always from drugs and deceit1  
and  all witchcraft and evil tongues and
 all trouble1 from all hate both of     
,gods and men4 ,give me grace and       
victory and business and success2 for   
,thou art ,i1 and ,i am ,thou4444 ,i am 
thy image4#bdh ,in these prayers from   
the later ,hermes-,thot religion1 the   
,pauline terms are evidently used in  a 
worldly sense1 contrasting strongly with
 their use by ,paul4      #bdf3         
,reitzenstein3 ,poimandres3 ,studien zur
 griechisch-gyptischen    und           

frhchristlichen ,literatur1 #aijd1 p4   
#ah4      #bdg3 ,ibid41 p4 #bj4         
#bdh3 ,reitzenstein3 ,poimandres1 p4    
#ba4    7b7 ,much of the technical      
phraseology common to ,paul and the     
,hermetic  literature is current in the 
,old ,testament2 and with the language  
of the  ,old ,testament we know that    
,paul's mind was saturated4 ,clemen's   
maxim  should be observed1 and we should
 seek the source of an idea 7or word7   
in the native religion before going     
farther afield4 ,thus before ,paul's    
doctrine of the ,spirit is assigned with
 confidence to ,hellenistic  sources1   
the use of the term ,spirit both in the 
,old ,testament and in  pre-,pauline    
,christianity should be studied4 ,paul  
quotes the passage from  ,joel which    
promises the outpouring of the ,spirit  
7,rom4 x4 #ac f42 see  ,acts ii4 #ba74  
,he brings the ,spirit into connection  
with the blessing of  ,abraham 7,gal4   
iii4 #ad74 ,the ,spirit is also         
mentioned in the introduction  to the   

ministry of ,jesus alike by ,mark and by
 the non-,markan source4 ,a  sufficient 
and natural explanation of ,paul's      
doctrine of the ,spirit is  to be found 
in the ,old ,testament1 in ,evangelical 
tradition and in the  experience of the 
church at ,pentecost1 and in his own    
experience4 ,when  ,paul speaks of the  
,spirit of adoption whereby we cry1     
',abba1 ,father'  7,rom4 viii4 #ae2     
,gal4 iv4 #f71 we have to do not with   
remote literary  influences nor with the
 dry bones of any technical theology1   
,hebraic or  ,hermetic1 but with the    
heart-throb of personal experience4     
,reitzenstein believes that the ,pauline
 vocabulary is best explained by  the   
,hellenistic parallels1 but he          
recognizes that the parallelism with    
the ,old ,testament should be           
considered4 ,thus while he thinks that  
he has  shown parallels for all the     
,pauline uses of the word pneuma1 he    
says  whether with equal ease all may be
 explained from the ,hebraic use of     

ruach and nephesh or the use of pneuma  
in the ,septuagint the  theologian must 
decide4#bdi ,harnack1 with some irony1  
advises  ,reitzenstein and his school to
 gain a clearer knowledge of ,paul the  
,jew  and ,paul the ,christian before   
they take account of secondary elements 
which he borrowed from the ,greek       
mysteries4 ,a conscious acceptance1 he  
thinks1 of such elements is out of the  
question4#bej      #bdi3 ,h4 ,m4 ,r41 p4
 #adj4      #bej3 ,date of the ,acts and
 of the ,synoptic ,gospels1 p4 #fa n4   
,kennedy believes that the vocabulary of
 ,paul is to be explained from    the   
,old ,testament1 while much of it was   
current among the mystery               
brotherhoods 7,op4 cit41 p4 #aih74      
,bousset acknowledges that ,paul's      
terminology may perhaps in part be      
derived from the ,old ,testament1       
which would be the most natural source  
of his use of pneuma    instead of nous 
to describe the spiritual part of man1  
and of the    opposition in words       

between pneuma and sarx 7,op4 cit41 p4  
#ada1    note #b74 ,clemen 7,der        
,einfluss der ,mysterienreligionen auf  
das    lteste ,christentums1 #aiac1 p4  
#fa7 says that looked at broadly1       
,paul remains in verbal and much more in
 actual relationships    untouched by   
the mystery religions4    ,if the       
,hermetic writings are to be dated later
 than the time of ,paul1  then the      
question of literary influence is       
reversed4 ,similarity in words  will    
then be due to coincidence or to the    
prevalence of a common  religious       
vocabulary1 or else1 as has recently    
been said1 if it is  necessary to       
suppose literary connection1 the        
artificial literary  composition of     
',poimandres' makes it more probable    
that the borrowing  was on that         
side4#bea ,the question hinges upon the 
date of the  ,poimandres1 which it has  
been usual1 at least since the middle of
 the  seventeenth century1 to assign to 
the age of ,porphyry4 ,hermes has been  

regarded as a convenient pseudonym to   
place at the head of the numerous       
syncretic writings in which it was      
sought to combine ,neo-,platonic        
philosophy1 ,philonic ,judaism and      
cabalistic theosophy1 and so provide    
the world with some acceptable          
substitute for ,christianity4#beb       
#bea3 ,j4 ,m4 ,creed3 ,the ,hermetic    
,writings1 ,journal of ,theological     
,studies1 ,july1 #aiad1 p4 #ebi4        
#beb3 ,art4 ,hermes ,trismegistus1      
,encycl4 ,britt41 #ajth ed4 ,for a      
history of the evolution of opinion1 see
 ,g4 ,r4 ,s4 ,mead3    ,thrice-,greatest
 ,hermes1 #aijf1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #ag ff4  
,by a brilliant tour de force and with  
great learning ,reitzenstein has  sought
 to reverse this relationship1 and to   
show that the original form  of these   
writings1 or at least the fixed         
religious ideas1 vocabulary and  ritual 
which they presuppose1 antedated        
,pauline ,christianity and  profoundly  
influenced the writings of ,paul and of 

,john4 ,he argues that  the ,shepherd of
 ,hermas is dependent upon the          
,poimandres1 relying  mainly upon two   
points3 the similarity between the two  
writings in their  introductions1 and   
the fact that in the ,shepherd the      
divine messenger  appears on a mountain1
 ,arcadia1 which was the alleged        
birthplace of  ,hermes and a centre of  
the ,hermes cult4 ,the significant      
points of the  introduction may thus be 
shown3            ,,poimandres          
,,shepherd ,,of ,,hermas     #b4 ,and ,i
 do say3 ,who art        ,revelation #e4
 ,as ,i prayed in     thou8 ,he saith3  
,i am           the house1 and sat on   
the couch1     ,man-,shepherd1 ,mind of 
all        there entered a man glorious 
in     master-hood2 ,i know what thou   
his visage in the garb of a     desirest
 and ,i'm with thee       shepherd1 and 
with a wallet on his     everywhere4    
shoulders1 and a staff in his           
hand4 ,and he saluted me1     #c4       
and ,i saluted him in return4 ,and he   

immediately sat down by my side1        
and he saith unto me1 ,i was sent       
by the most holy angel1 that ,i         
might dwell with thee the               
remaining days of thy life4       #d4   
,e'n with these words ,his       ,i1    
saith he1 am the shepherd1     aspect   
changed1 and              unto whom thou
 wast delivered4     straightway1 in the
 twinkling    ,while he was speaking1   
of an eye1 all things were       his    
form was changed1 and ,i     opened to  
me1 and ,i see a        recognized him  
as being the same1     ,vision          
limitless1 etc4           to whom ,i was
 delivered4#bec        #bec3 ,for the   
,greek text of both passages see        
,poimandres1 pp4 #aa1    #ab2 and for   
the translation see ,mead3 ,op4 cit41   
ii1 pp4 #c1 #d1 and    ,lightfoot3      
,apostolic ,fathers1 p4 #dba4    ,the   
decisive thing in the comparison is said
 to be not the change of  form nor the  
assurance that the revealing spirit     
would always be with  the prophet1 but  

that he revealed himself1 to the heathen
 as the  ,shepherd of men               
7,menschenhirten71 to the ,christian as 
the ,shepherd of  this man4#bed ,the    
comparison leads ,reitzenstein to the   
twofold  conclusion that the ,shepherd  
of ,hermas has taken over awkwardly a   
type  foreign to ,christian revelation  
literature1 and that the ,christian     
borrowed that description of the        
shepherd from an originally fuller      
text4#bee      #bed3 ,poimandres1 p4    
#ab4      #bee3 ,ibid41 pp4 #ac1 #cb4   
,the argument for borrowing is obviously
 weakened by the admission that  ,hermas
 did not borrow from the extant         
,poimandres but from an assumed  earlier
 form of the text2 and1 further1 it is  
by no means clear why the  figure of the
 shepherd1 familiar in the ,old         
,testament and in the ,gospel  parables1
 should be a foreign type in ,christian 
literature4 ,nor is the  case materially
 strengthened by the argument that a    
later mention of a  mountain in         

,arcadia1 in the ,shepherd1 implies an  
acquaintance with the  ,poimandres where
 no mention of ,arcadia1 but simply of  
descent from a  mountain1 is made4 ,it  
is admitted that the leading up upon a  
mountain is  a current form of          
,christian literature1 but it is said   
that the exact  choice of ,arcadia is   
more than surprising1 since the author  
lived in  ,rome1 and besides saw his    
visions at ,rome or ,cum4#bef      #bef3
 ,poimandres1 p4 #cc4    ,it seems      
unnecessary to guess with ,zahn that    
,arikia should be read  instead of      
,arkadia1 or to assume that ,hermas was 
a native of ,arcadia1  or had a book of 
travels in his hands1 or that he was    
thinking of ,hermes  or the ,hermetic   
writings4 ,the literary tradition       
connecting ,arcadia with  shepherds and 
with pastoral poetry was in itself      
enough1 as ,vergil's  ,eclogues may     
suggest4 ,it is admitted that ,hermas   
was a literary man  even if a man of the
 people1 and what more natural place for

 a  shepherd to appear1 if it was to be 
upon a mountain1 than a mountain in     
,arcadia8 ,shepherds have suggested     
,arcadia from the time of ,vergil to    
that of ,sir ,philip ,sydney1 and       
,vergil1 in breaking away from the      
,sicily  of ,theocritus1 was quite      
probably following a tradition already  
established at ,rome4    ,an historian  
of ,roman religion1 ,w4 ,warde ,fowler1 
says of ,christianity as  preached by   
,paul that the plant1 though grown in a 
soil which had borne  other crops1 was  
wholly new in structure and vital       
principle4 ,i say this  deliberately1   
after spending so many years on the     
study of the religion  of the ,romans1  
and making myself acquainted in some    
measure with the  religions of other    
peoples4 ,the love of ,christ is the    
entirely new power  that has come into  
the world2 not merely as a new type of  
morality1 but  as 'a ,divine influence  
transfiguring human nature in a         
universal love4'  ,the passion of ,st4  

,paul's appeal lies in the consecration 
of every  detail of it by reference to  
the life and death of the ,master4#beg  
#beg3 ,the ,religious ,experience of the
 ,roman ,people1 #aiaa1 pp4 #dff1       
#dfg4    ,the gospel which conquered the
 ,roman ,empire was no syncretic product
  growing from ,grco-,roman soil1 no    
mlange of oriental religions and  ,greek
 philosophy1 no cunningly devised fable 
or myth for the myth-loving  ,greeks4   
,no explanation of the character of     
,pauline ,christianity1 or of  its      
victory over its rivals in the ancient  
world1 can ignore the  statements of    
,paul himself3 ,when the fulness of time
 was come1 ,god sent  forth his ,son2 he
 revealed his ,son in me1 that ,i might 
preach him among  the ,gentiles 7,gal4  
iv4 #d2 i4 #af74      ,,ii4             
,,christianity ,,and ,,modern           
,,religions    ,the relation of         
,christianity to modern religions is a  
matter of  practical rather than        
theoretical interest4 ,after the        

brilliant  victories of the early       
missionary age1 the activity of the     
church in  spreading the gospel among   
the non-,christian peoples was for many 
centuries remitted1 and it is only      
practically within the last one  hundred
 years that the ,christian ,faith has   
been brought into actual  contact1      
through the work of its missionaries1   
with the non-,christian  religions4     
,through its missionary propaganda      
,christianity has shown its genuineness 
and its devotion to the commands of its 
,founder2 and so far as it has  proved  
its ability to meet the religious needs 
and quicken the religious  and          
intellectual life of diverse            
nationalities1 it has supplied a        
practical demonstration of its divine   
origin and authority4 ,the  missionaries
 have supplied the church with a pattern
 of apostolic zeal1  and have kept      
burning the fire of a passionate love   
and devotion for  their ,master4 ,a     
,british statesman has said that the    

unselfish  imperialism of its missionary
 propaganda has been the crowning glory 
of  the ,anglo-,saxon race4    ,while   
the unceasing struggle of ,christianity 
against worldliness1 greed1             
indifference and unbelief still         
continues1 it may be said that          
,christianity has to-day no rival as a  
claimant to be the universal  religion4 
,it alone can stand the white light of  
modern science1 and it  alone can stand 
the test of those moral ideals which    
have been largely  created by itself4   
,it is absolutely certain that none of  
the present  ethnic religions can       
compete with ,christianity in its       
contest for world  supremacy4    ,the   
great danger to ,christianity to-day1   
from the side of other  religions1 is   
not that of persecution or the hostility
 of the state4 ,the  danger lies in the 
temptation to compromise4 ,let          
,christianity1 it is  said1 lay aside   
its assumption of divine and exclusive  
authority and of  infinite superiority  

to all other religions1 and let it make 
in its  ethics some concessions to the  
weakness of human nature1 and the path  
to  world-conquest will be open4        
,never was the temptation to compromise1
 with ,judaism on the one hand and      
heathenism on the other1 stronger than  
it was in the early ages of the         
,christian ,church4 ,if ,christianity   
had compromised in the time of ,jesus   
and ,paul1 persecution would have ceased
 and the scandal of the cross  would    
have been removed4 ,if early            
,christianity had compromised with      
heathenism1 and had not waged           
unrelenting warfare upon idolatry1 it   
could have escaped the united hostility 
of the state and of the other  religions
 and philosophies2 on the other hand1 if
 ,christianity had come  to terms with  
,judaism or ,paganism1 while it might   
perhaps be known  historically as an    
obscure ,jewish sect1 or as a ripple    
upon the wave of  oriental religious    
influence upon the ,grco-,roman world1  

it would never  have been the mighty    
spiritual power that it has been in     
human society4    ,it is a mistake      
to-day to think that for ,christianity  
the way of  conquest is the way of      
compromise1 and that ,christianity can  
become a  world religion1 superseding   
all others1 by laying aside its         
distinctive  features and its exalted   
and exclusive claims4 ,it would1 indeed1
 be a  mistake to import our doctrinal  
systems in all their controversial      
details into the heathen world1 and the 
mystical oriental mind may  easily      
clothe ,christianity1 itself an oriental
 religion1 in new and more  beautiful   
forms2 but it would be1 if possible1 a  
greater mistake to  attempt to          
substitute ethics or natural religion   
for doctrinal  ,christianity4    ,the   
rock of ,islam will not yield to the    
preaching of a merely human and         
prophetic ,jesus2 nor will the preaching
 of the ,fatherhood of ,god and the     
,brotherhood of man--the same message   

which the ,swamis and ,babists1 with  a 
more pantheistic content to their       
message1 preach in ,england and         
,america--be effective to overthrow the 
hoary superstitions of ,india and  the  
caste system with its hold upon every   
fibre of human nature4    ,a prominent  
educator and leader of thought has      
recently complained that  ,christianity 
as usually preached in foreign lands is 
unsuitable to the  oriental mind4 ,on   
the other hand1 he chides the members of
 his own  religious communion because   
they1 with magnificent ideals1 with     
glorious concepts1 with the truth of    
,christ in all its purity and           
simplicity1 sit in smug content offering
 the world of missions1 in the  hour of 
its hunger1 only the dry bones of       
criticism of those who  already         
serve4#beh ,but every practical         
movement1 enlisting great masses  of men
 and demanding tremendous sacrifice for 
its accomplishment1 must  have a        
rational basis4 ,a humanitarian impulse 

is not sufficient to carry  through to a
 conclusion so vast and world-embracing 
a plan as is  contemplated by ,christian
 ,missions4 ,the impulse however strong 
and noble  will evaporate1 unless based 
upon and fed by a theory of what the    
,christian religion is1 of what it      
offers to men1 of man's need of it1  and
 of the obligation of ,christians to    
carry it to the non-,christian  nations4
 ,the history of missions has shown that
 no mere feeling of  benevolence or     
desire to better social and economic    
conditions1 but the  command of ,christ1
 love for ,christ and gratitude to      
,christ has led the  army of            
missionaries to endure separation1      
hardship1 persecution and  death4       
#beh3 ,dr4 ,charles ,w4 ,eliot as       
reported in the press4    ,lowell has   
said that every new edition of an       
,elizabethan dramatist is  but the      
putting of another witness into the box 
to prove the  inaccessibility of        
,shakespeare's standpoint as poet and   

artist4 ,every  comparison of           
,christianity with other religions1     
ancient and modern1  brings its own     
superiority into stronger relief4 ,in   
,jesus ,christ and in  ,him alone have  
been fulfilled the great religious ideas
 of the race4 ,in  ,him as prophet      
,god's word is perfectly spoken1 and ,he
 is the example  who leads in the way of
 ,his own precepts4 ,in ,him are        
fulfilled the ideas  of sacrifice and   
priesthood2 ,he is the great ,high      
,priest1 separate from  sinners in ,his 
holiness1 but near them in ,his         
compassion and mercy4 ,he  has put away 
sin and put away sacrifice by the       
offering of ,himself once  for all1 and 
has destroyed the whole sacrificial     
system of ,jews and  ,gentiles4 ,he is  
the fulfillment of the idea of          
incarnation1 of ,god  coming to man and 
of the ,most ,high visiting the children
 of men1 for  their rescue from all     
danger and the supply of all their      
needs4    ,in other religious and       

philosophical systems there have been   
golden  maxims for the conduct of life1 
wonderful insights into truth and       
visions of beauty1 and evidences of the 
reaching out of the human soul  after   
,god2 but ,christianity is the only     
religion of which the  enlightened      
reason and conscience of the world can  
say that it is from  heaven and not from
 men4 ,in no other religion has there   
been a long  period of centuries of     
preparation in the religious education  
of a  people to be the recipients and   
the messengers1 in the fullness of time1
  of the final revelation4 ,in no other 
religion is there found a teaching  so  
profound1 and yet so simple and         
self-evidencing1 upon the great  themes 
of human interest1 ,god1 ,immortality   
and ,duty4 ,from no other has  gone     
forth an influence so beneficent and    
transforming in human  history4 ,in no  
other has there been a ,calvary and an  
,easter ,day1 the  great historic facts 
upon which the hopes of the world rest1 

and in no  other has the undiscovered   
country been transformed into the       
,father's  house4          ,,vi         
,the ,christian ,faith and ,biblical    
,criticism    ,we are living at a time  
when territory formerly deemed sacred is
 being  traversed by hosts of forbidding
 aspect under the banners of natural    
science1 of philosophy1 and of the      
psychology and history of religion4     
,the greatest foe of all1 it has been   
thought by some1 has arisen within  the 
household of faith in the form of       
,biblical ,criticism4    ,an eloquent   
,american preacher1 ,dr4 ,richard ,s4   
,storrs1 has said that when  ,luther    
translated the ,bible into the          
vernacular1 the peasant's roof was      
lifted to a level with the stars4 ,into 
every home whose inmates could  read    
there came1 with the ,bible in their own
 tongue1 the message of  divine love and
 redemption4 ,with the freedom to read  
the ,bible came also  the freedom to    
study the ,bible1 to judge by its       

standard the doctrines  and usages of   
the church1 to compare ,scripture with  
,scripture1 and even  to bring          
,scripture itself with its credentials  
before the bar of reason4  ,whatever the
 extremes into which criticism may have 
run in an age in  which the ,cartesian  
principle of doubt is applied to every  
received  opinion1 the rights of        
,biblical ,criticism must be conceded as
 a legacy  of the ,reformation4         
,about the works of ,homer1 of ,plato1  
of ,dante and of ,shakespeare there  has
 gathered a mass of material in the way 
of commentary and discussion1  but it is
 safe to say that in recent years the   
literary output in all of  these        
departments of study taken together is  
small in comparison with  that which    
centres around the ,bible4 ,the         
,biblical critic has helped to  attract 
to the ,bible the intellectual interest 
of our age1 as well as to  make it the  
storm-centre of theological controversy4
 ,he has made it a  principal object of 

scholarly as well as devotional         
interest1 has thrown  a flood of light  
upon its pages from history1 archology1 
philology and  comparative religion1 and
 has challenged the devout ,bible reader
 to a  more intelligent1 minute and     
painstaking examination of the          
fundamental  documents of his faith4    
,the specialization of the age has      
assigned the ,old ,testament and the    
,new  ,testament to different           
departments of study1 and the problems  
of each  must be independently          
investigated4 ,it is evident1 though1   
that the  fortunes of the ,old          
,testament and the ,new are closely     
bound up together4  ,the same principles
 of criticism are likely to be applied  
to both1 and  whether we begin with     
naturalism or supernaturalism in the    
,old ,testament  we shall probably end  
with it in the ,new ,testament4 ,in both
 ,testaments  ,babylonian influence may 
be traced1 and the twelve apostles may  
follow  the twelve patriarchs into the  

limbo of myth4 ,if no supernatural      
process  of redemption1 in the way of   
history1 prophecy or revelation1 can be 
discovered in the ,old ,testament1 it is
 unlikely that any will be  discovered  
at all4 ,the ,fourth ,gospel as well as 
the ,pentateuch has been  analyzed into 
documents1 and the same great historical
 transposition is  seen in both         
,testaments2 ,jewish monotheism is said 
to have begun with  ,amos instead of    
with ,abraham1 and ,christianity in its 
distinctive  features with ,paul instead
 of with ,jesus4    ,the present state  
of discussion in the ,old ,testament    
field indicates1 to  one not a          
specialist in this department1 that     
positions which have been  regarded as  
assured are not yet settled beyond      
question4 ,the literary  analysis is    
ingenious and plausible1 but1 as is     
shown in ,orr's ,problem  of the ,old   
,testament1 the argument is balanced4   
,to offset the literary  analysis and   
the rearrangement of the history in     

accordance with an  evolutionary scheme1
 there are certain considerations from  
history1  archology1 and common reason4 
,no such analysis has been ventured in  
the  case of modern documents that are  
confessedly composite1 and in the case  
of ,homer1 the nearest classical        
parallel1 there is the same uncertainty 
in the results4    ,purely literary     
considerations1 as ,ramsay has remarked1
 yield before  other more objective and 
historical data1 and the literary       
theories are  adjusted to meet the new  
situation4#bei ,the temporary popularity
 in the  ,new ,testament field of the   
,baur-,tbingen theories1 based on       
,hegelian  principles of development1   
and then their general abandonment1     
suggest  the need of caution before we  
accept any concensus of criticism1 based
  upon literary and philosophical       
grounds alone1 as the last word upon the
  subject4 ,our special concern in this 
lecture is with the problems of the     
,new ,testament1 and we may consider    

briefly1 ,i4 ,the ,pauline ,epistles1   
,,ii4  ,the ,acts1 ,,iii4 ,the ,synoptic
 ,problem1 and ,,iv4 ,the ,johannine    
,problem4      #bei3 ,luke the          
,physician1 p4 #bfb4      ,i4 ,,the     
,,pauline ,,epistles    ,it is          
frequently said that the figure of the  
,apostle ,paul stands out  against the  
background of history in bolder relief  
and with individual  features more      
strongly marked than does any other     
character in  antiquity4 ,not only has  
his public career been narrated by one  
who was  apparently his friend and      
companion in labours1 but he has left a 
large  collection of letters1 full of   
profound teaching upon religion and     
ethics1 and abounding in autobiographic 
details and in intimate  revelations of 
character4    ,the school of ,baur      
recognized as genuine only the four     
central epistles1  ,romans1 #a and #b   
,corinthians and ,galatians1 making in  
bulk about  three-fifths of the         
writings1 exclusive of ,hebrews1 which  

have been  assigned to ,paul4 ,the      
tendency of criticism since the time of 
,baur has  been steadily in the         
direction of the acceptance of other    
epistles as  ,pauline4 ,colossians1     
,philippians and ,i ,thessalonians have 
now been added  to the list of the      
generally accepted writings1 and it is  
only the  fringe of ,paul's writings    
that can be said to be still in dispute4
 ,of  these anti-legomena1 #b           
,thessalonians1 ,ephesians and the      
,pastorals1 it  is noticeable that two  
of them are rejected largely on the     
ground that  they resemble so closely in
 ideas and vocabulary the admittedly    
,pauline  letters of ,i ,thessalonians  
and ,colossians1 while a ,pauline       
nucleus is  often acknowledged in the   
,pastorals by those who do not assign   
the  epistles as a whole to ,paul4      
,students of ,ephesians1 moreover1 are  
coming to hear in it more and more      
clearly1 if we mistake not1 the voice of
 the ,apostle and the expression  of his

 mature ,christian experience1 and of   
that doctrine of the church  in which   
,royce sees the essence of ,paulinism4  
,a4 ,c4 ,headlam says that it  is the   
careful study of a book that will often 
solve the question of its  origin1 and  
remarks3 ,to me ,ephesians is ,pauline  
through and through1  and more even than
 ,romans represents the deepest thought 
of the  ,apostle4#bfj ,the important    
fact is that1 when all the disputed     
epistles  are excluded1 the progress of 
criticism has placed beyond reasonable  
doubt the great body of the ,apostle's  
teaching and the bulk of his  writings4 
,the practical question now at issue1 as
 ,ramsay has observed1  is not1 ,what   
did ,paul write8 but ,what did ,paul    
teach8#bfa      #bfj3 ,st4 ,paul and    
,christianity1 #aiac1 p4 viii4          
#bfa3 ,contemporary ,review1 ,august1   
#aiac1 p4 #aih4    ,in ,paul's          
acknowledged writings we have a solid   
basis in fact from which  to estimate   
the ,gospel narratives and the ,acts4   

,the epistles of ,paul  carry us back   
into the circle of the earlier apostles 
and of the  ,jerusalem church1 and throw
 light upon various events and aspects  
of the  life1 character1 words1 death1  
and resurrection of ,christ4      ,,ii4 
,,the ,,acts ,,of ,,the ,,apostles      
,the book of ,acts1 while secondary in  
interest to the ,gospels1 occupies a    
central place in ,new ,testament        
criticism4 ,it is the bridge between the
  ,ascension and the time thirty years  
later when ,nero persecuted a great     
multitude called ,christians at ,rome4  
,it covers the period in which          
doctrinal evolution took place4 ,through
 its authorship it bridges the  gap     
between the ,gospels and the ,pauline   
church among the ,gentiles4    ,the     
course of the history in the early      
chapters of ,acts is so different  from 
that which the imagination of a later   
age would have pictured1 that  it bears 
upon its face the marks of early origin 
and of trustworthiness4  ,to a later    

writer1 without contact with the actors1
 and writing after  the destruction of  
the ,temple and the final breach of the 
,christians  with the ,jews and the     
assured success of the ,gentile mission1
 it would  seem exceedingly improbable  
7#a7 that the apostolic company should  
have  continued to worship in the       
,temple2 7#b7 that they should at first 
have  found favour with the people2 and 
7#c7 that they should have remained in  
,jerusalem with no apparent intention of
 leaving until scattered by             
persecution2 and perhaps 7#d7 that the  
,sadducees should have been the  first  
to start the persecution4 ,the recorded 
history1 improbable to a  later age1    
bears upon its face the stamp of truth4 
,the imagination of a  post-,pauline    
writer would have given us1 we may be   
sure1 a very  different picture of      
church history4 ,it would scarcely have 
conceived of  the primitive ,christology
 of ,peter's speeches1 the use of the   
term1  child1 or servant of ,god 7 pais7

 in place of the ,pauline term1  ,son of
 ,god 7 huios71 yet with the same       
attitude1 shared by  ,christians of     
earlier and later time1 of adoration1   
worship and love4    ,the presumption in
 favour of credibility is strengthened  
by the author's  full and detailed      
treatment of persons and places4 ,a man 
who would  venture to introduce         
ninety-five persons and a hundred and   
three places  into a history of his own 
times must have been pretty sure of his 
ground4 ,the majority of these persons  
were still living when he wrote2  into  
every one of these places his volume    
shortly penetrated4444 ,the  correctness
 of his geography upholds the truth of  
his history4#bfb      #bfb3 ,arthur     
,wright3 ,some ,new ,testament          
,problems1 pp4 #hh1 #hi4    ,a great    
many of the statements of the ,acts can 
be checked by comparison  with ,paul's  
epistles1 as has been shown by ,paley's 
,hor ,paulin1 and  more recently1 for   
the first part of the ,acts1 by         

,harnack4 ,in case of  apparent         
conflict1 it has been said1 we are      
confronted by the task of  reconciling  
the differences between two             
first-century documents1 each of  which 
has1 admittedly1 very powerful          
claims4#bfc ,more than half of the      
,acts is taken up with the labours of   
the ,apostle ,paul1 and yet the ,acts   
does not mention or show knowledge of   
his epistles4 ,this fact1 used by  some 
to throw doubt upon the genuineness of  
the epistles1 may be an  indication of  
the early date of the ,acts1 and of so  
close a relationship  between the author
 and the ,apostle that the evidence of  
letters would be  unnecessary4          
#bfc3 ,dawson ,walker3 ,the ,gift of    
,tongues1 #aijf1 p4 #aha4    ,important 
alike in its bearing upon the questions 
of credibility and  authorship1 is the  
evidence of the so-called we-sections4  
,a prima  facie case is made out that   
the author of the ,acts was an          
eye-witness  of some of the scenes it   

records1 and a companion in travel of   
the  ,apostle ,paul4 ,this evidence has 
of late been greatly strengthened by    
linguistic investigation4 ,while        
critical attempts are still made to     
divide the ,acts into documents1 the    
we-sections 7xvi4 #aj-ag2 xx4 #e-ae2    
xxi4 #a-ah2 xxvii4 #a-xxviii4 #af71 as  
,sir ,j4 ,hawkins says1 show an  immense
 balance of internal and linguistic     
evidence in favour of the  view that the
 original writer of these sections was  
the same person as  the main author of  
the ,acts and of the ,third ,gospel4#bfd
      #bfd3 ,hor ,synoptic1 #b;d ed41   
#aiji1 p4 #ahh4    ,no living writers   
have done more to stimulate interest in 
the book of  ,acts than have ,sir ,w4   
,m4 ,ramsay and ,harnack1 and the       
writings of both  have materially       
strengthened the case alike for its     
,lukan authorship1  and1 in the main1   
for its historical accuracy4 ,ramsay1   
starting1 as he  says1 from the         
standpoint of the ,tbingen school1 with 

the confident  assumption that the book 
was fabricated in the middle of the     
second  century1 and studying it to see 
what light it could throw on the state  
of society in ,asia ,minor1 was         
gradually driven to the conclusion that 
it  must have been written in the first 
century and with admirable              
knowledge4#bfe      #bfe3 ,pauline      
,studies1 p4 #aii4    ,harnack's        
defense1 in his four monographs1#bff of 
the ,lukan authorship1  integrity1      
historical reliability 7where the       
supernatural is not in  question7 and   
early date of the ,acts is the most     
outstanding and  significant achievement
 of the age in ,new ,testament          
criticism4 ,harnack's  work has been so 
thorough and convincing that it may be  
said to have  carried the theological   
world by storm4 ,at least his powerful  
argument  for ,lukan authorship does not
 appear to have been successfully met4  
,the  attempt to turn its flank by      
asserting that the ,paul of ,acts1 in   

making  a vow1 shaving his head and     
entering into the ,temple1 was not the  
defender of ,gentile liberty who wrote  
,galatians1 and so that the author  of  
the ,acts was not the companion of      
,paul1 is met by ,harnack in the  fourth
 of his monographs4 ,paul1 he declares1 
not only was a ,jew1 but  remained so1  
whether consistently or not4 ,harnack   
thinks that ,paul  shrank back from     
taking the last logical step1#bfg but   
that in this the  author of the ,acts   
represents the relation of ,paul to     
,judaism precisely  as do his           
letters4#bfh ,stanton well remarks that 
the difficulty of  accounting for       
alleged discrepancies between the ,acts 
and the ,epistles  is equal or greater  
on the supposition that the author wrote
 #ajj ,a4 ,d41  or later1 than if the   
author was the companion of ,paul4#bfi  
,the very  fact1 for example1 that ,luke
 says that ,paul worshipped in the      
,temple is  an indication that we have  
here no conception of a later age to    

which  such an act would have seemed    
unnatural4      #bff3 ,beitrge zur      
,einl4 in das ,n4 ,t43 ,i4 ,lukas der   
,arzt1 #aijf2    ,,ii4 ,sprche und      
,reden ,jesu1 #aijg2 ,,iii4 ,die        
,apostelgeschichte1    #aijh2 ,,iv4     
,neue ,untersuchungen zur               
,apostelgeschichte und zur              
,abfassungszeit des ,synoptischen       
,evangelien1 #aiaa4 ,for convenience    
these will be alluded to as ,i1 ,,ii1   
,,iii1 and ,,iv1 in connection with     
the ,english translation4      #bfg3    
,,iv1 p4 #ce2 ,date of the ,acts and of 
the ,synoptic ,gospels1 p4 #di4         
#bfh3 ,ibid41 p4 #fb2 ,e4 ,t41 p4 #hh4  
#bfi3 ,the ,gospels as ,historical      
,documents1 ,pt4 ,,ii1 #aiji1 p4 #bdb4  
,in his ,date of the ,acts and of the   
,synoptic ,gospels 7,,iv71 ,harnack     
reverses his former opinion and strongly
 defends a date for the ,acts  within   
the lifetime of ,paul and before the end
 of his trial at ,rome4  ,reviewing his 
former arguments for a later date1 he   

finds them  inconclusive1 and thinks    
that the earlier date is required by the
 abrupt  close of the ,acts4 ,minor     
considerations favouring an early date  
are 7#a7  the titles for ,christ in the 
early chapters1 and for ,christians1 and
 the  description of the ,jews as the   
people of ,god2 7#b7 the fact that the  
,jews are the persecutors and not the   
persecuted2 7#c7 the absence of any     
indication of the use of ,paul's letters
 such as would be expected in a  later  
writer2 7#d7 the use of the first day of
 the week1 instead of the  ,lord's ,day1
 and of the names of ,jewish feasts1 in 
which ,luke stands  with ,paul against  
later writers4 ,and 7#e7 even the       
prediction1 ,acts xx4  #be1 which looks 
primarily to ,jerusalem1 not ,rome1     
would not have been  written1 if the    
second imprisonment be accepted1 after  
its apparent  falsification by ,i       
,timothy i4 #c and #b ,timothy i4 #ah4  
,h4 ,koch develops  these arguments     
independently1#bgj and it can no longer 

be said that the  early dating of the   
,acts is a pre-critical theory which    
rests on  sentimental or subjective     
grounds4#bga      #bgj3 ,die            
,abfassungszeit des lukanischen         
,geschichtswerkes1 #aiaa4      #bga3 ,j4
 ,moffatt3 ,historical ,new ,testament1 
p4 #dad1 note #d4 ,it is    noticeable  
that ,moffatt now favours the ,lukan    
authorship1 put    practically beyond   
doubt by the exhaustive researches of   
,hawkins and    ,harnack 7,introduction 
to ,new ,testament1 p4 #bie71 while     
advocating    a date later than         
,josephus' ,antiquities 7pp4 #bi f474   
,why should the author follow so        
carefully the fortunes of the ,apostle  
on  his voyage to ,rome1 and describe so
 fully the initial stages of his  trial1
 and yet leave the reader in doubt      
concerning its outcome8  ,commentators  
have been puzzled by the seemingly      
inordinate space which  ,luke devotes to
 the details of the voyage and          
shipwreck4 ,sometimes it is  said that  

the voyage marks the final rejection of 
the ,jewish people2 or  in the          
description is seen a literary device   
intended to intensify the  suspense of  
the reader2 or allegorical              
interpretations are resorted to  by     
those who think that ,luke would not    
thus descend from the level of  the     
philosophical historian to that of the  
novelist4    ,in the minute description 
of the voyage and shipwreck1 ,koch sees 
evidence that the writer's experiences  
as ,paul's companion on the  voyage were
 still fresh in his mind4 ,the details  
would scarcely have  been remembered and
 recorded so vividly after twenty-five  
years4 ,even if  a journal had been     
kept1 it is still strange that the      
minuti of the  story should have been   
retained in the perspective of the      
finished  history4 ,the author still    
stands under the fresh impression of the
  wonderful divine guidance through     
which ,paul1 in spite of all dangers    
and hindrances1 reached his long sought 

goal4 ,what interest would a  reader of 
later times have in details such as that
 on an ,alexandrian  ship precisely two 
hundred and seventy-six men were found8 
,in the  seventh or eighth decade more  
important contemporary events would have
  stood in the foreground of            
interest4#bgb ,a striking parallelism   
has been  observed between the ,third   
,gospel and the ,acts1 while1 supposing 
,paul's  death to have occurred1 it is  
urged that ,luke has missed the         
finest--the most essential--point of the
 whole comparison1 the death of         
,paul4#bgc      #bgb3 ,h4 ,koch3 ,die   
,abfassungszeit des lukanischen         
,geschichtswerkes1    pp4 #fa1 #fb4     
#bgc3 ,d4 ,walker3 ,the ,gift of        
,tongues1 p4 #bbh4    ,the assumed      
intention of the author to write a third
 treatise does not  help the matter     
much4 ,it is absurd1 ,ramsay admits1 to 
relate the earlier  stages of the trial 
at great length1 and wholly omit the    
final result  which gives them          

intelligibility and purpose2 but his    
conclusion is  that it therefore follows
 that a sequel was contemplated by the  
author1 a sequel which the first 7prtos7
 of ,acts i4 #a implies1 if  ,luke wrote
 as correct ,greek as ,paul wrote4#bgd  
,but the intention of  writing a sequel 
does not explain the failure to mention 
the outcome of  the trial4 ,luke would  
have no motive like the writer of a     
continued  story for keeping the reader 
in suspense1 and the simple addition of 
the  words until his release or         
acquittal would have relieved the       
suspense1  and given intelligibility and
 purpose to the detailed description of 
the earlier stages of the trial4 ,the   
account of the ,ascension is not        
omitted from ,luke's ,gospel although   
given in greater detail in the ,acts4   
,there is nothing un-philosophical in   
the abrupt ending of a history  which   
brings the record down to the date of   
writing4      #bgd3 ,paul the           
,traveller1 pp4 #cjg-cji4 ,the use of   

first 7os    prtos7 is not decisive1 for
 it is used where there are but two     
objects in the comparison in ,acts xii4 
#aj 7and see vii4 #ab71 ,hebrews    ix4 
#h and #ae1 ,apoc4 xx4 #e1 and even ,i  
,corinthians xv4 #dg4    ,the leading   
argument against an early date for the  
,acts is drawn from  the possible use by
 ,luke of the writings of ,josephus1 and
 the crux of  the question is in the    
words put into the mouth of ,gamaliel   
7,acts v4 #cf1  #cg74 ,the coincidence  
of the names of ,theudas and ,judas of  
,galilee 7,acts  v4 #cf1 #cg2 ,antiq4   
xx4 v4 #a and #b7 is striking and1 if   
the two men named  ,theudas be          
identified and ,josephus is correct1    
,luke is guilty of an  anachronism in   
putting an allusion to him into the     
mouth of ,gamaliel2  for the ,theudas of
 ,josephus falls in the time of ,fadus  
who was  procurator under ,claudius1    
about #de ,a4 ,d4 ,the following points 
deserve  to be noticed3    7#a7 ,luke   
had from ,paul1 whether or not ,paul was

 present at the meeting  of the         
,sanhedrin1 the best means of knowing   
what ,gamaliel1 his teacher  and the    
spokesman of the ,pharisaic party1      
actually said4 7#b7 ,the  assumption    
that ,luke was quoting ,josephus is in  
itself very difficult  when we compare  
the passages4 ,luke speaks of about four
 hundred under  ,theudas while ,josephus
 mentions a great part of the people2   
,luke speaks  of ,judas while ,josephus 
speaks of the sons of ,judas4 ,to quote 
thus  loosely from his assumed authority
 and then to commit the further  blunder
 of making ,gamaliel allude to an event 
which occurred at least a  dozen years  
later is1 while possible1 strangely out 
of keeping with  ,luke's proved care and
 accuracy in most of his historical     
allusions4 ,the  difficulty is          
acknowledged by those who make ,luke    
dependent on ,josephus4  ,why did ,luke 
diverge from a correct narrative if he  
had one before him8  ,writers who affirm
 7,holtzmann7 and those who deny        

7,schrer7 the  dependence on ,josephus  
practically agree that if ,luke had read
 ,josephus  he had forgotten him4 7#c7  
,in the narrative of the death of ,herod
 7,acts  xii4 #bj f42 ,antiq4 xix4 viii4
 #b71 where the two authors most        
obviously  come together1 both are      
plainly describing the same event1 and  
yet seem  to be quite independent both  
in the use of words and in the details  
of  the description4 7#d7 ,the          
cumulative evidence of an early date for
 ,luke  weighs heavily in the scale     
against the hypothesis of dependence    
upon  the ,antiquities written about #ic
 or #id ,a4 ,d4    ,the question of date
 cannot be said to be absolutely        
settled1 but the  tendency of criticism 
as illustrated by ,harnack is to the    
acceptance of  an early date1 as well as
 to that of the ,lukan authorship of the
 entire  book4 ,it is difficult to see  
how ,harnack1 with his present defense  
of a  date before ,paul's release from  
prison1 can consistently maintain his   

skepticism where the supernatural events
 recorded in the ,acts are  concerned4  
,it is idle to say that his revolution  
in chronology has no  effect upon the   
question of reliability4 ,it is an      
established principle  of historical    
method that the nearer a tradition is to
 the event it  professes to describe1   
the more likely it is to be trustworthy4
 ,the  resources of ,harnack's learning 
have been used in support of the        
reliability of ,luke in his geographical
 and chronological  references1#bge and 
his treatment of persons and reports of 
their  speeches4#bgf ,he has shown that 
,luke was in touch with the leaders of  
the ,jerusalem church1 and that his     
statements are abundantly confirmed  by 
the writings of ,paul4 ,if ,luke wrote  
within the lifetime of ,paul1 the  ,acts
 was published while the main actors    
were still living1 and1 by  inference1  
it recorded events as ,peter and        
,barnabas and ,apollos and  ,philip and 
,mark thought that they happened4 ,if   

further1 as ,harnack  argues1 it was    
written during ,paul's imprisonment     
there seems no room  for doubt that it  
was written under the eye and with the  
full  endorsement of its principal      
actor1 and that we have thus the        
implicit  guarantee not only of ,luke   
but of ,paul also for the accuracy of   
its  record4      #bge3 ,,iii1 p4 #ig2  
,acts of the ,apostles1 p4 #aab4        
#bgf3 ,ibid41 pp4 #aja ff42 ,e4 ,t41 pp4
 #aag ff4      ,,iii4 ,,the ,,synoptic  
,,problem    ,it has been said that the 
two most important questions for        
religion are  those of the rational     
foundations of theism and of the        
trustworthiness  of the ,four           
,gospels4#bgg ,the ,gospel records have 
always been regarded as  the citadel of 
the ,christian ,faith4 ,not only do they
 contain the record  of works of power  
and words of grace1 and of a            
transcendent ,personality1  but they    
have always been considered to have been
 themselves  supernatural in origin and 

character4 ,they have been regarded as a
  house not made with hands 7,robertson 
,nicoll71 a miracle of the ,holy  ,ghost
 7,stier71 the heaven-drawn picture of  
,christ1 the living ,word4  ,the        
criticism of the past century1 in its   
quest for the historical  ,jesus1 has   
taken a very different attitude towards 
the ,evangelical  records4 ,by many     
critics they have been regarded as a    
patchwork of  traditions1 a work of     
pious but credulous men1 whose          
idealization and  exaggeration1 in the  
supposed interest of faith1 it is       
necessary to  discount in order to reach
 the bed-rock of historical fact4       
#bgg3 ,dr4 ,francis ,l4 ,patton1 in an  
address4    ,the literary relation of   
the ,synoptic ,gospels to one another   
has  furnished to the ,new ,testament   
student a problem of great intricacy and
  singular fascination4 ,its importance 
for our present purpose is in its       
bearing upon the trustworthiness of our 
canonical ,gospels4 ,the school of      

,baur1 under the influence of the       
,hegelian dialectic1 saw in ,matthew1   
the  ,jewish ,gospel1 the thesis2 in    
,luke1 the ,gentile ,gospel1 the        
antithesis2  and lastly in ,mark1 the   
neutral ,gospel1 the synthesis or last  
term of  the development4 ,criticism    
since the time of ,baur has1 with much  
unanimity1 seen in ,mark not the latest 
but the first of the ,gospels1 and  has 
made ,matthew and ,luke dependent upon  
,mark4    ,the theory which has for some
 years held the field is the so-called  
two-document theory4 ,according to this 
,matthew and ,luke1 usually  regarded as
 independent of each other1 are both    
dependent1 for much of  their narrative 
portion and for the framework of their  
history1 upon  ,mark1 and1 for the      
non-,markan discourse material which    
they have in  common1 upon a collection 
of the sayings of ,jesus1 formerly      
designated  as the ,logia but now       
usually called by the letter ,q4 ,the   
importance  of the ,synoptic ,problem1  

for our present purpose1 is in its      
historical  rather than its literary    
features4 ,assuming the priority of     
,mark1 and  assuming that ,matthew and  
,luke were dependent upon him alone in  
those  parts of their narratives which  
have ,markan parallels1 it is clear that
  we must regard all deviations made by 
the other ,synoptists from the  ,markan 
narrative as of only secondary value4   
,variations from ,mark1 if  ,mark be the
 sole source1 whether these consist of  
additions1 omissions  or modifications  
in the narrative1 obviously add nothing 
to our  knowledge of the facts1 but     
simply represent changes which the later
  writers have made in their source from
 subjective reasons4 ,it is  important1 
then1 to ask whether1 in the present    
state of opinion upon  the              
inter-,synoptic relations1 there is     
reason to believe that ,matthew  and    
,luke are following ,mark as their sole 
authority for the narratives  which have
 ,markan parallels4    ,there is now a  

quite general recognition of the fact   
that the literary  problem presented by 
the ,synoptic ,gospels is exceedingly   
intricate1 and  that the two-document   
hypothesis in its simplicity has not    
solved all  the difficulties4 ,it is    
recognized that it must be modified in  
one of  three directions4    7#a7 ,there
 may be said to be a growing            
appreciation of the part which  oral    
transmission has played in the          
composition of the ,gospels4 ,this is   
shown for example in the volume of      
,oxford ,studies in the ,synoptic       
,problem 7#aiaa71bgh and by the         
statement of ,sir ,john ,hawkins1 who1  
in  the second edition of his ,hor      
,synoptic 7#aiji71 expresses the strong 
opinion that at least the ,second and   
,third ,evangelists had provided        
themselves with written documents as    
their main sources1 but that they  often
 omitted to refer closely to them1      
partly because of the physical          
difficulties which there must have been 

in consulting manuscripts1 and  partly  
because of the oral knowledge of the    
life and sayings of ,jesus  ,christ     
which they had previously acquired as   
learners and used as  teachers1 and upon
 which therefore it would be natural for
 them to fall  back very frequently4#bgi
 ,it is natural to suppose1 with        
,schmiedel1  that oral tradition        
continued for a considerable time after 
the first  documents were written4#bhj  
#bgh3 ,compare the statement of ,j4 ,v4 
,bartlett3 ,i am not convinced    that  
there ever was a written 'book of       
discourses' that has    perished 7p4    
#cfj74      #bgi3 ,hor ,synoptic1 #b;d  
ed41 p4 #bag4      #bhj3 ,art4 ,gospels1
 ,encycl4 ,bib41 vol4 ii4 col4 #ahdf4   
7#b7 ,a considerable number of scholars1
 finding that ,mark condenses his       
account of such incidents as the        
,baptism and ,temptation of ,jesus and  
the  discourse concerning ,beelzebub1   
and that ,matthew and ,luke are parallel
  in matter which they add at these     

points to the ,markan account1 have     
concluded that ,mark must have used ,q1 
the assumed source of the               
,matthew-,luke agreements4 ,a moderate  
statement is that of ,dr4 ,sanday3 ,i   
do not think that ,q was used by ,mark  
regularly and systematically1 as  the   
later ,evangelists use his own          
narrative2 but he must have known of    
its existence1 and reminiscences of it  
seem to have clung to him and  from time
 to time made their way into his text4  
#bha      #bha3 ,studies in the         
,synoptic ,problem1 pp4 xvi1 xvii4      
7#c7 ,another group of scholars1 basing 
their view on the agreement of  ,matthew
 and ,luke against ,mark in matter with 
,markan parallels1 and on  the          
difficulty of accounting for some       
omissions from ,mark in the later       
,evangelists 7such as the omission in   
,luke1 where it would be most           
appropriate1 of the story about the     
,syro-,phoenician woman71 have framed a 
theory of different recensions in ,mark1

 one being used by ,matthew1 a          
different one by ,luke1 and a final     
recension1 whether the work of the      
,evangelist himself or of an editor1    
representing our canonical ,mark4  ,this
 theory in different forms has been     
advocated by ,stanton in his  ,gospels  
as ,historical ,documents1 ,part ,,ii   
7#aiji71 and more recently by           
,holdsworth in his ,gospel ,origins     
7#aiac74 ,when the two-document theory  
is held in this form1 the priority of   
,mark belongs only to the assumed       
earlier editions1 for whose extent and  
contents there is no objective  evidence
 except the assumed dependence1 while   
our canonical ,mark is  later than      
either ,matthew or ,luke4    ,there is a
 growing tendency to find secondary     
elements in ,mark as well  as in        
,matthew or ,luke4 ,hawkins1 it will be 
recalled1 gives a list of  passages in  
,mark which may have been omitted or    
altered 7by the other  ,evangelists7 as 
being liable to be misunderstood1 or to 

give offense1 or  to suggest            
difficulties4#bhb ,of the passages which
 seem 7a7 to limit  the power of ,jesus1
 or 7b7 to be otherwise derogatory to1  
or unworthy of  ,him1 the more          
noteworthy of the twenty-two instances  
given by ,hawkins  are as follows3 under
 7a71      #bhb3 ,hor ,synoptic1 #b;d   
ed41 pp4 #aag f4    #a4 ,mark i4 #cb-cd1
 ,he healed many that were sick4        
,matthew viii4 #af1 ,he  healed all2 cf4
 ,luke iv4 #dj1 ,every one of them4     
#c4 ,mark vi4 #e1 ,he could there do no 
mighty work1 save etc4 ,matthew  xiii4  
#eh1 ,he did not many mighty works there
 because of their  unbelief4    ,under  
7b71    #b4 ,mark i4 #ab1 ,the ,spirit  
driveth him forth4 ,matthew and ,luke   
use  words meaning to lead4    #d4 ,mark
 iii4 #ba1 ,they said he is beside      
himself4 ,this is omitted by  ,matthew  
and ,luke4    #aj4 ,mark x4 #ag1 #ah1   
,good ,master and ,why callest thou me  
good8 appear  in ,matthew xix4 #af1 #ag 
7,r4 ,v47 as ,master and ,why askest    

thou me  concerning that which is good8 
,luke follows ,mark4    ,over against   
these passages may be placed others     
where the change1 if  any1 and whether  
made unconsciously or for reasons of    
style or with  conscious tendency1 would
 seem to be in the other direction4     
#a4 ,in the ,parable of the ,vineyard1  
,matthew xxi4 #cg1 ,my son4 ,luke xx4   
#ac1 ,my beloved son4 ,mark xii4 #f1 ,he
 had yet one1 a beloved son4    #b4     
,matthew x4 #db1 ,a cup of cold water   
only in the name of a disciple4         
,compare ,mark ix4 #da1 ,in name because
 ye are of ,christ4    #c4 ,luke xxiii4 
#dg1 ,certainly this was a righteous    
man4 ,mark xv4 #ci1  ,truly this man was
 the ,son of ,god1 or a son of ,god4    
,matthew xxvii4  #ed follows ,mark4     
#d4 7,according to ,bousset7 ,mark's    
abbreviation of ,q in iii4 #bg makes it 
appear that it was ,jesus who bound the 
strong man1 instead of ,god4#bhc        
#bhc3 ,kyrios ,christos1 p4 #di4    #e4 
,matthew xiii4 #ee1 ,is not this the    

carpenter's son8 ,compare ,luke iv4     
#bb1 ,is not this ,joseph's son8 ,mark  
vi4 #c1 ,is not this the carpenter1  the
 son of ,mary8 ,belief in the ,virgin   
,birth is perhaps safeguarded by  ,mark4
    #f4 ,mark x4 #de1 ,the ,son of man  
came not to be ministered unto1 etc4    
,here ,bousset sees a dogmatic working  
over of ,luke xxii4 #bg1 ,i am among    
you as one that serves4#bhd ,matthew xx4
 #bh follows ,mark4      #bhd3 ,kyrios  
,christos1 p4 #i1 note #a4    ,so far as
 tendency to ,christological heightening
 is concerned1 critics  of the school of
 ,bousset are now especially severe     
against ,mark4 ,it  appears that ,luke's
 ,gospel in the ,passion history has    
preserved a  series of primary          
traditions over against ,mark4#bhe      
,holdsworth finds a  number of secondary
 elements1 mostly stylistic1 in ,mark   
where the three  ,gospels have a common 
narrative4 ,among these are the vivid   
touches of  the second ,gospel1         
considered to be distinctly secondary   

features1 the  fuller descriptions in   
many instances1 and the use of the noun 
gospel  not found at all in ,luke       
although the verb is used1 and not found
 in  ,matthew in its absolute sense4#bhf
      #bhe3 ,kyrios ,christos1 p4 #dd4  
#bhf3 ,gospel ,origins1 pp4 #aah f4     
,taking1 then1 the present state of     
opinion as to the relation of our  ,mark
 to the other ,gospels1 we see that     
while in general the priority of  ,mark 
is in some sense defended1 yet the      
relation between any given  passage in  
,matthew or ,luke and its parallel in   
,mark may be variously  construed4 ,when
 ,matthew1 for example1 deviates from   
,mark1 this  modification according to  
current theories may arise 7#a7 from the
 first  ,evangelist's fancy or his      
dogmatic tendency1 and will in either   
case be  historically worthless4 ,it may
 arise 7#b7 from reliable oral          
tradition1  and in this case be as      
worthy of credence as the ,markan       
source4 ,it may  be derived 7#c7 from   

the source ,q1 but may be for some      
reason omitted by  ,mark1 whose         
knowledge of ,q is assumed4 ,the        
deviation in ,matthew may 7#d7  have    
been found in a proto- or deutero-,mark1
 but have been omitted in his  final    
edition4 ,the difference in this case   
between ,matthew and ,mark is  no       
greater than that between two editions  
of the same work4    ,the point to be   
emphasized is that1 in the present state
 of opinion upon  the ,synoptic problem1
 the difference of one ,evangelist from 
another does  not in itself invalidate  
the testimony of either4 ,the ,synoptic 
problem1  while primarily a literary    
problem1 is indeed fraught with         
momentous  issues which the ,church1 and
 not scientific criticism only1 is      
concerned  to face2#bhg but in the      
present state of the discussion1 the    
fact that  ,matthew adds to or modifies 
the narrative of ,mark does not         
necessarily  place the ,matthean        
modification upon a lower plane of      

credibility than  the ,markan statement4
 ,the ,matthean modification may be an  
exact copy of  an earlier edition of    
,mark1 or may be derived from one of    
,mark's  sources1 ,q1 or may be taken   
from that stream of oral tradition      
coming  from eye-witnesses and ministers
 of the word1 which ,luke in his        
preface evidently regarded as the       
touchstone of historical truth1         
whatever his use of written sources4    
#bhg3 ,h4 ,l4 ,jackson1 in ,cambridge   
,biblical ,essays1 #aiji1 p4 #dcb4      
,passing over the vexed question of ,q1 
we may observe that the acceptance  of  
,harnack's early dating of the ,acts and
 ,luke would further complicate  the    
two-document theory4 ,he agrees that    
,luke was written before the  ,acts1 and
 the ,acts before ,paul's trial at ,rome
 was decided2 further that  ,mark is one
 of the sources of ,luke1 and that ,mark
 was written at ,rome4  ,tradition      
asserts no veto against the hypothesis  
that ,luke1 when he met  ,mark in the   

company of ,paul the prisoner1 was      
permitted by him to peruse  a written   
record of the ,gospel history which was 
essentially identical  with the ,gospel 
of ,mark given to the ,church at a later
 time4 ,perhaps1  he intimates1 ,luke   
was not yet acquainted with ,mark's     
final revision1  which1 as we can quite 
well imagine1 ,mark undertook while in  
,rome4#bhh  ,the priority of ,mark1     
under this supposition1 is left hanging 
by a  slender thread4 ,it is highly     
probable that ,luke gathered the        
material  for his work 7and a great part
 of it was certainly independent of     
,mark7  while in ,palestine1 and if he  
did not see ,mark's ,gospel1 or a rough 
draft of it1 until he was in ,rome1 it  
is improbable that the ,markan  document
 was his primary and principal source1  
as the two-document  theory asserts4    
#bhh3 ,,iv1 p4 #ic2 ,date of the ,acts  
and of the ,synoptic ,gospels1    p4    
#acc4    ,whatever the literary         
foundation of the two-document theory1  

it cannot  be said to have led to any   
very important historical results4      
,those who  regard the portrait of      
,jesus in ,mark as historical see in the
 portrayal  of ,matthew and ,luke only a
 difference in the nuances of the       
narrative4  ,on the other hand1 those   
who cannot accept the picture drawn by  
the  ,first and the ,third ,evangelists 
are equally unable to accept that given 
to us by ,mark4 ,the criticism of the   
sources1 in its usual form1 has not     
revealed to us a ,jesus who is more     
historical than the ,jesus of any of    
the ,synoptists2 and it is necessary to 
pursue the quest in the more            
problematical region of sources of      
sources4 ,in this process ,mark is      
found to be as little historical as the 
other ,synoptic ,gospels1 or even  as   
the ,gospel of ,john4    ,the           
dissonances of the ,evangelists appear  
to be left practically where  they were 
before the present movement in ,synoptic
 criticism began4 ,they  remain what    

they always have been when one ,gospel  
is compared with  another1 and are      
neither softened nor made more acute by 
any certain  results which have been    
reached in the study of the ,synoptic   
problem4  ,some1 no doubt1 may say that 
the discrepancies are so great that the 
,synoptic ,gospels cannot be accepted as
 historical records2 while others  will 
say1 as does a devout commentator on the
 ,acts1 that such is the  naturalness of
 ,holy ,scripture that it seems as      
though it were  indifferent about a     
superficial consistency4 ,so it ever is 
with truth3  its harmony is often veiled
 and hidden2 while falsehood sometimes  
betrays itself1 to a practised ear1 by a
 studied and ostentatious               
uniformity4#bhi ,others again will      
appeal to the writers on historical     
method1 such as ,langlois and           
,seignobos3 ,the natural tendency is to 
think that the closer the agreement is1 
the greater is its demonstrative  power2
 we ought1 on the contrary1 to adopt as 

a rule the paradox that an  agreement   
proves more when it is confined to a    
small number of  circumstances4 ,it is  
at such points of coincidence between   
diverging  statements that we are to    
look for scientifically established     
historical  facts4#bij ,the             
inter-,synoptic differences are         
certainly1 in general1 no  greater than 
those which a single author allowed     
himself in the accounts  of the same    
incident1 as is shown in ,luke's        
threefold account of the  conversion of 
the ,apostle ,paul4      #bhi3 ,c4 ,j4  
,vaughan3 ,the ,church of the ,first    
,days1 p4 #edg4      #bij3 ,introduction
 to the ,study of ,history1 pp4 #bja1   
#bjb4      ,,iv4 ,,the ,,johannine      
,,problem    ,it is scarcely surprising 
that the mystery which surrounds the    
most  mysterious ,personality in history
 should communicate itself to the       
records which tell of ,his life1 and    
even to the authors of these  records4  
,if the ,synoptic problem is a well1 as 

,goethe said1 the  problem presented by 
the spiritual ,gospel usually assigned  
to the  ,apostle ,john is equally       
fascinating and difficult4 ,the mystery 
of the  ,master has in part enveloped   
the disciple whom ,jesus loved4    ,the 
questions of the authorship and the     
historicity of the ,fourth ,gospel  are 
closely bound together4 ,if the ,gospel 
is a theological romance  intended to   
give currency to the conceptions of the 
,alexandrian  philosophy1 it is clear   
that its authorship cannot be ascribed  
to one of  the disciples of ,jesus4 ,on 
the other hand1 if it was written by one
 of  the ,apostolic band1 it must       
certainly1 whether reliable or not in   
its  details1 contain a wealth of       
historical reminiscence which will      
enrich  our knowledge of the            
personality1 the words and the deeds of 
,christ4    ,it is an interesting fact  
that a strong defense of the ,apostolic 
authorship of the ,gospel has been made1
 in the present generation and in  the  

one which preceded it1 by writers whose 
theological position would  incline them
 to an opposite conclusion4#bia ,the    
strength of the evidence  for ,johannine
 authorship lies in the testimony which 
it receives from  all parts of the early
 church1 whether divisions be made on   
geographical  or theological lines1 and 
in the links of connection which bind   
the  witnesses to the alleged scene of  
,john's labours and to the ,apostle     
himself4      #bia3 ,ezra ,abbot1 #ahhj 
7see ,the ,fourth ,gospel1 by ,abbot1   
,peabody    and ,lightfoot1 #ahia7 and  
,james ,drummond3 ,character and        
,authorship    of the ,fourth ,gospel1  
#aijd4    ,if it be objected that ,john1
 as a ,galilean fisherman and an        
unlettered  man1 could not have produced
 a work so profound in thought and so   
polished in ,greek composition1 the     
objection may be compared with that     
which is raised against the authorship  
of the plays which go under the  name of
 ,shakespeare4 ,andrew ,lang remarks    

with irony upon the surprising  belief  
that a young man from a little country  
town1 and later an actor1  could        
possibly possess ,shakespeare's vast    
treasures of general  information1 or   
,latin enough to have read the ,roman   
classics4#bib      #bib3 ,a ,new ,theory
 of ,shakespeare1 ,independent1         
,december #bb1 #aiaj1    p4 #acgc4      
,the external evidence for ,johannine   
authorship is strong and1 with the      
exception of the obscure sect of the    
,alogi1#bic is uniform4 ,it is          
sufficient1 and there can be little     
doubt that it would be efficient  in    
producing general belief except for the 
theological interests  involved4        
,objections to the ,apostolic authorship
 from the side of the  external evidence
 are based 7#a7 upon supposed           
indications that ,john was  martyred    
with ,james at ,jerusalem and never     
lived in ,ephesus at all1 and  7#b7 upon
 the statement of ,papias1 interpreted  
to mean that two men by  the name of    

,john lived in ,ephesus4 7#a7 ,the      
evidence upon the first point  is       
confessedly late and confused4 ,it is   
contained in the statements of          
,georgios ,hamartolos1 a ninth-century  
writer1 and in the so-called ,de  ,boor 
,fragment1 purporting to contain an     
extract from a fifth-century  writer1   
,philip of ,side4 ,the former says that 
,nerva1 having recalled  ,john from the 
island1 dismissed him to live in        
,ephesus4 ,then1 being the  only        
survivor of the twelve disciples1 and   
having composed the ,gospel  according  
to him1 he has been deemed worthy of    
martyrdom4 ,for ,papias1  the ,bishop of
 ,hierapolis1 having been an eye-witness
 of him1 says in the  second book of the
 ',oracles of the ,lord1' that he was   
slain by the ,jews1  having1 as is      
clear1 with his brother ,james1         
fulfilled the prediction of  ,christ    
concerning him1 and his own confession  
and assent in regard to  this4 ,he adds 
that the learned ,origen1 in his        

commentary on ,matthew1  affirms that   
,john  memartyrken 7has borne witness1  
or  suffered martyrdom71 intimating that
 he had learned this from the           
successors of the ,apostles4#bid ,but   
,origen1 in his comment on ,matthew  xx4
 #bc1 says that the king of the ,romans1
 as tradition teaches1  condemned ,john1
 witnessing for the truth1 to the island
 of ,patmos4 ,if  ,georgios ,hamartolos 
thus incorrectly refers to ,origen as a 
witness to  the martyrdom of ,john1 less
 weight attaches to his professed       
reproduction of the statement of        
,papias4      #bic3 ,epiphanius3 ,haer41
 li4      #bid3 ,see ,f4 ,w4 ,worsley3  
,the ,fourth ,gospel and the            
,synoptists1 #aiji1    pp4 #agd f4      
,the ,de ,boor ,fragment contains the   
statement that ,papias1 in the  second  
book1 says that ,john the ,divine and   
,james his brother were slain  by the   
,jews4#bie ,this supports the statement 
of the ninth-century  writer in regard  
to the second book of ,papias1 but the  

evidence1 whether  for the martyrdom of 
,john by the ,jews1 or for the fact that
 ,john was put  to death at the same    
time with his brother ,james1 as is     
sometimes  inferred1 is exceedingly     
slight4 ,paul 7,gal4 ii4 #i7 speaks of  
,john at a  time usually identified with
 the ,council at ,jerusalem 7,acts xv471
  although ,ramsay would identify it    
with ,acts xi4 #cj1 thus placing it     
immediately before the death of ,james  
7,acts xii4 #b74 ,the statement of      
,georgios that ,john lived in ,ephesus  
at the time of ,nerva also negatives    
this supposition4 ,of the slightly      
attested view that ,john was martyred   
at an early date1 ,dr4 ,dawson ,walker  
remarks3 ,it is difficult to think  that
 this latter hypothesis would have met  
with so great favour if it  had not been
 such an effective instrument in        
excluding ,st4 ,john from any           
possibility of being the writer of the  
,fourth ,gospel4#bif ,the  statements   
that ,john was put to death by the ,jews

 may possibly be an  inference from the 
prophecy1 ,the cup that ,i drink ye     
shall drink1 etc4  7,mark x4 #ci74      
#bie3 ,texte und ,untersuchungen1 v4 #b1
 p4 #agj4      #bif3 ,present ,day      
,criticism1 ,expositor1 ,march1 #aiab1  
p4 #bea4 ,for    the statement of a     
,syriac calendar 7#daa ,a4,d47          
commemorating ,john    and ,james the   
,apostles at ,jerusalem as martyrs on   
#bgth ,december1    see ,allen and      
,grensted3 ,introduction to the ,books  
of the ,new    ,testament1 #aiac1 p4    
#id4    7#b7 ,a mediating theory1 based 
upon the well-known statement of        
,papias#big in which a presbyter ,john  
may1 with much probability1 be          
distinguished from the ,apostle of that 
name1 does not deny the influence  of   
the ,apostle upon the construction of   
the ,fourth ,gospel1 while its  ultimate
 authorship is assigned to the presbyter
 ,john4 ,the hypothesis  of the two     
,johns rests upon the statement of      
,papias' fragment as  interpreted by    

,eusebius2 but ,eusebius1 while         
suggesting that the  presbyter might    
have written the ,apocalypse1 indicates 
no doubt of the  ,apostolic authorship  
of the ,gospel and the ,first ,epistle4 
,the  possibility that there were two   
,johns1 who were both in some sense     
disciples of the ,lord 7as ,papias      
describes the presbyter71 who both      
lived in ,asia ,minor1 and who were both
 more or less concerned in the  writing 
of the ,fourth ,gospel1 cannot be       
denied4 ,but it is also possible  that  
,papias has been misinterpreted1 and    
that1 when he described the  presbyter  
,john1 the disciple of the ,lord1 he had
 only the ,apostle ,john  in mind4 ,in  
this case we should be freed from the   
necessity1 involved in  the theory of   
authorship we are considering1 of       
supposing that the  ,apostle had a      
mysterious alter ego of the same name1  
who was with him  alike in ,palestine   
and in ,asia ,minor1 shared in a degree 
his authority  and published the        

substance of his teaching1 and so       
completely merged  his personality in   
that of the ,apostle that in the ,gospel
 record no  trace of a separate         
presbyter can be found1 and there is no 
mention of  the name of either ,john4   
#big3 ,eusebius3 ,hist4 ,eccl41 iii4    
#ci4 ,what was said 444 by ,john or     
,matthew or any other of the ,lord's    
disciples1 and what ,aristion and    the
 ,presbyter ,john1 the disciples of the 
,lord1 say4 ,the argument    for two    
,johns is based upon the fact that the  
name is mentioned    twice and that     
different tenses are used4    ,the      
,first ,epistle1 supposed to be a sort  
of supplement to the ,gospel1 is  of    
importance in its bearing upon the      
question of authorship4 ,as a  recent   
writer says3 ,the persistent note of    
authority which is  overheard1 rather   
than heard1 in the ,epistles is the more
 impressive  because it is only implied4
 ,st4 ,john assumes that his authority  
is  unquestioned and unquestionable by  

those ,asians who are loyal to the      
,christian tradition4 ,when we compare  
his letters with those of his  younger  
contemporaries1 we conclude that it was 
unquestionably because  he was an       
,apostle4#bih      #bih3 ,rev4 ,h4 ,j4  
,bardsley3 ,the ,testimony of ,ignatius 
and ,polycarp to    the ,authorship of  
',st4 ,john1' ,journal of ,theological  
,studies1    ,vol4 ,,xiv1 ,no4 #ef1     
,july1 #aiac1 p4 #dia4    ,another      
mediating position1 adopted by those who
 do not accept the full  ,apostolic     
authorship1 is found in a theory of     
partition1 which assigns a  portion of  
the ,gospel to the ,apostle4 ,the       
artistic unity of the ,gospel  and the  
qualities of style which distinguish it 
from other writings  present a grave    
difficulty to any theory of partition4  
,as a sort of  half-way house it will   
scarcely be permanently tenable4 ,of    
,spitta's  analysis1 which assigns a    
part of the ,gospel to the ,apostle1 it 
has been  objected by a critic of more  

radical sympathies that such an         
admission  places him outside the limits
 of scientific criticism4#bii      #bii3
 ,c4 ,a4 ,bernoulli1 in appendix to     
,overbeck's ,johannesevangelium1        
#aiaa1 pp4 #ejd1 #eje4    ,the          
stronghold of the evidence alike for and
 against the ,johannine  authorship is  
to be found in the facts of the ,gospel 
itself4 ,on the one  hand a powerful    
argument1 such as that which has been   
developed by  ,lightfoot and ,westcott1 
can be drawn to show that the author of 
the  ,gospel must have been a ,jew1 a   
,jew of ,palestine1 a disciple of       
,jesus1  one of the inner circle of     
disciples1 and in fact none other than  
the  beloved disciple himself4 ,the     
internal facts of the ,gospel are used  
in  a different way by others to show   
that the ,fourth ,gospel differs so     
radically in scene1 in the style of its 
discourses1 and indeed in its  entire   
portrait of ,jesus1 that it cannot be   
accepted as historical1 or  as the work 

of one of the disciples4    ,the        
difference in scene between the         
,galilean ,gospels and the ,jerusalem   
,gospel presents no great difficulty1   
but the crux of the problem is in  the  
difference in style and subject matter4 
,the ,jesus of the ,synoptics  cannot1  
it is said1 have spoken in the style of 
the discourses in ,john4  ,before this  
judgment can be accepted without        
qualification1 several  points deserve  
to be noticed4 ,the difference in style 
is in part  accounted for by the        
difference in subject matter and in the 
character  of the audience4 ,there are  
out-croppings of the ,johannine style in
 the  ,synoptics1 especially where the  
subject of discourse is similar4 ,the   
passage1 ,matthew xi4 #be-cj1 which1 as 
we have seen1 contains the  essential   
teachings found in ,john xiv41 is a     
notable illustration4 ,the  ,jerusalem  
audience again was different from the   
,galilean audience4 ,if it  be said that
 when the ,jesus of the ,fourth ,gospel 

speaks in ,galilee 7,john  vi47 ,he uses
 the same mystical style as when ,he    
speaks in ,jerusalem1 it  should at     
least be considered that the discourse  
in ,capernaum is not  given as a sample 
of the usual synagogue preaching of     
,jesus4 ,the scene  clearly marks a     
crisis in the ministry1 a crisis        
indicated in the other  ,gospels by the 
northern journey for retirement which   
immediately  followed1 but made more    
intelligible by the supposition that the
  ,capernaum discourse was practically a
 clearer revelation to the ,galilean    
audience of the consciousness of ,jesus 
and the spiritual character of  ,his    
work4 ,when we recall that such         
expressions1 familiar to ,john1 as      
,logos1 ,lamb of ,god1 propitiation for 
sin1 are never placed by ,john in  the  
mouth of ,jesus1 we have strong negative
 evidence that the discourses  of ,jesus
 in the ,fourth ,gospel are not the free
 composition of the author  himself4    
,after all1 the question of the style of

 the ,fourth ,gospel is not so          
important as that of its contents4 ,does
 it draw an essentially different       
picture of ,jesus from that of the      
,synoptic writers1 or does it help us   
to fill out and to interpret the        
,synoptic portrait8 ,two considerations 
of a general nature should be kept in   
mind4 ,ordinary readers of the  ,gospels
 in all ages have seen no lack of unity 
in the composite portrait  of the four  
,gospels2 and recent criticism has shown
 that even to the  sharp sighted modern 
critic the harmony is so great that one 
who rejects  the historical character of
 ,john's ,gospel will also reject the   
,second  ,gospel1 which was written from
 the standpoint that ,jesus is the ,son 
of  ,god 7so ,bousset71 and is to be    
distinguished from the ,fourth ,gospel  
in  degree 7graduel7 rather than in     
essence4 ,the aim of ,mark1 and there is
  no reason to doubt that he reaches his
 aim1 is in fact the same as that  of   
,john1 so far as concerns his desire    

that his readers may believe that       
,jesus is the ,christ1 the ,son of ,god 
7,john xx4 #ca74    ,if what the        
,synoptic ,gospels say is true as to the
 words and the works  and the claims and
 the consciousness of ,jesus1 then we   
should expect  some such supplement as  
we find in ,john4 ,we should expect     
either more or  less than we find in the
 ,synoptic ,gospels4 ,when we read of   
the ,divine  ,voice at the baptism and  
the transfiguration1 we ask1 ,what did  
,jesus  ,himself conceive ,his relation 
to ,god to be8 ,the full answer is in   
,john4  ,when we read1 ,where two or    
three are gathered together in my name1 
there am ,i in the midst of them 7,matt4
 xviii4 #bj71 we should expect  fuller  
teaching on the relation of ,jesus to   
the disciples4 ,this we have  in the    
last discourses in ,john4 ,when we read 
in the ,synoptists accounts  of the     
teaching and the mighty works1 we turn  
to ,john for the full  description of   
the ,teacher and ,lord1 and of the      

mighty ,worker  manifesting ,his glory4 
,the ,synoptic ,gospels tell us of the  
authority of  ,jesus and of ,his office 
of judgment and of ,his founding a      
,church4 ,in  ,john we see the ground of
 ,his authority in ,his relation to ,god
 and in  ,his mystical relation to the  
disciples4 ,in the ,synoptists we have  
the  ,last ,supper and general          
prophecies of the future and commands   
for the  guidance of the ,church4 ,we   
should expect some more intimate and    
personal  revelation of ,his relation to
 the disciples1 such as is furnished by 
the  ,johannine picture of the disciple 
whom ,jesus loved1 and in the words1    
,woman1 behold thy son 7,john xix4 #bf1 
#bg72 and in the intimate  discourse of 
,john xiv4-xvi4 ,when we read1 once     
more1 that ,jesus often  retired for    
prayer1 but in the ,synoptic ,gospels   
have the record of only  one or two of  
,his petitions3 ,remove this cup from   
me4444 ,thy will be  done 7see ,luke    
xxii4 #db and compare xxii4 #cb71 we    

expect some such  enrichment of our     
knowledge of the prayer-life of ,jesus  
as is contained  in ,john xvii4    ,the 
historical character of the ,fourth     
,gospel is shown alike by the  light    
which it throws upon the course of      
events in the public ministry  and by   
the more subtle resemblances between    
,john and the ,synoptists1 so  different
 in emphasis and shading that ,john's   
account cannot well have  been due to   
,synoptic tradition1 and yet so much in 
agreement as to give  confidence that   
the same course of events underlies both
 accounts4 ,if we  look at the outward  
course of events under the guidance of  
writers such  as ,askwith#cjj or ,a4 ,e4
 ,brooks1#cja we see that ,john's       
picture of the  earliest disciples in   
,judea may throw light upon the         
narrative of the  call of the four      
7,mark i4 #af f474 ,the crisis in the   
ministry1 indicated  rather than        
explained in the ,markan narrative1 is  
more intelligible in  the light of ,john

 vi4 ,the hosannas of the ,triumphal    
,entry into  ,jerusalem1 as well as the 
settled determination of the rulers to  
put  ,jesus to death1 can be better     
understood with the help of ,john's     
statements about ,lazarus 7see ,john    
xii4 #i-aa72 and the accusation of the  
witnesses1 ,we heard him say ,i will    
destroy this temple 7,mark xiv4 #eh71   
and the weeping of ,jesus over          
,jerusalem 7,matt1 xxiii4 #cg7 are again
 more  intelligible in view of the      
,johannine statements about the temple  
of ,his  body 7,john ii4 #bj1 #ba71 and 
the accounts of ,his frequent visits to 
,jerusalem4      #cjj3 ,historical      
,value of the ,fourth ,gospel1 #aiaj4   
,from the    ,synoptists1 he says1 we do
 not learn of disciples of the ,baptist 
becoming disciples of ,jesus4 ,but if   
the work of the ,baptist was    what the
 ,synoptists declare it to have been1   
namely1 to prepare the    way for the   
,christ1 it is hardly conceivable that  
this work1    faithfully carried out1   

could have failed of this result--to    
supply    disciples for ,him 7p4 #ei74  
#cja3 ,historical ,value of the ,fourth 
,gospel1 in ,cambridge ,biblical        
,essays4 ,the best explanation of the   
silence of the ,synoptists upon    the  
raising of ,lazarus is still that given 
by ,holdsworth1 ,gospel    ,origins1 p4 
#abf3 ,every missionary knows that to   
mention the names    of converts in     
published accounts of their work among a
 people    hostile to ,christianity is  
fraught with peril to those who are     
mentioned4444 ,the difficult question of
 the appearance in the ,fourth          
,gospel of the raising of ,lazarus finds
 its best explanation in an             
application of this rule4444 ,although  
the ,synoptists record the    saying of 
,christ that the name of the woman who  
broke the bottle of    spikenard 444    
should be mentioned or rather her deed  
wherever the    ,gospel was proclaimed1 
that name was never mentioned by them4  
,long    afterwards ,john mentions      

,mary's name4    ,relationships of a    
more subtle kind may be found when ,john
 is compared  with the ,synoptic        
,gospels4 7#a7 ,the relation of ,jesus  
to ,his mother is  the same in both4    
,compare ,luke ii4 #di1 ,knew ye not    
that ,i must be in  the things of my    
,father2 and ,john ii4 #d1 ,woman1 what 
have ,i to do  with thee8 ,the relation 
with ,his brethren is also the same1    
their right  to influence ,him not being
 admitted4 7#b7 ,the causes of          
opposition are  differently described1  
but are the same in principle4 ,in both 
,mark ii4  and ,john v41 the charges    
against ,him are those of blasphemy and 
,sabbath  breaking1 and in both cases   
are made in connection with the miracle 
of  healing4 ,his defense of ,his action
 in healing on the ,sabbath day is the  
same in principle but different in      
detail4 ,in both there is an   fortiori 
argument3 ,how much then is a man of    
more value than a sheep6  7,matt4 xii4  
#ab72 ,if a man receive circumcision on 

the ,sabbath 444 are  ye wroth with me  
because ,i made a man every whit whole  
on the ,sabbath8  7,john vii4 #bc74 ,in 
both cases ,his action is defended by   
reference to ,his  unique position1 in  
the one case in ,his relation to ,god1  
,my ,father  worketh hitherto 7,john v4 
#ag72 and in the other case in ,his     
relation to  men1 ,the ,son of man is   
lord even of the ,sabbath 7,mark ii4    
#bh74 7#c7 ,the  relation of ,jesus to  
various classes of people as described  
by ,john is  remarkably different in    
detail1 but wonderfully similar in      
essence1 when  compared with the        
,synoptic record4 ,in each with entire  
difference of  scene and circumstance   
,he meets with a woman that was a       
sinner1 but the  essentials of penitence
 and the public expression of gratitude 
are  similar in both 7,luke vii4 #cg f42
 ,john iv4 #g f474 ,no narratives could 
be  more independent of each other than 
those of the conversation with          
,nicodemus in ,john iii41 and with the  

rich young ruler in ,mark x41 yet in    
both cases the attitude of ,jesus       
towards an influential and upright and  
religious man was the same4 ,in spite of
 difference in language also1 the  words
 to ,nicodemus1 ,ye must be born again  
7,john iii4 #g71 do not differ  in their
 radical demands from the words         
addressed to the ruler1 ,one  thing thou
 lackest3 go1 sell whatsoever thou hast 
and come1 follow me  7,mark x4 #ba74    
,the comparison might be continued      
indefinitely1 but only to show that  the
 picture of ,jesus and of ,his relation 
to the ,father1 and to ,his  disciples1 
to publicans and sinners1 to the        
,pharisees1 to women1 and to  the human 
race as ,saviour and ,judge1 is so      
different in ,john that it  cannot be   
due merely to the influence of the      
,synoptic tradition1 and yet  so        
identical in substance that it cannot   
possibly1 with any regard for  literary 
probabilities1 have been the free       
invention of the writer4    ,it is      

generally agreed that the writer of the 
,fourth ,gospel took for  granted in his
 readers an acquaintance with the       
narrative or the  tradition of the      
,synoptic ,gospels4 ,he would not have  
written unless he  had some new light to
 throw upon the figure of ,jesus1 or    
some deeper  insight into ,his          
personality and work4 ,the photograph   
and the portrait  may not perhaps agree 
in their mechanical measurements1 but to
 one who  knows the subject the portrait
 may reproduce the original as          
faithfully1  and even more adequately1  
than does the photograph4 ,each is      
useful for  its own purpose1 but both   
together are needed to give us the body 
and  the soul1 the exact features and   
the expression1 the total impression of 
the personality4    ,the criticism of   
the ,gospels has thrown the figure of   
,jesus into strong  relief1 not only    
against the background of ,his time1 but
 against the  background of humanity in 
general4 ,in its recent developments1 it

 has  left us practically with the      
choice between the ,christ of the four  
,gospels or a shadowy figure to be found
 in none of them4 ,the true  historical 
,jesus that criticism has brought before
 us is clad in the  coarse garments of  
,galilee1 but with the glory of the     
only-begotten of  the ,father1 full of  
grace and truth4    ,the searchlight of 
modern knowledge is the fierce light    
that beats upon  the throne4 ,as nature 
and the human soul and the relationships
 of  thought and the phenomena of       
religion and the book of revelation are 
more fully studied1 the majesty and     
beauty of the central ,figure in        
history is more clearly revealed4 ,each 
age sees a new glory in ,jesus  ,christ4
 ,it is one of the evidences of the     
moral greatness of ,jesus1  says        
,peabody1 that each period in ,christian
 history1 each social or  political     
change1 has brought to view some new    
aspect of ,his character  and given ,him
 a new claim to reverence4 ,the modern  

age sees in ,him and  in ,his ,cross of 
love and sacrifice the guide and        
inspiration of its  ethical and social  
advance4 ,it sees in ,him and in ,his   
,cross the  solution1 so far as ultimate
 solution may be possible1 of its       
deepest  intellectual problems4 ,it sees
 in ,him not merely a ,guide and a      
,revealer1  but a ,redeemer from sin and
 the ,giver of ,eternal ,life4          
,bibliography of ,recent ,important     
,works      ,for ,chapter ,i            
,,harnack1 ,a4 ,das ,wesen des          
,christentums1 #aijj1 #b;d ed41 #aijh2  
,what is ,christianity8 #aija1 #b;d ed41
 #aiaj4 ,sprche und ,reden       ,jesu1 
#aijg2 ,the ,sayings of ,jesus1 #aijh4  
,aus ,wissenschaft und ,leben1 #b vols41
 #aiaa4      ,,loisy1 ,a4 ,l'vangile et 
l'glise1 #c;d ed41 #aijd2 ,the ,church  
and       the ,gospel1 #aijc4           
,,bousset1 ,w4 ,was wissen wir von      
,jesus8 #aijd4         ,kyrios          
,christos2 ,geschichte des              
,christusglaubens von den       ,anfngen

 des ,christentums his ,irenus1 #aiac4  
,,schumacher1 ,h4 ,die                  
,selbstoffenbarung ,jesu bei ,mat #aa1  
#bg 7,luc       #aj1 #bb71 #aiab        
7,freiburger ,theologische ,studien1    
,heft #f74      ,,schweitzer1 ,a4 ,von  
,reimarus zu ,wrede1 #aijf2 ,the ,quest 
of the       ,historical ,jesus1 #aiaj4 
,,drews1 ,a4 ,die ,christusmythe1 #dth  
ed41 #aiaa2 ,the ,christ-,myth1         
#c;d ed41 #aiaj4      ,,warfield1 ,b4   
,b4 ,the ,lord of ,glory1 #aijg2 and    
recent articles in       theological    
reviews4      ,,thorburn1 ,t4 ,j4 ,jesus
 the ,christ3 ,historical or ,mythical8 
#aiab4      ,for ,chapter ,,ii          
,darwin and ,modern ,science4 ,edited by
 ,a4 ,c4 ,seward1 #aiji4                
,anniversary ,volume by ,various        
,authors4      ,fifty ,years of         
,darwinism1 #aiji4 ,anniversary ,volume 
by ,various       ,authors4             
,,weismann1 ,a4 ,the ,evolution ,theory1
 #b vols41 #aijd4      ,,wallace1 ,a4   
,r4 ,the ,world of ,life1 #aiaa4 ,man's 

,place in the       ,universe1 #c;d ed41
 #aije4      ,,morgan1 ,t4 ,h4          
,evolution and ,adaptation1 #aijh4      
,,henderson1 ,l4 ,j4 ,the ,fitness of   
the ,environment1 #aiac4      ,,thomson1
 ,j4 ,a4 ,the ,bible of ,nature1 #aijh4 
,,merx1 ,j4 ,t4 ,history of ,european   
,thought in the ,nineteenth             
,century4 ,vol4 ,,ii1 #aijc4            
,,herbert1 ,s4 ,first ,principles of    
,evolution1 #aiac4      ,for ,chapter   
,,iii      ,,james1 ,w4 ,varieties of   
,religious ,experience1 #aijc4 ,the     
,will to       ,believe1 and ,other     
,essays in ,popular ,philosophy1 #aijb4 
,,starbuck1 ,e4 ,d4 ,the ,psychology of 
,religion1 #aijj4      ,,ames1 ,e4 ,c4  
,the ,psychology of ,religious          
,experience1 #aiaj4      ,,leuba1 ,j4   
,h4 ,a ,psychological ,study of         
,religion1 #aiab4      ,,pratt1 ,j4 ,b4 
,the ,psychology of ,religious ,belief1 
#aijg4      ,,stevens1 ,,george4 ,the   
,psychology of the ,christian ,soul1    
#aiaa4      ,,royce1 ,j4 ,the ,sources  

of ,religious ,insight1 #aiab4          
,,begbie1 ,h4 ,twice-,born ,men1 #aiji4 
,,jastrow1 ,,joseph4 ,the ,subconscious1
 #aijf4      ,,coe1 ,,george ,a4 ,the   
,religion of a ,mature ,mind1 #aijb4    
,,hall1 ,g4 ,,stanley4 ,adolescence1    
#aijd4      ,for ,chapter ,,iv          
,,bergson1 ,,henri4 ,l'volution         
,cratrice1 #gth ed41 #aiaa2 ,creative   
,evolution1 #aiaa4      ,,leroy1        
,,edouard4 ,the ,new ,philosophy of     
,henri ,bergson1 #aiac4      ,,eucken1  
,,rudolf4 ,der ,wahrheitsgehalt der     
,religion1 #c;d ed41 #aiab2       ,the  
,truth of ,religion1 #b;d ,eng4 from    
#c;d ,german ed41 #aiac4         ,knnen 
wir noch ,christen sein8 #aiaa2 ,can ,we
 ,still ,be       ,christians8 #aiad4   
,,jones1 ,w4 ,,tudor4 ,an               
,interpretation of ,rudolf ,eucken's    
,philosophy1 #aiab4      ,,hermann1 ,e4 
,eucken and ,bergson3 ,their            
,significance for       ,christian      
,thought1 #aiab4      ,,gibson1 ,w4 ,r4 
,,boyce4 ,rudolf ,eucken's ,philosophy  

of ,life1 #c;d       ed41 #aiab4        
,,ward1 ,,james4 ,the ,realm of ,ends1  
#aiaa4      ,,royce1 ,,josiah4 ,william 
,james and ,other ,essays1 #aiaa4       
,the ,problem of ,christianity1 #b      
vols41 #aiac4      ,for ,chapter ,v     
,,clemen1 ,,carl4                       
,religionsgeschichtliche ,erklrung des  
,neuen       ,testaments1 #aiji2        
,primitive ,christianity and ,its       
non-,jewish       ,sources1 #aiab4      
,der ,einfluss der ,mysterienreligionen 
auf das lteste       ,christentum1      
#aiac4      ,,reitzenstein1 ,r4         
,poimandres3 ,studien zur               
griechisch-gyptischen       und         
frhchristlichen ,literatur1 #aijd4 ,die 
,hellenistische                         
,mysterienreligionen1 #aiaj4            
,,cumont1 ,f4 ,les ,religions           
,orientales dans le ,paganisme ,romain1 
#b;d ed41 #aiji2 ,the ,oriental         
,religions in ,roman ,paganism1 #aiaa4  
,,kennedy1 ,h4 ,a4 ,a4 ,st4 ,paul and   
the ,mystery ,religions1 #aiac4         

,,mead1 ,g4 ,r4 ,s4 ,thrice ,greatest   
,hermes1 #c vols41 #aijf4      ,,fowler1
 ,w4 ,,warde4 ,the ,religious           
,experience of the ,roman ,people1      
#aiaa4      ,,mackenzie1 ,w4 ,d4 ,the   
,final ,faith1 #aiaj4      ,,marett1 ,r4
 ,r4 ,the ,threshold of ,religion1      
#aiad4      ,religionsgeschtliche       
,volksbcher1 begun in #aijd4      ,for  
,chapter ,,vi      ,,orr1 ,,james4 ,the 
,problem of the ,old ,testament1 #aijf4 
,,harnack1 ,a4 ,beitrage zur ,einleitung
 in das ,neue ,testament3 ,i4           
,lukas der ,arzt1 #aijf 7,luke the      
,physician1 #aijg72 ,,ii4 ,sprche       
und ,reden ,jesu1 #aijg 7,the ,sayings  
of ,jesus1 #aijh72 ,,iii4 ,die          
,apostelgeschichte1 #aijh 7,the ,acts of
 the ,apostles1 #aiji72 ,,iv4           
,neue ,untersuchungen zur               
,apostelgeschichte und zur              
,abfassungszeit der ,synoptischen       
,evangelien1 #aiaa 7,the ,date of       
the ,acts and of the ,synoptic ,gospels1
 #aiaa74      ,,ramsay1 ,,sir ,w4 ,m4   

,pauline and ,other ,studies in ,early  
,church       ,history1 #aijf4          
,,koch1 ,,heinrich4 ,die ,abfassungszeit
 des lukanischen                        
,geschichtswerkes1 #aiaa4      ,,sanday1
 ,w4 7,,ed474 ,studies in the ,synoptic 
,problem1 #aiaa4 ,the       ,criticism  
of the ,fourth ,gospel1 #aije4          
,,stanton1 ,,vincent ,h4 ,the ,gospels  
as ,historical ,documents1 ,part        
,,ii1 ,the ,synoptic ,gospels1 #aiji4   
,,holdsworth1 ,w4 ,w4 ,gospel ,origins3 
,a ,study in the ,synoptic              
,problem1 #aiac4      ,,hawkins1 ,,sir  
,,john ,c4 ,hor ,synoptic1 #b;d ed41    
#aiji4      ,,moffatt1 ,,james4 ,an     
,introduction to the ,literature of the 
,new       ,testament1 #aiaa4           
,,allen1 ,w4 ,c4 and ,,grensted1 ,l4 ,w4
 ,introduction to the ,books of         
the ,new ,testament1 #aiac4             
,,drummond1 ,,james4 ,an ,inquiry ,into 
the ,character and ,authorship       of 
the ,fourth ,gospel1 #aijd4             
,,bacon1 ,,benjamin ,w4 ,the ,fourth    

,gospel in ,research and ,debate1       
#aiaj4      ,,worsley1 ,f4 ,w4 ,the     
,fourth ,gospel and the ,synoptists1    
#aiji4      ,,schaefer1 ,,aloys4        
,enileitung in das ,neue ,testament1    
#aiac4          ,index          ,abbot1 
,ezra1 #bbh        ,absolute1 the1 #abe1
 #abg1 #adg1 #afb        ,activism1     
#ach1 #aci        ,acts of the          
,apostles1 credibility of1 #bjf-baj1    
#bae-baf2        authorship of1 #bji2   
date of1 #baj-bae        ,adolescence   
and conversion1 #ajg-aaj        ,adonis1
 #aff        ,allen1 ,grant1 #eh        
,allen and ,grensted1 #bcb        ,ames1
 ,e4 ,c41 #aae1 #aag        ,arrhenius1 
,s4 ,a41 #gf        ,askwith1 ,e4 ,h41  
#bch        ,atonement1 #aeg-afj        
,augustine1 #ic1 #id1 #ih-ii1 #aaj      
,bacon1 ,b4 ,w41 #ce        ,baldwin1   
,j4 ,m41 #fc        ,bardsley1 ,h4 ,j41 
#bcc        ,bartlett1 ,j4 ,v41 #bai    
,bateson1 ,w41 #fe        ,baur1 ,f4    
,c41 #bjc1 #bjd1 #bag        ,begbie1   
,h41 #if        ,bergson1 ,h41 #fb1 #fc1

 #fi1 #gc1 #abg-acg1 #adf1 #afc         
,bernoulli1 ,c4 ,a41 #bcd        ,booth1
 ,m41 #add        ,bousset1 ,w41 #bj1   
#ce1 #ch1 #dj-db1 #df1 #dh1 #agd-agf1   
#ahd1 #ahh1 #bbb1 #bbc        ,brooks1  
,a4 ,e41 #bch        ,brooks1 ,phillips1
 #bi        ,browning1 ,r41 #afb        
,buddhism1 #agj          ,carlyle1 ,t41 
#dc1 #aai        ,carter1 ,j4 ,b41 #if  
,cheyne1 ,t4 ,k41 #afh        ,christian
 experience1 #ec1 #add2        evidence 
of1 #abb-abd        ,christianity1      
essence of1 #ae1 #bf1 #bg1 #ed2         
of the ,new ,testament writers1 #af-ba2 
primitive and ,pauline1 #ba-bf2         
of ,jesus and ,paul1 #bf-cd2            
doctrinal1 #eb1 #ed-ee1 #aeg-aeh2       
,eucken's relation to1 #adb-ade2        
what is vital in1 #aef-aeh2        and  
ancient religions1 #afe-aic2        and 
modern religions1 #aic-aig              
,christology1 #afa1 #afb1 #age2         
of ,paul1 #ae1 #bc2        of ,mark1    
#bj1 #bbc1 #bcf2        of ,jesus1      
#ce-dd2        and ethics1 #bh-ce       

,clemen1 ,c41 #afh1 #agj1 #aha1 #ahg1   
#ahi        ,clifford1 ,w4 ,k41 #ic     
,coe1 ,g4 ,a41 #ij        ,confucius1   
#afg-afh        ,conklin1 ,e4 ,a41 #gi  
,conversion1 #if-ii1 #ajg-aaj1 #abc     
,copernicus1 #fj1 #he        ,creed1 ,j4
 ,m41 #ahi        ,cumont1 ,f41 #agh1   
#ahj          ,darwin1 ,c41 #ef1 #he1   
#abi        ,darwinism1 see ,evolution  
,de,boor fragment1 #bca                 
,deissmann1 ,a41 #agb1 #agf             
,dewey1 ,j41 #abg        ,dobschtz1 ,e4 
von1 #db1 #ec-ed1 #ahb        ,drews1   
,a41 #de1 #df1 #dh1 #ej        ,driesch1
 ,h4 ,a4 ,e41 #gj        ,drummond1     
,henry1 #hi        ,drummond1 ,james1   
#bbh          ,edwards1 ,jonathan1 #hi1 
#abb        ,eigenmann1 ,c4 ,h41 #fb    
,eimer1 ,g4 ,h4 ,j41 #fc        lan     
vital1 see ,vital impulse        ,eliot1
 ,c4 ,w41 #aig        ,emerson1 ,r4 ,w41
 #eh1 #hi        ,emperor1 worship of1  
#agb-agg        ,environment1 fitness   
of1 #fj1 #fh-fi        ,ephesians1      
epistle to1 #bjd        ,epigenesis1    

#gc-ge1 #ha1 #hc        ,epiphanius1    
#bbi        ,ethics1 of ,jesus and      
,paul1 #bg-ce2        ,christian1 #ea   
,eucken1 ,r41 #cc1 #ia1 #acg-adf1 #afc  
,eusebius1 #bcb        ,evolution1 #ef2 
as unfavourable to religion1 #eg-eh2    
as favourable to religion1 #ei-fj2      
and the ,copernican theory1 #fj-fa2     
method of1 #fa-ff2        meaning of1   
#ff-hb2        and design1 #ff-gc2      
and theism1 #hb-he2        creative1    
#abg-acf          ,faith1 salvation by1 
#ajb1 #ajd        ,finalism1 #acb-acd   
,fletcher1 ,m4 ,s41 #aaf                
,forrest1 ,d4 ,w41 #abb        ,fowler1 
,w4 ,warde1 #aib        ,fox1 ,george1  
#ajg1 #aah        ,franckh1 #agj        
,frazer1 ,j4 ,g41 #df          ,georgios
 ,hamartolos1 #bcj1 #bca        ,goethe1
 #bbh        ,gospel1 the double1 #be1  
#ec-ed        ,grace1 #aei-afa          
,gregory1 ,e4 ,l41 #abb                 
,grtzmacher1 ,r4 ,h41 #aga              
,haeckel1 ,e41 #eh1 #aci        ,hale1  
,e4 ,e41 #aja        ,hall1 ,g4 ,s41    

#ajg        ,harnack1 ,a4 von1 #ah1 #be1
 #bf1 #bg1 #cg1 #ch1 #eb1 #ec1          
#ahh1 #bjg-baa1 #bae1 #baf1 #bbe        
,hartmann1 ,e4 von1 #abh        ,hase1  
,k4 ,a41 #ci        ,hatch1 ,e41 #ahc   
,hawkins1 ,sir ,j4 ,c41 #bjh1 #baa1     
#bai1 #bba        ,headlam1 ,a4 ,c41    
#bjd        ,headley1 ,f4 ,h41 #hc      
,hegel1 #adf-afb        ,heitmller1 ,w41
 #ahb        ,henderson1 ,l4 ,j41 #fh1  
#fi        ,herbert1 ,s41 #fe           
,heredity1 #fa        ,hermas1 ,shepherd
 of1 #ahe1 #aij-aib        ,hermes1     
#ahi-aib        ,hermetic literature1   
#ahe-ahh1 #ahi        ,hffding1 ,h41    
#aba        ,holdsworth1 ,w4 ,w41 #bba1 
#bbc1 #bch        ,holtzmann1 ,h4 ,j41  
#bad        ,hgel1 ,baron ,f4 von1 #gc  
,huxley1 ,t4 ,h41 #fg1 #he              
,immortality1 #ei1 #abi1 #acj1 #ada1    
#aeb-aed        ,incarnation1 #aeg1     
#afb-afc        ,inge1 ,w4 ,r41 #ij     
,intellectualism1 #adj        ,ishtar1  
#aga          ,jackson1 ,h4 ,l41 #bbd   
,james1 ,william1 #hi1 #ij1 #ib1 #ajj1  

#ajb1 #ajd1        #aaa-aad1 #aai-abj1  
#abb1 #abe1 #acg        ,jastrow1 ,j41  
#ajb1 #aaa        ,jesus ,christ1       
passion1 #af-bj1 #da-db2                
resurrection1 #af-ah1 #be1 #adc2        
person1 #bj2        authority1 #ca-cb2  
character1 #ca1 #dc-dd1 #ea2            
liberal view of1 #dd-di1 #adc-add2      
mythical view of1 #de-dg        ,john1  
,gospel of1 #bbg-bdb2        authorship 
of1 #bbh-bbi2        external evidence1 
#bbi-bcc2        internal evidence1     
#bcd-bch2        historical value1      
#bch-bdb        ,josephus1 #baa1        
#bac-bae        ,justin1 #agj           
,kalthoff1 ,a41 #bb        ,kant1 #adf1 
#aeb        ,kelvin1 ,lord1 #gf         
,kennedy1 ,h4 ,a4 ,a41 #ahj1 #ahb1 #ahh 
,kidd1 ,b41 #eh1 #ij        ,kingsley1  
,charles1 #ei        ,koch1 ,h41        
#baa-bab        ,kyrios-title1 #agd-agg 
,lake1 ,k41 #be        ,lamarck1 #fc    
,lang1 ,a41 #bbi        ,langlois and   
,seignobos1 #bbg        ,law1 ,r41 #ajg 
,lemme1 ,l41 #cf        ,le,roy1 ,e41   

#acb        ,leuba1 ,j4 ,h41 #aae       
,lightfoot1 ,bishop ,j4 ,b41 #aij1 #bbh1
 #bcd        ,lodge1 ,sir ,o41 #fi1 #hf 
,loeb1 ,j41 #gf        ,logia1 see ,q   
,loisy1 ,a41 #cg1 #gc1 #agg             
,lowell1 ,j4 ,r41 #aig        ,loyalty1 
religion of1 #aef-aeh        ,luther1   
#ii1 #aaj        ,lyell1 ,sir ,charles1 
#ef          ,macalister1 ,a41 #fh      
,mark 7,gospel71 priority of1 #bag1     
#bbc1 #bbe2        use of ,q1 #bbj2     
different editions of1 #bbj2            
secondary elements in1 #bba-bbc         
,materialism1 #if1 #abf1 #afc           
,mead1 ,g4 ,r4 ,s41 #ahi1 #aij          
,mechanism1 #ff1 #fh-fi1 #gb1 #hc1 #aca 
,messiah1 #dd1 #dg-dh                   
,metempsychosis1 #aeb-aee               
,missions1 ,christian1 #aic-aig         
,moffatt1 ,j41 #baa                     
,mohammedanism1 #add-ade1 #aif          
,morgan1 ,c4 ,lloyd1 #fc        ,morgan1
 ,t4 ,h41 #fe        ,mystery religions1
 #agg-ahf1 #ahi        ,mysticism1      
#abj-abb          ,ngeli1 ,k4 ,w41 #fc  

,naturalism1 #abe1 #acf1 #acg1 #aci     
,neo-,platonism1 #ahi        ,newman1   
,cardinal1 #gc        ,newton1 #ef1 #hf 
,nicoll1 ,sir ,w4 ,robertson1 #baf      
,nietzsche1 ,f41 #abh        ,noyes1    
,alfred1 #gd1 #hj          ,origen1     
#afi1 #bcj        ,origin1 of life1     
#ge-gh2        of man1 #gh-gi           
,orr1 ,j41 #bjb        ,osborn1 ,h4 ,f41
 #fb1 #fc        ,osiris1 #afg          
,ostwald1 ,w41 #fi1 #gg                 
,overbeck1 ,f41 #bcd          ,paley1   
,w41 #fg1 #bjg        ,pampsychism1     
#aec-aee        ,pantheism1 #ej1 #hd1   
#aba1 #adb1 #agh        ,papias1 #bca1  
#bcb1 #bcc1 #bcd        ,patton1        
,francis ,l41 #baf        ,paul1 founder
 of ,christianity1 #ba2        and the  
primitive apostles1 #bb-bf2        and  
,jesus1 #bf-ce2        conversion of1   
#ih-ii1 #aaj1 #bbg        ,pauline      
,epistles1 #bjc-bje        ,peabody1 ,f4
 ,g41 #bdb        ,pearson1 ,k41 #gf    
,petersen1 ,e41 #aga        ,philip of  
,side1 #bcj        ,philo1 #agj1 #ahi   

,plato1 #ajh1 #afi1 #agh                
,plummer1 ,a41 #cd1 #cf                 
,pluralism1 #abh1 #adf-aec              
,poimandres1 #ahe-ahg1 #ahi-aib         
,pragmatism1 #aai-abj1 #abb1 #abg1 #aci1
 #adf        ,pratt1 ,j4 ,b41 #ajd1 #aaa
        ,preformation1 #gc1 #hj1 #hb    
,priene inscription1 #agb               
,psychology of religion1 its founders1  
#hi2        an aid to ,christian faith1 
#ia          ,q 7,quelle71 #cj1 #bah1   
#bai1 #bbj1 #bbe          ,ramsay1 ,sir 
,w4 ,m41 #bjb1 #bje-bjh1 #bab-bac1 #bca 
,ransom1 #ai1 #ce        ,rashdall1 ,h41
 #aei        ,reinach1 ,s41 #df         
,reitzenstein1 ,r41 #aha1 #ahe-aia      
,religion1 normality of1 #hf1 #ib-if2   
power of1 #if-ajj2        and disease1  
#ajf1 #ajg2        and sex1 #ajg-aaj2   
and the subconscious1 #aaa-aad2         
and society1 #aae-aai2        universal1
 #adj2        characteristic1 #adj-ada  
,religious experience1 its physchology1 
#ib1 #aje2       its metaphysical       
implicates1 #aje1 #ajf1 #aae1 #aai-abb  

,renan1 ,e41 #df1 #eh        ,robertson1
 ,j4 ,m41 #dg        ,robinson1 ,h4 ,w41
 #abc        ,romanes1 ,g4 ,j41 #ei1    
#ga1 #ic        ,royce1 ,j41 #gh1 #hi1  
#ajj1 #ajc1 #aad1 #adf1 #aef-afc        
,sacraments1 #ahj-ahb1 #ahd-ahe         
,salvation1 need of1 #ajj-ajb2          
way of1 #ajb-aje        ,sanday1 ,w41   
#ce1 #ci1 #aaa1 #bbj        ,schfer1    
,sir ,e4 ,a41 #gg1 #hf        ,schiller1
 ,f4 ,c4 ,s41 #abg        ,schmiedel1   
,p4 ,w41 #df1 #bai        ,schopenhauer1
 #abh        ,schrer1 ,e41 #bad         
,schumacher1 ,h41 #cg                   
,schweitzer1 ,a41 #ba1 #bb              
,selection1 natural1 #eg1 #fc2          
germinal1 #fc        ,shaler1 ,n4 ,s41  
#fa        ,simpson1 ,p4 ,c41 #abc      
,sin1 #ajj1 #ajb1 #aeh-aei              
,smith1 ,w4 ,b41 #df        ,socrates1  
#dc        ,spiritual life1 #adj1       
#adb-add        ,spitta1 ,f41 #bcd      
,stanton1 ,v4 ,h41 #bji                 
,starbuck1 ,e4 ,d41 #hi1 #ij1 #ig1 #aja1
 #ajc1 #ajg1 #aab        ,stevens1 ,g41 

#ih1 #aaj        ,stier1 #bag           
,storrs1 ,r4 ,s41 #bjj        ,strauss1 
,d4 ,f41 #de1 #di        ,subconscious1 
#aaa-aad        ,synoptic problem1      
#baf-bbg          ,teleology1 #ff-fh    
,theism1 #ej1 #abf1 #acg1 #ada1         
#adg-aej1 #aec1 #aee        ,thomson1   
,j4 ,a41 #gj1 #hj        ,titanic       
disaster1 #id-ie        ,tbingen school1
 see ,baur          ,uhlhorn1 ,g41 #ig1 
#agi        ,underhill1 ,a41 #ij        
,variation1 laws of1 #fb-fc             
,vaughan1 ,c4 ,j41 #bbg        ,vergil1 
,eclogues of1 #agc1 #aib        ,virgin 
,birth1 #agj-agc        ,vital impulse1 
#fj1 #fc1 #abh-abi1 #aca1 #acc1 #acf-acg
        ,voltaire1 #hf        ,vries1   
de1 #fb1 #fc          ,walker1 ,dawson1 
#bjg1 #bab1 #bca        ,walker1 ,h4    
,h41 #ii        ,wallace1 ,a4 ,r41 #fa1 
#fg1 #fi1 #hj        ,ward1 ,james1 #gc1
 #aaf1 #adf-aee1 #afc                   
,warschauer1 ,j41 #afg        ,weinel1  
,h41 #ahb        ,weismann1 ,a41 #fc-fe1
 #gf        ,weiss1 ,j41 #ej            

,wendling1 ,e41 #ce        ,wendt1 ,h4  
,h41 #aha        ,wernle1 ,p41 #bd      
,westcott1 ,bishop ,b4 ,f41 #afb1 #bcd  
,whetham1 ,w4 ,c4 ,d4 and ,c4 ,d41 #hg  
,worsley1 ,f4 ,w41 #bcj        ,wrede1  
,w41 #bj        ,wright1 ,a41 #bjg      
,wright1 ,w4 ,k41 #ajj          ,zahn1  
,t41 #aib        ,zinzendorf1 ,count1   
#ig          ,printed in the ,united    
,states of ,america                     
,,sermons--,,lectures--,,addresses      
,,james ,l4 ,,gordon1 ,d4,d4    ,all's  
,love ,yet ,all's ,law    #abmo1 cloth1 
net #a4be4    ,discloses the secret of  
,dr4 ,gordon's eloquence--fresh1 and    
intimate  presentations of truth which  
always keep close to reality4 ,dr4      
,gordon  also seems to have the world's 
literature at his command4 ,a few of the
  titles will give an idea of the scope 
of his preaching4 ',the ,law of  ,truth3
 ,the ,science of ,universal            
,relationships'2 ',the ,law of          
,inspiration3  ,the ,vitalizing ,power  
of ,truth'2 ',the ,law of ,vibration'2  

',the ,law of  ,beauty3 ,the            
,spiritualizing ,power of ,thought'2    
,the ,soul's ,guarantee of              
,immortality4--,christian ,work4        
,,bishop ,,francis ,j4 ,mc,c,o,n,n,e,l,l
 ,cole ,lectures    ,personal           
,christianity    ,instruments and ,ends 
in the ,kingdom of ,god4 #abmo1 cloth1  
net #a4be4    ,the latest volume of the 
famous ,cole ,lectures delivered at     
,vanderbilt  ,university4 ,the subjects 
are3 ,i4 ,the ,personal in              
,christianity4 ,,ii4 ,the  ,instrumental
 in ,christianity4 ,,iii4 ,the ,mastery 
of ,world-,views4 ,,iv4 ,the            
,invigoration of ,morality4 ,v4 ,the    
,control of ,social ,advance4 ,,vi4     
,every  ,kindred1 and ,people1 and      
,tongue4      ,,newell ,,dwight         
,,hillis1 ,d4,d4    ,lectures and       
,orations by ,henry ,ward ,beecher      
,collected by ,newell ,dwight ,hillis4  
#abmo1 net #a4bj4    ,it is fitting that
 one who is noted for the grace1 finish 
and eloquence  of his own addresses     

should choose those of his predecessor  
which he  deems worthy to be preserved  
in a bound volume as the most desirable1
  the most characteristic and the most  
dynamic utterances of ,america's        
greatest pulpit orator4      ,w4 ,l4    
,,watkinson1 ,d4,d4    ,the ,moral      
,paradoxes of ,st4 ,paul    #abmo1      
cloth1 net #a4jj4    ,these sermons are 
marked1 even to greater degree than is  
usual  with their talented preacher1 by 
clearness1 force and illustrative       
aptness4 ,he penetrates unerringly to   
the heart of ,paul's paradoxical        
settings forth of great truths1 and     
illumines them with pointed  comment and
 telling illustration4 ,the sermons     
while thoroughly  practical are garbed  
in striking and eloquent sentences1     
terse1  nervous1                        
attention-compelling4--,christian       
,world4      ,,len ,g4 ,,broughton1     
,d4,d4    ,the ,prodigal and ,others    
#abmo1 cloth1 net #a4jj4    ,the        
discourses are vital1 bright1           

interesting and helpful4 ,it makes a    
preacher feel like preaching once more  
on this exhaustless parable1 and  will  
prove helpful to all young people--and  
older ones1 too4 ,dr4  ,broughton does  
not hesitate to make his utterances     
striking and  entertaining by the       
introduction of numerous appropriate and
 homely  stories and illustrations4 ,he 
reaches the heart4--,review and         
,expositor4          ,,bible ,,study1   
,,devotional1 ,etc4      ,a4 ,t4        
,,robertson1 ,d4,d41 ,,ll4,d4           
,studies in the ,new ,testament    ,a   
,handbook for ,bible ,classes in ,sunday
 ,schools1 for ,teacher ,training       
,work1 for use in ,secondary ,schools   
and ,colleges4 #abmo1 cloth1 net #ej;c4 
,in it are no references to books of any
 kind outside the       ,bible4 ,with   
the help of the maps and a ,new         
,testament one can       study this work
 with no other books in hand4           
,,rev4 ,,joseph ,t4 ,,gibson1 ,d4,d4    
,jesus ,christ3 ,the ,unique ,revealer  

of ,god    #hvo1 cloth1 #a4ej4          
,the author has sought to see1 and aid  
others in seeing ,jesus       ,christ as
 ,he is presented in the ,scriptures4   
,he has compiled a       ,life neither  
critical nor iconoclastic1 but designed 
for       those who regard the ,word of 
,god as being not only the              
infalliable guide to faith and duty1 but
 the authentic       chronicle of the   
earthly life of our ,lord4 ,dr4 ,gibson 
has       harmonized the ,gospels and   
from them constructed a graphic         
narrative which1 contrives1 to re-limn  
an old picture with       freshness and 
charm4      ,,rev4 ,,geo4 ,h4 ,,young1  
,m4,a41 ,ass't4 ,prof4 ,rhetoric and    
,public ,speaking1  ,colgate ,university
    ,the ,illustrative ,teachings of    
,jesus    ,the ,parables1 ,similies and 
,metaphors of ,christ4 #abmo1 cloth1 net
 #a4jj4         ,a most readable and    
practical treatment of the methods of   
the       ,master for the general ,bible
 student and ,christian worker4 ,a      

valuable contribution to one's          
conception of ,jesus as the             
',teacher come from ,god1' and revealing
 in life1 content of       instruction  
and method of presentation the will of  
the       ,father4--,review and         
,expositor4      ,w4 ,,beatty           
,,jennings1 ,d4,d4    ,the ,social      
,teachings of ,christ ,jesus    ,a      
,manual for ,bible ,classes1 ,christian 
,associations1 ,social ,study ,groups1  
etc4 #afmo1 cloth1 net #ej;c4           
,in a series of twenty studies1 the     
teachings of ,jesus are       applied to
 specific social sins and needs of      
to-day1 such as       poverty1 pleasure1
 war1 the drink traffic1 etc41 and shown
 to       be the sure and only solution 
of the problems of society4             
,,robert ,,freeman    ,the ,hour of     
,prayer    ,helps to ,devotion ,when    
,absent from ,church4 #abmo1 cloth1 net 
#ge;c4         ,a volume of reverent    
purpose designed especially for those   
who       wish some form of ,sunday     

observance1 or who1 by stress of        
circumstances1 are prevented from       
attending services in the               
churches4 ,to shut-ins1 mothers with    
young children1 nurses and       others 
who are unable to attend public worship1
 the book will       particularly       
appeal4--,buffalo ,express4             
,transcribers ,note3 ,p #aef ,home-land 
changed to homeland                     
,p #ab  ,the ,theistic ,infer enc       
changed to                              
,the ,theistic ,inference