,illustration ,,the ,,science ,,of ,,animal ,,locomotion 7,,zoopraxography7 ,,an ,,electro-,,photographic ,,investigation ,,of ,,consecutive ,,phases ,,of ,,animal ,,movements ,,by ,,eadweard ,,muybridge ,,executed ,,and ,,published ,,under ,,the ,,auspices ,,of ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,pennsylvania ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,apparatus ,,results ,,of ,,the ,,investigation ,,diagrams ,,prospectus ,,list ,,of ,,subscribers ,,eadweard ,,muybridge ,,university ,,of ,,pennsylvania ,,philadelphia ,,or #aj ,,henrietta ,,street1 ,,covent ,,garden ,,london ,,animal ,,locomotion4 7,,zoopraxography47 ,,introductory4 ,in #ahgb1 the author of the present work at ,sacramento1 ,california1 commenced an investigation with the object of illustrating by photography some phases of animal movements4 ,in that year his experiments were made with a famous horse--,occident1 owned by ,senator ,stanford--and photographs were made1 which illustrated several phases of action while the horse was trotting at full speed1 laterally1 in front of the camera4 ,the experiments were desultorily continued2 but it was not until #ahgg that the results of any of them were published4 ,in the meanwhile he devised an automatic electro-photographic apparatus1 for the purpose of making consecutive photographic exposures at regulated intervals of time or of distance4 ,some of the results of his experiments with this apparatus1 which illustrated successive phases of the action of horses while walking1 trotting1 galloping1 c41 were published in #ahgh1 with the title of ,,the ,,horse ,,in ,,motion4 ,copies of these photographs were deposited the same year in the ,library of ,congress at ,washington1 and some of them found their way to ,berlin1 ,london1 ,paris1 ,vienna1 c41 where they were commented upon by the journals of the day4 ,in #ahhb1 during a lecture on ,the ,science of ,animal ,locomotion in its relation to ,design in ,art1 given at the ,royal ,institution 7see ,proceedings of the ,royal ,institution of ,great ,britain1 ,march #ac1 #ahhb71 he exhibited the results of some of his experiments made during a few antecedent years at ,palo ,alto1 ,california2 when he1 with the zoopraxiscope and an oxy-hydrogen lantern1 projected on the wall a synthesis of many of the actions he had analysed4 ,it may not be considered irrelevant if he repeats what he on that occasion said in his analysis of the quadrupedal walk3-- ,so far as the camera has revealed1 these successive foot fallings are invariable1 and are probably common to all quadrupeds4444 ,it is also highly probable that these photographic investigations--which were executed with wet collodion plates1 with exposures not exceeding in some instances the one five-thousandth part of a second--will dispel many popular illusions as to the gait of a horse1 and that future and more exhaustive experiments1 with the advantages of recent chemical discoveries1 will completely unveil to the artist all the visible muscular action of men and animals during their most rapid movements4444 ,the employment of automatic apparatus for the purpose of obtaining a regulated succession of photographic exposures is too recent for its value to be properly understood1 or to be generally used for scientific experiment4 ,at some future time the explorer for hidden truths will find it indispensable for his investigations4 ,in #ahhc1 the ,university of ,pennsylvania1 with an enlightened exercise of its functions as a contributor to human knowledge1 instructed the author to make1 under its auspices1 a comprehensive investigation of ,animal ,locomotion in the broadest significance of the words4 ,a ,,diagram ,,of ,,the ,,studio and the arrangement of the apparatus used for this purpose is here given4 ,illustration ,,tt represents the track along which the model ,m was caused to move4 ,b is the background1 divided into spaces of #e centimetres square for the purpose of measurement4 ,l1 a horizontal battery of electro-photographic cameras1 parallel to the line of motion 7at a distance of #ae metres or about #dh feet therefrom71 for a series of #ab lateral exposures4 ,r1 a vertical battery of electro-photographic cameras1 at right angles to the lateral battery1 for a series of #ab rear foreshortenings4 ,f1 a horizontal battery of electro-photographic cameras1 at any suitable angle to the lateral battery for a series of front foreshortenings4 ,o1 the position of the electric batteries1 a chronograph for recording the time intervals of exposures1 and other apparatus used in the investigation4 ,a clock-work apparatus1 set in motion at the will of the operator1 distributed a series of electric currents1 and synchronously effected consecutive exposures in each of the three batteries of cameras4 ,the intervals of exposures were recorded by the chronograph1 and divided into thousandths of a second4 ,these intervals could be varied at will from seventeen one-thousandth parts of a second to several seconds4 ,the task of making the original negatives was completed in #ahhe2 the remaining years have been devoted to the preparation of the work for publication4 ,illustration3 ,,lateral elevation of some consecutive phases of action by representative horses4 ,each line illustrates the successive fallings of the feet during a single stride4 ,after the last phase illustrated1 the feet1 during continuous motion1 will revert practically to their position in the first phase4 ,the comparative distances of the feet from each other or from the ground are not drawn to scale2 and1 in any event1 would be merely approximate for the succeeding stride4 ,in the conjectural stride ,no4 #aj1 phase #c is very doubtful1 phases #e and #g seem probable in a very long stride4 ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,plates4 ,the results of this investigation are ,seven ,hundred and ,eighty-one ,sheets of ,illustrations1 containing more than #bj1jjj figures of men1 women1 and children1 animals and birds1 actively engaged in walking1 galloping1 flying1 working1 jumping1 fighting1 dancing1 playing at base-ball1 cricket1 and other athletic games1 or other actions incidental to every-day life1 which illustrate motion or the play of muscles4 ,these sheets of illustrations are conventionally called plates4 ,each plate illustrates the successive phases of a single action1 photographed with automatic electro-photographic apparatus at regulated and accurately recorded intervals of time1 consecutively from one point of view2 or1 consecutively ,,and synchronously from two1 or from three points of view4 ,each ,plate is complete in itself without reference to any other ,plate4 ,when the complete series of twelve consecutive exposures1 from each of the three points of view1 are included in ,,one ,plate1 the arrangement is usually thus3-- --------------- ,laterals4 #abcdefghiajaaab --------------- ,rear ,foreshortenings from points of view on the same #abcdefghiajaaab vertical line1 at an angle of #ij deg4 from the ,laterals4 --------------- ,front ,foreshortenings from points of view on the same #abcdefghiajaaab horizontal plane1 at suitable angles from the ,laterals4 --------------- ,the plates are not photographs in the common acceptation of the word1 but are printed in ,,permanent ,,ink1 from gelatinised copper-plates1 by the ,new ,york ,photo-,gravure ,company1 on thick linen plate-paper4 ,the size of the paper is #de x #fj centimetres--#ai x #bd inches1 and the printed surface varies from #ae x #de to #bj x #cj centimetres--#f x #ah to #i x #ab inches4 ,the number of figures on each plate varies from #ab to #cf4 ,to publish so great a number of plates as one undivided work was considered unnecessary1 for each subject tells its own story2 and inexpedient1 for it would defeat the object which the ,university had in view1 and limit its acquisition to large ,libraries1 wealthy individuals1 or ,institutions where it would be beyond the reach of many who might desire to study it4 ,it has1 therefore1 been decided to issue a series of ,one ,hundred ,plates1 which number1 for the purposes of publication1 will be considered as a ,,copy of the work4 ,these one hundred plates will probably meet the requirements of the greater number of the subscribers4 ,in accordance with this view is issued the following ,,prospectus ,,animal ,,locomotion1 ,,an ,,electro-,,photographic ,,investigation ,,of ,,consecutive ,,phases ,,of ,,animal ,,movements1 ,,by ,,eadweard ,,muybridge4 #ahgb-ahhe4 ,,published ,,under ,,the ,,auspices ,,of ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,pennsylvania4 ,exclusively by ,subscription4 ,,consisting ,,of ,a ,,series ,,of ,,one ,,hundred ,,plates1 ,,at ,a ,,subscription ,,price ,,of ,,one ,,hundred ,,dollars ,for the ,united ,states1 or ,,twenty ,,guineas ,for ,great ,britain2 ,or the equivalent of ,twenty ,guineas in the gold currency of other countries in ,europe4 ,this will be for ,austria1 ,two ,hundred and ,ten ,florins2 ,belgium1 ,france1 ,italy1 and ,switzerland1 ,five ,hundred and ,twenty-five ,francs2 ,germany1 ,four ,hundred and ,twenty ,marks2 ,holland1 ,two ,hundred and ,fifty ,guilders4 ,the ,plates are enclosed in a strong1 canvas-lined1 full ,,american-,,russia ,,leather ,,portfolio4 ,for the purpose of placing all of the subscribers upon an equal footing in regard to cost1 a copy of the work will be sent in the portfolio1 and packed between boards1 to any well-established ,institution1 or to any subscriber1 properly endorsed1 to any city in ,central or ,western ,europe1 or in the ,united ,states4 ,,freight ,,charges ,,paid1 if so requested1 to the railway station1 with the understanding that the subscription price is remitted within one week of the day of the arrival of the work at the station4 ,custom duties1 or any other expenses1 if any1 at the cost of the subscriber4 ,additional ,plates in any required number will be supplied to the subscriber at the same proportionate rate2 these1 however1 must be ordered at the same time as the subscription ,plates4 ,the ,plates will be supplied ,,exclusively ,,to ,,subscribers4 ,it was considered inadvisable to make an arbitrary selection of the one hundred ,plates offered to subscribers1 and with the object of meeting1 as far as possible1 their diverse requirements1 they are invited to make their own selection1 either from the subjoined list of subjects1 or from a detailed catalogue1 which will be forwarded free of expense to every subscriber4 ,the following are the numbers of ,plates published of each class of subjects1 from which the subscriber's selection can be made3-- ,plates ,published4 ,men1 draped #f pelvis cloth #gb nude #acc ,women1 draped #fj transparent drapery and semi-nude #fc nude #ahj ,children1 draped #a nude #ae ,movements of a man's hand #e ,abnormal movements1 men and women1 nude and semi-nude #bg ,horses walking1 trotting1 galloping1 jumping1 c4 #ie ,mules1 oxen1 dogs1 cats1 goats1 and other domestic animals #dj ,lions1 elephants1 buffaloes1 camels1 deer1 and other wild animals #eg ,pigeons1 vultures1 ostriches1 eagles1 cranes1 and other birds #bg ---- ,total number of ,plates #gha ,containing more than #bj1jjj ,figures4 ,should the selection be made from the ,catalogue1 it will be advisable to give the ,author permission to change any one of the selected ,plates for any other illustrating the same action1 if1 in his judgment1 the substituted ,plate illustrates that action with a better model1 or in a more perfect manner than the one selected4 ,with regard to the selection of ,plates1 however1 it has been found by experience that unless any special subject or plate is required it will be more satisfactory to the subscriber if he gives the ,author ,,general ,,instructions as to the ,,class of subjects desired and to leave the ,,specific selection to him4 ,many of the large ,libraries and ,art or ,science ,institutions in ,america and in ,europe have subscribed for1 and have now in their possession1 a complete series of the seven hundred and eighty-one ,plates1 the subscription price for which is ,,five ,,hundred ,,dollars in the ,united ,states1 ,,one ,,hundred ,,guineas in ,great ,britain for the complete series1 in eight full ,,american-,,russia ,,leather ,,portfolios1 or if bound in eleven volumes1 each plate hinged1 full ,american-,russia leather1 ,,five ,,hundred ,,and ,,fifty ,,dollars in the ,united ,states1 ,,one ,,hundred ,,and ,,ten ,,guineas in ,great ,britain2 or its equivalent for any city in ,central or ,western ,europe4 ,subscribers who wish to make use of these ,plates for the promotion or diffusion of knowledge1 or for artistic or scientific purposes1 will be afforded facilities for acquiring working copies by special arrangement with the ,author4 ,,valedictory4 ,this is not exactly the place nor the time for the ,author to express his obligations and thanks to those gentlemen who have assisted him in his labours1 but it affords a perhaps not inappropriate opportunity for him to pay a tribute of gratitude to his recently deceased friend ,m4 ,meissonier1 without whose enthusiastic encouragement it is probable the present work would never have been undertaken4 ,in #ahhb he invited his friends to attend an illustrated ,lecture given in his studio by the ,author1 and then referring to a full knowledge of a subject being necessary for it to be truthfully or satisfactorily translated by the artist1 declared how much his own impression of a horse's motion had been changed after having carefully studied its consecutive phases4 ,attention need not be directed to the modifications in the expression of animal movements now progressing in the works of the ,painter and the ,sculptor4 ,the investigations of the ,author are so well known1 and so generally recognised as affording the only basis of truthful interpretation or accurate criticism of ,animal ,movement1 that it is unnecessary to quote from the many elaborate reviews of ,animal ,locomotion1 which have been published in the ,american1 ,english1 ,french1 and ,german ,scientific1 ,artistic1 and other ,journals4 ,for the value of the present work to the general student of ,nature and the lover of ,art1 no less than to the ,artist and the ,archaeologist1 the ,physiologist and the ,anatomist1 it is with much pride and gratitude that he refers to the annexed list of some of his ,european subscribers4 ,e4 ,m4 #aj ,,henrietta ,,street1 ,,covent ,,garden1 ,,london1 ,august #ahia4 ,,subscribers4 ,the general or departmental ,libraries of the following ,,universities4 ,amsterdam ,andrews1 ,st4 ,basel ,berlin ,bern ,bologna ,bonn ,breslau ,bruxelles ,edinburgh ,erlangen ,freiburg ,geneve ,genova ,glasgow ,goettingen ,griefswald ,halle ,heidelberg ,innsbrueck ,jena ,kiel ,koenigsberg ,leiden ,leipzig ,liege ,louvain ,muenchen ,napoli ,oxford ,padova ,pisa ,prag ,roma ,rostock ,strassburg ,torino ,tuebingen ,utrecht ,wien ,wuerzburg ,zuerich ,,imperial1 ,,national1 ,,or ,,royal ,,academies ,,of ,,fine ,,arts4 ,amsterdam ,antwerpen ,berlin ,bern ,birmingham ,bologna ,breslau ,bruxelles ,budapest ,dresden ,duesseldorf ,firenzi ,frankfurt ,genova ,gent ,leipzig ,liege ,london ,manchester ,milano ,muenchen ,napoli ,paris ,praha ,roma 7de ,france7 ,sheffield ,torino ,venezia ,wien ,zuerich ,architectural ,institute1 ,muenchen ,herkomer ,school of ,art1 ,bushey ,,art ,,museums4 ,amsterdam ,berlin ,budapest ,,archaeological ,,institutes ,,and ,,museums4 ,dresden ,griefswald ,heidelberg ,koenigsberg ,leipzig ,prag ,rostock ,strassburg ,wien ,wuerzburg ,zuerich ,,industrial ,,art ,,and ,,science ,,museums4 ,berlin ,dublin ,edinburgh ,kensington ,paris ,wien ,,industrial ,,art ,,schools4 ,amsterdam ,breslau ,budapest ,frankfurt ,nuernberg ,zuerich ,,libraries4 ,the ,royal ,library1 ,windsor ,castle ,birmingham1 ,free ,public ,edinburgh1 ,advocates' ,glasgow1 ,mitchell ,free ,liverpool1 ,free ,public ,london1 ,british ,museum ,manchester1 ,free ,public ,nottingham1 ,free ,public ,paris1 ,national ,library ,,anatomical ,,institutes4 ,bern ,breslau ,freiburg ,halle ,innsbrueck ,kiel ,koenigsberg ,leipzig ,muenchen ,pisa ,prag ,rostock ,tuebingen ,wuerzburg ,zuerich ,,royal ,,colleges ,,of ,,surgeons4 ,edinburgh ,london ,,physiological ,,institutes4 ,basel ,berlin ,bern ,bologna ,bonn ,breslau ,bruxelles ,erlangen ,freiburg ,genova ,goettingen ,griefswald ,halle ,heidelberg ,innsbrueck ,jena ,kiel ,koenigsberg ,leipzig ,louvain ,muenchen ,napoli ,prag ,rostock ,strassburg ,torino ,tuebingen ,wien ,wuerzburg ,zuerich ,,veterinary ,,institutes4 ,alfort ,bern ,berlin ,dresden ,,anthropological ,,museums4 ,dresden ,firenze ,,ethnological1 ,,natural ,,history1 ,,and ,,zoological ,,institutes ,,and ,,museums4 ,amsterdam ,bruxelles ,freiburg ,kiel ,leiden ,liege ,napoli ,paris ,rostock ,,physical ,,institutes4 ,basel ,bologna ,bruxelles ,geneve ,heidelberg ,padova ,prag ,roma ,rostock ,utrecht ,,polytechnic ,,high ,,schools4 ,berlin ,firenze ,wien ,zuerich ,,colleges4 ,charterhouse ,clifton ,dublin 7,trinity7 ,eton ,owens ,rossall ,wellington ,,royal ,,porcelain ,,manufactories4 ,berlin ,dresden ,,artistic1 ,,literary ,,or ,,scientific ,,clubs4 ,duesseldorf1 ,malkesten ,glasgow1 ,western ,london1 ,athenaeum ,rome1 ,internazionale 99 99 99 99 99 ,agricultural ,high ,school of ,berlin ,faculty of ,medicine of ,paris ,faculty of ,physicians and ,surgeons of ,glasgow ,psychological ,institute of ,leipzig ,royal ,college of ,physicians1 ,edinburgh ,royal ,institution1 ,edinburgh ,royal ,dublin ,society ,royal ,society of ,london ,the names and works of the following subscribers are so well known that the ,academical1 ,university1 and other honourable distinctions appertaining to them are omitted1 they being entirely unnecessary3-- ,,artists1 ,architects1 ,painters1 and ,sculptors4 ,albano1 ,salvatore l',allemand1 ,sigmund ,alma-,tadema1 ,l4 ,armitage1 ,e4 ,barabino1 ,nicolo ,becker1 ,carl ,begas1 ,reinhold ,benczur1 ,gyula ,berger1 ,julius ,behrens1 ,peter ,birch1 ,chas4 ,b4 ,boehm1 ,sir ,j4 ,edgar ,bonnat1 ,leon ,boughton1 ,geo4 ,h4 ,bouguereau1 ,w4 ,a4 ,braith1 ,anton ,brandt1 ,josef von ,brausewetter1 ,otto ,bridgman1 ,f4 ,a4 ,brock1 ,thos4 ,canneel ,carland1 ,onorato ,carolus-,durand ,cavallucci1 ,c4 ,jacopo ,cavelier1 ,p4 ,j4 ,charlton1 ,john ,clay1 ,sir ,arthur ,coleman1 ,chas4 ,caryl ,coleman1 ,enrico ,colin1 ,paul ,conti1 ,tito ,costa1 ,giovanni ,crowe1 ,eyre ,dalou1 ,jules ,dannat1 ,w4 ,t4 ,davinet1 ,e4 ,davis1 ,h4 ,w4 ,b4 ,defregger1 ,franz von ,detaille1 ,edouard ,dicksee1 ,frank ,diez1 ,rob4 ,diez1 ,wm4 ,drion1 ,prosper ,dubois1 ,paul ,ebner1 ,l4 ,eisenmenger1 ,august ,ende1 ,herm ,ewald1 ,ernst ,faed1 ,thomas ,falguiere ,fildes1 ,luke ,ford1 ,e4 ,onslow ,fremiet1 ,m4 ,frith1 ,w4 ,p4 ,gallegos1 ,jose ,garnier1 ,charles ,gehrts1 ,joh4 ,gelli1 ,edouardo ,gerome1 ,jean ,leon ,gilbert1 ,alfred ,gilbert1 ,sir ,john ,goodall1 ,fredk4 ,gordigiani1 ,michele ,gow1 ,andrew ,c4 ,grosse1 ,th4 ,gruetzner1 ,eduard ,guignard1 ,gaston ,gysis1 ,n4 ,haueser1 ,o4 ,hebert1 ,ernesto ,herkomer1 ,hubert ,hess1 ,anton ,higgins1 ,a4 ,huebner1 ,eduard ,hunt1 ,holman ,janssen1 ,pet4 ,kampf1 ,arthur ,kaulbach1 ,f4 ,a4 von ,kips1 ,a4 ,kirchbach1 ,fr4 ,klein-,chevalier ,knaus1 ,ludwig ,knight1 ,ridgway ,knille1 ,otto ,koehler1 ,robert ,kopf1 ,joseph ,kowalski1 ,a4 von ,kroner1 ,ch4 ,kruse1 ,max ,kuehl1 ,g4 ,kuehn1 ,h4 ,leighton1 ,sir ,frederick ,lenbach1 ,franz ,r4 von ,linton1 ,sir ,james ,d4 ,loefftz1 ,ludwig ,r4 von ,long1 ,edwin ,lotz1 ,carl ,lucas1 ,seymour ,luthmer1 ,f4 ,mac,whirter1 ,john ,marks1 ,h4 ,stacy ,marshall1 ,w4 ,calder ,maurier1 ,george du ,max1 ,gabriel ,meeks1 ,eugene ,meissonier ,menzel ,meyerheim1 ,paul ,millais1 ,sir ,john ,e4 ,miller1 ,ferdinand ,r4 von ,molkenbaer1 ,h4 ,b4 ,g4 ,moore1 ,henry ,morelli1 ,d4 ,morot1 ,aime ,muller1 ,carl ,munkacsy1 ,mich4 de ,murgatroyd1 ,j4 ,muetzel1 ,g4 ,nieper1 ,ludw4 ,orchardson1 ,w4 ,q4 ,otto1 ,heinrich ,ouless1 ,w4 ,w4 ,papperitz1 ,georg ,parsons1 ,alfred ,passini1 ,ludwig ,piglhein1 ,bruno ,portaels ,powers1 ,longworth ,poynter1 ,e4 ,j4 ,prell1 ,h4 ,preyer1 ,ernest ,puvis1 de ,chavennes ,richmond1 ,w4 ,b4 ,rivalta1 ,augusto ,riviere1 ,briton ,robert-,fleury1 ,tony ,rodin1 ,a4 ,roll ,roth1 ,ch4 ,ruemann1 ,wilh4 ,sant1 ,james ,sarti1 ,diego ,schaper1 ,f4 ,schill1 ,adolf ,schilling1 ,johannes ,severn1 ,arthur ,siemering1 ,r4 ,six1 ,j4 ,sommer ,stieler1 ,eugen von ,story1 ,w4 ,w4 ,sturgess1 ,john ,sues1 ,wilh4 ,swan1 ,john ,m4 ,taylor1 ,edw4 ,r4 ,teschendorf1 ,e4 ,thiersch1 ,fredk4 ,thoma1 ,hans ,thornycroft1 ,hamo ,uhde1 ,f4 von ,vibert1 ,j4 ,g4 ,vinea1 ,francesco ,vriendt1 de ,jules ,vuillefroy1 ,f4 de ,wagner1 ,alex4 ,watts1 ,george ,f4 ,weeks1 ,e4 ,l4 ,weishaupt1 ,victor ,wells1 ,hy4 ,t4 ,werner1 ,a4 von ,whistler1 ,j4 ,mc,neil ,woolner1 ,thos4 ,zimmermann1 ,ernst ,zuegel1 ,h4 ,,archaeologists1 ,,men ,,of ,,letters1 ,,authors ,,of ,,art ,,works1 ,,etc4 ,ball1 ,valentine ,berndorf1 ,otto ,berlepsch1 ,h4 ,e4 von ,bullen1 ,george ,coleman1 ,alexander ,dickson1 ,wm4 ,p4 ,donnelly1 ,genl4 ,duhn1 ,f4 von ,duplessis1 ,georges ,eaton1 ,fredk4 ,a4 ,evans1 ,john ,falke1 ,j4 ,graf1 ,t4 ,t4 ,hirschfeld1 ,gustav ,holmes1 ,richard ,r4 ,kekule1 ,prof4 ,klein1 ,wilhelm ,koerte1 ,g4 ,michaelis1 ,ad4 ,muntz1 ,eugene ,obreen1 ,fr4 ,d4 ,o4 ,overbeck1 ,johannes ,pietsch1 ,ludwig ,preuner1 ,a4 ,pulszky1 ,karoli ,ruskin1 ,john ,sambuy1 ,conte ,ernesto di ,schrieber1 ,th4 ,sittl1 ,k4 ,smith1 ,genl4 ,sir ,r4 ,m4 ,sutton1 ,chas4 ,w4 ,tedder1 ,hy4 ,r4 ,thode1 ,h4 ,treu1 ,georg ,webster1 ,h4 ,a4 ,wolff1 ,albert ,,physiologists4 ,albertoni1 ,pietro ,albini ,aubert1 ,h4 ,bernstein1 ,j4 ,biedermann1 ,w4 du ,bois-,reymond ,brown-,sequard ,ewald1 ,r4 ,exner1 ,sigmund ,fano1 ,giulio ,fick1 ,a4 ,gaule1 ,j4 ,goltz1 ,f4 ,gruetzner1 ,p4 ,heidenhain1 ,r4 ,hensen1 ,v4 ,hering1 ,ewald ,hermann1 ,l4 ,kries1 ,j4 ,kronecker1 ,h4 ,kuehne1 ,w4 ,landois1 ,l4 ,luciani1 ,luigi ,ludwig1 ,c4 ,marey1 ,e4 ,j4 ,masoin1 ,e4 ,meissner1 ,g4 ,miescher1 ,f4 ,moleschott1 ,senator ,j4 ,mosso1 ,a4 ,munk1 ,hermann ,pettigrew1 ,j4 ,bell ,pflueger1 ,e4 ,rosenthal1 ,i4 ,schiff1 ,m4 ,slosse1 ,a4 ,vintschgau1 ,m4 von ,voit1 ,c4 von ,,anatomists4 ,braune1 ,wilh4 ,brunn1 ,a4 von ,cleland1 ,john ,eisler1 ,p4 ,flemming1 ,w4 ,hasse1 ,c4 ,henke1 ,w4 ,j4 ,humphry1 ,g4 ,m4 ,koelliker ,marshall1 ,john ,rabl ,romiti ,roux1 ,w4 ,rueckert1 ,j4 ,schwalbe1 ,g4 ,stieda1 ,l4 ,stoehr1 ,ph4 ,strasser1 ,h4 ,thanhoffer1 ,l4 von ,van ,beneden1 ,edouard ,virchow1 ,hans ,wiedersheim ,,anthropologists1 ,,biologists1 ,,paleontologists1 ,,zoologists1 ,,etc4 ,acland1 ,sir ,h4 ,w4 ,barrier1 ,gustave ,blochmann1 ,f4 ,bowman1 ,sir ,wm4 ,brandt1 ,k4 ,e4 ,carpenter1 ,p4 ,herbert ,darwin1 ,francis ,flower1 ,w4 ,h4 ,galton1 ,francis ,guenther1 ,albert ,hartog1 ,marcus ,haughton1 ,saml4 ,hollis1 ,w4 ,a4 ,huxley1 ,t4 ,h4 ,jensink1 ,f4 ,a4 ,kerbert1 ,c4 ,lankester1 ,e4 ,ray ,lubbock1 ,sir ,john ,mantegazza1 ,senator ,meyer1 ,a4 ,b4 ,milne-,edwards ,mivart1 ,st4 ,george ,muellenhoff ,mueller1 ,max ,newton1 ,alfred ,owen1 ,sir ,richard ,pasteur1 ,l4 ,romanes1 ,geo4 ,j4 ,schmidt1 ,emil ,schuetz ,sorby1 ,h4 ,c4 ,swinhoe1 ,chas4 ,van ,wulverhorst ,virchow1 ,rudolf ,weismann1 ,august ,wundt1 ,w4 ,yseux ,zittell1 ,c4 ,a4 von ,,physicists1 ,,etc4 ,abney1 ,capt4 ,w4 de ,w4 ,bellati ,blazerna1 ,pietro ,bramwell1 ,sir ,fredk4 ,bunsen1 ,r4 ,ditscheiner1 ,l4 ,glaisher1 ,james ,hagenbach-,bischoff ,helmholtz1 ,h4 von ,huggins1 ,wm4 ,julius1 ,v4 ,a4 ,mach1 ,e4 ,matthiessen1 ,l4 ,moss1 ,rich4 ,j4 ,quincke1 ,georg ,righi1 ,augusto ,rousseau1 ,e4 ,soret1 ,c4 ,tissandier1 ,gaston ,thomson1 ,sir ,wm4 ,vogel1 ,h4 ,w4 ,weber1 ,h4 ,f4 99 99 99 99 99 ,moltke1 ,count von ,portland1 ,the ,duke of ,wharncliffe1 ,the ,earl of 4444444444 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully as possible4 ,the author spelled ,greifswald as ,griefswald1 ,innsbruck as ,innsbrueck and ,haeuser as ,haueser in this text4 ,these spellings have been retained4 ,,oe ligatures have been expanded4 ,italic text has been marked with underscores4 ,bold text has been marked with equals signs4