,libraries7 ,transcriber's note3 ,text enclosed by underscores is in italics 7italics74 ,small capital text has been replaced with all capitals4 ,,the ,,expositor',s ,,bible ,,edited ,,by ,,the ,,rev4 ,w4 ,,robertson ,,nicoll1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d4 ,editor of ,the ,expositor ,,the ,,song ,,of ,,solomon ,,and ,,the ,,lamentations ,,of ,,jeremiah ,,by ,,walter ,f4 ,,adeney1 ,m4,a4 ,london ,,hodder ,,and ,,stoughton #bg1 ,,paternoster ,,row ,,mdcccxcv ,,the ,,song ,,of ,,solomon ,,and ,,the ,,lamentations ,,of ,,jeremiah ,,by ,,walter ,f4 ,,adeney1 ,m4,a4 ,,professor ,,of ,,new ,,testament ,,exegesis1 ,,and ,,church ,,history1 ,,new ,,college ,,london ,london ,,hodder ,,and ,,stoughton #bg1 ,,paternoster ,,row ,,mdcccxcv ,printed by ,hazell1 ,watson1 ,viney1 ,ld41 ,london and ,aylesbury4 ,,contents ,,the ,,song ,,of ,,solomon ,,chapter ,i ,,page ,,the ,,structure ,,of ,,the ,,book #c ,,chapter ,,ii ,,true ,,love ,,tested #ae i4-v4 i4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,love ,,unquenchable #bh v4 i-viii4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,mystical ,,interpretations #da ,,chapter ,v ,,canonicity #ec ,,the ,,lamentations ,,of ,,jeremiah ,,chapter ,i ,,hebrew ,,elegies #fc ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,poems #ge ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,theme #hg ,,chapter ,,iv ,,desolation #ig i4 #a-g4 ,,chapter ,v ,,sin ,,and ,,suffering #ajh i4 #h-aa4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,zion',s ,,appeal #abj i4 #ab-bb4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,god ,,as ,,an ,,enemy #acb ii4 #a-i4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,cry ,,of ,,the ,,children #add ii4 #aj-ag4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,prophets ,,without ,a ,,vision #aef ii4 #i1 #ad4 ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,call ,,to ,,prayer #afh ii4 #ah-bb4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,the ,,man ,,that ,,hath ,,seen ,,affliction #ahj iii4 #a-ba4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,the ,,unfailing ,,goodness ,,of ,,god #aid iii4 #bb-bd4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,quiet ,,waiting #bjf iii4 #be-cf4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,god ,,and ,,evil #bah iii4 #cg-ci4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,the ,,return #bcj iii4 #dj-db4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,grieving ,,before ,,god #bdb iii4 #dc-ed4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,de ,,profundis #bec iii4 #ee-ff4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,contrasts #bfe iv4 #a-ab4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,lepers #bgg iv4 #ac-af4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,vain ,,hopes #bhh iv4 #ag-bj4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,the ,,debt ,,of ,,guilt ,,extinguished #cjj iv4 #ba1 #bb4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,an ,,appeal ,,for ,,god',s ,,compassion #caa v4 #a-aj4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,sin ,,and ,,shame #cbd v4 #aa-ah4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,,the ,,everlasting ,,throne #cce v4 #ai-bb4 ,,the ,,song ,,of ,,solomon ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,structure ,,of ,,the ,,book ,the ,song of ,solomon is a puzzle to the commentator4 ,quite apart from the wilderness of mystical interpretations with which it has been overgrown in the course of the ages1#a its literary form and motive are subjects of endless controversy4 ,there are indications that it is a continuous poem2 and yet it is characterised by startling kaleidoscopic changes that seem to break it up into incongruous fragments4 ,if it is a single work the various sections of it succeed one another in the most abrupt manner1 without any connecting links or explanatory clauses4 #a ,to be considered later4 ,see chap4 iv4 ,the simplest way out of the difficulty presented by the many curious turns and changes of the poem is to deny it any structural unity1 and treat it as a string of independent lyrics4 ,that is to cut the knot in a rather disappointing fashion4 ,nevertheless the suggestion to do so met with some favour when it was put forth at the close of the last century by ,herder1 a writer who seemed better able to enter into the spirit of ,hebrew poetry than any of his contemporaries4 ,while accepting the traditional view of the authorship of the book1 this critic described its contents as ,solomon's songs of love1 the oldest and sweetest of the ,east2 and ,goethe in the world of letters1 as well as biblical students1 endorsed his judgment4 ,subsequently it fell into disfavour1 and scholars who differed among themselves with respect to their own theories1 agreed in rejecting this particular hypothesis4 ,but quite recently it has reappeared in an altered form4 ,the book1 it is now suggested1 is just a chance collection of folk songs from northern ,palestine1 an anthology of rustic love-poems4 ,these songs are denied any connection with ,solomon or the court4 ,the references to royalty are accounted for by a custom said to be kept up among the ,syrian peasants in the present day1 according to which the week of wedding festivities is called ,the king's week1 because the newly-married pair then play the part of king and queen1 and are playfully treated by their friends with the honours of a court4 ,the bridegroom is supposed to be named ,solomon in acknowledgment of his regal splendour--as an ,english villager might be so named for his conspicuous wisdom2 while perhaps the bride is called the ,shulammite1 with an allusion to the famous beauty ,abishag1 the ,shunammite of ,david's time4#b #b #a ,kings i4 #c4 ,such a theory as this is only admissible on condition that the unity of the poem has been disproved4 ,but whether we can unravel it or not1 there is much that goes to show that one thread runs through the whole book4 ,the style is the same throughout1 and it has no parallel in the whole of ,hebrew literature4 ,everywhere we meet with the same rich1 luxurious language1 the same abundance of imagery1 the same picturesque habit of alluding to a number of plants and animals by name1 the same vivacity of movement1 the same pleading tone1 the same suffused glow as of the light of morning4 ,then there are more peculiar features that continually recur1 such as the form of the dialogue1 certain recognisable characters1 the part of chorus taken by the daughters of ,jerusalem1 in particular the gentle1 graceful portrait of the ,shulammite1 the consistency of which is well preserved4 ,but the principal reason for believing in the unity of the work is to be found in an examination of its plot4 ,the difficulty of making this out has encouraged the temptation to discredit its existence4 ,but while there are various ideas about the details1 there is enough in common to all the proposed schemes of the story to indicate the fact that the book is one composition4 ,the question whether the work is a drama or an idyl has been discussed with much critical acumen4 ,but is it not rather pedantic8 ,the sharply divided orders of ,european poetry were not observed or even known in ,israel4 ,it was natural1 therefore1 that ,hebrew imaginative work should partake of the characteristics of several orders1 while too nave to trouble itself with the rules of any one4 ,the drama designed for acting was not cultivated by the ancient ,jews4 ,it was introduced as an exotic only as late as the ,roman period1 when ,herod built the first theatre known to have existed in the ,holy ,land4 ,previous to his time we have no mention of the art of play-acting among the ,jews4 ,nevertheless the dialogues in the ,song of ,solomon are certainly dramatic in character2 and we cannot call the poem an idyl when it is rendered entirely in the form of speeches by different persons without any connecting narrative4 ,the ,book of ,job is also dramatic in form1 though1 like ,browning's dramatic poetry1 not designed for acting2 but in that work each of the several speakers is introduced by a sentence that indicates who he is1 while in our poem no such indication is given4 ,here we only get evidence of a change of speakers in the form and contents of the utterances1 and the transition from the masculine to the feminine gender and from the singular number to the plural4 ,even the chorus takes an active part in the movement of the dialogue1 instead of simply commenting on the proceedings of the principal characters as in a ,greek play4 ,we seem to want a key to the story1 and the absence of anything of the kind is the occasion of the bewildering variety of conjectures that confronts the reader4 ,but the difficulty thus occasioned is no reason for denying that there is any continuity in the book1 especially in view of numerous signs of unity that cannot be evaded4 ,among those who accept the dramatic integrity of the poem there are two distinct lines of interpretation1 each of them admitting some differences in the treatment of detail4 ,according to one scheme ,solomon is the only lover2 according to the other1 while the king is seeking to win the affections of the country maiden1 he has been forestalled by a shepherd1 fidelity to whom is shewn by the ,shulammite in spite of the fascinations of the court4 ,there is no denying the rural simplicity of much of the scenery2 evidently this is designed to be in contrast to the sensuous luxury and splendour of the court4 ,those who take ,solomon to be the one lover throughout1 not only admit this fact2 they bring it into their version of the story so as to heighten the effect4 ,the king is out holiday-making1 perhaps on a hunting expedition1 when he first meets the country maiden4 ,in her childlike simplicity she takes him for a rustic swain2 or perhaps1 though she knows who he is1 she sportively addresses him as she would address one of her village companions4 ,subsequently she shews no liking for the pomp of royalty4 ,she cannot make herself at home with the women of the harem4 ,she longs to be back in her mother's cottage among the woods and fields where she spent her child days4 ,but she loves the king and he dotes on her4 ,so she would take him with her away from the follies and temptations of the court down to her quiet country retreat4 ,under the influence of the ,shulammite ,solomon is induced to give up his unworthy habits and live a healthier1 purer life4 ,her love is strong enough to retain the king wholly to herself4 ,thus the poem is said to describe a reformation in the character of ,solomon4 ,in particular it is thought to celebrate the triumph of true love over the degradation of polygamy4 ,it is impossible to find any time in the life of ,david's successor when this great conversion might have taken place2 and the occurrence itself is highly improbable4 ,those however are not fatal objections to the proposed scheme1 because the poem may be entirely ideal2 it may even be written at the king4 ,historical considerations need not trouble us in dealing with an imaginative work such as this4 ,it must be judged entirely on internal grounds4 ,but when it is so judged it refuses to come into line with the interpretation suggested4 ,regarding the matter only from a literary point of view1 we must confess that it is most improbable that ,solomon would be introduced as a simple peasant without any hint of the reason of his appearing in this novel guise4 ,then we may detect a difference between the manner in which the king addresses the ,shulammite and that in which1 on the second hypothesis1 the shepherd speaks to her4 ,solomon's compliments are frigid and stilted2 they describe the object of his admiration in the most extravagant terms1 but they exhibit no trace of feeling4 ,the heart of the voluptuary is withered1 the fires of passion have burnt themselves out and only the cold ashes remain1 the sacred word love has been so long desecrated that it has ceased to convey any meaning4 ,on the other hand1 frequent practice has outstripped the clumsy wooing of inexperienced lovers and developed the art of courtship to a high degree4 ,the royal bird-catcher knows how to lay his lines1 though fortunately for once even his consummate skill fails4 ,how different is the bearing of the true lover1 a village lad who has won the maiden's heart6 ,he has no need to resort to the vocabulary of flattery1 because his own heart speaks4 ,the ,english translations give an unwarrantable appearance of warmth to the king's language where he is represented as calling the ,shulammite ,my love4#c ,the word in the ,hebrew means no more than my friend4 ,when ,solomon first appears he addresses the ,shulammite with this title1 and then immediately tries to tempt her by promising her presents of jewelry4 ,take another instance4 ,in the beginning of the fourth chapter ,solomon enters on an elaborate series of compliments describing the beauty of the ,shulammite1 without a single word of affection4 ,as she persists in withstanding his advances her persecutor becomes abashed4 ,he shrinks from her pure1 cold gaze1 calls her terrible as an army with banners1 prays her to turn away her eyes from him4 ,on the theory that ,solomon is the accepted lover1 the beloved bridegroom1 this position is quite unintelligible4 ,now turn to the language of the true lover3 ,thou hast ravished my heart1 my sister1 my bride2 thou hast ravished my heart with one look of thine eyes4#d #c i4 #i4 #d iv4 #i4 ,a corresponding difference is to be detected in the bearing of the maiden towards the rivals4 ,towards the king she is cool and repellent2 but no dream of poetry can equal the tenderness and sweetness of her musing on her absent lover or the warmth of love with which she speaks to him4 ,these distinctions will be more apparent in detail as we proceed with the story of the poem4 ,it may be noticed here1 that this story is not at all consistent with the theory that ,solomon is the only lover4 ,according to that hypothesis we have the highly improbable situation of a separation of the newly married couple on their wedding day4 ,besides1 as the climax is supposed to be reached at the middle of the book1 there is no apparent motive for the second half4 ,the modern novel1 which has its wedding at the middle of its plot1 or even at the very beginning1 and then sets itself to develop the comedy or perhaps the tragedy of married life1 is not at all parallel to this old love story4 ,time must be allowed for the development of matrimonial complications2 but here the scenes are all in close connection4 ,if we are thus led to accept what has been called the shepherd hypothesis the value of the book will be considerably enhanced4 ,this is more than a mere love poem2 it is not to be classed with erotics1 although a careless reading of some of its passages might incline us to place it in the same category with a purely sensuous style of poetry4 ,we have here something more than ,sappho's fire4 ,if we are tempted to compare it with ,herrick's ,hesperides or ,shakespeare's ,sonnets1 we must recognise an element that lifts it above the sighs of love-sick youths and maidens4 ,even on the ,solomon theory pure love and simple living are exalted in opposition to the luxury and vices of the royal seraglio4 ,a poem that sets forth the beauty of a simple country life as the scene of the true love of husband and wife in contrast to the degradation of a corrupt court is distinctly elevating in tone and influence1 and the more so for the fact that it is not didactic in form4 ,it is not only in kings' palaces and amid scenes of oriental voluptuousness that the influence of such ideas as are here presented is needed4 ,christian civilisation has not progressed beyond the condition in which the consideration of them may be resorted to as a wholesome corrective4 ,but if we are to agree to the shepherd hypothesis as on the whole the more probable1 another idea of highest importance emerges4 ,it is not love1 now1 but fidelity1 that claims our attention4 ,the simple girl1 protected only by her virtue1 who is proof against all the fascinations of the most splendid court1 and who prefers to be the wife of the poor man whom she loves1 and to whom she has plighted troth1 to accepting a queen's crown at the cost of deserting her humble lover1 is the type and example of a loyalty which is the more admirable because it appears where we should little expect to find it4 ,it has been said that such a story as is here depicted would be impossible in real life2 that a girl once enticed into the harem of an oriental despot would never have a chance of escape4 ,the eunuchs who guarded the doors would lose their heads if they allowed her to run away2 the king would never give up the prey that had fallen into his trap2 the shepherd lover who was mad enough to pursue his lost sweetheart into her captor's palace would never come out alive4 ,are we so sure of all these points8 ,most improbable things do happen4 ,it is at least conceivable that even a cruel tyrant might be seized with a fit of generosity1 and why should we regard ,solomon as a cruel tyrant8 ,his fame implies that there were noble traits in his character4 ,but these questions are beside the mark4 ,the situation is wholly ideal4 ,then the more improbable the events described would be in real life1 the more impressive do the lessons they suggest become4 ,who wrote the book8 ,the only answer that can be given to this question is negative4 ,assuredly1 ,solomon could not have been the author of this lovely poem in praise of the love and fidelity of a country lass and her swain1 and the simplicity of their rustic life4 ,it would be difficult to find a man in all history who more conspicuously illustrated the exact opposites of these ideas4 ,the exquisite eulogy of love--perhaps the finest in any literature--which occurs towards the end of the book1 the passage beginning1 ,set me as a seal upon thine heart1 etc41#e is not the work of this master of a huge seraglio1 with his seven hundred wives and his three hundred concubines4#f ,it is impossible to find the source of this poetry in the palace of the ,israelite ,grand ,monarch2 we might as soon light on a bank of wild flowers in a ,paris dancing saloon4 ,there is quite a library of ,solomon literature1 a very small part of which can be traced to the king whose name it bears1 the greatness of this name having attracted attention and led to the ascription of various works to the royal author1 whose wisdom was as proverbial as his splendour4 ,it is difficult to resist the impression that in the present case there is some irony in the singular inappropriateness of the title4 #e viii4 #f1 #g4 #f #a ,kings xi4 #c4 ,the date of the poem can be conjectured with some degree of assurance1 although the language does not help us much in the determination of this point4 ,there are archaisms1 and there are also terms that seem to indicate a late date--,aramaic words and possibly even words of ,greek extraction4 ,the few foreign terms may have crept in under the influence of revisers4 ,on the other hand the style and contents of the book speak for the days of the ,augustan age of ,hebrew history4 ,the notoriety of ,solomon's court and memories of its magnificence and luxury seem to be fresh in the minds of people4 ,these things are treated in detail and with an amount of freedom that supposes knowledge on the part of the readers as well as the writer4 ,there is one expression that helps to fix the date with more definiteness4 ,tirzah is associated with ,jerusalem as though the two cities were of equal importance4 ,the king says3-- ,thou art beautiful1 ,o my love1 as ,tirzah1 ,comely as ,jerusalem4#g #g vi4 #d4 ,now this city was the northern capital for about fifty years after the death of ,solomon--from the time of ,jeroboam1 who made it his royal residence1#h till the reign of ,omri1 who abandoned the ill-omened place six years after his vanquished predecessor ,zimri had burnt the palace over his own head4#i ,the way in which the old capital is mentioned here implies that it is still to the north what ,jerusalem is to the south4 ,thus we are brought to the half century after the death of the king whose name the book bears4 #h #a ,kings xiv4 #ag4 #i #a ,kings xvi4 #ah1 #bc1 #bd4 ,the mention of ,tirzah as the equal of ,jerusalem is also an evidence of the northern origin of the poem2 for it is not at all probable that a subject of the mutilated nation of the south would describe the beauty of the rebel headquarters by the side of that of his own idolised city1 as something typical and perfect4 ,but the poem throughout gives indications of its origin in the country parts of the north4 ,shunem1 famous as the scene of ,elisha's great miracle1 seems to be the home of the heroine4#aj ,the poet turns to all points of the compass for images with which to enrich his pictures--,sharon on the western coast1#aa ,gilead across the ,jordan to the east1#ab ,engedi by the wilderness of the ,dead ,sea1#ac as well as the northern districts4 ,but the north is most frequently mentioned4 ,lebanon is named over and over again1#ad and ,hermon is referred to as in the neighbourhood of the shepherd's home4#ae ,in fact the poem is saturated with the fragrant atmosphere of the northern mountains4 #aj vi4 #ac4 #aa ii4 #a4 #ab iv4 #a4 #ac i4 #ad4 #ad iii4 #i2 iv4 #h1 #ae2 vii4 #d4 #ae iv4 #h4 ,now this has suggested a striking inference4 ,here we have a picture of ,solomon and his court from the not too friendly hand of a citizen of the revolted provinces4 ,the history in the ,books of ,kings is written from the standpoint of ,judah2 it is curious to learn how the people of the north thought of ,solomon in all his glory4 ,thus considered the book acquires a secondary and political meaning4 ,it appears as a scornful condemnation of the court at ,jerusalem on the part of the poorer and more simple inhabitants of the kingdom of ,jeroboam and his successors4#af ,but it also stands for all time as a protest against luxury and vice1 and as a testimony to the beauty and dignity of pure love1 stanch fidelity1 and quiet1 wholesome1 primitive country manners4 ,it breathes the spirit that reappears in ,goldsmith's ,deserted ,village1 and inspires the muse of ,wordsworth1 as in the poem which contrasts the dove's simple notes with the nightingale's tumultuous song1 saying of the homely bird1 ,he sang of love with quiet blending2 ,slow to begin1 and never ending2 ,of serious faith and inward glee2 ,that was the song--the song for me4 #af ,see ,ency4 ,brit41 ,art4 ,canticles1 by ,robertson ,smith4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,true ,,love ,,tested ,,chapter i4-v4 #a ,the poem opens with a scene in ,solomon's palace4 ,a country maiden has just been introduced to the royal harem4 ,the situation is painful enough in itself1 for the poor1 shy girl is experiencing the miserable loneliness of finding herself in an unsympathetic crowd4 ,but that is not all4 ,she is at once the object of general observation2 every eye is turned towards her2 and curiosity is only succeeded by ill-concealed disgust4 ,still the slavish women1 presumably acting on command1 set themselves to excite the new comer's admiration for their lord and master4 ,first one speaks some bold amorous words1#ag and then the whole chorus follows4#ah ,all this is distressing and alarming to the captive1 who calls on her absent lover to fetch her away from such an uncongenial scene2 she longs to run after him2 for it is the king who has brought her into his chambers1 not her own will4#ai ,the women of the harem take no notice of this interruption1 but finish their ode on the charms of ,solomon4 ,all the while they are staring at the rustic maiden1 and she now becomes conscious of a growing contempt in their looks4 ,what is she that the attractions of the king before which the dainty ladies of the court prostrate themselves should have no fascination for her8 ,she notices the contrast between the swarthy hue of her sun-burnt countenance and the pale complexion of these pampered products of palace seclusion4 ,she is so dark in comparison with them that she likens herself to the black goats-hair tents of the ,arabs4#bj ,the explanation is that her brothers have made her work in their vineyards4 ,meanwhile she has not kept her own vineyard4#ba ,she has not guarded her beauty as these idle women1 who have nothing else to do1 have guarded theirs2 but perhaps she has a sadder thought--she could not protect herself when out alone at her task in the country or she would never have been captured and carried on to the prison where she now sits disconsolate4 ,possibly the vineyard she has not kept is the lover whom she has lost4#bb ,still she is a woman1 and with a touch of piqued pride she reminds her critics that if she is dark--black compared with them--she is comely4 ,they cannot deny that4 ,it is the cause of all her misery2 she owes her imprisonment to her beauty4 ,she knows that their secret feeling is one of envy of her1 the latest favourite4 ,then their affected contempt is groundless4 ,but1 indeed1 she has no desire to stand as their rival4 ,she would gladly make her escape4 ,she speaks in a half soliloquy4 ,will not somebody tell her where he is whom her soul loveth8 ,where is her lost shepherd lad8 ,where is he feeding his flock8 ,where is he resting it at noon8 ,such questions only provoke mockery4 ,addressing the simple girl as the fairest among women1 the court ladies bid her find her lover for herself4 ,let her go back to her country life and feed her kids by the shepherds' tents4 ,doubtless if she is bold enough to court her swain in that way she will not miss seeing him4 #ag i4 #b4 #ah i4 #c4 #ai i4 #d4 #bj i4 #e4 #ba i4 #f4 #bb ,see viii4 #ab4 ,hitherto ,solomon has not appeared4 ,now he comes on the scene1 and proceeds to accost his new acquisition in highly complimentary language1 with the ease of an expert in the art of courtship4 ,at this point we encounter the most serious difficulty for the theory of a shepherd lover4 ,to all appearances a dialogue between the king and the ,shulammite here ensues4#bc ,but if this were the case1 the country girl would be addressing ,solomon in terms of the utmost endearment--conduct utterly incompatible with the shepherd hypothesis4 ,the only alternative is to suppose that the hard-pressed girl takes refuge from the importunity of her royal flatterer by turning aside to an imaginary1 half dream-like conversation with her absent lover4 ,this is not by any means a probable position1 it must be allowed2 it seems to put a strained interpretation on the text4 ,undoubtedly if the passage before us stood by itself1 there would not be any difference of opinion about it2 everybody would take it in its obvious meaning as a conversation between two lovers4 ,but it does not stand by itself--unless1 indeed1 we are to give up the unity of the book4 ,therefore it must be interpreted so as not to contradict the whole course of the poem1 which shews that another than ,solomon is the true lover of the disconsolate maiden4 #bc i4 #i--;ii4 #f4 ,the king begins with the familiar device by which rich men all the world over try to win the confidence of poor girls when there is no love on either side1--a device which has been only too successful in the case of many a weak ,marguerite though her tempter has not always been a handsome ,faust2 but in the present case innocence is fortified by true love1 and the trick is a failure4 ,the king notices that this peasant girl has but simple plaited hair and homely ornaments4 ,she shall have plaits of gold and studs of silver6 ,splendid as one of ,pharaoh's chariot horses1 she shall be decorated as magnificently as they are decorated6 ,what is this to our stanch heroine8 ,she treats it with absolute indifference1 and begins to soliloquise1 with a touch of scorn in her language4 ,she has been loaded with scent after the manner of the luxurious court1 and the king while seated feasting at his table has caught the odour of the rich perfumes4 ,that is why he is now by her side4 ,does he think that she will serve as a new dainty for the great banquet1 as a fresh fillip for the jaded appetite of the royal voluptuary8 ,if so he is much mistaken4 ,the king's promises have no attraction for her1 and she turns for relief to dear memories of her true love4 ,the thought of him is fragrant as the bundle of myrrh she carries in her bosom1 as the henna-flowers that bloom in the vineyards of far-off ,engedi4 ,clearly ,solomon has made a clumsy move4 ,this shy bird is not of the common species with which he is familiar4 ,he must aim higher if he would bring down his quarry4 ,she is not to be classed with the wares of the matrimonial market that are only waiting to be assigned to the richest bidder4 ,she cannot be bought even by the wealth of a king's treasury4 ,but if there is a woman who can resist the charms of finery1 is there one who can stand against the admiration of her personal beauty8 ,a man of ,solomon's experience would scarcely believe that such was to be found4 ,nevertheless now the sex he estimates too lightly is to be vindicated1 while the king himself is to be taught a wholesome lesson4 ,he may call her fair2 he may praise her dove-like eyes4#bd ,his flattery is lost upon her4 ,she only thinks of the beauty of her shepherd lad1 and pictures to herself the green bank on which they used to sit1 with the cedars and firs for the beams and roof of their trysting-place4#be ,her language carries us away from the gilded splendour and close1 perfumed atmosphere of the royal palace to scenes such as ,shakespeare presents in the forest of ,arden and the haunts of ,titania1 and ,milton in the ,mask of ,comus4 ,here is a ,hebrew lady longing to escape from the clutches of one who for all his glory is not without some of the offensive traits of the monster ,comus4 ,she thinks of herself as a wild flower1 like the crocus that grows on the plains of ,sharon or the lily 7literally the anemone7 that is sprinkled so freely over the upland valleys4#bf ,the open country is the natural habitat of such a plant1 not the stifling court4 ,solomon catches at her beautiful imagery4 ,compared with other maidens she is like a lily among thorns4#bg #bd i4 #ae4 #be i4 #af1 #ag4 #bf ii4 #a4 #bg ii4 #b4 ,and now these scenes of nature carry the persecuted girl away in a sort of reverie4 ,if she is like the tender flower1 her lover resembles the apple tree at the foot of which it nestles1 a tree the shadow of which is delightful and its fruit sweet4#bh ,she remembers how he brought her to his banqueting house2 that rustic bower was a very different place from the grand divan on which she had seen ,solomon sitting at his table4 ,no purple hangings like those of the king's palace there screened her from the sun4 ,the only banner her shepherd could spread over her was love1 his own love4#bi ,but what could be a more perfect shelter8 #bh ii4 #c4 #bi ii4 #d4 ,she is fainting4 ,how she longs for her lover to comfort her6 ,she has just compared him to an apple tree2 now the refreshment she hungers for is the fruit of this tree2 that is to say1 his love4#cj ,oh that he would put his arms round her and support her1 as in the old happy days before she had been snatched away from him6#ca #cj ii4 #e4 #ca ii4 #f4 ,next follows a verse which is repeated later1 and so serves as a sort of refrain4#cb ,the ,shulammite adjures the daughters of ,jerusalem not to awaken love4 ,this verse is misrendered in the ,authorised ,version1 which inserts the pronoun my before love without any warrant in the ,hebrew text4 ,the poor girl has spoken of apples4 ,but the court ladies must not misunderstand her4 ,she wants none of their love apples1#cc no philtre1 no charm to turn her affections away from her shepherd lover and pervert them to the importunate royal suitor4 ,the opening words of the poem which celebrated the charms of ,solomon had been aimed in that direction4 ,the motive of the work seems to be the ,shulammite's resistance to various attempts to move her from loyalty to her true love4 ,it is natural1 therefore1 that an appeal to desist from all such attempts should come out emphatically4 #cb ii4 #g4 #cc ,see ,gen4 xxx4 #ad4 ,the poem takes a new turn4 ,in imagination the ,shulammite hears the voice of her beloved4 ,she pictures him standing at the foot of the lofty rock on which the harem is built1 and crying1-- ,oh1 my dove1 that art in the clefts of the rock1 in the cover of the steep place1 ,let me see thy countenance1 let me hear thy voice2 ,for sweet is thy voice1 and thy countenance is comely4#cd #cd ii4 #ad4 ,he is like a troubadour singing to his imprisoned lady-love2 and she1 in her soliloquys1 though not by any means a high-born maiden1 may call to mind the simile in ,shelley's ,skylark3-- ,like a high-born maiden ,in a palace tower1 ,soothing her love-laden ,soul in secret hour1 ,with music sweet as love1 which overflows her bower4 ,she remembers how her lover had come to her bounding over the hills like a roe or a young hart1#ce and peeping in at her lattice2 and she repeats the song with which he had called her out--one of the sweetest songs of spring that ever was sung4#cf ,in our own green island we acknowledge that this is the most beautiful season of all the round year2 but in ,palestine it stands out in more strongly pronounced contrast to the three other seasons1 and it is in itself exceedingly lovely4 ,while summer and autumn are there parched with drought1 barren and desolate1 and while winter is often dreary with snow-storms and floods of rain1 in spring the whole land is one lovely garden1 ablaze with richest hues1 hill and dale1 wilderness and farmland vying in the luxuriance of their wild flowers1 from the red anemone that fires the steep sides of the mountains to the purple and white cyclamen that nestles among the rocks at their feet4 ,much of the beauty of this poem is found in the fact that it is pervaded by the spirit of an eastern spring4 ,this makes it possible to introduce a wealth of beautiful imagery which would not have been appropriate if any other season had been chosen4 ,even more lovely in ,march than ,england is in ,may1 ,palestine comes nearest to the appearance of our country in the former month2 so that this poem1 that is so completely bathed in the atmosphere of early spring1 calls up echoes of the exquisite ,english garden pictures in ,shelley's ,sensitive ,plant and ,tennyson's ,maud4 ,but it is not only beauty of imagery that our poet gains by setting his work in this lovely season4 ,his ideas are all in harmony with the period of the year he describes so charmingly4 ,it is the time of youth and hope1 of joy and love--especially of love1 for1 ,in the spring a young man's fancy ,lightly turns to thoughts of love4 #ce ii4 #i4 #cf ii4 #aa-ac4 ,there is even a deeper association between the ideas of the poem and the season in which it is set4 ,none of the freshness of spring is to be found about ,solomon and his harem1 but it is all present in the ,shulammite and her shepherd2 and spring scenes and thoughts powerfully aid the motive of the poem in accentuating the contrast between the tawdry magnificence of the court and the pure1 simple beauty of the country life to which the heroine of the poem clings so faithfully4 ,the ,shulammite answers her lover in an old ditty about the little foxes that spoil the vineyards4#cg ,he would recognise that1 and so discover her presence4 ,we are reminded of the legend of ,richard's page finding his master by singing a familiar ballad outside the walls of the castle in the ,tyrol where the captive crusader was imprisoned4 ,this is all imaginary4 ,and yet the faithful girl knows in her heart that her beloved is hers and that she is his1 although in sober reality he is now feeding his flocks in the far-off flowery fields of her old home4#ch ,there he must remain till the cool of the evening1 till the shadows melt into the darkness of night1 when she would fain he returned to her1 coming over the rugged mountains like a roe or a young hart4#ci #cg ii4 #ae4 #ch ii4 #af4 #ci ii4 #ag4 ,now the ,shulammite tells a painful dream4#dj ,she dreamed that she had lost her lover1 and that she rose up at night and went out into the streets seeking him4 ,at first she failed to find him4 ,she asked the watchmen whom she met on their round1 if they had seen him whom her soul loved4 ,they could not help her quest4 ,but a little while after leaving them she discovered the missing lover1 and brought him safely into her mother's house4 #dj iii4 #a-d4 ,after a repetition of the warning to the daughters of ,jerusalem not to awaken love1#da we are introduced to a new scene4#db ,it is by one of the gates of ,jerusalem1 where the country maiden has been brought in order that she may be impressed by the gorgeous spectacle of ,solomon returning from a royal progress4 ,the king comes up from the wilderness in clouds of perfume1 guarded by sixty men-at-arms1 and borne in a magnificent palanquin of cedar-wood1 with silver posts1 a floor of gold1 and purple cushions1 wearing on his head the crown with which his mother had crowned him4 ,is the mention of the mother of ,solomon intended to be specially significant8 ,remember--she was ,bathsheba6 ,the allusion to such a woman would not be likely to conciliate the pure young girl who was not in the least degree moved by this attempt to charm her with a scene of exceptional magnificence4 #da iii4 #e4 #db iii4 #f-aa ,solomon now appears again1 praising his captive in extravagant language of courtly flattery4 ,he praises her dove-like eyes1 her voluminous black hair1 her rosy lips1 her noble brow 7not even disguised by her veil71 her towering neck1 her tender bosom--lovely as twin gazelles that feed among the lilies4 ,like her lover1 who is necessarily away with his flock1 ,solomon will leave her till the cool of the evening1 till the shadows melt into night2 but he has no pastoral duties to attend to1 and though the delicate balancing and assimilation of phrase and idea is gracefully manipulated1 there is a change4 ,the king will go to mountains of myrrh and hills of frankincense1#dc to make his person more fragrant1 and so1 as he hopes1 more welcome4 #dc iv4 #f4 ,if we adopt the shepherd hypothesis the next section of the poem must be assigned to the rustic lover4#dd ,it is difficult to believe that this peasant would be allowed to speak to a lady in the royal harem4 ,we might suppose that here and perhaps also in the earlier scene the shepherd is represented as actually present at the foot of the rock on which the palace stands4 ,otherwise this also must be taken as an imaginary scene1 or as a reminiscence of the dreamy girl4 ,although a thread of unity runs through the whole poem1 ,goethe was clearly correct in calling it a medley4 ,scenes real and imaginary melting one into another cannot take their places in a regular drama4 ,but when we grant full liberty to the imaginary element there is less necessity to ask what is subjective and what objective1 what only fancied by the ,shulammite and what intended to be taken as an actual occurrence4 ,strictly speaking1 nothing is actual2 the whole poem is a highly imaginative series of fancy pictures illustrating the development of its leading ideas4 #dd iv4 #h-ae4 ,next--whether we take it as in imagination or in fact--the shepherd lover calls his bride to follow him from the most remote regions4 ,his language is entirely different from that of the magnificent monarch4 ,he does not waste his breath in formal compliments1 high-flown imagery1 wearisome lists of the charms of the girl he loves4 ,that was the clumsy method of the king2 clumsy1 though reflecting the finished manners of the court1 in comparison with the genuine outpourings of the heart of a country lad4 ,the shepherd is eloquent with the inspiration of true love2 his words throb and glow with genuine emotion2 there is a fine1 wholesome passion in them4 ,the love of his bride has ravished his heart4 ,how beautiful is her love6 ,he is intoxicated with it more than with wine4 ,how sweet are her words of tender affection1 like milk and honey6 ,she is so pure1 there is something sisterly in her love with all its warmth4 ,and she is so near to him that she is almost like part of himself1 as his own sister4 ,this holy and close relationship is in startling contrast to the only thing known as love in the royal harem4 ,it is as much more lofty and noble as it is more strong and deep than the jaded emotions of the court4 ,the sweet pure maiden is to the shepherd like a garden the gate of which is barred against trespassers1 like a spring shut off from casual access1 like a sealed fountain--sealed to all but one1 and1 happy man1 he is that one4 ,to him she belongs1 to him alone4 ,she is a garden1 yes1 a most fragrant garden1 an orchard of pomegranates full of rich fruit1 crowded with sweet-scented plants--henna and spikenard and saffron1 calamus and cinnamon and all kinds of frankincense1 myrrh and aloes and the best of spices4 ,she is a fountain in the garden1 sealed to all others1 but not stinted towards the one she loves4 ,to him she is as a well of living waters1 like the full-fed streams that flow from ,lebanon4 ,the maiden is supposed to hear the song of love4 ,she replies in fearless words of welcome1 bidding the north wind awake1 and the south wind too1 that the fragrance of which her lover has spoken so enthusiastically may flow out more richly than ever4 ,for his sake she would be more sweet and loving4 ,all she possesses is for him4 ,let him come and take possession of his own4#de #de iv4 #af4 ,what lover could turn aside from such a rapturous invitation8 ,the shepherd takes his bride2 he enters his garden1 gathers his myrrh and spice1 eats his honey and drinks his wine and milk1 and calls on his friends to feast and drink with him4#df ,this seems to point to the marriage of the couple and their wedding feast2 a view of the passage which interpreters who regard ,solomon as the lover throughout for the most part take1 but one which has this fatal objection1 that it leaves the second half of the poem without a motive4 ,on the hypothesis of the shepherd lover it is still more difficult to suppose the wedding to have occurred at the point we have now reached1 for the distraction of the royal courtship still proceeds in subsequent passages of the poem4 ,it would seem1 then1 that we must regard this as quite an ideal scene4 ,it may1 however1 be taken as a reminiscence of an earlier passage in the lives of the two lovers4 ,it is not impossible that it refers to their wedding1 and that they had been married before the action of the whole story began4 ,in that case we should have to suppose that ,solomon's officers had carried off a young bride to the royal harem4 ,the intensity of the love and the bitterness of the separation apparent throughout the poem would be the more intelligible if this were the situation4 ,it is to be remembered that ,shakespeare ascribes the climax of the love and grief of ,romeo and ,juliet to a time after their marriage4 ,but the difficulty of accepting this view lies in the improbability that so outrageous a crime would be attributed to ,solomon1 although it must be admitted that the guilty conduct of his father and mother had gone a long way in setting an example for the violation of the marriage tie4 ,in dealing with vague and dreamy poetry such as that of the ,song of ,solomon1 it is not possible to determine a point like this with precision2 nor is it necessary to do so4 ,the beauty and force of the passage now before us centre in the perfect mutual love of the two young hearts that here show themselves to be knit together as one1 whether already actually married or not yet thus externally united4 #df v4 #a4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,love ,,unquenchable ,,chapter v4 #a-viii ,we have seen how this strange poem mingles fact and fancy1 memory and reverie1 in what would be hopeless confusion if we could not detect a common prevailing sentiment and one aim towards which the whole is tending1 with all its rapidly shifting scenes and all its perplexingly varying movements4 ,the middle of the poem attains a perfect climax of love and rapture4 ,then we are suddenly transported to an entirely different scene4 ,the ,shulammite recites a second dream1 which somewhat resembles her former dream1 but is more vivid and intense1 and ends very painfully4#dg ,the circumstances of it will agree most readily with the idea that she is already married to the shepherd4 ,again it is a dream of the loss of her lover1 and of her search for him by night in the streets of ,jerusalem4 ,but in the present case he was first close to her1 and then he deserted her most unaccountably2 and when she went to look for him this time she failed to find him1 and met with cruel ill-treatment4 ,in her dream she fancies she hears the bridegroom knocking at her chamber door and calling upon her as his sister1 his love1 his dove1 his undefiled1 to open to him4 ,he has just returned from tending his flock in the night1 and his hair is wet with the dew4 ,the bride coyly excuses herself1 on the plea that she has laid aside her mantle and washed her feet2 as though it would vex her to put her feet to the ground again4 ,this is but the playful reluctance of love2 for no sooner is her beloved really lost than she undertakes the greatest trouble in the search for him4 ,when he puts in his hand to lift the latch1 her heart is moved towards him1 and she rises to open the door4 ,on touching the lock she finds it covered with liquid myrrh4 ,it has been ingeniously suggested that we have here a reference to the construction of an eastern lock1 with a wooden pin dropped into the bolt1 which is intended to be lifted by a key1 but which may be raised by a man's finger if he is provided with some viscid substance1 such as the ointment here mentioned1 to adhere to the pin4 ,the little detail shews that the lover or bridegroom had come with the deliberate intention of entering4 ,how strange1 then1 that when the bride opens the door he is not to be seen6 ,why has he fled8 ,the shock of this surprise quite overwhelms the poor girl1 and she is on the point of fainting4 ,she looks about for her vanished lover1 and calls him by name2 but there is no answer4 ,she goes out to seek for him in the streets1 and there the watchmen cuff and bruise her1 and the sentry on the city walls rudely tear off her veil4 #dg v4 #b-g4 ,returning from the distressing recollection of her dream to the present condition of affairs1 the sorrowful ,shulammite adjures the daughters of ,jerusalem to tell her if they have found her love4#dh ,they respond by asking1 what is her beloved more than any other beloved8#di ,this mocking question of the harem women rouses the ,shulammite1 and affords an opportunity for descanting on the beauty of her love4#ej ,he is both fair and ruddy1 the chiefest among ten thousand4 ,for this is what he is like3 a head splendid as finest gold2 massive1 curling1 raven locks2 eyes like doves by water brooks1 and looking as though they had been washed in milk--an elaborate image in which the soft iris and the sparkling light on the pupils suggest the picture of the gentle birds brooding on the bank of a flashing stream1 and the pure1 healthy eyeballs a thought of the whiteness of milk2 cheeks fragrant as spices2 lips red as lilies 7the blood-red anemones72 a body like ivory1 with blue veins as of sapphire2 legs like marble columns on golden bases4 ,the aspect of him is like great ,lebanon1 splendid as the far-famed cedars2 and when he opens his lips his voice is ravishingly sweet4 ,yes1 he is altogether lovely4 ,such is her beloved1 her dearest one4 #dh v4 #h4 #di v4 #i4 #ej v4 #aj-af4 ,the mocking ladies ask their victim where then has this paragon gone8#ea ,she would have them understand that he has not been so cruel as really to desert her4 ,it was only in her dream that he treated her with such unaccountable fickleness4 ,the plain fact is that he is away at his work on his far-off farm1 feeding his flock1 and perhaps gathering a posy of flowers for his bride4#eb ,he is far away1--that sad truth cannot be denied2 and yet he is not really lost1 for love laughs at time and distance2 the poor lonely girl can say still that she is her beloved's and that he is hers4#ec ,the reappearance of this phrase suggests that it is intended to serve as a sort of refrain4 ,thus it comes in with admirable fitness to balance the other refrain to which reference has been made earlier4#ed ,in the first refrain the daughters of ,jerusalem are besought not to attempt to awaken the ,shulammite's love for ,solomon2 this is well balanced by the refrain in which she declares the constancy of the mutual love that exists between herself and the shepherd4 #ea vi4 #a4 #eb vi4 #b4 #ec vi4 #c4 #ed ,page #bj4 ,now ,solomon reappears on the scene1 and resumes his laudation of the ,shulammite's beauty4#ee ,but there is a marked change in his manner4 ,this most recent capture is quite unlike the sort of girls with whom his harem was stocked from time to time4 ,he had no reverence for any of them2 they all considered themselves to be highly honoured by his favour1 all adored him with slavish admiration1 like that expressed by one of them in the first line of the poem4 ,but he is positively afraid of the ,shulammite4 ,she is terrible as an army with banners4 ,he cannot bear to look at her eyes2 he begs her to turn them away from him1 for they have overcome him4 ,what is the meaning of this new attitude on the part of the mighty monarch8 ,there is something awful in the simple peasant girl4 ,the purity1 the constancy1 the cold scorn with which she regards the king1 are as humiliating as they are novel in his experience4 ,yet it is well for him that he is susceptible to their influence4 ,he is greatly injured and corrupted by the manners of a luxurious oriental court4 ,but he is not a seared profligate4 ,the vision of goodness startles him2 then there is a better nature in him1 and its slumbering powers are partly roused by this unexpected apparition4 #ee vi4 #d-g4 ,we have now reached a very important point in the poem4 ,it is almost impossible to reconcile this with the theory that ,solomon is the one and only lover referred to throughout4 ,but on the shepherd hypothesis the position is most significant4 ,the value of constancy in love is not only seen in the steadfast character of one who is sorely tempted to yield to other influences2 it is also apparent in the effects on a spectator of so uncongenial a nature as king ,solomon4 ,thus the poet brings out the great idea of his work most vividly4 ,he could not have done so more forcibly than by choosing the court of ,solomon for the scene of the trial1 and shewing the startling effect of the noble virtue of constancy on the king himself4 ,here we are face to face with one of the rescuing influences of life1 which may be met in various forms4 ,a true woman1 an innocent child1 a pure man1 coming across the path of one who has permitted himself to slide down towards murky depths1 arrests his attention with a painful shock of surprise4 ,the result is a revelation to him1 in the light of which he discovers1 to his horror1 how far he has fallen4 ,it is a sort of incarnate conscience warning him of the still lower degradation towards which he is sinking4 ,perhaps it strikes him as a beacon light1 shewing the path up to purity and peace2 an angel from heaven sent to help him retrace his steps and return to his better self4 ,few men are so abandoned as never to be visited by some such gleam from higher regions4 ,to many1 alas1 it comes but as the temporary rift in the clouds through which for one brief moment the blue sky becomes visible even on a wild and stormy day1 soon to be lost in deeper darkness4 ,happy are they who obey its unexpected message4 ,the concluding words of the passage which opens with ,solomon's praises of the ,shulammite present another of the many difficulties with which the poem abounds4 ,mention is made of ,solomon's sixty queens1 his eighty concubines1 his maidens without number2 and then the ,shulammite is contrasted with this vast seraglio as ,my dove1 my undefiled1 who is but one--the only one of her mother4#ef ,who is speaking here8 ,if this is a continuation of ,solomon's speech1 as the flow of the verses would suggest1 it must mean that the king would set his newest acquisition quite apart from all the ladies of the harem1 as his choice and treasured bride4 ,those who regard ,solomon as the lover1 think they see here what they call his conversion1 that is to say1 his turning away from polygamy to monogamy4 ,history knows of no such conversion2 and it is hardly likely that a poet of the northern kingdom would go out of his way to whitewash the matrimonial reputation of a sovereign from whom the house of ,judah was descended4 ,besides1 the occurrence here represented bears a very dubious character when we consider that all the existing denizens of the harem were to be put aside in favour of a new beauty4 ,it would have been more like a genuine conversion if ,solomon had gone back to the love of his youth1 and confined his affections to his neglected first wife4 #ef vi4 #h1 #i4 ,on the shepherd hypothesis it is most natural to attribute the passage to the shepherd himself4 ,but since it is difficult to imagine him present at this scene between ,solomon and the ,shulammite1 it seems that we must fall back on the idealising character of the poem4 ,in this figurative way the true lover expresses his contempt for the monstrous harem at the palace4 ,he is content with his one ewe lamb2 nay1 she is more to him than all ,solomon's bevy of beauties2 even these ladies of the court are now constrained to praise the noble qualities of his bride4 ,solomon's expression of awe for the terrible purity and constancy of the ,shulammite is repeated1#eg and then she tells the story of her capture4#eh ,she had gone down to the nut garden to look at the fresh green on the plants1 and to see whether the vines were budding and the pomegranates putting forth their lovely scarlet blossoms1 when suddenly1 and all unawares1 she was pounced upon by the king's people and whisked away in one of his chariots4 ,it is a vivid scene1 and1 like other scenes in this poem1 the background of it is the lovely aspect of nature in early spring4 #eg vi4 #aj4 #eh ,vers4 #aa1 #ab4 ,the ,shulammite now seems to be attempting a retreat1 and the ladies of the court bid her return2 they would see the performance of a favourite dance1 known as ,the ,dance of ,mahanaim4#ei ,thereupon we have a description of the performer1 as she was seen during the convolutions of the dance1 dressed in a transparent garment of red gauze1--perhaps such as is represented in ,pompeian frescoes1--so that her person could be compared to pale wheat surrounded by crimson anemones4#fj ,it is quite against the tenor of her conduct to suppose that the modest country girl would degrade herself by ministering to the amusement of a corrupt court in this shameless manner4 ,it is more reasonable to conclude that the entertainment was given by a professional dancer from among the women of the harem4 ,we have a hint that this is the case in the title applied to the performer1 in addressing whom ,solomon exclaims1 ,o prince's daughter1#fa an expression never used for the poor ,shulammite1 and one from which we should gather that she was a captive princess who had been trained as a court dancer4 ,the glimpse of the manners of the palace helps to strengthen the contrast of the innocent1 simple country life in which the ,shulammite delights4 #ei vi4 #ac4 ,this is obscured in the ,authorised ,version4 #fj vii4 #a-i4 #fa vii #a4 ,it has been suggested1 with some degree of probability1 that the ,shulammite is supposed to make her escape while the attention of the king and his court is diverted by this entrancing spectacle4 ,it is to be observed1 at all events1 that from this point onwards to the end of the poem1 neither ,solomon nor the daughters of ,jerusalem take any part in the dialogue1 while the scene appears to be shifted to the ,shulammite's home in the country1 where she and the shepherd are now seen together in happy companionship4 ,the bridegroom has come to fetch his bride4 ,again she owns that she is his1 and delights in the glad thought that his heart goes out to her4#fb ,she bids him come with her into the field1 and lodge in the villages4 ,they will get them early into the vineyards and see whether the vines are blooming1 and whether the pomegranates are in blossom4#fc ,it is still early spring4 ,it was early spring when she was snatched away4 ,unless she had been a whole year at the palace1--an impossible situation with the king continuing his ineffectual courtship for so long a time1--we have no movement of time4 ,but the series of events from the day when the ,shulammite was seized in her nut garden1 till she found herself back again in her home in the north country1 after the trying episode of her temporary residence in the royal palace1 must have occupied some weeks4 ,and yet the conclusion of the story is set in precisely the same stage of spring1 the time when people look for the first buds and blossoms1 as the opening scenes4 ,it has been proposed to confine the whole action to the northern district1 where ,solomon might have had a country house adjoining his vineyard4#fd ,the presence of the daughters of ,jerusalem1 and allusions to the streets of the city1 its watchmen1 and the guard upon the walls1 are against this notion4 ,it is better to conclude that we have here another instance of the idealism of the poem4 ,since early spring is the season that harmonises most perfectly with the spirit of the whole work1 the author does not trouble himself with adapting its scenes in a realistic manner to the rapidly changing aspects of nature4 #fb vii4 #aj4 #fc vii4 #aa-ac4 #fd viii4 #aa4 ,the shepherd has addressed the ,shulammite as his sister2#fe she now reciprocates the title by expressing her longing that he had been as her brother4#ff ,this singular mode of courtship between two lovers who are so passionately devoted to one another that we might call them the ,hebrew ,romeo and ,juliet1 is not without significance4 ,its recurrence1 now on the lips of the bride1 helps to sharpen still more the contrast between what passes for love in the royal harem1 and the true emotion experienced by a pair of innocent young people1 unsullied by the corruptions of the court--illustrating1 as it does at once1 its sweet intimacy and its perfect purity4 #fe viii4 #a4 #ff viii4 #a4 ,the proud bride would now lead her swain to her mother's house4#fg ,there is no mention of her father2 apparently he is not living4 ,but the fond way in which this simple girl speaks of her mother reveals another lovely trait in her character4 ,she has witnessed the wearisome magnificence of ,solomon's palace4 ,it was impossible to associate the idea of home with such a place4 ,we never hear the daughters of ,jerusalem1 those poor degraded women of the harem1 speaking of their mothers4 ,but to the ,shulammite no spot on earth is so dear as her mother's cottage4 ,there her lover shall have spiced wine and pomegranate juice--simple home-made country beverages4#fh ,repeating one of the early refrains of the poem1 the happy bride is not afraid to say that there too her husband shall support her in his strong embrace4#fi ,she then repeats another refrain1 and for the last time--surely one would say now1 quite superfluously--she adjures the daughters of ,jerusalem not to awaken any love for ,solomon in her1 but to leave love to its spontaneous course4#gj #fg viii4 #b4 #fh viii4 #b4 #fi viii4 #c4 #gj viii4 #d4 ,now the bridegroom is seen coming up from the wilderness with his bride leaning upon him1 and telling how he first made love to her when he found her asleep under an apple tree in the garden of the cottage where she was born4#ga ,as they converse together we reach the richest gem of the poem1 the ,shulammite's impassioned eulogy of love4#gb ,she bids her husband set her as a seal upon his heart in the inner sanctuary of his being1 and as a seal upon his arm--always owning her1 always true to her in the outer world4 ,she is to be his closely1 his openly1 his for ever4 ,she has proved her constancy to him2 now she claims his constancy to her4 ,the foundation of this claim rests on the very nature of love4 ,the one essential characteristic here dwelt upon is strength--,love is strong as death4 ,who can resist grim death8 who escape its iron clutches8 ,who can resist mighty love1 or evade its power8 ,the illustration is startling in the apparent incompatibility of the two things drawn together for comparison4 ,but it is a stern and terrible aspect of love to which our attention is now directed4 ,this is apparent as the ,shulammite proceeds to speak of jealousy which is hard as the grave4 ,if love is treated falsely1 it can flash out in a flame of wrath ten times more furious than the raging of hatred--a most vehement flame of the ,lord4 ,this is the only place in which the name of ,god appears throughout the whole poem4 ,it may be said that even here it only comes in according to a familiar ,hebrew idiom1 as metaphor for what is very great4 ,but the ,shulammite has good reason for claiming ,god to be on her side in the protection of her love from cruel wrong and outrage4 ,love as she knows it is both unquenchable and unpurchasable4 ,she has tested and proved these two attributes in her own experience4 ,at the court of ,solomon every effort was made to destroy her love for the shepherd1 and all possible means were employed for buying her love for the king4 ,both utterly failed4 ,all the floods of scorn which the harem ladies poured over her love for the country lad could not quench it2 all the wealth of a kingdom could not buy it for ,solomon4 ,where true love exists1 no opposition can destroy it2 where it is not1 no money can purchase it4 ,as for the second idea--the purchasing of love--the ,shulammite flings it away with the utmost contempt4 ,yet this was the too common means employed by a king such as ,solomon for replenishing the stock of his harem4 ,then the monarch was only pursuing a shadow2 he was but playing at love-making2 he was absolutely ignorant of the reality4 #ga viii4 #e4 #gb viii4 #f1 #g4 ,the vigour1 one might say the rigour1 of this passage distinguishes it from nearly all other poetry devoted to the praises of love4 ,that poetry is usually soft and tender2 sometimes it is feeble and sugary4 ,and yet it must be remembered that even the classical ,aphrodite could be terribly angry4 ,there is nothing morbid or sentimental in the ,shulammite's ideas4 ,she has discovered and proved by experience that love is a mighty force1 capable of heroic endurance1 and able1 when wronged1 to avenge itself with serious effect4 ,towards the conclusion of the poem fresh speakers appear in the persons of the ,shulammite's brothers1 who defend themselves from the charge of negligence in having permitted their little sister to be snatched away from their keeping1 explaining how they have done their best to guard her4 ,or perhaps they mean that they will be more careful in protecting a younger sister4 ,they will build battlements about her4 ,the ,shulammite takes up the metaphor4 ,she is safe now1 as a wall well embattled2 at last she has found peace in the love of her husband4 ,solomon may have a vineyard in her neighbourhood1 and draw great wealth from it with which to buy the wares in which he delights4#gc ,it is nothing to her4 ,she has her own vineyard4 ,this reference to the ,shulammite's vineyard recalls the mention of it at the beginning of the poem1 and suggests the idea that in both cases the image represents the shepherd lover4 ,in the first instance she had not kept her vineyard1#gd for she had lost her lover4 ,now she has him1 and she is satisfied4#ge ,he calls to her in the garden1 longing to hear her voice there1#gf and she replies1 bidding him hasten and come to her as she has described him coming before1-- ,like to a roe or a young hart ,upon the mountains of spices4#gg #gc viii4 #aa4 #gd i4 #f4 #ge viii4 #ab4 #gf viii4 #ac4 #gg viii4 #ad4 ,and so the poem sinks to rest in the happy picture of the union of the two young lovers4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,mystical ,,interpretations ,thus far we have been considering the bare1 literal sense of the text4 ,it cannot be denied that1 if only to lead up to the metaphorical significance of the words employed1 those words must be approached through their primary physical meanings4 ,this is essential even to the understanding of pure allegory such as that of ,the ,faerie ,queen and ,the ,pilgrim's ,progress2 we must understand the adventures of the ,red ,cross ,knight and the course of ,christian's journey before we can learn the moral of ,spenser's and ,bunyan's elaborate allegories4 ,similarly it is absolutely necessary for us to have some idea of the movement of the ,song of ,solomon as a piece of literature1 in its external form1 even if we are persuaded that beneath this sensuous exterior it contains the most profound ideas1 before we can discover any such ideas4 ,in other words1 if it is to be considered as a mass of symbolism the symbols must be understood in themselves before their significance can be drawn out of them4 ,but now we are confronted with the question whether the book has any other meaning than that which meets the eye4 ,the answers to this question are given on three distinct lines3--,first1 we have the allegorical schemes of interpretation1 according to which the poem is not to be taken literally at all1 but is to be regarded as a purely metaphorical representation of national or ,church history1 philosophical ideas1 or spiritual experiences4 ,in the second place1 we meet with various forms of double interpretation1 described as typical or mystical1 in which a primary meaning is allowed to the book as a sort of drama or idyl1 or as a collection of ,jewish love-songs1 while a secondary signification of an ideal or spiritual character is added4 ,distinct as these lines of interpretation are in themselves1 they tend to blend in practice1 because even when two meanings are admitted the symbolical signification is considered to be of so much greater importance than the literal that it virtually occupies the whole field4 ,in the third place there is the purely literal interpretation1 that which denies the existence of any symbolical or mystical intention in the poem4 ,allegorical interpretations of the ,song of ,solomon are found among the ,jews early in the ,christian era4 ,the ,aramaic ,targum1 probably originating about the sixth century ,a4,d41 takes the first half of the poem as a symbolical picture of the history of ,israel previous to the captivity1 and the second as a prophetic picture of the subsequent fortunes of the nation4 ,the recurrence of the expression the congregation of ,israel in this paraphrase wherever the ,shulammite appears1 and other similar adaptations1 entirely destroy the fine poetic flavour of the work1 and convert it into a dreary1 dry-as-dust composition4 ,symbolical interpretations were very popular among ,christian ,fathers--though not with universal approval1 as the protest of ,theodore of ,mopsuestia testifies4 ,the great ,alexandrian ,origen is the founder and patron of this method of interpreting the ,song of ,solomon in the ,church4 ,jerome was of opinion that ,origen surpassed himself in his commentary on the poem--a commentary to which he devoted ten volumes4 ,according to his view1 it was originally an epithalamium celebrating the marriage of ,solomon with ,pharaoh's daughter2 but it has secondary mystical meanings descriptive of the relation of the ,redeemer to the ,church or the individual soul4 ,thus the little foxes that spoil the grapes are evil thoughts in the individual1 or heretics in the ,church4 ,gregory the ,great contributes a commentary of no lasting interest4 ,very different is the work of the great medival monk ,st4 ,bernard of ,clairvaux1 who threw himself into it with all the passion and rapture of his enthusiastic soul1 and in the course of eighty-six homilies only reached the beginning of the third chapter in this to him inexhaustible mine of spiritual wealth1 when he died1 handing on the task to his faithful disciple ,gilbert ,porretanus1 who continued it on the same portentous scale1 and also died before he had finished the fifth chapter4 ,even while reading the old monkish ,latin in this late age we cannot fail to feel the glowing devotion that inspires it4 ,bernard is addressing his monks1 to whom he says he need not give the milk for babes1 and whom he exhorts to prepare their throats not for this milk but for bread4 ,as a schoolman he cannot escape from metaphysical subtleties--he takes the kiss of the bridegroom as a symbol of the incarnation4 ,but throughout there burns the perfect rapture of love to ,jesus ,christ which inspires his well-known hymns4 ,here we are at the secret of the extraordinary popularity of mystical interpretations of the ,song of ,solomon4 ,it has seemed to many in all ages of the ,christian ,church to afford the best expression for the deepest spiritual relations of ,christ and ,his people4 ,nevertheless1 the mystical method has been widely disputed since the time of the ,reformation4 ,luther complains of the many wild and monstrous interpretations that are attached to the ,song of ,solomon1 though even he understands it as symbolical of ,solomon and his state4 ,still1 not a few of the most popular hymns of our own day are saturated with ideas and phrases gathered from this book1 and fresh expositions of what are considered to be its spiritual lessons may still be met with4 ,it is not easy to discover any justification for the rabbinical explanation of the ,song of ,solomon as a representation of successive events in the history of ,israel1 an explanation which ,jewish scholars have abandoned in favour of simple literalism4 ,but the mystical view1 according to which the poem sets forth spiritual ideas1 has pleas urged in its favour that demand some consideration4 ,we are reminded of the analogy of ,oriental literature1 which delights in parable to an extent unknown in the ,west4 ,works of a kindred nature are produced in which an allegorical signification is plainly intended4 ,thus the ,hindoo ,gilagovinda celebrates the loves of ,chrishna and ,radha in verses that bear a remarkable resemblance to the ,song of ,solomon4 ,arabian poets sing of the love of ,joseph for ,zuleikha1 which mystics take as the love of ,god towards the soul that longs for union with ,him4 ,there is a ,turkish mystical commentary on the ,song of ,hafiz4 ,the bible itself furnishes us with suggestive analogies4 ,throughout the ,old ,testament the idea of a marriage union between ,god and ,his people occurs repeatedly1 and the most frequent metaphor for religious apostasy is drawn from the crime of adultery4#gh ,this symbolism is especially prominent in the writings of ,jeremiah#gi and ,hosea4#hj ,the forty-fifth psalm is an epithalamium commonly read with a ,messianic signification4 ,john the ,baptist describes the coming ,messiah as the ,bridegroom1#ha and ,jesus ,christ accepts the title for ,himself4#hb ,our ,lord illustrates the blessedness of the ,kingdom of ,heaven in a parable of a wedding feast4#hc ,with ,st4 ,paul the union of husband and wife is an earthly copy of the union of ,christ and his ,church4#hd ,the marriage of the ,lamb is a prominent feature in the ,book of the ,revelation4#he #gh ,e4g4 ,exod4 xxxiv4 #ae1 #af2 ,numb4 xv4 #ci2 ,psalm lxxiii4 #bg2 ,ezek4 xvi4 #bc1 etc4 #gi ,e4g4 ,jer4 iii4 #a-aa4 #hj ,hosea ii4 #b42 iii4 #c4 #ha ,john iii4 #bi4 #hb ,mark4 ii4 #ai4 #hc ,matt4 xxii4 #a-ad4 #hd ,eph4 v4 #bb-cc4 #he ,rev4 xxi4 #i4 ,further1 it may be maintained that the experience of ,christians has demonstrated the aptness of the expression of the deepest spiritual truths in the imagery of the ,song of ,solomon4 ,sad hearts disappointed in their earthly hopes have found in the religious reading of this poem as a picture of their relation to their ,saviour the satisfaction for which they have hungered1 and which the world could never give them4 ,devout ,christians have read in it the very echo of their own emotions4 ,samuel ,rutherford's ,letters1 for example1 are in perfect harmony with the religious interpretation of the ,song of ,solomon2 and these letters stand in the first rank of devotional works4 ,there is certainly some force in the argument that a key which seems to fit the lock so well must have been designed to do so4 ,on the other hand1 the objections to a mystical1 religious interpretation are very strong4 ,in the first place1 we can quite account for its appearance apart from any justification of it in the original intention of the author4 ,allegory was in the air at the time when1 as far as we know1 secondary meanings were first attached to the ideas of the ,song of ,solomon4 ,they sprang from ,alexandria1 the home of allegory4 ,origen1 who was the first ,christian writer to work out a mystical explanation of this book1 treated other books of the ,old ,testament in exactly the same way2 but we never dream of following him in his fantastical interpretations of those works4 ,there is no indication that the poem was understood allegorically or mystically as early as the first century of the ,christian era4 ,philo is the prince of allegorists2 but while he explains the narratives of the ,pentateuch according to his favourite method1 he never applies that method to this very tempting book1 and never even mentions the work or makes any reference to its contents4 ,the ,song of ,solomon is not once mentioned or even alluded to in the slightest way by any writer of the ,new ,testament4 ,since it is never noticed by ,christ or the ,apostles1 of course we cannot appeal to their authority for reading it mystically2 and yet it was undoubtedly known to them as one of the books in the canon of the sacred ,scriptures to which they were in the habit of appealing repeatedly4 ,consider the grave significance of this fact4 ,all secondary interpretations of which we know anything1 and1 as far as we can tell1 all that ever existed1 had their origin in post-apostolic times4 ,if we would justify this method by authority it is to the ,fathers that we must go1 not to ,christ and or his apostles1 not to the sacred ,scriptures4 ,it is a noteworthy fact1 too1 that the word ,eros1 the ,greek name for the love of man and woman1 as distinguished from ,agape1 which stands for love in the widest sense of the word1 is first applied to our ,lord by ,ignatius4 ,here we have the faint beginning of the stream of erotic religious fancies which sometimes manifests itself most objectionably in subsequent ,church history4 ,there is not a trace of it in the ,new ,testament4 ,if the choice spiritual ideas which some people think they see in the ,song of ,solomon are not imported by the reader1 but form part of the genuine contents of the book1 how comes it that this fact was not recognised by one of the inspired writers of the ,new ,testament8 or1 if privately recognised1 that it was never utilised8 ,in the hands of the mystical interpreter this work is about the most valuable part of the ,old ,testament4 ,he finds it to be an inexhaustible mine of the most precious treasures4 ,why1 then1 was such a remunerative lode never worked by the first authorities in ,christian teaching8 ,it may be replied that we cannon prove much from a bare negative4 ,the apostles may have had their own perfectly sufficient reasons for leaving to the ,church of later ages the discovery of this valuable spiritual store4 ,possibly the converts of their day were not ripe for the comprehension of the mysteries here expounded4 ,be that as it may1 clearly the onus probandi rests with those people of a later age who introduce a method of interpretation for which no sanction can be found in ,scripture4 ,now the analogies that have been referred to are not sufficient to establish any proof4 ,in the case of the other poems mentioned above there are distinct indications of symbolical intentions4 ,thus in the ,gitagovinda the hero is a divinity whose incarnations are acknowledged in ,hindoo mythology2 and the concluding verse of that poem points the moral by a direct assertion of the religious meaning of the whole composition4 ,this is not the case with the ,song of ,solomon4 ,we must not be misled by the chapter-headings in our ,english ,bibles1 which of course are not to be found in the original ,hebrew text4 ,from the first line to the last there is not the slightest hint in the poem itself that it was intended to be read in any mystical sense4 ,this is contrary to the analogy of all allegories4 ,the parable may be difficult to interpret1 but at all events it must suggest that it is a parable2 otherwise it defeats its own object4 ,if the writer never drops any hint that he has wrapped up spiritual ideas in the sensuous imagery of his poetry1 what right has he to expect that anybody will find them there1 so long as his poem admits of a perfectly adequate explanation in a literal sense8 ,we need not be so dense as to require the allegorist to say to us in so many words3 ,this is a parable4 ,but we may justly expect him to furnish us with some hint that his utterance is of such a character4 sop's fables carry their lessons on the surface of them1 so that we can often anticipate the concluding morals that are attached to them4 ,when ,tennyson announced that the ,idyls of the ,king constituted an allegory most people were taken by surprise2 and yet the analogy of ,the ,faerie ,queen1 and the lofty ethical ideas with which the poems are inspired1 might have prepared us for the revelation4 ,but we have no similar indications in the case of the ,song of ,solomon4 ,if somebody were to propound a new theory of ,the ,vicar of ,wakefield1 which should turn that exquisite tale into a parable of the ,fall1 it would not be enough for him to exercise his ingenuity in pointing out resemblances between the eighteenth-century romance and the ancient narrative of the serpent's doings in the ,garden of ,eden4 ,since he could not shew that ,goldsmith had the slightest intention of teaching anything of the kind1 his exploit could be regarded as nothing but a piece of literary trifling4 ,the ,biblical analogies already cited1 in which the marriage relation between ,god or ,christ and the ,church or the soul are referred to1 will not bear the strain that is put upon them when they are brought forward in order to justify a mystical interpretation of the ,song of ,solomon4 ,at best they simply account for the emergence of this view of the book at a later time1 or indicate that such a notion might be maintained if there were good reasons for adopting it4 ,they cannot prove that in the present case it should be adopted4 ,moreover1 they differ from it on two important points4 ,first1 in harmony with all genuine allegories and metaphors1 they carry their own evidence of a symbolical meaning1 which as we have seen the ,song of ,solomon fails to do4 ,second1 they are not elaborate compositions of a dramatic or idyllic character in which the passion of love is vividly illustrated4 ,regarded in its entirety1 the ,song of ,solomon is quite without parallel in ,scripture4 ,it may be replied that we cannot disprove the allegorical intention of the book4 ,but this is not the question4 ,that intention requires to be proved2 and until it is proved1 or at least until some very good reasons are urged for adopting it1 no statement of bare possibilities counts for anything4 ,but we may push the case further4 ,there is a positive improbability of the highest order that the spiritual ideas read into the ,song of ,solomon by some of its ,christian admirers should have been originally there4 ,this would involve the most tremendous anachronism in all literature4 ,the ,song of ,solomon is dated among the earlier works of the ,old ,testament4 ,but the religious ideas now associated with it represent what is regarded as the fruit of the most advanced saintliness ever attained in the ,christian ,church4 ,here we have a flat contradiction to the growth of revelation manifested throughout the whole course of ,scripture history4 ,we might as well ascribe the ,sistine ,madonna to the fresco-painters of the catacombs2 or1 what is more to the point1 our ,lord's discourse with his disciples at the paschal meal to ,solomon or some other ,jew of his age4 ,no doubt the devoted follower of the mystical method will not be troubled by considerations such as these4 ,to him the supposed fitness of the poem to convey his religious ideas is the one sufficient proof of an original design that it should serve that end4 ,so long as the question is approached in this way1 the absence of clear evidence only delights the prejudiced commentator with the opportunity it affords for the exercise of his ingenuity4 ,to a certain school of readers the very obscurity of a book is its fascination4 ,the less obvious a meaning is1 the more eagerly do they set themselves to expound and defend it4 ,we could leave them to what might be considered a very harmless diversion if it were not for other considerations4 ,but we cannot forget that it is just this ingenious way of interpreting the ,bible in accordance with preconceived opinions that has encouraged the quotation of the ,sacred ,volume in favour of absolutely contradictory propositions1 an abuse which in its turn has provoked an inevitable reaction leading to contempt for the ,bible as an obscure book which speaks with no certain voice4 ,still1 it may be contended1 the analogy between the words of this poem and the spiritual experience of ,christians is in itself an indication of intentional connection4 ,swedenborg has shewn that there are correspondences between the natural and the spiritual1 and this truth is illustrated by the metaphorical references to marriage in the ,bible which have been adduced for comparison with the ,song of ,solomon4 ,but their very existence shows that analogies between religious experience and the love story of the ,shulammite may be traced out by the reader without any design on the part of the author to present them4 ,if they are natural they are universal1 and any love song will serve our purpose4 ,on this principle1 if the ,song of ,solomon admits of mystical adaptation1 so do ,mrs4 ,browning's ,sonnets from the ,portuguese4 ,we have no alternative1 then1 but to conclude that the mystical interpretation of this work is based on a delusion4 ,moreover1 it must be added that the delusion is a mischievous one4 ,no doubt to many it has been as meat and drink4 ,they have found in their reading of the ,song of ,solomon real spiritual refreshment1 or they believe they have found it4 ,but there is another side4 ,the poem has been used to minister to a morbid1 sentimental type of religion4 ,more than any other influence1 the mystical interpretation of this book has imported an effeminate element into the notion of the love of ,christ1 not one trace of which can be detected in the ,new ,testament4 ,the ,catholic legend of the marriage of ,st4 ,catherine is somewhat redeemed by the high ascetic tone that pervades it2 and yet it indicates a decline from the standpoint of the apostles4 ,not a few unquestionable revelations of immorality in convents have shed a ghastly light on the abuse of erotic religious fervour4 ,among ,protestants it cannot be said that the most wholesome hymns are those which are composed on the model of the ,song of ,solomon4 ,in some cases the religious use of this book is perfectly nauseous1 indicating nothing less than a disease of religion4 ,when--as sometimes happens--frightful excesses of sensuality follow close on seasons of what has been regarded as the revival of religion1 the common explanation of these horrors is that in some mysterious way spiritual emotion lies very near to sensual appetite1 so that an excitement of the one tends to rouse the other4 ,a more revolting hypothesis1 or one more insulting to religion1 cannot be imagined4 ,the truth is1 the two regions are separate as the poles4 ,the explanation of the phenomena of their apparent conjunction is to be found in quite another direction4 ,it is that their victims have substituted for religion a sensuous excitement which is as little religious as the elation that follows indulgence in alcoholism4 ,there is no more deadly temptation of the devil than that which hoodwinks deluded fanatics into making this terrible mistake4 ,but it can scarcely be denied that the mystical reading of the ,song of ,solomon by unspiritual persons1 or even by any persons who are not completely fortified against the danger1 may tend in this fatal direction4 ,,chapter ,v ,,canonicity ,it is scarcely to be expected that the view of the ,song of ,solomon expounded in the foregoing pages will meet with acceptance from every reader4 ,a person who has been accustomed to resort to this book in search of the deepest spiritual ideas cannot but regard the denial of their presence with aversion4 ,while1 however1 it is distressing to be compelled to give pain to a devout soul1 it may be necessary4 ,if there is weight in the considerations that have been engaging our attention1 we cannot shut our eyes to them simply because they may be disappointing4 ,the mystical interpreter will be shocked at what he takes for irreverence4 ,but1 on the other hand1 he should be on his guard against falling into this very fault from the opposite side4 ,reverence for truth is a primary ,christian duty4 ,the iconoclast is certain to be charged with irreverence by the devotee of the popular idol which he feels it his duty to destroy2 and yet1 if his action is inspired by loyalty to truth1 reverence for what he deems highest and best may be its mainspring4 ,if the ,song of ,solomon were not one of the books of the ,bible1 questions such as these would never arise4 ,it is its place in the sacred canon that induces people to resent the consequences of the application of criticism to it4 ,it is simply owing to its being a part of the ,bible that it has come to be treated mystically at all4 ,undoubtedly this is why it was allegorised by the ,jews4 ,but1 then1 the secondary signification thus acquired reacted upon it1 and served as a sort of buoy to float it over the rocks of awkward questions4 ,the result was that in the end the book attained to an exceptionally high position in the estimation of the rabbis4 ,thus the great ,rabbi ,akiba says3 ,the course of the ages cannot vie with the day on which the ,song of ,songs was given to ,israel4 ,all the ,kethubim 7i4e41 the ,hagiographa7 are holy1 but the ,song of ,songs is a holy of holies4 ,such being the case1 it is manifest that the rejection of the mystical signification of its contents must revive the question of the canonicity of the book4 ,we have not1 however1 to deal with the problem of its original insertion in the canon4 ,we find it there4 ,some doubts as to its right to the place it holds seem to have been raised among the ,jews during the first century of the ,christian era2 but these doubts were effectually borne down4 ,as far as we know1 the ,song of ,solomon has always been a portion of the ,hebrew ,scriptures from the obscure time when the collection of those ,scriptures was completed4 ,it stands as the first of the five ,megilloth1 or sacred rolls--the others being ,ruth1 ,lamentations1 ,esther1 and ,ecclesiastes4 ,we are not now engaged in the difficult task of constructing a new canon4 ,the only possibility is that of the expulsion of a book already in the old canon4 ,but the attempt to disturb in any way such a volume as the ,old ,testament1 with all its incomparable associations1 is not one to be undertaken lightly or without adequate reason4 ,in order to justify this radical measure it would not be enough to shew that the specific religious meanings that some have attached to the ,song of ,solomon do not really belong to it4 ,if it is said that the secular tone it acquires under the hands of criticism shews it to be unworthy of a place in the sacred ,scriptures1 this assertion goes upon an unwarrantable assumption4 ,we have no reason to maintain that all the books of the ,old ,testament must be of equal value4 ,the ,book of ,esther does not reach a very high level of moral or religious worth2 the pessimism of ,ecclesiastes is not inspiring2 even the ,book of ,proverbs contains maxims that cannot be elevated to a first place in ethics4 ,if we could discover no distinctively enlightening or uplifting influence in the ,song of ,solomon1 this would not be a sufficient reason for raising a cry against it2 because if it were simply neutral in character1 like nitrogen in the atmosphere1 it would do no harm1 and we could safely let it be4 ,the one justification for a radical treatment of the question would be the discovery that the book was false in doctrine or deleterious in character4 ,as to doctrine1 it does not trench on that region at all4 ,it would be as incongruous to associate it with the grave charge of heresy as to bring a similar accusation against the ,essays of ,elia or ,keats's poetry4 ,and if the view expressed in these pages is at all correct1 it certainly cannot be said that the moral tendency of the book is injurious2 the very reverse must be affirmed4 ,since there is no reason to believe that the ,song of ,solomon had received any allegorical interpretation before the commencement of the ,christian era1 we must conclude that it was not on the ground of some such interpretation that it was originally admitted into the ,hebrew collection of ,scripture4 ,it was placed in the canon before it was allegorised4 ,it was only allegorised because it had been placed in the canon4 ,then why was it set there8 ,the natural conclusion to arrive at under these circumstances is that the scribes who ventured to put it first among the sacred ,megilloth saw that there was a distinctive value in it4 ,perhaps2 however1 it is too much to say this of them4 ,the word ,solomon being attached to the book would seem to justify its inclusion with other literature which had received the hall-mark of that great name4 ,still we can learn to appreciate it on its own merits1 and in so doing perceive that there is something in it to justify its right to a niche in the glorious temple of scripture4 ,assuredly it was much to make clear in the days of royal polygamy among the ,jews that this gross imitation of the court life of heathen monarchies was a despicable and degrading thing1 and to set over against it an attractive picture of true love and simple manners4 ,the prophets of ,israel were continually protesting against a growing dissoluteness of morals3 the ,song of ,solomon is a vivid illustration of the spirit of their protest4 ,if the two nations had been content with the rustic delight so beautifully portrayed in this book1 they might not have fallen into ruin as they did under the influence of the corruptions of an effete civilisation4 ,if their people had cherished the graces of purity and constancy that shine so conspicuously in the character of the ,shulammite they might not have needed to pass through the purging fires of the captivity4 ,but while this can be said of the book as it first appeared among the ,jews1 a similar estimate of its function in later ages may also be made4 ,an ideal representation of fidelity in love under the greatest provocation to surrender at discretion has a message for every age4 ,we need not shrink from reading it in the pages of the ,bible4 ,our ,lord teaches us that next to the duty of love to ,god comes that of love to one's neighbour4 ,but a man's nearest neighbour is his wife4 ,therefore after his ,god his wife has the first claim upon him4 ,but the whole conception of matrimonial duty rests on the idea of constancy in the love of man and woman4 ,if this book had been read in its literal signification and its wholesome lesson absorbed by ,christendom in the ,middle ,ages1 the gloomy cloud of asceticism that then hung over the ,church would have been somewhat lightened1 not to give place to the outburst of licentiousness that accompanied the ,renaissance1 but rather to allow of the better establishment of the ,christian home4 ,the absurd legends that follow the names of ,st4 ,anthony and ,st4 ,dunstan would have lost their motive4 ,hildebrand would have had no occasion to hurl his thunderbolt4 ,the ,church was making the huge mistake of teaching that the remedy for dissoluteness was unnatural celibacy4 ,this book taught the lesson--truer to nature1 truer to experience1 truer to the ,god who made us--that it was to be found in the redemption of love4 ,can it be denied that the same lesson is needed in our own day8 ,the realism that has made itself a master of a large part of popular literature reveals a state of society that perpetuates the manners of the court of ,solomon1 though under a thin veil of decorum4 ,the remedy for the awful dissoluteness of large portions of society can only be found in the cultivation of such lofty ideas on the relation of the sexes that this abomination shall be scouted with horror4 ,it is neither necessary1 nor right1 nor possible to contradict nature4 ,what has to be shewn is that man's true nature is not bestial1 that satyrs and fauns are not men1 but degraded caricatures of men4 ,we cannot crush the strongest passion of human nature4 ,the moral of the ,song of ,solomon is that there is no occasion to attempt to crush it1 because the right thing is to elevate it by lofty ideals of love and constancy4 ,this subject also deserves attention on its positive side4 ,the literature of all ages is a testimony to the fact that nothing in the world is so interesting as love4 ,what is so old as love-making8 and what so fresh8 ,at least ninety-nine novels out of a hundred have a love-story for plot2 and the hundredth is always regarded as an eccentric experiment4 ,the pedant may plant his heel on the perennial flower2 but it will spring up again as vigorous as ever4 ,this is the poetry of the most commonplace existence4 ,when it visits a dingy soul the desert blossoms as the rose4 ,life may be hard1 and its drudgery a grinding yoke2 but with love all tasks are sweet4 ,and ,jacob served seven years for ,rachel2 and they seemed unto him but a few days1 for the love he had to her4#hf ,that experience of the patriarch is typical of the magic power of true love in every age1 in every clime4 ,to the lover it is always the time of the singing of birds4 ,who shall tell the value of the boon that ,god has given so freely to mankind1 to sweeten the lot of the toiler and shed music into his heart8 ,but this boon requires to be jealously guarded and sheltered from abuse1 or its honey will be turned into gall4 ,it is for the toiler--the shepherd whose locks are wet with the dew that has fallen upon him while guarding his flock by night1 the maiden who has been working in the vineyard2 it is beyond the reach of the pleasure-seeking monarch and the indolent ladies of his court4 ,this boon is for the pure in heart2 it is utterly denied to the sensual and dissolute4 ,finally1 it is reserved for the loyal and true as the peculiar reward of constancy4 #hf ,gen4 xxix4 #bj4 ,but while a poem that contains these principles must be allowed to have an important mission in the world1 it does not follow that it is suitable for public or indiscriminate reading4 ,the fact that the key to it is not easily discovered is a warning that it is liable to be misunderstood4 ,when it is read superficially1 without any comprehension of its drift and motive1 it may be perverted to mischievous ends4 ,the antique ,oriental pictures with which it abounds1 though natural to the circumstances of its origin1 are not in harmony with the more reserved manners of our own conditions of society4 ,as all the books of the ,bible are not of the same character1 so also they are not all to be used in the same way4 ,,the ,,lamentations ,,of ,,jeremiah ,,chapter ,i ,,hebrew ,,elegies ,the book which is known by the title ,the ,lamentations of ,jeremiah is a collection of five separate poems1 very similar in style1 and all treating of the same subject--the desolation of ,jerusalem and the sufferings of the ,jews after the overthrow of their city by ,nebuchadnezzar4 ,in our ,english ,bible it is placed among the prophetical works of the ,old ,testament1 standing next to the acknowledged writings of the man whose name it bears4 ,this arrangement follows the order in the ,septuagint1 from which it was accepted by ,josephus and the ,christian ,fathers4 ,and yet the natural place for such a book would seem to be in association with the ,psalms and other poetical compositions of a kindred character4 ,so thought the ,rabbis who compiled the ,jewish canon4 ,in the ,hebrew ,bible the ,book of ,lamentations is assigned to the third collection1 that designated ,hagiographa1 not to the part known as the ,prophets4 ,in form as well as in substance this book is a remarkable specimen of a specific order of poetry4 ,the difficulty of recovering the original pronunciation of the language has left our conception of ,hebrew metres in a state of obscurity4 ,it has been generally supposed that the rhythm was more of sight than of sound1 but that it consisted essentially in neither1 depending mainly on the balance of ideas4 ,the metre1 it has been stated1 might strike the eye in the external aspect of the sentences2 it was designed much more to charm the mind by the harmony and music of the thoughts4 ,but while these general principles are still acknowledged1 some further progress has been made in the examination of the structure of the verses1 with the result that both more regularity of law and more variety of metre have been discovered4 ,the elegy in particular is found to be shaped on special lines of its own4 ,it has been pointed out that a peculiar metre is reserved for poems of mournful reflection4 ,the first feature of this metre to be noted is the unusual length of the line4 ,in ,hebrew poetry1 according to the generally accepted pronunciation1 the lines vary from about six syllables to about twelve4 ,in the elegy the line most frequently runs to the extreme limit1 and so acquires a slow1 solemn movement4 ,a second feature of elegiac poetry is the breaking of the lengthy line into two unequal parts--the first part being about as long as a whole line in an average ,hebrew lyric1 and the second much shorter1 reading like another line abbreviated1 and seeming to suggest that the weary thought is waking up and hurrying to its conclusion4 ,sometimes this short section is a thin echo of the fuller conception that precedes1 sometimes the completion of that conception4 ,in the ,english version1 of course1 the effect is frequently lost2 still occasionally it is very marked1 even after passing through this foreign medium4 ,take1 for example1 the lines1 ,her princes are become like harts--that find no pasture1 ,and they are gone without strength--before the pursuer2#hg or again the very long line1 ,it is of the ,lord's mercies that we are not consumed--because ,his compassions fail not4#hh #hg i4 #f4 #hh iii4 #bb4 ,now although this is only a structural feature it points to inferences of deeper significance4 ,it shews that the ,hebrew poets paid special attention to the elegy as a species of verse to be treated apart1 and therefore that they attached a peculiar significance to the ideas and feelings it expresses4 ,the ease with which the transition to the elegiac form of verse is made whenever an occasion for using it occurs is a hint that this must have been familiar to the ,jews4 ,possibly it was in common use at funerals in the dirge4 ,we meet with an early specimen of this verse in ,amos1 when1 just after announcing that he is about to utter a lamentation over the house of ,israel1 the herdsman of ,tekoa breaks into elegiacs with the words1 ,the virgin daughter of ,israel is fallen--she shall no more rise3 ,she is cast down upon her land--there is none to raise her up4#hi #hi ,amos v4 #b4 ,similarly constructed elegiac pieces are scattered over the ,old ,testament scriptures from the eighth century ,b4,c4 onwards4 ,several illustrations of this peculiar kind of metre are to be found in the ,psalms4 ,it is employed ironically with terrible effect in the ,book of ,isaiah1 where the mock lament over the death of the king of ,babylon is constructed in the form of a true elegy4 ,when the prophet made a sudden transition from his normal style to sombre funereal measures his purpose would be at once recognised1 for his words would sound like the tolling bell and the muffled drums that announce the march of death2 and yet it would be known that this solemn pomp was not really a demonstration of mourning or a symbol of respect1 but only the pageantry of scorn and hatred and vengeance4 ,the sarcasm would strike home with the more force since it fell on men's ears in the heavy1 lingering lines of the elegy1 as the exultant patriot exclaimed1 ,how hath the oppressor ceased--the golden city ceased6 ,the ,lord hath broken the staff of the wicked--the sceptre of the rulers1 etc4#ij #ij ,isa4 xiv4 #d ff4 ,a special characteristic of the five elegies that make up the ,book of ,lamentations is their alphabetical arrangement4 ,each elegy consists of twenty-two verses1 the same number as that of the letters in the ,hebrew alphabet4 ,all but the last are acrostics1 the initial letter of each verse following the order of the alphabet4 ,in the third elegy every line in the verse begins with the same letter4 ,according to another way of reckoning1 this poem consists of sixty-six verses arranged in triplets1 each of which not only follows the order of the alphabet with its first letter1 but also has this initial letter repeated at the beginning of each of its three verses4 ,alphabetical acrostics are not unknown elsewhere in the ,old ,testament2 there are several instances of them in the ,psalms4#ia ,the method is generally thought to have been adopted as an expedient to assist the memory4 ,clearly it is a somewhat artificial arrangement1 cramping the imagination of the poet2 and it is regarded by some as a sign of literary decadence4 ,whatever view we may take of it from the standpoint of purely artistic criticism1 we can derive one important conclusion concerning the mental attitude of the writer from a consideration of the elaborate structure of the verse4 ,although this poetry is evidently inspired by deep emotion--emotion so profound that it cannot even be restrained by the stiffest vesture--still the author is quite self-possessed3 he is not at all over-mastered by his feelings2 what he says is the outcome of deliberation and reflection4 #ia ,e4g41 ,psalms ix41 x41 xxv41 xxxiv41 xxxvii41 cxix41 cxlv4 ,passing from the form to the substance of the elegy1 our attention is arrested on the threshold of the more serious enquiry by another link of connection between the two4 ,in accordance with a custom of which we have other instances in the ,hebrew ,bible1 the first word in the text is taken as the title of the book4 ,the haphazard name is more appropriate in this case than it sometimes proves to be1 for the first word of the first chapter--the original ,hebrew for which is the ,jewish title of the book--is ,how4 ,now this is a characteristic word for the commencement of an elegy4 ,three out of the five elegies in ,lamentations begin with it2 so does the mock elegy in ,isaiah4 ,moreover1 it is not only suggestive of the form of a certain kind of poetry2 it is a hint of the spirit in which that poetry is conceived2 it strikes the key-note for all that follows4 ,therefore it may not be superfluous for us to consider the significance of this little word in the present connection4 ,in the first place1 it is a sort of note of exclamation prefixed to the sentence it introduces4 ,thus it infuses an emotional element into the statements which follow it4 ,the word is a relic of the most primitive form of language4 ,judging from the sounds produced by animals and the cries of little children1 we should conclude that the first approach to speech would be a simple expression of excitement--a scream of pain1 a shout of delight1 a yell of rage1 a shriek of surprise4 ,next to the mere venting of feeling comes the utterance of desire--a request1 either for the possession of some coveted boon1 or for deliverance from something objectionable4 ,thus the dog barks for his bone1 or barks again to be freed from his chain2 and the child cries for a toy1 or for protection from a terror4 ,if this is correct it will be only at the third stage of speech that we shall reach statements of fact pure and simple4 ,conversely1 it may be argued that as the progress of cultivation develops the perceptive and reasoning faculties and corresponding forms of speech1 the primitive emotional and volitional types of language must recede4 ,our phlegmatic ,english temperament predisposes us to take this view4 ,it is not easy for us to sympathise with the expressiveness of an excitable ,oriental people4 ,what to them is perfectly natural and not at all inconsistent with true manliness strikes us as a childish weakness4 ,is not this a trifle insular8 ,the emotions constitute as essential a part of human nature as the observing and reasoning faculties1 and it cannot be proved that to stifle them beneath a calm exterior is more right and proper than to give them a certain adequate expression4 ,that this expression may be found even among ourselves is apparent from the singular fact that the ,english1 who are the most prosaic people in their conduct1 have given the world more good poetry than any other nation of modern times2 a fact which1 perhaps1 may be explained on the principle that the highest poetry is not the rank outgrowth of irregulated passions1 but the cultivated fruit of deep-rooted ideas4 ,still these ideas must be warmed with feeling before they will germinate4 ,much more1 when we are not merely interested in poetic literature1 when we are in earnest about practical actions1 an artificial restraint of the emotions must be mischievous4 ,no doubt the unimpassioned style has its mission--in allaying a panic1 for example4 ,but it will not inspire men to attempt a forlorn hope4 ,society will never be saved by hysterics2 but neither will it ever be saved by statistics4 ,it may be that the exclamation how is a feeble survival of the savage howl4 ,nevertheless the emotional expression1 when regulated as the taming of the sound suggests1 will always play a very real part in the life of mankind1 even at the most highly developed stage of civilisation4 ,in the second place1 it is to be observed that this word introduces a tone of vagueness into the sentences which it opens4 ,a description beginning as these elegies begin would not serve the purpose of an inventory of the ruins of ,jerusalem such as an insurance society would demand in the present day4 ,the facts are viewed through an atmosphere of feeling1 so that their chronological order is confused and their details melt one into another4 ,that is not to say that they are robbed of all value4 ,pure impressionism may reveal truths which no hard1 exact picture can render clear to us4 ,these elegies make us see the desolation of ,jerusalem more vividly than the most accurate photographs of the scenes referred to could have done1 because they help us to enter into the passion of the event4 ,with this idea of vagueness1 however1 there is joined a sense of vastness4 ,the note of exclamation is also a note of admiration4 ,the language is indefinite in part for the very reason that the scene beggars description4 ,the cynical spirit which would reduce all life to the level of a ,dutch landscape is here excluded by the overwhelming mass of the troubles bewailed4 ,the cataract of sorrow awes us with the greatness of its volume and the thunder of its fall4 ,from suggestions thus rising out of a consideration of the opening word of the elegy we may be led on to a perception of similar traits in the body of this poetry4 ,it is emotional in character2 it is vague in description2 and it sets before us visions of vast woe4 ,but now it is quite clear that poetry such as this must be something else than the wild expression of grief4 ,it is a product of reflection4 ,the acute stage of suffering is over4 ,the writer is musing upon a sad past2 or if at times he is reflecting on a present state of distress1 still he is regarding this as the result of more violent scenes1 in the midst of which the last thing a man would think of doing would be to sit down and compose a poem4 ,this reflective poetry will give us emotion1 still warm1 but shot with thought4 ,the reflectiveness of the elegy does not take the direction of philosophy4 ,it does not speculate on the mystery of suffering4 ,it does not ask such obstinate questions1 or engage in such vexatious dialectics1 as circle about the problem of evil in the ,book of ,job4 ,leaving those difficult matters to the theologians who care to wrestle with them1 the elegist is satisfied to dwell on his theme in a quiet1 meditative mood1 and to permit his ideas to flow on spontaneously as in a reverie4 ,thus it happens that1 artificial as is the form of his verse1 the underlying thought seems to be natural and unforced4 ,in this way he represents to us the afterglow of sunset which follows the day of storm and terror4 ,the afterglow is beautiful--that is what the elegy makes evident4 ,it paints the beauty of sorrow4 ,it is able to do so only because it contemplates the scene indirectly1 as portrayed in the mirror of thought4 ,an immediate vision of pain is itself wholly painful4 ,if the agony is intense1 and if no relief can be offered1 we instinctively turn aside from the sickening sight4 ,only a brutalised people could find amusement in the ghastly spectacle of the ,roman amphitheatre4 ,it is cited as a proof of ,domitian's diabolical cruelty that the emperor would have dying slaves brought before him in order that he might watch the facial expression of their last agonies4 ,such scenes are not fit subjects for art4 ,the famous group of the ,laocoon is considered by many to have passed the boundaries of legitimate representation in the terror and torment of its subject2 and ,ecce ,homos and pictures of the crucifixion can only be defended from a similar condemnation when the profound spiritual significance of the subjects is made to dominate the bare torture4 ,faced squarely1 in the glare of day1 pain and death are grim ogres1 the ugliness of which no amount of sentiment can disguise4 ,you can no more find poetry in a present ,inferno than flowers in the red vomit of a live volcano4 ,men who have seen war tell us they have discovered nothing attractive in its dreadful scenes of blood and anguish and fury4 ,what could be more revolting to contemplate than the sack of a city1--fire and sword in every street1 public buildings razed to the ground1 honoured monuments defaced1 homes ravaged1 children torn from the arms of their parents1 young girls dragged away to a horrible fate1 lust1 robbery1 slaughter rampant without shame or restraint1 the wild beast in the conquerors let loose1 and a whole army1 suddenly freed from all rules of discipline1 behaving like a swarm of demons just escaped from hell4 ,to think of cultivating art or poetry in the presence of such scenes would be as absurd as to attempt a musical entertainment among the shrieks of lost souls4 ,the case assumes another aspect when we pass from the region of personal observation to that of reflection4 ,there is no beauty in the sight of a captured castle immediately after the siege which ended in its fall1 its battlements shattered1 its walls seamed with cracks1 here and there a breach1 rough and ragged1 and strewn with stones and dust4 ,and yet1 by slow degrees and in imperceptible ways1 time and nature will transform the scene until moss-grown walls and ivy-covered towers acquire a new beauty only seen among ruins4 ,nature heals and time softens1 and between them they throw a mantle of grace over the scars of what were once ugly1 gaping wounds4 ,pain as it recedes into memory is transmuted into pathos2 and pathos always fascinates us with some approach to beauty4 ,if it is true that ,poets learn in sorrow what they teach in song1 must it not be also the fact that sorrow while inspiring song is itself glorified thereby8 ,to use suffering merely as the food of stheticism would be to degrade it immeasurably4 ,we should rather put the case the other way4 ,poetry saves sorrow from becoming sordid by revealing its beauty1 and in epic heroism even its sublimity4 ,it helps us to perceive how much more depth there is in life than was apparent under the glare and glamour of prosperity4 ,some of us may recollect how shallow and shadowy our own lives were felt to be in the simple days before we had tasted the bitter cup4 ,there was a hunger then for some deeper experience which seemed to lie beyond our reach4 ,while we naturally shrank from entering the via dolorosa1 we were dimly conscious that the pilgrims who trod its rough stones had discovered a secret that remained hidden from us1 and we coveted their attainment1 although we did not envy the bitter experience by which it had been acquired4 ,this feeling may have been due in part to the foolish sentimentality that is sometimes indulged in by extreme youth2 but that is not the whole explanation of it1 for when our path conducts us from the flat1 monotonous plain of ease and comfort into a region of chasms and torrents1 we do indeed discover an unsuspected depth in life4 ,now it is the mission of the poetry of sorrow to interpret this discovery to us4 ,at least it should enable us to read the lessons of experience in the purest light4 ,it is not the task of the poet to supply a categorical answer to the riddle of the universe2 stupendous as that task would be1 it must be regarded as quite a prosaic one4 ,poetry will not fit exact answers to set questions1 for poetry is not science2 but poetry will open deaf ears and anoint blind eyes to receive the voices and visions that haunt the depths of experience4 ,thus it leads on to-- that blessed mood1 ,in which the burden of the mystery1 ,in which the heavy and the weary weight ,of all this unintelligible world ,is lightened4 ,it may not be obvious to the reader of an elegy that this function is discharged by such a poem1 for elegiac poetry seems to aim at nothing more than the thoughtful expression of grief4 ,certainly it is neither didactic nor metaphysical4 ,nevertheless in weaving a wreath of imagination round the sufferings it bewails it cannot but clothe them with a rich significance4 ,it would seem to be the mission of the five inspired elegies contained in the ,book of ,lamentations thus to interpret the sorrows of the ,jews1 and through them the sorrows of mankind4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,poems ,as we pass out of ,jerusalem by the ,damascus ,gate1 and follow the main north road1 our attention is immediately arrested by a low hill of grey rock sprinkled with wild flowers1 which is now attracting peculiar notice because it has been recently identified with the ,golgotha on which our ,lord was crucified4 ,in the face of this hill a dark recess--faintly suggestive of the eye-socket1 if we may suppose the title ,place of a skull to have arisen from a fancied resemblance to a goat's skull--is popularly known as ,jeremiah's grotto1 and held by current tradition to be the retreat where the prophet composed the five elegies that constitute our ,book of ,lamentations4 ,clambering with difficulty over the loose stones that mark the passage of winter torrents1 and reaching the floor of the cave1 we are at once struck by the suspicious aptness of the sacred site4 ,in a solitude singularly retired1 considering the proximity of a great centre of population1 the spectator commands a full view of the whole city1 its embattled walls immediately confronting him1 with clustered roofs and domes in the rear4 ,what place could have been more suitable for a poetic lament over the ruins of fallen ,jerusalem8 ,moreover1 when we take into account the dread associations derived from the later history of the ,crucifixion1 what could be more fitting than that the mourning patriot's tears for the woes of his city should have been shed so near to the very spot where her rejected ,saviour was to suffer8 ,but unfortunately history cannot be constructed on the lines of harmonious sentiments4 ,when we endeavour to trace the legend that attributes the ,lamentations to ,jeremiah back to its source we lose the stream some centuries before we arrive at the time of the great prophet4 ,no doubt for ages the tradition was undisputed2 it is found both in ,jewish and in ,christian literature--in the ,talmud and in the ,fathers4 ,jerome popularised it in the ,church by transferring it to the ,vulgate1 and before this ,josephus set it down as an accepted fact4 ,it is pretty evident that each of these parallel currents of opinion may have been derived from the ,septuagint1 which introduces the book with the sentence1 ,and it came to pass1 after ,israel had been carried away captive1 and ,jerusalem had become desolate1 that ,jeremiah sat weeping1 and lamented with this lamentation over ,jerusalem1 and said1 etc4 ,here our upward progress in tracking the tradition is stayed2 no more ancient authority is to be found4 ,yet we are still three hundred years from the time of ,jeremiah6 ,of course it is only reasonable to suppose that the translators of the ,greek version did not make their addition to the ,hebrew text at random1 or without what they deemed sufficient grounds4 ,possibly they were following some documentary authority1 or1 at least1 some venerable tradition4 ,of this we know nothing4 ,meanwhile1 it must be observed that no such statement exists in the ,hebrew ,bible2 and it would never have been omitted if it had been there originally4 ,one other witness has been adduced1 but only to furnish testimony of an obscure and ambiguous character4 ,in #b ,chron4 xxxv4 #be we read1 ,and ,jeremiah lamented for ,josiah2 and all the singing men and singing women spake of ,josiah in their lamentations1 unto this day2 and they made them an ordinance in ,israel2 and1 behold1 they are written in the lamentations4 ,josephus1 and ,jerome after him1 appear to assume that the chronicler is here referring to our ,book of ,lamentations4 ,that is very questionable2 for the words describe an elegy on ,josiah1 and our book contains no such elegy4 ,can we suppose that the chronicler assumed that inasmuch as ,jeremiah was believed to have written a lament for the mourners to chant in commemoration of ,josiah1 this would be one of the poems preserved in the collection of ,jerusalem elegies familiar to readers of his day8 ,be that as it may1 the chronicler wrote in the ,grecian period1 and therefore his statements come some long time after the date of the prophet4 ,in this dearth of external testimony we turn to the book itself for indications of origin and authorship4 ,the poems make no claim to have been the utterances of ,jeremiah2 they do not supply us with their author's name4 ,therefore there can be no question of genuineness1 no room for an ugly charge of forgery1 or a delicate ascription of pseudonymity1 ,the case is not comparable to that of #b ,peter1 or even to that of ,ecclesiastes--the one of which directly claims apostolic authority1 and the other a literary association with the name of ,solomon4 ,it is rather to be paralleled with the case of the ,epistle to the ,hebrews1 a purely anonymous work4 ,still there is much which seems to point to ,jeremiah as the author of these intensely pathetic elegies4 ,they are not like ,mac,pherson's ,ossian2 nobody can question their antiquity4 ,if they were not quite contemporaneous with the scenes they describe so graphically they cannot have originated much later2 for they are like the low wailings with which the storm sinks to rest1 reminding us how recently the thunder was rolling and the besom of destruction sweeping over the land4 ,among the prophets of ,israel ,jeremiah was the voice crying in the wilderness of national ruin2 it is natural to suppose that he too was the poet who poured out sad thoughts of memory in song at a later time when sorrow had leisure for reflection4 ,his prophecies would lead us to conclude that no ,jew of those dark days could have experienced keener pangs of grief at the incomparable woes of his nation4 ,he was the very incarnation of patriotic mourning4 ,who then would be more likely to have produced the national lament8 ,here we seem to meet again none other than the man who exclaimed1 ,oh that ,i could comfort myself against sorrow6 my heart is faint within me#ib and again1 ,oh that my head were waters1 and mine eyes a fountain of tears1 that ,i might weep day and night for the slain of the daughter of my people4#ic ,many points of resemblance between the known writings of ,jeremiah and these poems may be detected4 ,thus ,jeremiah's ,virgin daughter of ,god's people reappears as the ,virgin daughter of ,judah4 ,in both the writer is oppressed with fear as well as grief2 in both he especially denounces clerical vices1 the sins of the two rival lines of religious leaders1 the priests and the prophets2 in both he appeals to ,god for retribution4 ,there is a remarkable likeness in tone and temper throughout between the two series of writings4 ,it would be possible to adduce many purely verbal marks of similarity2 the commentator on ,lamentations most frequently illustrates the meaning of a word by referring to a parallel usage in ,jeremiah4 #ib ,jer4 viii4 #ah4 #ic ,jer4 ix4 #a4 ,on the other hand1 several facts raise difficulties in the way of our accepting of the hypothesis of a common authorship4 ,the verbal argument is precarious at best2 it can only be fully appreciated by the specialist1 and if accepted by the general reader1 it must be taken on faith4 ,of course this last point is no valid objection to the real worth of the argument in itself2 it cannot be maintained that nothing is true which may not be reduced to the level of the meanest intelligence1 or the differential calculus would be a baseless fable4 ,but when the specialists disagree1 even the uninitiated have some excuse for holding the case to be not proved for either side2 and it is thus with the resemblances and the differences between ,jeremiah and ,lamentations1 long lists of phrases used in common being balanced with equally long lists of peculiarities found in one only of the two books in question4 ,the strongest objection to the theory that ,jeremiah was the author of the ,lamentations1 however1 is one that can be more readily grasped4 ,these poems are most elaborately artistic in form1 not to say artificial4 ,now the objection which is roused by that fact is not simply due to the loose and less shapely construction of the prophecies2 for it may justly be urged that the literary designs entertained by the prophet in the leisure of his later years may have led him to cultivate a style which would have been quite unsuitable for his practical preaching or for the political pamphlets he used to fling off in the heat of conflict4 ,it originates in deeper psychological contradictions4 ,is it possible that the man who had shed bitterest tears1 as from his very heart1 in the dismal reality of misery1 could play with his troubles in fanciful acrostics8 ,can we imagine a leading actor in the tragedy turning the events through which he had passed into materials for sthetic treatment8 ,can we credit this of so intense a soul as ,jeremiah8 ,the composition of ,in ,memoriam may be cited as an instance of the production of highly artistic poetry under the influence of keen personal sorrow4 ,but the case is not parallel2 for ,tennyson was a passive mourner over the loss of a friend under circumstances with which he had no connection1 while ,jeremiah had contended strenuously for years on the field of action4 ,could a man with such a history have set himself to work up its most doleful experiences into the embroidery of a peculiarly artificial form of versification8 ,that is the gravest difficulty4 ,other objections of minor weight follow4 ,in the third elegy ,jeremiah would seem to be giving more prominence to his own personality than we should have expected of the brave1 unselfish prophet4 ,in the fourth the writer appears to associate himself with those ,jews who were disappointed in expecting deliverance from an ,egyptian alliance1 when he complains-- ,our eyes do yet fail in looking for our vain help3 ,in watching we have watched for a nation that could not save4#id #id iv4 #ag4 ,would ,jeremiah1 who bade the ,jews bow to the scourge of ,jehovah's chastisement and look for no earthly deliverer1 thus confess participation in the worldly policy which he1 in common with all the true prophets1 had denounced as faithless and disobedient8 ,then1 while sharing ,jeremiah's condemnation of the priests and prophets1 the writer appears to have only commiseration for the fate of the poor weak king ,zedekiah4#ie ,this is very different from ,jeremiah's treatment of him4#if #ie iv4 #bj4 #if ,jer4 lii4 #b1 #c4 ,it is not a serious objection that our poet says of ,zion1 ,yea1 her prophets find no vision from the ,lord1#ig while we know that ,jeremiah had visions after the destruction of ,jerusalem1#ih because the general condition may still have been one characterised by the silencing of the many prophets with whose oracles the ,jews had been accustomed to solace themselves in view of threatened calamities2 nor that he exclaims1 ,shall the priest and the prophet be slain in the sanctuary of the ,lord8#ii although ,jeremiah makes no mention of this twofold assassination1 because we have no justification for the assumption that he recorded every horror of the great tragedy2 nor1 again1 that the author is evidently familiar with the ,book of ,deuteronomy1 and refers frequently to the ,song of ,moses in particular1 for this is just what we might have expected of ,jeremiah2 and yet these and other similar but even less conclusive points have been brought forward as difficulties4 ,perhaps it is a more perplexing in view of the traditional hypothesis1 that the poet appears to have made use of the writings of ,ezekiel4 ,thus the allusion to the prophets who have seen visions 444 of vanity and foolishness1#ajj points to the fuller description of these men in the writings of the prophet of the exile1 where the completeness of the picture shews that the priority is with ,ezekiel4#aja ,similarly the perfection of beauty ascribed to the daughter of ,jerusalem in the second elegy#ajb reminds us of the similar phrase that occurs more than once in ,ezekiel4#ajc ,still1 that prophet wrote before the time to which the ,lamentations introduce us1 and it cannot be affirmed that ,jeremiah could not have seen his writings1 or would not have condescended to echo a phrase from them4 ,a difficulty of a broader character must be felt in the fact that the poems themselves give us no hint of ,jeremiah4 ,the appearance of the five elegies in the ,hagiographa without any introductory notice is a grave objection to the theory of a ,jeremiah authorship4 ,if so famous a prophet had composed them1 would not this have been recorded8 ,even in the ,septuagint1 where they are associated with ,jeremiah1 they are not translated by the same hand as the version of the prophet's acknowledged works4 ,it may be that none of the objections which have been adduced against the later tradition can be called final2 nor when regarded in their total force do they absolutely forbid the possibility that ,jeremiah was the author of the ,lamentations4 ,but then the question is not so much one of possibility as one of probability4 ,we must remember that we are dealing with anonymous poems that make no claim upon any particular author1 and that we have no pleas whatever1 special or more general1 on which to defend the guesses of a much later and quite uncritical age1 when people cultivated a habit of attaching every shred of literature that had come down from their ancestors to some famous name4 #ig ii4 #i4 #ih ,e4g4 ,jer4 xlii4 #g4 #ii ii4 #bj4 #ajj ii4 #ad4 #aja ,e4g4 ,ezek4 xii4 #bd1 xiii4 #f1 #g1 xxii4 #bh4 #ajb ,lam4 ii4 #ae4 #ajc ,ezek4 xxvii4 #c1 xxviii4 #ab4 ,failing ,jeremiah1 it is not possible to hit upon any other known person with the least assurance4 ,some have followed ,bunsen in his conjecture that ,baruch the scribe may have been the author of the poems4 ,others have suggested a member of the family of ,shaphan1 in which ,jeremiah found his most loyal friends4#ajd #ajd ,see ,jer4 xxvi4 #bd1 xxix4 #c;ff1 xl4 #e4 ,it is much questioned whether the five elegies are the work of one man4 ,the second1 the third1 and the fourth follow a slightly different alphabetical arrangement from that which is employed in the first--in reversing the order of two letters1#aje while the internal structure of the verses in the third shews another variation--the threefold repetition of the acrostic4 ,then the personality of the poet emerges more distinctly in the third elegy as the centre of interest--a marked contrast to the method of the other poems4 ,lastly1 the fifth differs from its predecessors in several respects4 ,its lines are shorter2 it is not an acrostic2 it is chiefly devoted to the insults heaped upon the ,jews by their enemies2 and it seems to belong to a later time1 for while the four previous poems treat of the siege of ,jerusalem and its accompanying troubles1 this one is concerned with the subsequent state of servitude1 and reflects on the ruin of the nation across some interval of time4 ,thus the poet cries-- ,wherefore doest thou forget us for ever1 ,and forsake us so long time8#ajf #aje ,hebrew3 ayin and ,hebrew3 pe4 #ajf v4 #bj4 ,a recent attempt to assign the last two elegies to the age of the ,maccabees has entirely broken down4 ,the points of agreement with that age which have been adduced will fit the ,babylonian period equally well1 and the most significant marks of the later time are entirely absent4 ,is it conceivable that a description of the persecution by ,antiochus ,epiphanes would contain no hint of the martyr fidelity of the devout ,jews to their law which was so gloriously maintained under the ,maccabees8 ,the fourth and fifth elegies are as completely silent on this subject as the earlier elegies4 ,the evidence that points to any diversity of authorship is very feeble4 ,the fifth elegy may have been written years later than the rest of the book1 and yet it may have come from the same source1 for the example of ,tennyson shews that the gift of poetry is not always confined to but a brief interval in the poet life4 ,the other distinctions are not nearly so marked as some that may be observed in the recognised poems of a single author--for example1 the amazing differences between the smooth style of ,the ,idylls of the ,king and the quaint dialect of ,the ,northern ,farmer4 ,though some differences of vocabulary have been discovered1 the resemblances between all the five poems are much more striking4 ,in motive and spirit and feeling they are perfectly agreed4 ,while therefore in our ignorance of the origin of the ,lamentations1 and in recognition of the variations that have been indicated1 we cannot deny that they may have been collected from the utterances of two or even three inspired souls1 neither are we by any means forced to assent to this opinion2 and under these circumstances it will be justifiable as well as convenient to refer to the authorship of ,lamentations in terms expressive of a single individual4 ,one thing is fairly certain4 ,the author was a contemporary1 an eye-witness of the frightful calamities he bewailed4 ,with all their artificiality of structure these elegies are the outpourings of a heart moved by a near vision of the scenes of the ,babylonian invasion4 ,the swift1 vivid pictures of the siege and its accompanying miseries force upon our minds the conclusion that the poet must have moved in the thick of the events he narrates so graphically1 although1 unlike ,jeremiah1 he does not seem to have been a leading actor in them4 ,children cry to their mothers for bread1 and faint with hunger at every street corner2 the ghastly rumour goes forth that a mother has boiled her baby2 elders sit on the ground in silence2 young maidens hang their heads despairing2 princes tremble in their helplessness2 the enemy break through the walls1 carry havoc into the city1 insolently trample the sacred courts of the temple2 even the priest and the prophet do not escape in the indiscriminate carnage2 wounded people are seen1 with blood upon their garments1 wandering aimlessly like blind men2 the temple is destroyed1 its rich gold bedimmed with smoke1 and the city herself left waste and desolate1 while the exultant victors pour ridicule over the misery of their prey4 ,a later generation would have blurred the outline of these scenes1 regarding them through the shifting mists of rumour1 with more or less indistinctness4 ,besides1 the motive for the composition of such elegies would vanish with the lapse of time4 ,still some few years must be allowed for the patriot's brooding over the scenes he had witnessed1 until the memory of them had mellowed sufficiently for them to become the subjects of song4 ,the fifth elegy1 at all events1 implies a considerable interval4 ,jerusalem was destroyed in the year ,b4,c4 #ehg2 therefore we may safely date the poems from about ,b4,c4 #eej onwards--i4e41 at some time during the second half of the sixth century4 ,what is of more moment for us to know is that we have here no falsetto notes1 such as we may sometimes detect in ,virgil's exquisite descriptions of the siege of ,troy1 for the poet has witnessed the fiery ordeal the recollection of which now inspires his song4 ,thus out of the unequalled woes of ,jerusalem destroyed he has provided for all ages the typical1 divinely inspired expression of sorrow--primarily the expression of sorrow--and then associated with this some pregnant hints both of its dark relationship to sin and of its higher connection with the purposes of ,god4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,theme ,no more pathetic subject ever inspired a poet than that which became the theme of the ,lamentations4 ,wave after wave of invasion had swept over ,jerusalem1 until at length the miserable city had been reduced to a heap of ruins4 ,after the decisive defeat of the ,egyptians at the great battle of ,carchemish during the reign of ,jehoiakim1 ,nebuchadnezzar broke into ,jerusalem and carried off some of the sacred vessels from the temple1 leaving a disorganised country at the mercy of the wild tribes of ,bedouin from beyond the ,jordan4 ,three months after the accession of ,jehoiakin1 the son of ,jehoiakim1 the ,chaldans again visited the city1 pillaged the temple and the royal palace1 and sent the first band of captives1 consisting of the very lite of the citizens1 with ,ezekiel among them1 into captivity at ,babylon4 ,this was only the beginning of troubles4 ,zedekiah1 who was set up as a mere vassal king1 intrigued with ,pharaoh ,hophra1 a piece of folly which called down upon himself and his people the savage vengeance of ,nebuchadnezzar4 ,jerusalem now suffered all the horrors of a siege1 which lasted for a year and a half4 ,famine and pestilence preyed upon the inhabitants2 and yet the ,jews were holding out with a stubborn resistance1 when the invaders effected an entrance by night1 and were encamped in the temple court before the astonished king was aware of their presence4 ,zedekiah then imitated the secrecy of his enemies4 ,with a band of followers he crept out of one of the eastern gates1 and fled down the defile towards the ,jordan2 but he was overtaken near ,jericho1 and conveyed a prisoner to ,riblah2 his sons were killed in his very presence1 his eyes were burnt out1 and the wretched man sent in chains to ,babylon4 ,the outrages perpetrated against the citizens at ,jerusalem as well as the sufferings of the fugitives were such as are only possible in barbarous warfare4 ,finally the city was razed to the ground and her famous temple burnt4 ,the ,lamentations bewail the fall of a city4 ,in this respect they are unlike the normal type of elegiac poetry4 ,as a rule1 the elegy is personal in character and individualistic1 mourning the untimely death of some one beloved friend of the writer4 ,it is the revelation of a private grief1 although with a poet's privilege its author calls upon his readers to share his sorrow4 ,in the classic model of this order of verse ,milton justifies the intrusion of his distress upon the peace of nature by exclaiming-- ,for ,lycidas is dead1 dead ere his prime1 ,young ,lycidas1 and hath not left his peer4 ,who would not sing for ,lycidas8 ,and ,shelley1 while treating his theme in an ethereal1 fantastic way1 still represents ,alastor1 the ,spirit of ,solitude1 in the person of one who has just died1 when he cries-- ,but thou art fled1 ,like some frail exhalation which the dawn ,robes in its golden beams1--ah6 thou hast fled6 ,the brave1 the gentle1 and the beautiful1 ,the child of grace and genius4 ,gray's well-known elegy1 it is true1 is not confined to the fate of a single individual2 the churchyard suggests the pathetic reflections of the poet on the imaginary lives and characters of many past inhabitants of the village4 ,nevertheless these cross the stage one by one2 the village itself has not been destroyed1 like ,goldsmith's ,sweet ,auburn4 ,jeremiah's lamentation on the death of ,josiah must have been a personal elegy2 so was the scornful lament over the king of ,babylon in ,isaiah4 ,but now we have a different kind of subject in the ,book of ,lamentations4 ,here it is the fate of ,jerusalem1 the fate of the city itself as well as that of its citizens1 that is deplored4 ,to rouse the imagination and awaken the sympathy of the reader ,zion is personified1 and thus the poetry is assimilated in form to the normal elegy4 ,still it is important for us to take note of this distinguishing trait of the ,lamentations2 they bewail the ruin of a city4 ,poetry inspired with this intention must acquire a certain breadth not found in more personal effusions4 ,too much indulgence in private grief cannot but produce a narrowing effect upon the mind4 ,intense pain is as selfish as intense pleasure4 ,we may mourn our dead until we have no room left in our sympathies for the great ocean of troubles among the living that surges round the little island of our personal interests4 ,this misfortune is escaped in the ,lamentations4 ,close as is the poet's relations with the home of his childhood1 there is still some approach to altruism in his lament over the desolation of ,jerusalem viewed as a whole1 rather than over the death of his immediate friends alone4 ,there is a largeness1 too1 in it4 ,we find it difficult to recover the ancient feeling for the city4 ,our more important towns are so huge and shapeless that the inhabitants fail to grasp the unity1 the wholeness of the wilderness of streets and houses2 and yet they so effectually overshadow the smaller towns that these places do not venture to assume much civic pride4 ,besides1 one general tendency of modern life is individualistic4 ,even the more recent attempts to rouse interest in comprehensive social questions are conceived in a spirit of sympathy for the individual rights and needs of the people1 and do not spring from any great concern for the prosperity of the corporation as such4 ,no doubt this is an indication of a movement in a right direction4 ,the old civic idea was too abstract2 it sacrificed the citizens to the city1 beautifying the public buildings in the most costly manner1 while the people were crowded in miserable dens to rot and die unseen and unpitied4 ,we substitute sanitation for splendour4 ,this is more sensible1 more practical1 more humane1 if it is more prosaic2 for life is something else than poetry4 ,still it may be worth while asking whether in aiming at a useful1 homely object it is so essential to abandon the old ideal altogether1 because it cannot be denied that the price we pay is seen in a certain dinginess and commonness of living4 ,is it necessary that philanthropy should always remain ,philistine8 ,the largeness of view which breaks upon us when we begin to think of the city as a whole rather than only of a number of isolated individuals is more than a perception of mass and magnitude4 ,the city is an organism2 and not like an animal of the lower orders1 such as the anelids or centipedes1 in which every segment is simply a replica of its neighbour1 it is an organism maintained in efficiency by means of a great variety of mutual ministeries4 ,thus it is a unit in itself more elaborately differentiated1 and therefore in a sense higher in the scale of being than its constituent elements1 the individual inhabitants4 ,the destruction of a city constituted in this way is a serious loss to the world4 ,even if no one inhabitant is killed1 and quite apart from the waste of property and the ruin of commerce1 the dissolution of the organism leaves a tremendous gap4 ,the scattered people may acquire a new prosperity in the land of their exile1 but still the city will have vanished4 ,the ,jews survived the destruction of ,jerusalem2 yet who shall estimate the loss that this destruction of their national capital involved8 ,then the city being a definite organic unit has its own history1 a history which is immensely more than the sum of the biographies of its inhabitants--stretching down from remote ages1 and joining the distant past with present days4 ,here1 then1 time adds to the largeness of the city idea4 ,the brevity of life seems to assign a petty part to the individual4 ,but that brevity vanishes in the long1 continuous story of an ancient city4 ,a man may well be proud of his connection with such a record1 unless it be one of wickedness and shame2 and even in that case his relations to a great city deepen and widen his life1 though the result may be1 as it was with the devout ,jew1 to induce grief and humiliation4 ,but ,jerusalem had her records of glory as well as her tales of shame4 ,the city of ,david and ,solomon held garnered stores of legend and history1 in the rich memories of which each of her children had a heritage4 ,the overthrow of ,jerusalem was the dissipation of a great inheritance4 ,and this is not all4 ,the city has its own peculiar character--a character which is not only more than a summary of the morals and manners of the men and women who live in it1 but also unique when compared with other cities4 ,every city that can boast of real civic life has its distinctive individuality2 and often this is as striking as the individuality of any private person4 ,birmingham is very unlike ,manchester2 nobody could mistake ,glasgow for ,edinburgh4 ,london1 ,paris1 ,berlin1 ,rome1 ,melbourne1 ,new ,york--each of these cities is unique4 ,the particular city may be said to be the only specimen of its kind4 ,if one is blotted out the type is lost2 there is no duplicate4 ,athens and ,sparta1 ,rome and ,carthage1 ,florence and ,venice1 were rivals which could never take the place of one another4 ,most assuredly ,jerusalem stood alone1 stamped with a character which no other place in the world approached1 and charged with a perfectly unique mission4 ,for such a city to vanish off the face of the earth was the impoverishment of the world in the loss of what no nation in all the four continents could ever supply4 ,in saying this we must be careful to avoid the anachronism of reading into the present situation the after history of the sacred city and the character therein evolved4 ,in the days before the exile ,jerusalem was not the holy place that ,ezra and ,nehemiah subsequently laboured to make of it4 ,still looking back across the centuries we can see what perhaps the contemporaries could not discover1 that the peculiar destiny of ,jerusalem was already shaping itself in history4 ,at the time1 to the patriotic devotion of the mourning ,jews1 she was their old home1 the happy dwelling-place of their childhood1 the shrine of their fathers' sepulchres--,nehemiah's thought about the city even at a later date2#ajg in a word1 the ancient centre of national life and union1 strength and glory4 ,but another and a higher meaning was beginning to gather about the word ,jerusalem1 a meaning which has come in course of time to give this city a place quite solitary and unrivalled in all history4 ,jerusalem is now revered as the religious centre of the world's life4 ,even in this early age she was beginning to earn her lofty character4 ,josiah's reformation had so far succeeded that the temple of ,solomon had been pronounced the centre of the worship of ,jehovah4 ,then these elegies bear witness to the importance of the national festivals1 which were all held at the capital1 and which were all of a religious nature4 ,it is impossible to conjecture what would have been the course of the religious history of the world if ,jerusalem had been blotted out for ever at this period of the life of the city4 ,more than five centuries later ,jesus ,christ declared that the time had come when neither at the ,samaritan mountain nor at ,jerusalem should men worship the ,father1 because ,god is spirit and can only be worshipped in spirit and in truth4 ,thus the possibility of this spiritual worship which was independent of the sanctity of any place was a question of time4 ,the time for it had only just arrived when our ,lord made ,his great declaration4 ,of course the calendar could not rule this matter2 it was not essentially an affair of dates4 ,but the world required all those intervening ages to ripen into fitness for the lofty act of purely spiritual worship2 and even then the great advance was not made by a process of simple development4 ,it was necessary for ,christ to come1 both to reveal the higher nature of worship by revealing the higher nature of ,him who was the object of worship1 and also to bestow the spiritual grace through which men and women could practise the true worship4 ,therefore these very words of our ,lord which proclaim the absolute spirituality of worship for those who have attained to ,his teaching most plainly imply that such worship must have been beyond the reach of average people1 at all events1 in earlier ages4 ,jerusalem1 then1 was needed to serve as the cradle of the religion revealed through her prophets4 ,when her wings had grown religion could dispense with the nest2 but in her unfledged condition the destruction of the local shelter threatened the death of the broodling4 #ajg ,neh4 ii4 #c4 ,there is a hopeful side to these reflections4 ,a city with such a character may be said to bear the seeds of her own revival4 ,her individuality has that within it which fights against extinction4 ,to put it another way1 the idea of the city is too marked and too attractive for its privileged custodians to let it fade out of their minds1 or to rest satisfied without attempting once more to have it realised in visible form4 ,carthage might perish2 for ,carthage had few graces wherewith to stir the enthusiasm of her citizens4 ,rome1 on the other hand1 had developed a character and a corresponding destiny of her own2 and therefore she could not be blotted out by savage ,huns or ,vandal hosts4 ,the genius for government1 unapproached by any other city1 could not be suppressed by the worst ravages of the invader4 ,even when political supremacy had passed away in consequence of the vices and weakness of the degenerate citizens1 the power that had ruled the world simply took another shape and ruled the ,church1 the supremacy of ,rome in the papacy succeeding to the supremacy of ,rome in the empire4 ,so was it with ,jerusalem4 ,there was immortality in this wonderful city4 ,we may look at the subject from two points of view4 ,first1 faith in ,god encourages the hope that such a destiny as is here foreshadowed should not be allowed to fail4 ,so felt the prophets who were permitted to read the counsels of ,god by inspired insight into the eternal principles of ,his nature4 ,these men were sure that ,jerusalem must rise again from her ashes because they knew for a certainty that her ,lord would not let ,his purposes concerning her be frustrated4 ,then even with the limited vision which is all that can be attained from the lower platform of historical criticism1 we may see that ,jerusalem had acquired such an immortal place in the estimation of the ,jews1 that the people must have clung to the idea of a restoration till it was realised4 ,to say this is to shew that the realisation could not but be accomplished4 ,such passionate regrets as those of the ,lamentations are seeds of hope4 ,may we go one step further8 ,is not every true and deep regret a prophecy of restoration8 ,there is an irrecoverable past1 it must be owned4 ,that is to say1 the days that are gone cannot return1 nor can deeds once done ever be undone2 the future will never be an exact repetition of the past4 ,but all this does not forbid the assurance that there may be genuine restoration4 ,jerusalem restored was very unlike the city whose fate the elegist bewailed2 nevertheless she was restored1 and that with her essential characteristics more pronounced than ever4 ,henceforth she was to be most completely what her earlier history had only faintly adumbrated--the typical seat of religion4 ,thus1 though the ,lamentations are not at all cheering or prophetic in tone1 or even in intention1 but the very reverse1 wholly mournful and despondent1 we may still detect1 in the very intensity and persistence of the sorrow they portray1 gleams of hope for better days4 ,there is no hope in stolid indifference2 it is in the penitent's tears that we discover the prospect of his amendment4 ,repentance weeps for the past1 but at the same time it looks forward with a changed mind that is the promise of better things to come4 ,why should not we apply these ideas that spring from a consideration of the five ,hebrew elegies to other elegies--to the dirges that mourn the loved and dead8 ,if we could willingly let the departed drop out of thought we might have little ground for believing we should ever see them again4 ,but sorrow for the dead immortalises them in memory4 ,in a materialistic view of the universe that might mean nothing but the perpetuity of a sentiment4 ,but then it may by itself help us to perceive the superficiality1 the utter falseness of such a view4 ,thus ,tennyson sees the answer to the crushing doubts of materialism and the assurance of immortality for the departed in the strength of the love with which they are cherished3 ,what is it all if we all of us end but in being our own corpse coffins at last1 ,swallowed in ,vastness1 lost in ,silence1 drowned in the deeps of a meaningless ,past6 ,what but a murmur of gnats in the gloom1 or a moment's anger of bees in their hive8 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,peace1 let it be6 for ,i loved him1 and love him for ever4 ,the dead are not dead1 but alive4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,desolation i4 #a-g4 ,the first elegy is devoted to moving pictures of the desolation of ,jerusalem and the sufferings of her people4 ,it dwells upon these disasters themselves1 with fewer references to the causes of them or the hope of any remedy than are to be found in the subsequent poems1 simply to express the misery of the whole story4 ,thus it is in the truest sense of the word a ,lamentation4 ,it naturally divides itself into two parts--one with the poet speaking in his own person1#ajh the other representing the deserted city herself appealing to passing strangers and neighbouring nations1 and lastly to ,god1 to take note of her woes4#aji #ajh i4 #a-aa4 #aji i4 #ab-bb4 ,the poem opens with a very beautiful passage in which we have a comparison of ,jerusalem to a widow bereft of her children1 sitting solitary in the night1 weeping sorely4 ,it would not be just to read into the image of widowhood ideas collected from utterances of the prophets about the wedded union of ,israel and her ,lord2 we have no hint of anything of the sort here4 ,apparently the image is selected in order to express the more vividly the utter lonesomeness of the city4 ,it is clear that the attribute solitary has no bearing on the external relations of ,jerusalem--her isolation among the ,syrian hills1 or the desertion of her allies1 mentioned a little later2#aaj it points to a more ghostly solitude1 streets without traffic1 tenantless houses4 ,the widow is solitary because she has been robbed of her children4 ,and in this1 her desolation1 she sits4 ,the attitude1 so simple and natural and easy under ordinary circumstances1 here suggests a settled continuance of wretchedness2 it is helpless and hopeless4 ,the first wild agony of the severance of the closest natural ties has passed1 and with it the stimulus of conflict2 now there has supervened the dull monotony of despair4 ,this is the lowest depth of misery1 because it allows leisure when leisure is least welcome1 because it gives the reins to the imagination to roam over regions of heart-rending memory or sombre apprehension1 above all because there is nothing to be done1 so that the whole range of consciousness is abandoned to pain4 ,many a sufferer has been saved by the healing ministry of active duties1 sometimes resented as an intrusion4 ,it is a fearful thing simply to sit in sorrow4 #aaj i4 #b4 ,the mourner sits in the night1 while the world around lies in the peace of sleep4 ,the darkness has fallen1 yet she does not stir1 for day and night are alike to her--both dark4 ,she is statuesque in sorrow1 petrified by pain1 and yet unhappily not dead2 benumbed1 but alive in every sensitive fibre of her being and terribly awake4 ,in this dread night of misery her one occupation is weeping4 ,the mourner knows how the hidden fountains of tears which have been sealed to the world for the day will break out in the silent solitude of night2 then the bravest will wet his couch with his tears4 ,the forlorn woman weepeth sore2 to use the expressive ,hebraism1 weeping she weepeth4 ,her tears are on her cheeks2 they are continually flowing2 she has no thought of drying them2 there is no one else to wipe them away4 ,this is not the frantic torrent of youthful tears1 soon to be forgotten in sudden sunshine1 like a spring shower2 it is the dreary winter rain1 falling more silently1 but from leaden clouds that never break4 ,the ,hebrew poet's picture is illustrated with singular aptness by a ,roman coin1 struck off in commemoration of the destruction of ,jerusalem by the army of ,titus1 which represents a woman seated under a palm tree with the legend ,juda capta4 ,is it too much to imagine that some ,greek artist attached to the court of ,vespasian may have borrowed the idea for the coin from the ,septuagint version of this very passage8 ,the woe of ,jerusalem is intensified by reason of its contrast with the previous splendour of the proud city4 ,she had not always appeared as a lonely widow4 ,formerly she had held a high place among the neighbouring nations--for did she not cherish memories of the great days of her shepherd king and ,solomon the magnificent8 ,then she ruled provinces2 now she is herself tributary4 ,she had lovers in the old times--a fact which points to faults of character not further pursued at present4 ,how opposite is the utterly deserted state into which she is now sunk6 ,this thought of a tremendous fall gives the greatest force to the portrait4 ,it is ,rembrandtesque2 the black shadows on the foreground are the deeper because they stand sharply out against the brilliant radiance that streams in from the sunset of the past4 ,the pitiableness of the comfortless present lies in this1 that there had been lovers whose consolations would now have been a solace2 the bitterness of the enmity now experienced is its having been distilled from the dregs of poisoned friendship4 ,against the protests of her faithful prophets ,jerusalem had courted alliance with her heathen neighbours1 only to be cruelly deserted in her hour of need4 ,it is the old story of friendship with the world1 keenly accentuated in the life of ,israel1 because this favoured people had already seen glimpses of a rich1 rare privilege1 the friendship of ,heaven4 ,this is the irony of the situation2 it is the tragic irony of all ,hebrew history4 ,why were these people so blindly infatuated that they would be perpetually forsaking the living waters1 and hewing out to themselves broken cisterns that could hold no water8 ,the question is only surpassed by that of the similar folly on the part of those of us who follow their example in spite of the warning their fate affords1 failing to see that true friendship is too exacting for ties spun from mere convenience or superficial pleasantness to bear the strain of its more serious claims4 ,passing on from the poetic image to a more direct view of the drear facts of the case1 the author describes the hardships of the fugitives--people who had fled to ,egypt1 the retreat of ,jeremiah and his companions4 ,this must be the bearing of the passage which our translators render-- ,judah is gone into captivity because of affliction1 and because of great servitude4 ,for if the topic were the captivity at ,babylon it would be difficult to see how affliction and great servitude could be treated as the causes of that disaster2 were they not rather its effects8 ,two solutions of this difficulty have been proposed4 ,it has been suggested that the captivity is here presented as a consequence of the misconduct of the ,jews in oppressing peoples subject to them4 ,but the abstract words will not readily bear any such meaning2 we should have expected some more explicit charge4 ,then it has been proposed to read the words out of affliction1 etc41 in place of the phrase because of affliction1 etc41 as though in escaping from trouble at home the ,jews had only passed into a new misfortune abroad4 ,this is not so simple an explanation of the poet's language as that at which we arrive by the perfectly legitimate substitution of the word exile for captivity4 ,it may seem strange that the statement should be affirmed of ,judah1 as though the whole nation had escaped to ,egypt2 but it would be equally inexact to say that ,judah was carried captive to ,babylon1 seeing that only a selection from the upper classes was deported1 while the majority of the people was probably left in the land4 ,but so many of the ,jews1 especially those best known to the poet1 were in voluntary exile1 that it was quite natural for him to regard them as virtually the nation4 ,now upon these refugees three troubles fall4 ,first1 the asylum is a heathen country1 abominable to pious ,israelites4 ,second1 even here the fugitives have no rest2 they are not allowed to settle down2 they are perpetually molested4 ,third1 on the way thither they are harassed by the enemy4 ,they are overtaken by pursuers within the straits1 a statement which may be read literally2 bands of ,chaldans would hover about the mountains1 ready to pounce upon the disorganised groups of fugitives as they made their way through the narrow defiles that led out of the hill country to the southern plains4 ,but the phrase is a familiar ,hebraism for difficulties generally4 ,no doubt it was true of the ,jews in this larger sense that their opponents took advantage of their straitened circumstances to vex them in every possible way4 ,this is just in accordance with the common experience of mankind all the world over4 ,but while the fact of the experience is obvious1 the inference to which it points like an arrow is obstinately eluded4 ,thus a commercial man in financial straits loses his credit at the very moment when he most needs it4 ,we cannot say that this is a proof of spite1 or even a sign of cynical indifference2 because the needy person is really most untrustworthy1 though his moral integrity may be unshaken1 seeing that his circumstances make it probable that he will be unable to fulfil his obligations4 ,but now it is the deeper significance of this fact that is so persistently ignored4 ,there is perceptible at times in nature a law of compensation by the operation of which misfortune is mitigated2 but that merciful law is frequently thwarted by the overbearing influence of the terrible law of the survival of the fittest1 the gospel of the fortunate1 but the death-knell for all failures4 ,if this is so in nature1 much more does it obtain in human society so long as selfish greed is unchecked by higher principles4 ,then the world1 the ,godless world1 can be no asylum for the miserable and unfortunate1 because it will be hard upon them in exact proportion to the extremity of their necessities4 ,moreover1 the perception that this bitter truth is not a fruit of temporary passions which may be restrained by education1 but the outcome of certain persistent principles which cannot be set aside while society retains its present constitution1 gives to it the adamantine strength of destiny4 ,coming nearer to the city in his mental vision1 the poet next bewails deserted roads2 those ways of ,zion up which the holiday folks used to troop1 clad in gay garments1 with songs of rejoicing1 are left so lonely that it seems as though they themselves must be mourning4 ,it is in keeping with the imagery of these poems which personify the city1 to endow the very roads with fancied consciousness4 ,this is a natural result of intense emotion1 and therefore a witness to its very intensity4 ,it seems as though the very earth must share in the feelings of the man whose heart is stirred to its depths2 as though all things must be filled with the passion the waves of which flow out to the horizon of his consciousness1 till the very stones cry out4 ,as he approaches the city1 the poet is struck with a strange1 sad sight4 ,there are no people about the gates2 yet here1 if anywhere1 we should expect to meet not only travellers passing through1 but also groups of men1 merchants at their traffic1 arbitrators settling disputes1 friends exchanging confidences1 idlers lounging about and chewing the cud of the latest gossip1 beggars winning for alms2 for by the gates are markets1 al fresco tribunals1 open spaces for public meetings4 ,formerly the life of the city was here concentrated2 now no trace of life is to be seen even at these social ganglia4 ,the desertion and silence of the gateways gives a shock of distress to the visitor on entering the ruined city4 ,more disappointments await him within the walls4 ,still keeping in mind the idea of the national festivals1 and accompanying the course of them in imagination1 the poet goes up to the temple4 ,no services are proceeding2 any priests who may be found still haunting the precincts of the charred ruins can only sigh over their enforced idleness2 the girl-choristers whose voices would ring through the porticoes in the old times1 are silent and desolate1 for their mother1 ,jerusalem1 is herself in bitterness4 ,in this part of the elegy our attention is directed to the cessation of the happy national assemblies with their accompaniment of public worship in songs of praise for harvest and vintage and in the awful symbolism of the altar4 ,the name ,zion was associated with two things1 festivity and worship4 ,it was a happy privilege for ,israel to have had the inspired insight as well as the courage of faith to realise the conjunction4 ,even with the fuller light and larger liberty of ,christianity it is rarely acknowledged among us4 ,our services have too much of the funeral dirge about them4 ,the devout ,israelite reserved his dirge for the death of his worship4 ,it does not seem to have occurred to the poet that anybody could come to regard worship as an irksome duty from which he would gladly be liberated4 ,are we1 then1 to suppose that the ,israelites who practised the crude cult that was prevalent before the ,exile1 even among the true servants of ,jehovah1 were indeed more devout than ,christians who enjoy the privileges of their richer revelation8 ,scarcely so2 for it must be remembered that we are called to a more spiritual and therefore a more difficult worship4 ,inward sincerity is here of supreme importance2 if this is missing there is no worship1 and without it the miserable unreality becomes inexpressibly wearisome4 ,no doubt it is the failure to reach the rare altitude of its lofty ideal that makes ,christian worship to appear in the eyes of many to be a melancholy performance4 ,but this explanation should not be permitted to obscure the fact that true1 living1 spiritual worship must be a very delightful exercise of the soul4 ,perhaps one reason why this truth is not sufficiently appreciated may be found in the very facility with which the outward means of worship are presented to us4 ,people who are seldom out of the sound of church bells are inclined to grow deaf to their significance4 ,the ,roman ,christian hunted in the catacombs1 the ,waldensian hiding in his mountain cave1 the ,covenanter meeting his fellow members of the kirk in a remote highland glen1 the backwoodsman walking fifty miles to attend ,divine service once in six months1 are led by difficulty and deprivation to perceive the value of public worship in a degree which is surprising to people among whom it is merely an incident of every-day life4 ,when ,zion was in ashes the memory of her festivals was encircled with a halo of regret4 ,in accordance with the principle of construction which he follows throughout--the heightening of the effect of the picture by presenting a succession of contrasts--the poet next sets the prosperity of the enemies of ,jerusalem in close juxtaposition to the misery of those of her people in whom it is most pitiable and startling1 the children and the princes4 ,men with any heart in them would wish above all things that the innocent young members of their families should be spared2 yet the captives carried off to ,babylon consisted principally of boys and girls torn from their homes1 conveyed hundreds of miles across the desert1 many of them dragged down to hideous degradation by the vices that luxuriated in the corrupt empire of the ,euphrates4 ,the other class of victims specially commented on is that of the princes4 ,not only is the present humiliation of the nobility in sharp contrast to their former elevation of rank1 and therefore their sufferings the more acute1 but it is also to be observed that their old position of leadership has been completely reversed4 ,the reference must be to ,zedekiah and his courtiers4#aaa ,these proud princes who formerly exercised command over the multitude have become a shameful flock of fugitives4 ,in the expressive image of the poet1 they are compared to harts that find no pasture2 they are like fleet wild deer1 so cowed by hunger that they meekly permit themselves to be driven by their enemies just as if they were a herd of tame cattle4 #aaa ,jer4 xxxix4 #d1 #e4 ,in the middle of this comparison between the success of the conquerors and the fate of their victims the poet inserts a pregnant sentence which suddenly carries us off to regions of far more profound reflection1 touching upon the two sources of the ruin of ,jerusalem that lie behind the visible hand of ,nebuchadnezzar and his hosts1 her own sin and the consequent wrath of her ,god4 ,it flashes out as a momentary thought1 and then retires with equal suddenness1 permitting the previous current of reflections to be resumed as though unaffected by the startling interruption4 ,this thought will reappear1 however1 with increasing fulness1 shewing that it is always present to the mind of the poet and ready to come to the surface at any moment1 even when it would seem to be inappropriate1 although it can never be really inappropriate1 because it is the key to the mystery of the whole tragedy4 ,lastly1 while the sense of a strong contrast is excited objectively by a comparison of the placid security of the invaders with the degradation of the fugitives1 subjectively it is most vividly realised by the sufferers themselves when they call to mind their former happiness4 ,jerusalem is supposed to fall into a reverie in which she follows the recollection of the whole series of her pleasant experiences from far-off bygone times through an the succeeding ages flown to the present era of calamities4 ,this is to indulge in the pains of memory--pains which are decidedly more acute than the corresponding pleasures celebrated by ,samuel ,rogers4 ,these pains are doubly intense owing to the inevitable fact that the contrast is unnaturally strained4 ,viewed in the softened lights of memory1 the past is strangely simplified1 its mixed character is forgotten1 and many of its unpleasant features are smoothed out1 so that an idyllic charm hovers over the dream1 and lends it an unearthly beauty4 ,this is why so many people foolishly damp the hopes of children1 who1 if they are healthily constituted1 ought to be anticipating the future with eagerness1 by solemnly exhorting them to make hay while the sun shines1 with the gloomy warning that the sunny season must soon pass4 ,their application of the motto carpe diem is not only pagan in spirit2 it is founded on an illusion4 ,happily there is some unreality about most of our yearning regrets for the days that have gone4 ,that sweet1 fair past was not so radiant as its effigy in the dreamland of memory now appears to be2 nor is the hard present so free from mitigating circumstances as we suppose4 ,and yet1 when all is said1 we cannot find the consolation we hunger after in hours of darkness among bare conclusions of common-sense4 ,the grave is not an illusion1 at least when only viewed in the light of the past though even this chill1 earthy reality begins to melt into a shadow immediately the light of the eternal future falls upon it4 ,the melancholy that laments the lost past can only be perfectly mastered by that ,christian grace1 the hope which presses forward to a better future4 ,,chapter ,v ,,sin ,,and ,,suffering i4 #h-aa ,the doctrinaire rigour of ,judaism in its uncompromising association of moral and physical evils has led to an unreasonable disregard for the solid truth which lies behind this mistake4 ,it can scarcely be said that men are now perplexed by the problem that inspired the ,book of ,job4 ,the fall of the tower of ,siloam or the blindness of a man from his birth would not start among us the vexatious questions which were raised in the days of our ,lord4 ,we have not accepted the ,jewish theory that the punishment of sin always overtakes the sinner in this life1 much less have we assented to the by no means necessary corollary that all calamities are the direct penalties of the misconduct of the sufferers1 and therefore sure signs of guilt4 ,the modern tendency is in the opposite direction2 it goes to ignore the existence of any connection whatever between the course of the universe and human conduct4 ,no interference with the uniformity of the laws of nature for retributive or disciplinary purposes can be admitted4 ,the machinery runs on in its grooves never deflected by any regard for our good or bad deserts4 ,if we dash ourselves against its wheels they will tear us to pieces1 grind us to powder2 and we may reasonably consider this treatment to be the natural punishment of our folly4 ,but here we are not beyond physical causation1 and the drift of thought is towards holding the belief in anything more to be a simple survival from primitive anthropomorphic ideas of nature1 a pure superstition4 ,is it a pure superstition8 ,it is time we turned to another side of the question4 ,every strong conviction that has obtained wide recognition1 however erroneous and mischievous it may be1 can be traced back to the abuse of some solid truth4 ,it is not the case that the universe is constructed without any regard for moral laws4 ,even the natural punishment of the violation of natural laws contains a certain ethical element4 ,other considerations apart1 clearly it is wrong to injure one's health or endanger one's life by rushing headlong against the constituted order of the universe2 therefore the consequences of such conduct may be taken as signs of its condemnation4 ,in the case of the sufferings of the ,jews lamented by our poet the calamities were not primarily of a physical origin2 they grew out of human acts--the accompaniments of the ,chaldan invasion4 ,when we come to the evolution of history we are introduced to a whole world of moral forces that are not at work in the material universe4 ,nebuchadnezzar did not know that he was the instrument of a ,higher ,power for the chastisement of ,israel2 but the corruptions of the ,jews1 so ruthlessly exposed by their prophets1 had undermined the national vigour which is the chief safeguard of a state1 as surely as at a later time the corruptions of ,rome opened her gates to devastating hosts of ,goths and ,huns4 ,may we not go further1 and1 passing beyond the region of common observation1 discover richer indications of the ethical meanings of events in the application to them of a real faith in ,god8 ,it was his profound theism that lay at the base of the ,jew's conception of temporal retribution1 crude1 hard1 and narrow as this was4 ,if we believe that ,god is supreme over nature and history as well as over individual lives1 we must conclude that ,he will use every province of ,his vast dominion so as to further ,his righteous purposes4 ,if the same ,spirit reigns throughout there must be a certain harmony between all parts of ,his government4 ,the mistake of the ,jew was his claim to interpret the details of this ,divine administration with a sole regard for the minute fraction of the universe that came under his own eyes1 with blank indifference to the vast realm of facts and principles of which he could know nothing4 ,his idea of ,providence was too shortsighted1 too parochial1 in every respect too small2 yet it was true in so far as it registered the conviction that there must be an ethical character in the government of the world by a righteous ,god1 that the divinely ordered course of events cannot be out of all relation to conduct4 ,it does not fall in with the plan of the ,lamentations for this subject to be treated so fully in these poems as it is in the stirring exhortations of the great prophets4 ,yet it comes to the surface repeatedly4 ,in the fifth verse of the first elegy the poet attributes the affliction of ,zion to the multitude of her transgressions2 and he introduces the eighth verse with the clear declaration-- ,jerusalem hath grievously sinned2 therefore she has become an unclean thing4 ,the powerful ,hebrew idiom according to which the cognate substance follows the verb is here employed4 ,rendered literally1 the opening phrase is1 sinned sin4 ,the experience of the chastisement leads to a keen perception of the guilt that precedes it4 ,this is more than a consequence of the application of the accepted doctrine of the connection of sin with suffering to a particular case4 ,no intellectual theory is strong enough by itself to awaken a slumbering conscience4 ,the logic may be faultless2 and yet even though the point of the syllogism is not evaded it will be coolly ignored4 ,trouble arouses a torpid conscience in a much more direct and effectual way4 ,in the first place1 it shatters the pride which is the chief hindrance to the confession of sin4 ,then it compels reflection2 it calls a halt1 and makes us look back over the path we may have been following too heedlessly4 ,sometimes it seems to exercise a distinctly illuminating influence4 ,it is as though scales had fallen from the sufferer's eyes2 he sees all things in a new light1 and some ugly facts which had been lying at his side for years disregarded suddenly glare upon him as horrible discoveries4 ,thus the ,prodigal ,son perceives that he has sinned both against ,heaven and against his father when he is in the lowest depths of misery1 not so much because he recognises a penal character in his troubles1 but more on account of the fact that he has come to himself4 ,this subjective1 psychological connection between suffering and sin is independent of any dogma of retribution2 for the ends of practical discipline it is the most important connection4 ,we may waive all discussion of the ancient ,jewish problem1 and still be thankful to recognise the ,elijah-like ministry of adversity4 ,the immediate effect of this vision of sin is that a new colour is given to the picture of the desolation of ,jerusalem4 ,the image of a miserable woman is preserved1 but the dignity of the earlier scene is missing here4 ,pathos and poetry gather round the picture of the forlorn widow weeping for the loss of her children4 ,neglected and humbled as she is in worldly estate1 the tragic vastness of her sorrow has exalted her to an altitude of moral sublimity4 ,such suffering breaks through those barriers of conventional experience which make many lives look mean and trivial4 ,it is so awful that we cannot but regard it with reverence4 ,but all this is altered in the aspect of ,jerusalem which follows the confession of her great sin4 ,in the freedom of ancient language the poet ventures on an illustration that would be regarded as too gross for modern literature4 ,the limits of our art exclude subjects which excite a sensation of disgust2 but this is just the sensation the author of the elegy deliberately aims at producing4 ,he paints a picture which is simply intended to sicken his readers4 ,the utter humiliation of ,jerusalem is exhibited in the unavoidable exposure of a condition which natural modesty would conceal at any cost4 ,another contrast between the reserve of our modern style and the rude bluntness of antiquity is here apparent4 ,it is not only that we have grown more refined in language--a very superficial change which might be no better than the whitewashing of sepulchres2 over and above this civilising of mere manners1 the effect of ,teutonic habits1 strengthened by ,christian sentiments1 has been to develop a respect for woman undreamed of in the old ,eastern world4 ,it may be added that the scientific temper of recent times has taught us that there is nothing really dishonouring in purely natural processes4 ,the ancient world could not distinguish between delicacy and shame4 ,we should regard a poor suffering woman whose modesty had been grievously wounded with simple commiseration2 the ancient ,jews treated such a person with disgust as an unclean creature1 quite unable to see that their conduct was simply brutal4 ,the new aspect of the misery of ,jerusalem is thus set forth as one of degradation and ignominy4 ,the vision of sin is immediately followed by a scene of shame4 ,commentators have been divided over the question whether this picture of the humiliated woman is intended to apply to the sin of the city or only to her misfortunes4 ,in favour of the former view1 it may be remarked that uncleanness is distinctly associated with moral corruption3 the connection is the more appropriate here inasmuch as a confession of sin immediately precedes4 ,on the other hand1 the attendant circumstances point to the second interpretation4 ,it is the humiliation of the condition of the sufferer1 rather than that condition itself1 which is dwelt upon4 ,jerusalem is despised1 she sigheth1 is come down wonderfully1 hath no comforter1 and is generally afflicted and oppressed by her enemies4 ,but while we are led to regard the pitiable picture as a representation of the woful plight into which the proud city has fallen1 we cannot conclude it to be an accident that this particular phase of her misery succeeds the mention of her great guilt4 ,after all1 it is only the underlying guilt that can justify a verdict which carries disgrace as well as suffering for its penalty4 ,even when the judgments of men are too confused to recognise this truth with regard to other people1 it should be apparent to the conscience of the humiliated person himself4 ,the humiliation which follows nothing worse than a fall into external misfortunes is but a superficial trouble1 and the consciousness of innocence can enable one to submit to it without any sense of inward shame4 ,the sting of contempt lies in the miserable consciousness that it is deserved4 ,thus we see the punishment of sin consisting in exposure4 ,the exposure which simply hurts natural modesty is acutely painful to a refined1 sensitive spirit2 and yet the very dignity which it outrages is a shield against the point of the insult4 ,but where the exposure follows sin this shield is absent4 ,in that case the degradation of it is without any mitigation4 ,nothing more may be necessary to constitute a very severe punishment4 ,when the secrets of all hearts are revealed the very revelation will be a penal process4 ,to lay bare the quivering nerves of memory to the searching sunlight must be to torture the guilty soul with inconceivable horrors4 ,nevertheless it is a matter for profound thankfulness that there is no question of a surprising revelation of the sinner's guilt being made to ,god at some future time1 some shocking discovery which might turn ,his lovingkindness into wrath or contempt4 ,we cannot have a firmer ground of joy and hope than the fact that ,god knows everything about us1 and yet loves us at our worst1 patiently waiting for repentance with ,his offer of unlimited forgiveness4 ,exposure before ,god is like a surgical examination2 the hope of a cure1 if it does not dispel the sense of humiliation--and that is impossible in the case of guilt1 the disgrace of which to a healthy conscience is more intense before the holiness of ,god than before the eyes of fellow-sinners--still encourages confidence4 ,the recognition of a moral lapse at the root of the shame of ,jerusalem1 though not perhaps in the shame itself1 is confirmed by a phrase which reflects on the culpable heedlessness of the ,jews4 ,the elegy deplores how the city has come down wonderfully on account of the fact that she remembered not her latter end4 ,it is quite confusing and incorrect to render this expression in the present tense as it stands in the ,authorised ,english ,version4 ,the poet cannot mean that the ,jews in exile and captivity have already forgotten the recent horrors of the siege of ,jerusalem4 ,this would be flatly contrary to the motive of the elegy1 which is to give tongue to the sufferings of the ,jews flowing out of that disaster4 ,it would be impossible to say that the calamity that inspired the elegy was no longer even remembered by its victims4 ,what an anti-climax this would be6 ,clearly the poet is bewailing the culpable folly of the people in not giving a thought to the certain consequences of such a course as they were following2 a course that had been denounced by the faithful prophets of ,jehovah1 who1 alas6 had been but voices crying in the wilderness1 unnoted1 or even scouted and suppressed1 like the stormy petrels hated by sailors as birds of ill-omen4 ,in her ease and prosperity1 her self-indulgence and sin1 the doomed city had failed to recollect what must be the end of such things4 ,the idea of remembrance is peculiarly apt and forcible in this connection1 although it has a relation to the future1 because the ,jews had been through experiences which should have served as warnings if they had duly reflected on them4 ,this was not a matter for wild guesses or vague apprehensions4 ,not only were there the distinct utterances of ,jeremiah and his predecessors to rouse the thoughtless2 events had been speaking louder than words4 ,jerusalem was already a city with a history1 and that history had even by this time accumulated some tragic lessons4 ,these were subjects for memory4 ,thus memory can become prophecy1 because the laws which are revealed in the past will govern the future4 ,we are none of us so wholly inexperienced but that in the knowledge of what we have already been through we may gain wisdom to anticipate the consequences of our present actions4 ,the heedless person is one who forgets1 or at all events one who will not attend to his own memories4 ,such recklessness is its own condemnation2 it cannot plead the excuse of ignorance4 ,but now it may be objected that this reference to the mere thought of consequences suggests considerations that are too low to furnish the reasons for the ruin of ,jerusalem4 ,would the city have been spared if only her inhabitants had been a little more foreseeing8 ,it should be observed that though mere prudence is never a very lofty virtue1 imprudence is sometimes a very serious fault4 ,it cannot be right to be simply reckless1 to ignore all lessons of the past and fling oneself blindly into the future4 ,the hero who is sure that he is inspired by a lofty motive may walk straight into the very jaws of death1 and be all the stronger for his noble indifference to his fate2 but he who is no hero1 he who is not influenced by any great or unselfish ideas1 has no excuse for neglecting the warnings of common prudence4 ,all wise actions must be more or less guided with a view to their issues in the future1 although in the case of the best of them the aims will be pure and unselfish4 ,it is our prerogative to look before and after2 and just in proportion as we take long views do our deeds acquire gravity and depth4 ,our ,lord characterised the two ways by their ends4 ,while the example of the careless ,jews is followed on all sides--and who of us can deny that he has ever fallen into the negligence8--is it not a little superfluous to discuss abstract1 unpractical problems about a remote altruism8 ,intermingled with his painful picture of the humiliation and shame of the fallen city1 the poet supplies indications of the effect of all this on the suffering citizens4 ,despised by all who had formerly honoured her1 ,jerusalem sighs and longs to retire into obscurity1 away from the rude gaze of her oppressors4 ,in particular1 two further signs of her distress are here given4 ,the first is spoliation4 ,her enemies have laid hands on all her pleasant things4 ,it may strike us that1 after the miseries just narrated1 this is but a minor trouble4 ,job's calamities began with the loss of his property1 and rose from this by degrees to the climax of agony4 ,if his first trouble had been the sudden death of all his children1 stunned by that awful blow1 he would have cared little about the fate of his flocks and herds4 ,it is not according to the method of the ,lamentations1 however1 to move on to any climax4 ,the thoughts are set forth as they well up in the mind of the poet1 now passionate and intense1 then again of a milder cast1 yet altogether combining to colour one picture of intolerable woe4 ,but there is an aspect of this idea of the robbery of the pleasant things which heightens the sense of misery4 ,it is another instance of the force of contrast so often manifested in these elegies4 ,jerusalem had been a home of wealth and luxury in the merry old days4 ,but hoarded money1 precious jewellery1 family heirlooms1 products of art and skill1 accumulated during generations of prosperity and treated as necessaries of life--all had been swept away in the sack of the city1 and scattered among strangers who could not prize them as they had been prized by their owners2 and now these victims of spoliation1 stripped of everything1 were in want of daily bread4 ,even what little could be saved from the wreck they had to give up in exchange for common food1 bought dearly in the market of necessity4 ,the second sign of the great distress here noted is desecration4 ,gentiles invade the sacred precincts of the temple4 ,considering that the sanctuary had been already much more effectually desecrated by the blood-stained hands and lustful hearts of impious worshippers1 such as those rulers of ,sodom denounced by ,isaiah for trampling the courts of ,jehovah with their vain oblations1#aab we do not find it easy to sympathise with this horror of a supposed defilement from the mere presence of heathen persons4 ,yet it would be unjust to accuse the shocked ,israelites of hypocrisy4 ,they ought to have been more conscious of the one real corruption of sin2 but we cannot add that therefore their notions of external uncleanness were altogether foolish and wrong4 ,to judge the ,jews of the age of the ,captivity by a standard of spirituality which few ,christians have yet attained to would be a cruel anachronism4 ,the ,syrian invasion of the temple in the time of the ,maccabees was called by a very late prophet an abomination of desolation1#aac and a similar insult to be offered to the sacred place by the ,romans is described by our ,lord in the same terms4#aad ,all of us must be conscious at times of the sacredness of associations4 ,to botanise on his mother's grave may be a proof of a man's freedom from superstition1 but it cannot be taken as an indication of the fineness of his feelings4 ,the ,israelite exclusiveness which shunned the intrusion of foreigners simply because they were foreigners was combined both with a patriotic anxiety to preserve the integrity of the nation1 and in some cases with a religious dread of idolatry4 ,it is true the nominal contamination of the mere presence of ,gentiles was generally more dreaded than the real contagion of their corrupt examples4 ,still the very idea of desecration1 even when it is superficial1 together with a sense of pain at its presence1 is higher than the materialism which despises it not because this materialism has the grace to sanctify everything1 but for the opposite reason1 because it counts nothing holy1 because to it all things are common and unclean4 #aab ,isa4 i4 #aj-ag4 #aac ,dan4 xi4 #ca4 #aad ,mark xiii4 #ad4 ,before we pass from this portion of the elegy there is one curious characteristic of it which calls for notice4 ,the poet suddenly drops the construction in the third person and writes in the first person4 ,this he does twice--at the end of the ninth verse1 and again at the end of the eleventh4 ,he might be speaking in his own person1 but the language points to the personified city4 ,yet in each case the outburst is quite abrupt1 sprung upon us without any introductory formula4 ,possibly the explanation of this anomaly must be sought in the liturgical use for which the poem was designed4 ,if it was to be sung antiphonally we may conjecture that at these places a second chorus would break in4 ,the result would be a startling dramatic effect--as though the city had sat listening to the lament over her woes until the piteous tale had compelled her to break her silence and cry aloud4 ,in each case the cry is directed to heaven4 ,it is an appeal to ,god2 and it simply prays for ,his attention--,behold1 ,o ,lord1 ,see1 ,o ,lord1 and behold4 ,in the first case the ,divine attention is called to the insolence of the enemy1 in the second to the degradation of ,jerusalem4 ,still it is only an appeal for notice4 ,will ,god but look upon all this misery8 ,that is sufficient4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,zion',s ,,appeal i4 #ab-bb ,in the latter part of the second elegy ,jerusalem appears as the speaker1 appealing for sympathy1 first to stray1 passing travellers1 then to the larger circle of the surrounding nations1 and lastly to her ,god4 ,already the suffering city has spoken once or twice in brief interruptions of the poet's descriptions of her miseries1 and now she seems to be too impatient to permit herself to be represented any longer even by this friendly advocate2 she must come forward in person and present her case in her own words4 ,there is much difference of opinion among commentators about the rendering of the phrase with which the appeal begins4 ,the ,revisers have followed the ,authorised ,version in taking it as a question--,is it nothing to you1 all ye that pass by8#aae ,but it may be treated as a direct negative--,it is nothing1 etc41 or1 by a slightly different reading of the ,hebrew text1 as a simple call for attention--,o all ye that pass by1 etc41 as in the ,vulgate ,o vos1 etc4 ,the usual rendering is the finest in literary feeling1 and it is in accordance with a common usage4 ,although the sign of an interrogation1 which would set this meaning beyond dispute1 is absent1 there does not seem to be sufficient reason for rejecting it in favour of one of the proposed alternatives4 ,but in any case the whole passage evidently expresses a deep yearning for sympathy4 ,mere strangers1 roving ,bedouin1 any people who may chance to be passing by ,jerusalem1 are implored to behold her incomparable woes4 ,the wounded animal creeps into a corner to suffer and die in secret1 perhaps on account of the habit of herds1 in tormenting a suffering mate4 ,but among mankind the instinct of a sufferer is to crave sympathy1 from a friend1 if possible2 but if such be not available1 then even from a stranger4 ,now although where it is possible to give effectual aid1 merely to cast a pitying look and pass by on the other side1 like the priest and the ,levite in the parable1 is a mockery and a cruelty1 although unpretentious indifference is better than that hypocrisy1 it would be a great mistake to suppose that in those cases for which no direct relief can be given sympathy is of no value4 ,this sympathy1 if it is real1 would help if it could2 and under all circumstances it is the reality of the sympathy that is most prized1 not its issues4 #aae i4 #ab4 ,it should be remembered1 further1 that the first condition of active aid is a genuine sense of compassion1 which can only be awakened by means of knowledge and the impressions which a contemplation of suffering produce4 ,evil is wrought not only from want of thought1 but also from lack of knowledge2 and good-doing is withheld for the same reason4 ,therefore the first requisite is to arrest attention4 ,a royal commission is the reasonable precursor of a state remedy for some public wrong4 ,misery is permitted to flourish in the dark because people are too indolent to search it out4 ,no doubt the knowledge of sufferings which we might remedy implies a grave responsibility2 but we cannot escape our obligations by simply closing our eyes to what we do not wish to see4 ,we are responsible for our ignorance and its consequences wherever the opportunity of knowledge is within our reach4 ,the appeal to all who pass by is most familiar to us in its later association with our ,lord's sufferings on the cross4 ,but this is not in any sense a ,messianic passage2 it is confined in its purpose to the miseries of ,jerusalem4 ,of course there can be no objection to illustrating the grief and pain of the ,man of ,sorrows by using the classic language of an ancient lament if we note that this is only an illustration4 ,there is a kinship in all suffering1 and it is right to consider that ,he who was tried in all points as we are tried passed through sorrows which absorbed all the bitterness even of such a cup of woe as that which was drunk by ,jerusalem in the extremity of her misfortunes4 ,if never before there had been sorrow like unto her sorrow1 at length that was matched1 nay1 surpassed at ,gethsemane and ,golgotha4 ,still it would be a mistake to confine these words to their secondary application--not only an exegetical mistake1 but one of deeper significance4 ,jesus ,christ restrained the wailing of the women who offered ,him their compassion on ,his way to the cross1 bidding them weep not for ,him1 but for themselves and their children4#aaf ,much more when ,his passion is long past and ,he is reigning in glory must it be displeasing to ,him for ,his friends to be wasting idle tears over the sufferings of ,his earthly life4 ,the morbid sentimentality which broods over the ancient wounds of ,christ1 the nail prints and the spear thrust1 but ignores the present wounds of society--the wounds of the world for which ,he bled and died1 or the wounds of the ,church which is ,his body now1 must be wrong in ,his sight4 ,he would rather we gave a cup of cold water to one of ,his brethren than an ocean of tears to the memory of ,calvary4 ,if then we would make use of the ruined city's appeal for sympathy by applying it to some later object it would be more in agreement with the mind of ,christ to think of the miseries of mankind in our own day1 and to consider how a sympathetic regard for them may point to some ministry of alleviation4 #aaf ,luke xxiii4 #bh4 ,in order to impress the magnitude of her miseries on the minds of the strangers whose attention she would arrest1 the city1 now personified as a suppliant1 describes her dreadful condition in a series of brief1 pointed metaphors4 ,thus the imagination is excited2 and the imagination is one of the roads to the heart4 ,it is not enough that people know the bald facts of a calamity as these may be scheduled in an inspector's report4 ,although this preliminary information is most important1 if we go no further the report will be replaced in its pigeon-hole1 and lie there till it is forgotten4 ,if it is to do something better than gather the dust of years it must be used as a foundation for the imagination to work upon4 ,this does not imply any departure from truth1 any false colouring or exaggeration2 on the contrary1 the process only brings out the truth which is not really seen until it is imagined4 ,let us look at the various images under which the distress of ,jerusalem is here presented4 ,it is like a fire in the bones4#aag ,it burns1 consumes1 pains with intolerable torment2 it is no skin-deep trouble1 it penetrates to the very marrow4 ,this fire is overmastering2 it is not to be quenched1 neither does it die out2 it prevaileth against the bones4 ,there is no getting such a fire under4 #aag i4 #ac4 ,it is like a net4#aah ,the image is changed4 ,we see a wild creature caught in the bush1 or perhaps a fugitive arrested in his flight and flung down by hidden snares at his feet4 ,here is the shock of surprise1 the humiliation of deceit1 the vexation of being thwarted4 ,the result is a baffled1 bewildered1 helpless condition4 #aah i4 #ac4 ,it is like faintness4#aai ,the desolate sufferer is ill4 ,it is bad enough to have to bear calamities in the strength of health4 ,jerusalem is made sick and kept faint all the day--with a faintness that is not a momentary collapse1 but a continuous condition of failure4 #aai ,ibid4 ,it is like a yoke#abj which is wreathed upon the neck--fixed on1 as with twisted withes4 ,the poet is here more definite4 ,the yoke is made out of the transgressions of ,jerusalem4 ,the sense of guilt does not lighten its weight2 the band that holds it most closely is the feeling that it is deserved4 ,it is natural that the sinful sufferer should exclaim that ,god1 who has bound this terrible yoke upon her1 has made her strength to fail4 ,as there is nothing so invigorating as the assurance that one is suffering for a righteous cause1 so there is nothing so wretchedly depressing as the consciousness of guilt4 #abj i4 #ad4 ,lastly1 it is like a winepress4#aba ,this image is elaborated with more detail1 although at the expense of unity of design4 ,god is said to have called a solemn assembly to oppress the ,jews1 by an ironical reversal of the common notion of such an assembly4 ,the language recalls the idea of one of the great national festivals of ,israel4 ,but now instead of the favoured people their enemies are summoned1 and the object is not the glad praise of ,god for his bounties in harvest or vintage1 but the crushing of the ,jews4 ,they are to be victims1 not guests as of old4 ,they are themselves the harvest of judgment1 the vintage of wrath4 ,the wine is to be made1 but the grapes crushed to produce it are the people who were accustomed to feast and drink of the fruits of ,god's bounty in the happy days of their prosperity4 ,so the mighty men are set at nought1 their prowess counting as nothing against the brutal rush of the enemy2 and the young men are crushed1 their spirit and vigour failing them in the great destruction4 #aba i4 #ae4 ,the most terrible trait in these pictures1 one that is common to all of them1 is the ,divine origin of the troubles4 ,it was ,god who sent fire into the bones1 spread the net1 made the sufferer desolate and faint4 ,the yoke was bound by ,his hands4 ,it was ,he who set at nought the mighty men1 and summoned the assembly of foes to crush ,his people4 ,the poet even goes so far as to make the daring statement that it was the ,lord ,himself who trod the virgin daughter of ,judah as in a winepress4 ,it is a ghastly picture--a dainty maiden trampled to death by ,jehovah as grapes are trampled to squeeze out their juice6 ,this horrible thing is ascribed to ,god6 ,yet there is no complaint of barbarity1 no idea that the ,judge of all the earth is not doing right4 ,the miserable city does not bring any railing accusation against her ,lord2 she takes all the blame upon herself4 ,we must be careful to bear in mind the distinction between poetic imagery and prosaic narrative4 ,still it remains true that ,jerusalem here attributes her troubles to the will and action of ,god4 ,this is vital to the ,hebrew faith4 ,to explain it away is to impoverish the religion of ,israel1 and with it the ,old ,testament revelation4 ,that revelation shews us the absolute sovereignty of ,god1 and at the same time it brings out the guilt of man1 so that no room is allowed for complaints against the ,divine justice4 ,the grief is all the greater because there is no thought of rebellion4 ,the daring doubts that struggle into expression in ,job never obtrude themselves here to check the even flow of tears4 ,the melancholy is profound1 but comparatively calm1 since it does not once give place to anger4 ,it is natural that the succession of images of misery conceived in this spirit should be followed by a burst of tears4 ,zion weeps because the comforter who should refresh her soul is far away1 and she is left utterly desolate4#abb #abb i4 #af4 ,here the supposed utterance of ,jerusalem is broken for the poet to insert a description of the suppliant making her piteous appeal4#abc ,he shews us ,zion spreading out her hands1 that is to say1 in the well-known attitude of prayer4 ,she is comfortless1 oppressed by her neighbours in accordance with the will of her ,god1 and treated as an unclean thing2 she who had despised the idolatrous ,gentiles in her pride of superior sanctity has now become foul and despicable in their eyes6 #abc i4 #ag4 ,the semi-dramatic form of the elegy is seen in the reappearance of ,jerusalem as speaker without any formula of introduction4 ,after the poet's brief interjection describing the suppliant1 the personified city continues her plaintive appeal1 but with a considerable enlargement of its scope4 ,she makes the most distinct acknowledgment of the two vital elements of the case--,god's righteousness and her own rebellion4#abd ,these carry us beneath the visible scenes of trouble so graphically illustrated earlier1 and fix our attention on deep-seated principles4 ,it cannot be supposed that the faith and penitence unreservedly confessed in the elegy were truly experienced by all the fugitive citizens of ,jerusalem1 though they were found in the devout remnant among whom the author of the poem must be reckoned4 ,but the reasonable interpretation of these utterances is that which accepts them as the inspired expressions of the thoughts and feelings which ,jerusalem ought to possess1 as ideal expressions1 suitable to those who rightly appreciate the whole situation4 ,this fact gives them a wide applicability4 ,the ideal approaches the universal4 ,although it cannot be said that all trouble is the direct punishment of sin1 and although it is manifestly insincere to make confession of guilt one does not inwardly admit1 to be firmly settled in the conviction that ,god is right in what he does even when it all looks most wrong1 that if there is a fault it must be on man's side1 is to have reached the centre of truth4 ,this is very different from the admission that ,god has the right of an absolute sovereign to do whatever ,he chooses1 like mad ,caligula when intoxicated with his own divinity2 it even implies a denial of that supposed right1 for it asserts that ,he acts in accordance with something other than ,his will1 viz41 righteousness4 #abd i4 #ah4 ,enlarging the area of her appeal1 no longer content to snatch at the casual pity of individual travellers on the road1 ,jerusalem now calls upon all the peoples--i4e41 all neighbouring tribes--to hear the tale of her woes4#abe ,this is too huge a tragedy to be confined to private spectators2 it is of national proportions1 and it claims the attention of whole nations4 ,it is curious to observe that foreigners1 whom the strict ,jews sternly exclude from their privileges1 are nevertheless besought to compassionate their distresses4 ,these uncircumcised heathen are not now thrust contemptuously aside2 they are even appealed to as sympathisers4 ,perhaps this is meant to indicate the vastness of the misery of ,jerusalem by the suggestion that even aliens should be affected by it2 when the waves spread far in all directions there must have been a most terrible storm at the centre of disturbance4 ,still it is possible to find in this widening outlook of the poet a sign of the softening and enlarging effects of trouble4 ,the very need of much sympathy breaks down the barriers of proud exclusiveness1 and prepares one to look for gracious qualities among people who have been previously treated with churlish indifference or positive animosity4 ,floods and earthquakes tame savage beasts4 ,on the battlefield wounded men gratefully accept relief from their mortal enemies4 ,conduct of this sort may be self-regarding1 perhaps weak and cowardly2 still it is an outcome of the natural brotherhood of all mankind1 any confession of which1 however reluctant1 is a welcome thing4 #abe i4 #ah4 ,the appeal to the nations contains three particulars4 ,it deplores the captivity of the virgins and young men2 the treachery of allies--lovers who have been called upon for assistance1 but in vain2 and the awful fact that men of such consequence as the elders and priests1 the very aristocracy of ,jerusalem1 had died of starvation after an ineffectual search for food--a lurid picture of the horrors of the siege4#abf ,the details repeat themselves with but very slight variations4 ,it is natural for a great sufferer to revolve his bitter morsel continuously4 ,the action is a sign of its bitterness4 ,the monotony of the dirge is a sure indication of the depth of the trouble that occasions it4 ,the theme is only too interesting to the mourner1 however wearisome it may become to the listener4 #abf i4 #ah1 #ai4 ,in drawing to a close the appeal goes further1 and1 rising altogether above man1 seeks the attention of ,god4#abg ,it is not enough that every passing traveller is arrested1 nor even that the notice of all the neighbouring nations is sought2 this trouble is too great for human shoulders to bear4 ,it will absorb the largest mass of sympathy1 and yet thirst for more4 ,twice before in the first part of the elegy the language of the poet speaking in his own person was interrupted by an outcry of ,jerusalem to ,god4#abh ,now the elegy closes with a fuller appeal to ,heaven4 ,this is an utterance of faith where faith is tried to the uttermost4 ,it is distinctly recognised that the calamities bewailed have been sent by ,god2 and yet the stricken city turns to ,god for consolation4 ,and the appeal is not at all in the form of a cry to a tormentor for mercy2 it seeks friendly sympathy and avenging actions4 ,nothing could more clearly prove the consciousness that ,god is not doing any wrong to ,his people4 ,not only is there no complaint against the justice of ,his acts2 in spite of them all ,he is still regarded as the greatest ,friend and ,helper of the victims of ,his wrath4 #abg i4 #bj-b4 #abh i4 #i1 #aa4 ,this apparently paradoxical position issues in what might otherwise be a contradiction of thought4 ,the ruin of ,jerusalem is attributed to the righteous judgment of ,god1 against which no shadow of complaint is raised2 and yet ,god is asked to pour vengeance on the heads of the human agents of ,his wrath6 ,these people have been acting from their own evil1 or at all events their own inimical motives4 ,therefore it is not held that they deserve punishment for their conduct any the less on account of the fact that they have been the unconscious instruments of ,providence4 ,the vengeance here sought for cannot be brought into line with ,christian principles2 but the poet had never heard the ,sermon on the ,mount4 ,it would not have occurred to him that the spirit of revenge was not right1 any more than it occurred to the writers of maledictory ,psalms4 ,there is one more point in this final appeal to ,god which should be noticed1 because it is very characteristic of the elegy throughout4 ,zion bewails her friendless condition1 declaring1 there is none to comfort me4#abi ,this is the fifth reference to the absence of a comforter4#acj ,the idea may be merely introduced in order to accentuate the description of utter desolation4 ,and yet when we compare the several allusions to it the conclusion seems to be forced upon us that the poet has a more specific intention4 ,in some cases1 at least1 he seems to have one particular comforter in mind1 as1 for example1 when he says1 ,the comforter that should refresh my soul is far from me4#aca ,our thoughts instinctively turn to the ,paraclete of ,st4 ,john's ,gospel4 ,it would not be reasonable to suppose that the elegist had attained to any definite conception of the ,holy ,spirit such as that of the ripe ,christian revelation4 ,but we have his own words to witness that ,god is to him the supreme ,comforter1 is the ,lord and ,giver of life who refreshes his soul4 ,it would seem1 then1 that the poet's thought is like that of the author of the twenty-second ,psalm1 which was echoed in our ,lord's cry of despair on the cross4#acb ,when ,god our ,comforter hides the light of ,his countenance the night is most dark4 ,yet the darkness is not always perceived1 or its cause recognised4 ,then to miss the consolations of ,god consciously1 with pain1 is the first step towards recovering them4 #abi i4 #ba4 #acj ,see i4 #b1 #i1 #af1 #ag1 #ba4 #aca i4 #af4 #acb ,mark xv4 #cd4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,god ,,as ,,an ,,enemy ii4 #a-i ,the elegist1 as we have seen1 attributes the troubles of the ,jews to the will and action of ,god4 ,in the second poem he even ventures further1 and with daring logic presses this idea to its ultimate issues4 ,if ,god is tormenting ,his people in fierce anger it must be because ,he is their enemy--so the sad-hearted patriot reasons4 ,the course of ,providence does not shape itself to him as a merciful chastisement1 as a veiled blessing2 its motive seems to be distinctly unfriendly4 ,he drives his dreadful conclusion home with great amplitude of details4 ,in order to appreciate the force of it let us look at the illustrative passage in two ways--first1 in view of the calamities inflicted on ,jerusalem1 all of which are here ascribed to ,god1 and then with regard to those thoughts and purposes of their ,divine ,author which appear to be revealed in them4 ,first1 then1 we have the earthly side of the process4 ,the daughter of ,zion is covered with a cloud4#acc ,the metaphor would be more striking in the brilliant ,east than it is to us in our habitually sombre climate4 ,there it would suggest unwonted gloom--the loss of the customary light of heaven1 rare distress1 and excessive melancholy4 ,it is a general1 comprehensive image intended to overshadow all that follows4 ,terrible disasters cover the aspect of all things from zenith to horizon4 ,the physical darkness that accompanied the horrors of ,golgotha is here anticipated1 not indeed by any actual prophecy1 but in idea4 #acc ii4 #a4 ,but there is more than gloom4 ,a mere cloud may lift1 and discover everything unaltered by the passing shadow4 ,the distress that has fallen on ,jerusalem is not thus superficial and transient4 ,she herself has suffered a fatal fall4 ,the beauty of ,israel has been cast down from heaven to earth4 ,the language is now varied2 instead of the daughter of ,zion we have the beauty of ,israel4#acd ,the use of the larger title1 ,israel1 is not a little significant4 ,it shews that the elegist is alive to the idea of the fundamental unity of his race1 a unity which could not be destroyed by centuries of inter-tribal warfare4 ,although in the ungracious region of politics ,israel stood aloft from ,judah1 the two peoples were frequently treated as one by poets and prophets when religious ideas were in mind4 ,here apparently the vastness of the calamities of ,jerusalem has obliterated the memory of jealous distinctions4 ,similarly we may see the great ,english race--,british and ,american--forgetting national divisions in pursuit of its higher religious aims1 as in ,christian missions2 and we may be sure that this blood-unity would be felt most keenly under the shadow of a great trouble on either side of the ,atlantic4 ,by the time of the destruction of ,jerusalem the northern tribes had been scattered1 but the use of the distinctive name of these people is a sign that the ancient oneness of all who traced back their pedigree to the patriarch ,jacob was still recognised4 ,it is some compensation for the endurance of trouble to find it thus breaking down the middle wall of partition between estranged brethren4 #acd ii4 #a4 ,it has been suggested with probability that by the expression the beauty of ,israel the elegist intended to indicate the temple4 ,this magnificent pile of buildings1 crowning one of the hills of ,jerusalem1 and shining with gold in barbaric splendour1 was the central object of beauty among all the people who revered the worship it enshrined4 ,its situation would naturally suggest the language here employed4 ,jerusalem rises among the hills of ,judah1 some two thousand feet above the sea-level2 and when viewed from the wilderness in the south she looks indeed like a city built in the heavens4 ,but the physical exaltation of ,jerusalem and her temple was surpassed by exaltation in privilege1 and prosperity1 and pride4 ,capernaum1 the vain city of the lake that would raise herself to heaven1 is warned by ,jesus that she shall be cast down to ,hades4#ace ,now not only ,jerusalem1 but the glory of the race of ,israel1 symbolised by the central shrine of the national religion1 is thus humiliated4 #ace ,matt4 xi4 #bc4 ,still keeping in mind the temple1 the poet tells us that ,god has forgotten ,his footstool4 ,he seems to be thinking of the ,mercy-,seat over the ark1 the spot at which ,god was thought to shew ,himself propitious to ,israel on the great ,day of ,atonement1 and which was looked upon as the very centre of the ,divine presence4 ,in the destruction of the temple the holiest places were outraged1 and the ark itself carried off or broken up1 and never more heard of4 ,how different was this from the story of the loss of the ark in the days of ,eli1 when the ,philistines were constrained to send it home of their own accord6 ,now no miracle intervenes to punish the heathen for their sacrilege4 ,yes1 surely ,god must have forgotten ,his footstool6 ,so it seems to the sorrowful ,jew1 perplexed at the impunity with which this crime has been committed4 ,but the mischief is not confined to the central shrine4 ,it has extended to remote country regions and simple rustic folk4 ,the shepherd's hut has shared the fate of the temple of the ,lord4 ,all the habitations of ,jacob--a phrase which in the original points to country cottages--have been swallowed up4#acf ,the holiest is not spared on account of its sanctity1 neither is the lowliest on account of its obscurity4 ,the calamity extends to all districts1 to all things1 to all classes4 #acf ii4 #b4 ,if the shepherd's cot is contrasted with the temple and the ark because of its simplicity1 the fortress may be contrasted with this defenceless hut because of its strength4 ,yet even the strongholds have been thrown down4 ,more than this1 the action of the ,jews' army has been paralysed by the ,god who had been its strength and support in the glorious olden time4 ,it is as though the right hand of the warrior had been seized from behind and drawn back at the moment when it was raised to strike a blow for deliverance4 ,the consequence is that the flower of the army1 all that were pleasant to the eye1#acg are slain4 ,israel herself is swallowed up1 while her palaces and fortresses are demolished4 #acg ii4 #d4 ,the climax of this mystery of ,divine destruction is reached when ,god destroys ,his own temple4 ,the elegist returns to the dreadful subject as though fascinated by the terror of it4 ,god has violently taken away ,his tabernacle4#ach ,the old historic name of the sanctuary of ,israel recurs at this crisis of ruin2 and it is particularly appropriate to the image which follows1 an image which possibly it suggested4 ,if we are to understand the metaphor of the sixth verse as it is rendered in the ,english ,authorised and ,revised ,versions1 we have to suppose a reference to some such booth of boughs as people were accustomed to put up for their shelter during the vintage1 and which would be removed as soon as it had served its temporary purpose4 ,the solid temple buildings had been swept away as easily as though they were just such flimsy structures1 as though they had been of a garden4 ,but we can read the text more literally1 and still find good sense in it4 ,according to the strict translation of the original1 ,god is said to have violently taken away ,his tabernacle as a garden4 ,at the siege of a city the fruit gardens that encircle it are the first victims of the destroyer's axe4 ,lying out beyond the walls they are entirely unprotected1 while the impediments they offer to the movements of troops and instruments of war induce the commander to order their early demolition4 ,thus ,titus had the trees cleared from the ,mount of ,olives1 so that one of the first incidents in the ,roman siege of ,jerusalem must have been the destruction of the ,garden of ,gethsemane4 ,now the poet compares the ease with which the great1 massive temple--itself a powerful fortress1 and enclosed within the city walls--was demolished1 with the simple process of scouring the outlying gardens4 ,so the place of assembly disappears1 and with it the assembly itself1 so that even the sacred ,sabbath is passed over and forgotten4 ,then the two heads of the nation--the king1 its civil ruler1 and the priest1 its ecclesiastical chief--are both despised in the indignation of ,god's anger4 #ach ii4 #f4 ,the central object of the sacred shrine is the altar1 where earth seems to meet heaven in the high mystery of sacrifice4 ,here men seek to propitiate ,god2 here too ,god would be expected to shew ,himself gracious to men4 ,yet ,god has even cast off ,his altar1 abhorring ,his very sanctuary4#aci ,where mercy is most confidently anticipated1 there of all places nothing but wrath and rejection are to be found4 ,what prospect could be more hopeless8 #aci ii4 #g4 ,the deeper thought that ,god rejects ,his sanctuary because ,his people have first rejected ,him is not brought forward just now4 ,yet this solution of the mystery is prepared by a contemplation of the utter failure of the old ritual of atonement4 ,evidently that is not always effective1 for here it has broken down entirely2 then can it ever be inherently efficacious8 ,it cannot be enough to trust to a sanctuary and ceremonies which ,god ,himself destroys4 ,but further1 out of this scene which was so perplexing to the pious ,jew1 there flashes to us the clear truth that nothing is so abominable in the sight of ,god as an attempt to worship ,him on the part of people who are living at enmity with ,him4 ,we can also perceive that if ,god shatters our sanctuary1 perhaps ,he does so in order to prevent us from making a fetich of it4 ,then the loss of shrine and altar and ceremony may be the saving of the superstitious worshipper who is thereby taught to turn to some more stable source of confidence4 ,this1 however1 is not the line of reflections followed by the elegist in the present instance4 ,his mind is possessed with one dark1 awful1 crushing thought4 ,all this is ,god's work4 ,and why has ,god done it8 ,the answer to that question is the idea that here dominates the mind of the poet4 ,it is because ,god has become an enemy6 ,there is no attempt to mitigate the force of this daring idea4 ,it is stated in the strongest possible terms1 and repeated again and again at every turn--,israel's cloud is the effect of ,god's anger2 it has come in the day of ,his anger2 ,god is acting with fierce anger1 with a flaming fire of wrath4 ,this must mean that ,god is decidedly inimical4 ,he is behaving as an adversary2 ,he bends ,his bow2 ,he manifests violence4 ,it is not merely that ,god permits the adversaries of ,israel to commit their ravages with impunity2 ,god commits those ravages2 ,he is ,himself the enemy4 ,he shews indignation1 ,he despises1 ,he abhors4 ,and this is all deliberate4 ,the destruction is carried out with the same care and exactitude that characterise the erection of a building4 ,it is as though it were done with a measuring line4 ,god surveys to destroy4 ,the first thing to be noticed in this unhesitating ascription to ,god of positive enmity is the striking evidence it contains of faith in the ,divine power1 presence1 and activity4 ,these were no more visible to the mere observer of events in the destruction of ,jerusalem than in the shattering of the ,french empire at ,sedan4 ,in the one case as in the other all that the world could see was a crushing military defeat and its fatal consequences4 ,the victorious army of the ,babylonians filled the field as completely in the old time as that of the ,germans in the modern event4 ,yet the poet simply ignores its existence4 ,he passes it with sublime indifference1 his mind filled with the thought of the unseen ,power behind4 ,he has not a word for ,nebuchadnezzar1 because he is assured that this mighty monarch is nothing but a tool in the hands of the real ,enemy of the ,jews4 ,a man of smaller faith would not have penetrated sufficiently beneath the surface to have conceived the idea of ,divine enmity in connection with a series of occurrences so very mundane as the ravages of war4 ,a heathenish faith would have acknowledged in this defeat of ,israel a triumph of the might of ,bel or ,nebo over the power of ,jehovah4 ,but so convinced is the elegist of the absolute supremacy of his ,god that no such idea is suggested to him even as a temptation of unbelief4 ,he knows that the action of the true ,god is supreme in everything that happens1 whether the event be favourable or unfavourable to ,his people4 ,perhaps it is only owing to the dreary materialism of current thought that we should be less likely to discover an indication of the enmity of ,god in some huge national calamity4 ,still1 although this idea of the elegist is a fruit of his unshaken faith in the universal sway of ,god1 it startles and shocks us1 and we shrink from it almost as though it contained some blasphemous suggestion4 ,is it ever right to think of ,god as the enemy of any man8 ,it would not be fair to pass judgment on the author of the ,lamentations on the ground of a cold consideration of this abstract question4 ,we must remember the terrible situation in which he stood--his beloved city destroyed1 the revered temple of his fathers a mass of charred ruins1 his people scattered in exile and captivity1 tortured1 slaughtered2 these were not circumstances to encourage a course of calm and measured reflection4 ,we must not expect the sufferer to carry out an exact chemical analysis of his cup of woe before uttering an exclamation on its quality2 and if it should be that the burning taste induces him to speak too strongly of its ingredients1 we who only see him swallow it without being required to taste a drop ourselves should be slow to examine his language too nicely4 ,he who has never entered ,gethsemane is not in a position to understand how dark may be the views of all things seen beneath its sombre shade4 ,if the ,divine sufferer on the cross could speak as though ,his ,god had actually deserted ,him1 are we to condemn an ,old ,testament saint when he ascribes unspeakably great troubles to the enmity of ,god8 ,is this1 then1 but the rhetoric of misery8 ,if it be no more1 while we seek to sympathise with the feelings of a very dramatic situation1 we shall not be called upon to go further and discover in the language of the poet any positive teaching about ,god and ,his ways with man4 ,but are we at liberty to stop short here8 ,is the elegist only expressing his own feelings8 ,have we a right to affirm that there can be no objective truth in the awful idea of the enmity of ,god8 ,in considering this question we must be careful to dismiss from our minds the unworthy associations that only too commonly attach themselves to notions of enmity among men4 ,hatred cannot be ascribed to ,one whose deepest name is ,love4 ,no spite1 malignity1 or evil passion of any kind can be found in the heart of the ,holy ,god4 ,when due weight is given to these negations very much that we usually see in the practice of enmity disappears4 ,but this is not to say that the idea itself is denied1 or the fact shown to be impossible4 ,in the first place1 we have no warrant for asserting that ,god will never act in direct and intentional opposition to any of ,his creatures4 ,there is one obvious occasion when ,he certainly does this4 ,the man who resists the laws of nature finds those laws working against ,him4 ,he is not merely running his head against a stone wall2 the laws are not inert obstructions in the path of the transgressor2 they represent forces in action4 ,that is to say1 they resist their opponent with vigorous antagonism4 ,in themselves they are blind1 and they bear him no ill-will4 ,but the ,being who wields the forces is not blind or indifferent4 ,the laws of nature are1 as ,kingsley said1 but the ways of ,god4 ,if they are opposing a man ,god is opposing that man4 ,but ,god does not confine ,his action to the realm of physical processes4 ,his providence works through the whole course of events in the world's history4 ,what we see evidently operating in nature we may infer to be equally active in less visible regions4 ,then if we believe in a ,god who rules and works in the world1 we cannot suppose that ,his activity is confined to aiding what is good4 ,it is unreasonable to imagine that ,he stands aside in passive negligence of evil4 ,and if ,he concerns ,himself to thwart evil1 what is this but manifesting ,himself as the enemy of the evildoer8 ,it may be contended1 on the other side1 that there is a world of difference between antagonistic actions and unfriendly feelings1 and that the former by no means imply the latter4 ,may not ,god oppose a man who is doing wrong1 not at all because ,he is his ,enemy1 but just because ,he is his truest ,friend8 ,is it not an act of real kindness to save a man from himself when his own will is leading him astray8 ,this of course must be granted1 and being granted1 it will certainly affect our views of the ultimate issues of what we may be compelled to regard in its present operation as nothing short of ,divine antagonism4 ,it may remind us that the motives lying behind the most inimical action on ,god's part may be merciful and kind in their aims4 ,still1 for the time being1 the opposition is a reality1 and a reality which to all intents and purposes is one of enmity1 since it resists1 frustrates1 hurts4 ,nor is this all4 ,we have no reason to deny that ,god can have real anger4 ,is it not right and just that ,he should be angry with the wicked every day8#adj ,would ,he not be imperfect in holiness1 would ,he not be less than ,god if ,he could behold vile deeds springing from vile hearts with placid indifference8 ,we must believe that ,jesus ,christ was as truly revealing the ,father when ,he was moved with indignation as when ,he was moved with compassion4 ,his life shows quite clearly that ,he was the enemy of oppressors and hypocrites1 and ,he plainly declared that ,he came to bring a sword4#ada ,his mission was a war against all evil1 and therefore1 though not waged with carnal weapons1 a war against evil men4 ,the ,jewish authorities were perfectly right in perceiving this fact4 ,they persecuted ,him as their enemy2 and ,he was their enemy4 ,this statement is no contradiction to the gracious truth that ,he desired to save all men1 and therefore even these men4 ,if ,god's enmity to any soul were eternal it would conflict with ,his love4 ,it cannot be that ,he wishes the ultimate ruin of one of ,his own children4 ,but if ,he is at the present time actively opposing a man1 and if ,he is doing this in anger1 in the wrath of righteousness against sin1 it is only quibbling with words to deny that for the time being ,he is a very real enemy to that man4 #adj ,psalm vii4 #aa4 #ada ,matt4 x4 #cd4 ,the current of thought in the present day is not in any sympathy with this idea of ,god as an ,enemy1 partly in its revulsion from harsh and un-,christlike conceptions of ,god1 partly also on account of the modern humanitarianism which almost loses sight of sin in its absorbing love of mercy4 ,but the tremendous fact of the ,divine enmity towards the sinful man so long as he persists in his sin is not to be lightly brushed aside4 ,it is not wise wholly to forget that our ,god is a consuming fire4#adb ,it is in consideration of this dread truth that the atonement wrought by ,his ,son according to ,his own will of love is discovered to be an action of vital efficacy1 and not a mere scenic display4 #adb ,heb4 xii4 #bi4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,cry ,,of ,,the ,,children ii4 #aj-ag ,passion and poetry1 when they fire the imagination1 do more than personify individual material things4 ,by fusing the separate objects in the crucible of a common emotion which in some way appertains to them all1 they personify this grand unity1 and so lift their theme into the region of the sublime4 ,thus while in his second elegy the author of the ,lamentations first dwells on the desolation of inanimate objects1--the temple1 fortresses1 country cottages1--these are all of interest to him only because they belong to ,jerusalem1 the city of his heart's devotion1 and it is the city herself that moves his deepest feelings2 and when in the second part of the poem he proceeds to describe the miserable condition of living persons--men1 women1 and children--profoundly pathetic as the picture he now paints appears to us in its piteous details1 it is still regarded by its author as a whole1 and the people's sufferings are so very terrible in his eyes because they are the woes of ,jerusalem4 ,some attempt to sympathise with the large and lofty view of the elegist may be a wholesome corrective to the intense individualism of modern habits of thought4 ,the difficulty for us is to see that this view is not merely ideal1 that it represents a great1 solid truth1 the truth that the perfect human unit is not an individual1 but a more or less extensive group of persons1 mutually harmonised and organised in a common life1 a society of some sort--the family1 the city1 the state1 mankind4 ,by bearing this in mind we shall be able to perceive that sufferings which in themselves might seem sordid and degrading can attain to something of epic dignity4 ,it is in this spirit that the poet deplores the exile of the king and the princes4 ,he is not now concerned with the private troubles of these exalted persons4 ,judah was a limited monarchy1 though not after the pattern of government familiar to us1 but rather in the style of the ,plantagenet rule1 according to which the sovereign shared his authority with a number of powerful barons1 each of whom was lord over his own territory4 ,the men described as the princes of ,israel were not1 for the most part1 members of the royal family2 they were the heads of tribes and families4 ,therefore the banishment of these persons1 together with the king1 meant for the ,jews who were left behind the loss of their ruling authorities4 ,then it seems most reasonable to connect the clause which follows the reference to the exile with the sufferings of ,jerusalem rather than with the hardships of the captives1 because the whole context is concerned with the former subject4 ,this phrase read literally is1 ,the law is not4#adc ,our ,revisers have followed the ,authorised ,version in connecting it with the previous expression1 among the nations1 which describes the place of exile1 so as to lead us to read it as a statement that the king and the princes were enduring the hardship of residence in a land where their sacred ,torah was not observed4 ,if1 however1 we take the words in harmony with the surrounding thoughts1 we are reminded by them that the removal of the national rulers involved to the ,jews the cessation of the administration of their law4 ,the residents still left in the land were reduced to a condition of anarchy2 or1 if the conquerors had begun to administer some sort of martial law1 this was totally alien to the revered ,torah of ,israel4 ,josiah had based his reformation on the discovery of the sacred law-book4 ,but the mere possession of this was little consolation if it was not administered2 for the ,jews had not fallen to the condition of the ,samaritans of later times who came to worship the roll of the ,pentateuch as an idol4 ,they were not even like the scribes and ,talmudists among their own descendants1 to whom the law itself was a religion1 though only read in the cloister of the student4 ,the loss of good government was to them a very solid evil4 ,in a civilised country1 in times of peace and order1 we breathe law as we breathe air1 unconsciously1 too familiar with it to appreciate the immeasurable benefits it confers upon us4 #adc ii4 #i4 ,with the banishment of the custodians of law the poet associates the accompanying silence of the voice of prophecy4 ,this1 however1 is so important and significant a fact1 that it must be reserved for separate and fuller treatment4#add #add ,see next chapter4 ,next to the princes come the elders1 to whom was intrusted the administration of justice in the minor courts4 ,these were not sent into captivity2 for at first only the aristocracy was considered sufficiently important to be carried off to ,babylon4 ,but though the elders were left in the land1 the country was too disorganised for them to be able to hold their local tribunals4 ,perhaps these were forbidden by the invaders2 perhaps the elders had no heart to decide cases when they saw no means of getting their decisions executed4 ,accordingly instead of appearing in dignity as the representatives of law and order among their neighbours the most respected citizens sit in silence on the ground1 girded in sackcloth1 and casting dust over their heads1 living pictures of national mourning4#ade #ade ii4 #aj4 ,the virgins of ,jerusalem are named immediately after the elders4 ,their position in the city is very different from that of the grave and reverend signiors2 but we are to see that while the dignity of age and rank affords no immunity from trouble1 the gladsomeness of youth and its comparative irresponsibility are equally ineffectual as safeguards4 ,the elders and the virgins have one characteristic in common4 ,they are both silent4 ,these young girls are the choristers whose clear1 sweet voices used to ring out in strains of joy at every festival4 ,now both the grave utterances of magistrates and the blithe singing of maidens are hushed into one gloomy silence4 ,formerly the girls would dance to the sound of song and cymbal4 ,how changed must things be that the once gay dancers sit with their heads bowed to the ground1 as still as the mourning elders6 ,but now1 like ,dante when introduced by his guide to some exceptionally agonising spectacle in the infernal regions1 the poet bursts into tears1 and seems to feel his very being melting away at the contemplation of the most heart-rending scene in the many mournful tableaux of the woes of ,jerusalem4 ,breaking off from his recital of the facts to express his personal distress in view of the next item1 he prepares us for some rare and dreadful exhibition of misery2 and the tale that he has to tell is quite enough to account for the start of horror with which it is ushered in4 ,the poet makes us listen to the cry of the children4 ,there are babies at the breast fainting from hunger1 and older children1 able to speak1 but not yet able to comprehend the helpless circumstances in which their miserable parents are placed1 calling to their mothers for food and drink--a piercing appeal1 enough to drive to the madness of grief and despair4 ,crying in vain for the first necessaries of life1 these poor children1 like the younger infants1 faint in the streets1 and cast themselves on their mothers' bosoms to die4#adf ,this1 then1 is the picture in contemplation of which the poet completely breaks down--children swooning in sight of all the people1 and dying of hunger in their mothers' arms6 ,he must be recalling scenes of the late siege4 ,then the fainting little ones1 as they sank down pale and ill1 resembled the wounded men who crept back from the fight by the walls to fall and die in the streets of the beleaguered city4 #adf ii4 #aa1 #ab4 ,this is just the sharpest sting in the sufferings of the children4 ,they share the fearful fate of their seniors1 and yet they have had no part in the causes that led to it4 ,we are naturally perplexed as well as distressed at this piteous spectacle of childhood4 ,the beauty1 the simplicity1 the weakness1 the tenderness1 the sensitiveness1 the helplessness of infancy appeal to our sympathies with peculiar force4 ,but over and above these touching considerations there is a mystery attaching to the whole subject of the presence of pain and sorrow in young lives that battles all reasoning4 ,it is not only hard to understand why the bud should be blighted before it has had time to open to the sunshine3 this haste in the march of misery to meet her victims on the threshold of life is to our minds a very amazing sight4 ,and yet it is not the most perplexing part of the problem raised by the mystery of the suffering of children4 ,when we turn to the moral elements of the case we encounter its most serious difficulties4 ,children may not be accounted innocent in the absolute sense of the word4 ,even unconscious infants come into the world with hereditary tendencies to the evil habits of their ancestors2 but then every principle of justice resists the attachment of guilt or responsibility to an unsought and undeserved inheritance4 ,and although children soon commit offences on their own account1 it is not the consequences of these youthful follies that here trouble us4 ,the cruel wrongs of childhood that overshadow the world's history with its darkest mystery have travelled on to their victims from quite other regions--regions of which the poor little sufferers are ignorant with the ignorance of perfect innocence4 ,why do children thus share in evils they had no hand in bringing upon the community8 ,it is perhaps well that we should acknowledge quite frankly that there are mysteries in life which no ingenuity of thought can fathom4 ,the suffering of childhood is one of the greatest of these apparently insoluble riddles of the universe4 ,we have to learn that in view of such a problem as is here raised we too are but infants crying in the night4 ,still there is no occasion for us to aggravate the riddle by adding to it manufactured difficulties2 we may even admit such mitigation of its severity as the facts of the case suggest4 ,when little children suffer and die in their innocence they are free at least from those agonies of remorse for the irrecoverable past1 and of apprehension concerning the doom of the future1 that haunt the minds of guilty men1 and frequently far exceed the physical pains endured4 ,beneath their hardest woes they have a peace of ,god that is the counterpart of the martyr's serenity4 ,nevertheless1 when we have said all that can be said in this direction1 there remains the sickening fact that children do suffer and pine and die4 ,still though this cannot be explained away1 there are two truths that we should set beside it before we attempt to form any judgment on the whole subject4 ,the first is that taught so emphatically by our ,lord when ,he declared that the victims of an accident or the sufferers in an indiscriminate slaughter were not to be accounted exceptional sinners4#adg ,but if suffering is by no means a sign of sin in the victim we may go further1 and deny that it is in all respects an evil4 ,it may be impossible for us to accept the ,stoic paradox in the case of little children whom even the greatest pedant would scarcely attempt to console with philosophic maxims4 ,in the endurance of them1 the pain and sorrow and death of the young cannot but seem to us most real evils1 and it is our plain duty to do all in our power to check and stay everything of the kind4 ,we must beware of the indolence that lays upon ,providence the burden of troubles that are really due to our own inconsiderateness4 ,in pursuing the policy that led to the disastrous siege of their city the ,jews should have known how many innocent victims would be dragged into the vortex of misery if the course they had chosen were to fail4 ,the blind obstinacy of the men who refused to listen to the warnings so emphatically pronounced by the great prophets of ,jehovah1 the desperate self-will of these men1 pitted against the declared counsel of ,god1 must bear the blame4 ,it is monstrous to charge the providence of ,god with the consequences of actions that ,god has forbidden4 #adg ,luke xiii #a-e4 ,a second truth must be added1 for there still remains the difficulty that children are placed1 by no choice of their own1 in circumstances that render them thus liable to the effects of other people's sins and follies4 ,we can never understand human life if we persist in considering each person by himself4 ,that we are members one of another1 so that if one member suffers all the members suffer1 is the law of human experience as well as the principle of ,christian churchmanship4 ,therefore we must regard the wrongs of children that so disturb us as part of the travail and woe of mankind4 ,bad as it is in itself that these innocents should be thus involved in the consequences of the misconduct of their elders1 it would not be any improvement for them to be cut off from all connection with their predecessors in the great family of mankind4 ,taken on the whole1 the solidarity of man certainly makes more for the welfare of childhood than for its disadvantage4 ,and we must not think of childhood alone1 deeply as we are moved at the sight of its unmerited sufferings4 ,if children are part of the race1 whatever children endure must be taken as but one element in the vast experience that goes to make up the life-history of mankind4 ,all this is very vague1 and if we offer it as a consolation to a mother whose heart is torn with anguish at the sight of her child's pain1 it is likely she will think our balm no better than the wormwood of mockery4 ,it would be vain for us to imagine that we have solved the riddle1 and vainer to suppose that any views of life could be set against the unquestionable fact that innocent children suffer1 as though they in the slightest degree lessened the amount of this pain or made it appreciably easier to endure4 ,but then1 on the other hand1 the mere existence of all this terrible agony does not justify us in bursting out into tremendous denunciations of the universe4 ,the thoughts that rise from a consideration of the wider relations of the facts should teach us lessons of humility in forming our judgment on so vast a subject4 ,we cannot deny the existence of evils that cry aloud for notice2 we cannot explain them away4 ,but at least we can follow the example of the elders and virgins of ,israel1 and be silent4 ,the portrait of misery that the poet has drawn in describing the condition of ,jerusalem during the siege is painful enough when viewed by itself2 and yet he proceeds further1 and seeks to deepen the impression he has already made by setting the picture in a suitable frame4 ,so he directs attention to the behaviour of surrounding peoples4 ,jerusalem is not permitted to hide her grief and shame4 ,she is flung into an arena while a crowd of cruel spectators gloat over her agonies4 ,these are to be divided into two classes1 the unconcerned and the known enemies4 ,there is not any great difference between them in their treatment of the miserable city4 ,the unconcerned hiss and wag their heads2#adh the enemies hiss and gnash their teeth4#adi ,that is to say1 both add to the misery of the ,jews--the one class in mockery1 the other in hatred4 ,but what are these men at their worst8 ,behind them is the real ,power that is the source of all the misery4 ,if the enemy rejoices it is only because ,god has given him the occasion4 ,the ,lord has been carrying out ,his own deliberate intentions2 nay1 these events are but the execution of commands ,he issued in the days of old4#aej ,this reads like an anticipation of the ,calvinistic decrees4 ,but perhaps the poet is referring to the solemn threatening of ,divine ,judgment pronounced by a succession of prophets4 ,their message had been unheeded by their contemporaries4 ,now it has been verified by history4 ,remembering what that message was--how it predicted woes as the punishment of sins1 how it pointed out a way of escape1 how it threw all the responsibility upon those people who were so infatuated as to reject the warning--we cannot read into the poet's lines any notion of absolute predestination4 #adh ii4 #ae4 #adi ii4 #af4 #aej ii4 #ag4 ,in the midst of this description of the miseries of ,jerusalem the elegist confesses his own inability to comfort her4 ,he searches for an image large enough for a just comparison with such huge calamities as he has in view4 ,his language resembles that of our ,lord when ,he exclaims1 ,whereunto shall ,i liken the kingdom of ,god8#aea a similarity which may remind us that if the troubles of man are great beyond earthly analogy1 so also are the mercies of ,god4 ,compare these two1 and there can be no question as to which way the scale will turn4 ,where sin and misery abound grace much more abounds4 ,but now the poet is concerned with the woes of ,jerusalem1 and he can only find one image with which these woes are at all comparable4 ,her breach1 he says1 is great like the sea1#aeb meaning that her calamities are vast and terrible as the sea2 or perhaps that the ruin of ,jerusalem is like that produced by the breaking in of the sea--a striking image in its application to an inland mountain city2 for no place was really safer from any such cataclysm than ,jerusalem4 ,the analogy is intentionally far-fetched4 ,what might naturally happen to ,tyre1 but could not possibly reach ,jerusalem1 is nevertheless the only conceivable type of the events that have actually befallen this ill-fated city4 ,the ,jews were not a maritime people4 ,to them the sea was no delight such as it is to us4 ,they spoke of it with terror1 and shuddered to hear from afar of its ravages4 ,now the deluge of their own troubles is compared to the great and terrible sea4 #aea ,luke xiii4 #bj4 #aeb ii4 #ac4 ,the poet can offer no comfort for such misery as this4 ,his confession of helplessness agrees with what we must have perceived already1 namely1 that the ,book of ,lamentations is not a book of consolations4 ,it is not always easy to see that the sympathy which mourns with the sufferer may be quite unable to relieve him4 ,the too common mistake of the friend who comes to show sympathy is ,bildad's and his companions' notion that he is called upon to offer advice4 ,why should one who is not in the school of affliction assume the function of pedagogue to a pupil of that school1 who by reason of the mere fact of his presence there should rather be deemed fit to instruct the outsider8 ,if he cannot comfort ,jerusalem1 however1 the elegist will pray with her4 ,his latest reference to the ,divine source of the troubles of the ,jews leads him on to a cry to ,god for mercy on the miserable people4 ,though he may not yet see the gospel of grace which is the only thing greater than the sin and misery of man1 he can point towards the direction in which that glorious gospel is to dawn on the eyes of weary sufferers4 ,here1 if anywhere1 is the solution of the mystery of misery4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,prophets ,,without ,a ,,vision ii4 #i1 #ad ,in deploring the losses suffered by the daughter of ,zion the elegist bewails the failure of her prophets to obtain a vision from ,jehovah4 ,his language implies that these men were still lingering among the ruins of the city4 ,apparently they had not been considered by the invaders of sufficient importance to require transportation with ,zedekiah and the princes4 ,thus they were within reach of inquirers1 and doubtless they were more than ever in request at a time when many perplexed persons were anxious for pilotage through a sea of troubles4 ,it would seem1 too1 that they were trying to execute their professional functions4 ,they sought light2 they looked in the right direction--to ,god4 ,yet their quest was vain2 no vision was given to them2 the oracles were dumb4 ,to understand the situation we must recollect the normal place of prophecy in the social life of ,israel4 ,the great prophets whose names and works have come down to us in ,scripture were always rare and exceptional men--voices crying in the wilderness4 ,possibly they were not more scarce at this time than at other periods4 ,jeremiah had not been disappointed in his search for a ,divine message4#aec ,the greatest seer of visions ever known to the world1 ,ezekiel1 had already appeared among the captives by the waters of ,babylon4 ,before long the sublime prophet of the restoration was to sound his trumpet blast to awaken courage and hope in the exiles4 ,though pitched in a minor key1 these very elegies bear witness to the fact that their gentle author was not wholly deficient in prophetic fire4 ,this was not an age like the time of ,samuel's youth1 barren of ,divine voices4#aed ,it is true that the inspired voices were now scattered over distant regions far from ,jerusalem1 the ancient seat of prophecy4 ,yet the idea of the elegist is that the prophets who might be still seen at the site of the city were deprived of visions4 ,these must have been quite different men4 ,evidently they were the professional prophets1 officials who had been trained in music and dancing to appear as choristers on festive occasions1 the equivalent of the modern dervishes2 but who were also sought after like the seer of ,ramah1 to whom young ,saul resorted for information about his father's lost asses1 as simple soothsayers4 ,such assistance as these men were expected to give was no longer forthcoming at the request of troubled souls4 #aec ,see ,jer4 xlii4 #d1 #g4 #aed ,see #a ,sam4 iii4 #a4 ,the low and sordid uses to which every-day prophecy was degraded may incline us to conclude that the cessation of it was no very great calamity1 and perhaps to suspect that from first to last the whole business was a mass of superstition affording large opportunities for charlatanry4 ,but it would be rash to adopt this extreme view without a fuller consideration of the subject4 ,the great messengers of ,jehovah frequently speak of the professional prophets with the contempt of ,socrates for the professional sophists2 and yet the rebukes which they administer to these men for their unfaithfulness show that they accredit them with important duties and the gifts with which to execute them4 ,thus the lament of the elegist suggests a real loss--something more serious than the failure of assistance such as some ,roman ,catholics try to obtain from ,st4 ,anthony in the discovery of lost property4 ,the prophets were regarded as the media of communication between heaven and earth4 ,it was because of the low and narrow habits of the people that their gifts were often put to low and narrow uses which savoured rather of superstition than of devotion4 ,the belief that ,god did not only reveal ,his will to great persons and on momentous occasions helped to make ,israel a religious nation4 ,that there were humble gifts of prophecy within the reach of the many1 and that these gifts were for the helping of men and women in their simplest needs1 was one of the articles of the ,hebrew faith4 ,the quenching of a host of smaller stars may involve as much loss of life as that of a few brilliant ones4 ,if prophecy fades out from among the people1 if the vision of ,god is no longer perceptible in daily life1 if the ,church1 as a whole1 is plunged into gloom1 it is of little avail to her that a few choice souls here and there pierce the mists like solitary mountain peaks so as to stand alone in the clear light of heaven4 ,the perfect condition would be that in which all the ,lord's people were prophets4 ,if this is not yet attainable1 at all events we may rejoice when the capacity for communion with heaven is widely enjoyed1 and we must deplore it as one of the greatest calamities of the ,church that the quickening influence of the prophetic spirit should be absent from her assemblies4 ,the ,jews had not fallen so low that they could contemplate the cessation of communications with heaven unmoved4 ,they were far from the practical materialism which leads its victims to be perfectly satisfied to remain in a condition of spiritual paralysis--a totally different thing from the theoretical materialism of ,priestley and ,tyndall4 ,they knew that man shall not live by bread alone1 but by every word that proceedeth out of the mouth of ,god2 and therefore they understood that a famine of the word of ,god must result in as real a starvation as a famine of wheat4 ,when we have succeeded in recovering this ,hebrew standpoint we shall be prepared to recognise that there are worse calamities than bad harvests and seasons of commercial depression2 we shall be brought to acknowledge that it is possible to be starved in the midst of plenty1 because the greatest abundance of such food as we have lacks the elements requisite for our complete nourishment4 ,according to reports of sanitary authorities1 children in ,ireland are suffering from the substitution of the less expensive and sweeter diet of maize for the more wholesome oatmeal on which their parents were brought up4 ,must it not be confessed that a similar substitution of cheap and savoury soul pabulum--in literature1 music1 amusements--for the sincere milk of the word and the strong meat of truth is the reason why so many of us are not growing up to the stature of ,christ8 ,the liberty of prophesying for which our fathers contended and suffered is ours4 ,but it will be a barren heritage if in cherishing the liberty we lose the prophesying4 ,there is no gift enjoyed by the ,church for which she should be more jealous than that of the prophetic spirit4 ,as we look across the wide field of history we must perceive that there have been many dreary periods in which the prophets could find no vision from the ,lord4 ,at first sight it would even seem that the light of heaven only shone on a few rare luminous spots1 leaving the greater part of the world and the longer periods of time in absolute gloom4 ,but this pessimistic view results from our limited capacity to perceive the light that is there4 ,we look for the lightning4 ,but inspiration is not always electric4 ,the prophet's vision is not necessarily startling4 ,it is a vulgar delusion to suppose that revelation must assume a sensational aspect4 ,it was predicted of the ,word of ,god incarnate that ,he should not strive1 or cry1 or lift up ,his voice2#aee and when ,he came ,he was rejected because ,he would not satisfy the wonder-seekers with a flaring portent--a sign from heaven4 ,still it cannot be denied that there have been periods of barrenness4 ,they are found in what might be called the secular regions of the operation of the ,spirit of ,god4 ,a brilliant epoch of scientific discovery1 artistic invention1 or literary production is followed by a time of torpor1 feeble imitation1 or meretricious pretence4 ,the ,augustan and ,elizabethan ages cannot be conjured back at will4 ,prophets of nature1 poets1 and artists can none of them command the power of inspiration4 ,this is a gift which may be withheld1 and which1 when denied1 will elude the most earnest pursuit4 ,we may miss the vision of prophecy when the prophets are as numerous as ever1 and unfortunately as vocal4 ,the preacher possesses learning and rhetoric4 ,we only miss one thing in him--inspiration4 ,but1 alas6 that is just the one thing needful4 #aee ,isa4 xlii4 #a4 ,now the question forces itself upon our attention1 what is the explanation of these variations in the distribution of the spirit of prophecy8 ,why is the fountain of inspiration an intermittent spring1 a ,bethesda8 ,we cannot trace its failure to any shortness of supply1 for this fountain is fed from the infinite ocean of the ,divine life4 ,neither can we attribute caprice to ,one whose wisdom is infinite1 and whose will is constant4 ,it may be right to say that ,god withholds the vision1 withholds it deliberately2 but it cannot be correct to assert that this fact is the final explanation of the whole matter4 ,god must be believed to have a reason1 a good and sufficient reason1 for whatever ,he does4 ,can we guess what ,his reason may be in such a case as this8 ,it may be conjectured that it is necessary for the field to lie fallow for a season in order that it may bring forth a better crop subsequently4 ,incessant cultivation would exhaust the soil4 ,the eye would be blinded if it had no rest from visions4 ,we may be overfed2 and the more nutritious our diet is the greater will be the danger of surfeit4 ,one of our chief needs in the use of revelation is that we should thoroughly digest its contents4 ,what is the use of receiving fresh visions if we have not yet assimilated the truth that we already possess8 ,sometimes1 too1 no vision can be found for the simple reason that no vision is needed4 ,we waste ourselves in the pursuit of unprofitable questions when we should be setting about our business4 ,until we have obeyed the light that has been given us it is foolish to complain that we have not more light4 ,even our present light will wane if it is not followed up in practice4 ,but while considerations such as these must be attended to if we are to form a sound judgment on the whole question1 they do not end the controversy1 and they scarcely apply at all to the particular illustration of it that is now before us4 ,there is no danger of surfeit in a famine2 and it is a famine of the word that we are now confronted with4 ,moreover1 the elegist supplies an explanation that sets all conjectures at rest4 ,the fault was in the prophets themselves4 ,although the poet does not connect the two statements together1 but inserts other matter between them1 we cannot fail to see that his next words about the prophets bear very closely on his lament over the denial of visions4 ,he tells us that they had seen visions of vanity and foolishness4#aef ,this is with reference to an earlier period4 ,then they had had their visions2 but these had been empty and worthless4 ,the meaning cannot be that the prophets had been subject to unavoidable delusions1 that they had sought truth1 but had been rewarded with deception4 ,the following words show that the blame was attributed entirely to their own conduct4 ,addressing the daughter of ,zion the poet says3 ,thy prophets have seen visions for thee4 ,the visions were suited to the people to whom they were declared--manufactured1 shall we say8--with the express purpose of pleasing them4 ,such a degradation of sacred functions in gross unfaithfulness deserved punishment2 and the most natural and reasonable punishment was the withholding for the future of true visions from men who in the past had forged false ones4 ,the very possibility of this conduct proves that the influence of inspiration had not the hold upon these ,hebrew prophets that it had obtained over the heathen prophet ,balaam1 when he exclaimed1 in face of the bribes and threats of the infuriated king of ,moab3 ,if ,balak would give me his house full of silver and gold1 ,i cannot go beyond the word of the ,lord1 to do either good or bad of mine own mind2 what the ,lord speaketh1 that will ,i speak4#aeg #aef ii4 #ad4 #aeg ,numb4 xxiv4 #ac4 ,it must ever be that unfaithfulness to the light we have already received will bar the door against the advent of more light4 ,there is nothing so blinding as the habit of lying4 ,people who do not speak truth ultimately prevent themselves from perceiving truth1 the false tongue leading the eye to see falsely4 ,this is the curse and doom of all insincerity4 ,it is useless to enquire for the views of insincere persons2 they can have no distinct views1 no certain convictions1 because their mental vision is blurred by their long-continued habit of confounding true and false4 ,then if for once in their lives such people may really desire to find a truth in order to assure themselves in some great emergency1 and therefore seek a vision of the ,lord1 they will have lost the very faculty of receiving it4 ,the blindness and deadness that characterise so much of the history of thought and literature1 art and religion1 are to be attributed to the same disgraceful cause4 ,greek philosophy decayed in the insincerity of professional sophistry4 ,gothic art degenerated into the florid extravagance of the ,tudor period when it had lost its religious motive1 and had ceased to be what it pretended4 ,elizabethan poetry passed through euphuism into the uninspired conceits of the sixteenth century4 ,dryden restored the habit of true speech1 but it required generations of arid eighteenth century sincerity in literature to make the faculty of seeing visions possible to the age of ,burns and ,shelley and ,wordsworth4 ,in religion this fatal effect of insincerity is terribly apparent4 ,the formalist can never become a prophet4 ,creeds which were kindled in the fires of passionate conviction will cease to be luminous when the faith that inspired them has perished2 and then if they are still repeated as dead words by false lips the unreality of them will not only rob them of all value1 it will blind the eyes of the men and women who are guilty of this falsehood before ,god1 so that no new vision of truth can be brought within their reach4 ,here is one of the snares that attach themselves to the privilege of receiving a heritage of teaching from our ancestors4 ,we can only avoid it by means of searching inquests over the dead beliefs which a foolish fondness has permitted to remain unburied1 poisoning the atmosphere of living faith4 ,so long as the fact that they are dead is not honestly admitted it will be impossible to establish sincerity in worship2 and the insincerity1 while it lasts1 will be an impassable barrier to the advent of truth4 ,the elegist has laid his finger on the particular form of untruth of which the ,jerusalem prophets had been guilty4 ,they had not discovered her iniquity to the daughter of ,zion4#aeh ,thus they had hastened her ruin by keeping back the message that would have urged their hearers to repentance4 ,some interpreters have given quite a new turn to the last clause of the fourteenth verse4 ,literally this states that the prophets have seen drivings away2 and accordingly it has been taken to mean that they pretended to have had visions about the captivity when this was an accomplished fact1 although they had been silent on the subject1 or had even denied the danger1 at the earlier time when alone their words could have been of any use2 or1 again1 the words have been thought to suggest that these prophets were now at the later period predicting fresh calamities1 and were blind to the vision of hope which a true prophet like ,jeremiah had seen and declared4 ,but such ideas are over-refined1 and they give a twist to the course of thought that is foreign to the form of these direct1 simple elegies4 ,it seems better to take the final clause of the verse as a repetition of what went before1 with a slight variety of form4 ,thus the poet declares that the burdens1 or prophecies1 which these unfaithful men have presented to the people have been causes of banishment4 #aeh ii4 #ad4 ,the crying fault of the prophets is their reluctance to preach to people of their sins4 ,their mission distinctly involves the duty of doing so4 ,they should not shun to declare the whole counsel of ,god4 ,it is not within the province of the ambassador to make selections from among the despatches with which he has been entrusted in order to suit his own convenience4 ,there is nothing that so paralyses the work of the preacher as the habit of choosing favourite topics and ignoring less attractive subjects4 ,just in proportion as he commits this sin against his vocation he ceases to be the prophet of ,god1 and descends to the level of one who deals in obiter dicta1 mere personal opinions to be taken on their own merits4 ,one of the gravest possible omissions is the neglect to give due weight to the tragic fact of sin4 ,all the great prophets have been conspicuous for their fidelity to this painful and sometimes dangerous part of their work4 ,if we would can up a typical picture of a prophet in the discharge of his task1 we should present to our minds ,elijah confronting ,ahab1 or ,john the ,baptist before ,herod1 or ,savonarola accusing ,lorenzo de ,medici1 or ,john ,knox preaching at the court of ,mary ,stuart4 ,he is ,isaiah declaring ,god's abomination of sacrifices and incense when these are offered by blood-stained hands1 or ,chrysostom seizing the opportunity that followed the mutilation of the imperial statues at ,antioch to preach to the dissolute city on the need of repentance1 or ,latimer denouncing the sins of ,london to the citizens assembled at ,paul's ,cross4 ,the shallow optimism that disregards the shadows of life is trebly faulty when it appears in the pulpit4 ,it falsifies facts in failing to take account of the stern realities of the evil side of them2 it misses the grand opportunity of rousing the consciences of men and women by forcing them to attend to unwelcome truths1 and thus encourages the heedlessness with which people rush headlong to ruin2 and at the same time it even renders the declaration of the gracious truths of the gospel1 to which it devotes exclusive attention1 ineffectual1 because redemption is meaningless to those who do not recognise the present slavery and the future doom from which it brings deliverance4 ,on every account the rose-water preaching that ignores sin and flatters its hearers with pleasant words is thin1 insipid1 and lifeless4 ,it tries to win popularity by echoing the popular wishes2 and it may succeed in lulling the storm of opposition with which the prophet is commonly assailed4 ,but in the end it must be sterile4 ,when1 through fear or favour1 the messenger of heaven thus prostitutes his mission to suit the ends of a low1 selfish1 worldly expediency1 the very least punishment with which his offence can be visited is for him to be deprived of the gifts he has so grossly abused4 ,here1 then1 we have the most specific explanation of the failure of heavenly visions2 it comes from the neglect of earthly sin4 ,this is what breaks the magician's wand1 so that he can no longer summon the ,ariel of inspiration to his aid4 ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,call ,,to ,,prayer ii4 #ah-bb ,it is not easy to analyse the complicated construction of the concluding portion of the second elegy4 ,if the text is not corrupt its transitions are very abrupt4 ,the difficulty is to adjust the relations of three sections4 ,first we have the sentence1 ,their heart cried unto the ,lord4 ,next comes the address to the wall4 ,o wall of the daughter of ,zion1 etc4 ,lastly1 there is the prayer which extends from verse #bj to the end of the poem4 ,the most simple grammatical arrangement is to take the first clause in connection with the preceding verse4 ,the last substantive was the word adversaries4 ,therefore in the rigour of grammar the pronoun should represent that word4 ,read thus1 the sentence relates an action of the enemies of ,israel when their horn has been exalted4 ,the word rendered cried is one that would designate a loud shout1 and that translated ,lord here is not the sacred name ,jehovah but ,adonai1 a general term that might very well be used in narrating the behaviour of the heathen towards ,god4 ,thus the phrase would seem to describe the insolent shout of triumph which the adversaries of the ,jews fling at the ,god of their victims4 ,on the other hand1 it is to be observed that the general title ,lord 7,adonai7 is also employed in the very next verse in the direct call to prayer4 ,the heart1 too1 is mentioned again there as it is here1 and that to express the inner being and deepest feelings of the afflicted city4 ,it seems unlikely that the elegist would mention a heart-cry of the enemies and describe this as addressed to ,the ,lord4 ,probably then we should apply this opening clause to the ,jews1 although they had not been named in the near context1 a construction favoured by the abrupt transitions in which the elegist indulges elsewhere4 ,it is the heart of the ,jews that cried unto the ,lord4 ,now the question arises1 ,how shall we take this assertion in view of the words that follow8 ,the common reading supposes that it introduces the immediately succeeding sentences4 ,the heart of the ,jews calls to the wall of the daughter of ,zion1 and bids it arise and pray4 ,but with this construction we should look for another word 7such as saying7 to introduce the appeal1 because the ,hebrew word rendered cried is usually employed absolutely1 and not as the preface to quoted speech4 ,besides1 the ideas would be strangely involved4 ,some people1 indefinitely designated they1 exhort the wall to weep and pray6 ,how can this exhortation to a wall be described as a calling to the ,lord8 ,the complication is increased when the prayer follows sharply on the anonymous appeal without a single connecting or explanatory clause4 ,a simpler interpretation is to follow ,calvin in rendering the first clause absolutely1 but still applying it to the ,jews1 who1 though they are not named here1 are supposed to be always in mind4 ,we may not agree with the stern theologian of ,geneva in asserting that the cry thus designated is one of impatient grief flowing not from a right feeling or from the true fear of ,god1 but from the strong and turbid impulse of nature4 ,the elegist furnishes no excuse for this somewhat ungracious judgment4 ,after his manner1 already familiar to us1 the poet interjects a thought--viz41 that the distressed ,jews cried to ,god4 ,this suggests to him the great value of the refuge of prayer1 a topic on which he forthwith proceeds to enlarge first by making an appeal to others1 and then by himself breaking out into the direct language of petition4 ,this is not the first occasion on which the elegist has shown his faith in the efficacy of prayer4 ,but hitherto he has only uttered brief exclamations in the middle of his descriptive passages4 ,now he gives a solemn call to prayer1 and follows this with a deliberate1 full petition1 addressed to ,god4 ,we must feel that the elegy is lifted to a higher plane by the new turn that the thought of its author takes at this place4 ,grief is natural2 it is useless to pretend to be impassive2 and1 although our ,teutonic habits of reserve may make it difficult for us to sympathise with the violent outbursts that an ,oriental permits himself without any sense of shame1 we must admit that a reasonable expression of the emotions is good and wholesome4 ,tennyson recognises this in the well-known lyric where he says of the dead warrior's wife-- ,she must weep or she will die4 ,nevertheless1 an unchecked rush of feeling1 not followed by any action1 cannot but evince weakness2 it has no lifting power4 ,although1 if the emotion is distressful1 such an expression may give relief to its subject1 it is certainly very depressing to the spectator4 ,for this reason the ,book of ,lamentations strikes us as the most depressing part of the ,bible--would it not be just to say1 as the only part that can be so described8 ,but it would not be fair to this ,book to suppose that it did nothing beyond realising the significance of its title4 ,it contains more than a melancholy series of laments4 ,in the passage before us the poet raises his voice to a higher strain4 ,this new and more elevated turn in the elegy is itself suggestive4 ,the transition from lamentation to prayer is always good for the sufferer4 ,the first action may relieve his pent-up emotions2 it cannot destroy the source from which they flow4 ,but prayer is more practical1 for it aims at deliverance4 ,that1 however1 is its least merit4 ,in the very act of seeking help from ,god the soul is brought into closer relations with ,him1 and this condition of communion is a better thing than any results that can possibly follow in the form of answers to the prayer1 great and helpful as these may be4 ,the trouble that drives us to prayer is a blessing because the state of a praying soul is a blessed state4 ,like the muezzin on his minaret1 the elegist calls to prayer4 ,but his exhortation is addressed to a strange object--to the wall of the daughter of ,zion4 ,this wall is to let its tears flow like a river4 ,it is so far personified that mention is made of the apple of its eye2 it is called upon to arise1 to pour out its heart1 to lift up its hands4 ,the license of ,eastern poetry permits the unflinching application of a metaphor to an extent that would be considered extravagant and even absurd in our own literature4 ,it is only in a travesty of melodrama that ,shakespeare permits the ,thisbe of ,a ,midsummer ,night's ,dream to address a wall4 ,browning has an exquisitely beautiful little poem apostrophising an old wall2 but this is not done so as to leave out of account the actual form and nature of his subject4 ,walls can not only be beautiful and even sublime1 as ,mr4 ,ruskin has shewn in his ,stones of ,venice2 they may also wreathe their severe outlines in a multitude of thrilling associations4 ,this is especially so when1 as in the present instance1 it is the wall of a city that we are contemplating4 ,not a new piece of builder's work1 neat and clean and bald1 bare of all associations1 as meaningless as in too many cases it is ugly1 but an old wall1 worn by the passing to and fro of generations that have turned to dust long years ago1 bearing the bruises of war on its battered face1 crumbling to powder1 or perhaps half buried in weeds--such a wall is eloquent in its wealth of associations1 and there is pathos in the thought of its mere age when this is considered in relation to the many men and women and children who have rested beneath its shadow at noon1 or sheltered themselves behind its solid masonry amid the terrors of war4 ,the walls that encircle the ancient ,english city of ,chester and keep alive memories of medival life1 the bits of the old ,london wall that are left standing among the warehouses and offices of the busy mart of modern commerce1 even the remote wall of ,china for quite different reasons1 and many another famous wall1 suggest to us multitudinous reflections4 ,but the walls of ,jerusalem surpass them all in the pathos of the memories that cling to their old grey stones4 ,it does not require a great stretch of imagination to picture these walls as once glowing and throbbing with an intense life1 and now dreaming over the unfathomable depths of age-long memories4 ,in personifying the wall of ,zion1 however1 the ,hebrew poet does not indulge in reflections such as these1 which are more in harmony with the mild melancholy of ,gray's ,elegy than with the sadder mood of the mourning patriot4 ,he names the wall to give unity and concreteness to his appeal1 and to clothe it in an atmosphere of poetic fancy4 ,but his sober thought in the background is directed towards the citizens whom that historic wall once enclosed4 ,herein is his justification for carrying his personification so far4 ,this is more than a wild apostrophe1 the outburst of an excited poet's fancy4 ,the imaginative conceit wings the arrow of a serious purpose4 ,let us look at the appeal in detail4 ,first the elegist encourages a free outflow of grief1 that tears should run like a river1 literally1 like a torrent--the allusion being to one of those steep watercourses which1 though dry in summer1 become rushing floods in the rainy season4 ,this introduction shews that the call to prayer is not intended in any sense as a rebuke for the natural expression of grief1 nor as a denial of its existence4 ,the sufferers cannot say that the poet does not sympathise with them4 ,it might seem needless to give this assurance4 ,but anybody who has attempted to offer exhortation to a person in trouble must have discovered how delicate his task is4 ,let him approach the subject as carefully as he may1 it is almost certain that he will chafe the quivering nerves he desires to soothe1 so sensitive is the soul in pain to any interference from without4 ,under these circumstances1 the one method by which it is at all possible to smooth the way of approach is an expression of genuine sympathy4 ,there may be a deeper reason for this encouragement of the expression of grief as a preliminary to a call to prayer4 ,the helplessness which it so eloquently proclaims is just the condition in which the soul is most ready to cast itself on the mercy of ,god4 ,calm fortitude must always be better than an undisciplined abandonment to grief4 ,but before this has been attained there may come an apathy of despair1 under the influence of which the feelings are simply benumbed4 ,that apathy is the very opposite to drying up the fountain of grief as it may be dried in the sunshine of love2 it is freezing it4 ,the first step towards deliverance will be to melt the glacier4 ,the soul must feel before it can pray4 ,therefore the tears are encouraged to run like torrents1 and the sufferer to give himself no respite1 nor let the apple of his eye cease from weeping4 ,next the poet exhorts the object of his sympathy--this strange personification of the wall of the daughter of ,zion1 under the image of which he is thinking of the ,jews--to arise4 ,the weeping is but a preliminary to more promising acts4 ,the sufferer is not to spend the long night in an unbroken flow of grief1 like the psalmist watering his couch with his tears4#aei ,the very opposite attitude is now suggested4 ,grief must not be treated as a normal condition1 to be acquiesced in or even encouraged4 ,the victim is tempted to cherish his sorrow as a sacred charge1 to feel hurt if any mitigation of it is suggested1 or ashamed of confessing that relief has been received4 ,when he has reached this condition it is obvious that the substance of grief has passed2 the ghost of it that remains is fast becoming a harmless sentiment4 ,if1 however1 the trouble should be still maintaining the tightness of its grip on the heart1 there is positive danger in permitting it to be indulged without intermission4 ,the sufferer must be roused if he is to be saved from the disease of melancholia4 #aei ,psalm vi4 #f4 ,he must be roused also if he would pray4 ,true prayer is a strenuous effort of the soul1 requiring the most wakeful attention and taxing the utmost energy of will4 ,the ,jew stood up to pray with hands outstretched to heaven4 ,the relaxed and feeble devotions of a somnolent worshipper must fall flat and fruitless4 ,there is no value in the length of a prayer1 but there is much in its depth4 ,it is the weight of its earnestness1 not the comprehensiveness of its topics1 that gives it efficacy4 ,therefore we must gird up our loins to pray just as we would to work1 or run1 or fight4 ,now the awakened soul is urged to cry out in the night1 and in the beginning of the night watches--that is to say1 not only at the commencement of the night1 for this would require no rousing1 but at the beginning of each of the three watches into which the ,hebrews divided the hours of darkness--at sunset1 at ten o clock1 and at two in the morning4 ,the sufferer is to keep watch with prayer--observing his vespers1 his nocturns1 and his matins1 not of course to fulfil forms1 but because1 since his grief is continuous1 his prayer also must not cease4 ,this is all assigned to the night1 perhaps because that is a quiet1 solemn season for undisturbed reflection1 when therefore the grief that requires the prayer is most acutely felt2 or perhaps because the time of sorrow is naturally pictured as a night1 as a season of darkness4 ,proceeding with our consideration of the details of this call to prayer1 we come upon the exhortation to pour out the heart like water before the face of the ,lord4 ,the image here used is not without parallel in scripture4 ,thus a psalmist exclaims-- ,i am poured out like water1 ,and all my bones are out of joint2 ,my heart is like wax2 ,it is melted in the midst of my bowels4#afj #afj ,psalm xxii4 #ad4 ,but the ideas are not just the same in the two cases4 ,while the psalmist thinks of himself as crushed and shattered1 as though his very being were dissolved1 the thought of the elegist has more action about it1 with a deliberate intention and object in view4 ,his image suggests complete openness before ,god4 ,nothing is to be withheld4 ,it is not so much that the secrets of the soul are to be disclosed4 ,the end aimed at is not confession1 but confidence4 ,therefore what the writer would urge is that the sufferer should tell the whole tale of his grief to ,god1 quite freely1 without any reserve1 trusting absolutely to the ,divine sympathy4 ,this confidence is a primary requisite in prayer4 ,until we can trust our ,father it is useless to petition for his aid2 we could not avail ourselves of it if it were offered us4 ,indeed1 the soul must come into relations of sympathy with ,god before any real prayer is at all possible4 ,we may go further4 ,the attitude of soul that is here recommended is in itself the very essence of prayer4 ,the devotions that consist in a series of definite petitions are of secondary worth1 and superficial in comparison with this outpouring of the heart before ,god4 ,to enter into relations of sympathy and confidence with ,god is to pray in the truest1 deepest way possible1 or even conceivable4 ,prayer in the heart of it is not petition2 that is the beggar's resort4 ,it is communion--the child's privilege4 ,we must often be as beggars1 empty of everything before ,god2 yet we may also enjoy the happier relationship of sonship with our ,father4 ,even in the extremity of need perhaps the best thing we can do is to spread out the whole case before ,god4 ,it will certainly relieve our own minds to do so1 and everything will appear changed when viewed in the light of the ,divine presence4 ,perhaps we shall then cease to think ourselves aggrieved and wronged2 for what are our deserts before the holiness of ,god8 ,passion is allayed in the stillness of the sanctuary1 and the indignant protest dies upon our lips as we proceed to lay our case before the eyes of the ,all-,seeing4 ,we cannot be impatient any longer2 ,he is so patient with us1 so fair1 so kind1 so good4 ,thus when we cast our burden upon the ,lord we may be surprised with the discovery that it is not so heavy as we supposed4 ,there are times when it is not possible for us to go any further4 ,we do not know what relief to ask for1 or even whether we should request to be in any way delivered from a load which it may be our duty to bear1 or the endurance of which may be a most wholesome discipline for us4 ,these possibilities must always put a restraint upon the utterance of positive petitions4 ,but they do not apply to the prayer that is a simple act of confidence in ,god4 ,the secret of failure in prayer is not that we do not ask enough2 it is that we do not pour out our hearts before ,god1 the restraint of confidence rising from fear or doubt simply paralysing the energies of prayer4 ,jesus teaches us to pray not only because ,he gives us a model prayer1 but much more because ,he is in ,himself so true and full and winsome a revelation of ,god1 that as we come to know and follow ,him our lost confidence in ,god is restored4 ,then the heart that knows its own bitterness1 and that shrinks from permitting the stranger even to meddle with its joy--how much more then with its sorrow8--can pour itself out quite freely before ,god1 for the simple reason that ,he is no longer a stranger1 but the one perfectly intimate and absolutely trusted ,friend4 ,it is to be noted that the elegist points to a definite occasion for the outpouring of the heart before ,god4 ,he singles out specifically the sufferings of the starving children--a terrible subject that appears more than once in this elegy1 shewing how the horror of it has fastened on the imagination of the poet4 ,this was the most heart-rending and mysterious ingredient in the bitter cup of the woes of ,jerusalem4 ,if we may bring any trouble to ,god we may bring the worst trouble4 ,so this becomes the main topic of the prayer that follows4 ,here the cases of the principal victims are cited4 ,priest and prophet1 notwithstanding the dignity of office1 young man and maiden1 old man and little child--all alike have fallen victims4 ,the ghastly incident of a siege1 where hunger has reduced human beings to the level of savage beasts1 women devouring their own children1 is here cited1 and its cause1 as well as that of all the other scenes of the great tragedy1 boldly ascribed to ,god4 ,it is ,god who has summoned ,his ,terrors as at other times ,he had summoned ,his people to the festivals of the sacred city4 ,but if ,god mustered the whole army of calamities it seems right to lay the story of the havoc they have wrought before ,his face2 and the prayer reads almost like an accusation1 or at least an expostulation1 a remonstrance4 ,it is not such1 however2 for we have seen that elsewhere the elegist makes full confession of the guilt of ,jerusalem and admits that the doom of the wretched city was quite merited4 ,still if the dire chastisement is from the hand of ,god it is ,god alone who can bring deliverance4 ,that is the final point to be reached4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,the ,,man ,,that ,,hath ,,seen ,,affliction iii4 #a-ba ,whether we regard it from a literary1 a speculative1 or a religious point of view1 the third and central elegy cannot fail to strike us as by far the best of the five4 ,the workmanship of this poem is most elaborate in conception and most finished in execution1 the thought is most fresh and striking1 and the spiritual tone most elevated1 and1 in the best sense of the word1 evangelical4 ,like ,tennyson1 who is most poetic when he is most artistic1 as in his lyrics1 and like all the great sonneteers1 the author of this exquisite ,hebrew melody has not found his ideas to be cramped by the rigorous rules of composition4 ,it would seem that to a master the elaborate regulations that fetter an inferior mind are no hindrances1 but rather instruments fitted to his hand1 and all the more serviceable for their exactness4 ,possibly the artistic refinement of form stimulates thought and rouses the poet to exert his best powers2 or perhaps--and this is more probable--he selects the richer robe for the purpose of clothing his choicer conceptions4 ,here we have the acrostics worked up into triplets1 so that they now appear at the beginning of every line1 each letter occurring three times successively as an initial1 and the whole poem falling into sixty-six verses or twenty-two triplets4 ,yet none of the other four poems have any approach to the wealth of thought or the uplifting inspiration that we meet with in this highly finished product of literary art4 ,this elegy differs from its sister poems in another respect4 ,it is composed1 for the most part1 in the first person singular1 the writer either speaking of his own experience or dramatically personating another sufferer4 ,who is this man that hath seen affliction8 ,on the understanding that ,jeremiah is the author of the whole book1 it is commonly assumed that the prophet is here revealing his own feelings under the multitude of troubles with which he has been overwhelmed4 ,but if1 as we have seen1 this hypothesis is1 to say the least1 extremely dubious1 of course the assumption that has been based upon it loses its warranty4 ,no doubt there is much in the touching picture of the afflicted person that agrees with what we know of the experience of the great prophet4 ,and yet1 when we look into it1 we do not find anything of so specific a character as to settle us in the conclusion that the words could have been spoken by no one else4 ,there is just the possibility that the poet is not describing himself at all2 he may be representing somebody well known to his contemporaries-- perhaps even ,jeremiah1 or just a typical character1 in the manner of ,browning's ,dramatis ,person4 ,while some mystery hangs over the personality of this man of sorrows the power and pathos of the poem are certainly heightened by the concentration of our attention upon one individual4 ,few persons are moved by general statements4 ,necessarily the comprehensive is all outline4 ,it is by the supply of the particular that we fill up the details2 and it is only when these details are present that we have a full-bodied picture4 ,if an incident is typical it is illustrative of its kind4 ,to know one such fact is to know all4 ,thus the science lecturer produces his specimen1 and is satisfied to teach from it without adding a number of duplicates4 ,the study of abstract reports is most important to those who are already interested in the subjects of these dreary documents2 but it is useless as a means of exciting interest4 ,philanthropy must visit the office of the statistician if it would act with enlightened judgment1 and not permit itself to become the victim of blind enthusiasm2 but it was not born there1 and the sympathy which is its parent can only be found among individual instances of distress4 ,in the present case the speaker who recounts his own misfortunes is more than a casual witness1 more than a mere specimen picked out at random from the heap of misery accumulated in this age of national ruin4 ,he is not simply a man who has seen affliction1 one among many similar sufferers2 he is the man1 the well-known victim1 one pre-eminent in distress even in the midst of a nation full of misery4 ,yet he is not isolated on a solitary peak of agony4 ,as the supreme sufferer1 he is also the representative sufferer4 ,he is not selfishly absorbed in the morbid occupation of brooding over his private grievances4 ,he has gathered into himself the vast and terrible woes of his people4 ,thus he foreshadows our ,lord in ,his passion4 ,we cannot but be struck with the aptness of much in this third elegy when it is read in the light of the last scenes of the gospel history4 ,it would be a mistake to say that these outpourings from the heart of the ,hebrew patriot were intended to convey a prophetic meaning with reference to another ,sufferer in a far-distant future4 ,nevertheless the application of the poem to the ,man of ,sorrows is more than a case of literary illustration2 for the idea of representative suffering which here emerges1 and which becomes more definite in the picture of the servant of ,jehovah in ,isa4 liii41 only finds its full realisation and perfection in ,jesus ,christ4 ,it is repeated1 however1 with more or less distinctness wherever the ,christ spirit is revealed4 ,thus in a noble interpretation of ,st4 ,paul1 the ,apostle is represented as experiencing-- ,desperate tides of the whole world's anguish ,forced through the channel of a single heart4#afa #afa ,st4 ,paul1 by ,frederick ,myers4 ,the portrait of himself drawn by the author of this elegy is the more graphic by reason of the fact that the present is linked to the past4 ,the striking commencement1 ,i am the man1 etc41 sets the speaker in imagination before our eyes4 ,the addition who has seen 7or rather1 experienced7 affliction connects him with his present sufferings4 ,the unfathomable mystery of personal identity here confronts us4 ,this is more than memory1 more than the lingering scar of a previous experience2 it is1 in a sense1 the continuance of that experience1 its ghostly presence still haunting the soul that once knew it in the glow of life4 ,thus we are what we have thought and felt and done1 and our present is the perpetuation of our past4 ,the man who has seen affliction does not only keep the history of his distresses in the quiet chamber of memory4 ,his own personality has slowly acquired a depth1 a fulness1 a ripeness that remove him far from the raw and superficial character he once was4 ,we are silenced into awe before ,job1 ,jeremiah1 and ,dante1 because these men grew great by suffering4 ,is it not told even of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ that ,he was made perfect by the things that ,he suffered8#afb ,unhappily it cannot be said that every hero of tragedy climbs to perfection on the rugged steps of his terrible life-drama2 some men are shattered by discipline which proves to be too severe for their strength4 ,christ rose to ,his highest glory by means of the cruelty of ,his enemies and the treason of one of ,his trusted disciples2 but cruel wrongs drove ,lear to madness1 and a confidant's treachery made a murderer of ,othello4 ,still all who pass through the ordeal come out other than they enter1 and the change is always a growth in some direction1 even though in many cases we must admit with sorrow that this is a downward direction4 #afb ,heb4 v4 #h1 #i4 ,it is to be observed that here in his self-portraiture--just as elsewhere when describing the calamities that have befallen his people--the elegist attributes the whole series of disastrous events to ,god4 ,this characteristic of the ,book of ,lamentations throughout is nowhere more apparent than in the third chapter4 ,so close is the thought of ,god to the mind of the writer1 he does not even think it necessary to mention the ,divine name4 ,he introduces his pronouns without any explanation of their objects1 saying ,his wrath and ,he hath led me1 and so on through the succeeding verses4 ,this quiet assumption of a recognised reference of all that happens to one source1 a source that is taken to be so well known that there is no occasion to name it1 speaks volumes for the deep-seated faith of the writer4 ,he is at the antipodes of the too common position of those people who habitually forget to mention the name of ,god because ,he is never in their thoughts4 ,god is always in the thoughts of the elegist1 and that is why ,he is not named4 ,like ,brother ,lawrence1 this man has learnt to practise the presence of ,god4 ,in amplifying the account of his sufferings1 after giving a general description of himself as the man who has experienced affliction1 and adding a line in which this experience is connected with its cause--the rod of the wrath of ,him who is unnamed1 though ever in mind--the stricken patriot proceeds to illustrate and enforce his appeal to sympathy by means of a series of vivid metaphors4 ,this is the most crisp and pointed writing in the book4 ,it hurries us on with a breathless rush of imagery1 scene after scene flashing out in bewildering speed like the whirl of objects we look at from the windows of an express train4 ,let us first glance at the successive pictures in this rapidly moving panorama of similes1 and then at the general import and unit of the whole4 ,the afflicted man was under the ,divine guidance2 he was not the victim of blind self-will2 it was not when straying from the path of right that he fell into this pit of misery4 ,the strange thing is that ,god led him straight into it--led him into darkness1 not into light as might have been expected with such a ,guide4#afc ,the first image1 then1 is that of a traveller misled4 ,the perception of the terrible truth that is here suggested prompts the writer at once to draw an inference as to the relation in which ,god stands to him1 and the nature and character of the ,divine treatment of him throughout4 ,god1 whom he has trusted implicitly1 whom he has followed in the simplicity of ignorance1 ,god proves to be his ,opponent6 ,he feels like one duped in the past1 and at length undeceived as he makes the amazing discovery that his trusted ,guide has been turning ,his hand against him repeatedly all the day of his woful wanderings4#afd ,for the moment he drops his metaphors1 and reflects on the dreadful consequences of this fatal antagonism4 ,his flesh and skin1 his very body is wasted away2 he is so crushed and shattered1 it is as though ,god had broken his bones4#afe ,now he can see that ,god has not only acted as an enemy in guiding him into the darkness2 ,god's dealings have shewn more overt antagonism4 ,the helpless sufferer is like a besieged city1 and ,god1 who is conducting the assault1 has thrown up a wall round him4 ,with that daring mixture of metaphors1 or1 to be more precise1 with that freedom of sudden transition from the symbol to the subject symbolised which we often meet with in this ,book1 the poet calls the rampart with which he has been girdled gall and travail1#aff for he has felt himself beset with bitter grief and weary toil4#afg #afc iii4 #b4 #afd iii4 #c4 #afe iii4 #d4 #aff ,the ,authorised ,version has travel1 a mere variation in spelling4 ,the word means painful labour1 toil4 #afg iii4 #d4 ,then the scene changes4 ,the victim of ,divine wrath is a captive languishing in a dungeon1 which is as dark as the abodes of the dead1 as the dwellings of those who have been long dead4#afh ,the horror of this metaphor is intensified by the idea of the antiquity of ,hades4 ,how dismal is the thought of being plunged into a darkness that is already aged--a stagnant darkness1 the atmosphere of those who long since lost the last rays of the light of his life6 ,there the prisoner is bound by a heavy chain4#afi ,he cries for help2 but he is shut down so low that his prayer cannot reach his ,captor4#agj #afh iii4 #f4 #afi iii4 #g4 #agj iii4 #h4 ,again we see him still hampered1 though in altered circumstances4 ,he appears as a traveller whose way is blocked1 and that not by some accidental fall of rock1 but of set purpose1 for he finds the obstruction to be of carefully prepared masonry1 hewn stones4#aga ,therefore he has to turn aside1 so that his paths become crooked4 ,yet more terrible does the ,divine enmity grow4 ,when the pilgrim is thus forced to leave the highroad and make his way through the adjoining thickets his ,adversary avails ,himself of the cover to assume a new form1 that of a lion or a bear lying in ambush4#agb ,the consequence is that the hapless man is torn as by the claws and fangs of beasts of prey4#agc ,but now these wild regions in which the wretched traveller is wandering at the peril of his life suggest the idea of the chase4 ,the image of the savage animals is defective in this respect1 that man is their superior in intelligence1 though not in strength4 ,but in the present case the victim is in every way inferior to his ,pursuer4 ,so ,god appears as the ,huntsman1 and the unhappy sufferer as the poor hunted game4 ,the bow is bent1 and the arrow directed straight for its mark4#agd ,nay1 arrow after arrow has already been let fly1 and the dreadful ,huntsman1 too skilful ever to miss ,his mark1 has been shooting the sons of ,his quiver into the very vitals of the object of ,his pursuit4#age #aga iii4 #i4 #agb iii4 #aj4 #agc iii4 #aa4 #agd iii4 #ab4 #age iii4 #ac4 ,here the poet breaks away from his imagery for a second time to tell us that he has become an object of derision to all his people1 and the theme of their mocking songs4#agf ,this is a striking statement4 ,it shews that the afflicted man is not simply one member of the smitten nation of ,israel1 sharing the common hardships of the race whose badge is servitude4 ,he not merely experiences exceptional sufferings4 ,he meets with no sympathy from his fellow-countrymen4 ,on the contrary1 these people so far dissociate themselves from his case that they can find amusement in his misery4 ,thus1 while even a misguided ,don ,quixote is a noble character in the rare chivalry of his soul1 and while his very delusions are profoundly pathetic1 many people can only find material for laughter in them1 and pride themselves in their superior sanity for so doing1 although the truth is1 their conduct proves them to be incapable of understanding the lofty ideals that inspire the object of their empty derision2 thus ,jeremiah was mocked by his unthinking contemporaries1 when1 whether in error1 as they supposed1 or wisely1 as the event shewed1 he preached an apparently absurd policy2 and thus a greater than ,jeremiah1 ,one as supreme in reasonableness as in goodness1 was jeered at by men who thought ,him at best a ,utopian dreamer1 because they were grovelling in earthly thoughts far out of reach of the spiritual world in which ,he moved4 #agf iii4 #ad4 ,returning to imagery1 the poet pictures himself as a hardly used guest at a feast4 ,he is fed1 crammed1 sated2 but his food is bitterness1 the cup has been forced to his lips1 and he has been made drunk--not with pleasant wine1 however1 but with wormwood4#agg ,gravel has been mixed with his bread1 or perhaps the thought is that when he has asked for bread stones have been given him4 ,he has been compelled to masticate this unnatural diet1 so that his teeth have been broken by it4 ,even that result he ascribes to ,god1 saying1 ,he hath broken my teeth4#agh ,it is difficult to think of the interference with personal liberty being carried farther than this4 ,here we reach the extremity of crushed misery4 #agg iii4 #ae4 #agh iii4 #af4 ,reviewing the whole course of his wretched sufferings from the climax of misery1 the man who has seen all this affliction declares that ,god has cast him on from peace4#agi ,the ,christian sufferer knows what a profound consolation there is in the possession of the peace of ,god1 even when he is passing through the most acute agonies--a peace which can be maintained both amid the wildest tempests of external adversity and in the presence of the fiercest paroxysms of personal anguish4 ,is it not the acknowledged secret of the martyrs' serenity8 ,happily many an obscure sufferer has discovered it for himself1 and found it better than any balm of ,gilead4 ,this most precious gift of heaven to suffering souls is denied to the man who here bewails his dismal fate4 ,so too it was denied to ,jesus in the garden1 and again on the cross4 ,it is possible that the dark day will come when it will be denied to one or another of ,his people4 ,then the experience of the moment will be terrible indeed4 ,but it will be brief4 ,an angel ministered to the ,sufferer in ,gethsemane4 ,the joy of the resurrection followed swiftly on the agonies of ,calvary4 ,in the elegy we are now studying a burst of praise and glad confidence breaks out almost immediately after the lowest depths of misery have been sounded1 shewing that1 as ,keats declares in an exquisite line-- ,there is a budding morrow in midnight4 #agi iii4 #ag4 ,it is not surprising1 however1 that1 for the time being1 the exceeding blackness of the night keeps the hope of a new day quite out of sight4 ,the elegist exclaims that he has lost the very idea of prosperity4 ,not only has his strength perished1 his hope in ,god has perished also4#ahj ,happily ,god is far too good a ,father to deal with ,his children according to the measure of their despair4 ,he is found by those who are too despondent to seek ,him1 because ,he is always seeking ,his lost children1 and not waiting for them to make the first move towards ,him4 #ahj iii4 #ah4 ,when we come to look at the series of pictures of affliction as a whole we shall notice that one general idea runs through them4 ,this is that the victim is hindered1 hampered1 restrained4 ,he is led into darkness1 besieged1 imprisoned1 chained1 driven out of his way1 seized in ambuscade1 hunted1 even forced to eat unwelcome food4 ,this must all point to a specific character of personal experience4 ,the troubles of the sufferer have mainly assumed the form of a thwarting of his efforts4 ,he has not been an indolent1 weak1 cowardly creature1 succumbing at the first sign of opposition4 ,to an active man with a strong will resistance is one of the greatest of troubles1 although it will be accepted meekly1 as a matter of course1 by a person of servile habits4 ,if the opposition comes from ,god1 may it not be that the severity of the trouble is just caused by the obstinacy of self-will8 ,certainly it does not appear to be so here2 but then we must remember the writer is stating his own case4 ,two other characteristics of the whole passage may be mentioned4 ,one is the persistence of the ,divine antagonism4 ,this is what makes the case look so hard4 ,the pursuer seems to be ruthless2 ,he will not let his victim alone for a moment4 ,one device follows sharply on another4 ,there is no escape4 ,the second of these characteristics of the passage is a gradual aggravation in the severity of the trials4 ,at first ,god is only represented as a guide who misleads2 then ,he appears as a besieging enemy2 later like a destroyer4 ,and correspondingly the troubles of the sufferer grow in severity1 till at last he is flung into the ashes1 crushed and helpless4 ,all this is peculiarly painful reading to us with our ,christian thoughts of ,god4 ,it seems so utterly contrary to the character of our ,father revealed in ,jesus ,christ4 ,but then it is not a part of the ,christian revelation1 nor was it uttered by a man who had received the benefits of that highest teaching4 ,that1 however1 is not a complete explanation4 ,the dreadful thoughts about ,god that are here recorded are almost without parallel even in the ,old ,testament4 ,how contrary they are to such an idea as that of the pitiful ,father in ,psalm ciii46 ,on the other hand1 it should be remembered that if ever we have to make allowance for the personal equation we must be ready to do so most liberally when we are listening to the tale of his wrongs as this is recounted by the sufferer himself4 ,the narrator may be perfectly honest and truthful1 but it is not in human nature to be impartial under such circumstances4 ,even when1 as in the present instance1 we have reason to believe that the speaker is under the influence of a ,divine inspiration1 we have no right to conclude that this gift would enable him to take an all-round vision of truth4 ,still1 can we deny that the elegist has presented to our minds but one facet of truth8 ,if we do not accept it as intended for a complete picture of ,god1 and if we confine it to an account of the ,divine action under certain circumstances as this appears to one who is most painfully affected by it1 without any assertion concerning the ultimate motives of ,god--and this is all we have any justification for doing--it may teach us important lessons which we are too ready to ignore in favour of less unpleasant notions4 ,finally it would be quite unfair to the elegist1 and it would give us a totally false impression of his ideas1 if we were to go no further than this4 ,to understand him at all we must hear him out4 ,the contrast between the first part of this poem and the second is startling in the extreme1 and we must not forget that the two are set in the closest juxtaposition1 for it is plain that the one is intended to balance the other4 ,the harshness of the opening words could be permitted with the more daring1 because a perfect corrective to any unsatisfactory inferences that might be drawn from it was about to be immediately supplied4 ,the triplet of verses #ai to #ba serves as a transition to the picture of the other side of the ,divine action4 ,it begins with prayer4 ,thus a new note is struck4 ,the sufferer knows that ,god is not at heart his enemy4 ,so he ventures to beseech the very ,being concerning whose treatment of him he has been complaining so bitterly1 to remember his affliction and the misery it has brought on him1 the wormwood1 the gall of his hard lot4 ,hope now dawns on him out of his own recollections4 ,what are these8 ,the ,authorised ,version would lead us to think that when he uses the expression1 ,this ,i recall to my mind1#aha the poet is referring to the encouraging ideas of the verses that immediately follow in the next section4 ,but it is not probable that the last line of a triplet would thus point forward to another part of the poem4 ,it is more consonant with the method of the composition to take this phrase in connection with what precedes it in the same triplet1 and a perfectly permissible change in the translation of the #bjth verse gives good sense in that connection4 ,we may read this3 ,thou 7,o ,god7 wilt surely remember1 for my soul is bowed down within me4 ,thus the recollection that ,god too has a memory and that ,he will remember ,his suffering servant becomes the spring of a new hope4 #aha iii4 #ba4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,the ,,unfailing ,,goodness ,,of ,,god iii4 #bb-d ,although the elegist has prepared us for brighter scenes by the more hopeful tone of an intermediate triplet1 the transition from the gloom and bitterness of the first part of the poem to the glowing rapture of the second is among the most startling effects in literature4 ,it is scarcely possible to conceive of darker views of ,providence1 short of a ,manichan repudiation of the ,god of the physical universe as an evil being1 than those which are boldly set forth in the opening verses of the elegy2 we shudder at the awful words1 and shrink from repeating them1 so near to the verge of blasphemy do they seem to come4 ,and now those appalling utterances are followed by the very choicest expression of confidence in the boundless goodness of ,god6 ,the writer seems to leap in a moment out of the deepest1 darkest pit of misery into the radiance of more than summer sunlight4 ,how can we account for this extraordinary change of thought and temper8 ,it is not enough to ascribe the sharpness of the contrast either to the clumsiness of the author in giving utterance to his teeming fancies just as they occur to him1 without any consideration for their bearings one upon another2 or to his art in designedly preparing an awakening shock4 ,we have still to answer the question1 ,how could a man entertain two such conflicting currents of thought in closest juxtaposition8 ,in their very form and structure these touching elegies reflect the mental calibre of their author4 ,a wooden soul could never have invented their movements4 ,they reveal a most sensitive spirit1 a spirit that resembles a finely strung instrument of music1 quivering in response to impulses from all directions4 ,people of a mercurial temperament live in a state of perpetual oscillation between the most contrary moods1 and the violence of their despair is always ready to give place to the enthusiasm of a new hope4 ,we call them inconsistent2 but their inconsistency may spring from a quick-witted capacity to see two sides of a question in the time occupied by slower minds with the contemplation of one4 ,as a matter of fact1 however1 the revulsion in the mind of the poet may not have been so sudden as it appears in his work4 ,we can scarcely suppose that so elaborate a composition as this elegy was written from beginning to end at a single sitting4 ,indeed1 here we seem to have the mark of a break4 ,the author composes the first part in an exceptionally gloomy mood1 and leaves the poem unfinished1 perhaps for some time4 ,when he returns to it on a subsequent occasion he is in a totally different frame of mind1 and this is reflected in the next stage of his work4 ,still the point of importance is the possibility of the very diverse views here recorded4 ,nor is this wholly a matter of temperament4 ,is it not more or less the case with all of us1 that since absorption with one class of ideas entirely excludes their opposites1 when the latter are allowed to enter the mind they will rush in with the force of a pent-up flood8 ,then we are astonished that we could ever have forgotten them4 ,we build our theories in disregard of whole regions of thought4 ,when these occur to us it is with the shock of a sudden discovery1 and in the flash of the new light we begin at once to take very different views of our universe4 ,possibly we have been oblivious of our own character1 until suddenly we are awakened to our true state1 to be overwhelmed with shame at an unexpected revelation of sordid meanness1 of despicable selfishness4 ,or perhaps the vision is of the heart of another person1 whose quiet1 unassuming goodness we have not appreciated1 because it has been so unvarying and dependable that we have taken it as a matter of course1 like the daily sunrise1 never perceiving that this very constancy is the highest merit4 ,we have been more grateful for the occasional lapses into kindness with which habitually churlish people have surprised us4 ,then there has come the revelation1 in which we have been made to see that a saint has been walking by our side all the day4 ,many of us are very slow in reaching a similar discovery concerning ,god4 ,but when we begin to take a right view of ,his relations to us we are amazed to think that we had not perceived them before1 so rich and full and abounding are the proofs of ,his exceeding goodness4 ,still it may seem to us a strange thing that this most perfect expression of a joyous assurance of the mercy and compassion of ,god should be found in the ,book of ,lamentations of all places4 ,it may well give heart to those who have not sounded the depths of sorrow1 as the author of these sad poems had done1 to learn that even he had been able to recognise the merciful kindness of ,god in the largest possible measure4 ,a little reflection1 however1 should teach us that it is not so unnatural a thing for this gem of grateful appreciation to appear where it is4 ,we do not find1 as a rule1 that the most prosperous people are the foremost to recognise the love of ,god4 ,the reverse is very frequently the case4 ,if prosperity is not always accompanied by callous ingratitude--and of course it would be grossly unjust to assert anything so harsh--at all events it is certain that adversity is far from blinding our eyes to the brighter side of the revelation of ,god4 ,sometimes it is the very means by which they are opened4 ,in trouble the blessings of the past are best valued1 and in trouble the need of ,god's compassion is most acutely felt4 ,but this is not all4 ,the softening influence of sorrow seems to have a more direct effect upon our sense of ,divine goodness4 ,perhaps1 too1 it is some compensation for melancholy1 that persons who are afflicted with it are most responsive to sympathy4 ,the morbid1 despondent poet ,cowper has written most exquisitely about the love of ,god4 ,watts is enthusiastic in his praise of the ,divine grace2 but a deeper note is sounded in the ,olney hymns1 as1 for example1 in that beginning with the line-- ,hark1 my soul1 it is the ,lord4 ,while reading this hymn to-day we cannot fail to feel the peculiar thrill of personal emotion that still quivers through its living words1 revealing the very soul of their author4 ,this is more than joyous praise2 it is the expression of a personal experience of the compassion of ,god in times of deepest need4 ,the same sensitive poet has given us a description of the very condition that is illustrated by the passage in the ,hebrew elegist we are now considering1 in lines which1 familiar as they are1 acquire a fresh meaning when read in this association--the lines-- ,sometimes a light surprises ,the ,christian while he sings3 ,it is the ,lord who rises ,with healing in ,his wings4 ,when comforts are declining1 ,he grants the soul1 again1 ,a season of clear shining1 ,to cheer it after rain4 ,we may thank the ,calvinistic poet for here touching on another side of the subject4 ,he reminds us that it is ,god who brings about the unexpected joy of renewed trust in ,his unfailing mercy4 ,the sorrowful soul is1 consciously or unconsciously1 visited by the ,holy ,spirit1 and the effect of contact with the ,divine is that scales fall from the eyes of the surprised sufferer4 ,if it is right to say that one portion of ,scripture is more inspired than another we must feel that there is more ,divine light in the second part of this elegy than in the first4 ,it is this surprising light from ,heaven that ultimately accounts for the sudden revolution in the feelings of the poet4 ,in his new consciousness of the love of ,god the elegist is first struck by its amazing persistence4 ,probably we should follow the ,targum and the ,syriac version in rendering the twenty-second verse thus-- ,the ,lord's mercies1 verily they cease not1 etc41 instead of the usual ,english rendering-- ,it is of the ,lord's mercies that we are not consumed1 etc4 ,there are two reasons for this emendation4 ,first1 the momentary transition to the plural we is harsh and improbable4 ,it is true the author makes a somewhat similar change a little later2#ahb but there it is in an extended passage1 and one in which he evidently wishes to represent his people with ideas that are manifestly appropriate to the community at large4 ,here1 on the other hand1 the sentence breaks into the midst of personal reflections4 ,second--and this is the principal consideration--the balance of the phrases1 which is so carefully observed throughout this elegy1 is upset by the common rendering1 but restored by the emendation4 ,the topic of the triplet in which the disputed passage occurs is the amazing persistence of ,god's goodness to ,his suffering children4 ,the proposed alteration is in harmony with this4 #ahb iii4 #dj-h4 ,the thought here presented to us rests on the truth of the eternity and essential changelessness of ,god4 ,we cannot think of ,him as either fickle or failing2 to do so would be to cease to think of ,him as ,god4 ,if ,he is merciful at all ,he cannot be merciful only spasmodically1 erratically1 or temporarily4 ,for all that1 we need not regard these heart-stirring utterances as the expressions of a self-evident truism4 ,the wonder and glory of the idea they dilate upon are not the less for the fact that we should entertain no doubt of its truth4 ,the certainty that the character of ,god is good and great does not detract from ,his goodness or ,his greatness4 ,when we are assured that ,his nature is not fallible our contemplation of it does not cease to be an act of adoration4 ,on the contrary1 we can worship the immutable perfection of ,god with fuller praises than we should give to fitful gleams of less abiding qualities4 ,as a matter of fact1 however1 our religious experience is never the simple conclusion of bare logic4 ,our feelings1 and not these only1 but also our faith1 need repeated assurances of the continuance of ,god's goodness1 because it seems as though there were so much to absorb and quench it4 ,therefore the perception of the fact of its continuance takes the form of a glad wonder that ,god's mercies do not cease4 ,thus it is amazing to us that these mercies are not consumed by the multitude of the sufferers who are dependent upon them--the extent of ,god's family not in any way cramping ,his means to give the richest inheritance to each of his children2 nor by the depth of individual need--no single soul having wants so extreme or so peculiar that his aid cannot avail entirely for them2 nor by the shocking ill-desert of the most unworthy of mankind--even sin1 while it necessarily excludes the guilty from any present enjoyment of the love of ,god1 not really quenching that love or precluding a future participation in it on condition of repentance2 nor by the wearing of time1 beneath which even granite rocks crumble to powder4 ,the elegist declares that the reason why ,god's mercies are not consumed is that his compassions do not fail4 ,thus he goes behind the kind actions of ,god to their originating motives4 ,to a man in the condition of the writer of this poem of personal confidences the ,divine sympathy is the one fact in the universe of supreme importance4 ,so will it be to every sufferer who can assure himself of the truth of it4 ,but is this only a consolation for the sorrowing8 ,the pathos1 the very tragedy of human life on earth1 should make the sympathy of ,god the most precious fact of existence to all mankind4 ,portia rightly reminds ,shylock that we all do look for mercy2 but if so1 the spring of mercy1 the ,divine compassion1 must be the one source of true hope for every soul of man4 ,whether we are to attribute it to sin alone1 or whether there may be other dark1 mysterious ingredients in human sorrow1 there can be no doubt that the deepest need is that ,god should have pity on ,his children4 ,the worship of heaven among the angels may be one pure song of joy2 but here1 even though we are privileged to share the gladness of the celestial praises1 a plaintive note will mingle with our anthem of adoration1 because a pleading cry must ever go up from burdened spirits2 and when relief is acknowledged our thanksgiving must single out the compassion of ,god for deepest gratitude4 ,it is much1 then1 to know that ,god not only helps the needy--that is to say1 all mankind--but that ,he feels with ,his suffering children4 ,the author of the ,epistle to the ,hebrews has taught us to see this reassuring truth most clearly in the revelation of ,god in ,his ,son1 repeatedly dwelling on the sufferings of ,christ as the means by which ,he was brought into sympathetic1 helpful relations to the sufferings of mankind4#ahc #ahc ,heb4 ii4 #ah1 iv4 #ae4 ,further1 the elegist declares that the special form taken by these unceasing mercies of ,god is daily renewal4 ,the love of ,god is constant--one changeless ,divine attribute2 but the manifestations of that love are necessarily successive and various according to the successive and various needs of ,his children4 ,we have not only to praise ,god for ,his eternal1 immutable goodness1 vast and wonderful as that is2 to our perceptions1 at all events1 his immediate1 present actions are even more significant because they shew ,his personal interest in individual men and women1 and ,his living activity at the very crisis of need4 ,there is a certain aloofness1 a certain chillness1 in the thought of ancient kindness1 even though the effects of it may reach to our own day in full and abundant streams4 ,but the living ,god is an active ,god1 who works in the present as effectually as ,he worked in the past4 ,there is another side to this truth4 ,it is not sufficient to have received the grace of ,god once for all4 ,if ,he giveth more grace1 it is because we need more grace4 ,this is a stream that must be ever flowing into the soul1 not the storage of a tank filled once for all and left to serve for a lifetime4 ,therefore the channel must be kept constantly clear1 or the grace will fail to reach us1 although in itself it never runs dry4 ,there is something cheering in the poet's idea of the morning as the time when these mercies of ,god are renewed4 ,it has been suggested that he is thinking of renewals of brightness after dark seasons of sorrow1 such as are suggested by the words of the psalmist-- ,weeping may come in to lodge at even1 ,but joy cometh in the morning4#ahd #ahd ,heb4 ii4 #ah1 iv4 #ae4 ,this idea1 however1 would weaken the force of the passage1 which goes to shew that ,god's mercies do not fail1 are not interrupted4 ,the emphasis is on the thought that no day is without ,god's new mercies1 not even the day of darkest trouble2 and further1 there is the suggestion that ,god is never dilatory in coming to our aid4 ,he does not keep us waiting and wearying while ,he tarries4 ,he is prompt and early with ,his grace4 ,the idea may be compared with that of the promise to those who seek ,god early1 literally1 in the morning4#ahe ,or we may think of the night as the time of repose1 when we are oblivious of ,god's goodness1 although even through the hours of darkness ,he who neither slumbers nor sleeps is constantly watching over ,his unconscious children4 ,then in the morning there dawns on us a fresh perception of ,his goodness4 ,if we are to realise the blessing sought in ,sir ,thomas ,browne's prayer1 and ,awake into some holy thought1 no more holy thought can be desired than a grateful recognition of the new mercies on which our eyes open with the new day4 ,a morning so graciously welcomed is the herald of a day of strength and happy confidence4 #ahe ,prov4 viii4 #ag4 ,to the notion of the morning renewal of the mercies of ,god the poet appends a recognition of ,his great faithfulness4 ,this is an additional thought4 ,faithfulness is more than compassion4 ,there is a strength and a stability about the idea that goes further to insure confidence4 ,it is more than the fact that ,god is true to ,his word1 that ,he will certainly perform what ,he has definitely promised4 ,fidelity is not confined to compacts--it is not limited to the question of what is in the bond2 it concerns persons rather than phrases4 ,to be faithful to a friend is more than to keep one's word to him4 ,we may have given him no pledge2 and yet we must confess to an obligation to be true--to be true to the man himself4 ,now while we are called upon to be loyal to ,god1 there is a sense in which we may venture without irreverence to say that ,he may be expected to be faithful to us4 ,he is our ,creator1 and ,he has placed us in this world by ,his own will2 ,his relations with us cannot cease at this point4 ,so ,moses pleaded that ,god1 having led ,his people into the wilderness1 could not desert them there2 and ,jeremiah even ventured on the daring prayer-- ,do not disgrace the throne of ,thy glory4#ahf #ahf ,jer4 xiv4 #ba4 ,it is because we are sure the just and true ,god could never do anything so base that ,his faithfulness becomes the ground of perfect confidence4 ,it may be said1 on the other hand1 that we cannot claim any good thing from ,god on the score of merit1 because we only deserve wrath and punishment4 ,but this is not a question of merit4 ,fidelity to a friend is not exhausted when we have treated him according to his deserts4 ,it extends to a treatment of him in accordance with the direct claims of friendship1 claims which are to be measured by need rather than by merit4 ,the conclusion drawn from these considerations is given in an echo from the ,psalms-- ,the ,lord is my portion4#ahg #ahg ,psalm lxxiii4 #bf4 ,the words are old and well-worn2 but they obtain a new meaning when adopted as the expression of a new experience4 ,the lips have often chanted them in the worship of the sanctuary4 ,now they are the voice of the soul1 of the very life4 ,there is no plagiarism in such a quotation as this1 although in making it the poet does not turn aside to acknowledge his obligation to the earlier author who coined the immortal phrase4 ,the seizure of the old words by the soul of the new writer make them his own in the deepest sense1 because under these circumstances it is not their literary form1 but their spiritual significance1 that gives them their value4 ,this is true of the most frequently quoted words of ,scripture4 ,they are new words to every soul that adopts them as the expression of a new experience4 ,it is to be observed that the experience now reached is something over and above the conscious reception of daily mercies4 ,the ,giver is greater than ,his gifts4 ,god is first known by means of ,his actions1 and then being thus known ,he is recognised as ,himself the portion of ,his people1 so that to possess ,him is their one satisfying joy in the present and their one inspiring hope for the future4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,quiet ,,waiting iii4 #be-cf ,having struck a rich vein1 our author proceeds to work it with energy4 ,pursuing the ideas that flow out of the great truth of the endless goodness of ,god1 and the immediate inference that ,he of whom so wonderful a character can be affirmed is ,himself the soul's best possession1 the poet enlarges upon their wider relations4 ,he must adjust his views of the whole world to the new situation that is thus opening out before him4 ,all things are new in the light of the splendid vision before which his gloomy meditations have vanished like a dream4 ,he sees that he is not alone in enjoying the supreme blessedness of the ,divine love4 ,the revelation that has come to him is applicable to other men if they will but fulfil the conditions to which it is attached4 ,in the first place1 it is necessary to perceive clearly what those conditions are on which the happy experience of ,god's unfailing mercies may be enjoyed by any man4 ,the primary requisite is affirmed to be quiet waiting4#ahh ,the passivity of this attitude is accentuated in a variety of expressions4 ,it is difficult for us of the modern western world to appreciate such teaching4 ,no doubt if it stood by itself it would be so one-sided as to be positively misleading4 ,but this is no more than must be said of any of the best lessons of life4 ,we require the balancing of separate truths in order to obtain truth1 as we want the concurrence of different impulses to produce the resultant of a right direction of life4 ,but in the present case the opposite end of the scale has been so much overweighted that we sorely need a very considerable addition on the side to which the elegist here leans4 ,carlyle's gospel of work--a most wholesome message as far as it went--fell on congenial ,anglo-,saxon soil2 and this and the like teaching of kindred minds has brought forth a rich harvest in the social activity of modern ,english life4 ,the ,church has learnt the duty of working--which is well4 ,she does not appear so capable of attaining the blessedness of waiting4 ,our age is in no danger of the dreaminess of quietism4 ,but we find it hard to cultivate what ,wordsworth calls wise passiveness4 ,and yet in the heart of us we feel the lack of this spirit of quiet4 ,charles ,lamb's essay on the ,quakers' ,meeting charms us1 not only on account of its exquisite literary style1 but also because it reflects a phase of life which we own to be most beautiful4 #ahh iii4 #bf4 ,the waiting here recommended is more than simple passiveness1 however1 more than a bare negation of action4 ,it is the very opposite of lethargy and torpor4 ,although it is quiet1 it is not asleep4 ,it is open-eyed1 watchful1 expectant4 ,it has a definite object of anticipation1 for it is a waiting for ,god and ,his salvation2 and therefore it is hopeful4 ,nay1 it has a certain activity of its own1 for it seeks ,god4 ,still1 this activity is inward and quiet2 its immediate aim is not to get at some visible earthly end1 however much this may be desired1 nor to attain some inward personal experience1 some stage in the soul's culture1 such as peace1 or purity1 or power1 although this may be the ultimate object of the present anxiety2 primarily it seeks ,god--all else it leaves in ,his hands4 ,thus it is rather a change in the tone and direction of the soul's energies than a state of repose4 ,it is the attitude of the watchman on his lonely tower--calm and still1 but keen-eyed and alert1 while down below in the crowded city some fret themselves with futile toil and others slumber in stupid indifference4 ,to this waiting for ,him and definite seeking of ,him ,god responds in some special manifestation of mercy4 ,although1 as ,jesus ,christ tells us1 our ,father in heaven maketh ,his sun to rise on the evil and the good1 and sendeth rain on the just and the unjust1#ahi the fact here distinctly implied1 that the goodness of ,god is exceptionally enjoyed on the conditions now laid down1 is also supported by our ,lord's teaching in the exhortations1 ,ask1 and it shall be given you2 seek1 and ye shall find2 knock1 and it shall be opened to you2 for every one that asketh receiveth2 and he that seeketh findeth2 and to him that knocketh it shall be opened4#aij ,st4 ,james adds1 ,ye have not because ye ask not4#aia ,this1 then1 is the method of the ,divine procedure4 ,god expects ,his children to wait on ,him as well as to wait for ,him4 ,we cannot consider such an expectation unreasonable4 ,of course it would be foolish to imagine ,god piquing ,himself on ,his own dignity1 so as to decline aid until ,he had been gratified by a due observance of homage4 ,there is a deeper motive for the requirement4 ,god's relations with men and women are personal and individual2 and when they are most happy and helpful they always involve a certain reciprocity4 ,it may not be necessary or even wise to demand definite things from ,god whenever we seek ,his assistance2 for ,he knows what is good1 while we often blunder and ask amiss4 ,but the seeking here described is of a different character4 ,it is not seeking things2 it is seeking ,god4 ,this is always good4 ,the attitude of trust and expectancy that it necessitates is just that in which we are brought into a receptive state4 ,it is not a question of ,god's willingness to help2 ,he is always willing4 ,but it cannot be fitting that ,he should act towards us when we are distrustful1 indifferent1 or rebellious1 exactly as ,he would act if ,he were approached in submission and trustful expectation4 #ahi ,matt4 v4 #de4 #aij vii4 #g1 #h4 #aia ,james iv4 #b4 ,quiet waiting1 then1 is the right and fitting condition for the reception of blessing from ,god4 ,but the elegist holds more than this4 ,in his estimation the state of mind he here commends is itself good for a man4 ,it is certainly good in contrast with the unhappy alternatives--feeble fussiness1 wearing anxiety1 indolent negligence1 or blank despair4 ,it is good also as a positive condition of mind4 ,he has reached a happy inward attainment who has cultivated the faculty of possessing his soul in patience4 ,his eye is clear for visions of the unseen4 ,to him the deep fountains of life are open4 ,truth is his1 and peace and strength also4 ,when we add to this calmness the distinct aim of seeking ,god we may see how the blessedness of the condition recommended is vastly enhanced4 ,we are all insensibly moulded by our desires and aims4 ,the expectant soul is transformed into the image of the hope it pursues4 ,when its treasure is in heaven its heart is there also1 and therefore its very nature becomes heavenly4 ,to his reflections on the blessedness of quiet waiting the elegist adds a very definite word about another experience1 declaring that it is good for a man that he bear the yoke in his youth4#aib ,this interesting assertion seems to sound an autobiographical note1 especially as the whole poem treats of the writer's personal experience4 ,some have inferred that the author must have been a young man at the time of writing4 ,but if1 as seems probable1 he is calling to mind what he has himself passed through1 this may be a recollection of a much earlier period of his life4 ,thus he would seem to be recognising1 in the calm of subsequent reflection1 what perhaps he may have been far from admitting while bearing the burdens1 that the labours and hardships of his youth prove to have been for his own advantage4 ,this truth is often perceived in the meditations of mature life1 although it is not so easily acknowledged in the hours of strain and stress4 #aib iii4 #bg4 ,it is impossible to say what particular yoke the writer is thinking about4 ,the persecutions inflicted on ,jeremiah have been cited in illustration of this passage2 and although we may not be able to ascribe the poem to the great prophet1 his toils and troubles will serve as instances of the truth of the words of the anonymous writer1 for undoubtedly his sympathies were quickened while his strength was ripened by what he endured4 ,if we will have a definite meaning the yoke may stand for one of three things--for instruction1 for labour1 or for trouble4 ,the sentence is true of either of these forms of yoke4 ,we are not likely to dispute the advantages of youthful education over that which is delayed till adult age2 but even if the acquisition of knowledge is here suggested1 we cannot suppose it to be book knowledge1 it must be that got in the school of life4 ,thus we are brought to the other two meanings4 ,then the connection excludes the notion of pleasant1 attractive work1 so that the yoke of labour comes near to the burden of trouble4 ,this seems to be the essential idea of the verse4 ,irksome work1 painful toil1 forced labour partaking of the nature of servitude--these ideas are most vividly suggested by the image of a yoke4 ,and they are what we most shrink from in youth4 ,inactivity is then by no means sought or desired4 ,the very exercise of one's energies is a delight at the time of their fresh vigour4 ,but this exercise must be in congenial directions1 in harmony with one's tastes and inclinations1 or it will be regarded as an intolerable burden4 ,liberty is sweet in youth2 it is not work that is dreaded1 but compulsion4 ,youth emulates the bounding energies of the war horse1 but it has a great aversion to the patient toil of the ox4 ,hence the yoke is resented as a grievous burden2 for the yoke signifies compulsion and servitude4 ,now1 as a matter of fact1 this yoke generally has to be borne in youth4 ,people might be more patient with the young if they would but consider how vexatious it must be to the shoulders that are not yet fitted to wear it1 and in the most liberty-loving age4 ,as time passes custom makes the yoke easier to be borne2 and yet then it is usually lightened4 ,in our earlier days we must submit and obey1 must yield and serve4 ,this is the rule in business1 the drudgery and restraint of which naturally attach themselves to the first stages4 ,if older persons reflected on what this must mean at the very time when the appetite for delight is most keen1 and the love of freedom most intense1 they would not press the yoke with needless harshness4 ,but now the poet has been brought to see that it was for his own advantage that he was made to bear the yoke in his youth4 ,how so8 ,surely not because it prevented him from taking too rosy views of life1 and so saved him from subsequent disappointment4 ,nothing is more fatal to youth than cynicism4 ,the young man who professes to have discovered the hollowness of life generally is in danger of making his own life a hollow and wasted thing4 ,the elegist could never have fallen to this miserable condition1 or he would not have written as he has done here4 ,with faith and manly courage the yoke has the very opposite effect4 ,the faculty of cherishing hope in spite of present hardships1 which is the peculiar privilege of youth1 may stand a man in stead at a later time1 when it is not so easy to triumph over circumstances1 because the old buoyancy of animal spirits1 which means so much in early days1 has vanished2 and then if he can look back and see how he has been cultivating habits of endurance through years of discipline without his soul having been soured by the process1 he may well feel profoundly thankful for those early experiences which were undoubtedly very hard in their rawness4 ,the poet's reflections on the blessedness of quiet waiting are followed by direct exhortations to the behaviour which is its necessary accompaniment--for such seems to be the meaning of the next triplet1 verses #bh to #cj4 ,the ,revisers have corrected this from the indicative mood1 as it stands in the ,authorised ,version1 to the imperative--,let him sit alone1 etc41 ,let him put his mouth in the dust1 etc41 ,let him give his cheek to him that smiteth him1 etc4 ,the exhortations flow naturally out of the preceding statements1 but the form they assume may strike us as somewhat singular4 ,who is the person thus indirectly addressed8 ,the grammar of the sentences would invite our attention to the man of the twenty-seventh verse4 ,if it is good for everybody to bear the yoke in his youth1 it might be suggested further that it would be well for everybody to act in the manner now indicated--that is to say1 the advice would be of universal application4 ,we must suppose1 however1 that the poet is thinking of a sufferer similar to himself4 ,now the point of the exhortation is to be found in the fact that it goes beyond the placid state just described4 ,it points to solitude1 silence1 submission1 humiliation1 non-resistance4 ,the principle of calm1 trustful expectancy is most beautiful2 and if it were regarded by itself it could not but fascinate us1 so that we should wonder how it would be possible for anybody to resist its attractions4 ,but immediately we try to put it in practice we come across some harsh and positively repellent features4 ,when it is brought down from the ethereal regions of poetry and set to work among the gritty facts of real life1 how soon it seems to lose its glamour6 ,it can never become mean or sordid2 and yet its surroundings may be so4 ,most humiliating things are to be done1 most insulting things endured4 ,it is hard to sit in solitude and silence--a ,ugolino in his tower of famine1 a ,bonnivard in his dungeon2 there seems to be nothing heroic in this dreary inactivity4 ,it would be much easier to attempt some deed of daring1 especially if that were in the heat of battle4 ,nothing is so depressing as loneliness--the torture of a prisoner in solitary confinement4 ,and yet now there must be no word of complaint because the trouble comes from the very ,being who is to be trusted for deliverance4 ,there is a call for action1 however1 but only to make the submission more complete and the humiliation more abject4 ,the sufferer is to lay his mouth in the dust like a beaten slave4#aic ,even this he might brace himself to do1 stifling the last remnant of his pride because he is before the ,lord of heaven and earth4 ,but it is not enough4 ,a yet more bitter cup must be drunk to the dregs4 ,he must actually turn his cheek to the smiter1 and quietly submit to reproach4#aid ,god's wrath may be accepted as a righteous retribution from above4 ,but it is hard indeed to manifest the same spirit of submission in face of the fierce malignity or the petty spite of men4 ,yet silent waiting involves even this4 ,let us count the cost before we venture on the path which looks so beautiful in idea1 but which turns out to be so very trying in fact4 #aic iii4 #bi4 #aid iii4 #cj4 ,we cannot consider this subject without being reminded of the teaching and--a more helpful memory--the example also of our ,lord4 ,it is hard to receive even from ,his lips the command to turn the other cheek to one who has smitten us on the right cheek4 ,but when we see ,jesus doing this very thing the whole aspect of it is changed4 ,what before looked weak and cowardly is now seen to be the perfection of true courage and the height of moral sublimity4 ,by ,his own endurance of insult and ignominy our ,lord has completely revolutionised our ideas of humiliation4 ,his humiliation was ,his glorification4 ,what a ,roman would despise as shameful weakness ,he has proved to be the triumph of strength4 ,thus1 though we may not be able to take the words of the ,lamentations as a direct prophecy of ,jesus ,christ1 they so perfectly realise themselves in the story of ,his ,passion1 that to ,christendom they must always be viewed in the light of that supreme wonder of a victory won through submission2 and while they are so viewed they cannot fail to set before us an ideal of conduct for the sufferer under the most trying circumstances4 ,this advice is not so paradoxical as it appears4 ,we are not called upon to accept it merely on the authority of the speaker4 ,he follows it up by assigning good reasons for it4 ,these are all based on the assumption which runs through the elegies1 that the sufferings therein described come from the hand of ,god4 ,they are most of them the immediate effects of man's enmity4 ,but a ,divine purpose is always to be recognised behind the human instrumentality4 ,this fact at once lifts the whole question out of the region of miserable1 earthly passions and mutual recriminations4 ,in apparently yielding to a tyrant from among his fellow-men the sufferer is really submitting to his ,god4 ,then the elegist gives us three reasons why the submission should be complete and the waiting quiet4 ,the first is that the suffering is but temporary4 ,god seems to have cast off ,his afflicted servant4 ,if so it is but for a season4#aie ,this is not a case of absolute desertion4 ,the sufferer is not treated as a reprobate4 ,how could we expect patient submission from a soul that had passed the portals of a hell over which ,dante's awful motto of despair was inscribed8 ,if they who entered were to forsake all hope it would be a mockery to bid them be still4 ,it would be more natural for these lost souls to shriek with the fury of madness4 ,the first ground of quiet waiting is hope4 ,the second is to be found in ,god's unwillingness to afflict4#aif ,he never takes up the rod1 as we might say1 con amore4 ,therefore the trial will not be unduly prolonged4 ,since ,god ,himself grieves to inflict it1 the distress can be no more than is absolutely necessary4 ,the third and last reason for this patience of submission is the certainty that ,god cannot commit an injustice4 ,so important is this consideration in the eyes of the elegist that he devotes a complete triplet to it1 illustrating it from three different points of view4#aig ,we have the conqueror with his victims1 the magistrate in a case at law1 and the private citizen in business4 ,each of these instances affords an opportunity for injustice4 ,god does not look with approval on the despot who crushes all his prisoners--for ,nebuchadnezzar's outrages are by no means condoned1 although they are utilised as chastisements2 nor on the judge who perverts the solemn process of law1 when deciding1 according to the ,jewish theocratic idea1 in place of ,god1 the supreme ,arbitrator1 and1 as the oath testifies1 in ,his presence2 nor on the man who in a private capacity circumvents his neighbour4 ,but how can we ascribe to ,god what ,he will not sanction in man8 ,shall not the ,judge of all the earth do right8#aih exclaims the perplexed patriarch2 and we feel that his plea is unanswerable4 ,but if ,god is just we can afford to be patient4 ,and yet we feel that while there is something to calm us and allay the agonising terrors of despair in this thought of the unswerving justice of ,god1 we must fall back for our most satisfying assurance on that glorious truth which the poet finds confirmed by his daily experience1 and which he expresses with such a glow of hope in the rich phrase1 ,yet will ,he have compassion according to the multitude of ,his mercies4#aii #aie iii4 #ca1 #cb #aif iii4 #cc4 #aig iii4 #cd-f4 #aih ,gen4 xviii4 #be4 #aii iii4 #cb4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,god ,,and ,,evil iii4 #cg-i ,the eternal problem of the relation of ,god to evil is here treated with the keenest discrimination4 ,that ,god is the supreme and irresistible ruler1 that no man can succeed with any design in opposition to ,his will1 that whatever happens must be in some way an execution of ,his decree1 and that ,he1 therefore1 is to be regarded as the author of evil as well as good--these doctrines are so taken for granted that they are neither proved nor directly affirmed1 but thrown into the form of questions that can have but one answer1 as though to imply that they are known to everybody1 and cannot be doubted for a moment by any one4 ,but the inference drawn from them is strange and startling4 ,it is that not a single living man has any valid excuse for complaining4 ,that1 too1 is considered to be so undeniable that1 like the previous ideas1 it is expressed as a self-answering question4 ,but we are not left in this paradoxical position4 ,the evil experienced by the sufferer is treated as the punishment of his sin4 ,what right has he to complain of that8 ,a slightly various rendering has been proposed for the thirty-ninth verse1 so as to resolve into a question and its answer4 ,read in this way1 it asks1 why should a living man complain8 and then suggests the reply1 that if he is to complain at all it should not be on account of his sufferings1 treated as wrongs4 ,he should complain against himself1 his own conduct1 his sin4 ,we have seen1 however1 in other cases1 that the breaking of a verse in this way is not in harmony with the smooth style of the elegiac poetry in which the words occur4 ,this requires us to take the three verses of the triplet as continuous1 flowing sentences4 ,quite a number of considerations arise out of the curious juxtaposition of ideas in this passage4 ,in the first place1 it is very evident that by the word evil the writer here means trouble and suffering1 not wickedness1 because he clearly distinguishes it from the sin the mention of which follows4 ,that sin is a man's own deed1 for which he is justly punished4 ,the poet1 then1 does not attribute the causation of sin to ,god2 he does not speculate at all on the origin of moral evil4 ,as far as he goes in the present instance1 he would seem to throw back the authorship of it upon the will of man4 ,how that will came to turn astray he does not say4 ,this awful mystery remains unsolved through the whole course of the revelation of the ,old ,testament1 and even through that of the ,new also4 ,it cannot be maintained that the story of the ,fall in ,genesis is a solution of the mystery4 ,to trace temptation back to the serpent is not to account for its existence1 nor for the facility with which man was found to yield to it4 ,when1 at a later period1 ,satan appears on the stage1 it is not to answer the perplexing question of the origin of evil4 ,in the ,old ,testament he is nowhere connected with the ,fall--his identification with the serpent first occurring in the ,book of ,wisdom1#bjj from which apparently it passed into current language1 and so was adopted by ,st4 ,john in the ,apocalypse4#bja ,at first ,satan is the adversary and accuser of man1 as in ,job#bjb and ,zechariah2#bjc then he is recognised as the tempter1 in ,chronicles1 for example4#bjd ,but in no case is he said to be the primary cause of evil4 ,no plummet can sound the depths of that dark pit in which lurks the source of sin4 #bjj ,wisdom ii4 #bc ff4 #bja ,rev4 xii4 #i4 #bjb ,job i4 #f-ab1 ii4 #a-g4 #bjc ,zech4 iii4 #a1 #b4 #bjd #a ,chron4 xxi4 #a4 ,meanwhile a very different problem1 the problem of suffering1 is answered by attributing this form of evil quite unreservedly and even emphatically to ,god4 ,it is to be remembered that our ,lord1 accepting the language of ,his contemporaries1 ascribes this to ,satan1 speaking of the woman afflicted with a spirit of infirmity as one whom ,satan had bound2#bje and that similarly ,st4 ,paul writes of his thorn in the flesh as a messenger of ,satan1#bjf to whom he also assigns the hindrance of a projected journey4#bjg ,but in these cases it is not in the least degree suggested that the evil spirit is an irresistible and irresponsible being4 ,the language only points to his immediate agency4 ,the absolute supremacy of ,god is never called in question4 ,there is no real concession to ,persian dualism anywhere in the ,bible4 ,in difficult cases the sacred writers seem more anxious to uphold the authority of ,god than to justify ,his actions4 ,they are perfectly convinced that those actions are all just and right1 and not to be called in question1 and so they are quite fearless in attributing to ,his direct commands occurrences that we should perhaps think more satisfactorily accounted for in some other way4 ,in such cases theirs is the language of unfailing faith1 even when faith is strained almost to breaking4 #bje ,luke xiii4 #af4 #bjf #b ,cor4 xii4 #g4 #bjg #a ,thess4 ii4 #ah4 ,the unquestionable fact that good and evil both come from the mouth of the ,most ,high is based on the certain conviction that ,he is the ,most ,high4 ,since it cannot be believed that ,his decrees should be thwarted1 it cannot be supposed that there is any rival to ,his power4 ,to speak of evil as independent of ,god is to deny that ,he is ,god4 ,this is what a system of pure dualism must come to4 ,if there are two mutually independent principles in the universe neither of them can be ,god4 ,dualism is as essentially opposed to the idea we attach to the name ,god as polytheism4 ,the gods of the heathen are no gods1 and so also are the imaginary twin divinities that divide the universe between them1 or contend in a vain endeavour to suppress one another4 ,god1 as we understand the title1 is the name of the ,supreme1 the ,almighty1 the ,king of kings and ,lord of lords4 ,the ,zend-,avesta escapes the logical conclusion of atheism by regarding its two principles1 ,ormuzd and ,ahriman1 as two streams issuing from a common fountain1 or as two phases of one existence4 ,but then it saves its theism at the expense of its dualism4 ,in practice1 however1 this is not done4 ,the dualism1 the mutual antagonism of the two powers1 is the central idea of the ,parsee system2 and being so1 it stands in glaring contrast to the lofty monism of the ,bible4 ,nevertheless1 it may be said1 although it is thus necessary to attribute evil as well as good to ,god if we would not abandon the thought of ,his supremacy1 a thought that is essential to our conception of ,his very nature1 this is a perplexing necessity1 and not one to be accepted with any sense of satisfaction4 ,how then can the elegist welcome it with acclamation and set it before us with an air of triumph8 ,that he does so is undeniable1 for the spirit and tone of the poem here become positively exultant4 ,we may reply that the writer appears as the champion of the ,divine cause4 ,no attack on ,god's supremacy is to be permitted4 ,nothing of the kind1 however1 has been suggested4 ,the writer is pursuing another aim1 for he is anxious to still the murmurs of discontent4 ,but how can the thought of the supremacy of ,god have that effect8 ,one would have supposed the ascription to ,god of the trouble complained of would deepen the sense of distress and turn the complaint against ,him4 ,yet it is just here that the elegist sees the unreasonableness of a complaining spirit4 ,of course the uselessness of complaining1 or rather the uselessness of attempting resistance1 may be impressed upon us in this way4 ,if the source of our trouble is nothing less than the ,almighty and ,supreme ,ruler of all things it is stupid to dream of thwarting ,his purposes4 ,if a man will run his head like a battering-ram against a granite cliff the most he can effect by his madness will be to bespatter the rock with his brains4 ,it may be necessary to warn the rebel against ,providence of this danger by shewing him that what he mistakes for a flimsy veil or a shadowy cloud is an immovable wall4 ,but what will he find to exult over in the information8 ,the hopelessness of resistance is no better than the consolation of pessimism1 and its goal is despair4 ,our author1 on the other hand1 evidently intends to be reassuring4 ,now1 is there not something reassuring in the thought that evil and good come to us from one and the same source8 ,for1 consider the alternative4 ,remember1 the evil exists as surely as the good4 ,the elegist does not attempt to deny this1 or to minimise the fact4 ,he never calls evil good1 never explains it away4 ,there it stands before us1 in all its ugly actuality1 speculations concerning its origin neither aggravating the severity of its symptoms nor alleviating them4 ,whence1 then1 did this perplexing fact arise8 ,if we postulate some other source than the ,divine origin of good1 what is it8 ,a dreadful mystery here yawns at our feet4 ,if evil came from an equally potent origin it would contend with good on even terms1 and the issue would always hang in the balance4 ,there could be nothing reassuring in that tantalising situation4 ,the fate of the universe would be always quivering in uncertainty4 ,and meanwhile we should have to conclude1 that the most awful conflict with absolutely doubtful issues was raging continually4 ,we could only contemplate the idea of this vast schism with terror and dismay4 ,but now assuredly there is something calming in the thought of the unity of the power that distributes our fortunes2 for this means that a man is in no danger of being tossed like a shuttlecock between two gigantic rival forces4 ,there must be a singleness of aim in the whole treatment of us by ,providence1 since ,providence is one4 ,thus1 if only as an escape from an inconceivably appalling alternative1 this doctrine of the common source of good and evil is truly reassuring4 ,we may pursue the thought further4 ,since good and evil spring from one and the same source1 they cannot be so mutually contradictory as we have been accustomed to esteem them4 ,they are two children of a common parent2 then they must be brothers4 ,but if they are so closely related a certain family likeness may be traced between them4 ,this does not destroy the actuality of evil4 ,but it robs it of its worst features4 ,the pain may be as acute as ever in spite of all our philosophising4 ,but the significance of it will be wholly changed4 ,we can now no longer treat it as an accursed thing4 ,if it is so closely related to good1 we may not have far to go in order to discover that it is even working for good4 ,then if evil and good come from the same source it is not just to characterise that source by reference to one only of its effluents4 ,we must not take a rose-coloured view of all things1 and relapse into idle complacency1 as we might do if we confined our observation to the pleasant facts of existence1 for the unpleasant facts--loss1 disappointment1 pain1 death--are equally real1 and are equally derived from the very highest ,authority4 ,neither are we justified in denying the existence of the good when overwhelmed with a sense of the evil in life4 ,at worst we live in a very mixed world4 ,it is unscientific1 it is unjust to pick out the ills of life and gibbet them as specimens of the way things are going4 ,if we will recite the first part of such an elegy as that we are now studying1 at least let us have the honesty to read on to the second part1 where the surpassingly lovely vision of the ,divine compassion so much more than counterbalances the preceding gloom4 ,is it only by accident that the poet says evil and good1 and not1 as we usually put the phrase1 good and evil8 ,good shall have the last word4 ,evil exists2 but the finality and crown of existence is not evil1 but good4 ,the conception of the primary unity of causation which the ,hebrew poet reaches through his religion is brought home to us to-day with a vast accumulation of proof by the discoveries of science4 ,the uniformity of law1 the co-relation of forces1 the analyses of the most diverse and complex organisms into their common chemical elements1 the evidence of the spectroscope to the existence of precisely the same elements among the distant stars1 as well as the more minute homologies of nature in the animal and vegetable kingdoms1 are all irrefutable confirmations of this great truth4 ,moreover1 science has demonstrated the intimate association of what we cannot but regard as good and evil in the physical universe4 ,thus1 while carbon and oxygen are essential elements for the building up of all living things1 the effect of perfectly healthy vital functions working upon them is to combine them into carbonic acid1 which is a most deadly poison2 but then this noxious gas becomes the food of plants1 from which the animal life in turn derives its nourishment4 ,similarly microbes1 which we commonly regard as the agents of corruption and disease1 are found to be not only nature's scavengers1 but also the indispensable ministers of life1 when clustering round the roots of plants in vast crowds they convert the organic matter of the soil1 such as manure1 into those inorganic nitrates which contain nitrogen in the form suitable for absorption by vegetable organisms4 ,the mischief wrought by germs1 great as it is1 is infinitely outweighed by the necessary service existences of this kind render to all life by preparing some of its indispensable conditions4 ,the inevitable conclusion to be drawn from facts such as these is that health and disease1 and life and death1 interact1 are inextricably blended together1 and mutually transformable--what we call disease and death in one place being necessary for life and health in another4 ,the more clearly we understand the processes of nature the more evident is the fact of her unity1 and therefore the more impossible is it for us to think of her objectionable characteristics as foreign to her being--alien immigrants from another sphere4 ,physical evil itself looks less dreadful when it is seen to take its place as an integral part of the complicated movement of the whole system of the universe4 ,but the chief reason for regarding the prospect with more than satisfaction has yet to be stated4 ,it is derived from the character of ,him to whom both the evil and the good are attributed4 ,we can go beyond the assertion that these contrarieties spring from one common origin to the great truth that this origin is to be found in ,god4 ,all that we know of our ,father in heaven comes to our aid in reflecting upon the character of the actions thus attributed to ,him4 ,the account of ,god's goodness that immediately precedes this ascription of the two extreme experiences of life to ,him would be in the mind of the writer1 and it should be in the mind of the reader also4 ,the poet has just been dwelling very emphatically on the indubitable justice of ,god4 ,when1 therefore1 he reminds us that both evil and good come from the ,divine ,being1 it is as though he said that they both originated in justice4 ,a little earlier he was expressing the most fervent appreciation of the mercy and compassion of ,god4 ,then these gracious attributes should be in our thoughts while we hear that the mixed experiences of life are to be traced back to ,him of whom so cheering a view can be taken4 ,we know the love of ,god much more fully since it has been revealed to us in ,jesus ,christ4 ,therefore we have a much better reason for building our faith and hope on the fact of the universal ,divine origin of events4 ,in itself the evil exists all the same whether we can trace its cause or not1 and the discovery of the cause in no way aggravates it4 ,but this discovery may lead us to take a new view of its issues4 ,if it comes from ,one who is as just and merciful as ,he is mighty we may certainly conclude that it will lead to the most blessed results4 ,considered in the light of the assured character of its purpose1 the evil itself must assume a totally different character4 ,the child who receives a distasteful draught from the hand of the kindest of parents knows that it cannot be a cup of poison1 and has good reason for believing it to be a necessary medicine4 ,the last verse of the triplet startles the reader with an unexpected thought4 ,the considerations already adduced are all meant to check any complaint against the course of ,providence4 ,now the poet appends a final argument1 which is all the more forcible for not being stated as an argument4 ,at the very end of the passage1 when we are only expecting the language to sink into a quiet conclusion1 a new idea springs out upon us1 like a tiger from its lair4 ,this trouble about which a man is so ready to complain1 as though it were some unaccountable piece of injustice1 is simply the punishment of his sin6 ,like the other ideas of the passage1 the notion is not tentatively argued2 it is boldly taken for granted4 ,once again we see that there is no suspicion in the mind of the elegist of the perplexing problem that gives its theme to the ,book of ,job4 ,but do we not sometimes press that problem too far8 ,can it be denied that1 to a large extent1 suffering is the direct consequence and the natural punishment of sin8 ,are we not often burnt for the simple reason that we have been playing with fire8 ,at all events1 the whole course of previous prophecy went to shew that the national sins of ,israel must be followed by some dreadful disasters2 and when the war-cloud was hovering on the horizon ,jeremiah saw in it the herald of approaching doom4 ,then the thunderbolt fell2 and the wreck it caused became the topic of this ,book of ,lamentations4 ,after such a preparation1 what was more natural1 and reasonable1 and even inevitable1 than that the elegist should calmly assume that the trouble complained of was no more than was due to the afflicted people8 ,this is clear enough when we think of the nation as a whole4 ,it is not so obvious when we turn our attention to individual cases2 but the bewildering problem of the sufferings of innocent children1 which constitutes the most prominent feature in the poet's picture of the miseries of the ,jews1 is not here revived4 ,we must suppose that he is thinking of a typical citizen of ,jerusalem4 ,if the guilty city merited severe punishment1 such a man as this would also merit it2 for the deserts of the city are only the deserts of her citizens4 ,it will be for everybody to say for himself how far the solution of the mystery of his own troubles is to be looked for in this direction4 ,a humble conscience will not be eager to repudiate the possibility that its owner has not been punished beyond his deserts1 whatever may be thought of other people1 innocent children in particular4 ,there is one word that may bring out this aspect of the question with more distinctness--the word living4 ,the poet asks1 ,wherefore doth a living man complain8 ,why does he attach this attribute to the subject of his question8 ,the only satisfactory explanation that has been offered is that he would remind us that while the sufferer has his life preserved to him he has no valid ground of complaint4 ,he has not been overpaid2 he has not even been paid in full2 for it is an ,old ,testament doctrine which the ,new ,testament repeats when it declares that the wages of sin is death4#bjh #bjh ,rom4 vi4 #bc4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,the ,,return iii4 #dj-db ,when prophets1 speaking in the name of ,god1 promised the exiles a restoration to their land and the homes of their fathers1 it was always understood and often expressly affirmed that this reversal of their outward fortunes must be preceded by an inner change1 a return to ,god in penitent submission4 ,expulsion from ,canaan was the chastisement of apostasy from ,god2 it was only right and reasonable that the discipline should be continued as long as the sin that necessitated it remained4 ,it would be a mistake1 however1 to relegate the treatment of this deadly sin to a secondary place1 as only the cause of a more serious trouble4 ,there could be no more serious trouble4 ,the greatest evil from which ,israel suffered was not the ,babylonian exile2 it was her self-inflicted banishment from ,god4 ,the greatest blessing to be sought for her was not liberty to return to the hills and cities of ,palestine2 it was permission and power to come back to ,god4 ,it takes us long to learn that sin is worse than punishment1 and that to be brought home to our ,father in heaven is a more desirable good than any earthly recovery of prosperity4 ,but the soul that can say with the elegist1 ,the ,lord is my portion1 has reached the vantage ground from which the best things can be seen in their true proportions2 and to such a soul no advent of temporal prosperity can compare with the gaining of its one prized possession4 ,in the triplet of verses that follows the pointed phrase which rebukes complaint for suffering by attributing it to sin the poet conducts us to those high regions where the more spiritual truth concerning these matters can be appreciated4 ,the form of the language here passes into the plural4 ,already we have been made to feel that the man who has seen affliction is a representative sufferer1 although he is describing his own personal distresses4 ,the immediately preceding clause seems to point to the sinful ,israelite generally1 in its vague reference to a living man4#bji ,now there is a transition in the movement of the elegy1 and the solitary voice gives place to a chorus1 the ,jews as a body appearing before ,god to pour out their confessions in common4 ,according to his usual method the elegist makes the transition quite abruptly1 without any explanatory preparation4 ,the style resembles that of an oratorio1 in which solo and chorus alternate with close sequence4 ,in the present instance the effect is not that of dramatic variety1 because we feel the vital sympathy that the poet cherishes for his people1 so that their experience is as his experience4 ,it is a faint shadow of the condition of the great ,sin-bearer1 of whom it could be said1 ,in all their affliction ,he was afflicted4#baj #bji iii4 #ci4 #baj ,isa4 lxiii4 #i4 ,before it is possible to return to ,god1 before the desire to return is even awakened1 a much less inviting action must be undertaken4 ,the first and greatest hindrance to reconciliation with our ,father is our failure to recognise that any such reconciliation is necessary4 ,the most deadening effect of sin is seen in the fact that it prevents the sinner from perceiving that he is at enmity with ,god at all1 although by everything he does he proclaims his rebellion4 ,the ,pharisee of the parable cannot be justified1 cannot really approach ,god at all1 because he will not admit that he needs any justification1 or is guilty of any conduct that separates him from ,god4 ,just as the most hopeless state of ignorance is that in which there is a serene unconsciousness of any deficiency of knowledge1 so the most abandoned condition of guilt is the inability to perceive the very existence of guilt4 ,the sick man who ignores his disease will not resort to a physician for the cure of it4 ,if the soul's quarrel with her ,lord is ever to be ended it must be discovered4 ,therefore the first step will be in the direction of self-examination4 ,we are led to look in this direction by the startling thought with which the previous triplet closes4 ,if the calamities bewailed are the chastisements of sin it is necessary for this sin to be sought out4 ,the language of the elegist suggests that we are not aware of the nature of our own conduct1 and that it is only by some serious effort that we can make ourselves acquainted with it1 for this is what he implies when he represents the distressed people resolving to search and try their ways4 ,easy as it may seem in words1 experience proves that nothing is more difficult in practice than to fulfil the precept of the philosopher1 ,know thyself4 ,the externalism in which most of our lives are spent makes the effort to look within a painful contradiction of habit4 ,when it is attempted pride and prejudice face the inquirer1 and too often quite hide the true self from view4 ,if the pursuit is pushed on in spite of these hindrances the result may prove to be a sad surprise4 ,sometimes we see ourselves unexpectedly revealed1 and then the sight of so great a novelty amazes us4 ,the photographer's proof of a portrait dissatisfies the subject1 not because it is a bad likeness1 but rather because it is too faithful to be pleasing4 ,a wonderful picture of ,rossetti's represents a young couple who are suddenly confronted in a lonely forest by the apparition of their two selves as simply petrified with terror at the appalling spectacle4 ,even when the effort to acquire self-knowledge is strenuous and persevering1 and accompanied by an honest resolution to accept the results1 however unwelcome they may be1 it often fails for lack of a standard of judgment4 ,we compare ourselves with ourselves--our present with our past1 or at best our actual life with our ideals4 ,but this is a most illusory process1 and its limits are too narrow4 ,or we compare ourselves with our neighbours--a possible advance1 but still a most unsatisfactory method2 for we know so little of them1 all of us dwelling more or less like stars apart1 and none of us able to sound the abysmal depths of another's personality4 ,even if we could fix this standard it too would be very illusory1 because those people with whom we are making the comparison1 quite as much as we ourselves1 may be astray1 just as a whole planetary system1 though perfectly balanced in the mutual relations of its own constituent worlds1 may yet be out of its orbit1 and rushing on all together towards some awful common destruction4 ,a more trustworthy standard may be found in the heart-searching words of ,scripture1 which prove to be as much a revelation of man to himself as one of ,god to man4 ,this ,divine test reaches its perfection in the historical presentation of our ,lord4 ,we discover our actual characters most effectually when we compare our conduct with the conduct of ,jesus ,christ4 ,as the ,light of the world1 ,he leads the world to see itself4 ,he is the great touchstone of character4 ,during ,his earthly life hypocrisy was detected by ,his searching glance2 but that was not admitted by the hypocrite4 ,it is when ,he comes to us spiritually that ,his promise is fulfilled1 and the ,comforter convinces of sin as well as of righteousness and judgment4 ,perhaps it is not so eminently desirable as ,burns would have us believe1 that we should see ourselves as others see us2 but it is supremely important to behold ourselves in the pure1 searching light of the ,spirit of ,christ4 ,we may be reminded1 on the other hand1 that too much introspection is not wholesome1 that it begets morbid ways of thought1 paralyses the energies1 and degenerates into insipid sentimentality4 ,no doubt it is best that the general tendency of the mind should be towards the active duties of life4 ,but to admit this is not to deny that there may be occasions when the most ruthless self-examination becomes a duty of first importance4 ,a season of severe chastisement1 such as that to which the ,book of ,lamentations refers1 is one that calls most distinctly for the exercise of this rare duty4 ,we cannot make our daily meal of drugs2 but drugs may be most necessary in sickness4 ,possibly if we were in a state of perfectly sound spiritual health it might be well for us never to spare a thought for ourselves from our complete absorption with the happy duties of a full and busy life4 ,but since we are far from being thus healthy1 since we err and fail and sin1 time devoted to the discovery of our faults may be exceedingly well spent4 ,then while a certain kind of self-study is always mischievous--the sickly habit of brooding over one's feelings1 it is to be observed that the elegist does not recommend this4 ,his language points in quite another direction4 ,it is not emotion but action that he is concerned with4 ,the searching is to be into our ways1 the course of our conduct4 ,there is an objectivity in this inquiry1 though it is turned inward1 that contrasts strongly with the investigation of shadowy sentiments4 ,conduct1 too1 is the one ground of the judgment of ,god4 ,therefore the point of supreme importance to ourselves is to determine whether conduct is right or wrong4 ,with this branch of self-examination we are not in so much danger of falling into complete delusions as when we are considering less tangible questions4 ,thus this is at once the most wholesome1 the most necessary1 and the most practicable process of introspection4 ,the particular form of conduct here referred to should be noted4 ,the word ways suggests habit and continuity4 ,these are more characteristic than isolated deeds--short spasms of virtue or sudden falls before temptation4 ,the final judgment will be according to the life1 not its exceptional episodes4 ,a man lives his habits4 ,he may be capable of better things1 he may be liable to worse2 but he is what he does habitually4 ,the world will applaud him for some outburst of heroism in which he rises for the moment above the sordid level of his every-day his1 or execrate him for his shameful moment of self-forgetfulness2 and the world will have this amount of justice in its action1 that the capacity for the occasional is itself a permanent attribute1 although the opportunity for the active working of the latent good or evil is rare4 ,the startling outburst may be a revelation of old but hitherto hidden ways4 ,it must be so to some extent2 for no man wholly belies his own nature unless he is mad--beside himself1 as we say4 ,still it may not be so entirely1 or even chiefly2 the surprised self may not be the normal self1 often is not4 ,meanwhile our main business in self-examination is to trace the course of the unromantic beaten track1 the long road on which we travel from morning to evening through the whole day of life4 ,the result of this search into the character of their ways on the part of the people is that it is found to be necessary to forsake them forthwith2 for the next idea is in the form of a resolution to turn out of them1 nay1 to turn back1 retracing the footsteps that have gone astray1 in order to come to ,god again4 ,these ways are discovered1 then1 to be bad--vicious in themselves1 and wrong in their direction4 ,they run downhill1 away from the home of the soul1 and towards the abodes of everlasting darkness4 ,when this fact is perceived it becomes apparent that some complete change must be made4 ,this is a case of ending our old ways1 not mending them4 ,good paths may be susceptible of improvement4 ,the path of the just should shine more and more unto the perfect day4 ,but here things are too hopelessly bad for any attempt at amelioration4 ,no engineering skill will ever transform the path that points straight to perdition into one that conducts us up to the heights of heaven4 ,the only chance of coming to walk in the right way is to forsake the wrong way altogether1 and make an entirely new start4 ,here1 then1 we have the ,christian doctrine of conversion--a doctrine which always appears extravagant to people who take superficial views of sin1 but one that will be appreciated just in proportion to the depth and seriousness of our ideas of its guilt4 ,nothing contributes more to unreality in religion than strong language on the nature of repentance apart from a corresponding consciousness of the tremendous need of a most radical change4 ,this deplorable mischief must be brought about when indiscriminate exhortations to the extreme practice of penitence are addressed to mixed congregations4 ,it cannot be right to press the necessity of conversion upon young children and the carefully sheltered and lovingly trained youth of ,christian homes in the language that applies to their unhappy brothers and sisters who have already made shipwreck of life4 ,this statement is liable to misapprehension2 doubtless to some readers it will savour of the light views of sin deprecated above1 and point to the excuses of the ,pharisee4 ,nevertheless it must be considered if we would avoid the characteristic sin of the ,pharisee1 hypocrisy4 ,it is unreasonable to suppose that the necessity of a complete conversion can be felt by the young and comparatively innocent as it should be felt by abandoned profligates1 and the attempt of the preacher to force it on their relatively pure consciences is a direct incentive to cant4 ,the fifty-first ,psalm is the confession of his crime by a murderer2 ,augustine's ,confessions are the outpourings of a man who feels that he has been dragging his earlier life through the mire2 ,bunyan's ,grace ,abounding reveals the memories of a rough soldier's shame and folly4 ,no good can come of the unthinking application of such utterances to persons whose history and character are entirely different from those of the authors4 ,on the other hand1 there are one or two further considerations which should be borne in mind4 ,thus it must not be forgotten that the greatest sinner is not necessarily the man whose guilt is most glaringly apparent2 nor that sins of the heart count with ,god as equivalent to obviously wicked deeds committed in the full light of day2 nor that guilt cannot be estimated absolutely1 by the bare evil done1 without regard to the opportunities1 privileges1 and temptations of the offender4 ,then1 the more we meditate upon the true nature of sin1 the more deeply must we be impressed with its essential evil even when it is developed only slightly in comparison with the hideous crimes and vices that blacken the pages of history--as1 for example1 in the careers of a ,nero or a ,csar ,borgia4 ,the sensitive conscience does not only feel the exact guilt of its individual offences1 but also1 and much more1 the exceeding sinfulness of sin4 ,when we consider their times and the state of the society in which they lived1 we must feel that neither ,augustine nor ,bunyan had been so wicked as the intensity of the language of penitence they both employed might lead us to suppose4 ,it is quite foreign to the nature of heartfelt repentance to measure degrees of guilt4 ,in the depth of its shame and humiliation no language of contrition seems to be too strong to give it adequate expression4 ,but this must be entirely spontaneous2 it is most unwise to impose it from without in the form of an indiscriminate appeal to abject penitence4 ,then it is also to be observed that while the fundamental change described in the ,new ,testament as a new birth cannot well be regarded as a thing of repeated occurrence1 we may have occasion for many conversions4 ,every time we turn into the wrong path we put ourselves under the necessity of turning back if ever we would walk in the right path again4 ,what is that but conversion8 ,it is a pity that we should be hampered by the technicality of a term4 ,this may lead to another kind of error--the error of supposing that if we are once converted we are converted for life1 that we have crossed our ,rubicon1 and cannot recross it4 ,thus while the necessity of a primary conversion may be exaggerated in addresses to the young1 the greater need of subsequent conversions may be neglected in the thoughts of adults4 ,the converted person who relies on the one act of his past experience to serve as a talisman for all future time is deluding himself in a most dangerous manner4 ,can it be asserted that ,peter had not been converted1 in the technical sense1 when he fell through undue self-confidence1 and denied his ,master with oaths and curses8 ,again--a very significant fact--the return is described in positive language4 ,it is a coming back to ,god1 not merely a departure from the old way of sin4 ,the initial impulse towards a better life springs more readily from the attraction of a new hope than from the repulsion of a loathed evil4 ,the hopeful repentance is exhilarating1 while that which is only born of the disgust and horror of sin is dismally depressing4 ,lurid pictures of evil rarely beget penitence4 ,the ,newgate ,calendar is not to be credited with the reformation of criminals4 ,even ,dante's ,inferno is no gospel4 ,in prosecuting his mission as the prophet of repentance ,john the ,baptist was not content to declare that the axe was laid at the root of the tree2 the pith of his exhortation was found in the glad tidings that the kingdom of heaven is at hand4 ,st4 ,paul shows that it is the goodness of ,god that leads us to repentance4 ,besides1 the repentance that is induced by this means is of the best character4 ,it escapes the craven slavishness of fear2 it is not a merely selfish shrinking from the lash2 it is inspired by the pure love of a worthy end4 ,only remorse lingers in the dark region of regrets for the past4 ,genuine repentance always turns a hopeful look towards a better future4 ,it is of little use to exorcise the spirit of evil if the house is not to be tenanted by the spirit of good4 ,thus the end and purpose of repentance is to be reunited to ,god4 ,following up his general exhortation to return to ,god1 the elegist adds a particular one1 in which the process of the new movement is described4 ,it takes the form of a prayer from the heart4 ,the resolution is to lift up the heart with the hands4 ,the erect posture1 with the hands stretched out to heaven1 which was the ,hebrew attitude in prayer1 had often been assumed in meaningless acts of formal worship before there was any real approach to ,god or any true penitence4 ,now the repentance will be manifested by the reality of the prayer4 ,let the heart also be lifted up4 ,the true approach to ,god is an act of the inner life1 to which in its entirety--thought1 affection1 and will--the ,jewish metaphor of the heart points4 ,lastly1 the poet furnishes the returning penitents with the very language of the heart's prayer1 which is primarily confession4 ,the doleful fact that ,god has not pardoned ,his people is directly stated1 but not in the first place4 ,this statement is preceded by a clear and unreserved confession of sin4 ,repentance must be followed by confession4 ,it is not a private matter concerning the offender alone4 ,since the offence was directed against another1 the amendment must begin with a humble admission of the wrong that has been done4 ,thus1 immediately the prodigal son is met by his father he sobs out his confession2#baa and ,st4 ,john assigns confession as an essential preliminary to forgiveness1 saying3 ,if we confess our sins1 ,he is faithful and righteous to forgive us our sins1 and to cleanse us from all unrighteousness4#bab #baa ,luke xv4 #ba4 #bab #a ,john i4 #i4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,grieving ,,before ,,god iii4 #dc-ed ,as might have been expected1 the mourning patriot quickly forsakes the patch of sunshine which lights up a few verses of this elegy4 ,but the vision of it has not come in vain2 for it leaves gracious effects to tone the gloomy ideas upon which the meditations of the poet now return like birds of the night hastening back to their darksome haunts4 ,in the first place1 his grief is no longer solitary4 ,it is enlarged in its sympathies so as to take in the sorrows of others4 ,purely selfish trouble tends to become a mean and sordid thing4 ,if we are not yet freed from our own pain some element of a nobler nature will be imported into it when we can find room for the larger thoughts that the contemplation of the distresses of others arouses4 ,but a greater change than this has taken place4 ,the man who hath seen affliction now feels himself to be in the presence of ,god4 ,speaking for others as well as for himself he pours out his lamentations before ,god4 ,in the first part of the elegy he had only mentioned the ,divine name as that of his great ,antagonist2 now it is the name of his close ,confidant4 ,then the elegist is here giving voice to the people's penitent confession and prayer4 ,this is another feature of the changed situation4 ,an unqualified admission of the truth that the sufferings of ,israel are just the merited punishment of the people's sin has come between the complaints with which the poem opens1 and the renewed expressions of grief4 ,still1 when all due allowance is made for these improvements1 the renewed outburst of grief is sufficiently dismal4 ,the people are supposed to represent themselves as being hunted down like helpless fugitives1 and slain without pity by ,god1 who has wrapped ,himself in a mantle of anger1 which is as a cloud impenetrable to the prayers of ,his miserable victims4#bac ,this description of their helpless state follows immediately after an outpouring of prayer4 ,it would seem1 therefore1 that the poet conceived that this particular utterance was hindered from reaching the ear of ,god4 ,now in many cases it may be that a feeling such as is here expressed is purely subjective and imaginary4 ,the soul's cry of agony passes out into the night1 and dies away into silence1 without eliciting a whisper of response4 ,yet it is not necessary to conclude that the cry is not heard4 ,the closest attention may be the most silent4 ,but1 it may be objected1 this possibility only aggravates the evil2 for it is better not to hear at all than to hear and not to heed4 ,will any one attribute such stony indifference to ,god8 ,god may attend1 and yet ,he may not speak to us--speech not being the usual form of ,divine response4 ,he may be helping us most effectually in silence1 unperceived by us1 at the very moment when we imagine that ,he has completely deserted us4 ,if we were more keenly alive to the signs of ,his coming we should be less hasty to despair at the failure of our prayers4 ,the priests of ,baal may scream1 ,o ,baal1 hear us6 from morning to night till their phrensy sinks into despair2 but that is no reason why men and women who worship a spiritual ,god should come to the conclusion that their inability to wrest a sign from ,heaven is itself a sign of desertion by ,him to whom they call4 ,the oracle may be dumb2 but the ,god whom we worship is not limited to the utterance of prophetic voices for the expression of ,his will4 ,he hears1 even if in silence2 and1 in truth1 ,he also answers1 though we are too deaf in our unbelief to discern the still small voice of ,his ,spirit4 #bac iii4 #dd4 ,but can we say that the idea of the ,divine disregard of prayer is always and only imaginary8 ,are the clouds that come between us and ,god invariably earthborn8 ,does ,he never really wrap ,himself in the garment of wrath8 ,surely we dare not say so much4 ,the anger of ,god is as real as ,his love4 ,no being can be perfectly holy and not feel a righteous indignation in the presence of sin4 ,but if ,god is angry1 and while ,he is so1 ,he cannot at the same time be holding friendly intercourse with the people who are provoking ,his wrath4 ,then the ,divine anger must be as a thick1 impervious curtain between the prayers of the sinful and the gracious hearing of ,god4 ,the universal confession of the need of an atonement is a witness to the perception of this condition by mankind4 ,whether we are dealing with the crude notions of ancient sacrifice1 or with the high thoughts that circle about ,calvary1 the same spiritual instinct presses for recognition4 ,we may try to reason it down1 but it persistently reasserts itself4 ,most certainly it is not the teaching of ,scripture that the only condition of salvation is prayer4 ,the ,gospel is not to the effect that we are to be saved by our own petitions4 ,the penitent is taught to feel that without ,christ and the cross his prayers are of no avail for his salvation4 ,even if they knew no respite still they would never atone for sin4 ,is not this an axiom of evangelical doctrine8 ,then the prayers that are offered in the old unreconciled condition must fall back on the head of the vain petitioner unable to penetrate the awful barrier that he has himself caused to be raised between his cries and the heavens where ,god dwells4 ,turning from the contemplation of the hopeless failure of prayer the lament naturally falls into an almost despairing wail of grief4 ,the state of the ,jews is painted in the very darkest colours4 ,god has made them as no better than the refuse people cast out of their houses1 or the very sweepings of the streets--not fit even to be trampled under foot of men4#bad ,this is their position among the nations4 ,the poet seems to be alluding to the exceptional severity with which the obstinate defenders of ,jerusalem had been treated by their exasperated conquerors4 ,the neighbouring tribes had been compelled to succumb beneath the devastating wave of the ,babylonian invasion2 but since none of them had offered so stubborn a resistance to the armies of ,nebuchadnezzar none of them had been punished by so severe a scourge of vengeance4 ,so it has been repeatedly with the unhappy people who have encountered unparalled persecutions through the long weary ages of their melancholy history4 ,in the days of ,antiochus ,epiphanes the ,jews were the most insulted and cruelly outraged victims of ,syrian tyranny4 ,when their long tragedy reached a climax at the final siege of ,jerusalem by ,titus1 the more liberal-minded ,roman government laid on them harsh punishments of exile1 slavery1 torture1 and death1 such as it rarely inflicted on a fallen foe--for with statesmanlike wisdom the ,romans preferred1 as a rule1 conciliation to extermination2 but in the case of this one unhappy city of ,jerusalem the almost unique fate of the hated and dreaded city of ,carthage was repeated4 ,so it was in the ,middle ,ages1 as ,ivanhoe vividly shows2 and so it is to-day in the ,east of ,europe1 as the fierce ,juden-hetze is continually proving4 ,the irony of history is nowhere more apparent than in the fact that the favoured people1 the chosen people of ,jehovah1 should have been treated so continuously as the offscouring and refuse in the midst of the peoples4 ,as privilege and responsibility always go hand in hand1 so also do blessing and suffering--the ,jew hated1 the ,church persecuted1 the ,christ crucified4 ,we cannot say that this paradox is simply a mysterious dispensation of ,providence2 because in the case of ,israel1 at all events in the early ages1 the unparalleled misery was traced to the abuse of unparalleled favour4 ,but this does not exhaust the mystery1 for in the most striking instances innocence suffers4 ,we can have no satisfaction in our view of these contradictions till we see the glory of the martyr's crown and the even higher glory of the triumph of ,christ and ,his people over failure1 agony1 insult1 and death2 but just in proportion as we are able to lift up the eyes of faith to the blessedness of the unseen world1 we shall be able also to discover that even here and now there is a pain that is better than pleasure1 and a shame that is truest glory4 #bad iii4 #de4 ,these truths1 however1 are not readily perceived at the time of endurance1 when the iron is entering into the soul4 ,the elegist feels the degradations of his people most keenly1 and he represents them complaining how their enemies rage at them as with open mouths--belching forth gross insults1 shouting curses1 like wild beasts ready to devour their hapless victims4#bae ,there seems to be nothing in store for them but the terrors of death1 the pit of destruction4#baf #bae iii4 #df4 #baf iii4 #dg4 ,at the contemplation of this extremity of hopeless misery the poet drops the plural number1 in which he has been personating his people1 as abruptly as he assumed it a few verses earlier1 and bewails the dread calamities in his own person4#bag ,then1 in truly ,jeremiah-like fashion1 he describes his incessant weeping for the woes of the wretched citizens of ,jerusalem and the surrounding villages4 ,the reference to the daughters of my city#bah seems to be best explained as a figurative expression for the neighbouring places1 all of which it would seem had shared in the devastation produced by the great wave of conquest which had overwhelmed the capital4 ,but the previous mention of the daughter of my people1#bai followed as it is by this phrase about the daughters of my city1 strikes a deeper note of compassion4 ,these places contained many defenceless women1 the indescribable cruelty of whose fate when they fell into the hands of the brutal heathen soldiery was one of the worst features of the whole ghastly scene2 and the wretchedness of the once proud city and its dependencies when they were completely overthrown is finely represented so as to appeal most effectually to our sympathy by a metaphor that pictures them as hapless maidens1 touching us like ,spenser's piteous picture of the forlorn ,una1 deserted in the forest and left a prey to its savage denizens4 ,like ,una1 too1 the daughters in this metaphor claim the chivalry which our ,english poet has so exquisitely portrayed as awakened even in the breast of a wild animal4 ,the woman of ,europe is far removed from her sister in the ,east1 who still follows the ancient type in submitting to the imputation of weakness as a claim for consideration4 ,but this is because ,europe has learnt that strength of character--in which woman can be at least the equal of man--is more potent in a community civilised in the ,christian way than strength of muscle4 ,where the more brutal forces are let loose the duties of chivalry are always in requisition4 ,then it is apparent that deference to the claims of women for protection produces a civilising effect in softening the roughness of men4 ,it is difficult to say it to-day in the teeth of the just claims that women are making1 and still more difficult in face of what women are now achieving1 in spite of many relics of barbarism in the form of unfair restrictions1 but yet it must be asserted that the feebleness of femininity--in the old-fashioned sense of the word--pervades these poems1 and is their most touching characteristic1 so that much of the pathos and beauty of poetry such as that of these elegies is to be traced to representations of woman wronged and suffering and calling for the sympathy of all beholders4 #bag iii4 #dh ff4 #bah iii4 #ea4 #bai iii4 #dh4 ,the poet is moved to tears--quite unselfish tears1 tears of patriotic grief1 tears of compassion for helpless suffering4 ,here again the modern ,anglo-,saxon habit makes it difficult for us to appreciate his conduct as it deserves4 ,we think it a dreadful thing for a man to be seen weeping2 and a feeling of shame accompanies such an outburst of unrestrained distress4 ,but surely there are holy tears1 and tears which it is an honour for any one to be capable of shedding4 ,if mere callousness is the explanation of dry eyes in view of sorrow1 there can be no credit for such a condition4 ,this is not the restraint of tears4 ,nothing is easier than for the unfeeling not to weep4 ,nor can it be maintained that it is always necessary to restrain the outward expression of sympathy in accordance with its most natural impulses4 ,our ,lord was strong2 yet we could never wish that the evangelist had not had occasion to write the ever memorable sentence1 ,jesus wept4 ,sufferers lose much1 not only from lack of sympathy1 but also from a shy concealment of the fellow-feeling that is truly experienced4 ,there are seasons of keenest agony1 when to weep with those who weep is me only possible expression of brotherly kindness2 and this may be a very real act of love1 appreciably alleviating suffering4 ,a little courage on the part of ,englishmen in daring to weep would knit the ties of brotherhood more closely4 ,at present a chill reserve rather than any actual coldness of heart separates people who might be much more helpful to one another if they could but bring themselves to break down this barrier4 ,but while the poet is thus expressing his large patriotic grief he cannot forget his own private sorrows4 ,they are all parts of one common woe4 ,so he returns to his personal experience1 and adds some graphic details that enable us to picture him in the midst of his misery4#bbj ,though he had never provoked the enemy1 he was chased like a bird1 flung into a dungeon1 where a stone was hurled down upon him1 and where the water was lying so deep that he was completely submerged4 ,there is no reason to question that definite statements such as these represent the exact experience of the writer4 ,at the first glance they call to our minds the persecutions inflicted on ,jeremiah by his own people4 ,but the allusion would be peculiarly inappropriate1 and the cases do not quite fit together4 ,the poet has been bewailing the sufferings of the ,jews at the hands of the ,chaldans1 and he seems to identify his own troubles in the closest way with the general flood of calamities that swept over his nation4 ,it would be quite out of place for him to insert here a reminder of earlier troubles which his own people had inflicted upon him4 ,besides1 the particulars do not exactly agree with what we learn of the prophet's hardships from his own pen4 ,the dungeon into which he was flung was very foul1 and he sank in the mire1 but it is expressly stated that there was no water in it1 and there is no mention of stoning4#bba ,there were many sufferers in that dark time of tumult and outrage whose fate was as hard as that of ,jeremiah4 #bbj iii4 #eb ff4 #bba ,jer4 xxxviii4 #f4 ,a graphic picture like this helps us to imagine the fearful accompaniments of the destruction of ,jerusalem much better than any general summary4 ,as we gaze at this one scene among the many miseries that followed the siege--the poet hunted out and run down1 his capture and conveyance to the dungeon1 apparently without a shadow of a trial1 the danger of drowning and the misery of standing in the water that had gathered in a place so utterly unfit for human habitation1 the needless additional cruelty of the stone-throwing--there rises before us a picture which cannot but impress our minds with the unutterable wretchedness of the sufferers from such a calamity as the siege of ,jerusalem4 ,of course there must have been some special reason for the exceptionally severe treatment of the poet4 ,what this was we cannot tell4 ,if the same patriotic spirit burned in his soul in the midst of the war as we now find at the time of later reflection1 it would be most reasonable to conjecture that the ardent lover of his country had done or said something to irritate the enemy1 and possibly that as he devoted his poetic gifts at a subsequent time to lamenting the overthrow of his city1 he may have employed them with a more practical purpose among the battle scenes to write some inspiring martial ode in which we may be sure he would not have spared the ruthless invader4 ,but then he says his persecution was without a cause4 ,he may have been undeservedly suspected of acting as a spy4 ,it is only by chance that now and again we get a glimpse of the backwaters of a great flood such as that which was now devastating the land of ,judah2 most of the dreary scene is shrouded in gloom4 ,lastly1 we must not fail to remember1 in reading these expressions of patriotic and personal grief1 that they are the outpourings of the heart of the poet before ,god4 ,they are all addressed to ,god's ear2 they are all part of a prayer4 ,thus they illustrate the way in which prayer takes the form of confiding in ,god4 ,it is a great relief to be able simply to tell ,him everything4 ,perhaps1 however1 here we may detect a note of complaint2 but if so it is not a note of rebellion or of unbelief4 ,although the evils from which the elegist and his people are suffering so grievously are attributed to ,god in the most uncompromising manner1 the writer does not hesitate to look to ,god for deliverance4 ,thus in the very midst of his lamentations he says that his weeping is to continue till the ,lord look down1 and behold from heaven4#bbb ,he will not cease weeping until this happens2 but he does not expect to have to spend all the remainder of his days in tears4 ,he is assured that ,god will hear1 and answer1 and deliver4 ,the time of the ,divine response is quite unknown to him2 it may be still far off1 and there may be much weary waiting to be endured first4 ,but it will come1 and if no one can tell how long the interval of trial may be1 so also no one can say but that the deliverance may arrive suddenly and with a surprise of mercy4 ,thus the poet weeps on1 but in undying hope4 #bbb iii4 #ej4 ,this is the right attitude of the ,christian mourner4 ,we cannot penetrate the mystery of ,god's times2 but that they are in ,his own hands is not to be denied4 ,therefore the test of faith is often given in the necessity for indefinite waiting4 ,to the man who trusts ,god there is always a future4 ,whatever such a man may have to endure he should find a place in his plaint for the word until4 ,he is not plunged into everlasting night4 ,he has but to endure until the day dawn4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,de ,,profundis iii4 #ee-ff ,as this third elegy--the richest and the most elaborate of the five that constitute the ,book of ,lamentations--draws to a close it retains its curious character of variability1 not aiming at any climax1 but simply winding on till its threefold acrostics are completed by the limits of the ,hebrew alphabet1 like a river that is monotonous in the very succession of its changes1 now flowing through a dark gorge1 then rippling in clear sunlight1 and again plunging into gloomy caverns4 ,the beauty and brightness of this very variegated poem is found at its centre4 ,sadder thoughts follow4 ,but these are not so wholly complaining as the opening passages had been4 ,there is one thread of continuity that may be traced right through the series of changes which occupy the latter part of the poem4 ,the poet having once turned to the refuge of prayer never altogether forsakes it4 ,the meditations as much as the petitions that here occur are all directed to ,god4 ,a peculiarity of the last portion of the elegy that claims special attention is the interesting reminiscence with which the poet finds encouragement for his present prayers4 ,he is recalling the scenes of that most distressing period of his life1 the time when he had been cast into a flooded dungeon4 ,if ever he had come near to death it must have been then2 though his life was spared the misery of his condition had been extreme4 ,while in this most wretched situation the persecuted patriot cried to ,god for help1 and as he now recollects for his present encouragement1 he received a distinct and unmistakable answer4 ,the scene is most impressive4 ,as it shapes itself to his memory1 the victim of tyranny is in the lowest dungeon4 ,this phrase suggests the thought of the awful ,hebrew ,sheol4 ,so dark was his experience1 and so near was the sufferer to death1 it seems to him as though he had been indeed plunged down into the very abode of the dead4 ,yet here he found utterance for prayer4 ,it was the prayer of utter extremity1 almost the last wild cry of a despairing soul1 yet not quite1 for that is no prayer at all1 all prayer requiring some real faith1 if only as a grain of mustard seed4 ,moreover1 the poet states that he called upon the name of ,god4 ,now in the ,bible the name always stands for the attributes which it connotes4 ,to call on ,god's name is to make mention of some of ,his known and revealed characteristics4 ,the man who will do this is more than one feeling after ,god2 he has a definite conception of the nature and disposition of the ,being to whom he is addressing himself4 ,thus it happens that old1 familiar ideas of ,god1 as ,he had been known in the days of light and joy1 rise up in the heart of the miserable man1 and awaken a longing desire to seek the help of ,one so great and good and merciful4 ,just in proportion to the fulness of the meaning of the name of ,god as it is conceived by us1 will our prayers win definiteness of aim and strength of wing4 ,the altar to an unknown god can excite but the feeblest and vaguest devotion4 ,inasmuch as our ,lord has greatly enriched the contents of the name of ,god by ,his full revelation of the ,divine ,father1 to us ,christians there has come a more definite direction and a more powerful impulse for prayer4 ,even though this is a prayer de profundis it is an enlightened prayer4 ,we may believe that1 like a star seen from the depths of a well which excludes the glare of day1 the significance of the sacred ,name shone out to the sufferer with a beauty never before perceived when he looked up to heaven from the darkness of his pit of misery4 ,it has been suggested that in this passage the elegist is following the sixty-ninth psalm1 and that perhaps that psalm is his own composition and the expression of the very prayer to which he is here referring4 ,at all events1 the psalm exactly fits the situation2 and therefore it may be taken as a perfect illustration of the kind of prayer alluded to4 ,the psalmist is in deep mire1 where there is no standing2 he has come into deep waters1 where the floods overthrow him2 he is persecuted by enemies who hate him without a cause2 he has been weeping till his eyes have failed4 ,meanwhile he has been waiting for ,god1 in prayers mingled with confessions4 ,it is his zeal for ,god's house that has brought him so near to death4 ,he beseeches ,god that the flood may not be allowed to overwhelm him1 nor the pit shut her mouth upon him4 ,he concludes with an invocation of curses upon the heads of his enemies4 ,all these as well as some minor points agree very closely with our poet's picture of his persecutions and the prayer he here records4 ,read in the light of the elegist's experience1 such a prayer as that of the psalm cannot be taken as a model for daily devotion4 ,it is a pity that our habitual use of the ,psalter should encourage this application of it4 ,the result is mischievous in several ways4 ,it tends to make our worship unreal1 because the experience of the psalmist1 even when read metaphorically1 as it was probably intended to be read1 is by no means a type of the normal condition of human life4 ,besides1 in so far as we bring ourselves to sympathise with this piteous outcry of a distressed soul1 we reduce our worship to a melancholy plaint1 when it should be a joyous anthem of praise4 ,at the same time1 we unconsciously temper the language we quote with the less painful feelings of our own experience1 so that its force is lost upon us4 ,yet the psalm is of value as a revelation of a soul's agony relieved by prayer2 and there are occasions when its very words can be repeated by men and women who are indeed overwhelmed by trouble4 ,if we do not spoil the occasional by attempting to make it habitual it is wonderful to see how rich the ,bible is in utterances to suit all cases and all conditions4 ,such an outpouring of a distressed heart as the elegist hints at and the psalmist illustrates1 is itself full of profound significance4 ,the stirring of a soul to its depths is a revelation of its depths4 ,this revelation prevents us from taking petty views of human nature4 ,no one can contemplate the ,titanic struggle of ,laocoon or the immeasurable grief of ,niobe without a sense of the tragic greatness of which human life is capable4 ,we live so much on the surface that we are in danger of forgetting that life is not always a superficial thing4 ,but when a volcano bursts out of the quiet plain of everyday existence1 we are startled into the perception that there must be hidden fires which we may not have suspected before4 ,and1 further1 when the soul in its extremity is seen to be turning for refuge to ,god1 the revelation of its ,gethsemane gives a new meaning to the very idea of prayer4 ,here is prayer indeed1 and at the sight of such a profound reality we are shamed into doubting whether we have ever begun to pray at all1 so stiff and chill do our utterances to the ,unseen now appear to be in comparison with this ,jacob-like wrestling4 ,immediately after mentioning the fact of his prayer the elegist adds that this was heard by ,god4 ,his cry rose up from the lowest dungeon and reached the heights of heaven4 ,and yet we cannot credit this to the inherent vigour of prayer4 ,if a petition can thus wing its way to heaven1 that is because it is of heavenly origin4 ,there is no difficulty in making air to rise above water2 the difficulty is to sink it2 and if any could be taken to the bottom of the sea1 the greater the depth descended the swifter would it shoot up4 ,since all true prayer is an inspiration it cannot spend itself until it has1 so to speak1 restored the equilibrium by returning to its natural sphere4 ,but the elegist puts the case another way4 ,in ,his great condescension ,god stoops to the very lowest depths to find one of ,his distressed children4 ,it is not hard to make the prayer of the dungeon reach the ear of ,god1 because ,god is in the dungeon4 ,he is most near when ,he is most needed4 ,the prayer was more than heard2 it was answered--there was a ,divine voice in response to this cry to ,god1 a voice that reached the ear of the desolate prisoner in the silence of his dungeon4 ,it consisted of but two words1 but those two words were clear and unmistakable1 and quite sufficient to satisfy the listener4 ,the voice said1 ,fear not4#bbc ,that was enough4 #bbc iii4 #eg4 ,shall we doubt the reality of the remarkable experience that the elegist here records8 ,or can we explain it away by reference to the morbid condition of the mind of a prisoner enduring the punishment of solitary confinement8 ,it is said that this unnatural punishment tends to develop insanity in its miserable victims4 ,but the poet is now reviewing the occurrence1 which made so deep an impression on his mind at the time1 in the calm of later reflection2 and evidently he has no doubt of its reality4 ,it has nothing in it of the wild fancy of a disordered brain4 ,lunacy raves2 this simple message is calm4 ,and it is just such a message as ,god might be expected to give if ,he spoke at all--just like ,him1 we may say4 ,to this remark some doubting critic may reply1 ,exactly2 and therefore the more likely to have been imagined by the expectant worshipper4 ,but such an inference is not psychologically correct4 ,the reply is not in harmony with the tone of the prayer1 but directly opposed to it4 ,agony and terror cannot generate an assurance of peace and safety4 ,the poison does not secrete its own antidote4 ,here is an indication of the presence of another voice1 because the words breathe another spirit4 ,besides1 this is not an unparalleled experience4 ,most frequently1 no doubt1 the answer to prayer is not vocal1 and yet the reality of it may not be any the less certain to the seeking soul4 ,it may be most definite1 although it comes in a deed rather than in a word4 ,then the grateful recipient can exclaim with the psalmist-- ,this poor man cried1 and the ,lord heard him1 ,and saved him out of all his troubles4#bbd #bbd ,psalm xxxiv4 #f4 ,here is an answer1 but not a spoken one1 only an action1 in saving from trouble4 ,in other cases1 however1 the reply approaches nearer the form of a message from heaven4 ,when we remember that ,god is our ,father the wonder is not that at rare intervals these voices have been heard1 but rather that they are so infrequent4 ,it is so easy to become the victim of delusions that some caution is requisite to assure ourselves of the existence of ,divine utterances4 ,the very idea of the occurrence of such phenomena is discredited by the fact that those persons who profess most eagerly to have heard supernatural voices are commonly the subjects of hysteria2 and when the voices become frequent this fact is taken by physicians as a symptom of approaching insanity4 ,among semi-civilised people madness is supposed to be closely allied to inspiration4 ,the mantis is not far from the mad man4 ,such a man is not the better off for the march of civilisation4 ,the ancients would have honoured him as a prophet2 we shut him up in a lunatic asylum4 ,but these discouraging considerations do not exhaust the question4 ,delusions are not in themselves disproofs of the existence of the occurrences they emulate4 ,each case must be taken on its own merits2 and when1 as in that which is now under our consideration1 the character of the incident points to a conviction of its solid reality1 it is only a mark of narrowness of thought to refuse to lift it out of the category of idle fancies4 ,but1 quite apart from the question of the sounding of ,divine voices in the bodily ear1 the more important truth to be considered is that in some way1 if only by spiritual impression1 ,god does most really speak to ,his children1 and that ,he speaks now as surely as ,he spoke in the days of ,israel4 ,we have no new prophets and apostles who can give us fresh revelations in the form of additions to our ,bible4 ,but that is not what is meant4 ,the elegist did not receive a statement of doctrine in answer to his prayer1 nor1 on this occasion1 even help for the writing of his inspired poetry4 ,the voice to which he here alludes was of quite a different character4 ,this was in the olden times2 but if then1 why not also now8 ,evidently the elegist regarded it as a rare and wonderful occurrence--a single experience to which he looked back in after years with the interest one feels in a vivid recollection which rises like a mountain1 clean cut against the sky1 above the mists that so quickly gather on the low plains of the uneventful past4 ,perhaps it is only in one of the crises of life that such an indubitable message is sent--when the soul is in the lowest dungeon1 in extremis1 crying out of the darkness1 helpless if not yet hopeless1 overwhelmed1 almost extinguished4 ,but if we listened for it1 who can tell but that the voice might not be so rare8 ,we do not believe in it2 therefore we do not hear it4 ,or the noise of the world's great loom and the busy thoughts of our own hearts drown the music that still floats down from heaven to ears that are tuned to catch its notes2 for it does not come in thunder1 and we must ourselves be still if we would hear the still small voice1 inwardly still1 still in soul1 stifling the chatter of self1 stopping our ears to the din of the world4 ,there are those to-day who tell us with calm assurance1 not at all in the visionary's falsetto notes1 that they have known just what is here described by the poet--in the silence of a mountain valley1 in the quiet of a sick chamber1 even in the noisy crowd at a railway station4 ,when this is granted it is still well for us to remember that we are not dependent for ,divine consolation on voices which to many must ever be as dubious as they are rare4 ,this short message of two words is in effect the essence of teachings that can be gathered as freely from almost every page of the ,bible as flowers from a meadow in ,may4 ,we have the more sure word of prophecy1 and the burden of it is the same as the message of the voice that comforted the poet in his dungeon4 ,that message is wholly reassuring--,fear not4 ,so said ,god to the patriarch3 ,fear not1 ,abram2 ,i am thy shield1 and thy exceeding great reward2#bbe and to ,his people through the prophet of the restoration3 ,fear not1 thou worm ,jacob2#bbf and ,jesus to ,his disciples in the storm3 ,be of good cheer3 it is ,i3 be not afraid2#bbg and our ,lord again in ,his parting address3 ,let not your heart be troubled1 neither let it be fearful2#bbh and the glorified ,christ to ,his terrified friend ,john1 when ,he laid ,his right hand on him with the words3 ,fear not2 ,i am the first and the last1 and the ,living ,one2 and ,i was dead1 and behold1 ,i am alive for ever more1 and ,i have the keys of death and of ,hades4#bbi ,this is the word that ,god is continually speaking to ,his faint-hearted children4 ,when the burthen of the mystery1 and the heavy and the weary weight ,of all this unintelligible world oppress1 when the greater sorrows threaten to crush outright1 listening for the voice of ,god1 we may hear the message of love from a ,father's heart as though spoken afresh to each of us2 for we have but to acquaint ourselves with ,him to be at peace4 #bbe ,gen4 xv4 #a4 #bbf ,isa4 xli4 #ad4 #bbg ,mark vi4 #ej4 #bbh ,john xiv4 #bg4 #bbi ,rev4 i4 #ag1 #ah4 ,the elegist does not recall this scene from his past life merely in order to indulge in the pleasures of memory--generally rather melancholy pleasures1 and even mocking if they are in sharp contrast to the present4 ,his object is to find encouragement for renewed hope in the efficacy of prayer4 ,in the complaint that he has put into the mouth of ,his people ,he has just been depicting the failure of prayer4 ,but now he feels that if for a time ,god has wrapped ,himself in a mantle of wrath this cannot be for ever1 for ,he who was so gracious to the cry of ,his servant on that ever-memorable occasion will surely attend again to the appeal of distress4 ,this is always the greatest encouragement for seeking help from ,god4 ,it is difficult to find much satisfaction in what is called with an awkward inconsequence of diction the philosophy of prayer2 the spirit of philosophy is so wholly different from the spirit of prayer4 ,the great justification for prayer is the experience of prayer4 ,it is only the prayerless man who is wholly sceptical on this subject4 ,the man of prayer cannot but believe in prayer2 and the more he prays and the oftener he turns to this refuge in all times of need the fuller is his assurance that ,god hears and answers him4 ,considering how ,god acted as his advocate when he was in danger in the earlier crisis1 and then redeemed his life1 the poet points to this fact as a plea in his new necessity4#bcj ,god will not desert the cause ,he has adopted4 ,men feel a peculiar interest in those whom they have already helped1 an interest that is stronger than the sense of gratitude1 for we are more attracted to our dependants than to our benefactors4 ,if ,god shares this feeling1 how strongly must ,he be drawn to us by ,his many former favours6 ,the language of the elegist gains a great enrichment of meaning when read in the light of the ,christian ,gospel4 ,in a deep sense1 of which he could have had but the least glimmering of apprehension1 we can appeal to ,god as the ,redeemer of our life1 for we can take the ,cross of ,christ as our plea4 ,st4 ,paul makes use of this strongest of all arguments when ,he urges that if ,god gave ,his ,son1 and if ,christ died for us1 all other needful blessings1 since they cannot involve so great a sacrifice1 will surely follow4 ,accordingly1 we can pray in the language of the ,dies ,ir-- ,wearily for me ,thou soughtest1 ,on the ,cross my life ,thou boughtest1 ,lose not all for which ,thou wroughtest4 #bcj iii4 #eh4 ,rising from the image of the advocate to that of the magistrate the distressed man begs ,god to judge his cause4#bca ,he would have ,god look at his enemies--how they wrong him1 insult him1 make him the theme of their jesting songs4#bcb #bca iii4 #ei4 #bcb iii4 #fj-c4 ,it would have been more to our taste if the poem had ended here1 if there had been no remaining letters in the ,hebrew alphabet to permit the extension of the acrostics beyond the point we have now reached4 ,we cannot but feel that its tone is lowered at the close4 ,the writer here proceeds to heap imprecations on the heads of his enemies4 ,it is vain for some commentator to plead the weak excuse that the language is prophetic4 ,this is certainly more than the utterance of a prediction4 ,no unprejudiced reader can deny that it reveals a desire that the oppressors may be blighted and blasted with ruin1 and even if the words were only a foretelling of a divinely-decreed fate they would imply a keen sense of satisfaction in the prospect1 which they describe as something to be gloated over4 ,we cannot expect this ,jewish patriot to anticipate our ,lord's intercession and excuse for ,his enemies4 ,even ,st4 ,paul so far forgot himself as to treat the ,high ,priest in a very different manner from his ,master's behaviour4 ,but we may see here one of the worst effects of tyranny--the dark passion of revenge that it rouses in its victims4 ,the provocation was maddening1 and not only of a private nature4 ,think of the situation--the beloved city sacked and destroyed1 the sacred temple a heap of smouldering ruins1 village homesteads all over the hills of ,judah wrecked and deserted2 slaughter1 outrage1 unspeakable wrongs endured by wives and maidens1 little children starved to death4 ,is it wonderful that the patriot's temper was not the sweetest when he thought of the authors of such atrocities8 ,there is no possibility of denying the fact--the fierce fires of ,hebrew hatred for the oppressors of the much-suffering race here burst into a flame1 and towards the end of this finest of elegies we read the dark imprecation1 ,thy curse upon them6#bcc #bcc iii4 #fe4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,contrasts iv4 #a-ab ,,in form the fourth elegy is slightly different from each of its predecessors4 ,following the characteristic plan of the ,book of ,lamentations1 it is an acrostic of twenty-two verses arranged in the order of the ,hebrew alphabet4 ,in it we meet with the same curious transposition of two letters that is found in the second and third elegies2 it has also the peculiar metre of ,hebrew elegiac poetry--the very lengthy line1 broken into two unequal parts4 ,but1 like the first and second1 it differs from the third elegy1 which repeats the acrostic letters in three successive lines1 in only using each acrostic once--at the beginning of a fresh verse2 and it differs from all the three first elegies1 which are arranged in triplets1 in having only two lines in each verse4 ,this poem is very artistically constructed in the balancing of its ideas and phrases4 ,the opening section of it1 from the beginning to the twelfth verse1 consists of a pair of duplicate passages--the first from verse one to verse six1 the second from verse seven to verse eleven1 the twelfth verse bringing this part of the poem to a close by adding a reflection on the common subject of the twin passages4 ,thus the parallelism which we usually meet with in individual verses is here extended to two series of verses1 we might perhaps say1 two stanzas1 except that there is no such formal division4 ,in each of these elaborately-wrought sections the elegist brings out a rich array of similes to enforce the tremendous contrast between the original condition of the people of ,jerusalem and their subsequent wretchedness4 ,the details of the two descriptions follow closely parallel lines1 with sufficient diversity1 both in idea and in illustration1 though chiefly in illustration1 to avoid tautology and to serve to heighten the general effect by mutual comparisons4 ,both passages open with images of beautiful and costly natural objects to which the lite of ,jerusalem are compared4 ,next comes the violent contrast of their state after the overthrow of the city4 ,then turning aside to more distant scenes1 each of which is more or less repellent--the lair of wild beasts in the first case1 in the second the battle-field--the poet describes the much more degraded and miserable condition of his people4 ,both passages direct especial attention to the fate of children--the first to their starvation1 the second to a perfectly ghastly scene4 ,at this point in each part the previous daintiness of the upbringing of the more refined classes is contrasted with the condition of degradation worse than that of savages to which they have been reduced4 ,each passage concludes with a reference to those deeper facts of the case which make it a sign of the wrath of heaven against exceptionally guilty sinners4 ,the elegist begins with an evident allusion to the consequences of the burning of the temple1 which we learn from the history was effected by the ,babylonian general ,nebuzar-adan4#bcd ,the costly splendour with which this temple at ,jerusalem was decorated allowed of a rare glitter of gold1 such as ,josephus describes when writing of the later temple2 gold not like that of the domes of ,st4 ,mark's1 mellowed by the climate of ,venice to a sober depth of hue1 but all ablaze with dazzling radiance4 ,the first effect of the smoke of a great conflagration would be to cloud and soil this somewhat raw magnificence1 so that the choice gold became dull4 ,that the precious stones stolen from the temple treasury would be flung carelessly about the streets1 as our ,authorised ,version would seem to suggest1 is not to be supposed in the case of the sack of a city by a civilised army1 whatever might happen if a ,vandal host swept through it4 ,the stones of the sanctuary1#bce however1 might be the stones with which the building had been constructed4 ,still1 even with this interpretation the statement seems very improbable that the invaders would take the trouble to cart these huge blocks about the city in order to distribute them in heaps at all the street corners4 ,we are driven to the conclusion that the poet is speaking metaphorically1 that he is meaning the ,jews themselves1 or perhaps the more favoured classes1 the noble sons of ,zion of whom he writes openly in the next verse4#bcf ,this interpretation is confirmed when we consider the comparison with the parallel passage1 which starts at once with a reference to the princes4#bcg ,it seems likely then that the gold that has been so sullied also represents the choicer part of the people4 ,the writer deplores the destruction of his beloved sanctuary1 and the image of that calamity is in his mind at the present time2 and yet it is not this that he is most deeply lamenting4 ,he is more concerned with the fate of his people4 ,the patriot loves the very soil of his native land1 the loyal citizen the very streets and stones of his city4 ,but if such a man is more than a dreamer or a sentimentalist1 flesh and blood must mean infinitely more to him than earth and stones4 ,the ruin of a city is something else than the destruction of its buildings2 an earthquake or a fire may effect this1 and yet1 like ,chicago1 the city may rise again in greater splendour4 ,the ruin that is most deplorable is the ruin of human lives4 #bcd #b ,kings xxv4 #i4 #bce iv4 #a4 #bcf iv4 #b4 #bcg iv4 #g4 ,this somewhat aristocratic poet1 the mouthpiece of an aristocratic age1 compares the sons of the ,jewish nobility to purest gold4 ,yet he tells us that they are treated as common earthen vessels1 perhaps meaning in contrast to the vessels of precious metal used in the palaces of the great4 ,they are regarded as of no more value than potter's work1 though formerly they had been prized as the dainty art of a goldsmith4 ,this first statement only treats of insult and humiliation4 ,but the evil is worse4 ,the jackals that he knows must be prowling about the deserted ruins of ,jerusalem even while he writes suggests a strange1 wild image to the poet's mind4#bch ,these fierce creatures suckle their young1 though not in the tame manner of domestic animals4 ,it is singular that the nurture of princes amid the refinements of wealth and luxury should be compared to the feeding of their cubs by scavengers of the wilderness4 ,but our thoughts are thus directed to the wide extent1 the universal exercise of maternal instincts throughout the animal world1 even among the most savage and homeless creatures4 ,startling indeed is it to think that such instincts should ever fail among men1 or even that circumstances should ever hinder the natural performance of the functions to which they point with imperious urgency4 ,although the second passage tells of the violent reversal of the natural feelings of maternity under the maddening influence of famine1 here we read how starvation has simply stopped the tender ministry which mothers render to their infants1 with a vague hint at some cruelty on the part of the ,jewish mothers4 ,a comparison with the supposed conduct of ostriches in leaving their eggs suggests that this is negative cruelty2 their hearts being frozen with agony1 the wretched mothers lose all interest in their children4 ,but then there is not food for them4 ,the calamities of the times have staunched the mother's milk2 and there is no bread for the older children4#bci ,it is the extreme reversal of their fortunes that makes the misery of the children of princely homes most acute2 even those who do not suffer the pangs of hunger are flung down to the lowest depths of wretchedness4 ,the members of the aristocracy have been accustomed to live luxuriously2 now they wander about the streets devouring whatever they can pick up4 ,in the old days of luxury they used to recline on scarlet couches2 now they have no better bed than the filthy dunghill4#bdj #bch iv4 #c4 #bci iv4 #d4 #bdj iv4 #e4 ,the passage concludes with a reflection on the general character of this dreadful condition of ,israel4#bda ,it must be closely connected with the sins of the people4 ,the drift of the context would lead us to judge that the poet does not mean to compare the guilt of ,jerusalem with that of ,sodom1 but rather the fate of the two cities4 ,the punishment of ,israel is greater than that of ,sodom4 ,but this is punishment2 and the odious comparison would not be made unless the sin had been of the blackest dye4 ,thus in this elegy the calamities of ,jerusalem are again traced back to the ill-doings of her people4 ,the awful fate of the cities of the plain stands out in the ancient narrative as the exceptional punishment of exceptional wickedness4 ,but now in the race for a first place in the history of doom ,jerusalem has broken the record4 ,even ,sodom has been eclipsed in the headlong course by the city once most favoured by heaven4 ,it seems well nigh impossible4 ,what could be worse than total destruction by fire from heaven8 ,the elegist considers that there are two points in the fate of ,jerusalem that confer a gloomy pre-eminence in misery4 ,the doom of ,sodom was sudden1 and man had no hand in it but ,jerusalem fell into the hands of man--a calamity which ,david judged to be worse than falling into the hands of ,god2 and she had to endure a long1 lingering agony4 #bda iv4 #f4 ,passing on to the consideration of the parallel section1 we see that the author follows the same lines1 though with considerable freshness of treatment4 ,still directing especial attention to the tremendous change in the fortunes of the aristocracy1 he begins again by describing the splendour of their earlier state4 ,this had been advertised to all eyes by the very complexion of their countenances4 ,unlike the toilers who were necessarily bronzed by working under a southern sun1 these delicately nurtured persons had been able to preserve fair skins in the shady seclusion of their cool palaces1 so that in the hyperbole of the poem they could be described as purer than snow and whiter than milk4#bdb ,yet they had no sickly pallor4 ,their health had been well attended to2 so that they were also ruddy as corals1 while their dark hair#bdc glistened like sapphires4 ,but now see them6 ,their faces are darker than blackness4#bdd ,we need not enquire after a literal explanation of an expression which is in harmony with the extravagance of ,oriental language1 although doubtless exposure to the weather1 and the grime and smoke of the scenes these children of luxury had passed through1 must have had a considerable effect on their effeminate countenances4 ,the language here is evidently figurative4 ,so it is throughout the passage4 ,the whole aspect of the lives and fortunes of these delicately nurtured lordlings has been reversed4 ,they tell their story by the gloom of their countenances and by the shrivelled appearance of their bodies4 ,they can no longer be recognised in the streets1 so piteous a change has their misfortunes wrought in them4 ,withered and wizen1 they are reduced to skin and bone by sheer famine4 ,sufferers from such continuous calamities as these fallen princes are passing through are treated to a worse fate than that which overtook their brethren who fell in the war4 ,the sword is better than hunger4 ,the victims of war1 stricken down in the heat of battle but in the midst of plenty1 so that they leave the fruits of the field behind them untouched because no longer needed1#bde are to be counted happy in being taken from the evil to come4 #bdb iv4 #g4 #bdc iv4 #g4 ,hair1 ,according to a slight emendation of the text recommended by recent criticism4 #bdd iv4 #h4 #bde ,so perhaps we should understand ver4 #i1 applying the last clause to the fallen warriors4 ,in the ,revised ,version1 however1 rendered so as to refer to the famished people who pine away for lack of the fruits of the earth4 ,yet another rendering is fade away 444 like the growth of the fields4 ,the gruesome horror of the next scene is beyond description4#bdf ,more than once history has had to record the absolute extinction1 nay1 we must say the insane reversal1 of maternal instincts under the influence of hunger4 ,we could not believe it possible if we did not know that it had occurred4 ,it is a degradation of what we hold to be most sacred in human nature2 perhaps it is only possible where human nature has been degraded already1 for we must not forget that in the present case the women who are driven below the level of she-wolves are not children of nature1 but the daughters of an effete civilisation who have been nursed in the lap of luxury4 ,this is the climax4 ,imagination itself could scarcely go further4 ,and yet according to his custom throughout1 the elegist attributes these calamities of his people to the anger of ,god4 ,such things seem to indicate a very fury of ,divine wrath2 the anger must be fierce indeed to kindle such a fire in ,zion4#bdg ,but now the very foundations of the city are destroyed even that terrible thirst for retribution must be satisfied4 #bdf iv4 #aj4 #bdg iv4 #aa4 ,these are thoughts which we as ,christians do not care to entertain2 and yet it is in the ,new ,testament that we read that our ,god is a consuming fire2#bdh and it is of our ,lord that ,john the ,baptist declares3 ,he will throughly purge ,his threshing-floor4#bdi ,if ,god is angry at all ,his anger cannot be light2 for no action of ,his is feeble or ineffectual4 ,the subsequent restoration of ,israel shows that the fires to which the elegist here calls our attention were purgatorial4 ,this fact must profoundly affect our view of their character4 ,still they are very real1 or the ,book of ,lamentations would not have been written4 #bdh ,heb4 xii4 #bi4 #bdi ,matt4 iii4 #ab4 ,in view of the whole situation so graphically portrayed by means of the double line of illustrations the poet concludes this part of his elegy with a device that reminds us of the function of the chorus in the ,greek drama4 ,we see the kings of all other nations in amazement at the fate of ,jerusalem4#bej ,the mountain city had the reputation of being an impregnable fortress1 at least so her fond citizens imagined4 ,but now she has fallen4 ,it is incredible6 ,the news of this wholly unexpected disaster is supposed to send a shock through foreign courts4 ,we are reminded of the blow that stunned ,st4 ,jerome when a rumour of the fall of ,rome reached the studious monk in his quiet retreat at ,bethlehem4 ,men can tell that a severe storm has been raging out in the ,atlantic if they see unusually great rollers breaking on the ,cornish crags4 ,how huge a calamity must that be the mere echo of which can produce a startling effect in far countries6 ,but could these kings really be so astonished seeing that ,jerusalem had been captured twice before8 ,the poet's language rather points to the overweening pride and confidence of the ,jews1 and it shows how great the shock to them must have been since they could not but regard it as a wonder to the world4 ,such then is the picture drawn by our poet with the aid of the utmost artistic skill in bringing out its striking effects4 ,now before we turn away from it let us ask ourselves wherein its true significance may be said to be4 ,this is a study in black and white4 ,the very language is such2 and when we come to consider the lessons that language sets forth with so much sharpness and vigour1 we shall see that they too partake of the same character4 #bej iv4 #ab4 ,the force of contrasts--that is the first and most obvious characteristic of the scene4 ,we are very familiar with the heightening of effects by this means1 and it is needless to repeat the trite lessons that have been derived from the application of it to life4 ,we know that none suffer so keenly from adversity as those who were once very prosperous4 ,marius in the ,mamertine dungeon1 ,napoleon at ,st4 ,helena1 ,nebuchadnezzar among the beasts1 ,dives in ,hell1 are but notorious illustrations of what we may all see on the smaller canvas of every-day life4 ,great as are the hardships of the children of the slums1 it is not to them1 but to the unhappy victims of a violent change of circumstances1 that the burden of poverty is most heavy4 ,we have seen this principle illustrated repeatedly in the ,book of ,lamentations4 ,but now may we not go behind it1 and lay hold of something more than an indubitable psychological law8 ,while looking only at the reversals of fortune which may be witnessed on every hand1 we are tempted to hold life to be little better than a gambling bout with high stakes and desperate play4 ,further consideration1 however1 should teach us that the stakes are not so high as they appear2 that is to say1 that the chances of the world do not so profoundly affect our fate as surface views would lead us to suppose4 ,such things as the pursuit of mere sensation1 the life of external aims1 the surrender to the excitement of the moment1 are doubtless subject to the vicissitudes of contrast2 but it is the teaching of our ,lord that the higher pursuits are free from these evils4 ,if the treasure is in heaven no thief can steal it1 no moth or rust can corrupt it2 and therefore since where the treasure is there will the heart be also1 it is possible to keep the heart in peace even among the changes that upset a purely superficial life with earthquake shocks4 ,sincere as is the lament of the elegist over the fate of his people1 a subtle thread of irony seems to run through his language4 ,possibly it is quite unconscious2 but if so it is the more significant1 for it is the irony of fact which cannot be excluded by the simplest method of statement4 ,it suggests that the grandeur which could be so easily turned to humiliation must have been somewhat tawdry at best4 ,but unhappily the fall of the pampered youth of ,jerusalem was not confined to a reversal of external fortune4 ,the elegist has been careful to point out that the miseries they endured were the punishments of their sins4 ,then there had been an earlier and much greater collapse4 ,before any foreign enemy had appeared at her gates the city had succumbed to a fatal foe bred within her own walls4 ,luxury had undermined the vigour of the wealthy2 vice had blackened the beauty of the young4 ,there is a fine gold of character which will be sullied beyond recognition when the foul vapours of the pit are permitted to break out upon it4 ,the magnificence of ,solomon's temple is poor and superficial in comparison with the beauty of young souls endowed with intellectual and moral gifts1 like jewels of rarest worth4 ,man is not treated in the ,bible as a paltry creature4 ,was he not made in the image of ,god8 ,jesus would not have us despise our own native worth4 ,hope and faith come from a lofty view of human nature and its possibilities4 ,souls are not swine2 and therefore by all the measure of their superiority to swine souls are worth saving4 ,the shame and sorrow of sin lie just in this fact1 that it is so foul a degradation of so fair a thing as human nature4 ,here is the contrast that heightens the tragedy of lost souls4 ,but then we may add1 in its reversal this same contrast magnifies the glory of redemption--from so deep a pit does ,christ bring back ,his ransomed1 to so great a height does ,he raise them6 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,lepers iv4 #ac-af ,passing from the fate of the princes to that of the prophets and priests1 we come upon a vividly dramatic scene in the streets of ,jerusalem amid the terror and confusion that precede the final act of the national tragedy4 ,the doom of the city is attributed to the crimes of her religious leaders1 whose true characters are now laid bare4 ,the citizens shrink from the guilty men with the loathing felt for lepers1 and shriek to them to depart1 calling them unclean1 and warning them not to touch any one by the way1 because there is blood upon them4 ,dreading the awful treatment measured out to the victims of lynch-law1 they stagger through the streets in a state of bewilderment1 and stumble like blind men4 ,fugitives and vagabonds1 with the mark of ,cain upon them1 driven out at the gates by the impatient mob1 they can find no refuge even in foreign lands1 for none of the nations will receive them4 ,we do not know whether the poet is here describing actual events1 or whether this is an imaginary picture designed to express his own feelings with regard to the persons concerned4 ,the situation is perfectly natural1 and what is narrated may very well have happened just as it is described4 ,but if it is not history it is still a revelation of character1 a representation of what the writer knows to be the conduct of the moral lepers1 and their deserts2 and as such it is most suggestive4 ,in the first place there is much significance in the fact that the overthrow of ,jerusalem is unhesitatingly charged to the account of the sins of her prophets and priests4 ,these once venerated men are not merely no longer protected by the sanctity of their offices from the accusations that are brought against the laity2 they are singled out for a charge of exceptionally heinous wickedness which is regarded as the root cause of all the troubles that have fallen upon the ,jews4 ,the second elegy had affirmed the failure of the prophets and the vanity of their visions4#bea ,this new and stronger accusation reads like a reminiscence of ,jeremiah1 who repeatedly speaks of the sins of the clerical class and the mischief resulting therefrom4#beb ,evidently the terrible truth the prophet dwelt upon so much was felt by a disciple of his school to be of the most serious consequence4 #bea ii4 #i1 #ad4 #beb ,jer4 vi4 #ac2 viii4 #aj2 xxiii4 #aa1 #ad2 xxvi4 #g ff4 ,the accusation is of the very gravest character4 ,these religious leaders are charged with murder4 ,if the elegist is recording historical occurrences he may be alluding to riots in which the feuds of rival factions had issued in bloodshed2 or he may have had information of private acts of assassination4 ,his language points to a condition in ,jerusalem similar to that which was found in ,rome at the ,fifteenth ,century1 when popes and cardinals were the greatest criminals4 ,the crimes were aggravated by the fact that the victims selected were the righteous1 perhaps men of the ,jeremiah party1 who had been persecuted by the officials of the ,state religion4 ,but quite apart from these dark and tragic events1 the record of which has not been preserved1 if the wicked policy of their clergy had brought down on the heads of the citizens of ,jerusalem the mass of calamities that accompanied the siege of the city by the ,babylonians1 this policy was in itself a cause of great bloodshed4 ,the men who invited the ruin of their city were in reality the murderers of all who perished in that calamity4 ,we know from ,jeremiah's statements on the subject that the false1 time-serving1 popular prophets were deceivers of the people1 who allayed alarm by means of lies1 saying peace1 peace2 when there was no peace4#bec ,when the deception was discovered their angry dupes would naturally hold them responsible for the results of their wickedness4 #bec ,jer4 vi4 #ad2 viii4 #aa4 ,the sin of these religious leaders of ,israel consists essentially in betraying a sacred trust4 ,the priest is in charge of the ,torah--traditional or written2 he must have been unfaithful to his law or he could not have led his people astray4 ,if the prophet's claims are valid this man is the messenger of ,jehovah1 and therefore he must have falsified his message in order to delude his audience2 if1 however1 he has not himself heard the ,divine voice he is no better than a dervish1 and in pretending to speak with the authority of an ambassador from heaven he is behaving as a miserable charlatan4 ,in the case now before us the motive for the practice of deceit is very evident4 ,it is thirst for popularity4 ,truth1 right1 ,god's will--these imperial authorities count for nothing1 because the favour of the people is reckoned as everything4 ,no doubt there are times when the temptation to descend to untruthfulness in the discharge of a public function is peculiarly pressing4 ,when party feeling is roused1 or when a mad panic has taken possession of a community1 it is exceedingly difficult to resist the current and maintain what one knows to be right in conflict with the popular movement4 ,but in its more common occurrence this treachery cannot plead any such excuse4 ,that truth should be trampled under foot and souls endangered merely to enable a public speaker to refresh his vanity with the music of applause is about the most despicable exhibition of selfishness imaginable4 ,if a man who has been set in a place of trust prostitutes his privileges simply to win admiration for his oratory1 or at most in order to avoid the discomfort of unpopularity or the disappointment of neglect1 his sin is unpardonable4 ,the one form of unfaithfulness on the part of these religious leaders of ,israel of which we are specially informed is their refusal to warn their reckless fellow-citizens of the approach of danger1 or to bring home to their hearer's consciences the guilt of the sin for which the impending doom was the just punishment4 ,they are the prototypes of those writers and preachers who smooth over the unpleasant facts of life4 ,it is not easy for any one to wear the mantle of ,elijah1 or echo the stern desert voice of ,john the ,baptist4 ,men who covet popularity do not care to be reckoned pessimists2 and when the gloomy truth is not flattering to their hearers they are sorely tempted to pass on to more congenial topics4 ,this was apparent in the ,deistic optimism that almost stifled spiritual life during the ,eighteenth ,century4 ,our age is far from being optimistic2 and yet the same temptation threatens to smother religion to-day4 ,in an aristocratic age the sycophant flatters the great2 in a democratic age he flatters the people--who are then in fact the great4 ,the peculiar danger of our own day is that the preacher should simply echo popular cries1 and voice the demands of the majority irrespective of the question of their justice4 ,thrust into the position of a social leader with more urgency than his predecessors of any time since the age of the ,hebrew prophets1 it is expected that he will lead whither the people wish to go1 and if he declines to do so he is denounced as retrograde4 ,and yet as the messenger of ,heaven he should consider it his supreme duty to reveal the whole counsel of ,god1 to speak for truth and righteousness1 and therefore to condemn the sins of the democracy equally with the sins of the aristocracy4 ,brave labour-leaders have fallen into disfavour for telling working-men that their worst enemies were their own vices--such as intemperance4 ,the wickedness of a responsible teacher who treasonably neglects thus to warn his brethren of danger is powerfully expressed by ,ezekiel's clear1 antithetical statements concerning the respective guilt of the watchman and his fellow-citizen1 which show conclusively that the greatest burden of blame must rest on the unfaithful watchman4#bed #bed ,ezek4 iii4 #af-ba4 ,in the hour of their exposure these wretched prophets and priests lose all sense of dignity1 even lose their self-possession1 and stumble about like blind men1 helpless and bewildered4 ,their behaviour suggests the idea that they must be drunk with the blood they have shed1 or overcome by the intoxication of their thirst for blood2 but the explanation is that they cannot lift up their heads to look a neighbour in the face1 because all their little devices have been torn to shreds1 all their specious lies detected1 all their empty promises falsified4 ,this shame of dethroned popularity is the greatest humiliation4 ,the unhappy man who has brought himself to live on the breath of fame cannot hide his fall in oblivion and obscurity as a private person may do4 ,standing in the full blaze of the world's observation which he has so eagerly focussed on himself1 he has no alternative but to exchange the glory of popularity for the ignominy of notoriety4 ,possibly the confusion consequent on their exposure is all that the poet is thinking of when he depicts the blind staggering of the prophets and priests4 ,but it is not unreasonable to take this picture as an illustration of their moral condition1 especially after the references to the faults of the prophets in the second elegy have directed our attention to their spiritual darkness and the vanity of their visions4 ,when the refuge of lies in which they had trusted was swept away they would necessarily find themselves lost and helpless4 ,they had so long worshipped falsehood1 it had become so much their god that we might say1 in it they had lived1 and moved1 and had their being4 ,but now they have lost the very atmosphere of their lives4 ,this is the penalty of deceit4 ,the man who begins by using it as his tool becomes in time its victim4 ,at first he lies with his eyes open2 but the sure effect of this conduct is that his sight becomes dim and blurred1 till1 if he persist in the fatal course long enough1 he is ultimately reduced to a condition of blindness4 ,joy continually mixing truth and falsehood together he loses the power of distinguishing between them4 ,it may be supposed that at an earlier stage of their decline1 if the religious leaders of ,israel had been honest with regard to their own convictions they must have admitted the possible genuineness of those prophets of ruin whom they had persecuted in deference to popular clamour4 ,but they had rejected all such unwelcome thoughts so persistently that in course of time they had lost the perception of them4 ,therefore when the truth was flashed upon their unwilling minds by the unquestionable revelation of events they were as helpless as bats and owls suddenly driven out into the daylight by an earthquake that has flung down the crumbling ruins in which they had been sheltering themselves4 ,the discovery of the true character of these men was the signal for a yell of execration on the part of the people by flattering whom they had obtained their livelihood1 or at least all that they most valued in life4 ,this too must have been another shock of surprise to them4 ,had they believed in the essential fickleness of popular favour1 they would never have built their hopes upon so precarious a foundation1 for they might as well have set up their dwelling on the strand that would be flooded at the next turn of the tide4 ,history is strewn with the wreckage of fallen popular reputations of all degrees of merit1 from that of the conscientious martyr who had always looked to higher ends than the applause which once encircled him1 to that of the frivolous child of fortune who had known of nothing better than the world's empty admiration4 ,we see this both in ,savonarola martyred at the stake and in ,beau ,nash starved in a garret4 ,there is no more pathetic scene to be gathered from the story of religion in the present century than that of ,edward ,irving1 once the idol of society1 subsequently deserted by fashion1 stationing himself at a street corner to proclaim his message to a chance congregation of idlers2 and his mistake was that of an honest man who had been misled by a delusion4 ,incomparably worse is the fate of the fallen favourite who has no honesty of conviction with which to comfort himself when frowned at by the heartless world that had recently fawned upon him4 ,the ,jews show their disgust and horror for their former leaders by pelting them with the leper call4 ,according to the law the leper must go with rent clothes and flowing hair1 and his face partly covered1 crying1 ,unclean1 unclean4#bee ,it is evident that the poet has this familiar mournful cry in his mind when he describes the treatment of the prophets and priests4 ,and yet there is a difference4 ,the leper is to utter the humiliating word himself2 but in the case now before us it is flung after the outcast leaders by their pitiless fellow-citizens4 ,the alteration is not without significance4 ,the miserable victim of bodily disease could not hope to disguise his condition4 ,white as snow1 his well-known complaint was patent to every eye4 ,but it is otherwise with the spiritual leprosy1 sin4 ,for a time it may be disguised1 a hidden fire in the breast4 ,when it is evident to others1 too often the last man to perceive it is the offender himself2 and when he himself is inwardly conscious of guilt he is tempted to wear a cloak of denial before the world4 ,more especially is this the case with one who has been accustomed to make a profession of religion1 and most of all with a religious leader4 ,while the publican who has no character to sustain will smite his breast with self-reproaches and cry for mercy1 the professional saint is blind to his own sins1 partly no doubt because to admit their existence would be to shatter his profession4 #bee ,lev4 xiii4 #de4 ,but if the religious leader is slow to confess or even perceive his guilt1 the world is keen to detect it and swift to cast it in his teeth4 ,there is nothing that excites so much loathing2 and justly so1 for there is nothing that does so much harm4 ,such conduct is the chief provocative of practical scepticism4 ,it matters not that the logic is unsound2 men will draw rough and ready conclusions4 ,if the leaders are corrupt the hasty inference is that the cause which is identified with their names must also be corrupt4 ,religion suffers more from the hypocrisy of some of her avowed champions than from the attacks of all the hosts of her pronounced foes4 ,accordingly a righteous indignation assails those who work such deadly mischief4 ,but less commendable motives urge men in the same direction4 ,evil itself steals a triumph over good in the downfall of its counterfeit4 ,if they knew themselves there must have been some hypocrisy on the side of the persecutors in the demonstrative zeal with which they hounded to death the once pampered children of fortune the moment they had fallen from the pedestal of respectability2 for could these indignant champions of virtue deny that they had been willing accomplices in the deeds they so loudly denounced8 or at least that they had not been reluctant to be pleasantly deceived1 had not enquired too nicely into the credentials of the flatterers who had spoken smooth things to them8 ,considering what their own conduct had been1 their eagerness in execrating the wickedness of their leaders was almost indecent4 ,there is a ,pecksniffian air about it4 ,it suggests a sly hope that by thus placing themselves on the side of outraged virtue they were putting their own characters beyond the suspicion of criticism4 ,they seem to have been too eager to make scapegoats of their clergy4 ,their action appears to show that they had some idea that even at the eleventh hour the city might be spared if it were rid of this plague of the blood-stained prophets and priests4 ,and yet however various and questionable the motives of the assailants may have been1 there is no escape from the conclusion that the wickedness they denounced so eagerly richly deserved the most severe condemnation4 ,wherever we meet with it1 this is the leprosy of society4 ,disguised for a time1 a secret canker in the breast of unsuspected men1 it is certain to break out at length2 and when it is discovered it merits a measure of indignation proportionate to the previous deception4 ,exile is the doom of these guilty prophets and priests4 ,but even in their banishment they can find no place of rest4 ,they wander from one foreign nation to another2 they are permitted to stay with none of them4 ,unlike our ,english pretenders who were allowed to take up their abode among the enemies of their country1 these ,jews were suspected and disliked wherever they went4 ,they had been unfaithful to ,jehovah2 yet they could not proclaim themselves devotees of ,baal4 ,the heathen were not prepared to draw fine distinctions between the various factions in the ,israelite camp4 ,the world only scoffs at the quarrels of the sects4 ,moreover1 these false1 worthless leaders had been the zealots of national feeling in the old boastful days when ,jeremiah had been denounced by their party as a traitor4 ,then they had been the most exclusive of the ,jews4 ,as they had made their bed so must they lie on it4 ,the poet suggests no term to this melancholy fate4 ,perhaps while he was writing his elegy the wretched men were to his own knowledge still journeying wearily from place to place4 ,thus like the fratricide ,cain1 like the wandering ,jew of medival legend1 the fallen leaders of the religion of ,israel find their punishment in a doom of perpetual homelessness4 ,is it too severe a penalty for the fatal deceit that wrought death1 and so was equivalent to murder of the worst sort1 cold-blooded1 deliberate murder8 ,there is a perfectly ,dantesque appropriateness in it4 ,the ,inferno of the popularity-mongers is a homeless desert of unpopularity4 ,quiet1 retiring souls and dreamy lovers of nature might derive rest and refreshment from a hermit life in the wilderness4 ,not so these slaves of society4 ,deprived of the support of their surrounding element--like jelly-fish flung on to the beach to shrivel up and perish--in banishment from city life such men must experience a total collapse4 ,just in proportion to the hollowness and unreality with which a man has made the pursuit of the world's applause the chief object of his life1 is the dismal fate he will have to endure when1 having sown the wind of vanity1 he reaps the whirlwind of indignation4 ,the ill-will of his fellow-men is hard to bear2 but behind it is the far more terrible wrath of ,god1 whose judgment the miserable time-server has totally ignored while sedulously cultivating the favour of the world4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,vain ,,hopes iv4 #ag-bj ,the first part of the fourth elegy was specially concerned with the fate of the gilded youth of ,jerusalem2 the second and closely parallel part with that of the princes2 the third introduced us to the dramatic scene in which the fallen priests and prophets were portrayed2 now in the fourth part of the elegy the king and his courtiers are the prominent figures4 ,while all the rest of the poem is written in the third person1 this short section is composed in the first person plural4 ,the arrangement is not exactly like that of the third elegy1 in which1 after speaking in his own person1 the poet appears as the representative and spokesman of his people4 ,the more simple form of the composition now under consideration would lead us to suppose that the pronoun we comes in for the most natural reason--viz41 because the writer was himself an actor in the scene which he here describes4 ,we must conclude1 then1 that he was one of the group of ,zedekiah's personal attendants1 or at least a member of a company of ,jews which escaped at the time of the royal flight and took the same road when the citizens were scattered by the sack of the city4 ,the picture1 however1 is somewhat idealised4 ,events that could only have taken place in succession are described as though they were all occurring in the present4 ,we have first the anxious watching of the besieged for the advent of an army of relief2 then the chase of their victims through the streets by the invaders--which must have been after they had broken into the city2 next the flight and pursuit over the mountains2 and lastly1 the capture of the king4 ,this setting of a succession of events in one scene as though they were contemporaneous is so far an imaginary arrangement that we must be on our guard against a too literal interpretation of the details4 ,evidently we have here a poetic picture1 not the bare deposition of a witness4 ,the burden of the passage is the grievous disappointment of the court party at the failure of their fond hopes4 ,but ,jeremiah was directly opposed to that party1 and though our author was not the great prophet himself we have abundant evidence that he was a faithful disciple who echoed the very thoughts and shared the deepest convictions of his master4 ,how then can he now appear as one of the court party8 ,it is just possible that he was no friend of ,jeremiah at the time he is now describing4 ,he may have been converted subsequently by the logic of facts1 or by the more potent influence of the discipline of adversity1 a possibility which would give peculiar significance to the personal confessions contained in the previous elegy1 with its account of the man who had seen affliction4 ,but the poetic form of the section dealing with the court1 and the fact that all it describes is expressed in the present tense1 prevent us from pressing this conjecture to a definite conclusion4 ,it would be enough if we could suppose1 as there is no difficulty in doing1 that in the general confusion our poet found himself in unexpected companionship with the flying court4 ,thus he would witness their experiences4 ,we have1 then1 in this place an expression of the attitude of the court party in the midst of the great calamities that have overtaken them4 ,it is emphatically one of profound disappointment4 ,these deluded people had been sanguine to the last1 and proudly sceptical of danger1 with an infatuation almost amounting to insanity which had blinded them to the palpable lessons of defeats already endured--for we must not forget that ,jerusalem had been taken twice before this4 ,naturally their disappointment was proportionate to their previous elation4 ,the hopes that had been thus rudely dashed to the ground had been based on a feeling of the sacred inviolability of ,jerusalem4 ,this feeling had been sedulously nurtured by a bastard form of religion4 ,like the worship of ,rome in ,virgil's day1 a sort of cult of ,jerusalem had now grown up4 ,men who had no faith in ,jehovah put their trust in ,jerusalem4 ,the starting-point and excuse of this singular creed are to be traced to the deep-rooted conviction of the ,jews that their city was the chosen favourite of ,jehovah1 and that therefore her ,god would certainly protect her4 ,but this idea was treated most inconsistently when people coolly ignored the ,divine will while boldly claiming ,divine favour4 ,in course of time even that position was abandoned1 and ,jerusalem became practically a fetich4 ,then1 while faith in the destiny of the city was cherished as a superstition1 prophets such as ,jeremiah1 who directed men's thoughts to ,god1 were silenced and persecuted4 ,this folly of the ,jews has its counterpart in the exaltation of the papacy during the ,middle ,ages4 ,the ,pope claimed to be seated on his throne by the authority of ,christ2 but the papacy was really put in the place of ,christ4 ,similarly people who trust in the ,church1 their ,city of ,god1 rather than in her ,lord1 have fallen into an error like that of the ,jews1 who put confidence in their city rather than in their ,god4 ,so have those who confide in their own election instead of looking to the ,divine ,sovereign who1 they declare1 has named them in ,his eternal decrees2 and those again who set reliance on their religion1 its rites and creeds2 and lastly1 those who trust in their very faith as itself a saving power4 ,in all these cases1 the city1 the ,pope1 the election1 the ,church1 the religion1 the faith are simply idols1 no more able to protect the superstitious people who put them in the place of ,god than the ark that was captured in battle when the ,jews tried to use it as a talisman1 or even the fish-god ,dagon that lay shattered before it in the ,philistine temple4 ,but now we find the old-established faith in ,jerusalem so far undermined that it has to be supplemented by other grounds of hope4 ,in particular there are two of these--the king and a foreign ally4 ,the ally is mentioned first because the poet starts from the time when men still hoped that the ,egyptians would espouse the cause of ,israel1 and come to the help of the little kingdom against the hosts of ,babylon4 ,there was much to be said in favour of this expectation4 ,in the past ,egypt had been in alliance with the people now threatened4 ,the two great kingdoms of the ,nile and the ,euphrates were rivals2 and the aggressive policy of ,babylon had brought her into conflict with ,egypt4 ,the ,pharaohs might be glad to have ,israel preserved as a buffer state4 ,indeed1 negotiations had been carried on with that end in view4 ,nevertheless the dreams of deliverance built on this foundation were doomed to disappointment4 ,the poet shows us the anxious ,jews on their city towers straining their eyes till they are weary in watching for the relief that never comes4 ,they could look down through the gap in the hills towards ,bethlehem and the south country1 and the dust of an army would be visible from afar in the clear ,syrian atmosphere2 but1 alas6 no distant cloud promises the approach of the deliverer4 ,we are reminded of the siege of ,lucknow2 but in the hour of the ,jews' great need there is no sign corresponding to the welcome music of the ,scotch air that ravished the ears of the ,british garrison4 ,faithful prophets had repeatedly warned the ,jews against this false ground of hope4 ,in a former generation ,isaiah had cautioned his contemporaries not to lean on this broken reed#bef ,egypt2 and at the present crisis ,jeremiah had followed with similar advice1 predicting the failure of the ,egyptian alliance1 and replying to the messengers of ,zedekiah who had come to solicit the prophet's prayers3 ,thus saith the ,lord1 the ,god of ,israel3 ,thus shall ye say to the king of ,judah1 that sent you unto me to enquire of me2 ,behold1 ,pharaoh's army1 which is come forth to help you1 shall return to ,egypt into their own land4 ,and the ,chaldans shall come again1 and fight against this city2 and they shall take it1 and burn it with fire4#beg ,though regarded at the time as unpatriotic and even treasonable1 this advice proved to be sound1 and the predictions of the messenger of ,jehovah correct4 ,now that we can read the events in the light of history we have no difficulty in perceiving that even as a matter of state policy the counsel of ,isaiah and ,jeremiah was wise and statesmanlike4 ,babylon was quite irresistible4 ,even ,egypt could not stand against the powerful empire that was making itself master of the world4 ,besides1 alliance with ,egypt involved the loss of liberty1 for it had to be paid for1 and the weak ally of a great kingdom was no better than a tributary state4 ,meanwhile ,israel was embroiled in quarrels from which she should have tried1 as far as possible1 to keep herself aloof4 #bef ,isa4 xxxvi4 #f4 #beg ,jer4 xxxvii4 #g1 #h4 ,but the prophets shewed that deeper questions than such as concern political diplomacy were at stake4 ,in happier days the arm of ,providence had been laid bare1 and ,jerusalem saved without a blow1 when the destroying angel of pestilence swept through the ,assyrian host4 ,it is true ,jerusalem had to submit soon after this2 but the lesson was being taught that her safety really consisted in submission4 ,this was the kernel of ,jeremiah's unpopular message4 ,historically and politically that too was justified4 ,it was useless to attempt to stem the tide of one of the awful marches of a world-conquering army4 ,only the obstinacy of a fanatical patriotism could have led the ,jews of this period to hold out so long against the might of ,babylon1 just as the very same obstinacy encouraged their mad descendants in the days of ,titus to resist the arms of ,rome4 ,but then the prophets were constantly preaching to heedless ears that there was real safety in submission1 that a humble measure of escape was to be had by simply complying with the demands of the irresistible conquerors4 ,proud patriots might despise this consolation1 preferring to die fighting4 ,but that was scarcely the case with the fugitives2 these people had neither the relief that is the reward of a quiet surrender1 nor the glory that accompanies death on the battle-field4 ,to those who could hear the deeper notes of prophetic teaching the safety of surrender meant a much more valuable boon4 ,the submission recommended was not merely to be directed to ,king ,nebuchadnezzar2 primarily it consisted in yielding to the will of ,god4 ,people who will not turn to this one true refuge from all danger and trouble are tempted to substitute a variety of vain hopes4 ,most of us have our ,egypt to which we look when the vision of ,god has become dim in the soul4 ,the worldly cynicism that echoes and degrades the words of the ,preacher1 ,vanity of vanities2 all is vanity1 is really the product of the decay of dead hopes4 ,it would not be so sour if it had not been disappointed4 ,yet so persistent is the habit of castle-building1 that the cloudland in which many previous structures of fancy have melted away is resorted to again and again by an eager throng of fresh aerial architects4 ,after experience has confirmed the warning that riches take to themselves wings and flee away1 and in face of our ,lord's advice not to lay up treasures where thieves break through and steal1 and where moth and rust consume1 we see men as eager as ever to scrape wealth together1 as ready to put all their trust in it when it has come to them1 as astonished and dismayed when it has failed them4 ,ambition was long ago proved to be a frail bubble2 yet ambition never wants for slaves4 ,the cup of pleasure has been drained so often that the world should know by this time how very nauseous its dregs are2 and still feverish hands are held out to grasp it4 ,now this obstinate disregard of the repeated lessons of experience is too remarkable a habit of life to be reckoned as a mere accident4 ,there must be some adequate causes to account for it4 ,in the first place1 it testifies with singular force to the vitality of what we may call the faculty of hope itself4 ,disappointment does not kill the tendency to reach forth to the future1 because this tendency comes from within1 and is not a mere response to impressions4 ,in persons of a sanguine temperament this may be taken to be a constitutional peculiarity2 but it is too widespread to be disposed of as nothing more than a freak of nature4 ,it is rather to be considered an instinct1 and as such a part of the original constitution of man4 ,how then has it come to be8 ,must we not attribute the native hopefulness of mankind to the deliberate will and purpose of the ,creator8 ,but in that case must we not say of this1 as we can say with certainty of most natural instincts3 ,he who has given the hunger will also supply the food with which to satisfy it8 ,to reject that conclusion is to land ourselves in a form of pessimism that is next door to atheism4 ,schopenhauer rests the argument by means of which he thinks to establish a pessimistic view of the universe largely on the delusiveness of natural instincts which promise a satisfaction never attained2 but in reasoning in this way he is compelled to describe the supreme ,will that he believes to be the ultimate principle of all things as a non-moral power4 ,the mockery of human existence to which his philosophy reduces us is impossible in view of the ,fatherhood of ,god revealed to us in ,jesus ,christ4 ,shelley1 contrasting our fears and disappointments with the clear keen joyance of the skylark1 bewails the fact that ,we look before and after1 ,and pine for what is not4 ,if this is the end of the matter1 evolution is a mocking progress1 for it leads to the pit of despair4 ,if the large vision that takes in past and future only brings sorrow1 it would have been better for us to have retained the limited range of animal perceptions4 ,but faith sees in the very experience of disappointment a ground for fresh hope4 ,the discovery that the height already attained is not the summit of the mountain1 although it appeared to be when viewed from the plain1 is a proof that the summit is higher than we had supposed4 ,meanwhile1 the awakening of desires for further climbing is a sign that the disappointments we have experienced hitherto are not occasions for despair4 ,if1 as ,shelley goes on to say-- ,our sweetest songs are those that tell of saddest thought1 the sadness cannot be without mitigation1 for there must be an element of sweetness in it from the first2 and if so this must point to a future when this sadness itself shall pass away4 ,the author of the ,epistle to the ,hebrews argues on these lines when he draws the conclusion from the repeated disappointments of the hopes of ,israel in conjunction with the repeated promises of ,god that there remaineth therefore a rest for the people of ,god4#beh ,instincts are ,god's promises written in the ,book of ,nature4 ,seeing that our deepest instincts are not satisfied by any of the common experiences of life1 they must point to some higher satisfaction4 #beh ,heb4 iv4 #i4 ,here we are brought to the explanation of the disappointment itself4 ,we must confess1 in the first instance1 that it arises from the perverse habit of looking for satisfaction in objects that are too low1 objects that are unworthy of human nature4 ,this is one of the strongest evidences of a fall4 ,the more mind and heart are corrupted by sin the more will hope be dragged down to inferior things4 ,but the story does not end at this point4 ,god is educating us through illusions4 ,if all our aspirations were fulfilled on earth we should cease to hope for what was higher than earth4 ,hope is purged and elevated by the discovery of the vanity of its pursuits4 ,these considerations will be confirmed when we follow the elegist in his treatment of the disappointment of the second ground of hope1 that which was found in the royalist's confidence in his sovereign4 ,the poetic account of the events which ended in the capture of ,zedekiah seems to consist in a blending of metaphor with history4 ,the image of the chase underlies the whole description4 ,it has been pointed out that with the narrowness of eastern streets and the simplicity of the weapons of ancient warfare1 it would be impossible for the ,chaldans to pick out their victims and shoot them down from outside the walls4 ,but when they had effected an entrance they would not simply make the streets dangerous1 for then they would be breaking into the houses where the people are here supposed to be hiding4 ,the language seems more fit for the description of a faction fight1 such as often occurred in ,paris at the time of the ,french ,revolution1 than an account of the sack of a city by a foreign enemy4 ,but the hunting image is in the poet's mind1 and the whole picture is coloured by it4 ,after the siege the fugitives are pursued over the mountains4 ,taking the route across the ,mount of ,olives and so down to the ,jordan1 that which ,david had followed in his flight from ,absalom1 they would soon find themselves in a difficult wilderness country4 ,they had despaired of their lives in the city1 exclaiming3 ,our end is near1 our days are fulfilled2 for our end is come4#bei ,now they are in sore extremities4 ,the swift pursuit suggests ,jeremiah's image of the eagles on the wing overtaking their quarry4 ,behold1 he shall come up as clouds1 said the prophet1 and his chariots shall be as the whirlwind2 his horses are swifter than eagles4#bfj ,there was no possibility of escape from such persistent foes4 ,at the same time1 ambuscades were in waiting among the many caves that honeycomb these limestone mountains--in the district where the traveller in the parable of ,the good ,samaritan fell among thieves4 ,the king himself was taken like a hunted animal caught in a trap1 though1 as we learn from the history1 not till he had reached ,jericho4#bfa #bei iv4 #ah4 #bfj ,jer4 iv4 #ac #bfa #b ,kings xxv4 #d1 #e2 ,jer4 xxxix4 #d1 #e4 ,the language in which ,zedekiah is described is singularly strong4 ,he is the breath of our nostrils1 the anointed of the ,lord4 ,the hope of the fugitives had been to live under his shadow among the nations4#bfb ,it is startling to find such words applied to so weak and worthless a ruler4 ,it cannot be the expression of sycophancy2 for the king and his kingdom had disappeared before the elegy was written4 ,zedekiah was not so bad as some of his predecessors4 ,like ,louis ,,xvi41 he reaped the long accumulating retribution of the sins of his ancestors4 ,yet after making due allowance for the exuberance of the ,oriental style1 we must feel that the language is out of proportion to the possibilities of the most courtly devotion of the time4 ,evidently the kingly idea means more than the prosaic personality of any particular monarch4 ,the romantic enthusiasm of ,cavaliers and ,nonjurors for the ,stuarts was not to be accounted for by the merits and attractions of the various successive sovereigns and pretenders towards whom it was directed4 ,the doctrine of the ,divine right of kings is always associated with vague thoughts of power and glory that are never realised in history4 ,this is most strikingly evident in the ,hebrew conception of the status and destiny of the line of ,david4 ,but in that one supreme case of devotion to royalty the dream of the ages ultimately came to be fulfilled1 and more than fulfilled1 though in a very different manner from the anticipation of the ,jews4 ,there is something pathetic in the last shred of hope to which the fugitives were clinging4 ,they had lost their homes1 their city1 their land2 yet even in exile they clung to the idea that they might keep together under the protection of their fallen king4 ,it was a delusion4 ,but the strange faith in the destiny of the ,davidic line that here passes into fanaticism is the seed-bed of the ,messianic ideas which constitute the most wonderful part of ,old ,testament prophecy4 ,by a blind but divinely guided instinct the ,jews were led to look through the failure of their hopes on to the appointed time when ,one should come who only could give them satisfaction4 #bfb iv4 #bj4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,the ,,debt ,,of ,,guilt ,,extinguished iv4 #ba1 #bb ,one after another the vain hopes of the ,jews melt in mists of sorrow4 ,but just as the last of these flickering lights is disappearing a gleam of consolation breaks out from another quarter1 like the pale yellow streak that may sometimes be seen low on the western sky of a stormy day just before nightfall1 indicating that the setting sun is behind the clouds1 although its dying rays are too feeble to penetrate them4 ,hope is scarcely the word for so faint a sign of comfort as this melancholy fourth elegy affords in lifting the curtain of gloom for one brief moment2 but the bare1 negative relief which the prospect of an end to the accumulation of new calamities offers is a welcome change in itself1 besides being a hint that the tide may be on the turn4 ,it is quite characteristic of our poet's sombre tones that even in an attempt to touch on brighter ideas than usually occupy his thoughts1 he should illustrate the improving prospects of ,israel by setting them in contrast to a sardonic description of the fate of ,edom4 ,this neighbouring nation is addressed in the time of her elation over the fall of ,jerusalem4 ,the extension of her territory to the land of ,uz in ,arabia--,job's country--is mentioned to show that she is in a position of exceptional prosperity4 ,the poet mockingly encourages the jealous people to rejoice and be glad at the fate of their rival4 ,the irony of his language is evident from the fact that he immediately proceeds to pronounce the doom of ,edom4 ,the cup of ,god's wrath that ,israel has been made to drink shall pass to her also2 and she shall drink deeply of it till she is intoxicated and1 like ,noah1 makes herself an object of shame4 ,thus will ,god visit the daughter of ,edom with the punishment of her sins4 ,the writer says that ,god will discover them4 ,he does not mean by this phrase that ,god will find them out4 ,they were never hidden from ,god2 there are no discoveries for ,him to make concerning any of us1 because ,he knows all about us every moment of our lives4 ,the phrase stands in opposition to the common ,hebrew expression for the forgiveness of sins4 ,when sins are forgiven they are said to be covered2 therefore when they are said to be uncovered it is as though we were told that ,god does the reverse of forgiving them--strips them of every rag of apology1 lays them bare4 ,that is their condemnation4 ,nothing is more ugly than a naked sin4 ,the selection of this one neighbour of the ,jews for special attention is accounted for by what contemporary prophets tell us concerning the behaviour of the ,edomites when ,jerusalem fell4 ,they flew like vultures to a carcass4 ,ezekiel writes3 ,thus saith the ,lord ,god1 ,because that ,edom hath dealt against the house of ,judah by taking vengeance1 and hath greatly offended1 and revenged himself upon them2 therefore thus saith the ,lord ,god1 ,i will stretch out ,mine hand upon ,edom1 and will cut off man and beast from it1 and ,i will make it desolate from ,teman2 even unto ,dedan shall they fall by the sword4 ,and ,i will lay ,my vengeance upon ,edom by the hand of ,my people ,israel1 and they shall do in ,edom according to ,mine anger and according to ,my fury1 and they shall know ,my vengeance1 saith the ,lord ,god4#bfc ,isaiah xxxiv4 is devoted to a vivid description of the coming punishment of ,edom4 ,this race of rough mountaineers had seldom been on friendly terms with their ,hebrew neighbours4 ,nations like individuals1 do not always find it easy to avoid quarrels with those who are closest to them4 ,neither blood relationship nor commerce prevents the outbreak of hostilities in a situation that gives many occasions for mutual jealousy4 ,for centuries ,france and ,england1 which should be the best friends of proximity generated friendship1 regarded one another as natural enemies4 ,germany is even a nearer neighbour to ,france than ,england is1 and the frontiers of the two great nations are studded with forts4 ,it does not appear that the extension of the means of communication among the different countries is likely to close the doors of the temple of ,janus4 ,the greatest problem of sociology is to discover the secret of living in crowded communities among a variety of conflicting interests without any injustice1 or any friction arising from the juxtaposition of different classes4 ,it is far easier to keep the peace among backwoodsmen who live fifty miles apart in lonely forests4 ,therefore it is not a surprising thing that there were bitter feuds between ,israel and ,edom4 ,but at the time of the ,babylonian invasion these had taken a peculiarly odious turn on the side of the southern people1 one that was doubly offensive4 ,the various tribes whom the huge ,babylonian empire was swallowing up with insatiable greed should have forgotten their mutual differences in face of their common danger4 ,besides1 it was a cowardly thing for ,edom to follow the example of the ,bedouin robbers1 who hovered on the rear of the great armies of conquest like scavengers4 ,to settle old debts by wreaking vengeance on a fallen rival in the hour of her humiliation was not the way to win the honours of war4 ,even to a calm student of history in later ages this long-past event shews an ugly aspect4 ,how maddening must it have been to the victims6 ,accordingly we are not astonished to see that the doom of the ,edomites is pronounced by ,hebrew prophets with undisguised satisfaction4 ,the proud inhabitants of the rock cities1 the wonderful remains of which amaze the traveller in the present day1 had earned the severe humiliation so exultingly described4 #bfc ,ezek4 xxv4 #ab-ad4 ,in all this it is very plain that the author of the ,lamentations1 like the ,hebrew prophets generally1 had an unhesitating belief in a supremacy of ,god over foreign nations that was quite as effective as ,his supremacy over ,israel4 ,on the other hand1 iniquity is ascribed to ,israel in exactly the same terms that are applied to foreign nations4 ,jehovah is not imagined to be a mere tribal divinity like the ,moabite ,chemosh2 and the ,jews are not held to be so much ,his favourites that the treatment measured out to them in punishment of sin is essentially different from that accorded to their neighbours4 ,to ,israel1 however1 the doom of ,edom is a sign of the return of mercy4 ,it is not merely that the passion of revenge is thereby satisfied--a poor consolation1 even if allowable4 ,but in the overthrow of their most annoying tormentor the oppressed people are at once liberated from a very appreciable part of their troubles4 ,at the same time1 they see in this event a clear sign that they are not selected for a solitary example of the vengeance of heaven against sin2 that would have been indeed a hard destiny4 ,but above all1 this occurrence affords a reassuring sign that ,god who is thus punishing their enemies is ending the severe discipline of the ,jews4 ,in the very middle of the description of the coming doom of ,edom we meet with an announcement of the conclusion of the long penance of ,israel4 ,this singular arrangement cannot be accidental2 nor can it have been resorted to only to obtain the accentuation of contrast which we have seen is highly valued by the elegist4 ,since it is while contemplating the ,divine treatment of the most spiteful of the enemies of ,israel that we are led to see the termination of the chastisement of the ,jews1 we may infer that possibly the process in the mind of the poet took the same course4 ,if so1 the genesis of prophecy which is usually hidden from view here seems to come nearer the surface4 ,the language in which the improving prospect of the ,jews is announced is somewhat obscure2 but the drift of its meaning is not difficult to trace4 ,the word rendered punishment of iniquity in our ,english versions--,revised as well as ,authorised--at the beginning of the twenty-second verse1 is one which in its original sense means simply iniquity2 and in fact it is so translated further down in the same verse1 where it occurs a second time1 and where the parallel word sins seems to settle the meaning4 ,but if it has this meaning when applied to ,edom in the later part of the verse is it not reasonable to suppose that it must also have it when applied to the daughter of ,zion in an immediately preceding clause8 ,the ,septuagint and ,vulgate ,versions give it as iniquity in both cases4 ,and so does a suggestion in the margin of the ,revised ,version4 ,but if we accept this rendering1 which commends itself to us as verbally most correct1 we cannot reconcile it with the evident intention of the writer4 ,the promise that ,god will no more carry ,his people away into captivity1 which follows as an echo of the opening thought of the verse1 certainly points to a cessation of punishment4 ,then the very idea that the iniquity of the ,jews is accomplished is quite out of place here4 ,what could we take it to mean8 ,to say that the ,jews had sinned to the full1 had carried out all their evil intentions1 had put no restraint on their wickedness1 is to give a verdict which should carry the heaviest condemnation2 it would be absurd to bring this forward as an introduction to a promise of a reprieve4 ,it would be less incongruous to suppose the phrase to mean1 as is suggested in the margin of the ,revised ,version1 that the sin has come to an end1 has ceased4 ,that might be taken as a ground for the punishment to be stayed also4 ,but it would introduce a refinement of theology out of keeping with the extreme simplicity of the ideas of these elegies4 ,moreover1 in another place1 as we have seen already1#bfd the word sins seems to be used for the punishment of sins4#bfe ,we have also met with the idea of the fulfilment1 literally the finishing1 of ,god's word of warning1 with the necessary suggestion that there is to be no more infliction of the evil threatened4#bff ,therefore1 if it were not for the reappearance of the word in dispute where the primary meaning of it seems to be necessitated by the context1 we should have no hesitation in taking it here in its secondary sense1 as the punishment of iniquity4 ,the ,german word schuld1 with its double signification--debt and guilt--has been suggested as a happy rendering of the ,hebrew original in both places2 and perhaps this is the best that can be proposed4 ,the debt of the ,jews is paid2 that of the ,edomites has yet to be exacted4 #bfd ,page #bfi4 #bfe iii4 #ci4 #bff ii4 #ag4 ,we are brought then to the conclusion that the elegist here announces the extinction of the ,jews' debt of guilt4 ,accordingly they are told that ,god will no more carry them away into captivity4 ,this promise has occasioned much perplexity to people concerned for the literal exactness of ,scripture4 ,some have tried to get it applied to the time subsequent to the destruction of ,jerusalem by the ,romans1 after which1 it is said1 the ,jews were never again removed from their land4 ,that is about the most extravagant instance of all the subterfuges to which literalists are driven when in a sore strait to save their theory4 ,certainly the ,jews have not been exiled again--not since the last time4 ,they could not be carried away from their land once more1 for the simple reason that they have never been restored to it4 ,strictly speaking1 it may be said indeed1 something of the kind occurred on the suppression of the revolt under ,bar-cochba in the second century of the ,christian era4 ,but all theories apart1 it is contrary to the discovered facts of prophecy to ascribe to the inspired messengers of ,god the purpose of supplying exact predictions concerning the events of history in far-distant ages4 ,their immediate message was for their own day1 although we have found that the lessons it contains are suitable for all times4 ,what consolation would it be for the fugitives from the ravaging hosts of ,nebuchadnezzar to know that six hundred years later an end would come to the successive acts of conquerors in driving the ,jews from ,jerusalem1 even if they were not told that this would be because at that far-off time there would commence one long exile lasting for two thousand years8 ,but if the words of the elegist are for immediate use as a consolation to his contemporaries1 it is unreasonable to press their negative statement in an absolute sense1 so as to make it serve as a prediction concerning all future ages4 ,it is enough for these sufferers to learn that the last of the series of successive banishments of ,jews from their land by the ,babylonian government has at length taken place4 ,but with this information there comes a deeper truth4 ,the debt is paid4 ,yet this is only at the commencement of the ,captivity4 ,two generations must live in exile before the restoration will be possible4 ,there is no reference to that event1 which did not take place till the ,babylonian power had been utterly destroyed by ,cyrus4 ,still the deliverance into exile following the terrible sufferings of the siege and the subsequent flight is taken as the final act in the drama of doom4 ,the long years of the captivity1 though they constituted an invaluable period of discipline1 did not bring any fresh kind of punishment at all comparable with the chastisements already inflicted4 ,thus we are brought face to face with the question of the satisfaction of punishment4 ,we have no right to look to a single line of a poem for a final settlement of the abstract problem itself4 ,whether1 as ,st4 ,augustine maintained1 every sin is of infinite guilt because it is an offence against an infinite ,being2 whether1 therefore1 it would take eternity to pay the debts contracted during one short life on earth1 and other questions of the same character1 cannot be answered one way or the other from the words before us4 ,still there are certain aspects of the problem of human guilt to which our attention is here drawn4 ,in the first place1 we must make a distinction between the national punishment of national wickedness and the personal consequences of personal wrongdoing4 ,the nation only exists on earth1 and it can only be punished on earth4 ,then the nation outlasts generations of individual lives1 and so remains on earth long enough for the harvest of its actions to be reaped4 ,thus national guilt may be wiped out while the separate accounts of individual men and women still remain unsettled4 ,next we must remember that the exaction of the uttermost farthing is not the supreme end of the ,divine government of the world4 ,to suggest any such idea is to assimilate this perfect government to that of corrupt ,oriental monarchies1 the chief object of which in dealing with their provinces seems to have been to drain them of tribute4 ,the payment of the debt of guilt in punishment1 though just and necessary1 cannot be a matter of any satisfaction to ,god4 ,again1 when1 as in the case now before us1 the punishment of sin is a chastisement for the reformation of the corrupt nation on whom it is inflicted1 it may not be necessary to make it exactly equivalent to the guilt for which it is the remedy rather than the payment4 ,lastly1 even when we think of the punishment as direct retribution1 we cannot say what means ,god may provide for the satisfaction of the due claims of justice4 ,the second ,isaiah saw in the miseries inflicted upon the innocent at this very time1 a vicarious suffering by the endurance of which pardon was extended to the guilty2#bfg and from the days of the ,apostles1 ,christians have recognised in his language on this subject the most striking prophecy the ,bible contains concerning the atonement wrought by our ,lord in ,his sufferings and death4 ,when we put all these considerations together1 and also call to our assistance the ,new ,testament teachings about the character of ,god and the object of the work of ,jesus ,christ1 we shall see that there are various possibilities lying behind the thought of the end of chastisement which no bare statement of the abstract relations of sin1 guilt1 and doom would indicate4 #bfg ,isa4 liii4 #d-f4 ,it may be objected that all such ideas as those just expressed tend to generate superficial views of sin4 ,possibly they may be employed so as to encourage this tendency4 ,but if so1 it will only be by misinterpreting and abusing them4 ,certainly the elegist does not belittle the rigour of the ,divine chastisement4 ,it must not be forgotten that the phrase which gives rise to these ideas concerning the debt of guilt occurs in the doleful ,book of ,lamentations1 and at the close of an elegy that bewails the awful fate of ,jerusalem in the strongest language4 ,but in point of fact it is not the severity of punishment1 beyond a certain degree1 but the certainty of it that most affects the mind when contemplating the prospect of doom4 ,not only does the imagination fail to grasp that which is immeasurably vast in the pictures presented to it1 but even the reason rises in revolt and questions the possibility of such torments1 or the conscience ventures to protest against what appears to be unjust4 ,in any of these cases the effect of the menace is neutralised by its very extravagance4 ,on the other hand1 we have ,st4 ,paul's teaching about the goodness of ,god that leads us to repentance4#bfh ,thus we understand how it can be said that ,christ--who is the most perfect revelation of ,god's goodness--was raised up to give repentance to ,israel as well as remission of sins4#bfi ,it is at ,calvary1 not at ,sinai1 that sin looks most black4 ,when a man sees his guilt in the light of his ,saviour's love he is in no mood to apologise for it or to minimise his ill desert4 ,if he then contemplates the prospect of the full payment of the debt it is with a feeling of the impossibility of ever achieving so stupendous a task4 ,the punishment from which he would revolt as an injustice if it were held over him in a threat now presents itself to him of its own accord as something quite right and reasonable4 ,he cannot find words strong enough to characterise his guilt1 as he lies at the foot of the cross in absolute self-abasement4 ,there is no occasion to fear that such a man will become careless about sin if he is comforted by a vision of hope4 ,this is just what he needs to enable him to rise up and accept the forgiveness in the strength of which he may begin the toilsome ascent towards a better life4 #bfh ,rom4 ii4 #d4 #bfi ,acts v4 #ca4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,an ,,appeal ,,for ,,god',s ,,compassion v4 #a-aj ,unlike its predecessors1 the fifth and last elegy is not an acrostic4 ,there is little to be gained by a discussion of the various conjectures that have been put forth to account for this change of style3 as that the crescendo movement which reached its climax in the third elegy was followed by a decrescendo movement1 the conclusion of which became more prosaic2 that the feelings of the poet having been calmed down during the composition of the main part of his work1 he did not require the restraints of an exceptionally artificial method any longer2 that such a method was not so becoming in a prayer to ,god as it had been in the utterance of a lament4 ,in answer to these suggestions1 it may be remarked that some of the choicest poetry in the book occurs at the close of this last chapter1 that the acrostic was taken before as a sign that the writer had his feelings well under command1 and that prayers appear repeatedly in the alphabetical poems4 ,is it not enough to say that in all probability the elegies were composed on different occasions1 and that when they were put together it was natural that one in which the author had not chosen to bind himself down to the peculiarly rigorous method employed in the rest of the book should have been placed at the end8 ,even here we have a reminiscence of the acrostic2 for the poem consists of twenty-two verses--the number of the letters in the ,hebrew alphabet4 ,it is to be observed1 further1 as regards the form of this elegy1 that the author now adopts the parallelism which is the characteristic note of most ,hebrew poetry4 ,the ,revisers break up the poem into two-line verses4 ,but1 more strictly considered1 each verse consists of one long line divided into two mutually balancing parts4 ,thus1 while the third elegy consists of triplets1 and the fourth of couplets1 the fifth is still more brief1 with its single line verses4 ,in fact1 while the ideas and sentiments are still elegiac and very like those found in the rest of the book1 in structure this poem is more assimilated to the poetry contained in other parts of the ,bible4 ,from beginning to end the fifth elegy is directly addressed to ,god4 ,brief ejaculatory prayers are frequent in the earlier poems1 and the third elegy contains two longer appeals to ,god2 but this last poem differs from the others in being entirely a prayer4 ,and yet it does not consist of a string of petitions4 ,it is a meditation in the presence of ,god1 or1 more accurately described1 an account of the condition of the ,jews spread out before ,god in order to secure ,his compassion4 ,in the freedom and fulness of his utterance the poet reveals himself as a man who is not unfamiliar with the habit of prayer4 ,it is of course only the delusion of the ,pharisees to suppose that a prayer is valuable in proportion to its length4 ,but on the other hand1 it is clear that a person who is unaccustomed to prayer halts and stumbles because he does not feel at home in addressing ,god4 ,it is only with a friend that we can converse in perfect freedom4 ,one who has treated ,god as a stranger will be necessarily stiff and constrained in the ,divine presence4 ,it is not enough to assure such a person that ,god is ,his ,father4 ,a son may feel peculiarly uncomfortable with his own father if he has lived long in separation and alienation from his home4 ,freedom in the expression of confidences is a sure measure of the extent to which friendship is carried4 ,of course some people are more reserved than others2 but still as in the same person his different degrees of openness or reserve with different people will mark his relative intimacy of friendship with them1 so when a man has long accustomed himself to believe in the presence and sympathy of ,god1 and has cultivated the habit of communing with his ,father in heaven1 his prayers will not be confined to set petitions2 he will tell his ,father whatever is in his heart4 ,this we have already seen was what the elegist had learnt to do4 ,but in the last of his poems he expresses more explicit and continuous confidences4 ,he will have ,god know everything4 ,the prayer opens with a striking phrase--,remember1 ,o ,lord1 etc4 ,the miserable condition of the ,jews suggests to the imagination1 if not to the reason1 that ,god must have forgotten ,his people4 ,it cannot be supposed that the elegist conceived of his ,god as ,elijah mockingly described their silent1 unresponsive divinity to the frantic priests of ,baal1 or that he imagined that ,jehovah was really indifferent1 after the manner of the denizens of the ,epicurean ,olympus4 ,nevertheless1 neither philosophy nor even theology wholly determines the form of an earnest man's prayers4 ,in practice it is impossible not to speak according to appearances4 ,the aspect of affairs is sometimes such as to force home the feeling that ,god must have deserted the sufferer1 or how could ,he have permitted the misery to continue unchecked8 ,a dogmatic statement of the ,divine omniscience1 although it may not be disputed1 will not remove the painful impression1 nor will the most absolute demonstration of the goodness of ,god1 of ,his love and faithfulness2 because the overwhelming influence of things visible and tangible so fully occupies the mind that it has not room to receive unseen1 spiritual realities4 ,therefore1 though not to the reason still to the feelings1 it is as though ,god had indeed forgotten ,his children in their deep distress4 ,under such circumstances the first requisite is the assurance that ,god should remember the sufferers whom ,he appears to be neglecting4 ,he never really neglects any of ,his creatures1 and ,his attention is the all-sufficient security that deliverance must be at hand4 ,but this is a truth that does not satisfy us in the bare statement of it4 ,it must be absorbed1 and permitted to permeate wide regions of consciousness1 in order that it may be an actual power in the life4 ,that1 however1 is only the subjective effect of the thought of the ,divine remembrance4 ,the poet is thinking of external actions4 ,evidently the aim of his prayer is to secure the attention of ,god as a sure preliminary to a ,divine interposition4 ,but even with this end in view the fact that ,god remembers is enough4 ,in appealing for ,god's attention the elegist first makes mention of the reproach that has come upon ,israel4 ,this reference to humiliation rather than to suffering as the primary ground of complaint may be accounted for by the fact that the glory of ,god is frequently taken as a reason for the blessing of ,his people4 ,that is done for ,his name's sake4#bgj ,then the ruin of the ,jews is derogatory to the honour of their ,divine ,protector4 ,the peculiar relation of ,israel to ,god also underlies the complaint of the second verse1 in which the land is described as our inheritance1 with an evident allusion to the idea that it was received as a donation from ,god1 not acquired in any ordinary human fashion4 ,a great wrong has been done1 apparently in contravention of the ordinance of ,heaven4 ,the ,divine inheritance has been turned over to strangers4 ,the very homes of the ,jews are in the hands of aliens4 ,from their property the poet passes on to the condition of the persons of the sufferers4 ,the ,jews are orphans2 they have lost their fathers1 and their mothers are widows4 ,this seems to indicate that the writer considered himself to belong to the younger generation of the ,jews1--that1 at an events1 he was not an elderly man4 ,but it is not easy to determine how far his words are to be read literally4 ,no doubt the slaughter of the war had carried off many heads of families1 and left a number of women and children in the condition here described4 ,but the language of poetry would allow of a more general interpretation4 ,all the ,jews felt desolate as orphans and widows4 ,perhaps there is some thought of the loss of ,god1 the supreme ,father of ,israel4 ,whether this was in the mind of the poet or not1 the cry to ,god to remember ,his people plainly implies that ,his sheltering presence was not now consciously experienced4 ,our ,lord foresaw that ,his departure would smite ,his disciples with orphanage if ,he did not return to them4#bga ,men who have hardened themselves in a state of separation from ,god fail to recognise their forlorn condition2 but that is no occasion for congratulation1 for the family that never misses its father can never have known the joys of true home life4 ,children of ,god's house can have no greater sorrow than to lose their heavenly ,father's presence4 #bgj ,for example1 ,jer4 xiv4 #g4 #bga ,john xiv4 #ah4 ,a peculiarly annoying injustice to which the ,jews were subjected by their harsh masters consisted in the fact that they were compelled to buy permission to collect firewood from their own land and to draw water from their own wells4#bgb ,the elegist deplores this grievance as part of the reproach of his people4 ,the mere pecuniary fine of a series of petty exactions is not the chief part of the evil4 ,it is not the pain of flesh that rouses a man's indignation on receiving a slap in the face2 it is the insult that stings4 ,there was more than insult in this grinding down of the conquered nation2 and the indignities to which the ,jews were subjected were only too much in accord with the facts of their fallen state4 ,this particular exaction was an unmistakable symptom of the abject servitude into which they had been reduced4 #bgb v4 #d4 ,the series of illustrations of the degradation of ,israel seems to be arranged somewhat in the order of time and in accordance with the movements of the people4 ,thus1 after describing the state of the ,jews in their own land1 the poet next follows the fortunes of his people in exile4 ,there is no mercy for them in their flight4 ,the words in which the miseries of this time are referred to are somewhat obscure4 ,the phrase in the ,authorised ,version1 ,our necks are under persecution1#bgc is rendered by the ,revisers1 ,our pursuers are upon our necks4 ,it would seem to mean that the hunt is so close that fugitives are on the point of being captured2 or perhaps that they are made to bow their heads in defeat as their captors seize them4 ,but a proposed emendation substitutes the word yoke for pursuers4 ,if we may venture to accept this as a conjectural improvement--and later critics indulge themselves in more freedom in the handling of the text than was formerly permitted--the line points to the burden of captivity4 ,the next line favours this idea1 since it dwells on the utter weariness of the miserable fugitives4 ,there is no rest for them4 ,palestine is a difficult country to travel in1 and the wilderness south and east of ,jerusalem is especially trying4 ,the hills are steep and the roads rocky2 for a multitude of famine-stricken men1 women1 and children1 driven out over this homeless waste1 a country that taxes the strength of the traveller for pleasure could not but be most exhausting4 ,but the worst weariness is not muscular4 ,tired souls are more weary than tired bodies4 ,the yoke of shame and servitude is more crushing than any amount of physical labour4 ,on the other hand the yoke of ,jesus is easy not because little work is expected of ,christians1 but for the more satisfactory reason that1 being given in exchange for the fearful burden of sin1 it is borne willingly and even joyously as a badge of honour4 #bgc v4 #e4 ,finally1 in their exile the ,jews are not free from molestation4 ,in order to obtain bread they must abase themselves before the people of the land4 ,the fugitives in the south must do homage to the ,egyptians2 the captives in the east to me ,assyrians4#bgd ,here1 then1 at the very last stage of the series of miseries1 shame and humiliation are the principal grievances deplored4 ,at every point there is a reproach1 and to this feature of the whole situation ,god's attention is especially directed4 #bgd v4 #f4 ,now the elegist turns aside to a reflection on the cause of all this evil4 ,it is attributed to the sins of previous generations4 ,the present sufferers are bearing the iniquities of their fathers4 ,here several points call for a brief notice4 ,in the first place1 the very form of the language is significant4 ,what is meant by the phrase to bear iniquity8 ,strange mystical meanings are sometimes imported into it1 such as an actual transference of sin1 or at least a taking over of guilt4 ,this is asserted of the sin-offering in the law1 and then of the sin-bearing of ,jesus ,christ on the cross4 ,it would indicate shallow ways of thinking to say that the simple and obvious meaning of an expression in one place is the only signification it is ever capable of conveying4 ,a common process in the development of language is for words and phrases that originally contained only plain physical meanings to acquire in course of time deeper and more spiritual associations4 ,we can never fathom all that is meant by the statement that ,christ ,his own self bare our sins in ,his body upon the tree4#bge ,still it is well to observe that there is a plain sense in which the ,hebrew phrase was used4 ,it is clear in the case now before us1 at all events1 that the poet had no mystical ideas in mind4 ,when he said that the children bore the sins of their fathers he simply meant that they reaped the consequences of those sins4 ,the expression can mean nothing else here4 ,it would be well1 then1 to remember this very simple explanation of it when we are engaged with the discussion of other and more difficult passages in which it occurs4 #bge #a ,peter ii4 #bd4 ,but if the language is perfectly unambiguous the doctrine it implies is far from being easy to accept4 ,on the face of it1 it seems to be glaringly unjust4 ,and yet whether we can reconcile it with our ideas of what is equitable or not there can be no doubt that it states a terrible truth2 we gain nothing by blinking the fact4 ,it was perfectly clear to people of the time of the captivity that they were suffering for the persistent misconduct of their ancestors during a succession of generations4 ,long before this the ,jews had been warned of the danger of continued rebellion against the will of ,god4 ,thus the nation had been treasuring up wrath for the day of wrath4 ,the forbearance which permitted the first offenders to die in peace before the day of reckoning would assume another character for the unhappy generation on whose head the long-pent-up flood at length descended4 ,it is not enough to urge in reply that the threat of the second commandment to visit the sins of the fathers upon the children to the third and fourth generation was for them that hate ,god2 because it is not primarily their own conduct1 but the sins of their ancestors1 in which the reason for punishing the later generations is found4 ,if these sins were exactly repeated the influence of their parents would make the personal guilt of the later offenders less1 not more1 than that of the originators of the evil line4 ,besides1 in the case of the ,jews there had been some amendment4 ,josiah's reformation had been very disappointing2 and yet the awful wickedness of the reign of ,manasseh had not been repeated4 ,the gross idolatry of the earlier times and the cruelties of ,moloch worship had disappeared4 ,at least1 it must be admitted1 they were no longer common practices of court and people4 ,the publication of so great an inspired work as the ,book of ,deuteronomy had wrought a marked effect on the religion and morals of the ,jews4 ,the age which was called upon to receive the payment for the national sins was not really so wicked as some of the ages that had earned it4 ,the same thing is seen in private life4 ,there is nothing that more distresses the author of these poems than the sufferings of innocent children in the siege of ,jerusalem4 ,we are frequently confronted with evidences of the fact that the vices of parents inflict poverty1 dishonour1 and disease on their families4 ,this is just what the elegist means when he writes of children bearing the iniquities of their fathers4 ,the fact cannot be disputed4 ,often as the problem that here starts up afresh has been discussed1 no really satisfactory solution of it has ever been forthcoming4 ,we must admit that we are face to face with one of the most profound mysteries of providence4 ,but we may detect some glints of light in the darkness4 ,thus1 as we have seen on the occasion of a previous reference to this question1#bgf the fundamental principle in accordance with which these perplexing results are brought about is clearly one which on the whole makes for the highest welfare of mankind4 ,that one generation should hand on the fruit of its activity to another is essential to the very idea of progress4 ,the law of heredity and the various influences that go to make up the evil results in the case before us work powerfully for good under other circumstances2 and that the balance is certainly on the side of good1 is proved by the fact that the world is moving forward1 not backward1 as would be the case if the balance of hereditary influence was on the side of evil4 ,therefore it would be disastrous in the extreme for the laws that pass on the punishment of sin to successive generations to be abolished2 the abolition of them would stop the chariot of progress4 ,then we have seen that the solidarity of the race necessitates both mutual influences in the present and the continuance of influence from one age to another4 ,the great unit ,man is far more than the sum of the little units men4 ,we must endure the disadvantages of a system which is so essential to the good of man4 ,this1 however1 is but to fall back on the ,leibnitzian theory of the best of all possible worlds4 ,it is not an absolute vindication of the justice of whatever happens--an attainment quite beyond our reach4 #bgf ,page #aea4 ,but another consideration may shed a ray of light on the problem4 ,the bearing of the sins of others is for the highest advantage of the sufferers4 ,it is difficult to think of any more truly elevating sorrows4 ,they resemble our ,lord's passion2 and of ,him it was said that ,he was made perfect through suffering4#bgg ,without doubt ,israel benefited immensely from the discipline of the ,captivity1 and we may be sure that the better remnant was most blessed by this experience although it was primarily designed to be the chastisement of the more guilty4 ,the ,jews were regenerated by the baptism of fire4 ,then they could not ultimately complain of the ordeal that issued in so much good4 #bgg ,heb4 ii4 #aj4 ,it is to be observed1 however1 that there were two currents of thought with regard to this problem4 ,while most men held to the ancient orthodoxy1 some rose in revolt against the dogma expressed in the proverb1 ,the fathers have eaten sour grapes1 and the children's teeth are set on edge4 ,just at this time the prophet ,ezekiel was inspired to lead the ,jews to a more just conception1 with the declaration3 ,as ,i live1 saith the ,lord ,god1 ye shall not have occasion any more to use this proverb in ,israel4 ,behold1 all souls are mine2 as the soul of the father1 so also the soul of the son is mine3 the soul that sinneth1 it shall die4#bgh ,this was the new doctrine4 ,but how could it be made to square with the facts8 ,by strong faith in it the disciples of the advanced school might bring themselves to believe that the course of events which had given rise to the old idea would be arrested4 ,but if so they would be disappointed2 for the world goes on in its unvarying way4 ,happily1 as ,christians1 we may look for the final solution in a future life1 when all wrongs shall be righted4 ,it is much to know that in the great hereafter each soul will be judged simply according to its own character4 #bgh ,ezek4 xviii4 #c1 #d4 ,in conclusion1 as we follow out the course of the elegy1 we find the same views maintained that were presented earlier4 ,the idea of ignominy is still harped upon4 ,the ,jews complain that they are under the rule of servants4#bgi ,satraps were really the ,great ,king's slaves1 often simply household favourites promoted to posts of honour4 ,possibly the ,jews were put in the power of inferior servants4 ,the petty tyranny of such persons would be all the more persistently annoying1 if1 as often happens1 servility to superiors had bred insolence in bullying the weak2 and there was no appeal from the vexatious tyranny4 ,this complaint would seem to apply to the people left in the land1 for it is the method of the elegist to bring together scenes from different places as well as scenes from different times in one picture of concentrated misery4 ,the next point is that food is only procured at the risk of life because of the sword of the wilderness2#bhj which seems to mean that the country is so disorganised that hordes of ,bedouins hover about and attack the peasants when they venture abroad to gather in their harvest4 ,the fever of famine is seen on these wretched people2 their faces burn as though they had been scorched at an oven4#bha ,such is the general condition of the ,jews1 ,such is the scene on which ,god is begged to look down6 #bgi v4 #h4 #bhj v4 #i4 #bha v4 #aj4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,sin ,,and ,,shame v4 #aa-ah ,the keynote of the fifth elegy is struck in its opening verse when the poet calls upon ,god to remember the reproach that has been cast upon ,his people4 ,the preceding poems dwelt on the sufferings of the ,jews2 here the predominant thought is that of the humiliations to which they have been subjected4 ,the shame of ,israel and the sin which had brought it on are now set forth with point and force4 ,if1 as some think1 the literary grace of the earlier compositions is not fully sustained in the last chapter of ,lamentations--although in parts of it the feeling and imagination and art all touch the high-water mark--it cannot be disputed that the spiritual tone of this elegy indicates an advance on the four earlier poems4 ,we have sometimes met with wild complaints1 fierce recriminations1 deep and terrible curses that seem to require some apology if they are to be justified4 ,nothing of the kind ruffles the course of this faultless meditation4 ,there is not a single jarring note from beginning to end1 not one phrase calling for explanation by reference to the limited ideas of ,old ,testament times or to the passion excited by cruelty1 insult1 and tyranny1 not a line that reads painfully even in the clear light of the teachings of ,jesus ,christ4 ,the vilest outrages are deplored2 and yet1 strange to say1 no word of vindictiveness towards the perpetrators escapes the lips of the mourning patriot6 ,how is this8 ,the sin of the people has been confessed before as the source of all their misery2 but since with it shame is now associated as the principal item in their affliction1 we can see in this fresh development a decided advance towards higher views of the whole position4 ,may we not take this characteristic of the concluding chapter of the ,book of ,lamentations to be an indication of progress in the spiritual experience of its author8 ,perhaps it is to be partially explained by the fact that the poem throughout consists of a prayer addressed directly to ,god4 ,the wildest1 darkest passions of the soul cannot live in the atmosphere of prayer4 ,when men say of the persecutor1 ,behold he prayeth1 it is certain that he cannot any longer be breathing threatening and slaughter4 ,even the feelings of the persecuted must be calmed in the presence of ,god4 ,the serenity of the surroundings of the mercy-seat cannot but communicate itself to the feverish soul of the suppliant4 ,to draw near to ,god is to escape from the tumults of earth and breathe the still1 pure air of heaven4 ,he is ,himself so calm and strong1 so completely sufficient for every emergency1 that we begin to enter into ,his rest as soon as we approach ,his presence4 ,all unawares1 perhaps unsought1 the peace of ,god steals into the heart of the man who brings his troubles to his ,father in prayer4 ,then the reflections that accompany prayer tend in the same direction4 ,in the light of ,god things begin to assume their true proportions4 ,we discover that our first fierce outcries were unreasonable1 that we had been simply maddened by pain so that our judgment had been confused4 ,a psalmist tells us how he understood the course of events which had previously perplexed him by taking his part in the worship of the sanctuary1 when referring to his persecutors1 the prosperous wicked1 he exclaims1 ,then understood ,i their end4#bhb ,in drawing near to ,god we learn that vengeance is ,god's prerogative1 that ,he will repay2 therefore we can venture to be still and leave the vindication of our cause in ,his unerring hands4 ,but1 further1 the very thirst for revenge is extinguished in the presence of ,god1 and that in several ways3 we see that the passion is wrong in itself2 we begin to make some allowance for the offender2 we learn to own kinship with the man while condemning his wickedness2 above all1 we awake to a keen consciousness of our own guilt4 #bhb ,psalm lxxiii4 #ag4 ,this1 however1 is not a sufficient explanation of the remarkable change in tone that we have observed in the fifth elegy4 ,the earlier poems contain prayers1 one of which degenerates into a direct imprecation4#bhc ,if the poet had wholly given himself to prayer in that case as he has done here very possibly his tone would have been mollified4 ,still1 we must look to other factors for a complete explanation4 ,the writer is himself one of the suffering people4 ,in describing their wrongs he is narrating his own1 for he is the man who has seen affliction4 ,thus he has long been a pupil in the school of adversity4 ,there is no school at which a docile pupil learns so much4 ,this man has graduated in sorrow4 ,it is not surprising that he is not just what he was when he matriculated4 ,we must not press the analogy too far1 because1 as we have seen1 there is good reason to believe that none of the elegies were written until some time after the occurrence of the calamities to which they refer1 that therefore they all represent the fruit of long brooding over their theme4 ,and yet we may allow an interval to have elapsed between the composition of the earlier ones and that of the poem with which the book closes4 ,this period of longer continued reflection may have been utilised in the process of clearing and refining the ideas of the poet4 ,it is not merely that the lessons of adversity impart fresh knowledge or a truer way of looking at life and its fortunes4 ,they do the higher work of education--they develop culture4 ,this1 indeed1 is the greatest advantage to be gained by the stern discipline of sorrow4 ,the soul that has the grace to use it aright is purged and pruned1 chastened and softened1 lifted to higher views1 and at the same time brought down from self-esteem to deep humiliation4 ,here we have a partial explanation of the mystery of suffering4 ,this poem throws light on the terrible problem by its very existence1 by the spirit and character which it exhibits4 ,the calmness and self-restraint of the elegy1 while it deepens the pathos of the whole scene1 helps us to see as no direct statement would do1 that the chastisement of ,israel has not been inflicted in vain4 ,there must be good even in the awful miseries here described in such patient language4 #bhc ,lam4 iii4 #fe4 ,the connection of shame with sin in this poem is indirect and along a line which is the reverse of the normal course of experience4 ,the poet does not pass from sin to shame2 he proceeds from the thought of shame to that of sin4 ,it is the humiliating condition in which the ,jews are found that awakens the idea of the shocking guilt of which this is the consequence4 ,we often have occasion to acknowledge the fatal hindrance of pride to the right working of conscience4 ,a lofty conception of one's own dignity is absolutely inconsistent with a due feeling of guilt4 ,a man cannot be both elated and cast down at the same moment4 ,if his elation is sufficiently sustained from within it will effectually bar the door to the entrance of those humbling thoughts which cannot but accompany an admission of sin4 ,therefore when this barrier is first removed1 and the man is thoroughly humbled1 he is open to receive the accusations of conscience4 ,all his fortifications have been flung down4 ,there is nothing to prevent the invading army of accusing thoughts from marching straight in and taking possession of the citadel of his heart4 ,the elegy takes a turn at the eleventh verse4 ,up to this point it describes the state of the people generally in their sufferings from the siege and its consequences4 ,but now the poet directs attention to separate classes of people and the different forms of cruelty to which they are severally subjected in a series of intensely vivid pictures4 ,we see the awful fate of matrons and maidens1 princes and elders1 young men and children4 ,women are subjected to the vilest abuse1 neither reverence for motherhood nor pity for innocence affording the least protection4 ,men of royal blood and noble birth are killed and their corpses hung up in ignominy--perhaps impaled or crucified in accordance with the vile ,babylonian custom4 ,there is no respect for age or office4 ,neither is there any mercy for youth4 ,in the ,east grinding is women's work2 but1 like ,samson among the ,philistines1 the young men of the ,jews are put in charge of the mills4 ,the poet seems to indicate that they have to carry the heavy mill-stones in the march of the returning army with the spoils of the sacked city4 ,the children are set to the slave task of ,gibeonites4 ,the ,hebrew word here translated children might stand for young people who had reached adult years4#bhd ,but in the present case the condition is that of immature strength1 for the burden of wood they are required to bear is too heavy for them and they stumble under it4 ,this is the scene--outrage for the girls and women1 slaughter for the leading men1 harsh slavery for the children4 #bhd v4 #ac4 ,next1 passing from these exact details1 the poet again describes the condition of the people more generally1 and this time under the image of an interrupted feast1 which is introduced by one more reference to the changes that have come upon certain classes4 ,the elders are no longer to be seen at the gate administering the primitive forms of law entrusted to them4 ,the young men are no longer to be heard performing on their musical instruments4#bhe ,still speaking for the people1 the poet declares that the joy of their heart has ceased4 ,then the aspect of all life must be changed to them4 ,instead of the gay pictures of dancers in their revelry we have the waiting of mourners4 ,the guest at a feast would be crowned with a garland of flowers4 ,such was once the appearance of ,jerusalem in her merry festivities4 ,but now the garland has fallen from her head4#bhf #bhe v4 #ad4 #bhf v4 #ae1 #af4 ,this imagery is a relief after the terrible realism of the immediately preceding pictures4 ,we cannot bear to look continuously at scenes of agony1 nor is it well that we should attempt to do so1 because if we could succeed it would only be by becoming callous4 ,then the final result would be not to excite deeper sympathy1 but the very reverse1 and at the same time a distinctly lowering and coarsening effect would be produced in us4 ,and yet we may not smother up abuses in order to spare our own feelings4 ,there are evils that must be dragged out to the light in order that they may be execrated1 punished1 and destroyed4 ,uncle ,tom's ,cabin broke the back of ,american slavery before ,president ,lincoln attacked it4 ,where1 then1 shall we find the middle position between repulsive realism and guilty negligence8 ,we have the model for this in the ,biblical treatment of painful subjects4 ,scripture never gloats over the details of crimes and vices2 yet ,scripture never flinches from describing such things in the plainest possible terms4 ,if these subjects are ever to become the theme of art--and art claims the whole of life for her domain--imagination must carry us away to the secondary effects rather than vivify the hideous occurrences themselves4 ,the passage before us affords an excellent illustration of this method4 ,with a few keen1 clear strokes the poet sketches in the exact situation4 ,but he shows no disposition to linger on ghastly details4 ,though he does not shrink from setting them before us in unmistakable truth of form and colour1 he hastens to a more ideal treatment of the subject1 and relieves us with the imaginary picture of the spoiled banquet4 ,even ,spenser sometimes excites a feeling of positive nausea when he enlarges on some most loathsome picture4 ,it would be unendurable except that the great ,elizabethan poet has woven the witchery of his dainty fancy into the fabric of his verse4 ,thus things can be said in poetry which would be unbearable in prose1 because poetry refines with the aid of imagination the tale that it does not shrink from telling quite truly and most forcibly4 ,the change in the poet's style prepares for another effect4 ,while we are contemplating the exact details of the sufferings of the different classes of outraged citizens1 the insult and cruelty and utter abomination of these scenes rouse our indignation against the perpetrators of the foulest crimes1 and leave nothing but pity for their victims4 ,it is not in the presence of such events that the sins of ,israel can be brought home to the people or even called to mind4 ,the attempt to introduce the thought of them there would seem to be a piece of heartless officiousness4 ,and yet it is most important to perceive the connection between all this misery and the previous misconduct of the ,jews which was its real cause4 ,accordingly intermediate reflections1 while they let the scenes of blood and terror recede1 touch on the general character of the whole in a way that permits of more heart-searching self-examination4 ,thus out of the brooding melancholy of this secondary grief we are led to a distinct confession of sin on the part of the people4#bhg #bhg v4 #af4 ,this is the main result aimed at throughout the whole course of chastisement4 ,until it has been reached little good can be effected4 ,when it is attained the discipline has already wrought its greatest work4 ,as we saw at the outset1 it is the shame of the situation that awakens a consciousness of guilt4 ,humbled and penitent1 the chastened people are just in the position at which ,god can meet them in gracious pardon4 ,strictly speaking1 perhaps we should say that this is the position to which the elegist desires to lead them by thus appearing as their spokesman4 ,and yet we should not make too sharp a distinction between the poet and his people4 ,the elegy is not a didactic work2 the flavour of its gentle lines would be lost directly they lent themselves to pedagogic ends4 ,it is only just to take the words before us quite directly1 as they are written in the first person plural1 for a description of the thoughts of at least the group of ,jews with whom their author was associated4 ,the confession of sin implies in the first place a recognition of its existence4 ,this is more than a bare1 undeniable recollection that the deed was done4 ,it is possible by a kind of intellectual jugglery even to come to a virtual denial of this fact in one's own consciousness4 ,but to admit the deed is not to admit the sin4 ,the casuistry of self-defence before the court of self-judgment is more subtle than sound1 as every one who has found out his own heart must be aware4 ,in this matter the heart is deceitful above all things4#bhh ,now it is not difficult to take part in a decorous service where all the congregation are expected to denominate themselves miserable offenders1 but it is an entirely different thing to retreat into the silent chamber of our own thought1 and there calmly and deliberately1 with full consciousness of what the words mean1 confess to ourselves1 ,we have sinned4 ,the sinking of heart1 the stinging humiliation1 the sense of self-loathing which such an admission produces1 are the most miserable experiences in life4 ,the wretchedness of it all is that there is no possibility of escaping the accuser when he is self4 ,we can do nothing but let the shame of the deed burn in the conscience without any mollifying salve--until the healing of ,divine forgiveness is received4 #bhh ,jer4 xvii4 #i4 ,but1 in the second place1 confession of sin goes beyond the secret admission of it by the conscience1 as in a case heard in camer4 ,chiefly it is a frank avowal of guilt before ,god4 ,this is treated by ,st4 ,john as an essential condition of forgiveness by ,god1 when ,he says1 ,if we confess our sins1 ,he is faithful and righteous to forgive us our sins1 and to cleanse us from all unrighteousness4#bhi ,how far confession should also be made to our fellow-men is a difficult question4 ,in bidding us confess our faults one to another1#bij ,st4 ,james may be simply requiring that when we have done anybody a wrong we should own it to the injured person4 ,the harsh discipline of the white sheet is not found in apostolic times1 the brotherly spirit of which is seen in the charity which covereth a multitude of sins4#bia ,and yet1 on the other hand1 the true penitent will always shrink from sailing under false colours4 ,certainly public offences call for public acknowledgment1 and all sin should be so far owned that whether the details are known or not there is no actual deception1 no hypocritical pretence at a virtue that is not possessed1 no willingness to accept honours that are quite unmerited4 ,let a man never pretend to be sinless1 nay1 let him distinctly own himself a sinner1 and1 in particular1 let him not deny or excuse any specific wickedness with which he is justly accused2 and then for the rest1 to his own lord he standeth or falleth4#bib #bhi #a ,john i4 #i4 #bij ,james v4 #af4 #bia #a ,peter iv4 #h4 #bib ,rom4 xiv4 #d4 ,when the elegist follows his confession of sin with the words1 ,for this our heart is faint1 etc41#bic it is plain that he attributes the sense of failure and impotence to the guilt that has led to the chastisement4 ,this faintness of heart and the dimness of sight that accompanies it1 like the condition of a swooning person1 suggest a very different situation from that of the hero struggling against a mountain of difficulties1 or that of the martyr triumphing over torture and death4 ,the humiliation is now accounted for1 and the explanation of it tears to shreds the last rag of pride with which the fallen people might have attempted to hide it4 ,the abject wretchedness of the ,jews is admitted to be the effect of their own sins4 ,no thought can be more depressing4 ,the desolation of ,mount ,zion1 where jackals prowl undisturbed as though it were the wilderness1#bid is a standing testimony to the sin of ,israel4 ,such is the degradation to which the people whom the elegist here represents are reduced4 ,it is a condition of utter helplessness2 and yet in it will rise the dawn of hope2 for when man is most empty of self he is most ready to receive ,god4 ,thus it is that from the deepest pit of humiliation there springs the prayer of trust and hope with which the ,book of ,lamentations closes4 #bic v4 #ag4 #bid ver4 #ah4 ,chapter ,,xxiv ,,the ,,everlasting ,,throne v4 #ai-bb ,we have lingered long in the valley of humiliation4 ,at the eleventh hour we are directed to look up from this scene of weary gloom to heavenly heights1 radiant in sunlight4 ,it is not by accident that the new attitude is suggested only at the very end of the last elegy4 ,the course of the thought and the course of experience that underlies it have been preparing for the change4 ,on entering the valley the traveller must look well to his feet2 it is not till he has been a denizen of it for some time that he is able to lift up his eyes to other and brighter realms4 ,thus at last our attention is turned from earth to heaven1 from man to ,god4 ,in this change of vision the mood which gave rise to the ,lamentations disappears4 ,since earthly things lose their value in view of the treasures in heaven1 the ruin of them also becomes of less account4 ,thus we read in the ,imitatio3 ,the life of man is always looking on the things of time1 ,pleased with the pelf of earth1 ,gloomy at loss1 ,pricked by the least injurious word2 ,life touched by ,god looks on the eternal1-- ,with it no cleaving unto time1 ,no frown when property is lost1 ,no sneer when words are harsh1-- ,because it puts its treasure and its joy in heaven1 ,where nothing fades4 ,the explanation of this sudden turn is to be found in the fact that for the moment the poet forgets himself and his surroundings in a rapt contemplation of ,god4 ,this is the glory of adoration1 the very highest form of prayer1 that prayer in which a man comes nearest to the condition ascribed to angels and the spirits of the blessed who surround the throne and gaze on the eternal light4 ,it is not to be thought of as an idle dreaming like the dreary abstraction of the ,indian fanatic who has drilled himself to forget the outside world by reducing his mind to a state of vacancy while he repeats the meaningless syllable ,om1 or the senseless ecstasy of the monk of ,mount ,athos1 who has attained the highest object of his ambition when he thinks he has beheld the sacred light within his own body4 ,it is self-forgetful1 not self-centred2 and it is occupied with the contemplation of those great truths of the being of ,god1 absorption in which is an inspiration4 ,here the worshipper is at the river of the water of life1 from which if he drinks he will go away refreshed for the battle like the ,red-cross knight restored at the healing fountain4 ,it is the misfortune of our own age that it is impractical in the excess of its practicalness when it has not patience for those quiet1 calm experiences of pure worship which are the very food of the soul4 ,the continuance of the throne of ,god is the idea that now lays hold of the elegist as he turns his thoughts from the miserable scenes of the ruined city to the glory above4 ,this is brought home to his consciousness by the fleeting nature of all things earthly4 ,he has experienced what the author of the ,epistle to the ,hebrews describes as the removing of those things that are shaken1 as of things that have been made1 that those things which are not shaken may remain4#bie ,the throne of ,david has been swept away2 but above the earthly wreck the throne of ,god stands firm1 all the more clearly visible now that the distracting influence of the lower object has vanished1 all the more valuable now that no other refuge can be found4 ,men fall like leaves in autumn2 one generation follows another in the swift march to death2 dynasties which outlive many generations have their day1 to be succeeded by others of an equally temporary character2 kingdoms reach their zenith1 decline and fall4 ,god only remains1 eternal1 unchangeable4 ,his is the only throne that stands secure above every revolution4 #bie ,heb4 xii4 #bg4 ,the unwavering faith of our poet is apparent at this point after it has been tried by the most severe tests4 ,jerusalem has been destroyed1 her king has fallen into the hands of the enemy1 her people have been scattered2 and yet the elegist has not the faintest doubt that her ,god remains and that ,his throne is steadfast1 immovable1 everlasting4 ,this faith reveals a conviction far in advance of that of the surrounding heathen4 ,the common idea was that the defeat of a people was also the defeat of their gods4 ,if the national divinities were not exterminated they were flung down from their thrones1 and reduced to the condition of jins--demons who avenged themselves on their conquerors by annoying them whenever an opportunity for doing so arose1 but with greatly crippled resources4 ,no such notion is ever entertained by the author of these poems nor by any of the ,hebrew prophets4 ,the fall of ,israel in no way affects the throne of ,god2 it is even brought about by ,his will2 it could not have occurred if ,he had been pleased to hinder it4 ,thus the poet was led to find his hope and refuge in the throne of ,god1 the circumstances of his time concurring to turn his thoughts in this direction1 since the disappearance of the national throne1 the chaos of the sacked city1 and the establishment of a new government under the galling yoke of slaves from ,babylon1 invited the man of faith to look above the shifting powers of earth to the everlasting supremacy of heaven4 ,this idea of the elegist is in line with a familiar stream of ,hebrew thought1 and his very words have many an echo in the language of prophet and psalmist1 as1 for example1 in the forty-fifth psalm1 where we read1 ,thy throne1 ,o ,god1 is for ever and ever4 ,the grand ,messianic hope is founded on the conviction that the ultimate establishment of ,god's reign throughout the world will be the best blessing imaginable for all mankind4 ,sometimes this is associated with the advent of a ,divinely anointed earthly monarch of the line of ,david4 ,at other times ,god's direct sovereignty is expected to be manifested in the ,day of the ,lord4 ,the failure of the feeble ,zedekiah seems to have discredited the national hopes centred in the royal family4 ,for two generations they slumbered1 to be awakened in connection with another disappointing descendant of ,david1 ,zerubbabel1 the leader of the return4 ,no king was ever equal to the satisfaction of these hopes until the ,promised ,one appeared in the fulness of the times1 until ,jesus was born into the world to come forth as the ,lord's ,christ4 ,meanwhile1 since the royal house is under a cloud1 the essential ,messianic hope turns to ,god alone4 ,he can deliver ,his people1 and ,he only4 ,even apart from personal hopes of rescue1 the very idea of the eternal1 just reign of ,god above the transitory thrones of men is a calming1 reassuring thought4 ,it is strange that this idea should ever have lost its fascination among ,christian people1 who have so much more gracious a revelation of ,god than was given to the ,jews under the old covenant2 and yet our ,lord's teachings concerning the ,fatherhood of ,god have been set forth as the direct antithesis of the ,divine sovereignty1 while the latter has been treated as a stern and dreadful function from which it was natural to shrink with fear and trembling4 ,but the truth is the two attributes are mutually illustrative2 for he is a very imperfect father who does not rule his own house1 and he is a very inadequate sovereign who does not seek to exercise parental functions towards his people4 ,accordingly1 the gospel of ,christ is the gospel of the kingdom4 ,thus the good news declared by the first evangelists was to the effect that the kingdom of ,god was at hand1 and our ,lord taught us to pray1 ,thy kingdom come4 ,for ,christians1 at least as much as for ,jews1 the eternal sovereignty of ,god should be a source of profound confidence1 inspiring hope and joy4 ,now the elegist ventures to expostulate with ,god on the ground of the eternity of ,his throne4 ,god had not abdicated1 though the earthly monarch had been driven from his kingdom4 ,the overthrow of ,zedekiah had left the throne of ,god untouched4 ,then it was not owing to inability to come to the aid of the suffering people that the eternal ,king did not intervene to put an end to their miseries4 ,a long time had passed since the siege1 and still the ,jews were in distress4 ,it was as though ,god had forgotten them or voluntarily forsaken them4 ,this is a dilemma to which we are often driven4 ,if ,god is almighty can ,he be also all-merciful8 ,if what we knew furnished all the possible data of the problem this would be indeed a serious position4 ,but our ignorance silences us4 ,some hint of an explanation is given in the next phrase of the poet's prayer4 ,god is besought to turn the people to ,himself4 ,then they had been moving away from him4 ,it is like the old popular ideas of sunset4 ,people thought the sun had forsaken the earth1 when1 in fact1 their part of the earth had forsaken the sun4 ,but if the wrong is on man's side on man's side must be the amendment4 ,under these circumstances it is needless and unjust to speculate as to the cause of ,god's supposed neglect or forgetfulness4 ,there can be no reasonable doubt that the language of the elegy here points to a personal and spiritual change4 ,we cannot water it down to the expression of a desire to be restored to ,palestine4 ,nor is it enough to take it as a prayer to be restored to ,god's favour4 ,the double expression1 ,turn ,thou us unto ,thee1 ,o ,lord1 and we shall be turned1 points to a deeper longing1 a longing for real conversion1 the turning round of the heart and life to ,god1 the return of the prodigal to his ,father4 ,we think of the education of the race1 the development of mankind1 the culture of the soul2 and in so thinking we direct our attention to important truths which were not so well within the reach of our forefathers4 ,on the other hand1 are we not in danger of overlooking another series of reflections on which they dwelt more persistently8 ,it is not the fact that the world is marching straight on to perfection in an unbroken line of evolution4 ,there are breaks in the progress and long halts1 deviations from the course and retrograde movements4 ,we err and go astray1 and then continuance in an evil way does not bring us out to any position of advance2 it only plunges us down deeper falls of ruin4 ,under such circumstances1 a more radical change than anything progress or education can produce is called for if ever we are even to recover our lost ground1 not to speak of advancing to higher attainments4 ,in the case of ,israel it was clear that there could be no hope until the nation made a complete moral and religious revolution4 ,the same necessity lies before every soul that has drifted into the wrong way4 ,this subject has been discredited by being treated too much in the abstract1 with too little regard for the actual condition of men and women4 ,the first question is1 ,what is the tendency of the life8 ,if that is away from ,god1 it is needless to discuss theories of conversion2 the fact is plain that in the present instance some conversion is needed4 ,there is no reason to retain a technical term1 and perhaps it would be as well to abandon it if it were found to be degenerating into a mere cant phrase4 ,this is not a question of words4 ,the urgent necessity is concerned with the actual turning round of the leading pursuits of life4 ,in the next place1 it is to be observed that the turning here contemplated is positive in its aims1 not merely a flight from the wrong way4 ,it is not enough to cast out the evil spirit1 and leave the house swept and garnished1 but without a tenant to take care of it4 ,evil can only be overcome by good4 ,to turn from sin to blank vacancy and nothingness is an impossibility4 ,the great motive must be the attraction of a better course rather than revulsion from the old life4 ,this is the reason why the preaching of the gospel of ,christ succeeds where pure appeals to conscience fail4 ,by his ,serious ,call to the ,unconverted ,william ,law started a few earnest men thinking2 but he could not anticipate the ,methodist revival although he prepared the way for it4 ,the reason seems to be that appeals to conscience are depressing1 necessarily and rightly so2 but some cheering encouragement is called for if energy is to be found for the tremendous effort of turning the whole life upon its axle4 ,therefore it is not the threat of wrath but the gospel of mercy that leads to what may be truly called conversion4 ,then we may notice1 further1 that the particular aim of the change here indicated is to turn back to ,god4 ,as sin is forsaking ,god1 so the commencement of a better life must consist in a return to ,him4 ,but this is not to be regarded as a means towards some other end4 ,we must not have the home-coming made use of as a mere convenience4 ,it must be an end in itself1 and the chief end of the prayer and effort of the soul1 or it can be nothing at all4 ,it appears as such in the passage now under consideration4 ,the elegist writes as though he and the people whom he represents had arrived at the conviction that their supreme need was to be brought back into near and happy relations with ,god4 ,the hunger for ,god breathes through these words4 ,this is the truest1 deepest1 most ,divine longing of the soul4 ,when once it is awakened we may be sure that it will be satisfied4 ,the hopelessness of the condition of so many people is not only that they are estranged from ,god1 but that they have no desire to be reconciled to ,him4 ,then the kindling of this desire is itself a great step towards the reconciliation4 ,and yet the good wish is not enough by itself to attain its object4 ,the prayer is for ,god to turn the people back to ,himself4 ,we see here the mutual relations of the human and the ,divine in the process of the recovery of souls4 ,so long as there is no willingness to return to ,god nothing can be done to force that action on the wanderer4 ,the first necessity1 therefore1 is to awaken the prayer which seeks restoration4 ,but this prayer must be for the action of ,god4 ,the poet knows that it is useless simply to resolve to turn4 ,such a resolution may be repeated a thousand times without any result following1 because the fatal poison of sin is like a snake bite that paralyses its victims4 ,thus we read in the ,theologia ,germanica1 ,and in this bringing back and healing1 ,i can1 or may1 or shall do nothing of myself1 but simply yield to ,god1 so that ,he alone may do all things in me and work1 and ,i may suffer ,him and all ,his work and ,his ,divine will4 ,the real difficulty is not to change our own hearts and lives2 that is impossible4 ,and it is not expected of us4 ,the real difficulty is rather to reach a consciousness of our own disability4 ,it takes the form of unwillingness to trust ourselves entirely to ,god for ,him to do for us and in us just whatever ,he will4 ,the poet is perfectly confident that when ,god takes ,his people in hand to lead them round to ,himself ,he will surely do so4 ,if ,he turns them they will be turned4 ,the words suggest that previous efforts had been made from other quarters1 and had failed4 ,the prophets1 speaking from ,god1 had urged repentance1 but their words had been ineffectual4 ,it is only when ,god undertakes the work that there is any chance of success4 ,but then success is certain4 ,this truth was illustrated in the preaching of the cross by ,st4 ,paul at ,corinth1 where it was found to be the power of ,god4 ,it is seen repeatedly in the fact that the worst1 the oldest1 the most hardened are brought round to a new life by the miracle of redeeming power4 ,herein we have the root principle of ,calvinism1 the secret of the marvellous vigour of a system which1 at the first blush of it1 would seem to be depressing rather than encouraging4 ,calvinism directed the thoughts of its disciples away from self1 and man1 and the world1 for the inspiration of all life and energy4 ,it bade them confess their own impotence and ,god's almightiness4 ,all who could trust themselves to such a faith would find the secret of victory4 ,next1 we see that the return is to be a renewal of a previous condition4 ,the poet prays1 ,renew our days as of old--a phrase which suggests the recovery of apostates4 ,possibly here we have some reference to more external conditions4 ,there is a hope that the prosperity of the former times may be brought back4 ,and yet the previous line1 which is concerned with the spiritual return to ,god1 should lead us to take this one also in a spiritual sense4 ,we think of ,cowper's melancholy regret-- ,where is the blessedness ,i knew ,when first ,i saw the ,lord8 ,the memory of a lost blessing makes the prayer for restoration the more intense4 ,it is of ,god's exceeding lovingkindness that ,his compassions fail not1 so that ,he does not refuse another opportunity to those who have proved faithless in the past4 ,in some respects restoration is more difficult than a new beginning4 ,the past will not come back4 ,the innocence of childhood1 when once it is lost1 can never be restored4 ,that first1 fresh bloom of youth is irrecoverable4 ,on the other hand1 what the restoration lacks in one respect may be more than made up in other directions4 ,though the old paradise will not be regained1 though it has withered long since1 and the site of it has become a desert1 ,god will create new heavens and a new earth which shall be better than the lost past4 ,and this new state will be a real redemption1 a genuine recovery of what was essential to the old condition4 ,the vision of ,god had been enjoyed in the old1 simple days1 and though to weary watchers sobered by a sad experience1 the vision of ,god will be restored in the more blessed future4 ,in our ,english ,bible the last verse of the chapter reads like a final outburst of the language of despair4 ,it seems to say that the prayer is all in vain1 for ,god has utterly forsaken ,his people4 ,so it was understood by the ,jewish critics who arranged to repeat the previous verse at the end of the chapter to save the omen1 that the ,book should not conclude with so gloomy a thought4 ,but another rendering is now generally accepted1 though our ,revisers have only placed it in the margin4 ,according to this we read1 ,unless ,thou hast utterly rejected us1 etc4 ,there is still a melancholy tone in the sentence1 as there is throughout the ,book that it concludes2 but this is softened1 and now it by no means breathes the spirit of despair4 ,turn it round1 and the phrase will even contain an encouragement4 ,if ,god has not utterly rejected ,his people assuredly ,he will attend to their prayer to be restored to ,him4 ,but it cannot be that ,he has quite cast them off4 ,then it must be that ,he will respond and turn them back to ,himself4 ,if our hope is only conditioned by the question whether ,god has utterly forsaken us it is perfectly safe1 because the one imaginable cause of shipwreck can never arise4 ,there is but one thing that might make our trust in ,god vain and fruitless2 and that one thing is impossible1 nay1 inconceivable4 ,so wide and deep is our ,father's love1 so firm is the adamantine strength of ,his eternal fidelity1 we may be absolutely confident that1 though the mountains be removed and cast into the sea1 and though the solid earth melt away beneath our feet1 ,he will still abide as the internal ,refuge of ,his children1 and therefore that ,he will never fail to welcome all who seek ,his grace to help them return to ,him in true penitence and filial trust4 ,thus we are led even by this most melancholy book in the ,bible to see1 as with eyes purged by tears1 that the love of ,god is greater than the sorrow of man1 and ,his redeeming power more mighty than the sin which lies at the root of the worst of that sorrow1 the eternity of ,his throne1 in spite of the present havoc of evil in the universe1 assuring us that the end of all will be not a mournful elegy1 but a pan of victory4 ,printed by ,hazell ,watson1 ,viney1 ,ld41 ,london and ,aylesbury4 ,,the ,,expositor',s ,,bible4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth1 price #gs4 #f;d4 each vol4 ,,first ,,series1 #ahhg-h4 ,colossians4 ,by ,a4 ,,maclaren1 ,d4,d4 ,st4 ,mark4 ,by ,very ,rev4 the ,dean of ,armagh4 ,genesis4 ,by ,prof4 ,,marcus ,,dods1 ,d4,d4 #a ,samuel4 ,by ,prof4 ,w4 ,g4 ,,blaikie1 ,d4,d4 #b ,samuel4 ,by the same ,author4 ,hebrews4 ,by ,principal ,t4 ,c4 ,,edwards1 ,d4,d4 ,,second ,,series1 #ahhh-i4 ,galatians4 ,by ,prof4 ,g4 ,g4 ,,findlay1 ,b4,a4 ,the ,pastoral ,epistles4 ,by ,rev4 ,a4 ,,plummer1 ,d4,d4 ,isaiah ,i4-,,xxxix4 ,by ,prof4 ,g4 ,a4 ,,smith1 ,d4,d4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,the ,book of ,revelation4 ,by ,prof4 ,w4 ,,milligan1 ,d4,d4 #a ,corinthians4 ,by ,prof4 ,,marcus ,,dods1 ,d4,d4 ,the ,epistles of ,st4 ,john4 ,by ,rt4 ,rev4 ,w4 ,,alexander1 ,d4,d4 ,,third ,,series1 #ahhi-ij4 ,judges and ,ruth4 ,by ,r4 ,a4 ,,watson1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,d4 ,jeremiah4 ,by ,rev4 ,c4 ,j4 ,,ball1 ,m4,a4 ,isaiah ,,xl4-,,lxvi4 ,by ,prof4 ,g4 ,a4 ,,smith1 ,d4,d4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,st4 ,matthew4 ,by ,rev4 ,j4 ,,monro ,,gibson1 ,d4,d4 ,exodus4 ,by ,very ,rev4 the ,dean of ,armagh4 ,st4 ,luke4 ,by ,rev4 ,h4 ,,burton1 ,m4,a4 ,,fourth ,,series1 #ahij-a4 ,ecclesiastes4 ,by ,rev4 ,,samuel ,,cox1 ,d4,d4 ,st4 ,james and ,st4 ,jude4 ,by ,rev4 ,a4 ,,plummer1 ,d4,d4 ,proverbs4 ,by ,rev4 ,r4 ,f4 ,,horton1 ,d4,d4 ,leviticus4 ,by ,rev4 ,s4 ,h4 ,,kellogg1 ,d4,d4 ,the ,gospel of ,st4 ,john4 ,by ,prof4 ,m4 ,,dods1 ,d4,d4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,the ,acts of the ,apostles4 ,by ,prof4 ,,stokes1 ,d4,d4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,,fifth ,,series1 #ahia-b4 ,the ,psalms4 ,by ,a4 ,,maclaren1 ,d4,d4 ,vol4 ,i4 #a and #b ,thessalonians4 ,by ,,james ,,denney1 ,d4,d4 ,the ,book of ,job4 ,by ,r4 ,a4 ,,watson1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,d4 ,ephesians4 ,by ,prof4 ,g4 ,g4 ,,findlay1 ,b4,a4 ,the ,gospel of ,st4 ,john4 ,by ,prof4 ,m4 ,,dods1 ,d4,d4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,the ,acts of the ,apostles4 ,by ,prof4 ,,stokes1 ,d4,d4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,,sixth ,,series1 #ahib-c4 #a ,kings4 ,by ,ven4 ,archdeacon ,,farrar4 ,philippians4 ,by ,principal ,,rainy1 ,d4,d4 ,ezra1 ,nehemiah1 ,esther4 ,by ,prof4 ,w4 ,f4 ,,adeney1 ,m4,a4 ,joshua4 ,by ,prof4 ,w4 ,g4 ,,blaikie1 ,d4,d4 ,the ,psalms4 ,by ,a4 ,,maclaren1 ,d4,d4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,the ,epistles of ,st4 ,peter4 ,by ,prof4 ,,rawson ,,lumby1 ,d4,d4 ,,seventh ,,series1 #ahic-d4 #b ,kings4 ,by ,ven4 ,archdeacon ,,farrar4 ,romans4 ,by ,h4 ,c4 ,g4 ,,moule1 ,m4,a4 ,the ,books of ,chronicles4 ,by ,prof4 ,w4 ,h4 ,,bennett1 ,m4,a4 #b ,corinthians4 ,by ,,james ,,denney1 ,d4,d4 ,numbers4 ,by ,r4 ,a4 ,,watson1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,d4 ,the ,psalms4 ,by ,a4 ,,maclaren1 ,d4 ,d4 ,vol4 ,,iii4 ,,eighth ,,series1 #ahie-f4 ,daniel4 ,by ,ven4 ,archdeacon ,,farrar4 ,the ,book of ,jeremiah4 ,by ,prof4 ,w4 ,h4 ,,bennett1 ,m4,a4 ,deuteronomy4 ,by ,prof4 ,,andrew ,,harper1 ,b4,d4 ,the ,song of ,solomon and ,lamentations4 ,by ,prof4 ,w4 ,f4 ,,adeney1 ,m4,a4 ,ezekiel4 ,by ,prof4 ,,john ,,skinner1 ,m4,a4 ,the ,minor ,prophets4 ,by ,prof4 ,g4 ,a4 ,,smith1 ,d4,d4 ,two ,vols4 ,,works ,,by ,,the ,,same ,,author4 ,i4 ,,in ,,the ,,expositor',s ,,bible4 ,,ezra1 ,,nehemiah1 ,,and ,,esther4 ,fully merits a place in the excellent series to which it belongs4 ,the lectures contained in it are real ',expositions4' ,there is no padding in them1 and the homiletical element is quite subordinate4 ,mr4 ,adeney writes in a pleasant1 easy style1 and has a clever way of arranging his material1 which serves well to sustain the interest and attention of his reader4--,guardian4 ,the author is happy in having to deal with a period of the first moment in the fortunes of ,israel and its literature1 and which is at the same time illuminated by the broad daylight of verifiable history4 ,a distinct merit of ,mr4 ,adeney's work is the realism which he has thrown into the great and pathetic story he handles1 and which makes its every stage and incident to throb with actuality4--,christian ,world4 ,,ii4 ,,in ,,the ,,theological ,,educator4 ,,the ,,theology ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,testament4 ,,contents3--,the ,teaching of ,jesus ,christ--,the ,theology of the ,apostles--,the ,pauline ,type--,the ,theology of the ,epistle to the ,hebrews--,the ,johannine ,type4 ,it is a clear succinct treatise4--,record4 ,as an introduction to the subject there is no better book than this4 ,it is thoroughly up to date1 sound in spirit and in substance1 and well compacted together4--,methodist ,times4 ,the book throughout is an exceedingly lucid1 compact and informing summary1 interestingly written1 and sure to be of great use to the student4 ,the volume is remarkable for the amount of carefully studied and tersely put matter which is packed into it4--,critical ,review4 ,,london3 ,hodder ,stoughton1 #bg1 ,,paternoster ,,row4 ,,works ,,by ,,the ,,rev4 ,,principal ,,fairbairn1 ,d4,d4 ,,christ ,,in ,,modern ,,theology4 ,by ,a4,m4 ,,fairbairn1 ,d4,d41 ,principal of ,mansfield ,college1 ,oxford4 ,sixth ,edition4 #hvo1 cloth1 #abs4 ,his work is1 without doubt1 one of the most valuable and comprehensive contributions to theology that has been made during this generation4--,the ,spectator4 ,the volume before us is the most weighty and important which he has yet issued4 ,his treatises entitled ',studies in the ,life of ,christ' and ',a ,city of ,god' contain much great value1 but in a sense they gave promise of better things to come1 and this promise has been amply fulfilled 444 in this very able and learned and altogether admirable discussion on ',the ,place of ,christ in ,modern ,theology4-- ,scotsman4 ,a more vivid summary of ,church history has never been given4 ,with its swift characterisation of schools and politics1 with its subtle tracings of the development of various tendencies through the influence of their environment1 of reaction1 and of polemic2 with its contrasts of different systems1 philosophies1 and races2 with its portraits of men2 with its sense of progress and revolt--this part of ,dr4 ,fairbairn's book is no mere annal1 but drama1 vivid and full of motion1 representative of the volume and sweep of ,christianity through the centuries4--,speaker4 ,,religion ,,in ,,history ,,and ,,in ,,modern ,,life4 ,together with an ,essay on the ,church and the ,working ,classes4 ,ninth ,thousand4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,the ,,city ,,of ,,god4 ,a ,series of ,discussions in ,religion4 ,fifth ,edition4 #hvo1 cloth1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,we find in the discourses which form this volume much able statement and much vigorous thought1 and an admirable comprehension of the great questions which are being discussed in our day with eagerness and bated breath4--,scotsman4 ,,studies ,,in ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,christ4 ,seventh ,edition4 ,demy #hvo1 #is4 ,there is ample room for ,professor ,fairbairn's thoughtful and brilliant sketches4 ,dr4 ,fairbairn's is not the base rhetoric often employed to hide want of thought or poverty of thought1 but the noble rhetoric which is alive with thought and imagination to its utmost and finest extremities4--,expositor4 ,,works ,,by ,,the ,,late ,,dr4 ,r4 ,w4 ,,dale1 of ,birmingham4 ,,fellowship ,,with ,,christ ,and other ,discourses ,delivered on ,special ,occasions4 ,fourth ,thousand4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth1 #fs4 ,these are certainly among the most massive1 and1 as a consequence1 most impressive sermons of the day4 ,each is a sort of miniature theological treatise1 but the theology is alive--as it were1 heated through and through by the fires of a mighty conviction1 which has become a passion to convince4444 ,in these sermons there is a fine universalism2 they might be addressed to any audience--academic1 professional1 commercial1 artisan4 ,and to hear them would be to feel that religion is a thing to be believed and obeyed4--,speaker4 ,,the ,,living ,,christ ,,and ,,the ,,four ,,gospels4 ,eighth ,thousand4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth1 #fs4 ,as a man of culture and eloquence he has put the case strongly and well1 and it will not be surprising if his book1 which is not written1 he tells us1 for ,masters of ,arts1 but in the first instance for members of his own congregation1 and then for all ordinary people who take an interest in such matters1 should be the means of convincing many that the assumptions sometimes made about late origin of the ,gospels1 etc41 are utterly unfounded4--,scotsman4 ,,laws ,,of ,,christ ,,for ,,common ,,life4 ,seventh ,thousand4 ,crown #hvo1 #fs4 ,sound sense and wholesome ,christian teaching conveyed in pure1 idiomatic1 and forcible ,english4--,scotsman4 ,a storehouse of wise precepts1 a repository of loving counsels--shrewd1 practical1 and fully cognisant of difficulties and drawbacks2 but informed by such sympathy and a sense of ,christian brotherhood as should do much to make it acceptable and effective4--,nonconformist4 ,,christian ,,doctrine4 ,a ,series of ,discourses4 ,fourth ,thousand4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth1 #fs4 ,like everything that ,dr4 ,dale writes1 these discourses are eminently thoughtful and suggestive4 ,even when the topics discussed are thoroughly familiar1 there is a freshness and originality in the treatment of them which makes the reader feel that he is well repaid for going over old ground4 ,in days such as these1 when loud voices are proclaiming that the doctrines of the ,holy ,trinity and ,incarnation are metaphysical subtleties1 'sectarian' and 'denominational' dogmas1 it is refreshing to note the power and outspoken vindication of them which is here set before us4--,guardian4 ,,works ,,by ,,the ,,late ,,dr4 ,r4 ,w4 ,,dale 7continued7_/i4 ,,nine ,,lectures ,,on ,,preaching4 ,seventh ,edition4 ,crown #hvo1 #fs4 ,admirable lectures1 briefly written1 earnest and practical4--,literary ,churchman4 ,dr4 ,dale's lectures are full of practical wisdom and intense devotion4--,the ,expositor4 ,,the ,,jewish ,,temple ,,and ,,the ,,christian ,,church4 ,a ,series of ,discourses on the ,epistle to the ,hebrews4 ,ninth ,edition4 ,crown #hvo1 #fs4 ,wholesomer sermons than these it is almost impossible to conceive4 ,mr4 ,dale's preaching has always been remarkable for moral energy and fervour1 but here this characteristic rises to its highest power4--,expositor4 ,,the ,,epistle ,,to ,,the ,,ephesians4 ,its ,doctrines and ,ethics4 ,seventh ,edition4 ,crown #hvo1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,the terse and vigorous style1 rising on occasion into a manly and impressive eloquence1 of which ,mr4 ,dale is known to be a master1 gives lucid expression to thought that is precise1 courageous1 and original4--,spectator4 ,,week-,,day ,,sermons4 ,sixth ,edition4 ,crown #hvo1 #cs1 #f;d4 ,dr4 ,dale is certainly an admirable teacher of ,christian ethics4 ,he is1 perhaps1 the greatest living successor of the ,apostle ,james4 ,in this volume he appears at his best4--,christian4 ,,the ,,ten ,,commandments4 ,sixth ,edition4 ,crown #hvo1 #es4 ,full of thought and vigour4--,spectator4 ,,impressions ,,of ,,australia4 ,crown #hvo1 cloth1 #es4 ,dr4 ,dale's articles 444 constitute one of the most sensible books about ,australia4444 ,the book is readable1 and indeed excellent4-- ,athenum4 ,,the ,,new ,,evangelicalism ,,and ,,the ,,old4 ,cloth1 #as4 ,it has more in it than many an elaborate treatise2 it suggests by every sentence2 it is throughout succinct1 pregnant1 masterly4--,british ,weekly4 #ej1jjj ,,copies ,,have ,,now ,,been ,,printed ,,of ,,dr4 ,,miller',s ,,silent ,,times ,,series4 ,elegantly bound1 parchment cloth1 gilt top1 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,,making ,,the ,,most ,,of ,,life4 ,by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,r4 ,,miller1 ,d4,d4 ,sixth ,edition4 ,they contain an abundance of pithy sentiment1 and the winning manner in which it is conveyed1 together with the tenderness of appeal which underlies all that is said1 rivets attention4 ,the many short stories and episodes which give point to the writer's observations are introduced with much skill and effect4--,rock4 ,,the ,,every-,,day ,,of ,,life4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,rich in suggestion and full of truth4--,dundee ,advertiser4 ,dr4 ,miller very fitly dedicates his new book to 'those who want to grow better4' ,by such his pages will be read with mingled delight and profit1 for they are full of apt quotation1 striking and abundant illustration1 and great knowledge of human nature4--,literary ,world4 ,,secrets ,,of ,a ,,beautiful ,,life4 ,second ,edition4 ,this charming and helpful book4--,church ,times4 ,he has a rare and sympathetic spirit1 he has also had singularly wide experience in the wants and workings of the human heart1 and is singularly gifted with the power of expression and happy illustration4--,presbyterian4 ,sure to be as successful as its predecessors4--,british ,weekly4 ,,silent ,,times4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,it overflows with useful and suggestive counsel1 illustrated by apt quotation and striking facts4--,methodist ,times4 ,the contents of the book well deserve their beautiful setting4 ,dr4 ,miller writes both sweetly and tenderly on a great variety of topics germane to the object he has in view4 ',silent ,times' deserves a welcome1 for it is a book of sunbeams4--,sword and ,trowel4 ,,week-,,day ,,religion4 ,third ,edition4 ,the style is lively1 natural1 and pointed2 the illustrations are apt and memorable1 whilst all through there is apparent a fine combination of spiritual intensity and thoroughness1 with breadth of view and sobriety of judgment4--,united ,presbyterian ,magazine4 ,a series of bright1 sensible1 tender1 and interesting chapters on just the difficulties which beset all who are trying to be ,christians every day4--,glasgow ,herald4 ,,the ,,historical ,,geography ,,of ,,the ,,holy ,,land4 ,by ,,george ,,adam ,,smith1 ,d4,d41 ,professor of ,hebrew and ,old ,testament ,exegesis1 ,free ,church ,college1 ,glasgow4 ,with ,six ,maps1 specially prepared4 ,fourth ,thousand4 #hvo1 cloth1 #aes4 ,the book is too rich to summarise4444 ,the language is particularly well chosen4 ,few pages are without some telling phrase happily constructed to attract attention and hold the memory1 and we often feel that the wealth of imagery would be excessive for prose were it not that it is chosen with such appropriateness and scientific truth4444 ,to the reader much of the pleasure of perusing the volume comes from its luxurious typography and the exquisite series of orographical maps prepared by ,mr4 ,bartholomew from the work of the ,survey4 ,these maps alone are more suggestive and enlightening than many treatises1 and they are destined1 we trust1 to enliven many a sermon and turn the monotony of the records of ,israelitish wars into a thrilling romance4--,speaker4 ,,the ,,exhaustive ,,concordance ,,of ,,the ,,bible4 ,by the late ,,james ,,strong1 ,,ll4,d4 #a1hjj very full pages1 in royal #dto4 ,now supplied at the following net prices3 ,second ,edition4 ,cloth1 #bes4 net2 half-morocco1 #ces4 net4 ,we think ',the ,exhaustive ,concordance' might be called the ,final ,concordance4 ,it is difficult to believe that it will ever be surpassed4 ,it seems to contain everything that the student can require2 and1 as we can testify from a constant use of it for the last few weeks1 it is as accurate as it is complete4 ,it gives first every word of the text of the common ,english version1 including even 'the' and 'and'4 ,then there is a full and valuable comparative concordance of the ,revised ,version4 ,next follows a ,hebrew and ,chaldee ,dictionary1 quite sufficient for ordinary purposes1 and1 in conclusion1 a ,greek ,dictionary of the ,new ,testament4 ,thus we have within the covers of a handy volume a complete apparatus for ,biblical study4'--,british ,weekly4 ,,london3 ,,hodder ,,stoughton1 #bg1 ,,paternoster ,,row4 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's note3 ,page #de3 ,a missing footnote anchor has been inserted after union of ,christ and his ,church4 ,page #bfg3 ,footnote #bbd refers to ,psalm xx4 #f4 ,this appears to be a printer error which has been changed to read ,psalm xxxiv4 #f4 ,page #cbd3 444 ,old ,testament times of to the passion excited by cruelty4 of has been changed to or4 ,minor typographical errors and inconsistencies have been silently normalized4 ,archaic and variable spellings and hyphenation have been retained4 ,one advertising page has been moved from the beginning to the end of the book4