,,transcriber',s ,,note ,in this etext1 the oe ligature is shown as oe4 noted and corrected #bc typographical errors1 for example ,beauieu for ,beaulieu4 ,all were deemed trivial and their correction had no effect on the sense of the text4 ,,illustrations ,,of ,,universal ,,progress2 ,a ,series of ,discussions4 ,,by ,,herbert ,,spencer1 ,,author ,,of ,,the ,,principles ,,of ,,psychology1 ,,social ,,statics1 ,,essays1 ,,moral1 ,,political ,,and ,,aesthetic1 ,,education1 ,,first ,,principles1 ,,etc41 ,,etc41 ,,etc4 ,,with ,a ,,notice ,,of ,,spencer',s ,,new ,,system ,,of ,,philosophy4 ,,new ,,york3 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company1 #ddc #dde ,,broadway4 #ahfe4 ,,works ,,by ,,the ,,same ,,author4 ,,published ,,by ,d4 ,,appleton ,,co4 ,,education--,,intellectual1 ,,moral1 ,,and ,,physical4 #a vol41 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #a4be4 ,a ,,new ,,system ,,of ,,philosophy4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,,first ,,principles4 ,large #abmo4 #ejc pages4 ,cloth #b4jj4 ,,principles ,,of ,,biology4 ,in ,quarterly ,parts1 by ,subscription4 #b4jj per year4 ,,now ,,in ,,press3 ,,essays--,,moral1 ,,political1 ,,and ,,aesthetic4 #a vol41 large #abmo4 ,cloth4 ,copies sent by mail1 postpaid1 on receipt of price4 ,,entered1 according to ,act of ,congress1 in the year #ahfd1 by ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company1 ,in the ,clerk's ,office of the ,district ,court of the ,united ,states for the ,southern ,district of ,new ,york4 ,,american ,,notice ,,of ,a ,,new ,,system ,,of ,,philosophy4 ,,by ,,herbert ,,spencer4 ,the author of the following work1 ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer1 of ,england1 has entered upon the publication of a new philosophical system1 so original and comprehensive as to deserve the attention of all earnest inquirers4 ,he proposes nothing less than to unfold such a complete philosophy of ,nature1 physical1 organic1 mental and social1 as ,science has now for the first time made possible1 and which1 if successfully executed1 will constitute a momentous step in the progress of thought4 ,his system is designed to embrace five works2 each a distinct treatise1 but all closely connected in plan1 and treating of the following subjects in the order presented3 #ast1 ,first ,principles2 #b;d1 ,principles of ,biology2 #c;d1 ,principles of ,psychology2 #dth1 ,principles of ,sociology2 #eth1 ,principles of ,morality4 ,the opening work of the series--,first ,principles--though somewhat of an introductory character1 is an independent and completed argument4 ,it consists of two parts3 first1 ,the ,unknowable1 and second1 ,the ,laws of the ,knowable4 ,unattractive as these titles may seem1 they indicate a discussion of great originality and transcendent interest4 ,when public consideration is invited to a system of philosophy so extended as to comprehend the entire scheme of nature and humanity1 and so bold as to deal with them in the ripest spirit of science1 it is natural that many should ask at the outset how the author stands related to the problem of ,religion4 ,mr4 ,spencer finds this the preliminary question of his philosophy1 and engages with it at the threshold of his undertaking4 ,before attempting to work out a philosophical scheme1 he sees that it is at first necessary to find how far ,philosophy can go and where she must stop--the necessary limits of human knowledge1 or the circle which bounds all rational and legitimate investigation2 and this opens at once the profound and imminent question of the spheres and relation of ,religion and ,science4 ,mr4 ,spencer is a leading representative of that school of thinkers which holds that1 as man is finite1 he can grasp and know only the finite2--that by the inexorable conditions of thought all real knowledge is relative and phenomenal1 and hence that we cannot go behind phenomena to find the ultimate causes and solve the ultimate mystery of being4 ,in such assertions as that ,god cannot by any searching be found out2 that a ,god understood would be no ,god at all2 and that to think ,god is as we think ,him to be is blasphemy1 we see the recognition of this idea of the inscrutableness of the ,absolute ,cause4 ,the doctrine itself is neither new nor limited to a few exceptional thinkers4 ,it is widely affirmed by enlightened science1 and pervades nearly all the cultivated theology of the present day4 ,sir ,william ,hamilton and ,dr4 ,mansel are among its recent and ablest expounders4 ,with the exception1 says ,sir ,william ,hamilton1 of a few late absolutist theorizers in ,germany1 this is perhaps the truth of all others most harmoniously reechoed by every philosopher of every school2 and among these he names ,protagoras1 ,aristotle1 ,st4 ,augustine1 ,melanchthon1 ,scaliger1 ,bacon1 ,spinoza1 ,newton1 and ,kant4 ,but though ,mr4 ,spencer accepts this doctrine1 he has not left it where he found it4 ,the world is indebted to him for having advanced the argument to a higher and grander conclusion--a conclusion which changes the philosophical aspect of the whole question1 and involves the profoundest consequences4 ,hamilton and ,mansel bring us1 by their inexorable logic1 to the result that we can neither know nor conceive the ,infinite1 and that every attempt to do so involves us in contradiction and absurdity2 but having reached this vast negation1 their logic and philosophy break down4 ,accepting their conclusions as far as they go1 ,mr4 ,spencer maintains the utter incompleteness of their reasoning1 and1 pushing the inquiry still farther1 he demonstrates that though we cannot grasp the ,infinite in thought1 we can realize it in consciousness4 ,he shows that though by the laws of thinking we are rigorously prevented from forming a conception of that ,incomprehensible1 ,omnipotent ,power by which we are acted upon in all phenomena1 yet we are1 by the laws of thought1 equally prevented from ridding ourselves of the consciousness of this ,power4 ,he proves that this consciousness of a ,supreme ,cause is not negative1 but positive--that it is indestructible1 and has a higher certainty than any other belief whatever4 ,the ,unknowable1 then1 in the view of ,mr4 ,spencer1 is not a mere term of negation1 nor a word employed only to express our ignorance1 but it means that ,infinite ,reality1 that ,supreme but ,inscrutable ,cause1 of which the universe is but a manifestation1 and which has an ever-present disclosure in human consciousness4 ,having thus found an indestructible basis in human nature for the religious sentiment1 ,mr4 ,spencer next shows that all religions rest upon this foundation1 and contain a fundamental verity--a soul of truth1 which remains when their conflicting doctrines and discordant peculiarities are mutually cancelled4 ,in the lower and grosser forms of religion this truth is but dimly discerned1 but becomes ever clearer the more highly the religion is developed1 surviving every change1 and remaining untouched by the severest criticism4 ,mr4 ,spencer then proceeds to demonstrate that all science tends to precisely the same great conclusion2--in all directions investigation leads to insoluble mystery4 ,alike in the external and the internal worlds1 the man of science sees himself in the midst of perpetual changes of which he can discover neither the beginning nor the end4 ,if he looks inward1 he perceives that both ends of the thread of consciousness are beyond his grasp4 ,if he resolve the appearances1 properties1 and movements of surrounding things into manifestations of ,force in ,space and ,time1 he still finds that ,force1 ,space1 and ,time pass all understanding4 ,thus do all lines of argument converge to the same conclusion4 ,whether we scrutinize internal consciousness or external phenomena1 or trace to their root the faiths of mankind1 we reach that common ground where all antagonisms disappear--that highest and most abstract of all truths1 which is affirmed with equal certainty by both religion and science1 and in which may be found their full and final reconciliation4 ,it is perhaps hardly just to ,mr4 ,spencer to state his position upon this grave subject without giving also the accompanying reasoning2 but so compressed and symmetrical is his argument that it cannot be put into narrower compass without mutilation4 ,to those interested in the advance of thought in this direction1 we may say that the discussion will be found unsurpassed in nobleness of aim1 eloquence of statement1 philosophic breadth1 and depth and power of reasoning4 ,this portion of the work embraces five chapters1 as follows3 ,i4 ,religion and ,science2 ,,ii4 ,ultimate ,religious ,ideas2 ,,iii4 ,ultimate ,scientific ,ideas2 ,,iv4 ,the ,relativity of all ,knowledge2 ,v4 ,the ,reconciliation4 ,the second and larger portion of ,first ,principles ,mr4 ,spencer designates ,the ,laws of the ,knowable4 ,by these he understands those fundamental and universal principles reached by scientific investigation1 which underlie all phenomena1 and are necessary to their explanation4 ,certain great laws have been established which are found equally true in all departments of nature1 and these are made the foundation of his philosophy4 ,the sublime idea of the ,unity of the ,universe1 to which science has long been tending1 ,mr4 ,spencer has made peculiarly his own4 ,through the vast diversities of nature he discerns a oneness of order and method1 which necessitates but one philosophy of being2 the same principles being found to regulate the course of celestial movement1 terrestrial changes1 and the phenomena of life1 mind1 and society4 ,these may all be comprehended in a single philosophical scheme1 so that each shall throw light upon the other1 and the mastery of one help to the comprehension of all4 ,to ,mr4 ,spencer the one conception which spans the universe and solves the widest range of its problems--which reaches outward through boundless space and back through illimitable time1 resolving the deepest questions of life1 mind1 society1 history1 and civilization1 which predicts the glorious possibilities of the future1 and reveals the august method by which the ,divine ,power works evermore1--this one1 all-elucidating conception1 is expressed by the term ,,evolution4 ,to this great subject he has devoted his remarkable powers of thought for many years1 and stands toward it not only in the relation of an expositor1 but also in that of a discoverer4 ,the fact that all living beings are developed from a minute structureless germ has long been known1 while the law which governs their evolution--that the change is ever from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous--has been arrived at within a generation4 ,but this fact of growth is by no means limited to the physical history of plants and animals--it is exemplified upon a far more extended scale4 ,astronomers hold that the solar system has gone through such a process1 and ,geologists teach that the earth has had its career of evolution4 ,animals have a mental as well as a physical development1 and there is also a progress of knowledge1 of religion1 of the arts and sciences1 of institutions1 manners1 governments1 and civilization itself4 ,mr4 ,spencer has the honour of having first established the universality of the principle by which all these changes are governed4 ,the law of evolution1 which has been hitherto limited to plants and animals1 he demonstrates to be the law of all evolution4 ,this doctrine is unfolded in the first ,essay of the present volume1 and is more or less fully illustrated in the others2 but it will be found elaborately worked out in the second part of ,first ,principles4 ,the course of the discussion in this part of the work will be best shown by enumerating the titles to the chapters1 which are as follows3 ,i4 ,laws in ,general2 ,,ii4 ,the ,law of ,evolution2 ,,iii4 ,the ,same continued2 ,,iv4 ,the ,causes of ,evolution2 ,v4 ,space1 ,time1 ,matter1 ,motion1 and ,force2 ,,vi4 ,the ,indestructibility of ,matter2 ,,vii4 ,the ,continuity of ,motion2 ,,viii4 ,the ,persistence of ,force2 ,,ix4 ,the ,correlation and ,equivalence of ,forces2 ,x4 ,the ,direction of ,motion2 ,,xi4 ,the ,rhythm of ,motion2 ,,xii4 ,the ,conditions ,essential to ,evolution2 ,,xiii4 ,the ,instability of the ,homogeneous2 ,,xiv4 ,the ,multiplication of ,effects2 ,,xv4 ,differentiation and ,integration2 ,,xvi4 ,equilibration2 ,,xvii4 ,summary and ,conclusion4 ,a most interesting and fruitful field of thought1 it will be seen1 is here traversed by our author1 and the latest and highest questions of science are discussed under novel aspects and in new relations4 ,not only do the pages abound with acute suggestions and fresh views1 but the entire argument1 in its leading demonstrations1 and the full breadth of its philosophic scope1 is stamped with a high originality4 99 99 99 99 99 ,having thus determined the sphere of philosophy and ascertained those fundamental principles governing all orders of phenomena which are to be subsequently used for guidance and verification1 the author proceeds to the second work of the series1 which is devoted to ,biology1 or the ,science of ,life4 ,he regards life not as a foreign and unintelligible something1 thrust into the scheme of nature1 of which we can know nothing save its mystery1 but as an essential part of the universal plan4 ,the harmonies of life are regarded as but phases of the universal harmony1 and ,biology is studied by the same methods as other departments of science4 ,the great truths of ,physics and ,chemistry are applied to its elucidation2 its facts are collected1 its inductions established1 and constantly verified by the first principles laid down at the outset4 ,apart from its connections with the philosophical system1 of which it forms a part1 this work will have great intrinsic interest4 ,nothing was more needed than a compact and well-digested statement of those general principles of life to which science has arrived1 and ,mr4 ,spencer's presentation is proving to be just what is required4 ,some idea of his mode of treating the subject may be formed by glancing over a few of his first chapter-headings4 ,,part ,,first3 ,i4 ,organic ,matter2 ,,ii4 ,the ,actions of ,forces on ,organic ,matter2 ,,iii4 ,the ,reactions of ,organic ,matter on ,forces2 ,,iv4 ,proximate ,definition of ,life2 ,v4 ,the ,correspondence between ,life and its ,circumstances2 ,,vi4 ,the ,degree of ,life ,varies with the ,degree of ,correspondence2 ,,vii4 ,inductions of ,biology4 ,,part ,,second3 ,i4 ,growth2 ,,ii4 ,development2 ,,iii4 ,function2 ,,iv4 ,waste and ,repair2 ,v4 ,adaptation2 ,,vi4 ,individuality2 ,,vii4 ,genesis2 ,,viii4 ,heredity2 ,,ix4 ,variation2 ,x4 ,genesis1 ,heredity and ,variation2 ,,xi4 ,classification2 ,,xii4 ,distribution4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the scheme of nature ,mind is ever associated with ,life4 ,the third division of this philosophical system will therefore be ,psychology1 or the ,science of ,mind4 ,this great subject will be considered1 not by the narrow methods usual with metaphysicians1 but in its broadest aspects as a phase of nature's order--to be studied by observation and induction through the whole range of psychical manifestation in animated beings4 ,the subject of mind will be regarded in the light of the great truths of ,biology previously established2 the connections of mind and life will be traced2 the progress of mentality as exhibited in the animal grades1 and the evolution of the intellectual faculties in man will be delineated and the cooperation of mind and nature in the production of ideas and intelligence unfolded4 ,we have no work upon mind of this comprehensive and thoroughly scientific character3 the materials are abundant1 and the necessity of their organization is widely recognized4 ,that ,mr4 ,spencer is eminently the man to perform this great task is proved by the fact that he is already the author of the most profound and able contribution to the advancement of psychological science that has appeared for many years4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the true philosophic order1 ,biology and ,psychology prepare the way for the study of social science1 and hence the fourth part of ,mr4 ,spencer's system will treat of ,sociology1 or the natural laws of society4 ,as a knowledge of individuals must precede an understanding of their mutual relations1 so an exposition of the laws of life and mind1 which constitute the science of human nature1 must precede the successful study of social phenomena4 ,in this part will be considered the development of society1 or that intellectual and moral progress which depends upon the growth of human ideas and feelings in their necessary order4 ,the evolution of political1 ecclesiastical1 and industrial organizations will be traced1 and a statement made of those principles underlying all social progress1 without which there can be no successful regulation of the affairs of society4 ,mr4 ,spencer's mind has long been occupied with these important questions1 as the reader will find by referring to his able work upon ,social ,statics1 published several years ago4 99 99 99 99 99 ,lastly1 in ,part ,fifth1 ,mr4 ,spencer proposes to consider the ,principles of ,morality1 bringing to bear the truths furnished by ,biology1 ,psychology1 and ,sociology1 to determine the true theory of right living4 ,he will show that the true moral ideal and limit of progress is the attainment of an equilibrium between constitution and conditions of existence1 and trace those principles of private conduct1 physical1 intellectual1 moral1 and religious that follow from the conditions to complete individual life4 ,those rules of human action which all civilized nations have registered as essential laws--the inductions of morality--will be delineated1 and also those mutual limitations of men's actions necessitated by their coexistence as units of society1 which constitute the foundation of justice4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it cannot be doubted that the order here indicated1 as it corresponds to the method of nature1 is the one which ,philosophy must pursue in the future4 ,it combines the precision of science with the harmony and unity of universal truth4 ,the time is past when ,biology can be considered with no reference to the laws of ,physics2 ,mind with no reference to the science of ,life1 and ,sociology1 without having previously mastered the foregoing subjects4 ,the progress of knowledge is now toward more definite1 systematic1 and comprehensive views1 while it is the highest function of intellect to coordinate and bind together its isolated and fragmentary parts4 ,in carrying out his great plan1 therefore1 ,mr4 ,spencer is but embodying the large philosophical tendencies of the age4 ,if it is urged that his scheme is too vast for any one man to accomplish1 it may be replied3 #ast4 ,that it is not intended to treat the various subjects exhaustively1 but only to state general principles with just sufficient details for their clear illustration4 #b;d4 ,a considerable portion of the work is already issued1 and much more is ready for publication1 while the author is still in the prime of life4 #c;d4 ,it must be remembered that intellects occasionally appear1 endowed with that comprehensive grasp and high organizing power which fits them for vast undertakings4 ,the reader will find at the close of the volume ,mr4 ,spencer's ,prospectus of his system4 ,that he who has so clearly mapped out his work is the proper one to execute it1 we think will be fully apparent to all who peruse the present volume4 ,an impression prevails with many that ,mr4 ,spencer belongs to the positive school of ,m4 ,auguste ,comte4 ,this is an entire misapprehension2 but the position having been assumed by several of his reviewers1 he repels the charge in the following letter1 which appeared in the ,new ,englander for ,january1 #ahfd4 ,to the ,editor of the ,new ,englander3 ,,sir3--,while recognizing the appreciative tone and general candour of the article in your last number1 entitled ,herbert ,spencer on ,ultimate ,religious ,ideas1 allow me to point out one error which pervades it4 ,the writer correctly represents the leading positions of my argument1 but he inadvertently conveys a wrong impression respecting my tendencies and sympathies4 ,he says of me1 the spirit of his philosophy is evidently that of the so-called positive method which has now many partial disciples1 as well as many zealous adherents among the thinkers of ,england4 ,further on ,i am tacitly classed with the ,english admirers and disciples of the great ,positivist2 and it is presently added that in ,mr4 ,spencer we have an example of a positivist1 who does not treat the subject of religion with supercilious neglect4 ,here and throughout1 the implication is that ,i am a follower of ,comte4 ,this is a mistake4 ,that ,m4 ,comte has given a general exposition of the doctrine and method elaborated by science1 and has applied to it a name which has obtained a certain currency1 is true4 ,but it is not true that the holders of this doctrine and followers of this method are disciples of ,m4 ,comte4 ,neither their modes of inquiry nor their views concerning human knowledge in its nature and limits are appreciably different from what they were before4 ,if they are ,positivists it is in the sense that all men of science have been more or less consistently ,positivists2 and the applicability of ,m4 ,comte's title to them no more makes them his disciples than does its applicability to the men of science who lived and died before ,m4 ,comte wrote1 make them his disciples4 ,my own attitude toward ,m4 ,comte and his partial adherents has been all along that of antagonism4 ,in an essay on the ,genesis of ,science1 published in #ahed1 and republished with other essays in #aheg1 ,i have endeavoured to show that his theory of the logical dependence and historical development of the sciences is untrue4 ,i have still among my papers the memoranda of a second review 7for which ,i failed to obtain a place71 the purpose of which was to show the untenableness of his theory of intellectual progress4 ,the only doctrine of importance in which ,i agree with him--the relativity of all knowledge--is one common to him and sundry other thinkers of earlier date2 and even this ,i hold in a different sense from that in which he held it4 ,but on all points that are distinctive of his philosophy1 ,i differ from him4 ,i deny his ,hierarchy of the ,sciences4 ,i regard his division of intellectual progress into the three phases1 theological1 metaphysical1 and positive1 as superficial4 ,i reject utterly his ,religion of ,humanity4 ,and his ideal of society ,i hold in detestation4 ,some of his minor views ,i accept2 some of his incidental remarks seem to me to be profound1 but from everything which distinguishes ,comteism as a system1 ,i dissent entirely4 ,the only influence on my own course of thought which ,i can trace to ,m4 ,comte's writings1 is the influence that results from meeting with antagonistic opinions definitely expressed4 ,such being my position1 you will1 ,i think1 see that by classing me as a ,positivist1 and tacitly including me among the ,english admirers and disciples of ,comte1 your reviewer unintentionally misrepresents me4 ,i am quite ready to bear the odium attaching to opinions which ,i do hold2 but ,i object to have added the odium attaching to opinions which ,i do not hold4 ,if1 by publishing this letter in your forthcoming number1 you will allow me to set myself right with the ,american public on this matter1 you will greatly oblige me4 ,i am1 ,sir1 your obedient servant1 ,,herbert ,,spencer4 ,we take the liberty of making an extract from a private letter of ,mr4 ,spencer1 which contains some further observations in the same connection3 ,there appears to have got abroad in the ,united ,states1 a very erroneous impression respecting the influence of ,comte's writings in ,england4 ,i suppose that the currency obtained by the words ',positivism' and ',positivist1' is to blame for this4 ,comte having designated by the term ,positive ,philosophy all that body of definitely-established knowledge which men of science have been gradually organizing into a coherent body of doctrine1 and having habitually placed this in opposition to the incoherent body of doctrine defended by theologians1 it has become the habit of the theological party to think of the antagonist scientific party under this title of ,positivists applied to them by ,comte4 ,and thus1 from the habit of calling them ,positivists there has grown up the assumption that they call themselves ,positivists1 and that they are the disciples of ,comte4 ,the truth is that ,comte and his doctrines receive here scarcely any attention4 ,i know something of the scientific world in ,england1 and ,i cannot name a single man of science who acknowledges himself a follower of ,comte1 or accepts the title of ,positivist4 ,lest1 however1 there should be some such who were unknown to me1 ,i have recently made inquiries into the matter4 ,to ,professor ,tyndall ,i put the question whether ,comte had exerted any appreciable influence on his own course of thought3 and he replied1 ',so far as ,i know1 my own course of thought would have been exactly the same had ,comte never existed4' ,i then asked1 ',do you know any men of science whose views have been affected by ,comte's writings8' and his answer was3 ',his influence on scientific thought in ,england is absolutely nil4' ,to the same questions ,prof4 ,huxley returned1 in other words1 the same answers4 ,professors ,huxley and ,tyndall1 being leaders in their respective departments1 and being also men of general culture and philosophic insight1 ,i think that1 joining their impressions with my own1 ,i am justified in saying that the scientific world of ,england is wholly uninfluenced by ,comte4 ,such small influence as he has had here has been on some literary men and historians--men who were attracted by the grand achievements of science1 who were charmed by the plausible system of scientific generalizations put forth by ,comte1 with the usual ,french regard for symmetry and disregard for fact1 and who were1 from their want of scientific training1 unable to detect the essential fallaciousness of his system4 ,of these the most notable example was the late ,mr4 ,buckle4 ,besides him1 ,i can name but seven men who have been in any appreciable degree influenced by ,comte2 and of these1 four1 if not five1 are scarcely known to the public4 ,mr4 ,spencer's philosophical series is published by ,d4 ,appleton ,co41 ,new ,york1 in quarterly parts 7#hj to #ajj pages each71 by subscription1 at two dollars a year4 ,first ,principles is issued in one volume1 and four parts of ,biology have appeared4 ,we subjoin some notices of his philosophy from ,american and ,english reviews4 ,from the ,national ,quarterly ,review 7,american47 ,comte thus founded social science1 and opened a path for future discoverers2 but he did not perceive1 any more than previous inquirers1 the fundamental law of human evolution4 ,it was reserved for ,herbert ,spencer to discover this all-comprehensive law which is found to explain alike all the phenomena of man's history and all those of external nature4 ,this sublime discovery1 that the universe is in a continuous process of evolution from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous1 with which only ,newton's law of gravitation is at all worthy to be compared1 underlies not only physics1 but also history4 ,it reveals the law to which social changes conform4 ,from the ,christian ,examiner4 ,reverent and bold--reverent for truth1 though not for the forms of truth1 and not for much that we hold true--bold in the destruction of error1 though without that joy in destruction which often claims the name of boldness2--these works are interesting in themselves and in their relation to the current thought of the time4 ,they seem at first sight to form the turning point in the positive philosophy1 but closer examination shows us that it is only a new and marked stage in a regular growth4 ,it is the positive philosophy reaching the higher relations of our being1 and establishing what before it ignored because it had not reached1 and by ignoring seemed to deny4 ,this system formerly excluded theology and psychology4 ,in the works of ,herbert ,spencer we have the rudiments of a positive theology and an immense step toward the perfection of the science of psychology4444 ,such is a brief and meagre sketch of a discussion which we would commend to be followed in detail by every mind interested in theological studies4 ,herbert ,spencer comes in good faith from what has been so long a hostile camp1 bringing a flag of truce and presenting terms of agreement meant to be honourable to both parties3 let us give him a candid hearing4444 ,in conclusion1 we would remark that the work of ,herbert ,spencer referred to 7,first ,principles7 is not mainly theological1 but will present the latest and broadest generalizations of science1 and we would commend to our readers this author1 too little known among us1 as at once one of the clearest of teachers and one of the wisest and most honourable of opponents4 ,from the ,new ,englander4 ,though we find here some unwarranted assumptions1 as well as some grave omissions1 yet this part 7,laws of the ,knowable7 may be considered1 upon the whole1 as a fine specimen of scientific reasoning4 ,considerable space is devoted to the ,law of ,evolution the discovery of which is the author's chief claim to originality1 and certainly evinces great power of generalization4 ,to quote the abstract definition without a full statement of the inductions from which it is derived would convey no fair impression of the breadth and strength of the thought which it epitomizes4 ,of ,mr4 ,spencer's general characteristics as a writer1 we may observe that his style is marked by great purity1 clearness1 and force2 though it is somewhat diffuse1 and the abstract nature of some of his topics occasionally renders his thought difficult of apprehension4 ,his treatment of his subjects is generally thorough and sometimes exhaustive2 his arguments are always ingenious if not always convincing2 his illustrations are drawn from almost every accessible field of human knowledge1 and his method of putting things is such as to make the most of his materials4 ,he is undoubtedly entitled to a high rank among the speculative and philosophic writers of the present day4444 ,in ,mr4 ,spencer we have the example of a positivist1 who does not treat the subject of religion with supercilious neglect1 and who illustrates by his own method of reasoning upon the highest objects of human thought1 the value of those metaphysical studies which it is so much the fashion of his school to decry4 ,for both these reasons the volume1 which we now propose to examine1 deserves the careful attention of the theologian who desires to know what one of the strongest thinkers of his school1 commonly thought atheistic in its tendencies1 can say in behalf of our ultimate religious ideas4 ,for if we mistake not1 in spite of the very negative character of his own results1 he has furnished some strong arguments for the doctrine of a positive ,christian theology4 ,we shall be mistaken if we expect to find him carelessly passing these matters by 7religious faith and theological science7 as in all respects beyond knowledge and of no practical concern4 ,on the contrary1 he gives them profound attention1 and arrives at conclusions in regard to them which even the ,christian theologian must allow to contain a large measure of truth4 ,while showing the unsearchable nature of the ultimate facts on which religion depends1 he demonstrates their real existence and their great importance4444 ,in answering these questions ,mr4 ,spencer has1 we think1 arrived nearer to a true philosophy than either ,hamilton or ,mansel4 ,at least he has indicated in a more satisfactory manner than they have done1 the positive datum of consciousness that the unconditioned1 though inscrutable1 exists4 ,it may be said that ,mr4 ,spencer is not chargeable with excluding ,god from the universe1 or denying all revelation of ,him in ,his works1 since he earnestly defends the truth that an inscrutable power is shown to exist4 ,we certainly would not charge him with theoretical atheism1 holding as he does this ultimate religious idea4 ,from the ,north ,american ,review4 ,the law of organic development announced in the early part of the present century1 by ,goethe1 ,schelling1 and ,von ,baer1 and vaguely expressed in the formula1 that evolution is always from the homogenous to the heterogeneous1 and from the simple to the complex1 has recently been extended by ,herbert ,spencer so as to include all phenomena whatsoever4 ,he has shown that this law of evolution is the law of all evolution4 ,whether it be in the development of the earth or of life upon its surface1 in the development of ,society1 of government1 of manufactures1 of commerce1 of language1 literature1 science and art1 this same advance from the simple to the complex1 through successive differentiations1 holds uniformly4 ,the stupendous induction from all classes of phenomena by which ,mr4 ,spencer proceeds to establish and illustrate his theorem cannot be given here4 ,from the ,christian ,spectator 7,english74 ,mr4 ,spencer claims for his view that it is not only a religious position1 but preeminently the religious position2 and we are most thoroughly disposed to agree with him1 though we think he does not appreciate the force of his own argument1 nor fully understand his own words4 ,for let us now attempt to realize the meaning of this fact1 of which ,mr4 ,spencer and his compeers have put us in possession2 let us endeavour to see whether its bearings are really favorable or adverse to religion4 ,they are put forward indeed avowedly as adverse to any other religion than a mere reverential acquiescence in ignorance concerning all that truly exists2 but it appears to us that this supposed opposition to religion arises from the fact that the doctrine itself is so profoundly1 so intensely1 so overwhelmingly religious1 nay1 so utterly and entirely ,,christian1 that its true meaning could not be seen for very glory4 ,like ,moses1 when he came down from the ,mount1 this positive philosophy comes with a veil over its face1 that its too divine radiance may be hidden for a time4 ,this is ,science that has been conversing with ,,god1 and brings in her hand ,his law written on tables of stone4 ,from the ,reader4 ,to answer the question of the likelihood of the permanence of ,mr4 ,mill's philosophic reign1 444 we should have to take account1 among other things1 of the differences from ,mr4 ,mill already shown by the extraordinarily able and peculiarly original thinker whose name we have associated with ,mr4 ,mill's at the head of this article4 ,we may take occasion1 at another time1 to call attention to these speculations of ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer1 whose works in the meantime1 and especially that new one whose title we have cited1 we recommend to all those select readers whose appreciation of masterly exposition1 and great reach and boldness of generalization1 does not depend on their mere disposition to agree with the doctrines propounded4 ,from the ,british ,quarterly ,review4 ,complete in itself1 it is at the same time but a part of a whole1 which1 if it should be constructed in proportion1 will be ten times as great4 ,for these ,first ,principles are merely the foundation of a system of philosophy1 bolder1 more elaborate and comprehensive1 perhaps1 than any other which has been hitherto designed in ,england4444 ,widely as it will be seen we differ from the author on some points1 we very sincerely hope he may succeed in accomplishing the bold and magnificent project he has mapped out4 ,from the ,cornhill ,magazine4 ,our ,survey1 superficial as it is1 must include at least the mention of a work so lofty in aim1 and so remarkable in execution as the system of ,philosophy which ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer is issuing to subscribers4444 ,in spite of all dissidence respecting the conclusions1 the serious reader will applaud the profound earnestness and thoroughness with which these conclusions are advocated2 the universal scientific knowledge brought to bear on them by way of illustration1 and the acute and subtle thinking displayed in every chapter4 ,from the ,parthenon4 ,by these books he has wedged his way into fame in a manner distinctly original1 and curiously marked4444 ,there is a peculiar charm in this author's style1 in that it sacrifices to no common taste1 while at the same time it makes the most abstruse questions intelligible4444 ,the book1 if it is to be noticed with the slightest degree of fairness1 requires to be read and re-read1 to be studied apart from itself and with itself4 ,for whatever may be its ultimate fate--although as the ages go on it shall become but as the lispings of a little child1 a little more educated than other lisping children of the same time--this is certain1 that1 as a book addressed to the present1 it lifts the mind far above the ordinary range of thought1 suggests new associations1 arranges chaotic pictures1 strikes often a broad harmony1 and even moves the heart by an intellectual struggle as passionless as fate1 but as irresistible as time4 ,from the ,critic4 ,mr4 ,spencer is the foremost mind of the only philosophical school in ,england which has arrived at a consistent scheme444 ,beyond this school we encounter an indolent chaotic eclecticism4 ,mr4 ,spencer claims the respect due to distinct and daring individuality2 others are echoes or slaves4 ,mr4 ,spencer may be a usurper1 but he has the voice and gesture of a king4 ,from the ,medico-,chirurgical ,review4 ,mr4 ,spencer is equally remarkable for his search after first principles2 for his acute attempts to decompose mental phenomena into their primary elements2 and for his broad generalizations of mental activity1 viewed in connection with nature1 instinct1 and all the analogies presented by life in its universal aspects4 ,,editor',s ,,preface4 ,the essays contained in the present volume were first published in the ,english periodicals--chiefly the ,quarterly ,reviews4 ,they contain ideas of permanent interest1 and display an amount of thought and labor evidently much greater than is usually bestowed on review articles4 ,they were written with a view to ultimate republication in an enduring form1 and were issued in ,london with several other papers1 under the title of ,essays2 ,scientific1 ,political1 and ,speculative1 first and second series2--the former appearing in #aheg1 and the latter in #ahfc4 ,the interest created in ,mr4 ,spencer's writings by the publication in this country of his valuable work on ,education1 and by criticisms of his other works1 has created a demand for these discussions which can only be supplied by their republication4 ,they are now1 however1 issued in a new form1 and are more suited to develop the author's purpose in their preparation2 for while each of these essays has its intrinsic and independent claims upon the reader's attention1 they are all at the same time but parts of a connected and comprehensive argument4 ,nearly all of ,mr4 ,spencer's essays have relations more or less direct to the general doctrine of ,evolution--a doctrine which he has probably done more to unfold and illustrate than any other thinker4 ,the papers comprised in the present volume are those which deal with the subject in its most obvious and prominent aspects4 ,although the argument contained in the first essay on ,progress2 its ,law and ,cause1 has been published in an amplified form in the author's ,first ,principles1 it has been thought best to prefix it to the present collection as a key to the full interpretation of the other essays4 ,to those who read this volume its commendation will be superfluous2 we will only say that those who become interested in his course of thought will find it completely elaborated in his new ,system of ,philosophy1 now in course of publication4 ,the remaining articles of ,mr4 ,spencer's first and second series will be shortly published1 in a volume entitled ,essays2 ,moral1 ,political1 and ,a,esthetic4 ,,new ,,york1 ,march1 #ahfd4 ,,contents4 ,,page ,i4 ,progress3 ,its ,law and ,cause1 #a ,,ii4 ,manners and ,fashion1 #fa ,,iii4 ,the ,genesis of ,science1 #aaf ,,iv4 ,the ,physiology of ,laughter1 #aid ,v4 ,the ,origin and ,function of ,music1 #baj ,,vi4 ,the ,nebular ,hypothesis1 #bci ,,vii4 ,bain on the ,emotions and the ,will1 #cjj ,,viii4 ,illogical ,geology1 #cbe ,,ix4 ,the ,development ,hypothesis1 #cgg ,x4 ,the ,social ,organism1 #chd ,,xi4 ,use and ,beauty1 #dbi ,,xii4 ,the ,sources of ,architectural ,types1 #dcd ,,xiii4 ,the ,use of ,anthropomorphism1 #ddj ,i4 ,,progress3 ,,its ,,law ,,and ,,cause4 ,the current conception of ,progress is somewhat shifting and indefinite4 ,sometimes it comprehends little more than simple growth--as of a nation in the number of its members and the extent of territory over which it has spread4 ,sometimes it has reference to quantity of material products--as when the advance of agriculture and manufactures is the topic4 ,sometimes the superior quality of these products is contemplated3 and sometimes the new or improved appliances by which they are produced4 ,when1 again1 we speak of moral or intellectual progress1 we refer to the state of the individual or people exhibiting it2 while1 when the progress of ,knowledge1 of ,science1 of ,art1 is commented upon1 we have in view certain abstract results of human thought and action4 ,not only1 however1 is the current conception of ,progress more or less vague1 but it is in great measure erroneous4 ,it takes in not so much the reality of ,progress as its accompaniments--not so much the substance as the shadow4 ,that progress in intelligence seen during the growth of the child into the man1 or the savage into the philosopher1 is commonly regarded as consisting in the greater number of facts known and laws understood3 whereas the actual progress consists in those internal modifications of which this increased knowledge is the expression4 ,social progress is supposed to consist in the produce of a greater quantity and variety of the articles required for satisfying men's wants2 in the increasing security of person and property2 in widening freedom of action3 whereas1 rightly understood1 social progress consists in those changes of structure in the social organism which have entailed these consequences4 ,the current conception is a teleological one4 ,the phenomena are contemplated solely as bearing on human happiness4 ,only those changes are held to constitute progress which directly or indirectly tend to heighten human happiness4 ,and they are thought to constitute progress simply because they tend to heighten human happiness4 ,but rightly to understand progress1 we must inquire what is the nature of these changes1 considered apart from our interests4 ,ceasing1 for example1 to regard the successive geological modifications that have taken place in the ,earth1 as modifications that have gradually fitted it for the habitation of ,man1 and as therefore a geological progress1 we must seek to determine the character common to these modifications--the law to which they all conform4 ,and similarly in every other case4 ,leaving out of sight concomitants and beneficial consequences1 let us ask what ,progress is in itself4 ,in respect to that progress which individual organisms display in the course of their evolution1 this question has been answered by the ,germans4 ,the investigations of ,wolff1 ,goethe1 and ,von ,baer1 have established the truth that the series of changes gone through during the development of a seed into a tree1 or an ovum into an animal1 constitute an advance from homogeneity of structure to heterogeneity of structure4 ,in its primary stage1 every germ consists of a substance that is uniform throughout1 both in texture and chemical composition4 ,the first step is the appearance of a difference between two parts of this substance2 or1 as the phenomenon is called in physiological language1 a differentiation4 ,each of these differentiated divisions presently begins itself to exhibit some contrast of parts2 and by and by these secondary differentiations become as definite as the original one4 ,this process is continuously repeated--is simultaneously going on in all parts of the growing embryo2 and by endless such differentiations there is finally produced that complex combination of tissues and organs constituting the adult animal or plant4 ,this is the history of all organisms whatever4 ,it is settled beyond dispute that organic progress consists in a change from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous4 ,now1 we propose in the first place to show1 that this law of organic progress is the law of all progress4 ,whether it be in the development of the ,earth1 in the development of ,life upon its surface1 in the development of ,society1 of ,government1 of ,manufactures1 of ,commerce1 of ,language1 ,literature1 ,science1 ,art1 this same evolution of the simple into the complex1 through successive differentiations1 holds throughout4 ,from the earliest traceable cosmical changes down to the latest results of civilization1 we shall find that the transformation of the homogeneous into the heterogeneous1 is that in which ,progress essentially consists4 ,with the view of showing that if the ,nebular ,hypothesis be true1 the genesis of the solar system supplies one illustration of this law1 let us assume that the matter of which the sun and planets consist was once in a diffused form2 and that from the gravitation of its atoms there resulted a gradual concentration4 ,by the hypothesis1 the solar system in its nascent state existed as an indefinitely extended and nearly homogeneous medium--a medium almost homogeneous in density1 in temperature1 and in other physical attributes4 ,the first advance towards consolidation resulted in a differentiation between the occupied space which the nebulous mass still filled1 and the unoccupied space which it previously filled4 ,there simultaneously resulted a contrast in density and a contrast in temperature1 between the interior and the exterior of this mass4 ,and at the same time there arose throughout it rotatory movements1 whose velocities varied according to their distances from its centre4 ,these differentiations increased in number and degree until there was evolved the organized group of sun1 planets1 and satellites1 which we now know--a group which presents numerous contrasts of structure and action among its members4 ,there are the immense contrasts between the sun and planets1 in bulk and in weight2 as well as the subordinate contrasts between one planet and another1 and between the planets and their satellites4 ,there is the similarly marked contrast between the sun as almost stationary1 and the planets as moving round him with great velocity2 while there are the secondary contrasts between the velocities and periods of the several planets1 and between their simple revolutions and the double ones of their satellites1 which have to move round their primaries while moving round the sun4 ,there is the yet further strong contrast between the sun and the planets in respect of temperature2 and there is reason to suppose that the planets and satellites differ from each other in their proper heat1 as well as in the heat they receive from the sun4 ,when we bear in mind that1 in addition to these various contrasts1 the planets and satellites also differ in respect to their distances from each other and their primary2 in respect to the inclinations of their orbits1 the inclinations of their axes1 their times of rotation on their axes1 their specific gravities1 and their physical constitutions2 we see what a high degree of heterogeneity the solar system exhibits1 when compared with the almost complete homogeneity of the nebulous mass out of which it is supposed to have originated4 ,passing from this hypothetical illustration1 which must be taken for what it is worth1 without prejudice to the general argument1 let us descend to a more certain order of evidence4 ,it is now generally agreed among geologists that the ,earth was at first a mass of molten matter2 and that it is still fluid and incandescent at the distance of a few miles beneath its surface4 ,originally1 then1 it was homogeneous in consistence1 and1 in virtue of the circulation that takes place in heated fluids1 must have been comparatively homogeneous in temperature2 and it must have been surrounded by an atmosphere consisting partly of the elements of air and water1 and partly of those various other elements which assume a gaseous form at high temperatures4 ,that slow cooling by radiation which is still going on at an inappreciable rate1 and which1 though originally far more rapid than now1 necessarily required an immense time to produce any decided change1 must ultimately have resulted in the solidification of the portion most able to part with its heat--namely1 the surface4 ,in the thin crust thus formed we have the first marked differentiation4 ,a still further cooling1 a consequent thickening of this crust1 and an accompanying deposition of all solidifiable elements contained in the atmosphere1 must finally have been followed by the condensation of the water previously existing as vapour4 ,a second marked differentiation must thus have arisen3 and as the condensation must have taken place on the coolest parts of the surface--namely1 about the poles--there must thus have resulted the first geographical distinction of parts4 ,to these illustrations of growing heterogeneity1 which1 though deduced from the known laws of matter1 may be regarded as more or less hypothetical1 ,geology adds an extensive series that have been inductively established4 ,its investigations show that the ,earth has been continually becoming more heterogeneous in virtue of the multiplication of the strata which form its crust2 further1 that it has been becoming more heterogeneous in respect of the composition of these strata1 the latter of which1 being made from the detritus of the older ones1 are many of them rendered highly complex by the mixture of materials they contain2 and that this heterogeneity has been vastly increased by the action of the ,earth's still molten nucleus upon its envelope1 whence have resulted not only a great variety of igneous rocks1 but the tilting up of sedimentary strata at all angles1 the formation of faults and metallic veins1 the production of endless dislocations and irregularities4 ,yet again1 geologists teach us that the ,earth's surface has been growing more varied in elevation--that the most ancient mountain systems are the smallest1 and the ,andes and ,himalayas the most modern2 while in all probability there have been corresponding changes in the bed of the ocean4 ,as a consequence of these ceaseless differentiations1 we now find that no considerable portion of the ,earth's exposed surface is like any other portion1 either in contour1 in geologic structure1 or in chemical composition2 and that in most parts it changes from mile to mile in all these characteristics4 ,moreover1 it must not be forgotten that there has been simultaneously going on a gradual differentiation of climates4 ,as fast as the ,earth cooled and its crust solidified1 there arose appreciable differences in temperature between those parts of its surface most exposed to the sun and those less exposed4 ,gradually1 as the cooling progressed1 these differences became more pronounced2 until there finally resulted those marked contrasts between regions of perpetual ice and snow1 regions where winter and summer alternately reign for periods varying according to the latitude1 and regions where summer follows summer with scarcely an appreciable variation4 ,at the same time the successive elevations and subsidences of different portions of the ,earth's crust1 tending as they have done to the present irregular distribution of land and sea1 have entailed various modifications of climate beyond those dependent on latitude2 while a yet further series of such modifications have been produced by increasing differences of elevation in the land1 which have in sundry places brought arctic1 temperate1 and tropical climates to within a few miles of each other4 ,and the general result of these changes is1 that not only has every extensive region its own meteorologic conditions1 but that every locality in each region differs more or less from others in those conditions1 as in its structure1 its contour1 its soil4 ,thus1 between our existing ,earth1 the phenomena of whose varied crust neither geographers1 geologists1 mineralogists1 nor meteorologists have yet enumerated1 and the molten globe out of which it was evolved1 the contrast in heterogeneity is sufficiently striking4 ,when from the ,earth itself we turn to the plants and animals that have lived1 or still live1 upon its surface1 we find ourselves in some difficulty from lack of facts4 ,that every existing organism has been developed out of the simple into the complex1 is indeed the first established truth of all2 and that every organism that has existed was similarly developed1 is an inference which no physiologist will hesitate to draw4 ,but when we pass from individual forms of life to ,life in general1 and inquire whether the same law is seen in the ensemble of its manifestations1--whether modern plants and animals are of more heterogeneous structure than ancient ones1 and whether the ,earth's present ,flora and ,fauna are more heterogeneous than the ,flora and ,fauna of the past1--we find the evidence so fragmentary1 that every conclusion is open to dispute4 ,two-thirds of the ,earth's surface being covered by water2 a great part of the exposed land being inaccessible to1 or untravelled by1 the geologist2 the greater part of the remainder having been scarcely more than glanced at2 and even the most familiar portions1 as ,england1 having been so imperfectly explored that a new series of strata has been added within these four years1--it is manifestly impossible for us to say with any certainty what creatures have1 and what have not1 existed at any particular period4 ,considering the perishable nature of many of the lower organic forms1 the metamorphosis of many sedimentary strata1 and the gaps that occur among the rest1 we shall see further reason for distrusting our deductions4 ,on the one hand1 the repeated discovery of vertebrate remains in strata previously supposed to contain none1--of reptiles where only fish were thought to exist1--of mammals where it was believed there were no creatures higher than reptiles1--renders it daily more manifest how small is the value of negative evidence4 ,on the other hand1 the worthlessness of the assumption that we have discovered the earliest1 or anything like the earliest1 organic remains1 is becoming equally clear4 ,that the oldest known sedimentary rocks have been greatly changed by igneous action1 and that still older ones have been totally transformed by it1 is becoming undeniable4 ,and the fact that sedimentary strata earlier than any we know1 have been melted up1 being admitted1 it must also be admitted that we cannot say how far back in time this destruction of sedimentary strata has been going on4 ,thus it is manifest that the title1 ,palaeozoic1 as applied to the earliest known fossiliferous strata1 involves a petitio principii2 and that1 for aught we know to the contrary1 only the last few chapters of the ,earth's biological history may have come down to us4 ,on neither side1 therefore1 is the evidence conclusive4 ,nevertheless we cannot but think that1 scanty as they are1 the facts1 taken altogether1 tend to show both that the more heterogeneous organisms have been evolved in the later geologic periods1 and that ,life in general has been more heterogeneously manifested as time has advanced4 ,let us cite1 in illustration1 the one case of the vertebrata4 ,the earliest known vertebrate remains are those of ,fishes2 and ,fishes are the most homogeneous of the vertebrata4 ,later and more heterogeneous are ,reptiles4 ,later still1 and more heterogeneous still1 are ,mammals and ,birds4 ,if it be said1 as it may fairly be said1 that the ,palaeozoic deposits1 not being estuary deposits1 are not likely to contain the remains of terrestrial vertebrata1 which may nevertheless have existed at that era1 we reply that we are merely pointing to the leading facts1 such as they are4 ,but to avoid any such criticism1 let us take the mammalian subdivision only4 ,the earliest known remains of mammals are those of small marsupials1 which are the lowest of the mammalian type2 while1 conversely1 the highest of the mammalian type--,man--is the most recent4 ,the evidence that the vertebrate fauna1 as a whole1 has become more heterogeneous1 is considerably stronger4 ,to the argument that the vertebrate fauna of the ,palaeozoic period1 consisting1 so far as we know1 entirely of ,fishes1 was less heterogeneous than the modern vertebrate fauna1 which includes ,reptiles1 ,birds1 and ,mammals1 of multitudinous genera1 it may be replied1 as before1 that estuary deposits of the ,palaeozoic period1 could we find them1 might contain other orders of vertebrata4 ,but no such reply can be made to the argument that whereas the marine vertebrata of the ,palaeozoic period consisted entirely of cartilaginous fishes1 the marine vertebrata of later periods include numerous genera of osseous fishes2 and that1 therefore1 the later marine vertebrate faunas are more heterogeneous than the oldest known one4 ,nor1 again1 can any such reply be made to the fact that there are far more numerous orders and genera of mammalian remains in the tertiary formations than in the secondary formations4 ,did we wish merely to make out the best case1 we might dwell upon the opinion of ,dr4 ,carpenter1 who says that the general facts of ,palaeontology appear to sanction the belief1 that the same plan may be traced out in what may be called the general life of the globe1 as in the individual life of every one of the forms of organized being which now people it4 ,or we might quote1 as decisive1 the judgment of ,professor ,owen1 who holds that the earlier examples of each group of creatures severally departed less widely from archetypal generality than the later ones--were severally less unlike the fundamental form common to the group as a whole2 that is to say--constituted a less heterogeneous group of creatures2 and who further upholds the doctrine of a biological progression4 ,but in deference to an authority for whom we have the highest respect1 who considers that the evidence at present obtained does not justify a verdict either way1 we are content to leave the question open4 ,whether an advance from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous is or is not displayed in the biological history of the globe1 it is clearly enough displayed in the progress of the latest and most heterogeneous creature--,man4 ,it is alike true that1 during the period in which the ,earth has been peopled1 the human organism has grown more heterogeneous among the civilized divisions of the species2 and that the species1 as a whole1 has been growing more heterogeneous in virtue of the multiplication of races and the differentiation of these races from each other4 ,in proof of the first of these positions1 we may cite the fact that1 in the relative development of the limbs1 the civilized man departs more widely from the general type of the placental mammalia than do the lower human races4 ,while often possessing well-developed body and arms1 the ,papuan has extremely small legs3 thus reminding us of the quadrumana1 in which there is no great contrast in size between the hind and fore limbs4 ,but in the ,european1 the greater length and massiveness of the legs has become very marked--the fore and hind limbs are relatively more heterogeneous4 ,again1 the greater ratio which the cranial bones bear to the facial bones illustrates the same truth4 ,among the vertebrata in general1 progress is marked by an increasing heterogeneity in the vertebral column1 and more especially in the vertebrae constituting the skull3 the higher forms being distinguished by the relatively larger size of the bones which cover the brain1 and the relatively smaller size of those which form the jaw1 c4 ,now1 this characteristic1 which is stronger in ,man than in any other creature1 is stronger in the ,european than in the savage4 ,moreover1 judging from the greater extent and variety of faculty he exhibits1 we may infer that the civilized man has also a more complex or heterogeneous nervous system than the uncivilized man3 and indeed the fact is in part visible in the increased ratio which his cerebrum bears to the subjacent ganglia4 ,if further elucidation be needed1 we may find it in every nursery4 ,the infant ,european has sundry marked points of resemblance to the lower human races2 as in the flatness of the alae of the nose1 the depression of its bridge1 the divergence and forward opening of the nostrils1 the form of the lips1 the absence of a frontal sinus1 the width between the eyes1 the smallness of the legs4 ,now1 as the developmental process by which these traits are turned into those of the adult ,european1 is a continuation of that change from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous displayed during the previous evolution of the embryo1 which every physiologist will admit2 it follows that the parallel developmental process by which the like traits of the barbarous races have been turned into those of the civilized races1 has also been a continuation of the change from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous4 ,the truth of the second position--that ,mankind1 as a whole1 have become more heterogeneous--is so obvious as scarcely to need illustration4 ,every work on ,ethnology1 by its divisions and subdivisions of races1 bears testimony to it4 ,even were we to admit the hypothesis that ,mankind originated from several separate stocks1 it would still remain true1 that as1 from each of these stocks1 there have sprung many now widely different tribes1 which are proved by philological evidence to have had a common origin1 the race as a whole is far less homogeneous than it once was4 ,add to which1 that we have1 in the ,anglo-,americans1 an example of a new variety arising within these few generations2 and that1 if we may trust to the description of observers1 we are likely soon to have another such example in ,australia4 ,on passing from ,humanity under its individual form1 to ,humanity as socially embodied1 we find the general law still more variously exemplified4 ,the change from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous is displayed equally in the progress of civilization as a whole1 and in the progress of every tribe or nation2 and is still going on with increasing rapidity4 ,as we see in existing barbarous tribes1 society in its first and lowest form is a homogeneous aggregation of individuals having like powers and like functions3 the only marked difference of function being that which accompanies difference of sex4 ,every man is warrior1 hunter1 fisherman1 tool-maker1 builder2 every woman performs the same drudgeries2 every family is self-sufficing1 and save for purposes of aggression and defence1 might as well live apart from the rest4 ,very early1 however1 in the process of social evolution1 we find an incipient differentiation between the governing and the governed4 ,some kind of chieftainship seems coeval with the first advance from the state of separate wandering families to that of a nomadic tribe4 ,the authority of the strongest makes itself felt among a body of savages as in a herd of animals1 or a posse of schoolboys4 ,at first1 however1 it is indefinite1 uncertain2 is shared by others of scarcely inferior power2 and is unaccompanied by any difference in occupation or style of living3 the first ruler kills his own game1 makes his own weapons1 builds his own hut1 and economically considered1 does not differ from others of his tribe4 ,gradually1 as the tribe progresses1 the contrast between the governing and the governed grows more decided4 ,supreme power becomes hereditary in one family2 the head of that family1 ceasing to provide for his own wants1 is served by others2 and he begins to assume the sole office of ruling4 ,at the same time there has been arising a co-ordinate species of government--that of ,religion4 ,as all ancient records and traditions prove1 the earliest rulers are regarded as divine personages4 ,the maxims and commands they uttered during their lives are held sacred after their deaths1 and are enforced by their divinely-descended successors2 who in their turns are promoted to the pantheon of the race1 there to be worshipped and propitiated along with their predecessors3 the most ancient of whom is the supreme god1 and the rest subordinate gods4 ,for a long time these connate forms of government--civil and religious--continue closely associated4 ,for many generations the king continues to be the chief priest1 and the priesthood to be members of the royal race4 ,for many ages religious law continues to contain more or less of civil regulation1 and civil law to possess more or less of religious sanction2 and even among the most advanced nations these two controlling agencies are by no means completely differentiated from each other4 ,having a common root with these1 and gradually diverging from them1 we find yet another controlling agency--that of ,manners or ceremonial usages4 ,all titles of honour are originally the names of the god-king2 afterwards of ,god and the king2 still later of persons of high rank2 and finally come1 some of them1 to be used between man and man4 ,all forms of complimentary address were at first the expressions of submission from prisoners to their conqueror1 or from subjects to their ruler1 either human or divine--expressions that were afterwards used to propitiate subordinate authorities1 and slowly descended into ordinary intercourse4 ,all modes of salutation were once obeisances made before the monarch and used in worship of him after his death4 ,presently others of the god-descended race were similarly saluted2 and by degrees some of the salutations have become the due of all4,a ,thus1 no sooner does the originally homogeneous social mass differentiate into the governed and the governing parts1 than this last exhibits an incipient differentiation into religious and secular--,church and ,state2 while at the same time there begins to be differentiated from both1 that less definite species of government which rules our daily intercourse--a species of government which1 as we may see in heralds' colleges1 in books of the peerage1 in masters of ceremonies1 is not without a certain embodiment of its own4 ,each of these is itself subject to successive differentiations4 ,in the course of ages1 there arises1 as among ourselves1 a highly complex political organization of monarch1 ministers1 lords and commons1 with their subordinate administrative departments1 courts of justice1 revenue offices1 c41 supplemented in the provinces by municipal governments1 county governments1 parish or union governments--all of them more or less elaborated4 ,by its side there grows up a highly complex religious organization1 with its various grades of officials1 from archbishops down to sextons1 its colleges1 convocations1 ecclesiastical courts1 c42 to all which must be added the ever multiplying independent sects1 each with its general and local authorities4 ,and at the same time there is developed a highly complex aggregation of customs1 manners1 and temporary fashions1 enforced by society at large1 and serving to control those minor transactions between man and man which are not regulated by civil and religious law4 ,moreover it is to be observed that this ever increasing heterogeneity in the governmental appliances of each nation1 has been accompanied by an increasing heterogeneity in the governmental appliances of different nations2 all of which are more or less unlike in their political systems and legislation1 in their creeds and religious institutions1 in their customs and ceremonial usages4 ,a ,for detailed proof of these assertions see essay on ,manners and ,fashion4 ,simultaneously there has been going on a second differentiation of a more familiar kind2 that1 namely1 by which the mass of the community has been segregated into distinct classes and orders of workers4 ,while the governing part has undergone the complex development above detailed1 the governed part has undergone an equally complex development1 which has resulted in that minute division of labour characterizing advanced nations4 ,it is needless to trace out this progress from its first stages1 up through the caste divisions of the ,east and the incorporated guilds of ,europe1 to the elaborate producing and distributing organization existing among ourselves4 ,political economists have long since described the evolution which1 beginning with a tribe whose members severally perform the same actions each for himself1 ends with a civilized community whose members severally perform different actions for each other2 and they have further pointed out the changes through which the solitary producer of any one commodity is transformed into a combination of producers who1 united under a master1 take separate parts in the manufacture of such commodity4 ,but there are yet other and higher phases of this advance from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous in the industrial organization of society4 ,long after considerable progress has been made in the division of labour among different classes of workers1 there is still little or no division of labour among the widely separated parts of the community2 the nation continues comparatively homogeneous in the respect that in each district the same occupations are pursued4 ,but when roads and other means of transit become numerous and good1 the different districts begin to assume different functions1 and to become mutually dependent4 ,the calico manufacture locates itself in this county1 the woollen-cloth manufacture in that2 silks are produced here1 lace there2 stockings in one place1 shoes in another2 pottery1 hardware1 cutlery1 come to have their special towns2 and ultimately every locality becomes more or less distinguished from the rest by the leading occupation carried on in it4 ,nay1 more1 this subdivision of functions shows itself not only among the different parts of the same nation1 but among different nations4 ,that exchange of commodities which free-trade promises so greatly to increase1 will ultimately have the effect of specializing1 in a greater or less degree1 the industry of each people4 ,so that beginning with a barbarous tribe1 almost if not quite homogeneous in the functions of its members1 the progress has been1 and still is1 towards an economic aggregation of the whole human race2 growing ever more heterogeneous in respect of the separate functions assumed by separate nations1 the separate functions assumed by the local sections of each nation1 the separate functions assumed by the many kinds of makers and traders in each town1 and the separate functions assumed by the workers united in producing each commodity4 ,not only is the law thus clearly exemplified in the evolution of the social organism1 but it is exemplified with equal clearness in the evolution of all products of human thought and action1 whether concrete or abstract1 real or ideal4 ,let us take ,language as our first illustration4 ,the lowest form of language is the exclamation1 by which an entire idea is vaguely conveyed through a single sound2 as among the lower animals4 ,that human language ever consisted solely of exclamations1 and so was strictly homogeneous in respect of its parts of speech1 we have no evidence4 ,but that language can be traced down to a form in which nouns and verbs are its only elements1 is an established fact4 ,in the gradual multiplication of parts of speech out of these primary ones--in the differentiation of verbs into active and passive1 of nouns into abstract and concrete--in the rise of distinctions of mood1 tense1 person1 of number and case--in the formation of auxiliary verbs1 of adjectives1 adverbs1 pronouns1 prepositions1 articles--in the divergence of those orders1 genera1 species1 and varieties of parts of speech by which civilized races express minute modifications of meaning--we see a change from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous4 ,and it may be remarked1 in passing1 that it is more especially in virtue of having carried this subdivision of function to a greater extent and completeness1 that the ,english language is superior to all others4 ,another aspect under which we may trace the development of language is the differentiation of words of allied meanings4 ,philology early disclosed the truth that in all languages words may be grouped into families having a common ancestry4 ,an aboriginal name applied indiscriminately to each of an extensive and ill-defined class of things or actions1 presently undergoes modifications by which the chief divisions of the class are expressed4 ,these several names springing from the primitive root1 themselves become the parents of other names still further modified4 ,and by the aid of those systematic modes which presently arise1 of making derivations and forming compound terms expressing still smaller distinctions1 there is finally developed a tribe of words so heterogeneous in sound and meaning1 that to the uninitiated it seems incredible that they should have had a common origin4 ,meanwhile from other roots there are being evolved other such tribes1 until there results a language of some sixty thousand or more unlike words1 signifying as many unlike objects1 qualities1 acts4 ,yet another way in which language in general advances from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous1 is in the multiplication of languages4 ,whether as ,max ,mueller and ,bunsen think1 all languages have grown from one stock1 or whether1 as some philologists say1 they have grown from two or more stocks1 it is clear that since large families of languages1 as the ,indo-,european1 are of one parentage1 they have become distinct through a process of continuous divergence4 ,the same diffusion over the ,earth's surface which has led to the differentiation of the race1 has simultaneously led to a differentiation of their speech3 a truth which we see further illustrated in each nation by the peculiarities of dialect found in several districts4 ,thus the progress of ,language conforms to the general law1 alike in the evolution of languages1 in the evolution of families of words1 and in the evolution of parts of speech4 ,on passing from spoken to written language1 we come upon several classes of facts1 all having similar implications4 ,written language is connate with ,painting and ,sculpture2 and at first all three are appendages of ,architecture1 and have a direct connection with the primary form of all ,government--the theocratic4 ,merely noting by the way the fact that sundry wild races1 as for example the ,australians and the tribes of ,south ,africa1 are given to depicting personages and events upon the walls of caves1 which are probably regarded as sacred places1 let us pass to the case of the ,egyptians4 ,among them1 as also among the ,assyrians1 we find mural paintings used to decorate the temple of the god and the palace of the king 7which were1 indeed1 originally identical72 and as such they were governmental appliances in the same sense that state-pageants and religious feasts were4 ,further1 they were governmental appliances in virtue of representing the worship of the god1 the triumphs of the god-king1 the submission of his subjects1 and the punishment of the rebellious4 ,and yet again they were governmental1 as being the products of an art reverenced by the people as a sacred mystery4 ,from the habitual use of this pictorial representation there naturally grew up the but slightly-modified practice of picture-writing--a practice which was found still extant among the ,mexicans at the time they were discovered4 ,by abbreviations analogous to those still going on in our own written and spoken language1 the most familiar of these pictured figures were successively simplified2 and ultimately there grew up a system of symbols1 most of which had but a distant resemblance to the things for which they stood4 ,the inference that the hieroglyphics of the ,egyptians were thus produced1 is confirmed by the fact that the picture-writing of the ,mexicans was found to have given birth to a like family of ideographic forms2 and1 among them1 as among the ,egyptians1 these had been partially differentiated into the kuriological or imitative1 and the tropical or symbolic3 which were1 however1 used together in the same record4 ,in ,egypt1 written language underwent a further differentiation3 whence resulted the hieratic and the epistolographic or enchorial3 both of which are derived from the original hieroglyphic4 ,at the same time we find that for the expression of proper names which could not be otherwise conveyed1 phonetic symbols were employed2 and though it is alleged that the ,egyptians never actually achieved complete alphabetic writing1 yet it can scarcely be doubted that these phonetic symbols occasionally used in aid of their ideographic ones1 were the germs out of which alphabetic writing grew4 ,once having become separate from hieroglyphics1 alphabetic writing itself underwent numerous differentiations--multiplied alphabets were produced2 between most of which1 however1 more or less connection can still be traced4 ,and in each civilized nation there has now grown up1 for the representation of one set of sounds1 several sets of written signs used for distinct purposes4 ,finally1 through a yet more important differentiation came printing2 which1 uniform in kind as it was at first1 has since become multiform4 ,while written language was passing through its earlier stages of development1 the mural decoration which formed its root was being differentiated into ,painting and ,sculpture4 ,the gods1 kings1 men1 and animals represented1 were originally marked by indented outlines and coloured4 ,in most cases these outlines were of such depth1 and the object they circumscribed so far rounded and marked out in its leading parts1 as to form a species of work intermediate between intaglio and bas-relief4 ,in other cases we see an advance upon this3 the raised spaces between the figures being chiselled off1 and the figures themselves appropriately tinted1 a painted bas-relief was produced4 ,the restored ,assyrian architecture at ,sydenham exhibits this style of art carried to greater perfection--the persons and things represented1 though still barbarously coloured1 are carved out with more truth and in greater detail3 and in the winged lions and bulls used for the angles of gateways1 we may see a considerable advance towards a completely sculptured figure2 which1 nevertheless1 is still coloured1 and still forms part of the building4 ,but while in ,assyria the production of a statue proper seems to have been little1 if at all1 attempted1 we may trace in ,egyptian art the gradual separation of the sculptured figure from the wall4 ,a walk through the collection in the ,british ,museum will clearly show this2 while it will at the same time afford an opportunity of observing the evident traces which the independent statues bear of their derivation from bas-relief3 seeing that nearly all of them not only display that union of the limbs with the body which is the characteristic of bas-relief1 but have the back of the statue united from head to foot with a block which stands in place of the original wall4 ,greece repeated the leading stages of this progress4 ,as in ,egypt and ,assyria1 these twin arts were at first united with each other and with their parent1 ,architecture1 and were the aids of ,religion and ,government4 ,on the friezes of ,greek temples1 we see coloured bas-reliefs representing sacrifices1 battles1 processions1 games--all in some sort religious4 ,on the pediments we see painted sculptures more or less united with the tympanum1 and having for subjects the triumphs of gods or heroes4 ,even when we come to statues that are definitely separated from the buildings to which they pertain1 we still find them coloured2 and only in the later periods of ,greek civilization does the differentiation of sculpture from painting appear to have become complete4 ,in ,christian art we may clearly trace a parallel re-genesis4 ,all early paintings and sculptures throughout ,europe were religious in subject--represented ,christs1 crucifixions1 virgins1 holy families1 apostles1 saints4 ,they formed integral parts of church architecture1 and were among the means of exciting worship2 as in ,roman ,catholic countries they still are4 ,moreover1 the early sculptures of ,christ on the cross1 of virgins1 of saints1 were coloured3 and it needs but to call to mind the painted madonnas and crucifixes still abundant in continental churches and highways1 to perceive the significant fact that painting and sculpture continue in closest connection with each other where they continue in closest connection with their parent4 ,even when ,christian sculpture was pretty clearly differentiated from painting1 it was still religious and governmental in its subjects--was used for tombs in churches and statues of kings3 while1 at the same time1 painting1 where not purely ecclesiastical1 was applied to the decoration of palaces1 and besides representing royal personages1 was almost wholly devoted to sacred legends4 ,only in quite recent times have painting and sculpture become entirely secular arts4 ,only within these few centuries has painting been divided into historical1 landscape1 marine1 architectural1 genre1 animal1 still-life1 c41 and sculpture grown heterogeneous in respect of the variety of real and ideal subjects with which it occupies itself4 ,strange as it seems then1 we find it no less true1 that all forms of written language1 of painting1 and of sculpture1 have a common root in the politico-religious decorations of ancient temples and palaces4 ,little resemblance as they now have1 the bust that stands on the console1 the landscape that hangs against the wall1 and the copy of the ,times lying upon the table1 are remotely akin2 not only in nature1 but by extraction4 ,the brazen face of the knocker which the postman has just lifted1 is related not only to the woodcuts of the ,illustrated ,london ,news which he is delivering1 but to the characters of the billet-doux which accompanies it4 ,between the painted window1 the prayer-book on which its light falls1 and the adjacent monument1 there is consanguinity4 ,the effigies on our coins1 the signs over shops1 the figures that fill every ledger1 the coats of arms outside the carriage panel1 and the placards inside the omnibus1 are1 in common with dolls1 blue-books1 paper-hangings1 lineally descended from the rude sculpture-paintings in which the ,egyptians represented the triumphs and worship of their god-kings4 ,perhaps no example can be given which more vividly illustrates the multiplicity and heterogeneity of the products that in course of time may arise by successive differentiations from a common stock4 ,before passing to other classes of facts1 it should be observed that the evolution of the homogeneous into the heterogeneous is displayed not only in the separation of ,painting and ,sculpture from ,architecture and from each other1 and in the greater variety of subjects they embody1 but it is further shown in the structure of each work4 ,a modern picture or statue is of far more heterogeneous nature than an ancient one4 ,an ,egyptian sculpture-fresco represents all its figures as on one plane--that is1 at the same distance from the eye2 and so is less heterogeneous than a painting that represents them as at various distances from the eye4 ,it exhibits all objects as exposed to the same degree of light2 and so is less heterogeneous than a painting which exhibits different objects and different parts of each object as in different degrees of light4 ,it uses scarcely any but the primary colours1 and these in their full intensity2 and so is less heterogeneous than a painting which1 introducing the primary colours but sparingly1 employs an endless variety of intermediate tints1 each of heterogeneous composition1 and differing from the rest not only in quality but in intensity4 ,moreover1 we see in these earliest works a great uniformity of conception4 ,the same arrangement of figures is perpetually reproduced--the same actions1 attitudes1 faces1 dresses4 ,in ,egypt the modes of representation were so fixed that it was sacrilege to introduce a novelty2 and indeed it could have been only in consequence of a fixed mode of representation that a system of hieroglyphics became possible4 ,the ,assyrian bas-reliefs display parallel characters4 ,deities1 kings1 attendants1 winged figures and animals1 are severally depicted in like positions1 holding like implements1 doing like things1 and with like expression or non-expression of face4 ,if a palm-grove is introduced1 all the trees are of the same height1 have the same number of leaves1 and are equidistant4 ,when water is imitated1 each wave is a counterpart of the rest2 and the fish1 almost always of one kind1 are evenly distributed over the surface4 ,the beards of the kings1 the gods1 and the winged figures1 are everywhere similar3 as are the manes of the lions1 and equally so those of the horses4 ,hair is represented throughout by one form of curl4 ,the king's beard is quite architecturally built up of compound tiers of uniform curls1 alternating with twisted tiers placed in a transverse direction1 and arranged with perfect regularity2 and the terminal tufts of the bulls' tails are represented in exactly the same manner4 ,without tracing out analogous facts in early ,christian art1 in which1 though less striking1 they are still visible1 the advance in heterogeneity will be sufficiently manifest on remembering that in the pictures of our own day the composition is endlessly varied2 the attitudes1 faces1 expressions1 unlike2 the subordinate objects different in size1 form1 position1 texture2 and more or less of contrast even in the smallest details4 ,or1 if we compare an ,egyptian statue1 seated bolt upright on a block1 with hands on knees1 fingers outspread and parallel1 eyes looking straight forward1 and the two sides perfectly symmetrical in every particular1 with a statue of the advanced ,greek or the modern school1 which is asymmetrical in respect of the position of the head1 the body1 the limbs1 the arrangement of the hair1 dress1 appendages1 and in its relations to neighbouring objects1 we shall see the change from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous clearly manifested4 ,in the co-ordinate origin and gradual differentiation of ,poetry1 ,music and ,dancing1 we have another series of illustrations4 ,rhythm in speech1 rhythm in sound1 and rhythm in motion1 were in the beginning parts of the same thing1 and have only in process of time become separate things4 ,among various existing barbarous tribes we find them still united4 ,the dances of savages are accompanied by some kind of monotonous chant1 the clapping of hands1 the striking of rude instruments3 there are measured movements1 measured words1 and measured tones2 and the whole ceremony1 usually having reference to war or sacrifice1 is of governmental character4 ,in the early records of the historic races we similarly find these three forms of metrical action united in religious festivals4 ,in the ,hebrew writings we read that the triumphal ode composed by ,moses on the defeat of the ,egyptians1 was sung to an accompaniment of dancing and timbrels4 ,the ,israelites danced and sang at the inauguration of the golden calf4 ,and as it is generally agreed that this representation of the ,deity was borrowed from the mysteries of ,apis1 it is probable that the dancing was copied from that of the ,egyptians on those occasions4 ,there was an annual dance in ,shiloh on the sacred festival2 and ,david danced before the ark4 ,again1 in ,greece the like relation is everywhere seen3 the original type being there1 as probably in other cases1 a simultaneous chanting and mimetic representation of the life and adventures of the god4 ,the ,spartan dances were accompanied by hymns and songs2 and in general the ,greeks had no festivals or religious assemblies but what were accompanied with songs and dances--both of them being forms of worship used before altars4 ,among the ,romans1 too1 there were sacred dances3 the ,salian and ,lupercalian being named as of that kind4 ,and even in ,christian countries1 as at ,limoges1 in comparatively recent times1 the people have danced in the choir in honour of a saint4 ,the incipient separation of these once united arts from each other and from religion1 was early visible in ,greece4 ,probably diverging from dances partly religious1 partly warlike1 as the ,corybantian1 came the war dances proper1 of which there were various kinds2 and from these resulted secular dances4 ,meanwhile ,music and ,poetry1 though still united1 came to have an existence separate from dancing4 ,the aboriginal ,greek poems1 religious in subject1 were not recited1 but chanted2 and though at first the chant of the poet was accompanied by the dance of the chorus1 it ultimately grew into independence4 ,later still1 when the poem had been differentiated into epic and lyric--when it became the custom to sing the lyric and recite the epic--poetry proper was born4 ,as during the same period musical instruments were being multiplied1 we may presume that music came to have an existence apart from words4 ,and both of them were beginning to assume other forms besides the religious4 ,facts1 having like implications might be cited from the histories of later times and peoples3 as the practices of our own early minstrels1 who sang to the harp heroic narratives versified by themselves to music of their own composition3 thus uniting the now separate offices of poet1 composer1 vocalist1 and instrumentalist4 ,but1 without further illustration1 the common origin and gradual differentiation of ,dancing1 ,poetry1 and ,music will be sufficiently manifest4 ,the advance from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous is displayed not only in the separation of these arts from each other and from religion1 but also in the multiplied differentiations which each of them afterwards undergoes4 ,not to dwell upon the numberless kinds of dancing that have1 in course of time1 come into use2 and not to occupy space in detailing the progress of poetry1 as seen in the development of the various forms of metre1 of rhyme1 and of general organization2 let us confine our attention to music as a type of the group4 ,as argued by ,dr4 ,burney1 and as implied by the customs of still extant barbarous races1 the first musical instruments were1 without doubt1 percussive--sticks1 calabashes1 tom-toms--and were used simply to mark the time of the dance2 and in this constant repetition of the same sound1 we see music in its most homogeneous form4 ,the ,egyptians had a lyre with three strings4 ,the early lyre of the ,greeks had four1 constituting their tetrachord4 ,in course of some centuries lyres of seven and eight strings were employed4 ,and1 by the expiration of a thousand years1 they had advanced to their great system of the double octave4 ,through all which changes there of course arose a greater heterogeneity of melody4 ,simultaneously there came into use the different modes--,dorian1 ,ionian1 ,phrygian1 ,a,eolian1 and ,lydian--answering to our keys2 and of these there were ultimately fifteen4 ,as yet1 however1 there was but little heterogeneity in the time of their music4 ,instrumental music during this period being merely the accompaniment of vocal music1 and vocal music being completely subordinated to words1 the singer being also the poet1 chanting his own compositions and making the lengths of his notes agree with the feet of his verses1--there unavoidably arose a tiresome uniformity of measure1 which1 as ,dr4 ,burney says1 no resources of melody could disguise4 ,lacking the complex rhythm obtained by our equal bars and unequal notes the only rhythm was that produced by the quantity of the syllables and was of necessity comparatively monotonous4 ,and further1 it may be observed that the chant thus resulting1 being like recitative1 was much less clearly differentiated from ordinary speech than is our modern song4 ,nevertheless1 in virtue of the extended range of notes in use1 the variety of modes1 the occasional variations of time consequent on changes of metre1 and the multiplication of instruments1 music had1 towards the close of ,greek civilization1 attained to considerable heterogeneity--not indeed as compared with our music1 but as compared with that which preceded it4 ,as yet1 however1 there existed nothing but melody3 harmony was unknown4 ,it was not until ,christian church-music had reached some development1 that music in parts was evolved2 and then it came into existence through a very unobtrusive differentiation4 ,difficult as it may be to conceive a priori how the advance from melody to harmony could take place without a sudden leap1 it is none the less true that it did so4 ,the circumstance which prepared the way for it was the employment of two choirs singing alternately the same air4 ,afterwards it became the practice--very possibly first suggested by a mistake--for the second choir to commence before the first had ceased2 thus producing a fugue4 ,with the simple airs then in use1 a partially harmonious fugue might not improbably thus result3 and a very partially harmonious fugue satisfied the ears of that age1 as we know from still preserved examples4 ,the idea having once been given1 the composing of airs productive of fugal harmony would naturally grow up2 as in some way it did grow up out of this alternate choir-singing4 ,and from the fugue to concerted music of two1 three1 four1 and more parts1 the transition was easy4 ,without pointing out in detail the increasing complexity that resulted from introducing notes of various lengths1 from the multiplication of keys1 from the use of accidentals1 from varieties of time1 and so forth1 it needs but to contrast music as it is1 with music as it was1 to see how immense is the increase of heterogeneity4 ,we see this if1 looking at music in its ensemble1 we enumerate its many different genera and species--if we consider the divisions into vocal1 instrumental1 and mixed2 and their subdivisions into music for different voices and different instruments--if we observe the many forms of sacred music1 from the simple hymn1 the chant1 the canon1 motet1 anthem1 c41 up to the oratorio2 and the still more numerous forms of secular music1 from the ballad up to the serenata1 from the instrumental solo up to the symphony4 ,again1 the same truth is seen on comparing any one sample of aboriginal music with a sample of modern music--even an ordinary song for the piano2 which we find to be relatively highly heterogeneous1 not only in respect of the varieties in the pitch and in the length of the notes1 the number of different notes sounding at the same instant in company with the voice1 and the variations of strength with which they are sounded and sung1 but in respect of the changes of key1 the changes of time1 the changes of timbre of the voice1 and the many other modifications of expression4 ,while between the old monotonous dance-chant and a grand opera of our own day1 with its endless orchestral complexities and vocal combinations1 the contrast in heterogeneity is so extreme that it seems scarcely credible that the one should have been the ancestor of the other4 ,were they needed1 many further illustrations might be cited4 ,going back to the early time when the deeds of the god-king1 chanted and mimetically represented in dances round his altar1 were further narrated in picture-writings on the walls of temples and palaces1 and so constituted a rude literature1 we might trace the development of ,literature through phases in which1 as in the ,hebrew ,scriptures1 it presents in one work theology1 cosmogony1 history1 biography1 civil law1 ethics1 poetry2 through other phases in which1 as in the ,iliad1 the religious1 martial1 historical1 the epic1 dramatic1 and lyric elements are similarly commingled2 down to its present heterogeneous development1 in which its divisions and subdivisions are so numerous and varied as to defy complete classification4 ,or we might trace out the evolution of ,science2 beginning with the era in which it was not yet differentiated from ,art1 and was1 in union with ,art1 the handmaid of ,religion2 passing through the era in which the sciences were so few and rudimentary1 as to be simultaneously cultivated by the same philosophers2 and ending with the era in which the genera and species are so numerous that few can enumerate them1 and no one can adequately grasp even one genus4 ,or we might do the like with ,architecture1 with the ,drama1 with ,dress4 ,but doubtless the reader is already weary of illustrations2 and our promise has been amply fulfilled4 ,we believe we have shown beyond question1 that that which the ,german physiologists have found to be the law of organic development1 is the law of all development4 ,the advance from the simple to the complex1 through a process of successive differentiations1 is seen alike in the earliest changes of the ,universe to which we can reason our way back2 and in the earliest changes which we can inductively establish2 it is seen in the geologic and climatic evolution of the ,earth1 and of every single organism on its surface2 it is seen in the evolution of ,humanity1 whether contemplated in the civilized individual1 or in the aggregation of races2 it is seen in the evolution of ,society in respect alike of its political1 its religious1 and its economical organization2 and it is seen in the evolution of all those endless concrete and abstract products of human activity which constitute the environment of our daily life4 ,from the remotest past which ,science can fathom1 up to the novelties of yesterday1 that in which ,progress essentially consists1 is the transformation of the homogeneous into the heterogeneous4 99 99 99 99 99 ,and now1 from this uniformity of procedure1 may we not infer some fundamental necessity whence it results8 ,may we not rationally seek for some all-pervading principle which determines this all-pervading process of things8 ,does not the universality of the law imply a universal cause8 ,that we can fathom such cause1 noumenally considered1 is not to be supposed4 ,to do this would be to solve that ultimate mystery which must ever transcend human intelligence4 ,but it still may be possible for us to reduce the law of all ,progress1 above established1 from the condition of an empirical generalization1 to the condition of a rational generalization4 ,just as it was possible to interpret ,kepler's laws as necessary consequences of the law of gravitation2 so it may be possible to interpret this law of ,progress1 in its multiform manifestations1 as the necessary consequence of some similarly universal principle4 ,as gravitation was assignable as the cause of each of the groups of phenomena which ,kepler formulated2 so may some equally simple attribute of things be assignable as the cause of each of the groups of phenomena formulated in the foregoing pages4 ,we may be able to affiliate all these varied and complex evolutions of the homogeneous into the heterogeneous1 upon certain simple facts of immediate experience1 which1 in virtue of endless repetition1 we regard as necessary4 ,the probability of a common cause1 and the possibility of formulating it1 being granted1 it will be well1 before going further1 to consider what must be the general characteristics of such cause1 and in what direction we ought to look for it4 ,we can with certainty predict that it has a high degree of generality2 seeing that it is common to such infinitely varied phenomena3 just in proportion to the universality of its application must be the abstractness of its character4 ,we need not expect to see in it an obvious solution of this or that form of ,progress2 because it equally refers to forms of ,progress bearing little apparent resemblance to them3 its association with multiform orders of facts1 involves its dissociation from any particular order of facts4 ,being that which determines ,progress of every kind--astronomic1 geologic1 organic1 ethnologic1 social1 economic1 artistic1 c4--it must be concerned with some fundamental attribute possessed in common by these2 and must be expressible in terms of this fundamental attribute4 ,the only obvious respect in which all kinds of ,progress are alike1 is1 that they are modes of change2 and hence1 in some characteristic of changes in general1 the desired solution will probably be found4 ,we may suspect a priori that in some law of change lies the explanation of this universal transformation of the homogeneous into the heterogeneous4 ,thus much premised1 we pass at once to the statement of the law1 which is this3--,every active force produces more than one change--every cause produces more than one effect4 ,before this law can be duly comprehended1 a few examples must be looked at4 ,when one body is struck against another1 that which we usually regard as the effect1 is a change of position or motion in one or both bodies4 ,but a moment's thought shows us that this is a careless and very incomplete view of the matter4 ,besides the visible mechanical result1 sound is produced2 or1 to speak accurately1 a vibration in one or both bodies1 and in the surrounding air3 and under some circumstances we call this the effect4 ,moreover1 the air has not only been made to vibrate1 but has had sundry currents caused in it by the transit of the bodies4 ,further1 there is a disarrangement of the particles of the two bodies in the neighbourhood of their point of collision2 amounting in some cases to a visible condensation4 ,yet more1 this condensation is accompanied by the disengagement of heat4 ,in some cases a spark--that is1 light--results1 from the incandescence of a portion struck off2 and sometimes this incandescence is associated with chemical combination4 ,thus1 by the original mechanical force expended in the collision1 at least five1 and often more1 different kinds of changes have been produced4 ,take1 again1 the lighting of a candle4 ,primarily this is a chemical change consequent on a rise of temperature4 ,the process of combination having once been set going by extraneous heat1 there is a continued formation of carbonic acid1 water1 c4--in itself a result more complex than the extraneous heat that first caused it4 ,but accompanying this process of combination there is a production of heat2 there is a production of light2 there is an ascending column of hot gases generated2 there are currents established in the surrounding air4 ,moreover1 the decomposition of one force into many forces does not end here3 each of the several changes produced becomes the parent of further changes4 ,the carbonic acid given off will by and by combine with some base2 or under the influence of sunshine give up its carbon to the leaf of a plant4 ,the water will modify the hygrometric state of the air around2 or1 if the current of hot gases containing it come against a cold body1 will be condensed3 altering the temperature1 and perhaps the chemical state1 of the surface it covers4 ,the heat given out melts the subjacent tallow1 and expands whatever it warms4 ,the light1 falling on various substances1 calls forth from them reactions by which it is modified2 and so divers colours are produced4 ,similarly even with these secondary actions1 which may be traced out into ever-multiplying ramifications1 until they become too minute to be appreciated4 ,and thus it is with all changes whatever4 ,no case can be named in which an active force does not evolve forces of several kinds1 and each of these1 other groups of forces4 ,universally the effect is more complex than the cause4 ,doubtless the reader already foresees the course of our argument4 ,this multiplication of results1 which is displayed in every event of to-day1 has been going on from the beginning2 and is true of the grandest phenomena of the universe as of the most insignificant4 ,from the law that every active force produces more than one change1 it is an inevitable corollary that through all time there has been an ever-growing complication of things4 ,starting with the ultimate fact that every cause produces more than one effect1 we may readily see that throughout creation there must have gone on1 and must still go on1 a never-ceasing transformation of the homogeneous into the heterogeneous4 ,but let us trace out this truth in detail4,b ,b ,a correlative truth which ought also to be taken into account 7that the state of homogeneity is one of unstable equilibrium71 but which it would greatly encumber the argument to exemplify in connection with the above1 will be found developed in the essay on ,transcendental ,physiology4 ,without committing ourselves to it as more than a speculation1 though a highly probable one1 let us again commence with the evolution of the solar system out of a nebulous medium4,c ,from the mutual attraction of the atoms of a diffused mass whose form is unsymmetrical1 there results not only condensation but rotation3 gravitation simultaneously generates both the centripetal and the centrifugal forces4 ,while the condensation and the rate of rotation are progressively increasing1 the approach of the atoms necessarily generates a progressively increasing temperature4 ,as this temperature rises1 light begins to be evolved2 and ultimately there results a revolving sphere of fluid matter radiating intense heat and light--a sun4 ,c ,the idea that the ,nebular ,hypothesis has been disproved because what were thought to be existing nebulae have been resolved into clusters of stars is almost beneath notice4 ,a priori it was highly improbable1 if not impossible1 that nebulous masses should still remain uncondensed1 while others have been condensed millions of years ago4 ,there are good reasons for believing that1 in consequence of the high tangential velocity1 and consequent centrifugal force1 acquired by the outer parts of the condensing nebulous mass1 there must be a periodical detachment of rotating rings2 and that1 from the breaking up of these nebulous rings1 there must arise masses which in the course of their condensation repeat the actions of the parent mass1 and so produce planets and their satellites--an inference strongly supported by the still extant rings of ,saturn4 ,should it hereafter be satisfactorily shown that planets and satellites were thus generated1 a striking illustration will be afforded of the highly heterogeneous effects produced by the primary homogeneous cause2 but it will serve our present purpose to point to the fact that from the mutual attraction of the particles of an irregular nebulous mass there result condensation1 rotation1 heat1 and light4 ,it follows as a corollary from the ,nebular ,hypothesis1 that the ,earth must at first have been incandescent2 and whether the ,nebular ,hypothesis be true or not1 this original incandescence of the ,earth is now inductively established--or1 if not established1 at least rendered so highly probable that it is a generally admitted geological doctrine4 ,let us look first at the astronomical attributes of this once molten globe4 ,from its rotation there result the oblateness of its form1 the alternations of day and night1 and 7under the influence of the moon7 the tides1 aqueous and atmospheric4 ,from the inclination of its axis1 there result the precession of the equinoxes and the many differences of the seasons1 both simultaneous and successive1 that pervade its surface4 ,thus the multiplication of effects is obvious4 ,several of the differentiations due to the gradual cooling of the ,earth have been already noticed--as the formation of a crust1 the solidification of sublimed elements1 the precipitation of water1 c41--and we here again refer to them merely to point out that they are simultaneous effects of the one cause1 diminishing heat4 ,let us now1 however1 observe the multiplied changes afterwards arising from the continuance of this one cause4 ,the cooling of the ,earth involves its contraction4 ,hence the solid crust first formed is presently too large for the shrinking nucleus2 and as it cannot support itself1 inevitably follows the nucleus4 ,but a spheroidal envelope cannot sink down into contact with a smaller internal spheroid1 without disruption2 it must run into wrinkles as the rind of an apple does when the bulk of its interior decreases from evaporation4 ,as the cooling progresses and the envelope thickens1 the ridges consequent on these contractions must become greater1 rising ultimately into hills and mountains2 and the later systems of mountains thus produced must not only be higher1 as we find them to be1 but they must be longer1 as we also find them to be4 ,thus1 leaving out of view other modifying forces1 we see what immense heterogeneity of surface has arisen from the one cause1 loss of heat--a heterogeneity which the telescope shows us to be paralleled on the face of the moon1 where aqueous and atmospheric agencies have been absent4 ,but we have yet to notice another kind of heterogeneity of surface similarly and simultaneously caused4 ,while the ,earth's crust was still thin1 the ridges produced by its contraction must not only have been small1 but the spaces between these ridges must have rested with great evenness upon the subjacent liquid spheroid2 and the water in those arctic and antarctic regions in which it first condensed1 must have been evenly distributed4 ,but as fast as the crust grew thicker and gained corresponding strength1 the lines of fracture from time to time caused in it1 must have occurred at greater distances apart2 the intermediate surfaces must have followed the contracting nucleus with less uniformity2 and there must have resulted larger areas of land and water4 ,if any one1 after wrapping up an orange in wet tissue paper1 and observing not only how small are the wrinkles1 but how evenly the intervening spaces lie upon the surface of the orange1 will then wrap it up in thick cartridge-paper1 and note both the greater height of the ridges and the much larger spaces throughout which the paper does not touch the orange1 he will realize the fact1 that as the ,earth's solid envelope grew thicker1 the areas of elevation and depression must have become greater4 ,in place of islands more or less homogeneously scattered over an all-embracing sea1 there must have gradually arisen heterogeneous arrangements of continent and ocean1 such as we now know4 ,once more1 this double change in the extent and in the elevation of the lands1 involved yet another species of heterogeneity1 that of coast-line4 ,a tolerably even surface raised out of the ocean1 must have a simple1 regular sea-margin2 but a surface varied by table-lands and intersected by mountain-chains must1 when raised out of the ocean1 have an outline extremely irregular both in its leading features and in its details4 ,thus endless is the accumulation of geological and geographical results slowly brought about by this one cause--the contraction of the ,earth4 ,when we pass from the agency which geologists term igneous1 to aqueous and atmospheric agencies1 we see the like ever-growing complications of effects4 ,the denuding actions of air and water have1 from the beginning1 been modifying every exposed surface2 everywhere causing many different changes4 ,oxidation1 heat1 wind1 frost1 rain1 glaciers1 rivers1 tides1 waves1 have been unceasingly producing disintegration2 varying in kind and amount according to local circumstances4 ,acting upon a tract of granite1 they here work scarcely an appreciable effect2 there cause exfoliations of the surface1 and a resulting heap of debris and boulders2 and elsewhere1 after decomposing the feldspar into a white clay1 carry away this and the accompanying quartz and mica1 and deposits them in separate beds1 fluviatile and marine4 ,when the exposed land consists of several unlike formations1 sedimentary and igneous1 the denudation produces changes proportionably more heterogeneous4 ,the formations being disintegrable in different degrees1 there follows an increased irregularity of surface4 ,the areas drained by different rivers being differently constituted1 these rivers carry down to the sea different combinations of ingredients2 and so sundry new strata of distinct composition are formed4 ,and here indeed we may see very simply illustrated1 the truth1 which we shall presently have to trace out in more involved cases1 that in proportion to the heterogeneity of the object or objects on which any force expends itself1 is the heterogeneity of the results4 ,a continent of complex structure1 exposing many strata irregularly distributed1 raised to various levels1 tilted up at all angles1 must1 under the same denuding agencies1 give origin to immensely multiplied results2 each district must be differently modified2 each river must carry down a different kind of detritus2 each deposit must be differently distributed by the entangled currents1 tidal and other1 which wash the contorted shores2 and this multiplication of results must manifestly be greatest where the complexity of the surface is greatest4 ,it is out of the question here to trace in detail the genesis of those endless complications described by ,geology and ,physical ,geography3 else we might show how the general truth1 that every active force produces more than one change1 is exemplified in the highly involved flow of the tides1 in the ocean currents1 in the winds1 in the distribution of rain1 in the distribution of heat1 and so forth4 ,but not to dwell upon these1 let us1 for the fuller elucidation of this truth in relation to the inorganic world1 consider what would be the consequences of some extensive cosmical revolution--say the subsidence of ,central ,america4 ,the immediate results of the disturbance would themselves be sufficiently complex4 ,besides the numberless dislocations of strata1 the ejections of igneous matter1 the propagation of earthquake vibrations thousands of miles around1 the loud explosions1 and the escape of gases2 there would be the rush of the ,atlantic and ,pacific ,oceans to supply the vacant space1 the subsequent recoil of enormous waves1 which would traverse both these oceans and produce myriads of changes along their shores1 the corresponding atmospheric waves complicated by the currents surrounding each volcanic vent1 and the electrical discharges with which such disturbances are accompanied4 ,but these temporary effects would be insignificant compared with the permanent ones4 ,the complex currents of the ,atlantic and ,pacific would be altered in direction and amount4 ,the distribution of heat achieved by these ocean currents would be different from what it is4 ,the arrangement of the isothermal lines1 not even on the neighbouring continents1 but even throughout ,europe1 would be changed4 ,the tides would flow differently from what they do now4 ,there would be more or less modification of the winds in their periods1 strengths1 directions1 qualities4 ,rain would fall scarcely anywhere at the same times and in the same quantities as at present4 ,in short1 the meteorological conditions thousands of miles off1 on all sides1 would be more or less revolutionized4 ,thus1 without taking into account the infinitude of modifications which these changes of climate would produce upon the flora and fauna1 both of land and sea1 the reader will see the immense heterogeneity of the results wrought out by one force1 when that force expends itself upon a previously complicated area2 and he will readily draw the corollary that from the beginning the complication has advanced at an increasing rate4 ,before going on to show how organic progress also depends upon the universal law that every force produces more than one change1 we have to notice the manifestation of this law in yet another species of inorganic progress--namely1 chemical4 ,the same general causes that have wrought out the heterogeneity of the ,earth1 physically considered1 have simultaneously wrought out its chemical heterogeneity4 ,without dwelling upon the general fact that the forces which have been increasing the variety and complexity of geological formations1 have1 at the same time1 been bringing into contact elements not previously exposed to each other under conditions favourable to union1 and so have been adding to the number of chemical compounds1 let us pass to the more important complications that have resulted from the cooling of the ,earth4 ,there is every reason to believe that at an extreme heat the elements cannot combine4 ,even under such heat as can be artificially produced1 some very strong affinities yield1 as for instance1 that of oxygen for hydrogen2 and the great majority of chemical compounds are decomposed at much lower temperatures4 ,but without insisting upon the highly probable inference1 that when the ,earth was in its first state of incandescence there were no chemical combinations at all1 it will suffice our purpose to point to the unquestionable fact that the compounds that can exist at the highest temperatures1 and which must1 therefore1 have been the first that were formed as the ,earth cooled1 are those of the simplest constitutions4 ,the protoxides--including under that head the alkalies1 earths1 c4--are1 as a class1 the most stable compounds we know3 most of them resisting decomposition by any heat we can generate4 ,these1 consisting severally of one atom of each component element1 are combinations of the simplest order--are but one degree less homogeneous than the elements themselves4 ,more heterogeneous than these1 less stable1 and therefore later in the ,earth's history1 are the deutoxides1 tritoxides1 peroxides1 c42 in which two1 three1 four1 or more atoms of oxygen are united with one atom of metal or other element4 ,higher than these in heterogeneity are the hydrates2 in which an oxide of hydrogen1 united with an oxide of some other element1 forms a substance whose atoms severally contain at least four ultimate atoms of three different kinds4 ,yet more heterogeneous and less stable still are the salts2 which present us with compound atoms each made up of five1 six1 seven1 eight1 ten1 twelve1 or more atoms1 of three1 if not more1 kinds4 ,then there are the hydrated salts1 of a yet greater heterogeneity1 which undergo partial decomposition at much lower temperatures4 ,after them come the further-complicated supersalts and double salts1 having a stability again decreased2 and so throughout4 ,without entering into qualifications for which we lack space1 we believe no chemist will deny it to be a general law of these inorganic combinations that1 other things equal1 the stability decreases as the complexity increases4 ,and then when we pass to the compounds of organic chemistry1 we find this general law still further exemplified3 we find much greater complexity and much less stability4 ,an atom of albumen1 for instance1 consists of #dhb ultimate atoms of five different kinds4 ,fibrine1 still more intricate in constitution1 contains in each atom1 #bih atoms of carbon1 #dj of nitrogen1 #b of sulphur1 #bbh of hydrogen1 and #ib of oxygen--in all1 #ffj atoms2 or1 more strictly speaking--equivalents4 ,and these two substances are so unstable as to decompose at quite ordinary temperatures2 as that to which the outside of a joint of roast meat is exposed4 ,thus it is manifest that the present chemical heterogeneity of the ,earth's surface has arisen by degrees1 as the decrease of heat has permitted2 and that it has shown itself in three forms--first1 in the multiplication of chemical compounds2 second1 in the greater number of different elements contained in the more modern of these compounds3 and third1 in the higher and more varied multiples in which these more numerous elements combine4 ,to say that this advance in chemical heterogeneity is due to the one cause1 diminution of the ,earth's temperature1 would be to say too much2 for it is clear that aqueous and atmospheric agencies have been concerned2 and1 further1 that the affinities of the elements themselves are implied4 ,the cause has all along been a composite one3 the cooling of the ,earth having been simply the most general of the concurrent causes1 or assemblage of conditions4 ,and here1 indeed1 it may be remarked that in the several classes of facts already dealt with 7excepting1 perhaps1 the first71 and still more in those with which we shall presently deal1 the causes are more or less compound2 as indeed are nearly all causes with which we are acquainted4 ,scarcely any change can with logical accuracy be wholly ascribed to one agency1 to the neglect of the permanent or temporary conditions under which only this agency produces the change4 ,but as it does not materially affect our argument1 we prefer1 for simplicity's sake1 to use throughout the popular mode of expression4 ,perhaps it will be further objected1 that to assign loss of heat as the cause of any changes1 is to attribute these changes not to a force1 but to the absence of a force4 ,and this is true4 ,strictly speaking1 the changes should be attributed to those forces which come into action when the antagonist force is withdrawn4 ,but though there is an inaccuracy in saying that the freezing of water is due to the loss of its heat1 no practical error arises from it2 nor will a parallel laxity of expression vitiate our statements respecting the multiplication of effects4 ,indeed1 the objection serves but to draw attention to the fact1 that not only does the exertion of a force produce more than one change1 but the withdrawal of a force produces more than one change4 ,and this suggests that perhaps the most correct statement of our general principle would be its most abstract statement--every change is followed by more than one other change4 ,returning to the thread of our exposition1 we have next to trace out1 in organic progress1 this same all-pervading principle4 ,and here1 where the evolution of the homogeneous into the heterogeneous was first observed1 the production of many changes by one cause is least easy to demonstrate4 ,the development of a seed into a plant1 or an ovum into an animal1 is so gradual1 while the forces which determine it are so involved1 and at the same time so unobtrusive1 that it is difficult to detect the multiplication of effects which is elsewhere so obvious4 ,nevertheless1 guided by indirect evidence1 we may pretty safely reach the conclusion that here too the law holds4 ,observe1 first1 how numerous are the effects which any marked change works upon an adult organism--a human being1 for instance4 ,an alarming sound or sight1 besides the impressions on the organs of sense and the nerves1 may produce a start1 a scream1 a distortion of the face1 a trembling consequent upon a general muscular relaxation1 a burst of perspiration1 an excited action of the heart1 a rush of blood to the brain1 followed possibly by arrest of the heart's action and by syncope3 and if the system be feeble1 an indisposition with its long train of complicated symptoms may set in4 ,similarly in cases of disease4 ,a minute portion of the small-pox virus introduced into the system1 will1 in a severe case1 cause1 during the first stage1 rigors1 heat of skin1 accelerated pulse1 furred tongue1 loss of appetite1 thirst1 epigastric uneasiness1 vomiting1 headache1 pains in the back and limbs1 muscular weakness1 convulsions1 delirium1 c42 in the second stage1 cutaneous eruption1 itching1 tingling1 sore throat1 swelled fauces1 salivation1 cough1 hoarseness1 dyspnoea1 c42 and in the third stage1 oedematous inflammations1 pneumonia1 pleurisy1 diarrhoea1 inflammation of the brain1 ophthalmia1 erysipelas1 c43 each of which enumerated symptoms is itself more or less complex4 ,medicines1 special foods1 better air1 might in like manner be instanced as producing multiplied results4 ,now it needs only to consider that the many changes thus wrought by one force upon an adult organism1 will be in part paralleled in an embryo organism1 to understand how here also1 the evolution of the homogeneous into the heterogeneous may be due to the production of many effects by one cause4 ,the external heat and other agencies which determine the first complications of the germ1 may1 by acting upon these1 superinduce further complications2 upon these still higher and more numerous ones2 and so on continually3 each organ as it is developed serving1 by its actions and reactions upon the rest1 to initiate new complexities4 ,the first pulsations of the foetal heart must simultaneously aid the unfolding of every part4 ,the growth of each tissue1 by taking from the blood special proportions of elements1 must modify the constitution of the blood2 and so must modify the nutrition of all the other tissues4 ,the heart's action1 implying as it does a certain waste1 necessitates an addition to the blood of effete matters1 which must influence the rest of the system1 and perhaps1 as some think1 cause the formation of excretory organs4 ,the nervous connections established among the viscera must further multiply their mutual influences3 and so continually4 ,still stronger becomes the probability of this view when we call to mind the fact1 that the same germ may be evolved into different forms according to circumstances4 ,thus1 during its earlier stages1 every embryo is sexless--becomes either male or female as the balance of forces acting upon it determines4 ,again1 it is a well-established fact that the larva of a working-bee will develop into a queen-bee1 if1 before it is too late1 its food be changed to that on which the larvae of queen-bees are fed4 ,even more remarkable is the case of certain entozoa4 ,the ovum of a tape-worm1 getting into its natural habitat1 the intestine1 unfolds into the well-known form of its parent2 but if carried1 as it frequently is1 into other parts of the system1 it becomes a sac-like creature1 called by naturalists the ,echinococcus--a creature so extremely different from the tape-worm in aspect and structure1 that only after careful investigations has it been proved to have the same origin4 ,all which instances imply that each advance in embryonic complication results from the action of incident forces upon the complication previously existing4 ,indeed1 we may find a priori reason to think that the evolution proceeds after this manner4 ,for since it is now known that no germ1 animal or vegetable1 contains the slightest rudiment1 trace1 or indication of the future organism--now that the microscope has shown us that the first process set up in every fertilized germ1 is a process of repeated spontaneous fissions ending in the production of a mass of cells1 not one of which exhibits any special character3 there seems no alternative but to suppose that the partial organization at any moment subsisting in a growing embryo1 is transformed by the agencies acting upon it into the succeeding phase of organization1 and this into the next1 until1 through ever-increasing complexities1 the ultimate form is reached4 ,thus1 though the subtilty of the forces and the slowness of the results1 prevent us from directly showing that the stages of increasing heterogeneity through which every embryo passes1 severally arise from the production of many changes by one force1 yet1 indirectly1 we have strong evidence that they do so4 ,we have marked how multitudinous are the effects which one cause may generate in an adult organism2 that a like multiplication of effects must happen in the unfolding organism1 we have observed in sundry illustrative cases2 further1 it has been pointed out that the ability which like germs have to originate unlike forms1 implies that the successive transformations result from the new changes superinduced on previous changes2 and we have seen that structureless as every germ originally is1 the development of an organism out of it is otherwise incomprehensible4 ,not indeed that we can thus really explain the production of any plant or animal4 ,we are still in the dark respecting those mysterious properties in virtue of which the germ1 when subject to fit influences1 undergoes the special changes that begin the series of transformations4 ,all we aim to show1 is1 that given a germ possessing these mysterious properties1 the evolution of an organism from it1 probably depends upon that multiplication of effects which we have seen to be the cause of progress in general1 so far as we have yet traced it4 ,when1 leaving the development of single plants and animals1 we pass to that of the ,earth's flora and fauna1 the course of our argument again becomes clear and simple4 ,though1 as was admitted in the first part of this article1 the fragmentary facts ,palaeontology has accumulated1 do not clearly warrant us in saying that1 in the lapse of geologic time1 there have been evolved more heterogeneous organisms1 and more heterogeneous assemblages of organisms1 yet we shall now see that there must ever have been a tendency towards these results4 ,we shall find that the production of many effects by one cause1 which1 as already shown1 has been all along increasing the physical heterogeneity of the ,earth1 has further involved an increasing heterogeneity in its flora and fauna1 individually and collectively4 ,an illustration will make this clear4 ,suppose that by a series of upheavals1 occurring1 as they are now known to do1 at long intervals1 the ,east ,indian ,archipelago were to be1 step by step1 raised into a continent1 and a chain of mountains formed along the axis of elevation4 ,by the first of these upheavals1 the plants and animals inhabiting ,borneo1 ,sumatra1 ,new ,guinea1 and the rest1 would be subjected to slightly modified sets of conditions4 ,the climate in general would be altered in temperature1 in humidity1 and in its periodical variations2 while the local differences would be multiplied4 ,these modifications would affect1 perhaps inappreciably1 the entire flora and fauna of the region4 ,the change of level would produce additional modifications3 varying in different species1 and also in different members of the same species1 according to their distance from the axis of elevation4 ,plants1 growing only on the sea-shore in special localities1 might become extinct4 ,others1 living only in swamps of a certain humidity1 would1 if they survived at all1 probably undergo visible changes of appearance4 ,while still greater alterations would occur in the plants gradually spreading over the lands newly raised above the sea4 ,the animals and insects living on these modified plants1 would themselves be in some degree modified by change of food1 as well as by change of climate2 and the modification would be more marked where1 from the dwindling or disappearance of one kind of plant1 an allied kind was eaten4 ,in the lapse of the many generations arising before the next upheaval1 the sensible or insensible alterations thus produced in each species would become organized--there would be a more or less complete adaptation to the new conditions4 ,the next upheaval would superinduce further organic changes1 implying wider divergences from the primary forms2 and so repeatedly4 ,but now let it be observed that the revolution thus resulting would not be a substitution of a thousand more or less modified species for the thousand original species2 but in place of the thousand original species there would arise several thousand species1 or varieties1 or changed forms4 ,each species being distributed over an area of some extent1 and tending continually to colonize the new area exposed1 its different members would be subject to different sets of changes4 ,plants and animals spreading towards the equator would not be affected in the same way with others spreading from it4 ,those spreading towards the new shores would undergo changes unlike the changes undergone by those spreading into the mountains4 ,thus1 each original race of organisms1 would become the root from which diverged several races differing more or less from it and from each other2 and while some of these might subsequently disappear1 probably more than one would survive in the next geologic period3 the very dispersion itself increasing the chances of survival4 ,not only would there be certain modifications thus caused by change of physical conditions and food1 but also in some cases other modifications caused by change of habit4 ,the fauna of each island1 peopling1 step by step1 the newly-raised tracts1 would eventually come in contact with the faunas of other islands2 and some members of these other faunas would be unlike any creatures before seen4 ,herbivores meeting with new beasts of prey1 would1 in some cases1 be led into modes of defence or escape differing from those previously used2 and simultaneously the beasts of prey would modify their modes of pursuit and attack4 ,we know that when circumstances demand it1 such changes of habit do take place in animals2 and we know that if the new habits become the dominant ones1 they must eventually in some degree alter the organization4 ,observe1 now1 however1 a further consequence4 ,there must arise not simply a tendency towards the differentiation of each race of organisms into several races2 but also a tendency to the occasional production of a somewhat higher organism4 ,taken in the mass these divergent varieties which have been caused by fresh physical conditions and habits of life1 will exhibit changes quite indefinite in kind and degree2 and changes that do not necessarily constitute an advance4 ,probably in most cases the modified type will be neither more nor less heterogeneous than the original one4 ,in some cases the habits of life adopted being simpler than before1 a less heterogeneous structure will result3 there will be a retrogradation4 ,but it must now and then occur1 that some division of a species1 falling into circumstances which give it rather more complex experiences1 and demand actions somewhat more involved1 will have certain of its organs further differentiated in proportionately small degrees1--will become slightly more heterogeneous4 ,thus1 in the natural course of things1 there will from time to time arise an increased heterogeneity both of the ,earth's flora and fauna1 and of individual races included in them4 ,omitting detailed explanations1 and allowing for the qualifications which cannot here be specified1 we think it is clear that geological mutations have all along tended to complicate the forms of life1 whether regarded separately or collectively4 ,the same causes which have led to the evolution of the ,earth's crust from the simple into the complex1 have simultaneously led to a parallel evolution of the ,life upon its surface4 ,in this case1 as in previous ones1 we see that the transformation of the homogeneous into the heterogeneous is consequent upon the universal principle1 that every active force produces more than one change4 ,the deduction here drawn from the established truths of geology and the general laws of life1 gains immensely in weight on finding it to be in harmony with an induction drawn from direct experience4 ,just that divergence of many races from one race1 which we inferred must have been continually occurring during geologic time1 we know to have occurred during the pre-historic and historic periods1 in man and domestic animals4 ,and just that multiplication of effects which we concluded must have produced the first1 we see has produced the last4 ,single causes1 as famine1 pressure of population1 war1 have periodically led to further dispersions of mankind and of dependent creatures3 each such dispersion initiating new modifications1 new varieties of type4 ,whether all the human races be or be not derived from one stock1 philology makes it clear that whole groups of races now easily distinguishable from each other1 were originally one race1--that the diffusion of one race into different climates and conditions of existence1 has produced many modified forms of it4 ,similarly with domestic animals4 ,though in some cases--as that of dogs--community of origin will perhaps be disputed1 yet in other cases--as that of the sheep or the cattle of our own country--it will not be questioned that local differences of climate1 food1 and treatment1 have transformed one original breed into numerous breeds now become so far distinct as to produce unstable hybrids4 ,moreover1 through the complications of effects flowing from single causes1 we here find1 what we before inferred1 not only an increase of general heterogeneity1 but also of special heterogeneity4 ,while of the divergent divisions and subdivisions of the human race1 many have undergone changes not constituting an advance2 while in some the type may have degraded2 in others it has become decidedly more heterogeneous4 ,the civilized ,european departs more widely from the vertebrate archetype than does the savage4 ,thus1 both the law and the cause of progress1 which1 from lack of evidence1 can be but hypothetically substantiated in respect of the earlier forms of life on our globe1 can be actually substantiated in respect of the latest forms4 ,if the advance of ,man towards greater heterogeneity is traceable to the production of many effects by one cause still more clearly may the advance of ,society towards greater heterogeneity be so explained4 ,consider the growth of an industrial organization4 ,when1 as must occasionally happen1 some individual of a tribe displays unusual aptitude for making an article of general use--a weapon1 for instance--which was before made by each man for himself1 there arises a tendency towards the differentiation of that individual into a maker of such weapon4 ,his companions--warriors and hunters all of them1--severally feel the importance of having the best weapons that can be made2 and are therefore certain to offer strong inducements to this skilled individual to make weapons for them4 ,he1 on the other hand1 having not only an unusual faculty1 but an unusual liking1 for making such weapons 7the talent and the desire for any occupation being commonly associated71 is predisposed to fulfil these commissions on the offer of an adequate reward3 especially as his love of distinction is also gratified4 ,this first specialization of function1 once commenced1 tends ever to become more decided4 ,on the side of the weapon-maker continued practice gives increased skill--increased superiority to his products3 on the side of his clients1 cessation of practice entails decreased skill4 ,thus the influences that determine this division of labour grow stronger in both ways2 and the incipient heterogeneity is1 on the average of cases1 likely to become permanent for that generation1 if no longer4 ,observe now1 however1 that this process not only differentiates the social mass into two parts1 the one monopolizing1 or almost monopolizing1 the performance of a certain function1 and the other having lost the habit1 and in some measure the power1 of performing that function2 but it tends to imitate other differentiations4 ,the advance we have described implies the introduction of barter1--the maker of weapons has1 on each occasion1 to be paid in such other articles as he agrees to take in exchange4 ,but he will not habitually take in exchange one kind of article1 but many kinds4 ,he does not want mats only1 or skins1 or fishing gear1 but he wants all these2 and on each occasion will bargain for the particular things he most needs4 ,what follows8 ,if among the members of the tribe there exist any slight differences of skill in the manufacture of these various things1 as there are almost sure to do1 the weapon-maker will take from each one the thing which that one excels in making3 he will exchange for mats with him whose mats are superior1 and will bargain for the fishing gear of whoever has the best4 ,but he who has bartered away his mats or his fishing gear1 must make other mats or fishing gear for himself2 and in so doing must1 in some degree1 further develop his aptitude4 ,thus it results that the small specialities of faculty possessed by various members of the tribe1 will tend to grow more decided4 ,if such transactions are from time repeated1 these specializations may become appreciable4 ,and whether or not there ensue distinct differentiations of other individuals into makers of particular articles1 it is clear that incipient differentiations take place throughout the tribe3 the one original cause produces not only the first dual effect1 but a number of secondary dual effects1 like in kind1 but minor in degree4 ,this process1 of which traces may be seen among groups of schoolboys1 cannot well produce any lasting effects in an unsettled tribe2 but where there grows up a fixed and multiplying community1 these differentiations become permanent1 and increase with each generation4 ,a larger population1 involving a greater demand for every commodity1 intensifies the functional activity of each specialized person or class2 and this renders the specialization more definite where it already exists1 and establishes it where it is nascent4 ,by increasing the pressure on the means of subsistence1 a larger population again augments these results2 seeing that each person is forced more and more to confine himself to that which he can do best1 and by which he can gain most4 ,this industrial progress1 by aiding future production1 opens the way for a further growth of population1 which reacts as before3 in all which the multiplication of effects is manifest4 ,presently1 under these same stimuli1 new occupations arise4 ,competing workers1 ever aiming to produce improved articles1 occasionally discover better processes or raw materials4 ,in weapons and cutting tools1 the substitution of bronze for stone entails upon him who first makes it a great increase of demand--so great an increase that he presently finds all his time occupied in making the bronze for the articles he sells1 and is obliged to depute the fashioning of these to others3 and1 eventually1 the making of bronze1 thus gradually differentiated from a pre-existing occupation1 becomes an occupation by itself4 ,but now mark the ramified changes which follow this change4 ,bronze soon replaces stone1 not only in the articles it was first used for1 but in many others--in arms1 tools1 and utensils of various kinds2 and so affects the manufacture of these things4 ,further1 it affects the processes which these utensils subserve1 and the resulting products--modifies buildings1 carvings1 dress1 personal decorations4 ,yet again1 it sets going sundry manufactures which were before impossible1 from lack of a material fit for the requisite tools4 ,and all these changes react on the people--increase their manipulative skill1 their intelligence1 their comfort1--refine their habits and tastes4 ,thus the evolution of a homogeneous society into a heterogeneous one1 is clearly consequent on the general principle1 that many effects are produced by one cause4 ,our limits will not allow us to follow out this process in its higher complications3 else might we show how the localization of special industries in special parts of a kingdom1 as well as the minute subdivision of labour in the making of each commodity1 are similarly determined4 ,or1 turning to a somewhat different order of illustrations1 we might dwell on the multitudinous changes--material1 intellectual1 moral1--caused by printing2 or the further extensive series of changes wrought by gunpowder4 ,but leaving the intermediate phases of social development1 let us take a few illustrations from its most recent and its passing phases4 ,to trace the effects of steam-power1 in its manifold applications to mining1 navigation1 and manufactures of all kinds1 would carry us into unmanageable detail4 ,let us confine ourselves to the latest embodiment of steam-power--the locomotive engine4 ,this1 as the proximate cause of our railway system1 has changed the face of the country1 the course of trade1 and the habits of the people4 ,consider1 first1 the complicated sets of changes that precede the making of every railway--the provisional arrangements1 the meetings1 the registration1 the trial section1 the parliamentary survey1 the lithographed plans1 the books of reference1 the local deposits and notices1 the application to ,parliament1 the passing ,standing-,orders ,committee1 the first1 second1 and third readings3 each of which brief heads indicates a multiplicity of transactions1 and the development of sundry occupations--as those of engineers1 surveyors1 lithographers1 parliamentary agents1 share-brokers2 and the creation of sundry others--as those of traffic-takers1 reference-takers4 ,consider1 next1 the yet more marked changes implied in railway construction--the cuttings1 embankings1 tunnellings1 diversions of roads2 the building of bridges and stations2 the laying down of ballast1 sleepers1 and rails2 the making of engines1 tenders1 carriages and waggons3 which processes1 acting upon numerous trades1 increase the importation of timber1 the quarrying of stone1 the manufacture of iron1 the mining of coal1 the burning of bricks3 institute a variety of special manufactures weekly advertised in the ,railway ,times2 and1 finally1 open the way to sundry new occupations1 as those of drivers1 stokers1 cleaners1 plate-layers1 c41 c4 ,and then consider the changes1 more numerous and involved still1 which railways in action produce on the community at large4 ,the organization of every business is more or less modified3 ease of communication makes it better to do directly what was before done by proxy2 agencies are established where previously they would not have paid2 goods are obtained from remote wholesale houses instead of near retail ones2 and commodities are used which distance once rendered inaccessible4 ,again1 the rapidity and small cost of carriage tend to specialize more than ever the industries of different districts--to confine each manufacture to the parts in which1 from local advantages1 it can be best carried on4 ,further1 the diminished cost of carriage1 facilitating distribution1 equalizes prices1 and also1 on the average1 lowers prices3 thus bringing divers articles within the means of those before unable to buy them1 and so increasing their comforts and improving their habits4 ,at the same time the practice of travelling is immensely extended4 ,classes who never before thought of it1 take annual trips to the sea2 visit their distant relations2 make tours2 and so we are benefited in body1 feelings1 and intellect4 ,moreover1 the more prompt transmission of letters and of news produces further changes--makes the pulse of the nation faster4 ,yet more1 there arises a wide dissemination of cheap literature through railway book-stalls1 and of advertisements in railway carriages3 both of them aiding ulterior progress4 ,and all the innumerable changes here briefly indicated are consequent on the invention of the locomotive engine4 ,the social organism has been rendered more heterogeneous in virtue of the many new occupations introduced1 and the many old ones further specialized2 prices in every place have been altered2 each trader has1 more or less1 modified his way of doing business2 and almost every person has been affected in his actions1 thoughts1 emotions4 ,illustrations to the same effect might be indefinitely accumulated4 ,that every influence brought to bear upon society works multiplied effects2 and that increase of heterogeneity is due to this multiplication of effects2 may be seen in the history of every trade1 every custom1 every belief4 ,but it is needless to give additional evidence of this4 ,the only further fact demanding notice1 is1 that we here see still more clearly than ever1 the truth before pointed out1 that in proportion as the area on which any force expends itself becomes heterogeneous1 the results are in a yet higher degree multiplied in number and kind4 ,while among the primitive tribes to whom it was first known1 caoutchouc caused but a few changes1 among ourselves the changes have been so many and varied that the history of them occupies a volume4,d ,upon the small1 homogeneous community inhabiting one of the ,hebrides1 the electric telegraph would produce1 were it used1 scarcely any results2 but in ,england the results it produces are multitudinous4 ,the comparatively simple organization under which our ancestors lived five centuries ago1 could have undergone but few modifications from an event like the recent one at ,canton2 but now the legislative decision respecting it sets up many hundreds of complex modifications1 each of which will be the parent of numerous future ones4 ,d ,personal ,narrative of the ,origin of the ,caoutchouc1 or ,india-,rubber ,manufacture in ,england4 ,by ,thomas ,hancock4 ,space permitting1 we could willingly have pursued the argument in relation to all the subtler results of civilization4 ,as before1 we showed that the law of ,progress to which the organic and inorganic worlds conform1 is also conformed to by ,language1 ,sculpture1 ,music1 c42 so might we here show that the cause which we have hitherto found to determine ,progress holds in these cases also4 ,we might demonstrate in detail how1 in ,science1 an advance of one division presently advances other divisions--how ,astronomy has been immensely forwarded by discoveries in ,optics1 while other optical discoveries have initiated ,microscopic ,anatomy1 and greatly aided the growth of ,physiology--how ,chemistry has indirectly increased our knowledge of ,electricity1 ,magnetism1 ,biology1 ,geology--how ,electricity has reacted on ,chemistry and ,magnetism1 developed our views of ,light and ,heat1 and disclosed sundry laws of nervous action4 ,in ,literature the same truth might be exhibited in the manifold effects of the primitive mystery-play1 not only as originating the modern drama1 but as affecting through it other kinds of poetry and fiction2 or in the still multiplying forms of periodical literature that have descended from the first newspaper1 and which have severally acted and reacted on other forms of literature and on each other4 ,the influence which a new school of ,painting--as that of the pre-,raffaelites--exercises upon other schools2 the hints which all kinds of pictorial art are deriving from ,photography2 the complex results of new critical doctrines1 as those of ,mr4 ,ruskin1 might severally be dwelt upon as displaying the like multiplication of effects4 ,but it would needlessly tax the reader's patience to pursue1 in their many ramifications1 these various changes3 here become so involved and subtle as to be followed with some difficulty4 ,without further evidence1 we venture to think our case is made out4 ,the imperfections of statement which brevity has necessitated1 do not1 we believe1 militate against the propositions laid down4 ,the qualifications here and there demanded would not1 if made1 affect the inferences4 ,though in one instance1 where sufficient evidence is not attainable1 we have been unable to show that the law of ,progress applies2 yet there is high probability that the same generalization holds which holds throughout the rest of creation4 ,though1 in tracing the genesis of ,progress1 we have frequently spoken of complex causes as if they were simple ones2 it still remains true that such causes are far less complex than their results4 ,detailed criticisms cannot affect our main position4 ,endless facts go to show that every kind of progress is from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous2 and that it is so because each change is followed by many changes4 ,and it is significant that where the facts are most accessible and abundant1 there are these truths most manifest4 ,however1 to avoid committing ourselves to more than is yet proved1 we must be content with saying that such are the law and the cause of all progress that is known to us4 ,should the ,nebular ,hypothesis ever be established1 then it will become manifest that the ,universe at large1 like every organism1 was once homogeneous2 that as a whole1 and in every detail1 it has unceasingly advanced towards greater heterogeneity2 and that its heterogeneity is still increasing4 ,it will be seen that as in each event of to-day1 so from the beginning1 the decomposition of every expended force into several forces has been perpetually producing a higher complication2 that the increase of heterogeneity so brought about is still going on1 and must continue to go on2 and that thus ,progress is not an accident1 not a thing within human control1 but a beneficent necessity4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a few words must be added on the ontological bearings of our argument4 ,probably not a few will conclude that here is an attempted solution of the great questions with which ,philosophy in all ages has perplexed itself4 ,let none thus deceive themselves4 ,only such as know not the scope and the limits of ,science can fall into so grave an error4 ,the foregoing generalizations apply1 not to the genesis of things in themselves1 but to their genesis as manifested to the human consciousness4 ,after all that has been said1 the ultimate mystery remains just as it was4 ,the explanation of that which is explicable1 does but bring out into greater clearness the inexplicableness of that which remains behind4 ,however we may succeed in reducing the equation to its lowest terms1 we are not thereby enabled to determine the unknown quantity3 on the contrary1 it only becomes more manifest that the unknown quantity can never be found4 ,little as it seems to do so1 fearless inquiry tends continually to give a firmer basis to all true ,religion4 ,the timid sectarian1 alarmed at the progress of knowledge1 obliged to abandon one by one the superstitions of his ancestors1 and daily finding his cherished beliefs more and more shaken1 secretly fears that all things may some day be explained2 and has a corresponding dread of ,science3 thus evincing the profoundest of all infidelity--the fear lest the truth be bad4 ,on the other hand1 the sincere man of science1 content to follow wherever the evidence leads him1 becomes by each new inquiry more profoundly convinced that the ,universe is an insoluble problem4 ,alike in the external and the internal worlds1 he sees himself in the midst of perpetual changes1 of which he can discover neither the beginning nor the end4 ,if1 tracing back the evolution of things1 he allows himself to entertain the hypothesis that all matter once existed in a diffused form1 he finds it utterly impossible to conceive how this came to be so2 and equally1 if he speculates on the future1 he can assign no limit to the grand succession of phenomena ever unfolding themselves before him4 ,on the other hand1 if he looks inward1 he perceives that both terminations of the thread of consciousness are beyond his grasp3 he cannot remember when or how consciousness commenced1 and he cannot examine the consciousness that at any moment exists2 for only a state of consciousness that is already past can become the object of thought1 and never one which is passing4 ,when1 again1 he turns from the succession of phenomena1 external or internal1 to their essential nature1 he is equally at fault4 ,though he may succeed in resolving all properties of objects into manifestations of force1 he is not thereby enabled to realize what force is2 but finds1 on the contrary1 that the more he thinks about it1 the more he is baffled4 ,similarly1 though analysis of mental actions may finally bring him down to sensations as the original materials out of which all thought is woven1 he is none the forwarder2 for he cannot in the least comprehend sensation--cannot even conceive how sensation is possible4 ,inward and outward things he thus discovers to be alike inscrutable in their ultimate genesis and nature4 ,he sees that the ,materialist and ,spiritualist controversy is a mere war of words2 the disputants being equally absurd--each believing he understands that which it is impossible for any man to understand4 ,in all directions his investigations eventually bring him face to face with the unknowable2 and he ever more clearly perceives it to be the unknowable4 ,he learns at once the greatness and the littleness of human intellect--its power in dealing with all that comes within the range of experience2 its impotence in dealing with all that transcends experience4 ,he feels1 with a vividness which no others can1 the utter incomprehensibleness of the simplest fact1 considered in itself4 ,he alone truly sees that absolute knowledge is impossible4 ,he alone knows that under all things there lies an impenetrable mystery4 ,,ii4 ,,manners ,,and ,,fashion4 ,whoever has studied the physiognomy of political meetings1 cannot fail to have remarked a connection between democratic opinions and peculiarities of costume4 ,at a ,chartist demonstration1 a lecture on ,socialism1 or a soiree of the ,friends of ,italy1 there will be seen many among the audience1 and a still larger ratio among the speakers1 who get themselves up in a style more or less unusual4 ,one gentleman on the platform divides his hair down the centre1 instead of on one side2 another brushes it back off the forehead1 in the fashion known as bringing out the intellect2 a third has so long forsworn the scissors1 that his locks sweep his shoulders4 ,a considerable sprinkling of moustaches may be observed2 here and there an imperial2 and occasionally some courageous breaker of conventions exhibits a full-grown beard4,e ,this nonconformity in hair is countenanced by various nonconformities in dress1 shown by others of the assemblage4 ,bare necks1 shirt-collars a la ,byron1 waistcoats cut ,quaker fashion1 wonderfully shaggy great coats1 numerous oddities in form and colour1 destroy the monotony usual in crowds4 ,even those exhibiting no conspicuous peculiarity1 frequently indicate by something in the pattern or make-up of their clothes1 that they pay small regard to what their tailors tell them about the prevailing taste4 ,and when the gathering breaks up1 the varieties of head gear displayed--the number of caps1 and the abundance of felt hats--suffice to prove that were the world at large like-minded1 the black cylinders which tyrannize over us would soon be deposed4 ,e ,this was written before moustaches and beards had become common4 ,the foreign correspondence of our daily press shows that this relationship between political discontent and the disregard of customs exists on the ,continent also4 ,red republicanism has always been distinguished by its hirsuteness4 ,the authorities of ,prussia1 ,austria1 and ,italy1 alike recognize certain forms of hat as indicative of disaffection1 and fulminate against them accordingly4 ,in some places the wearer of a blouse runs a risk of being classed among the suspects2 and in others1 he who would avoid the bureau of police1 must beware how he goes out in any but the ordinary colours4 ,thus1 democracy abroad1 as at home1 tends towards personal singularity4 ,nor is this association of characteristics peculiar to modern times1 or to reformers of the ,state4 ,it has always existed2 and it has been manifested as much in religious agitations as in political ones4 ,along with dissent from the chief established opinions and arrangements1 there has ever been some dissent from the customary social practices4 ,the ,puritans1 disapproving of the long curls of the ,cavaliers1 as of their principles1 cut their own hair short1 and so gained the name of ,roundheads4 ,the marked religious nonconformity of the ,quakers was accompanied by an equally-marked nonconformity of manners--in attire1 in speech1 in salutation4 ,the early ,moravians not only believed differently1 but at the same time dressed differently1 and lived differently1 from their fellow ,christians4 ,that the association between political independence and independence of personal conduct1 is not a phenomenon of to-day only1 we may see alike in the appearance of ,franklin at the ,french court in plain clothes1 and in the white hats worn by the last generation of radicals4 ,originality of nature is sure to show itself in more ways than one4 ,the mention of ,george ,fox's suit of leather1 or ,pestalozzi's school name1 ,harry ,oddity1 will at once suggest the remembrance that men who have in great things diverged from the beaten track1 have frequently done so in small things likewise4 ,minor illustrations of this truth may be gathered in almost every circle4 ,we believe that whoever will number up his reforming and rationalist acquaintances1 will find among them more than the usual proportion of those who in dress or behaviour exhibit some degree of what the world calls eccentricity4 ,if it be a fact that men of revolutionary aims in politics or religion1 are commonly revolutionists in custom also1 it is not less a fact that those whose office it is to uphold established arrangements in ,state and ,church1 are also those who most adhere to the social forms and observances bequeathed to us by past generations4 ,practices elsewhere extinct still linger about the headquarters of government4 ,the monarch still gives assent to ,acts of ,parliament in the old ,french of the ,normans2 and ,norman ,french terms are still used in law4 ,wigs1 such as those we see depicted in old portraits1 may yet be found on the heads of judges and barristers4 ,the ,beefeaters at the ,tower wear the costume of ,henry ,v,i,ith's body-guard4 ,the ,university dress of the present year varies but little from that worn soon after the ,reformation4 ,the claret-coloured coat1 knee-breeches1 lace shirt frills1 ruffles1 white silk stockings1 and buckled shoes1 which once formed the usual attire of a gentleman1 still survive as the court-dress4 ,and it need scarcely be said that at levees and drawing-rooms1 the ceremonies are prescribed with an exactness1 and enforced with a rigour1 not elsewhere to be found4 ,can we consider these two series of coincidences as accidental and unmeaning8 ,must we not rather conclude that some necessary relationship obtains between them8 ,are there not such things as a constitutional conservatism1 and a constitutional tendency to change8 ,is there not a class which clings to the old in all things2 and another class so in love with progress as often to mistake novelty for improvement8 ,do we not find some men ready to bow to established authority of whatever kind2 while others demand of every such authority its reason1 and reject it if it fails to justify itself8 ,and must not the minds thus contrasted tend to become respectively conformist and nonconformist1 not only in politics and religion1 but in other things8 ,submission1 whether to a government1 to the dogmas of ecclesiastics1 or to that code of behaviour which society at large has set up1 is essentially of the same nature2 and the sentiment which induces resistance to the despotism of rulers1 civil or spiritual1 likewise induces resistance to the despotism of the world's opinion4 ,look at them fundamentally1 and all enactments1 alike of the legislature1 the consistory1 and the saloon--all regulations1 formal or virtual1 have a common character3 they are all limitations of men's freedom4 ,do this--,refrain from that1 are the blank formulas into which they may all be written3 and in each case the understanding is that obedience will bring approbation here and paradise hereafter2 while disobedience will entail imprisonment1 or sending to ,coventry1 or eternal torments1 as the case may be4 ,and if restraints1 however named1 and through whatever apparatus of means exercised1 are one in their action upon men1 it must happen that those who are patient under one kind of restraint1 are likely to be patient under another2 and conversely1 that those impatient of restraint in general1 will1 on the average1 tend to show their impatience in all directions4 ,that ,law1 ,religion1 and ,manners are thus related--that their respective kinds of operation come under one generalization--that they have in certain contrasted characteristics of men a common support and a common danger--will1 however1 be most clearly seen on discovering that they have a common origin4 ,little as from present appearances we should suppose it1 we shall yet find that at first1 the control of religion1 the control of laws1 and the control of manners1 were all one control4 ,however incredible it may now seem1 we believe it to be demonstrable that the rules of etiquette1 the provisions of the statute-book1 and the commands of the decalogue1 have grown from the same root4 ,if we go far enough back into the ages of primeval ,fetishism1 it becomes manifest that originally ,deity1 ,chief1 and ,master of the ceremonies were identical4 ,to make good these positions1 and to show their bearing on what is to follow1 it will be necessary here to traverse ground that is in part somewhat beaten1 and at first sight irrelevant to our topic4 ,we will pass over it as quickly as consists with the exigencies of the argument4 99 99 99 99 99 ,that the earliest social aggregations were ruled solely by the will of the strong man1 few dispute4 ,that from the strong man proceeded not only ,monarchy1 but the conception of a ,god1 few admit3 much as ,carlyle and others have said in evidence of it4 ,if1 however1 those who are unable to believe this1 will lay aside the ideas of ,god and man in which they have been educated1 and study the aboriginal ideas of them1 they will at least see some probability in the hypothesis4 ,let them remember that before experience had yet taught men to distinguish between the possible and the impossible2 and while they were ready on the slightest suggestion to ascribe unknown powers to any object and make a fetish of it2 their conceptions of humanity and its capacities were necessarily vague1 and without specific limits4 ,the man who by unusual strength1 or cunning1 achieved something that others had failed to achieve1 or something which they did not understand1 was considered by them as differing from themselves2 and1 as we see in the belief of some ,polynesians that only their chiefs have souls1 or in that of the ancient ,peruvians that their nobles were divine by birth1 the ascribed difference was apt to be not one of degree only1 but one of kind4 ,let them remember next1 how gross were the notions of ,god1 or rather of gods1 prevalent during the same era and afterwards--how concretely gods were conceived as men of specific aspects dressed in specific ways--how their names were literally the strong1 the destroyer1 the powerful one1--how1 according to the ,scandinavian mythology1 the sacred duty of blood-revenge was acted on by the gods themselves1--and how they were not only human in their vindictiveness1 their cruelty1 and their quarrels with each other1 but were supposed to have amours on earth1 and to consume the viands placed on their altars4 ,add to which1 that in various mythologies1 ,greek1 ,scandinavian1 and others1 the oldest beings are giants2 that according to a traditional genealogy the gods1 demi-gods1 and in some cases men1 are descended from these after the human fashion2 and that while in the ,east we hear of sons of ,god who saw the daughters of men that they were fair1 the ,teutonic myths tell of unions between the sons of men and the daughters of the gods4 ,let them remember1 too1 that at first the idea of death differed widely from that which we have2 that there are still tribes who1 on the decease of one of their number1 attempt to make the corpse stand1 and put food into his mouth2 that the ,peruvians had feasts at which the mummies of their dead ,incas presided1 when1 as ,prescott says1 they paid attention to these insensible remains as if they were instinct with life2 that among the ,feejees it is believed that every enemy has to be killed twice2 that the ,eastern ,pagans give extension and figure to the soul1 and attribute to it all the same substances1 both solid and liquid1 of which our bodies are composed2 and that it is the custom among most barbarous races to bury food1 weapons1 and trinkets along with the dead body1 under the manifest belief that it will presently need them4 ,lastly1 let them remember that the other world1 as originally conceived1 is simply some distant part of this world--some ,elysian fields1 some happy hunting-ground1 accessible even to the living1 and to which1 after death1 men travel in anticipation of a life analogous in general character to that which they led before4 ,then1 co-ordinating these general facts--the ascription of unknown powers to chiefs and medicine men2 the belief in deities having human forms1 passions1 and behaviour2 the imperfect comprehension of death as distinguished from life2 and the proximity of the future abode to the present1 both in position and character--let them reflect whether they do not almost unavoidably suggest the conclusion that the aboriginal god is the dead chief3 the chief not dead in our sense1 but gone away carrying with him food and weapons to some rumoured region of plenty1 some promised land1 whither he had long intended to lead his followers1 and whence he will presently return to fetch them4 ,this hypothesis once entertained1 is seen to harmonize with all primitive ideas and practices4 ,the sons of the deified chief reigning after him1 it necessarily happens that all early kings are held descendants of the gods2 and the fact that alike in ,assyria1 ,egypt1 among the ,jews1 ,phoenicians1 and ancient ,britons1 kings' names were formed out of the names of the gods1 is fully explained4 ,the genesis of ,polytheism out of ,fetishism1 by the successive migrations of the race of god-kings to the other world--a genesis illustrated in the ,greek mythology1 alike by the precise genealogy of the deities1 and by the specifically asserted apotheosis of the later ones--tends further to bear it out4 ,it explains the fact that in the old creeds1 as in the still extant creed of the ,otaheitans1 every family has its guardian spirit1 who is supposed to be one of their departed relatives2 and that they sacrifice to these as minor gods--a practice still pursued by the ,chinese and even by the ,russians4 ,it is perfectly congruous with the ,grecian myths concerning the wars of the ,gods with the ,titans and their final usurpation2 and it similarly agrees with the fact that among the ,teutonic gods proper was one ,freir who came among them by adoption1 but was born among the ,vanes1 a somewhat mysterious other dynasty of gods1 who had been conquered and superseded by the stronger and more warlike ,odin dynasty4 ,it harmonizes1 too1 with the belief that there are different gods to different territories and nations1 as there were different chiefs2 that these gods contend for supremacy as chiefs do2 and it gives meaning to the boast of neighbouring tribes--,our god is greater than your god4 ,it is confirmed by the notion universally current in early times1 that the gods come from this other abode1 in which they commonly live1 and appear among men--speak to them1 help them1 punish them4 ,and remembering this1 it becomes manifest that the prayers put up by primitive peoples to their gods for aid in battle1 are meant literally--that their gods are expected to come back from the other kingdom they are reigning over1 and once more fight the old enemies they had before warred against so implacably2 and it needs but to name the ,iliad1 to remind every one how thoroughly they believed the expectation fulfilled4 ,all government1 then1 being originally that of the strong man who has become a fetish by some manifestation of superiority1 there arises1 at his death--his supposed departure on a long projected expedition1 in which he is accompanied by his slaves and concubines sacrificed at his tomb--there arises1 then1 the incipient division of religious from political control1 of civil rule from spiritual4 ,his son becomes deputed chief during his absence2 his authority is cited as that by which his son acts2 his vengeance is invoked on all who disobey his son2 and his commands1 as previously known or as asserted by his son1 become the germ of a moral code3 a fact we shall the more clearly perceive if we remember1 that early moral codes inculcate mainly the virtues of the warrior1 and the duty of exterminating some neighbouring tribe whose existence is an offence to the deity4 ,from this point onwards1 these two kinds of authority1 at first complicated together as those of principal and agent1 become slowly more and more distinct4 ,as experience accumulates1 and ideas of causation grow more precise1 kings lose their supernatural attributes2 and1 instead of ,god-king1 become ,god-descended king1 ,god-appointed king1 the ,lord's anointed1 the viceregent of heaven1 ruler reigning by ,divine right4 ,the old theory1 however1 long clings to men in feeling1 after it has disappeared in name2 and such divinity doth hedge a king1 that even now1 many1 on first seeing one1 feel a secret surprise at finding him an ordinary sample of humanity4 ,the sacredness attaching to royalty attaches afterwards to its appended institutions--to legislatures1 to laws4 ,legal and illegal are synonymous with right and wrong2 the authority of ,parliament is held unlimited2 and a lingering faith in governmental power continually generates unfounded hopes from its enactments4 ,political scepticism1 however1 having destroyed the divine prestige of royalty1 goes on ever increasing1 and promises ultimately to reduce the ,state to a purely secular institution1 whose regulations are limited in their sphere1 and have no other authority than the general will4 ,meanwhile1 the religious control has been little by little separating itself from the civil1 both in its essence and in its forms4 ,while from the ,god-king of the savage have arisen in one direction1 secular rulers who1 age by age1 have been losing the sacred attributes men ascribed to them2 there has arisen in another direction1 the conception of a deity1 who1 at first human in all things1 has been gradually losing human materiality1 human form1 human passions1 human modes of action3 until now1 anthropomorphism has become a reproach4 ,along with this wide divergence in men's ideas of the divine and civil ruler has been taking place a corresponding divergence in the codes of conduct respectively proceeding from them4 ,while the king was a deputy-god--a governor such as the ,jews looked for in the ,messiah--a governor considered1 as the ,czar still is1 our ,god upon ,earth1--it1 of course1 followed that his commands were the supreme rules4 ,but as men ceased to believe in his supernatural origin and nature1 his commands ceased to be the highest2 and there arose a distinction between the regulations made by him1 and the regulations handed down from the old god-kings1 who were rendered ever more sacred by time and the accumulation of myths4 ,hence came respectively1 ,law and ,morality3 the one growing ever more concrete1 the other more abstract2 the authority of the one ever on the decrease1 that of the other ever on the increase2 originally the same1 but now placed daily in more marked antagonism4 ,simultaneously there has been going on a separation of the institutions administering these two codes of conduct4 ,while they were yet one1 of course ,church and ,state were one3 the king was arch-priest1 not nominally1 but really--alike the giver of new commands and the chief interpreter of the old commands2 and the deputy-priests coming out of his family were thus simply expounders of the dictates of their ancestry3 at first as recollected1 and afterwards as ascertained by professed interviews with them4 ,this union--which still existed practically during the middle ages1 when the authority of kings was mixed up with the authority of the pope1 when there were bishop-rulers having all the powers of feudal lords1 and when priests punished by penances--has been1 step by step1 becoming less close4 ,though monarchs are still defenders of the faith1 and ecclesiastical chiefs1 they are but nominally such4 ,though bishops still have civil power1 it is not what they once had4 ,protestantism shook loose the bonds of union2 ,dissent has long been busy in organizing a mechanism for the exercise of religious control1 wholly independent of law2 in ,america1 a separate organization for that purpose already exists2 and if anything is to be hoped from the ,anti-,state-,church ,association--or1 as it has been newly named1 ,the ,society for the ,liberation of ,religion from ,state ,patronage and ,control--we shall presently have a separate organization here also4 ,thus alike in authority1 in essence1 and in form1 political and spiritual rule have been ever more widely diverging from the same root4 ,that increasing division of labour which marks the progress of society in other things1 marks it also in this separation of government into civil and religious2 and if we observe how the morality which forms the substance of religions in general1 is beginning to be purified from the associated creeds1 we may anticipate that this division will be ultimately carried much further4 ,passing now to the third species of control--that of ,manners--we shall find that this1 too1 while it had a common genesis with the others1 has gradually come to have a distinct sphere and a special embodiment4 ,among early aggregations of men before yet social observances existed1 the sole forms of courtesy known were the signs of submission to the strong man2 as the sole law was his will1 and the sole religion the awe of his supposed supernaturalness4 ,originally1 ceremonies were modes of behaviour to the god-king4 ,our commonest titles have been derived from his names4 ,and all salutations were primarily worship paid to him4 ,let us trace out these truths in detail1 beginning with titles4 ,the fact already noticed1 that the names of early kings among divers races are formed by the addition of certain syllables to the names of their gods--which certain syllables1 like our ,mac and ,fitz1 probably mean son of1 or descended from--at once gives meaning to the term ,father as a divine title4 ,and when we read1 in ,selden1 that the composition out of these names of ,deities was not only proper to ,kings3 their ,grandes and more honorable ,subjects 7no doubt members of the royal race7 had sometimes the like2 we see how the term ,father1 properly used by these also1 and by their multiplying descendants1 came to be a title used by the people in general4 ,and it is significant as bearing on this point1 that among the most barbarous nation in ,europe1 where belief in the divine nature of the ruler still lingers1 ,father in this higher sense is still a regal distinction4 ,when1 again1 we remember how the divinity at first ascribed to kings was not a complimentary fiction but a supposed fact2 and how1 further1 under the ,fetish philosophy the celestial bodies are believed to be personages who once lived among men2 we see that the appellations of oriental rulers1 ,brother to the ,sun1 c41 were probably once expressive of a genuine belief2 and have simply1 like many other things1 continued in use after all meaning has gone out of them4 ,we may infer1 too1 that the titles ,god1 ,lord1 ,divinity1 were given to primitive rulers literally--that the nostra divinitas applied to the ,roman emperors1 and the various sacred designations that have been borne by monarchs1 down to the still extant phrase1 ,our ,lord the ,king1 are the dead and dying forms of what were once living facts4 ,from these names1 ,god1 ,father1 ,lord1 ,divinity1 originally belonging to the ,god-king1 and afterwards to ,god and the king1 the derivation of our commonest titles of respect is clearly traceable4 ,there is reason to think that these titles were originally proper names4 ,not only do we see among the ,egyptians1 where ,pharaoh was synonymous with king1 and among the ,romans1 where to be ,caesar1 meant to be ,emperor1 that the proper names of the greatest men were transferred to their successors1 and so became class names2 but in the ,scandinavian mythology we may trace a human title of honour up to the proper name of a divine personage4 ,in ,anglo-,saxon bealdor1 or baldor1 means ,lord2 and ,balder is the name of the favourite of ,odin's sons--the gods who with him constitute the ,teutonic ,pantheon4 ,how these names of honour became general is easily understood4 ,the relatives of the primitive kings--the grandees described by ,selden as having names formed on those of the gods1 and shown by this to be members of the divine race--necessarily shared in the epithets1 such as ,lord1 descriptive of superhuman relationships and nature4 ,their ever-multiplying offspring inheriting these1 gradually rendered them comparatively common4 ,and then they came to be applied to every man of power3 partly from the fact that1 in these early days when men conceived divinity simply as a stronger kind of humanity1 great persons could be called by divine epithets with but little exaggeration2 partly from the fact that the unusually potent were apt to be considered as unrecognized or illegitimate descendants of the strong1 the destroyer1 the powerful one2 and partly1 also1 from compliment and the desire to propitiate4 ,progressively as superstition diminished1 this last became the sole cause4 ,and if we remember that it is the nature of compliment1 as we daily hear it1 to attribute more than is due--that in the constantly widening application of esquire1 in the perpetual repetition of your honour by the fawning ,irishman1 and in the use of the name gentleman to any coalheaver or dustman by the lower classes of ,london1 we have current examples of the depreciation of titles consequent on compliment--and that in barbarous times1 when the wish to propitiate was stronger than now1 this effect must have been greater2 we shall see that there naturally arose an extensive misuse of all early distinctions4 ,hence the facts1 that the ,jews called ,herod a god2 that ,father1 in its higher sense1 was a term used among them by servants to masters2 that ,lord was applicable to any person of worth and power4 ,hence1 too1 the fact that1 in the later periods of the ,roman ,empire1 every man saluted his neighbour as ,dominus and ,rex4 ,but it is in the titles of the middle ages1 and in the growth of our modern ones out of them1 that the process is most clearly seen4 ,herr1 ,don1 ,signior1 ,seigneur1 ,sennor1 were all originally names of rulers--of feudal lords4 ,by the complimentary use of these names to all who could1 on any pretence1 be supposed to merit them1 and by successive degradations of them from each step in the descent to a still lower one1 they have come to be common forms of address4 ,at first the phrase in which a serf accosted his despotic chief1 mein herr is now familiarly applied in ,germany to ordinary people4 ,the ,spanish title ,don1 once proper to noblemen and gentlemen only1 is now accorded to all classes4 ,so1 too1 is it with ,signior in ,italy4 ,seigneur1 and ,monseigneur1 by contraction in ,sieur and ,monsieur1 have produced the term of respect claimed by every ,frenchman4 ,and whether ,sire be or be not a like contraction of ,signior1 it is clear that1 as it was borne by sundry of the ancient feudal lords of ,france1 who1 as ,selden says1 affected rather to bee stiled by the name of ,sire than ,baron1 as ,le ,sire de ,montmorencie1 ,le ,sire de ,beaulieu1 and the like1 and as it has been commonly used to monarchs1 our word ,sir1 which is derived from it1 originally meant lord or king4 ,thus1 too1 is it with feminine titles4 ,lady1 which1 according to ,horne ,tooke1 means exalted1 and was at first given only to the few1 is now given to all women of education4 ,dame1 once an honourable name to which1 in old books1 we find the epithets of highborn and stately affixed1 has now1 by repeated widenings of its application1 become relatively a term of contempt4 ,and if we trace the compound of this1 ma ,dame1 through its contractions--,madam1 ma'am1 mam1 mum1 we find that the ,yes'm of ,sally to her mistress is originally equivalent to ,yes1 my exalted1 or ,yes1 your highness4 ,throughout1 therefore1 the genesis of words of honour has been the same4 ,just as with the ,jews and with the ,romans1 has it been with the modern ,europeans4 ,tracing these everyday names to their primitive significations of lord and king1 and remembering that in aboriginal societies these were applied only to the gods and their descendants1 we arrive at the conclusion that our familiar ,sir and ,monsieur are1 in their primary and expanded meanings1 terms of adoration4 ,further to illustrate this gradual depreciation of titles1 and to confirm the inference drawn1 it may be well to notice in passing1 that the oldest of them have1 as might be expected1 been depreciated to the greatest extent4 ,thus1 ,master--a word proved by its derivation and by the similarity of the connate words in other languages 7,fr41 maitre for master2 ,russ41 master2 ,dan41 meester2 ,ger41 meister7 to have been one of the earliest in use for expressing lordship--has now become applicable to children only1 and under the modification of ,mister1 to persons next above the labourer4 ,again1 knighthood1 the oldest kind of dignity1 is also the lowest2 and ,knight ,bachelor1 which is the lowest order of knighthood1 is more ancient than any other of the orders4 ,similarly1 too1 with the peerage3 ,baron is alike the earliest and least elevated of its divisions4 ,this continual degradation of all names of honor has1 from time to time1 made it requisite to introduce new ones having that distinguishing effect which the originals had lost by generality of use2 just as our habit of misapplying superlatives has1 by gradually destroying their force1 entailed the need for fresh ones4 ,and if1 within the last thousand years1 this process has produced effects thus marked1 we may readily conceive how1 during previous thousands1 the titles of gods and demi-gods came to be used to all persons exercising power2 as they have since come to be used to persons of respectability4 ,if from names of honour we turn to phrases of honour1 we find similar facts4 ,the ,oriental styles of address1 applied to ordinary people--,i am your slave1 ,all ,i have is yours1 ,i am your sacrifice--attribute to the individual spoken to the same greatness that ,monsieur and ,my ,lord do3 they ascribe to him the character of an all-powerful ruler1 so immeasurably superior to the speaker as to be his owner4 ,so1 likewise1 with the ,polish expressions of respect--,i throw myself under your feet1 ,i kiss your feet4 ,in our now meaningless subscription to a formal letter--,your most obedient servant1--the same thing is visible4 ,nay1 even in the familiar signature ,yours faithfully1 the yours1 if interpreted as originally meant1 is the expression of a slave to his master4 ,all these dead forms were once living embodiments of fact--were primarily the genuine indications of that submission to authority which they verbally assert2 were afterwards naturally used by the weak and cowardly to propitiate those above them2 gradually grew to be considered the due of such2 and1 by a continually wider misuse1 have lost their meanings1 as ,sir and ,master have done4 ,that1 like titles1 they were in the beginning used only to the ,god-king1 is indicated by the fact that1 like titles1 they were subsequently used in common to ,god and the king4 ,religious worship has ever largely consisted of professions of obedience1 of being ,god's servants1 of belonging to him to do what he will with4 ,like titles1 therefore1 these common phrases of honour had a devotional origin4 ,perhaps1 however1 it is in the use of the word you as a singular pronoun that the popularizing of what were once supreme distinctions is most markedly illustrated4 ,this speaking of a single individual in the plural1 was originally an honour given only to the highest--was the reciprocal of the imperial we assumed by such4 ,yet now1 by being applied to successively lower and lower classes1 it has become all but universal4 ,only by one sect of ,christians1 and in a few secluded districts1 is the primitive thou still used4 ,and the you1 in becoming common to all ranks has simultaneously lost every vestige of the honour once attaching to it4 ,but the genesis of ,manners out of forms of allegiance and worship1 is above all shown in men's modes of salutation4 ,note first the significance of the word4 ,among the ,romans1 the salutatio was a daily homage paid by clients and inferiors to superiors4 ,this was alike the case with civilians and in the army4 ,the very derivation of our word1 therefore1 is suggestive of submission4 ,passing to particular forms of obeisance 7mark the word again71 let us begin with the ,eastern one of baring the feet4 ,this was1 primarily1 a mark of reverence1 alike to a god and a king4 ,the act of ,moses before the burning bush1 and the practice of ,mahometans1 who are sworn on the ,koran with their shoes off1 exemplify the one employment of it2 the custom of the ,persians1 who remove their shoes on entering the presence of their monarch1 exemplifies the other4 ,as usual1 however1 this homage1 paid next to inferior rulers1 has descended from grade to grade4 ,in ,india1 it is a common mark of respect2 a polite man in ,turkey always leaves his shoes at the door1 while the lower orders of ,turks never enter the presence of their superiors but in their stockings2 and in ,japan1 this baring of the feet is an ordinary salutation of man to man4 ,take another case4 ,selden1 describing the ceremonies of the ,romans1 says3--,for whereas it was usual either to kiss the ,images of their ,gods1 or adoring them1 to stand somewhat off before them1 solemnly moving the right hand to the lips1 and then1 casting it as if they had cast kisses1 to turne the body on the same hand 7which was the right forme of ,adoration71 it grew also by custom1 first that the emperors1 being next to ,deities1 and by some accounted as ,deities1 had the like done to them in acknowledgment of their ,greatness4 ,if1 now1 we call to mind the awkward salute of a village school-boy1 made by putting his open hand up to his face and describing a semicircle with his forearm2 and if we remember that the salute thus used as a form of reverence in country districts1 is most likely a remnant of the feudal times2 we shall see reason for thinking that our common wave of the hand to a friend across the street1 represents what was primarily a devotional act4 ,similarly have originated all forms of respect depending upon inclinations of the body4 ,entire prostration is the aboriginal sign of submission4 ,the passage of ,scripture1 ,thou hast put all under his feet1 and that other one1 so suggestive in its anthropomorphism1 ,the ,lord said unto my ,lord1 sit thou at my right hand1 until ,i make thine enemies thy footstool1 imply1 what the ,assyrian sculptures fully bear out1 that it was the practice of the ancient god-kings of the ,east to trample upon the conquered4 ,and when we bear in mind that there are existing savages who signify submission by placing the neck under the foot of the person submitted to1 it becomes obvious that all prostration1 especially when accompanied by kissing the foot1 expressed a willingness to be trodden upon--was an attempt to mitigate wrath by saying1 in signs1 ,tread on me if you will4 ,remembering1 further1 that kissing the foot1 as of the ,pope and of a saint's statue1 still continues in ,europe to be a mark of extreme reverence2 that prostration to feudal lords was once general2 and that its disappearance must have taken place1 not abruptly1 but by gradual modification into something else2 we have ground for deriving from these deepest of humiliations all inclinations of respect2 especially as the transition is traceable4 ,the reverence of a ,russian serf1 who bends his head to the ground1 and the salaam of the ,hindoo1 are abridged prostrations2 a bow is a short salaam2 a nod is a short bow4 ,should any hesitate to admit this conclusion1 then perhaps1 on being reminded that the lowest of these obeisances are common where the submission is most abject2 that among ourselves the profundity of the bow marks the amount of respect2 and lastly1 that the bow is even now used devotionally in our churches--by ,catholics to their altars1 and by ,protestants at the name of ,christ--they will see sufficient evidence for thinking that this salutation also was originally worship4 ,the same may be said1 too1 of the curtsy1 or courtesy1 as it is otherwise written4 ,its derivation from courtoisie1 courteousness1 that is1 behaviour like that at court1 at once shows that it was primarily the reverence paid to a monarch4 ,and if we call to mind that falling upon the knees1 or upon one knee1 has been a common obeisance of subjects to rulers2 that in ancient manuscripts and tapestries1 servants are depicted as assuming this attitude while offering the dishes to their masters at table2 and that this same attitude is assumed towards our own queen at every presentation2 we may infer1 what the character of the curtsy itself suggests1 that it is an abridged act of kneeling4 ,as the word has been contracted from courtoisie into curtsy2 so the motion has been contracted from a placing of the knee on the floor1 to a lowering of the knee towards the floor4 ,moreover1 when we compare the curtsy of a lady with the awkward one a peasant girl makes1 which1 if continued1 would bring her down on both knees1 we may see in this last a remnant of that greater reverence required of serfs4 ,and when1 from considering that simple kneeling of the ,west1 still represented by the curtsy1 we pass ,eastward1 and note the attitude of the ,mahomedan worshipper1 who not only kneels but bows his head to the ground1 we may infer that the curtsy also1 is an evanescent form of the aboriginal prostration4 ,in further evidence of this it may be remarked1 that there has but recently disappeared from the salutations of men1 an action having the same proximate derivation with the curtsy4 ,that backward sweep of the foot with which the conventional stage-sailor accompanies his bow--a movement which prevailed generally in past generations1 when a bow and a scrape went together1 and which1 within the memory of living persons1 was made by boys to their schoolmaster with the effect of wearing a hole in the floor--is pretty clearly a preliminary to going on one knee4 ,a motion so ungainly could never have been intentionally introduced2 even if the artificial introduction of obeisances were possible4 ,hence we must regard it as the remnant of something antecedent3 and that this something antecedent was humiliating maybe inferred from the phrase1 scraping an acquaintance2 which1 being used to denote the gaining of favour by obsequiousness1 implies that the scrape was considered a mark of servility--that is1 of serf-ility4 ,consider1 again1 the uncovering of the head4 ,almost everywhere this has been a sign of reverence1 alike in temples and before potentates2 and it yet preserves among us some of its original meaning4 ,whether it rains1 hails1 or shines1 you must keep your head bare while speaking to the monarch2 and on no plea may you remain covered in a place of worship4 ,as usual1 however1 this ceremony1 at first a submission to gods and kings1 has become in process of time a common civility4 ,once an acknowledgment of another's unlimited supremacy1 the removal of the hat is now a salute accorded to very ordinary persons1 and that uncovering1 originally reserved for entrance into the house of ,god1 good manners now dictates on entrance into the house of a common labourer4 ,standing1 too1 as a mark of respect1 has undergone like extensions in its application4 ,shown1 by the practice in our churches1 to be intermediate between the humiliation signified by kneeling and the self-respect which sitting implies1 and used at courts as a form of homage when more active demonstrations of it have been made1 this posture is now employed in daily life to show consideration2 as seen alike in the attitude of a servant before a master1 and in that rising which politeness prescribes on the entrance of a visitor4 ,many other threads of evidence might have been woven into our argument4 ,as1 for example1 the significant fact1 that if we trace back our still existing law of primogeniture--if we consider it as displayed by ,scottish clans1 in which not only ownership but government devolved from the beginning on the eldest son of the eldest--if we look further back1 and observe that the old titles of lordship1 ,signor1 ,seigneur1 ,sennor1 ,sire1 ,sieur1 all originally mean1 senior1 or elder--if we go ,eastward1 and find that ,sheick has a like derivation1 and that the ,oriental names for priests1 as ,pir1 for instance1 are literally interpreted old man--if we note in ,hebrew records how primeval is the ascribed superiority of the first-born1 how great the authority of elders1 and how sacred the memory of patriarchs--and if1 then1 we remember that among divine titles are ,ancient of ,days1 and ,father of ,gods and men2--we see how completely these facts harmonize with the hypothesis1 that the aboriginal god is the first man sufficiently great to become a tradition1 the earliest whose power and deeds made him remembered2 that hence antiquity unavoidably became associated with superiority1 and age with nearness in blood to the powerful one2 that so there naturally arose that domination of the eldest which characterizes all history1 and that theory of human degeneracy which even yet survives4 ,we might further dwell on the facts1 that ,lord signifies high-born1 or1 as the same root gives a word meaning heaven1 possibly heaven-born2 that1 before it became common1 ,sir or ,sire1 as well as ,father1 was the distinction of a priest2 that worship1 originally worth-ship--a term of respect that has been used commonly1 as well as to magistrates--is also our term for the act of attributing greatness or worth to the ,deity2 so that to ascribe worth-ship to a man is to worship him4 ,we might make much of the evidence that all early governments are more or less distinctly theocratic2 and that among ancient ,eastern nations even the commonest forms and customs appear to have been influenced by religion4 ,we might enforce our argument respecting the derivation of ceremonies1 by tracing out the aboriginal obeisance made by putting dust on the head1 which probably symbolizes putting the head in the dust3 by affiliating the practice prevailing among certain tribes1 of doing another honour by presenting him with a portion of hair torn from the head--an act which seems tantamount to saying1 ,i am your slave2 by investigating the ,oriental custom of giving to a visitor any object he speaks of admiringly1 which is pretty clearly a carrying out the compliment1 ,all ,i have is yours4 ,without enlarging1 however1 on these and many minor facts1 we venture to think that the evidence already assigned is sufficient to justify our position4 ,had the proofs been few or of one kind1 little faith could have been placed in the inference4 ,but numerous as they are1 alike in the case of titles1 in that of complimentary phrases1 and in that of salutes--similar and simultaneous1 too1 as the process of depreciation has been in all of these2 the evidences become strong by mutual confirmation4 ,and when we recollect1 also1 that not only have the results of this process been visible in various nations and in all times1 but that they are occurring among ourselves at the present moment1 and that the causes assigned for previous depreciations may be seen daily working out other ones--when we recollect this1 it becomes scarcely possible to doubt that the process has been as alleged2 and that our ordinary words1 acts1 and phrases of civility were originally acknowledgments of submission to another's omnipotence4 ,thus the general doctrine1 that all kinds of government exercised over men were at first one government--that the political1 the religious1 and the ceremonial forms of control are divergent branches of a general and once indivisible control--begins to look tenable4 ,when1 with the above facts fresh in mind1 we read primitive records1 and find that there were giants in those days--when we remember that in ,eastern traditions ,nimrod1 among others1 figures in all the characters of giant1 king1 and divinity--when we turn to the sculptures exhumed by ,mr4 ,layard1 and contemplating in them the effigies of kings driving over enemies1 trampling on prisoners1 and adored by prostrate slaves1 then observe how their actions correspond to the primitive names for the divinity1 the strong1 the destroyer1 the powerful one--when we find that the earliest temples were also the residences of the kings--and when1 lastly1 we discover that among races of men still living1 there are current superstitions analogous to those which old records and old buildings indicate2 we begin to realize the probability of the hypothesis that has been set forth4 ,going back1 in imagination1 to the remote era when men's theories of things were yet unformed2 and conceiving to ourselves the conquering chief as dimly figured in ancient myths1 and poems1 and ruins2 we may see that all rules of conduct whatever spring from his will4 ,alike legislator and judge1 all quarrels among his subjects are decided by him2 and his words become the ,law4 ,awe of him is the incipient ,religion2 and his maxims furnish its first precepts4 ,submission is made to him in the forms he prescribes2 and these give birth to ,manners4 ,from the first1 time develops political allegiance and the administration of justice2 from the second1 the worship of a being whose personality becomes ever more vague1 and the inculcation of precepts ever more abstract2 from the third1 forms of honour and the rules of etiquette4 ,in conformity with the law of evolution of all organized bodies1 that general functions are gradually separated into the special functions constituting them1 there have grown up in the social organism for the better performance of the governmental office1 an apparatus of law-courts1 judges1 and barristers2 a national church1 with its bishops and priests2 and a system of caste1 titles1 and ceremonies1 administered by society at large4 ,by the first1 overt aggressions are cognized and punished2 by the second1 the disposition to commit such aggressions is in some degree checked2 by the third1 those minor breaches of good conduct1 which the others do not notice1 are denounced and chastised4 ,law and ,religion control behaviour in its essentials3 ,manners control it in its details4 ,for regulating those daily actions which are too numerous and too unimportant to be officially directed1 there comes into play this subtler set of restraints4 ,and when we consider what these restraints are--when we analyze the words1 and phrases1 and salutes employed1 we see that in origin as in effect1 the system is a setting up of temporary governments between all men who come in contact1 for the purpose of better managing the intercourse between them4 99 99 99 99 99 ,from the proposition1 that these several kinds of government are essentially one1 both in genesis and function1 may be deduced several important corollaries1 directly bearing on our special topic4 ,let us first notice1 that there is not only a common origin and office for all forms of rule1 but a common necessity for them4 ,the aboriginal man1 coming fresh from the killing of bears and from lying in ambush for his enemy1 has1 by the necessities of his condition1 a nature requiring to be curbed in its every impulse4 ,alike in war and in the chase1 his daily discipline has been that of sacrificing other creatures to his own needs and passions4 ,his character1 bequeathed to him by ancestors who led similar lives1 is moulded by this discipline--is fitted to this existence4 ,the unlimited selfishness1 the love of inflicting pain1 the bloodthirstiness1 thus kept active1 he brings with him into the social state4 ,these dispositions put him in constant danger of conflict with his equally savage neighbour4 ,in small things as in great1 in words as in deeds1 he is aggressive2 and is hourly liable to the aggressions of others like natured4 ,only1 therefore1 by the most rigorous control exercised over all actions1 can the primitive unions of men be maintained4 ,there must be a ruler strong1 remorseless1 and of indomitable will2 there must be a creed terrible in its threats to the disobedient2 and there must be the most servile submission of all inferiors to superiors4 ,the law must be cruel2 the religion must be stern2 the ceremonies must be strict4 ,the co-ordinate necessity for these several kinds of restraint might be largely illustrated from history were there space4 ,suffice it to point out1 that where the civil power has been weak1 the multiplication of thieves1 assassins1 and banditti1 has indicated the approach of social dissolution2 that when1 from the corruptness of its ministry1 religion has lost its influence1 as it did just before the ,flagellants appeared1 the ,state has been endangered2 and that the disregard of established social observances has ever been an accompaniment of political revolutions4 ,whoever doubts the necessity for a government of manners proportionate in strength to the co-existing political and religious governments1 will be convinced on calling to mind that until recently even elaborate codes of behaviour failed to keep gentlemen from quarrelling in the streets and fighting duels in taverns2 and on remembering further1 that even now people exhibit at the doors of a theatre1 where there is no ceremonial law to rule them1 a degree of aggressiveness which would produce confusion if carried into social intercourse4 ,as might be expected1 we find that1 having a common origin and like general functions1 these several controlling agencies act during each era with similar degrees of vigour4 ,under the ,chinese despotism1 stringent and multitudinous in its edicts and harsh in the enforcement of them1 and associated with which there is an equally stern domestic despotism exercised by the eldest surviving male of the family1 there exists a system of observances alike complicated and rigid4 ,there is a tribunal of ceremonies4 ,previous to presentation at court1 ambassadors pass many days in practising the required forms4 ,social intercourse is cumbered by endless compliments and obeisances4 ,class distinctions are strongly marked by badges4 ,the chief regret on losing an only son is1 that there will be no one to perform the sepulchral rites4 ,and if there wants a definite measure of the respect paid to social ordinances1 we have it in the torture to which ladies submit in having their feet crushed4 ,in ,india1 and indeed throughout the ,east1 there exists a like connection between the pitiless tyranny of rulers1 the dread terrors of immemorial creeds1 and the rigid restraint of unchangeable customs3 the caste regulations continue still unalterable2 the fashions of clothes and furniture have remained the same for ages2 suttees are so ancient as to be mentioned by ,strabo and ,diodorus ,siculus2 justice is still administered at the palace-gates as of old2 in short1 every usage is a precept of religion and a maxim of jurisprudence4 ,a similar relationship of phenomena was exhibited in ,europe during the ,middle ,ages4 ,while all its governments were autocratic1 while feudalism held sway1 while the ,church was unshorn of its power1 while the criminal code was full of horrors and the hell of the popular creed full of terrors1 the rules of behaviour were both more numerous and more carefully conformed to than now4 ,differences of dress marked divisions of rank4 ,men were limited by law to a certain width of shoe-toes2 and no one below a specified degree might wear a cloak less than so many inches long4 ,the symbols on banners and shields were carefully attended to4 ,heraldry was an important branch of knowledge4 ,precedence was strictly insisted on4 ,and those various salutes of which we now use the abridgments were gone through in full4 ,even during our own last century1 with its corrupt ,house of ,commons and little-curbed monarchs1 we may mark a correspondence of social formalities4 ,gentlemen were still distinguished from lower classes by dress2 people sacrificed themselves to inconvenient requirements--as powder1 hooped petticoats1 and towering head-dresses2 and children addressed their parents as ,sir and ,madam4 ,a further corollary naturally following this last1 and almost1 indeed1 forming part of it1 is1 that these several kinds of government decrease in stringency at the same rate4 ,simultaneously with the decline in the influence of priesthoods1 and in the fear of eternal torments--simultaneously with the mitigation of political tyranny1 the growth of popular power1 and the amelioration of criminal codes2 has taken place that diminution of formalities and that fading of distinctive marks1 now so observable4 ,looking at home1 we may note that there is less attention to precedence than there used to be4 ,no one in our day ends an interview with the phrase your humble servant4 ,the employment of the word ,sir1 once general in social intercourse1 is at present considered bad breeding2 and on the occasions calling for them1 it is held vulgar to use the words ,your ,majesty1 or ,your ,royal ,highness1 more than once in a conversation4 ,people no longer formally drink each other's healths2 and even the taking wine with each other at dinner has ceased to be fashionable4 ,the taking-off of hats between gentlemen has been gradually falling into disuse4 ,even when the hat is removed1 it is no longer swept out at arm's length1 but is simply lifted4 ,hence the remark made upon us by foreigners1 that we take off our hats less than any other nation in ,europe--a remark that should be coupled with the other1 that we are the freest nation in ,europe4 ,as already implied1 this association of facts is not accidental4 ,these titles of address and modes of salutation1 bearing about them1 as they all do1 something of that servility which marks their origin1 become distasteful in proportion as men become more independent themselves1 and sympathise more with the independence of others4 ,the feeling which makes the modern gentleman tell the labourer standing bareheaded before him to put on his hat--the feeling which gives us a dislike to those who cringe and fawn--the feeling which makes us alike assert our own dignity and respect that of others--the feeling which thus leads us more and more to discountenance all forms and names which confess inferiority and submission2 is the same feeling which resists despotic power and inaugurates popular government1 denies the authority of the ,church and establishes the right of private judgment4 ,a fourth fact1 akin to the foregoing1 is1 that these several kinds of government not only decline together1 but corrupt together4 ,by the same process that a ,court of ,chancery becomes a place not for the administration of justice1 but for the withholding of it--by the same process that a national church1 from being an agency for moral control1 comes to be merely a thing of formulas and tithes and bishoprics--by this same process do titles and ceremonies that once had a meaning and a power become empty forms4 ,coats of arms which served to distinguish men in battle1 now figure on the carriage panels of retired grocers4 ,once a badge of high military rank1 the shoulder-knot has become1 on the modern footman1 a mark of servitude4 ,the name ,banneret1 which once marked a partially-created ,baron--a ,baron who had passed his military little go--is now1 under the modification of ,baronet1 applicable to any one favoured by wealth or interest or party feeling4 ,knighthood has so far ceased to be an honour1 that men now honour themselves by declining it4 ,the military dignity ,escuyer has1 in the modern ,esquire1 become a wholly unmilitary affix4 ,not only do titles1 and phrases1 and salutes cease to fulfil their original functions1 but the whole apparatus of social forms tends to become useless for its original purpose--the facilitation of social intercourse4 ,those most learned in ceremonies1 and most precise in the observance of them1 are not always the best behaved2 as those deepest read in creeds and scriptures are not therefore the most religious2 nor those who have the clearest notions of legality and illegality1 the most honest4 ,just as lawyers are of all men the least noted for probity2 as cathedral towns have a lower moral character than most others2 so1 if ,swift is to be believed1 courtiers are the most insignificant race of people that the island can afford1 and with the smallest tincture of good manners4 ,but perhaps it is in that class of social observances comprehended under the term ,fashion1 which we must here discuss parenthetically1 that this process of corruption is seen with the greatest distinctness4 ,as contrasted with ,manners1 which dictate our minor acts in relation to other persons1 ,fashion dictates our minor acts in relation to ourselves4 ,while the one prescribes that part of our deportment which directly affects our neighbours2 the other prescribes that part of our deportment which is primarily personal1 and in which our neighbours are concerned only as spectators4 ,thus distinguished as they are1 however1 the two have a common source4 ,for while1 as we have shown1 ,manners originate by imitation of the behaviour pursued towards the great2 ,fashion originates by imitation of the behaviour of the great4 ,while the one has its derivation in the titles1 phrases1 and salutes used to those in power2 the other is derived from the habits and appearances exhibited by those in power4 ,the ,carib mother who squeezes her child's head into a shape like that of the chief2 the young savage who makes marks on himself similar to the scars carried by the warriors of his tribe 7which is probably the origin of tattooing72 the ,highlander who adopts the plaid worn by the head of his clan2 the courtiers who affect greyness1 or limp1 or cover their necks1 in imitation of their king2 and the people who ape the courtiers2 are alike acting under a kind of government connate with that of ,manners1 and1 like it too1 primarily beneficial4 ,for notwithstanding the numberless absurdities into which this copyism has led the people1 from nose-rings to ear-rings1 from painted faces to beauty-spots1 from shaven heads to powdered wigs1 from filed teeth and stained nails to bell-girdles1 peaked shoes1 and breeches stuffed with bran1--it must yet be concluded1 that as the strong men1 the successful men1 the men of will1 intelligence1 and originality1 who have got to the top1 are1 on the average1 more likely to show judgment in their habits and tastes than the mass1 the imitation of such is advantageous4 ,by and by1 however1 ,fashion1 corrupting like these other forms of rule1 almost wholly ceases to be an imitation of the best1 and becomes an imitation of quite other than the best4 ,as those who take orders are not those having a special fitness for the priestly office1 but those who see their way to a living by it2 as legislators and public functionaries do not become such by virtue of their political insight and power to rule1 but by virtue of birth1 acreage1 and class influence2 so1 the self-elected clique who set the fashion1 gain this prerogative1 not by their force of nature1 their intellect1 their higher worth or better taste1 but gain it solely by their unchecked assumption4 ,among the initiated are to be found neither the noblest in rank1 the chief in power1 the best cultured1 the most refined1 nor those of greatest genius1 wit1 or beauty2 and their reunions1 so far from being superior to others1 are noted for their inanity4 ,yet1 by the example of these sham great1 and not by that of the truly great1 does society at large now regulate its goings and comings1 its hours1 its dress1 its small usages4 ,as a natural consequence1 these have generally little or none of that suitableness which the theory of fashion implies they should have4 ,but instead of a continual progress towards greater elegance and convenience1 which might be expected to occur did people copy the ways of the really best1 or follow their own ideas of propriety1 we have a reign of mere whim1 of unreason1 of change for the sake of change1 of wanton oscillations from either extreme to the other--a reign of usages without meaning1 times without fitness1 dress without taste4 ,and thus life a la mode1 instead of being life conducted in the most rational manner1 is life regulated by spendthrifts and idlers1 milliners and tailors1 dandies and silly women4 ,to these several corollaries--that the various orders of control exercised over men have a common origin and a common function1 are called out by co-ordinate necessities and co-exist in like stringency1 decline together and corrupt together--it now only remains to add that they become needless together4 ,consequent as all kinds of government are upon the unfitness of the aboriginal man for social life2 and diminishing in coerciveness as they all do in proportion as this unfitness diminishes2 they must one and all come to an end as humanity acquires complete adaptation to its new conditions4 ,that discipline of circumstances which has already wrought out such great changes in us1 must go on eventually to work out yet greater ones4 ,that daily curbing of the lower nature and culture of the higher1 which out of cannibals and devil worshippers has evolved philanthropists1 lovers of peace1 and haters of superstition1 cannot fail to evolve out of these1 men as much superior to them as they are to their progenitors4 ,the causes that have produced past modifications are still in action2 must continue in action as long as there exists any incongruity between man's desires and the requirements of the social state2 and must eventually make him organically fit for the social state4 ,as it is now needless to forbid man-eating and ,fetishism1 so will it ultimately become needless to forbid murder1 theft1 and the minor offences of our criminal code4 ,when human nature has grown into conformity with the moral law1 there will need no judges and statute-books2 when it spontaneously takes the right course in all things1 as in some things it does already1 prospects of future reward or punishment will not be wanted as incentives2 and when fit behaviour has become instinctive1 there will need no code of ceremonies to say how behaviour shall be regulated4 ,thus1 then1 may be recognised the meaning1 the naturalness1 the necessity of those various eccentricities of reformers which we set out by describing4 ,they are not accidental2 they are not mere personal caprices1 as people are apt to suppose4 ,on the contrary1 they are inevitable results of the law of relationship above illustrated4 ,that community of genesis1 function1 and decay which all forms of restraint exhibit1 is simply the obverse of the fact at first pointed out1 that they have in two sentiments of human nature a common preserver and a common destroyer4 ,awe of power originates and cherishes them all3 love of freedom undermines and periodically weakens them all4 ,the one defends despotism and asserts the supremacy of laws1 adheres to old creeds and supports ecclesiastical authority1 pays respect to titles and conserves forms2 the other1 putting rectitude above legality1 achieves periodical instalments of political liberty1 inaugurates ,protestantism and works out its consequences1 ignores the senseless dictates of ,fashion and emancipates men from dead customs4 ,to the true reformer no institution is sacred1 no belief above criticism4 ,everything shall conform itself to equity and reason2 nothing shall be saved by its prestige4 ,conceding to each man liberty to pursue his own ends and satisfy his own tastes1 he demands for himself like liberty2 and consents to no restrictions on this1 save those which other men's equal claims involve4 ,no matter whether it be an ordinance of one man1 or an ordinance of all men1 if it trenches on his legitimate sphere of action1 he denies its validity4 ,the tyranny that would impose on him a particular style of dress and a set mode of behaviour1 he resists equally with the tyranny that would limit his buyings and sellings1 or dictate his creed4 ,whether the regulation be formally made by a legislature1 or informally made by society at large--whether the penalty for disobedience be imprisonment1 or frowns and social ostracism1 he sees to be a question of no moment4 ,he will utter his belief notwithstanding the threatened punishment2 he will break conventions spite of the petty persecutions that will be visited on him4 ,show him that his actions are inimical to his fellow-men1 and he will pause4 ,prove that he is disregarding their legitimate claims--that he is doing what in the nature of things must produce unhappiness2 and he will alter his course4 ,but until you do this--until you demonstrate that his proceedings are essentially inconvenient or inelegant1 essentially irrational1 unjust1 or ungenerous1 he will persevere4 ,some1 indeed1 argue that his conduct is unjust and ungenerous4 ,they say that he has no right to annoy other people by his whims2 that the gentleman to whom his letter comes with no ,esq4 appended to the address1 and the lady whose evening party he enters with gloveless hands1 are vexed at what they consider his want of respect1 or want of breeding2 that thus his eccentricities cannot be indulged save at the expense of his neighbours' feelings2 and that hence his nonconformity is in plain terms selfishness4 ,he answers that this position1 if logically developed1 would deprive men of all liberty whatever4 ,each must conform all his acts to the public taste1 and not his own4 ,the public taste on every point having been once ascertained1 men's habits must thenceforth remain for ever fixed2 seeing that no man can adopt other habits without sinning against the public taste1 and giving people disagreeable feelings4 ,consequently1 be it an era of pig-tails or high-heeled shoes1 of starched ruffs or trunk-hose1 all must continue to wear pig-tails1 high-heeled shoes1 starched ruffs1 or trunk-hose to the crack of doom4 ,if it be still urged that he is not justified in breaking through others' forms that he may establish his own1 and so sacrificing the wishes of many to the wishes of one1 he replies that all religious and political changes might be negatived on like grounds4 ,he asks whether ,luther's sayings and doings were not extremely offensive to the mass of his contemporaries2 whether the resistance of ,hampden was not disgusting to the time-servers around him2 whether every reformer has not shocked men's prejudices1 and given immense displeasure by the opinions he uttered4 ,the affirmative answer he follows up by demanding what right the reformer has1 then1 to utter these opinions2 whether he is not sacrificing the feelings of many to the feelings of one3 and so proves that1 to be consistent1 his antagonists must condemn not only all nonconformity in actions1 but all nonconformity in thoughts4 ,his antagonists rejoin that his position1 too1 may be pushed to an absurdity4 ,they argue that if a man may offend by the disregard of some forms1 he may as legitimately do so by the disregard of all2 and they inquire--,why should he not go out to dinner in a dirty shirt1 and with an unshorn chin8 ,why should he not spit on the drawing-room carpet1 and stretch his heels up to the mantel-shelf8 ,the convention-breaker answers1 that to ask this1 implies a confounding of two widely-different classes of actions--the actions that are essentially displeasurable to those around1 with the actions that are but incidentally displeasurable to them4 ,he whose skin is so unclean as to offend the nostrils of his neighbours1 or he who talks so loudly as to disturb a whole room1 may be justly complained of1 and rightly excluded by society from its assemblies4 ,but he who presents himself in a surtout in place of a dress-coat1 or in brown trousers instead of black1 gives offence not to men's senses1 or their innate tastes1 but merely to their prejudices1 their bigotry of convention4 ,it cannot be said that his costume is less elegant or less intrinsically appropriate than the one prescribed2 seeing that a few hours earlier in the day it is admired4 ,it is the implied rebellion1 therefore1 that annoys4 ,how little the cause of quarrel has to do with the dress itself1 is seen in the fact that a century ago black clothes would have been thought preposterous for hours of recreation1 and that a few years hence some now forbidden style may be nearer the requirements of ,fashion than the present one4 ,thus the reformer explains that it is not against the natural restraints1 but against the artificial ones1 that he protests2 and that manifestly the fire of sneers and angry glances which he has to bear1 is poured upon him because he will not bow down to the idol which society has set up4 ,should he be asked how we are to distinguish between conduct that is absolutely disagreeable to others1 and conduct that is relatively so1 he answers1 that they will distinguish themselves1 if men will let them4 ,actions intrinsically repugnant will ever be frowned upon1 and must ever remain as exceptional as now4 ,actions not intrinsically repugnant will establish themselves as proper4 ,no relaxation of customs will introduce the practice of going to a party in muddy boots1 and with unwashed hands2 for the dislike of dirt would continue were ,fashion abolished to-morrow4 ,that love of approbation which now makes people so solicitous to be en regle would still exist--would still make them careful of their personal appearance--would still induce them to seek admiration by making themselves ornamental--would still cause them to respect the natural laws of good behaviour1 as they now do the artificial ones4 ,the change would simply be from a repulsive monotony to a picturesque variety4 ,and if there be any regulations respecting which it is uncertain whether they are based on reality or on convention1 experiment will soon decide1 if due scope be allowed4 ,when at length the controversy comes round1 as controversies often do1 to the point whence it started1 and the party of order repeat their charge against the rebel1 that he is sacrificing the feelings of others to the gratification of his own wilfulness1 he replies once for all that they cheat themselves by mis-statements4 ,he accuses them of being so despotic1 that1 not content with being masters over their own ways and habits1 they would be masters over his also2 and grumble because he will not let them4 ,he merely asks the same freedom which they exercise2 they1 however1 propose to regulate his course as well as their own--to cut and clip his mode of life into agreement with their approved pattern2 and then charge him with wilfulness and selfishness1 because he does not quietly submit6 ,he warns them that he shall resist1 nevertheless2 and that he shall do so1 not only for the assertion of his own independence1 but for their good4 ,he tells them that they are slaves1 and know it not2 that they are shackled1 and kiss their chains2 that they have lived all their days in prison1 and complain at the walls being broken down4 ,he says he must persevere1 however1 with a view to his own release2 and in spite of their present expostulations1 he prophesies that when they have recovered from the fright which the prospect of freedom produces1 they will thank him for aiding in their emancipation4 ,unamiable as seems this find-fault mood1 offensive as is this defiant attitude1 we must beware of overlooking the truths enunciated1 in dislike of the advocacy4 ,it is an unfortunate hindrance to all innovation1 that in virtue of their very function1 the innovators stand in a position of antagonism2 and the disagreeable manners1 and sayings1 and doings1 which this antagonism generates1 are commonly associated with the doctrines promulgated4 ,quite forgetting that whether the thing attacked be good or bad1 the combative spirit is necessarily repulsive2 and quite forgetting that the toleration of abuses seems amiable merely from its passivity2 the mass of men contract a bias against advanced views1 and in favour of stationary ones1 from intercourse with their respective adherents4 ,conservatism1 as ,emerson says1 is debonnair and social2 reform is individual and imperious4 ,and this remains true1 however vicious the system conserved1 however righteous the reform to be effected4 ,nay1 the indignation of the purists is usually extreme in proportion as the evils to be got rid of are great4 ,the more urgent the required change1 the more intemperate is the vehemence of its promoters4 ,let no one1 then1 confound with the principles of this social nonconformity the acerbity and the disagreeable self-assertion of those who first display it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the most plausible objection raised against resistance to conventions1 is grounded on its impolicy1 considered even from the progressist's point of view4 ,it is urged by many of the more liberal and intelligent--usually those who have themselves shown some independence of behaviour in earlier days--that to rebel in these small matters is to destroy your own power of helping on reform in greater matters4 ,if you show yourself eccentric in manners or dress1 the world1 they say1 will not listen to you4 ,you will be considered as crotchety1 and impracticable4 ,the opinions you express on important subjects1 which might have been treated with respect had you conformed on minor points1 will now inevitably be put down among your singularities2 and thus1 by dissenting in trifles1 you disable yourself from spreading dissent in essentials4 ,only noting1 as we pass1 that this is one of those anticipations which bring about their own fulfilment--that it is because most who disapprove these conventions do not show their disapproval1 that the few who do show it look eccentric--and that did all act out their convictions1 no such inference as the above would be drawn1 and no such evil would result2---noting this as we pass1 we go on to reply that these social restraints1 and forms1 and requirements1 are not small evils1 but among the greatest4 ,estimate their sum total1 and we doubt whether they would not exceed most others4 ,could we add up the trouble1 the cost1 the jealousies1 vexations1 misunderstandings1 the loss of time and the loss of pleasure1 which these conventions entail--could we clearly realize the extent to which we are all daily hampered by them1 daily enslaved by them2 we should perhaps come to the conclusion that the tyranny of ,mrs4 ,grundy is worse than any other tyranny we suffer under4 ,let us look at a few of its hurtful results2 beginning with those of minor importance4 ,it produces extravagance4 ,the desire to be comme il faut1 which underlies all conformities1 whether of manners1 dress1 or styles of entertainment1 is the desire which makes many a spendthrift and many a bankrupt4 ,to keep up appearances1 to have a house in an approved quarter furnished in the latest taste1 to give expensive dinners and crowded soirees1 is an ambition forming the natural outcome of the conformist spirit4 ,it is needless to enlarge on these follies3 they have been satirized by hosts of writers1 and in every drawing-room4 ,all that here concerns us1 is to point out that the respect for social observances1 which men think so praiseworthy1 has the same root with this effort to be fashionable in mode of living2 and that1 other things equal1 the last cannot be diminished without the first being diminished also4 ,if1 now1 we consider all that this extravagance entails--if we count up the robbed tradesmen1 the stinted governesses1 the ill-educated children1 the fleeced relatives1 who have to suffer from it--if we mark the anxiety and the many moral delinquencies which its perpetrators involve themselves in2 we shall see that this regard for conventions is not quite so innocent as it looks4 ,again1 it decreases the amount of social intercourse4 ,passing over the reckless1 and those who make a great display on speculation with the occasional result of getting on in the world to the exclusion of much better men1 we come to the far larger class who1 being prudent and honest enough not to exceed their means1 and yet having a strong wish to be respectable1 are obliged to limit their entertainments to the smallest possible number2 and that each of these may be turned to the greatest advantage in meeting the claims upon their hospitality1 are induced to issue their invitations with little or no regard to the comfort or mutual fitness of their guests4 ,a few inconveniently-large assemblies1 made up of people mostly strange to each other or but distantly acquainted1 and having scarcely any tastes in common1 are made to serve in place of many small parties of friends intimate enough to have some bond of thought and sympathy4 ,thus the quantity of intercourse is diminished1 and the quality deteriorated4 ,because it is the custom to make costly preparations and provide costly refreshments2 and because it entails both less expense and less trouble to do this for many persons on a few occasions than for few persons on many occasions2 the reunions of our less wealthy classes are rendered alike infrequent and tedious4 ,let it be further observed1 that the existing formalities of social intercourse drive away many who most need its refining influence3 and drive them into injurious habits and associations4 ,not a few men1 and not the least sensible men either1 give up in disgust this going out to stately dinners1 and stiff evening-parties2 and instead1 seek society in clubs1 and cigar-divans1 and taverns4 ,i'm sick of this standing about in drawing-rooms1 talking nonsense1 and trying to look happy1 will answer one of them when taxed with his desertion4 ,why should ,i any longer waste time and money1 and temper8 ,once ,i was ready enough to rush home from the office to dress2 ,i sported embroidered shirts1 submitted to tight boots1 and cared nothing for tailors' and haberdashers' bills4 ,i know better now4 ,my patience lasted a good while2 for though ,i found each night pass stupidly1 ,i always hoped the next would make amends4 ,but ,i'm undeceived4 ,cab-hire and kid gloves cost more than any evening party pays for2 or rather--it is worth the cost of them to avoid the party4 ,no1 no2 ,i'll no more of it4 ,why should ,i pay five shillings a time for the privilege of being bored8 ,if1 now1 we consider that this very common mood tends towards billiard-rooms1 towards long sittings over cigars and brandy-and-water1 towards ,evans's and the ,coal ,hole1 towards every place where amusement may be had2 it becomes a question whether these precise observances which hamper our set meetings1 have not to answer for much of the prevalent dissoluteness4 ,men must have excitements of some kind or other2 and if debarred from higher ones will fall back upon lower4 ,it is not that those who thus take to irregular habits are essentially those of low tastes4 ,often it is quite the reverse4 ,among half a dozen intimate friends1 abandoning formalities and sitting at ease round the fire1 none will enter with greater enjoyment into the highest kind of social intercourse--the genuine communion of thought and feeling2 and if the circle includes women of intelligence and refinement1 so much the greater is their pleasure4 ,it is because they will no longer be choked with the mere dry husks of conversation which society offers them1 that they fly its assemblies1 and seek those with whom they may have discourse that is at least real1 though unpolished4 ,the men who thus long for substantial mental sympathy1 and will go where they can get it1 are often1 indeed1 much better at the core than the men who are content with the inanities of gloved and scented party-goers--men who feel no need to come morally nearer to their fellow creatures than they can come while standing1 tea-cup in hand1 answering trifles with trifles2 and who1 by feeling no such need1 prove themselves shallow-thoughted and cold-hearted4 ,it is true1 that some who shun drawing-rooms do so from inability to bear the restraints prescribed by a genuine refinement1 and that they would be greatly improved by being kept under these restraints4 ,but it is not less true that1 by adding to the legitimate restraints1 which are based on convenience and a regard for others1 a host of factitious restraints based only on convention1 the refining discipline1 which would else have been borne with benefit1 is rendered unbearable1 and so misses its end4 ,excess of government variably defeats itself by driving away those to be governed4 ,and if over all who desert its entertainments in disgust either at their emptiness or their formality1 society thus loses its salutary influence--if such not only fail to receive that moral culture which the company of ladies1 when rationally regulated1 would give them1 but1 in default of other relaxation1 are driven into habits and companionships which often end in gambling and drunkenness2 must we not say that here1 too1 is an evil not to be passed over as insignificant8 ,then consider what a blighting effect these multitudinous preparations and ceremonies have upon the pleasures they profess to subserve4 ,who1 on calling to mind the occasions of his highest social enjoyments1 does not find them to have been wholly informal1 perhaps impromptu8 ,how delightful a picnic of friends1 who forget all observances save those dictated by good nature6 ,how pleasant the little unpretended gatherings of book-societies1 and the like2 or those purely accidental meetings of a few people well known to each other6 ,then1 indeed1 we may see that a man sharpeneth the countenance of his friend4 ,cheeks flush1 and eyes sparkle4 ,the witty grow brilliant1 and even the dull are excited into saying good things4 ,there is an overflow of topics2 and the right thought1 and the right words to put it in1 spring up unsought4 ,grave alternates with gay3 now serious converse1 and now jokes1 anecdotes1 and playful raillery4 ,everyone's best nature is shown2 everyone's best feelings are in pleasurable activity2 and1 for the time1 life seems well worth having4 ,go now and dress for some half-past eight dinner1 or some ten o'clock at home2 and present yourself in spotless attire1 with every hair arranged to perfection4 ,how great the difference6 ,the enjoyment seems in the inverse ratio of the preparation4 ,these figures1 got up with such finish and precision1 appear but half alive4 ,they have frozen each other by their primness2 and your faculties feel the numbing effects of the atmosphere the moment you enter it4 ,all those thoughts1 so nimble and so apt awhile since1 have disappeared--have suddenly acquired a preternatural power of eluding you4 ,if you venture a remark to your neighbour1 there comes a trite rejoinder1 and there it ends4 ,no subject you can hit upon outlives half a dozen sentences4 ,nothing that is said excites any real interest in you2 and you feel that all you say is listened to with apathy4 ,by some strange magic1 things that usually give pleasure seem to have lost all charm4 ,you have a taste for art4 ,weary of frivolous talk1 you turn to the table1 and find that the book of engravings and the portfolio of photographs are as flat as the conversation4 ,you are fond of music4 ,yet the singing1 good as it is1 you hear with utter indifference2 and say ,thank you with a sense of being a profound hypocrite4 ,wholly at ease though you could be1 for your own part1 you find that your sympathies will not let you4 ,you see young gentlemen feeling whether their ties are properly adjusted1 looking vacantly round1 and considering what they shall do next4 ,you see ladies sitting disconsolately1 waiting for some one to speak to them1 and wishing they had the wherewith to occupy their fingers4 ,you see the hostess standing about the doorway1 keeping a factitious smile on her face1 and racking her brain to find the requisite nothings with which to greet her guests as they enter4 ,you see numberless traits of weariness and embarrassment2 and1 if you have any fellow feeling1 these cannot fail to produce a feeling of discomfort4 ,the disorder is catching2 and do what you will you cannot resist the general infection4 ,you struggle against it2 you make spasmodic efforts to be lively2 but none of your sallies or your good stories do more than raise a simper or a forced laugh3 intellect and feeling are alike asphyxiated4 ,and when1 at length1 yielding to your disgust1 you rush away1 how great is the relief when you get into the fresh air1 and see the stars6 ,how you ,thank ,god1 that's over6 and half resolve to avoid all such boredom for the future6 ,what1 now1 is the secret of this perpetual miscarriage and disappointment8 ,does not the fault lie with all these needless adjuncts--these elaborate dressings1 these set forms1 these expensive preparations1 these many devices and arrangements that imply trouble and raise expectation8 ,who that has lived thirty years in the world has not discovered that ,pleasure is coy2 and must not be too directly pursued1 but must be caught unawares8 ,an air from a street-piano1 heard while at work1 will often gratify more than the choicest music played at a concert by the most accomplished musicians4 ,a single good picture seen in a dealer's window1 may give keener enjoyment than a whole exhibition gone through with catalogue and pencil4 ,by the time we have got ready our elaborate apparatus by which to secure happiness1 the happiness is gone4 ,it is too subtle to be contained in these receivers1 garnished with compliments1 and fenced round with etiquette4 ,the more we multiply and complicate appliances1 the more certain are we to drive it away4 ,the reason is patent enough4 ,these higher emotions to which social intercourse ministers1 are of extremely complex nature2 they consequently depend for their production upon very numerous conditions2 the more numerous the conditions1 the greater the liability that one or other of them will be disturbed1 and the emotions consequently prevented4 ,it takes a considerable misfortune to destroy appetite2 but cordial sympathy with those around may be extinguished by a look or a word4 ,hence it follows1 that the more multiplied the unnecessary requirements with which social intercourse is surrounded1 the less likely are its pleasures to be achieved4 ,it is difficult enough to fulfil continuously all the essentials to a pleasurable communion with others3 how much more difficult1 then1 must it be continuously to fulfil a host of non-essentials also6 ,it is1 indeed1 impossible4 ,the attempt inevitably ends in the sacrifice of the first to the last--the essentials to the non-essentials4 ,what chance is there of getting any genuine response from the lady who is thinking of your stupidity in taking her in to dinner on the wrong arm8 ,how are you likely to have agreeable converse with the gentleman who is fuming internally because he is not placed next to the hostess8 ,formalities1 familiar as they may become1 necessarily occupy attention--necessarily multiply the occasions for mistake1 misunderstanding1 and jealousy1 on the part of one or other--necessarily distract all minds from the thoughts and feelings that should occupy them--necessarily1 therefore1 subvert those conditions under which only any sterling intercourse is to be had4 ,and this indeed is the fatal mischief which these conventions entail--a mischief to which every other is secondary4 ,they destroy those highest of our pleasures which they profess to subserve4 ,all institutions are alike in this1 that however useful1 and needful even1 they originally were1 they not only in the end cease to be so1 but become detrimental4 ,while humanity is growing1 they continue fixed2 daily get more mechanical and unvital2 and by and by tend to strangle what they before preserved4 ,it is not simply that they become corrupt and fail to act2 they become obstructions4 ,old forms of government finally grow so oppressive1 that they must be thrown off even at the risk of reigns of terror4 ,old creeds end in being dead formulas1 which no longer aid but distort and arrest the general mind2 while the ,state-churches administering them1 come to be instruments for subsidizing conservatism and repressing progress4 ,old schemes of education1 incarnated in public schools and colleges1 continue filling the heads of new generations with what has become relatively useless knowledge1 and1 by consequence1 excluding knowledge which is useful4 ,not an organization of any kind--political1 religious1 literary1 philanthropic--but what1 by its ever-multiplying regulations1 its accumulating wealth1 its yearly addition of officers1 and the creeping into it of patronage and party feeling1 eventually loses its original spirit1 and sinks into a mere lifeless mechanism1 worked with a view to private ends--a mechanism which not merely fails of its first purpose1 but is a positive hindrance to it4 ,thus is it1 too1 with social usages4 ,we read of the ,chinese that they have ponderous ceremonies transmitted from time immemorial1 which make social intercourse a burden4 ,the court forms prescribed by monarchs for their own exaltation1 have1 in all times and places1 ended in consuming the comfort of their lives4 ,and so the artificial observances of the dining-room and saloon1 in proportion as they are many and strict1 extinguish that agreeable communion which they were originally intended to secure4 ,the dislike with which people commonly speak of society that is formal1 and stiff1 and ceremonious1 implies the general recognition of this fact2 and this recognition1 logically developed1 involves that all usages of behaviour which are not based on natural requirements1 are injurious4 ,that these conventions defeat their own ends is no new assertion4 ,swift1 criticising the manners of his day1 says--,wise men are often more uneasy at the over-civility of these refiners than they could possibly be in the conversation of peasants and mechanics4 ,but it is not only in these details that the self-defeating action of our arrangements is traceable3 it is traceable in the very substance and nature of them4 ,our social intercourse1 as commonly managed1 is a mere semblance of the reality sought4 ,what is it that we want8 ,some sympathetic converse with our fellow-creatures3 some converse that shall not be mere dead words1 but the vehicle of living thoughts and feelings--converse in which the eyes and the face shall speak1 and the tones of the voice be full of meaning--converse which shall make us feel no longer alone1 but shall draw us closer to another1 and double our own emotions by adding another's to them4 ,who is there that has not1 from time to time1 felt how cold and flat is all this talk about politics and science1 and the new books and the new men1 and how a genuine utterance of fellow-feeling outweighs the whole of it8 ,mark the words of ,bacon3--,for a crowd is not a company1 and faces are but a gallery of pictures1 and talk but a tinkling cymbal1 where there is no love4 ,if this be true1 then it is only after acquaintance has grown into intimacy1 and intimacy has ripened into friendship1 that the real communion which men need becomes possible4 ,a rationally-formed circle must consist almost wholly of those on terms of familiarity and regard1 with but one or two strangers4 ,what folly1 then1 underlies the whole system of our grand dinners1 our at homes1 our evening parties--assemblages made up of many who never met before1 many others who just bow to each other1 many others who though familiar feel mutual indifference1 with just a few real friends lost in the general mass6 ,you need but look round at the artificial expressions of face1 to see at once how it is4 ,all have their disguises on2 and how can there be sympathy between masks8 ,no wonder that in private every one exclaims against the stupidity of these gatherings4 ,no wonder that hostesses get them up rather because they must than because they wish4 ,no wonder that the invited go less from the expectation of pleasure than from fear of giving offence4 ,the whole thing is a gigantic mistake--an organized disappointment4 ,and then note1 lastly1 that in this case1 as in all others1 when an organization has become effete and inoperative for its legitimate purpose1 it is employed for quite other ones--quite opposite ones4 ,what is the usual plea put in for giving and attending these tedious assemblies8 ,i admit that they are stupid and frivolous enough1 replies every man to your criticisms2 but then1 you know1 one must keep up one's connections4 ,and could you get from his wife a sincere answer1 it would be--,like you1 ,i am sick of these frivolities2 but then1 we must get our daughters married4 ,the one knows that there is a profession to push1 a practice to gain1 a business to extend3 or parliamentary influence1 or county patronage1 or votes1 or office1 to be got3 position1 berths1 favours1 profit4 ,the other's thoughts runs upon husbands and settlements1 wives and dowries4 ,worthless for their ostensible purpose of daily bringing human beings into pleasurable relations with each other1 these cumbrous appliances of our social intercourse are now perseveringly kept in action with a view to the pecuniary and matrimonial results which they indirectly produce4 ,who then shall say that the reform of our system of observances is unimportant8 ,when we see how this system induces fashionable extravagance1 with its entailed bankruptcy and ruin--when we mark how greatly it limits the amount of social intercourse among the less wealthy classes--when we find that many who most need to be disciplined by mixing with the refined are driven away by it1 and led into dangerous and often fatal courses--when we count up the many minor evils it inflicts1 the extra work which its costliness entails on all professional and mercantile men1 the damage to public taste in dress and decoration by the setting up of its absurdities as standards for imitation1 the injury to health indicated in the faces of its devotees at the close of the ,london season1 the mortality of milliners and the like1 which its sudden exigencies yearly involve2--and when to all these we add its fatal sin2 that it blights1 withers up1 and kills1 that high enjoyment it professedly ministers to--that enjoyment which is a chief end of our hard struggling in life to obtain--shall we not conclude that to reform our system of etiquette and fashion1 is an aim yielding to few in urgency8 99 99 99 99 99 ,there needs1 then1 a protestantism in social usages4 ,forms that have ceased to facilitate and have become obstructive--whether political1 religious1 or other--have ever to be swept away2 and eventually are so swept away in all cases4 ,signs are not wanting that some change is at hand4 ,a host of satirists1 led on by ,thackeray1 have been for years engaged in bringing our sham-festivities1 and our fashionable follies1 into contempt2 and in their candid moods1 most men laugh at the frivolities with which they and the world in general are deluded4 ,ridicule has always been a revolutionary agent4 ,that which is habitually assailed with sneers and sarcasms cannot long survive4 ,institutions that have lost their roots in men's respect and faith are doomed2 and the day of their dissolution is not far off4 ,the time is approaching1 then1 when our system of social observances must pass through some crisis1 out of which it will come purified and comparatively simple4 ,how this crisis will be brought about1 no one can with any certainty say4 ,whether by the continuance and increase of individual protests1 or whether by the union of many persons for the practice and propagation of some better system1 the future alone can decide4 ,the influence of dissentients acting without co-operation1 seems1 under the present state of things1 inadequate4 ,standing severally alone1 and having no well-defined views2 frowned on by conformists1 and expostulated with even by those who secretly sympathize with them2 subject to petty persecutions1 and unable to trace any benefit produced by their example2 they are apt1 one by one1 to give up their attempts as hopeless4 ,the young convention-breaker eventually finds that he pays too heavily for his nonconformity4 ,hating1 for example1 everything that bears about it any remnant of servility1 he determines1 in the ardour of his independence1 that he will uncover to no one4 ,but what he means simply as a general protest1 he finds that ladies interpret into a personal disrespect4 ,though he sees that1 from the days of chivalry downwards1 these marks of supreme consideration paid to the other sex have been but a hypocritical counterpart to the actual subjection in which men have held them--a pretended submission to compensate for a real domination2 and though he sees that when the true dignity of women is recognised1 the mock dignities given to them will be abolished2 yet he does not like to be thus misunderstood1 and so hesitates in his practice4 ,in other cases1 again1 his courage fails him4 ,such of his unconventionalities as can be attributed only to eccentricity1 he has no qualms about3 for1 on the whole1 he feels rather complimented than otherwise in being considered a disregarder of public opinion4 ,but when they are liable to be put down to ignorance1 to ill-breeding1 or to poverty1 he becomes a coward4 ,however clearly the recent innovation of eating some kinds of fish with knife and fork proves the fork-and-bread practice to have had little but caprice for its basis1 yet he dares not wholly ignore that practice while fashion partially maintains it4 ,though he thinks that a silk handkerchief is quite as appropriate for drawing-room use as a white cambric one1 he is not altogether at ease in acting out his opinion4 ,then1 too1 he begins to perceive that his resistance to prescription brings round disadvantageous results which he had not calculated upon4 ,he had expected that it would save him from a great deal of social intercourse of a frivolous kind--that it would offend the fools1 but not the sensible people2 and so would serve as a self-acting test by which those worth knowing would be separated from those not worth knowing4 ,but the fools prove to be so greatly in the majority that1 by offending them1 he closes against himself nearly all the avenues though which the sensible people are to be reached4 ,thus he finds1 that his nonconformity is frequently misinterpreted2 that there are but few directions in which he dares to carry it consistently out2 that the annoyances and disadvantages which it brings upon him are greater than he anticipated2 and that the chances of his doing any good are very remote4 ,hence he gradually loses resolution1 and lapses1 step by step1 into the ordinary routine of observances4 ,abortive as individual protests thus generally turn out1 it may possibly be that nothing effectual will be done until there arises some organized resistance to this invisible despotism1 by which our modes and habits are dictated4 ,it may happen1 that the government of ,manners and ,fashion will be rendered less tyrannical1 as the political and religious governments have been1 by some antagonistic union4 ,alike in ,church and ,state1 men's first emancipations from excess of restriction were achieved by numbers1 bound together by a common creed or a common political faith4 ,what remained undone while there were but individual schismatics or rebels1 was effected when there came to be many acting in concert4 ,it is tolerably clear that these earliest instalments of freedom could not have been obtained in any other way2 for so long as the feeling of personal independence was weak and the rule strong1 there could never have been a sufficient number of separate dissentients to produce the desired results4 ,only in these later times1 during which the secular and spiritual controls have been growing less coercive1 and the tendency towards individual liberty greater1 has it become possible for smaller and smaller sects and parties to fight against established creeds and laws2 until now men may safely stand even alone in their antagonism4 ,the failure of individual nonconformity to customs1 as above illustrated1 suggests that an analogous series of changes may have to be gone through in this case also4 ,it is true that the lex non scripta differs from the lex scripta in this1 that1 being unwritten1 it is more readily altered2 and that it has1 from time to time1 been quietly ameliorated4 ,nevertheless1 we shall find that the analogy holds substantially good4 ,for in this case1 as in the others1 the essential revolution is not the substituting of any one set of restraints for any other1 but the limiting or abolishing the authority which prescribes restraints4 ,just as the fundamental change inaugurated by the ,reformation1 was not a superseding of one creed by another1 but an ignoring of the arbiter who before dictated creeds--just as the fundamental change which ,democracy long ago commenced1 was not from this particular law to that1 but from the despotism of one to the freedom of all2 so1 the parallel change yet to be wrought out in this supplementary government of which we are treating1 is not the replacing of absurd usages by sensible ones1 but the dethronement of that secret1 irresponsible power which now imposes our usages1 and the assertion of the right of all individuals to choose their own usages4 ,in rules of living1 a ,west-end clique is our ,pope2 and we are all papists1 with but a mere sprinkling of heretics4 ,on all who decisively rebel1 comes down the penalty of excommunication1 with its long catalogue of disagreeable and1 indeed1 serious consequences4 ,the liberty of the subject asserted in our constitution1 and ever on the increase1 has yet to be wrested from this subtler tyranny4 ,the right of private judgment1 which our ancestors wrung from the church1 remains to be claimed from this dictator of our habits4 ,or1 as before said1 to free us from these idolatries and superstitious conformities1 there has still to come a protestantism in social usages4 ,parallel1 therefore1 as is the change to be wrought out1 it seems not improbable that it may be wrought out in an analogous way4 ,that influence which solitary dissentients fail to gain1 and that perseverance which they lack1 may come into existence when they unite4 ,that persecution which the world now visits upon them from mistaking their nonconformity for ignorance or disrespect1 may diminish when it is seen to result from principle4 ,the penalty which exclusion now entails may disappear when they become numerous enough to form visiting circles of their own4 ,and when a successful stand has been made1 and the brunt of the opposition has passed1 that large amount of secret dislike to our observances which now pervades society1 may manifest itself with sufficient power to effect the desired emancipation4 ,whether such will be the process1 time alone can decide4 ,that community of origin1 growth1 supremacy1 and decadence1 which we have found among all kinds of government1 suggests a community in modes of change also4 ,on the other hand1 ,nature often performs substantially similar operations1 in ways apparently different4 ,hence these details can never be foretold4 99 99 99 99 99 ,meanwhile1 let us glance at the conclusions that have been reached4 ,on the one side1 government1 originally one1 and afterwards subdivided for the better fulfilment of its function1 must be considered as having ever been1 in all its branches--political1 religious1 and ceremonial--beneficial2 and1 indeed1 absolutely necessary4 ,on the other side1 government1 under all its forms1 must be regarded as subserving a temporary office1 made needful by the unfitness of aboriginal humanity for social life2 and the successive diminutions of its coerciveness in ,state1 in ,church1 and in ,custom1 must be looked upon as steps towards its final disappearance4 ,to complete the conception1 there requires to be borne in mind the third fact1 that the genesis1 the maintenance1 and the decline of all governments1 however named1 are alike brought about by the humanity to be controlled3 from which may be drawn the inference that1 on the average1 restrictions of every kind cannot last much longer than they are wanted1 and cannot be destroyed much faster than they ought to be4 ,society1 in all its developments1 undergoes the process of exuviation4 ,these old forms which it successively throws off1 have all been once vitally united with it--have severally served as the protective envelopes within which a higher humanity was being evolved4 ,they are cast aside only when they become hindrances--only when some inner and better envelope has been formed2 and they bequeath to us all that there was in them good4 ,the periodical abolitions of tyrannical laws have left the administration of justice not only uninjured1 but purified4 ,dead and buried creeds have not carried with them the essential morality they contained1 which still exists1 uncontaminated by the sloughs of superstition4 ,and all that there is of justice and kindness and beauty1 embodied in our cumbrous forms of etiquette1 will live perennially when the forms themselves have been forgotten4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,genesis ,,of ,,science4 ,there has ever prevailed among men a vague notion that scientific knowledge differs in nature from ordinary knowledge4 ,by the ,greeks1 with whom ,mathematics--literally things learnt--was alone considered as knowledge proper1 the distinction must have been strongly felt2 and it has ever since maintained itself in the general mind4 ,though1 considering the contrast between the achievements of science and those of daily unmethodic thinking1 it is not surprising that such a distinction has been assumed2 yet it needs but to rise a little above the common point of view1 to see that no such distinction can really exist3 or that at best1 it is but a superficial distinction4 ,the same faculties are employed in both cases2 and in both cases their mode of operation is fundamentally the same4 ,if we say that science is organized knowledge1 we are met by the truth that all knowledge is organized in a greater or less degree--that the commonest actions of the household and the field presuppose facts colligated1 inferences drawn1 results expected2 and that the general success of these actions proves the data by which they were guided to have been correctly put together4 ,if1 again1 we say that science is prevision--is a seeing beforehand--is a knowing in what times1 places1 combinations1 or sequences1 specified phenomena will be found2 we are yet obliged to confess that the definition includes much that is utterly foreign to science in its ordinary acceptation4 ,for example1 a child's knowledge of an apple4 ,this1 as far as it goes consists in previsions4 ,when a child sees a certain form and colours1 it knows that if it puts out its hand it will have certain impressions of resistance1 and roundness1 and smoothness2 and if it bites1 a certain taste4 ,and manifestly its general acquaintance with surrounding objects is of like nature--is made up of facts concerning them1 so grouped as that any part of a group being perceived1 the existence of the other facts included in it is foreseen4 ,if1 once more1 we say that science is exact prevision1 we still fail to establish the supposed difference4 ,not only do we find that much of what we call science is not exact1 and that some of it1 as physiology1 can never become exact2 but we find further1 that many of the previsions constituting the common stock alike of wise and ignorant1 are exact4 ,that an unsupported body will fall2 that a lighted candle will go out when immersed in water2 that ice will melt when thrown on the fire--these1 and many like predictions relating to the familiar properties of things have as high a degree of accuracy as predictions are capable of4 ,it is true that the results predicated are of a very general character2 but it is none the less true that they are rigorously correct as far as they go3 and this is all that is requisite to fulfil the definition4 ,there is perfect accordance between the anticipated phenomena and the actual ones2 and no more than this can be said of the highest achievements of the sciences specially characterised as exact4 ,seeing thus that the assumed distinction between scientific knowledge and common knowledge is not logically justifiable2 and yet feeling1 as we must1 that however impossible it may be to draw a line between them1 the two are not practically identical2 there arises the question--,what is the relationship that exists between them8 ,a partial answer to this question may be drawn from the illustrations just given4 ,on reconsidering them1 it will be observed that those portions of ordinary knowledge which are identical in character with scientific knowledge1 comprehend only such combinations of phenomena as are directly cognizable by the senses1 and are of simple1 invariable nature4 ,that the smoke from a fire which she is lighting will ascend1 and that the fire will presently boil water1 are previsions which the servant-girl makes equally well with the most learned physicist2 they are equally certain1 equally exact with his2 but they are previsions concerning phenomena in constant and direct relation--phenomena that follow visibly and immediately after their antecedents--phenomena of which the causation is neither remote nor obscure--phenomena which may be predicted by the simplest possible act of reasoning4 ,if1 now1 we pass to the previsions constituting what is commonly known as science--that an eclipse of the moon will happen at a specified time2 and when a barometer is taken to the top of a mountain of known height1 the mercurial column will descend a stated number of inches2 that the poles of a galvanic battery immersed in water will give off1 the one an inflammable and the other an inflaming gas1 in definite ratio--we perceive that the relations involved are not of a kind habitually presented to our senses2 that they depend1 some of them1 upon special combinations of causes2 and that in some of them the connection between antecedents and consequents is established only by an elaborate series of inferences4 ,the broad distinction1 therefore1 between the two orders of knowledge1 is not in their nature1 but in their remoteness from perception4 ,if we regard the cases in their most general aspect1 we see that the labourer1 who1 on hearing certain notes in the adjacent hedge1 can describe the particular form and colours of the bird making them2 and the astronomer1 who1 having calculated a transit of ,venus1 can delineate the black spot entering on the sun's disc1 as it will appear through the telescope1 at a specified hour2 do essentially the same thing4 ,each knows that on fulfilling the requisite conditions1 he shall have a preconceived impression--that after a definite series of actions will come a group of sensations of a foreknown kind4 ,the difference1 then1 is not in the fundamental character of the mental acts2 or in the correctness of the previsions accomplished by them2 but in the complexity of the processes required to achieve the previsions4 ,much of our commonest knowledge is1 as far as it goes1 rigorously precise4 ,science does not increase this precision2 cannot transcend it4 ,what then does it do8 ,it reduces other knowledge to the same degree of precision4 ,that certainty which direct perception gives us respecting coexistences and sequences of the simplest and most accessible kind1 science gives us respecting coexistences and sequences1 complex in their dependencies or inaccessible to immediate observation4 ,in brief1 regarded from this point of view1 science may be called an extension of the perceptions by means of reasoning4 ,on further considering the matter1 however1 it will perhaps be felt that this definition does not express the whole fact--that inseparable as science may be from common knowledge1 and completely as we may fill up the gap between the simplest previsions of the child and the most recondite ones of the natural philosopher1 by interposing a series of previsions in which the complexity of reasoning involved is greater and greater1 there is yet a difference between the two beyond that which is here described4 ,and this is true4 ,but the difference is still not such as enables us to draw the assumed line of demarcation4 ,it is a difference not between common knowledge and scientific knowledge2 but between the successive phases of science itself1 or knowledge itself--whichever we choose to call it4 ,in its earlier phases science attains only to certainty of foreknowledge2 in its later phases it further attains to completeness4 ,we begin by discovering a relation3 we end by discovering the relation4 ,our first achievement is to foretell the kind of phenomenon which will occur under specific conditions3 our last achievement is to foretell not only the kind but the amount4 ,or1 to reduce the proposition to its most definite form--undeveloped science is qualitative prevision3 developed science is quantitative prevision4 ,this will at once be perceived to express the remaining distinction between the lower and the higher stages of positive knowledge4 ,the prediction that a piece of lead will take more force to lift it than a piece of wood of equal size1 exhibits certainty1 but not completeness1 of foresight4 ,the kind of effect in which the one body will exceed the other is foreseen2 but not the amount by which it will exceed4 ,there is qualitative prevision only4 ,on the other hand1 the prediction that at a stated time two particular planets will be in conjunction2 that by means of a lever having arms in a given ratio1 a known force will raise just so many pounds2 that to decompose a specified quantity of sulphate of iron by carbonate of soda will require so many grains--these predictions exhibit foreknowledge1 not only of the nature of the effects to be produced1 but of the magnitude1 either of the effects themselves1 of the agencies producing them1 or of the distance in time or space at which they will be produced4 ,there is not only qualitative but quantitative prevision4 ,and this is the unexpressed difference which leads us to consider certain orders of knowledge as especially scientific when contrasted with knowledge in general4 ,are the phenomena measurable8 is the test which we unconsciously employ4 ,space is measurable3 hence ,geometry4 ,force and space are measurable3 hence ,statics4 ,time1 force1 and space are measurable3 hence ,dynamics4 ,the invention of the barometer enabled men to extend the principles of mechanics to the atmosphere2 and ,aerostatics existed4 ,when a thermometer was devised there arose a science of heat1 which was before impossible4 ,such of our sensations as we have not yet found modes of measuring do not originate sciences4 ,we have no science of smells2 nor have we one of tastes4 ,we have a science of the relations of sounds differing in pitch1 because we have discovered a way to measure them2 but we have no science of sounds in respect to their loudness or their timbre1 because we have got no measures of loudness and timbre4 ,obviously it is this reduction of the sensible phenomena it represents1 to relations of magnitude1 which gives to any division of knowledge its especially scientific character4 ,originally men's knowledge of weights and forces was in the same condition as their knowledge of smells and tastes is now--a knowledge not extending beyond that given by the unaided sensations2 and it remained so until weighing instruments and dynamometers were invented4 ,before there were hour-glasses and clepsydras1 most phenomena could be estimated as to their durations and intervals1 with no greater precision than degrees of hardness can be estimated by the fingers4 ,until a thermometric scale was contrived1 men's judgments respecting relative amounts of heat stood on the same footing with their present judgments respecting relative amounts of sound4 ,and as in these initial stages1 with no aids to observation1 only the roughest comparisons of cases could be made1 and only the most marked differences perceived2 it is obvious that only the most simple laws of dependence could be ascertained--only those laws which being uncomplicated with others1 and not disturbed in their manifestations1 required no niceties of observation to disentangle them4 ,whence it appears not only that in proportion as knowledge becomes quantitative do its previsions become complete as well as certain1 but that until its assumption of a quantitative character it is necessarily confined to the most elementary relations4 ,moreover it is to be remarked that while1 on the one hand1 we can discover the laws of the greater proportion of phenomena only by investigating them quantitatively2 on the other hand we can extend the range of our quantitative previsions only as fast as we detect the laws of the results we predict4 ,for clearly the ability to specify the magnitude of a result inaccessible to direct measurement1 implies knowledge of its mode of dependence on something which can be measured--implies that we know the particular fact dealt with to be an instance of some more general fact4 ,thus the extent to which our quantitative previsions have been carried in any direction1 indicates the depth to which our knowledge reaches in that direction4 ,and here1 as another aspect of the same fact1 we may further observe that as we pass from qualitative to quantitative prevision1 we pass from inductive science to deductive science4 ,science while purely inductive is purely qualitative3 when inaccurately quantitative it usually consists of part induction1 part deduction3 and it becomes accurately quantitative only when wholly deductive4 ,we do not mean that the deductive and the quantitative are coextensive2 for there is manifestly much deduction that is qualitative only4 ,we mean that all quantitative prevision is reached deductively2 and that induction can achieve only qualitative prevision4 ,still1 however1 it must not be supposed that these distinctions enable us to separate ordinary knowledge from science2 much as they seem to do so4 ,while they show in what consists the broad contrast between the extreme forms of the two1 they yet lead us to recognise their essential identity2 and once more prove the difference to be one of degree only4 ,for1 on the one hand1 the commonest positive knowledge is to some extent quantitative2 seeing that the amount of the foreseen result is known within certain wide limits4 ,and1 on the other hand1 the highest quantitative prevision does not reach the exact truth1 but only a very near approximation to it4 ,without clocks the savage knows that the day is longer in the summer than in the winter2 without scales he knows that stone is heavier than flesh3 that is1 he can foresee respecting certain results that their amounts will exceed these1 and be less than those--he knows about what they will be4 ,and1 with his most delicate instruments and most elaborate calculations1 all that the man of science can do1 is to reduce the difference between the foreseen and the actual results to an unimportant quantity4 ,moreover1 it must be borne in mind not only that all the sciences are qualitative in their first stages1--not only that some of them1 as ,chemistry1 have but recently reached the quantitative stage--but that the most advanced sciences have attained to their present power of determining quantities not present to the senses1 or not directly measurable1 by a slow process of improvement extending through thousands of years4 ,so that science and the knowledge of the uncultured are alike in the nature of their previsions1 widely as they differ in range2 they possess a common imperfection1 though this is immensely greater in the last than in the first2 and the transition from the one to the other has been through a series of steps by which the imperfection has been rendered continually less1 and the range continually wider4 ,these facts1 that science and the positive knowledge of the uncultured cannot be separated in nature1 and that the one is but a perfected and extended form of the other1 must necessarily underlie the whole theory of science1 its progress1 and the relations of its parts to each other4 ,there must be serious incompleteness in any history of the sciences1 which1 leaving out of view the first steps of their genesis1 commences with them only when they assume definite forms4 ,there must be grave defects1 if not a general untruth1 in a philosophy of the sciences considered in their interdependence and development1 which neglects the inquiry how they came to be distinct sciences1 and how they were severally evolved out of the chaos of primitive ideas4 ,not only a direct consideration of the matter1 but all analogy1 goes to show that in the earlier and simpler stages must be sought the key to all subsequent intricacies4 ,the time was when the anatomy and physiology of the human being were studied by themselves--when the adult man was analyzed and the relations of parts and of functions investigated1 without reference either to the relations exhibited in the embryo or to the homologous relations existing in other creatures4 ,now1 however1 it has become manifest that no true conceptions1 no true generalizations1 are possible under such conditions4 ,anatomists and physiologists now find that the real natures of organs and tissues can be ascertained only by tracing their early evolution2 and that the affinities between existing genera can be satisfactorily made out only by examining the fossil genera to which they are allied4 ,well1 is it not clear that the like must be true concerning all things that undergo development8 ,is not science a growth8 ,has not science1 too1 its embryology8 ,and must not the neglect of its embryology lead to a misunderstanding of the principles of its evolution and of its existing organization8 ,there are a priori reasons1 therefore1 for doubting the truth of all philosophies of the sciences which tacitly proceed upon the common notion that scientific knowledge and ordinary knowledge are separate2 instead of commencing1 as they should1 by affiliating the one upon the other1 and showing how it gradually came to be distinguishable from the other4 ,we may expect to find their generalizations essentially artificial2 and we shall not be deceived4 ,some illustrations of this may here be fitly introduced1 by way of preliminary to a brief sketch of the genesis of science from the point of view indicated4 ,and we cannot more readily find such illustrations than by glancing at a few of the various classifications of the sciences that have from time to time been proposed4 ,to consider all of them would take too much space3 we must content ourselves with some of the latest4 99 99 99 99 99 ,commencing with those which may be soonest disposed of1 let us notice first the arrangement propounded by ,oken4 ,an abstract of it runs thus3-- ,part ,i4 ,,mathesis4--,pneumatogeny3 ,primary ,art1 ,primary ,consciousness1 ,god1 ,primary ,rest1 ,time1 ,polarity1 ,motion1 ,man1 ,space1 ,point1 ,line1 ,surface1 ,globe1 ,rotation4--,hylogeny3 ,gravity1 ,matter1 ,ether1 ,heavenly ,bodies1 ,light1 ,heat1 ,fire4 7,he explains that ,,mathesis is the doctrine of the whole2 ,pneumatogeny being the doctrine of immaterial totalities1 and ,hylogeny that of material totalities47 ,part ,,ii4 ,,ontology4--,cosmogeny3 ,rest1 ,centre1 ,motion1 ,line1 ,planets1 ,form1 ,planetary ,system1 ,comets4--,stoechiogeny3 ,condensation1 ,simple ,matter1 ,elements1 ,air1 ,water1 ,earth4--,stoechiology3 ,functions of the ,elements1 c4 c4--,kingdoms of ,nature3 ,individuals4 7,he says in explanation that ,,ontology teaches us the phenomena of matter4 ,the first of these are the heavenly bodies comprehended by ,cosmogeny4 ,these divide into elements--,stoechiogeny4 ,the earth element divides into minerals--,mineralogy4 ,these unite into one collective body--,geogeny4 ,the whole in singulars is the living1 or ,organic1 which again divides into plants and animals4 ,biology1 therefore1 divides into ,organogeny1 ,phytosophy1 ,zoosophy47 ,,first ,,kingdom4--,,minerals4 ,mineralogy1 ,geology4 ,part ,,iii4 ,,biology4--,organosophy1 ,phytogeny1 ,phyto-physiology1 ,phytology1 ,zoogeny1 ,physiology1 ,zoology1 ,psychology4 ,a glance over this confused scheme shows that it is an attempt to classify knowledge1 not after the order in which it has been1 or may be1 built up in the human consciousness2 but after an assumed order of creation4 ,it is a pseudo-scientific cosmogony1 akin to those which men have enunciated from the earliest times downwards2 and only a little more respectable4 ,as such it will not be thought worthy of much consideration by those who1 like ourselves1 hold that experience is the sole origin of knowledge4 ,otherwise1 it might have been needful to dwell on the incongruities of the arrangements--to ask how motion can be treated of before space8 how there can be rotation without matter to rotate8 how polarity can be dealt with without involving points and lines8 ,but it will serve our present purpose just to point out a few of the extreme absurdities resulting from the doctrine which ,oken seems to hold in common with ,hegel1 that to philosophize on ,nature is to re-think the great thought of ,creation4 ,here is a sample3-- ,mathematics is the universal science2 so also is ,physio-philosophy1 although it is only a part1 or rather but a condition of the universe2 both are one1 or mutually congruent4 ,mathematics is1 however1 a science of mere forms without substance4 ,physio-philosophy is1 therefore1 mathematics endowed with substance4 ,from the ,english point of view it is sufficiently amusing to find such a dogma not only gravely stated1 but stated as an unquestionable truth4 ,here we see the experiences of quantitative relations which men have gathered from surrounding bodies and generalized 7experiences which had been scarcely at all generalized at the beginning of the historic period7--we find these generalized experiences1 these intellectual abstractions1 elevated into concrete actualities1 projected back into ,nature1 and considered as the internal frame-work of things--the skeleton by which matter is sustained4 ,but this new form of the old realism1 is by no means the most startling of the physio-philosophic principles4 ,we presently read that1 ,the highest mathematical idea1 or the fundamental principle of all mathematics is the zero #j4444 ,zero is in itself nothing4 ,mathematics is based upon nothing1 and1 consequently1 arises out of nothing4 ,out of nothing1 therefore1 it is possible for something to arise2 for mathematics1 consisting of propositions1 is something1 in relation to #j4 ,by such consequentlys and therefores it is1 that men philosophize when they re-think the great thought of creation4 ,by dogmas that pretend to be reasons1 nothing is made to generate mathematics2 and by clothing mathematics with matter1 we have the universe6 ,if now we deny1 as we do deny1 that the highest mathematical idea is the zero2--if1 on the other hand1 we assert1 as we do assert1 that the fundamental idea underlying all mathematics1 is that of equality2 the whole of ,oken's cosmogony disappears4 ,and here1 indeed1 we may see illustrated1 the distinctive peculiarity of the ,german method of procedure in these matters--the bastard a priori method1 as it may be termed4 ,the legitimate a priori method sets out with propositions of which the negation is inconceivable2 the a priori method as illegitimately applied1 sets out either with propositions of which the negation is not inconceivable1 or with propositions like ,oken's1 of which the affirmation is inconceivable4 ,it is needless to proceed further with the analysis2 else might we detail the steps by which ,oken arrives at the conclusions that the planets are coagulated colours1 for they are coagulated light2 that the sphere is the expanded nothing2 that gravity is a weighty nothing1 a heavy essence1 striving towards a centre2 that the earth is the identical1 water the indifferent1 air the different2 or the first the centre1 the second the radius1 the last the periphery of the general globe or of fire4 ,to comment on them would be nearly as absurd as are the propositions themselves4 ,let us pass on to another of the ,german systems of knowledge--that of ,hegel4 ,the simple fact that ,hegel puts ,jacob ,boehme on a par with ,bacon1 suffices alone to show that his stand-point is far remote from the one usually regarded as scientific3 so far remote1 indeed1 that it is not easy to find any common basis on which to found a criticism4 ,those who hold that the mind is moulded into conformity with surrounding things by the agency of surrounding things1 are necessarily at a loss how to deal with those1 who1 like ,schelling and ,hegel1 assert that surrounding things are solidified mind--that ,nature is petrified intelligence4 ,however1 let us briefly glance at ,hegel's classification4 ,he divides philosophy into three parts3-- #a4 ,logic1 or the science of the idea in itself1 the pure idea4 #b4 ,the ,philosophy of ,nature1 or the science of the idea considered under its other form--of the idea as ,nature4 #c4 ,the ,philosophy of the ,mind1 or the science of the idea in its return to itself4 ,of these1 the second is divided into the natural sciences1 commonly so called2 so that in its more detailed form the series runs thus3--,logic1 ,mechanics1 ,physics1 ,organic ,physics1 ,psychology4 ,now1 if we believe with ,hegel1 first1 that thought is the true essence of man2 second1 that thought is the essence of the world2 and that1 therefore1 there is nothing but thought2 his classification1 beginning with the science of pure thought1 may be acceptable4 ,but otherwise1 it is an obvious objection to his arrangement1 that thought implies things thought of--that there can be no logical forms without the substance of experience--that the science of ideas and the science of things must have a simultaneous origin4 ,hegel1 however1 anticipates this objection1 and1 in his obstinate idealism1 replies1 that the contrary is true2 that all contained in the forms1 to become something1 requires to be thought3 and that logical forms are the foundations of all things4 ,it is not surprising that1 starting from such premises1 and reasoning after this fashion1 ,hegel finds his way to strange conclusions4 ,out of space and time he proceeds to build up motion1 matter1 repulsion1 attraction1 weight1 and inertia4 ,he then goes on to logically evolve the solar system4 ,in doing this he widely diverges from the ,newtonian theory2 reaches by syllogism the conviction that the planets are the most perfect celestial bodies2 and1 not being able to bring the stars within his theory1 says that they are mere formal existences and not living matter1 and that as compared with the solar system they are as little admirable as a cutaneous eruption or a swarm of flies4,f ,f ,it is somewhat curious that the author of ,the ,plurality of ,worlds1 with quite other aims1 should have persuaded himself into similar conclusions4 ,results so outrageous might be left as self-disproved1 were it not that speculators of this class are not alarmed by any amount of incongruity with established beliefs4 ,the only efficient mode of treating systems like this of ,hegel1 is to show that they are self-destructive--that by their first steps they ignore that authority on which all their subsequent steps depend4 ,if ,hegel professes1 as he manifestly does1 to develop his scheme by reasoning--if he presents successive inferences as necessarily following from certain premises2 he implies the postulate that a belief which necessarily follows after certain antecedents is a true belief3 and1 did an opponent reply to one of his inferences1 that1 though it was impossible to think the opposite1 yet the opposite was true1 he would consider the reply irrational4 ,the procedure1 however1 which he would thus condemn as destructive of all thinking whatever1 is just the procedure exhibited in the enunciation of his own first principles4 ,mankind find themselves unable to conceive that there can be thought without things thought of4 ,hegel1 however1 asserts that there can be thought without things thought of4 ,that ultimate test of a true proposition--the inability of the human mind to conceive the negation of it--which in all other cases he considers valid1 he considers invalid where it suits his convenience to do so2 and yet at the same time denies the right of an opponent to follow his example4 ,if it is competent for him to posit dogmas1 which are the direct negations of what human consciousness recognises2 then is it also competent for his antagonists to stop him at every step in his argument by saying1 that though the particular inference he is drawing seems to his mind1 and to all minds1 necessarily to follow from the premises1 yet it is not true1 but the contrary inference is true4 ,or1 to state the dilemma in another form3--,if he sets out with inconceivable propositions1 then may he with equal propriety make all his succeeding propositions inconceivable ones--may at every step throughout his reasoning draw exactly the opposite conclusion to that which seems involved4 ,hegel's mode of procedure being thus essentially suicidal1 the ,hegelian classification which depends upon it1 falls to the ground4 ,let us consider next that of ,m4 ,comte4 ,as all his readers must admit1 ,m4 ,comte presents us with a scheme of the sciences which1 unlike the foregoing ones1 demands respectful consideration4 ,widely as we differ from him1 we cheerfully bear witness to the largeness of his views1 the clearness of his reasoning1 and the value of his speculations as contributing to intellectual progress4 ,did we believe a serial arrangement of the sciences to be possible1 that of ,m4 ,comte would certainly be the one we should adopt4 ,his fundamental propositions are thoroughly intelligible2 and if not true1 have a great semblance of truth4 ,his successive steps are logically co-ordinated2 and he supports his conclusions by a considerable amount of evidence--evidence which1 so long as it is not critically examined1 or not met by counter evidence1 seems to substantiate his positions4 ,but it only needs to assume that antagonistic attitude which ought to be assumed towards new doctrines1 in the belief that1 if true1 they will prosper by conquering objectors--it needs but to test his leading doctrines either by other facts than those he cites1 or by his own facts differently applied1 to at once show that they will not stand4 ,we will proceed thus to deal with the general principle on which he bases his hierarchy of the sciences4 ,in the second chapter of his ,cours de ,philosophie ,positive1 ,m4 ,comte says3--,our problem is1 then1 to find the one rational order1 amongst a host of possible systems4444 ,this order is determined by the degree of simplicity1 or1 what comes to the same thing1 of generality of their phenomena4 ,and the arrangement he deduces runs thus3 ,mathematics1 ,astronomy1 ,physics1 ,chemistry1 ,physiology1 ,social ,physics4 ,this he asserts to be the true filiation of the sciences4 ,he asserts further1 that the principle of progression from a greater to a less degree of generality1 which gives this order to the whole body of science1 arranges the parts of each science4 ,and1 finally1 he asserts that the gradations thus established a priori among the sciences1 and the parts of each science1 is in essential conformity with the order which has spontaneously taken place among the branches of natural philosophy2 or1 in other words--corresponds with the order of historic development4 ,let us compare these assertions with the facts4 ,that there may be perfect fairness1 let us make no choice1 but take as the field for our comparison1 the succeeding section treating of the first science--,mathematics2 and let us use none but ,m4 ,comte's own facts1 and his own admissions4 ,confining ourselves to this one science1 of course our comparisons must be between its several parts4 ,m4 ,comte says1 that the parts of each science must be arranged in the order of their decreasing generality2 and that this order of decreasing generality agrees with the order of historic development4 ,our inquiry must be1 then1 whether the history of mathematics confirms this statement4 ,carrying out his principle1 ,m4 ,comte divides ,mathematics into ,abstract ,mathematics1 or the ,calculus 7taking the word in its most extended sense7 and ,concrete ,mathematics1 which is composed of ,general ,geometry and of ,rational ,mechanics4 ,the subject-matter of the first of these is number2 the subject-matter of the second includes space1 time1 motion1 force4 ,the one possesses the highest possible degree of generality2 for all things whatever admit of enumeration4 ,the others are less general2 seeing that there are endless phenomena that are not cognizable either by general geometry or rational mechanics4 ,in conformity with the alleged law1 therefore1 the evolution of the calculus must throughout have preceded the evolution of the concrete sub-sciences4 ,now somewhat awkwardly for him1 the first remark ,m4 ,comte makes bearing upon this point is1 that from an historical point of view1 mathematical analysis appears to have risen out of the contemplation of geometrical and mechanical facts4 ,true1 he goes on to say that1 it is not the less independent of these sciences logically speaking2 for that analytical ideas are1 above all others1 universal1 abstract1 and simple1 and geometrical conceptions are necessarily founded on them4 ,we will not take advantage of this last passage to charge ,m4 ,comte with teaching1 after the fashion of ,hegel1 that there can be thought without things thought of4 ,we are content simply to compare the two assertions1 that analysis arose out of the contemplation of geometrical and mechanical facts1 and that geometrical conceptions are founded upon analytical ones4 ,literally interpreted they exactly cancel each other4 ,interpreted1 however1 in a liberal sense1 they imply1 what we believe to be demonstrable1 that the two had a simultaneous origin4 ,the passage is either nonsense1 or it is an admission that abstract and concrete mathematics are coeval4 ,thus1 at the very first step1 the alleged congruity between the order of generality and the order of evolution1 does not hold good4 ,but may it not be that though abstract and concrete mathematics took their rise at the same time1 the one afterwards developed more rapidly than the other2 and has ever since remained in advance of it8 ,no3 and again we call ,m4 ,comte himself as witness4 ,fortunately for his argument he has said nothing respecting the early stages of the concrete and abstract divisions after their divergence from a common root2 otherwise the advent of ,algebra long after the ,greek geometry had reached a high development1 would have been an inconvenient fact for him to deal with4 ,but passing over this1 and limiting ourselves to his own statements1 we find1 at the opening of the next chapter1 the admission1 that the historical development of the abstract portion of mathematical science has1 since the time of ,descartes1 been for the most part determined by that of the concrete4 ,further on we read respecting algebraic functions that most functions were concrete in their origin--even those which are at present the most purely abstract2 and the ancients discovered only through geometrical definitions elementary algebraic properties of functions to which a numerical value was not attached till long afterwards1 rendering abstract to us what was concrete to the old geometers4 ,how do these statements tally with his doctrine8 ,again1 having divided the calculus into algebraic and arithmetical1 ,m4 ,comte admits1 as perforce he must1 that the algebraic is more general than the arithmetical2 yet he will not say that algebra preceded arithmetic in point of time4 ,and again1 having divided the calculus of functions into the calculus of direct functions 7common algebra7 and the calculus of indirect functions 7transcendental analysis71 he is obliged to speak of this last as possessing a higher generality than the first2 yet it is far more modern4 ,indeed1 by implication1 ,m4 ,comte himself confesses this incongruity2 for he says3--,it might seem that the transcendental analysis ought to be studied before the ordinary1 as it provides the equations which the other has to resolve2 but though the transcendental is logically independent of the ordinary1 it is best to follow the usual method of study1 taking the ordinary first4 ,in all these cases1 then1 as well as at the close of the section where he predicts that mathematicians will in time create procedures of a wider generality1 ,m4 ,comte makes admissions that are diametrically opposed to the alleged law4 ,in the succeeding chapters treating of the concrete department of mathematics1 we find similar contradictions4 ,m4 ,comte himself names the geometry of the ancients special geometry1 and that of moderns the general geometry4 ,he admits that while the ancients studied geometry with reference to the bodies under notice1 or specially2 the moderns study it with reference to the phenomena to be considered1 or generally4 ,he admits that while the ancients extracted all they could out of one line or surface before passing to another1 the moderns1 since ,descartes1 employ themselves on questions which relate to any figure whatever4 ,these facts are the reverse of what1 according to his theory1 they should be4 ,so1 too1 in mechanics4 ,before dividing it into statics and dynamics1 ,m4 ,comte treats of the three laws of motion1 and is obliged to do so2 for statics1 the more general of the two divisions1 though it does not involve motion1 is impossible as a science until the laws of motion are ascertained4 ,yet the laws of motion pertain to dynamics1 the more special of the divisions4 ,further on he points out that after ,archimedes1 who discovered the law of equilibrium of the lever1 statics made no progress until the establishment of dynamics enabled us to seek the conditions of equilibrium through the laws of the composition of forces4 ,and he adds--,at this day this is the method universally employed4 ,at the first glance it does not appear the most rational--dynamics being more complicated than statics1 and precedence being natural to the simpler4 ,it would1 in fact1 be more philosophical to refer dynamics to statics1 as has since been done4 ,sundry discoveries are afterwards detailed1 showing how completely the development of statics has been achieved by considering its problems dynamically2 and before the close of the section ,m4 ,comte remarks that before hydrostatics could be comprehended under statics1 it was necessary that the abstract theory of equilibrium should be made so general as to apply directly to fluids as well as solids4 ,this was accomplished when ,lagrange supplied1 as the basis of the whole of rational mechanics1 the single principle of virtual velocities4 ,in which statement we have two facts directly at variance with ,m4 ,comte's doctrine2--first1 that the simpler science1 statics1 reached its present development only by the aid of the principle of virtual velocities1 which belongs to the more complex science1 dynamics2 and that this single principle underlying all rational mechanics--this most general form which includes alike the relations of statical1 hydrostatical1 and dynamical forces--was reached so late as the time of ,lagrange4 ,thus it is not true that the historical succession of the divisions of mathematics has corresponded with the order of decreasing generality4 ,it is not true that abstract mathematics was evolved antecedently to1 and independently of concrete mathematics4 ,it is not true that of the subdivisions of abstract mathematics1 the more general came before the more special4 ,and it is not true that concrete mathematics1 in either of its two sections1 began with the most abstract and advanced to the less abstract truths4 ,it may be well to mention1 parenthetically1 that in defending his alleged law of progression from the general to the special1 ,m4 ,comte somewhere comments upon the two meanings of the word general1 and the resulting liability to confusion4 ,without now discussing whether the asserted distinction can be maintained in other cases1 it is manifest that it does not exist here4 ,in sundry of the instances above quoted1 the endeavors made by ,m4 ,comte himself to disguise1 or to explain away1 the precedence of the special over the general1 clearly indicate that the generality spoken of1 is of the kind meant by his formula4 ,and it needs but a brief consideration of the matter to show that1 even did he attempt it1 he could not distinguish this generality1 which1 as above proved1 frequently comes last1 from the generality which he says always comes first4 ,for what is the nature of that mental process by which objects1 dimensions1 weights1 times1 and the rest1 are found capable of having their relations expressed numerically8 ,it is the formation of certain abstract conceptions of unity1 duality and multiplicity1 which are applicable to all things alike4 ,it is the invention of general symbols serving to express the numerical relations of entities1 whatever be their special characters4 ,and what is the nature of the mental process by which numbers are found capable of having their relations expressed algebraically8 ,it is just the same4 ,it is the formation of certain abstract conceptions of numerical functions which are the same whatever be the magnitudes of the numbers4 ,it is the invention of general symbols serving to express the relations between numbers1 as numbers express the relations between things4 ,and transcendental analysis stands to algebra in the same position that algebra stands in to arithmetic4 ,to briefly illustrate their respective powers2--arithmetic can express in one formula the value of a particular tangent to a particular curve2 algebra can express in one formula the values of all tangents to a particular curve2 transcendental analysis can express in one formula the values of all tangents to all curves4 ,just as arithmetic deals with the common properties of lines1 areas1 bulks1 forces1 periods2 so does algebra deal with the common properties of the numbers which arithmetic presents2 so does transcendental analysis deal with the common properties of the equations exhibited by algebra4 ,thus1 the generality of the higher branches of the calculus1 when compared with the lower1 is the same kind of generality as that of the lower branches when compared with geometry or mechanics4 ,and on examination it will be found that the like relation exists in the various other cases above given4 ,having shown that ,m4 ,comte's alleged law of progression does not hold among the several parts of the same science1 let us see how it agrees with the facts when applied to separate sciences4 ,astronomy1 says ,m4 ,comte1 at the opening of ,book ,,iii41 was a positive science1 in its geometrical aspect1 from the earliest days of the school of ,alexandria2 but ,physics1 which we are now to consider1 had no positive character at all till ,galileo made his great discoveries on the fall of heavy bodies4 ,on this1 our comment is simply that it is a misrepresentation based upon an arbitrary misuse of words--a mere verbal artifice4 ,by choosing to exclude from terrestrial physics those laws of magnitude1 motion1 and position1 which he includes in celestial physics1 ,m4 ,comte makes it appear that the one owes nothing to the other4 ,not only is this altogether unwarrantable1 but it is radically inconsistent with his own scheme of divisions4 ,at the outset he says--and as the point is important we quote from the original--,pour la physique inorganique nous voyons d'abord1 en nous conformant toujours a l'ordre de generalite et de dependance des phenomenes1 qu'elle doit etre partagee en deux sections distinctes1 suivant qu'elle considere les phenomenes generaux de l'univers1 ou1 en particulier1 ceux que presentent les corps terrestres4 ,d'ou la physique celeste1 ou l'astronomie1 soit geometrique1 soit mechanique2 et la physique terrestre4 ,here then we have inorganic physics clearly divided into celestial physics and terrestrial physics--the phenomena presented by the universe1 and the phenomena presented by earthly bodies4 ,if now celestial bodies and terrestrial bodies exhibit sundry leading phenomena in common1 as they do1 how can the generalization of these common phenomena be considered as pertaining to the one class rather than to the other8 ,if inorganic physics includes geometry 7which ,m4 ,comte has made it do by comprehending geometrical astronomy in its sub-section--celestial physics72 and if its sub-section--terrestrial physics1 treats of things having geometrical properties2 how can the laws of geometrical relations be excluded from terrestrial physics8 ,clearly if celestial physics includes the geometry of objects in the heavens1 terrestrial physics includes the geometry of objects on the earth4 ,and if terrestrial physics includes terrestrial geometry1 while celestial physics includes celestial geometry1 then the geometrical part of terrestrial physics precedes the geometrical part of celestial physics2 seeing that geometry gained its first ideas from surrounding objects4 ,until men had learnt geometrical relations from bodies on the earth1 it was impossible for them to understand the geometrical relations of bodies in the heavens4 ,so1 too1 with celestial mechanics1 which had terrestrial mechanics for its parent4 ,the very conception of force1 which underlies the whole of mechanical astronomy1 is borrowed from our earthly experiences2 and the leading laws of mechanical action as exhibited in scales1 levers1 projectiles1 c41 had to be ascertained before the dynamics of the solar system could be entered upon4 ,what were the laws made use of by ,newton in working out his grand discovery8 ,the law of falling bodies disclosed by ,galileo2 that of the composition of forces also disclosed by ,galileo2 and that of centrifugal force found out by ,huyghens--all of them generalizations of terrestrial physics4 ,yet1 with facts like these before him1 ,m4 ,comte places astronomy before physics in order of evolution6 ,he does not compare the geometrical parts of the two together1 and the mechanical parts of the two together2 for this would by no means suit his hypothesis4 ,but he compares the geometrical part of the one with the mechanical part of the other1 and so gives a semblance of truth to his position4 ,he is led away by a verbal delusion4 ,had he confined his attention to the things and disregarded the words1 he would have seen that before mankind scientifically co-ordinated any one class of phenomena displayed in the heavens1 they had previously co-ordinated a parallel class of phenomena displayed upon the surface of the earth4 ,were it needful we could fill a score pages with the incongruities of ,m4 ,comte's scheme4 ,but the foregoing samples will suffice4 ,so far is his law of evolution of the sciences from being tenable1 that1 by following his example1 and arbitrarily ignoring one class of facts1 it would be possible to present1 with great plausibility1 just the opposite generalization to that which he enunciates4 ,while he asserts that the rational order of the sciences1 like the order of their historic development1 is determined by the degree of simplicity1 or1 what comes to the same thing1 of generality of their phenomena2 it might contrariwise be asserted1 that1 commencing with the complex and the special1 mankind have progressed step by step to a knowledge of greater simplicity and wider generality4 ,so much evidence is there of this as to have drawn from ,whewell1 in his ,history of the ,inductive ,sciences1 the general remark that the reader has already seen repeatedly in the course of this history1 complex and derivative principles presenting themselves to men's minds before simple and elementary ones4 ,even from ,m4 ,comte's own work1 numerous facts1 admissions1 and arguments1 might be picked out1 tending to show this4 ,we have already quoted his words in proof that both abstract and concrete mathematics have progressed towards a higher degree of generality1 and that he looks forward to a higher generality still4 ,just to strengthen this adverse hypothesis1 let us take a further instance4 ,from the particular case of the scales1 the law of equilibrium of which was familiar to the earliest nations known1 ,archimedes advanced to the more general case of the unequal lever with unequal weights2 the law of equilibrium of which includes that of the scales4 ,by the help of ,galileo's discovery concerning the composition of forces1 ,d',alembert established1 for the first time1 the equations of equilibrium of any system of forces applied to the different points of a solid body--equations which include all cases of levers and an infinity of cases besides4 ,clearly this is progress towards a higher generality--towards a knowledge more independent of special circumstances--towards a study of phenomena the most disengaged from the incidents of particular cases2 which is ,m4 ,comte's definition of the most simple phenomena4 ,does it not indeed follow from the familiarly admitted fact1 that mental advance is from the concrete to the abstract1 from the particular to the general1 that the universal and therefore most simple truths are the last to be discovered8 ,is not the government of the solar system by a force varying inversely as the square of the distance1 a simpler conception than any that preceded it8 ,should we ever succeed in reducing all orders of phenomena to some single law--say of atomic action1 as ,m4 ,comte suggests--must not that law answer to his test of being independent of all others1 and therefore most simple8 ,and would not such a law generalize the phenomena of gravity1 cohesion1 atomic affinity1 and electric repulsion1 just as the laws of number generalize the quantitative phenomena of space1 time and force8 ,the possibility of saying so much in support of an hypothesis the very reverse of ,m4 ,comte's1 at once proves that his generalization is only a half-truth4 ,the fact is1 that neither proposition is correct by itself2 and the actuality is expressed only by putting the two together4 ,the progress of science is duplex3 it is at once from the special to the general1 and from the general to the special3 it is analytical and synthetical at the same time4 ,m4 ,comte himself observes that the evolution of science has been accomplished by the division of labour2 but he quite misstates the mode in which this division of labour has operated4 ,as he describes it1 it has simply been an arrangement of phenomena into classes1 and the study of each class by itself4 ,he does not recognise the constant effect of progress in each class upon all other classes2 but only on the class succeeding it in his hierarchical scale4 ,or if he occasionally admits collateral influences and intercommunications1 he does it so grudgingly1 and so quickly puts the admissions out of sight and forgets them1 as to leave the impression that1 with but trifling exceptions1 the sciences aid each other only in the order of their alleged succession4 ,the fact is1 however1 that the division of labour in science1 like the division of labour in society1 and like the physiological division of labour in individual organisms1 has been not only a specialization of functions1 but a continuous helping of each division by all the others1 and of all by each4 ,every particular class of inquirers has1 as it were1 secreted its own particular order of truths from the general mass of material which observation accumulates2 and all other classes of inquirers have made use of these truths as fast as they were elaborated1 with the effect of enabling them the better to elaborate each its own order of truths4 ,it was thus in sundry of the cases we have quoted as at variance with ,m4 ,comte's doctrine4 ,it was thus with the application of ,huyghens's optical discovery to astronomical observation by ,galileo4 ,it was thus with the application of the isochronism of the pendulum to the making of instruments for measuring intervals1 astronomical and other4 ,it was thus when the discovery that the refraction and dispersion of light did not follow the same law of variation1 affected both astronomy and physiology by giving us achromatic telescopes and microscopes4 ,it was thus when ,bradley's discovery of the aberration of light enabled him to make the first step towards ascertaining the motions of the stars4 ,it was thus when ,cavendish's torsion-balance experiment determined the specific gravity of the earth1 and so gave a datum for calculating the specific gravities of the sun and planets4 ,it was thus when tables of atmospheric refraction enabled observers to write down the real places of the heavenly bodies instead of their apparent places4 ,it was thus when the discovery of the different expansibilities of metals by heat1 gave us the means of correcting our chronometrical measurements of astronomical periods4 ,it was thus when the lines of the prismatic spectrum were used to distinguish the heavenly bodies that are of like nature with the sun from those which are not4 ,it was thus when1 as recently1 an electro-telegraphic instrument was invented for the more accurate registration of meridional transits4 ,it was thus when the difference in the rates of a clock at the equator1 and nearer the poles1 gave data for calculating the oblateness of the earth1 and accounting for the precession of the equinoxes4 ,it was thus--but it is needless to continue4 ,here1 within our own limited knowledge of its history1 we have named ten additional cases in which the single science of astronomy has owed its advance to sciences coming after it in ,m4 ,comte's series4 ,not only its secondary steps1 but its greatest revolutions have been thus determined4 ,kepler could not have discovered his celebrated laws had it not been for ,tycho ,brahe's accurate observations2 and it was only after some progress in physical and chemical science that the improved instruments with which those observations were made1 became possible4 ,the heliocentric theory of the solar system had to wait until the invention of the telescope before it could be finally established4 ,nay1 even the grand discovery of all--the law of gravitation--depended for its proof upon an operation of physical science1 the measurement of a degree on the ,earth's surface4 ,so completely indeed did it thus depend1 that ,newton had actually abandoned his hypothesis because the length of a degree1 as then stated1 brought out wrong results2 and it was only after ,picard's more exact measurement was published1 that he returned to his calculations and proved his great generalization4 ,now this constant intercommunion1 which1 for brevity's sake1 we have illustrated in the case of one science only1 has been taking place with all the sciences4 ,throughout the whole course of their evolution there has been a continuous consensus of the sciences--a consensus exhibiting a general correspondence with the consensus of faculties in each phase of mental development2 the one being an objective registry of the subjective state of the other4 99 99 99 99 99 ,from our present point of view1 then1 it becomes obvious that the conception of a serial arrangement of the sciences is a vicious one4 ,it is not simply that the schemes we have examined are untenable2 but it is that the sciences cannot be rightly placed in any linear order whatever4 ,it is not simply that1 as ,m4 ,comte admits1 a classification will always involve something1 if not arbitrary1 at least artificial2 it is not1 as he would have us believe1 that1 neglecting minor imperfections a classification may be substantially true2 but it is that any grouping of the sciences in a succession gives a radically erroneous idea of their genesis and their dependencies4 ,there is no one rational order among a host of possible systems4 ,there is no true filiation of the sciences4 ,the whole hypothesis is fundamentally false4 ,indeed1 it needs but a glance at its origin to see at once how baseless it is4 ,why a series8 ,what reason have we to suppose that the sciences admit of a linear arrangement8 ,where is our warrant for assuming that there is some succession in which they can be placed8 ,there is no reason2 no warrant4 ,whence then has arisen the supposition8 ,to use ,m4 ,comte's own phraseology1 we should say1 it is a metaphysical conception4 ,it adds another to the cases constantly occurring1 of the human mind being made the measure of ,nature4 ,we are obliged to think in sequence2 it is the law of our minds that we must consider subjects separately1 one after another3 therefore ,nature must be serial--therefore the sciences must be classifiable in a succession4 ,see here the birth of the notion1 and the sole evidence of its truth4 ,men have been obliged when arranging in books their schemes of education and systems of knowledge1 to choose some order or other4 ,and from inquiring what is the best order1 have naturally fallen into the belief that there is an order which truly represents the facts--have persevered in seeking such an order2 quite overlooking the previous question whether it is likely that ,nature has consulted the convenience of book-making4 ,for ,german philosophers1 who hold that ,nature is petrified intelligence1 and that logical forms are the foundations of all things1 it is a consistent hypothesis that as thought is serial1 ,nature is serial2 but that ,m4 ,comte1 who is so bitter an opponent of all anthropomorphism1 even in its most evanescent shapes1 should have committed the mistake of imposing upon the external world an arrangement which so obviously springs from a limitation of the human consciousness1 is somewhat strange4 ,and it is the more strange when we call to mind how1 at the outset1 ,m4 ,comte remarks that in the beginning toutes les sciences sont cultivees simultanement par les memes esprits2 that this is inevitable et meme indispensable2 and how he further remarks that the different sciences are comme les diverses branches d'un tronc unique4 ,were it not accounted for by the distorting influence of a cherished hypothesis1 it would be scarcely possible to understand how1 after recognising truths like these1 ,m4 ,comte should have persisted in attempting to construct une echelle encyclopedique4 ,the metaphor which ,m4 ,comte has here so inconsistently used to express the relations of the sciences--branches of one trunk--is an approximation to the truth1 though not the truth itself4 ,it suggests the facts that the sciences had a common origin2 that they have been developing simultaneously2 and that they have been from time to time dividing and sub-dividing4 ,but it does not suggest the yet more important fact1 that the divisions and sub-divisions thus arising do not remain separate1 but now and again re-unite in direct and indirect ways4 ,they inosculate2 they severally send off and receive connecting growths2 and the intercommunion has been ever becoming more frequent1 more intricate1 more widely ramified4 ,there has all along been higher specialization1 that there might be a larger generalization2 and a deeper analysis1 that there might be a better synthesis4 ,each larger generalization has lifted sundry specializations still higher2 and each better synthesis has prepared the way for still deeper analysis4 ,and here we may fitly enter upon the task awhile since indicated--a sketch of the ,genesis of ,science1 regarded as a gradual outgrowth from common knowledge--an extension of the perceptions by the aid of the reason4 ,we propose to treat it as a psychological process historically displayed2 tracing at the same time the advance from qualitative to quantitative prevision2 the progress from concrete facts to abstract facts1 and the application of such abstract facts to the analysis of new orders of concrete facts2 the simultaneous advance in generalization and specialization2 the continually increasing subdivision and reunion of the sciences2 and their constantly improving consensus4 99 99 99 99 99 ,to trace out scientific evolution from its deepest roots would1 of course1 involve a complete analysis of the mind4 ,for as science is a development of that common knowledge acquired by the unaided senses and uncultured reason1 so is that common knowledge itself gradually built up out of the simplest perceptions4 ,we must1 therefore1 begin somewhere abruptly2 and the most appropriate stage to take for our point of departure will be the adult mind of the savage4 ,commencing thus1 without a proper preliminary analysis1 we are naturally somewhat at a loss how to present1 in a satisfactory manner1 those fundamental processes of thought out of which science ultimately originates4 ,perhaps our argument may be best initiated by the proposition1 that all intelligent action whatever depends upon the discerning of distinctions among surrounding things4 ,the condition under which only it is possible for any creature to obtain food and avoid danger is1 that it shall be differently affected by different objects--that it shall be led to act in one way by one object1 and in another way by another4 ,in the lower orders of creatures this condition is fulfilled by means of an apparatus which acts automatically4 ,in the higher orders the actions are partly automatic1 partly conscious4 ,and in man they are almost wholly conscious4 ,throughout1 however1 there must necessarily exist a certain classification of things according to their properties--a classification which is either organically registered in the system1 as in the inferior creation1 or is formed by experience1 as in ourselves4 ,and it may be further remarked1 that the extent to which this classification is carried1 roughly indicates the height of intelligence--that1 while the lowest organisms are able to do little more than discriminate organic from inorganic matter2 while the generality of animals carry their classifications no further than to a limited number of plants or creatures serving for food1 a limited number of beasts of prey1 and a limited number of places and materials2 the most degraded of the human race possess a knowledge of the distinctive natures of a great variety of substances1 plants1 animals1 tools1 persons1 c41 not only as classes but as individuals4 ,what now is the mental process by which classification is effected8 ,manifestly it is a recognition of the likeness or unlikeness of things1 either in respect of their sizes1 colours1 forms1 weights1 textures1 tastes1 c41 or in respect of their modes of action4 ,by some special mark1 sound1 or motion1 the savage identifies a certain four-legged creature he sees1 as one that is good for food1 and to be caught in a particular way2 or as one that is dangerous2 and acts accordingly4 ,he has classed together all the creatures that are alike in this particular4 ,and manifestly in choosing the wood out of which to form his bow1 the plant with which to poison his arrows1 the bone from which to make his fish-hooks1 he identifies them through their chief sensible properties as belonging to the general classes1 wood1 plant1 and bone1 but distinguishes them as belonging to sub-classes by virtue of certain properties in which they are unlike the rest of the general classes they belong to2 and so forms genera and species4 ,and here it becomes manifest that not only is classification carried on by grouping together in the mind things that are like2 but that classes and sub-classes are formed and arranged according to the degrees of unlikeness4 ,things widely contrasted are alone distinguished in the lower stages of mental evolution2 as may be any day observed in an infant4 ,and gradually as the powers of discrimination increase1 the widely contrasted classes at first distinguished1 come to be each divided into sub-classes1 differing from each other less than the classes differ2 and these sub-classes are again divided after the same manner4 ,by the continuance of which process1 things are gradually arranged into groups1 the members of which are less and less unlike2 ending1 finally1 in groups whose members differ only as individuals1 and not specifically4 ,and thus there tends ultimately to arise the notion of complete likeness4 ,for manifestly1 it is impossible that groups should continue to be sub-divided in virtue of smaller and smaller differences1 without there being a simultaneous approximation to the notion of no difference4 ,let us next notice that the recognition of likeness and unlikeness1 which underlies classification1 and out of which continued classification evolves the idea of complete likeness--let us next notice that it also underlies the process of naming1 and by consequence language4 ,for all language consists1 at the beginning1 of symbols which are as like to the things symbolized as it is practicable to make them4 ,the language of signs is a means of conveying ideas by mimicking the actions or peculiarities of the things referred to4 ,verbal language is also1 at the beginning1 a mode of suggesting objects or acts by imitating the sounds which the objects make1 or with which the acts are accompanied4 ,originally these two languages were used simultaneously4 ,it needs but to watch the gesticulations with which the savage accompanies his speech--to see a ,bushman or a ,kaffir dramatizing before an audience his mode of catching game--or to note the extreme paucity of words in all primitive vocabularies2 to infer that at first1 attitudes1 gestures1 and sounds1 were all combined to produce as good a likeness as possible1 of the things1 animals1 persons1 or events described2 and that as the sounds came to be understood by themselves the gestures fell into disuse3 leaving traces1 however1 in the manners of the more excitable civilized races4 ,but be this as it may1 it suffices simply to observe1 how many of the words current among barbarous peoples are like the sounds appertaining to the things signified2 how many of our own oldest and simplest words have the same peculiarity2 how children tend to invent imitative words2 and how the sign-language spontaneously formed by deaf mutes is invariably based upon imitative actions--to at once see that the notion of likeness is that from which the nomenclature of objects takes its rise4 ,were there space we might go on to point out how this law of life is traceable1 not only in the origin but in the development of language2 how in primitive tongues the plural is made by a duplication of the singular1 which is a multiplication of the word to make it like the multiplicity of the things2 how the use of metaphor--that prolific source of new words--is a suggesting of ideas that are like the ideas to be conveyed in some respect or other2 and how1 in the copious use of simile1 fable1 and allegory among uncivilized races1 we see that complex conceptions1 which there is yet no direct language for1 are rendered1 by presenting known conceptions more or less like them4 ,this view is further confirmed1 and the predominance of this notion of likeness in primitive times further illustrated1 by the fact that our system of presenting ideas to the eye originated after the same fashion4 ,writing and printing have descended from picture-language4 ,the earliest mode of permanently registering a fact was by depicting it on a wall2 that is--by exhibiting something as like to the thing to be remembered as it could be made4 ,gradually as the practice grew habitual and extensive1 the most frequently repeated forms became fixed1 and presently abbreviated2 and1 passing through the hieroglyphic and ideographic phases1 the symbols lost all apparent relations to the things signified3 just as the majority of our spoken words have done4 ,observe again1 that the same thing is true respecting the genesis of reasoning4 ,the likeness that is perceived to exist between cases1 is the essence of all early reasoning and of much of our present reasoning4 ,the savage1 having by experience discovered a relation between a certain object and a certain act1 infers that the like relation will be found in future cases4 ,and the expressions we constantly use in our arguments--analogy implies1 the cases are not parallel1 by parity of reasoning1 there is no similarity1--show how constantly the idea of likeness underlies our ratiocinative processes4 ,still more clearly will this be seen on recognising the fact that there is a certain parallelism between reasoning and classification2 that the two have a common root2 and that neither can go on without the other4 ,for on the one hand1 it is a familiar truth that the attributing to a body in consequence of some of its properties1 all those other properties in virtue of which it is referred to a particular class1 is an act of inference4 ,and1 on the other hand1 the forming of a generalization is the putting together in one class1 all those cases which present like relations2 while the drawing a deduction is essentially the perception that a particular case belongs to a certain class of cases previously generalized4 ,so that as classification is a grouping together of like things2 reasoning is a grouping together of like relations among things4 ,add to which1 that while the perfection gradually achieved in classification consists in the formation of groups of objects which are completely alike2 the perfection gradually achieved in reasoning consists in the formation of groups of cases which are completely alike4 ,once more we may contemplate this dominant idea of likeness as exhibited in art4 ,all art1 civilized as well as savage1 consists almost wholly in the making of objects like other objects2 either as found in ,nature1 or as produced by previous art4 ,if we trace back the varied art-products now existing1 we find that at each stage the divergence from previous patterns is but small when compared with the agreement2 and in the earliest art the persistency of imitation is yet more conspicuous4 ,the old forms and ornaments and symbols were held sacred1 and perpetually copied4 ,indeed1 the strong imitative tendency notoriously displayed by the lowest human races1 ensures among them a constant reproducing of likenesses of things1 forms1 signs1 sounds1 actions1 and whatever else is imitable2 and we may even suspect that this aboriginal peculiarity is in some way connected with the culture and development of this general conception1 which we have found so deep and widespread in its applications4 ,and now let us go on to consider how1 by a further unfolding of this same fundamental notion1 there is a gradual formation of the first germs of science4 ,this idea of likeness which underlies classification1 nomenclature1 language spoken and written1 reasoning1 and art2 and which plays so important a part because all acts of intelligence are made possible only by distinguishing among surrounding things1 or grouping them into like and unlike2--this idea we shall find to be the one of which science is the especial product4 ,already during the stage we have been describing1 there has existed qualitative prevision in respect to the commoner phenomena with which savage life is familiar2 and we have now to inquire how the elements of quantitative prevision are evolved4 ,we shall find that they originate by the perfecting of this same idea of likeness2 that they have their rise in that conception of complete likeness which1 as we have seen1 necessarily results from the continued process of classification4 ,for when the process of classification has been carried as far as it is possible for the uncivilized to carry it--when the animal kingdom has been grouped not merely into quadrupeds1 birds1 fishes1 and insects1 but each of these divided into kinds--when there come to be sub-classes1 in each of which the members differ only as individuals1 and not specifically2 it is clear that there must occur a frequent observation of objects which differ so little as to be indistinguishable4 ,among several creatures which the savage has killed and carried home1 it must often happen that some one1 which he wished to identify1 is so exactly like another that he cannot tell which is which4 ,thus1 then1 there originates the notion of equality4 ,the things which among ourselves are called equal--whether lines1 angles1 weights1 temperatures1 sounds or colours--are things which produce in us sensations that cannot be distinguished from each other4 ,it is true that we now apply the word equal chiefly to the separate phenomena which objects exhibit1 and not to groups of phenomena2 but this limitation of the idea has evidently arisen by subsequent analysis4 ,and that the notion of equality did thus originate1 will1 we think1 become obvious on remembering that as there were no artificial objects from which it could have been abstracted1 it must have been abstracted from natural objects2 and that the various families of the animal kingdom chiefly furnish those natural objects which display the requisite exactitude of likeness4 ,the same order of experiences out of which this general idea of equality is evolved1 gives birth at the same time to a more complex idea of equality2 or1 rather1 the process just described generates an idea of equality which further experience separates into two ideas--equality of things and equality of relations4 ,while organic1 and more especially animal forms1 occasionally exhibit this perfection of likeness out of which the notion of simple equality arises1 they more frequently exhibit only that kind of likeness which we call similarity2 and which is really compound equality4 ,for the similarity of two creatures of the same species but of different sizes1 is of the same nature as the similarity of two geometrical figures4 ,in either case1 any two parts of the one bear the same ratio to one another1 as the homologous parts of the other4 ,given in any species1 the proportions found to exist among the bones1 and we may1 and zoologists do1 predict from any one1 the dimensions of the rest2 just as1 when knowing the proportions subsisting among the parts of a geometrical figure1 we may1 from the length of one1 calculate the others4 ,and if1 in the case of similar geometrical figures1 the similarity can be established only by proving exactness of proportion among the homologous parts2 if we express this relation between two parts in the one1 and the corresponding parts in the other1 by the formula ,a is to ,b as a is to b2 if we otherwise write this1 ,a to ,b a to b2 if1 consequently1 the fact we prove is that the relation of ,a to ,b equals the relation of a to b2 then it is manifest that the fundamental conception of similarity is equality of relations4 ,with this explanation we shall be understood when we say that the notion of equality of relations is the basis of all exact reasoning4 ,already it has been shown that reasoning in general is a recognition of likeness of relations2 and here we further find that while the notion of likeness of things ultimately evolves the idea of simple equality1 the notion of likeness of relations evolves the idea of equality of relations3 of which the one is the concrete germ of exact science1 while the other is its abstract germ4 ,those who cannot understand how the recognition of similarity in creatures of the same kind1 can have any alliance with reasoning1 will get over the difficulty on remembering that the phenomena among which equality of relations is thus perceived1 are phenomena of the same order and are present to the senses at the same time2 while those among which developed reason perceives relations1 are generally neither of the same order1 nor simultaneously present4 ,and if further1 they will call to mind how ,cuvier and ,owen1 from a single part of a creature1 as a tooth1 construct the rest by a process of reasoning based on this equality of relations1 they will see that the two things are intimately connected1 remote as they at first seem4 ,but we anticipate4 ,what it concerns us here to observe is1 that from familiarity with organic forms there simultaneously arose the ideas of simple equality1 and equality of relations4 ,at the same time1 too1 and out of the same mental processes1 came the first distinct ideas of number4 ,in the earliest stages1 the presentation of several like objects produced merely an indefinite conception of multiplicity2 as it still does among ,australians1 and ,bushmen1 and ,damaras1 when the number presented exceeds three or four4 ,with such a fact before us we may safely infer that the first clear numerical conception was that of duality as contrasted with unity4 ,and this notion of duality must necessarily have grown up side by side with those of likeness and equality2 seeing that it is impossible to recognise the likeness of two things without also perceiving that there are two4 ,from the very beginning the conception of number must have been1 as it is still1 associated with the likeness or equality of the things numbered4 ,if we analyze it1 we find that simple enumeration is a registration of repeated impressions of any kind4 ,that these may be capable of enumeration it is needful that they be more or less alike2 and before any absolutely true numerical results can be reached1 it is requisite that the units be absolutely equal4 ,the only way in which we can establish a numerical relationship between things that do not yield us like impressions1 is to divide them into parts that do yield us like impressions4 ,two unlike magnitudes of extension1 force1 time1 weight1 or what not1 can have their relative amounts estimated1 only by means of some small unit that is contained many times in both2 and even if we finally write down the greater one as a unit and the other as a fraction of it1 we state1 in the denominator of the fraction1 the number of parts into which the unit must be divided to be comparable with the fraction4 ,it is1 indeed1 true1 that by an evidently modern process of abstraction1 we occasionally apply numbers to unequal units1 as the furniture at a sale or the various animals on a farm1 simply as so many separate entities2 but no true result can be brought out by calculation with units of this order4 ,and1 indeed1 it is the distinctive peculiarity of the calculus in general1 that it proceeds on the hypothesis of that absolute equality of its abstract units1 which no real units possess2 and that the exactness of its results holds only in virtue of this hypothesis4 ,the first ideas of number must necessarily then have been derived from like or equal magnitudes as seen chiefly in organic objects2 and as the like magnitudes most frequently observed were magnitudes of extension1 it follows that geometry and arithmetic had a simultaneous origin4 ,not only are the first distinct ideas of number co-ordinate with ideas of likeness and equality1 but the first efforts at numeration displayed the same relationship4 ,on reading the accounts of various savage tribes1 we find that the method of counting by the fingers1 still followed by many children1 is the aboriginal method4 ,neglecting the several cases in which the ability to enumerate does not reach even to the number of fingers on one hand1 there are many cases in which it does not extend beyond ten--the limit of the simple finger notation4 ,the fact that in so many instances1 remote1 and seemingly unrelated nations1 have adopted ten as their basic number2 together with the fact that in the remaining instances the basic number is either five 7the fingers of one hand7 or twenty 7the fingers and toes72 almost of themselves show that the fingers were the original units of numeration4 ,the still surviving use of the word digit1 as the general name for a figure in arithmetic1 is significant2 and it is even said that our word ten 7,sax4 tyn2 ,dutch1 tien2 ,german1 zehn7 means in its primitive expanded form two hands4 ,so that originally1 to say there were ten things1 was to say there were two hands of them4 ,from all which evidence it is tolerably clear that the earliest mode of conveying the idea of any number of things1 was by holding up as many fingers as there were things2 that is--using a symbol which was equal1 in respect of multiplicity1 to the group symbolized4 ,for which inference there is1 indeed1 strong confirmation in the recent statement that our own soldiers are even now spontaneously adopting this device in their dealings with the ,turks4 ,and here it should be remarked that in this recombination of the notion of equality with that of multiplicity1 by which the first steps in numeration are effected1 we may see one of the earliest of those inosculations between the diverging branches of science1 which are afterwards of perpetual occurrence4 ,indeed1 as this observation suggests1 it will be well1 before tracing the mode in which exact science finally emerges from the merely approximate judgments of the senses1 and showing the non-serial evolution of its divisions1 to note the non-serial character of those preliminary processes of which all after development is a continuation4 ,on re-considering them it will be seen that not only are they divergent growths from a common root1--not only are they simultaneous in their progress2 but that they are mutual aids2 and that none can advance without the rest4 ,that completeness of classification for which the unfolding of the perceptions paves the way1 is impossible without a corresponding progress in language1 by which greater varieties of objects are thinkable and expressible4 ,on the one hand it is impossible to carry classification far without names by which to designate the classes2 and on the other hand it is impossible to make language faster than things are classified4 ,again1 the multiplication of classes and the consequent narrowing of each class1 itself involves a greater likeness among the things classed together2 and the consequent approach towards the notion of complete likeness itself allows classification to be carried higher4 ,moreover1 classification necessarily advances pari passu with rationality--the classification of things with the classification of relations4 ,for things that belong to the same class are1 by implication1 things of which the properties and modes of behaviour--the co-existences and sequences--are more or less the same2 and the recognition of this sameness of co-existences and sequences is reasoning4 ,whence it follows that the advance of classification is necessarily proportionate to the advance of generalizations4 ,yet further1 the notion of likeness1 both in things and relations1 simultaneously evolves by one process of culture the ideas of equality of things and equality of relations2 which are the respective bases of exact concrete reasoning and exact abstract reasoning--,mathematics and ,logic4 ,and once more1 this idea of equality1 in the very process of being formed1 necessarily gives origin to two series of relations--those of magnitude and those of number3 from which arise geometry and the calculus4 ,thus the process throughout is one of perpetual subdivision and perpetual intercommunication of the divisions4 ,from the very first there has been that consensus of different kinds of knowledge1 answering to the consensus of the intellectual faculties1 which1 as already said1 must exist among the sciences4 ,let us now go on to observe how1 out of the notions of equality and number1 as arrived at in the manner described1 there gradually arose the elements of quantitative prevision4 ,equality1 once having come to be definitely conceived1 was readily applicable to other phenomena than those of magnitude4 ,being predicable of all things producing indistinguishable impressions1 there naturally grew up ideas of equality in weights1 sounds1 colours1 c42 and indeed it can scarcely be doubted that the occasional experience of equal weights1 sounds1 and colours1 had a share in developing the abstract conception of equality--that the ideas of equality in size1 relations1 forces1 resistances1 and sensible properties in general1 were evolved during the same period4 ,but however this may be1 it is clear that as fast as the notion of equality gained definiteness1 so fast did that lowest kind of quantitative prevision which is achieved without any instrumental aid1 become possible4 ,the ability to estimate1 however roughly1 the amount of a foreseen result1 implies the conception that it will be equal to a certain imagined quantity2 and the correctness of the estimate will manifestly depend upon the accuracy at which the perceptions of sensible equality have arrived4 ,a savage with a piece of stone in his hand1 and another piece lying before him of greater bulk but of the same kind 7a fact which he infers from the equality of the two in colour and texture7 knows about what effort he must put forth to raise this other piece2 and he judges accurately in proportion to the accuracy with which he perceives that the one is twice1 three times1 four times1 c4 as large as the other2 that is--in proportion to the precision of his ideas of equality and number4 ,and here let us not omit to notice that even in these vaguest of quantitative previsions1 the conception of equality of relations is also involved4 ,for it is only in virtue of an undefined perception that the relation between bulk and weight in the one stone is equal to the relation between bulk and weight in the other1 that even the roughest approximation can be made4 ,but how came the transition from those uncertain perceptions of equality which the unaided senses give1 to the certain ones with which science deals8 ,it came by placing the things compared in juxtaposition4 ,equality being predicated of things which give us indistinguishable impressions1 and no accurate comparison of impressions being possible unless they occur in immediate succession1 it results that exactness of equality is ascertainable in proportion to the closeness of the compared things4 ,hence the fact that when we wish to judge of two shades of colour whether they are alike or not1 we place them side by side2 hence the fact that we cannot1 with any precision1 say which of two allied sounds is the louder1 or the higher in pitch1 unless we hear the one immediately after the other2 hence the fact that to estimate the ratio of weights1 we take one in each hand1 that we may compare their pressures by rapidly alternating in thought from the one to the other2 hence the fact1 that in a piece of music1 we can continue to make equal beats when the first beat has been given1 but cannot ensure commencing with the same length of beat on a future occasion2 and hence1 lastly1 the fact1 that of all magnitudes1 those of linear extension are those of which the equality is most accurately ascertainable1 and those to which by consequence all others have to be reduced4 ,for it is the peculiarity of linear extension that it alone allows its magnitudes to be placed in absolute juxtaposition1 or1 rather1 in coincident position2 it alone can test the equality of two magnitudes by observing whether they will coalesce1 as two equal mathematical lines do1 when placed between the same points2 it alone can test equality by trying whether it will become identity4 ,hence1 then1 the fact1 that all exact science is reducible1 by an ultimate analysis1 to results measured in equal units of linear extension4 ,still it remains to be noticed in what manner this determination of equality by comparison of linear magnitudes originated4 ,once more may we perceive that surrounding natural objects supplied the needful lessons4 ,from the beginning there must have been a constant experience of like things placed side by side--men standing and walking together2 animals from the same herd2 fish from the same shoal4 ,and the ceaseless repetition of these experiences could not fail to suggest the observation1 that the nearer together any objects were1 the more visible became any inequality between them4 ,hence the obvious device of putting in apposition1 things of which it was desired to ascertain the relative magnitudes4 ,hence the idea of measure4 ,and here we suddenly come upon a group of facts which afford a solid basis to the remainder of our argument2 while they also furnish strong evidence in support of the foregoing speculations4 ,those who look sceptically on this attempted rehabilitation of the earliest epochs of mental development1 and who more especially think that the derivation of so many primary notions from organic forms is somewhat strained1 will perhaps see more probability in the several hypotheses that have been ventured1 on discovering that all measures of extension and force originated from the lengths and weights of organic bodies2 and all measures of time from the periodic phenomena of either organic or inorganic bodies4 ,thus1 among linear measures1 the cubit of the ,hebrews was the length of the forearm from the elbow to the end of the middle finger2 and the smaller scriptural dimensions are expressed in hand-breadths and spans4 ,the ,egyptian cubit1 which was similarly derived1 was divided into digits1 which were finger-breadths2 and each finger-breadth was more definitely expressed as being equal to four grains of barley placed breadthwise4 ,other ancient measures were the orgyia or stretch of the arms1 the pace1 and the palm4 ,so persistent has been the use of these natural units of length in the ,east1 that even now some of the ,arabs mete out cloth by the forearm4 ,so1 too1 is it with ,european measures4 ,the foot prevails as a dimension throughout ,europe1 and has done since the time of the ,romans1 by whom1 also1 it was used3 its lengths in different places varying not much more than men's feet vary4 ,the heights of horses are still expressed in hands4 ,the inch is the length of the terminal joint of the thumb2 as is clearly shown in ,france1 where pouce means both thumb and inch4 ,then we have the inch divided into three barley-corns4 ,so completely1 indeed1 have these organic dimensions served as the substrata of all mensuration1 that it is only by means of them that we can form any estimate of some of the ancient distances4 ,for example1 the length of a degree on the ,earth's surface1 as determined by the ,arabian astronomers shortly after the death of ,haroun-al-,raschid1 was fifty-six of their miles4 ,we know nothing of their mile further than that it was #djjj cubits2 and whether these were sacred cubits or common cubits1 would remain doubtful1 but that the length of the cubit is given as twenty-seven inches1 and each inch defined as the thickness of six barley-grains4 ,thus one of the earliest measurements of a degree comes down to us in barley-grains4 ,not only did organic lengths furnish those approximate measures which satisfied men's needs in ruder ages1 but they furnished also the standard measures required in later times4 ,one instance occurs in our own history4 ,to remedy the irregularities then prevailing1 ,henry ,i4 commanded that the ulna1 or ancient ell1 which answers to the modern yard1 should be made of the exact length of his own arm4 ,measures of weight again had a like derivation4 ,seeds seem commonly to have supplied the unit4 ,the original of the carat used for weighing in ,india is a small bean4 ,our own systems1 both troy and avoirdupois1 are derived1 primarily from wheat-corns4 ,our smallest weight1 the grain1 is a grain of wheat4 ,this is not a speculation2 it is an historically registered fact4 ,henry ,,iii4 enacted that an ounce should be the weight of #fdj dry grains of wheat from the middle of the ear4 ,and as all the other weights are multiples or sub-multiples of this1 it follows that the grain of wheat is the basis of our scale4 ,so natural is it to use organic bodies as weights1 before artificial weights have been established1 or where they are not to be had1 that in some of the remoter parts of ,ireland the people are said to be in the habit1 even now1 of putting a man into the scales to serve as a measure for heavy commodities4 ,similarly with time4 ,astronomical periodicity1 and the periodicity of animal and vegetable life1 are simultaneously used in the first stages of progress for estimating epochs4 ,the simplest unit of time1 the day1 nature supplies ready made4 ,the next simplest period1 the mooneth or month1 is also thrust upon men's notice by the conspicuous changes constituting a lunation4 ,for larger divisions than these1 the phenomena of the seasons1 and the chief events from time to time occurring1 have been used by early and uncivilized races4 ,among the ,egyptians the rising of the ,nile served as a mark4 ,the ,new ,zealanders were found to begin their year from the reappearance of the ,pleiades above the sea4 ,one of the uses ascribed to birds1 by the ,greeks1 was to indicate the seasons by their migrations4 ,barrow describes the aboriginal ,hottentot as denoting periods by the number of moons before or after the ripening of one of his chief articles of food4 ,he further states that the ,kaffir chronology is kept by the moon1 and is registered by notches on sticks--the death of a favourite chief1 or the gaining of a victory1 serving for a new era4 ,by which last fact1 we are at once reminded that in early history1 events are commonly recorded as occurring in certain reigns1 and in certain years of certain reigns3 a proceeding which practically made a king's reign a measure of duration4 ,and1 as further illustrating the tendency to divide time by natural phenomena and natural events1 it may be noticed that even by our own peasantry the definite divisions of months and years are but little used2 and that they habitually refer to occurrences as before sheep-shearing1 or after harvest1 or about the time when the squire died4 ,it is manifest1 therefore1 that the more or less equal periods perceived in ,nature gave the first units of measure for time2 as did ,nature's more or less equal lengths and weights give the first units of measure for space and force4 ,it remains only to observe1 as further illustrating the evolution of quantitative ideas after this manner1 that measures of value were similarly derived4 ,barter1 in one form or other1 is found among all but the very lowest human races4 ,it is obviously based upon the notion of equality of worth4 ,and as it gradually merges into trade by the introduction of some kind of currency1 we find that the measures of worth1 constituting this currency1 are organic bodies2 in some cases cowries1 in others cocoa-nuts1 in others cattle1 in others pigs2 among the ,american ,indians peltry or skins1 and in ,iceland dried fish4 ,notions of exact equality and of measure having been reached1 there came to be definite ideas of relative magnitudes as being multiples one of another2 whence the practice of measurement by direct apposition of a measure4 ,the determination of linear extensions by this process can scarcely be called science1 though it is a step towards it2 but the determination of lengths of time by an analogous process may be considered as one of the earliest samples of quantitative prevision4 ,for when it is first ascertained that the moon completes the cycle of her changes in about thirty days--a fact known to most uncivilized tribes that can count beyond the number of their fingers--it is manifest that it becomes possible to say in what number of days any specified phase of the moon will recur2 and it is also manifest that this prevision is effected by an opposition of two times1 after the same manner that linear space is measured by the opposition of two lines4 ,for to express the moon's period in days1 is to say how many of these units of measure are contained in the period to be measured--is to ascertain the distance between two points in time by means of a scale of days1 just as we ascertain the distance between two points in space by a scale of feet or inches3 and in each case the scale coincides with the thing measured--mentally in the one2 visibly in the other4 ,so that in this simplest1 and perhaps earliest case of quantitative prevision1 the phenomena are not only thrust daily upon men's notice1 but ,nature is1 as it were1 perpetually repeating that process of measurement by observing which the prevision is effected4 ,and thus there may be significance in the remark which some have made1 that alike in ,hebrew1 ,greek1 and ,latin1 there is an affinity between the word meaning moon1 and that meaning measure4 ,this fact1 that in very early stages of social progress it is known that the moon goes through her changes in about thirty days1 and that in about twelve moons the seasons return--this fact that chronological astronomy assumes a certain scientific character even before geometry does2 while it is partly due to the circumstance that the astronomical divisions1 day1 month1 and year1 are ready made for us1 is partly due to the further circumstances that agricultural and other operations were at first regulated astronomically1 and that from the supposed divine nature of the heavenly bodies their motions determined the periodical religious festivals4 ,as instances of the one we have the observation of the ,egyptians1 that the rising of the ,nile corresponded with the heliacal rising of ,sirius2 the directions given by ,hesiod for reaping and ploughing1 according to the positions of the ,pleiades2 and his maxim that fifty days after the turning of the sun is a seasonable time for beginning a voyage4 ,as instances of the other1 we have the naming of the days after the sun1 moon1 and planets2 the early attempts among ,eastern nations to regulate the calendar so that the gods might not be offended by the displacement of their sacrifices2 and the fixing of the great annual festival of the ,peruvians by the position of the sun4 ,in all which facts we see that1 at first1 science was simply an appliance of religion and industry4 ,after the discoveries that a lunation occupies nearly thirty days1 and that some twelve lunations occupy a year--discoveries of which there is no historical account1 but which may be inferred as the earliest1 from the fact that existing uncivilized races have made them--we come to the first known astronomical records1 which are those of eclipses4 ,the ,chaldeans were able to predict these4 ,this they did1 probably1 says ,dr4 ,whewell in his useful history1 from which most of the materials we are about to use will be drawn1 by means of their cycle of #bbc months1 or about eighteen years2 for at the end of this time1 the eclipses of the moon begin to return1 at the same intervals and in the same order as at the beginning4 ,now this method of calculating eclipses by means of a recurring cycle1--the ,saros as they called it--is a more complex case of prevision by means of coincidence of measures4 ,for by what observations must the ,chaldeans have discovered this cycle8 ,obviously1 as ,delambre infers1 by inspecting their registers2 by comparing the successive intervals2 by finding that some of the intervals were alike2 by seeing that these equal intervals were eighteen years apart2 by discovering that all the intervals that were eighteen years apart were equal2 by ascertaining that the intervals formed a series which repeated itself1 so that if one of the cycles of intervals were superposed on another the divisions would fit4 ,this once perceived1 and it manifestly became possible to use the cycle as a scale of time by which to measure out future periods4 ,seeing thus that the process of so predicting eclipses1 is in essence the same as that of predicting the moon's monthly changes by observing the number of days after which they repeat--seeing that the two differ only in the extent and irregularity of the intervals1 it is not difficult to understand how such an amount of knowledge should so early have been reached4 ,and we shall be less surprised1 on remembering that the only things involved in these previsions were time and number2 and that the time was in a manner self-numbered4 ,still1 the ability to predict events recurring only after so long a period as eighteen years1 implies a considerable advance in civilization--a considerable development of general knowledge2 and we have now to inquire what progress in other sciences accompanied1 and was necessary to1 these astronomical previsions4 ,in the first place1 there must clearly have been a tolerably efficient system of calculation4 ,mere finger-counting1 mere head-reckoning1 even with the aid of a regular decimal notation1 could not have sufficed for numbering the days in a year2 much less the years1 months1 and days between eclipses4 ,consequently there must have been a mode of registering numbers2 probably even a system of numerals4 ,the earliest numerical records1 if we may judge by the practices of the less civilized races now existing1 were probably kept by notches cut on sticks1 or strokes marked on walls2 much as public-house scores are kept now4 ,and there seems reason to believe that the first numerals used were simply groups of straight strokes1 as some of the still-extant ,roman ones are2 leading us to suspect that these groups of strokes were used to represent groups of fingers1 as the groups of fingers had been used to represent groups of objects--a supposition quite in conformity with the aboriginal system of picture writing and its subsequent modifications4 ,be this so or not1 however1 it is manifest that before the ,chaldeans discovered their ,saros1 there must have been both a set of written symbols serving for an extensive numeration1 and a familiarity with the simpler rules of arithmetic4 ,not only must abstract mathematics have made some progress1 but concrete mathematics also4 ,it is scarcely possible that the buildings belonging to this era should have been laid out and erected without any knowledge of geometry4 ,at any rate1 there must have existed that elementary geometry which deals with direct measurement--with the apposition of lines2 and it seems that only after the discovery of those simple proceedings1 by which right angles are drawn1 and relative positions fixed1 could so regular an architecture be executed4 ,in the case of the other division of concrete mathematics--mechanics1 we have definite evidence of progress4 ,we know that the lever and the inclined plane were employed during this period3 implying that there was a qualitative prevision of their effects1 though not a quantitative one4 ,but we know more4 ,we read of weights in the earliest records2 and we find weights in ruins of the highest antiquity4 ,weights imply scales1 of which we have also mention2 and scales involve the primary theorem of mechanics in its least complicated form--involve not a qualitative but a quantitative prevision of mechanical effects4 ,and here we may notice how mechanics1 in common with the other exact sciences1 took its rise from the simplest application of the idea of equality4 ,for the mechanical proposition which the scales involve1 is1 that if a lever with equal arms1 have equal weights suspended from them1 the weights will remain at equal altitudes4 ,and we may further notice1 how1 in this first step of rational mechanics1 we see illustrated that truth awhile since referred to1 that as magnitudes of linear extension are the only ones of which the equality is exactly ascertainable1 the equalities of other magnitudes have at the outset to be determined by means of them4 ,for the equality of the weights which balance each other in scales1 wholly depends upon the equality of the arms3 we can know that the weights are equal only by proving that the arms are equal4 ,and when by this means we have obtained a system of weights1--a set of equal units of force1 then does a science of mechanics become possible4 ,whence1 indeed1 it follows1 that rational mechanics could not possibly have any other starting-point than the scales4 ,let us further remember1 that during this same period there was a limited knowledge of chemistry4 ,the many arts which we know to have been carried on must have been impossible without a generalized experience of the modes in which certain bodies affect each other under special conditions4 ,in metallurgy1 which was extensively practised1 this is abundantly illustrated4 ,and we even have evidence that in some cases the knowledge possessed was1 in a sense1 quantitative4 ,for1 as we find by analysis that the hard alloy of which the ,egyptians made their cutting tools1 was composed of copper and tin in fixed proportions1 there must have been an established prevision that such an alloy was to be obtained only by mixing them in these proportions4 ,it is true1 this was but a simple empirical generalization2 but so was the generalization respecting the recurrence of eclipses2 so are the first generalizations of every science4 ,respecting the simultaneous advance of the sciences during this early epoch1 it only remains to remark that even the most complex of them must have made some progress--perhaps even a greater relative progress than any of the rest4 ,for under what conditions only were the foregoing developments possible8 ,there first required an established and organized social system4 ,a long continued registry of eclipses2 the building of palaces2 the use of scales2 the practice of metallurgy--alike imply a fixed and populous nation4 ,the existence of such a nation not only presupposes laws1 and some administration of justice1 which we know existed1 but it presupposes successful laws--laws conforming in some degree to the conditions of social stability--laws enacted because it was seen that the actions forbidden by them were dangerous to the ,state4 ,we do not by any means say that all1 or even the greater part1 of the laws were of this nature2 but we do say1 that the fundamental ones were4 ,it cannot be denied that the laws affecting life and property were such4 ,it cannot be denied that1 however little these were enforced between class and class1 they were to a considerable extent enforced between members of the same class4 ,it can scarcely be questioned1 that the administration of them between members of the same class was seen by rulers to be necessary for keeping their subjects together4 ,and knowing1 as we do1 that1 other things equal1 nations prosper in proportion to the justness of their arrangements1 we may fairly infer that the very cause of the advance of these earliest nations out of aboriginal barbarism1 was the greater recognition among them of the claims to life and property4 ,but supposition aside1 it is clear that the habitual recognition of these claims in their laws1 implied some prevision of social phenomena4 ,even thus early there was a certain amount of social science4 ,nay1 it may even be shown that there was a vague recognition of that fundamental principle on which all the true social science is based--the equal rights of all to the free exercise of their faculties4 ,that same idea of equality1 which1 as we have seen1 underlies all other science1 underlies also morals and sociology4 ,the conception of justice1 which is the primary one in morals2 and the administration of justice1 which is the vital condition of social existence2 are impossible1 without the recognition of a certain likeness in men's claims1 in virtue of their common humanity4 ,equity literally means equalness2 and if it be admitted that there were even the vaguest ideas of equity in these primitive eras1 it must be admitted that there was some appreciation of the equalness of men's liberties to pursue the objects of life--some appreciation1 therefore1 of the essential principle of national equilibrium4 ,thus in this initial stage of the positive sciences1 before geometry had yet done more than evolve a few empirical rules--before mechanics had passed beyond its first theorem--before astronomy had advanced from its merely chronological phase into the geometrical2 the most involved of the sciences had reached a certain degree of development--a development without which no progress in other sciences was possible4 ,only noting as we pass1 how1 thus early1 we may see that the progress of exact science was not only towards an increasing number of previsions1 but towards previsions more accurately quantitative--how1 in astronomy1 the recurring period of the moon's motions was by and by more correctly ascertained to be nineteen years1 or two hundred and thirty-five lunations2 how ,callipus further corrected this ,metonic cycle1 by leaving out a day at the end of every seventy-six years2 and how these successive advances implied a longer continued registry of observations1 and the co-ordination of a greater number of facts--let us go on to inquire how geometrical astronomy took its rise4 ,the first astronomical instrument was the gnomon4 ,this was not only early in use in the ,east1 but it was found also among the ,mexicans2 the sole astronomical observations of the ,peruvians were made by it2 and we read that #aajj ,b4,c41 the ,chinese found that1 at a certain place1 the length of the sun's shadow1 at the summer solstice1 was to the height of the gnomon1 as one and a half to eight4 ,here again it is observable1 not only that the instrument is found ready made1 but that ,nature is perpetually performing the process of measurement4 ,any fixed1 erect object--a column1 a dead palm1 a pole1 the angle of a building--serves for a gnomon2 and it needs but to notice the changing position of the shadow it daily throws1 to make the first step in geometrical astronomy4 ,how small this first step was1 may be seen in the fact that the only things ascertained at the outset were the periods of the summer and winter solstices1 which corresponded with the least and greatest lengths of the mid-day shadow2 and to fix which1 it was needful merely to mark the point to which each day's shadow reached4 ,and now let it not be overlooked that in the observing at what time during the next year this extreme limit of the shadow was again reached1 and in the inference that the sun had then arrived at the same turning point in his annual course1 we have one of the simplest instances of that combined use of equal magnitudes and equal relations1 by which all exact science1 all quantitative prevision1 is reached4 ,for the relation observed was between the length of the sun's shadow and his position in the heavens2 and the inference drawn was that when1 next year1 the extremity of his shadow came to the same point1 he occupied the same place4 ,that is1 the1 ideas involved were1 the equality of the shadows1 and the equality of the relations between shadow and sun in successive years4 ,as in the case of the scales1 the equality of relations here recognized is of the simplest order4 ,it is not as those habitually dealt with in the higher kinds of scientific reasoning1 which answer to the general type--the relation between two and three equals the relation between six and nine2 but it follows the type--the relation between two and three1 equals the relation between two and three2 it is a case of not simply equal relations1 but coinciding relations4 ,and here1 indeed1 we may see beautifully illustrated how the idea of equal relations takes its rise after the same manner that that of equal magnitude does4 ,as already shown1 the idea of equal magnitudes arose from the observed coincidence of two lengths placed together2 and in this case we have not only two coincident lengths of shadows1 but two coincident relations between sun and shadows4 ,from the use of the gnomon there naturally grew up the conception of angular measurements2 and with the advance of geometrical conceptions there came the hemisphere of ,berosus1 the equinoctial armil1 the solstitial armil1 and the quadrant of ,ptolemy--all of them employing shadows as indices of the sun's position1 but in combination with angular divisions4 ,it is obviously out of the question for us here to trace these details of progress4 ,it must suffice to remark that in all of them we may see that notion of equality of relations of a more complex kind1 which is best illustrated in the astrolabe1 an instrument which consisted of circular rims1 moveable one within the other1 or about poles1 and contained circles which were to be brought into the position of the ecliptic1 and of a plane passing through the sun and the poles of the ecliptic--an instrument1 therefore1 which represented1 as by a model1 the relative positions of certain imaginary lines and planes in the heavens2 which was adjusted by putting these representative lines and planes into parallelism and coincidence with the celestial ones2 and which depended for its use upon the perception that the relations between these representative lines and planes were equal to the relations between those represented4 ,were there space1 we might go on to point out how the conception of the heavens as a revolving hollow sphere1 the discovery of the globular form of the earth1 the explanation of the moon's phases1 and indeed all the successive steps taken1 involved this same mental process4 ,but we must content ourselves with referring to the theory of eccentrics and epicycles1 as a further marked illustration of it4 ,as first suggested1 and as proved by ,hipparchus to afford an explanation of the leading irregularities in the celestial motions1 this theory involved the perception that the progressions1 retrogressions1 and variations of velocity seen in the heavenly bodies1 might be reconciled with their assumed uniform movement in circles1 by supposing that the earth was not in the centre of their orbits2 or by supposing that they revolved in circles whose centres revolved round the earth2 or by both4 ,the discovery that this would account for the appearances1 was the discovery that in certain geometrical diagrams the relations were such1 that the uniform motion of a point would1 when looked at from a particular position1 present analogous irregularities2 and the calculations of ,hipparchus involved the belief that the relations subsisting among these geometrical curves were equal to the relations subsisting among the celestial orbits4 ,leaving here these details of astronomical progress1 and the philosophy of it1 let us observe how the relatively concrete science of geometrical astronomy1 having been thus far helped forward by the development of geometry in general1 reacted upon geometry1 caused it also to advance1 and was again assisted by it4 ,hipparchus1 before making his solar and lunar tables1 had to discover rules for calculating the relations between the sides and angles of triangles--trigonometry1 a subdivision of pure mathematics4 ,further1 the reduction of the doctrine of the sphere to the quantitative form needed for astronomical purposes1 required the formation of a spherical trigonometry1 which was also achieved by ,hipparchus4 ,thus both plane and spherical trigonometry1 which are parts of the highly abstract and simple science of extension1 remained undeveloped until the less abstract and more complex science of the celestial motions had need of them4 ,the fact admitted by ,m4 ,comte1 that since ,descartes the progress of the abstract division of mathematics has been determined by that of the concrete division1 is paralleled by the still more significant fact that even thus early the progress of mathematics was determined by that of astronomy4 ,and here1 indeed1 we may see exemplified the truth1 which the subsequent history of science frequently illustrates1 that before any more abstract division makes a further advance1 some more concrete division must suggest the necessity for that advance--must present the new order of questions to be solved4 ,before astronomy presented ,hipparchus with the problem of solar tables1 there was nothing to raise the question of the relations between lines and angles2 the subject-matter of trigonometry had not been conceived4 ,and as there must be subject-matter before there can be investigation1 it follows that the progress of the concrete divisions is as necessary to that of the abstract1 as the progress of the abstract to that of the concrete4 ,just incidentally noticing the circumstance that the epoch we are describing witnessed the evolution of algebra1 a comparatively abstract division of mathematics1 by the union of its less abstract divisions1 geometry and arithmetic--a fact proved by the earliest extant samples of algebra1 which are half algebraic1 half geometric--we go on to observe that during the era in which mathematics and astronomy were thus advancing1 rational mechanics made its second step2 and something was done towards giving a quantitative form to hydrostatics1 optics1 and harmonics4 ,in each case we shall see as before1 how the idea of equality underlies all quantitative prevision2 and in what simple forms this idea is first applied4 ,as already shown1 the first theorem established in mechanics was1 that equal weights suspended from a lever with equal arms would remain in equilibrium4 ,archimedes discovered that a lever with unequal arms was in equilibrium when one weight was to its arm as the other arm to its weight2 that is--when the numerical relation between one weight and its arm was equal to the numerical relation between the other arm and its weight4 ,the first advance made in hydrostatics1 which we also owe to ,archimedes1 was the discovery that fluids press equally in all directions2 and from this followed the solution of the problem of floating bodies3 namely1 that they are in equilibrium when the upward and downward pressures are equal4 ,in optics1 again1 the ,greeks found that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection2 and their knowledge reached no further than to such simple deductions from this as their geometry sufficed for4 ,in harmonics they ascertained the fact that three strings of equal lengths would yield the octave1 fifth and fourth1 when strained by weights having certain definite ratios2 and they did not progress much beyond this4 ,in the one of which cases we see geometry used in elucidation of the laws of light2 and in the other1 geometry and arithmetic made to measure the phenomena of sound4 ,did space permit1 it would be desirable here to describe the state of the less advanced sciences--to point out how1 while a few had thus reached the first stages of quantitative prevision1 the rest were progressing in qualitative prevision--how some small generalizations were made respecting evaporation1 and heat1 and electricity1 and magnetism1 which1 empirical as they were1 did not in that respect differ from the first generalizations of every science--how the ,greek physicians had made advances in physiology and pathology1 which1 considering the great imperfection of our present knowledge1 are by no means to be despised--how zoology had been so far systematized by ,aristotle1 as1 to some extent1 enabled him from the presence of certain organs to predict the presence of others--how in ,aristotle's ,politics1 there is some progress towards a scientific conception of social phenomena1 and sundry previsions respecting them--and how in the state of the ,greek societies1 as well as in the writings of ,greek philosophers1 we may recognise not only an increasing clearness in that conception of equity on which the social science is based1 but also some appreciation of the fact that social stability depends upon the maintenance of equitable regulations4 ,we might dwell at length upon the causes which retarded the development of some of the sciences1 as for example1 chemistry3 showing that relative complexity had nothing to do with it--that the oxidation of a piece of iron is a simpler phenomenon than the recurrence of eclipses1 and the discovery of carbonic acid less difficult than that of the precession of the equinoxes--but that the relatively slow advance of chemical knowledge was due1 partly to the fact that its phenomena were not daily thrust on men's notice as those of astronomy were2 partly to the fact that ,nature does not habitually supply the means1 and suggest the modes of investigation1 as in the sciences dealing with time1 extension1 and force2 and partly to the fact that the great majority of the materials with which chemistry deals1 instead of being ready to hand1 are made known only by the arts in their slow growth2 and partly to the fact that even when known1 their chemical properties are not self-exhibited1 but have to be sought out by experiment4 ,merely indicating all these considerations1 however1 let us go on to contemplate the progress and mutual influence of the sciences in modern days2 only parenthetically noticing how1 on the revival of the scientific spirit1 the successive stages achieved exhibit the dominance of the same law hitherto traced--how the primary idea in dynamics1 a uniform force1 was defined by ,galileo to be a force which generates equal velocities in equal successive times--how the uniform action of gravity was first experimentally determined by showing that the time elapsing before a body thrown up1 stopped1 was equal to the time it took to fall--how the first fact in compound motion which ,galileo ascertained was1 that a body projected horizontally will have a uniform motion onwards and a uniformly accelerated motion downwards2 that is1 will describe equal horizontal spaces in equal times1 compounded with equal vertical increments in equal times--how his discovery respecting the pendulum was1 that its oscillations occupy equal intervals of time whatever their length--how the principle of virtual velocities which he established is1 that in any machine the weights that balance each other1 are reciprocally as their virtual velocities2 that is1 the relation of one set of weights to their velocities equals the relation of the other set of velocities to their weights2--and how thus his achievements consisted in showing the equalities of certain magnitudes and relations1 whose equalities had not been previously recognised4 ,when mechanics had reached the point to which ,galileo brought it--when the simple laws of force had been disentangled from the friction and atmospheric resistance by which all their earthly manifestations are disguised--when progressing knowledge of physics had given a due insight into these disturbing causes--when1 by an effort of abstraction1 it was perceived that all motion would be uniform and rectilinear unless interfered with by external forces--and when the various consequences of this perception had been worked out2 then it became possible1 by the union of geometry and mechanics1 to initiate physical astronomy4 ,geometry and mechanics having diverged from a common root in men's sensible experiences2 having1 with occasional inosculations1 been separately developed1 the one partly in connexion with astronomy1 the other solely by analyzing terrestrial movements2 now join in the investigations of ,newton to create a true theory of the celestial motions4 ,and here1 also1 we have to notice the important fact that1 in the very process of being brought jointly to bear upon astronomical problems1 they are themselves raised to a higher phase of development4 ,for it was in dealing with the questions raised by celestial dynamics that the then incipient infinitesimal calculus was unfolded by ,newton and his continental successors2 and it was from inquiries into the mechanics of the solar system that the general theorems of mechanics contained in the ,principia1--many of them of purely terrestrial application--took their rise4 ,thus1 as in the case of ,hipparchus1 the presentation of a new order of concrete facts to be analyzed1 led to the discovery of new abstract facts2 and these abstract facts having been laid hold of1 gave means of access to endless groups of concrete facts before incapable of quantitative treatment4 ,meanwhile1 physics had been carrying further that progress without which1 as just shown1 rational mechanics could not be disentangled4 ,in hydrostatics1 ,stevinus had extended and applied the discovery of ,archimedes4 ,torricelli had proved atmospheric pressure1 by showing that this pressure sustained different liquids at heights inversely proportional to their densities2 and ,pascal established the necessary diminution of this pressure at increasing heights in the atmosphere3 discoveries which in part reduced this branch of science to a quantitative form4 ,something had been done by ,daniel ,bernoulli towards the dynamics of fluids4 ,the thermometer had been invented2 and a number of small generalizations reached by it4 ,huyghens and ,newton had made considerable progress in optics2 ,newton had approximately calculated the rate of transmission of sound2 and the continental mathematicians had succeeded in determining some of the laws of sonorous vibrations4 ,magnetism and electricity had been considerably advanced by ,gilbert4 ,chemistry had got as far as the mutual neutralization of acids and alkalies4 ,and ,leonardo da ,vinci had advanced in geology to the conception of the deposition of marine strata as the origin of fossils4 ,our present purpose does not require that we should give particulars4 ,all that it here concerns us to do is to illustrate the consensus subsisting in this stage of growth1 and afterwards4 ,let as look at a few cases4 ,the theoretic law of the velocity of sound enunciated by ,newton on purely mechanical considerations1 was found wrong by one-sixth4 ,the error remained unaccounted for until the time of ,laplace1 who1 suspecting that the heat disengaged by the compression of the undulating strata of the air1 gave additional elasticity1 and so produced the difference1 made the needful calculations and found he was right4 ,thus acoustics was arrested until thermology overtook and aided it4 ,when ,boyle and ,marriot had discovered the relation between the density of gases and the pressures they are subject to2 and when it thus became possible to calculate the rate of decreasing density in the upper parts of the atmosphere2 it also became possible to make approximate tables of the atmospheric refraction of light4 ,thus optics1 and with it astronomy1 advanced with barology4 ,after the discovery of atmospheric pressure had led to the invention of the air-pump by ,otto ,guericke2 and after it had become known that evaporation increases in rapidity as atmospheric pressure decreases2 it became possible for ,leslie1 by evaporation in a vacuum1 to produce the greatest cold known2 and so to extend our knowledge of thermology by showing that there is no zero within reach of our researches4 ,when ,fourier had determined the laws of conduction of heat1 and when the ,earth's temperature had been found to increase below the surface one degree in every forty yards1 there were data for inferring the past condition of our globe2 the vast period it has taken to cool down to its present state2 and the immense age of the solar system--a purely astronomical consideration4 ,chemistry having advanced sufficiently to supply the needful materials1 and a physiological experiment having furnished the requisite hint1 there came the discovery of galvanic electricity4 ,galvanism reacting on chemistry disclosed the metallic bases of the alkalies1 and inaugurated the electro-chemical theory2 in the hands of ,oersted and ,ampere it led to the laws of magnetic action2 and by its aid ,faraday has detected significant facts relative to the constitution of light4 ,brewster's discoveries respecting double refraction and dipolarization proved the essential truth of the classification of crystalline forms according to the number of axes1 by showing that the molecular constitution depends upon the axes4 ,in these and in numerous other cases1 the mutual influence of the sciences has been quite independent of any supposed hierarchical order4 ,often1 too1 their inter-actions are more complex than as thus instanced--involve more sciences than two4 ,one illustration of this must suffice4 ,we quote it in full from the ,history of the ,inductive ,sciences4 ,in ,book ,,xi41 chap4 ,,ii41 on ,the ,progress of the ,electrical ,theory1 ,dr4 ,whewell writes3-- ,thus at that period1 mathematics was behind experiment1 and a problem was proposed1 in which theoretical results were wanted for comparison with observation1 but could not be accurately obtained2 as was the case in astronomy also1 till the time of the approximate solution of the problem of three bodies1 and the consequent formation of the tables of the moon and planets1 on the theory of universal gravitation4 ,after some time1 electrical theory was relieved from this reproach1 mainly in consequence of the progress which astronomy had occasioned in pure mathematics4 ,about #ahja there appeared in the ,bulletin des ,sciences1 an exact solution of the problem of the distribution of electric fluid on a spheroid1 obtained by ,biot1 by the application of the peculiar methods which ,laplace had invented for the problem of the figure of the planets4 ,and1 in #ahaa1 ,m4 ,poisson applied ,laplace's artifices to the case of two spheres acting upon one another in contact1 a case to which many of ,coulomb's experiments were referrible2 and the agreement of the results of theory and observation1 thus extricated from ,coulomb's numbers obtained above forty years previously1 was very striking and convincing4 ,not only do the sciences affect each other after this direct manner1 but they affect each other indirectly4 ,where there is no dependence1 there is yet analogy--equality of relations2 and the discovery of the relations subsisting among one set of phenomena1 constantly suggests a search for the same relations among another set4 ,thus the established fact that the force of gravitation varies inversely as the square of the distance1 being recognized as a necessary characteristic of all influences proceeding from a centre1 raised the suspicion that heat and light follow the same law2 which proved to be the case--a suspicion and a confirmation which were repeated in respect to the electric and magnetic forces4 ,thus again the discovery of the polarization of light led to experiments which ended in the discovery of the polarization of heat--a discovery that could never have been made without the antecedent one4 ,thus1 too1 the known refrangibility of light and heat lately produced the inquiry whether sound also is not refrangible2 which on trial it turns out to be4 ,in some cases1 indeed1 it is only by the aid of conceptions derived from one class of phenomena that hypotheses respecting other classes can be formed4 ,the theory1 at one time favoured1 that evaporation is a solution of water in air1 was an assumption that the relation between water and air is like the relation between salt and water2 and could never have been conceived if the relation between salt and water had not been previously known4 ,similarly the received theory of evaporation--that it is a diffusion of the particles of the evaporating fluid in virtue of their atomic repulsion--could not have been entertained without a foregoing experience of magnetic and electric repulsions4 ,so complete in recent days has become this consensus among the sciences1 caused either by the natural entanglement of their phenomena1 or by analogies in the relations of their phenomena1 that scarcely any considerable discovery concerning one order of facts now takes place1 without very shortly leading to discoveries concerning other orders4 ,to produce a tolerably complete conception of this process of scientific evolution1 it would be needful to go back to the beginning1 and trace in detail the growth of classifications and nomenclatures2 and to show how1 as subsidiary to science1 they have acted upon it1 and it has reacted upon them4 ,we can only now remark that1 on the one hand1 classifications and nomenclatures have aided science by continually subdividing the subject-matter of research1 and giving fixity and diffusion to the truths disclosed2 and that on the other hand1 they have caught from it that increasing quantitativeness1 and that progress from considerations touching single phenomena to considerations touching the relations among many phenomena1 which we have been describing4 ,of this last influence a few illustrations must be given4 ,in chemistry it is seen in the facts1 that the dividing of matter into the four elements was ostensibly based upon the single property of weight2 that the first truly chemical division into acid and alkaline bodies1 grouped together bodies which had not simply one property in common1 but in which one property was constantly related to many others2 and that the classification now current1 places together in groups supporters of combustion1 metallic and non-metallic bases1 acids1 salts1 c41 bodies which are often quite unlike in sensible qualities1 but which are like in the majority of their relations to other bodies4 ,in mineralogy again1 the first classifications were based upon differences in aspect1 texture1 and other physical attributes4 ,berzelius made two attempts at a classification based solely on chemical constitution4 ,that now current1 recognises as far as possible the relations between physical and chemical characters4 ,in botany the earliest classes formed were trees1 shrubs1 and herbs3 magnitude being the basis of distinction4 ,dioscorides divided vegetables into aromatic1 alimentary1 medicinal1 and vinous3 a division of chemical character4 ,caesalpinus classified them by the seeds1 and seed-vessels1 which he preferred because of the relations found to subsist between the character of the fructification and the general character of the other parts4 ,while the natural system since developed1 carrying out the doctrine of ,linnaeus1 that natural orders must be formed by attention not to one or two1 but to all the parts of plants1 bases its divisions on like peculiarities which are found to be constantly related to the greatest number of other like peculiarities4 ,and similarly in zoology1 the successive classifications1 from having been originally determined by external and often subordinate characters not indicative of the essential nature1 have been gradually more and more determined by those internal and fundamental differences1 which have uniform relations to the greatest number of other differences4 ,nor shall we be surprised at this analogy between the modes of progress of positive science and classification1 when we bear in mind that both proceed by making generalizations2 that both enable us to make previsions differing only in their precision2 and that while the one deals with equal properties and relations1 the other deals with properties and relations that approximate towards equality in variable degrees4 ,without further argument1 it will1 we think1 be sufficiently clear that the sciences are none of them separately evolved--are none of them independent either logically or historically2 but that all of them have1 in a greater or less degree1 required aid and reciprocated it4 ,indeed1 it needs but to throw aside theses1 and contemplate the mixed character of surrounding phenomena1 to at once see that these notions of division and succession in the kinds of knowledge are none of them actually true1 but are simple scientific fictions3 good1 if regarded merely as aids to study2 bad1 if regarded as representing realities in ,nature4 ,consider them critically1 and no facts whatever are presented to our senses uncombined with other facts--no facts whatever but are in some degree disguised by accompanying facts3 disguised in such a manner that all must be partially understood before any one can be understood4 ,if it be said1 as by ,m4 ,comte1 that gravitating force should be treated of before other forces1 seeing that all things are subject to it1 it may on like grounds be said that heat should be first dealt with2 seeing that thermal forces are everywhere in action2 that the ability of any portion of matter to manifest visible gravitative phenomena depends on its state of aggregation1 which is determined by heat2 that only by the aid of thermology can we explain those apparent exceptions to the gravitating tendency which are presented by steam and smoke1 and so establish its universality1 and that1 indeed1 the very existence of the solar system in a solid form is just as much a question of heat as it is one of gravitation4 ,take other cases3--,all phenomena recognised by the eyes1 through which only are the data of exact science ascertainable1 are complicated with optical phenomena2 and cannot be exhaustively known until optical principles are known4 ,the burning of a candle cannot be explained without involving chemistry1 mechanics1 thermology4 ,every wind that blows is determined by influences partly solar1 partly lunar1 partly hygrometric2 and implies considerations of fluid equilibrium and physical geography4 ,the direction1 dip1 and variations of the magnetic needle1 are facts half terrestrial1 half celestial--are caused by earthly forces which have cycles of change corresponding with astronomical periods4 ,the flowing of the gulf-stream and the annual migration of icebergs towards the equator1 depending as they do on the balancing of the centripetal and centrifugal forces acting on the ocean1 involve in their explanation the ,earth's rotation and spheroidal form1 the laws of hydrostatics1 the relative densities of cold and warm water1 and the doctrines of evaporation4 ,it is no doubt true1 as ,m4 ,comte says1 that our position in the solar system1 and the motions1 form1 size1 equilibrium of the mass of our world among the planets1 must be known before we can understand the phenomena going on at its surface4 ,but1 fatally for his hypothesis1 it is also true that we must understand a great part of the phenomena going on at its surface before we can know its position1 c41 in the solar system4 ,it is not simply that1 as we have already shown1 those geometrical and mechanical principles by which celestial appearances are explained1 were first generalized from terrestrial experiences2 but it is that the very obtainment of correct data1 on which to base astronomical generalizations1 implies advanced terrestrial physics4 ,until after optics had made considerable advance1 the ,copernican system remained but a speculation4 ,a single modern observation on a star has to undergo a careful analysis by the combined aid of various sciences--has to be digested by the organism of the sciences2 which have severally to assimilate their respective parts of the observation1 before the essential fact it contains is available for the further development of astronomy4 ,it has to be corrected not only for nutation of the earth's axis and for precession of the equinoxes1 but for aberration and for refraction2 and the formation of the tables by which refraction is calculated1 presupposes knowledge of the law of decreasing density in the upper atmospheric strata2 of the law of decreasing temperature1 and the influence of this on the density2 and of hygrometric laws as also affecting density4 ,so that1 to get materials for further advance1 astronomy requires not only the indirect aid of the sciences which have presided over the making of its improved instruments1 but the direct aid of an advanced optics1 of barology1 of thermology1 of hygrometry2 and if we remember that these delicate observations are in some cases registered electrically1 and that they are further corrected for the personal equation--the time elapsing between seeing and registering1 which varies with different observers--we may even add electricity and psychology4 ,if1 then1 so apparently simple a thing as ascertaining the position of a star is complicated with so many phenomena1 it is clear that this notion of the independence of the sciences1 or certain of them1 will not hold4 ,whether objectively independent or not1 they cannot be subjectively so--they cannot have independence as presented to our consciousness2 and this is the only kind of independence with which we are concerned4 ,and here1 before leaving these illustrations1 and especially this last one1 let us not omit to notice how clearly they exhibit that increasingly active consensus of the sciences which characterizes their advancing development4 ,besides finding that in these later times a discovery in one science commonly causes progress in others2 besides finding that a great part of the questions with which modern science deals are so mixed as to require the co-operation of many sciences for their solution2 we find in this last case that1 to make a single good observation in the purest of the natural sciences1 requires the combined assistance of half a dozen other sciences4 ,perhaps the clearest comprehension of the interconnected growth of the sciences may be obtained by contemplating that of the arts1 to which it is strictly analogous1 and with which it is inseparably bound up4 ,most intelligent persons must have been1 at one time or other1 struck with the vast array of antecedents pre-supposed by one of our processes of manufacture4 ,let him trace the production of a printed cotton1 and consider all that is implied by it4 ,there are the many successive improvements through which the power-looms reached their present perfection2 there is the steam-engine that drives them1 having its long history from ,papin downwards2 there are the lathes in which its cylinder was bored1 and the string of ancestral lathes from which those lathes proceeded2 there is the steam-hammer under which its crank shaft was welded2 there are the puddling-furnaces1 the blast-furnaces1 the coal-mines and the iron-mines needful for producing the raw material2 there are the slowly improved appliances by which the factory was built1 and lighted1 and ventilated2 there are the printing engine1 and the die house1 and the colour laboratory with its stock of materials from all parts of the world1 implying cochineal-culture1 logwood-cutting1 indigo-growing2 there are the implements used by the producers of cotton1 the gins by which it is cleaned1 the elaborate machines by which it is spun3 there are the vessels in which cotton is imported1 with the building-slips1 the rope-yards1 the sail-cloth factories1 the anchor-forges1 needful for making them2 and besides all these directly necessary antecedents1 each of them involving many others1 there are the institutions which have developed the requisite intelligence1 the printing and publishing arrangements which have spread the necessary information1 the social organization which has rendered possible such a complex co-operation of agencies4 ,further analysis would show that the many arts thus concerned in the economical production of a child's frock1 have each of them been brought to its present efficiency by slow steps which the other arts have aided2 and that from the beginning this reciprocity has been ever on the increase4 ,it needs but on the one hand to consider how utterly impossible it is for the savage1 even with ore and coal ready1 to produce so simple a thing as an iron hatchet2 and then to consider1 on the other hand1 that it would have been impracticable among ourselves1 even a century ago1 to raise the tubes of the ,britannia bridge from lack of the hydraulic press2 to at once see how mutually dependent are the arts1 and how all must advance that each may advance4 ,well1 the sciences are involved with each other in just the same manner4 ,they are1 in fact1 inextricably woven into this same complex web of the arts2 and are only conventionally independent of it4 ,originally the two were one4 ,how to fix the religious festivals2 when to sow2 how to weigh commodities2 and in what manner to measure ground2 were the purely practical questions out of which arose astronomy1 mechanics1 geometry4 ,since then there has been a perpetual inosculation of the sciences and the arts4 ,science has been supplying art with truer generalizations and more completely quantitative previsions4 ,art has been supplying science with better materials1 and more perfect instruments4 ,and all along the interdependence has been growing closer1 not only between art and science1 but among the arts themselves1 and among the sciences themselves4 ,how completely the analogy holds throughout1 becomes yet clearer when we recognise the fact that the sciences are arts to each other4 ,if1 as occurs in almost every case1 the fact to be analyzed by any science1 has first to be prepared--to be disentangled from disturbing facts by the afore discovered methods of other sciences2 the other sciences so used1 stand in the position of arts4 ,if1 in solving a dynamical problem1 a parallelogram is drawn1 of which the sides and diagonal represent forces1 and by putting magnitudes of extension for magnitudes of force a measurable relation is established between quantities not else to be dealt with2 it may be fairly said that geometry plays towards mechanics much the same part that the fire of the founder plays towards the metal he is going to cast4 ,if1 in analyzing the phenomena of the coloured rings surrounding the point of contact between two lenses1 a ,newton ascertains by calculation the amount of certain interposed spaces1 far too minute for actual measurement2 he employs the science of number for essentially the same purpose as that for which the watchmaker employs tools4 ,if1 before writing down his observation on a star1 the astronomer has to separate from it all the errors resulting from atmospheric and optical laws1 it is manifest that the refraction-tables1 and logarithm-books1 and formulae1 which he successively uses1 serve him much as retorts1 and filters1 and cupels serve the assayer who wishes to separate the pure gold from all accompanying ingredients4 ,so close1 indeed1 is the relationship1 that it is impossible to say where science begins and art ends4 ,all the instruments of the natural philosopher are the products of art2 the adjusting one of them for use is an art2 there is art in making an observation with one of them2 it requires art properly to treat the facts ascertained2 nay1 even the employing established generalizations to open the way to new generalizations1 may be considered as art4 ,in each of these cases previously organized knowledge becomes the implement by which new knowledge is got at3 and whether that previously organized knowledge is embodied in a tangible apparatus or in a formula1 matters not in so far as its essential relation to the new knowledge is concerned4 ,if1 as no one will deny1 art is applied knowledge1 then such portion of a scientific investigation as consists of applied knowledge is art4 ,so that we may even say that as soon as any prevision in science passes out of its originally passive state1 and is employed for reaching other previsions1 it passes from theory into practice--becomes science in action--becomes art4 ,and when we thus see how purely conventional is the ordinary distinction1 how impossible it is to make any real separation--when we see not only that science and art were originally one2 that the arts have perpetually assisted each other2 that there has been a constant reciprocation of aid between the sciences and arts2 but that the sciences act as arts to each other1 and that the established part of each science becomes an art to the growing part--when we recognize the closeness of these associations1 we shall the more clearly perceive that as the connexion of the arts with each other has been ever becoming more intimate2 as the help given by sciences to arts and by arts to sciences1 has been age by age increasing2 so the interdependence of the sciences themselves has been ever growing greater1 their mutual relations more involved1 their consensus more active4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in here ending our sketch of the ,genesis of ,science1 we are conscious of having done the subject but scant justice4 ,two difficulties have stood in our way3 one1 the having to touch on so many points in such small space2 the other1 the necessity of treating in serial arrangement a process which is not serial--a difficulty which must ever attend all attempts to delineate processes of development1 whatever their special nature4 ,add to which1 that to present in anything like completeness and proportion1 even the outlines of so vast and complex a history1 demands years of study4 ,nevertheless1 we believe that the evidence which has been assigned suffices to substantiate the leading propositions with which we set out4 ,inquiry into the first stages of science confirms the conclusion which we drew from the analysis of science as now existing1 that it is not distinct from common knowledge1 but an outgrowth from it--an extension of the perception by means of the reason4 ,that which we further found by analysis to form the more specific characteristic of scientific previsions1 as contrasted with the previsions of uncultured intelligence--their quantitativeness--we also see to have been the characteristic alike in the initial steps in science1 and of all the steps succeeding them4 ,the facts and admissions cited in disproof of the assertion that the sciences follow one another1 both logically and historically1 in the order of their decreasing generality1 have been enforced by the sundry instances we have met with1 in which the more general or abstract sciences have been advanced only at the instigation of the more special or concrete--instances serving to show that a more general science as much owes its progress to the presentation of new problems by a more special science1 as the more special science owes its progress to the solutions which the more general science is thus led to attempt--instances therefore illustrating the position that scientific advance is as much from the special to the general as from the general to the special4 ,quite in harmony with this position we find to be the admissions that the sciences are as branches of one trunk1 and that they were at first cultivated simultaneously2 and this harmony becomes the more marked on finding1 as we have done1 not only that the sciences have a common root1 but that science in general has a common root with language1 classification1 reasoning1 art2 that throughout civilization these have advanced together1 acting and reacting upon each other just as the separate sciences have done2 and that thus the development of intelligence in all its divisions and subdivisions has conformed to this same law which we have shown that the sciences conform to4 ,from all which we may perceive that the sciences can with no greater propriety be arranged in a succession1 than language1 classification1 reasoning1 art1 and science1 can be arranged in a succession2 that1 however needful a succession may be for the convenience of books and catalogues1 it must be recognized merely as a convention2 and that so far from its being the function of a philosophy of the sciences to establish a hierarchy1 it is its function to show that the linear arrangements required for literary purposes1 have none of them any basis either in ,nature or ,history4 ,there is one further remark we must not omit--a remark touching the importance of the question that has been discussed4 ,unfortunately it commonly happens that topics of this abstract nature are slighted as of no practical moment2 and1 we doubt not1 that many will think it of very little consequence what theory respecting the genesis of science may be entertained4 ,but the value of truths is often great1 in proportion as their generality is wide4 ,remote as they seem from practical application1 the highest generalizations are not unfrequently the most potent in their effects1 in virtue of their influence on all those subordinate generalizations which regulate practice4 ,and it must be so here4 ,whenever established1 a correct theory of the historical development of the sciences must have an immense effect upon education2 and1 through education1 upon civilization4 ,greatly as we differ from him in other respects1 we agree with ,m4 ,comte in the belief that1 rightly conducted1 the education of the individual must have a certain correspondence with the evolution of the race4 ,no one can contemplate the facts we have cited in illustration of the early stages of science1 without recognising the necessity of the processes through which those stages were reached--a necessity which1 in respect to the leading truths1 may likewise be traced in all after stages4 ,this necessity1 originating in the very nature of the phenomena to be analyzed and the faculties to be employed1 more or less fully applies to the mind of the child as to that of the savage4 ,we say more or less fully1 because the correspondence is not special but general only4 ,were the environment the same in both cases1 the correspondence would be complete4 ,but though the surrounding material out of which science is to be organized1 is1 in many cases1 the same to the juvenile mind and the aboriginal mind1 it is not so throughout2 as1 for instance1 in the case of chemistry1 the phenomena of which are accessible to the one1 but were inaccessible to the other4 ,hence1 in proportion as the environment differs1 the course of evolution must differ4 ,after admitting sundry exceptions1 however1 there remains a substantial parallelism2 and1 if so1 it becomes of great moment to ascertain what really has been the process of scientific evolution4 ,the establishment of an erroneous theory must be disastrous in its educational results2 while the establishment of a true one must eventually be fertile in school-reforms and consequent social benefits4 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,physiology ,,of ,,laughter4 ,why do we smile when a child puts on a man's hat8 or what induces us to laugh on reading that the corpulent ,gibbon was unable to rise from his knees after making a tender declaration8 ,the usual reply to such questions is1 that laughter results from a perception of incongruity4 ,even were there not on this reply the obvious criticism that laughter often occurs from extreme pleasure or from mere vivacity1 there would still remain the real problem--,how comes a sense of the incongruous to be followed by these peculiar bodily actions8 ,some have alleged that laughter is due to the pleasure of a relative self-elevation1 which we feel on seeing the humiliation of others4 ,but this theory1 whatever portion of truth it may contain1 is1 in the first place1 open to the fatal objection1 that there are various humiliations to others which produce in us anything but laughter2 and1 in the second place1 it does not apply to the many instances in which no one's dignity is implicated3 as when we laugh at a good pun4 ,moreover1 like the other1 it is merely a generalization of certain conditions to laughter2 and not an explanation of the odd movements which occur under these conditions4 ,why1 when greatly delighted1 or impressed with certain unexpected contrasts of ideas1 should there be a contraction of particular facial muscles1 and particular muscles of the chest and abdomen8 ,such answer to this question as may be possible1 can be rendered only by physiology4 99 99 99 99 99 ,every child has made the attempt to hold the foot still while it is tickled1 and has failed2 and probably there is scarcely any one who has not vainly tried to avoid winking1 when a hand has been suddenly passed before the eyes4 ,these examples of muscular movements which occur independently of the will1 or in spite of it1 illustrate what physiologists call reflex-action2 as likewise do sneezing and coughing4 ,to this class of cases1 in which involuntary motions are accompanied by sensations1 has to be added another class of cases1 in which involuntary motions are unaccompanied by sensations3--instance the pulsations of the heart2 the contractions of the stomach during digestion4 ,further1 the great mass of seemingly-voluntary acts in such creatures as insects1 worms1 molluscs1 are considered by physiologists to be as purely automatic as is the dilatation or closure of the iris under variations in quantity of light2 and similarly exemplify the law1 that an impression on the end of an afferent nerve is conveyed to some ganglionic centre1 and is thence usually reflected along an efferent nerve to one or more muscles which it causes to contract4 ,in a modified form this principle holds with voluntary acts4 ,nervous excitation always tends to beget muscular motion2 and when it rises to a certain intensity1 always does beget it4 ,not only in reflex actions1 whether with or without sensation1 do we see that special nerves1 when raised to a state of tension1 discharge themselves on special muscles with which they are indirectly connected2 but those external actions through which we read the feelings of others1 show us that under any considerable tension1 the nervous system in general discharges itself on the muscular system in general3 either with or without the guidance of the will4 ,the shivering produced by cold1 implies irregular muscular contractions1 which1 though at first only partly involuntary1 become1 when the cold is extreme1 almost wholly involuntary4 ,when you have severely burnt your finger1 it is very difficult to preserve a dignified composure3 contortion of face1 or movement of limb1 is pretty sure to follow4 ,if a man receives good news with neither change of feature nor bodily motion1 it is inferred that he is not much pleased1 or that he has extraordinary self-control--either inference implying that joy almost universally produces contraction of the muscles2 and so1 alters the expression1 or attitude1 or both4 ,and when we hear of the feats of strength which men have performed when their lives were at stake--when we read how1 in the energy of despair1 even paralytic patients have regained for a time the use of their limbs2 we see still more clearly the relations between nervous and muscular excitements4 ,it becomes manifest both that emotions and sensations tend to generate bodily movements1 and that the movements are vehement in proportion as the emotions or sensations are intense4,g ,g ,for numerous illustrations see essay on ,the ,origin and ,function of ,music4 ,this1 however1 is not the sole direction in which nervous excitement expends itself4 ,viscera as well as muscles may receive the discharge4 ,that the heart and blood-vessels 7which1 indeed1 being all contractile1 may in a restricted sense be classed with the muscular system7 are quickly affected by pleasures and pains1 we have daily proved to us4 ,every sensation of any acuteness accelerates the pulse2 and how sensitive the heart is to emotions1 is testified by the familiar expressions which use heart and feeling as convertible terms4 ,similarly with the digestive organs4 ,without detailing the various ways in which these may be influenced by our mental states1 it suffices to mention the marked benefits derived by dyspeptics1 as well as other invalids1 from cheerful society1 welcome news1 change of scene1 to show how pleasurable feeling stimulates the viscera in general into greater activity4 ,there is still another direction in which any excited portion of the nervous system may discharge itself2 and a direction in which it usually does discharge itself when the excitement is not strong4 ,it may pass on the stimulus to some other portion of the nervous system4 ,this is what occurs in quiet thinking and feeling4 ,the successive states which constitute consciousness1 result from this4 ,sensations excite ideas and emotions2 these in their turns arouse other ideas and emotions2 and so1 continuously4 ,that is to say1 the tension existing in particular nerves1 or groups of nerves1 when they yield us certain sensations1 ideas1 or emotions1 generates an equivalent tension in some other nerves1 or groups of nerves1 with which there is a connexion3 the flow of energy passing on1 the one idea or feeling dies in producing the next4 ,thus1 then1 while we are totally unable to comprehend how the excitement of certain nerves should generate feeling--while1 in the production of consciousness by physical agents acting on physical structure1 we come to an absolute mystery never to be solved2 it is yet quite possible for us to know by observation what are the successive forms which this absolute mystery may take4 ,we see that there are three channels along which nerves in a state of tension may discharge themselves2 or rather1 ,i should say1 three classes of channels4 ,they may pass on the excitement to other nerves that have no direct connexions with the bodily members1 and may so cause other feelings and ideas2 or they may pass on the excitement to one or more motor nerves1 and so cause muscular contractions2 or they may pass on the excitement to nerves which supply the viscera1 and may so stimulate one or more of these4 ,for simplicity's sake1 ,i have described these as alternative routes1 one or other of which any current of nerve-force must take2 thereby1 as it may be thought1 implying that such current will be exclusively confined to some one of them4 ,but this is by no means the case4 ,rarely1 if ever1 does it happen that a state of nervous tension1 present to consciousness as a feeling1 expends itself in one direction only4 ,very generally it may be observed to expend itself in two2 and it is probable that the discharge is never absolutely absent from any one of the three4 ,there is1 however1 variety in the proportions in which the discharge is divided among these different channels under different circumstances4 ,in a man whose fear impels him to run1 the mental tension generated is only in part transformed into a muscular stimulus3 there is a surplus which causes a rapid current of ideas4 ,an agreeable state of feeling produced1 say by praise1 is not wholly used up in arousing the succeeding phase of the feeling1 and the new ideas appropriate to it2 but a certain portion overflows into the visceral nervous system1 increasing the action of the heart1 and probably facilitating digestion4 ,and here we come upon a class of considerations and facts which open the way to a solution of our special problem4 ,for starting with the unquestionable truth1 that at any moment the existing quantity of liberated nerve-force1 which in an inscrutable way produces in us the state we call feeling1 must expend itself in some direction--must generate an equivalent manifestation of force somewhere--it clearly follows that1 if of the several channels it may take1 one is wholly or partially closed1 more must be taken by the others2 or that if two are closed1 the discharge along the remaining one must be more intense2 and that1 conversely1 should anything determine an unusual efflux in one direction1 there will be a diminished efflux in other directions4 ,daily experience illustrates these conclusions4 ,it is commonly remarked1 that the suppression of external signs of feeling1 makes feeling more intense4 ,the deepest grief is silent grief4 ,why8 ,because the nervous excitement not discharged in muscular action1 discharges itself in other nervous excitements--arouses more numerous and more remote associations of melancholy ideas1 and so increases the mass of feelings4 ,people who conceal their anger are habitually found to be more revengeful than those who explode in loud speech and vehement action4 ,why8 ,because1 as before1 the emotion is reflected back1 accumulates1 and intensifies4 ,similarly1 men who1 as proved by their powers of representation1 have the keenest appreciation of the comic1 are usually able to do and say the most ludicrous things with perfect gravity4 ,on the other hand1 all are familiar with the truth that bodily activity deadens emotion4 ,under great irritation we get relief by walking about rapidly4 ,extreme effort in the bootless attempt to achieve a desired end1 greatly diminishes the intensity of the desire4 ,those who are forced to exert themselves after misfortunes1 do not suffer nearly so much as those who remain quiescent4 ,if any one wishes to check intellectual excitement1 he cannot choose a more efficient method than running till he is exhausted4 ,moreover1 these cases1 in which the production of feeling and thought is hindered by determining the nervous energy towards bodily movements1 have their counterparts in the cases in which bodily movements are hindered by extra absorption of nervous energy in sudden thoughts and feelings4 ,if1 when walking along1 there flashes on you an idea that creates great surprise1 hope1 or alarm1 you stop2 or if sitting cross-legged1 swinging your pendent foot1 the movement is at once arrested4 ,from the viscera1 too1 intense mental action abstracts energy4 ,joy1 disappointment1 anxiety1 or any moral perturbation rising to a great height1 will destroy appetite2 or if food has been taken1 will arrest digestion2 and even a purely intellectual activity1 when extreme1 will do the like4 ,facts1 then1 fully bear out these a priori inferences1 that the nervous excitement at any moment present to consciousness as feeling1 must expend itself in some way or other2 that of the three classes of channels open to it1 it must take one1 two1 or more1 according to circumstances2 that the closure or obstruction of one1 must increase the discharge through the others2 and conversely1 that if to answer some demand1 the efflux of nervous energy in one direction is unusually great1 there must be a corresponding decrease of the efflux in other directions4 ,setting out from these premises1 let us now see what interpretation is to be put on the phenomena of laughter4 99 99 99 99 99 ,that laughter is a display of muscular excitement1 and so illustrates the general law that feeling passing a certain pitch habitually vents itself in bodily action1 scarcely needs pointing out4 ,it perhaps needs pointing out1 however1 that strong feeling of almost any kind produces this result4 ,it is not a sense of the ludicrous1 only1 which does it2 nor are the various forms of joyous emotion the sole additional causes4 ,we have1 besides1 the sardonic laughter and the hysterical laughter1 which result from mental distress2 to which must be added certain sensations1 as tickling1 and1 according to ,mr4 ,bain1 cold1 and some kinds of acute pain4 ,strong feeling1 mental or physical1 being1 then1 the general cause of laughter1 we have to note that the muscular actions constituting it are distinguished from most others by this1 that they are purposeless4 ,in general1 bodily motions that are prompted by feelings are directed to special ends2 as when we try to escape a danger1 or struggle to secure a gratification4 ,but the movements of chest and limbs which we make when laughing have no object4 ,and now remark that these quasi-convulsive contractions of the muscles1 having no object1 but being results of an uncontrolled discharge of energy1 we may see whence arise their special characters--how it happens that certain classes of muscles are affected first1 and then certain other classes4 ,for an overflow of nerve-force1 undirected by any motive1 will manifestly take first the most habitual routes2 and if these do not suffice1 will next overflow into the less habitual ones4 ,well1 it is through the organs of speech that feeling passes into movement with the greatest frequency4 ,the jaws1 tongue1 and lips are used not only to express strong irritation or gratification2 but that very moderate flow of mental energy which accompanies ordinary conversation1 finds its chief vent through this channel4 ,hence it happens that certain muscles round the mouth1 small and easy to move1 are the first to contract under pleasurable emotion4 ,the class of muscles which1 next after those of articulation1 are most constantly set in action 7or extra action1 we should say7 by feelings of all kinds1 are those of respiration4 ,under pleasurable or painful sensations we breathe more rapidly3 possibly as a consequence of the increased demand for oxygenated blood4 ,the sensations that accompany exertion also bring on hard-breathing2 which here more evidently responds to the physiological needs4 ,and emotions1 too1 agreeable and disagreeable1 both1 at first1 excite respiration2 though the last subsequently depress it4 ,that is to say1 of the bodily muscles1 the respiratory are more constantly implicated than any others in those various acts which our feelings impel us to2 and1 hence1 when there occurs an undirected discharge of nervous energy into the muscular system1 it happens that1 if the quantity be considerable1 it convulses not only certain of the articulatory and vocal muscles1 but also those which expel air from the lungs4 ,should the feeling to be expended be still greater in amount--too great to find vent in these classes of muscles--another class comes into play4 ,the upper limbs are set in motion4 ,children frequently clap their hands in glee2 by some adults the hands are rubbed together2 and others1 under still greater intensity of delight1 slap their knees and sway their bodies backwards and forwards4 ,last of all1 when the other channels for the escape of the surplus nerve-force have been filled to overflowing1 a yet further and less-used group of muscles is spasmodically affected3 the head is thrown back and the spine bent inwards--there is a slight degree of what medical men call opisthotonos4 ,thus1 then1 without contending that the phenomena of laughter in all their details are to be so accounted for1 we see that in their ensemble they conform to these general principles3--that feeling excites to muscular action2 that when the muscular action is unguided by a purpose1 the muscles first affected are those which feeling most habitually stimulates2 and that as the feeling to be expended increases in quantity1 it excites an increasing number of muscles1 in a succession determined by the relative frequency with which they respond to the regulated dictates of feeling4 ,there still1 however1 remains the question with which we set out4 ,the explanation here given applies only to the laughter produced by acute pleasure or pain3 it does not apply to the laughter that follows certain perceptions of incongruity4 ,it is an insufficient explanation that in these cases1 laughter is a result of the pleasure we take in escaping from the restraint of grave feelings4 ,that this is a part-cause is true4 ,doubtless very often1 as ,mr4 ,bain says1 it is the coerced form of seriousness and solemnity without the reality that gives us that stiff position from which a contact with triviality or vulgarity relieves us1 to our uproarious delight4 ,and in so far as mirth is caused by the gush of agreeable feeling that follows the cessation of mental strain1 it further illustrates the general principle above set forth4 ,but no explanation is thus afforded of the mirth which ensues when the short silence between the andante and allegro in one of ,beethoven's symphonies1 is broken by a loud sneeze4 ,in this1 and hosts of like cases1 the mental tension is not coerced but spontaneous--not disagreeable but agreeable2 and the coming impressions to which the attention is directed1 promise a gratification that few1 if any1 desire to escape4 ,hence1 when the unlucky sneeze occurs1 it cannot be that the laughter of the audience is due simply to the release from an irksome attitude of mind3 some other cause must be sought4 ,this cause we shall arrive at by carrying our analysis a step further4 ,we have but to consider the quantity of feeling that exists under such circumstances1 and then to ask what are the conditions that determine the direction of its discharge1 to at once reach a solution4 ,take a case4 ,you are sitting in a theatre1 absorbed in the progress of an interesting drama4 ,some climax has been reached which has aroused your sympathies--say1 a reconciliation between the hero and heroine1 after long and painful misunderstanding4 ,the feelings excited by this scene are not of a kind from which you seek relief2 but are1 on the contrary1 a grateful relief from the painful feelings with which you have witnessed the previous estrangement4 ,moreover1 the sentiments these fictitious personages have for the moment inspired you with1 are not such as would lead you to rejoice in any indignity offered to them2 but rather1 such as would make you resent the indignity4 ,and now1 while you are contemplating the reconciliation with a pleasurable sympathy1 there appears from behind the scenes a tame kid1 which1 having stared round at the audience1 walks up to the lovers and sniffs at them4 ,you cannot help joining in the roar which greets this contretemps4 ,inexplicable as is this irresistible burst on the hypothesis of a pleasure in escaping from mental restraint2 or on the hypothesis of a pleasure from relative increase of self-importance1 when witnessing the humiliation of others2 it is readily explicable if we consider what1 in such a case1 must become of the feeling that existed at the moment the incongruity arose4 ,a large mass of emotion had been produced2 or1 to speak in physiological language1 a large portion of the nervous system was in a state of tension4 ,there was also great expectation with respect to the further evolution of the scene--a quantity of vague1 nascent thought and emotion1 into which the existing quantity of thought and emotion was about to pass4 ,had there been no interruption1 the body of new ideas and feelings next excited1 would have sufficed to absorb the whole of the liberated nervous energy4 ,but now1 this large amount of nervous energy1 instead of being allowed to expend itself in producing an equivalent amount of the new thoughts and emotions which were nascent1 is suddenly checked in its flow4 ,the channels along which the discharge was about to take place1 are closed4 ,the new channel opened--that afforded by the appearance and proceedings of the kid--is a small one2 the ideas and feelings suggested are not numerous and massive enough to carry off the nervous energy to be expended4 ,the excess must therefore discharge itself in some other direction2 and in the way already explained1 there results an efflux through the motor nerves to various classes of the muscles1 producing the half-convulsive actions we term laughter4 ,this explanation is in harmony with the fact1 that when1 among several persons who witness the same ludicrous occurrence1 there are some who do not laugh2 it is because there has arisen in them an emotion not participated in by the rest1 and which is sufficiently massive to absorb all the nascent excitement4 ,among the spectators of an awkward tumble1 those who preserve their gravity are those in whom there is excited a degree of sympathy with the sufferer1 sufficiently great to serve as an outlet for the feeling which the occurrence had turned out of its previous course4 ,sometimes anger carries off the arrested current2 and so prevents laughter4 ,an instance of this was lately furnished me by a friend who had been witnessing the feats at ,franconi's4 ,a tremendous leap had just been made by an acrobat over a number of horses4 ,the clown1 seemingly envious of this success1 made ostentatious preparation for doing the like2 and then1 taking the preliminary run with immense energy1 stopped short on reaching the first horse1 and pretended to wipe some dust from its haunches4 ,in the majority of the spectators1 merriment was excited2 but in my friend1 wound up by the expectation of the coming leap to a state of great nervous tension1 the effect of the baulk was to produce indignation4 ,experience thus proves what the theory implies3 namely1 that the discharge of arrested feelings into the muscular system1 takes place only in the absence of other adequate channels--does not take place if there arise other feelings equal in amount to those arrested4 ,evidence still more conclusive is at hand4 ,if we contrast the incongruities which produce laughter with those which do not1 we at once see that in the non-ludicrous ones the unexpected state of feeling aroused1 though wholly different in kind1 is not less in quantity or intensity4 ,among incongruities that may excite anything but a laugh1 ,mr4 ,bain instances--,a decrepit man under a heavy burden1 five loaves and two fishes among a multitude1 and all unfitness and gross disproportion2 an instrument out of tune1 a fly in ointment1 snow in ,may1 ,archimedes studying geometry in a siege1 and all discordant things2 a wolf in sheep's clothing1 a breach of bargain1 and falsehood in general2 the multitude taking the law in their own hands1 and everything of the nature of disorder2 a corpse at a feast1 parental cruelty1 filial ingratitude1 and whatever is unnatural2 the entire catalogue of the vanities given by ,solomon1 are all incongruous1 but they cause feelings of pain1 anger1 sadness1 loathing1 rather than mirth4 ,now in these cases1 where the totally unlike state of consciousness suddenly produced1 is not inferior in mass to the preceding one1 the conditions to laughter are not fulfilled4 ,as above shown1 laughter naturally results only when consciousness is unawares transferred from great things to small--only when there is what we call a descending incongruity4 ,and now observe1 finally1 the fact1 alike inferable a priori and illustrated in experience1 that an ascending incongruity not only fails to cause laughter1 but works on the muscular system an effect of exactly the reverse kind4 ,when after something very insignificant there arises without anticipation something very great1 the emotion we call wonder results2 and this emotion is accompanied not by an excitement of the muscles1 but by a relaxation of them4 ,in children and country people1 that falling of the jaw which occurs on witnessing something that is imposing and unexpected1 exemplifies this effect4 ,persons who have been wonder-struck at the production of very striking results by a seemingly inadequate cause1 are frequently described as unconsciously dropping the things they held in their hands4 ,such are just the effects to be anticipated4 ,after an average state of consciousness1 absorbing but a small quantity of nervous energy1 is aroused without the slightest notice1 a strong emotion of awe1 terror1 or admiration2 joined with the astonishment due to an apparent want of adequate causation4 ,this new state of consciousness demands far more nervous energy than that which it has suddenly replaced2 and this increased absorption of nervous energy in mental changes1 involves a temporary diminution of the outflow in other directions3 whence the pendent jaw and the relaxing grasp4 ,one further observation is worth making4 ,among the several sets of channels into which surplus feeling might be discharged1 was named the nervous system of the viscera4 ,the sudden overflow of an arrested mental excitement1 which1 as we have seen1 results from a descending incongruity1 must doubtless stimulate not only the muscular system1 as we see it does1 but also the internal organs2 the heart and stomach must come in for a share of the discharge4 ,and thus there seems to be a good physiological basis for the popular notion that mirth-creating excitement facilitates digestion4 99 99 99 99 99 ,though in doing so ,i go beyond the boundaries of the immediate topic1 ,i may fitly point out that the method of inquiry here followed1 is one which enables us to understand various phenomena besides those of laughter4 ,to show the importance of pursuing it1 ,i will indicate the explanation it furnishes of another familiar class of facts4 ,all know how generally a large amount of emotion disturbs the action of the intellect1 and interferes with the power of expression4 ,a speech delivered with great facility to tables and chairs1 is by no means so easily delivered to an audience4 ,every schoolboy can testify that his trepidation1 when standing before a master1 has often disabled him from repeating a lesson which he had duly learnt4 ,in explanation of this we commonly say that the attention is distracted--that the proper train of ideas is broken by the intrusion of ideas that are irrelevant4 ,but the question is1 in what manner does unusual emotion produce this effect2 and we are here supplied with a tolerably obvious answer4 ,the repetition of a lesson1 or set speech previously thought out1 implies the flow of a very moderate amount of nervous excitement through a comparatively narrow channel4 ,the thing to be done is simply to call up in succession certain previously-arranged ideas--a process in which no great amount of mental energy is expended4 ,hence1 when there is a large quantity of emotion1 which must be discharged in some direction or other2 and when1 as usually happens1 the restricted series of intellectual actions to be gone through1 does not suffice to carry it off2 there result discharges along other channels besides the one prescribed3 there are aroused various ideas foreign to the train of thought to be pursued2 and these tend to exclude from consciousness those which should occupy it4 ,and now observe the meaning of those bodily actions spontaneously set up under these circumstances4 ,the school-boy saying his lesson1 commonly has his fingers actively engaged--perhaps in twisting about a broken pen1 or perhaps squeezing the angle of his jacket2 and if told to keep his hands still1 he soon again falls into the same or a similar trick4 ,many anecdotes are current of public speakers having incurable automatic actions of this class3 barristers who perpetually wound and unwound pieces of tape2 members of parliament ever putting on and taking off their spectacles4 ,so long as such movements are unconscious1 they facilitate the mental actions4 ,at least this seems a fair inference from the fact that confusion frequently results from putting a stop to them3 witness the case narrated by ,sir ,walter ,scott of his school-fellow1 who became unable to say his lesson after the removal of the waistcoat-button that he habitually fingered while in class4 ,but why do they facilitate the mental actions8 ,clearly because they draw off a portion of the surplus nervous excitement4 ,if1 as above explained1 the quantity of mental energy generated is greater than can find vent along the narrow channel of thought that is open to it2 and if1 in consequence1 it is apt to produce confusion by rushing into other channels of thought2 then by allowing it an exit through the motor nerves into the muscular system1 the pressure is diminished1 and irrelevant ideas are less likely to intrude on consciousness4 ,this further illustration will1 ,i think1 justify the position that something may be achieved by pursuing in other cases this method of psychological inquiry4 ,a complete explanation of the phenomena1 requires us to trace out all the consequences of any given state of consciousness2 and we cannot do this without studying the effects1 bodily and mental1 as varying in quantity at each other's expense4 ,we should probably learn much if we in every case asked--,where is all the nervous energy gone8 ,v4 ,,the ,,origin ,,and ,,function ,,of ,,music ,when ,carlo1 standing1 chained to his kennel1 sees his master in the distance1 a slight motion of the tail indicates his but faint hope that he is about to be let out4 ,a much more decided wagging of the tail1 passing by-and-by into lateral undulations of the body1 follows his master's nearer approach4 ,when hands are laid on his collar1 and he knows that he is really to have an outing1 his jumping and wriggling are such that it is by no means easy to loose his fastenings4 ,and when he finds himself actually free1 his joy expends itself in bounds1 in pirouettes1 and in scourings hither and thither at the top of his speed4 ,puss1 too1 by erecting her tail1 and by every time raising her back to meet the caressing hand of her mistress1 similarly expresses her gratification by certain muscular actions2 as likewise do the parrot by awkward dancing on his perch1 and the canary by hopping and fluttering about his cage with unwonted rapidity4 ,under emotions of an opposite kind1 animals equally display muscular excitement4 ,the enraged lion lashes his sides with his tail1 knits his brows1 protrudes his claws4 ,the cat sets up her back2 the dog retracts his upper lip2 the horse throws back his ears4 ,and in the struggles of creatures in pain1 we see that the like relation holds between excitement of the muscles and excitement of the nerves of sensation4 ,in ourselves1 distinguished from lower creatures as we are by feelings alike more powerful and more varied1 parallel facts are at once more conspicuous and more numerous4 ,we may conveniently look at them in groups4 ,we shall find that pleasurable sensations and painful sensations1 pleasurable emotions and painful emotions1 all tend to produce active demonstrations in proportion to their intensity4 ,in children1 and even in adults who are not restrained by regard for appearances1 a highly agreeable taste is followed by a smacking of the lips4 ,an infant will laugh and bound in its nurse's arms at the sight of a brilliant colour or the hearing of a new sound4 ,people are apt to beat time with head or feet to music which particularly pleases them4 ,in a sensitive person an agreeable perfume will produce a smile2 and smiles will be seen on the faces of a crowd gazing at some splendid burst of fireworks4 ,even the pleasant sensation of warmth felt on getting to the fireside out of a winter's storm1 will similarly express itself in the face4 ,painful sensations1 being mostly far more intense than pleasurable ones1 cause muscular actions of a much more decided kind4 ,a sudden twinge produces a convulsive start of the whole body4 ,a pain less violent1 but continuous1 is accompanied by a knitting of the brows1 a setting of the teeth or biting of the lip1 and a contraction of the features generally4 ,under a persistent pain of a severer kind1 other muscular actions are added3 the body is swayed to and fro2 the hands clench anything they can lay hold of2 and should the agony rise still higher1 the sufferer rolls about on the floor almost convulsed4 ,though more varied1 the natural language of the pleasurable emotions comes within the same generalization4 ,a smile1 which is the commonest expression of gratified feeling1 is a contraction of certain facial muscles2 and when the smile broadens into a laugh1 we see a more violent and more general muscular excitement produced by an intenser gratification4 ,rubbing together of the hands1 and that other motion which ,dickens somewhere describes as washing with impalpable soap in invisible water1 have like implications4 ,children may often be seen to jump for joy4 ,even in adults of excitable temperament1 an action approaching to it is sometimes witnessed4 ,and dancing has all the world through been regarded as natural to an elevated state of mind4 ,many of the special emotions show themselves in special muscular actions4 ,the gratification resulting from success1 raises the head and gives firmness to the gait4 ,a hearty grasp of the hand is currently taken as indicative of friendship4 ,under a gush of affection the mother clasps her child to her breast1 feeling as though she could squeeze it to death4 ,and so in sundry other cases4 ,even in that brightening of the eye with which good news is received we may trace the same truth2 for this appearance of greater brilliancy is due to an extra contraction of the muscle which raises the eyelid1 and so allows more light to fall upon1 and be reflected from1 the wet surface of the eyeball4 ,the bodily indications of painful emotions are equally numerous1 and still more vehement4 ,discontent is shown by raised eyebrows and wrinkled forehead2 disgust by a curl of the lip2 offence by a pout4 ,the impatient man beats a tattoo with his fingers on the table1 swings his pendent leg with increasing rapidity1 gives needless pokings to the fire1 and presently paces with hasty strides about the room4 ,in great grief there is wringing of the hands1 and even tearing of the hair4 ,an angry child stamps1 or rolls on its back and kicks its heels in the air2 and in manhood1 anger1 first showing itself in frowns1 in distended nostrils1 in compressed lips1 goes on to produce grinding of the teeth1 clenching of the fingers1 blows of the fist on the table1 and perhaps ends in a violent attack on the offending person1 or in throwing about and breaking the furniture4 ,from that pursing of the mouth indicative of slight displeasure1 up to the frantic struggles of the maniac1 we shall find that mental irritation tends to vent itself in bodily activity4 ,all feelings1 then--sensations or emotions1 pleasurable or painful--have this common characteristic1 that they are muscular stimuli4 ,not forgetting the few apparently exceptional cases in which emotions exceeding a certain intensity produce prostration1 we may set it down as a general law that1 alike in man and animals1 there is a direct connection between feeling and motion2 the last growing more vehement as the first grows more intense4 ,were it allowable here to treat the matter scientifically1 we might trace this general law down to the principle known among physiologists as that of reflex action4,h ,without doing this1 however1 the above numerous instances justify the generalization1 that mental excitement of all kinds ends in excitement of the muscles2 and that the two preserve a more or less constant ratio to each other4 ,h ,those who seek information on this point may find it in an interesting tract by ,mr4 ,alexander ,bain1 on ,animal ,instinct and ,intelligence4 99 99 99 99 99 ,but what has all this to do with ,the ,origin and ,function of ,music8 asks the reader4 ,very much1 as we shall presently see4 ,all music is originally vocal4 ,all vocal sounds are produced by the agency of certain muscles4 ,these muscles1 in common with those of the body at large1 are excited to contraction by pleasurable and painful feelings4 ,and therefore it is that feelings demonstrate themselves in sounds as well as in movements4 ,therefore it is that ,carlo barks as well as leaps when he is let out--that puss purrs as well as erects her tail--that the canary chirps as well as flutters4 ,therefore it is that the angry lion roars while he lashes his sides1 and the dog growls while he retracts his lip4 ,therefore it is that the maimed animal not only struggles1 but howls4 ,and it is from this cause that in human beings bodily suffering expresses itself not only in contortions1 but in shrieks and groans--that in anger1 and fear1 and grief1 the gesticulations are accompanied by shouts and screams--that delightful sensations are followed by exclamations--and that we hear screams of joy and shouts of exultation4 ,we have here1 then1 a principle underlying all vocal phenomena2 including those of vocal music1 and by consequence those of music in general4 ,the muscles that move the chest1 larynx1 and vocal chords1 contracting like other muscles in proportion to the intensity of the feelings2 every different contraction of these muscles involving1 as it does1 a different adjustment of the vocal organs2 every different adjustment of the vocal organs causing a change in the sound emitted2--it follows that variations of voice are the physiological results of variations of feeling2 it follows that each inflection or modulation is the natural outcome of some passing emotion or sensation2 and it follows that the explanation of all kinds of vocal expression1 must be sought in this general relation between mental and muscular excitements4 ,let us1 then1 see whether we cannot thus account for the chief peculiarities in the utterance of the feelings3 grouping these peculiarities under the heads of loudness1 quality1 or timbre1 pitch1 intervals1 and rate of variation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,between the lungs and the organs of voice1 there is much the same relation as between the bellows of an organ and its pipes4 ,and as the loudness of the sound given out by an organ-pipe increases with the strength of the blast from the bellows2 so1 other things equal1 the loudness of a vocal sound increases with the strength of the blast from the lungs4 ,but the expulsion of air from the lungs is effected by certain muscles of the chest and abdomen4 ,the force with which these muscles contract1 is proportionate to the intensity of the feeling experienced4 ,hence1 a priori1 loud sounds will be the habitual results of strong feelings4 ,that they are so we have daily proof4 ,the pain which1 if moderate1 can be borne silently1 causes outcries if it becomes extreme4 ,while a slight vexation makes a child whimper1 a fit of passion calls forth a howl that disturbs the neighbourhood4 ,when the voices in an adjacent room become unusually audible1 we infer anger1 or surprise1 or joy4 ,loudness of applause is significant of great approbation2 and with uproarious mirth we associate the idea of high enjoyment4 ,commencing with the silence of apathy1 we find that the utterances grow louder as the sensations or emotions1 whether pleasurable or painful1 grow stronger4 ,that different qualities of voice accompany different mental states1 and that under states of excitement the tones are more sonorous than usual1 is another general fact admitting of a parallel explanation4 ,the sounds of common conversation have but little resonance2 those of strong feeling have much more4 ,under rising ill temper the voice acquires a metallic ring4 ,in accordance with her constant mood1 the ordinary speech of a virago has a piercing quality quite opposite to that softness indicative of placidity4 ,a ringing laugh marks an especially joyous temperament4 ,grief unburdening itself uses tones approaching in timbre to those of chanting3 and in his most pathetic passages an eloquent speaker similarly falls into tones more vibratory than those common to him4 ,now any one may readily convince himself that resonant vocal sounds can be produced only by a certain muscular effort additional to that ordinarily needed4 ,if after uttering a word in his speaking voice1 the reader1 without changing the pitch or the loudness1 will sing this word1 he will perceive that before he can sing it1 he has to alter the adjustment of the vocal organs2 to do which a certain force must be used2 and by putting his fingers on that external prominence marking the top of the larynx1 he will have further evidence that to produce a sonorous tone the organs must be drawn out of their usual position4 ,thus1 then1 the fact that the tones of excited feeling are more vibratory than those of common conversation1 is another instance of the connexion between mental excitement and muscular excitement4 ,the speaking voice1 the recitative voice1 and the singing voice1 severally exemplify one general principle4 ,that the pitch of the voice varies according to the action of the vocal muscles1 scarcely needs saying4 ,all know that the middle notes1 in which they converse1 are made without any appreciable effort2 and all know that to make either very high or very low notes requires a considerable effort4 ,in either ascending or descending from the pitch of ordinary speech1 we are conscious of an increasing muscular strain1 which1 at both extremes of the register1 becomes positively painful4 ,hence it follows from our general principle1 that while indifference or calmness will use the medium tones1 the tones used during excitement will be either above or below them2 and will rise higher and higher1 or fall lower and lower1 as the feelings grow stronger4 ,this physiological deduction we also find to be in harmony with familiar facts4 ,the habitual sufferer utters his complaints in a voice raised considerably above the natural key2 and agonizing pain vents itself in either shrieks or groans--in very high or very low notes4 ,beginning at his talking pitch1 the cry of the disappointed urchin grows more shrill as it grows louder4 ,the ,oh6 of astonishment or delight1 begins several notes below the middle voice1 and descends still lower4 ,anger expresses itself in high tones1 or else in curses not loud but deep4 ,deep tones1 too1 are always used in uttering strong reproaches4 ,such an exclamation as ,beware6 if made dramatically--that is1 if made with a show of feeling--must be many notes lower than ordinary4 ,further1 we have groans of disapprobation1 groans of horror1 groans of remorse4 ,and extreme joy and fear are alike accompanied by shrill outcries4 ,nearly allied to the subject of pitch1 is that of intervals2 and the explanation of them carries our argument a step further4 ,while calm speech is comparatively monotonous1 emotion makes use of fifths1 octaves1 and even wider intervals4 ,listen to any one narrating or repeating something in which he has no interest1 and his voice will not wander more than two or three notes above or below his medium note1 and that by small steps2 but when he comes to some exciting event he will be heard not only to use the higher and lower notes of his register1 but to go from one to the other by larger leaps4 ,being unable in print to imitate these traits of feeling1 we feel some difficulty in fully realizing them to the reader4 ,but we may suggest a few remembrances which will perhaps call to mind a sufficiency of others4 ,if two men living in the same place1 and frequently seeing one another1 meet1 say at a public assembly1 any phrase with which one may be heard to accost the other--as ,hallo1 are you here8--will have an ordinary intonation4 ,but if one of them1 after long absence1 has unexpectedly returned1 the expression of surprise with which his friend may greet him--,hallo6 how came you here8--will be uttered in much more strongly contrasted tones4 ,the two syllables of the word ,hallo will be1 the one much higher and the other much lower than before2 and the rest of the sentence will similarly ascend and descend by longer steps4 ,again1 if1 supposing her to be in an adjoining room1 the mistress of the house calls ,mary1 the two syllables of the name will be spoken in an ascending interval of a third4 ,if ,mary does not reply1 the call will be repeated probably in a descending fifth2 implying the slightest shade of annoyance at ,mary's inattention4 ,should ,mary still make no answer1 the increasing annoyance will show itself by the use of a descending octave on the next repetition of the call4 ,and supposing the silence to continue1 the lady1 if not of a very even temper1 will show her irritation at ,mary's seemingly intentional negligence by finally calling her in tones still more widely contrasted--the first syllable being higher and the last lower than before4 ,now1 these and analogous facts1 which the reader will readily accumulate1 clearly conform to the law laid down4 ,for to make large intervals requires more muscular action than to make small ones4 ,but not only is the extent of vocal intervals thus explicable as due to the relation between nervous and muscular excitement1 but also in some degree their direction1 as ascending or descending4 ,the middle notes being those which demand no appreciable effort of muscular adjustment2 and the effort becoming greater as we either ascend or descend2 it follows that a departure from the middle notes in either direction will mark increasing emotion2 while a return towards the middle notes will mark decreasing emotion4 ,hence it happens that an enthusiastic person uttering such a sentence as--,it was the most splendid sight ,i ever saw6 will ascend to the first syllable of the word splendid1 and thence will descend3 the word splendid marking the climax of the feeling produced by the recollection4 ,hence1 again1 it happens that1 under some extreme vexation produced by another's stupidity1 an irascible man1 exclaiming--,what a confounded fool the fellow is6 will begin somewhat below his middle voice1 and descending to the word fool1 which he will utter in one of his deepest notes1 will then ascend again4 ,and it may be remarked1 that the word fool will not only be deeper and louder than the rest1 but will also have more emphasis of articulation--another mode in which muscular excitement is shown4 ,there is some danger1 however1 in giving instances like this2 seeing that as the mode of rendering will vary according to the intensity of the feeling which the reader feigns to himself1 the right cadence may not be hit upon4 ,with single words there is less difficulty4 ,thus the ,indeed6 with which a surprising fact is received1 mostly begins on the middle note of the voice1 and rises with the second syllable2 or1 if disapprobation as well as astonishment is felt1 the first syllable will be below the middle note1 and the second lower still4 ,conversely1 the word ,alas6 which marks not the rise of a paroxysm of grief1 but its decline1 is uttered in a cadence descending towards the middle note2 or1 if the first syllable is in the lower part of the register1 the second ascends towards the middle note4 ,in the ,heigh-ho6 expressive of mental and muscular prostration1 we may see the same truth2 and if the cadence appropriate to it be inverted the absurdity of the effect clearly shows how the meaning of intervals is dependent on the principle we have been illustrating4 ,the remaining characteristic of emotional speech which we have to notice is that of variability of pitch4 ,it is scarcely possible here to convey adequate ideas of this more complex manifestation4 ,we must be content with simply indicating some occasions on which it may be observed4 ,on a meeting of friends1 for instance--as when there arrives a party of much-wished-for visitors--the voices of all will be heard to undergo changes of pitch not only greater but much more numerous than usual4 ,if a speaker at a public meeting is interrupted by some squabble among those he is addressing1 his comparatively level tones will be in marked contrast with the rapidly changing one of the disputants4 ,and among children1 whose feelings are less under control than those of adults1 this peculiarity is still more decided4 ,during a scene of complaint and recrimination between two excitable little girls1 the voices may be heard to run up and down the gamut several times in each sentence4 ,in such cases we once more recognise the same law3 for muscular excitement is shown not only in strength of contraction but also in the rapidity with which different muscular adjustments succeed each other4 ,thus we find all the leading vocal phenomena to have a physiological basis4 ,they are so many manifestations of the general law that feeling is a stimulus to muscular action--a law conformed to throughout the whole economy1 not of man only1 but of every sensitive creature--a law1 therefore1 which lies deep in the nature of animal organization4 ,the expressiveness of these various modifications of voice is therefore innate4 ,each of us1 from babyhood upwards1 has been spontaneously making them1 when under the various sensations and emotions by which they are produced4 ,having been conscious of each feeling at the same time that we heard ourselves make the consequent sound1 we have acquired an established association of ideas between such sound and the feeling which caused it4 ,when the like sound is made by another1 we ascribe the like feeling to him2 and by a further consequence we not only ascribe to him that feeling1 but have a certain degree of it aroused in ourselves3 for to become conscious of the feeling which another is experiencing1 is to have that feeling awakened in our own consciousness1 which is the same thing as experiencing the feeling4 ,thus these various modifications of voice become not only a language through which we understand the emotions of others1 but also the means of exciting our sympathy with such emotions4 ,have we not here1 then1 adequate data for a theory of music8 ,these vocal peculiarities which indicate excited feeling1 are those which especially distinguish song from ordinary speech4 ,every one of the alterations of voice which we have found to be a physiological result of pain or pleasure1 is carried to its greatest extreme in vocal music4 ,for instance1 we saw that1 in virtue of the general relation between mental and muscular excitement1 one characteristic of passionate utterance is loudness4 ,well1 its comparative loudness is one of the distinctive marks of song as contrasted with the speech of daily life2 and further1 the forte passages of an air are those intended to represent the climax of its emotion4 ,we next saw that the tones in which emotion expresses itself1 are1 in conformity with this same law1 of a more sonorous timbre than those of calm conversation4 ,here1 too1 song displays a still higher degree of the peculiarity2 for the singing tone is the most resonant we can make4 ,again1 it was shown that1 from a like cause1 mental excitement vents itself in the higher and lower notes of the register2 using the middle notes but seldom4 ,and it scarcely needs saying that vocal music is still more distinguished by its comparative neglect of the notes in which we talk1 and its habitual use of those above or below them and1 moreover1 that its most passionate effects are commonly produced at the two extremities of its scale1 but especially the upper one4 ,a yet further trait of strong feeling1 similarly accounted for1 was the employment of larger intervals than are employed in common converse4 ,this trait1 also1 every ballad and aria carries to an extent beyond that heard in the spontaneous utterances of emotion3 add to which1 that the direction of these intervals1 which1 as diverging from or converging towards the medium tones1 we found to be physiologically expressive of increasing or decreasing emotion1 may be observed to have in music like meanings4 ,once more1 it was pointed out that not only extreme but also rapid variations of pitch1 are characteristic of mental excitement2 and once more we see in the quick changes of every melody1 that song carries the characteristic as far1 if not farther4 ,thus1 in respect alike of loudness1 timbre1 pitch1 intervals1 and rate of variation1 song employs and exaggerates the natural language of the emotions2--it arises from a systematic combination of those vocal peculiarities which are the physiological effects of acute pleasure and pain4 ,besides these chief characteristics of song as distinguished from common speech1 there are sundry minor ones similarly explicable as due to the relation between mental and muscular excitement2 and before proceeding further1 these should be briefly noticed4 ,thus1 certain passions1 and perhaps all passions when pushed to an extreme1 produce 7probably through their influence over the action of the heart7 an effect the reverse of that which has been described3 they cause a physical prostration1 one symptom of which is a general relaxation of the muscles1 and a consequent trembling4 ,we have the trembling of anger1 of fear1 of hope1 of joy2 and the vocal muscles being implicated with the rest1 the voice too becomes tremulous4 ,now1 in singing1 this tremulousness of voice is very effectively used by some vocalists in highly pathetic passages2 sometimes1 indeed1 because of its effectiveness1 too much used by them--as by ,tamberlik1 for instance4 ,again1 there is a mode of musical execution known as the staccato1 appropriate to energetic passages--to passages expressive of exhilaration1 of resolution1 of confidence4 ,the action of the vocal muscles which produces this staccato style1 is analogous to the muscular action which produces the sharp1 decisive1 energetic movements of body indicating these states of mind2 and therefore it is that the staccato style has the meaning we ascribe to it4 ,conversely1 slurred intervals are expressive of gentler and less active feelings2 and are so because they imply the smaller muscular vivacity due to a lower mental energy4 ,the difference of effect resulting from difference of time in music1 is also attributable to the same law4 ,already it has been pointed out that the more frequent changes of pitch which ordinarily result from passion1 are imitated and developed in song2 and here we have to add1 that the various rates of such changes1 appropriate to the different styles of music1 are further traits having the same derivation4 ,the slowest movements1 largo and adagio1 are used where such depressing emotions as grief1 or such unexciting emotions as reverence1 are to be portrayed2 while the more rapid movements1 andante1 allegro1 presto1 represent successively increasing degrees of mental vivacity2 and do this because they imply that muscular activity which flows from this mental vivacity4 ,even the rhythm1 which forms a remaining distinction between song and speech1 may not improbably have a kindred cause4 ,why the actions excited by strong feeling should tend to become rhythmical1 is not very obvious2 but that they do so there are divers evidences4 ,there is the swaying of the body to and fro under pain or grief1 of the leg under impatience or agitation4 ,dancing1 too1 is a rhythmical action natural to elevated emotion4 ,that under excitement speech acquires a certain rhythm1 we may occasionally perceive in the highest efforts of an orator4 ,in poetry1 which is a form of speech used for the better expression of emotional ideas1 we have this rhythmical tendency developed4 ,and when we bear in mind that dancing1 poetry1 and music are connate--are originally constituent parts of the same thing1 it becomes clear that the measured movement common to them all implies a rhythmical action of the whole system1 the vocal apparatus included2 and that so the rhythm of music is a more subtle and complex result of this relation between mental and muscular excitement4 ,but it is time to end this analysis1 which1 possibly we have already carried too far4 ,it is not to be supposed that the more special peculiarities of musical expression are to be definitely explained4 ,though probably they may all in some way conform to the principle that has been worked out1 it is obviously impracticable to trace that principle in its more ramified applications4 ,nor is it needful to our argument that it should be so traced4 ,the foregoing facts sufficiently prove that what we regard as the distinctive traits of song1 are simply the traits of emotional speech intensified and systematized4 ,in respect of its general characteristics1 we think it has been made clear that vocal music1 and by consequence all music1 is an idealization of the natural language of passion4 99 99 99 99 99 ,as far as it goes1 the scanty evidence furnished by history confirms this conclusion4 ,note first the fact 7not properly an historical one1 but fitly grouped with such7 that the dance-chants of savage tribes are very monotonous2 and in virtue of their monotony are much more nearly allied to ordinary speech than are the songs of civilized races4 ,joining with this the fact that there are still extant among boatmen and others in the ,east1 ancient chants of a like monotonous character1 we may infer that vocal music originally diverged from emotional speech in a gradual1 unobtrusive manner2 and this is the inference to which our argument points4 ,further evidence to the same effect is supplied by ,greek history4 ,the early poems of the ,greeks--which1 be it remembered1 were sacred legends embodied in that rhythmical1 metaphorical language which strong feeling excites--were not recited1 but chanted3 the tones and the cadences were made musical by the same influences which made the speech poetical4 ,by those who have investigated the matter1 this chanting is believed to have been not what we call singing1 but nearly allied to our recitative2 7far simpler indeed1 if we may judge from the fact that the early ,greek lyre1 which had but four strings1 was played in unison with the voice1 which was therefore confined to four notes27 and as such1 much less remote from common speech than our own singing is4 ,for recitative1 or musical recitation1 is in all respects intermediate between speech and song4 ,its average effects are not so loud as those of song4 ,its tones are less sonorous in timbre than those of song4 ,commonly it diverges to a smaller extent from the middle notes--uses notes neither so high nor so low in pitch4 ,the intervals habitual to it are neither so wide nor so varied4 ,its rate of variation is not so rapid4 ,and at the same time that its primary rhythm is less decided1 it has none of that secondary rhythm produced by recurrence of the same or parallel musical phrases1 which is one of the marked characteristics of song4 ,thus1 then1 we may not only infer1 from the evidence furnished by existing barbarous tribes1 that the vocal music of pre-historic times was emotional speech very slightly exalted2 but we see that the earliest vocal music of which we have any account1 differed much less from emotional speech than does the vocal music of our days4 ,that recitative--beyond which1 by the way1 the ,chinese and ,hindoos seem never to have advanced--grew naturally out of the modulations and cadences of strong feeling1 we have indeed still current evidence4 ,there are even now to be met with occasions on which strong feeling vents itself in this form4 ,whoever has been present when a meeting of ,quakers was addressed by one of their preachers 7whose practice it is to speak only under the influence of religious emotion71 must have been struck by the quite unusual tones1 like those of a subdued chant1 in which the address was made4 ,it is clear1 too1 that the intoning used in some churches1 is representative of this same mental state2 and has been adopted on account of the instinctively felt congruity between it and the contrition1 supplication1 or reverence verbally expressed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,and if1 as we have good reason to believe1 recitative arose by degrees out of emotional speech1 it becomes manifest that by a continuance of the same process song has arisen out of recitative4 ,just as1 from the orations and legends of savages1 expressed in the metaphorical1 allegorical style natural to them1 there sprung epic poetry1 out of which lyric poetry was afterwards developed2 so1 from the exalted tones and cadences in which such orations and legends were delivered1 came the chant or recitative music1 from whence lyrical music has since grown up4 ,and there has not only thus been a simultaneous and parallel genesis1 but there is also a parallelism of results4 ,for lyrical poetry differs from epic poetry1 just as lyrical music differs from recitative3 each still further intensifies the natural language of the emotions4 ,lyrical poetry is more metaphorical1 more hyperbolic1 more elliptical1 and adds the rhythm of lines to the rhythm of feet2 just as lyrical music is louder1 more sonorous1 more extreme in its intervals1 and adds the rhythm of phrases to the rhythm of bars4 ,and the known fact that out of epic poetry the stronger passions developed lyrical poetry as their appropriate vehicle1 strengthens the inference that they similarly developed lyrical music out of recitative4 ,nor indeed are we without evidences of the transition4 ,it needs but to listen to an opera to hear the leading gradations4 ,between the comparatively level recitative of ordinary dialogue1 the more varied recitative with wider intervals and higher tones used in exciting scenes1 the still more musical recitative which preludes an air1 and the air itself1 the successive steps are but small2 and the fact that among airs themselves gradations of like nature may be traced1 further confirms the conclusion that the highest form of vocal music was arrived at by degrees4 ,moreover1 we have some clue to the influences which have induced this development2 and may roughly conceive the process of it4 ,as the tones1 intervals1 and cadences of strong emotion were the elements out of which song was elaborated2 so1 we may expect to find that still stronger emotion produced the elaboration3 and we have evidence implying this4 ,instances in abundance may be cited1 showing that musical composers are men of extremely acute sensibilities4 ,the ,life of ,mozart depicts him as one of intensely active affections and highly impressionable temperament4 ,various anecdotes represent ,beethoven as very susceptible and very passionate4 ,mendelssohn is described by those who knew him to have been full of fine feeling4 ,and the almost incredible sensitiveness of ,chopin has been illustrated in the memoirs of ,george ,sand4 ,an unusually emotional nature being thus the general characteristic of musical composers1 we have in it just the agency required for the development of recitative and song4 ,intenser feeling producing intenser manifestations1 any cause of excitement will call forth from such a nature1 tones and changes of voice more marked than those called forth from an ordinary nature--will generate just those exaggerations which we have found to distinguish the lower vocal music from emotional speech1 and the higher vocal music from the lower4 ,thus it becomes credible that the four-toned recitative of the early ,greek poets 7like all poets1 nearly allied to composers in the comparative intensity of their feelings71 was really nothing more than the slightly exaggerated emotional speech natural to them1 which grew by frequent use into an organized form4 ,and it is readily conceivable that the accumulated agency of subsequent poet-musicians1 inheriting and adding to the products of those who went before them1 sufficed1 in the course of the ten centuries which we know it took1 to develope this four-toned recitative into a vocal music having a range of two octaves4 ,not only may we so understand how more sonorous tones1 greater extremes of pitch1 and wider intervals1 were gradually introduced2 but also how there arose a greater variety and complexity of musical expression4 ,for this same passionate1 enthusiastic temperament1 which naturally leads the musical composer to express the feelings possessed by others as well as himself1 in extremer intervals and more marked cadences than they would use1 also leads him to give musical utterance to feelings which they either do not experience1 or experience in but slight degrees4 ,in virtue of this general susceptibility which distinguishes him1 he regards with emotion1 events1 scenes1 conduct1 character1 which produce upon most men no appreciable effect4 ,the emotions so generated1 compounded as they are of the simpler emotions1 are not expressible by intervals and cadences natural to these1 but by combinations of such intervals and cadences3 whence arise more involved musical phrases1 conveying more complex1 subtle1 and unusual feelings4 ,and thus we may in some measure understand how it happens that music not only so strongly excites our more familiar feelings1 but also produces feelings we never had before--arouses dormant sentiments of which we had not conceived the possibility and do not know the meaning2 or1 as ,richter says--tells us of things we have not seen and shall not see4 99 99 99 99 99 ,indirect evidences of several kinds remain to be briefly pointed out4 ,one of them is the difficulty1 not to say impossibility1 of otherwise accounting for the expressiveness of music4 ,whence comes it that special combinations of notes should have special effects upon our emotions8--that one should give us a feeling of exhilaration1 another of melancholy1 another of affection1 another of reverence8 ,is it that these special combinations have intrinsic meanings apart from the human constitution8--that a certain number of aerial waves per second1 followed by a certain other number1 in the nature of things signify grief1 while in the reverse order they signify joy2 and similarly with all other intervals1 phrases1 and cadences8 ,few will be so irrational as to think this4 ,is it1 then1 that the meanings of these special combinations are conventional only8--that we learn their implications1 as we do those of words1 by observing how others understand them8 ,this is an hypothesis not only devoid of evidence1 but directly opposed to the experience of every one4 ,how1 then1 are musical effects to be explained8 ,if the theory above set forth be accepted1 the difficulty disappears4 ,if music1 taking for its raw material the various modifications of voice which are the physiological results of excited feeling1 intensifies1 combines1 and complicates them--if it exaggerates the loudness1 the resonance1 the pitch1 the intervals1 and the variability1 which1 in virtue of an organic law1 are the characteristics of passionate speech--if1 by carrying out these further1 more consistently1 more unitedly1 and more sustainedly1 it produces an idealized language of emotion2 then its power over us becomes comprehensible4 ,but in the absence of this theory1 the expressiveness of music appears to be inexplicable4 ,again1 the preference we feel for certain qualities of sound presents a like difficulty1 admitting only of a like solution4 ,it is generally agreed that the tones of the human voice are more pleasing than any others4 ,grant that music takes its rise from the modulations of the human voice under emotion1 and it becomes a natural consequence that the tones of that voice should appeal to our feelings more than any others2 and so should be considered more beautiful than any others4 ,but deny that music has this origin1 and the only alternative is the untenable position that the vibrations proceeding from a vocalist's throat are1 objectively considered1 of a higher order than those from a horn or a violin4 ,similarly with harsh and soft sounds4 ,if the conclusiveness of the foregoing reasonings be not admitted1 it must be supposed that the vibrations causing the last are intrinsically better than those causing the first2 and that1 in virtue of some pre-established harmony1 the higher feelings and natures produce the one1 and the lower the other4 ,but if the foregoing reasonings be valid1 it follows1 as a matter of course1 that we shall like the sounds that habitually accompany agreeable feelings1 and dislike those that habitually accompany disagreeable feelings4 ,once more1 the question--,how is the expressiveness of music to be otherwise accounted for8 may be supplemented by the question--,how is the genesis of music to be otherwise accounted for8 ,that music is a product of civilization is manifest2 for though savages have their dance-chants1 these are of a kind scarcely to be dignified by the title musical3 at most1 they supply but the vaguest rudiment of music1 properly so called4 ,and if music has been by slow steps developed in the course of civilization1 it must have been developed out of something4 ,if1 then1 its origin is not that above alleged1 what is its origin8 ,thus we find that the negative evidence confirms the positive1 and that1 taken together1 they furnish strong proof4 ,we have seen that there is a physiological relation1 common to man and all animals1 between feeling and muscular action2 that as vocal sounds are produced by muscular action1 there is a consequent physiological relation between feeling and vocal sounds2 that all the modifications of voice expressive of feeling are the direct results of this physiological relation2 that music1 adopting all these modifications1 intensifies them more and more as it ascends to its higher and higher forms1 and becomes music simply in virtue of thus intensifying them2 that1 from the ancient epic poet chanting his verses1 down to the modern musical composer1 men of unusually strong feelings prone to express them in extreme forms1 have been naturally the agents of these successive intensifications2 and that so there has little by little arisen a wide divergence between this idealized language of emotion and its natural language3 to which direct evidence we have just added the indirect--that on no other tenable hypothesis can either the expressiveness or the genesis of music be explained4 99 99 99 99 99 ,and now1 what is the function of music8 ,has music any effect beyond the immediate pleasure it produces8 ,analogy suggests that it has4 ,the enjoyments of a good dinner do not end with themselves1 but minister to bodily well-being4 ,though people do not marry with a view to maintain the race1 yet the passions which impel them to marry secure its maintenance4 ,parental affection is a feeling which1 while it conduces to parental happiness1 ensures the nurture of offspring4 ,men love to accumulate property1 often without thought of the benefits it produces2 but in pursuing the pleasure of acquisition they indirectly open the way to other pleasures4 ,the wish for public approval impels all of us to do many things which we should otherwise not do1--to undertake great labours1 face great dangers1 and habitually rule ourselves in a way that smooths social intercourse3 that is1 in gratifying our love of approbation we subserve divers ulterior purposes4 ,and1 generally1 our nature is such that in fulfilling each desire1 we in some way facilitate the fulfilment of the rest4 ,but the love of music seems to exist for its own sake4 ,the delights of melody and harmony do not obviously minister to the welfare either of the individual or of society4 ,may we not suspect1 however1 that this exception is apparent only8 ,is it not a rational inquiry--,what are the indirect benefits which accrue from music1 in addition to the direct pleasure it gives8 ,but that it would take us too far out of our track1 we should prelude this inquiry by illustrating at some length a certain general law of progress2--the law that alike in occupations1 sciences1 arts1 the divisions that had a common root1 but by continual divergence have become distinct1 and are now being separately developed1 are not truly independent1 but severally act and react on each other to their mutual advancement4 ,merely hinting thus much1 however1 by way of showing that there are many analogies to justify us1 we go on to express the opinion that there exists a relationship of this kind between music and speech4 ,all speech is compounded of two elements1 the words and the tones in which they are uttered--the signs of ideas and the signs of feelings4 ,while certain articulations express the thought1 certain vocal sounds express the more or less of pain or pleasure which the thought gives4 ,using the word cadence in an unusually extended sense1 as comprehending all modifications of voice1 we may say that cadence is the commentary of the emotions upon the propositions of the intellect4 ,this duality of spoken language1 though not formally recognised1 is recognised in practice by every one2 and every one knows that very often more weight attaches to the tones than to the words4 ,daily experience supplies cases in which the same sentence of disapproval will be understood as meaning little or meaning much1 according to the inflections of voice which accompany it2 and daily experience supplies still more striking cases in which words and tones are in direct contradiction--the first expressing consent1 while the last express reluctance2 and the last being believed rather than the first4 ,these two distinct but interwoven elements of speech have been undergoing a simultaneous development4 ,we know that in the course of civilization words have been multiplied1 new parts of speech have been introduced1 sentences have grown more varied and complex2 and we may fairly infer that during the same time new modifications of voice have come into use1 fresh intervals have been adopted1 and cadences have become more elaborate4 ,for while1 on the one hand1 it is absurd to suppose that1 along with the undeveloped verbal forms of barbarism1 there existed a developed system of vocal inflections2 it is1 on the other hand1 necessary to suppose that1 along with the higher and more numerous verbal forms needed to convey the multiplied and complicated ideas of civilized life1 there have grown up those more involved changes of voice which express the feelings proper to such ideas4 ,if intellectual language is a growth1 so also1 without doubt1 is emotional language a growth4 ,now1 the hypothesis which we have hinted above1 is1 that beyond the direct pleasure which it gives1 music has the indirect effect of developing this language of the emotions4 ,having its root1 as we have endeavoured to show1 in those tones1 intervals1 and cadences of speech which express feeling--arising by the combination and intensifying of these1 and coming finally to have an embodiment of its own2 music has all along been reacting upon speech1 and increasing its power of rendering emotion4 ,the use in recitative and song of inflections more expressive than ordinary ones1 must from the beginning have tended to develope the ordinary ones4 ,familiarity with the more varied combinations of tones that occur in vocal music1 can scarcely have failed to give greater variety of combination to the tones in which we utter our impressions and desires4 ,the complex musical phrases by which composers have conveyed complex emotions1 may rationally be supposed to have influenced us in making those involved cadences of conversation by which we convey our subtler thoughts and feelings4 ,that the cultivation of music has no effect on the mind1 few will be absurd enough to contend4 ,and if it has an effect1 what more natural effect is there than this of developing our perception of the meanings of inflections1 qualities1 and modulations of voice2 and giving us a correspondingly increased power of using them8 ,just as mathematics1 taking its start from the phenomena of physics and astronomy1 and presently coming to be a separate science1 has since reacted on physics and astronomy to their immense advancement--just as chemistry1 first arising out of the processes of metallurgy and the industrial arts1 and gradually growing into an independent study1 has now become an aid to all kinds of production--just as physiology1 originating out of medicine and once subordinate to it1 but latterly pursued for its own sake1 is in our day coming to be the science on which the progress of medicine depends2--so1 music1 having its root in emotional language1 and gradually evolved from it1 has ever been reacting upon and further advancing it4 ,whoever will examine the facts1 will find this hypothesis to be in harmony with the method of civilization everywhere displayed4 ,it will scarcely be expected that much direct evidence in support of this conclusion can be given4 ,the facts are of a kind which it is difficult to measure1 and of which we have no records4 ,some suggestive traits1 however1 may be noted4 ,may we not say1 for instance1 that the ,italians1 among whom modern music was earliest cultivated1 and who have more especially practised and excelled in melody 7the division of music with which our argument is chiefly concerned7--may we not say that these ,italians speak in more varied and expressive inflections and cadences than any other nation8 ,on the other hand1 may we not say that1 confined almost exclusively as they have hitherto been to their national airs1 which have a marked family likeness1 and therefore accustomed to but a limited range of musical expression1 the ,scotch are unusually monotonous in the intervals and modulations of their speech8 ,and again1 do we not find among different classes of the same nation1 differences that have like implications8 ,the gentleman and the clown stand in very decided contrast with respect to variety of intonation4 ,listen to the conversation of a servant-girl1 and then to that of a refined1 accomplished lady1 and the more delicate and complex changes of voice used by the latter will be conspicuous4 ,now1 without going so far as to say that out of all the differences of culture to which the upper and lower classes are subjected1 difference of musical culture is that to which alone this difference of speech is ascribable2 yet we may fairly say that there seems a much more obvious connexion of cause and effect between these than between any others4 ,thus1 while the inductive evidence to which we can appeal is but scanty and vague1 yet what there is favours our position4 99 99 99 99 99 ,probably most will think that the function here assigned to music is one of very little moment4 ,but further reflection may lead them to a contrary conviction4 ,in its bearings upon human happiness1 we believe that this emotional language which musical culture developes and refines1 is only second in importance to the language of the intellect2 perhaps not even second to it4 ,for these modifications of voice produced by feelings1 are the means of exciting like feelings in others4 ,joined with gestures and expressions of face1 they give life to the otherwise dead words in which the intellect utters its ideas2 and so enable the hearer not only to understand the state of mind they accompany1 but to partake of that state4 ,in short1 they are the chief media of sympathy4 ,and if we consider how much both our general welfare and our immediate pleasures depend upon sympathy1 we shall recognise the importance of whatever makes this sympathy greater4 ,if we bear in mind that by their fellow-feeling men are led to behave justly1 kindly and considerately to each other--that the difference between the cruelty of the barbarous and the humanity of the civilized1 results from the increase of fellow-feeling2 if we bear in mind that this faculty which makes us sharers in the joys and sorrows of others1 is the basis of all the higher affections--that in friendship1 love1 and all domestic pleasures1 it is an essential element2 if we bear in mind how much our direct gratifications are intensified by sympathy1--how1 at the theatre1 the concert1 the picture gallery1 we lose half our enjoyment if we have no one to enjoy with us2 if1 in short1 we bear in mind that for all happiness beyond what the unfriended recluse can have1 we are indebted to this same sympathy2--we shall see that the agencies which communicate it can scarcely be overrated in value4 ,the tendency of civilization is more and more to repress the antagonistic elements of our characters and to develope the social ones--to curb our purely selfish desires and exercise our unselfish ones--to replace private gratifications by gratifications resulting from1 or involving1 the happiness of others4 ,and while1 by this adaptation to the social state1 the sympathetic side of our nature is being unfolded1 there is simultaneously growing up a language of sympathetic intercourse--a language through which we communicate to others the happiness we feel1 and are made sharers in their happiness4 ,this double process1 of which the effects are already sufficiently appreciable1 must go on to an extent of which we can as yet have no adequate conception4 ,the habitual concealment of our feelings diminishing1 as it must1 in proportion as our feelings become such as do not demand concealment1 we may conclude that the exhibition of them will become much more vivid than we now dare allow it to be2 and this implies a more expressive emotional language4 ,at the same time1 feelings of a higher and more complex kind1 as yet experienced only by the cultivated few1 will become general2 and there will be a corresponding development of the emotional language into more involved forms4 ,just as there has silently grown up a language of ideas1 which1 rude as it at first was1 now enables us to convey with precision the most subtle and complicated thoughts2 so1 there is still silently growing up a language of feelings1 which notwithstanding its present imperfection1 we may expect will ultimately enable men vividly and completely to impress on each other all the emotions which they experience from moment to moment4 ,thus if1 as we have endeavoured to show1 it is the function of music to facilitate the development of this emotional language1 we may regard music as an aid to the achievement of that higher happiness which it indistinctly shadows forth4 ,those vague feelings of unexperienced felicity which music arouses--those indefinite impressions of an unknown ideal life which it calls up1 may be considered as a prophecy1 to the fulfilment of which music is itself partly instrumental4 ,the strange capacity which we have for being so affected by melody and harmony1 may be taken to imply both that it is within the possibilities of our nature to realize those intenser delights they dimly suggest1 and that they are in some way concerned in the realization of them4 ,on this supposition the power and the meaning of music become comprehensible2 but otherwise they are a mystery4 ,we will only add1 that if the probability of these corollaries be admitted1 then music must take rank as the highest of the fine arts--as the one which1 more than any other1 ministers to human welfare4 ,and thus1 even leaving out of view the immediate gratifications it is hourly giving1 we cannot too much applaud that progress of musical culture which is becoming one of the characteristics of our age4 ,,vi4 ,,the ,,nebular ,,hypothesis4 ,inquiring into the pedigree of an idea is not a bad means of roughly estimating its value4 ,to have come of respectable ancestry1 is prima facie evidence of worth in a belief as in a person2 while to be descended from a discreditable stock is1 in the one case as in the other1 an unfavorable index4 ,the analogy is not a mere fancy4 ,beliefs1 together with those who hold them1 are modified little by little in successive generations2 and as the modifications which successive generations of the holders undergo1 do not destroy the original type1 but only disguise and refine it1 so the accompanying alterations of belief1 however much they purify1 leave behind the essence of the original belief4 ,considered genealogically1 the received theory respecting the creation of the ,solar ,system is unmistakeably of low origin4 ,you may clearly trace it back to primitive mythologies4 ,its remotest ancestor is the doctrine that the celestial bodies are personages who originally lived on the ,earth--a doctrine still held by some of the negroes ,livingstone visited4 ,science having divested the sun and planets of their divine personalities1 this old idea was succeeded by the idea which even ,kepler entertained1 that the planets are guided in their courses by presiding spirits3 no longer themselves gods1 they are still severally kept in their orbits by gods4 ,and when gravitation came to dispense with these celestial steersmen1 there was begotten a belief1 less gross than its parent1 but partaking of the same essential nature1 that the planets were originally launched into their orbits from the ,creator's hand4 ,evidently1 though much refined1 the anthropomorphism of the current hypothesis is inherited from the aboriginal anthropomorphism1 which described gods as a stronger order of men4 ,there is an antagonist hypothesis which does not propose to honour the ,unknown ,power manifested in the ,universe1 by such titles as ,the ,master-,builder1 or ,the ,great ,artificer2 but which regards this ,unknown ,power as probably working after a method quite different from that of human mechanics4 ,and the genealogy of this hypothesis is as high as that of the other is low4 ,it is begotten by that ever-enlarging and ever-strengthening belief in the presence of ,law1 which accumulated experiences have gradually produced in the human mind4 ,from generation to generation ,science has been proving uniformities of relation among phenomena which were before thought either fortuitous or supernatural in their origin--has been showing an established order and a constant causation where ignorance had assumed irregularity and arbitrariness4 ,each further discovery of ,law has increased the presumption that ,law is everywhere conformed to4 ,and hence1 among other beliefs1 has arisen the belief that the ,solar ,system originated1 not by manufacture but by evolution4 ,besides its abstract parentage in those grand general conceptions which positive ,science has generated1 this hypothesis has a concrete parentage of the highest character4 ,based as it is on the law of universal gravitation1 it may claim for its remote progenitor the great thinker who established that law4 ,the man who gave it its general shape1 by promulgating the doctrine that stars result from the aggregation of diffused matter1 was the most diligent1 careful1 and original astronomical observer of modern times4 ,and the world has not seen a more learned mathematician than the man who1 setting out with this conception of diffused matter concentrating towards its centre of gravity1 pointed out the way in which there would arise1 in the course of its concentration1 a balanced group of sun1 planets1 and satellites1 like that of which the ,earth is a member4 ,thus1 even were there but little direct evidence assignable for the ,nebular ,hypothesis1 the probability of its truth would still be strong4 ,its own high derivation and the low derivation of the antagonist hypothesis1 would together form a weighty reason for accepting it--at any rate1 provisionally4 ,but the direct evidence assignable for the ,nebular ,hypothesis is by no means little4 ,it is far greater in quantity1 and more varied in kind1 than is commonly supposed4 ,much has been said here and there on this or that class of evidences2 but nowhere1 as far as we know1 have all the evidences1 even of one class1 been fully stated2 and still less has there been an adequate statement of the several groups of evidences in their ensemble4 ,we propose here to do something towards supplying the deficiency3 believing that1 joined with the a priori reasons given above1 the array of a posteriori reasons will leave little doubt in the mind of any candid inquirer4 ,and first1 let us address ourselves to those recent discoveries in stellar astronomy1 which have been supposed to conflict with this celebrated speculation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,when ,sir ,william ,herschel1 directing his great reflector to various nebulous spots1 found them resolvable into clusters of stars1 he inferred1 and for a time maintained1 that all nebulous spots are clusters of stars exceedingly remote from us4 ,but after years of conscientious investigation1 he concluded that there were nebulosities which are not of a starry nature2 and on this conclusion was based his hypothesis of a diffused luminous fluid1 which by its eventual aggregation1 produced stars4 ,a telescopic power much exceeding that used by ,herschel1 has enabled ,lord ,rosse to resolve some of the nebulae previously unresolved2 and1 returning to the conclusion which ,herschel first formed on similar grounds but afterwards rejected1 many astronomers have assumed that1 under sufficiently high powers1 every nebula would be decomposed into stars--that the resolvability is solely a question of distance4 ,the hypothesis now commonly entertained is1 that all nebulae are galaxies more or less like in nature to that immediately surrounding us2 but that they are so inconceivably remote1 as to look1 through an ordinary telescope1 like small faint spots4 ,and not a few have drawn the corollary1 that by the discoveries of ,lord ,rosse the ,nebular ,hypothesis has been disproved4 ,now1 even supposing that these inferences respecting the distances and natures of the nebulae are valid1 they leave the ,nebular ,hypothesis substantially as it was4 ,admitting that each of those faint spots is a sidereal system1 so far removed that its countless stars give less light than one small star of our own sidereal system2 the admission is in no way inconsistent with the belief1 that stars and their attendant planets have been formed by the aggregation of nebulous matter4 ,though1 doubtless1 if the existence of nebulous matter now in course of concentration be disproved1 one of the evidences of the ,nebular ,hypothesis is destroyed2 yet the remaining evidences remain just as they were4 ,it is a perfectly tenable position1 that though nebular condensation is now nowhere to be seen in progress1 yet it was once going on universally4 ,and1 indeed1 it might be argued that the still-continued existence of diffused nebulous matter is scarcely to be expected2 seeing that the causes which have resulted in the aggregation of one mass1 must have been acting on all masses1 and that hence the existence of masses not aggregated would be a fact calling for explanation4 ,thus1 granting the immediate conclusions suggested by these recent disclosures of the six-feet reflector1 the corollary which many have drawn is inadmissible4 ,but we do not grant these conclusions4 ,receiving them though we have1 for years past1 as established truths1 a critical examination of the facts has convinced us that they are quite unwarrantable4 ,they involve so many manifest incongruities1 that we have been astonished to find men of science entertaining them even as probable hypotheses4 ,let us consider these incongruities4 ,in the first place1 mark what is inferable from the distribution of nebulae4 ,the spaces which precede or which follow simple nebulae1 says ,arago1 and1 a fortiori1 groups of nebulae1 contain generally few stars4 ,herschel found this rule to be invariable4 ,thus1 every time that1 during a short interval1 no star approached1 in virtue of the diurnal motion1 to place itself in the field of his motionless telescope1 he was accustomed to say to the secretary who assisted him1 ',prepare to write2 nebulae are about to arrive4' ,how does this fact consist with the hypothesis that nebulae are remote galaxies8 ,if there were but one nebula1 it would be a curious coincidence were this one nebula so placed in the distant regions of space1 as to agree in direction with a starless spot in our own sidereal system4 ,if there were but two nebulae1 and both were so placed1 the coincidence would be excessively strange4 ,what1 then1 shall we say on finding that there are thousands of nebulae so placed8 ,shall we believe that in thousands of cases these far-removed galaxies happen to agree in their visible positions with the thin places in our own galaxy8 ,such a belief is next to impossible4 ,still more manifest does the impossibility of it become when we consider the general distribution of nebulae4 ,besides again showing itself in the fact that the poorest regions in stars are near the richest in nebulae1 the law above specified applies to the heavens as a whole4 ,in that zone of celestial space where stars are excessively abundant1 nebulae are rare2 while in the two opposite celestial spaces that are furthest removed from this zone1 nebulae are abundant4 ,scarcely any nebulae lie near the galactic circle 7or plane of the ,milky ,way72 and the great mass of them lie round the galactic poles4 ,can this also be mere coincidence8 ,when to the fact that the general mass of nebulae are antithetical in position to the general mass of stars1 we add the fact that local regions of nebulae are regions where stars are scarce1 and the further fact that single nebulae are habitually found in comparatively starless spots2 does not the proof of a physical connexion become overwhelming8 ,should it not require an infinity of evidence to show that nebulae are not parts of our sidereal system8 ,let us see whether any such infinity of evidence is assignable4 ,let us see whether there is even a single alleged proof which will bear examination4 ,as seen through colossal telescopes1 says ,humboldt1 the contemplation of these nebulous masses leads us into regions from whence a ray of light1 according to an assumption not wholly improbable1 requires millions of years to reach our earth--to distances for whose measurement the dimensions 7the distance of ,sirius1 or the calculated distances of the binary stars in ,cygnus and the ,centaur7 of our nearest stratum of fixed stars scarcely suffice4 ,now1 in this somewhat confused sentence there is expressed a more or less decided belief1 that the distances of the nebulae from our galaxy of stars as much transcend the distances of our stars from each other1 as these interstellar distances transcend the dimensions of our planetary system4 ,just as the diameter of the ,earth's orbit1 is an inappreciable point when compared with the distance of our ,sun from ,sirius2 so is the distance of our ,sun from ,sirius1 an inappreciable point when compared with the distance of our galaxy from those far removed galaxies constituting nebulae4 ,observe the consequences of this assumption4 ,if one of these supposed galaxies is so remote that its distance dwarfs our interstellar spaces into points1 and therefore makes the dimensions of our whole sidereal system relatively insignificant2 does it not inevitably follow that the telescopic power required to resolve this remote galaxy into stars1 must be incomparably greater than the telescopic power required to resolve the whole of our own galaxy into stars8 ,is it not certain that an instrument which can just exhibit with clearness the most distant stars of our own cluster1 must be utterly unable to separate one of these remote clusters into stars8 ,what1 then1 are we to think when we find that the same instrument which decomposes hosts of nebulae into stars1 fails to resolve completely our own ,milky ,way8 ,take a homely comparison4 ,suppose a man surrounded by a swarm of bees1 extending1 as they sometimes do1 so high in the air as to be individually almost invisible1 were to declare that a certain spot on the horizon was a swarm of bees2 and that he knew it because he could see the bees as separate specks4 ,astounding as the assertion would be1 it would not exceed in incredibility this which we are criticising4 ,reduce the dimensions to figures1 and the absurdity becomes still more palpable4 ,in round numbers1 the distance of ,sirius from the ,earth is a million times the distance of the ,earth from the ,sun2 and1 according to the hypothesis1 the distance of a nebula is something like a million times the distance of ,sirius4 ,now1 our own starry island1 or nebula1 as ,humboldt calls it1 forms a lens-shaped1 flattened1 and everywhere detached stratum1 whose major axis is estimated at seven or eight hundred1 and its minor axis at a hundred and fifty times the distance of ,sirius from the ,earth4,i ,and since it is concluded that our ,solar ,system is near the centre of this aggregation1 it follows that our distance from the remotest parts of it is about four hundred distances of ,sirius4 ,but the stars forming these remotest parts are not individually visible1 even through telescopes of the highest power4 ,how1 then1 can such telescopes make individually visible the stars of a nebula which is a million times the distance of ,sirius8 ,the implication is1 that a star rendered invisible by distance becomes visible if taken two thousand five hundred times further off6 ,shall we accept this implication8 or shall we not rather conclude that the nebulae are not remote galaxies8 ,shall we not infer that1 be their nature what it may1 they must be at least as near to us as the extremities of our own sidereal system8 ,i ,cosmos4 7,seventh ,edition47 ,vol4 i4 pp4 #gi1 #hj4 ,throughout the above argument1 it is tacitly assumed that differences of apparent magnitude among the stars1 result mainly from differences of distance4 ,on this assumption the current doctrines respecting the nebulae are founded2 and this assumption is1 for the nonce1 admitted in each of the foregoing criticisms4 ,from the time1 however1 when it was first made by ,sir ,w4 ,herschel1 this assumption has been purely gratuitous2 and it now proves to be totally inadmissible4 ,but1 awkwardly enough1 its truth and its untruth are alike fatal to the conclusions of those who argue after the manner of ,humboldt4 ,note the alternative4 ,on the one hand1 what follows from the untruth of the assumption8 ,if apparent largeness of stars is not due to comparative nearness1 and their successively smaller sizes to their greater and greater degrees of remoteness1 what becomes of the inferences respecting the dimensions of our sidereal system and the distances of nebulae8 ,if1 as has lately been shown1 the almost invisible star #fa ,cygni has a greater parallax than alpha ,cygni1 though1 according to an estimate based on ,sir ,w4 ,herschel's assumption1 it should be about twelve times more distant--if1 as it turns out1 there exist telescopic stars which are nearer to us than ,sirius2 of what worth is the conclusion that the nebulae are very remote1 because their component luminous masses are made visible only by high telescopic powers8 ,clearly1 if the most brilliant star in the heavens and a star that cannot be seen by the naked eye1 prove to be equidistant1 relative distances cannot be in the least inferred from relative visibilities4 ,and if so1 nebulae may be comparatively near1 though the starlets of which they are made up appear extremely minute4 ,on the other hand1 what follows if the truth of the assumption be granted8 ,the arguments used to justify this assumption in the case of the stars1 equally justify it in the case of the nebulae4 ,it cannot be contended that1 on the average1 the apparent sizes of the stars indicate their distances1 without its being admitted that1 on the average1 the apparent sizes of the nebulae indicate their distances--that1 generally speaking1 the larger are the nearer1 and the smaller are the more distant4 ,mark1 now1 the necessary inference respecting their resolvability4 ,the largest or nearest nebulae will be most easily resolved into stars2 the successively smaller will be successively more difficult of resolution2 and the irresolvable ones will be the smallest ones4 ,this1 however1 is exactly the reverse of the fact4 ,the largest nebulae are either wholly irresolvable1 or but partially resolvable under the highest telescopic powers2 while a great proportion of quite small nebulae1 are easily resolved by far less powerful telescopes4 ,an instrument through which the great nebula in ,andromeda1 two and a half degrees long and one degree broad1 appears merely as a diffused light1 decomposes a nebula of fifteen minutes diameter into twenty thousand starry points4 ,at the same time that the individual stars of a nebula eight minutes in diameter are so clearly seen as to allow of their number being estimated1 a nebula covering an area five hundred times as great shows no stars at all4 ,what possible explanation can be given of this on the current hypothesis8 ,yet a further difficulty remains--one which is1 perhaps1 still more obviously fatal than the foregoing4 ,this difficulty is presented by the phenomena of the ,magellanic clouds4 ,describing the larger of these1 ,sir ,john ,herschel says3-- ,the nubecula major1 like the minor1 consists partly of large tracts and ill-defined patches of irresolvable nebula1 and of nebulosity in every stage of resolution1 up to perfectly resolved stars like the ,milky ,way2 as also of regular and irregular nebulae properly so called1 of globular clusters in every stage of resolvability1 and of clustering groups sufficiently insulated and condensed to come under the designation of 'cluster of stars4'--,cape ,observations1 p4 #adf4 ,in his ,outlines of ,astronomy1 ,sir ,john ,herschel1 after repeating this description in other words1 goes on to remark that-- ,this combination of characters1 rightly considered1 is in a high degree instructive1 affording an insight into the probable comparative distance of stars and nebulae1 and the real brightness of individual stars as compared with one another4 ,taking the apparent semi-diameter of the nubecula major at three degrees1 and regarding its solid form as1 roughly speaking1 spherical1 its nearest and most remote parts differ in their distance from us by a little more than a tenth part of our distance from its centre4 ,the brightness of objects situated in its nearer portions1 therefore1 cannot be much exaggerated1 nor that of its remoter much enfeebled1 by their difference of distance4 ,yet within this globular space we have collected upwards of six hundred stars of the seventh1 eighth1 ninth1 and tenth magnitude1 nearly three hundred nebulae1 and globular and other clusters of all degrees of resolvability1 and smaller scattered stars of every inferior magnitude1 from the tenth to such as by their magnitude and minuteness constitute irresolvable nebulosity1 extending over tracts of many square degrees4 ,were there but one such object1 it might be maintained without utter improbability that its apparent sphericity is only an effect of foreshortening1 and that in reality a much greater proportional difference of distance between its nearer and more remote parts exists4 ,but such an adjustment1 improbable enough in one case1 must be rejected as too much so for fair argument in two4 ,it must1 therefore1 be taken as a demonstrated fact1 that stars of the seventh or eighth magnitude1 and irresolvable nebula1 may co-exist within limits of distance not differing in proportion more than as nine to ten4--,outlines of ,astronomy1 pp4 #fad1 #fae4 ,now1 we think this supplies a reductio ad absurdum of the doctrine we are combating4 ,it gives us the choice of two incredibilities4 ,if we are to believe that one of these nebulae is so remote that its hundred thousand stars look like a milky spot1 invisible to the naked eye2 we must also believe that there are single stars so enormous that though removed to this same distance they remain visible4 ,if we accept the other alternative1 and say that many nebulae are no further off than our own stars of the eighth magnitude2 then it is requisite to say that at a distance not greater than that at which a single star is still faintly visible to the naked eye1 there may exist a group of a hundred thousand stars which is invisible to the naked eye4 ,neither of these positions can be entertained4 ,what1 then1 is the conclusion that remains8 ,this1 only3--that the nebulae are not further off from us than parts of our own sidereal system1 of which they must be considered members2 and that when they are resolvable into discrete masses1 these masses cannot be considered as stars in anything like the ordinary sense of that word4 ,and now1 having seen the untenability of this idea1 rashly espoused by sundry astronomers1 that the nebulae are extremely remote galaxies2 let us consider whether the various appearances they present are not reconcileable with the ,nebular ,hypothesis4 ,given a rare and widely-diffused mass of nebulous matter1 having a diameter1 say as great as the distance from the ,sun to ,sirius1,j what are the successive changes that will take place in it8 ,mutual gravitation will approximate its atoms2 but their approximation will be opposed by atomic repulsion1 the overcoming of which implies the evolution of heat4 ,as fast as this heat partially escapes by radiation1 further approximation will take place1 attended by further evolution of heat1 and so on continuously3 the processes not occurring separately as here described1 but simultaneously1 uninterruptedly1 and with increasing activity4 ,eventually1 this slow movement of the atoms towards their common centre of gravity1 will bring about phenomena of another order4 ,j ,any objection made to the extreme tenuity this involves1 is met by the calculation of ,newton1 who proved that were a spherical inch of air removed four thousand miles from the ,earth1 it would expand into a sphere more than filling the orbit of ,saturn4 ,arguing from the known laws of atomic combination1 it will happen that when the nebulous mass has reached a particular stage of condensation--when its internally-situated atoms have approached to within certain distances1 have generated a certain amount of heat1 and are subject to a certain mutual pressure 7the heat and pressure both increasing as the aggregation progresses72 some of them will suddenly enter into chemical union4 ,whether the binary atoms so produced be of kinds such as we know1 which is possible2 or whether they be of kinds simpler than any we know1 which is more probable2 matters not to the argument4 ,it suffices that molecular combination of some species will finally take place4 ,when it does take place1 it will be accompanied by a great and sudden disengagement of heat2 and until this excess of heat has escaped1 the newly-formed binary atoms will remain uniformly diffused1 or1 as it were1 dissolved in the pre-existing nebulous medium4 ,but now mark what must by-and-by happen4 ,when radiation has adequately lowered the temperature1 these binary atoms will precipitate2 and having precipitated1 they will not remain uniformly diffused1 but will aggregate into flocculi3 just as water1 when precipitated from air1 collects into clouds4 ,this a priori conclusion is confirmed by the observation of those still extant portions of nebulous matter which constitute comets2 for1 that the luminous part of a comet is something in the nature of a smoke1 fog1 or cloud1 suspended in a transparent atmosphere1 is evident1 says ,sir ,john ,herschel4 ,concluding1 then1 that a nebulous mass will1 in course of time1 resolve itself into flocculi of precipitated denser matter1 floating in the rarer medium from which they were precipitated1 let us inquire what will be the mechanical results4 ,we shall find that they will be quite different from those occurring in the original homogeneous mass2 and also quite different from those which would occur among discrete masses dispersed through empty space4 ,bodies dispersed through empty space1 would move in straight lines towards their common centre of gravity4 ,so1 too1 would bodies dispersed through a resisting medium1 provided they were spherical1 or of forms presenting symmetrical faces to their lines of movement4 ,but irregular bodies dispersed through a resisting medium1 will not move in straight lines towards their common centre of gravity4 ,a mass which presents an irregular face to its line of movement through a resisting medium1 must necessarily be deflected from its original course1 by the unequal reactions of the medium on its different sides4 ,hence each flocculus1 as by analogy we term one of these precipitated masses of gas or vapour1 will acquire a movement1 not towards the common centre of gravity1 but towards one or other side of it2 and this oblique movement1 accelerated as well as changed in direction by the increasing centripetal force1 but retarded by the resisting medium1 will result in a spiral1 ending in the common centre of gravity4 ,observe1 however1 that this conclusion1 valid as far as it goes1 by no means proves a common spiral movement of all the flocculi2 for as they must not only be varied in their forms1 but disposed in all varieties of position1 their respective movements will be deflected1 not towards one side of the common centre of gravity1 but towards various sides4 ,how then can there result a spiral movement common to them all8 ,very simply4 ,each flocculus1 in describing its spiral course1 must give motion to the rarer medium through which it is moving4 ,now1 the probabilities are infinity to one against all the respective motions thus impressed on this rarer medium1 exactly balancing each other4 ,and if they do not balance each other1 the inevitable result must be a rotation of the whole mass of the rarer medium in one direction4 ,but preponderating momentum in one direction1 having caused rotation of the medium in that direction1 the rotating medium must in its turn gradually arrest such flocculi as are moving in opposition1 and impress its own motion upon them2 and thus there will ultimately be formed a rotating medium with suspended flocculi partaking of its motion1 while they move in converging spirals towards the common centre of gravity4 ,before comparing these conclusions with the facts1 let us pursue the reasoning a little further1 and observe the subordinate actions1 and the endless modifications which will result from them4 ,the respective flocculi must not only be drawn towards their common centre of gravity1 but also towards neighbouring flocculi4 ,hence the whole assemblage of flocculi will break up into subordinate groups3 each group concentrating towards its local centre of gravity1 and in so doing acquiring a vortical movement1 like that subsequently acquired by the whole nebula4 ,now1 according to circumstances1 and chiefly according to the size of the original nebulous mass1 this process of local aggregation will produce various results4 ,if the whole nebula is but small1 the local groups of flocculi may be drawn into the common centre of gravity before their constituent masses have coalesced with each other4 ,in a larger nebula1 these local aggregations may have concentrated into rotating spheroids of vapour1 while yet they have made but little approach towards the general focus of the system4 ,in a still larger nebula1 where the local aggregations are both greater and more remote from the common centre of gravity1 they may have condensed into masses of molten matter before the general distribution of them has greatly altered4 ,in short1 as the conditions in each case determine1 the discrete masses produced may vary indefinitely in number1 in size1 in density1 in motion1 in distribution4 ,and now let us return to the visible characters of the nebulae1 as observed through modern telescopes4 ,take first the description of those nebulae which1 by the hypothesis1 must be in an early stage of evolution4 ,among the irregular nebulae1 says ,sir ,john ,herschel1 may be comprehended all which1 to a want of complete1 and in most instances1 even of partial resolvability by the power of the #bj-;feet reflector1 unite such a deviation from the circular or elliptic form1 or such a want of symmetry 7with that form7 as preclude their being placed in ,class #a1 or that of regular nebulae4 ,this second class comprises many of the most remarkable and interesting objects in the heavens1 as well as the most extensive in respect of the area they occupy4 ,and1 referring to this same order of objects1 ,m4 ,arago says3--,the forms of very large diffuse nebulae do not appear to admit of definition2 they have no regular outline4 ,now this coexistence of largeness1 irresolvability1 irregularity1 and indefiniteness of outline1 is extremely significant4 ,the fact that the largest nebulae are either irresolvable or very difficult to resolve1 might have been inferred a priori2 seeing that irresolvability1 implying that the aggregation of precipitated matter has gone on to but a small extent1 will be found in nebulae of wide diffusion4 ,again1 the irregularity of these large1 irresolvable nebulae1 might also have been expected2 seeing that their outlines1 compared by ,arago to the fantastic figures which characterize clouds carried away and tossed about by violent and often contrary winds1 are similarly characteristic of a mass not yet gathered together by the mutual attraction of its parts4 ,and once more1 the fact that these large1 irregular1 irresolvable nebulae have indefinite outlines--outlines that fade off insensibly into surrounding darkness--is one of like meaning4 ,speaking generally 7and of course differences of distance negative anything beyond an average statement71 the spiral nebulae are smaller than the irregular nebulae1 and more resolvable2 at the same time that they are not so small as the regular nebulae1 and not so resolvable4 ,this is as1 according to the hypothesis1 it should be4 ,the degree of condensation causing spiral movement1 is a degree of condensation also implying masses of flocculi that are larger1 and therefore more visible1 than those existing in an earlier stage4 ,moreover1 the forms of these spiral nebulae are quite in harmony with the explanation given4 ,the curves of luminous matter which they exhibit1 are not such as would be described by more or less discrete masses starting from a state of rest1 and moving through a resisting medium to a common centre of gravity2 but they are such as would be described by masses having their movements modified by the rotation of the medium4 ,in the centre of a spiral nebula is seen a mass both more luminous and more resolvable than the rest4 ,assume that1 in process of time1 all the spiral streaks of luminous matter which converge to this centre are drawn into it1 as they must be2 assume further1 that the flocculi or other discrete bodies constituting these luminous streaks aggregate into larger masses at the same time that they approach the central group1 and that the masses forming this central group also aggregate into larger masses 7both which are necessary assumptions72 and there will finally result a more or less globular group of such larger masses1 which will be resolvable with comparative ease4 ,and1 as the coalescence and concentration go on1 the constituent masses will gradually become fewer1 larger1 brighter1 and more densely collected around the common centre of gravity4 ,see now how completely this inference agrees with observation4 ,the circular form is that which most commonly characterizes resolvable nebulae1 writes ,arago4 ,resolvable nebulae1 says ,sir ,john ,herschel1 are almost universally round or oval4 ,moreover1 the centre of each group habitually displays a closer clustering of the constituent masses than elsewhere2 and it is shown that1 under the law of gravitation1 which we know extends to the stars1 this distribution is not one of equilibrium1 but implies progressing concentration4 ,while1 just as we inferred that1 according to circumstances1 the extent to which aggregation has been carried must vary2 so we find that1 in fact1 there are regular nebulae of all degrees of resolvability1 from those consisting of innumerable minute discrete masses1 to those in which there are a few large bodies worthy to be called stars4 ,on the one hand1 then1 we see that the notion1 of late years uncritically received1 that the nebulae are extremely remote galaxies of stars like those which make up our own ,milky ,way1 is totally irreconcileable with the facts--involves us in sundry absurdities4 ,on the other hand1 we see that the hypothesis of nebular condensation harmonizes with the most recent results of stellar astronomy3 nay more--that it supplies us with an explanation of various appearances which in its absence would be incomprehensible4 99 99 99 99 99 ,descending now to the ,solar ,system1 let us consider first a class of phenomena in some sort transitional--those offered by comets4 ,in comets we have now existing a kind of matter like that out of which1 according to the ,nebular ,hypothesis1 the ,solar ,system was evolved4 ,for the explanation of them1 we must hence go back to the time when the substances forming the sun and planets were yet unconcentrated4 ,when diffused matter1 precipitated from a rarer medium1 is aggregating1 there are certain to be here and there produced small flocculi1 which1 either in consequence of local currents or the conflicting attractions of adjacent masses1 remain detached2 as do1 for instance1 minute shreds of cloud in a summer sky4 ,in a concentrating nebula these will1 in the great majority of cases1 eventually coalesce with the larger flocculi near to them4 ,but it is tolerably evident that some of the remotest of these small flocculi1 formed at the outermost parts of the nebula1 will not coalesce with the larger internal masses1 but will slowly follow without overtaking them4 ,the relatively greater resistance of the medium necessitates this4 ,as a single feather falling to the ground will be rapidly left behind by a pillow-full of feathers2 so1 in their progress to the common centre of gravity1 will the outermost shreds of vapour be left behind by the great masses of vapour internally situated4 ,but we are not dependent merely on reasoning for this belief4 ,observation shows us that the less concentrated external parts of nebulae1 are left behind by the more concentrated1 internal parts4 ,examined through high powers1 all nebulae1 even when they have assumed regular forms1 are seen to be surrounded by luminous streaks1 of which the directions show that they are being drawn into the general mass4 ,still higher powers bring into view still smaller1 fainter1 and more widely-dispersed streaks4 ,and it cannot be doubted that the minute fragments which no telescopic aid makes visible1 are yet more numerous and widely dispersed4 ,thus far1 then1 inference and observation are at one4 ,granting that the great majority of these outlying portions of nebulous matter will be drawn into the central mass long before it reaches a definite form1 the presumption is that some of the very small1 far-removed portions will not be so2 but that before they arrive near it1 the central mass will have contracted into a comparatively moderate bulk4 ,what now will be the characters of these late-arriving portions8 ,in the first place1 they will have extremely eccentric orbits4 ,left behind at a time when they were moving towards the centre of gravity in slightly-deflected lines1 and therefore having but very small angular velocities1 they will approach the central mass in greatly elongated ellipses2 and rushing round it will go off again into space4 ,that is1 they will behave just as we see comets do2 whose orbits are usually so eccentric as to be indistinguishable from parabolas4 ,in the second place1 they will come from all parts of the heavens4 ,our supposition implies that they were left behind at a time when the nebulous mass was of irregular shape1 and had not acquired a definite rotary motion2 and as the separation of them would not be from any one surface of the nebulous mass more than another1 the conclusion must be that they will come to the central body from various directions in space4 ,this1 too1 is exactly what happens4 ,unlike planets1 whose orbits approximate to one plane1 comets have orbits that show no relation to each other2 but cut the plane of the ecliptic at all angles4 ,in the third place1 applying the reasoning already used1 these remotest flocculi of nebulous matter will1 at the outset1 be deflected from their straight courses to the common centre of gravity1 not all on one side1 but each on such side as its form determines4 ,and being left behind before the rotation of the nebula is set up1 they will severally retain their different individual motions4 ,hence1 following the concentrating mass1 they will eventually go round it on all sides2 and as often from right to left as from left to right4 ,here again the inference perfectly corresponds with the facts4 ,while all the planets go round the sun from west to east1 comets as often go round the sun from east to west as from west to east4 ,out of #baj comets known in #ahee1 #ajd are direct1 and #ajf are retrograde4 ,this equality is what the law of probabilities would indicate4 ,then1 in the fourth place1 the physical constitution of comets completely accords with the hypothesis4 ,the ability of nebulous matter to concentrate into a concrete form1 depends on its mass4 ,to bring its ultimate atoms into that proximity requisite for chemical union--requisite1 that is1 for the production of denser matter--their repulsion must be overcome4 ,the only force antagonistic to their repulsion1 is their mutual gravitation4 ,that their mutual gravitation may generate a pressure and temperature of sufficient intensity1 there must be an enormous accumulation of them2 and even then the approximation can slowly go on only as fast as the evolved heat escapes4 ,but where the quantity of atoms is small1 and therefore the force of mutual gravitation small1 there will be nothing to coerce the atoms into union4 ,whence we infer that these detached fragments of nebulous matter will continue in their original state4 ,we find that they do so4 ,comets consist of an extremely rare medium1 which1 as shown by the description already quoted from ,sir ,john ,herschel1 has characters like those we concluded would belong to partially-condensed nebulous matter4 ,yet another very significant fact is seen in the distribution of comets4 ,though they come from all parts of the heavens1 they by no means come in equal abundance from all parts of the heavens2 but are far more numerous about the poles of the ecliptic than about its plane4 ,speaking generally1 comets having orbit-planes that are highly inclined to the ecliptic1 are comets having orbits of which the major axes are highly inclined to the ecliptic--comets that come from high latitudes4 ,this is not a necessary connexion2 for the planes of the orbits might be highly inclined to the ecliptic while the major axes were inclined to it very little4 ,but in the absence of any habitually-observed relation of this kind1 it may safely be concluded that1 on the average1 highly-inclined cometary orbits are cometary orbits with highly-inclined major axes2 and that thus1 a predominance of cometary orbits cutting the plane of the ecliptic at great angles1 implies a predominance of cometary orbits having major axes that cut the ecliptic at great angles4 ,now the predominance of highly inclined cometary orbits1 may be gathered from the following table1 compiled by ,m4 ,arago1 to which we have added a column giving the results up to a date two years later4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,inclinations4 ,number of ,comets ,number of ,comets ,number of ,comets in #ahca4 in #ahec4 in #ahee4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,deg4 to ,deg4 ,from #j to #aj #i #ai #ai #aj #bj #ac #ah #ai #bj #cj #aj #ac #ad #cj #dj #ag #bb #bb #dj #ej #ad #ce #cf #ej #fj #bc #bg #bi #fj #gj #ag #bc #be #gj #hj #ai #bf #bg #hj #ij #ae #ah #ai ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,total #acg #bja #baj ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,at first sight this table seems not to warrant our statement4 ,assuming the alleged general relation between the inclinations of cometary orbits1 and the directions in space from which the comets come1 the table may be thought to show that the frequency of comets increases as we progress from the plane of the ecliptic up to #de deg41 and then decreases up to #ij deg4 ,but this apparent diminution arises from the fact that the successive zones of space rapidly diminish in their areas on approaching the poles4 ,if we allow for this1 we shall find that the excess of comets continues to increase up to the highest angles of inclination4 ,in the table below1 which1 for convenience1 is arranged in inverted order1 we have taken as standards of comparison the area of the zone round the pole1 and the number of comets it contains2 and having ascertained the areas of the other zones1 and the numbers of comets they should contain were comets equally distributed1 we have shown how great becomes the deficiency in descending from the poles of the ecliptic to its plane4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,number of ,actual ,relative ,between ,area of ,comets1 if ,number of ,deficiency4,abundance4 ,zone4 equally ,comets4 distributed4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,deg4 ,deg4 #ij and #hj #a #ai #ai #j #aa4e #hj #gj #b4ih #ef4f #bg #bi4f #e4e #gj #fj #d4he #ib #be #fg #c4ab #fj #ej #f4f #abe #bi #if #b4ff #ej #dj #h4ac #aed #cf #aah #b4fh #dj #cj #i4db #agi #bb #aeg #a4d #cj #bj #aj4db #aih #ad #ahd #j4h #bj #aj #aa4a #baj #ai #aia #a4jd #aj #j #aa4e #bah #ai #aii #a ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,in strictness1 the calculation should be made with reference1 not to the plane of the ecliptic1 but to the plane of the sun's equator2 and this might or might not render the progression more regular4 ,probably1 too1 the progression would be made somewhat different were the calculation based1 as it should be1 not on the inclinations of orbit-planes1 but on the inclinations of major axes4 ,but even as it is1 the result is sufficiently significant3 since1 though the conclusion that comets are #aa4e times more abundant about the poles of the ecliptic than about its plane1 can be but a rough approximation to the truth1 yet no correction of it is likely very much to change this strong contrast4 ,what1 then1 is the meaning of this fact8 ,it has several meanings4 ,it negatives the supposition1 favoured by ,laplace among others1 that comets are bodies that were wandering in space1 or have come from other systems2 for the probabilities are infinity to one against the orbits of such wandering bodies showing any definite relation to the plane of the ,solar ,system4 ,for the like reason1 it negatives the hypothesis of ,lagrange1 otherwise objectionable1 that comets have resulted from planetary catastrophes analogous to that which is supposed to have produced the asteroids4 ,it clearly shows that1 instead of comets being accidental members of the ,solar ,system1 they are necessary members of it--have as distinct a structural relation to it as the planets themselves4 ,that comets are abundant round the axis of the ,solar ,system1 and grow rarer as we approach its plane1 implies that the genesis of comets has followed some law--a law in some way concerned with the genesis of the ,solar ,system4 ,if we ask for any so-called final cause of this arrangement1 none can be assigned3 until a probable use for comets has been shown1 no reason can be given why they should be thus distributed4 ,but when we consider the question as one of physical science1 we see that comets are antithetical to planets1 not only in their great rarity1 in their motions as indifferently direct or retrograde1 in their eccentric orbits1 and in the varied directions of those orbits2 but we see the antithesis further marked in this1 that while planets have some relation to the plane of nebular rotation1 comets have some relation to the axis of nebular rotation4,k ,and without attempting to explain the nature of this relation1 the mere fact that such a relation exists1 indicates that comets have resulted from a process of evolution--points to a past time when the matter now forming the ,solar ,system extended to those distant regions of space which comets visit4 ,k ,it is alike remarkable and suggestive1 that a parallel relation exists between the distribution of nebulae and the axis of our galaxy4 ,just as comets are abundant around the poles of our ,solar ,system1 and rare in the neighbourhood of its plane3 so are nebulae abundant around the poles of our sidereal system1 and rare in the neighbourhood of its plane4 ,see1 then1 how differently this class of phenomena bears on the antagonistic hypotheses4 ,to the hypothesis commonly received1 comets are stumbling-blocks3 why there should be hundreds 7or probably thousands7 of extremely rare aeriform masses rushing to and fro round the sun1 it cannot say2 any more than it can explain their physical constitutions1 their various and eccentric movements1 or their distribution4 ,the hypothesis of evolution1 on the other hand1 not only allows of the general answer1 that they are minor results of the genetic process2 but also furnishes us with something like explanations of their several peculiarities4 99 99 99 99 99 ,and now1 leaving these erratic bodies1 let us turn to the more familiar and important members of the ,solar ,system4 ,it was the remarkable harmony subsisting among their movements1 which first made ,laplace conceive that the sun1 planets1 and satellites had resulted from a common genetic process4 ,as ,sir ,william ,herschel1 by his observations on the nebulae1 was led to the conclusion that stars resulted from the aggregation of diffused matter2 so ,laplace1 by his observations on the structure of the ,solar ,system1 was led to the conclusion that only by the rotation of aggregating matter were its peculiarities to be explained4 ,in his ,exposition du ,systeme du ,monde1 he enumerates as the leading evidences of evolution3--#a4 ,the movements of the planets in the same direction and almost in the same plane2 #b4 ,the movements of the satellites in the same direction as those of the planets2 #c4 ,the movement of rotation of these various bodies and of the sun in the same direction as the orbitual motions1 and in planes little different2 #d4 ,the small eccentricity of the orbits of the planets and satellites1 as contrasted with the great eccentricity of the cometary orbits4 ,and the probability that these harmonious movements had a common cause1 he calculates as two hundred thousand billions to one4 ,observe that this immense preponderance of probability does not point to a common cause under the form ordinarily conceived--an ,invisible ,power working after the method of a ,great ,artificer2 but to an ,invisible ,power working after the method of evolution4 ,for though the supporters of the common hypothesis may argue that it was necessary for the sake of stability that the planets should go round the sun in the same direction and nearly in one plane1 they cannot thus account for the direction of the axial motions4 ,the mechanical equilibrium would not have been at all interfered with1 had the sun been without any rotatory movement2 or had he revolved on his axis in a direction opposite to that in which the planets go round him2 or in a direction at right angles to the plane of their orbits4 ,with equal safety the motion of the ,moon round the ,earth might have been the reverse of the ,earth's motion round its axis2 or the motion of ,jupiter's satellites might similarly have been at variance with his axial motion2 or that of ,saturn's satellites with his4 ,as1 however1 none of these alternatives have been followed1 the uniformity must be considered1 in this case as in all others1 evidence of subordination to some general law--implies what we call natural causation1 as distinguished from arbitrary arrangement4 ,hence the hypothesis of evolution would be the only probable one1 even in the absence of any clue to the particular mode of evolution4 ,but when we have1 propounded by a mathematician whose authority is second to none1 a definite theory of this evolution based on established mechanical laws1 which accounts for these various peculiarities1 as well as for many minor ones1 the conclusion that the ,solar ,system was evolved becomes almost irresistible4 ,the general nature of ,laplace's theory scarcely needs stating4 ,books of popular astronomy have familiarized most readers with his conceptions2--namely1 that the matter now condensed into the ,solar ,system1 once formed a vast rotating spheroid of extreme rarity extending beyond the orbit of ,neptune2 that as this spheroid contracted1 its rate of rotation necessarily increased2 that by augmenting centrifugal force its equatorial zone was from time to time prevented from following any further the concentrating mass1 and so remained behind as a revolving ring2 that each of the revolving rings thus periodically detached1 eventually became ruptured at its weakest point1 and contracting on itself1 gradually aggregated into a rotating mass2 that this1 like the parent mass1 increased in rapidity of rotation as it decreased in size1 and1 where the centrifugal force was sufficient1 similarly threw off rings1 which finally collapsed into rotating spheroids2 and that thus out of these primary and secondary rings there arose planets and their satellites1 while from the central mass there resulted the sun4 ,moreover1 it is tolerably well known that this a priori reasoning harmonizes with the results of experiment4 ,dr4 ,plateau has shown that when a mass of fluid is1 as far may be1 protected from the action of external forces1 it will1 if made to rotate with adequate velocity1 form detached rings2 and that these rings will break up into spheroids which turn on their axes in the same direction with the central mass4 ,thus1 given the original nebula1 which1 acquiring a vortical motion in the way we have explained1 has at length concentrated into a vast spheroid of aeriform matter moving round its axis--given this1 and mechanical principles explain the rest4 ,the genesis of a solar system displaying movements like those observed1 may be predicted2 and the reasoning on which the prediction is based is countenanced by experiment4,l ,l ,it is true that1 as expressed by him1 these propositions of ,laplace are not all beyond dispute4 ,an astronomer of the highest authority1 who has favoured me with some criticisms on this essay1 alleges that instead of a nebulous ring rupturing at one point1 and collapsing into a single mass1 all probability would be in favour of its breaking up into many masses4 ,this alternative result certainly seems to be more likely4 ,but granting that a nebulous ring would break up into many masses1 it may still be contended that1 since the chances are infinity to one against these being of equal sizes and equidistant1 they could not remain evenly distributed round their orbit3 this annular chain of gaseous masses would break up into groups of masses2 these groups would eventually aggregate into larger groups2 and the final result would be the formation of a single mass4 ,i have put the question to an astronomer scarcely second in authority to the one above referred to1 and he agrees that this would probably be the process4 ,but now let us inquire whether1 besides these most conspicuous peculiarities of the ,solar ,system1 sundry minor ones are not similarly explicable4 ,take first the relation between the planes of the planetary orbits and the plane of the sun's equator4 ,if1 when the nebulous spheroid extended beyond the orbit of ,neptune1 all parts of it had been revolving exactly in the same plane or rather in parallel planes--if all its parts had had one axis2 then the planes of the successive rings would have been coincident with each other and with that of the sun's rotation4 ,but it needs only to go back to the earlier stages of concentration1 to see that there could exist no such complete uniformity of motion4 ,the flocculi1 already described as precipitated from an irregular and widely-diffused nebula1 and as starting from all points to their common centre of gravity1 must move not in one plane but in innumerable planes1 cutting each other at all angles4 ,the gradual establishment of a vortical motion such as we saw must eventually arise1 and such as we at present see indicated in the spiral nebulae1 is the gradual approach toward motion in one plane--the plane of greatest momentum4 ,but this plane can only slowly become decided4 ,flocculi not moving in this plane1 but entering into the aggregation at various inclinations1 will tend to perform their revolutions round its centre in their own planes2 and only in course of time will their motions be partly destroyed by conflicting ones1 and partly resolved into the general motion4 ,especially will the outermost portions of the rotating mass retain for long time their more or less independent directions2 seeing that neither by friction nor by the central forces will they be so much restrained4 ,hence the probabilities are1 that the planes of the rings first detached will differ considerably from the average plane of the mass2 while the planes of those detached latest will differ from it less4 ,here1 again1 inference to a considerable extent agrees with observation4 ,though the progression is irregular1 yet on the average the inclinations decrease on approaching the sun4 ,consider next the movements of the planets on their axes4 ,laplace alleged as one among other evidences of a common genetic cause1 that the planets rotate in a direction the same as that in which they go round the sun1 and on axes approximately perpendicular to their orbits4 ,since he wrote1 an exception to this general rule has been discovered in the case of ,uranus1 and another still more recently in the case of ,neptune--judging1 at least1 from the motions of their respective satellites4 ,this anomaly has been thought to throw considerable doubt on his speculation2 and at first sight it does so4 ,but a little reflection will1 we believe1 show that the anomaly is by no means an insoluble one2 and that ,laplace simply went too far in putting down as a certain result of nebular genesis1 what is1 in some instances1 only a probable result4 ,the cause he pointed out as determining the direction of rotation1 is the greater absolute velocity of the outer part of the detached ring4 ,but there are conditions under which this difference of velocity may be relatively insignificant1 even if it exists3 and others in which1 though existing to a considerable extent1 it will not suffice to determine the direction of rotation4 ,note1 in the first place1 that in virtue of their origin1 the different strata of a concentrating nebulous spheroid1 will be very unlikely to move with equal angular velocities3 only by friction continued for an indefinite time will their angular velocities be made uniform2 and especially will the outermost strata1 for reasons just now assigned1 maintain for the longest time their differences of movement4 ,hence1 it is possible that in the rings first detached the outer rims may not have greater absolute velocities2 and thus the resulting planets may have retrograde rotations4 ,again1 the sectional form of the ring is a circumstance of moment2 and this form must have differed more or less in every case4 ,to make this clear1 some illustration will be necessary4 ,suppose we take an orange1 and assuming the marks of the stalk and the calyx to represent the poles1 cut off round the line of the equator a strip of peel4 ,this strip of peel1 if placed on the table with its ends meeting1 will make a ring shaped like the hoop of a barrel--a ring whose thickness in the line of its diameter is very small1 but whose width in a direction perpendicular to its diameter is considerable4 ,suppose1 now1 that in place of an orange1 which is a spheroid of very slight oblateness1 we take a spheroid of very great oblateness1 shaped somewhat like a lens of small convexity4 ,if from the edge or equator of this lens-shaped spheroid1 a ring of moderate size were cut off1 it would be unlike the previous ring in this respect1 that its greatest thickness would be in the line of its diameter1 and not in a line at right angles to its diameter3 it would be a ring shaped somewhat like a quoit1 only far more slender4 ,that is to say1 according to the oblateness of a rotating spheroid1 the detached ring may be either a hoop-shaped ring or a quoit-shaped ring4 ,one further fact must be noted4 ,in a much-flattened or lens-shaped spheroid1 the form of the ring will vary with its bulk4 ,a very slender ring1 taking off just the equatorial surface1 will be hoop-shaped2 while a tolerably massive ring1 trenching appreciably on the diameter of the spheroid1 will be quoit-shaped4 ,thus1 then1 according to the oblateness of the spheroid and the bulkiness of the detached ring1 will the greatest thickness of that ring be in the direction of its plane1 or in a direction perpendicular to its plane4 ,but this circumstance must greatly affect the rotation of the resulting planet4 ,in a decidedly hoop-shaped nebulous ring1 the differences of velocity between the inner and outer surfaces will be very small2 and such a ring1 aggregating into a mass whose greatest diameter is at right angles to the plane of the orbit1 will almost certainly give to this mass a predominant tendency to rotate in a direction at right angles to the plane of the orbit4 ,where the ring is but little hoop-shaped1 and the difference of the inner and outer velocities also greater1 as it must be1 the opposing tendencies--one to produce rotation in the plane of the orbit1 and the other rotation perpendicular to it--will both be influential2 and an intermediate plane of rotation will be taken up4 ,while1 if the nebulous ring is decidedly quoit-shaped1 and therefore aggregates into a mass whose greatest dimension lies in the plane of the orbit1 both tendencies will conspire to produce rotation in that plane4 ,on referring to the facts1 we find them1 as far as can be judged1 in harmony with this view4 ,considering the enormous circumference of ,uranus's orbit1 and his comparatively small mass1 we may conclude that the ring from which he resulted was a comparatively slender1 and therefore a hoop-shaped one3 especially if the nebulous mass was at that time less oblate than afterwards1 which it must have been4 ,hence1 a plane of rotation nearly perpendicular to his orbit1 and a direction of rotation having no reference to his orbitual movement4 ,saturn has a mass seven times as great1 and an orbit of less than half the diameter2 whence it follows that his genetic ring1 having less than half the circumference1 and less than half the vertical thickness 7the spheroid being then certainly as oblate1 and indeed more oblate71 must have had considerably greater width--must have been less hoop-shaped1 and more approaching to the quoit-shaped3 notwithstanding difference of density1 it must have been at least two or three times as broad in the line of its plane4 ,consequently1 ,saturn has a rotatory movement in the same direction as the movement of translation1 and in a plane differing from it by thirty degrees only4 ,in the case of ,jupiter1 again1 whose mass is three and a half times that of ,saturn1 and whose orbit is little more than half the size1 the genetic ring must1 for the like reasons1 have been still broader--decidedly quoit-shaped1 we may say2 and there hence resulted a planet whose plane of rotation differs from that of his orbit by scarcely more than three degrees4 ,once more1 considering the comparative insignificance of ,mars1 ,earth1 ,venus1 and ,mercury1 it follows that the diminishing circumferences of the rings not sufficing to account for the smallness of the resulting masses1 the rings must have been slender ones--must have again approximated to the hoop-shaped2 and thus it happens that the planes of rotation again diverge more or less widely from those of the orbits4 ,taking into account the increasing oblateness of the original spheroid in the successive stages of its concentration1 and the different proportions of the detached rings1 it seems to us that the respective rotatory motions are not at variance with the hypothesis4 ,not only the directions1 but also the velocities of rotation are thus explicable4 ,it might naturally be supposed that the large planets would revolve on their axes more slowly than the small ones3 our terrestrial experiences incline us to expect this4 ,it is a corollary from the ,nebular ,hypothesis1 however1 more especially when interpreted as above1 that while large planets will rotate rapidly1 small ones will rotate slowly2 and we find that in fact they do so4 ,other things equal1 a concentrating nebulous mass that is diffused through a wide space1 and whose outer parts have1 therefore1 to travel from great distances to the common centre of gravity1 will acquire a high axial velocity in course of its aggregation3 and conversely with a small mass4 ,still more marked will be the difference where the form of the genetic ring conspires to increase the rate of rotation4 ,other things equal1 a genetic ring that is broadest in the direction of its plane will produce a mass rotating faster than one that is broadest at right angles to its plane2 and if the ring is absolutely as well as relatively broad1 the rotation will be very rapid4 ,these conditions were1 as we saw1 fulfilled in the case of ,jupiter2 and ,jupiter goes round his axis in less than ten hours4 ,saturn1 in whose case1 as above explained1 the conditions were less favourable to rapid rotation1 takes ten hours and a half4 ,while ,mars1 ,earth1 ,venus1 and ,mercury1 whose rings must have been slender1 take more than double the time3 the smallest taking the longest4 ,from the planets1 let us now pass to the satellites4 ,here1 beyond the conspicuous facts commonly adverted to1 that they go round their primaries in the same directions that these turn on their axes1 in planes diverging but little from their equators1 and in orbits nearly circular1 there are several significant traits which must not be passed over4 ,one of them is1 that each set of satellites repeats in miniature the relations of the planets to the sun1 both in the respects just named1 and in the order of the sizes4 ,on progressing from the outside of the ,solar ,system to its centre1 we see that there are four large external planets1 and four internal ones which are comparatively small4 ,a like contrast holds between the outer and inner satellites in every case4 ,among the four satellites of ,jupiter1 the parallel is maintained as well as the comparative smallness of the number allows3 the two outer ones are the largest1 and the two inner ones the smallest4 ,according to the most recent observations made by ,mr4 ,lassell1 the like is true of the four satellites of ,uranus4 ,in the case of ,saturn1 who has eight secondary planets revolving round him1 the likeness is still more close in arrangement as in number3 the three outer satellites are large1 the inner ones small2 and the contrasts of size are here much greater between the largest1 which is nearly as big as ,mars1 and the smallest1 which is with difficulty discovered even by the best telescopes4 ,moreover1 the analogy does not end here4 ,just as with the planets1 there is at first a general increase of size on travelling inwards from ,neptune and ,uranus1 which do not differ very widely1 to ,saturn1 which is much larger1 and to ,jupiter1 which is the largest2 so of the eight satellites of ,saturn1 the largest is not the outermost1 but the outermost save two2 so of ,jupiter's four secondaries1 the largest is the most remote but one4 ,now these analogies are inexplicable by the theory of final causes4 ,for purposes of lighting1 if this be the presumed object of these attendant bodies1 it would have been far better had the larger been the nearer3 at present1 their remoteness renders them of less service than the smallest4 ,to the ,nebular ,hypothesis1 however1 these analogies give further support4 ,they show the action of a common physical cause4 ,they imply a law of genesis1 holding in the secondary systems as in the primary system4 ,still more instructive shall we find the distribution of the satellites--their absence in some instances1 and their presence in other instances1 in smaller or greater numbers4 ,the argument from design fails to account for this distribution4 ,supposing it be granted that planets nearer the ,sun than ourselves1 have no need of moons 7though1 considering that their nights are as dark1 and1 relatively to their brilliant days1 even darker than ours1 the need seems quite as great7--supposing this to be granted2 what is to be said of ,mars1 which1 placed half as far again from the ,sun as we are1 has yet no moon8 ,or again1 how are we to explain the fact that ,uranus has but half as many moons as ,saturn1 though he is at double the distance8 ,while1 however1 the current presumption is untenable1 the ,nebular ,hypothesis furnishes us with an explanation4 ,it actually enables us to predict1 by a not very complex calculation1 where satellites will be abundant and where they will be absent4 ,the reasoning is as follows4 ,in a rotating nebulous spheroid that is concentrating into a planet1 there are at work two antagonist mechanical tendencies--the centripetal and the centrifugal4 ,while the force of gravitation draws all the atoms of the spheroid together1 their tangential momentum is resolvable into two parts1 of which one resists gravitation4 ,the ratio which this centrifugal force bears to gravitation1 varies1 other things equal1 as the square of the velocity4 ,hence1 the aggregation of a rotating nebulous spheroid will be more or less strongly opposed by this outward impetus of its particles1 according as its rate of rotation is high or low3 the opposition1 in equal spheroids1 being four times as great when the rotation is twice as rapid2 nine times as great when it is three times as rapid2 and so on4 ,now1 the detachment of a ring from a planet-forming body of nebulous matter1 implies that at its equatorial zone the centrifugal force produced by concentration has become so great as to balance gravity4 ,whence it is tolerably obvious that the detachment of rings will be most frequent from those masses in which the centrifugal tendency bears the greatest ratio to the gravitative tendency4 ,though it is not possible to calculate what proportions these two tendencies had to each other in the genetic spheroid which produced each planet2 it is possible to calculate where each was the greatest and where the least4 ,while it is true that the ratio which centrifugal force now bears to gravity at the equator of each planet1 differs widely from that which it bore during the earlier stages of concentration2 and while it is true that this change in the ratio1 depending on the degree of contraction each planet has undergone1 has in no two cases been the same2 yet we may fairly conclude that where the ratio is still the greatest1 it has been the greatest from the beginning4 ,the satellite-forming tendency which each planet had1 will be approximately indicated by the proportion now existing in it between the aggregating power1 and the power that has opposed aggregation4 ,on making the requisite calculations1 a remarkable harmony with this inference comes out4 ,the following table shows what fraction the centrifugal force is of the centripetal force in every case2 and the relation which that fraction bears to the number of satellites4 ,mercury4 ,venus4 ,earth4 ,mars4 ,jupiter4 ,saturn4 ,uranus4 #a #a #a #a #a #a #a --- --- --- --- --- --- --- #cfb #bhb #bhi #cbf #ad #f4b #i #a #d #h #d 7or #f ,satellite4 ,satellites4 ,satellites according and three to rings4 ,herschel47 ,thus1 taking as our standard of comparison the ,earth with its one moon1 we see that ,mercury and ,mars1 in which the centrifugal force is relatively less1 have no moons4 ,jupiter1 in which it is far greater1 has four moons4 ,uranus1 in which it is greater still1 has certainly four1 and probably more than four4 ,saturn1 in which it is the greatest1 being nearly one-sixth of gravity1 has1 including his rings1 eleven attendants4 ,the only instance in which there is imperfect conformity with observation is that of ,venus4 ,here it appears that the centrifugal force is relatively a very little greater than in the ,earth2 and according to the hypothesis1 ,venus ought1 therefore1 to have a satellite4 ,of this seeming anomaly there are two explanations4 ,not a few astronomers have asserted that ,venus has a satellite4 ,cassini1 ,short1 ,montaigne of ,limoges1 ,roedkier1 and ,montbarron1 professed to have seen it2 and ,lambert calculated its elements4 ,granting1 however1 that they were mistaken1 there is still the fact that the diameter of ,venus is variously estimated2 and that a very small change in the data would make the fraction less instead of greater than that of the ,earth4 ,but admitting the discrepancy1 we think that this correspondence1 even as it now stands1 is one of the strongest confirmations of the ,nebular ,hypothesis4,m ,m ,since this essay was published1 the data of the above calculations have been changed by the discovery that the ,sun's distance is three millions of miles less than was supposed4 ,hence results a diminution in his estimated mass1 and in the masses of the planets 7except the ,earth and ,moon74 ,no revised estimate of the masses having yet been published1 the table is re-printed in its original form4 ,the diminution of the masses to the alleged extent of about one-tenth1 does not essentially alter the relations above pointed out4 ,certain more special peculiarities of the satellites must be mentioned as suggestive4 ,one of them is the relation between the period of revolution and that of rotation4 ,no discoverable purpose is served by making the ,moon go round its axis in the same time that it goes round the ,earth3 for our convenience1 a more rapid axial motion would have been equally good2 and for any possible inhabitants of the ,moon1 much better4 ,against the alternative supposition1 that the equality occurred by accident1 the probabilities are1 as ,laplace says1 infinity to one4 ,but to this arrangement1 which is explicable neither as the result of design nor of chance1 the ,nebular ,hypothesis furnishes a clue4 ,in his ,exposition du ,systeme du ,monde1 ,laplace shows1 by reasoning too detailed to be here repeated1 that under the circumstances such a relation of movements would be likely to establish itself4 ,among ,jupiter's satellites1 which severally display these same synchronous movements1 there also exists a still more remarkable relation4 ,if the mean angular velocity of the first satellite be added to twice that of the third1 the sum will be equal to three times that of the second2 and from this it results that the situations of any two of them being given1 that of the third can be found4 ,now here1 as before1 no conceivable advantage results4 ,neither in this case can the connexion have been accidental3 the probabilities are infinity to one to the contrary4 ,but again1 according to ,laplace1 the ,nebular ,hypothesis supplies a solution4 ,are not these significant facts8 ,most significant fact of all1 however1 is that presented by the rings of ,saturn4 ,as ,laplace remarks1 they are1 as it were1 still extant witnesses of the genetic process he propounded4 ,here we have1 continuing permanently1 forms of matter like those through which each planet and satellite once passed2 and their movements are just what1 in conformity with the hypothesis1 they should be4 ,la duree de la rotation d'une planete doit donc etre1 d'apres cette hypothese1 plus petite que la duree de la revolution du corps le plus voisin qui circule autour d'elle1 says ,laplace4,n ,and he then points out that the time of ,saturn's rotation is to that of his rings as #dbg to #dch--;an amount of difference such as was to be expected4 ,n ,mecanique ,celeste1 p4 #cdf4 ,but besides the existence of these rings1 and their movements in the required manner1 there is a highly suggestive circumstance which ,laplace has not remarked--namely1 the place of their occurrence4 ,if the ,solar ,system was produced after the manner popularly supposed1 then there is no reason why the rings of ,saturn should not have encircled him at a comparatively great distance4 ,or1 instead of being given to ,saturn1 who in their absence would still have had eight satellites1 such rings might have been given to ,mars1 by way of compensation for a moon4 ,or they might have been given to ,uranus1 who1 for purposes of illumination1 has far greater need of them4 ,on the common hypothesis1 we repeat1 no reason can be assigned for their existence in the place where we find them4 ,but on the hypothesis of evolution1 the arrangement1 so far from offering a difficulty1 offers another confirmation4 ,these rings are found where alone they could have been produced--close to the body of a planet whose centrifugal force bears a great proportion to his gravitative force4 ,that permanent rings should exist at any great distance from a planet's body1 is1 on the ,nebular ,hypothesis1 manifestly impossible4 ,rings detached early in the process of concentration1 and therefore consisting of gaseous matter having extremely little power of cohesion1 can have no ability to resist the disrupting forces due to imperfect balance2 and must1 therefore1 collapse into satellites4 ,a liquid ring is the only one admitting of permanence4 ,but a liquid ring can be produced only when the aggregation is approaching its extreme--only when gaseous matter is passing into liquid1 and the mass is about to assume the planetary form4 ,and even then it cannot be produced save under special conditions4 ,gaining a rapidly-increasing preponderance1 as the gravitative force does during the closing stages of concentration1 the centrifugal force cannot in ordinary cases cause the detachment of rings when the mass has become dense4 ,only where the centrifugal force has all along been very great1 and remains powerful to the last1 as in ,saturn1 can liquid rings be formed4 ,thus the ,nebular ,hypothesis shows us why such appendages surround ,saturn1 but exist nowhere else4 ,and then1 let us not forget the fact1 discovered within these few years1 that ,saturn possesses a nebulous ring1 through which his body is seen as through a thick veil4 ,in a position where alone such a thing seems preservable--suspended1 as it were1 between the denser rings and the planet--there still continues one of these annular masses of diffused matter from which satellites and planets are believed to have originated4 ,we find1 then1 that besides those most conspicuous peculiarities of the ,solar ,system1 which first suggested the theory of its evolution1 there are many minor ones pointing in the same direction4 ,were there no other evidence1 these mechanical arrangements would1 considered in their totality1 go far to establish the ,nebular ,hypothesis4 99 99 99 99 99 ,from the mechanical arrangements of the ,solar ,system1 turn we now to its physical characters2 and1 first1 let us consider the inferences deducible from relative specific gravities4 ,the fact that1 speaking generally1 the denser planets are the nearer to the ,sun1 is by some considered as adding another to the many indications of nebular origin4 ,legitimately assuming that the outermost parts of a rotating nebulous spheroid1 in its earlier stages of concentration1 will be comparatively rare2 and that the increasing density which the whole mass acquires as it contracts1 must hold of the outermost parts as well as the rest2 it is argued that the rings successively detached will be more and more dense1 and will form planets of higher and higher specific gravities4 ,but passing over other objections1 this explanation is quite inadequate to account for the facts4 ,using the ,earth as a standard of comparison1 the relative densities run thus3-- ,neptune4 ,uranus4 ,saturn4 ,jupiter4 ,mars4 ,earth4 ,venus4 ,mercury4 ,sun4 #j4ad #j4bd #j4ad #j4bd #j4ie #a4jj #j4ib #a4ab #j4be ,two seemingly insurmountable objections are presented by this series4 ,the first is1 that the progression is but a broken one4 ,neptune is as dense as ,saturn1 which1 by the hypothesis1 it ought not to be4 ,uranus is as dense as ,jupiter1 which it ought not to be4 ,uranus is denser than ,saturn1 and the ,earth is denser than ,venus--facts which not only give no countenance to1 but directly contradict1 the alleged explanation4 ,the second objection1 still more manifestly fatal1 is the low specific gravity of the ,sun4 ,if1 when the matter of the ,sun filled the orbit of ,mercury1 its state of aggregation was such that the detached ring formed a planet having a specific gravity equal to that of iron2 then the ,sun itself1 now that it has concentrated1 should have a specific gravity much greater than that of iron2 whereas its specific gravity is not much above that of water4 ,instead of being far denser than the nearest planet1 it is not one-fourth as dense4 ,and a parallel relation holds between ,jupiter and his smallest satellite4,o ,o ,the impending revision of the estimated masses of the planets1 entailed by the discovery that the ,sun's distance is less than was supposed1 will alter these specific gravities4 ,it will make most of the contrasts still stronger4 ,while these anomalies render untenable the position that the relative specific gravities of the planets are direct indications of nebular condensation2 it by no means follows that they negative it4 ,on the contrary1 we believe that the facts admit of an interpretation quite consistent with the hypothesis of ,laplace4 ,there are three possible causes of unlike specific gravities in the members of our ,solar ,system3--#a4 ,differences between the kinds of matter or matters composing them4 #b4 ,differences between the quantities of matter2 for1 other things equal1 the mutual gravitation of atoms will make a large mass denser than a small one4 #c4 ,differences between the structures3 the masses being either solid or liquid throughout1 or having central cavities filled with elastic aeriform substance4 ,of these three conceivable causes1 that commonly assigned is the first1 more or less modified by the second4 ,the extremely low specific gravity of ,saturn1 which but little exceeds that of cork 7and1 on this hypothesis1 must at his surface be considerably less than that of cork7 is supposed to arise from the intrinsic lightness of his substance4 ,that the ,sun weighs not much more than an equal bulk of water1 is taken as evidence that the matter he consists of is but little heavier than water2 although1 considering his enormous gravitative force1 which at his surface is twenty-eight times the gravitative force at the surface of the ,earth1 and considering his enormous mass1 which is #cij1jjj times that of the ,earth1 the matter he is made of can1 in such case1 have no analogy to the liquids or solids we know4 ,however1 spite of these difficulties1 the current hypothesis is1 that the ,sun and planets1 inclusive of the ,earth1 are either solid or liquid1 or have solid crusts with liquid nuclei3 their unlike specific gravities resulting from unlikenesses of substance4 ,and indeed1 at first sight1 this would seem to be the only tenable supposition2 seeing that1 unless prevented by some immense resisting force1 gravitation must obliterate any internal cavity by collapsing the surrounding liquid or solid matter4 ,nevertheless1 that the ,earth1 in common with other members of the ,solar ,system1 is solid1 or else consists of a solid shell having a cavity entirely filled with molten matter1 is not an established fact3 it is nothing but a supposition4 ,we must not let its familiarity and apparent feasibility delude us into an uncritical acceptance of it4 ,if we find an alternative supposition which1 physically considered1 is equally possible1 we are bound to consider it4 ,and if it not only avoids the difficulties above pointed out1 but many others hereafter to be mentioned1 we must give it the preference4 ,before proceeding to consider what the ,nebular ,hypothesis indicates respecting the internal structures of the ,sun and planets1 we may state that our reasonings1 though of a kind not admitting of direct verification1 are nothing more than deductions from the established principles of physics4 ,we have submitted them to an authority not inferior to any that can be named2 and while unprepared to commit himself to them1 he yet sees nothing to object4 ,starting1 then1 with a rotating spheroid of aeriform matter1 in the later stages of its concentration1 but before it has begun to take a liquid or solid form1 let us inquire what must be the actions going on in it4 ,mutual gravitation continually aggregates its atoms into a smaller and denser mass2 and the aggregating force goes on increasing1 as the common centre of gravity is approached4 ,an obstacle to concentration1 however1 exists in the centrifugal force1 which at this stage bears a far higher ratio to gravity than afterwards1 and in a gaseous spheroid must produce a very oblate form4 ,at the same time1 the approximation of the atoms is resisted by a force which1 in being overcome1 is evolved as heat4 ,this heat must be greatest where the atoms are subject to the highest pressure--namely1 about the central parts4 ,and as fast as it escapes into space1 further approximation and further generation of heat must take place4 ,but in a gaseous spheroid1 having internal parts hotter than its external parts1 there must be some circulation4 ,the currents must set from the hottest region to the coolest by some particular route2 and from the coolest to the hottest by some other route4 ,in a very oblate spheroid1 the coolest region must be that about the equator3 the surface there bearing so large a ratio to the mass4 ,hence there will be currents from the centre to the equator1 and others from the equator to the centre4 ,what will be the special courses of these currents8 ,supposing an original state of rest1 about to pass into motion in obedience to the disturbing forces1 the currents commencing at the centre will follow the lines of most rapidly-decreasing density2 seeing that the inertia will be least in those lines4 ,that is to say1 there will be a current from the centre towards each pole1 along the axis of rotation2 and the space thus continually left vacant will be filled by the collapse of matter coming in at right angles to the axis4 ,the process cannot end here1 however4 ,if there are constant currents from the centre towards the poles1 there must be a constant accumulation at the poles2 the spheroid will be ever becoming more protuberant about the poles than the conditions of mechanical equilibrium permit4 ,if1 however1 the mass at the poles is thus ever in excess1 it must1 by the forces acting on it1 be constantly moved over the outer surface of the spheroid from the poles towards the equator3 thus only can that form which rotation necessitates be maintained4 ,and a further result of this transfer of matter from the centre1 by way of the poles1 to the equator1 must be the establishment of counter-currents from the equator in diametrical lines1 to the centre4 ,mark now the changes of temperature that must occur in these currents4 ,an aeriform mass ascending from the centre towards either pole1 will expand as it approaches the surface1 in consequence of the diminution of pressure4 ,but expansion1 involving an absorption of heat1 will entail a diminished temperature2 and the temperature will be further lowered by the greater freedom of radiation into space4 ,this rarefied and cooled mass must be still more rarefied and cooled in its progress over the surface of the spheroid to the equator4 ,continually thrust further from the pole by the ceaseless accumulation there1 it must acquire an ever-increasing rotatory motion and an ever-increasing centrifugal force3 whence must follow expansion and absorption of heat4 ,to the refrigeration thus caused must be added that resulting from radiation1 which1 at each advance towards the equator1 will be less hindered4 ,and when the mass we have thus followed arrives at the equator1 it will have reached its maximum rarity and maximum coolness4 ,conversely1 every portion of a current proceeding in a diametrical direction from the equator to the centre1 must progressively rise in temperature2 in virtue alike of the increasing pressure1 the gradual arrest of motion1 and the diminished rate of radiation4 ,note1 lastly1 that this circulation will go on1 but slowly4 ,as the matter proceeding from the equator towards the centre must have its rotatory motion destroyed1 while that proceeding from the poles to the equator must have rotatory motion given to it1 it follows that an enormous amount of inertia has to be overcome2 and this must make the currents so slow as to prevent them from producing anything like an equality of temperature4 ,such being the constitution of a concentrating spheroid of gaseous matter1 where will the gaseous matter begin to condense into liquid8 ,the usual assumption has been1 that in a nebulous mass approaching towards the planetary form1 the liquefaction will first occur at the centre4 ,we believe this assumption is inconsistent with established physical principles4 ,observe first that it is contrary to analogy4 ,that the matter of the ,earth was liquid before any of it became solid1 is generally admitted4 ,where has it first solidified8 ,not at the centre1 but at the surface4 ,now the general principles which apply to the condensation of liquid matter into solid1 apply also to the condensation of gaseous matter into liquid4 ,hence if the once liquid substance of the ,earth first solidified at the surface1 the implication is that its once aeriform substance first liquified at the surface4 ,but we have no need to rest in analogy4 ,on considering what must happen in a rotating gaseous spheroid having currents moving as above described1 we shall see that external condensation is a corollary4 ,a nebulous mass1 when it has arrived at this stage1 will consist of an aeriform mixture of various matters2 the heavier and more condensible matters being contained in the rarer or less condensible1 in the same way that water is contained in air4 ,and the inference must be1 that at a certain stage1 some of these denser matters will be precipitated in the shape of a cloud4,p ,p ,the reader will perhaps say that this process is the one described as having taken place early in the history of nebular evolution2 and this is true4 ,but the same actions will be repeated in media of different densities4 ,now1 what are the laws of precipitation from gases8 ,if a gas through which some other substance is diffused in a gaseous state1 expands in consequence of the removal of pressure1 it will1 when the rarefaction and consequent cooling reach a certain point1 begin to let fall the suspended substance4 ,conversely1 if1 a gas1 saturated even with some substance1 is subject to increased pressure1 and is allowed to retain the additional heat which that pressure generates2 so far from letting fall what it contains1 it will gain the power to take up more4 ,see then1 the inference respecting condensation in a nebulous spheroid4 ,the currents proceeding from the equator to the centre1 subject to increasing pressure1 and acquiring the heat due both to this increasing pressure and to arrested motion1 will have no tendency to deposit their suspended substances1 but rather the reverse3 a formation of liquid matter at the centre of the mass will be impossible4 ,contrariwise1 the gaseous currents moving from the centre to the poles and thence to the equator1 expanding as they go1 first from diminished pressure and afterwards from increased centrifugal force2 and losing heat1 not only by expansion1 but by more rapid radiation2 will have less and less power to retain the matter diffused through them4 ,the earliest precipitation will take place in the region of extremest rarefaction2 namely1 about the equator4 ,an equatorial belt of cloud will be first formed1 and widened into a zone1 will by-and-by begin to condense into liquid4,q ,gradually this liquid film will extend itself on each side the equator1 and encroaching on the two hemispheres1 will eventually close over at the poles3 thus producing a thin hollow globe1 or rather spheroid1 filled with gaseous matter4 ,we do not mean that this condensation will take place at the very outermost surface2 for probably1 round the denser gases forming the principal mass1 there will extend strata of gases too rare and too cool to be entangled in these processes4 ,it is the surface of this inner spheroid of denser gases to which our reasoning points as the place of earliest condensation4 ,q ,the formation of ,saturn's rings is thus rendered comprehensible4 ,the internal circulation we have described1 continuing1 as it must1 after the formation of this liquid film1 there will still go on the radiation of heat1 and the progressive aggregation4 ,the film will thicken at the expense of the internal gaseous substances precipitated on it4 ,as it thickens1 as the globe contracts1 and as the gravitative force augments1 the pressure will increase2 and the evolution and radiation of heat will go on more rapidly4 ,eventually1 however1 when the liquid shell becomes very thick1 and the internal cavity relatively small1 the obstacle put to the escape of heat by this thick liquid shell1 with its slowly-circulating currents1 will turn the scale3 the temperature of the outer surface will begin to diminish1 and a solid crust will form while the internal cavity is yet unobliterated4 ,but what1 it may be asked1 will become of this gaseous nucleus when exposed to the enormous gravitative pressure of a shell some thousands of miles thick8 ,how can aeriform matter withstand such a pressure8 ,very readily4 ,it has been proved that even when the heat generated by compression is allowed to escape1 some gases remain uncondensible by any force we can produce4 ,an unsuccessful attempt lately made at ,vienna to liquify oxygen1 clearly shows this enormous resistance4 ,the steel piston employed was literally shortened by the pressure used3 and yet the gas remained unliquified6 ,if1 then1 the expansive force is thus immense when the heat evolved is dissipated1 what must it be when that heat is in great measure detained2 as in the case we are considering8 ,indeed1 the experiments of ,m4 ,cagniard de ,latour have shown that gases may1 under pressure1 acquire the density of liquids while retaining the aeriform state2 provided the temperature continues extremely high4 ,in such a case1 every addition to the heat is an addition to the repulsive power of the atoms3 the increased pressure itself generates an increased ability to resist2 and this remains true to whatever extent the compression is carried4 ,indeed1 it is a corollary from the persistence of force1 that if1 under increasing pressure1 a gas retains all the heat evolved1 its resisting force is absolutely unlimited4 ,hence1 the internal planetary structure we have described1 is as physically stable a one as that commonly assumed4 ,and now let us see how this hypothesis tallies with the facts4 ,one inference from it must be1 that large masses will progress towards final consolidation more slowly than small masses4 ,though a large concentrating spheroid will1 from its superior aggregative force1 generate heat more rapidly than a small one2 yet1 having1 relatively to its surface1 a much greater quantity of heat to get rid of1 it will be longer than a small one in going through the changes we have described4 ,consequently1 at a time when the smaller members of our ,solar ,system have arrived at so advanced a stage of aggregation as almost to have obliterated their central cavities1 and so reached high specific gravities2 the larger members will still be at that stage in which the central cavities bear great ratios to the surrounding shells1 and will therefore have low specific gravities4 ,this contrast is just what we find4 ,the small planets ,mercury1 ,venus1 the ,earth1 and ,mars1 differing from each other comparatively little in density as in size1 are about four times as dense as ,jupiter and ,uranus1 and seven times as dense as ,saturn and ,neptune--planets exceeding them in size as oranges exceed peas2 and they are four times as dense as the ,sun1 which in mass is nearly #e1jjj1jjj times greater than the smallest of them4 ,the obvious objection that this hypothesis does not explain the minor differences1 serves but to introduce a further confirmation4 ,it may be urged that ,jupiter is of greater specific gravity than ,saturn1 though1 considering his superior mass1 his specific gravity should be less2 and that still more anomalous is the case of the ,sun1 which1 though containing a thousand times the matter that ,jupiter does1 is nearly of the same specific gravity4 ,the solution of these difficulties lies in the modifying effects of centrifugal force4 ,had the various masses to be compared been all along in a state of rest1 then the larger should have been uniformly the less dense4 ,but during the concentrating process they have been rotating with various velocities4 ,the consequent centrifugal force has in each case been in antagonism with gravitation2 and1 according to its amount1 has hindered the concentration to a greater or less degree4 ,the efficient aggregative force has in each case been the excess of the centripetal tendency over the centrifugal4 ,whence we may infer that wherever this excess has been the least1 the consolidation must have been the most hindered1 and the specific gravity will be the smallest4 ,this1 too1 we find to be the fact4 ,saturn1 at whose equator the centrifugal force is even now almost one-sixth of gravity1 and who1 by his numerous satellites1 shows us how strong an antagonist to concentration it was in earlier stages of his evolution1 is little more than half as dense as ,jupiter1 whose concentration has been hindered by a centrifugal force bearing a much smaller ratio to the centripetal4 ,on the other hand1 the ,sun1 whose latter stages of aggregation have met with comparatively little of this opposition1 and whose atoms tend towards their common centre with a force ten times as great as that which ,jupiter's atoms are subject to1 has1 notwithstanding his immense bulk1 reached a specific gravity as great as that of ,jupiter2 and he has done this partly for the reason assigned1 and partly because the process of consolidation has been1 and still is1 actively going on1 while that of ,jupiter has long since almost ceased4 ,before pointing out further harmonies let us meet an objection4 ,laplace1 taking for data ,jupiter's mass1 diameter1 and rate of rotation1 calculated the degrees of compression at the poles which his centrifugal force should produce1 supposing his substance to be homogeneous2 and finding that the calculated amount of oblateness was greater than the actual amount1 inferred that his substance must be denser towards the centre4 ,the inference seems unavoidable2 is diametrically opposed to the hypothesis of a shell of denser matter with a gaseous nucleus2 and we confess that on first meeting with this fact we were inclined to think it fatal4 ,but there is a consideration1 apt to be overlooked1 which completely disposes of it4 ,a compressed elastic medium tends ever with great energy to give a spherical figure to the chamber in which it is confined4 ,this truth is alike mathematically demonstrable1 and recognized in practice by every engineer4 ,in the case before us1 the expansive power of the gaseous nucleus is such as to balance the gravitation of the shell of the planet2 and this power perpetually strives to make the planet a perfect sphere4 ,thus the tendency of the centrifugal force to produce oblateness1 is opposed not only by the force of gravity but by another force of great intensity2 and hence the degree of oblateness produced is relatively small4 ,this difficulty being as we think1 satisfactorily met1 we go on to name some highly significant facts giving indirect support to our hypothesis4 ,and first with respect to the asteroids1 or planetoids1 as they are otherwise called4 ,now that these have proved to be so numerous--now that it has become probable that beyond some sixty already discovered there are many more--the supposition of ,olbers1 that they are the fragments of an exploded planet which once occupied the vacant region they fill1 has gained increased probability4 ,the alternative supposition of ,laplace1 that they are the products of a nebulous ring which separated into many fragments instead of collapsing into a single mass1 seems inconsistent with the extremely various1 and in some cases extremely great1 inclinations of their orbits2 as well as with their similarly various and great eccentricities4 ,for these the theory of ,olbers completely accounts--indeed1 it necessarily involves them2 while at the same time it affords us a feasible explanation of meteors1 and especially the periodic swarms of them1 which would else be inexplicable4 ,the fact1 inferred from the present derangement of their orbits1 that if the planetoids once formed parts of one mass1 it must have exploded myriads of years ago1 is no difficulty1 but rather the reverse4 ,taking ,olbers' supposition1 then1 as the most tenable one1 let us ask how such an explosion could have occurred4 ,if planets are internally constituted as is commonly assumed1 no conceivable cause of it can be named4 ,a solid mass may crack and fall to pieces1 but it cannot violently explode4 ,so1 too1 with a liquid mass covered by a crust4 ,though1 if contained in an unyielding shell and artificially raised to a very high temperature1 a liquid might so expand as to burst the shell and simultaneously flash into vapour2 yet1 if contained in a yielding crust1 like that of a planet1 it would not do so3 it would crack the crust and give off its expansive force gradually4 ,but the planetary structure above supposed1 supplies us with all the requisite conditions to an explosion1 and an adequate cause for it4 ,we have in the interior of the mass1 a cavity serving as a sufficient reservoir of force4 ,we have this cavity filled with gaseous matters of high tension4 ,we have in the chemical affinities of these matters a source of enormous expansive power--power capable of being quite suddenly liberated4 ,and we have in the increasing heat of the shell1 consequent on progressing concentration1 a cause of such instantaneous chemical change and the resulting explosion4 ,the explanation thus supplied1 of an event which there can be little doubt has occurred1 and which is not otherwise accounted for1 adds to the probability of the hypothesis4 ,one further evidence1 and that not the least important1 is deducible from geology4 ,from the known rate at which the temperature rises as we pierce deeper into the substance of the ,earth1 it has been inferred that its solid crust is some forty miles thick4 ,and if this be its thickness1 we have a feasible explanation of volcanic phenomena1 as well as of elevations and subsidences4 ,but proceeding on the current supposition that the ,earth's interior is wholly filled with molten matter1 ,prof4 ,hopkins has calculated that to cause the observed amount of precession of the equinoxes1 the ,earth's crust must be at least eight hundred miles thick4 ,here is an immense discrepancy4 ,however imperfect may be the data from which it is calculated that the ,earth is molten at forty miles deep1 it seems very unlikely that this conclusion differs from the truth so widely as forty miles does from eight hundred4 ,it seems scarcely conceivable that if the crust is thus thick1 it should by its contraction and corrugation1 produce mountain chains1 as it has done during quite modern geologic epochs4 ,it is not easy on this supposition to explain elevations and subsidences of small area4 ,neither do the phenomena of volcanoes appear comprehensible4 ,indeed to account for these1 ,prof4 ,hopkins has been obliged to make the gratuitous and extremely improbable assumption1 that there are isolated lakes of molten matter enclosed in this thick crust1 and situated1 as they must be1 not far from its outer surface4 ,but irreconcileable as appear the astronomical with the geological facts1 if we take for granted that the ,earth consists wholly of solid and liquid substances1 they become at once reconcileable if we adopt the conclusion that the ,earth has a gaseous nucleus4 ,if there is an internal cavity of considerable diameter occupied only by aeriform matter--if the density of the surrounding shell is1 as it must in that case be1 greater than the current supposition implies2 then there will be a larger quantity of matter contained in the equatorial protuberance1 and an adequate cause for the precession4 ,manifestly there may be found some proportion between the central space and its envelope1 which will satisfy the mechanical requirements1 without involving a thicker crust than geological phenomena indicate4,r ,r ,since this was written1 ,m4 ,poinsot has shown that the precession would be the same whether the ,earth were solid or hollow4 ,we conceive1 then1 that the hypothesis we have set forth1 is in many respects preferable to that ordinarily received4 ,we can know nothing by direct observation concerning the central parts either of our own planet or any other3 indirect methods are alone possible4 ,the idea which has been tacitly adopted1 is just as speculative as that we have opposed to it2 and the only question is1 which harmonizes best with established facts4 ,thus compared1 the advantage is greatly on the side of the new one4 ,it disposes of sundry anomalies1 and explains things that seem else incomprehensible4 ,we are no longer obliged to assume such wide differences between the substances of the various planets3 we need not think of any of them as like cork or water4 ,we are shown how it happens that the larger planets have so much lower specific gravities than the smaller1 instead of having higher ones1 as might have been expected2 and we are further shown why ,saturn is the lightest of all4 ,that ,mercury is relatively so much heavier than the ,sun2 that ,jupiter is specifically lighter than his smallest satellite2 that ,saturn's rings have a density one and a half times as great as ,saturn2 are no longer mysteries4 ,a feasible cause is assigned for the catastrophe which produced the asteroids4 ,and some apparently incongruous peculiarities in the ,earth's structure are brought to an agreement4 ,may we not say1 then1 that being deducible from the ,nebular ,hypothesis1 this alleged planetary structure gives further indirect support to that hypothesis8 99 99 99 99 99 ,in considering the specific gravities of the heavenly bodies1 we have been obliged to speak of the heat evolved by them4 ,but we have yet to point out the fact that in their present conditions with respect to temperature1 we find additional materials for building up our argument2 and these too of the most substantial character4 ,heat must inevitably be generated by the aggregation of diffused matter into a concrete form2 and throughout our reasonings we have assumed that such generation of heat has been an accompaniment of nebular condensation4 ,if1 then1 the ,nebular ,hypothesis be true1 we ought to find in all the heavenly bodies1 either present high temperature or marks of past high temperature4 ,as far as observation can reach1 the facts prove to be what theory requires4 ,various evidences conspire to show that1 below a certain depth1 the ,earth is still molten4 ,and that it was once wholly molten1 is implied by the circumstance that the rate at which the temperature increases on descending below its surface1 is such as would be found in a mass that had been cooling for an indefinite period4 ,the ,moon1 too1 shows us1 by its corrugations and its conspicuous volcanoes1 that in it there has been a process of refrigeration and contraction1 like that which had gone on in the ,earth4 ,and in ,venus1 the existence of mountains similarly indicates an igneous reaction of the interior upon a solidifying crust4 ,on the common theory of creation1 these phenomena are inexplicable4 ,to what end the ,earth should once have existed in a molten state1 incapable of supporting life1 it cannot say4 ,to satisfy this supposition1 the ,earth should have been originally created in a state fit for the assumed purposes of creation2 and similarly with the other planets4 ,while1 therefore1 to the ,nebular ,hypothesis the evidence of original incandescence and still continued internal heat1 furnish strong confirmation1 they are1 to the antagonist hypothesis1 insurmountable difficulties4 ,but the argument from temperature does not end here4 ,there remains to be noticed a more conspicuous and still more significant fact4 ,if the ,solar ,system was formed by the concentration of diffused matter1 which evolved heat while gravitating into its present dense form2 then there are certain obvious corollaries respecting the relative temperatures of the resulting bodies4 ,other things equal1 the latest-formed mass will be the latest in cooling--will1 for an almost infinite time1 possess a greater heat than the earlier-formed ones4 ,other things equal1 the largest mass will1 because of its superior aggregative force1 become hotter than the others1 and radiate more intensely4 ,other things equal1 the largest mass1 notwithstanding the higher temperature it reaches1 will1 in consequence of its relatively small surface1 be the slowest in losing its evolved heat4 ,and hence1 if there is one mass which was not only formed after the rest1 but exceeds them enormously in size1 it follows that this one will reach an intensity of incandescence much beyond that reached by the rest2 and will continue in a state of intense incandescence long after the rest have cooled4 ,such a mass we have in the ,sun4 ,it is a corollary from the ,nebular ,hypothesis1 that the matter forming the ,sun assumed its present concrete form1 at a period much more recent than that at which the planets became definite bodies4 ,the quantity of matter contained in the ,sun is nearly five million times that contained in the smallest planet1 and above a thousand times that contained in the largest4 ,and while1 from the enormous gravitative force of the atoms1 the evolution of heat has been intense1 the facilities of radiation have been relatively small4 ,hence the still-continued high temperature4 ,just that condition of the central body which is a necessary inference from the ,nebular ,hypothesis1 we find actually existing in the ,sun4 ,it may be well to consider a little more closely1 what is the probable condition of the ,sun's surface4 ,round the globe of incandescent molten substances1 thus conceived to form the visible body of the ,sun1 there is known to exist a voluminous atmosphere3 the inferior brilliancy of the ,sun's border1 and the appearances during a total eclipse1 alike show this4,s ,what now must be the constitution of this atmosphere8 ,at a temperature approaching a thousand times that of molten iron1 which is the calculated temperature of the solar surface1 very many1 if not all1 of the substances we know as solid1 would become gaseous2 and though the ,sun's enormous attractive force must be a powerful check on this tendency to assume the form of vapour1 yet it cannot be questioned that if the body of the ,sun consists of molten substances1 some of them must be constantly undergoing evaporation4 ,that the dense gases thus continually being generated will form the entire mass of the solar atmosphere1 is not probable4 ,if anything is to be inferred1 either from the ,nebular ,hypothesis1 or from the analogies supplied by the planets1 it must be concluded that the outermost part of the solar atmosphere consists of what are called permanent gases--gases that are not condensible into fluid even at low temperatures4 ,if we consider what must have been the state of things here1 when the surface of the ,earth was molten1 we shall see that round the still molten surface of the ,sun1 there probably exists a stratum of dense aeriform matter1 made up of sublimed metals and metallic compounds1 and above this a stratum of comparatively rare medium analogous to air4 ,what now will happen with these two strata8 ,did they both consist of permanent gases1 they could not remain separate3 according to a well-known law1 they would eventually form a homogeneous mixture4 ,but this will by no means happen when the lower stratum consists of matters that are gaseous only at excessively high temperatures4 ,given off from a molten surface1 ascending1 expanding1 and cooling1 these will presently reach a limit of elevation above which they cannot exist as vapour1 but must condense and precipitate4 ,meanwhile the upper stratum1 habitually charged with its quantum of these denser matters1 as our air with its quantum of water1 and ready to deposit them on any depression of temperature1 must be habitually unable to take up any more of the lower stratum2 and therefore this lower stratum will remain quite distinct from it4 ,s ,see ,herschel's ,outlines of ,astronomy4 ,since the foregoing paragraph was originally published1 in #aheh1 the proposition it enunciates as a corollary from the ,nebular ,hypothesis1 has been in great part verified4 ,the marvellous disclosures made by spectrum-analysis1 have proved beyond the possibility of doubt1 that the solar atmosphere contains1 in a gaseous state1 the metals1 iron1 calcium1 magnesium1 sodium1 chromium1 and nickel1 along with small quantities of barium1 copper1 and zinc4 ,that there exist in the solar atmosphere other metals like those which we have on the ,earth1 is probable2 and that it contains elements which are unknown to us1 is very possible4 ,be this as it may1 however1 the proposition that the ,sun's atmosphere consists largely of metallic vapours1 must take rank as an established truth2 and that the incandescent body of the ,sun consists of molten metals1 follows almost of necessity4 ,that an a priori inference which probably seemed to many readers wildly speculative1 should be thus conclusively justified by observations1 made without reference to any theory1 is a striking fact2 and it gives yet further support to the hypothesis from which this a priori conclusion was drawn4 ,it may be well to add that ,kirchhoff1 to whom we owe this discovery respecting the constitution of the solar atmosphere1 himself remarks in his memoir of #ahfa1 that the facts disclosed are in harmony with the ,nebular ,hypothesis4 ,and here let us not omit to note also1 the significant bearing which ,kirchhoff's results have on the doctrine contended for in a foregoing section4 ,leaving out the barium1 copper1 and zinc1 of which the quantities are inferred to be small1 the metals existing as vapours in the ,sun's atmosphere1 and by consequence as molten in his incandescent body1 have an average specific gravity of #d4be4 ,but the average specific gravity of the ,sun is about #a4 ,how is this discrepancy to be explained8 ,to say that the ,sun consists almost wholly of the three lighter metals named1 would be quite unwarranted by the evidence3 the results of spectrum-analysis would just as much warrant the assertion that the ,sun consists almost wholly of the three heavier4 ,three metals 7two of them heavy7 having been already left out of the estimate because their quantities appear to be small1 the only legitimate assumption on which to base an estimate of specific gravity1 is that the rest are present in something like equal amounts4 ,is it then that the lighter metals exist in larger proportions in the molten mass1 though not in the atmosphere8 ,this is very unlikely3 the known habitudes of matter rather imply that the reverse is the case4 ,is it then that under the conditions of temperature and gravitation existing in the ,sun1 the state of liquid aggregation is wholly unlike that existing here8 ,this is a very strong assumption3 it is one for which our terrestrial experiences afford no adequate warrant2 and if such unlikeness exists1 it is very improbable that it should produce so immense a contrast in specific gravity as that of #d to #a4 ,the more legitimate conclusion is that the ,sun's body is not made up of molten matter all through2 but that it consists of a molten shell with a gaseous nucleus4 ,and this we have seen to be a corollary from the ,nebular ,hypothesis4 99 99 99 99 99 ,considered in their ensemble1 the several groups of evidences assigned amount almost to proof4 ,we have seen that1 when critically examined1 the speculations of late years current respecting the nature of the nebulae1 commit their promulgators to sundry absurdities2 while1 on the other hand1 we see that the various appearances these nebulae present1 are explicable as different stages in the precipitation and aggregation of diffused matter4 ,we find that comets1 alike by their physical constitution1 their immensely-elongated and variously-directed orbits1 the distribution of those orbits1 and their manifest structural relation to the ,solar ,system1 bear testimony to the past existence of that system in a nebulous form4 ,not only do those obvious peculiarities in the motions of the planets which first suggested the ,nebular ,hypothesis1 supply proofs of it1 but on closer examination we discover1 in the slightly-diverging inclinations of their orbits1 in their various rates of rotation1 and their differently-directed axes of rotation1 that the planets yield us yet further testimony2 while the satellites1 by sundry traits1 and especially by their occurrence in greater or less abundance where the hypothesis implies greater or less abundance1 confirm this testimony4 ,by tracing out the process of planetary condensation1 we are led to conclusions respecting the internal structure of planets which at once explain their anomalous specific gravities1 and at the same time reconcile various seemingly contradictory facts4 ,once more1 it turns out that what is a priori inferable from the ,nebular ,hypothesis respecting the temperatures of the resulting bodies1 is just what observation establishes2 and that both the absolute and the relative temperatures of the ,sun and planets are thus accounted for4 ,when we contemplate these various evidences in their totality--when we observe that1 by the ,nebular ,hypothesis1 the leading phenomena of the ,solar ,system1 and the heavens in general1 are explicable2 and when1 on the other hand1 we consider that the current cosmogony is not only without a single fact to stand on1 but is at variance with all our positive knowledge of ,nature2 we see that the proof becomes overwhelming4 ,it remains only to point out that while the genesis of the ,solar ,system1 and of countless other systems like it1 is thus rendered comprehensible1 the ultimate mystery continues as great as ever4 ,the problem of existence is not solved3 it is simply removed further back4 ,the ,nebular ,hypothesis throws no light on the origin of diffused matter2 and diffused matter as much needs accounting for as concrete matter4 ,the genesis of an atom is not easier to conceive than the genesis of a planet4 ,nay1 indeed1 so far from making the ,universe a less mystery than before1 it makes it a greater mystery4 ,creation by manufacture is a much lower thing than creation by evolution4 ,a man can put together a machine2 but he cannot make a machine develop itself4 ,the ingenious artizan1 able as some have been1 so far to imitate vitality as to produce a mechanical pianoforte-player1 may in some sort conceive how1 by greater skill1 a complete man might be artificially produced2 but he is unable to conceive how such a complex organism gradually arises out of a minute structureless germ4 ,that our harmonious universe once existed potentially as formless diffused matter1 and has slowly grown into its present organized state1 is a far more astonishing fact than would have been its formation after the artificial method vulgarly supposed4 ,those who hold it legitimate to argue from phenomena to noumena1 may rightly contend that the ,nebular ,hypothesis implies a ,first ,cause as much transcending the mechanical ,god of ,paley1 as this does the fetish of the savage4 ,,vii4 ,,bain ,,on ,,the ,,emotions ,,and ,,the ,,will4 ,after the controversy between the ,neptunists and the ,vulcanists had been long carried on without definite results1 there came a reaction against all speculative geology4 ,reasoning without adequate data having led to nothing1 inquirers went into the opposite extreme1 and confining themselves wholly to collecting data1 relinquished reasoning4 ,the ,geological ,society of ,london was formed with the express object of accumulating evidence2 for many years hypotheses were forbidden at its meetings2 and only of late have attempts to organize the mass of observations into consistent theory been tolerated4 ,this reaction and subsequent re-reaction1 well illustrate the recent history of ,english thought in general4 ,the time was when our countrymen speculated1 certainly to as great an extent as any other people1 on all those high questions which present themselves to the human intellect2 and1 indeed1 a glance at the systems of philosophy that are or have been current on the ,continent1 suffices to show how much other nations owe to the discoveries of our ancestors4 ,for a generation or two1 however1 these more abstract subjects have fallen into neglect2 and1 among those who plume themselves on being practical1 even into contempt4 ,partly1 perhaps1 a natural accompaniment of our rapid material growth1 this intellectual phase has been in great measure due to the exhaustion of argument1 and the necessity for better data4 ,not so much with a conscious recognition of the end to be subserved1 as from an unconscious subordination to that rhythm traceable in social changes as in other things1 an era of theorizing without observing1 has been followed by an era of observing without theorizing4 ,during the long-continued devotion to concrete science1 an immense quantity of raw material for abstract science has been accumulated2 and now there is obviously commencing a period in which this accumulated raw material will be organized into consistent theory4 ,on all sides--equally in the inorganic sciences1 in the science of life1 and in the science of society--may we note the tendency to pass from the superficial and empirical to the more profound and rational4 ,in ,psychology this change is conspicuous4 ,the facts brought to light by anatomists and physiologists during the last fifty years1 are at length being used towards the interpretation of this highest class of biological phenomena2 and already there is promise of a great advance4 ,the work of ,mr4 ,alexander ,bain1 of which the second volume has been recently issued1 may be regarded as especially characteristic of the transition4 ,it gives us in orderly arrangement1 the great mass of evidence supplied by modern science towards the building-up of a coherent system of mental philosophy4 ,it is not in itself a system of mental philosophy1 properly so called2 but a classified collection of materials for such a system1 presented with that method and insight which scientific discipline generates1 and accompanied with occasional passages of an analytical character4 ,it is indeed that which it in the main professes to be--a natural history of the mind4 ,were we to say that the researches of the naturalist who collects and dissects and describes species1 bear the same relation to the researches of the comparative anatomist tracing out the laws of organization1 which ,mr4 ,bain's labours bear to the labours of the abstract psychologist1 we should be going somewhat too far2 for ,mr4 ,bain's work is not wholly descriptive4 ,still1 however1 such an analogy conveys the best general conception of what he has done2 and serves most clearly to indicate its needfulness4 ,for as1 before there can be made anything like true generalizations respecting the classification of organisms and the laws of organization1 there must be an extensive accumulation of the facts presented in numerous organic bodies2 so1 without a tolerably-complete delineation of mental phenomena of all orders1 there can scarcely arise any adequate theory of the mind4 ,until recently1 mental science has been pursued much as physical science was pursued by the ancients3 not by drawing conclusions from observations and experiments1 but by drawing them from arbitrary a priori assumptions4 ,this course1 long since abandoned in the one case with immense advantage1 is gradually being abandoned in the other2 and the treatment of ,psychology as a division of natural history1 shows that the abandonment will soon be complete4 ,estimated as a means to higher results1 ,mr4 ,bain's work is of great value4 ,of its kind it is the most scientific in conception1 the most catholic in spirit1 and the most complete in execution4 ,besides delineating the various classes of mental phenomena as seen under that stronger light thrown on them by modern science1 it includes in the picture much which previous writers had omitted--partly from prejudice1 partly from ignorance4 ,we refer more especially to the participation of bodily organs in mental changes2 and the addition to the primary mental changes1 of those many secondary ones which the actions of the bodily organs generate4 ,mr4 ,bain has1 we believe1 been the first to appreciate the importance of this element in our states of consciousness2 and it is one of his merits that he shows how constant and large an element it is4 ,further1 the relations of voluntary and involuntary movements are elucidated in a way that was not possible to writers unacquainted with the modern doctrine of reflex action4 ,and beyond this1 some of the analytical passages that here and there occur1 contain important ideas4 ,valuable1 however1 as is ,mr4 ,bain's work1 we regard it as essentially transitional4 ,it presents in a digested form the results of a period of observation2 adds to these results many well-delineated facts collected by himself2 arranges new and old materials with that more scientific method which the discipline of our times has fostered2 and so prepare the way for better generalizations4 ,but almost of necessity its classifications and conclusions are provisional4 ,in the growth of each science1 not only is correct observation needful for the formation of true theory2 but true theory is needful as a preliminary to correct observation4 ,of course we do not intend this assertion to be taken literally2 but as a strong expression of the fact that the two must advance hand in hand4 ,the first crude theory or rough classification1 based on very slight knowledge of the phenomena1 is requisite as a means of reducing the phenomena to some kind of order2 and as supplying a conception with which fresh phenomena may be compared1 and their agreement or disagreement noted4 ,incongruities being by and by made manifest by wider examination of cases1 there comes such modification of the theory as brings it into a nearer correspondence with the evidence4 ,this reacts to the further advance of observation4 ,more extensive and complete observation brings additional corrections of theory4 ,and so on till the truth is reached4 ,in mental science1 the systematic collection of facts having but recently commenced1 it is not to be expected that the results can be at once rightly formulated4 ,all that may be looked for are approximate generalizations which will presently serve for the better directing of inquiry4 ,hence1 even were it not now possible to say in what way it does so1 we might be tolerably certain that ,mr4 ,bain's work bears the stamp of the inchoate state of ,psychology4 ,we think1 however1 that it will not be difficult to find in what respects its organization is provisional2 and at the same time to show what must be the nature of a more complete organization4 ,we propose here to attempt this3 illustrating our positions from his recently-issued second volume4 99 99 99 99 99 ,is it possible to make a true classification without the aid of analysis8 or must there not be an analytical basis to every true classification8 ,can the real relations of things be determined by the obvious characteristics of the things8 or does it not commonly happen that certain hidden characteristics1 on which the obvious ones depend1 are the truly significant ones8 ,this is the preliminary question which a glance at ,mr4 ,bain's scheme of the emotions suggests4 ,though not avowedly1 yet by implication1 ,mr4 ,bain assumes that a right conception of the nature1 the order1 and the relations of the emotions1 may be arrived at by contemplating their conspicuous objective and subjective characters1 as displayed in the adult4 ,after pointing out that we lack those means of classification which serve in the case of the sensations1 he says-- ,in these circumstances we must turn our attention to the manner of diffusion of the different passions and emotions1 in order to obtain a basis of classification analogous to the arrangement of the sensations4 ,if what we have already advanced on that subject be at all well founded1 this is the genuine turning point of the method to be chosen1 for the same mode of diffusion will always be accompanied by the same mental experience1 and each of the two aspects would identify1 and would be evidence of1 the other4 ,there is1 therefore1 nothing so thoroughly characteristic of any state of feeling as the nature of the diffusive wave that embodies it1 or the various organs specially roused into action by it1 together with the manner of the action4 ,the only drawback is our comparative ignorance1 and our inability to discern the precise character of the diffusive currents in every case2 a radical imperfection in the science of mind as constituted at present4 ,our own consciousness1 formerly reckoned the only medium of knowledge to the mental philosopher1 must therefore be still referred to as a principal means of discriminating the varieties of human feeling4 ,we have the power of noting agreement and difference among our conscious states1 and on this we can raise a structure of classification4 ,we recognise such generalities as pleasure1 pain1 love1 anger1 through the property of mental or intellectual discrimination that accompanies in our mind the fact of an emotion4 ,a certain degree of precision is attainable by this mode of mental comparison and analysis2 the farther we can carry such precision the better2 but that is no reason why it should stand alone to the neglect of the corporeal embodiments through which one mind reveals itself to others4 ,the companionship of inward feeling with bodily manifestation is a fact of the human constitution1 and deserves to be studied as such2 and it would be difficult to find a place more appropriate than a treatise on the mind for setting forth the conjunctions and sequences traceable in this department of nature4 ,i shall make no scruple in conjoining with the description of the mental phenomena the physical appearances1 in so far as ,i am able to ascertain them4 ,there is still one other quarter to be referred to in settling a complete arrangement of the emotions1 namely1 the varieties of human conduct1 and the machinery created in subservience to our common susceptibilities4 ,for example1 the vast superstructure of fine art has its foundations in human feeling1 and in rendering an account of this we are led to recognise the interesting group of artistic or aesthetic emotions4 ,the same outward reference to conduct and creations brings to light the so-called moral sense in man1 whose foundations in the mental system have accordingly to be examined4 ,combining together these various indications1 or sources of discrimination1--outward objects1 diffusive mode or expression1 inward consciousness1 resulting conduct and institutions--,i adopt the following arrangement of the families or natural orders of emotion4 ,here1 then1 are confessedly adopted1 as bases of classification1 the most manifest characters of the emotions2 as discerned subjectively1 and objectively4 ,the mode of diffusion of an emotion is one of its outside aspects2 the institutions it generates form another of its outside aspects2 and though the peculiarities of the emotion as a state of consciousness1 seem to express its intrinsic and ultimate nature1 yet such peculiarities as are perceptible by simple introspection1 must also be classed as superficial peculiarities4 ,it is a familiar fact that various intellectual states of consciousness turn out1 when analyzed1 to have natures widely unlike those which at first appear2 and we believe the like will prove true of emotional states of consciousness4 ,just as our concept of space1 which is apt to be thought a simple1 undecomposable concept1 is yet resolvable into experiences quite different from that state of consciousness which we call space2 so1 probably1 the sentiment of affection or reverence is compounded of elements that are severally distinct from the whole which they make up4 ,and much as a classification of our ideas which dealt with the idea of space as though it were ultimate1 would be a classification of ideas by their externals2 so1 a classification of our emotions1 which1 regarding them as simple1 describes their aspects in ordinary consciousness1 is a classification of emotions by their externals4 ,thus1 then1 ,mr4 ,bain's grouping is throughout determined by the most manifest attributes--those objectively displayed in the natural language of the emotions1 and in the social phenomena that result from them1 and those subjectively displayed in the aspects the emotions assume in an analytical consciousness4 ,and the question is--,can they be correctly grouped after this method8 ,we think not2 and had ,mr4 ,bain carried farther an idea with which he has set out1 he would probably have seen that they cannot4 ,as already said1 he avowedly adopts the natural-history-method3 not only referring to it in his preface1 but in his first chapter giving examples of botanical and zoological classifications1 as illustrating the mode in which he proposes to deal with the emotions4 ,this we conceive to be a philosophical conception2 and we have only to regret that ,mr4 ,bain has overlooked some of its most important implications4 ,for in what has essentially consisted the progress of natural-history-classification8 ,in the abandonment of grouping by external1 conspicuous characters2 and in the making of certain internal1 but all-essential characters1 the bases of groups4 ,whales are not now ranged along with fish1 because in their general forms and habits of life they resemble fish2 but they are ranged with mammals1 because the type of their organization1 as ascertained by dissection1 corresponds with that of the mammals4 ,no longer considered as sea-weeds in virtue of their forms and modes of growth1 zoophytes are now shown1 by examination of their economy1 to belong to the animal kingdom4 ,it is found1 then1 that the discovery of real relationships involves analysis4 ,it has turned out that the earlier classifications1 guided by general resemblances1 though containing much truth1 and though very useful provisionally1 were yet in many cases radically wrong2 and that the true affinities of organisms1 and the true homologies of their parts1 are to be made out only by examining their hidden structures4 ,another fact of great significance in the history of classification is also to be noted4 ,very frequently the kinship of an organism cannot be made out even by exhaustive analysis1 if that analysis is confined to the adult structure4 ,in many cases it is needful to examine the structure in its earlier stages2 and even in its embryonic stage4 ,so difficult was it1 for instance1 to determine the true position of the ,cirrhipedia among animals1 by examining mature individuals only1 that ,cuvier erroneously classed them with ,mollusca1 even after dissecting them2 and not until their early forms were discovered1 were they clearly proved to belong to the ,crustacea4 ,so important1 indeed1 is the study of development as a means to classification1 that the first zoologists now hold it to be the only absolute criterion4 ,here1 then1 in the advance of natural-history-classification1 are two fundamental facts1 which should be borne in mind when classifying the emotions4 ,if1 as ,mr4 ,bain rightly assumes1 the emotions are to be grouped after the natural-history-method2 then it should be the natural-history-method in its complete form1 and not in its rude form4 ,mr4 ,bain will doubtless agree in the position1 that a correct account of the emotions in their natures and relations1 must correspond with a correct account of the nervous system--must form another side of the same ultimate facts4 ,structure and function must necessarily harmonize4 ,structures which have with each other certain ultimate connexions1 must have functions that have answering connexions4 ,structures that have arisen in certain ways1 must have functions that have arisen in parallel ways4 ,and hence if analysis and development are needful for the right interpretation of structures1 they must be needful for the right interpretation of functions4 ,just as a scientific description of the digestive organs1 must include not only their obvious forms and connexions1 but their microscopic characters1 and also the ways in which they severally result by differentiation from the primitive mucous membrane2 so must a scientific account of the nervous system1 include its general arrangements1 its minute structure1 and its mode of evolution2 and so must a scientific account of nervous actions1 include the answering three elements4 ,alike in classing separate organisms1 and in classing the parts of the same organism1 the complete natural-history-method involves ultimate analysis1 aided by development2 and ,mr4 ,bain1 in not basing his classification of the emotions on characters reached through these aids1 has fallen short of the conception with which he set out4 ,but1 it will perhaps be asked1 how are the emotions to be analyzed1 and their modes of evolution to be ascertained8 ,different animals1 and different organs of the same animal1 may readily be compared in their internal and microscopic structures1 as also in their developments2 but functions1 and especially such functions as the emotions1 do not admit of like comparisons4 ,it must be admitted that the application of these methods is here by no means so easy4 ,though we can note differences and similarities between the internal formations of two animals2 it is difficult to contrast the mental states of two animals4 ,though the true morphological relations of organs may be made out by the observations of embryos2 yet1 where such organs are inactive before birth1 we cannot completely trace the history of their actions4 ,obviously1 too1 the pursuance of inquiries of the kind indicated1 raises questions which science is not yet prepared to answer2 as1 for instance--,whether all nervous functions1 in common with all other functions1 arise by gradual differentiations1 as their organs do8 ,whether the emotions are1 therefore1 to be regarded as divergent modes of action1 that have become unlike by successive modifications8 ,whether1 as two organs which originally budded out of the same membrane1 have not only become different as they developed1 but have also severally become compound internally1 though externally simple3 so two emotions1 simple and near akin in their roots1 may not only have grown unlike1 but may also have grown involved in their natures1 though seeming homogeneous to consciousness4 ,and here1 indeed1 in the inability of existing science to answer these questions which underlie a true psychological classification1 we see how purely provisional any present classification is likely to be4 ,nevertheless1 even now1 classification may be aided by development and ultimate analysis to a considerable extent2 and the defect in ,mr4 ,bain's work is1 that he has not systematically availed himself of them as far as possible4 ,thus we may1 in the first place1 study the evolution of the emotions up through the various grades of the animal kingdom3 observing which of them are earliest and exist with the lowest organization and intelligence2 in what order the others accompany higher endowments2 and how they are severally related to the conditions of life4 ,in the second place1 we may note the emotional differences between the lower and the higher human races--may regard as earlier and simpler those feelings which are common to both1 and as later and more compound those which are characteristic of the most civilized4 ,in the third place1 we may observe the order in which the emotions unfold during the progress from infancy to maturity4 ,and lastly1 comparing these three kinds of emotional development1 displayed in the ascending grades of the animal kingdom1 in the advance of the civilized races1 and in individual history1 we may see in what respects they harmonize1 and what are the implied general truths4 ,having gathered together and generalized these several classes of facts1 analysis of the emotions would be made easier4 ,setting out with the unquestionable assumption1 that every new form of emotion making its appearance in the individual or the race1 is a modification of some pre-existing emotion1 or a compounding of several pre-existing emotions2 we should be greatly aided by knowing what always are the pre-existing emotions4 ,when1 for example1 we find that very few if any of the lower animals show any love of accumulation1 and that this feeling is absent in infancy--when we see that an infant in arms exhibits anger1 fear1 wonder1 while yet it manifests no desire of permanent possession1 and that a brute which has no acquisitive emotion can nevertheless feel attachment1 jealousy1 love of approbation2 we may suspect that the feeling which property satisfies1 is compounded out of simpler and deeper feelings4 ,we may conclude that as1 when a dog hides a bone1 there must exist in him a prospective gratification of hunger2 so there must similarly at first1 in all cases where anything is secured or taken possession of1 exist an ideal excitement of the feeling which that thing will gratify4 ,we may further conclude that when the intelligence is such that a variety of objects come to be utilized for different purposes--when1 as among savages1 divers wants are satisfied through the articles appropriated for weapons1 shelter1 clothing1 ornament2 the act of appropriating comes to be one constantly involving agreeable associations1 and one which is therefore pleasurable1 irrespective of the end subserved4 ,and when1 as in civilized life1 the property acquired is of a kind not conducing to one order of gratifications1 but is capable of administering to all gratifications1 the pleasure of acquiring property grows more distinct from each of the various pleasures subserved--is more completely differentiated into a separate emotion4 ,this illustration1 roughly as it is sketched1 will show what we mean by the use of comparative psychology in aid of classification4 ,ascertaining by induction the actual order of evolution of the emotions1 we are led to suspect this to be their order of successive dependence2 and are so led to recognize their order of ascending complexity2 and by consequence their true groupings4 ,thus1 in the very process of arranging the emotions into grades1 beginning with those involved in the lowest forms of conscious activity and end with those peculiar to the adult civilized man1 the way is opened for that ultimate analysis which alone can lead us to the true science of the matter4 ,for when we find both that there exist in a man feelings which do not exist in a child1 and that the ,european is characterized by some sentiments which are wholly or in a great part absent from the savage--when we see that1 besides the new emotions that arise spontaneously as the individual becomes completely organized1 there are new emotions making their appearance in the more advanced divisions of our race2 we are led to ask--,how are new emotions generated8 ,the lowest savages have not even the ideas of justice or mercy3 they have neither words for them nor can they be made to conceive them2 and the manifestation of them by ,europeans they ascribe to fear or cunning4 ,there are aesthetic emotions common among ourselves1 that are scarcely in any degree experienced by some inferior races2 as1 for instance1 those produced by music4 ,to which instances may be added the less marked but more numerous contrasts that exist between civilized races in the degrees of their several emotions4 ,and if it is manifest1 both that all the emotions are capable of being permanently modified in the course of successive generations1 and that what must be classed as new emotions may be brought into existence2 then it follows that nothing like a true conception of the emotions is to be obtained1 until we understand how they are evolved4 ,comparative psychology1 while it raises this inquiry1 prepares the way for answering it4 ,when observing the differences between races1 we can scarcely fail to observe also how these differences correspond with differences in their conditions of existence1 and therefore in their daily experiences4 ,note the contrast between the circumstances and between the emotional natures of savage and civilized4 ,among the lowest races of men1 love of property stimulates to the obtainment only of such things as satisfy immediate desires or desires of the immediate future4 ,improvidence is the rule3 there is little effort to meet remote contingencies4 ,but the growth of established societies1 having gradually given security of possession1 there has been an increasing tendency to provide for coming years3 there has been a constant exercise of the feeling which is satisfied by a provision for the future2 and there has been a growth of this feeling so great that it now prompts accumulation to an extent beyond what is needful4 ,note1 again1 that under the discipline of social life--under a comparative abstinence from aggressive actions1 and a performance of those mutually-serviceable actions implied by the division of labour--there has been a development of those gentle emotions of which inferior races exhibit but the rudiments4 ,savages delight in giving pain rather than pleasure--are almost devoid of sympathy4 ,while among ourselves philanthropy organizes itself in laws1 establishes numerous institutions1 and dictates countless private benefactions4 ,from which and other like facts1 does it not seem an unavoidable inference that new emotions are developed by new experiences--new habits of life8 ,all are familiar with the truth1 that in the individual1 each feeling may be strengthened by performing those actions which it prompts2 and to say that the feeling is strengthened1 is to say that it is in part made by these actions4 ,we know further1 that not unfrequently1 individuals1 by persistence in special courses of conduct1 acquire special likings for such courses disagreeable as these may be to others2 and these whims1 or morbid tastes1 imply incipient emotions corresponding to these special activities4 ,we know that emotional characteristics1 in common with all others1 are hereditary2 and the differences between civilized nations descended from the same stock1 show us the cumulative results of small modifications hereditarily transmitted4 ,and when we see that between savage and civilized races1 which diverged from each other in the remote past1 and have for a hundred generations followed modes of life becoming ever more unlike1 there exist still greater emotional contrasts2 may we not infer that the more or less distinct emotions which characterize civilized races1 are the organized results of certain daily-repeated combinations of mental states which social life involves8 ,must we not say that habits not only modify emotions in the individual1 and not only beget tendencies to like habits and accompanying emotions in descendants1 but that when the conditions of the race make the habits persistent1 this progressive modification may go on to the extent of producing emotions so far distinct as to seem new8 ,and if so1 we may suspect that such new emotions1 and by implication all emotions analytically considered1 consist of aggregated and consolidated groups of those simpler feelings which habitually occur together in experience3 that they result from combined experiences1 and are constituted of them4 ,when1 in the circumstances of any race1 some one kind of action or set of actions1 sensation or set of sensations1 is usually followed1 or accompanied by1 various other sets of actions or sensations1 and so entails a large mass of pleasurable or painful states of consciousness2 these1 by frequent repetition1 become so connected together that the initial action or sensation brings the ideas of all the rest crowding into consciousness3 producing1 in a degree1 the pleasures or pains that have before been felt in reality4 ,and when this relation1 besides being frequently repeated in the individual1 occurs in successive generations1 all the many nervous actions involved tend to grow organically connected4 ,they become incipiently reflex2 and on the occurrence of the appropriate stimulus1 the whole nervous apparatus which in past generations was brought into activity by this stimulus1 becomes nascently excited4 ,even while yet there have been no individual experiences1 a vague feeling of pleasure or pain is produced2 constituting what we may call the body of the emotion4 ,and when the experiences of past generations come to be repeated in the individual1 the emotion gains both strength and definiteness2 and is accompanied by the appropriate specific ideas4 ,this view of the matter1 which we believe the established truths of ,physiology and ,psychology unite in indicating1 and which is the view that generalizes the phenomena of habit1 of national characteristics1 of civilization in its moral aspects1 at the same time that it gives us a conception of emotion in its origin and ultimate nature1 may be illustrated from the mental modifications undergone by animals4 ,it is well-known that on newly-discovered lands not inhabited by man1 birds are so devoid of fear as to allow themselves to be knocked over with sticks2 but that in the course of generations1 they acquire such a dread of man as to fly on his approach2 and that this dread is manifested by young as well as old4 ,now unless this change be ascribed to the killing-off of the least fearful1 and the preservation and multiplication of the more fearful1 which1 considering the comparatively small number killed by man1 is an inadequate cause2 it must be ascribed to accumulated experiences2 and each experience must be held to have a share in producing it4 ,we must conclude that in each bird that escapes with injuries inflicted by man1 or is alarmed by the outcries of other members of the flock 7gregarious creatures of any intelligence being necessarily more or less sympathetic71 there is established an association of ideas between the human aspect and the pains1 direct and indirect1 suffered from human agency4 ,and we must further conclude1 that the state of consciousness which impels the bird to take flight1 is at first nothing more than an ideal reproduction of those painful impressions which before followed man's approach2 that such ideal reproduction becomes more vivid and more massive as the painful experiences1 direct or sympathetic1 increase2 and that thus the emotion in its incipient state1 is nothing else than an aggregation of the revived pains before experienced4 ,as1 in the course of generations1 the young birds of this race begin to display a fear of man before yet they have been injured by him2 it is an unavoidable inference that the nervous system of the race has been organically modified by these experiences3 we have no choice but to conclude that when a young bird is thus led to fly1 it is because the impression produced on its senses by the approaching man1 entails1 through an incipiently-reflex action1 a partial excitement of all those nerves which in its ancestors had been excited under the like conditions2 that this partial excitement has its accompanying painful consciousness2 and that the vague painful consciousness thus arising1 constitutes emotion proper--emotion undecomposable into specific experiences1 and therefore seemingly homogeneous4 ,if such be the explanation of the fact in this case1 then it is in all cases4 ,if emotion is so generated here1 then it is so generated throughout4 ,we must perforce conclude that the emotional modifications displayed by different nations1 and those higher emotions by which civilized are distinguished from savage1 are to be accounted for on the same principle4 ,and concluding this1 we are led strongly to suspect that the emotions in general have severally thus originated4 ,perhaps we have now made sufficiently clear what we mean by the study of the emotions through analysis and development4 ,we have aimed to justify the positions that1 without analysis aided by development1 there cannot be a true natural history of the emotions2 and that a natural history of the emotions based on external characters1 can be but provisional4 ,we think that ,mr4 ,bain1 in confining himself to an account of the emotions as they exist in the adult civilized man1 has neglected those classes of facts out of which the science of the matter must chiefly be built4 ,it is true that he has treated of habits as modifying emotions in the individual2 but he has not recognized the fact1 that where conditions render habits persistent in successive generations1 such modifications are cumulative3 he has not hinted that the modifications produced by habit are emotions in the making4 ,it is true1 also1 that he occasionally refers to the characteristics of children2 but he does not systematically trace the changes through which childhood passes into manhood1 as throwing light on the order and genesis of the emotions4 ,it is further true that he here and there refers to national traits in illustration of his subject2 but these stand as isolated facts1 having no general significance3 there is no hint of any relation between them and the national circumstances2 while all those many moral contrasts between lower and higher races which throw great light on classification1 are passed over4 ,and once more1 it is true that many passages of his work1 and sometimes1 indeed1 whole sections of it1 are analytical2 but his analyses are incidental--they do not underlie his entire scheme1 but are here and there added to it4 ,in brief1 he has written a ,descriptive ,psychology1 which does not appeal to ,comparative ,psychology and ,analytical ,psychology for its leading ideas4 ,and in doing this1 he has omitted much that should be included in a natural history of the mind2 while to that part of the subject with which he has dealt1 he has given a necessarily-imperfect organization4 99 99 99 99 99 ,even leaving out of view the absence of those methods and criteria on which we have been insisting1 it appears to us that meritorious as is ,mr4 ,bain's book in its details1 it is defective in some of its leading ideas4 ,the first paragraphs of his first chapter1 quite startled us by the strangeness of their definitions--a strangeness which can scarcely be ascribed to laxity of expression4 ,the paragraphs run thus3-- ,mind is comprised under three heads--,emotion1 ,volition1 and ,intellect4 ,,emotion is the name here used to comprehend all that is understood by feelings1 states of feeling1 pleasures1 pains1 passions1 sentiments1 affections4 ,consciousness1 and conscious states also for the most part denote modes of emotion1 although there is such a thing as the ,intellectual consciousness4 ,,volition1 on the other hand1 indicates the great fact that our ,pleasures and ,pains1 which are not the whole of our emotions1 prompt us to action1 or stimulate the active machinery of the living framework to perform such operations as procure the first and abate the last4 ,to withdraw from a scalding heat and cling to a gentle warmth1 are exercises of volition4 ,the last of these definitions1 which we may most conveniently take first1 seems to us very faulty4 ,we cannot but feel astonished that ,mr4 ,bain1 familiar as he is with the phenomena of reflex action1 should have so expressed himself as to include a great part of them along with the phenomena of volition4 ,he seems to be ignoring the discriminations of modern science1 and returning to the vague conceptions of the past--nay more1 he is comprehending under volition what even the popular speech would hardly bring under it4 ,if you were to blame any one for snatching his foot from the scalding water into which he had inadvertently put it1 he would tell you that he could not help it2 and his reply would be indorsed by the general experience1 that the withdrawal of a limb from contact with something extremely hot1 is quite involuntary--that it takes place not only without volition1 but in defiance of an effort of will to maintain the contact4 ,how1 then1 can that be instanced as an example of volition1 which occurs even when volition is antagonistic8 ,we are quite aware that it is impossible to draw any absolute line of demarcation between automatic actions and actions which are not automatic4 ,doubtless we may pass gradually from the purely reflex1 through the consensual1 to the voluntary4 ,taking the case ,mr4 ,bain cites1 it is manifest that from a heat of such moderate degree that the withdrawal from it is wholly voluntary1 we may advance by infinitesimal steps to a heat which compels involuntary withdrawal2 and that there is a stage at which the voluntary and involuntary actions are mixed4 ,but the difficulty of absolute discrimination is no reason for neglecting the broad general contrast2 any more than it is for confounding light with darkness4 ,if we are to include as examples of volition1 all cases in which pleasures and pains stimulate the active machinery of the living framework to perform such operations as procure the first and abate the last1 then we must consider sneezing and coughing1 as examples of volition2 and ,mr4 ,bain surely cannot mean this4 ,indeed1 we must confess ourselves at a loss4 ,on the one hand if he does not mean it1 his expression is lax to a degree that surprises us in so careful a writer4 ,on the other hand1 if he does mean it1 we cannot understand his point of view4 ,a parallel criticism applies to his definition of ,emotion4 ,here1 too1 he has departed from the ordinary acceptation of the word2 and1 as we think1 in the wrong direction4 ,whatever may be the interpretation that is justified by its derivation1 the word ,emotion has come generally to mean that kind of feeling which is not a direct result of any action on the organism2 but is either an indirect result of such action1 or arises quite apart from such action4 ,it is used to indicate those sentient states which are independently generated in consciousness2 as distinguished from those generated in our corporeal framework1 and known as sensations4 ,now this distinction1 tacitly made in common speech1 is one which ,psychology cannot well reject2 but one which it must adopt1 and to which it must give scientific precision4 ,mr4 ,bain1 however1 appears to ignore any such distinction4 ,under the term emotion1 he includes not only passions1 sentiments1 affections1 but all feelings1 states of feeling1 pleasures1 pains1--that is1 all sensations4 ,this does not appear to be a mere lapse of expression2 for when1 in the opening sentence1 he asserts that mind is comprised under the three heads--,emotion1 ,volition1 and ,intellect1 he of necessity implies that sensation is included under one of these heads2 and as it cannot be included under ,volition or ,intellect1 it must be classed with ,emotion3 as it clearly is in the next sentence4 ,we cannot but think this is a retrograde step4 ,though distinctions which have been established in popular thought and language1 are not unfrequently merged in the higher generalizations of science 7as1 for instance1 when crabs and worms are grouped together in the sub-kingdom ,annulosa27 yet science very generally recognizes the validity of these distinctions1 as real though not fundamental4 ,and so in the present case4 ,such community as analysis discloses between sensation and emotion1 must not shut out the broad contrast that exists between them4 ,if there needs a wider word1 as there does1 to signify any sentient state whatever2 then we may fitly adopt for this purpose the word currently so used1 namely1 ,feeling4 ,and considering as ,feelings all that great division of mental states which we do not class as ,cognitions1 may then separate this great division into the two orders1 ,sensations and ,emotions4 99 99 99 99 99 ,and here we may1 before concluding1 briefly indicate the leading outlines of a classification which reduces this distinction to a scientific form1 and developes it somewhat further--a classification which1 while suggested by certain fundamental traits reached without a very lengthened inquiry1 is yet1 we believe1 in harmony with that disclosed by detailed analysis4 ,leaving out of view the ,will1 which is a simple homogeneous mental state1 forming the link between feeling and action1 and not admitting of subdivisions2 our states of consciousness fall into two great classes--,,cognitions and ,,feelings4 ,,cognitions1 or those modes of mind in which we are occupied with the relations that subsist among our feelings1 are divisible into four great sub-classes4 ,presentative cognitions2 or those in which consciousness is occupied in localizing a sensation impressed on the organism--occupied1 that is1 with the relation between this presented mental state and those other presented mental states which make up our consciousness of the part affected3 as when we cut ourselves4 ,presentative-representative cognitions2 or those in which consciousness is occupied with the relation between a sensation or group of sensations and the representations of those various other sensations that accompany it in experience4 ,this is what we commonly call perception--an act in which1 along with certain impressions presented to consciousness1 there arise in consciousness the ideas of certain other impressions ordinarily connected with the presented ones3 as when its visible form and colour1 lead us to mentally endow an orange with all its other attributes4 ,representative cognitions2 or those in which consciousness is occupied with the relations among ideas or represented sensations3 as in all acts of recollection4 ,re-representative cognitions2 or those in which the occupation of consciousness is not by representation of special relations1 that have before been presented to consciousness2 but those in which such represented special relations are thought of merely as comprehended in a general relation--those in which the concrete relations once experienced1 in so far as they become objects of consciousness at all1 are incidentally represented1 along with the abstract relation which formulates them4 ,the ideas resulting from this abstraction1 do not themselves represent actual experiences2 but are symbols which stand for groups of such actual experiences--represent aggregates of representations4 ,and thus they may be called re-representative cognitions4 ,it is clear that the process of re-representation is carried to higher stages1 as the thought becomes more abstract4 ,,feelings1 or those modes of mind in which we are occupied1 not with the relations subsisting between our sentient states1 but with the sentient states themselves1 are divisible into four parallel sub-classes4 ,presentative feelings1 ordinarily called sensations1 are those mental states in which1 instead of regarding a corporeal impression as of this or that kind1 or as located here or there1 we contemplate it in itself as pleasure or pain3 as when eating4 ,presentative-representative feelings1 embracing a great part of what we commonly call emotions1 are those in which a sensation1 or group of sensations or group of sensations and ideas1 arouses a vast aggregation of represented sensations2 partly of individual experience1 but chiefly deeper than individual experience1 and1 consequently1 indefinite4 ,the emotion of terror may serve as an example4 ,along with certain impressions made on the eyes or ears1 or both1 are recalled in consciousness many of the pains to which such impressions have before been the antecedents2 and when the relation between such impressions and such pains has been habitual in the race1 the definite ideas of such pains which individual experience has given1 are accompanied by the indefinite pains that result from inherited experience--vague feelings which we may call organic representations4 ,in an infant1 crying at a strange sight or sound while yet in the nurse's arms1 we see these organic representations called into existence in the shape of dim discomfort1 to which individual experience has yet given no specific outlines4 ,representative feelings1 comprehending the ideas of the feelings above classed1 when they are called up apart from the appropriate external excitements4 ,as instances of these may be named the feelings with which the descriptive poet writes1 and which are aroused in the minds of his readers4 ,re-representative feelings1 under which head are included those more complex sentient states that are less the direct results of external excitements than the indirect or reflex results of them4 ,the love of property is a feeling of this kind4 ,it is awakened not by the presence of any special object1 but by ownable objects at large2 and it is not from the mere presence of such object1 but from a certain ideal relation to them1 that it arises4 ,as before shown 7p4 #caa7 it consists1 not of the represented advantages of possessing this or that1 but of the represented advantages of possession in general--is not made up of certain concrete representations1 but of the abstracts of many concrete representations2 and so is re-representative4 ,the higher sentiments1 as that of justice1 are still more completely of this nature4 ,here the sentient state is compounded out of sentient states that are themselves wholly1 or almost wholly1 re-representative3 it involves representations of those lower emotions which are produced by the possession of property1 by freedom of action1 etc42 and thus is re-representative in a higher degree4 ,this classification1 here roughly indicated and capable of further expansion1 will be found in harmony with the results of detailed analysis aided by development4 ,whether we trace mental progression through the grades of the animal kingdom1 through the grades of mankind1 or through the stages of individual growth2 it is obvious that the advance1 alike in cognitions and feelings1 is1 and must be1 from the presentative to the more and more remotely representative4 ,it is undeniable that intelligence ascends from those simple perceptions in which consciousness is occupied in localizing and classifying sensations1 to perceptions more and more compound1 to simple reasoning1 to reasoning more and more complex and abstract--more and more remote from sensation4 ,and in the evolution of feelings1 there is a parallel series of steps4 ,simple sensations2 sensations combined together2 sensations combined with represented sensations2 represented sensations organized into groups1 in which their separate characters are very much merged2 representations of these representative groups1 in which the original components have become still more vague4 ,in both cases1 the progress has necessarily been from the simple and concrete to the complex and abstract3 and as with the cognitions1 so with the feelings1 this must be the basis of classification4 ,the space here occupied with criticisms on ,mr4 ,bain's work1 we might have filled with exposition and eulogy1 had we thought this the more important4 ,though we have freely pointed out what we conceive to be its defects1 let it not be inferred that we question its great merits4 ,we repeat that1 as a natural history of the mind1 we believe it to be the best yet produced4 ,it is a most valuable collection of carefully-elaborated materials4 ,perhaps we cannot better express our sense of its worth1 than by saying that1 to those who hereafter give to this branch of ,psychology a thoroughly scientific organization1 ,mr4 ,bain's book will be indispensable4 ,,viii4 ,,illogical ,,geology4 ,that proclivity to generalization which is possessed in greater or less degree by all minds1 and without which1 indeed1 intelligence cannot exist1 has unavoidable inconveniences4 ,through it alone can truth be reached2 and yet it almost inevitably betrays into error4 ,but for the tendency to predicate of every other case1 that which has been found in the observed cases1 there could be no rational thinking2 and yet by this indispensable tendency1 men are perpetually led to found1 on limited experience1 propositions which they wrongly assume to be universal or absolute4 ,in one sense1 however1 this can scarcely be regarded as an evil2 for without premature generalizations the true generalization would never be arrived at4 ,if we waited till all the facts were accumulated before trying to formulate them1 the vast unorganized mass would be unmanageable4 ,only by provisional grouping can they be brought into such order as to be dealt with2 and this provisional grouping is but another name for premature generalization4 ,how uniformly men follow this course1 and how needful the errors are as steps to truth1 is well illustrated in the history of ,astronomy4 ,the heavenly bodies move round the ,earth in circles1 said the earliest observers3 led partly by the appearances1 and partly by their experiences of central motions in terrestrial objects1 with which1 as all circular1 they classed the celestial motions from lack of any alternative conception4 ,without this provisional belief1 wrong as it was1 there could not have been that comparison of positions which showed that the motions are not representable by circles2 and which led to the hypothesis of epicycles and eccentrics4 ,only by the aid of this hypothesis1 equally untrue1 but capable of accounting more nearly for the appearances1 and so of inducing more accurate observations--only thus did it become possible for ,copernicus to show that the heliocentric theory is more feasible than the geocentric theory2 or for ,kepler to show that the planets move round the sun in ellipses4 ,yet again1 without the aid of this approximate truth discovered by ,kepler1 ,newton could not have established that general law from which it follows1 that the motion of a heavenly body round its centre of gravity is not necessarily in an ellipse1 but may be in any conic section4 ,and lastly1 it was only after the law of gravitation had been verified1 that it became possible to determine the actual courses of planets1 satellites1 and comets2 and to prove that1 in consequence of perturbations1 their orbits always deviate1 more or less1 from regular curves4 ,thus1 there followed one another five provisional theories of the ,solar ,system1 before the sixth and absolutely true theory was reached4 ,in which five provisional theories1 each for a time held as final1 we may trace both the tendency men have to leap from scanty data to wide generalizations1 that are either untrue or but partially true2 and the necessity there is for these transitional generalizations as steps to the final one4 ,in the progress of geological speculation the same laws of thought are clearly displayed4 ,we have dogmas that were more than half false1 passing current for a time as universal truths4 ,we have evidence collected in proof of these dogmas2 by and by a colligation of facts in antagonism with them2 and eventually a consequent modification4 ,in conformity with this somewhat improved hypothesis1 we have a better classification of facts2 a greater power of arranging and interpreting the new facts now rapidly gathered together2 and further resulting corrections of hypothesis4 ,being1 as we are at present1 in the midst of this process1 it is not possible to give an adequate account of the development of geological science as thus regarded3 the earlier stages are alone known to us4 ,not only1 however1 is it interesting to observe how the more advanced views now received respecting the ,earth's history1 have been evolved out of the crude views which preceded them2 but we shall find it extremely instructive to observe this4 ,we shall see how greatly the old ideas still sway1 both the general mind1 and the minds of geologists themselves4 ,we shall see how the kind of evidence that has in part abolished these old ideas1 is still daily accumulating1 and threatens to make other like revolutions4 ,in brief1 we shall see whereabouts we are in the elaboration of a true theory of the ,earth2 and1 seeing our whereabouts1 shall be the better able to judge1 among various conflicting opinions1 which best conform to the ascertained direction of geological discovery4 ,it is alike needless and impracticable here to enumerate the many speculations which were in earlier ages propounded by acute men--speculations some of which contained portions of truth4 ,falling in unfit times1 these speculations did not germinate2 and hence do not concern us4 ,we have nothing to do with ideas1 however good1 out of which no science grew2 but only with those which gave origin to the system of ,geology that now exists4 ,we therefore begin with ,werner4 ,taking for data the appearances of the ,earth's crust in a narrow district of ,germany2 observing the constant order of superposition of strata1 and their respective physical characters2 ,werner drew the inference that strata of like characters succeeded each other in like order over the entire surface of the ,earth4 ,and seeing1 from the laminated structure of many formations and the organic remains contained in others1 that they were sedimentary2 he further inferred that these universal strata had been in succession precipitated from a chaotic menstruum which once covered our planet4 ,thus1 on a very incomplete acquaintance with a thousandth part of the ,earth's crust1 he based a sweeping generalization applying to the whole of it4 ,this ,neptunist hypothesis1 mark1 borne out though it seemed to be by the most conspicuous surrounding facts1 was quite untenable if analyzed4 ,that a universal chaotic menstruum should deposit1 one after another1 numerous sharply-defined strata1 differing from each other in composition1 is incomprehensible4 ,that the strata so deposited should contain the remains of plants and animals1 which could not have lived under the supposed conditions1 is still more incomprehensible4 ,physically absurd1 however1 as was this hypothesis1 it recognized1 though under a distorted form1 one of the great agencies of geological change--that of water4 ,it served also to express the fact that the formations of the ,earth's crust stand in some kind of order4 ,further1 it did a little towards supplying a nomenclature1 without which much progress was impossible4 ,lastly1 it furnished a standard with which successions of strata in various regions could be compared1 the differences noted1 and the actual sections tabulated4 ,it was the first provisional generalization2 and was useful1 if not indispensable1 as a step to truer ones4 ,following this rude conception1 which ascribed geological phenomena to one agency1 acting during one primeval epoch1 there came a greatly-improved conception1 which ascribed them to two agencies1 acting alternately during successive epochs4 ,hutton1 perceiving that sedimentary deposits were still being formed at the bottom of the sea from the detritus carried down by rivers2 perceiving1 further1 that the strata of which the visible surface chiefly consists1 bore marks of having been similarly formed out of pre-existing land2 and inferring that these strata could have become land only by upheaval after their deposit2 concluded that throughout an indefinite past1 there had been periodic convulsions1 by which continents were raised1 with intervening eras of repose1 during which such continents were worn down and transformed into new marine strata1 fated to be in their turns elevated above the surface of the ocean4 ,and finding that igneous action1 to which sundry earlier geologists had ascribed basaltic rocks1 was in countless places a source of disturbance1 he taught that from it resulted these periodic convulsions4 ,in this theory we see3--first1 that the previously-recognized agency of water was conceived to act1 not as by ,werner1 after a manner of which we have no experience1 but after a manner daily displayed to us2 and second1 that the igneous agency1 before considered only as a cause of special formations1 was recognized as a universal agency1 but assumed to act in an unproved way4 ,werner's sole process1 ,hutton developed from the catastrophic and inexplicable into the uniform and explicable2 while that antagonistic second process1 of which he first adequately estimated the importance1 was regarded by him as a catastrophic one1 and was not assimilated to known processes--not explained4 ,we have here to note1 however1 that the facts collected and provisionally arranged in conformity with ,werner's theory1 served1 after a time1 to establish ,hutton's more rational theory--in so far1 at least1 as aqueous formations are concerned2 while the doctrine of periodic subterranean convulsions1 crudely as it was conceived by ,hutton1 was a temporary generalization needful as a step towards the theory of igneous action4 ,since ,hutton's time1 the development of geological thought has gone still further in the same direction4 ,these early sweeping doctrines have received additional qualifications4 ,it has been discovered that more numerous and more heterogeneous agencies have been at work1 than was at first believed4 ,the igneous hypothesis has been rationalized1 as the aqueous one had previously been3 the gratuitous assumption of vast elevations suddenly occurring after long intervals of quiescence1 has grown into the consistent theory1 that islands and continents are the accumulated results of successive small upheavals1 like those experienced in ordinary earthquakes4 ,to speak more specifically1 we find1 in the first place1 that instead of assuming the denudation produced by rain and rivers to be the sole means of wearing down lands and producing their irregularities of surface1 geologists now see that denudation is only a part-cause of such irregularities2 and further1 that the new strata deposited at the bottom of the sea1 are not the products of river-sediment solely1 but are in part due to the action of waves and tidal currents on the coasts4 ,in the second place1 we find that ,hutton's conception of upheaval by subterranean forces1 has not only been modified by assimilating these subterranean forces to ordinary earthquake-forces2 but modern inquiries have shown that1 besides elevations of surface1 subsidences are thus produced2 that local upheavals1 as well as the general upheavals1 which raise continents1 come within the same category2 and that all these changes are probably consequent on the progressive collapse of the ,earth's crust upon its cooling and contracting nucleus--the only adequate cause4 ,in the third place1 we find that beyond these two great antagonist agencies1 modern ,geology recognises sundry minor ones3 as those of glaciers and icebergs2 those of coral-polypes2 those of ,protozoa having siliceous or calcareous shells--each of which agencies1 insignificant as it seems1 is found capable of slowly working terrestrial changes of considerable magnitude4 ,thus1 then1 the recent progress of ,geology has been a still further departure from primitive conceptions4 ,instead of one catastrophic cause1 once in universal action1 as supposed by ,werner--instead of one general continuous cause1 antagonized at long intervals by a catastrophic cause1 as taught by ,hutton2 we now recognize several causes1 all more or less general and continuous4 ,we no longer resort to hypothetical agencies to explain the phenomena displayed by the ,earth's crust2 but we are day by day more clearly perceiving that these phenomena have arisen from forces like those now at work1 which have acted in all varieties of combination1 through immeasurable periods of time4 99 99 99 99 99 ,having thus briefly traced the evolution of geologic science1 and noted its present form1 let us go on to observe the way in which it is still swayed by the crude hypotheses it set out with2 so that even now1 old doctrines that are abandoned as untenable in theory1 continue in practice to mould the ideas of geologists1 and to foster sundry beliefs that are logically indefensible4 ,we shall see1 both how those simple sweeping conceptions with which the science commenced1 are those which every student is apt at first to seize hold of1 and how several influences conspire to maintain the twist thus resulting--how the original nomenclature of periods and formations necessarily keeps alive the original implications2 and how the need for arranging new data in some order1 naturally results in their being thrust into the old classification1 unless their incongruity with it is very glaring4 ,a few facts will best prepare the way for criticism4 ,up to #ahci it was inferred1 from their crystalline character1 that the metamorphic rocks of ,anglesea are more ancient than any rocks of the adjacent main land2 but it has since been shown that they are of the same age with the slates and grits of ,carnarvon and ,merioneth4 ,again1 slaty cleavage having been first found only in the lowest rocks1 was taken as an indication of the highest antiquity3 whence resulted serious mistakes2 for this mineral characteristic is now known to occur in the ,carboniferous system4 ,once more1 certain red conglomerates and grits on the north-west coast of ,scotland1 long supposed from their lithological aspect to belong to the ,old ,red ,sandstone1 are now identified with the ,lower ,silurians4 ,these are a few instances of the small trust to be placed in mineral qualities1 as evidence of the ages or relative positions of strata4 ,from the recently-published third edition of ,siluria1 may be culled numerous facts of like implication4 ,sir ,r4 ,murchison considers it ascertained1 that the siliceous ,stiper stones of ,shropshire are the equivalents of the ,tremadock slates of ,north ,wales4 ,judged by their fossils1 ,bala slate and limestone are of the same age as the ,caradoc sandstone1 lying forty miles off4 ,in ,radnorshire1 the formation classed as upper ,llandovery rock1 is described at different spots1 as sandstone or conglomerate1 impure limestone1 hard coarse grits1 siliceous grit--a considerable variation for so small an area as that of a county4 ,certain sandy beds on the left bank of the ,towy1 which ,sir ,r4 ,murchison had1 in his ,silurian ,system1 classed as ,caradoc sandstone 7evidently from their mineral characters71 he now finds1 from their fossils1 belong to the ,llandeilo formation4 ,nevertheless1 inferences from mineral characters are still habitually drawn and received4 ,though ,siluria1 in common with other geological works1 supplies numerous proofs that rocks of the same age are often of widely-different composition a few miles off1 while rocks of widely different ages are often of similar composition2 and though ,sir4 ,r4 ,murchison shows us1 as in the case just cited1 that he has himself in past times been misled by trusting to lithological evidence2 yet his reasoning1 all through ,siluria1 shows that he still thinks it natural to expect formations of the same age to be chemically similar1 even in remote regions4 ,for example1 in treating of the ,silurian rocks of ,south ,scotland1 he says3--,when traversing the tract between ,dumfries and ,moffat in #ahej1 it occurred to me that the dull reddish or purple sandstone and schist to the north of the former town1 which so resembled the bottom rocks of the ,longmynd1 ,llanberis1 and ,st4 ,david's1 would prove to be of the same age2 and further on he again insists upon the fact that these strata are absolutely of the same composition as the bottom rocks of the ,silurian region4 ,on this unity of mineral character it is1 that this ,scottish formation is concluded to be contemporaneous with the lowest formations in ,wales2 for the scanty palaeontological evidence suffices neither for proof nor disproof4 ,now1 had there been a continuity of like strata in like order between ,wales and ,scotland1 there might have been little to criticise in this conclusion4 ,but since ,sir ,r4 ,murchison himself admits1 that in ,westmoreland and ,cumberland1 some members of the system assume a lithological aspect different from what they maintain in the ,silurian and ,welsh region1 there seems no reason to expect mineralogical continuity in ,scotland4 ,obviously therefore1 the assumption that these ,scottish formations are of the same age with the ,longmynd of ,shropshire1 implies the latent belief that certain mineral characters indicate certain eras4 ,far more striking instances1 however1 of the influence of this latent belief remain to be given4 ,not in such comparatively near districts as the ,scottish lowlands only1 does ,sir ,r4 ,murchison expect a repetition of the ,longmynd strata2 but in the ,rhenish provinces1 certain quartzose flagstones and grits1 like those of the ,longmynd1 are seemingly concluded to be of contemporaneous origin1 because of their likeness4 ,quartzites in roofing-slates with a greenish tinge that reminded us of the lower slates of ,cumberland and ,westmoreland1 are evidently suspected to be of the same age4 ,in ,russia1 he remarks that the carboniferous limestones are overlaid along the western edge of the ,ural chain by sandstones and grits1 which occupy much the same place in the general series as the millstone grit of ,england2 and in calling this group1 as he does1 the representative of the millstone grit1 ,sir ,r4 ,murchison clearly shows that he thinks likeness of mineral composition some evidence of equivalence in time1 even at that great distance4 ,nay1 on the flanks of the ,andes and in the ,united ,states1 such similarities are looked for1 and considered as significant of certain ages4 ,not that ,sir ,r4 ,murchison contends theoretically for this relation between lithological character and date4 ,for on the page from which we have just quoted 7,siluria1 p4 #chg71 he says1 that whilst the soft ,lower ,silurian clays and sands of ,st4 ,petersburg have their equivalents in the hard schists and quartz rocks with gold veins in the heart of the ,ural mountains1 the equally soft red and green ,devonian marls of the ,valdai ,hills are represented on the western flank of that chain1 by hard1 contorted1 and fractured limestones4 ,but these1 and other such admissions1 seem to go for little4 ,whilst himself asserting that the ,potsdam-sandstone of ,north ,america1 the ,lingula-flags of ,england1 and the alum-slates of ,scandinavia are of the same period--while fully aware that among the ,silurian formations of ,wales1 there are oolitic strata like those of secondary age2 yet is his reasoning more or less coloured by the assumption1 that formations of like qualities probably belong to the same era4 ,is it not manifest1 then1 that the exploded hypothesis of ,werner continues to influence geological speculation8 ,but1 it will perhaps be said1 though individual strata are not continuous over large areas1 yet systems of strata are4 ,though within a few miles the same bed gradually passes from clay into sand1 or thins out and disappears1 yet the group of strata to which it belongs does not do so2 but maintains in remote regions the same relations to other groups4 ,this is the generally-current belief4 ,on this assumption the received geological classifications appear to be framed4 ,the ,silurian system1 the ,devonian system1 the ,carboniferous system1 etc41 are set down in our books as groups of formations which everywhere succeed each other in a given order2 and are severally everywhere of the same age4 ,though it may not be asserted that these successive systems are universal2 yet it seems to be tacitly assumed that they are so4 ,in ,north and ,south ,america1 in ,asia1 in ,australia1 sets of strata are assimilated to one or other of these groups2 and their possession of certain mineral characters and a certain order of superposition are among the reasons assigned for so assimilating them4 ,though1 probably1 no competent geologist would contend that the ,european classification of strata is applicable to the globe as a whole2 yet most1 if not all geologists1 write as though it were so4 ,among readers of works on ,geology1 nine out of ten carry away the impression that the divisions1 ,primary1 ,secondary and ,tertiary1 are of absolute and uniform application2 that these great divisions are separable into subdivisions1 each of which is definitely distinguishable from the rest1 and is everywhere recognizable by its characters as such or such2 and that in all parts of the ,earth1 these minor systems severally began and ended at the same time4 ,when they meet with the term carboniferous era1 they take for granted that it was an era universally carboniferous--that it was1 what ,hugh ,miller indeed actually describes it1 an era when the ,earth bore a vegetation far more luxuriant than it has since done2 and were they in any of our colonies to meet with a coal-bed1 they would conclude that1 as a matter of course1 it was of the same age as the ,english coal-beds4 ,now this belief that geologic systems are universal1 is quite as untenable as the other4 ,it is just as absurd when considered a priori2 and it is equally inconsistent with the facts4 ,though some series of strata classed together as ,oolite1 may range over a wider district than any one stratum of the series2 yet we have but to ask what were the circumstances of its deposit1 to see that the ,oolitic series1 like one of its individual strata1 must be of local origin2 and that there is not likely to be anywhere else1 a series that exactly corresponds1 either in its characters or in its commencement and termination4 ,for the formation of such a series implies an area of subsidence1 in which its component beds were thrown down4 ,every area of subsidence is necessarily limited2 and to suppose that there exist elsewhere groups of beds completely answering to those known as ,oolite1 is to suppose that1 in contemporaneous areas of subsidence1 like processes were going on4 ,there is no reason to suppose this2 but every reason to suppose the reverse4 ,that in contemporaneous areas of subsidence throughout the globe1 the conditions would cause the formation of ,oolite1 or anything like it1 is an assumption which no modern geologist would openly make3 he would say that the equivalent series of beds found elsewhere1 would very likely be of dissimilar mineral character4 ,moreover1 in these contemporaneous areas of subsidence1 the phenomena going on would not only be more or less different in kind2 but in no two cases would they be likely to agree in their commencements and terminations4 ,the probabilities are greatly against separate portions of the ,earth's surface beginning to subside at the same time1 and ceasing to subside at the same time--a coincidence which alone could produce equivalent groups of strata4 ,subsidences in different places begin and end with utter irregularity2 and hence the groups of strata thrown down in them can but rarely correspond4 ,measured against each other in time1 their limits will disagree4 ,they will refuse to fit into any scheme of definite divisions4 ,on turning to the evidence1 we find that it daily tends more and more to justify these a priori positions4 ,take1 as an example1 the ,old ,red ,sandstone system4 ,in the north of ,england this is represented by a single stratum of conglomerate4 ,in ,herefordshire1 ,worcestershire1 and ,shropshire1 it expands into a series of strata from eight to ten thousand feet thick1 made up of conglomerates1 red1 green1 and white sandstones1 red1 green1 and spotted marls1 and concretionary limestones4 ,to the south-west1 as between ,caermarthen and ,pembroke1 these ,old ,red ,sandstone strata exhibit considerable lithological changes2 and there is an absence of fossil fishes4 ,on the other side of the ,bristol ,channel1 they display further changes in mineral characters and remains4 ,while in ,south ,devon and ,cornwall1 the equivalent strata1 consisting chiefly of slates1 schists1 and limestones1 are so wholly different1 that they were for a long time classed as ,silurian4 ,when we thus see that in certain directions the whole group of deposits thins out1 and that its mineral characters as well as its fossils change within moderate distances2 does it not become clear that the whole group of deposits was a local one8 ,and when we find1 in other regions1 formations analogous to these ,old ,red ,sandstone or ,devonian formations2 is it certain--is it even probable--that they severally began and ended at the same time with them8 ,should it not require overwhelming evidence to make us believe as much8 ,yet so strongly is geological speculation swayed by the tendency to regard the phenomena as general instead of local1 that even those most on their guard against it seem unable to escape its influence4 ,at page #aeh of his ,principles of ,geology1 ,sir ,charles ,lyell says3-- ,a group of red marl and red sandstone1 containing salt and gypsum1 being interposed in ,england between the ,lias and the ,coal1 all other red marls and sandstones1 associated some of them with salt1 and others with gypsum1 and occurring not only in different parts of ,europe1 but in ,north ,america1 ,peru1 ,india1 the salt deserts of ,asia1 those of ,africa--in a word1 in every quarter of the globe1 were referred to one and the same period4444 ,it was in vain to urge as an objection the improbability of the hypothesis which implies that all the moving waters on the globe were once simultaneously charged with sediment of a red colour4 ,but the rashness of pretending to identify1 in age1 all the red sandstones and marls in question1 has at length been sufficiently exposed1 by the discovery that1 even in ,europe1 they belong decidedly to many different epochs4 ,nevertheless1 while in this and numerous passages of like implication1 ,sir ,c4 ,lyell protests against the bias here illustrated1 he seems himself not completely free from it4 ,though he utterly rejects the old hypothesis that all over the ,earth the same continuous strata lie upon each other in regular order1 like the coats of an onion1 he still writes as though geologic systems do thus succeed each other4 ,a reader of his ,manual would certainly suppose him to believe1 that the ,primary epoch ended1 and the ,secondary epoch commenced1 all over the world at the same time--that these terms really correspond to distinct universal eras in ,nature4 ,when he assumes1 as he does1 that the division between ,cambrian and ,lower ,silurian in ,america1 answers chronologically to the division between ,cambrian and ,lower ,silurian in ,wales--when he takes for granted that the partings of ,lower from ,middle ,silurian1 and of ,middle ,silurian from ,upper1 in the one region1 are of the same dates as the like partings in the other region2 does it not seem that he believes geologic systems to be universal1 in the sense that their separations were in all places contemporaneous8 ,though he would1 doubtless1 disown this as an article of faith1 is not his thinking unconsciously influenced by it8 ,must we not say that though the onion-coat hypothesis is dead1 its spirit is traceable1 under a transcendental form1 even in the conclusions of its antagonists8 99 99 99 99 99 ,let us now consider another leading geological doctrine1 introduced to us by the cases just mentioned4 ,we mean the doctrine that strata of the same age contain like fossils2 and that1 therefore1 the age and relative position of any stratum may be known by its fossils4 ,while the theory that strata of like mineral characters were everywhere deposited simultaneously1 has been ostensibly abandoned1 there has been accepted the theory that in each geologic epoch similar plants and animals existed everywhere2 and that1 therefore1 the epoch to which any formation belongs may be known by the organic remains contained in the formation4 ,though1 perhaps1 no leading geologist would openly commit himself to an unqualified assertion of this theory1 yet it is tacitly assumed in current geological reasoning4 ,this theory1 however1 is scarcely more tenable than the other4 ,it cannot be concluded with any certainty1 that formations in which similar organic remains are found1 were of contemporaneous origin2 nor can it be safely concluded that strata containing different organic remains are of different ages4 ,to most readers these will be startling propositions2 but they are fully admitted by the highest authorities4 ,sir ,charles ,lyell confesses that the test of organic remains must be used under very much the same restrictions as the test of mineral composition4 ,sir ,henry de la ,beche1 who variously illustrates this truth1 gives1 as one instance1 the great incongruity there must be between the fossils of our carboniferous rocks and those of the marine strata deposited at the same period4 ,but though1 in the abstract1 the danger of basing positive conclusions on evidence derived from fossils1 is clearly recognized2 yet1 in the concrete1 this danger is generally disregarded4 ,the established conclusions respecting the ages of strata1 take but little note of it2 and by some geologists it seems altogether ignored4 ,throughout his ,siluria1 ,sir ,r4 ,murchison habitually assumes that the same1 or kindred1 species1 lived in all parts of the ,earth at the same time4 ,in ,russia1 in ,bohemia1 in the ,united ,states1 in ,south ,america1 strata are classed as belonging to this or that part of the ,silurian system1 because of the similar fossils contained in them--are concluded to be everywhere contemporaneous if they enclose a proportion of identical or allied forms4 ,in ,russia the relative position of a stratum is inferred from the fact that1 along with some ,wenlock forms1 it yields the ,pentamerus oblongus4 ,certain crustaceans called ,eurypteri1 being characteristic of the ,upper ,ludlow rock1 it is remarked that large ,eurypteri occur in a so-called black grey-wacke slate in ,westmoreland1 in ,oneida ,county1 ,new ,york1 which will probably be found to be on the parallel of the ,upper ,ludlow rock3 in which word probably1 we see both how dominant is this belief of universal distribution of similar creatures at the same period1 and how apt this belief is to make its own proof1 by raising the expectation that the ages are identical when the forms are alike4 ,besides thus interpreting the formations of ,russia1 ,england1 and ,america1 ,sir ,r4 ,murchison thus interprets those of the antipodes4 ,fossils from ,victoria ,colony1 he agrees with the ,government-surveyor in classing as of ,lower ,silurian or ,llandovery age3 that is1 he takes for granted that when certain crustaceans and mollusks were living in ,wales1 certain similar crustaceans and mollusks were living in ,australia4 ,yet the improbability of this assumption may be readily shown from ,sir ,r4 ,murchison's own facts4 ,if1 as he points out1 the crustacean fossils of the uppermost ,silurian rocks in ,lanarkshire are1 with one doubtful exception1 all distinct from any of the forms on the same horizon in ,england2 how can it be fairly presumed that the forms existing on the other side of the ,earth during the ,silurian period1 were nearly allied to those existing here8 ,not only1 indeed1 do ,sir ,r4 ,murchison's conclusions tacitly assume this doctrine of universal distribution1 but he distinctly enunciates it4 ,the mere presence of a graptolite1 he says1 will at once decide that the enclosing rock is ,silurian2 and he says this1 notwithstanding repeated warnings against such generalizations4 ,during the progress of ,geology1 it has over and over again happened that a particular fossil1 long considered characteristic of a particular formation1 has been afterwards discovered in other formations4 ,until some twelve years ago1 ,goniatites had not been found lower than the ,devonian rocks2 but now1 in ,bohemia1 they have been found in rocks classed as ,silurian4 ,quite recently1 the ,orthoceras1 previously supposed to be a type exclusively ,palaeozoic1 has been detected along with mesozoic ,ammonites and ,belemnites4 ,yet hosts of such experiences fail to extinguish the assumption1 that the age of a stratum may be determined by the occurrence in it of a single fossil form4 ,nay1 this assumption survives evidence of even a still more destructive kind4 ,referring to the ,silurian system in ,western ,ireland1 ,sir ,r4 ,murchison says1 in the beds near ,maam1 ,professor ,nicol and myself collected remains1 some of which would be considered ,lower1 and others ,upper1 ,silurian2 and he then names sundry fossils which1 in ,england1 belong to the summit of the ,ludlow rocks1 or highest ,silurian strata2 some1 which elsewhere are known only in rocks of ,llandovery age1 that is1 of middle ,silurian age2 and some1 only before known in ,lower ,silurian strata1 not far above the most ancient fossiliferous beds4 ,now what do these facts prove8 ,clearly1 they prove that species which in ,wales are separated by strata more than twenty thousand feet deep1 and therefore seem to belong to periods far more remote from each other1 were really coexistent4 ,they prove that the mollusks and crinoids held characteristic of early ,silurian strata1 and supposed to have become extinct long before the mollusks and crinoids of the later ,silurian strata came into existence1 were really flourishing at the same time with these last2 and that these last possibly date back to as early a period as the first4 ,they prove that not only the mineral characters of sedimentary formations1 but also the collections of organic forms they contain1 depend1 to a great extent1 on local circumstances4 ,they prove that the fossils met with in any series of strata1 cannot be taken as representing anything like the whole ,flora and ,fauna of the period they belong to4 ,in brief1 they throw great doubt upon numerous geological generalizations4 ,notwithstanding facts like these1 and notwithstanding his avowed opinion that the test of organic remains must be used under very much the same restrictions as the test of mineral composition1 ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 too1 bases positive conclusions on this test3 even where the community of fossils is slight and the distance great4 ,having decided that in various places in ,europe1 middle ,eocene strata are distinguished by nummulites2 he infers1 without any other assigned evidence1 that wherever nummulites are found--in ,morocco1 ,algeria1 ,egypt1 in ,persia1 ,scinde1 ,cutch1 ,eastern ,bengal1 and the frontiers of ,china--the containing formation is middle ,eocene4 ,and from this inference he draws the following important corollary3-- ,when we have once arrived at the conviction that the nummulitic formation occupies a middle place in the ,eocene series1 we are struck with the comparatively modern date to which some of the greatest revolutions in the physical geography of ,europe1 ,asia1 and northern ,africa must be referred4 ,all the mountain chains1 such as the ,alps1 ,pyrenees1 ,carpathians1 and ,himalayas1 into the composition of whose central and loftiest parts the nummulitic strata enter bodily1 could have had no existence till after the middle ,eocene period4--,manual1 p4 #bcb4 ,a still more marked case follows on the next page4 ,because a certain bed at ,claiborne in ,alabama1 which contains four hundred species of marine shells1 includes among them the ,cardita planicosta1 and some others identical with ,european species1 or very nearly allied to them1 ,sir ,c4 ,lyell says it is highly probable the ,claiborne beds agree in age with the central or ,bracklesham group of ,england4 ,when we find contemporaneity supposed on the strength of a community no greater than that which sometimes exists between strata of widely-different ages in the same country1 it seems very much as though the above-quoted caution had been forgotten4 ,it appears to be assumed for the occasion1 that species which had a wide range in space had a narrow range in time2 which is the reverse of the fact4 ,the tendency to systematize overrides the evidence1 and thrusts ,nature into a formula too rigid to fit her endless variety4 ,but1 it may be urged1 surely1 when in different places the order of superposition1 the mineral characters1 and the fossils1 agree1 it may be safely concluded that the formations thus corresponding are equivalents in time4 ,if1 for example1 the ,united ,states display the same succession of ,silurian1 ,devonian1 and ,carboniferous systems1 lithologically similar1 and characterized by like fossils1 it is a fair inference that these groups of strata were severally deposited in ,america at the same periods that they were deposited here4 ,on this position1 which seems a strong one1 we have1 in the first place1 to remark1 that the evidence of correspondence is always more or less suspicious4 ,we have already adverted to the several idols--if we may use ,bacon's metaphor--to which geologists unconsciously sacrifice1 when interpreting the structures of unexplored regions4 ,carrying with them the classification of strata existing in ,europe1 and assuming that groups of strata in other parts of the world must answer to some of the groups of strata known here1 they are necessarily prone to assert parallelism on insufficient evidence4 ,they scarcely entertain the previous question1 whether the formations they are examining have or have not any ,european equivalents2 but the question is--with which of the ,european series shall they be classed8--with which do they most agree8--from which do they differ least8 ,and this being the mode of enquiry1 there is apt to result great laxity of interpretation4 ,how lax the interpretation really is1 may be readily shown4 ,when strata are discontinuous1 as between ,europe and ,america1 no evidence can be derived from the order of superposition1 apart from mineral characters and organic remains2 for1 unless strata can be continuously traced1 mineral characters and organic remains are the only means of classing them as such or such4 ,as to the test of mineral characters1 we have seen that it is almost worthless2 and no modern geologist would dare to say it should be relied on4 ,if the ,old ,red ,sandstone series in mid-,england1 differs wholly in lithological aspect from the equivalent series in ,south ,devon1 it is clear that similarities of texture and composition can have no weight in assimilating a system of strata in another quarter of the globe to some ,european system4 ,the test of fossils1 therefore1 is the only one that remains2 and with how little strictness this test is applied1 one case will show4 ,of forty-six species of ,british ,devonian corals1 only six occur in ,america2 and this1 notwithstanding the wide range which the ,anthozoa are known to have4 ,similarly of the ,mollusca and ,crinoidea1 it appears that1 while there are sundry genera found in ,america that are found here1 there are scarcely any of the same species4 ,and ,sir ,charles ,lyell admits that the difficulty of deciding on the exact parallelism of the ,new ,york subdivisions1 as above enumerated1 with the members of the ,european ,devonian1 is very great1 so few are the species in common4 ,yet it is on the strength of community of fossils1 that the whole ,devonian series of the ,united ,states is assumed to be contemporaneous with the whole ,devonian series of ,england4 ,and it is partly on the ground that the ,devonian of the ,united ,states corresponds in time with our ,devonian1 that ,sir ,charles ,lyell concludes the superjacent coal-measures of the two countries to be of the same age4 ,is it not1 then1 as we said1 that the evidence in these cases is very suspicious8 ,should it be replied1 as it may fairly be1 that this correspondence from which the synchronism of distant formations is inferred1 is not a correspondence between particular species or particular genera1 but between the general characters of the contained assemblages of fossils--between the facies of the two ,faunas2 the rejoinder is1 that though such correspondence is a stronger evidence of synchronism it is still an insufficient one4 ,to infer synchronism from such correspondence1 involves the postulate that throughout each geologic era there has habitually existed a recognizable similarity between the groups of organic forms inhabiting all the different parts of the ,earth2 and that the causes which have in one part of the ,earth changed the organic forms into those which characterize the next era1 have simultaneously acted in all other parts of the ,earth1 in such ways as to produce parallel changes of their organic forms4 ,now this is not only a large assumption to make2 but it is an assumption contrary to probability4 ,the probability is1 that the causes which have changed ,faunas have been local rather than universal2 that hence while the ,faunas of some regions have been rapidly changing1 those of others have been almost quiescent2 and that when such others have been changed1 it has been1 not in such ways as to maintain parallelism1 but in such ways as to produce divergence4 ,even supposing1 however1 that districts some hundreds of miles apart1 furnished groups of strata that completely agreed in their order of superposition1 their mineral characters1 and their fossils1 we should still have inadequate proof of contemporaneity4 ,for there are conditions1 very likely to occur1 under which such groups might differ widely in age4 ,if there be a continent of which the strata crop out on the surface obliquely to the line of coast--running1 say1 west-northwest1 while the coast runs east and west--it is clear that each group of strata will crop out on the beach at a particular part of the coast2 that further west the next group of strata will crop out on the beach2 and so continuously4 ,as the localization of marine plants and animals is in a considerable degree determined by the nature of the rocks and their detritus1 it follows that each part of this coast will have its more or less distinct ,flora and ,fauna4 ,what now must result from the action of the waves in the course of a geologic epoch8 ,as the sea makes slow inroads on the land1 the place at which each group of strata crops out on the beach will gradually move towards the west3 its distinctive fish1 mollusks1 crustaceans1 and sea-weeds1 migrating with it4 ,further1 the detritus of each of these groups of strata will1 as the point of outcrop moves westwards1 be deposited over the detritus of the group in advance of it4 ,and the consequence of these actions1 carried on for one of those enormous periods required for geologic changes1 will be that1 corresponding to each eastern stratum1 there will arise a stratum far to the west which1 though occupying the same position relatively to other beds1 formed of like materials1 and containing like fossils1 will yet be perhaps a million years later in date4 99 99 99 99 99 ,but the illegitimacy1 or at any rate the great doubtfulness1 of many current geological inferences1 is best seen when we contemplate terrestrial changes now going on3 and ask how far such inferences are countenanced by them4 ,if we carry out rigorously the modern method of interpreting geological phenomena1 which ,sir ,charles ,lyell has done so much to establish--that of referring them to causes like those at present in action--we cannot fail to see how improbable are sundry of the received conclusions4 ,along each line of shore that is being worn away by the waves1 there are being formed mud1 sand1 and pebbles4 ,this detritus1 spread over the neighbouring sea-bottom1 has1 in each locality1 a more or less special character2 determined by the nature of the strata destroyed4 ,in the ,english ,channel it is not the same as in the ,irish ,channel2 on the east coast of ,ireland it is not the same as on the west coast2 and so throughout4 ,at the mouth of each great river1 there is being deposited sediment differing more or less from that of other rivers in colour and quality2 forming strata that are here red1 there yellow1 and elsewhere brown1 grey1 or dirty white4 ,besides which various formations1 going on in deltas and along shores1 there are some much wider and still more contrasted formations4 ,at the bottom of the ,a,egaean ,sea1 there is accumulating a bed of ,pteropod shells1 which will eventually1 no doubt1 become a calcareous rock4 ,for some hundreds of thousands of square miles1 the ocean-bed between ,great ,britain and ,north ,america1 is being covered with a stratum of chalk2 and over large areas in the ,pacific1 there are going on deposits of coralline limestone4 ,thus1 throughout the ,earth1 there are at this moment being produced an immense number of strata differing from each other in lithological characters4 ,name at random any one part of the sea-bottom1 and ask whether the deposit there taking place is like the deposit taking place at some distant part of the sea-bottom1 and the almost-certainly correct answer will be--,no4 ,the chances are not in favour of similarity1 but very greatly against it4 ,in the order of superposition of strata there is occurring a like variety4 ,each region of the ,earth's surface has its special history of elevations1 subsidences1 periods of rest2 and this history in no case fits chronologically with the history of any other portion4 ,river deltas are now being thrown down on formations of quite different ages4 ,while here there has been deposited a series of beds many hundreds of feet thick1 there has elsewhere been deposited but a single bed of fine mud4 ,while one region of the ,earth's crust1 continuing for a vast epoch above the surface of the ocean1 bears record of no changes save those resulting from denudation2 another region of the ,earth's crust gives proof of various changes of level1 with their several resulting masses of stratified detritus4 ,if anything is to be judged from current processes1 we must infer1 not only that everywhere the succession of sedimentary formations differs more or less from the succession elsewhere2 but also that in each place1 there exist groups of strata to which many other places have no equivalents4 ,with respect to the organic bodies imbedded in formations now in progress1 the like truth is equally manifest1 if not more manifest4 ,even along the same coast1 within moderate distances1 the forms of life differ very considerably2 much more on coasts that are remote from each other4 ,again1 dissimilar creatures that are living together near the same shore1 do not leave their remains in the same beds of sediment4 ,for instance1 at the bottom of the ,adriatic1 where the prevailing currents cause the deposits to be here of mud1 and there of calcareous matter1 it is proved that different species of co-existing shells are being buried in these respective formations4 ,on our own coasts1 the marine remains found a few miles from shore1 in banks where fish congregate1 are different from those found close to the shore1 where only littoral species flourish4 ,a large proportion of aquatic creatures have structures that do not admit of fossilization2 while of the rest1 the great majority are destroyed1 when dead1 by the various kinds of scavengers that creep among the rocks and weeds4 ,so that no one deposit near our shores can contain anything like a true representation of the ,fauna of the surrounding sea2 much less of the co-existing ,faunas of other seas in the same latitude2 and still less of the ,faunas of seas in distant latitudes4 ,were it not that the assertion seems needful1 it would be almost absurd to say1 that the organic remains now being buried in the ,dogger ,bank1 can tell us next to nothing about the fish1 crustaceans1 mollusks1 and corals that are being buried in the ,bay of ,bengal4 ,still stronger is the argument in the case of terrestrial life4 ,with more numerous and greater contrasts between the plants and animals of remote places1 there is a far more imperfect registry of them4 ,schouw marks out on the ,earth more than twenty botanical regions1 occupied by groups of forms so far distinct from each other1 that1 if fossilized1 geologists would scarcely be disposed to refer them all to the same period4 ,of ,faunas1 the ,arctic differs from the ,temperate2 the ,temperate from the ,tropical2 and the ,south ,temperate from the ,north ,temperate4 ,nay1 in the ,south ,temperate ,zone itself1 the two regions of ,south ,africa and ,south ,america are unlike in their mammals1 birds1 reptiles1 fishes1 mollusks1 insects4 ,the shells and bones now lying at the bottoms of lakes and estuaries in these several regions1 have certainly not that similarity which is usually looked for in those of contemporaneous strata2 and the recent forms exhumed in any one of these regions would very untruly represent the present ,flora and ,fauna of the ,earth4 ,in conformity with the current style of geological reasoning1 an exhaustive examination of deposits in the ,arctic circle1 might be held to prove that though at this period there were sundry mammals existing1 there were no reptiles2 while the absence of mammals in the deposits of the ,galapagos ,archipelago1 where there are plenty of reptiles1 might be held to prove the reverse4 ,and at the same time1 from the formations extending for two thousand miles along the great barrier-reef of ,australia--formations in which are imbedded nothing but corals1 echinoderms1 mollusks1 crustaceans1 and fish1 along with an occasional turtle1 or bird1 or cetacean1 it might be inferred that there lived in our epoch neither terrestrial reptiles nor terrestrial mammals4 ,the mention of ,australia1 indeed1 suggests an illustration which1 even alone1 would amply prove our case4 ,the ,fauna of this region differs widely from any that is found elsewhere4 ,on land all the indigenous mammals1 except bats1 belong to the lowest1 or implacental division2 and the insects are singularly different from those found elsewhere4 ,the surrounding seas contain numerous forms that are more or less strange2 and among the fish there exists a species of shark1 which is the only living representative of a genus that flourished in early geologic epochs4 ,if1 now1 the modern fossiliferous deposits of ,australia were to be examined by one ignorant of the existing ,australian ,fauna2 and if he were to reason in the usual manner2 he would be very unlikely to class these deposits with those of the present time4 ,how1 then1 can we place confidence in the tacit assumption that certain formations in remote parts of the ,earth are referable to the same period1 because the organic remains contained in them display a certain community of character8 or that certain others are referable to different periods1 because the facies of their ,faunas are different8 ,but1 it will be replied1 in past eras the same1 or similar1 organic forms were more widely distributed than now4 ,it may be so2 but the evidence adduced by no means proves it4 ,the argument by which this conclusion is reached1 runs a risk of being quoted as an example of reasoning in a circle4 ,as already pointed out1 between formations in remote regions there is no means of ascertaining equivalence but by fossils4 ,if1 then1 the contemporaneity of remote formations is concluded from the likeness of their fossils2 how can it be said that similar plants and animals were once more widely distributed1 because they are found in contemporaneous strata in remote regions8 ,is not the fallacy manifest8 ,even supposing there were no such fatal objection as this1 the evidence commonly assigned would still be insufficient4 ,for we must bear in mind that the community of organic remains commonly thought sufficient for inferring correspondence in time1 is a very imperfect community4 ,when the compared sedimentary beds are far apart1 it is scarcely expected that there will be many species common to the two3 it is enough if there be discovered a considerable number of common genera4 ,now had it been proved that1 throughout geologic time1 each genus lived but for a short period--a period measured by a single group of strata--something might be inferred4 ,but what if we learn that many of the same genera continued to exist throughout enormous epochs1 measured by several vast systems of strata8 ,among molluscs1 the genera ,avicula1 ,modiola1 ,terebratula1 ,lingula1 and ,orbicula1 are found from the ,silurian rocks upwards to the present day4 ,if1 then1 between the lowest fossiliferous formations and the most recent1 there exists this degree of community2 must we not infer that there will probably often exist a degree of community between strata that are far from contemporaneous8 ,thus the reasoning from which it is concluded that similar organic forms were once more widely spread1 is doubly fallacious2 and1 consequently1 the classifications of foreign strata based on this conclusion are untrustworthy4 ,judging from the present distribution of life1 we can scarcely expect to find similar remains in geographically remote strata of the same age2 and where1 between the fossils of geographically remote strata1 we do find much similarity1 it is probably often due rather to likeness of conditions than to contemporaneity4 ,if from causes and effects such as we now witness1 we reason back to the causes and effects of past epochs1 we discover inadequate warrant for sundry of the received doctrines4 ,seeing1 as we do1 that in large areas of the ,pacific this is a period characterized by abundance of corals2 that in the ,north ,atlantic it is a period in which a great chalk-deposit is being formed2 and that in the valley of the ,mississippi it is a period of new coal-basins--seeing also1 as we do1 that in one extensive continent this is peculiarly an era of implacental mammals1 and that in another extensive continent it is peculiarly an era of placental mammals2 we have good reason to hesitate before accepting these sweeping generalizations which are based on a cursory examination of strata occupying but a tenth part of the ,earth's surface4 99 99 99 99 99 ,at the outset1 this article was to have been a review of the works of ,hugh ,miller2 but it has grown into something much more general4 ,nevertheless1 the remaining two doctrines which we propose to criticise1 may be conveniently treated in connection with his name1 as that of one who fully committed himself to them4 ,and first1 a few words with regard to his position4 ,that he was a man whose life was one of meritorious achievement1 every one knows4 ,that he was a diligent and successful working geologist1 scarcely needs saying4 ,that with indomitable perseverance he struggled up from obscurity to a place in the world of literature and science1 shows him to have been highly endowed in character and intelligence4 ,and that he had a remarkable power of presenting his facts and arguments in an attractive form1 a glance at any of his books will quickly prove4 ,by all means1 let us respect him as a man of activity and sagacity1 joined with a large amount of poetry4 ,but while saying this we must add1 that his reputation stands by no means so high in the scientific world as in the world at large4 ,partly from the fact that our ,scotch neighbours are in the habit of blowing the trumpet rather loudly before their notabilities--partly because the charming style in which his books are written has gained him a large circle of readers--partly1 perhaps1 through a praiseworthy sympathy with him as a self-made man2 ,hugh ,miller has met with an amount of applause which1 little as we wish to diminish it1 must not be allowed to blind the public to his defects as a man of science4 ,the truth is1 he was so far committed to a foregone conclusion1 that he could not become a philosophical geologist4 ,he might be aptly described as a theologian studying geology4 ,the dominant idea with which he wrote1 may be seen in the titles of his books--,law versus ,miracle1--,footprints of the ,creator1--,the ,testimony of the ,rocks4 ,regarding geological facts as evidence for or against certain religious conclusions1 it was scarcely possible for him to deal with geological facts impartially4 ,his ruling aim was to disprove the ,development ,hypothesis1 the assumed implications of which were repugnant to him2 and in proportion to the strength of his feeling1 was the one-sidedness of his reasoning4 ,he admitted that ,god might as certainly have originated the species by a law of development1 as he maintains it by a law of development2 the existence of a ,first ,great ,cause is as perfectly compatible with the one scheme as with the other4 ,nevertheless1 he considered the hypothesis at variance with ,christianity2 and therefore combated with it4 ,he apparently overlooked the fact that the doctrines of geology in general1 as held by himself1 had been rejected by many on similar grounds2 and that he had himself been repeatedly attacked for his anti-,christian teachings4 ,he seems not to have perceived that1 just as his antagonists were wrong in condemning as irreligious1 theories which he saw were not irreligious2 so might he be wrong in condemning1 on like grounds1 the ,theory of ,evolution4 ,in brief1 he fell short of that highest faith1 which knows that all truths must harmonize2 and which is1 therefore1 content trustfully to follow the evidence whithersoever it leads4 ,of course it is impossible to criticize his works without entering on this great question to which he chiefly devoted himself4 ,the two remaining doctrines to be here discussed1 bear directly on this question2 and1 as above said1 we propose to treat them in connection with ,hugh ,miller's name1 because1 throughout his reasonings1 he assumes their truth4 ,let it not be supposed1 however1 that we shall aim to prove what he has aimed to disprove4 ,while we purpose showing that his arguments against the ,development ,hypothesis are based on invalid assumptions2 we do not purpose showing that the opposing arguments are based on valid assumptions4 ,we hope to make it apparent that the geological evidence at present obtained1 is insufficient for either side2 further1 that there seems little probability of sufficient evidence ever being obtained2 and that if the question is eventually decided1 it must be decided on other than geological data4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the first of the current doctrines to which we have just referred1 is1 that there occur in the records of former life on our planet1 certain great blanks--that though1 generally1 the succession of fossil forms is tolerably continuous1 yet that at two places there occur wide gaps in the series whence it is inferred that1 on at least two occasions1 the previously existing inhabitants of the ,earth were almost wholly destroyed1 and a different class of inhabitants created4 ,comparing the general life on the ,earth to a thread1 ,hugh ,miller says3-- ,it is continuous from the present time up to the commencement of the ,tertiary period2 and then so abrupt a break occurs1 that1 with the exception of the microscopic diatomaceae to which ,i last evening referred1 and of one shell and one coral1 not a single species crossed the gap4 ,on its further or remoter side1 however1 where the ,secondary division closes1 the intermingling of species again begins1 and runs on till the commencement of this great ,secondary division2 and then1 just where the ,palaeozoic division closes1 we find another abrupt break1 crossed1 if crossed at all1--for there still exists some doubt on the subject1--by but two species of plant4 ,these breaks are considered to imply actual new creations on the surface of our planet2 not only by ,hugh ,miller1 but by the majority of geologists4 ,and the terms ,palaeozoic1 ,mesozoic1 and ,cainozoic1 are used to indicate these three successive systems of life4 ,it is true that some accept this belief with caution3 knowing how geologic research has been all along tending to fill up what were once thought wide breaks4 ,sir ,charles ,lyell points out that the hiatus which exists in ,great ,britain between the fossils of the ,lias and those of the ,magnesian ,limestone1 is supplied in ,germany by the rich fauna and flora of the ,muschelkalk1 ,keuper1 and ,bunter ,sandstein1 which we know to be of a date precisely intermediate4 ,again he remarks that until lately the fossils of the coal-measures were separated from those of the antecedent ,silurian group by a very abrupt and decided line of demarcation2 but recent discoveries have brought to light in ,devonshire1 ,belgium1 the ,eifel1 and ,westphalia1 the remains of a fauna of an intervening period4 ,and once more1 we have also in like manner had some success of late years in diminishing the hiatus which still separates the ,cretaceous and ,eocene periods in ,europe4 ,to which let us add that since ,hugh ,miller penned the passage above quoted1 the second of the great gaps he refers to has been very considerably narrowed by the discovery of strata containing ,palaeozoic genera and ,mesozoic genera intermingled4 ,nevertheless1 the occurrence of two great revolutions in the ,earth's ,flora and ,fauna appears still to be held by many2 and geologic nomenclature habitually assumes it4 ,before seeking a solution of these phenomena1 let us glance at the several minor causes that produce breaks in the geological succession of organic forms3 taking first1 the more general ones which modify climate1 and1 therefore1 the distribution of life4 ,among these may be noted one which has not1 we believe1 been named by writers on the subject4 ,we mean that resulting from a certain slow astronomic rhythm1 by which the northern and southern hemispheres are alternately subject to greater extremes of temperature4 ,in consequence of the slight ellipticity of its orbit1 the ,earth's distance from the sun varies to the extent of some #c1jjj1jjj of miles4 ,at present1 the aphelion occurs at the time of our northern summer2 and the perihelion during the summer of the southern hemisphere4 ,in consequence1 however1 of that slow movement of the ,earth's axis which produces the precession of the equinoxes1 this state of things will in time be reversed3 the ,earth will be nearest to the sun during the summer of the northern hemisphere1 and furthest from it during the southern summer or northern winter4 ,the period required to complete the slow movement producing these changes1 is nearly #bf1jjj years2 and were there no modifying process1 the two hemispheres would alternately experience this coincidence of summer with the least distance from the sun1 during a period of #ac1jjj years4 ,but there is also a still slower change in the direction of the axis major of the ,earth's orbit2 from which it results that the alternation we have described is completed in about #ba1jjj years4 ,that is to say1 if at a given time the ,earth is nearest to the sun at our mid-summer1 and furthest from the sun at our mid-winter3 then1 in #aj1ejj years afterwards1 it will be furthest from the sun at our mid-summer1 and nearest at our mid-winter4 ,now the difference between the distances from the sun at the two extremes of this alternation1 amounts to one-thirtieth2 and hence1 the difference between the quantities of heat received from the sun on a summer's day under these opposite conditions amounts to one-fifteenth4 ,estimating this1 not with reference to the zero of our thermometers1 but with reference to the temperature of the celestial spaces1 ,sir ,john ,herschel calculates #bc deg4 ,fahrenheit as the least variation of temperature under such circumstances which can reasonably be attributed to the actual variation of the sun's distance4 ,thus1 then1 each hemisphere has at a certain epoch1 a short summer of extreme heat1 followed by a long and very cold winter4 ,through the slow change in the direction of the ,earth's axis1 these extremes are gradually mitigated4 ,and at the end of #aj1ejj years1 there is reached the opposite state--a long and moderate summer1 with a short and mild winter4 ,at present1 in consequence of the predominance of sea in the southern hemisphere1 the extremes to which its astronomical conditions subject it1 are much ameliorated2 while the great proportion of land in the northern hemisphere1 tends to exaggerate such contrast as now exists in it between winter and summer3 whence it results that the climates of the two hemispheres are not widely unlike4 ,but #aj1jjj years hence1 the northern hemisphere will undergo annual variations of temperature far more marked than now4 ,in the last edition of his ,outlines of ,astronomy1 ,sir ,john ,herschel recognizes this as an element in geological processes3 regarding it as possibly a part-cause of those climatic changes indicated by the records of the ,earth's past4 ,that it has had much to do with the larger changes of climate of which we have evidence1 seems unlikely1 since there is reason to think that these have been far slower and more lasting2 but that it must have entailed a rhythmical exaggeration and mitigation of the climates otherwise produced1 seems beyond question4 ,and it seems also beyond question that there must have been a consequent rhythmical change in the distribution of organisms--a rhythmical change to which we here wish to draw attention1 as one cause of minor breaks in the succession of fossil remains4 ,each species of plant and animal1 has certain limits of heat and cold within which only it can exist2 and these limits in a great degree determine its geographical position4 ,it will not spread north of a certain latitude1 because it cannot bear a more northern winter1 nor south of a certain latitude1 because the summer heat is too great2 or else it is indirectly restrained from spreading further by the effect of temperature on the humidity of the air1 or on the distribution of the organisms it lives upon4 ,but now1 what will result from a slow alteration of climate1 produced as above described8 ,supposing the period we set out from is that in which the contrast of seasons is least marked1 it is manifest that during the progress towards the period of the most violent contrast1 each species of plant and animal will gradually change its limits of distribution--will be driven back1 here by the winter's increasing cold1 and there by the summer's increasing heat--will retire into those localities that are still fit for it4 ,thus during #aj1jjj years1 each species will ebb away from certain regions it was inhabiting2 and during the succeeding #aj1jjj years will flow back into those regions4 ,from the strata there forming1 its remains will disappear2 they will be absent from some of the supposed strata2 and will be found in strata higher up4 ,but in what shapes will they re-appear8 ,exposed during the #ba1jjj years of their slow recession and their slow return1 to changing conditions of life1 they are likely to have undergone modifications2 and will probably re-appear with slight differences of constitution and perhaps of form--will be new varieties or perhaps new sub-species4 ,to this cause of minor breaks in the succession of organic forms--a cause on which we have dwelt because it has not been taken into account--we must add sundry others4 ,besides these periodically-recurring alterations of climate1 there are the irregular ones produced by re-distributions of land and sea2 and these1 sometimes less1 sometimes greater1 in degree1 than the rhythmical changes1 must1 like them1 cause in each region the ebb and flow of species2 and consequent breaks1 small or large as the case may be1 in the palaeontological series4 ,other and more special geological changes must produce other and more local blanks in the succession of fossils4 ,by some inland elevation the natural drainage of a continent is modified2 and instead of the sediment it previously brought down to the sea1 a great river begins to bring down sediment unfavourable to various plants and animals living in its delta3 wherefore these disappear from the locality1 perhaps to re-appear in a changed form after a long epoch4 ,upheavals or subsidences of shores or sea-bottoms1 involving deviations of marine currents1 must remove the habitats of many species to which such currents are salutary or injurious2 and further1 this re-distribution of currents must alter the places of sedimentary deposits1 and so stop the burying of organic remains in some localities1 and commence it in others4 ,had we space1 many more such causes of blanks in our palaeontological records might be added4 ,but it is needless here to enumerate them4 ,they are admirably explained and illustrated in ,sir ,charles ,lyell's ,principles of ,geology4 ,now1 if these minor revolutions of the ,earth's surface produce minor breaks in the series of fossilized remains2 must not great revolutions produce great breaks8 ,if a local upheaval or subsidence causes throughout its small area the absence of some links in the chain of fossil forms2 does it not follow that an upheaval or subsidence extending over a large part of the ,earth's surface1 must cause the absence of a great number of such links throughout a very wide area8 ,when during a long epoch a continent1 slowly subsiding1 gives place to a far-spreading ocean some miles in depth1 at the bottom of which no deposits from rivers or abraded shores can be thrown down2 and when1 after some enormous period1 this ocean-bottom is gradually elevated and becomes the site of new strata2 it is clear that the fossils contained in these new strata are likely to have but little in common with the fossils of the strata below them4 ,take1 in illustration1 the case of the ,north ,atlantic4 ,we have already named the fact that between this country and the ,united ,states1 the ocean-bottom is being covered with a deposit of chalk--a deposit that has been forming1 probably1 ever since there occurred that great depression of the ,earth's crust from which the ,atlantic resulted in remote geologic times4 ,this chalk consists of the minute shells of ,foraminifera1 sprinkled with remains of small ,entomostraca1 and probably a few ,pteropod-shells3 though the sounding lines have not yet brought up any of these last4 ,thus1 in so far as all high forms of life are concerned1 this new chalk-formation must be a blank4 ,at rare intervals1 perhaps1 a polar bear drifted on an iceberg1 may have its bones scattered over the bed2 or a dead1 decaying whale may similarly leave traces4 ,but such remains must be so rare1 that this new chalk-formation1 if visible1 might be examined for a century before any of them were disclosed4 ,if now1 some millions of years hence1 the ,atlantic-bed should be raised1 and estuary or shore deposits laid upon it1 these deposits would contain remains of a ,flora and ,fauna so distinct from everything below them1 as to appear like a new creation4 ,thus1 along with continuity of life on the ,earth's surface1 there not only may be1 but there must be1 great gaps1 in the series of fossils2 and hence these gaps are no evidence against the doctrine of ,evolution4 99 99 99 99 99 ,one other current assumption remains to be criticized2 and it is the one on which1 more than on any other1 depends the view taken respecting the question of development4 ,from the beginning of the controversy1 the arguments for and against have turned upon the evidence of progression in organic forms1 found in the ascending series of our sedimentary formations4 ,on the one hand1 those who contend that higher organisms have been evolved out of lower1 joined with those who contend that successively higher organisms have been created at successively later periods1 appeal for proof to the facts of ,palaeontology2 which1 they say1 countenance their views4 ,on the other hand1 the ,uniformitarians1 who not only reject the hypothesis of development1 but deny that the modern forms of life are higher than the ancient ones1 reply that the ,palaeontological evidence is at present very incomplete2 that though we have not yet found remains of highly-organized creatures in strata of the greatest antiquity1 we must not assume that no such creatures existed when those strata were deposited2 and that1 probably1 geological research will eventually disclose them4 ,it must be admitted that thus far1 the evidence has gone in favour of the latter party4 ,geological discovery has year after year shown the small value of negative facts4 ,the conviction that there are no traces of higher organisms in earlier strata1 has resulted not from the absence of such remains1 but from incomplete examination4 ,at p4 #dfj of his ,manual of ,elementary ,geology1 ,sir ,charles ,lyell gives a list in illustration of this4 ,it appears that in #agji1 fishes were not known lower than the ,permian system4 ,in #agic they were found in the subjacent ,carboniferous system2 in #ahbh in the ,devonian2 in #ahdj in the ,upper ,silurian4 ,of reptiles1 we read that in #agaj the lowest known were in the ,permian2 in #ahdd they were detected in the ,carboniferous2 and in #aheb in the ,upper ,devonian4 ,while of the ,mammalia the list shows that in #agih none had been discovered below the middle ,eocene2 but that in #ahah they were discovered in the ,lower ,oolite2 and in #ahdg in the ,upper ,trias4 ,the fact is1 however1 that both parties set out with an inadmissible postulate4 ,of the ,uniformitarians1 not only such writers as ,hugh ,miller1 but also such as ,sir ,charles ,lyell1,t reason as though we had found the earliest1 or something like the earliest1 strata4 ,their antagonists1 whether defenders of the ,development ,hypothesis or simply ,progressionists1 almost uniformly do the like4 ,sir ,r4 ,murchison1 who is a ,progressionist1 calls the lowest fossiliferous strata1 ,protozoic4 ,prof4 ,ansted uses the same term4 ,whether avowedly or not1 all the disputants stand on this assumption as their common ground4 ,t ,sir ,charles ,lyell is no longer to be classed among ,uniformitarians4 ,with rare and admirable candour he has1 since this was written1 yielded to the arguments of ,mr4 ,darwin4 ,yet is this assumption indefensible1 as some who make it very well know4 ,facts may be cited against it which show that it is a more than questionable one--that it is a highly improbable one2 while the evidence assigned in its favour will not bear criticism4 ,because in ,bohemia1 ,great ,britain1 and portions of ,north ,america1 the lowest unmetamorphosed strata yet discovered1 contain but slight traces of life1 ,sir ,r4 ,murchison conceives that they were formed while yet few1 if any1 plants or animals had been created2 and1 therefore1 classes them as ,azoic4 ,his own pages1 however1 show the illegitimacy of the conclusion that there existed at that period no considerable amount of life4 ,such traces of life as have been found in the ,longmynd rocks1 for many years considered unfossiliferous1 have been found in some of the lowest beds2 and the twenty thousand feet of superposed beds1 still yield no organic remains4 ,if now these superposed strata throughout a depth of four miles1 are without fossils1 though the strata over which they lie prove that life had commenced2 what becomes of ,sir ,r4 ,murchison's inference8 ,at page #ahi of ,siluria1 a still more conclusive fact will be found4 ,the ,glengariff grits1 and other accompanying strata there described as #ac1ejj feet thick1 contain no signs of contemporaneous life4 ,yet ,sir ,r4 ,murchison refers them to the ,devonian period--a period that had a large and varied marine ,fauna4 ,how then1 from the absence of fossils in the ,longmynd beds and their equivalents1 can we conclude that the ,earth was azoic when they were formed8 ,but1 it may be asked1 if living creatures then existed1 why do we not find fossiliferous strata of that age1 or an earlier age8 ,one reply is1 that the non-existence of such strata is but a negative fact--we have not found them4 ,and considering how little we know even of the two-fifths of the ,earth's surface now above the sea1 and how absolutely ignorant we are of the three-fifths below the sea1 it is rash to say that no such strata exist4 ,but the chief reply is1 that these records of the ,earth's earlier history have been in great part destroyed1 by agencies that are ever tending to destroy such records4 ,it is an established geological doctrine1 that sedimentary strata are liable to be changed1 more or less completely1 by igneous action4 ,the rocks originally classed as transition1 because they were intermediate in character between the igneous rocks found below them1 and the sedimentary strata found above them1 are now known to be nothing else than sedimentary strata altered in texture and appearance by the intense heat of adjacent molten matter2 and hence are renamed metamorphic rocks4 ,modern researches have shown1 too1 that these metamorphic rocks are not1 as was once supposed1 all of the same age4 ,besides primary and secondary strata that have been transformed by igneous action1 there are similarly-changed deposits of tertiary origin2 and that1 even for a quarter of a mile from the point of contact with neighbouring granite4 ,by this process fossils are of course destroyed4 ,in some cases1 says ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 dark limestones1 replete with shells and corals1 have been turned into white statuary marble1 and hard clays1 containing vegetable or other remains1 into slates called mica-schist or hornblende-schist2 every vestige of the organic bodies having been obliterated4 ,again1 it is fast becoming an acknowledged truth1 that igneous rock1 of whatever kind1 is the product of sedimentary strata that have been completely melted4 ,granite and gneiss1 which are of like chemical composition1 have been shown1 in various cases1 to pass one into the other3 as at ,valorsine1 near ,mont ,blanc1 where the two1 in contact1 are observed to both undergo a modification of mineral character4 ,the granite still remaining unstratified1 becomes charged with green particles2 and the talcose gneiss assumes a granitiform structure without losing its stratification4 ,in the ,aberdeen-granite1 lumps of unmelted gneiss are frequently found2 and we can ourselves bear witness that on the banks of ,loch ,sunart1 there is ample proof that the granite of that region1 when it was molten1 contained incompletely-fused clots of sedimentary strata4 ,nor is this all4 ,fifty years ago1 it was thought that all granitic rocks were primitive1 or existed before any sedimentary strata2 but it is now no easy task to point out a single mass of granite demonstrably more ancient than all the known fossiliferous deposits4 ,in brief1 accumulated evidence clearly shows1 that by contact with1 or proximity to1 the molten matter of the ,earth's nucleus1 all beds of sediment are liable to be actually melted1 or partially fused1 or so heated as to agglutinate their particles2 and that according to the temperature they have been raised to1 and the circumstances under which they cool1 they assume the forms of granite1 porphyry1 trap1 gneiss1 or rock otherwise altered4 ,further1 it is manifest that though strata of various ages have been thus changed1 yet that the most ancient strata have been so changed to the greatest extent3 both because they have habitually lain nearer to the centre of igneous agency2 and because they have been for a longer period liable to the effects of this agency4 ,whence it follows1 that sedimentary strata passing a certain antiquity1 are unlikely to be found in an unmetamorphosed state2 and that strata much earlier than those are certain to have been melted up4 ,thus if1 throughout a past of indefinite duration1 there had been at work those aqueous and igneous agencies which we see still at work1 the state of the ,earth's crust might be just what we find it4 ,we have no evidence which puts a limit to the period throughout which this formation and destruction of strata has been going on4 ,for aught the facts prove1 it may have been going on for ten times the period measured by our whole series of sedimentary deposits4 ,besides having1 in the present appearances of the ,earth's crust1 no data for fixing a commencement to these processes--besides finding that the evidence permits us to assume such commencement to have been inconceivably remote1 as compared even with the vast eras of geology2 we are not without positive grounds for inferring the inconceivable remoteness of such commencement4 ,modern geology has established truths which are irreconcilable with the belief that the formation and destruction of strata began when the ,cambrian rocks were formed2 or at anything like so recent a time4 ,one fact from ,siluria will suffice4 ,sir ,r4 ,murchison estimates the vertical thickness of ,silurian strata in ,wales1 at from #bf1jjj to #bg1jjj feet1 or about five miles2 and if to this we add the vertical depth of the ,cambrian strata1 on which the ,silurians lie conformably1 there results1 on the lowest computation1 a total depth of seven miles4 ,now it is held by geologists1 that this vast accumulation of strata must have been deposited in an area of gradual subsidence4 ,these strata could not have been thus laid on each other in regular order1 unless the ,earth's crust had been at that place sinking1 either continuously or by very small steps4 ,such an immense subsidence1 however1 must have been impossible without a crust of great thickness4 ,the ,earth's molten nucleus tends ever1 with enormous force1 to assume the form of a regular oblate spheroid4 ,any depression of its crust below the surface of equilibrium1 and any elevation of its crust above that surface1 have to withstand immense resistance4 ,it follows inevitably that1 with a thin crust1 nothing but small elevations and subsidences would be possible2 and that1 conversely1 a subsidence of seven miles implies a crust of comparatively great strength1 or1 in other words1 of great thickness4 ,indeed1 if we compare this inferred subsidence in the ,silurian period1 with such elevations and depressions as our existing continents and oceans display1 we see no evidence that the ,earth's crust was appreciably thinner then than now4 ,what are the implications8 ,if1 as geologists generally admit1 the ,earth's crust has resulted from that slow cooling which is even still going on--if we see no sign that at the time when the earliest ,cambrian strata were formed1 this crust was appreciably thinner than now2 we are forced to conclude that the era during which it acquired that great thickness possessed in the ,cambrian period1 was enormous as compared with the interval between the ,cambrian period and our own4 ,but during the incalculable series of epochs thus inferred1 there existed an ocean1 tides1 winds1 waves1 rain1 rivers4 ,the agencies by which the denudation of continents and filling up of seas have all along been carried on1 were as active then as now4 ,endless successions of strata must have been formed4 ,and when we ask--,where are they8 ,nature's obvious reply is--,they have been destroyed by that igneous action to which so great a part of our oldest-known strata owe their fusion or metamorphosis4 ,only the last chapter of the ,earth's history has come down to us4 ,the many previous chapters1 stretching back to a time immeasurably remote1 have been burnt2 and with them all the records of life we may presume they contained4 ,the greater part of the evidence which might have served to settle the ,development-controversy1 is for ever lost2 and on neither side can the arguments derived from ,geology be conclusive4 ,but how happen there to be such evidences of progression as exist8 it may be asked4 ,how happens it that1 in ascending from the most ancient strata to the most recent strata1 we do find a succession of organic forms1 which1 however irregularly1 carries us from lower to higher8 ,this question seems difficult to answer4 ,nevertheless1 there is reason for thinking that nothing can be safely inferred from the apparent progression here cited4 ,and the illustration which shows as much1 will1 we believe1 also show how little trust is to be placed in certain geological generalizations that appear to be well established4 ,with this somewhat elaborate illustration1 to which we now pass1 our criticisms may fitly conclude4 ,let us suppose that in a region now covered by wide ocean1 there begins one of those great and gradual upheavals by which new continents are formed4 ,to be precise1 let us say that in the ,south ,pacific1 midway between ,new ,zealand and ,patagonia1 the sea-bottom has been little by little thrust up towards the surface1 and is about to emerge4 ,what will be the successive phenomena1 geological and biological1 which are likely to occur before this emerging sea-bottom has become another ,europe or ,asia8 ,in the first place1 such portions of the incipient land as are raised to the level of the waves1 will be rapidly denuded by them3 their soft substance will be torn up by the breakers1 carried away by the local currents1 and deposited in neighbouring deeper water4 ,successive small upheavals will bring new and larger areas within reach of the waves2 fresh portions will each time be removed from the surfaces previously denuded2 and further1 some of the newly-formed strata1 being elevated nearly to the level of the water1 will be washed away and re-deposited4 ,in course of time1 the harder formations of the upraised sea-bottom will be uncovered4 ,these being less easily destroyed1 will remain permanently above the surface2 and at their margins will arise the usual breaking down of rocks into beach-sand and pebbles4 ,while in the slow process of this elevation1 going on at the rate of perhaps two or three feet in a century1 most of the sedimentary deposits produced will be again and again destroyed and reformed2 there will1 in those adjacent areas of subsidence which accompany areas of elevation1 be more or less continuous successions of sedimentary deposits4 ,and now what will be the character of these new strata8 ,they will necessarily contain scarcely any traces of life4 ,the deposits that had previously been slowly formed at the bottom of this wide ocean1 would be sprinkled with fossils of but few species4 ,the oceanic ,fauna is not a rich one2 its hydrozoa do not admit of preservation2 and the hard parts of its few kinds of molluscs and crustaceans and insects are mostly fragile4 ,hence1 when the ocean-bed was here and there raised to the surface--when its strata of sediment with their contained organic fragments were torn up and long washed about by the breakers before being re-deposited--when the re-deposits were again and again subject to this violent abrading action by subsequent small elevations1 as they would mostly be2 what few fragile organic remains they contained1 would be in nearly all cases destroyed4 ,thus such of the first-formed strata as survived the repeated changes of level1 would be practically azoic2 like the ,cambrian of our geologists4 ,when by the washing away of the soft deposits1 the hard sub-strata had been exposed in the shape of rocky islets1 and a footing had thus been furnished1 the pioneers of a new life might be expected to make their appearance4 ,what would they be8 ,not any of the surrounding oceanic species1 for these are not fitted for a littoral life2 but species flourishing on some of the far-distant shores of the ,pacific4 ,of such the first to establish themselves would be sea-weeds and zoophytes2 both because their swarming spores and gemmules would be the most readily conveyed with safety1 and because when conveyed they would find fit food4 ,it is true that ,cirrhipeds and ,lamellibranchs1 subsisting on the minute creatures which everywhere people the sea1 would also find fit food4 ,but passing over the fact that the germs of such higher forms are neither so abundant nor so well fitted to bear long voyages1 there is the more important fact that the individuals arising from these germs can reproduce only sexually1 and that this vastly increases the obstacles to the establishment of their races4 ,the chances of early colonization are immensely in favour of species which1 multiplying by agamogenesis1 can people a whole shore from a single germ2 and immensely against species which1 multiplying only by gamogenesis1 must be introduced in considerable numbers that some may survive1 meet1 and propagate4 ,thus we infer that the earliest traces of life left in the sedimentary deposits near these new shores1 will be traces of life as humble as that indicated in the most ancient rocks of ,great ,britain and ,ireland4 ,imagine now that the processes we have briefly indicated1 continue--that the emerging lands become wider in extent1 and fringed by higher and more varied shores2 and that there still go on those ocean-currents which1 at long intervals1 convey from far distant shores immigrant forms of life4 ,what will result8 ,lapse of time will of course favour the introduction of such new forms3 admitting1 as it must1 of those combinations of fit conditions1 which1 under the law of probabilities1 can occur only at very distant intervals4 ,moreover1 the increasing area of the islands1 individually and as a group1 implies increasing length of coast2 from which there follows a longer line of contact with the streams and waves that bring drifting masses2 and1 therefore1 a greater chance that germs of fresh life will be stranded4 ,and once more1 the comparatively-varied shores1 presenting physical conditions that change from mile to mile1 will furnish suitable habitats for more numerous species4 ,so that as the elevation proceeds1 three causes conspire to introduce additional marine plants and animals4 ,to what classes will the increasing ,fauna be for a long period confined8 ,of course1 to classes of which individuals1 or their germs1 are most liable to be carried far away from their native shores by floating sea-weed or drift-wood2 to classes which are also least likely to perish in transit1 or from change of climate2 and to those which can best subsist around coasts comparatively bare of life4 ,evidently1 then1 corals1 annelids1 inferior molluscs1 and crustaceans of low grade1 will chiefly constitute the early ,fauna4 ,the large predatory members of these classes1 will be later in establishing themselves2 both because the new shores must first become well peopled by the creatures they prey on1 and because1 being more complex1 they or their ova must be less likely to survive the journey1 and the change of conditions4 ,we may infer1 then1 that the strata deposited next after the almost azoic strata1 would contain the remains of invertebrata1 allied to those found near the shores of ,australia and ,south ,america4 ,of such invertebrate remains1 the lower beds would furnish comparatively few genera1 and those of relatively low types2 while in the upper beds the number of genera would be greater1 and the types higher3 just as among the fossils of our ,silurian system4 ,as this great geologic change slowly progressed through its long history of earthquakes1 volcanic disturbances1 minor upheavals and subsidences--as the extent of the archipelago became greater and its smaller islands coalesced into larger ones1 while its coast line grew still longer and more varied1 and the neighbouring sea more thickly inhabited by inferior forms of life2 the lowest division of the vertebrata would begin to be represented4 ,in order of time1 fish would naturally come after the lower invertebrata3 both as being less likely to have their ova transported across the waste of waters1 and as requiring for their subsistence a pre-existing ,fauna of some development4 ,they might be expected to make their appearance along with the predaceous crustaceans2 as they do in the uppermost ,silurian rocks4 ,and here1 too1 let us remark1 that as1 during this long epoch we have been describing1 the sea would have made great inroads on some of the newly raised lands that had remained stationary2 and would probably in some places have reached masses of igneous or metamorphic rocks2 there might1 in course of time1 arise by the decomposition and denudation of such rocks1 local deposits coloured with oxide of iron1 like our ,old ,red ,sandstone4 ,and in these deposits might be buried the remains of the fish then peopling the neighbouring sea4 ,meanwhile1 how would the surfaces of the upheaved masses be occupied8 ,at first their deserts of naked rocks and pebbles would bear only the humblest forms of vegetal life1 such as we find in grey and orange patches on our own rugged mountain sides2 for these alone could flourish on such surfaces1 and their spores would be the most readily transported4 ,when1 by the decay of such protophytes1 and that decomposition of rock effected by them1 there had resulted a fit habitat for mosses2 these1 of which the germs might be conveyed in drifted trees1 would begin to spread4 ,a soil having been eventually thus produced1 it would become possible for plants of higher organization to find roothold2 and as in the way we have described the archipelago and its constituent islands grew larger1 and had more multiplied relations with winds and waters1 such higher plants might be expected ultimately to have their seeds transferred from the nearest lands4 ,after something like a ,flora had thus colonized the surface1 it would become possible for insects to exist2 and of air-breathing creatures1 insects would manifestly be among the first to find their way from elsewhere4 ,as1 however1 terrestrial organisms1 both vegetal and animal1 are much less likely than marine organisms to survive the accidents of transport from distant shores2 it is clear that long after the sea surrounding these new lands had acquired a varied ,flora and ,fauna1 the lands themselves would still be comparatively bare2 and thus that the early strata1 like our ,silurians1 would afford no traces of terrestrial life4 ,by the time that large areas had been raised above the ocean1 we may fairly suppose a luxuriant vegetation to have been acquired4 ,under what circumstances are we likely to find this vegetation fossilized8 ,large surfaces of land imply large rivers with their accompanying deltas2 and are liable to have lakes and swamps4 ,these1 as we know from extant cases1 are favourable to rank vegetation2 and afford the conditions needful for preserving it in the shape of coal-beds4 ,observe1 then1 that while in the early history of such a continent a carboniferous period could not occur1 the occurrence of a carboniferous period would become probable after long-continued upheavals had uncovered large areas4 ,as in our own sedimentary series1 coal-beds would make their appearance only after there had been enormous accumulations of earlier strata charged with marine fossils4 ,let us ask next1 in what order the higher forms of animal life would make their appearance4 ,we have seen how1 in the succession of marine forms1 there would be something like a progress from the lower to the higher3 bringing us in the end to predaceous molluscs1 crustaceans1 and fish4 ,what are likely to succeed fish8 ,after marine creatures1 those which would have the greatest chance of surviving the voyage would be amphibious reptiles3 both because they are more tenacious of life than higher animals1 and because they would be less completely out of their element4 ,such reptiles as can live in both fresh and salt water1 like alligators2 and such as are drifted out of the mouths of great rivers on floating trees1 as ,humboldt says the ,orinoco alligators are2 might be early colonists4 ,it is manifest1 too1 that reptiles of other kinds would be among the first vertebrata to people the new continent4 ,if we consider what will occur on one of those natural rafts of trees1 soil1 and matted vegetable matter1 sometimes swept out to sea by such currents as the ,mississippi1 with a miscellaneous living cargo2 we shall see that while the active1 hot-blooded1 highly-organized creatures will soon die of starvation and exposure1 the inert1 cold-blooded ones1 which can go long without food1 will live perhaps for weeks2 and so1 out of the chances from time to time occurring during long periods1 reptiles will be the first to get safely landed on foreign shores3 as indeed they are even now known sometimes to be4 ,the transport of mammalia being comparatively precarious1 must1 in the order of probability1 be longer postponed2 and would1 indeed1 be unlikely to occur until by the enlargement of the new continent1 the distances of its shores from adjacent lands had been greatly diminished1 or the formation of intervening islands had increased the chances of survival4 ,assuming1 however1 that the facilities of immigration had become adequate2 which would be the first mammals to arrive and live8 ,not large herbivores2 for they would be soon drowned if by any accident carried out to sea4 ,not the carnivora2 for these would lack appropriate food1 even if they outlived the voyage4 ,small quadrupeds frequenting trees1 and feeding on insects1 would be those most likely both to be drifted away from their native lands and to find fit food in a new one4 ,insectivorous mammals1 like in size to those found in the ,trias and the ,stonesfield slate1 might naturally be looked for as the pioneers of the higher vertebrata4 ,and if we suppose the facilities of communication to be again increased1 either by a further shallowing of the intervening sea and a consequent multiplication of islands1 or by an actual junction of the new continent with an old one1 through continued upheavals2 we should finally have an influx of the larger and more perfect mammals4 ,now rude as is this sketch of a process that would be extremely elaborate and involved1 and open as some of its propositions are to criticisms which there is no space here to meet2 no one will deny that it represents something like the biologic history of the supposed new continent4 ,details apart1 it is manifest that simple organisms1 able to flourish under simple conditions of life1 would be the first successful immigrants2 and that more complex organisms1 needing for their existence the fulfilment of more complex conditions1 would afterwards establish themselves in something like an ascending succession4 ,at the one extreme we see every facility4 ,the new individuals can be conveyed in the shape of minute germs2 these are infinite in their numbers2 they are diffused in the sea2 they are perpetually being carried in all directions to great distances by ocean-currents2 they can survive such long journeys unharmed2 they can find nutriment wherever they arrive2 and the resulting organisms can multiply asexually with great rapidity4 ,at the other extreme1 we see every difficulty4 ,the new individuals must be conveyed in their adult forms2 their numbers are1 in comparison1 utterly insignificant2 they live on land1 and are very unlikely to be carried out to sea2 when so carried1 the chances are immense against their escape from drowning1 starvation1 or death by cold2 if they survive the transit1 they must have a pre-existing ,flora or ,fauna to supply their special food2 they require1 also1 the fulfilment of various other physical conditions2 and unless at least two individuals of different sexes are safely landed1 the race cannot be established4 ,manifestly1 then1 the immigration of each successively higher order of organisms1 having1 from one or other additional condition to be fulfilled1 an enormously-increased probability against it1 would naturally be separated from the immigration of a lower order by some period like a geologic epoch4 ,and thus the successive sedimentary deposits formed while this new continent was undergoing gradual elevation1 would seem to furnish clear evidence of a general progress in the forms of life4 ,that lands thus raised up in the midst of a wide ocean1 would first give origin to unfossiliferous strata2 next1 to strata containing only the lowest marine forms2 next1 to strata containing higher marine forms1 ascending finally to fish2 and that the strata above these would contain reptiles1 then small mammals1 then great mammals2 seems to us to be demonstrable from the known laws of organic life4 ,and if the succession of fossils presented by the strata of this supposed new continent1 would thus simulate the succession presented by our own sedimentary series2 must we not say that our own sedimentary series very possibly records nothing more than the phenomena accompanying one of these great upheavals8 ,we think this must be considered not only possible1 but highly probable3 harmonizing as it does with the unavoidable conclusion before pointed out1 that geological changes must have been going on for a period immeasurably greater than that of which we have records4 ,and if the probability of this conclusion be admitted1 it must be admitted that the facts of ,palaeontology can never suffice either to prove or disprove the ,development ,hypothesis2 but that the most they can do is1 to show whether the last few pages of the ,earth's biologic history are or are not in harmony with this hypothesis--whether the existing ,flora and ,fauna can or can not be affiliated upon the ,flora and ,fauna of the most recent geologic times4 ,,ix4 ,,the ,,development ,,hypothesis4 ,in a debate upon the development hypothesis1 lately narrated to me by a friend1 one of the disputants was described as arguing1 that as1 in all our experience1 we know no such phenomenon as transmutation of species1 it is unphilosophical to assume that transmutation of species ever takes place4 ,had ,i been present1 ,i think that1 passing over his assertion1 which is open to criticism1 ,i should have replied that1 as in all our experience we have never known a species created1 it was1 by his own showing1 unphilosophical to assume that any species ever had been created4 ,those who cavalierly reject the ,theory of ,evolution1 as not adequately supported by facts1 seem quite to forget that their own theory is supported by no facts at all4 ,like the majority of men who are born to a given belief1 they demand the most rigorous proof of any adverse belief1 but assume that their own needs none4 ,here we find1 scattered over the globe1 vegetable and animal organisms numbering1 of the one kind 7according to ,humboldt71 some #cbj1jjj species1 and of the other1 some #b1jjj1jjj species 7see ,carpenter72 and if to these we add the numbers of animal and vegetable species that have become extinct1 we may safely estimate the number of species that have existed1 and are existing1 on the ,earth1 at not less than ten millions4 ,well1 which is the most rational theory about these ten millions of species8 ,is it most likely that there have been ten millions of special creations8 or is it most likely that by continual modifications1 due to change of circumstances1 ten millions of varieties have been produced1 as varieties are being produced still8 ,doubtless many will reply that they can more easily conceive ten millions of special creations to have taken place1 than they can conceive that ten millions of varieties have arisen by successive modifications4 ,all such1 however1 will find1 on inquiry1 that they are under an illusion4 ,this is one of the many cases in which men do not really believe1 but rather believe they believe4 ,it is not that they can truly conceive ten millions of special creations to have taken place1 but that they think they can do so4 ,careful introspection will show them that they have never yet realized to themselves the creation of even one species4 ,if they have formed a definite conception of the process1 let them tell us how a new species is constructed1 and how it makes its appearance4 ,is it thrown down from the clouds8 or must we hold to the notion that it struggles up out of the ground8 ,do its limbs and viscera rush together from all the points of the compass8 or must we receive the old ,hebrew idea1 that ,god takes clay and moulds a new creature8 ,if they say that a new creature is produced in none of these modes1 which are too absurd to be believed2 then they are required to describe the mode in which a new creature may be produced--a mode which does not seem absurd3 and such a mode they will find that they neither have conceived nor can conceive4 ,should the believers in special creations consider it unfair thus to call upon them to describe how special creations take place1 ,i reply1 that this is far less than they demand from the supporters of the ,development ,hypothesis4 ,they are merely asked to point out a conceivable mode4 ,on the other hand1 they ask1 not simply for a conceivable mode1 but for the actual mode4 ,they do not say--,show us how this may take place2 but they say--,show us how this does take place4 ,so far from its being unreasonable to put the above question1 it would be reasonable to ask not only for a possible mode of special creation1 but for an ascertained mode2 seeing that this is no greater a demand than they make upon their opponents4 ,and here we may perceive how much more defensible the new doctrine is than the old one4 ,even could the supporters of the ,development ,hypothesis merely show that the origination of species by the process of modification is conceivable1 they would be in a better position than their opponents4 ,but they can do much more than this4 ,they can show that the process of modification has effected1 and is effecting1 decided changes in all organisms subject to modifying influences4 ,though1 from the impossibility of getting at a sufficiency of facts1 they are unable to trace the many phases through which any existing species has passed in arriving at its present form1 or to identify the influences which caused the successive modifications2 yet1 they can show that any existing species--animal or vegetable--when placed under conditions different from its previous ones1 immediately begins to undergo certain changes of structure fitting it for the new conditions4 ,they can show that in successive generations these changes continue1 until ultimately the new conditions become the natural ones4 ,they can show that in cultivated plants1 in domesticated animals1 and in the several races of men1 such alterations have taken place4 ,they can show that the degrees of difference so produced are often1 as in dogs1 greater than those on which distinctions of species are in other cases founded4 ,they can show that it is a matter of dispute whether some of these modified forms are varieties or separate species4 ,they can show1 too1 that the changes daily taking place in ourselves--the facility that attends long practice1 and the loss of aptitude that begins when practice ceases--the strengthening of passions habitually gratified1 and the weakening of those habitually curbed--the development of every faculty1 bodily1 moral1 or intellectual1 according to the use made of it--are all explicable on this same principle4 ,and thus they can show that throughout all organic nature there is at work a modifying influence of the kind they assign as the cause of these specific differences3 an influence which1 though slow in its action1 does1 in time1 if the circumstances demand it1 produce marked changes--an influence which1 to all appearance1 would produce in the millions of years1 and under the great varieties of condition which geological records imply1 any amount of change4 ,which1 then1 is the most rational hypothesis8--that of special creations which has neither a fact to support it nor is even definitely conceivable2 or that of modification1 which is not only definitely conceivable1 but is countenanced by the habitudes of every existing organism8 ,that by any series of changes a protozoon should ever become a mammal1 seems to those who are not familiar with zoology1 and who have not seen how clear becomes the relationship between the simplest and the most complex forms when intermediate forms are examined1 a very grotesque notion4 ,habitually looking at things rather in their statical than in their dynamical aspect1 they never realize the fact that1 by small increments of modification1 any amount of modification may in time be generated4 ,that surprise which they feel on finding one whom they last saw as a boy1 grown into a man1 becomes incredulity when the degree of change is greater4 ,nevertheless1 abundant instances are at hand of the mode in which we may pass to the most diverse forms1 by insensible gradations4 ,arguing the matter some time since with a learned professor1 ,i illustrated my position thus3--,you admit that there is no apparent relationship between a circle and an hyperbola4 ,the one is a finite curve2 the other is an infinite one4 ,all parts of the one are alike2 of the other no two parts are alike4 ,the one incloses a space2 the other will not inclose a space though produced for ever4 ,yet opposite as are these curves in all their properties1 they may be connected together by a series of intermediate curves1 no one of which differs from the adjacent ones in any appreciable degree4 ,thus1 if a cone be cut by a plane at right angles to its axis we get a circle4 ,if1 instead of being perfectly at right angles1 the plane subtends with the axis an angle of #hi deg4 #ei'1 we have an ellipse1 which no human eye1 even when aided by an accurate pair of compasses1 can distinguish from a circle4 ,decreasing the angle minute by minute1 the ellipse becomes first perceptibly eccentric1 then manifestly so1 and by and by acquires so immensely elongated a form1 as to bear no recognisable resemblance to a circle4 ,by continuing this process1 the ellipse passes insensibly into a parabola2 and ultimately1 by still further diminishing the angle1 into an hyperbola4 ,now here we have four different species of curve--circle1 ellipse1 parabola1 and hyperbola--each having its peculiar properties and its separate equation1 and the first and last of which are quite opposite in nature1 connected together as members of one series1 all producible by a single process of insensible modification4 ,but the blindness of those who think it absurd to suppose that complex organic forms may have arisen by successive modifications out of simple ones1 becomes astonishing when we remember that complex organic forms are daily being thus produced4 ,a tree differs from a seed immeasurably in every respect--in bulk1 in structure1 in colour1 in form1 in specific gravity1 in chemical composition3 differs so greatly that no visible resemblance of any kind can be pointed out between them4 ,yet is the one changed in the course of a few years into the other3 changed so gradually1 that at no moment can it be said--,now the seed ceases to be1 and the tree exists4 ,what can be more widely contrasted than a newly-born child and the small1 semi-transparent1 gelatinous spherule constituting the human ovum8 ,the infant is so complex in structure that a cyclopaedia is needed to describe its constituent parts4 ,the germinal vesicle is so simple that it may be defined in a line4 ,nevertheless1 a few months suffice to develop the one out of the other2 and that1 too1 by a series of modifications so small1 that were the embryo examined at successive minutes1 even a microscope would with difficulty disclose any sensible changes4 ,that the uneducated and the ill-educated should think the hypothesis that all races of beings1 man inclusive1 may in process of time have been evolved from the simplest monad1 a ludicrous one1 is not to be wondered at4 ,but for the physiologist1 who knows that every individual being is so evolved--who knows further1 that in their earliest condition the germs of all plants and animals whatever are so similar1 that there is no appreciable distinction amongst them which would enable it to be determined whether a particular molecule is the germ of a conferva or of an oak1 of a zoophyte or of a man2,u--for him to make a difficulty of the matter is inexcusable4 ,surely if a single cell may1 when subjected to certain influences1 become a man in the space of twenty years2 there is nothing absurd in the hypothesis that under certain other influences1 a cell may in the course of millions of years give origin to the human race4 ,the two processes are generically the same2 and differ only in length and complexity4 ,u ,carpenter4 ,we have1 indeed1 in the part taken by many scientific men in this controversy of ,law versus ,miracle1 a good illustration of the tenacious vitality of superstitions4 ,ask one of our leading geologists or physiologists whether he believes in the ,mosaic account of the creation1 and he will take the question as next to an insult4 ,either he rejects the narrative entirely1 or understands it in some vague non-natural sense4 ,yet one part of it he unconsciously adopts2 and that1 too1 literally4 ,for whence has he got this notion of special creations1 which he thinks so reasonable1 and fights for so vigorously8 ,evidently he can trace it back to no other source than this myth which he repudiates4 ,he has not a single fact in nature to quote in proof of it2 nor is he prepared with any chain of abstract reasoning by which it may be established4 ,catechise him1 and he will be forced to confess that the notion was put into his mind in childhood as part of a story which he now thinks absurd4 ,and why1 after rejecting all the rest of this story1 he should strenuously defend this last remnant of it as though he had received it on valid authority1 he would be puzzled to say4 ,x4 ,,the ,,social ,,organism4 ,sir ,james ,macintosh got great credit for the saying1 that constitutions are not made1 but grow4 ,in our day1 the most significant thing about this saying is1 that it was ever thought so significant4 ,as from the surprise displayed by a man at some familiar fact1 you may judge of his general culture2 so from the admiration which an age accords to a new thought1 its average degree of enlightenment may be inferred4 ,that this apophthegm of ,macintosh should have been quoted and re-quoted as it has1 shows how profound has been the ignorance of social science4 ,a small ray of truth has seemed brilliant1 as a distant rushlight looks like a star in the surrounding darkness4 ,such a conception could not1 indeed1 fail to be startling when let fall in the midst of a system of thought to which it was utterly alien4 ,universally in ,macintosh's day1 things were explained on the hypothesis of manufacture1 rather than that of growth3 as indeed they are1 by the majority1 in our own day4 ,it was held that the planets were severally projected round the sun from the ,creator's hand2 with exactly the velocity required to balance the sun's attraction4 ,the formation of the ,earth1 the separation of sea from land1 the production of animals1 were mechanical works from which ,god rested as a labourer rests4 ,man was supposed to be moulded after a manner somewhat akin to that in which a modeller makes a clay-figure4 ,and of course1 in harmony with such ideas1 societies were tacitly assumed to be arranged thus or thus by direct interposition of ,providence2 or by the regulations of law-makers2 or by both4 ,yet that societies are not artificially put together1 is a truth so manifest1 that it seems wonderful men should have ever overlooked it4 ,perhaps nothing more clearly shows the small value of historical studies1 as they have been commonly pursued4 ,you need but to look at the changes going on around1 or observe social organization in its leading peculiarities1 to see that these are neither supernatural1 nor are determined by the wills of individual men1 as by implication historians commonly teach2 but are consequent on general natural causes4 ,the one case of the division of labour suffices to show this4 ,it has not been by command of any ruler that some men have become manufacturers1 while others have remained cultivators of the soil4 ,in ,lancashire1 millions have devoted themselves to the making of cotton-fabrics2 in ,yorkshire1 another million lives by producing woollens2 and the pottery of ,staffordshire1 the cutlery of ,sheffield1 the hardware of ,birmingham1 severally occupy their hundreds of thousands4 ,these are large facts in the structure of ,english society2 but we can ascribe them neither to miracle1 nor to legislation4 ,it is not by the hero as king1 any more than by collective wisdom1 that men have been segregated into producers1 wholesale distributors1 and retail distributors4 ,the whole of our industrial organization1 from its main outlines down to its minutest details1 has become what it is1 not simply without legislative guidance1 but1 to a considerable extent1 in spite of legislative hindrances4 ,it has arisen under the pressure of human wants and activities4 ,while each citizen has been pursuing his individual welfare1 and none taking thought about division of labour1 or1 indeed1 conscious of the need for it1 division of labour has yet been ever becoming more complete4 ,it has been doing this slowly and silently3 scarcely any having observed it until quite modern times4 ,by steps so small1 that year after year the industrial arrangements have seemed to men just what they were before--by changes as insensible as those through which a seed passes into a tree2 society has become the complex body of mutually-dependent workers which we now see4 ,and this economic organization1 mark1 is the all-essential organization4 ,through the combination thus spontaneously evolved1 every citizen is supplied with daily necessaries2 while he yields some product or aid to others4 ,that we are severally alive to-day1 we owe to the regular working of this combination during the past week2 and could it be suddenly abolished1 a great proportion of us would be dead before another week ended4 ,if these most conspicuous and vital arrangements of our social structure1 have arisen without the devising of any one1 but through the individual efforts of citizens to satisfy their own wants2 we may be tolerably certain that the less important arrangements have similarly arisen4 ,but surely1 it will be said1 the social changes directly produced by law1 cannot be classed as spontaneous growths4 ,when parliaments or kings order this or that thing to be done1 and appoint officials to do it1 the process is clearly artificial2 and society to this extent becomes a manufacture rather than a growth4 ,no1 not even these changes are exceptions1 if they be real and permanent changes4 ,the true sources of such changes lie deeper than the acts of legislators4 ,to take first the simplest instance4 ,we all know that the enactments of representative governments ultimately depend on the national will3 they may for a time be out of harmony with it1 but eventually they must conform to it4 ,and to say that the national will finally determines them1 is to say that they result from the average of individual desires2 or1 in other words--from the average of individual natures4 ,a law so initiated1 therefore1 really grows out of the popular character4 ,in the case of a ,government representing a dominant class1 the same things holds1 though not so manifestly4 ,for the very existence of a class monopolizing all power1 is due to certain sentiments in the commonalty4 ,but for the feeling of loyalty on the part of retainers1 a feudal system could not exist4 ,we see in the protest of the ,highlanders against the abolition of heritable jurisdictions1 that they preferred that kind of local rule4 ,and if to the popular nature1 must thus be ascribed the growth of an irresponsible ruling class2 then to the popular nature must be ascribed the social arrangements which that class creates in the pursuit of its own ends4 ,even where the ,government is despotic1 the doctrine still holds4 ,the character of the people is1 as before1 the original source of this political form2 and1 as we have abundant proof1 other forms suddenly created will not act1 but rapidly retrograde to the old form4 ,moreover1 such regulations as a despot makes1 if really operative1 are so because of their fitness to the social state4 ,his acts being very much swayed by general opinion--by precedent1 by the feeling of his nobles1 his priesthood1 his army--are in part immediate results of the national character2 and when they are out of harmony with the national character1 they are soon practically abrogated4 ,the failure of ,cromwell permanently to establish a new social condition1 and the rapid revival of suppressed institutions and practices after his death1 show how powerless is a monarch to change the type of the society he governs4 ,he may disturb1 he may retard1 or he may aid the natural process of organization2 but the general course of this process is beyond his control4 ,nay1 more than this is true4 ,those who regard the histories of societies as the histories of their great men1 and think that these great men shape the fates of their societies1 overlook the truth that such great men are the products of their societies4 ,without certain antecedents--without a certain average national character1 they could neither have been generated nor could have had the culture which formed them4 ,if their society is to some extent re-moulded by them1 they were1 both before and after birth1 moulded by their society--were the results of all those influences which fostered the ancestral character they inherited1 and gave their own early bias1 their creed1 morals1 knowledge1 aspirations4 ,so that such social changes as are immediately traceable to individuals of unusual power1 are still remotely traceable to the social causes which produced these individuals1 and hence1 from the highest point of view1 such social changes also1 are parts of the general developmental process4 ,thus that which is so obviously true of the industrial structure of society1 is true of its whole structure4 ,the fact that constitutions are not made1 but grow1 is simply a fragment of the much larger fact1 that under all its aspects and through all its ramifications1 society is a growth and not a manufacture4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a perception that there exists some analogy between the body politic and a living individual body1 was early reached2 and from time to time re-appeared in literature4 ,but this perception was necessarily vague and more or less fanciful4 ,in the absence of physiological science1 and especially of those comprehensive generalizations which it has but recently reached1 it was impossible to discern the real parallelisms4 ,the central idea of ,plato's model ,republic1 is the correspondence between the parts of a society and the faculties of the human mind4 ,classifying these faculties under the heads of ,reason1 ,will1 and ,passion1 he classifies the members of his ideal society under what he regards as three analogous heads3--councillors1 who are to exercise government2 military or executive1 who are to fulfil their behests2 and the commonalty1 bent on gain and selfish gratification4 ,in other words1 the ruler1 the warrior1 and the craftsman1 are1 according to him1 the analogues of our reflective1 volitional1 and emotional powers4 ,now even were there truth in the implied assumption of a parallelism between the structure of a society and that of a man1 this classification would be indefensible4 ,it might more truly be contended that1 as the military power obeys the commands of the ,government1 it is the ,government which answers to the ,will2 while the military power is simply an agency set in motion by it4 ,or1 again1 it might be contended that whereas the ,will is a product of predominant desires1 to which the ,reason serves merely as an eye1 it is the craftsmen1 who1 according to the alleged analogy1 ought to be the moving power of the warriors4 ,hobbes sought to establish a still more definite parallelism3 not1 however between a society and the human mind1 but between a society and the human body4 ,in the introduction to the work in which he developes this conception1 he says-- ,for by art is created that great ,,leviathan called a ,,commonwealth1 or ,,state1 in ,latin ,,civitas1 which is but an artificial man2 though of greater stature and strength than the natural1 for whose protection and defence it was intended1 and in which the sovereignty is an artificial soul1 as giving life and motion to the whole body2 the magistrates and other officers of judicature and execution1 artificial joints2 reward and punishment1 by which1 fastened to the seat of the sovereignty1 every joint and member is moved to perform his duty1 are the nerves1 that do the same in the body natural2 the wealth and riches of all the particular members are the strength2 salus populi1 the people's safety1 its business2 counsellors1 by whom all things needful for it to know are suggested unto it1 are the memory2 equity and laws an artificial reason and will2 concord1 health2 sedition1 sickness2 civil war1 death1 ,and ,hobbes carries this comparison so far as actually to give a drawing of the ,leviathan--a vast human-shaped figure1 whose body and limbs are made up of multitudes of men4 ,just noting that these different analogies asserted by ,plato and ,hobbes1 serve to cancel each other 7being1 as they are1 so completely at variance71 we may say that on the whole those of ,hobbes are the more plausible4 ,but they are full of inconsistencies4 ,if the sovereignty is the soul of the body politic1 how can it be that magistrates1 who are a kind of deputy-sovereigns1 should be comparable to joints8 ,or1 again1 how can the three mental functions1 memory1 reason1 and will1 be severally analogous1 the first to counsellors1 who are a class of public officers1 and the other two to equity and laws1 which are not classes of officers1 but abstractions8 ,or1 once more1 if magistrates are the artificial joints of society1 how can reward and punishment be its nerves8 ,its nerves must surely be some class of persons4 ,reward and punishment must in societies1 as in individuals1 be conditions of the nerves1 and not the nerves themselves4 ,but the chief errors of these comparisons made by ,plato and ,hobbes1 lie much deeper4 ,both thinkers assume that the organization of a society is comparable1 not simply to the organization of a living body in general1 but to the organization of the human body in particular4 ,there is no warrant whatever for assuming this4 ,it is in no way implied by the evidence2 and is simply one of those fancies which we commonly find mixed up with the truths of early speculation4 ,still more erroneous are the two conceptions in this1 that they construe a society as an artificial structure4 ,plato's model republic--his ideal of a healthful body politic--is to be consciously put together by men2 just as a watch might be3 and ,plato manifestly thinks of societies in general as thus originated4 ,quite specifically does ,hobbes express this view4 ,for by art1 he says1 is created that great ,,leviathan called a ,,commonwealth4 ,and he even goes so far as to compare the supposed social contract1 from which a society suddenly originates1 to the creation of a man by the divine fiat4 ,thus they both fall into the extreme inconsistency of considering a community as similar in structure to a human being1 and yet as produced in the same way as an artificial mechanism--in in nature1 an organism2 in history1 a machine4 ,notwithstanding errors1 however1 these speculations have considerable significance4 ,that such analogies1 crudely as they are thought out1 should have been alleged by ,plato and ,hobbes and many others1 is a reason for suspecting that some analogy exists4 ,the untenableness of the particular comparisons above instanced1 is no ground for denying an essential parallelism2 for early ideas are usually but vague adumbrations of the truth4 ,lacking the great generalizations of biology1 it was1 as we have said1 impossible to trace out the real relations of social organizations to organizations of another order4 ,we propose here to show what are the analogies which modern science discloses to us4 ,let us set out by succinctly stating the points of similarity and the points of difference4 ,societies agree with individual organisms in four conspicuous peculiarities3-- #a4 ,that commencing as small aggregations1 they insensibly augment in mass3 some of them eventually reaching ten thousand times what they originally were4 #b4 ,that while at first so simple in structure as to be considered structureless1 they assume1 in the course of their growth1 a continually-increasing complexity of structure4 #c4 ,that though in their early1 undeveloped states1 there exists in them scarcely any mutual dependence of parts1 their parts gradually acquire a mutual dependence2 which becomes at last so great1 that the activity and life of each part is made possible only by the activity and life of the rest4 #d4 ,that the life and development of a society is independent of1 and far more prolonged than1 the life and development of any of its component units2 who are severally born1 grow1 work1 reproduce1 and die1 while the body politic composed of them survives generation after generation1 increasing in mass1 completeness of structure1 and functional activity4 ,these four parallelisms will appear the more significant the more we contemplate them4 ,while the points specified1 are points in which societies agree with individual organisms1 they are points in which individual organisms agree with each other1 and disagree with all things else4 ,in the course of its existence1 every plant and animal increases in mass1 in a way not parallelled by inorganic objects3 even such inorganic objects as crystals1 which arise by growth1 show us no such definite relation between growth and existence as organisms do4 ,the orderly progress from simplicity to complexity1 displayed by bodies politic in common with all living bodies1 is a characteristic which distinguishes living bodies from the inanimate bodies amid which they move4 ,that functional dependence of parts1 which is scarcely more manifest in animals or plants than nations1 has no counterpart elsewhere4 ,and in no aggregate except an organic1 or a social one1 is there a perpetual removal and replacement of parts1 joined with a continued integrity of the whole4 ,moreover1 societies and organisms are not only alike in these peculiarities1 in which they are unlike all other things2 but the highest societies1 like the highest organisms1 exhibit them in the greatest degree4 ,we see that the lowest animals do not increase to anything like the sizes of the higher ones2 and1 similarly1 we see that aboriginal societies are comparatively limited in their growths4 ,in complexity1 our large civilized nations as much exceed primitive savage tribes1 as a vertebrate animal does a zoophyte4 ,simple communities1 like simple creatures1 have so little mutual dependence of parts1 that subdivision or mutilation causes but little inconvenience2 but from complex communities1 as from complex creatures1 you cannot remove any considerable organ without producing great disturbance or death of the rest4 ,and in societies of low type1 as in inferior animals1 the life of the aggregate1 often cut short by division or dissolution1 exceeds in length the lives of the component units1 very far less than in civilized communities and superior animals2 which outlive many generations of their component units4 ,on the other hand1 the leading differences between societies and individual organisms are these3-- #a4 ,that societies have no specific external forms4 ,this1 however1 is a point of contrast which loses much of its importance1 when we remember that throughout the vegetal kingdom1 as well as in some lower divisions of the animal kingdom1 the forms are often very indefinite--definiteness being rather the exception than the rule2 and that they are manifestly in part determined by surrounding physical circumstances1 as the forms of societies are4 ,if1 too1 it should eventually be shown1 as we believe it will1 that the form of every species of organism has resulted from the average play of the external forces to which it has been subject during its evolution as a species2 then1 that the external forms of societies should depend1 as they do1 on surrounding conditions1 will be a further point of community4 #b4 ,that though the living tissue whereof an individual organism consists1 forms a continuous mass1 the living elements of a society do not form a continuous mass2 but are more or less widely dispersed over some portion of the ,earth's surface4 ,this1 which at first sight appears to be a fundamental distinction1 is one which yet to a great extent disappears when we contemplate all the facts4 ,for1 in the lower divisions of the animal and vegetal kingdoms1 there are types of organization much more nearly allied1 in this respect1 to the organization of a society1 than might be supposed--types in which the living units essentially composing the mass1 are dispersed through an inert substance1 that can scarcely be called living in the full sense of the word4 ,it is thus with some of the ,protococci and with the ,nostoceae1 which exist as cells imbedded in a viscid matter4 ,it is so1 too1 with the ,thalassicollae--bodies that are made up of differentiated parts1 dispersed through an undifferentiated jelly4 ,and throughout considerable portions of their bodies1 some of the ,acalephae exhibit more or less distinctly this type of structure4 ,indeed1 it may be contended that this is the primitive form of all organization2 seeing that1 even in the highest creatures1 as in ourselves1 every tissue developes out of what physiologists call a blastema--an unorganized though organizable substance1 through which organic points are distributed4 ,now this is very much the case with a society4 ,for we must remember that though the men who make up a society1 are physically separate and even scattered2 yet that the surface over which they are scattered is not one devoid of life1 but is covered by life of a lower order which ministers to their life4 ,the vegetation which clothes a country1 makes possible the animal life in that country2 and only through its animal and vegetal products can such a country support a human society4 ,hence the members of the body politic are not to be regarded as separated by intervals of dead space2 but as diffused through a space occupied by life of a lower order4 ,in our conception of a social organism1 we must include all that lower organic existence on which human existence1 and therefore social existence1 depends4 ,and when we do this1 we see that the citizens who make up a community1 may be considered as highly vitalized units surrounded by substances of lower vitality1 from which they draw their nutriment3 much as in the cases above instanced4 ,thus1 when examined1 this apparent distinction in great part disappears4 #c4 ,that while the ultimate living elements of an individual organism1 are mostly fixed in their relative positions1 those of the social organism are capable of moving from place to place1 seems a marked disagreement4 ,but here1 too1 the disagreement is much less than would be supposed4 ,for while citizens are locomotive in their private capacities1 they are fixed in their public capacities4 ,as farmers1 manufacturers1 or traders1 men carry on their business at the same spots1 often throughout their whole lives2 and if they go away occasionally1 they leave behind others to discharge their functions in their absence4 ,each great centre of production1 each manufacturing town or district1 continues always in the same place2 and many of the firms in such town or district1 are for generations carried on either by the descendants or successors of those who founded them4 ,just as in a living body1 the cells that make up some important organ1 severally perform their functions for a time and then disappear1 leaving others to supply their places2 so1 in each part of a society1 the organ remains1 though the persons who compose it change4 ,thus1 in social life1 as in the life of an animal1 the units as well as the larger agencies formed of them1 are in the main stationary as respects the places where they discharge their duties and obtain their sustenance4 ,and hence the power of individual locomotion does not practically affect the analogy4 #d4 ,the last and perhaps the most important distinction1 is1 that while in the body of an animal1 only a special tissue is endowed with feeling2 in a society1 all the members are endowed with feeling4 ,even this distinction1 however1 is by no means a complete one4 ,for in some of the lowest animals1 characterized by the absence of a nervous system1 such sensitiveness as exists is possessed by all parts4 ,it is only in the more organized forms that feeling is monopolized by one class of the vital elements4 ,moreover1 we must remember that societies1 too1 are not without a certain differentiation of this kind4 ,though the units of a community are all sensitive1 yet they are so in unequal degrees4 ,the classes engaged in agriculture and laborious occupations in general1 are much less susceptible1 intellectually and emotionally1 than the rest2 and especially less so than the classes of highest mental culture4 ,still1 we have here a tolerably decided contrast between bodies politic and individual bodies4 ,and it is one which we should keep constantly in view4 ,for it reminds us that while in individual bodies1 the welfare of all other parts is rightly subservient to the welfare of the nervous system1 whose pleasurable or painful activities make up the good or evil of life2 in bodies politic1 the same thing does not hold1 or holds to but a very slight extent4 ,it is well that the lives of all parts of an animal should be merged in the life of the whole2 because the whole has a corporate consciousness capable of happiness or misery4 ,but it is not so with a society2 since its living units do not and cannot lose individual consciousness2 and since the community as a whole has no corporate consciousness4 ,and this is an everlasting reason why the welfare of citizens cannot rightly be sacrificed to some supposed benefit of the ,state2 but why1 on the other hand1 the ,state is to be maintained solely for the benefit of citizens4 ,the corporate life must here be subservient to the lives of the parts2 instead of the lives of the parts being subservient to the corporate life4 ,such1 then1 are the points of analogy and the points of difference4 ,may we not say that the points of difference serve but to bring into clearer light the points of analogy4 ,while comparison makes definite the obvious contrasts between organisms commonly so called1 and the social organism2 it shows that even these contrasts are not so decided as was to be expected4 ,the indefiniteness of form1 the discontinuity of the parts1 the mobility of the parts1 and the universal sensitiveness1 are not only peculiarities of the social organism which have to be stated with considerable qualifications2 but they are peculiarities to which the inferior classes of animals present approximations4 ,thus we find but little to conflict with the all-important analogies4 ,that societies slowly augment in mass2 that they progress in complexity of structure2 that at the same time their parts become more mutually dependent2 that their living units are removed and replaced without destroying their integrity2 and further1 that the extents to which they display these peculiarities are proportionate to their vital activities2 are traits that societies have in common with organic bodies4 ,and these traits in which they agree with organic bodies and disagree with all other things--these traits which in truth specially characterize organic bodies1 entirely subordinate the minor distinctions3 such distinctions being scarcely greater than those which separate one half of the organic kingdom from the other4 ,the principles of organization are the same2 and the differences are simply differences of application4 ,here ending this general survey of the facts which justify the comparison of a society to a living body2 let us look at them in detail4 ,we shall find that the parallelism becomes the more marked the more closely it is traced4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the lowest animal and vegetal forms--,protozoa and ,protophyta--are chiefly inhabitants of the water4 ,they are minute bodies1 most of which are made individually visible only by the microscope4 ,all of them are extremely simple in structure2 and some of them1 as the ,rhizopods1 almost structureless4 ,multiplying1 as they ordinarily do1 by the spontaneous division of their bodies1 they produce halves1 which may either become quite separate and move away in different directions1 or may continue attached4 ,by the repetition of this process of fission1 aggregations of various sizes and kinds are formed4 ,among the ,protophyta we have some classes1 as the ,diatomaceae and the ,yeast-plant1 in which the individuals may be either separate1 or attached in groups of two1 three1 four1 or more2 other classes in which a considerable number of individual cells are united into a thread 7,conferva1 ,monilia72 others in which they form a net work 7,hydrodictyon72 others in which they form plates 7,ulva72 and others in which they form masses 7,laminaria1 ,agaricus73 all which vegetal forms1 having no distinction of root1 stem1 or leaf1 are called ,thallogens4 ,among the ,protozoa we find parallel facts4 ,immense numbers of ,amoeba-like creatures1 massed together in a framework of horny fibres1 constitute ,sponge4 ,in the ,foraminifera1 we see smaller groups of such creatures arranged into more definite shapes4 ,not only do these almost structureless ,protozoa unite into regular or irregular aggregations of various sizes2 but among some of the more organized ones1 as the ,vorticellae1 there are also produced clusters of individuals1 proceeding from a common stock4 ,but these little societies of monads1 or cells1 or whatever else we may call them1 are societies only in the lowest sense3 there is no subordination of parts among them--no organization4 ,each of the component units lives by and for itself2 neither giving nor receiving aid4 ,there is no mutual dependence1 save that consequent on mere mechanical union4 ,now do we not here discern analogies to the first stages of human societies8 ,among the lowest races1 as the ,bushmen1 we find but incipient aggregation3 sometimes single families2 sometimes two or three families wandering about together4 ,the number of associated units is small and variable2 and their union inconstant4 ,no division of labour exists except between the sexes2 and the only kind of mutual aid is that of joint attack or defence4 ,we see nothing beyond an undifferentiated group of individuals1 forming the germ of a society2 just as in the homogeneous groups of cells above described1 we see only the initial stage of animal and vegetal organization4 ,the comparison may now be carried a step higher4 ,in the vegetal kingdom we pass from the ,thallogens1 consisting of mere masses of similar cells1 to the ,acrogens1 in which the cells are not similar throughout the whole mass2 but are here aggregated into a structure serving as leaf1 and there into a structure serving as root3 thus forming a whole in which there is a certain subdivision of functions among the units2 and therefore a certain mutual dependence4 ,in the animal kingdom we find analogous progress4 ,from mere unorganized groups of cells1 or cell-like bodies1 we ascend to groups of such cells arranged into parts that have different duties4 ,the common ,polype1 from whose substance may be separated individual cells which exhibit1 when detached1 appearances and movements like those of the solitary ,amoeba1 illustrates this stage4 ,the component units1 though still showing great community of character1 assume somewhat diverse functions in the skin1 in the internal surface1 and in the tentacles4 ,there is a certain amount of physiological division of labour4 ,turning to societies1 we find these stages paralleled in the majority of aboriginal tribes4 ,when1 instead of such small variable groups as are formed by ,bushmen1 we come to the larger and more permanent groups formed by savages not quite so low1 we begin to find traces of social structure4 ,though industrial organization scarcely shows itself1 except in the different occupations of the sexes2 yet there is always more or less of governmental organization4 ,while all the men are warriors and hunters1 only a part of them are included in the council of chiefs2 and in this council of chiefs some one has commonly supreme authority4 ,there is thus a certain distinction of classes and powers2 and through this slight specialization of functions1 is effected a rude co-operation among the increasing mass of individuals1 whenever the society has to act in its corporate capacity4 ,beyond this analogy in the slight extent to which organization is carried1 there is analogy in the indefiniteness of the organization4 ,in the ,hydra1 the respective parts of the creature's substance have many functions in common4 ,they are all contractile2 omitting the tentacles1 the whole of the external surface can give origin to young hydrae2 and when turned inside out1 stomach performs the duties of skin1 and skin the duties of stomach4 ,in aboriginal societies such differentiations as exist are similarly imperfect4 ,notwithstanding distinctions of rank1 all persons maintain themselves by their own exertions4 ,not only do the head men of the tribe1 in common with the rest1 build their own huts1 make their own weapons1 kill their own food2 but the chief does the like4 ,moreover1 in the rudest of these tribes1 such governmental organization as exists is very inconstant4 ,it is frequently changed by violence or treachery1 and the function of ruling assumed by other members of the community4 ,thus between the rudest societies and some of the lowest forms of animal life there is analogy alike in the slight extent to which organization is carried1 in the indefiniteness of this organization1 and in its want of fixity4 ,a further complication of the analogy is at hand4 ,from the aggregation of units into organized groups1 we pass to the multiplication of such groups1 and their coalescence into compound groups4 ,the ,hydra1 when it has reached a certain bulk1 puts forth from its surface a bud1 which1 growing and gradually assuming the form of the parent1 finally becomes detached2 and by this process of gemmation1 the creature peoples the adjacent water with others like itself4 ,a parallel process is seen in the multiplication of those lowly-organized tribes above described4 ,one of them having increased to a size that is either too great for co-ordination under so rude a structure1 or else that is greater than the surrounding country can supply with game and other wild food1 there arises a tendency to divide2 and as in such communities there are ever occurring quarrels1 jealousies1 and other causes of division1 there soon comes an occasion on which a part of the tribe separates under the leadership of some subordinate chief1 and migrates4 ,this process being from time to time repeated1 an extensive region is at length occupied with numerous separate tribes descended from a common ancestry4 ,the analogy by no means ends here4 ,though in the common ,hydra1 the young ones that bud out from the parent soon become detached and independent2 yet throughout the rest of the class ,hydrozoa1 to which this creature belongs1 the like does not generally happen4 ,the successive individuals thus developed continue attached2 give origin to other such individuals which also continue attached2 and so there results a compound animal4 ,as in the ,hydra itself1 we find an aggregation of units which1 considered separately1 are akin to the lowest ,protozoa2 so here1 in a ,zoophyte1 we find an aggregation of such aggregations4 ,the like is also seen throughout the extensive family of ,polyzoa or ,molluscoida4 ,the ,ascidian ,mollusks1 too1 in their many varied forms1 show us the same thing3 exhibiting1 at the same time1 various degrees of union subsisting among the component individuals4 ,for while in the ,salpae the component individuals adhere so slightly that a blow on the vessel of water in which they are floating will separate them2 in the ,botryllidae there exists a vascular connexion between them1 and a common circulation4 ,now in these various forms and degrees of aggregation1 may we not see paralleled the union of groups of connate tribes into nations8 ,though in regions where circumstances permit1 the separate tribes descended from some original tribe1 migrate in all directions1 and become far removed and quite separate2 yet1 in other cases1 where the territory presents barriers to distant migration1 this does not happen3 the small kindred communities are held in closer contact1 and eventually become more or less united into a nation4 ,the contrast between the tribes of ,american ,indians and the ,scottish clans1 illustrates this4 ,and a glance at our own early history1 or the early histories of continental nations1 shows this fusion of small simple communities taking place in various ways and to various extents4 ,as says ,m4 ,guizot1 in his history of ,the ,origin of ,representative ,government1-- ,by degrees1 in the midst of the chaos of the rising society1 small aggregations are formed which feel the want of alliance and union with each other4444 ,soon inequality of strength is displayed among neighbouring aggregations4 ,the strong tend to subjugate the weak1 and usurp at first the rights of taxation and military service4 ,thus political authority leaves the aggregations which first instituted it1 to take a wider range4 ,that is to say1 the small tribes1 clans1 or feudal unions1 sprung mostly from a common stock1 and long held in contact as occupants of adjacent lands1 gradually get united in other ways than by mere adhesion of race and proximity4 ,a further series of changes begins now to take place2 to which1 as before1 we shall find analogies in individual organisms4 ,returning again to the ,hydrozoa1 we observe that in the simplest of the compound forms1 the connected individuals developed from a common stock1 are alike in structure1 and perform like functions3 with the exception1 indeed1 that here and there a bud1 instead of developing into a stomach1 mouth1 and tentacles1 becomes an egg-sac4 ,but with the oceanic ,hydrozoa1 this is by no means the case4 ,in the ,calycophoridae1 some of the polypes growing from the common germ1 become developed and modified into large1 long1 sack-like bodies1 which by their rhythmical contractions move through the water1 dragging the community of polypes after them4 ,in the ,physophoridae1 a variety of organs similarly arise by transformation of the budding polypes2 so that in creatures like the ,physalia1 commonly known as the ,portuguese ,man-of-war1 instead of that tree-like group of similar individuals forming the original type of the class1 we have a complex mass of unlike parts fulfilling unlike duties4 ,as an individual ,hydra may be regarded as a group of ,protozoa1 which have become partially metamorphosed into different organs2 so a ,physalia is1 morphologically considered1 a group of ,hydrae of which the individuals have been variously transformed to fit them for various functions4 ,this differentiation upon differentiation1 is just what takes place in the evolution of a civilized society4 ,we observed how1 in the small communities first formed1 there arises a certain simple political organization--there is a partial separation of classes having different duties4 ,and now we have to observe how1 in a nation formed by the fusion of such small communities1 the several sections1 at first alike in structures and modes of activity1 gradually become unlike in both--gradually become mutually-dependent parts1 diverse in their natures and functions4 ,the doctrine of the progressive division of labour1 to which we are here introduced1 is familiar to all readers4 ,and further1 the analogy between the economical division of labour and the physiological division of labour1 is so striking1 as long since to have drawn the attention of scientific naturalists3 so striking1 indeed1 that the expression physiological division of labour1 has been suggested by it4 ,it is not needful1 therefore1 that we should treat this part of our subject in great detail4 ,we shall content ourselves with noting a few general and significant facts1 not manifest on a first inspection4 ,throughout the whole animal kingdom1 from the ,coelenterata upwards1 the first stage of evolution is the same4 ,equally in the germ of a polype and in the human ovum1 the aggregated mass of cells out of which the creature is to arise1 gives origin to a peripheral layer of cells1 slightly differing from the rest which they include2 and this layer subsequently divides into two--the inner1 lying in contact with the included yelk1 being called the mucous layer1 and the outer1 exposed to surrounding agencies1 being called the serous layer3 or1 in the terms used by ,prof4 ,huxley1 in describing the development of the ,hydrozoa--the endoderm and ectoderm4 ,this primary division marks out a fundamental contrast of parts in the future organism4 ,from the mucous layer1 or endoderm1 is developed the apparatus of nutrition2 while from the serous layer1 or ectoderm1 is developed the apparatus of external action4 ,out of the one arise the organs by which food is prepared and absorbed1 oxygen imbibed1 and blood purified2 while out of the other arise the nervous1 muscular1 and osseous systems1 by whose combined actions the movements of the body as a whole are effected4 ,though this is not a rigorously-correct distinction1 seeing that some organs involve both of these primitive membranes1 yet high authorities agree in stating it as a broad general distinction4 ,well1 in the evolution of a society1 we see a primary differentiation of analogous kind2 which similarly underlies the whole future structure4 ,as already pointed out1 the only manifest contrast of parts in primitive societies1 is that between the governing and the governed4 ,in the least organized tribes1 the council of chiefs may be a body of men distinguished simply by greater courage or experience4 ,in more organized tribes1 the chief-class is definitely separated from the lower class1 and often regarded as different in nature--sometimes as god-descended4 ,and later1 we find these two becoming respectively freemen and slaves1 or nobles and serfs4 ,a glance at their respective functions1 makes it obvious that the great divisions thus early formed1 stand to each other in a relation similar to that in which the primary divisions of the embryo stand to each other4 ,for1 from its first appearance1 the class of chiefs is that by which the external acts of the society are controlled3 alike in war1 in negotiation1 and in migration4 ,afterwards1 while the upper class grows distinct from the lower1 and at the same time becomes more and more exclusively regulative and defensive in its functions1 alike in the persons of kings and subordinate rulers1 priests1 and military leaders2 the inferior class becomes more and more exclusively occupied in providing the necessaries of life for the community at large4 ,from the soil1 with which it comes in most direct contact1 the mass of the people takes up and prepares for use1 the food and such rude articles of manufacture as are known2 while the overlying mass of superior men1 maintained by the working population1 deals with circumstances external to the community--circumstances with which1 by position1 it is more immediately concerned4 ,ceasing by-and-by to have any knowledge of1 or power over1 the concerns of the society as a whole1 the serf-class becomes devoted to the processes of alimentation2 while the noble class1 ceasing to take any part in the processes of alimentation1 becomes devoted to the co-ordinated movements of the entire body politic4 ,equally remarkable is a further analogy of like kind4 ,after the mucous and serous layers of the embryo have separated1 there presently arises between the two1 a third1 known to physiologists as the vascular layer--a layer out of which are developed the chief blood-vessels4 ,the mucous layer absorbs nutriment from the mass of yelk it encloses2 this nutriment has to be transferred to the overlying serous layer1 out of which the nervo-muscular system is being developed2 and between the two arises a vascular system by which the transfer is effected--a system of vessels which continues ever after to be the transferrer of nutriment from the places where it is absorbed and prepared1 to the places where it is needed for growth and repair4 ,well1 may we not trace a parallel step in social progress8 ,between the governing and the governed1 there at first exists no intermediate class2 and even in some societies that have reached considerable sizes1 there are scarcely any but the nobles and their kindred on the one hand1 and the serfs on the other3 the social structure being such1 that the transfer of commodities takes place directly from slaves to their masters4 ,but in societies of a higher type1 there grows up between these two primitive classes1 another--the trading or middle class4 ,equally1 at first as now1 we may see that1 speaking generally1 this middle class is the analogue of the middle layer in the embryo4 ,for all traders are essentially distributors4 ,whether they be wholesale dealers1 who collect into large masses the commodities of various producers2 or whether they be retailers1 who divide out to those who want them1 the masses of commodities thus collected together2 all mercantile men are agents of transfer from the places where things are produced to the places where they are consumed4 ,thus the distributing apparatus of a society1 answers to the distributing apparatus of a living body2 not only in its functions1 but in its intermediate origin and subsequent position1 and in the time of its appearance4 ,without enumerating the minor differentiations which these three great classes afterwards undergo1 we will merely note that throughout1 they follow the same general law with the differentiations of an individual organism4 ,in a society1 as in a rudimentary animal1 we have seen that the most general and broadly contrasted divisions are the first to make their appearance2 and of the subdivisions it continues true in both cases1 that they arise in the order of decreasing generality4 ,let us observe next1 that in the one case as in the other1 the specializations are at first very incomplete2 and become more complete as organization progresses4 ,we saw that in primitive tribes1 as in the simplest animals1 there remains much community of function between the parts that are nominally different--that1 for instance1 the class of chiefs long remain industrially the same as the inferior class2 just as in a ,hydra1 the property of contractility is possessed by the units of the endoderm as well as by those of the ectoderm4 ,we noted also how1 as the society advanced1 the two great primitive classes partook less and less of each other's functions4 ,and we have here to remark1 that all subsequent specializations are at first vague1 and gradually become distinct4 ,in the infancy of society1 says ,m4 ,guizot1 everything is confused and uncertain2 there is as yet no fixed and precise line of demarcation between the different powers in a state4 ,originally kings lived like other landowners1 on the incomes derived from their own private estates4 ,nobles were petty kings2 and kings only the most powerful nobles4 ,bishops were feudal lords and military leaders4 ,the right of coining money was possessed by powerful subjects1 and by the ,church1 as well as by the king4 ,every leading man exercised alike the functions of landowner1 farmer1 soldier1 statesman1 judge4 ,retainers were now soldiers1 and now labourers1 as the day required4 ,but by degrees the ,church has lost all civil jurisdiction2 the ,state has exercised less and less control over religious teaching2 the military class has grown a distinct one2 handicrafts have concentrated in towns2 and the spinning-wheels of scattered farmhouses have disappeared before the machinery of manufacturing districts4 ,not only is all progress from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous2 but at the same time it is from the indefinite to the definite4 ,another fact which should not be passed over1 is that in the evolution of a large society out of an aggregation of small ones1 there is a gradual obliteration of the original lines of separation--a change to which1 also1 we may see analogies in living bodies4 ,throughout the sub-kingdom ,annulosa1 this is clearly and variously illustrated4 ,among the lower types of this sub-kingdom1 the body consists of numerous segments that are alike in nearly every particular4 ,each has its external ring2 its pair of legs1 if the creature has legs2 its equal portion of intestines1 or else its separate stomach2 its equal portion of the great blood-vessel1 or1 in some cases1 its separate heart2 its equal portion of the nervous cord1 and1 perhaps1 its separate pair of ganglia4 ,but in the highest types1 as in the large ,crustacea1 many of the segments are completely fused together2 and the internal organs are no longer uniformly repeated in all the segments4 ,now the segments of which nations at first consist1 lose their separate external and internal structures in a similar manner4 ,in feudal times1 the minor communities governed by feudal lords1 were severally organized in the same rude way2 and were held together only by the fealty of their respective rulers to some suzerain4 ,but along with the growth of a central power1 the demarcations of these local communities disappeared2 and their separate organizations merged into the general organization4 ,the like is seen on a larger scale in the fusion of ,england1 ,wales1 ,scotland1 and ,ireland2 and1 on the ,continent1 in the coalescence of provinces into kingdoms4 ,even in the disappearance of law-made divisions1 the process is analogous4 ,among the ,anglo-,saxons1 ,england was divided into tithings1 hundreds1 and counties3 there were county courts1 courts of hundred1 and courts of tithing4 ,the courts of tithing disappeared first2 then the courts of hundred1 which have1 however1 left traces2 while the county-jurisdiction still exists4 ,but chiefly it is to be noted1 that there eventually grows up an organization which has no reference to these original divisions1 but traverses them in various directions1 as is the case in creatures belonging to the sub-kingdom just named2 and1 further1 that in both cases it is the sustaining organization which thus traverses old boundaries1 while in both cases it is the governmental1 or co-ordinating organization in which the original boundaries continue traceable4 ,thus1 in the highest ,annulosa1 the exo-skeleton and the muscular system1 never lose all traces of their primitive segmentation2 but throughout a great part of the body1 the contained viscera do not in the least conform to the external divisions4 ,similarly1 with a nation1 we see that while1 for governmental purposes1 such divisions as counties and parishes still exist1 the structure developed for carrying on the nutrition of society1 wholly ignores these boundaries3 our great cotton-manufacture spreads out of ,lancashire into ,north ,derbyshire2 ,leicestershire and ,nottinghamshire have long divided the stocking-trade between them2 one great centre for the production of iron and iron-goods1 includes parts of ,warwickshire1 ,staffordshire1 ,worcestershire2 and those various specializations of agriculture which have made different parts of ,england noted for different products1 show no more respect to county-boundaries than do our growing towns to the boundaries of parishes4 ,if1 after contemplating these analogies of structure1 we inquire whether there are any such analogies between the processes of organic change1 the answer is--yes4 ,the causes which lead to increase of bulk in any part of the body politic1 are of like nature with those which lead to increase of bulk in any part of an individual body4 ,in both cases the antecedent is greater functional activity1 consequent on greater demand4 ,each limb1 viscus1 gland1 or other member of an animal1 is developed by exercise--by actively discharging the duties which the body at large requires of it2 and similarly1 any class of labourers or artisans1 any manufacturing centre1 or any official agency1 begins to enlarge when the community devolves on it an increase of work4 ,in each case1 too1 growth has its conditions and its limits4 ,that any organ in a living being may grow by exercise1 there needs a due supply of blood3 all action implies waste2 blood brings the materials for repair2 and before there can be growth1 the quantity of blood supplied must be more than that requisite for repair4 ,so is it in a society4 ,if to some district which elaborates for the community particular commodities--say the woollens of ,yorkshire--there comes an augmented demand2 and if1 in fulfilment of this demand1 a certain expenditure and wear of the manufacturing organization are incurred2 and if1 in payment for the extra supply of woollens sent away1 there comes back only such quantity of commodities as replaces the expenditure1 and makes good the waste of life and machinery2 there can clearly be no growth4 ,that there may be growth1 the commodities obtained in return must be more than sufficient for these ends2 and just in proportion as the surplus is great will the growth be rapid4 ,whence it is manifest that what in commercial affairs we call profit1 answers to the excess of nutrition over waste in a living body4 ,moreover1 in both cases1 when the functional activity is high and the nutrition defective1 there results not growth but decay4 ,if in an animal1 any organ is worked so hard that the channels which bring blood cannot furnish enough for repair1 the organ dwindles2 and if in the body politic1 some part has been stimulated into great productivity1 and cannot afterwards get paid for all its produce1 certain of its members become bankrupt1 and it decreases in size4 ,one more parallelism to be here noted1 is1 that the different parts of the social organism1 like the different parts of an individual organism1 compete for nutriment2 and severally obtain more or less of it according as they are discharging more or less duty4 ,if a man's brain be overexcited1 it will abstract blood from his viscera and stop digestion2 or digestion actively going on1 will so affect the circulation through the brain as to cause drowsiness2 or great muscular exertion will determine such a quantity of blood to the limbs1 as to arrest digestion or cerebral action1 as the case may be4 ,so1 likewise1 in a society1 it frequently happens that great activity in some one direction1 causes partial arrests of activity elsewhere1 by abstracting capital1 that is commodities3 as instance the way in which the sudden development of our railway-system hampered commercial operations2 or the way in which the raising of a large military force temporarily stops the growth of leading industries4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the last few paragraphs introduce the next division of our subject4 ,almost unawares we have come upon the analogy which exists between the blood of a living body1 and the circulating mass of commodities in the body politic4 ,we have now to trace out this analogy from its simplest to its most complex manifestations4 ,in the lowest animals there exists no blood properly so called4 ,through the small aggregation of cells which make up a ,hydra1 permeate the juices absorbed from the food4 ,there is no apparatus for elaborating a concentrated and purified nutriment1 and distributing it among the component units2 but these component units directly imbibe the unprepared nutriment1 either from the digestive cavity or from each other4 ,may we not say that this is what takes place in an aboriginal tribe8 ,all its members severally obtain for themselves the necessaries of life in their crude states2 and severally prepare them for their own uses as well as they can4 ,when there arises a decided differentiation between the governing and the governed1 some amount of transfer begins between those inferior individuals1 who1 as workers1 come directly in contact with the products of the earth1 and those superior ones who exercise the higher functions--a transfer parallel to that which accompanies the differentiation of the ectoderm from the endoderm4 ,in the one case1 as in the other1 however1 it is a transfer of products that are little if at all prepared2 and takes place directly from the unit which obtains to the unit which consumes1 without entering into any general current4 ,passing to larger organisms--individual and social--we find the first advance upon this arrangement4 ,where1 as among the compound ,hydrozoa1 there is an aggregation of many such primitive groups as form ,hydrae2 or where1 as in a ,medusa1 one of these groups has become of great size2 there exist rude channels running throughout the substance of the body3 not however1 channels for the conveyance of prepared nutriment1 but mere prolongations of the digestive cavity1 through which the crude chyle-aqueous fluid reaches the remoter parts1 and is moved backwards and forwards by the creature's contractions4 ,do we not find in some of the more advanced primitive communities1 an analogous condition8 ,when the men1 partially or fully united into one society1 become numerous--when1 as usually happens1 they cover a surface of country not everywhere alike in its products--when1 more especially1 there arise considerable classes that are not industrial2 some process of exchange and distribution inevitably arises4 ,traversing here and there the earth's surface1 covered by that vegetation on which human life depends1 and in which1 as we say1 the units of a society are imbedded1 there are formed indefinite paths1 along which some of the necessaries of life occasionally pass1 to be bartered for others which presently come back along the same channels4 ,note1 however1 that at first little else but crude commodities are thus transferred--fruits1 fish1 pigs or cattle1 skins1 etc43 there are few1 if any1 manufactured products or articles prepared for consumption4 ,and note further1 that such distribution of these unprepared necessaries of life as takes place1 is but occasional--goes on with a certain slow1 irregular rhythm4 ,further progress in the elaboration and distribution of nutriment1 or of commodities1 is a necessary accompaniment of further differentiation of functions in the individual body or in the body politic4 ,as fast as each organ of a living animal becomes confined to a special action1 it must become dependent on the rest for all those materials which its position and duty do not permit it to obtain for itself2 in the same way that1 as fast as each particular class of a community becomes exclusively occupied in producing its own commodity1 it must become dependent on the rest for the other commodities it needs4 ,and1 simultaneously1 a more perfectly-elaborated blood will result from a highly-specialized group of nutritive organs1 severally adapted to prepare its different elements2 in the same way that the stream of commodities circulating throughout a society1 will be of superior quality in proportion to the greater division of labour among the workers4 ,observe1 also1 that in either case the circulating mass of nutritive materials1 besides coming gradually to consist of better ingredients1 also grows more complex4 ,an increase in the number of the unlike organs which add to the blood their waste matters1 and demand from it the different materials they severally need1 implies a blood more heterogeneous in composition--an a priori conclusion which1 according to ,dr4 ,williams1 is inductively confirmed by examination of the blood throughout the various grades of the animal kingdom4 ,and similarly1 it is manifest that as fast as the division of labour among the classes of a community1 becomes greater1 there must be an increasing heterogeneity in the currents of merchandise flowing throughout that community4 ,the circulating mass of nutritive materials in individual organisms and in social organisms1 becoming alike better in the quality of its ingredients and more heterogeneous in composition1 as the type of structure becomes higher2 eventually has added to it in both cases another element1 which is not itself nutritive1 but facilitates the process of nutrition4 ,we refer1 in the case of the individual organism1 to the blood-discs2 and in the case of the social organism1 to money4 ,this analogy has been observed by ,liebig1 who in his ,familiar ,letters on ,chemistry1 says3 ,silver and gold have to perform in the organization of the ,state1 the same function as the blood corpuscles in the human organization4 ,as these round discs1 without themselves taking an immediate share in the nutritive process1 are the medium1 the essential condition of the change of matter1 of the production of the heat1 and of the force by which the temperature of the body is kept up and the motions of the blood and all the juices are determined1 so has gold become the medium of all activity in the life of the ,state4 ,and blood-corpuscles being like money in their functions1 and in the fact that they are not consumed in nutrition1 he further points out1 that the number of them which in a considerable interval flows through the great centres1 is enormous when compared with their absolute number2 just as the quantity of money which annually passes through the great mercantile centres1 is enormous when compared with the total quantity of money in the kingdom4 ,nor is this all4 ,liebig has omitted the significant circumstance1 that only at a certain stage of organization does this element of the circulation make its appearance4 ,throughout extensive divisions of the lower animals1 the blood contains no corpuscles2 and in societies of low civilization1 there is no money4 ,thus far1 we have considered the analogy between the blood in a living body and the consumable and circulating commodities in the body politic4 ,let us now compare the appliances by which they are respectively distributed4 ,we shall find in the development of these appliances1 parallelisms not less remarkable than those above set forth4 ,already we have shown that1 as classes1 wholesale and retail distributors discharge in a society1 the office which the vascular system discharges in an individual creature2 that they come into existence later than the other two great classes1 as the vascular layer appears later than the mucous and serous layers2 and that they occupy a like intermediate position4 ,here1 however1 it remains to be pointed out that a complete conception of the circulating system in a society1 includes not only the active human agents who propel the currents of commodities1 and regulate their distribution2 but includes1 also1 the channels of communication4 ,it is the formation and arrangement of these1 to which we now direct attention4 ,going back once more to those lower animals in which there is found nothing but a partial diffusion1 not of blood1 but only of crude nutritive fluids1 it is to be remarked that the channels through which the diffusion takes place1 are mere excavations through the half-organized substance of the body3 they have no lining membranes1 but are mere lacunae traversing a rude tissue4 ,now countries in which civilization is but commencing1 display a like condition3 there are no roads properly so called2 but the wilderness of vegetal life covering the earth's surface1 is pierced by tracks1 through which the distribution of crude commodities takes place4 ,and while in both cases1 the acts of distribution occur only at long intervals 7the currents1 after a pause1 now setting towards a general centre1 and now away from it71 the transfer is in both cases slow and difficult4 ,but among other accompaniments of progress1 common to animals and societies1 comes the formation of more definite and complete channels of communication4 ,blood-vessels acquire distinct walls2 roads are fenced and gravelled4 ,this advance is first seen in those roads or vessels that are nearest to the chief centres of distribution2 while the peripheral roads and peripheral vessels1 long continue in their primitive states4 ,at a yet later stage of development1 where comparative finish of structure is found throughout the system as well as near the chief centres1 there remains in both cases the difference1 that the main channels are comparatively broad and straight1 while the subordinate ones are narrow and tortuous in proportion to their remoteness4 ,lastly1 it is to be remarked that there ultimately arise in the higher social organisms1 as in the higher individual organisms1 main channels of distribution still more distinguished by their perfect structures1 their comparative straightness1 and the absence of those small branches which the minor channels perpetually give off4 ,and in railways we also see1 for the first time in the social organism1 a specialization with respect to the directions of the currents--a system of double channels conveying currents in opposite directions1 as do the arteries and veins of a well-developed animal4 ,these parallelisms in the evolutions and structures of the circulating systems1 introduce us to others in the kinds and rates of the movements going on through them4 ,in the lowest societies1 as in the lowest creatures1 the distribution of crude nutriment is by slow gurgitations and regurgitations4 ,in creatures that have rude vascular systems1 as in societies that are beginning to have roads and some transfer of commodities along them1 there is no regular circulation in definite courses2 but instead1 periodical changes of the currents--now towards this point1 and now towards that4 ,through each part of an inferior mollusk's body1 the blood flows for a while in one direction1 then stops1 and flows in the opposite direction2 just as through a rudely-organized society1 the distribution of merchandise is slowly carried on by great fairs1 occurring in different localities1 to and from which the currents periodically set4 ,only animals of tolerably complete organizations1 like advanced communities1 are permeated by constant currents that are definitely directed4 ,in living bodies1 the local and variable currents disappear when there grow up great centres of circulation1 generating more powerful currents1 by a rhythm which ends in a quick1 regular pulsation4 ,and when in social bodies1 there arise great centres of commercial activity1 producing and exchanging large quantities of commodities1 the rapid and continuous streams drawn in and emitted by these centres1 subdue all minor and local circulations3 the slow rhythm of fairs merges into the faster one of weekly markets1 and in the chief centres of distribution1 weekly markets merge into daily markets2 while in place of the languid transfer from place to place1 taking place at first weekly1 then twice or thrice a week1 we by-and-by get daily transfer1 and finally transfer many times a day--the original sluggish1 irregular rhythm1 becomes a rapid1 equable pulse4 ,mark1 too1 that in both cases the increased activity1 like the greater perfection of structure1 is much less conspicuous at the periphery of the vascular system4 ,on main lines of railway1 we have1 perhaps1 a score trains in each direction daily1 going at from thirty to fifty miles an hour2 as1 through the great arteries1 the blood rushes rapidly in successive gushes4 ,along high roads1 there move vehicles conveying men and commodities with much less1 though still considerable1 speed1 and with a much less decided rhythm2 as1 in the smaller arteries1 the speed of the blood is greatly diminished1 and the pulse less conspicuous4 ,in parish-roads1 narrow1 less complete1 and more tortuous1 the rate of movement is further decreased and the rhythm scarcely traceable2 as in the ultimate arteries4 ,in those still more imperfect by-roads which lead from these parish-roads to scattered farmhouses and cottages1 the motion is yet slower and very irregular2 just as we find it in the capillaries4 ,while along the field-roads1 which1 in their unformed1 unfenced state1 are typical of lacunae1 the movement is the slowest1 the most irregular1 and the most infrequent2 as it is1 not only in the primitive lacunae of animals1 and societies1 but as it is also in those lacunae in which the vascular system ends among extensive families of inferior creatures4 ,thus1 then1 we find between the distributing systems of living bodies and the distributing systems of bodies politic1 wonderfully close parallelisms4 ,in the lowest forms of individual and social organisms1 there exist neither prepared nutritive matters nor distributing appliances2 and in both1 these1 arising as necessary accompaniments of the differentiation of parts1 approach perfection as this differentiation approaches completeness4 ,in animals1 as in societies1 the distributing agencies begin to show themselves at the same relative periods1 and in the same relative positions4 ,in the one1 as in the other1 the nutritive materials circulated1 are at first crude and simple1 gradually become better elaborated and more heterogeneous1 and have eventually added to them a new element facilitating the nutritive processes4 ,the channels of communication pass through similar phases of development1 which bring them to analogous forms4 ,and the directions1 rhythms1 and rates of circulation1 progress by like steps to like final conditions4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we come at length to the nervous system4 ,having noticed the primary differentiation of societies into the governing and governed classes1 and observed its analogy to the differentiation of the two primary tissues which respectively develope into organs of external action and organs of alimentation2 having noticed some of the leading analogies between the development of industrial arrangements and that of the alimentary apparatus2 and having1 above1 more fully traced the analogies between the distributing systems1 social and individual2 we have now to compare the appliances by which a society1 as a whole1 is regulated1 with those by which the movements of an individual creature are regulated4 ,we shall find here1 parallelisms equally striking with those already detailed4 ,the class out of which governmental organization originates1 is1 as we have said1 analogous in its relations to the ectoderm of the lowest animals and of embryonic forms4 ,and as this primitive membrane1 out of which the nervo-muscular system is evolved1 must1 even in the first stage of its differentiation1 be slightly distinguished from the rest by that greater impressibility and contractility characterizing the organs to which it gives rise2 so1 in that superior class which is eventually transformed into the directo-executive system of a society 7its legislative and defensive appliances71 does there exist in the beginning1 a larger endowment of the capacities required for these higher social functions4 ,always1 in rude assemblages of men1 the strongest1 most courageous1 and most sagacious1 become rulers and leaders2 and1 in a tribe of some standing1 this results in the establishment of a dominant class1 characterized on the average by those mental and bodily qualities which fit them for deliberation and vigorous combined action4 ,thus that greater impressibility and contractility1 which in the rudest animal types characterize the units of the ectoderm1 characterize also the units of the primitive social ectoderm2 since impressibility and contractility are the respective roots of intelligence and strength4 ,again1 in the unmodified ectoderm1 as we see it in the ,hydra1 the units are all endowed both with impressibility and contractility2 but as we ascend to higher types of organization1 the ectoderm differentiates into classes of units which divide those two functions between them3 some1 becoming exclusively impressible1 cease to be contractile2 while some1 becoming exclusively contractile1 cease to be impressible4 ,similarly with societies4 ,in an aboriginal tribe1 the directive and executive functions are diffused in a mingled form throughout the whole governing class4 ,each minor chief commands those under him1 and if need be1 himself coerces them into obedience4 ,the council of chiefs itself carries out on the battle-field its own decisions4 ,the head chief not only makes laws1 but administers justice with his own hands4 ,in larger and more settled communities1 however1 the directive and executive agencies begin to grow distinct from each other4 ,as fast as his duties accumulate1 the head chief or king confines himself more and more to directing public affairs1 and leaves the execution of his will to others3 he deputes others to enforce submission1 to inflict punishments1 or to carry out minor acts of offence and defence2 and only on occasions when1 perhaps1 the safety of the society and his own supremacy are at stake1 does he begin to act as well as direct4 ,as this differentiation establishes itself1 the characteristics of the ruler begin to change4 ,no longer1 as in an aboriginal tribe1 the strongest and most daring man1 the tendency is for him to become the man of greatest cunning1 foresight1 and skill in the management of others2 for in societies that have advanced beyond the first stage1 it is chiefly such qualities that insure success in gaining supreme power1 and holding it against internal and external enemies4 ,thus that member of the governing class who comes to be the chief directing agent1 and so plays the same part that a rudimentary nervous centre does in an unfolding organism1 is usually one endowed with some superiorities of nervous organization4 ,in those somewhat larger and more complex communities possessing1 perhaps1 a separate military class1 a priesthood1 and dispersed masses of population requiring local control1 there necessarily grow up subordinate governing agents2 who as their duties accumulate1 severally become more directive and less executive in their characters4 ,and when1 as commonly happens1 the king begins to collect round himself advisers who aid him by communicating information1 preparing subjects for his judgment1 and issuing his orders2 we may say that the form of organization is comparable to one very general among inferior types of animals1 in which there exists a chief ganglion with a few dispersed minor ganglia under its control4 ,the analogies between the evolution of governmental structures in societies1 and the evolution of governmental structures in living bodies1 are1 however1 more strikingly displayed during the formation of nations by the coalescence of small communities--a process already shown to be1 in several respects1 parallel to the development of those creatures that primarily consist of many like segments4 ,among other points of community between the successive rings which make up the body in the lower ,articulata1 is the possession of similar pairs of ganglia4 ,these pairs of ganglia1 though united together by nerves1 are very incompletely dependent on any general controlling power4 ,hence it results that when the body is cut in two1 the hinder part continues to move forward under the propulsion of its numerous legs2 and that when the chain of ganglia has been divided without severing the body1 the hind limbs may be seen trying to propel the body in one direction1 while the fore limbs are trying to propel it in another4 ,among the higher ,articulata1 however1 a number of the anterior pairs of ganglia1 besides growing larger1 unite in one mass2 and this great cephalic ganglion1 becoming the co-ordinator of all the creature's movements1 there no longer exists much local independence4 ,now may we not in the growth of a consolidated kingdom out of petty sovereignties or baronies1 observe analogous changes8 ,like the chiefs and primitive rulers above described1 feudal lords1 exercising supreme power over their respective groups of retainers1 discharge functions analogous to those of rudimentary nervous centres2 and we know that at first they1 like their analogues1 are distinguished by superiorities of directive and executive organization4 ,among these local governing centres1 there is1 in early feudal times1 very little subordination4 ,they are in frequent antagonism2 they are individually restrained chiefly by the influence of large parties in their own class2 and are but imperfectly and irregularly subject to that most powerful member of their order who has gained the position of head suzerain or king4 ,as the growth and organization of the society progresses1 these local directive centres fall more and more under the control of a chief directive centre4 ,closer commercial union between the several segments1 is accompanied by closer governmental union2 and these minor rulers end in being little more than agents who administer1 in their several localities1 the laws made by the supreme ruler3 just as the local ganglia above described1 eventually become agents which enforce1 in their respective segments1 the orders of the cephalic ganglion4 ,the parallelism holds still further4 ,we remarked above1 when speaking of the rise of aboriginal kings1 that in proportion as their territories and duties increase1 they are obliged not only to perform their executive functions by deputy1 but also to gather round themselves advisers to aid them in their directive functions2 and that thus1 in place of a solitary governing unit1 there grows up a group of governing units1 comparable to a ganglion consisting of many cells4 ,let us here add1 that the advisers1 and chief officers who thus form the rudiment of a ministry1 tend from the beginning to exercise a certain control over the ruler4 ,by the information they give and the opinions they express1 they sway his judgment and affect his commands4 ,to this extent he therefore becomes a channel through which are communicated the directions originating with them2 and in course of time1 when the advice of ministers becomes the acknowledged source of his actions1 the king assumes very much the character of an automatic centre1 reflecting the impressions made on him from without4 ,beyond this complication of governmental structure1 many societies do not progress2 but in some1 a further development takes place4 ,our own case best illustrates this further development1 and its further analogies4 ,to kings and their ministries have been added1 in ,england1 other great directive centres1 exercising a control which1 at first small1 has been gradually becoming predominant3 as with the great governing ganglia that especially distinguish the highest classes of living beings4 ,strange as the assertion will be thought1 our ,houses of ,parliament discharge in the social economy1 functions that are in sundry respects comparable to those discharged by the cerebral masses in a vertebrate animal4 ,as it is in the nature of a single ganglion to be affected only by special stimuli from particular parts of the body2 so it is in the nature of a single ruler to be swayed in his acts by exclusive personal or class interests4 ,as it is in the nature of an aggregation of ganglia1 connected with the primary one1 to convey to it a greater variety of influences from more numerous organs1 and thus to make its acts conform to more numerous requirements2 so it is in the nature of a king surrounded by subsidiary controlling powers1 to adapt his rule to a greater number of public exigencies4 ,and as it is in the nature of those great and latest-developed ganglia which distinguish the higher animals1 to interpret and combine the multiplied and varied impressions conveyed to them from all parts of the system1 and to regulate the actions in such way as duly to regard them all2 so it is in the nature of those great and latest-developed legislative bodies which distinguish the most advanced societies1 to interpret and combine the wishes and complaints of all classes and localities1 and to regulate public affairs as much as possible in harmony with the general wants4 ,the cerebrum co-ordinates the countless heterogeneous considerations which affect the present and future welfare of the individual as a whole2 and the legislature co-ordinates the countless heterogeneous considerations which affect the immediate and remote welfare of the whole community4 ,we may describe the office of the brain as that of averaging the interests of life1 physical1 intellectual1 moral1 social2 and a good brain is one in which the desires answering to these respective interests are so balanced1 that the conduct they jointly dictate1 sacrifices none of them4 ,similarly1 we may describe the office of a ,parliament as that of averaging the interests of the various classes in a community2 and a good ,parliament is one in which the parties answering to these respective interests are so balanced1 that their united legislation concedes to each class as much as consists with the claims of the rest4 ,besides being comparable in their duties1 these great directive centres1 social and individual1 are comparable in the processes by which their duties are discharged4 ,it is now an acknowledged truth in psychology1 that the cerebrum is not occupied with direct impressions from without1 but with the ideas of such impressions3 instead of the actual sensations produced in the body1 and directly appreciated by the sensory ganglia or primitive nervous centres1 the cerebrum receives only the representations of these sensations2 and its consciousness is called representative consciousness1 to distinguish it from the original or presentative consciousness4 ,is it not significant that we have hit on the same word to distinguish the function of our ,house of ,commons8 ,we call it a representative body1 because the interests with which it deals--the pains and pleasures about which it consults--are not directly presented to it1 but represented to it by its various members2 and a debate is a conflict of representations of the evils or benefits likely to follow from a proposed course--a description which applies with equal truth to a debate in the individual consciousness4 ,in both cases1 too1 these great governing masses take no part in the executive functions4 ,as1 after a conflict in the cerebrum1 those desires which finally predominate1 act on the subjacent ganglia1 and through their instrumentality determine the bodily actions2 so the parties which1 after a parliamentary struggle1 gain the victory1 do not themselves carry out their wishes1 but get them carried out by the executive divisions of the ,government4 ,the fulfilment of all legislative decisions still devolves on the original directive centres--the impulse passing from the ,parliament to the ,ministers1 and from the ,ministers to the ,king1 in whose name everything is done2 just as those smaller1 first-developed ganglia1 which in the lowest vertebrata are the chief controlling agents1 are still1 in the brains of the higher vertebrata1 the agents through which the dictates of the cerebrum are worked out4 ,moreover1 in both cases these original centres become increasingly automatic4 ,in the developed vertebrate animal1 they have little function beyond that of conveying impressions to1 and executing the determinations of1 the larger centres4 ,in our highly organized government1 the monarch has long been lapsing into a passive agent of ,parliament2 and now1 ministers are rapidly falling into the same position4 ,nay1 between the two cases there is a parallelism1 even in respect of the exceptions to this automatic action4 ,for in the individual creature1 it happens that under circumstances of sudden alarm1 as from a loud sound close at hand1 an unexpected object starting up in front1 or a slip from insecure footing1 the danger is guarded against by some quick involuntary jump1 or adjustment of the limbs1 that takes place before there is time to consider the impending evil1 and take deliberate measures to avoid it3 the rationale of which is1 that these violent impressions produced on the senses1 are reflected from the sensory ganglia to the spinal cord and muscles1 without1 as in ordinary cases1 first passing through the cerebrum4 ,in like manner1 on national emergencies1 calling for prompt action1 the ,king and ,ministry1 not having time to lay the matter before the great deliberative bodies1 themselves issue commands for the requisite movements or precautions3 the primitive1 and now almost automatic1 directive centres1 resume for a moment their original uncontrolled power4 ,and then1 strangest of all1 observe that in either case there is an afterprocess of approval or disapproval4 ,the individual on recovering from his automatic start1 at once contemplates the cause of his fright2 and1 according to the case1 concludes that it was well he moved as he did1 or condemns himself for his groundless alarm4 ,in like manner1 the deliberative powers of the ,state1 discuss1 as soon as may be1 the unauthorized acts of the executive powers2 and1 deciding that the reasons were or were not sufficient1 grant or withhold a bill of indemnity4,v ,v ,it may be well to warn the reader against an error fallen into by one who criticised this essay on its first publication--the error of supposing that the analogy here intended to be drawn1 is a specific analogy between the organization of society in ,england1 and the human organization4 ,as said at the outset1 no such specific analogy exists4 ,the above parallel1 is one between the most-developed systems of governmental organization1 individual and social2 and the vertebrate type is instanced1 merely as exhibiting this most-developed system4 ,if any specific comparison were made1 which it cannot rationally be1 it would be to some much lower vertebrate form than the human4 ,thus far in comparing the governmental organization of the body politic with that of an individual body1 we have considered only the respective co-ordinating centres4 ,we have yet to consider the channels through which these co-ordinating centres receive information and convey commands4 ,in the simplest societies1 as in the simplest organisms1 there is no internuncial apparatus1 as ,hunter styled the nervous system4 ,consequently1 impressions can be but slowly propagated from unit to unit throughout the whole mass4 ,the same progress1 however1 which1 in animal-organization1 shows itself in the establishment of ganglia or directive centres1 shows itself also in the establishment of nerve-threads1 through which the ganglia receive and convey impressions1 and so control remote organs4 ,and in societies the like eventually takes place4 ,after a long period during which the directive centres communicate with various parts of the society through other means1 there at last comes into existence an internuncial apparatus1 analogous to that found in individual bodies4 ,the comparison of telegraph-wires to nerves1 is familiar to all4 ,it applies1 however1 to an extent not commonly supposed4 ,we do not refer to the near alliance between the subtle forces employed in the two cases2 though it is now held that the nerve-force1 if not literally electric1 is still a special form of electric action1 related to the ordinary form much as magnetism is4 ,but we refer to the structural arrangements of our telegraph-system4 ,thus1 throughout the vertebrate sub-kingdom1 the great nerve-bundles diverge from the vertebrate axis1 side by side with the great arteries2 and similarly1 our groups of telegraph-wires are carried along the sides of our railways4 ,the most striking parallelism1 however1 remains4 ,into each great bundle of nerves1 as it leaves the axis of the body along with an artery1 there enters a branch of the sympathetic nerve2 which branch1 accompanying the artery throughout its ramifications1 has the function of regulating its diameter and otherwise controlling the flow of blood through it according to the local requirements4 ,analogously1 in the group of telegraph-wires running alongside each railway1 there is one for the purpose of regulating the traffic--for retarding or expediting the flow of passengers and commodities1 as the local conditions demand4 ,probably1 when our now rudimentary telegraph-system is fully developed1 other analogies will be traceable4 ,such1 then1 is a general outline of the evidence which justifies1 in detail1 the comparison of societies to living organisms4 ,that they gradually increase in mass2 that they become little by little more complex2 that at the same time their parts grow more mutually dependent2 and that they continue to live and grow as wholes1 while successive generations of their units appear and disappear2 are broad peculiarities which bodies politic display1 in common with all living bodies2 and in which they and living bodies differ from everything else4 ,and on carrying out the comparison in detail1 we find that these major analogies involve many minor analogies1 far closer than might have been expected4 ,to these we would gladly have added others4 ,we had hoped to say something respecting the different types of social organization1 and something also on social metamorphoses2 but we have reached our assigned limits4 ,,xi4 ,,use ,,and ,,beauty ,in one of his essays1 ,emerson remarks1 that what ,nature at one time provides for use1 she afterwards turns to ornament2 and he cites in illustration the structure of a sea-shell1 in which the parts that have for a while formed the mouth are at the next season of growth left behind1 and become decorative nodes and spines4 ,it has often occurred to me that this same remark might be extended to the progress of ,humanity4 ,here1 too1 the appliances of one era serve as embellishments to the next4 ,equally in institutions1 creeds1 customs1 and superstitions1 we may trace this evolution of beauty out of what was once purely utilitarian4 ,the contrast between the feeling with which we regard portions of the ,earth's surface still left in their original state1 and the feeling with which the savage regarded them1 is an instance that naturally comes first in order of time4 ,if any one walking over ,hampstead ,heath1 will note how strongly its picturesqueness is brought out by contrast with the surrounding cultivated fields and the masses of houses lying in the distance2 and will further reflect that1 had this irregular gorse-covered surface extended on all sides to the horizon1 it would have looked dreary and prosaic rather than pleasing2 he will see that to the primitive man a country so clothed presented no beauty at all4 ,to him it was merely a haunt of wild animals1 and a ground out of which roots might be dug4 ,what have become for us places of relaxation and enjoyment--places for afternoon strolls and for gathering flowers--were his places for labour and food1 probably arousing in his mind none but utilitarian associations4 ,ruined castles afford an obvious instance of this metamorphosis of the useful into the beautiful4 ,to feudal barons and their retainers1 security was the chief1 if not the only end1 sought in choosing the sites and styles of their strongholds4 ,probably they aimed as little at the picturesque as do the builders of cheap brick houses in our modern towns4 ,yet what where erected for shelter and safety1 and what in those early days fulfilled an important function in the social economy1 have now assumed a purely ornamental character4 ,they serve as scenes for picnics2 pictures of them decorate our drawing-rooms2 and each supplies its surrounding districts with legends for ,christmas ,eve4 ,following out the train of thought suggested by this last illustration1 we may see that not only do the material exuviae of past social states become the ornaments of our landscapes2 but that past habits1 manners1 and arrangements1 serve as ornamental elements in our literature4 ,the tyrannies that1 to the serfs who bore them1 were harsh and dreary facts2 the feuds which1 to those who took part in them1 were very practical life-and-death affairs2 the mailed1 moated1 sentinelled security that was irksome to the nobles who needed it2 the imprisonments1 and tortures1 and escapes1 which were stern and quite prosaic realities to all concerned in them2 have become to us material for romantic tales--material which when woven into ,ivanhoes and ,marmions1 serves for amusement in leisure hours1 and become poetical by contrast with our daily lives4 ,thus1 also1 is it with extinct creeds4 ,stonehenge1 which in the hands of the ,druids had a governmental influence over men1 is in our day a place for antiquarian excursions2 and its attendant priests are worked up into an opera4 ,greek sculptures1 preserved for their beauty in our galleries of art1 and copied for the decoration of pleasure grounds and entrance halls1 once lived in men's minds as gods demanding obedience2 as did also the grotesque idols that now amuse the visitors to our museums4 ,equally marked is this change of function in the case of minor superstitions4 ,the fairy lore1 which in past times was matter of grave belief1 and held sway over people's conduct1 has since been transformed into ornament for ,a ,midsummer ,night's ,dream1 ,the ,tempest1 ,the ,fairy ,queen1 and endless small tales and poems2 and still affords subjects for children's story-books1 themes for ballets1 and plots for ,planche's burlesques4 ,gnomes1 and genii1 and afrits1 losing all their terrors1 give piquancy to the woodcuts in our illustrated edition of the ,arabian ,nights4 ,while ghost-stories1 and tales of magic and witchcraft1 after serving to amuse boys and girls in their leisure hours1 become matter for jocose allusions that enliven tea-table conversation4 ,even our serious literature and our speeches are very generally relieved by ornaments drawn from such sources4 ,a ,greek myth is often used as a parallel by which to vary the monotony of some grave argument4 ,the lecturer breaks the dead level of his practical discourse by illustrations drawn from bygone customs1 events1 or beliefs4 ,and metaphors1 similarly derived1 give brilliancy to political orations1 and to ,times leading articles4 ,indeed1 on careful inquiry1 ,i think it will be found that we turn to purposes of beauty most bygone phenomena that are at all conspicuous4 ,the busts of great men in our libraries1 and their tombs in our churches2 the once useful but now purely ornamental heraldic symbols2 the monks1 nuns1 and convents1 that give interest to a certain class of novels2 the bronze mediaeval soldiers used for embellishing drawing-rooms2 the gilt ,apollos that recline on time-pieces2 the narratives that serve as plots for our great dramas2 and the events that afford subjects for historical pictures2--these and such like illustrations of the metamorphosis of the useful into the beautiful1 are so numerous as to suggest that1 did we search diligently enough1 we should find that in some place1 or under some circumstances1 nearly every notable product of the past has assumed a decorative character4 ,and here the mention of historical pictures reminds me that an inference may be drawn from all this1 bearing directly on the practice of art4 ,it has of late years been a frequent criticism upon our historical painters1 that they err in choosing their subjects from the past2 and that1 would they found a genuine and vital school1 they must render on canvas the life and deeds and aims of our own time4 ,if1 however1 there be any significance in the foregoing facts1 it seems doubtful whether this criticism is a just one4 ,for if it be the process of things1 that what has performed some practical function in society during one era1 becomes available for ornament in a subsequent one2 it almost follows that1 conversely1 whatever is performing some practical function now1 or has very recently performed one1 does not possess the ornamental character2 and is1 consequently1 inapplicable to any purpose of which beauty is the aim1 or of which it is a needful ingredient4 ,still more reasonable will this conclusion appear1 when we consider the nature of this process by which the useful is changed into the ornamental4 ,an essential pre-requisite to all beauty is contrast4 ,to obtain artistic effect1 light must be put in juxtaposition with shade1 bright colours with dull colours1 a fretted surface with a plain one4 ,forte passages in music must have piano passages to relieve them2 concerted pieces need interspersing with solos2 and rich chords must not be continuously repeated4 ,in the drama we demand contrast of characters1 of scenes1 of sentiment1 of style4 ,in prose composition an eloquent passage should have a comparatively plain setting2 and in poems great effect is obtained by occasional change of versification4 ,this general principle will1 ,i think1 explain the transformation of the bygone useful into the present beautiful4 ,it is by virtue of their contrast with our present modes of life1 that past modes of life look interesting and romantic4 ,just as a picnic1 which is a temporary return to an aboriginal condition1 derives1 from its unfamiliarity1 a certain poetry which it would not have were it habitual2 so1 everything ancient gains1 from its relative novelty to us1 an element of interest4 ,gradually as1 by the growth of society1 we leave behind the customs1 manners1 arrangements1 and all the products1 material and mental1 of a bygone age--gradually as we recede from these so far that there arises a conspicuous difference between them and those we are familiar with2 so gradually do they begin to assume to us a poetical aspect1 and become applicable for ornament4 ,and hence it follows that things and events which are close to us1 and which are accompanied by associations of ideas not markedly contrasted with our ordinary associations are relatively inappropriate for purposes of art4 ,,xii4 ,,the ,,sources ,,of ,,architectural ,,types4 ,when lately looking through the gallery of the ,old ,water-,colour ,society1 ,i was struck with the incongruity produced by putting regular architecture into irregular scenery4 ,in one case1 where the artist had introduced a perfectly symmetrical ,grecian edifice into a mountainous and somewhat wild landscape1 the discordant effect was particularly marked4 ,how very unpicturesque1 said a lady to her friend1 as they passed2 showing that ,i was not alone in my opinion4 ,her phrase1 however1 set me speculating4 ,why unpicturesque8 ,picturesque means1 like a picture--like what men choose for pictures4 ,why then should this be not fit for a picture8 ,thinking the matter over1 it seemed to me that the artist had sinned against that unity which is essential to a good picture4 ,when the other constituents of a landscape have irregular forms1 any artificial structure introduced must have an irregular form1 that it may seem part of the landscape4 ,the same general character must pervade it and surrounding objects2 otherwise it1 and the scene amid which it stands1 become not one thing but two things2 and we say it looks out of place4 ,or1 speaking psychologically1 the associated ideas called up by a building with its wings1 windows1 and all its parts symmetrically disposed1 differ widely from the ideas associated with an entirely irregular landscape2 and the one set of ideas tends to banish the other4 ,pursuing the train of thought1 sundry illustrative facts came to my mind4 ,i remembered that a castle1 which is more irregular in outline than any other kind of building1 pleases us most when seated amid crags and precipices2 while a castle on a plain seems an incongruity4 ,the partly-regular and partly-irregular forms of our old farm-houses1 and our gabled gothic manors and abbeys1 appear quite in harmony with an undulating1 wooded country4 ,in towns we prefer symmetrical architecture2 and in towns it produces in us no feeling of incongruity1 because all surrounding things--men1 horses1 vehicles--are symmetrical also4 ,and here ,i was reminded of a notion that has frequently recurred to me2 namely1 that there is some relationship between the several kinds of architecture and the several classes of natural objects4 ,buildings in the ,greek and ,roman styles seem1 in virtue of their symmetry1 to take their type from animal life4 ,in the partly-irregular ,gothic1 ideas derived from the vegetable world appear to predominate4 ,and wholly irregular buildings1 such as castles1 may be considered as having inorganic forms for their basis4 ,whimsical as this speculation looks at first sight1 it is countenanced by numerous facts4 ,the connexion between symmetrical architecture and animal forms1 may be inferred from the kind of symmetry we expect1 and are satisfied with1 in regular buildings4 ,thus in a ,greek temple we require that the front shall be symmetrical in itself1 and that the two flanks shall be alike2 but we do not look for uniformity between the flanks and the front1 nor between the front and the back4 ,the identity of this symmetry with that found in animals is obvious4 ,again1 why is it that a building making any pretension to symmetry displeases us if not quite symmetrical8 ,probably the reply will be--,because we see that the designer's idea is not fully carried out2 and that hence our love of completeness is offended4 ,but then there come the further questions--,how do we know that the architect's conception was symmetrical8 ,whence comes this notion of symmetry which we have1 and which we attribute to him8 ,unless we fall back upon the old doctrine of innate ideas1 we must admit that the idea of bilateral symmetry is derived from without2 and to admit this is to admit that it is derived from the higher animals4 ,that there is some relationship between ,gothic architecture and vegetable forms is a position generally admitted4 ,the often-remarked analogy between a groined nave and an avenue of trees with interlacing branches1 shows that the fact has forced itself on men's observation4 ,it is not only in this analogy1 however1 that the kinship is seen4 ,it is seen still better in the essential characteristic of ,gothic2 namely1 what is termed its aspiring tendency4 ,that predominance of vertical lines which so strongly distinguishes ,gothic from other styles1 is the most marked peculiarity of trees1 when compared with animals or rocks4 ,to persons of active imagination1 a tall ,gothic tower1 with its elongated apertures and clusters of thin projections running from bottom to top1 suggests a vague notion of growth4 ,of the alleged connexion between inorganic forms and the wholly irregular and the castellated styles of building1 we have1 ,i think1 some proof in the fact that when an edifice is irregular1 the more irregular it is the more it pleases us4 ,i see no way of accounting for this fact1 save by supposing that the greater the irregularity the more strongly are we reminded of the inorganic forms typified1 and the more vividly are aroused the agreeable ideas of rugged and romantic scenery associated with those forms4 ,further evidence of these several relationships of styles of architecture to classes of natural objects1 is supplied by the kinds of decoration they respectively represent4 ,the public buildings of ,greece1 while characterized in their outlines by the bilateral symmetry seen in the higher animals1 have their pediments and entablatures covered with sculptured men and beasts4 ,egyptian temples and ,assyrian palaces1 while similarly symmetrical in their general plan1 are similarly ornamented on their walls and at their doors4 ,in ,gothic1 again1 with its grove-like ranges of clustered columns1 we find rich foliated ornaments abundantly employed4 ,and accompanying the totally irregular1 inorganic outlines of old castles1 we see neither vegetable nor animal decorations4 ,the bare1 rock-like walls are surmounted by battlements1 consisting of almost plain blocks1 which remind us of the projections on the edge of a rugged cliff4 ,but perhaps the most significant fact is the harmony that may be observed between each type of architecture and the scenes in which it is indigenous4 ,for what is the explanation of this harmony1 unless it be that the predominant character of surrounding things has1 in some way1 determined the mode of building adopted8 ,that the harmony exists is clear4 ,equally in the cases of ,egypt1 ,assyria1 ,greece1 and ,rome1 town life preceded the construction of the symmetrical buildings that have come down to us4 ,and town life is one in which1 as already observed1 the majority of familiar objects are symmetrical4 ,we instinctively feel the naturalness of this association4 ,out amid the fields1 a formal house1 with a central door flanked by an equal number of windows to right and left1 strikes us as unrural--looks as though transplanted from a street2 and we cannot look at one of those stuccoed villas1 with mock windows carefully arranged to balance the real ones1 without being reminded of the suburban residence of a retired tradesman4 ,in styles indigenous in the country1 we not only find the general irregularity characteristic of surrounding things1 but we may trace some kinship between each kind of irregularity and the local circumstances4 ,we see the broken rocky masses amid which castles are commonly placed1 mirrored in their stern1 inorganic forms4 ,in abbeys1 and such-like buildings1 which are commonly found in comparatively sheltered districts1 we find no such violent dislocations of masses and outlines2 and the nakedness appropriate to the fortress is replaced by decorations reflecting the neighbouring woods4 ,between a ,swiss cottage and a ,swiss view there is an evident relationship4 ,the angular roof1 so bold and so disproportionately large when compared to other roofs1 reminds one of the adjacent mountain peaks2 and the broad overhanging eaves have a sweep and inclination like those of the lower branches of a pine tree4 ,consider1 too1 the apparent kinship between the flat roofs that prevail in ,eastern cities1 interspersed with occasional minarets1 and the plains that commonly surround them1 dotted here and there by palm trees4 ,you cannot contemplate a picture of one of these places1 without being struck by the predominance of horizontal lines1 and their harmony with the wide stretch of the landscape4 ,that the congruity here pointed out should hold in every case must not be expected4 ,the ,pyramids1 for example1 do not seem to come under this generalization4 ,their repeated horizontal lines do indeed conform to the flatness of the neighbouring desert2 but their general contour seems to have no adjacent analogue4 ,considering1 however1 that migrating races1 carrying their architectural systems with them1 would naturally produce buildings having no relationship to their new localities2 and that it is not always possible to distinguish styles which are indigenous1 from those which are naturalized2 numerous anomalies must be looked for4 ,the general idea above illustrated will perhaps be somewhat misinterpreted4 ,possibly some will take the proposition to be that men intentionally gave to their buildings the leading characteristics of neighbouring objects4 ,but this is not what is meant4 ,i do not suppose that they did so in times past1 any more than they do so now4 ,the hypothesis is1 that in their choice of forms men are unconsciously influenced by the forms encircling them4 ,that flat-roofed1 symmetrical architecture should have originated in the ,east1 among pastoral tribes surrounded by their herds and by wide plains1 seems to imply that the builders were swayed by the horizontality and symmetry to which they were habituated4 ,and the harmony which we have found to exist in other cases between indigenous styles and their localities1 implies the general action of like influences4 ,indeed1 on considering the matter psychologically1 ,i do not see how it could well be otherwise4 ,for as all conceptions must be made up of images1 and parts of images1 received through the senses--as it is impossible for a man to conceive any design save one of which the elements have come into his mind from without2 and as his imagination will most readily run in the direction of his habitual perceptions2 it follows1 almost necessarily1 that the characteristic which predominates in these habitual perceptions must impress itself on his design4 ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,anthropomorphism4 ,that long fit of indignation which seizes all generous natures when in youth they begin contemplating human affairs1 having fairly spent itself1 there slowly grows up a perception that the institutions1 beliefs1 and forms so vehemently condemned are not wholly bad4 ,this reaction runs to various lengths4 ,in some1 merely to a comparative contentment with the arrangements under which they live4 ,in others to a recognition of the fitness that exists between each people and its government1 tyrannical as that may be4 ,in some1 again1 to the conviction1 that hateful though it is to us1 and injurious as it would be now1 slavery was once beneficial--was one of the necessary phases of human progress4 ,again1 in others1 to the suspicion that great benefit has indirectly arisen from the perpetual warfare of past times2 insuring as this did the spread of the strongest races1 and so providing good raw material for civilization4 ,and in a few this reaction ends in the generalization that all modes of human thought and action subserve1 in the times and places in which they occur1 some useful function3 that though bad in the abstract1 they are relatively good--are the best which the then existing conditions admit of4 ,a startling conclusion to which this faith in the essential beneficence of things commits us1 is that the religious creeds through which mankind successively pass1 are1 during the eras in which they are severally held1 the best that could be held2 and that this is true1 not only of the latest and most refined creeds1 but of all1 even to the earliest and most gross4 ,those who regard men's faiths as given to them from without--as having origins either directly divine or diabolical1 and who1 considering their own as the sole example of the one1 class all the rest under the other1 will think this a very shocking opinion4 ,i can imagine1 too1 that many of those who have abandoned current theologies1 and now regard religions as so many natural products of human nature--men who1 having lost that antagonism towards their old creed which they felt while shaking themselves free from it1 can now see that it was highly beneficial to past generations1 and is beneficial still to a large part of mankind2--,i can imagine even these hardly prepared to admit that all religions1 down to the lowest ,fetichism1 have1 in their places1 fulfilled useful functions4 ,if such1 however1 will consistently develop their ideas1 they will find this inference involved4 ,for if it be true that humanity in its corporate as well as in its individual aspect1 is a growth and not a manufacture1 it is obvious that during each phase men's theologies1 as well as their political and social arrangements1 must be determined into such forms as the conditions require4 ,in the one case as in the other1 by a tentative process1 things from time to time re-settle themselves in a way that best consists with national equilibrium4 ,as out of plots and the struggles of chieftains1 it continually results that the strongest gets to the top1 and by virtue of his proved superiority ensures a period of quiet1 and gives society time to grow2 as out of incidental expedients there periodically arise new divisions of labour1 which get permanently established only by serving men's wants better than the previous arrangements did2 so1 the creed which each period evolves is one more in conformity with the needs of the time than the creed which preceded it4 ,not to rest in general statements1 however1 let us consider why this must be so4 ,let us see whether1 in the genesis of men's ideas of deity1 there is not involved a necessity to conceive of deity under the aspect most influential with them4 ,it is now generally admitted that a more or less idealized humanity is the form which every conception of a personal ,god must take4 ,anthropomorphism is an inevitable result of the laws of thought4 ,we cannot take a step towards constructing an idea of ,god without the ascription of human attributes4 ,we cannot even speak of a divine will without assimilating the divine nature to our own2 for we know nothing of volition save as a property of our own minds4 ,while this anthropomorphic tendency1 or rather necessity1 is manifested by themselves with sufficient grossness--a grossness that is offensive to those more advanced--,christians are indignant at the still grosser manifestations of it seen among uncivilized men4 ,certainly1 such conceptions as those of some ,polynesians1 who believe that their gods feed on the souls of the dead1 or as those of the ,greeks1 who ascribed to the personages of their ,pantheon every vice1 from domestic cannibalism downward1 are repulsive enough4 ,but if1 ceasing to regard these notions from the outside1 we more philosophically regard them from the inside--if we consider how they looked to believers1 and observe the relationships they bore to the natures and needs of such2 we shall begin to think of them with some tolerance4 ,the question to be answered is1 whether these beliefs were beneficent in their effects on those who held them2 not whether they would be beneficent for us1 or for perfect men2 and to this question the answer must be that while absolutely bad1 they were relatively good4 ,for is it not obvious that the savage man will be most effectually controlled by his fears of a savage deity8 ,must it not happen1 that if his nature requires great restraint1 the supposed consequences of transgression1 to be a check upon him1 must be proportionately terrible2 and for these to be proportionately terrible1 must not his god be conceived as proportionately cruel and revengeful8 ,is it not well that the treacherous1 thievish1 lying ,hindoo should believe in a hell where the wicked are boiled in cauldrons1 rolled down mountains bristling with knives1 and sawn asunder between flaming iron posts8 ,and that there may be provided such a hell1 is it not needful that he should believe in a divinity delighting in human immolations and the self-torture of fakirs8 ,does it not seem clear that during the earlier ages in ,christendom1 when men's feelings were so hard that a holy father could describe one of the delights of heaven to be the contemplation of the torments of the damned--does it not seem clear that while the general nature was so unsympathetic1 there needed1 to keep men in order1 all the prospective tortures described by ,dante1 and a deity implacable enough to inflict them8 ,and if1 as we thus see1 it is well for the savage man to believe in a savage god1 then we may also see the great usefulness of this anthropomorphic tendency2 or1 as before said1 necessity4 ,we have in it another illustration of that essential beneficence of things visible everywhere throughout nature4 ,from this inability under which we labour to conceive of a deity save as some idealization of ourselves1 it inevitably results that in each age1 among each people1 and to a great extent in each individual1 there must arise just that conception of deity best adapted to the needs of the case4 ,if1 being violent and bloodthirsty1 the nature be one calling for stringent control1 it evolves the idea of a ruler still more violent and bloodthirsty1 and fitted to afford this control4 ,when1 by ages of social discipline1 the nature has been partially humanized1 and the degree of restraint required has become less1 the diabolical characteristics before ascribed to the deity cease to be so predominant in the conception of him4 ,and gradually1 as all need for restraint disappears1 this conception approximates towards that of a purely beneficent necessity4 ,thus1 man's constitution is in this1 as in other respects1 self-adjusting1 self-balancing4 ,the mind itself evolves a compensating check to its own movements2 varying always in proportion to the requirement4 ,its centrifugal and its centripetal forces are necessarily in correspondence1 because the one generates the other4 ,and so we find that the forms of both religious and secular rule follow the same law4 ,as an ill-controlled national character produces a despotic terrestrial government1 so also does it produce a despotic celestial government--the one acting through the senses1 the other through the imagination2 and in the converse case the same relationship holds good4 ,organic as this relationship is in its origin1 no artificial interference can permanently affect it4 ,whatever perturbations an external agency may seem to produce1 they are soon neutralized in fact1 if not in appearance4 ,i was recently struck with this in reading a missionary account of the gracious visitations of the ,holy ,spirit at ,vewa1 one of the ,feejee islands4 ,describing a penitent meeting1 the account says3-- ,certainly the feelings of the ,vewa people were not ordinary4 ,they literally roared for hours together for the disquietude of their souls4 ,this frequently terminated in fainting from exhaustion1 which was the only respite some of them had till they found peace4 ,they no sooner recovered their consciousness than they prayed themselves first into an agony1 then again into a state of entire insensibility4 ,now these ,feejee islanders are the most savage of all the uncivilized races4 ,they are given to cannibalism1 infanticide1 and human sacrifices2 they are so bloodthirsty and so treacherous1 that members of the same family dare not trust each other2 and1 in harmony with these characteristics1 they have for their aboriginal god1 a serpent4 ,is it not clear then1 that these violent emotions which the missionaries describe1 these terrors and agonies of despair which they rejoiced over1 were nothing but the worship of the old god under a new name8 ,is it not clear that these ,feejees had simply understood those parts of the ,christian creed which agree in spirit with their own--the vengeance1 the perpetual torments1 the diabolism of it2 that these1 harmonizing with their natural conceptions of divine rule1 were realized by them with extreme vividness2 and that the extremity of the fear which made them literally roar for hours together1 arose from the fact that while they could fully take in and believe the punitive element1 the merciful one was beyond their comprehension8 ,this is the obvious inference4 ,and it carries with it the further one1 that in essence their new belief was merely their old one under a new form--the same substantial conception with a different history and different names4 ,however great1 therefore1 may be the seeming change adventitiously produced in a people's religion1 the anthropomorphic tendency prevents it from being other than a superficial change--insures such modifications of the new religion as to give it all the potency of the old one--obscures whatever higher elements there may be in it until the people have reached the capability of being acted upon by them3 and so1 re-establishes the equilibrium between the impulses and the control they need4 ,if any one requires detailed illustrations of this1 he will find them in abundance in the history of the modifications of ,christianity throughout ,europe4 ,ceasing then to regard heathen theologies from the personal point of view1 and considering them solely with reference to the function they fulfil where they are indigenous1 we must recognise them in common with all theologies1 as good for their time and places2 and this mental necessity which disables us from conceiving a deity save as some idealization of ourselves1 we must recognise as the agency by which harmony is produced and maintained between every phase of human character and its religious creed4 ,,index4 ,a ,abstract and concrete1 relations of1 #agd4 ,actions1 voluntary and involuntary1 #cai4 ,analogies of the rudest societies to the lowest forms of life1 #cih1 #djb4 ,analogies of function between living beings and societies1 #daj4 ,annulosa1 structure of compared to that of nations1 #djh1 #dbb4 ,anthropomorphism1 necessity of1 #dbb4 ,architectural ideas1 origin of1 #dci4 ,architecture1 relationship to natural objects1 #dce2 illustrations of1 #dce-dcg2 town1 why symmetrical1 #dce2 country1 why irregular1 #dcg4 ,arts1 interconnexion of1 #ahg4 ,astronomic influences upon climate produce breaks in geological succession1 #cef4 ,automatic actions of men and governments1 #dbf4 ,australia1 fauna of1 #cej4 ,b ,bain ,on the ,emotions and ,will1 estimate of1 #cjb4 ,beauty1 its evolution from utility1 #dbi1 #dcc4 ,beliefs1 how to judge of them1 #ddb4 ,bow1 derivation of the1 #gh4 ,breaks in the geological record1 ,hugh ,miller upon1 #cee2 produced by astronomic causes1 #cef2 by re-distributions of land and sea1 #cei4 ,buildings related to landscape1 #dch2 cause of incongruities in1 #dch2 relation unintentional1 #dci4 ,c ,cambrian rocks1 inference from their thickness1 #cff4 ,calculus1 origin of1 #aeh4 ,castles1 built with no reference to art1 #dcj4 ,cause1 single1 produces more than one effect1 #cb2 illustrated in geological phenomena1 #ce2 in chemical1 #dj2 in organic evolution1 #db2 in social progress1 #ej2 in use of locomotive engine1 #ec4 ,central ,america1 effects of subsidence of1 #ch4 ,centrifugal force and condensation1 #bhg4 ,cerebrum1 analogy of to houses of parliament1 #dbc1 #dbf4 ,circulation in animal bodies and bodies politic1 #daj1 #daa2 rates of movement in1 #dag2 of money and blood-discs1 #dad4 ,classifications of science1 progress of1 #ahc2 what they indicate1 #abe2 ,oken's1 #abe2 ,hegel's1 #abh2 ,comte's1 #aca2 serial arrangement vicious1 #add4 ,classification1 the mental process in1 #adg2 advances with rationality1 #aeg2 how it has aided science1 #ahb2 of the cognitions1 #cba2 of the feelings1 #cbc2 in ,psychology1 for the present must be provisional1 #cjj1 #cja4 ,climate1 changes in1 produced by astronomic rhythm1 #cef2 by re-distributions of land and sea1 #cei4 ,comets1 formation of1 #bef2 orbits of1 #beh2 distribution of1 #bei1 #bfa4 ,common knowledge1 nature of1 #aag2 relation of1 to science1 #aah1 #abb4 ,comte's hierarchy of the sciences1 #aca4 ,consciousness1 mystery of1 #aig4 ,condensation of nebula1 #bej4 ,contrast1 its relation to beauty1 #dcb4 ,creeds suited to the age that holds them1 #dda1 #ddc4 ,curtsy1 origin of1 #gi4 ,d ,densities of the planets1 #bgh-bhj4 ,development hypothesis1 neither proved nor disproved by ,paleontology1 #cfg1 #cgf2 defense of1 #cgi4 ,direct creation inconceivable1 #cgh2 no examples of1 #cgg2 origin of the notion1 #chc4 ,e ,earth1 internal constitution of1 #bij4 ,earth's crust1 #e2 contraction of1 #ce4 ,ectoderm social and embryonic1 #dai4 ,education1 bearing of evolution of science upon1 #aic4 ,emotions in animals1 genesis of1 #cae4 ,emotional language1 #bcb2 importance of1 #bce1 #bch4 ,engine1 locomotive1 results of invention of1 #ec4 ,equality1 origin of notion of1 #aeb1aeh2 of things and relations1 #aec4 ,evolution of the emotions1 #caa4 ,evolution of governmental and nervous structures1 #dbj4 ,f ,fashion1 origin of1 #ij2 corruption of1 #ia4 ,feeling and action1 relation of1 #aii1 #bjh4 ,feeling1 mystery of1 #aig2 effects of surplus in producing laughter1 #bja2 why it disturbs the intellect1 #bjg4 ,feeling a stimulus to muscular action1 #baa1 #bbj2 shown in loudness of voice1 #bae2 in quality or timbre1 #bae2 in pitch1 #baf2 in intervals1 #bag2 in variability of pitch1 #bai2 relation of1 to vocal sounds in ourselves1 #bbj2 in others1 #bbj2 causes prostration1 #bbb2 classification of the feelings1 #cbc4 ,feejee islanders1 penitent meeting among1 #ddd4 ,final cause1 #bfb1 #bgb1 #bge1 #bic4 ,fossils as tests of age and position1 #cci1 #cdg4 ,function of music1 #bca-bce4 ,g ,generalizations1 premature1 use of1 #cbc2 as seen in history of ,astronomy1 #cbf2 in ,geology1 #cbg4 ,genesis of new emotions in civilization1 #cac2 in animals1 #cae4 ,geological evidence1 value of1 #h4 ,geologic systems1 are they universal8 #cce-cci4 ,geometry1 origin of1 #aeh1 #afg4 ,god1 origin of the conception of1 #fe4 ,gothic architecture1 source of1 #dce1 #dcf4 ,government1 rise of1 #ab1 #fi1 #ib2 three-fold nature of1 #ac1 #fe1 #hc2 separation of civil from religious1 #fi2 early need of severe1 #he2 progressive amelioration of1 #hh2 course of all1 #aad2 results from national character1 #chg4 ,great men1 relation of to social changes1 #chh4 ,greek and ,roman architecture1 derivation of1 #dce4 ,h ,heathen theologies1 estimate of1 #dd4 ,heat of heavenly bodies1 source of1 #bib4 ,hegel's classification of philosophy1 #abh4 ,history as commonly studied1 small1 value of1 #che4 ,hobb's parallelism of society and the human body1 #chi4 ,homogeneous1 change of to heterogeneous1 #c2 seen in genesis of solar system1 #c2 in phenomena of earth's crust1 #e2 in the advance of life in general1 #g2 in the progress of man1 #aj2 in growth of civilization1 #ab2 in government1 #ac2 in language1 #ag2 in painting and sculpture1 #bj2 in poetry1 music1 and dancing1 #bd2 cause of this universal change1 #cb4 ,hutton's geological system1 #cbg2 contrast of the modern with1 #ccj4 ,hydra compared with primitive tribes1 #dja1 #djg1 #dab1 #dbj4 ,hydrozoa1 analogies of1 #dja1 #djc1 #dab4 ,i ,industrial organization1 #che4 ,industrial arrangements1 development of compared with that of the alimentary organs1 #daj4 ,insensible modifications effect great changes1 #cgi2 illustrated by geometrical curves1 #cah2 by physiological development1 #chb4 ,internal structure of sun and planets1 #bha-bhf4 ,k ,king's councils compared to ganglia1 #dba1 #dbc4 ,knowledge1 experience the source of all1 #abf2 relations of various kinds of1 #afg4 ,l ,language1 differentiation of1 #ag2 origin of written1 #ah2 origin of verbal1 #adi2 origin of emotional1 #bbj4 ,la ,place's theory of planetary evolution1 #bfc-bfe4 ,laughter1 common explanations of1 #aid2 movements in1 #bjj2 groups of muscles successively affected in1 #bja2 caused by incongruities1 #bjc2 facilitates digestion1 #bjg4 ,law1 origin of1 #gj4 ,likeness and unlikeness1 recognition of1 the basis of classification1 #adg2 the basis of language1 #adi2 of reasoning1 #aej2 of art1 #aea2 leads to science1 #aeb4 ,logic1 how evolved1 #aeh4 ,lyell1 ,sir ,charles1 criticism upon1 #cch1 #cdb4 ,m ,man1 progress of1 #aj4 ,manners1 genesis of1 #gg2 decline of the influence of1 #hi2 conformity in manners leads to extravagance1 #ii2 conformity in1 decreases social intercourse1 #ajj2 defeats the true end of social life1 #ajb1 #ajg4 ,mathematics1 how evolved1 #aeh4 ,mechanics1 rise of science of1 #afh4 ,mineral qualities of rocks untrustworthy tests of age or position1 #ccb4 ,miller ,hugh1 estimate of1 #ceb4 ,motion of nebulous matter1 #bea-bec4 ,morality1 origin of1 #gj4 ,muscular movements1 cause of1 #aie2 arrested by feeling1 #aii2 in laughter purposeless1 #bja2 of animals when excited1 #baa2 variations of1 produce changes of voice1 #bad4 ,music1 increasing heterogeneity of1 #bf2 relation of mental to muscular excitement1 the source of1 #bad2 theory of1 #bba-bbd2 its history confirms the theory1 #bbd-bbh2 negative proof of theory of1 #bbh-bca4 ,murchison ,sir ,r4 ,i41 criticism upon his ,siluria1 #ccb1 #cdj1 #cfc1 #cff4 ,n ,nebula1 are they parts of our siderial system8 #bdc1 #bdi2 condensation of1 #bej2 motion in1 #bea2 significance of forms of1 #bed2 structure of spiral1 #bed4 ,nebular hypothesis1 #c1 #cd2 its high derivation1 #bci2 it explains cometary phenomena1 #bfb4 ,negative facts in geology1 small value of1 #cfb-cfe4 ,nervous system1 effects of excitement in1 #aie2 directions of discharge of excitement in1 #aig2 course of discharge unguided by purpose1 #bja4 ,number1 origin of conception of1 #aed4 ,o ,oken's classification of knowledge1 #abe4 ,p ,painting and sculpture1 origin of1 #bj4 ,paleontology neither proves nor disproves development1 #cfg1 #cgf4 ,picturesque1 meaning of1 #dcc4 ,planetoids1 origin of #bhi4 ,plato's model republic1 central idea of1 #chh4 ,previsions and ordinary knowledge1 #aag2 previsions known as science1 #aah2 common and scientific1 #abc2 when quantitative arose1 #aeh2 increase in precision1 #aga4 ,primary divisions of a germ and of a society1 #djd-djg4 ,progress1 current meaning of1 #a2 present inquiry concerning1 #b2 law of progress exemplified in the genesis of solar system1 #c2 in the phenomena of the earth's crust1 #e2 in the advance of life in general1 #g2 in the history of man1 #aj2 in the growth of civilization1 #ab2 in government1 #ac2 in language1 #ag2 in painting and sculpture1 #bj2 in poetry1 music1 and dancing1 #bd2 statement of the principle which determines progress of every kind1 #cb2 the principle of progress illustrated in geological phenomena1 #ce2 in chemical1 #dj2 in organic evolution1 #db2 in social advancement1 #ej2 in use of locomotive engine1 #ed2 this principle does not explain things in themselves1 #eh2 progress of science1 #ada2 of astronomical discovery1 #afe1 #aga4 ,progress of animals and societies in forming channels of communication1 #daf4 ,psychology1 relation of ,english thought to1 #cja2 classification in1 for the present1 must be provisional1 #cjj1 #cja4 ,r ,reasoning1 nature of1 #aej2 basis of1 #aed2 advances with classification1 #aeg4 ,reformers1 eccentricities of1 #fa2 why necessary1 #ic2 not selfish1 #ie1 #ig2 difficulties of social1 #aaj4 ,reform1 how is it to be effected8 #aaa4 ,religion aided by inquiry1 #eh4 ,religious ideas1 account of primitive1 #ff4 ,s ,saturn1 rings of1 #bgf4 ,satellites1 distribution of1 #bgb-bgf4 ,savage men need a savage deity1 #ddc4 ,science1 limits of1 #eh2 definition of1 #aai2 when complete1 #abj2 test of the depth of1 #abb2 slow growth of1 #abc2 duplex progress of1 #ada2 ultimate analysis of exact1 #afj4 ,sciences1 early simultaneous advance of1 #afe2 not independent of each other1 #ahf2 aid each other by analogies1 #aha2 mutual influence of modern1 #agh4 ,sculpture and painting1 origin of1 #bj4 ,solar ,system1 movements of planets on their axes in1 #bfg-bga4 ,strata now forming1 lithological differences in1 #cdg2 differences in the order of superposition of1 #cdh2 differences in the organic remains of1 #cdi4 ,societies and individual organisms1 points of agreement between1 #cia-cic2 differences of1 examined1 #cic-cig4 ,social intercourse1 philosophy of1 #aje4 ,social changes1 true source of1 #chf4 ,spectrum analysis1 #bie4 ,spiral nebula1 #bee4 ,steam-engine1 multiplied effects of1 #ec4 ,sun1 constitution of1 #bid1 #bif2 relation of plane of its equator to plane of planetary orbits1 #bff4 ,t ,telegraph wires1 comparison of to nerves1 #dbg4 ,titles1 derivation of1 #gb2 depreciation of1 #gd4 ,truth1 ultimate test of1 #acj4 ,u ,useful passes into the beautiful1 #dcj1 #dcc4 ,v ,voice1 cause of loudness of1 #bae2 cause of quality of1 #bae2 of pitch of1 #baf2 intervals in1 #bag2 variability of the pitch of1 #bai4 ,voluntary and involuntary actions1 #cai4 ,w ,werner's system of ,geology1 #cbh2 contrast of1 with the modern system1 #ccj4 ,,the ,,end4