,friedrich ,nietzsche ,the ,dawn of ,day ,translated by ,john ,mc,farland ,kennedy ,author of 8,the ,quintessence of ,nietzsche01 8,religions and ,philosophers of the ,east0 ,there are many dawns which have yet to shed their light4--,,rig-,,veda4 ,new ,york ,the ,mac,millan ,company #aiaa ,,contents ,introduction4 ,author's ,preface4 ,book ,i4 ,book ,,ii4 ,book ,,iii4 ,book ,,iv4 ,book ,v4 ,footnotes ,,introduction4 ,when ,nietzsche called his book ,the ,dawn of ,day1 he was far from giving it a merely fanciful title to attract the attention of that large section of the public which judges books by their titles rather than by their contents4 ,the ,dawn of ,day represents1 figuratively1 the dawn of ,nietzsche's own philosophy4 ,hitherto he had been considerably influenced in his outlook1 if not in his actual thoughts1 by ,schopenhauer1 ,wagner1 and perhaps also ,comte4 ,human1 all-too-,human1 belongs to a period of transition4 ,after his rupture with ,bayreuth1 ,nietzsche is1 in both parts of that work1 trying to stand on his own legs1 and to regain his spiritual freedom2 he is feeling his way to his own philosophy4 ,the ,dawn of ,day1 written in #ahha under the invigorating influence of a ,genoese spring1 is the dawn of this new ,nietzsche4 8,with this book ,i open my campaign against morality10 he himself said later in his autobiography1 the ,ecce ,homo4 ,just as in the case of the books written in his prime--,the ,joyful ,wisdom1 ,zarathustra1 ,beyond ,good and ,evil1 and ,the ,genealogy of ,morals--we cannot fail to be impressed in this work by ,nietzsche's deep psychological insight1 the insight that showed him to be a powerful judge of men and things unequalled in the nineteenth or1 perhaps1 any other century4 ,one example of this is seen in his searching analysis of the ,apostle ,paul 7,aphorism #fh71 in which the soul of the 8,first ,christian0 is ruthlessly and realistically laid bare to us4 ,nietzsche's summing-up of the ,founder of ,christianity--for of course1 as is now generally recognised1 it was ,paul1 and not ,christ1 who founded the ,christian ,church--has not yet called forth those bitter attacks from theologians that might have been expected1 though one reason for this apparent neglect is no doubt that the portrait is so true1 and in these circumstances silence is certainly golden on the part of defenders of the faith1 who are otherwise1 as a rule1 loquacious enough4 ,nor has the taunt in ,aphorism #hd elicited an answer from the quarter whither it was directed2 and the 8free0 7not to say dishonest7 interpretation of the ,bible by ,christian scholars and theologians1 which is still proceeding merrily1 is now being turned to ,nietzsche's own writings4 ,for the philosopher's works are now being 8explained away0 by ,german theologians in a most nave and daring fashion1 and with an ability which has no doubt been acquired as the result of centuries of skilful interpretation of the ,holy ,writ4 ,nor are professional theologians the only ones who have failed to answer ,nietzsche2 for in other than religious matters the majority of savants have not succeeded in plumbing his depths4 ,there is1 for example1 the question of race4 ,ten years ago1 twenty years after the publication of ,the ,dawn of ,day1 ,nietzsche's countrymen enthusiastically hailed a book which has recently been translated into ,english1 ,chamberlain's ,foundations of the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,in this book the ,teutons are said to be superior to all the other peoples in the world1 the reason given being that they have kept their race pure4 ,it is due to this purity of race that they have produced so many great men2 for every 8good0 man in history is a ,teuton1 and every bad man something else4 ,considerable skill is exhibited by the author in filching from his opponents the ,latins their best trump cards1 and likewise the trump card1 ,jesus ,christ1 from the ,jews2 for ,jesus ,christ1 according to ,chamberlain's very plausible argument1 was not a ,jew but an ,aryan1 i4e4 a member of that great family of which the ,teutons are a branch4 ,what would ,nietzsche have said to this legerdemain8 ,he has constantly pointed out that the ,teutons are so far from being a pure race that they have1 on the contrary1 done everything in their power to ruin even the idea of a pure race for ever4 ,for the ,teutons1 through their ,reformation and their ,puritan revolt in ,england1 and the philosophies developed by the democracies that necessarily followed1 were the spiritual forbears of the ,french ,revolution and of the ,socialistic rgime under which we are beginning to suffer nowadays4 ,thus this noble race has left nothing undone to blot out the last remnant of race in ,europe1 and it even stands in the way of the creation of a new race4 ,and with such a record in history the ,germans write books1 eulogising themselves as the salt of the earth1 the people of peoples1 the race of races1 while in truth they are nothing else than nouveaux-riches endeavouring to draw up a decent pedigree for themselves4 ,we know that honesty is not a prerequisite of such pedigrees1 and that patriotism may be considered as a good excuse even for a wrong pedigree2 but the race-pandemonium that followed the publication of ,mr4 ,chamberlain's book in ,germany was really a very unwise proceeding in view of the false and misleading document produced4 ,what1 it may be asked again1 would ,nietzsche have said if he had heard his countrymen screaming odes to their own glory as the 8flower of ,europe08 ,he would assuredly have dismissed their exalted pretensions with a good-natured smile2 for his study of history had shown him that even slaves must have their saturnalia now and then4 ,but as to his philosophical answer there can be no doubt2 for in ,aphorism #bgb of ,the ,dawn of ,day there is a single sentence which completely refutes the view of modern racemongers like ,chamberlain and his followers3 8,it is probable10 we read1 8that there are no pure races1 but only races which have become purified1 and even these are extremely rare40 ,there are even stronger expressions to be met with in 8,peoples and ,countries0 7,aphorism #bj2 see the ,genealogy of ,morals1 p4 #bbf73 8,what quagmires and mendacity must there be about if it is possible1 in the modern ,european hotch-potch1 to raise the question of #8race'60 and again1 in ,aphorism #ba3 8,maxim--to associate with no man who takes any part in the mendacious race-swindle40 ,a man like ,nietzsche1 who makes so little impression upon mankind in general1 is certainly not1 as some people have thought and openly said1 a public danger1 so the guardians of the ,state need not be uneasy4 ,there is little danger of ,nietzsche's revolutionising either the masses or the classes2 for1 as ,goethe used to say1 8,seulement celui qui ressemble le peuple1 l'meut40 ,nietzsche's voice has as yet hardly been lifted in this country2 and1 until it is fully heard1 both masses and classes will calmly proceed on their way to the extremes of democracy and anarchy1 as they now appear to be doing4 ,anarchy1 though1 may be too strong a word2 for there is some doubt whether1 throughout ,europe and ,america at all events1 the people are not now too weak even for anarchy4 ,a revolt is a sign of strength in a slave2 but our modern slaves have no strength left4 ,in the meantime1 however1 it will have become clear that ,nietzsche tried to stop this threatening degradation of the human race1 that he endeavoured to supplant the morality of altruism--the cause of this degradation--by another1 a super-,christian morality1 and that he has succeeded in this aim1 if not where the masses and the classes are concerned1 at any rate in the case of that small minority of thinkers to which he really wished to appeal4 ,and this minority is naturally grateful to the philosopher for having supplied them with a morality which enables them to be 8good0 without being fools--an unpleasant combination which1 unfortunately1 the ,nazarene morality is seldom able to avoid4 ,this ,nazarene morality has doubtless its own merits1 and its 8good0 and 8evil0 in many cases coincide with ours2 but common sense and certain intellectual qualities are not too highly appreciated in the table of ,christian values 7see1 for instance1 #a ,cor4 iii4 #ai71 whence it will be observed that the enlightenment of a ,christian is not always quite equal to his otherwise excellent intentions4 ,we ,nietzschians1 however1 must show that patience to them which they always pretend to show to their opponents4 ,nietzsche himself1 indeed1 recommends this in ,aphorism #ajc of this book1 an aphorism which is almost too well known to need repetition2 for it likewise disproves the grotesque though widely circulated supposition that all kinds of immorality would be indulged in under the sway of the 8,immoralistic0 philosopher3 8,i should not1 of course1 deny--unless ,i were a fool--that many actions which are called immoral should be avoided and resisted2 and in the same way that many which are called moral should be performed and encouraged2 but ,i hold that in both cases these actions should be performed from motives other than those which have prevailed up to the present time4 ,we must learn anew in order that at last1 perhaps very late in the day1 we may be able to do something more3 feel anew40 ,in regard to the translation itself--which owes a good deal to many excellent suggestions made by ,mr4 ,thomas ,common--it adheres1 as a rule1 closely to the ,german text2 and in only two or three instances has a slightly freer rendering been adopted in order to make the sense quite clear4 ,there are one or two cases in which a punning or double meaning could not be adequately rendered in ,english3 e4g4 ,aphorism #ej1 where the ,german word 8,rausch0 means both 8intoxication0 and also 8elation0 7i4e4 the exalted feelings of the religious fanatic74 ,again1 we have 8,einleid10 8,einleidigkeit10 in ,aphorism #fc--words which do not quite correspond to pity1 compassion1 or fellow-feeling1 and which1 indeed1 are not yet known to ,german lexicographers4 ,a literal translation1 8one-feeling10 would be almost meaningless4 ,what is actually signified is that both sufferer and sympathiser have nerves and feelings in common3 an experience which ,schopenhauer1 as ,nietzsche rightly points out1 mistook for compassion or pity 78,mitleid071 and which lacked a word1 even in ,german1 until the later psychologist coined 8,einleid40 ,again1 in ,aphorism #eed we have a play upon the words 8,vorschritt0 7leading1 guidance7 and 8,fortschritt0 7progress74 ,all these1 however1 are trifling matters in comparison with the substance of the book1 and they are of more interest to philologists than to psychologists4 ,it is for psychologists that this book was written2 and such minds1 somewhat rare in our time1 may read in it with much profit4 ,j4 ,m4 ,kennedy4 ,,london1 ,september #aiaa4 ,,author',s ,,preface4 ,in this book we find a 8subterrestrial0 at work1 digging1 mining1 undermining4 ,you can see him1 always provided that you have eyes for such deep work1--how he makes his way slowly1 cautiously1 gently but surely1 without showing signs of the weariness that usually accompanies a long privation of light and air4 ,he might even be called happy1 despite his labours in the dark4 ,does it not seem as if some faith were leading him on1 some solace recompensing him for his toil8 ,or that he himself desires a long period of darkness1 an unintelligible1 hidden1 enigmatic something1 knowing as he does that he will in time have his own morning1 his own redemption1 his own rosy dawn8--,yea1 verily he will return3 ask him not what he seeketh in the depths2 for he himself will tell you1 this apparent ,trophonius and subterrestrial1 whensoever he once again becomes man4 ,one easily unlearns how to hold one's tongue when one has for so long been a mole1 and all alone1 like him4-- #b4 ,indeed1 my indulgent friends1 ,i will tell you--here1 in this late preface17#a7 which might easily have become an obituary or a funeral oration--what ,i sought in the depths below3 for ,i have come back1 and--,i have escaped4 ,think not that ,i will urge you to run the same perilous risk6 or that ,i will urge you on even to the same solitude6 ,for whoever proceeds on his own path meets nobody3 this is the feature of one's 8own path40 ,no one comes to help him in his task3 he must face everything quite alone--danger1 bad luck1 wickedness1 foul weather4 ,he goes his own way2 and1 as is only right1 meets with bitterness and occasional irritation because he pursues this 8own way0 of his3 for instance1 the knowledge that not even his friends can guess who he is and whither he is going1 and that they ask themselves now and then3 8,well8 ,is he really moving at all8 ,has he still 444 a path before him80--,at that time ,i had undertaken something which could not have been done by everybody3 ,i went down into the deepest depths2 ,i tunnelled to the very bottom2 ,i started to investigate and unearth an old faith which for thousands of years we philosophers used to build on as the safest of all foundations--which we built on again and again although every previous structure fell in3 ,i began to undermine our faith in morals4 ,but ye do not understand me8-- #c4 ,so far it is on ,good and ,evil that we have meditated least profoundly3 this was always too dangerous a subject4 ,conscience1 a good reputation1 hell1 and at times even the police1 have not allowed and do not allow of impartiality2 in the presence of morality1 as before all authority1 we must not even think1 much less speak3 here we must obey6 ,ever since the beginning of the world1 no authority has permitted itself to be made the subject of criticism2 and to criticise morals--to look upon morality as a problem1 as problematic--what6 was that not--is that not--immoral8--,but morality has at its disposal not only every means of intimidation wherewith to keep itself free from critical hands and instruments of torture3 its security lies rather in a certain art of enchantment1 in which it is a past master--it knows how to 8enrapture40 ,it can often paralyse the critical will with a single look1 or even seduce it to itself3 yea1 there are even cases where morality can turn the critical will against itself2 so that then1 like the scorpion1 it thrusts the sting into its own body4 ,morality has for ages been an expert in all kinds of devilry in the art of convincing3 even at the present day there is no orator who would not turn to it for assistance 7only hearken to our anarchists1 for instance3 how morally they speak when they would fain convince6 ,in the end they even call themselves 8the good and the just074 ,morality has shown herself to be the greatest mistress of seduction ever since men began to discourse and persuade on earth--and1 what concerns us philosophers even more1 she is the veritable ,circe of philosophers4 ,for1 to what is it due that1 from ,plato onwards1 all the philosophic architects in ,europe have built in vain8 that everything which they themselves honestly believed to be aere perennius threatens to subside or is already laid in ruins8 ,oh1 how wrong is the answer which1 even in our own day1 rolls glibly off the tongue when this question is asked3 8,because they have all neglected the prerequisite1 the examination of the foundation1 a critique of all reason0--that fatal answer made by ,kant1 who has certainly not thereby attracted us modern philosophers to firmer and less treacherous ground6 7and1 one may ask apropos of this1 was it not rather strange to demand that an instrument should criticise its own value and effectiveness8 that the intellect itself should 8recognise0 its own worth1 power1 and limits8 was it not even just a little ridiculous87 ,the right answer would rather have been1 that all philosophers1 including ,kant himself were building under the seductive influence of morality--that they aimed at certainty and 8truth0 only in appearance2 but that in reality their attention was directed towards 8majestic moral edifices10 to use once more ,kant's innocent mode of expression1 who deems it his 8less brilliant1 but not undeserving0 task and work 8to level the ground and prepare a solid foundation for the erection of those majestic moral edifices0 7,critique of ,pure ,reason1 ii4 #beg74 ,alas6 ,he did not succeed in his aim1 quite the contrary--as we must acknowledge to-day4 ,with this exalted aim1 ,kant was merely a true son of his century1 which more than any other may justly be called the century of exaltation3 and this he fortunately continued to be in respect to the more valuable side of this century 7with that solid piece of sensuality1 for example1 which he introduced into his theory of knowledge74 ,he1 too1 had been bitten by the moral tarantula1 ,rousseau2 he1 too1 felt weighing on his soul that moral fanaticism of which another disciple of ,rousseau's1 ,robespierre1 felt and proclaimed himself to be the executor3 de fonder sur la terre l'empire de la sagesse1 de la justice1 et de la vertu4 7,speech of ,june #dth1 #agid47 ,on the other hand1 with such a ,french fanaticism in his heart1 no one could have cultivated it in a less ,french1 more deep1 more thorough and more ,german manner--if the word ,german is still permissible in this sense--than ,kant did3 in order to make room for his 8moral kingdom10 he found himself compelled to add to it an indemonstrable world1 a logical 8beyond0--that was why he required his critique of pure reason6 ,in other words1 he would not have wanted it1 if he had not deemed one thing to be more important than all the others3 to render his moral kingdom unassailable by--or1 better still1 invisible to1 reason1--for he felt too strongly the vulnerability of a moral order of things in the face of reason4 ,for1 when confronted with nature and history1 when confronted with the ingrained immorality of nature and history1 ,kant was1 like all good ,germans from the earliest times1 a pessimist3 he believed in morality1 not because it is demonstrated through nature and history1 but despite its being steadily contradicted by them4 ,to understand this 8despite10 we should perhaps recall a somewhat similar trait in ,luther1 that other great pessimist1 who once urged it upon his friends with true ,lutheran audacity3 8,if we could conceive by reason alone how that ,god who shows so much wrath and malignity could be merciful and just1 what use should we have for faith80 ,for1 from the earliest times1 nothing has ever made a deeper impression upon the ,german soul1 nothing has ever 8tempted0 it more1 than that deduction1 the most dangerous of all1 which for every true ,latin is a sin against the intellect3 credo quia absurdum est4--,with it ,german logic enters for the first time into the history of ,christian dogma2 but even to-day1 a thousand years later1 we ,germans of the present1 late ,germans in every way1 catch the scent of truth1 a possibility of truth1 at the back of the famous fundamental principle of dialectics with which ,hegel secured the victory of the ,german spirit over ,europe--8contradiction moves the world2 all things contradict themselves40 ,we are pessimists--even in logic4 #d4 ,but logical judgments are not the deepest and most fundamental to which the daring of our suspicion descends3 the confidence in reason which is inseparable from the validity of these judgments1 is1 as confidence1 a moral phenomenon 444 perhaps ,german pessimism has yet to take its last step8 ,perhaps it has once more to draw up its 8credo0 opposite its 8absurdum0 in a terrible manner8 ,and if this book is pessimistic even in regard to morals1 even above the confidence in morals--should it not be a ,german book for that very reason8 ,for1 in fact1 it represents a contradiction1 and one which it does not fear3 in it confidence in morals is retracted--but why8 ,out of morality6 ,or how shall we call that which takes place in it--in us8 for our taste inclines to the employment of more modest phrases4 ,but there is no doubt that to us likewise there speaketh a 8thou shalt02 we likewise obey a strict law which is set above us--and this is the last cry of morals which is still audible to us1 which we too must live3 here1 if anywhere1 are we still men of conscience1 because1 to put the matter in plain words1 we will not return to that which we look upon as decayed1 outlived1 and superseded1 we will not return to something 8unworthy of belief10 whether it be called ,god1 virtue1 truth1 justice1 love of one's neighbour1 or what not2 we will not permit ourselves to open up a lying path to old ideals2 we are thoroughly and unalterably opposed to anything that would intercede and mingle with us2 opposed to all forms of present-day faith and ,christianity2 opposed to the lukewarmness of all romanticism and fatherlandism2 opposed also to the artistic sense of enjoyment and lack of principle which would fain make us worship where we no longer believe--for we are artists--opposed1 in short1 to all this ,european feminism 7or idealism1 if this term be thought preferable7 which everlastingly 8draws upward10 and which in consequence everlastingly 8lowers0 and 8degrades40 ,yet1 being men of this conscience1 we feel that we are related to that ,german uprightness and piety which dates back thousands of years1 although we immoralists and atheists may be the late and uncertain offspring of these virtues--yea1 we even consider ourselves1 in a certain respect1 as their heirs1 the executors of their inmost will3 a pessimistic will1 as ,i have already pointed out1 which is not afraid to deny itself1 because it denies itself with joy6 ,in us is consummated1 if you desire a formula--the autosuppression of morals4 #e4 ,but1 after all1 why must we proclaim so loudly and with such intensity what we are1 what we want1 and what we do not want8 ,let us look at this more calmly and wisely2 from a higher and more distant point of view4 ,let us proclaim it1 as if among ourselves1 in so low a tone that all the world fails to hear it and us6 ,above all1 however1 let us say it slowly4444 ,this preface comes late1 but not too late3 what1 after all1 do five or six years matter8 ,such a book1 and such a problem1 are in no hurry2 besides1 we are friends of the lento1 ,i and my book4 ,i have not been a philologist in vain--perhaps ,i am one yet3 a teacher of slow reading4 ,i even come to write slowly4 ,at present it is not only my habit1 but even my taste--a perverted taste1 maybe--to write nothing but what will drive to despair every one who is 8in a hurry40 ,for philology is that venerable art which exacts from its followers one thing above all--to step to one side1 to leave themselves spare moments1 to grow silent1 to become slow--the leisurely art of the goldsmith applied to language3 an art which must carry out slow1 fine work1 and attains nothing if not lento4 ,for this very reason philology is now more desirable than ever before2 for this very reason it is the highest attraction and incitement in an age of 8work03 that is to say1 of haste1 of unseemly and immoderate hurry-skurry1 which is intent upon 8getting things done0 at once1 even every book1 whether old or new4 ,philology itself1 perhaps1 will not 8get things done0 so hurriedly3 it teaches how to read well3 i4e4 slowly1 profoundly1 attentively1 prudently1 with inner thoughts1 with the mental doors ajar1 with delicate fingers and eyes 444 my patient friends1 this book appeals only to perfect readers and philologists3 learn to read me well6 ,,ruta1 ,,near ,,genoa1 ,autumn1 #ahhf4 ,,book ,i4 #a4 ,,subsequent ,,judgment4--,all things that endure for a long time are little by little so greatly permeated by reason that their origin in unreason becomes improbable4 ,does not almost every exact statement of an origin strike us as paradoxical and sacrilegious8 ,indeed1 does not the true historian constantly contradict8 #b4 ,,prejudice ,,of ,,the ,,learned4--,savants are quite correct in maintaining the proposition that men in all ages believed that they knew what was good and evil1 praiseworthy and blamable4 ,but it is a prejudice of the learned to say that we now know it better than any other age4 #c4 ,a ,,time ,,for ,,everything4--,when man assigned a sex to all things1 he did not believe that he was merely playing2 but he thought1 on the contrary1 that he had acquired a profound insight3--it was only at a much later period1 and then only partly1 that he acknowledged the enormity of his error4 ,in the same way1 man has attributed a moral relationship to everything that exists1 throwing the cloak of ethical significance over the world's shoulders4 ,one day all that will be of just as much value1 and no more1 as the amount of belief existing to-day in the masculinity or femininity of the sun47#b7 #d4 ,,against ,,the ,,fanciful ,,disharmony ,,of ,,the ,,spheres4--,we must once more sweep out of the world all this false grandeur1 for it is contrary to the justice that all things about us may claim4 ,and for this reason we must not see or wish the world to be more disharmonic than it is6 #e4 ,,be ,,thankful6--,the most important result of the past efforts of humanity is that we need no longer go about in continual fear of wild beasts1 barbarians1 gods1 and our own dreams4 #f4 ,,the ,,juggler ,,and ,,his ,,counterpart4--,that which is wonderful in science is contrary to that which is wonderful in the art of the juggler4 ,for the latter would wish to make us believe that we see a very simple causality1 where1 in reality1 an exceedingly complex causality is in operation4 ,science1 on the other hand1 forces us to give up our belief in the simple causality exactly where everything looks so easily comprehensible and we are merely the victims of appearances4 ,the simplest things are very 8complicated0--we can never be sufficiently astonished at them6 #g4 ,,reconceiving ,,our ,,feeling ,,of ,,space4--,is it real or imaginary things which have built up the greater proportion of man's happiness8 ,it is certain1 at all events1 that the extent of the distance between the highest point of happiness and the lowest point of unhappiness has been established only with the help of imaginary things4 ,as a consequence1 this kind of a conception of space is always1 under the influence of science1 becoming smaller and smaller3 in the same way as science has taught us1 and is still teaching us1 to look upon the earth as small--yea1 to look upon the entire solar system as a mere point4 #h4 ,,transfiguration4--,perplexed sufferers1 confused dreamers1 the hysterically ecstatic--here we have the three classes into which ,raphael divided mankind4 ,we no longer consider the world in this light--and ,raphael himself dare not do so3 his own eyes would show him a new transfiguration4 #i4 ,,conception ,,of ,,the ,,morality ,,of ,,custom4--,in comparison with the mode of life which prevailed among men for thousands of years1 we men of the present day are living in a very immoral age3 the power of custom has been weakened to a remarkable degree1 and the sense of morality is so refined and elevated that we might almost describe it as volatilised4 ,that is why we late comers experience such difficulty in obtaining a fundamental conception of the origin of morality3 and even if we do obtain it1 our words of explanation stick in our throats1 so coarse would they sound if we uttered them6 or to so great an extent would they seem to be a slander upon morality6 ,thus1 for example1 the fundamental clause3 morality is nothing else 7and1 above all1 nothing more7 than obedience to customs1 of whatsoever nature they may be4 ,but customs are simply the traditional way of acting and valuing4 ,where there is no tradition there is no morality2 and the less life is governed by tradition1 the narrower the circle of morality4 ,the free man is immoral1 because it is his will to depend upon himself and not upon tradition3 in all the primitive states of humanity 8evil0 is equivalent to 8individual10 8free10 8arbitrary10 8unaccustomed10 8unforeseen10 8incalculable40 ,in such primitive conditions1 always measured by this standard1 any action performed--not because tradition commands it1 but for other reasons 7e4g4 on account of its individual utility71 even for the same reasons as had been formerly established by custom--is termed immoral1 and is felt to be so even by the very man who performs it1 for it has not been done out of obedience to the tradition4 ,what is tradition8 ,a higher authority1 which is obeyed1 not because it commands what is useful to us1 but merely because it commands4 ,and in what way can this feeling for tradition be distinguished from a general feeling of fear8 ,it is the fear of a higher intelligence which commands1 the fear of an incomprehensible power1 of something that is more than personal--there is superstition in this fear4 ,in primitive times the domain of morality included education and hygienics1 marriage1 medicine1 agriculture1 war1 speech and silence1 the relationship between man and man1 and between man and the gods--morality required that a man should observe her prescriptions without thinking of himself as individual4 ,everything1 therefore1 was originally custom1 and whoever wished to raise himself above it1 had first of all to make himself a kind of lawgiver and medicine-man1 a sort of demi-god--in other words1 he had to create customs1 a dangerous and fearful thing to do6--,who is the most moral man8 ,on the one hand1 he who most frequently obeys the law3 e4g4 he who1 like the ,brahmins1 carries a consciousness of the law about with him wherever he may go1 and introduces it into the smallest divisions of time1 continually exercising his mind in finding opportunities for obeying the law4 ,on the other hand1 he who obeys the law in the most difficult cases4 ,the most moral man is he who makes the greatest sacrifices to morality2 but what are the greatest sacrifices8 ,in answering this question several different kinds of morality will be developed3 but the distinction between the morality of the most frequent obedience and the morality of the most difficult obedience is of the greatest importance4 ,let us not be deceived as to the motives of that moral law which requires1 as an indication of morality1 obedience to custom in the most difficult cases6 ,self-conquest is required1 not by reason of its useful consequences for the individual2 but that custom and tradition may appear to be dominant1 in spite of all individual counter desires and advantages4 ,the individual shall sacrifice himself--so demands the morality of custom4 ,on the other hand1 those moralists who1 like the followers of ,socrates1 recommend self-control and sobriety to the individual as his greatest possible advantage and the key to his greatest personal happiness1 are exceptions--and if we ourselves do not think so1 this is simply due to our having been brought up under their influence4 ,they all take a new path1 and thereby bring down upon themselves the utmost disapproval of all the representatives of the morality of custom4 ,they sever their connection with the community1 as immoralists1 and are1 in the fullest sense of the word1 evil ones4 ,in the same way1 every ,christian who 8sought1 above all things1 his own salvation10 must have seemed evil to a virtuous ,roman of the old school4 ,wherever a community exists1 and consequently also a morality of custom1 the feeling prevails that any punishment for the violation of a custom is inflicted1 above all1 on the community3 this punishment is a supernatural punishment1 the manifestations and limits of which are so difficult to understand1 and are investigated with such superstitious fear4 ,the community can compel any one member of it to make good1 either to an individual or to the community itself1 any ill consequences which may have followed upon such a member's action4 ,it can also call down a sort of vengeance upon the head of the individual by endeavouring to show that1 as the result of his action1 a storm of divine anger has burst over the community1--but1 above all1 it regards the guilt of the individual more particularly as its own guilt1 and bears the punishment of the isolated individual as its own punishment--8,morals10 they bewail in their innermost heart1 8morals have grown lax1 if such deeds as these are possible40 ,and every individual action1 every individual mode of thinking1 causes dread4 ,it is impossible to determine how much the more select1 rare1 and original minds must have suffered in the course of time by being considered as evil and dangerous1 yea1 because they even looked upon themselves as such4 ,under the dominating influence of the morality of custom1 originality of every kind came to acquire a bad conscience2 and even now the sky of the best minds seems to be more overcast by this thought than it need be4 #aj4 ,,counter-,,motion ,,between ,,the ,,sense ,,of ,,morality ,,and ,,the ,,sense ,,of ,,causality4--,as the sense of causality increases1 so does the extent of the domain of morality decrease3 for every time one has been able to grasp the necessary effects1 and to conceive them as distinct from all incidentals and chance possibilities 7post hoc71 one has1 at the same time1 destroyed an enormous number of imaginary causalities1 which had hitherto been believed in as the basis of morals--the real world is much smaller than the world of our imagination--and each time also one casts away a certain amount of one's anxiousness and coercion1 and some of our reverence for the authority of custom is lost3 morality in general undergoes a diminution4 ,he who1 on the other hand1 wishes to increase it must know how to prevent results from becoming controllable4 #aa4 ,,morals ,,and ,,medicines ,,of ,,the ,,people4--,every one is continuously occupied in bringing more or less influence to bear upon the morals which prevail in a community3 most of the people bring forward example after example to show the alleged relationship between cause and effect1 guilt and punishment1 thus upholding it as well founded and adding to the belief in it4 ,a few make new observations upon the actions and their consequences1 drawing conclusions therefrom and laying down laws2 a smaller number raise objections and allow belief in these things to become weakened4--,but they are all alike in the crude and unscientific manner in which they set about their work3 if it is a question of objections to a law1 or examples or observations of it1 or of its proof1 confirmation1 expression or refutation1 we always find the material and method entirely valueless1 as valueless as the material and form of all popular medicine4 ,popular medicines and popular morals are closely related1 and should not be considered and valued1 as is still customary1 in so different a way3 both are most dangerous and make-believe sciences4 #ab4 ,,consequence ,,as ,,adjuvant ,,cause4--,formerly the consequences of an action were considered1 not as the result of that action1 but a voluntary adjuvant--i4e4 on the part of ,god4 ,can a greater confusion be imagined8 ,entirely different practices and means have to be brought into use for actions and effects6 #ac4 ,,towards ,,the ,,new ,,education ,,of ,,mankind4--,help us1 all ye who are well-disposed and willing to assist1 lend your aid in the endeavour to do away with that conception of punishment which has swept over the whole world6 ,no weed more harmful than this6 ,it is not only to the consequences of our actions that this conception has been applied--and how horrible and senseless it is to confuse cause and effect with cause and punishment6--but worse has followed3 the pure accidentality of events has been robbed of its innocence by this execrable manner of interpreting conception of punishment4 ,yea1 they have even pushed their folly to such extremes that they would have us look upon existence itself as a punishment--from which it would appear that the education of mankind had hitherto been confided to cranky gaolers and hangmen4 #ad4 ,,the ,,signification ,,of ,,madness ,,in ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,morality4--,if1 despite that formidable pressure of the 8morality of custom10 under which all human communities lived--thousands of years before our own era1 and during our own era up to the present day 7we ourselves are dwelling in the small world of exceptions1 and1 as it were1 in an evil zone73--if1 ,i say1 in spite of all this1 new and divergent ideas1 valuations1 and impulses have made their appearance time after time1 this state of things has been brought about only with the assistance of a dreadful associate3 it was insanity almost everywhere that paved the way for the new thought and cast off the spell of an old custom and superstition4 ,do ye understand why this had to be done through insanity8 by something which is in both voice and appearance as horrifying and incalculable as the demoniac whims of wind and sea1 and consequently calling for like dread and respect8 by something bearing upon it the signs of entire lack of consciousness as clearly as the convulsions and foam of the epileptic1 which appeared to typify the insane person as the mask and speaking-trumpet of some divine being8 by something that inspired even the bearer of the new thought with awe and fear of himself1 and that1 suppressing all remorse1 drove him on to become its prophet and martyr8--,well1 in our own time1 we continually hear the statement reiterated that genius is tinctured with madness instead of good sense4 ,men of earlier ages were far more inclined to believe that1 wherever traces of insanity showed themselves1 a certain proportion of genius and wisdom was likewise present--something 8divine10 as they whispered to one another4 ,more than this1 they expressed their opinions on the point with sufficient emphasis4 8,all the greatest benefits of ,greece have sprung from madness10 said ,plato1 setting on record the opinion of the entire ancient world4 ,let us take a step further3 all those superior men1 who felt themselves irresistibly urged on to throw off the yoke of some morality or other1 had no other resource--if they were not really mad--than to feign madness1 or actually to become insane4 ,and this holds good for innovators in every department of life1 and not only in religion and politics4 ,even the reformer of the poetic metre was forced to justify himself by means of madness4 7,thus even down to gentler ages madness remained a kind of convention in poets1 of which ,solon1 for instance1 took advantage when urging the ,athenians to reconquer ,salamis47--8,how can one make one's self mad when one is not mad and dare not feign to be so80 ,almost all the eminent men of antiquity have given themselves up to this dreadful mode of reasoning3 a secret doctrine of artifices and dietetic jugglery grew up around this subject and was handed down from generation to generation1 together with the feeling of the innocence1 even sanctity1 of such plans and meditations4 ,the means of becoming a medicine-man among the ,indians1 a saint among ,christians of the ,middle ,ages1 an angecok among ,greenlanders1 a ,pagee among ,brazilians1 are the same in essence3 senseless fasting1 continual abstention from sexual intercourse1 isolation in a wilderness1 ascending a mountain or a pillar1 8sitting on an aged willow that looks out upon a lake10 and thinking of absolutely nothing but what may give rise to ecstasy or mental derangements4 ,who would dare to glance at the desert of the bitterest and most superfluous agonies of spirit1 in which probably the most productive men of all ages have pined away8 ,who could listen to the sighs of those lonely and troubled minds3 8,o ye heavenly powers1 grant me madness6 ,madness1 that ,i at length may believe in myself6 ,vouchsafe delirium and convulsions1 sudden flashes of light and periods of darkness2 frighten me with such shivering and feverishness as no mortal ever experienced before1 with clanging noises and haunting spectres2 let me growl and whine and creep about like a beast1 if only ,i can come to believe in myself6 ,i am devoured by doubt4 ,i have slain the law1 and ,i now dread the law as a living person dreads a corpse4 ,if ,i am not above the law1 ,i am the most abandoned of wretches4 ,whence cometh this new spirit that dwelleth within me but from you8 ,prove to me1 then1 that ,i am one of you--nothing but madness will prove it to me40 ,and only too often does such a fervour attain its object3 at the very time when ,christianity was giving the greatest proof of its fertility in the production of saints and martyrs1 believing that it was thus proving itself1 ,jerusalem contained large lunatic asylums for shipwrecked saints1 for those whose last spark of good sense had been quenched by the floods of insanity4 #ae4 ,,the ,,most ,,ancient ,,means ,,of ,,solace4--,first stage3 ,in every misfortune or discomfort man sees something for which he must make somebody else suffer1 no matter who--in this way he finds out the amount of power still remaining to him2 and this consoles him4 ,second stage3 ,in every misfortune or discomfort1 man sees a punishment1 i4e4 an expiation of guilt and the means by which he may get rid of the malicious enchantment of a real or apparent wrong4 ,when he perceives the advantage which misfortune bring with it1 he believes he need no longer make another person suffer for it--he gives up this kind of satisfaction1 because he now has another4 #af4 ,,first ,,principle ,,of ,,civilisation4--,among savage tribes there is a certain category of customs which appear to aim at nothing but custom4 ,they therefore lay down strict1 and1 on the whole1 superfluous regulations 7e4g4 the rules of the ,kamchadales1 which forbid snow to be scraped off the boots with a knife1 coal to be stuck on the point of a knife1 or a piece of iron to be put into the fire--and death to be the portion of every one who shall act contrariwise67 ,yet these laws serve to keep people continually reminded of the custom1 and the imperative necessity on their parts to conform to it3 and all this in support of the great principle which stands at the beginning of all civilisation3 any custom is better than none4 #ag4 ,,goodness ,,and ,,malignity4--,at first men imposed their own personalities on ,nature3 everywhere they saw themselves and their like1 i4e4 their own evil and capricious temperaments1 hidden1 as it were1 behind clouds1 thunder-storms1 wild beasts1 trees1 and plants3 it was then that they declared ,nature was evil4 ,afterwards there came a time1 that of ,rousseau1 when they sought to distinguish themselves from ,nature3 they were so tired of each other that they wished to have separate little hiding-places where man and his misery could not penetrate3 then they invented 8nature is good40 #ah4 ,,the ,,morality ,,of ,,voluntary ,,suffering4--,what is the highest enjoyment for men living in a state of war in a small community1 the existence of which is continually threatened1 and the morality of which is the strictest possible8 i4e4 for souls which are vigorous1 vindictive1 malicious1 full of suspicion1 ready to face the direst events1 hardened by privation and morality8 ,the enjoyment of cruelty3 just as1 in such souls and in such circumstances1 it would be regarded as a virtue to be ingenious and insatiable in cruelty4 ,such a community would find its delight in performing cruel deeds1 casting aside1 for once1 the gloom of constant anxiety and precaution4 ,cruelty is one of the most ancient enjoyments at their festivities4 ,as a consequence it is believed that the gods likewise are pleased by the sight of cruelty and rejoice at it--and in this way the belief is spread that voluntary suffering1 self-chosen martyrdom1 has a high signification and value of its own4 ,in the community custom gradually brings about a practice in conformity with this belief3 henceforward people become more suspicious of all exuberant well-being1 and more confident as they find themselves in a state of great pain2 they think that the gods may be unfavourable to them on account of happiness1 and favourable on account of pain--not compassionate6 ,for compassion is looked upon with contempt1 and unworthy of a strong and awe-inspiring soul--but agreeable to them1 because the sight of human suffering put these gods into good humour and makes them feel powerful1 and a cruel mind revels in the sensation of power4 ,it was thus that the 8most moral man0 of the community was considered as such by virtue of his frequent suffering1 privation1 laborious existence1 and cruel mortification--not1 to repeat it again and again1 as a means of discipline or self-control or a desire for individual happiness--but a a virtue which renders the evil gods well-disposed towards the community1 a virtue which continually wafts up to them the odour of an expiatory sacrifice4 ,all those intellectual leaders of the nations who reached the point of being able to stir up the sluggish though prolific mire of their customs had to possess this factor of voluntary martyrdom as well as insanity in order to obtain belief--especially1 and above all1 as is always the case1 belief in themselves6 ,the more their minds followed new paths1 and were consequently tormented by pricks of conscience1 the more cruelly they battled against their own flesh1 their own desires1 and their own health--as if they were offering the gods a compensation in pleasure1 lest these gods should wax wroth at the neglect of ancient customs and the setting up of new aims4 ,let no one be too hasty in thinking that we have now entirely freed ourselves from such a logic of feeling6 ,let the most heroic souls among us question themselves on this very point4 ,the least step forward in the domain of free thought and individual life has been achieved in all ages to the accompaniment of physical and intellectual tortures3 and not only the mere step forward1 no6 but every form of movement and change has rendered necessary innumerable martyrs1 throughout the entire course of thousands of years which sought their paths and laid down their foundation-stones1 years1 however1 which we do not think of when we speak about 8world-history10 that ridiculously small division of mankind's existence4 ,and even in this so-called world-history1 which in the main is merely a great deal of noise about the latest novelties1 there is no more important theme than the old1 old tragedy of the martyrs who tried to move the mire4 ,nothing has been more dearly bought than the minute portion of human reason and feeling of liberty upon which we now pride ourselves4 ,but it is this very pride which makes it almost impossible for us to-day to be conscious of that enormous lapse of time1 preceding the period of 8world-history0 when 8morality of custom0 held the field1 and to consider this lapse of time as the real and decisive epoch that established the character of mankind3 an epoch when suffering was considered as a virtue1 cruelty as a virtue1 hypocrisy as a virtue1 revenge as a virtue1 and the denial of the reason as a virtue1 whereas1 on the other hand1 well-being was regarded as a danger1 longing for knowledge as a danger1 peace as a danger1 compassion as a danger3 an epoch when being pitied was looked upon as an insult1 work as an insult1 madness as a divine attribute1 and every kind of change as immoral and pregnant with ruin6 ,you imagine that all this has changed1 and that humanity must likewise have changed its character8 ,oh1 ye poor psychologists1 learn to know yourselves better6 #ai4 ,,morality ,,and ,,stupefaction4--,custom represents the experiences of men of earlier times in regard to what they considered as useful and harmful2 but the feeling of custom 7morality7 does not relate to these feelings as such1 but to the age1 the sanctity1 and the unquestioned authority of the custom4 ,hence this feeling hinders our acquiring new experiences and amending morals3 i4e4 morality is opposed to the formation of new and better morals3 it stupefies4 #bj4 ,,free-,,doers ,,and ,,free-,,thinkers4--,compared with free-thinkers1 free-doers are at a disadvantage1 because it is evident that men suffer more from the consequences of actions than of thoughts4 ,if we remember1 however1 that both seek their own satisfaction1 and that free-thinkers have already found their satisfaction in reflection upon and utterance of forbidden things1 there is no difference in the motives2 but in respect of the consequences the issue will be decided against the free-thinker1 provided that it be not judged from the most superficial and vulgar external appearance1 i4e4 not as every one would judge it4 ,we must make up for a good deal of the calumny with which men have covered all those who have1 by their actions1 broken away from the authority of some custom--they are generally called criminals4 ,every one who has hitherto overthrown a law of established morality has always at first been considered as a wicked man3 but when it was afterwards found impossible to re-establish the law1 and people gradually became accustomed to the change1 the epithet was changed by slow degrees4 ,history deals almost exclusively with these wicked men1 who later on came to be recognised as good men4 #ba4 8,,fulfilment ,,of ,,the ,,law40--,in cases where the observance of a moral precept has led to different consequence from that expected and promised1 and does not bestow upon the moral man the happiness he had hoped for1 but leads rather to misfortune and misery1 the conscientious and timid man has always his excuse ready3 8,something was lacking in the proper carrying out of the law40 ,if the worst comes to the worst1 a deeply-suffering and down-trodden humanity will even decree3 8,it is impossible to carry out the precept faithfully3 we are too weak and sinful1 and1 in the depths of our soul1 incapable of morality3 consequently we have no claim to happiness and success4 ,moral precepts and promises have been given for better beings than ourselves40 #bb4 ,,works ,,and ,,faith4--,protestant teachers are still spreading the fundamental error that faith only is of consequence1 and that works must follow naturally upon faith4 ,this doctrine is certainly not true1 but it is so seductive in appearance that it has succeeded in fascinating quite other intellects than that of ,luther 7e4g4 the minds of ,socrates and ,plato73 though the plain evidence and experience of our daily life prove the contrary4 ,the most assured knowledge and faith cannot give us either the strength or the dexterity required for action1 or the practice in that subtle and complicated mechanism which is a prerequisite for anything to be changed from an idea into action4 ,then1 ,i say1 let us first and foremost have works6 and this means practice6 practice6 practice6 ,the necessary faith will come later--be certain of that6 #bc4 ,,in ,,what ,,respect ,,we ,,are ,,most ,,subtle4--,by the fact that1 for thousands of years1 things 7nature1 tools1 property of all kinds7 were thought to be alive and to possess souls1 and able to hinder and interfere with the designs of man1 the feeling of impotence among men has become greater and more frequent than it need have been3 for one had to secure one's things like men and beasts1 by means of force1 compulsion1 flattery1 treaties1 sacrifices--and it is here that we may find the origin of the greater number of superstitious customs1 i4e4 of an important1 perhaps paramount1 and nevertheless wasted and useless division of mankind's activity6--,but since the feeling of impotence and fear was so strong1 and for such a length of time in a state of constant stimulation1 the feeling of power in man has been developed in so subtle a manner that1 in this respect1 he can compare favourably with the most delicately-adjusted balance4 ,this feeling has become his strongest propensity3 and the means he discovered for creating it form almost the entire history of culture4 #bd4 ,,the ,,proof ,,of ,a ,,precept4--,the worth or worthlessness of a recipe--that for baking bread1 for example--is proved1 generally speaking1 by the result expected coming to pass or not1 provided1 of course1 that the directions given have been carefully followed4 ,the case is different1 however1 when we come to deal with moral precepts1 for here the results cannot be ascertained1 interpreted1 and divined4 ,these precepts1 indeed1 are based upon hypotheses of but little scientific value1 the proof or refutation of which by means of results is impossible3--but in former ages1 when all science was crude and primitive1 and when a matter was taken for granted on the smallest evidence1 then the worth or worthlessness of a moral recipe was determined as we now determine any other precept3 by reference to the results4 ,if the natives of ,alaska believe in a command which says3 8,thou shalt not throw a bone into the fire or give it to a dog10 this will be proved by the warning3 8,if thou dost thou wilt have no luck when hunting40 ,yet1 in one sense or another1 it almost invariably happens that one has 8no luck when hunting40 ,it is no easy matter to refute the worth of the precept in this way1 the more so as it is the community1 and not the individual1 which is regarded as the bearer of the punishment2 and1 again1 some occurrence is almost certain to happen which seems to prove the rule4 #be4 ,,customs ,,and ,,beauty4--,in justice to custom it must not be overlooked that1 in the case of all those who conform to it whole-heartedly from the very start1 the organs of attack and defence1 both physical and intellectual1 begin to waste away2 i4e4 these individuals gradually become more beautiful6 ,for it is the exercise of these organs and their corresponding feelings that brings about ugliness and helps to preserve it4 ,it is for this reason that the old baboon is uglier than the young one1 and that the young female baboon most closely resembles man1 and is hence the most handsome4--,let us draw from this our own conclusions as to the origin of female beauty6 #bf4 ,,animals ,,and ,,morals4--,the rules insisted upon in polite society1 such1 for example1 as the avoidance of everything ridiculous1 fantastic1 presumptuous2 the suppression of one's virtues just as much as of one's most violent desires1 the instant bringing of one's self down to the general level1 submitting one's self to etiquette and self-depreciation3 all this1 generally speaking1 is to be found1 as a social morality1 even in the lowest scale of the animal world--and it is only in this low scale that we see the innermost plan of all these amiable precautionary regulations3 one wishes to escape from one's pursuers and to be aided in the search for plunder4 ,hence animals learn to control and to disguise themselves to such an extent that some of them can even adapt the colour of their bodies to that of their surroundings 7by means of what is known as the 8chromatic function074 ,others can simulate death1 or adopt the forms and colours of other animals1 or of sand1 leaves1 moss1 or fungi 7known to ,english naturalists as 8mimicry074 ,it is in this way that an individual conceals himself behind the universality of the generic term 8man0 or 8society10 or adapts and attaches himself to princes1 castes1 political parties1 current opinions of the time1 or his surroundings3 and we may easily find the animal equivalent of all those subtle means of making ourselves happy1 thankful1 powerful1 and fascinating4 ,even that sense of truth1 which is at bottom merely the sense of security1 is possessed by man in common with the animals3 we do not wish to be deceived by others or by ourselves2 we hear with some suspicion the promptings of our own passions1 we control ourselves and remain on the watch against ourselves4 ,now1 the animal does all this as well as man2 and in the animal likewise self-control originates in the sense of reality 7prudence74 ,in the same way1 the animal observes the effects it exercises on the imagination of other beasts3 it thus learns to view itself from their position1 to consider itself 8objectively02 it has its own degree of self-knowledge4 ,the animal judges the movements of its friends and foes1 it learns their peculiarities by heart and acts accordingly3 it gives up1 once and for all1 the struggle against individual animals of certain species1 and it likewise recognises1 in the approach of certain varieties1 whether their intentions are agreeable and peaceful4 ,the beginnings of justice1 like those of wisdom--in short1 everything which we know as the ,socratic virtues--are of an animal nature3 a consequence of those instincts which teach us to search for food and to avoid our enemies4 ,if we remember that the higher man has merely raised and refined himself in the quality of his food and in the conception of what is contrary to his nature1 it may not be going too far to describe the entire moral phenomenon as of an animal origin4 #bg4 ,,the ,,value ,,of ,,the ,,belief ,,in ,,superhuman ,,passions4--,the institution of marriage stubbornly upholds the belief that love1 although a passion1 is nevertheless capable of duration as such1 yea1 that lasting1 lifelong love may be taken as a general rule4 ,by means of the tenacity of a noble belief1 in spite of such frequent and almost customary refutations--thereby becoming a pia fraus--marriage has elevated love to a higher rank4 ,every institution which has conceded to a passion the belief in the duration of the latter1 and responsibility for this duration1 in spite of the nature of the passion itself1 has raised the passion to a higher level3 and he who is thenceforth seized with such a passion does not1 as formerly1 think himself lowered in the estimation of others or brought into danger on that account1 but on the contrary believes himself to be raised1 both in the opinion of himself and of his equals4 ,let us recall institutions and customs which1 out of the fiery devotion of a moment1 have created eternal fidelity2 out of the pleasure of anger1 eternal vengeance2 out of despair1 eternal mourning2 out of a single hasty word1 eternal obligation4 ,a great deal of hypocrisy and falsehood came into the world as the result of such transformations2 but each time1 too1 at the cost of such disadvantages1 a new and superhuman conception which elevates mankind4 #bh4 ,,state ,,of ,,mind ,,as ,,argument4--,whence arises within us a cheerful readiness for action8--such is the question which has greatly occupied the attention of men4 ,the most ancient answer1 and one which we still hear1 is3 ,god is the cause2 in this way ,he gives us to understand that ,he approves of our actions4 ,when1 in former ages1 people consulted the oracles1 they did so that they might return home strengthened by this cheerful readiness2 and every one answered the doubts which came to him1 if alternative actions suggested themselves1 by saying3 8,i shall do whatever brings about that feeling40 ,they did not decide1 in other words1 for what was most reasonable1 but upon some plan the conception of which imbued the soul with courage and hope4 ,a cheerful outlook was placed in the scales as an argument and proved to be heavier than reasonableness2 for the state of mind was interpreted in a superstitious manner as the action of a god who promises success2 and who1 by this argument1 lets his reason speak as the highest reasonableness4 ,now1 let the consequences of such a prejudice be considered when shrewd men1 thirsting for power1 availed themselves of it--and still do so6 8,bring about the right state of mind60--in this way you can do without all arguments and overcome every objection6 #bi4 ,,actors ,,of ,,virtue ,,and ,,sin4--,among the ancients who became celebrated for their virtue there were many1 it would seem1 who acted to themselves1 especially the ,greeks1 who1 being actors by nature1 must have acted quite unconsciously1 seeing no reason why they should not do so4 ,in addition1 every one was striving to outdo some one else's virtue with his own1 so why should they not have made use of every artifice to show off their virtues1 especially among themselves1 if only for the sake of practice6 ,of what use was a virtue which one could not display1 and which did not know how to display itself6--,christianity put an end to the career of these actors of virtue2 instead it devised the disgusting ostentation and parading of sins3 it brought into the world a state of mendacious sinfulness 7even at the present day this is considered as bon ton among orthodox ,christians74 #cj4 ,,refined ,,cruelty ,,as ,,virtue4--,here we have a morality which is based entirely upon our thirst for distinction--do not therefore entertain too high an opinion of it6 ,indeed1 we may well ask what kind of an impulse it is1 and what is its fundamental signification8 ,it is sought1 by our appearance1 to grieve our neighbour1 to arouse his envy1 and to awaken his feelings of impotence and degradation2 we endeavour to make him taste the bitterness of his fate by dropping a little of our honey on his tongue1 and1 while conferring this supposed benefit on him1 looking sharply and triumphantly into his eyes4 ,behold such a man1 now become humble1 and perfect in his humility--and seek those for whom1 through his humility1 he has for a long time been preparing a torture2 for you are sure to find them6 ,here is another man who shows mercy towards animals1 and is admired for doing so--but there are certain people on whom he wishes to vent his cruelty by this very means4 ,look at that great artist3 the pleasure he enjoyed beforehand in conceiving the envy of the rivals he had outstripped1 refused to let his powers lie dormant until he became a great man--how many bitter moments in the souls of other men has he asked for as payment for his own greatness6 ,the nun's chastity3 with what threatening eyes she looks into the faces of other women who live differently from her6 what a vindictive joy shines in those eyes6 ,the theme is short1 and its variations1 though they might well be innumerable1 could not easily become tiresome--for it is still too paradoxical a novelty1 and almost a painful one1 to affirm that the morality of distinction is nothing1 at bottom1 but joy in refined cruelty4 ,when ,i say 8at bottom10 ,i mean here1 every time in the first generation4 ,for1 when the habit of some distinguished action becomes hereditary1 its root1 so to speak1 is not transmitted1 but only its fruits 7for only feelings1 and not thoughts1 can become hereditary73 and1 if we presuppose that this root is not reintroduced by education1 in the second generation the joy in the cruelty is no longer felt3 but only pleasure in the habit as such4 ,this joy1 however1 is the first degree of the 8good40 #ca4 ,,pride ,,in ,,spirit4--,the pride of man1 which strives to oppose the theory of our own descent from animals and establishes a wide gulf between nature and man himself--this pride is founded upon a prejudice as to what the mind is2 and this prejudice is relatively recent4 ,in the long prehistorical period of humanity it was supposed that the mind was everywhere1 and men did not look upon it as a particular characteristic of their own4 ,since1 on the contrary1 everything spiritual 7including all impulses1 maliciousness1 and inclinations7 was regarded as common property1 and consequently accessible to everybody1 primitive mankind was not ashamed of being descended from animals or trees 7the noble races thought themselves honoured by such legends71 and saw in the spiritual that which unites us with nature1 and not that which severs us from her4 ,thus man was brought up in modesty--and this likewise was the result of a prejudice4 #cb4 ,,the ,,brake4--,to suffer morally1 and then to learn afterwards that this kind of suffering was founded upon an error1 shocks us4 ,for there is a unique consolation in acknowledging1 by our suffering1 a 8deeper world of truth0 than any other world1 and we would much rather suffer and feel ourselves above reality by doing so 7through the feeling that1 in this way1 we approach nearer to that 8deeper world of truth071 than live without suffering and hence without this feeling of the sublime4 ,thus it is pride1 and the habitual fashion of satisfying it1 which opposes this new interpretation of morality4 ,what power1 then1 must we bring into operation to get rid of this brake8 ,greater pride8 ,a new pride8 #cc4 ,,the ,,contempt ,,of ,,causes1 ,,consequences1 ,,and ,,reality4--,those unfortunate occurrences which take place at times in the community1 such as sudden storms1 bad harvests1 or plagues1 lead members of the community to suspect that offences against custom have been committed1 or that new customs must be invented to appease a new demoniac power and caprice4 ,suspicion and reasoning of this kind1 however1 evade an inquiry into the real and natural causes1 and take the demoniac cause for granted4 ,this is one source of the hereditary perversion of the human intellect2 and the other one follows in its train1 for1 proceeding on the same principle1 people paid much less attention to the real and natural consequences of an action than to the supernatural consequences 7the so-called punishments and mercies of the ,divinity74 ,it is commanded1 for instance1 that certain baths are to be taken at certain times3 and the baths are taken1 not for the sake of cleanliness1 but because the command has been made4 ,we are not taught to avoid the real consequences of dirt1 but merely the supposed displeasure of the gods because a bath has been omitted4 ,under the pressure of superstitious fear1 people began to suspect that these ablutions were of much greater importance than they seemed2 they ascribed inner and supplementary meanings to them1 gradually lost their sense of and pleasure in reality1 and finally reality is considered as valuable only to the extent that it is a symbol4 ,hence a man who is under the influence of the morality of custom comes to despise causes first of all1 secondly consequences1 and thirdly reality1 and weaves all his higher feelings 7reverence1 sublimity1 pride1 gratitude1 love7 into an imaginary world3 the so-called higher world4 ,and even to-day we can see the consequences of this3 wherever1 and in whatever fashion1 man's feelings are raised1 that imaginary world is in evidence4 ,it is sad to have to say it2 but for the time being all higher sentiments must be looked upon with suspicion by the man of science1 to so great an extent are they intermingled with illusion and extravagance4 ,not that they need necessarily be suspected per se and for ever2 but there is no doubt that1 of all the gradual purifications which await humanity1 the purification of the higher feelings will be one of the slowest4 #cd4 ,,moral ,,feelings ,,and ,,conceptions4--,it is clear that moral feelings are transmitted in such a way that children perceive in adults violent predilections and aversions for certain actions1 and then1 like born apes1 imitate such likes and dislikes4 ,later on in life1 when they are thoroughly permeated by these acquired and well-practised feelings1 they think it a matter of propriety and decorum to provide a kind of justification for these predilections and aversions4 ,these 8justifications10 however1 are in no way connected with the origin or the degree of the feeling3 people simply accommodate themselves to the rule that1 as rational beings1 they must give reasons for their pros and cons1 reasons which must be assignable and acceptable into the bargain4 ,up to this extent the history of the moral feelings is entirely different from the history of moral conceptions4 ,the first-mentioned are powerful before the action1 and the latter especially after it1 in view of the necessity for making one's self clear in regard to them4 #ce4 ,,feelings ,,and ,,their ,,descent ,,from ,,judgments4--8,trust in your feelings60 ,but feelings comprise nothing final1 original2 feelings are based upon the judgments and valuations which are transmitted to us in the shape of feelings 7inclinations1 dislikes74 ,the inspiration which springs from a feeling is the grandchild of a judgment--often an erroneous judgment6--and certainly not one's own judgment6 ,trusting in our feelings simply means obeying our grandfather and grandmother more than the gods within ourselves3 our reason and experience4 #cf4 ,a ,,foolish ,,piety1 ,,with ,,arri,,re-,,pens,,es4--,what6 the inventors of ancient civilisations1 the first makers of tools and tape lines1 the first builders of vehicles1 ships1 and houses1 the first observers of the laws of the heavens and the multiplication tables--is it contended that they were entirely different from the inventors and observers of our own time1 and superior to them8 ,and that the first slow steps forward were of a value which has not been equalled by the discoveries we have made with all our travels and circumnavigations of the earth8 ,it is the voice of prejudice that speaks thus1 and argues in this way to depreciate the importance of the modern mind4 ,and yet it is plain to be seen that1 in former times1 hazard was the greatest of all discoverers and observers and the benevolent prompter of these ingenious ancients1 and that1 in the case of the most insignificant invention now made1 a greater intellect1 discipline1 and scientific imagination are required than formerly existed throughout long ages4 #cg4 ,,wrong ,,conclusions ,,from ,,usefulness4--,when we have demonstrated the highest utility of a thing1 we have nevertheless made no progress towards an explanation of its origin2 in other words1 we can never explain1 by mere utility1 the necessity of existence4 ,but precisely the contrary opinion has been maintained up to the present time1 even in the domain of the most exact science4 ,in astronomy1 for example1 have we not heard it stated that the 7supposed7 usefulness of the system of satellites--7replacing the light which is diminished in intensity by the greater distance of the sun1 in order that the inhabitants of the various celestial bodies should not want for light7--was the final object of this system and explained its origin8 ,which may remind us of the conclusions of ,christopher ,columbus ,the earth has been created for man1 ergo1 if there are countries1 they must be inhabited4 8,is it probable that the sun would throw his rays on nothing1 and that the nocturnal vigils of the stars should be wasted upon untravelled seas and unpeopled countries80 #ch4 ,,impulses ,,transformed ,,by ,,moral ,,judgments4--,the same impulse1 under the impression of the blame cast upon it by custom1 develops into the painful feeling of cowardice1 or else the pleasurable feeling of humility1 in case a morality1 like that of ,christianity1 has taken it to its heart and called it good4 ,in other words1 this instinct will fall under the influence of either a good conscience or a bad one6 ,in itself1 like every instinct1 it does not possess either this or indeed any other moral character and name1 or even a definite accompanying feeling of pleasure or displeasure2 it does not acquire all these qualities as its second nature until it comes into contact with impulses which have already been baptized as good and evil1 or has been recognised as the attribute of beings already weighed and valued by the people from a moral point of view4 ,thus the ancient conception of envy differed entirely from ours4 ,hesiod reckons it among the qualities of the good1 benevolent ,eris1 and it was not considered as offensive to attribute some kind of envy even to the gods4 ,this is easy to understand in a state of things inspired mainly by emulation1 but emulation was looked upon as good1 and valued accordingly4 ,the ,greeks were likewise different from us in the value they set upon hope3 they conceived it as blind and deceitful4 ,hesiod in one of his poems has made a strong reference to it--a reference so strong1 indeed1 that no modern commentator has quite understood it2 for it runs contrary to the modern mind1 which has learnt from ,christianity to look upon hope as a virtue4 ,among the ,greeks1 on the other hand1 the portal leading to a knowledge of the future seemed only partly closed1 and1 in innumerable instances1 it was impressed upon them as a religious obligation to inquire into the future1 in those cases where we remain satisfied with hope4 ,it thus came about that the ,greeks1 thanks to their oracles and seers1 held hope in small esteem1 and even lowered it to the level of an evil and a danger4 ,the ,jews1 again1 took a different view of anger from that held by us1 and sanctified it3 hence they have placed the sombre majesty of the wrathful man at an elevation so high that a ,european cannot conceive it4 ,they moulded their wrathful and holy ,jehovah after the images of their wrathful and holy prophets4 ,compared with them1 all the ,europeans who have exhibited the greatest wrath are1 so to speak1 only second-hand creatures4 #ci4 ,,the ,,prejudice ,,concerning 8,,pure ,,spirit40--,wherever the doctrine of pure spirituality has prevailed1 its excesses have resulted in the destruction of the tone of the nerves3 it taught that the body should be despised1 neglected1 or tormented1 and that1 on account of his impulses1 man himself should be tortured and regarded with contempt4 ,it gave rise to gloomy1 strained1 and downcast souls--who1 besides1 thought they knew the reason of their misery and how it might possibly be relieved6 8,it must be in the body6 ,for it still thrives too well60--such was their conclusion1 whilst the fact was that the body1 through its agonies1 protested time after time against this never-ending mockery4 ,finally1 a universal and chronic hyper-nervousness seized upon those virtuous representatives of the pure spirit3 they learned to recognise joy only in the shape of ecstasies and other preliminary symptoms of insanity--and their system reached its climax when it came to look upon ecstasy as the highest aim of life1 and as the standard by which all earthly things must be condemned4 #dj4 ,,meditations ,,upon ,,observances4--,numerous moral precepts1 carelessly drawn from a single event1 quickly became incomprehensible2 it was as difficult a matter to deduce their intentions with any degree of certainty as it was to recognise the punishment which was to follow the breaking of the rule4 ,doubts were even held regarding the order of the ceremonies2 but1 while people guessed at random about such matters1 the object of their investigations increased in importance1 it was precisely the greatest absurdity of an observance that developed into a holy of holies4 ,let us not think too little of the energy wasted by man in this regard throughout thousands of years1 and least of all of the effects of such meditations upon observances6 ,here we find ourselves on the wide training-ground of the intellect--not only do religions develop and continue to increase within its boundaries3 but here also is the venerable1 though dreadful1 primeval world of science2 here grow up the poet1 the thinker1 the physician1 the lawgiver4 ,the dread of the unintelligible1 which1 in an ambiguous fashion1 demanded ceremonies from us1 gradually assumed the charm of the intricate1 and where man could not unravel he learnt to create4 #da4 ,,to ,,determine ,,the ,,value ,,of ,,the ,,vita ,,contemplativa4--,let us not forget1 as men leading a contemplative life1 what kind of evil and misfortunes have overtaken the men of the vita activa as the result of contemplation--in short1 what sort of contra-account the vita activa has to offer us1 if we exhibit too much boastfulness before it with respect to our good deeds4 ,it would show us1 in the first place1 those so-called religious natures1 who predominate among the lovers of contemplation and consequently represent their commonest type4 ,they have at all times acted in such a manner as to render life difficult to practical men1 and tried to make them disgusted with it1 if possible3 to darken the sky1 to obliterate the sun1 to cast suspicion upon joy1 to depreciate hope1 to paralyse the active hand--all this they knew how to do1 just as1 for miserable times and feelings1 they had their consolations1 alms1 blessings1 and benedictions4 ,in the second place1 it can show us the artists1 a species of men leading the vita contemplativa1 rarer than the religious element1 but still often to be met with4 ,as beings1 these people are usually intolerable1 capricious1 jealous1 violent1 quarrelsome3 this1 however1 must be deduced from the joyous and exalting effects of their works4 ,thirdly1 we have the philosophers1 men who unite religious and artistic qualities1 combined1 however1 with a third element1 namely1 dialectics and the love of controversy4 ,they are the authors of evil in the same sense as the religious men and artists1 in addition to which they have wearied many of their fellow-men with their passion for dialectics1 though their number has always been very small4 ,fourthly1 the thinkers and scientific workers4 ,they but rarely strove after effects1 and contented themselves with silently sticking to their own groove4 ,thus they brought about little envy and discomfort1 and often1 as objects of mockery and derision1 they served1 without wishing to do so1 to make life easier for the men of the vita activa4 ,lastly1 science ended by becoming of much advantage to all2 and if1 on account of this utility1 many of the men who were destined for the vita activa are now slowly making their way along the road to science in the sweat of their brow1 and not without brain-racking and maledictions1 this is not the fault of the crowd of thinkers and scientific workers3 it is 8self-wrought pain407#c7 #db4 ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,vita ,,contemplativa4--,during barbarous ages1 when pessimistic judgments held sway over men and the world1 the individual1 in the consciousness of his full power1 always endeavoured to act in conformity with such judgments1 that is to say1 he put his ideas into action by means of hunting1 robbery1 surprise attacks1 brutality1 and murder3 including the weaker forms of such acts1 as far as they are tolerated within the community4 ,when his strength declines1 however1 and he feels tired1 ill1 melancholy1 or satiated--consequently becoming temporarily void of wishes or desires--he is a relatively better man1 that is to say1 less dangerous2 and his pessimistic ideas will now discharge themselves only in words and reflections--upon his companions1 for example1 or his wife1 his life1 his gods1--his judgments will be evil ones4 ,in this frame of mind he develops into a thinker and prophet1 or he adds to his superstitions and invents new observances1 or mocks his enemies4 ,whatever he may devise1 however1 all the productions of his brain will necessarily reflect his frame of mind1 such as the increase of fear and weariness1 and the lower value he attributes to action and enjoyment4 ,the substance of these productions must correspond to the substance of these poetic1 thoughtful1 and priestly moods2 the evil judgment must be supreme4 ,in later years1 all those who acted continuously as this man did in those special circumstances--i4e4 those who gave out pessimistic judgments1 and lived a melancholy life1 poor in action--were called poets1 thinkers1 priests1 or 8medicine-men40 ,the general body of men would have liked to disregard such people1 because they were not active enough1 and to turn them out of the community2 but there was a certain risk in doing so3 these inactive men had found out and were following the tracks of superstition and divine power1 and no one doubted that they had unknown means of power at their disposal4 ,this was the value which was set upon the ancient race of contemplative natures--despised as they were in just the same degree as they were not dreaded6 ,in such a masked form1 in such an ambiguous aspect1 with an evil heart and often with a troubled head1 did ,contemplation make its first appearance on earth3 both weak and terrible at the same time1 despised in secret1 and covered in public with every mark of superstitious veneration4 ,here1 as always1 we must say3 pudenda origo6 #dc4 ,,how ,,many ,,forces ,,must ,,now ,,be ,,united ,,in ,a ,,thinker4--,to rise superior to considerations of the senses1 to raise one's self to abstract contemplations3 this is what was formerly regarded as elevation2 but now it is not practicable for us to share the same feelings4 ,luxuriating in the most shadowy images of words and things2 playing with those invisible1 inaudible1 imperceptible beings1 was considered as existence in another and higher world1 a world that sprang from the deep contempt felt for the world which was perceptible to the senses1 this seductive and wicked world of ours4 8,these abstracta no longer mislead us1 but they may lead us0--with such words men soared aloft4 ,it was not the substance of these intellectual sports1 but the sports themselves1 which was looked upon as 8the higher thing0 in the primeval ages of science4 ,hence we have ,plato's admiration for dialectics1 and his enthusiastic belief in the necessary relationship of dialectics to the good man who has risen superior to the considerations of his senses4 ,it was not only knowledge that was discovered little by little1 but also the different means of acquiring it1 the conditions and operations which precede knowledge in man4 ,and it always seemed as if the newly-discovered operation or the newly-experienced condition were not a means of acquiring knowledge1 but was even the substance1 goal1 and sum-total of everything that was worth knowing4 ,what does the thinker require8--imagination1 inspiration1 abstraction1 spirituality1 invention1 presentiment1 induction1 dialectics1 deduction1 criticism1 ability to collect materials1 an impersonal mode of thinking1 contemplation1 comprehensiveness1 and lastly1 but not least1 justice1 and love for everything that exists--but each one of these means was at one time considered1 in the history of the vita contemplativa1 as a goal and final purpose1 and they all secured for their inventors that perfect happiness which fills the human soul when its final purpose dawns upon it4 #dd4 ,,origin ,,and ,,meaning4--,why does this thought come into my mind again and again1 always in more and more vivid colours8--that1 in former times1 investigators1 in the course of their search for the origin of things1 always thought that they found something which would be of the highest importance for all kinds of action and judgment3 yea1 that they even invariably postulated that the salvation of mankind depended upon insight into the origin of things--whereas now1 on the other hand1 the more we examine into origins1 the less do they concern our interests3 on the contrary1 all the valuations and interestedness which we have placed upon things begin to lose their meaning1 the more we retrogress where knowledge is concerned and approach the things themselves4 ,the origin becomes of less significance in proportion as we acquire insight into it2 whilst things nearest to ourselves1 around and within us1 gradually begin to manifest their wealth of colours1 beauties1 enigmas1 and diversity of meaning1 of which earlier humanity never dreamed4 ,in former ages thinkers used to move furiously about1 like wild animals in cages1 steadily glaring at the bars which hemmed them in1 and at times springing up against them in a vain endeavour to break through them3 and happy indeed was he who could look through a gap to the outer world and could fancy that he saw something of what lay beyond and afar off4 #de4 ,a ,,tragic ,,termination ,,to ,,knowledge4--,of all the means of exaltation1 human sacrifices have at times done most to elevate man4 ,and perhaps the one powerful thought--the idea of self-sacrificing humanity--might be made to prevail over every other aspiration1 and thus to prove the victor over even the most victorious4 ,but to whom should the sacrifice be made8 ,we may already swear that1 if ever the constellation of such an idea appeared on the horizon1 the knowledge of truth would remain the single but enormous object with which a sacrifice of such a nature would be commensurate--because no sacrifice is too great for it4 ,in the meantime the problem has never been expounded as to how far humanity1 considered as a whole1 could take steps to encourage the advancement of knowledge2 and even less as to what thirst for knowledge could impel humanity to the point of sacrificing itself with the light of an anticipated wisdom in its eyes4 ,when1 perhaps1 with a view to the advancement of knowledge1 we are able to enter into communication with the inhabitants of other stars1 and when1 during thousands of years1 wisdom will have been carried from star to star1 the enthusiasm of knowledge may rise to such a dizzy height6 #df4 ,,doubt ,,in ,,doubt4--8,what a good pillow doubt is for a well-balanced head60 ,this saying of ,montaigne always made ,pascal angry1 for nobody ever wanted a good pillow so much as he did4 ,whatever was the matter with him8 #dg4 ,,words ,,block ,,up ,,our ,,path4--,wherever primitive men put down a word1 they thought they had made a discovery4 ,how different the case really was6--they had come upon a problem1 and1 while they thought they had solved it1 they had in reality placed an obstacle in the way of its solution4 ,now1 with every new piece of knowledge1 we stumble over petrified words and mummified conceptions1 and would rather break a leg than a word in doing so4 #dh4 8,,know ,,thyself0 ,,is ,,the ,,whole ,,of ,,science4--,only when man shall have acquired a knowledge of all things will he be able to know himself4 ,for things are but the boundaries of man4 #di4 ,,the ,,new ,,fundamental ,,feeling3 ,,our ,,final ,,corruptibility4--,in former times people sought to show the feeling of man's greatness by pointing to his divine descent4 ,this1 however1 has now become a forbidden path1 for the ape stands at its entrance1 and likewise other fearsome animals1 showing their teeth in a knowing fashion1 as if to say1 ,no further this way6 ,hence people now try the opposite direction3 the road along which humanity is proceeding shall stand as an indication of their greatness and their relationship to ,god4 ,but alas6 this1 too1 is useless6 ,at the far end of this path stands the funeral urn of the last man and grave-digger 7with the inscription1 ,nihil humani a me alienum puto74 ,to whatever height mankind may have developed--and perhaps in the end it will not be so high as when they began6--there is as little prospect of their attaining to a higher order as there is for the ant and the earwig to enter into kinship with ,god and eternity at the end of their career on earth4 ,what is to come will drag behind it that which has passed3 why should any little star1 or even any little species on that star1 form an exception to that eternal drama8 ,away with such sentimentalities6 #ej4 ,,belief ,,in ,,inebriation4--,those men who have moments of sublime ecstasy1 and who1 on ordinary occasions1 on account of the contrast and the excessive wearing away of their nervous forces1 usually feel miserable and desolate1 come to consider such moments as the true manifestation of their real selves1 of their 8ego10 and their misery and dejection1 on the other hand1 as the effect of the 8non-ego04 ,this is why they think of their environment1 the age in which they live1 and the whole world in which they have their being1 with feelings of vindictiveness4 ,this intoxication appears to them as their true life1 their actual ego2 and everywhere else they see only those who strive to oppose and prevent this intoxication1 whether of an intellectual1 moral1 religious1 or artistic nature4 ,humanity owes no small part of its evils to these fantastic enthusiasts2 for they are the insatiable sowers of the weed of discontent with one's self and one's neighbour1 of contempt for the world and the age1 and1 above all1 of world-lassitude4 ,an entire hell of criminals could not1 perhaps1 bring about such unfortunate and far-reaching consequences1 such heavy and disquieting effects that corrupt earth and sky1 as are brought about by that 8noble0 little community of unbridled1 fantastic1 half-mad people--of geniuses1 too--who cannot control themselves1 or experience any inward joy1 until they have lost themselves completely3 while1 on the other hand1 the criminal often gives a proof of his admirable self-control1 sacrifice1 and wisdom1 and thus maintains these qualities in those who fear him4 ,through him life's sky may at times seem overcast and threatening1 but the atmosphere ever remains brisk and vigorous4--,furthermore1 these enthusiasts bring their entire strength to bear on the task of imbuing mankind with belief in inebriation as in life itself3 a dreadful belief6 ,as savages are now quickly corrupted and ruined by 8fire-water10 so likewise has mankind in general been slowly though thoroughly corrupted by these spiritual 8fire-waters0 of intoxicating feelings and by those who keep alive the craving for them4 ,it may yet be ruined thereby4 #ea4 ,,such ,,as ,,we ,,still ,,are4--8,let us be indulgent to the great one-eyed60 said ,stuart ,mill1 as if it were necessary to ask for indulgence when we are willing to believe and almost to worship them4 ,i say3 ,let us be indulgent towards the two-eyed1 both great and small2 for1 such as we are now1 we shall never rise beyond indulgence6 #eb4 ,,where ,,are ,,the ,,new ,,physicians ,,of ,,the ,,soul8--,it is the means of consolation which have stamped life with that fundamental melancholy character in which we now believe3 the worst disease of mankind has arisen from the struggle against diseases1 and apparent remedies have in the long run brought about worse conditions than those which it was intended to remove by their use4 ,men1 in their ignorance1 used to believe that the stupefying and intoxicating means1 which appeared to act immediately1 the so-called 8consolations10 were the true healing powers3 they even failed to observe that they had often to pay for their immediate relief by a general and profound deterioration in health1 that the sick ones had to suffer from the after-effects of the intoxication1 then from the absence of the intoxication1 and1 later on1 from a feeling of disquietude1 depression1 nervous starts1 and ill-health4 ,again1 men whose illness had advanced to a certain extent never recovered from it--those physicians of the soul1 universally believed in and worshipped as they were1 took care of that4 ,it has been justly said of ,schopenhauer that he was one who again took the sufferings of humanity seriously3 where is the man who will at length take the antidotes against these sufferings seriously1 and who will pillory the unheard-of quackery with which men1 even up to our own age1 and in the most sublime nomenclature1 have been wont to treat the illnesses of their souls8 #ec4 ,,abuse ,,of ,,the ,,conscientious ,,ones4--,it is the conscientious1 and not the unscrupulous1 who have suffered so greatly from exhortations to penitence and the fear of hell1 especially if they happened to be men of imagination4 ,in other words1 a gloom has been cast over the lives of those who had the greatest need of cheerfulness and agreeable images--not only for the sake of their own consolation and recovery from themselves1 but that humanity itself might take delight in them and absorb a ray of their beauty4 ,alas1 how much superfluous cruelty and torment have been brought about by those religions which invented sin6 and by those men who1 by means of such religions1 desired to reach the highest enjoyment of their power6 #ed4 ,,thoughts ,,on ,,disease4--,to soothe the imagination of the patient1 in order that he may at least no longer keep on thinking about his illness1 and thus suffer more from such thoughts than from the complaint itself1 which has been the case hitherto--that1 it seems to me1 is something6 and it is by no means a trifle6 ,and now do ye understand our task8 #ee4 ,,the 8,,ways40--,so-called 8short cuts0 have always led humanity to run great risks3 on hearing the 8glad tidings0 that a 8short cut0 had been found1 they always left the straight path--and lost their way4 #ef4 ,,the ,,apostate ,,of ,,the ,,free ,,spirit4--,is there any one1 then1 who seriously dislikes pious people who hold formally to their belief8 ,do we not1 on the contrary1 regard them with silent esteem and pleasure1 deeply regretting at the same time that these excellent people do not share our own feelings8 ,but whence arises that sudden1 profound1 and unreasonable dislike for the man who1 having at one time possessed freedom of spirit1 finally becomes a 8believer08 ,in thinking of him we involuntarily experience the sensation of having beheld some loathsome spectacle1 which we must quickly efface from our recollection4 ,should we not turn our backs upon even the most venerated man if we entertained the least suspicion of him in this regard8 ,not1 indeed1 from a moral point of view1 but because of sudden disgust and horror6 ,whence comes this sharpness of feeling8 ,perhaps we shall be given to understand that1 at bottom1 we are not quite certain of our own selves8 ,or that1 early in life1 we build round ourselves hedges of the most pointed contempt1 in order that1 when old age makes us weak and forgetful1 we may not feel inclined to brush our own contempt away from us8 ,now1 speaking frankly1 this suspicion is quite erroneous1 and whoever forms it knows nothing of what agitates and determines the free spirit3 how little1 to him1 does the changing of an opinion seem contemptible per se6 ,on the contrary1 how highly he prizes the ability to change an opinion as a rare and valuable distinction1 especially if he can retain it far into old age6 ,and his pride 7not his pusillanimity7 even reaches so high as to be able to pluck the fruits of the spernere se sperni and the spernere se ipsum3 without his being troubled by the sensation of fear of vain and easy-going men4 ,furthermore1 the doctrine of the innocence of all opinions appears to him to be as certain as the doctrine of the innocence of all actions3 how could he act as judge and hangman before the apostate of intellectual liberty6 ,on the contrary1 the sight of such a person would disgust him as much as the sight of a nauseous illness disgusts the physician3 the physical repulsion caused by everything spongy1 soft1 and suppurating momentarily overcomes reason and the desire to help4 ,hence our goodwill is overcome by the conception of the monstrous dishonesty which must have gained the upper hand in the apostate from the free spirit3 by the conception of a general gnawing which is eating its way down even to the framework of the character4 #eg4 ,,other ,,fears1 ,,other ,,safeties4--,christianity overspread life with a new and unlimited insecurity1 thereby creating new safeties1 enjoyments and recreations1 and new valuations of all things4 ,our own century denies the existence of this insecurity1 and does so with a good conscience1 yet it clings to the old habit of ,christian certainties1 enjoyments1 recreations1 and valuations6--even in its noblest arts and philosophies4 ,how feeble and worn out must all this now seem1 how imperfect and clumsy1 how arbitrarily fanatical1 and1 above all1 how uncertain3 now that its horrible contrast has been taken away--the ever-present fear of the ,christian for his eternal salvation6 #eh4 ,,christianity ,,and ,,the ,,emotions4--,in ,christianity we may see a great popular protest against philosophy3 the reasoning of the sages of antiquity had withdrawn men from the influence of the emotions1 but ,christianity would fain give men their emotions back again4 ,with this aim in view1 it denies any moral value to virtue such as philosophers understood it--as a victory of the reason over the passions--generally condemns every kind of goodness1 and calls upon the passions to manifest themselves in their full power and glory3 as love of ,god1 fear of ,god1 fanatic belief in ,god1 blind hope in ,god4 #ei4 ,,error ,,as ,a ,,cordial4--,let people say what they will1 it is nevertheless certain that it was the aim of ,christianity to deliver mankind from the yoke of moral engagements by indicating what it believed to be the shortest way to perfection3 exactly in the same manner as a few philosophers thought they could dispense with tedious and laborious dialectics1 and the collection of strictly-proved facts1 and point out a royal road to truth4 ,it was an error in both cases1 but nevertheless a great cordial for those who were worn out and despairing in the wilderness4 #fj4 ,,all ,,spirit ,,finally ,,becomes ,,visible4--,christianity has assimilated the entire spirituality of an incalculable number of men who were by nature submissive1 all those enthusiasts of humiliation and reverence1 both refined and coarse4 ,it has in this way freed itself from its own original rustic coarseness--of which we are vividly reminded when we look at the oldest image of ,st4 ,peter the ,apostle--and has become a very intellectual religion1 with thousands of wrinkles1 arrire-penses1 and masks on its face4 ,it has made ,european humanity more clever1 and not only cunning from a theological standpoint4 ,by the spirit which it has thus given to ,european humanity--in conjunction with the power of abnegation1 and very often in conjunction with the profound conviction and loyalty of that abnegation--it has perhaps chiselled and shaped the most subtle individualities which have ever existed in human society3 the individualities of the higher ranks of the ,catholic clergy1 especially when these priests have sprung from a noble family1 and have brought to their work1 from the very beginning1 the innate grace of gesture1 the dominating glance of the eye1 and beautiful hands and feet4 ,here the human face acquires that spiritualisation brought about by the continual ebb and flow of two kinds of happiness 7the feeling of power and the feeling of submission7 after a carefully-planned manner of living has conquered the beast in man4 ,here an activity1 which consists in blessing1 forgiving sins1 and representing the ,almighty1 ever keeps alive in the soul1 and even in the body1 the consciousness of a supreme mission2 here we find that noble contempt concerning the perishable nature of the body1 of well-being1 and of happiness1 peculiar to born soldiers3 their pride lies in obedience1 a distinctly aristocratic trait2 their excuse and their idealism arise from the enormous impossibility of their task4 ,the surpassing beauty and subtleties of these princes of the ,church have always proved to the people the truth of the ,church2 a momentary brutalisation of the clergy 7such as came about in ,luther's time7 always tended to encourage the contrary belief4 ,and would it be maintained that this result of beauty and human subtlety1 shown in harmony of figure1 intellect1 and task1 would come to an end with religions8 and that nothing higher could be obtained1 or even conceived8 #fa4 ,,the ,,needful ,,sacrifice4--,those earnest1 able1 and just men of profound feelings1 who are still ,christians at heart1 owe it to themselves to make one attempt to live for a certain space of time without ,christianity6 they owe it to their faith that they should thus for once take up their abode 8in the wilderness0--if for no other reason than that of being able to pronounce on the question as to whether ,christianity is needful4 ,so far1 however1 they have confined themselves to their own narrow domain and insulted every one who happened to be outside of it3 yea1 they even become highly irritated when it is suggested to them that beyond this little domain of theirs lies the great world1 and that ,christianity is1 after all1 only a corner of it6 ,no2 your evidence on the question will be valueless until you have lived year after year without ,christianity1 and with the inmost desire to continue to exist without it3 until1 indeed1 you have withdrawn far1 far away from it4 ,it is not when your nostalgia urges you back again1 but when your judgment1 based on a strict comparison1 drives you back1 that your homecoming has any significance6--,men of coming generations will deal in this manner with all the valuations of the past2 they must be voluntarily lived over again1 together with their contraries1 in order that such men may finally acquire the right of shifting them4 #fb4 ,,on ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,religions4--,how can any one regard his own opinion of things as a revelation8 ,this is the problem of the formation of religions3 there has always been some man in whom this phenomenon was possible4 ,a postulate is that such a man already believed in revelations4 ,suddenly1 however1 a new idea occurs to him one day1 his idea2 and the entire blessedness of a great personal hypothesis1 which embraces all existence and the whole world1 penetrates with such force into his conscience that he dare not think himself the creator of such blessedness1 and he therefore attributes to his ,god the cause of this new idea and likewise the cause of the cause1 believing it to be the revelation of his ,god4 ,how could a man be the author of so great a happiness8 ask his pessimistic doubts4 ,but other levers are secretly at work3 an opinion may be strengthened by one's self if it be considered as a revelation2 and in this way all its hypothetic nature is removed2 the matter is set beyond criticism and even beyond doubt3 it is sanctified4 ,it is true that1 in this way1 a man lowers himself to playing the rle of 8mouthpiece10 but his thought will end by being victorious as a divine thought--the feeling of finally gaining the victory conquers the feeling of degradation4 ,there is also another feeling in the background3 if a man raises his products above himself1 and thus apparently detracts from his own worth1 there nevertheless remains a kind of joyfulness1 paternal love1 and paternal pride1 which compensates man--more than compensates man--for everything4 #fc4 ,,hatred ,,of ,,one',s ,,neighbour4--,supposing that we felt towards our neighbour as he does himself--,schopenhauer calls this compassion1 though it would be more correct to call it auto-passion1 fellow-feeling--we should be compelled to hate him1 if1 like ,pascal1 he thought himself hateful4 ,and this was probably the general feeling of ,pascal regarding mankind1 and also that of ancient ,christianity1 which1 under ,nero1 was 8convicted0 of odium generis humani1 as ,tacitus has recorded4 #fd4 ,,the ,,broken-,,hearted ,,ones4--,christianity has the instinct of a hunter for finding out all those who may by hook or by crook be driven to despair--only a very small number of men can be brought to this despair4 ,christianity lies in wait for such as those1 and pursues them4 ,pascal made an attempt to find out whether it was not possible1 with the help of the very subtlest knowledge1 to drive everybody into despair4 ,he failed3 to his second despair4 #fe4 ,,brahminism ,,and ,,christianity4--,there are certain precepts for obtaining a consciousness of power3 on the one hand1 for those who already know how to control themselves1 and who are therefore already quite used to the feeling of power2 and1 on the other hand1 for those who cannot control themselves4 ,brahminism has given its care to the former type of man2 ,christianity to the latter4 #ff4 ,,the ,,faculty ,,of ,,vision4--,during the whole of the ,middle ,ages it was believed that the real distinguishing trait of higher men was the faculty of having visions--that is to say1 of having a grave mental trouble4 ,and1 in fact1 the rules of life of all the higher natures of the ,middle ,ages 7the religiosi7 were drawn up with the object of making man capable of vision6 ,little wonder1 then1 that the exaggerated esteem for these half-mad fanatics1 so-called men of genius1 has continued even to our own days4 8,they have seen things that others do not see0--no doubt6 and this fact should inspire us with caution where they are concerned1 and not with belief6 #fg4 ,,the ,,price ,,of ,,believers4--,he who sets such a value on being believed in has to promise heaven in recompense for this belief3 and every one1 even a thief on the ,cross1 must have suffered from a terrible doubt and experienced crucifixion in every form3 otherwise he would not buy his followers so dearly4 #fh4 ,,the ,,first ,,christian4--,the whole world still believes in the literary career of the 8,holy ,ghost10 or is still influenced by the effects of this belief3 when we look into our ,bibles we do so for the purpose of 8edifying ourselves10 to find a few words of comfort for our misery1 be it great or small--in short1 we read ourselves into it and out of it4 ,but who--apart from a few learned men--know that it likewise records the history of one of the most ambitious and importunate souls that ever existed1 of a mind full of superstition and cunning3 the history of the ,apostle ,paul8 ,nevertheless1 without this singular history1 without the tribulations and passions of such a mind1 and of such a soul1 there would have been no ,christian kingdom2 we should have scarcely have even heard of a little ,jewish sect1 the founder of which died on the ,cross4 ,it is true that1 if this history had been understood in time1 if we had read1 really read1 the writings of ,st4 ,paul1 not as the revelations of the 8,holy ,ghost10 but with honest and independent minds1 oblivious of all our personal troubles--there were no such readers for fifteen centuries--it would have been all up with ,christianity long ago3 so searchingly do these writings of the ,jewish ,pascal lay bare the origins of ,christianity1 just as the ,french ,pascal let us see its destiny and how it will ultimately perish4 ,that the ship of ,christianity threw overboard no inconsiderable part of its ,jewish ballast1 that it was able to sail into the waters of the heathen and actually did do so3 this is due to the history of one single man1 this apostle who was so greatly troubled in mind and so worthy of pity1 but who was also very disagreeable to himself and to others4 ,this man suffered from a fixed idea1 or rather a fixed question1 an ever-present and ever-burning question3 what was the meaning of the ,jewish ,law8 and1 more especially1 the fulfilment of this ,law8 ,in his youth he had done his best to satisfy it1 thirsting as he did for that highest distinction which the ,jews could imagine--this people1 which raised the imagination of moral loftiness to a greater elevation than any other people1 and which alone succeeded in uniting the conception of a holy ,god with the idea of sin considered as an offence against this holiness4 ,st4 ,paul became at once the fanatic defender and guard-of-honour of this ,god and ,his ,law4 ,ceaselessly battling against and lying in wait for all transgressors of this ,law and those who presumed to doubt it1 he was pitiless and cruel towards all evil-doers1 whom he would fain have punished in the most rigorous fashion possible4 ,now1 however1 he was aware in his own person of the fact that such a man as himself--violent1 sensual1 melancholy1 and malicious in his hatred--could not fulfil the ,law2 and furthermore1 what seemed strangest of all to him1 he saw that his boundless craving for power was continually provoked to break it1 and that he could not help yielding to this impulse4 ,was it really 8the flesh0 which made him a trespasser time and again8 ,was it not rather1 as it afterwards occurred to him1 the ,law itself1 which continually showed itself to be impossible to fulfil1 and seduced men into transgression with an irresistible charm8 ,but at that time he had not thought of this means of escape4 ,as he suggests here and there1 he had many things on his conscience--hatred1 murder1 sorcery1 idolatry1 debauchery1 drunkenness1 and orgiastic revelry1--and to however great an extent he tried to soothe his conscience1 and1 even more1 his desire for power1 by the extreme fanaticism of his worship for and defence of the ,law1 there were times when the thought struck him3 8,it is all in vain6 ,the anguish of the unfulfilled ,law cannot be overcome40 ,luther must have experienced similar feelings1 when1 in his cloister1 he endeavoured to become the ideal man of his imagination2 and1 as ,luther one day began to hate the ecclesiastical ideal1 and the ,pope1 and the saints1 and the whole clergy1 with a hatred which was all the more deadly as he could not avow it even to himself1 an analogous feeling took possession of ,st4 ,paul4 ,the ,law was the ,cross on which he felt himself crucified4 ,how he hated it6 ,what a grudge he owed it6 ,how he began to look round on all sides to find a means for its total annihilation1 that he might no longer be obliged to fulfil it himself6 ,and at last a liberating thought1 together with a vision--which was only to be expected in the case of an epileptic like himself--flashed into his mind3 to him1 the stern upholder of the ,law--who1 in his innermost heart1 was tired to death of it--there appeared on the lonely path that ,christ1 with the divine effulgence on ,his countenance1 and ,paul heard the words3 8,why persecutest thou ,me80 ,what actually took place1 then1 was this3 his mind was suddenly enlightened1 and he said to himself3 8,it is unreasonable to persecute this ,jesus ,christ6 ,here is my means of escape1 here is my complete vengeance1 here and nowhere else have ,i the destroyer of the ,law in my hands60 ,the sufferer from anguished pride felt himself restored to health all at once1 his moral despair disappeared in the air2 for morality itself was blown away1 annihilated--that is to say1 fulfilled1 there on the ,cross6 ,up to that time that ignominious death had seemed to him to be the principal argument against the 8,messiahship0 proclaimed by the followers of the new doctrine3 but what if it were necessary for doing away with the ,law8 ,the enormous consequences of this thought1 of this solution of the enigma1 danced before his eyes1 and he at once became the happiest of men4 ,the destiny of the ,jews1 yea1 of all mankind1 seemed to him to be intertwined with this instantaneous flash of enlightenment3 he held the thought of thoughts1 the key of keys1 the light of lights2 history would henceforth revolve round him6 ,for from that time forward he would be the apostle of the annihilation of the ,law6 ,to be dead to sin--that meant to be dead to the ,law also2 to be in the flesh--that meant to be under the ,law6 ,to be one with ,christ--that meant to have become1 like ,him1 the destroyer of the ,law2 to be dead with ,him--that meant likewise to be dead to the ,law4 ,even if it were still possible to sin1 it would not at any rate be possible to sin against the ,law3 8,i am above the ,law10 thinks ,paul2 adding1 8,if ,i were now to acknowledge the ,law again and to submit to it1 ,i should make ,christ an accomplice in the sin02 for the ,law was there for the purpose of producing sin and setting it in the foreground1 as an emetic produces sickness4 ,god could not have decided upon the death of ,christ had it been possible to fulfil the ,law without it2 henceforth1 not only are all sins expiated1 but sin itself is abolished2 henceforth the ,law is dead2 henceforth 8the flesh0 in which it dwelt is dead--or at all events dying1 gradually wasting away4 ,to live for a short time longer amid this decay6--this is the ,christian's fate1 until the time when1 having become one with ,christ1 he arises with ,him1 sharing with ,christ the divine glory1 and becoming1 like ,christ1 a 8,son of ,god40 ,then ,paul's exaltation was at its height1 and with it the importunity of his soul--the thought of union with ,christ made him lose all shame1 all submission1 all constraint1 and his ungovernable ambition was shown to be revelling in the expectation of divine glories4 ,such was the first ,christian1 the inventor of ,christianity6 before him there were only a few ,jewish sectaries4 #fi4 ,,inimitable4--,there is an enormous strain and distance between envy and friendship1 between self-contempt and pride3 the ,greek lived in the former1 the ,christian in the latter4 #gj4 ,,the ,,use ,,of ,a ,,coarse ,,intellect4--,the ,christian ,church is an encyclopdia of primitive cults and views of the most varied origin2 and is1 in consequence1 well adapted to missionary work3 in former times she could--and still does--go wherever she would1 and in doing so always found something resembling herself1 to which she could assimilate herself and gradually substitute her own spirit for it4 ,it is not to what is ,christian in her usages1 but to what is universally pagan in them1 that we have to attribute the development of this universal religion4 ,her thoughts1 which have their origin at once in the ,judaic and in the ,hellenic spirit1 were able from the very beginning to raise themselves above the exclusiveness and subtleties of races and nations1 as above prejudices4 ,although we may admire the power which makes even the most difficult things coalesce1 we must nevertheless not overlook the contemptible qualities of this power--the astonishing coarseness and narrowness of the ,church's intellect when it was in process of formation1 a coarseness which permitted it to accommodate itself to any diet1 and to digest contradictions like pebbles4 #ga4 ,,the ,,christian ,,vengeance ,,against ,,rome4--,perhaps nothing is more fatiguing than the sight of a continual conqueror3 for more than two hundred years the world had seen ,rome overcoming one nation after another1 the circle was closed1 all future seemed to be at an end1 everything was done with a view to its lasting for all time--yea1 when the ,empire built anything it was erected with a view to being aere perennius4 ,we1 who know only the 8melancholy of ruins10 can scarcely understand that totally different melancholy of eternal buildings1 from which men endeavoured to save themselves as best they could--with the light-hearted fancy of a ,horace1 for example4 ,others sought different consolations for the weariness which was closely akin to despair1 against the deadening knowledge that from henceforth all progress of thought and heart would be hopeless1 that the huge spider sat everywhere and mercilessly continued to drink all the blood within its reach1 no matter where it might spring forth4 ,this mute1 century-old hatred of the wearied spectators against ,rome1 wherever ,rome's domination extended1 was at length vented in ,christianity1 which united ,rome1 8the world10 and 8sin0 into a single conception4 ,the ,christians took their revenge on ,rome by proclaiming the immediate and sudden destruction of the world2 by once more introducing a future--for ,rome had been able to transform everything into the history of its own past and present--a future in which ,rome was no longer the most important factor2 and by dreaming of the last judgment--while the crucified ,jew1 as the symbol of salvation1 was the greatest derision on the superb ,roman prtors in the provinces2 for now they seemed to be only the symbols of ruin and a 8world0 ready to perish4 #gb4 ,,the 8,,life ,,after ,,death40--,christianity found the idea of punishment in hell in the entire ,roman ,empire3 for the numerous mystic cults have hatched this idea with particular satisfaction as being the most fecund egg of their power4 ,epicurus thought he could do nothing better for his followers than to tear this belief up by the roots3 his triumph found its finest echo in the mouth of one of his disciples1 the ,roman ,lucretius1 a poet of a gloomy1 though afterwards enlightened1 temperament4 ,alas6 his triumph had come too soon3 ,christianity took under its special protection this belief in subterranean horrors1 which was already beginning to die away in the minds of men2 and that was clever of it4 ,for1 without this audacious leap into the most complete paganism1 how could it have proved itself victorious over the popularity of ,mithras and ,isis8 ,in this way it managed to bring timorous folk over to its side--the most enthusiastic adherents of a new faith6 ,the ,jews1 being a people which1 like the ,greeks1 and even in a greater degree than the ,greeks1 loved and still love life1 had not cultivated that idea to any great extent3 the thought of final death as the punishment of the sinner1 death without resurrection as an extreme menace3 this was sufficient to impress these peculiar men1 who did not wish to get rid of their bodies1 but hoped1 with their refined ,egypticism1 to preserve them for ever4 7,a ,jewish martyr1 about whom we may read in the ,second ,book of the ,maccabees1 would not think of giving up his intestines1 which had been torn out3 he wanted to have them at the resurrection3 quite a ,jewish characteristic67 ,thoughts of eternal damnation were far from the minds of the early ,christians3 they thought they were delivered from death1 and awaited a transformation from day to day1 but not death4 7,what a curious effect the first death must have produced on these expectant people6 ,how many different feelings must have been mingled together--astonishment1 exultation1 doubt1 shame1 and passion6 ,verily1 a subject worthy of a great artist67 ,st4 ,paul could say nothing better in praise of his ,saviour than that he had opened the gates of immortality to everybody--he did not believe in the resurrection of those who had not been saved3 more than this1 by reason of his doctrine of the impossibility of carrying out the ,law1 and of death considered as a consequence of sin1 he even suspected that1 up to that time1 no one had become immortal 7or at all events only a very few1 solely owing to special grace and not to any merits of their own73 it was only in his time that immortality had begun to open its gates--and only a few of the elect would finally gain admittance1 as the pride of the elect cannot help saying4 ,in other places1 where the impulse towards life was not so strong as among the ,jews and the ,christian ,jews1 and where the prospect of immortality did not appear to be more valuable than the prospect of a final death1 that pagan1 yet not altogether un-,jewish addition of ,hell became a very useful tool in the hands of the missionaries3 then arose the new doctrine that even the sinners and the unsaved are immortal1 the doctrine of eternal damnation1 which was more powerful than the idea of a final death1 which thereafter began to fade away4 ,it was science alone which could overcome this idea1 at the same time brushing aside all other ideas about death and an after-life4 ,we are poorer in one particular3 the 8life after death0 has no further interest for us6 an indescribable blessing1 which is as yet too recent to be considered as such throughout the world4 ,and ,epicurus is once more triumphant4 #gc4 ,,for ,,the 8,,truth06--8,the truth of ,christianity was attested by the virtuous lives of the ,christians1 their firmness in suffering1 their unshakable belief and above all by the spread and increase of the faith in spite of all calamities40--,that's how you talk even now4 ,the more's the pity4 ,learn1 then1 that all this proves nothing either in favour of truth or against it2 that truth must be demonstrated differently from conscientiousness1 and that the latter is in no respect whatever an argument in favour of the former4 #gd4 ,a ,,christian ,,arri,,re-,,pens,e4--,would not this have been a general reservation among ,christians of the first century3 8,it is better to persuade ourselves into the belief that we are guilty rather than that we are innocent2 for it is impossible to ascertain the disposition of so powerful a judge--but it is to be feared that he is looking out only for those who are conscious of guilt4 ,bearing in mind his great power1 it is more likely that he will pardon a guilty person than admit that any one is innocent1 in his presence40 ,this was the feeling of poor provincial folk in the presence of the ,roman prtor3 8,he is too proud for us to dare to be innocent40 ,and may not this very sentiment have made its influence felt when the ,christians endeavoured to picture to themselves the aspect of the ,supreme ,judge8 #ge4 ,,neither ,,european ,,nor ,,noble4--,there is something ,oriental and feminine in ,christianity1 and this is shown in the thought1 8,whom the ,lord loveth1 ,he chasteneth02 for women in the ,orient consider castigations and the strict seclusion of their persons from the world as a sign of their husband's love1 and complain if these signs of love cease4 #gf4 ,,if ,,you ,,think ,,it ,,evil1 ,,you ,,make ,,it ,,evil4--,the passions become evil and malignant when regarded with evil and malignant eyes4 ,it is in this way that ,christianity has succeeded in transforming ,eros and ,aphrodite--sublime powers1 capable of idealisation--into hellish genii and phantom goblins1 by means of the pangs which every sexual impulse was made to raise in the conscience of the believers4 ,is it not a dreadful thing to transform necessary and regular sensations into a source of inward misery1 and thus arbitrarily to render interior misery necessary and regular in the case of every man6 ,furthermore1 this misery remains secret with the result that it is all the more deeply rooted1 for it is not all men who have the courage1 which ,shakespeare shows in his sonnets1 of making public their ,christian gloom on this point4 ,must a feeling1 then1 always be called evil against which we are forced to struggle1 which we must restrain even within certain limits1 or1 in given cases1 banish entirely from our minds8 ,is it not the habit of vulgar souls always to call an enemy evil6 and must we call ,eros an enemy8 ,the sexual feelings1 like the feelings of pity and adoration1 possess the particular characteristic that1 in their case1 one being gratifies another by the pleasure he enjoys--it is but rarely that we meet with such a benevolent arrangement in nature4 ,and yet we calumniate and corrupt it all by our bad conscience6 ,we connect the procreation of man with a bad conscience6 ,but the outcome of this diabolisation of ,eros is a mere farce3 the 8demon0 ,eros becomes an object of greater interest to mankind than all the angels and saints put together1 thanks to the mysterious ,mumbo-,jumboism of the ,church in all things erotic3 it is due to the ,church that love stories1 even in our own time1 have become the one common interest which appeals to all classes of people--with an exaggeration which would be incomprehensible to antiquity1 and which will not fail to provoke roars of laughter in coming generations4 ,all our poetising and thinking1 from the highest to the lowest1 is marked1 and more than marked1 by the exaggerated importance bestowed upon the love story as the principal item of our existence4 ,posterity may perhaps1 on this account1 come to the conclusion that its entire legacy of ,christian culture is tainted with narrowness and insanity4 #gg4 ,,the ,,tortures ,,of ,,the ,,soul4--,the whole world raises a shout of horror at the present day if one man presumes to torture the body of another3 the indignation against such a being bursts forth almost spontaneously4 ,nay2 we tremble even at the very thought of torture being inflicted on a man or an animal1 and we undergo unspeakable misery when we hear of such an act having been accomplished4 ,but the same feeling is experienced in a very much lesser degree and extent when it is a question of the tortures of the soul and the dreadfulness of their infliction4 ,christianity has introduced such tortures on an unprecedented scale1 and still continues to preach this kind of martyrdom--yea1 it even complains innocently of backsliding and indifference when it meets with a state of soul which is free from such agonies4 ,from all this it now results that humanity1 in the face of spiritual racks1 tortures of the mind1 and instruments of punishment1 behaves even to-day with the same awesome patience and indecision which it exhibited in former times in the presence of the cruelties practised on the bodies of men or animals4 ,hell has certainly not remained merely an empty sound2 and a new kind of pity has been devised to correspond to the newly-created fears of hell--a horrible and ponderous compassion1 hitherto unknown2 with people 8irrevocably condemned to hell10 as1 for example1 the ,stony ,guest gave ,don ,juan to understand1 and which1 during the ,christian era1 should often have made the very stones weep4 ,plutarch presents us with a gloomy picture of the state of mind of a superstitious man in pagan times3 but this picture pales when compared with that of a ,christian of the ,middle ,ages1 who supposes that nothing can save him from 8torments everlasting40 ,dreadful omens appear to him3 perhaps he sees a stork holding a snake in his beak and hesitating to swallow it4 ,or all nature suddenly becomes pale2 or bright1 fiery colours appear across the surface of the earth4 ,or the ghosts of his dead relations approach him1 with features showing traces of dreadful sufferings4 ,or the dark walls of the room in which the man is sleeping are suddenly lighted up1 and there1 amidst a yellow flame1 he perceives instruments of torture and a motley horde of snakes and devils4 ,christianity has surely turned this world of ours into a fearful habitation by raising the crucifix in all parts and thereby proclaiming the earth to be a place 8where the just man is tortured to death60 ,and when the ardour of some great preacher for once disclosed to the public the secret sufferings of the individual1 the agonies of the lonely souls1 when1 for example1 ,whitefield preached 8like a dying man to the dying10 now bitterly weeping1 now violently stamping his feet1 speaking passionately1 in abrupt and incisive tones1 without fearing to turn the whole force of his attack upon any one individual present1 excluding him from the assembly with excessive harshness--then indeed did it seem as if the earth were being transformed into a 8field of evil40 ,the huge crowds were then seen to act as if seized with a sudden attack of madness3 many were in fits of anguish2 others lay unconscious and motionless2 others1 again1 trembled or rent the air with their piercing shrieks4 ,everywhere there was a loud breathing1 as of half-choked people who were gasping for the breath of life4 8,indeed10 said an eye-witness once1 8almost all the noises appeared to come from people who were dying in the bitterest agony40 ,let us never forget that it was ,christianity which first turned the death-bed into a bed of agony1 and that1 by the scenes which took place there1 and the terrifying sounds which were made possible there for the first time1 it has poisoned the senses and the blood of innumerable witnesses and their children4 ,imagine the ordinary man who can never efface the recollection of words like these3 8,oh1 eternity6 ,would that ,i had no soul6 ,would that ,i had never been born6 ,my soul is damned1 damned2 lost for ever6 ,six days ago you might have helped me4 ,but now all is over4 ,i belong to the devil1 and with him ,i will go down to hell4 ,break1 break1 ye poor hearts of stone6 ,ye will not break8 ,what more can be done for hearts of stone8 ,i am damned that ye may be saved6 ,there he is6 ,yea2 there he is6 ,come1 good devil6 ,come60 #gh4 ,,avenging ,,justice4--,misfortune and guilt3 these two things have been put on one scale by ,christianity2 so that1 when the misfortune which follows a fault is a serious one1 this fault is always judged accordingly to be a very heinous one4 ,but this was not the valuation of antiquity1 and that is why ,greek tragedy--in which misfortune and punishment are discussed at length1 and yet in another sense--forms part of the great liberators of the mind to an extent which even the ancients themselves could not realise4 ,they remained ingenuous enough not to set up an 8adequate relation0 between guilt and misfortune4 ,the guilt of their tragic heroes is1 indeed1 the little pebble that makes them stumble1 and on which account they sometimes happen to break an arm or knock out an eye4 ,upon this the feeling of antiquity made the comment1 8,well1 he should have gone his way with more caution and less pride40 ,it was reserved for ,christianity1 however1 to say3 8,here we have a great misfortune1 and behind this great misfortune there must lie a great fault1 an equally serious fault1 though we cannot clearly see it6 ,if1 wretched man1 you do not feel it1 it is because your heart is hardened--and worse than this will happen to you60 ,besides this1 antiquity could point to examples of real misfortunes1 misfortunes that were pure and innocent2 it was only with the advent of ,christianity that all punishment became well-merited punishment3 in addition to this it renders the imagination of the sufferer still more suffering1 so that the victim1 in the midst of his distress1 is seized with the feeling that he has been morally reproved and cast away4 ,poor humanity6 ,the ,greeks had a special word to stand for the feeling of indignation which was experienced at the misfortune of another3 among ,christian peoples this feeling was prohibited and was not permitted to develop2 hence the reason why they have no name for this more virile brother of pity4 #gi4 ,a ,,proposal4--,if1 according to the arguments of ,pascal and ,christianity1 our ego is always hateful1 how can we permit and suppose other people1 whether ,god or men1 to love it8 ,it would be contrary to all good principles to let ourselves be loved when we know very well that we deserve nothing but hatred--not to speak of other repugnant feelings4 8,but this is the very ,kingdom of ,grace40 ,then you look upon your love for your neighbour as a grace8 ,your pity as a grace8 ,well1 then1 if you can do all this1 there is no reason why you should not go a step further3 love yourselves through grace1 and then you will no longer find your ,god necessary1 and the entire drama of the ,fall and ,redemption of mankind will reach its last act in yourselves6 #hj4 ,,the ,,compassionate ,,christian4--,a ,christian's compassion in the presence of his neighbour's suffering has another side to it3 viz4 his profound suspicion of all the joy of his neighbour1 of his neighbour's joy in everything that he wills and is able to do4 #ha4 ,,the ,,saint',s ,,humanity4--,a saint had fallen into the company of believers1 and could no longer stand their continually expressed hatred for sin4 ,at last he said to them3 8,god created all things1 except sin3 therefore it is no wonder that ,he does not like it4 ,but man has created sin1 and why1 then1 should he disown this only child of his merely because it is not regarded with a friendly eye by ,god1 its grandfather8 ,is that human8 ,honour to whom honour is due--but one's heart and duty must speak1 above all1 in favour of the child--and only in the second place for the honour of the grandfather60 #hb4 ,,the ,,theological ,,attack4--8,you must arrange that with yourself2 for your life is at stake60--,luther it is who suddenly springs upon us with these words and imagines that we feel the knife at our throats4 ,but we throw him off with the words of one higher and more considerate than he3 8,we need form no opinion in regard to this or that matter1 and thus save our souls from trouble4 ,for1 by their very nature1 the things themselves cannot compel us to express an opinion40 #hc4 ,,poor ,,humanity6--,a single drop of blood too much or too little in the brain may render our life unspeakably miserable and difficult1 and we may suffer more from this single drop of blood than ,prometheus from his vulture4 ,but the worst is when we do not know that this drop is causing our sufferings--and we think it is 8the devil60 ,or 8sin60 #hd4 ,,the ,,philology ,,of ,,christianity4--,how little ,christianity cultivates the sense of honesty can be inferred from the character of the writings of its learned men4 ,they set out their conjectures as audaciously as if they were dogmas1 and are but seldom at a disadvantage in regard to the interpretation of ,scripture4 ,their continual cry is3 8,i am right1 for it is written0--and then follows an explanation so shameless and capricious that a philologist1 when he hears it1 must stand stock-still between anger and laughter1 asking himself again and again3 ,is it possible8 ,is it honest8 ,is it even decent8 ,it is only those who never--or always--attend church that underestimate the dishonesty with which this subject is still dealt in ,protestant pulpits2 in what a clumsy fashion the preacher takes advantage of his security from interruption2 how the ,bible is pinched and squeezed2 and how the people are made acquainted with every form of the art of false reading4 ,when all is said and done1 however1 what can be expected from the effects of a religion which1 during the centuries when it was being firmly established1 enacted that huge philological farce concerning the ,old ,testament8 ,i refer to that attempt to tear the ,old ,testament from the hands of the ,jews under the pretext that it contained only ,christian doctrines and belonged to the ,christians as the true people of ,israel1 while the ,jews had merely arrogated it to themselves without authority4 ,this was followed by a mania of would-be interpretation and falsification1 which could not under any circumstances have been allied with a good conscience4 ,however strongly ,jewish savants protested1 it was everywhere sedulously asserted that the ,old ,testament alluded everywhere to ,christ1 and nothing but ,christ1 more especially ,his ,cross1 and thus1 wherever reference was made to wood1 a rod1 a ladder1 a twig1 a tree1 a willow1 or a staff1 such a reference could not but be a prophecy relating to the wood of the ,cross3 even the setting-up of the ,unicorn and the ,brazen ,serpent1 even ,moses stretching forth his hands in prayer--yea1 the very spits on which the ,easter lambs were roasted3 all these were allusions to the ,cross1 and1 as it were1 preludes to it6 ,did any one who kept on asserting these things ever believe in them8 ,let it not be forgotten that the ,church did not shrink from putting interpolations in the text of the ,septuagint 7e4g4 ,ps4 xcvi4 #aj71 in order that she might later on make use of these interpolated passages as ,christian prophecies4 ,they were engaged in a struggle1 and thought of their foes rather than of honesty4 #he4 ,,subtlety ,,in ,,penury4--,take care not to laugh at the mythology of the ,greeks merely because it so little resembles your own profound metaphysics6 ,you should admire a people who checked their quick intellect at this point1 and for a long time afterwards had tact enough to avoid the danger of scholasticism and hair-splitting superstition4 #hf4 ,,the ,,christian ,,interpreters ,,of ,,the ,,body4--,whatever originates in the stomach1 the intestines1 the beating of the heart1 the nerves1 the bile1 the seed--all those indispositions1 debilities1 irritations1 and the whole contingency of that machine about which we know so little--a ,christian like ,pascal considers it all as a moral and religious phenomenon1 asking himself whether ,god or the devil1 good or evil1 salvation or damnation1 is the cause4 ,alas for the unfortunate interpreter6 ,how he must distort and worry his system6 ,how he must distort and worry himself in order to gain his point6 #hg4 ,,the ,,moral ,,miracle4--,in the domain of morality1 ,christianity knows of nothing but the miracle2 the sudden change in all valuations1 the sudden renouncement of all habits1 the sudden and irresistible predilection for new things and persons4 ,christianity looks upon this phenomenon as the work of ,god1 and calls it the act of regeneration1 thus giving it a unique and incomparable value4 ,everything else which is called morality1 and which bears no relation to this miracle1 becomes in consequence a matter of indifference to the ,christian1 and indeed1 so far as it is a feeling of well-being and pride1 an object of fear4 ,the canon of virtue1 of the fulfilled law1 is established in the ,new ,testament1 but in such a way as to be the canon of impossible virtue3 men who still aspire to moral perfections must come to understand1 in the face of this canon1 that they are further and further removed from their aim2 they must despair of virtue1 and end by throwing themselves at the feet of the ,merciful ,one4 ,it is only in reaching a conclusion like this that moral efforts on the part of the ,christian can still be regarded as possessing any value3 the condition that these efforts shall always remain sterile1 painful1 and melancholy is therefore indispensable2 and it is in this way that those efforts could still avail to bring about that moment of ecstasy when man experiences the 8overflow of grace0 and the moral miracle4 ,this struggle for morality is1 however1 not necessary2 for it is by no means uncommon for this miracle to happen to the sinner at the very moment when he is1 so to speak1 wallowing in the mire of sin3 yea1 the leap from the deepest and most abandoned sinfulness into its contrary seems easier1 and1 as a clear proof of the miracle1 even more desirable4 ,what1 for the rest1 may be the signification of such a sudden1 unreasonable1 and irresistible revolution1 such a change from the depths of misery into the heights of happiness8 7might it be a disguised epilepsy87 ,this should at all events be considered by alienists1 who have frequent opportunities of observing similar 8miracles0--for example1 the mania of murder or suicide4 ,the relatively 8more pleasant consequences0 in the case of the ,christian make no important difference4 #hh4 ,,luther1 ,,the ,,great ,,benefactor4--,luther's most important result is the suspicion which he awakened against the saints and the entire ,christian vita contemplativa2 only since his day has an un-,christian vita contemplativa again become possible in ,europe1 only since then has contempt for laymen and worldly activity ceased4 ,luther continued to be an honest miner's son even after he had been shut up in a monastery1 and there1 for lack of other depths and 8borings10 he descended into himself1 and bored terrifying and dark passages through his own depths--finally coming to recognise that an introspective and saintly life was impossible to him1 and that his innate 8activity0 in body and soul would end by being his ruin4 ,for a long time1 too long1 indeed1 he endeavoured to find the way to holiness through castigations2 but at length he made up his mind1 and said to himself3 8,there is no real vita contemplativa6 ,we have been deceived4 ,the saints were no better than the rest of us40 ,this was truly a rustic way of gaining one's case2 but for the ,germans of that period it was the only proper way4 ,how edified they felt when they could read in their ,lutheran catechism3 8,apart from the ,ten ,commandments there is no work which could find favour in the eyes of ,god--these much-boasted spiritual works of the saints are purely imaginary60 #hi4 ,,doubt ,,as ,,sin4--,christianity has done all it possibly could to draw a circle round itself1 and has even gone so far as to declare doubt itself to be a sin4 ,we are to be precipitated into faith by a miracle1 without the help of reason1 after which we are to float in it as the clearest and least equivocal of elements--a mere glance at some solid ground1 the thought that we exist for some purpose other than floating1 the least movement of our amphibious nature3 all this is a sin6 ,let it be noted that1 following this decision1 the proofs and demonstration of the faith1 and all meditations upon its origin1 are prohibited as sinful4 ,christianity wants blindness and frenzy and an eternal swan-song above the waves under which reason has been drowned6 #ij4 ,,egoism ,,versus ,,egoism4--,how many are there who still come to the conclusion3 8,life would be intolerable were there no ,god60 ,or1 as is said in idealistic circles3 8,life would be intolerable if its ethical signification were lacking40 ,hence there must be a ,god--or an ethical signification of existence6 ,in reality the case stands thus3 ,he who is accustomed to conceptions of this sort does not desire a life without them1 hence these conceptions are necessary for him and his preservation--but what a presumption it is to assert that everything necessary for my preservation must exist in reality6 ,as if my preservation were really necessary6 ,what if others held the contrary opinion8 if they did not care to live under the conditions of these two articles of faith1 and did not regard life as worth living if they were realised6--,and that is the present position of affairs4 #ia4 ,,the ,,honesty ,,of ,,god4--,an omniscient and omnipotent ,god who does not even take care that ,his intentions shall be understood by ,his creatures--could ,he be a ,god of goodness8 ,a ,god1 who1 for thousands of years1 has permitted innumerable doubts and scruples to continue unchecked as if they were of no importance in the salvation of mankind1 and who1 nevertheless1 announces the most dreadful consequences for any one who mistakes his truth8 ,would he not be a cruel god if1 being himself in possession of the truth1 he could calmly contemplate mankind1 in a state of miserable torment1 worrying its mind as to what was truth8 ,perhaps1 however1 he really is a ,god of goodness1 and was unable to express ,himself more clearly8 ,perhaps he lacked intelligence enough for this8 ,or eloquence8 ,all the worse6 ,for in such a case he may have been deceived himself in regard to what he calls his 8truth10 and may not be far from being another 8poor1 deceived devil60 ,must he not therefore experience all the torments of hell at seeing ,his creatures suffering so much here below--and even more1 suffering through all eternity--when he himself can neither advise nor help them1 except as a deaf and dumb person1 who makes all kinds of equivocal signs when his child or his dog is threatened with the most fearful danger8 ,a distressed believer who argues thus might be pardoned if his pity for the suffering ,god were greater than his pity for his 8neighbours02 for they are his neighbours no longer if that most solitary and primeval being is also the greatest sufferer and stands most in need of consolation4 ,every religion shows some traits of the fact that it owes its origin to a state of human intellectuality which was as yet too young and immature3 they all make light of the necessity for speaking the truth3 as yet they know nothing of the duty of ,god1 the duty of being clear and truthful in ,his communications with men4 ,no one was more eloquent than ,pascal in speaking of the 8hidden ,god0 and the reasons why ,he had to keep ,himself hidden1 all of which indicates clearly enough that ,pascal himself could never make his mind easy on this point3 but he speaks with such confidence that one is led to imagine that he must have been let into the secret at some time or other4 ,he seemed to have some idea that the deus absconditus bore a few slight traces of immorality2 and he felt too much ashamed and afraid of acknowledging this to himself3 consequently1 like a man who is afraid1 he spoke as loudly as he could4 #ib4 ,,at ,,the ,,death-,,bed ,,of ,,christianity4--,all truly active men now do without inward ,christianity1 and the most moderate and thoughtful men of the intellectual middle classes possess only a kind of modified ,christianity2 that is1 a peculiarly simplified ,christianity4 ,a ,god who1 in his love1 ordains everything so that it may be best for us1 a ,god who gives us our virtue and our happiness and then takes them away from us1 so that everything at length goes on smoothly and there is no reason left why we should take life ill or grumble about it3 in short1 resignation and modesty raised to the rank of divinities--that is the best and most lifelike remnant of ,christianity now left to us4 ,it must be remembered1 however1 that in this way ,christianity has developed into a soft moralism3 instead of 8,god1 freedom1 and immortality10 we have now a kind of benevolence and honest sentiments1 and the belief that1 in the entire universe1 benevolence and honest sentiments will finally prevail3 this is the euthanasia of ,christianity4 #ic4 ,,what ,,is ,,truth8--,who will not be pleased with the conclusions which the faithful take such delight in coming to8--8,science cannot be true2 for it denies ,god4 ,hence it does not come from ,god2 and consequently it cannot be true--for ,god is truth40 ,it is not the deduction but the premise which is fallacious4 ,what if ,god were not exactly truth1 and if this were proved8 ,and if he were instead the vanity1 the desire for power1 the ambitions1 the fear1 and the enraptured and terrified folly of mankind8 #id4 ,,remedy ,,for ,,the ,,displeased4--,even ,paul already believed that some sacrifice was necessary to take away the deep displeasure which ,god experienced concerning sin3 and ever since then ,christians have never ceased to vent the ill-humour which they felt with themselves upon some victim or another--whether it was 8the world10 or 8history10 or 8reason10 or joy1 or the tranquillity of other men--something good1 no matter what1 had to die for their sins 7even if only in effigie76 #ie4 ,,the ,,historical ,,refutation ,,as ,,the ,,decisive ,,one4--,formerly it was sought to prove that there was no ,god--now it is shown how the belief that a ,god existed could have originated1 and by what means this belief gained authority and importance3 in this way the counterproof that there is no ,god becomes unnecessary and superfluous4--,in former times1 when the 8evidences of the existence of ,god0 which had been brought forward were refuted1 a doubt still remained1 viz4 whether better proofs could not be found than those which had just been refuted3 at that time the atheists did not understand the art of making a tabula rasa4 #if4 8,,in ,,hoc ,,signo ,,vinces40--,to whatever degree of progress ,europe may have attained in other respects1 where religious affairs are concerned it has not yet reached the liberal navet of the ancient ,brahmins1 which proves that1 in ,india1 four thousand years ago1 people meditated more profoundly and transmitted to their descendants more pleasure in meditating than is the case in our own days4 ,for those ,brahmins believed in the first place that the priests were more powerful than the gods1 and in the second place that it was observances which constituted the power of the priests3 as a result of which their poets were never tired of glorifying those observances 7prayers1 ceremonies1 sacrifices1 chants1 improvised melodies7 as the real dispensers of all benefits4 ,although a certain amount of superstition and poetry was mingled with all this1 the principles were true6 ,a step further1 and the gods were cast aside--which ,europe likewise will have to do before very long6 ,one more step further1 and priests and intermediaries could also be dispensed with--and then ,buddha1 the teacher of the religion of self-redemption1 appeared4 ,how far ,europe is still removed from this degree of culture6 ,when at length all the customs and observances1 upon which rests the power of gods1 priests1 and saviours1 shall have been destroyed1 when as a consequence morality1 in the old sense1 will be dead1 then there will come 444 yea1 what will come then8 ,but let us refrain from speculating2 let us rather make certain that ,europe will retrieve that which1 in ,india1 amidst this people of thinkers1 was carried out thousands of years ago as a commandment of thought6 ,scattered among the different nations of ,europe there are now from ten to twenty millions of men who no longer 8believe in ,god0--is it too much to ask that they should give each other some indication or password8 ,as soon as they recognise each other in this way1 they will also make themselves known to each other2 and they will immediately become a power in ,europe1 and1 happily1 a power among the nations6 among the classes6 between rich and poor6 between those who command1 and those who obey6 between the most restless and the most tranquil1 tranquillising people6 ,,book ,,ii4 #ig4 ,,one ,,becomes ,,moral--but not because one is moral6 ,submission to morals may be due to slavishness or vanity1 egoism or resignation1 dismal fanaticism or thoughtlessness4 ,it may1 again1 be an act of despair1 such as submission to the authority of a ruler2 but there is nothing moral about it per se4 #ih4 ,,alterations ,,in ,,morals4--,morals are constantly undergoing changes and transformations1 occasioned by successful crimes4 7,to these1 for example1 belong all innovations in moral judgments47 #ii4 ,,wherein ,,we ,,are ,,all ,,irrational4--,we still continue to draw conclusions from judgments which we consider as false1 or doctrines in which we no longer believe1--through our feelings4 #ajj4 ,,awaking ,,from ,a ,,dream4--,noble and wise men once upon a time believed in the music of the spheres2 there are still noble and wise men who believe in 8the moral significance of existence10 but there will come a day when this music of the spheres also will no longer be audible to them4 ,they will awake and perceive that their ears have been dreaming4 #aja4 ,,open ,,to ,,doubt4--,to accept a belief simply because it is customary implies that one is dishonest1 cowardly1 and lazy4--,must dishonesty1 cowardice1 and laziness1 therefore1 be the primary conditions of morality8 #ajb4 ,,the ,,most ,,ancient ,,moral ,,judgments4--,what attitude do we assume towards the acts of our neighbour8--,in the first place1 we consider how they may benefit ourselves--we see them only in this light4 ,it is this effect which we regard as the intention of the acts1--and in the end we come to look upon these intentions of our neighbour as permanent qualities in him1 and we call him1 for example1 8a dangerous man40 ,triple error6 ,triple and most ancient mistake6 ,perhaps this inheritance comes to us from the animals and their faculty of judgment6 ,must not the origin of all morality be sought in these detestable narrow-minded conclusions3 8,whatever injures me is evil 7something injurious in itself71 whatever benefits me is good 7beneficial and profitable in itself71 whatever injures me once or several times is hostile per se2 whatever benefits me once or several times is friendly per se40 ,o pudenda origo6 ,is not this equivalent to interpreting the contemptible1 occasional1 and often merely accidental relations of another person to us as his primary and most essential qualities1 and affirming that towards himself and every one else he is only capable of such actions as we ourselves have experienced at his hands once or several times6 ,and is not this thorough folly based upon the most immodest of all mental reservations3 namely1 that we ourselves must be the standard of what is good1 since we determine good and evil8 #ajc4 ,,there ,,are ,,two ,,classes ,,of ,,people ,,who ,,deny ,,morality4--,to deny morality may mean1 in the first place1 to deny the moral inducements which1 men pretend1 have urged them on to their actions1--which is equivalent to saying that morality merely consists of words and forms1 part of that coarse and subtle deceit 7especially self-deceit7 which is characteristic of mankind1 and perhaps more especially of those men who are celebrated for their virtues4 ,in the second place1 it may mean our denying that moral judgments are founded on truths4 ,it is admitted in such a case that these judgments are1 in fact1 the motives of the actions1 but that in this way it is really errors as the basis of all moral judgments which urge men on to their moral actions4 ,this is my point of view2 but ,i should be far from denying that in very many cases a subtle suspicion in accordance with the former point of view--i4e4 in the spirit of ,la ,rochefoucauld--is also justifiable1 and in any case of a high general utility4--,therefore ,i deny morality in the same way as ,i deny alchemy1 i4e4 ,i deny its hypotheses2 but ,i do not deny that there have been alchemists who believed in these hypotheses and based their actions upon them4 ,i also deny immorality--not that innumerable people feel immoral1 but that there is any true reason why they should feel so4 ,i should not1 of course1 deny--unless ,i were a fool--that many actions which are called immoral should be avoided and resisted2 and in the same way that many which are called moral should be performed and encouraged2 but ,i hold that in both cases these actions should be performed from motives other than those which have prevailed up to the present time4 ,we must learn anew in order that at last1 perhaps very late in the day1 we may be able to do something more3 feel anew4 #ajd4 ,,our ,,valuations4--,all actions may be referred back to valuations1 and all valuations are either one's own or adopted1 the latter being by far the more numerous4 ,why do we adopt them8 ,through fear1 i4e4 we think it more advisable to pretend that they are our own1 and so well do we accustom ourselves to do so that it at last becomes second nature to us4 ,a valuation of our own1 which is the appreciation of a thing in accordance with the pleasure or displeasure it causes us and no one else1 is something very rare indeed6--,but must not our valuation of our neighbour--which is prompted by the motive that we adopt his valuation in most cases--proceed from ourselves and by our own decision8 ,of course1 but then we come to these decisions during our childhood1 and seldom change them4 ,we often remain during our whole lifetime the dupes of our childish and accustomed judgments in our manner of judging our fellow-men 7their minds1 rank1 morality1 character1 and reprehensibility71 and we find it necessary to subscribe to their valuations4 #aje4 ,,pseudo-,,egoism4--,the great majority of people1 whatever they may think and say about their 8egoism10 do nothing for their ego all their life long1 but only for a phantom of this ego which has been formed in regard to them by their friends and communicated to them4 ,as a consequence1 they all live in a haze of impersonal and half-personal opinions and of arbitrary and1 as it were1 poetic valuations3 the one always in the head of another1 and this head1 again1 in the head of somebody else--a queer world of phantoms which manages to give itself a rational appearance6 ,this haze of opinions and habits grows in extent and lives almost independently of the people it surrounds2 it is it which gives rise to the immense effect of general judgments on 8man0--all those men1 who do not know themselves1 believe in a bloodless abstraction which they call 8man10 i4e4 in a fiction2 and every change caused in this abstraction by the judgments of powerful individualities 7such as princes and philosophers7 produces an extraordinary and irrational effect on the great majority1--for the simple reason that not a single individual in this haze can oppose a real ego1 an ego which is accessible to and fathomed by himself1 to the universal pale fiction1 which he could thereby destroy4 #ajf4 ,,against ,,definitions ,,of ,,moral ,,aims4--,on all sides we now hear the aim of morals defined as the preservation and advancement of humanity2 but this is merely the expression of a wish to have a formula and nothing more4 ,preservation wherein8 advancement whither8 ,these are questions which must at once be asked4 ,is not the most essential point1 the answer to this wherein8 and whither8 left out of the formula8 ,what results therefrom1 so far as our own actions and duties are concerned1 which is not already tacitly and instinctively understood8 ,can we sufficiently understand from this formula whether we must prolong as far as possible the existence of the human race1 or bring about the greatest possible disanimalisation of man8 ,how different the means1 i4e4 the practical morals1 would have to be in the two cases6 ,supposing that the greatest possible rationality were given to mankind1 this certainly would not guarantee the longest possible existence for them6 ,or supposing that their 8greatest happiness0 was thought to be the answer to the questions put1 do we thereby mean the highest degree of happiness which a few individuals might attain1 or an incalculable1 though finally attainable1 average state of happiness for all8 ,and why should morality be the way to it8 ,has not morality1 considered as a whole1 opened up so many sources of displeasure as to lead us to think that man up to the present1 with every new refinement of morality1 has become more and more discontented with himself1 with his neighbour1 and with his own lot8 ,has not the most moral of men hitherto believed that the only justifiable state of mankind in the face of morals is that of the deepest misery8 #ajg4 ,,our ,,right ,,to ,,our ,,folly4--,how must we act8 ,why must we act8 ,so far as the coarse and immediate needs of the individual are concerned1 it is easy to answer these questions1 but the more we enter upon the more important and more subtle domains of action1 the more does the problem become uncertain and the more arbitrary its solution4 ,an arbitrary decision1 however1 is the very thing that must be excluded here1--thus commands the authority of morals3 an obscure uneasiness and awe must relentlessly guide man in those very actions the objects and means of which he cannot at once perceive4 ,this authority of morals undermines our thinking faculty in regard to those things concerning which it might be dangerous to think wrongly1--it is in this way1 at all events1 that morality usually justifies itself to its accusers4 ,wrong in this place means dangerous2 but dangerous to whom8 ,it is not1 as a rule1 the danger of the doer of the action which the supporters of authoritative morals have in view1 but their own danger2 the loss which their power and influence might undergo if the right to act according to their own greater or lesser reason1 however wilfully and foolishly1 were accorded to all men4 ,they on their part make unhesitating use of their right to arbitrariness and folly1--they even command in cases where it is hardly possible1 or at all events very difficult1 to answer the questions1 8,how must they act1 why must they act80 ,and if the reason of mankind grows with such extraordinary slowness that it was often possible to deny its growth during the whole course of humanity1 what is more to blame for this than this solemn presence1 even omnipresence1 of moral commands1 which do not even permit the individual question of how and why to be asked at all8 ,have we not been educated precisely in such a way as to make us feel pathetic1 and thus to obscure our vision at the very time when our reason should be able to see as clearly and calmly as possible--i4e4 in all higher and more important circumstances8 #ajh4 ,,some ,,theses4--,we should not give the individual1 in so far as he desires his own happiness1 any precepts or recommendations as to the road leading to happiness2 for individual happiness arises from particular laws that are unknown to anybody1 and such a man will only be hindered or obstructed by recommendations which come to him from outside sources4 ,those precepts which are called moral are in reality directed against individuals1 and do not by any means make for the happiness of such individuals4 ,the relationship of these precepts to the happiness and well-being of mankind is equally slight1 for it is quite impossible to assign a definite conception to these words1 and still less can they be employed as guiding stars on the dark sea of moral aspirations4 ,it is a prejudice to think that morality is more favourable to the development of the reason than immorality4 ,it is erroneous to suppose that the unconscious aim in the development of every conscious being 7namely1 animal1 man1 humanity1 etc47 is its 8greatest happiness03 on the contrary1 there is a particular and incomparable happiness to be attained at every stage of our development1 one that is neither high nor low1 but quite an individual happiness4 ,evolution does not make happiness its goal2 it aims merely at evolution1 and nothing else4 ,it is only if humanity had a universally recognised goal that we could propose to do this or that3 for the time being there is no such goal4 ,it follows that the pretensions of morality should not be brought into any relationship with mankind3 this would be merely childish and irrational4 ,it is quite another thing to recommend a goal to mankind3 this goal would then be something that would depend upon our own will and pleasure4 ,provided that mankind in general agreed to adopt such a goal1 it could then impose a moral law upon itself1 a law which would1 at all events1 be imposed by their own free will4 ,up to now1 however1 the moral law has had to be placed above our own free will3 strictly speaking1 men did not wish to impose this law upon themselves2 they wished to take it from somewhere1 to discover it1 or to let themselves be commanded by it from somewhere4 #aji4 ,,self-,,control ,,and ,,moderation1 ,,and ,,their ,,final ,,motive4--,i find not more than six essentially different methods for combating the vehemence of an impulse4 ,first of all1 we may avoid the occasion for satisfying the impulse1 weakening and mortifying it by refraining from satisfying it for long and ever-lengthening periods4 ,secondly1 we may impose a severe and regular order upon ourselves in regard to the satisfying of our appetites4 ,by thus regulating the impulse and limiting its ebb and flow to fixed periods1 we may obtain intervals in which it ceases to disturb us2 and by beginning in this way we may perhaps be able to pass on to the first method4 ,in the third place1 we may deliberately give ourselves over to an unrestrained and unbounded gratification of the impulse in order that we may become disgusted with it1 and to obtain by means of this very disgust a command over the impulse3 provided1 of course1 that we do not imitate the rider who rides his horse to death and breaks his own neck in doing so4 ,for this1 unhappily1 is generally the outcome of the application of this third method4 ,in the fourth place1 there is an intellectual trick1 which consists in associating the idea of the gratification so firmly with some painful thought1 that after a little practice the thought of gratification is itself immediately felt as a very painful one4 7,for example1 when the ,christian accustoms himself to think of the presence and scorn of the devil in the course of sensual enjoyment1 or everlasting punishment in hell for revenge by murder2 or even merely of the contempt which he will meet with from those of his fellow-men whom he most respects1 if he steals a sum of money1 or if a man has often checked an intense desire for suicide by thinking of the grief and self-reproaches of his relations and friends1 and has thus succeeded in balancing himself upon the edge of life3 for1 after some practice1 these ideas follow one another in his mind like cause and effect47 ,among instances of this kind may be mentioned the cases of ,lord ,byron and ,napoleon1 in whom the pride of man revolted and took offence at the preponderance of one particular passion over the collective attitude and order of reason4 ,from this arises the habit and joy of tyrannising over the craving and making it1 as it were1 gnash its teeth4 8,i will not be a slave of any appetite10 wrote ,byron in his diary4 ,in the fifth place1 we may bring about a dislocation of our powers by imposing upon ourselves a particularly difficult and fatiguing task1 or by deliberately submitting to some new charm and pleasure in order thus to turn our thoughts and physical powers into other channels4 ,it comes to the same thing if we temporarily favour another impulse by affording it numerous opportunities of gratification1 and thus rendering it the squanderer of the power which would otherwise be commandeered1 so to speak1 by the tyrannical impulse4 ,a few1 perhaps1 will be able to restrain the particular passion which aspires to domination by granting their other known passions a temporary encouragement and license in order that they may devour the food which the tyrant wishes for himself alone4 ,in the sixth and last place1 the man who can stand it1 and thinks it reasonable to weaken and subdue his entire physical and psychical organisation1 likewise1 of course1 attains the goal of weakening a single violent instinct2 as1 for example1 those who starve their sensuality and at the same time their vigour1 and often destroy their reason into the bargain1 such as the ascetics4--,hence1 shunning the opportunities1 regulating the impulse1 bringing about satiety and disgust in the impulse1 associating a painful idea 7such as that of discredit1 disgust1 or offended pride71 then the dislocation of one's forces1 and finally general debility and exhaustion3 these are the six methods4 ,but the will to combat the violence of a craving is beyond our power1 equally with the method we adopt and the success we may have in applying it4 ,in all this process our intellect is rather merely the blind instrument of another rival craving1 whether it be the impulse to repose1 or the fear of disgrace and other evil consequences1 or love4 ,while 8we0 thus imagine that we are complaining of the violence of an impulse1 it is at bottom merely one impulse which is complaining of another1 i4e4 the perception of the violent suffering which is being caused us presupposes that there is another equally or more violent impulse1 and that a struggle is impending in which our intellect must take part4 #aaj4 ,,that ,,which ,,opposes4--,we may observe the following process in ourselves1 and ,i should like it to be often observed and confirmed4 ,there arises in us the scent of a kind of pleasure hitherto unknown to us1 and consequently a new craving4 ,now1 the question is1 ,what opposes itself to this craving8 ,if it be things and considerations of a common kind1 or people whom we hold in no very high esteem1 the aim of the new craving assumes the appearance of a 8noble1 good1 praiseworthy feeling1 and one worthy of sacrifice03 all the moral dispositions which have been inherited will adopt it and will add it to the number of those aims which we consider as moral--and now we imagine that we are no longer striving after a pleasure1 but after a morality1 which greatly increases our confidence in our aspirations4 #aaa4 ,,to ,,the ,,admirers ,,of ,,objectiveness4--,he who1 as a child1 has observed in his parents and acquaintances in the midst of whom he has grown up1 certain varied and strong feelings1 with but little subtle discernment and inclination for intellectual justice1 and has therefore employed his best powers and his most precious time in imitating these feelings1 will observe in himself when he arrives at years of discretion that every new thing or man he meets with excites in him either sympathy or aversion1 envy or contempt4 ,under the domination of this experience1 which he is powerless to shake off1 he admires neutrality of feeling or 8objectivity0 as an extraordinary thing1 as something connected with genius or a very rare morality1 and he cannot believe that even this neutrality is merely the product of education and habit4 #aab4 ,,on ,,the ,,natural ,,history ,,of ,,duty ,,and ,,right4--,our duties are the claims which others have upon us4 ,how did they acquire these claims8 ,by the fact that they considered us as capable of making and holding agreements and contracts1 by assuming that we were their like and equals1 and by consequently entrusting something to us1 bringing us up1 educating us1 and supporting us4 ,we do our duty1 i4e4 we justify that conception of our power for the sake of which all these things were done for us4 ,we return them in proportion as they were meted out to us4 ,it is thus our pride that orders us to do our duty--we desire to re-establish our own independence by opposing to that which others have done for us something that we do for them1 for in that way the others invade our sphere of power1 and would for ever have a hand in it if we did not make reprisals by means of 8duty10 and thus encroach upon their power4 ,the rights of others can only have regard to that which lies within our power2 it would be unreasonable on their part to require something from us which does not belong to us4 ,to put the matter more accurately1 their rights can only relate to what they imagine to be in our power1 provided that it is something that we ourselves consider as being in our power4 ,the same error may easily occur on either side4 ,the feeling of duty depends upon our having the same belief in regard to the extent of our power as other people have1 i4e4 that we can promise certain things and undertake to do them freely 78free will074 ,my rights consist of that part of my power which others have not only conceded to me1 but which they wish to maintain for me4 ,why do they do it8 ,on the one hand they are actuated by wisdom1 fear and prudence3 whether they expect something similar from us 7the protection of their rights71 whether they consider a struggle with us as dangerous or inopportune1 or whether they see a disadvantage to themselves in every diminution of our power1 since in that case we should be ill adapted for an alliance with them against a hostile third power4 ,on the other hand rights are granted by donations and cessions4 ,in this latter case1 the other people have not only enough power1 but more than enough1 so that they can give up a portion and guarantee it to the person to whom they give it3 whereby they presuppose a certain restricted sense of power in the person upon whom they have bestowed the gift4 ,in this way rights arise3 recognised and guaranteed degrees of power4 ,when the relations of powers to one another are materially changed1 rights disappear and new ones are formed1 as is demonstrated by the constant flux and reflux of the rights of nations4 ,when our power diminishes to any great extent1 the feelings of those who hitherto guaranteed it undergo some change3 they consider whether they shall once again restore us to our former possession1 and if they do not see their way to do this they deny our 8rights0 from that time forward4 ,in the same way1 if our power increases to a considerable extent the feelings of those who previously recognised it1 and whose recognition we no longer require1 likewise change3 they will then try to reduce our power to its former dimensions1 and they will endeavour to interfere in our affairs1 justifying their interference by an appeal to their 8duty40 ,but this is merely useless word-quibbling4 ,where right prevails1 a certain state and degree of power is maintained1 and all attempts at its augmentation and diminution are resisted4 ,the right of others is the concession of our feeling of power to the feeling of power in these others4 ,whenever our power shows itself to be thoroughly shattered and broken1 our rights cease3 on the other hand1 when we have become very much stronger1 the rights of others cease in our minds to be what we have hitherto admitted them to be4 ,the man who aims at being just1 therefore1 must keep a constant lookout for the changes in the indicator of the scales in order that he may properly estimate the degrees of power and right which1 with the customary transitoriness of human things1 retain their equilibrium for only a short time and in most cases continue to rise and fall4 ,as a consequence it is thus very difficult to be 8just10 and requires much experience1 good intentions1 and an unusually large amount of good sense4 #aac4 ,,striving ,,for ,,distinction4--,when we strive after distinction we must ceaselessly keep our eyes fixed on our neighbour and endeavour to ascertain what his feelings are2 but the sympathy and knowledge which are necessary to satisfy this desire are far from being inspired by harmlessness1 compassion1 or kindness4 ,on the contrary1 we wish to perceive or find out in what way our neighbour suffers from us1 either internally or externally1 how he loses control over himself and yields to the impression which our hand or even our mere appearance makes on him4 ,even when he who aspires to distinction makes or wishes to make a joyful1 elevating1 or cheerful impression1 he does not enjoy this success in that he rejoices1 exalts1 or cheers his neighbour1 but in that he leaves his impress on the latter's soul1 changing its form and dominating it according to his will4 ,the desire for distinction is the desire to subject one's neighbour1 even if it be merely in an indirect fashion1 one only felt or even only dreamt of4 ,there is a long series of stages in this secretly-desired will to subdue1 and a very complete record of them would perhaps almost be like an excellent history of culture from the early distortions of barbarism down to the caricatures of modern over-refinement and sickly idealism4 ,this desire for distinction entails upon our neighbour--to indicate only a few rungs of the long ladder--torture first of all1 followed by blows1 then terror1 anxious surprise1 wonder1 envy1 admiration1 elevation1 pleasure1 joy1 laughter1 derision1 mockery1 sneers1 scourging and self-inflicted torture4 ,there at the very top of the ladder stands the ascetic and martyr1 who himself experiences the utmost satisfaction1 because he inflicts on himself1 as a result of his desire for distinction1 that pain which his opposite1 the barbarian on the first rung of the ladder1 inflicts upon those others1 upon whom and before whom he wishes to distinguish himself4 ,the triumph of the ascetic over himself1 his introspective glance1 which beholds a man split up into a sufferer and a spectator1 and which henceforth never looks at the outside world but to gather from it1 as it were1 wood for his own funeral pyre3 this final tragedy of the desire for distinction which shows us only one person who1 so to speak1 is consumed internally--that is an end worthy of the beginning3 in both cases there is an inexpressible happiness at the sight of torture2 indeed1 happiness considered as a feeling of power developed to the utmost1 has perhaps never reached a higher pitch of perfection on earth than in the souls of superstitious ascetics4 ,this is expressed by the ,brahmins in the story of ,king ,visvamitra1 who obtained so much strength by thousands of years of penance that he undertook to construct a new heaven4 ,i believe that in the entire category of inward experiences the people of our time are mere novices and clumsy guessers who 8try to have a shot at it03 four thousand years ago much more was known about these execrable refinements of self-enjoyment4 ,perhaps at that time the creation of the world was imagined by some ,hindu dreamer to have been an ascetic operation which a god took upon himself6 ,perhaps this god may have wished to join himself to a mobile nature as an instrument of torture in order thus to feel his happiness and power doubled6 ,and even supposing him to have been a god of love3 what a delight it would have been for him to create a suffering mankind in order that he himself might suffer divinely and super-humanly from the sight of the continual torture of his creatures1 and thus to tyrannise over himself6 ,and1 again1 supposing him to have been not only a god of love1 but also a god of holiness1 we can scarcely conceive the ecstasies of this divine ascetic while creating sins and sinners and eternal punishment1 and an immense place of eternal torture below his throne where there is a continual weeping and wailing and gnashing of teeth6 ,it is not by any means impossible that the soul of a ,st4 ,paul1 a ,dante1 or a ,calvin1 and people like them1 may once have penetrated into the terrifying secrets of such voluptuousness of power1 and in view of such souls we may well ask whether the circle of this desire for distinction has come to a close with the ascetic4 ,might it not be possible for the course of this circle to be traversed a second time1 by uniting the fundamental idea of the ascetic1 and at the same time that of a compassionate ,deity8 ,in other words1 pain would be given to others in order that pain might be given to one's self1 so that in this way one could triumph over one's self and one's pity to enjoy the extreme voluptuousness of power4--,forgive me these digressions1 which come to my mind when ,i think of all the possibilities in the vast domain of psychical debaucheries to which one may be led by the desire for power6 #aad4 ,,on ,,the ,,knowledge ,,of ,,the ,,sufferer4--,the state of sick men who have suffered long and terribly from the torture inflicted upon them by their illness1 and whose reason has nevertheless not been in any way affected1 is not without a certain amount of value in our search for knowledge--quite apart from the intellectual benefits which follow upon every profound solitude and every sudden and justified liberation from duties and habits4 ,the man who suffers severely looks forth with terrible calmness from his state of suffering upon outside things3 all those little lying enchantments1 by which things are usually surrounded when seen through the eye of a healthy person1 have vanished from the sufferer2 his own life even lies there before him1 stripped of all bloom and colour4 ,if by chance it has happened that up to then he has lived in some kind of dangerous fantasy1 this extreme disenchantment through pain is the means1 and possibly the only means1 of extricating him from it4 7,it is possible that this is what happened to the ,founder of ,christianity when suspended from the ,cross2 for the bitterest words ever pronounced1 8,my ,god1 ,my ,god1 why hast ,thou forsaken ,me80 if understood in their deepest sense1 as they ought to be understood1 contain the evidence of a complete disillusionment and enlightenment in regard to the deceptions of life3 in that moment of supreme suffering ,christ obtained a clear insight into ,himself1 just as in the poet's narrative did the poor dying ,don ,quixote47 ,the formidable tension of the intellect that wishes to hold its own against pain shows everything that one now looks upon in a new light1 and the inexpressible charm of this new light is often powerful enough to withstand all the seductiveness of suicide and to make the continuation of life seem very desirable to the sufferer4 ,his mind scornfully turns to the warm and comfortable dream-world in which the healthy man moves about thoughtlessly1 and he thinks with contempt of the noblest and most cherished illusions in which he formerly indulged4 ,he experiences delight in conjuring up this contempt as if from the depths of hell1 and thus inflicting the bitterest sufferings upon his soul3 it is by this counterpoise that he bears up against physical suffering--he feels that such a counterpoise is now essential6 ,in one terrible moment of clear-sightedness he says to himself1 8,be for once thine own accuser and hangman2 for once regard thy suffering as a punishment which thou hast inflicted on thyself6 ,enjoy thy superiority as a judge3 better still1 enjoy thine own will and pleasure1 thy tyrannical arbitrariness6 ,raise thyself above thy life as above thy suffering1 and look down into the depth of reason and unreason60 ,our pride revolts as it never did before1 it experiences an incomparable charm in defending life against such a tyrant as suffering and against all the insinuations of this tyrant1 who would fain urge us to give evidence against life1--we are taking the part of life in the face of this tyrant4 ,in this state of mind we take up a bitter stand against all pessimism in order that it may not appear to be a consequence of our condition1 and thus humiliate us as conquered ones4 ,the charm of being just in our judgments was also never greater than now2 for now this justice is a triumph over ourselves and over so irritated a state of mind that unfairness of judgment might be excused1--but we will not be excused1 it is now1 if ever1 that we wish to show that we need no excuse4 ,we pass through downright orgies of pride4 ,and now appears the first ray of relief1 of recovery1 and one of its first effects is that we turn against the preponderance of our pride3 we call ourselves foolish and vain1 as if we had undergone some unique experience4 ,we humiliate ungratefully this all-powerful pride1 the aid of which enabled us to endure the pain we suffered1 and we call vehemently for some antidote for this pride3 we wish to become strangers to ourselves and to be freed from our own person after pain has forcibly made us personal too long4 8,away with this pride10 we cry1 8it was only another illness and convulsion60 ,once more we look longingly at men and nature and recollect with a sorrowful smile that now since the veil has fallen we regard many things concerning them in a new and different light1--but we are refreshed by once more seeing the softened lights of life1 and emerge from that fearfully dispassionate daylight in which we as sufferers saw things and through things4 ,we do not get angry when we see the charms of health resume their play1 and we contemplate the sight as if transformed1 gently and still fatigued4 ,in this state we cannot listen to music without weeping4 #aae4 ,,the ,,so-,,called 8,,ego40--,language and the prejudices upon which language is based very often act as obstacles in our paths when we proceed to explore internal phenomena and impulses3 as one example1 we may instance the fact that there are only words to express the superlative degrees of these phenomena and impulses4 ,now1 it is our habit no longer to observe accurately when words fail us1 since it is difficult in such cases to think with precision3 in former times1 even1 people involuntarily came to the conclusion that where the domain of words ceased1 the domain of existence ceased also4 ,wrath1 hatred1 love1 pity1 desire1 recognition1 joy1 pain3 all these are names indicating extreme conditions2 the milder and middle stages1 and even more particularly the ever active lower stages1 escape our attention1 and yet it is they which weave the warp and woof of our character and destiny4 ,it often happens that these extreme outbursts--and even the most moderate pleasure or displeasure of which we are actually conscious1 whether in partaking of food or listening to a sound1 is possibly1 if properly estimated1 merely an extreme outburst1--destroy the texture and are then violent exceptions1 in most cases the consequences of some congestions1--and how easily as such can they mislead the observer6 as indeed they mislead the person acting6 ,we are all of us not what we appear to be according to the conditions for which alone we have consciousness and words1 and consequently praise and blame4 ,we fail to recognise ourselves after these coarse outbursts which are known to ourselves alone1 we draw conclusions from data where the exceptions prove stronger than the rules2 we misinterpret ourselves in reading our own ego's pronouncements1 which appeared to be so clear4 ,but our opinion of ourselves1 this so-called ego which we have arrived at by this wrong method1 contributes henceforth to form our character and destiny4 #aaf4 ,,the ,,unknown ,,world ,,of ,,the 8,,subject40--,what men have found it so difficult to understand from the most ancient times down to the present day is their ignorance in regard to themselves1 not merely with respect to good and evil1 but something even more essential4 ,the oldest of illusions lives on1 namely1 that we know1 and know precisely in each case1 how human action is originated4 ,not only 8,god who looks into the heart10 not only the man who acts and reflects upon his action1 but everybody does not doubt that he understands the phenomena of action in every one else4 8,i know what ,i want and what ,i have done1 ,i am free and responsible for my act1 and ,i make others responsible for their acts2 ,i can mention by its name every moral possibility and every internal movement which precedes an act1--ye may act as ye will1 ,i understand myself and ,i understand you all60 ,such was what every one thought once upon a time1 and almost every one thinks so even now4 ,socrates and ,plato1 who in this matter were great sceptics and admirable innovators1 were nevertheless intensely credulous in regard to that fatal prejudice1 that profound error1 which holds that 8,the right knowledge must necessarily be followed by the right action40 ,in holding this principle they were still the heirs of the universal folly and presumption that knowledge exists concerning the essence of an action4 8,it would indeed be dreadful if the comprehension of the essence of a right action were not followed by that right action itself0--this was the only manner in which these great men thought it necessary to demonstrate this idea1 the contrary seemed to them to be inconceivable and mad2 and nevertheless this contrary corresponds to the naked reality which has been demonstrated daily and hourly from time immemorial4 ,is it not a 8dreadful0 truth that all that we know about an act is never sufficient to accomplish it1 that the bridge connecting the knowledge of the act with the act itself has never yet been built8 ,acts are never what they appear to us to be4 ,we have taken great pains to learn that external things are not as they appear to us4--,well6 ,it is the same with internal phenomena4 ,all moral acts are in reality 8something different10--we cannot say anything more about them1 and all acts are essentially unknown to us4 ,the general belief1 however1 has been and still is quite the contrary3 the most ancient realism is against us3 up to the present humanity has thought1 8,an action is what it appears to be40 7,in re-reading these words a very expressive passage from ,schopenhauer occurs to me1 and ,i will quote it as a proof that he1 too1 without the slightest scruple1 continued to adhere to this moral realism3 8,each one of us is in reality a competent and perfect moral judge1 knowing exactly good and evil1 made holy by loving good and despising evil1--such is every one of us in so far as the acts of others and not his own are under consideration1 and when he has merely to approve or disapprove1 whilst the burden of the performance of the acts is borne by other shoulders4 ,every one is therefore justified in occupying as confessor the place of ,god407 #aag4 ,,in ,,prison4--,my eye1 whether it be keen or weak1 can only see a certain distance1 and it is within this space that ,i live and move3 this horizon is my immediate fate1 greater or lesser1 from which ,i cannot escape4 ,thus1 a concentric circle is drawn round every being1 which has a centre and is peculiar to himself4 ,in the same way our ear encloses us in a small space1 and so likewise does our touch4 ,we measure the world by these horizons within which our senses confine each of us within prison walls4 ,we say that this is near and that is far distant1 that this is large and that is small1 that one thing is hard and another soft2 and this appreciation of things we call sensation--but it is all an error per se6 ,according to the number of events and emotions which it is on an average possible for us to experience in a given space of time1 we measure our lives2 we call them short or long1 rich or poor1 full or empty2 and according to the average of human life we estimate that of other beings1--and all this is an error per se6 ,if we had eyes a hundred times more piercing to examine the things that surround us1 men would seem to us to be enormously tall2 we can even imagine organs by means of which men would appear to us to be of immeasurable stature4 ,on the other hand1 certain organs could be so formed as to permit us to view entire solar systems as if they were contracted and brought close together like a single cell3 and to beings of an inverse order a single cell of the human body could be made to appear in its construction1 movement1 and harmony as if it were a solar system in itself4 ,the habits of our senses have wrapped us up in a tissue of lying sensations which in their turn lie at the base of all our judgments and our 8knowledge10--there are no means of exit or escape to the real world6 ,we are like spiders in our own webs1 and1 whatever we may catch in them1 it will only be something that our web is capable of catching4 #aah4 ,,what ,,is ,,our ,,neighbour8--,what do we conceive of our neighbour except his limits3 ,i mean that whereby he1 as it were1 engraves and stamps himself in and upon us8 ,we can understand nothing of him except the changes which take place upon our own person and of which he is the cause1 what we know of him is like a hollow1 modelled space4 ,we impute to him the feelings which his acts arouse in us1 and thus give him a wrong and inverted positivity4 ,we form him after our knowledge of ourselves into a satellite of our own system1 and if he shines upon us1 or grows dark1 and we in any case are the ultimate cause of his doing so1 we nevertheless still believe the contrary6 ,o world of phantoms in which we live6 ,o world so perverted1 topsy-turvy and empty1 and yet dreamt of as full and upright6 #aai4 ,,experience ,,and ,,invention4--,to however high a degree a man can attain to knowledge of himself1 nothing can be more incomplete than the conception which he forms of the instincts constituting his individuality4 ,he can scarcely name the more common instincts3 their number and force1 their flux and reflux1 their action and counteraction1 and1 above all1 the laws of their nutrition1 remain absolutely unknown to him4 ,this nutrition1 therefore1 becomes a work of chance3 the daily experiences of our lives throw their prey now to this instinct and now to that1 and the instincts gradually seize upon it2 but the ebb and flow of these experiences does not stand in any rational relationship to the nutritive needs of the total number of the instincts4 ,two things1 then1 must always happen3 some cravings will be neglected and starved to death1 while others will be overfed4 ,every moment in the life of man causes some polypous arms of his being to grow and others to wither away1 in accordance with the nutriment which that moment may or may not bring with it4 ,our experiences1 as ,i have already said1 are all in this sense means of nutriment1 but scattered about with a careless hand and without discrimination between the hungry and the overfed4 ,as a consequence of this accidental nutrition of each particular part1 the polypus in its complete development will be something just as fortuitous as its growth4 ,to put this more clearly3 let us suppose that an instinct or craving has reached that point when it demands gratification1--either the exercise of its power or the discharge of it1 or the filling up of a vacuum 7all this is metaphorical language71--then it will examine every event that occurs in the course of the day to ascertain how it can be utilised with the object of fulfilling its aim3 whether the man runs or rests1 or is angry1 or reads or speaks or fights or rejoices1 the unsatiated instinct watches1 as it were1 every condition into which the man enters1 and1 as a rule1 if it finds nothing for itself it must wait1 still unsatisfied4 ,after a little while it becomes feeble1 and at the end of a few days or a few months1 if it has not been satisfied1 it will wither away like a plant which has not been watered4 ,this cruelty of chance would perhaps be more conspicuous if all the cravings were as vehement in their demands as hunger1 which refuses to be satisfied with imaginary dishes2 but the great majority of our instincts1 especially those which are called moral1 are thus easily satisfied1--if it be permitted to suppose that our dreams serve as compensation to a certain extent for the accidental absence of 8nutriment0 during the day4 ,why was last night's dream full of tenderness and tears1 that of the night before amusing and gay1 and the previous one adventurous and engaged in some continual obscure search8 ,how does it come about that in this dream ,i enjoy indescribable beauties of music1 and in that one ,i soar and fly upwards with the delight of an eagle to the most distant heights8 ,these inventions in which our instincts of tenderness1 merriment1 or adventurousness1 or our desire for music and mountains1 can have free play and scope--and every one can recall striking instances--are interpretations of our nervous irritations during sleep1 very free and arbitrary interpretations of the movements of our blood and intestines1 and the pressure of our arm and the bed coverings1 or the sound of a church bell1 the weathercocks1 the moths1 and so on4 ,that this text1 which on the whole is very much the same for one night as another1 is so differently commented upon1 that our creative reason imagines such different causes for the nervous irritations of one day as compared with another1 may be explained by the fact that the prompter of this reason was different to-day from yesterday--another instinct or craving wished to be satisfied1 to show itself1 to exercise itself and be refreshed and discharged3 this particular one being at its height to-day and another one being at its height last night4 ,real life has not the freedom of interpretation possessed by dream life2 it is less poetic and less unrestrained--but is it necessary for me to show that our instincts1 when we are awake1 likewise merely interpret our nervous irritations and determine their 8causes0 in accordance with their requirements8 that there is no really essential difference between waking and dreaming6 that even in comparing different degrees of culture1 the freedom of the conscious interpretation of the one is not in any way inferior to the freedom in dreams of the other6 that our moral judgments and valuations are only images and fantasies concerning physiological processes unknown to us1 a kind of habitual language to describe certain nervous irritations8 that all our so-called consciousness is a more or less fantastic commentary of an unknown text1 one which is perhaps unknowable but yet felt8 ,consider some insignificant occurrence4 ,let us suppose that some day as we pass along a public street we see some one laughing at us4 ,in accordance with whatever craving has reached its culminating point within us at that moment1 this incident will have this or that signification for us2 and it will be a very different occurrence in accordance with the class of men to which we belong4 ,one man will take it like a drop of rain1 another will shake it off like a fly1 a third person will try to pick a quarrel on account of it1 a fourth will examine his garments to see if there is anything about them likely to cause laughter1 and a fifth will in consequence think about what is ridiculous per se1 a sixth will be pleased at having involuntarily contributed to add a ray of sunshine and mirth to the world1--in all these cases some craving is gratified1 whether anger1 combativeness1 meditation1 or benevolence4 ,this instinct1 whatever it may be1 has seized upon that incident as its prey3 why that particular one8 ,because1 hungry and thirsty1 it was lying in ambush4 ,not long ago at #aa o'clock in the morning a man suddenly collapsed and fell down in front of me as if struck by lightning4 ,all the women who were near at once gave utterance to cries of horror1 while ,i set the man on his feet again and waited until he recovered his speech4 ,during this time no muscle of my face moved and ,i experienced no sensation of fear or pity2 ,i simply did what was most urgent and reasonable and calmly proceeded on my way4 ,supposing some one had told me on the previous evening that at #aa o'clock on the following day a man would fall down in front of me like this1 ,i should have suffered all kinds of agonies in the interval1 lying awake all night1 and at the decisive moment should also perhaps have fallen down like the man instead of helping him2 for in the meantime all the imaginable cravings within me would have had leisure to conceive and to comment upon this incident4 ,what are our experiences1 then8 ,much more what we attribute to them than what they really are4 ,or should we perhaps say that nothing is contained in them8 that experiences in themselves are merely works of fancy8 #abj4 ,,to ,,tranquillise ,,the ,,sceptic4--8,i don't know at all what ,i am doing4 ,i don't know in the least what ,i ought to do60--,you are right1 but be sure of this3 you are being done at every moment6 ,mankind has at all times mistaken the active for the passive3 it is its eternal grammatical blunder4 #aba4 ,,cause ,,and ,,effect4--,on this mirror--and our intellect is a mirror--something is going on that indicates regularity3 a certain thing is each time followed by another certain thing4 ,when we perceive this and wish to give it a name1 we call it cause and effect1--fools that we are6 as if in this we had understood or could understand anything6 ,for1 of course1 we have seen nothing but the images of causes and effects1 and it is just this figurativeness which renders it impossible for us to see a more substantial relation than that of sequence6 #abb4 ,,the ,,purposes ,,in ,,nature4--,any impartial investigator who examines the history of the eye and its form in the lower creatures1 and sees how the visual organ was slowly developed1 cannot help recognising that sight was not the first purpose of the eye1 but probably only asserted itself when pure hazard had contributed to bring together the apparatus4 ,one single example of this kind1 and the 8final purposes0 fall from our eyes like scales4 #abc4 ,,reason4--,how did reason come into the world8 ,as is only proper1 in an irrational manner2 by accident4 ,we shall have to guess at this accident as a riddle4 #abd4 ,,what ,,is ,,volition8--,we laugh at a man who1 stepping out of his room at the very minute when the sun is rising1 says1 8,it is my will that the sun shall rise02 or at him who1 unable to stop a wheel1 says1 8,i wish it to roll02 or1 again1 at him who1 thrown in a wrestling match1 says1 8,here ,i lie1 but here ,i wish to lie40 ,but1 joking apart1 do we not act like one of these three persons whenever we use the expression 8,i wish08 #abe4 ,,on ,,the ,,domain ,,of ,,freedom4--,we can think many more things than we can do and experience--i4e4 our faculty of thinking is superficial and is satisfied with what lies on the surface1 it does not even perceive this surface4 ,if our intellect were strictly developed in proportion to our power1 and our exercise of this power1 the primary principle of our thinking would be that we can understand only that which we are able to do--if1 indeed1 there is any understanding at all4 ,the thirsty man is without water1 but the creations of his imagination continually bring the image of water to his sight1 as if nothing could be more easily procured4 ,the superficial and easily satisfied character of the intellect cannot understand real need1 and thus feels itself superior4 ,it is proud of being able to do more1 to run faster1 and to reach the goal almost within the twinkling of an eye3 and in this way the domain of thought1 when contrasted with the domain of action1 volition1 and experience1 appears to be the domain of liberty1 while1 as ,i have already stated1 it is nothing but the domain of superficiality and self-sufficiency4 #abf4 ,,forgetfulness4--,it has never yet been proved that there is such a thing as forgetfulness3 all that we know is that we have no power over recollection4 ,in the meantime we have filled up this gap in our power with the word 8forgetfulness10 exactly as if it were another faculty added to our list4 ,but1 after all1 what is within our power8 ,if that word fills up a gap in our power1 might not the other words be found capable of filling up a gap in the knowledge which we possess of our power8 #abg4 ,,for ,a ,,definite ,,purpose4--,of all human actions probably the least understood are those which are carried out for a definite purpose1 because they have always been regarded as the most intelligible and commonplace to our intellect4 ,the great problems can be picked up in the highways and byways4 #abh4 ,,dreaming ,,and ,,responsibility4--,you would wish to be responsible for everything except your dreams6 ,what miserable weakness1 what lack of logical courage6 ,nothing contains more of your own work than your dreams6 ,nothing belongs to you so much6 ,substance1 form1 duration1 actor1 spectator--in these comedies you act as your complete selves6 ,and yet it is just here that you are afraid and ashamed of yourselves1 and even ,oedipus1 the wise ,oedipus1 derived consolation from the thought that we cannot be blamed for what we dream4 ,from this ,i must conclude that the great majority of men must have some dreadful dreams to reproach themselves with4 ,if it were otherwise1 to how great an extent would these nocturnal fictions have been exploited in the interests of man's pride6 ,need ,i add that the wise ,oedipus was right1 that we are really not responsible for our dreams any more than for our waking hours1 and that the doctrine of free will has as its parents man's pride and sense of power6 ,perhaps ,i say this too often2 but that does not prove that it is not true4 #abi4 ,,the ,,alleged ,,combat ,,of ,,motives4--,people speak of the 8combat of motives10 but they designate by this expression that which is not a combat of motives at all4 ,what ,i mean is that1 in our meditative consciousness1 the consequences of different actions which we think we are able to carry out present themselves successively1 one after the other1 and we compare these consequences in our mind4 ,we think we have come to a decision concerning an action after we have established to our own satisfaction that the consequences of this action will be favourable4 ,before we arrive at this conclusion1 however1 we often seriously worry because of the great difficulties we experience in guessing what the consequences are likely to be1 and in seeing them in their full importance1 without exception--and1 after all this1 we must reckon up any fortuitous elements that are likely to arise4 ,then comes the chief difficulty3 all the consequences which we have with such difficulty determined one by one must be weighed on some scales against each other2 and it only too often comes about that1 owing to the difference in the quality of all the conceivable consequences1 both scales and weights are lacking for this casuistry of advantage4 ,even supposing1 however1 that in this case we are able to overcome the difficulty1 and that mere hazard has placed in our scales results which permit of a mutual balance1 we have now1 in the idea of the consequences of a particular action1 a motive for performing this very action1 but only one motive6 ,when we have finally decided to act1 however1 we are fairly often influenced by another order of motives than those of the 8image of the consequences40 ,what brings this about may be the habitual working of our inner machinery1 or some little encouragement on the part of a person whom we fear or honour or love1 or the love of comfort which prefers to do that which lies nearest2 or some stirring of the imagination provoked at the decisive moment by some event of trifling importance2 or some physical influence which manifests itself quite unexpectedly2 a mere whim brings it about2 or the outburst of a passion which1 as it accidentally happens1 is ready to burst forth--in a word1 motives operate which we do not understand very well1 or which we do not understand at all1 and which we can never balance against one another in advance4 ,it is probable that a contest is going on among these motives too1 a driving backwards and forwards1 a rising and lowering of the parts1 and it is this which would be the real 8contest of motives10 something quite invisible and unknown to us4 ,i have calculated the consequences and the successes1 and in doing so have set a very necessary motive in the line of combat with the other motives1--but ,i am as little able to draw up this battle line as to see it3 the battle itself is hidden from my sight1 as likewise is the victory1 as victory2 for ,i certainly come to know what ,i shall finally do1 but ,i cannot know what motive has in the end proved to be the victor4 ,nevertheless1 we are decidedly not in the habit of taking all these unconscious phenomena into account1 and we generally conceive of the preliminary stages of an action only so far as they are conscious3 thus we mistake the combat of the motives for a comparison of the possible consequences of different actions1--a mistake that brings with it most important consequences1 and consequences that are most fatal to the development of morals4 #acj4 ,,aims8 ,,will8--,we have accustomed ourselves to believe in two kingdoms1 the domain of purposes and volition1 and the domain of chance4 ,in this latter domain everything is done senselessly1 there is a continual going to and fro without any one being able to say why or wherefore4 ,we stand in awe of this powerful realm of the great cosmic stupidity1 for in most instances we learn to know it when it falls down upon the other world1 that of aims and intentions1 like a slate from a roof1 always overwhelming some beautiful purpose of ours4 ,this belief in these two kingdoms arises from ancient romanticism and legend3 we clever dwarfs1 with all our will and aims1 are interfered with1 knocked down1 and very often crushed to death by those ultra-stupid giants1 the accidents1--but in spite of this we should not like to be deprived of the fearful poetry of their proximity1 for these monsters very often make their appearance when life in the spider's web of definite aims has become too tiresome or too anxious for us1 and they sometimes bring about a divine diversion when their hands for once tear the whole web in pieces1--not that these irrational beings ever intend to do what they do1 or even observe it4 ,but their coarse and bony hands rend our web as if it were thin air4 ,moira was the name given by the ,greeks to this realm of the incalculable and of sublime and eternal limitedness2 and they set it round their gods like a horizon beyond which they could neither see nor act1--with that secret defiance of the gods which one meets with in different nations2 the gods are worshipped1 but a final trump card is held in readiness to play against them4 ,as instances of this we may recollect that the ,indians and the ,persians1 who conceived all their gods as having to depend upon the sacrifices of mortals1 so that if it came to the worst the mortals could1 at least1 let the gods die of starvation2 or the gods of the stubborn and melancholy ,scandinavians1 who enjoyed a quiet revenge in the thought that a twilight of the gods was to come as some compensation for the perpetual fear which their evil gods caused them4 ,the case of ,christianity was very different1 for its essential feelings were not those of the ,indians1 ,persians1 ,greeks1 or ,scandinavians4 ,christianity commanded its disciples to worship in the dust the spirit of power1 and to kiss the very dust4 ,it gave the world to understand that this omnipotent 8realm of stupidity0 was not so stupid as it seemed1 and that we1 on the contrary1 were stupid when we could not perceive that behind this realm stood ,god ,himself3 ,he who1 although fond of dark1 crooked and wonderful ways1 at last brought everything to a 8glorious end40 ,this new myth of ,god1 who had hitherto been mistaken for a race of giants or ,moira1 and who was now ,himself the spinner and weaver of webs and purposes even more subtle than those of our own intellect--so subtle1 indeed1 that they appear to be incomprehensible and even unreasonable--this myth was so bold a transformation and so daring a paradox that the over-refined ancient world could not resist it1 however extravagant and contradictory the thing seemed3 for1 let it be said in confidence1 there was a contradiction in it1--if our intellect cannot divine the intellect and aims of ,god1 how did it divine this quality of its intellect and this quality of ,god's intellect8 ,in more modern times1 indeed1 the doubt has increased as to whether the slate that falls from the roof is really thrown by 8,divine love10 and mankind again harks back to the old romance of giants and dwarfs4 ,let us learn then1 for it is time we did so1 that even in our supposed separate domain of aims and reason the giants likewise rule4 ,and our aims and reason are not dwarfs1 but giants4 ,and our own webs are just as often and as clumsily rent by ourselves as by the slate4 ,and not everything is purpose that is called purpose1 and still less is everything will that is called will4 ,and if you come to the conclusion1 8,then there is only one domain1 that of stupidity and hazard80 it must be added that possibly there is only one domain1 possibly there is neither will nor aim1 and we may only have imagined these things4 ,those iron hands of necessity that shake the dice-box of chance continue their game indefinitely3 hence1 it must happen that certain throws perfectly resemble every degree of appropriateness and good sense4 ,it may be that our own voluntary acts and purposes are merely such throws1 and that we are too circumscribed and vain to conceive our extremely circumscribed state6 that we ourselves shake the dice-box with iron hands1 and do nothing in our most deliberate actions but play the game of necessity4 ,possibly6 ,to rise beyond this 8possibly0 we should indeed have been guests in the ,underworld1 playing at dice and betting with ,proserpine at the table of the goddess herself4 #aca4 ,,moral ,,fashions4--,how moral judgments as a whole have changed6 ,the greatest marvels of the morality of antiquity1 such as ,epictetus1 knew nothing of the glorification1 now so common1 of the spirit of sacrifice1 of living for others3 after the fashion of morality now prevailing we should really call them immoral2 for they fought with all their strength for their own ego and against all sympathy for others1 especially for the sufferings and moral imperfections of others4 ,perhaps they would reply to us by saying1 8,if you feel yourselves to be such dull and ugly people1 by all means think of others more than yourselves4 ,you will be quite right in doing so60 #acb4 ,,the ,,last ,,echoes ,,of ,,christianity ,,in ,,morals4--8,on n'est bon que par la piti3 il faut donc qu'il y ait quelque piti dans tous nos sentiments0--so says morality nowadays4 ,and how does this come about8 ,the fact that the man who performs social1 sympathetic1 disinterested1 and benevolent actions is now considered as the moral man3 this is perhaps the most general effect1 the most complete transformation1 that ,christianity has produced in ,europe2 perhaps in spite of itself1 and not by any means because this was part of its essential doctrine4 ,but this was the residuum of those ,christian feelings that prevailed at the time when the contrary and thoroughly selfish faith in the 8one thing needful10 the absolute importance of eternal and personal salvation1 together with the dogmas upon which this belief had rested1 were gradually receding1 and when the auxiliary beliefs in 8love0 and 8love of one's neighbour10 harmonising with the extraordinary practice of charity by the ,church1 were thereby coming to the front4 ,the more people gradually became separated from the dogmas1 the more did they seek some sort of justification for this separation in a cult of the love of humanity3 not to fall short in this respect of the ,christian ideal1 but to excel it if possible1 was the secret stimulus of all the ,french free-thinkers from ,voltaire to ,auguste ,comte2 and this latter with his famous moral formula 8vivre pour autrui0 has indeed out-christianised even ,christianity6 ,it was ,schopenhauer in ,germany and ,john ,stuart ,mill in ,england who were the means of bringing into the greatest prominence this doctrine of sympathetic affections and of pity or utility to others as a principle of action2 but these men themselves were only echoes4 ,from about the time of the ,french ,revolution these doctrines have manifested themselves in various places with enormous force4 ,since then they have shown themselves in their coarsest as well has their most subtle form1 and all ,socialistic principles have almost involuntarily taken their stand on the common ground of this doctrine4 ,at the present time there is perhaps no more widely spread prejudice than that of thinking that we know what really and truly constitutes morality4 ,every one now seems to learn with satisfaction that society is beginning to adapt the individual to the general needs1 and that it is at the same time the happiness and sacrifice of each one to consider himself as a useful member and instrument of the whole4 ,they have still1 however1 doubts as to the form in which this whole is to be looked for1 whether in a state already existing1 or in one which has yet to be established1 or in a nation1 or in an international brotherhood1 or in new and small economic communities4 ,on this point there is still much reflection1 doubt1 struggling1 excitement1 and passion2 but it is pleasant and wonderful to observe the unanimity with which the 8ego0 is called upon to practice self-denial1 until1 in the form of adaptation to the whole1 it once again secures its own fixed sphere of rights and duties1--until1 indeed1 it has become something quite new and different4 ,nothing else is being attempted1 whether admitted or not1 than the complete transformation1 even the weakening and suppression of the individual3 the supporters of the majority never tire of enumerating and anathematising all that is bad1 hostile1 lavish1 expensive1 and luxurious in the form of individual existence that has hitherto prevailed2 they hope that society may be administered in a cheaper1 less dangerous1 more uniform1 and more harmonious way when nothing is left but large corporations and their members4 ,all that is considered as good which in any way corresponds to this desire for grouping men into one particular society1 and to the minor cravings which necessarily accompany this desire1--this is the chief moral current of our time2 sympathy and social feelings are working hand in glove4 7,kant is still outside of this movement3 he expressly teaches that we should be insensible to the sufferings of others if our benevolence is to have any moral value1--a doctrine which ,schopenhauer1 very angrily1 as may easily be imagined1 described as the ,kantian absurdity47 #acc4 8,,no ,,longer ,,thinking ,,of ,,one',s ,,self40--,let us seriously consider why we should jump into the water to rescue some one who has just fallen in before our eyes1 although we may have no particular sympathy for him4 ,we do it for pity's sake2 no one thinks now but of his neighbour1--so says thoughtlessness4 ,why do we experience grief and uneasiness when we see some one spit blood1 although we may be really ill-disposed towards him and wish him no good8 ,out of pity2 we have ceased to think of ourselves1--so says thoughtlessness again4 ,the truth is that in our pity--,i mean by this what we erroneously call 8pity0--we no longer think consciously of ourselves1 but quite unconsciously1 exactly as when slipping we unconsciously make the best counter-motions possible in order to recover our balance1 and in doing so clearly use all our intelligence4 ,a mishap to another offends us2 it would bring our impotence1 or perhaps our cowardice1 into strong relief if we could do nothing to help him2 or in itself it would give rise to a diminution of our honour in the eyes of others and of ourselves4 ,or again1 accidents that happen to others act as finger-posts to point out our own danger1 and even as indications of human peril and frailty they can produce a painful effect upon us4 ,we shake off this kind of pain and offence1 and balance it by an act of pity behind which may be hidden a subtle form of self-defence or even revenge4 ,that at bottom we strongly think of ourselves may easily be divined from the decision that we arrive at in all cases where we can avoid the sight of those who are suffering or starving or wailing4 ,we make up our minds not to avoid such people when we can approach them as powerful and helpful ones1 when we can safely reckon upon their applause1 or wish to feel the contrast of our own happiness1 or1 again1 when we hope to get rid of our own boredom4 ,it is misleading to call the suffering that we experience at such a sight1 and which may be of a very different kind1 commiseration4 ,for in all cases it is a suffering from which the suffering person before us is free3 it is our own suffering1 just as his suffering is his own4 ,it is thus only this personal feeling of misery that we get rid of by acts of compassion4 ,nevertheless1 we never act thus from one single motive3 as it is certain that we wish to free ourselves from suffering thereby1 it is also certain that by the same action we yield to an impulse of pleasure4 ,pleasure arises at the sight of a contrast to our own condition1 at the knowledge that we should be able to help if only we wished to do so1 at the thought of the praise and gratitude which we should gain if we did help1 at the very act of helping1 in so far as this might prove successful 7and because something which is gradually seen to be successful gives pleasure to the doer72 but even more particularly at the feeling that our intervention brings to an end some deplorable injustice1--even the outburst of one's indignation is invigorating4 ,all this1 including even things still more subtle1 comprises 8pity40 ,how clumsily with this one word does language fall foul of such a complex and polyphonous organism6 ,that pity1 on the other hand1 is identical with the suffering the sight of which brings it about1 or that it has a particularly subtle and penetrating comprehension of it3 this is in contradiction to experience1 and he who has glorified pity under these two heads lacked sufficient experience in the domain of morals4 ,that is why ,i am seized with some doubts when reading of the incredible things attributed by ,schopenhauer to pity4 ,it is obvious that he thereby wished to make us believe in the great novelty he brought forward1 viz41 that pity--the pity which he observed so superficially and described so badly--was the source of all and every past and future moral action1--and all this precisely because of those faculties which he had begun by attributing to it4 ,what is it in the end that distinguishes men without pity from men who are really compassionate8 ,in particular1 to give merely an approximate indication1 they have not the sensitive feeling for fear1 the subtle faculty for perceiving danger3 nor yet is their vanity so easily wounded if something happens which they might have been able to prevent1--the caution of their pride commands them not to interfere uselessly with the affairs of others2 they even act on the belief that every one should help himself and play his own cards4 ,again1 in most cases they are more habituated to bearing pain than compassionate men1 and it does not seem at all unjust to them that others should suffer1 since they themselves have suffered4 ,lastly1 the state of soft-heartedness is as painful to them as is the state of stoical impassability to compassionate men3 they have only disdainful words for sensitive hearts1 as they think that such a state of feeling is dangerous to their own manliness and calm bravery1--they conceal their tears from others and wipe them off1 angry with themselves4 ,they belong to a different type of egoists from the compassionate men1--but to call them1 in a distinct sense1 evil and the compassionate ones good1 is merely a moral fashion which has had its innings1 just as the reverse fashion had also its innings1 and a long innings1 too4 #acd4 ,,to ,,what ,,extent ,,we ,,must ,,beware ,,of ,,pity4--,pity1 in so far as it actually gives rise to suffering--and this must be our only point of view here--is a weakness1 like every other indulgence in an injurious emotion4 ,it increases suffering throughout the world1 and although here and there a certain amount of suffering may be indirectly diminished or removed altogether as a consequence of pity1 we must not bring forward these occasional consequences1 which are on the whole insignificant1 to justify the nature of pity which1 as has already been stated1 is prejudicial4 ,supposing that it prevailed1 even if only for one day1 it would bring humanity to utter ruin4 ,in itself the nature of pity is no better than that of any other craving2 it is only where it is called for and praised--and this happens when people do not understand what is injurious in it1 but find in it a sort of joy--that a good conscience becomes attached to it2 it is only then that we willingly yield to it1 and do not shrink from acknowledging it4 ,in other circumstances where it is understood to be dangerous1 it is looked upon as a weakness2 or1 as in the case of the ,greeks1 as an unhealthy periodical emotion the danger of which might be removed by temporary and voluntary discharges4 ,if a man were to undertake the experiment of deliberately devoting his attention to the opportunities afforded by practical life for the exercise of pity1 and were over and over again to picture in his own mind the misery he might meet with in his immediate surroundings1 he would inevitably become melancholy and ill4 ,if1 however1 he wished in any sense of the word to serve humanity as a physician1 he would have to take many precautions with respect to this feeling1 as otherwise it would paralyse him at all critical moments1 undermine the foundations of his knowledge1 and unnerve his helpful and delicate hand4 #ace4 ,,arousing ,,pity4--,among savages men think with a moral shudder of the possibility of becoming an object of pity1 for such a state they regard as deprived of all virtue4 ,pitying is equivalent to despising3 they do not want to see a contemptible being suffer1 for this would afford them no enjoyment4 ,on the other hand1 to behold one of their enemies suffering1 some one whom they look upon as their equal in pride1 but whom torture cannot induce to give up his pride1 and in general to see some one suffer who refuses to lower himself by appealing for pity--which would in their eyes be the most profound and shameful humiliation--this is the very joy of joys4 ,such a spectacle excites the deepest admiration in the soul of the savage1 and he ends by killing such a brave man when it is in his power1 afterwards according funeral honours to the unbending one4 ,if he had groaned1 however2 if his countenance had lost its expression of calm disdain2 if he had shown himself to be contemptible1--well1 in such a case he might have been allowed to live like a dog3 he would no longer have aroused the pride of the spectator1 and pity would have taken the place of admiration4 #acf4 ,,happiness ,,in ,,pity4--,if1 as is the case among the ,hindus1 we decree the end and aim of all intellectual activity to be the knowledge of human misery1 and if for generation after generation this dreadful resolution be steadily adhered to1 pity in the eyes of such men of hereditary pessimism comes to have a new value as a preserver of life1 something that helps to make existence endurable1 although it may seem worthy of being rejected with horror and disgust4 ,pity becomes an antidote to suicide1 a sentiment which brings pleasure with it and enables us to taste superiority in small doses4 ,it gives some diversion to our minds1 makes our hearts full1 banishes fear and lethargy1 and incites us to speak1 to complain1 or to act3 it is a relative happiness when compared with the misery of the knowledge that hampers the individual on every side1 bewilders him1 and takes away his breath4 ,happiness1 however1 no matter of what nature it may be1 gives us air and light and freedom of movement4 #acg4 ,,why ,,double ,,the 8,,ego08--,to view our own experiences in the same light as we are in the habit of looking at those of others is very comforting and an advisable medicine4 ,on the other hand1 to look upon the experiences of others and adopt them as if they were our own--which is called for by the philosophy of pity--would ruin us in a very short time3 let us only make the experiment without trying to imagine it any longer6 ,the first maxim is1 in addition1 undoubtedly more in accordance with reason and goodwill towards reason2 for we estimate more objectively the value and significance of an event when it happens to others1--the value1 for instance1 of a death1 loss of money or slander4 ,but pity1 taking as its principle of action the injunction1 8,suffer the misfortune of another as much as he himself10 would lead the point of view of the ego with all its exaggerations and deviations to become the point of view of the other person1 the sympathiser3 so that we should have to suffer at the same time from our own ego and the other's ego4 ,in this way we would voluntarily overload ourselves with a double irrationality1 instead of making the burden of our own as light as possible4 #ach4 ,,becoming ,,more ,,tender4--,whenever we love some one and venerate and admire him1 and afterwards come to perceive that he is suffering--which always causes us the utmost astonishment1 since we cannot but feel that the happiness we derive from him must flow from a superabundant source of personal happiness--our feelings of love1 veneration1 and admiration are essentially changed3 they become more tender2 that is1 the gap that separates us seems to be bridged over and there appears to be an approach to equality4 ,it now seems possible to give him something in return1 whilst we had previously imagined him as being altogether above our gratitude4 ,our ability to requite him for what we have received from him arouses in us feelings of much joy and pleasure4 ,we endeavour to ascertain what can best calm the grief of our friend1 and we give it to him2 if he wishes for kind words1 looks1 attentions1 services1 or presents1 we give them2 but1 above all1 if he would like to see us suffering from the sight of his suffering1 we pretend to suffer1 for all this secures for us the enjoyment of active gratitude1 which is equivalent in a way to good-natured revenge4 ,if he wants none of these things1 and refuses to accept them from us1 we depart from him chilled and sad1 almost mortified2 it appears to us as if our gratitude had been declined1 and on this point of honour even the best of men is still somewhat touchy4 ,it results from all this that even in the best case there is something humiliating in suffering1 and something elevating and superior in sympathy1--a fact which will keep the two feelings apart for ever and ever4 #aci4 ,,higher ,,in ,,name ,,only4--,you say that the morality of pity is a higher morality than that of stoicism8 ,prove it6 ,but take care not to measure the 8higher0 and 8lower0 degrees of morality once more by moral yardsticks2 for there are no absolute morals4 ,so take your yardstick from somewhere else1 and be on your guard6 #adj4 ,,praise ,,and ,,blame4--,when a war has come to an unsuccessful conclusion we try to find the man who is to blame for the war2 when it comes to a successful conclusion we praise the man who is responsible for it4 ,in all unsuccessful cases attempts are made to blame somebody1 for non-success gives rise to dejection1 against which the single possible remedy is involuntarily applied2 a new incitement of the sense of power2 and this incitement is found in the condemnation of the 8guilty0 one4 ,this guilty one is not perhaps the scapegoat of the faults of others2 he is merely the victim of the feeble1 humiliated1 and depressed people who wish to prove upon some one that they have not yet lost all their power4 ,even self-condemnation after a defeat may be the means of restoring the feeling of power4 ,on the other hand1 glorification of the originator is often but an equally blind result of another instinct that demands its victim1--and in this case the sacrifice appears to be sweet and attractive even for the victim4 ,this happens when the feeling of power is satiated in a nation or a society by so great and fascinating a success that a weariness of victory supervenes and pride wishes to be discharged3 a feeling of self-sacrifice is aroused and looks for its object4 ,thus1 whether we are blamed or praised we merely1 as a rule1 provide opportunities for the gratification of others1 and are only too often caught up and whirled away for our neighbours to discharge upon us their accumulated feelings of praise or blame4 ,in both cases we confer a benefit upon them for which we deserve no credit and they no thanks4 #ada4 ,,more ,,beautiful ,,but ,,less ,,valuable4--,picturesque morality3 such is the morality of those passions characterised by sudden outbursts1 abrupt transitions2 pathetic1 impressive1 dreadful1 and solemn attitudes and gestures4 ,it is the semi-savage stage of morality3 never let us be tempted to set it on a higher plane merely on account of its sthetic charms4 #adb4 ,,sympathy4--,in order to understand our neighbour1 that is1 in order to reproduce his sentiments in ourselves1 we often1 no doubt1 plumb the cause of his feelings1 as1 for example1 by asking ourselves1 ,why is he sad8 in order that we may become sad ourselves for the same reason4 ,but we much more frequently neglect to act thus1 and we produce these feelings in ourselves in accordance with the effects which they exhibit in the person we are studying1--by imitating in our own body the expression of his eyes1 his voice1 his gait1 his attitude 7or1 at any rate1 the likeness of these things in words1 pictures1 and music71 or we may at least endeavour to mimic the action of his muscles and nervous system4 ,a like feeling will then spring up in us as the result of an old association of movements and sentiments which has been trained to run backwards and forwards4 ,we have developed to a very high pitch this knack of sounding the feelings of others1 and when we are in the presence of any one else we bring this faculty of ours into play almost involuntarily1--let the inquirer observe the animation of a woman's countenance and notice how it vibrates and quivers with animation as the result of the continual imitation and reflection of what is going on around her4 ,it is music1 however1 more than anything else that shows us what past-masters we are in the rapid and subtle divination of feelings and sympathy2 for even if music is only the imitation of an imitation of feelings1 nevertheless1 despite its distance and vagueness1 it often enables us to participate in those feelings1 so that we become sad without any reason for feeling so1 like the fools that we are1 merely because we hear certain sounds and rhythms that somehow or other remind us of the intonation and the movements1 or perhaps even only of the behaviour1 of sorrowful people4 ,it is related of a certain ,danish king that he was wrought up to such a pitch of warlike enthusiasm by the song of a minstrel that he sprang to his feet and killed five persons of his assembled court3 there was neither war nor enemy2 there was rather the exact opposite2 yet the power of the retrospective inference from a feeling to the cause of it was sufficiently strong in this king to overpower both his observation and his reason4 ,such1 however1 is almost invariably the effect of music 7provided that it thrills us71 and we have no need of such paradoxical instances to recognise this1--the state of feeling into which music transports us is almost always in contradiction to the appearance of our actual state1 and of our reasoning power which recognises this actual state and its causes4 ,if we inquire how it happened that this imitation of the feelings of others has become so common1 there will be no doubt as to the answer3 man being the most timid of all beings because of his subtle and delicate nature has been made familiar through his timidity with this sympathy for1 and rapid comprehension of1 the feelings of others1 even of animals4 ,for century after century he saw danger in everything that was unfamiliar to him1 in anything that happened to be alive1 and whenever the spectacle of such things and creatures came before his eyes he imitated their features and attitude1 drawing at the same time his own conclusion as to the nature of the evil intentions they concealed4 ,this interpretation of all movements and all facial characteristics in the sense of intentions1 man has even brought to bear on things inanimate1--urged on as he was by the illusion that there was nothing inanimate4 ,i believe that this is the origin of everything that we now call a feeling for nature1 that sensation of joy which men experience at the sight of the sky1 the fields1 the rocks1 the forests1 the storms1 the stars1 the landscapes1 and spring3 without our old habits of fear which forced us to suspect behind everything a kind of second and more recondite sense1 we should now experience no delight in nature1 in the same way as men and animals do not cause us to rejoice if we have not first been deterred by that source of all understanding1 namely1 fear4 ,for joy and agreeable surprise1 and finally the feeling of ridicule1 are the younger children of sympathy1 and the much younger brothers and sisters of fear4 ,the faculty of rapid perception1 which is based on the faculty of rapid dissimulation1 decreases in proud and autocratic men and nations1 as they are less timid2 but1 on the other hand1 every category of understanding and dissimulation is well known to timid peoples1 and among them is to be found the real home of imitative arts and superior intelligence4 ,when1 proceeding from the theory of sympathy such as ,i have just outlined1 ,i turn my attention to the theory1 now so popular and almost sacrosanct1 of a mystical process by means of which pity blends two beings into one1 and thus permits them immediately to understand one another1 when ,i recollect that even so clear a brain as ,schopenhauer's delighted in such fantastic nonsense1 and that he in his turn transplanted this delight into other lucid and semi-lucid brains1 ,i feel unlimited astonishment and compassion4 ,how great must be the pleasure we experience in this senseless tomfoolery6 ,how near must even a sane man be to insanity as soon as he listens to his own secret intellectual desires6--,why did ,schopenhauer really feel so grateful1 so profoundly indebted to ,kant8 ,he revealed on one occasion the undoubted answer to this question4 ,some one had spoken of the way in which the qualitias occulta of ,kant's ,categorical ,imperative might be got rid of1 so that the theory itself might be rendered intelligible4 ,whereupon ,schopenhauer gave utterance to the following outburst3 8,an intelligible ,categorical ,imperative6 ,preposterous idea6 ,stygian darkness6 ,god forbid that it should ever become intelligible6 ,the fact that there is actually something unintelligible1 that this misery of the understanding and its conceptions is limited1 conditional1 final1 and deceptive1--this is beyond question ,kant's great gift40 ,let any one consider whether a man can be in possession of a desire to gain an insight into moral things when he feels himself comforted from the start by a belief in the inconceivableness of these things6 one who still honestly believes in illuminations from above1 in magic1 in ghostly appearances1 and in the metaphysical ugliness of the toad6 #adc4 ,,woe ,,to ,,us ,,if ,,this ,,impulse ,,should ,,rage6--,supposing that the impulse towards devotion and care for others 78sympathetic affection07 were doubly as strong as it now is1 life on earth could not be endured4 ,let it only be considered how many foolish things every one of us does day by day and hour by hour1 merely out of solicitude and devotion for himself1 and how unbearable he seems in doing so3 and what then would it be like if we were to become for other people the object of the stupidities and importunities with which up to the present they have only tormented themselves6 ,should we not then take precipitately to our heels as soon as one of our neighbours came towards us8 ,and would it not be necessary to overwhelm this sympathetic affection with the abuse that we now reserve for egoism8 #add4 ,,closing ,,our ,,ears ,,to ,,the ,,complaints ,,of ,,others4--,when we let our sky be clouded by the complaints and suffering of other mortals1 who must bear the consequences of such gloom8 ,no doubt those other mortals1 in addition to all their other burdens6 ,if we are merely to be the echoes of their complaints1 we cannot accord them either help or comfort2 nor can we do so if we were continually keeping our ears open to listen to them1--unless we have learnt the art of the ,olympians1 who1 instead of trying to make themselves unhappy1 endeavoured to feel edified by the misfortunes of mankind4 ,but this is something too ,olympian for us1 although1 in our enjoyment of tragedy1 we have already taken a step towards this ideal divine cannibalism4 #ade4 8,,unegoistic40--,this man is empty and wishes to be filled1 that one is over-full and wishes to be emptied3 both of them feel themselves urged on to look for an individual who can help them4 ,and this phenomenon1 interpreted in a higher sense1 is in both cases known by the same name1 8love40 ,well8 and could this love be something unegoistic8 #adf4 ,,looking ,,beyond ,,our ,,neighbour4--,what8 ,ought the nature of true morality to consist for us in fixing our eyes upon the most direct and immediate consequences of our action for other people1 and in our coming to a decision accordingly8 ,this is only a narrow and bourgeois morality1 even though it may be a morality3 but it seems to me that it would be more superior and liberal to look beyond these immediate consequences for our neighbour in order to encourage more distant purposes1 even at the risk of making others suffer1--as1 for example1 by encouraging the spirit of knowledge in spite of the certainty that our free-thought will have the instant effect of plunging others into doubt1 grief1 and even worse afflictions4 ,have we not at least the right to treat our neighbour as we treat ourselves8 ,and if1 where we are concerned1 we do not think in such a narrow and bourgeois fashion of immediate consequences and sufferings1 why should we be compelled to act thus in regard to our neighbour8 ,supposing that we felt ready to sacrifice ourselves1 what is there to prevent us from sacrificing our neighbour together with ourselves1--just as ,states and ,sovereigns have hitherto sacrificed one citizen to the others1 8for the sake of the general interest10 as they say8 ,we too1 however1 have general interests1 perhaps even more general than theirs3 so why may we not sacrifice a few individuals of this generation for the benefit of generations to come8 so that their affliction1 anxiety1 despair1 blunders1 and misery may be deemed essential because a new plough is to break up the ground and render it fertile for all4 ,finally1 we communicate the disposition to our neighbour by which he is enabled to feel himself a victim3 we persuade him to carry out the task for which we employ him4 ,are we then devoid of all pity8 ,if1 however1 we wish to achieve a victory over ourselves beyond our pity1 is not this a higher and more liberal attitude and disposition than that in which we only feel safe after having ascertained whether an action benefits or harms our neighbour8 ,on the contrary1 it is by means of such sacrifice--including the sacrifice of ourselves1 as well as of our neighbours--that we should strengthen and elevate the general sense of human power1 even supposing that we attain nothing more than this4 ,but even this itself would be a positive increase of happiness4 ,then1 if even this 444 but not a word more6 ,you have understood me at a glance4 #adg4 ,,the ,,cause ,,of 8,,altruism40--,men have on the whole spoken of love with so much emphasis and adoration because they have hitherto always had so little of it1 and have never yet been satiated with this food3 in this way it became their ambrosia4 ,if a poet wished to show universal benevolence in the image of a ,utopia1 he would certainly have to describe an agonising and ridiculous state of things1 the like of which was never seen on earth1--every one would be surrounded1 importuned1 and sighed for1 not as at present1 by one lover1 but by thousands1 by everybody indeed1 as the result of an irresistible craving which would then be as vehemently insulted and cursed as selfishness has been by men of past ages4 ,the poets of this new condition of things1 if they had sufficient leisure to write1 would be dreaming of nothing but the blissful and loveless past1 the divine selfishness of yore1 and the wonderful possibilities in former times of remaining alone1 not being run after by one's friends1 and of even being hated and despised--or any other odious expressions which the beautiful animal world in which we live chooses to coin4 #adh4 ,,looking ,,far ,,ahead4--,if1 in accordance with the present definition1 only those actions are moral which are done for the sake of others1 and for their sake only1 then there are no moral actions at all6 ,if1 in accordance with another definition1 only those actions are moral which spring from our own free will1 then there are no moral actions in this case either6 ,what is it1 then1 that we designate thus1 which certainly exists and wishes as a consequence to be explained8 ,it is the result of a few intellectual blunders2 and supposing that we were able to free ourselves from these errors1 what would then become of 8moral actions08 ,it is due to these errors that we have up to the present attributed to certain actions a value superior to what was theirs in reality3 we separated them from 8egoistic0 and 8non-free0 actions4 ,when we now set them once more in the latter categories1 as we must do1 we certainly reduce their value 7their own estimate of value7 even below its reasonable level1 because 8egoistic0 and 8non-free0 actions have up to the present been under-valued owing to that alleged profound and essential difference4 ,in future1 then1 will these very actions be less frequently performed1 since they will be less highly esteemed8 ,inevitably6 ,or at all events for a fairly long time1 as long as the scale of valuations remains under the reacting influence of former mistakes6 ,but we make some return for this by giving back to men their good courage for the carrying out of actions that are now reputed to be selfish1 and thus restore their value1--we relieve men's bad consciences6 and as up to the present egoistic actions have been by far the most frequent1 and will be so to all eternity1 we free the whole conception of these actions and of life from its evil appearance6 ,this is a very high and important result4 ,when men no longer believe themselves to be evil1 they cease to be so4 ,,book ,,iii4 #adi4 ,,little ,,unconventional ,,actions ,,are ,,necessary6--,to act occasionally in matters of custom against our own better judgments2 to yield in practice while reserving our own intellectual liberty2 to behave like everybody else and thus to show ourselves amiable and considerate to all1 to compensate them1 as it were1 even if only to some extent1 for our unconventional opinions--all this among many tolerably liberal-minded men is looked upon not only as permissible but even as 8honourable10 8humane10 8tolerant10 and 8unpedantic10 or whatever fine words may be used to lull to sleep the intellectual conscience4 ,so1 for example1 one man1 although he may be an atheist1 has his infant baptized in the usual ,christian fashion2 another goes through his period of military service1 though he may severely condemn all hatred between nations2 and a third runs into the ,church with a girl because she comes from a religious family1 and makes his vows to a priest without feeling ashamed of it4 8,it is of no importance if one of us does what every one else does and has done0--so says ignorant prejudice6 ,what a profound mistake6 ,for nothing is of greater importance than that a powerful1 long-established1 and irrational custom should be once again confirmed by the act of some one who is recognised as rational4 ,in this way the proceeding is thought to be sanctioned by reason itself6 ,all honour to your opinions6 but little unconventional actions are of still greater value4 #aej4 ,,the ,,hazard ,,of ,,marriages4--,if ,i were a god1 and a benevolent god1 the marriages of men would cause me more displeasure than anything else4 ,an individual can make very great progress within the seventy years of his life--yea1 even within thirty years3 such progress1 indeed1 as to surprise even the gods6 ,but when we then see him exposing the inheritance and legacy of his struggles and victories1 the laurel crown of his humanity1 on the first convenient peg where any female may pick it to pieces for him2 when we observe how well he can acquire and how little he is capable of preserving his acquisitions1 and how he does not even dream that by procreation he might prepare a still more victorious life1--we then1 indeed1 become impatient and say1 8,nothing can in the end result from humanity1 individuals are wasted1 for all rationality of a great advance of humanity is rendered impossible by the hazard of marriages3 let us cease from being the assiduous spectators and fools of this aimless drama60 ,it was in this mood that the gods of ,epicurus withdrew long ago to their divine seclusion and felicity3 they were tired of men and their love affairs4 #aea4 ,,here ,,are ,,new ,,ideals ,,to ,,invent4--,at a time when a man is in love he should not be allowed to come to a decision about his life and to determine once and for all the character of his society on account of a whim4 ,we ought publicly to declare invalid the vows of lovers1 and to refuse them permission to marry3 and this because we should treat marriage itself much more seriously1 so that in cases where it is now contracted it would not usually be allowed in future6 ,are not the majority of marriages such that we should not care to have them witnessed by a third party8 ,and yet this third party is scarcely ever lacking--the child--and he is more than a witness2 he is the whipping-boy and scapegoat4 #aeb4 ,,formula ,,of ,,oath4--8,if ,i am now telling a lie ,i am no longer an honourable man1 and every one may say so to my face40 ,i recommend this formula in place of the present judicial oath and its customary invocation to the ,deity3 it is stronger4 ,there is no reason why even religious men should oppose it2 for as soon as the customary oath no longer serves1 all the religious people will have to turn to their catechism1 which says1 8,thou shalt not take the name of the ,lord thy ,god in vain40 #aec4 ,,the ,,malcontent4--,he is one of the brave old warriors3 angry with civilisation because he believes that its object is to make all good things--honour1 rewards1 and fair women--accessible even to cowards4 #aed4 ,,consolation ,,amid ,,perils4--,the ,greeks1 in the course of a life that was always surrounded by great dangers and cataclysms1 endeavoured to find in meditation and knowledge a kind of security of feeling1 a last refugium4 ,we1 who live in a much more secure state1 have introduced danger into meditation and knowledge1 and it is in life itself that we endeavour to find repose1 a refuge from danger4 #aee4 ,,extinct ,,scepticism4--,hazardous enterprises are rarer in modern times than in antiquity and in the ,middle ,ages1 probably because modern times have no more belief in omens1 oracles1 stars1 and soothsayers4 ,in other words1 we have become incapable of believing in a future which is reserved for us1 as the ancients did1 who--in contradistinction to ourselves--were much less sceptical regarding that which is to be than that which is4 #aef4 ,,evil ,,through ,,exuberance4--8,oh1 that we should not feel too happy60--such was the secret fear of the ,greeks in their best age4 ,that is why they preached moderation to themselves4 ,and we8 #aeg4 ,,the ,,worship ,,of ,,natural ,,sounds4--,what signification can we find in the fact that our culture is not only indulgent to the manifestations of grief1 such as tears1 complaints1 reproaches1 and attitudes of rage and humility1 but even approves them and reckons them among the most noble and essential things8--while1 on the other hand1 the spirit of ancient philosophy looked down upon them with contempt1 without admitting their necessity in any way4 ,let us remember how ,plato--who was by no means one of the most inhuman of the philosophers--speaks of the ,philoctetus of the tragic stage4 ,is it possible that our modern culture is wanting in 8philosophy08 or1 in accordance with the valuations of those old philosophers1 do we perhaps all form part of the 8mob08 #aeh4 ,,the ,,climate ,,for ,,flattery4--,in our day flatterers should no longer be sought at the courts of kings1 since these have all acquired a taste for militarism1 which cannot tolerate flattery4 ,but this flower even now often grows in abundance in the neighbourhood of bankers and artists4 #aei4 ,,the ,,revivers4--,vain men value a fragment of the past more highly from the moment when they are able to revive it in their imagination 7especially if it is difficult to do so71 they would even like if possible to raise it from the dead4 ,since1 however1 the number of vain people is always very large1 the danger presented by historical studies1 if an entire epoch devotes its attention to them1 is by no means small3 too great an amount of strength is then wasted on all sorts of imaginable resurrections4 ,the entire movement of romanticism is perhaps best understood from this point of view4 #afj4 ,,vain1 ,,greedy1 ,,and ,,not ,,very ,,wise4--,your desires are greater than your understanding1 and your vanity is even greater than your desires1--to people of your type a great deal of ,christian practice and a little ,schopenhauerian theory may be strongly recommended4 #afa4 ,,beauty ,,corresponding ,,to ,,the ,,age4--,if our sculptors1 painters1 and musicians wish to catch the significance of the age1 they should represent beauty as bloated1 gigantic1 and nervous3 just as the ,greeks1 under the influence of their morality of moderation1 saw and represented beauty in the ,apollo di ,belvedere4 ,we should1 indeed1 call him ugly6 ,but the pedantic 8classicists0 have deprived us of all our honesty6 #afb4 ,,the ,,irony ,,of ,,the ,,present ,,time4--,at the present day it is the habit of ,europeans to treat all matters of great importance with irony1 because1 as the result of our activity in their service1 we have no time to take them seriously4 #afc4 ,,against ,,rousseau4--,if it is true that there is something contemptible about our civilisation1 we have two alternatives3 of concluding with ,rousseau that1 8,this despicable civilisation is to blame for our bad morality10 or to infer1 contrary to ,rousseau's view1 that 8,our good morality is to blame for this contemptible civilisation4 ,our social conceptions of good and evil1 weak and effeminate as they are1 and their enormous influence over both body and soul1 have had the effect of weakening all bodies and souls and of crushing all unprejudiced1 independent1 and self-reliant men1 the real pillars of a strong civilisation3 wherever we still find the evil morality to-day1 we see the last crumbling ruins of these pillars40 ,thus let paradox be opposed by paradox6 ,it is quite impossible for the truth to lie with both sides3 and can we say1 indeed1 that it lies with either8 ,decide for yourself4 #afd4 ,,perhaps ,,premature4--,it would seem at the present time that1 under many different and misleading names1 and often with a great want of clearness1 those who do not feel themselves attached to morals and to established laws are taking the first initial steps to organise themselves1 and thus to create a right for themselves2 whilst hitherto1 as criminals1 free-thinkers1 immoral men and miscreants1 they have lived beyond the pale of the law1 under the bane of outlawry and bad conscience1 corrupted and corrupting4 ,on the whole1 we should consider this as right and proper1 although it may result in insecurity for the coming century and compel every one to bear arms4--,there is thereby a counterforce which continually reminds us that there is no exclusively moral-making morality1 and that a morality which asserts itself to the exclusion of all other morality destroys too much sound strength and is too dearly bought by mankind4 ,the non-conventional and deviating people1 who are so often productive and inventive1 must no longer be sacrificed3 it must never again be considered as a disgrace to depart from morality either in actions or thought2 many new experiments must be made upon life and society1 and the world must be relieved from a huge weight of bad conscience4 ,these general aims must be recognised and encouraged by all those upright people who are seeking truth4 #afe4 ,a ,,morality ,,which ,,does ,,not ,,bore ,,one4--,the principal moral commandments which a nation permits its teachers to emphasise again and again stand in relation to its chief defects1 and that is why it does not find them tiresome4 ,the ,greeks1 who so often failed to employ moderation1 coolness1 fair-mindedness1 and rationality in general1 turned a willing ear to the four ,socratic virtues1--they stood in such need of them1 and yet had so little talent for them6 #aff4 ,,at ,,the ,,parting ,,of ,,the ,,ways4--,shame6 ,you wish to form part of a system in which you must be a wheel1 fully and completely1 or risk being crushed by wheels6 where it is understood that each one will be that which his superiors make of him6 where the seeking for 8connections0 will form part of one's natural duties6 where no one feels himself offended when he has his attention drawn to some one with the remark1 8,he may be useful to you some time02 where people do not feel ashamed of paying a visit to ask for somebody's intercession1 and where they do not even suspect that by such a voluntary submission to these morals1 they are once and for all stamped as the common pottery of nature1 which others can employ or break up of their free will without feeling in any way responsible for doing so1--just as if one were to say1 8,people of my type will never be lacking1 therefore1 do what you will with me6 ,do not stand on ceremony60 #afg4 ,,unconditional ,,homage4--,when ,i think of the most read ,german philosopher1 the most popular ,german musician1 and the most distinguished ,german statesman1 ,i cannot but acknowledge that life is now rendered unusually arduous for these ,germans1 this nation of unconditional sentiments1 and that1 too1 by their own great men4 ,we see three magnificent spectacles spread out before us3 on each occasion there is a river rushing along in the bed which it has made for itself1 and even so agitated that one thinks at times it intends to flow uphill4 ,and yet1 however we might admire ,schopenhauer1 who would not1 all things considered1 like to have other opinions than his8 ,who in all greater and smaller things would now share the opinions of ,richard ,wagner1 although there may be truth in the view expressed by some one3 viz4 that wherever ,wagner gave or took offence some problem lay hidden1--which1 however1 he did not unearth for us4 ,and1 finally1 how many are there who would be willing and eager to agree with ,bismarck1 if only he could always agree with himself1 or were even to show some signs of doing so for the future6 ,it is true that it is by no means astonishing to find statesmen without principles1 but with dominant instincts2 a versatile mind1 actuated by these dominant and violent instincts1 and hence without principles--these qualities are looked upon as reasonable and natural in a statesman4 ,but1 alas1 this has up to the present been so un-,german2 as un-,german as the fuss made about music and the discord and bad temper excited around the person of the musician2 or as un-,german as the new and extraordinary position taken up by ,schopenhauer3 he did not feel himself to be either above things or on his knees before them--one or other of these alternatives might still have been ,german--but he assumed an attitude against things6 ,how incredible and disagreeable6 to range one's self with things and nevertheless be their adversary1 and finally the adversary of one's self1--what can the unconditional admirer do with such an example8 ,and what1 again1 can he do with three such examples who cannot keep the peace towards one another6 ,here we see ,schopenhauer as the antagonist of ,wagner's music1 ,wagner attacking ,bismarck's politics1 and ,bismarck attacking ,wagnerism and ,schopenhauerism4 ,what remains for us to do8 ,where shall we flee with our thirst for wholesale hero-worship6 ,would it not be possible to choose from the music of the musician a few hundred bars of good music which appealed to the heart1 and which we should like to take to heart because they are inspired by the heart1--could we not stand aside with this small piece of plunder1 and forget the rest8 ,and could we not make a similar compromise as regards the philosopher and the statesman1--select1 take to heart1 and in particular forget the rest8 ,yes1 if only forgetfulness were not so difficult6 ,there was once a very proud man who would never on any account accept anything1 good or evil1 from others1--from any one1 indeed1 but himself4 ,when he wanted to forget1 however1 he could not bestow this gift upon himself1 and was three times compelled to conjure up the spirits4 ,they came1 listened to his desire1 and said at last1 8,this is the only thing it is not in our power to give60 ,could not the ,germans take warning by this experience of ,manfred8 ,why1 then1 should the spirits be conjured up8 ,it is useless4 ,we never forget what we endeavour to forget4 ,and how great would be the 8balance0 which we should have to forget if we wished henceforth to continue wholesale admirers of these three great men6 ,it would therefore be far more advisable to profit by the excellent opportunity offered us to try something new1 i4e4 to advance in the spirit of honesty towards ourselves and become1 instead of a nation of credulous repetition and of bitter and blind animosity1 a people of conditional assent and benevolent opposition4 ,we must come to learn in the first place1 however1 that unconditional homage to people is something rather ridiculous1 that a change of view on this point would not discredit even ,germans1 and that there is a profound and memorable saying3 8,ce qui importe1 ce ne sont point les personnes3 mais les choses40 ,this saying is like the man who uttered it--great1 honest1 simple1 and silent1--just like ,carnot1 the soldier and ,republican4 ,but may ,i at the present time speak thus to ,germans of a ,frenchman1 and a ,republican into the bargain8 ,perhaps not3 perhaps ,i must not even recall what ,niebuhr in his time dared to say to the ,germans3 that no one had made such an impression of true greatness upon him as ,carnot4 #afh4 ,a ,,model4--,what do ,i like about ,thucydides1 and how does it come that ,i esteem him more highly than ,plato8 ,he exhibits the most wide-spread and artless pleasure in everything typical in men and events1 and finds that each type is possessed of a certain quantity of good sense3 it is this good sense which he seeks to discover4 ,he likewise exhibits a larger amount of practical justice than ,plato2 he never reviles or belittles those men whom he dislikes or who have in any way injured him in the course of his life4 ,on the contrary3 while seeing only types1 he introduces something noble and additional into all things and persons2 for what could posterity1 to which he dedicates his work1 do with things not typical6 ,thus this culture of the disinterested knowledge of the world attains in him1 the poet-thinker1 a final marvellous bloom1--this culture which has its poet in ,sophocles1 its statesman in ,pericles1 its doctor in ,hippocrates1 and its natural philosopher in ,democritus3 this culture which deserves to be called by the name of its teachers1 the ,sophists1 and which1 unhappily1 from the moment of its baptism at once begins to grow pale and incomprehensible to us1--for henceforward we suspect that this culture1 which was combated by ,plato and all the ,socratic schools1 must have been very immoral6 ,the truth of this matter is so complicated and entangled that we feel unwilling to unravel it3 so let the old error 7error veritate simplicior7 run its old course4 #afi4 ,,the ,,greek ,,genius ,,foreign ,,to ,,us4--,oriental or modern1 ,asiatic or ,european3 compared with the ancient ,greeks1 everything is characterised by enormity of size and by the revelling in great masses as the expression of the sublime1 whilst in ,paestum1 ,pompeii1 and ,athens we are astonished1 when contemplating ,greek architecture1 to see with what small masses the ,greeks were able to express the sublime1 and how they loved to express it thus4 ,in the same way1 how simple were the ,greeks in the idea which they formed of themselves6 ,how far we surpass them in the knowledge of man6 ,again1 how full of labyrinths would our souls and our conceptions of our souls appear in comparison with theirs6 ,if we had to venture upon an architecture after the style of our own souls--7we are too cowardly for that67--a labyrinth would have to be our model4 ,that music which is peculiar to us1 and which really expresses us1 lets this be clearly seen6 7for in music men let themselves go1 because they think there is no one who can see them hiding behind their music74 #agj4 ,,another ,,point ,,of ,,view4--,how we babble about the ,greeks6 ,what do we understand of their art1 the soul of which was the passion for naked masculine beauty6 ,it was only by starting therefrom that they appreciated feminine beauty4 ,for the latter they had thus a perspective quite different from ours4 ,it was the same in regard to their love for women3 their worship was of a different kind1 and so also was their contempt4 #aga4 ,,the ,,food ,,of ,,the ,,modern ,,man4--,he has learned to digest many things2 nay1 almost everything2 it is his ambition to do so4 ,he would1 however1 be really of a higher order if he did not understand this so well3 homo pamphagus is not the finest type of the human race4 ,we live between a past which had a more wayward and deranged taste than we1 and a future which will possibly have a more select taste1--we live too much midway4 #agb4 ,,tragedy ,,and ,,music4--,men of essentially warlike disposition1 such1 for example1 as the ancient ,greeks in the time of schylus1 are difficult to rouse1 and when pity once triumphs over their hardness they are seized as by a kind of giddiness or a 8demoniacal power10--they feel themselves overpowered and thrilled by a religious horror4 ,after this they become sceptical about their condition2 but as long as they are in it they enjoy the charm of being1 as it were1 outside themselves1 and the delight of the marvellous mixed with the bitterest gall of suffering3 this is the proper kind of drink for fighting men1--something rare1 dangerous1 and bitter-sweet1 which does not often fall to one's lot4 ,tragedy appeals to souls who feel pity in this way1 to those fierce and warlike souls which are difficult to overcome1 whether by fear or pity1 but which lose nothing by being softened from time to time4 ,of what use1 however1 is tragedy to those who are as open to the 8sympathetic affections0 as the sails of a ship to the wind6 ,when at the time of ,plato the ,athenians had become more softened and sensitive1 oh1 how far they were still removed from the gushing emotions of the inhabitants of our modern towns and villages6 ,and yet even then the philosophers were beginning to complain of the injurious nature of tragedy4 ,an epoch full of danger such as that now beginning1 in which bravery and manliness are rising in value1 will perhaps again harden souls to such an extent that they will once more stand in need of tragic poets3 but in the meantime these are somewhat superfluous1 to put it mildly4 ,for music1 too1 a better age may be approaching 7it will certainly be a more evil age67 when artists will have to make their music appeal to strongly individual beings1 beings which will have become hard and which will be dominated by the gloomy earnestness of their own passion2 but of what use is music to the little souls of the present age which is fast passing away1 souls that are too unsteady1 ill-developed1 half-personal1 inquisitive1 and covetous of everything8 #agc4 ,,the ,,flatterers ,,of ,,work4--,in the glorification of 8work0 and the never-ceasing talk about the 8blessing of labour10 ,i see the same secret arrire-pense as ,i do in the praise bestowed on impersonal acts of a general interest1 viz4 a fear of everything individual4 ,for at the sight of work--that is to say1 severe toil from morning till night--we have the feeling that it is the best police1 viz4 that it holds every one in check and effectively hinders the development of reason1 of greed1 and of desire for independence4 ,for work uses up an extraordinary proportion of nervous force1 withdrawing it from reflection1 meditation1 dreams1 cares1 love1 and hatred2 it dangles unimportant aims before the eyes of the worker and affords easy and regular gratification4 ,thus it happens that a society where work is continually being performed will enjoy greater security1 and it is security which is now venerated as the supreme deity4--,and now1 horror of horrors6 it is the 8workman0 himself who has become dangerous2 the whole world is swarming with 8dangerous individuals10 and behind them follows the danger of dangers--the individuum6 #agd4 ,,the ,,moral ,,fashion ,,of ,a ,,commercial ,,community4--,behind the principle of the present moral fashion3 8,moral actions are actions performed out of sympathy for others10 ,i see the social instinct of fear1 which thus assumes an intellectual disguise3 this instinct sets forth as its supreme1 most important1 and most immediate principle that life shall be relieved of all the dangerous characteristics which it possessed in former times1 and that every one must help with all his strength towards the attainment of this end4 ,it is for that reason that only those actions which keep in view the general security and the feeling of security of society are called 8good40 ,how little joy must men now have in themselves when such a tyranny of fear prescribes their supreme moral law1 if they make no objection when commanded to turn their eyes from themselves and to look aside from themselves6 ,and yet at the same time they have lynx eyes for all distress and suffering elsewhere6 ,are we not1 then1 with this gigantic intention of ours of smoothing down every sharp edge and corner in life1 utilising the best means of turning mankind into sand6 ,small1 soft1 round1 infinite sand6 ,is that your ideal1 ye harbingers of the 8sympathetic affections08 ,in the meantime even the question remains unanswered whether we are of more use to our neighbour in running immediately and continually to his help1--which for the most part can only be done in a very superficial way1 as otherwise it would become a tyrannical meddling and changing1--or by transforming ourselves into something which our neighbour can look upon with pleasure1--something1 for example1 which may be compared to a beautiful1 quiet1 and secluded garden1 protected by high walls against storms and the dust of the roads1 but likewise with a hospitable gate4 #age4 ,,fundamental ,,basis ,,of ,a ,,culture ,,of ,,traders4--,we have now an opportunity of watching the manifold growth of the culture of a society of which commerce is the soul1 just as personal rivalry was the soul of culture among the ancient ,greeks1 and war1 conquest1 and law among the ancient ,romans4 ,the tradesman is able to value everything without producing it1 and to value it according to the requirements of the consumer rather than his own personal needs4 8,how many and what class of people will consume this80 is his question of questions4 ,hence1 he instinctively and incessantly employs this mode of valuation and applies it to everything1 including the productions of art and science1 and of thinkers1 scholars1 artists1 statesmen1 nations1 political parties1 and even entire ages3 with respect to everything produced or created he inquires into the supply and demand in order to estimate for himself the value of a thing4 ,this1 when once it has been made the principle of an entire culture1 worked out to its most minute and subtle details1 and imposed upon every kind of will and knowledge1 this is what you men of the coming century will be proud of1--if the prophets of the commercial classes are right in putting that century into your possession6 ,but ,i have little belief in these prophets4 ,credat ,judus ,apella--to speak with ,horace4 #agf4 ,,the ,,criticism ,,of ,,our ,,ancestors4--,why should we now endure the truth1 even about the most recent past8 ,because there is now always a new generation which feels itself in contradiction to the past and enjoys in this criticism the first-fruits of its sense of power4 ,in former times the new generation1 on the contrary1 wished to base itself on the old and began to feel conscious of its power1 not only in accepting the opinions of its ancestors but1 if possible1 taking them even more seriously4 ,to criticise ancestral authority was in former times a vice2 but at the present time our idealists begin by making it their starting-point4 #agg4 ,,to ,,learn ,,solitude4--,o ye poor fellows in the great centres of the world's politics1 ye young and talented men1 who1 urged on by ambition1 think it your duty to propound your opinion of every event of the day1--for something is always happening1--who1 by thus making a noise and raising a cloud of dust1 mistake yourselves for the rolling chariot of history2 who1 because ye always listen1 always suit the moment when ye can put in your word or two1 thereby lose all real productiveness4 ,whatever may be your desire to accomplish great deeds1 the deep silence of pregnancy never comes to you6 ,the event of the day sweeps you along like straws before the wind whilst ye lie under the illusion that ye are chasing the event1--poor fellows6 ,if a man wishes to act the hero on the stage he must not think of forming part of the chorus2 he should not even know how the chorus is made up4 #agh4 ,,daily ,,wear ,,and ,,tear4--,these young men are lacking neither in character1 nor talent1 nor zeal1 but they have never had sufficient time to choose their own path2 they have1 on the contrary1 been habituated from the most tender age to have their path pointed out to them4 ,at the time when they were ripe enough to be sent into the 8desert10 something else was done with them4 ,they were turned to account1 estranged from themselves1 and brought up in such a way that they became accustomed to be worn out by their daily toil4 ,this was imposed on them as a duty1 and now they cannot do without it2 they would not wish it to be otherwise4 ,the only thing that cannot be refused to these poor beasts of burden is their 8holidays0--such is the name they give to this ideal of leisure in an overworked century2 8holidays10 in which they may for once be idle1 idiotic1 and childish to their heart's content4 #agi4 ,,as ,,little ,,state ,,as ,,possible6--,all political and economic matters are not of such great value that they ought to be dealt with by the most talented minds3 such a waste of intellect is at bottom worse than any state of distress4 ,these matters are1 and ever will be1 the province of smaller minds1 and others than the smaller minds should not be at the service of this workshop3 it would be better to let the machinery work itself to pieces again6 ,but as matters stand at the present time1 when not only do all people believe that they must know all about it day by day1 but wish likewise to be always busy about it1 and in so doing neglect their own work1 it is a great and ridiculous mistake4 ,the price that has to be paid for the 8public safety0 is far too high1 and1 what is maddest of all1 we effect the very opposite of 8public safety0 a fact which our own dear century has undertaken to prove1 as if this had never been proved before6 ,to make society secure against thieves and fire1 and to render it thoroughly fit for all kinds of trade and traffic1 and to transform the ,state in a good and evil sense into a kind of ,providence--these aims are low1 mediocre1 and not by any means indispensable2 and we should not seek to attain them by the aid of the highest means and instruments which exist--means which we should reserve precisely for our highest and rarest aims6 ,our epoch1 however much it may babble about economy1 is a spendthrift3 it wastes intellect1 the most precious thing of all4 #ahj4 ,,wars4--,the great wars of our own day are the outcome of historical study4 #aha4 ,,governing4--,some people govern because of their passion for governing2 others in order that they may not be governed1--the latter choose it as the lesser of two evils4 #ahb4 ,,rough ,,and ,,ready ,,consistency4--,people say of a man with great respect1 8,he is a character0--that is1 when he exhibits a rough and ready consistency1 when it is evident even to the dullest eye4 ,but1 whenever a more subtle and profound intellect sets itself up and shows consistency in a higher manner1 the spectators deny the existence of any character4 ,that is why cunning statesmen usually act their comedy under the cloak of a kind of rough and ready consistency4 #ahc4 ,,the ,,old ,,and ,,the ,,young4--8,there is something immoral about ,parliaments10--so many people still think1--8for in them views even against the ,government may be expressed40--8,we should always adopt that view of a subject which our gracious ,lord commands10--this is the eleventh commandment in many an honest old head1 especially in ,northern ,germany4 ,we laugh at it as an out-of-date fashion1 but in former times it was the moral law itself4 ,perhaps we shall again some day laugh at that which is now considered as moral by a generation brought up under a parliamentary rgime1 namely1 the policy of placing one's party before one's own wisdom1 and of answering every question concerning the public welfare in such a way as to fill the sails of the party with a favourable gust of wind4 8,we must take that view of a subject which the position of our party calls for0--such would be the canon4 ,in the service of such morals we may now behold every kind of sacrifice1 even martyrdom and conquest over one's self4 #ahd4 ,,the ,,state ,,as ,a ,,production ,,of ,,anarchists4--,in countries inhabited by tractable men there are always a few backsliders and intractable people4 ,for the present the latter have joined the ,socialists more than any other party4 ,if it should happen that these people once come to have the making of the laws1 they may be relied upon to impose iron chains upon themselves1 and to practise a dreadful discipline1--they know themselves6 and they will endure these harsh laws with the knowledge that they themselves have imposed them--the feeling of power and of this particular power will be too recent among them and too attractive for them not to suffer anything for its sake4 #ahe4 ,,beggars4--,beggars ought to be suppressed2 because we get angry both when we help them and when we do not4 #ahf4 ,,business ,,men4--,your business is your greatest prejudice1 it binds you to your locality1 your society and your tastes4 ,diligent in business but lazy in thought1 satisfied with your paltriness and with the cloak of duty concealing this contentment3 thus you live1 and thus you like your children to be4 #ahg4 ,a ,,possible ,,future4--,is it impossible for us to imagine a social state in which the criminal will publicly denounce himself and dictate his own punishment1 in the proud feeling that he is thus honouring the law which he himself has made1 that he is exercising his power1 the power of a lawmaker1 in thus punishing himself8 ,he may offend for once1 but by his own voluntary punishment he raises himself above his offence1 and not only expiates it by his frankness1 greatness1 and calmness1 but adds to it a public benefit4--,such would be the criminal of a possible future1 a criminal who would1 it is true1 presuppose a future legislation based upon this fundamental idea3 8,i yield in great things as well as in small only to the law which ,i myself have made40 ,how many experiments must yet be made6 ,how many futures have yet to dawn upon mankind6 #ahh4 ,,stimulants ,,and ,,food4--,nations are deceived so often because they are always looking for a deceiver1 i4e4 a stimulating wine for their senses4 ,when they can only have this wine they are glad to put up even with inferior bread4 ,intoxication is to them more than nutriment--this is the bait with which they always let themselves be caught6 ,what1 to them1 are men chosen from among themselves--although they may be the most expert specialists--as compared with the brilliant conquerors1 or ancient and magnificent princely houses6 ,in order that he may inspire them with faith1 the demagogue must at least exhibit to them a prospect of conquest and splendour4 ,people will always obey1 and even do more than obey1 provided that they can become intoxicated in doing so4 ,we may not even offer them repose and pleasure without this laurel crown and its maddening influence4 ,this vulgar taste which ascribes greater importance to intoxication than nutrition did not by any means originate in the lower ranks of the population3 it was1 on the contrary1 transplanted there1 and on this backward soil it grows in great abundance1 whilst its real origin must be sought amongst the highest intellects1 where it flourished for thousands of years4 ,the people is the last virgin soil upon which this brilliant weed can grow4 ,well1 then1 is it really to the people that we should entrust politics in order that they may thereby have their daily intoxication8 #ahi4 ,,high ,,politics4--,whatever may be the influence in high politics of utilitarianism and the vanity of individuals and nations1 the sharpest spur which urges them onwards is their need for the feeling of power--a need which rises not only in the souls of princes and rulers1 but also gushes forth from time to time from inexhaustible sources in the people4 ,the time comes again and again when the masses are ready to stake their lives and their fortunes1 their consciences and their virtue1 in order that they may secure that highest of all enjoyments and rule as a victorious1 tyrannical1 and arbitrary nation over other nations 7or at all events think that they do74 ,on occasions such as these1 feelings of prodigality1 sacrifice1 hope1 confidence1 extraordinary audacity1 and enthusiasm will burst forth so abundantly that a sovereign who is ambitious or far-sighted will be able to seize the opportunity for making war1 counting upon the good conscience of his people to hide his injustice4 ,great conquerors have always given utterance to the pathetic language of virtue2 they have always been surrounded by crowds of people who felt themselves1 as it were1 in a state of exaltation and would listen to none but the most elevated oratory4 ,the strange madness of moral judgments6 ,when man experiences the sensation of power he feels and calls himself good2 and at exactly the same time the others who have to endure his power call him evil6--,hesiod1 in his fable of the epochs of man1 has twice in succession depicted the same epoch1 that of the heroes of ,homer1 and has thus made two epochs out of one3 to those who lived under the terrible iron heel of those adventurous despots1 or had heard their ancestors speak of them1 the epoch appeared to be evil2 but the descendants of those chivalric races worshipped it as the 8good old times10 and as an almost ideally blissful age4 ,the poet could thus not help doing what he did1--his audience probably included the descendants of both races4 #aij4 ,,former ,,german ,,culture4--,when the ,germans began to interest other ,european nations1 which is not so very long ago1 it was owing to a culture which they no longer possess to-day1 and which they have indeed shaken off with a blind ardour1 as if it had been some disease2 and yet they have not been able to replace it by anything better than political and national lunacy4 ,they have in this way succeeded in becoming even more interesting to other nations than they were formerly through their culture3 and may that satisfy them6 ,it is nevertheless undeniable that this ,german culture has fooled ,europeans1 and that it did not deserve the interest shown in it1 and much less the imitation and emulation displayed by other nations in trying to rival it4 ,let us look back for a moment upon ,schiller1 ,wilhelm von ,humboldt1 ,schleiermacher1 ,hegel1 and ,schelling2 let us read their correspondence and mingle for a time with the large circle of their followers3 what have they in common1 what characteristics have they1 that fill us1 as we are now1 partly with a feeling of nausea and partly with pitiful and touching emotions8 ,first and foremost1 the passion for appearing at all costs to be morally exalted1 and then the desire for giving utterance to brilliant1 feeble1 and inconsequential remarks1 together with their fixed purpose of looking upon everything 7characters1 passions1 times1 customs7 as beautiful--8beautiful10 alas1 in accordance with a bad and vague taste1 which nevertheless pretended to be of ,hellenic origin4 ,we behold in these people a weak1 good-natured1 and glistening idealism1 which1 above all1 wished to exhibit noble attitudes and noble voices1 something at once presumptuous and inoffensive1 and animated by a cordial aversion to 8cold0 or 8dry0 reality--as also to anatomy1 complete passions1 and every kind of philosophical continence and scepticism1 but especially towards the knowledge of nature in so far as it was impossible to use it as religious symbolism4 ,goethe1 in his own characteristic fashion1 observed from afar these movements of ,german culture3 placing himself beyond their influence1 gently remonstrating1 silent1 more and more confirmed in his own better course4 ,a little later1 and ,schopenhauer also was an observer of these movements--a great deal of the world and devilry of the world had again been revealed to him1 and he spoke of it both roughly and enthusiastically1 for there is a certain beauty in this devilry6 ,and what was it1 then1 that really seduced the foreigners and prevented them from viewing this movement as did ,goethe and ,schopenhauer1 or1 better1 from ignoring it altogether8 ,it was that faint lustre1 that inexplicable starlight which formed a mysterious halo around this culture4 ,the foreigners said to themselves3 8,this is all very very remote from us2 our sight1 hearing1 understanding1 enjoyment1 and powers of valuations are lost here1 but in spite of that there may be some stars6 ,there may be something in it6 ,is it possible that the ,germans have quietly discovered some corner of heaven and settled there8 ,we must try to come nearer to these ,germans40 ,so they did begin to come nearer to the ,germans1 while not so very long afterwards the ,germans put themselves to some trouble to get rid of this starlight halo3 they knew only too well that they had not been in heaven1 but only in a cloud6 #aia4 ,,better ,,men4--,they tell me that our art is meant for the men of the present day1 these greedy1 unsatisfied1 undisciplined1 disgusted1 and harassed spirits1 and that it exhibits to them a picture of happiness1 exaltation1 and unworldliness beside that of their own brutality1 so that for once they may forget and breathe freely2 nay1 perhaps find that they may derive some encouragement towards flight and conversion from that oblivion4 ,poor artists1 with such a public as this2 half of whose thoughts require the attention of a priest1 and the other half the attention of an alienist6 ,how much happier was ,corneille--8,our great ,corneille60 as ,madame de ,svign exclaimed1 with the accent of a woman in the presence of a whole man1--how far superior was his audience1 which he could please with pictures of chivalric virtues1 strict duty1 generous devotion1 and heroic self-denial6 ,how differently did he and they love existence1 not as coming from blind and confused 8will10 which we curse because we cannot destroy it2 but loving existence as a place1 so to speak1 where greatness joined with humanity is possible1 and where even the greatest restraint of form1 such as submission to the caprice of priests and princes1 could not suppress either the pride1 chivalric feeling1 the grace or the intellect of individuals1 but could1 on the contrary1 be felt as a charm and incentive1 as a welcome contrast to innate self-glorification and distinction and the inherited power of volition and passion4 #aib4 ,,the ,,desire ,,for ,,perfect ,,opponents4--,it cannot be denied that the ,french have been the most ,christian nation in the world1 not because the devotion of masses in ,france has been greater than elsewhere1 but because those ,christian ideals which are most difficult to realise have become incarnated here instead of merely remaining fancies1 intentions1 or imperfect beginnings4 ,take ,pascal1 for example1 the greatest of all ,christians in his combination of ardour1 intellect1 and honesty1 and consider what elements had to be combined in his case6 ,take ,fnelon1 the most perfect and attractive embodiment of ecclesiastical culture in all its power3 a sublime golden mean of whom a historian would be tempted to prove the impossibility1 whilst in reality he was merely the perfection of something exceedingly difficult and improbable4 ,take ,madame de ,guyon among her companions1 the ,french ,quietists3 and everything that the eloquence and ardour of the ,apostle ,paul has endeavoured to divine with regard to the ,christian's state of semi-divinity1 this most sublime1 loving1 silent1 and ecstatic state is seen verified in her1 without1 however1 that ,jewish obtrusiveness that ,paul showed towards ,god--due in the case of ,madame de ,guyon to the real old ,french artlessness in words and gestures1 artlessness at once womanly1 subtle1 and distinguished4 ,consider1 again1 the founder of the ,trappists--the last person who really took seriously the ascetic ideal of ,christianity1 not because he was an exception among ,frenchmen1 but because he was a true ,frenchman3 for up to our own day his gloomy organisation has not been able to acclimatise itself and to prosper1 except among ,frenchmen2 and it has followed them into ,alsace and ,algeria4 ,let us not forget the ,huguenots1 either3 that combination of a martial and industrial spirit1 refined manners and ,christian severity1 has never been more beautifully exhibited4 ,and it was at ,port ,royal that the great ,christian erudition beheld its last era of prosperity2 and in ,france more than anywhere else great men know how to prosper4 ,though not at all superficial1 a great ,frenchman has always his apparent superficiality2--he has1 so to speak1 a natural skin for his real contents and depth1--while1 on the other hand1 the depth of a great ,german is generally1 as it were1 closed up in an ugly-shaped box1 like an elixir1 which1 by means of a hard and curious covering1 endeavours to preserve itself from the light of day and the touch of thoughtless hands4 ,and now let us endeavour to find out why a people like the ,french1 so prolific in perfect types of ,christians1 likewise necessarily brought forth the perfect contrary types1 those of unchristian free-thought6 ,the ,french free-thinker1 in his own inward being1 had to fight against truly great men1 and not1 like the free-thinkers of other nations1 merely against dogmas and sublime abortions4 #aic4 ,,esprit ,,and ,,morals4--,the ,german1 who possesses the secret of knowing how to be tedious in spite of wit1 knowledge1 and feeling1 and who has habituated himself to consider tediousness as moral1 is in dread in the presence of ,french esprit lest it should tear out the eyes of morality--but a dread mingled with 8fascination10 like that experienced by the little bird in the presence of the rattlesnake4 ,amongst all the celebrated ,germans none possessed more esprit than ,hegel1 but he also had that great ,german dread of it which brought about his peculiar and defective style4 ,for the nature of this style resembles a kernel1 which is wrapped up so many times in an outer covering that it can scarcely peep through1 now and then glancing forth bashfully and inquisitively1 like 8young women peeping through their veils10 to use the words of that old woman-hater1 schylus4 ,this kernel1 however1 is a witty though often impertinent joke on intellectual subjects1 a subtle and daring combination of words1 such as is necessary in a society of thinkers as gilding for a scientific pill--but1 enveloped as it is in an almost impenetrable cover1 it exhibits itself as the most abstruse science1 and likewise as the worst possible moral tediousness4 ,here the ,germans had a permissible form of esprit and they revelled in it with such boundless delight that even ,schopenhauer's unusually fine understanding could not grasp it--during the whole of his life he thundered against the spectacle that the ,germans offered to him1 but he could never explain it4 #aid4 ,,vanity ,,of ,,the ,,teachers ,,of ,,morals4--,the relatively small success which teachers of morals have met with may be explained by the fact that they wanted too much at once1 i4e4 they were too ambitious and too fond of laying down precepts for everybody4 ,in other words1 they were beating the air and making speeches to animals in order to turn them into men2 what wonder1 then1 that the animals thought this tedious6 ,we should rather choose limited circles and endeavour to find and promote morals for them3 for instance1 we should make speeches to wolves with the object of turning them into dogs2 but1 above all1 the greatest success will remain for the man who does not seek to educate either everybody or certain limited circles1 but only one single individual1 and who cannot be turned to the right or left from his straight purpose4 ,the last century was superior to ours precisely because it possessed so many individually educated men1 as well as educators in the same proportion1 who had made this their life's task1 and who with this task were dignified not only in their own eyes but in those of all the remaining 8good society40 #aie4 ,,the ,,so-,,called ,,classical ,,education4--,alas6 we discover that our life is consecrated to knowledge and that we should throw it away1 nay1 that we should even have to throw it away if this consecration did not protect us from ourselves3 we repeat this couplet1 and not without deep emotion3 ,thee1 ,fate1 ,i follow1 though ,i fain would not1 ,and yet ,i must1 with many a sigh and groan6 ,and then1 in looking backwards over the course of our lives1 we discover that there is one thing that cannot be restored to us3 the wasted period of our youth1 when our teachers did not utilise these ardent and eager years to lead us to the knowledge of things1 but merely to this so-called 8classical education06 ,only think of this wasted youth1 when we were inoculated clumsily and painfully with an imperfect knowledge of the ,greeks and ,romans as well as of their languages1 contrary to the highest principle of all culture1 which holds that we should not give food except to those who hunger for it6 ,think of that period of our lives when we had mathematics and physics forced down our throats1 instead of being first of all made acquainted with the despair of ignorance1 instead of having our little daily life1 our activities1 and everything occurring in our houses1 our workshops1 in the sky1 and in nature1 split up into thousands of problems1 painful1 humiliating and irritating problems--and thus having our curiosity made acquainted with the fact that we first of all require a mathematical and mechanical knowledge before we can be allowed to rejoice in the absolute logic of this knowledge6 ,if we had only been imbued with reverence for those branches of science1 if we had only been made to tremble with emotion--were it only for once--at the struggles1 the defeats1 and the renewed combats of those great men1 of the martyrdom which is the history of pure science6 ,but1 on the contrary1 we were allowed to develop a certain contempt for those sciences in favour of historical training1 formal education7#d7 and 8classicism40 ,and we allowed ourselves to be so easily deceived6 ,formal education6 ,might we not have pointed to the best teachers at our high schools and asked laughingly1 8,where then do they keep their formal education8 and1 if it is wanting in them1 how can they teach it80 ,and classicism6 ,did we get any of that instruction which the ancients used to impart to their youth8 ,did we learn to speak or to write like them8 ,did we ceaselessly exercise ourselves in that duel of speech1 dialectic8 ,did we learn to move as beautifully and proudly as they did1 and to excel as they did in wrestling1 throwing1 and boxing8 ,did we learn anything of that practical asceticism of all the ,greek philosophers8 ,did we receive any training in a single ancient virtue1 and in the way in which the ancients were trained in it8 ,was not all meditation upon morals wanting in our education8--,and how much more the only possible criticism on the subject of morality1 those courageous and earnest attempts to live according to this or that morality6 ,did our teachers ever stir up a feeling in us which the ancients valued more highly than moderns8 ,did they in the spirit of the ancients indicate to us the divisions of the day and of life1 and those aims by which the lives of the ancients were guided8 ,did we learn the ancient languages as we now learn the modern ones1 viz4 that we might speak them fluently and well8 ,nowhere can we find a real proficiency or any new faculty as the result of those toilsome years6 only the knowledge of what men had learnt and were able to do in past ages6 ,and what knowledge6 ,nothing becomes clearer to me year by year than the fact that the entire ,greek and ancient mode of life1 however simple and evident it must seem to our eyes1 is in truth very difficult to understand1 and even scarcely accessible1 and that the customary ease with which we babble about the ancients is either giddy levity or the old hereditary conceit of our thoughtlessness4 ,we are deceived by words and ideas which appear to resemble our own1 but behind them there is always concealed a feeling which must be strange1 incomprehensible1 or painful to our modern conceptions4 ,and these are realms in which boys are allowed to roam about6 ,enough3 we roamed about them in our childhood1 and there we became seized with an almost ineradicable antipathy for all antiquity1 the antipathy arising from an intimacy which was apparently too great6 ,for so great is the conceit of our classical teachers1 who would almost make it appear that they had gained full control over the ancients1 that they pass on this conceit to their pupils1 together with the suspicion that such a possession is of little use for making people happy1 but is good enough for honest1 foolish old book-worms4 8,let them brood over their treasure3 it is well worthy of them60--,it is with this unexpressed thought that we completed our classical education4 ,it can't be changed now--for us1 at all events6 ,but let us not think of ourselves alone6 #aif4 ,,the ,,most ,,personal ,,questions ,,of ,,truth4--,what am ,i really doing1 and what do ,i mean by doing it8 ,that is the question of truth which is not taught under our present system of education1 and consequently not asked1 because there is no time for it4 ,on the other hand1 we have always time and inclination for talking nonsense with children1 rather than telling them the truth2 for flattering women who will later on be mothers1 rather than telling them the truth2 and for speaking with young men about their future and their pleasures1 rather than about the truth6 ,but what1 after all1 are seventy years6--,time passes1 and they soon come to an end2 it matters as little to us as it does to the wave to know how and whither it is rolling6 ,no1 it might even be wisdom not to know it4 8,agreed2 but it shows a want of pride not even to inquire into the matter2 our culture does not tend to make people proud40 8,so much the better60 8,is it really80 #aig4 ,,enmity ,,of ,,the ,,germans ,,towards ,,enlightenment4--,let us consider the contributions which in the first half of this century the ,germans made to general culture by their intellectual work4 ,in the first place1 let us take the ,german philosophers3 they went back to the first and oldest stage of speculation1 for they were content with conceptions instead of explanations1 like the thinkers of dreamy epochs--a pre-scientific type of philosophy was thus revived by them4 ,secondly1 we have the ,german historians and romanticists3 their efforts on the whole aimed at restoring to the place of honour certain old and primitive sentiments1 especially ,christianity1 the 8soul of the people10 folk-lore1 folk-speech1 medivalism1 ,oriental asceticism1 and ,hinduism4 ,in the third place1 there are the natural philosophers who fought against the spirit of ,newton and ,voltaire1 and1 like ,goethe and ,schopenhauer1 endeavoured to re-establish the idea of a deified or diabolised nature1 and of its absolute ethical and symbolical meaning4 ,the main general tendency of the ,germans was directed against enlightenment and against those social revolutions which were stupidly mistaken for the consequences of enlightenment3 the piety towards everything that existed tried to become piety towards everything that had ever existed1 only in order that heart and mind might be permitted to fill themselves and gush forth again1 thus leaving no space for future and novel aims4 ,the cult of feeling took the place of the cult of reason1 and the ,german musicians1 as the best exponents of all that is invisible1 enthusiastic1 legendary1 and passionate1 showed themselves more successful in building up the new temple than all the other artists in words and thoughts4 ,if1 in considering these details1 we have taken into account the fact that many good things were said and investigated1 and that many things have since then been more fairly judged than on any previous occasion1 there yet remains to be said of the whole that it was a general danger1 and one by no means small1 to set knowledge altogether below feeling under the appearance of an entire and definitive acquaintance with the past--and1 to use that expression of ,kant1 who thus defined his own particular task--8,to make way again for belief by fixing the limits of knowledge40 ,let us once more breathe freely1 the hour of this danger is past6 ,and yet1 strange to say1 the very spirits which these ,germans conjured up with such eloquence have at length become the most dangerous for the intentions of those who did conjure them up3 history1 the comprehension of origin and development1 sympathy with the past1 the new passion for feeling and knowledge1 after they had been for a long time at the service of this obscure exalted and retrograde spirit1 have once more assumed another nature1 and are now soaring with outstretched wings above the heads of those who once upon a time conjured them forth1 as new and stronger genii of that very enlightenment to combat which they had been resuscitated4 ,it is this enlightenment which we have now to carry forward1--caring nothing for the fact that there has been and still is 8a great revolution10 and again a great 8reaction0 against it3 these are but playful crests of foam when compared with the truly great current on which we float1 and want to float4 #aih4 ,,assigning ,,prestige ,,to ,,one',s ,,country4--,it is the men of culture who determine the rank of their country1 and they are characterised by an innumerable number of great inward experiences1 which they have digested and can now value justly4 ,in ,france and ,italy this fell to the lot of the nobility2 in ,germany1 where up to now the nobility has been1 as a rule1 composed of men who had not much intellect to boast about 7perhaps this will soon cease to be the case71 it was the task of the priests1 the school teachers and their descendants4 #aii4 ,,we ,,are ,,nobler4--,fidelity1 generosity1 concern for one's good reputation3 these three qualities1 combined in one sentiment1 we call noble1 distinguished1 aristocratic2 and in this respect we excel the ,greeks4 ,we do not wish to give this up at any cost under the pretext that the ancient objects of these virtues have rightly fallen in esteem1 but we wish cautiously to substitute new objects for these most precious and hereditary impulses4 ,to understand why the sentiments of the noblest ,greeks must be considered as inferior and scarcely respectable in the present age1 where we are still under the influence of the chivalric and feudal nobility1 we must recall the words of consolation to which ,ulysses gave utterance in the midst of the most humiliating situations1 8,bear with it1 my dear heart1 bear with it6 ,thou hast borne with many more swinish things7#e7 than these60 ,as an instance of this mythical example1 consider also the tale of that ,athenian officer1 who1 when threatened with a stick by another officer in the presence of the entire general staff1 shook off his disgrace with the words1 8,strike1 but listen to me40 7,this was ,themistocles1 that ingenious ,ulysses of the classical epoch1 who was just the man at the moment of disgrace to address to his 8dear heart0 that verse of comfort and affliction47 ,the ,greeks were far from making light of life and death because of an insult1 as we1 influenced by a hereditary spirit of chivalric adventurousness and self-devotion1 are in the habit of doing2 or from looking for opportunities of honourably risking life and death1 as in duels2 or from valuing the preservation of an unstained name 7honour7 more than the acquirement of an evil reputation1 when the latter was compatible with glory and the feeling of power2 or from remaining faithful to the prejudices and the articles of faith of a caste1 when these could prevent them from becoming tyrants4 ,for this is the ignoble secret of the good ,greek aristocrat3 out of sheer jealousy he treats every one of the members of his caste as being on an equal footing with himself1 but he is ready at every moment to spring like a tiger on his prey--despotism4 ,what matter lies1 murders1 treason1 or the betrayal of his native city to him6 ,justice was an extremely difficult matter for people of this kind to understand--nay1 justice was almost something incredible4 8,the just man0 was to the ,greeks what 8the saint0 was to the ,christians4 ,when ,socrates1 however1 laid down the axiom1 8,the most virtuous man is the happiest10 they could not trust their ears2 they thought they had heard a madman speaking4 ,for1 as a picture of the happiest man1 every nobleman had in his mind the cheeky audacity and devilry of the tyrant who sacrifices everything and every one to his own exuberance and pleasure4 ,among people whose imagination secretly raved about such happiness1 the worship of the ,state could not1 of course1 have been too deeply implanted--but ,i think that men whose desire for power does not rage so blindly as that of the ,greek noblemen no longer stand in need of such idolatry of the ,state1 by means of which1 in past ages1 such a passion was kept within due bounds4 #bjj4 ,,endurance ,,of ,,poverty4--,there is one great advantage in noble extraction3 it makes us endure poverty better4 #bja4 ,,the ,,future ,,of ,,the ,,nobility4--,the bearing of the aristocratic classes shows that1 in all the members of their body the consciousness of power is continually playing its fascinating game4 ,thus people of aristocratic habits1 men or women1 never sink worn out into a chair2 when every one else makes himself comfortable1 as in a train1 for example1 they avoid reclining at their ease2 they do not appear to get tired after standing at ,court for hours at a stretch2 they do not furnish their houses in a comfortable manner1 but in such a way as to produce the impression of something grand and imposing1 as if they had to serve as a residence for greater and taller beings2 they reply to a provoking speech with dignity and clearness of mind1 and not as if scandalised1 crushed1 shamed1 or out of breath in the plebeian fashion4 ,as the aristocrat is able to preserve the appearance of being possessed of a superior physical force which never leaves him1 he likewise wishes by his aspect of constant serenity and civility of disposition1 even in the most trying circumstances1 to convey the impression that his mind and soul are equal to all dangers and surprises4 ,a noble culture may resemble1 so far as passions are concerned1 either a horseman who takes pleasure in making his proud and fiery animal trot in the ,spanish fashion1--we have only to recollect the age of ,louis ,,xiv41--or like the rider who feels his horse dart away with him like the elemental forces1 to such a degree that both horse and rider come near losing their heads1 but1 owing to the enjoyment of the delight1 do keep very clear heads3 in both these cases this aristocratic culture breathes power1 and if very often in its customs only the appearance of the feeling of power is required1 nevertheless the real sense of superiority continues constantly to increase as the result of the impression which this display makes upon those who are not aristocrats4 ,this indisputable happiness of aristocratic culture1 based as it is on the feeling of superiority1 is now beginning to rise to ever higher levels2 for now1 thanks to the free spirits1 it is henceforth permissible and not dishonourable for people who have been born and reared in aristocratic circles to enter the domain of knowledge1 where they may secure more intellectual consecrations and learn chivalric services even higher than those of former times1 and where they may look up to that ideal of victorious wisdom which as yet no age has been able to set before itself with so good a conscience as the period which is about to dawn4 ,lastly1 what is to be the occupation of the nobility in the future if it becomes more evident from day to day that it is less and less indecorus to take any part in politics8 #bjb4 ,,the ,,care ,,of ,,the ,,health4--,we have scarcely begun to devote any attention to the physiology of criminals1 and yet we have already reached the inevitable conclusion that between criminals and madmen there is no really essential difference3 if we suppose that the current moral fashion of thinking is a healthy way of thinking4 ,no belief1 however1 is nowadays more firmly believed in than this one1 so we should not therefore shrink from drawing the inevitable conclusion and treating the criminal like a lunatic--above all1 not with haughty pitifulness1 but with medical skill and good will4 ,he may perhaps be in need of a change of air1 a change of society1 or temporary absence3 perhaps of solitude and new occupations--very well6 ,he may perhaps feel that it would be to his advantage to live under surveillance for a short time in order thus to obtain protection from himself and from a troublesome tyrannical impulse--very well6 ,we should make clear to him the possibility and the means of curing him 7the extermination1 transformation1 and sublimation of these impulses71 and also1 in the worst cases1 the improbability of a cure2 and we should offer to the incurable criminal1 who has become a useless burden to himself1 the opportunity of committing suicide4 ,while holding this in reserve as an extreme measure of relief1 we should neglect nothing which would tend above all to restore to the criminal his good courage and freedom of spirit2 we should free his soul from all remorse1 as if it were something unclean1 and show him how he may atone for a wrong which he may have done some one by benefiting some one else1 perhaps the community at large1 in such way that he might even do more than balance his previous offence4 ,all this must be done with the greatest tact6 ,the criminal must1 above all1 remain anonymous or adopt an assumed name1 changing his place of residence frequently1 so that his reputation and future life may suffer as little as possible4 ,at the present time it is true that the man who has been injured1 apart altogether from the manner in which this injury might be redressed1 wishes for revenge in addition1 and applies to the courts that he may obtain it--and this is why our dreadful penal laws are still in force3 ,justice1 as it were1 holding up a pair of shopkeeper's scales and endeavouring to balance the guilt by punishment2 but can we not take a step beyond this8 ,would it not be a great relief to the general sentiment of life if1 while getting rid of our belief in guilt1 we could also get rid of our old craving for vengeance1 and gradually come to believe that it is a refined wisdom for happy men to bless their enemies and to do good to those who have offended them1 exactly in accordance with the spirit of ,christian teaching6 ,let us free the world from this idea of sin1 and take care to cast out with it the idea of punishment4 ,may these monstrous ideas henceforth live banished far from the abodes of men--if1 indeed1 they must live at all1 and do not perish from disgust with themselves4 ,let us not forget also1 however1 that the injury caused to society and to the individual by the criminal is of the same species as that caused by the sick3 for the sick spread cares and ill-humour2 they are non-productive1 consume the earnings of others1 and at the same time require attendance1 doctors1 and support1 and they really live on the time and strength of the healthy4 ,in spite of this1 however1 we should designate as inhuman any one who1 for this reason1 would wish to wreak vengeance on the sick4 ,in past ages1 indeed1 this was actually done3 in primitive conditions of society1 and even now among certain savage peoples1 the sick man is treated as a criminal and as a danger to the community1 and it is believed that he is the resting-place of certain demoniacal beings who have entered into his body as the result of some offence he has committed--those ages and peoples hold that the sick are the guilty6 ,and what of ourselves8 ,are we not yet ripe for the contrary conception8 ,shall we not be allowed to say1 8,the guilty are the sick08 ,no2 the hour for that has not yet come4 ,we still lack1 above all1 those physicians who have learnt something from what we have hitherto called practical morals and have transformed it into the art and science of healing4 ,we still lack that intense interest in those things which some day perhaps may seem not unlike the 8storm and stress0 of those old religious ecstasies4 ,the ,churches have not yet come into the possession of those who look after our health2 the study of the body and of dietary are not yet amongst the obligatory subjects taught in our primary and secondary schools2 there are as yet no quiet associations of those people who are pledged to one another to do without the help of law courts1 and who renounce the punishment and vengeance now meted out to those who have offended against society4 ,no thinker has as yet been daring enough to determine the health of society1 and of the individuals who compose it1 by the number of parasites which it can support2 and no statesman has yet been found to use the ploughshare in the spirit of that generous and tender saying1 8,if thou wilt till the land1 till it with the plough2 then the bird and the wolf1 walking behind thy plough1 will rejoice in thee--all creatures will rejoice in thee40 #bjc4 ,,against ,,bad ,,diet4--,fie upon the meals which people nowadays eat in hotels and everywhere else where the well-off classes of society live6 ,even when eminent men of science meet together their tables groan under the weight of the dishes1 in accordance with the principle of the bankers3 the principle of too many dishes and too much to eat4 ,the result of this is that dinners are prepared with a view to their mere appearance rather than the consequences that may follow from eating them1 and that stimulating drinks are required to help in driving away the heaviness in the stomach and in the brain4 ,fie on the dissoluteness and extreme nervousness which must follow upon all this6 ,fie upon the dreams that such repasts bring6 ,fie upon the arts and books which must be the desert of such meals6 ,despite all the efforts of such people their acts will taste of pepper and ill-temper1 or general weariness6 7,the wealthy classes in ,england stand in great need of their ,christianity in order to be able to endure their bad digestions and their headaches47 ,finally1 to mention not only the disgusting but also the more pleasant side of the matter1 these people are by no means mere gluttons3 our century and its spirit of activity has more power over the limbs than the belly4 ,what then is the meaning of these banquets8 ,they represent6 ,what in ,heaven's name do they represent8 ,rank8--no1 money6 ,there is no rank now6 ,we are all 8individuals06 but money now stands for power1 glory1 pre-eminence1 dignity1 and influence2 money at the present time acts as a greater or lesser moral prejudice for a man in proportion to the amount he may possess4 ,nobody wishes to hide it under a bushel or display it in heaps on a table3 hence money must have some representative which can be put on the table--so behold our banquets6 #bjd4 ,,dan ,,and ,,the ,,god ,,of ,,gold4--,whence arises this excessive impatience in our day which turns men into criminals even in circumstances which would be more likely to bring about the contrary tendency8 ,what induces one man to use false weights1 another to set his house on fire after having insured it for more than its value1 a third to take part in counterfeiting1 while three-fourths of our upper classes indulge in legalised fraud1 and suffer from the pangs of conscience that follow speculation and dealings on the ,stock ,exchange3 what gives rise to all this8 ,it is not real want1--for their existence is by no means precarious2 perhaps they have even enough to eat and drink without worrying1--but they are urged on day and night by a terrible impatience at seeing their wealth pile up so slowly1 and by an equally terrible longing and love for these heaps of gold4 ,in this impatience and love1 however1 we see re-appear once more that fanaticism of the desire for power which was stimulated in former times by the belief that we were in the possession of truth1 a fanaticism which bore such beautiful names that we could dare to be inhuman with a good conscience 7burning ,jews1 heretics1 and good books1 and exterminating entire cultures superior to ours1 such as those of ,peru and ,mexico74 ,the means of this desire for power are changed in our day1 but the same volcano is still smouldering1 impatience and intemperate love call for their victims1 and what was once done 8for the love of ,god0 is now done for the love of money1 i4e4 for the love of that which at present affords us the highest feeling of power and a good conscience4 #bje4 ,,the ,,people ,,of ,,israel4--,one of the spectacles which the next century will invite us to witness is the decision regarding the fate of the ,european ,jews4 ,it is quite obvious now that they have cast their die and crossed their ,rubicon3 the only thing that remains for them is either to become masters of ,europe or to lose ,europe1 as they once centuries ago lost ,egypt1 where they were confronted with similar alternatives4 ,in ,europe1 however1 they have gone through a schooling of eighteen centuries such as no other nation has ever undergone1 and the experiences of this dreadful time of probation have benefited not only the ,jewish community but1 even to a greater extent1 the individual4 ,as a consequence of this1 the resourcefulness of the modern ,jews1 both in mind and soul1 is extraordinary4 ,amongst all the inhabitants of ,europe it is the ,jews least of all who try to escape from any deep distress by recourse to drink or to suicide1 as other less gifted people are so prone to do4 ,every ,jew can find in the history of his own family and of his ancestors a long record of instances of the greatest coolness and perseverance amid difficulties and dreadful situations1 an artful cunning in fighting with misfortune and hazard4 ,and above all it is their bravery under the cloak of wretched submission1 their heroic spernere se sperni that surpasses the virtues of all the saints4 ,people wished to make them contemptible by treating them contemptibly for nearly twenty centuries1 and refusing them access to all honourable positions and dignities1 and by pushing them further down into the meaner trades--and under this process indeed they have not become any cleaner4 ,but contemptible8 ,they have never ceased for a moment from believing themselves qualified for the very highest functions1 nor have the virtues of the suffering ever ceased to adorn them4 ,their manner of honouring their parents and children1 the rationality of their marriages and marriage customs1 distinguishes them amongst all ,europeans4 ,besides this1 they have been able to create for themselves a sense of power and eternal vengeance from the very trades that were left to them 7or to which they were abandoned74 ,even in palliation of their usury we cannot help saying that1 without this occasional pleasant and useful torture inflicted on their scorners1 they would have experienced difficulty in preserving their self-respect for so long4 ,for our self-respect depends upon our ability to make reprisals in both good and evil things4 ,nevertheless1 their revenge never urges them on too far1 for they all have that liberty of mind1 and even of soul1 produced in men by frequent changes of place1 climate1 and customs of neighbours and oppressors1 they possess by far the greatest experience in all human intercourse1 and even in their passions they exercise the caution which this experience has developed in them4 ,they are so certain of their intellectual versatility and shrewdness that they never1 even when reduced to the direst straits1 have to earn their bread by manual labour as common workmen1 porters1 or farm hands4 ,in their manners we can still see that they have never been inspired by chivalric and noble feelings1 or that their bodies have ever been girt with fine weapons3 a certain obtrusiveness alternates with a submissiveness which is often tender and almost always painful4 ,now1 however1 that they unavoidably inter-marry more and more year after year with the noblest blood of ,europe1 they will soon have a considerable heritage of good intellectual and physical manners1 so that in another hundred years they will have a sufficiently noble aspect not to render themselves1 as masters1 ridiculous to those whom they will have subdued4 ,and this is important6 and therefore a settlement of the question is still premature4 ,they themselves know very well that the conquest of ,europe or any act of violence is not to be thought of2 but they also know that some day or other ,europe may1 like a ripe fruit1 fall into their hands1 if they do not clutch at it too eagerly4 ,in the meantime1 it is necessary for them to distinguish themselves in all departments of ,european distinction and to stand in the front rank3 until they shall have advanced so far as to determine themselves what distinction shall mean4 ,then they will be called the pioneers and guides of the ,europeans whose modesty they will no longer offend4 ,and then where shall an outlet be found for this abundant wealth of great impressions accumulated during such an extended period and representing ,jewish history for every ,jewish family1 this wealth of passions1 virtues1 resolutions1 resignations1 struggles1 and conquests of all kinds--where can it find an outlet but in great intellectual men and works6 ,on the day when the ,jews will be able to exhibit to us as their own work such jewels and golden vessels as no ,european nation1 with its shorter and less profound experience1 can or could produce1 when ,israel shall have changed its eternal vengeance into an eternal benediction for ,europe3 then that seventh day will once more appear when old ,jehovah may rejoice in ,himself1 in ,his creation1 in ,his chosen people--and all1 all of us1 will rejoice with ,him6 #bjf4 ,,the ,,impossible ,,class4--,poverty1 cheerfulness1 and independence--it is possible to find these three qualities combined in one individual2 poverty1 cheerfulness1 and slavery--this is likewise a possible combination3 and ,i can say nothing better to the workmen who serve as factory slaves2 presuming that it does not appear to them altogether to be a shameful thing to be utilised as they are1 as the screws of a machine and the stopgaps1 as it were1 of the human spirit of invention4 ,fie on the thought that merely by means of higher wages the essential part of their misery1 i4e4 their impersonal enslavement1 might be removed6 ,fie1 that we should allow ourselves to be convinced that1 by an increase of this impersonality within the mechanical working of a new society1 the disgrace of slavery could be changed into a virtue6 ,fie1 that there should be a regular price at which a man should cease to be a personality and become a screw instead6 ,are you accomplices in the present madness of nations which desire above all to produce as much as possible1 and to be as rich as possible8 ,would it not be your duty to present a counter-claim to them1 and to show them what large sums of internal value are wasted in the pursuit of such an external object8 ,but where is your internal value when you no longer know what it is to breathe freely2 when you have scarcely any command over your own selves1 and often feel disgusted with yourselves as with some stale food2 when you zealously study the newspapers and look enviously at your wealthy neighbour1 made covetous by the rapid rise and fall of power1 money1 and opinions2 when you no longer believe in a philosophy in rags1 or in the freedom of spirit of a man who has few needs2 when a voluntary and idyllic poverty without profession or marriage1 such as should suit the more intellectual ones among you1 has become for you an object of derision8 ,on the other hand1 the piping of the ,socialistic rat-catchers who wish to inspire you with foolish hopes is continually sounding in your ears3 they tell you to be ready and nothing further1 ready from this day to the next1 so that you wait and wait for something to come from outside1 though living in all other respects as you lived before--until this waiting is at length changed into hunger and thirst and fever and madness1 and the clay of the bestia triumphans at last dawns in all its glory4 ,every one of you should on the contrary say to himself3 8,it would be better to emigrate and endeavour to become a master in new and savage countries1 and especially to become master over myself1 changing my place of abode whenever the least sign of slavery threatens me1 endeavouring to avoid neither adventure nor war1 and1 if things come to the worst1 holding myself ready to die3 anything rather than continuing in this state of disgraceful thraldom1 this bitterness1 malice and rebelliousness60 ,this would be the proper spirit3 the workmen in ,europe ought to make it clear that their position as a class has become a human impossibility1 and not merely1 as they at present maintain1 the result of some hard and aimless arrangement of society4 ,they should bring about an age of great swarming forth from the ,european beehive such as has never yet been seen1 protesting by this voluntary and huge migration against machines and capital and the alternatives that now threaten them either of becoming slaves of the ,state or slaves of some revolutionary party4 ,may ,europe be freed from one-fourth of her inhabitants6 ,both she and they will experience a sensation of relief4 ,it is only far in the distance1 in the undertaking of vast colonisations1 that we shall be able to observe how much rationality1 fairness1 and healthy suspicion mother ,europe has incorporated in her sons--these sons who could no longer endure life in the home of the dull old woman1 always running the danger of becoming as bad-tempered1 irritable1 and pleasure-seeking as she herself4 ,the ,european virtues will travel along with these workmen far beyond the boundaries of ,europe2 and those very qualities which on their native soil had begun to degenerate into a dangerous discontent and criminal inclinations will1 when abroad1 be transformed into a beautiful1 savage naturalness and will be called heroism2 so that at last a purer air would again be wafted over this old1 over-populated1 and brooding ,europe of ours4 ,what would it matter if there was a scarcity of 8hands08 ,perhaps people would then recollect that they had accustomed themselves to many wants merely because it was easy to gratify them--it would be sufficient to unlearn some of these wants6 ,perhaps also ,chinamen would be called in1 and these would bring with them their modes of living and thinking1 which would be found very suitable for industrious ants4 ,they would also perhaps help to imbue this fretful and restless ,europe with some of their ,asiatic calmness and contemplation1 and--what is perhaps most needful of all--their ,asiatic stability4 #bjg4 ,,the ,,attitude ,,of ,,the ,,germans ,,to ,,morality4--,a ,german is capable of great things1 but he is unlikely to accomplish them1 for he obeys whenever he can1 as suits a naturally lazy intellect4 ,if he is ever in the dangerous situation of having to stand alone and cast aside his sloth1 when he finds it no longer possible to disappear like a cipher in a number 7in which respect he is far inferior to a ,frenchman or an ,englishman71 he shows his true strength3 then he becomes dangerous1 evil1 deep1 and audacious1 and exhibits to the light of day that wealth of latent energy which he had previously carried hidden in himself1 and in which no one1 not even himself1 had ever believed4 ,when in such a case a ,german obeys himself--it is very exceptional for him to do so--he does so with the same heaviness1 inflexibility1 and endurance with which he obeys his prince and performs his official duties3 so that1 as ,i have said1 he is then capable of great things which bear no relation to the 8weak disposition0 he attributes to himself4 ,as a rule1 however1 he is afraid of depending upon himself alone1 he is afraid of taking the initiative3 that is why ,germany uses up so many officials and so much ink4 ,light-heartedness is a stranger to the ,german2 he is too timid for it3 but in entirely new situations which rouse him from his torpor he exhibits an almost frivolous spirit--he then delights in the novelty of his new position as if it were some intoxicating drink1 and he is1 as we know1 quite a connoisseur in intoxication4 ,it thus happens that the ,german of the present day is almost always frivolous in politics1 though even here he has the advantage and prejudice of thoroughness and seriousness2 and1 although he may take full advantage of these qualities in negotiations with other political powers1 he nevertheless rejoices inwardly at being able for once in his life to feel enthusiastic and capricious1 to show his fondness for innovations1 and to change persons1 parties1 and hopes as if they were masks4 ,those learned ,german scholars1 who hitherto have been considered as the most ,german of ,germans1 were and perhaps still are as good as the ,german soldiers on account of their profound and almost childish inclination to obey in all external things1 and on account of being often compelled to stand alone in science and to answer for many things3 if they can only preserve their proud1 simple1 and patient disposition1 and their freedom from political madness at those times when the wind changes1 we may yet expect great things from them--such as they are or such as they were1 they are the embryonic stage of something higher4 ,so far the advantages and disadvantages of the ,germans1 including even their learned men1 have been that they were more given to superstition and showed greater eagerness to believe than any of the other nations2 their vices are1 and always have been1 their drunkenness and suicidal inclinations 7the latter a proof of the clumsiness of their intellect1 which is easily tempted to throw away the reins74 ,their danger is to be sought in everything that binds down the faculties of reason and unchains the passions 7as1 for example1 the excessive use of music and spirits71 for the ,german passion acts contrarily to its own advantage1 and is as self-destructive as the passions of the drunkard4 ,indeed1 ,german enthusiasm is worth less than that of other nations1 for it is barren4 ,when a ,german ever did anything great it was done at a time of danger1 or when his courage was high1 with his teeth firmly set and his prudence on the alert1 and often enough in a fit of generosity4--,intercourse with these ,germans is indeed advisable1 for almost every one of them has something to give1 if we can only understand how to make him find it1 or rather recover it 7for he is very untidy in storing away his knowledge74 ,well3 when people of this type occupy themselves with morals1 what precisely will be the morality that will satisfy them8 ,in the first place1 they will wish to see idealised in their morals their sincere instinct for obedience4 8,man must have something which he can implicitly obey0--this is a ,german sentiment1 a ,german deduction2 it is the basis of all ,german moral teaching4 ,how different is the impression1 however1 when we compare this with the entire morality of the ancient world6 ,all those ,greek thinkers1 however varied they may appear to us1 seem to resemble1 as moralists1 the gymnastic teacher who encourages his pupils by saying1 8,come1 follow me6 ,submit to my discipline6 ,then perhaps you may carry off the prize from all the other ,greeks40 ,personal distinction3 such was the virtue of antiquity4 ,submission1 obedience1 whether public or private3 such is ,german virtue4 ,long before ,kant set forth his doctrine of the ,categorical ,imperative1 ,luther1 actuated by the same impulse1 said that there surely must be a being in whom man could trust implicitly--it was his proof of the existence of ,god2 it was his wish1 coarser and more popular than that of ,kant1 that people should implicitly obey a person and not an idea1 and ,kant also finally took his roundabout route through morals merely that he might secure obedience for the person4 ,this is indeed the worship of the ,german1 the more so as there is now less worship left in his religion4 ,the ,greeks and ,romans had other opinions on these matters1 and would have laughed at such 8there must be a being03 it is part of the boldness of their ,southern nature to take up a stand against 8implicit belief10 and to retain in their inmost heart a trace of scepticism against all and every one1 whether ,god1 man1 or idea4 ,the thinker of antiquity went even further1 and said nil admirari3 in this phrase he saw reflected all philosophy4 ,a ,german1 ,schopenhauer1 goes so far in the contrary direction as to say3 admirari id est philosophari4 ,but what if1 as happens now and then1 the ,german should attain to that state of mind which would enable him to perform great things8 if the hour of exception comes1 the hour of disobedience8 ,i do not think ,schopenhauer is right in saying that the single advantage the ,germans have over other nations is that there are more atheists among them than elsewhere2 but ,i do know this3 whenever the ,german reaches the state in which he is capable of great things1 he invariably raises himself above morals6 ,and why should he not8 ,now he has something new to do1 viz4 to command--either himself or others6 ,but this ,german morality of his has not taught him how to command6 ,commanding has been forgotten in it4 ,,book ,,iv4 #bjh4 ,a ,,question ,,of ,,conscience4--8,now1 in summa1 tell me what this new thing is that you want40--8,we no longer wish causes to be sinners and effects to be executioners40 #bji4 ,,the ,,utility ,,of ,,the ,,strictest ,,theories4--,people are indulgent towards a man's moral weaknesses1 and in this connection they use a coarse sieve1 provided that he always professes to hold the most strict moral theories4 ,on the other hand1 the lives of free-thinking moralists have always been examined closely through a microscope1 in the tacit belief that an error in their lives would be the best argument against their disagreeable knowledge47#f7 #baj4 ,,the 8,,thing ,,in ,,itself40--,we used to ask formerly3 ,what is the ridiculous8--as if there were something above and beyond ourselves that possessed the quality of provoking laughter1 and we exhausted ourselves in trying to guess what it was 7a theologian even held that it might be 8the navet of sin074 ,at the present time we ask3 ,what is laughter8 how does it arise8 ,we have considered the point1 and finally reached the conclusion that there is nothing which is good1 beautiful1 sublime1 or evil in itself2 but rather that there are conditions of soul which lead us to attribute such qualities to things outside ourselves and in us4 ,we have taken back their predicates from things2 or we have at all events recollected that we have merely lent the things these predicates4 ,let us be careful that this insight does not cause us to lose the faculty of lending1 and that we do not become at the same time wealthier and more avaricious4 #baa4 ,,to ,,those ,,who ,,dream ,,of ,,immortality4--,so you desire the everlasting perpetuity of this beautiful consciousness of yourselves8 ,is it not shameful8 ,do you forget all those other things which would in their turn have to support you for all eternity1 just as they have borne with you up to the present with more than ,christian patience8 ,or do you think that you can inspire them with an eternally pleasant feeling towards yourself8 ,a single immortal man on earth would imbue everyone around him with such a disgust for him that a general epidemic of murder and suicide would be brought about4 ,and yet1 ye petty dwellers on earth1 with your narrow conceptions of a few thousand little minutes of time1 ye would wish to be an everlasting burden on this everlasting universal existence6 ,could anything be more impertinent8 ,after all1 however1 let us be indulgent towards a being of seventy years3 he has not been able to exercise his imagination in conceiving his own 8eternal tediousness0--he had not time enough for that6 #bab4 ,,wherein ,,we ,,know ,,ourselves4--,as soon as one animal sees another it mentally compares itself with it2 and men of uncivilised ages did the same4 ,the consequence is that almost all men come to know themselves only as regards their defensive and offensive faculties4 #bac4 ,,men ,,whose ,,lives ,,have ,,been ,,failures4--,some men are built of such stuff that society is at liberty to do what it likes with them--they will do well in any case1 and will not have to complain of having failed in life4 ,other men are formed of such peculiar material--it need not be a particularly noble one1 but simply rarer--that they are sure to fare ill except in one single instance3 when they can live according to their own designs1--in all other cases the injury has to be borne by society4 ,for everything that seems to the individual to be a wasted or blighted life1 his entire burden of discouragement1 powerlessness1 sickness1 irritation1 covetousness1 is attributed by him to society--and thus a heavy1 vitiated atmosphere is gradually formed round society1 or1 in the most favourable cases1 a thundercloud4 #bad4 ,,what ,,indulgence6--,you suffer1 and call upon us to be indulgent towards you1 even when in your suffering you are unjust towards things and men6 ,but what does our indulgence matter6 ,you1 however1 should take greater precautions for your own sake6 ,that's a nice way of compensating yourself for your sufferings1 by imposing still further suffering on your own judgment6 ,your own revenge recoils upon yourselves when you start reviling something3 you dim your own eyes in this way1 and not the eyes of others2 you accustom yourself to looking at things in the wrong way1 and with a squint4 #bae4 ,,the ,,morality ,,of ,,victims4--8,enthusiastic sacrifice10 8self-immolation0--these are the catch-words of your morality1 and ,i willingly believe that you1 as you say1 8mean it honestly03 but ,i know you better than you know yourselves1 if your 8honesty0 is capable of going arm in arm with such a morality4 ,you look down from the heights of this morality upon that other sober morality which calls for self-control1 severity1 and obedience2 you even go so far as to call it egoistic--and you are indeed frank towards yourselves in saying that it displeases you--it must displease you6 ,for1 in sacrificing and immolating yourselves with such enthusiasm1 you delight in the intoxication of the thought that you are now one with the powerful being1 ,god or man1 to whom you are consecrating yourselves3 you revel in the feeling of his power1 which is again attested by this sacrifice4 ,in reality1 however1 you only appear to sacrifice yourselves2 for your imagination turns you into gods and you enjoy yourselves as such4 ,judged from the point of view of this enjoyment1 how poor and feeble must that other 8egoistic0 morality of obedience1 duty1 and reason seem to you3 it is displeasing to you because in this instance true self-sacrifice and self-surrender are called for1 without the victim thinking himself to be transformed into a god1 as you do4 ,in a word1 you want intoxication and excess1 and this morality which you despise takes up a stand against intoxication and excess--no wonder it causes you some displeasure6 #baf4 ,,evil ,,people ,,and ,,music4--,should the full bliss of love1 which consists in unlimited confidence1 ever have fallen to the lot of persons other than those who are profoundly suspicious1 evil1 and bitter8 ,for such people enjoy in this bliss the gigantic1 unlooked-for1 and incredible exception of their souls6 ,one day they are seized with that infinite1 dreamy sensation which is entirely opposed to the remainder of their private and public life1 like a delicious enigma1 full of golden splendour1 and impossible to be described by mere words or similes4 ,implicit confidence makes them speechless--there is even a species of suffering and heaviness in this blissful silence2 and this is why souls that are overcome with happiness generally feel more grateful to music than others and better ones do3 for they see and hear through music1 as through a coloured mist1 their love becoming1 as it were1 more distant1 more touching1 and less heavy4 ,music is the only means that such people have of observing their extraordinary condition and of becoming aware of its presence with a feeling of estrangement and relief4 ,when the sound of music reaches the ears of every lover he thinks3 8,it speaks of me1 it speaks in my stead2 it knows everything60 #bag4 ,,the ,,artist4--,the ,germans wish to be transported by the artist into a state of dreamy passion2 by his aid the ,italians wish to rest from their real passions2 the ,french wish him to give them an opportunity of showing their judgment and of making speeches4 ,so let us be just6 #bah4 ,,to ,,deal ,,like ,,an ,,artist ,,with ,,one',s ,,weaknesses4--,if we must positively have weaknesses and come in the end to look upon them as laws beyond ourselves1 ,i wish that everybody may be possessed of as much artistic capacity as will enable him to set off his virtues by means of his weaknesses1 and to make us1 through his weaknesses1 desirous of acquiring his virtues3 a power which great musicians have possessed in quite an exceptional degree4 ,how frequently do we notice in ,beethoven's music a coarse1 dogmatic1 and impatient tone2 in ,mozart1 the joviality of an honest man1 whose heart and mind have not overmuch to give us2 in ,richard ,wagner1 an abrupt and aggressive restlessness1 in the midst of which1 just as the most patient listener is on the point of losing his temper1 the composer regains his powers1 and likewise the others4 ,through their very weaknesses1 these musicians have created in us an ardent desire for their virtues1 and have given us a palate which is ten times more sensitive to every note of this tuneful intellect1 tuneful beauty1 and tuneful goodness4 #bai4 ,,deceit ,,in ,,humiliation4--,by your foolishness you have done a great wrong to your neighbour and destroyed his happiness irretrievably--and then1 having overcome your vanity1 you humble yourself before him1 surrender your foolishness to his contempt1 and fancy that1 after this difficult scene1 which is an exceedingly painful one for you1 everything has been set right1 that your own voluntary loss of honour compensates your neighbour for the injury you have done to his happiness4 ,with this feeling you take your leave comforted1 believing that your virtue has been re-established4 ,your neighbour1 however1 suffers as intensely as before4 ,he finds nothing to comfort him in the fact that you have been irrational and have told him so3 on the contrary1 he remembers the painful appearance you presented to him when you were disparaging yourself in his presence--it is as if another wound had been inflicted on him4 ,he does not think of revenging himself1 however2 and cannot conceive how a proper balance can be struck between you and him4 ,in point of fact1 you have been acting that scene for yourself and before yourself3 you invited a witness to be present1 not on his account1 but on your own--don't deceive yourself6 #bbj4 ,,dignity ,,and ,,timidity4--,ceremonies1 official robes and court dresses1 grave countenances1 solemn aspects1 the slow pace1 involved speech--everything1 in short1 known as dignity--are all pretences adopted by those who are timid at heart3 they wish to make themselves feared 7themselves or the things they represent74 ,the fearless 7i4e4 originally those who naturally inspire others with awe7 have no need of dignity and ceremonies3 they bring into repute--or1 still more1 into ill-repute--honesty and straightforward words and bearing1 as characteristics of their self-confident awefulness4 #bba4 ,,the ,,morality ,,of ,,sacrifice4--,the morality which is measured by the spirit of sacrifice is that of a semi-civilised state of society4 ,reason in this instance gains a hard-fought and bloody victory within the soul2 for there are powerful contrary instincts to be overcome4 ,this cannot be brought about without the cruelty which the sacrifices to cannibal gods demand4 #bbb4 ,,where ,,fanaticism ,,is ,,to ,,be ,,desired4--,phlegmatic natures can be rendered enthusiastic only by being fanaticised4 #bbc4 ,,the ,,dreaded ,,eye4--,nothing is dreaded more by artists1 poets1 and writers than the eye which sees through their little deceptions and subsequently notices how often they have stopped at the boundary where the paths branch off either to innocent delight in themselves or to the straining after effect2 the eye which checks them when they try to sell little things dear1 or when they try to exalt and adorn without being exalted themselves2 the eye which1 despite all the artifices of their art1 sees the thought as it first presented itself to them1 perhaps as a charming vision of light1 perhaps also1 however1 as a theft from the whole world1 or as an everyday conception which they had to expand1 contract1 colour1 wrap up1 and spice1 in order to make something out of it1 instead of the thought making something out of them4--,oh1 this eye1 which sees in your work all your restlessness1 inquisitiveness1 and covetousness1 your imitation and exaggeration 7which is only envious imitation7 which knows both your blush of shame and your skill in concealing it from others and interpreting it to yourselves6 #bbd4 ,,the 8,,edifying0 ,,element ,,in ,,our ,,neighbour',s ,,misfortune4--,he is in distress1 and straightway the 8compassionate0 ones come to him and depict his misfortune to him4 ,at last they go away again1 satisfied and elevated1 after having gloated over the unhappy man's misfortune and their own1 and spent a pleasant ,sunday afternoon4 #bbe4 ,,to ,,be ,,quickly ,,despised4--,a man who speaks a great deal1 and speaks quickly1 soon sinks exceedingly low in our estimation1 even when he speaks rationally--not only to the extent that he annoys us personally1 but far lower4 ,for we conjecture how great a burden he has already proved to many other people1 and we thus add to the discomfort which he causes us all the contempt which we presume he has caused to others4 #bbf4 ,,relations ,,with ,,celebrities4--,a4 ,but why do you shun this great man8--,b4 ,i should not like to misunderstand him4 ,our defects are incompatible with one another3 ,i am short-sighted and suspicious1 and he wears his false diamonds as willingly as his real ones4 #bbg4 ,,the ,,chain-,,wearers4--,beware of all those intellects which are bound in chains6 clever women1 for example1 who have been banished by fate to narrow and dull surroundings1 amid which they grow old4 ,true1 there they lie in the sun1 apparently lazy and half-blind2 but at every unknown step1 at everything unexpected1 they start up to bite3 they revenge themselves on everything that has escaped their kennel4 #bbh4 ,,revenge ,,in ,,praise4--,here we have a written page which is covered with praise1 and you call it flat2 but when you find out that revenge is concealed in this praise you will find it almost too subtle1 and you will experience a great deal of pleasure in its numerous delicate and bold strokes and similes4 ,it is not the man himself1 but his revenge1 which is so subtle1 rich1 and ingenious3 he himself is scarcely aware of it4 #bbi4 ,,pride4--,ah1 not one of you knows the feeling of the tortured man after he has been put to the torture1 when he is being carried back to his cell1 and his secret with him6--he still holds it in a stubborn and tenacious grip4 ,what know ye of the exultation of human pride8 #bcj4 8,,utilitarian40--,at the present time men's sentiments on moral things run in such labyrinthic paths that1 while we demonstrate morality to one man by virtue of its utility1 we refute it to another on account of this utility4 #bca4 ,,on ,,german ,,virtue4--,how degenerate in its taste1 how servile to dignities1 ranks1 uniforms1 pomp1 and splendour must a nation have been1 when it began to consider the simple as the bad1 the simple man 7schlicht7 as the bad man 7schlecht76 ,we should always oppose the moral bumptiousness of the ,germans with this one little word 8bad10 and nothing else4 #bcb4 ,,from ,a ,,dispute4--,a4 ,friend1 you have talked yourself hoarse4--,b4 ,then ,i am refuted1 so let's drop the subject4 #bcc4 ,,the 8,,conscientious0 ,,ones4--,have you noticed the kind of men who attach the greatest value to the most scrupulous conscientiousness8 ,those who are conscious of many mean and petty sentiments1 who are anxiously thinking of and about themselves1 are afraid of others1 and are desirous of concealing their inmost feelings as far as possible4 ,they endeavour to impose upon themselves by means of this strict conscientiousness and rigorousness of duty1 and by the stern and harsh impression which others1 especially their inferiors1 cannot fail to receive of them4 #bcd4 ,,dread ,,of ,,fame4--,a4 ,the endeavour to avoid one's renown1 the intentional offending of one's panegyrists1 the dislike of hearing opinions about one's self1 and all through fear of renown3 instances like these are to be met with2 they actually exist--believe it or not6--,b4 ,they are found1 no doubt6 ,they exist6 ,a little patience1 ,sir ,arrogance6 #bce4 ,,refusing ,,thanks4--,we are perfectly justified in refusing a request1 but it is never right to refuse thanks--or1 what comes to the same thing1 to accept them coldly and conventionally4 ,this gives deep offence--and why8 #bcf4 ,,punishment4--,a strange thing1 this punishment of ours6 ,it does not purify the criminal2 it is not a form of expiation2 but1 on the contrary1 it is even more defiling than the crime itself4 #bcg4 ,,party ,,grievances4--,in almost every party there is a ridiculous1 but nevertheless somewhat dangerous grievance4 ,the sufferers from it are those who have long been the faithful and honourable upholders of the doctrine propagated by the party1 and who suddenly remark that one day a much stronger figure than themselves has got the ear of the public4 ,how can they bear being reduced to silence8 ,so they raise their voices1 sometimes changing their notes4 #bch4 ,,striving ,,for ,,gentleness4--,when a vigorous nature has not an inclination towards cruelty1 and is not always preoccupied with itself2 it involuntarily strives after gentleness--this is its distinctive characteristic4 ,weak natures1 on the other hand1 have a tendency towards harsh judgments--they associate themselves with the heroes of the contempt of mankind1 the religious or philosophical traducers of existence1 or they take up their position behind strict habits and punctilious 8callings03 in this way they seek to give themselves a character and a kind of strength4 ,this is likewise done quite involuntarily4 #bci4 ,a ,,hint ,,to ,,moralists4--,our musicians have made a great discovery4 ,they have found out that interesting ugliness is possible even in their art2 this is why they throw themselves with such enthusiastic intoxication into this ocean of ugliness1 and never before has it been so easy to make music4 ,it is only now that we have got the general1 dark-coloured background1 upon which every luminous ray of fine music1 however faint1 seems tinged with golden emerald lustre2 it is only now that we dare to inspire our audience with feelings of impetuosity and indignation1 taking away their breath1 so to speak1 in order that we may afterwards1 in an interval of restful harmony1 inspire them with a feeling of bliss which will be to the general advantage of a proper appreciation of music4 ,we have discovered the contrast3 it is only now that the strongest effects are possible--and cheap4 ,no one bothers any more about good music4 ,but you must hurry up6 ,when any art has once made this discovery1 it has but a short space of time to live4--,oh1 if only our thinkers could probe into the depths of the souls of our musicians when listening to their music6 ,how long we must wait until we again have an opportunity of surprising the inward man in the very act of his evil doing1 and his innocence of this act6 ,for our musicians have not the slightest suspicion that it is their own history1 the history of the disfigurement of the soul1 which they are transposing into music4 ,in former times a good musician was almost forced by the exigencies of his art to become a good man--and now6 #bdj4 ,,the ,,morality ,,of ,,the ,,stage4--,the man who imagines that the effect of ,shakespeare's plays is a moral one1 and that the sight of ,macbeth irresistibly induces us to shun the evil of ambition1 is mistaken1 and he is mistaken once more if he believes that ,shakespeare himself thought so4 ,he who is truly obsessed by an ardent ambition takes delight in beholding this picture of himself2 and when the hero is driven to destruction by his passion1 this is the most pungent spice in the hot drink of this delight4 ,did the poet feel this in another way8 ,how royally and with how little of the knave in him does his ambitious hero run his course from the moment of his great crime6 ,it is only from this moment that he becomes 8demoniacally0 attractive1 and that he encourages similar natures to imitate him4--,there is something demoniacal here3 something which is in revolt against advantage and life1 in favour of a thought and an impulse4 ,do you think that ,tristan and ,isolde are warnings against adultery1 merely because adultery has resulted in the death of both of them8 ,this would be turning poets upside down1 these poets who1 especially ,shakespeare1 are in love with the passions in themselves1 and not less so with the readiness for death which they give rise to3 this mood in which the heart no more clings to life than a drop of water does to the glass4 ,it is not the guilt and its pernicious consequences which interests these poets--,shakespeare as little as ,sophocles 7in the ,ajax1 ,philoctetes1 dipus7--however easy it might have been in the cases just mentioned to make the guilt the lever of the play1 it was carefully avoided by the poets4 ,in the same way the tragic poet by his images of life does not wish to set us against life4 ,on the contrary1 he exclaims2 8,it is the charm of charms1 this exciting1 changing1 and dangerous existence of ours1 so often gloomy and so often bathed in sun6 ,life is an adventure--whichever side you may take in life it will always retain this character60--,thus speaks the poet of a restless and vigorous age1 an age which is almost intoxicated and stupefied by its superabundance of blood and energy1 in an age more evil than our own3 and this is why it is necessary for us to adapt and accommodate ourselves first to the purpose of a ,shakespearian play1 that is1 by misunderstanding it4 #bda4 ,,fear ,,and ,,intelligence4--,if that which is now expressly maintained is true1 viz4 that the cause of the black pigment of the skin must not be sought in light1 might this phenomenon perhaps be the ultimate effect of frequent fits of passion accumulated for century after century 7and an afflux of blood under the skin78 while in other and more intelligent races the equally frequent spasms of fear and blanching may have resulted in the white colour of the skin8--,for the degree of timidity is the standard by which the intelligence may be measured2 and the fact that men give themselves up to blind anger is an indication that their animal nature is still near the surface1 and is longing for an opportunity to make its presence felt once more4 ,thus a brownish-grey would probably be the primitive colour of man--something of the ape and the bear1 as is only proper4 #bdb4 ,,independence4--,independence 7which in its weakest form is called 8freedom of thought07 is the type of resignation which the tyrannical man ends by accepting--he who for a long time had been looking for something to govern1 but without finding anything except himself4 #bdc4 ,,the ,,two ,,courses4--,when we endeavour to examine the mirror in itself we discover in the end that we can detect nothing there but the things which it reflects4 ,if we wish to grasp the things reflected we touch nothing in the end but the mirror4--,this is the general history of knowledge4 #bdd4 ,,delight ,,in ,,reality4--,our present inclination to take delight in reality--for almost every one of us possesses it--can only be explained by the fact that we have taken delight in the unreal for such a long time that we have got tired of it4 ,this inclination in its present form1 without choice and without refinement1 is not without danger--its least danger is its want of taste4 #bde4 ,,the ,,subtlety ,,of ,,the ,,feeling ,,of ,,power4--,napoleon was greatly mortified at the fact that he could not speak well1 and he did not deceive himself in this respect3 but his thirst for power1 which never despised the slightest opportunity of showing itself1 and which was still more subtle than his subtle intellect1 led him to speak even worse than he might have done4 ,it was in this way that he revenged himself upon his own mortification 7he was jealous of all his emotions because they possessed power7 in order to enjoy his autocratic pleasure4 ,he enjoyed this pleasure a second time in respect to the ears and judgment of his audience1 as if it were good enough for them to be addressed in this way4 ,he even secretly enjoyed the thought of bewildering their judgment and good taste by the thunder and lightning of his highest authority--that authority which lies in the union of power and genius--while both his judgment and his good taste held fast proudly and indifferently to the truth that he did not speak well4--,napoleon1 as the complete and fully developed type of a single instinct1 belongs to ancient humanity1 whose characteristic--the simple construction and ingenious development and realisation of a single motive or a small number of motives--may be easily enough recognised4 #bdf4 ,,aristotle ,,and ,,marriage4--,insanity makes its appearance in the children of great geniuses1 and stupidity in those of the most virtuous--so says ,aristotle4 ,did he mean by this to invite exceptional men to marry8 #bdg4 ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,a ,,bad ,,temperament4--,injustice and instability in the minds of certain men1 their disordered and immoderate manner1 are the ultimate consequences of the innumerable logical inexactitudes1 superficialities1 and hasty conclusions of which their ancestors have been guilty4 ,men of a good temperament1 on the other hand1 are descended from solid and meditative races which have set a high value upon reason--whether for praiseworthy or evil purposes is of no great importance4 #bdh4 ,,dissimulation ,,as ,a ,,duty4--,kindness has been best developed by the long dissimulation which endeavoured to appear as kindness3 wherever great power existed the necessity for dissimulation of this nature was recognised--it inspires security and confidence1 and multiplies the actual sum of our physical power4 ,falsehood1 if not actually the mother1 is at all events the nurse of kindness4 ,in the same way1 honesty has been brought to maturity by the need for a semblance of honesty and integrity3 in hereditary aristocracies4 ,the persistent exercise of such a dissimulation ends by bringing about the actual nature of the thing itself3 the dissimulation in the long run suppresses itself1 and organs and instincts are the unexpected fruits in this garden of hypocrisy4 #bdi4 ,,who1 ,,then1 ,,is ,,ever ,,alone4--,the faint-hearted wretch does not know what it means to be lonely4 ,an enemy is always prowling in his tracks4 ,oh1 for the man who could give us the history of that subtle feeling called loneliness6 #bej4 ,,night ,,and ,,music4--,it was only at night time1 and in the semi-obscurity of dark forests and caverns1 that the ear1 the organ of fear1 was able to develop itself so well1 in accordance with the mode of living of the timid--that is1 the longest human epoch which has ever yet existed3 when it is clear daylight the ear is less necessary4 ,hence the character of music1 which is an art of night and twilight4 #bea4 ,,stoical4--,the ,stoic experiences a certain sense of cheerfulness when he feels oppressed by the ceremonial which he has prescribed for himself3 he enjoys himself then as a ruler4 #beb4 ,,consider4--,the man who is being punished is no longer he who has done the deed4 ,he is always the scapegoat4 #bec4 ,,appearance4--,alas6 what must be best and most resolutely proved is appearance itself2 for only too many people lack eyes to observe it4 ,but it is so tiresome6 #bed4 ,,those ,,who ,,anticipate4--,what distinguishes poetic natures1 but is also a danger for them1 is their imagination1 which exhausts itself in advance3 which anticipates what will happen or what may happen1 which enjoys and suffers in advance1 and which at the final moment of the event or the action is already fatigued4 ,lord ,byron1 who was only too familiar with this1 wrote in his diary3 8,if ever ,i have a son he shall choose a very prosaic profession--that of a lawyer or a pirate40 #bee4 ,,conversation ,,on ,,music4-- ,a4 ,what do you say to that music8 ,b4 ,it has overpowered me1 ,i can say nothing about it4 ,listen6 there it is beginning again4 ,a4 ,all the better6 ,this time let us do our best to overpower it4 ,will you allow me to add a few words to this music8 and also to show you a drama which perhaps at your first hearing you did not wish to observe8 ,b4 ,very well1 ,i have two ears and even more if necessary2 move up closer to me4 ,a4 ,we have not yet heard what he wishes to say to us1 up to the present he has only promised to say something--something as yet unheard1 so he gives us to understand by his gestures1 for they are gestures4 ,how he beckons6 ,how he raises himself up6 ,how he gesticulates6 and now the moment of supreme tension seems to have come to him3 two more fanfares1 and he will present us with his superb and splendidly-adorned theme1 rattling1 as it were1 with precious stones4 ,is it a handsome woman8 or a beautiful horse8 ,enough1 he looks about him as if enraptured1 for he must assemble looks of rapture4 ,it is only now that his theme quite pleases him3 it is only now that he becomes inventive and risks new and audacious features4 ,how he forces out his theme6 ,ah1 take care6--he not only understands how to adorn1 but also how to gloss it over6 ,yes1 he knows what the colour of health is1 and he knows how to make it up1--he is more subtle in his self-consciousness than ,i thought4 ,and now he is convinced that he has convinced his hearers2 he sets off his impromptus as if they were the most important things under the sun3 he points to his theme with an insolent finger as if it were too good for this world4--,ah1 how distrustful he is6 ,he is afraid we may get tired6--that is why he buries his melody in sweet notes4--,now he even appeals to our coarser senses that he may excite us and thus get us once again into his power4 ,listen to him as he conjures up the elementary force of tempestuous and thundering rhythms6 ,and now that he sees that these things have captivated our attention1 strangle us1 and almost overwhelm us1 he once again ventures to introduce his theme amidst this play of the elements in order to convince us1 confused and agitated as we are1 that our confusion and agitation are the effects of his miraculous theme4 ,and from now onwards his hearers believe in him3 as soon as the theme is heard once more they are reminded of its thrilling elementary effects4 ,the theme profits by this recollection--now it has become demoniacal6 ,what a connoisseur of the soul he is6 ,he gains command over us by all the artifices of the popular orator4 ,but the music has stopped again4 ,b4 ,and ,i am glad of it2 for ,i could no longer bear listening to your observations6 ,i should prefer ten times over to let myself be deceived to knowing the truth once after your version4 ,a4 ,that is just what ,i wished to hear from you4 ,the best people now are just like you3 you are quite content to let yourselves be deceived4 ,you come here with coarse1 lustful ears1 and you do not bring with you your conscience of the art of listening4 ,on the way here you have cast away your intellectual honesty1 and thus you corrupt both art and artists4 ,whenever you applaud and cheer you have in your hands the conscience of the artists--and woe to art if they get to know that you cannot distinguish between innocent and guilty music6 ,i do not indeed refer to 8good0 and 8bad0 music--we meet with both in the two kinds of music mentioned6 but ,i call innocent music that which thinks only of itself and believes only in itself1 and which on account of itself has forgotten the world at large--this spontaneous expression of the most profound solitude which speaks of itself and with itself1 and has entirely forgotten that there are listeners1 effects1 misunderstandings and failures in the world outside4 ,in short1 the music which we have just heard is precisely of this rare and noble type2 and everything ,i said about it was a fable--pardon my little trick if you will6 ,b4 ,oh1 then you like this music1 too8 ,in that case many sins shall be forgiven you6 #bef4 ,,the ,,happiness ,,of ,,the ,,evil ,,ones4--,these silent1 gloomy1 and evil men possess a peculiar something which you cannot dispute with them--an uncommon and strange enjoyment in the dolce far niente2 a sunset and evening rest1 such as none can enjoy but a heart which has been too often devoured1 lacerated1 and poisoned by the passions4 #beg4 ,,words ,,present ,,in ,,our ,,minds4--,we always express our thoughts with those words which lie nearest to hand4 ,or rather1 if ,i may reveal my full suspicion2 at every moment we have only the particular thought for the words that are present in our minds4 #beh4 ,,flattering ,,the ,,dog4--,you have only to stroke this dog's coat once1 and he immediately splutters and gives off sparks like any other flatterer--and he is witty in his own way4 ,why should we not endure him thus8 #bei4 ,,the ,,quondam ,,panegyrist4--8,he has now become silent now in regard to me1 although he knows the truth and could tell it2 but it would sound like vengeance--and he values truth so highly1 this honourable man60 #bfj4 ,,the ,,amulet ,,of ,,dependent ,,men4--,he who is unavoidably dependent upon some master ought to possess something by which he can inspire his master with fear1 and keep him in check3 integrity1 for example1 or probity1 or an evil tongue4 #bfa4 ,,why ,,so ,,sublime6--,oh1 ,i know them well this breed of animals6 ,certainly it pleases them better to walk on two legs 8like a god0--but it pleases me better when they fall back on their four feet4 ,this is incomparably more natural for them6 #bfb4 ,,the ,,demon ,,of ,,power4--,neither necessity nor desire1 but the love of power1 is the demon of mankind4 ,you may give men everything possible--health1 food1 shelter1 enjoyment--but they are and remain unhappy and capricious1 for the demon waits and waits2 and must be satisfied4 ,let everything else be taken away from men1 and let this demon be satisfied1 and then they will nearly be happy--as happy as men and demons can be2 but why do ,i repeat this8 ,luther has already said it1 and better than ,i have done1 in the verses3 8,and though they take our life1 ,goods1 honour1 children1 wife1 ,yet is their profit small1 ,these things shall vanish all1 ,the ,kingdom it remaineth40 ,the ,kingdom6 there it is again67#g7 #bfc4 ,,contradiction ,,incarnate ,,and ,,animated4--,there is a physiological contradiction in what is called genius3 genius possesses on the one hand a great deal of savage disorder and involuntary movement1 and on the other hand a great deal of superior activity in this movement4 ,joined to this a genius possesses a mirror which reflects the two movements beside one another1 and within one another1 but often opposed to one another4 ,genius in consequence of this sight is often unhappy1 and if it feels its greatest happiness in creating1 it is because it forgets that precisely then1 with the highest determinate activity1 it does something fantastic and irrational 7such is all art7 and cannot help doing it4 #bfd4 ,,deceiving ,,one',s ,,self4--,envious men with a discriminating intuition endeavour not to become too closely acquainted with their rivals in order that they may feel themselves superior to them4 #bfe4 ,,there ,,is ,a ,,time ,,for ,,the ,,theatre4--,when the imagination of a people begins to diminish1 there arises the desire to have its legends represented on the stage3 it then tolerates the coarse substitutes for imagination4 ,in the age of the epic rhapsodist1 however1 the theatre itself1 and the actor dressed up as a hero1 form an obstacle in the path of the imagination instead of acting as wings for it--too near1 too definite1 too heavy1 and with too little of dreamland and the flights of birds about them4 #bff4 ,,without ,,charm4--,he lacks charm and knows it4 ,ah1 how skilful he is in masking this defect6 ,he does it by a strict virtue1 gloomy looks1 and acquired distrust of all men1 and of existence itself2 by coarse jests1 by contempt for a more refined manner of living1 by pathos and pretensions1 and by a cynical philosophy--yea1 he has even developed into a character through the continual knowledge of his deficiency4 #bfg4 ,,why ,,so ,,proud8--,a noble character is distinguished from a vulgar one by the fact that the latter has not at ready command a certain number of habits and points of view like the former3 fate willed that they should not be his either by inheritance or by education4 #bfh4 ,,the ,,orator',s ,,scylla ,,and ,,charybdis4--,how difficult it was in ,athens to speak in such a way as to win over the hearers to one's cause without repelling them at the same time by the form in which one's speech was cast1 or withdrawing their attention from the cause itself by this form6 ,how difficult it still is to write thus in ,france6 #bfi4 ,,sick ,,people ,,and ,,art4--,for all kinds of sadness and misery of soul we should first of all try a change of diet and severe manual labour2 but in such cases men are in the habit of having recourse to mental intoxicants1 to art for example--which is both to their own detriment and that of art6 ,can you not see that when you call for art as sick people you make the artists themselves sick8 #bgj4 ,,apparent ,,toleration4--,those are good1 benevolent1 and rational words on and in favour of science1 but1 alas6 ,i see behind these words your toleration of science4 ,in a corner of your inmost mind you think1 in spite of all you say1 that it is not necessary for you1 that it shows magnanimity on your part to admit and even to advocate it1 more especially as science on its part does not exhibit this magnanimity in regard to your opinion6 ,do you know that you have no right whatever to exercise this toleration8 that this condescension of yours is an even coarser disparagement of science than any of that open scorn which a presumptuous priest or artist might allow himself to indulge in towards science8 ,what is lacking in you is a strong sense for everything that is true and actual1 you do not feel grieved and worried to find that science is in contradiction to your own sentiments1 you are unacquainted with that intense desire for knowledge ruling over you like a law1 you do not feel a duty in the need of being present with your own eyes wherever knowledge exists1 and to let nothing that is 8known0 escape you4 ,you do not know that which you are treating with such toleration6 and it is only because you do not know it that you can succeed in adopting such a gracious attitude towards it4 ,you1 forsooth1 would look upon science with hatred and fanaticism if it for once cast its shining and illuminating glance upon you6 ,what does it matter to us1 then1 if you do exhibit toleration--and towards a phantom6 and not even towards us6--and what do we matter6 #bga4 ,,festive ,,moods4--,it is exactly those men who aspire most ardently towards power who feel it indescribably agreeable to be overpowered6 to sink suddenly and deeply into a feeling as into a whirlpool6 ,to suffer the reins to be snatched out of their hand1 and to watch a movement which takes them they know not where6 ,whatever or whoever may be the person or thing that renders us this service1 it is nevertheless a great service3 we are so happy and breathless1 and feel around us an exceptional silence1 as if we were in the most central bowels of the earth4 ,to be for once entirely powerless6 the plaything of the elementary forces of nature6 ,there is a restfulness in this happiness1 a casting away of the great burden1 a descent without fatigue1 as if one had been given up to the blind force of gravity4 ,this is the dream of the mountain climber1 who1 although he sees his goal far above him1 nevertheless falls asleep on the way from utter exhaustion1 and dreams of the happiness of the contrast--this effortless rolling down hill4 ,i describe happiness as ,i imagine it to be in our present-day society1 the badgered1 ambitious society of ,europe and ,america4 ,now and then they wish to fall back into impotence--this enjoyment is offered them by wars1 arts1 religions1 and geniuses4 ,when a man has temporarily abandoned himself to a momentary impression which devours and crushes everything--and this is the modern festive mood--he afterwards becomes freer1 colder1 more refreshed1 and more strict1 and again strives tirelessly after the contrary of all this3 power4 #bgb4 ,,the ,,purification ,,of ,,races4--,it is probable that there are no pure races1 but only races which have become purified1 and even these are extremely rare47#h7 ,we more often meet with crossed races1 among whom1 together with the defects in the harmony of the bodily forms 7for example when the eyes do not accord with the mouth7 we necessarily always find defects of harmony in habits and appreciations4 7,livingstone heard some one say1 8,god created white and black men1 but the devil created the half-castes407 ,crossed races are always at the same time crossed cultures and crossed moralities3 they are1 as a rule1 more evil1 cruel1 and restless4 ,purity is the final result of innumerable adjustments1 absorptions1 and eliminations2 and progress towards purity in a race is shown by the fact that the latent strength in the race is more and more restricted to a few special functions1 whilst it formerly had to carry out too many and often contradictory things4 ,such a restriction will always have the appearance of an impoverishment1 and must be judged with prudence and moderation4 ,in the long run1 however1 when the process of purification has come to a successful termination1 all those forces which were formerly wasted in the struggle between the disharmonious qualities are at the disposal of the organism as a whole1 and this is why purified races have always become stronger and more beautiful4--,the ,greeks may serve us as a model of a purified race and culture6--and it is to be hoped that some day a pure ,european race and culture may arise4 #bgc4 ,,praise4--,here is some one who1 you perceive1 wishes to praise you3 you bite your lips and brace up your heart3 ,oh1 that that cup might go hence6 ,but it does not1 it comes6 let us therefore drink the sweet impudence of the panegyrist1 let us overcome the disgust and profound contempt that we feel for the innermost substance of his praise1 let us assume a look of thankful joy--for he wished to make himself agreeable to us6 ,and now that it is all over we know that he feels greatly exalted2 he has been victorious over us4 ,yes1 and also over himself1 the villain6--for it was no easy matter for him to wring this praise from himself4 #bgd4 ,,the ,,rights ,,and ,,privileges ,,of ,,man4--,we human beings are the only creatures who1 when things do not go well with us1 can blot ourselves out like a clumsy sentence1--whether we do so out of honour for humanity or pity for it1 or on account of the aversion we feel towards ourselves4 #bge4 ,,the ,,transformed ,,being4--,now he becomes virtuous2 but only for the sake of hurting others by being so4 ,don't pay so much attention to him4 #bgf4 ,,how ,,often6 ,,how ,,unexpected6--,how may married men have some morning awakened to the fact that their young wife is dull1 although she thinks quite the contrary6 not to speak of those wives whose flesh is willing but whose intellect is weak6 #bgg4 ,,warm ,,and ,,cold ,,virtues4--,courage is sometimes the consequence of cold and unshaken resolution1 and at other times of a fiery and reckless lan4 ,for these two kinds of courage there is only the one name6--but how different1 nevertheless1 are cold virtues and warm virtues6 and the man would be a fool who could suppose that 8goodness0 could only be brought about by warmth1 and no less a fool he who would only attribute it to cold4 ,the truth is that mankind has found both warm and cold courage very useful1 yet not often enough to prevent it from setting them both in the category of precious stones4 #bgh4 ,,the ,,gracious ,,memory4--,a man of high rank will do well to develop a gracious memory1 that is1 to note all the good qualities of people and remember them particularly2 for in this way he holds them in an agreeable dependence4 ,a man may also act in this way towards himself3 whether or not he has a gracious memory determines in the end the superiority1 gentleness1 or distrust with which he observes his own inclinations and intentions1 and finally even the nature of these inclinations and intentions4 #bgi4 ,,wherein ,,we ,,become ,,artists4--,he who makes an idol of some one endeavours to justify himself in his own eyes by idealising this person3 in other words1 he becomes an artist that he may have a clear conscience4 ,when he suffers he does not suffer from his ignorance1 but from the lie he has told himself to make himself ignorant4 ,the inmost misery and desire of such a man--and all passionate lovers are included in this category--cannot be exhausted by normal means4 #bhj4 ,,childlike4--,those who live like children--those who have not to struggle for their daily bread1 and do not think that their actions have any ultimate signification--remain childlike4 #bha4 ,,our ,,ego ,,desires ,,everything4--,it would seem as if men in general were only inspired by the desire to possess3 languages at least would permit of this supposition1 for they view past actions from the standpoint that we have been put in possession of something--8,i have spoken1 struggled1 conquered0--as if to say1 ,i am now in possession of my word1 my struggle1 my victory4 ,how greedy man appears in this light6 he cannot even let the past escape him3 he even wishes to have it still6 #bhb4 ,,danger ,,in ,,beauty4--,this woman is beautiful and intelligent3 alas1 how much more intelligent she would have become if she had not been beautiful6 #bhc4 ,,domestic ,,and ,,mental ,,peace4--,our habitual mood depends upon the mood in which we maintain our habitual entourage4 #bhd4 ,,new ,,things ,,as ,,old ,,ones4--,many people seem irritated when something new is told them3 they feel the ascendancy which the news has given to the person who has learnt it first4 #bhe4 ,,what ,,are ,,the ,,limits ,,of ,,the ,,ego4--,the majority of people take under their protection1 as it were1 something that they know1 as if the fact of knowing it was sufficient in itself to make it their property4 ,the acquisitiveness of the egoistic feeling has no limits3 ,great men speak as if they had behind them the whole of time1 and had placed themselves at the head of this enormous host2 and good women boast of the beauty of their children1 their clothes1 their dog1 their physician1 or their native town1 but the only thing they dare not say is1 8,i am all that40 ,chi non ha non --as they say in ,italy4 #bhf4 ,,domestic ,,animals1 ,,pets ,,and ,,the ,,like4--,could there be anything more repugnant than the sentimentality which is shown to plants and animals--and this on the part of a creature who from the very beginning has made such ravages among them as their most ferocious enemy1--and who ends by even claiming affectionate feelings from his weakened and mutilated victims6 ,before this kind of 8nature0 man must above all be serious1 if he is any sort of a thinking being4 #bhg4 ,,two ,,friends4--,they were friends once1 but now they have ceased to be so1 and both of them broke off the friendship at the same time1 the one because he believed himself to be too greatly misunderstood1 and the other because he thought he was known too intimately--and both were wrong6 ,for neither of them knew himself well enough4 #bhh4 ,,the ,,comedy ,,of ,,the ,,noble ,,souls4--,those who cannot succeed in exhibiting a noble and cordial familiarity endeavour to let the nobleness of their nature be seen by their exercise of reserve and strictness1 and a certain contempt for familiarity1 as if their strong sense of confidence were ashamed to show itself4 #bhi4 ,,where ,,we ,,may ,,say ,,nothing ,,against ,,virtue4--,among cowards it is thought bad form to say anything against bravery1 for any expression of this kind would give rise to some contempt2 and unfeeling people are irritated when anything is said against pity47#i7 #bij4 ,a ,,waste4--,we find that with irritable and abrupt people their first words and actions generally afford no indication of their actual character--they are prompted by circumstances1 and are to some extent simply reproductions of the spirit of these circumstances4 ,because1 however1 as the words have been uttered and the deeds done1 the subsequent words and deeds1 indicating the real nature of such people1 have often to be used to reconcile1 amend1 or extinguish the former4 #bia4 ,,arrogance4--,arrogance is an artificial and simulated pride2 but it is precisely the essential nature of pride to be incapable of artifice1 simulation1 or hypocrisy--and thus arrogance is the hypocrisy of the incapacity for hypocrisy1 a very difficult thing1 and one which is a failure in most cases4 ,but if we suppose that1 as most frequently happens1 the presumptuous person betrays himself1 then a treble annoyance falls to his lot3 people are angry with him because he has endeavoured to deceive them1 and because he wished to show himself superior to them1 and finally they laugh at him because he failed in both these endeavours4 ,how earnestly1 therefore1 should we dissuade our fellow-men from arrogance6 #bib4 ,a ,,species ,,of ,,misconception4--,when we hear somebody speak it is often sufficient for his pronunciation of a single consonant 7the letter r1 for example7 to fill us with doubts as to the honesty of his feelings3 we are not accustomed to this particular pronunciation1 and should have to make it ourselves as it were arbitrarily--it sounds 8forced0 to us4 ,this is the domain of the greatest possible misconception3 and it is the same with the style of a writer who has certain habits which are not the habits of everybody4 ,his 8artlessness0 is felt as such only by himself1 and precisely in regard to that which he himself feels to be 8forced0 7because he has yielded in this matter to the prevailing fashion and to so called 8good taste071 he may perhaps give pleasure and inspire confidence4 #bic4 ,,thankful4--,one superfluous grain of gratitude and piety makes one suffer as from a vice--in spite of all one's independence and honesty one begins to have a bad conscience4 #bid4 ,,saints4--,it is the most sensual men who find it necessary to avoid women and to torture their bodies4 #bie4 ,,the ,,subtlety ,,of ,,serving4--,one of the most subtle tasks in the great art of serving is that of serving a more than usually ambitious man1 who1 indeed1 is excessively egoistic in all things1 but is entirely adverse to being thought so 7this is part of his ambition74 ,he requires that everything shall be according to his own will and humour1 yet in such a way as to give him the appearance of always having sacrificed himself1 and of rarely desiring anything for himself alone4 #bif4 ,,duelling4--,i think it a great advantage1 said some one1 to be able to fight a duel--if1 of course1 it is absolutely necessary2 for ,i have at all times brave companions about me4 ,the duel is the last means of thoroughly honourable suicide left to us2 but it is unfortunately a circuitous means1 and not even a certain one4 #big4 ,,pernicious4--,a young man can be most surely corrupted when he is taught to value the like-minded more highly than the differently minded4 #bih4 ,,hero-,,worship ,,and ,,its ,,fanatics4--,the fanatic of an ideal that possesses flesh and blood is right as a rule so long as he assumes a negative attitude1 and he is terrible in his negation3 he knows what he denies as well as he knows himself1 for the simple reason that he comes thence1 that he feels at home there1 and that he has always the secret fear of being forced to return there some day4 ,he therefore wishes to make his return impossible by the manner of his negation4 ,as soon as he begins to affirm1 however1 he partly shuts his eyes and begins to idealise 7frequently merely for the sake of annoying those who have stayed at home74 ,we might say that there was something artistic about this--agreed1 but there is also something dishonest about it4 ,the idealist of a person imagines this person to be so far from him that he can no longer see him distinctly1 and then he travesties that which he can just perceive into something 8beautiful0--that is to say1 symmetrical1 vaguely outlined1 uncertain4 ,since he wishes to worship from afar that ideal which floats on high in the distance1 he finds it essential to build a temple for the object of his worship as a protection from the profanum vulgus4 ,he brings into this temple for the object of his worship all the venerable and sanctified objects which he still possesses1 so that his ideal may benefit by their charm1 and that1 nourished in this way1 it may grow more and more divine4 ,in the end he really succeeds in forming his ,god1 but1 alas for him6 there is some one who knows how all this has been done1 viz4 his intellectual conscience2 and there is also some one who1 quite unconsciously1 begins to protest against these things1 viz4 the deified one himself1 who1 in consequence of all this worship1 praise1 and incense1 now becomes completely unbearable and shows himself in the most obvious and dreadful manner to be non-divine1 and only too human4 ,in a case like this there is only one means of escape left for such a fanatic2 he patiently suffers himself and his fellows to be maltreated1 and interprets all this misery in maiorem dei gloriam by a new kind of self-deceit and noble falsehood4 ,he takes up a stand against himself1 and in doing so experiences1 as an interpreter and ill-treated person1 something like martyrdom--and in this way he climbs to the height of his conceit4 ,men of this kind to be found1 for example1 in the entourage of ,napoleon3 indeed1 perhaps it may have been he who inspired the soul of his century with that romantic prostration in the presence of the 8genius0 and the 8hero10 which was so foreign to the spirit of rationalism of the nineteenth century--a man about whom even ,byron was not ashamed to say that he was a 8worm compared with such a being40 7,the formul of this prostration have been discovered by ,thomas ,carlyle1 that arrogant old muddle-head and grumbler1 who spent his long life in trying to romanticise the common sense of his ,englishmen3 but in vain67 #bii4 ,,the ,,appearance ,,of ,,heroism4--,throwing ourselves in the midst of our enemies may be a sign of cowardice4 #cjj4 ,,condescending ,,towards ,,the ,,flatterer4--,it is the ultimate prudence of insatiably ambitious men not only to conceal their contempt for man which the sight of flatterers causes them3 but also to appear even condescending to them1 like a ,god who can be nothing if not condescending4 #cja4 8,,strength ,,of ,,character40--8,what ,i have said once ,i will do0--,this manner of thinking is believed to indicate great strength of character4 ,how many actions are accomplished1 not because they have been selected as being the most rational1 but because at the moment when we thought of them they influenced our ambition and vanity by some means or another1 so that we do not stop until we have blindly carried them out4 ,thus they strengthen in us our belief in our character and our good conscience1 in short our strength2 whilst the choice of the most rational acts possible brings about a certain amount of scepticism towards ourselves1 and thus encourages a sense of weakness in us4 #cjb4 ,,once1 ,,twice1 ,,and ,,thrice ,,true4--,men lie unspeakably and often1 but they do not think about it afterwards1 and generally do not believe in it4 #cjc4 ,,the ,,pastime ,,of ,,the ,,psychologist4--,he thinks he knows me1 and fancies himself to be subtle and important when he has any kind of relations with me2 and ,i take care not to undeceive him4 ,for in such a case ,i should suffer for it1 while now he wishes me well because ,i arouse in him a feeling of conscious superiority4--,there is another1 who fears that ,i think ,i know him1 and feels a sense of inferiority at this4 ,as a result he behaves in a timid and vacillating manner1 in my presence1 and endeavours to mislead me in regard to himself so that he may regain an ascendancy over me4 #cjd4 ,,the ,,destroyers ,,of ,,the ,,world4--,when some men fail to accomplish what they desire to do they exclaim angrily1 8,may the whole world perish60 ,this odious feeling is the height of envy which reasons thus3 because ,i cannot have one thing the whole world in general must have nothing6 the whole world shall not exist6 #cje4 ,,greed4--,when we set out to buy something our greed increases with the cheapness of the object--,why8 ,is it because the small differences in price make up the little eye of greed8 #cjf4 ,,the ,,greek ,,ideal4--,what did the ,greeks admire in ,ulysses8 ,above all his capacity for lying and for taking a shrewd and dreadful revenge1 his being equal to circumstances1 his appearing to be nobler than the noblest when necessary1 his ability to be everything he desired1 his heroic pertinacity1 having all means within his command1 possessing genius--the genius of ,ulysses is an object of the admiration of the gods1 they smile when they think of it--all this is the ,greek ideal6 ,what is most remarkable about it is that the contradiction between seeming and being was not felt in any way1 and that as a consequence it could not be morally estimated4 ,were there ever such accomplished actors8 #cjg4 ,,facta6 ,,yes1 ,,facta ,,ficta6--,the historian need not concern himself with events which have actually happened1 but only those which are supposed to have happened2 for none but the latter have produced an effect4 ,the same remark applies to the imaginary heroes4 ,his theme--this so-called world-history--what is it but opinions on imaginary actions and their imaginary motives1 which in their turn give rise to opinions and actions the reality of which1 however1 is at once evaporated1 and is only effective as vapour1--a continual generating and impregnating of phantoms above the dense mists of unfathomable reality4 ,all historians record things which have never existed1 except in imagination4 #cjh4 ,,not ,,to ,,understand ,,trade ,,is ,,noble4--,to sell one's virtue only at the highest price1 or even to carry on usury with it as a teacher1 a civil servant1 or an artist1 for instance1 brings genius and talent down to the level of the common tradesman4 ,we must be careful not to be clever with our wisdom6 #cji4 ,,fear ,,and ,,love4--,the general knowledge of mankind has been furthered to a greater extent by fear than by love2 for fear endeavours to find out who the other is1 what he can do1 and what he wants3 it would be dangerous and prejudicial to be deceived on this point4 ,on the other hand1 love is induced by its secret craving to discover as many beautiful qualities as possible in the loved object1 or to raise this loved object as high as possible3 it is a joy and an advantage to love to be deceived in this way--and this is why it does it4 #caj4 ,,good-,,natured ,,people4--,good-natured people have acquired their character from the continual fear of foreign attacks in which their ancestors lived1--these ancestors1 who were in the habit of mitigating and tranquillising1 humbling themselves1 preventing1 distracting1 flattering1 and apologising1 concealing their grief and anger1 and preserving an unruffled countenance1--and they ultimately bequeathed all this delicate and well-formed mechanism to their children and grandchildren4 ,these latter1 thanks to their more favourable lot1 did not experience this feeling of dread1 but they nevertheless continue in the same groove4 #caa4 ,,the ,,so-,,called ,,soul4--,the sum-total of those internal movements which come naturally to men1 and which they can consequently set in motion readily and gracefully1 is called the soul--men are looked upon as void of soul when they let it be seen that their inward emotions are difficult and painful to them4 #cab4 ,,the ,,forgetful ,,ones4--,in outbursts of passion and the delusions of dreams and madness1 man rediscovers his own primitive history1 and that of humanity3 animality and its savage grimaces4 ,for once his memory stretches back into the past1 while his civilised condition is developed from the forgetfulness of these primitive experiences1 that is to say1 from the failing of this memory4 ,he who1 as a forgetful man of a higher nature1 has always remained aloof from these things1 does not understand men--but it is an advantage if from time to time there are individuals who do not understand men1 individuals who are1 so to speak1 created from the divine seed and born of reason4 #cac4 ,,the ,,friend ,,whom ,,we ,,want ,,no ,,longer4--,that friend whose hopes we cannot satisfy we should prefer to have as an enemy4 #cad4 ,,in ,,the ,,society ,,of ,,thinkers4--,in the midst of the ocean of becoming we adventurers and birds of passage wake up on an island no larger than a small boat1 and here we look round us for a moment with as much haste and curiosity as possible2 for how quickly may some gale blow us away or some wave sweep over the little island and leave nothing of us remaining6 ,here1 however1 upon this little piece of ground we meet with other birds of passage and hear of still earlier ones1--and thus we live together for one precious minute of recognition and divining1 amid the cheerful fluttering of wings and joyful chirping1 and then adventure in spirit far out on the ocean1 feeling no less proud than the ocean itself4 #cae4 ,,parting ,,with ,,something4--,to give up some of our property1 or to waive a right1 gives pleasure when it denotes great wealth4 ,generosity may be placed in this category4 #caf4 ,,weak ,,sects4--,those sects which feel that they will always remain weak hunt up a few intelligent individual adherents1 wishing to make up in quality what they lack in quantity4 ,this gives rise to no little danger for intelligent minds4 #cag4 ,,the ,,judgment ,,of ,,the ,,evening4--,the man who meditates upon his day's and life's work when he has reached the end of his journey and feels weary1 generally arrives at a melancholy conclusion2 but this is not the fault of the day or his life1 but of weariness4--,in the midst of creative work we do not take time1 as a rule1 to meditate upon life and existence1 nor yet in the midst of our pleasures3 but if by a chance this did happen once we should no longer believe him to be right who waited for the seventh day and for repose to find everything that exists very beautiful4--,he had missed the right moment4 #cah4 ,,beware ,,of ,,systemisers6--,there is a certain amount of comedy about systemisers3 in trying to complete a system and to round off its horizon they have to try to let their weaker qualities appear in the same style as their stronger ones4--,they wish to represent complete and uniformly strong natures4 #cai4 ,,hospitality4--,the object of hospitality is to paralyse all hostile feeling in a stranger4 ,when we cease to look upon strangers as enemies1 hospitality diminishes2 it flourishes so long as its evil presupposition does4 #cbj4 ,,the ,,weather4--,an exceptional and uncertain state of the weather makes men suspicious even of one another3 at the same time they come to like innovations1 for they must diverge from their accustomed habits4 ,this is why despots like those countries where the weather is moral4 #cba4 ,,danger ,,in ,,innocence4--,innocent people become easy victims in all circumstances because their lack of knowledge prevents them from distinguishing between moderation and excess1 and from being betimes on their guard against themselves4 ,it is as a result of this that innocent1 that is1 ignorant young women become accustomed to the frequent enjoyment of sexual intercourse1 and feel the want of it very much in later years when their husbands fall ill or grow prematurely old4 ,it is on account of this harmless and orthodox conception1 as if frequent sexual intercourse were right and proper1 that they come to experience a need which afterwards exposes them to the severest tribulations1 and even worse4 ,considering the matter1 however1 from a higher and more general point of view1 whoever loves a man or a thing without knowing him or it1 falls a prey to something which he would not love if he could see it4 ,in all cases where experience1 precautions1 and prudent steps are required1 it is the innocent man who will be most thoroughly corrupted1 for he has to drink with closed eyes the dregs and most secret poison of everything put before him4 ,let us consider the procedure of all princes1 churches1 sects1 parties1 and corporations3 ,is not the innocent man always used as the sweetest bait for the most dangerous and wicked traps8--just as ,ulysses availed himself of the services of the innocent ,neoptolemos to cheat the old and infirm anchorite and ogre of ,lemnos out of his bow and arrows4 ,christianity1 with its contempt for the world1 has made ignorance a virtue--innocence1 perhaps because the most frequent result of this innocence is precisely1 as ,i have indicated above1 guilt1 the sense of guilt1 and despair3 ,in other words1 a virtue which leads to ,heaven by the circuitous route of ,hell2 for only then can the gloomy propyla of ,christian salvation be thrown open1 and only then is the promise of a posthumous second innocence effective4 ,this is one of the finest inventions of ,christianity6 #cbb4 ,,living ,,without ,a ,,doctor ,,when ,,possible4--,it seems to me that a sick man lives more carelessly when he is under medical observation than when he attends to his own health4 ,in the first case it suffices for him to obey strictly all his ,doctor's prescriptions2 but in the second case he gives more attention to the ultimate object of these prescriptions1 namely1 his health2 he observes much more1 and submits himself to a more severe discipline than the directions of his physician would compel him to do4 ,all rules have this effect3 they distract our attention from the fundamental aim of the rule1 and make us more thoughtless4 ,but to what heights of immoderation and destruction would men have risen if ever they had completely and honestly left everything to the ,godhead as to their physician1 and acted in accordance with the words 8as ,god will06 #cbc4 ,,the ,,darkening ,,of ,,the ,,heavens4--,do you know the vengeance of those timid people who behave in society just as if they had stolen their limbs8 ,the vengeance of the humble1 ,christian-like souls who just manage to slink quietly through the world8 ,the vengeance of those who always judge hastily1 and are as hastily said to be in the wrong8 ,the vengeance of all classes of drunkards1 for whom the morning is always the most miserable part of the day8 and also of all kinds of invalids and sick and depressed people who have no longer the courage to become healthy8 ,the number of these petty vengeful people1 and1 even more1 the number of their petty acts of revenge1 is incalculable4 ,the air around us is continually whizzing with the discharged arrows of their malignity1 so that the sun and the sky of their lives become darkened thereby1--and1 alas6 not only theirs1 but more often ours and other men's3 and this is worse than the frequent wounds which they make on our skins and hearts4 ,do we not occasionally deny the existence of the sun and sky merely because we have not seen them for so long8--,well then1 solitude6 because of this1 solitude6 #cbd4 ,,the ,,psychology ,,of ,,the ,,actor4--,it is the blissful illusion of all great actors to imagine that the historical personages whom they are representing were really in the same state of mind as they themselves are when interpreting them--but in this they are very much mistaken4 ,their powers of imitation and divination1 which they would fain exhibit as a clairvoyant faculty1 penetrate only far enough to explain gestures1 accent1 and looks1 and in general anything exterior3 that is1 they can grasp the shadow of the soul of a great hero1 statesman1 or warrior1 or of an ambitious1 jealous1 or desperate person--they penetrate fairly near to the soul1 but they never reach the inmost spirit of the man they are imitating4 ,it would1 indeed1 be a fine thing to discover that instead of thinkers1 psychologists1 or experts we required nothing but clairvoyant actors to throw light upon the essence of any condition4 ,let us never forget1 whenever such pretensions are heard1 that the actor is nothing but an ideal ape--so much of an ape is he1 indeed1 that he is not capable of believing in the 8essence0 or in the 8essential03 everything becomes for him merely performance1 intonation1 attitude1 stage1 scenery1 and public4 #cbe4 ,,living ,,and ,,believing ,,apart4--,the means of becoming the prophet and wonder-worker of one's age are the same to-day as in former times3 one must live apart1 with little knowledge1 some ideas1 and a great deal of presumption--we then finish by believing that mankind cannot do without us1 because it is clear that we can do without it4 ,when we are inspired with this belief we find faith4 ,finally1 a piece of advice to him who needs it 7it was given to ,wesley by ,boehler1 his spiritual teacher73 8,preach faith until you have it2 then you will preach it because you have it60 #cbf4 ,,knowing ,,our ,,circumstances4--,we may estimate our powers1 but not our power4 ,not only do circumstances conceal it from us and show it to us time about1 but they even exaggerate or diminish it4 ,we must consider ourselves as variable quantities whose productive capacity may in favourable circumstances reach the greatest possible heights3 we must therefore reflect upon these circumstances1 and spare no pains in studying them4 #cbg4 ,a ,,fable4--,the ,don ,juan of knowledge--no philosopher or poet has yet succeeded in discovering him4 ,he is wanting in love for the things he recognises1 but he possesses wit1 a lust for the hunting after knowledge1 and the intrigues in connection with it1 and he finds enjoyment in all these1 even up to the highest and most distant stars of knowledge--until at last there is nothing left for him to pursue but the absolutely injurious side of knowledge1 just as the drunkard who ends by drinking absinthe and aquafortis4 ,that is why last of all he feels a longing for hell1 for this is the final knowledge which seduces him4 ,perhaps even this would disappoint him1 as all things do which one knows6 and then he would have to stand still for all eternity1 a victim to eternal deception1 and transformed into his enemy1 the ,stony ,guest1 who longs for an evening meal of knowledge which will never more fall to his share6 for the whole world of things will not have another mouthful left to offer to these hungry men4 #cbh4 ,,what ,,idealistic ,,theories ,,disclose4--,we are most certain to find idealistic theories among unscrupulously practical men2 for such men stand in need of the lustre of these theories for the sake of their reputation4 ,they adopt them instinctively without by any means feeling hypocritical in doing so--no more hypocritical than ,englishmen with their ,christianity and their ,sabbath-keeping4 ,on the other hand1 contemplative natures who have to keep themselves on the guard against all kinds of fantasies and who dread to be reputed as enthusiasts1 are only to be satisfied with hard realistic theories3 they take possession of them under the same instinctive compulsion without thereby losing their honesty4 #cbi4 ,,the ,,calumniators ,,of ,,cheerfulness4--,people who have been deeply wounded by the disappointments of life look with suspicion upon all cheerfulness as if it were something childish and puerile1 and revealed a lack of common sense that moves them to pity and tenderness1 such as one would experience when seeing a dying child caressing his toys on his death-bed4 ,such men appear to see hidden graves under every rose2 rejoicings1 tumult1 and cheerful music appear to them to be the voluntary illusions of a man who is dangerously ill and yet wishes to take a momentary draught from the intoxicating cup of life4 ,but this judgment about cheerfulness is merely the reflection of the latter on the dark background of weariness and ill-health3 in itself it is something touching1 irrational1 and pitiable1 even childlike and puerile1 but connected with that second childhood which follows in the train of old age1 and is the harbinger of death4 #ccj4 ,,not ,,yet ,,enough6--,it is not sufficient to prove a case1 we must also tempt or raise men to it3 hence the wise man must learn to convey his wisdom2 and often in such a manner that it may sound like foolishness6 #cca4 ,,right ,,and ,,limits4--,asceticism is the proper mode of thinking for those who must extirpate their carnal instincts1 because these are ferocious beasts1--but only for such people6 #ccb4 ,,the ,,bombastic ,,style4--,an artist who does not wish to put his elevated feelings into a work and thus unburden himself1 but who rather wishes to impart these feelings of elevation to others1 becomes pompous1 and his style becomes the bombastic style4 #ccc4 8,,humanity40--,we do not consider animals as moral beings4 ,but do you think that animals consider us as moral beings8 ,an animal which had the power of speech once said3 8,humanity is a prejudice from which we animals at least do not suffer40 #ccd4 ,,the ,,charitable ,,man4--,the charitable man gratifies a need of his own inward feelings when doing good4 ,the stronger this need is the less does such a man try to put himself in the place of those who serve the purpose of gratifying his desire3 he becomes indelicate and sometimes even offensive4 7,this remark applies to the benevolence and charity of the ,jews1 which1 as is well known1 is somewhat more effusive than that of other peoples477#aj7 #cce4 ,,that ,,love ,,may ,,be ,,felt ,,as ,,love4--,we must be honest towards ourselves1 and must know ourselves very well indeed1 to be able to practise upon others that humane dissimulation known as love and kindness4 #ccf4 ,,what ,,are ,,we ,,capable ,,of8--,a man who had been tormented all day by his wicked and malicious son slew him in the evening1 and then with a sigh of relief said to the other members of his family3 8,well now we can sleep in peace40 ,who knows what circumstances might drive us to6 #ccg4 8,,natural40--,to be natural1 at least in his deficiencies1 is perhaps the last praise that can be bestowed upon an artificial artist1 who is in other respects theatrical and half genuine4 ,such a man will for this very reason boldly parade his deficiencies4 #cch4 ,,conscience-,,substitute4--,one man is another's conscience3 and this is especially important when the other has none else4 #cci4 ,,the ,,transformation ,,of ,,duties4--,when our duties cease to be difficult of accomplishment1 and after long practice become changed into agreeable delights and needs1 then the rights of others to whom our duties 7though now our inclinations7 refer change into something else3 that is1 they become the occasion of pleasant feelings for us4 ,henceforth the 8other10 by virtue of his rights1 becomes an object of love to us instead of an object of reverence and awe as formerly4 ,it is our own pleasure we seek when we recognise and maintain the extent of his power4 ,when the ,quietists no longer felt their ,christian faith as a burden1 and experienced their delight only in ,god1 they took the motto3 8,do all to the glory of ,god40 ,whatever they performed henceforth in this sense was no longer a sacrifice1 it was as much as to say1 8,everything for the sake of our pleasure40 ,to demand that duty should be always rather burdensome1 as ,kant does1 is to demand that it shall never develop into a habit or custom4 ,there is a small residue of ascetic cruelty in this demand4 #cdj4 ,,appearances ,,are ,,against ,,the ,,historian4--,it is a sufficiently demonstrated fact that human beings come from the womb2 nevertheless when children grow up and stand by the side of their mother this hypothesis appears very absurd--all appearances are against it4 #cda4 ,,the ,,advantage ,,of ,,ignorance4--,some one has said that in his childhood he experienced such a contempt for the caprices and whims of a melancholy temperament that1 until he had grown up and had become a middle-aged man1 he did not know what his own temperament was like3 it was precisely a melancholy temperament4 ,he declared that this was the best of all possible kinds of ignorance4 #cdb4 ,,do ,,not ,,be ,,deceived6--,yes1 he examined the matter from every side and you think him to be a man of profound knowledge4 ,but he only wishes to lower the price--he wants to buy it6 #cdc4 ,a ,,moral ,,pretence4--,you refuse to be dissatisfied with yourselves or to suffer from yourselves1 and this you call your moral tendency6 ,very well2 another may perhaps call it your cowardice6 ,one thing1 however1 is certain1 and that is that you will never take a trip round the world 7and you yourselves are this world71 and you will always remain in yourselves an accident and a clod on the face of the earth6 ,do you fancy that we who hold different views from you are merely exposing ourselves out of pure folly to the journey through our own deserts1 swamps1 and glaciers1 and that we are voluntarily choosing grief and disgust with ourselves1 like the ,stylites8 #cdd4 ,,subtlety ,,in ,,mistakes4--,if ,homer1 as they say1 sometimes nodded1 he was wiser than all the artists of sleepless ambition4 ,we must allow admirers to stop for a time and take breath by letting them find fault now and then2 for nobody can bear an uninterruptedly brilliant and untiring excellence--and instead of doing good such a master would merely become a taskmaster1 whom we hate while he precedes us4 #cde4 ,,our ,,happiness ,,is ,,not ,,an ,,argument ,,either ,,pro ,,or ,,con4--,many men are only capable of a small share of happiness3 and it is not an argument against their wisdom if this wisdom is unable to afford them a greater degree of happiness1 any more than it is an argument against medical skill that many people are incurable1 and others always ailing4 ,may every one have the good fortune to discover the conception of existence which will enable him to realise his greatest share of happiness6 though this will not necessarily prevent his life from being miserable and not worth envying4 #cdf4 ,,the ,,enemies ,,of ,,women4--8,woman is our enemy0--,the man who speaks to men in this way exhibits an unbridled lust which not only hates itself but also its means4 #cdg4 ,,the ,,school ,,of ,,the ,,orator4--,when a man has kept silence for a whole year he learns to stop chattering1 and to discourse instead4 ,the ,pythagoreans were the best statesmen of their age4 #cdh4 ,,the ,,feeling ,,of ,,power4--,note the distinction3 the man who wishes to acquire the feeling of power seizes upon any means1 and looks upon nothing as too petty which can foster this feeling4 ,he who already possesses power1 however1 has grown fastidious and refined in his tastes2 few things can be found to satisfy him4 #cdi4 ,,not ,,so ,,very ,,important4--,when we are present at a death-bed there regularly arises in us a thought that we immediately suppress from a false sense of propriety3 the thought that the act of dying is less important than the customary veneration of it would wish us to believe1 and that the dying man has probably lost in his life things which were more important than he is now about to lose by his death4 ,in this case the end is certainly not the goal4 #cej4 ,,the ,,best ,,way ,,to ,,promise4--,when a man makes a promise it is not merely the word that promises1 but what lies unexpressed behind the word4 ,words indeed weaken a promise by discharging and using up a power which forms part of that power which promises4 ,therefore shake hands when making a promise1 but put your finger on your lips--in this way you will make the safest promises4 #cea4 ,,generally ,,misunderstood4--,in conversation we sometimes observe people endeavouring to set a trap in which to catch others--not out of evil-mindedness1 as one might suppose1 but from delight in their own shrewdness4 ,others again prepare a joke so that some one else may utter it1 they tie the knot so that others may undo it3 not out of goodwill1 as might be supposed1 but from wickedness1 and their contempt for coarse intellects4 #ceb4 ,,centre4--,the feeling1 8,i am the centre of the world10 forcibly comes to us when we are unexpectedly overtaken by disgrace3 we then feel as if we were standing dazed in the midst of a surge1 and dazzled by the glance of one enormous eye which gazes down upon us from all sides and looks us through and through4 #cec4 ,,freedom ,,of ,,speech4--8,the truth must be told1 even if the world should be shivered in fragments0--so cries the eminent and grandiloquent ,fichte4--,yes1 certainly2 but we must have it first4--,what he really means1 however1 is that each man should speak his mind1 even if everything were to be turned upside down4 ,this point1 however1 is open to dispute4 #ced4 ,,the ,,courage ,,for ,,suffering4--,such as we now are1 we are capable of bearing a tolerable amount of displeasure1 and our stomach is suited to such indigestible food4 ,if we were deprived of it1 indeed1 we should perhaps think the banquet of life insipid2 and if it were not for our willingness to suffer pain we should have to let too many pleasures escape us6 #cee4 ,,admirers4--,the man who admires up to the point that he would be ready to crucify any one who did not admire1 must be reckoned among the executioners of his party--beware of shaking hands with him1 even when he belongs to your own side4 #cef4 ,,the ,,effect ,,of ,,happiness4--,the first effect of happiness is the feeling of power1 and this feeling longs to manifest itself1 whether towards ourselves or other men1 or towards ideas and imaginary beings4 ,its most common modes of manifestation are making presents1 derision1 and destruction--all three being due to a common fundamental instinct4 #ceg4 ,,moral ,,mosquitoes4--,those moralists who are lacking in the love of knowledge1 and who are only acquainted with the pleasure of giving pain1 have the spirit and tediousness of provincials4 ,their pastime1 as cruel as it is lamentable1 is to observe their neighbour with the greatest possible closeness1 and1 unperceived1 to place a pin in such position that he cannot help pricking himself with it4 ,such men have preserved something of the wickedness of schoolboys1 who cannot amuse themselves without hunting and torturing either the living or the dead4 #ceh4 ,,reasons ,,and ,,their ,,unreason4--,you feel a dislike for him1 and adduce innumerable reasons for this dislike1 but ,i only believe in your dislike and not in your reasons6 ,you flatter yourself by adducing as a rational conclusion1 both to yourself and to me1 that which happens to be merely a matter of instinct4 #cei4 ,,approving ,,of ,,something4--,we approve of marriage in the first place because we are not yet acquainted with it1 in the second place because we have accustomed ourselves to it1 and in the third place because we have contracted it--that is to say1 in most cases4 ,and yet nothing has been proved thereby in favour of the value of marriage in general4 #cfj4 ,,no ,,utilitarians4--8,power which has greatly suffered both in deed and in thought is better than powerlessness which only meets with kind treatment0--such was the ,greek way of thinking4 ,in other words1 the feeling of power was prized more highly by them than any mere utility or fair renown4 #cfa4 ,,ugly ,,in ,,appearance4--,moderation appears to itself to be quite beautiful3 it is unaware of the fact that in the eyes of the immoderate it seems coarse and insipid1 and consequently ugly4 #cfb4 ,,different ,,in ,,their ,,hatred4--,there are men who do not begin to hate until they feel weak and tired3 in other respects they are fair-minded and superior4 ,others only begin to hate when they see an opportunity for revenge3 in other respects they carefully avoid both secret and open wrath1 and overlook it whenever there is any occasion for it4 #cfc4 ,,men ,,of ,,chance4--,it is pure hazard which plays the essential part in every invention1 but most men do not meet with this hazard4 #cfd4 ,,choice ,,of ,,environment4--,we should beware of living in an environment where we are neither able to maintain a dignified silence nor to express our loftier thoughts1 so that only our complaints and needs and the whole story of our misery are left to be told4 ,we thus become dissatisfied with ourselves and with our surroundings1 and to the discomfort which brings about our complaints we add the vexation which we feel at always being in the position of grumblers4 ,but we should1 on the contrary1 live in a place where we should be ashamed to speak of ourselves and where it would not be necessary to do so4--,who1 however1 thinks of such things1 or of the choice in such things8 ,we talk about our 8fate10 brace up our shoulders1 and sigh1 8,unfortunate ,atlas that ,i am60 #cfe4 ,,vanity4--,vanity is the dread of appearing to be original4 ,hence it is a lack of pride1 but not necessarily a lack of originality4 #cff4 ,,the ,,criminal',s ,,grief4--,the criminal who has been found out does not suffer because of the crime he has committed1 but because of the shame and annoyance caused him either by some blunder which he has made or by being deprived of his habitual element2 and keen discernment is necessary to distinguish such cases4 ,every one who has had much experience of prisons and reformatories is astonished at the rare instances of really genuine 8remorse10 and still more so at the longing shown to return to the old wicked and beloved crime4 #cfg4 ,,always ,,appearing ,,happy4--,when1 in the ,greece of the third century1 philosophy had become a matter of public emulation1 there were not a few philosophers who became happy through the thought that others who lived according to different principles1 and suffered from them1 could not but feel envious of their happiness4 ,they thought they could refute these other people with their happiness better than anything else1 and to achieve this object they were content to appear to be always happy2 but1 following this practice1 they were obliged to become happy in the long run6 ,this1 for example1 was the case of the cynics4 #cfh4 ,,the ,,cause ,,of ,,much ,,misunderstanding4--,the morality of increasing nervous force is joyful and restless2 the morality of diminishing nervous force1 towards evening1 or in invalids and old people1 is passive1 calm1 patient1 and melancholy1 and not rarely even gloomy4 ,in accordance with what we may possess of one or other of these moralities1 we do not understand that which we lack1 and we often interpret it in others as immorality and weakness4 #cfi4 ,,raising ,,one',s ,,self ,,above ,,one',s ,,own ,,lowness4--8,proud0 fellows they are indeed1 those who1 in order to establish a sense of their own dignity and importance1 stand in need of other people whom they may tyrannise and oppress--those whose powerlessness and cowardice permits some one to make sublime and furious gestures in their presence with impunity1 so that they require the baseness of their surroundings to raise themselves for one short moment above their own baseness6--,for this purpose one man requires a dog1 another a friend1 a third a wife1 a fourth a party1 a fifth1 again1 one very rarely to be met with1 a whole age4 #cgj4 ,,to ,,what ,,extent ,,the ,,thinker ,,loves ,,his ,,enemy4--,make it a rule never to withhold or conceal from yourself anything that may be thought against your own thoughts4 ,vow it6 ,this is the essential requirement of honest thinking4 ,you must undertake such a campaign against yourself every day4 ,a victory and a conquered position are no longer your concern1 but that of truth--and your defeat also is no longer your concern6 #cga4 ,,the ,,evil ,,of ,,strength4--,violence as the outcome of passion1 for example1 of rage1 must be understood from the physiological point of view as an attempt to avoid an imminent fit of suffocation4 ,innumerable acts arising from animal spirits and vented upon others are simply outlets for getting rid of sudden congestion by a violent muscular exertion3 and perhaps the entire 8evil of strength0 must be considered from this point of view4 7,this evil of strength wounds others unintentionally--it must find an outlet somewhere2 while the evil of weakness wishes to wound and to see signs of suffering47 #cgb4 ,,to ,,the ,,credit ,,of ,,the ,,connoisseur4--,as soon as some one who is no connoisseur begins to pose as a judge we should remonstrate1 whether it is a male or female whipper-snapper4 ,enthusiasm or delight in a thing or a human being is not an argument2 neither is repugnance or hatred4 #cgc4 ,,treacherous ,,blame4--8,he has no knowledge of men0 means in the mouth of some 8,he does not know what baseness is02 and in the mouths of others1 8,he does not know the exception and knows only too well what baseness means40 #cgd4 ,,the ,,value ,,of ,,sacrifice4--,the more the rights of states and princes are questioned as to their right to sacrifice the individual 7for example1 in the administration of justice1 conscription1 etc471 the more will the value of self-sacrifice rise4 #cge4 ,,speaking ,,too ,,distinctly4--,there are several reasons why we articulate our words too distinctly3 in the first place1 from distrust of ourselves when using a new and unpractised language2 secondly1 when we distrust others on account of their stupidity or their slowness of comprehension4 ,the same remark applies to intellectual matters3 our communications are sometimes too distinct1 too painful1 because if it were otherwise those to whom we communicate our ideas would not understand us4 ,consequently the perfect and easy style is only permissible when addressing a perfect audience4 #cgf4 ,,plenty ,,of ,,sleep4--,what can we do to arouse ourselves when we are weary and tired of our ego8 ,some recommend the gambling table1 others ,christianity1 and others again electricity4 ,but the best remedy1 my dear hypochondriac1 is1 and always will be1 plenty of sleep in both the literal and figurative sense of the word4 ,thus another morning will at length dawn upon us4 ,the knack of worldly wisdom is to find the proper time for applying this remedy in both its forms4 #cgg4 ,,what ,,we ,,may ,,conclude ,,from ,,fantastic ,,ideals4--,where our deficiencies are1 there also is our enthusiasm4 ,the enthusiastic principle 8love your enemies0 had to be invented by the ,jews1 the best haters that ever existed2 and the finest glorifications of chastity have been written by those who in their youth led dissolute and licentious lives4 #cgh4 ,,clean ,,hands ,,and ,,clean ,,walls4--,do not paint the picture either of ,god or the devil on your walls3 for in so doing you will spoil your walls as well as your surroundings47#aa7 #cgi4 ,,probable ,,and ,,improbable4--,a woman secretly loved a man1 raised him far above her1 and said to herself hundreds of times in her inmost heart1 8,if a man like that were to love me1 ,i should look upon it as a condescension before which ,i should have to humble myself in the dust40--,and the man entertained the same feelings towards the woman1 and in his inmost heart he felt the very same thought4 ,when at last both their tongues were loosened1 and they had communicated their most secret thoughts to one another1 a deep and meditative silence ensued4 ,then the woman said in a cold voice3 8,the thing is quite clear6 ,we are neither of us that which we loved6 ,if you are what you say you are1 and nothing more1 then ,i have humbled myself in vain and loved you2 the demon misled me as well as you40 ,this very probable story never happens--and why doesn't it8 #chj4 ,,tested ,,advice4--,of all the means of consolation there is none so efficacious for him who has need of it as the declaration that in his case no consolation can be given4 ,this implies such a distinction that the afflicted person will at once raise his head again4 #cha4 ,,knowing ,,one',s 8,,individuality04--,we too often forget that in the eyes of strangers who see us for the first time we are quite different beings from what we consider ourselves to be--in most cases we exhibit nothing more than one particular characteristic which catches the eye of the stranger1 and determines the impression we make on him4 ,thus the most peaceful and fair-minded man1 if only he has a big moustache1 may1 as it were1 repose in the shade of this moustache2 for ordinary eyes will merely see in him the accessory of a big moustache1 that is to say1 a military1 irascible1 and occasionally violent character1 and will act accordingly4 #chb4 ,,gardeners ,,and ,,gardens4--,wet dreary days1 loneliness1 and unkind words give rise within us to conclusions like fungi2 some morning we find that they have grown up in front of us we know not whence1 and there they scowl at us1 sullen and morose4 ,woe to the thinker who instead of being the gardener of his plants1 is merely the soil from which they spring4 #chc4 ,,the ,,comedy ,,of ,,pity4--,however much we may feel for an unhappy friend of ours1 we always act with a certain amount of insincerity in his presence3 we refrain from telling him everything we think1 and how we think it1 with all the circumspection of a doctor standing by the bedside of a patient who is seriously ill4 #chd4 ,,curious ,,saints4--,there are pusillanimous people who have a bad opinion of everything that is best in their works1 and who at the same time interpret and comment upon them badly3 but also1 by a kind of revenge1 they entertain a bad opinion of the sympathy of others1 and do not believe in sympathy at all2 they are ashamed to appear to be carried away from themselves1 and feel a defiant comfort in appearing or becoming ridiculous4--,states of soul like these are to be found in melancholy artists4 #che4 ,,vain ,,people4--,we are like shop-windows1 where we ourselves are constantly arranging1 concealing1 or setting in the foreground those supposed qualities which others attribute to us--in order to deceive ourselves4 #chf4 ,,pathetic ,,and ,,na,,ve4--,it may be a very vulgar habit to let no opportunity slip of assuming a pathetic air for the sake of the enjoyment to be experienced in imagining the spectator striking his breast and feeling himself to be small and miserable4 ,consequently it may also be the indication of a noble mind to make fun of pathetic situations1 and to behave in an undignified manner in them4 ,the old1 warlike nobility of ,france possessed that kind of distinction and delicacy4 #chg4 ,a ,,reflection ,,before ,,marriage4--,supposing she loved me1 what a burden she would be to me in the long run6 and supposing that she did not love me1 what a much greater burden she would be to me in the long run6 ,we have to choose between two different kinds of burdens2 therefore let us marry4 #chh4 ,,rascality ,,with ,a ,,good ,,conscience4--,it is exceedingly annoying to be cheated in small bargains in certain countries1--in the ,tyrol1 for example1--because1 in addition to the bad bargain1 we are compelled to accept the evil countenance and coarse greediness of the man who has cheated us1 together with his bad conscience and his hostile feeling against us4 ,at ,venice1 on the other hand1 the cheater is highly delighted at his successful fraud1 and is not in the least angry with the man he has cheated--nay1 he is even inclined to show him some kindness1 and above all to have a hearty laugh with him if he likes4--,in short1 one must possess wit and a good conscience in order to be a knave1 and this will almost reconcile the cheated one with the cheat47#ab7 #chi4 ,,rather ,,too ,,awkward4--,good people who are too awkward to be polite and amiable promptly endeavour to return an act of politeness by an important service1 or by a contribution beyond their power4 ,it is touching to see them timidly producing their gold coins when others have offered them their gilded coppers6 #cij4 ,,hiding ,,one',s ,,intelligence4--,when we surprise some one in the act of hiding his intelligence from us we call him evil3 the more so if we suspect that it is his civility and benevolence which have induced him to do so4 #cia4 ,,the ,,evil ,,moment4--,lively dispositions only lie for a moment3 after this they have deceived themselves1 and are convinced and honest4 #cib4 ,,the ,,condition ,,of ,,politeness4--,politeness is a very good thing1 and really one of the four chief virtues 7although the last71 but in order that it may not result in our becoming tiresome to one another the person with whom ,i have to deal must be either one degree more or less polite than ,i--otherwise we should never get on1 and the ointment would not only anoint us1 but would cement us together4 #cic4 ,,dangerous ,,virtues4--8,he forgets nothing1 but forgives everything0--wherefore he shall be doubly detested1 for he causes us double shame by his memory and his magnanimity4 #cid4 ,,without ,,vanity4--,passionate people think little of what others may think2 their state of mind raises them above vanity4 #cie4 ,,contemplation4--,in some thinkers the contemplative state peculiar to a thinker is always the consequence of a state of fear1 in others always of desire4 ,in the former1 contemplation thus seems allied to the feeling of security1 in the latter to the feeling of surfeit--in other words1 the former are spirited in their mood1 the latter over-satiated and neutral4 #cif4 ,,hunting4--,the one is hunting for agreeable truths1 the other for disagreeable ones4 ,but even the former takes greater pleasure in the hunt than in the booty4 #cig4 ,,education4--,education is a continuation of procreation1 and very often a kind of supplementary varnishing of it4 #cih4 ,,how ,,to ,,recognise ,,the ,,choleric4--,of two persons who are struggling together1 or who love and admire one another1 the more choleric will always be at a disadvantage4 ,the same remark applies to two nations4 #cii4 ,,self-,,excuse4--,many men have the best possible right to act in this or that way2 but as soon as they begin to excuse their actions we no longer believe that they are right--and we are mistaken4 #djj4 ,,moral ,,pampering4--,there are tender1 moral natures who are ashamed of all their successes and feel remorse after every failure4 #dja4 ,,dangerous ,,unlearning4--,we begin by unlearning to love others1 and end by finding nothing lovable in ourselves4 #djb4 ,,another ,,form ,,of ,,toleration4--8,to remain a minute too long on red-hot coals and to be burnt a little does no harm either to men or to chestnuts4 ,the slight bitterness and hardness makes the kernel all the sweeter40--,yes1 this is your opinion1 you who enjoy the taste6 ,you sublime cannibals6 #djc4 ,,different ,,pride4--,women turn pale at the thought that their lover may not be worthy of them2 ,men turn pale at the thought that they may not be worthy of the women they love4 ,i speak of perfect women1 perfect men4 ,such men1 who are self-reliant and conscious of power at ordinary times1 grow diffident and doubtful of themselves when under the influence of a strong passion4 ,such women1 on the other hand1 though always looking upon themselves as the weak and devoted sex1 become proud and conscious of their power in the great exception of passion1--they ask3 8,who then is worthy of me80 #djd4 ,,when ,,we ,,seldom ,,do ,,justice4--,certain men are unable to feel enthusiasm for a great and good cause without committing a great injustice in some other quarter3 this is their kind of morality4 #dje4 ,,luxury4--,the love of luxury is rooted in the depths of a man's heart3 it shows that the superfluous and immoderate is the sea wherein his soul prefers to float4 #djf4 ,,to ,,immortalise4--,let him who wishes to kill his opponent first consider whether by doing so he will not immortalise him in himself4 #djg4 ,,against ,,our ,,character4--,if the truth which we have to utter goes against our character--as very often happens--we behave as if we had uttered a clumsy falsehood1 and thus rouse suspicion4 #djh4 ,,where ,a ,,great ,,deal ,,of ,,gentleness ,,is ,,needed4--,many natures have only the choice of being either public evil-doers or secret sorrow-bearers4 #dji4 ,,illness4--,among illness are to be reckoned the premature approach of old age1 ugliness1 and pessimistic opinions--three things that always go together4 #daj4 ,,timid ,,people4--,it is the awkward and timid people who easily become murderers3 they do not understand slight but sufficient means of defence or revenge1 and their hatred1 owing to their lack of intelligence and presence of mind1 can conceive of no other expedient than destruction4 #daa4 ,,without ,,hatred4--,you wish to bid farewell to your passion8 ,very well1 but do so without hatred against it6 ,otherwise you have a second passion4--,the soul of the ,christian who has freed himself from sin is generally ruined afterwards by the hatred for sin4 ,just look at the faces of the great ,christians6 they are the faces of great haters4 #dab4 ,,ingenious ,,and ,,narrow-,,minded4--,he can appreciate nothing beyond himself1 and when he wishes to appreciate other people he must always begin by transforming them into himself4 ,in this1 however1 he is ingenious4 #dac4 ,,private ,,and ,,public ,,accusers4--,watch closely the accuser and inquirer1--for he reveals his true character2 and it is not rare for this to be a worse character than that of the victim whose crime he is investigating4 ,the accuser believes in all innocence that the opponent of a crime and criminal must be by nature of good character1 or at least must appear as such--and this is why he lets himself go1 that is to say1 he drops his mask4 #dad4 ,,voluntary ,,blindness4--,there is a kind of enthusiastic and extreme devotion to a person or a party which reveals that in our inmost hearts we feel ourselves superior to this person or party1 and for this reason we feel indignant with ourselves4 ,we blind ourselves1 as it were1 of our own free will to punish our eyes for having seen too much4 #dae4 ,,remedium ,,amoris4--,that old radical remedy for love is now in most cases as effective as it always was3 love in return4 #daf4 ,,where ,,is ,,our ,,worst ,,enemy8--,he who can look after his own affairs well1 and knows that he can do so1 is as a rule conciliatory towards his adversary4 ,but to believe that we have right on our side1 and to know that we are incapable of defending it--this gives rise to a fierce and implacable hatred against the opponent of our cause4 ,let every one judge accordingly where his worst enemies are to be sought4 #dag4 ,,the ,,limits ,,of ,,all ,,humility4--,many men may certainly have attained that humility which says credo quia absurdum est1 and sacrifices its reason2 but1 so far as ,i know1 not one has attained to that humility which after all is only one step further1 and which says creda quia absurdus sum4 #dah4 ,,acting ,,the ,,truth4--,many a man is truthful1 not because he would be ashamed to exhibit hypocritical feelings1 but because he would not succeed very well in inducing others to believe in his hypocrisy4 ,in a word1 he has no confidence in his talent as an actor1 and therefore prefers honestly to act the truth4 #dai4 ,,courage ,,in ,a ,,party4--,the poor sheep say to their bell-wether3 8,only lead us1 and we shall never lack courage to follow you40 ,but the poor bell-wether thinks in his heart3 8,only follow me1 and ,i shall never lack courage to lead you40 #dbj4 ,,cunning ,,of ,,the ,,victim4--,what a sad cunning there is in the wish to deceive ourselves with respect to the person for whom we have sacrificed ourselves1 when we give him an opportunity in which he must appear to us as we should wish him to be6 #dba4 ,,through ,,others4--,there are men who do not wish to be seen except through the eyes of others3 a wish which implies a great deal of wisdom4 #dbb4 ,,making ,,others ,,happy4--,why is the fact of our making others happy more gratifying to us than all other pleasures8--,because in so doing we gratify fifty cravings at one time4 ,taken separately they would1 perhaps1 be very small pleasures2 but when put into one hand1 that hand will be fuller than ever before--and the heart also4 ,,book ,v4 #dbc4 ,,in ,,the ,,great ,,silence4--,here is the sea1 here may we forget the town4 ,it is true that its bells are still ringing the ,angelus--that solemn and foolish yet sweet sound at the junction between day and night1--but one moment more6 now all is silent4 ,yonder lies the ocean1 pale and brilliant2 it cannot speak4 ,the sky is glistening with its eternal mute evening hues1 red1 yellow1 and green3 it cannot speak4 ,the small cliffs and rocks which stretch out into the sea as if each one of them were endeavouring to find the loneliest spot--they too are dumb4 ,beautiful and awful indeed is this vast silence1 which so suddenly overcomes us and makes our heart swell4 ,alas6 what deceit lies in this dumb beauty6 ,how well could it speak1 and how evilly1 too1 if it wished6 ,its tongue1 tied up and fastened1 and its face of suffering happiness--all this is but malice1 mocking at your sympathy3 be it so6 ,i do not feel ashamed to be the plaything of such powers6 but ,i pity thee1 oh nature1 because thou must be silent1 even though it be only malice that binds thy tongue3 nay1 ,i pity thee for the sake of thy malice6 ,alas6 the silence deepens1 and once again my heart swells within me3 it is startled by a fresh truth--it1 too1 is dumb2 it likewise sneers when the mouth calls out something to this beauty2 it also enjoys the sweet malice of its silence4 ,i come to hate speaking2 yea1 even thinking4 ,behind every word ,i utter do ,i not hear the laughter of error1 imagination1 and insanity8 ,must ,i not laugh at my pity and mock my own mockery8 ,oh sea1 oh evening1 ye are bad teachers6 ,ye teach man how to cease to be a man4 ,is he to give himself up to you8 ,shall he become as you now are1 pale1 brilliant1 dumb1 immense1 reposing calmly upon himself8--exalted above himself8 #dbd4 ,,for ,,whom ,,the ,,truth ,,exists4--,up to the present time errors have been the power most fruitful in consolations3 we now expect the same effects from accepted truths1 and we have been waiting rather too long for them4 ,what if these truths could not give us this consolation we are looking for8 ,would that be an argument against them8 ,what have these truths in common with the sick condition of suffering and degenerate men that they should be useful to them8 ,it is1 of course1 no proof against the truth of a plant when it is clearly established that it does not contribute in any way to the recovery of sick people4 ,formerly1 however1 people were so convinced that man was the ultimate end of nature that they believed that knowledge could reveal nothing that was not beneficial and useful to man--nay1 there could not1 should not be1 any other things in existence4 ,perhaps all this leads to the conclusion that truth as an entity and a coherent whole exists only for those natures who1 like ,aristotle1 are at once powerful and harmless1 joyous and peaceful3 just as none but these would be in a position to seek such truths2 for the others seek remedies for themselves--however proud they may be of their intellect and its freedom1 they do not seek truth4 ,hence it comes about that these others take no real joy in science1 but reproach it for its coldness1 dryness1 and inhumanity4 ,this is the judgment of sick people about the games of the healthy4--,even the ,greek gods were unable to administer consolation2 and when at length the entire ,greek world fell ill1 this was a reason for the destruction of such gods4 #dbe4 ,,we ,,gods ,,in ,,exile4--,owing to errors regarding their descent1 their uniqueness1 their mission1 and by claims based upon these errors1 men have again and again 8surpassed themselves02 but through these same errors the world has been filled with unspeakable suffering1 mutual persecution1 suspicion1 misunderstanding1 and an even greater amount of individual misery4 ,men have become suffering creatures in consequence of their morals1 and the sum-total of what they have obtained by those morals is simply the feeling that they are far too good and great for this world1 and that they are enjoying merely a transitory existence on it4 ,as yet the 8proud sufferer0 is the highest type of mankind4 #dbf4 ,,the ,,colour-,,blindness ,,of ,,thinkers4--,how differently from us the ,greeks must have viewed nature1 since1 as we cannot help admitting1 they were quite colour-blind in regard to blue and green1 believing the former to be a deeper brown1 and the latter to be yellow4 ,thus1 for instance1 they used the same word to describe the colour of dark hair1 of the corn-flower1 and the southern sea2 and again they employed exactly the same expression for the colour of the greenest herbs1 the human skin1 honey1 and yellow raisins3 whence it follows that their greatest painters reproduced the world they lived in only in black1 white1 red1 and yellow4 ,how different and how much nearer to mankind1 therefore1 must nature have seemed to them1 since in their eyes the tints of mankind predominated also in nature1 and nature was1 as it were1 floating in the coloured ether of humanity6 7blue and green more than anything else dehumanise nature74 ,it is this defect which developed the playful facility that characterised the ,greeks of seeing the phenomena of nature as gods and demi-gods--that is to say1 as human forms4 ,let this1 however1 merely serve as a simile for another supposition4 ,every thinker paints his world and the things that surround him in fewer colours than really exist1 and he is blind to individual colours4 ,this is something more than a mere deficiency4 ,thanks to this nearer approach and simplification1 he imagines he sees in things those harmonies of colours which possess a great charm1 and may greatly enrich nature4 ,perhaps1 indeed1 it was in this way that men first learnt to take delight in viewing existence1 owing to its being first of all presented to them in one or two shades1 and consequently harmonised4 ,they practised these few shades1 so to speak1 before they could pass on to any more4 ,and even now certain individuals endeavour to get rid of a partial colour-blindness that they may obtain a richer faculty of sight and discernment1 in the course of which they find that they not only discover new pleasures1 but are also obliged to lose and give up some of their former ones4 #dbg4 ,,the ,,embellishment ,,of ,,science4--,in the same way that the feeling that 8nature is ugly1 wild1 tedious--we must embellish it 7embellir la nature70--brought about rococo horticulture1 so does the view that 8science is ugly1 difficult1 dry1 dreary and weary1 we must embellish it10 invariably gives rise to something called philosophy4 ,this philosophy sets out to do what all art and poetry endeavour to do1 viz41 giving amusement above all else2 but it wishes to do this1 in conformity with its hereditary pride1 in a higher and more sublime fashion before an audience of superior intellects4 ,it is no small ambition to create for these intellects a kind of horticulture1 the principal charm of which--like that of the usual gardening--is to bring about an optical illusion 7by means of temples1 perspective1 grottos1 winding walks1 and waterfalls1 to speak in similes71 exhibiting science in a condensed form and in all kinds of strange and unexpected illuminations1 infusing into it as much indecision1 irrationality1 and dreaminess as will enable us to walk about in it 8as in savage nature10 but without trouble and boredom4 ,those who are possessed of this ambition even dream of making religion superfluous--religion1 which among men of former times served as the highest kind of entertainment4 ,all this is now running its course1 and will one day attain its highest tide4 ,even now hostile voices are being raised against philosophy1 exclaiming3 8,return to science1 to nature1 and the naturalness of science60 and thus an age may begin which may discover the most powerful beauty precisely in the 8savage and ugly0 domains of science1 just as it is only since the time of ,rousseau that we have discovered the sense for the beauty of high mountains and deserts4 #dbh4 ,,two ,,kinds ,,of ,,moralists4--,to see a law of nature for the first time1 and to see it whole 7for example1 the law of gravity or the reflection of light and sound71 and afterwards to explain such a law1 are two different things and concern different classes of minds4 ,in the same way1 those moralists who observe and exhibit human laws and habits--moralists with discriminating ears1 noses1 and eyes--differ entirely from those who interpret their observations4 ,these latter must above all be inventive1 and must possess an imagination untrammelled by sagacity and knowledge4 #dbi4 ,,the ,,new ,,passion4--,why do we fear and dread a possible return to barbarism8 ,is it because it would make people less happy than they are now8 ,certainly not6 the barbarians of all ages possessed more happiness than we do3 let us not deceive ourselves on this point6--but our impulse towards knowledge is too widely developed to allow us to value happiness without knowledge1 or the happiness of a strong and fixed delusion3 it is painful to us even to imagine such a state of things6 ,our restless pursuit of discoveries and divinations has become for us as attractive and indispensable as hapless love to the lover1 which on no account would he exchange for indifference1--nay1 perhaps we1 too1 are hapless lovers6 ,knowledge within us has developed into a passion1 which does not shrink from any sacrifice1 and at bottom fears nothing but its own extinction4 ,we sincerely believe that all humanity1 weighed down as it is by the burden of this passion1 are bound to feel more exalted and comforted than formerly1 when they had not yet overcome the longing for the coarser satisfaction which accompanies barbarism4 ,it may be that mankind may perish eventually from this passion for knowledge6--but even that does not daunt us4 ,did ,christianity ever shrink from a similar thought8 ,are not love and death brother and sister8 ,yes1 we detest barbarism1--we all prefer that humanity should perish rather than that knowledge should enter into a stage of retrogression4 ,and1 finally1 if mankind does not perish through some passion it will perish through some weakness3 which would we prefer8 ,this is the main question4 ,do we wish its end to be in fire and light1 or in the sands8 #dcj4 ,,likewise ,,heroic4--,to do things of the worst possible odour1 things of which we scarcely dare to speak1 but which are nevertheless useful and necessary1 is also heroic4 ,the ,greeks were not ashamed of numbering even the cleansing of a stable among the great tasks of ,hercules4 #dca4 ,,the ,,opinions ,,of ,,opponents4--,in order to measure the natural subtlety or weakness of even the cleverest heads1 we must consider the manner in which they take up and reproduce the opinions of their adversaries1 for the natural measure of any intellect is thereby revealed4 ,the perfect sage involuntarily idealises his opponent and frees his inconsistencies from all defects and accidentalities3 he only takes up arms against him when he has thus turned his opponent into a god with shining weapons4 #dcb4 ,,investigator ,,and ,,attempter4--,there is no exclusive method of knowing in science4 ,we must deal with things tentatively1 treating them by turns harshly or justly1 passionately or coldly4 ,one investigator deals with things like a policeman1 another like a confessor1 and yet a third like an inquisitive traveller4 ,we force something from them now by sympathy and now by violence3 the one is urged onward and led to see clearly by the veneration which the secrets of the things inspire in him1 and the other again by the indiscretion and malice met with in the explanation of these secrets4 ,we investigators1 like all conquerors1 explorers1 navigators1 and adventurers1 are men of a daring morality1 and we must put up with our liability to be in the main looked upon as evil4 #dcc4 ,,seeing ,,with ,,new ,,eyes4--,presuming that by the term 8beauty in art0 is always implied the imitation of something that is happy--and this ,i consider to be true--according as an age or a people or a great autocratic individuality represents happiness3 what then is disclosed by the so-called realism of our modern artists in regard to the happiness of our epoch8 ,it is undoubtedly its type of beauty which we now understand most easily and enjoy best of any4 ,as a consequence1 we are induced to believe that this happiness which is now peculiar to us is based on realism1 on the sharpest possible senses1 and on the true conception of the actual--that is to say1 not upon reality1 but upon what we know of reality4 ,the results of science have already gained so much in depth and extent that the artists of our century have involuntarily become the glorifiers of scientific 8blessings0 per se4 #dcd4 ,,intercession4--,unpretentious regions are subjects for great landscape painters2 remarkable and rare regions for inferior painters3 for the great things of nature and humanity must intercede in favour of their little1 mediocre1 and vain admirers--whereas the great man intercedes in favour of unassuming things4 #dce4 ,,not ,,to ,,perish ,,unnoticed4--,it is not only once but continuously that our excellence and greatness are constantly crumbling away2 the weeds that grow among everything and cling to everything ruin all that is great in us--the wretchedness of our surroundings1 which we always try to overlook and which is before our eyes at every hour of the day1 the innumerable little roots of mean and petty feelings which we allow to grow up all about us1 in our office1 among our companions1 or our daily labours4 ,if we permit these small weeds to escape our notice we shall perish through them unnoticed6--,and1 if you must perish1 then do so immediately and suddenly2 for in that case you will perhaps leave proud ruins behind you6 and not1 as is now to be feared1 merely molehills1 covered with grass and weeds--these petty and miserable conquerors1 as humble as ever1 and too wretched even to triumph4 #dcf4 ,,casuistic4--,we are confronted with a very bitter and painful dilemma1 for the solution of which not every one's bravery and character are equal3 when1 as passengers on board a steamer1 we discover that the captain and the helmsman are making dangerous mistakes1 and that we are their superiors in nautical science--and then we ask ourselves3 8,what would happen if we organised a mutiny against them1 and made them both prisoners8 ,is it not our duty to do so in view of our superiority8 and would not they in their turn be justified in putting us in irons for encouraging disobedience80 ,this is a simile for higher and worse situations2 and the final question to be decided is1 ,what guarantees our superiority and our faith in ourselves in such a case8 ,success8 but in order to do that we must do the very thing in which all the danger lies--not only dangerous for ourselves1 but also for the ship4 #dcg4 ,,privileges4--,the man who really owns himself1 that is to say1 he who has finally conquered himself1 regards it as his own right to punish1 to pardon1 or to pity himself3 he need not concede this privilege to any one1 though he may freely bestow it upon some one else--a friend1 for example--but he knows that in doing this he is conferring a right1 and that rights can only be conferred by one who is in full possession of power4 #dch4 ,,man ,,and ,,things4--,why does the man not see the things8 ,he himself is in the way3 he conceals the things4 #dci4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,happiness4--,there are two things common to all sensations of happiness3 a profusion of feelings1 accompanied by animal spirits1 so that1 like the fishes1 we feel ourselves to be in our element and play about in it4 ,good ,christians will understand what ,christian exuberance means4 #ddj4 ,,never ,,renounce4--,renouncing the world without knowing it1 like a nun1 results in a fruitless and perhaps melancholy solitude4 ,this has nothing in common with the solitude of the vita contemplativa of the thinker3 when he chooses this form of solitude he wishes to renounce nothing2 but he would on the contrary regard it as a renunciation1 a melancholy destruction of his own self1 if he were obliged to continue in the vita practica4 ,he forgoes this latter because he knows it1 because he knows himself4 ,so he jumps into his water1 and thus gains his cheerfulness4 #dda4 ,,why ,,the ,,nearest ,,things ,,become ,,ever ,,more ,,distant ,,for ,,us4--,the more we give up our minds to all that has been and will be1 the paler will become that which actually is4 ,when we live with the dead and participate in their death1 what are our 8neighbours0 to us8 ,we grow lonelier simply because the entire flood of humanity is surging round about us4 ,the fire that burns within us1 and glows for all that is human1 is continually increasing--and hence we look upon everything that surrounds us as if it had become more indifferent1 more shadowy1--but our cold glance is offensive4 #ddb4 ,,the ,,rule4--8,the rule always appears to me to be more interesting than the exception0--whoever thinks thus has made considerable progress in knowledge1 and is one of the initiated4 #ddc4 ,,on ,,education4--,i have gradually come to see daylight in regard to the most general defect in our methods of education and training3 nobody learns1 nobody teaches1 nobody wishes1 to endure solitude4 #ddd4 ,,surprise ,,at ,,resistance4--,because we have reached the point of being able to see through a thing we believe that henceforth it can offer us no further resistance--and then we are surprised to find that we can see through it and yet cannot penetrate through it4 ,this is the same kind of foolishness and surprise as that of the fly on a pane of glass4 #dde4 ,,where ,,the ,,noblest ,,are ,,mistaken4--,we give some one at length our dearest and most valued possession1 and then love has nothing more to give3 but the recipient of the gift will certainly not consider it as his dearest possession1 and will consequently be wanting in that full and complete gratitude which we expect from him4 #ddf4 ,,hierarchy4--,first and foremost1 there are the superficial thinkers1 and secondly the profound thinkers--such as dive into the depths of a thing1--thirdly1 the thorough thinkers1 who get to the bottom of a thing--which is of much greater importance than merely diving into its depths1--and1 finally1 those who leap head foremost into the marsh3 though this must not be looked upon as indicating either depth or thoroughness6 these are the lovers of obscurity47#ac7 #ddg4 ,,master ,,and ,,pupil4--,by cautioning his pupils against himself the teacher shows his humanity4 #ddh4 ,,honouring ,,reality4--,how can we look at this exulting multitude without tears and acquiescence8 at one time we thought little of the object of their exultation1 and we should still think so if we ourselves had not come through a similar experience4 ,and what may these experiences lead us to6 what are our opinions6 ,in order that we may not lose ourselves and our reason we must fly from experiences4 ,it was thus that ,plato fled from actuality1 and wished to contemplate things only in their pale mental concepts3 he was full of sensitiveness1 and knew how easily the waves of this sensitiveness would drown his reason4--,must the sage therefore say1 8,i will honour reality1 but ,i will at the same time turn my back to it because ,i know and dread it80 ,ought he to behave as certain ,african tribes do in the presence of their sovereign1 whom they approach backwards1 thus showing their reverence at the same time as their dread8 #ddi4 ,,where ,,are ,,the ,,poor ,,in ,,spirit8--,oh1 how greatly it goes against my grain to impose my own thoughts upon others6 ,how ,i rejoice over every mood and secret change within me as the result of which the thoughts of others are victorious over my own6 but from time to time ,i enjoy an even greater satisfaction1 when ,i am allowed to give away my intellectual possessions1 like the confessor sitting in his box and anxiously awaiting the arrival of some distressed person who stands in need of consolation1 and will be only too glad to relate the full misery of his thoughts so that the listener's hand and heart will once again be filled1 and the troubled soul eased6 ,not only has the confessor no desire for renown3 he would fain shun gratitude as well1 for it is obtrusive1 and does not stand in awe of solitude or silence4 ,but to live without a name1 and even to be slightly sneered at2 too obscure to arouse envy or enmity2 with a head free from fever1 a handful of knowledge1 and a pocketful of experience2 a physician1 as it were1 of the poor in spirit1 helping this one or that one whose head is troubled with opinions1 without the latter perceiving who has actually helped him6 without any desire to appear to be in the right in the presence of his patient1 or to carry off a victory4 ,to speak to him in such a way that1 after a short and almost imperceptible hint or objection1 the listener may find out for himself what is right and proudly walk away6 ,to be like an obscure and unknown inn which turns no one away who is in need1 but which is afterwards forgotten and laughed at6 ,to be without any advantages over others--neither possessing better food nor purer air1 nor a more cheerful mind--but always to be giving away1 returning1 communicating1 and becoming poorer6 ,to know how to be humble in order to be accessible to many people and humiliating to none6 ,to take a great deal of injustice on his shoulders and creep through the cracks and crannies of all kinds of errors1 in order that we may reach many obscure souls on their secret paths6 ever in possession of some kind of love1 and some kind of egoism and self-enjoyment6 in possession of power1 and yet at the same time hidden and resigned6 constantly basking in the sunshine and sweetness of grace1 and yet knowing that quite near to us stands the ladder leading to the sublime6--that would be life6 that would indeed be a reason for a long life6 #dej4 ,,the ,,temptations ,,of ,,knowledge4--,a glance through the gate of science acts upon passionate spirits as the charm of charms3 they will probably become dreamers1 or in the most favourable cases poets1 so great is their desire for the happiness of the man who can discern4 ,does it not enter into all your senses1 this note of sweet temptation by which science has announced its joyful message in a thousand ways1 and in the thousand and first way1 the noblest of all1 8,begone1 illusion6 for then #8,woe is me' also vanished1 and with it woe itself is gone0 7,marcus ,aurelius74 #dea4 ,,for ,,whom ,a ,,court ,,jester ,,is ,,needful4--,those who are very beautiful1 very good1 and very powerful scarcely ever learn the full and naked truth about anything1--for in their presence we involuntarily lie a little1 because we feel their influence1 and in view of this influence convey a truth in the form of an adaptation 7by falsifying the shades and degrees of facts1 by omitting or adding details1 and withholding that which is insusceptible of adaptation74 ,if1 however1 in spite of all this1 people of this description insist upon hearing the truth1 they must keep a court jester--a being with the madman's privilege of being unable to adapt himself4 #deb4 ,,impatience4--,there is a certain degree of impatience in men of thought and action1 which in cases of failure at once drives them to the opposite camp1 induces them to take a great interest in it1 and to give themselves up to new undertakings--until here again the slowness of their success drives them away4 ,thus they rove about1 like so many reckless adventurers1 through the practices of many kingdoms and natures2 and in the end1 as the result of their wide knowledge of men and things1 acquired by their unheard of travel and practice1 and with a certain moderation of their craving1 they become powerful practical men4 ,hence a defect in character may become the school of genius4 #dec4 ,a ,,moral ,,interregnum4--,who is now in a position to describe that which will one day supplant moral feelings and judgments6--however certain we may be that these are founded on error1 and that the building erected upon such foundations cannot be repaired3 their obligation must gradually diminish from day to day1 in so far as the obligation of reason does not diminish6 ,to carry out the task of re-establishing the laws of life and action is still beyond the power of our sciences of physiology and medicine1 society and solitude3 though it is only from them that we can borrow the foundation-stones of new ideals 7but not the ideals themselves74 ,thus we live a preliminary or after existence1 according to our tastes and talents1 and the best we can do in this interregnum is to be as much as possible our own 8reges10 and to establish small experimental states4 ,we are experiments3 if we want to be so6 #ded4 ,a ,,digression4--,a book like this is not intended to be read through at once1 or to be read aloud4 ,it is intended more particularly for reference1 especially on our walks and travels3 we must take it up and put it down again after a short reading1 and1 more especially1 we ought not to be amongst our usual surroundings4 #dee4 ,,the ,,primary ,,nature4--,as we are now brought up1 we begin by acquiring a secondary nature1 and we possess it when the world calls us mature1 of age1 efficient4 ,a few have sufficient of the serpent about them to cast this skin some day1 when their primary nature has come to maturity under it4 ,but in the majority of people the germ of it withers away4 #def4 ,a ,,virtue ,,in ,,process ,,of ,,becoming4--,such assertions and promises as those of the ancient philosophers on the unity of virtue and felicity1 or that of ,christianity1 8,seek ye first the ,kingdom of ,god and ,his righteousness1 and all these things shall be added unto you10 have never been made with absolute sincerity1 but always without a bad conscience nevertheless4 ,people were in the habit of boldly laying down principles--which they wished to be true--exactly as if they were truth itself1 in spite of all appearances to the contrary1 and in doing this they felt neither religious nor moral compunction2 for it was in honorem maiorem of virtue or of ,god that one had gone beyond truth1 without1 however1 any selfish intention6 ,many good people still act up to this degree of truthfulness3 when they feel unselfish they think it permissible to treat truth more lightly4 ,let it be remembered that the word honesty is neither to be found among the ,socratic nor the ,christian virtues3 it is one of our most recent virtues1 not yet quite mature1 frequently misconstrued and misunderstood1 scarcely conscious of itself--something in embryo1 which we may either promote or check according to our inclination4 #deg4 ,,final ,,taciturnity4--,there are some men who fare like the digger after hidden treasures3 they quite accidentally discover the carefully-preserved secrets of another's soul1 and as a result come into the possession of knowledge which it is often a heavy burden to bear4 ,in certain circumstances we may know the living and the dead1 and sound their inmost thoughts to such an extent that it becomes painful to us to speak to others about them3 at every word we utter we are afraid of being indiscreet4--,i can easily imagine a sudden silence on the part of the wisest historian4 #deh4 ,,the ,,great ,,prize4--,there is a very rare thing1 but a very delightful one1 viz4 the man with a nobly-formed intellect who possesses at the same time the character and inclinations1 and even meets with the experiences1 suited to such an intellect4 #dei4 ,,the ,,magnanimity ,,of ,,the ,,thinker4--,both ,rousseau and ,schopenhauer were proud enough to inscribe upon their lives the motto1 ,vitam impendere vero4 ,and how they both must have suffered in their pride because they could not succeed in verum impendere vit6--verum1 such as each of them understood it1--when their lives ran side by side with their knowledge like an uncouth bass which is not in tune with the melody4 ,knowledge1 however1 would be in a bad way if it were measured out to every thinker only in proportion as it can be adapted to his own person4 ,and thinkers would be in a bad way if their vanity were so great that they could only endure such an adaptation1 for the noblest virtue of a great thinker is his magnanimity1 which urges him on in his search for knowledge to sacrifice himself and his life unshrinkingly1 often shamefacedly1 and often with sublime scorn1 and smiling4 #dfj4 ,,utilising ,,our ,,hours ,,of ,,danger4--,those men and conditions whose every movement may mean danger to our possessions1 honour1 and life or death1 and to those most dear to us1 we shall naturally learn to know thoroughly4 ,tiberius1 for instance1 must have meditated much more deeply on the character and methods of government of the ,emperor ,augustus1 and must have known far more about them than even the wisest historian4 ,at the present day we all live1 relatively speaking1 in a security which is much too great to make us true psychologists3 some survey their fellow-men as a hobby1 others out of ennui1 and others again merely from habit2 but never to the extent they would do if they were told 8,discern or perish60 ,as long as truths do not cut us to the quick we assume an attitude of contempt towards them3 they still appear to us too much like the 8winged dreams10 as if we could or could not have them at our discretion1 as if we could likewise be aroused from these truths as from a dream6 #dfa4 ,,hic ,,rhodus1 ,,hic ,,salta4--,our music1 which can and must change into everything1 because like the demon of the sea1 it has no character of its own3 this music in former times devoted its attention to the ,christian savant1 and transposed his ideals into sounds3 why cannot it likewise find those brighter1 more cheerful1 and universal sounds which correspond to the ideal thinker8--a music which could rock itself at ease in the vast floating vaults of the soul8 ,so far our music has been so great and so good2 nothing seemed impossible to its powers4 ,may it therefore prove possible to create these three sensations at one time3 sublimity1 deep and warm light1 and rapture of the greatest possible consistency6 #dfb4 ,,slow ,,cures4--,chronic illnesses of the soul1 like those of the body1 are very rarely due to one gross offence against physical and mental reason1 but as a general rule they arise from innumerable and petty negligences of a minor order4--,a man1 for example1 whose breathing becomes a trifle weaker every day1 and whose lungs1 by inhaling too little air1 are deprived of their proper amount of exercise1 will end by being struck down by some chronic disease of the lungs4 ,the only remedy for cases like these is a countless number of minor exercises of a contrary tendency--making it a rule1 for example1 to take a long and deep breath every quarter of an hour1 lying flat on the ground if possible4 ,for this purpose a clock which strikes the quarters should be chosen as a lifelong companion4 ,all these remedies are slow and trifling2 but yet the man who wishes to cure his soul will carefully consider a change1 even in his least important habits4 ,many a man will utter a cold and angry word to his surroundings ten times a day without thinking about it1 and he will forget that after a few years it will have become a regular habit with him to put his surroundings out of temper ten times a day4 ,but he can also acquire the habit of doing good to them ten times4 #dfc4 ,,on ,,the ,,seventh ,,day4--8,you praise this as my creation8 but ,i have only put aside what was a burden to me6 my soul is above the vanity of creators4--,you praise this as my resignation8 but ,i have only stripped myself of what had become burdensome6 ,my soul is above the vanity of the resigned ones60 #dfd4 ,,the ,,donor',s ,,modesty4--,there is such a want of generosity in always posing as the donor and benefactor1 and showing one's face when doing so6 ,but to give and bestow1 and at the same time to conceal one's name and favour6 or not to have a name at all1 like nature1 in whom this fact is more refreshing to us than anything else--here at last we no more meet with the giver and bestower1 no more with a 8gracious countenance40--,it is true that you have now forfeited even this comfort1 for you have placed a ,god in this nature--and now everything is once again fettered and oppressed6 ,well8 are we never to have the right of remaining alone with ourselves8 are we always to be watched1 guarded1 surrounded by leading strings and gifts8 ,if there is always some one round about us1 the best part of courage and kindness will ever remain impossible of attainment in this world4 ,are we not tempted to fly to hell before this continual obtrusiveness of heaven1 this inevitable supernatural neighbour8 ,never mind1 it was only a dream2 let us wake up6 #dfe4 ,,at ,a ,,meeting4-- ,a4 ,what are you looking at8 you have been standing here for a very long time4 ,b4 ,always the new and the old over again6 the helplessness of a thing urges me on to plunge into it so deeply that ,i end by penetrating to its deepest depths1 and perceive that in reality it is not worth so very much4 ,at the end of all experiences of this kind we meet with a kind of sorrow and stupor4 ,i experience this on a small scale several times a day4 #dff4 ,a ,,loss ,,of ,,renown4--,what an advantage it is to be able to speak as a stranger to mankind6 ,when they take away our anonymity1 and make us famous1 the gods deprive us of 8half our virtue40 #dfg4 ,,doubly ,,patient4--8,by doing this you will hurt many people40--,i know that1 and ,i also know that ,i shall have to suffer for it doubly3 in the first place out of pity for their suffering1 and secondly from the revenge they will take on me4 ,but in spite of this ,i cannot help doing what ,i do4 #dfh4 ,,the ,,kingdom ,,of ,,beauty ,,is ,,greater4--,we move about in nature1 cunning and cheerful1 in order that we may surprise everything in the beauty peculiar to it2 we make an effort1 whether in sunshine or under a stormy sky1 to see a distant part of the coast with its rocks1 bays1 and olive and pine trees under an aspect in which it achieves its perfection and consummation4 ,thus also we should walk about among men as their discoverers and explorers1 meting out to them good and evil in order that we may unveil the peculiar beauty which is seen with some in the sunshine1 in others under thunder-clouds1 or with others again only in twilight and under a rainy sky4 ,are we then forbidden to enjoy the evil man like some savage landscape which possesses its own bold and daring lines and luminous effects1 while this same man1 so long as he behaves well1 and in conformity with the law1 appears to us to be an error of drawing1 and a mere caricature which offends us like a defect in nature8--,yes1 this is forbidden3 for as yet we have only been permitted to seek beauty in anything that is morally good1--and this is sufficient to explain why we have found so little and have been compelled to look for beauty without either flesh or bones6--in the same way as evil men are familiar with innumerable kinds of happiness which the virtuous never dream of1 we may also find among them innumerable types of beauty1 many of them as yet undiscovered4 #dfi4 ,,the ,,inhumanity ,,of ,,the ,,sage4--,the heavy and grinding progress of the sage1 who in the words of the ,buddhist song1 8,wanders lonely like the rhinoceros10 now and again stands in need of proofs of a conciliatory and softened humanity1 and not only proofs of those accelerated steps1 those polite and sociable witticisms2 not only of humour and a certain self-mockery1 but likewise of contradictions and occasional returns to the predominating inconsistencies4 ,in order that he may not resemble the heavy roller that rolls along like fate1 the sage who wishes to teach must take advantage of his defects1 and utilise them for his own adornment2 and when saying 8despise me0 he will implore permission to be the advocate of a presumptuous truth4 ,this sage wishes to lead you to the mountains1 and he will perhaps endanger your life3 therefore as the price of his enjoyment he willingly authorises you to take your revenge either before or afterwards on such a guide4 ,do you remember what thoughts came into your head when he once led you to a gloomy cavern over a slippery path8 ,your distrustful heart beat rapidly1 and said inwardly1 8,this guide might surely do something better than crawl about here6 he is one of those idle people who are full of curiosity--is it not doing him too much honour to appear to attach any value at all to him by following him80 #dgj4 ,,many ,,at ,,the ,,banquet4--,how happy we are when we are fed like the birds by the hand of some one who throws them their crumbs without examining them too closely1 or inquiring into their worthiness6 ,to live like a bird which comes and flies away1 and does not carry its name on its beak6 ,i take great pleasure in satisfying my appetite at the banquet of the many4 #dga4 ,,another ,,type ,,of ,,love ,,for ,,one',s ,,neighbour4--,everything that is agitated1 noisy1 fitful1 and nervous forms a contrast to the great passion which1 glowing in the heart of man like a quiet and gloomy flame1 and gathering about it all that is flaming and ardent1 gives to man the appearance of coldness and indifference1 and stamps a certain impassiveness on his features4 ,such men are occasionally capable of showing their love for their neighbour1 but this love is different from that of sociable people who are anxious to please4 ,it is a mild1 contemplative1 and calm amiability3 these people1 as it were1 look out of the windows of the castle which serves them as a stronghold1 and consequently as a prison2 for the outlook into the far distance1 the open air1 and a different world is so pleasant for them6 #dgb4 ,,not ,,justifying ,,oneself4-- ,a4 ,but why are you not willing to justify yourself8 ,b4 ,i could do it in this instance1 as in dozens of others2 but ,i despise the pleasure which lies in justification1 for all that matters little to me1 and ,i would rather bear a stained reputation than give those petty folks the spiteful pleasure of saying1 8,he takes these things very seriously40 ,this is not true4 ,perhaps ,i ought to have more consideration for myself1 and look upon it as a duty to rectify erroneous opinions about myself--,i am too indifferent and too indolent regarding myself1 and consequently also regarding everything that is brought about through my agency4 #dgc4 ,,where ,,to ,,build ,,one',s ,,house4--,if you feel great and productive in solitude1 society will belittle and isolate you1 and vice versa4 ,a powerful mildness such as that of a father3--wherever this feeling takes possession of you1 there build your house1 whether in the midst of the multitude1 or on some silent spot4 ,ubi pater sum1 ibi patria47#ad7 #dgd4 ,,the ,,only ,,means4--8,dialectic is the only means of reaching the divine essence1 and penetrating behind the veil of appearance40 ,this declaration of ,plato in regard to dialectic is as solemn and passionate as that of ,schopenhauer in regard to the contrary of dialectic--and both are wrong4 ,for that to which they wish to point out the way to us does not exist4--,and so far have not all the great passions of mankind been passions for something non-existent8--and all their ceremonies--ceremonies for something non-existent also8 #dge4 ,,becoming ,,heavy4--,you know him not2 whatever weights he may attach to himself he will nevertheless be able to raise them all with him4 ,but you1 judging from the weak flapping of your own wings1 come to the conclusion that he wishes to remain below1 merely because he does burden himself with those weights4 #dgf4 ,,at ,,the ,,harvest ,,thanksgiving ,,of ,,the ,,intellect4--,there is a daily increase and accumulation of experiences1 events1 opinions upon these experiences and events1 and dreams upon these opinions--a boundless and delightful display of wealth6 its aspect dazzles the eyes3 ,i can no longer understand how the poor in spirit can be called blessed6 ,occasionally1 however1 ,i envy them when ,i am tired3 for the superintendence of such vast wealth is no easy task1 and its weight frequently crushes all happiness4--,alas1 if only the mere sight of it were sufficient6 ,if only we could be misers of our knowledge6 #dgg4 ,,freed ,,from ,,scepticism4-- ,a4 ,some men emerge from a general moral scepticism bad-tempered and feeble1 corroded1 worm-eaten1 and even partly consumed--but ,i on the other hand1 more courageous and healthier than ever1 and with my instincts conquered once more4 ,where a strong wind blows1 where the waves are rolling angrily1 and where more than usual danger is to be faced1 there ,i feel happy4 ,i did not become a worm1 although ,i often had to work and dig like a worm4 ,b4 ,you have just ceased to be a sceptic2 for you deny6 ,a4 ,and in doing so ,i have learnt to say yea again4 #dgh4 ,,let ,,us ,,pass ,,by4--,spare him6 ,leave him in his solitude6 ,do you wish to crush him down entirely8 ,he became cracked like a glass into which some hot liquid was poured suddenly--and he was such a precious glass6 #dgi4 ,,love ,,and ,,truthfulness4--,through our love we have become dire offenders against truth1 and even habitual dissimulators and thieves1 who give out more things as true than seem to us to be true4 ,on this account the thinker must from time to time drive away those whom he loves 7not necessarily those who love him71 so that they may show their sting and wickedness1 and cease to tempt him4 ,consequently the kindness of the thinker will have its waning and waxing moon4 #dhj4 ,,inevitable4--,no matter what your experience may be1 any one who does not feel well disposed towards you will find in this experience some pretext for disparaging you6 ,you may undergo the greatest possible revolutions of mind and knowledge1 and at length1 with the melancholy smile of the convalescent1 you may be able to step out into freedom and bright stillness1 and yet some one will say3 8,this fellow looks upon his illness as an argument1 and takes his impotence to be a proof of the impotence of all others--he is vain enough to fall ill that he may feel the superiority of the sufferer40 ,and again1 if somebody were to break the chains that bound him down1 and wounded himself severely in doing so1 some one else would point at him mockingly and cry3 8,how awkward he is6 there is a man who had got accustomed to his chains1 and yet he is fool enough to burst them asunder60 #dha4 ,,two ,,germans4--,if we compare ,kant and ,schopenhauer with ,plato1 ,spinoza1 ,pascal1 ,rousseau1 and ,goethe1 with reference to their souls and not their intellects1 we shall see that the two first-named thinkers are at a disadvantage3 their thoughts do not constitute a passionate history of their souls--we are not led to expect in them romance1 crises1 catastrophies1 or death struggles4 ,their thinking is not at the same time the involuntary biography of a soul1 but in the case of ,kant merely of a head2 and in the case of ,schopenhauer again merely the description and reflection of a character 78the invariable07 and the pleasure which this reflection causes1 that is to say1 the pleasure of meeting with an intellect of the first order4 ,kant1 when he shimmers through his thoughts1 appears to us as an honest and honourable man in the best sense of the words1 but likewise as an insignificant one3 he is wanting in breadth and power2 he had not come through many experiences1 and his method of working did not allow him sufficient time to undergo experiences4 ,of course1 in speaking of experiences1 ,i do not refer to the ordinary external events of life1 but to those fatalities and convulsions which occur in the course of the most solitary and quiet life which has some leisure and glows with the passion for thinking4 ,schopenhauer has at all events one advantage over him2 for he at least was distinguished by a certain fierce ugliness of disposition1 which showed itself in hatred1 desire1 vanity1 and suspicion3 he was of a rather more ferocious disposition1 and had both time and leisure to indulge this ferocity4 ,but he lacked 8development10 which was also wanting in his range of thought3 he had no 8history40 #dhb4 ,,seeking ,,one',s ,,company4--,are we then looking for too much when we seek the company of men who have grown mild1 agreeable to the taste1 and nutritive1 like chestnuts which have been put into the fire and taken out just at the right moment8 ,of men who expect little from life1 and prefer to accept this little as a present rather than as a merit of their own1 as if it were carried to them by birds and bees8 ,of men who are too proud ever to feel themselves rewarded1 and too serious in their passion for knowledge and honesty to have time for or pleasure in fame8 ,such men we should call philosophers2 but they themselves will always find some more modest designation4 #dhc4 ,,satiated ,,with ,,mankind4-- ,a4 ,seek for knowledge6 ,yes6 but always as a man6 ,what8 must ,i always be a spectator of the same comedy1 and always play a part in the same comedy1 without ever being able to observe things with other eyes than those8 and yet there may be countless types of beings whose organs are better adapted for knowledge than ours6 ,at the end of all their searching for knowledge what will men at length come to know8 ,their organs6 which perhaps is as much as to say3 the impossibility of knowledge6 misery and disgust6 ,b4 ,this is a bad attack you have--reason is attacking you6 to-morrow1 however1 you will again be in the midst of knowledge1 and hence of irrationality--that is to say1 delighted about all that is human4 ,let us go to the sea6 #dhd4 ,,going ,,our ,,own ,,way4--,when we take the decisive step1 and make up our minds to follow our own path1 a secret is suddenly revealed to us3 it is clear that all those who had hitherto been friendly to us and on intimate terms with us judged themselves to be superior to us1 and are offended now4 ,the best among them are indulgent1 and are content to wait patiently until we once more find the 8right path0--they know it1 apparently4 ,others make fun of us1 and pretend that we have been seized with a temporary attack of mild insanity1 or spitefully point out some seducer4 ,the more malicious say we are vain fools1 and do their best to blacken our motives2 while the worst of all see in us their greatest enemy1 some one who is thirsting for revenge after many years of dependence1--and are afraid of us4 ,what1 then1 are we to do8 ,my own opinion is that we should begin our sovereignty by promising to all our acquaintances in advance a whole year's amnesty for sins of every kind4 #dhe4 ,,far-,,off ,,perspectives4-- ,a4 ,but why this solitude8 ,b4 ,i am not angry with anybody4 ,but when ,i am alone it seems to me that ,i can see my friends in a clearer and rosier light than when ,i am with them2 and when ,i loved and felt music best ,i lived far from it4 ,it would seem that ,i must have distant perspectives in order that ,i may think well of things4 #dhf4 ,,gold ,,and ,,hunger4--,here and there we meet with a man who changes into gold everything that he touches4 ,but some fine evil day he will discover that he himself must starve through this gift of his4 ,everything around him is brilliant1 superb1 and unapproachable in its ideal beauty1 and now he eagerly longs for things which it is impossible for him to turn into gold--and how intense is this longing6 like that of a starving man for a meal6 ,query3 ,what will he seize8 #dhg4 ,,shame4--,look at that noble steed pawing the ground1 snorting1 longing for a ride1 and loving its accustomed rider--but1 shameful to relate1 the rider cannot mount to-day1 he is tired4--,such is the shame felt by the weary thinker in the presence of his own philosophy6 #dhh4 ,,against ,,the ,,waste ,,of ,,love4--,do we not blush when we surprise ourselves in a state of violent aversion8 ,well1 then1 we should also blush when we find ourselves possessed of strong affections on account of the injustice contained in them4 ,more3 there are people who feel their hearts weighed down and oppressed when some one gives them the benefit of his love and sympathy to the extent that he deprives others of a share4 ,the tone of his voice reveals to us the fact that we have been specially selected and preferred6 but1 alas6 ,i am not thankful for being thus selected3 ,i experience within myself a certain feeling of resentment against him who wishes to distinguish me in this way--he shall not love me at the expense of others6 ,i shall always try to look after myself and to endure myself1 and my heart is often filled to overflowing1 and with some reason4 ,to such a man nothing ought to be given of which others stand so greatly in need4 #dhi4 ,,friends ,,in ,,need4--,we may occasionally remark that one of our friends sympathises with another more than with us4 ,his delicacy is troubled thereby1 and his selfishness is not equal to the task of breaking down his feelings of affection3 in such a case we should facilitate the separation for him1 and estrange him in some way in order to widen the distance between us4--,this is also necessary when we fall into a habit of thinking which might be detrimental to him3 our affection for him should induce us to ease his conscience in separating himself from us by means of some injustice which we voluntarily take upon ourselves4 #dij4 ,,those ,,petty ,,truths4--8,you know all that1 but you have never lived through it--so ,i will not accept your evidence4 ,those #8petty truths'--you deem them petty because you have not paid for them with your blood60--,but are they really great1 simply because they have been bought at so high a price8 and blood is always too high a price6--8,do you really think so8 ,how stingy you are with your blood60 #dia4 ,,solitude1 ,,therefore6-- ,a4 ,so you wish to go back to your desert8 ,b4 ,i am not a quick thinker2 ,i must wait for myself a long time--it is always later and later before the water from the fountain of my own ego spurts forth1 and ,i have often to go thirsty longer than suits my patience4 ,that is why ,i retire into solitude in order that ,i may not have to drink from the common cisterns4 ,when ,i live in the midst of the multitude my life is like theirs1 and ,i do not think like myself2 but after some time it always seems to me as if the multitude wished to banish me from myself and to rob me of my soul4 ,then ,i get angry with all these people1 and afraid of them2 and ,i must have the desert to become well disposed again4 #dib4 ,,under ,,the ,,south ,,wind4-- ,a4 ,i can no longer understand myself6 ,it was only yesterday that ,i felt myself so tempestuous and ardent1 and at the same time so warm and sunny and exceptionally bright6 but to-day6 ,now everything is calm1 wide1 oppressive1 and dark like the lagoon at ,venice4 ,i wish for nothing1 and draw a deep breath1 and yet ,i feel inwardly indignant at this 8wish for nothing0--so the waves rise and fall in the ocean of my melancholy4 ,b4 ,you describe a petty1 agreeable illness4 ,the next wind from the north-east will blow it away4 ,a4 ,why so8 #dic4 ,,on ,,one',s ,,own ,,tree4-- ,a4 ,no thinker's thoughts give me so much pleasure as my own3 this1 of course1 proves nothing in favour of their value2 but ,i should be foolish to neglect fruits which are tasteful to me only because they happen to grow on my own tree6--and ,i was once such a fool4 ,b4 ,others have the contrary feeling3 which likewise proves nothing in favour of their thoughts1 nor yet is it any argument against their value4 #did4 ,,the ,,last ,,argument ,,of ,,the ,,brave ,,man4--,there are snakes in this little clump of trees4--,very well1 ,i will rush into the thicket and kill them4--,but by doing that you will run the risk of falling a victim to them1 and not they to you4--,but what do ,i matter8 #die4 ,,our ,,teachers4--,during our period of youth we select our teachers and guides from our own times1 and from those circles which we happen to meet with3 we have the thoughtless conviction that the present age must have teachers who will suit us better than any others1 and that we are sure to find them without having to look very far4 ,later on we find that we have to pay a heavy penalty for this childishness3 we have to expiate our teachers in ourselves1 and then perhaps we begin to look for the proper guides4 ,we look for them throughout the whole world1 including even present and past ages--but perhaps it may be too late1 and at the worst we discover that they lived when we were young--and that at that time we lost our opportunity4 #dif4 ,,the ,,evil ,,principle4--,plato has marvellously described how the philosophic thinker must necessarily be regarded as the essence of depravity in the midst of every existing society3 for as the critic of all its morals he is naturally the antagonist of the moral man1 and1 unless he succeeds in becoming the legislator of new morals1 he lives long in the memory of men as an instance of the 8evil principle40 ,from this we may judge to how great an extent the city of ,athens1 although fairly liberal and fond of innovations1 abused the reputation of ,plato during his lifetime4 ,what wonder then that he--who1 as he has himself recorded1 had the 8political instinct0 in his body--made three different attempts in ,sicily1 where at that time a united ,mediterranean ,greek ,state appeared to be in process of formation8 ,it was in this ,state1 and with its assistance1 that ,plato thought he could do for the ,greeks what ,mohammed did for the ,arabs several centuries later3 viz4 establishing both minor and more important customs1 and especially regulating the daily life of every man4 ,his ideas were quite practicable just as certainly as those of ,mohammed were practicable2 for even much more incredible ideas1 those of ,christianity1 proved themselves to be practicable6 a few hazards less and a few hazards more--and then the world would have witnessed the ,platonisation of ,southern ,europe2 and1 if we suppose that this state of things had continued to our own days1 we should probably be worshipping ,plato now as the 8good principle40 ,but he was unsuccessful1 and so his traditional character remains that of a dreamer and a ,utopian--stronger epithets than these passed away with ancient ,athens4 #dig4 ,,the ,,purifying ,,eye4--,we have the best reason for speaking of 8genius0 in men--for example1 ,plato1 ,spinoza1 and ,goethe--whose minds appear to be but loosely linked to their character and temperament1 like winged beings which easily separate themselves from them1 and then rise far above them4 ,on the other hand1 those who never succeeded in cutting themselves loose from their temperament1 and who knew how to give to it the most intellectual1 lofty1 and at times even cosmic expression 7,schopenhauer1 for instance7 have always been very fond of speaking about their genius4 ,these geniuses could not rise above themselves1 but they believed that1 fly where they would1 they would always find and recover themselves--this is their 8greatness10 and this can be greatness6--,the others who are entitled to this name possess the pure and purifying eye which does not seem to have sprung out of their temperament and character1 but separately from them1 and generally in contradiction to them1 and looks out upon the world as on a ,god whom it loves4 ,but even people like these do not come into possession of such an eye all at once3 they require practice and a preliminary school of sight1 and he who is really fortunate will at the right moment also fall in with a teacher of pure sight4 #dih4 ,,never ,,demand6--,you do not know him6 it is true that he easily and readily submits both to men and things1 and that he is kind to both--his only wish is to be left in peace--but only in so far as men and things do not demand his submission4 ,any demand makes him proud1 bashful1 and warlike4 #dii4 ,,the ,,evil ,,one4--8,only the solitary are evil60--thus spake ,diderot1 and ,rousseau at once felt deeply offended4 ,thus he proved that ,diderot was right4 ,indeed1 in society1 or amid social life1 every evil instinct is compelled to restrain itself1 to assume so many masks1 and to press itself so often into the ,procrustean bed of virtue1 that we are quite justified in speaking of the martyrdom of the evil man4 ,in solitude1 however1 all this disappears4 ,the evil man is still more evil in solitude--and consequently for him whose eye sees only a drama everywhere he is also more beautiful4 #ejj4 ,,against ,,the ,,grain4--,a thinker may for years at a time force himself to think against the grain3 that is1 not to pursue the thoughts that spring up within him1 but1 instead1 those which he is compelled to follow by the exigencies of his office1 an established division of time1 or any arbitrary duty which he may find it necessary to fulfil4 ,in the long run1 however1 he will fall ill2 for this apparently moral self-command will destroy his nervous system as thoroughly and completely as regular debauchery4 #eja4 ,,mortal ,,souls4--,where knowledge is concerned perhaps the most useful conquest that has ever been made is the abandonment of the belief in the immortality of the soul4 ,humanity is henceforth at liberty to wait3 men need no longer be in a hurry to swallow badly-tested ideas as they had to do in former times4 ,for in those times the salvation of this poor 8immortal soul0 depended upon the extent of the knowledge which could be acquired in the course of a short existence3 decisions had to be reached from one day to another1 and 8knowledge0 was a matter of dreadful importance6 ,now we have acquired good courage for errors1 experiments1 and the provisional acceptance of ideas--all this is not so very important6--and for this very reason individuals and whole races may now face tasks so vast in extent that in former years they would have looked like madness1 and defiance of heaven and hell4 ,now we have the right to experiment upon ourselves6 ,yes1 men have the right to do so6 the greatest sacrifices have not yet been offered up to knowledge--nay1 in earlier periods it would have been sacrilege1 and a sacrifice of our eternal salvation1 even to surmise such ideas as now precede our actions4 #ejb4 ,,one ,,word ,,for ,,three ,,different ,,conditions4--,when in a state of passion one man will be forced to let loose the savage1 dreadful1 unbearable animal4 ,another when under the influence of passion will raise himself to a high1 noble1 and lofty demeanour1 in comparison with which his usual self appears petty4 ,a third1 whose whole person is permeated with nobility of feeling1 has also the most noble storm and stress3 and in this state he represents ,nature in her state of savageness and beauty1 and stands only one degree lower than ,nature in her periods of greatness and serenity1 which he usually represents4 ,it is while in this state of passion1 however1 that men understand him better1 and venerate him more highly at these moments--for then he is one step nearer and more akin to them4 ,they feel at once delighted and horrified at such a sight and call it--divine4 #ejc4 ,,friendship4--,the objection to a philosophic life that it renders us useless to our friends would never have arisen in a modern mind3 it belongs rather to classical antiquity4 ,antiquity knew the stronger bonds of friendship1 meditated upon it1 and almost took it to the grave with it4 ,this is the advantage it has over us3 we1 on the other hand1 can point to our idealisation of sexual love4 ,all the great excellencies of ancient humanity owed their stability to the fact that man was standing side by side with man1 and that no woman was allowed to put forward the claim of being the nearest and highest1 nay even sole object of his love1 as the feeling of passion would teach4 ,perhaps our trees do not grow so high now owing to the ivy and the vines that cling round them4 #ejd4 ,,reconciliation4--,should it then be the task of philosophy to reconcile what the child has learnt with what the man has come to recognise8 ,should philosophy be the task of young men because they stand midway between child and man and possess intermediate necessities8 ,it would almost appear to be so if you consider at what ages of their life philosophers are now in the habit of setting forth their conceptions3 at a time when it is too late for faith and too early for knowledge4 #eje4 ,,practical ,,people4--,we thinkers have the right of deciding good taste in all things1 and if necessary of decreeing it4 ,the practical people finally receive it from us3 their dependence upon us is incredibly great1 and is one of the most ridiculous spectacles in the world1 little though they themselves know it and however proudly they like to carp at us unpractical people4 ,nay1 they would even go so far as to belittle their practical life if we should show a tendency to despise it--whereto at times we might be urged on by a slightly vindictive feeling4 #ejf4 ,,the ,,necessary ,,desiccation ,,of ,,everything ,,good4--,what6 must we conceive of a work exactly in the spirit of the age that has produced it8 but we experience greater delight and surprise1 and get more information out of it when we do not conceive it in this spirit6 ,have you not remarked that every new and good work1 so long as it is exposed to the damp air of its own age is least valuable--just because it still has about it all the odour of the market1 of opposition1 of modern ideas1 and of all that is transient from day to day8 ,later on1 however1 it dries up1 its 8actuality0 dies away3 and then only does it obtain its deep lustre and its perfume--and also1 if it is destined for it1 the calm eye of eternity4 #ejg4 ,,against ,,the ,,tyranny ,,of ,,truth4--,even if we were mad enough to consider all our opinions as truth1 we should nevertheless not wish them alone to exist4 ,i cannot see why we should ask for an autocracy and omnipotence of truth3 it is sufficient for me to know that it is a great power4 ,truth1 however1 must meet with opposition and be able to fight1 and we must be able to rest from it at times in falsehood--otherwise truth will grow tiresome1 powerless1 and insipid1 and will render us equally so4 #ejh4 ,,not ,,to ,,take ,a ,,thing ,,pathetically4--,what we do to benefit ourselves should not bring us in any moral praise1 either from others or from ourselves1 and the same remark applies to those things which we do to please ourselves4 ,it is looked upon as bon ton among superior men to refrain from taking things pathetically in such cases1 and to refrain from all pathetic feelings3 the man who has accustomed himself to this has retrieved his navet4 #eji4 ,,the ,,third ,,eye4--,what6 ,you are still in need of the theatre6 are you still so young8 ,be wise1 and seek tragedy and comedy where they are better acted1 and where the incidents are more interesting1 and the actors more eager4 ,it is indeed by no means easy to be merely a spectator in these cases--but learn6 and then1 amid all difficult or painful situations1 you will have a little gate leading to joy and refuge1 even when your passions attack you4 ,open your stage eye1 that big third eye of yours1 which looks out into the world through the other two4 #eaj4 ,,escaping ,,from ,,one',s ,,virtues4--,of what account is a thinker who does not know how to escape from his own virtues occasionally6 ,surely a thinker should be more than 8a moral being06 #eaa4 ,,the ,,temptress4--,honesty is the great temptress of all fanatics47#ae7 ,what seemed to tempt ,luther in the guise of the devil or a beautiful woman1 and from which he defended himself in that uncouth way of his1 was probably nothing but honesty1 and perhaps in a few rarer cases even truth4 #eab4 ,,bold ,,towards ,,things4--,the man who1 in accordance with his character1 is considerate and timid towards persons1 but is courageous and bold towards things1 is afraid of new and closer acquaintances1 and limits his old ones in order that he may thus make his incognito and his inconsiderateness coincide with truth4 #eac4 ,,limits ,,and ,,beauty4--,are you looking for men with a fine culture8 ,then you will have to be satisfied with restricted views and sights1 exactly as when you are looking for fine countries4--,there are1 of course1 such panoramic men3 they are like panoramic regions1 instructive and marvellous3 but not beautiful4 #ead4 ,,to ,,the ,,stronger4--,ye stronger and arrogant intellects1 we ask you for only one thing3 throw no further burdens upon our shoulders1 but take some of our burdens upon your own1 since ye are stronger6 but ye delight in doing the exact contrary3 for ye wish to soar1 so that we must carry your burden in addition to our own--we must crawl6 #eae4 ,,the ,,increase ,,of ,,beauty4--,why has beauty increased by the progress of civilisation8 because the three occasions for ugliness appear ever more rarely among civilised men3 first1 the wildest outbursts of ecstasy2 secondly1 extreme bodily exertion1 and1 thirdly1 the necessity of inducing fear by one's very sight and presence--a matter which is so frequent and of so great importance in the lower and more dangerous stages of culture that it even lays down the proper gestures and ceremonials and makes ugliness a duty4 #eaf4 ,,not ,,to ,,imbue ,,our ,,neighbours ,,with ,,our ,,own ,,demon4--,let us in our age continue to hold the belief that benevolence and beneficence are the characteristics of a good man2 but let us not fail to add 8provided that in the first place he exhibits his benevolence and beneficence towards himself40 ,for if he acts otherwise--that is to say1 if he shuns1 hates1 or injures himself--he is certainly not a good man4 ,he then merely saves himself through others3 and let these others take care that they do not come to grief through him1 however well disposed he may appear to be to them6--but to shun and hate one's own ego1 and to live in and for others1 this has up to the present1 with as much thoughtlessness as conviction1 been looked upon as 8unselfish10 and consequently as 8good40 #eag4 ,,tempting ,,into ,,love4--,we ought to fear a man who hates himself2 for we are liable to become the victims of his anger and revenge4 ,let us therefore try to tempt him into self-love4 #eah4 ,,resignation4--,what is resignation8 ,it is the most comfortable position of a patient1 who1 after having suffered a long time from tormenting pains in order to find it1 at last became tired--and then found it4 #eai4 ,,deception4--,when you wish to act you must close the door upon doubt1 said a man of action4--,and are you not afraid of being deceived in doing so8 replied the man of a contemplative mind4 #ebj4 ,,eternal ,,obsequies4--,both within and beyond the confines of history we might imagine that we were listening to a continual funeral oration3 we have buried1 and are still burying1 all that we have loved best1 our thoughts1 and our hopes1 receiving in exchange pride1 gloria mundi--that is1 the pomp of the graveside speech4 ,it is thus that everything is made good6 ,even at the present time the funeral orator remains the greatest public benefactor4 #eba4 ,,exceptional ,,vanity4--,yonder man possesses one great quality which serves as a consolation for him3 his look passes with contempt over the remainder of his being1 and almost his entire character is included in this4 ,but he recovers from himself when1 as it were1 he approaches his sanctuary2 already the road leading to it appears to him to be an ascent on broad soft steps--and yet1 ye cruel ones1 ye call him vain on this account6 #ebb4 ,,wisdom ,,without ,,ears4--,to hear every day what is said about us1 or even to endeavour to discover what people think of us1 will in the end kill even the strongest man4 ,our neighbours permit us to live only that they may exercise a daily claim upon us6 ,they certainly would not tolerate us if we wished to claim rights over them1 and still less if we wished to be right6 ,in short1 let us offer up a sacrifice to the general peace1 let us not listen when they speak of us1 when they praise us1 blame us1 wish for us1 or hope for us--nay1 let us not even think of it4 #ebc4 ,a ,,question ,,of ,,penetration4--,when we are confronted with any manifestation which some one has permitted us to see1 we may ask3 what is it meant to conceal8 ,what is it meant to draw our attention from8 ,what prejudices does it seek to raise8 and again1 how far does the subtlety of the dissimulation go8 and in what respect is the man mistaken8 #ebd4 ,,the ,,jealousy ,,of ,,the ,,lonely ,,ones4--,this is the difference between sociable and solitary natures1 provided that both possess an intellect3 the former are satisfied1 or nearly satisfied1 with almost anything whatever2 from the moment that their minds have discovered a communicable and happy version of it they will be reconciled even with the devil himself6 ,but the lonely souls have their silent rapture1 and their speechless agony about a thing3 they hate the ingenious and brilliant display of their inmost problems as much as they dislike to see the women they love too loudly dressed--they watch her mournfully in such a case1 as if they were just beginning to suspect that she was desirous of pleasing others4 ,this is the jealousy which all lonely thinkers and passionate dreamers exhibit with regard to the esprit4 #ebe4 ,,the ,,effect ,,of ,,praise4--,some people become modest when highly praised1 others insolent4 #ebf4 ,,unwilling ,,to ,,be ,a ,,symbol4--,i sympathise with princes3 they are not at liberty to discard their high rank even for a short time1 and thus they come to know people only from the very uncomfortable position of constant dissimulation--their continual compulsion to represent something actually ends by making solemn ciphers of them4--,such is the fate of all those who deem it their duty to be symbols4 #ebg4 ,,the ,,hidden ,,men4--,have you never come across those people who check and restrain even their enraptured hearts1 and who would rather become mute than lose the modesty of moderation8 and have you never met those embarrassing1 and yet so often good-natured people who do not wish to be recognised1 and who time and again efface the tracks they have made in the sand8 and who even deceive others as well as themselves in order to remain obscure and hidden8 #ebh4 ,,unusual ,,forbearance4--,it is often no small indication of kindness to be unwilling to criticise some one1 and even to refuse to think of him4 #ebi4 ,,how ,,men ,,and ,,nations ,,gain ,,lustre4--,how many really individual actions are left undone merely because before performing them we perceive or suspect that they will be misunderstood6--those actions1 for example1 which have some intrinsic value1 both in good and evil4 ,the more highly an age or a nation values its individuals1 therefore1 and the more right and ascendancy we accord them1 the more will actions of this kind venture to make themselves known1--and thus in the long run a lustre of honesty1 of genuineness in good and evil1 will spread over entire ages and nations1 so that they--the ,greeks1 for example--like certain stars1 will continue to shed light for thousands of years after their sinking4 #ecj4 ,,digressions ,,of ,,the ,,thinker4--,the course of thought in certain men is strict and inflexibly bold4 ,at times it is even cruel towards such men1 although considered individually they may be gentle and pliable4 ,with well-meaning hesitation they will turn the matter ten times over in their heads1 but will at length continue their strict course4 ,they are like streams that wind their way past solitary hermitages3 there are places in their course where the stream plays hide and seek with itself1 and indulges in short idylls with islets1 trees1 grottos1 and cascades--and then it rushes ahead once more1 passes by the rocks1 and forces its way through the hardest stones4 #eca4 ,,different ,,feelings ,,towards ,,art4--,from the time when we begin to live as a hermit1 consuming and consumed1 our only company being deep and prolific thoughts1 we expect from art either nothing more1 or else something quite different from what we formerly expected--in a word1 we change our taste4 ,for in former times we wished to penetrate for a moment by means of art into the element in which we are now living permanently3 at that time we dreamt ourselves into the rapture of a possession which we now actually possess4 ,indeed1 flinging away from us for the time being what we now have1 and imagining ourselves to be poor1 or to be a child1 a beggar1 or a fool1 may now at times fill us with delight4 #ecb4 8,,love ,,equalises40--,love wishes to spare the other to whom it devotes itself any feeling of strangeness3 as a consequence it is permeated with disguise and simulation2 it keeps on deceiving continuously1 and feigns an equality which in reality does not exist4 ,and all this is done so instinctively that women who love deny this simulation and constant tender trickery1 and have even the audacity to assert that love equalises 7in other words that it performs a miracle76 ,this phenomenon is a simple matter if one of the two permits himself or herself to be loved1 and does not deem it necessary to feign1 but leaves this to the other4 ,no drama1 however1 could offer a more intricate and confused instance than when both persons are passionately in love with one another2 for in this case both are anxious to surrender and to endeavour to conform to the other1 and finally they are both at a loss to know what to imitate and what to feign4 ,the beautiful madness of this spectacle is too good for this world1 and too subtle for human eyes4 #ecc4 ,,we ,,beginners4--,how many things does an actor see and divine when he watches another on the stage6 ,he notices at once when a muscle fails in some gesture2 he can distinguish those little artificial tricks which are so calmly practised separately before the mirror1 and are not in conformity with the whole2 he feels when the actor is surprised on the stage by his own invention1 and when he spoils it amid this surprise4--,how differently1 again1 does a painter look at some one who happens to be moving before him6 ,he will see a great deal that does not actually exist in order to complete the actual appearance of the person1 and to give it its full effect4 ,in his mind he attempts several different illuminations of the same object1 and divides the whole by an additional contrast4--,oh1 that we now possessed the eyes of such an actor and such a painter for the province of the human soul6 #ecd4 ,,small ,,doses4--,if we wish a change to be as deep and radical as possible1 we must apply the remedy in minute doses1 but unremittingly for long periods4 ,what great action can be performed all at once8 ,let us therefore be careful not to exchange violently and precipitately the moral conditions with which we are familiar for a new valuation of things1--nay1 we may even wish to continue living in the old way for a long time to come1 until probably at some very remote period we become aware of the fact that the new valuation has made itself the predominating power within us1 and that its minute doses to which we must henceforth become accustomed have set up a new nature within us4--,we now also begin to understand that the last attempt at a great change of valuations--that which concerned itself with political affairs 7the 8great revolution07--was nothing more than a pathetic and sanguinary piece of quackery which1 by means of sudden crises1 was able to inspire a credulous ,europe with the hope of a sudden recovery1 and has therefore made all political invalids impatient and dangerous up to this very moment4 #ece4 ,,truth ,,requires ,,power4--,truth in itself is no power at all1 in spite of all that flattering rationalists are in the habit of saying to the contrary4 ,truth must either attract power to its side1 or else side with power1 for otherwise it will perish again and again4 ,this has already been sufficiently demonstrated1 and more than sufficiently6 #ecf4 ,,the ,,thumbscrew4--,it is disgusting to observe with what cruelty every one charges his two or three private virtues to the account of others who may perhaps not possess them1 and whom he torments and worries with them4 ,let us therefore deal humanely with the 8sense of honesty10 although we may possess in it a thumbscrew with which we can worry to death all these presumptuous egoists who even yet wish to impose their own beliefs upon the whole world--we have tried this thumbscrew on ourselves6 #ecg4 ,,mastery4--,we have reached mastery when we neither mistake nor hesitate in the achievement4 #ech4 ,,the ,,moral ,,insanity ,,of ,,genius4--,in a certain category of great intellects we may observe a painful and partly horrible spectacle3 in their most productive moments their flights aloft and into the far distance appear to be out of harmony with their general constitution and to exceed their power in one way or another1 so that each time there remains a deficiency1 and also in the long run a defectiveness in the entire machinery1 which latter is manifested among those highly intellectual natures by various kinds of moral and intellectual symptoms more regularly than by conditions of bodily distress4 ,thus those incomprehensible characteristics of their nature--all their timidity1 vanity1 hatefulness1 envy1 their narrow and narrowing disposition--and that too personal and awkward element in natures like those of ,rousseau and ,schopenhauer1 may very well be the consequences of a periodical attack of heart disease2 and this in its turn may be the result of a nervous complaint1 and this latter the consequence of ----7#af7 ,so long as genius dwells within us we are full of audacity1 yea1 almost mad1 and heedless of health1 life1 and honour2 we fly through the day as free and swift as an eagle1 and in the darkness we feel as confident as an owl4--,but let genius once leave us and we are instantly overcome by a feeling of the most profound despondency3 we can no longer understand ourselves2 we suffer from everything that we experience and do not experience2 we feel as if we were in the midst of shelterless rocks with the tempest raging round us1 and we are at the same time like pitiful childish souls1 afraid of a rustle or a shadow4--,three-fourths of all the evil committed in the world is due to timidity2 and this is above all a physiological process4 #eci4 ,,do ,,you ,,know ,,what ,,you ,,want8--,have you never been troubled by the fear that you might not be at all fitted for recognising what is true8 by the fear that your senses might be too dull1 and even your delicacy of sight far too blunt8 ,if you could only perceive1 even once1 to what extent your volition dominates your sight6 ,how1 for example1 you wished yesterday to see more than some one else1 while to-day you wish to see it differently6 and how from the start you were anxious to see something which would be in conformity with or in opposition to anything that people thought they had observed up to the present4 ,oh1 those shameful cravings6 ,how often you keep your eyes open for what is efficacious1 for what is soothing1 just because you happen to be tired at the moment6 ,always full of secret predeterminations of what truth should be like1 so that you--you1 forsooth6--might accept it6 or do you think that to-day1 because you are as frozen and dry as a bright winter morning1 and because nothing is weighing on your mind1 you have better eyesight6 ,are not ardour and enthusiasm necessary to do justice to the creations of thought8--and this indeed is what is called sight6 as if you could treat matters of thought any differently from the manner in which you treat men4 ,in all relations with thought there is the same morality1 the same honesty of purpose1 the same arrire-pense1 the same slackness1 the same faint-heartedness--your whole lovable and hateful self6 ,your physical exhaustion will lend the things pale colours whilst your feverishness will turn them into monsters6 ,does not your morning show the things in a different light from the evening8 ,are you not afraid of finding in the cave of all knowledge your own phantom1 the veil in which truth is wrapped up and hidden from your sight8 ,is it not a dreadful comedy in which you so thoughtlessly wish to take part8 #edj4 ,,learning4--,michelangelo considered ,raphael's genius as having been acquired by study1 and upon his own as a natural gift3 learning as opposed to talent2 though this is mere pedantry1 with all due respect to the great pedant himself4 ,for what is talent but a name for an older piece of learning1 experience1 exercise1 appropriation1 and incorporation1 perhaps as far back as the times of our ancestors1 or even earlier6 ,and again3 he who learns forms his own talents1 only learning is not such an easy matter and depends not only upon our willingness1 but also upon our being able to learn at all4 ,jealousy often prevents this in an artist1 or that pride which1 when it experiences any strange feeling1 at once assumes an attitude of defence instead of an attitude of scholarly receptiveness4 ,raphael1 like ,goethe1 lacked this pride1 on which account they were great learners1 and not merely the exploiters of those quarries which had been formed by the manifold genealogy of their forefathers4 ,raphael vanishes before our eyes as a learner in the midst of that assimilation of what his great rival called his 8nature03 this noblest of all thieves daily carried off a portion of it2 but before he had appropriated all the genius of ,michelangelo he died--and the final series of his works1 because it is the beginning of a new plan of study1 is less perfect and good1 for the simple reason that the great student was interrupted by death in the midst of his most difficult task1 and took away with him that justifying and final goal which he had in view4 #eda4 ,,how ,,we ,,should ,,turn ,,to ,,stone4--,by slowly1 very1 very slowly1 becoming hard like a precious stone1 and at last lie still1 a joy to all eternity4 #edb4 ,,the ,,philosopher ,,and ,,old ,,age4--,it is not wise to permit evening to act as a judge of the day2 for only too often in this case weariness becomes the judge of success and good will4 ,we should also take the greatest precautions in regard to everything connected with old age and its judgment upon life1 more especially since old age1 like the evening1 is fond of assuming a new and charming morality1 and knows well enough how to humiliate the day by the glow of the evening skies1 twilight and a peaceful and wistful silence4 ,the reverence which we feel for an old man1 especially if he is an old thinker and sage1 easily blinds us to the deterioration of his intellect1 and it is always necessary to bring to light the hidden symptoms of such a deterioration and lassitude1 that is to say1 to uncover the physiological phenomenon which is still concealed behind the old man's moral judgments and prejudices1 in case we should be deceived by our veneration for him1 and do something to the disadvantage of knowledge4 ,for it is not seldom that the illusion of a great moral renovation and regeneration takes possession of the old man4 ,basing his views upon this1 he then proceeds to express his opinions on the work and development of his life as if he had only then for the first time become clearsighted--and nevertheless it is not wisdom1 but fatigue1 which prompts his present state of well-being and his positive judgments4 ,the most dangerous indication of this weariness is above all the belief in genius1 which as a rule only arises in great and semi-great men of intellect at this period of their lives3 the belief in an exceptional position1 and exceptional rights4 ,the thinker who thus believes himself to be inspired by genius henceforth deems it permissible for him to take things more easily1 and takes advantage of his position as a genius to decree rather than to prove4 ,it is probable1 however1 that the need felt by the weary intellect for alleviation is the main source of this belief--it precedes it in time1 though appearances may indicate the contrary4 ,at this time too1 as the result of the love which all weary and old people feel for enjoyment1 such men as those ,i am speaking of wish to enjoy the results of their thinking instead of again testing them and scattering the seeds abroad once more4 ,this leads them to make their thoughts palatable and enjoyable1 and to take away their dryness1 coldness1 and want of flavour2 and thus it comes about that the old thinker apparently raises himself above his life's work1 while in reality he spoils it by infusing into it a certain amount of fantasy1 sweetness1 flavour1 poetic mists1 and mystic lights4 ,this is how ,plato ended1 as did also that great and honest ,frenchman1 ,auguste ,comte1 who1 as a conqueror of the exact sciences1 cannot be matched either among the ,germans or the ,englishmen of this century4 ,there is a third symptom of fatigue3 that ambition which actuated the great thinker when he was young1 and which could not then find anything to satisfy it1 has also grown old1 and1 like one that has no more time to lose1 it begins to snatch at the coarser and more immediate means of its gratification1 means which are peculiar to active1 dominating1 violent1 and conquering dispositions4 ,from this time onwards the thinker wishes to found institutions which shall bear his name1 instead of erecting mere brain-structures4 ,what are now to him the ethereal victories and honours to be met with in the realm of proofs and refutations1 or the perpetuation of his fame in books1 or the thrill of exultation in the soul of the reader8 ,but the institution1 on the other hand1 is a temple1 as he well knows--a temple of stone1 a durable edifice1 which will keep its god alive with more certainty than the sacrifices of rare and tender souls47#ag7 ,perhaps1 too1 at this period of his life the old thinker will for the first time meet with that love which is fitted for a god rather than for a human being1 and his whole nature becomes softened and sweetened in the rays of such a sun1 like fruit in autumn4 ,yes1 he grows more divine and beautiful1 this great old man1--and nevertheless it is old age and weariness which permit him to ripen in this way1 to grow more silent1 and to repose in the luminous adulation of a woman4 ,now it is all up with his former desire--a desire which was superior even to his own ego--for real disciples1 followers who would carry on his thought1 that is1 true opponents4 ,this desire arose from his hitherto undiminished energy1 the conscious pride he felt in being able at any time to become an opponent himself1--nay1 even the deadly enemy of his own doctrine1--but now his desire is for resolute partisans1 unwavering comrades1 auxiliary forces1 heralds1 a pompous train of followers4 ,he is now no longer able to bear that dreadful isolation in which every intellect that advances beyond the others is compelled to live4 ,from this time forward he surrounds himself with objects of veneration1 companionship1 tenderness1 and love2 but he also wishes to enjoy the privileges of all religious people1 and to worship what he venerates most highly in his little community--he will even go as far as to invent a religion for the purpose of having a community4 ,thus lives the wise old man1 and in living thus he falls almost imperceptibly into such a deplorable proximity to priestly and poetic extravagances that it is difficult to recollect all his wise and severe period of youth1 the former rigid morality of his mind1 and his truly virile dread of fancies and misplaced enthusiasm4 ,when he was formerly in the habit of comparing himself with the older thinkers1 he did so merely that he might measure his weakness against their strength1 and that he might become colder and more audacious towards himself2 but now he only makes this comparison to intoxicate himself with his own delusions4 ,formerly he looked forward with confidence to future thinkers1 and he even took a delight in imagining himself to be cast into the shade by their brighter light4 ,now1 however1 he is mortified to think that he cannot be the last3 he endeavours to discover some way of imposing upon mankind1 together with the inheritance which he is leaving to them1 a restriction of sovereign thinking4 ,he fears and reviles the pride and the love of freedom of individual minds3 after him no one must allow his intellect to govern with absolute unrestriction3 he himself wishes to remain for ever the bulwark on which the waves of ideas may break--these are his secret wishes1 and perhaps1 indeed1 they are not always secret4 ,the hard fact upon which such wishes are based1 however1 is that he himself has come to a halt before his teaching1 and has set up his boundary stone1 his 8thus far and no farther40 ,in canonising himself he has drawn up his own death warrant3 from now on his mind cannot develop further4 ,his race is run2 the hour-hand stops4 ,whenever a great thinker tries to make himself a lasting institution for posterity1 we may readily suppose that he has passed the climax of his powers1 and is very tired1 very near the setting of his sun4 #edc4 ,,we ,,must ,,not ,,make ,,passion ,,an ,,argument ,,for ,,truth4--,oh1 you kind-hearted and even noble enthusiasts1 ,i know you6 ,you wish to seem right in our eyes as well as in your own1 but especially in your own6--and an irritable and subtle evil conscience so often spurs you on against your very enthusiasm6 ,how ingenious you then become in deceiving your conscience1 and lulling it to sleep6 ,how you hate honest1 simple1 and clean souls2 how you avoid their innocent glances6 ,that better knowledge whose representatives they are1 and whose voice you hear only too distinctly within yourselves when it questions your belief1--how you try to cast suspicion upon it as a bad habit1 as a disease of the age1 as the neglect and infection of your own intellectual health6 ,it drives you on to hate even criticism1 science1 reason6 ,you must falsify history to make it testify in your favour2 you must deny virtues in case they should obscure those of your own idols and ideals4 ,coloured images where arguments are needed6 ,ardour and power of expression6 ,silver mists6 ,ambrosian nights6 well do you know how to enlighten and to darken--to darken by means of light6 and indeed when your passion can no longer be kept within bounds the moment comes when you say to yourselves1 8,now ,i have won for myself a good conscience1 now ,i am exalted1 courageous1 self-denying1 magnanimous2 now ,i am honest60 ,how you long for these moments when your passion will confer upon you full and absolute rights1 and also1 as it were1 innocence4 ,how happy you are when engaged in battle and inspired with ecstasy or courage1 when you are elated beyond yourself1 when gnawing doubt has left you1 and when you can even decree3 8,any man who is not in ecstasy as we are cannot by any chance know what or where truth is40 ,how you long to meet with those who share your belief in this state--which is a state of intellectual depravity--and to set your own fire alight with their flames6 ,oh1 for your martyrdom1 your victory of the sanctified lie6 ,must you really inflict so much pain upon yourselves8--,must you8 #edd4 ,,how ,,philosophy ,,is ,,now ,,practised4--,i can see quite well that our philosophising youths1 women1 and artists require from philosophy exactly the opposite of what the ,greeks derived from it4 ,what does he who does not hear the continual exultation that resounds through every speech and counter-argument in a ,platonic dialogue1 this exultation over the new invention of rational thinking1 know about ,plato or about ancient philosophy8 ,at that time souls were filled with enthusiasm when they gave themselves up to the severe and sober sport of ideas1 generalisations1 refutations1--that enthusiasm which perhaps those old1 great1 severe1 and prudent contrapuntists in music have also known4 ,at that time the ,greek palate still possessed that older and formerly omnipotent taste3 and by the side of this taste their new taste appeared to be enveloped in so much charm that the divine art of dialectic was sung by hesitating voices as if its followers were intoxicated with the frenzy of love4 ,that old form of thinking1 however1 was thought within the bounds of morality1 and for it nothing existed but fixed judgments and established facts1 and it had no reasons but those of authority4 ,thinking1 therefore1 was simply a matter of repetition1 and all the enjoyment of speech and dialogue could only lie in their form4 ,wherever the substance of a thing is looked upon as eternal and universally approved1 there is only one great charm1 the charm of variable forms1 that is1 of fashion4 ,even in the poets ever since the time of ,homer1 and later on in the case of the sculptors1 the ,greeks did not enjoy originality1 but its contrary4 ,it was ,socrates who discovered another charm1 that of cause and effect1 of reason and sequence1 and we moderns have become so used to it1 and have been brought up to the necessity of logic that we look upon it as the normal taste1 and as such it cannot but be repugnant to ardent and presumptuous people4 ,such people are pleased by whatever stands out boldly from the normal3 their more subtle ambition leads them to believe only too readily that they are exceptional souls1 not dialectic and rational beings1 but1 let us say1 8intuitive0 beings gifted with an 8inner sense10 or with a certain 8intellectual perception40 ,above all1 however1 they wish to be 8artistic natures0 with a genius in their heads1 and a demon in their bodies1 and consequently with special rights in this world and in the world to come--especially the divine privilege of being incomprehensible4 ,and people like these are 8going in for0 philosophy nowadays6 ,i fear they will discover one day that they have made a mistake--what they are looking for is religion6 #ede4 ,,but ,,we ,,do ,,not ,,believe ,,you4--,you would fain pass for psychologists1 but we shall not allow it6 ,are we not to notice that you pretend to be more experienced1 profound1 passionate1 and perfect than you actually are8--just as we notice in yonder painter that there is a trifling presumptuousness in his manner of wielding the brush1 and in yonder musician that he brings forward his theme with the desire to make it appear superior to what it really is4 ,have you experienced history within yourselves1 commotions1 earthquakes1 long and profound sadness1 and sudden flashes of happiness8 ,have you acted foolishly with great and little fools8 ,have you really undergone the delusions and woe of the good people8 and also the woe and the peculiar happiness of the most evil8 ,then you may speak to me of morality1 but not otherwise6 #edf4 ,,slave ,,and ,,idealist4--,the followers of ,epictetus would doubtless not be to the taste of those who are now striving after the ideal4 ,the constant tension of his being1 the indefatigable inward glance1 the prudent and reserved incommunicativeness of his eye whenever it happens to gaze upon the outer world1 and above all1 his silence or laconic speech3 all these are characteristics of the strictest fortitude1--and what would our idealists1 who above all else are desirous of expansion1 care for this8 ,but in spite of all this the ,stoic is not fanatical4 ,he detests the display and boasting of our idealists3 his pride1 however great it may be1 is not eager to disturb others4 ,it permits of a certain gentle approach1 and has no desire to spoil anybody's good humour--nay1 it can even smile4 ,a great deal of ancient humanity is to be seen exemplified in this ideal4 ,the most excellent feature about it1 however1 is that the thinker is completely free from the fear of ,god1 strictly believes in reason1 and is no preacher of penitence4 ,epictetus was a slave3 his ideal man is without any particular rank1 and may exist in any grade of society1 but above all he is to be sought in the deepest and lowest social classes1 as the silent and self-sufficient man in the midst of a general state of servitude1 a man who defends himself alone against the outer world1 and is constantly living in a state of the highest fortitude4 ,he is distinguished from the ,christian especially1 because the latter lives in hope in the promise of 8unspeakable glory10 permits presents to be made to him1 and expects and accepts the best things from divine love and grace1 and not from himself4 ,epictetus1 on the other hand1 neither hopes nor allows his best treasure to be given him--he possesses it already1 holds it bravely in his hand1 and defies the world to take it away from him4 ,christianity was devised for another class of ancient slaves1 for those who had a weak will and weak reason--that is to say1 for the majority of slaves4 #edg4 ,,the ,,tyrants ,,of ,,the ,,intellect4--,the progress of science is at the present time no longer hindered by the purely accidental fact that man attains to about seventy years1 which was the case far too long4 ,in former times people wished to master the entire extent of knowledge within this period1 and all the methods of knowledge were valued according to this general desire4 ,minor questions and individual experiments were looked upon as unworthy of notice3 people wanted to take the shortest path under the impression that1 since everything in this world seemed to be arranged with a view to man's needs1 even the acquirement of knowledge was regulated in view of the limits of human life4 ,to solve everything at a single stroke1 with one word--this was the secret desire2 and the task was represented in the symbol of the ,gordian knot or the egg of ,columbus4 ,no one doubted that it was possible to reach the goal of knowledge after the manner of ,alexander or ,columbus1 and to settle all questions with one answer4 8,there is a mystery to be solved10 seemed to be the aim of life in the eyes of the philosopher3 it was necessary in the first place to find out what this enigma was1 and to condense the problem of the world into the simplest enigmatical formula possible4 ,the boundless ambition and delight of being the 8unraveller of the world0 charmed the dreams of many a thinker3 nothing seemed to him worth troubling about in this world but the means of bringing everything to a satisfactory conclusion4 ,philosophy thus became a kind of supreme struggle for the tyrannical sway over the intellect1 and no one doubted that such a tyrannical domination was reserved for some very happy1 subtle1 ingenious1 bold1 and powerful person--a single individual6--and many 7the last was ,schopenhauer7 fancied themselves to be this privileged person4 ,from this it follows that1 on the whole1 science has up to the present remained in a rather backward state owing to the moral narrow-mindedness of its disciples1 and that henceforth it will have to be pursued from a higher and more generous motive4 8,what do ,i matter80 is written over the door of the thinker of the future4 #edh4 ,,victory ,,over ,,power4--,if we consider all that has been venerated up to the present as 8superhuman intellect0 or 8genius10 we must come to the sad conclusion that1 considered as a whole1 the intellectuality of mankind must have been extremely low and poor3 so little mind has hitherto been necessary in order to feel at once considerably superior to all this6 ,alas for the cheap glory of 8genius06 ,how quickly has it been raised to the throne1 and its worship grown into a custom6 ,we still fall on our knees before power--according to the old custom of slaves--and nevertheless1 when the degree of venerability comes to be determined1 only the degree of reason in the power will be the deciding factor4 ,we must find out1 indeed1 to how great an extent power has been overcome by something higher1 which it now obeys as a tool and instrument4 ,as yet1 however1 there have been too few eyes for such investigations3 even in the majority of cases the mere valuation of genius has almost been looked upon as blasphemy4 ,and thus perhaps everything that is most beautiful still takes place in the midst of darkness and vanishes in endless night almost as soon as it has made its appearance1--,i refer to the spectacle of that power which a genius does not lay out upon works1 but upon himself as a work1 that is1 his own self-control1 the purifying of his own imagination1 the order and selection in his inspirations and tasks4 ,the great man ever remains invisible in the greatest thing that claims worship1 like some distant star3 his victory over power remains without witnesses1 and hence also without songs and singers4 ,the hierarchy of the great men in all the past history of the human race has not yet been determined4 #edi4 ,,flight ,,from ,,one',s ,,self4--,those sufferers from intellectual spasms who are impatient towards themselves and look upon themselves with a gloomy eye--such as ,byron or ,alfred de ,musset--and who1 in everything that they do1 resemble runaway horses1 and from their own works derive only a transient joy and an ardent passion which almost bursts their veins1 followed by sterility and disenchantment--how are they able to bear up6 ,they would fain attain to something 8beyond themselves40 ,if we happen to be ,christians1 and are seized by such a desire as this1 we strive to reach ,god and to become one with ,him2 if we are a ,shakespeare we shall be glad to perish in images of a passionate life2 if we are like ,byron we long for actions1 because these detach us from ourselves to an even greater extent than thoughts1 feelings1 and works4 ,and should the desire for performing great deeds really be at bottom nothing but a flight from our own selves8--as ,pascal would ask us4 ,and indeed this assertion might be proved by considering the most noble representations of this desire for action3 in this respect let us remember1 bringing the knowledge of an alienist to our aid1 that four of the greatest men of all ages who were possessed of this lust for action were epileptics--,alexander the ,great1 ,csar1 ,mohammed1 and ,napoleon2 and ,byron likewise was subject to the same complaint4 #eej4 ,,knowledge ,,and ,,beauty4--,if men1 as they are still in the habit of doing1 reserve their veneration and feelings of happiness for works of fancy and imagination1 we should not be surprised if they feel chilled and displeased by the contrary of fancy and imagination4 ,the rapture which arises from even the smallest1 sure1 and definite step in advance into insight1 and which our present state of science yields to so many in such abundance--this rapture is in the meantime not believed in by all those who are in the habit of feeling enraptured only when they leave reality altogether and plunge into the depths of vague appearance--romanticism4 ,these people look upon reality as ugly1 but they entirely overlook the fact that the knowledge of even the ugliest reality is beautiful1 and that the man who can discern much and often is in the end very far from considering as ugly the main items of that reality1 the discovery of which has always inspired him with the feeling of happiness4 ,is there anything 8beautiful in itself08 ,the happiness of those who can recognise augments the beauty of the world1 bathing everything that exists in a sunnier light3 discernment not only envelops all things in its own beauty1 but in the long run permeates the things themselves with its beauty--may ages to come bear witness to the truth of this statement6 ,in the meantime let us recall an old experience3 two men so thoroughly different in every respect as ,plato and ,aristotle were agreed in regard to what constituted superior happiness--not merely their own and that of men in general1 but happiness in itself1 even the happiness of the gods4 ,they found this happiness to lie in knowledge1 in the activity of a well practised and inventive understanding 7not in 8intuition0 like the ,german theologians and semi-theologians2 not in visions1 like the mystics2 and not in work1 like the merely practical men74 ,similar opinions were expressed by ,descartes and ,spinoza4 ,what great delight must all these men have felt in knowledge6 and how great was the danger that their honesty might give way1 and that they themselves might become panegyrists of things6 #eea4 ,,future ,,virtues4--,how has it come about that1 the more intelligible the world has become1 the more all kinds of ceremonies have diminished8 ,was fear so frequently the fundamental basis of that awe which overcame us at the sight of anything hitherto unknown and mysterious1 and which taught us to fall upon our knees before the unintelligible1 and to beg for mercy8 ,and has the world1 perhaps1 through the very fact that we have grown less timid1 lost some of the charms it formerly had for us8 ,is it not possible that our own dignity and stateliness1 our formidable character1 has decreased together with our spirit of dread8 ,perhaps we value the world and ourselves less highly since we have begun to think more boldly about it and ourselves8 ,perhaps there will come a moment in the future when this courageous spirit of thinking will have reached such a point that it will feel itself soaring in supreme pride1 far above men and things--when the wise man1 being also the boldest1 will see himself and even more particularly existence1 the lowest of all beneath himself8 ,this type of courage1 which is not far removed from excessive generosity1 has been lacking in humanity up to the present4--,oh1 that our poets might once again become what they once were3 seers1 telling us something about what might possibly happen6 now that what is real and what is past are being ever more and more taken from them1 and must continue to be taken from them--for the time of innocent counterfeiting is at an end6 ,let them try to enable us to anticipate future virtues1 or virtues that will never be found on earth1 although they may exist somewhere in the world6--purple-glowing constellations and whole ,milky ,ways of the beautiful6 ,where are ye1 ye astronomers of the ideal8 #eeb4 ,,ideal ,,selfishness4--,is there a more sacred state than that of pregnancy8 ,to perform every one of our actions in the silent conviction that in one way or another it will be to the benefit of that which is being generated within us--that it must augment its mysterious value1 the very thought of which fills us with rapture8 ,at such a time we refrain from many things without having to force ourselves to do so3 we suppress the angry word1 we grasp the hand forgivingly2 our child must be born from all that is best and gentlest4 ,we shun our own harshness and brusqueness in case it should instil a drop of unhappiness into the cup of the beloved unknown4 ,everything is veiled1 ominous2 we know nothing about what is going on1 but simply wait and try to be prepared4 ,during this time1 too1 we experience a pure and purifying feeling of profound irresponsibility1 similar to that felt by a spectator before a drawn curtain2 it is growing1 it is coming to light2 we have nothing to do with determining its value1 or the hour of its arrival4 ,we are thrown back altogether upon indirect1 beneficent and defensive influences4 8,something greater than we are is growing here0--such is our most secret hope3 we prepare everything with a view to his birth and prosperity--not merely everything that is useful1 but also the noblest gifts of our souls4 ,we should1 and can1 live under the influence of such a blessed inspiration6 ,whether what we are looking forward to is a thought or a deed1 our relationship to every essential achievement is none other than that of pregnancy1 and all our vainglorious boasting about 8willing0 and 8creating0 should be cast to the winds6 ,true and ideal selfishness consists in always watching over and restraining the soul1 so that our productiveness may come to a beautiful termination4 ,thus in this indirect manner we must provide for and watch over the good of all2 and the frame of mind1 the mood in which we live1 is a kind of soothing oil which spreads far around us on the restless souls4--,still1 these pregnant ones are funny people6 let us therefore dare to be funny also1 and not reproach others if they must be the same4 ,and even when this phenomenon becomes dangerous and evil we must not show less respect to that which is generating within us or others than ordinary worldly justice1 which does not allow the judge or the hangman to interfere with a pregnant woman4 #eec4 ,,circuitous ,,routes4--,where does all this philosophy mean to end with its circuitous routes8 ,does it do more than transpose into reason1 so to speak1 a continuous and strong impulse--a craving for a mild sun1 a bright and bracing atmosphere1 southern plants1 sea breezes1 short meals of meat1 eggs1 and fruit1 hot water to drink1 quiet walks for days at a time1 little talking1 rare and cautious reading1 living alone1 pure1 simple1 and almost soldier-like habits--a craving1 in short1 for all things which are suited to my own personal taste8 a philosophy which is in the main the instinct for a personal regimen--an instinct that longs for my air1 my height1 my temperature1 and my kind of health1 and takes the circuitous route of my head to persuade me to it6 ,there are many other and certainly more lofty philosophies1 and not only such as are more gloomy and pretentious than mine--and are they perhaps1 taking them as a whole1 nothing but intellectual circuitous routes of the same kind of personal impulses8--,in the meantime ,i look with a new eye upon the mysterious and solitary flight of a butterfly high on the rocky banks of the lake where so many plants are growing3 there it flies hither and thither1 heedless of the fact that its life will last only one more day1 and that the night will be too cold for its winged fragility4 ,for it1 too1 a philosophy might be found1 though it might not be my own4 #eed4 ,,leading47#ah7--,when we praise progress we only praise the movement and those who do not let us remain on the same spot1 and in the circumstances this is certainly something1 especially if we live among ,egyptians4 ,in changeable ,europe1 however1 where movement is 8understood10 to use their own expression1 8as a matter of course0--alas1 if we only understood something about it too6--,i praise leaders and forerunners3 that is to say1 those who always leave themselves behind1 and do not care in the least whether any one is following them or not4 8,wherever ,i halt ,i find myself alone3 why should ,i halt6 the desert is still so wide60--such is the sentiment of the true leader4 #eee4 ,,the ,,least ,,important ,,are ,,sufficient4--,we ought to avoid events when we know that even the least important of them frequently enough leave a strong impression upon us--and these we cannot avoid4--,the thinker must possess an approximate canon of all the things he still wishes to experience4 #eef4 ,,the ,,four ,,virtues4--,honest towards ourselves1 and to all and everything friendly to us2 brave in the face of our enemy2 generous towards the vanquished2 polite at all times3 such do the four cardinal virtues wish us to be4 #eeg4 ,,marching ,,against ,,an ,,enemy4--,how pleasant is the sound of even bad music and bad motives when we are setting out to march against an enemy6 #eeh4 ,,not ,,concealing ,,one',s ,,virtues4--,i love those men who are as transparent as water1 and who1 to use ,pope's expression1 hide not from view the turbid bottom of their stream4 ,even they1 however1 possess a certain vanity1 though of a rare and more sublimated kind3 some of them would wish us to see nothing but the mud1 and to take no notice of the clearness of the water which enables us to look right to the bottom4 ,no less a man than ,gautama ,buddha has imagined the vanity of these few in the formula1 8,let your sins appear before men1 and conceal your virtues40 ,but this would exhibit a disagreeable spectacle to the world--it would be a sin against good taste4 #eei4 ,,nothing ,,in ,,excess6--,how often is the individual recommended to set up a goal which it is beyond his power to reach1 in order that he may at least attain that which lies within the scope of his abilities and most strenuous efforts6 ,is it really so desirable1 however1 that he should do so8 ,do not the best men who try to act according to this doctrine1 together with their best deeds1 necessarily assume a somewhat exaggerated and distorted appearance on account of their excessive tension8 and in the future will not a grey mist of failure envelop the world1 owing to the fact that we may see everywhere struggling athletes and tremendous gestures1 but nowhere a conqueror crowned with the laurel1 and rejoicing in his victory8 #efj4 ,,what ,,we ,,are ,,free ,,to ,,do4--,we can act as the gardeners of our impulses1 and--which few people know--we may cultivate the seeds of anger1 pity1 vanity1 or excessive brooding1 and make these things fecund and productive1 just as we can train a beautiful plant to grow along trellis-work4 ,we may do this with the good or bad taste of a gardener1 and as it were1 in the ,french1 ,english1 ,dutch1 or ,chinese style4 ,we may let nature take its own course1 only trimming and embellishing a little here and there2 and finally1 without any knowledge or consideration1 we may even allow the plants to spring up in accordance with their own natural growth and limitations1 and fight out their battle among themselves1--nay1 we can even take delight in such chaos1 though we may possibly have a hard time with it6 ,all this is at our option3 but how many know that it is8 ,do not the majority of people believe in themselves as complete and perfect facts8 and have not the great philosophers set their seal on this prejudice through their doctrine of the unchangeability of character8 #efa4 ,,letting ,,our ,,happiness ,,also ,,shine4--,in the same way as painters are unable to reproduce the deep brilliant hue of the natural sky1 and are compelled to use all the colours they require for their landscapes a few shades deeper than nature has made them--just as they1 by means of this trick1 succeed in approaching the brilliancy and harmony of nature's own hues1 so also must poets and philosophers1 for whom the luminous rays of happiness are inaccessible1 endeavour to find an expedient4 ,by picturing all things a shade or two darker than they really are1 their light1 in which they excel1 will produce almost exactly the same effect as the sunlight1 and will resemble the light of true happiness4--,the pessimist1 on the other hand1 who paints all things in the blackest and most sombre hues1 only makes use of bright flames1 lightning1 celestial glories1 and everything that possesses a glaring1 dazzling power1 and bewilders our eyes3 to him light only serves the purpose of increasing the horror1 and of making us look upon things as being more dreadful than they really are4 #efb4 ,,the ,,settled ,,and ,,the ,,free4--,it is only in the ,underworld that we catch a glimpse of that gloomy background of all that bliss of adventure which forms an everlasting halo around ,ulysses and his like1 rivalling the eternal phosphorescence of the sea1--that background which we can never forget3 the mother of ,ulysses died of grief and yearning for her child4 ,the one is driven on from place to place1 and the heart of the other1 the tender stay-at-home friend1 breaks through it--so it always is4 ,affliction breaks the hearts of those who live to see that those whom they love best are deserting their former views and faith1--it is a tragedy brought about by the free spirits1--a tragedy which1 indeed1 occasionally comes to their own knowledge4 ,then1 perhaps1 they too1 like ,ulysses1 will be forced to descend among the dead to get rid of their sorrow and to relieve their affliction4 #efc4 ,,the ,,illusion ,,of ,,the ,,moral ,,order ,,of ,,the ,,universe4--,there is no 8eternal justice0 which requires that every fault shall be atoned and paid for1--the belief that such a justice existed was a terrible delusion1 and useful only to a limited extent2 just as it is also a delusion that everything is guilt which is felt as such4 ,it is not the things themselves1 but the opinions about things that do not exist1 which have been such a source of trouble to mankind4 #efd4 ,,by ,,the ,,side ,,of ,,experience4--,even great intellects have only a hand-breadth experience--in the immediate proximity of this experience their reflection ceases1 and its place is taken by unlimited vacuity and stupidity4 #efe4 ,,dignity ,,and ,,ignorance4--,wherever we understand we become amiable1 happy1 and ingenious2 and when we have learnt enough1 and have trained our eyes and ears1 our souls show greater plasticity and charm4 ,we understand so little1 however1 and are so insufficiently informed1 that it rarely happens that we seize upon a thing and make ourselves lovable at the same time1--on the contrary we pass through cities1 nature1 and history with stiffness and indifference1 at the same time taking a pride in our stiff and indifferent attitude1 as if it were simply due to superiority4 ,thus our ignorance and our mediocre desire for knowledge understand quite well how to assume a mask of dignity and character4 #eff4 ,,living ,,cheaply4--,the cheapest and most innocent mode of life is that of the thinker2 for1 to mention at once its most important feature1 he has the greatest need of those very things which others neglect and look upon with contempt4 ,in the second place he is easily pleased and has no desire for any expensive pleasures4 ,his task is not difficult1 but1 so to speak1 southern2 his days and nights are not wasted by remorse2 he moves1 eats1 drinks1 and sleeps in a manner suited to his intellect1 in order that it may grow calmer1 stronger1 and clearer4 ,again1 he takes pleasure in his body and has no reason to fear it2 he does not require society1 except from time to time in order that he may afterwards go back to his solitude with even greater delight4 ,he seeks and finds in the dead compensation for the living1 and can even replace his friends in this way--viz41 by seeking out among the dead the best who have ever lived4--,let us consider whether it is not the contrary desires and habits which have made the life of man expensive1 and as a consequence difficult and often unbearable4 ,in another sense1 however1 the thinker's life is certainly the most expensive1 for nothing is too good for him2 and it would be an intolerable privation for him to be deprived of the best4 #efg4 ,,in ,,the ,,field4--8,we should take things more cheerfully than they deserve2 especially because for a very long time we have taken them more seriously than they deserved40 ,so speak the brave soldiers of knowledge4 #efh4 ,,poet ,,and ,,bird4--,the bird ,phnix showed the poet a glowing scroll which was being gradually consumed in the flames4 8,be not alarmed10 said the bird1 8it is your work6 ,it does not contain the spirit of the age1 and to a still less extent the spirit of those who are against the age3 so it must be burnt4 ,but that is a good sign4 ,there is many a dawn of day40 #efi4 ,,to ,,the ,,lonely ,,ones4--,if we do not respect the honour of others in our soliloquies as well as in what we say publicly1 we are not gentlemen4 #egj4 ,,losses4--,there are some losses which communicate to the soul a sublimity in which it ceases from wailing1 and wanders about silently1 as if in the shade of some high and dark cypresses4 #ega4 ,,the ,,battle-,,field ,,dispensary ,,of ,,the ,,soul4--,what is the most efficacious remedy8--,victory4 #egb4 ,,life ,,shall ,,comfort ,,us4--,if1 like the thinker1 we live habitually amid the great current of ideas and feelings1 and even our dreams follow this current1 we expect comfort and peacefulness from life1 while others wish to rest from life when they give themselves up to meditation4 #egc4 ,,casting ,,one',s ,,skin4--,the snake that cannot cast its skin perishes4 ,so too with those minds which are prevented from changing their views3 they cease to be minds4 #egd4 ,,never ,,forget6--,the higher we soar the smaller we appear to those who cannot fly4 #ege4 ,,we ,,aeronauts ,,of ,,the ,,intellect4--,all those daring birds that soar far and ever farther into space1 will somewhere or other be certain to find themselves unable to continue their flight1 and they will perch on a mast or some narrow ledge--and will be grateful even for this miserable accommodation6 ,but who could conclude from this that there was not an endless free space stretching far in front of them1 and that they had flown as far as they possibly could8 ,in the end1 however1 all our great teachers and predecessors have come to a standstill1 and it is by no means in the noblest or most graceful attitude that their weariness has brought them to a pause3 the same thing will happen to you and me6 but what does this matter to either of us8 ,other birds will fly farther6 ,our minds and hopes vie with them far out and on high2 they rise far above our heads and our failures1 and from this height they look far into the distant horizon and see hundreds of birds much more powerful than we are1 striving whither we ourselves have also striven1 and where all is sea1 sea1 and nothing but sea6 ,and where1 then1 are we aiming at8 ,do we wish to cross the sea8 whither does this over-powering passion urge us1 this passion which we value more highly than any other delight8 ,why do we fly precisely in this direction1 where all the suns of humanity have hitherto set8 ,is it possible that people may one day say of us that we also steered westward1 hoping to reach ,india--but that it was our fate to be wrecked on the infinite8 ,or1 my brethren8 or--8 ,,footnotes #a ,the book was first published in #ahha1 the preface being added to the second edition1 #ahhf4--,,tr4 #b ,this refers1 of course1 to the different genders of the nouns in other languages4 ,in ,german1 for example1 the sun is feminine1 and in ,french masculine4--,,tr4 #c ,m4 ,henri ,albert points out that this refers to a line of ,paul ,gerhardt's well-known song3 8,befiel du deine ,wege40 ,,tr4 #d 8,formal education0 is the name given in ,germany to those branches of learning which tend to develop the logical faculties1 as opposed to 8material0 education which deals with the acquisition of facts and all kinds of 8useful0 knowledge4--,,tr4 #e ,the reference is to the ,odyssey1 ,,xx4 #ah3 8 1 2 4440 etc4 1 from 1 8a dog10 lit4 more dog-like1 i4e4 shameless1 horrible1 audacious4--,,tr4 #f ,if this aphorism seems obscure1 the reader may take ,tolstoi as an example of the first class and ,nietzsche as an example of the second4 ,tolstoi's inconsistencies are generally glossed over1 because he professed the customary moral theories of the age1 while ,nietzsche has had to endure the most searching criticism because he did not4 ,in ,nietzsche's case1 however1 the scrutiny has been in vain2 for1 having no unworkable ,christian theories to uphold1 unlike ,tolstoi1 ,nietzsche's life is not a series of compromises4 ,the career of the great pagan philosopher was1 in essence1 much more saintly than that of the great ,christian4 ,how different from ,tolstoi1 too1 was that noble ,christian1 ,pascal1 who1 from the inevitable clash of his creed and his nature1 died at thirty-eight1 while his weaker epigone lived in the fulness of his fame until he was over eighty6--,,tr4 #g ,a hit at the ,german ,empire1 which ,nietzsche always despised1 since it led to the utter extinction of the old ,german spirit4 8,kingdom0 7in 8,kingdom of ,god07 and 8,empire0 are both represented by the one ,german word ,reich4--,,tr4 #h ,this sentence is a complete refutation of a book which caused so much stir in ,germany about a decade ago1 and in ,england quite recently1 ,chamberlain's ,nineteenth ,century1 in which a purely imaginary ,teutonic race is held up as the ,chosen ,people of the world4 ,nietzsche says elsewhere1 8,peoples and ,countries10 aphorism #ba1 8,associate with no man who takes part in the mendacious race-swindle40--,,tr4 #i ,the fiercest protests against ,nietzsche's teaching even now come from the 8unfeeling people40 ,hence the difficulty--now happily past--of introducing him into ,anglo-,saxon countries4--,,tr4 #aj ,the ,german ,jews are well known for their charity1 by means of which they probably wish to prove that they are not so bad as the ,anti-,semites paint them4--,,tr4 #aa ,that is1 do not speak either of ,god or the devil4 ,the ,german proverb runs3 8,man soll den ,teufel nicht an die ,wand malen1 sonst kommt er40--,,tr4 #ab ,the case of that other witty ,venetian1 ,casanova4--,,tr4 #ac ,the play upon the words grndlich 7thorough7 thinkers1 and ,untergrndlichen 7lit4 those underground7 cannot be rendered in ,english4--,,tr4 #ad ,a variation of the well-known proverb1 ,ubi bene1 ibi patria4--,,tr4 #ae ,hence the violence of all fanatics1 who do not wish to shout down the outer world so much as to shout down their own inner enemy1 viz4 truth4--,,tr4 #af ,this omission is in the original4--,,tr4 #ag ,this1 of course1 refers to ,richard ,wagner1 as does also the following paragraph4--,,tr4 #ah ,the play upon the words ,vorschritt 7leading7 and ,fortschritt 7progress7 cannot be rendered in ,english4--,,tr4