,illu/ration3 ,comp>e ! unfavorable artificial environm5t ( a cr[d$ city ) ! m favorable environm5t ( ! c\ntry4 ,a ,,civic ,,biology ,pres5t$ 9 ,problems ,,by ,,george ,,william ,,hunt]1 ,a4,m4 ,,head ,,( ,,! ,,dep>tm5t ,,( ,,biology1 ,,de ,,witt ,,cl9ton ,,high ,,s*ool1 ,,city ,,( ,,new ,,york4 ,,au?or ,,( ,,elem5ts ,,( ,,biology1 ,,ess5tials ,,( ,,biology1 ,,etc4 ,illu/ration3 ,pr9t]'s ,logo ,,am]ican ,,book ,,company ,,new ,,york ,,c9c9nati ,,*icago ,,copyright1 #aiad1 ,,by ,,george ,,william ,,hunt]4 ,,copyright1 #aiad1 ,,9 ,,great ,,brita94 99 99 99 99 99 ,,hunt]1 ,,civic ,,biology4 ,w4 ,p4 #c ,d$icat$ ,,to ,,my ,,fell[ ,,tea*]s ,,( ,,! ,,dep>tm5t ,,( ,,biology ,,9 ,,! ,,de ,,witt ,,cl9ton ,,high ,,s*ool ,,^: ,,capable1 ,,e>ne/1 ,,unselfi% ,,& ,,inspir+ ,,aid ,,has ,,made ,,?is ,,book ,,possible ,,=eword ,,to ,,tea*]s ,a c\rse 9 biology giv5 to beg9n]s 9 ! second>y s*ool %\ld h c]ta9 aims4 ,^! aims mu/ be det]m9$ to a degree1 fir/1 by ! capabilities ( ! pupils1 second1 by _! native int]e/s1 &1 ?ird1 by ! environm5t ( ! pupils4 ,! boy or girl ( av]age ability ^u admission to ! second>y s*ool is n a ?9k+ individual4 ,! tra9+ giv5 up to ?is "t1 ) b r>e exceptions1 has be5 9 ! =m+ ( simple concepts4 ,^! concepts h be5 rea*$ didactically & empirically4 ,drill & memory "w h be5 ! p$agogic vehicles4 ,ev5 ! elem5t>y sci5ce "w giv5 has result$ at ! be/ 9 an int]pretation ( "s ( ! common factors 9 ! pupil's environm5t1 & a wid5+ ( ! mean+ ( "s ( 8 concepts4 ,!re=e1 ! fir/ sci5ce ( ! second>y s*ool1 elem5t>y biology1 %\ld be prim>ily ! vehicle by :i* ! *ild is taught to solve problems & to ?9k /raight 9 s do+4 ,no o!r subject is m capable ( logical developm5t4 ,no subject is m vital because ( its relation to ! vital ?+s 9 ! life ( ! *ild4 ,a s]ies ( exp]im5ts & demon/rations1 discuss$ & appli$ z def9ite concrete problems :i* h aris5 )9 ! *ild's horizon1 w develop p[] 9 ?9k+ m surely ?an any o!r subject 9 ! fir/ ye> ( ! second>y s*ool4 ,b 9 our eag]ness to develop ! p[] ( logical ?9k+ we mu/ n lose sight ( ! previ\s tra9+ ( our pupil4 ,up to ?is "t ! me?od ( induction1 t h&maid5 ( logical ?\ght1 has be5 almo/ unkn[n4 ,concepts h be5 =m$ d$uctively by a s]ies ( comp>isons4 ,all concepts h be5 h&$ d[n by ! au?ority ( ! tea*] or ! text2 ! inductive se>* = ! unkn[n is z yet a clos$ book4 ,x is unwise1 !n1 to directly introduce ! pupil to ! me?od ( induction ) a s]ies ( pr9t$ directions :i*1 ?\gh def9ite 9 ! m9d ( ! tea*] because ( 8 wid] horizon1 mean little or no?+ z a def9ite problem to ! pupil4 ,! *ild mu/ be br\ght to ! appreciation ( ! problem ?r\gh ! d$uctive me?od1 by a comp>ison ( ! future problem ) "s def9ite concrete exp]i5ce )9 8 own field ( vision4 ,!n by ! inductive exp]im5t1 /ill l$ by a s]ies ( oral que/ions1 he comes to ! real end ( ! exp]im5t1 ! conclusion1 ) ! true _s ( ! inve/igator4 ,! result is te/$ 9 ! light ( pa/ exp]im5t & a g5]alization is =m$ :i* means some?+ to ! pupil4 ,= ! above reason ! laboratory problems1 :i* naturally prec$e ! textbook "w1 %\ld be sep>at$ f ! subject matt] ( ! text4 ,a textbook 9 biology %\ld s]ve to v]ify ! /ud5t's obs]vations made 9 ! laboratory1 x %\ld r\nd out 8 concept or g5]alization by add+ su* mat]ial z he _c readily obs]ve & x %\ld give ! /ud5t directly su* in=mation z he _c be expect$ to ga9 directly or indirectly ?r\gh 8 laboratory exp]i5ce4 ,= ^! reasons ! laboratory manual has be5 sep>at$ f ! text4 ,! laboratory me?od 0 su* an emancipation f ! old-"t booki% slav]y ( pre-laboratory days t we may h be5 incl9$ to ov]do x & to subject ourselves to a new slav]y4 ,x %\ld nev] be =gott5 t ! laboratory is simply a means to ! end2 t ! dom9ant ?+ %\ld be a consi/5t *a9 ( ideas :i* ! laboratory may s]ve to elucidate4 ,:51 h[ev]1 ! laboratory assumes ! fir/ place & o!r phases ( ! c\rse are made explanatory to x1 we h tak51 9 my m9d1 an attitude fundam5tally wrong4 ,! "q is1 n :at types may be tak5 up 9 ! laboratory to be fitt$ into ! g5]al s*eme aft]w>ds1 b :at ideas are mo/ wor? :ile to be work$ out & develop$ 9 ! laboratory1 if t happ5s to be ! be/ way ( do+ x1 or if n1 "s o!r way to be adopt$ ) p]fect fre$om4 ,too (t5 our c\rse ( /udy ( an animal or plant takes ! easie/ r ?an ! mo/ illum9at+ pa?4 ,:at is easi]1 = in/ance1 p>ticul>ly ) l>ge classes ( re/less pupils :o app>5tly ne$ to be kept 9 a condition ( uni=m occupation1 ?an to kill a supply ( animals1 pref]ably z ne> alike z possible1 & set ! pupils to "w draw+ ! dead rema9s8 ,?is me?od is usually supplem5t$ by a s]ies ( que/ions conc]n+ ! rema9s :i* are sure to keep ! pupils busy a :ile long]1 p]haps until ! bell /rikes1 & :i* usually are s plann$ z to anticipate any ideas t might naturally crop up 9 ! pupil's m9d dur+ ! draw+ ex]cise4 ,su* an abuse ( ! laboratory idea is all wrong & %\ld be avoid$4 ,! ideal laboratory ought to be a retreat = ra9y days2 a sub/itute = out ( doors2 a cle>+ h\se ( ideas br\ght 9 f ! outside4 ,any c\rse 9 biology :i* c be conf9$ )9 f\r walls1 ev5 if ^! walls be ( a mod]n1 well-equipp$ laboratory1 is 9 "s measure a failure4 ,liv+ ?+s1 to be appreciat$ & correctly int]pret$1 mu/ be se5 & /udi$ 9 ! op5 :]e !y w be enc\nt]$ ?r\gh\t life4 ,! place :]e an animal or plant is f\nd is j z important a *>act]i/ic z its %ape or function4 ,impossible field excursions ) l>ge classes )9 s*ool h\rs1 :i* only br+ confusion to inflexible s*ool programs1 are n necess>y to accompli% ?is result4 ,prop]ly adm9i/]$1 x is )\t d\bt "o ( our mo/ effici5t devices = develop+ biological ideas1 b ! laboratory %\ld be kept 9 its prop] relation to ! o!r means at our disposal & nev] be all[$ to deg5]ate ei!r into a place = vacu\s draw+ ex]cises or a biological morgue :]e dead rema9s are view$4--,dr4 ,h4 ,e4 ,walt]4 ,= ! sake ( ! pupil ! numb] ( te*nical & sci5tific t]ms has be5 r$uc$ to a m9imum4 ,! language has be5 made z simple z possible & ! problems made to h+e ^u mat]ial already kn[n1 by he>say at lea/1 to ! pupil4 ,s f> z consi/5t ) a well-r\nd$ c\rse 9 ! ess5tials ( biological sci5ce1 ! int]e/s ( ! *ildr5 h be5 kept 9 ! =egr\nd4 ,9 a rec5t que/ionnaire s5t out by ! au?or & answ]$ by ov] ?ree ?\s& *ildr5 /udy+ biology 9 ! second>y s*ools ( ,connecticut1 ,massa*usetts1 ,new ,j]sey1 & ,new ,york by f> ! greate/ numb] gave z ! mo/ int]e/+ topics ^? relat+ to ! c>e & functions ( ! human body & ! control & bett]m5t ( ! environm5t4 ,z w\ld be expect$1 boys h diff]5t biological int]e/s f girls1 & *ildr5 9 rural s*ools wi% to /udy diff]5t topics f ^? 9 conge/$ di/ricts 9 l>ge communities4 ,! "t has come :5 we mu/ frankly recognize ^! int]e/s & adapt ! cont5t ( our c\rses 9 biology to int]pret ! imm$iate _w ( ! pupil4 ,) ?is end 9 view ! foll[+ pages h be5 writt54 ,?is book %[s boys & girls liv+ 9 an urban community h[ !y may be/ live )9 _! own environm5t & h[ !y may coop]ate ) ! civic au?orities = ! bett]m5t ( _! environm5t4 ,a logical c\rse is built up ar\nd ! topics :i* appeal to ! av]age normal boy or girl1 topics giv5 9 a logical sequ5ce s z to "w out ! solution ( problems be>+ on ! ultimate problem ( ! entire c\rse1 t ( prep>ation = citiz5%ip 9 ! l>ge/ s5se4 ,seasonal use ( mat]ials has be5 kept 9 m9d 9 outl9+ ?is c\rse4 ,field trips1 :5 prop]ly organiz$ & lat] us$ z a basis = discussion 9 ! classroom1 make a firm f\ndation on :i* to build ! sup]/ructure ( a c\rse 9 biology4 ,! normal environm5t1 its relation to ! artificial environm5t ( ! city1 ! relations ( mutual give & take exi/+ betwe5 plants & animals1 are bett] %[n by means ( field trips ?an 9 any o!r way4 ,field & museum trips are enjoy$ by ! pupils z well4 ,^! result 9 int]e/ & 9 bett] "w4 ,! c\rse is work$ up ar\nd c]ta9 great biological pr9ciples2 h5ce insects may be /udi$ :5 abundant 9 ! fall 9 connection ) _! relations to gre5 plants & especially 9 _! relation to fl[]s4 ,9 ! w9t] mon?s mat]ial available = ! laboratory is us$4 ,saprophytic & p>asitic organisms1 wild plants 9 ! h\sehold1 are /udi$ 9 _! relations to mank9d1 bo? z de/roy]s ( food1 prop]ty & life & z man's invaluable fri5ds4 ,! economic phase ( biology may well be tak5 up dur+ ! w9t] mon?s1 ?us ga9+ v>iety 9 subject matt] & 9 me?od ( treatm5t4 ,! app>5t emphasis plac$ ^u economic mat]ial 9 ! foll[+ pages is n real4 ,x has be5 f\nd t mat]ial s giv5 makes = v>iety1 z x may be assign$ z a topical read+ lesson or simply us$ z ref]5ce :5 ne$$4 ,cyclic "w 9 ! /udy ( life ph5om5a & ( ! ne$s ( organisms = oxyg51 food1 & reproduction culm9ates1 z x rightly %\ld1 9 ! /udy ( life-processes ( man & man's relation to 8 environm5t4 ,9 a c\rse 9 biology ! difficulty comes n s mu* 9 kn[+ :at to tea* z 9 kn[+ :at n to tea*4 ,! au?or believes t he has made a selection ( ! topics mo/ vital 9 a well-r\nd$ c\rse 9 elem5t>y biology direct$ t[>d civic bett]m5t4 ,! physiological functions ( plants & animals1 ! hygi5e ( ! individual )9 ! community1 cons]vation & ! bett]m5t ( exi/+ plant & animal products1 ! big und]ly+ biological concepts on :i* society is built1 h all be5 us$ to ! end t ! pupil w become a bett]1 /rong] & m unselfi% citiz54 ,! spiral or cyclic me?od ( treatm5t has be5 us$ ?r\gh\t1 ! purpose be+ to ultimately build up a numb] ( well-r\nd$ concepts by con/ant repetition b ) con/antly v>i$ viewpo9t4 ,! s9c]e ?anks ( ! au?or is ext5d$ to all :o h help$ make ?is book possible1 & especially to ! memb]s ( ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,biology 9 ! ,de ,witt ,cl9ton ,high ,s*ool4 ,mo/ ( ! m5 !re h directly or indirectly contribut$ _! "t & ideas to help make ?is book wor? m to tea*]s & pupils4 ,! foll[+ h read ! manuscript 9 its entirety & h (f]$ mu* valuable con/ructive criticism3 ,dr4 ,h]b]t ,e4 ,walt]1 ,pr(essor ( ,zoology 9 ,br[n ,univ]sity2 ,miss ,elsie ,kupf]1 ,head ( ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,biology 9 ,wadleigh ,high ,s*ool2 ,george ,c4 ,wood1 ( ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,biology 9 ! ,boys' ,high ,s*ool1 ,brooklyn2 ,edg> ,a4 ,b$=d1 ,head ( ,dep>tm5t ( ,biology 9 ! ,/uyvesant ,high ,s*ool2 ,george ,e4 ,hewitt1 ,george ,t4 ,ha/+s1 ,john ,d4 ,mc,carthy1 & ,frank ,m4 ,:eat1 all ( ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,biology 9 ! ,de ,witt ,cl9ton ,high ,s*ool4 ,?anks are due1 also1 to ,pr(essor ,e4 ,b4 ,wilson1 ,pr(essor ,g4 ,n4 ,calk9s1 ,mr4 ,william ,c4 ,b>b\r1 ,dr4 ,john ,a4 ,sampson1 ,w4 ,c4 ,/ev5s1 & ,c4 ,w4 ,beebe1 ,dr4 ,alv9 ,davison1 & ,dr4 ,frank ,ov]ton2 to ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture2 ! ,new ,york ,aqu>ium2 ! ,*>ity ,organization ,society2 & ! ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory1 = p]mission to copy & use c]ta9 photographs & cuts :i* h be5 f\nd useful 9 tea*+4 ,dr4 ,*>les ,h4 ,morse & ,dr4 ,lucius ,j4 ,mason1 ( ! ,de ,witt ,cl9ton ,high ,s*ool1 prep>$ ! hygi5e outl9e 9 ! app5dix4 ,frank ,m4 ,:eat & my =m] pupil1 ,john ,w4 ,teitz1 n[ a tea*] 9 ! s*ool1 made _m ( ! l9e draw+s & took sev]al ( ! photographs ( exp]im5ts prep>$ = ?is book4 ,to !m especially ,i wi% to express my ?anks4 ,at ! end ( ea* ( ! foll[+ *apt]s is a li/ ( books :i* h prov$ _! use ei!r z ref]5ce read+ = /ud5ts or z aids to ! tea*]4 ,mo/ ( ! books m5tion$ are )9 ! means ( ! small s*ool4 ,two sets are exp5sive3 "o1 ,! ,natural ,hi/ory ( ,plants1 by ,k]n]1 translat$ by ,oliv]1 publi%$ by ,h5ry ,holt & ,company1 9 two volumes1 at #aa2 ! o!r1 ,plant ,geography ^u a ,physiological ,basis1 by ,s*imp]1 publi%$ by ! ,cl>5don ,press1 #ab2 b bo? works are invaluable = ref]5ce4 ,= a g5]al introduction to physiological biology1 ,p>k]1 ,elem5t>y ,biology1 ,! ,macmillan ,company2 ,s$gwick & ,wilson1 ,g5]al ,biology1 ,h5ry ,holt & ,company2 ,v]worn1 ,g5]al ,physiology1 ,! ,macmillan ,company2 & ,ne$ham1 ,g5]al ,biology1 ,com/ock ,publi%+ ,company1 are mo/ useful & inspir+ books4 ,two books /& out f ! p$agogical /&po9t z by f> ! mo/ helpful ( _! k9d on ! m>ket4 ,no tea*] ( botany or zoology c af=d to be )\t !m4 ,!y are3 ,lloyd & ,bigel[1 ,! ,tea*+ ( ,biology1 ,longmans1 ,gre51 & ,company1 & ,c4 ,f4 ,hodge1 ,nature ,/udy & ,life1 ,g9n & ,company4 ,o!r books ( value f ! tea*]'s /&po9t are3 ,ganong1 ,! ,tea*+ ,botani/1 ,! ,macmillan ,company2 ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey1 ,! ,nature ,/udy ,idea1 ,d\bl$ay1 ,page1 & ,company2 & ,mc,murry's ,h[ to ,/udy1 ,h\ghton ,miffl9 ,company4 ,,cont5ts ,,*apt] ,,page ,,=eword ,,to ,,tea*]s #g ,i4 ,,"s ,,reasons ,,= ,,! ,,/udy ,,( ,,biology #ae ,,ii4 ,,! ,,environm5t ,,( ,,plants ,,& ,,animals #ai ,,iii4 ,,! ,,int]relations ,,( ,,plants ,,& ,,animals #bh ,,iv4 ,,! ,,functions ,,& ,,composition ,,( ,,liv+ ,,?+s #dg ,v4 ,,plant ,,gr[? ,,& ,,nutrition--,,! ,,causes ,,( ,,gr[? #eh ,,vi4 ,,! ,,organs ,,( ,,nutrition ,,9 ,,plants--,,! ,,soil ,,& ,,its ,,relation ,,to ,,roots #ga ,,vii4 ,,plant ,,gr[? ,,& ,,nutrition--,,plants ,,make ,,food #hd ,,viii4 ,,plant ,,gr[? ,,& ,,nutrition--,,! ,,circulation ,,& ,,f9al ,,uses ,,( ,,food ,,by ,,plants #ig ,,ix4 ,,our ,,=e/s1 ,,_! ,,uses ,,& ,,! ,,necessity ,,( ,,_! ,,protection #aje ,x4 ,,! ,,economic ,,relation ,,( ,,gre5 ,,plants ,,to ,,man #aag ,,xi4 ,,plants ,,)\t ,,*lorophyll ,,9 ,,_! ,,relation ,,to ,,man #acj ,,xii4 ,,! ,,relations ,,( ,,plants ,,to ,,animals #aei ,,xiii4 ,,s+le-,,cell$ ,,animals ,,consid]$ ,,z ,,organisms #aff ,,xiv4 ,,division ,,( ,,labor1 ,,! ,,v>i\s ,,=ms ,,( ,,plants ,,& ,,animals #agc ,,xv4 ,,! ,,economic ,,importance ,,( ,,animals #aig ,,xvi4 ,,an ,,introductory ,,/udy ,,( ,,v]tebrates #bcb ,,xvii4 ,,h]$ity1 ,,v>iation1 ,,plant ,,& ,,animal ,,bre$+ #bdi ,,xviii4 ,,! ,,human ,,ma*9e ,,& ,,its ,,ne$s #bff ,,xix4 ,,foods ,,& ,,diet>ies #bgb ,,xx4 ,,dige/ion ,,& ,,absorption #bif ,,xxi4 ,,! ,,blood ,,& ,,its ,,circulation #cac ,,xxii4 ,,respiration ,,& ,,excretion #cbi ,,xxiii4 ,,body ,,control ,,& ,,habit ,,=mation #cdh ,,xxiv4 ,,man',s ,,improvem5t ,,( ,,8 ,,environm5t #cgc ,,xxv4 ,,"s ,,great ,,names ,,9 ,,biology #cih ,,app5dix #djg ,,sugge/$ ,,c\rse ,,) ,,"t ,,allotm5t ,,& ,,sequ5ce ,,( ,,topics ,,= ,,c\rse ,,beg9n+ ,,9 ,,fall #djg ,,sugge/$ ,,syllabus ,,= ,,c\rse ,,9 ,,biology ,,beg9n+ ,,9 ,,febru>y ,,& ,,end+ ,,! ,,next ,,janu>y #daa ,,hygi5e ,,outl9e #dae ,,weights1 ,,measures1 ,,& ,,temp]atures #dag ,,sugge/ions ,,= ,,laboratory ,,equipm5t #dah ,,index #dai ,a ,,civic ,,biology ,i4 ,,! ,,g5]al ,,problem--,,"s ,,reasons ,,= ,,! ,,/udy ,,( ,,biology ,:at is ,biology8--,biology is ! /udy ( liv+ be+s1 bo? plant & animal4 ,inasmu* z man is an animal1 ! /udy ( biology includes ! /udy ( man 9 8 relations to ! plants & ! animals :i* surr\nd him4 ,mo/ important ( all is t bran* ( biology :i* treats ( ! me*anism we call ! human body1--( its p>ts & _! uses1 & its repair4 ,?is subject we call human physiology4 ,:y /udy ,biology8--,al?\gh biology is a v mod]n sci5ce1 x has f\nd its way into mo/ high s*ools2 & an increas+ly l>ge numb] ( girls & boys are ye>ly engag$ 9 its /udy4 ,^! que/ions might well be ask$ by any ( ! /ud5ts3 ,:y d ,i take up ! /udy ( biology8 ,( :at practical value is x to me8 ,besides ! discipl9e x gives me1 is !re any?+ t ,i c take away :i* w help me 9 my future life8 ,human ,physiology4--,! answ] to ?is "q is pla94 ,if ! /udy ( biology w give u a bett] und]/&+ ( our own bodies & _! c>e1 !n x c]ta9ly is ( use to u4 ,t phase ( biology kn[n z physiology deals ) ! uses ( ! p>ts ( a plant or animal2 human physiology & hygi5e deal ) ! uses & c>e ( ! p>ts ( ! human animal4 ,! prev5tion ( sickness is due 9 a l>ge "p to ! /udy ( hygi5e4 ,x is e/imat$ t ov] tw5ty-five p] c5t ( ! dea?s t occur ye>ly 9 ?is c\ntry c\ld be av]t$ if all p liv$ 9 a hygi5ic mann]4 ,9 its application to ! lives ( ea* ( u1 z a memb] ( our family1 z a memb] ( ! s*ool we att5d1 & z a future citiz51 a k ( hygi5e is ( ! greate/ importance4 ,relations ( ,plants to ,animals4--,b !re are o!r reasons :y an educat$ p]son %\ld "k some?+ ab\t biology4 ,we d n always realize t if x 7 n = ! gre5 plants1 !re w\ld be no animals on ! e>?4 ,gre5 plants furni% food to animals4 ,ev5 ! meat-eat+ animals fe$ ^u ^? t fe$ ^u plants4 ,h[ ! plants manufacture ?is food & ! relation !y be> to animals w be discuss$ 9 lat] *apt]s4 ,plants furni% man ) ! great] "p ( 8 food 9 ! =m ( gra9s & c]eals1 fruits & nuts1 edible roots & leaves2 !y provide 8 dome/icat$ animals ) food2 !y give him timb] = 8 h\ses & wood & coal = 8 fires2 !y provide him ) pulp wood1 f :i* he makes 8 pap]1 & oak galls1 f :i* he may make ink4 ,mu* ( man's clo?+ & ! ?read ) :i* x is sew$ toge!r come f fib]-produc+ plants4 ,mo/ m$ic9es1 bev]ages1 flavor+ extracts1 & spices are plant products1 :ile plants are made use ( 9 hundr$s ( ways 9 ! useful arts & trades1 produc+ v>ni%es1 dye/uffs1 rubb]1 & o!r products4 ,bact]ia 9 _! ,relation to ,man4--,9 /ill ano!r way1 c]ta9 plants vitally affect mank9d4 ,t9y plants1 call$ bact]ia1 s small t millions c exi/ 9 a s+le drop ( fluid1 exi/ almo/ ev]y:]e ab\t u1--9 wat]1 soil1 food1 & ! air4 ,!y play a trem5d\s "p 9 %ap+ ! de/9y ( man on ! e>?4 ,!y help him 9 t !y act z scav5g]s1 caus+ ?+s to decay2 ?us !y remove ! dead bodies ( plants & animals f ! surface ( ! e>?1 & turn ?is mat]ial back to ! gr\nd2 !y assi/ ! tann]2 !y help make *eese & butt]2 !y improve ! soil = crop gr[+2 s ! f>m] _c d )\t !m4 ,b !y likewise sometimes spoil our meat & fi%1 & our vegetables & fruits2 !y s\r our milk1 & may make our cann$ goods spoil4 ,wor/ ( all1 !y cause diseases1 among o!rs tub]culosis1 a disease s h>mful z to be call$ ! :ite plague4 ,fully "o half ( all ye>ly dea?s are caus$ by ^! plants4 ,s important are ! bact]ia t a sub-division ( biology1 call$ bact]iology1 has be5 nam$ aft] !m1 & hundr$s ( sci5ti/s are devot+ _! lives to ! /udy ( bact]ia & _! control4 ,! greate/ ( all bact]iologi/s1 ,l\is ,pa/eur1 once said1 ,x is )9 ! p[] ( man to cause all p>asitic diseases 7diseases mo/ly caus$ by bact]ia7 to disappe> f ! _w4 ,8 prophecy is gradually be+ fulfill$1 & x may be ! lot ( "s boys or girls :o read ?is book to d _! %>e 9 help+ to br+ ?is condition ( affairs ab\t4 ,! ,relation ( ,animals to ,man4--,animals also play an important "p 9 ! _w 9 caus+ & c>ry+ disease4 ,animals t cause disease are usually t9y1 & live 9 o!r animals z p>asites2 t is1 !y get _! liv+ f _! ho/s on :i* !y fe$4 ,among ! diseases caus$ by p>asitic animals are mal>ia1 yell[ fev]1 ! sleep+ sickness1 & ! hookworm disease4 ,animals also c>ry disease1 especially ! flies & mosquitoes2 rats & o!r animals are also well kn[n z spread]s ( disease4 ,f a money /&po9t1 animals call$ insects d mu* h>m4 ,x is e/imat$ t 9 ?is c\ntry alone !y are annually responsible = #hjj1jjj1jjj wor? ( damage by eat+ crops1 =e/ trees1 /or$ food1 & o!r mat]ial weal?4 ,! ,uses ( ,animals to ,man4--,we all "k ! uses man has made ( ! dome/icat$ animals = food & z bea/s ( burd54 ,b _m o!r uses are f\nd = animal products1 & mat]ials made f animals4 ,wool1 furs1 lea!r1 hides1 fea!rs1 & silk are examples4 ,! arts make use ( ivory1 tortoise %ell1 corals1 & "m-(-pe>l2 f animals come p]fumes & oils1 glue1 l>d1 & butt]2 animals produce honey1 wax1 milk1 eggs1 & v>i\s o!r commodities4 ,! ,cons]vation ( our ,natural ,res\rces4--,/ill ano!r reason :y we %\ld /udy biology is t we may "w und]/&+ly = ! cons]vation ( our natural res\rces1 especially ( our =e/s4 ,! =e/1 aside f its beauty & its heal?-giv+ prop]ties1 holds wat] 9 ! e>?4 ,x keeps ! wat] f dry+ out ( ! e>? on hot days & f runn+ (f on ra9y days4 ,?us a m ev5 supply ( wat] is giv5 to our riv]s1 & ?us fre%ets are prev5t$4 ,c\ntries t h be5 de=e/$1 su* z ,*9a1 ,italy1 & p>ts ( ,france1 are n[ subject to floods1 & are 9 _m places b>r54 ,on ! =e/s dep5d our supply ( timb]1 our future wat] p[]1 & ! future comm]cial importance ( cities :i*1 l ,new ,york1 are locat$ at ! m\?s ( our navigable riv]s4 ,plants & ,animals mutually ,helpful4--,mo/ plants & animals /& 9 an attitude ( mutual helpfulness to "o ano!r1 plants provid+ food & %elt] = animals2 animals giv+ (f wa/e mat]ials useful to plants 9 ! mak+ ( food4 ,we also le>n t plants & animals ne$ ! same conditions 9 _! surr\nd+s 9 ord] to live3 wat]1 air1 food1 a favorable temp]ature1 & usually light4 ,! life processes ( bo? plants & animals are ess5tially ! same1 & ! liv+ matt] ( a tree is z mu* alive z is ! liv+ matt] 9 a fi%1 a dog1 or a man4 ,biology 9 its ,relation to ,society4--,aga91 ! /udy ( biology %\ld be "p ( ! education ( e boy & girl1 because society itself is f\nd$ ^u ! pr9ciples :i* biology tea*es4 ,plants & animals are liv+ ?+s1 tak+ :at !y c f _! surr\nd+s2 !y ent] into competition ) "o ano!r1 & ^? :i* are ! be/ fitt$ = life out/rip ! o!rs4 ,animals & plants t5d to v>y ea* f its ne>e/ relative 9 all details ( /ructure4 ,! /rong may ?us h& d[n to _! (fspr+ ! *>act]i/ics :i* make !m ! w9n]s4 ,heal? & /r5g? ( body & m9d are factors :i* tell 9 w9n+4 ,man has made use ( ?is message ( nature1 & has develop$ improv$ bre$s ( horses1 cattle1 & o!r dome/ic animals4 ,plant bre$]s h likewise select$ ! plants or se$s t h v>i$ t[>d bett] plants1 & ?us h /ock$ ! e>? ) h>di] & m fruitful dome/icat$ plants4 ,man's dom9ion ov] ! liv+ ?+s ( ! e>? is trem5d\s4 ,?is is due to 8 und]/&+ ! pr9ciples :i* und]lie ! sci5ce ( biology4 ,f9ally ! /udy ( biology ought to make u bett] m5 & wom5 by tea*+ u t unselfi%ness exi/s 9 ! natural _w z well z among ! highe/ memb]s ( society4 ,animals1 l[ly & complex1 sacrifice _! com=t & _! v lives = _! "y4 ,9 ! insect communities ! welf>e ( ! individual is giv5 up = ! be/ int]e/s ( ! community4 ,! law ( mutual give & take1 ( sacrifice = ! common good1 is se5 ev]y:]e4 ,?is %\ld tea* u1 z we come to take our places 9 society1 to be will+ to give up our individual pleasure or selfi% ga9 = ! good ( ! community 9 :i* we live4 ,?us ! application ( biological pr9ciples w b5efit society4 ,,ii4 ,,! ,,environm5t ,,( ,,plants ,,& ,,animals ,problem4--,to discov] "s ( ! factors ( ! environm5t ( plants & animals4 7a7 ,environm5t ( a plant4 7b7 ,environm5t ( an animal4 7c7 ,home environm5t ( a girl or boy4 ,,laboratory ,,sugge/ions ,laboratory demon/rations4--,factors ( ! environm5t ( a liv+ plant or animal 9 ! viv>ium4 ,home ex]cise4--,! /udy ( ! factors mak+ up my own environm5t & h[ ,i c aid 9 _! control4 ,environm5t4--,ea* "o ( u1 no matt] :]e he lives1 comes 9 contact ) c]ta9 surr\nd+s4 ,air is ev]y:]e ar\nd u2 light is necess>y to u1 s mu* s t we use artificial light at night4 ,! city /reet1 ) its dirty & h>d pav+ /ones1 has come to take ! place ( ! soil ( ! village or f>m4 ,wat] & food are a necess>y "p ( our surr\nd+s4 ,our clo?+1 useful to ma9ta9 a c]ta9 temp]ature1 mu/ also be includ$4 ,all ^! ?+s--air1 light1 heat1 wat]1 food--toge!r make up our environm5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,an unfavorable city environm5t4 ,all o!r animals1 & all plants z well1 are surr\nd$ by & use practically ! same ?+s f _! environm5t z we d4 ,! pott$ plant 9 ! w9d[1 ! goldfi% 9 ! aqu>ium1 y\r pet dog at home1 all use1 z we w lat] prove1 ! factors ( _! environm5t 9 ! same mann]4 ,air1 wat]1 light1 a c]ta9 am\nt ( heat1 soil to live 9 or on1 & food =m p>ts ( ! surr\nd+s ( e liv+ ?+4 ,illu/ration3 ,an exp]im5t t %[s ! air conta9s ab\t f\r fif?s nitrog54 ,illu/ration3 ,app>atus = sep>at+ wat] by means ( an electric curr5t into ! two elem5ts1 hydrog5 & oxyg54 ,! ,same ,elem5ts f\nd 9 ,plants & ,animals z 9 _! ,environm5t4--,x has be5 f\nd by *emi/s t ! plants & animals z well z _! environm5t may be r$uc$ to ab\t eighty v simple sub/ances kn[n z *emical elem5ts4 ,= example1 ! air is made up l>gely ( two elem5ts1 oxyg5 & nitrog54 ,wat]1 by means ( an electric curr5t1 may be brok5 up into two elem5ts1 oxyg5 & hydrog54 ,! elem5ts 9 wat] are comb9$ to make a *emical comp\nd4 ,! oxyg5 & nitrog5 ( ! air are n s unit$1 b exi/ z sep>ate gases4 ,if we 7 to /udy ! *emi/ry ( ! bodies ( plants & animals & ( _! foods1 we w\ld f9d !m to be made up ( c]ta9 *emical elem5ts comb9$ 9 v>i\s complex comp\nds4 ,^! elem5ts are pr9cipally c>bon1 hydrog51 oxyg51 nitrog51 & p]haps a doz5 o!rs 9 v m9ute proportions4 ,b ! same elem5ts pres5t 9 ! liv+ ?+s might also be f\nd 9 ! environm5t1 = example1 wat]1 food1 ! air1 & ! soil4 ,x is logical to believe t liv+ ?+s use ! *emical elem5ts 9 _! surr\nd+s & 9 "s wond]ful mann] build up _! own bodies f ! mat]ials f\nd 9 _! environm5t4 ,h[ ?is is done we w le>n 9 lat] *apt]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,*>t to %[ ! p]c5tage ( *emical elem5ts 9 ! human body4 ,:at ,plants & ,animals take f _! ,environm5t4 ,air4--,x is a self-evid5t fact t animals ne$ air4 ,ev5 ^? liv+ 9 ! wat] use ! air dissolv$ 9 ! wat]4 ,a fi% plac$ 9 an air-tight j> w soon die4 ,x w be prov5 lat] t plants also ne$ air 9 ord] to live4 ,illu/ration3 ,! effect ( wat] ^u ! gr[? ( trees4 ,^! trees 7 all plant$ at ! same "t 9 soil t is s&y & uni=m4 ,!y are wat]$ by a small /ream :i* runs f left to "r 9 ! picture4 ,mo/ ( ! wat] soaks into ! gr\nd be=e rea*+ ! la/ trees4 ,wat]4--,we all "k t wat] mu/ =m "p ( ! environm5t ( plants & animals4 ,x is a matt] ( common k t pets ne$ wat] to dr9k2 s d o!r animals4 ,e "o kn[s we mu/ wat] a pott$ plant if we expect x to gr[4 ,wat] is ( s mu* importance to man t f ! "t ( ! ,caes>s until n[ he has sp5t enorm\s sums ( money to br+ pure wat] to 8 cities4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates gov]nm5t is sp5d+ millions ( doll>s at ! pres5t "t to br+ by irrigation ! wat] ne$$ to support life 9 ! we/]n des]t l&s4 ,illu/ration3 ,! effect ( light ^u a gr[+ plant4 ,light z ,condition ( ! ,environm5t4--,light is ano!r important factor ( ! environm5t4 ,a /udy ( ! leaves on any gre5 plant gr[+ ne> a w9d[ w conv9ce "o t su* plants gr[ t[>d ! light4 ,all gre5 plants are ?us influ5c$ by ! sun4 ,o!r plants :i* are n gre5 seem ei!r indiff]5t or are negatively influ5c$ 7move away f7 ! s\rce ( light4 ,animals may or may n be attract$ by light4 ,a mo?1 = example1 w fly t[>d a flame1 an e>?worm w move away f light4 ,"s animals pref] a mod]ate or weak int5sity ( light & live 9 %ady =e/s or jungles1 pr[l+ ab\t at night4 ,o!rs seem to ne$ mu* & /rong light4 ,& man himself enjoys only mod]ate int5sity ( light & heat4 ,look at ! %ady side ( a city /reet on any hot day to prove ?is /atem5t4 ,heat4--,animals & plants are bo? affect$ by heat or ! abs5ce ( x4 ,9 cold wea!r gre5 plants ei!r die or _! life activities are tempor>ily susp5d$1--! plant becomes dormant4 ,likewise small animals1 su* z insects1 may be kill$ by cold or !y may hib]nate "u /ones or bo>ds4 ,_! life activities are /ill$ until ! com+ ( w>m wea!r4 ,be>s & o!r l>ge animals g to sleep dur+ ! w9t] & awake ?9 & active at ! approa* ( w>m wea!r4 ,animals or plants us$ to c]ta9 temp]atures are kill$ if remov$ f ^? temp]atures4 ,ev5 man1 ! mo/ adaptable ( all animals1 _c /& great *anges )\t discom=t & sometimes dea?4 ,he heats 8 h\ses 9 w9t] & cools !m 9 summ] s z to h ! am\nt ( heat mo/ acceptable to him1 i4e4 ab\t #gj deg4 ,fahr5heit4 ,illu/ration3 ,vegetation 9 ,nor!rn ,russia4 ,! trees 9 ?is picture are ne>ly "o hundr$ ye>s old4 ,!y live "u conditions ( extreme cold mo/ ( ! ye>4 ,! ,environm5t det]m9es ! ,k9d ( ,animals & ,plants )9 ,x4--,9 our /udy ( geography we le>n$ t c]ta9 luxuriant gr[?s ( trees & climb+ plants 7 *>act]i/ic ( ! tropics ) its moi/1 w>m climate4 ,no "o w\ld expect to f9d liv+ !re ! h>dy /unt$ plants ( ! arctic region4 ,nor w\ld we expect to f9d ! same k9ds ( animal life 9 w>m regions z 9 cold4 ,! surr\nd+s det]m9e ! k9d ( liv+ ?+s !re4 ,plants or animals fitt$ to live 9 a giv5 locality w probably be f\nd !re if !y h _h an opportunity to rea* t locality4 ,if1 = example1 temp]ate =ms ( life 7 introduc$ by man into ! tropics1 !y w\ld ei!r die or !y w\ld gradually *ange s z to become fitt$ to live 9 _! new environm5t4 ,%eep ) long wool fitt$ to live 9 ,engl&1 :5 remov$ to ,cuba1 :]e conditions ( great] heat exi/1 soon di$ because !y 7 n fitt$ or adapt$ to live 9 _! *ang$ environm5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,plant life 9 a moi/ tropical =e/4 ,notice ! air plants to ! left & ! resurrection f]ns on ! tree trunk4 ,adaptations4--,plants & animals are n only fitt$ to live "u c]ta9 conditions1 b ea* "p ( ! body may be fitt$ to d c]ta9 "w4 ,i notice t z ,i write ^! words ! f+]s ( my "r h& grasp ! p5 firmly & ! h& & arm execute "s v complicat$ movem5ts4 ,?is !y are able to d because ( ! free movem5t giv5 ?r\gh ! arrangem5t ( ! delicate bones ( ! wri/ & f+]s1 _! atta*m5t to ! bones ( ! arm1 a wond]ful complex ( muscles :i* move ! bones1 & a direct+ n]v\s sy/em :i* plans ! "w4 ,because ( ! peculi> fitness 9 ! /ructure ( ! h& = ?is "w we say x is adapt$ to its function ( grasp+ objects4 ,ea* "p ( a plant or animal is usually fitt$ = "s p>ticul> "w4 ,! root ( a gre5 plant1 = example1 is fitt$ to take 9 wat] by hav+ t9y absorb+ organs gr[+ f x1 ! /ems h pipes or tubes to convey liquids up & d[n & are /rong en\gh to support ! leafy "p ( ! plant4 ,ea* "p ( a plant does "w1 & is fitt$1 by means ( c]ta9 /ructures1 to d t "w4 ,x is because ( ^! adaptations t liv+ ?+s are able to d _! "w )9 _! p>ticul> environm5t4 ,plants & ,animals & _! ,natural ,environm5t4--,^? ( u :o h tri$ to keep pott$ plants 9 ! s*oolroom "k h[ difficult x is to keep !m heal?y4 ,du/1 =eign gases 9 ! air1 lack ( moi/ure1 & o!r causes make ! artificial environm5t 9 :i* !y are plac$ unsuitable = !m4 ,a goldfi% plac$ 9 a small glass j> ) no food or no gre5 wat] plants soon seeks ! surface ( ! wat]1 & if ! wat] is n *ang$ frequ5tly s z to supply air ! fi% w die4 ,aga9 ! artificial environm5t lacks some?+ t ! fi% ne$s4 ,ea* plant & animal is limit$ to a c]ta9 environm5t because ( c]ta9 individual ne$s :i* make ! surr\nd+s fit = x to live 94 ,illu/ration3 ,a natural b>ri] on a /ream4 ,no tr\t w\ld be f\nd above ?is fall4 ,:y n8 ,*anges 9 ,environm5t4--,mo/ plants & animals d n *ange _! environm5t4 ,trees1 gre5 plants ( all k9ds1 & "s animals rema9 fix$ 9 "o spot practically all _! lives4 ,c]ta9 t9y plants & mo/ animals move f place to place1 ei!r 9 air1 wat]1 on ! e>? or 9 ! e>?1 b !y ma9ta9 relatively ! same conditions 9 environm5t4 ,birds are p]haps ! mo/ /rik+ exception1 = "s may fly ?\s&s ( miles f _! summ] homes to w9t] 9 ! s\?4 ,o!r animals1 too1 migrate f place to place1 b n usually :]e !re are great *anges 9 ! surr\nd+s4 ,a high m\nta9 *a9 ) int5se cold at ! upp] altitudes w\ld be a b>ri] ov] :i*1 = example1 a be>1 a de]1 or a snail c\ld n travel4 ,fi% l tr\t w migrate up a /ream until !y come to a fall too high = !m to jump4 ,!re !y mu/ /op because _! environm5t limits !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,a new ap>tm5t h\se1 ) out-(-door sleep+ por*4 ,man 9 8 ,environm5t4--,man1 :ile he is l o!r animals 9 requir+ heat1 light1 wat]1 & food1 diff]s f !m 9 t he has come to live 9 a m or less artificial environm5t4 ,m5 :o liv$ on ! e>? ?\s&s ( ye> ago did n we> clo!s or h elaborate homes ( wood or brick or /one4 ,!y did n use fire1 nor did !y eat cook$ foods4 ,9 %ort1 by sl[ degrees1 civiliz$ man has come to live 9 a *ang$ environm5t f t ( o!r animals4 ,! liv+ toge!r ( m5 9 communities has caus$ c]ta9 ne$s to develop4 ,_m ?+s c be suppli$ 9 common1 z wat]1 milk1 foods4 ,wa/es ( all k9ds h to be dispos$ ( 9 a t[n or city4 ,h\ses h come to be plac$ close toge!r1 or pil$ on top ( ea* o!r1 z 9 ! mod]n ap>tm5t4 ,fields & trees1 all outdoor life1 has practically disappe>$4 ,man has come to live 9 an artificial environm5t4 ,c>e & ,improvem5t ( ,"o's ,environm5t4--,man c modify or *ange 8 surr\nd+s by mak+ ?is artificial environm5t favorable to live 94 ,he may heat 8 dwell+s 9 w9t] & cool !m 9 summ] s z to ma9ta9 a mod]ate & ne>ly con/ant temp]ature4 ,he may see t 8 dwell+s h w9d[s s z to let light & air pass 9 & out4 ,he may h light at night & %ade by day f int5se light4 ,he may h a sy/em ( pure wat] supply & may see t dra9s or sew]s c>ry away 8 wa/es4 ,he may see to x t p ill ) cat*+ or infecti\s diseases are isolat$ or qu>ant9$ f o!rs4 ,?is c>e ( ! artificial environm5t is kn[n z sanitation1 :ile ! c>e ( ! individual = himself )9 ! environm5t is kn[n z hygi5e4 ,x w be ! *ief end ( ?is book to %[ girls & boys h[ !y may become good citiz5s ?r\gh ! prop] control ( p]sonal hygi5e & sanitation4 ,,ref]5ce ,,books ,,elem5t>y ,hunt]1 ,laboratory ,problems 9 ,civic ,biology4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,h\gh & ,s$gwick1 ,elem5ts ( ,hygi5e & ,sanitation4 ,g9n & ,company4 ,jordan & ,kellogg1 ,animal ,life4 ,appleton4 ,%>pe1 ,a ,laboratory ,manual = ! ,solution ( ,problems 9 ,biology1 p4 #ie4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,tolman1 ,hygi5e = ! ,work]4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,,advanc$ ,all51 ,civics & ,heal?4 ,g9n & ,company4 ,,iii4 ,,! ,,int]relations ,,( ,,plants ,,& ,,animals ,problem4--,to discov] ! g5]al int]relations ( gre5 plants & animals4 7a7 ,plants z homes = insects4 7b7 ,plants z food = insects4 7c7 ,insects z poll9at+ ag5ts4 ,,laboratory ,,sugge/ions ,a field trip3--,object3 to collect common insects & /udy _! g5]al *>act]i/ics2 to /udy ! food & %elt] relation ( plant & insects4 ,! poll9ation ( fl[]s %\ld also be c>efully /udi$ s z to give ! pupil a g5]al viewpo9t z an introduction to ! /udy ( biology4 ,laboratory ex]cise4--,exam9ation ( simple insect1 id5tification ( p>ts--draw+4 ,exam9ation & id5tification ( "s ord]s ( insects4 ,laboratory demon/ration4--,life hi/ory ( mon>* & "s o!r butt]flies or mo?s4 ,laboratory ex]cise4--,/udy ( simple fl[]--emphasis on "w ( ess5tial organs1 draw+4 ,laboratory ex]cise4--,/udy ( mutual adaptations 9 a giv5 insect & a giv5 fl[]1 e4g4 butt] & eggs & bumble bee4 ,demon/ration ( examples ( insect poll9ation4 ,! ,object ( a ,field ,trip4--,_m ( u live 9 ! city1 :]e ! cr[d$ /reets1 ! closely pack$ ap>tm5ts1 & ! city playgr\nds =m our environm5t4 ,x is v artificial at be/4 ,to und]/& bett] ! normal environm5t ( plants or animals we %\ld g into ! c\ntry4 ,fail+ 9 ?is1 an ov]gr[n city lot or a p>k w give u mu* m closely ! environm5t z x t\*es "s animals l[] ?an man4 ,we mu/ !n rememb] t 9 le>n+ some?+ ( ! natural environm5t ( o!r liv+ creatures we may bett] und]/& our own environm5t & our relation to x4 ,on any bright w>m day 9 ! fall we w f9d insects sw>m+ ev]y:]e 9 any vacant lot or ! less cultivat$ p>ts ( a city p>k4 ,gras%opp]s1 butt]flies alight+ n[ & !n on ! fl[]s1 brightly m>k$ hornets1 bees busily work+ ov] ! purple a/]s or gold5 rod1 & _m o!r =ms hidd5 away on ! leaves or /ems ( plants may be se54 ,if we 7 to select = obs]vation "s p>tially decay$ tree1 we w\ld f9d x also inhabit$4 ,beetles w\ld be f\nd bor+ ?r\gh its b>k & wood1 :ile cat]pill>s 7! "y /ages ( butt]flies or mo?s7 are fe$+ on its leaves or build+ homes 9 its bran*es4 ,ev]y:]e above1 on1 & "u gr\nd may be notic$ small =ms ( life1 _m ( !m insects4 ,let u fir/ see h[ we w\ld g to "w to id5tify "s ( ! common =ms we w\ld be likely to f9d on plants4 ,!n a little lat] we w f9d out :at !y are do+ on ^! plants4 ,illu/ration3 ,an insect view$ f ! side4 ,notice ! head1 ?orax1 & abdom54 ,:at o!r *>act]s d y f9d8 ,h[ to tell an ,insect4--,a bee is a good example ( ! gr\p ( animals we call insects4 ,if we exam9e its body c>efully1 we notice t x has ?ree regions1 a front "p or head1 a middle "p call$ ! ?orax1 & a h9d portion1 jo9t$ & hairy1 ! abdom54 ,we _c escape not+ ! fact t ?is insect has w+s ) :i* x flies & t x also has legs4 ,! ?ree pairs ( legs1 :i* are jo9t$ & provid$ ) t9y hooks at ! end1 are atta*$ to ! ?orax4 ,two pairs ( delicate w+s are atta*$ to ! upp] or dorsal side ( ! ?orax4 ,! ?orax & inde$ ! entire body1 is cov]$ ) a h>d %ell ( mat]ial simil> to a c['s horn1 !re be+ no skeleton inside = ! atta*m5t ( muscles4 ,if we c>efully wat* ! abdom5 ( a liv+ bee1 we notice x move up & d[n q regul>ly4 ,! animal is brea?+ ?r\gh t9y brea?+ holes call$ spiracles1 plac$ along ! side ( ! ?orax & abdom54 ,bees also h comp\nd eyes4 ,w+s are n f\nd on all insects1 b all ! o!r *>act]s j giv5 are m>ks ( ! great gr\p ( animals we call insects4 ,illu/ration3 ,"p ( ! comp\nd eye ( an insect 7highly magnifi$74 ,=ms to be look$ = on a ,field ,trip4--,inasmu* z !re are ov] #cfj1jjj diff]5t species or k9ds ( insects1 x is evid5t t x w\ld be a hopeless task = u ev5 to ?9k ( recogniz+ all ( !m4 ,b we c le>n to recognize a few examples ( ! common =ms t might be met on a field trip4 ,9 ! fields1 on grass1 or on fl[]+ plants we may c\nt on f9d+ memb]s f six gr\ps or ord]s ( insects4 ,^! may be kn[n by ! foll[+ *>act]s4 ,! ord] ,hym5opt]a 7membrane w+7 to :i* ! bees1 wasps1 & ants belong is ! only insect gr\p ! memb]s ( :i* are provid$ ) true /+s4 ,?is /+ is plac$ 9 a %ea? at ! extreme h9d end ( ! abdom54 ,o!r *>act]i/ics1 :i* %[ !m to be insects1 h be5 giv5 above4 ,butt]flies or mo?s w be f\nd hov]+ ov] fl[]s4 ,!y belong to ! ord] ,lepidopt]a 7scale w+s74 ,?is "n is giv5 to !m because _! w+s are cov]$ ) t9y scales1 :i* fit into little sockets on ! w+ mu* z %+les are plac$ on a ro(4 ,! du/ :i* comes (f on ! f+]s :5 "o cat*es a butt]fly is compos$ ( ^! scales4 ,! w+s are always l>ge & usually brightly color$1 ! legs small1 & "o pair is (t5 inconspicu\s4 ,^! insects may be se5 to take liquid food ?r\gh a long tubelike organ1 call$ ! proboscis1 :i* !y keep roll$ up "u ! head :5 n 9 use4 ,! "y ( ! butt]fly or mo? are kn[n z cat]pill>s & fe$ on plants by means ( a pair ( h>d jaws4 ,gras%opp]s1 f\nd almo/ ev]y:]e1 & crickets1 black gras%opp]-l insects (t5 f\nd "u /ones1 belong to ! ord] ,or?opt]a 7/raight w+s74 ,memb]s ( ?is gr\p may usually be di/+ui%$ by _! /rong1 jump+ h9d legs1 by _! *ew+ or bit+ m\? p>ts1 & by ! fact t ! h9d w+s are fold$ up "u ! some:at /iff] front w+s4 ,illu/ration3 ,=ms ( life to be met on a field trip4 ,a1 ,! r$-legg$ locu/1 "o ( ! ,or?opt]a2 o1 ! egg-lay]1 ab\t natural size4 ,b1 ! honey bee1 "o ( ! ,hym5opt]a1 ab\t natural size4 ,c1 a bug1 "o ( ! ,hemipt]a1 ab\t natural size4 ,d1 a butt]fly1 an example ( ! ,lepidopt]a1 slightly r$uc$4 ,e1 a h\se fly1 an example ( ! ,dipt]a1 ab\t twice natural size4 ,f1 an orb-weav+ spid]1 ab\t half natural size4 7,?is is n an insect1 note ! numb] ( legs47 ,g1 a beetle1 slightly r$uc$1 "o ( ! ,coleopt]a4 ,ano!r gr\p ( insects sometimes f\nd on fl[]s 9 ! fall are flies4 ,!y belong to ! ord] ,dipt]a 7two w+s74 ,^! insects are usually r small & h a s+le pair ( gauzy w+s4 ,flies are ( mu* importance to man because c]ta9 ( _! numb] are disease c>ri]s4 ,bugs1 memb]s ( ! ord] ,hemipt]a 7half w+s71 h a jo9t$ proboscis :i* po9ts backw>d betwe5 ! front legs4 ,!y are usually small & may or may n h w+s4 ,! beetles or ,coleopt]a 7%ea? w+s71 (t5 mi/ak5 = bugs by ! un$ucat$1 h ! fir/ pair ( h>d5$ w+s meet+ 9 a /raight l9e 9 ! middle ( ! back1 ! second pair ( w+s be+ cov]$ by !m4 ,beetles are frequ5tly f\nd on gold5rod blossoms 9 ! fall4 ,o!r =ms ( life1 especially spid]s1 :i* h f\r pairs ( walk+ legs1 c5tip$es & millep$es1 bo? ( :i* are wormlike & h _m pairs ( legs1 may be f\nd4 ,try to discov] memb]s ( ! six diff]5t ord]s nam$ above4 ,collect specim5s & br+ !m to ! laboratory = id5tification4 ,:y d ,insects live on ,plants8--,we h f\nd insect life abundant on liv+ gre5 plants1 "s visit+ fl[]s1 o!rs hidd5 away on ! /alks or leaves ( ! plants4 ,let u next try to f9d out :y insects live among & ^u fl[]+ gre5 plants4 ,! ,life ,hi/ory ( ! ,milkwe$ ,butt]fly4--,if x is possible to f9d on our trip "s gr[+ milkwe$1 we are q likely to f9d hov]+ ne>1 a gold5 br[n & black butt]fly1 ! mon>* or milkwe$ butt]fly 7,anosia plexippus74 ,its body1 z 9 all insects1 is compos$ ( ?ree regions4 ,! mon>* frequ5ts ! milkwe$ 9 ord] to lay eggs !re4 ,?is %e may be f\nd do+ at almo/ any "t f ,june until ,septemb]4 ,egg & ,l>va4--,! eggs1 t9y hat-%ap$ dots a tw5tie? ( an in* 9 l5g?1 are fa/5$ s+ly to ! und]side ( milkwe$ leaves4 ,"s wond]ful in/9ct leads ! animal to deposit ! eggs on ! milkwe$1 = ! "y fe$ ^u no o!r plant4 ,! eggs hat* out 9 f\r or five days into rapid-gr[+ wormlike cat]pill>s1 ea* ( :i* w %$ its sk9 sev]al times be=e x becomes full size4 ,^! cat]pill>s possess1 9 addition to ! ?ree pairs ( true legs1 additional pairs ( prolegs or cat]pill> legs4 ,! animal at ?is /age is kn[n z a l>va4 ,=mation ( ,pupa4--,aft] a life ( a few weeks at mo/1 ! cat]pill> /ops eat+ & beg9s to sp9 a t9y mat ( silk ^u a leaf or /em4 ,x atta*es itself to ?is web by ! la/ pair ( prolegs1 & !re hangs 9 ! dormant /age kn[n z ! *rysalis or pupa4 ,?is is a re/+ /age dur+ :i* ! body *anges f a cat]pill> to a butt]fly4 ,illu/ration3 ,mon>* butt]fly3 adults1 l>vae1 & pupa on _! food plant1 ! milkwe$4 7,f a photograph loan$ by ! ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory47 ,! ,adult4--,aft] a week or m ( inactivity 9 ! pupa /ate1 ! out] sk9 is split along ! back1 & ! adult butt]fly em]ges4 ,at fir/ ! w+s are s(t & mu* small] ?an 9 ! adult4 ,)9 fifte5 m9utes to half an h\r aft] ! butt]fly em]ges1 h[ev]1 ! w+s are full-siz$1 hav+ be5 pump$ full ( blood & air1 & ! little insect is ready aft] h] w$d+ flight to foll[ h] in/9ct to deposit h] eggs on a milkwe$ plant4 ,plants furni% ,insects ) ,food4--,food is ! mo/ important factor ( any animal's environm5t4 ,! insects :i* we h se5 on our field trip fe$ on ! gre5 plants among :i* !y live4 ,ea* insect has its own p>ticul> favorite food plant or plants1 & 9 _m cases ! eggs ( ! insect are laid on ! food plant s t ! "y may h food close at h&4 ,"s insects pref] ! rott$ wood ( trees4 ,an ,am]ican zoologi/1 ,pack>d1 has e/imat$ t ov] #dej k9ds ( insects live ^u oak trees alone4 ,ev]y:]e animals are engag$ 9 tak+ _! n\ri%m5t f plants1 & millions ( doll>s ( damage is done e ye> to g>d5s1 fruits1 & c]eal crops by insects4 ,illu/ration3 ,damage done by insects4 ,^! trees h be5 kill$ by bor+ insects4 ,all ,animals dep5d on ,gre5 ,plants4--,b insects 9 _! turn are ! food ( birds2 cats & dogs may kill birds2 lions or tig]s live on /ill l>g] def5seless animals z de] or cattle4 ,& f9ally comes man1 :o eats ! bodies ( bo? plants & animals4 ,b if we r$uce ?is se>* aft] food to its f9al limit1 we see t gre5 plants provide all ! food = animals4 ,= ! lion or tig] eats ! de] :i* fe$s ^u grass or gre5 %oots ( "y trees1 or ! cat eats ! bird t lives on we$ se$s4 ,gre5 plants supply ! food ( ! _w4 ,lat] by exp]im5t we w prove ?is4 ,homes & ,%elt]4--,aft] a field trip no "o c escape ! k t plants (t5 give animals a home4 ,! grass %elt]s millions ( gras%opp]s & c\ntless hordes ( o!r small insects :i* c be obta9$ by sweep+ ?r\gh ! grass ) an insect net4 ,"s insects build _! homes 9 ! trees or bu%es on :i* !y fe$1 :ile o!rs tunnel ?r\gh ! wood1 mak+ homes !re4 ,spid]s build webs on plants1 (t5 us+ ! leaves = %elt]4 ,birds ne/ 9 trees1 & _m o!r wild animals use ! =e/ z _! home4 ,man has come to use all k9ds ( plant products to aid him 9 mak+ 8 home1 wood & v>i\s fib]s be+ ! mo/ important ( ^!4 ,:at d ,animals d = ,plants8--,s f> x has seem$ t gre5 plants b5efit animals & receive no?+ 9 return4 ,we w lat] see t plants & animals toge!r =m a balance ( life on ! e>? & t "o is necess>y = ! o!r4 ,c]ta9 sub/ances f\nd 9 ! body wa/es f animals are necess>y to ! life ( a gre5 plant4 ,insects & ,fl[]s4--,c]ta9 o!r problems c be work$ out 9 ! fall ( ! ye>4 ,"o ( ^! is ! biological int]relations betwe5 insects & fl[]s4 ,x is easy on a field trip to f9d insects light+ ^u fl[]s4 ,!y evid5tly h a reason = do+ ?is4 ,to f9d out :y !y g !re & :at !y d :5 !re1 x w be fir/ necess>y = u to /udy fl[]s ) ! idea ( f9d+ out :at ! insects get f !m1 & :at ! fl[]s get f ! insects4 ,illu/ration3 ,a section ( a fl[]1 cut l5g?wise4 ,9 ! c5t] f9d ! pi/il ) ! ov>y conta9+ a numb] ( ovules4 ,ar\nd ?is organ notice a circle ( /alk$ /ructures1 ! /am5s2 ! knobs at ! end conta9 poll54 ,! out] circles ( p>ts are call$ ! petals & sepals1 z we g f ! inside outw>d4 ,! ,use & ,/ructure ( a ,fl[]4--,x is a matt] ( common k t fl[]s =m fruits & t fruits conta9 se$s4 ,!y are1 !n1 v important p>ts ( c]ta9 plants4 ,our field trip %[s u t fl[]s are ( v>i\s %apes1 colors1 & sizes4 ,x w n[ be our problem fir/ to le>n to "k ! p>ts ( a fl[]1 & !n f9d out h[ !y are fitt$ to attract & receive insect visitors4 ,! ,floral ,envelope4--,9 a fl[] ! exp&$ portion ( ! fl[] /alk1 :i* holds ! p>ts ( ! fl[]1 is call$ ! receptacle4 ,! gre5 leaflike p>ts cov]+ ! unop5$ fl[] are call$ ! sepals4 ,toge!r !y =m ! calyx4 ,! m brightly color$ /ructures are ! petals4 ,toge!r !y =m ! corolla4 ,! corolla is ( importance1 z we %all see lat]1 9 mak+ ! fl[] conspicu\s4 ,frequ5tly ! petals or corolla h bright m>ks or dots :i* lead d[n to ! base ( ! cup ( ! fl[]1 :]e a sweet fluid call$ nect> is made & secret$4 ,x is pr9cipally ?is food sub/ance1 lat] made into honey by bees1 t makes fl[]s attractive to insects4 ,! ,ess5tial ,organs4--,a fl[]1 h[ev]1 c\ld live )\t sepals or petals & /ill d ! "w = :i* x exi/s4 ,c]ta9 ess5tial organs ( ! fl[] are )9 ! s-call$ floral envelope4 ,!y consi/ ( ! /am5s & pi/il1 ! latt] be+ 9 ! c5t] ( ! fl[]4 ,! /ructures ) ! knobb$ ends are call$ /am5s4 ,9 a s+le /am5 ! boxlike "p at ! end is ! an!r2 ! /alk :i* holds ! an!r is call$ ! filam5t4 ,! an!r is 9 reality a holl[ box :i* produces a l>ge numb] ( little gra9s call$ poll54 ,ea* pi/il is compos$ ( a r /\t base call$ ! ov>y1 & a m or less l5g!n$ portion ris+ f ! ov>y call$ ! /yle4 ,! upp] end ( ! /yle1 :i* 9 "s cases is some:at broad5$1 is call$ ! /igma4 ,! free end ( ! /igma usually secretes a sweet fluid 9 :i* gra9s ( poll5 f fl[]s ( ! same k9d c gr[4 ,insects z ,poll9at+ ,ag5ts4--,insects (t5 visit fl[]s to obta9 poll5 z well z nect>4 ,9 s do+ !y may transf] "s ( ! poll5 f "o fl[] to ano!r ( ! same k9d4 ,?is transf] ( poll51 call$ poll9ation1 is ( ! greate/ use to ! plant1 z we w lat] prove4 ,no "o :o sees a hive ( bees ) _! wond]ful communal life c fail to see t ^! insects play a great "p 9 ! life ( ! fl[]s ne> ! hive4 ,a fam\s obs]v] nam$ ,sir ,john ,lubbock te/$ bees & wasps to see h[ _m trips !y made daily f _! homes to ! fl[]s1 & f\nd t ! wasp w5t out on #aaf visits dur+ a work+ day ( #af h\rs1 :ile ! bee made b a few less visits1 & work$ only a little less "t ?an ! wasp work$4 ,x is evid5t t 9 ! c\rse ( s _m trips to ! fields a bee mu/ light on hundr$s ( fl[]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,bumblebees4 a1 que52 b1 work]2 c1 drone4 ,adaptations 9 a ,bee4--,if we look closely at ! bee1 we f9d ! body & legs m or less cov]$ ) t9y hairs2 especially are ^! hairs f\nd on ! legs4 ,:5 a plant or animal /ructure is fitt$ to d a c]ta9 k9d ( "w1 we say x is adapt$ to d t "w4 ,! jo9ts 9 ! leg ( ! bee adapt x = complicat$ movem5ts2 ! arrangem5t ( /iff hairs along ! edge ( a concavity 9 "o ( ! jo9ts ( ! leg =ms a /ructure well adapt$ to hold poll54 ,9 ?is way poll5 is collect$ by ! bee & tak5 to ! hive to be us$ z food4 ,b :ile ga!r+ poll5 = itself1 ! du/ is caught on ! hairs & o!r projections on ! body or legs & is ?us c>ri$ f fl[] to fl[]4 ,! value ( ?is to a fl[] we w see lat]4 ,field ,"w4--,is ,color or ,odor 9 a ,fl[] an ,attraction to an ,insect8--,sir ,john ,lubbock tri$ an exp]im5t :i* x w\ld pay a numb] ( c>eful pupils to repeat4 ,he plac$ a few drops ( honey on glass slips & plac$ !m ov] pap]s ( v>i\s colors4 ,9 ?is way he f\nd t ! honeybee1 = example1 c\ld evid5tly di/+ui% diff]5t colors4 ,bees seem$ to pref] blue to any o!r color4 ,fl[]s ( a yell[ or fle% color 7 pref]r$ by flies4 ,x w\ld be ( consid]able int]e/ = "s /ud5t to "w out ?is problem ) our native bees & ) o!r insects by us+ pap] fl[]s & honey or sirup4 ,te/ ! ke5ness ( sight 9 insects by plac+ a :ite object 7a :ite golf ball w d7 9 ! grass & see h[ _m insects w alight on x4 ,try to "w out "s me?od by :i* y c decide :e!r a giv5 insect is attract$ to a fl[] by odor alone4 ,! ,sight ( ! ,bumblebee4--,! l>ge eyes locat$ on ! sides ( ! head are made up ( a l>ge numb] ( little units1 ea* ( :i* is consid]$ to be a v simple eye4 ,! l>ge eyes are !re=e call$ ! comp\nd eyes4 ,all insects are provid$ ) comp\nd eyes1 ) simple eyes1 or 9 mo/ cases ) bo?4 ,! simple eyes ( ! bee may be f\nd by a c>eful obs]v] betwe5 & above ! comp\nd eyes4 ,insects c1 z we h already le>n$1 di/+ui% diff]5ces 9 color at "s di/ance2 !y c see mov+ objects1 b !y d n seem to be able to make out =m well4 ,to make up = ?is1 !y appe> to h an extremely well-develop$ s5se ( smell4 ,insects c di/+ui% at a great di/ance odors :i* to ! human nose are indi/+ui%able4 ,night-fly+ insects1 especially1 f9d ! fl[]s by ! odor r ?an by color4 ,illu/ration3 ,! head ( a bee4 ,a1 ant5nae or feel]s2 ,e1 comp\nd eye2 ,s1 simple eye2 ,m1 m\? p>ts2 ,t1 tongue4 ,m\? ,p>ts ( ! ,bee4--,! m\? ( ! bee is adapt$ to take 9 ! foods we h m5tion$1 & is us$ = ! purposes = :i* man w\ld use ! h&s & f+]s4 ,! honeybee laps or sucks nect> f fl[]s1 x *ews ! poll51 & x uses "p ( ! m\? z a tr[el 9 mak+ ! honeycomb4 ,! uses ( ! m\? p>ts may be made out by wat*+ a bee on a well-op5$ fl[]4 ,sugge/ions = ,field ,"w4--,9 any locality :]e fl[]s are abundant1 try to answ] ! foll[+ que/ions3 ,h[ _m bees visit ! locality 9 t5 m9utes8 ,h[ _m o!r insects alight on ! fl[]s8 ,d bees visit fl[]s ( ! same k9ds 9 succession1 or fly f "o fl[] on a giv5 plant to ano!r on a plant ( a diff]5t k9d8 ,if ! bee lights on a fl[] clu/]1 does x visit m ?an "o fl[] 9 ! same clu/]8 ,h[ does a bee alight8 ,exactly :at does ! bee d :5 x alights8 ,illu/ration3 ,fl[] clu/] ( butt] & eggs4 ,butt] & ,eggs 7,l9>ia vulg>is74--,f ,july to ,octob] ?is v abundant we$ may be f\nd especially along roadsides & 9 sunny fields4 ,! fl[] clu/] =ms a tall & conspicu\s clu/] ( orange & yell[ fl[]s4 ,! corolla projects into a spur on ! l[] side2 an upp] two-p>t$ lip %uts d[n ^u a l[] ?ree-p>t$ lip4 ,! f\r /am5s are 9 pairs1 two long & two %ort4 ,illu/ration3 ,diagram to %[ h[ ! bee poll9ates butt] & eggs4 ,! bumblebee1 ^u ent]+ ! fl[]1 rubs its head aga9/ ! long pair ( an!rs 7a71 !n cont9u+ to press into ! fl[] s z to rea* ! nect> at 7,n7 x bru%es aga9/ ! /igma 7,s71 ?us poll9at+ ! fl[]4 ,inasmu* z bees visit o!r fl[]s 9 ! same clu/]1 cross-poll9ation w\ld also be likely4 ,:y8 ,c]ta9 p>ts ( ! corolla are m brightly color$ ?an ! re/ ( ! fl[]4 ,?is color is a guide to insects4 ,butt] & eggs is visit$ mo/ by bumblebees1 :i* are guid$ by ! orange lip to alight j :]e !y c pu% _! way into ! fl[]4 ,! bee1 seek+ ! nect> secret$ 9 ! spur1 bru%es 8 head & %\ld]s aga9/ ! /am5s4 ,he may !n1 z he pu%es d[n aft] nect>1 leave "s poll5 ^u ! pi/il1 ?us assi/+ 9 self-poll9ation4 ,visit+ ano!r fl[] ( ! clu/]1 x w\ld be an easy matt] accid5tally to transf] ?is poll5 to ! /igma ( ano!r fl[]4 ,9 ?is way poll5 is c>ri$ by ! insect to ano!r fl[] ( ! same k9d4 ,?is is kn[n z cross-poll9ation4 ,by poll9ation we mean ! transf] ( poll5 f an an!r to ! /igma ( a fl[]4 ,self-poll9ation is ! transf] ( poll5 f ! an!r to ! /igma ( ! same fl[]2 cross-poll9ation is ! transf] ( poll5 f ! an!rs ( "o fl[] to ! /igma ( ano!r fl[] on ! same or ano!r plant ( ! same k9d4 ,illu/ration3 ,a wild or*id1 a fl[] ( ! type f :i* ,*>les ,d>w9 work$ out 8 !ory ( cross-poll9ation by insects4 ,hi/ory ( ! ,discov]ies reg>d+ ,poll9ation ( ,fl[]s4--,al?\gh ! anci5t ,greek & ,roman naturali/s _h "s vague ideas on ! subject ( poll9ation1 x 0 n until ! fir/ "p ( ! n9ete5? c5tury t a book appe>$ 9 :i* a ,g]man nam$ ,conrad ,spr5gel work$ out ! facts t ! /ructure ( c]ta9 fl[]s seem$ to be adapt$ to ! visits ( insects4 ,c]ta9 facilities 7 (f]$ to an insect 9 ! way ( easy foo?old1 sweet odor1 & especially food 9 ! %ape ( poll5 & nect>1 ! latt] a sweet-ta/+ sub/ance manufactur$ by c]ta9 p>ts ( ! fl[] kn[n z ! nect> gl&s4 ,spr5gel fur!r discov]$ ! fact t poll5 c\ld be & 0 c>ri$ by ! insect visitors f ! an!rs ( ! fl[] to its /igma4 ,x 0 n until ! middle ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 h[ev]1 t an ,engli%man1 ,*>les ,d>w91 appli$ ,spr5gel's discov]ies on ! relation ( insects to fl[]s by 8 inve/igations ^u cross-poll9ation4 ,! gr[? ( ! poll5 on ! /igma ( ! fl[] results ev5tually 9 ! production ( se$s1 & ?us new plants4 ,_m species ( fl[]s are self-poll9at$ & d n d s well 9 se$ production if cross-poll9at$1 b ,*>les ,d>w9 f\nd t "s fl[]s :i* 7 self-poll9at$ did n produce s _m se$s1 & t ! plants :i* grew f _! se$s 7 small] & weak] ?an plants f se$s produc$ by cross-poll9at$ fl[]s ( ! same k9d4 ,he also f\nd t plants gr[n f cross-poll9at$ se$s t5d$ to v>y m ?an ^? gr[n f self-poll9at$ se$4 ,?is has an important be>+1 z we %all see lat]1 9 ! production ( new v>ieties ( plants4 ,microscopic exam9ation ( ! /igma at ! "t ( poll9ation also %[s t ! poll5 f ano!r fl[] usually g]m9ates be=e ! poll5 :i* has fall5 f ! an!rs ( ! same fl[]4 ,?is latt] fact alone 9 mo/ cases r5d]s x unlikely = a fl[] to produce se$s by its own poll54 ,d>w9 work$ = ye>s on ! poll9ation ( _m insect-visit$ fl[]s1 & discov]$ 9 almo/ e case t %[y1 sweet-sc5t$1 or o!rwise attractive fl[]s 7 adapt$ or fitt$ to be cross-poll9at$ by insects4 ,he also f\nd t1 9 ! case ( fl[]s t 7 inconspicu\s 9 appe>ance1 (t5 a comp5sation appe>$ 9 ! odor :i* r5d]$ !m attractive to c]ta9 insects4 ,! s-call$ c>rion fl[]s1 poll9at$ by flies1 are examples1 ! odor 9 ?is case be+ l decay$ fle%4 ,o!r fl[]s op5 at night1 are :ite1 & provid$ ) a p[]ful sc5t4 ,?us !y attract night-fly+ mo?s & o!r insects4 ,o!r ,examples ( ,mutual ,aid betwe5 ,fl[]s & ,insects4--,_m o!r examples ( adaptations to secure cross-poll9ation by means ( ! visits ( insects might be giv54 ,! m\nta9 laurel1 :i* makes our hillsides s beautiful 9 late spr+1 %[s a rem>kable adaptation 9 hav+ ! an!rs ( ! /am5s caught 9 little pockets ( ! corolla4 ,! weight ( ! visit+ insect on ! corolla releases ! an!r f ! pocket 9 :i* x re/s s t x spr+s up1 du/+ ! body ( ! visitor ) poll54 ,illu/ration3 ,! condition ( /am5s & pi/ils on ! spik$ loose/rife 7,ly?rum salic>ia74 ,9 "s fl[]s1 z %[n by ! primroses or primula ( our ho?\ses1 ! /am5s & pi/ils are ( diff]5t l5g?s 9 diff]5t fl[]s4 ,%ort /yles & long or high-plac$ filam5ts are f\nd 9 "o fl[]1 & long /yles ) %ort or l[-plac$ filam5ts 9 ! o!r4 ,poll9ation w be effect$ only :5 "s ( ! poll5 f a l[-plac$ an!r rea*es ! /igma ( a %ort-/yl$ fl[]1 or :5 ! poll5 f a high an!r is plac$ ^u a long-/yl$ pi/il4 ,!re are1 z 9 ! case ( ! loose/rife1 fl[]s hav+ pi/ils & /am5s ( ?ree l5g?s4 ,poll5 only gr[s on pi/ils ( ! same l5g? z ! /am5s f :i* x came4 ,! milkwe$ or butt]fly we$ already m5tion$ is ano!r example ( a fl[] adapt$ to insect poll9ation4#a ,footnote #a3 ,= an excell5t acc\nt ( cross-poll9ation ( ?is fl[]1 ! read] is ref]r$ to ,w4 ,c4 ,/ev5s1 ,introduction to ,botany4 ,or*ids are well kn[n to botani/s z %[+ "s v wond]ful adaptations4 ,a classic easily read is ,d>w91 ,on ! ,f]tilization ( ,or*ids4 ,illu/ration3 ,! pronuba mo? )9 ! yucca fl[]4 ,a v rem>kable in/ance ( insect help is f\nd 9 ! poll9ation ( ! yucca1 a semitropical lily :i* lives 9 des]ts 7to be se5 9 mo/ botanic g>d5s74 ,9 ?is fl[] ! /igmatic surface is above ! an!r1 & ! poll5 is /icky & _c be transf]r$ except by insect aid4 ,?is is accompli%$ 9 a rem>kable mann]4 ,a little mo?1 call$ ! pronuba1 aft] ga!r+ poll5 f an an!r1 deposits an egg 9 ! ov>y ( ! pi/il1 & !n rubs its load ( poll5 ov] ! /igma ( ! fl[]4 ,! "y hat* out & fe$ on ! "y se$s :i* h gr[n because ( ! poll5 plac$ on ! /igma by ! "m4 ,! baby cat]pill>s eat "s ( ! develop+ se$s & lat] bore out ( ! se$ pod & escape to ! gr\nd1 leav+ ! plant to develop ! rema9+ se$s )\t fur!r mole/ation4 ,illu/ration3 ,! pronuba poll9at+ ! pi/il ( ! yucca4 ,! fig insect 7,bla/ophaga grossorum7 is ano!r memb] ( ! insect tribe t is ( consid]able economic importance4 ,x is only 9 rec5t ye>s t ! fruit gr[]s ( ,cali=nia h discov]$ t ! f]tilization ( ! female fl[]s is br\ght ab\t by a gallfly :i* bores into ! "y fruit4 ,by import+ ! gallflies x has be5 possible to gr[ figs :]e = _m ye>s x 0 believ$ t ! climate prev5t$ figs f rip5+4 ,illu/ration3 ,pod ( yucca %[+ :]e ! "y pronubas escap$4 ,o!r ,fl[] ,visitors4--,o!r insects besides ^? already m5tion$ are poll5 c>ri]s = fl[]s4 ,among ! mo/ useful are mo?s & butt]flies4 ,project+ f ea* side ( ! head ( a butt]fly is a fluffy /ructure1 ! palp4 ,?is collects & c>ries a l>ge am\nt ( poll51 :i* is deposit$ ^u ! /igmas ( o!r fl[]s :5 ! butt]fly pu%es its head d[n into ! fl[] tube aft] nect>4 ,! scales & hairs on ! w+s1 legs1 & body also c>ry poll54 ,illu/ration3 ,a humm+ bird ab\t to cross-poll9ate a lily4 ,flies & "s o!r insects are ag5ts 9 cross-poll9ation4 ,humm+ birds are also active ag5ts 9 "s fl[]s4 ,snails are said 9 r>e in/ances to c>ry poll54 ,man & ! dome/icat$ animals und\bt$ly frequ5tly poll9ate fl[]s by bru%+ pa/ !m ?r\gh ! fields4 ,illu/ration3 ,a cornfield %[+ /am9ate & pi/illate fl[]s1 ! latt] hav+ become gra9s ( corn4 ,an e> ( corn is a bun* ( rip5$ fruits4 ,poll9ation by ! ,w9d4--,n all fl[]s are dep5d5t ^u insects or o!r animals = cross-poll9ation4 ,_m ( ! e>lie/ ( spr+ fl[]s appe> almo/ be=e ! insects d4 ,su* fl[]s are dep5d5t ^u ! w9d = c>ry+ poll5 f ! /am5s ( "o fl[] to ! pi/il ( ano!r4 ,mo/ ( our common trees1 oak1 popl>1 maple1 & o!rs1 are cross-poll9at$ almo/ entirely by ! w9d4 ,fl[]s poll9at$ by ! w9d are g5]ally inconspicu\s & (t5 lack a corolla4 ,! an!rs are expos$ to ! w9d & provid$ ) mu* poll51 :ile ! surface ( ! /igma may be long & fea!ry4 ,su* fl[]s may also lack odor1 nect>1 & bright color4 ,c y tell :y8 ,imp]fect ,fl[]s4--,"s fl[]s1 ! w9d-poll9at$ ones 9 p>ticul>1 are imp]fect2 t is1 !y lack ei!r /am5s or pi/ils4 ,aga91 9 "s cases1 imp]fect fl[]s hav+ /am5s only are alone f\nd on "o plant1 :ile ^? fl[]s hav+ pi/ils only are f\nd on ano!r plant ( ! same k9d4 ,9 su* fl[]s1 cross-poll9ation mu/ ( necessity foll[4 ,_m ( our common trees are examples4 ,illu/ration3 ,! fl[] ( ,lady ,wa%+ton g]anium1 9 :i* /am5s & pi/il rip5 at diff]5t times1 ?us insur+ cross-poll9ation4 ,a1 fl[] ) ripe /am5s2 ,b1 fl[] ) /am5s )]$ & ripe pi/il4 ,o!r ,cases4--,! /am5s & pi/il rip5 at diff]5t times 9 "s fl[]s4 ,! ,lady ,wa%+ton g]anium1 a common h\se plant1 %[s ?is condition4 ,"h also cross-poll9ation mu/ take place if se$s are to be =m$4 ,summ>y4--,if we n[ collect our obs]vations ^u fl[]s ) a view to mak+ a summ>y ( ! diff]5t devices fl[]s h assum$ to prev5t self-poll9ation & to secure cross-poll9ation1 we f9d t !y are z foll[s3-- 7#a7 ,! /am5s & pi/ils may be f\nd 9 sep>ate fl[]s1 ei!r on ! same or on diff]5t plants4 7#b7 ,! /am5s may produce poll5 be=e ! pi/il is ready to receive x1 or vice v]sa4 7#c7 ,! /am5s & pi/ils may be s plac$ ) ref]5ce to ea* o!r t poll9ation c be br\ght ab\t only by outside assi/ance4 ,artificial ,cross-poll9ation & its ,practical ,b5efits to ,man4--,artificial cross-poll9ation is practic$ by plant bre$]s & c easily be tri$ 9 ! laboratory or at home4 ,fir/ ! an!rs mu/ be c>efully remov$ f ! bud ( ! fl[] s z to elim9ate all possibility ( self-poll9ation4 ,! fl[] mu/ !n be cov]$ s z to prev5t access ( poll5 f )\t2 :5 ! ov>y is suffici5tly develop$1 poll5 f ano!r fl[]1 hav+ ! *>act]s desir$1 is plac$ on ! /igma & ! fl[] aga9 cov]$ to prev5t any o!r poll5 rea*+ ! fl[]4 ,! se$s f ?is fl[] :5 plant$ may give rise to plants ) ! be/ *>act]s ( ea* ( ! plants :i* contribut$ to ! mak+ ( ! se$s4 ,,ref]5ce ,,books ,,elem5t>y ,hunt]1 ,laboratory ,problems 9 ,civic ,biology4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,&rews1 ,a ,practical ,c\rse 9 ,botany1 pages #bad-bdi4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,atk9son1 ,fir/ ,/udies ( ,plant ,life1 ,*aps4 ,,xxv-,,xxvi4 ,g9n & ,company4 ,c\lt]1 ,plant ,life & ,plant ,uses1 pages #cja-cbb4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,dana1 ,plants & _! ,*ildr51 pages #ahg-bee4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,lubbock1 ,fl[]s1 ,fruits1 & ,leaves1 ,"p ,i4 ,! ,macmillan ,company4 ,ne$ham1 ,g5]al ,biology1 pages #a-ej4 ,! ,com/alk ,publi%+ ,company4 ,newell1 ,a ,read] 9 ,botany1 ,"p ,,ii1 pages #a-if4 ,g9n & ,company4 ,%>pe1 ,a ,laboratory ,manual 9 ,biology1 pages #dc-dh4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,,advanc$ ,bailey1 ,plant ,bre$+4 ,! ,macmillan ,company4 ,campbell1 ,lectures on ! ,evolution ( ,plants4 ,! ,macmillan ,company4 ,c\lt]1 ,b>nes1 & ,c[les1 ,a ,textbook ( ,botany1 ,"p ,,ii4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,d>w91 ,diff]5t ,=ms ( ,fl[]s on ,plants ( ! ,same ,species1 ,d4 ,appleton & ,company4 ,d>w91 ,f]tilization 9 ! ,vegetable ,k+dom1 ,*aps4 ,i & ,,ii4 ,d4 ,appleton & ,company4 ,d>w91 ,or*ids ,f]tiliz$ by ,insects1 ,d4 ,appleton & ,company4 ,lubbock1 ,briti% ,wild ,fl[]s4 ,! ,macmillan ,company4 ,muell]1 ,! ,f]tilization ( ,fl[]s4 ,! ,macmillan ,company4 ,,iv4 ,,! ,,functions ,,& ,,composition ,,( ,,liv+ ,,?+s ,problems4--,to discov] ! functions ( liv+ matt]4 7a7 ,9 a liv+ plant4 7b7 ,9 a liv+ animal4 ,,laboratory ,,sugge/ions ,laboratory /udy ( a liv+ plant4--,any :ole plant may be us$2 a we$ is pref]able4 ,laboratory demon/ration or home /udy4--,! functions ( a liv+ animal4 ,demon/ration4--,! gr[? ( poll5 tubes4 ,laboratory ex]cise4--,! gr[? ( ! mature ov>y into ! fruit1 e4g4 bean or pea pod4 ,a ,liv+ ,plant & a ,liv+ ,animal ,comp>$4--,a walk into ! fields or any vacant lot on a day 9 ! e>ly fall w give u fir/-h& acqua9tance ) _m common plants :i*1 because ( _! ability to gr[ "u some:at unfavorable conditions1 are call$ we$s4 ,su* plants--! d&elion1 butt] & eggs1 ! %eph]d's purse--are p>ticul>ly well fitt$ by nature to produce _m ( _! k9d1 & by ?is means drive out o!r plants :i* _c d ?is s well4 ,on ^! or o!r plants we f9d fe$+ sev]al k9ds ( animals1 usually insects4 ,if we attempt to comp>e1 = example1 a gras%opp] ) ! plant on :i* x fe$s1 we see sev]al po9ts ( lik5ess & diff]5ce at once4 ,bo? plant & insect are made up ( p>ts1 ea* ( :i*1 z ! /em ( ! plant or ! leg ( ! insect1 appe>s to be di/9ct1 b :i* is a "p ( ! :ole liv+ plant or animal4 ,ea* "p ( ! liv+ plant or animal :i* has a sep>ate "w to d is call$ an organ4 ,?us plants & animals are spok5 ( z liv+ organisms4 ,illu/ration3 ,a we$--notice ! unfavorable environm5t4 ,functions ( ! ,p>ts ( a ,plant4--,we are all famili> ) ! p>ts ( a plant1--! root1 /em1 leaves1 fl[]s1 & fruit4 ,b we may n "k s mu* ab\t _! uses to ! plant4 ,ea* ( ^! /ructures diff]s f e o!r "p1 & ea* has a sep>ate "w or function to p]=m = ! plant4 ,! root holds ! plant firmly 9 ! gr\nd & takes 9 wat] & m9]al matt] f ! soil2 ! /em holds ! leaves up to ! light & acts z a pa?way = fluids betwe5 ! root & leaves2 ! leaves1 "u c]ta9 conditions1 manufacture food = ! plant & brea!2 ! fl[]s =m ! fruits2 ! fruits hold ! se$s1 :i* 9 turn hold "y plants :i* are capable ( reproduc+ adult plants ( ! same k9d4 ,! ,functions ( an ,animal4--,z we h already se51 ! gras%opp] has a head1 a jo9t$ body compos$ ( a middle & a h9d "p1 ?ree pairs ( jo9t$ legs1 & two pairs ( w+s4 ,obvi\sly1 ! w+s & legs are us$ = movem5t2 a c>eful wat*+ ( ! h9d "p ( ! animal %[s u t brea?+ movem5ts are tak+ place2 a bit ( grass plac$ be=e x may be eat51 ! t9y black jaws bit+ little pieces out ( ! grass4 ,if di/urb$1 ! insect hops away1 & if we try to get x1 x jumps or flies away1 evid5tly see+ u be=e we c grasp x4 ,hundr$s ( little gras%opp]s on ! grass indicate t ! gras%opp] c reproduce its own k9d1 b 9 o!r respects ! animal seems q unlike ! plant4 ,! animal moves1 brea!s1 fe$s1 & has s5sation1 :ile app>5tly ! plant does none ( ^!4 ,x w be ! purpose ( lat] *apt]s to prove t ! functions ( plants & animals are 9 _m respects simil> & t bo? plants & animals brea!1 fe$1 & reproduce4 ,illu/ration3 ,section ?r\gh ! blade ( a leaf4 e1 cells ( ! upp] surface2 d1 cells ( ! l[] surface2 i1 air spaces 9 ! leaf2 v1 ve9 9 cross sections2 p1 gre5 cells4 ,organs4--,if we look c>efully at ! organ ( a plant call$ a leaf1 we f9d t ! mat]ials ( :i* x is compos$ d n appe> to be ev]y:]e ! same4 ,! leaf is mu* ?9n] & m delicate 9 "s p>ts ?an 9 o!rs4 ,hold+ ! flat1 exp&$ blade away f ! bran* is a little /alk1 :i* ext5ds into ! blade ( ! leaf4 ,"h x splits up into a network ( t9y ve9s :i* evid5tly =m a framework = ! flat blade some:at z ! /icks ( a kite hold ! pap] 9 place4 ,if we exam9e "u ! comp\nd microscope a ?9 section cut across ! leaf1 we %all f9d t ! ve9s z well z ! o!r p>ts are made up ( _m t9y boxlike units ( v>i\s sizes & %apes4 ,^! smalle/ units ( build+ mat]ial ( ! plant or animal disclos$ by ! comp\nd microscope are call$ cells4 ,! organs ( a plant or animal are built ( ^! t9y /ructures4 ,illu/ration3 ,sev]al cells ( ,elodea1 a wat] plant4 *l41 *lorophyll bodies2 c4s41 cell sap2 c4w41 cell wall2 n41 nucleus2 p41 protoplasm4 ,! arr[s %[ ! direction ( ! protoplasmic movem5t4 ,tissues4#b--,! cells :i* =m c]ta9 p>ts ( ! ve9s1 ! flat blade1 or o!r portions ( ! plant1 are (t5 f\nd 9 gr\ps or collections1 ! cells ( :i* are m or less alike 9 size & %ape4 ,su* a collection ( cells is call$ a tissue4 ,examples ( tissues are ! cells cov]+ ! outside ( ! human body1 ! muscle cells1 :i* collectively all[ ( movem5t1 bony tissues :i* =m ! framework to :i* ! muscles are atta*$1 & _m o!rs4 ,footnote #b3 ,to ! ,tea*]4--,any simple plant or animal tissue c be us$ to demon/rate ! cell4 ,epid]mal cells may be /ripp$ f ! body ( ! frog or obta9$ by scrap+ ! inside ( "o's m\?4 ,! ?9 sk9 f an onion /a9$ ) t9cture ( iod9e %[s well1 z d ?9 sections ( a "y /em1 z ! bean or pea4 ,"o ( ! be/ places to /udy a tissue & ! cells ( :i* x is compos$ is 9 ! leaf ( a gre5 wat] plant1 ,elodea4 ,9 ?is plant ! cells are l>ge1 & n only _! outl9e1 b ! movem5t ( ! liv+ matt] )9 ! cells1 may easily be se51 & ! p>ts describ$ 9 ! next p>agraph c be demon/rat$4 ,illu/ration3 ,a cell4 *41 *romosomes2 c4w41 cell wall2 n41 nucleus2 p41 protoplasm4 ,cells4--,a cell may be def9$ z a t9y mass ( liv+ matt] conta9+ a nucleus1 ei!r liv+ alone or =m+ a unit ( ! build+ mat]ial ( a liv+ ?+4 ,! liv+ matt] ( :i* all cells are =m$ is kn[n z protoplasm 7=m$ f two ,greek words mean+ fir/ =m74 ,if we exam9e "u a comp\nd microscope a small bit ( ! wat] plant ,elodea1 we see a numb] ( /ructures resembl+ bricks 9 a wall4 ,ea* brick1 h[ev]1 is really a plant cell b\nd$ by a ?9 wall4 ,if we look c>efully1 we c see t ! mat]ial inside ( ?is wall is sl[ly mov+ & is c>ry+ ar\nd 9 its sub/ance a numb] ( little gre5 bodies4 ,?is mov+ sub/ance is liv+ matt]1 ! protoplasm ( ! cell4 ,! gre5 bodies 7! *lorophyll bodies7 we %all le>n m ab\t lat]2 !y are f\nd only 9 plant cells4 ,all plant & animal cells appe> to be alike 9 ! fact t e liv+ cell possesses a /ructure kn[n z ! nucleus 7pl4 nuclei71 :i* is f\nd )9 ! body ( ! cell4 ,?is nucleus is n easy to f9d 9 ! cells ( ,elodea4 ,)9 ! nucleus ( all cells are f\nd c]ta9 bodies call$ *romosomes4 ,^! *romosomes 9 a giv5 plant or animal are always con/ant 9 numb]4 ,^! *romosomes are suppos$ to be ! be>]s ( ! qualities :i* we believe c be h&$ d[n f plant to plant & f animal to animal1 9 o!r words1 ! inh]itable qualities :i* make ! (fspr+ l its p>5ts4 ,h[ ,cells =m ,o!rs4--,cells gr[ to a c]ta9 size & !n split into two new cells4 ,9 ?is process1 :i* is ( v great importance 9 ! gr[? ( bo? plants & animals1 ! nucleus divides fir/4 ,! *romosomes also divide1 ea* splitt+ l5g?wise & ! p>ts go+ 9 equal numb]s to ea* ( ! two cells =m$ f ! old cell4 ,9 ?is way ! matt] 9 ! *romosomes is divid$ equally betwe5 ! two new cells4 ,!n ! re/ ( ! protoplasm sep>ates1 & two new cells are =m$4 ,?is process is kn[n z fission4 ,x is ! usual me?od ( gr[? f\nd 9 ! tissues ( plants & animals4 ,illu/ration3 ,/ages 9 ! division ( "o cell to =m two4 ,:i* "p ( ! cell divides fir/8 ,:at seems to become ( ! *romosomes8 ,cells ( ,v>i\s ,sizes & ,%apes4--,plant cells & animal cells are ( v div]se %apes & sizes4 ,!re are cells s l>ge t !y c easily be se5 ) ! unaid$ eye2 = example1 ! root hairs ( plants & eggs ( "s animals4 ,on ! o!r h&1 cells may be s m9ute1 z 9 ! case ( ! plant cells nam$ bact]ia1 t sev]al million might be pres5t 9 a few drops ( milk4 ,! =ms ( cells may be extremely v>i$ 9 diff]5t tissues2 !y may assume ! =m ( cubes1 columns1 sph]es1 flat plates1 or may be extremely irregul> 9 %ape4 ,"o k9d ( tissue cell1 f\nd 9 man1 has a body s small z to be q invisible to ! nak$ eye1 al?\gh x has a prolongation sev]al feet 9 l5g?4 ,su* are "s ( ! cells ( ! n]v\s sy/em ( man & o!r l>ge animals1 z ! ox1 elephant1 & :ale4 ,v>y+ ,sizes ( ,liv+ ,?+s4--,plant cells & animal cells may live alone1 or !y may =m collections ( cells4 ,"s plants are s simple 9 /ructure z to be =m$ ( only "o k9d ( cells4 ,usually liv+ organisms are compos$ ( sev]al gr\ps ( diff]5t k9ds ( cells4 ,x is only necess>y to call att5tion to ! fact t su* collections ( cells may =m organisms s t9y z to be b>ely visible to ! eye2 z1 = in/ance1 "s ( ! small fl[]less plants or _m ( ! t9y animals liv+ 9 fre% wat] or salt wat]4 ,on ! o!r h&1 among animals1 ! bulk ( ! elephant & :ale1 & among plants ! big trees ( ,cali=nia1 /& out z notable examples4 ,! l>ge plants & animals are made up ( m1 n necess>ily l>g]1 cells4 ,:at ,protoplasm c ,d4--,x responds to influ5ces or /imulation f )\t its own sub/ance4 ,bo? plants & animals are s5sitive to t\* or /imulation by light1 heat or cold1 c]ta9 *emical sub/ances1 gravity1 & electricity4 ,gre5 plants turn t[>d ! s\rce ( light4 ,"s animals are attract$ to light & o!rs repell$ by x2 ! e>?worm is an example ( ! latt]4 ,protoplasm is ?us said to be irritable4 ,protoplasm has ! p[] to contract & to move4 ,muscul> movem5t is a famili> in/ance ( ?is p[]4 ,movem5t may also take place 9 plants4 ,"s plants fold up _! leaves at night2 o!rs1 l ! s5sitive plant1 fold _! leaflets :5 t\*$4 ,protoplasm c =m new liv+ matt] out ( food4 ,to d ?is1 food mat]ials mu/ be absorb$ into ! cells ( ! liv+ organism4 ,to make protoplasm1 x is evid5t t ! same *emical elem5ts mu/ ent] into ! composition ( ! food sub/ances z are f\nd 9 liv+ matt]4 ,! simple/ plants & animals h ?is wond]ful p[] z c]ta9ly develop$ z ! mo/ complex =ms ( life4 ,protoplasm1 be x 9 plant or animal1 brea!s & ?r[s (f wa/e mat]ials4 ,:5 a liv+ ?+ does "w oxyg5 unites ) food 9 ! body2 ! food is burn$ or oxidiz$ & "w is done by means ( ! en]gy releas$ f ! food4 ,! wa/e mat]ials are excret$ or pass$ out4 ,plants & animals alike pass (f ! c>bon dioxide :i* results f ! oxidation ( food & ( p>ts ( _! own bodies4 ,animals elim9ate wa/es conta9+ nitrog5 ?r\gh ! sk9 & ! kidneys4 ,protoplasm c reproduce1 t is1 =m o!r matt] l itself4 ,new plants are con/antly appe>+ to take ! places ( ^? t die4 ,! supply ( liv+ ?+s ^u ! e>? is n decreas+2 reproduction is con/antly tak+ place4 ,9 a g5]al way x is possible to say t plants & animals reproduce 9 a v simil> mann]4 ,! ,importance ( ,reproduction4--,reproduction is ! f9al process t plants & animals are call$ ^u to p]=m4 ,)\t ! =mation ( new liv+ ?+s no progress w\ld be possible on ! e>?4 ,we h f\nd t insects help fl[]+ plants 9 ?is process4 ,let u n[ see exactly :at happ5s :5 poll5 is plac$ by ! bee on ! /igma ( ano!r fl[] ( ! same k9d4 ,to und]/& ?is process ( reproduction 9 fl[]s1 we mu/ fir/ /udy c>efully poll5 gra9s f ! an!r ( "s gr[+ fl[]4 ,illu/ration3 ,poll5 gra9s ( diff]5t %apes & sizes4 ,poll54--,poll5 gra9s ( v>i\s fl[]s1 :5 se5 "u ! microscope1 diff] greatly 9 =m & appe>ance4 ,"s are relatively l>ge1 "s small1 "s r\gh1 o!rs smoo?1 "s sph]ical1 & o!rs angul>4 ,!y all agree1 h[ev]1 9 hav+ a ?ick wall1 ) a ?9 membrane "u x1 ! :ole inclos+ a mass ( protoplasm4 ,at an e>ly /age ! poll5 gra9 conta9s b a s+le cell4 ,a little lat]1 h[ev]1 two nuclei may be f\nd 9 ! protoplasm4 ,h5ce we "k t at lea/ two cells exi/ !re1 "o ( :i* is call$ ! sp]m cell2 its nucleus is ! sp]m nucleus4 ,illu/ration3 ,a poll5 gra9 greatly magnifi$4 ,two nuclei are f\nd 7n1 n'7 at ?is /age ( its gr[?4 ,illu/ration3 ,?ree /ages 9 ! g]m9ation ( ! poll5 gra94 ,! nuclei 9 ! tube 9 7#c7 are ! sp]m nuclei4 ,drawn "u ! comp\nd microscope4 ,gr[? ( ,poll5 ,gra9s4--,"u c]ta9 conditions a poll5 gra9 w gr[ or g]m9ate4 ,?is gr[? c be artificially produc$ 9 ! laboratory by spr9kl+ poll5 f well-op5$ fl[]s ( sweet pea or na/urtium on a solution ( #ae p>ts ( sug> to #ajj ( wat]4 ,left = a few h\rs 9 a w>m & moi/ place & !n exam9$ "u ! microscope1 ! gra9s ( poll5 w be f\nd to h g]m9at$1 a long1 ?readlike mass ( protoplasm gr[+ f x into ! sug> solution4 ,! pres5ce ( ?is sug> solution 0 suffici5t to induce gr[?4 ,:5 ! poll5 gra9 g]m9ates1 ! nuclei ent] ! ?readlike gr[? 7?is gr[? is call$ ! poll5 tube2 see ,figure74 ,"o ( ! nuclei :i* gr[s into ! poll5 tube is kn[n z ! sp]m nucleus4 ,illu/ration3 ,f]tilization ( ! ovule4 ,a fl[] cut d[n l5g?wise 7only "o side %[n74 ,! poll5 tube is se5 ent]+ ! ovule4 a1 an!r2 f1 filam5t2 pg1 poll5 gra92 s1 /igmatic surface2 pt1 poll5 tube2 /1 /yle2 o1 ov>y2 m1 micropyle2 sp1 space )9 ov>y2 e1 egg cell2 ,p1 petal2 ,s1 sepal4 ,f]tilization ( ! ,fl[]4--,if we cut ! pi/il ( a l>ge fl[] 7z a lily7 l5g?wise1 we notice t ! /yle appe>s to be compos$ ( r spongy mat]ial 9 ! int]ior2 ! ov>y is holl[ & is se5 to conta9 a numb] ( r\nd$ /ructures :i* appe> to gr[ out f ! wall ( ! ov>y4 ,^! are ! ovules4 ,! ovules1 "u c]ta9 conditions1 w become se$s4 ,an explanation ( ^! conditions may be _h if we exam9e1 "u ! microscope1 a v ?9 section ( a pi/il1 on :i* poll5 has begun to g]m9ate4 ,! c5tral "p ( ! /yle is f\nd to be ei!r holl[ or compos$ ( a s(t tissue ?r\gh :i* ! poll5 tube c easily gr[4 ,^u g]m9ation1 ! poll5 tube gr[s d[nw>d ?r\gh ! spongy c5t] ( ! /yle1 foll[s ! pa? ( lea/ resi/ance to ! space )9 ! ov>y1 & !re ent]s ! ovule4 ,x is believ$ t "s *emical influ5ce ?us attracts ! poll5 tube4 ,:5 x rea*es ! ov>y1 ! sp]m cell p5etrates an ovule by mak+ its way ?r\gh a little hole call$ ! micropyle4 ,x !n gr[s t[>d a cle> bit ( protoplasm kn[n z ! embryo sac4 ,! embryo sac is an ovoid space1 microscopic 9 size1 fill$ ) semifluid protoplasm conta9+ sev]al nuclei4 7,see ,figure47 ,"o ( ! nuclei1 ) ! protoplasm imm$iately surr\nd+ x1 is call$ ! egg cell4 ,x is ?is cell t ! sp]m nucleus ( ! poll5 tube gr[s t[>d2 ultimately ! sp]m nucleus rea*es ! egg nucleus & unites ) x4 ,! two nuclei1 aft] com+ toge!r1 unite to =m a s+le cell4 ,?is process is kn[n z f]tilization4 ,?is s+le cell =m$ by ! union ( ! poll5 tube cell or sp]m & ! egg cell is n[ call$ a f]tiliz$ egg4 ,developm5t ( ,ovule into ,se$4--,! prim>y reason = ! exi/5ce ( a fl[] is t x may produce se$s f :i* future plants w gr[4 ,aft] f]tilization ! ovule gr[s into a se$4 ,! fir/ beg9n+ ( ! gr[? ( ! se$ takes place at ! mom5t ( f]tilization4 ,f t "t on !re is a gr[? ( ! f]tiliz$ egg )9 ! ovule :i* makes a baby plant call$ ! embryo4 ,! embryo w give rise to ! adult plant4 ,illu/ration3 ,! fruit ( ! locu/1 a bean-l fruit4 p1 ! atta*m5t to ! plac5ta2 s1 ! /igma4 ,a ,typical ,fruit1--! ,pea or ,bean ,pod4--,if a )]$ fl[] ( any "o ( ! pea or bean family is exam9$ c>efully1 x w be f\nd t ! pi/il ( ! fl[] cont9ues to gr[ aft] ! re/ ( ! fl[] )]s4 ,if we remove ! pi/il f su* a fl[] & exam9e x c>efully1 we f9d t x is ! ov>y t has enl>g$4 ,! space )9 ! ov>y has become ne>ly fill$ ) a numb] ( ne>ly ovoid bodies1 atta*$ along "o edge ( ! inn] wall4 ,^! we recognize z ! "y se$s4 ,! pod ( a bean1 pea1 or locu/ illu/rates well ! gr[? f ! fl[]4 ,! pod1 :i* is 9 reality a rip5$ ov>y ) o!r p>ts ( ! pi/il atta*$ to x1 is consid]$ z a fruit4 ,by def9ition1 a fruit is a rip5$ ov>y & its cont5ts toge!r ) any p>ts ( ! fl[] t may be atta*$ to x4 ,! *ief use ( ! fruit to ! fl[] is to hold & to protect ! se$s2 x may ultimately di/ribute !m :]e !y c reproduce "y plants4 ,illu/ration3 ,! developm5t ( an apple4 ,notice t 9 ?is fruit additional p>ts besides ! ov>y 7o7 become "p ( ! fruit4 ,c]ta9 out] p>ts ( ! fl[]1 ! sepals 7s7 & receptacle1 become ! fle%y "p ( ! fruit1 :ile ! ov>y becomes ! core4 ,/ages numb]$ #a to #g are 9 ! ord] ( developm5t4 ,! ,necessity ( ,fruit & ,se$ ,disp]sal to a ,plant4--,we h se5 t ! *ief reason = fl[]s1 f ! plant's /&po9t1 is to produce fruits :i* conta9 se$s4 ,reproduction & ! ultimate scatt]+ ( fruits & se$s are absolutely necess>y 9 ord] t colonies ( plants may rea* new localities4 ,x is evid5t t plants be/ fitt$ to scatt] _! se$s1 or place fruits conta9+ ! se$s "s little di/ance f ! p>5t plants1 are ! ones :i* w spread mo/ rapidly4 ,a plant1 if x is to advance into new t]ritory1 mu/ get its se$s !re fir/4 ,plants :i* are be/ fitt$ to d ?is are ! mo/ widely di/ribut$ on ! e>?4 ,h[ ,se$s & ,fruits are ,scatt]$4--,se$ disp]sal is accompli%$ 9 _m diff]5t ways4 ,"s plants produce enorm\s numb]s ( se$s :i* may or may n h special devices to aid 9 _! scatt]+4 ,mo/ we$s are ?us />t$ 9 pa/ures new4 ,"s prolific plants1 l ! milkwe$1 h se$s ) a little tuft ( hairlike d[n :i* all[s !m to be c>ri$ by ! w9d4 ,o!rs1 z ! omnipres5t d&elion1 h _! fruits provid$ ) a simil> /ructure1 ! pappus4 ,"s plants1 z ! burdock & clotbur1 h fruits provid$ ) t9y hooks :i* /ick to ! hair ( animals1 ?us prov+ a means ( transportation4 ,mo/ fle%y fruits conta9 indige/ible se$s1 s t :5 ! fruits are eat5 by animals ! se$s are pass$ (f f ! body unh>m$ & may1 if favorably plac$1 gr[4 ,nuts ( v>i\s k9ds are (t5 c>ri$ (f by animals1 buri$1 & =gott51 to gr[ lat]4 ,su* are a few ( ! ways 9 :i* se$s are scatt]$4 ,all o!r ?+s be+ equal1 ! plants be/ equipp$ to scatt] se$s or fruits are ^? :i* w drive out o!r plants 9 a giv5 locality4 ,because ( _! adaptations !y are likely to be v num]\s1 & :5 unfavorable conditions come1 = t reason1 if = no o!r1 are likely to survive4 ,su* plants are be/ exemplifi$ 9 ! we$s ( ! grassplots & g>d5s4 ,,ref]5ce ,,books ,,elem5t>y ,hunt]1 ,laboratory ,problems 9 ,civic ,biology4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,&rews1 ,a ,practical ,c\rse 9 ,botany1 pages #bej-bgj4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,atk9son1 ,fir/ ,/udies ( ,plant ,life1 ,*aps4 ,,xxv-,,xxvi4 ,g9n & ,company4 ,bailey1 ,lessons ) ,plants1 ,"p ,,iii1 pages #aca-bej4 ,! ,macmillan ,company4 ,c\lt]1 ,plant ,life & ,plant ,uses4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,dana1 ,plants & _! ,*ildr51 pages #ahg-bee4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,lubbock1 ,fl[]s1 ,fruit1 & ,leaves1 ,"p ,i4 ,! ,macmillan ,company4 ,newell1 ,a ,read] 9 ,botany1 ,"p ,,ii1 pages #a-if4 ,g9n & ,company4 ,,advanc$ ,bailey1 ,plant ,bre$+4 ,! ,macmillan ,company4 ,campbell1 ,lectures on ! ,evolution ( ,plants4 ,! ,macmillan ,company4 ,c\lt]1 ,b>nes1 & ,c[les1 ,a ,textbook ( ,botany1 ,"p ,,ii4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,d>w91 ,diff]5t ,=ms ( ,fl[]s on ,plants ( ! ,same ,species4 ,appleton4 ,d>w91 ,f]tilization 9 ! ,vegetable ,k+dom1 ,*aps4 ,i & ,,ii4 ,appleton4 ,d>w91 ,or*ids ,f]tiliz$ by ,insects4 ,d4 ,appleton & ,company4 ,muell]1 ,! ,f]tilization ( ,fl[]s4 ,! ,macmillan ,company4 ,v4 ,,plant ,,gr[? ,,& ,,nutrition4 ,,causes ,,( ,,gr[? ,problem4--,:at causes a "y plant to gr[8 7a7 ,! relation ( ! "y plant to its food supply4 7b7 ,! outside conditions necess>y = g]m9ation4 7c7 ,:at ! "y plant does ) its food supply4 7d7 ,h[ a plant or animal is able to use its food supply4 7e7 ,h[ a plant or animal prep>es food to use 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! body4 ,,laboratory ,,sugge/ions ,laboratory ex]cise4--,exam9ation ( bean 9 pod4 ,exam9ation & id5tification ( p>ts ( bean se$4 ,laboratory demon/ration4--,te/s = ! nutri5ts3 />*1 fats or oils1 prote94 ,laboratory demon/ration4--,pro( t su* foods exi/ 9 bean4 ,home "w4--,te/ ( v>i\s common foods = nutri5ts4 ,tabulate results4 ,extra home "w by select$ pupils4--,factors necess>y = g]m9ation ( bean4 ,demon/ration ( exp]im5ts to class4 ,demon/ration4--,oxidation ( c&le 9 clos$ j>4 ,te/ ) lime wat] = products ( oxidation4 ,demon/ration4--,pro( t mat]ials are oxidiz$ )9 ! human body4 ,demon/ration4--,oxidation takes place 9 gr[+ se$s4 ,te/ = oxidation products4 ,oxyg5 necess>y = g]m9ation4 ,laboratory ex]cise4--,exam9ation ( corn on cob1 ! corn gra91 longitud9al sections ( corn gra9 /a9$ ) iod9e to %[ t embryo is di/9ct f food supply4 ,demon/ration4--,te/ = grape sug>4 ,demon/ration4--,grape sug> pres5t 9 gr[+ corn gra94 ,demon/ration4--,! action ( dia/ase on />*4 ,conditions necess>y = action ( dia/ase4 ,:at makes a ,se$ ,gr[4--,! g5]al problem ( ! pages t foll[ w be to expla9 h[ ! baby plant1 or embryo1 =m$ 9 ! se$ z ! result ( ! f]tilization ( ! egg cell1 is able to gr[ into an adult plant4 ,two sets ( factors are necess>y = its gr[?3 fir/1 ! pres5ce ( food to give ! "y plant a />t2 second1 c]ta9 /imulat+ factors outside ! "y plant1 su* z wat] & heat4 ,illu/ration3 ,?ree views ( a kidney bean1 ! l[] "o hav+ "o cotyl$on remov$ to %[ ! hypocotyl & plumule4 ,if we op5 a bean pod1 we f9d ! se$s ly+ along "o edge ( ! pod1 ea* atta*$ by a little /alk to ! inn] wall ( ! ov>y4 ,if we pull a s+le bean f its atta*m5t1 we f9d t ! /alk leaves a sc> on ! coat ( ! bean2 ?is sc> is call$ ! hilum4 ,! t9y hole ne> ! hilum is call$ ! micropyle4 ,turn back to ! figure 7page #ed7 %[+ ! ovule 9 ! ov>y4 ,f9d !re ! little hole ?r\gh :i* ! poll5 tube rea*$ ! embryo sac4 ,?is hole is id5tical ) ! micropyle 9 ! se$4 ,! ?ick out] coat 7! te/a7 is easily remov$ f a soak$ bean1 ! delicate coat "u x easily escap+ notice4 ,! se$ sep>ates into two p>ts2 ^! are call$ ! cotyl$ons4 ,if y pull ap>t ! cotyl$ons v c>efully1 y f9d c]ta9 o!r /ructures betwe5 !m4 ,! rodlike "p is call$ ! hypocotyl 7mean+ "u ! cotyl$ons74 ,?is w lat] =m ! root 7& "p ( ! /em7 ( ! "y bean plant4 ,! fir/ true leaves1 v t9y /ructures1 are fold$ toge!r betwe5 ! cotyl$ons4 ,t "p ( ! plant above ! cotyl$ons is kn[n z ! plumule or epicotyl 7mean+ above ! cotyl$ons74 ,all ! p>ts ( ! se$ )9 ! se$ coats toge!r =m ! embryo or "y plant4 ,a bean se$ conta9s1 !n1 a t9y plant protect$ by a t\gh coat4 ,food 9 ! ,cotyl$ons4--,! problem n[ be=e u is to f9d out h[ ! embryo ( ! bean is adapt$ to gr[ into an adult plant4 ,up to ?is /age ( its exi/5ce x has _h ! advantage ( food & protection f ! p>5t plant4 ,n[ x mu/ beg9 ! battle ( life alone4 ,we %all f9d 9 all our "w ) plants & animals t ! problem ( food supply is always ! mo/ important problem to be solv$ by ! gr[+ organism4 ,let u see if ! embryo is able to get a />t 9 life 7:i* _m animals get 9 ! egg7 f food provid$ = x )9 its own body4 ,organic ,nutri5ts4--,organic foods 7^? :i* come f liv+ s\rces7 are made up ( two k9ds ( sub/ances1 ! nutri5ts or food sub/ances & wa/es or refuse4 ,an egg1 = example1 conta9s ! :ite & ! yolk1 compos$ ( nutri5ts1 & ! %ell1 :i* is wa/e4 ,! organic nutri5ts are class$ 9 ?ree gr\ps4 ,c>bohydrates1 foods :i* conta9 c>bon1 hydrog51 & oxyg5 9 a c]ta9 fix$ proportion 7,c#f;,h#aj,o#e is an example74 ,!y are ! simple/ ( ^! v complex *emical comp\nds we call organic nutri5ts4 ,/>* & sug> are common examples ( c>bohydrates4 ,fats & ,oils4--,^! foods are also compos$ ( c>bon1 hydrog51 & oxyg5 9 a proportion :i* enables !m to unite readily ) oxyg54 ,prote9s4--,a ?ird gr\p ( organic foods1 prote9s1 are ! mo/ complex ( all 9 _! composition1 & h1 besides c>bon1 oxyg51 & hydrog51 ! elem5t nitrog5 & m9ute quantities ( o!r elem5ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,/>* gra9s 9 ! cells ( a potato tub]4 ,te/ = ,/>*4--,if we boil wat] ) a piece ( laundry />* 9 a te/ tube1 !n cool x & add to ! mixture two or ?ree drops ( iod9e solution1#c we f9d t ! mixture 9 ! te/ tube turns purple or deep blue4 ,x has be5 discov]$ by exp]im5t t />*1 & no o!r kn[n sub/ance1 w be turn$ purple or d>k blue by iod9e4 ,!re=e1 iod9e solution has come to be us$ z a te/ = ! pres5ce ( />*4 ,footnote #c3 ,iod9e solution is made by simply add+ a few cry/als ( ! elem5t iod9e to #ie p] c5t alcohol2 or1 bett]1 take by weight #a gram ( iod9e cry/als1 #b_/c gram ( iodide ( potassium1 & dilute to a d>k br[n color 9 weak alcohol 7#ce p] c5t7 or di/ill$ wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,te/ = ,/>*4 ,/>* 9 ! ,bean4--,if we ma% up a little piece ( a bean cotyl$on :i* has be5 previ\sly soak$ 9 wat]1 & te/ = />* ) iod9e solution1 ! *>act]i/ic blue-black color appe>s1 %[+ ! pres5ce ( ! />*4 ,if a little ( ! /a9$ mat]ial is m\nt$ 9 wat] on a glass slide "u ! comp\nd microscope1 y w f9d t ! />* is 9 ! =m ( little ovoid bodies call$ />* gra9s4 ,! />* gra9s & o!r food products are made use ( by ! gr[+ plant4 ,te/ = ,oils4--,if ! sub/ance believ$ to conta9 oil is rubb$ on br[n pap] or is plac$ on pap] & !n heat$ 9 an ov51 ! pres5ce ( oil w be kn[n by a transluc5t spot on ! pap]4 ,illu/ration3 ,te/ = prote94 ,prote9 9 ! ,bean4--,ano!r nutri5t pres5t 9 ! bean cotyl$on is prote94 ,sev]al te/s are us$ to detect ! pres5ce ( ?is nutri5t4 ,! foll[+ is "o ( ! be/ kn[n3-- ,place 9 a te/ tube ! sub/ance to be te/$2 = example1 a bit ( h>d-boil$ egg4 ,p\r ov] x a little /rong 7#fj p] c5t7 nitric acid & heat g5tly4 ,note ! color t appe>s--a lemon yell[4 ,if ! egg is wa%$ 9 wat] & a little ammonium hydrate add$1 ! color *anges to a deep orange1 %[+ t a prote9 is pres5t4 ,if ! prote9 is 9 a liquid /ate1 its pres5ce may be prov$ by heat+1 = :5 x coagulates or ?ick5s1 z does ! :ite ( an egg :5 boil$1 prote9 9 ! =m ( an album9 is pres5t4 ,ano!r *>act]i/ic prote9 te/ easily made at home is burn+ ! sub/ance4 ,if x burns ) ! odor ( burn+ fea!rs or lea!r1 !n prote9 =ms "p ( its composition4#d ,footnote #d3 ,o!r te/s some:at m reliable1 b mu* m delicate1 are ! biuret te/ & te/ ) ,millon's reag5t4 ,a te/ ( ! cotyl$on ( a bean = prote9 food ) nitric acid & ammonium hydrate %[s u ! pres5ce ( ?is food4 ,beans are f\nd by actual te/ to conta9 ab\t #bc p] c5t ( prote91 #ei p] c5t ( c>bohydrates1 & ab\t #b p] c5t oils4 ,! "y plant )9 a pea or bean is ?us %[n to be well suppli$ ) n\ri%m5t until x is able to take c>e ( itself4 ,9 ?is respect x is some:at l a "y animal )9 ! egg1 a bird or fi%1 = example4 ,beans & ,peas z ,food = ,man4--,s mu* food is /or$ 9 legumes 7z beans & peas7 t man has come to consid] !m a v valuable & *eap s\rce ( food4 ,/udy c>efully ! foll[+ table3-- ,,nutri5ts ,,furni%$ ,,= ,,t5 ,,c5ts ,,9 ,,beans ,,& ,,peas ,,at ,,c]ta9 ,,prices ,,p] ,,p\nd ,,t5 ,,c5ts ,,w ,,pay ,,= ,,prices ---------------------------------------- -- ,,food ,,mat]ials ,,p] ,,total ,,z ,,pur*as$ ,,p\nd ,,food ,,prote9 ,,fat ,,c>bohydrates ,,mat]ial ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,c5ts ,p\nds ,p\nds,p\nds ,p\nds ,kidney beans1 dri$ #e #b4jj #j4de #j4jd #a4ai ,lima beans1 fre%1 %ell$ #h #a4be 4#jd -- 4#ab ,lima beans1 dri$ #f #a4fg 4#cj 4#jc #a4aj ,/r+ beans1 fre%1 #cj c5ts p] peck #c #c4cc 4#jg 4#ja 4#bc ,beans1 bak$1 cann$ #e #b4jj 4#ad 4#je 4#ci ,l5tils1 dri$ #aj #a4jj 4#bf 4#ja 4#ei ,peas1 gre51 9 pod1 #cj c5ts p] peck #c #c4cc 4#ab 4#ja 4#cc ,peas1 dri$ #d #b4ej 4#fb 4#jc #a4ee ,illu/ration3 ,a s]ies ( e>ly /ages 9 ! g]m9ation ( ! kidney bean4 ,g]m9ation ( ! ,bean4--,if dry se$s are plant$ 9 sawdu/ or e>?1 !y w n gr[4 ,a mod]ate supply ( wat] mu/ be giv5 to !m4 ,if se$s 7 to be kept 9 a freez+ temp]ature or at a v high temp]ature1 no gr[? w\ld take place4 ,a mod]ate temp]ature & a mod]ate wat] supply are mo/ favorable = _! developm5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,bean se$l+s4 ,! old] se$l+s at ! left h us$ up all ( ! food supply 9 ! cotyl$ons4 ,if "s beans 7 plant$ s t we might make a record ( _! gr[?1 we w\ld f9d ! fir/ signs ( g]m9ation to be ! break+ ( ! te/a & ! pu%+ outw>d ( ! hypocotyl to =m ! fir/ root4 ,a little lat] ! hypocotyl beg9s to curve d[nw>d4 ,a lat] /age %[s ! hypocotyl lift+ ! cotyl$on upw>d4 ,9 consequ5ce ! hypocotyl =ms an ar*1 dragg+ aft] x ! bulky cotyl$ons4 ,! /em1 z soon z x is releas$ f ! gr\nd1 /raight5s out4 ,f betwe5 ! cotyl$ons ! budlike plumule or epicotyl gr[s upw>d1 =m+ ! fir/ true leaves & all ( ! /em above ! cotyl$ons4 ,z gr[? cont9ues1 we notice t ! cotyl$ons become small] & small]1 until _! food cont5ts are completely absorb$ into ! "y plant4 ,! "y plant is n[ able to c>e = itself & may be said to h pass$ ?r\gh ! /ages ( g]m9ation4 ,:at makes an ,eng9e ,g4--,if we exam9e ! sawdu/ or soil 9 :i* ! se$s are gr[+1 we f9d x =c$ up by ! gr[+ se$4 ,evid5tly "w 0 done2 9 o!r words1 en]gy 0 releas$ by ! se$s4 ,a famili> example ( release ( en]gy is se5 9 an eng9e4 ,coal is plac$ 9 ! firebox & light$1 ! l[] door ( ! furnace is !n op5$ s z to make a draft ( air :i* w rea* ! coal4 ,y "k ! result4 ,! coal burns1 heat is giv5 (f1 caus+ ! wat] 9 ! boil] to make /eam1 ! eng9e :eels to turn1 & "w to be done4 ,let u see :at happ5s f ! *emical /&po9t4 ,coal1 ,organic ,matt]4--,coal is made l>gely f dead plants1 long s9ce press$ into its pres5t h>d =m4 ,x conta9s a l>ge am\nt ( a *emical elem5t call$ c>bon1 ! pres5ce ( :i* is *>act]i/ic ( all organic mat]ial4 ,illu/ration3 ,! limewat] te/4 ,! tube at ! "r %[s ! effect ( ! c>bon dioxide4 ,oxidation1 its ,results4--,:5 ?+s conta9+ c>bon are light$1 !y burn4 ,if we place a light$ c&le :i* conta9s c>bon 9 a clos$ glass j>1 ! c&le soon goes out4 ,if we !n c>efully te/ ! air 9 ! j> ) a sub/ance kn[n z limewat]1#e ! latt]1 :5 %ak5 up ) ! air 9 ! j>1 turns milky4 ,?is te/ proves ! pres5ce 9 ! j> ( a gas1 kn[n z c>bon dioxide4 ,?is gas is =m$ by ! c>bon ( ! c&le unit+ ) ! oxyg5 9 ! air4 ,:5 ! oxyg5 ( ! air 9 ! j> 0 us$ up1 ! flame w5t out1 %[+ t oxyg5 is necess>y to make a ?+ burn4 ,?is unit+ ( oxyg5 ) "s o!r sub/ance is call$ oxidation4 ,footnote #e3 ,limewat] c be made by %ak+ up a piece ( quicklime ! size ( y\r fi/ 9 ab\t two qu>ts ( wat]4 ,filt] or /ra9 ! limewat] into bottles & x is ready = use4 ,illu/ration3 ,diagram to %[ t :5 a piece ( wood is burn$ x =ms wat] & c>bon dioxide4 ,oxidation possible )\t a ,flame4--,b a flame is n necess>y = oxidation4 ,iron1 if left 9 a damp place1 becomes ru/y4 ,a union betwe5 ! oxyg5 9 ! wat] or air & ! iron makes :at is kn[n z iron oxide or ru/4 ,?is is an example ( sl[ oxidation4 ,oxidation 9 our ,bodies4--,if we expel ! air f our lungs ?r\gh a tube into a bottle ( limewat]1 we notice ! limewat] becomes milky4 ,evid5tly c>bon dioxide is =m$ 9 our own bodies & oxidation takes place !re4 ,is x fair to believe t ! heat ( our body 7= example1 #ih4f deg4 ,fahr5heit "u ! tongue7 is due to oxidation )9 ! body1 & t ! "w we d results f ?is *emical process4 ,if s1 :at is oxidiz$8 ,en]gy comes f ,foods4--,f ! =ego+ exp]im5t x is evid5t t food is oxidiz$ )9 ! human body to release en]gy = our daily "w4 ,is x n logical to suppose t all liv+ ?+s1 bo? plant & animal1 release en]gy z ! result ( oxidation ( foods )9 _! cells8 ,let u see if ?is is true 9 ! case ( ! pea4 ,food oxidiz$ 9 ,g]m9at+ ,se$s4--,if we take equal numb]s ( soak$ peas1 plac$ 9 two bottles1 "o tightly /opp]$1 ! o!r hav+ no /opp]1 bo? bottles be+ expos$ to id5tical conditions ( light1 temp]ature1 & moi/ure1 we f9d t ! se$s 9 bo? bottles />t to g]m9ate1 b t ^? 9 ! clos$ bottle soon /op1 :ile ^? 9 ! op5 j> cont9ue to gr[ almo/ z well z simil> se$s plac$ 9 an op5 di% w\ld4 ,illu/ration3 ,exp]im5t t %[s ! necessity = air 9 g]m9ation4 ,:y did n ! se$s 9 ! cov]$ j> g]m9ate8 ,to answ] ?is "q1 let u c>efully remove ! /opp] f ! /opp]$ j> & ins]t a light$ c&le4 ,! c&le goes out at once4 ,! sur] te/ ( limewat] %[s ! pres5ce ( c>bon dioxide 9 ! j>4 ,! c>bon ( ! food/uffs ( ! pea unit$ ) ! oxyg5 ( ! air1 =m+ c>bon dioxide4 ,gr[? /opp$ z soon z ! oxyg5 0 exhau/$4 ,! pres5ce ( c>bon dioxide 9 ! j> is an indication t a v important process :i* we associate ) animals r ?an plants1 t ( respiration1 is tak+ place4 ,! se$1 9 ord] to release ! en]gy lock$ up 9 its food supply1 mu/ h oxyg51 s t ! oxidation ( ! food may take place4 ,h5ce a con/ant supply ( fre% air is an important factor 9 g]m9ation4 ,x is important t air %\ld p5etrate betwe5 ! gra9s ( soil ar\nd a se$4 ,! frequ5t /irr+ ( ! soil enables ! air to rea* ! se$4 ,air also acts ^u "s mat]ials 9 ! soil & puts !m 9 a =m t ! g]m9at+ se$ c use4 ,?is necessity = oxyg5 %[s u at lea/ "o reason :y ! f>m] pl[s & h>r[s a field & "o important use ( ! e>?worm4 ,expla94 ,illu/ration3 ,a gra9 ( corn cut l5g?wise4 ,c1 cotyl$on2 ,e1 endosp]m2 ,h1 hypocotyl2 ,p1 plumule4 ,/ructure ( a ,gra9 ( ,corn4--,exam9ation ( a well-soak$ gra9 ( corn discloses a diff]5ce 9 ! two flat sides ( ! gra94 ,a light-color$ area f\nd on "o surface m>ks ! position ( ! embryo2 ! re/ ( ! gra9 conta9s ! food supply4 ,! int]e/+ ?+ to rememb] "h is t ! food supply is outside ( ! embryo4 ,a gra9 cut l5g?wise p]p5dicul> to ! flat side & !n dipp$ 9 weak iod9e %[s two di/9ct p>ts1 an area conta9+ consid]able />*1 ! endosp]m1 & ! embryo or "y plant4 ,c>eful inspection %[s ! hypocotyl & plumule 7! latt] po9t+ t[>d ! free end ( ! gra97 & a "p surr\nd+ !m1 ! s+le cotyl$on 7see ,figure74 ,"h aga9 we h an example ( a fitt+ = future ne$s1 = 9 ?is fruit ! "o se$ has at h& all ! food mat]ial necess>y = rapid gr[?1 al?\gh ! food is "h outside ! embryo4 ,illu/ration3 ,longitud9al section ( "y e> ( corn4 ,o1 ! fruits2 ,s1 ! /igmas2 ,,%1 ! %ea?-l leaves2 ,,/1 ! fl[] /alk4 7,aft] ,s>g5t47 ,endosp]m ! ,food ,supply ( ,corn4--,we f9d t ! "o cotyl$on ( ! corn gra9 does n s]ve ! same purpose to ! "y plant z d ! two cotyl$ons ( ! bean4 ,al?\gh we f9d a little />* 9 ! corn cotyl$on1 /ill x is evid5t f our te/s t ! endosp]m is ! *ief s\rce ( food supply4 ,! /udy ( a ?9 section ( ! corn gra9 "u ! comp\nd microscope %[s u t ! />* gra9s 9 ! endosp]m are l>ge & regul> 9 size4 ,:5 ! gra9 has begun to gr[1 exam9ation %[s t ! />* gra9s ne> ! edge ( ! cotyl$on are mu* small] & q irregul>1 hav+ l>ge holes 9 !m4 ,we "k t ! g]m9at+ gra9 has a mu* sweet] ta/e ?an t :i* is n gr[+4 ,?is is notic$ 9 spr\t+ b>ley or malt4 ,we %all lat] f9d t1 9 ord] to make use ( />*y food1 a plant or animal mu/ 9 "s mann] *ange x ov] to sug>4 ,?is *ange is necess>y1 because />* w n dissolve 9 wat]1 :ile sug> w2 9 ?is =m sub/ances c pass f cell to cell 9 ! plant & ?us di/ribute ! food :]e x is ne$$4 ,illu/ration3 ,te/ = grape sug>4 ,a ,te/ = ,grape ,sug>4--,place 9 a te/ tube ! sub/ance to be te/$ & heat x 9 a little wat] s z to dissolve ! sug>4 ,add to ! fluid twice its bulk ( ,fehl+'s solution1#f :i* has be5 previ\sly prep>$4 ,heat ! mixture1 :i* %\ld n[ h a blue color1 9 ! te/ tube4 ,if grape sug> is pres5t 9 consid]able quantity1 ! cont5ts ( ! tube w turn fir/ a gre5i%1 !n yell[1 & f9ally a brick-r$ color4 ,small] am\nts w %[ less decid$ r$4 ,no o!r sub/ance ?an sug> w give ?is reaction4 ,if ,b5$ict's te/#g is us$1 a color$ precipitate w appe> 9 ! te/ tube aft] boil+4 ,footnotes #f & #g3 ,directions = mak+ ^! solutions w be f\nd 9 ,hunt]'s ,laboratory ,problems 9 ,civic ,biology4 ,/>* *ang$ to ,grape ,sug> 9 ! ,corn4--,t />* is be+ *ang$ to grape sug> 9 ! g]m9at+ corn gra9 c easily be %[n if we cut l5g?wise ?r\gh ! embryos ( half a doz5 gra9s ( corn t h j begun to g]m9ate1 place !m 9 a te/ tube ) "s ,fehl+'s solution1 & heat almo/ to ! boil+ po9t4 ,!y w be f\nd to give a reaction %[+ ! pres5ce ( sug> along ! edge ( ! cotyl$on & betwe5 x & ! endosp]m4 ,dige/ion4--,?is *ange ( />* to grape sug> 9 ! corn is a process ( dige/ion4 ,if y *ew a bit ( unsweet5$ crack] 9 ! m\? = a little "t1 x w beg9 to ta/e sweet1 & if ! *ew$ crack]1 :i* we "k conta9s />*1 is te/$ ) ,fehl+'s solution1 "s ( ! />* w be f\nd to h *ang$ to grape sug>4 ,"h1 aga91 a process ( dige/ion has tak5 place4 ,9 bo? ! corn & 9 ! m\?1 ! *ange is br\ght ab\t by ! action ( peculi> sub/ances kn[n z dige/ive f]m5ts1 or enzymes4 ,su* sub/ances h ! p[] "u c]ta9 conditions to *ange insoluble foods--solids--into soluble sub/ances--liquids4 ,! result is t sub/ances :i* be=e dige/ion w\ld n dissolve 9 wat] n[ w dissolve4 ,illu/ration3 ,a g]m9at+ corn gra94 ,c1 cotyl$on2 ,h1 gr[+ root 7hypocotyl72 ,p1 gr[+ /em 7plumule72 ,s1 endosp]m2 d4s41 dige/$ />*2 p4r41 prim>y root2 s4r41 second>y root2 r4h41 root hairs4 ,! ,action ( ,dia/ase on ,/>*4--,! enzyme f\nd 9 ! cotyl$on ( ! corn1 :i* *anges />* to grape sug>1 is call$ dia/ase4 ,x may be sep>at$ f ! cotyl$on & us$ 9 ! =m ( a p[d]4 ,to a little />* 9 half a cup ( wat] we add a v little 7#a gram7 ( dia/ase & put ! vessel conta9+ ! mixture 9 a w>m place1 :]e ! temp]ature w rema9 ne>ly con/ant at ab\t #ih deg4 ,fahr5heit4 ,on te/+ "p ( ! cont5ts at ! end ( half an h\r1 & ! rema9d] ! next morn+1 = />* & = grape sug>1 we f9d f ! morn+ te/ t ! />* has be5 almo/ completely *ang$ to grape sug>4 ,/>* & w>m wat] alone "u simil> conditions w n react to ! te/ = grape sug>4 ,dige/ion has ! ,same ,purpose 9 ,plants & ,animals4--,9 our own bodies we "k t solid foods tak5 into ! m\? are brok5 up by ! tee? & moi/5$ by saliva4 ,if we c\ld foll[ t food1 we w\ld f9d t ev5tually x became "p ( ! blood4 ,x 0 made soluble by dige/ion1 & 9 a liquid =m 0 able to rea* ! blood4 ,once a "p ( ! body1 ! food is us$ ei!r to release en]gy or to build up ! body4 ,summ>y4--,we h se53 #a4 ,t se$s1 9 ord] to gr[1 mu/ possess a food supply ei!r 9 or ar\nd _! bodies4 #b4 ,t ?is food supply mu/ be oxidiz$ be=e en]gy is releas$4 #c4 ,t 9 cases :]e ! food is n /or$ at ! po9t :]e x is to be oxidiz$ ! food mu/ be dige/$ s t x may be transport$ f "o "p to ano!r 9 ! same plant4 ,! life processes ( plants & animals1 s f>1 may be consid]$ z alike2 !y bo? fe$1 brea! 7oxidize _! food71 d "w1 & gr[4 ,,ref]5ce ,,books ,,elem5t>y ,hunt]1 ,laboratory ,problems 9 ,civic ,biology4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,&rews1 ,a ,practical ,c\rse 9 ,botany1 pages #a-ba4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,atk9son1 ,fir/ ,/udies ( ,plant ,life1 ,*ap4 ,,xxx4 ,g9n & ,company4 ,bailey1 ,botany1 ,*aps4 ,,xx1 ,,xxx4 ,! ,macmillan ,company4 ,beal1 ,se$ ,disp]sal4 ,g9n & ,company4 ,b]g5 & ,davis1 ,pr9ciples ( ,botany1 ,*aps4 ,,xx1 ,,xxx4 ,g9n & ,company4 ,c\lt]1 ,plant ,life & ,plant ,uses4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,dana1 ,plants & _! ,*ildr54 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,mayne & ,hat*1 ,high ,s*ool ,agriculture4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,lubbock1 ,fl[]s1 ,fruits1 & ,leaves4 ,! ,macmillan ,company4 ,newell1 ,read] 9 ,botany1 pages #bd-di4 ,g9n & ,company4 ,%>pe1 ,a ,laboratory ,manual 9 ,biology1 pages #ee-fe4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,,advanc$ ,bailey1 ,! ,evolution ( our ,native ,fruits4 ,! ,macmillan ,company4 ,bailey1 ,plant ,bre$+4 ,! ,macmillan ,company4 ,c\lt]1 ,b>nes1 & ,c[les1 ,a ,textbook ( ,botany1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,de ,c&olle1 ,orig9 ( ,cultivat$ ,plants4 ,d4 ,appleton & ,company4 ,dugg>1 ,plant ,physiology4 ,! ,macmillan ,company4 ,f>m]s' ,bullet9s1 ,nos4 #gh1 #hf1 #bbe1 #cdd4 ,u4 ,s4 ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture4 ,hodge1 ,nature ,/udy & ,life1 ,*aps4 ,x1 ,,xx4 ,g9n & ,company4 ,k]n] 7translat$ by ,oliv]71 ,natural ,hi/ory ( ,plants4 ,h5ry ,holt & ,company1 #d vols4 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,"p #b4 ,s>g5t1 ,corn ,plants4 ,h\ghton1 ,miffl91 & ,company4 ,,vi4 ,,! ,,organs ,,( ,,nutrition ,,9 ,,plants--,,! ,,soil ,,& ,,its ,,relation ,,to ,,! ,,roots ,problem4--,:at a plant takes f ! soil & h[ x gets x4 7a7 ,:at det]m9es ! direction ( gr[? ( roots8 7b7 ,h[ is ! root built8 7d7 ,:at is 9 ! soil t a root might take out8 7e7 ,:y is nitrog5 necess>y1 & h[ is x obta9$8 ,,laboratory ,,sugge/ions ,demon/ration4--,roots ( bean or pea4 ,demon/ration or home exp]im5t4--,response ( root to gravity & to wat]4 ,:at "p ( root is mo/ responsive8 ,laboratory "w4--,root hairs1 radi% or corn1 position on root1 gross /ructure only4 ,draw+4 ,demon/ration4--,root hair "u comp\nd microscope4 ,demon/ration4--,app>atus illu/rat+ osmosis4 ,demon/ration or a home exp]im5t4--,organic matt] pres5t 9 soil4 ,demon/ration4--,root tub]cles ( legume4 ,demon/ration4--,nutri5ts pres5t 9 "s roots4 ,uses ( ! ,root4--,if "o ( ! se$l+s ( ! bean spok5 ( 9 ! la/ *apt] is all[$ to gr[ 9 sawdu/ & is giv5 light1 air1 & wat]1 soon] or lat] x w die4 ,soil is "p ( its natural environm5t1 & ! roots :i* come 9 contact ) ! soil are v important4 ,x is ! purpose ( ?is *apt] to f9d out j h[ ! "y plant is fitt$ to get :at x ne$s f ?is "p ( its environm5t2 namely1 ! soil4 ,! developm5t ( a bean se$l+ has %[n u t ! root gr[s fir/4 ,"o ( ! mo/ important functions ( ! root to a "y se$ plant is t ( a holdfa/1 an an*or to fa/5 x 9 ! place :]e x is to develop4 ,x has _m o!r uses1 z ! tak+ 9 ( wat] ) ! m9]al & organic matt] dissolv$ !re91 ! /orage ( food1 climb+1 etc4 ,all functions o!r ?an ! fir/ "o /at$ arise aft] ! "y plant has begun to develop4 ,illu/ration3 ,a root sy/em1 %[+ prim>y & second>y roots4 ,root ,sy/em4--,if y dig up a "y bean se$l+ & c>efully wa% ! dirt f ! roots1 y w see t a long root is develop$ z a cont9uation ( ! hypocotyl4 ,?is root is call$ ! prim>y root4 ,o!r small] roots :i* gr[ f ! prim>y root are call$ second>y1 or t]ti>y1 dep5d+ on _! relation to ! fir/ root develop$4 ,d[nw>d ,gr[? ( ,root4 ,influ5ce ( ,gravity4--,mo/ ( ! roots exam9$ take a m or less d[nw>d direction4 ,we are all famili> ) ! fact t ! =ce we call gravity influ5ces life ^u ?is e>? to a great degree4 ,does gravity act on ! gr[+ root8 ,?is "q may be answ]$ by a simple exp]im5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,revolve ?is figure 9 ! direction ( ! arr[s to see if ! roots ( ! radi% respond to gravity4 ,plant mu/>d or radi% se$s 9 a pocket g>d51 place x on "o edge & all[ ! se$s to g]m9ate until ! root has gr[n to a l5g? ( ab\t half an in*4 ,!n turn x at "r angles to ! fir/ position & all[ x to rema9 = "o day undi/urb$4 ,! roots n[ w be f\nd to h turn$ 9 response to ! *ange 9 position1 t "p ( ! root ne> ! gr[+ po9t be+ ! mo/ s5sitive to ! *ange4 ,?is exp]im5t seems to indicate t ! roots are influ5c$ to gr[ d[nw>d by ! =ce ( gravity4 ,exp]im5ts to det]m9e ! ,influ5ce ( ,moi/ure on a ,gr[+ ,root4--,! objection might well be int]pos$ t possibly ! roots 9 ! pocket g>d5#h grew d[nw>d aft] wat]4 ,t moi/ure has an influ5ce on ! gr[+ root is easily prov$4 ,footnote #h3 ,! ,pocket ,g>d54--,a v conv5i5t =m ( pocket g]m9ator may be made z foll[s4 ,obta9 two clean$ f\r by five negatives 7w9d[ glass w d72 place "o flat on ! table & place on ?is half a doz5 pieces ( color$ blott+ pap] cut to a size a little less ?an ! glass4 ,n[ cut f\r ?9 /rips ( wood to fit on ! glass j outside ( ! pap]4 ,next moi/5 ! blott]1 place on x "s well-soak$ radi%1 mu/>d se$s or b>ley gra9s1 & cov] ) ! o!r glass4 ,! :ole box ?us made %\ld be b\nd toge!r ) bicycle tape4 ,se$s w g]m9ate 9 ?is box & ) c>e may live = two weeks or m4 ,plant bird se$1 mu/>d or radi% se$ 9 ! und]side ( a sponge1 :i* %\ld be kept wet1 & may be susp5d$ by a /r+ "u a bell j> 9 ! s*oolroom w9d[4 ,note :e!r ! roots leave ! sponge to gr[ d[nw>d1 or if ! moi/ure 9 ! sponge is suffici5t to c\nt]balance ! =ce ( gravity4 ,wat] a ,factor :i* det]m9es ! ,c\rse tak5 by ,roots4--,wat]1 z well z ! =ce ( gravity1 has mu* to d ) ! direction tak5 by roots4 ,wat] is always f\nd bel[ ! surface ( ! gr\nd1 b sometimes at a great dep?4 ,mo/ trees1 & all grasses1 h a great] area ( surface expos$ by ! roots ?an by ! bran*es4 ,! roots ( alfalfa1 a clov]like plant us$ = hay 9 ! ,we/]n /ates1 (t5 p5etrate ! soil aft] wat] = a di/ance ( t5 to tw5ty feet bel[ ! surface ( ! gr\nd4 ,f9e ,/ructure ( a ,root4#i--,:5 we exam9e a delicate root 9 ?9 longitud9al section "u ! comp\nd microscope1 we f9d ! entire root to be made up ( cells1 ! walls ( :i* are uni=mly r ?94 ,ov] ! l[] end ( ! root is f\nd a collection ( cells1 mo/ ( :i* are dead1 loosely arrang$ s z to =m a cap ov] ! gr[+ tip4 ,?is is evid5tly an adaptation :i* protects ! "y & actively gr[+ cells j "u ! root cap4 ,9 ! body ( ! root a c5tral cyl9d] c easily be di/+ui%$ f ! surr\nd+ cells4 ,9 a longitud9al section a s]ies ( tubelike /ructures may be f\nd )9 ! c5tral cyl9d]4 ,^! /ructures are cells :i* h gr[n toge!r at ! small end1 ! long axis ( ! cells runn+ ! l5g? ( ! ma9 root4 ,9 _! developm5t ! cells m5tion$ h gr[n toge!r 9 su* a mann] z to lose _! small ends1 & n[ =m cont9u\s holl[ tubes ) r /rong walls4 ,o!r cells h come to develop greatly ?ick5$ walls2 ^! cells give me*anical support to ! tubelike cells4 ,collections ( su* tubes & support+ woody cells toge!r make up :at are kn[n z fibrovascul> bundles4 ,footnote #i3 ,sections ( tradescantia roots are excell5t = demon/ration ( ^! /ructures4 ,illu/ration3 ,cross section ( a "y taproot2 a1 a1 root hairs2 b1 out] lay] ( b>k2 c1 inn] lay] ( b>k2 d1 wood or c5tral cyl9d]4 ,root ,hairs4--,c>eful exam9ation ( ! root ( "o ( ! se$l+s ( mu/>d1 radi%1 or b>ley gr[n 9 ! pocket g]m9ator %[s a cov]+ ( t9y fuzzy /ructures4 ,^! /ructures are v m9ute1 at mo/ #c to #d millimet]s 9 l5g?4 ,!y v>y 9 l5g? accord+ to _! position on ! root1 ! mo/ & ! longe/ root hairs be+ f\nd ne> ! po9t m>k$ ,r4 ,h4 9 ! figure4 ,^! /ructures are outgr[?s ( ! out] lay] ( ! root 7! epid]mis71 & are ( v great importance to ! liv+ plant4 ,illu/ration3 ,"y embryo ( corn1 %[+ root hairs 7,r4 ,h47 & gr[+ /em 7,p474 ,/ructure ( a ,root ,hair4--,a s+le root hair exam9$ "u a comp\nd microscope w be f\nd to be a long1 r\nd /ructure1 almo/ colorless 9 appe>ance4 ,! wall1 :i* is v flexible & ?91 is made up ( cellulose1 a sub/ance some:at l wood 9 *emical composition1 ?r\gh :i* fluids may easily pass4 ,cl++ close to ! cell wall is ! protoplasm ( ! cell4 ,! int]ior ( ! root hair is m or less fill$ ) a fluid call$ cell sap4 ,=m+ a "p ( ! liv+ protoplasm ( ! root hair1 sometimes 9 ! hairlike prolongation & sometimes 9 t "p ( ! cell :i* =ms ! epid]mis1 is f\nd a nucleus4 ,! protoplasm & nucleus are alive2 ! cell wall =m$ by ! liv+ matt] 9 ! cell is dead4 ,! root hair is a liv+ plant cell ) a wall s delicate t wat] & m9]al sub/ances f ! soil c pass ?r\gh x into ! int]ior ( ! root4 ,illu/ration3 ,diagram ( a root hair2 ,,cs1 cell sap2 ,,cw1 cell wall2 ,p1 protoplasm2 ,n1 nucleus2 ,s1 p>ticles ( soil4 ,h[ ! ,root absorbs ,wat]4--,! process by :i* ! root hair takes up soil wat] c bett] be und]/ood if we make an artificial root hair l>ge en\gh to be easily se54 ,an egg ) "p ( ! out] %ell remov$ s z to expose ! s(t sk9like membrane und]nea? is an example4 ,bett]1 an artificial root hair may be made 9 ! foll[+ way4 ,p\r "s s(t celloid9 into a te/ tube2 c>efully revolve ! te/ tube s t an ev5 film ( celloid9 dries on ! inside4 ,?is membrane is remov$1 fill$ ) :ite ( egg1 & ti$ ov] ! end ( a rubb] cork 9 :i* a glass tube has previ\sly be5 ins]t$4 ,:5 plac$ 9 wat]1 x gives a v accurate picture ( ! root hair at "w4 ,aft] a %ort "t wat] beg9s to rise 9 ! tube1 hav+ pass$ ?r\gh ! film ( celloid94 ,if grape sug>1 salt1 or "s o!r sub/ance :i* w dissolve 9 wat] 7 plac$ 9 ! wat] outside ! artificial root hair1 x c\ld soon be prov$ by te/ to pass ?r\gh ! wall & into ! liquid inside4 ,osmosis4--,to expla9 ?is process we mu/ rememb] t gases & liquids ( diff]5t d5sities1 :5 sep>at$ by a membrane1 t5d to fl[ t[>d ea* o!r & m+le1 ! great] fl[ always be+ 9 ! direction ( ! d5s] m$ium4 ,! process by :i* two gases or fluids1 sep>at$ by a membrane1 t5d to pass ?r\gh ! membrane & m+le ) ea* o!r1 is call$ osmosis4 ,! me?od by :i* ! root hairs take up soil wat] is exactly ! same process4 ,x is by osmosis4 ,! :ite ( ! egg is ! be/ possible sub/itute = liv+ matt]2 ! celloid9 membrane sep>at+ ! egg f ! wat] is mu* l ! delicate membrane-l wall :i* sep>ates ! protoplasm ( ! root hair f ! wat] 9 ! soil surr\nd+ x4 ,! fluid 9 ! root hair is d5s] ?an ! soil wat]2 h5ce ! great] fl[ is t[>d ! int]ior ( ! root hair4#aj ,footnote #aj3 ,= an excell5t elem5t>y discussion ( osmosis see ,moore1 ,physiology ( ,man & ,o!r ,animals4 ,h5ry ,holt & ,company4 ,illu/ration3 ,! soil p>ticles are ea* surr\nd$ ) a delicate film ( wat]4 ,h[ might ! root hairs take up ?is wat]8 ,passage ( ,soil ,wat] )9 ! ,root4--,we h already se5 t 9 an ex*ange ( fluids by osmosis ! great] fl[ is always t[>d ! d5s] fluid4 ,?us x is t ! root hairs take 9 m fluid ?an !y give up4 ,! cell sap1 :i* p>tly fills ! int]ior ( ! root hair1 is a fluid ( great] d5sity ?an ! wat] outside 9 ! soil4 ,:5 ! root hairs become fill$ ) wat]1 ! d5sity ( ! cell sap is less5$1 & ! cells ( ! epid]mis are ?us 9 a position to pass along _! supply ( wat] to ! cells next to !m & ne>] to ! c5t] ( ! root4 ,^! cells1 9 turn1 become less d5se ?an _! inside neighbors1 & s ! transf] ( wat] goes on until ! wat] at la/ rea*es ! c5tral cyl9d]4 ,"h x is pass$ ov] to ! tubes ( ! woody bundles & />t$ up ! /em4 ,! pressure creat$ by ?is process ( osmosis is suffici5t to s5d wat] up ! /em to a di/ance1 9 "s plants1 ( #be to #cj feet4 ,cases are on record ( wat] hav+ be5 rais$ 9 ! bir* a di/ance ( #he feet4 ,physiological ,importance ( ,osmosis4--,x is n an exagg]ation to say t osmosis is a process n only ( great importance to a plant1 b to an animal z well4 ,foods are dige/$ 9 ! food tube ( an animal2 t is1 !y are *ang$ into a soluble =m s t !y may pass ?r\gh ! walls ( ! food tube & become "p ( ! blood4 ,! inn] l9+ ( "p ( ! food tube is ?r[n into millions ( little f+]like projections :i* look some:at1 9 size at lea/1 l root hairs4 ,^! f+]like processes are 7unlike a root hair7 made up ( _m cells4 ,b !y s]ve ! same purpose z ! root hairs1 = !y absorb liquid food into ! blood4 ,?is process ( absorption is l>gely by osmosis4 ,)\t ! process ( osmosis we %\ld be unable to use mu* ( ! food we eat4 ,composition ( ,soil4--,if we exam9e a mass ( ord9>y loam c>efully1 we f9d t x is compos$ ( num]\s p>ticles ( v>y+ size & weight4 ,betwe5 ^! p>ticles1 if ! soil is n cak$ & h>d pack$1 we c f9d t9y spaces4 ,9 well-till$ soil ^! spaces are con/antly be+ =m$ & enl>g$4 ,!y all[ air & wat] to p5etrate ! soil4 ,if we exam9e soil "u ! microscope1 we f9d consid]able wat] cl++ to ! soil p>ticles & =m+ a delicate film ar\nd ea* p>ticle4 ,9 ?is mann] mo/ ( ! wat] is held 9 ! soil4 ,illu/ration3 ,inorganic soil is be+ =m$ by wea!r+4 ,h[ ,wat] is held 9 ,soil4--,to und]/& :at comes 9 ) ! soil wat]1 x w be necess>y to f9d out a little m ab\t soil4 ,sci5ti/s :o h made ! subject ( ! composition ( ! e>? a /udy1 tell u t once ^u a "t at lea/ a "p ( ! e>? 0 molt54 ,lat]1 x cool$ into solid rock4 ,soil mak+ began :5 ! ice & fro/1 work+ alt]nately ) ! heat1 *ipp$ (f pieces ( rock4 ,^! pieces 9 "t became gr\nd into fragm5ts by action ( ice1 glaci]s1 runn+ wat]1 or ! atmosph]e4 ,?is process is call$ wea!r+4 ,wea!r+ is aid$ by oxidation4 ,a glance at almo/ any crumbl+ /ones w conv9ce y ( ?is1 because ( ! yell[ oxide ( iron 7ru/7 disclos$4 ,s by sl[ degrees ?is e>? became cov]$ ) a coat+ ( :at we call inorganic soil4 ,lat]1 g5]ation aft] g5]ation ( t9y plants & animals :i* liv$ 9 ! soil di$1 & _! rema9s =m$ ! fir/ organic mat]ials ( ! soil4 ,illu/ration3 ,?is picture %[s h[ ! =e/s help to cov] ! inorganic soil ) an organic coat+4 ,expla9 h[4 ,y are all famili> ) ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! s-call$ ri* soil & poor soil4 ,! d>k soil conta9s m dead plant & animal matt]1 :i* =ms ! portion call$ humus4 ,illu/ration3 ,app>atus = te/+ ! capacity ( soils to take 9 & reta9 moi/ure4 ,humus conta9s ,organic ,matt]4--,x is an easy matt] to prove t black soil conta9s organic matt]1 = if an equal weight ( c>efully dri$ humus & soil f a s&y road is heat$ r$-hot = "s "t & !n reweigh$1 ! humus w be f\nd to h lo/ consid]ably 9 weight1 & ! s&y soil to h lo/ v little4 ,! mat]ial left aft] heat+ is inorganic mat]ial1 ! organic matt] hav+ be5 burn$ out4 ,soil conta9+ organic mat]ials holds wat] mu* m readily ?an inorganic soil1 z a glance at ! accompany+ figure %[s4 ,if we fill ea* ( ! vessels ) a giv5 weight 7say #ajj grams ea*7 ( gravel1 s&1 b>r5 soil1 ri* loam1 leaf mold1 & #be grams ( dry1 pulv]iz$ leaves1 !n p\r equal am\nts ( wat] 7#ajj c4c47 on ea* & measure all t runs ?r\gh1 ! wat] t has be5 reta9$ w repres5t ! wat] supply t plants c\ld draw on f su* soil4 ,illu/ration3 ,soil p>ticles cl+ to root hairs4 ,:y8 ,! ,root ,hairs take m ?an ,wat] out ( ! ,soil4--,if a root conta9+ a fr+e ( root hairs is wa%$ c>efully1 x w be f\nd to h little p>ticles ( soil /ill cl++ to x4 ,exam9$ "u ! microscope1 ^! p>ticles ( soil seem to be cem5t$ to ! /icky surface ( ! root hair4 ,! soil conta9s1 besides a numb] ( *emical comp\nds ( v>i\s m9]al sub/ances1--lime1 pota%1 iron1 silica1 & _m o!rs1--a consid]able am\nt ( organic mat]ial4 ,acids ( v>i\s k9ds are pres5t 9 ! soil4 ,^! acids s act ^u c]ta9 ( ! m9]al sub/ances t !y become dissolv$ 9 ! wat] :i* is absorb$ by ! root hairs4 ,root hairs also give (f small am\nts ( acid4 ,an int]e/+ exp]im5t may be %[n 7see ,figure on page #hj7 to prove ?is4 ,a solution ( ph5olph?ale9 loses its color :5 an acid is add$ to x4 ,if a gr[+ pea be plac$ 9 a tube conta9+ "s ( ?is solution ! latt] w quickly *ange f a rose p9k to a colorless solution4 ,a ,plant ne$s ,m9]al ,matt] to ,make ,liv+ ,matt]4--,liv+ matt] 7protoplasm71 besides conta9+ ! *emical elem5ts c>bon1 hydrog51 oxyg51 & nitrog51 conta9s a v m9ute proportion ( v>i\s elem5ts :i* make up ! basis ( c]ta9 m9]als4 ,^! are calcium 7lime71 sulphur1 iron1 potassium1 magnesium1 phosphorus1 sodium1 & *lor9e4 ,t plants w n gr[ well )\t c]ta9 ( ^! m9]al sub/ances c be prov$ by ! gr[? ( se$l+s 9 a s-call$ nutri5t solution4#aa ,su* a solution conta9s all ! m9]al matt] t a plant uses = food4 ,if c]ta9 +r$i5ts are left out ( ?is solution1 ! plants plac$ 9 x w n live4 ,footnote #aa3 ,see ,hunt]'s ,laboratory ,problems 9 ,civic ,biology = li/ ( +r$i5ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,effect ( root hairs on ph5olph?ale9 solution4 ,! *ange ( color indicates ! pres5ce ( acid4 ,nitrog5 9 a ,usable ,=m necess>y = ,gr[? ( ,plants4--,a *emical elem5t ne$$ by ! plant to make protoplasm is nitrog54 ,! air c be prov5 by exp]im5t to be made up ( ab\t f\r fif?s nitrog51 b ?is elem5t _c be tak5 f ei!r soil1 wat]1 or air 9 a pure /ate1 b is usually obta9$ f ! organic matt] 9 ! soil1 :]e x exi/s ) o!r sub/ances 9 ! =m ( nitrates4 ,ammonia & o!r organic comp\nds :i* conta9 nitrog5 are *ang$ by two gr\ps ( little plants call$ bact]ia1 fir/ into nitrites & !n nitrates4#ab ,footnote #ab3 ,x has rec5tly be5 discov]$ t "u "s conditions ^! bact]ia are prey$ ^u by t9y "o-cell$ animals 7protozoa7 liv+ 9 ! soil & are s r$uc$ 9 numb]s t !y _c d _! "w effectively4 ,if1 !n1 ! soil is heat$ artificially or treat$ ) antiseptics s z to kill ! protozoa1 ! bact]ia :i* escape multiply s rapidly z to make ! l& mu* ri*] ?an be=e4 ,illu/ration3 ,diagram to %[ h[ ! nitrog5-fix+ bact]ia prep>e nitrog5 = use by plants2 t1 tub]cles4 ,relation ( ,bact]ia to ,free ,nitrog54--,x has be5 kn[n s9ce ! "t ( ! ,romans t ! gr[? ( clov]1 peas1 beans1 & o!r legumes 9 soil causes x to become m favorable = gr[? ( o!r plants4 ,! reason = ?is has be5 discov]$ 9 late ye>s4 ,on ! roots ( ! plants m5tion$ are f\nd little swell+s or nodules2 9 ! nodules exi/ millions ( bact]ia1 :i* take nitrog5 f ! atmosph]e & fix x s t x c be us$ by ! plant2 t is1 !y assi/ 9 =m+ nitrates = ! plants to use4 ,only ^! bact]ia1 ( all ! liv+ plants1 h ! p[] to take ! free nitrog5 f ! air & make x ov] into a =m t c be us$ by ! roots4 ,z all ! comp\nds ( nitrog5 are us$ ov] & ov] aga91 fir/ by plants1 !n z food = animals1 ev5tually return+ to ! soil aga91 or 9 "p be+ turn$ into free nitrog51 x is evid5t t any new supply ( usable nitrog5 mu/ come by means ( ^! nitrog5-fix+ bact]ia4 ,rotation ( ,crops4--,! facts m5tion$ above are made use ( by c>eful f>m]s :o wi% to make z mu* z possible f a giv5 area ( gr\nd 9 a giv5 "t4 ,su* plants z are ho/s = ! nitrog5-fix+ bact]ia are plant$ e>ly 9 ! season4 ,lat] ^! plants are pl[$ 9 & a second crop is plant$4 ,! latt] gr[s quickly & luxuriantly because ( ! nitrates left 9 ! soil by ! bact]ia :i* liv$ ) ! fir/ crop4 ,= ?is reason1 clov] is (t5 gr[n on l& 9 :i* x is propos$ to plant corn1 ! nitrog5 left 9 ! soil ?us giv+ n\ri%m5t to ! "y corn plants4 ,9 sci5tifically manag$ f>ms1 diff]5t crops are plant$ 9 a giv5 field on diff]5t ye>s s t "o crop may replace "s ( ! elem5ts tak5 f ! soil by ! previ\s crop4 ,?is is kn[n z rotation ( crops4#ac ,! annual yield ( ! av]age f>m may ?us be greatly increas$4 ,footnote #ac3 ,t crop rotation is n prim>ily a process to cons]ve ! f]tility ( ! soil1 b is a sanit>y measure to prev5t infection ( ! soil1 is ! late/ belief ( ! sci5ti/4 ,illu/ration3 ,nitrog5 9 ! soil is necess>y = plants4 ,expla9 f ?is diagram h[ nitrog5 is put into ! soil by "s plants & tak5 out by o!rs4 ,five ( ! elem5ts necess>y to ! life ( ! plant :i* may be tak5 out ( ! soil by con/ant use are calcium1 nitrog51 phosphorus1 potassium1 & sulphur4 ,sev]al me?ods are us$ by ! f>m] to prev5t ! exhau/ion ( ^! & o!r raw food mat]ials f ! soil4 ,"o me?od kn[n z fall[+ is to all[ ! soil to rema9 idle until bact]ia & oxidation h r5ew$ ! *emical mat]ials us$ by ! plants4 ,?is is an exp5sive me?od1 if l& is de>4 ,! mo/ common me?od ( enri*+ soil is by means ( f]tiliz+ mat]ial ri* 9 plant food4 ,manure is mo/ frequ5tly us$1 b _m artificial f]tiliz]s1 mo/ ( :i* conta9 nitrog5 9 ! =m ( "s nitrate1 are us$1 because !y c be m easily transport$ & sold4 ,su* are gr\nd bone1 guano 7bird manure71 nitrate ( soda1 & _m o!rs4 ,^! also conta9 o!r important raw food mat]ials = plants1 especially pota% & phosphoric acid4 ,bo? ( ^! sub/ances are made soluble s z to be tak5 into ! roots by ! action ( ! c>bon dioxide 9 ! soil4 ,! ,indirect ,relation ( ?is to ! ,city ,dwell]4--,all ( u liv+ 9 ! city are aw>e ( ! importance ( fre% vegetables1 br\ght 9 f ! neighbor+ m>ket g>d5s4 ,b we sometimes =get t our great /aple crops1 :eat & o!r c]eals1 potatoes1 fruits ( all k9ds1 our cotton crop1 & all plants we make use ( gr[ directly 9 proportion to ! am\nt ( raw food mat]ials !y take 9 ?r\gh ! roots4 ,:5 we also rememb] t _m indu/ries )9 ! cities1 z mills1 bak]ies1 & ! l1 z well z ! e>n+s ( our railways & /eam%ip l9es1 are l>gely dep5d5t on ! abundance ( ! crops1 we may recognize ! importance ( :at we h read 9 ?is *apt]4 ,food ,/orage 9 ,roots ( ,comm]cial ,importance4--,"s plants1 z ! p>snip1 c>rot1 & radi%1 produce no se$ until ! second ye>1 /or+ food 9 ! roots ! fir/ ye> & us+ x to get an e>ly />t ! foll[+ spr+1 s z to be bett] able to produce se$s :5 ! "t comes4 ,?is food /orage 9 roots is ( mu* practical value to mank9d4 ,_m ( our commone/ g>d5 vegetables1 z ^? m5tion$ above1 & ! beet1 turnip1 oy/] plant1 sweet potato & _m o!rs1 are ( value because ( ! food /or$4 ,! sug> beet has1 9 ,europe especially1 become ! basis ( a great indu/ry4 ,,ref]5ce ,,books ,,elem5t>y ,hunt]1 ,laboratory ,problems 9 ,civic ,biology4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,bigel[1 ,appli$ ,biology4 ,! ,macmillan ,company4 ,c\lt]1 ,plant ,life & ,plant ,uses1 ,*aps4 ,,iii1 ,,iv4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,mayne & ,hat*1 ,high ,s*ool ,agriculture4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,moore1 ,! ,physiology ( ,man & ,o!r ,animals4 ,h5ry ,holt & ,company4 ,%>pe1 ,laboratory ,manual 9 ,biology1 pp4 #gc-hg4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,,advanc$ ,c\lt]1 ,b>nes1 & ,c[les1 ,a ,textbook ( ,botany1 ,"p ,,ii4 ,am]4 ,book ,co4 ,dugg>1 ,plant ,physiology4 ,! ,macmillan ,company4 ,goodale1 ,physiological ,botany4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,gre51 ,vegetable ,physiology1 ,*aps4 ,v1 ,,vi4 ,j4 & ,a4 ,*ur*ill4 ,k]n]-,oliv]1 ,natural ,hi/ory ( ,plants4 ,h5ry ,holt & ,company4 ,mac,dougal1 ,plant ,physiology4 ,longmans1 ,gre51 & ,company4 ,,vii4 ,,plant ,,gr[? ,,& ,,nutrition--,,plants ,,make ,,food ,problem4--,:]e1 :51 & h[ d gre5 plants make food8 7a7 ,h[ & :y is moi/ure giv5 (f f leaves8 7b7 ,:at is ! reaction ( leaves to light8 7c7 ,:at is made 9 gre5 leaves 9 ! sunlight8 7d7 ,:at by-products are giv5 (f 9 ! above process8 7e7 ,o!r functions ( leaves4 ,,laboratory ,,sugge/ions ,demon/ration4--,wat] giv5 (f by plant 9 sunlight4 ,loss ( weight due to transpiration measur$4 ,laboratory ex]cise4-- 7a7 ,gross /ructure ( a leaf4 7b7 ,/udy ( /oma & l[] epid]mis "u microscope4 7c7 ,/udy ( cross section to %[ cells & air spaces4 ,demon/ration4--,reaction ( leaves to light4 ,demon/ration4--,light necess>y to />* mak+4 ,demon/ration4--,air necess>y to />* mak+4 ,demon/ration4--,oxyg5 a by-product ( />* mak+4 ,:at becomes ( ! ,wat] tak5 9 by ! ,roots8--,we h se5 t m ?an pure wat] has be5 absorb$ ?r\gh ! root hairs into ! roots4 ,:at becomes ( ?is wat] & ! o!r sub/ances t h be5 absorb$8 ,?is "q may be p>tly answ]$ by ! foll[+ exp]im5ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,apple twigs split to %[ ! c\rse ( color$ wat] up ! /em4 ,passage ( ,fluids up ! ,/em4--,if any "y gr[+ %oots 7"y se$l+s ( corn or pea1 or ! old] /ems ( g>d5 balsam1 t\*-me-n1 or sunfl[]7 are plac$ 9 r$ ink 7eos971 & left 9 ! sun = a few h\rs1 ! r$ ink w be f\nd to h pass$ up ! /em4 ,if su* /ems 7 exam9$ c>efully1 x w\ld be se5 t ! color$ fluid is conf9$ to collections ( woody tubes imm$iately "u ! inn] b>k4 ,wat] evid5tly rises 9 t "p ( ! /em we call ! wood4 ,illu/ration3 ,exp]im5t to prove t wat] is giv5 (f ?r\gh ! leaves ( a gre5 plant4 ,wat] giv5 (f by ,evaporation f ,leaves4--,take "s well-wat]$ pott$ gre5 plant1 z a g]anium or hydrangea1 cov] ! pot ) %eet rubb]1 fa/5+ ! rubb] close to ! /em ( ! plant4 ,next weigh ! plant ) ! pot4 ,!n cov] x ) a tall bell j> & place ! app>atus 9 ! sun4 ,9 a few m9utes drops ( moi/ure are se5 to ga!r on ! inside ( ! j>4 ,if we n[ weigh ! pott$ plant1 we f9d x weighs less ?an be=e4 ,obvi\sly ! loss comes f ! wat] lo/1 & evid5tly ?is wat] escapes z vapor f ei!r ! /em or leaves4 ,illu/ration3 ,! skeleton ( a leaf4 ,m4,r41 ! midrib2 ,p41 ! leaf/alk2 ,v41 ! ve9s4 ,! ,/ructure ( a ,leaf4--,9 ! exp]im5t ) ! r$ ink m5tion$ above we w f9d t ! fluid has gone out into ! skeleton or framework ( ! leaf4 ,let u n[ exam9e a leaf m c>efully4 ,x %[s usually 7#a7 a flat1 broad blade1 :i* may take almo/ any conceivable %ape2 7#b7 a /em :i* spreads out 9 ! blade 7#c7 9 a numb] ( ve9s4 ,illu/ration3 ,section ?r\gh ! blade ( a leaf z se5 "u ! comp\nd microscope4 ,s1 air spaces1 :i* communicate ) ! outside air2 ,v1 ve9 9 cross section2 ,s4,t41 brea?+ hole 7/oma72 ,e1 out] lay] ( cells2 ,p1 gre5 cells4 ,! ,cell ,/ructure ( a ,leaf4--,! "u surface ( a leaf se5 "u ! microscope usually %[s numb]s ( t9y oval op5+s4 ,^! are call$ /omata 7s+ul> /oma74 ,two cells1 usually kidney-%ap$1 are f\nd1 "o on ea* side ( ! op5+4 ,^! are ! gu>d cells4 ,by *ange 9 %ape ( ^! cells ! op5+ ( ! /oma is made l>g] or small]4 ,l>g] irregul> cells =m ! epid]mis1 or out] cov]+ ( ! leaf4 ,/udy ( ! leaf 9 cross section %[s t ^! /omata op5 directly into air *amb]s :i* p5etrate betwe5 & ar\nd ! loosely arrang$ cells compos+ ! und]p>t ( ! leaf4 ,! upp] surface ( leaves sometimes conta9s /omata1 b m (t5 !y are lack+4 ,! "u surface ( an oak leaf ( ord9>y size conta9s ab\t #b1jjj1jjj /omata4 ,"u ! upp] epid]mis is a lay] ( gre5 cells closely pack$ toge!r 7call$ collectively ! palisade lay]74 ,^! cells are m or less column> 9 %ape4 ,"u ^! are sev]al r[s ( r loosely plac$ cells j m5tion$4 ,^! are call$ collectively ! spongy tissue4 ,if we happ5 to h a section cut ?r\gh a ve91 we f9d ?is compos$ ( a numb] ( tubes made up (1 & /r5g!n$ by1 ?ick-wall$ cells4 ,! ve9s are evid5tly a cont9uation ( ! tubes ( ! /em out into ! blade ( ! leaf4 ,evaporation ( ,wat]4--,dur+ ! day an enorm\s am\nt ( wat] is tak5 up by ! roots & pass$ out ?r\gh ! leaves4 ,s great is ?is excess at times t a small grass plant on a summ]'s day evaporates m ?an its own weight 9 wat]4 ,?is w\ld make ne>ly half a ton ( wat] deliv]$ to ! air dur+ tw5ty-f\r h\rs by a grass plot tw5ty-five by "o hundr$ feet1 ! size ( ! av]age city lot4 ,accord+ to ,w>d1 an oak tree may pass (f two hundr$ & tw5ty-six times its own weight 9 wat] dur+ ! season f ,june to ,octob]4 ,f :i* ,surface ( ! ,leaf is ,wat] ,lo/8--,9 ord] to f9d out :e!r wat] is pass$ out f any p>ticul> "p ( ! leaf1 we may remove two leaves ( ! same size & weight f "s l>ge-leav$ plant#ad--;a mulle9 0 us$ = ! illu/rations giv5 bel[--& cov] ! upp] surface ( "o leaf & ! l[] surface ( ! o!r ) vasel9e4 ,! leaf /alks ( ea* %\ld be cov]$ ) wax or vasel9e1 & ! two leaves exactly balanc$ on ! pans ( a balance :i* has previ\sly be5 plac$ 9 a w>m & sunny place4 ,)9 an h\r ! leaf :i* has ! upp] surface cov]$ ) vasel9e w %[ a loss ( weight4 ,exam9ation ( ! surface ( a mulle9 leaf %[s u t ! l[] surface ( ! leaf is provid$ ) /omata4 ,x is ?r\gh ^! organs1 !n1 t wat] is pass$ out f ! tissues ( ! leaf4 ,footnote #ad3 ,! rubb] plant leaf is an easily obta9able & excell5t demon/ration4 ,illu/ration3 ,exp]im5t to %[ ?r\gh :i* surface ( a leaf wat] passes (f4 ,factors 9 ,transpiration4--,! am\nt ( wat] lo/ f a plant v>ies greatly "u diff]5t conditions4 ,! humidity ( ! air1 its temp]ature1 & ! temp]ature ( ! plant all affect ! rate ( transpiration4 ,! /omata also t5d to close "u "s conditions1 ?us help+ to prev5t evaporation4 ,b !re seems to be no c]ta9 regulation ( ?is wat] loss4 ,consequ5tly plants droop or wilt on hot dry days because !y _c obta9 wat] rapidly en\gh f ! soil to make up = ! loss ?r\gh ! leaves4 ,illu/ration3 ,diagrams ( a /oma4 a1 surface view ( a clos$ /oma2 b1 ! same /oma op5$4 7,aft] ,hanson47 c1 diagrams ( a transv]se section ?r\gh a /oma1 dott$ l9es indicate ! clos$ position ( ! gu>d cells1 ! heavy l9es ! op5 condition4 7,aft] ,s*w5d5]47 ,gre5 ,plants ,food ,mak]s4--,we h previ\sly /at$ t gre5 plants are ! great food mak]s = !mselves & = animals4 ,we are n[ ready to attack ! problem ( h[ gre5 plants make food4 ,! ,sun a ,s\rce ( ,en]gy4--,we all "k ! sun is a s\rce ( mo/ ( ! en]gy t is releas$ on ?is e>? 9 ! =m ( heat or light4 ,e boy kn[s ! p[] ( a burn+ glass4 ,sol> eng9es h n come into any great use z yet1 because fuel is *eap]1 b "s day we und\bt$ly w directly h>ness ! en]gy ( ! sun 9 ev]yday "w4 ,actual exp]im5ts h %[n t va/ am\nts ( en]gy are giv5 to ! e>?4 ,:5 ! sun is highe/ 9 ! sky1 en]gy equival5t to "o hundr$ horse p[] is receiv$ by a plot ( l& tw5ty-five by "o hundr$ feet1 ! size ( a city lot4 ,plants receive & use mu* ( ?is en]gy by means ( _! leaves4 ,effect ( ,light on ,plants4--,9 "y plants :i* h be5 gr[n 9 total d>kness1 no gre5 color is f\nd 9 ei!r /ems or leaves1 ! latt] (t5 be+ r$uc$ to m]e scales4 ,! /ems are long & m or less recl9+4 ,we c expla9 ! *ang$ condition ( ! se$l+ gr[n 9 ! d>k only by assum+ t light has "s effect on ! protoplasm ( ! se$l+ & induces ! gr[? ( ! gre5 "p ( ! plant4 ,if se$l+s h be5 gr[+ on a w9d[ sill1 or :]e ! light comes 9 f "o side1 y h d\btless notic$ t ! /em & leaves ( ! se$l+s incl9e 9 ! direction f :i* ! light comes4 ,! exp]im5t pictur$ %[s ?is effect ( light v pla9ly4 ,a hole 0 cut 9 "o end ( a cig> box & b>ri]s 7 erect$ 9 ! int]ior ( ! box s t ! se$s plant$ 9 ! sawdu/ receiv$ _! light by an indirect c\rse4 ,! "y se$l+ 9 ?is case respond$ to ! influ5ce ( ! /imulus ( light s z to gr[ out f9ally ?r\gh ! hole 9 ! box into ! op5 air4 ,?is gr[? ( ! /em to ! light is ( v great importance to a gr[+ plant1 because1 z we %all see lat]1 food mak+ dep5ds l>gely on ! am\nt ( sunlight ! leaves receive4 ,illu/ration3 ,two /ages 9 an exp]im5t to %[ t gre5 plants gr[ t[>d ! light4 ,effect ( ,light on ,leaf ,arrangem5t4--,x is a matt] ( common k t gre5 leaves turn t[>d ! light4 ,place gr[+ pea se$l+s1 oxalis1 or any o!r plants ( rapid gr[? ne> a w9d[ :i* receives full sunlight4 ,)9 a %ort "t ! leaves are f\nd to be 9 positions to receive ! mo/ sunlight possible4 ,c>eful obs]vation ( any plant gr[+ outdoors %[s u t 9 almo/ e case ! leaves are s dispos$ z to get mu* sunlight4 ,! ivy climb+ up ! wall1 ! morn+-glory1 ! d&elion1 & ! burdock all %[ diff]5t arrangem5ts ( leaves1 ea* pres5t+ a l>ge surface to ! light4 ,leaves are (t5 def9itely arrang$1 fitt+ 9 betwe5 "o ano!r s z to pres5t _! upp] surface to ! sun4 ,su* an arrangem5t is kn[n z a leaf mosaic4 ,9 ! case ( ! d&elion1 a rosette or :orl$ clu/] ( leaves is f\nd4 ,9 ! horse-*e/nut1 :]e ! leaves come out opposite ea* o!r1 ! old] leaves h long] petioles ?an ! "y ones4 ,9 ! mulle9 ! entire plant =ms a cone4 ,! old leaves ne> ! bottom h long /alks1 & ! little ones ne> ! apex come out close to ! ma9 /alk4 ,9 e case ea* leaf receives a l>ge am\nt ( light4 ,o!r modifications ( ^! =ms may easily be f\nd on any field trip4 ,illu/ration3 ,a lily1 %[+ long n>r[ leaves4 ,illu/ration3 ,! d&elion1 %[+ a :orl$ arrangem5t ( long irregul> leaves4 ,/>* made by a ,gre5 ,leaf4--,if we exam9e ! palisade lay] ( ! leaf1 we f9d cells :i* are almo/ cyl9drical 9 =m4 ,9 ! protoplasm ( su* cells are f\nd a numb] ( little gre5-color$ bodies1 :i* are kn[n z *loropla/s or *lorophyll bodies4 ,if we place ! leaf 9 wood alcohol1 we f9d t ! bodies /ill rema91 b t ! color is extract$1 go+ into ! alcohol & giv+ to x a beautiful gre5 color4 ,! *loropla/s are1 inde$1 simply "p ( ! protoplasm ( ! cell color$ gre54 ,^! bodies are ( ! greate/ importance directly to plants & indirectly to animals4 ,! *loropla/s1 by means ( ! en]gy receiv$ f ! sun1 manufacture />* out ( c]ta9 raw mat]ials4 ,^! raw mat]ials are soil wat]1 :i* is pass$ up ?r\gh ! bundles ( tubes into ! ve9s ( ! leaf f ! roots1 & c>bon dioxide1 :i* is tak5 9 ?r\gh ! /omata or pores1 :i* dot ! "u surface ( ! leaf4 ,a plant ) v>iegat$ leaves1 z ! coleus1 makes />* only 9 ! gre5 "p ( ! leaf1 ev5 ?\gh ^! raw mat]ials rea* all p>ts ( ! leaf4 ,illu/ration3 ,an exp]im5t to %[ ! effect ( exclud+ light 7b n air7 f ! leaves ( a gre5 plant4 ,! result ( ?is exp]im5t is se5 9 ! next picture4 7,exp]im5t p]=m$ by ,c4 ,dobb9s & ,a4 ,s*w>tz47 ,illu/ration3 ,/>*less area 9 a leaf caus$ by exclud+ sunlight by means ( a /rip ( black clo?4 ,light & ,air necess>y = ,/>* ,mak+4--,if we p9 /rips ( black clo?1 su* z alpaca1 ov] "s ( ! leaves ( a gr[+ hydrangea :i* has previ\sly be5 plac$ 9 a d>k room = a few h\rs1 & !n put ! plant 9 direct sunlight = an h\r or two1 we are ready to te/ = />*4 ,we !n remove "s ( ! cov]$ leaves & extract ! *lorophyll ) wood alcohol 7because ! gre5 color ( ! *lorophyll int]f]es ) ! blue color ( ! />* te/74 ,a te/ !n %[s t />* is pres5t only 9 ! portions ( ! leaves expos$ to sunlight4 ,f ?is exp]im5t we inf] t ! sun has some?+ to d ) />* mak+ 9 a leaf4 ,! necessity ( a "p ( ! air 7c>bon dioxide7 = />* mak+ may also easily be prov$1 = ! p>ts ( leaves cov]$ ) vasel9e w be f\nd to conta9 no />*1 :ile p>ts ( ! leaf )\t vasel9e1 b expos$ to ! sun & air1 d conta9 />*4 ,illu/ration3 ,diagram to %[ />* mak+4 ,read ! text c>efully & !n expla9 ?is diagram4 ,air is necess>y = ! process ( />* mak+ 9 a leaf1 n only because c>bon dioxide gas is absorb$ 7!re are f ?ree to f\r p>ts 9 t5 ?\s& pres5t 9 ! atmosph]e71 b also because ! leaf is alive & mu/ h oxyg5 9 ord] to d "w4 ,?is oxyg5 x takes f ! air ar\nd x4 ,illu/ration3 ,diagram to illu/rate ! =mation ( />* 9 a leaf4 ,comp>ison ( ,/>* ,mak+ & ,mill+4--,! manufacture ( />* by ! gre5 leaf is n easily und]/ood4 ,! process has be5 comp>$ to ! mill+ ( gra94 ,9 ?is case ! mill is ! gre5 "p ( ! leaf4 ,! sun furni%es ! motive p[]1 ! *loropla/s con/itute ! ma*9]y1 & soil wat] & c>bon dioxide are ! raw products tak5 into ! mill4 ,! manufactur$ product is />*1 & a c]ta9 by-product 7correspond+ to ! wa/e 9 a mill7 is also giv5 out4 ,?is by-product is oxyg54 ,to und]/& ! process fully1 we mu/ ref] to a small portion ( ! leaf %[n bel[4 ,"h we f9d t ! cells ( ! gre5 lay] ( ! leaf1 "u ! upp] epid]mis1 p]=m mo/ ( ! "w4 ,! c>bon dioxide is tak5 9 ?r\gh ! /omata & rea*es ! gre5 cells by way ( ! int]cellul> spaces & by osmosis f cell to cell4 ,wat] rea*es ! gre5 cells ?r\gh ! ve9s4 ,x !n passes into ! cells by osmosis1 & !re becomes "p ( ! cell sap4 ,! light ( ! sun easily p5etrates to ! cells ( ! palisade lay]1 giv+ ! en]gy ne$$ to make ! />*4 ,?is :ole process is a v delicate "o1 & w take place only :5 ext]nal conditions are favorable4 ,= example1 too mu* heat or too little heat /ops />* mak+ 9 ! leaf4 ,?is build+ up ( food & ! release ( oxyg5 by ! plant 9 ! pres5ce ( sunlight is call$ photosyn!sis4 ,illu/ration3 ,diagram 7aft] ,/ev5s7 to illu/rate ! processes ( brea?+ & food mak+ 9 ! cells ( a gre5 leaf 9 ! sunlight4 ,manufacture ( ,fats4--,inasmu* z t9y droplets ( oil are f\nd inside ! *lorophyll bodies 9 ! leaf1 we believe t fats1 too1 are made !re1 probably by a trans=mation ( ! />* already manufactur$4 ,prote9 ,mak+ & its ,relation to ! ,mak+ ( ,liv+ ,matt]4--,prote9 mat]ial is a food :i* is necess>y to =m protoplasm4 ,prote9 food is pres5t 9 ! leaf1 & is f\nd 9 ! /em or root z well4 ,prote9s c app>5tly be manufactur$ 9 any ( ! cells ( gre5 plants1 ! pres5ce ( light n seem+ to be a necess>y factor4 ,h[ x is manufactur$ is a matt] ( conjecture4 ,! m9]als br\ght up 9 ! soil wat] =m "p ( its composition1 & />* or grape sug> give ?ree elem5ts 7,c1 ,h1 & ,o74 ,! elem5t nitrog5 is tak5 up by ! roots z a nitrate 7nitrog5 9 comb9ation ) lime or pota%74 ,prote9s are probably n made directly into protoplasm 9 ! leaf1 b are /or$ by ! cells ( ! plant & us$ :5 ne$$1 ei!r to =m new cells 9 gr[? or to repair wa/e4 ,:ile plants & animals obta9 _! food 9 diff]5t ways1 !y probably make x into liv+ sub/ance 7assimilate x7 9 exactly ! same mann]4 ,illu/ration3 ,an example ( h[ a tree may ex]t en]gy4 ,?is rock has be5 split by ! gr[+ tree4 ,foods s]ve exactly ! same purposes 9 plants & 9 animals2 !y ei!r build liv+ matt] or !y are burn$ 7oxidiz$7 to furni% en]gy 7p[] to d "w74 ,if y d\bt t a plant ex]ts en]gy1 note h[ ! roots ( a tree bore _! way ?r\gh ! h>de/ soil1 & h[ /ems or roots ( trees (t5 split op5 ! h>de/ rocks1 z illu/rat$ 9 ! figure above4 ,/>*-,mak+ & its ,relation to ,human ,welf>e4--,leaves :i* h be5 9 d>kness %[ />* to be pres5t soon aft] exposure to light4 ,a corn plant s5ds #aj to #ae grams ( res]ve mat]ial into ! e>s 9 a s+le day4 ,! =mation ( fruit1 & especially ! gr[? ( ! gra9 fields1 %[ ! economic importance ( ?is fact4 ,n only d plants make _! own food & /ore x away1 b !y make food = animals z well4 ,& ! food is /or$ 9 su* a /able =m t x may be s5t to all p>ts ( ! _w 9 ! =m ( gra9 or o!r fruits4 ,animals1 h]bivor\s & fle%-eat+1 man himself1 all are dep5d5t ^u ! />*-mak+ processes ( ! gre5 plant = ! ultimate s\rce ( _! food4 ,:5 we rememb] t 9 #aiac 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! total value ( all f>m crops 0 ov] #f1jjj1jjj1jjj1 & :5 we realize t ^! products came f ! air & soil ?r\gh ! en]gy ( ! sun1 we may beg9 to realize :y z city boys & girls ! /udy ( plant biology is ( importance to u4 ,illu/ration3 ,exp]im5t to %[ t oxyg5 is giv5 (f by gre5 plants 9 ! sunlight4 ,gre5 ,plants give (f ,oxyg5 9 ,sunlight4--,9 /ill ano!r way gre5 plants are ( direct use to u 9 ! city4 ,dur+ ?is process ( />*-mak+ oxyg5 is giv5 (f z a by-product4 ,?is may easily be prov5 by ! foll[+ exp]im5t4#ae ,place any gre5 wat] plant 9 a batt]y j> p>tly fill$ ) wat]1 cov] ! plants ) a glass funnel & m\nt a te/ tube full ( wat] ov] ! m\? ( ! funnel4 ,!n place ! app>atus 9 a w>m sunny w9d[4 ,bubbles ( gas are se5 to rise f ! plant4 ,aft] two or ?ree h\rs ( hot sun1 en\gh ( ! gas c be obta9$ by displacem5t ( ! wat] to make ! oxyg5 te/4 ,footnote #ae3 ,imm$iate success ) ?is exp]im5t w be obta9$ if ! wat] has be5 previ\sly *>g$ ) c>bon dioxide4 ,t oxyg5 is giv5 (f z a by-product by gre5 plants is a fact ( f>-rea*+ importance4 ,city p>ks are true brea?+ spaces4 ,! gre5 cov]+ ( ! e>? is giv+ to animals an elem5t t !y mu/ h1 :ile ! animals 9 _! turn are supply+ to ! plants c>bon dioxide1 a comp\nd us$ 9 food-mak+4 ,?us a widespread relation ( mutual helpfulness exi/s betwe5 plants & animals4 ,respiration by ,leaves4--,all liv+ ?+s require oxyg54 ,x is by means ( ! oxidation ( food mat]ials )9 ! plant's body t ! en]gy us$ 9 gr[? & movem5t is releas$4 ,a plant takes 9 oxyg5 l>gely ?r\gh ! /omata ( ! leaves1 to a less ext5t ?r\gh ! l5ticels or brea?+ holes 9 ! /em1 & ?r\gh ! roots4 ,?us rapidly gr[+ tissues receive ! oxyg5 necess>y = !m to p]=m _! "w4 ,! products ( oxidation 9 ! =m ( c>bon dioxide are also pass$ (f ?r\gh ^! same organs4 ,x c be %[n by exp]im5t t a plant uses up oxyg5 9 ! d>kness2 9 ! light ! am\nt ( oxyg5 giv5 (f z a by-product 9 ! process ( />*-mak+ is1 ( c\rse1 mu* great] ?an ! am\nt us$ by ! plant4 ,summ>y4--,f ! above p>agraphs x is se5 t a leaf p]=ms ! foll[+ functions3 7#a7 brea?+1 or ! tak+ 9 ( oxyg5 & pass+ (f ( c>bon dioxide2 7#b7 />*-mak+1 ) ! incid5tal pass+ out ( oxyg52 7#c7 =mation ( prote9s1 ) _! dige/ion & assimilation to =m new tissues2 & 7#d7 ! transpiration ( wat]4 ,,ref]5ce ,,books ,,elem5t>y ,hunt]1 ,laboratory ,problems 9 ,civic ,biology4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,&rews1 ,a ,practical ,c\rse 9 ,botany1 pages #afj-agg4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,c\lt]1 ,a ,textbook ( ,botany1 pages #e-dj4 ,d4 ,appleton & ,company4 ,c\lt]1 ,plant ,life & ,plant ,uses4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,dana1 ,plants & _! ,*ildr51 pages #ace-ahe4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,%>pe1 ,a ,laboratory ,manual 9 ,biology1 pages #ij-ajb4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,/ev5s1 ,introduction to ,botany1 pages #ha-ii4 ,d4 ,c4 ,hea? & ,company4 ,,advanc$ ,clem5t1 ,plant ,physiology & ,ecology4 ,h5ry ,holt & ,company4 ,c\lt]1 ,b>nes1 & ,c[les1 ,a ,textbook ( ,botany1 ,"p ,,ii1 & ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,d>w91 ,insectivor\s ,plants4 ,d4 ,appleton & ,company4 ,dugg>1 ,plant ,physiology4 ,! ,macmillan ,company4 ,goodale1 ,physiological ,botany1 pages #ccg-cec & #dji-dbd4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,gre51 ,vegetable ,physiology4 ,j4 & ,a4 ,*ur*ill4 ,lubbock1 ,fl[]s1 ,fruits1 & ,leaves1 la/ "p4 ,! ,macmillan ,company4 ,mac,dougal1 ,practical ,textbook ( ,plant ,physiology4 ,longmans1 ,gre51 & ,company4 ,report ( ! ,division ( ,=e/ry1 ,u4,s4 ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 #ahii4 ,w>d1 ,! ,oak4 ,d4 ,appleton & ,company4 ,,viii4 ,,plant ,,gr[? ,,& ,,nutrition--,,! ,,circulation ,,& ,,f9al ,,uses ,,( ,,food ,,by ,,plants ,problem4--,h[ gre5 plants /ore & use ! food !y make4 7a7 ,:at are ! organs ( circulation8 7b7 ,h[ & :]e does food circulate8 7c7 ,h[ does ! plant assimilate its food8 ,,laboratory ,,sugge/ions ,laboratory ex]cise4--,! /ructure 7cross section7 ( a woody /em4 ,demon/ration4--,to %[ t food passes d[nw>d 9 ! b>k4 ,demon/ration4--,to %[ ! condition ( food pass+ ?r\gh ! /em4 ,demon/ration4--,plants ) special dige/ive organs4 ,! ,circulation & ,f9al ,uses ( ,foods 9 ,gre5 ,plants4--,we h se5 t cells ( gre5 plants make food & t su* cells are mo/ly 9 ! leaves4 ,b all p>ts ( ! bodies ( plants gr[4 ,roots1 /ems1 leaves1 fl[]s1 & fruits gr[4 ,se$s are /oreh\ses ( food4 ,we mu/ n[ exam9e ! /em ( "s plant 9 ord] to see h[ food is di/ribut$1 /or$1 & f9ally us$ 9 ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! plant4 ,! ,/ructure ( a ,woody ,/em4--,if we cut a cross section ?r\gh a "y will[ or apple /em1 we f9d x %[s ?ree di/9ct regions4 ,! c5t] is occupi$ by ! spongy1 s(t pi?2 surr\nd+ ?is is f\nd ! r t\gh wood1 :ile ! out]mo/ area is b>k4 ,m c>eful /udy ( ! b>k reveals ! pres5ce ( ?ree lay]s--an out] lay]1 a middle gre5 lay]1 & an inn] fibr\s lay]1 ! latt] usually br[n 9 color4 ,?is lay] is made up l>gely ( t\gh fib]like cells kn[n z ba/ fib]s4 ,! mo/ important p>ts ( ?is inn] b>k1 s f> z ! plant is conc]n$1 are _m tubelike /ructures kn[n z sieve tubes4 ,^! are long r[s ( liv+ cells1 hav+ p]=at$ sievelike ends4 ,?r\gh ^! cells food mat]ials pass d[nw>d f ! upp] "p ( ! plant1 :]e !y are manufactur$4 ,illu/ration3 ,section ( a twig ( box eld] ?ree ye>s old1 %[+ ?ree annual gr[? r+s4 ,! radiat+ l9es 7m7 :i* cross ! wood 7w7 repres5t ! pi? rays1 ! pr9cipal ones ext5d+ f ! pi? 9 ! c5t] to ! cortex or b>k4 7,f ,c\lt]'s ,plant ,relations47 ,9 ! wood w be notic$ 7see ,figure7 a numb] ( l9es radiat+ outw>d f ! pi? t[>d ! b>k4 ,^! are ?9 plates ( pi? :i* sep>ate ! wood into a numb] ( w$ge-%ap$ masses4 ,^! masses ( wood are compos$ ( _m elongat$ cells1 :i*1 plac$ end to end1 =m ?\s&s ( little tubes connect+ ! leaves ) ! roots4 ,9 addition to ^! are _m ?ick-wall$ cells1 :i* give /r5g? to ! mass ( wood4 ,! bundles ( tubes ) _! surr\nd+ h>d wall$ cells are ! cont9uation ( ! bundles ( tubes :i* are f\nd 9 ! root4 ,9 sections ( wood :i* h tak5 sev]al ye>s to gr[1 we f9d s-call$ annual r+s4 ,! di/ance betwe5 "o r+ & ! next 7see ,figure7 usually repres5ts ! am\nt ( gr[? 9 "o ye>4 ,gr[? takes place f an actively divid+ lay] ( cells1 kn[n z ! cambium lay]4 ,?is lay] =ms wood cells f its inn] surface & b>k f its out] surface4 ,?us new wood is =m$ z a di/9ct r+ ar\nd ! old wood4 ,use ( ! ,out] ,b>k4--,! out] b>k ( a tree is protective4 ,! cells are dead1 ! heavy woody skeletons s]v+ to keep out cold & dryness1 z well z prev5t ! evaporation ( fluids f )94 ,! b>k also protects ! tree f attack ( o!r plants or animals :i* might h>m x4 ,mo/ trees are provid$ ) a lay] ( corky cells4 ,?is lay] 9 ! cork oak is ?ick en\gh to be ( comm]cial importance4 ,! function ( ! corky lay] 9 prev5t+ evaporation is well se5 9 ! case ( ! potato1 :i* is a true /em1 ?\gh f\nd und]gr\nd4 ,if two potatoes ( equal weight are balanc$ on ! scales1 ! sk9 hav+ be5 peel$ f "o1 ! peel$ potato w be f\nd to lose weight rapidly4 ,?is is due to loss ( wat]1 :i* is held 9 by ! sk9 ( ! unpeel$ potato 7see "r h& figure bel[74 ,!re are also small brea?+ holes kn[n z l5ticels scatt]$ ?r\gh ! surface ( ! b>k4 ,^! c easily be se5 9 a "y woody /em ( apple1 bee*1 or horse-*e/nut4 ,illu/ration3 ,exp]im5t to %[ t ! sk9 ( ! potato 7a /em7 ret>ds evaporation4 ,pro( t ,food passes d[n ! ,/em4--,if fre%ly cut will[ twigs are plac$ 9 wat]1 roots soon beg9 to develop f t "p ( ! /em :i* is "u wat]4 ,if n[ ! /em is girdl$ by remov+ ! b>k 9 a r+ j above :]e ! roots are gr[+1 ! latt] w ev5tually die1 & new roots w appe> above ! girdl$ area4 ,! food mat]ial necess>y = ! outgr[? ( roots evid5tly comes f above1 & ! passage ( food mat]ials takes place 9 a d[nw>d direction j outside ! wood 9 ! lay] ( b>k :i* conta9s ! ba/ fib]s & sieve tubes4 ,?is exp]im5t ) ! will[ expla9s :y x is t trees die :5 girdl$ s z to cut ! sieve tubes ( ! inn] b>k4 ,! food supply is cut (f f ! protoplasm ( ! cells 9 ! "p ( ! tree bel[ ! cut area4 ,_m ( ! canoe bir*es ( our ,adirondack =e/ are ?us kill$1 girdl$ by ?\ghtless visitors4 ,9 ! same mann] mice & o!r gnaw+ animals kill fruit trees4 ,food sub/ances are also conduct$ to a mu* less ext5t 9 ! wood itself1 & food passes f ! inn] b>k to ! c5t] ( ! tree by way ( ! pi? plates4 ,?is c be prov$ by te/+ = />* 9 ! pi? plates ( "y /ems4 ,x is f\nd t mu* />* is /or$ 9 ?is "p ( ! tree trunk4 ,illu/ration3 ,exp]im5t to %[ t food mat]ial passes d[n 9 ! inn] b>k4 ,9 :at ,=m does ,food pass ?r\gh ! ,/em8--,we h already se5 t mat]ials 9 solution 7^? sub/ances :i* w dissolve 9 ! wat]7 w pass f cell to cell by ! process ( osmosis4 ,?is is %[n 9 ! exp]im5t illu/rat$ 9 ! figure4 ,two ?i/le tubes are p>tly fill$1 "o ) />* & wat]1 ! o!r ) sug> & wat]1 & a piece ( p>*m5t pap] is ti$ ov] ! end ( ea*4 ,! l[] ends ( bo? tubes are plac$ 9 a glass di% "u wat]4 ,aft] tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 ! wat] 9 ! di% is te/$ = />*1 & !n = sug>4 ,we f9d t only ! sug>1 :i* has be5 dissolv$ by ! wat]1 c pass ?r\gh ! membrane4 ,illu/ration3 ,exp]im5t to %[ osmosis ( sug> 7"r h& tube7 & non-osmosis ( />* 7left h& tube74 ,dige/ion4--,mu* ( ! food made 9 ! leaves is /or$ 9 ! =m ( />*4 ,b />*1 be+ insoluble1 _c be pass$ f cell to cell 9 a plant4 ,x mu/ be *ang$ to a soluble =m1 = o!rwise x c\ld n pass ?r\gh ! delicate cell membranes4 ,?is is accompli%$ by ! process ( dige/ion4 ,we h already se5 t />* is *ang$ to grape sug> 9 ! corn by ! action ( a sub/ance 7an enzyme7 call$ dia/ase4 ,?is process ( dige/ion seem+ly may take place 9 all liv+ p>ts ( ! plant1 al?\gh mo/ ( x is done 9 ! leaves4 ,9 ! bodies ( all animals1 includ+ man1 />*y foods are *ang$ 9 a simil> mann]1 b by o!r enzymes1 into soluble grape sug>4 ,! food mat]ial may be pass$ 9 a soluble =m until x comes to a place :]e food /orage is to take place1 !n x c be trans=m$ to an insoluble =m 7/>*1 = example72 lat]1 :5 ne$$ by ! plant 9 gr[?1 x may aga9 be trans=m$ & s5t 9 a soluble =m ?r\gh ! /em to ! place :]e x w be us$4 ,9 a simil> mann]1 prote9 seems to be *ang$ & transf]r$ to v>i\s p>ts ( ! plant4 ,"s =ms ( prote9 sub/ance are soluble & o!rs insoluble 9 wat]4 ,:ite ( egg1 = example1 is slightly soluble1 b c be r5d]$ insoluble by heat+ x s t x coagulates4 ,insoluble prote9s are dige/$ )9 ! plant2 h[ & :]e is b slightly und]/ood4 ,9 a plant1 soluble prote9s pass d[n ! sieve tubes 9 ! ba/ & !n may be /or$ 9 ! ba/ or m$ull>y rays ( ! wood 9 an insoluble =m1 or !y may pass into ! fruit or se$s ( a plant1 & be /or$ !re4 ,illu/ration3 ,diagram to %[ ! areas 9 a plant ?r\gh :i* ! raw food mat]ials pass up ! /em & food mat]ials pass d[n4 ,:at =ces ,wat] up ! ,/em4--,we h se5 t ! process ( osmosis is responsible = tak+ 9 soil wat]1 & t ! enorm\s absorb+ surface expos$ by ! root hairs makes possible ! absorption ( a l>ge am\nt ( wat]4 ,frequ5tly ?is is m ?an ! weight ( ! plant 9 e tw5ty-f\r h\rs4 ,exp]im5ts h be5 made :i* %[ t at c]ta9 times 9 ! ye> ?is wat] is 9 "s way =c$ up ! t9y tubes ( ! /em4 ,dur+ ! spr+ season1 9 "y & rapidly gr[+ trees1 wat] has be5 prov$ to rise to a height ( ne>ly n9ety feet4 ,! =ce t causes ?is rise ( wat] 9 /ems is kn[n z root pressure4 ,! greate/ factor1 h[ev]1 is transpiration ( wat] f leaves4 ,?is evaporation ( wat] 9 ! =m ( vapor seems to result 9 a k9d ( suction on ! column ( wat] 9 ! /em4 ,9 ! fall1 aft] ! leaves h gone1 mu* less wat] is tak5 9 by roots1 %[+ t an intimate relation exi/s betwe5 ! leaves & ! root4 ,summ>y ( ! ,functions ( ,gre5 ,plants4--,! processes :i* we h j describ$ 7) ! exception ( food mak+7 are ^? :i* occur 9 ! lives ( any plant or animal4 ,all plants & animals brea!1 !y oxidize _! foods to release en]gy1 c>bon dioxide be+ giv5 (f z ! result ( ! union ( ! c>bon 9 ! foods ) ! oxyg5 ( ! air4 ,bo? plants & animals dige/ _! food2 plants may d ?is 9 ! cells ( ! root1 /em1 & leaf4 ,dige/ion mu/ always occur s t food c be mov$ 9 a soluble condition f cell to cell 9 ! plant's body4 ,illu/ration3 ,leaf ( sundew clos+ ov] a captur$ insect4 ,illu/ration3 ,! ,v5us fly trap1 %[+ op5 & clos$ leaves4 ,plants ) ,special ,dige/ive ,organs4--,"s plants h special organs ( dige/ion4 ,"o ( ^!1 ! sundew1 has leaves :i* are cov]$ on "o side ) t9y gl&ul> hairs4 ,^! attract insects & lat] s]ve to cat* & dige/ ! nitrog5\s matt] ( ^! insects by means ( enzymes p\r$ out by ! same hairs4 ,ano!r plant1 ! ,v5us fly trap1 cat*es insects 9 a s5sitive leaf :i* folds up & holds ! insect fa/ until enzymes p\r$ out by ! leaf sl[ly dige/ x4 ,/ill o!rs1 call$ pit*] plants1 use z food ! decay$ bodies ( insects :i* fall into _! cuplike leaves & die !re4 ,9 ?is respect plants are l ^? animals :i* h c]ta9 organs 9 ! body set ap>t = ! dige/ion ( food4 ,assimilation4--,! assimilation ( foods1 or mak+ ( foods into liv+ matt]1 is a process we "k v little ab\t4 ,we "k x takes place 9 ! liv+ cells ( plants & animals4 ,b h[ foods are *ang$ into liv+ matt] is "o ( ! my/]ies ( life :i* we h n yet solv$4 ,excretion4--,! wa/e & repair ( liv+ matt] seems to take place 9 bo? plants & animals4 ,:5 liv+ plants brea!1 !y give (f c>bon dioxide4 ,9 ! process ( />*-mak+1 oxyg5 might be consid]$ ! wa/e product4 ,wat] is evaporat$ f leaves & /ems4 ,! leaves fall & c>ry away wa/e m9]al sub/ances :i* !y conta94 ,illu/ration3 ,! embryos ( 7a7 ! morn+ glory1 7b7 ! b>b]ry1 7c7 ! potato1 7d7 ! f\r o'clock1 %[+ ! position ( _! food supply4 7,aft] ,gray47 ,reproduction4--,f9ally1 bo? plants & animals h organs ( reproduction4 ,we h se5 t ! fl[] gives rise1 aft] poll9ation1 to a fruit :i* holds ! se$s4 ,^! se$s hold ! embryo4 ,?us ! "y plant is d\bly protect$ = a "t & is f9ally ?r[n (f 9 ! se$ ) en\gh food to give x a />t 9 life4 ,9 mu* ! same way we w f9d t animals reproduce1 ei!r by lay+ eggs :i* conta9 an embryo & food to />t x 9 life or1 z 9 ! high] animals1 by hold+ & protect+ ! embryo )9 ! body ( ! "m until x is born1 a helpless little creature1 to be t5d]ly n\ri%$ by ! "m until able to c>e = itself4 ,! ,life ,cycle4--,ultimately bo? plants & animals gr[ old & die4 ,"s plants1 = example ! pea or bean1 live b a season2 o!rs1 su* z ! big trees ( ,cali=nia1 live = hundr$s ( ye>s4 ,"s insects exi/ z adults b a day1 :ile ! elephant is said to live almo/ two hundr$ ye>s4 ,! span ( life f ! "t ! plant or animal beg9s to gr[ until x dies is kn[n z ! life cycle4 ,,ref]5ce ,,books ,,elem5t>y ,hunt]1 ,laboratory ,problems 9 ,civic ,biology4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,&rews1 ,a ,practical ,c\rse 9 ,botany1 pages #aab-abg4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,atk9son1 ,fir/ ,/udies ( ,plant ,life1 ,*aps4 ,,iv1 ,v1 ,,vi1 ,,viii1 ,,xxi4 ,g9n4 ,c\lt]1 ,plant ,life & ,plant ,uses1 ,*ap4 ,v4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,dana1 ,plants & _! ,*ildr51 pages #ii-abi4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,mayne & ,hat*1 ,high ,s*ool ,agriculture4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,hodge1 ,nature ,/udy & ,life1 ,*aps4 ,,ix1 ,x1 ,,xi4 ,g9n & ,company4 ,mac,dougal1 ,! ,nature & ,"w ( ,plants4 ,! ,macmillan ,company4 ,,advanc$ ,apg>1 ,trees ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,*aps4 ,,ii1 ,v1 ,,vi4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,c\lt]1 ,b>nes1 & ,c[les1 ,a ,textbook ( ,botany1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,dugg>1 ,plant ,physiology4 ,! ,macmillan ,company4 ,ganong1 ,! ,tea*+ ,botani/4 ,! ,macmillan ,company4 ,goebel1 ,organography ( ,plants1 ,"p ,v4 ,cl>5don ,press4 ,goodale1 ,physiological ,botany4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,gray1 ,/ructural ,botany1 ,*ap4 ,v4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,k]n]-,oliv]1 ,natural ,hi/ory ( ,plants4 ,h5ry ,holt & ,company4 ,/rasburg]1 ,noll1 ,s*5ck1 & ,k>/on1 ,a ,textbook ( ,botany4 ,! ,macmillan ,company4 ,w>d1 ,! ,oak4 ,d4 ,appleton & ,company4 ,ye>book1 ,u4 ,s4 ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 #ahid1 #ahie1 #ahih-aiaj4 ,,ix4 ,,our ,,=e/s1 ,,_! ,,uses ,,& ,,! ,,necessity ,,= ,,_! ,,protection ,problem4--,man's relations to =e/s4 7a7 ,:at is ! value ( =e/s to man8 7b7 ,:at c man d to prev5t =e/ de/ruction8 ,,laboratory ,,sugge/ions ,demon/ration ( "s uses ( wood4 ,optional ex]cise on /ructure ( wood4 ,me?od ( cutt+ det]m9$ by exam9ation4 ,home "w on /udy ( furniture trim1 etc4 ,visit to ,museum to /udy "s economic uses ( wood4 ,visit to ,museum or field trip to le>n "s common trees4 ,illu/ration3 ,a =e/ 9 ,nor? ,c>ol9a4 7,u4 ,s4 ,g4 ,s47 ,! ,economic ,value ( ,trees4 ,protection & ,regulation ( ,wat] ,supply4--,trees =m a protective cov]+ = p>ts ( ! e>?'s surface4 ,!y prev5t soil f be+ wa%$ away1 & !y hold moi/ure 9 ! gr\nd4 ,! deva/ation ( imm5se areas 9 ,*9a & consid]able damage by floods 9 p>ts ( ,switz]l&1 ,france1 & 9 ,p5nsylvania has result$ :]e ! =e/ cov]+ has be5 remov$4 ,no "o :o has tramp$ ?r\gh our ,adirondack =e/ c escape notic+ ! diff]5ces 9 ! condition ( /reams surr\nd$ by =e/ & ^? :i* fl[ ?r\gh areas f :i* trees h be5 cut4 ,! latt] /reams (t5 dry up entirely 9 hot wea!r1 :ile ! =e/-%ad$ /ream has a nev] fail+ supply ( cry/al wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,work+ to prev5t erosion aft] ! removal ( ! =e/ 9 ! ,fr5* ,alps4 ,illu/ration3 ,erosion at ,sayre1 ,p5nsylvania1 by ! ,*emung ,riv]4 7,photograph by ,w4 ,c4 ,b>b\r47 ,! city ( ,new ,york owes mu* ( its importance to its position at ! m\? ( a great riv] ) a h>bor l>ge en\gh to float ! navies ( ! _w4 ,?is riv] is suppli$ ) wat] l>gely f ! ,adirondack & ,catskill =e/s4 ,%\ld ^! =e/s be de/roy$1 x is n impossible t ! frequ5t fre%ets :i* w\ld foll[ w\ld s fill ! ,hudson ,riv] ) silt & debris t ! %ip *annels 9 ! bay1 already co/+ ! gov]nm5t hundr$s ( ?\s&s ( doll>s a ye> to keep dr$g$1 w\ld become too %all[ = %ips4 ,if ?is %\ld occur1 ! greate/ city 9 ?is c\ntry w\ld soon lose its place & become ( second-rate importance4 ,! /ory ( h[ ?is v ?+ happ5$ to ! old ,greek city ( ,poseidonia is graphically told 9 ! foll[+ l9es3-- ,x 0 su* a /range1 trem5d\s /ory1 t ( ! ,greek ,poseidonia1 lat] ! ,roman ,pae/um4 ,long ago ^? adv5tur+ m>9]s f ,greece _h seiz$ ! f]tile pla91 :i* at t "t 0 cov]$ ) =e/s ( great oak & wat]$ by two cle> & %9+ riv]s4 ,!y drove ! ,italian natives back into ! di/ant hills1 = ! :ite man's burd5 ev5 !n includ$ ! tak+ ( all ! desirable ?+s t 7 be+ wa/$ by incompet5t natives1 & !y br\ght ov] coloni/s--:om ! philosoph]s & morali/s at home malign$1 no d\bt1 9 ! same pleasant fa%ion ( our own day4 ,& ! coloni/s cut d[n ! oaks1 & pl[$ ! l&1 & built cities1 & made h>bors1 & f9ally du/$ _! busy h&s & busy s\ls ( ! grime ( labor & wr\ght spl5did temples 9 honor ( ! b5ign gods :o _h giv5 !m ! possessions ( ! ,italians & fill$ !m ) p[] & fatness4 ,e once 9 s (t5 ! natives look$ lu/fully d[n f ! hills ^u ?is fatness1 made an arm$ snat* at x1 7 driv5 back ) bloody contumely1 & ! heap+ ( ri*es ^u ri*es w5t on4 ,& m & m ! oaks 7 cut d[n--m>k t6 = ! /ories ( nations are s inextricably b\nd up ) ! /ories ( trees--until all ! pla9 0 cle>$ & till$2 & !n ! foo?ills 7 d5ud$1 & ! wave ( de/ruction crept up ! m\nta9 sides1 & !y1 too1 7 left nak$ to ! sun & ! ra9s4 ,at fir/ ^! ra9s1 sweep+ d[n torr5tially1 unh9d]$ by ! lo/ =e/s1 only enri*$ ! pla9 ) ! long-ho>d$ sweetness ( ! trees2 b by & by ! liv+ riv]s grew heavy & ?ick1 vomit+ mud into ! ev] %all[+ h>bors1 & ! l& s\r$ ) ! undra9$ /agnant wat]4 ,comm]ce turn$ m & m to deep] ports1 & mosquitoes began to bre$ 9 ! bracki% soil t 0 mak+ fa/ betwe5 ! city & ! sea4 ,:o ( all ^? p[]ful l&[n]s & ri* m]*ants c\ld ev] h dream$ t little buzz+ insects c\ld /+ a great city to dea?8 ,b !y did4 ,fev]s grew m & m preval5t4 ,! mal>ia haunt$ population w5t m & m languidly ab\t _! bus9ess4 ,! natives1 h>dy & vigor\s 9 ! hills1 7 b feebly repuls$4 ,c>?age dem&$ tribute1 & ,rome took x1 & *ang$ ! city's "n f ,poseidonia to ,pae/um4 ,aft] ,rome grew weak1 ,s>ac5 corsairs came 9 by sea & grasp$ ! slackly def5d$ ri*es1 & ! little w+$ poison]s ( ! night /ruck aga9 & aga91 until grass grew 9 ! /reets1 & ! :>ves crumbl$ :]e !y /ood4 ,f9ally1 ! wret*$ remnant ( a great p w&]$ away into ! m :olesome hills1 ! m>%es rott$ 9 ! heat & grew up 9 co>se re$s :]e corn & v9e _h fl\ri%$1 & ! city melt$ back into ! wa/$ e>?4#af ,footnote #af3 ,elizabe? ,bisl& & ,anne ,hoyt1 ,seek]s 9 ,sicily4 ,john ,lane ,company4 ,illu/ration3 ,result ( de=e/ation 9 ,*9a4 ,?is l& has be5 ru9$ by erosion4 7,c>negie ,in/itution ,rese>* 9 ,*9a47 ,prev5tion ( ,erosion by ,cov]+ ( ,organic ,soil4--,we h %[n h[ ungov]n$ /reams might dig out soil & c>ry x f> f its orig9al s\rce4 ,examples ( :at /reams h done may be se5 9 ! deltas =m$ at ! m\?s ( great riv]s4 ,! =e/ prev5ts ?is by hold+ ! wat] supply & lett+ x out gradually4 ,?is x does by cov]+ ! inorganic soil ) humus or decay$ organic mat]ial4 ,9 ?is way ! =e/ floor becomes l a sponge1 hold+ wat] ?r\gh long p]iods ( dr\ght4 ,! roots ( ! trees1 too1 help hold ! soil 9 place4 ,! gradual evaporation ( wat] ?r\gh ! /omata ( ! leaves cools ! atmosph]e1 & ?is t5ds to precipitate ! moi/ure 9 ! air4 ,ev5tually ! dead bodies ( ! trees !mselves are add$ to ! organic cov]+1 & new trees take _! place4 ,illu/ration3 ,! =e/ regions ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,o!r ,uses ( ! ,=e/4--,9 "s localities =e/s are us$ z w9dbreaks & to protect m\nta9 t[ns aga9/ avalan*es4 ,9 w9t] !y mod]ate ! cold1 & 9 summ] r$uce ! heat & less5 ! dang] f /orms4 ,birds ne/+ 9 ! woods protect _m valuable plants :i* o!rwise might be de/roy$ by insects4 ,=e/s h great comm]cial importance4 ,pyrogallic & o!r acids are obta9$ f trees1 z are t>1 creosote1 res91 turp5t9e1 & _m useful oils4 ,! mak+ ( maple sirup & sug> =ms a pr(itable indu/ry 9 sev]al /ates4 ,! ,=e/ ,regions ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4--,! comb9$ area ( all ! =e/s 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 exclusive ( ,alaska1 is ab\t #ejj1jjj1jjj acres4 ,?is seem+ly imm5se area is rapidly decreas+ 9 acreage & 9 quality1 ?anks to ! dem&s ( an increas+ population1 a woeful ignorance on ! "p ( ! own]s ( ! l&1 & wa/efulness on ! "p ( cutt]s & us]s alike4 ,a glance at ! map on page #aji %[s ! di/ribution ( our pr9cipal =e/s4 ,wa%+ton ranks fir/ 9 ! production ( lumb]4 ,"h ! great ,d\glas fir1 "o ( ! ev]gre5s1 =ms ! *ief s\rce ( supply4 ,9 ! ,s\!rn /ates1 especially ,l\isiana & ,mississippi1 yell[ p9e & cypress are ! trees mo/ lumb]$4 ,:i* /ates produce ! mo/ h>dwoods8 ,f :i* /ates d we get mo/ ( our yell[ p9e1 spruce1 r$ fir1 r$wood8 ,:]e are ! heavie/ =e/s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates8 ,illu/ration3 ,transportation ( lumb] 9 ! ,we/4 ,a logg+ tra94 ,illu/ration3 ,transportation ( lumb] 9 ! ,ea/4 ,logs are mo/ly float$ d[n riv]s to ! mills4 ,uses ( ,wood4--,ev5 9 ?is day ( coal1 wood is /ill by f> ! mo/ us$ fuel4 ,x is useful 9 build+4 ,x outla/s iron "u wat]1 9 addition to be+ durable & light4 ,x is *eap &1 ) c>e ( ! =e/s1 inexhau/ible1 :ile our m9]al weal? may "s day be us$ up4 ,di/ill$ wood gives wood alcohol4 ,p>tially burn$ wood is *>coal4 ,9 our =e/s mu* ( ! s(t wood 7! cone-be>+ trees1 spruce1 balsam1 hemlock1 & p9e71 & popl>s1 asp5s1 basswood1 ) "s o!r species1 make pap] pulp4 ,! daily newspap] & *eap books are responsible = inroads on our =e/s :i* _c well be repair$4 ,x is n necess>y to take ! l>ge/ trees to make pulp wood4 ,h5ce _m "y trees ( n m ?an six in*es 9 diamet] are sacrific$4 ,( ! hundr$s ( species ( trees 9 our =e/s1 ! conif]s are probably mo/ s\ght aft] = lumb]4 ,p9e1 especially1 is probably us$ m ext5sively ?an any o!r wood4 ,x is us$ 9 all heavy con/ruction "w1 frames ( h\ses1 bridges1 ma/s1 sp>s & timb] ( %ips1 floors1 railway ties1 & _m o!r purposes4 ,c$> is us$ = %+les1 cab9etwork1 lead p5cils1 etc42 hemlock & spruce = heavy timb]s &1 z we h se51 = pap] pulp4 ,ano!r use = our lumb]1 especially odds & ends ( all k9ds1 is 9 ! pack+-box indu/ry4 ,x is e/imat$ t ne>ly #ej p] c5t ( all lumb] cut ultimately f9ds its way into ! con/ruction ( boxes4 ,hemlock b>k is us$ = tann+4 ,! h>d woods--a%1 basswood1 bee*1 bir*1 *]ry1 *e/nut1 elm1 maple1 oak1 & walnut--are us$ l>gely = ! trim ( our h\ses1 = manufacture ( furniture1 wagon or c> "w1 & endless o!r purposes4 ,illu/ration3 ,diagrams ( sections ( timb]4 a1 cross section2 b1 radial2 c1 tang5tial4 7,f ,p9*ot1 ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 ( ,agriculture47 ,me?ods ( cutt+ ,timb]4--,a glance at ! diagram ( ! sections ( timb] %[s u t a tree may be cut radially ?r\gh ! middle ( ! trunk or tang5tially to ! middle portion4 ,mo/ lumb] is cut tang5tially4 ,9 wood cut 9 ?is mann] ! ye>ly r+s take a m or less irregul> c\rse4 ,! gra9 9 wood is caus$ by ! fib]s n tak+ /raight l9es 9 _! c\rse 9 ! tree trunk4 ,9 _m cases ! fib]s ( ! wood take a spiral c\rse up ! trunk1 or !y may wave outw>d to =m little projections4 ,bo>ds cut out ( su* a piece ( wood w %[ ! effect se5 9 _m ( ! s*ool desks1 :]e ! annual r+s appe> to =m elliptical m>k+s4 ,q a diff]5ce 9 color & /ructure is (t5 se5 betwe5 ! he>twood1 compos$ ( ! dead walls ( cells occupy+ ! c5tral "p ( ! tree trunk1 & ! sapwood1 ! liv+ "p ( ! /em4 ,illu/ration3 ,section ( a tree trunk %[+ knot4 ,knots4--,knots1 z c be se5 f ! diagram1 are bran*es :i* at "o "t />t$ 9 _! outw>d gr[? & 7 = "s reason kill$4 ,lat]1 ! tree1 cont9u+ 9 its outw>d gr[?1 surr\nd$ !m & cov]$ !m up4 ,a dead limb %\ld be prun$ be=e su* gr[? occurs4 ,! m>k+s 9 bird's-eye maple are caus$ by buds :i* h n develop$1 & h be5 ov]gr[n ) ! wood ( ! tree4 ,de/ruction ( ! ,=e/4--,by ,wa/e 9 ,cutt+4--,man is responsible = ! de/ruction ( "o ( ?is nation's mo/ valuable assets4 ,?is is prim>ily due to wrong & wa/eful lumb]+4 ,hundr$s ( ?\s&s ( doll>s' wor? ( lumb] is left to rot annually because ! lumb]m5 d n cut ! trees close en\gh to ! gr\nd1 or because ?r\gh c>eless fell+ ( trees _m o!r small] trees are injur$4 ,!re is great wa/e 9 ! mills4 ,9 fact1 man wa/es 9 e /ep f ! =e/ to ! f9i%$ product4 ,illu/ration3 ,a =e/ 9 ! f> we/ totally de/roy$ by fire & wa/eful lumb]+4 ,by ,fire4--,indirectly1 man is responsible = fire1 "o ( ! greate/ enemies ( ! =e/4 ,mo/ ( ! great =e/ fires ( rec5t ye>s1 ! losses f :i* total 9 ! hundr$s ( millions1 h be5 due ei!r to railroads or to c>elessness 9 mak+ fires 9 ! woods4 ,x is e/imat$ t 9 =e/ l&s trav]s$ by railroads f #be p] c5t to #ij p] c5t ( ! fires are caus$ by coal-burn+ locomotives4 ,= ?is reason laws h be5 made 9 ,new ,york ,/ate requir+ locomotives pass+ ?r\gh ! ,adirondack =e/ pres]ve to burn oil in/ead ( coal4 ,?is has result$ 9 a consid]able r$uction 9 ! numb] ( fires4 ,9 addition to ! loss 9 timb]1 ! fires (t5 burn out ! organic matt] 9 ! soil 7! duff7 =m+ ! =e/ floor1 ?us prev5t+ ! gr[? ( =e/ !re = _m ye>s to come4 ,9 ,new ,york & o!r /ates fires are f\ght by an organiz$ corps ( fire w>d5s1 ^: duty x is to wat* ! =e/ & to fight =e/ fires4 ,o!r ,enemies4--,o!r enemies ( ! =e/ are num]\s fungus plants1 insect p>asites :i* bore into ! wood or de/roy ! leaves1 & graz+ animals1 p>ticul>ly %eep4 ,w9d & sn[ also annually kill _m trees4 ,=e/ry4--,9 "s p>ts ( c5tral ,europe1 ! value ( ! =e/s 0 se5 z e>ly z ! ye> #acjj ,a4,d41 & _m t[ns consequ5tly b\ght up ! surr\nd+ =e/s4 ,! city ( ,zuri* has own$ =e/s 9 its vic9ity = at lea/ #fjj ye>s & has f\nd !m a pr(itable inve/m5t4 ,9 ?is c\ntry only rec5tly has ! importance ( pres]v+ & c>+ = our =e/s be5 not$ by our gov]nm5t4 ,n[1 h[ev]1 we h a ,=e/ ,survey ( ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture & num]\s /ate & univ]sity s*ools ( =e/ry :i* are rapidly tea*+ ! p ( ?is c\ntry ! be/ me?ods = ! pres]vation ( our =e/s4 ,! ,f$]al gov]nm5t has set aside a numb] ( tracts ( m\nta9 =e/ 9 "s ( ! ,we/]n /ates1 mak+ a total area ( ov] #afg1jjj1jjj acres4 ,new ,york has e/abli%$ = ! same purpose ! ,adirondack ,p>k1 ) ne>ly #a1ejj1jjj acres ( timb]l&4 ,p5nsylvania has "o ( #gjj1jjj acres1 & _m o!r /ates h foll[$ _! example4 ,illu/ration3 ,! =e/ primeval4 ,trees are kill+ ea* o!r 9 ! /ruggle = light & air4 ,illu/ration3 ,a ,g]man bee* =e/4 ,! trees are kept ?9n$ out s z to all[ ! "y trees to get a />t4 ,contra/ ?is ) ! picture above4 ,me?ods = ,keep+ & ,protect+ ! ,=e/s4--,=e/s %\ld be kept ?9n$4 ,too _m trees are z bad z too few4 ,!y /ruggle ) "o ano!r = foo?old & light1 :i* only a few c enjoy4 ,9 cutt+ ! =e/1 x %\ld be consid]$ z a h>ve/4 ,! olde/ trees are ! ripe gra91 ! y\ng] trees be+ left to gr[ to maturity4 ,sev]al me?ods ( r5ew+ ! =e/ are 9 use 9 ?is c\ntry4 7#a7 ,trees may be cut d[n & "y ones all[$ to spr\t f cut /umps4 ,?is is call$ coppice gr[?4 ,?is gr[? is well se5 9 p>ts ( ,new ,j]sey4 7#b7 ,areas or /rips may be cut out s t se$s f neighbor+ trees are c>ri$ !re to />t new gr[?4 7#c7 ,=e/s may be artificially plant$4 ,two se$l+s plant$ = e tree cut is a rule foll[$ 9 ,europe4 7#d7 ,! mo/ economical me?od is t %[n 9 ! l[] picture on page #aad1 :]e ! l>ge/ trees are ?9n$ out ov] a l>ge area s z to make room = ! y\ng] ones to gr[ up4 ,! greate/ dang]s to ! =e/s are f fire & f c>eless cutt+1 & ^! dang]s may be kept 9 *eck by ! effici5t "w ( our national & /ate =e/]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,we mu/ protect our city trees4 ,?is tree 0 badly w\nd$ by be+ gnaw$ by a horse4 ,a ,city's ,ne$ = ,trees4--,! city ( ,p>is1 well kn[n z "o ( ! mo/ beautiful ( ,european capitals1 sp5ds ov] #ajj1jjj annually 9 c>+ = & replac+ "s ( ! #ij1jjj trees own$ by ! city4 ,all ov] ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! city gov]nm5ts are beg9n+ to realize :at ,european cities h long kn[n1 t trees are ( great value to a city4 ,!y are n[ foll[+ ! example ( ,european cities by plant+ trees & by protect+ ! trees aft] !y are plant$4 ,?\s&s ( city trees are annually kill$ by horses :i* gnaw ! b>k4 ,?is may be prev5t$ by prop] protection ( ! trunk by means ( scre5s or wire gu>ds4 ,*icago has appo9t$ a city =e/]1 :o has giv5 ! foll[+ excell5t reasons :y trees %\ld be plant$ 9 ! city3-- 7#a7 ,trees are beautiful 9 =m & color1 inspir+ a con/ant appreciation ( nature4 7#b7 ,trees enhance ! beauty ( ar*itecture4 7#c7 ,trees create s5tim5t1 love ( c\ntry1 /ate1 city1 & home4 7#d7 ,trees h an educational influ5ce ^u citiz5s ( all ages1 especially *ildr54 7#e7 ,trees enc\rage outdoor life4 7#f7 ,trees purify ! air4 7#g7 ,trees cool ! air 9 summ] & radiate w>m? 9 w9t]4 7#h7 ,trees improve climate & cons]ve soil & moi/ure4 7#i7 ,trees furni% re/+ places & %elt] = birds4 7#aj7 ,trees increase ! value ( real e/ate4 7#aa7 ,trees protect ! pavem5t f ! heat ( ! sun4 7#ab7 ,trees c\nt]act adv]se conditions ( city life4 ,let u all try to make ,arbor ,day :at x %\ld be1 a day = c>+ = & plant+ trees1 = ?us we may pres]ve ?is mo/ important h]itage ( our nation4 ,,ref]5ce ,,books ,,elem5t>y ,hunt]1 ,laboratory ,problems 9 ,civic ,biology4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,mayne & ,hat*1 ,high ,s*ool ,agriculture4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,murrill1 ,%ade ,trees1 ,bul4 #bje1 ,cornell ,univ]sity ,agricultural ,exp]im5t ,/ation4 ,p9*ot1 ,a ,prim] ( ,=e/ry1 ,division ( ,=e/ry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture4 ,,advanc$ ,apg>1 ,trees ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,*aps4 ,,ii1 ,v1 ,,vi4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,c\lt]1 ,b>nes1 & ,c[les1 ,a ,textbook ( ,botany1 ,"p ,i & ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,goebel1 ,organography ( ,plants1 ,"p ,v4 ,cl>5don ,press4 ,/rasburg]1 ,noll1 ,s*5ck1 & ,k>/on1 ,a ,textbook ( ,botany4 ,! ,macmillan ,company4 ,w>d1 ,timb] & ,"s ( its ,diseases4 ,! ,macmillan ,company4 ,ye>book1 ,u4 ,s4 ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 ,division ( ,=e/ry1 ,buls4 #g1 #aj1 #ac1 #af1 #ag1 #ah1 #bj1 #bf1 #bg4 ,x4 ,,! ,,economic ,,relation ,,( ,,gre5 ,,plants ,,to ,,man ,problems4--,h[ gre5 plants are useful to man4 7a7 ,z food4 7b7 ,= clo?+4 7c7 ,o!r uses4 ,h[ gre5 plants are h>mful to man4 ,,sugge/$ ,,laboratory ,,"w ,if a comm]cial museum is available1 a trip %\ld be plann$ to "w ov] ! topics 9 ?is *apt]4 ,! s*ool collection may well include mo/ ( ! examples m5tion$1 bo? ( useful & h>mful plants4 ,a /udy ( we$s & poison\s plants %\ld be tak5 up 9 actual laboratory "w1 ei!r by collection & id5tification or by demon/ration4 ,gre5 ,plants h a ,doll> & ,c5ts ,value4--,to ! girl or boy liv+ 9 ! city gre5 plants seem to h little direct value4 ,al?\gh we see vegetables = sale 9 /ores & we "k t fruits h a money value1 we are apt to =get t ! weal? ( our nation dep5ds m ^u its crops ?an x does on its manufactories & bus9ess h\ses4 ,! economic or doll>s & c5ts value ( plants is enorm\s & f> too great = u to compreh5d 9 t]ms ( figures4 ,we h already se5 "s ( ! uses to mank9d ( ! products ( ! =e/2 let u n[ consid] "s o!r plant products4 ,illu/ration3 ,cabbage ,onions ,lettuce ,leaves us$ z food4 ,leaves z ,food4--,graz+ animals fe$ almo/ entirely on t5d] %oots or leaves1 blades ( grass1 & o!r h]bage4 ,c]ta9 leaves & buds are us$ by man z food4 ,lettuce1 beet tops1 kale1 sp9a*1 broccoli1 are examples4 ,a cabbage head is no?+ b a big bud :i* has be5 cultivat$ by man4 ,an onion is a compact budlike mass ( ?ick5$ leaves :i* conta9 /or$ food4 ,illu/ration3 ,cel]y ,kohl-rabi ,potato ,sug> cane ,/ems us$ z food4 ,/ems z ,food4--,a city *ild w\ld1 if ask$ to "n "s /em us$ z food1 probably m5tion asp>agus4 ,we sometimes =get t "o ( our greate/ necessities1 cane sug>1 comes f ! /em ( sug> cane4 ,ov] sev5ty p\nds ( sug> is us$ ea* ye> by e p]son 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,to supply ! gr[+ dem& beets are n[ be+ rais$ = _! sug> 9 _m p>ts ( ! _w1 s t ne>ly half ! total supply ( sug> comes f ?is s\rce4 ,maple sug> is a well-kn[n commodity :i* is obta9$ by boil+ ! sap ( sug> maple until x cry/allizes4 ,ov] #af1jjj tons ( maple sug> is obta9$ e spr+1 ,v]mont produc+ ab\t #dj p] c5t ( ! total output4 ,! sago palm is ano!r /em :i* supports ! life ( _m natives 9 ,africa4 ,ano!r /em1 liv+ und]gr\nd1 =ms "o ( man's /aple articles ( diet4 ,?is is ! potato4 ,roots z ,food4--,roots :i* /ore food = plants =m important p>ts ( man's vegetable diet4 ,beets1 radi%es1 c>rots1 p>snips1 sweet potatoes1 & _m o!rs might be m5tion$4 ,! foll[+ table %[s ! proportion ( foods 9 "s ( ! common] roots & /ems3-- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,wat] ,,prote9s ,,c>bohydrates ,,fat ,,m9]al ,,matt] ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,potato #ge #a4b #ah #j4c #a4j ,c>rot #hi #j4e #e #j4b #a4j ,p>snip #ha #a4b #h4g #a4e #a4j ,turnip #ib4h #j4e #d4 #j4a #j4h ,onion #ia #a4e #d4h #j4b #j4e ,sweet potato #gd #a4e #bj4b #j4a #a4e ,beet #hb4b #j4d #ac4d #j4a #j4i ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,illu/ration3 ,:eat ,nuts ,pe> ,melon ,se$s & fruits us$ = food4 ,fruits & ,se$s z ,foods4--,our c]eal crops1 corn1 :eat1 etc41 h play$ a v great "p 9 ! civilization ( man & are n[ ( s mu* importance to him z food products t bread made f fl\r f ! :eat has be5 call$ ! /aff ( life4 ,our gra9s are ! cultivat$ prog5y ( wild grasses4 ,dome/ication ( plants & animals m>ks epo*s 9 ! advance ( civilization4 ,! man ( ! /one age hunt$ wild bea/s = food1 & liv$ l "o ( !m 9 a cave or :]ev] he happ5$ to be2 he 0 a nomad1 a w&]]1 ) no fix$ home4 ,he may h discov]$ t wild roots or gra9s 7 good to eat2 p]haps he /or$ "s away = future use4 ,!n came ! idea ( gr[+ ?+s at home in/ead ( digg+ or ga!r+ ! wild fruits f ! =e/ & pla94 ,! tribes :i* fir/ cultivat$ ! soil made a great /ep 9 advance1 = !y _h z a result a fix$ place = habitation4 ,! cultivation ( gra9s & c]eals gave !m a /ore ( food :i* c\ld be us$ at times :5 o!r food 0 sc>ce4 ,! ^w c]eal 7d]iv$ f ,c]es1 ! ,roman ,goddess ( ,agriculture7 %[s ! importance ( ?is crop to ,roman civilization4 ,f e>lie/ times ! gr[+ ( gra9 & ! progress ( civilization h gone h& 9 h&4 ,z nations h advanc$ 9 p[]1 _! dep5d5ce ^u ! c]eal crops has be5 great] & great]4 ,indian corn1 says ,john ,fiske1 9 ,! ,discov]y ( ,am]ica1 has play$ a mo/ important "p 9 ! hi/ory ( ! ,new ,_w4 ,x c\ld be plant$ )\t cle>+ or pl[+ ! soil4 ,!re 0 no ne$ ( ?re%+ or w9n[+4 ,s[n 9 till$ l&1 x yields m ?an twice z mu* food p] acre z any o!r k9d ( gra94 ,?is 0 ( incalculable advantage to ! ,engli% settl]s 9 ,new ,engl&1 :o w\ld h f\nd x mu* h>d] to ga9 a secure foo?old ^u ! soil if !y _h _h to beg9 by prep>+ x = :eat or rye4 ,to-day1 9 spite ( ! great weal? :i* comes f our m9]al res\rces1 live /ock1 & manufactur$ products1 ! sure/ index ( our c\ntry's prosp]ity is ! size ( ! corn & :eat crop4 ,accord+ to ! la/ c5sus1 ! am\nt ( capital inve/$ 9 agriculture 0 ov] #bj1jjj1jjj1jjj1 :ile t inve/$ 9 manufacture 0 less ?an "o half t am\nt4 ,corn4--,ab\t ?ree billion bu%els ( corn 7 rais$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates dur+ ! ye> #aiaj4 ,?is figure is s enorm\s t x has b little mean+ to u4 ,9 ! pa/ half c5tury our corn crop has increas$ ov] #cej p] c5t4 ,ill9ois & ,i[a are ! greate/ corn-produc+ /ates1 ea* hav+ a ye>ly record ( ov] f\r hundr$ million bu%els4 ,! figure on ?is page %[s ! pr9cipal corn-produc+ areas 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,illu/ration3 ,indian ,corn ,production--,p]c5tage ,indian corn is put to _m uses4 ,x is a valuable food4 ,x conta9s a l>ge proportion ( />*1 f :i* glucose 7grape sug>7 & alcohol are made4 ,ma*9e oil & soap are made f x4 ,! leaves & /alk are an excell5t fodd]2 !y c be made into pap] & pack+ mat]ial4 ,mattresses c be /uff$ ) ! husks4 ,! pi? is us$ z a protective belt plac$ bel[ ! wat] l9e ( our huge battle%ips4 ,corn cobs are us$ = fuel1 "o hundr$ bu%els hav+ ! fuel value ( a ton ( coal4 ,illu/ration3 ,:eat ,crop 9 ,unit$ ,/ates--,p]c5tage ,s\rce ,:eat4--,:eat is ! crop ( next greate/ importance 9 size4 ,ne>ly sev5 hundr$ millions ( bu%els 7 rais$ 9 ?is c\ntry 9 #aiaj1 repres5t+ a total money value ( ov] #gjj1jjj1jjj4 ,sev5ty-two p] c5t ( all ! :eat rais$ comes f ! ,nor? ,c5tral /ates & ,cali=nia4 ,ab\t ?ree f\r?s ( ! :eat crop is export$1 ne>ly "o half ( x to ,great ,brita91 ?us indirectly giv+ employm5t to ?\s&s ( p on railways & /eam%ips4 ,:eat has its *ief use 9 its manufacture into fl\r4 ,! g]m1 or "y :eat plant1 is sift$ out dur+ ?is process & made into breakfa/ foods4 ,fl\r mak+ =ms ! *ief indu/ry ( ,m9neapolis1 ,m9nesota1 & ( sev]al o!r l>ge & weal?y cities 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,illu/ration3 ,a field ( rice1 %[+ ! conditions ( culture4 ,o!r ,gra9s4--,( ! o!r gra9 & c]eals rais$ 9 ?is c\ntry1 oats are ! mo/ important crop1 ov] "o billion bu%els hav+ be5 produc$ 9 #aiaj4 ,b>ley is ano!r gra91 a /aple ( "s ( ! nor!rn c\ntries ( ,europe & ,asia4 ,9 ?is c\ntry1 x is l>gely us$ 9 mak+ malt = ! manufacture ( be]4 ,rye is ! mo/ important c]eal crop ( nor!rn ,europe1 ,russia1 ,g]many1 & ,au/ro-,hung>y produc+ ov] #ej p] c5t ( ! _w's supply4 ,"o ( ! mo/ important gra9 crops = ! _w 7al?\gh relatively unimportant 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates7 is rice4 ,! fruit ( ?is grasslike plant1 aft] ?ra%+1 scre5+1 & mill+1 =ms ! pr9cipal food ( "o ?ird ( ! human race4 ,moreov]1 its /ems furni% /raw1 its husks make a bran us$ z food = cattle1 & ! gra91 :5 f]m5t$ & di/ill$1 yields alcohol4 ,g>d5 ,fruits4--,gre5 plants & especially vegetables h come to play an important "p 9 ! diet>y ( man4 ,! diseases kn[n z scurvy & b]i-b]i1 ! latt] ! curse ( ! f> ,ea/]n navies1 h be5 l>gely prev5t$ by add+ vegetables & fruit juices to ! diet>y ( ! sailors4 ,p 9 ?is c\ntry are beg9n+ to f9d t m vegetables & less meat are bett] ?an ! meat diet s (t5 us$4 ,m>ket g>d5+ =ms ! lucrative bus9ess ( _m ?\s&s ( p ne> our great cities4 ,"s ( ! m important fruits are squa%1 cucumb]s1 pumpk9s1 melons1 tomatoes1 pepp]s1 /rawb]ries1 raspb]ries1 & blackb]ries4 ,! latt] fruits br+ 9 an annual income ( #be1jjj1jjj to our m>ket g>d5]s4 ,beans & peas are important z foods because ( _! relatively l>ge am\nt ( prote94 ,cann+ gre5 corn1 peas1 beans1 & tomatoes has become an important indu/ry4 ,illu/ration3 ,pick+ apples1 an important crop 9 "s p>ts ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,or*>d & ,o!r ,fruits4--,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ov] "o hundr$ & sev5ty-five million bu%els ( apples are gr[n e ye>4 ,pe>s1 plums1 apricots1 pea*es1 & nect>9es also =m l>ge or*>ds1 especially 9 ,cali=nia4 ,nuts =m "o ( our important articles ( food1 l>gely because ( ! l>ge am\nt ( prote9 conta9$ 9 !m4 ,! grape crop ( ! _w is comm]cially valuable1 because ( ! rais9s & w9e produc$4 ,! culture ( lemons1 oranges1 & grapefruit has come 9 rec5t ye>s to give a liv+ to _m p 9 ?is c\ntry z well z 9 o!r p>ts ( ! _w4 ,figs1 olives1 & dates are /aple foods 9 ! ,m$it]ranean c\ntries & are s\rces ( weal? to ! p !re1 z are coconuts1 bananas1 & _m o!r fruits 9 tropical c\ntries4 ,bev]ages & ,condim5ts4--,! c(fee & cacao beans1 & leaves ( ! tea plant1 products ( tropical regions1 =m ! basis ( v important bev]ages ( civiliz$ man4 ,pepp]1 black & r$1 mu/>d1 allspice1 nutmegs1 cloves1 & vanilla are all products manufactur$ f v>i\s fruits or se$s ( tropical plants4 ,alcoholic liquors are produc$ f v>i\s plants 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! _w1 ! dri$ fruit ( ! hop v9e be+ an important product ( ,new ,york ,/ate us$ 9 ! mak+ ( be]4 ,raw ,mat]ials4--,besides use z food1 gre5 plants h _m o!r uses4 ,_m ( our city indu/ries w\ld n be 9 exi/5ce1 7 x n = c]ta9 plant products :i* furni% ! raw mat]ials = _m manufactur+ indu/ries4 ,_m cities ( ! ea/ & s\?1 = example1 dep5d ^u cotton to give employm5t to ?\s&s ( factory h&s4 ,illu/ration3 ,cotton ,crop 9 ,unit$ ,/ates--,p]c5tage ,s\rce ,cotton ,crop 9 ,unit$ ,/ates--,p]c5tage ,consumption ,cotton4--,( our native plant products cotton is probably ( ! mo/ importance to ! outside _w4 ,ov] elev5 million bales ( five hundr$ p\nds ea* are rais$ annually4 ,! cotton plant ?rives 9 w>m regions4 ,its comm]cial importance is ga9$ because ! se$s ( ! fruit h long filam5ts atta*$ to !m4 ,bun*es ( ^! filam5ts1 aft] treatm5t1 are easily twi/$ into ?reads f :i* are manufactur$ cotton clo?1 musl91 calico1 & cambric4 ,9 addition to ! fib]1 cottonse$ oil1 a sub/itute = olive oil1 is made f ! se$s1 & ! refuse rema9+ makes an excell5t cattle fodd]4 ,illu/ration3 ,map %[+ ! spread ( ! cotton boll weevil4 ,x 0 introduc$ f ,mexico ab\t #ahid4 ,:at proportion ( ! cotton rais+ belt 0 infect$ 9 #aijh8 ,cotton ,boll ,weevil4--,! cotton crop ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates has r rec5tly be5 ?reat5$ ) de/ruction by a beetle call$ ! cotton boll weevil4 ,?is insect1 :i* bores into ! "y pod ( ! cotton1 develops !re1 /unt+ ! gr[? ( ! fruit to su* an ext5t t se$s are n produc$4 ,! loss 9 ,texas alone is e/imat$ at ov] #aj1jjj1jjj a ye>4 ,! boll weevil1 because ( ! protection (f]$ by ! cotton boll1 is v difficult to ext]m9ate4 ,! weevils are de/roy$ by birds1 ! infect$ bolls & /alks are burnt1 millions are kill$ ea* w9t] by cold1 o!r insects prey on !m1 b at ! pres5t "t !y are "o ( ! greate/ pe/s ! s\? kn[s4 ,illu/ration3 ,mexican cotton boll weevil4 ,mu* enl>g$1 above2 natural size1 bel[4 7,h]rick47 ,! control ( ?is pe/ seems to dep5d ^u e>ly plant+ s t ! crop has an opportunity to rip5 be=e ! insects 9 ! boll gr[ l>ge en\gh to d h>m4 ,ultimately ! boll weevil may d m good ?an h>m by br++ into ! m>ket a type ( cotton plant t rip5s v e>ly4 ,vegetable ,fib]s4--,among ! mo/ important are ,manila hemp1 :i* comes f ! leaf-/alks ( a plant ( ! banana family & true hemp1 :i* is ! ba/ or woody fib] ( a plant cultivat$ 9 mo/ w>m p>ts ( ! e>?4 ,flax is also an important fib] plant1 gr[n l>gely 9 ,russia & o!r p>ts ( ,europe 7see picture on next page74 ,f ! ba/ fib]s ( ! /em ( ?is h]b l95 clo? is made4 ,illu/ration3 ,flax gr[n = fib]4 ,vegetable ,oils4--,"s ( ! same plants :i* give fib] also produce oil4 ,cotton se$ oil press$ f ! se$s1 l9se$ oil f ! se$s ( ! flax plant1 & coconut oil 7! cov]+ ( ! nut "h produc+ ! fib]7 are examples4 ,illu/ration3 ,poison ivy1 a climb+ plant :i* is poison\s to t\*4 ,notice ! leaves 9 ?rees4 ,"s ,h>mful ,gre5 ,plants4--,we h se5 t on ! :ole gre5 plants are useful to man4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 "s t are h>mful4 ,= example1 ! poison ivy is extremely poison\s to t\*4 ,! poison ivy is a climb+ plant :i* atta*es itself to ! trees or walls by means ( t9y air roots :i* gr[ out f ! /em4 ,x is di/+ui%$ f its h>mless climb+ neighbor1 ! ,virg9ia ,creep]1 by ! fact t its leaves are not*$ 9 ?rees in/ead ( fives4 ,e boy & girl %\ld "k poison ivy4 ,num]\s o!r poison\s common plants are f\nd1 b "o o!r des]ves special notice because ( its pres5ce 9 vacant city lots4 ,! ,jimson ,we$ 7,datura7 is a bu%y plant1 f two to five feet high1 be>+ l>ge leaves4 ,x has :ite or purpli% fl[]s1 & lat] be>s a f\r-valv$ se$ pod conta9+ sev]al hundr$ se$s4 ,^! plants conta9 a p[]ful poison1 & p are (t5 made s]i\sly ill by eat+ ! roots or o!r p>ts by mi/ake4 ,we$s4--,f ! economic /&po9t ! gre5 plants :i* d ! greate/ damage are we$s4 ,^? plants :i* provide be/ = _! "y are usually ! mo/ successful 9 life's race4 ,plants :i* comb9e ) ! ability to scatt] _m se$s ov] a wide t]ritory ! additional *>act]i/ics ( rapid gr[?1 resi/ance to dang]s ( extreme cold or heat1 attacks ( enemies1 in$ibility1 & peculi> adaptations to cross-poll9ation or self-poll9ation1 are usually spok5 ( z we$s4 ,!y fl\ri% 9 ! /]ile soil ( ! roadside & 9 ! f]tile soil ( ! g>d54 ,by means ( rapid gr[? !y kill o!r plants ( sl[] gr[? by usurp+ _! t]ritory4 ,sl[-gr[+ plants are ?us actually ext]m9at$4 ,_m ( our common we$s h be5 introduc$ f o!r c\ntries & h1 ?r\gh _! num]\s adaptations1 driv5 out o!r plants :i* /ood 9 _! way4 ,su* is ! ,russian ,?i/le4 ,a s+le plant ( ?is k9d w give rise to ov] #bj1jjj se$s4 ,fir/ introduc$ f ,russia 9 #ahgc1 x spread s rapidly t 9 tw5ty ye>s x _h appe>$ z a common we$ ov] an area ( "s tw5ty-five ?\s& squ>e miles4 ,x is n[ "o ( ! greate/ pe/s 9 our ,nor?we/4 ,,ref]5ce ,,books ,,elem5t>y ,hunt]1 ,laboratory ,problems 9 ,civic ,biology4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,gannet1 ,comm]cial ,geography4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,s>g5t1 ,plants & _! ,uses4 ,h5ry ,holt & ,company4 ,too?ak]1 ,comm]cial ,raw ,mat]ials4 ,g9n & ,company4 ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 ( ,agriculture1 ,f>m]s' ,bullet9 #hf1 ,?irty ,poison\s ,plants ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,v4 ,k4 ,*e/nut4 ,bullet9 #ag4 ,two ,hundr$ ,we$s1 ,h[ to ,"k ,!m & ,h[ to ,kill ,!m1 ,l4 ,h4 ,dewey4 ,,advanc$ ,bailey1 ,cyclop$ia ( ,am]ican ,agriculture4 ,! ,macmillan ,company4 ,,xi4 ,,plants ,,)\t ,,*lorophyll ,,9 ,,_! ,,relation ,,to ,,man ,problems4--7a7 ,h[ molds & o!r saprophytic fungi d h>m to man4 7b7 ,:at yea/s d = mank9d4 7c7 ,a /udy ( bact]ia ) ref]5ce to 7#a7 ,conditions favorable & unfavorable to gr[?4 7#b7 ,_! relations to mank9d4 7#c7 ,"s me?ods ( fight+ h>mful bact]ia & diseases caus$ by !m4 ,,laboratory ,,sugge/ions ,field "w4--,pres5ce ( bracket fungi & *e/nut cank]4 ,home exp]im5t4--,conditions favorable to gr[? ( mold4 ,laboratory demon/ration4--,gr[? ( mold1 /ructure1 draw+4 ,home exp]im5t or laboratory demon/ration4--,conditions unfavorable = gr[? ( molds4 ,demon/ration4--,process ( f]m5tation4 ,microscopic demon/ration4--,gr[+ yea/ cells4 ,draw+4 ,home exp]im5t4--,conditions favorable = gr[? ( yea/4 ,home exp]im5t4--,conditions favorable = gr[? ( yea/ 9 bread4 ,demon/ration & exp]im5t4--,:]e bact]ia may be f\nd4 ,demon/ration4--,me?ods ( gr[? ( bact]ia1 pure cultures & colonies %[n4 ,demon/ration4--,foods pref]r$ by bact]ia4 ,demon/ration4--,conditions favorable = gr[? ( bact]ia4 ,demon/ration4--,conditions unfavorable = gr[? ( bact]ia4 ,demon/ration by *>ts1 diagrams1 etc4--,! relation ( bact]ia to disease 9 a l>ge city4 ,,colorless ,,plants ,,are ,,useful ,,& ,,h>mful ,,to ,,man ,! ,fungi4--,we h f\nd t gre5 plants on ! :ole are useful to mank9d4 ,b n all plants are gre54 ,mo/ ( u are famili> ) ! edible mu%room sold 9 ! m>kets or ! s-call$ toad/ools f\nd 9 p>ks or lawns4 ,^! plants conta9 no *lorophyll & h5ce d n make _! own food4 ,!y are memb]s ( ! plant gr\p call$ fungi4 ,su* plants are almo/ z mu* dep5d5t ^u ! gre5 plants = food z are animals4 ,b ! fungi require = ! mo/ "p dead organic matt] = _! food4 ,?is may be obta9$ f decay$ vegetable or animal mat]ial 9 soil1 f ! bodies ( dead plants & animals1 or ev5 f foods prep>$ = man4 ,fungi :i* fe$ ^u dead organic mat]ial are kn[n z saprophytes4 ,examples are ! mu%rooms1 ! yea/s1 molds1 & "s bact]ia1 ( :i* m w be le>n$ lat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,*e/nut trees 9 a ,new ,york ,city p>k2 kill$ by a p>asite1 ! *e/nut cank]4 ,"s ,p>asitic ,fungi4--,o!r fungi 7& we w f9d ?is applies to "s animals z well7 pref] liv+ plants or animals = _! food4 ,?us a t9y plant1 rec5tly introduc$ into ?is c\ntry1 kn[n z ! *e/nut cank]1 is kill+ our *e/nut trees by ! ?\s&s 9 ! ea/]n "p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,x produces millions ( t9y reproductive cells kn[n z spores2 ^! spores1 bl[n ab\t by ! w9d1 light on ! trees1 spr\t1 & s5d 9 "u ! b>k a ?readlike /ructure :i* sucks 9 ! food circulat+ 9 ! liv+ cells1 ev5tually caus+ ! dea? ( ! tree4 ,a plant or animal :i* lives at ! exp5se ( ano!r liv+ plant or animal is call$ a p>asite4 ,! *e/nut cank] is a dang]\s p>asite4 ,lat] we %all see t animal & plant p>asites de/roy ye>ly crops & trees valu$ at hundr$s ( millions ( doll>s & cause untold mis]y & suff]+ to humanity4 ,illu/ration3 ,%elf fungi4 7,photograph$ by ,w4 ,c4 ,b>b\r47 ,ano!r fungus :i* does mu* h>m to ! few trees f\nd 9 l>ge t[ns & cities is ! %elf or bracket fungus4 ,! "p ( ! body visible on ! tree looks l a %elf or bracket1 h5ce ! "n4 ,?is bracket is 9 reality ! reproductive "p ( ! plant2 on its l[] surface are =m$ millions ( little bodies call$ spores4 ,^! spores are capable1 "u favorable conditions1 ( reproduc+ new plants4 ,! true body ( ! plant1 a network ( ?reads1 is f\nd "u ! b>k4 ,?is fungus beg9s its life z a spore 9 "s "p ( ! tree :i* has become diseas$ or brok54 ,once e/abli%$1 x spreads rapidly4 ,!re is no rem$y except to kill ! tree & burn x1 s z to de/roy ! spores4 ,_m f9e trees1 s\nd except = a slight bruise or o!r injury1 are annually infect$ & ev5tually kill$4 ,9 cities ?\s&s ( trees become infect$ ?r\gh c>eless hit*+ ( horses s t ! horse may gnaw ! tree1 ?us expos+ a fre% surface on :i* spores may obta9 lodgm5t & gr[ 7see page #aae74 ,sugge/ions = ,field ,"w4--,a field trip to a p>k or grove ne> home may %[ ! great de/ruction ( timb] by ?is means4 ,c\nt ! numb] ( p]fect trees 9 a giv5 area4 ,comp>e x ) ! numb] ( trees attack$ by ! fungus4 ,does ! fungus appe> to be transmitt$ f "o tree to ano!r ne> at h&8 ,9 h[ _m in/ances c y discov] ! po9t :]e ! fungus fir/ attack$ ! tree8 ,fungi ( our ,homes4--,b n all fungi are wild4 ,"s h become introduc$ into our homes & ^! live on food or o!r mat]ials4 ,^! plants are v important because ( _! relation to life 9 a t[n or cr[d$ city4#ag ,footnote #ag3 ,exp]im5ts on conditions favorable to gr[? ( mold %\ld be introduc$ "h4 ,illu/ration3 ,bread mold2 r1 rhizoids2 s1 fruit+ bodies conta9+ spores4 ,! ,gr[? ( ,bread ,mold4--,if a piece ( moi/ bread is expos$ to ! air ( ! s*oolroom1 or 9 y\r own kit*5 = a few m9utes & !n cov]$ ) a glass tumbl] & kept 9 a w>m place1 9 a day or two a fuzzy :iti% gr[? w appe> on ! surface ( ! bread4 ,?is gr[? %ortly turns black4 ,if we n[ exam9e a little piece ( ! bread ) a l5s or l[-p[]$ microscope1 we f9d a tangl$ mass ( ?reads 7! mycelium7 cov]+ ! surface ( ! bread4 ,f ?is mass ( ?reads project t9y upright /alks be>+ r\nd black bodies1 ! fruit4 ,little rootlike /ructures kn[n z rhizoids dip d[n into ! bread1 & absorb food = its ?readlike body4 ,! upright ?reads ) ! balls at ! end conta9 _m t9y bodies call$ spores4 ,^! spores h be5 =m$ by ! division ( ! protoplasm mak+ up ! fruit+ bodies into _m sep>ate cells4 ,:5 gr[n "u favorable conditions1 ! spores w produce m mycelia1 :i* 9 turn be> fruit+ bodies4 ,physiology ( ! ,gr[? ( ,mold4--,molds1 9 ord] to gr[ rapidly1 ne$ oxyg51 moi/ure1 & mod]ate heat4 ,!y seem to pref] d>k1 damp places :]e !re is n a free circulation ( air1 = if ! bell j> is remov$ f gr[+ mold = ev5 a %ort "t1 ! mold wilts4 ,too great or v little heat w prev5t gr[? & kill ev]y?+ except ! spores4 ,!y obta9 _! food f ! mat]ial on :i* !y live4 ,?is !y are able to d by means ( dige/ive enzymes giv5 out by ! rootlike p>ts1 by means ( :i* ! molds cl+ to ! bread4 ,^! dige/ive enzymes *ange ! />* ( ! bread to sug> & ! prote9 to a soluble =m :i* w pass by osmosis into cells ( ! mold4 ,?us ! mold is able to absorb food mat]ial4 ,^! foods are !n us$ to supply en]gy & make protoplasm4 ,?is seems to be ! usual me?od by :i* saprophytes make use ( ! mat]ials on :i* !y live4 ,:at c ,molds live ,on8--,we h se5 t black mold lives ^u bread4 ,we w\ld f9d t x or "s o!r mold 7e4g4 gre5 or blue mold7 live ^u decay+ or ov]ripe fruit1--apples1 pea*es1 & plums be+ especially susceptible to _! gr[?4 ,molds fe$ ^u all cakes or breads1 ^u meat1 *eese1 & _m raw vegetables4 ,!y are almo/ sure to gr[ ^u fl\r if x is all[$ to get damp4 ,moi/ure seems necess>y = _! gr[?4 ,jelly is a sub/ance p>ticul>ly favorable to molds = ?is reason4 ,%oes1 lea!r1 clo?1 pap]1 or ev5 moi/ wood w give food en\gh to support _! gr[?4 ,at lea/ "o tr\blesome disease1 r+worm1 is due to ! gr[? ( molds 9 ! sk94 ,:at ,mold does to ,foods4--,mold usually *anges ! ta/e ( ! mat]ial x gr[s ^u1 r5d]+ x mu/y & sometimes unfit to eat4 ,ev5tually x w spoil food completely because decay sets 94 ,decay1 z we w see lat]1 is n entirely due to mold gr[?1 b is usually caus$ by ano!r gr\p ( organisms1 ! bact]ia4 ,molds1 h[ev]1 9 fe$+ d cause *emical *anges :i* result 9 decay or putrefaction4 ,"s molds are useful4 ,!y give ! flavor to ,roque=t1 ,gorgonzola1 ,camemb]t1 & ,brie *eeses4 ,b on ! :ole molds are pe/s :i* ! h\sekeep] wi%es to get rid (4 ,h[ to prev5t ,molds4#ah--;,z we h se51 moi/ure is favorable = mold gr[?2 conv]sely1 dryness is unfavorable4 ,inasmu* z ! spores ( mold ab\nd 9 ! air1 mat]ials :i* _c be kept dry %\ld be cov]$4 ,jelly aft] x is made %\ld at once be tightly cov]$ ) a ?9 lay] ( p>aff91 :i* excludes ! air & possible mold spores4 ,or wax$ pap] may be fa/5$ ov] ! surface ( ! jelly s z to exclude ! spores4 ,to prev5t molds f attack+ fre% fruit1 ! surface ( ! fruit %\ld be kept dry &1 if possible1 ea* piece ( fruit %\ld be wrapp$ 9 pap]4 ,:y8 ,heat+ ) dry heat to #bab deg4 = a few mom5ts w kill any mold spores t happ5 to be 9 food4 ,moldy food1 if heat$ aft] remov+ surface on :i* ! mold grew1 is p]fectly good to eat4 ,footnote #ah3 ,an exp]im5t to %[ conditions unfavorable = gr[? ( molds %\ld be %[n at ?is po9t4 ,dry du/+ or sweep+ w raise du/1 :i* usually conta9s mold spores4 ,use a damp5$ broom or du/ clo? frequ5tly 9 ! kit*5 if y wi% to pres]ve foods f molds4 ,o!r ,moldlike ,fungi4--,mildews are ne> relatives ( ! molds f\nd 9 our homes4 ,!y may attack lea!r1 clo?1 etc41 9 a damp h\se4 ,o!r alli$ =ms may d damage to liv+ plants4 ,"s ( ^! live ^u ! lilac1 rose1 or will[4 ,^! fungi d n p5etrate ! ho/ plant to any dep?1 = !y obta9 _! food f ! out] lay] ( cells 9 ! leaf ( _! ho/ & cov] ! leaves ) ! :iti% ?reads ( ! mycelium4 ,h5ce !y may be kill$ by means ( applications ( "s fungus-kill+ fluid1 z ,bordeaux mixture4#ai ,among ! useful plants prey$ ^u by mildews are ! plum1 *]ry1 & pea* trees4 7,! diseases kn[n z black knot & pea* curl are ?us caus$47 ,ano!r important memb] ( ?is gr\p is ! t9y p>asite f\nd on rye & o!r gra9s1 :i* gives u ! drug ergot4 ,footnote #ai3 ,see ,g(f & ,mayne1 ,fir/ ,pr9ciples ( ,agriculture1 page #ei1 = =mula ( ,bordeaux mixture4 ,among o!r p>asitic fungi are ru/s & smuts4 ,:eat ru/ is probably ! mo/ de/ructive p>asitic fungus4 ,indirectly ?is p>asite is ( consid]able importance to ! citiz5 ( a great city because ( its effect ^u ! price ( :eat4 ,,yea/s ,,9 ,,_! ,,relation ,,to ,,man ,f]m5tation4--,x is ( common k to c\ntry boys or girls t ! juice ( fre% apples1 grapes1 & "s o!r fruits1 if all[$ to /& expos$ to ! air = a %ort "t w f]m5t4 ,t is1 ! sweet juice w beg9 to ta/e s\r & to h a peculi> odor1 :i* we recognize z t ( alcohol4 ,! f]m5t+ juice appe>s to be full ( bubbles :i* rise to ! surface4 ,if we collect en\gh ( ^! bubbles ( gas to make a te/1 we f9d x to be c>bon dioxide4 ,evid5tly some?+ *ang$ "s "p ( ! apple or grape1 ! sug>1 7,c#f;,h#ab,o#f71 into alcohol1 #b7;,c#b;,h#f,o71 & c>bon dioxide1 #b7;,,co#b74 ,?is *emical process is kn[n z f]m5tation4 ,illu/ration3 ,app>atus to %[ effect ( f]m5tation4 ,n1 molasses1 wat] & yea/ plants2 ,c1 bubbles ( c>bon dioxide4 ,yea/ causes ,f]m5tation4--,let u n[ take a compress$ yea/ cake1 %ake up a small portion ( x 9 a solution ( molasses & wat]1 & fill a f]m5tation tube ) ! mixture4 ,leave ! tube 9 a w>m place ov]night4 ,9 ! morn+ a gas w be f\nd to h be5 collect$ 9 ! clos$ end ( ! tube 7see ,figure on page #ach74 ,! ta/e & odor ( ! liquid %[s alcohol to be pres5t1 & ! gas1 if te/$1 is prov5 c>bon dioxide4 ,evid5tly yea/ causes f]m5tation4 ,:at are ,yea/s8--,if n[ "p ( ! liquid f ! f]m5tation tube :i* conta9s ! settl+s be drawn (f1 a drop plac$ on a slide & a little weak iod9e add$ & ! mixture exam9$ "u ! comp\nd microscope1 two k9ds ( /ructures w be f\nd 7see ,figure bel[71 />* gra9s :i* are /a9$ deep blue1 & o!r small] ovoid /ructures ( a br[ni% yell[ color4 ,! latt] are yea/ plants4 ,illu/ration3 ,yea/ & />* gra9s4 ,notice t ! />* gra9s ar\nd :i* are clu/]$ yea/ cells h be5 r\nd$ (f by ! yea/ plants4 ,h[ d y acc\nt = ?is8 ,size & ,%ape1 ,mann] ( ,gr[?1 etc4--,! common compress$ yea/ cake conta9s millions ( ^! t9y plants4 ,9 its simple/ =m a yea/ plant is a s+le cell4 ,! %ape ( su* a plant is ovoid1 ea* cell %[+ "u ! microscope ! granul> appe>ance ( ! protoplasm ( :i* x is =m$4 ,look = t9y cle> areas 9 ! cells2 ^! are vacuoles1 or spaces fill$ ) fluid4 ,! nucleus is h>d to f9d 9 a yea/ cell4 ,_m ( ! cells seem to h o!rs atta*$ to !m1 sometimes !re be+ sev]al 9 a r[4 ,yea/ cells reproduce v rapidly by a process ( budd+1 a "p ( ! p>5t cell =m+ "o or m small] daught] cells :i* ev5tually become free f ! p>5t4 ,conditions favorable to gr[? ( ,yea/4--,exp]im5t4--,label ?ree p9t fruit j>s ,a1 ,b1 & ,c4 ,add "o f\r? ( a compress$ yea/ cake to two cups ( wat] conta9+ two tablespoonfuls ( molasses or sug>4 ,/ir ! mixture well & divide x into ?ree equal p>ts & p\r !m into ! j>s4 ,place cov]s on ! j>s4 ,put j> ,a 9 ! ice box on ! ice1 & j> ,b ov] ! kit*5 /ove or ne> a radiator2 p\r ! cont5ts ( j> ,c into a small pan & boil = a few m9utes4 ,p\r back into ,c1 cov] & place x next to ,b4 ,aft] =ty-eight h\rs1 look to see if any bubbles h made _! appe>ance 9 any ( ! j>s4 ,if ! exp]im5t has be5 successful1 only j> ,b w %[ bubbles4 ,aft] bubbles h begun to appe> at ! surface1 ! fluid 9 j> ,b w be f\nd to h a s\r ta/e & w smell unpleasantly4 ,! gas :i* rises to ! surface1 if collect$ & te/$1 w be f\nd to be c>bon dioxide4 ,! cont5ts ( j> ,b h f]m5t$4 ,evid5tly1 ! gr[? ( yea/ w take place only "u conditions ( mod]ate w>m? & moi/ure4 ,c>bohydrates necess>y to ,f]m5tation4--,sug> mu/ be pres5t 9 ord] = f]m5tation to take place4 ,! wild yea/s cause f]m5tation ( ! apple or grape juice because !y live on ! sk9 ( ! apple or grape4 ,v>i\s peoples recognize ?is :5 !y collect ! juice ( c]ta9 fruits &1 expos+ x to ! air1 all[ x to f]m5t4 ,su* is ! saki or rice w9e ( ! ,japanese1 ! tuba or sap ( ! coconut palm ( ! ,filip9os & ! pulque ( ! ,mexicans4 ,be] & ,w9e ,mak+4--,brew]s' yea/s are cultivat$ ) ! greate/ c>e2 = ! diff]5t flavors ( be] seem to dep5d l>gely ^u ! condition ( ! yea/ plants4 ,be] is made 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 ,spr\t$ b>ley1 call$ malt1 9 :i* ! />* ( ! gra9 has be5 *ang$ to grape sug> by dige/ion1 is kill$ by dry+ 9 a hot kiln4 ,! malt is dissolv$ 9 wat]1 & hops are add$ to give ! mixture a bitt] ta/e4 ,n[ comes ! addition ( ! yea/ plants1 :i* multiply rapidly "u ! favorable conditions ( food & heat4 ,f]m5tation results on a l>ge scale f ! break+ d[n ( ! grape sug>1 ! alcohol rema9+ 9 ! fluid1 & ! c>bon dioxide pass+ (f into ! air4 ,at ! "r "t ! be] is /or$ ei!r 9 bottles or casks1 b f]m5tation sl[ly cont9ues1 =m+ c>bon dioxide 9 ! bottles4 ,?is gives ! sp>kle to be] :5 x is p\r$ f ! bottle4 ,9 w9e mak+ ! wild yea/s gr[+ on ! sk9 ( ! grapes set up a sl[ f]m5tation4 ,x takes sev]al weeks be=e ! w9e is ready to bottle4 ,9 sp>kl+ w9es a second f]m5tation 9 ! bottles gives rise to c>bon dioxide 9 su* quantity z to cause a decid$ fro?+ :5 ! bottle is op5$4 ,comm]cial ,yea/4--,cultivat$ yea/s are n[ suppli$ 9 ! home z compress$ or dri$ yea/ cakes4 ,9 bo? cases ! yea/ plants are mix$ ) />* & o!r sub/ances & press$ into a cake4 ,b ! compress$ yea/ cake mu/ be us$ fre%1 z ! yea/ plants beg9 to die rapidly aft] two or ?ree days4 ,! dri$ yea/ cake1 :ile x conta9s a mu* small] numb] ( yea/ plants1 is nev]!less probably m reliable if ! yea/ _c be obta9$ fre%4 ,illu/ration3 a b c ,! cut illu/rates an exp]im5t t %[s h[ yea/ plants dep5d ^u food 9 ord] to gr[4 ,9 ea* ( ?ree f]m5tation tubes 7 plac$ an equal am\nt ( a compress$ yea/ cake4 ,!n tube a 0 fill$ ) di/ill$ wat]1 tube b ) a solution ( glucose & wat]1 & tube c ) a nutri5t solution conta9+ nitrog5\s matt] z well z glucose4 ,! quantity ( gas 7,,co#b7 9 ea* tube is an index ( ! am\nt ( gr[? ( ! yea/ cells4 ,9 :i* tube did ! greate/ gr[? take place8 ,bread ,mak+4--,mo/ ( u are famili> ) ! process ( bread mak+4 ,! mat]ials us$ are fl\r1 milk or wat] or bo?1 salt1 a little sug> to ha/5 ! process ( f]m5tation1 or ris+1 z x is call$1 "s butt] or l>d1 & yea/4 ,aft] mix+ ! mat]ials ?or\ghly by a process call$ knead+1 ! bread is put aside 9 a w>m place 7ab\t #ge deg4 ,fahr5heit7 to rise4 ,if we exam9e ! d\gh at ?is "t1 we f9d x fill$ ) holes1 :i* give ! mass a spongy appe>ance4 ,! yea/ plants1 ow+ to favorable conditions1 h gr[n rapidly & fill$ ! cavities ) c>bon dioxide4 ,alcohol is pres5t1 too1 b ?is is evaporat$ :5 ! d\gh is bak$4 ,! bak+ cooks ! />* ( ! bread1 drives (f ! c>bon dioxide & alcohol1 & kills ! yea/ plants1 besides =m+ a protective cru/ on ! loaf4 ,s\r ,bread4--,if yea/ cakes are n fre%1 s\r bread may result f _! use4 ,9 su* yea/ cakes !re are apt to be pres5t o!r t9y "o-cell$ plants1 kn[n z bact]ia4 ,c]ta9 ( ^! plants =m acids aft] f]m5tation takes place4 ,! s\r ta/e ( ! bread is usually due to ?is cause4 ,! rem$y w\ld be to h fre% yea/1 to h good & fre% fl\r1 & to h clean vessels ) :i* to "w4 ,importance ( ,yea/s4--,yea/s 9 _! relation to man are ?us se5 to be = ! mo/ "p useful4 ,!y may get into cann$ sub/ances put up 9 sug> & cause !m to "w1 giv+ !m a peculi> flavor4 ,b !y c be easily kill$ by heat+ to ! temp]ature ( boil+4 ,on ! o!r h&1 yea/ plants are necess>y = ! exi/5ce ( all ! great indu/ries :i* dep5d ^u f]m5tation4 ,& be/ ( all !y give u leav5$ bread1 :i* has become a necessity to mo/ ( mank9d4 ,,bact]ia ,,9 ,,_! ,,relation ,,to ,,man ,:at ,bact]ia d & ,:]e ,!y ,may be ,f\nd4--,a walk ?r\gh a cr[d$ city /reet on any w>m day makes "o fully alive to odors :i* p]vade ! atmosph]e4 ,"s ( ^! unpleasant odors1 if trac$1 are f\nd to come f g>bage pails1 f piles ( decay+ fruit or vegetables1 or f "s but*] %op 9 :i* decay$ meat is all[$ to /&4 ,?is *>act]i/ic ph5om5a ( decay is "o ( ! num]\s ways 9 :i* we c detect ! pres5ce ( bact]ia4 ,^! t9y plants1 man's invisible fri5ds & foes1 are to be f\nd any:]e1 b n ev]y:]e1 9 nature4 ,!y sw>m 9 /ale milk1 9 impure wat]1 9 soil1 9 ! liv+ bodies ( plants & animals & 9 _! dead bodies z well4 ,mo/ cat*+ diseases we "k to be caus$ directly by !m2 ! processes ( decay1 s\r+ ( milk1 acid f]m5tation1 ! manufacture ( nitrog5 = plants are directly or indirectly due to _! pres5ce4 ,x w be ! purpose ( ! next p>agraphs to f9d "s ( ! places :]e bact]ia may be f\nd & h[ we may "k ( _! pres5ce4 ,illu/ration3 ,a /eam /]iliz]4 ,h[ we cat* ,bact]ia to ,/udy ,!m4--,to /udy bact]ia x is fir/ necess>y to f9d "s mat]ial 9 :i* !y w gr[1 !n kill all liv+ matt] 9 ?is food mat]ial by heat+ to boil+ po9t 7#bab deg47 = half an h\r or m 7?is is call$ /]ilization71 & f9ally protect ! culture m$ium1 z ?is food is call$1 f o!r liv+ ?+s t might gr[ ^u x4 ,"o mat]ial 9 :i* bact]ia seem to ?rive is a mixture ( beef extract1 dige/$ prote9 & gelat9e or ag>-ag>1 ! latt] a prep>ation d]iv$ f seawe$4 ,?is mixture1 aft] /]ilization1 is p\r$ into flat di%es ) loose-fitt+ cov]s4 ,^! petri di%es1 s call$ aft] _! inv5tor1 are ! traps 9 :i* we collect & /udy bact]ia4 ,:]e ,bact]ia might ,gr[4--,expose a numb] ( ^! /]iliz$ di%es1 ea* = ! same l5g? ( "t1 to "s ( ! foll[+ conditions3 7a7 expos$ to ! air ( ! s*oolroom4 7b7 expos$ 9 ! halls ( ! s*ool :ile pupils are pass+4 7c7 expos$ 9 ! halls ( ! s*ool :5 pupils are n mov+4 7d7 expos$ at ! level ( a dirty & mu*-us$ city /reet4 7e7 expos$ at ! level ( a well-swept & little-us$ city /reet4 7f7 expos$ 9 a city p>k4 7g7 expos$ 9 a factory build+4 7h7 dirt f h&s plac$ 9 di%4 7i7 rub int]ior ( m\? ) f+] & t\* surface ( di%4 7j7 t\* surface ( di% ) decay$ vegetable or meat4 7k7 t\* surface ( di% ) dirty co9 or bill4 7l7 place 9 di% two or ?ree hairs f boy's head4 ,?is li/ might be prolong$ indef9itely4 ,illu/ration3 ,colonies ( bact]ia gr[+ 9 a petri di%4 ,n[ let u place all ( ! di%es toge!r 9 a mod]ately w>m place 7a closet 9 ! s*oolroom w d7 & wat* = results4 ,aft] a day or two little spots1 br[n1 yell[1 :ite1 or r$1 w beg9 to appe>4 ,^! spots1 :i* gr[ l>g] day by day1 are colonies made up ( millions ( bact]ia4 ,b probably ea* colony arose f a s+le bact]ium :i* got into ! di% :5 x 0 expos$ to ! air4 ,h[ we may isolate ,bact]ia ( ,c]ta9 ,k9ds f ,o!rs4--,9 ord] to get a numb] ( bact]ia ( a giv5 k9d to /udy1 x becomes necess>y to gr[ !m 9 :at is kn[n z a pure culture4 ,?is is done by fir/ gr[+ ! bact]ia 9 "s m$ium su* z beef bro?1 gelat91 or on potato4#bj ,!n z gr[? foll[s ! colonies ( bact]ia appe> 9 ! culture m$ia or ! beef bro? becomes cl\dy4 ,if n[ we wi% to /udy "o giv5 =m1 x becomes necess>y to isolate !m f ! o!rs4 ,?is is done by ! foll[+ process3 a plat9um ne$le is fir/ pass$ ?r\gh a flame to /]ilize x2 t is1 to kill all liv+ ?+s t may be on ! ne$le po9t4 ,!n ! ne$le1 :i* cools v quickly1 is dipp$ 9 a colony conta9+ ! bact]ia we wi% to /udy4 ,?is mass ( bact]ia is quickly transf]r$ to ano!r /]iliz$ plate1 & ?is plate is imm$iately cov]$ to prev5t any o!r =ms ( bact]ia f ent]+4 ,:5 we h succe$$ 9 isolat+ a c]ta9 k9d ( bact]ium 9 a giv5 di%1 we are said to h a pure culture4 ,hav+ obta9$ a pure culture ( bact]ia1 !y may easily be /udi$ "u ! comp\nd microscope4 ,footnote #bj3 ,= directions = mak+ a culture m$ium1 see ,hunt]1 ,laboratory ,problems 9 ,civic ,biology4 ,culture tubes may be obta9$1 already prep>$1 f ,p>ke1 ,davis1 & ,company or o!r good *emi/s4 ,illu/ration3 ,a pure culture ( bact]ia4 ,notice t ! bact]ia are all ! same size & %ape4 ,size & ,=m4--,9 size1 bact]ia are ! mo/ m9ute plants kn[n4 ,a bact]ium ( av]age size is ab\t #a_/ajjjj ( an in* 9 l5g?1 & p]haps #a_/ejjjj ( an in* 9 diamet]4 ,"s species are mu* l>g]1 o!rs small]4 ,a common sph]ical =m is #a_/ejjjj ( an in* 9 diamet]4 ,!y are s small t sev]al million are (t5 f\nd 9 a s+le drop ( impure wat] or s\r milk4 ,?ree well-def9$ =ms ( bact]ia are recogniz$3 a sph]ical =m call$ a coccus1 a rod-%ap$ bact]ium1 ! bacillus1 & a spiral =m1 ! spirillum4 ,"s bact]ia are capable ( movem5t :5 liv+ 9 a fluid4 ,su* movem5t is caus$ by t9y la%like ?reads ( protoplasm call$ flagella4 ,! flagella project f ! body1 & by a rapid movem5t cause locomotion to take place4 ,bact]ia reproduce ) almo/ incr$ible rapidity4 ,x is e/imat$ t a s+le bact]ium1 by a process ( division call$ fission1 w give rise to ov] #af1gjj1jjj o!rs 9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs4 ,"u unfavorable conditions !y /op divid+ & =m r\nd$ bodies call$ spores4 ,?is spore is usually protect$ by a wall & may )/& v unfavorable conditions ( dryness or heat2 ev5 boil+ = sev]al m9utes w n kill "s =ms4 ,illu/ration3 ,a figure to %[ ! relative size & %ape ( 7#a7 a gre5 mold1 7#b7 yea/ cells1 & 7#c7 diff]5t =ms ( bact]ia2 ,b1 bacillus2 ,c1 coccus2 ,s1 spirillum =ms4 ,! yea/ & bact]ia are drawn to scale1 !y are mu* enl>g$ 9 proportion to ! gre5 mold1 be+ actually mu* small] ?an ! mold spores se5 at ! top ( ! picture4 ,:]e ,bact]ia are mo/ ,num]\s4--,z ! result ( our exp]im5ts1 we c make "s g5]alizations conc]n+ ! pres5ce ( bact]ia 9 our own environm5t4 ,!y are evid5tly pres5t 9 ! air1 & 9 great] quantity 9 air t is mov+ ?an quiet air4 ,:y8 ,t !y /ick to p>ticles ( du/ c be prov5 by plac+ a little du/ f ! s*oolroom 9 a culture di%4 ,bact]ia are pres5t 9 great] numb]s :]e cr[ds ( p live & move1 ! air f du/y /reets ( a popul\s city conta9s _m m bact]ia ?an does ! air ( a village /reet4 ,! air ( a city p>k conta9s relatively few bact]ia z comp>$ ) ! ne>-by /reet4 ,! air ( ! woods or high m\nta9s few] /ill4 ,:y8 ,our previ\s exp]im5t has %[n t dirt on our h&s1 ! m\? & tee?1 decay$ meat & vegetables1 dirty money1 ! v hairs ( our head are all c>ri]s ( bact]ia4 ,fluids ! ,favorite ,home ( ,bact]ia4--,tap wat]1 /&+ wat]1 milk1 v9eg>1 w9e1 cid] all c be prov5 to conta9 bact]ia by exp]im5ts simil> to ^? quot$ above4 ,spr+ or artesian well wat] w\ld h v few1 if any1 bact]ia1 :ile ! same quantity ( riv] wat]1 if x held any sewage1 might conta9 untold millions ( ^! little organisms4 ,foods pref]r$ by ,bact]ia4--,if bact]ia are liv+ & conta9 no *lorophyll1 we %\ld expect !m to obta9 prote9 food 9 ord] to gr[4 ,su* is n always ! case1 = "s bact]ia seem to be able to build up prote9 out ( simple inorganic nitrog5\s sub/ances4 ,if1 h[ev]1 we take sev]al food sub/ances1 "s conta9+ mu* prote9 & o!rs n s mu*1 we w f9d t ! bact]ia cause decay 9 ! prote9s almo/ at once1 :ile o!r food sub/ances are n always attack$ by !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,gr[? ( bact]ia 9 a drop ( impure wat] all[$ to run d[n a /]iliz$ culture 9 a di%4 ,:at ,bact]ia d to ,foods4--,:5 bact]ia fe$ ^u a prote9 !y use "p ( ! mat]ials 9 ! food s t x falls to pieces & ev5tually rots4 ,! mat]ial left beh9d aft] ! bact]ia h f9i%$ _! meal is q diff]5t f its orig9al =m4 ,x is brok5 d[n by ! action ( ! bact]ia into gases1 fluids1 & "s solids4 ,x has a *>act]i/ic rott5 odor & x has 9 x poisons :i* come z a result ( ! "w ( ! bact]ia4 ,^! poison\s wa/es1 call$ ptoma9es1 we %all le>n m ab\t lat]4 ,conditions ,favorable & ,unfavorable to ! ,gr[? ( ,bact]ia4--,moi/ure & ,dryness4--,exp]im5t4--,take two beans1 remove ! sk9s1 cru% "o1 soak ! second bean ov]night & !n cru% x4 ,place 9 te/ tubes1 "o dry1 ! second ) wat]4 ,leave 9 a w>m place two or ?ree days1 !n smell ea* tube4 ,9 :i* is decay tak+ place8 ,9 :i* tube are bact]ia at "w8 ,h[ d y "k8 ,moi/ure4--,moi/ure is an absolute ne$ = bact]ial gr[?1 consequ5tly keep+ mat]ial dry w prev5t ! gr[? ( g]ms ^u its surface4 ,foods1 9 ord] to decay1 mu/ conta9 en\gh wat] to make !m moi/4 ,bact]ia gr[ mo/ freely 9 fluids4 ,light4--,if we cov] "o half ( a petri di% 9 :i* bact]ia are gr[+ ) black pap] & !n place ! di% 9 a light w>m place = a few days1 ! gr[? ( bact]ia 9 ! light "p ( ! di% w be f\nd to be *eck$1 :ile gr[? cont9ues 9 ! cov]$ "p4 ,x is a matt] ( common k t disease g]ms ?rive :]e dirt & d>kness exi/ & are kill$ by any long exposure to sunlight4 ,?is %[s u ! ne$ ( light 9 our homes1 especially 9 our b$rooms4 ,air4--,we h se5 t plants ne$ oxyg5 9 ord] to p]=m ! "w t !y d4 ,?is is equally true ( all animals4 ,b n all bact]ia ne$ air to live2 9 fact1 "s are kill$ by ! pres5ce ( air4 ,j h[ ^! organisms get ! oxyg5 necess>y to oxidize _! food is n well und]/ood4 ,! fact t "s bact]ia gr[ )\t air makes x necess>y = u to use ! "o sure weapon we h = _! ext]m9ation1 & t is heat4 ,heat4--,exp]im5t4--,take f\r cultures conta9+ b\illon1 inoculate ea* tube ) bact]ia & plug ea* tube ) absorb5t cotton4 ,place "o tube 9 ! ice box1 a second tube 9 a d>k closet at a mod]ate temp]ature1 a ?ird 9 a w>m place 7ab\t #ajj deg4 ,fahr5heit71 & boil ! cont5ts ( ! f\r? tube = t5 m9utes1 !n place x ) tube numb] two4 ,9 :i* tubes does gr[? take place mo/ rapidly8 ,:y8 ,bact]ia gr[ v sl[ly if at all 9 ! temp]ature ( an ice box1 v rapidly at ! room temp]ature ( f #gj deg4 to #ij deg4 & mu* less rapidly at a high] temp]ature4 ,all bact]ia except ^? :i* h =m$ spores c be in/antly kill$ z soon z boil+ po9t is rea*$1 & mo/ spores are kill$ by a few m9utes boil+4 ,/]ilization4--,! practical lessons drawn f /]ilization are _m4 ,we "k en\gh n[ to boil our dr9k+ wat] if we are unc]ta9 ( its purity2 we /]ilize any foods t we believe might h>bor bact]ia1 & ?us keep !m f spoil+4 ,! indu/ry ( cann+ is built ^u ! pr9ciple ( /]ilization4 ,cann+4--,cann+ is simply a me?od by :i* fir/ ! bact]ia 9 a sub/ance are kill$ by heat+ & !n ! sub/ance is put into vessels into :i* no m bact]ia may ga9 entrance4 ,?is is usually done at home by boil+ ! fruit or vegetable to be cann$ ei!r 9 salt & wat] or ) sug> & wat]1 ei!r ( :i* sub/ances aids 9 prev5t+ ! gr[? ( bact]ia4 ,! "t ( boil+ w be long or %ort1 dep5d+ ^u ! mat]ials to be cann$4 ,"s vegetables1 z peas1 beans1 & corn1 are v difficult to c1 probably because ( spores ( bact]ia :i* may be atta*$ to !m4 ,fruits1 on ! o!r h&1 are usually mu* easi] to pres]ve4 ,aft] boil+ = ! prop] "t1 ! food1 n[ free f all bact]ia1 mu/ be put into j>s or cans t are !mselves absolutely /]ile or free f g]ms4 ,?is is done by fir/ boil+ ! j>s1 !n p\r+ ! boil+ hot mat]ial into ! hot j>s & seal+ !m s z to prev5t ! entrance ( bact]ia lat]4 ,uses ( ,cann+4--,cann+ z an indu/ry is ( imm5se importance to mank9d4 ,n only does x provide him ) fruits & vegetables at times :5 he c\ld n o!rwise get !m1 b x also *eap5s ! co/ ( su* ?+s4 ,x prev5ts ! wa/e ( nature's products at a "t :5 %e is mo/ lavi% ) !m1 enabl+ man to /ore !m & utilize !m lat]4 ,cann+ has completely *ang$ ! life ( ! sailor & ! soldi]1 :o 9 =m] times us$ to suff] f v>i\s diseases caus$ by lack ( a prop] balance ( food4 ,illu/ration3 ,pa/euriz+ milk4 ,:y %\ld ?is be done8 ,pa/eurization4--,milk is "o ( ! mo/ important food supplies ( a great city4 ,x is also "o ( ! mo/ difficult supplies to get 9 good condition4 ,?is is 9 "p due to ! fact t milk is produc$ at long di/ances f ! city & mu/ be br\ght fir/ f f>ms to ! railroads1 !n %ipp$ by tra91 aga9 tak5 to ! milk supply depot by wagon1 !re bottl$1 & aga9 %ipp$ by deliv]y wagons to ! consum]s4 ,:5 we rememb] t mu* ( ! milk us$ 9 ,new ,york ,city is =ty-eight h\rs old & :5 we realize t bact]ia gr[ v rapidly 9 milk1 we see ! ne$ ( f9d+ "s way to protect ! supply s z to make x safe1 p>ticul>ly = babies & "y *ildr54 ,?is is done by pa/eurization1 a me?od nam$ aft] ! ,fr5* bact]iologi/ ,l\is ,pa/eur4 ,to pa/eurize milk we heat x to a temp]ature ( n ov] #agj deg4 ,fahr5heit = f t5 m9utes to half an h\r4 ,by su* a process all h>mful g]ms w be kill$ & ! keep+ qualities ( ! milk greatly l5g!n$4 ,mo/ l>ge milk companies pa/eurize _! city supply by a rapid pa/eurization at a mu* high] temp]ature1 b ?is me?od slightly *anges ! flavor ( ! milk4 ,cold ,/orage4--,man has also come to use cold to keep bact]ia f gr[+ 9 foods4 ,! ice box at home & cold /orage on a l>g] scale enables "o to keep foods = a m or less l5g?y p]iod4 ,if food is froz51 z 9 cold /orage1 x might keep )\t gr[? ( bact]ia = ye>s4 ,b fruits & vegetables _c be froz5 )\t spoil+ _! flavor4 ,& all foods aft] freez+ seem p>ticul>ly susceptible to ! bact]ia ( decay4 ,= t reason products tak5 f cold /orage mu/ be us$ at once4 ,ptoma9es4--,_m foods get _! flavor f ! gr[? ( molds or bact]ia 9 !m4 ,*eese1 butt]1 ! gamey ta/e ( c]ta9 meats1 ! flavor ( sau]kraut1 are all due to ! "w ( bact]ia4 ,b if bact]ia are all[$ to gr[ s z to become v num]\s1 ! ptoma9es :i* result f _! gr[? 9 foods may poison ! p]son eat+ su* foods4 ,frequ5tly ptoma9e poison+ occurs 9 ! summ] "t because ( ! rapid gr[? ( bact]ia4 ,mu* ( ! indige/ion & di>rhoea :i* attack p dur+ ! summ] is d\btless due to ?is k9d ( poison+4 ,pres]vatives4#ba--,?is leads u to ask if we may n pres]ve food 9 ways o!r ?an ^? m5tion$ s z to protect ourselves f dang] ( ptoma9e poison+4 ,_m sub/ances *eck ! developm5t ( bact]ia & 9 ?is way !y pres]ve ! food4 ,pres]vatives are ( two k9ds1 ^? h>mless to man & ^? t are poison\s4 ,( ! =m]1 salt & sug> are examples2 ( ! latt]1 =maldehyde & possibly b5zoic acid4 ,footnote #ba3 ,p]=m exp]im5t "h to det]m9e ! value ( diff]5t pres]vatives4 ,use sug>1 salt1 v9eg>1 boracic acid1 b5zoic acid1 =maldehyde1 & alcohol4 ,sug>4--,we h not$ ! use ( sug> 9 cann+4 ,small am\nts ( sug> w be readily attack$ by yea/s1 molds1 & bact]ia1 b a #dj to #ej p] c5t solution w effectually keep out bact]ia4 ,pres]ves are fruits boil$ 9 ab\t _! own weight ( sug>4 ,cond5s$ milk is pres]v$ by ! sug> add$ to x2 s are c&i$ &1 9 "p1 dri$ fruits4 ,salt4--,salt has be5 us$ = c5turies to keep foods4 ,meats are smok$1 dri$1 & salt$2 "s are put d[n 9 /rong salt solutions4 ,fi%1 especially cod & h]r+1 are dri$ & salt$4 ,! keep+ ( butt] is also due to ! salt mix$ ) x4 ,v9eg> is ano!r pres]vative4 ,x1 l salt1 *anges ! flavor ( mat]ials kept 9 x & s _c come into wide use4 ,spices are also us$ z pres]vatives4 ,h>mful ,pres]vatives4--,c]ta9 *emicals & drugs1 us$ z pres]vatives1 seem to be on ! bord] l9e ( h>mfulness4 ,su* are b5zoic acid1 borax1 or boracic acid4 ,su* drugs may be h>mless 9 small quantities1 b un=tunately 9 cann$ goods we d n always "k ! am\nt us$4 ,! national gov]nm5t 9 #aijf pass$ :at is kn[n z ! ,pure ,food ,law1 :i* makes x illegal to use any ( ^! pres]vatives 7except+ b5zoic acid 9 v small am\nts74 ,food :i* conta9s ?is pres]vative w be s label$ & %\ld n be giv5 to *ildr5 or p ) weak dige/ion4 ,un=tunately p d n always read ! labels & ?us ! pure food law is ineffective 9 its work+4 ,infrequ5tly =maldehyde or o!r pres]vatives are us$ 9 milk4 ,su* treatm5t r5d]s milk unfit = ord9>y use & is an illegal process4 ,dis9fectants4#bb--;,frequ5tly x becomes necess>y to de/roy bact]ia :i* cause diseases ( v>i\s k9ds4 ,?is process is call$ dis9fect+4 ,! sub/ances commonly us$ are c>bolic acid1 =mal9 or =maldehyde1 lysol1 & bi*loride ( m]cury4 ,( ^!1 ! la/ nam$ is ! mo/ p[]ful z well z ! mo/ dang]\s to use4 ,z x attacks metal1 x %\ld n be us$ 9 a metal pail or di%4 ,x is commonly put up 9 tablets :i* are mix$ to =m a #a to #ajjj solution4 ,su* tablets %\ld be c>efully safegu>d$ because ( possible accid5tal poison+4 ,footnote #bb3 ,exp]im5t to det]m9e ! mo/ effective dis9fectants4 ,use tubes ( b\illon conta9+ diff]5t /r5g? solutions ( =maldehyde1 lysol1 iod9e1 c>bolic acid1 & bi*loride ( m]cury4 ,results4 ,conclusions4 ,=maldehyde us$ 9 liquid =m is an excell5t dis9fectant4 ,:5 burn$ 9 a =mal9 c&le1 x sets free an int5sely pung5t gas :i* is (t5 us$ = dis9fect+ sick rooms aft] ! pati5t has be5 remov$4 ,c>bolic acid is p]haps ! be/ dis9fectant ( all4 ,if us$ 9 a solution ( ab\t #a "p to #be ( wat]1 x w n burn ! sk94 ,x is ( p>ticul> value to dis9fect sk9 w\nds1 z x heals z well z cleanses :5 us$ 9 a weak solution4 ,its r pleasant odor makes x useful to cov] up unpleasant smells ( ! sick room4 ,! fumes ( burn+ sulphur1 :i* are s (t5 us$ = dis9fect+1 are ( little real value4 ,illu/ration3 ,?is %[s h[ organic matt] is brok5 d[n by bact]ia s x may be us$ aga9 by gre5 plants4 ,bact]ia cause ,decay4--,let u next see 9 :at ways ! bact]ia directly influ5ce man ^u ! e>?4 ,h y ev] /opp$ to consid] :at life w\ld be l on ! e>? if ?+s did n decay8 ,! sea w\ld soon be fill$ & ! l& cov]$ ) dead bodies ( plants & animals4 ,conditions ( life w\ld become impossible & liv+ ?+s on ! e>? w\ld cease to exi/4 ,=tunately1 bact]ia cause decay4 ,all organic matt]1 9 :atev] =m1 is soon] or lat] decompos$ by ! action ( untold millions ( bact]ia :i* live 9 ! air1 wat]1 & soil4 ,^! soil bact]ia are mo/ num]\s 9 ri* damp soils conta9+ l>ge am\nts ( organic mat]ial4 ,!y are v num]\s ar\nd & 9 ! dead bodies ( plants & animals4 ,to a consid]able degree1 !n1 ^! bact]ia are useful 9 fe$+ ^u ^! dead bodies1 :i* o!rwise w\ld soon cov] ! surface ( ! e>? to ! exclusion ( ev]y?+ else4 ,bact]ia may ?us be scav5g]s4 ,!y oxidize organic mat]ials1 *ang+ !m to comp\nds t c be absorb$ by plants & us$ 9 build+ protoplasm4 ,)\t bact]ia & fungi x w\ld be impossible = life to exi/ on ! e>?1 = gre5 plants w\ld be unable to get ! raw food mat]ials 9 =ms t c\ld be us$ 9 mak+ food & liv+ matt]4 ,9 ?is respect bact]ia are ( ! greate/ s]vice to mank9d4 ,illu/ration3 ,microscopic appe>ance ( ord9>y milk1 %[+ fat globules & bact]ia :i* cause ! s\r+ ( milk4 ,relation to ,f]m5tation4--,!y may incid5tally1 z a result ( ?is process ( decay1 cont9ue ! process ( f]m5tation begun by ! yea/s4 ,9 mak+ v9eg> ! yea/s fir/ make alcohol 7see page #ace7 :i* ! bact]ia *ange to acetic acid4 ,! lactic acid bact]ia1 :i* s\r milk1 *ang+ ! milk sug> to an acid1 gr[ v rapidly 9 a w>m temp]ature2 h5ce milk :i* is cool$ imm$iately & kept cool or :i* is pa/euriz$ & kept 9 a cool place w n s\r readily4 ,:y8 ,^! same lactic acid bact]ia may be useful :5 !y s\r ! milk = ! *eese mak]4 ,o!r ,useful ,bact]ia4--,c]ta9 bact]ia give flavor to *eese & butt]1 :ile /ill o!r bact]ia aid 9 ! cur+ ( tobacco1 9 ! production ( ! dye indigo1 9 ! prep>ation ( c]ta9 fib]s ( plants = ! m>ket1 z hemp1 flax1 etc41 9 ! rott+ ( animal matt] f ! skeletons ( sponges1 & 9 ! process ( tann+ hides to make lea!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,a field ( alfalfa1 a plant :i* h>bors ! nitrog5-fix+ bact]ia4 ,nitrog5-fix+ ,bact]ia4--,/ill o!r bact]ia1 z we h se5 be=e1 *ange ov] nitrog5 9 organic mat]ial 9 ! soil & ev5 ! free nitrog5 ( ! air s t x c be us$ by plants 9 ! =m ( a comp\nd ( nitrog54 ,! bact]ia liv+ 9 tub]cles on ! roots ( clov]1 beans1 peas1 etc41 h ! p[] ( ?us fix+ ! free nitrog5 9 ! air f\nd betwe5 p>ticles ( soil4 ,?is fact is made use ( by f>m]s :o rotate _! crops1 gr[+ fir/ a crop ( clov] or o!r plants hav+ root tub]cles1 :i* produce ! bact]ia1 !n pl[+ ^! 9 & plant+ ano!r crop1 z :eat or corn1 on ! same area4 ,! latt] plants1 mak+ use ( ! nitrog5 comp\nds !re1 produce a l>g] crop ?an :5 gr[n 9 gr\nd conta9+ less nitrog5\s mat]ial4 ,bact]ia cause ,disease4--,! mo/ h>mful bact]ia are ^? :i* cause diseases ( plants & animals4 ,c]ta9 diseases ( plants--blights1 rots1 & wilts--are ( bact]ial nature4 ,^! d mu* annual damage to fruits & o!r p>ts ( gr[+ plants useful to man z food4 ,b by f> ! mo/ important are ! bact]ia :i* cause disease 9 man4 ,!y accompli% ?is by becom+ p>asites 9 ! human body4 ,millions ^u millions ( bact]ia exi/ 9 ! human body at all times--9 ! m\?1 on ! tee?1 9 ! blood1 & especially 9 ! l[] "p ( ! food tube4 ,"s 9 ! food tube are believ$ to be useful1 "s h>mless1 & "s h>mful2 o!rs 9 ! m\? cause decay ( ! tee?1 :ile a few k9ds1 if pres5t 9 ! body1 may cause disease4 ,illu/ration3 ,tub]cles on ! roots ( ! soy bean4 ,!y conta9 ! nitrog5-fix+ bact]ia4 7,flet*]'s ,soils47 ,copyright by ,d\bl$ay1 ,page & ,company4 ,x is kn[n t bact]ia1 l o!r liv+ ?+s1 fe$ & give (f organic wa/e f _! own bodies4 ,?is wa/e1 call$ a tox91 is poison to ! ho/ on :i* ! bact]ia live1 & x is usually ! production ( ?is tox9 t causes ! symptoms ( disease4 ,"s =ms1 h[ev]1 break d[n tissues & plug up ! small blood vessels1 ?us caus+ disease4 ,diseases caus$ by ,bact]ia4--,x is e/imat$ t bact]ia cause annually ov] #ej p] c5t ( ! dea?s ( ! human race4 ,z we w lat] see1 a v l>ge proportion ( ^! diseases might be prev5t$ if p 7 educat$ suffici5tly to take ! prop] precautions to prev5t _! spread4 ,^! precautions might save ! lives ( "s #c1jjj1jjj ( p ye>ly 9 ,europe & ,am]ica4 ,tub]culosis1 typhoid fev]1 diph!ria1 pneumonia1 blood poison+1 syphilis1 & a score ( o!r g]m diseases ought n to exi/4 ,a good deal m ?an half ( ! pres5t mis]y ( ?is _w might be prev5t$ & ?is e>? made clean] & bett] by ! coop]ation ( ! "y p n[ gr[+ up to be our future home mak]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,a s+le cell scrap$ f ! ro( ( ! m\? & highly magnifi$4 ,! little dots are bact]ia1 mo/ ( :i* are h>mless4 ,notice ! comp>ative size ( bact]ia & cell4 ,h[ we take ,g]m ,diseases4--,g]m or contagi\s diseases ei!r ent] ! body by way ( ! m\?1 nose1 or o!r body op5+s1 or ?r\gh a break 9 ! sk94 ,!y may be c>ri$ by means ( air1 food1 or wat]1 b are usually transmitt$ directly f ! p]son :o has ! disease to a well p]son4 ,?is may be done ?r\gh p]sonal contact or by h&l+ articles us$ by ! sick p]son or by dr9k+ or eat+ foods :i* h receiv$ "s ( ! g]ms4 ,f ?is x foll[s t if we "k ! me?ods by :i* a giv5 disease is communicat$1 we may protect ourselves f x & aid ! civic au?orities 9 prev5t+ its spread4 ,illu/ration3 ,dea?s f tub]culosis comp>$ ) o!r contagi\s diseases 9 ! city ( ,new ,york 9 #aijh4 ,tub]culosis4--,! "o disease responsible = ! greate/ numb] ( dea?s--p]haps "o sev5? ( ! total on ! globe--is tub]culosis4 ,x is e/imat$ t ( all p alive 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates to-day1 #e1jjj1jjj w die ( ?is disease4 ,b ?is disease is sl[ly b surely be+ ov]come4 ,x is believ$ t )9 p]haps "o hundr$ ye>s1 ) ! aid ( good laws & sanit>y liv+1 x w be almo/ ext9ct4 ,illu/ration3 ,?is curve %[s a decreas+ dea? rate f tub]culosis4 ,expla94 ,tub]culosis is caus$ by ! gr[? ( bact]ia1 call$ ! tub]cle bacilli1 )9 ! lungs or o!r tissues ( ! human body4 ,"h !y =m little tub]s full ( g]ms1 :i* close up ! delicate air passages 9 ! lungs1 :ile 9 o!r tissues !y give rise to hip-jo9t disease1 scr(ula1 lupus1 & o!r diseases1 dep5d+ on ! "p ( ! body !y attack4 ,tub]culosis may be contract$ by tak+ ! bact]ia into ! ?roat or lungs or possibly by eat+ meat or dr9k+ milk f tub]cul> cattle4 ,especially is x communicat$ f a consumptive to a well p]son by kiss+1 by dr9k+ or eat+ f ! same cup or plate1 us+ ! same t[els1 or 9 com+ 9 direct contact ) ! p]son hav+ ! g]ms 9 8 body4 ,al?\gh !re are always "s ( ! g]ms 9 ! air ( an ord9>y city /reet1 & ?\gh we may take "s ( ^! g]ms into our bodies at any "t1 yet ! bact]ia seem able to ga9 a foo?old only "u c]ta9 conditions4 ,x is only :5 ! tissues are 9 a worn-out condition1 :5 we are run d[n1 z we say1 t ! p>asite may obta9 a foo?old 9 ! lungs4 ,ev5 if ! disease gets a foo?old1 x is q possible to cure x if x is tak5 9 "t4 ,! g]m ( tub]culosis is kill$ by exposure to bright sunlight & fre% air4 ,?us ! c\rse ( ! disease may be arre/$1 & a p]man5t cure br\ght ab\t1 by a life 9 ! op5 air1 ! pati5t sleep+ out ( doors1 tak+ pl5ty ( n\ri%+ food & v little ex]cise4 ,see also ,*apt] ,,xxiv4 ,illu/ration3 ,?is figure %[s h[ sewage f a cesspool 7c7 might get into ! wat] supply3 lm1 lay] ( rock2 w1 wa% wat]4 ,typhoid ,fev]4--,"o ( ! mo/ common g]m diseases 9 ?is c\ntry & ,europe is typhoid fev]4 ,?is is a disease :i* is convey$ by means ( wat] & food1 especially milk1 oy/]s1 & uncook$ vegetables4 ,typhoid fev] g]ms live 9 ! inte/9e & f !re get into ! blood & are c>ri$ to all p>ts ( ! body4 ,a poison :i* !y give (f causes ! fev] s *>act]i/ic ( ! disease4 ,! g]ms multiply v rapidly 9 ! inte/9e & are pass$ (f f ! body ) ! excreta f ! food tube4 ,if ^! g]ms get into ! wat] supply ( a t[n1 an epidemic ( typhoid w result4 ,among ! rec5t epidemics caus$ by ! use ( wat] conta9+ typhoid g]ms h be5 ^? 9 ,butl]1 ,pa41 :]e #acfd p]sons 7 made ill2 ,i?aca1 ,n4 ,y41 ) #acej cases2 & ,wat]t[n1 ,n4 ,y41 :]e ov] #ejjj cases occurr$4 ,ano!r s\rce ( infection is milk4 ,frequ5tly epidemics h occurr$ :i* 7 conf9$ to us]s ( milk f a c]ta9 dairy4 ,^u inve/igation x 0 f\nd t a case ( typhoid _h occurr$ on ! f>m :]e ! milk came f1 t ! g]ms _h wa%$ into ! well1 & t ?is wat] 0 us$ to wa% ! milk cans4 ,once 9 ! milk1 ! bact]ia multipli$ rapidly1 s t ! milkman gave out cultures ( typhoid 9 8 milk bottles4 ,prop] safegu>d+ ( our wat] & milk supply is necess>y if we are to keep typhoid away4 ,blood ,poison+4--,! bact]ium caus+ blood poison+ is ano!r tox9-=m+ g]m4 ,x lives 9 du/ & dirt & is (t5 f\nd on ! sk94 ,x ent]s ! body ?r\gh cuts or bruises4 ,x seems to ?rive be/ 9 less oxyg5 ?an is f\nd 9 ! air4 ,x is !re=e important n to close up ) c\rt-pla/] w\nds :i* su* g]ms may h ent]$4 ,x1 ) typhoid1 is responsible = f\r times z _m dea?s z bullets & %ells 9 "t ( battle4 ,! wond]fully small dea? rate ( ! ,japanese army 9 _! w> ) ,russia 0 due to ! fact t ! ,japanese soldi]s always boil$ _! dr9k+ wat] be=e us+ x1 & _! surgeons always dress$ all w\nds on ! battlefield1 us+ p[]ful antiseptics 9 ord] to kill any bact]ia t might h lodg$ 9 ! expos$ w\nds4 ,illu/ration3 ,?is figure %[s h[ a milk r\te might be in/rum5tal 9 spread+ diph!ria4 ,x is a f>m on :i* a case ( diph!ria occurr$ t 0 responsible = all ! cases along milk r\tes ,a & ,f 9 ,hyde ,p>k1 ,dor*e/]1 & ,milton4 ,h[ w\ld y expla9 ?is8 ,o!r ,diseases4--,_m o!r diseases h be5 trac$ to bact]ia4 ,diph!ria is "o ( ! be/ kn[n4 ,z x is a ?roat disease1 x may easily be convey$ f "o p]son to ano!r by kiss+1 putt+ into ! m\? objects :i* h come 9 contact ) ! m\? ( ! pati5t1 or by food into :i* ! g]ms h be5 c>ri$4 ,ano!r disease :i* probably causes m mis]y 9 ! _w ?an any o!r g]m disease is syphilis4 ,hundr$s ( ?\s&s ( new-born babies die annually or gr[ up h&icapp$ by de=mities f ?is dread sc\rge4 ,syphilis & gonorrhea1 bo? diseases ( ! same sort & contract$ 9 ! same mann]1 h& d[n to innoc5t wives & /ill m innoc5t *ildr5 a h]itage ( disease ev5 unto ! ?ird & f\r? g5]ation4 ,grippe1 pneumonia1 :oop+ c\gh1 & colds are believ$ to be caus$ by bact]ia4 ,o!r diseases1 z mal>ia1 yell[ fev]1 sleep+ sickness1 & probably smallpox1 sc>let fev]1 & measles1 are due to ! attack ( "o-cell$ animal p>asites4 ,( ^! we %all le>n lat] 9 ,*apt] ,,xv4 ,immunity4--,x has be5 f\nd t aft] an attack ( a g]m disease ! body w n soon be aga9 attack$ by ! same disease4 ,?is immunity1 ( :i* we w le>n m lat]1 seems to be due to a manufacture 9 ! blood ( sub/ances :i* fight ! bact]ia or _! poisons4 ,if a p]son keeps 8 body 9 good physical condition & lives c>efully1 he w d mu* t[>d acquir+ ?is natural immunity4 ,acquir$ ,immunity4--,mod]n m$ic9e has discov]$ means ( protect+ ! body f "s contagi\s diseases4 ,vacc9ation z protection aga9/ smallpox1 ! use ( antitox9s 7( :i* m lat]7 aga9/ diph!ria1 & inoculation aga9/ typhoid are all ways 9 :i* we may be protect$ aga9/ diseases4 ,me?ods ( fight+ ,g]m ,diseases4--,z we h se51 diseases produc$ by bact]ia may be caus$ by ! bact]ia be+ directly transf]r$ f "o p]son to ano!r1 or ! disease may obta9 a foo?old 9 ! body f food1 wat]1 or by tak+ !m into ! blood ?r\gh a cut or a w\nd or a body op5+4 ,x is evid5t t z individuals we may ea* d some?+ to prev5t ! spread ( g]m diseases1 especially 9 our homes4 ,we may keep our bodies1 especially our h&s & faces1 clean4 ,sweep+ & du/+ may be done ) damp clo?s s z n to raise a du/2 our milk & wat]1 :5 f a suspici\s supply1 may be /]iliz$ or pa/euriz$4 ,w\nds ?r\gh :i* bact]ia might obta9 foo?old 9 ! body %\ld be wa%$ ) "s antiseptic su* z c>bolic acid 7#a "p to #be wat]71 :i* kills ! g]ms4 ,9 a lat] *apt] we %all le>n m ( h[ we may coop]ate ) ! au?orities to combat disease & make our city or t[n a bett] place 9 :i* to live4#bc ,footnote #bc3 ,tea*]s may take up p>ts or all ( ,*apt] ,,xxiv at ?is po9t4 ,i h f\nd x advisable to repeat mu* ( ! "w on bact]ia aft] ! /ud5ts h tak5 up ! /udy ( ! human organism4 ,,ref]5ce ,,books ,,elem5t>y ,hunt]1 ,laboratory ,problems 9 ,civic ,biology4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,bigel[1 ,introduction to ,biology4 ,! ,macmillan ,company4 ,conn1 ,bact]ia1 ,yea/s1 & ,molds 9 ! ,home4 ,g9n & ,company4 ,conn1 ,/ory ( ,g]m ,life4 ,d4 ,appleton & ,company4 ,davison1 ,! ,human ,body & ,heal?4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,frankl&1 ,bact]ia 9 ,daily ,life4 ,longmans1 ,gre51 & ,company4 ,ov]ton1 ,g5]al ,hygi5e4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,prudd51 ,du/ & its ,dang]s4 ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons4 ,prudd51 ,! ,/ory ( ! ,bact]ia4 ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons4 ,rit*ie1 ,prim] ( ,sanitation4 ,_w ,book ,company4 ,%>pe1 ,laboratory ,manual 9 ,biology1 pages #abc-acb4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,,advanc$ ,conn1 ,agricultural ,bact]iology4 ,p4 ,blaki/on's ,sons & ,company4 ,c\lt]1 ,b>nes1 & ,c[les1 ,a ,textbook ( ,botany1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,de ,b>y1 ,comp>ative ,morphology & ,biology ( ! ,fungi1 ,mycetozoa1 & ,bact]ia4 ,cl>5don ,press4 ,dugg>1 ,fung\s ,diseases ( ,plants4 ,g9n & ,company4 ,h\gh & ,s$gwick1 ,! ,human ,me*anism4 ,g9n & ,company4 ,hut*9son1 ,prev5table ,diseases4 ,h\ghton1 ,miffl9 & ,company4 ,lee1 ,sci5tific ,features ( ,mod]n ,m$ic9e4 ,columbia ,univ]sity ,press4 ,muir & ,rit*ie1 ,manual ( ,bact]iology4 ,! ,macmillan ,company4 ,newman1 ,! ,bact]ia4 ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons4 ,s$gwick1 ,pr9ciples ( ,sanit>y ,sci5ce & ,public ,heal?4 ,! ,macmillan ,company4 ,,xii4 ,,! ,,relations ,,( ,,plants ,,to ,,animals ,problems4--,to det]m9e ! g5]al biological relations exi/+ betwe5 plants & animals4 7a7 ,z %[n 9 a balanc$ aqu>ium4 7b7 ,z %[n 9 hay infusion4 ,,sugge/ions ,,= ,,laboratory ,,"w ,demon/ration ( life 9 a balanc$ & unbalanc$ aqu>ium4--,det]m9ation ( factors caus+ balance4 ,demon/ration ( hay infusion4--,exam9ation to %[ =ms ( animal & plant life4 ,tabul> comp>ison betwe5 balanc$ aqu>ium & hay infusion4 ,"s ,ways 9 :i* ,plants affect ,animals4--,we h be5 /udy+ ! life ( plants 9 ord] bett] to und]/& ! life ( animals & m54 ,we h se5 fir/ t gre5 plants play indirectly a trem5d\s "p 9 man's welf>e by supply+ him ) food4 ,we h f\nd t ! colorless plants directly affect$ 8 welf>e by caus+ disease1 & by caus+ decay1 ?us mak+ usable ! nitrog5 lock$ up 9 dead bodies ( plants & animals1 & by "s ev5 supply+ nitrog5 f ! atmosph]e4 ,! dep5d5ce ( animals ^u plants has be5 %[n & ! int]dep5d5ce ( plants on animals has also be5 se5 9 cross-poll9ation & 9 ! supply ( raw food mat]ials to plants by animals4 ,/udy ( a ,balanc$ ,aqu>ium4--,p]haps ! be/ way = u to und]/& ! int]relation betwe5 plants & animals is to /udy an aqu>ium 9 :i* plants & animals live & 9 :i* a balance has be5 e/abli%$ betwe5 ! plant life on "o side & animal life on ! o!r4 ,aqu>ia conta9+ gre5 pond we$s1 ei!r float+ or root$1 a few snails1 "s t9y animals kn[n z wat] fleas1 & a fi% or two w1 if kept ne> a light w9d[1 %[ ?is relation4 ,illu/ration3 ,a balanc$ aqu>ium4 ,expla9 ! t]m balanc$4 ,we h se5 t gre5 plants "u favorable conditions ( sunlight1 heat1 moi/ure1 & ) a supply ( raw food mat]ials1 give (f oxyg5 z a by-product :ile manufactur+ food 9 _! gre5 cells4 ,we "k ! necess>y raw mat]ials = />* manufacture are c>bon dioxide & wat]1 :ile nitrog5\s mat]ial is necess>y = ! mak+ ( prote9s )9 ! plant4 ,9 previ\s exp]im5ts we h prov$ t c>bon dioxide is giv5 (f by any liv+ ?+ :5 oxidation occurs 9 ! body4 ,! crawl+ snails & ! swimm+ fi% give (f c>bon dioxide1 :i* is dissolv$ 9 ! wat]2 ! plants !mselves1 at all times1 oxidize food )9 _! bodies1 & s mu/ pass (f "s c>bon dioxide4 ,! gre5 plants 9 ! daytime use up ! c>bon dioxide obta9$ f ! v>i\s s\rces &1 ) ! wat] tak5 91 manufacture />*4 ,:ile ?is process is go+ on1 oxyg5 is giv5 (f to ! wat] ( ! aqu>ium1 & ?is free oxyg5 is us$ by ! animals !re4 ,illu/ration3 ,?is diagram %[s t plants & animals on ! e>? hold ! same relation to ea* o!r z plants & animals 9 a balanc$ aqu>ium4 ,expla9 ! diagram 9 y\r notebook4 ,illu/ration3 ,! c>bon & oxyg5 cycle 9 ! balanc$ aqu>ium4 ,trace by means ( ! arr[s ! c>bon f ! "t plants take x 9 z ,,co#b until animals give x (f4 ,%[ :at happ5s to ! oxyg54 ,b ! plants are cont9ually gr[+ l>g]4 ,! snails & fi%1 too1 eat p>ts ( ! plants4 ,?us ! plant life gives food to ! animals )9 ! aqu>ium4 ,! animals give (f c]ta9 nitrog5\s wa/es ( :i* we %all le>n m lat]4 ,^! mat]ials1 ) o!r nitrog5\s matt] f ! dead p>ts ( ! plants or animals1 =m "p ( ! raw mat]ial us$ = prote9 manufacture 9 ! plant4 ,?is nitrog5\s matt] is prep>$ = use by sev]al diff]5t k9ds ( bact]ia :i* fir/ break ! dead bodies d[n & !n give x to ! plants 9 ! =m ( soluble nitrates4 ,! gre5 plants manufacture food1 ! animals eat ! plants & give (f organic wa/e1 f :i* ! plants 9 turn make _! food & liv+ matt]4 ,! plants give (f oxyg5 to ! animals1 & ! animals give c>bon dioxide to ! plants4 ,?us a balance exi/s betwe5 ! plants & animals 9 ! aqu>ium4 ,make a table to %[ ?is balance4 ,illu/ration3 ,! relations betwe5 gre5 plants & animals4 ,relations betwe5 ,gre5 ,plants & ,animals4--,:at goes on 9 ! aqu>ium is an example ( ! relation exi/+ betwe5 all gre5 plants & all animals4 ,ev]y:]e 9 ! _w gre5 plants are mak+ food :i* becomes1 soon] or lat]1 ! food ( animals4 ,man does n fe$ to a great ext5t ^u leaves1 b he eats roots1 /ems1 fruits1 & se$s4 ,:5 he does n fe$ directly ^u plants1 he eats ! fle% ( plant eat+ animals1 :i* 9 turn fe$ directly ^u plants4 ,& s x is ! _w ov]2 ! plants are ! food mak]s & supply ! animals4 ,gre5 plants also give a v consid]able am\nt ( oxyg5 to ! atmosph]e e day1 :i* ! animals may use4 ,illu/ration3 ,! nitrog5 cycle4 ,trace ! nitrog5 f its s\rce 9 ! air until x gets back aga9 into ! air4 ,! ,nitrog5 ,cycle4--,! animals 9 _! turn supply mu* ( ! c>bon dioxide t ! plant uses 9 />* mak+4 ,!y also supply "s ( ! nitrog5\s matt] us$ by ! plants1 "p be+ giv5 ! plants f ! dead bodies ( _! own relatives & "p be+ prep>$ f ! nitrog5 ( ! air ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( bact]ia1 :i* live ^u ! roots ( c]ta9 plants4 ,^! bact]ia are ! only organisms t c take nitrog5 f ! air4 ,?us1 9 spite ( all ! nitrog5 ( ! atmosph]e1 plants & animals are limit$ 9 ! am\nt available4 ,& ! available supply is us$ ov] & ov] aga91 p]haps 9 nitrog5\s food by an animal1 !n x may be giv5 (f z organic wa/e1 get into ! soil1 & be tak5 up by a plant ?r\gh ! roots4 ,ev5tually ! nitrog5 =ms "p ( ! food supply 9 ! body ( ! plant1 & !n may become "p ( its liv+ matt]4 ,:5 ! plant dies1 ! nitrog5 is return$ to ! soil4 ,?us ! usable nitrog5 is kept 9 circulation4#bd ,footnote #bd3 ,a small am\nt ( nitrog5 gas is return$ to ! atmosph]e by ! action ( ! decompos+ bact]ia on ! ammonia comp\nds 9 ! soil4 7,see figure ( nitrog5 cycle47 ,symbiosis4--,we h se5 t 9 ! balanc$ aqu>ium ! animals & plants1 9 a wide s5se1 =m a sort ( unconsci\s p>tn]%ip4 ,?is process ( liv+ toge!r = mutual advantage is call$ symbiosis4 ,"s animals ?us comb9e ) plants2 = example1 ! t9y animal kn[n z ! hydra ) c]ta9 ( ! "o-cell$ algae1 &1 if we accept ! t]m 9 a wide s5se1 all gre5 plants & animals live 9 ?is relation ( mutual give & take4 ,animals also frequ5tly live 9 ?is relation to ea* o!r1 z ! crab1 :i* lives )9 ! %ell ( ! oy/]2 ! sea anemones1 :i* are c>ri$ ar\nd on ! backs ( "s h]mit crabs1 aid+ ! crab 9 protect+ x f its enemies1 & be+ c>ri$ ab\t by ! crab to places :]e food is pl5tiful4 ,illu/ration3 ,life 9 ! late /age ( a hay infusion4 ,b1 bact]ia1 swimm+ or =m+ masses ( food ^u :i* ! "o-cell$ animals1 ! p>amoecia1 are fe$+2 ,g1 gullet2 ,f4,v41 food vacuole2 ,c4,v41 contractile vacuole2 ,p1 pleurococcus2 ,p4,d41 pleurococcus divid+4 7,drawn f nature by ,j4 ,w4 ,teitz47 ,a ,hay ,infusion4--,/ill ano!r example ( ! close relation betwe5 plants & animals may be se5 9 ! /udy ( a hay infusion4 ,if we place a wisp ( hay or /raw 9 a small glass j> ne>ly full ( wat]1 & leave x = a few days 9 a w>m room1 c]ta9 *anges are se5 to take place 9 ! cont5ts ( ! j>2 aft] a little :ile ! wat] gets cl\dy & d>k] 9 color1 & a scum appe>s on ! surface4 ,if "s ( ?is scum is exam9$ "u ! comp\nd microscope1 x w be f\nd to consi/ almo/ entirely ( bact]ia4 ,^! bact]ia evid5tly aid 9 ! decay :i* 7z ! unpleasant odor f ! j> te/ifies7 is beg9n+ to take place4 ,z we h le>n$1 bact]ia fl\ri% :]ev] ! food supply is abundant4 ,! wat] )9 ! j> has come to conta9 mu* ( ! food mat]ial :i* 0 once )9 ! leaves ( ! grass1--organic nutri5ts1 />*1 sug>1 & prote9s1 =m$ 9 ! leaf by ! action ( ! sun on ! *lorophyll ( ! leaf1 & n[ releas$ into ! wat] by ! break+ d[n ( ! walls ( ! cells ( ! leaves4 ,! bact]ia !mselves release ?is food f ! hay by caus+ x to decay4 ,aft] a few days small "o-cell$ animals appe>2 ^! multiply ) wond]ful rapidity1 s t 9 "s cases ! surface ( ! wat] seems to be almo/ :ite ) active "o-cell$ =ms ( life4 ,if we ask ourselves :]e ^! animals come f1 we are =c$ to ! conclusion t !y mu/ h be5 9 ! wat]1 9 ! air1 or on ! hay4 ,hay is dri$ grass & may h be5 cut 9 a field ne> a pool conta9+ ^! creatures4 ,:5 ! pool dri$ up1 ! w9d may h scatt]$ "s ( ^! little organisms 9 ! dri$ mud or du/4 ,"s may h exi/$ 9 a dormant /ate on ! hay & ! wat] awak5$ !m to active life4 ,9 ! wat]1 too1 !re may h be5 "s liv+ cells1 plants & animals4 ,at fir/ ! multiplication ( ! t9y animals )9 ! hay infusion is extremely rapid2 !re is food 9 abundance & ne> at h&4 ,aft] a few days m1 h[ev]1 sev]al k9ds ( "o-cell$ animals may appe>1 "s ( :i* prey ^u o!rs4 ,consequ5tly a /ruggle = life takes place1 :i* becomes m & m int5se z ! food f ! hay is us$ up4 ,ev5tually ! end comes = all ! animals unless "s gre5 plants obta9 a foo?old )9 ! j>4 ,if su* a ?+ happ5s1 food w be manufactur$ )9 _! bodies1 a new food supply arises = ! animals )9 ! j>1 & a balance ( life may result4 ,,ref]5ce ,,books ,,elem5t>y ,hunt]1 ,laboratory ,problems 9 ,civic ,biology4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,%>pe1 ,a ,laboratory ,manual = ! ,solution ( ,problems 9 ,biology1 pp4 #acc-ach4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,,advanc$ ,egg]l9 & ,ehr5b]g1 ,! ,fre% ,wat] ,aqu>ium & its ,inhabitants4 ,h5ry ,holt & ,company4 ,furneaux1 ,life 9 ,ponds & ,/reams4 ,longmans1 ,gre51 & ,company4 ,p>k]1 ,biology4 ,! ,macmillan ,company4 ,s$gwick & ,wilson1 ,biology4 ,h5ry ,holt & ,company4 ,,xiii4 ,,s+le-,,cell$ ,,animals ,,consid]$ ,,z ,,organisms ,problems4--,to det]m9e3 7a7 ,h[ a "o-cell$ animal is influ5c$ by its environm5t4 7b7 ,h[ a s+le cell p]=ms its functions4 7c7 ,! /ructure ( a s+le-cell$ animal4 ,,laboratory ,,sugge/ions ,laboratory /udy4--,/udy ( p>amoecium "u comp\nd microscope 9 its relation to food1 oxyg51 etc4 ,det]m9ation ( me?od ( movem5t1 turn+1 avoid+ ob/ructions1 s5sitiv5ess to /imuli4 ,draw+s to illu/rate above po9ts4 ,laboratory demon/ration4--,liv+ p>amoecium to %[ /ructure ( cell4 ,demon/ration ) c>m9e to %[ food vacuoles1 & action ( cilia4 ,use ( *>ts & /a9$ specim5s to %[ o!r po9ts ( cell /ructure4 ,laboratory demon/ration ( fission4 ,illu/ration3 ,pleurococcus4 ,a v simple plant cell4 ,! ,simple/ ,plants4--,we h se5 t p]haps ! simple/ plant w\ld be exemplifi$ by "o ( ! t9y bact]ia we h j read ab\t4 ,a typical "o-cell$ plant1 h[ev]1 w\ld conta9 gre5 color+ matt] or *lorophyll1 & w\ld h ! p[] to manufacture its own food "u conditions giv+ x a mod]ate temp]ature1 a supply ( wat]1 oxyg51 c>bon dioxide1 & sunlight4 ,su* a simple plant is ! pleurococcus1 ! gre5 slime se5 on ! %ady sides ( trees1 /ones1 or city h\ses4 ,?is plant w\ld meet "o def9ition ( a cell1 z x is a m9ute mass ( protoplasm conta9+ a nucleus4 ,x is surr\nd$ by a wall ( a woody mat]ial =m$ by ! activity ( ! liv+ matt] )9 ! cell4 ,x also conta9s a little mass ( protoplasm color$ gre54 ,( ! "w ( ! *lorophyll 9 ! manufacture ( organic food we h already le>n$4 ,su* is a simple plant cell4 ,let u n[ exam9e a simple animal cell 9 ord] to comp>e x ) t ( a plant4 ,:]e to f9d ,p>amoecium4--,if we exam9e v c>efully ! surface ( a hay infusion1 we are likely to notice 9 addition to ! scum =m$ ( bact]ia1 a mass ( :iti% t9y dots collect$ along ! edge ( ! j> close to ! surface ( ! wat]4 ,m att5tive obs]vation %[s u t ^! objects move1 & t !y are nev] f\nd f> f ! surface4 ,! ,life ,habits ( ,p>amoecium4--,if we place on a slide a drop ( wat] conta9+ "s ( ^! mov+ objects & exam9e x "u ! comp\nd microscope1 we f9d ea* m9ute :iti% dot is a cell1 elongat$1 oval1 or elliptical 9 outl9e & some:at flatt5$4 ,?is is a "o-cell$ animal kn[n z ! p>amoecium or ! slipp] animalcule 7because ( its %ape74 ,se5 "u ! l[ p[] ( ! microscope1 x appe>s to be extremely active1 ru%+ ab\t n[ rapidly1 n[ m sl[ly1 b seem+ly always tak+ a def9ite c\rse4 ,! n>r[] end ( ! body 7! ant]ior7 usually goes fir/4 ,if x pu%es its way pa/ any d5se sub/ance 9 ! wat]1 ! cell body is se5 to *ange its %ape tempor>ily z x squeezes ?r\gh4 ,response to ,/imuli4--,_m ( ^! little creatures may be f\nd collect$ ar\nd masses ( food1 %[+ t !y are attract$ by x4 ,9 ano!r "p ( ! slide we may f9d a numb] ( ! p>amoecia ly+ close to ! edge ( an air bubble ) ! greate/ possible am\nt ( _! surface expos$ to its surface4 ,^! animals are evid5tly tak+ 9 oxyg5 by osmosis4 ,!y are brea?+4 ,a c>eful inspection ( ! j> conta9+ p>amoecia %[s ?\s&s ( t9y :iti% bodies collect$ ne> ! surface ( ! j>4 ,9 ! p>amoecium1 z 9 ! "o-cell$ plants1 ! protoplasm compos+ ! cell responds to c]ta9 ag5cies act+ ^u x1 com+ f )\t2 ^! ag5cies we call /imuli4 ,su* /imuli may be light1 diff]5ces ( temp]ature1 pres5ce ( food1 electricity1 or o!r factors ( its surr\nd+s4 ,plant & animal cells may react diff]5tly to ! same /imulus4 ,9 g5]al1 h[ev]1 we "k t protoplasm is irritable to "s ( ^! factors4 ,to sev]e /imuli1 protoplasm usually responds by contract+1 ano!r p[] :i* x possesses4 ,we "k1 too1 t plant & animal cells take 9 food & *ange ! food to protoplasm1 t is1 t !y assimilate food2 & t !y may wa/e away & repair !mselves4 ,f9ally1 we "k t new plant & animal cells are reproduc$ f ! orig9al bit ( protoplasm1 a s+le cell4 ,illu/ration3 ,a p>amoecium4 c4v41 contractile vacuole2 f4v41 food vacuole2 m1 m\?2 ma4n41 macronucleus2 mi4n41 micronucleus2 w4v41 wat] vacuole4 ,! ,/ructure ( ,p>amoecium4--,! cell body is almo/ transp>5t1 & consi/s ( semifluid protoplasm :i* has a granul> grayi% appe>ance "u ! microscope4 ,?is protoplasm appe>s to be b\nd$ by a v delicate membrane ?r\gh :i* project num]\s delicate ?reads ( protoplasm call$ cilia4 7,^! are usually invisible "u ! microscope74 ,! locomotion ( ! p>amoecium is caus$ by ! movem5t ( ^! cilia1 :i* la% ! wat] l a multitude ( t9y o>s4 ,! cilia also s5d p>ticles ( food into a funnel-l op5+1 ! gullet1 on "o side ( ! cell4 ,once inside ! cell body1 ! p>ticles ( food mat]ials are ga!r$ into little balls )9 ! almo/ transp>5t protoplasm4 ,^! masses ( food seem to be inclos$ )9 a little area conta9+ fluid1 call$ a vacuole4 ,o!r vacuoles appe> to be cle>2 ^! are spaces 9 :i* food has be5 dige/$4 ,"o or two l>g] vacuoles may be f\nd2 ^! are ! contractile vacuoles2 _! purpose seems to be to pass (f wa/e mat]ial f ! cell body4 ,?is is done by pulsation ( ! vacuole1 :i* ultimately bur/s1 pass+ fluid wa/e to ! outside4 ,solid wa/es are pass$ out ( ! cell 9 some:at ! same mann]4 ,no brea?+ organs are se51 because osmosis ( oxyg5 & c>bon dioxide may take place any:]e ?r\gh ! cell membrane4 ,! nucleus ( ! cell is n easily visible 9 liv+ specim5s4 ,9 a cell t has be5 /a9$ x has be5 f\nd to be a d\ble /ructure1 consi/+ ( "o l>ge & "o small portion1 call$1 respectively1 ! macronucleus & ! micronucleus4 ,illu/ration3 ,p>amoecium divid+ by fission4 ,m1 m\?2 ,,mac41 macronucleus2 ,,mic41 micronucleus4 7,aft] ,s$gwick & ,wilson47 ,reproduction ( ,p>amoecium4--,sometimes a p>amoecium may be f\nd 9 ! act ( divid+ by ! process kn[n z fission1 to =m two new cells1 ea* ( :i* conta9s half ( ! orig9al cell4 ,?is is a me?od ( asexual reproduction4 ,! orig9al cell may ?us =m 9 succession _m hundr$s ( cells 9 e respect l ! orig9al p>5t cell4 ,illu/ration3 ,amoeba1 ) pseudopodia 7,p47 ext5d$2 ,,ec1 ectoplasm2 ,,end1 endoplasm2 ! d>k area 7,n47 is ! nucleus4 7,f a photograph loan$ by ,pr(essor ,g4 ,n4 ,calk9s47 ,amoeba4#be--;,9 ord] to und]/& m fully ! life ( a simple bit ( protoplasm1 let u take up ! /udy ( ! amoeba1 a type ( ! simple/ =m ( animal life4 ,unlike ! plant & animal cells we h exam9$1 ! amoeba has no fix$ =m4 ,view$ "u ! comp\nd microscope1 x has ! appe>ance ( an irregul> mass ( granul> protoplasm4 ,its =m is con/antly *ang+ z x moves ab\t4 ,?is is due to ! pu%+ out ( t9y projections ( ! protoplasm ( ! cell1 call$ pseudopodia 7false feet74 ,! locomotion is accompli%$ by a /ream+ or fl[+ ( ! semifluid protoplasm4 ,! pseudopodia are pu%$ =w>d 9 ! direction :i* ! animal is to g1 ! re/ ( ! body foll[+4 ,9 ! c5tral "p ( ! cell is ! nucleus4 ,?is important organ is difficult to see except 9 cells t h be5 /a9$4 ,footnote #be3 ,amoebae may be obta9$ f ! hay infusion1 f ! dead leaves 9 ! bottom ( small pools1 f ! same s\rce 9 fre%-wat] aqu>ia1 f ! roots ( duckwe$ or o!r small wat] plants1 or f gre5 algae gr[+ 9 quiet localities4 ,no sure me?od ( obta9+ !m c be giv54 ,al?\gh b a s+le cell1 /ill ! amoeba appe>s to be aw>e ( ! exi/5ce ( food :5 x is ne> at h&4 ,food may be tak5 into ! body at any po9t1 ! semifluid protoplasm simply roll+ ov] & engulf+ ! food mat]ial4 ,)9 ! body1 z 9 ! p>amoecium1 ! food becomes inclos$ )9 a fluid space or vacuole4 ,! protoplasm has ! p[] to take out su* mat]ial z x c use to =m new protoplasm or give en]gy4 ,circulation ( food mat]ial is accompli%$ by ! con/ant /ream+ ( ! protoplasm )9 ! cell4 ,illu/ration3 ,amoeba1 %[+ ! *anges :i* take place dur+ division ( ! cell4 ,! d>k body 9 ea* figure is ! nucleus2 ! transp>5t circle1 ! contractile vacuole2 ! l>ge granul> masses1 ! food vacuoles4 ,mu* magnifi$4 ,! cell absorbs oxyg5 f ! wat] by osmosis ?r\gh its delicate membrane1 giv+ up c>bon dioxide 9 return4 ,?us ! cell brea!s ?r\gh any "p ( its body cov]+4 ,wa/e nitrog5\s products =m$ )9 ! cell :5 "w is done are pass$ out by means ( ! contractile vacuole4 ,! amoeba1 l o!r "o-cell$ organisms1 reproduces by ! process ( fission4 ,a s+le cell divides by splitt+ into two o!rs1 ea* ( :i* resembles ! p>5t cell1 except t !y are ( less bulk4 ,:5 ^! become ! size ( ! p>5t amoeba1 !y ea* 9 turn divide4 ,?is is a k9d ( asexual reproduction4 ,:5 conditions unfavorable = life come1 ! amoeba1 l "s "o-cell$ plants1 ency/s itself )9 a membran\s wall4 ,9 ?is condition x may become dri$ & be bl[n ?r\gh ! air4 ,^u return to a favorable environm5t1 x beg9s life aga91 z be=e4 ,9 ?is respect x resembles ! spore ( a plant4 ,illu/ration3 ,vorticella4 e1 gullet2 n1 nucleus2 cv1 contractile vacuole2 a1 axis2 s1 %ea?2 fv1 food vacuole4 7,f ,h]rick's ,g5]al ,zoology47 ,! ,cell z a ,unit4--,9 ! daily life ( a "o-cell$ animal we f9d ! s+le cell p]=m+ all ! g5]al activities :i* we %all lat] f9d ! _m-cell$ animal is able to p]=m4 ,9 ! amoeba no def9ite p>ts ( ! cell appe> to be set (f to p]=m c]ta9 functions2 b any "p ( ! cell c take 9 food1 c absorb oxyg51 c *ange ! food into protoplasm1 & excrete ! wa/e mat]ial4 ,! s+le cell is1 9 fact1 an organism able to c>ry on ! bus9ess ( liv+ almo/ z effectually z a v complex animal4 ,complex ,"o-cell$ ,animals4--,9 ! p>amoecium we f9d a s+le cell1 b we f9d c]ta9 p>ts ( ! cell hav+ c]ta9 def9ite functions3 ! cilia are us$ = locomotion2 a def9ite "p ( ! cell takes 9 food1 :ile ! wa/e passes out at ano!r def9ite spot4 ,9 ano!r "o-cell$ animal call$ vorticella1 "p ( ! cell has become elongat$ & is contractile4 ,by ?is /alk ! little animal is fa/5$ to a wat] plant or o!r object4 ,! /alk may be said to act l a muscle fib]1 z its sole function seems to be movem5t2 ! cilia are locat$ at "o end ( ! cell & s]ve to create a curr5t ( wat] :i* w br+ food p>ticles to ! m\?4 ,"h we h sev]al p>ts ( ! cell1 ea* do+ a diff]5t k9d ( "w4 ,?is is kn[n z physiological division ( labor4 ,habitat ( ,protozoa4--,protozoa are f\nd almo/ ev]y:]e 9 %all[ wat]1 especially close to ! surface4 ,!y appe> to be attract$ ne> to ! surface by ! supply ( oxyg54 ,e fre%-wat] lake sw>ms ) !m2 ! ocean conta9s c\ntless myriads ( _m diff]5t =ms4 ,use z ,food4--,!y are s num]\s 9 lakes1 riv]s1 & ! ocean z to =m ! food = _m animals high] 9 ! scale ( life4 ,almo/ all fi% t d n take ! hook & t travel 9 s*ools1 or companies1 migrat+ f "o place to ano!r1 live p>tly on su* food4 ,_m fe$ on slightly l>g] animals1 :i* 9 turn eat ! ,protozoa4 ,su* fi% h on ea* side ( ! m\? atta*$ to ! gills a s]ies ( small /ructures look+ l t9y rakes4 ,^! are call$ ! gill rak]s1 & aid 9 collect+ t9y organisms f ! wat] z x passes ov] ! gills4 ,! :ale1 ! l>ge/ ( all mammals1 /ra9s protozoans & o!r small animals & plants out ( ! wat] by means ( hang+ plates ( :alebone or bale51 ! sl5d] filam5ts ( :i* =m a sieve f ! top to ! bottom ( ! m\?4 ,protozoa cause ,disease4--,protozoa ( c]ta9 k9ds play an important "p 9 caus+ mal>ia1 yell[ fev]1 & o!r diseases1 z we %all see lat]4#bf 7,see page #bag47 ,footnote #bf3 ,tea*]s may f9d x exp$i5t to take up ! /udy ( protozoan diseases at ?is po9t4 ,,ref]5ce ,,books ,,elem5t>y ,hunt]1 ,laboratory ,problems 9 ,civic ,biology4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,davison1 ,human ,body & ,heal?4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,jordan1 ,kellogg & ,hea?1 ,animal ,/udies4 ,d4 ,appleton & ,company4 ,%>pe1 ,laboratory ,manual1 pp4 #adj-adc4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,,advanc$ ,calk9s1 ,! ,protozoa4 ,macmillan ,company4 ,j5n+s1 ,/udy ( ! ,l[] ,organisms4 ,c>negie ,in/itution ,report4 ,p>k]1 ,lessons 9 ,elem5t>y ,biology4 ,! ,macmillan ,company4 ,wilson1 ,! ,cell 9 ,developm5t & ,inh]itance4 ,! ,macmillan ,company4 ,,xiv4 ,,division ,,( ,,labor4 ,,! ,,v>i\s ,,=ms ,,( ,,plants ,,& ,,animals ,problems4--,! developm5t & =ms ( plants4 ,! developm5t ( a simple animal4 ,:at is division ( labor8 ,9 :at does x result8 ,h[ to "k ! *ief *>act]s ( "s great animal gr\ps4 ,,laboratory ,,sugge/ions ,a visit to a botanical g>d5 or laboratory demon/ration4--,"s ( ! =ms ( plant life4 ,review ( ess5tial facts 9 developm5t ( bean or corn embryo4 ,demon/ration4--,*>ts or models %[+ ! developm5t ( a _m-cell$ animal f egg ?r\gh ga/rula /age4 ,demon/ration4--,types :i* illu/rate increas+ complexity ( body =m & division ( labor4 ,museum trip4--,to af=d pupil a means ( id5tification ( examples ( pr9cipal phyla4 ,?is %\ld be prec$$ by objective demon/ration "w 9 s*ool laboratory4 ,reproduction 9 ,plants4--,al?\gh !re are v _m plants & animals s small & s simple z to be compos$ ( b a s+le cell1 by f> ! great] "p ( ! animal & plant _w is made up ( individuals :i* are collections ( cells liv+ toge!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,a cell ( pond scum4 ,h[ might x divide to =m a long ?read made up ( cells8 ,9 a simple plant l ! pond scum1 a /r+ or filam5t ( cells is =m$ by a s+le cell divid+ crosswise1 ! two cells =m$ ea* divid+ into two m4 ,ev5tually a long ?read ( cells is ?us =m$4 ,at times1 h[ev]1 a cell is =m$ by ! union ( two cells1 "o f ea* ( two adjo9+ filam5ts ( ! plant4 ,at l5g? a h>d coat =ms ar\nd ?is cell1 :i* has n[ become a spore4 ,! t\gh cov]+ protects x f unfavorable *anges 9 ! surr\nd+s4 ,lat]1 :5 conditions become favorable = its g]m9ation1 ! spore may =m a new filam5t ( pond scum4 ,9 molds1 9 yea/s1 & 9 ! bact]ia we also f\nd spores c\ld be =m$ by ! protoplasm ( ! plant cutt+ up into a numb] ( t9y spores4 ,^! spores are call$ asexual 7)\t sex7 because !y are n =m$ by ! union ( two cells1 & may give rise to o!r t9y plants l !mselves4 ,/ill o!r plants1 mosses & f]ns1 give rise to two k9ds ( spores1 sexual & asexual4 ,all ( ^! collectively are call$ spore plants4 ,illu/ration3 ,! =mation ( spores 9 pond scum4 zs1 zygospore2 f1 fusion 9 progress4 ,reproduction 9 ,se$ ,plants4--,ano!r great gr\p ( plants we h /udi$1 plants ( v>i$ %apes & sizes1 produce se$s4 ,!y be> fl[]s & fruits4 ,illu/ration3 ,! =mation & gr[? ( a plant embryo4 #a1 ! sp]m & egg cell unit+2 #b1 a f]tiliz$ egg2 #c1 two cells =m$ by division2 #d1 f\r cells =m$ f two2 #e1 a _m-cell$ embryo2 #f1 "y plant2 ,h1 hypocotyl2 ,p1 plumule2 ,c1 cotyl$ons4 ,! embryo develops f a s+le f]tiliz$ egg1 gr[+ by cell division into two1 f\r1 eight1 & a con/antly increas+ numb] ( cells until aft] a "t a baby plant is =m$1 :i* z 9 ! bean1 ei!r conta9s "s /or$ food to give x a />t 9 life1 or1 z 9 ! corn1 is surr\nd$ ) food :i* x c dige/ & absorb into its own t9y body4 ,we h se5 t ^! "y plants 9 ! se$ are able to develop :5 conditions are favorable4 ,fur!rmore1 ! "y ( ea* k9d ( plant w ev5tually develop into ! k9d ( plant its p>5t 0 & into no o!r k9d4 ,?us ! plant _w is divid$ into _m tribes or gr\ps4 ,plants are plac$ 9 ,gr\ps4--,if we plant a numb] ( peas s t !y w all g]m9ate "u ! same conditions ( soil1 temp]ature1 & sunlight1 ! se$l+s t develop w ea* diff] "o f ano!r 9 a slight degree4#bg ,b 9 a g5]al way !y w h _m *>act]s 9 common1 z ! %ape ( ! leaves1 ! possession ( t5drils1 =m ( ! fl[] & fruit4 ,a species ( plants or animals is a gr\p ( individuals s mu* alike 9 _! *>act]s t !y might h _h ! same p>5ts4 ,individuals ( su* species diff] slightly2 = no two individuals are exactly alike4 ,footnote #bg3 ,,note ,,to ,,tea*]s4--,a trip to ! ,botanical ,g>d5 or to a ,museum %\ld be tak5 at ?is "t4 ,illu/ration3 ,a colony ( trilliums1 a fl[]+ plant4 7,photograph by ,w4 ,c4 ,b>b\r47 ,illu/ration3 ,rock f]n1 polypody4 ,notice ! und]gr\nd /em giv+ (f roots f its l[] surface1 & leaves 7,c71 7,s71 f its upp] surface4 ,species are gr\p$ toge!r 9 a l>g] gr\p call$ a g5us4 ,= example1 _m k9ds ( peas--! wild bea* peas1 ! sweet peas1 & _m o!rs--are all gr\p$ 9 "o g5us 7call$ ,la?yrus1 or vet*l+7 because !y h c]ta9 /ructural *>act]i/ics 9 common4 ,plant & animal g5]a are br\ght toge!r 9 /ill l>g] gr\ps1 ! classification bas$ on g5]al lik5esses 9 /ructure4 ,su* gr\ps are call$1 z !y become successively l>g]1 ,family1 ,ord]1 & ,class4 ,?us bo? ! plant & animal k+doms are gr\p$ into divisions1 ! smalle/ ( :i* conta9s individuals v mu* alike2 & ! l>ge/ ( :i* conta9s v _m gr\ps ( individuals1 ! gr\ps hav+ "s *>act]s 9 common4 ,?is is call$ a sy/em ( classification4 ,classification ( ! ,plant ,k+dom4--,! entire plant k+dom has be5 divid$ into f\r sub-k+doms by botani/s3-- #a4 ,sp]matophytes4 ,angiosp]ms1 true fl[]+ plants4 ,gymnosp]ms1 ! p9es & _! allies4 #b4 ,pt]idophytes4 ,! f]n plants & _! allies4 #c4 ,bryophytes4 ,! moss plants & _! allies #d4 ,?allophytes4 ,! ,?allophytes =m two gr\ps3 ! ,algae & ! ,fungi2 ! algae be+ gre51 :ile ! fungi h no *lorophyll4 ,illu/ration3 ,rockwe$1 a br[n algae1 %[+ its di/ribution on rocks bel[ highwat] m>k4 ,! ext5t ( ! plant k+dom c only be h9t$ at2 ea* ye> new species are add$ to ! li/s4 ,!re are ab\t #aaj1jjj species ( fl[]+ plants & ne>ly z _m fl[]less plants4 ,! latt] consi/ ( ov] #cejj species ( f]nlike plants1 "s #af1ejj species ( mosses1 ov] #efjj li*5s 7plants consi/+ ( a p>tn]%ip betwe5 algae & fungi71 approximately #ee1jjj species ( fungi1 & ab\t #af1jjj species ( algae4 ,illu/ration3 ,a moss plant4 ,g1 ! moss body2 ,s1 ! spore-be>+ /alk 7fruit+ body74 ,developm5t ( a ,simple ,animal4--,_m-cell$ animals are =m$ 9 mu* ! same way z are _m-cell$ se$ plants4 ,a common ba? sponge1 an e>?worm1 a fi%1 or a dog1--ea* & all ( !m beg9 life 9 ! same mann]4 ,9 a _m-cell$ animal ! life hi/ory beg9s ) a s+le cell1 ! f]tiliz$ egg4 ,z 9 ! fl[]+ plant1 ?is cell has be5 =m$ by ! union ( two o!r cells1 a t9y 7usually motile7 cell2 ! sp]m1 & a l>ge cell1 ! egg4 ,aft] ! egg is f]tiliz$ by a sp]m cell1 x splits into two1 f\r1 eight1 & sixte5 cells2 z ! numb] ( cells increases1 a holl[ ball ( cells call$ ! bla/ula is =m$2 lat] ?is ball s9ks 9 on "o side1 & a d\ble-wall$ cup ( cells1 n[ call$ a ga/rula1 results4 ,practically all animals pass ?r\gh ! above /ages 9 _! developm5t f ! egg1 al?\gh ^! /ages are (t5 n pla9 to see because ( ! pres5ce ( food mat]ial 7yolk7 9 ! egg4 ,9 animals ! body consi/s ( ?ree lay]s ( cells3 ^? ( ! outside1 develop$ f ! out] lay] ( ! ga/rula1 are call$ ectod]m1 :i* lat] gives rise to ! sk91 n]v\s sy/em1 etc42 an inn] lay]1 develop$ f ! inn] lay] ( ! ga/rula1 ! endod]m1 :i* =ms ! l9+ ( ! dige/ive organs1 etc42 a middle lay]1 call$ ! mesod]m1 ly+ betwe5 ! ectod]m & ! endod]m1 is also f\nd4 ,9 high] animals ?is lay] gives rise to muscles1 ! skeleton1 & p>ts ( o!r int]nal /ructures4 ,illu/ration3 ,/ages 9 ! developm5t ( a f]tiliz$ egg into ! ga/rula /age4 ,read y\r text1 !n draw ^! /ages & "n ea* /age4 ,physiological ,division ( ,labor4--,if we comp>e ! amoeba & ! p>amoecium1 we f9d ! latt] a m complex organism ?an ! =m]4 ,an amoeba may take 9 food ?r\gh any "p ( ! body2 ! p>amoecium has a def9ite gullet2 ! amoeba may use any "p ( ! body = locomotion2 ! p>amoecium has def9ite p>ts ( ! cell1 ! cilia1 fitt$ = ?is "w4 ,s9ce ! /ructure ( ! p>amoecium is m complex1 we say t x is a high] animal4 ,9 ! vorticella1 a /ill m complex cell1 "p ( ! cell has gr[n out l a /alk1 has become contractile1 & acts l muscle4 ,illu/ration3 ,photograph ( a liv+ vorticella1 %[+ ! contractile /alk & ! cilia ar\nd ! m\?4 ,comp>e ?is figure ) t ( ! p>amoecium4 ,:i* cell %[s great] division ( labor8 ,z we look high] 9 ! scale ( life1 we inv>iably f9d t c]ta9 p>ts ( a plant or animal are set ap>t to d c]ta9 "w1 & only t "w4 ,j z 9 a community ( p1 !re are "s m5 :o d r\gh manual "w1 o!rs :o are skill$ workm51 "s :o are %opkeep]s1 & /ill o!rs :o are pr(essional m51 s among plants & animals1 :]ev] collections ( cells live toge!r to =m an organism1 !re is division ( labor1 "s cells be+ fitt$ to d "o k9d ( "w1 :ile o!rs are fitt$ to d "w ( ano!r sort4 ,?is is call$ physiological division ( labor4 ,illu/ration3 ,enl>g$ l5g?wise section ( ! hydra1 a v simple animal :i* %[s slight division ( labor4 ba1 base2 b1 bud2 m1 m\?2 ov1 ov>y2 sp1 sp]m>y4 ,illu/ration3 ,diff]5t =ms ( tissue cells4 ,c1 bone mak+ cells2 ,e1 epi!lial cells2 ,f1 fat cells2 ,l1 liv] cells2 ,m1 muscle cell2 i1 involunt>y2 v1 volunt>y2 ,n1 n]ve cell2 ,c ,b1 cell body2 ,n4,f41 n]ve fib]2 ,t4,b41 n]ve end+s2 ,w1 colorless blood cells4 ,z we h se51 ! high] plants are made up ( a va/ numb] ( cells ( _m k9ds4 ,collections ( cells alike 9 /ructure & p]=m+ ! same function we h call$ a tissue4 ,examples ( animal tissues are ! highly contractile cells set ap>t = movem5t1 muscles2 ^? :i* cov] ! body or l9e ! inn] p>ts ( organs1 ! sk91 or epi!lium2 ! cells :i* =m secretions or gl&s & ! s5sitive cells =m+ ! n]v\s tissues4 ,frequ5tly sev]al tissues h c]ta9 functions to p]=m 9 conjunction ) "o ano!r4 ,! arm ( ! human body p]=ms movem5t4 ,to d ?is1 sev]al tissues1 z muscles1 n]ves1 & bones1 mu/ act toge!r4 ,a collection ( tissues p]=m+ c]ta9 "w we call an organ4 ,illu/ration3 ,"p ( a sponge1 %[+ h[ cells p]=m division ( labor4 ect1 ectod]m2 mes1 mesod]m2 end1 endod]m2 c4c41 ciliat$ cells1 :i* take 9 food by means ( _! flagellae or l>ge cilia 7fla74 ,9 a simple animal l a sponge1 division ( labor occurs betwe5 ! cells2 "s cells :i* l9e ! pores lead+ inw>d create a curr5t ( wat]1 & fe$ ^u ! m9ute organisms :i* come )9 rea*1 o!r cells build ! skeleton ( ! sponge1 & /ill o!rs become eggs or sp]ms4 ,9 high] animals m complicat$ 9 /ructure & 9 :i* ! tissues are f\nd work+ toge!r to =m organs1 division ( labor is mu* m highly specializ$4 ,9 ! human arm1 an organ fitt$ = c]ta9 movem5ts1 ?9k ( ! numb] ( tissues & ! complicat$ actions :i* are possible4 ,! mo/ extreme division ( labor is se5 9 ! organism :i* has ! mo/ complex actions to p]=m & ^: organs are fitt$ = su* "w1 = !re ! cells or tissues :i* d ! p>ticul> "w d x quickly & v well4 ,9 our daily life 9 a t[n or city we see division ( labor betwe5 individuals4 ,su* division ( labor may occur among o!r animals1 z1 = example1 bees or ants4 ,b x is se5 at its highe/ 9 a great city or 9 a l>ge bus9ess or indu/ry4 ,9 ! /ocky>ds ( ,*icago1 division ( labor has result$ 9 c]ta9 m5 p]=m+ b a s+le movem5t dur+ _! entire day's "w1 b ?is movem5t repeat$ s _m times 9 a day has result$ 9 wond]ful accuracy & spe$4 ,?us division ( labor obta9s its end4 ,organs & ,functions ,common to ,all ,animals4--,! same g5]al functions p]=m$ by a s+le cell are p]=m$ by a _m-cell$ animal4 ,b 9 ! _m-cell$ animals ! v>i\s functions ( ! s+le cell are tak5 up by ! organs4 ,9 a complex organism1 l man1 ! organs & ! functions !y p]=m may be briefly giv5 z foll[s3-- 7#a7 ,! organs ( food tak+3 food may be tak5 9 by individual cells1 z ^? l9+ ! pores ( ! sponge1 or def9ite p>ts ( a food tube may be set ap>t = ?is purpose1 z ! m\? & p>ts :i* place food 9 ! m\?4 7#b7 ,! organs ( dige/ion3 ! food tube & collections ( cells :i* =m ! gl&s connect$ ) x4 ,! enzymes 9 ! fluids secret$ by ! latt] *ange ! foods f a solid =m 7usually insoluble7 to t ( a fluid4 ,su* fluid may !n pass by osmosis1 ?r\gh ! walls ( ! food tube into ! blood4 7#c7 ,! organs ( circulation3 ! tubes ?r\gh :i* ! blood1 be>+ its organic foods & oxyg51 rea*es ! tissues ( ! body4 ,9 simple animals1 z ! sponge & hydra1 no su* organs are ne$$1 ! fluid food pass+ f cell to cell by osmosis4 7#d7 ,! organs ( respiration3 ! organs 9 :i* ! blood receives oxyg5 & gives up c>bon dioxide4 ,! out] lay] ( ! body s]ves ?is purpose 9 v simple animals2 gills or lungs are develop$ 9 m complex animals4 7#e7 ,! organs ( excretion3 su* z ! kidneys & sk91 :i* pass (f nitrog5\s & o!r wa/e matt]s f ! body4 7#f7 ,! organs ( locomotion3 muscles & _! atta*m5ts & connectives2 namely1 t5dons1 ligam5ts1 & bones4 7#g7 ,! organs ( n]v\s control3 ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em1 :i* has control ( coord9at$ movem5t4 ,?is consi/s ( scatt]$ cells 9 l[ =ms ( life2 su* cells are collect$ into gr\ps & connect$ ) ea* o!r 9 high] animals4 7#h7 ,! organs ( s5se3 collections ( cells hav+ to d ) ! reception & transmission ( sight1 he>+1 smell1 ta/e1 t\*1 pressure1 & temp]ature s5sations4 7#i7 ,! organs ( reproduction3 ! sp]m & egg-=m+ organs4 ,almo/ all animals h ! functions m5tion$ above4 ,9 mo/1 ! v>i\s organs m5tion$ are m or less develop$1 al?\gh 9 ! simpl] =ms ( animal life "s ( ! organs m5tion$ above are ei!r v poorly develop$ or entirely lack+4 ,b 9 ! s-call$ high] animals ea* ( ! above-nam$ functions is assign$ to a c]ta9 organ or gr\p ( organs4 ,! "w is done bett] & m quickly ?an 9 ! l[] animals4 ,division ( labor is ?us a guide 9 help+ u to det]m9e ! place ( animals 9 ! gr\ps t exi/ on ! e>?4 ,! ,animal ,s]ies4--,we h f\nd t a "o-cell$ animal c p]=m c]ta9 functions 9 a r crude mann]4 ,man c p]=m ^! same functions 9 an extremely effici5t mann]4 ,division ( labor is well work$ out1 extreme complexity ( /ructure is se54 ,betwe5 ^! two extremes are a great _m gr\ps ( animals :i* c be arrang$ m or less z a s]ies1 %[+ ! gradual evolution or developm5t ( life on ! e>?4 ,x w be ! purpose ( ! foll[+ pages to %[ ! *ief *>act]i/ics ( ! great gr\ps ( ! animal k+dom4 ,illu/ration3 ,! glasslike skeleton ( a radiol>ian1 a protozoan4 7,f model at ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory47 ,i4 ,protozoa4--,animals compos$ ( a s+le cell1 reproduc+ by cell division4 ,! foll[+ are ! pr9cipal classes ( ,protozoa1 examples ( :i* we may h se5 or read ab\t3-- ,,class ,i4 ,rhizopoda 7,greek = root-foot$74 ,hav+ no fix$ =m1 ) pseudopodia4 ,ei!r nak$ z ,amoeba or build+ limy 7,=am9if]a7 or glasslike skeletons 7,radiol>ia74 ,,class ,,ii4 ,infusoria 79 infusions74 ,usually active ciliat$ ,protozoa4 ,examples1 ,p>amoecium1 ,vorticella4 ,,class ,,iii4 ,sporozoa 7spore animals74 ,p>asitic & usually nonactive4 ,example1 ,plasmodium mal>iae4 ,illu/ration3 ,a horny fib] sponge4 ,notice t x is a colony4 ,"o f\r? natural size4 ,,ii4 ,sponges4--,because ! body conta9s _m pores ?r\gh :i* wat] be>+ food p>ticles ent]s1 ^! animals are call$ ,porif]a4 ,!y are class$ accord+ to ! skeleton !y possess into limy1 glasslike1 & horny fib] sponges4 ,! latt] are ! sponges ( comm]ce4 ,) b few exceptions sponges live 9 salt wat] & are nev] free swimm+4 ,illu/ration3 ,sea anemones4 ,"o half natural size4 ,! "r h& specim5 is exp&$ & %[s ! m\? surr\nd$ by ! t5tacles4 ,! left h& specim5 is contract$4 7,f model at ! ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory47 ,,iii4 ,coel5t]ates4--,! hydra & its salt-wat] allies1 ! jellyfi%1 hydroids1 & corals1 belong to a gr\p ( animals kn[n z ! ,coel5t]ata4 ,! ^w coel5t]ate 7coelom body cavity1 ent]on food tube7 expla9s ! /ructure ( ! gr\p4 ,!y are animals 9 :i* ! real body cavity is lack+1 ! animal 9 its simple/ =m be+ little m ?an a bag4 ,"s examples are ! hydra1 %[n on page #agi1 salt-wat] =ms kn[n z hydroids1 colonial =ms :i* h "p ( _! life free swimm+ z jellyfi%2 sea anemones & coral polyps1 t9y colonial hydra l =ms :i* build a liv+ or secret$ cov]+4 ,,iv4 ,worms4--,! wormlike animals are gr\p$ into flatworms1 r\ndworms1 & segm5t$ or jo9t$ worms4 7a7 ,flatworms are sometimes p>asitic1 examples be+ ! tapeworm & liv] fluke4 ,!y are usually small1 ribbon- or leaf-l & flat & live 9 wat]4 7b7 ,r\ndworms1 m9ute ?readlike creatures1 are n (t5 se5 by ! city girl or boy4 ,v9eg> eels1 ! horsehair worm1 ! pork worm or tri*9a & ! dread hookworm are examples4 7c7 ,segm5t$ worms are long1 jo9t$ creatures compos$ ( body r+s or segm5ts4 ,examples are ! e>?worm1 ! s&worm 7kn[n to ,new ,york boys z ! fi%worm71 & ! lee*es or bloodsuck]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,a jo9t$ worm4 ,! s&worm4 ,slightly r$uc$4 ,illu/ration3 ,! common />fi% se5 f bel[ to %[ ! tube feet4 ,ab\t "o half natural size4 ,illu/ration3 ,! crayfi%1 a cru/acean4 ,a1 ant5na2 ,m1 m\?2 ,e1 comp\nd /alk$ eye2 ,*1 p9*] claw2 ,c4,p41 cephalo?orax2 ,ab1 abdom52 ,c4,f41 caudal f94 ,a little r$uc$4 ,v4 ,e*9od]ms4--,^! are sp9y-sk9n$ animals1 :i* live 9 salt wat]4 ,!y are /ill m complicat$ 9 /ructure ?an ! worms & may be kn[n by ! sp9es 9 _! sk94 ,!y %[ radial symmetry4 ,/>fi% or sea ur*9s are examples4 ,,vi4 ,ar?ropods4--,^! animals are di/+ui%$ by hav+ jo9t$ body & legs4 ,!y =m two great gr\ps4 ,! high] =ms ( ! ,cru/acea h only two regions 9 ! body1 a fus$ head & ?orax1 call$ ! cephalo?orax1 & an abdom9al region4 ,a second gr\p is ! ,insecta1 ( :i* we "k some?+ already4 ,cru/acea brea! by means ( gills1 :i* are /ructures = tak+ oxyg5 out ( ! wat]1 :ile adult insects brea! ?r\gh air tubes call$ tra*ea4 ,two small] gr\ps ( ar?ropods also exi/1 ! ,ara*nida1 consi/+ ( spid]s1 scorpions1 ticks1 & mites1 & ! ,myriapoda1 examples be+ ! ?\s& legg]s f\nd 9 "s city h\ses4 ,illu/ration3 ,a common snail1 a mollusk4 7,f a photograph by ,davison47 ,,vii4 ,mollusca4--,ano!r l>ge gr\p is ! ,mollusca4 ,?is phylum gets its "n f ! s(t1 unsegm5t$ body 7mollis s(t74 ,mollusks usually h a %ell1 :i* may be ( "o piece1 z a snail1 or two pieces or valves1 z ! clam or oy/]4 ,illu/ration3 ,! skeleton ( a dog2 a typical v]tebrate4 ,,viii4 ,! ,v]tebrates4--,all ( ! animals we h /udi$ ?us f> agree 9 hav+ :atev] skeleton or h>d p>ts !y possess on ! outside ( ! body4 ,collectively1 !y are call$ ,inv]tebrates4 ,?is exoskeleton diff]s f ! ma9 or axial skeleton ( ! high] animals1 ! latt] be+ inside ( ! body4 ,! exoskeleton is dead1 be+ secret$ by ! cells l9+ ! body1 :ile ! endoskeleton is1 9 "p at lea/1 alive & is capable ( gr[?1 e4g4 a brok5 arm or leg bone w gr[ toge!r4 ,b a man has c]ta9 p>ts ( ! skeleton1 z nails or hair1 =m$ by ! sk9 & 9 addition possesses inside bones to :i* ! muscles are atta*$4 ,"s ( ! bones are arrang$ 9 a flexible column 9 ! dorsal 7! back7 side ( ! body4 ,?is v]tebral column1 z x is call$1 is di/9ctive ( all v]tebrates4 ,)9 its bony protection lies ! delicate c5tral n]v\s sy/em1 & to ?is column are atta*$ ! big bones ( ! legs & arms4 ,! v]tebrate animals des]ve m ( our att5tion ?an o!r =ms ( life because man himself is a v]tebrate4 ,illu/ration3 ,! s& %>k1 an elasmobran*4 ,note ! slits lead+ f ! gills4 7,f a photograph loan$ by ! ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory47 ,five gr\ps or classes ( v]tebrates exi/4 ,fi%es1 ,amphibians1 ,reptiles1 ,birds1 & ,mammals4 ,let u see h[ to di/+ui% "o class f ano!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,! /urgeon1 a ganoid fi%4 ,fi%es4--,fi%es are famili> animals to mo/ ( u4 ,we "k t !y live 9 ! wat]1 h a backbone1 & t !y h f9s4 ,!y brea! by means ( gills1 delicate organs fitt$ = tak+ oxyg5 out ( ! wat]4 ,! he>t has two *amb]s1 an auricle & a v5tricle4 ,!y h a sk9 9 :i* are gl&s secret+ mucus1 a slimy sub/ance :i* helps !m g ?r\gh ! wat] easily4 ,!y usually lay v _m eggs4 ,,classification ,,( ,,fi%es ,,ord] ,i4 ,! ,elasmobran*s4 ,fi%es :i* h a s(t skeleton made ( c>tilage & expos$ gill slits4 ,examples3 %>ks1 skates1 & rays4 ,,ord] ,,ii4 ,! ,ganoids4 ,fi%es :i* once 7 v num]\s on ! e>?1 b :i* are n[ almo/ ext9ct4 ,!y are protect$ by platelike scales4 ,examples3 g>s1 /urgeon1 & b[f94 ,illu/ration3 ,a bony fi%4 ,,ord] ,,iii4 ,! ,teleo/s1 or ,bony ,fi%es4 ,!y compose #ie p] c5t ( all liv+ fi%es4 ,9 ?is gr\p ! skeleton is bony1 ! gills are protect$ by an op]culum1 & ! eggs are num]\s4 ,mo/ ( our common food fi%es belong to ?is class4 ,,ord] ,,iv4 ,! ,dipnoi1 or ,lung ,fi%es4 ,?is is a v small gr\p4 ,9 _m respects !y are m l amphibians ?an fi%es1 ! swim bladd] be+ us$ z a lung4 ,!y live 9 tropical ,africa1 ,s\? ,am]ica1 & ,au/ralia1 inhabit+ ! riv]s & lakes !re4 ,*>act]i/ics ( ,amphibia4--,! frog belongs to ! class ( v]tebrates kn[n z ,amphibia4 ,z ! "n indicates 7amphi1 bo?1 & bia1 life71 memb]s ( ?is gr\p live bo? 9 wat] & on l&4 ,9 ! e>li] /ages ( _! developm5t !y take oxyg5 into ! blood by means ( gills4 ,:5 adult1 h[ev]1 !y brea! by means ( lungs4 ,at all times1 b especially dur+ ! w9t]1 ! sk9 s]ves z a brea?+ organ4 ,! sk9 is s(t & unprotect$ by bony plates or scales4 ,! he>t has ?ree *amb]s1 two auricles & "o v5tricle4 ,mo/ amphibians und]go a complete metamorphosis1 or *ange ( =m1 ! "y be+ unlike ! adults4 ,illu/ration3 ,newt4 7,f a photograph loan$ by ! ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory47 ,ab\t natural size4 ,illu/ration3 ,! leop>d frog1 an amphibian4 ,,classification ,,( ,,amphibia ,,ord] ,i4 ,urodela4 ,amphibia hav+ usually poorly develop$ app5dages4 ,tail p]si/5t ?r\gh life4 ,examples3 mud puppy1 newt1 salam&]4 ,,ord] ,,ii4 ,anura4 ,tailless ,amphibia1 :i* und]go a metamorphosis1 brea?+ by gills 9 l>val /ate1 by lungs 9 adult /ate4 ,examples3 toad & frog4 ,*>act]i/ics ( ,reptilia4--,^! animals are *>act]iz$ by hav+ scales develop$ f ! sk94 ,9 ! turtle !y h become bony & are connect$ ) ! int]nal skeleton4 ,reptiles always brea! by means ( lungs1 diff]+ 9 ?is respect f ! amphibians4 ,!y %[ _! di/ant relation%ip to birds 9 t _! l>ge eggs are incas$ 9 a lea!ry1 limy %ell4 ,illu/ration3 ,box tortoise1 a l& reptile4 7,f photograph loan$ by ! ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory47 ,ab\t "o f\r? natural size4 ,illu/ration3 ,! gila mon/]1 a poison\s liz>d4 ,ab\t "o twelf? natural size4 ,,classification ,,( ,,reptiles ,,ord] ,i4 ,*elonia 7turtles & tortoises74 ,flatt5$ reptiles ) body inclos$ 9 bony case4 ,no tee? or /]num 7brea/bone74 ,examples3 snapp+ turtle1 box tortoise4 ,,ord] ,,ii4 ,lac]tilia 7liz>ds74 ,body cov]$ ) scales1 usually hav+ two-pair$ app5dages4 ,brea! by lungs4 ,examples3 f5ce liz>d1 horn$ toad4 ,illu/ration3 ,! common g>t] snake4 ,r$uc$ to ab\t "o t5? natural size4 ,,ord] ,,iii4 ,ophidia 7snakes74 ,body elongat$1 cov]$ ) scales4 ,no limbs pres5t4 ,examples3 g>t] snake1 rattlesnake4 ,,ord] ,,iv4 ,crocodilia4 ,fre%-wat] reptiles ) elongat$ body & bony scales on sk94 ,two-pair$ limbs4 ,examples3 alligator1 crocodile4 ,birds4--,birds among all o!r animals are kn[n by _! cov]+ ( fea!rs & ! pres5ce ( w+s4 ,! fea!rs are develop$ f ! sk94 ,^! aid 9 flight1 & protect ! body f ! cold4 ,illu/ration3 ,adaptations 9 ! bills ( birds4 ,c\ld we tell any?+ ab\t ! food ( a bird f its bill8 ,d ^! birds all get _! food 9 ! same mann]8 ,d !y all eat ! same k9d ( food8 ,! =m ( ! bill 9 p>ticul> %[s adaptation to a wond]ful degree4 ,a duck has a flat bill = pu%+ ?r\gh ! mud & /ra9+ out ! food2 a bird ( prey has a curv$ or hook$ beak = te>+2 ! woodpeck] has a %>p1 /raight bill = pi]c+ ! b>k ( trees 9 se>* ( ! insect l>vae :i* are hidd5 und]nea?4 ,birds d n h tee?4 ,illu/ration3 ,common t]n & "y1 %[+ ne/+ & fe$+ habits4 7,f gr\p at ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory47 ,! rate ( respiration1 ( he>tbeat1 & ! body temp]ature are all high] 9 ! bird ?an 9 man4 ,man brea!s f twelve to f\rte5 times p] m9ute4 ,birds brea! f tw5ty to sixty times a m9ute4 ,because ( ! increas$ activity ( a bird1 !re comes a necessity = a great] & m rapid supply ( oxyg51 an increas$ blood supply to c>ry ! mat]ial to be us$ up 9 ! release ( en]gy1 & a means ( rapid excretion ( ! wa/es result+ f ! process ( oxidation4 ,birds are l>ge eat]s1 & ! dige/ive tract is fitt$ to dige/ ! food quickly1 by hav+ a l>ge crop 9 :i* food may be /or$ 9 a mu* s(t5$ condition4 ,z soon z ! food is "p ( ! blood1 x may be s5t rapidly to ! places :]e x is ne$$1 by means ( ! l>ge f\r-*amb]$ he>t & l>ge blood vessels4 ,! high temp]ature ( ! bird is a direct result ( ?is rapid oxidation2 fur!rmore1 ! fea!rs & ! oily sk9 =m an insulation :i* does n readily p]mit ( ! escape ( heat4 ,?is insulat+ cov] is ( mu* use to ! bird 9 its flights at high altitudes1 :]e ! temp]ature is (t5 v l[4 ,birds lay eggs & usually c>e = _! "y4 ,illu/ration3 ,african o/ri*1 "o ( ! l>ge/ liv+ birds4 ,,classification ,,( ,,birds ,,ord] ,i4 ,cursores4 ,runn+ birds ) no keel$ brea/bone4 ,examples3 o/ri*1 cass[>y4 ,,ord] ,,ii4 ,pass]es4 ,p]*+ birds2 ?ree toes 9 front1 "o beh9d4 ,ov] "o half ( all species ( birds are includ$ 9 ?is ord]4 ,examples3 sp>r[1 ?ru%1 swall[4 ,,ord] ,,iii4 ,gall9ae4 ,/rong legs2 feet adapt$ to scrat*+4 ,beak /\t4 ,examples3 jungle f[l1 gr\se1 quail1 dome/ic f[l4 ,,ord] ,,iv4 ,raptores4 ,birds ( prey4 ,hook$ beak4 ,/rong claws4 ,examples3 eagle1 hawk1 owl4 ,,ord] ,v4 ,grallatores4 ,wad]s4 ,long neck1 beak1 & legs4 ,examples3 snipe1 crane1 h]on4 ,,ord] ,,vi4 ,natatores4 ,div]s & swimm]s4 ,legs %ort1 toes webb$4 ,examples3 gull1 duck1 albatross4 ,,ord] ,,vii4 ,columb9ae4 ,l ,gall9ae1 b ) weak] legs4 ,examples3 dove1 pigeon4 ,,ord] ,,viii4 ,pici4 ,woodpeck]s4 ,two toes po9t =w>d1 two backw>d1 & adaptation = climb+4 ,long1 /rong bill4 ,,ord] ,,ix4 ,psittaci4 ,p>rots1 hook$ beak & fle%y tongue4 ,,ord] ,x4 ,coccyges4 ,climb+ birds1 ) p[]ful beak4 ,examples3 k+fi%]1 t\can1 & cuckoo4 ,,ord] ,,xi4 ,macro*ires4 ,birds hav+ long-po9t$ w+s1 )\t scales on metat>sus4 ,examples3 swift1 humm+ bird1 & goatsuck]4 ,mammals4--,dogs & cats1 %eep & pigs1 horses & c[s1 all ( our dome/ic animals 7& man himself7 h *>act]s ( /ructure :i* cause !m to be class$ z mammals4 ,!y1 l "s o!r v]tebrates1 h lungs & w>m blood4 ,!y also h a hairy cov]+ & be> "y develop$ to a =m simil> to _! own1#bh & nurse !m ) milk secret$ by gl&s kn[n z ! mamm>y gl&s2 h5ce ! t]m mammal4 ,footnote #bh3 ,) ! exception ( ! monotremes4 ,illu/ration3 ,! bison1 an almo/ ext9ct mammal4 ,adaptations 9 ,mammalia4--,( ! ?irty-five hundr$ species1 mo/ inhabit cont95ts2 a few species are f\nd on diff]5t isl&s1 & "s1 z ! :ale1 inhabit ! ocean4 ,!y v>y 9 size f ! :ale & ! elephant to t9y %rew mice & moles4 ,adaptations to diff]5t habitat & me?ods ( life ab\nd2 ! seal & :ale h ! limbs modifi$ into flipp]s1 ! slo? & squirrel h limbs peculi>ly adapt$ to climb+1 :ile ! bats h ! =e limbs model$ = flight4 ,l[e/ ,mammals4--,! l[e/ are ! monotremes1 animals :i* lay eggs l ! birds1 al?\gh !y are provid$ ) hairy cov]+ l o!r mammals4 ,su* are ! ,au/ralian sp9y anteat] & ! duck mole4 ,all o!r mammals br+ =? _! "y develop$ to a =m simil> to _! own4 ,! kang>oo & opossum1 h[ev]1 are provid$ ) a p\* on ! "u side ( ! body 9 :i* ! v immature1 bl9d1 & helpless "y are n\ri%$ until !y are able to c>e = !mselves4 ,^! p\*$ animals are call$ m>supials4 ,! o!r mammals may be briefly classifi$ z foll[s3-- ,,classification ,,( ,,high] ,,mammals ,,ord] ,i4 ,ed5tata4 ,too?less or ) v simple tee?4 ,examples3 anteat]1 slo?1 armadillo4 ,,ord] ,,ii4 ,rod5tia4 ,incisor tee? *isel-%ap$1 usually two above & two bel[4 ,examples3 beav]1 rat1 porcup9e1 rabbit1 squirrel4 ,,ord] ,,iii4 ,cetacea4 ,adapt$ to m>9e life4 ,examples3 :ale1 porpoise4 ,,ord] ,,iv4 ,ungulata4 ,ho(s1 tee? adapt$ = gr9d+4 ,examples3 7a7 odd-to$1 horse1 rh9oc]os1 tapir2 7b7 ev5-to$1 ox1 pig1 %eep1 de]4 ,,ord] ,v4 ,c>nivora4 ,long can9e tee?1 %>p & long claws4 ,examples3 dog1 cat1 lion1 be>1 seal1 & sea lion4 ,,ord] ,,vi4 ,insectivora4 ,example3 mole4 ,,ord] ,,vii4 ,*eiropt]a4 ,=e limbs adapt$ to flight1 tee? po9t$4 ,example3 bat4 ,,ord] ,,viii4 ,primates4 ,erect or ne>ly s1 =e app5dage provid$ ) h&4 ,examples3 monkey1 ape1 man4 ,illu/ration3 ,! geological hi/ory ( ! horse4 7,aft] ,ma!ws1 9 ! ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory47 ,ask y\r tea*] to expla9 ?is diagram4 ,increas+ ,complexity ( ,/ructure & ( ,habits 9 ,plants & ,animals4--,9 our /udy ( biology s f> we h attempt$ to get "s notion ( ! v>i\s factors :i* act ^u liv+ ?+s4 ,we h se5 h[ plants & animals int]act ^u ea* o!r4 ,we h le>n$ some?+ ab\t ! v>i\s physiological processes ( plants & animals1 & h f\nd !m to be 9 _m respects id5tical4 ,we h f\nd grades ( complexity 9 plants f ! "o-cell$ plant1 bact]ium or pleurococcus1 to ! complicat$ fl[]+ plants ( consid]able size & ) _m organs4 ,s 9 animal life1 f ! ,protozoa upw>d1 !re is con/ant *ange1 & ! *ange is t[>d great] complexity ( /ructure & functions4 ,an insect is a high] type ( life ?an a protozoan1 because its /ructure is m complex & x c p]=m its "w ) m ease & accuracy4 ,a fi% is a high] type ( animal ?an ! insect = ^! same reasons1 & also = ano!r4 ,! fi% has an int]nal skeleton :i* =ms a po9t$ column ( bones on ! dorsal side 7! back7 ( ! animal4 ,x is a v]tebrate animal4 ,illu/ration3 ,! evolution>y tree4 ,modifi$ f ,gall[ay4 ,copy ?is diagram 9 y\r notebook4 ,expla9 x z well z y c4 ,! ,doctr9e ( ,evolution4--,we h n[ le>n$ t animal =ms may be arrang$ s z to beg9 ) v simple "o-cell$ =ms & culm9ate ) a gr\p :i* conta9s man himself4 ,?is arrangem5t is call$ ! evolution>y s]ies4 ,evolution means *ange1 & ^! gr\ps are believ$ by sci5ti/s to repres5t /ages 9 complexity ( developm5t ( life on ! e>?4 ,geology tea*es t millions ( ye>s ago1 life ^u ! e>? 0 v simple1 & t gradually m & m complex =ms ( life appe>$1 z ! rocks =m$ late/ 9 "t %[ ! mo/ highly develop$ =ms ( animal life4 ,! great ,engli% sci5ti/1 ,*>les ,d>w91 f ?is & o!r evid5ce1 expla9$ ! !ory ( evolution4 ,?is is ! belief t simple =ms ( life on ! e>? sl[ly & gradually gave rise to ^? m complex & t ?us ultimately ! mo/ complex =ms came into exi/5ce4 ,! ,numb] ( ,animal ,species4--,ov] #ejj1jjj species ( animals are kn[n to exi/ to-day1 z ! foll[+ table %[s4 ,protozoa #h1jjj ,ara*nids #af1jjj ,sponges #b1ejj ,cru/aceans #af1jjj ,coel5t]ates #d1ejj ,mollusks #fa1jjj ,e*9od]ms #d1jjj ,fi%es #ac1jjj ,flat-worms #e1jjj ,amphibians #a1djj ,r\ndworms #a1ejj ,reptiles #c1ejj ,annelids #d1jjj ,birds #ac1jjj ,insects #cfj1jjj ,mammals #c1ejj ,myriapods #b1jjj ------- ,total #eah1ijj ,man's ,place 9 ,nature4--,al?\gh we "k t man is sep>at$ m5tally by a wide gap f all o!r animals1 9 our /udy ( physiology we mu/ ask :]e we are to place man4 ,if we attempt to classify man1 we see at once he mu/ be plac$ ) ! v]tebrate animals because ( 8 possession ( a v]tebral column4 ,evid5tly1 too1 he is a mammal1 because ! "y are n\ri%$ by milk secret$ by ! "m & because 8 body has at lea/ a p>tial cov]+ ( hair4 ,anatomically we f9d t we mu/ place man ) ! apelike mammals1 because ( ^! num]\s po9ts ( /ructural lik5ess4 ,! gr\p ( mammals :i* includes ! monkeys1 apes1 & man we call ! primates4 ,al?\gh anatomically !re is a great] diff]5ce betwe5 ! l[e/ type ( monkey & ! highe/ type ( ape ?an !re is betwe5 ! highe/ type ( ape & ! l[e/ savage1 yet !re is an imm5se m5tal gap betwe5 monkey & man4 ,in/9cts4--,mammals are consid]$ ! highe/ ( v]tebrate animals1 n only because ( _! complicat$ /ructure1 b because _! in/9cts are s well develop$4 ,monkeys c]ta9ly seem to h _m ( ! m5tal attributes ( man4 ,pr(essor ,?orndike ( ,columbia ,univ]sity sums up _! habits ( le>n+ z foll[s3-- ,9 _! me?od ( le>n+1 al?\gh monkeys d n rea* ! human /age ( a ri* life ( ideas1 yet !y c>ry ! animal me?od ( le>n+1 by ! selection ( impulses & association ( !m ) diff]5t s5se-impressions1 to a po9t beyond t rea*$ by any o!r ( ! l[] animals4 ,9 ?is1 too1 !y resemble man2 = he diff]s f ! l[] animals n only 9 ! possession ( a new sort ( intellig5ce1 b also 9 ! trem5d\s ext5sion ( t sort :i* he has 9 common ) !m4 ,a fi% le>ns sl[ly a few simple habits4 ,man le>ns quickly an inf9itude ( habits t may be highly complex4 ,dogs & cats le>n m ?an ! fi%1 :ile monkeys le>n m ?an !y4 ,9 ! numb] ( ?+s he le>ns1 ! complex habits he c =m1 ! v>iety ( l9es along :i* he c le>n !m1 & 9 _! p]man5ce :5 once =m$1 ! monkey ju/ifies 8 inclusion ) man 9 a sep>ate m5tal g5us4 ,evolution ( ,man4--,und\bt$ly !re once liv$ ^u ! e>? races ( m5 :o 7 mu* l[] 9 _! m5tal organization ?an ! pres5t inhabitants4 ,if we foll[ ! e>ly hi/ory ( man ^u ! e>?1 we f9d t at fir/ he mu/ h be5 little bett] ?an "o ( ! l[] animals4 ,he 0 a nomad1 w&]+ f place to place1 fe$+ ^u :atev] liv+ ?+s he c\ld kill ) 8 h&s4 ,gradually he mu/ h le>n$ to use weapons1 & ?us kill 8 prey1 fir/ us+ r\gh /one implem5ts = ?is purpose4 ,z man became m civiliz$1 implem5ts ( bronze & ( iron 7 us$4 ,ab\t ?is "t ! subjugation & dome/ication ( animals began to take place4 ,man !n began to cultivate ! fields1 & to h a fix$ place ( abode o!r ?an a cave4 ,! beg9n+s ( civilization 7 long ago1 b ev5 to-day ! e>? is n entirely civiliz$4 ,! ,races ( ,man4--,at ! pres5t "t !re exi/ ^u ! e>? five races or v>ieties ( man1 ea* v diff]5t f ! o!r 9 in/9cts1 social cu/oms1 &1 to an ext5t1 9 /ructure4 ,^! are ! ,e?iopian or negro type1 orig9at+ 9 ,africa2 ! ,malay or br[n race1 f ! isl&s ( ! ,pacific2 ! ,am]ican ,indian2 ! ,mongolian or yell[ race1 includ+ ! natives ( ,*9a1 ,japan1 & ! ,eskimos2 & f9ally1 ! highe/ type ( all1 ! ,caucasians1 repres5t$ by ! civiliz$ :ite inhabitants ( ,europe & ,am]ica4 ,,ref]5ce ,,books ,,elem5t>y ,hunt]1 ,laboratory ,problems 9 ,civic ,biology1 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,bullet9 ( ,u4 ,s4 ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 ,division ( ,biological ,survey1 ,nos4 #a1 #f1 #ac1 #ag4 ,davison1 ,practical ,zoology4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,ditm>s1 ,! ,reptiles ( ,new ,york4 ,guide ,leaflet #bj4 ,am]4 ,mus4 ( ,nat4 ,hi/ory4 ,%>pe1 ,a ,laboratory ,manual 9 ,biology1 pp4 #adj-aej1 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,walk]1 ,our ,birds & ,_! ,ne/l+s4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,walt]1 ,h4 ,e4 & ,h4 ,a41 ,wild ,birds 9 ,city ,p>ks4 ,publi%$ by au?ors4 ,,advanc$ ,apg>1 ,birds ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,beebe1 ,! ,bird4 ,h5ry ,holt & ,company4 ,ditm>s1 ,! ,reptile ,book4 ,d\bl$ay1 ,page & ,company4 ,hegn]1 ,zoology4 ,! ,macmillan ,company4 ,hornaday1 ,am]ican ,natural ,hi/ory4 ,jordan & ,ev]mann1 ,food & ,game ,fi%es4 ,d\bl$ay1 ,page & ,company4 ,p>k] & ,haswell1 ,textbook ( ,zoology4 ,! ,macmillan ,company4 ,riv]side ,natural ,hi/ory4 ,h\ghton1 ,miffl9 & ,company4 ,we$ & ,de>born1 ,relation ( ,birds to ,man4 ,lipp9cott4 ,,xv4 ,,! ,,economic ,,importance ,,( ,,animals ,problems4--,i4 ,to det]m9e ! uses ( animals4 7a7 ,indirectly z food4 7b7 ,directly z food4 7c7 ,z dome/icat$ animals4 7d7 ,= clo?+4 7e7 ,o!r direct economic uses4 7f7 ,de/ruction ( h>mful plants & animals4 --,,ii4 ,to det]m9e ! h>m done by animals4 7a7 ,animals de/ructive to ^? us$ = food4 7b7 ,animals h>mful to crops & g>d5s4 7c7 ,animals h>mful to fruit & =e/ trees4 7d7 ,animals de/ructive to /or$ food or clo?+4 7e7 ,animals indirectly or directly responsible = disease4 ,,laboratory ,,sugge/ions ,inasmu* z ?is "w is plann$ = ! w9t] mon?s ! laboratory side mu/ be l>gely museum & ref]5ce "w4 ,x is to be expect$ t ! tea*] w wi% to ref] to mu* ( ?is "w at ! "t "w is done on a giv5 gr\p4 ,b x is p$agogically desirable t ! "w z plann$ %\ld be v>i$4 ,int]e/ is ?us held4 ,outl9es prep>$ by ! tea*] to be fill$ 9 by ! /ud5t are desirable because !y lead ! pupil to individual selection ( :at seems to him z important mat]ial4 ,opportunity %\ld be giv5 = laboratory ex]cises bas$ on orig9al s\rces4 ,! pupils %\ld be made to use reports ( ! ,u4 ,s4 ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 ! ,biological ,survey1 v>i\s ,/ates ,reports1 & o!rs4 ,special home laboratory reports may be well made at ?is "t1 = example3 det]m9ation at a local fi% m>ket ( ! fi% t are *eap & fre% at a giv5 "t4 ,h ! /ud5ts give reasons = ?is4 ,/udy conditions 9 ! meat m>ket 9 a simil> mann]4 ,o!r local food conditions may also be /udi$ fir/ h&4 ,,uses ,,( ,,animals ,indirect ,use z ,food4--,j z plants =m ! food ( animals1 s "s animals are food = o!rs4 ,man may make use ( su* food directly or indirectly4 ,_m mollusks1 z ! b>nacle & mussel1 are eat5 by fi%es4 ,o!r fi% live ^u t9y organisms1 wat] fleas & o!r small cru/aceans4 ,^! 9 turn fe$ ^u /ill small] animals1 & we may g back & back until f9ally we come to ! ,protozoa & "o-cell$ wat] plants z an ultimate s\rce ( food4 ,direct ,use z ,food4 ,l[] ,=ms4--,! =ms ( life l[] ?an ! ,cru/acea are ( little use directly z food1 al?\gh ! ,*9ese are v fond ( "o ( ! ,e*9od]ms1 a holo?urian4 ,illu/ration3 ,nor? ,am]ican lob/]4 ,?is specim51 pres]v$ at ! ,u4 ,s4 ,fi% ,commission at ,woods ,hole1 0 ( unusual size & weigh$ ov] tw5ty p\nds4 ,cru/acea z ,food4--,cru/aceans1 h[ev]1 are ( consid]able value = food1 ! lob/] fi%]ies 9 p>ticul> be+ ( importance4 ,! lob/] is highly e/eem$ z food1 & is rapidly disappe>+ f our coa/s z ! result ( ov]fi%+4 ,betwe5 tw5ty & ?irty million are ye>ly tak5 on ! ,nor? ,atlantic coa/4 ,?is means a value at pres5t prices ( ab\t #ae1jjj1jjj4 ,laws h be5 enact$ 9 ,new ,york & o!r /ates aga9/ ov]fi%+4 ,egg-c>ry+ lob/]s mu/ be return$ to ! wat]2 all small] ?an six to n9e in*es 9 l5g? 7! law v>ies 9 diff]5t /ates7 mu/ be put back2 o!r re/rictions are plac$ ^u ! tak+ ( ! animals1 9 hope ( sav+ ! race f ext9ction4 ,"s /ates n[ hat* & c>e = ! "y = a p]iod ( "t2 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,bureau ( ,fi%]ies is also do+ mu* good "w1 9 ! hope ( re/ock+ to "s ext5t ! n[ almo/ deplet$ wat]s4 ,sev]al o!r common cru/aceans are ne> relatives ( ! crayfi%4 ,among !m are ! %rimp & prawn1 ?9-%ell$1 active cru/aceans common along our ea/]n coa/4 ,9 spite ( ! fact t !y =m a l>ge "p ( ! food supply ( _m m>9e animals1 especially fi%1 !y d n appe> to be decreas+ 9 numb]s4 ,!y are also us$ z food by man1 ! %rimp fi%]ies 9 ?is c\ntry aggregat+ ov] #a1jjj1jjj ye>ly4 ,illu/ration3 ,! edible blue crab4 7,f a photograph loan$ by ! ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory47 ,ano!r edible cru/acean ( consid]able economic importance is ! blue crab4 ,crabs are f\nd inhabit+ muddy bottoms2 9 su* localities !y are caught 9 great numb]s 9 nets or traps bait$ ) decay+ meat4 ,!y are1 inde$1 among our mo/ valuable sea scav5g]s1 al?\gh !y are c>nivor\s hunt]s z well4 ,! "y crabs diff] consid]ably 9 =m f ! adult4 ,!y und]go a complete metamorphosis 7*ange ( =m74 ,imm$iately aft] molt+ or %$d+ ( ! out] %ell 9 ord] to gr[ l>g]1 crabs are greatly desir$ by man z an article ( food4 ,!y are !n kn[n z %$d]s1 or s(t-%ell$ crabs4 ,illu/ration3 ,! oy/]4 ,mollusks z ,food4--,oy/]s are nev] f\nd 9 muddy localities1 = 9 su* places !y w\ld be quickly smo!r$ by ! s$im5t 9 ! wat]4 ,!y are f\nd 9 nature cl++ to /ones or on %ells or o!r objects :i* project a little above ! bottom4 ,"h food is abundant & oxyg5 is obta9$ f ! wat] surr\nd+ !m4 ,h5ce oy/] rais]s ?r[ oy/] %ells into ! wat] & ! "y oy/]s atta* !mselves4 ,9 "s p>ts ( ,europe & ?is c\ntry :]e oy/]s are rais$ artificially1 /akes or bru% are sunk 9 %all[ wat] s t ! "y oy/]1 :i* is at fir/ free-swimm+1 may escape ! dang] ( smo!r+ on ! bottom4 ,aft] ! oy/]s are a ye> or two old1 !y are tak5 up & put d[n 9 deep] wat] z se$ oy/]s4 ,at ! age ( ?ree & f\r ye>s !y are ready = ! m>ket4 ,! oy/] indu/ry is "o ( ! mo/ pr(itable ( our fi%]ies4 ,ne>ly #ae1jjj1jjj a ye> has be5 d]iv$ dur+ ! la/ decade f su* s\rces4 ,hundr$s ( boats & ?\s&s ( m5 are engag$ 9 dr$g+ = oy/]s4 ,?ree ( ! mo/ important ( our oy/] gr\nds are ,long ,isl& ,s\nd1 ,n>ragansett ,bay1 & ,*esapeake ,bay4 ,illu/ration3 ,?is diagram %[s h[ cases ( inte/9al disease 7typhoid & di>rhoea7 h be5 trac$ to oy/]s f a locality :]e !y 7 fatt5$ 9 wat] contam9at$ ) sewage4 7,loan$ by ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory47 ,sometimes oy/]s are artificially fatt5$ by plac+ !m on b$s ne> ! m\?s ( fre%-wat] /reams4 ,too (t5 ^! /reams are ! be>]s ( mu* sewage1 & ! oy/]1 :i* lives on microscopic organisms1 takes 9 a numb] ( bact]ia ) o!r food4 ,?us a p]son might become infect$ ) ! typhoid bacillus by eat+ raw oy/]s4 ,/ate & city sup]vision ( ! oy/] indu/ry makes ?is possibility v mu* less ?an x 0 a few ye>s ago1 z c>eful bact]iological analysis ( ! surr\nd+ wat] is con/antly made by compet5t exp]ts4 ,clams4--,o!r bivalve mollusks us$ = food are clams & scallops4 ,two species ( ! =m] are kn[n to ,new ,york]s1 "o z ! r\nd1 ano!r z ! long or s(t-%ell$ clams4 ,! =m] 7,v5us m]c5>ia7 0 call$ by ! ,indians quahog1 & is /ill s call$ 9 ! ,ea/]n /ates4 ,! blue area ( its %ell 0 us$ by ! ,indians to make wampum1 or money4 ,! quahog is n[ ext5sively us$ z food4 ,! long clam 7,mya ar5>ia7 is consid]$ bett] eat+ by ! inhabitants ( ,massa*usetts & ,rhode ,isl&4 ,?is clam 0 highly priz$ z food by ! ,indians4 ,! clam indu/ries ( ! ea/]n coa/ aggregate ne>ly #a1jjj1jjj a ye>4 ,! dr$g+ = scallops1 ano!r molluscan delicacy1 =ms an important indu/ry along c]ta9 p>ts ( ! ea/]n coa/4 ,illu/ration3 ,salmon leap+ a fall on _! way to _! spawn+ b$s4 7,photograph$ by ,dr4 ,john ,a4 ,sampson47 ,fi% z ,food4--,fi% are us$ z food ! _w ov]4 ,f v e>ly times ! h]r+ 7 pursu$ by ! ,norsem54 ,fre%-wat] fi%1 su* z :itefi%1 p]*1 pick]el1 pike1 & ! v>i\s memb]s ( ! tr\t family1 are e/eem$ food &1 especially 9 ! ,great ,lake region1 =m important fi%]ies4 ,b by f> ! mo/ important food fi%es are ^? :i* are tak5 9 salt wat]4 ,"h we h two types ( fi%]ies1 ^? :]e ! fi% comes up a riv] to spawn1 z ! salmon1 /urgeon1 or %ad1 & ^? 9 :i* fi%es are tak5 on _! fe$+ gr\nds 9 ! op5 ocean4 ,h]r+ are ! _w's mo/ important cat*1 ?\gh n 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,"h ! salmon ( ! we/]n coa/ is tak5 to ! value ( ov] #ac1jjj1jjj a ye>4 ,cod fi%+ also =ms an important indu/ry2 ov] #gjjj m5 be+ employ$ & ov] #b1jjj1jjj ( codfi% be+ tak5 ea* ye> 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,illu/ration3 ,globe ,fi%]ies4 ,hundr$s ( o!r species ( fi% are us$ z food1 ! fi% t is ne>e/ at h& be+ (t5 ! *eape/ & be/4 ,:y1 = example1 is ! fl\nd] s *eap 9 ! ,new ,york m>kets8 ,9 :at wat]s are ! cod & h]r+ fi%]ies1 s>d9e1 oy/]1 sponge1 pe>l oy/]8 7,see *>t on page #bja47 ,amphibia & ,reptiles z ,food4--,frogs' legs are e/eem$ a delicacy4 ,c]ta9 reptiles are us$ z food by p ( o!r nationalities1 ! ,iguana1 a ,mexican liz>d1 be+ an example4 ,_m ( ! sea-wat] turtles are ( l>ge size1 ! lea!rback & ! gre5 turtle (t5 weigh+ six hundr$ to sev5 hundr$ p\nds ea*4 ,! fle% ( ! gre5 turtle & especially ( ! diamond-back t]rap91 an animal f\nd 9 ! salt m>%es along our s\!a/]n coa/1 is highly e/eem$ z food4 ,un=tunately = ! pres]vation ( ! species1 ^! animals are usually tak5 dur+ ! bre$+ season :5 !y g to s&y bea*es to lay _! eggs4 ,birds z ,food4--,birds1 bo? wild & dome/icat$1 =m "p ( our food supply4 ,un=tunately our wild game birds are disappe>+ s fa/ t we %\ld n consid] !m z a s\rce ( food4 ,our dome/ic f[ls1 turkey1 ducks1 etc41 =m an important food supply & p\ltry f>ms give lucrative employm5t to _m p4 ,eggs ( dome/icat$ birds are ( great importance z food1 & egg album9 is us$ = o!r purposes1--cl>ify+ sug>s1 coat+ photographic pap]s1 etc4 ,mammals z ,food4--,:5 we consid] ! am\nt ( weal? inve/$ 9 cattle & o!r dome/icat$ animals br$ & us$ = food 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 we see ! great economic importance ( mammals4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,arg5t9a1 & ,au/ralia are ! greate/ produc]s ( cattle4 ,9 ?is c\ntry hogs are l>gely rais$ = food4 ,!y are us$ fre%1 salt$1 smok$ z ham & bacon1 & pickl$4 ,%eep1 :i* are rais$ 9 great quantities 9 ,au/ralia1 ,arg5t9a1 ,russia1 ,uruguay1 & ?is c\ntry1 are "o ( ! _w's greate/ meat supplies4 ,goats1 de]1 _m l>g] game animals1 seals1 walruses1 etc41 give food to p :o live 9 p>ts ( ! e>? t are less d5sely populat$4 ,dome/icat$ ,animals4-- ,:5 man em]g$ f 8 savage /ate on ! e>?1 "o ( ! fir/ signs ( ! beg9n+ ( civilization 0 ! dome/ication ( animals4 ,! dog1 ! c[1 %eep1 & especially ! horse1 m>k epo*s 9 ! advance ( civilization4 ,bea/s ( burd5 are us$ ! _w ov]1 horses almo/ all ov] ! _w1 c]ta9 cattle1 z ! wat] buffalo1 9 tropical ,malaysia2 camels1 goats1 & ! llama are also us$ z draft animals 9 "s o!r c\ntries4 ,illu/ration3 ,fe$+ silkworms4 ,! cat]pill>s are ! :ite objects 9 ! trays4 ,man's weal? 9 _m p>ts ( ! _w is e/imat$ 9 t]ms ( 8 cattle or h]ds ( %eep4 ,s _m products come f ^! s\rces t a long li/ might be giv51 su* z meats1 milk1 butt]1 *eese1 wool1 or o!r body cov]+s1 lea!r1 sk9s1 & hides us$ = o!r purposes4 ,great indu/ries are directly dep5d5t ^u our dome/icat$ animals1 z ! mak+ ( %oes1 ! manufacture ( wool5 clo?1 ! tann+ indu/ry1 & _m o!rs4 ,uses = ,clo?+4--,! manufacture ( silk is due to ! production ( raw silk by ! silkworm1 ! cat]pill> ( a mo?4 ,x lives ^u ! mulb]ry & makes a cocoon f :i* ! silk is w\nd4 ,! ,*9ese silkworm is n[ rais$ to a slight ext5t 9 s\!rn ,cali=nia4 ,*9a1 ,japan1 ,italy1 & ,france1 because ( *eap] labor1 are ! mo/ successful silk-rais+ c\ntries4 ,! use ( wool gives rise to _m great indu/ries4 ,aft] ! wool is cut f ! %eep1 x has to be wa%$ & sc\r$ to get out ! dirt & grease4 ,?is wool fat or lanol9e is us$ 9 mak+ soap & o9tm5ts4 ,! wool is next c>d$1 ! fib]s be+ int]wov5 by ! f9e tee? ( ! c>d+ ma*9e or comb$1 ! fib]s "h be+ pull$ out p>allel to ea* o!r4 ,c>d$ wool becomes wool5 goods2 comb$ wool1 wor/$ goods4 ,! wa/es are also utiliz$1 be+ mix$ ) %oddy 7wool f clo? cutt+s or rags7 to make wool5 goods ( a *eap grade4 ,goat hair1 especially t ( ! ,angora & ! ,ca%m]e goat1 has mu* use 9 ! clo?+ indu/ries4 ,camel's hair & alpaca are also us$4 ,illu/ration3 ,pol> be>1 a fur-be>+ mammal :i* is rapidly be+ ext]m9at$4 ,:y8 ,fur4--,! furs ( _m dome/icat$ & wild animals are ( importance4 ,! ,c>nivora z a gr\p are ( mu* economic importance z ! s\rce ( mo/ ( our fur4 ,! fur seal fi%]ies alone am\nt to _m millions ( doll>s annually4 ,ott]s1 skunks1 sables1 weasels1 foxes1 & m9ks are ( consid]able importance z fur produc]s4 ,ev5 cats are n[ us$ = fur1 usually masqu]ad+ "u "s o!r "n4 ,! fur ( ! beav]1 "o ( ! l>ge/ ( ! rod5ts or gnaw+ mammals1 is ( consid]able value1 z are ! coats ( ! *9*illa1 muskrats1 squirrels1 & o!r rod5ts4 ,! fur ( ! rabbit & nutria are us$ 9 ! manufacture ( felt hats4 ,! quills ( ! porcup9es 7greatly develop$ & /iff5$ hairs7 h a slight comm]cial value4 ,cons]vation ( ,fur-be>+ ,animals ,ne$$4--,z "t goes on & ! furs ( wild animals become sc>c] & sc>c] ?r\gh ov]kill+1 we f9d ! ne$ = protection & cons]vation ( _m ( ^! fa/-vani%+ wild =ms m & m imp]ative4 ,already bre$+ ( "s fur-be>+ animals has be5 tri$ ) success1 & *eap sub/itutes = wild animal sk9s are com+ m & m into ! m>kets4 ,black-fox bre$+ has be5 tri$ successfully 9 ,pr9ce ,edw>d ,isl&1 ,canada1 #bejj to #cjjj be+ giv5 = a s+le sk94 ,skunk1 m>t51 & m9k are also be+ br$ = ! m>ket4 ,game pres]ves 9 ?is c\ntry & ,canada are also help+ to pres]ve our wild fur-be>+ animals4 ,animal ,oils4--,:ale oil1 obta9$ f ! fat or blubb] ( :ales1 is us$ ext5sively = lubricat+4 ,neat's-foot oil comes f ! feet ( cattle & is also us$ 9 lubrication4 ,tall[ & l>d1 two fats f cattle1 %eep1 & pigs1 h s _m well-kn[n uses t comm5t is unnecess>y4 ,cod-liv] oil is us$ m$ically & is well kn[n4 ,b x is n s widely kn[n t a fi% call$ ! m5had5 or moss bunk]s ( ! ,atlantic coa/ produces ov] #c1jjj1jjj gallons ( oil e ye> & is be+ rapidly ext]m9at$ 9 consequ5ce4 ,hides1 ,horns1 ,ho(s1 etc4--,lea!rs1 f cattle1 horses1 %eep1 & goats1 are us$ ev]y:]e4 ,lea!r manufacture is "o ( ! great indu/ries ( ! ,ea/]n /ates1 hundr$s ( millions ( doll>s be+ inve/$ 9 its manufactur+ plants4 ,horns & bones are utiliz$ = mak+ combs1 buttons1 h&les = bru%es1 etc4 ,glue is made f ! animal matt] 9 bones4 ,ivory1 obta9$ f elephant1 walrus1 & o!r tusks1 =ms a valuable comm]cial product4 ,x is l>gely us$ = knife h&les1 piano keys1 combs1 etc4 ,p]fumes4--,! musk de]1 musk ox1 & muskrat furni% a valuable p]fume call$ musk4 ,civet cats also give u a some:at simil> p]fume4 ,amb]gris1 a basis = delicate p]fumes1 comes f ! inte/9es ( ! sp]m :ale4 ,protozoa4--,! ,protozoa h play$ an important "p 9 rock build+4 ,! *alk b$s ( ,kansas & o!r *alk =mations are made up to a l>ge ext5t ( ! t9y skeletons ( ,protozoa1 call$ ,=am9if]a4 ,"s lime/one rocks are also compos$ 9 l>ge "p ( su* skeletons4 ,! skeletons ( "s species are us$ to make a poli%+ p[d]4 ,sponges4--,! sponges ( comm]ce h ! skeleton compos$ ( t\gh fib]s ( mat]ial some:at l t ( c['s horn4 ,?is fib] is ela/ic & has ! p[] ( absorb+ wat]4 ,9 a liv+ /ate1 ! horny fib] sponge is a d>k-color$ fle%y mass1 usually f\nd atta*$ to rocks4 ,! w>m wat]s ( ! ,m$it]ranean ,sea & ! ,we/ ,indies furni% mo/ ( our sponges4 ,! sponges are pull$ up f _! re/+ place on ! bottom1 by means ( long-h&l$ rakes op]at$ by m5 9 boats or are secur$ by div]s4 ,!y are !n spread out on ! %ore 9 ! sun1 & ! liv+ tissues all[$ to decay2 !n aft] treatm5t consi/+ ( beat+1 blea*+1 & trimm+1 ! ba? sponge is ready = ! m>ket4 ,"s =ms ( coral are ( comm]cial value4 ,! r$ coral ( ! ,m$it]ranean ,sea is ! be/ example4 ,illu/ration3 ,9 "s c\ntries little metal images ( ,buddha are plac$ )9 ! %ells ( liv+ pe>l oy/]s or clams4 ,ov] ^! ! mantle ( ! animal secretes a lay] ( "m ( pe>l z is %[n 9 ! picture4 ,pe>ls & ,"m ( ,pe>l4--,pe>ls are priz$ ! _w ov]4 ,x is a well-kn[n fact t ev5 9 ?is c\ntry pe>ls ( "s value are sometimes f\nd )9 ! %ells ( ! fre%-wat] mussel & ! oy/]4 ,mo/ ( ! f9e/1 h[ev]1 come f ! wat]s ar\nd ,ceylon4 ,if a pe>l is cut op5 & exam9$ c>efully1 x is f\nd to be a deposit ( ! "m-(-pe>l lay] ( ! %ell ar\nd "s c5tral /ructure4 ,x has be5 believ$ t any =eign sub/ance1 z a gra9 ( s&1 might irritate ! mantle at a giv5 po9t1 ?us /imulat+ x to secrete ar\nd ! sub/ance4 ,x n[ seems likely t mo/ p]fect pe>ls are due to ! gr[? )9 ! mantle ( ! clam or oy/] ( c]ta9 p>asites1 /ages 9 ! developm5t ( a flukeworm4 ,! irritation ?us set up 9 ! tissue causes "m ( pe>l to be deposit$ ar\nd ! s\rce ( irritation1 ) ! subsequ5t =mation ( a pe>l4 ,! pe>l-button indu/ry 9 ?is c\ntry is l>gely dep5d5t ^u ! fre%-wat] mussel1 ! %ells ( :i* are us$4 ,?is mussel is be+ s rapidly deplet$ t ! national gov]nm5t is work+ out a means ( artificial propagation ( ^! animals4 ,honey & ,wax4--,honeybees#bi are kept 9 hives4 ,a colony consi/s ( a que51 a female :o lays ! eggs = ! colony1 ! drones1 ^: duty x is to f]tilize ! eggs1 & ! work]s4 ,footnote #bi3 ,_! daily life may be easily wat*$ 9 ! s*oolroom1 by means ( "o ( ! _m good & *eap obs]vation hives n[ made to be plac$ 9 a w9d[ frame4 ,directions = mak+ a small obs]vation hive = s*ool "w c be f\nd 9 ,hodge1 ,nature ,/udy & ,life1 ,*ap4 ,,xiv4 ,bullet9 ,no4 #a1 ,u4 ,s4 ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 entitl$ ,! ,honey ,bee1 by ,frank ,b5ton1 is valuable = ! amateur beekeep]4 ,x may be obta9$ = tw5ty-five c5ts f ! ,sup]9t5d5t ( ,docum5ts1 ,union ,build+1 ,wa%+ton1 ,d4,c4 ,illu/ration3 ,cells ( honeycomb1 que5 cell on "r at bottom4 ,! cells ( ! comb are built by ! work]s out ( wax secret$ f ! "u surface ( _! bodies4 ,! wax is cut (f 9 ?9 plates by means ( ! wax %e>s betwe5 ! two la/ jo9ts ( ! h9d legs4 ,^! cells are us$ to place ! eggs ( ! que5 91 "o egg to ea* cell1 & ! "y are hat*$ aft] ?ree days1 to beg9 life z footless :ite grubs4 ,! "y are f$ = sev]al days1 !n %ut up 9 ! cells & all[$ to =m pupae4 ,ev5tually !y break _! cells & take _! place z work]s 9 ! hive1 fir/ z nurses = ! "y & lat] z poll5 ga!r]s & honey mak]s4 ,we h already se5 7pages #cg to #ci7 t ! honeybee ga!rs nect>1 :i* %e swall[s1 keep+ ! fluid 9 h] crop until h] return to ! hive4 ,"h x is =c$ out into cells ( ! comb4 ,x is n[ ?9n] ?an :at we call honey4 ,to ?ick5 x1 ! bees sw>m ov] ! op5 cells1 mov+ _! w+s v rapidly1 ?us evaporat+ "s ( ! wat]4 ,a hive ( bees h be5 kn[n to make ov] ?irty-"o p\nds ( honey 9 a s+le day1 al?\gh ! av]age is v mu* less ?an ?is4 ,x is e/imat$ f tw5ty to ?irty millions ( doll>s' wor? ( honey & wax are produc$ ea* ye> 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,co*9eal & ,lac4--,among o!r products ( insect orig9 is co*9eal1 a r$ color+ matt]1 :i* consi/s ( ! dri$ bodies ( a t9y insect1 "o ( ! plant lice :i* lives on ! cactus plants 9 ,mexico & ,c5tral ,am]ica4 ,! lac insect1 ano!r "o ( ! plant lice1 fe$s on ! juices ( c]ta9 trees 9 ,india & p\rs out a sub/ance f its body :i* aft] treatm5t =ms %ellac4 ,%ellac is ( mu* use z a basis = v>ni%4 ,gall ,insects4--,oak galls1 gr[?s caus$ by ! /+ ( wasp-l insects1 give u products us$ 9 ink mak+1 9 tann+1 & 9 mak+ pyrogallic acid :i* is mu* us$ 9 develop+ photographs4 ,insects de/roy ,h>mful ,plants or ,animals4--,"s =ms ( animal life are ( great importance because ( _! de/ruction ( h>mful plants or animals4 ,illu/ration3 ,an insect fri5d ( man4 ,an i*neumon fly bor+ 9 a tree to lay its eggs 9 ! burr[ ( a bor+ insect h>mful to t tree4 ,a ne> relative ( ! bee1 call$ ! i*neumon fly1 does man indirectly consid]able good because ( its habit ( lay+ its eggs & re>+ ! "y 9 ! bodies ( cat]pill>s :i* are h>mful to vegetation4 ,"s ( ! i*neumons ev5 bore into trees 9 ord] to deposit _! eggs 9 ! l>vae ( wood-bor+ insects4 ,x is safe to say t ! i*neumons save millions ( doll>s ye>ly to ?is c\ntry4 ,sev]al beetles are ( value to man4 ,mo/ important ( ^! is ! natural enemy ( ! orange-tree scale1 ! ladybug1 or ladybird beetle4 ,9 ,new ,york /ate x may (t5 be f\nd fe$+ ^u ! plant lice1 or aphids1 :i* live on rosebu%es4 ,! c>rion beetles & _m wat] beetles act z scav5g]s4 ,! sexton beetles bury dead c>casses ( animals4 ,ants 9 tropical c\ntries are p>ticul>ly useful z scav5g]s4 ,insects1 besides poll9at+ fl[]s1 (t5 d a s]vice by eat+ h>mful we$s4 ,?us _m h>mful plants are kept 9 *eck4 ,we h not$ t !y sp9 silk1 ?us =m+ clo?+2 t 9 _m cases !y are prey$ ^u1 & t !y supply an enorm\s multitude ( birds1 fi%es1 & o!r animals ) food4 ,illu/ration3 ,! common toad1 an insect eat]4 ,use ( ! ,toad4--,! toad is ( great economic importance to man because ( its diet4 ,no less ?an eighty-?ree species ( insects1 mo/ly injuri\s1 h be5 prov$ to ent] into ! diet>y4 ,a toad has be5 obs]v$ to snap up "o hundr$ & tw5ty-eight flies 9 half an h\r4 ,?us at a l[ e/imate x c\ld easily de/roy "o hundr$ insects dur+ a day & d an imm5se s]vice to ! g>d5 dur+ ! summ]4 ,x has be5 e/imat$ by ,kirkl& t a s+le toad may1 on acc\nt ( ! cutworms :i* x kills1 be wor? #ai4hh ea* season x lives1 if ! damage done by ea* cutworm be e/imat$ at only "o c5t4 ,toads also fe$ ^u slugs & o!r g>d5 pe/s4 ,birds eat ,insects4--,! food ( birds makes !m ( ! greate/ economic importance to our c\ntry4 ,?is is because ( ! relation ( insects to agriculture4 ,a l>ge "p ( ! diet ( mo/ ( our native birds includes insects h>mful to vegetation4 ,inve/igations und]tak5 by ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture 7,division ( ,biological ,survey7 %[ t a surpris+ly l>ge numb] ( birds once believ$ to h>m crops really p]=m a s]vice by kill+ injuri\s insects4 ,ev5 ! mu* malign$ cr[ lives to "s ext5t ^u insects4 ,swall[s 9 ! ,s\!rn /ates kill ! cotton-boll weevil1 "o ( our wor/ insect pe/s4 ,our e>lie/ visitor1 ! bluebird1 subsi/s l>gely on injuri\s insects1 z d woodpeck]s1 cuckoos1 k+birds1 & _m o!rs4 ,! rob91 ^: pres5ce 9 ! *]ry tree we res5t1 dur+ ! re/ ( ! summ] does mu* good by fe$+ ^u noxi\s insects4 ,birds use ! food sub/ances :i* are mo/ abundant ar\nd !m at ! "t4#cj ,footnote #cj3 ,! foll[+ quotation f ,i4 ,p4 ,trimble1 ,a ,treatise on ! ,insect ,enemies ( ,fruit & ,%ade ,trees1 be>s out ?is /atem5t3 ,on ! fif? ( ,may1 #ahfd1 444 sev5 diff]5t birds 444 _h be5 fe$+ freely ^u small beetles4444 ,!re 0 a great flight ( beetles t day2 ! atmosph]e 0 teem+ ) !m4 ,a few days aft]1 ! air 0 fill$ ) ,ephem]a flies1 & ! same species ( birds 7 !n fe$+ ^u !m4 ,dur+ ! outbreak ( ,rocky ,m\nta9 locu/s 9 ,nebraska 9 #ahgd-ahgg1 ,pr(essor ,samuel ,aughey saw a long-bill$ m>% wr5 c>ry ?irty locu/s to h] "y 9 an h\r4 ,at ?is rate1 = sev5 h\rs a day1 a brood w\ld consume #baj locu/s p] day1 & ! pass]9e birds ( ! ea/]n half ( ,nebraska1 all[+ only tw5ty broods to ! squ>e mile1 w\ld de/roy daily #afb1gga1jjj ( ! pe/s4 ,! av]age locu/ weighs ab\t fifte5 gra9s1 & is capable ea* day ( consum+ its own weight ( /&+ =age crops1 :i* at #aj p] ton w\ld be wor? #agdc4bf4 ,?is case may s]ve z an illu/ration ( ! va/ good t is done e ye> by ! de/ruction ( insect pe/s f$ to ne/l+ birds4 ,& x %\ld be rememb]$ t ! ne/+ season is also t :5 ! de/ruction ( injuri\s insects is mo/ ne$$2 t is1 at ! p]iod ( greate/ agricultural activity & be=e ! p>asitic insects c be dep5d$ on to r$uce ! pe/s4 ,! enc\ragem5t ( birds to ne/ on ! f>m & ! disc\ragem5t ( ne/ robb+ are !re=e m ?an m]e matt]s ( s5tim5t2 !y return an actual ca% equival5t1 & h a def9ite be>+ on ! success or failure ( ! crops4--,ye> ,book ( ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture4 ,illu/ration3 ,food ( "s common birds4 ,:i* ( ! above birds %\ld be protect$ by man & :y8 ,birds eat ,we$ ,se$s4--,n only d birds aid man 9 8 battles ) de/ructive insects1 b se$-eat+ birds eat ! se$s ( we$s4 ,our native sp>r[s 7n ! ,engli% sp>r[71 ! m\rn+ dove1 bob:ite1 & o!r birds fe$ l>gely ^u ! se$s ( _m ( our common we$s4 ,?is fact alone is suffici5t to make birds ( va/ economic importance4 ,n all birds are se$ or insect fe$]s4 ,"s1 z ! cormorants1 ospreys1 gulls1 & t]ns1 are active fi%]s4 ,ne> l>ge cities gulls especially act z scav5g]s1 de/roy+ mu* float+ g>bage t o!rwise might be wa%$ a%ore to become a m5ace to heal?4 ,! vultures ( ,india & semitropical c\ntries are ( imm5se value z scav5g]s4 ,birds ( prey 7owls7 eat liv+ mammals1 includ+ _m rod5ts2 = example1 field mice1 rats1 & o!r pe/s4 ,ext]m9ation ( our ,native ,birds4--,)9 our own times we h witness$ ! almo/ total ext]m9ation ( "s species ( our native birds4 ,! ,am]ican pass5g] pigeon1 once v abundant 9 ! ,middle ,we/1 is n[ ext9ct4 ,audubon1 ! greate/ ( all ,am]ican bird lov]s1 gives a graphic acc\nt ( ! migration ( a flock ( ^! birds4 ,s num]\s 7 !y t :5 ! flock rose 9 ! air ! sun 0 d>k5$1 & at night ! weight ( ! roo/+ birds broke d[n l>ge bran*es ( ! trees 9 :i* !y re/$4 ,to-day n a s+le wild specim5 ( ?is pigeon c be f\nd1 because !y 7 slaught]$ by ! hundr$s ( ?\s&s dur+ ! bre$+ season4 ,! :olesale kill+ ( ! sn[y egret to furni% ornam5ts = ladies' headwe> is ano!r example ( ! improvid5ce ( our fell[-c\ntrym54 ,*>les ,dudley ,w>n] said1 ,fea!rs d n improve ! appe>ance ( an ugly woman1 & a pretty woman ne$s no su* aid4 ,:olesale kill+ = plumage1 eggs1 & food1 &1 alas1 (t5 = m]e sport1 has r$uc$ ! numb] ( our birds m ?an "o half 9 ?irty /ates & t]ritories )9 ! pa/ fifte5 ye>s4 ,e crusade aga9/ indiscrim9ate kill+ ( our native birds %\ld be welcom$ by all ?9k+ ,am]icans4 ,! rec5t ,mc,lane bill :i* aims at ! protection ( migrat+ birds & ! bird-protect+ clause ( ! rec5tly pass$ t>iff bill %[s t ?is c\ntry is awak+ to ! value ( h] bird life4 ,)\t ! birds ! f>m] w\ld h a hopeless fight aga9/ insect pe/s4 ,! effect ( kill+ native birds is n[ well se5 9 ,italy & ,japan1 :]e insects are increas+ & d great] damage ea* ye> to crops & trees4 ,( ! eight hundr$ or m species ( birds 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 only six species ( hawks 7,coop]'s & ! %>p-%9n$ hawk 9 p>ticul>71 & ! great horn$ owl1 :i* prey ^u useful birds2 ! sapsuck]1 :i* kills or injures _m trees because ( its fondness = ! gr[+ lay] ( ! tree2 ! bobol9k1 :i* de/roys ye>ly #b1jjj1jjj wor? ( rice 9 ! ,s\?2 ! cr[1 :i* fe$s on crops z well z insects2 & ! ,engli% sp>r[1 may be consid]$ z enemies ( man4 ,! ,engli% ,sp>r[4--,! ,engli% sp>r[ is an example ( a bird introduc$ = ! purpose ( insect de/ruction1 t has done great h>m because ( its relation to our native birds4 ,introduc$ at ,brooklyn 9 #ahej = ! purpose ( ext]m9at+ ! cank]worm1 x soon ab&on$ an insect diet & has driv5 out mo/ ( our native insect fe$]s4 ,inve/igations by ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture h %[n t 9 ! c\ntry ^! birds & _! "y fe$ to a l>ge ext5t ^u gra91 ?us %[+ !m to be injuri\s to agriculture4 ,dirty & v prolific1 x already has work$ its way f ! ,ea/ z f> z ! ,pacific coa/4 ,9 ?is area ! bluebird1 song sp>r[1 & yell[bird h all be5 =c$ to give way1 z well z _m l>g] birds ( great economic value & beauty4 ,! ,engli% sp>r[ has become a pe/ especially 9 our cities1 & %\ld be ext]m9at$ 9 ord] to save our native birds4 ,x is fe>$ 9 "s qu>t]s t ! ,engli% />l+ :i* has rec5tly be5 introduc$ into ?is c\ntry may 9 "t prove a pe/ z =midable z ! ,engli% sp>r[4 ,illu/ration3 ,?is %[s h[ "s snakes 7con/rictors7 kill & eat _! prey4 7,s]ies photograph$ by ,c4 ,w4 ,beebe & ,cl>5ce ,halt]47 ,food ( ,snakes4--,probably ! mo/ dislik$ & fe>$ ( all animals are ! snakes4 ,?is feel+1 h[ev]1 is r>ely des]v$1 =1 on ! :ole1 our common snakes are b5eficial to man4 ,! black snake & ! milk snake fe$ l>gely on injuri\s rod5ts 7rats1 mice1 etc471 ! pretty gre5 snake eats injuri\s insects1 & ! little ,de,kay snake fe$s p>tially on slugs4 ,if x 7 n t ! rattlesnake & ! copp]head are v5om\s1 !y also c\ld be said to be useful1 = !y live on ,engli% sp>r[s1 rats1 mice1 moles1 & rabbits4 ,food ( ,h]bivor\s ,animals4--,we mu/ n =get t o!r animals besides insects & birds help to keep d[n ! rapidly gr[+ we$s4 ,h]bivor\s animals ! _w ov] de/roy1 besides ! grass :i* !y eat1 untold multitudes ( we$s1 :i*1 if un*eck$1 w\ld drive out ! useful occupants ( ! pa/ure1 ! grasses & gra9s4 ,,h>m ,,done ,,by ,,animals ,economic ,loss f ,insects4--,! money value ( crops1 =e/ trees1 /or$ foods1 & o!r mat]ial de/roy$ annually by insects is beyond belief4 ,x is e/imat$ t !y get "o t5? ( ! c\ntry's crops1 at ! l[e/ e/imate a matt] ( "s #cjj1jjj1jjj ye>ly4 ,! common s*ools ( ! c\ntry co/ 9 #aijb ! sum ( #bce1jjj1jjj1 & all high] in/itutions ( le>n+ co/ less ?an #ej1jjj1jjj1 mak+ ! total co/ ( education 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates consid]ably less ?an ! f>m]s lo/ f insect ravages4 ,fur!rmore1 ! ye>ly losses f insect ravages aggregate ne>ly twice z mu* z x co/s to ma9ta9 our army & navy2 m ?an twice ! loss by fire2 twice ! capital inve/$ 9 manufactur+ agricultural implem5ts2 & ne>ly ?ree times ! e/imat$ value ( ! products ( all ! fruit or*>ds1 v9ey>ds1 & small fruit f>ms 9 ! c\ntry4--,,sl+]l&4 ,! total ye>ly value ( all f>m & =e/ products 9 ,new ,york is p]haps #aej1jjj1jjj1 & ! "o t5? t ! insects get is wor? #ae1jjj1jjj4 ,insects :i* damage ,g>d5 & ,o!r ,crops4--,! gras%opp]s & ! l>vae ( v>i\s mo?s d consid]able h>m "h1 especially ! cabbage worm1 ! cutworm1 a fe$] on all k9ds ( g>d5 truck1 & ! corn worm1 a pe/ on corn1 cotton1 tomatoes1 peas1 & beans4 ,among ! beetles :i* are f\nd 9 g>d5s is ! potato beetle1 :i* de/roys ! potato plant4 ,?is beetle =m]ly liv$ 9 ,mexico ^u a wild plant ( ! same family z ! potato1 & came nor? ^u ! introduction ( ! potato into ,colorado1 evid5tly pref]r+ cultivat$ =ms to wild =ms ( ?is family4 ,illu/ration3 ,cotton-boll weevil4 a1 l>va2 b1 pupa2 c1 adult4 ,enl>g$ ab\t f\r times4 7,photograph$ by ,davison47 ,! "o beetle do+ by f> ! greate/ h>m 9 ?is c\ntry is ! cotton-boll weevil4 ,import$ f ,mexico1 s9ce #ahib x has spread ov] ea/]n ,texas & into ,l\isiana4 ,! beetle lays its eggs 9 ! "y cotton fruit or boll1 & ! l>vae fe$ ^u ! sub/ance )9 ! boll4 ,x is e/imat$ t if un*eck$ ?is pe/ w\ld de/roy ye>ly "o half ( ! cotton crop1 caus+ a loss ( #bej1jjj1jjj4 ,=tunately1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture is at "w on ! problem1 &1 :ile x has n f\nd any way ( ext]m9at+ ! beetle z yet1 x has be5 f\nd t1 by plant+ m h>dy v>ieties ( cotton1 ! crop matures e>li] & rip5s be=e ! weevils h increas$ 9 suffici5t numb]s to de/roy ! crop 7see page #abf74 ,! bugs are among our mo/ de/ructive insects4 ,! mo/ famili> examples ( our g>d5 pe/s are ! squa% bug2 ! *9* bug1 :i* ye>ly does damage e/imat$ at #bj1jjj1jjj1 by suck+ ! juice f ! leaves ( gra92 & ! plant lice1 or aphids4 ,"o1 liv+ on ! grape1 ye>ly de/roys imm5se numb]s ( v9es 9 ! v9ey>ds ( ,france1 ,g]many1 & ,cali=nia4 ,illu/ration3 ,female tussock mo? :i* has j em]g$ f ! cocoon at ! left1 ^u :i* x has deposit$ ov] two hundr$ eggs4 7,photograph by ,davison47 ,illu/ration3 ,cat]pill> ( tussock mo?4 7,photograph by ,davison47 ,insects :i* h>m ,fruit & ,=e/ ,trees4--,great damage is annually done trees by ! l>vae ( mo?s4 ,massa*usetts has already sp5t ov] #c1jjj1jjj 9 try+ to ext]m9ate ! import$ gypsy mo?4 ,! codl+ mo?1 :i* bores into apples & pe>s1 is e/imat$ to ru9 ye>ly #c1jjj1jjj wor? ( fruit 9 ,new ,york alone1 :i* is by no means ! mo/ important apple region ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,among ^! pe/s1 ! mo/ important to ! dwell] 9 a l>ge city is ! tussock mo?1 :i* de/roys our %ade trees4 ,! cat]pill> may easily be recogniz$ by its hairy1 tuft$ r$ head4 ,! eggs are laid on ! b>k ( %ade trees 9 :at look l masses ( foam4 7,see figure on page #bae47 ,by collect+ & burn+ ! egg masses 9 ! fall1 we may save _m %ade trees ! foll[+ ye>4 ,! l>vae ( "s mo?s damage ! trees by bor+ into ! wood ( ! tree on :i* !y live4 ,su* are ! pea*1 apple1 & o!r fruit-tree bor]s common 9 our or*>ds4 ,_m beetle l>vae also live 9 trees & kill annually ?\s&s ( =e/ & %ade trees4 ,! hickory bor] ?reat5s to kill all ! hickory trees 9 ! ,ea/]n /ates4 ,among ! bugs mo/ de/ructive to trees are ! scale insect & ! plant lice4 ,! ,san ,jose scale1 a native ( ,*9a1 0 introduc$ into ! fruit groves ( ,cali=nia ab\t #ahgj & has spread all ov] ! c\ntry4 ,a ladybird beetle1 :i* has also be5 import$1 is ! mo/ effective ag5t 9 keep+ ?is pe/ 9 *eck4 ,insects ( ! ,h\se or ,/oreh\se4--,weevils are ! greate/ pe/s1 frequ5tly ru9+ tons ( /or$ corn1 :eat1 & o!r c]eals4 ,roa*es w eat almo/ any?+1 ev5 clo?+2 !y are especially fond ( all k9ds ( bread/uffs4 ,! c>pet beetle is a recogniz$ foe ( ! h\sekeep]1 ! l>vae fe$+ ^u all sorts ( wool5 mat]ial4 ,! l>vae ( ! clo!s mo? d an imm5se am\nt ( damage1 especially to /or$ clo?+4 ,fleas1 lice1 & p>ticul>ly b$bugs are among man's p]sonal foes4 ,besides be+ unpleasant !y are believ$ to be disease c>ri]s & z su* %\ld be ext]m9at$4#ca ,footnote #ca3 ,directions = ! treatm5t ( ^! pe/s may be f\nd 9 pamphlets issu$ by ! ,u4 ,s4 ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture4 ,food ( ,/>fi%4--,/>fi% are enorm\sly de/ructive to "y clams & oy/]s1 z ! foll[+ evid5ce1 collect$ by ,pr(essor ,a4 ,d4 ,mead1 ( ,br[n ,univ]sity1 %[s4 ,a s+le />fi% 0 conf9$ 9 an aqu>ium ) fifty-six "y clams4 ,! l>ge/ clam 0 ab\t ! l5g? ( "o arm ( ! />fi%1 ! smalle/ ab\t t5 millimet]s 9 l5g?4 ,9 six days e clam 9 ! aqu>ium 0 dev\r$4 ,hundr$s ( ?\s&s ( doll>s' damage is done annually to ! oy/]s 9 ,connecticut alone by ! ravages ( />fi%4 ,dur+ ! bre$+ season ( ! clam & oy/] ! boats dr$ge up tons ( />fi% :i* are ?r[n on %ore to die or to be us$ z f]tiliz]4 ,,! ,,relations ,,( ,,animals ,,to ,,disease ,illu/ration3 ,! life hi/ory ( ! mal>ial p>asite4 ,?is cut ( ! mal>ial p>asite %[s p>ts ( ! body ( ! mosquito & ( man4 ,to und]/& ! life hi/ory beg9 at ! po9t :]e ! mosquito injects ! cresc5t-%ap$ bodies into ! blood ( man4 ,notice t aft] ! spores are releas$ f ! corpuscles ( man two k9ds ( cells may be =m$4 ,^! are probably a sexual /age4 ,developm5t )9 ! body ( ! mosquito w only take place :5 ! p>asite is tak5 into its body at ?is sexual /age4 ,! ,cause ( ,mal>ia4--,! /udy ( ! life hi/ory & habits ( ! ,protozoa has result$ 9 ! f9d+ ( _m p>asitic =ms1 & ! consequ5t explanation ( "s k9ds ( disease4 ,"o p>asitic protozoan l an amoeba is call$ ,plasmodium mal>iae4 ,x causes ! disease kn[n z mal>ia4 ,:5 a mosquito 7! anopheles7 sucks ! blood f a p]son hav+ mal>ia ?is p>asite passes into ! /oma* ( ! mosquito4 ,aft] complet+ a "p ( its life hi/ory )9 ! mosquito's body ! p>asite e/abli%es itself )9 ! gl&s :i* secrete ! saliva ( ! mosquito4 ,aft] ab\t eight days1 if ! infect$ mosquito bites a p]son1 "s ( ! p>asites are introduc$ into ! blood along ) ! saliva4 ,^! p>asites ent] ! corpuscles ( ! blood1 increase 9 size1 & !n =m spores4 ,! rapid process ( spore =mation results 9 ! break+ d[n ( ! blood corpuscles & ! release ( ! spores1 & ! poisons !y manufacture1 into ! blood4 ,?is causes ! *ill foll[$ by ! fev] s *>act]i/ic ( mal>ia4 ,! spores may aga9 ent] ! blood corpuscles & 9 =ty-eight or sev5ty-two h\rs repeat ! process ?us describ$1 dep5d+ on ! k9d ( mal>ia !y cause4 ,! only cure = ! disease is qu99e 9 r l>ge doses4 ,?is kills ! p>asites 9 ! blood4 ,b qu99e %\ld n be tak5 except "u a physician's directions4 ,illu/ration3 ,h[ to di/+ui% ! h>mless mosquito 7culex71 a1 f ! mal>ial mosquito 7anopheles71 b1 :5 at re/4 ,notice ! position ( legs & body4 ,! ,mal>ial ,mosquito4--,=tunately = mank9d1 n all mosquitoes h>bor ! p>asite :i* causes mal>ia4 ,! h>mless mosquito 7culex7 may be usually di/+ui%$ f ! mosquito :i* c>ries mal>ia 7anopheles7 by ! position tak5 :5 at re/4 ,culex lays eggs 9 t9y rafts ( "o hundr$ or m eggs 9 any /&+ wat]2 ?us ! eggs are di/+ui%$ f ^? ( anopheles1 :i* are n 9 rafts4 ,ra9 b>rels1 gutt]s1 or old cans may bre$ 9 a %ort "t en\gh mosquitoes to /ock a neighborhood4 ,! l>vae are kn[n z wiggl]s4 ,!y brea! ?r\gh a tube 9 ! po/]ior end ( ! body1 & may be recogniz$ by _! peculi> movem5t :5 on _! way to ! surface to brea!4 ,! pupa1 di/+ui%$ by a l>ge ?oracic region1 brea!s ?r\gh a pair ( tubes on ! ?orax4 ,! fact t bo? l>vae & pupae take air f ! surface ( ! wat] makes x possible to kill ! mosquito dur+ ^! /ages by p\r+ oil on ! surface ( ! wat] :]e !y bre$4 ,! introduction ( m9n[s1 gold fi%1 or o!r small fi% :i* fe$ ^u ! l>vae 9 ! wat] :]e ! mosquitoes bre$ w d mu* to free a neighborhood f ?is pe/4 ,dra9+ swamps or l[ l& :i* holds wat] aft] a ra9 is ano!r me?od ( ext]m9ation4 ,"s ( ! mosquito-infe/$ di/ricts ar\nd ,new ,york ,city h be5 almo/ fre$ f mosquitoes by dra9+ ! salt m>%es :]e !y bre$4 ,long %all[ tr5*es are s built z to tap & dra9 (f any /&+ wat] 9 :i* ! eggs might be laid4 ,9 ?is way ! mosquito has be5 almo/ ext]m9at$ along "s p>ts ( our ,new ,engl& coa/4 ,illu/ration3 ,swamps are dra9$ & all /&+ wat] cov]$ ) a film ( oil 9 ord] to ext]m9ate mosquitoes4 ,:y is ! oil plac$ on ! surface ( ! wat]8 ,s9ce ! beg9n+ ( hi/orical times1 mal>ia has be5 preval5t 9 regions infe/$ by mosquitoes4 ,! anci5t city ( ,rome 0 s greatly tr\bl$ by p]iodic outbreaks ( mal>ial fev] t a goddess ( fev] came to be wor%ip$ 9 ord] to less5 ! sev]ity ( :at ! inhabitants believ$ to be a div9e visitation4 ,at ! pres5t "t ! mal>ia ( ,italy is be+ successfully f\ght & conqu]$ by ! dra9+ ( ! mosquito-bre$+ m>%es4 ,by a little c>efully direct$ oil+ ( wat] a few boys may make an almo/ un9habitable region absolutely safe to live 94 ,:y n try x if !re are mosquitoes 9 y\r neighborhood8 ,yell[ ,fev] & ,mosquitoes4--,ano!r disease c>ri$ by mosquitoes is yell[ fev]4 ,9 ! ye> #ahgh !re 7 #abe1jjj cases & #ab1jjj dea?s 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 mo/ly 9 ,alabama1 ,l\isiana1 & ,mississippi4 ,dur+ ! ,fr5* occupation ( ! ,panama ,canal zone ! "w 0 at a /&/ill "p ( ! "t because ( ! ravages ( yell[ fev]4 ,be=e ! w> ) ,spa9 ?\s&s ( p 7 ill 9 ,cuba4 ,b to-day ?is is *ang$1 & yell[ fev] is "u almo/ complete control1 bo? "h & 9 ! ,canal zone1 :]e ! mosquito 7/egomyia7 :i* c>ries yell[ fev] exi/s4 ,illu/ration3 ,notice ! diff]5ce 9 ! numb] ( ye>ly dea?s f yell[ fev] be=e & aft] ! ,am]ican occupation ( ,havana4 ,?is is due to ! exp]im5ts dur+ ! summ] ( #aijj ( a ,commission ( ,unit$ ,/ates army (fic]s1 head$ by ,dr4 ,walt] ,re$4 ,( ^! m5 "o1 ,dr4 ,jesse ,laze>1 gave up 8 life to prove exp]im5tally t yell[ fev] 0 caus$ by mosquitoes4 ,he all[$ himself to be bitt5 by a mosquito t 0 kn[n to h bitt5 a yell[ fev] pati5t1 contract$ ! disease1 & di$ a m>tyr to sci5ce4 ,o!rs1 soldi]s1 volunte]$ to fur!r te/ by exp]im5t h[ ! disease 0 spread1 s t 9 ! end ,dr4 ,re$ 0 able to prove to ! _w t if mosquitoes c\ld be prev5t$ f bit+ p :o _h yell[ fev] ! disease c\ld n be spread4 ,! accompany+ illu/ration %[s ! result ( ?is k = ! city ( ,havana4 ,= ye>s ,havana 0 consid]$ "o ( ! pe/ spots ( ! ,we/ ,indies4 ,visitors %unn$ ?is port & comm]ce 0 mu* affect$ by ! con/ant m5ace ( yell[ fev]4 ,at ! "t ( ! ,am]ican occupation aft] ! w> ) ,spa91 ! exp]im5ts ref]r$ to above 7 und]tak54 ,! city 0 clean$ up1 prop] sanitation introduc$1 scre5s plac$ 9 mo/ build+s1 & ! bre$+ places ( ! mosquitoes 7 s ne>ly de/roy$ t ! city 0 practically free f mosquitoes4 ,! result1 s f> z yell[ fev] 0 conc]n$1 0 />tl+1 z y c see by ref]5ce to ! *>t4 ,notice also ! rise 9 ! dea? rate :5 ! "y ,cuban ,republic took control4 ,h[ d y acc\nt = t8 ,we all "k :at ,am]ican sci5tific m$ic9e & sanitation is do+ 9 ,panama & 9 ! ,philipp9es4 ,illu/ration3 ,/egomyia1 ! c>ri] ( yell[ fev]4 7,aft] ,h[>d47 ,o!r ,protozoan ,diseases4--,_m o!r diseases ( man are probably caus$ by p>asitic protozoans4 ,dys5t]y ( "o k9d appe>s to be caus$ by ! pres5ce ( an amoeba-l animal 9 ! dige/ive tract :i* comes usually ?r\gh an impure wat] supply4 ,smallpox1 rabies1 & possibly o!r diseases are caus$ by protozoans4 ,smallpox1 :i* 0 once ! mo/ dread$ disease kn[n to man1 because ( its spread 9 epidemics1 has be5 conqu]$ by vacc9ation1 ( :i* we %all le>n m lat]4 ,! dea? rate f rabies or hydrophobia has 9 a l mann] be5 greatly r$uc$ by a treatm5t f\nd$ on ! same pr9ciples z vacc9ation & inv5t$ by ,l\is ,pa/eur4 ,ano!r gr\p ( protozoan p>asites are call$ trypanosomes4 ,^! are p>asitic 9 insects1 fi%1 reptiles1 birds1 & mammals 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! _w4 ,!y cause v>i\s diseases ( cattle & o!r dome/ic animals1 be+ c>ri$ to ! animal 9 mo/ cases by flies4 ,"o ( ?is family is believ$ to live 9 ! blood ( native ,african zebras & antelopes2 seem+ly x does !m no h>m4 ,b if "o ( ^! p>asites is transf]r$ by ! dread$ tsetse fly to "o ( ! dome/icat$ horses or cattle ( ! coloni/ ( t region1 dea? ( ! animal results4 ,ano!r fly c>ries a species ( trypanosome to ! natives ( ,c5tral ,africa1 :i* causes ! dread$ & incurable sleep+ sickness4 ,?is disease c>ries (f m ?an fifty ?\s& natives ye>ly1 & _m ,europeans h succumb$ to x4 ,its ravages are n[ l>gely conf9$ to an area ne> ! l>ge ,c5tral ,african lakes & ! ,upp] ,nile1 = ! fly :i* c>ries ! disease lives ne> wat]1 seldom go+ m ?an #aej feet f ! banks ( /reams or lakes4 ,! ,briti% gov]nm5t is n[ try+ to control ! disease 9 ,ug&a by mov+ all ! villages at lea/ two miles f ! lakes & riv]s4 ,among o!r diseases t may be due to protozoans is kala-ag>1 a fev] 9 hot ,asiatic c\ntries :i* is probably c>ri$ by ! b$bug1 & ,african tick fev]1 probably c>ri$ by a small insect call$ ! tick4 ,bubonic plague1 "o ( ! mo/ dread$ ( all infecti\s diseases1 is c>ri$ to man by fleas f rats4 ,9 ?is c\ntry _m fatal diseases ( cattle1 z tick1 or ,texas cattle fev]1 are probably caus$ by protozoans4 ,illu/ration3 ,life hi/ory ( h\se flies1 %[+ f left to "r ! eggs1 l>vae1 pupae1 & adult flies4 7,photograph1 ab\t natural size1 by ,ov]ton47 ,! ,fly a ,disease ,c>ri]4--,we h already se5 t mosquitoes ( diff]5t species c>ry mal>ia & yell[ fev]4 ,ano!r r rec5t addition to ! black li/ is ! h\se fly or typhoid fly4 ,we %all see lat] ) :at reason ?is "n is giv54 ,! developm5t ( ! typhoid fly is extremely rapid4 ,a female may lay f "o hundr$ to two hundr$ eggs4 ,^! are usually deposit$ 9 fil? or manure4 ,dung heaps ab\t /ables1 privy vaults1 a% heaps1 unc>$-= g>bage cans1 & f]m5t+ vegetable refuse =m ! be/ bre$+ places = flies4 ,9 w>m wea!r1 ! eggs hat* a day or s aft] !y are laid & become l>vae1 call$ maggots4 ,aft] ab\t "o week ( active fe$+1 ^! wormlike maggots become quiet & g into ! pupal /age1 :5ce "u favorable conditions !y em]ge )9 less ?an ano!r week z adult flies4 ,! adults bre$ at once1 & 9 a %ort summ] !re may be ov] t5 g5]ations ( flies4 ,?is acc\nts = ! great numb]4 ,=tunately relatively few flies survive ! w9t]4 ,! membran\s w+s ( ! adult fly appe> to be two 9 numb]1 a second pair be+ r$uc$ to t9y knobb$ hairs call$ balanc]s4 ,! head is freely movable1 ) l>ge comp\nd eyes4 ,! m\? p>ts =m a proboscis1 :i* is tonguelike1 ! animal obta9+ its food by lapp+ & suck+4 ,! foot %[s a wond]ful adaptation = cl++ to smoo? surfaces4 ,two or ?ree pads1 ea* ( :i* be>s tubelike hairs t secrete a /icky fluid1 are f\nd on its "u surface4 ,x is by ?is means t ! fly is able to walk upside d[n1 & c>ry bact]ia on its feet4 ,illu/ration3 ,! foot ( a fly1 %[+ ! hooks1 hairs1 & pads :i* collect & c>ry bact]ia4 ,! fly doesn't wipe 8 feet4 ,illu/ration3 ,colonies ( bact]ia :i* h develop$ 9 a culture m$ium ^u :i* a fly 0 all[$ to walk4 ,! ,typhoid ,fly a ,pe/4--,! common fly is recogniz$ z a pe/ ! _w ov]4 ,flies h long be5 kn[n to spoil food ?r\gh _! fil?y habits1 b x is m rec5tly t ! v s]i\s *>ge ( spread ( diseases1 caus$ by bact]ia1 has be5 laid at _! door4 ,9 a rec5t exp]im5t two "y m5 f ! ,connecticut ,agricultural ,/ation f\nd t a s+le fly might c>ry on its feet any:]e f #ejj to #f1fjj1jjj bact]ia1 ! av]age numb] be+ ov] #a1bjj1jjj4 ,n all ( ^! g]ms are h>mful1 b !y might easily include ^? ( typhoid fev]1 tub]culosis1 summ] compla9t1 & possibly o!r diseases4 ,a rec5t pamphlet publi%$ by ! ,m]*ants' ,association 9 ,new ,york ,city %[s t ! rapid increase ( flies dur+ ! summ] mon?s has a def9ite correlation ) ! increase 9 ! numb] ( cases ( summ] compla9t4 ,obs]vations 9 o!r cities seem to %[ ! increase 9 numb] ( typhoid cases 9 ! e>ly fall is due1 9 "p at lea/1 to ! same cause4 ,a t]rible toll ( disease & dea? may be laid at ! door ( ! typhoid fly4 ,illu/ration3 ,%[+ h[ flies may spread disease by means ( contam9at+ food4 ,rec5tly ! /able fly has be5 f\nd to c>ry ! dread disease kn[n z infantile p>alysis4 ,illu/ration3 ,!re 7 #cbi typhoid cases 9 ,jacksonville1 ,florida1 9 #aiaj1 #aeh 9 #aiaa1 #hg 9 fir/ #aj mon?s ( #aiab4 #hj to #he p] c5t ( outdoor toilets 7 made fly pro( dur+ w9t] ( #aiaj4 ,acc\nt = ! decrease 9 typhoid aft] ! flies 7 kept out ( ! toilets4 ,rem$ies4--,cleanl9ess :i* de/roys ! bre$+ place ( flies1 ! frequ5t removal & de/ruction ( g>bage1 rubbi%1 & manure1 cov]+ ( all food :5 n 9 use & especially ! c>eful scre5+ ( w9d[s & doors dur+ ! bre$+ season1 w all play a "p 9 ! r$uction ( flies4 ,to ! motto swat ! fly %\ld be add$1 remove _! bre$+ places6 ,illu/ration3 ,flea :i* transmits ,bubonic plague f rat to man4 ,o!r ,insect ,disease ,c>ri]s4--,fleas & b$bugs h be5 rec5tly add$ to ^? insects prov5 to c>ry disease to man4 ,bubonic plague1 :i* is prim>ily a disease ( rats1 is und\bt$ly transmitt$ f ! infect$ rats to man by ! fleas4 ,fleas are also believ$ to transmit leprosy al?\gh ?is is n prov54 ,to rid a h\se ( fleas we mu/ fir/ f9d _! bre$+ places4 ,old c>pets1 ! sleep+ places ( cats or dogs or any dirty unswept corn] may hold ! eggs ( ! flea4 ,! "y bre$ 9 cracks & crevices1 fe$+ ^u organic matt] !re4 ,ev5tually !y come to live z adults on _! w>m-blood$ ho/s1 cats1 dogs1 or man4 ,evid5tly de/ruction ( ! bre$+ places1 c>eful wa%+ ( all infect$ areas1 ! use ( b5z9e or gasol9e 9 crevices :]e ! l>vae may be hid are ! mo/ effective me?ods ( ext]m9ation4 ,pets :i* might h>bor fleas %\ld be wa%$ frequ5tly ) a weak 7two to ?ree p] c5t7 solution ( creol94 ,b$bugs are difficult to prove z an ag5t 9 ! transmission ( disease b _! disgu/+ habits are suffici5t reason = _! ext]m9ation4 ,x has be5 prov5 by exp]im5t t !y may spread typhoid & relaps+ fev]s4 ,!y pref] human blood to o!r food & h come to live 9 b$rooms & b$s because ?is food c be obta9$ !re4 ,!y are extremely difficult to ext]m9ate because _! flat body all[s !m to hide 9 cracks out ( sight4 ,wood5 b$s are ?us bett] protection = !m ?an iron or brass b$s4 ,boil+ wat] p\r$ ov] ! cracks :5 !y bre$ or a mixture ( /rong corrosive sublimate f\r p>ts1 alcohol f\r p>ts & spirits ( turp5t9e "o "p1 are effective rem$ies4 ,h[ ! ,h>m done by ,insects is ,controll$4--,! combat+ ( insects is direct$ by sev]al bodies ( m51 all ( :i* h ! same end 9 view4 ,^! are ! ,bureau ( ,entomology ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 ! v>i\s /ate exp]im5t /ations1 & m$ical & civic organizations4 ,! ,bureau ( ,entomology works 9 h>mony ) ! o!r divisions ( ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 giv+ ! "t ( its exp]ts to ! problems ( controll+ insects :i*1 = good or ill1 influ5ce man's welf>e 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,! de/ruction ( ! mal>ial mosquito & control ( ! typhoid fly2 ! de/ruction ( h>mful insects by ! introduction ( _! natural enemies1 plant or animal2 ! p]fect+ ( ! honeybee 7see ,hodge1 ,nature ,/udy & ,life1 page #bdj71 & ! introduction ( new species ( insects to poll9ate fl[]s n native to ?is c\ntry 7see ,bla/ophaga1 page #dc71 are "s ( ! problems to :i* ^! m5 are n[ devot+ _! "t4 ,all ! /ates & t]ritories h1 s9ce #ahhh1 e/abli%$ /ate exp]im5t /ations1 :i* "w 9 coop]ation ) ! gov]nm5t 9 ! w> ^u injuri\s insects4 ,^! /ations are (t5 connect$ ) colleges1 s t "y m5 :o are int]e/$ 9 ?is k9d ( natural sci5ce may h opportunity to le>n & to help4 ,! good done by ^! means directly & indirectly is v great4 ,bullet9s are publi%$ by ! v>i\s /ate /ations & by ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 mo/ ( :i* may be obta9$ free4 ,! mo/ int]e/+ ( ^! f ! high s*ool /&po9t are ! ,f>m]s' ,bullet9s1 issu$ by ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 & ! ,nature ,/udy pamphlets issu$ by ! ,cornell ,univ]sity 9 ,new ,york /ate4 ,illu/ration3 ,?is diagram %[s h[ bubonic plague is c>ri$ to man4 ,expla9 ! diagram4 ,animals ,o!r ?an ,insects may be ,disease ,c>ri]s4--,! common br[n rat is an example ( a mammal1 h>mful to civiliz$ man1 :i* has foll[$ 9 8 foot/eps all ov] ! _w4 ,/>t+ f ,*9a1 x spread to ea/]n ,europe1 !nce to we/]n ,europe1 & 9 #agge x _h obta9$ a lodgm5t 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,9 sev5ty-five ye>s x rea*$ ! ,pacific coa/1 & is n[ fairly common all ov] ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 be+ "o ( ! mo/ prolific ( all mammals4 ,rats are believ$ to c>ry bubonic plague1 ! ,black ,dea? ( ! ,middle ,ages1 a disease e/imat$ to h kill$ #be1jjj1jjj p dur+ ! f\rte5? c5tury4 ,! rat1 l man1 is susceptible to plague2 fleas bite ! rat & !n bit+ man transmit ! disease to him4 ,a det]m9$ ef=t is n[ be+ made to ext]m9ate ! rat because ( its connection ) bubonic plague4 ,o!r ,p>asitic ,animals cause ,disease4--,besides p>asitic protozoans o!r =ms ( animals h be5 f\nd t cause disease4 ,*ief among ^! are c]ta9 r\nd & flat worms1 :i* h come to live z p>asites on man & o!r animals4 ,a "o-sid$ relation%ip has ?us come into exi/5ce :]e ! worm receives its liv+ f ! ho/1 z ! animal is call$ on :i* ! p>asite lives4 ,consequ5tly ! p>asite frequ5tly becomes fa/5$ to its ho/ dur+ adult life & (t5 is r$uc$ to a m]e bag ?r\gh :i* ! fluid food prep>$ by its ho/ is absorb$4 ,sometimes a complicat$ life hi/ory has aris5 f _! p>asitic habits4 ,su* is se5 9 ! life hi/ory ( ! liv] fluke1 a flatworm :i* kills %eep1 & 9 ! tapeworm4 ,illu/ration3 ,! life cycle ( a tapeworm4 7#a7 ,! eggs are tak5 9 ) fil?y food by ! pig2 7#b7 man eats und]cook$ pork by means ( :i* ! bladd] worm 7#c7 is transf]r$ to 8 own inte/9e 7#d74 ,ce/odes or ,tapeworms4--,^! p>asites infe/ man & _m o!r v]tebrate animals4 ,! tapeworm 7,ta5ia solium7 passes ?r\gh two /ages 9 its life hi/ory1 ! fir/ )9 a pig1 ! second )9 ! inte/9e ( man4 ,! develop+ eggs are pass$ (f ) wa/es f ! inte/9e ( man4 ,! pig1 an animal ) dirty habits1 may take 9 ! worm embryos ) its food4 ,! worm develops )9 ! inte/9e ( ! pig1 b soon makes its way into ! muscle or o!r tissues4 ,x is "h kn[n z a bladd]worm4 ,if man eats raw or und]cook$ pork conta9+ ^! worms1 he may become a ho/ = ! tapeworm4 ,?us dur+ its complete life hi/ory x has two ho/s4 ,ano!r common tapeworm p>asitic on man lives "p ( its life z an embryo )9 ! muscles ( cattle4 ,! adult worm consi/s ( a r\nd headlike "p provid$ ) hooks1 by means ( :i* x fa/5s itself to ! wall ( ! inte/9e4 ,?is head n[ buds (f a s]ies ( segm5tlike /ructures1 :i* are practically bags full ( sp]ms & eggs4 ,^! /ructures1 call$ proglottids1 break (f f "t to "t1 ?us all[+ ! develop+ eggs to escape4 ,! proglottids h no sep>ate dige/ive sy/ems1 b ! :ole body surface1 ba!d 9 dige/$ food1 absorbs x & is ?us enabl$ to gr[ rapidly4 ,illu/ration3 ,tri*9ella spiralis imb$d$ 9 human muscle4 7,aft] ,leuck>t47 ,r\ndworms4--,/ill o!r wormlike creatures call$ r\ndworms are ( importance to man4 ,"s1 z ! v9eg> eel f\nd 9 v9eg>1 or ! p9worms p>asitic 9 ! l[] inte/9e1 p>ticul>ly ( *ildr51 d little or no h>m4 ,! pork worm or tri*9a1 h[ev]1 is a p>asite :i* may cause s]i\s injury4 ,x passes ?r\gh ! fir/ "p ( its exi/5ce z a p>asite 9 a pig or o!r v]tebrate 7cat1 rat1 or rabbit71 :]e x lies1 cov]$ )9 a t9y sac or cy/1 9 ! muscles ( its ho/s4 ,if raw pork conta9+ ^! worms is eat5 by man1 ! cy/ is dissolv$ (f by ! action ( ! dige/ive fluids1 & ! liv+ tri*9a becomes free 9 ! inte/9e ( man4 ,"h x reproduces & ! "y bore _! way ?r\gh ! inte/9e walls & ent] ! muscles1 caus+ inflammation !re4 ,?is causes a pa9ful & (t5 fatal disease kn[n z tri*9osis4 ,! ,hookworm4--,! discov]y by ,dr4 ,c4 ,w4 ,/iles ( ! ,bureau ( ,animal ,indu/ry1 t ! laz9ess & %iftlessness ( ! poor :ites ( ! ,s\? is p>tly due to a p>asite call$ ! hookworm1 reads l a fairy tale4 ,! p1 l>gely f>m]s1 become infect$ ) a l>val /age ( ! hookworm1 :i* develops 9 moi/ e>?4 ,x ent]s ! body usually ?r\gh ! sk9 ( ! feet1 = *ildr5 & adults alike1 9 c]ta9 localities :]e ! disease is common1 g b>efoot to a consid]able ext5t4 ,a complicat$ j\rney f ! sk9 to ! inte/9e n[ foll[s1 ! l>vae pass+ ?r\gh ! ve9s to ! he>t1 f !re to ! lungs2 "h !y bore into ! air passages & ev5tually "w _! way by way ( ! w9dpipe into ! inte/9e4 ,"o result ( ! injury ( ! lungs is t _m ?us infect$ are subject to tub]culosis4 ,! adult worms1 once 9 ! food tube1 fa/5 !mselves & fe$ ^u ! blood ( _! ho/ by punctur+ ! inte/9e wall4 ,! loss ( blood f ?is cause is n suffici5t to acc\nt = ! bloodlessness ( ! p]son infect$1 b x has be5 discov]$ t ! hookworm p\rs out a poison into ! w\nd :i* prev5ts ! blood f clott+ rapidly 7see page #cae72 h5ce a consid]able loss ( blood occurs f ! w\nd aft] ! worm has f9i%$ its meal & gone to ano!r "p ( ! inte/9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,a family suff]+ f hookworm4 ,! cure ( ! disease is v easy2 ?ymol is giv51 :i* weak5s ! hold ( ! worm1 ?is be+ foll[$ by ,epsom salts4 ,= ye>s a l>ge area 9 ! ,s\? und\bt$ly has be5 ret>d$ 9 its developm5t by ?is p>asite2 hundr$s ( millions ( doll>s & ?\s&s ( lives h be5 ne$lessly sacrific$4 ,! hookworm is n a bit spectacul>3 x doesn't get itself discuss$ 9 legislative halls or furi\sly debat$ 9 political campaigns4 ,mode/ & unassum+1 x does n aspire to su* dignity4 ,x is satisfi$ simply ) 7#a7 l[]+ ! work+ effici5cy & ! pleasure ( liv+ 9 some?+ l two hundr$ ?\s& p]sons 9 ,georgia & all o!r ,s\!rn /ates 9 proportion2 ) 7#b7 amass+ a dea? rate high] ?an tub]culosis1 pneumonia1 or typhoid fev]2 ) 7#c7 /ubbornly & q effectually ret>d+ ! agricultural & indu/rial developm5t ( ! section2 ) 7#d7 nullify+ ! b5efit ( ?\s&s ( doll>s sp5t ^u education2 ) 7#e7 co/+ ! ,s\?1 9 ! c\rse ( a few decades1 sev]al hundr$ millions ( doll>s4 ,m s]i\s & clos] at h& ?an ! t>iff2 m co/ly1 ?reat5+1 & tangible ?an ! ,negro problem2 mak+ ! m5ace ( ! boll weevil laughable 9 comp>ison--x is preem95tly ! problem ( ! ,s\?4--,atlanta ,con/itution4 ,animals t prey ^u ,man4--,! toll ( dea? f animals :i* prey ^u or h>m man directly is relatively small4 ,snakes 9 tropical c\ntries kill _m cattle & n a few p4 ,! bite ( ! rattlesnake ( our own c\ntry1 al?\gh dang]\s1 seldom kills4 ,! dread$ cobra ( ,india has a record ( ov] two hundr$ & fifty ?\s& p]sons kill$ 9 ! la/ ?irty-five ye>s4 ,! ,indian gov]nm5t ye>ly pays out l>ge sums = ! ext]m9ation ( v5om\s snakes1 ov] two hundr$ ?\s& ( :i* h be5 kill$ dur+ a s+le ye>4 ,illu/ration3 ,a fle%-eat+ reptile1 ! alligator4 ,alligators & ,crocodiles4--,^! fe$ on fi%es1 b (t5 attack l>ge animals1 z horses1 c[s1 & ev5 man4 ,!y seek _! prey *iefly at night1 & sp5d ! day bask+ 9 ! sun4 ,! crocodiles ( ! ,ganges ,riv] 9 ,india levy a ye>ly tribute ( _m hundr$ lives f ! natives4 ,c>nivor\s animals su* z lions & tig]s /ill inflict damage 9 c]ta9 p>ts ( ! _w1 b z ! tide ( civilization advances1 _! numb]s are sl[ly b surely decreas+ s t z important factors 9 man's welf>e !y may be consid]$ almo/ negligible4 ,,ref]5ce ,,books ,,elem5t>y ,hunt]1 ,laboratory ,problems 9 ,civic ,biology4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,beebe1 ,! ,bird4 ,h5ry ,holt & ,company4 ,bigel[1 ,appli$ ,biology4 ,macmillan & ,company4 ,davison1 ,practical ,zoology4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,h]rick1 ,h\sehold ,insects & ,me?ods ( ,control4 ,cornell ,read+ ,c\rses4 ,hornaday1 ,our ,vani%+ ,wild ,life4 ,new ,york ,zoological ,society4 ,hodge1 ,nature ,/udy & ,life4 ,g9n & ,company4 ,kipl+1 ,capta9s ,c\rage\s4 ,*>les ,scribn]'s ,sons4 ,%>pe1 ,laboratory ,manual1 pp4 #aeg-aeh1 #ahb-bjc1 #cbj-cda4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,/one & ,cram1 ,am]ican ,animals4 ,d\bl$ay1 ,page & ,company4 ,too?ak]1 ,comm]cial ,raw ,mat]ials4 ,g9n & ,company4 ,,advanc$ ,fl[]1 ,! ,horse4 ,d4 ,appleton & ,company4 ,hornaday1 ,! ,am]ican ,natural ,hi/ory4 ,macmillan & ,company4 ,jordan1 ,fi%es4 ,h5ry ,holt & ,company4 ,jordan & ,ev]mann1 ,am]ican ,food & ,game ,fi%es4 ,d\bl$ay1 ,page & ,company4 ,s*al]1 ,dome/icat$ ,animals1 _! ,relations to ,man & to ,8 ,advancem5t 9 ,civilization4 ,*>les ,scribn]'s ,sons4 ,,xvi4 ,,! ,,fi% ,,& ,,frog1 ,,an ,,introductory ,,/udy ,,( ,,v]tebrates ,problems4--,to det]m9e h[ a fi% & a frog are fitt$ = ! life !y lead4 ,to det]m9e "s me?ods ( developm5t 9 v]tebrate animals4 7a7 ,fi%es4 7b7 ,frogs4 7c7 ,o!r animals4 ,,laboratory ,,sugge/ions ,laboratory ex]cise4--,/udy ( a liv+ fi%--adaptations = protection1 locomotion1 food gett+1 etc4 ,laboratory demon/ration4--,! developm5t ( ! fi% or frog egg4 ,visit to ! aqu>ium4--,/udy ( adaptations1 economic uses ( fi%es1 artificial propagation ( fi%es4 ,two ,me?ods ( ,brea?+ 9 ,v]tebrates4--,v]tebrate animals h at lea/ two me?ods ( gett+ _! oxyg54 ,9 o!r respects _! life processes are ne>ly simil>4 ,( all v]tebrates fi%es are ! only ones fitt$ to brea! all _! lives "u wat]4 ,o!r v]tebrates are provid$ ) lungs & take _! oxyg5 directly f ! air4#cb ,we w next take up ! /udy ( a fi% to see h[ x is fitt$ = its life 9 ! wat]4 ,footnote #cb3 ,) ! exception ( a few lungless salam&]s4 ,mo/ salam&]s get mu* ( _! supply ( oxyg5 ?r\gh _! moi/ sk9s4 ,,/udy ,,( ,a ,,fi% ,! ,body4--,"o ( our common fre%-wat] fi% is ! bream1 or gold5 %9]4 ,! body ( ! bream runs ins5sibly into ! head1 ! neck be+ abs5t4 ,! long1 n>r[ body ) its smoo? surface fits ! fi% admirably = its life 9 ! wat]4 ,c]ta9 cells 9 ! sk9 secrete mucus or slime1 ano!r adaptation4 ,! position ( ! scales1 ov]lapp+ 9 a backw>d direction1 is yet ano!r adaptation :i* aids 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! wat]4 ,its color1 olive above & bright silv] & gold bel[1 is protective4 ,c y see h[8 ,illu/ration3 ,! bream4 ,a1 dorsal f92 ,b1 caudal f92 ,c1 anal f92 ,d1 pelvic f92 ,e1 pectoral f94 ,! ,app5dages & _! ,uses4--,! app5dages ( ! fi% consi/ ( pair$ & unpair$ f9s4 ,! pair$ f9s are f\r 9 numb]1 & are believ$ to correspond 9 position & /ructure ) ! pair$ limbs ( a man4 ,note ! illu/ration above & locate ! pair$ pectoral & pelvic f9s4 7,^! are s call$ because !y are atta*$ to ! bones =m+ ! pectoral & pelvic girdles4 ,see page #bfh47 ,f9d1 by comp>ison ) ! ,figure1 ! dorsal1 anal1 & caudal f9s4 ,h[ _m unpair$ f9s are !re8 ,! flatt5$1 muscul> body ( ! fi%1 tap]+ t[>d ! caudal f91 is mov$ f side to side ) an undulat+ motion :i* results 9 ! =w>d movem5t ( ! fi%4 ,?is movem5t is almo/ id5tical ) t ( an o> 9 scull+ a boat4 ,turn+ movem5ts are br\ght ab\t by use ( ! lat]al f9s 9 mu* ! same way z a boat is turn$4 ,we notice ! dorsal & o!r s+le f9s are evid5tly useful 9 balanc+ & /e]+4 ,! ,s5ses4--,! position ( ! eyes at ! side ( ! head is an evid5t advantage to ! fi%4 ,:y8 ,! eye is globul> 9 %ape4 ,su* an eye has be5 f\nd to be v ne>sight$4 ,?us x is unlikely t a fi% is able to p]ceive objects at any great di/ance f x4 ,! eyes are unprotect$ by eyelids1 b ! t\gh out] cov]+ & _! position af=d "s protection4 ,fe$+ exp]im5ts ) fi%es %[ t a fi% becomes aw>e ( ! pres5ce ( food by smell+ x z well z by see+ x4 ,! no/rils ( a fi% c be prov$ to end 9 little pits1 "o "u ea* no/ril hole4 ,?us !y diff] f our own1 :i* are connect$ ) ! m\? cavity4 ,9 ! catfi%1 = example1 ! b>bels1 or horns1 receive s5sations ( smell & ta/e4 ,!y d n p]ceive odors z we d = a fi% p]ceives only sub/ances t are dissolv$ 9 ! wat] 9 :i* x lives4 ,! s5ses ( ta/e & t\* appe> to be less develop$ ?an ! o!r s5ses4 ,along ea* side ( mo/ fi%es is a l9e ( t9y pits1 provid$ ) s5se organs & connect$ ) ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em ( ! fi%4 ,?is area1 call$ ! lat]al l9e1 is believ$ to be s5sitive to me*anical /imuli ( c]ta9 sorts4 ,! e> ( ! fi% is "u ! sk9 & s]ves p>tly z a balanc+ organ4 ,food ,gett+4--,a fi% mu/ g aft] its food & seize x1 b has no /ructures = grasp+ except ! tee?4 ,consequ5tly we f9d ! tee? small1 %>p1 & num]\s1 well adapt$ = hold+ liv+ prey4 ,! tongue 9 mo/ fi%es is want+ or v slightly develop$4 ,brea?+4--,a fi%1 :5 swimm+ quietly or :5 at re/1 seems to be bit+ :5 no food is pres5t4 ,a reason = ?is act is to be se5 :5 we introduce a little f9ely p[d]$ c>m9e into ! wat] ne> ! head ( ! fi%4 ,x w be f\nd t a curr5t ( wat] ent]s ! m\? at ea* ( ^! bit+ movem5ts & passes out ?r\gh two slits f\nd on ea* side ( ! head ( ! fi%4 ,inve/igation %[s u t "u ! broad1 flat plate1 or op]culum1 =m+ ea* side ( ! head1 lie sev]al long1 fea!ry1 r$ /ructures1 ! gills4 ,illu/ration3 ,diagram ( ! gills ( a fi%4 7,h71 ! he>t :i* =ces ! blood into ! tubes 7,v71 :i* run out into ! gill filam5ts4 ,a gill b> 7,g7 supports ea* gill4 ,! blood aft] ex*ang+ its c>bon dioxide = oxyg5 is s5t out to ! cells ( ! body ?r\gh ! art]y 7,a74 ,gills4--,if we exam9e ! gills ( any l>ge fi%1 we f9d t a s+le gill is held 9 place by a bony ar*1 made ( sev]al pieces ( bone :i* are h+$ 9 su* a way z to give great flexibility to ! gill ar*1 z ! support is call$4 ,cov]+ ! bony framework1 & ext5d+ f x1 are num]\s delicate filam5ts cov]$ ) a v ?9 membrane or sk94 ,into ea* ( ^! filam5ts pass two blood vessels2 9 "o blood fl[s d[nw>d & 9 ! o!r upw>d4 ,blood rea*es ! gills & is c>ri$ away f ^! organs by means ( two l>ge vessels :i* pass along ! bony ar* previ\sly m5tion$4 ,9 ! gill filam5t ! blood comes into contact ) ! free oxyg5 ( ! wat] ba?+ ! gills4 ,an ex*ange ( gases ?r\gh ! walls ( ! gill filam5ts results 9 ! loss ( c>bon dioxide & a ga9 ( oxyg5 by ! blood4 ,! blood c>ries oxyg5 to ! cells ( ! body & 7z "w is done by ! cells z a result ( ! oxidation ( food7 br+s c>bon dioxide back to ! gills4 ,gill ,rak]s4--,if we op5 wide ! m\? ( any l>ge fi% & look inw>d1 we f9d t ! m\? cavity leads to a funnel-l op5+1 ! gullet4 ,on ea* side ( ! gullet we c see ! gill ar*es1 gu>d$ on ! inn] side by a s]ies ( %>p-po9t$ /ructures1 ! gill rak]s4 ,9 "s fi%es 9 :i* ! tee? are n well develop$1 !re seems to be a great] developm5t ( ! gill rak]s1 :i* 9 ?is case are us$ to /ra9 out small organisms f ! wat] :i* passes ov] ! gills4 ,_m fi%es make su* use ( ! gill rak]s4 ,su* are ! %ad & m5had51 :i* fe$ almo/ entirely on plankton1 a "n giv5 to ! small plants & animals f\nd by millions 9 ! wat]4 ,dige/ive ,sy/em4--,! gullet leads directly into a baglike /oma*4 ,!re are no saliv>y gl&s 9 ! fi%es4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a l>ge liv]1 :i* appe>s to be us$ z a dige/ive gl&4 ,?is organ1 because ( ! oil x conta9s1 is 9 "s fi%es1 z ! cod1 ( consid]able economic importance4 ,_m fi%es h outgr[?s l a s]ies ( pockets f ! inte/9e4 ,^! /ructures1 call$ ! pyloric caeca1 are believ$ to secrete a dige/ive fluid4 ,! inte/9e ends at ! v5t1 :i* is usually locat$ on ! "u side ( ! fi%1 imm$iately 9 front ( ! anal f94 ,illu/ration3 ,a fi% op5$ to %[ ,h1 ! he>t2 ,g1 ! gills2 ,l1 ! liv]2 ,s1 ! /oma*2 ,i1 ! inte/9e2 ,o1 ! ov>y2 ,k1 ! kidney1 & ,b1 ! air bladd]4 ,swim ,bladd]4--,an organ ( unusual significance1 call$ ! swim bladd]1 occupies ! region j dorsal to ! food tube4 ,9 "y fi%es ( _m species ?is is connect$ by a tube ) ! ant]ior end ( ! dige/ive tract4 ,9 "s =ms ?is tube p]si/s ?r\gh\t life1 b 9 o!r fi%es x becomes clos$1 a ?91 fibr\s cord tak+ its place4 ,! swim bladd] aids 9 giv+ ! fi% ne>ly ! same weight z ! wat] x displaces1 ?us buoy+ x up4 ,! walls ( ! organ are ri*ly suppli$ ) blood vessels1 & x ?us und\bt$ly s]ves z an organ = supply+ oxyg5 to ! blood :5 all o!r s\rces fail4 ,9 "s fi%es 7! dipnoi1 page #ahg7 x has come to be us$ z a lung4 ,circulation ( ! ,blood4--,9 ! v]tebrate animals ! blood is said to circulate 9 ! body1 because x passes ?r\gh a m or less clos$ sy/em ( tubes 9 its c\rse ar\nd ! body4 ,9 ! fi%es ! he>t is a two-*amb]$ muscul> organ1 a ?9-wall$ auricle1 ! receiv+ *amb]1 lead+ into a ?ick-wall$ muscul> v5tricle f :i* ! blood is =c$ out4 ,! blood is pump$ f ! he>t to ! gills2 !re x loses "s ( its c>bon dioxide2 x !n passes on to o!r p>ts ( ! body1 ev5tually break+ up into v t9y tubes call$ capill>ies4 ,f ! capill>ies ! blood returns1 9 tubes ( gradually increas+ diamet]1 t[>d ! he>t aga94 ,! body cells lie betwe5 ! smalle/ bran*es ( ! capill>ies4 ,?us !y get f ! blood food & oxyg5 & return to ! blood ! wa/es result+ f oxidation )9 ! cell body4 ,dur+ its c\rse "s ( ! blood passes ?r\gh ! kidneys & is !re reliev$ ( "p ( its nitrog5\s wa/e4 ,circulation ( blood 9 ! body ( ! fi% is r sl[4 ,! temp]ature ( ! blood be+ ne>ly t ( ! surr\nd+ m$ia 9 :i* ! fi% lives1 ! animal has incorrectly be5 giv5 ! t]m cold-blood$4 ,n]v\s ,sy/em4--,z 9 all o!r v]tebrate animals1 ! bra9 & sp9al cord ( ! fi% are p>tially inclos$ 9 bone4 ,! c5tral n]v\s sy/em consi/s ( a bra91 ) n]ves connect+ ! organs ( sight1 ta/e1 smell1 & he>+1 & su* p>ts ( ! body z possess ! s5se ( t\*2 a sp9al cord2 & sp9al n]ves4 ,n]ve cells locat$ ne> ! outside ( ! body s5d 9 messages to ! c5tral sy/em1 :i* are !re receiv$ z s5sations4 ,cells ( ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em1 9 turn1 s5d out messages :i* result 9 ! movem5t ( muscles4 ,skeleton4--,9 ! v]tebrates1 ( :i* ! bony fi% is an example1 ! skeleton is "u ! sk91 & is h5ce call$ an endoskeleton4 ,x consi/s ( a bony framework1 ! v]tebral column :i* protects ! sp9al cord & c]ta9 atta*$ bones1 ! ribs1 ) o!r sp9y bones to :i* ! unpair$ f9s are atta*$4 ,! pair$ f9s are atta*$ to ! sp9al column by two collections ( bones1 kn[n respectively z ! pectoral & pelvic girdles4 ,! bones 9 ! ma9 skeleton s]ve 9 ! fi% = ! atta*m5t ( p[]ful muscles1 by means ( :i* locomotion is accompli%$4 ,9 mo/ fi%es1 ! exoskeleton1 too1 is well develop$1 consi/+ usually ( scales1 b sometimes ( bony plates4 ,food ( ,fi%es4--,we h already se5 t 9 a balanc$ aqu>ium ! balance ( food 0 pres]v$ by ! plants1 :i* furni%$ food = ! t9y animals or 7 eat5 by l>g] ones1--= example1 snails or fi%4 ,! small] animals 9 turn became food ( l>g] ones4 ,! nitrog5 balance 0 ma9ta9$ ?r\gh ! excretions ( ! animals & _! dea? & decay4 ,! m>9e _w is a great balanc$ aqu>ium4 ,! upp] lay] ( wat] is cr[d$ ) all k9ds ( little organisms1 bo? plant & animal4 ,"s ( ^! are microscopic 9 size2 o!rs1 z ! t9y cru/aceans1 are visible to ! eye4 ,on ^! little organisms "s fi% fe$ entirely1 o!rs 9 "p4 ,su* are ! m5had5#cc 7bony1 bunk]1 mossbunk] ( our coa/71 ! %ad1 & o!rs4 ,o!r fi%es are bottom fe$]s1 z ! blackfi% & ! sea bass1 liv+ almo/ entirely ^u mollusks & cru/aceans4 ,/ill o!rs are hunt]s1 fe$+ ^u small] species ( fi%1 or ev5 ^u _! weak] bro!rs4 ,su* are ! bluefi%1 squeteague or weakfi%1 & o!rs4 ,footnote #cc3 ,x has be5 discov]$ by ,pr(essor ,mead ( ,br[n ,univ]sity t ! increase 9 />fi% along c]ta9 p>ts ( ! ,new ,engl& coa/ 0 9 "p due to ov]fi%+ ( m5had51 :i* at c]ta9 times 9 ! ye> fe$ almo/ entirely on ! "y />fi%4 ,:at is true ( salt-wat] fi% is equally true ( ^? inhabit+ our fre%-wat] /reams & lakes4 ,x is "o ( ! greate/ problems ( our ,bureau ( ,fi%]ies to discov] ?is relation ( v>i\s fi%es to _! food supplies s z to aid 9 ! cons]vation & balance ( life 9 our lakes1 riv]s1 & seas4 ,migration ( ,fi%es4--,"s fi%es *ange _! habitat at diff]5t times dur+ ! ye>1 mov+ 9 va/ s*ools nor?w>d 9 summ] & s\?w>d 9 ! w9t]4 ,9 a g5]al way su* migrations foll[ ! coa/ l9es4 ,examples ( su* migratory fi% are ! cod1 m5had51 h]r+1 & bluefi%4 ,! migrations are due to temp]ature *anges1 to ! seek+ aft] food1 & to ! spawn+ in/9ct4 ,"s fi% migrate to %all[] wat] 9 ! summ] & to deep] wat] 9 ! w9t]2 "h ! reason = ! migration is d\btless ! *ange 9 temp]ature4 ,illu/ration3 ,developm5t ( a tr\t4 #a1 ! embryo )9 ! egg2 #b1 ! "y fi% j hat*$ ) ! yoke sac /ill atta*$2 #c1 ! "y fi%4 ,! ,egg-lay+ ,habits ( ! ,bony ,fi%es4--,! eggs ( mo/ bony fi%es are laid 9 great numb]s1 v>y+ f a few ?\s& 9 ! tr\t to _m hundr$s ( ?\s&s 9 ! %ad & sev]al millions 9 ! cod4 ,! "t ( egg-lay+ is usually spr+ or e>ly summ]4 ,at ! "t ( spawn+ ! male usually deposits milt1 consi/+ ( millions ( sp]m cells1 9 ! wat] j ov] ! eggs1 ?us accompli%+ f]tilization4 ,"s fi%es1 z /icklebacks1 sunfi%1 toadfi%1 etc41 make ne/s1 b usually ! eggs are left to develop by !mselves1 sometimes atta*$ to "s subm]g$ object1 b m frequ5tly free 9 ! wat]4 ,9 "s eggs a t9y oil drop buoys up ! egg to ! surface1 :]e ! heat ( ! sun aids developm5t4 ,!y are expos$ to _m dang]s1 & bo? eggs & develop+ fi% are eat51 n only by birds1 fi% ( o!r species1 & o!r wat] inhabitants1 b also by _! own relatives1 & ev5 p>5ts4 ,consequ5tly a v small p]c5tage ( eggs ev] produce mature fi%4 ,! ,relation ( ! ,spawn+ ,habits to ,economic ,importance ( ,fi%4--,! spawn+ habits ( fi% are ( great importance to u because ( ! economic value ( fi% to mank9d1 n only directly z a food1 b indirectly z food = o!r animals 9 turn valuable to man4 ,_m ( our mo/ desirable food fi%es1 notably ! salmon1 %ad1 /urgeon1 & smelt1 pass up riv]s f ! ocean to deposit _! eggs1 swimm+ aga9/ /rong curr5ts mu* ( ! way1 "s species leap+ rapids & falls1 9 ord] to deposit _! eggs 9 localities :]e ! conditions ( wat] & food are suitable1 & ! wat] %all[ en\gh to all[ ! sun's rays to w>m x suffici5tly to cause ! eggs to develop4 ,! ,*9ook salmon ( ! ,pacific coa/1 ! salmon us$ 9 ! ,we/]n cann+ indu/ry1 travels ov] a ?\s& miles up ! ,columbia & o!r riv]s1 :]e x spawns4 ,! salmon beg9 to pass up ! riv]s 9 e>ly spr+1 & rea* ! spawn+ b$s1 %all[ deposits ( gravel 9 cool m\nta9 /reams1 be=e late summ]4 ,"h ! fi%1 bo? males & females1 rema9 until ! temp]ature ( ! wat] falls to ab\t #ed deg4 ,fahr5heit4 ,! eggs & milt are !n deposit$1 & ! old fi% die1 leav+ ! eggs to be hat*$ out lat] by ! heat ( ! sun's rays4 ,ne$ ( ,cons]vation4--,! in/9ct ( ?is & o!r species ( fi% to g into %all[ riv]s to deposit _! eggs has be5 made use ( by man4 ,at ! "t ( ! spawn+ migration ! salmon are tak5 9 va/ numb]s1 = ! salmon fi%]ies net ov] #af1jjj1jjj annually4 ,b ! ne$ = cons]vation ( ?is important national asset is great4 ,! %ad h )9 rec5t "t ab&on$ _! bre$+ places 9 ! ,connecticut ,riv]1 & ! salmon h be5 ext]m9at$ along our ea/]n coa/ )9 ! pa/ few decades4 ,x is only a matt] ( a few ye>s :5 ! ,we/]n salmon w be ext9ct if fi%+ is cont9u$ at ! pres5t rate4 ,m fi% mu/ be all[$ to rea* _! bre$+ places4 ,to d ?is a clos$ season on ! riv]s ( two or ?ree days out ( ea* sev5 :ile ! %ad or ! salmon run w\ld d mu* good4 ,! /urgeon1 ! eggs ( :i* are us$ 9 ! manufacture ( ! delicacy kn[n z cavi>1 is an example ( a fi% t is almo/ ext9ct 9 ?is "p ( ! _w4 ,o!r food fi% tak5 at ! bre$+ season are also 9 dang]4 ,illu/ration3 ,artificial f]tilization ( fi% eggs4 ,artificial ,propagation ( ,fi%es4--,=tunately1 ! gov]nm5t ?r\gh ! ,bureau ( ,fi%]ies1 & v>i\s /ates by wise protective laws & by artificial propagation ( fi%es1 are beg9n+ to turn ! tide4 ,c]ta9 days ( ! week ! salmon are all[$ to pass up ! ,columbia unmole/$4 ,clos$ bre$+ seasons protect our tr\t1 bass1 & o!r game fi%1 also ! cat*+ ( fi% "u a c]ta9 size is prohibit$4 ,illu/ration3 ,e>ly developm5t ( salmon4 ,natural size4 ,_m fi% hat*]ies1 bo? gov]nm5t & /ate1 are engag$ 9 artificially f]tiliz+ millions ( fi% eggs ( v>i\s species & protect+ ! "y fry until !y are ( su* size t !y c take c>e ( !mselves1 :5 !y are plac$ 9 ponds or /reams4 ,?is artificial f]tilization is usually accompli%$ by fir/ squeez+ out ! ripe eggs f a female into a pan ( wat]2 9 a simil> mann] ! milt or sp]m cells are obta9$1 & p\r$ ov] ! eggs4 ,! eggs are ?us f]tiliz$4 ,!y are !n plac$ 9 receptacles suppli$ ) runn+ wat] & left to develop "u favorable conditions4 ,%ortly aft] ! egg has segm5t$ 7divid$ into _m cells7 ! embryo may be se5 develop+ on "o side ( ! egg4 ,! re/ ( ! egg is made up ( food or yolk1 & :5 ! baby fi% hat*es x has = "s "t ! yolk atta*$ to its v5tral surface4 ,ev5tually ! food is absorb$ into ! body ( ! fi%4 ,! developm5t ( ! fi% is direct1 ! "y fi% becom+ an adult )\t any great *ange 9 =m4 ,! "y fry are kept "u ideal conditions until lat]1 :5 !y are %ipp$1 sometimes ?\s&s ( miles1 to _! new homes4 ,,note ,,to ,,tea*]4--,x is sugge/$ t 9 ! spr+ t]m ! frog be /udi$1 b if animal biology be tak5 up dur+ ! fall t]m ! fi% only might be us$4 ,,! ,,frog ,adaptations = ,life4--,! mo/ common frog 9 ! ea/]n "p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates is ! leop>d frog4 ,x is recogniz$ by its gre5i% br[n body ) d>k spots1 ea* spot be+ outl9$ 9 a light]-color$ backgr\nd4 ,9 spite ( ! app>5t lack ( h>mony ) _! surr\nd+s1 _! color appe>s to give almo/ p]fect protection4 ,9 "s species ( frogs ! color ( ! sk9 *anges ) ! surr\nd+s ( ! frog1 ano!r means ( protection4 ,adaptations = life 9 ! wat] are num]\s4 ,! ovoid body1 ! head m]g+ into ! trunk1 ! slimy cov]+ 7= ! frog is provid$1 l ! fi%1 ) mucus cells 9 ! sk971 & ! p[]ful legs ) webb$ feet1 are all evid5ces ( ! life :i* ! frog leads4 ,locomotion4--,y w notice t ! app5dages h ! same g5]al position on ! body & same numb] ( p>ts z d y\r own 7upp] arm1 =e>m1 & h&2 ?igh1 %ank1 & foot1 ! latt] mu* long] relatively ?an y\r own74 ,note t :ile ! h& has f\r f+]s1 ! foot has five toes1 ! latt] connect$ by a web4 ,9 swimm+ ! frog uses ! /roke we all aim to make :5 we are le>n+ to swim4 ,mo/ ( ! en]gy is lib]at$ f ! p[]ful backw>d pu% ( ! h9d legs1 :i* 9 a re/+ position are held d\bl$ up close to ! body4 ,on l&1 locomotion may be by hopp+ or crawl+4 ,illu/ration3 ,?is diagram %[s h[ ! frog uses its tongue to cat* insects4 ,s5se ,organs4--,! frog is well provid$ ) s5se organs4 ,! eyes are l>ge1 globul>1 & plac$ at ! side ( ! head4 ,:5 !y are clos$1 a delicate fold1 or ?ird eyelid1 call$ ! nictitat+ membrane1 is drawn ov] ea* eye4 ,frogs probably see be/ mov+ objects at a few feet f !m4 ,_! vision is mu* ke5] ?an t ( ! fi%4 ,! ext]nal e> 7tympanum7 is locat$ j beh9d ! eye on ! side ( ! body4 ,frogs he> s\nds & di/+ui% v>i\s calls ( _! own k9d1 z is prov$ by ! fact t frogs recognize ! w>n+ notes ( _! mates :5 any "o is approa*+4 ,! inn] e> also has to d ) balanc+ ! body z x has 9 fi%es & o!r v]tebrates4 ,ta/e & smell are probably n /rong s5sations 9 a frog or toad4 ,!y bite at mov+ objects ( almo/ any k9d :5 hungry4 ,! long flexible tongue1 :i* is fa/5$ at ! front1 is us$ to cat* insects4 ,exp]i5ce has taught ^! animals t mov+ ?+s1 insects1 worms1 & ! l1 make good food4 ,^! !y swall[ :ole1 ! t9y tee? be+ us$ to hold ! food4 ,t\* is a well-develop$ s5se4 ,!y also respond to *anges 9 temp]ature "u wat]1 rema9+ !re 9 a dormant /ate = ! w9t] :5 ! temp]ature ( ! air becomes cold] ?an t ( ! wat]4 ,brea?+4--,! frog brea!s by rais+ & l[]+ ! floor ( ! m\?1 pull+ 9 air ?r\gh ! two no/ril holes4 ,!n ! little flaps ov] ! holes are clos$1 & ! frog swall[s ?is air1 =c+ x d[n into ! baglike lungs4 ,! sk9 is provid$ ) _m t9y blood vessels1 & 9 w9t]1 :ile ! frogs are dormant at ! bottom ( ! ponds1 x s]ves z ! only organ ( respiration4 ,illu/ration3 ,int]nal organs ( a frog3 ,m1 m\?2 ,t1 tongue2 ,lu1 lungs2 ,h1 he>t2 ,/1 /oma*2 ,i1 small inte/9e2 ,l1 liv]2 ,g1 gall bladd]2 ,p1 pancreas2 ,c1 cloaca2 ,b1 ur9>y bladd]2 ,s1 sple52 ,k1 kidney2 ,od1 oviduct2 ,o1 ov>y2 ,br1 bra92 ,sc1 sp9al cord2 ,ba1 back bone4 ,! ,food ,tube & its ,gl&s4--,! m\? leads l a funnel into a %ort tube1 ! gullet4 ,on ! l[] floor ( ! m\? c be se5 ! slitlike glottis lead+ to ! lungs4 ,! gullet wid5s almo/ at once into a long /oma*1 :i* 9 turn leads into a mu* coil$ inte/9e4 ,?is wid5s abruptly at ! l[] end to =m ! l>ge inte/9e4 ,! latt] leads into ! cloaca 7,lat91 sew]71 into :i* op5 ! kidneys1 ur9>y bladd]1 & reproductive organs 7ov>ies or sp]m>ies74 ,sev]al gl&s1 ! function ( :i* is to produce dige/ive fluids1 op5 into ! food tube4 ,^! dige/ive fluids1 by means ( ! f]m5ts or enzymes conta9$ 9 !m1 *ange insoluble food mat]ials into a soluble =m4 ,?is all[s ( ! absorption ( food mat]ial ?r\gh ! walls ( ! food tube into ! blood4 ,! gl&s 7hav+ ! same names & uses z ^? 9 man7 are ! saliv>y gl&s1 :i* p\r _! juices into ! m\?1 ! ga/ric gl&s 9 ! walls ( ! /oma*1 & ! liv] & pancreas1 :i* op5 into ! inte/9e4 ,circulation4--,! frog has a well-develop$ he>t1 compos$ ( a ?ick-wall$ muscul> v5tricle & two ?9-wall$ auricles4 ,! he>t pumps ! blood ?r\gh a sy/em ( clos$ tubes to all p>ts ( ! body4 ,blood ent]s ! "r auricle f all p>ts ( ! body2 x !n conta9s consid]able c>bon dioxide2 ! blood ent]+ ! left auricle comes f ! lungs1 h5ce x conta9s a consid]able am\nt ( oxyg54 ,blood leaves ! he>t ?r\gh ! v5tricle1 :i* ?us pumps "s blood conta9+ mu* & "s conta9+ little oxyg54 ,be=e ! blood f ! tissues & lungs has "t to mix1 h[ev]1 x leaves ! v5tricle & by a delicate adju/m5t 9 ! vessels leav+ ! he>t mo/ ( ! blood conta9+ mu* oxyg5 is pass$ to all ! v>i\s organs ( ! body1 :ile ! blood defici5t 9 oxyg51 b conta9+ a l>ge am\nt ( c>bon dioxide1 is pump$ to ! lungs1 :]e an ex*ange ( oxyg5 & c>bon dioxide takes place by osmosis4 ,9 ! tissues ( ! body :]ev] "w is done ! process ( burn+ or oxidation mu/ take place1 = by su* means only is ! en]gy necess>y to d ! "w releas$4 ,food 9 ! blood is tak5 to ! muscle cells or o!r cells ( ! body & !re oxidiz$4 ,! products ( ! burn+--c>bon dioxide--& any o!r organic wa/es giv5 (f f ! tissues mu/ be elim9at$ f ! body4 ,z we "k1 ! c>bon dioxide passes (f ?r\gh ! lungs & to "s ext5t ?r\gh ! sk9 ( ! frog1 :ile ! nitrog5\s wa/es1 poisons :i* mu/ be tak5 f ! blood1 are elim9at$ f x 9 ! kidneys4 ,*ange ( ,=m 9 ,developm5t ( ! ,frog4--,n all v]tebrates develop directly into an adult4 ,! frog1 = example1 *anges its =m completely be=e x becomes an adult4 ,?is *ange 9 =m is kn[n z a metamorphosis4 ,let u exam9e ! developm5t ( ! common leop>d frog4 ,illu/ration3 ,developm5t ( a frog4 #a1 two cell /age2 #b1 f\r cell /age2 #c1 #h cells are =m$1 notice ! upp] cells are small]2 9 7#d7 ! l[] cells are se5 to be mu* l>g] because ( ! yolk2 #e1 ! egg has cont9u$ to divide & has =m$ a ga/rula2 #f1 #g1 ! body is l5g!n+1 head is se5 at ! "r h& end2 #h1 ! "y tadpole ) ext]nal gills2 #i1 #aj1 ! gills are int]nal1 h9d legs beg9n+ to =m2 #aa1 ! h9d legs %[ pla9ly2 #ab1 #ac1 #ad1 lat] /ages 9 developm5t2 #ae1 ! adult frog4 ,figures #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 & #g are v mu* enl>g$4 7,drawn aft] ,leuk>t & ,kny by ,frank ,m4 ,:eat47 ,! eggs ( ?is frog are laid 9 %all[ wat] 9 ! e>ly spr+4 ,masses ( sev]al hundr$1 :i* may be f\nd atta*$ to twigs or o!r supports "u wat]1 are deposit$ at a s+le lay+4 ,imm$iately be=e leav+ ! body ( ! female !y receive a coat+ ( jellylike mat]ial1 :i* swells up aft] ! eggs are laid4 ,?us !y are protect$ f ! attack ( fi% or o!r animals :i* might use !m z food4 ,! upp] side ( ! egg is d>k1 ! light-color$ side be+ weight$ d[n ) a supply ( yolk 7food74 ,! f]tiliz$ egg soon segm5ts 7divides into _m cells71 & 9 a few days1 if ! wea!r is w>m1 ^! eggs h ea* gr[n into an oblong body :i* %[s ! =m ( a tadpole4 ,%ortly aft] ! tadpole wriggles out ( ! jellylike case & beg9s life outside ! egg4 ,at fir/ x rema9s atta*$ to "s wat] we$ by means ( a pair ( suck]like projections2 lat] a m\? is =m$1 & ! tadpole beg9s to fe$ ^u algae or o!r t9y wat] plants4 ,at ?is "t1 ab\t two weeks aft] ! eggs 7 laid1 gills are pres5t on ! outside ( ! body4 ,soon aft]1 ! ext]nal gills are replac$ by gills :i* gr[ out "u a fold ( ! sk9 :i* =ms an op]culum some:at z 9 ! fi%4 ,wat] rea*es ! gills ?r\gh ! m\? & passes out ?r\gh a hole on ! left side ( ! body4 ,z ! tadpole gr[s l>g]1 legs appe>1 ! h9d legs fir/1 al?\gh = a "t locomotion is p]=m$ by means ( ! tail4 ,9 ! leop>d frog ! *ange f ! egg to adult is complet$ 9 "o summ]4 ,9 late ,july or e>ly ,augu/1 ! tadpole beg9s to eat less1 ! tail becomes small] 7be+ absorb$ into o!r p>ts ( ! body71 & be=e long ! trans=mation f ! tadpole to ! "y frog is complete4 ,9 ! gre5 frog & bullfrog ! metamorphosis is n complet$ until ! beg9n+ ( ! second summ]4 ,! l>ge tadpoles ( su* =ms bury !mselves 9 ! s(t mud ( ! pond bottom dur+ ! w9t]4 ,%ortly aft] ! legs appe>1 ! gills beg9 to be absorb$1 & lungs take _! place4 ,at ?is "t ! "y animal may be se5 com+ to ! surface ( ! wat] = air4 ,*anges 9 ! diet ( ! animal also occur2 ! long1 coil$ inte/9e is trans=m$ into a mu* %ort] "o4 ,! animal1 n[ insectivor\s 9 its diet1 becomes provid$ ) t9y tee? & a mobile tongue1 in/ead ( keep+ ! horny jaws us$ 9 scrap+ (f algae4 ,aft] ! tail has be5 completely absorb$ & ! legs h become full gr[n1 !re is no fur!r /ructural *ange1 & ! metamorphosis is complete4 ,illu/ration3 ,at ! left is a h5's egg1 op5$ to %[ ! embryo at ! c5t] 7! spot surr\nd$ by a light] area74 ,at ! "r is an ,engli% sp>r[ "o day aft] hat*+4 ,developm5t ( ,birds4--,! :ite ( ! h5's egg is put on dur+ ! passage ( ! real egg 7:i* is 9 ! yolk or yell[ portion7 to ! outside ( ! body4 ,be=e ! egg is laid a %ell is secret$ ov] its surface4 ,if ! f]tiliz$ egg ( a h5 be brok5 & c>efully exam9$1 on ! surface ( ! yolk w be f\nd a little circul> disk4 ,?is is ! beg9n+ ( ! gr[? ( an embryo *ick4 ,if a s]ies ( eggs tak5 f an incubator at p]iods ( tw5ty-f\r h\rs or less ap>t 7 exam9$1 ?is spot w\ld be f\nd at fir/ to increase 9 size2 lat] ! little embryo w\ld be f\nd ly+ on ! surface4 ,/ill lat] small blood vessels c\ld be made out rea*+ into ! yolk = food1 ! t9y he>t beat+ z e>ly z ! second day ( incubation4 ,aft] ab\t ?ree weeks ( incubation ! little *ick hat*es2 t is1 breaks ! %ell1 & em]ges 9 almo/ ! same =m z ! adult4 ,illu/ration3 ,! embryo 7e7 ( a mammal1 %[+ ! absorb+ organ 9 black1 ! bran*-l processes :i* absorb blood f ! "m be+ %[n at 7v72 ct1 ! tube connect+ ! embryo ) ! absorb+ organ or plac5ta4 ,developm5t ( a ,mammal4--,9 mammals aft] f]tilization ! egg und]goes developm5t )9 ! body ( ! "m4 ,in/ead ( blood vessels connect+ ! embryo ) ! yolk z 9 ! *ick1 "h ! blood vessels are atta*$ to an absorb+ organ1 kn[n z ! plac5ta4 ,?is /ructure s5ds bran*-l processes into ! wall ( ! ut]us 7! organ :i* holds ! embryo7 & absorbs n\ri%m5t & oxyg5 by osmosis f ! blood ( ! "m4 ,aft] a l5g? ( "t :i* v>ies 9 diff]5t species ( mammals 7f ab\t ?ree weeks 9 a gu9ea pig to tw5ty-two mon?s 9 an elephant71 ! "y animal is expell$ by muscul> contraction ( ! ut]us1 or is born4 ,! "y1 usually1 are born 9 a helpless condition1 !n n\ri%$ by milk furni%$ by ! "m until !y are able to take o!r food4 ,?us we see z we g high] 9 ! scale ( life few] eggs =m$1 b ^? few eggs are m c>efully protect$ & c>$ = by ! p>5ts4 ,! *ances ( _! gr[? into adults are mu* great] ?an 9 ! cases :5 _m eggs are produc$4 ,,ref]5ce ,,books ,,elem5t>y ,hunt]1 ,laboratory ,problems 9 ,civic ,biology4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,bigel[1 ,introduction to ,biology4 ,! ,macmillan ,company4 ,cornell ,nature ,/udy ,leaflets4 ,bullet9s ,,xvi1 ,,xvii4 ,davison1 ,practical ,zoology1 pages #ahe-aii4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,hodge1 ,nature ,/udy & ,life1 ,*aps4 ,,xvi1 ,,xvii4 ,g9n & ,company4 ,%>pe1 ,laboratory ,manual1 pp4 #aie1 #bjd-bji4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,,advanc$ ,dick]son1 ,! ,frog ,book4 ,d\bl$ay1 ,page & ,company4 ,holmes1 ,! ,biology ( ! ,frog4 ,! ,macmillan ,company4 ,jordan1 ,fi%es4 ,h5ry ,holt & ,company4 ,morgan1 ,! ,developm5t ( ! ,frog's ,egg4 ,! ,macmillan ,company4 ,ne$ham1 ,g5]al ,biology4 ,com/ock ,publi%+ ,company4 ,,xvii4 ,,h]$ity1 ,,v>iation1 ,,plant ,,& ,,animal ,,bre$+ ,problems4--,to det]m9e :at makes ! (fspr+ ( animals or plants t5d to be l _! p>5ts4 ,to det]m9e :at makes ! (fspr+ ( animals & plants diff] f _! p>5ts4 ,to le>n ab\t "s me?ods ( plant & animal bre$+4 7a7 ,by selection4 7b7 ,by hybridiz+4 7c7 ,by o!r me?ods4 ,to le>n ab\t "s me?ods ( improv+ ! human race4 7a7 ,by eug5ics4 7b7 ,by eu!nics4 ,,sugge/ions ,,= ,,laboratory ,,"w ,laboratory ex]cise4--,on v>iation & h]$ity among memb]s ( a class 9 ! s*oolroom4 ,laboratory ex]cise4--,on con/ruction ( curve ( v>iation 9 measurem5ts f giv5 plants or animals4 ,laboratory demon/ration4--,/a9$ egg cells 7asc>is7 to %[ *romosomes4 ,laboratory demon/rations4--,to illu/rate ! "p play$ 9 plant or animal bre$+ by 7a7 selection4 7b7 hybridiz+4 7c7 budd+ & graft+4 ,laboratory demon/ration4--,f *>ts to illu/rate h[ human *>act]i/ics may be inh]it$4 ,,h]$ity ,,& ,,eug5ics ,h]$ity & :at x ,means4--,z ,i look ov] ! faces ( ! boys 9 my class ,i notice t ea* boy seems to be m or less l ea* o!r boy 9 ! class2 he has a head1 body1 arms1 & legs1 & ev5 9 m9or ways he resembles ea* ( ! o!r boys 9 ! room4 ,moreov]1 if ,i %\ld ask him ,i h no d\bt b t he w\ld tell me t he resembl$ 9 _m respects 8 "m or fa!r4 ,likewise if ,i %\ld ask 8 p>5ts :om he resembl$1 !y w\ld say1 ,i c see 8 gr&mo!r or 8 gr&fa!r 9 him4 ,?is wond]ful =ce :i* causes ! lik5ess ( ! *ild to its p>5ts & to _! p>5ts we call h]$ity4 ,h]$ity causes ! plants z well z animals to be l _! p>5ts4 ,if we trace ! work+s ( h]$ity 9 our own individual case1 we w probably f9d t we are mold$ l our ance/ors n only 9 physical *>act]i/ics b 9 m5tal qualities z well4 ,! ability to play ! piano or to pa9t is probably z mu* a case ( inh]itance z ! color ( our eyes or ! %ape ( our nose4 ,we are a complex ( physical & m5tal *>act]s1 receiv$ 9 "p f all our ance/ors4 ,illu/ration3 ,v>iations 9 ! ,catalpa cat]pill>4 7,photograph$1 natural size1 by ,davison47 ,v>iation4--,b ,i notice ano!r ?+2 no boy 9 ! class be=e me is exactly l any o!r boy1 ev5 tw9s hav+ m9ute diff]5ces4 ,9 ?is wond]ful mold ( nature ea* "o ( u t5ds to be slightly diff]5t f 8 or h] p>5ts4 ,ea* plant1 ea* animal1 v>ies to a great] or less] degree f its imm$iate ance/ors & may v>y to a v great degree4 ,?is factor 9 ! lives ( plants & animals is call$ v>iation4 ,h]$ity & v>iation are ! corn]/ones on :i* all ! "w 9 ! improvem5t ( plants & animals1 includ+ man himself1 are built4 ,! ,be>]s ( ,h]$ity4--,we h se5 t some:]e 9 e liv+ cell is a /ructure kn[n z a nucleus4 ,9 ?is nucleus1 :i* is a "p ( ! liv+ matt] ( ! cell1 are c]ta9 v m9ute /ructures always pres5t1 kn[n z *romosomes4 ,^! *romosomes 7s call$ because !y take up color :5 /a9$7 are believ$ to be ! /ructures :i* conta9 ! det]m9]s ( ! qualities :i* may be pass$ f p>5t plant to (fspr+ or f animal to animal2 9 o!r words1 ! qualities t are inh]itable 7see page #beb74 ,! ,g]m ,cells4--,b x has be5 f\nd t c]ta9 cells ( ! body1 ! egg & ! sp]m cells1 be=e unit+ conta9 only half z _m *romosomes z d ! body cells4 ,9 prep>+ = ! process ( f]tilization1 half ( ^! elem5ts h be5 elim9at$1 s t :5 ! egg & sp]m cell are unit$ !y w h ! full numb] ( *romosomes t ! o!r cells h4 ,if ! *romosomes c>ry ! det]m9]s ( ! *>act]s :i* are inh]itable1 !n x is easy to see t a f]tiliz$ egg mu/ conta9 an equal numb] ( *romosomes f ! bodies ( ea* p>5t4 ,consequ5tly *>act]i/ics f ea* p>5t are h&$ d[n to ! new individual4 ,?is seems to be ! way 9 :i* nature succe$s 9 obta9+ v>iation1 by provid+ cell mat]ial f two diff]5t individuals4 ,(fspr+ are ,"p ( _! ,ance/ors4--,we c see t if y or ,i receive *>act]i/ics f our p>5ts & !y receiv$ *>act]i/ics f _! p>5ts1 !n we too mu/ h "s ( ! *>act]i/ics ( ! gr&p>5ts1 & x is a matt] ( common k t ea* ( u does h "s trait or l9eam5t :i* c be trac$ back to our gr&fa!r or gr&mo!r4 ,inde$1 z f> back z we are able to g1 ance/ors h add$ some?+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,comp>ison ,,( ,,sexual ,,& ,,asexual ,,cell ,,reproduction ,*>les ,d>w9 & ,natural ,selection4--,! great ,engli%man ,*>les ,d>w9 0 "o ( ! fir/ sci5ti/s to realize h[ ?is great =ce ( h]$ity appli$ to ! developm5t or evolution ( plants & animals4 ,he knew t al?\gh animals & plants 7 l _! ance/ors1 !y also t5d$ to v>y4 ,9 nature1 ! v>iations :i* be/ fitt$ a plant or animal = life 9 its own environm5t 7 ! ones :i* 7 h&$ d[n because ^? hav+ v>iations :i* 7 n fitt$ = life 9 t p>ticul> environm5t w\ld die4 ,?us nature seiz$ ^u favorable v>iations & aft] a "t1 z ! desc5dants ( ea* ( ^! individuals also t5d$ to v>y1 a new species ( plant or animal1 fitt$ = ! place x _h to live 91 w\ld be gradually evolv$4 ,mutations4--,rec5tly a new me?od ( v>iation has be5 discov]$ by a ,dut* naturali/1 nam$ ,hugo de ,vries4 ,he f\nd t new species ( plants & animals arise sudd5ly by mutations or /eps4 ,?is means t new species in/ead ( aris+ f v slight v>iations1 cont9u+ dur+ long p]iods ( ye>s 7z ,d>w9 believ$71 might arise v sudd5ly z a v great v>iation :i* w\ld at once bre$ true4 ,x is easily se5 t su* a condition w\ld be ( imm5se value to bre$]s1 z new plants or animals q unlike _! p>5ts might ?us be =m$ & p]petuat$4 ,x w be "o ( ! future problems ( plant & animal bre$]s to isolate & bre$ mutants1 z su* organisms are call$4 ,illu/ration3 ,improvem5t 9 corn by selection4 ,to ! left1 ! corn improv$ by selection f ! orig9al type at ! "r4 ,artificial ,selection4--,d>w9 reason$ t if nature seiz$ ^u favorable v>iants1 !n man1 by select+ ! v>iations he want$1 c\ld =m new v>ieties ( plants or animals mu* m quickly ?an nature4 ,& s to-day plant or animal bre$]s select ! =ms hav+ ! *>act]s !y wi% to p]petuate & bre$ !m toge!r4 ,?is me?od us$ by plant & animal bre$]s is kn[n z selection4 ,selective ,plant+4--,by selective plant+ we mean *oos+ ! be/ plants & plant+ ! se$ f ^! plants ) a view ( improv+ ! yield4 ,9 do+ ?is we mu/ n necess>ily select ! mo/ p]fect fruits or gra9s1 b mu/ select se$s f ! be/ plants4 ,a :eat plant %\ld be select$ n f its yield alone1 b f its ability to /& disease & o!r unfavorable conditions4 ,9 #ahfb a ,mr4 ,fultz1 ( ,p5nsylvania1 f\nd ?ree heads ( be>dless or bald :eat :ile pass+ ?r\gh a l>ge field ( be>d$ :eat4 ,^! 7 probably mutants :i* _h lo/ ! *aff surr\nd+ ! k]nel4 ,mr4 ,fultz pick$ !m out1 s[$ !m by !mselves1 & produc$ a quantity ( :eat n[ kn[n favorably all ov] ! _w z ! ,fultz :eat4 ,9 select+ :eat1 = example1 we might bre$ = a numb] ( diff]5t *>act]s1 su* z m />*1 or m prote9 9 ! gra91 a l>g] yield p] acre1 ability to /& cold or dr\ght or to resi/ plant disease4 ,ea* ( ^! *>act]s w\ld h to be s\ght = sep>ately & c\ld only be obta9$ aft] long & c>eful bre$+4 ,! "w ( ,m5del 7see page #beg7 :5 appli$ to plant bre$+ w greatly %ort5 ! "t requir$ to produce bett] plants ( a giv5 k9d4 ,by c>eful se$ selection1 "s ,we/]n f>m]s h increas$ _! :eat production by #be p] c5t4 ,?is1 if kept up all ov] ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 w\ld mean ov] #ajj1jjj1jjj a ye> 9 ! pockets ( ! f>m]s4 ,hybridiz+4--,we h already se5 t poll5 f "o fl[] may be c>ri$ to ano!r ( ! same species1 ?us produc+ se$s4 ,if poll5 f "o plant be plac$ on ! pi/il ( ano!r ( an alli$ species or v>iety1 f]tilization may take place & new plants be ev5tually produc$ f ! se$s4 ,?is process is kn[n z hybridiz+1 & ! plants produc$ by ?is process kn[n z hybrids4 ,illu/ration3 ,9 hybridiz+1 all ( ! fl[] is remov$ at ! l9e 7,w7 except ! pi/il 7,p74 ,!n poll5 f ano!r fl[] ( a ne>ly relat$ k9d is plac$ on ! pi/il & ! poll9at$ fl[] cov]$ up ) a pap] bag4 ,c y expla9 :y8 ,hybrids are extremely v>iable1 r>ely bre$ f se$s1 & (t5 are app>5tly q unlike ei!r p>5t plant4 ,!y mu/ be gr[n = sev]al ye>s1 & all plants t d n resemble ! desir$ v>iety mu/ be kill$ (f1 if we expect to produce a hybrid t w bre$ m plants l itself4 ,lu!r ,burbank1 ! great hybridiz] ( ,cali=nia1 de/roys t5s ( ?\s&s ( plants 9 ord] to get "o or two ) ! *>act]s :i* he wi%es to pres]ve4 ,?us he is ye>ly add+ to ! weal? ( ?is c\ntry by produc+ new plants or fruits ( comm]cial value4 ,a numb] ( ye>s ago he succe$$ 9 gr[+ a new v>iety ( potato1 :i* has already enri*$ ! f>m]s ( ?is c\ntry ab\t #bj1jjj1jjj4 ,"o ( 8 v>ieties ( black walnut trees1 a v valuable h>d wood1 gr[s t5 to twelve times z rapidly z ord9>y black walnuts4 ,) lumb] ye>ly increas+ 9 price1 a quick gr[+ tree becomes a v valuable comm]cial product4 ,among 8 fam\s hybrids are ! plumcot1 a cross betwe5 an apricot & a plum1 8 num]\s v>ieties ( b]ries & 8 spl5did ,climax plum1 ! result ( a cross betwe5 a bitt] ,*9ese plum & an edible ,japanese plum4 ,b none ( ,burbank's products gr[ f se$s2 !y are all produc$ asexually1 f hybrids by "s ( ! processes describ$ 9 ! next p>agraph4 ,! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture & its ,me?ods4--,! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture is also do+ spl5did "w 9 produc+ new v>ieties ( oranges & lemons1 ( gra9 & v>i\s g>d5 vegetables4 ,! greate/ possibilities h be5 %[n by dep>tm5t work]s to be op5 to ! f>m] or fruit gr[] ?r\gh hybridiz+1 & by budd+1 graft+1 or slipp+4 ,illu/ration3 ,/eps 9 budd+4 a1 twig hav+ suitable buds to use2 b1 me?od ( cutt+ out bud2 c1 h[ ! b>k is cut2 d1 h[ ! b>k is op5$2 e1 ins]t+ ! bud2 f1 ! bud 9 place2 g1 ! bud prop]ly b\nd 9 place4 ,budd+4--,if a giv5 tree1 = example1 produces a k9d ( fruit :i* is ( excell5t quality1 x is possible sometimes to atta* p>ts ( ! tree to ano!r /rong tree ( ! same species t may n be> good fruit4 ,?is is done by budd+4 ,a ,t-%ap$ incision is cut 9 ! b>k2 a bud f ! tree be>+ ! desir$ fruit is plac$ 9 ! cut & b\nd 9 place4 ,:5 a %oot f ! emb$d$ bud gr[s out ! foll[+ spr+1 x is f\nd to h all ! *>act]s ( ! tree f :i* x 0 tak54 ,illu/ration3 ,/eps 9 tongue graft+4 a1 ! two bran*es to be =m$2 b1 a tongue cut 9 ea*2 c1 fitt$ toge!r2 d1 me?od ( wrapp+4 ,graft+4--,( mu* ! same nature is graft+4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 a small portion ( ! /em ( ! closely alli$ tree is fa/5$ into ! trunk ( ! gr[+ tree 9 su* a mann] t ! two cut lay]s j "u ! b>k w co9cide4 ,?is w all[ ( ! passage ( food into ! graft$ "p & insure ! ultimate gr[? ( ! twig4 ,graft+ & budd+ are ( consid]able economic value to ! fruit gr[]1 z x enables him to produce at w1 trees be>+ *oice v>ieties ( fruit4#cd ,footnote #cd3 ,= full directions = budd+ & graft+1 see ,g(f & ,mayne1 ,fir/ ,pr9ciples ( ,agriculture1 ,*ap4 ,,xix1 ,mayne & ,hat*1 ,high ,s*ool ,agriculture1 pp4 #aei-afe1 or ,hodge1 ,nature ,/udy & ,life1 pages #afi-agi4 ,o!r ,me?ods4--,o!r me?ods ( plant propagation are by means ( runn]s1 z :5 /rawb]ry plants /rike root f long /ems t run along ! gr\nd2 lay]+1 :]e roots may develop on cov]$ up bran*es ( blackb]ry or raspb]ry plants2 slips1 roots develop+ f /ems :i* are cut (f & plac$ 9 moi/ s&2 f tub]s1 z 9 plant+ potatoes2 & by means ( bulbs1 z ! tulip or hyac9?4 ,all ( ! above means ( propagation are asexual & are ( importance 9 our problem ( plant bre$+4 ,illu/ration3 ,plant bre$+ plots4 7,m9nesota ,exp]im5t ,/ation47 ,! ,"w ( ,gregor ,m5del4--,fifty ye>s ago1 an ,au/rian monk1 ,gregor ,m5del1 f\nd 9 bre$+ g>d5 peas t ^! plants pass$ on c]ta9 fix$ *>act]s1 z ! %ape ( ! se$1 ! color ( ! pod :5 ripe1 & o!rs1 & t :5 two pea plants ( diff]5t *>act]s 7 cross$1 "o ( ^! *>act]s w\ld be likely to appe> 9 ! (fspr+ ( ! second g5]ation 9 ! ratio ( ?ree to "o4 ,su* *>act]s z w\ld appe> to ! exclusion ( o!rs 9 ! fir/ cross+ ( ! plants 7 call$ dom9ant1 ! ones n appe>+1 recessive *>act]i/ics4 ,:5 ^! se$s 7 aga9 s[n ! ones be>+ a recessive *>act]i/ic w\ld produce only peas ) ?is recessive *>act]i/ic1 b ! ones ) a dom9ant *>act]i/ic might give rise to a pure dom9ant or to (fspr+ hav+ p>tly a dom9ant & p>tly a recessive "*2 pure dom9ants be+ to ! mix$ (fspr+ 9 ! ratio ( #a to #b4 ,! pure dom9ants if br$ ) o!rs l !mselves w\ld produce only pure dom9ants1 b ! cross bre$s w\ld aga9 produce mix$ (fspr+ ( ?ree k9ds 9 ! ratio ( "o dom9ant to two cross bre$s & "o recessive4 ,! feature ( ?is "w t int]e/s u is t unit *>act]s are pass$ along by h]$ity 9 ! g]m cells pure1 t is1 un*ang$1 f "o g5]ation to ano!r1 & indep5d5tly ( ea* o!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,illu/ration ( ,m5del's ,law4 ,det]m9]s ( ,"*4--,a *ild !n resembles 8 p>5ts 9 "s def9ite p>ticul>s because c]ta9 det]m9]s ( *>act]s h be5 pres5t 9 ! g]m cells ( "o ( ! p>5ts4 ,if ! det]m9] ( a c]ta9 "* is abs5t f ! g]m cells ( bo? p>5ts1 x w be abs5t 9 all ( _! (fspr+4 ,^! discov]ies ( ,m5del are ( ! greate/ importance 9 plant & animal bre$+ because !y enable ! bre$] to isolate c]ta9 *>act]s & by prop] selection to bre$ v>ieties :i* h ^! desir$ *>act]s1 in/ead ( wait+ = a *ance union ( ! desir$ *>act]s by nature4 ,animal ,bre$+4--,x has be5 po9t$ out t ! dome/ication ( wild animals1 ! horse1 cattle1 %eep1 goats1 & ! dog1 m>k$ a great advance 9 civilization 9 ! hi/ory ( ! e>?'s peoples4 ,z ! "y ( ^! animals came to be br$ 9 captivity ! peoples own+ !m w\ld und\bt$ly pick out ! /ronge/ & be/ ( ! (fspr+1 kill+ (f ! o!rs = food4 ,?us !y came unconsci\sly to select & aid nature 9 produc+ a /rong] & bett] /ock4 ,lat] man began to recognize c]ta9 *>act]s t he wi%$ to h 9 horses1 dogs1 or cattle1 & s by sl[ processes ( bre$+ & cross+ or hybridiz+ "o ne>ly alli$ =m ) ano!r ! num]\s gr\ps ( dome/icat$ animals began to appe>4 ,illu/ration3 ,:at has result$ f artificial selection among dogs4 7,aft] ,romanes47 ,9 ,d>w9's "t animal bre$+ 0 s f> advanc$ t he got 8 ideas ( selection by nature 9 evolution f ! artificial selection practic$ by animal bre$]s4 ,a glance at ! pictures w give "s idea ( ! *anges t h tak5 place 9 ! =m ( "s animals s9ce man began to bre$ !m a few ?\s& ye>s ago4 ,illu/ration3 ,! f\r-to$ ance/or ( ! pres5t horse1 re/or$ f a /udy ( its fossil skeleton4 7,aft] ,knight 9 ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory47 ,"s ,dome/icat$ ,animals4--,our dome/icat$ dogs are desc5d$ f a numb] ( wolflike =ms 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! _w4 ,all ! pres5t races ( cats1 on ! o!r h&1 seem to be trac$ back to ,egypt4 ,mod]n horses are fir/ not$ 9 ,europe & ,asia1 b f> old] =ms fl\ri%$ on ! e>? 9 =m] geologic p]iods4 ,x is int]e/+ to note t ,am]ica 0 ! orig9al home ( ! horse1 al?\gh at ! "t ( ! e>lie/ explor]s ! horse 0 unkn[n "h1 ! wild horse ( ! ,we/]n pla9s hav+ aris5 f horses introduc$ by ! ,spani>ds4 ,long ages ago1 ! fir/ ance/ors ( ! horse 7 probably little animals ab\t ! size ( a fox4 ,! e>lie/ horse we h k ( _h f\r toes on ! =e & ?ree toes on ! h9d foot4 ,?\s&s ( ye>s lat] we f9d a l>g] horse1 ! size ( a %eep1 ) a ?ree-to$ foot4 ,by gradual *anges1 caus$ by ! t5d5cy ( ! animals to v>y & by ! action ( ! surr\nd+s ^u ! animal 9 pres]v+ ^! v>iations1 !re 0 ev5tually produc$ our pres5t horse1 an animal ) legs adapt$ = rapid locomotion1 ) feet p>ticul>ly fitt$ = ! life 9 op5 fields1 & ) tee? :i* s]ve well to seize & gr9d h]bage4 ,k ( ?is sort 0 also us$ by ,d>w9 to %[ t con/ant *anges 9 ! =m ( animals h be5 tak+ place s9ce life began on ! e>?4 ,! horse1 :i* = "s reason disappe>$ 9 ?is c\ntry1 cont9u$ to exi/ 9 ,europe1 & man1 em]g+ f 8 e>ly savage condition1 began to make use ( ! animal4 ,we "k ! horse 0 dome/icat$ 9 e>ly ,biblical times1 & t he soon became "o ( man's mo/ valu$ s]vants4 ,9 m rec5t times1 man has begun to *ange ! horse by bre$+ = c]ta9 desir$ *>act]i/ics4 ,9 ?is mann] h be5 e/abli%$ & improv$ ! v>i\s types ( horses famili> to u z draft horses1 coa* horses1 hackneys1 & ! trott]s4 ,x is ne$less to say t all ! v>i\s dome/icat$ animals h be5 trem5d\sly *ang$ 9 a simil> mann] s9ce civiliz$ man has come to live on ! e>?4 ,:5 we realize ! v great am\nt ( money inve/$ 9 dome/icat$ animals2 t !re are ov] #fj1jjj1jjj ea* ( %eep1 cattle1 & sw9e & ov] #bj1jjj1jjj horses own$ 9 ?is c\ntry1 !n we may see h[ v important a "p ! dome/ic animals play 9 our lives4 ,improvem5t ( ,man4--,if ! /ock ( dome/icat$ animals c be improv$1 x is n unfair to ask if ! heal? & vigor ( ! future g5]ations ( m5 & wom5 on ! e>? might n be improv$ by apply+ to !m ! laws ( selection4 ,?is improvem5t ( ! future race has a numb] ( factors 9 :i* we z individuals may play a "p4 ,^! are p]sonal hygi5e1 selection ( heal?y mates1 & ! bett]m5t ( ! environm5t4 ,p]sonal ,hygi5e4--,9 ! fir/ place1 good heal? is ! "o greate/ asset 9 life4 ,we may be born ) a poor bodily ma*9e1 b if we le>n to recognize its defects & c>e = x prop]ly1 we may make x d its requir$ "w effectively4 ,if c]ta9 muscles are poorly develop$1 !n by prop] ex]cise we may make !m /rong]4 ,if our eyes h "s defect1 we c h x rem$i$ by we>+ glasses4 ,if c]ta9 drugs or alcohol l[] ! effici5cy ( ! ma*9e1 we c avoid _! use4 ,) prop] c>e a poorly develop$ body may be improv$ & d effective "w4 ,eug5ics4--,:5 p m>ry !re are c]ta9 ?+s t ! individual z well z ! race %\ld dem&4 ,! mo/ important ( ^! is fre$om f g]m diseases :i* might be h&$ d[n to ! (fspr+4 ,tub]culosis1 syphilis1 t dread disease :i* cripples & kills hundr$s ( ?\s&s ( innoc5t *ildr51 epilepsy1 & feeble-m9d$ness are h&icaps :i* x is n only unfair b crim9al to h& d[n to po/]ity4 ,! sci5ce ( be+ well born is call$ eug5ics4 ,illu/ration3 ,9 ?is & ! foll[+ diagrams ! circle repres5ts a female1 ! squ>e a male4 ,n means normal2 ,f means feeble-m9d$2 ,a1 alcoholic2 ,t1 tub]cul>2 ,sx1 sexually immoral2 ,sy1 hav+ syphilis4 ,?is *>t %[s ! record ( a c]ta9 family = ?ree g5]ations4 ,a normal woman m>ri$ an alcoholic & tub]cul> man4 ,he mu/ h be5 feeble-m9d$ also z two ( 8 *ildr5 7 born feeble-m9d$4 ,"o ( ^! *ildr5 m>ri$ ano!r feeble-m9d$ woman1 & ( _! five *ildr5 two di$ 9 infancy & ?ree 7 feeble-m9d$4 7,aft] ,dav5port47 ,illu/ration3 ,?is *>t %[s t feeble-m9d$ness is a *>act]i/ic sure to be h&$ d[n 9 a family :]e x exi/s4 ,! feeble-m9d$ woman at ! top left ( ! *>t m>ri$ twice4 ,! fir/ *ildr5 f a normal fa!r are all normal1 b ! o!r *ildr5 f an alcoholic fa!r are all feeble-m9d$4 ,! "r-h& side ( ! *>t %[s a t]rible record ( feeble-m9d$ness4 ,%\ld feeble-m9d$ p be all[$ to m>ry8 7,aft] ,dav5port47 ,! ,jukes4--,/udies h be5 made on a numb] ( diff]5t families 9 ?is c\ntry1 9 :i* m5tal & moral defects 7 pres5t 9 "o or bo? ( ! orig9al p>5ts4 ,! ,jukes family is a notori\s example4 ,! fir/ "m is kn[n z ,m>g>et1 ! "m ( crim9als4 ,9 sev5ty-five ye>s ! prog5y ( ! orig9al g5]ation has co/ ! /ate ( ,new ,york ov] a million & a qu>t] ( doll>s1 besides giv+ ov] to ! c>e ( prisons & asylums consid]ably ov] a hundr$ feeble-m9d$1 alcoholic1 immoral1 or crim9al p]sons4 ,ano!r case rec5tly /udi$ is ! ,kallikak family4#ce ,?is family has be5 trac$ back to ! ,w> ( ! ,revolution1 :5 a "y soldi] nam$ ,m>t9 ,kallikak s$uc$ a feeble-m9d$ girl4 ,%e _h a feeble-m9d$ son f :om !re h be5 to ! pres5t "t #dhj desc5dants4 ,( ^! #cc 7 sexually immoral1 #bd confirm$ drunk>ds1 #c epileptics1 & #adc feeble-m9d$4 ,! man :o />t$ ?is t]rible l9e ( immorality & feeble-m9d$ness lat] m>ri$ a normal ,quak] girl4 ,f ?is c\ple a l9e ( #dif desc5dants h come1 ) no cases ( feeble-m9d$ness4 ,! evid5ce & ! moral speak = !mselves6 ,footnote #ce3 ,! "n ,kallikak is fictiti\s4 ,p>asitism & its ,co/ to ,society4--,hundr$s ( families su* z ^? describ$ above exi/ to-day1 spread+ disease1 immorality1 & crime to all p>ts ( ?is c\ntry4 ,! co/ to society ( su* families is v sev]e4 ,j z c]ta9 animals or plants become p>asitic on o!r plants or animals1 ^! families h become p>asitic on society4 ,!y n only d h>m to o!rs by corrupt+1 /eal+1 or spread+ disease1 b !y are actually protect$ & c>$ = by ! /ate out ( public money4 ,l>gely = !m ! poorh\se & ! asylum exi/4 ,!y take f society1 b !y give no?+ 9 return4 ,!y are true p>asites4 ,! ,rem$y4--,if su* p 7 l[] animals1 we w\ld probably kill !m (f to prev5t !m f spread+4 ,humanity w n all[ ?is1 b we d h ! rem$y ( sep>at+ ! sexes 9 asylums or o!r places & 9 v>i\s ways prev5t+ int]m>riage & ! possibilities ( p]petuat+ su* a l[ & deg5]ate race4 ,rem$ies ( ?is sort h be5 tri$ successfully 9 ,europe & are n[ meet+ ) success 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,blood ,tells4--,eug5ics %[ u1 on ! o!r h&1 9 a /udy ( ! families 9 :i* are brilliant m5 & wom51 ! fact t ! desc5dants h receiv$ ! good inh]itance f _! ance/ors4 ,! foll[+1 tak5 f ,dav5port's ,h]$ity 9 ,relation to ,eug5ics1 illu/rates h[ "o family has be5 fam\s 9 ,am]ican ,hi/ory4 ,9 #affg ,elizabe? ,tuttle1 ( /rong w1 & ( extreme intellectual vigor1 m>ri$ ,ri*>d ,edw>ds ( ,h>t=d1 ,conn41 a man ( high repute & great erudition4 ,f _! "o son desc5d$ ano!r son1 ,jona?an ,edw>ds1 a not$ div9e1 & presid5t ( ,pr9ceton ,college4 ,( ! desc5dants ( ,jona?an ,edw>ds mu* has be5 writt52 a brief catalogue mu/ suffice3 ,jona?an ,edw>ds1 ,jr41 presid5t ( ,union ,college2 ,timo?y ,dwight1 presid5t ( ,yale2 ,s]5o ,edw>ds ,dwight1 presid5t ( ,hamilton ,college2 ,!odore ,dwight ,woolsey1 = tw5ty-five ye>s presid5t ( ,yale ,college2 ,s>ah1 wife ( ,tapp+ ,reeve1 f\nd] ( ,lit*field ,law ,s*ool1 h]self no mean lawy]2 ,daniel ,tyl]1 a g5]al 9 ! ,civil ,w> & f\nd] ( ! iron indu/ries ( ,nor? ,alabama2 ,timo?y ,dwight1 second1 presid5t ( ,yale ,univ]sity f #ahhf to #ahih2 ,!odore ,william ,dwight1 f\nd] & = ?irty-?ree ye>s w>d5 ( ,columbia ,law ,s*ool2 ,h5rietta ,frances1 wife ( ,eli ,:itney1 inv5tor ( ! cotton g91 :o1 burn+ ! midnight oil by ! side ( h] +5i\s husb&1 help$ him to 8 endur+ fame2 ,m]rill ,edw>ds ,gates1 presid5t ( ,amh]/ ,college2 ,ca!r9e ,m>ia ,s$gwick ( graceful p52 ,*>les ,s$gwick ,m9ot1 au?ority on biology & embryology 9 ! ,h>v>d ,m$ical ,s*ool2 ,edi? ,k]mit ,c>[1 wife ( ,!odore ,roosevelt2 & ,w9/on ,*ur*ill1 ! au?or ( ,coni/on & o!r well-kn[n novels4 ,illu/ration3 ,?is record %[s ! inh]itance ( arti/ic ability 7black circles & squ>es74 7,aft] ,dav5port47 ,( ! daught]s ( ,elizabe? ,tuttle di/+ui%$ desc5dants also came4 ,rob]t ,treat ,pa9e1 sign] ( ! ,decl>ation ( ,indep5d5ce2 ,*ief ,ju/ice ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,morrison ,r4 ,waite2 ,ulysses ,s4 ,grant & ,grov] ,clevel&1 presid5ts ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,^! & _m o!r prom95t m5 & wom5 c trace ! *>act]s :i* enabl$ !m to occupy ! positions ( culture & le>n+ !y held back to ,elizabe? ,tuttle4 ,eu!nics4--,eu!nics1 ! bett]m5t ( ! environm5t1 is ano!r important factor 9 ! production ( a /rong] race4 ,! /ronge/ physical *>act]i/ics may be ru9$ if ! surr\nd+s are un:olesome & unsanit>y4 ,! slums ( a city are at once symptom1 effect1 & cause ( evil4 ,a city :i* all[s f\l t5em5ts1 n>r[ /reets1 & cr[d$ slums to exi/ w sp5d too mu* = police protection1 = *>ity1 & = hospitals4 ,e improvem5t 9 surr\nd+s means improvem5t ( ! *ances ( survival ( ! race4 ,9 ! spr+ ( #aiac ! heal? dep>tm5t & /reet-clean+ dep>tm5t ( ! city ( ,new ,york coop]at$ to br+ ab\t a clean up ( all fil?1 dirt1 & rubbi% f ! h\ses1 /reets1 & vacant lots 9 t city4 ,dur+ ! summ] ( #aiac ! heal? dep>tm5t report$ a small] p]c5tage ( dea?s ( babies ?an ev] be=e4 ,we mu/ draw our own conclusions4 ,clean /reets & h\ses1 clean milk & pure wat]1 sanit>y h\s+1 & c>eful m$ical inspection all d _! "p 9 ma9ta9+ a l[ rate ( illness & dea?1 ?us react+ ^u ! heal? ( ! citiz5s ( ! future4 ,x w be ! purpose ( ! foll[+ pages to %[ h[ we may be/ c>e = our own bodies & h[ we may bett] ! environm5t 9 :i* we are plac$4 ,,ref]5ce ,,books ,,elem5t>y ,hunt]1 ,laboratory ,problems 9 ,civic ,biology4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,bailey1 ,plant ,bre$+4 ,macmillan & ,company4 ,h>wood1 ,new ,creations 9 ,plant ,life4 ,! ,macmillan ,company4 ,jordan1 ,! ,h]$ity ( ,ri*>d ,roe4 ,am]ican ,unit>ian ,association4 ,%>pe1 ,laboratory ,manual1 pp4 #fd-gb1 #cde-cdg4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,,advanc$ ,all51 ,civics & ,heal?4 ,g9n & ,company4 ,c\lt]1 ,ca/le1 ,ea/1 ,t[]1 & ,dav5port1 ,h]$ity & ,eug5ics4 ,univ]sity ( ,*icago ,press4 ,dav5port1 ,h]$ity 9 ,relation to ,eug5ics4 ,h5ry ,holt & ,company4 ,de ,vries1 ,plant ,bre$+4 ,op5 ,c\rt ,publi%+ ,company4 ,godd>d1 ,! ,kallikak ,family4 ,! ,macmillan ,company4 ,kellicott1 ,! ,social ,direction ( ,human ,evolution4 ,appleton ,company4 ,punnet1 ,m5delism4 ,! ,macmillan ,company4 ,ri*>ds1 ,hel5 ,m41 ,eu!nics1 ! ,sci5ce ( ,controllable ,environm5t4 ,walt]1 ,g5etics4 ,! ,macmillan ,company4 ,,xviii4 ,,! ,,human ,,ma*9e ,,& ,,its ,,ne$s ,problem4--,to obta9 a g5]al und]/&+ ( ! p>ts & uses ( ! bodily ma*9e4 ,,laboratory ,,sugge/ions ,demon/ration4--,review to %[ t ! human body is a complex ( cells4 ,laboratory demon/ration by means ( 7a7 human skeleton & 7b7 manik9 to %[ ! position & gross /ructure ( ! *ief organs ( man4 ,man & 8 ,environm5t4--,9 ! la/ *apt] we saw t "o factor 9 ! improvem5t ( man lies 9 giv+ him bett] surr\nd+s4 ,x w be ! purpose ( ! foll[+ *apt]s to %[ h[ man is fitt$ to live 9 ! environm5t 9 :i* he is plac$4 ,he comes 9 contact ) air1 light1 wat]1 soil1 food1 & %elt] :i* make 8 some:at artificial environm5t2 he mu/ adapt himself to get ! be/ he c out ( ?is environm5t4 ,! ,ne$s ( ,liv+ ,?+s4--,we h already f\nd t ! prim>y ne$s ( plants & animals are ! same4 ,!y bo? ne$ food1 !y bo? ne$ to dige/ _! food & to h x circulate 9 a fluid =m to ! cells :]e x w be us$4 ,!y bo? ne$ oxyg5 s z to release ! en]gy lock$ up 9 _! food4 ,& !y bo? ne$ to reproduce s t _! k9d may be cont9u$ on ! e>?4 ,:at is true ( plants & o!r animals is true ( man4 ,! ,ne$s ( ,simple & ,complex ,animals ! ,same4--,! simple/ animal1 a s+le cell1 has ! same ne$s z ! mo/ complex4 ,! cell p>amoecium fe$s1 dige/s1 oxidizes its food1 & releases en]gy4 ,! cells ( ! human body built up into tissues h ! same ne$s & p]=m ! same functions z ! p>amoecium4 ,x is ! cells ( ! body work+ toge!r 9 gr\ps z tissues & organs t make ! complicat$ actions ( man possible4 ,division ( labor has aris5 because ( ! complex ne$s & "w ( ! organism4 ,illu/ration3 ,! human body se5 f ! side 9 longitud9al section4 ,! ,human ,body a ,ma*9e4--,9 all animals1 & ! human animal is no exception1 ! body has be5 lik5$ to a ma*9e 9 t x turns ov] ! lat5t or pot5tial en]gy /or$ up 9 food into k9etic en]gy 7me*anical "w & heat71 :i* is manife/$ :5 we p]=m "w4 ,"o great diff]5ce exi/s betwe5 an eng9e & ! human body4 ,! eng9e uses fuel unlike ! sub/ance out ( :i* x is made4 ,! human body1 on ! o!r h&1 uses = fuel ! same sub/ances out ( :i* x is =m$2 x may1 inde$1 use "p ( its own sub/ance = food4 ,x mu/ z well d m ?an purely me*anical "w4 ,! human organism mu/ be s delicately adju/$ to its surr\nd+s t x w react 9 a ready mann] to /imuli f )\t2 x mu/ be able to utilize its fuel 7food7 9 ! mo/ economical mann]2 x mu/ be fitt$ ) ma*9]y = trans=m+ ! en]gy receiv$ f food into v>i\s k9ds ( "w2 x mu/ prop]ly provide ! ma*9e ) oxyg5 s t ! fuel w be oxidiz$1 & ! products ( oxidation mu/ be c>ri$ away1 z well z o!r wa/e mat]ials :i* might h>m ! effectiv5ess ( ! ma*9e4 ,mo/ important ( all1 ! human ma*9e mu/ be able to repair itself4 ,9 ord] to und]/& bett] ?is complicat$ ma*9e1 ! human body1 let u briefly exam9e ! /ructure ( its p>ts & ?us get a bett] idea ( ! int]relation ( ^! p>ts & ( _! functions4 ,! ,sk94--,cov]+ ! body is a protective /ructure call$ ! sk94 ,cov]$ on ! outside ) dead cells1 yet x is provid$ ) delicate s5se organs1 :i* give u p]ception ( t\*1 ta/e1 smell1 pressure1 & temp]ature4 ,x also aids 9 gett+ wa/es out ( ! body by means ( its sweat gl&s & plays an important "p 9 equaliz+ ! temp]ature ( ! body4 ,illu/ration3 ,skeleton ( a man4 ,,cr41 cranium2 ,,cl41 clavicle2 ,,/41 /]num2 ,h41 hum]us2 ,v4,c41 v]tebral column2 ,r41 radius2 ,u41 ulna2 ,p41 pelvic girdle2 ,c41 c>pals2 ,m41 metac>pals2 ,ph41 phalanges2 ,f41 femur2 ,fi41 fibula2 ,t41 tibia2 ,t>41 t>sals2 ,,mt41 metat>sals4 ,bones & ,muscles4--,! body is built ar\nd a framework ( bones4 ,^! bones1 :i* are b\nd toge!r by t\gh ligam5ts1 fall naturally into two great gr\ps1 ! bones ( ! body prop]1 v]tebral column1 ribs1 brea/ bone1 & skull1 :i* =m ! axial skeleton1 & ! app5dages1 two sets ( bones :i* =m ! framework ( ! arms & legs1 :i* ) ! bones :i* atta* !m to ! axial skeleton =m ! app5dicul> skeleton4 ,to ! bones are atta*$ ! muscles ( ! body4 ,movem5t is accompli%$ by contraction ( muscles1 :i* are atta*$ s z to cause ! bones to act z lev]s4 ,bones also protect ! n]v\s sy/em & o!r delicate organs4 ,!y also help to give =m & rigidity to ! body4 ,illu/ration3 ,diagram %[+ action ( biceps muscle4 a1 contract$2 b1 ext5d$2 h1 hum]us2 s1 scapula4 ,hygi5e ( ,muscles & ,bones4--,"y p especially ne$ to "k h[ to prev5t c]ta9 defects :i* are l>gely ! result ( bad habits ( po/ure4 ,/&+ erect is an example ( a good habit1 r\nd %\ld]s a bad habit ( ?is sort4 ,! habit ( a wrong position ( bones & muscles once =m$ is v h>d to correct4 ,?is c be/ be done by c]ta9 corrective ex]cises at home or 9 ! gymnasium4 ,r\nd %\ld]s is mo/ common among p ^: occupation causes !m to /oop4 ,draw+1 writ+1 & a wrong position :5 at "o's desk are among ! causes4 ,ex]cises :i* /r5g!n ! back muscles & cause ! head to be kept erect are helpful 9 =m+ ! habit ( erect c>riage4 ,slight curvature ( ! sp9e ei!r backw>d or =w>d is help$ mo/ by ex]cises :i* t5d to /raight5 ! body1 su* z /ret*+ up ) ! h&s above ! head4 ,lat]al curvature ( ! sp9e1 too (t5 caus$ by a hun*$-up position at ! s*ool desk1 may also be correct$ by ex]cises :i* t5d to l5g!n ! sp9al column4 ,illu/ration3 ,?ree classes ( lev]s 9 ! human body2 bones & muscles act toge!r4 ,a1 a lev] ( ! fir/ class2 ,b1 a lev] ( ! second class2 ,c1 a lev] ( ! ?ird class4 ,x is ! duty ( e girl & boy to h good po/ure & erect c>riage1 n only because ( ! bett] /ate ( heal? :i* comes ) x1 b also because "o's self-respect dem&s t ea* "o ( u makes ! be/ ( ! gifts t nature has giv5 u4 ,an erect head1 /raight %\ld]s1 & ela/ic c>riage g f> t[>d mak+ _! own] bo? lik$ & respect$4 ,illu/ration3 ,bad po/ure 9 ! s*oolroom may cause p]man5t injury to ! sp9e4 ,o!r ,body ,/ructures4--,9 spaces betwe5 ! muscles are f\nd v>i\s o!r /ructures1--blood vessels1 :i* c>ry blood to & f ! great pump+ /ation1 ! he>t1 & !nce to all p>ts ( ! body2 connective tissue1 :i* holds gr\ps ( muscle or o!r cells toge!r2 fat cells1 scatt]$ 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! body2 v>i\s gl& cells1 :i* manufacture enzymes2 & ! cells ( ! n]v\s sy/em1 :i* aid 9 direct+ ! body p>ts4 ,body ,cavity4--,)9 ! body is a cavity1 :i* 9 life is almo/ completely fill$ ) v>i\s organs4 ,a ?9 wall ( muscle call$ ! diaphragm divides ! body cavity into two unequal spaces4 ,9 ! upp] space are f\nd ! he>t & lungs1 9 ! l[]1 ! dige/ive tract ) its gl&s1 ! liv]1 kidneys1 & o!r /ructures 7see page #bfg74 ,dige/ion1 ,absorption1 & ,excretion4--,runn+ ?r\gh ! body is a food tube 9 :i* undige/$ food is plac$ & f :i* dige/$ or liquid food is absorb$ into ! blood s t ! cells ( ! v>i\s organs :i* d ! "w may receive food4 ,empty+ into ?is food tube are v>i\s gr\ps ( gl& cells1 :i* p\r dige/ive fluids ov] ! solid foods1 ?us aid+ 9 *ang+ !m to liquids4 ,solid wa/es are pass$ out ?r\gh ! po/]ior end ( ! food tube1 :ile liquid wa/es are excret$ by means ( gl&s call$ kidneys4 ,"w done by ,cells4--,food1 prep>$ 9 ! dige/ive tract1 & oxyg5 f ! lungs are tak5 by ! blood to ! cells4 ,ba!d 9 liquid food1 ! cells d _! "w2 !y promote ! oxidization ( food & ! ex*ange ( c>bon dioxide = oxyg5 9 ! blood1 :ile o!r wa/es ( ! cells are giv5 (f1 to pass ev5tually ?r\gh ! kidneys & out ( ! body4 ,! ,n]v\s ,sy/em4--,! smoo? work+ ( ! bodily ma*9e is due to ano!r set ( /ructures :i* direct ! work+ ( ! p>ts s t !y w act 9 unison4 ,?is director is ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,we h se5 t1 9 ! simple/ ( animals1 "o cell p]=ms ! functions necess>y to its exi/5ce4 ,9 ! m complex animals1 :]e gr\ps ( cells =m tissues1 ea* hav+ a diff]5t function1 a n]v\s sy/em is develop$4 ,! functions ( ! human n]v\s sy/em are3 7#a7 ! provid+ ( man ) s5sation1 by means ( :i* he gets 9 t\* ) ! _w ab\t him2 7#b7 ! connect+ ( organs 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! body s t !y act z a unit$ & h>moni\s :ole2 7#c7 ! giv+ to ! human be+ a w1 a provision = ?\ght4 ,coop]ation 9 ^w & de$ is ! end atta9$4 ,we are all famili> ) examples ( ! coop]ation ( organs4 ,y see food2 ! ?\ght comes t x is good to eat2 y rea* out1 take x1 raise x to ! m\?2 ! jaws move 9 response to y\r w2 ! food is *ew$ & swall[$4 ,:ile dige/ion & absorption ( ! food are tak+ place1 ! n]v\s sy/em is /ill 9 control4 ,! n]v\s sy/em also regulates pump+ ( blood ov] ! body1 respiration1 secretion ( gl&s1 &1 inde$1 e bodily function4 ,man is ! highe/ ( all animals because ( ! extreme developm5t ( ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,man is ! ?9k+ animal1 & z su* is ma/] ( ! e>?4 ,,ref]5ce ,,read+ ,,= ,,?is ,,& ,,succe$+ ,,*apt]s ,,on ,,human ,,biology ,,elem5t>y ,hunt]1 ,laboratory ,problems 9 ,civic ,biology4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,davison1 ,! ,human ,body & ,heal?4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,gulick1 ,! ,gulick ,hygi5e ,s]ies4 ,g9n & ,company4 ,ov]ton1 ,g5]al ,hygi5e4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,rit*ie1 ,human ,physiology4 ,_w ,book ,company4 ,%>pe1 ,laboratory ,manual 9 ,botany1 pages #bah-bbe4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,,advanc$ ,halliburton1 ,kirk's ,h&book ( ,physiology4 ,p4 ,blaki/on's ,son & ,company4 ,h\gh & ,s$gwick1 ,! ,human ,me*anism4 ,g9n & ,company4 ,h[ell1 ,physiology1 #c;d edition4 ,w4 ,b4 ,saund]s ,company4 ,s*af]1 ,textbook ( ,physiology4 ,! ,macmillan ,company4 ,/iles1 ,nutritional ,physiology4 ,w4 ,b4 ,saund]s ,company4 ,v]worn1 ,g5]al ,physiology4 ,! ,macmillan ,company4 ,,xix4 ,,foods ,,& ,,diet>ies ,problems4--,a /udy ( foods to det]m9e3-- 7a7 ,_! nutritive value4 7b7 ,! relation ( "w1 environm5t1 age1 sex1 & dige/ibility ( foods to diet4 7c7 ,_! relative *eapness4 7d7 ,! daily ,calorie requirem5t4 7e7 ,food adult]ation4 7f7 ,! relation ( alcohol to ! human sy/em4 ,,laboratory ,,sugge/ions ,laboratory ex]cise4--,composition ( common foods4 ,! s]ies ( food *>ts suppli$ by ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture makes an excell5t basis = a laboratory ex]cise to det]m9e common foods ri* 9 7a7 wat]1 7b7 />*1 7c7 sug>1 7d7 fats or oils1 7e7 prote91 7f7 salts1 7g7 refuse4 ,demon/ration4--,me?od ( us+ bomb calorimet]4 ,laboratory & home ex]cise4--,to det]m9e ! be/ individual balanc$ diet>y 7us+ /&>d ( ,atwat]1 ,*itt5d51 or ,voit7 z det]m9$ by ! use ( ! #ajj-;,calorie portion4 ,demon/ration4--,te/s = "s common adult]ants4 ,demon/ration4--,effect ( alcohol on prote91 e4g4 :ite ( egg4 ,demon/ration4--,alcohol 9 "s pat5t m$ic9es4 ,demon/ration4--,pat5t m$ic9es conta9+ acetanilid4 ,det]m9ation ( acetanilid4 ,:y we ,ne$ ,food4--,a locomotive eng9e takes coal1 wat]1 oxyg51 f its environm5t4 ,a liv+ plant or animal takes organic food1 wat]1 & oxyg5 f its environm5t4 ,bo? ! liv+ & nonliv+ ma*9e d ! same ?+ ) ?is fuel or food4 ,!y oxidize x & release ! en]gy 9 x4 ,b ! liv+ organism 9 addition may use ! food to repair p>ts t h brok5 d[n or ev5 build new p>ts4 ,?us food may be def9$ z some?+ t releases en]gy or t =ms mat]ial = ! gr[? or repair ( ! body ( a plant or animal4 ,! millions ( cells ( :i* ! body is compos$ mu/ be giv5 mat]ial :i* w =m m liv+ matt] or mat]ial :i* c be oxidiz$ to release en]gy :5 muscle cells move1 or gl& cells secrete1 or bra9 cells ?9k4 ,illu/ration3 ,! composition ( milk4 ,:y is x consid]$ a good food8 ,nutri5ts4--,c]ta9 nutri5t mat]ials =m ! basis ( food ( bo? plants & animals4 ,^! h be5 /at$ to be prote9s 7su* z lean meat1 eggs1 ! glut5 ( bread71 c>bohydrates 7/>*es1 sug>s1 gums1 etc471 fats & oils 7bo? animal & vegetable71 m9]al matt] & wat]4 ,prote9s4--,prote9 sub/ances conta9 ! elem5t nitrog54 ,h5ce su* foods are call$ nitrog5\s foods4 ,man mu/ =m ! protoplasm ( 8 body 7t is1 ! muscles1 t5dons1 n]v\s sy/em1 blood corpuscles1 ! liv+ p>ts ( ! bone & ! sk91 etc47 9 "p at lea/ f nitrog5\s food4 ,"s ( ?is he obta9s by eat+ ! fle% ( animals1 & "s he obta9s directly f plants 7= example1 peas & beans74 ,prote9s are ! only foods available = tissue build+4 ,!y may be oxidiz$ to release en]gy if occasion requires x4 ,fats & ,oils4--,fats & oils1 bo? animal & vegetable1 are ! mat]ials f :i* ! body d]ives "p ( its en]gy4 ,! *emical =mula ( a fat %[s t1 comp>$ ) o!r food sub/ances1 !re is v little oxyg5 pres5t2 h5ce ! great] capacity ( ?is sub/ance = unit+ ) oxyg54 ,! rapid burn+ ( fat comp>$ ) ! sl[] combu/ion ( a piece ( meat or a piece ( bread illu/rates ?is4 ,a p\nd ( butt] releases ov] twice z mu* en]gy to ! body z does a p\nd ( sug> or a p\nd ( /eak4 ,human fatty tissue is =m$ 9 "p f fat eat51 b c>bohydrate or ev5 prote9 food may be *ang$ & /or$ 9 ! body z fat4 ,c>bohydrates4--,we see t ! c>bohydrates1 l ! fats1 conta9 c>bon1 hydrog51 & oxyg54 ,c>bohydrates are ess5tially en]gy-produc+ foods4 ,!y are1 h[ev]1 ( use 9 build+ up or repair+ tissue4 ,x is c]ta9ly true t 9 bo? plants & animals su* foods pass directly1 toge!r ) foods conta9+ nitrog51 to repair wa/e 9 tissues1 ?us giv+ ! ne$$ proportion ( c>bon1 oxyg51 & hydrog5 to unite ) ! nitrog5 9 =m+ ! protoplasm ( ! body4 ,illu/ration3 ,?ree portions ( foods1 ea* ( :i* furni%es ab\t ! same am\nt ( n\ri%m5t4 ,inorganic ,foods4--,wat] =ms a l>ge "p ( almo/ e food sub/ance4 ,x =ms ab\t five six?s ( a normal daily diet4 ,! human body1 by weight1 is ab\t two ?irds wat]4 ,ab\t #ij p] c5t ( ! blood is wat]4 ,wat] is absolutely ess5tial 9 pass+ (f wa/e ( ! body4 ,:5 we dr9k wat]1 we take ) x "s ( ! inorganic salts us$ by ! body 9 ! mak+ ( bone & 9 ! =mation ( protoplasm4 ,sodium *loride 7table salt71 an important "p ( ! blood1 is tak5 9 z a flavor+ ^u our meats & vegetables4 ,phosphate ( lime & pota% are important factors 9 ! =mation ( bone4 ,phosphorus is a necess>y sub/ance = ! mak+ ( liv+ matt]1 milk1 eggs1 meat1 :ole :eat1 & dri$ peas & beans conta9+ small am\nts ( x4 ,iron also is an extremely important m9]al1 = x is us$ 9 ! build+ ( r$ blood cells4 ,meats1 eggs1 peas & beans1 sp9a*1 & prunes1 are foods conta9+ "s iron4 ,"s o!r salts1 comp\nds ( calcium1 magnesium1 potassium1 & phosphorus1 h be5 rec5tly f\nd to aid ! body 9 _m ( its mo/ important functions4 ,! beat+ ( ! he>t1 ! contraction ( muscles1 & ! ability ( ! n]ves to d _! "w appe> to be due to ! pres5ce ( m9ute quantities ( ^! salts 9 ! body4 ,uses ( ,nutri5ts4--,! foll[+ table sums up ! uses ( nutri5ts to man3#cf-- ,prote9 ,=ms tissue ,:ite ( eggs 7album571 7muscles1 t5don1 curd ( milk 7case971 lean & probably ,all s]ve z meat1 glut5 ( :eat1 etc4 fat7 fuel & yield en]gy 9 =m ,fats ,=m fatty tissue4 ( heat & muscul> ,fat ( meat1 butt]1 olive oil1 /r5g?4 oils ( corn & :eat1 etc4 ,c>bohydrates ,trans=m$ into ,sug>1 />*1 etc4 fat4 _/ ,m9]al matt]s 7a%7 ,aid 9 =m+ bone1 ,phosphates ( lime1 pota%1 assi/ 9 dige/ion1 soda1 etc4 aid 9 absorption & 9 o!r ways help ! body p>ts d _! "w4 ,wat] us$ z a vehicle to c>ry nutri5ts1 & ent]s into ! composition ( liv+ matt]4 ,footnote #cf3 ,adapt$ f ,atwat]1 ,pr9ciples ( ,nutrition & ,nutritive ,value ( ,food1 ,u4 ,s4 ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 #aijb4 ,common ,foods conta9 ! ,nutri5ts4--,we h already f\nd 9 our plant /udy t v>i\s plant foods are ri* 9 diff]5t nutri5ts1 c>bohydrates =m+ ! *ief nutri5t 9 ! foods we call c]eals1 breads1 cake1 fle%y fruits1 sug>s1 jellies1 & ! l4 ,fats & oils are mo/ l>gely f\nd 9 nuts & "s gra9s4 ,animal foods are our *ief supply ( prote94 ,:ite ( egg & lean meat are almo/ pure prote9 & wat]4 ,prote9s are mo/ abundant1 z we %\ld expect1 9 ^? plants :i* are ri*ly suppli$ ) nitrog52 peas & beans1 & 9 gra9s & nuts4 ,fats1 :i* are melt$ into oils at ! temp]ature ( ! body1 are repres5t$ by ! fat 9 meats1 bacon1 pork1 l>d1 butt]1 & vegetable oils4 ,wat]4--,wat] is1 z we h se51 a valuable "p ( food4 ,x makes up a v high p]c5tage ( fre% fruits & vegetables2 x is also pres5t 9 milk & eggs1 less abundant 9 meats & fi%1 & is l[e/ 9 dri$ foods & nuts4 ,! am\nt ( wat] 9 a giv5 food is (t5 a decid$ factor 9 ! co/ ( ! giv5 food1 z c easily be se5 by ref]5ce to ! *>t on page #bhc4 ,refuse4--,"s foods b\ght 9 ! m>ket may conta9 a c]ta9 unusable portion4 ,?is we call refuse4 ,examples ( refuse are bones 9 meat1 %ells ( eggs or ( %ellfi%1 ! cov]+ ( plant cells :i* =m ! sk9s ( potatoes or o!r vegetables4 ,! am\nt ( refuse pres5t also plays an important "p 9 ! values ( foods = ! table4 ,! table#cg on page #bgf gives ! p]c5tages ( organic nutri5ts1 wat]1 & refuse pres5t 9 "s common foods4 ,illu/ration3 ,table ( food values4 ,det]m9e ! p]c5tage ( wat] 9 codfi%1 lo9 ( beef1 milk1 potatoes4 ,p]c5tage ( refuse 9 leg ( mutton1 codfi%1 eggs1 & potatoes4 ,:at is ! refuse 9 ea* case8 ,f9d ?ree foods conta9+ a high p]c5tage ( prote92 ( fat2 ( c>bohydrate4 ,f9d "s food 9 :i* ! proportions ( prote91 fat1 & c>bohydrate are comb9$ 9 a good proportion4 ,fuel ,values ( ,nutri5ts4--,9 exp]im5ts p]=m$ by ,pr(essor ,atwat] & o!rs1 & 9 ! app5d$ tables1 ! value ( food z a s\rce ( en]gy is /at$ 9 heat units call$ ,calories4 ,a ,calorie is ! am\nt ( heat requir$ to raise ! temp]ature ( "o kilogram ( wat] f z]o to "o degree ,c5tigrade4 ,?is is ab\t equival5t to rais+ "o p\nd f\r degrees ,fahr5heit4 ,! fuel value ( diff]5t foods may be comput$ 9 a def9ite mann]4 ,?is is done by burn+ a giv5 portion ( a food 7say "o gram7 9 ! app>atus kn[n z a calorimet]4 ,by ?is means may be det]m9$ ! numb] ( degrees ! temp]ature ( a giv5 am\nt ( wat] is rais$ dur+ ! process ( burn+4 ,x has ?us be5 f\nd t a gram ( fat w lib]ate #i4c ,calories ( heat1 :ile a gram ( />* or sug> only ab\t #d ,calories4 ,! burn+ value ( fat is1 !re=e1 ov] twice t ( c>bohydrates4 ,9 a simil> mann] prote9 has be5 %[n to h ab\t ! same fuel value z c>bohydrates1 i4e4 #d ,calories to a gram4#ch ,footnote #cg & #ch3 ,w4 ,o4 ,atwat]1 ,pr9ciples ( ,nutrition & ,nutritive ,value ( ,food1 ,u4 ,s4 ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 #aijb4 ,! ,relation ( ,"w to ,diet4--,x has be5 %[n exp]im5tally t a man do+ h>d1 muscul> "w ne$s m food ?an a p]son do+ light "w4 ,! m]e ex]cise gives ! individual a he>ty appetite2 he eats m & ne$s m ( all k9ds ( food ?an a man or boy do+ light "w4 ,especially is x true t ! p]son ( s$5t>y habits1 :o does bra9 "w1 %\ld be c>eful to eat less food & food t w dige/ easily4 ,8 prote9 food %\ld also be r$uc$4 ,ri* or he>ty foods may be left = ! man :o is do+ h>d manual labor out ( doors1 = any extra "w put on ! dige/ive organs takes away j s mu* f ! ability ( ! bra9 to d its "w4 ,illu/ration3 ,foods ( plant orig94 ,select #e foods conta9+ a high p]c5tage ( prote91 #e ) a high p]c5tage ( c>bohydrates1 #e ) a high p]c5tage ( wat]4 ,d vegetable foods conta9 mu* fat8 ,:i* ( ! above-m5tion$ foods h ! highe/ burn+ value8 ,illu/ration3 ,foods l>gely ( animal orig94 ,comp>e ) ! previ\s *>t ) ref]5ce to am\nt ( prote91 c>bohydrate1 & fat 9 foods4 ,comp>e ! burn+ value ( plant & animal foods4 ,comp>e ! relative p]c5tage ( wat] 9 bo? k9ds ( foods4 ,illu/ration3 ,! composition ( milk4 ,! ,relation ( ,environm5t to ,diet4--,we are all aw>e ( ! fact t ! body seems to crave m food 9 w9t] ?an 9 summ]4 ,! temp]ature ( ! body is ma9ta9$ at #ih4f deg4 9 w9t] z 9 summ]1 b mu* m heat is lo/ f ! body 9 cold wea!r4 ,h5ce fe$+ 9 w9t] %\ld be = ! purpose ( ma9ta9+ our fuel supply4 ,we ne$ heat-produc+ food1 & we ne$ m food 9 w9t] ?an 9 summ]4 ,we may use c>bohydrates = ?is purpose1 z !y are economical & dige/ible4 ,! inhabitants ( cold c\ntries get _! heat-releas+ foods l>gely f fats4 ,9 tropical c\ntries & 9 hot wea!r little prote9 %\ld be eat5 & a consid]able am\nt ( fre% fruit us$4 ,! ,relation ( ,age to ,diet4--,z we w see a little lat]1 age is a factor n only 9 det]m9+ ! k9d b ! am\nt ( food to be us$4 ,"y *ildr5 require f> less food ?an d ^? ( old] gr[? or adults4 ,! body con/antly increases 9 weight until "y manhood1 or womanhood1 !n its weight rema9s ne>ly /ation>y1 v>y+ ) heal? or illness4 ,x is evid5t t food 9 adults simply repairs ! wa/e ( cells & is us$ to supply en]gy4 ,eld]ly p ne$ mu* less prote9 ?an d y\ng] p]sons4 ,b inasmu* z ! am\nt ( food to be tak5 into ! body %\ld be 9 proportion to ! body weight1 x is also evid5t t gr[+ *ildr5 d n1 z is popul>ly suppos$1 ne$ z mu* food z gr[n-ups4 ,! ,relation ( ,sex to ,diet4--,z a rule boys ne$ m food ?an girls1 & m5 ?an wom54 ,?is seems to be due to1 fir/1 ! m active muscul> life ( ! man &1 secondly1 to ! great] am\nt ( fat 9 ! tissues ( ! woman1 mak+ loss ( heat less4 ,l>g] bodies1 because ( great] surface1 give (f m heat ?an small] ones4 ,m5 are usually l>g] 9 bulk ?an are wom51--ano!r reason = m food 9 _! case4 ,! ,relation ( ,dige/ibility to ,diet4--,animal foods 9 g5]al may be said to be m completely dige/$ )9 ! body ?an plant foods4 ,?is is l>gely due to ! fact t plant cells h woody walls t ! dige/ive juices _c act ^u4 ,c]eals & legumes are less dige/ible foods ?an are dairy products1 meat1 or fi%4 ,?is does n mean necess>ily t ^! foods w\ld n agree ) y or me b t 9 g5]al ! body w\ld get less n\ri%m5t out ( ! total am\nt available4 ,! agreem5t or disagreem5t ( food ) an individual is l>gely a p]sonal matt]4 ,i1 = example1 _c eat raw tomatoes )\t suff]+ f indige/ion1 :ile "s "o else c dige/ tomatoes b n /rawb]ries4 ,ea* individual %\ld le>n e>ly 9 life ! foods t disagree ) him p]sonally & leave su* foods out ( 8 diet>y4 ,= :at is "o man's meat may be ano!r man's poison4 ,! ,relation ( ,co/ ( ,food to ,diet4--,x is a mi/ak5 notion t ! be/ foods are always ! mo/ exp5sive4 ,a glance at ! table 7page #bhc7 w %[ u t bo? fuel value & tissue-build+ value is pres5t 9 "s foods f vegetable s\rces1 z well z 9 ^? f animal s\rces1 & t ! vegetable foods are mu* *eap]4 ,! ,am]ican p are f> less economical 9 _! pur*ase ( food ?an mo/ o!r nations4 ,ne>ly "o half ( ! total income ( ! av]age work+man is sp5t on food4 ,n only does he sp5d a l>ge am\nt on food1 b he wa/es money 9 pur*as+ ! wrong k9ds ( food4 ,a comp>ison ( ! daily diets ( p]sons 9 v>i\s occupations 9 ?is & o!r c\ntries %[s t z a rule we eat m ?an is necess>y to supply ! necess>y fuel & repair1 & t our work+m5 eat m ?an ^? ( o!r c\ntries4 ,ano!r wa/e ( money by ! ,am]ican is 9 ! false notion t a l>ge proportion ( ! daily diet>y %\ld be meat4 ,_m p ?9k t ! mo/ exp5sive cuts ( meat are ! mo/ nutriti\s4 ,! falsity ( ?is idea may be se5 by a c>eful /udy ( ! tables on pages #bhc & #bhf4 ,! ,be/ ,diet>y4--,inasmu* z all liv+ sub/ance conta9s nitrog51 x is evid5t t prote9 food mu/ =m a "p ( ! diet>y2 b prote9 alone is n usable4 ,if m prote9 is eat5 ?an ! body requires1 !n imm$iately ! liv] & kidneys h to "w ov]time to get rid ( ! excess ( prote9 :i* =ms a poison\s wa/e h>mful to ! body4 ,we mu/ take foods t w give u1 z ne>ly z possible1 ! proportion ( ! diff]5t *emical elem5ts z !y are conta9$ 9 protoplasm4 ,x has be5 f\nd1 z a result ( /udies ( ,atwat] & o!rs1 t a man :o does muscul> "w requires a little less ?an "o qu>t] ( a p\nd ( prote91 ! same am\nt ( fat1 & ab\t "o p\nd ( c>bohydrate to provide = ! gr[?1 wa/e1 & repair ( ! body & ! en]gy us$ up 9 "o day4 ,! ,daily ,calorie ,requirem5t4--,put 9 ano!r way1 ,atwat]'s /&>d = a man at light ex]cise is food en\gh to yield #bhaf ,calories2 ( ^!1 #daj ,calories are f prote91 #icj ,calories f fat1 & #adgf ,calories f c>bohydrate4 ,t is1 = e #ajj ,calories furni%$ by ! food1 #ad are f prote91 #cb f fat1 & #ed f c>bohydrate4 ,9 exact numb]s1 ! day's ration z advocat$ by ,atwat] w\ld conta9 ab\t #ajj grams or #c4g ounces prote91 #ajj grams or #c4g ounces fat1 & #cfj grams or #ac ounces c>bohydrate4 ,pr(essor ,*itt5d5 ( ,yale ,univ]sity1 ano!r food exp]t1 ?9ks we ne$ prote9s1 fats1 & c>bohydrates 9 ab\t ! proportion ( #a to #c to #f1 ?us diff]+ f ,atwat] 9 giv+ less prote9 9 proportion4 ,*itt5d5's /&>d = ! same man is food to yield a total ( #bcfj ,calories1 ( :i* prote9 furni%es #bcf ,calories1 fat #gjh ,calories1 & c>bohydrates #adaf ,calories4 ,= e #ajj ,calories furni%$ by ! food1 #aj are f prote91 #cj f fat1 #fj f c>bohydrate4 ,9 actual am\nt ! ,*itt5d5 diet w\ld conta9 #b4af ounces prote91 #b4hc ounces fat1 & #ac ounces c>bohydrate4 ,a ,g]man nam$ ,voit gives z ideal #be ,calories f prote9s1 #bj f fat1 & #ee f c>bohydrate1 out ( e #ajj ,calories2 ?is is ne>] our actual daily ration4 ,9 addition1 an ounce ( salt & ne>ly "o hundr$ ounces ( wat] are us$ 9 a day4 ,illu/ration3 ,table %[+ ! co/ ( v>i\s foods4 ,us+ ?is table1 make up an economical diet>y = "o day1 ?ree meals1 = a man do+ mod]ate "w4 ,give reasons = ! am\nt ( food us$ & = y\r *oice ( foods4 ,make up ano!r diet>y 9 ! same mann]1 us+ exp5sive foods4 ,:at is ! diff]5ce 9 y\r bill = ! day8 ,a ,mix$ ,diet ,be/4--,kn[+ ! proportion ( ! diff]5t food sub/ances requir$ by man1 x w be an easy matt] to det]m9e f ! tables & *>ts %[n y ! be/ foods = use 9 a mix$ diet4 ,meats conta9 too mu* nitrog5 9 proportion to ! o!r sub/ances4 ,9 milk1 ! proportion ( prote9s1 c>bohydrates1 & fats is ne>ly "r to make protoplasm2 a consid]able am\nt ( m9]al matt] be+ also pres5t4 ,= ^! reasons1 milk is ext5sively us$ z a food = *ildr51 z x comb9es food mat]ial = ! =m+ ( protoplasm ) m9]al matt] = ! build+ ( bone4 ,"s vegetables 7= example1 peas & beans7 conta9 a l>ge am\nt ( nitrog5\s mat]ial b 9 a less dige/ible =m ?an is f\nd 9 "s o!r foods4 ,veget>ians1 !n1 are correct 9 !ory :5 !y /ate t a diet ( vegetables may conta9 ev]y?+ necess>y to su/a9 life4 ,b a mix$ diet conta9+ meat is heal?i]4 ,a purely vegetable diet conta9s mu* wa/e mat]ial1 su* z ! cellulose =m+ ! walls ( plant cells1 :i* is indige/ible4 ,x has be5 rec5tly discov]$ t ! out] coats ( "s gra9s1 z rice1 conta9 c]ta9 sub/ances 7enzymes7 :i* aid 9 dige/ion4 ,9 ! case ( poli%$ rice1 :5 ?is out] coat is remov$ ! gra9 has mu* less food value4 ,daily ,fuel ,ne$s ( ! ,body4--,x has be5 po9t$ out t ! daily diet %\ld diff] widely accord+ to age1 occupation1 "t ( ye>1 etc4 ,! foll[+ table %[s ! daily fuel ne$s = sev]al ages & occupations3-- ,,daily ,,calorie ,,ne$s 7,,approximately7 #a4 ,= *ild "u #b ye>s #ijj ,calories #b4 ,= *ild f #b-e ye>s #abjj ,calories #c4 ,= *ild f #f-i ye>s #aejj ,calories #d4 ,= *ild f #aj-ab ye>s #ahjj ,calories #e4 ,= *ild f #ab-ad 7woman1 light "w1 also7 #bajj ,calories #f4 ,= boy 7#ab-ad71 girl 7#ae-af71 man1 s$5t>y #bdjj ,calories #g4 ,= boy 7#ae-af7 7man1 light muscul> "w7 #bgjj ,calories #h4 ,= man1 mod]ately active muscul> "w #cjjj ,calories #i4 ,= f>m] 7busy season7 #cbjj to #djjj ,calories #aj4 ,= dit*]s1 excavators1 etc4 #djjj to #ejjj ,calories #aa4 ,= lumb]m51 etc4 #ejjj & m ,calories ,normal ,heat ,output4--,! foll[+ table gives ! result ( "s exp]im5ts made to det]m9e ! h\rly & daily exp5diture ( en]gy ( ! av]age normal gr[n p]son :5 asleep & awake1 at "w or at re/3-- ,,av]age ,,normal ,,output ,,( ,,heat ,,f ,,! ,,body ,,av]age ,,conditions ,,( ,,muscul> ,,activity ,,calories ,,p] ,,h\r ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,man at re/1 sleep+ #fe ,calories ,man at re/1 awake1 sitt+ up #ajj ,calories ,man at light muscul> ex]cise #agj ,calories ,man at mod]ately active muscul> ex]cise #bij ,calories ,man at sev]e muscul> ex]cise #dej ,calories ,man at v sev]e muscul> ex]cise #fjj ,calories ,x is v simple to use su* a table 9 calculat+ ! numb] ( ,calories :i* are sp5t 9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs "u diff]5t bodily conditions4 ,= example1 suppose ! case ( a cl]k or s*ool tea*] lead+ a relatively inactive life1 :o sleeps = #i h\rs x #fe ,calories #ehe works at desk #i h\rs x #ajj ,calories #ijj reads1 writes1 or /udies #d h\rs x #ajj ,calories #djj walks or does light ex]cise #b h\rs x #agj ,calories #cdj ---- #bbbe ,?is comes out1 z we see1 v close to example #f ( ! table#ci on page #bhd4 ,footnote #ci3 ,! above tables h be5 tak5 f ! excell5t pamphlet ( ! ,cornell ,read+ ,c\rse1 ,no4 #f1 ,human ,nutrition4 ,h[ we may ,f9d :e!r we are ,eat+ a prop]ly ,balanc$ ,diet4--,we already "k approximately our daily ,calorie ne$s & ab\t ! proportion ( prote91 fat1 & c>bohydrate ne$$4 ,dr4 ,irv+ ,fi%] ( ,yale ,univ]sity has work$ out a v easy me?od ( det]m9+ :e!r "o is liv+ on a prop] diet4 ,he has made up a numb] ( tables1 9 :i* he has designat$ portions ( food1 ea* ( :i* furni%es #ajj ,calories ( en]gy4 ,! tables %[ ! proportion ( prote91 fat1 & c>bohydrate 9 ea* food1 s t x is a simple matt] by us+ su* a table to e/imate ! proportions ( ! v>i\s nutri5ts 9 our diet>y4 ,we may dep5d ^u tak+ some:]e ne> ! prop] am\nt ( food if we take a diet bas$ ^u ei!r ,atwat]'s1 ,*itt5d5's1 or ,voit's /&>d4 ,"o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ & useful pieces ( home "w t y c d is to e/imate y\r own p]sonal diet>y1 us+ ! tables giv+ ! #ajj-;,calorie portion to see if y h a prop]ly balanc$ diet4 ,f ! table on page #bhf make out a simple diet>y = y\rself = "o day1 e/imat+ y\r own ne$s 9 ,calories & !n pick+ out #ajj-;,calorie portions ( food :i* w give y ! prop] proportions ( prote91 fat1 & c>bohydrate4 ,,table ,,( #ajj ,,calorie ,,portions--,,modifi$ ,,f ,,fi%] ,,wt4 ,,9 ,,cal4 ,,furni%$ ,,price ,,oz4 --------------------------- ,,port4 ,,conta9+ #ajj ,,c>- #ajj ,,food #ajj ,,calories ,,cal4,,pro- ,,fat,,bohy- #a ,,lb4 ,,cal4 ,,port4,,te9 ,,drate ,,por4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,oy/]s #a doz4 #f4h #di #bb #bi 4#age 4#jg ,bean s\p #a_/b small s]v+ #b4f #bd #ab #fd 4#jjg ,cream ( corn #b_/c ord94 s]v4 #c4a #aa #eh #ca 4#jb ,vegetable s\p #a_/b ord94 s]v4 #b4d #h #hi #c 4#ja ,cod fi% 7fre%7 ord94 s]v4 #e #ie #e #j 4#ab 4#jd ,salmon 7cann$7 small s]v4 #a4ge #de #ee #j 4#bb 4#jc ,*ick5 #a_/b l>ge s]v4 #a4ge #ci #ef #e 4#bb 4#je ,veal cutlet #b_/c l>ge s]v4 #b4d #ed #df #j 4#bh 4#jde ,beef1 corn$ #a_/b l>ge s]v4 #a4j #ae #he #j 4#af 4#ja ,beef1 sirlo9 small s]v4 #a4f #cc #fg #j 4#cd 4#jd ,beef1 r\nd small s]v4 #a4h #ci #fa #j 4#bd 4#jbe ,ham1 lean ord94 s]v4 #a4a #bh #gb #j 4#bb 4#jae ,lamb *ops #a_/b ord94 s]v4 #a4j #bd #gf #j 4#bj 4#jac ,mutton1 leg ord94 s]v4 #a4b #ce #fe #j 4#bj 4#jae ,eggs1 boil$ #a l>ge egg #b4a #cb #fh #j 4#cj doz4 4#jbe ,eggs1 scrambl$ #a-a_/c ord94 s]v4 #b4e #cg #eh #e 4#cj doz4 4#jc ,beans1 bak$ side di% #b4ff #ba #ah #fa 4#jh 4#jac ,potatoes1 ma%$ ord94 s]v4 #c4b #aj #be #fe 4#jb 4#jje ,mac>oni #a_/c l>ge s]v4 4#ie #ae #c #hb 4#aj 4#ja ,potato salad ord94 s]v4 #b4be #aj #eg #cc 4#bj 4#jbe ,tomatoes1 slic$ #d l>ge s]v4 #ae4 #ae #af #fi 4#aj 4#aj ,rolls1 pla9 #a l>ge roll #a4b #ab #g #ha 4#aj doz4 4#ja ,butt] ord94 pat 4#dd #e #ii4e 4#ce 4#ja ,:eat bread #a small slice 4#if #ae #e #hj 4#jg 4#jje ,*ocolate cake #a_/b ord4 sq4 piece 4#ih #g #bb #ga 4#cb 4#jb ,g+]bread #a_/b ord4 sq4 piece 4#if #f #bc #ga 4#af 4#ja ,cu/>d pudd+ ord94 s]v4 #c4be #ah #db #dj 4#ae 4#jc ,rice pudd+ v small s]v4 #b4fe #h #ac #gi 4#ac 4#jb ,apple pie #a_/c piece #a4c #e #cb #fc 4#jac ,*eese1 ,am]ican #a-a_/b cu4 94 4#gg #be #gc #b 4#ai 4#ja ,crack]s 7soda7 #b crack]s 4#i #aj #bj #gj 4#aj 4#jjg ,currant jelly #b heap4 spoons #a4a #b #j #ih 4#dj 4#jbe ,sug> #c teaspoons 4#hf #j #j #ajj 4#jf 4#jjc ,milk z b\ght small glass #d4i #ai #eb #bi 4#je 4#jae ,milk1 cond41 sweet#d teaspoons #a4jf #aj #bc #fg 4#ja ,oranges #a l>ge "o #i4d #f #c #ia 4#jbe ,peanuts #ac d\ble ones 4#fb #bj #fc #ag 4#jjd ,almonds1 %ell$ #h-ae 4#ec #ac #gg #aj 4#jbe ,f ! prec$+ table plan a well-balanc$ & *eap diet>y = "o day = a family ( five1 two adults & ?ree *ildr54 ,make a second diet>y = ! same "t & same numb] ( p :i* %all give approximately ! same am\nt ( tissue & en]gy produc+ food f m exp5sive mat]ials4 ,food ,wa/e 9 ! ,kit*54--,mu* loss occurs 9 ! improp] cook+ ( foods4 ,meats especially1 :5 ov]done1 lose mu* ( _! flavor & are f> less easily dige/$ ?an :5 !y are cook$ r>e4 ,! *ief reasons = cook+ meats are t ! muscle fib]s may be loos5$ & s(t5$1 & t ! bact]ia or o!r p>asites 9 ! meat may be kill$ by ! heat4 ,! common me?od ( fry+ makes foods less dige/ible4 ,/ew+ is an economical z well z heal?ful me?od4 ,a good way to prep>e meat1 ei!r = /ew or s\p1 is to place ! meat1 cut 9 small pieces1 9 cold wat]1 & all[ x to simm] = sev]al h\rs4 ,rapid boil+ t\gh5s ! muscle fib]s by ! too rapid coagulation ( ! album9\s matt] 9 !m1 j z ! :ite ( egg becomes t\gh :5 boil$ too long4 ,boil+ & roa/+ are excell5t me?ods ( cook+ meat4 ,9 ord] to prev5t ! loss ( ! nutri5ts 9 roa/+1 x is well to ba/e ! meat frequ5tly2 ?us a cru/ is =m$ on ! out] surface ( ! meat1 :i* prev5ts ! escape ( ! juices f ! inside4 ,vegetables are cook$ 9 ord] t ! cells conta9+ />* gra9s may be bur/ op51 ?us all[+ ! />* to be m easily attack$ by ! dige/ive fluids4 ,inasmu* z wat] may dissolve out nutri5ts f vegetable tissues1 x is be/ to boil !m rapidly 9 a small am\nt ( wat]4 ,?is gives less "t = ! solv5t action to take place4 ,vegetables %\ld be cook$ ) ! out] sk9 left on :5 x is possible4 ,adult]ations 9 ,foods4--,! addition ( "s *eap] sub/ance to a food1 or ! subtraction ( "s valuable sub/ance f a food1 ) ! view to *eat+ ! pur*as]1 is kn[n z adult]ation4 ,_m foods :i* are artificially manufactur$ h be5 adult]at$ to su* an ext5t z to be almo/ unfit = food1 or ev5 h>mful4 ,"o ( ! commone/ adult]ations is ! sub/itution ( grape sug> 7glucose7 = cane sug>4 ,glucose1 h[ev]1 is n a h>mful adult]ant4 ,x is us$ l>gely 9 c&y mak+4 ,fl\r & o!r c]eal foods are sometimes adult]at$ ) "s *eap sub/itutes1 z bran or sawdu/4 ,alum is sometimes add$ to make fl\r :it]4 ,probably ! food :i* suff]s mo/ f adult]ation is milk1 z wat] c be add$ )\t ! av]age p]son be+ ! wis]4 ,by means ( an inexp5sive in/rum5t kn[n z a lactomet]1 ?is *eat may easily be detect$4 ,9 mo/ cities1 ! milk supply is c>efully safegu>d$1 because ( ! dang] ( spread+ typhoid fev] f impure milk 7see ,*apt] ,,xx74 ,be=e ! pure food law 0 pass$ 9 #aijf1 milk 0 frequ5tly adult]at$ ) sub/ances l =mal9 to make x keep sweet long]4 ,su* pres]vatives are h>mful1 & x is n[ aga9/ ! law to add any?+ :atev] to milk4 ,c(fee1 cocoa1 & spices are subject to great adult]ation2 cottonse$ oil is (t5 sub/itut$ = olive oil2 butt] is too frequ5tly artificial2 :ile honey1 sirups ( v>i\s k9ds1 cid] & v9eg>1 h all be5 f\nd to be ei!r artificially made f *eap] sub/itutes or to conta9 su* sub/itutes4 ,pure ,food ,laws4--,?anks to ! ,national ,pure ,food & ,drug ,law pass$ by ,congress 9 #aijf1 & to ! activity ( v>i\s city & /ate bo>ds ( heal?1 ! opportunity to pass adult]at$ foods on ! public is greatly less5$4 ,?is law compels manufactur]s ( foods or m$ic9es to /ate ! composition ( _! products on ! labels plac$ on ! j>s or bottles4 ,s if a p]son reads ! label he c det]m9e exactly :at he is gett+ = 8 money4 ,impure ,wat]4--,great dang] comes f dr9k+ impure wat]4 ,?is subject has already be5 discuss$ "u ,bact]ia1 :]e x 0 se5 t ! spread ( typhoid fev] 9 p>ticul> is due to a contam9at$ wat] supply4 ,z citiz5s1 we mu/ aid all legislation t w safegu>d ! wat] us$ by our t[ns & cities4 ,boil+ wat] = t5 m9utes or long] w r5d] x safe f all organic impurities4 ,/imulants4--,we h le>n$ t food is any?+ t supplies build+ mat]ial or releases en]gy 9 ! body2 b "s mat]ials us$ by man1 presumably z food1 d n come "u ?is head4 ,su* are tea & c(fee4 ,:5 tak5 9 mod]ate quantities1 !y produce a tempor>y increase 9 ! vital activities ( ! p]son tak+ !m4 ,?is is said to be a /imulation2 & mat]ial tak5 into ! dige/ive tract1 produc+ ?is1 is call$ a /imulant4 ,9 mod]ation1 tea & c(fee appe> to be h>mless4 ,"s p1 h[ev]1 _c use ei!r )\t ill effects1 ev5 9 small quantity4 ,x is ! habit =m$ ( rely+ ^u ! /imulus giv5 by tea or c(fee t makes !m a dang] to man4 ,cocoa & *ocolate1 al?\gh bo? conta9 a /imulant1 are 9 addition good foods1 hav+ f #ab p] c5t to #ba p] c5t ( prote91 f #bi p] c5t to #dh p] c5t fat1 & ov] #cj p] c5t c>bohydrate 9 _! composition4 ,is ,alcohol a ,food8--,! "q ( ! use ( alcohol has be5 ( late ye>s a matt] ( absorb+ int]e/ & importance among physiologi/s4 ,a few ye>s ago ,dr4 ,atwat] p]=m$ a s]ies ( v c>eful exp]im5ts by means ( ! respiration calorimet]1 to asc]ta9 :e!r alcohol is ( use to ! body z food4#dj ,9 ^! exp]im5ts ! subjects 7 giv51 in/ead ( _! daily allotm5t ( c>bohydrates & fats1 en\gh alcohol to supply ! same am\nt ( en]gy t ^! foods w\ld h giv54 ,! am\nt 0 calculat$ to be ab\t two & "o half ounces p] day1 ab\t z mu* z w\ld be conta9$ 9 a bottle ( light w9e4#da ,?is alcohol 0 adm9i/]$ 9 small doses six times dur+ ! day4 ,pr(essor ,atwat]'s results may be summ$ up briefly z foll[s3-- #a4 ,! alcohol adm9i/]$ 0 almo/ all oxidiz$ 9 ! body4 #b4 ,! pot5tial en]gy 9 ! alcohol 0 trans=m$ into heat or muscul> "w4 #c4 ,! body did ab\t z well ) ! rations includ+ alcohol z x did )\t x4 ,footnote #dj3 ,alcohol is made up ( c>bon1 oxyg51 & hydrog54 ,x is v easily oxidiz$1 b x _c1 z is %[n by ! *emical =mula1 be ( use to ! body 9 tissue build+1 because ( its lack ( nitrog54 ,footnote #da3 ,alcoholic bev]ages conta9 ! foll[+ proportions ( alcohol3 be]1 f #b to #e p] c5t2 w9e1 f #aj to #bj p] c5t2 liquors1 f #cj to #gj p] c5t4 ,pat5t m$ic9es frequ5tly conta9 z high z #fj p] c5t alcohol4 7,see page #bid47 ,! committee ( fifty em95t m5 appo9t$ to report on ! physiological aspects ( ! dr9k problem report$ t a l>ge numb] ( sci5tific m5 /ate t !y are 9 ! habit ( tak+ alcoholic liquor 9 small quantities1 & _m report t !y d n feel h>m !reby4 ,a numb] ( sci5ti/s seem to agree t )9 limits alcohol may be a k9d ( food1 al?\gh a v poor food4 ,on ! o!r h&1 we "k t al?\gh alcohol may te*nically be consid]$ z a food1 x is a v unsatisfactory food &1 z ! foll[+ /atem5ts %[1 x has an effect on ! body tissues :i* foods d n h4 ,pr(essor ,*itt5d5 ( ,yale ,college1 9 discuss+ ! food problem ( alcohol1 writes z foll[s3 ,x is true t alcohol 9 mod]ate quantities may s]ve z a food1 i4e4 x c be oxidiz$ ) ! lib]ation ( heat4 ,x may to "s ext5t take ! place ( fat & c>bohydrates1 b x is n a p]fect sub/itute = !m1 & = ?is reason alcohol has an action t _c be ignor$4 ,x r$uces liv] oxidation4 ,x !re=e pres5ts a dang]\s side :olly want+ 9 c>bohydrates & fat4 ,! latt] are simply burn$ up to c>bonic acid & wat] or are trans=m$ to glycog5 & fat1 b alcohol1 al?\gh m easily oxidiz$1 is at all times liable to ob/ruct1 9 a measure at lea/1 ! oxidative processes ( ! liv] & probably ( o!r tissues also1 !reby ?r[+ into ! circulation bodies1 su* z uric acid1 :i* are h>mful to heal?1 a fact :i* at once t5ds to draw a di/9ct l9e ( dem>cation betwe5 alcohol & ! two non-nitrog5\s foods1 fat & c>bohydrates4 ,ano!r matt] mu/ be emphasiz$1 & x is t ! =m 9 :i* alcohol is tak5 is ( importance4 ,port w9e1 = in/ance1 has m influ5ce on ! am\nt ( uric acid secret$ ?an an equival5t am\nt ( alcohol has 9 "s o!r =m4 ,to conclude3 z an adjunct to ! ord9>y daily diet ( ! heal?y man alcohol _c be consid]$ z play+ ! "p ( a true non-nitrog5\s food4--,quot$ 9 ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,inebriety1 ,w9t]1 #aijf4 ,effect ( ,alcohol on ,liv+ ,matt]4--,if we exam9e raw :ite ( egg1 we f9d a prote9 :i* closely resembles protoplasm 9 its *emical composition2 x is call$ album54 ,add to a little album5 9 a te/ tube "s #ie p] c5t alcohol & notice :at happ5s4 ,z soon z ! alcohol t\*es ! album5 ! latt] coagulates & becomes h>d l boil$ :ite ( egg4 ,%ake ! alcohol ) ! album5 & ! entire mass soon becomes a solid4 ,?is is because ! alcohol draws ! wat] out ( ! album54 ,x has be5 %[n t album5 is some:at l protoplasm 9 /ructure & *emical composition4 ,/rong alcohol acts 9 a simil> mann] on liv+ matt] :5 x is absorb$ by ! liv+ body cells4 ,x draws wat] f !m & h>d5s !m4 ,x has a *emical & physical action ^u liv+ matt]4 ,alcohol a ,poison4--,b alcohol is also 9 c]ta9 quantities a poison4 ,a commonly accept$ def9ition ( a poison is t x is any sub/ance :i*1 :5 tak5 into ! body1 t5ds to cause s]i\s detrim5t to heal?1 or ! dea? ( ! organism4 ,t alcohol may d ?is is well kn[n by sci5ti/s4 ,x is a matt] ( common k t alcohol tak5 9 small quantities does n d any app>5t h>m4 ,b if we exam9e ! vital records ( life insurance companies1 we f9d a l>ge numb] ( dea?s directly due to alcohol & a /ill great] numb] due 9 "p to its use4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates e ye> !re are a ?ird m dea?s f alcoholism & cirrhosis ( ! liv] 7a disease directly caus$ by alcohol7 ?an !re are f typhoid fev]4 ,! poison\s effect is n f\nd 9 small doses1 b x ultimately %[s its h>mful effect4 ,h>d5+ ( ! art]ies1 an old-age disease1 is rapidly becom+ 9 ?is c\ntry a disease ( ! middle ag$4 ,f x !re is no escape4 ,x is *iefly caus$ by ! cumulative effect ( alcohol4 ,! diagram foll[+1 compil$ by two ,engli% life insurance companies t insure mod]ate dr9k]s & ab/a9]s1 %[s ! dea? rate to be consid]ably high] among ^? :o use alcohol4 ,illu/ration3 ,ab/a9]s live long] ?an mod]ate dr9k]s4 ,dr4 ,kellogg1 ! f\nd] ( ! fam\s ,battle ,creek ,sanit>ium1 po9ts out t /ry*n9e1 qu99e1 & _m o!r drugs are oxidiz$ 9 ! body b surely _c be call$ foods4 ,! foll[+ reasons = n consid]+ alcohol a food are tak5 f 8 writ+s3-- #a4 ,a habitual us] ( alcohol has an int5se crav+ = 8 accu/om$ dram4 ,)\t x he is entirely unfitt$ = bus9ess4 ,"o nev] exp]i5ces su* an insane crav+ = bread1 potatoes1 or any o!r p>ticul> article ( food4 #b4 ,by cont9u\s use ! body acquires a tol]ance = alcohol4 ,t is1 ! am\nt :i* may be imbib$ & ! am\nt requir$ to produce ! *>act]i/ic effects fir/ exp]i5c$ gradually increase until v great quantities are sometimes requir$ to satisfy ! crav+ :i* its habitual use (t5 produces4 ,?is is nev] ! case ) true foods4444 ,alcohol behaves 9 ?is reg>d j z does opium or any o!r drug4 ,x has no resemblance to a food4 #c4 ,:5 alcohol is )drawn f a p]son :o has be5 accu/om$ to its daily use1 mo/ di/ress+ effects are exp]i5c$4444 ,:o ev] saw a man's h& trembl+ or 8 n]v\s sy/em un/rung because he c\ld n get a potato or a piece ( cornbread = breakfa/8 ,9 ?is respect1 also1 alcohol behaves l opium1 coca9e1 or any o!r enslav+ drug4 #d4 ,alcohol less5s ! appreciation & ! value ( bra9 & n]ve activity1 :ile food re5=ces n]v\s & m5tal en]gy4 #e4 ,alcohol z a protoplasmic poison less5s muscul> p[]1 :]eas food increases en]gy & endurance4 #f4 ,alcohol less5s ! p[] to endure cold4 ,?is is true to su* a m>k$ degree t its use by p]sons accompany+ ,arctic exp$itions is absolutely prohibit$4 ,food1 on ! o!r h&1 increases ability to endure cold4 ,! temp]ature aft] tak+ food is rais$4 ,aft] tak+ alcohol1 ! temp]ature1 z %[n by ! !rmomet]1 is l[]$4 #g4 ,alcohol _c be /or$ 9 ! body = future use1 :]eas all food sub/ances c be s /or$4 #h4 ,food burns sl[ly 9 ! body1 z x is requir$ to satisfy ! body's ne$s4 ,alcohol is readily oxidiz$ & elim9at$1 ! same z any o!r oxidizable drug4 ,illu/ration3 ,exp]im5t 7by ,davison7 to %[ h[ ! nicot9e 9 six cig>ettes 0 suffici5t to kill ?is fi%4 ,! smoke f ! cig>ettes 0 pass$ ?r\gh ! wat] 9 :i* ! fi% is swimm+4 ,! ,use ( ,tobacco4--,a well-kn[n au?ority def9es a n>cotic z a sub/ance :i* directly induces sleep1 blunts ! s5ses1 &1 9 l>ge am\nts1 produces complete ins5sibility4 ,tobacco1 opium1 *loral1 & coca9e are examples ( n>cotics4 ,tobacco owes its n>cotic influ5ce to a /rong poison kn[n z nicot9e4 ,its use 9 kill+ insect p>asites on plants is well kn[n4 ,9 exp]im5ts ) jellyfi% & o!r l[ly organiz$ animals1 ! au?or has f\nd z small a p] c5t z "o "p ( nicot9e to "o hundr$ ?\s& p>ts ( sea wat] to be suffici5t to pr(\ndly affect an animal plac$ )9 x4 ,! illu/ration "h giv5 %[s ! effect ( nicot9e ^u a fi%1 "o ( ! v]tebrate animals4 ,nicot9e 9 a pure =m is s p[]ful a poison t two or ?ree drops w\ld be suffici5t to cause ! dea? ( a man by its action ^u ! n]v\s sy/em1 especially ! n]ves controll+ ! beat+ ( ! he>t4 ,?is action is well kn[n among boys tra9+ = a?letic conte/s4 ,! he>t is affect$2 boys become %ort-w9d$ z a result ( ! action on ! he>t4 ,x has be5 demon/rat$ t tobacco has1 too1 an important effect on muscul> developm5t4 ,! /unt$ appe>ance ( ! "y smok] is well kn[n4 ,illu/ration3 ,! am\nts ( alcohol 9 "s liquors & 9 "s pat5t m$ic9es4 a1 be]1 #e 2 b1 cl>et1 #h 2 c1 *ampagne1 #i 2 d1 :isky1 #ej 2 e1 well-kn[n s>sap>illa1 #ah 2 f1 g1 h1 mu*-adv]tis$ n]ve tonics1 #bj 1 #ba 1 #be 2 i1 ano!r mu*-adv]tis$ s>sap>illa1 #bg 2 j1 a well-kn[n tonic1 #bh 2 k1 l1 bitt]s1 #cg 1 #dd alcohol4 ,use & ,abuse ( ,drugs4--,! ,am]ican p are addict$ to ! use ( drugs1 & especially pat5t m$ic9es4 ,a glance at ! /reet-c> adv]tisem5ts %[s ?is4 ,mo/ ( ! m$ic9es adv]tis$ conta9 alcohol 9 great] quantity ?an be] or w9e1 & _m ( !m h opium1 morph9e1 or coca9e 9 _! composition4 ,p>egoric & laudanum1 m$ic9es sometimes giv5 to "y *ildr51 are examples ( dang]\s drugs t conta9 opium4 ,dr4 ,george ,d4 ,hagg>d ( ,m9neapolis has %[n by _m analyses t a l>ge numb] ( ! s-call$ malts1 malt extracts1 & tonics1 includ+ sev]al ( ! be/ kn[n & mo/ adv]tis$ on ! m>ket1 are simply disguis$ be]s &1 frequ5tly1 v poor be]s at t4 ,^! drugs1 9 addition to be+ h>mful1 affect ! p]son us+ !m 9 su* a mann] t he soon feels ! ne$ = ! drug4 ,?us ! drug habit is =m$1--a condition :i* has wreck$ ?\s&s ( lives4 ,a numb] ( articles on pat5t m$ic9es rec5tly appe>$ 9 a lead+ magaz9e & h be5 collect$ & publi%$ "u ! title ( ,! ,great ,am]ican ,fraud4 ,9 ?is booklet ! au?or po9ts out a numb] ( diff]5t k9ds ( cures & pat5t m$ic9es4 ,! mo/ dang]\s are ^? heada*e or neuralgia cures conta9+ acetanilid4 ,?is drug is a he>t depress] & %\ld n be us$ )\t m$ical advice4 ,ano!r drug :i* is responsible = habit =mation is coca9e4 ,?is is (t5 f\nd 9 cat>rh or o!r cures4 ,alcohol is ! basis ( all tonics or brac]s4 ,e boy & girl %\ld read ?is booklet s z to be =e>m$ aga9/ evils ( ! sort j describ$4 ,,ref]5ce ,,read+ ,,on ,,foods ,hunt]1 ,laboratory ,problems 9 ,civic ,biology4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,all51 ,civics & ,heal?4 ,g9n & ,company4 ,bullet9 #ac1 ,am]ican ,s*ool ( ,home ,economics1 ,*icago4 ,cornell ,univ]sity ,read+ ,c\rse1 ,buls4 #f & #g1 ,human ,nutrition4 ,davison1 ,! ,human ,body & ,heal?4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,jordan1 ,! ,pr9ciples ( ,human ,nutrition4 ,! ,macmillan ,company4 ,kehl]1 ,l4 ,f41 ,habit-=m+ ,ag5ts4 ,f>m]s' ,bullet9 #cic1 ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 ( ,agri4 ,lusk1 ,sci5ce & ,nutrition4 ,w4 ,b4 ,saund]s ,company4 ,norton1 ,foods & ,dietetics4 ,am]ican ,s*ool ( ,home ,economics4 ,ols51 ,pure ,foods4 ,g9n & ,company4 ,%>pe1 ,a ,laboratory ,manual = ! ,solution ( ,problems 9 ,biology1 pp4 #bbf-bdj4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,/iles1 ,nutritional ,physiology4 ,w4 ,b4 ,saund]s ,company4 ,! ,great ,am]ican ,fraud4 ,am]ican ,m$ical ,association1 ,*icago4 ,! ,propag&a = ,re=m 9 ,propriet>y ,m$ic9es4 ,am4 ,m$ical ,association4 ,f>m]s' ,bullet93 numb]s #bc1 #cd1 #db1 #he1 #ic1 #aba1 #abh1 #acb1 #adb1 #ahb1 #bdi1 #bie1 #bih4 ,repr9t f ,ye>book1 #aija1 ,atwat]1 ,diet>ies 9 ,public ,in/itutions4 ,repr9t f ,ye>book1 #aijb1 ,miln]1 ,co/ ( ,food relat$ to its ,nutritive ,value4 ,exp]im5t ,/ation1 ,circul> #df1 ,langwor?y1 ,functions & ,uses ( ,food4 ,,xx4 ,,dige/ion ,,& ,,absorption ,problems4--,to det]m9e :]e dige/ion takes place by exam9+3-- 7a7 ,! functions ( gl&s4 -7b7 ,! "w done 9 ! m\?4 -7c7 ,! "w done 9 ! /oma*4 -7d7 ,! "w done 9 ! small inte/9e4 -7e7 ,! function ( ! liv]4 ,to discov] ! absorb+ app>atus & h[ x is us$4 ,,laboratory ,,sugge/ions ,demon/ration ( food tube ( man 7manik974--,comp>ison ) food tube ( frog4 ,draw+ 7comp>ative7 ( food tube & dige/ive gl&s ( frog & man4 ,demon/ration ( simple gl&4--7,microscopic prep>ation47 ,home exp]im5t & laboratory demon/ration4--,! dige/ion ( />* by saliva4 ,conditions favorable & unfavorable4 ,demon/ration exp]im5t4--,! dige/ion ( prote9s ) artificial ga/ric juice4 ,conditions favorable & unfavorable4 ,demon/ration4--,an emulsion z se5 "u ! comp\nd microscope4 ,demon/ration4--,emulsification ( fats ) artificial pancreatic fluid4 ,dige/ion ( />* & prote9 ) artificial pancreatic fluid4 ,demon/ration ( tripe to %[ increase ( surface ( dige/ive tube4 ,laboratory or home ex]cise4--,make a table %[+ ! *anges produc$ ^u food sub/ances by ea* dige/ive fluid1 ! reaction 7acid or alkal9e7 ( ! fluid1 :5 ! fluid acts1 & :at results f its action4 ,purpose ( ,dige/ion4--,we h le>n$ t />* & prote9 food ( plants are =m$ 9 ! leaves4 ,a plant1 h[ev]1 is unable to make use ( ! food 9 ?is condition4 ,be=e x c be transport$ f "o "p ( ! plant body to ano!r1 x is *ang$ into a soluble =m4 ,9 ?is /ate x c be pass$ f cell to cell by ! process ( osmosis4 ,mu* ! same condition exi/s 9 animals4 ,9 ord] t food may be ( use to man1 x mu/ be *ang$ into a /ate t w all[ ( its passage 9 a soluble =m ?r\gh ! walls ( ! alim5t>y canal1 or food tube4 ,?is is done by ! enzymes :i* cause dige/ion4 ,x w be ! purpose ( ?is *apt] to discov] :]e & h[ dige/ion takes place 9 our own body4 ,alim5t>y ,canal4--,9 all v]tebrate animals1 includ+ man1 food is tak5 9 ! m\? & pass$ ?r\gh a food tube 9 :i* x is dige/$4 ,?is tube is compos$ ( diff]5t portions1 nam$1 respectively1 z we pass f ! m\? d[nw>d1 ! gullet1 /oma*1 small & l>ge inte/9e1 & rectum4 ,illu/ration3 ,! dige/ive tract ( ! frog & man4 ,gul1 gullet2 ,s1 /oma*2 ,l1 liv]2 ,g1 gall bladd]2 ,p1 pancreas2 ,sp1 sple52 ,,si1 small inte/9e2 ,,li1 l>ge inte/9e2 ,v1 app5dix2 ,a1 anus4 ,comp>ison ( ,food ,tube ( a ,frog & ,man4--,if we comp>e ! food tube ( a dissect$ frog ) ! food tube ( man 7z %[n by a manik9 or *>t71 we f9d "p = "p !y are mu* ! same4 ,b we notice t ! inte/9es ( man1 bo? small & l>ge1 are relatively long] ?an 9 ! frog4 ,we also notice 9 man ! body cavity or space 9 :i* ! int]nal organs re/ is divid$ 9 two p>ts by a wall ( muscle1 ! diaphragm1 :i* sep>ates ! he>t & lungs f ! o!r int]nal organs4 ,9 ! frog no muscul> diaphragm exi/s4 ,9 ! frog we c see pla9ly ! silv]y transp>5t mes5t]y or d\ble fold ( ! l9+ ( ! body cavity 9 :i* ! organs ( dige/ion are susp5d$4 ,num]\s blood vessels c be f\nd especially 9 ! walls ( ! food tube4 ,gl&s4--,9 addition to ! alim5t>y canal prop]1 we f9d a numb] ( dige/ive gl&s1 v>y+ 9 size & position1 connect$ ) ! canal4 ,illu/ration3 ,diagram ( a gl&4 i1 ! common tube :i* c>ries (f ! secretions =m$ 9 ! cells l9+ ! cavity c2 a1 art]ies c>ry+ blood to ! gl&s2 v1 ve9s tak+ blood away f ! gl&s4 ,:at a ,gl& ,does4 ,enzymes4--,9 man !re are ! saliva gl& ( ! m\?1 ! ga/ric gl&s ( ! /oma*1 ! pancreas & liv]1 ! two latt] connect$ ) ! small inte/9e1 & ! inte/9al gl&s 9 ! walls ( ! inte/9e4 ,besides gl&s :i* aid 9 dige/ion !re are sev]al o!rs ( :i* we w speak lat]4 ,z we h already le>n$1 a gl& is a collection ( cells :i* takes up mat]ial f )9 ! body & manufactures f x some?+ :i* is lat] p\r$ out z a secretion4 ,an example ( a gl& 9 plants is f\nd 9 ! nect>-secret+ cells ( a fl[]4 ,c]ta9 sub/ances1 call$ enzymes1 =m$ by gl&s cause ! dige/ion ( food4 ,! enzymes secret$ by ! cells ( ! gl&s & p\r$ out into ! food tube act ^u insoluble foods s z to *ange !m to a soluble =m4 ,!y are ! product ( ! activity ( ! cell1 al?\gh !y are n !mselves alive4 ,we d n "k mu* ab\t enzymes !mselves1 b we c obs]ve :at !y d4 ,"s enzymes r5d] soluble diff]5t foods1 o!rs "w 9 ! blood1 /ill o!rs probably act )9 any cell ( ! body z an aid to oxidation1 :5 "w is done4 ,enzymes are v s5sitive to *anges 9 temp]ature & to ! degree ( acidity or alkal9ity#db ( ! mat]ial 9 :i* !y act4 ,we w f9d t ! enzymes f\nd 9 gl&s 9 ! m\? w n act long 9 ! /oma* because ( ! *ange f an alkal9e surr\nd+ 9 ! m\? to t ( an acid 9 ! /oma*4 ,enzymes seem to be able to "w indef9itely1 provid+ ! surr\nd+s are favorable4 ,a small am\nt ( dige/ive fluid1 if x _h long en\gh to "w1 c\ld !re=e dige/ an indef9ite am\nt ( food4 ,footnote #db3 ,! tea*] %\ld expla9 ! mean+ ( ^! t]ms4 ,gl& ,/ructure4--,! entire inn] surface ( ! food tube is cov]$ ) a s(t l9+ ( muc\s membrane4 ,?is is always moi/ because c]ta9 cells1 call$ mucus cells1 empty out _! cont5ts into ! food tube1 ?us lubricat+ its inn] surface4 ,:5 a l>ge numb] ( cells :i* h ! p[] to secrete fluids are collect$ toge!r1 ! surface ( ! food tube may become ind5t$ at ?is po9t to =m a pitlike gl&4 ,(t5 su* depressions are bran*$1 ?us giv+ a great] secret+ surface1 z is se5 9 ! figure on page #bih4 ,! cells ( ! gl& are always suppli$ ) blood vessels & n]ves1 = ! secretions ( ! gl&s are "u ! control ( ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,h[ a ,gl& ,secretes4--,we mu/ !re=e imag9e t z ! blood goes to ! cells ( a gl& x !re loses "s sub/ances :i* ! gl& cells take out & make ov] into ! p>ticul> enzyme t !y are call$ ^u to manufacture4 ,"u c]ta9 conditions1 su* z ! sight or smell ( food1 or ev5 ! desire = x1 ! activity ( ! gl& is /imulat$4 ,x !n p\rs out its secretion conta9+ ! dige/ive enzyme4 ,?us a gl& does its "w4 ,saliv>y ,gl&s4--,we are all famili> ) ! sub/ance call$ saliva :i* acts z a lubricant 9 ! m\?4 ,saliva is manufactur$ 9 ! cells ( ?ree pairs ( gl&s :i* empty into ! m\?1 & :i* are call$1 accord+ to _! position1 ! p>otid 7beside ! e>71 ! submaxill>y 7"u ! jawbone71 & ! subl+ual 7"u ! tongue74 ,illu/ration3 ,exp]im5t %[+ non-osmosis ( />* 9 tube ,a1 & osmosis ( sug> 9 tube ,b4 ,dige/ion ( ,/>*4--,if we collect "s saliva 9 a te/ tube1 add to x a little />* pa/e1 place ! tube conta9+ ! mixture = a few m9utes 9 tepid wat]1 & !n te/ ) ,fehl+'s solution1 we %all f9d grape sug> pres5t4 ,c>eful te/s ( ! />* pa/e & ( ! saliva made sep>ately w usually %[ no grape sug> 9 ei!r4 ,if ano!r te/ be made = grape sug>1 9 a te/ tube conta9+ />* pa/e1 saliva1 & a few drops ( any weak acid1 ! />* w be f\nd n to h *ang$4 ,! dige/ion or *ange ( />* to grape sug> is caus$ by ! pres5ce 9 ! saliva ( an enzyme1 or dige/ive f]m5t4 ,y w rememb] t />* 9 ! gr[+ corn gra9 0 *ang$ to grape sug> by an enzyme call$ dia/ase4 ,"h a simil> action is caus$ by an enzyme call$ ptyal94 ,?is f]m5t acts only 9 an alkal9e m$ium at ab\t ! temp]ature ( ! body4 ,illu/ration3 ,! m\? cavity ( man4 e1 ,eu/a*ian tube2 hp1 h>d palate2 sp1 s(t palate2 ut1 upp] tee?2 bc1 buccal cavity2 lt1 l[] tee?2 t1 tongue2 ph1 ph>ynx2 ep1 epiglottis2 lx1 voice box2 oe1 gullet2 tr1 tra*ea4 ,m\? ,cavity 9 ,man4--,9 our /udy ( a frog we f9d t ! m\? cavity has two unpair$ & f\r pair$ tubes lead+ f x4 ,^! are 7a7 ! gullet or food tube1 7b7 ! w9dpipe 79 ! frog op5+ ?r\gh ! glottis71 7c7 ! pair$ no/ril holes 7po/]ior n>es71 7d7 ! pair$ ,eu/a*ian tubes1 lead+ to ! e>4 ,all ( ^! op5+s are f\nd 9 man4 ,9 man ! m\? cavity1 & all int]nal surfaces ( ! food tube1 are l9$ ) a muc\s membrane4 ,! mucus secret$ f gl& cells 9 ?is l9+ makes a slipp]y surface s t ! food may slip d[n easily4 ,! ro( ( ! m\? is =m$ 9 front by a plate ( bone call$ ! h>d palate1 & a s(t] cont9uation to ! back ( ! m\?1 ! s(t palate4 ,^! sep>ate ! nose cavity f t ( ! m\? prop]4 ,! "p ( ! space back ( ! s(t palate is call$ ! ph>ynx1 or ?roat cavity4 ,f ! ph>ynx lead (f ! gullet & w9dpipe1 ! =m] back ( ! latt]4 ,! l[] "p ( ! m\? cavity is occupi$ by a muscul> tongue4 ,exam9ation ( its surface ) a look+-glass %[s x to be almo/ cov]$ 9 places by t9y projections call$ papillae4 ,^! papillae conta9 organs kn[n z ta/e buds1 ! s5sory end+s ( :i* det]m9e ! ta/e ( sub/ances4 ,! tongue is us$ 9 mov+ food ab\t 9 ! m\?1 & 9 />t+ x on its way to ! gullet2 x also plays an important "p 9 speak+4 ,illu/ration3 ,i4 ,tee? ( ! upp] jaw1 f bel[4 #a1 #b1 incisors2 #c1 can9e2 #d1 #e1 premol>s2 #f1 #g1 #h1 mol>s4 ,,ii4 longitud9al section ( a too?4 ,e1 enamel2 ,d1 d5t9e2 ,c1 cem5t2 ,p1 pulp cavity4 ,! ,tee?4--,9 man ! tee?1 unlike ^? ( ! frog1 are us$ 9 ! me*anical prep>ation ( ! food = dige/ion4 ,in/ead ( hold+ prey1 !y cru%1 gr9d1 or te> food s t m surface may be giv5 = ! action ( ! dige/ive fluids4 ,! tee? ( man are divid$1 accord+ to _! functions1 into f\r gr\ps4 ,9 ! c5t] ( bo? ! upp] & l[] jaw 9 front are f\nd eight tee? ) *isel-l edges1 f\r 9 ea* jaw2 ^! are ! incisors1 or cutt+ tee?4 ,next is f\nd a s+le too? on ea* side 7f\r 9 all72 ^! h r %>p po9ts & are call$ ! can9es4 ,!n come two tee? on ea* side1 eight 9 all1 call$ premol>s4 ,la/ly1 ! flat-top mol>s1 or gr9d+ tee?1 ( :i* !re are six 9 ea* jaw4 ,food is caught betwe5 irregul> projections on ! surface ( ! mol>s & cru%$ to a pulpy mass4 ,hygi5e ( ! ,m\?4--,food %\ld simply be *ew$ & reli%$1 ) no ?\ght ( swall[+4 ,!re %\ld be no m ef=t to prev5t ?an to =ce swall[+4 ,x w be f\nd t if y att5d only to ! agreeable task ( extract+ ! flavors ( y\r food1 ,nature w take c>e ( ! swall[+1 & ?is w become1 l brea?+1 involunt>y4 ,! in/9ct by :i* mo/ p eat is p]v]t$ ?r\gh ! hurry habit & ! use ( abnormal foods4 ,?or\gh ma/ication takes "t1 & !re=e "o mu/ n feel hurri$ at meals if ! be/ results are to be secur$4 ,! /opp+ po9t = eat+ %\ld be at ! e>lie/ mom5t aft] "o is really satisfi$4 ,c>e ( ! ,tee?4--,x has be5 rec5tly f\nd t fruit acids are v b5eficial to ! tee?4 ,v9eg> dilut$ to ab\t half /r5g? ) wat] makes an excell5t d5tal wa%4 ,clean y\r tee? c>efully ea* morn+ & be=e go+ to b$4 ,use d5tal silk aft] meals4 ,we mu/ rememb] t ! bact]ia :i* cause decay ( ! tee? are wa%$ d[n into ! /oma* & may d ev5 m h>m !re ?an 9 ! m\?4 ,h[ ,food is ,swall[$4--,aft] food has be5 *ew$ & mix$ ) saliva1 x is roll$ into little balls & pu%$ by ! tongue into su* position t ! muscles ( ! ?roat cavity may seize x & =ce x d[nw>d4 ,food1 9 ord] to rea* ! gullet f ! m\? cavity1 mu/ pass ov] ! op5+ into ! w9dpipe4 ,:5 food is 9 ! c\rse ( be+ swall[$1 ! upp] "p ( ?is tube =ms a trapdoor ov] ! op5+4 ,:5 ?is trapdoor is n clos$1 & food goes d[n ! wrong way1 we *oke1 & ! food is expell$ by c\gh+4 ,illu/ration3 ,p]i/altic waves on ! gullet ( man4 7,a bolus means little ball47 ,! ,gullet1 or ,esophagus4--,l ! re/ ( ! food tube ! gullet is l9$ by s(t & moi/ muc\s membrane4 ,! wall is made up ( two sets ( muscles1--! inside ones runn+ ar\nd ! tube2 ! out] lay] ( muscle tak+ a longitud9al c\rse4 ,aft] food leaves ! m\? cavity1 x gets beyond our direct control1 & ! muscles ( ! gullet1 /imulat$ to activity by ! pres5ce ( food 9 ! tube1 pu% ! food d[n to ! /oma* by a s]ies ( contractions until x rea*es ! /oma*4 ,^! wavelike movem5ts 7call$ p]i/altic movem5ts7 are *>act]i/ic ( o!r p>ts ( ! food tube1 food be+ pu%$ along 9 ! /oma* & ! small inte/9e by a s]ies ( sl[-mov+ muscul> waves4 ,p]i/altic movem5t is caus$ by muscles :i* are n "u volunt>y n]v\s control1 al?\gh ang]1 fe>1 or o!r unpleasant emotions h ! effect ( sl[+ !m up or ev5 /opp+ !m entirely4 ,/oma* ( ,man4--,! /oma* is a pe>-%ap$ organ capable ( hold+ ab\t ?ree p9ts4 ,! end opposite to ! gullet1 :i* empties into ! small inte/9e1 is provid$ ) a r+ ( muscle =m+ a valve call$ ! pylorus4 ,!re is also ano!r r+ ( muscle gu>d+ ! entrance to ! /oma*4 ,ga/ric ,gl&s4--,if we op5 ! /oma* ( ! frog1 & remove its cont5ts by c>efully wa%+1 its wall is se5 to be ?r[n into folds int]nally4 ,betwe5 ! folds 9 ! /oma* ( man1 z well z 9 ! frog1 are locat$ a numb] ( t9y pits4 ,^! =m ! m\?s ( ! ga/ric gl&s1 :i* p\r into ! /oma* a secretion kn[n z ! ga/ric juice4 ,! ga/ric gl&s are little tubes1 ! l9+ ( :i* secretes ! fluid4 ,:5 we ?9k ( or see appetiz+ food1 ?is secretion is giv5 out 9 consid]able quantity4 ,! /oma*1 l ! m\?1 wat]s at ! sight ( food4 ,ga/ric juice is slightly acid 9 its *emical reaction1 conta9+ ab\t 4#b p] c5t free hydro*loric acid4 ,x also conta9s two v important enzymes1 "o call$ peps91 & ano!r less important "o call$ r5n94 ,action ( ,ga/ric ,juice4--,if prote9 is treat$ ) artificial ga/ric juice at ! temp]ature ( ! body1 x w be f\nd to become swoll5 & !n gradually to *ange to a sub/ance :i* is soluble 9 wat]4 ,?is is l ! action ( ! ga/ric juice ^u prote9s 9 ! /oma*4 ,! o!r enzyme ( ga/ric juice1 call$ r5n91 curdles or coagulates a prote9 f\nd 9 milk2 aft] ! milk is curdl$1 ! peps9 is able to act ^u x4 ,junket tablets1 :i* conta9 r5n91 are us$ 9 ! kit*5 to cause ?is *ange4 ,illu/ration3 ,a peptic gl&1 f ! /oma*1 v mu* magnifi$4 ,a1 c5tral or *ief cell1 :i* makes peps92 ,b1 bord] cells1 :i* make acid4 7,f ,mill]'s ,hi/ology47 ,! hydro*loric acid f\nd 9 ! ga/ric juice acts ^u lime & "s o!r salts tak5 into ! /oma* ) food1 *ang+ !m s t !y may pass into ! blood & ev5tually =m ! m9]al "p ( bone or o!r tissue4 ,! acid also has a decid$ antiseptic influ5ce 9 prev5t+ gr[? ( bact]ia :i* cause decay1 & "s ( :i* might cause disease4 ,movem5t ( ,walls ( ,/oma*4--,! /oma* walls1 provid$ ) ?ree lay]s ( muscle :i* run 9 an oblique1 circul>1 & longitud9al direction 7tak5 f ! inside outw>d71 are well fitt$ = ! con/ant *urn+ ( ! food 9 t organ4 ,"h1 z else:]e 9 ! dige/ive tract1 ! muscles are involunt>y1 muscul> action be+ "u ! control ( ! s-call$ sympa!tic n]v\s sy/em4 ,food mat]ial 9 ! /oma* makes sev]al complete circuits dur+ ! process ( dige/ion 9 t organ4 ,contr>y to common belief1 ! greate/ am\nt ( food is dige/$ aft] x leaves ! /oma*4 ,b ?is organ keeps ! food 9 x 9 almo/ con/ant motion = a consid]able "t1 a meal ( meat & vegetables rema9+ 9 ! /oma* = ?ree or f\r h\rs4 ,:ile movem5t is tak+ place1 ! ga/ric juice acts ^u prote9s1 s(t5+ !m1 :ile ! con/ant *urn+ movem5t t5ds to sep>ate ! bits ( food into f9] p>ticles4 ,ultimately ! semifluid food1 mu* ( x /ill undige/$1 is all[$ to pass 9 small am\nts ?r\gh ! pyloric valve1 into ! small inte/9e4 ,?is is all[$ by ! relaxation ( ! r+like muscles ( ! pylorus4 ,exp]im5ts on ,dige/ion 9 ! ,/oma*4--,"s v int]e/+ exp]im5ts h rec5tly be5 made by ,pr(essor ,cannon ( ,h>v>d ) ref]5ce to movem5ts ( ! /oma* cont5ts4 ,cats 7 f$ ) mat]ial hav+ 9 x bismu?1 a h>mless *emical t w\ld be visible "u ! ,x-ray4 ,x 0 f\nd t %ortly aft] food rea*$ ! /oma* a s]ies ( waves began :i* s5t ! food t[>d ! pyloric end ( ! /oma*4 ,if ! cat 0 feel+ happy & well1 ^! contractions cont9u$ regul>ly1 b if ! cat 0 cross or bad temp]$1 ! movem5ts w\ld /op4 ,?is %[s ! importance ( *e]fulness at meals4 ,o!r exp]im5ts %[$ t food :i* 0 *urn$ into a s(t mass 0 only p]mitt$ to leave ! /oma* :5 x became ?or\ghly p]meat$ by ! ga/ric juice4 ,x is ! acid 9 ! p>tly dige/$ food t causes ! /oma* valve to op5 & all[ its cont5ts to escape little by little into ! small inte/9e4 ,! p>tly dige/$ food 9 ! small inte/9e almo/ imm$iately comes 9 contact ) fluids f two gl&s1 ! liv] & pancreas4 ,we %all fir/ consid] ! function ( ! pancreas4 ,position & ,/ructure ( ! ,pancreas4--,! mo/ important dige/ive gl& 9 ! human body is ! pancreas4 ,! gl& is a r diffuse /ructure2 its duct empties by a common op5+ ) ! bile duct into ! small inte/9e1 a %ort di/ance bel[ ! pylorus4 ,9 int]nal /ructure1 ! pancreas resembles ! saliv>y gl&s4 ,illu/ration3 ,appe>ance ( milk "u ! microscope1 %[+ ! natural gr\p+ ( ! fat globules4 ,9 ! circle a s+le gr\p is highly magnifi$4 ,milk is "o =m ( an emulsion4 7,s4 ,m4 ,babcock1 ,wis4 ,bul4 ,no4 #fa47 ,"w done by ! ,pancreas4--,/>* pa/e add$ to artificial pancreatic fluid & kept at blood heat is soon *ang$ to sug>4 ,prote91 "u ! same conditions1 is *ang$ to a peptone4 ,fats1 :i* s f> h be5 un*ang$ except to be melt$ by ! heat ( ! body1 are *ang$ by ! action ( ! pancreas into a =m :i* c pass ?r\gh ! walls ( ! food tube4 ,if we te/ pancreatic fluid1 we f9d x /rongly alkal9e 9 its reaction4 ,if two te/ tubes1 "o conta9+ olive oil & wat]1 ! o!r olive oil & a weak solution ( cau/ic soda1 an alkali1 be %ak5 viol5tly & !n all[$ to /&1 ! oil & wat] w quickly sep>ate1 :ile ! oil1 cau/ic soda1 & wat] w rema9 = "s "t 9 a milky emulsion4 ,if ?is emulsion be exam9$ "u ! microscope1 x w be f\nd to be made ( millions ( little droplets ( fat1 float+ 9 ! liquid4 ,! pres5ce ( ! cau/ic soda help$ ! =m+ ( ! emulsion4 ,pancreatic fluid simil>ly emulsifies fats & *anges !m into s(t soaps & fatty acids4 ,fat 9 ?is =m may be absorb$4 ,! process ( ?is trans=mation is n well und]/ood4 ,conditions "u :i* ! ,pancreas does its ,"w4--,! secretion f ?is gl& seems to be influ5c$ by ! ov]fl[ ( acid mat]ial f ! /oma*4 ,?is acid1 on /rik+ ! l9+ ( ! small inte/9e1 causes ! =mation 9 its walls ( a sub/ance kn[n z secret94 ,?is secret9 rea*es ! blood & seems to /imulate all ! gl&s p\r+ fluid into ! inte/9e to d m "w4 ,a p9t or m ( pancreatic fluid is secret$ e day4 ,! ,inte/9al ,fluid4--,?ree diff]5t pancreatic enzymes d ! "w ( dige/ion1 "o act+ on />*1 ano!r on prote91 & a ?ird on fats4 ,x has be5 f\nd t "s ( ^! enzymes w n d _! "w unless aid$ by ! inte/9al fluid1 a secretion =m$ 9 gl&s 9 ! walls ( ! small inte/9e4 ,?is fluid1 ?\gh n mu* is kn[n ab\t x1 is believ$ to play an important "p 9 ! dige/ion ( all k9ds ( foods left undige/$ 9 ! small inte/9e4 ,liv]4--,! liv] is ! l>ge/ gl& 9 ! body4 ,9 man1 x hangs j bel[ ! diaphragm1 a little to ! "r side ( ! body4 ,dur+ life1 its color is deep r$4 ,x is divid$ into ?ree lobes1 betwe5 two ( :i* is f\nd ! gall bladd]1 a ?9-wall$ sac :i* holds ! bile1 a secretion ( ! liv]4 ,bile is a /rongly alkal9e fluid ( gre5i% color4 ,x rea*es ! inte/9e ?r\gh ! same op5+ z ! pancreatic fluid4 ,almo/ "o qu>t ( bile is pass$ daily into ! dige/ive canal4 ,! color ( bile is due to c]ta9 wa/e sub/ances :i* come f ! de/ruction ( worn-out r$ corpuscles ( ! blood4 ,?is de/ruction takes place 9 ! liv]4 ,illu/ration3 ,diagram ( a bit ( ! wall ( ! small inte/9e1 greatly magnifi$1 a1 m\?s ( inte/9al gl&s2 b1 villus cut l5g?wise to %[ blood vessels & lacteal 79 c5t]72 e1 lacteal s5d+ bran*es to o!r villi2 i1 inte/9al gl&s2 m1 art]y2 v1 ve92 l1 t1 muscul> coats ( inte/9e wall4 ,functions ( ,bile4--,! action ( bile is n v well kn[n4 ,x has ! v important faculty ( aid+ ! pancreatic fluid 9 dige/ion1 ?\gh alone x has slight if any dige/ive p[]4 ,c]ta9 sub/ances 9 ! bile aid especially 9 ! absorption ( fats4 ,bile seems to be mo/ly a wa/e product f ! blood & z su* incid5tally s]ves to keep ! cont5ts ( ! inte/9e 9 a m or less s(t condition1 ?us prev5t+ extreme con/ipation4 ,! ,liv] a ,/oreh\se4--,p]haps ! mo/ important function ( ! liv] is ! =mation )9 x ( a mat]ial call$ glycog51 or animal />*4 ,! liv] is suppli$ by blood f two s\rces4 ,! great] am\nt ( blood receiv$ by ! liv] comes directly f ! walls ( ! /oma* & inte/9e to ?is organ4 ,x normally conta9s ab\t "o fif? ( all ! blood 9 ! body4 ,?is blood is v ri* 9 food mat]ials1 & f x ! cells ( ! liv] take out sug>s to =m glycog54#dc ,glycog5 is /or$ 9 ! liv] until su* a "t z a food is ne$$ t c be quickly oxidiz$2 !n x is *ang$ to sug> & c>ri$ (f by ! blood to ! tissue :i* requires x1 & !re us$ = ?is purpose4 ,glycog5 is also /or$ 9 ! muscles1 :]e x is oxidiz$ to release en]gy :5 ! muscles are ex]cis$4 ,footnote #dc3 ,x is kn[n t glycog5 may be =m$ 9 ! body f prote91 & possibly f fatty foods4 ,! ,absorption ( ,dige/$ ,food into ! ,blood4--,! object ( dige/ion is to *ange foods f an insoluble to a soluble =m4 ,?is has be5 se5 9 ! /udy ( ! action ( ! v>i\s dige/ive fluids 9 ! body1 ea* ( :i* is se5 to aid 9 dissolv+ solid foods1 *ang+ !m to a fluid1 &1 9 case ( ! bile1 actually assi/+ !m to pass ?r\gh ! wall ( ! inte/9e4 ,a small am\nt ( dige/$ food may be absorb$ by ! blood 9 ! blood vessels ( ! walls ( ! /oma*4 ,mo/ ( ! absorption1 h[ev]1 takes place ?r\gh ! walls ( ! small inte/9e4 ,/ructure ( ! ,small ,inte/9e4--,! small inte/9e 9 man is a sl5d] tube ne>ly tw5ty feet 9 l5g? & ab\t "o in* 9 diamet]4 ,if ! *ief function ( ! small inte/9e is t ( absorption1 we mu/ look = adaptations :i* increase ! absorb+ surface ( ! tube4 ,?is is ga9$ 9 "p by ! inn] surface ( ! tube be+ ?r[n into transv]se folds :i* n only ret>d ! rapidity ) :i* food passes d[n ! inte/9e1 b also give m absorb+ surface4 ,b f> m important = absorption are millions ( little projections :i* cov] ! inn] surface ( ! small inte/9e4 ,! ,villi4--,s num]\s are ^! projections t ! :ole surface pres5ts a velvety appe>ance4 ,collectively1 ^! /ructures are call$ ! villi 7s+ul> villus74 ,!y =m ! *ief organs ( absorption 9 ! inte/9e1 sev]al ?\s& be+ di/ribut$ ov] e squ>e in* ( surface4 ,by means ( ! folds & villi ! small inte/9e is e/imat$ to h an absorb+ surface equal to twice t ( ! surface ( ! body4 ,betwe5 ! villi are f\nd ! op5+s ( ! inte/9al gl&s4 ,int]nal ,/ructure ( a ,villus4--,! int]nal /ructure ( a villus is be/ se5 9 a longitud9al section4 ,we f9d ! out] wall made up ( a ?9 lay] ( cells1 ! epi!lial lay]4 ,x is ! duty ( ^! cells to absorb ! semifluid food f )9 ! inte/9e4 ,und]nea? ^! cells lies a network ( v t9y blood vessels1 :ile inside ( ^!1 occupy+ ! core ( ! villus1 are f\nd spaces :i*1 because ( _! :ite appe>ance aft] absorption ( fats1 h be5 call$ lacteals4 7,see figure1 page #cjg47 ,illu/ration3 ,diagram to %[ h[ ! nutri5ts rea* ! blood4 ,absorption ( ,foods4--,let u n[ attempt to f9d out exactly h[ foods are pass$ f ! inte/9es into ! blood4 ,food sub/ances 9 solution may be soak$ up z a sponge w\ld take up wat]1 or !y may pass by osmosis into ! cells l9+ ! villus4 ,^! cells break d[n ! peptones into a sub/ance t w pass into & become "p ( ! blood4 ,once )9 ! villus1 ! sug>s & dige/$ prote9s pass ?r\gh t9y blood vessels into ! l>g] vessels compris+ ! portal circulation4 ,^! pass ?r\gh ! liv]1 :]e1 z we h se51 sug> is tak5 f ! blood & /or$ z glycog54 ,f ! liv]1 ! food )9 ! blood is s5t to ! he>t1 f !re is pump$ to ! lungs1 f !re returns to ! he>t1 & is pump$ to ! tissues ( ! body4 ,a l>ge am\nt ( wat] & "s salts are also absorb$ ?r\gh ! walls ( ! /oma* & inte/9e z ! food passes on its c\rse4 ,! fats 9 ! =m ( soaps & fatty acids pass into ! space 9 ! c5t] ( ! villus4 ,lat] !y are *ang$ into fats aga91 probably 9 c]ta9 gr\ps ( gl& cells kn[n z mes5t]ic gl&s1 & ev5tually rea* ! blood by way ( ! ?oracic duct )\t pass+ ?r\gh ! liv]4 ,l>ge ,inte/9e4--,! l>ge inte/9e has some:at ! same /ructure z ! small inte/9e1 except t x lacks ! villi & has a great] diamet]4 ,consid]able absorption1 h[ev]1 takes place ?r\gh its walls z ! mass ( food & refuse mat]ial is sl[ly pu%$ along by ! muscles )9 its walls4 ,v]mi=m ,app5dix4--,at ! po9t :]e ! small inte/9e wid5s to =m ! l>ge inte/9e1 a baglike p\* is =m$4 ,f "o side ( ?is p\* is giv5 (f a small tube ab\t f\r in*es long1 clos$ at ! l[] end4 ,?is tube1 ! rudim5t ( :at is an important "p ( ! food tube 9 ! l[] v]tebrates1 is call$ ! v]mi=m app5dix4 ,x has come to h unpleasant notoriety 9 late ye>s1 z ! site ( s]i\s inflammation4 ,con/ipation4--,9 ! l>ge inte/9e live millions ( bact]ia1 "s ( :i* make & give (f poison\s sub/ances kn[n z tox9s4 ,^! sub/ances are easily absorb$ ?r\gh ! walls ( ! l>ge inte/9e1 &1 :5 !y pass into ! blood1 cause heada*es or sometimes s]i\s tr\ble4 ,h5ce x foll[s t ! l[] b[el %\ld be empti$ ( ?is matt] z frequ5tly z possible1 at lea/ once a day4 ,con/ipation is "o ( ! mo/ s]i\s evils ! ,am]ican p h to deal )1 & x is l>gely br\ght ab\t by ! artificial life :i* we lead1 ) its lack ( ex]cise1 fre% air1 & sleep4 ,fruit ) meals1 especially at breakfa/1 pl5ty ( wat] betwe5 meals & be=e breakfa/1 ex]cise1 p>ticul>ly ( ! abdom9al muscles1 & regul> habits w all help to correct ?is evil4 ,hygi5ic ,habits ( ,eat+2 ! ,causes & ,prev5tion ( ,dyspepsia4--,f ! cont5ts ( ! =ego+ *apt] x is evid5t t ! object ( ! process ( dige/ion is to break up solid food s t x may be absorb$ to =m "p ( ! blood4 ,any habits we may =m ( ?or\ghly *ew+ our food w evid5tly aid 9 ?is process4 ,und\bt$ly mu* ( ! di/ress kn[n z dyspepsia is due to too ha/y meals ) consequ5t lack ( prop] ma/ication ( food4 ,! message ( ,mr4 ,horace ,flet*] 9 br++ be=e u ! ne$ ( prop] ma/ication ( food & ! att5dant evils ( ov]eat+ is "o :i* we _c af=d to ignore4 ,x is a good rule to g away f ! table feel+ a little hungry4 ,eat+ too mu* ov]taxes ! dige/ive organs & prev5ts _! work+ to ! be/ advantage4 ,/ill ano!r cause ( dyspepsia is eat+ :5 9 a fatigu$ condition4 ,x is always a good plan to re/ a %ort "t be=e eat+1 especially aft] any h>d manual "w4 ,we h se5 h[ great a "p unpleasant emotions play 9 prev5t+ p]i/altic movem5ts ( ! food tube4 ,conv]sely1 pleasant conv]sation1 laught]1 & fun w help y to dige/ y\r meal4 ,eat+ betwe5 meals is condemn$ by physicians because x calls ! blood to ! dige/ive organs at a "t :5 x %\ld be m active 9 o!r p>ts ( ! body4 ,effect ( ,alcohol on ,dige/ion4--,x is a well-kn[n fact t alcohol extracts wat] f tissues ) :i* x is 9 contact4 ,?is fact works mu* h>m to ! int]ior surface ( ! food tube1 especially ! walls ( ! /oma*1 :i* 9 ! case ( a h>d dr9k] are likely to become irritat$ & mu* t\gh5$4 ,9 v small am\nts alcohol /imulates ! secretion ( ! saliv>y & ga/ric gl&s1 & ?us appe>s to aid 9 dige/ion4 ,! foll[+ results ( exp]im5ts on dogs1 publi%$ 9 ! ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,physiology1 ,vol4 ,i1 ,pr(essor ,*itt5d5 ( ,yale ,univ]sity gives z /rictly comp>able1 because !y 7 c>ri$ out 9 succession on ! same day4 ,!y %[ t alcohol ret>ds r ?an aids 9 dige/ion3-- ,,numb] ,,( ,,exp]im5t #a_/af ,,lb4 ,,meat ,,) ,,wat] #a_/af ,,lb4 ,,meat ,,) ,,dilute ,,alcohol ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,xvii alpha #i3ae ,a4,m4 ,dige/$ 9 #c h\rs ,,xvii beta #c3jj ,p4,m4 ,dige/$ 9 #c3ae h\rs ,,xviii alpha #h3cj ,a4,m4 ,dige/$ 9 #b3cj h\rs ,,xviii beta #b3aj ,p4,m4 ,dige/$ 9 #c3jj h\rs ,,xix alpha #i3jj ,a4,m4 ,dige/$ 9 #b3cj h\rs ,,xix beta #b3cj ,p4,m4 ,dige/$ 9 #c3jj h\rs ,,xx alpha #i3ae ,a4,m4 ,dige/$ 9 #b3de h\rs ,,xx beta #b3cj ,p4,m4 ,dige/$ 9 #b3ae h\rs ,,vi alpha #i3ae ,a4,m4 ,dige/$ 9 #c3de h\rs ,,vi beta #a3jj ,p4,m4 ,dige/$ 9 #c3ae h\rs ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,av]age #b3db h\rs #c3ji h\rs ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,z a result ( 8 exp]im5ts1 ,pr(essor ,*itt5d5 rem>ks3 ,we believe t ! results obta9$ ju/ify ! conclusion t ga/ric dige/ion z a :ole is n mat]ially modifi$ by ! introduction ( alcoholic fluids ) ! food4 ,9 o!r words1 ! unque/ionable accel]ation ( ga/ric secretion :i* foll[s ! +e/ion ( alcoholic bev]ages is1 z a rule1 c\nt]balanc$ by ! inhibitory effect ( ! alcoholic fluids ^u ! *emical process ( ga/ric dige/ion1 ) p]haps at times a t5d5cy t[>ds prepond]ance ( inhibitory action4 ,o!rs h come to ! same or /rong] conclusions z to ! undesirable action ( alcohol on dige/ion1 z a result ( _! own exp]im5ts4 ,effect ( ,alcohol on ! ,liv]4--,! effect ( heavy dr9k+ ^u ! liv] is graphically %[n 9 ! foll[+ table prep>$ by ! ,sci5tific ,temp]ance ,f$]ation ( ,bo/on1 ,mass43-- ,illu/ration3 ,proportion ( dea?s f disease 9 a c]ta9 area due to alcohol4 ,! black area %[s dea?s due to alcohol4#dd ,footnote #dd3 ,does n include dea?s f g5]al alcoholic p>alysis or o!r organic diseases due to alcohol4 ,liv] cirrhosis due to alcohol cons]vatively e/imat$ at #ge p] c5t ( total cases4 ,alcoholic indulg5ce /&s almo/ if n altoge!r 9 ! front rank ( ! enemies to be combat$ 9 ! battle = heal?4--,,pr(essor ,,william ,t4 ,,s$gwick4 ,,xxi4 ,,! ,,blood ,,& ,,its ,,circulation ,problems4--,to discov] ! composition & uses ( ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! blood4 ,to f9d out ! means by :i* ! blood is circulat$ ab\t ! body4 ,,laboratory ,,sugge/ions ,demon/ration4--,/ructure ( blood1 fre% frog's blood & human blood4 ,draw+s4 ,demon/ration4--,clott+ ( blood4 ,demon/ration4--,use ( models to demon/rate t ! he>t is a =ce pump4 ,demon/ration4--,capill>y circulation 9 web ( frog's foot or tadpole's tail4 ,draw+4 ,home or laboratory ex]cise4--,on relation ( ex]cise on rate ( he>t beat4 ,function ( ! ,blood4--,! *ief function ( ! dige/ive tract is to *ange foods to su* =m t !y c be absorb$ ?r\gh ! walls ( ! food tube & become "p ( ! blood4#de ,footnote #de3 ,?is *ange is due to ! action ( c]ta9 enzymes ^u ! nutri5ts 9 v>i\s foods4 ,b we also f9d t peptones are *ang$ back aga9 to prote9s :5 once 9 ! blood4 ,?is appe>s to be due to ! rev]sible action ( ! enzymes act+ ^u !m4 7,see page #cjg47 ,if we exam9e "u ! microscope a drop ( blood tak5 f ! frog or man1 we f9d x made up ( a fluid call$ plasma & two k9ds ( bodies1 ! s-call$ r$ corpuscles & colorless corpuscles1 float+ 9 ?is plasma4 ,composition ( ,plasma4--,! plasma ( blood is f\nd to be l>gely 7ab\t #ij p] c5t7 wat]4 ,x also conta9s a consid]able am\nt ( prote91 "s sug>1 fat1 & m9]al mat]ial4 ,x is1 !n1 ! m$ium :i* holds ! fluid food t has be5 absorb$ f )9 ! inte/9e4 ,?is food is pump$ to ! body cells :]e1 z "w is p]=m$1 oxidation takes place & heat is giv5 (f z a =m ( en]gy4 ,! almo/ con/ant temp]ature ( ! body is also due to ! blood1 :i* br+s to ! surface ( ! body mu* ( ! heat giv5 (f by oxidation ( food 9 ! muscles & o!r tissues4 ,:5 ! blood returns f ! tissues :]e ! food is oxidiz$1 ! plasma br+s back ) x to ! lungs "p ( ! c>bon dioxide lib]at$ :]e oxidation has tak5 place4 ,"s wa/e products1 to be spok5 ( lat]1 are also f\nd 9 ! plasma4 ,illu/ration3 ,human blood z se5 "u ! high p[] ( ! comp\nd microscope2 at ! extreme "r is a colorless corpuscle4 ,! ,r$ ,blood ,corpuscle2 its ,/ructure & ,functions4--,! r$ corpuscle 9 ! blood ( ! frog is a true cell ( disklike =m1 conta9+ a nucleus4 ,! r$ corpuscle ( man is made 9 ! r$ m>r[ ( bones & 9 its "y /ages has a nucleus4 ,9 its adult =m1 h[ev]1 x lacks a nucleus4 ,its =m is t ( a biconcave disk4 ,s small & s num]\s are ^! corpuscles t ov] five million are f\nd 9 a cubic c5timet] ( normal blood4 ,!y make up almo/ "o half ! total volume ( ! blood4 ,! color1 :i* is f\nd to be a dirty yell[ :5 sep>ate corpuscles are view$ "u ! microscope1 is due to a prote9 mat]ial call$ haemoglob94 ,haemoglob9 conta9s a l>ge am\nt ( iron4 ,x has ! p[] ( unit+ v readily ) oxyg5 :5ev] t gas is abundant1 &1 aft] hav+ absorb$ x1 ( giv+ x up to ! surr\nd+ m$ia1 :5 oxyg5 is !re pres5t 9 small] am\nts ?an 9 ! corpuscle4 ,?is function ( c>ry+ oxyg5 is ! mo/ important function ( ! r$ corpuscle1 al?\gh ! r$ corpuscle also removes "p ( ! c>bon dioxide f ! tissues on _! return to ! lungs4 ,! tak+ up ( oxyg5 is accompani$ by a *ange 9 color ( ! mass ( corpuscles f a dull r$ to a bright sc>let4 ,clott+ ( ,blood4--,if fre% beef blood is all[$ to /& ov]night1 x w be f\nd to h sep>at$ into two p>ts1 a d>k r$1 almo/ solid clot & a ?91 /raw-color$ liquid call$ s]um4 ,s]um is f\nd to be made up ( ab\t #ij p] c5t wat]1 #h p] c5t prote91 #a p] c5t o!r organic foods1 & #a p] c5t m9]al sub/ances4 ,9 ^! respects x v closely resembles ! fluid food t is absorb$ f ! inte/9es4 ,if ano!r j> ( fre% beef blood is p\r$ into a pan & briskly :ipp$ ) a bundle ( little rods 7or ) an egg beat]71 a /r+y sub/ance w be f\nd to /ick to ! rods4 ,?is1 if wa%$ c>efully1 is se5 to be almo/ colorless4 ,te/$ ) nitric acid & ammonia1 x is f\nd to conta9 a prote9 sub/ance :i* is call$ fibr94 ,blood plasma1 !n1 is made up ( a fluid portion ( s]um1 & fibr91 :i*1 al?\gh 9 a fluid /ate 9 ! blood vessels )9 ! body1 coagulates :5 blood is remov$ f ! blood vessels4 ,?is coagulation aids 9 mak+ a blood clot4 ,a clot is simply a mass ( fibr9 ?reads ) a l>ge numb] ( corpuscles tangl$ )94 ,! clott+ ( blood is ( great physiological importance1 = o!rwise we might ble$ to dea? ev5 f a small w\nd4 ,blood ,plates4--,9 blood )9 ! circulatory sy/em ( ! body1 ! fibr9 is held 9 a fluid /ate call$ fibr9og54 ,an enzyme1 act+ ^u ?is fibr9og51 ! soluble prote9 9 ! blood1 causes x to *ange to an insoluble =m1 ! fibr9 ( ! clot4 ,?is *ange seems to be due to ! action ( m9ute bodies 9 ! blood kn[n z blood plates4 ,"u abnormal conditions ^! blood plates break d[n1 releas+ "s sub/ances :i* ev5tually cause ?is enzyme to d its "w4 ,illu/ration3 ,a small art]y 7,a7 break+ up into capill>ies 7c7 :i* unite to =m a ve9 7,v74 ,note at 7,p7 sev]al colorless corpuscles1 :i* are fight+ bact]ia at t po9t4 ,! ,colorless ,corpuscle2 ,/ructure & ,functions4--,a colorless corpuscle is a cell irregul> 9 outl9e1 ! %ape ( :i* is con/antly *ang+4 ,^! corpuscles are some:at l>g] ?an ! r$ corpuscles1 b less num]\s1 !re be+ ab\t "o colorless corpuscle to e ?ree hundr$ r$ ones4 ,!y h ! p[] ( movem5t1 = !y are f\nd n only inside b outside ! blood vessels1 %[+ t !y h work$ _! way betwe5 ! cells t =m ! walls ( ! blood tubes4 ,illu/ration3 ,a colorless corpuscle cat*+ & eat+ g]ms4 ,a ,russian zoologi/1 ,met*nik(f1 aft] /udy+ a numb] ( simple animals1 su* z m$usae & sponges1 f\nd t 9 su* animals "s ( ! cells l9+ ! inside ( ! food cavity take up or engulf m9ute bits ( food4 ,lat]1 ?is food is *ang$ into ! protoplasm ( ! cell4 ,met*nik(f believ$ t ! colorless corpuscles ( ! blood h some:at ! same function4 ,?is he lat] prov$ to be true4 ,l ! amoeba1 !y fe$ by engulf+ _! prey4 ,?is fact has a v important be>+ on ! relation ( colorless corpuscles to c]ta9 diseases caus$ by bact]ia )9 ! body4 ,if1 = example1 a cut becomes infect$ by bact]ia1 inflammation may set 94 ,colorless corpuscles at once surr\nd ! spot & attack ! bact]ia :i* cause ! inflammation4 ,if ! bact]ia are few 9 numb]1 !y are quickly eat5 by c]ta9 ( ! colorless corpuscles1 :i* are kn[n z phagocytes4 ,if bact]ia are pres5t 9 great quantities1 !y may prevail & kill ! phagocytes by poison+ !m4 ,! dead bodies ( ! phagocytes ?us kill$ are f\nd 9 ! pus1 or matt]1 :i* accumulates 9 infect$ w\nds4 ,9 su* an ev5t1 we mu/ come to ! aid ( nature by wa%+ ! w\nd ) "s antiseptic1 z weak c>bolic acid or hydrog5 p]oxide4 ,antibodies & _! ,uses4--,9 case ( disease :]e1 = example1 fev] is caus$ by poison giv5 (f f bact]ia we f9d ! cells ( ! body manufacture & p\r into ! blood a sub/ance kn[n z an antibody4 ,?is sub/ance does n ( necessity kill ! h>mful g]ms or ev5 /op _! gr[?4 ,x does1 h[ev]1 unite ) ! tox9 or poison giv5 (f by ! g]ms & r5d]s x entirely h>mless4 ,function ( ,lymph4--,! tissues & organs ( ! body are trav]s$ by a network ( tubes :i* c>ry ! blood4 ,inside ^! tubes is ! blood prop]1 consi/+ ( a fluid plasma1 ! colorless corpuscles1 & ! r$ corpuscles4 ,outside ! blood tubes1 9 spaces betwe5 ! cells :i* =m tissues1 is f\nd ano!r fluid1 :i* is 9 *emical composition v mu* l plasma ( ! blood4 ,?is is ! lymph4 ,x is1 9 fact1 fluid food 9 :i* "s colorless amoeboid corpuscles are f\nd4 ,blood gives up its food mat]ial to ! lymph4 ,?is x does by pass+ x ?r\gh ! walls ( ! capill>ies4 ,! food is 9 turn giv5 up to ! tissue cells1 :i* are ba!d by ! lymph4 ,illu/ration3 ,! ex*ange betwe5 blood & ! cells ( ! body4 ,"s ( ! amoeboid corpuscles f ! blood make _! way betwe5 ! cells =m+ ! walls ( ! capill>ies4 ,lymph1 !n1 is practically blood plasma plus "s colorless corpuscles4 ,x acts z ! m$ium ( ex*ange betwe5 ! blood prop] & ! cells 9 ! tissues ( ! body4 ,by means ( ! food supply ?us br\ght1 ! cells ( ! body are able to gr[1 ! fluid food be+ *ang$ to ! protoplasm ( ! cells4 ,by means ( ! oxyg5 pass$ ov] by ! lymph1 oxidation may take place )9 ! cells4 ,lymph n only gives food to ! cells ( ! body1 b also takes away c>bon dioxide & o!r wa/e mat]ials1 :i* are ultimately pass$ out ( ! body by means ( ! lungs1 sk91 & kidneys4 ,int]nal ,secretions4--,9 addition to all ! functions giv5 above1 ! blood has rec5tly be5 %[n to c>ry ! secretions ( a numb] ( gl&s ?r\gh :i* x passes1 al?\gh ^! gl&s h no ducts to c>ry (f _! secretions4 ,^! int]nal secretions seem absolutely necess>y = ! heal? ( ! body4 ,sev]al gl&s1 ! ?yroid1 adr5al bodies1 ! te/es1 & ov>ies1 z well z ! pancreas1 give (f ^! rem>kable sub/ances4 ,! ,am\nt ( ,blood & its ,di/ribution4--,blood =ms1 by weight1 ab\t "o sixte5? ( ! body4 ,?is w\ld be ab\t f\r qu>ts to a body weight ( #acj p\nds4 ,normally1 ab\t "o half ( ! blood ( ! body is f\nd 9 or ne> ! organs ly+ 9 ! body cavity bel[ ! diaphragm1 ab\t "o f\r? 9 ! muscles1 & ! re/ 9 ! head1 he>t1 lungs1 l>ge art]ies1 & ve9s4 ,blood ,temp]ature4--,! temp]ature ( blood 9 ! human body is normally ab\t #ih4f deg4 ,fahr5heit :5 te/$ "u ! tongue by a !rmomet]1 al?\gh ! temp]ature drops almo/ two degrees aft] we h gone to sleep at night4 ,x is highe/ ab\t #e ,p4,m4 & l[e/ ab\t #d ,a4,m4 ,9 fev]s1 ! temp]ature ( ! body sometimes rises to #ajg deg42 b unless ?is temp]ature is soon r$uc$1 dea? foll[s4 ,any consid]able drop 9 temp]ature bel[ ! normal also means dea?4 ,body heat results f ! oxidation ( food1 & ! circulation ( blood keeps ! temp]ature ne>ly uni=m 9 all p>ts ( ! body4 ,cold-blood$ ,animals4--,9 animals :i* are call$ cold-blood$1 ! blood has no fix$ temp]ature1 b v>ies ) ! temp]ature ( ! m$ium 9 :i* ! animal lives4 ,frogs1 9 ! summ]1 may sit = h\rs 9 wat] ) a temp]ature ( almo/ #ajj deg4 ,9 w9t]1 !y (t5 endure freez+ s t ! blood & lymph )9 ! spaces "u ! loose sk9 are froz5 into ice cry/als4 ,?is *ange 9 body temp]ature is evid5tly an adaptation to ! mode ( life4 ,circulation ( ! ,blood 9 ,man4--,! blood is ! c>ry+ ag5t ( ! body4 ,l a railroad or express company1 x takes mat]ials f "o "p ( ! human organism to ano!r4 ,?is x does by means ( ! organs ( circulation1--! he>t & blood vessels4 ,^! blood vessels are call$ art]ies :]e !y c>ry blood away f ! he>t1 ve9s :]e !y br+ blood back to ! he>t1 & capill>ies :]e !y connect ! l>g] blood vessels4 ,! organs ( circulation ?us =m a sy/em ( connect$ tubes ?r\gh :i* ! blood fl[s4 ,! ,he>t2 ,position1 ,size1 ,protection4--,! he>t is a cone-%ap$ muscul> organ ab\t ! size ( a man's fi/4 ,x is locat$ imm$iately above ! diaphragm1 & lies s t ! muscul> apex1 :i* po9ts d[nw>d1 moves :ile beat+ aga9/ ! fif? & six? ribs1 j a little to ! left ( ! midl9e ( ! body4 ,?is fact gives rise to ! notion t ! he>t is on ! left side ( ! body4 ,! he>t is surr\nd$ by a loose membran\s bag call$ ! p]ic>dium1 ! inn] l9+ ( :i* secretes a fluid 9 :i* ! he>t lies4 ,:51 = any reason1 ! p]ic>dial fluid is n secret$1 inflammation arises 9 t region4 ,illu/ration3 ,diagram %[+ ! front half ( ! he>t cut away3 a1 aorta2 l1 art]ies to ! lungs2 la1 left auricle2 lv1 left v5tricle2 m1 tricuspid valve op52 n1 bicuspid or mitral valve clos$2 p & r1 ve9s f ! lungs2 ra1 "r auricle2 rv1 "r v5tricle2 v1 v5a cava4 ,arr[s %[ direction ( circulation4 ,int]nal ,/ructure ( ,he>t4--,if we %\ld cut op5 ! he>t ( a mammal d[n ! midl9e1 we c\ld divide x into a "r & a left side1 ea* ( :i* w\ld h no int]nal connection ) ! o!r4 ,ea* side is made up ( an upp] ?9-wall$ portion ) a r l>ge int]nal cavity1 ! auricle1 :i* op5s into a l[] small] portion ) heavy muscul> walls1 ! v5tricle4 ,communication betwe5 auricles & v5tricles is gu>d$ by little flaps or valves4 ,! auricles receive blood f ! ve9s4 ,! v5tricles pump ! blood into ! art]ies4 ,! ,he>t 9 ,action4--,! he>t is con/ruct$ on ! same plan z a =ce pump1 ! valves prev5t+ ! reflux ( blood into ! auricle :5 x is =c$ out ( ! v5tricle4 ,blood ent]s ! auricles f ! ve9s because ! muscles ( t "p ( ! he>t relax2 ?is all[s ! space )9 ! auricles to fill4 ,almo/ imm$iately ! muscles ( ! v5tricles relax1 ?us all[+ blood to pass into ! *amb]s )9 ! v5tricles4 ,!n1 aft] a %ort pause1 dur+ :i* "t ! muscles ( ! he>t are re/+1 a wave ( muscul> contraction beg9s 9 ! auricles & ends 9 ! v5tricles1 ) a sudd5 /rong contraction :i* =ces ! blood out into ! art]ies4 ,blood is kept on its c\rse by ! valves1 :i* act 9 ! same mann] z d ! valves 9 a pump4 ,! blood is ?us made to pass into ! art]ies ^u ! contraction ( ! v5tricle walls4 ,illu/ration3 ,! he>t is a =ce pump2 prove x f ^! diagrams4 ,illu/ration3 ,i4 ,circulation 9 a fi%4 ,g1 gills2 ,c1 capill>ies ( ! body4 ,notice ! two-*amb]$ he>t4 ,,ii4 ,! circulation 9 a frog4 ,l1 ! lungs2 ,c1 ! capill>ies4 ,notice ! he>t has ?ree *amb]s4 ,:at is ! condition ( blood leav+ ! v5tricle to g to ! cells ( ! body8 ,,iii4 ,! circulation 9 man4 ,h1 head2 ,a1 arms2 ,l1 lungs2 ,s1 /oma*2 ,li1 liv]2 ,k1 kidney2 ,s4,i41 small inte/9e2 ,l4,i41 l>ge inte/9e2 ,le1 legs2 #a1 "r auricle2 #b1 "r v5tricle2 #c1 left v5tricle2 #d1 left auricle2 #e1 dorsal aorta2 #f1 ve9 to lungs4 ,! ,c\rse ( ! ,blood 9 ! ,body4--,al?\gh ! two sides ( ! he>t are sep>ate & di/9ct f ea* o!r1 yet e drop ( blood t passes ?r\gh ! "r he>t likewise passes lat] ?r\gh ! left he>t4 ,!re are two di/9ct sy/ems ( circulation 9 ! body4 ,! pulmon>y circulation takes ! blood ?r\gh ! "r auricle & v5tricle1 to ! lungs1 & passes x back to ! left auricle4 ,?is is a relatively %ort circulation1 ! blood receiv+ 9 ! lungs its supply ( oxyg51 & !re giv+ up "s ( its c>bon dioxide4 ,! great] circulation is kn[n z ! sy/emic circulation2 9 ?is sy/em1 ! blood leaves ! left v5tricle ?r\gh ! great dorsal aorta4 ,a l>ge "p ( ! blood passes directly to ! muscles2 "s ( x goes to ! n]v\s sy/em1 kidneys1 sk91 & o!r organs ( ! body4 ,x gives up its supply ( food & oxyg5 9 ^! tissues1 receives ! wa/e products ( oxidation :ile pass+ ?r\gh ! capill>ies1 & returns to ! "r auricle ?r\gh two l>ge vessels kn[n z ! v5ae cavae4 ,x requires only f tw5ty to ?irty seconds = ! blood to make ! complete circulation f ! v5tricle back aga9 to ! />t+ po9t4 ,?is means t ! entire volume ( blood 9 ! human body passes ?ree or f\r ?\s& times a day ?r\gh ! v>i\s organs ( ! body4#df ,footnote #df3 ,see ,h\gh & ,s$gwick1 ,! ,human ,me*anism1 page #acf4 ,portal ,circulation4--,"s ( ! blood1 on its way back to ! he>t1 passes to ! walls ( ! food tube & to its gl&s4 ,f !re x is s5t ) its load ( absorb$ food to ! liv]4 ,"h ! ve9 :i* c>ries ! blood 7call$ ! portal ve97 breaks up into capill>ies ar\nd ! cells ( ! liv]1 :5 x gives up sug> to be /or$ z glycog54 ,f ! liv]1 blood passes directly to ! "r auricle4 ,! portal circulation1 z x is call$1 is ! only "p ( ! circulation :]e ! blood passes ?r\gh two sets ( capill>ies on its way f auricle to auricle4 ,illu/ration3 ,capill>y circulation 9 ! web ( a frog's foot1 z se5 "u ! comp\nd microscope4 a1 b1 small ve9s2 c1 pigm5t cells 9 ! sk92 d1 capill>ies 9 :i* ! oval corpuscles are se5 to foll[ "o ano!r 9 s+le s]ies4 ,circulation 9 ! ,web ( a ,frog's ,foot4--,if ! web ( ! foot ( a live frog or ! tail ( a tadpole is exam9$ "u ! comp\nd microscope1 a network ( blood vessels w be se54 ,9 "s ( ! l>g] vessels ! corpuscles are mov+ rapidly & 9 spurts2 ^! are art]ies4 ,! art]ies lead into small] vessels h>dly great] 9 diamet] ?an ! wid? ( a s+le corpuscle4 ,?is network ( capill>ies may be foll[$ into l>g] ve9s 9 :i* ! blood moves regul>ly4 ,?is illu/rates ! condition 9 any tissue ( man :]e ! art]ies break up into capill>ies1 & ^! 9 turn unite to =m ve9s4 ,/ructure ( ! ,art]ies4--,a di/9ct diff]5ce 9 /ructure exi/s betwe5 ! art]ies & ! ve9s 9 ! human body4 ,! art]ies1 because ( ! great] /ra9 receiv$ f ! blood :i* is pump$ f ! he>t1 h ?ick] muscul> walls1 & 9 addition are v ela/ic4 ,cause ( ! ,pulse4--,! pulse1 :i* c easily be detect$ by press+ ! l>ge art]y 9 ! wri/ or ! small "o 9 front ( & above ! ext]nal e>1 is caus$ by ! gu%+ ( blood ?r\gh ! art]ies aft] ea* pulsation ( ! he>t4 ,z ! l>ge art]ies pass away f ! he>t1 ! diamet] ( ea* individual art]y becomes small]4 ,at ! v end ( _! c\rse1 ^! art]ies are s small z to be almo/ microscopic 9 size & are v num]\s4 ,!re are s _m t if !y 7 plac$ toge!r1 side by side1 _! unit$ diamet] w\ld be mu* great] ?an ! diamet] ( ! l>ge art]y 7aorta7 :i* passes blood f ! left side ( ! he>t4 ,?is fact is ( v great importance1 = ! =ce ( ! blood z x gu%es ?r\gh ! art]ies becomes v mu* less :5 x rea*es ! small] vessels4 ,?is gu%+ movem5t is q lo/ :5 ! capill>ies are rea*$1 fir/1 because !re is s mu* m space = ! blood to fill1 & second1 because !re is consid]able friction caus$ by ! v t9y diamet] ( ! capill>ies4 ,capill>ies4--,! capill>ies =m a network ( m9ute tubes ev]y:]e 9 ! body1 b especially ne> ! surface & 9 ! lungs4 ,x is ?r\gh _! walls t ! food & oxyg5 pass to ! tissues1 & c>bon dioxide is giv5 up to ! plasma4 ,!y =m ! connection t completes ! sy/em ( circulation ( blood 9 ! body4 ,function & ,/ructure ( ! ,ve9s4--,if ! art]ies are supply pipes :i* convey fluid food to ! tissues1 !n ! ve9s may be lik5$ to dra9 pipes :i* c>ry away wa/e mat]ial f ! tissues4 ,extremely num]\s 9 ! extremities & 9 ! muscles & among o!r tissues ( ! body1 !y1 l ! bran*es ( a tree1 become l>g] & unite ) ea* o!r z !y approa* ! he>t4 ,illu/ration3 ,valves 9 a ve94 ,notice ! ?9 walls ( ! ve94 ,if ! wall ( a ve9 is c>efully exam9$1 x w be f\nd to be nei!r s ?ick nor s t\gh z an art]y wall4 ,:5 empty1 a ve9 collapses2 ! wall ( an art]y holds its %ape4 ,if y hold y\r h& d[nw>d = a little "t & !n exam9e x1 y w f9d t ! ve9s1 :i* are relatively mu* ne>] ! surface ?an are ! art]ies1 appe> to be v mu* knott$4 ,?is appe>ance is due to ! pres5ce ( t9y valves )94 ,^! valves op5 9 ! direction ( ! blood curr5t1 b w\ld close if ! direction ( ! blood fl[ %\ld be rev]s$ 7z 9 case a deep cut sev]$ a ve974 ,z ! pressure ( blood 9 ! ve9s is mu* less ?an 9 ! art]ies1 ! valves ?us aid 9 keep+ ! fl[ ( blood 9 ! ve9s t[>d ! he>t4 ,! high] pressure 9 art]ies & ! suction 9 ! ve9s 7caus$ by ! enl>gem5t ( ! *e/ cavity 9 brea?+7 are ! *ief factors :i* cause a /eady fl[ ( blood ?r\gh ! ve9s 9 ! body4 ,lymph ,vessels4--,! lymph is collect$ f ! v>i\s tissues ( ! body by means ( a numb] ( v ?9-wall$ tubes1 :i* are at fir/ v t9y1 b aft] repeat$ connection ) o!r tubes ultimately unite to =m l>ge ducts4 ,^! lymph ducts are provid$1 l ! ve9s1 ) valves4 ,! pressure ( ! blood )9 ! blood vessels =ces cont9ually m plasma into ! lymph2 ?us a sl[ curr5t is ma9ta9$4 ,on its c\rse ! lymph passes ?r\gh _m collections ( gl& cells1 ! lymph gl&s4 ,9 ^! gl&s "s impurities appe> to be remov$ & colorless corpuscles made4 ,! lymph ultimately passes into a l>ge tube1 ! ?oracic duct1 :i* fl[s upw>d ne> ! v5tral side ( ! sp9al column1 & empties into ! l>ge subclavian ve9 9 ! left side ( ! neck4 ,ano!r small] lymph duct ent]s ! "r subclavian ve94 ,illu/ration3 ,! lymph vessels2 ! d>k spots are lymph gl&s3 lac1 lacteals2 rc1 ?oracic duct4 ,! ,lacteals4--,we h already f\nd t "p ( ! dige/$ food 7*iefly c>bohydrates1 prote9s1 salts1 & wat]7 is absorb$ directly into ! blood ?r\gh ! walls ( ! villi & c>ri$ to ! liv]4 ,fat1 h[ev]1 is pass$ into ! spaces 9 ! c5tral "p ( ! villi1 & f !re into o!r spaces betwe5 ! tissues1 kn[n z ! lacteals4 ,! lacteals c>ry ! fats into ! blood by way ( ! ?oracic duct4 ,! lacteals & lymph vessels h 9 "p ! same c\rse4 ,x w be ?us se5 t lymph at diff]5t p>ts ( its c\rse w\ld h a v diff]5t composition4 ,! ,n]v\s ,control ( ! ,he>t & ,blood ,vessels4--,al?\gh ! muscles ( ! he>t contract & relax )\t our be+ able to /op !m or =ce !m to g fa/]1 yet 9 cases ( sudd5 fright1 or aft] a sudd5 bl[1 ! he>t may /op beat+ = a %ort int]val4 ,?is %[s t ! he>t is "u ! control ( ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,two sets ( n]ve fib]s1 bo? ( :i* are connect$ ) ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em1 pass to ! he>t4 ,"o set ( fib]s accel]ates1 ! o!r sl[s or inhibits1 ! he>t beat4 ,! art]ies & ve9s are also "u ! control ( ! sympa!tic n]v\s sy/em4 ,?is all[s ( a *ange 9 ! diamet] ( ! blood vessels4 ,?us1 blu%+ is due to a sudd5 ru% ( blood to ! surface ( ! body caus$ by an expansion ( ! blood vessels at ! surface4 ,! blood vessels ( ! body are always full ( blood4 ,?is results f an automatic regulation ( ! diamet] ( ! blood tubes by a "p ( ! n]v\s sy/em call$ ! vasomotor n]ves4 ,^! n]ves act ^u ! muscles 9 ! walls ( ! blood vessels4 ,9 ?is way1 ea* vessel adapts itself to ! am\nt ( blood 9 x at a giv5 "t4 ,aft] a he>ty meal1 a l>ge supply ( blood is ne$$ 9 ! walls ( ! /oma* & inte/9es4 ,at ?is "t1 ! art]ies go+ to ?is region are dilat$ s z to receive an extra supply4 ,:5 ! bra9 p]=ms h>d "w1 blood is suppli$ 9 ! same mann] to t region4 ,h5ce1 "o %\ld n /udy or d m5tal "w imm$iately aft] a he>ty meal1 = blood w be drawn away to ! bra91 leav+ ! dige/ive tract ) an insuffici5t supply4 ,indige/ion may foll[ z a result4 ,! ,effect ( ,ex]cise on ! ,circulation4--,x is a fact famili> to all t ! he>t beats m viol5tly & quickly :5 we are do+ h>d "w ?an :5 we are re/+4 ,c\nt y\r own pulse :5 sitt+ quietly1 & !n aga9 aft] "s brisk ex]cise 9 ! gymnasium4 ,ex]cise 9 mod]ation is ( und\bt$ value1 because x s5ds ! increas$ am\nt ( blood to su* p>ts ( ! body :]e increas$ oxidation has be5 tak+ place z ! result ( ! ex]cise4 ,! be/ =ms ( ex]cise are ^? :i* give z _m muscles z possible "w--walk+1 out-(-door sports1 any ex]cise t is n viol5t4 ,ex]cise %\ld n be attempt$ imm$iately aft] eat+1 z ?is causes a )drawal ( blood f ! dige/ive tract to ! muscles ( ! body4 ,nei!r %\ld ex]cise be cont9u$ aft] becom+ tir$1 z poisons are !n =m$ 9 ! muscles1 :i* cause ! feel+ we call fatigue4 ,rememb] t extra "w giv5 to ! he>t by extreme ex]cise may injure x1 caus+ possible tr\ble ) ! valves4 ,illu/ration3 ,/opp+ fl[ ( blood f an art]y by apply+ a tight b&age 7ligature7 betwe5 ! cut & ! he>t4 ,treatm5t ( ,cuts & ,bruises4--,blood :i* oozes sl[ly f a cut w usually /op fl[+ by ! natural means ( ! =mation ( a clot4 ,a cut or bruise %\ld1 h[ev]1 be wa%$ 9 a weak solution ( c>bolic acid or "s o!r antiseptic 9 ord] to prev5t bact]ia f obta9+ a foo?old on ! expos$ fle%4 ,if blood1 issu+ f a w\nd1 gu%es 9 di/9ct pulsations1 !n we "k t an art]y has be5 sev]$4 ,to prev5t ! fl[ ( blood1 a tight b&age kn[n z a t\rniquet mu/ be ti$ betwe5 ! cut & ! he>t4 ,a h&k]*ief ) a knot plac$ ov] ! art]y may /op ble$+ if ! cut is on "o ( ! limbs4 ,if ?is does n s]ve1 !n ins]t a /ick 9 ! h&k]*ief & twi/ x s z to make ! pressure ar\nd ! limb /ill great]4 ,?us we may close ! art]y until ! doctor is call$1 :o may sew up ! injur$ blood vessel4 ,! ,effect ( ,alcohol ^u ! ,blood4--,x has rec5tly be5 discov]$ t alcohol has an extremely injuri\s effect ^u ! colorless corpuscles ( ! blood1 l[]+ _! ability to fight disease g]ms to a m>k$ degree4 ,?is is well se5 9 a comp>ison ( dea?s f c]ta9 infecti\s diseases 9 dr9k]s & ab/a9]s1 ! p]c5tage ( mortality be+ mu* great] 9 ! =m]4 ,dr4 ,t4 ,alex&] ,mac,nichol1 9 a rec5t address1 said3-- ,mass>t & ,bordet1 ,met*nik(f & ,sims ,woodhead1 h prov$ t alcohol1 ev5 9 v dilute solution1 prev5ts ! :ite blood corpuscles f attack+ invad+ g]ms1 ?us depriv+ ! sy/em ( ! coop]ation ( ^! important def5d]s1 & r$uc+ ! p[]s ( resi/+ disease4 ,! exp]im5ts ( ,ri*>dson1 ,h>ley1 ,kales1 & o!rs h demon/rat$ ! fact t "o to five p] c5t ( alcohol 9 ! blood ( ! liv+ human body 9 a notable degree alt]s ! appe>ance ( ! corpuscul> elem5ts1 r$uces ! oxyg5 be>+ elem5ts1 & prev5ts _! reoxyg5ation4 ,alcohol weak5s ,resi/ance to ,disease4--,9 acute illnesses1 grippe1 fev]s1 blood poison+1 etc41 sub/ances =m$ 9 ! blood t]m$ antibodies antagonize ! action ( bact]ia1 facilitat+ _! de/ruction by ! :ite blood cells & neutraliz+ _! poison\s influ5ce4 ,9 a p]son ) good resi/ance ?is protective ma*9]y1 :i* we d n yet ?or\ghly und]/&1 works ) beautiful precision1 & ! pati5t gets well4 ,exp]im5ts by sci5tific exp]ts h demon/rat$ t alcohol re/ra9s ! =mation ( ^! m>vel\s antibodies4 ,alcohol puts to sleep ! s5t9els t gu>d y\r body f disease4 ,! ,effect ( ,alcohol on ! ,circulation4--,alcoholic dr9ks affect ! v delicate adju/m5t ( ! n]v\s c5t]'s controll+ ! blood vessels & he>t4 ,ev5 v dilute alcohol acts ^u ! muscles ( ! t9y blood vessels2 consequ5tly1 m blood is all[$ to ent] !m1 &1 z ! small vessels are usually ne> ! surface ( ! body1 ! habitual r$ness se5 9 ! face ( h>d dr9k]s is ! ultimate result4 ,! fir/ effect ( dilut$ alcohol is to make ! he>t beat fa/]4 ,?is fills ! small vessels ne> ! surface4 ,a feel+ ( w>m? is produc$ :i* causes ! dr9k] to feel t he 0 w>m$ by ! dr9k4 ,?is feel+1 h[ev]1 soon passes away1 & is succe$$ by "o ( *ill9ess4 ,! body temp]ature1 at fir/ rais$ by ! r rapid oxidation ( ! alcohol1 is soon l[]$ by ! increas$ radiation f ! surface4 ,! imm$iate /imulation to ! he>t's action soon passes away &1 l o!r muscles1 ! muscles ( ! he>t lose p[] & contract ) less =ce aft] hav+ be5 excit$ by alcohol4--,,macy1 ,physiology4 ,alcohol1 :5 br\ght to act directly on he>t muscle1 less5s ! =ce ( ! beat4 ,x may ev5 cause *anges 9 ! tissues1 :i* ev5tually result 9 ! break+ ( ! walls ( a blood vessel or ! plugg+ ( a vessel ) a blood clot4 ,?is condition may cause ! disease kn[n z apoplexy4 ,effects ( ,tobacco ^u ! ,circulation4--,! frequ5t use ( cig>s or cig>ettes by ! "y s]i\sly affects ! quality ( ! blood4 ,! r$ blood corpuscles are n fully develop$ & *>g$ ) _! normal supply ( life-giv+ oxyg54 ,?is causes pal5ess ( ! sk91 (t5 notic$ 9 ! face ( ! "y smok]4 ,palpitation ( ! he>t is also a common result1 foll[$ by p]man5t weakness1 s t ! :ole sy/em is enfeebl$1 & m5tal vigor is impair$ z well z physical /r5g?4--,,macy1 ,physiology4 ,,xxii4 ,,respiration ,,& ,,excretion ,problems4--,a /udy ( respiration to f9d out3-- 7a7 ,:at *anges 9 blood & air take place )9 ! lungs4 7b7 ,! me*anics ( respiration4 ,a /udy ( v5tilation to discov]3-- 7a7 ,! reason = v5tilation4 7b7 ,! be/ me?od ( v5tilation4 ,a /udy ( ! organs ( excretion4 ,,laboratory ,,sugge/ions ,demon/ration4--,comp>ison ( lungs ( frog ) ^? ( bird or mammal4 ,exp]im5t4--,! *anges ( blood )9 ! lungs4 ,exp]im5t4--,*anges tak+ place 9 air 9 ! lungs4 ,exp]im5t4--,! use ( ! ribs 9 respiration4 ,demon/ration exp]im5t4--,:at causes ! fill+ ( air sacs ( ! lungs8 ,demon/ration exp]im5t4--,:at are ! be/ me?ods ( v5tilat+ a room8 ,demon/ration4--,be/ me?ods ( du/+ & clean+4 ,demon/ration4--,beef or %eep's kidney to %[ areas4 ,necessity = ,respiration4--,we h se5 t plants & animals ne$ oxyg5 9 ord] t ! life processes may g on4 ,food is oxidiz$ to release en]gy1 j z coal is burn$ to give heat to run an eng9e4 ,z a draft ( air is requir$ to make fire "u ! boil]1 s1 9 ! human body1 oxyg5 mu/ be giv5 s t food 9 tissues may be oxidiz$ to release en]gy us$ 9 "w4 ,?is oxidation takes place 9 ! cells ( ! body1 be !y "p ( a muscle1 a gl&1 or ! bra94 ,blood1 9 its circulation to all p>ts ( ! body1 is ! m$ium :i* conveys ! oxyg5 to t place 9 ! body :]e x w be us$4 ,illu/ration3 ,air passages 9 ! human lungs4 a1 l>ynx2 b1 tra*ea 7or w9dpipe72 c1 d1 bron*i2 e1 bron*ial tubes2 f1 clu/] ( air cells4 ,! ,organs ( ,respiration 9 ,man4--,we h allud$ to ! fact t ! lungs are ! organs :i* give oxyg5 to ! blood & take f x c>bon dioxide4 ,! c\rse ( ! air pass+ to ! lungs 9 man is mu* ! same z 9 ! frog4 ,air passes ?r\gh ! nose1 & into ! w9dpipe4 ,?is c>tilag9\s tube1 ! top ( :i* may easily be felt z ! ,adam's apple ( ! ?roat1 divides into two bron*i4 ,! bron*i )9 ! lungs break up into a great numb] ( small] tubes1 ! bron*ial tubes1 :i* divide some:at l ! small bran*es ( a tree4 ,! bron*ial tubes1 inde$ all ! air passages1 are l9$ ) ciliat$ cells4 ,! cilia ( ^! cells are con/antly 9 motion1 beat+ ) a quick /roke t[>d ! out] end ( ! tube1 t is1 t[>d ! m\?4 ,h5ce any =eign mat]ial w be rais$ f ! ?roat fir/ by ! action ( ! cilia & !n by c\gh+ or cle>+ ! ?roat4 ,! bron*i end 9 v m9ute air sacs1 little p\*es hav+ ela/ic walls1 into :i* air is tak5 :5 we inspire1 or take a deep brea?4 ,9 ! walls ( ^! p\*es are num]\s capill>ies1 ! ends ( art]ies :i* pass f ! he>t into ! lung4 ,x is ?r\gh ! v ?9 walls ( ! air sacs t an int]*ange ( gases takes place :i* results 9 ! blood giv+ up "p ( its load ( c>bon dioxide1 & tak+ up oxyg5 9 its place4 ,?is ex*ange appe>s to be aid$ by ! pres5ce ( an enzyme 9 ! lung tissues4 ,?is is ano!r example ( ! v>i\s k9ds ( "w done by ! enzymes ( ! body4 ,illu/ration3 ,diagram to %[ :at ! blood loses & ga9s 9 "o ( ! air sacs ( ! lungs4 ,*anges 9 ! ,blood )9 ! ,lungs4--,blood1 aft] leav+ ! lungs1 is mu* bright] r$ ?an j be=e ent]+ !m4 ,! *ange 9 color is due to a tak+ up ( oxyg5 by ! haemoglob9 ( ! r$ corpuscles4 ,*anges tak+ place 9 blood are obvi\sly ! rev]se ( ^? :i* take place 9 air 9 ! lungs4 ,e hundr$ cubic c5timet]s ( blood go+ into ! lungs conta9s #h to #ab c4c4 ( oxyg51 #de to #ej c4c4 ( c>bon dioxide1 & #a to #b c4c4 ( nitrog54 ,! same am\nt ( blood pass+ out ( ! lungs conta9s #bj c4c4 ( oxyg51 #ch c4c4 ( c>bon dioxide1 & #a to #b c4c4 ( nitrog54 ,! wat]1 ( :i* ab\t half a p9t is giv5 (f daily1 is mo/ly lo/ f ! blood4 ,*anges 9 ,air 9 ! ,lungs4--,air is mu* w>m] aft] leav+ ! lungs ?an be=e x ent]s !m4 ,brea! on ! bulb ( a !rmomet] to prove ?is4 ,expir$ air conta9s a consid]able am\nt ( moi/ure1 z may be prov$ by brea?+ on a cold poli%$ surface4 ,?is x has tak5 up 9 ! air sacs ( ! lungs4 ,! pres5ce ( c>bon dioxide 9 expir$ air may easily be detect$ by ! limewat] te/4 ,air su* z we brea! out ( doors conta9s1 by volume3-- ,nitrog5 #gf4ie ,oxyg5 #bj4fa ,c>bon dioxide 4#jc ,argon #a4jj ,wat] vapor 7av]age7 #a4dj ,air expir$ f ! lungs conta9s3-- ,nitrog5 #gf4ie ,oxyg5 #ae4fg ,c>bon dioxide #d4ch ,wat] vapor #b ,argon #a ,9 o!r words1 !re is a loss betwe5 #d & #e p] c5t oxyg51 & ne>ly a correspond+ ga9 9 c>bon dioxide1 9 expir$ air4 ,!re are also "s o!r organic sub/ances pres5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,! respiration ( cells4 ,cell ,respiration4--,x has be5 %[n1 9 ! case ( v simple animals1 su* z ! amoeba1 t :5 oxidation takes place 9 a cell1 "w results f ?is oxidation4 ,! oxyg5 tak5 into ! lungs is n us$ !re1 b is c>ri$ by ! blood to su* p>ts ( ! body z ne$ oxyg5 to oxidize food mat]ials 9 ! cells4 ,s9ce "w is done 9 ! cells ( ! body1 food & oxyg5 are !re=e requir$4 ,! quantity ( oxyg5 us$ by ! body is ne>ly dep5d5t on ! am\nt ( "w p]=m$4 ,oxyg5 is con/antly tak5 f ! blood by tissues 9 a /ate ( re/ & is us$ up :5 ! body is at "w4 ,?is is sugge/$ by ! fact t 9 a giv5 "t a man1 :5 work+1 gives (f m oxyg5 79 c>bon dioxide7 ?an he takes 9 dur+ t "t4 ,:ile "w is be+ done c]ta9 wa/es are =m$ 9 ! cell4 ,c>bon dioxide is giv5 (f :5 c>bon is burn$4 ,b :5 prote9s are burn$1 ano!r wa/e product conta9+ nitrog5 is =m$4 ,?is mu/ be pass$ (f f ! cells1 z x is a poison4 ,"h aga9 ! lymph & blood1 ! common c>ri]s1 take ! wa/e mat]ial to po9ts :]e x may be excret$ or pass$ out ( ! body4 ,! ,me*anics ( ,respiration4 ,! ,pleura4--,! lungs are cov]$ ) a ?9 ela/ic membrane1 ! pleura4 ,?is =ms a bag 9 :i* ! lungs are hung4 ,betwe5 ! walls ( ! bag & ! lungs is a space fill$ ) lymph4 ,by ?is means ! lungs are prev5t$ f rubb+ aga9/ ! walls ( ! *e/4 ,illu/ration3 ,! *e/ cavity 7a7 at ! "t ( a full brea?2 7b71 aft] an expiration4 ,expla9 h[ ! cavity = lungs is made l>g]4 ,brea?+4--,9 e full brea? !re are two di/9ct movem5ts1 inspiration 7tak+ air 97 & expiration 7=c+ air out74 ,9 man an inspiration is produc$ by ! contraction ( ! muscles betwe5 ! ribs1 toge!r ) ! contraction ( ! diaphragm1 ! muscul> wall j bel[ ! he>t & lungs2 ?is results 9 pull+ d[n ! diaphragm & pull+ upw>d & outw>d ( ! ribs1 ?us mak+ ! space )9 ! *e/ cavity l>g]4 ,! lungs1 :i* lie )9 ?is cavity1 are fill$ by ! air ru%+ into ! l>g] space ?us made4 ,t ?is cavity is l>g] ?an x 0 at fir/ may be demon/rat$ by a glance at ! accompany+ figure4 ,an expiration is simpl] ?an an inspiration1 = x requires no muscul> ef=t2 ! muscles relax1 ! brea/bone & ribs s9k into place1 :ile ! diaphragm returns to its orig9al position4 ,illu/ration3 ,app>atus to %[ ! me*anics ( brea?+4 ,a piece ( app>atus :i* illu/rates to a degree ! me*anics ( brea?+ may be made z foll[s3 ,atta* a /r+ to ! middle ( a piece ( %eet rubb]4 ,tie ! rubb] ov] ! l>ge end ( a bell j>4 ,pass a glass ,y-tube ?r\gh a rubb] /opp]4 ,fa/5 two small toy balloons to ! bran*es ( ! tube4 ,close ! small end ( ! j> ) ! /opp]4 ,adju/ ! tube s t ! balloons %all hang free 9 ! j>4 ,if n[ ! rubb] %eet is pull$ d[n by means ( ! /r+1 ! air pressure 9 ! j> is r$uc$ & ! toy balloons )9 exp&1 ow+ to ! air pressure d[n ! tube4 ,:5 ! rubb] is all[$ to g back to its =m] position1 ! balloons collapse4 ,illu/ration3 ,diagram %[+ ! relative am\nts ( tidal1 complem5tal1 res]ve1 & residual air4 ,! brace %[s ! av]age lung capacity = ! adult man4 ,rate ( ,brea?+ & ,am\nt ( ,air ,brea!d4--,dur+ quiet brea?+1 ! rate ( inspiration is f fifte5 to eighte5 times p] m9ute2 ?is rate l>gely dep5ds on ! am\nt ( physical "w p]=m$4 ,ab\t #cj cubic in*es ( air are tak5 9 & expell$ dur+ ! ord9>y quiet respiration4 ,! air s brea!d is call$ tidal air4 ,9 a long brea?1 we take 9 ab\t #ajj cubic in*es 9 addition to ! tidal air4 ,?is is call$ complem5tal air4 ,by means ( a =c$ expiration1 x is possible to expel f #ge to #ajj cubic in*es m ?an tidal air2 ?is air is call$ res]ve air4 ,:at rema9s 9 ! lungs1 am\nt+ to ab\t #ajj cubic in*es1 is call$ ! residual air4 ,! value ( deep brea?+ is se5 by a glance at ! diagram4 ,x is only by ?is means t we cle> ! lungs ( ! res]ve air ) its accompany+ load ( c>bon dioxide4 ,respiration "u ,n]v\s ,control4--,! muscul> movem5ts :i* cause an inspiration are p>tly "u ! control ( ! w1 b 9 "p ! movem5t is beyond our control4 ,! n]ve c5t]s :i* gov]n inspiration are "p ( ! sympa!tic n]v\s sy/em4 ,any?+ ( an irritat+ nature 9 ! tra*ea or l>ynx w cause a sudd5 expiration or c\gh4 ,:5 a boy runs1 ! quick5$ respiration is due to ! fact t oxyg5 is us$ up rapidly & a l>g] quantity ( c>bon dioxide is =m$4 ,! c>bon dioxide 9 ! blood /imulates ! n]v\s c5t] :i* has control ( respiration to great] activity1 & quick5$ inspiration foll[s4 ,ne$ ( ,v5tilation4--,dur+ ! c\rse ( a day ! lungs lose to ! surr\nd+ air ne>ly two p\nds ( c>bon dioxide4 ,?is means t ab\t ?ree fif?s ( a cubic foot is giv5 (f by ea* p]son dur+ an h\r4 ,:5 we are conf9$ = "s "t 9 a room1 x becomes necess>y to get rid ( ?is c>bon dioxide4 ,?is c be done only by means ( prop] v5tilation4 ,a consid]able am\nt ( moi/ure is giv5 (f f ! body1 & ?is moi/ure 9 a cr[d$ room is responsible = mu* ( ! discom=t4 ,! air becomes humid & uncom=table4 ,x has be5 f\nd t by keep+ ! air 9 motion 9 su* a room 7z ?r\gh ! use ( electric fans7 mu* ( ?is discom=t is obviat$4 ,! pres5ce ( impurities 9 ! air ( a room may easily be det]m9$ by its odor4 ,! odor ( a poorly v5tilat$ room is due to organic impurities giv5 (f ) ! c>bon dioxide4 ,?is1 =tunately1 gives u an index ( ! am\nt ( wa/e mat]ial 9 ! air4 ,among ! factors :i* take oxyg5 f ! air 9 a clos$ room & produce c>bon dioxide are burn+ gas or oil lamps & /oves1 & ! pres5ce ( a numb] ( p4 ,illu/ration3 ,?ree ways ( v5tilat+ a room4 i1 inlet = air2 o1 outlet = air4 ,:i* is ! be/ me?od ( v5tilation8 ,expla94 ,prop] ,v5tilation4--,v5tilation consi/s 9 ! removal ( air t has be5 us$1 & ! introduction ( a fre% supply to take its place4 ,heat$ air rises1 c>ry+ ) x mu* ( ! c>bon dioxide & o!r impurities4 ,a good me?od ( v5tilation = ! home is to place a bo>d two or ?ree in*es high betwe5 ! l[] sa% & ! frame ( a w9d[ or to h ! w9d[ op5 an in* or s at ! top & ! bottom4 ,an op5 fireplace 9 a room aids 9 v5tilation because ( ! con/ant draft up ! flue4 ,sweep+ & ,du/+4--,x is v easy to demon/rate ! am\nt ( du/ 9 ! air by foll[+ ! c\rse ( a beam ( light 9 a d>k5$ room4 ,we h already prov$ t spores ( mold & yea/ exi/ 9 ! air4 ,t bact]ia are also pres5t c be prov$ by expos+ a /]iliz$ gelat9 plate to ! air 9 a s*oolroom = a few mom5ts4#dg ,footnote #dg3 ,expose two /]iliz$ di%es conta9+ culture m$ia2 "o 9 a room be+ swept ) a damp broom1 & ! o!r 9 a room :i* is be+ swept 9 ! usual mann]4 ,note ! =mation ( colonies ( bact]ia 9 ea* di%4 ,9 :i* di% does ! m abundant gr[? take place8 ,_m ( ! bact]ia pres5t 9 ! air are active 9 caus+ diseases ( ! respiratory tract1 su* z diph!ria1 membran\s cr\p1 & tub]culosis4 ,o!r diseases1 z colds1 bron*itis 7inflammation ( ! bron*ial tubes71 & pneumonia 7inflammation ( ! t9y air sacs ( ! lungs71 are also caus$ by bact]ia4 ,illu/ration3 ,plate culture expos$ = five m9utes 9 a s*ool hall :]e pupils 7 pass+ to recitations4 ,ea* spot is a colony ( bact]ia or mold4 ,du/1 ) its load ( bact]ia1 w settle on any horizontal surface 9 a room n us$ = ?ree or f\r h\rs4 ,du/+ & sweep+ %\ld always be done ) a damp clo? or broom1 o!rwise ! bact]ia are simply /irr$ up & s5t into ! air aga94 ,! prop] wat]+ ( /reets be=e !y are swept is also an important factor 9 heal?4 ,mu* du/ is compos$ l>gely ( dri$ excreta ( animals4 ,s(t-coal smoke does its %>e to add to ! impurities ( ! air1 :ile sew] gas & illum9at+ gas are frequ5tly f\nd 9 suffici5t quantities to poison p4 ,pure air is1 z c be se51 almo/ an impossibility 9 a great city4 ,illu/ration3 ,a sleep+ por*1 an ideal way to get fre% air at night4 ,h[ to get ,fre% ,air4--,z we "k1 gre5 plants give (f 9 ! sunlight consid]able m oxyg5 ?an !y use1 & !y use up c>bon dioxide4 ,! air 9 ! c\ntry is naturally pur] ?an 9 ! city1 z smoke & bact]ia are n s preval5t !re1 & ! plants 9 abundance give (f oxyg54 ,9 ! city ! night air is pur] ?an day air1 because ! factories h /opp$ "w1 ! du/ has settl$1 & few] p are on ! /reets4 ,! old my? ( night air be+ injuri\s has long s9ce be5 explod$1 & ?\s&s ( p ( delicate heal?1 especially ^? :o h weak ?roat or lungs1 are rega9+ heal? by sleep+ out ( doors or ) ! w9d[s wide op54 ,! only ess5tial 9 sleep+ out ( doors or 9 a room ) a l[ temp]ature is t ! body be kept w>m & ! head be protect$ f /rong drafts by a nightcap or hood4 ,prop] v5tilation at all times is "o ( ! greate/ factors 9 good heal?4 ,*ange ( ,air4--,p]sons 9 poor heal?1 especially ^? hav+ tub]culosis1 are (t5 cur$ by a *ange ( air4 ,?is is n always s mu* due to ! composition ( ! air z to *ange ( occupation1 re/1 & good food4 ,m\nta9 air is dry1 & relatively free f du/ & bact]ia1 & (t5 helps a p]son hav+ tub]culosis4 ,air at ! seaside is b5eficial = "s =ms ( disease1 especially hay fev] & bone tub]culosis4 ,_m sanit>iums h be5 e/abli%$ = ?is latt] disease ne> ! ocean1 & ?\s&s ( lives are be+ annually sav$ 9 ?is way4 ,illu/ration3 ,unfavorable sleep+ conditions4 ,expla9 :y unfavorable4 ,v5tilation ( ,sleep+ ,rooms4--,sleep+ 9 close rooms is ! cause ( mu* illness4 ,b$s ought to be plac$ s t a con/ant supply ( fre% air is giv5 )\t a direct draft4 ,?is may (t5 be manag$ ) ! use ( scre5s4 ,b$room w9d[s %\ld be ?r[n op5 9 ! morn+ to all[ free entrance ( ! sun & air1 b$clo!s %\ld be wa%$ frequ5tly1 & %eets & pill[ cov]s (t5 *ang$4 ,b$room furniture %\ld be simple1 & b little drap]y all[$ 9 ! room4 ,hygi5ic ,habits ( ,brea?+4--,e "o ought to accu/om himself ^u go+ into ! op5 air to inspire sl[ly & deeply to ! full capacity ( ! lungs4 ,a sl[ expiration %\ld foll[4 ,take c>e to =ce ! air out4 ,brea! ?r\gh ! nose1 ?us w>m+ ! air y inspire be=e x ent]s ! lungs & *ills ! blood4 ,repeat ?is ex]cise sev]al times e day4 ,y w ?us prev5t c]ta9 ( ! air sacs :i* are n (t5 us$ f becom+ h>d5$ & p]man5tly clos$4 ,relation ( ,prop] ,ex]cise to ,heal?4--,we are all aw>e t ex]cise 9 mod]ation has a b5eficial effect ^u ! human organism4 ,! pale face1 droop+ %\ld]s1 & n>r[ *e/ ( ! boy or girl :o takes no regul> ex]cise is too well kn[n4 ,ex]cise1 besides giv+ direct use ( ! muscles1 increases ! "w ( ! he>t & lungs1 caus+ deep] brea?+ & giv+ ! he>t muscles increas$ "w2 x lib]ates heat & c>bon dioxide f ! tissues :]e ! "w is tak+ place1 ?us increas+ ! respiration ( ! tissues !mselves1 & aids me*anically 9 ! removal ( wa/es f tissues4 ,x is well kn[n t ex]cise1 :5 tak5 "s little "t aft] eat+1 has a v b5eficial effect ^u dige/ion4 ,ex]cise & especially games are ( imm5se importance to ! n]v\s sy/em z a means ( re/4 ,! increas+ numb] ( playgr\nds 9 ?is c\ntry is due to ?is ackn[l$g$ ne$ ( ex]cise1 especially = gr[+ *ildr54 ,prop] ex]cise %\ld be mod]ate & v>i$4 ,walk+ 9 itself is a valuable means ( ex]cis+ c]ta9 muscles1 s is bicycl+1 b nei!r is ideal z ! only =m to be us$4 ,v>y y\r ex]cise s z to br+ diff]5t muscles into play1 take ex]cise t w all[ free brea?+ out ( doors if possible1 & ! natural fatigue :i* foll[s w lead y to take ! re/ & sleep t e normal body requires4 ,ex]cise %\ld always be limit$ by fatigue1 :i* br+s ) x fatigue poisons4 ,?is is nature's signal :5 to re/4 ,if "o's use ( diet & air is prop]1 ! fatigue po9t w be mu* fur!r (f ?an o!rwise4 ,"o %\ld le>n to relax :5 n 9 activity4 ,! habit produces re/1 ev5 betwe5 ex]tions v close toge!r1 & enables "o to cont9ue to repeat ^? ex]tions = a mu* long] "t ?an o!rwise4 ,! habit ( ly+ d[n :5 tir$ is a good "o4 ,! ,relation ( ,tight ,clo?+ to ,correct ,brea?+4--,x is impossible to brea! correctly unless ! clo?+ is worn loosely ov] ! *e/ & abdom54 ,tight corsets & tight belts prev5t ! walls ( ! *e/ & ! abdom5 f pu%+ outw>d & int]f]e ) ! draw+ ( air into ! lungs4 ,!y may also result 9 p]man5t di/ortion ( p>ts ( ! skeleton directly "u ! pressure4 ,o!r organs ( ! body cavity1 z ! /oma* & inte/9es1 may be =c$ d[nw>d1 out ( place1 & 9 consequ5ce _c p]=m _! "w prop]ly4 ,suffocation & ,artificial ,respiration4--,suffocation results f ! %utt+ (f ( ! supply ( oxyg5 f ! lungs4 ,x may be br\ght ab\t by an ob/ruction 9 ! w9dpipe1 by a lack ( oxyg5 9 ! air1 by inhal+ "s o!r gas 9 quantity1 or by dr[n+4 ,a sev]e electric %ock may p>alyze ! n]v\s c5t]s :i* control respiration1 ?us caus+ a k9d ( suffocation4 ,9 ! above cases1 dea? (t5 may be prev5t$ by prompt rec\rse to artificial respiration4 ,to accompli% ?is1 place ! pati5t on 8 back ) ! head l[] ?an ! body2 grasp ! arms ne> ! elb[s & draw !m upw>d & outw>d until !y are /ret*$ above ! head1 on a l9e ) ! body4 ,by ?is means ! *e/ cavity is enl>g$ & an inspiration produc$4 ,to produce an expiration1 c>ry ! arms d[nw>d1 & press !m aga9/ ! *e/1 ?us =c+ ! air out ( ! lungs4 ,?is ex]cise1 regul>ly repeat$ e few seconds1 if necess>y = h\rs1 has be5 ! s\rce ( sav+ _m lives4 ,common ,diseases ( ! ,nose & ,?roat4--,cat>rh is a disease to :i* p ) s5sitive muc\s membrane ( ! nose & ?roat are subject4 ,x is indicat$ by ! con/ant secretion ( mucus f ^! membranes4 ,frequ5t spray+ ( ! nose & ?roat ) "s mild antiseptic solutions is f\nd helpful4 ,*ronic cat>rh %\ld be att5d$ to by a physician4 ,(t5 we f9d *ildr5 brea?+ entirely ?r\gh ! m\?1 ! nose be+ seem+ly /opp$ up4 ,:5 ?is goes on = "s "t ! nose & ?roat %\ld be exam9$ by a physician = ad5oids1 or gr[?s ( s(t masses ( tissue :i* fill up ! nose cavity1 ?us caus+ a %ortage ( ! air supply = ! body4 ,_m a *ild1 backw>d at s*ool1 ?9 & irritable1 has be5 *ang$ to a heal?y1 normal1 bright s*ol> by ! removal ( ad5oids4 ,sometimes ! tonsils at ! back ( ! m\? cavity may become enl>g$1 ?us %utt+ (f ! air supply & caus+ ! same tr\ble z we see 9 a case ( ad5oids4 ,! simple removal ( ! ob/acle by a doctor soon cures ?is condition4 7,see page #cie47 ,organs ( ,excretion4--,all ! life processes :i* take place 9 a liv+ ?+ result ultimately1 9 addition to giv+ (f ( c>bon dioxide1 9 ! =mation ( organic wa/es )9 ! body4 ,! ret5tion ( ^! wa/es :i* conta9 nitrog51 is h>mful to animals4 ,9 man1 ! sk9 & kidneys remove ?is wa/e f ! body1 h5ce !y are call$ ! organs ( excretion4 ,illu/ration3 ,longitud9al section ?r\gh a kidney4 ,! ,human ,kidney4--,! human kidney is ab\t f\r in*es long1 two & "o half in*es wide1 & "o in* 9 ?ickness4 ,its color is d>k r$4 ,if ! /ructure ( ! m$ulla & cortex 7see figure above7 is exam9$ "u ! comp\nd microscope1 y w f9d ^! regions to be compos$ ( a va/ numb] ( t9y bran*$ & twi/$ tubules4 ,! out] end ( ea* ( ^! tubules op5s into ! pelvis1 ! space )9 ! kidney2 ! inn] end1 9 ! cortex1 =ms a t9y clos$ sac4 ,9 ea* sac1 ! out] wall ( ! tube has gr[n inw>d & c>ri$ ) x a v t9y art]y4 ,?is art]y breaks up into a mass ( capill>ies4 ,^! capill>ies1 9 turn1 unite to =m a small ve9 z !y leave ! little sac4 ,ea* ( ^! sacs ) its conta9$ blood vessels is call$ a glom]ulus4 ,illu/ration3 ,diagram ( kidney circulation1 %[+ a glom]ulus & tubule3 a1 art]y br++ blood to "p2 b1 capill>y br++ blood to glom]ulus2 b'1 vessel cont9u+ ) blood to ve92 c1 ve92 t1 tubule2 ,g1 glom]ulus4 ,wa/es giv5 (f by ! ,blood 9 ! ,kidney4--,9 ! glom]ulus ! blood loses by osmosis1 ?r\gh ! v ?9 walls ( ! capill>ies1 fir/1 a consid]able am\nt ( wat] 7am\nt+ to ne>ly ?ree p9ts daily72 second1 a nitrog5\s wa/e mat]ial kn[n z urea2 ?ird1 salts & o!r wa/e organic sub/ances1 uric acid among !m4 ,^! wa/e products1 toge!r ) ! wat] conta9+ !m1 are kn[n z ur9e4 ,! total am\nt ( nitrog5\s wa/e leav+ ! body ea* day is ab\t tw5ty grams4 ,x is pass$ ?r\gh ! uret] to ! ur9>y bladd]2 f ?is res]voir x is pass$ out ( ! body1 ?r\gh a tube call$ ! ure?ra4 ,aft] ! blood has pass$ ?r\gh ! glom]uli ( ! kidneys x is pur] ?an 9 any o!r place 9 ! body1 because1 be=e com+ !re1 x lo/ a l>ge "p ( its burd5 ( c>bon dioxide 9 ! lungs4 ,aft] leav+ ! kidney x has lo/ mu* ( its nitrog5\s wa/e4 ,s dep5d5t is ! body ^u ! excretion ( its poison\s mat]ial t1 9 cases :]e ! kidneys d n d _! "w prop]ly1 dea? may ensue )9 a few h\rs4 ,illu/ration3 ,diagram ( a section ( ! sk94 7,highly magnifi$47 ,/ructure & ,use ( ,sweat ,gl&s4--,if y exam9e ! palm ( y\r h& ) a l5s1 y w notice ! surface is ?r[n into little ridges4 ,9 ^! ridges may be f\nd a l>ge numb] ( v t9y pits2 ^! are ! pores or op5+s ( ! sweat-secret+ gl&s4 ,f ea* op5+ a little tube p5etrates deep )9 ! epid]mis2 !re1 coil+ ar\nd ^u itself sev]al times1 x =ms ! sweat gl&4 ,close ar\nd ?is coil$ tube are f\nd _m capill>ies4 ,f ! blood 9 ^! capill>ies1 cells l9+ ! wall ( ! gl& take wat]1 & ) x a little c>bon dioxide1 urea1 & "s salts 7common salt among o!rs74 ,?is =ms ! excretion kn[n z sweat4 ,! comb9$ secretions f ^! gl&s am\nt normally to a little ov] a p9t dur+ tw5ty-f\r h\rs4 ,at all times1 a small am\nt ( sweat is giv5 (f1 b ?is is evaporat$ or is absorb$ by ! und]we>2 z ?is passes (f unnotic$1 x is call$ ins5sible p]spiration4 ,9 hot wea!r or aft] h>d manual labor ! am\nt ( p]spiration is greatly increas$4 ,regulation ( ,heat ( ! ,body4--,! bodily temp]ature ( a p]son engag$ 9 manual labor w be f\nd to be b little high] ?an ! temp]ature ( ! same p]son at re/4 ,we "k f our previ\s exp]im5ts t heat is releas$4 ,muscles1 ne>ly "o half ! weight ( ! body1 release ab\t five six?s ( _! en]gy z heat4 ,at all times !y are giv+ up "s heat4 ,h[ is x t ! bodily temp]ature does n diff] greatly at su* times8 ,! temp]ature ( ! body is l>gely regulat$ by means ( ! activity ( ! sweat gl&s4 ,! blood c>ries mu* ( ! heat1 lib]at$ 9 ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! body by ! oxidation ( food1 to ! surface ( ! body1 :]e x is lo/ 9 ! evaporation ( sweat4 ,9 hot wea!r ! blood vessels ( ! sk9 are dilat$2 9 cold wea!r !y are made small] by ! action ( ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,! blood ?us loses wat] 9 ! sk91 ! wat] evaporates1 & we are cool$ (f4 ,! object ( increas$ p]spiration1 !n1 is to remove heat f ! body4 ,) a l>ge am\nt ( blood pres5t 9 ! sk91 p]spiration is increas$2 ) a small am\nt1 x is dim9i%$4 ,h5ce1 we h 9 ! sk9 an automatic regulator ( bodily temp]ature4 ,sweat ,gl&s "u ,n]v\s ,control4--,! sweat gl&s1 l ! o!r gl&s 9 ! body1 are "u ! control ( ! sympa!tic n]v\s sy/em4 ,frequ5tly ! n]ves dilate ! blood vessels ( ! sk91 ?us help+ ! sweat gl&s to secrete1 by giv+ !m m blood4 ,?us regulation is c>ri$ out by ! n]v\s sy/em det]m9+1 on ! "o h&1 ! loss by gov]n+ ! supply ( blood to ! sk9 & ! action ( ! sweat gl&s2 & on ! o!r1 ! production by dim9i%+ or increas+ ! oxidation ( ! tissues4--,,fo/] ,,& ,,%ore1 ,physiology4 ,colds & ,fev]s4--,! regulation ( blood pass+ ?r\gh ! blood vessels is "u control ( ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,if ?is me*anism is int]f]$ ) 9 any way1 ! sweat gl&s may n d _! "w1 p]spiration may be /opp$1 & ! heat f oxidation held )9 ! body4 ,! body temp]ature goes up1 & a fev] results4 ,illu/ration3 ,a1 blood vessels 9 sk9 normal2 ,b1 :5 conge/$4 ,if ! blood vessels 9 ! sk9 are sudd5ly cool$ :5 full ( blood1 !y contract & s5d ! blood else:]e4 ,z a result a conge/ion or cold may foll[4 ,colds are1 9 reality1 a conge/ion ( membranes l9+ c]ta9 p>ts ( ! body1 z ! nose1 ?roat1 w9dpipe1 or lungs4 ,:5 suff]+ f a cold1 x is !re=e important n to *ill ! sk91 z a full blood supply %\ld be kept 9 x & s kept f ! seat ( ! conge/ion4 ,= ?is reason hot ba?s 7:i* call ! blood to ! sk971 ! avoid+ ( drafts 7:i* *ill ! sk971 & w>m clo?+ are useful factors 9 ! c>e ( colds4 ,hygi5e ( ! ,sk94--,! sk9 is ( importance bo? z an organ ( excretion & z a regulator ( bodily temp]ature4 ,! sk9 ( ! entire body %\ld be ba!d frequ5tly s t ?is function ( excretion may be prop]ly p]=m$4 ,pride 9 "o's own appe>ance =bids a dirty sk94 ,= ^? :o c /& x1 a cold sponge ba? is be/4 ,soap %\ld be us$ daily on p>ts expos$ to dirt4 ,ex]cise 9 ! op5 air is important to all :o desire a good complexion4 ,! body %\ld be kept at an ev5 temp]ature by ! use ( prop] und]clo?+4 ,wool1 a poor conductor ( heat1 %\ld be us$ 9 w9t]1 & cotton1 :i* all[s ( a free escape ( heat1 9 summ]4 ,cuts1 ,bruises1 & ,burns4--,9 case ! sk9 is badly brok51 x is necess>y to prev5t ! entrance & gr[? ( bact]ia4 ,?is may be done by wa%+ ! w\nd ) weak antiseptic solutions su* z #c p] c5t c>bolic acid1 #c p] c5t lysol1 or p]oxide ( hydrog5 7full /r5g?74 ,^! solutions %\ld be appli$ imm$iately4 ,a burn or scald %\ld be cov]$ at once ) a pa/e ( bak+ soda1 ) olive oil1 or ) a mixture ( limewat] & l9se$ oil4 ,^! t5d to less5 ! pa9 by keep+ out ! air & r$uc+ ! inflammation4 ,summ>y ( ,*anges 9 ,blood )9 ! ,body4--,we h already se5 t r$ corpuscles 9 ! lungs lose "p ( _! load ( c>bon dioxide t !y h tak5 f ! tissues1 replac+ x ) oxyg54 ,?is is accompani$ by a *ange ( color f purple 79 blood :i* is poor 9 oxyg57 to t ( bright r$ 79 ri*ly oxyg5at$ blood74 ,o!r *anges take place 9 o!r p>ts ( ! body4 ,9 ! walls ( ! food tube1 especially 9 ! small inte/9e1 ! blood receives its load ( fluid food4 ,9 ! muscles & o!r work+ tissues ! blood gives up food & oxyg51 receiv+ c>bon dioxide & organic wa/e 9 return4 ,9 ! liv]1 ! blood gives up its sug>1 & ! worn-out r$ corpuscles :i* break d[n are remov$ 7z !y are 9 ! sple57 f ! circulation4 ,9 gl&s1 x gives up mat]ials us$ by ! gl& cells 9 _! manufacture ( secretions4 ,9 ! kidneys1 x loses wat] & nitrog5\s wa/es 7urea74 ,9 ! sk91 x also loses "s wa/e mat]ials1 salts1 & wat]4 ,! ,effect ( ,alcohol on ,body ,heat4--,x is usually believ$ t 'tak+ a dr9k' :5 cold makes "o w>m]4 ,b su* is n ! case4 ,9 reality alcohol l[]s ! temp]ature ( ! body by dilat+ ! blood vessels ( ! sk94 ,x does ?is by means ( its influ5ce on ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,x is1 !re=e1 a mi/ake to dr9k alcoholic bev]ages :5 "o is extremely cold1 because by means ( ?is m bodily heat is all[$ to escape4 ,because alcohol is quickly oxidiz$1 & because heat is produc$ 9 ! process1 x 0 long believ$ to be ( value 9 ma9ta9+ ! heat ( ! body4 ,a diff]5t view n[ prevails z ! result ( mu* obs]vation & exp]im5t4 ,physiologi/s %[ by c>eful exp]im5ts t ?\gh ! temp]ature ( ! body rises dur+ dige/ion ( food1 x is l[]$ = "s h\rs :5 alcohol is tak54 ,! flu% :i* is felt ^u ! sk9 aft] a dr9k ( w9e or spirits is due 9 "p to an increase ( heat 9 ! body1 b also to ! p>alyz+ effect ( ! alcohol ^u ! capill>y walls1 all[+ !m to dilate1 & s p]mitt+ m ( ! w>m blood ( ! int]ior ( ! body to rea* ! surface4 ,!re x is cool$ by radiation1 & ! g5]al temp]ature is l[]$4--,,macy1 ,physiology4 ,effect ( ,alcohol on ,respiration4--,alcohol t5ds to conge/ ! membrane ( ! ?roat & lungs4 ,x does ?is by p>alyz+ ! n]ves :i* take c>e ( ! t9y blood vessels 9 ! walls ( ! air tubes & air sacs4 ,! capill>ies become full ( blood1 ! air spaces are less5$1 & brea?+ is int]f]$ )4 ,! use ( alcohol is believ$ by _m physicians to pr$ispose a p]son to tub]culosis4 ,c]ta9ly ?is disease attacks dr9k]s m readily ?an ^? :o d n dr9k4 ,alcohol int]f]es ) ! respiration ( ! cells because x is oxidiz$ v quickly )9 ! body z x is quickly absorb$ & s5t to ! cells4 ,s rapid is ?is oxidation t x int]f]es ) ! oxidation ( o!r sub/ances4 ,us+ alcohol has be5 lik5$ to burn+ k]os5e 9 a /ove2 ! op]ation is a dang]\s "o4 ,effects ( ,tobacco on ,respiration4--,tobacco smoke conta9s ! same k9d ( poisons z ! tobacco1 ) o!r irritat+ sub/ances add$4 ,x is extremely irritat+ to ! ?roat2 x (t5 causes a c\gh1 & r5d]s x m liable to inflammation4 ,if ! smoke is inhal$ m deeply1 ! vaporiz$ nicot9e is /ill m readily absorb$ & may ?us produce great] irritation 9 ! bron*i & lungs4 ,cig>ettes are worse ?an o!r =ms ( tobacco1 = !y conta9 ! same poisons ) o!rs 9 addition4 ,effect ( ,alcohol on ! ,kidneys4--,x is said t alcohol is "o ( ! greate/ causes ( disease 9 ! kidneys4 ,! =ms ( disease kn[n z fatty deg5]ation ( ! kidney & ,bright's disease are bo? frequ5tly due to ?is cause4 ,! kidneys are ! mo/ important organs = ! removal ( nitrog5\s wa/e4 ,alcohol unites m easily ) oxyg5 ?an mo/ o!r food mat]ials1 h5ce x takes away oxyg5 t w\ld o!rwise be us$ 9 oxidiz+ ^! foods4 ,imp]fect oxidation ( foods causes ! developm5t & ret5tion ( poisons 9 ! blood :i* x becomes ! "w ( ! kidneys to remove4 ,if ! kidneys become ov]work$1 disease w occur4 ,su* disease is likely to make itself felt z rheumatism or g\t1 bo? ( :i* are believ$ to be due to wa/e products 7poisons7 9 ! blood4 ,poisons produc$ by ,alcohol4--,:5 too little oxyg5 ent]s ! draft ( ! /ove1 ! wood is burn$ imp]fectly1 & !re are cl\ds ( smoke & irritat+ gases4 ,s1 if oxyg5 unites ) ! alcohol & too little rea*es ! cells1 in/ead ( c>bon dioxide1 wat]1 & urea be+ =m$1 !re are o!r products1 "s ( :i* are exce$+ly poison\s & :i* ! kidneys h&le ) difficulty4 ,! poisons reta9$ 9 ! circulation nev] fail to produce _! poison\s effects1 z %[n by heada*es1 cl\d$ bra91 pa91 & weakness ( ! body4 ,! ^w intoxication means 9 a /ate ( poison+4 ,^! poisons gradually accumulate z ! alcohol takes oxyg5 f ! cells4 ,! wor/ effects come la/1 :5 ! bra9 is too b5umb$ to judge fairly ( _! h>m4 ,,ref]5ce ,,books ,,elem5t>y ,hunt]1 ,laboratory ,problems 9 ,civic ,biology4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,davison1 ,human ,body & ,heal?4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,gulick1 ,hygi5e ,s]ies1 ,em]g5cies1 ,good ,heal?4 ,g9n & ,company4 ,h\gh & ,s$gwick1 ,! ,human ,me*anism4 ,g9n & ,company4 ,macy1 ,g5]al ,physiology4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,rit*ie1 ,human ,physiology4 ,_w ,book ,company4 ,,xxiii4 ,,body ,,control ,,& ,,habit ,,=mation ,problems4--,h[ is body control ma9ta9$8 7a7 ,:at is ! me*anism ( direction & control8 7b7 ,:at is ! me?od ( direction & control8 7c7 ,:at are habits8 ,h[ are !y =m$ & h[ brok58 7d7 ,:at are ! organs ( s5se8 ,:at are _! uses8 7e7 ,h[ does alcohol affect ! n]v\s sy/em8 ,,laboratory ,,sugge/ions ,demon/ration4--,s5sory motor reactions4 ,demon/ration4--,n]v\s sy/em4 ,models & frog dissections4 ,demon/ration4--,neurones "u comp\nd microscope 7optional74 ,demon/ration4--,reflex acts are unconsci\s acts3 %[ h[ consci\s acts may become habitual4 ,home ex]cise 9 habit =m+4 ,! s5ses4--,home ex]cises4--7#a7 ,to det]m9e areas mo/ s5sitive to t\*4 7#b7 ,to det]m9e or map out hot & cold spots on an area on ! wri/4 7#c7 ,to det]m9e functions ( diff]5t areas on tongue4 ,demon/ration4--,%[ h[ eye defects are te/$4 ,laboratory summ>y4--,! effects ( alcohol on ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,! ,body a ,self-direct$ ,ma*9e4--,?r\gh\t ! prec$+ *apt]s ! body has be5 lik5$ to an eng9e1 :i*1 :ile burn+ its fuel1 food1 has done "w4 ,if we 7 to c>ry our comp>ison fur!r1 h[ev]1 ! simile ceases4 ,= ! eng9e] runs ! eng9e1 :ile ! bodily ma*9e is self-directive4 ,moreov]1 mo/ ( ! acts we p]=m dur+ a day's "w are results ( ! automatic work+ ( ?is bodily ma*9e4 ,! he>t pumps2 ! blood circulates its load ( food1 oxyg51 & wa/es2 ! movem5ts ( brea?+ are p]=m$2 ! ?\s& & "o complicat$ acts t g on e day )9 ! body are seem+ly undirect$4 ,illu/ration3 ,! c5tral n]v\s sy/em4 ,automatic ,activity4--,9 addition to ?is1 numb]s ( o!r ( our daily acts are n ?\ght ab\t4 ,if we are well-regulat$ body ma*9es1 we get up 9 ! morn+1 automatically wa%1 clean our tee?1 dress1 g to ! toilet1 get our breakfa/1 walk to s*ool1 ev5 p]=m su* complicat$ processes z t ( writ+1 )\t ?9k+ ab\t or direct+ ! ma*9e4 ,9 ^! respects we h become creatures ( habit4 ,c]ta9 acts :i* once we might h le>n$ consci\sly1 h become automatic4 ,b once at s*ool1 if we are really mak+ good 9 our "w 9 ! classroom1 we beg9 a high] control ( our bodily functions4 ,automatic control acts no long]1 & s5sation is n ! only guide--= we n[ beg9 to make consci\s *oice2 we weigh ?is matt] aga9/ ano!r1--9 %ort1 we ?9k4 ,p>ts ( ! ,n]v\s ,sy/em4--,?is wond]ful self-directive app>atus plac$ )9 u1 :i* is 9 "p "u control ( our w1 is kn[n z ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,9 ! v]tebrate animals1 includ+ man1 x consi/s ( two divisions4 ,"o includes ! bra91 sp9al cord1 ! cranial & sp9al n]ves1 :i* toge!r make up ! c]ebro-sp9al n]v\s sy/em4 ,! o!r division is call$ ! sympa!tic n]v\s sy/em & has to d ) ^? bodily functions :i* are beyond our control4 ,e gr\p ( cells 9 ! body t has "w to d 7except+ ! float+ cells ( ! blood7 is directly influ5c$ by ^! n]ves4 ,our bodily com=t is dep5d5t ^u _! directive "w4 ,! organs :i* put u 9 t\* ) our surr\nd+s are naturally at ! surface ( ! body4 ,small collections ( n]ve cells1 call$ ganglia1 are f\nd 9 all p>ts ( ! body4 ,^! n]ve c5t]s are connect$1 to a great] or less degree1 ) ! surface ( ! body by ! n]ves1 :i* s]ve z pa?ways betwe5 ! end organs ( t\*1 sight1 ta/e1 etc41 & ! c5t]s 9 ! bra9 or sp9al cord4 ,?us s5sation is obta9$4 ,s5sations & ,reactions4--,we h already se5 t simpl] =ms ( life p]=m c]ta9 acts because c]ta9 outside =ces act+ ^u !m cause !m to react to ! /imulus f )\t4 ,! "o-cell$ animal responds to ! pres5ce ( food1 to heat1 to oxyg51 to o!r conditions 9 its surr\nd+s4 ,an e>?worm is repell$ by light1 is attract$ by food4 ,all animals1 includ+ man1 are put 9 t\* ) _! surr\nd+s by :at we call ! organs ( s5sation4 ,! s5ses ( man1 besides ^? we commonly "k z ^? ( sight1 he>+1 ta/e1 smell1 & t\*1 are ^? ( temp]ature1 pressure1 & pa94 ,x is obvi\s t su* organs1 if !y are to be ( use to an animal1 mu/ be at ! outside ( ! body4 ,?us we f9d eyes & e>s 9 ! head1 & ta/e cells 9 ! m\?1 :ile o!r cells 9 ! nose p]ceive odors1 & /ill o!rs 9 ! sk9 are s5sitive to heat or cold1 pressure or pa94 ,b ?is is n all4 ,/rangely en\gh1 we d n see ) our eyes or ta/e ) our ta/e cells4 ,^! organs receive ! s5sations1 & by means ( a complicat$ sy/em ( greatly elongat$ cell /ructures1 ! message is s5t inw>d1 relay$ by o!r elongat$ cells until ! s5sory message rea*es an inn] /ation1 9 ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em4 ,we see & he> & smell 9 our bra94 ,let u next exam9e ! /ructure ( ! n]ve cells or neurons "p ( :i* s]ve z pa?ways = ^! messages4 ,illu/ration3 ,diagram ( a neuron or n]ve unit4 ,neurones4--,a n]ve cell1 l o!r cells 9 ! body1 is a mass ( protoplasm conta9+ a nucleus4 ,b ! body ( ! n]ve cell is usually r irregul> 9 %ape1 & di/+ui%$ f mo/ o!r cells by possess+ sev]al delicate1 bran*$ protoplasmic projections call$ d5drites4 ,"o ( ^! processes1 ! axon1 is mu* long] ?an ! o!rs & ends 9 a muscle or organ ( s5sation4 ,! axon =ms ! pa?way ov] :i* n]v\s impulses travel to & f ! n]ve c5t]s4 ,a n]ve consi/s ( a bundle ( su* t9y axons1 b\nd toge!r by connective tissue4 ,z a n]ve ganglia is a c5t] ( activity 9 ! n]v\s sy/em1 s a cell body is a c5t] ( activity :i* may s5d an impulse ov] ?is ?9 /r& ( protoplasm 7! axon7 prolong$ _m hundr$s ( ?\s&s ( times ! l5g? ( ! cell4 ,"s neurones 9 ! human body1 al?\gh visible only "u ! comp\nd microscope1 give rise to axons sev]al feet 9 l5g?4 ,because "s bundles ( axons orig9ate 9 organs t receive s5sations & s5d ^? s5sations to ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em1 !y are call$ s5sory n]ves4 ,o!r axons orig9ate 9 ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em & pass outw>d z n]ves produc+ movem5t ( muscles4 ,^! are call$ motor n]ves4 ,! ,bra9 ( ,man4--,9 man1 ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em consi/s ( a bra9 & sp9al cord inclos$ 9 a bony case4 ,f ! bra91 twelve pairs ( n]ves are giv5 (f2 ?irty-"o pairs m leave ! sp9al cord4 ,! bra9 has ?ree divisions4 ,! c]ebrum makes up ! l>ge/ "p4 ,9 ?is respect x diff]s f ! c]ebrum ( ! frog & o!r v]tebrates4 ,x is divid$ into two lobes1 ! hemisph]es1 :i* are connect$ ) ea* o!r by a broad b& ( n]ve fib]s4 ,! out] surface ( ! c]ebrum is ?r[n into folds or convolutions :i* give a l>ge surface1 ! cell bodies ( ! neurons be+ f\nd 9 ?is "p ( ! c]ebrum4 ,hold+ ! cell bodies & fib]s 9 place is a k9d ( connective tissue4 ,! inn] "p 7:ite 9 color7 is compos$ l>gely ( fib]s :i* pass to o!r p>ts ( ! bra9 & d[n into ! sp9al cord4 ,"u ! c]ebrum1 & dorsal to x1 lies ! little bra91 or c]ebellum4 ,! two sides ( ! c]ebellum are connect$ by a b& ( n]ve fib]s :i* run ar\nd into ! l[] h9dbra9 or m$ulla4 ,?is b& ( fib]s is call$ ! pons4 ,! m$ulla is1 9 /ructure1 "p ( ! sp9al cord1 & is made up l>gely ( fib]s runn+ longitud9ally4 ,! ,sympa!tic ,n]v\s ,sy/em4--,connect$ ) ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em is t "p ( ! n]v\s app>atus t controls ! muscles ( ! dige/ive tract & blood vessels1 ! secretions ( gl& cells1 & all functions :i* h to d ) life processes 9 ! body4 ,?is is call$ ! sympa!tic n]v\s sy/em4 ,functions ( ! ,p>ts ( ! ,c5tral ,n]v\s ,sy/em ( ! ,frog4--,f c>eful /udy ( liv+ frogs1 birds1 & "s mammals we h le>n$ mu* ( :at we "k ( ! functions ( ! p>ts ( ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em 9 man4 ,x has be5 f\nd t if ! entire bra9 ( a frog is de/roy$ & sep>at$ f ! sp9al cord1 ! frog w cont9ue to live1 b ) a v peculi>ly modifi$ activity4 ,x does n appe> to brea!1 nor does x swall[4 ,x w n move or croak1 b if acid is plac$ ^u ! sk9 s z to irritate x1 ! legs make movem5ts to pu% away & to clean (f ! irritat+ sub/ance4 ,! sp9al cord is ?us %[n to be a c5t] = def5sive movem5ts4 ,if ! c]ebrum is sep>at$ f ! re/ ( ! n]v\s sy/em1 ! frog seems to act a little diff]5tly f ! normal animal4 ,x jumps :5 t\*$1 & swims :5 plac$ 9 wat]4 ,x w croak :5 /rok$1 or swall[ if food be plac$ 9 its m\?4 ,b x manife/s no hung] or fe>1 & is 9 e s5se a ma*9e :i* w p]=m c]ta9 actions aft] c]ta9 /imulations4 ,its movem5ts are automatic4 ,if n[ we wat* ! movem5ts ( a frog :i* has ! bra9 un9jur$ 9 any way1 we f9d t x acts spontane\sly4 ,x tries to escape :5 caught4 ,x feels hungry & seeks food4 ,x is capable ( volunt>y action4 ,x acts l a normal individual4 ,illu/ration3 ,diagram to %[ ! p>ts ( ! bra9 & action ( ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! bra94 ,functions ( ! ,c]ebrum4--,9 g5]al1 ! functions ( ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! bra9 9 man agree ) ^? functions we h already obs]v$ 9 ! frog4 ,! c]ebrum has to d ) consci\s activity2 t is1 ?\ght4 ,x presides ov] :at we call our ?\ghts1 our w1 & our s5sations4 ,a l>ge "p ( ! area ( ! out] lay] ( ! c]ebrum seems to be giv5 ov] to "s "o ( ! diff]5t functions ( spee*1 he>+1 sight1 t\*1 movem5ts ( bodily p>ts4 ,! movem5t ( ! smalle/ "p ( ! body appe>s to h its def9ite localiz$ c5t] 9 ! c]ebrum4 ,exp]im5ts h be5 p]=m$ on monkeys1 & ^!1 toge!r ) obs]vations made on p]sons :o _h lo/ ! p[] ( movem5t ( c]ta9 p>ts ( ! body1 & :o1 aft] dea?1 7 f\nd to h _h diseases localiz$ 9 c]ta9 p>ts ( ! c]ebrum1 h giv5 to u our k on ?is subject4 ,illu/ration3 ,diagram ( ! n]ve pa? ( a simple reflex action4 ,reflex ,actions2 _! ,mean+4--,if ?r\gh disease or = o!r reasons ! c]ebrum does n function1 no w p[] is ex]t$1 nor are intellig5t acts p]=m$4 ,all acts p]=m$ 9 su* a /ate are kn[n z reflex actions4 ,! involunt>y bru%+ ( a fly f ! face1 or ! attempt to move away f ! s\rce ( annoyance :5 tickl$ ) a fea!r1 are examples ( reflexes4 ,9 a reflex act1 a p]son does n ?9k be=e act+4 ,! n]v\s impulse comes f ! outside to cells t are n 9 ! c]ebrum4 ,! message is %ort-circuit$ back to ! surface by motor n]ves1 )\t ev] hav+ rea*$ ! ?9k+ c5t]s4 ,! n]ve cells :i* take *>ge ( su* acts are locat$ 9 ! c]ebellum or sp9al cord4 ,automatic ,acts4--,"s acts1 h[ev]1 are le>n$ by consci\s ?\ght1 z writ+1 walk+1 runn+1 or swimm+4 ,lat] 9 life1 h[ev]1 ^! activities become automatic4 ,! actual p]=mance ( ! action is !n tak5 up by ! c]ebellum1 m$ulla1 & sp9al ganglia4 ,?us ! ?9k+ portion ( ! bra9 is reliev$ ( "p ( its "w4 ,bundles ( ,habits4--,x is surpris+ h[ little real ?9k+ we d dur+ a day1 = mo/ ( our acts are habitual4 ,habit takes c>e ( our dress+1 our ba?+1 our c>e ( ! body organs1 our me?ods ( eat+2 ev5 our movem5ts 9 walk+ & ! k9d ( h& we write are matt]s ( habit =m+4 ,we are bundles ( habits1 be !y good ones or bad ones4 ,habit ,=mation4--,! tra9+ ( ! diff]5t areas 9 ! c]ebrum to d _! "w well is ! object ( education4 ,:5 we le>n$ to write1 we ex]t$ consci\s ef=t 9 ord] to make ! lett]s4 ,n[ ! act ( =m+ ! lett]s is done )\t ?\ght4 ,by tra9+1 ! act has become automatic4 ,9 ! beg9n+1 a process may take mu* ?\ght & _m trials be=e we are able to complete x4 ,aft] a little practice1 ! same process may become almo/ automatic4 ,we h =m$ a habit4 ,habits are really acquir$ reflex actions4 ,!y are ! result ( nature's me?od ( tra9+4 ,! consci\s "p ( ! bra9 has tra9$ ! c]ebellum or sp9al cord to d c]ta9 ?+s t1 at fir/1 7 tak5 *>ge ( by ! c]ebrum4 ,importance ( ,=m+ ,"r ,habits4--,among ! habits e>ly to be acquir$ are ! habits ( /udy+ prop]ly1 ( conc5trat+ ! m9d1 ( le>n+ self-control1 &1 above all1 ( cont5tm5t4 ,get ! mo/ out ( ! _w ab\t y4 ,rememb] t ! imm$iate effect 9 ! /udy ( "s subjects 9 s*ool may n be great1 b ! cultivation ( correct me?ods ( ?9k+ may be ( ! greate/ importance lat] 9 life4 ,! man or woman :o has le>n$ h[ to conc5trate on a problem1 h[ to weigh all sides ) an unbias$ m9d1 & !n to decide on :at !y believe to be be/ & "r are ! effici5t & happy ones ( _! g5]ation4 ,! hell to be endur$ h]eaft]1 ( :i* !ology tells1 is no worse ?an ! hell we make = ourselves 9 ?is _w by habitually fa%ion+ our *>act]s 9 ! wrong way4 ,c\ld ! "y b realize h[ soon !y w become m]e walk+ bundles ( habits1 !y w\ld give m he$ to _! conduct :ile 9 ! pla/ic /ate4 ,we are sp9n+ our own fates1 good or evil1 & nev] to be undone4 ,e smalle/ /roke ( virtue or ( vice leaves its nev]-s-little sc>4 ,! drunk5 ,rip ,van ,w9kle1 9 ,jeff]son's play1 excuses himself = e fre% d]eliction by say+1 ',i won't c\nt ?is "t6' ,well6 he may n c\nt x1 & a k9d ,heav5 may n c\nt x2 b x is be+ c\nt$ none ! less4 ,d[n among 8 n]ve cells & fib]s ! molecules are c\nt+ x1 regi/]+ & /or+ x up to be us$ aga9/ him :5 ! next temptation comes4 ,no?+ we ev] d is1 9 /rict sci5tific lit]alness1 wip$ out4 ,( c\rse ?is has its good side z well z its bad "o4 ,z we become p]man5t drunk>ds by s _m sep>ate dr9ks1 s we become sa9ts 9 ! moral1 & au?orities 9 ! practical & sci5tific1 sph]es by s _m sep>ate acts & h\rs ( "w4 ,let no y\? h any anxiety ab\t ! up%ot ( 8 education1 :atev] ! l9e ( x may be4 ,if he keep fai?fully busy ea* h\r ( ! work+ day1 he may safely leave ! f9al result to itself4 ,he c ) p]fect c]ta9ty c\nt on wak+ up "s f9e morn+1 to f9d himself "o ( ! compet5t ones ( 8 g5]ation1 9 :atev] pursuit he may h s+l$ out4--,,james1 ,psy*ology4 ,"s ,rules = ,=m+ ,good ,habits4--,pr(essor ,horne gives sev]al rules = mak+ good or break+ bad habits4 ,!y are3 ,fir/1 act on e opportunity4 ,second1 make a /rong />t4 ,?ird1 all[ no exception4 ,f\r?1 = ! bad habit e/abli% a good "o4 ,fif?1 summon+ all ! man )91 use ef=t ( w4 ,:y n try ^! out 9 =m+ "s good habit8 ,y w f9d !m effective4 ,illu/ration3 ,! effect ( fatigue on n]ve cells4 a1 heal?y bra9 cell2 b1 fatigu$ bra9 cell4 ,necessity ( ,food1 ,fre% ,air1 & ,re/4--,! n]ve cells1 l all o!r cells 9 ! body1 are cont9ually wa/+ away & be+ rebuilt4 ,oxidation ( food mat]ial is m rapid :5 we d m5tal "w4 ,! cells ( ! bra91 l muscle cells1 are n only capable ( fatigue1 b %[ ?is 9 *anges ( =m & ( cont5ts4 ,food br\ght to !m 9 ! blood1 pl5ty ( fre% air1 especially :5 engag$ 9 active bra9 "w1 & re/ at prop] times1 are ess5tial 9 keep+ ! n]v\s sy/em 9 condition4 ,"o ( ! be/ me?ods ( re/+ ! bra9 cells is a *ange ( occupation4 ,t5nis1 golf1 baseball1 & o!r outdoor sports comb9e muscul> ex]cise ) bra9 activity ( a diff]5t sort f t ( bus9ess or s*ool "w4 ,b *ange ( occupation w n re/ exhau/$ neurones4 ,= ?is1 sleep is necess>y4 ,especially is sleep an important factor 9 ! heal? ( ! n]v\s sy/em ( gr[+ *ildr54 ,necessity ( ,sleep4--,mo/ bra9 cells atta9 _! gr[? e>ly 9 life4 ,*anges occur1 h[ev]1 until "s "t aft] ! s*ool age4 ,t5 h\rs ( sleep %\ld be all[$ = a *ild1 & at lea/ eight h\rs = an adult4 ,at ?is "t1 only1 d ! bra9 cells h opportunity to re/ & /ore food & en]gy = _! work+ p]iod4 ,sleep is "o way 9 :i* all cells 9 ! body1 & p>ticul>ly ^? ( ! n]v\s sy/em1 get _! re/4 ,! n]v\s sy/em1 by f> ! mo/ delicate & h>de/-work$ set ( tissues 9 ! body1 ne$s re/ m ?an d o!r tissues1 = its "w direct+ ! body only ends ) sleep or unconsci\sness4 ,! aft]noon nap1 snat*$ by ! bra9 work]1 gives him r5ew$ en]gy = 8 ev5+'s "w4 ,x is n h>d application to a task t we>ies ! bra92 x is cont9u\s "w )\t re/4 ,,! ,,s5ses ,t\*4--,9 animals hav+ a h>d outside cov]+1 su* z c]ta9 worms1 insects1 & cru/aceans1 m9ute hairs1 :i* are s5sitive to t\*1 are f\nd gr[+ out f ! body cov]+4 ,at ! base ( ^! hairs are f\nd neurones :i* s5d axons inw>d to ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em4 ,illu/ration3 ,n]ves 9 ! sk93 a1 n]ve fib]2 b1 tactile papillae1 conta9+ a tactile corpuscle2 c1 papillae conta9+ blood vessels4 7,aft] ,b5da47 ,organs ( ,t\*4--,9 man1 ! n]v\s me*anism :i* gov]ns t\* is locat$ 9 ! folds ( ! d]mis or 9 ! sk94 ,special n]ve end+s1 call$ ! tactile corpuscles1 are f\nd !re1 ea* inclos$ 9 a %ea? or capsule ( connective tissue4 ,inside is a complicat$ n]ve end+1 & axons pass inw>d to ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em4 ,! numb] ( tactile corpuscles pres5t 9 a giv5 area ( ! sk9 det]m9es ! accuracy & ease ) :i* objects may be kn[n by t\*4 ,if y te/ ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! body1 z ! back ( ! h&1 ! neck1 ! sk9 ( ! arm1 ( ! back1 or ! tip ( ! tongue1 ) a pair ( op5 divid]s1 a va/ diff]5ce 9 ! accuracy ) :i* ! two po9ts may be di/+ui%$ is notic$4 ,on ! tip ( ! tongue1 ! two po9ts ne$ only be sep>at$ by #a_/bd ( an in* to be s di/+ui%$4 ,9 ! small ( ! back1 a di/ance ( #b in*es may be rea*$ be=e ! divid]s feel l two po9ts4 ,temp]ature1 ,pressure1 ,pa94--,! feel+ ( temp]ature1 pressure1 & pa9 is det]m9$ by diff]5t end organs 9 ! sk94 ,two k9ds ( n]ve fib]s exi/ 9 ! sk91 :i* give di/9ct s5sations ( heat & cold4 ,^! n]ve end+s c be locat$ by c>eful exp]im5tation4 ,!re are also areas ( n]ve end+s :i* are s5sitive to pressure1 & /ill o!rs1 mo/ num]\s ( all1 s5sitive to pa94 ,ta/e ,organs4--,! surface ( ! tongue is fold$ into a numb] ( little projections kn[n z papillae4 ,^! may be m easily f\nd on y\r own tongue if a drop ( v9eg> is plac$ on its broad surface4 ,9 ! folds1 betwe5 ^! projections on ! top & back "p ( ! tongue1 are locat$ ! organs ( ta/e4 ,^! organs are call$ ta/e buds4 ,illu/ration3 ,a1 isolat$ ta/e bud1 f ^: upp] free end project ! ends ( ! ta/e cells2 ,b1 support+ or protect+ cell2 ,c1 s5sory cell4 ,ea* ta/e bud consi/s ( a collection ( sp9dle-%ap$ neurones1 ea* cell tipp$ at its out] end ) a hairlike projection4 ,^! cells s5d inw>d fib]s to o!r cells1 ! fib]s f :i* ultimately rea* ! bra94 ,! s5sory cells are surr\nd$ by a numb] ( project+ cells :i* are arrang$ 9 lay]s ab\t !m4 ,?us ! organ 9 longitud9al section looks some:at l an onion cut l5g?wise4 ,h[ we ,ta/e4--,f\r k9ds ( sub/ances may be di/+ui%$ by ! s5se ( ta/e4 ,^! are sweet1 s\r1 bitt]1 & salt4 ,c]ta9 ta/e cells locat$ ne> ! back ( ! tongue are /imulat$ only by a bitt] ta/e4 ,sweet sub/ances are p]ceiv$ by cells ne> ! tip ( ! tongue1 s\r sub/ances along ! sides1 & salt ab\t equally all ov] ! surface4 ,a sub/ance mu/ be dissolv$ 9 fluid 9 ord] to be ta/$4 ,_m ?+s :i* we believe we ta/e are 9 reality p]ceiv$ by ! s5se ( smell4 ,su* are spicy sauces & flavors ( meats & vegetables4 ,?is may easily be prov$ by hold+ ! nose & *ew+1 ) clos$ eyes1 sev]al diff]5t sub/ances1 su* z an apple1 an onion1 & a raw potato4 ,smell4--,! s5se ( smell is locat$ 9 ! membrane l9+ ! upp] "p ( ! nose4 ,"h are f\nd a l>ge numb] ( rod-%ap$ cells :i* are connect$ ) ! bra9 by means ( ! olfactory n]ve4 ,9 ord] to p]ceive odors1 x is necess>y to h !m diffus$ 9 ! air2 h5ce we sniff s z to draw 9 m air ov] ! olfactory cells4 ,! ,organ ( ,he>+4--,! organ ( he>+ is ! e>4 ,! out] e> consi/s ( a funnel-l organ compos$ l>gely ( c>tilage :i* is ( use 9 collect+ s\nd waves4 ,?is "p ( ! e> incloses ! auditory canal1 :i* is clos$ at ! inn] end by a tightly /ret*$ membrane1 ! tympanic membrane or e> drum4 ,! function ( ! tympanic membrane is to receive s\nd waves1 = all s\nd is caus$ by vibrations 9 ! air1 ^! vibrations be+ transmitt$1 by ! means ( a complicat$ app>atus f\nd 9 ! middle e>1 to ! real organ ( he>+ locat$ 9 ! inn] e>4 ,illu/ration3 ,section ( e>3 ,e4,m41 auditory canal2 ,ty4,m41 tympanic membrane2 ,eu41 ,eu/a*ian tube2 ,ty1 middle e>2 ,coc41 ,a4,s4,c41 ,e4,s4,c41 etc41 int]nal e>4 ,middle ,e>4--,! middle e> 9 man is a cavity inclos$ by ! temporal bone1 & sep>at$ f ! out] e> by ! tympanic membrane4 ,a little tube call$ ! ,eu/a*ian tube connects ! inn] e> ) ! m\? cavity4 ,by all[+ air to ent] f ! m\?1 ! air pressure is equaliz$ on ! e> drum4 ,= ?is reason1 we op5 ! m\? at ! "t ( a heavy concussion & ?us prev5t ! rupture ( ! delicate tympanic membrane4 ,plac$ directly aga9/ ! tympanic membrane & connect+ x ) ! inn] e> is a *a9 ( ?ree t9y bones1 ! smalle/ bones ( ! body4 ,! out]mo/ is call$ ! hamm]2 ! next ! anvil2 ! ?ird ! /irrup4 ,all ?ree bones are s call$ f _! resemblances 9 %ape to ! articles = :i* !y are nam$4 ,^! bones are held 9 place by v small muscles :i* are delicately adju/$ s z to tight5 or relax ! membranes gu>d+ ! middle & inn] e>4 ,! ,inn] ,e>4--,! inn] e> is "o ( ! mo/ complicat$1 z well z "o ( ! mo/ delicate1 organs ( ! body4 ,deep )9 ! temporal bone !re are f\nd two p>ts1 "o ( :i* is call$1 collectively1 ! semicircul> canal region1 ! o!r ! co*lea1 or organ ( he>+4 ,x has be5 discov]$ by exp]im5t+ ) fi%1 9 :i* ! semicircul> canal region =ms ! *ief "p ( ! e>1 t ?is region has to d ) ! equilibrium or balanc+ ( ! body4 ,we ga9 9 "p our k ( our position & movem5ts 9 space by means ( ! semicircul> canals4 ,t "p ( ! e> :i* receives s\nd waves is kn[n z ! co*lea1 or snail %ell1 because ( its %ape4 ,?is v complicat$ organ is l9$ ) s5sory cells provid$ ) cilia4 ,! cavity ( ! co*lea is fill$ ) a fluid4 ,x is believ$ t some:at z a /one ?r[n into wat] causes ripples to emanate f ! spot :]e x /rikes1 s s\nd waves are transmitt$ by means ( ! fluid fill+ ! cavity to ! s5sory cells ( ! co*lea 7collectively kn[n z ! organ ( ,corti7 & !nce to ! bra9 by means ( ! auditory n]ve4 ,! ,"* ( ,s\nd4--,:5 vibrations :i* are receiv$ by ! e> foll[ ea* o!r at regul> int]vals1 ! s\nd is said to be musical4 ,if ! vibrations come irregul>ly1 we call ! s\nd a noise4 ,if ! vibrations come sl[ly1 ! pit* ( ! s\nd is l[2 if !y come rapidly1 ! pit* is high4 ,! e> is able to p]ceive z l[ z ?irty vibrations p] second & z high z almo/ ?irty ?\s&4 ,! e> c be tra9$ to recognize s\nds :i* are unnotic$ 9 untra9$ e>s4 ,illu/ration3 ,longitud9al section ?r\gh ! eye4 ,! ,eye4--,! eye or organ ( vision is an almo/ sph]ical body :i* fits into a socket ( bone1 ! orbit4 ,a /alklike /ructure1 ! optic n]ve1 connects ! eye ) ! bra94 ,free movem5t is obta9$ by means ( six little muscles :i* are atta*$ to ! out] coat1 ! eyeball1 & to ! bony socket ar\nd ! eye4 ,! wall ( ! eyeball is made up ( ?ree coats4 ,an out] t\gh :ite coat1 ( connective tissue1 is call$ ! scl]otic coat4 ,"u ! scl]otic coat1 9 front1 ! eye bulges outw>d a little4 ,"h ! out] coat is cont9u\s ) a transp>5t t\gh lay] call$ ! cornea4 ,a second coat1 ! *oroid1 is suppli$ ) blood vessels & cells :i* be> pigm5ts4 ,x is a "p ( ?is coat :i* we see ?r\gh ! cornea z ! color$ "p ( ! eye 7! iris74 ,9 ! c5t] ( ! iris is a small circul> hole 7! pupil74 ,! iris is "u ! control ( muscles1 & may be adju/$ to v>y+ am\nts ( light1 ! hole becom+ l>g] 9 dim light1 & small] 9 bright light4 ,! inmo/ lay] ( ! eye is call$ ! ret9a4 ,?is is1 p]haps1 ! mo/ delicate lay] 9 ! entire body4 ,despite ! fact t ! ret9a is less ?an #a_/hj ( an in* 9 ?ickness1 !re are sev]al lay]s ( cells 9 its composition4 ,! optic n]ve ent]s ! eye f beh9d & spreads out to =m ! surface ( ! ret9a4 ,its f9e/ fib]s are ultimately connect$ ) num]\s elongat$ cells :i* are /imulat$ by light4 ,! ret9a is d>k purple 9 color1 ?is color be+ caus$ by a lay] ( cells next to ! *oroid coat4 ,?is acc\nts = ! black appe>ance ( ! pupil ( ! eye1 :5 we look ?r\gh ! pupil into ! d>k5$ space )9 ! eyeball4 ,! ret9a acts z ! s5sitiz$ plate 9 ! cam]a1 = on x are receiv$ ! impressions :i* are trans=m$ & s5t to ! bra9 z s5sations ( sight4 ,! eye1 l ! cam]a1 has a l5s4 ,?is l5s is =m$ ( transp>5t1 ela/ic mat]ial4 ,x is f\nd directly beh9d ! iris & is atta*$ to ! *oroid coat by means ( delicate ligam5ts4 ,9 front ( ! l5s is a small cavity fill$ ) a wat]y fluid1 ! aque\s humor1 :ile beh9d x is ! ma9 cavity ( ! eye1 fill$ ) a transp>5t1 almo/ jellylike1 vitre\s humor4 ,! l5s itself is ela/ic4 ,?is circum/ance p]mits ( a *ange ( =m &1 9 consequ5ce1 a *ange ( focus ^u ! ret9a ( ! l5s4 ,by means ( ?is *ange 9 =m1 or accommodation1 we are able to di/+ui% betwe5 ne> & di/ant objects4 ,illu/ration3 ,h[ f> away c y read ^! lett]s8 ,measure ! di/ance4 ,tw5ty feet is a te/ = ! normal eye4 ,defects 9 ! ,eye4--,9 "s eyes1 ! l5s is 9 focus = ne> objects1 b is n easily focus$ ^u di/ant objects2 su* an eye is said to be ne>sight$4 ,o!r eyes :i* d n focus cle>ly on objects ne> at h& are said to be f>sight$4 ,/ill ano!r eye defect is a/igmatism1 :i* causes images ( l9es 9 a c]ta9 direction to be indi/9ct1 :ile images ( l9es transv]se to ! =m] are di/9ct4 ,_m n]v\s tr\bles1 especially heada*es1 may be due to eye /ra94 ,we %\ld h our eyes exam9$ f "t to "t1 especially if we are subject to heada*es4 ,! ,alcohol ,"q4--,x is agre$ by inve/igators t 9 l>ge or cont9u$ am\nts alcohol has a n>cotic effect2 t x fir/ dulls or p>alyzes ! n]ve c5t]s :i* control our judgm5t1 & lat] acts ^u ! s-call$ motor c5t]s1 ^? :i* control our muscul> activities4 ,! reason1 !n1 t a man 9 ! fir/ /ages ( intoxication talks rapidly & sometimes wittily1 is because ! c5t]s ( judgm5t are p>alyz$4 ,?is frees ! spee* c5t]s f control ex]cis$ by our judgm5t1 ) ! resultant rapid & free fl[ ( spee*4 ,9 small am\nts alcohol is believ$ by "s physiologi/s to h always ?is same n>cotic effect1 :ile o!r physiologi/s ?9k t alcohol does /imulate ! bra9 c5t]s1 especially ! high] c5t]s1 to increas$ activity4 ,"s sci5tific & pr(essional m5 use alcohol 9 small am\nts = ?is /imulation & report no seem+ h>m f ! indulg5ce4 ,o!rs1 & by f> ! l>g] numb]1 agree t ?is /imulation f alcohol is only app>5t & t ev5 9 ! smalle/ am\nts alcohol has a n>cotic effect4 ,! ,p>alyz+ ,effects ( ,alcohol on ! ,n]v\s ,sy/em4--,alcohol has ! effect ( tempor>ily p>alyz+ ! n]ve c5t]s4 ,! fir/ effect is t ( exhil>ation4 ,a man may d m "w = a "t "u ! /imulation ( alcohol4 ,?is /imulation1 h[ev]1 is ( %ort duration & is inv>iably foll[$ by a p]iod ( depression & in]tia4 ,9 ?is latt] /ate1 a man w d less "w ?an be=e4 ,9 l>g] quantities1 alcohol has ! effect ( completely p>alyz+ ! n]ve c5t]s4 ,?is is se5 9 ! case ( a man dead drunk4 ,he falls 9 a /upor because all ( ! c5t]s gov]n+ spee*1 sight1 locomotion1 etc41 h be5 tempor>ily p>alyz$4 ,if a man takes a v l>ge am\nt ( alcohol1 ev5 ! n]ve c5t]s gov]n+ respiration & circulation may become poison$1 & ! victim w die4 ,effect on ! ,organs ( ,special ,s5se4--,pr(essor ,=el1 "o ( ! =emo/ ,european exp]ts on ! "q ( ! effect ( alcohol on ! n]v\s sy/em1 says3 ,?r\gh all p>ts ( n]v\s activity f ! inn]vation ( ! muscles & ! simple/ s5sation to ! highe/ activity ( ! s\l ! p>alyz+ effect ( alcohol c be demon/rat$4 ,sev]al exp]im5t]s ( und\bt$ ability h not$ ! p>alyz+ effect ( alcohol ev5 9 small doses4 ,by ! use ( delicate in/rum5ts ( precision1 ,ridge te/$ ! effect ( alcohol on ! s5ses ( smell1 vision1 & muscul> s5se ( weight4 ,he f\nd t two drams ( absolute alcohol produc$ a positive decrease 9 ! s5sitiv5ess ( ! n]ves ( feel+1 t s small a quantity z "o half dram ( absolute alcohol dim9i%$ ! p[] ( vision & ! muscul> s5se ( weight4 ,kraepel9 & ,kurz by exp]im5t det]m9$ t ! acut5ess ( ! special s5ses ( sight1 he>+1 t\*1 ta/e1 & smell 0 dim9i%$ by an ounce ( alcohol1 ! p[] ( vision be+ lo/ to "o ?ird ( its ext5t & a simil> effect be+ produc$ on ! o!r special s5ses4 ,o!r inve/igators h rea*$ l conclusions4 ,!re is no d\bt b t alcohol1 ev5 9 small quantities1 r5d]s ! organs ( s5se less s5sitive & !re=e less accurate4 ,illu/ration3 ,table to %[ a comp>ison ( *ances ( illness & dea? 9 dr9k]s & non-dr9k]s4 ,solid black1 dr9k]s4 7,f ,g]man s\rces47 ,effect ( ,alcohol on ! ,ability to ,resi/ ,disease4--,among c]ta9 classes ( p ! belief exi/s t alcohol 9 ! =m ( br&y or "s o!r dr9k or 9 pat5t m$ic9es1 malt tonics1 & ! l is ( great importance 9 build+ up ! body s z to resi/ disease or to cure x aft] disease has attack$ x4 ,no?+ is fur!r f ! tru?4 ,9 exp]im5ts on a l>ge numb] ( animals1 includ+ dogs1 rabbits1 gu9ea pigs1 f[ls1 & pigeons1 ,lait551 ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,hels+s=s1 f\nd t alcohol1 )\t exception1 made ^! animals m susceptible to disease ?an 7 ! controls4 ,"o ( ! mo/ s]i\s effects ( alcohol is ! l[]$ resi/ance ( ! body to disease4 ,x has be5 prov$ t a mu* l>g] proportion ( h>d dr9k]s die f infecti\s or contagi\s diseases ?an f special diseas$ conditions due to ! direct action ( alcohol on ! organs ( ! body4 ,?is l[]$ resi/ance is %[n 9 increas$ liability to contract disease & increas$ sev]ity ( ! disease4 ,we h already allud$ to ! f9d+s ( insurance companies ) ref]5ce to ! l5g? ( life--! ab/a9]s f alcohol h a mu* bett] *ance ( a long] life & mu* less likelihood ( infection by disease g]ms4 ,use ( ,alcohol 9 ! ,treatm5t ( ,disease4--,9 ! ,london ,temp]ance ,hospital alcohol 0 prescrib$ sev5ty-five times 9 ?irty-?ree ye>s4 ,! dea? rate 9 ?is hospital has be5 l[] ?an t ( mo/ g5]al hospitals4 ,sir ,william ,coll9s1 aft] s]v+ n9ete5 ye>s z surgeon 9 ?is hospital1 said3-- ,9 my exp]i5ce1 speak+ z a surgeon1 ! use ( alcohol is n ess5tial = successful surg]y4444 ,at ! ,london ,temp]ance ,hospital1 :]e alcohol is v r>ely prescrib$1 ! mortality 9 amputation cases & 9 op]ation cases g5]ally is rem>kably l[4 ,total ab/a9]s are bett] subjects = op]ation1 & recov] m rapidly f accid5ts1 ?an ^? :o habitually take /imulants4 ,9 a pap] read at ! ,int]national ,congress on ,tub]culosis1 9 ,new ,york1 #aijf1 ,dr4 ,cro!rs rem>k$ t alcohol z a rem$y or a prev5tive m$ic9e 9 ! treatm5t ( tub]culosis is a mo/ dang]\s drug1 & t all prep>ations ( sirups conta9+ spirits increase1 r ?an dim9i%1 ! disease4 ,dr4 ,kellogg says3 ,! p>alyz+ influ5ce ( alcohol ^u ! :ite cells ( ! blood--a fact :i* is atte/$ by all inve/igators--is alone suffici5t to condemn ! use ( ?is drug 9 acute or *ronic infections ( any sort4 ,illu/ration3 ,effect ( use ( alcohol on memory4 ,! ,effect ( ,alcohol ^u ,intellectual ,ability4--,) reg>d to ! suppos$ quick5+ ( ! m5tal processes ,horsley & ,/urge1 9 _! rec5t book1 ,alcohol & ! ,human ,body1 say3 ,kraepel9 f\nd t ! simple reaction p]iod1 by :i* is meant ! "t occupi$ 9 mak+ a m]e response to a signal1 z1 = in/ance1 to ! sudd5 appe>ance ( a flag1 01 aft] ! +e/ion ( a small quantity ( alcohol 7#a_/d to #a_/b ounce71 slightly accel]at$2 t !re 01 9 fact1 a slight %ort5+ ( ! "t1 z ?\gh ! bra9 7 enabl$ to op]ate m quickly ?an be=e4 ,b he f\nd t aft] a few m9utes1 9 mo/ cases1 a sl[+ ( m5tal action began1 becom+ m & m m>k$1 & endur+ z long z ! alcohol 0 9 active op]ation 9 ! body1 i4e4 f\r to five h\rs4444 ,kraepel9 f\nd t x 0 only m or less automatic "w1 su* z read+ al\d1 :i* 0 quick5$ by alcohol1 ?\gh ev5 ?is 0 r5d]$ less tru/wor?y & accurate4 ,aga93 ,kraepel9 _h always %>$ ! popul> belief t a small quantity ( alcohol 7"o to two teaspoonfuls7 _h an accel]at+ effect on ! activity ( 8 m9d1 enabl+ him to p]=m te/ op]ations1 z ! add+ & subtract+ & le>n+ ( figures m quickly4 ,b :5 he came to measure ) 8 in/rum5ts ! exact p]iod & "t occupi$1 he f\nd1 to 8 a/oni%m5t1 t he _h accompli%$ ^! m5tal op]ations1 n m1 b less1 quickly ?an be=e4444 ,num]\s fur!r exp]im5ts 7 c>ri$ out 9 ord] to te/ ?is matt]1 & ^! prov$ t alcohol l5g!ns ! "t tak5 to p]=m complex m5tal processes1 :ile by a s+ul> illusion ! p]son exp]im5t$ ^u imag9es t 8 psy*ical actions are r5d]$ m rapid4 ,illu/ration3 ,! effect ( alcohol ^u ability to d m5tal "w4 ,att5tion--t is1 ! p[] ( ! m9d to grasp & consid] impressions obta9$ ?r\gh ! s5ses--is weak5$ by dr9k4 ,! ability ( ! m9d to associate or comb9e ideas1 ! faculty involv$ 9 s\nd judgm5t1 %[$ t :5 ! p]sons _h tak5 ! am\nts ( alcohol m5tion$1 ! comb9ations ( ideas or judgm5ts express$ by !m 7 confus$1 foggy1 s5tim5tal1 & g5]al4 ,:5 ! p]sons _h tak5 no alcohol1 _! judgm5ts 7 rational1 specific1 ke51 %[+ clos] obs]vation4 ,! words ( ,pr(essor ,helmholtz at ! celebration ( 8 sev5tie? bir?day are v int]e/+ 9 ?is connection4 ,he spoke ( ! ideas fla%+ up f ! dep?s ( ! unkn[n s\l1 t lies at ! f\ndation ( e truly creative intellectual production1 & clos$ 8 acc\nt ( _! orig9 ) ^! words3 ',! smalle/ quantity ( an alcoholic bev]age seem$ to fright5 ^! ideas away4'--,,dr4 ,g4 ,,sims ,,woodhead1 ,pr(essor ( ,pa?ology1 ,cambridge ,univ]sity1 ,engl&4 ,pr(essor ,von ,bunge 7,textbook ( ,physiological & ,pa?ological ,*emi/ry7 ( ,switz]l& says t3 ,! /imulat+ action :i* alcohol appe>s to ex]t on ! bra9 functions is only a p>alytic action4 ,! c]ebral functions :i* are fir/ int]f]$ ) are ! p[] ( cle> judgm5t & reason4 ,no man ev] became witty by aid ( spiritu\s dr9ks4 ,! lively ge/iculations & useless ex]tions ( intoxicat$ p are due to p>alysis1--! re/ra9+ influ5ces1 :i* prev5t a sob] man f uselessly exp5d+ 8 /r5g?1 be+ remov$4 ,! ,dr9k ,habit4--,! h>mful effects ( alcohol 7aside f ! purely physiological effect ^u ! tissues & organs ( ! body7 are mo/ t]ribly se5 9 ! =mation ( ! alcohol habit4 ,! fir/ effect ( dr9k+ alcoholic liquors is t ( exhil>ation4 ,aft] ! feel+ ( exhil>ation is gone1 = ?is is a tempor>y /ate1 ! subject feels depress$ & less able to "w ?an be=e he took ! dr9k4 ,to ov]come ?is feel+1 he takes ano!r dr9k4 ,! result is t be=e long he f9ds a habit =m$ f :i* he _c escape4 ,) body & m9d weak5$1 he attempts to break (f ! habit4 ,b mean:ile 8 w1 too1 has suff]$ f ov]9dulg5ce4 ,he has become a victim ( ! dr9k habit6 ,! capital argum5t aga9/ alcohol1 t :i* mu/ ev5tually condemn its use1 is ?is1 t x takes away all ! res]v$ control1 ! p[] ( ma/]%ip1 & !re=e (f5ds aga9/ ! spl5did pride 9 himself or h]self1 :i* is fundam5tal 9 e man or woman wor? any?+4--,,dr4 ,,john ,,johnson1 quot+ ,walt ,:itman4 ,self-indulg5ce1 be x 9 gratification ( su* a simple desire z t = c&y or ! m h>mful indulg5ce 9 tobacco or alcoholic bev]ages1 is dang]\s--n only 9 its imm$iate effects on ! tissues & organs1 b 9 its m f>-rea*+ effects on habit =mation4 ,ea* "o ( u is a bundle ( appetites4 ,if we gratify appetites ( ! wrong k9d1 we are surely lay+ ! f\ndation = ! habit ( excess4 ,self-d5ial is a good ?+ = ea* ( u to practice at "o "t or ano!r1 if = no o!r purpose ?an to be ready to fight temptation :5 x comes4 ,! ,economic ,effect ( ,alcoholic ,poison+4--,9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce1 x is evid5t t ! man ^: intellect is ! quicke/ & ke5e/1 ^: judgm5t is mo/ s\nd1 is ! man :o is mo/ likely to succe$4 ,! p>alyz+ effect ( alcohol ^u ! n]ve c5t]s mu/ place ! dr9k] at a disadvantage4 ,9 a hundr$ ways1 ! dr9k] soon] or lat] feels ! h&icap t ! habit ( dr9k has impos$ ^u him4 ,_m corporations1 notably sev]al ( our greate/ railroads 7! ,p5nsylvania & ! ,new ,york ,c5tral ,railroad among !m71 refuse to employ any b ab/a9]s 9 positions ( tru/4 ,few p]sons "k ! numb] ( railway accid5ts due to ! unc]ta9 eye ( "s eng9e] :o mi/ook 8 signal1 or ! hazy inactivity ( ! bra9 ( "s tra9 dispat*] :o1 because ( dr9k1 =got to s5d ! telegram t 0 to hold ! tra9 f wreck4 ,9 bus9ess & 9 ! pr(essions1 ! /ory is ! same4 ,! ab/a9] w9s out ov] ! dr9k+ man4 ,effect ( ,alcohol on ,ability to d ,"w4--,9 ,physiological ,aspects ( ! ,liquor ,problem1 ,pr(essor ,hodge1 =m]ly ( ,cl>k ,univ]sity1 describes _m ( 8 own exp]im5ts %[+ ! effect ( alcohol on animals4 ,he tra9$ f\r select$ puppies to recov] a ball ?r[n across a gymnasium4 ,to two ( ! dogs he gave food mix$ ) doses ( alcohol1 :ile ! o!rs 7 f$ normally4 ,! ball 0 ?r[n #ajj feet z rapidly z recov]$4 ,?is 0 repeat$ #ajj times ea* day = f\rte5 successive days4 ,out ( #adjj times ! dogs to :i* alcohol _h be5 giv5 br\ght back ! ball only #dgh times1 :ile ! o!rs secur$ x #ibb times4 ,dr4 ,p>kes exp]im5t$ ) two gangs ( m51 select$ to be z ne>ly simil> z possible1 9 m[+4 ,he f\nd t ) "o gang ab/a9+ f alcoholic dr9ks & ! o!r n1 ! ab/a9+ gang c\ld accompli% m4 ,on transpos+ ! gangs1 ! same results 7 repeat$ly obta9$4 ,simil> results 7 obta9$ by ,pr(essor ,as*aff5burg ( ,heidelb]g ,univ]sity1 :o f\nd exp]im5tally t m5 7 able to d #ae p] c5t less "w aft] tak+ alcohol4 ,rec5tly _m exp]im5ts along ! same l9es h be5 made4 ,9 typewrit+1 9 typesett+1 9 bricklay+1 or 9 ! highe/ type ( m5tal "w ! result is ! same4 ,! quality & quantity ( "w done on days :5 alcohol is tak5 is less ?an on days :5 no alcohol is tak54 ,! ,relation ( ,alcohol to ,effici5cy4--,we h already se5 t "w is nei!r s well done nor is z mu* accompli%$ by dr9k]s z by non-dr9k]s4 ,a ,massa*usetts %oe manufactur] told a rec5t writ] on temp]ance t 9 "o ye> 8 firm lo/ ov] #ejjj 9 %oes spoil$ by dr9k+ m51 & t he _h himself trac$ ^! spoil$ %oes to ! workm5 :o1 ?r\gh _! use ( alcoholic liquors1 _h ?us r5d]$ !mselves incapable4 ,?is is a s]i\s h&icap to our mod]n factory sy/em1 & expla9s :y s _m factory t[ns & cities are /rongly favor+ a policy ( ,no lic5se 9 opposition to ! saloons4 ,x is believ$ t ! l>ge/ numb] ( accid5ts 9 %ops & mills takes place on ,monday1 because ! alcohol t is drunk on ,sunday takes away ! skill & att5tive c>e ( ! workman4 ,to prove ! tru? ( ?is op9ion1 ! accid5ts ( ! build+ trades 9 ,zuri* 7 /udi$ dur+ a p]iod ( six ye>s1 ) ! result %[n by ?is table3-- ,illu/ration3 ,%ad$1 non-alcoholic2 black1 alcoholic1 accid5ts4 7,f ,tolman1 ,hygi5e = ! ,work]47 ,ano!r relation to effici5cy is %[n by ! foll[+ *>t4 ,dur+ ! week ! curve ( work+ effici5cy is highe/ on ,friday & l[e/ on ,monday4 ,! numb] ( accid5ts 7 also lea/ on ,friday & greate/ on ,monday4 ,la/ly ! assaults 7 fewe/ 9 numb] on ,friday & greate/ on ,sunday & ,monday4 ,! moral is pla94 ,work+m5 are apt to sp5d _! week's wages freely on ,saturday4 ,mu* ( ?is goes into dr9k1 & z a result comes crime on ,sunday because ( ! dead5$ moral & m5tal condition ( ! dr9k]1 & loss ( effici5cy on ,monday1 because ( ! poison\s effects ( ! drug4 ,illu/ration3 ,notice t ! curve ( effici5cy is l[e/ on ,monday & t crimes & accid5ts are mo/ frequ5t on ,sunday & ,monday4 ,acc\nt = ?is4 ,effect ( ,alcohol ^u ,duration ( ,life4--,/ill m s]i\s is ! relation ( alcohol z a direct cause ( disease 7see table74 ,x is z yet q impossible1 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates at lea/1 to tell j h[ _m dea?s are br\ght ab\t1 directly or indirectly1 by alcohol4 ,especially is ?is true 9 try+ to det]m9e ! numb] ( cases ( dea?s f disease promot$ by alcohol4 ,9 ,switz]l& provision is made = le>n+ ^! facts1 & ! records ( t c\ntry ?r[ "s light on ! subject4 ,dr4 ,rudolph ,pfi/] made a /udy ( ! records ( ! city ( ,basle = ! ye>s #ahib-aijf1 f9d+ ! p]c5tage ( dea?s 9 :i* alcohol _h be5 report$ by ! att5d+ physician z "o cause ( dea?4 ,he f\nd t #ah4a p] c5t ( all dea?s ( m5 betwe5 #dj & #ej ye>s ( age 7 caus$1 9 "p at lea/1 by alcohol1 & ?is at :at %\ld be ! mo/ active p]iod 9 a man's life1 ! "t :5 he is mo/ ne$$ by 8 family & community4 ,tak+ all ages betwe5 #bj & #hj1 he f\nd t alcohol 0 "o cause ( dea? 9 "o man 9 e t5 :o di$4 ,illu/ration ,ano!r /udy 0 made by a c]ta9 doctor 9 ,sw$51 f records ( #ajhb dea?s occurr+ 9 8 own practice & ! local hospital4 ,no case 0 c\nt$ z alcoholic ( :i* !re 0 ! slighte/ d\bt4 ,( dea?s ( adult m51 #ah 9 e #ajj 7 due1 directly or indirectly1 to alcoholism4 ,9 middle life1 betwe5 ! ages ( #dj & #ej1 #bi2 & betwe5 #ej & #fj ye>s ( age1 #be4f out ( e #ajj dea?s _h alcohol z "o cause1 ?us agree+ ) o!r /ati/ics we h be5 quot+4--,f ! ,metropolitan1 ,vol4 ,,xxv1 ,numb] #aa4 ,illu/ration3 ,! proportion ( crime due to alcohol is %[n 9 black4 ,! ,relation ( ,alcohol to ,crime4--,a rec5t /udy ( m ?an #bejj habitual us]s ( alcohol %[$ t ov] #ff p] c5t _h committ$ crime4 ,usually ! crimes _h be5 done 9 saloons or z a result ( qu>rels aft] dr9k+4 ,( ano!r lot ( #bc1eha crim9als que/ion$1 #bj1jgj said t alcohol _h l$ !m to commit crime4 ,! ,relation ( ,alcohol to ,paup]ism4--,we h already spok5 ( ! ,jukes family4 ,^! & _m o!r families ( a simil> sort are m or less directly a burd5 ^u ! /ate4 ,alcohol is 9 "p at lea/ responsible = ! condition ( su* families4 ,alcohol weak5s ! effici5cy & moral c\rage1 & ?us leads to begg+1 paup]ism1 petty /eal+ or worse1 & ultimately to life 9 "s public in/itution4 ,9 ,massa*usetts1 ( #cbcj inmates ( su* in/itutions1 #ff p] c5t 7 alcoholics4 ,! ,relation ( ,alcohol to ,h]$ity4--,p]haps ! grave/ side ( ! alcohol "q lies "h4 ,if ea* "o ( u _h only himself to ?9k (1 ! "q ( alcohol might n be s s]i\s4 ,b dr9k]s may h& d[n to _! un=tunate *ildr5 t5d5cies t[>d dr9k z well z n]v\s diseases ( v>i\s sorts2 an alcoholic p>5t may beget *ildr5 :o are epileptic1 neurotic1 or ev5 insane4 ,9 ! ,/ate ( ,new ,york !re are at ! pres5t "t "s #cj1jjj insane p]sons 9 public & private hospitals4 ,x is believ$ t ab\t "o fif? ( !m1 or #fjjj pati5ts1 owe _! insanity to alcohol us$ ei!r by !mselves or by _! p>5ts4 ,9 ! asylums ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates !re are #aej1jjj insane p4 ,tak+ ! same proportions z be=e1 !re are #cj1jjj p]sons 9 ?is c\ntry :om alcohol has made or has help$ to make insane4 ,?is is ! mo/ t]rible side ( ! alcohol problem4 ,,ref]5ce ,,read+ ,,elem5t>y ,hunt]1 ,laboratory ,problems 9 ,civic ,biology4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,ov]ton1 ,g5]al ,hygi5e4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,! ,gulick ,hygi5e ,s]ies1 ,em]g5cies1 ,good ,heal?1 ,! ,body at ,"w1 ,control ( ,body & ,m9d4 ,g9n & ,company4 ,rit*ie1 ,human ,physiology4 ,_w ,book ,company4 ,h\gh & ,s$gwick1 ,! ,human ,me*anism4 ,g9n & ,company4 ,,xxiv4 ,,man',s ,,improvem5t ,,( ,,8 ,,environm5t ,problems4--,h[ may we improve our home conditions ( liv+8 ,h[ may we help improve our conditions at s*ool8 ,h[ does ! city c>e = ! improvem5t ( our environm5t8 7a7 ,9 inspection ( build+s1 etc4 7b7 ,9 inspection ( food supplies4 7c7 ,9 inspection ( milk4 7d7 ,9 c>e ( wat] supplies4 7e7 ,9 disposal ( wa/es4 7f7 ,9 c>e ( public heal?4 ,,laboratory ,,sugge/ions ,home ex]cise4--,h[ to v5tilate my b$room4 ,demon/ration4--,effect ( use ( du/] & damp clo? ^u bact]ia 9 s*oolroom4 ,home ex]cise4--,lun*eon diet>ies4 ,home ex]cise4--,sanit>y map ( my own block4 ,demon/ration4--,! bact]ial cont5t ( milk ( v>i\s grades & f diff]5t s\rces4 ,demon/ration4--,bact]ial cont5t ( di/ill$ wat]1 ra9 wat]1 tap wat]1 dilute sewage4 ,laboratory ex]cise4--,/udy ( bo>d ( heal? tables to plot curves ( mortality f c]ta9 diseases dur+ c]ta9 times ( ye>4 ,! ,purpose ( ?is ,*apt]4--,9 ! prec$+ *apt]s we h trac$ ! lives ( bo? plants & animals )9 _! own environm5t4 ,we h se5 t man1 z well z plants & o!r animals1 ne$s a favorable environm5t 9 ord] to live 9 com=t & heal?4 ,x w be ! purpose ( ! foll[+ pages fir/ to %[ h[ we z individuals may bett] our home environm5t1 & secondly1 to see h[ we may aid ! civic au?orities 9 ! bett]m5t ( conditions 9 ! city 9 :i* we live4 ,illu/ration3 ,h[ ,i %\ld v5tilate my b$room4 ,home ,conditions4--,! ,b$room4--,we sp5d ab\t "o ?ird ( our total "t 9 our b$room4 ,?is room1 !re=e1 des]ves m ?an pass+ att5tion4 ,fir/ ( all1 x %\ld h good v5tilation4 ,two w9d[s make an ideal condition1 especially if ! w9d[s receive "s sun4 ,su* a condition z ?is is manife/ly impossible 9 a cr[d$ city1 :]e too (t5 ! ap>tm5t b$rooms op5 ^u n>r[ & ill-v5tilat$ c\rts4 ,until comp>atively rec5t "t1 t5em5t h\ses 7 built s t ! b$rooms _h practically no light or air2 n[1 ?anks to good t5em5t-h\se laws1 wide air%afts & l>g] w9d[s are requir$ by /atute4 ,c>e ( ! ,b$room4--,s9ce sunlight _c always be obta9$ = a b$room1 we mu/ s c>e = & furni% ! room t x w be difficult = g]ms to gr[ !re4 ,b$room furniture %\ld be light & easy to clean1 ! b$/ead ( iron1 ! floors pa9t$ or ( h>dwood4 ,no hang+s %\ld be all[$ at ! w9d[s to collect du/1 nor %\ld c>pets be all[$ = ! same reason4 ,rugs on ! floor may easily be remov$ :5 clean+ is done4 ,! furniture & woodwork %\ld be wip$ ) a damp clo? e day4 ,:y a damp clo?8 ,9 c]ta9 t5em5ts 9 ,new ,york ,city1 tub]culosis is believ$ to h be5 spread by p occupy+ rooms 9 :i* a previ\s t5ant has _h tub]culosis4 ,a new t5ant %\ld insi/ on a ?or\gh clean+ ( ! b$rooms & removal ( old wall pap] be=e occupancy4 ,sunlight ,important4--,9 *oos+ a h\se 9 ! c\ntry we w\ld take a location 9 :i* ! sunlight 0 abundant4 ,a %ad$ location might be too damp = heal?4 ,sunlight %\ld ent] at lea/ "s ( ! rooms4 ,9 *oos+ an ap>tm5t we %\ld h ?is matt] 9 m9d1 =1 z we "k1 g]ms _c long exi/ 9 sunlight4 ,illu/ration3 ,?is map %[s h[ cases ( tub]culosis are f\nd recurr+ 9 ! same locality & 9 ! same h\ses ye> aft] ye>4 ,ea* black dot is "o case ( tub]culosis4 ,heat+4--,h\ses 9 ! c\ntry are (t5 heat$ by op5 fires1 /oves or hot-air furnaces1 all ( :i* make use ( heat$ curr5ts ( air to w>m ! rooms4 ,b 9 ! city ap>tm5ts1 usually pipes conduct /eam or hot wat] f a c5tral plant to our rooms4 ,! difficulty ) ?is sy/em is t x does n give u fre% air1 b w>ms ov] ! /ale air 9 a room4 ,/eam causes our rooms to be too w>m "p ( ! "t1 & n w>m en\gh "p ( ! "t4 ,?us we become ov]heat$ & !n take cold by becom+ *ill$4 ,/eam heat is ?us responsible = mu* sickness4 ,light+4--,light+ our rooms is a matt] ( mu* importance4 ,a /ud5t lamp1 or %ad$ inc&esc5t light1 %\ld be us$ = read+4 ,%ades mu/ be provid$ s t ! eyes are protect$ f direct light4 ,gas is a dang]\s s]vant1 because x conta9s a v poison\s sub/ance1 c>bon monoxide4 ,x is e/imat$ t #ad p] c5t ( ! total product ( ! gas plant leaks into ! /reets & h\ses ( ! cities suppli$4 ,?is =ms an unse5 m5ace to ! heal? 9 cities4 ,gas pipes1 & especially gas cocks1 %\ld be wat*$ c>efully = escap+ gas4 ,rubb] tub+ %\ld n be us$ to conduct gas to movable gas lamps1 because x becomes worn & all[s gas to escape4 ,illu/ration3 ,dur+ ! summ] all food %\ld be protect$ f flies4 ,:y8 ,insects & ,foods4--,9 ! summ] our h\ses %\ld be provid$ ) scre5s4 ,all food %\ld be c>efully protect$ f flies4 ,dirty di%es1 scraps ( food1 & su* g>bage %\ld be quickly clean$ up & dispos$ ( aft] a meal4 ,insect p[d] 7pyre?rum7 w help keep out croton bugs & o!r undesirable h\sehold pe/s1 b cleanl9ess w d f> m4 ,mo/ kit*5 pe/s1 z ! roa*1 simply /ay ) u because !y f9d dirt & food abundant4 ,use ( ,ice4--,food %\ld be prop]ly c>$ = at all times1 b especially dur+ ! summ]4 ,iceboxes are a necessity1 especially :]e *ildr5 live1 9 ord] to keep milk fre%4 ,a dirty icebox is almo/ z bad z none at all1 because food w decay or take on unpleasant odors f o!r foods4 ,illu/ration3 ,! wrong & ! "r k9d ( g>bage cans4 ,disposal ( ,wa/es4--,9 city h\ses ! disposal ( human wa/es is provid$ = by a city sy/em ( sew]s4 ,! wa/es f ! kit*51 ! g>bage1 %\ld be dispos$ ( ea* day4 ,! g>bage pail %\ld be frequ5tly /]iliz$ by r9s+ x ) boil+ wat]4 ,pl5ty ( lye or soap %\ld be us$4 ,rememb] t flies frequ5t ! uncov]$ g>bage pail1 & t !y may next walk on y\r food4 ,collection & disposal ( g>bage is ! "w ( ! municipality4 ,illu/ration3 ,! culture 7,a7 0 expos$ to ! air ( a dirty /reet 9 ! cr[d$ "p ( ,manhattan4 7,b7 0 expos$ to ! air ( a well-clean$ & wat]$ /reet 9 ! upt[n resid5ce portion4 ,:i* culture has ! m colonies ( bact]ia8 ,h[ d y acc\nt = ?is8 ,s*ool ,surr\nd+s4--,h[ to ,improve ,!m4--,f five to six h\rs a day = =ty weeks is sp5t by ! av]age boy or girl 9 ! s*oolroom4 ,x is "p ( our environm5t & %\ld !re=e be consid]$ z wor?y ( our c>e4 ,n only %\ld a s*oolroom be attractive1 b x %\ld be clean & sanit>y4 ,city s*ools1 because ( _! locations1 ( ! sometimes poor janitorial s]vice1 & especially because ( ! selfi%ness & c>elessness ( *ildr5 :o use !m1 may be v dirty & unsanit>y4 ,dirt & du/ bre$ & c>ry bact]ia4 ,plate cultures %[ greatly increas$ numb]s ( bact]ia to be 9 ! air :5 pupils are mov+ ab\t1 = !n du/1 be>+ bact]ia1 is /irr$ up & circulat$ ?r\gh ! air4 ,sweep+ & du/+ ) dry brooms or fea!r du/]s only /irs up ! du/1 leav+ x to settle 9 "s o!r place ) its load ( bact]ia4 ,pr(essor ,hodge tells ( an exp]i5ce 9 a s*ool 9 ,worce/]1 ,mass4 ,a heal? brigade 0 =m$ among ! *ildr51 ^: duty 0 to clean ! rooms e morn+ by wip+ all expos$ surface ) a damp clo?4 ,9 a s*ool ( #dbe pupils n a s+le case ( contagi\s diseases appe>$ dur+ ! entire ye>4 ,:y n try ?is 9 y\r own s*ool8 ,unselfi%ness ! ,motto4--,pupils %\ld be unselfi% 9 ! c>e ( a s*ool build+4 ,pap]s & scraps dropp$ by "s c>eless boy or girl make unpleasant ! surr\nd+s = hundr$s ( o!rs4 ,*alk ?r[n by "s mis*iev\s boy & !n tramp$ und]foot may irritate ! lungs ( a hundr$ innoc5t s*oolmates4 ,colds or worse diseases may be spread ?r\gh ! fil?y habits ( "s boys :o spit 9 ! halls or on ! /airways4 ,lun* ,"t & ,lun*es4--,if y br+ y\r own lun* to s*ool1 x %\ld be clean1 ta/y1 & well balanc$ z a ration4 ,9 mo/ l>ge s*ools well-manag$ lun* rooms are "p ( ! s*ool equipm5t1 & balanc$ lun*es c be obta9$ at l[ co/4 ,d n make a lun* entirely f cold food1 if hot c be obta9$4 ,d n eat only sweets4 ,ice cream is a good food1 if tak5 ) some?+ else1 b be sure ( y\r ice cream4 ,hokey pokey cream1 te/$ 9 a ,new ,york s*ool laboratory1 %[$ ! pres5ce ( _m m colonies ( bact]ia ?an good milk w\ld %[4 ,above all1 be sure ! food y buy is clean4 ,/&s on ! /reet1 expos$ to du/ & g]ms1 (t5 sell food f> f fit = human consumption4 ,illu/ration3 ,a s5sible lun* box1 sanit>y & compact4 ,if y eat y\r lun* on ! /reet ne> y\r s*ool1 rememb] n to scatt] refuse4 ,pap]1 bits ( lun*1 & ! l scatt]$ on ! /reets ar\nd y\r s*ool %[ lack ( s*ool _s & lack ( civic pride4 ,let u le>n above all o!r ?+s to be good citiz5s4 ,illu/ration3 ,du/ exhau/s on gr9d+ :eels protect lungs ( ! workm54 ,inspection ( ,factories1 ,public ,build+s1 etc4--,x is ! duty ( a city to inspect ! condition ( all public build+s & especially ( factories4 ,inspection %\ld include1 fir/1 ! sup]vision ( ! "w und]tak54 ,c]ta9 trades :]e grit1 dirt1 or poison fumes are giv5 (f are dang]\s to human heal?1 h5ce c>e = ! work]s becomes a necessity4 ,factories %\ld also be inspect$ z to cleanl9ess1 ! am\nt ( air space p] p]son employ$1 v5tilation1 toilet facilities1 & prop] fire protection4 ,t5em5t inspection %\ld be ?or\gh & %\ld aim to provide safe & sanit>y homes4 ,inspection ( ,food ,supplies4--,9 a city c]ta9 regulations = ! c>e ( public supplies are necess>y4 ,foods1 bo? fre% & pres]v$1 mu/ be inspect$ & r5d]$ safe = ! ?\s&s ( p :o are to use !m4 ,all raw foods expos$ on /&s %\ld be cov]$ s z to prev5t insects or du/ lad5 ) bact]ia f com+ 9 contact ) !m4 ,meats mu/ be inspect$ = diseases1 su* z tub]culosis 9 beef1 or tri*9osis 9 pork4 ,cold /orage plants mu/ be inspect$ to prev5t ! keep+ ( food until x becomes unfit = use4 ,inspection ( sanit>y conditions ( factories :]e products are cann$1 or bak]ies :]e foods are prep>$1 mu/ be "p ( ! "w ( a city 9 c>+ = its citiz5s4 ,c>e ( ,raw ,foods4--,ea* "o ( u may coop]ate ) ! city gov]nm5t by rememb]+ t fruits & vegetables c be c>ri]s ( disease1 especially if !y are sold f expos$ /alls or c>ts & h&l$ by ! pass]s-by4 ,all vegetables1 fruits1 or raw foods %\ld be c>efully wa%$ be=e us+4 ,spoil$ or ov]ripe fruit1 z well z meat :i* is decay$1 is sw>m+ ) bact]ia & %\ld n be us$4 ,an int]e/+ ex]cise w\ld be ! inspection ( conditions 9 y\r own home block4 ,make a map %[+ ! h\ses on ! block4 ,locate all /ores1 saloons1 factories1 etc4 ,notice any cases ( contagi\s disease1 m>k+ ?is fact on ! map4 ,m>k all heaps ( refuse 9 ! /reet1 all uncov]$ g>bage pails1 any /reet /&s t sell uncov]$ fruit1 & any /ores ) an excessive numb] ( flies4 ,9 addition to food inspection1 two v important supplies mu/ be r5d]$ safe by a city = its citiz5s4 ,^! are milk & wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,clean c[s 9 clean b>ns ) clean milk]s & clean milk pails means clean milk 9 ! city4 ,c>e 9 ,production ( ,milk4--,milk :5 drawn f a heal?y c[ %\ld be free f bact]ia4 ,b imm$iately on rea*+ ! air x may receive bact]ia f ! air1 f ! h&s ( ! p]son :o milks ! c[s1 f ! pail1 or f ! c[ h]self4 ,c[s %\ld1 !re=e1 be milk$ 9 surr\nd+s t are sanit>y1 ! milk]s %\ld we> clean g>m5ts1 put on ov] _! ord9>y clo!s at milk+ "t1 :ile pails & all ut5sils us$ %\ld be kept clean4 ,especially ! surface expos$ on ! udd] f :i* ! milk is drawn %\ld be cleans$ be=e milk+4 ,mo/ l>ge cities n[ s5d inspectors to ! f>ms f :i* milk is suppli$4 ,f>ms t d n accept c]ta9 /&>ds ( cleanl9ess are n all[$ to h _! milk become "p ( ! city supply4 ,tub]culosis & ,milk4--,x is recogniz$ t 9 "s ,european c\ntries f #cj to #dj p] c5t ( all cattle h tub]culosis4 ,_m dairy h]ds 9 ?is c\ntry are also infect$4 ,x is also kn[n t ! tub]cle bacillus ( cattle & man are mu* alike 9 =m & action & t probably ! g]m f cattle w\ld cause tub]culosis 9 man4 ,=tunately1 ! tub]culosis g]m does n gr[ 9 milk1 s t ev5 if milk f tub]cul> cattle %\ld get into our supply1 x w\ld be dilut$ ) ! milk ( heal?y cattle4 ,9 ord] to protect our milk supply f ^! g]ms x w\ld be necess>y to kill all tub]cul> cattle 7almo/ an impossibility7 or to pa/eurize our milk s z to kill ! g]ms 9 x4 ,o!r ,disease ,g]ms 9 ,milk4--,we h already %[n h[ typhoid may be spread ?r\gh milk4 ,usually su* outbreaks may be trac$ to a s+le case ( typhoid1 (t5 a p]son :o is a typhoid c>ri]1 i4e4 "o :o may n suff] f ! effects ( ! disease1 b :o c>ries ! g]ms 9 8 body1 spread+ !m by contact4 ,a rec5t epidemic ( typhoid 9 ,new ,york ,city 0 trac$ to a s+le typhoid c>ri] on a f>m f> f ! city4 ,sometimes ! milk cans may be wa%$ 9 contam9at$ wat] or ! c[s may ev5 get ! g]ms on _! udd]s by wad+ 9 a pollut$ /ream4 ,diph!ria1 sc>let fev]1 & ,asiatic *ol]a are also und\bt$ly spread ?r\gh milk supplies4 ,milk also plays a v important "p 9 ! high dea? rate f di>rhoeal diseases among "y *ildr5 9 w>m wea!r4 ,:y8 ,illu/ration3 ,a diagram to %[ h[ typhoid may be spread 9 a city ?r\gh an infect$ milk supply4 ,! black spots 9 ! blocks mean cases ( typhoid4 ,a1 a f>m :]e typhoid exi/s2 ! da%es 9 ! /reets repres5t ! milk r\te4 ,b is a second f>m :i* s5ds "p ( its milk to ,a2 ! milk cans f ,b are wa%$ at f>m ,a & s5t back to ,b4 ,a few cases ( typhoid appe> along ,b's milk r\te4 ,h[ d y acc\nt = t8 ,grades ( ,milk 9 a ,city ,supply4--,milk :i* comes to a city may be r\ghly plac$ 9 ?ree diff]5t classes4 ,! be/ milk1 com+ f f>ms :]e ! highe/ sanit>y /&>ds exi/1 :]e ! c[s are all tub]cul> te/$1 :]e mod]n appliances = h&l+ & cool+ ! milk exi/1 is kn[n z c]tifi$ or1 9 ,new ,york ,city1 grade ,a milk4 ,mo/ ( ! milk sold1 h[ev]1 is n s pure nor is s mu* c>e tak5 9 h&l+ x4 ,su* milk1 kn[n 9 ,new ,york z grade ,b milk1 is pa/euriz$ be=e deliv]y1 & is sold only 9 bottles4 ,a /ill l[] grade ( milk 7dipp$ milk7 is sold direct f cans4 ,x is evid5t t su* milk1 (t5 expos$ to du/ & o!r dirt1 is unfit = any purpose except = cook+4 ,x %\ld "u no circum/ances be us$ = *ildr54 ,a regulation rec5tly made by ! ,new ,york ,city ,dep>tm5t ( ,heal? /ates t milk sold loose 9 re/aurants1 lun*-rooms1 soda f\nta9s1 & hotels mu/ be pa/euriz$4 ,c>e ( a ,city ,milk ,supply4--,besides c>+ = milk 9 its production on ! f>m1 prop] transportation facilities mu/ be provid$4 ,mu* ( ! milk us$ 9 ,new ,york ,city is =ty-eight h\rs old be=e x rea*es ! consum]4 ,dur+ %ipm5t x mu/ be kept 9 refrig]ator c>s1 & dur+ transit to cu/om]s x %\ld be ic$4 ,:y8 ,all b ! highe/ grade milk %\ld be pa/euriz$4 ,:y8 ,milk %\ld be bottl$ by ma*9]y if possible s z to insure no p]sonal contact2 x %\ld be kept 9 clean1 cool places2 & no milk %\ld be sold by dipp+ f cans4 ,:y is ?is a me?od ( disp5s+ impure milk8 ,c>e ( ,milk 9 ! ,home4--,f9ally1 milk at home %\ld receive ! be/ ( c>e4 ,x %\ld be kept on ice & 9 cov]$ bottles1 because x readily takes up ! odors ( o!r foods4 ,if we are n c]ta9 ( its purity or keep+ qualities1 x %\ld be pa/euriz$ at home4 ,:y8 ,illu/ration3 ,new ,york ,city is sp5d+ #cej1jjj1jjj to h a pure & abundant wat] supply4 ,?is is ! tunnel :i* w br+ ! wat] f ! ,catskill ,m\nta9s to ,new ,york ,city4 ,wat] ,supplies4--,"o ( ! greate/ assets to ! heal? ( a l>ge city is pure wat]4 ,by pure wat] we mean wat] free f all organic impurities1 includ+ g]ms4 ,wat] f spr+s & deep driv5 wells is ! safe/ wat]1 t f l>ge res]voirs next be/1 :ile wat] t has dra9age 9 x1 riv] wat] = example1 is v unsafe4 ,! wat]s f deep wells or spr+s if prop]ly protect$ w conta9 no bact]ia4 ,wat] tak5 f protect$ /reams into :i* no sewage fl[s w h b few bact]ia1 & ^! w be de/roy$ if expos$ to ! action ( ! sun & ! con/ant a]ation 7mix+ ) oxyg57 :i* ! surface wat] receives 9 a l>ge lake or res]voir4 ,b wat] tak5 f a riv] into :i* ! sewage ( o!r t[ns & cities fl[s mu/ be filt]$ be=e x is fit = use4 ,illu/ration3 ,! city ( ,l[ell 9 #ahia took its wat] )\t filt]+1 i4e4 f ! ,m]rimack ,riv] at ! po9t %[n on ! map4 ,typhoid fev] broke out 9 ,nor? ,*elms=d & ab\t two weeks lat] cases began to appe> 9 ,l[ell until a great epidemic occurr$4 ,expla9 ?is outbreak4 ,ea* black dot is a case ( typhoid4 ,typhoid fev] g]ms live 9 ! food tube1 h5ce ! excreta ( a typhoid pati5t w conta9 l>ge numb]s ( g]ms4 ,9 a city ) a sy/em ( sewage su* g]ms might ev5tually pass f ! sew]s into a riv]4 ,_m cities take _! wat] supply directly f riv]s1 sometimes n f> bel[ ano!r l>ge t[n4 ,su* cities mu/ take _m g]ms into _! wat] supply4 ,_m cities1 z ,clevel& & ,buffalo1 take _! wat] f lakes into :i* _! sewage fl[s4 ,o!rs1 z ,albany1 ,pittsburgh1 & ,philadelphia1 take _! dr9k+ wat] directly f riv]s into :i* sewage f cities above !m on ! riv] has fl[$4 ,filt]+ su* wat] by means ( pass+ ! wat] ?r\gh settl+ bas9s & s& filt]s removes ab\t #ih p] c5t ( ! g]ms4 ,! result ( dr9k+ unfilt]$ & filt]$ wat] 9 c]ta9 l>ge cities is %[n graphically at "r4 ,9 cities :i* dra9 _! sewage into riv]s & lakes1 ! "q ( sewage disposal is a l>ge "o1 & _m cities n[ h means ( dispos+ ( _! sewage 9 "s mann] z to r5d] x h>mless to _! neighbors4 ,illu/ration3 ,filt] b$s at ,albany1 ,n4 ,y4 ,illu/ration3 ,cases ( typhoid p] #ajj1jjj inhabitants be=e filt]+ wat] supply 7solid7 & aft] 7%ad$7 9 ,a1 ,wat]t[n1 ,n4 ,y42 ,b1 ,albany1 ,n4 ,y42 ,c1 ,lawr5ce1 ,mass42 ,d1 ,c9c9nati1 ,ohio4 ,:at is ! effect ( filt]+ ! wat] supply8 ,railroads are (t5 responsible = c>ry+ typhoid & spread+ x4 ,x is said t a rec5t outbreak ( typhoid 9 ,scranton1 ,pa41 0 due to ! fact t ! excreta f a typhoid pati5t travel+ 9 a sleep+ c> 0 wa%$ by ra9 into a res]voir ne> :i* ! tra9 0 pass+4 ,railroads are ?us se5 to be great op5 sew]s4 ,a sanit>y c> toilet is ! only rem$y4 ,illu/ration3 ,?is *>t %[s t dur+ a *ol]a epidemic 9 #ahib !re 7 hundr$s ( cases ( *ol]a 9 ,hamburg1 :i* us$ unfilt]$ wat] f ! ,elbe1 b 9 adjo9+ ,altona1 :]e filt]$ wat] 0 us$1 ! cases 7 v few4 ,illu/ration3 ,/one filt] b$s 9 a sewage disposal plant4 ,sewage ,disposal4--,sewage disposal is an important sanit>y problem = any city4 ,"s cities1 l ,new ,york1 p\r _! sewage directly into riv]s :i* fl[ into ! ocean4 ,consequ5tly mu* ( ! liquid :i* ba!s ! %ores ( ,manhattan ,isl& is dilute sewage4 ,o!r cities1 l ,buffalo or ,clevel&1 s5d _! sewage into ! lakes f :i* !y obta9 _! supply ( dr9k+ wat]4 ,/ill o!r cities :i* are on riv]s are =c$ to dispose ( _! sewage 9 v>i\s ways4 ,"s h a sy/em ( filt] b$s 9 :i* ! solid wa/es are act$ ^u by ! bact]ia ( decay1 s t !y c be collect$ & us$ z f]tiliz]4 ,o!rs precipitate or cond5se ! solid mat]ials 9 ! sewage & !n dispose ( x4 ,ano!r me?od is to fl[ ! sewage ov] l>ge areas ( l&1 lat] us+ ?is l& = ! cultivation ( crops4 ,?is me?od is us$ by _m small ,european cities4 ,illu/ration3 ,collect+ a%es4 ,! ,"w ( ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,/reet ,clean+4--,9 any city a m5ace to ! heal? ( its citiz5s exi/s 9 ! refuse & g>bage4 ,! city /reets1 :5 dirty1 conta9 c\ntless millions ( g]ms :i* h come f decay+ mat]ial1 or f p ill ) disease4 ,9 mo/ l>ge cities a dep>tm5t ( /reet clean+ n only c>es = ! removal ( du/ f ! /reets1 b also has ! removal ( g>bage1 a%es1 & o!r wa/e z a "p ( its "w4 ,! disposal ( solid wa/es is a trem5d\s task4 ,9 ,manhattan ! dry wa/es are e/imat$ to be #a1jjj1jjj tons a ye> 9 addition to ab\t #age1jjj tons ( g>bage4 ,prior to #ahie 9 ! city ( ,new ,york g>bage 0 n sep>at$ f a%es2 n[ ! law requires t g>bage be plac$ 9 sep>ate receptacles f a%es4 ,d y see :y8 ,! /reet-clean+ dep>tm5t %\ld be aid$ by e citiz52 rules = ! sep>ation ( g>bage1 pap]s1 & a%es %\ld be kept4 ,g>bage & a% cans %\ld be cov]$4 ,! practice ( upsett+ a% or g>bage cans is "o :i* no "y citiz5 %\ld all[ 9 8 neighborhood1 = sanit>y reasons4 ,! be/ results 9 summ] /reet clean+ are obta9$ by wa%+ or flu%+ ! /reets1 = ?us ! dirt conta9+ g]ms is prev5t$ f gett+ into ! air4 ,! g>bage is remov$ 9 c>ts1 & "p ( x is burn$ 9 huge furnaces4 ,! animal & plant refuse is cook$ 9 great tanks2 f ?is mat]ial ! fats are extract$1 & ! solid matt] is sold = f]tiliz]4 ,a%es are us$ = fill+ m>% l&4 ,?us ! removal ( wa/e matt] may pay = itself 9 a l>ge city4 ,illu/ration3 ,! upp] picture %[s ! /ables :]e millions ( flies 7 br$2 ! l[] picture1 ! dis9fection ( manure s z to prev5t ! bre$+ ( flies4 ,an ,exp]im5t 9 ,civic ,hygi5e4--,dur+ ! summ] ( #aiac an int]e/+ exp]im5t on ! relation ( flies & fil? to disease 0 c>ri$ on 9 ,new ,york ,city by ! ,bureau ( ,public ,heal? & ,hygi5e ( ! ,new ,york ,association = improv+ ! condition ( ! poor4 ,two adjo9+ blocks 7 *os5 9 a ?ickly populat$ "p ( ! ,bronx ne> a numb] ( /ables :i* 7 ! s\rces ( great numb]s ( flies4 ,9 "o block all h\ses 7 scre5$1 g>bage pails 7 furni%$ ) cov]s1 refuse 0 remov$ & ! surr\nd+s made z sanit>y z possible4 ,9 ! adjo9+ block conditions 7 left un*ang$4 ,dur+ ! summ] z flies began to bre$ 9 ! manure heaps ne> ! /ables all manure 0 dis9fect$4 ,?us ! bre$+ ( flies 0 *eck$4 ,! campaign ( education 0 cont9u$ dur+ ! summ] by means ( mov+ pictures1 nurses1 boy sc\ts1 & s*ool *ildr5 :o became int]e/$4 ,at ! end ( ! summ] x 0 f\nd t !re _h be5 a consid]able decrease 9 ! numb] ( cases ( fly-c>ri$ diseases & a /ill great] decrease 9 ! total days ( sickness 7especially ( *ildr57 9 ! scre5$ & sanit>y block4 ,! table & pictures speak = !mselves4 ,if su* a small exp]im5t %[s results l ?is1 !n :at might a g5]al clean-up ( a city %[8 ,illu/ration3 ,9 ! upp] picture a little girl c be se5 dump+ g>bage f ! fire escape4 ,%e 0 a =eign] & knew no bett]4 ,! picture bel[ %[s ! result ( su* g>bage disposal4 ,public ,hygi5e4--,al?\gh x is absolutely necess>y = ea* individual to obey ! laws ( heal? if he or %e wi%es to keep well1 x has also become necess>y1 especially 9 l>ge cities1 to h g5]al sup]vision ov] ! heal? ( p liv+ 9 a community4 ,?is is done by means ( a dep>tm5t or bo>d ( heal?4 ,x is ! function ( ?is dep>tm5t to c>e = public heal?4 ,9 addition to su* a body 9 cities1 sup]vision ov] ! heal? ( its citiz5s is also ex]cis$ by /ate bo>ds ( heal?4 ,b z yet ! gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates has n e/abli%$ a ,bureau ( ,heal?1 important z su* a bureau w\ld be4 ,! ,functions ( a ,city ,bo>d ( ,heal?4--,! adm9i/ration ( ! ,bo>d ( ,heal? 9 ,new ,york ,city includes a numb] ( divisions1 ea* ( :i* has a diff]5t "w to d4 ,ea* is 9 itself important1 &1 work+ toge!r1 ! entire ma*9e provides ways & means = mak+ ! great city a safe & sanit>y place 9 :i* to live4 ,let u take up ! "w ( ea* division ( ! heal? bo>d 9 ord] to f9d out h[ we may coop]ate ) !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,comp>ison ( cases ( illness dur+ ! summ] ( #aiac 9 two city blocks1 "o clean & ! o!r dirty4 ,:at are y\r conclusions8 ,! ,division ( ,infecti\s ,diseases4--,infecti\s diseases are *iefly spread ?r\gh p]sonal contact4 ,x is ! duty ( a gov]nm5t to prev5t a p]son hav+ su* a disease f spread+ x broadca/ among 8 neighbors4 ,?is c be done by qu>ant9e or isolation ( ! p]son hav+ ! disease4 ,s ! bo>d ( heal? at once isolates any case ( disease :i* may be communicat$ f "o p]son to ano!r4 ,no "o save ! doctor or nurse %\ld ent] ! room ( ! p]son qu>ant9$4 ,aft] ! disease has run its c\rse1 ! clo?+1 b$d+1 etc41 9 ! sick room is fumigat$4 ,?is is usually done by ! bo>d ( heal?4 ,=maldehyde 9 ! =m ( c&les = burn+ or 9 a liquid =m is a good dis9fectant4 ,9 dis9fect+ ! room %\ld be tightly clos$ to prev5t ! escape ( ! gas us$1 z ! object ( ! dis9fection is to kill all ! disease g]ms left 9 ! room4 ,9 "s cases ( infecti\s disease1 z sc>let fev]1 x is f\nd be/ to isolate ! pati5ts 9 a hospital us$ = t purpose4 ,examples ( ! mo/ infecti\s diseases are measles1 sc>let fev]1 :oop+ c\gh1 & diph!ria4 ,immunity4--,9 ! prev5tion ( g]m diseases we mu/ fight ! g]m by attack+ ! p>asites directly ) poisons t w kill !m 7su* poisons are call$ g]micides or dis9fectants71 & we mu/ /rive to make ! p]sons com+ 9 contact ) ! disease unlikely to take x4 ,?is insusceptibility or immunity may be ei!r natural or acquir$4 ,natural immunity seems to be 9 ! con/itution ( a p]son1 & may be inh]it$4 ,immunity may be acquir$ by means ( su* treatm5t z ! antitox9 treatm5t = diph!ria4 ,?is treatm5t1 z ! "n d5otes1 is a me?od ( neutraliz+ ! poison 7tox97 caus$ by ! bact]ia 9 ! sy/em4 ,x 0 discov]$ a few ye>s ago by a ,g]man1 ,von ,behr+1 t ! s]um ( ! blood ( an animal immune to diph!ria is capable ( neutraliz+ ! poison produc$ by ! diph!ria-caus+ bact]ia4 ,horses are r5d]$ immune by giv+ !m ! diph!ria tox9 9 gradually increas+ doses4 ,! s]um ( ! blood ( ^! horses is !n us$ to inoculate ! pati5t suff]+ f or expos$ to diph!ria1 & ?us ! disease is *eck$ or prev5t$ altoge!r by ! antitox9 inject$ into ! blood4 ,! laboratories ( ! bo>d ( heal? prep>e ?is antitox9 & supply x fre% = public use4 ,illu/ration3 ,antitox9 = diph!ria prep>$ by ! ,new ,york ,bo>d ( ,heal?4 ,x has be5 f\nd f exp]i5ce 9 hospitals t dea?s f diph!ria are l>gely prev5table by e>ly use ( antitox94 ,:5 antitox9 0 us$ on ! fir/ day ( ! disease no dea?s took place4 ,if n us$ until ! second day1 #e dea?s occurr$ 9 e hundr$ cases1 on ! ?ird day #aa dea?s1 on ! #d? day #ai dea?s1 & on ! #e? day #bj dea?s out ( e hundr$ cases4 ,x is !re=e advisable1 9 a suspect$ case ( diph!ria1 to h antitox9 us$ at once to prev5t s]i\s results4 ,vacc9ation4--,smallpox 0 once ! mo/ fe>$ disease 9 ?is c\ntry2 #ie p] c5t ( all p suff]$ f x4 ,z late z #ahih1 ov] #ej1jjj p]sons lo/ _! lives annually 9 ,russia f ?is disease4 ,x is probably n caus$ by bact]ia1 b by a t9y animal p>asite4 ,smallpox has be5 br\ght "u absolute control by vacc9ation1--! inoculation ( man ) ! sub/ance 7call$ virus7 :i* causes c[pox 9 a c[4 ,c[pox is l a mild =m ( smallpox1 & ! introduction ( ?is virus gives complete immunity to smallpox = sev]al ye>s aft] vacc9ation4 ,?is immunity is caus$ by ! =mation ( a g]micidal sub/ance 9 ! blood1 due to ! introduction ( ! virus4 ,ano!r function ( ! bo>d ( heal? is ! prep>ation & di/ribution ( vacc9e 7mat]ial conta9+ ! virus ( c[pox74 ,rabies 7,hydrophobia74--,?is disease1 :i* is believ$ to be caus$ by a protozoan p>asite1 is communicat$ f "o dog to ano!r 9 ! saliva by bit+4 ,9 a simil> mann] x is transf]r$ to man4 ,! great ,fr5* bact]iologi/1 ,l\is ,pa/eur1 discov]$ a me?od ( treat+ ?is disease s t :5 tak5 e>ly at ! "t ( ! entry ( ! g]m into ! body ( man1 ! disease c be prev5t$4 ,9 "s l>ge cities 7among !m ,new ,york7 ! bo>d ( heal? has e/abli%$ a laboratory :]e free treatm5t is giv5 to all p]sons bitt5 by dogs suspect$ ( hav+ rabies4 ,vacc9ation aga9/ ,typhoid4--,typhoid fev] has )9 ! pa/ five ye>s receiv$ a new *eck f vacc9ation :i* has be5 introduc$ into our army & :i* is be+ us$ ) good effect by ! heal? dep>tm5ts ( sev]al l>ge cities4 ,! foll[+ figures %[ ! diff]5ces betwe5 numb] ( cases & mortality 9 ! army 9 #ahih dur+ ! w> ) ,spa9 & 9 #aiaa dur+ ! conc5tration ( c]ta9 ( our troops at ,san ,antonio1 ,texas4 #ahih--bnd ,division1 #g? ,army ,corps1 ,jacksonville1 ,florida4 ,june-,octob]1 #ahih ,mean /r5g?1 #aj1gei4 ,cases ( typhoid c]ta9 & probable1 #bfic4 ,dea? f typhoid1 #beh4 ,dea? f all diseases1 #bha4 ,manoeuv] ,division1 ,san ,antonio1 ,texas4 ,m>* #aj-;,july #aa1 #aiaa4 ,mean /r5g?1 #ab1hja4 ,cases ( typhoid1 #a4 ,dea? f typhoid1 #j4 ,dea?s all diseases1 #aa4 ,illu/ration3 ,comp>ison ( cases ( & dea? f typhoid 9 #ahih & #aiaa4 ,:at h we le>n$ ab\t combat+ typhoid s9ce #ahih8 ,dur+ ?is p]iod !re 7 #di cases ( typhoid & #ai dea?s 9 ! ne>-by city ( ,san ,antonio4 ,b 9 camp1 :]e vacc9ation = typhoid 0 requir$1 all 7 practically immune4 ,9 ! army at l>ge1 s9ce typhoid vacc9ation has be5 practic$1 #aijh-aiji1 ! dea? rate f typhoid has dropp$ f #b4i p] #ajjj to 4#jc p] #ajjj1 a wond]ful record :5 we rememb] t dur+ ! ,spani%-,am]ican ,w> #hf p] c5t ( ! dea?s 9 ! army 7 f typhoid fev]4 ,illu/ration3 ,! be/ cures = tub]culosis are re/1 pl5ty ( fre% out-(-door air1 & :olesome food4 ,illu/ration3 ,a sanit>ium = tub]culosis4 ,notice ! outdoor sleep+ rooms4 ,h[ ! ,bo>d ( ,heal? fights ,tub]culosis4--,tub]culosis1 :i* a few ye>s ago kill$ fully "o sev5? ( ! p :o di$ f disease 9 ?is c\ntry1 n[ kills less ?an "o t5?4 ,?is decrease has be5 l>gely br\ght ab\t because ( ! treatm5t ( ! disease4 ,s9ce x has be5 prov$ t tub]culosis if tak5 e>ly en\gh is curable1 by quiet liv+1 good food1 & pl5ty ( fre% air & light1 we f9d t num]\s sanit>ia h come into exi/5ce :i* are support$ by private or public means4 ,at ^! sanit>ia ! pati5ts live out ( doors1 especially sleep 9 ! air1 :ile !y h pl5ty ( n\ri%+ food & little ex]cise4 ,! dep>tm5t ( heal? ( ,new ,york ,city ma9ta9s a sanit>ium at ,otisville 9 ! ,catskill ,m\nta9s4 ,"h p :o are unable to provide means = gett+ away f ! city are c>$ = at ! city's exp5se & a l>ge p]c5tage ( !m are cur$4 ,9 ?is way & by t5em5t h\se laws :i* require prop] air %afts & w9d[ v5tilation 9 dwell+s1 by laws aga9/ spitt+ 9 public places1 & 9 o!r ways1 ! bo>ds ( heal? 9 our t[ns & cities are wag+ w> on tub]culosis4 ,ex-,presid5t ,roosevelt said1 9 "o ( 8 late/ messages to ,congress3-- ,!re are ab\t #c1jjj1jjj p s]i\sly ill 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ( :om #ejj1jjj are consumptives4 ,m ?an half ( ?is illness is prev5table4 ,if we c\nt ! value ( ea* life lo/ at only #agjj & reckon ! av]age e>n+ lo/ by illness at #gjj a ye> = gr[n m51 we f9d t ! economic ga9 f mitigation ( prev5table disease 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates w\ld exce$ #a1ejj1jjj1jjj a ye>4 ,?is ga9 c be _h ?r\gh m$ical inve/igation & practice1 s*ool & factory hygi5e1 re/riction ( labor by wom5 & *ildr51 ! education ( ! p 9 bo? public & private hygi5e1 & ?r\gh improv+ ! effici5cy ( our heal? s]vice1 municipal1 /ate1 & national4 ,"w ( ! ,division ( ,s*ool & ,infant ,hygi5e4--,besides ! "w ( ! division ( infecti\s disease1 ! division ( sanitation1 :i* regulates ! g5]al sanit>y conditions ( h\ses & _! surr\nd+s & ! division ( inspection1 :i* looks aft] ! purity & conditions ( sale & deliv]y ( milk & foods1 !re is ano!r dep>tm5t :i* mo/ vitally conc]ns s*ool *ildr54 ,?is is ! division ( s*ool & infant hygi5e4 ,! "w ( ?is dep>tm5t is t ( ! c>e ( ! *ildr5 ( ! city4 ,dur+ ! ye> #aiab1 #bgi1ggf visits 7 made to ! homes ( s*ool *ildr5 ( ! city ( ,new ,york by inspectors & nurses4 ,besides ?is1 ?\s&s ( *ildr5 9 s*ool 7 c>$ = & aid$ by ! city4 ,ad5oids4--,_m *ildr5 suff] ne$lessly f ad5oids1--gr[?s 9 ! back ( ! nose or m\? :i* prev5t suffici5t oxyg5 be+ admitt$ to ! lungs4 ,a *ild suff]+ f ^! gr[?s is kn[n z a m\? brea!r because ! m\? is op5$ 9 ord] to get m air4 ,! result to ! *ild may be a h&icap ( deafness1 *ronic runn+ ( ! nose1 n]v\sness1 & lack ( p[] to ?9k4 ,8 body cells are />v+ = oxyg54 ,a v simple op]ation removes ?is gr[?4 ,coop]ation on ! "p ( ! *ildr5 & p>5ts ) ! doctors or nurses ( ! bo>d ( heal? w d mu* 9 remov+ ?is h&icap f _m "y lives4 ,eye/ra94--,ano!r h&icap to a boy or girl is eye/ra94 ,tw5ty-two p] c5t ( ! s*ool *ildr5 ( ,massa*usetts 7 rec5tly f\nd to h defects 9 vision4 ,te/s = defective eyesight may be made at s*ool easily by compet5t doctors1 & if ! *ild or p>5t takes ! advice giv5 to correct ?is by procur+ prop] glasses1 a h&icap on future success w be remov$4 ,decay$ ,tee?4--,decay$ tee? are ano!r h&icap1 c>$ = by ?is division4 ,free d5tal cl9ics h be5 e/abli%$ 9 _m cities1 & if *ildr5 w d _! %>e1 ! *ances ( _! success 9 lat] life w be greatly aid$4 ,boys & girls1 if h&icapp$ ) poor eyes or tee?1 d n h a fair *ance 9 life's competition4 ,9 a c]ta9 s*ool 9 ,new ,york ,city !re 7 #bcf pupils m>k$ ,c 9 _! s*ool "w4 ,^! *ildr5 7 exam9$1 & #abf 7 f\nd to h bad tee?1 #ed defective vision1 & #ef o!r defects1 z poor he>+1 ad5oids1 enl>g$ tonsils1 etc4 ,( ^! *ildr5 #ahe 7 treat$ = ^! v>i\s difficulties1 & #ea did n take treatm5t4 ,dur+ ! foll[+ ye>'s "w #agf ( ^! pupils improv$ f ,c to ,b or ,a1 :ile #fj did n improve4 ,if defects are su* a h&icap 9 s*ool1 !n :at w\ld be ! *ances ( success 9 life outside4 ,9 conclusion3 ?is dep>tm5t ( s*ool hygi5e des]ves ! e>ne/ aid ( e "y citiz51 girl or boy4 ,if ea* ( u w\ld hone/ly help by ma9ta9+ qu>ant9e 9 ! case ( contagi\s disease1 by obs]v+ ! rules ( ! heal? dep>tm5t 9 fumigation1 by act+ ^u advice giv5 9 case ( eye/ra91 bad tee?1 or ad5oids1 & mo/ ( all by obs]v+ ! rules ( p]sonal hygi5e z laid d[n 9 ?is book1 ! city 9 :i* we live w\ld1 a g5]ation h5ce1 conta9 /rong]1 m prosp]\s1 & m effici5t citiz5s ?an x does to-day4 ,,ref]5ce ,,books ,,elem5t>y ,hunt]1 ,laboratory ,problems 9 ,civic ,biology4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,davison1 ,! ,human ,body & ,heal?4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,gulick ,hygi5e ,s]ies1 ,t[n & ,city4 ,g9n & ,company4 ,h\gh & ,s$gwick1 ,! ,human ,me*anism1 ,"p ,,ii4 ,g9n & ,company4 ,ov]ton1 ,g5]al ,hygi5e4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,ri*>ds1 ,sanitation 9 ,daily ,life4 ,:itcomb & ,b>r[s4 ,ri*mond & ,walla*1 ,good ,citiz5%ip4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,rit*ie1 ,prim] ( ,sanitation4 ,_w ,book ,company4 ,%>pe1 ,laboratory ,manual ( ,biology1 pages #cbj-ccd4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,,advanc$ ,all51 ,civics & ,heal?4 ,g9n & ,company4 ,*ap91 ,municipal ,sanitation 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,sn[ & ,f>nham4 ,*ap91 ,s\rces & ,modes ( ,infection4 ,wiley & ,sons4 ,conn1 ,practical ,dairy ,bact]iology4 ,orange ,judd ,company4 ,h\gh & ,s$gwick1 ,! ,human ,me*anism4 ,"p ,,ii4 ,g9n & ,company4 ,hut*9son1 ,prev5table ,diseases4 ,! ,h\ghton1 ,miffl9 ,company4 ,morse1 ,! ,collection & ,disposal ( ,municipal ,wa/e4 ,municipal ,j\rnal & ,eng9e]4 ,ov]lock1 ,! ,work+ ,p1 ,_! ,heal? & ,h[ to ,protect ,x4 ,mass4 ,heal? ,book ,publi%+ ,co4 ,price1 ,h&book ( ,sanitation4 ,wiley & ,sons4 ,tolman1 ,hygi5e = ! ,work]4 ,am]ican ,book ,company4 ,,reports1 ,,etc4 ,am]ican ,heal? ,magaz9e4 ,annual ,report ( ,dep>tm5t ( ,heal?1 ,city ( ,new ,york 7& o!r cities74 ,bullet9s & ,publications ( ,committee ( ,"o ,hundr$ on ,national ,heal?4 ,s*ool ,hygi5e1 ,am]ican ,s*ool ,hygi5e ,association4 ,gr9nell1 ,our ,army v]sus a ,bacillus4 ,national ,geographic ,magaz9e4 ,,xxv4 ,,"s ,,great ,,names ,,9 ,,biology ,if we 7 to attempt to gr\p ! names associat$ ) ! /udy ( biology1 we w\ld f9d t 9 a g5]al way !y 7 connect$ ei!r ) discov]ies ( a purely sci5tific nature or ) ! b5efit+ ( man's condition by ! application ( ! purely sci5tific discov]ies4 ,! fir/ gr\p are necess>y 9 a sci5ce 9 ord] t ! second gr\p may apply _! "w4 ,x 0 necess>y = m5 l ,*>les ,d>w9 or ,gregor ,m5del to prove _! !ories be=e m5 l ,lu!r ,burbank or any ( ! m5 n[ work+ 9 ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture c\ld b5efit mank9d by gr[+ new v>ieties ( plants4 ,! discov]y ( sci5tific tru?s mu/ be a*iev$ be=e ! m5 ( mod]n m$ic9e c apply ^! great tru?s to ! cure or prev5tion ( disease4 ,s9ce we are mo/ int]e/$ 9 discov]ies :i* t\* directly ^u human life1 ! m5 ( :om ?is *apt] treats w be ^? :o1 directly or indirectly1 h b5efit$ mank9d4 ,! ,discov]]s ( ,liv+ ,matt]4--,! names ( a numb] ( m5 liv+ at diff]5t p]iods are associat$ ) our fir/ k ( cells4 ,ab\t ! middle ( ! sev5te5? c5tury microscopes came into use4 ,?r\gh _! use plant cells 7 fir/ describ$ & pictur$ z holl[ boxes or cells4 ,b x 0 n until #ahch t two ,g]man fri5ds1 ,s*leid5 & ,s*wann by "n1 work+ on plants & animals1 discov]$ t bo? ( ^! =ms ( life conta9$ a jellylike sub/ance t lat] came to be call$ protoplasm4 ,ano!r ,g]man nam$ ,max ,s*ultz 9 #ahfa gave ! "n protoplasm to all liv+ matt]1 & a little lat] /ill ,pr(essor ,huxley1 a fam\s ,engli%man1 fri5d & *ampion ( ,*>les ,d>w91 call$ att5tion to ! physical & *emical qualities ( protoplasm s t x came to be kn[n z ! *emical & physical basis ( life4 ,illu/ration3 ,pr(4 ,tyndall's exp]im5t to %[ t if air conta9+ g]ms is kept f organic sub/ances1 su* sub/ances w n decay4 ,! box is /]iliz$2 likewise ! tubes 7t7 conta9+ nutri5ts4 ,air is all[$ to ent] by ! tubes 7u71 :i* are s made t du/ is prev5t$ f ent]+4 ,a !rmomet] 7?7 records ! temp]ature4 ,! sub/ances 9 ! tubes d n decay1 no matt] h[ favorable ! temp]ature4 ,life comes f ,life4--,ano!r gr\p ( m51 aft] ye>s ( pati5t exp]im5tation1 work$ out ! fact t life comes f o!r life4 ,9 anci5t times x 0 ?\ght t life arose spontane\sly2 = example1 t fi% or frogs arose out ( ! mud ( ! riv] bottoms1 & t insects came f ! dew or rott+ meat4 ,x 0 believ$ t bact]ia arose spontane\sly 9 wat]1 ev5 z late z #ahgf1 :5 ,pr(essor ,tyndall prov$ by exp]im5t ! contr>y to be true4 ,z e>ly z #afea ,william ,h>vey1 ! c\rt physician ( ,*>les ,i ( ,engl&1 %[$ t all life came f ! egg4 ,x 0 mu* lat]1 h[ev]1 t ! "p play$ by ! sp]m & egg cell 9 f]tilization 0 c>efully work$ out4 ,x is to ,h>vey1 too1 t we owe ! beg9n+s ( our k ( ! circulation ( ! blood4 ,he %[$ t blood mov$ ?r\gh tubes 9 ! body & t ! he>t pump$ x4 ,he might be call$ ! fa!r ( mod]n physiology z well z ! fa!r ( embryology4 ,a long li/ ( names might be add$ to t ( ,h>vey to %[ h[ gradually our k ( ! work+ ( ! human body has be5 add$ to4 ,at ! pres5t "t we are f> f kn[+ all ! functions ( ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! human eng9e1 z is %[n by ! numb] ( inve/igators 9 physiology at ! pres5t "t4 ,pres5t-day problems h mu* to d ) ! c>e ( ! human me*anism & ) its surr\nd+s4 ,! solution ( ^! problems w come f apply+ ! sci5ces ( hygi5e1 prev5tive m$ic9e1 & sanitation4 ,9 ! prec$+ *apt]s ( ?is book we h le>n$ some?+ ab\t our bodies & _! c>e4 ,we h f\nd t man is able )9 limitations to control 8 environm5t s z to make x bett] to live 94 ,all ( ! sci5tific facts t h be5 ( use to man 9 ! control ( disease h be5 f\nd out by m5 :o h devot$ _! lives 9 ! hope t _! exp]im5ts & _! sacrifices ( "t1 en]gy1 & sometimes life itself might make = ! bett]m5t ( ! human race4 ,su* m5 7 ,h>vey1 ,j5n]1 ,li/]1 ,ko*1 & ,pa/eur4 ,illu/ration3 ,edw>d ,j5n]1 ! discov]] ( vacc9ation4 ,edw>d ,j5n] & ,vacc9ation4--,! civiliz$ _w owes mu* to ,edw>d ,j5n]1 ! discov]] ( vacc9ation aga9/ smallpox4 ,born 9 ,b]keley1 a little t[n ( ,gl\ce/]%ire1 ,engl&1 9 #agdi1 z a boy he %[$ a /rong lik+ = natural hi/ory4 ,he /udi$ m$ic9e & also gave mu* "t to ! work+ out ( biological problems4 ,z e>ly z #agge he began to associate ! disease call$ c[pox ) t ( smallpox1 & gradually ! idea ( inoculation aga9/ ?is t]rible sc\rge1 :i* kill$ or disfigur$ hundr$s ( ?\s&s e ye> 9 ,engl& alone1 0 work$ out & appli$4 ,he believ$ t if ! two diseases 7 simil>1 a p]son inoculat$ ) ! mild disease 7c[pox7 w\ld aft] a slight attack ( ?is disease be immune aga9/ ! m deadly & loa?some smallpox4 ,x 0 n until #agif t he 0 able to prove 8 !ory1 z at fir/ few p w\ld submit to vacc9ation4 ,w> at ?is "t 0 be+ wag$ betwe5 ,france & ,engl&1 s t ! =m] c\ntry1 usually s quick to appreciate ! value ( sci5tific discov]ies1 0 sl[ to give ?is me?od a trial4 ,9 spite ( mu* opposition1 h[ev]1 by ! ye> #ahjb1 vacc9ation 0 practic$ 9 mo/ ( ! civiliz$ c\ntries ( ! _w4 ,at ! pres5t "t ! dea? rate 9 ,great ,brita91 ! home ( vacc9ation1 is less ?an 4#c to e #a1jjj1jjj liv+ p]sons4 ,?is %[s t ! disease is practically wip$ out 9 ,engl&4 ,an int]e/+ comp>ison ) ^! figures might be made f ! hi/ory ( ! disease 9 p>ts ( ,russia :]e vacc9ation is n practic$4 ,!re1 ?\s&s ( dea?s f smallpox occur annually4 ,dur+ ! w9t] ( #aiac-aiad an epidemic ( smallpox ) m ?an #bej cases broke out 9 ! city ( ,niag>a ,falls4 ,?is epidemic appe>s to be due to a campaign conduct$ by p :o d n believe 9 vacc9ation4 ,9 cities & t[ns ne> by1 :]e vacc9ation 0 practic$1 no cases ( smallpox occurr$4 ,naturally if opposition to vacc9ation is f\nd n[adays1 ,j5n] _h a mu* h>d] battle to fight 9 8 day4 ,he also _h _m failures1 due to ! imp]fect me?ods ( 8 "t4 ,! full wor? ( 8 discov]y 0 n fully appreciat$ until long aft] 8 dea?1 :i* occurr$ 9 #ahbc4 ,illu/ration3 ,l\is ,pa/eur4 ,l\is ,pa/eur4--,! "o man :o1 9 biological sci5ce1 did m ?an any o!r to directly b5efit mank9d 0 ,l\is ,pa/eur4 ,born 9 #ahbb1 9 ! m\nta9s ne> ! bord] ( nor!a/]n ,france1 he sp5t ! e>ly "p ( 8 life z a normal boy1 fond ( fi%+ & n v p>tial to /udy4 ,he inh]it$ f 8 fa!r1 h[ev]1 a f9e "* & grim det]m9ation1 s t :5 he became int]e/$ 9 sci5tific pursuits he settl$ d[n to "w ) en?usiasm & en]gy4 ,at ! age ( tw5ty-five he became well kn[n ?r\gh\t ,france z a physici/4 ,%ortly aft] ?is he became int]e/$ 9 ! t9y plants we call bact]ia1 & x 0 9 ! field ( bact]iology t he became mo/ fam\s4 ,fir/ z pr(essor at ,/rassburg & at ,lille1 lat] z director ( sci5tific /udies 9 ! ,ecole ,normale at ,p>is1 he %[$ 8 int]e/ 9 ! application ( 8 discov]ies to human welf>e4 ,9 #aheg ,pa/eur %[$ t f]m5tation 0 due to ! pres5ce ( bact]ia1 x hav+ be5 ?\ght up to ?is "t t x 0 a purely *emical process4 ,?is discov]y l$ to v practical ends1 = ,france 0 a great w9e-produc+ c\ntry1 & ) a k ( ! cause ( f]m5tation _m ( ! diseases :i* spoil$ w9e 7 *eck$4 ,9 #ahfe-ahfh ,pa/eur turn$ 8 att5tion to a silkworm disease :i* ?reat5$ to wipe out ! silk indu/ry ( ,france & ,italy4 ,he f\nd t ?is disease 0 caus$ by bact]ia4 ,aft] a c>eful /udy ( ! case he made c]ta9 recomm5dations :i*1 :5 c>ri$ out1 result$ 9 ! complete ov]?r[ ( ! disease & ! sav+ ( millions ( doll>s to ! poor p ( ,france & ,italy4 ,! greate/ s]vice to mank9d came lat] 9 8 life :5 he appli$ c]ta9 ( 8 discov]ies to ! treatm5t ( disease4 ,fir/ exp]im5t+ ^u *ick5s & lat] ) cattle1 he prov$ t by mak+ a virus 7poison7 f ! g]ms :i* caus$ c]ta9 diseases he c\ld r$uce ?is virus to any desir$ /r5g?4 ,he !n inoculat$ ! animals ) ! virus ( r$uc$ /r5g?1 giv+ ! inoculat$ animals a mild attack ( ! disease1 & f\nd t ?is made !m immune f future attacks4 ,?is discov]y1 fir/ appli$ to *ick5 *ol]a1 laid ! f\ndation = all future "w 9 ! uses ( s]ums1 vacc9es1 & antitox9s4 ,pa/eur 0 p]haps ! be/ kn[n ?r\gh 8 /udy ( rabies4 ,! great ,pa/eur ,in/itute1 f\nd$ by popul> subscriptions f all ov] ! _w1 has successfully treat$ ov] #bb1jjj cases ( rabies ) a dea? rate ( less ?an #a p] c5t4 ,b m ?an t x has be5 ! place :]e ,r\x1 a fell[ work] ) ,pa/eur1 discov]$ ! antitox9 = diph!ria :i* has result$ 9 ! sav+ ( ?\s&s ( human lives4 ,"h also h be5 e/abli%$ ! pr9ciples ( inoculation aga9/ bubonic plague1 lockjaw1 & o!r g]m diseases4 ,pa/eur di$ 9 #ahie at ! age ( sev5ty-?ree1 ! mo/ p]fect man 9 ! realm ( sci5ce1 a man belov$ by 8 c\ntrym5 & honor$ by ! entire _w4 ,illu/ration3 ,rob]t ,ko*4 ,rob]t ,ko*4--,ano!r "n associat$ ) ! battle aga9/ disease g]ms is t ( ,rob]t ,ko*4 ,born 9 ,klau/hal1 ,hanov]1 9 #ahdc1 he lat] became a practic+ physician1 & ab\t #ahhj 0 call$ to ,b]l9 to become a memb] ( ! sanit>y commission & pr(essor 9 ! s*ool ( m$ic9e4 ,9 #ahha he discov]$ ! g]m t causes tub]culosis & two ye>s lat] ! g]m t causes ,asiatic *ol]a4 ,8 lat] "w has be5 direct$ t[>d ! discov]y ( a cure = tub]culosis & o!r g]m diseases4 ,z yet1 h[ev]1 no c]ta9 cure seems to h be5 f\nd4 ,li/] & ,antiseptic ,treatm5t ( ,w\nds4--,a ?ird great b5efactor ( mank9d 0 ,sir ,joseph ,li/]1 an ,engli%man :o 0 born 9 #ahbg4 ,z a pr(essor ( surg]y he fir/ appli$ antiseptics 9 ! op]at+ room4 ,by means ( ! use ( c>bolic acid or o!r antiseptics on ! surface ( w\nds1 on in/rum5ts1 & on ! h&s & clo?+ ( ! op]at+ surgeons1 disease g]ms 7 prev5t$ f tak+ a foo?old 9 ! w\nds4 ,?us blood poison+ 0 prev5t$4 ,?is s+le discov]y has done m to prev5t dea? aft] op]ations ?an any o!r ( rec5t "t4 ,mod]n ,work]s on ! ,blood4--,at ! pres5t "t sev]al names /& out among inve/igators on ! blood4 ,paul ,ehrli*1 a ,g]man born 9 #ahed1 is ju/ly fam\s = 8 "w on ! blood & its relation to immunity f c]ta9 diseases4 ,8 la/ great rese>* has giv5 to ! _w a specific aga9/ ! dread disease syphilis4 ,ano!r "n associat$ ) ! blood is t ( ,elias ,met*nik(f1 a ,russian4 ,he 0 born 9 #ahde4 ,met*nik(f fir/ advanc$ ! belief t ! colorless blood corpuscles1 or phagocytes1 did s]vice z ! sanit>y police ( ! body4 ,he has f\nd t !re are sev]al diff]5t k9ds ( colorless corpuscles1 ea* hav+ some:at diff]5t "w to d4 ,mu* ( ! mod]n "w done by physiologi/s on ! blood are directly f\nd$ on ! discov]ies ( ,met*nik(f4 ,illu/ration3 ,*>les ,d>w91 ! gr& old man ( biology4 ,h]$ity & ,evolution4 ,*>les ,d>w94--,!re is /ill ano!r important l9e ( inve/igation 9 biology t we h n m5tion$4 ,?is is ! doctr9e ( evolution & ! alli$ discov]ies along ! l9e ( h]$ity4 ,! developm5t or evolution ( plants & animals f simpl] =ms to ! _m & pres5t complex =ms ( life h a practical be>+ on ! bett]m5t ( plants & animals1 includ+ man himself4 ,! "o "n indelibly associat$ ) ! ^w evolution is t ( ,*>les ,d>w94 ,*>les ,d>w9 0 born on ,febru>y #ab1 #ahji1 a son ( well-to-d p>5ts1 9 ! pretty ,engli% village ( ,%rewsbury4 ,z a boy he 0 v fond ( out-(-door life1 0 a collector ( birds' eggs1 /amps1 co9s1 %ells1 & m9]als4 ,he 0 an ard5t fi%]man1 & z a "y man became an exp]t %ot4 ,8 /udies1 ^? ( ! ,engli% classical s*ool1 7 n altoge!r to 8 lik+4 ,x is n /range1 p]haps1 t he 0 ?\ght a v ord9>y boy1 because 8 int]e/ 9 ! out-(-doors l$ him to neglect 8 /udies4 ,lat] he 0 s5t to ,ed9burgh ,univ]sity to /udy m$ic9e4 ,"h ! dull lectures1 c\pl$ ) 8 int5se dislike = op]ations1 made him det]m9e nev] to become a physician4 ,b all ?is "t he %[$ 8 int5se int]e/ 9 natural hi/ory & took frequ5t "p 9 ! discussions at ! meet+s ( "o ( ! /ud5t zoological societies4 ,9 #ahbh 8 fa!r s5t him to ,cambridge to /udy = ! m9i/ry4 ,8 ?ree ye>s at ! univ]sity 7 wa/$ s f> z prep>ation = ! m9i/ry 7 conc]n$1 b !y 7 invaluable 9 %ap+ 8 future4 ,he made ! acqua9tance ( "o or two pr(essors :o 7 naturali/s l himself1 & 9 _! company he sp5t _m happy h\rs 9 roam+ ov] ! c\ntryside collect+ beetles & o!r insects4 ,9 #ahca an ev5t occurr$ :i* *ang$ 8 c>e] & made ,d>w9 "o ( ! _w's greate/ naturali/s4 ,he receiv$ ^w ?r\gh "o ( 8 pr(essional fri5ds t ! position ( naturali/ on h] ,maje/y's %ip ,beagle 0 op5 = a trip ar\nd ! _w4 ,d>w9 appli$ = ! position1 0 accept$1 & %ortly aft] />t$ on an ev5tful five ye>s' trip ar\nd ! _w4 ,he return$ to ,engl& a fam\s naturali/ & sp5t ! rema9d] ( 8 long & busy life produc+ books :i* h done m ?an ^? ( any o!r writ] to acc\nt 9 a satisfactory way = ! *anges ( =m & habits ( plants & animals on ! e>?4 ,8 !ories e/abli%$ a f\ndation ^u :i* plant & animal bre$]s 7 able to "w4 ,8 wond]ful discov]y ( ! doctr9e ( evolution 0 due n only to 8 in=mation & exp]im5tal evid5ce1 b also to an iron det]m9ation & undaunt$ en]gy4 ,9 spite ( almo/ con/ant illness br\ght ab\t by eye/ra91 he accompli%$ m ?an mo/ well m5 h done4 ,8 life %\ld mean to u n s mu* ! association ( 8 "n ) ! ,orig9 ( ,species or ,plants & ,animals "u ,dome/ication1 two ( 8 mo/ fam\s books1 b r t ( a pati5t1 c\rte\s1 & brave g5tleman :o /ruggl$ ) true ,engli% pluck aga9/ ! odds ( disease & ! attacks ( ho/ile critics4 ,he gave to ! _w ! pro(s ( ! !ory on :i* we to-day base ! progress ( ! _w4 ,d>w9 liv$ long en\gh to see _m ( 8 critics turn ab\t & come ov] to 8 beliefs4 ,he di$ on ! #ai? ( ,april1 #ahhb1 at sev5ty-f\r ye>s ( age4 ,associat$ ) ,d>w9's "n we mu/ place two o!r co-work]s on h]$ity & evolution1 ,alfr$ ,russel ,wallace1 an ,engli%man :o indep5d5tly & at ab\t ! same "t rea*$ _m ( ! conclusions t ,d>w9 came to1 & ,augu/ ,weissman1 a ,g]man4 ,! latt] %[$ t ! protoplasm ( ! g]m cells 7eggs & sp]ms7 is directly h&$ d[n f g5]ation to g5]ation1 !y be+ diff]5t f ! o!r body cells f ! v beg9n+4 ,9 #ahhc a ,g]man nam$ ,bov]i discov]$ t ! *romosomes ( ! egg & ! sp]m cell 7 at ! "t ( f]tilization j half 9 numb] ( ! o!r cells 7see page #beb7 s t a f]tiliz$ egg 0 really a :ole cell made up ( two half cells1 "o f ea* p>5t4 ,! *romosomes )9 ! nucleus1 we rememb]1 are believ$ to be ! be>]s ( ! h]$it>y qualities h&$ d[n f p>5t to *ild4 ,?is discov]y %[s u "s ( ! me*anics ( h]$ity4 ,applications to ,plant & ,animal ,bre$+4--,turn+ to ! practical applications ( ! sci5tific "w on ! me?od ( h]$ity1 ! "n ( ,gregor ,m5del1 an ,au/rian monk1 /&s out mo/ prom95tly4 ,m5del liv$ f #ahbb until #ahhd4 ,8 "w1 ( :i* we already h le>n$ some?+ 7see page #beh71 rema9$ undiscov]$ until a few ye>s ago4 ,! application ( 8 me?ods to plant & animal rais+ are ( ! utmo/ importance because ! bre$] is able to sep>ate ! qualities he desires & bre$ = ^? qualities only4 ,ano!r "n we h m5tion$ ) ref]5ce to plant bre$+ is ,hugo de ,vries1 ! ,dut*man :o rec5tly %[$ t 9 "s cases plants arise z new species by sudd5 & great v>iations kn[n z mutations4 ,& la/ly1 9 our own ,cali=nia1 ,lu!r ,burbank1 by c>eful hybridiz+1 is mak+ la/+ fame ) 8 new & useful hybrid plants4 ,,ref]5ces ,conn1 ,biology4 ,silv]1 ,burdett ,co4 ,d>w91 ,life & ,lett]s ( ,*>les ,d>w94 ,appletons4 ,galton1 ,h]$it>y ,g5ius4 ,london 7#ahib74 ,?ompson1 ,h]$ity4 ,john ,murray1 ,london ,engl&4 ,wasmann1 ,problem ( ,evolution4 ,kegan ,paul1 ,tr5*1 ,truebn] & ,co41 ,london1 ,e4 ,c4 ,,app5dix ,a ,,sugge/$ ,,outl9e ,,= ,,biology ,,beg9n+ ,,9 ,,! ,,fall ,,li/ ,,( ,,topics ,,fir/ ,,t]m ,fir/ week4 ,,:y ,,/udy ,,biology8 ,relation to human heal?1 hygi5e4 ,relations exi/+ betwe5 plants & animals4 ,relation ( bact]ia to man4 ,uses ( plants & animals4 ,cons]vation ( plants & animals4 ,relation to life ( citiz5 9 ! city4 ,plants & animals 9 relation to _! environm5t4 ,:at is ! environm5t2 light1 heat1 wat]1 soil1 food1 etc4 ,:at plants take out ( ! environm5t4 ,:at animals take out ( ! environm5t4 ,dep5d5ce ( plants & animals ^u ! factors ( ! environm5t4 ,laboratory3 ,/udy ( a plant or an animal 9 ! s*ool or at home to det]m9e :at x takes f its environm5t4 ,second week4 ,,"s ,,relations ,,exi/+ ,,betwe5 ,,plants 7,,gre57 ,,& ,,animals4 ,field trip plann$ to %[ t insects fe$ ^u plants2 make _! homes ^u plants4 ,t fl[]s are poll9at$ by insects4 ,insects lay eggs ^u c]ta9 food plants4 ,gre5 plants make food = animals4 ,o!r relations4 7,"t allotm5t4 ,"o day trip1 collect+1 etc42 two days' discussion ( trip 9 all its relations47 ,make a c>eful /udy ( ! locality y wi% to visit1 h a plan t ! pupils "k ab\t be=eh&4 ,review & hygi5e ( pupil's environm5t1 #b days4 ,?ird week4 ,,/udy ,,( ,a ,,fl[]1 ,,p>ts ,,ess5tial ,,to ,,poll9ation ,,nam$4 ,adaptations = insect poll9ation work$ out 9 laboratory4 ,/udy ( bee or butt]fly z an insect c>ri] ( poll54 ,names ( p>ts ( insect le>n$4 ,elem5t>y k ( gr\ps ( insects se5 on field trip4 ,bees1 butt]flies1 gras%opp]s1 beetles1 possibly flies & bugs4 ,draw+ ( a fl[]1 p>ts label$4 ,draw+ ( an insect1 outl9e only1 p>ts label$4 ,c>eful /udy ( "s fall fl[] fitt$ = insect poll9ation ) an insect z poll9at+ ag5t4 ,"s examples ( cross-poll9ation expla9$4 ,practical value ( cross-poll9ation4 ,f\r? week4 ,,liv+ ,,plants ,,& ,,animals ,,comp>$4 ,p>ts ( plants1 functions2 organs1 tissues1 cells4 ,demon/ration cells ( onion or elodea4 ,h[ cells =m o!rs4 ,:at liv+ matt] c d4 ,reproduction4 ,gr[? ( poll5 tube1 f]tilization4 ,developm5t ( ovule into se$4 ,fruits1 h[ =m$4 ,uses1 to man4 ,fif? week4 ,,:at ,,makes ,a ,,se$ ,,gr[4 ,bean se$1 a baby plant1 & food supply4 ,food1 :at is x8 ,organic nutri5ts1 te/s = />*1 prote91 oil4 ,%[ _! pres5ce 9 se$s4 ,six? week4 ,,ne$ ,,= ,,foods4 ,g]m9ation ( bean due to 7a7 pres5ce ( foods1 7b7 outside factors4 ,:at is done ) ! food4 ,release ( en]gy4 ,examples ( eng9e1 plants1 human body4 ,oxidation 9 body4 ,pro( by exp]im5t4 ,te/ = pres5ce ( ,,co#b4 ,oxidation 9 gr[+ plant1 exp]im5t4 ,respiration a g5]al ne$ = bo? plants & animals4 ,sev5? week4 ,,ne$ ,,= ,,dige/ion4 ,! corn gra94 ,p>ts1 gr[?1 food supply outside body ( plant1 h[ does x get inside4 ,dige/ion1 ne$ =4 ,te/ = grape sug>4 ,enzymes1 _! function4 ,action ( dia/ase on />*4 ,eigh? week4 ,,:at ,,plants ,,take ,,f ,,! ,,soil1 ,,h[ ,,!y ,,d ,,?is4 ,use ( root4 ,influ5ce ( gravity & wat]4 ,:y8 ,absorption a function4 ,root hairs4 ,demon/ration4 ,pocket g>d5s1 optional home "w1 b ea* pupil mu/ "w on root hairs f actual specim54 ,h[ root absorbs4 ,osmosis2 :at sub/ances w osmose4 ,exp]im5ts to demon/rate ?is4 ,n9? week4 ,,composition ,,( ,,soil4 ,:at root hairs take out ( soil4 ,plant ne$s m9]al matt] to make liv+ matt]4 ,:y8 ,nitrog5 necess>y4 ,s\rces ( nitrog51 ! nitrog5-fix+ bact]ia4 ,relation ( ?is to man4 ,rotation ( crops4 ,t5? week4 ,,h[ ,,gre5 ,,plants ,,make ,,food4 ,passage ( liquids up /em4 ,demon/ration4 ,/ructure ( a gre5 leaf4 ,cellul> /ructure demon/rat$4 ,microscopic demon/ration ( cells1 /oma1 air spaces1 *lorophyll bodies4 ,evaporation ( wat] f gre5 leaf1 regulation ( transpiration4 ,elev5? week4 ,midt]m ,exam9ations4 ,sun a s\rce ( en]gy4 ,effect ( light on gre5 plants4 ,exp]im5tal pro(4 ,/>* made 9 gre5 leaf4 ,light & air necess>y = />* mak+4 ,pro(4 ,prote9 mak+ 9 leaf4 ,by-products 9 />* mak+4 ,pro(4 ,respiration4 ,twelf? week4 ,,! ,,circulation ,,& ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,food ,,9 ,,gre5 ,,plants4 ,uses ( b>k1 wood1 :at "p ( /em does food pass d[n4 ,will[ twig exp]im5t4 ,summ>y ( functions ( liv+ matt] 9 plant4 ,=e/ry lecture4 ,economic uses ( gre5 plants4 ,reports4 ,?irte5? week4 ,,plants ,,)\t ,,*lorophyll ,,9 ,,_! ,,relation ,,to ,,man4 ,saprophytic fungi4 ,molds4 ,gr[? on bread or o!r sub/ances4 ,conditions mo/ favorable = gr[?4 ,favorite foods4 ,me?ods ( prev5tion4 ,economic importance4 ,f\rte5? week4 ,,yea/s ,,9 ,,_! ,,relation ,,to ,,man4 ,exp]im5ts to %[ f]m5tation is caus$ by yea/s4 ,exp]im5ts to %[ conditions necess>y = f]m5tation4 ,! "p play$ by yea/s 9 bread mak+1 9 w9e mak+1 9 o!r indu/ries4 ,/ructure ( yea/ demon/rat$4 ,summ>y4 ,fifte5? week4 ,,exp]im5ts ,,to ,,%[ ,,:]e ,,bact]ia ,,may ,,be ,,f\nd ,,& ,,conditions ,,necess>y ,,to ,,gr[? ,,begun4 ,h cultures collect$ & plac$ 9 a w>m room dur+ ! holidays4 ,sugge/$ exp]im5ts are exposure to air ( quiet room & room ) p]sons mov+1 du/ ( floor1 knife blade1 etc4 ,sixte5?1 sev5te5?1 & eighte5? weeks4 ,,! ,,mon? ,,( ,,janu>y ,,%\ld ,,be ,,devot$ ,,to ,,! ,,/udy ,,( ,,bact]ia ,,9 ,,_! ,,g5]al ,,relations ,,to ,,man4 ,economically1 bo? directly & indirectly4 ,especial emphasis plac$ on ! nature & necessity ( decay4 ,bact]ia 9 relation to disease %\ld also be emphasiz$4 ,! exp]im5ts to be p]=m$ & ! topics expect$ to be cov]$ foll[4 ,,conditions ,,favorable ,,& ,,unfavorable ,,= ,,gr[? ,,( ,,bact]ia4 7,use b\illon cultures47 ,effect ( int5se heat1 /]ile b\illon expos$ to air1 effect ( boil+1 effect ( cold1 effect ( antiseptics 7corrosive sublimate1 c>bolic acid1 boric acid1 =mal91 etc471 effect ( l>ge am\nts ( sug> & salt & ! relation ( ?is to pres]v+1 etc4 ,br+ out practical application ( pr9ciples demon/rat$4 ,discuss /]ilization 9 m$ic9e & surg]y1 cold /orage1 cann+1 /]ilization1 e4g4 laundries1 etc41 use ( antiseptics1 pres]v+ by means ( salt & sug>4 ,microscopic demon/ration ( bact]ia4 ,me?ods ( reproduction4 ,importance 9 caus+ organic decay1 fixation ( nitrog51 v>i\s useful =ms 9 *eese mak+1 butt] rip5+1 etc4 ,h>mfulness ( bact]ia z disease produc]s4 ,specific diseases discuss$3 tub]culosis1 typhoid1 infective colds1 blood poison+1 etc4 ,vacc9ation4 ,antitox9s begun--cont9u$ aft] k ( human body is ga9$4 ,"w ( ,li/] & ,pa/eur4 ,n9ete5? & tw5tie? weeks4 ,,review ,,& ,,exam9ations4 ,,second ,,t]m ,fir/ week4 ,,! ,,balanc$ ,,aqu>ium4 ,c>bon & nitrog5 cycles4 ,balanc$ aqu>ium & hay infusion comp>$4 ,second week4 ,,"o ,,protozoan1 ,,demon/ration ,,to ,,%[ ,,*anges ,,9 ,,%ape1 ,,response ,,to ,,/imuli1 ,,summ>y ,,( ,,vital ,,processes ,,9 ,,cell4 ,food gett+1 dige/ion1 assimilation1 oxidation1 excretion1 gr[?1 reproduction4 ,int]nal /ructure ( protozoan4 ,protozoa z cause ( disease4 ,?ird week4 ,,g5]al ,,survey ,,( ,,animal ,,k+dom4 ,survey introduc$ by museum trip if possible4 ,protozoa1 worm1 insect1 fi%1 mammal4 ,di/9ction betwe5 v]tebrate & inv]tebrate4 ,"* ( mammalia4 ,division ( labor emphasiz$4 ,man's place 9 nature4 ,f\r? week4 ,,/udy ,,( ,,! ,,frog4 ,relation to habitat1 adaptations = locomotion1 food gett+1 respiration1 comp>ison ( frog & fi% on latt] po9t4 ,osmotic ex*ange ( gases emphasiz$4 ,cell respiration4 ,fif? week4 ,,metamorphosis ,,( ,,frog4 ,f]tilization1 cell division1 & diff]5tiation emphasiz$4 ,t\* on plant & animal bre$+4 ,function ( *romosomes z be>]s ( h]$ity4 ,comp>ison ( bird's egg & mammal embryo4 ,six? week4 ,,factors ,,9 ,,bre$+4 #a4 ,v>iation4 #b4 ,selection4 #c4 ,h]$ity fixes v>iation4 #d4 ,hybridiz+4 #e4 ,control ( environm5t4 ,eug5ics 9 relation to 7a7 crime1 7b7 disease1 7c7 g5ius4 ,cont9uity ( g]m plasm4 ,"w ( ,d>w91 ,m5del1 ,de ,vries1 ,burbank4 ,sev5? week4 ,a ,,brief ,,/udy ,,( ,,! ,,gross ,,/ructure ,,( ,,! ,,human ,,body4 ,sk91 muscles1 bones4 ,removal ( lime f bone by ,h,cl to %[ o!r sub/ances & ne$ = lime4 ,effect ( po/ure1 sp9al curvature1 fractures1 spra9s4 ,eigh? week4 ,,ne$ ,,= ,,food4 ,nutritive value ( food4 ,use ( *>ts to %[ foods ri* 9 c>bohydrates1 fats1 prote9s1 m9]als1 wat]1 refuse4 ,! relation ( age1 sex1 "w1 & environm5t to ! food requirem5ts4 ,:at is a *eap food4 ,price li/ ( common foods at pres5t "t4 ,ef=ts ( gov]nm5t to secure a *eap food supply = ! p4 ,dige/ibility ( foods4 ,n9? week4 ,,h[ ,,! ,,fuel ,,value ,,( ,,food ,,has ,,be5 ,,det]m9$4 ,mean+ ( calorie4 ,! #ajj-;caloric portion1 its use 9 det]m9+ a daily or weekly diet>y4 ,/&>d diet>y z det]m9$ by ,atwat]4 ,comp>ison ( /&>ds ( ,*itt5d5 & ,voit ) ^? ( ,atwat]4 ,t5? week4 ,,/udy ,,( ,,pupil',s ,,diet>y4 ,plann+ ideal meals4 ,individual diet>ies = "o day requir$ f ea* pupil4 ,discussions & corrections4 ,! family diet>y4 ,relation to co/4 ,elev5? week4 ,,dige/ion4 ,! dige/ive sy/em 9 ! frog & 9 man comp>$4 ,draw+s ( ea*4 ,gl&s & enzymes4 ,int]nal secretions & _! importance4 ,demon/ration ( gl&ul> tissues4 ,exp]im5t to %[ dige/ion ( />* 9 m\?4 ,twelf? week4 ,,dige/ion ,,cont9u$4 ,dige/ion ( :ite ( egg by ga/ric juice4 ,dige/ion ( />* ) pancreatic fluid4 ,functions ( pancreatic juice4 ,microscopic exam9ation ( emulsion4 ,reasons = dige/ion4 ,"p play$ by osmosis4 ,demon/ration ( osmosis4 ,non-osmosis ( non-dige/$ foods1 comp>ison betwe5 osmosable qualities ( />* & grape sug>4 ,?irte5? week4 ,,absorption4 ,:]e & h[ foods are absorb$4 ,! /ructure ( a villus expla9$4 ,c\rse tak5 by foods aft] absorption4 ,function ( liv]4 ,blood mak+ ! result ( absorption4 ,composition ( blood1 r$ & colorless corpuscles1 plasma1 blood plates1 antibodies4 ,microscopic draw+ ( corpuscles ( frog's & man's blood4 ,f\rte5? week4 ,,circulation ,,( ,,blood4 ,! he>t & lungs ( frog demon/rat$4 ,he>t ( man a =ce pump1 expla9 ) use ( =ce pump4 ,demon/ration ( beef's he>t4 ,circulation & *anges ( blood 9 v>i\s p>ts ( body4 ,"w ( cells ) ref]5ce to blood made cle>4 ,capill>y circulation 7demon/ration ( circulation 9 tadpole's tail or web ( frog's foot74 ,fifte5? week4 ,,respiration ,,& ,,excretion4 ,necessity = tak+ ( oxyg5 to cells & removal ( wa/es f cells4 ,"p play$ by blood & lymph4 ,me*anics ( brea?+ 7use ( exp]im5ts74 ,*anges ( air & blood 9 lungs 7exp]im5ts74 ,be/ me?ods ( v5tilation 7exp]im5ts74 ,elim9ation ( wa/es f blood by lungs1 sk91 & kidneys4 ,cell respiration4 ,sixte5? week4 ,,hygi5e ,,( ,,organs ,,( ,,excretion1 especially c>e ( sk94 ,! g5]al /ructure & functions ( ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em4 ,s5sory & motor n]ves4 ,reflexes1 in/9cts1 habits4 ,habit =mation1 importance ( "r habits4 ,rules = habit =mation4 ,habit-=m+ drugs & o!r ag5ts4 ,lecture4 ,sev5te5?1 eighte5?1 n9ete5? weeks4 ,,civic ,,hygi5e ,,& ,,sanitation4 ,hygi5e ( special s5ses1 eye & e>4 ,a well citiz5 an effici5t citiz54 ,public heal? is pur*asable4 ,improvem5t ( environm5t a means ( obta9+ ?is4 ,civic hygi5e & sanitation4 ,clean+ up neighborhood1 inquiry into home & /reet conditions4 ,fight+ ! fly4 ,conditions ( milk & wat] supply4 ,relation ( above to disease4 ,"w ( ,bo>d ( ,heal?1 etc4 ,review & ,exam9ations4 ,,sugge/$ ,,syllabus ,,= ,,c\rse ,,beg9n+ ,,febru>y #a ,,& ,,end+ ,,! ,,foll[+ ,,janu>y ,,fir/ ,,t]m ,fir/ week4 ,,:y ,,/udy ,,biology8 ,relation to human heal?1 hygi5e4 ,relations exi/+ betwe5 plants & animals4 ,relation ( bact]ia to man4 ,uses ( plants & animals4 ,cons]vation ( plants & animals4 ,relation to life ( citiz5 9 ?is city4 ,ne$s ( plants & animals3 7#a7 food1 7#b7 wat]1 7#c7 air1 7#d7 prop] temp]ature4 ,/udy ( a s+le plant or animal 9 relation to its environm5t4 ,problems ( city gov]nm5t3 7a7 /orage1 pres]vation & di/ribution ( foods1 7b7 wat] supply1 7c7 ov]cr[d$ t5em5ts1 7d7 /reet clean+1 7e7 clean s*ools4 ,biological problems 9 city gov]nm5t4 ,second week4 ,,int]relations ,,betwe5 ,,plants ,,& ,,animals4 ,plants furni% food1 clo?+1 %elt]1 & m$ic9e4 ,animals use food1 %elt]4 ,man's use ( plants z above4 ,man's use ( animals z above4 ,plant & animal indu/ries4 ,use ( balanc$ aqu>ium z illu/rative mat]ial4 ,?ird week4 ,,de/ruction ,,( ,,food ,,& ,,o!r ,,?+s ,,by ,,mold4 ,home exp]im5t4 ,conditions favorable to gr[? ( mold4 ,food1 moi/ure1 temp]ature4 ,de/ruction ( commodities by mold3 food1 lea!r1 clo?+4 ,f\r? week1 fif? week4 ,,de/ruction ,,( ,,foods ,,by ,,bact]ia4 ,exp]im5t4 ,to %[ :]e bact]ia are f\nd4 ,soil1 du/1 wat]1 milk1 h&s1 m\?4 ,use & h>m ( decay4 ,relation to agriculture4 ,exp]im5t4 ,conditions favorable & unfavorable to gr[? ( bact]ia3 boil+1 cold1 sug>1 salt4 ,bact]ia 9 relation to disease briefly m5tion$4 ,bact]ia 9 indu/ries4 ,six? week4 ,,use ,,( ,,/or$ ,,food ,,by ,,"y ,,gre5 ,,plant3 7a7 = en]gy1 7b7 = con/ruction ( tissue4 ,exp]im5t4 ,/ructure ( bean se$4 ,draw to %[ out] coat1 cotyl$on1 hypocotyl1 & plumule4 ,te/ = />* & sug> 7grape74 ,te/ = oil1 prote91 wat]1 m9]al matt]4 ,use ( all nutri5ts to se$l+4 ,sev5? week4 ,,o!r ,,ne$s ,,( ,,"y ,,plants4 ,home exp]im5ts to %[ 7a7 temp]ature1 7b7 am\nt ( wat] mo/ favorable to g]m9ation4 ,exp]im5t4 ,to %[ ne$ ( oxyg54 ,to %[ t g]m9at+ se$s give (f c>bon dioxide4 ,pro( ( pres5ce ( c>bon dioxide 9 brea?4 ,! ne$s ( a "y plant comp>$ ) ^? ( a boy or girl4 ,eigh? week4 ,,dige/ion ,,9 ,,se$l+4 ,/ructure ( corn gra94 ,exp]im5t4 ,to %[ t />* is dige/$ 9 a gr[+ se$l+ 7corn74 ,exp]im5t4 ,to %[ t dia/ase dige/s />*4 ,discussion ( exp]im5ts4 ,n9? week4 ,,:at ,,plants ,,take ,,f ,,! ,,soil ,,& ,,h[ ,,!y ,,d ,,?is4 ,use ( roots4 ,pro( t x holds plant 9 position1 takes 9 wat] & m9]al matt]1 & 9 "s cases /ores food4 ,influ5ce ( gravity & wat]4 ,label$ draw+ ( root hair4 ,root hair z a cell emphasiz$4 ,osmosis demon/rat$4 ,t5? week4 ,,composition ,,( ,,! ,,soil4 ,demon/ration ( pres5ce ( m9]al & organic sub/ances 9 ! soil4 ,:at root hairs take f ! soil4 ,m9]al matt] necess>y & :y4 ,importance & s\rces ( nitrog54 ,soil exhau/ion & its prev5tion4 ,nitrog5-fix+ bact]ia4 ,review bact]ia ( decay4 ,rotation ( crops4 ,elev5? week4 ,,upw>d ,,c\rse ,,( ,,mat]ials ,,9 ,,! ,,/em4 ,demon/ration ( pea se$l+s ) eos9 to %[ above4 ,demon/ration ( evaporation ( wat] f a leaf4 ,action ( /omata 9 control ( transpiration4 ,cellul> /ructure ( leaf4 ,demon/ration ( elodea to %[ cell4 ,twelf? week4 ,,sun ,a ,,s\rce ,,( ,,en]gy4 ,heliotropism4 ,demon/ration4 ,necessity ( sunlight = />* manufacture4 ,necessity ( air = />* manufacture4 ,by-products 9 />* mak+4 ,oil manufacture 9 leaf4 ,prote9 manufacture 9 plant4 ,respiration4 ,?irte5? week4 ,,reproduction4 ,necessity = 7a7 p]petuation1 7b7 reg5]ation4 ,/udy ( a typical fl[] to %[ sepals1 petals1 /am5s1 pi/il4 ,functions ( ea* "p4 ,cross & longitud9al sections ( ov>y %[n & drawn4 ,emphasis on ess5tial organs4 ,poll9ation1 self & cross4 7,,note4 ,at lea/ "o field trip mu/ be plann$ = ! mon? ( ,may4 ,?is trip w take up ! foll[+ topics3 ,! relations betwe5 fl[]s & insects4 ,! food & %elt] relation betwe5 plants & animals4 ,recognition ( #e to #aj common trees4 ,ne$ ( cons]vation ( =e/s4 ,an extra trip c\ld well be tak5 to give *ild a little k & love = spr+ fl[]s & awak5+ nature47 ,f\rte5? week4 ,,/udy ,,( ,,! ,,bee ,,or ,,butt]fly ,,) ,,ref]5ce ,,to ,,adaptations ,,= ,,insect ,,poll9ation4 ,/udy ( an irregul> fl[] to %[ adaptations = insect visitors4 ,f]tilization begun4 ,gr[? ( poll5 tubes4 ,fifte5? week4 ,,f]tilization ,,complet$4 ,use ( *>t to %[ "p play$ by egg & sp]m cell4 ,ultimate result ! =mation ( embryo & its gr[? "u favorable conditions into "y plant4 ,relation ( fl[] & fruit1 pea1 or bean us$ = ?is purpose4 ,developm5t ( fle%y fruit4 ,apple us$ = ?is purpose4 ,sixte5? week4 ,,matur+ ,,( ,,p>ts ,,& ,,/or+ ,,( ,,food ,,9 ,,se$ ,,& ,,fruit4 ,! devices = scatt]+ ! se$s & relation to future plants4 ,resume ( processes ( nutrition to %[ h[ mat]ials f\nd 9 fruit & se$ are obta9$ by ! plant4 ,sev5te5? week4 ,,plant ,,bre$+4 ,factors3 7a7 selective plant+1 7b7 cross-poll9ation1 7c7 hybridiz+4 ,h]$ity & v>iation begun4 ,d>w9 & ,burbank m5tion$4 ,eighte5? & n9ete5? weeks4 ,,! ,,natural ,,res\rces ,,( ,,man3 ,,soil1 ,,wat]1 ,,plants1 ,,animals4 ,! relation ( plant life to ! above factors ( ! environm5t4 ,! relation ( insects to plants 7=age & o!r crops7 & ! relation ( birds to insects4 ,ne$ = cons]vation ( ! helpful factors 9 ! environm5t ( plants4 ,att5tion call$ to "s native birds z insect & wood de/roy]s4 ,tw5tie? week4 ,,review ,,& ,,exam9ations4 ,,second ,,t]m ,fir/ week4 ,,! ,,balanc$ ,,aqu>ium4 ,/udy ( conditions produc+ ?is4 ,! role ( gre5 plants1 ! role ( animals4 ,:at causes ! balance4 ,h[ ! balance may be upset4 ,! nitrog5 cycle4 ,:at x means 9 ! _w outside ! aqu>ium4 ,symbiosis z oppos$ to p>asitism4 ,examples4 ,second week4 ,,/udy ,,( ,,! ,,p>amoecium4 ,/udy ( a hay infusion to %[ h[ environm5t reacts ^u animals4 ,relation to environm5t4 ,/udy ( cell "u microscope to %[ reactions4 ,/ructure ( cell4 ,response to /imuli1 function ( cilia1 gullet1 nucleus1 contractile vacuoles1 food vacuoles1 asexual reproduction4 ,draw+s to %[ h[ locomotion is p]=m$1 g5]al /ructure4 ,copy *>t = f9e /ructure4 ,?ird week4 ,a ,,bird',s-,,eye ,,view ,,( ,,! ,,animal ,,k+dom4 ,"o day4 ,developm5t ( a multicellul> organism4 7,use models47 ,"o day4 ,physiological division ( labor4 ,tissues1 organs4 ,functions common to all animals4 ,illu/rative mat]ial4 ,optional trip to museum = use ( illu/rative mat]ial to illu/rate ! pr9cipal *>act]i/ics ( 7a7 a simple metazoan1 sponge1 or hydrazoan1 7b7 a segm5t$ worm1 7c7 a cru/acean 7,decapod71 7d7 an insect1 7e7 a mollusk & e*9od]m1 7f7 v]tebrates4 7,diff]5ces betwe5 v]tebrates & inv]tebrates47 ,! *>act]i/ics ( ! v]tebrates4 ,di/+ui% betwe5 fi%es1 amphibia1 reptiles1 birds1 mammals4 ,two days = discussion4 ,man's place 9 ! animal s]ies1 elem5t>y discussion ( :at evolution means4 ,f\r? week4 ,,! ,,economic ,,importance ,,( ,,animals4 ,uses ( animals3 7#a7 ,z food4 ,directly3 fi%1 %ellfi%1 birds1 dome/icat$ mammals4 7#b7 ,indirectly z food3 protozoa1 cru/acea4 7#c7 ,!y de/roy h>mful animals & plants4 ,snakes--birds2 birds--insects2 birds--we$ se$s2 h]bivor\s animals--we$s4 7#d7 ,furni% clo?+1 etc4 ,pe>l buttons1 etc4 7#e7 ,animal indu/ries1 silkworm culture1 etc4 7#f7 ,dome/icat$ animals4 ,animals d h>m3 7#a7 ,to g>d5s4 7#b7 ,to crops4 7#c7 ,to /or$ food2 examples1 rats1 insects1 etc4 7#d7 ,to =e/ & %ade trees4 7#e7 ,to human life4 ,disease3 p>asitism & its results1--examples1 f worms1 etc42 disease c>ri]s fly1 etc4 ,prev5tive measures4 ,me?ods ( ext]m9ation4 ,ref]5ces to ,too?ak]'s ,comm]cial ,raw ,mat]ials4 ,use "o day = laboratory "w f ref]5ces4 ,fif? week4 ,,! ,,/udy ,,( ,a ,,wat]-,,brea?+ ,,v]tebrate4 ,two days4 ,! fi%1 adaptations 9 body1 f9s1 = food gett+1 = brea?+4 ,/ructure ( gills %[n4 ,laboratory demon/ration to %[ h[ wat] gets to ! gills4 ,draw+s4 ,outl9e ( fi%1 gills4 ,requir$ trip to aqu>ium4 ,object1 to see fi% 9 environm5t4 ,"o day4 ,home "w at m>ket4 ,:y are "s fi% m exp5sive ?an o!rs4 ,economic importance ( fi%4 ,relation ( habits ( 7a7 food gett+1 7b7 spawn+ to cat*+ & ext]m9ation ( fi%4 ,two days4 ,means ( prev5t+ ov]fi%+1 /ock+1 fi%+ laws1 artificial f]tilization ( eggs1 me?ods4 ,developm5t ( fi% egg4 ,comp>ison ) t ( frog & bird4 ,six? week4 ,,! ,,factors ,,und]ly+ ,,plant ,,& ,,animal ,,bre$+4 ,/udy ( pupils 9 class to %[ h]$ity & v>iation4 ,conclusion4 ,animals t5d to v>y & to be l _! ance/ors4 ,h]$ity1 role ( sex cells1 *romosomes4 ,pr9ciples ( plant bre$+4 ,selective plant+1 hybridiz+1 "w ( ,d>w91 ,m5del1 ,de ,vries1 & ,burbank4 ,me?ods & results4 ,animal bre$+1 examples giv51 results4 ,improvem5t ( man3 7#a7 by control ( environm5t1 7a7 example ( clean-up campaign1 #aiac2 7#b7 by control ( individual1 p]sonal hygi5e1 & control ( h]$ity4 ,eug5ics4 ,examples f ,dav5port1 ,godd>d1 etc4 ,sev5? week4 ,,! ,,human ,,ma*9e4 ,sk91 bones & muscles1 function ( ea*4 ,examples & demon/ration ) skeleton4 ,organs ( body cavity2 %[ manik94 ,"w done by cells 9 body4 ,eigh? week4 ,,/udy ,,( ,,foods to det]m9e3 7a7 nutritive value4 ,ex]cise ) food *>ts to det]m9e foods ri* 9 wat]1 />*1 sug>1 fats1 prote9s1 m9]al salts1 refuse4 ,"o day4 7b7 ,nutritive value ( foods z relat$ to "w1 age1 sex1 environm5t1 co/1 & dige/ibility4 ,foods comp>$ to det]m9e :at is really a *eap food4 ,n9? week4 ,,h[ ,,! ,,fuel ,,value ,,( ,,food ,,has ,,be5 ,,det]m9$4 ,! diet>ies ( ,atwat]1 ,*itt5d51 & ,voit4 ,! #ajj-;calorie portion table & its use4 ,t5? week4 ,,! ,,application ,,( ,,! #ajj-;,,calorie ,,portion ,,to ,,! ,,mak+ ,,( ,,! ,,daily ,,diet>ies4 ,lun*eon diet>ies4 ,a balanc$ diet>y = pupil = "o day4 ,family diet>ies4 ,relation to co/4 ,reasons = ?is4 ,elev5? week4 ,,food ,,adult]ations4 ,te/s4 ,drugs & ! alcohol "q4 ,twelf? week4 ,,dige/ion4 ,! alim5t>y canal ( frog & ( man comp>$4 ,draw+s4 7,"o day47 ,! "w ( gl&s4 ,"w ( saliv>y gl&4 ,enzymes1 int]nal secretions4 ,exp]im5ts to %[ 7a7 dige/ion ( />* by saliva1 7b7 dige/ion ( prote9s by ga/ric or pancreatic juice1 7c7 emulsification ( fats 9 ! pres5ce ( an alkal9e m$ium4 ,functions ( o!r dige/ive gl&s4 ,movem5ts ( /oma* & inte/9e discuss$ & expla9$4 ,?irte5? week4 ,,absorption4 ,h[ x takes place1 :]e x takes place4 ,passage ( foods into blood1 function ( liv]1 glycog54 ,f\rte5? week4 ,,! ,,blood ,,& ,,its ,,circulation4 ,composition & functions ( plasma1 r$ corpuscles1 colorless corpuscles1 blood plates1 antibodies4 ,! lymph & "w ( tissues4 ,! blood & its me?od ( di/ribution4 ,he>t a =ce pump4 ,demon/ration4 ,art]ies1 capill>ies 7demon/ration71 ve9s4 ,hygi5e ( ex]cise4 ,fifte5? week4 ,,:at ,,respiration ,,does ,,= ,,! ,,body4 ,! app>atus us$4 ,*anges ( blood )9 lungs1 *anges ( air )9 lungs4 ,demon/ration4 ,cell respiration4 ,! me*anics ( respiration4 ,demon/ration4 ,v5tilation1 ne$ =1 expla9 prop] v5tilation4 ,demon/ration4 ,hygi5e ( fre% air & prop] brea?+4 ,du/+1 sweep+1 etc4 ,sixte5? week4 ,,excretion1 ,,organs ,,(4 ,sk9 & kidneys1 regulation ( body heat4 ,colds & fev]s4 ,prop] c>e ( sk91 hygi5e4 ,summ>y ( blood *anges 9 body4 ,explanation ( same4 ,sev5te5? week4 ,,body ,,control ,,& ,,habit ,,=mation4 ,n]v\s sy/em1 n]ve control4 ,! neuron !ory1 bra9 psy*ology expla9$ 9 brief4 ,habits & habit =mation4 ,hygi5e ( s5se organs4 ,eighte5? & n9ete5? weeks4 ,,civic ,,hygi5e ,,& ,,sanitation4 ,,! ,,improvem5t ,,( ,,"o',s ,,environm5t4 ,civic conditions discuss$4 ,wat]1 milk1 food supplies4 ,relation to disease4 ,h[ safegu>d$4 ,h[ help improve conditions 9 city4 ,tw5tie? week4 ,,review ,,& ,,exam9ations4 ,,hygi5e ,,outl9e 7,?is outl9e may be introduc$ ) ,plant ,biology1 or1 bett]1 may come z application ( ! "w 9 ,second-t]m ,biology47 ,,! ,,environm5t4 ,*anges = bett]m5t "u control4 ,h[ a city boy may improve 8 environm5t3 by prop] clo?+1 prop] food & prep>ation ( food1 by c>e 9 home life2 by sanit>y conditions 9 neighborhood & 9 home4 ,,review ,,( ,,activities ,,( ,,cell4 ,irritability1 food tak+1 assimilation1 oxidation1 excretion1 reproduction4 ,simil>ity ( functions ( plant & animal cells4 ,all cells p]=m ^! functions4 ,"s cells p]=m functions especially well1 e4g4 contract+ muscle cells4 ,all cells ne$ food & oxyg54 ,"s mu/ h ?is c>ri$ to !m4 ,a sy/em ( tubes c>ries blood :i* c>ries food & oxyg54 ,food mu/ be prep>$ to get into ! blood4 ,dige/ive sy/em3 m\?1 tee?1 /oma*1 inte/9es1 gl&s1 & dige/ive juices4 ,uses ( above 9 prep>+ food to pass into ! blood4 ,absorption ( food into ! blood4 ,h[ oxyg5 gets to ! cells4 ,nose1 ?roat1 w9dpipe1 lungs2 blood goes to lungs & c>ries away oxyg54 ,excretion4 ,cells give up wa/es to blood & ^! wa/es tak5 out ( blood by kidneys & o!r gl&s & pass$ out ( body4 ,sweat1 ur9e1 c>bon dioxide4 ,,c]ta9 ,,k9ds ,,( ,,"w ,,p]=m$ ,,by ,,c]ta9 ,,k9ds ,,( ,,cells4 ,advantage ( ?is4 ,cells ( movem5t4 ,muscles1 tissues4 ,bones z lev]s necess>y = "s movem5ts4 ,?is especially true = legs & arms4 ,skeleton also necess>y = protection ( int]nal organs & support ( body4 ,mak+ ( special ?+s 9 ! body1 e4g4 dige/ive juices giv5 to c]ta9 cells call$ gl& cells4 ,work+ toge!r or coord9ation ( diff]5t organs provid$ = by n]v\s sy/em4 ,?is is compos$ ( cells :i* are highly irritable or s5sitive4 ,collections ( ^! n]ve cells give u ! p[] ( feel+ or s5sation & ( ?9k+4 ,,dietetics4 ,diet influ5c$ by age1 weight1 occupation1 temp]ature or climate1 *eapness ( food1 dige/ibility4 ,,nutri5ts4 ,li/ ( nutri5ts f\nd 9 se$s & fruits1 also o!r common foods4 ,ne$ ( nutri5ts = human body4 ,nitrog5\s foods1 examples4 ,a mix$ diet be/4 ,,dige/ion ,,& ,,indige/ion4 ,:at is dige/ion8 ,:]e does x take place8 ,causes ( indige/ion4 ,eat+ too rapidly & n *ew+ food4 ,eat+ foods h>d to dige/4 ,ov]eat+4 ,eat+ betwe5 meals4 ,h>d ex]cise imm$iately be=e or aft] eat+4 ,,con/ipation4 ,a condition 9 :i* ! b[els d n move at lea/ once e day4 ,dang]s ( con/ipation4 ,poison\s mat]ials may be absorb$1 caus+ lack ( incl9ation to "w1 heada*e4 ,importance ( regul> habits ( empty+ ! b[els4 ,ea* "o mu/ try to get at ! cause ( con/ipation 9 8 own case4 ,causes ( con/ipation4 ,lack ( ex]cise1 improp] food1 n dr9k+ en\gh wat]1 lack ( laxative food1 z fruits2 lack ( sleep1 lack ( regul> habits4 ,rem$ies4 ,avoid use ( drugs4 ,half h\r be=e breakfa/ a glass ( hot wat]1 ex]cise ( abdom9al muscles1 laxative foods1 =m habit ( mov+ b[els aft] breakfa/4 ,,hygi5e ,,( ,,circulation ,,& ,,absorption4 ,h[ dige/$ foods get to ! cells4 ,absorption4 ,def9ition4 ,! pass+ ( ! dige/$ food into ! blood4 ,h[ accompli%$4 ,blood vessels4 ,9 walls ( /oma* & food tube4 ,membrane ( cells sep>at+ food f blood4 ,food passes by osmosis ?r\gh ! membrane & by osmosis ?r\gh ! ?9 walls ( ! blood vessels4 ,,circulation ,,( ,,foods4 ,blood conta9s foods1 oxyg51 & wa/e mat]ials4 ,he>t pumps ! blood1 blood vessels subdivide until v small & ?91 s food1 etc41 passes f !m to cells4 ,hygi5e ( ! he>t4 ,,transpiration ,,& ,,excretion4 ,sk91 function 9 excretion4 ,ba?+4 ,c>e ( sk94 ,hot ba?s4 ,ba! at lea/ twice a week4 ,cold ba?s1 h[ tak54 ,ba?tub n a necessity4 ,effect ( latt] on educat+ sk9 to react4 ,relation to cat*+ cold4 ,,c>e ,,( ,,scalp ,,& ,,nails4 ,scalp %\ld be wa%$ weekly4 ,if d&ruff pres5t1 wa% (t5 en\gh to keep clean4 ,baldness (t5 results f d&ruff4 ,f+] nails cut ev5 ) end ( f+]s & clean$ daily ) scrub bru%4 ,,hygi5e ,,( ,,respiration4 ,def9ition ( respiration4 ,object ( respiration4 7,connection betwe5 circulation & respiration47 ,necessity ( oxyg54 ,organs ( respiration4 ,lungs mo/ important4 ,deep brea?1 function4 ,v5tilation1 reasons =4 ,m\? brea?+4 ,results4 ,less5$ m5tal p[]1 nasal cat>rh1 colds easily caught4 ,,plants ,,h>mful ,,to ,,man4 ,poison ivy & mu%rooms4 ,treatm5t4 ,poison+4 ,s5d = physician4 ,cause vomit+ by 7#a7 f+]1 7#b7 mu/>d & wat]4 7,,note4 ,an unconsci\s p]son %\ld n be giv5 any?+ by ! m\? unless he c swall[47 ,relation ( yea/s & bact]ia to man4 ,f]m5tation a cause ( indige/ion4 ,relation to c&y1 sirups1 s\r /oma*1 =mation ( gas causes pa94 ,,bact]ia ,,( ,,m\? ,,& ,,alim5t>y ,,canal4 ,entrance ( bact]ia by m\? & nose4 ,nose3 cold 9 ! head1 grippe1 cat>rh4 ,m\?3 decay ( tee?1 tonsillitis1 diph!ria4 ,g]ms pass f "o p]son to ano!r1 no "o orig9ates g]ms 9 himself4 ,precautions aga9/ receiv+ & transf]r+ g]ms4 ,common dr9k+ cups1 t[els1 co9s1 lead p5cils1 moi/5+ f+]s to turn pages 9 book or to c\nt roll ( bills4 ,tub]culosis g]ms4 ,entrance by m\?1 lungs favorite place1 may be any "p ( body4 ,du/ ( air1 sweep+ /reets1 wat]+ a necessity4 ,spitt+ 9 /reets & 9 public build+s4 ,g]ms ( typhoid fev]4 ,entrance3 wat]1 milk1 fre% uncook$ vegetables1 oy/]s4 ,?rive 9 small inte/9es4 ,prev5table4 ,typhoid epidemics1 me?ods ( prev5tion ( typhoid4 ,conditions favorable = gr[? ( specific disease g]ms4 ,"w ( ,bo>ds ( ,heal?4 ,home sanit>y conditions1 sunlight1 air1 curta9s & bl9ds1 op5 w9d[s4 ,live out ( doors z mu* z possible4 ,cleanl9ess4 ,b>e walls well scrubb$ bett] ?an c>pets & rugs4 ,lace curta9s1 iron b$/eads1 "o ?ickness ( pap] on walls4 ,op5 plumb+1 dry cell>s1 all g>bage promptly remov$4 ,?is outl9e is l>gely ! "w ( ,dr4 ,l4 ,j4 ,mason & ,dr4 ,c4 ,h4 ,morse ( ! dep>tm5t ( biology ( ! ,de ,witt ,cl9ton ,high ,s*ool4 ,,weights1 ,,measures1 ,,& ,,temp]atures ,z ! metric sy/em ( weights & measures & ! ,c5tigrade measurem5t ( temp]atures are employ$ 9 sci5tific "w1 ! foll[+ tables %[+ ! ,engli% equival5ts ( ^? 9 mo/ frequ5t use are giv5 = ! conv5i5ce ( ^? n already famili> ) ^! /&>ds4 ,! values giv5 are approximate only1 b w answ] = all practical purposes4 ,,weight ,kilogram kg4 #b-a_/e p\nds --------------------------------- #ae-a_/b gra9s avoirdupois4 #a_/bh ( an ounce ,gram gm4 avoirdupois4 ----------------------------------- ,,capacity ----------------------------------- #fa cubic in*es1 or a little m ?an #a qu>t1 ,lit] l4 ,u4 ,s4 measure4 --------------------------------- ,cubic cc4 #a_/af ( a c5timet] cubic in*4 ,,measures ,,( ,,l5g? ,,metric ,,engli% ,,equival5ts -------------------------------- ,kilomet] km4 #b_/c ( a mile4 -------------------------------- ,met] m4 #ci in*es4 -------------------------------- ,decimet] dm4 #d in*es4 -------------------------------- ,c5timet]cm4 #b_/e ( an in*4 -------------------------------- ,millimet]mm4 #a_/be ( an in*4 ,! next table gives ! ,fahr5heit equival5t = e t5? degree ,c5tigrade f absolute z]o to ! boil+ po9t ( wat]4 ,to f9d ! correspond+ ,f4 = any degree ,c41 multiply ! giv5 ,c4 temp]ature by n9e1 divide by five1 & add ?irty-two4 ,conv]sely1 to *ange ,f4 to ,c4 equival5t1 subtract ?irty-two1 multiply by five1 & divide by n9e4 ,,c5t4 ,,fahr4 ------------- #ajj #bab #ij #aid #hj #agf #gj #aeh #fj #adj #ej #abb #dj #ajd #cj #hf #bj #fh #aj #ej #j #cb -#aj #ad -#bj -#d -#cj -#bb -#dj -#dj -#ej -#eh -#ajj -#adh ------------- ,absolute z]o -#bgc -#dei ,,laboratory ,,equipm5t ,! foll[+ articles comprise a simple equipm5t = a laboratory class ( t54 ,! equipm5t = l>g] classes is proportionately less 9 price4 ,! foll[+ articles may be obta9$ f any reliable deal] 9 laboratory supplies1 su* z ! ,baus* & ,lomb ,optical ,company ( ,ro*e/]1 ,n4,y41 or ! ,kny-,s*e]] ,company1 #djd1 #daj ,we/ #bg? ,/reet1 ,new ,york ,city3-- #a balance1 ,h>v>d trip /yle1 ) weights on c>ri]4 #a bell j>1 ab\t #cfe mm4 high by #afe mm4 9 diamet]4 #aj wide m\? 7salt m\?7 bottles1 ) corks to fit4 #aj #be c4c4 dropp+ bottles = iod9e1 etc4 #be #bej c4c4 glass-/opp]$ bottles = /ock solutions4 #ajj te/ tubes1 assort$ sizes1 pr9cipally #f x #c_/d4 #ej te/ tubes on base 7excell5t = demon/rations74 #b graduat$ cyl9d]s1 "o to #ajj c4c41 "o to #ejj c4c4 #a package filt] pap] #cjj mm4 9 diamet]4 #aj flasks1 ,erl5mey] =m1 #ejj c4c4 capacity4 #b glass funnels1 "o #ej1 "o #aej mm4 9 diamet]4 #cj ,petri di%es1 #ajj mm4 9 diamet]1 #aj mm4 9 dep?4 #aj feet glass tub+1 s(t1 sizes #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 assort$4 #a aqu>ium j>1 #aj lit]s capacity4 #b specim5 j>s1 glass tops1 ( ab\t #a lit] capacity4 #aj h& magnifi]s1 vulcanite or tripod =m4 #b comp\nd demon/ration microscopes or #a m exp5sive comp\nd microscope4 #cjj insect p9s1 ,klaeg]1 #c sizes assort$4 #aj feet rubb] tub+ to fit glass tub+1 size #c_/h in*4 #a *emical !rmomet] graduat$ to #ajj deg4 ,c4 #ae agate w>e or t9 trays ab\t #cej mm4 long by #ajj wide4 #a gal4 #ie p] c5t alcohol4 7,d n use d5atur$ alcohol47 #a set gram weights1 #a mg4 to #ajj g4 #a razor1 = cutt+ sections4 #a box rubb] b&s1 assort$ sizes4 #a support /& ) r+s4 #b books te/ pap]1 r$ & blue4 #aj ,syracuse wat* glasses4 #a /eam /]iliz] 7t9 w d74 #a spool f9e copp] wire4 #a te/ tube rack4 #e te/ tube bru%es4 #aj pairs scissors4 #aj pairs =ceps4 #bj ne$les 9 h&les4 #aj scalpels4 #ab mason j>s1 p9ts4 #ab mason j>s1 qu>ts4 #a alcohol lamp4 #a gross slides4 #ajj cov] slips ,no4 #b4 #a mort> & pe/le4 #b bulb pipettes4 #a lit] =mol4 #a oz4 iod9e cry/4 #a oz4 potassium iodide4 #f oz4 nitric acid4 #f oz4 ammonium hydrate4 #f oz4 b5zole or xylol4 #f oz4 *lor(orm4 #a_/b lb4 copp] sulphate4 #a_/b lb4 sodium hydroxide4 #a_/b lb4 ro*elle salts4 #f oz4 glyc]9e4 ,! mat]ials = ,pa/eur's solution & ,sa*'s nutri5t solution c be/ be obta9$ f a druggi/ at ! "t ne$$ & 9 v small & accurately measur$ quantities4 ,! ag> or gelat9e cultures 9 ,petri di%es may be obta9$ f ! local ,bo>d ( ,heal? or f any good druggi/4 ,^! cultures are n difficult to make1 b take a numb] ( h\rs' consecutive "w1 (t5 difficult = ! av]age tea*] to obta94 ,full directions h[ to prep>e ^! cultures w be f\nd 9 ,hunt]'s ,laboratory ,problems 9 ,civic ,biology4 ,,index 7,illu/rations are indicat$ by page num]als 9 bold-fac$ type47 ,absorption1 def9ition1 #bgj2 ( dige/$ foods1 #cjh1 #cji4 ,accommodation ( eye1 #cfa4 ,acetanilid1 #bie4 ,action ( ! he>t1 #cai4 ,adaptations1 #bd2 9 bee1 #cf2 9 birds1 #ahi2 9 fi%1 #bcb2 9 frog1 #bda2 9 mammalia1 #aib4 ,ad5oids1 #cdj1 #cie4 ,adult]ation 9 foods1 #bhh4 ,air1 & bact]ia1 #ade2 composition (1 #bj2 fre%1 #ccg2 ne$$ 9 g]m9ation1 #ff2 necess>y 9 />* mak+1 #ia2 passages 9 lungs1 #ccj2 use to plants & animals1 #ba4 ,album91 #fb4 ,alcohol1 a food1 #bhi2 a poison1 #bia4 & ability to resi/ disease1 #cfc2 & ability to "w1 #cfh2 & body heat1 #cde2 & crime1 #cga1 #cgb2 & dige/ion1 #caa2 & duration ( life1 #cgj2 & effici5cy1 #cfi2 & h]$ity1 #cgb2 & intellectual ability1 #cfd2 & kidneys1 #cdf2 & liv+ matt]1 #bia2 & memory1 #cfe2 & m5tal ability1 #cff2 & n]v\s sy/em1 #cfb2 & organs ( special s5se1 #cfb2 & paup]ism1 #cga2 & resi/ance1 #cbg2 & respiration1 #cdf2 & ! blood1 #cbg2 & treatm5t ( disease1 #cfd2 effect on circulation1 #cbg2 effect on eye1 #cfa2 effect on liv]1 #cab2 produces poisons1 #cdg4 ,algae1 #agf4 ,alfalfa plant1 #aea4 ,alim5t>y canal1 #big4 ,alkali1 #cjf4 ,alkal9ity1 #bih4 ,alligator1 #bcj4 ,amb]gris1 #bje4 ,ammonium hydrate1 #fa4 ,amoeba1 #agj1 #ahb1 #ccb4 ,amphibia1 #ahf1 #ahg2 z food1 #bjb4 ,anal f9 ( fi%1 #bcc4 ,angiosp]ms1 #agf4 ,animals1 z disease c>ri]s1 #bbg2 bre$+ (1 #bei2 dome/icat$1 #bfj2 functions (1 #dh1 #ahj2 ne$ plants1 #cd2 oils (1 #bje2 p>asitic1 #bbg2 s]ies1 #ahb2 t prey ^u man1 #bcj2 use to man1 #ag2 use to plants1 #cd4 ,annual r+s1 #ih4 ,anopheles1 #bag1 #bah4 ,anosia plexippus1 #cb4 ,an!r1 #cf4 ,antibodies1 uses (1 #caf4 ,antiseptics1 #aeg4 ,antitox91 #aeg1 #cia4 ,anura1 #ahh4 ,anvil1 #cei4 ,aorta1 #cbj4 ,apoplexy1 #cbh4 ,app5dages ( ! fi%1 #bcc4 ,app5dicul> skeleton1 #bfh4 ,app5dix1 #cji4 ,apples1 #ef1 #abd4 ,aque\s humor1 #cfa4 ,ara*nida1 #ahe4 ,art]ies1 #cah2 /ructure (1 #cbc4 ,ar?ropods1 #ahe4 ,artificial1 cross-poll9ation1 #df2 propagation ( fi%es1 #bdj2 respiration1 #cdj2 selection1 #bec4 ,asexual reproduction1 #agd4 ,assimilation 9 plants1 #ajc4 ,att5tion1 effect ( alcohol1 #cfd4 ,audubon1 #baa4 ,auricle ( human he>t1 #cai2 ( fi% he>t1 #bcf4 ,automatic activity1 #cdh1 #ced4 ,axial skeleton1 #bfh4 ,bacillus1 #adb4 ,bact]ia1 #acd2 & f]m5tation1 #aej2 cause decay1 #adi2 cause disease1 #aea2 effect on food1 #add2 gr[? 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#cja1 #ceh4 ,tee?1 #cja4 ,teleo/s1 #ahg4 ,temp]ature1 #dag2 ( blood1 #cah4 ,t]n1 #aij4 ,te/a1 #ei4 ,te/1 = c>bon dioxide1 #fd2 nutri5ts1 #fa1 #fh4 ,?allophytes1 #agf4 ,?oracic duct1 #cbd4 ,tidal air1 #ccd4 ,timb]1 me?ods ( cutt+1 #aaa4 ,tissue cells1 #di1 #agi4 ,toad1 use (1 #bji4 ,tobacco & circulation1 #cbh2 & respiration1 #cdf2 us]s (1 #bic4 ,tortoise1 #ahh4 ,t\*1 #ceg4 ,t\rniquet1 #cbf4 ,tox91 #aeb1 #caf4 ,tra*ea1 #ahe4 ,transpiration1 #he1 #hg4 ,transportation ( lumb]1 #aaj1 #aaa4 ,treatm5t ( cuts & bruises1 #cbf4 ,trees1 ne$ ( city1 #aae2 prev5t+ erosion1 #ajh2 regulate wat] supply1 #aje2 value (1 #aje4 ,tri*9a1 #bbh4 ,tri*9osis1 #bbh4 ,trillium1 #age4 ,tr\t1 developm5t1 #bch4 ,trypanosomes1 #bba4 ,tub]culosis1 #aeb1 #aec2 & milk1 #cha2 h[ to fight1 #cic1 #cid4 ,tussock mo?1 #bae4 ,twig1 section (1 #ih4 ,tympanic membrane1 #ceh4 ,tympanum ( frog1 #bdb4 ,tyndall box1 #cii4 ,typhoid1 #bbd1 #che2 & di>rhoea1 #bjj4 ,typhoid fev]1 #aeb1 #aee1 #chb4 ,unit *>act]s1 #beh4 ,uret]1 #cdb4 ,ure?ra1 #cdb4 ,ur9e1 #cda4 ,urodela1 #ahh4 ,uses1 ( animals1 #aih2 ( antibodies1 #caf2 ( gre5 plants1 #aag2 ( ice1 #cgg2 ( nutri5ts1 #bgd2 ( protozoa1 #agb4 ,ut]us ( a mammal1 #bdg4 ,vacc9ation1 #aeg1 #bba1 #cia4 ,vacuoles1 contract+1 #afh4 ,value1 ( insects1 #bjh2 ( trees1 #aje4 ,valves1 #ahe1 #cai2 9 ve91 #cbd4 ,v>iation1 #bej4 ,vasomotor n]ves1 #cbe4 ,vegetable fib]s & oils1 #abg4 ,ve9s1 #cah2 function & /ructure1 #cbc2 valves1 #cbd4 ,v5ae cavae1 #cbb4 ,v5tilation1 #cce1 #cch4 ,v5tricle1 #cai2 ( fi% he>t1 #bcf4 ,v5us fly trap1 #ajb4 ,v]mi=m app5dix1 #cji4 ,v]tebral column1 #ahf4 ,v]tebrates1 brea?+ (1 #bcb4 ,villi1 #cjh4 ,virg9ia creep]1 #abh4 ,virus1 #cib4 ,vitre\s humor1 #cfa4 ,vorticella1 #aga1 #agh4 ,vries1 ,hugo de1 #bec1 #djf4 ,w>n]1 ,*as4 ,dudley1 #baa4 ,wa/e ( food1 #bhg4 ,wat]1 #bge2 composition (1 #bj2 impure1 #bhi2 supply1 #chc4 ,we$1 #dh1 #abh4 ,weights1 #dag4 ,:eat crop1 #aba1 #abb4 ,wild or*id1 #dj4 ,w9dpipe1 #cjj1 #cja4 ,wood1 uses (1 #aaj4 ,"w ( cells1 #bgj2 ( ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 #bee2 relation to diet1 #bgg4 ,worms1 #ahc4 ,yea/s1 #acf1 #ach1 #aci2 relation to man1 #ace4 ,yell[ fev] mosquito1 #bai4 ,yucca1 #db1 #dc4 ,zygospore1 #agd4 ,transcrib]'s ,notes3 ,punctuation1 use ( hyph5s1 & acc5t m>ks 7 /&>diz$4 ,obsolete & alt]native spell+s 7 left un*ang$4 ,spell+ ( 'p>amoecium' & 'p>amoecia' 7 left un*ang$4 ,braces are us$ to indicate subscript$ numb]s 9 *emical =mulas1 e4g4 ,,co#b4 ,pipes 77 are us$ to designate bold numb]s 9 ! index4 ,footnotes 7 mov$ to ! end ( ! p>agraph 9 :i* ! an*or occurs4 ,footnote an*ors #f & #g ref] to ! same footnote1 z d an*ors #cg & #ch4 ,greek lett]s 9 ! *>t 9 ,*apt] ,,xx are spell$ )9 brackets3 alpha & beta4 ,! foll[+ *anges 7 made = consi/5cy )9 ! text3 'zoological' to 'zoological' 'di>rhea' to 'di>rhoea' ,o!r *anges3 'proteid' to 'prote9' 9 ! head] ( ! table 9 ,*apt] ,v 'd' add$ to head] to ,*apt] ,,vii 444 h[ d gre5 plants make food8444 ',s arpe' to ',%>pe' 9 ! ,ref]5ce ,books li/ at ! end ( ,*apt] ,,xiv 'yoke' to 'yolk' 444 7:i* is ! yolk or yell[ portion7 444 'does' to 'd' 444 ,bo? 444 d ! same ?+ 444 'page #bjg' to 'page #cjg1' 9 ref]5ce to lacteals4 'c5t]s' to 'c5t]'s' 444 ! n]v\s c5t]'s controll+ ! blood 444 'scapels' to 'scalpels' 9 ! app5dix li/ ( laboratory equipm5t '&' add$ to '444 ,pa/eur's solution & ,sa*'s nutri5t solution 444' ',scavang]s' to ',scav5g]s' 9 ! index