,,omphalos3  ,,an ,,attempt ,,to ,,untie
 ,,the ,,geological ,,knot4  ,,by       
,,philip ,,henry ,,gosse1 ,f4,r4,s4     
,,with ,,fifty-,,six ,,illustrations    
,,on ,,wood4       ,greek3 ,auxanetai de
 ta zoa panta1 osa echei omphalon1 dia  
tou              omphalou4              
,,arist42 ,hist4 ,anim4 vii4 #h4        
,,london3 ,,john ,,van ,,voorst2        
,,paternoster ,,row4 #aheg4   ,,london3 
,r4 ,,clay1 ,,printer1 ,,bread ,,street 
,,hill4     ,,preface4   ,you have not  
allowed for the wind1 ,hubert1 said     
,locksley1 in ,ivanhoe2 or that had been
 a better shot4  ,i remember1 when ,i   
was in ,newfoundland1 some              
five-and-twenty years ago1 the          
disastrous wreck of the brig ,elizabeth1
 which belonged to the firm in which ,i 
was a clerk4 ,the master had made a good
 observation the day before1 which had  
determined his latitude some miles north
 of ,cape ,st4 ,francis4 ,a thick fog   
coming on1 he sailed boldly by compass1 
knowing that1 according to his latitude1

 he could well weather that promontory4 
,but lo6 about midnight the ship plunged
 right against the cliffs of ,ferryland1
 thirty miles to the south1 crushing in 
her bows to the windlass2 and presently 
went down1 the crew barely saving their 
lives4 ,the captain had not allowed for 
the polar current1 which was setting1   
like a sluice1 to the southward1 between
 the ,grand ,bank and the land4  ,when  
it was satisfactorily ascertained that  
the heavenly body1 now known as ,uranus1
 was a planet1 its normal path was soon 
laid down according to the recognised   
law of gravitation4 ,but it would not   
take this path4 ,there were deviations  
and anomalies in its observed course1   
which could in nowise be referred to the
 operation of any known principle4      
,astronomers were sorely puzzled to     
explain the irregularities1 and to      
reconcile facts with laws4 ,various     
hypotheses were proposed3 some denied   
the facts2 that is1 the observed places 
of the planet1 boldly assuming that the 

observers had been in error3 others     
suggested that perhaps the physical     
laws1 which had been supposed to govern 
the whole celestial machinery1 did not  
reach so far as ,uranus's orbit4 ,the   
secret is now known3 they had not       
allowed for the disturbances produced by
 ,neptune4  ,in each of these cases the 
conclusions were legitimately deduced   
from the recognised premises4 ,hubert's 
skilled eye had calculated the distance2
 his experience had taught him the      
requisite angle at which to shoot1 the  
exact amount of force necessary1 and    
every other element proper to insure the
 desired result1 except one4 ,there was 
an element which he had overlooked2 and 
it spoiled his calculations4 ,he had    
forgotten the wind4  ,the master of the 
ill-fated brig had calculated his       
latitude correctly2 he knew the rate of 
his vessel's speed2 the compass had     
showed him the parallel on which to     
steer4 ,these premises ought to have    
secured a safe conclusion2 and so they  

would1 but for an unrecognised power    
that vitiated all2 he was not aware of  
the silent and secret current1 that was 
every hour setting him to the south of  
his supposed latitude4  ,the path of    
,uranus had been calculated by the      
astronomers with scrupulous care1 and   
every known element of disturbance had  
been considered2 not by one1 but by     
many4 ,but for the fact that the planet 
had been previously seen in positions   
quite inconsistent with such a path1 it 
would have been set down as beyond      
controversy correct4 ,stubborn fact1    
however1 would not give way2 and hence  
the dilemma1 till ,le ,verrier suggested
 the unseen antagonist4  ,i venture to  
suggest in the following pages an       
element1 hitherto overlooked1 which     
disturbs the conclusions of geologists  
respecting the antiquity of the earth4  
,their calculations are sound on the    
recognised premises2 but they have not  
allowed for the ,law of ,prochronism in 
,creation4  ,the enunciation of this    

principle will lie in a nut-shell2 the  
reader will find it at p4#abd2 or       
p4#cdg4 ,all the rest of the book is    
illustration4  ,i do not claim          
originality for the thought which ,i    
have here endeavoured to work out4 ,it  
was suggested to me by a ,tract1 which  
,i met with some dozen years ago1 or    
more2 the title of which ,i have        
forgotten3 ,i am pretty sure it was     
anonymous1 but it was published by      
,campbell1 of #a1 ,warwick ,square4     
,whether it is still in print ,i do not 
know2 ,i never saw another copy4 ,if the
 author is alive1 and if he should      
happen to cast his eye on this volume1  
he will doubtless recognise his own     
bantling1 and accept this my            
acknowledgment4  ,the germ of the       
argument1 however1 ,i have found1 since 
these pages were written1 in ,the       
,mineral and ,mosaical ,geologies1 of   
,granville ,penn 7#ahbb74 ,the state of 
physical science when he wrote did not  
enable him to press the argument to a   

demonstration1 as ,i have endeavoured to
 do2 for he could not refer to          
structural peculiarities as sensible    
records of past processes1 inseparable  
from newly created organisms4  ,i would 
not be considered as an opponent of     
geologists2 but rather as a co-searcher 
with them after that which they value as
 highly as ,i do1 ,,truth4 ,the path    
which ,i have pursued has led me to a   
conclusion at variance with theirs4 ,i  
have a right to expect that it be       
weighed2 let it not be imputed to vanity
 if ,i hope that it may be accepted4    
,but what ,i much more ardently desire  
is1 that the thousands of thinking      
persons1 who are scarcely satisfied with
 the extant reconciliations of          
,scriptural statements and ,geological  
deductions1--who are silenced but not   
convinced1--may find1 in the principle  
set forth in this volume1 a stable      
resting-place4 ,i have written it in the
 constant prayer that the ,god of ,truth
 will deign so to use it2 and if ,he do1

 to ,him be all the glory6  ,p4 ,h4 ,g4 
,,marychurch1 ,,torquay1  ,october1     
#aheg4     ,,contents4   ,i  ,,the      
,,cause4       ,evidence of the ,senses 
often delusive--,deductions of ,reason  
fallible--,essentials sometimes         
overlooked--,discrepancy      between   
,scripture and ,geological              
,conclusions--,painful                  
,dilemma--,efforts to escape from       
it--,supremacy of      ,truth--,various 
,attempts at                            
,reconciliation--,denouncers--,opinions 
of                                      
,brown--,blackwood--,macbrair--,ure--,pe
nn--,young--,cockburn--                 
,miller--,sedgwick--,turner--,sumner--,c
halmers--,harris--,gray--               
,conybeare--,hitchcock--,pye            
,smith--,protoplast--,babbage--         
,powell--,vestiges--,amplitude of       
,choice                    ,page #a-bi  
,,ii4  ,,the ,,witness ,,for ,,the      
,,macro-,,chronology4       ,a ,court of
 ,inquiry--,the ,witnesses--,testimony  

of ,one--,strata      of ,thames        
,tunnel--of ,hertfordshire--of          
,yorkshire--of the                      
,globe--,granite--,granitic             
,strata--,organic ,remains--,silurian   
,system--,corals--,trilobites--,mollusks
--,devonian ,system--,old      ,red     
,sandstone--,its                        
,formation--,fishes--,carboniferous     
,system--,coral ,limestone--,millstone  
,grit--,coal--,predominance      of     
,carbonic ,acid--,extent and ,thickness 
of      ,coal-,fields--,formation of    
,coal--,conjecture as to its            
,age--,antediluvian ,theory             
untenable--,sauroid ,fishes--,earliest  
,reptiles--,footprints of ,frogs        
#cj-ec   ,,iii4  ,,the                  
,,same--7continued47       ,disturbances
 of ,strata--,internal ,heat--,changes  
of ,land and      ,sea--,new ,red       
,sandstone--,footprints--,labyrinthodon-
-,lias                                  
,formation--,crinoids--,ammonites--,bele
mnites--,fishes--,marine                

,reptiles--,ichthyosaur--,plesiosaur--,e
uropean      ,archipelago--,oolitic     
,formation--,cycads--,megalosaur--      
,bat-,lizards--,iguanodon--,hylaeosaur--
,earliest      ,mammal--,chalk          
,formation--,infusoria--,diatomaceae--,t
heir      ,minuteness and               
,numbers--,chambered                    
,cephalopods--,mosasaur--,end      of   
,secondary                              
,formations--,convulsions--,basalt--,upr
earing of      ,mountain                
,chains--,london ,clay--,plants and     
,animals--,fishes--,reptiles--,birds--,m
ammals--,anoplotherium--,condition      
of                                      
,europe--,dinotherium--,mastodon--,mammo
th--,trees--,crag                       
,formation--,tertiary ,fauna--,bone     
,caves--,kirkdale--,erratic             
,blocks--,glaciers--,sloths--,marsupials
--,birds--,raised      ,beaches--,human 
,period--,moho--,present ,cosmical      
,operations--,river ,deltas--,coral     
,beefs--,volcanoes--,changes of         

,level--,earthy                         
,deposits--,stalagmite--,shells--,recapi
tulation4     #ed-aja     ,,iv4  ,,the  
,,cross-,,examination4       ,grandeur  
of the ,evidence--,proposed ,line of    
,objection--,it is      but             
circumstantial--,example of ,confusion  
of      ,thought--,analysis of the      
,reasoning---,dependent on the          
exhaustive ,power of                    
,observation--,relation of ,precedence  
and      ,sequence--,of ,cause and      
,effect--,force of my ,position4        
#ajb-aji   ,v4  ,,postulates4       ,the
 ,creation of ,matter--,the ,persistence
 of ,species4            #aaj-aab       
,,vi4  ,,laws4       ,the ,course of    
,nature a                               
,circle--,illustrations--,scarlet       
,runner--,lady-fern--,hawkmoth--,plumula
ria--,cow--,universality      of the    
,law--,creation an ,irruption into a    
,circle--,false      ,witness to ,past  
,processes--,prochronism and            
,diachronism--,phenomena                

illusory--,recapitulation               
#aac-abf   ,,vii4  ,,parallels ,,and    
,,precedents4  7,plants47       ,ideal  
,tour on ,creation-,day--,chronological 
,investigations--,queried ,age of a     
,tree-fern--,data for the               
,inquiry--,development of the           
,leaves--,leaf-scars--,report--,its     
manifest ,error--,selaginella--,bamboo--
                                        
,couch-grass--,screw-pine--,pashiuba--,s
ugar                                    
,palm--,areca--,rattan--,agave--,travell
er's ,tree--,butterfly                  
,flower--,orchis--,gladiolus--,grass-tre
e--,white                               
,lily--,testudinaria--,caffer-,bread--,f
ig--,banyan--,euphorbia--               
,tulip-tree--,bignonia--,loranthus--,pri
ckly                                    
,pear--,mangrove--,silk-cotton-tree--,lo
cust-tree--,restriction      of the     
,inquiry--,uniform ,testimony to        
,untruth                  #abg-aha      
,,viii4  ,,parallels ,,and ,,precedents4

  7,invertebrate ,animals47             
,resumption of the                      
,examination--,sea,pen--,millepore--    
,madrepore--,organ-pipe--,medusa--,sea-u
rchin--,feather-star--                  
,tapeworm--,serpula--,terebella--,white-
ant--,goliath-beetle--                  
,gnat--,case-fly--,melicerta--,julus--,b
uprestis--,shore-crab--                 
,barnacle--,lepralia--,botryllus--,clava
gella--,prickly     ,venus--,scorpion   
,stromb--,tiger ,cowry--,thorny         
,murex--,pearly                         
,nautilus--,cuttlefish                  
#ahb-bci   ,,ix4  ,,parallels ,,and     
,,precedents4  7,vertebrate ,animals47  
,examination of the                     
,vertebrata--,sword-fish--,gilt-head--  
,laminae of                             
,scales--,shark--,arrangement of        
,teeth--,their                          
,structure--,tree-frog--,metamorphosis--
,rattlesnake--                          
,crocodile--,tortoise--,laminae of      
,plates--,skull of                      

,cassowary--,peacock--,humming-bird--,tr
ogon--,structure and      ,growth of    
,feathers--,whalebone of ,whale--,horn  
of ,ibex--,horn      of ,stag--,teeth of
 ,horse--,of ,babiroussa--,of           
,hippopotamus--,tusk of                 
,elephant--,molars of ,elephant         
#bdj-bgc   ,x4  ,,parallels ,,and       
,,precedents4  7,man47                  
,examination of ,primal                 
,man--,blood--,its ,formation--,its     
,oxygenation--,nails--,hair--,bones--,te
eth--,all formed by      successive     
,processes--,stature--,thyroid          
,cartilage--,beard--,development of     
,teeth--,proportion of                  
,bloods--,condition of                  
,skeleton--,navel--,false ,conclusion   
#bgd-bia   ,,xi4  ,,parallels ,,and     
,,precedents4  7,germs47                
,assumption of adult ,development at    
,creation--,its                         
,reasonableness--,the ,position         
waived--,assumption of the              
,germ-,hypothesis--,double              

,cocoa-nut--,coral                      
,tree--,tulip--,earth-pea--,mangrove--,m
edusa--,connexion of ,germs      with   
,parent--,in ,echinoderms--,in          
,annelids--,in ,insects--,egg of        
,butterfly--,of ,nut ,weevil--,of       
,bots--,of ,ichneumon--,of ,pill        
,chafer--,of ,gall-fly--,of             
,lace-fly--,of ,spider--,of ,gipsy      
,moth--,of ,coccus--,of ,saw-fly--,of   
,cockroach--,of                         
,dirt-dauber--,metamorphosis of         
,star-fish--,eggs attached to           
,brachionus--,viviparous ,progeny of    
,rotifer--,of ,asplanchna--,of          
,daphnia--,egg-purse of ,shark--,economy
 of ,surinam ,toad--,egg of             
,fowl--,foetus of ,kangaroo--,umbilicus 
#bib-ccd     ,,xii4  ,,the ,,conclusion4
       ,uniformity of                   
,results--,prochronism of ,organic      
,nature--,phenomena inadequate to settle
 ,chronology--,historic      ,testimony 
alone oracular--,familiar               
,illustration--,objections              

met--,analogy between an ,organism and a
 ,world--,illustration      from a      
,tree--,analogy between the ,life of a  
,species and that      of an            
,individual--,history ,divinely         
,projected--,grand ,plan of             
,nature--,diachronic ,existence not     
necessary--,deceptive      ,phenomena   
inseparable from ,created               
,organisms--,illustrations              
abundant--,hypothesis of the            
,life-history of the                    
,globe--,supposition of #aheg being the 
,era of ,creation--,what      its       
,state8--,minuteness and ,verity of     
,proofs of ,life present      no        
,difficulty--,coprolites--,faecal       
,residua in newly-created               
,animals--,cyclical not ,organic        
,condition the ,test of                 
,prochronism--,illustrations from the   
inorganic      ,world--,rivers--,ocean  
,currents--,celestial ,bodies--,velocity
 of      ,light--,records of ,entities  
actually passed--,no ,tree has          

,leaves--,plates of                     
,testudinaria--,leaf-scars of           
,palm--,column      of ,nerita--,spines 
of ,murex--,madreporic ,plate of        
,cribella--,hilum of ,seed--,navel of   
,mammal--,argument of ,great      and   
,small--,old ,hypothesis of ,lusus      
,naturae--,demonstration      of a      
,law--,effect of this ,principle on the 
,study of      ,geology--,summing up    
#cce-cgb     ,,list ,,of                
,,illustrations4                        
,,page  ,geological ,section of         
,yorkshire                              
#ce ,calymene ,blumenbachii             
#da ,cephalaspis                        
#dd ,labyrinthodon                      
#eg ,snake-necked ,marine ,lizards      
#ei ,megalosaurus ,bucklandi            
#fa ,bat-lizards                        
#fb ,hylaeosaurus armatus               
#fc ,mammoth                            
#gd ,moho                               
#hd ,germination of ,scarlet-runner     
#aad ,diagram of ,bean                  

#aaf   ,fern                            
#aag   ,hawkmoth                        
#aai   ,polype                          
#abj   ,cow                             
#aba ,leaf-scars of ,tree-fern          
#acb ,roots of ,iriartea                
#aci ,traveller's ,tree                 
#adh ,corm of ,gladiolus                
#aec ,section of ,lily-bulb             
#aeg ,testudinaria                      
#aei ,encephalartos                     
#afb ,twig of ,tulip-tree               
#afg ,young ,plant of ,loranthus        
#aga ,silk-cotton ,tree                 
#age ,section of ,exogenous ,tree       
#agi ,muricated ,madrepore              
#ahe ,organ-pipe                        
#ahg ,comatula and ,young               
#aid ,serpula                           
#bjj ,goliath ,beetle and ,pupa case    
#bjf ,larva of ,case-fly                
#bji ,melicerta                         
#baj ,lepas                             
#bah ,botryllus                         
#bbd ,clavagella                        

#bbf ,dione ,veneris                    
#bbh ,murex tenuispina                  
#bcc ,scale of ,gilt-head               
#bdb ,plates of ,tortoise               
#bea ,growth of a ,feather              
#bed ,horns of ,stag                    
#beh ,skull of ,babiroussa              
#bfb ,skull of ,hippopotamus            
#bfe ,skull of ,elephant                
#bfg ,growth of ,hair                   
#bgh ,section of ,human ,tooth          
#bhb ,garden ,tulip                     
#bih ,germination of ,earth-pea         
#cjj ,seed of ,mangrove                 
#cjc ,lace-fly and ,eggs                
#cab ,brachionus with ,eggs             
#cbb ,pregnant ,asplanchna              
#cbc ,hen's ,egg                        
#cbi ,gyroceras                         
#cga      ,greek3 ,,ho ,,omphalos4      
,i4  ,,the ,,cause4  ,is there not a    
cause8--#a ,,sam4 xvii4 #bi4   ,an      
eminent philosopher has observed that   
nothing can be more common or frequent  
than to appeal to the evidence of the   

senses as the most unerring test of     
physical effects4 ,it is by the organs  
of sense1 and by these alone1 that we   
can acquire any knowledge of the        
qualities of external objects1 and of   
their mutual effects when brought to act
 one upon another1 whether mechanically1
 physically1 or chemically2 and it      
might1 therefore1 not unreasonably be   
supposed1 that what is called the       
evidence of the senses must be admitted 
to be conclusive1 as to all the         
phenomena developed by such reciprocal  
action4  ,nevertheless1 the fallacies   
are numberless into which those are led 
who take what they consider the         
immediate results of sensible           
impressions1 without submitting them to 
the severe control and disciplined      
analysis of the understanding4#a  ,if   
this verdict is confessedly true with   
regard to many observations which we    
make on things immediately present to   
our senses1 much more likely is it to be
 true with respect to conclusions which 

are not the immediate results of        
sensible impressions1 but are merely    
deduced by a process of reasoning from  
such impressions4 ,and if the direct    
evidence of our senses is to be received
 with a prudent reserve1 because of this
 possibility of error1 even when we have
 no evidence of an opposing character1  
still more necessary is the exercise of 
caution in judging of facts assumed to  
have occurred at a period far removed   
from our own experience1 and which stand
 in contradiction 7at least apparent1   
prima facie1 contradiction7 to credible 
historic testimony4 ,nay1 the caveat    
acquires a greatly intensified force1   
when the testimony with which the       
assumed facts are1 or seem to be1 at    
variance1 is no less a testimony than   
,his who ordained the facts1 who made   
the objects of investigation2 the       
testimony of the ,creator of all things2
 the testimony of ,him who is1 from     
eternity to eternity1 ,greek3 ,,ho      
,,apseudes ,,theos6  ,i hope ,i shall   

not be deemed censorious in stating my  
fear that those who cultivate the       
physical sciences are not always        
sufficiently mindful of the ,humanum est
 errare4 ,what we have investigated with
 no little labour and patience1 what we 
have seen with our eyes many many times1
 in many aspects1 and under many        
circumstances1 we naturally believe     
firmly2 and we are very prone to attach 
the same assurance of certainty to the  
inferences we have1 bona fide1 and with 
scrupulous care to eliminate error1     
deduced from our observations1 as to the
 observations themselves2 and we are apt
 to forget that some element of error   
may have crept into our actual          
investigations1 and still more probably 
into our deductions4 ,even if our       
observations be so simple1 so patent1 so
 numerous1 as almost to preclude the    
possibility of mistake in them1 and our 
process of reasoning from them be       
without a flaw1 still we may have       
overlooked a principle1 which1 though   

perhaps not very obvious1 ought to enter
 into the investigation1 and which1 if  
recognised1 would greatly modify our    
conclusions4  ,in this volume ,i venture
 to suggest such a principle to the     
consideration of geologists4 ,it will   
not be denied that ,geology is a science
 that stands peculiarly in need of being
 cultivated with that salutary          
self-distrust that ,i have above alluded
 to4 ,though a strong and healthy child1
 it is as yet but an infant4 ,the       
objects on which its senses have been   
exercised1 its ,greek3 ta blepomena1 are
 indeed plain enough and numerous       
enough1 when once discovered2 but the   
inferences drawn from them1 its ,greek3 
bebaia1 find their sphere in the most   
venerably remote antiquity1--an         
antiquity mensurable not by years or    
centuries1 but by secula seculorum4 ,and
 the dicta1 which its votaries rest on  
as certitudes1 are at variance with the 
simple literal sense of the words of    
,god4  ,i am not assuming here that the 

,inspired ,word has been rightly read2  
,i merely say that the plain            
straightforward meaning1 the meaning    
that lies manifestly on the face of the 
passages in question1 is in opposition  
with the conclusions which geologists   
have formed1 as to the antiquity and the
 genesis of the globe on which we live4 
,perhaps the simple1 superficial sense  
of the ,word is not the correct one2 but
 it is at least that which its readers1 
learned and unlearned1 had been         
generally content with before2 and which
 would1 ,i suppose1 scarcely have been  
questioned1 but for what appeared the   
exigencies of geological facts4  ,now   
while there are1 unhappily1 not a few   
infidels1 professed or concealed1 who   
eagerly seize on any apparent           
discrepancy between the works and the   
,word of ,god1 in order that they may   
invalidate the truth of the latter1     
there are1 especially in this country1  
many names of the highest rank in       
physical 7and1 among other branches1 in 

geological7 science1 to whom the        
veracity of ,god is as dear as life4    
,they cannot bear to see it impugned2   
they know that it cannot be overthrown2 
they are assured that ,he who gave the  
,word1 and ,he who made the worlds1 is  
,one ,jehovah1 who cannot be            
inconsistent with ,himself4 ,but they   
cannot shut their eyes to the startling 
fact1 that the records which seem       
legibly written on ,his created works do
 flatly contradict the statements which 
seem to be plainly expressed in ,his    
word4  ,here is a dilemma4 ,a most      
painful one to the reverent mind6 ,and  
many reverent minds have laboured hard  
and long to escape from it4 ,it is      
unfair and dishonest to class our men of
 science with the infidel and atheist4  
,they did not rejoice in the dilemma2   
they saw it at first dimly1 and hoped to
 avoid it4#b ,at first they believed    
that the mighty processes which are     
recorded on the everlasting mountains   
might not only be harmonized with1 but  

might afford beautiful and convincing   
demonstrations of ,holy ,scripture4     
,they thought that the deluge of ,noah  
would explain the stratification1 and   
the antediluvian era account for the    
organic fossils4  ,as the stone book was
 further read1 this mode of explanation 
appeared to many untenable2 and they    
retracted their adherence to it4 ,to a  
mind rightly constituted1 ,truth is     
above every thing3 there is no such     
thing as a pious fraud2 the very idea is
 an impious lie3 ,god is light1 and in  
,him is no darkness at all2 and that    
religion which can be maintained only by
 dissembling or denying truth1 cannot   
proceed from ,him that is ,holy1 ,him   
that is ,true1 but from him who is a    
liar1 and the father of it4  ,many      
upright and ardent cultivators of the   
young science felt that truth would be  
compromised by a persistence in those   
explanations which had hitherto passed  
current4 ,the discrepancy between the   
readings in ,science and the hitherto   

unchallenged readings in ,scripture1    
became manifest4 ,partisans began to    
array themselves on either side2 some1  
jealous for the honour of ,god1 knew    
little of science1 and rushed into the  
field ill-prepared for the conflict2    
some1 jealous for science1 but little   
conversant with ,scripture1 and caring  
less for it1 were willing to throw      
overboard its authority altogether3     
others1 who knew that the writings were 
from the same ,hand1 knew therefore that
 there must be some way of reconciling  
them1 and set themselves to find it out4
  ,have they succeeded8 ,if ,i thought  
so1 ,i would not publish this book4     
,many1 ,i doubt not1 have been convinced
 by each of the schemes by which the    
discrepant statements have been sought  
to be harmonized4 ,each of them has had 
sufficient plausibility to convince its 
propounder2 and1 probably1 others too4  
,and some of them have attained a large 
measure of public confidence4 ,yet if   
any one of them is true1 it certainly   

has not commanded universal assent4 ,let
 us examine how far they agree among    
themselves1 who propose to reconcile    
,scripture and ,science1 the ,mosaic and
 the ,mineral ,geologies4  ,and first1  
it is1 perhaps1 right to represent the  
opinions of those who stand by the      
literal acceptation of the ,divine      
,word4 ,there have been some1 indeed1   
who refuse to entertain the question of 
reconciliation1 taking the high ground  
that1 as the ,word of ,god is and must  
be true1 it is impious to set any       
evidence in competition with it4 ,i     
cannot but say1 my sympathies are far   
more with these than with those who1 at 
the opposite pole of the argument1 would
 make scientific deduction paramount1   
and make the ,word go to the wall4 ,but1
 then1 we ought to be quite sure that we
 have got the very ,word of ,god2 and1  
so far from being impious1 it seems     
highly proper and right1 when           
conflicting evidence appears to flow out
 of what is indubitably ,god's work1 to 

examine afresh the witnesses on both    
sides1 that we may not make either      
testify what it does not4  ,those good  
men who merely denounce ,geology and    
geologists1 ,i do not quote4 ,there are 
the facts1 written and engraven in      
stones1 and that by the finger of ,god4 
,how can they be accounted for8  ,some  
have recourse to the assumption that the
 natural processes by which changes in  
the earth's surface are now going on1   
may have operated in antediluvian times 
with a rapidity and power of which we   
can form little conception from what we 
are cognisant of4 ,the ,rev4 ,j4 ,mellor
 ,brown takes this ground1 adducing the 
analogies of steam-power and            
electricity1 as effecting in a few      
moments or hours1 what formerly would   
have required several days or weeks to  
accomplish4  ,god's most tremendous     
agencies may have been employed in the  
beginning of his works4 ,if1 for        
instance1 it should be conceded that the
 granitic or basaltic strata were once  

in a state of fusion1 there is no reason
 why we should not call in the aid of   
supposition to produce a rapid          
refrigeration4 ,we may surround the     
globe with an atmosphere 7not as yet    
warmed by the rays of the newly kindled 
sun7 more intensely cold than that of   
,saturn4 ,the degree of cold may have   
been such as to cool down the liquid    
granite and basalt in a few hours1 and  
render it congenial to animal and       
vegetable life2 while the gelid air     
around the globe may have been mollified
 by the abstracted caloric4#c  ,a writer
 in ,blackwood 7xli4 #aha2 xlii4 #fij71 
in like manner1 adheres to the literal  
sense of ,genesis and the ,decalogue1   
and alludes to the great agencies--the  
magnetic1 electrical1 and ethereal      
influences--probably instrumental in all
 the phenomena of nature1 as being far  
more powerful than is generally         
suspected4  ,mr4 ,macbrair--who does    
not1 however1 appear1 from the amount of
 his acquaintance with science1         

competent to judge of the physical      
evidence--supposes stratification to    
have proceeded with immense rapidity1   
because limestone is now deposited in   
some waters at the rate of six inches   
per annum4 ,because a mass of timber1   
ten miles in length1 was collected in   
the ,mississippi1 in thirty-eight years1
 he considers that a capital coal field 
might be formed in a single century4    
,alluvial strata are mud lavas ejected  
from volcanoes4 ,the whole difficulty of
 fossil remains is got rid of by        
ignoring the distinctions of species1   
and assuming that the ancient animals   
and the recent ones are identical4 ,the 
,pterodactyle and the ,plesiosaurus he  
does not allude to4#d  ,according to    
,dr4 ,ure1--,the demiurgic week 444 is  
manifestly composed of six working days 
like our own1 and a day of rest1 each of
 equal length1 and1 therefore1          
containing an evening and a morning1    
measured by the rotation of the earth   
round its axis4444 ,neither reason nor  

revelation will justify us in extending 
the origin of the material system beyond
 six thousand years from our own days4  
,the world then received its substance1 
form1 and motions from the volition of  
the ,omnipotent4  ,his theory of the    
stratification extends over the whole   
antediluvian era4 ,he supposes that     
successive irruptions of the central    
heat broke up the primitive strata and  
deposited the secondary and tertiary4   
,the basaltic or trap phenomena lead to 
the conclusion that such upheavings and 
subversions were not confined to one    
epoch of the antediluvian world1 but    
that1 coeval with its birth1 they       
pervaded the whole period of its        
duration4444 ,the ,deluge--that         
universal transflux of the ocean--was   
the last and greatest of these          
terraqueous convulsions4#e  ,another    
class of this school of interpreters    
refers the stratification of the earth1 
either to the deluge alone1 or to that  
convulsion conjoined with the one which 

is considered to have taken place on the
 third day of the ,mosaic narrative4    
,perhaps the most eminent writer of this
 class is ,mr4 ,granville ,penn1 whose  
opinions may be thus condensed4  ,he    
supposes that this globe has undergone  
only two revolutions4 ,the first was the
 violent rupture and depression of the  
surface to become the bed of the sea1   
and the simultaneous elevation of the   
other portion to become dry land1--the  
theatre of terrestrial existence4 ,this 
first revolution took place before the  
creation of any organized beings4 ,the  
second revolution was at the ,noachic   
,flood1 when the former bed of the sea  
was elevated to become the dry land1    
with all its organic accumulations of   
sixteen centuries1 while the former land
 was correspondingly depressed and      
overflowed4 ,the earth must1 therefore1 
necessarily exhibit manifest and        
universal evidences of the vast apparent
 ruin occasioned by its first violent   
disruption and depression2 of the       

presence and operation of the marine    
fluid1 during the long interval which   
succeeded2 and of the action and effects
 of that fluid in its ultimate          
retreat4#f  ,mr4 ,fairholme#g so nearly 
agrees with the above1 that ,i need not 
quote his opinions in detail4  ,another 
class1 represented by ,dr4 ,young and   
the ,rev4 ,sir ,w4 ,cockburn1 ,dean of  
,york1 have maintained with considerable
 power1 backed by no mean geological    
knowledge1 that the deluge is a         
sufficient vera causa for the           
stratification of the globe1 and for the
 fossilization of the organic remains4  
,dr4 ,young supposes that an equable    
climate prevailed all over the globe in 
the antediluvian period4 ,were the      
highest mountains transferred to the    
equatorial regions1 the most extensive  
oceans removed towards the poles1 and   
fringed with a border of                
archipelago1--while lands of moderate   
height occupied most of the intermediate
 spaces1 between these archipelagos and 

the equatorial mountains2 then a        
temperature1 almost uniform1 would      
prevail throughout the world4 ,this     
perpetual summer would account for the  
prodigious quantities of animal and     
vegetable remains3--every region teemed 
with life4  ,at the ,flood1 the bed of  
the ocean must have been elevated1 and  
the dry land at the same time depressed1
 an expansive force acting from below to
 heave up the ocean's bed4 ,to this     
agency are attributed the vast masses of
 granite1 gneiss1 basalt1 and other     
rocks of igneous origin1 which seem to  
have been forced upwards in a state of  
fusion1 into their present lofty        
stations4 ,the ancient bed of the ocean 
may have consisted of numerous layers of
 sand1 clay1 lime1 and other substances1
 including corals and marine shells1--to
 a certain degree consolidated into     
rocks4 ,by the progressive rising of the
 waters and the currents so made1 fresh 
materials would be conveyed to the      
depths of the ocean1 so that the        

magnesian limestone1 the saliferous     
beds1 the lias1 c41 would be            
deposited4#h  ,the ,dean of ,york1 in   
like manner1 considers that the         
convulsions produced by the ,deluge1 are
 sufficient to account for all the      
stratification and fossil remains4 ,that
 the gradual rise of the waters1 and    
their penetration into the recesses of  
the rocks1 would cause successive       
volcanic eruptions2 the earlier of which
 would inclose marine fishes and        
reptiles2 then others in turn1 the      
pachyderms and great reptiles of the    
plains2 and1 finally1 the creatures more
 exclusively terrestrial4 ,that these   
repeated heavings of mighty volcanoes   
raised great part of what had been the  
bottom of the sea1 above its level1 and 
that hence the present land had been for
 sixteen centuries under water4 ,that   
the animals which entered the ark1 were 
not selected till after many species had
 already perished in the earlier        
convulsions1 and hence the number of    

extinct species now exhumed4#i  ,my     
reader will kindly bear in mind that ,i 
am not examining these opinions2 ,i     
adduce them as examples of the diversity
 of judgment that still prevails on a   
question which some affect to consider  
as settled beyond the approach of doubt4
  ,a totally different solution of the  
difficulty has been sought in the       
hypothesis1 that the six days of the    
,inspired ,record signify six successive
 periods of immense though of undefined 
duration4 ,this opinion is as old as the
 ,fathers at least1#aj and not a few    
able maintainers of it belong to our own
 times4 ,it has been put forth1 however1
 with most power1 by a late lamented    
geologist1 whose wonderful vigour of    
description and felicity of             
illustration1 have done1 perhaps1 more  
than the efforts of any other living    
man1 to render his favourite science    
popular4  ,perhaps ,i can scarcely set  
his views in a more striking light than 
he himself has done in his own          

peculiarly graphic report of a          
conversation1 which he sustained with   
some humble inquirers in the            
,paleontological ,gallery of the        
,british ,museum4  ,i last passed1 says 
,mr4 ,hugh ,miller1 through this        
wonderful gallery at the time when the  
attraction of the ,great ,exhibition had
 filled ,london with curious visitors   
from all parts of the empire2 and a     
group of intelligent mechanics1 fresh   
from some manufacturing town in the     
midland counties1 were sauntering on    
through its chambers immediately before 
me4 ,they stood amazed beneath the      
dragons of the ,oolite and ,lias2 and1  
with more than the admiration and wonder
 of the disciples of old1 when          
contemplating the huge stones of the    
,temple1 they turned to say1 in almost  
the old words1 ',lo6 master1 what manner
 of great beasts are these8' ',these    
are1' ,i replied1 'the sea-monsters and 
creeping things of the second great     
period of organic existence4' ,the reply

 seemed satisfactory1 and we passed on  
together to the terminal apartments of  
the range appropriated to the tertiary  
organisms4 ,and there1 before the       
enormous mammals1 the mechanics again   
stood in wonder1 and turned to inquire4 
,anticipating the query1 ,i said1 ',and 
these are the huge beasts of the earth1 
and the cattle of the third great period
 of organic existence2 and yonder in the
 same apartment1 you see1 but at its    
farther end1 is the famous fossil ,man  
of ,guadaloupe1 locked up by the        
petrifactive agencies in a slab of      
limestone4' ,the mechanics again seemed 
satisfied2 and1 of course1 had ,i       
encountered them in the first chamber of
 the suite1 and had they questioned me  
respecting the organisms with which it  
is occupied1 ,i would have told them    
that they were the remains of the herbs 
and trees of the first great period of  
organic existence4 ,but in the chamber  
of the mammals we parted1 and ,i saw    
them no more4#aa  ,a large and          

influential section of the students of  
,geology regard this hypothesis as      
untenable4 ,generally they may be       
described as holding that the history   
which is recorded in the igneous and    
fossiliferous strata does not come into 
the sacred narrative in any shape4 ,as1 
however1 that narrative commences with  
the beginning1 and comes down to        
historic times1 the facts so recorded   
must find their chronology within its   
bounds4 ,their place is accordingly     
fixed by this school of interpretation  
between the actual primordial creation  
7,gen4 i4 #a71 and the chaotic state    
7ver4 #b74  ,let us hear an able and    
eloquent geologist1 ,professor          
,sedgwick1 on the hypothesis just       
mentioned of the elongation of the six  
days3--  ,they certain excellent        
,christian writers on the subject of    
,geology have not denied the facts      
established by this science1 nor have   
they confounded the nature of physical  
and moral evidence2 but they have       

prematurely 7and1 therefore1 without an 
adequate knowledge of all the facts     
essential to the argument7 endeavoured  
to bring the natural history of the     
earth into a literal accordance with the
 ,book of ,genesis2 first1 by greatly   
extending the periods of time implied by
 the six days of creation2 and secondly1
 by endeavouring to show that under this
 new interpretation of its words1 the   
narrative of ,moses may be supposed to  
comprehend1 and to describe in order1   
the successive epochs of ,geology4 ,it  
is to be feared that truth may1 in this 
way1 receive a double injury2 and ,i am 
certain that the argument just alluded  
to has been unsuccessful4--,we must     
consider the old strata of the earth as 
monuments of a date long anterior to the
 existence of man1 and to the times     
contemplated in the moral records of his
 creation4#ab  ,many able theologians1  
who1 though well acquainted with natural
 science1 can scarcely be considered as 
geologists1 have been satisfied with    

this solution of the problem4  ,thus    
,sharon ,turner3--  ,what interval      
occurred between the first creation of  
the material substance of our globe1 and
 the mandate for light to descend upon  
it1 whether months1 years1 or ages1 is  
not in the slightest degree noticed in  
the ,sacred ,record4 ,geology may       
shorten or extend its duration1 as it   
may find proper4#ac  ,thus the present  
,archbishop of ,canterbury3--  ,we are  
not called upon to deny the possible    
existence of previous worlds1 from the  
wreck of which our globe was organized1 
and the ruins of which are now          
furnishing matter for our curiosity4#ad 
,thus ,dr4 ,chalmers3--  ,the present   
economy of terrestrial things was raised
 about six thousand years ago on the    
basis of an earth then without form and 
void2 while1 for aught of information we
 have in the ,bible1 the earth itself   
may before this time have been the      
theatre of many lengthened processes1   
the dwelling-place of older economies   

that have now gone by1 but whereof the  
vestiges subsist even to the present    
day1 both to the needless alarm of those
 who befriend ,christianity1 and the    
unwarrantable triumph of those who have 
assailed it4#ae  ,thus ,dr4 ,harris3--  
,the first verse of ,genesis was        
designed to announce the absolute       
origination of the material universe by 
the ,almighty ,creator2 and1 passing by 
an indefinite interval1 the second verse
 describes the state of our planet      
immediately prior to the ,adamic        
creation2 and the third verse begins the
 account of the six days' work4#af      
,thus ,mr4 ,gray3--  ,that an antecedent
 state of the earth existed before the  
recorded ,mosaical epoch1 will clearly  
come out to view by the consideration of
 the terms used in the second verse4    
,there was at that period1 according to 
the express ,mosaic record1 anterior to 
the six days' reduction into order1     
existing earth and existing water4#ag   
,probably the majority of our ablest    

geologists1 men who have devoted their  
lives to the study and elucidation of   
geological phenomena1 are to be found   
among those who advocate this scheme of 
reconciling those phenomena with the    
statements of the ,holy ,scriptures4    
,thus one of the earliest cultivators of
 the science1 the ,rev4 ,dr4            
,conybeare3--  ,i regard ,gen4 i4 #a as 
an universal proposition1 intended to   
contradict all the heathen systems which
 supposed the eternity of matter or     
polytheism2 and ver4 #b ,i regard as    
proceeding to take up our planet in a   
state of ruin from a former condition1  
and describing a succession of phenomena
 effected in part by the laws of nature 
7which are no more than our expression  
of ,god's observed method of working71  
and in part by the immediate exercise of
 ,divine power in directing and         
creating4#ah  ,dr4 ,hitchcock1          
,president of ,amherst ,college1 ,u4,s41
 gives in his adhesion to this          
principle4 ,after summing up the        

evidence in favour of the earth's high  
antiquity1 he inquires1 ,who will       
hesitate to say that it ought to settle 
the interpretation of the first verse of
 ,genesis1 in favour of that meaning    
which allows an intervening period      
between the creation of matter and the  
creation of light8 ,this interpretation 
of ,genesis is entirely sufficient to   
remove all apparent collision between   
,geology and revelation4 ,it gives the  
geologist full scope for his largest    
speculations concerning the age of the  
world4 ,it permits him to maintain that 
its first condition was as unlike to the
 present as possible1 and allows him    
time enough for all the changes of      
mineral constitution and organic life   
which its strata reveal4 ,it supposes   
that all these are passed over in       
silence by the sacred writers1 because  
irrelevant to the object of revelation2 
but full of interest and instruction to 
the men of science who should afterwards
 take pleasure in exploring the works of

 ,god4  ,it supposes the six days' work 
of creation to have been confined       
entirely to the fitting up the world in 
its present condition1 and furnishing it
 with its present inhabitants4 ,thus1   
while it gives the widest scope to the  
geologist1 it does not encroach upon the
 literalities of the ,bible2 and hence  
it is not strange that it should be     
almost universally adopted by           
geologists1 as well as by many eminent  
divines4#ai  ,dr4 ,pye ,smith1 accepting
 the immense undefined interval between 
the event of the first verse1 and the   
condition chronicled in the second1 held
 the somewhat remarkable opinion that   
the term earth in that verse1 and       
throughout the whole description of the 
six days1 is designed to express the    
part of our world which ,god was        
adapting for the dwelling of man and the
 animals connected with him4 ,and that  
portion he conceived to have been a part
 of ,asia1 lying between the ,caucasian 
ridge1 the ,caspian ,sea1 and ,tartary  

on the north1 the ,persian and ,indian  
,seas on the south1 and the high        
mountain ridges which run at            
considerable distances on the eastern   
and western flank4  ,the whole of the   
six days' creation was confined1 on this
 hypothesis1 to the re-stocking1 with   
plants and animals1 of this limited     
region after an inundation caused by its
 subsidence4 ,the flood of ,noah was    
nothing more than a second overflowing  
of the same region1 by an elevation of  
the bed of the ,persian and ,indian     
,seas1 or a subsidence of the inhabited 
land towards the south4#bj  ,the author 
of ,the ,protoplast has made the very   
original suggestion1 that the geological
 periods may have occurred during the   
paradisaical condition of man1 which he 
thinks was of an indefinitely protracted
 duration1 human chronology commencing  
at the ,fall4  ,we have no data in      
,scripture from which to gather certain 
information1 and ,adam may have lived   
unfallen one day1 or millions of years4 

,the years of the first man's mortal    
life began to be reckoned when his      
immortality ceased4 ,he was nine hundred
 and thirty years old3#ba he had been   
nine hundred and thirty years gradually 
decaying1 slowly dying4  ,it may1       
indeed1 be said that no man could have  
survived those convulsions of nature1 of
 which traces have been discovered in   
the earth's crust4 ,i would reply to    
this2--,first1 that we have no reason to
 suppose that these changes affected the
 whole globe at once2 they may have been
 partial and successive2 and the world's
 ,eden may have been a spot peculiarly  
exempted from their influence4          
,secondly1 that ,adam's body before the 
fall was not constituted as ours now    
are2 it was incorruptible and immortal3 
physical phenomena could have had no    
deleterious effect upon him4 ,why should
 we find any difficulty in supposing    
that the geological changes which appear
 to have passed upon the globe1 after   
its creation1 and before its curse1 were

 to the first man sources of            
ever-renewing admiration1 delight1 and  
advantage8  ,inclining to the belief    
that both the animal fell and the animal
 curse were considerably antecedent to  
the sin of ,adam1 ,i see no difficulty  
in the admission1 that animal death may 
also have prevailed prior to that       
event4#bb  ,while all those writers     
whose opinions ,i have cited1 feel it   
more or less incumbent on them to seek a
 reconciliation between the words of    
,inspiration and the phenomena of       
,geology1 there are not a few who       
decline the task altogether4 ,some      
eminent in science seem1 by their entire
 avoidance of the question1 to allow    
judgment to go by default4 ,others more 
boldly deny that the two can be         
accommodated4  ,mr4 ,babbage appears to 
think the archaic ,hebrew so insuperably
 obscure a language1 that no confidence 
can be put in our constructions of its  
statements2 an opinion which1 if true1  
would make the revelation of ,god to us1

 with all its glorious types1 and       
promises1 and prophecies1 more dubious  
than the readings of ,egyptian papyri1  
or the decipherment of ,assyrian        
cuneiforms4  ,on this notion1 however1  
,dr4 ,pye ,smith observes3--,all        
competent scholars1 of whatever opinions
 and parties they may be in other       
respects1 will agree to reject any      
imputation of uncertainty with respect  
to the means of ascertaining the sense  
of the language4  ,others find no       
difficulty in understanding the ,hebrew1
 but in believing it4  ,professor ,baden
 ,powell sees in the plain1 unvarnished 
narrative of the ,holy ,spirit1 only    
myth and poetry3 it was not intended for
 an historical narrative at all2 and he 
thinks 7,i hope incorrectly71 that there
 is a pretty general agreement with his 
views4  ,most rational persons1 he says1
 now acknowledge the failure of the     
various attempts to reconcile the       
difficulty between ,geology and         
,scripture by any kind of verbal        

interpretation2 they have learnt to see 
that the 'six days of thousands of      
years' have1 after all1 no more         
correspondence with anything in ,geology
 than with any sane interpretation of   
the text4 ,and that the 'immense period 
at the beginning1' followed by a recent 
literal great catastrophe1 and final    
reconstruction in a week1 is1 if        
possible1 more strangely at variance    
with science1 ,scripture1 and common    
sense4 ,yet while they viz4 the         
'rational persons1' thus view the       
labours of the ,bible-geologists as     
fruitless attempts1 they often do not   
see--1 c4 c4#bc  ,of course this gives  
up the authority of ,scripture          
altogether2 and1 consistently enough1   
the author is severe upon the prevalent 
indiscriminate and unthinking           
,bibliolatry4 ,if in any instance the   
letter of the narrative or form of      
expression may be found irreconcilably  
at variance with physical truth1#bd we  
may allow1 to those who prefer it1 the  

alternative of understanding them either
 as religious truths1 represented under 
sensible images1 or as descriptions of  
events according to the preconceptions  
of the writers1 or the traditions of the
 age4  ,the author of ,vestiges of the  
,natural ,history of ,creation propounds
 a theory of organic origin much more   
worthy of ,god1 than that mean view1    
which supposes ,him to come in on       
frequent occasions with new fiats or    
special interferences4 ,coolly bowing   
aside ,his authority1 this writer has   
hatched a scheme1 by which the immediate
 ancestor of ,adam was a ,chimpanzee1   
and his remote ancestor a ,maggot6      
99       99       99       99       99  
,in reviewing this array of opinions1 is
 there not sufficient ground for        
regarding with caution the claim to     
certainty which has been boldly put     
forth for the conclusions of ,geology8  
,it cannot be denied that there is here 
room for a very considerable amplitude  
of choice among discordant hypotheses4  

,all cannot be true1 unless on the      
principle which was claimed for the     
,church by the ,council of ,trent--,cum 
enim ecclesia duarum expositionum       
ubertate gaudeat1 non esse eam ad unius 
penuriam restrigendam6 ,i do not for a  
moment intend to put all these          
hypotheses and assumptions on the same  
level4 ,they vary widely as to their    
tenableness1 and as to their prevalence4
 ,but if we leave out of view the fears 
of those who1 from insufficient         
acquaintance with science1 are not      
competent to adjudicate on its          
positions1 and those who despise or     
decline ,biblical authority altogether  
on this subject1 we have still a        
somewhat wide range to choose from4     
,shall we accept the antediluvian1 or   
the diluvian stratification8 the six    
ages or the six days of creation8 the   
irruptions of internal fire that        
occurred chiliads before ,man was       
made--those during his protracted       
paradisaic state1 or those at the time  

of the ,flood8--the extension of the    
,mosaic record to universal nature1 or  
its limitation to a region of           
south-western ,asia8  ,i am not blaming1
 far less despising1 the efforts that   
have been made for harmonizing the      
teachings of ,scripture and science4 ,i 
heartily sympathise with them4 ,what    
else could good men do8 ,they could not 
shut their eyes to the facts which      
,geology reveals3 to have said they were
 not facts would have been simply       
absurd4 ,granting that the whole truth  
was before them--the whole              
evidence--they could not arrive at other
 conclusions than those just recorded2  
and1 therefore1 ,i do not blame their   
discrepancy inter se4 ,the true key has 
not as yet been applied to the wards4   
,until it be1 you may force the lock1   
but you cannot open it4 ,whether the key
 offered in the following pages will    
open the lock1 remains to be seen4      
,,ii4  ,,the ,,witness ,,for ,,the      
,,macro-,,chronology4       ,you shall  

well and truly try1 and a true          
deliverance      make1444 and a true    
verdict give1 according to the          
evidence4--7,jury ,oath47   ,a ,high    
,court of ,inquiry has been sitting now 
for a good many years1 whose object is  
to determine a chronological question of
 much interest4 ,it is no less than the 
age of the globe on which we live4      
,counsel have been heard on both sides1 
and witnesses have been called1 and most
 of the judges have considered that an  
overwhelming preponderance of testimony 
is in favour of an immeasurably vast    
antiquity4 ,a single ,witness on the    
other side1 however1 has deposed in a   
contrary sense3 and1 though he has said 
but little1 some of those who have heard
 the cause attach such weight to his    
testimony1 that they do not feel        
satisfied to let it be overborne4       
,counsel on the former side have1       
indeed1 cross-examined the ,witness1 and
 dissected his testimony with much      
skill1 and they contend that what he    

said has been misunderstood by the      
minority2 and that1 as his words may at 
least bear a sense which would not      
contradict those of the opposing        
witness1 the clear1 copious1 and        
unvarying deposition previously made1   
ought to command the verdict of the     
,court4  ,the minority are silenced1 but
 not satisfied2 they know not how to    
give up the ,witness on whose veracity  
they have been wont to rely2 but they   
are unable to answer the arguments      
brought against him4  ,counsel for the  
,brachy-chronology speaks4 ,we          
respectfully ask the ,court for another 
hearing4 ,will our learned brother      
permit his witness briefly to           
recapitulate his testimony1 and we will 
endeavour to examine it once more2 for  
we think we shall be able to detect some
 flaw in it8 ,rule granted4   ,,witness 
,,for ,,the ,,macro-,,chronology4  ,the 
following1 then1 is the substance of    
what the witness deposes4 ,he is not a  
living witness2 his testimony1          

therefore1 is not oral1 but             
written--lithographed1 in fact4 ,it     
consists of a number of documents1 which
 are couched in a language and character
 not to be understood without some      
previous study1 but yet very capable of 
translation--very clear and             
unmistakeable4 ,the following1 ,i say1  
is a condensed summary of the leading   
points4  ,if a curious person had       
watched the process of making the       
excavations that were preliminary to the
 boring of the ,thames ,tunnel1 he would
 have observed that the labourers       
exposed successive layers of earth1     
differing much in colour1 consistency1  
and general character4 ,first1 an       
accumulation of soil1 consisting of     
decayed vegetable and animal matter1    
mingled with broken pottery1 and other  
rubbish of man's production1 was        
removed2 then a layer of sand1 gravel1  
and river mud2 then a bed of reddish    
clay2 then a layer of clay1 mixed with  
silt or fine sandy mud2 then a thin     

layer of silt1 much filled with shells2 
then a stratum of stiff blue clay2 then 
a layer of clay of more mottled         
character1 containing a portion of silt1
 and some shells2 then a stratum of very
 firm clay1 so solid that it required to
 be broken with wedges2 then a bed of   
gravel and sand of a green colour2 and  
finally1 a similar layer1 but of a      
coarser texture4  ,in the course of the 
hundred feet or so of perpendicular     
depth thus exposed1 he would have seen a
 succession of layers1 apparently       
deposited upon one another4 ,but as yet 
he would have formed a very inadequate  
notion of the stratification of the     
earth's crust4  ,with the knowledge thus
 gained1 however1 let him now make a    
little excursion into ,hertfordshire2 we
 will suppose at the time when the      
cuttings for the ,great ,northern       
,railway were being made4 ,when he came 
near ,cheshunt1 he would see that the   
,london clay1 which he found underlying 
the ,thames1 crops out1 or disappears by

 the stratum coming obliquely to the    
surface4 ,he would see1 however1 another
 bed of clay--the plastic clay--beneath 
this1 which now forms the superficial   
stratum1 and continues to do so1 till he
 gets beyond ,hertford4 ,there this     
stratum crops out2 and the chalk1 which 
for some time he has seen to underlie   
the plastic clay1 now comes to the      
surface4  ,business or pleasure calls   
him to ,bridlington on the ,yorkshire   
coast2 and he determines to make a      
pedestrian tour across the diameter of  
,england to ,whitehaven4 ,he soon       
recognises the chalk1 which constitutes 
the ,wolds1 and rises to about #hjj feet
 above the sea level4 ,below its        
escarpment he traces the ,kimmeridge    
clay1 the uppermost of a series of      
strata more than #b1jjj feet in         
thickness1 that constitute the ,oolitic 
system--including1 among others1 the    
coralline oolite1 the calcareous grit1  
the cornbrash1 thin1 but rich in        
fossils2 the lower sandstone and coal of

 the ,cleveland hills1 the alum shale1  
the marlstone1 and the lower lias shale4
  ,then comes a stratum of the          
saliferous system or the new red        
sandstone1 with the red marls1 perhaps  
not much short of a thousand feet deep4 
,below them the observer finds the      
strata of the magnesian limestone       
formation1 for nearly #djj feet1 resting
 on the great coal formations of vast   
depth4 ,of these the coal field of the  
,west ,riding is not less than #d1jjj   
feet in depth1 and beneath it lie the   
millstone grit1 and the mountain        
limestone1 #b1ejj feet more1 the latter 
displayed in noble grandeur on the faces
 of those wall-like precipices that     
inclose the romantic dales of the ,swale
 and the ,ure1 and that subsequently    
tower in magnificent altitude on the    
sides of ,pennygant and ,ingleborough4  
,illustration3 ,,geological ,,section   
,,of ,,yorkshire4  ,on the western      
escarpment of the ,pennine ridge1 just  
as the traveller is entering            

,westmoreland1 he would detect the      
bottom of the limestone2 and here he    
would have an opportunity of seeing1    
what is rare in these parts1 a stratum  
of the old red sandstone1 lying between 
the former and the slaty rocks of the   
,cumbrian formations4 ,and here at      
length1 in the wild and magnificent     
scenery of these mountains1 he sees the 
primitive and transition series1 the    
greenstone1 the sienite1 and the        
granite1 each of which is discernible in
 succession on the face of one or other 
of the lofty ,fells of ,cumberland4     
,our traveller now comes home1 and1     
musing on what he has seen1 counts up   
some thirty or more distinct strata     
lying in regular succession one on      
another4 ,but he has not seen all the   
world1 nor even all ,england2 but he    
reads the results of many independent   
observations1 and finds that while1 for 
the most part1 the strata which he has  
seen are common to the whole surface of 
the globe1 and while the order of their 

superposition is invariable everywhere1 
others are in some parts added1 while   
perhaps some of those which he has      
observed are locally absent4 ,thus he is
 able to form a more distinct idea of   
the stratification of the earth's crust 
as a whole4 ,it is composed of about    
forty distinct formations1 generally    
increasing in thickness as we go        
downwards1 so that the whole cannot be  
much less than ten miles in depth1      
supposing them in any locality to be all
 present1 and to be lying in the        
horizontal plane4  ,mathematicians have 
satisfactorily determined that the mean 
density of the globe is about           
five-and-a-half times that of water1 or 
about twice that of granite1 a fact     
inconsistent with any other supposition 
than that the interior is occupied by   
substances maintained in a fluid state  
by intense heat4 ,the lowest point that 
has yet been patent to human observation
 is occupied by the granite1 a compound 
rock1 which bears evident marks of      

having been once in a state of fusion1  
and of having cooled slowly1 and that   
under immense pressure1 contracting and 
crystallizing as it parted with its     
heat4 ,there is every reason to believe 
that the granite is not defined at its  
inferior surface1 but that it merges    
into the molten mass1 probably still    
solidifying4  ,after the outer portion  
of the granite had cooled sufficiently  
to become solid1 there is evidence that 
it was covered by water1 agitated by    
powerful currents1 and probably in a    
heated state4 ,the action of these      
currents disintegrated the rock1 and    
deposited the constituent substances at 
the bottom of the sea--on the surface1  
and in the hollows1 of the granite4 ,for
 there is reason to think that the      
contraction of the primitive rock in the
 process of cooling1 produced irregular 
undulations or crumplings of the        
surface1 and frequent fractures and     
dislocations1 elevating some parts and  
depressing others4 ,the gneiss1 the     

mica-schist1 and the clay-slate1 which  
are found immediately overlying the     
granitic rock in strata of vast         
thickness1 are but the components of    
granite1 separated and rearranged4 ,if  
we imagine common granite coarsely      
pounded1 and thrown into a vessel of    
water1 it will arrange itself at the    
bottom of the vessel in a condition very
 much like that of gneiss1 which is     
indeed nothing else than stratified     
granite4 ,if the water in which the     
pounded rock is thrown is moving along  
at a slow rate1 and the clayey portion  
of the granite1 called felspar1 happens 
to be somewhat decomposed1 as it often  
is1 then the felspar 7which is so truly 
clay that it makes the best possible    
material for the use of the potteries7  
and the thin shining plates of mica1    
will be carried further by the water    
than the lumps of white quartz or flint 
sand1 which1 with the other two         
ingredients1 made up the granite2 and   
the two former will be deposited in     

layers1 which1 by passing a galvanic    
current through them1 would in time     
become mica-schist4 ,if the mica were   
absent1 or if the clay were deposited   
without it1 owing to any cause1 then a  
similar galvanic current would turn the 
deposit into something like             
clay-slate4#be  ,the deposition of these
 strata1 being formed out of granite1   
supposes the pre-existence of that rock2
 and as they occur in vast thicknesses1 
even of many thousand feet1 then        
separation1 deposition1 and             
reconsolidation must have occupied1     
however rapidly we may suppose the      
processes to have been accomplished1    
considerable periods of time4  ,in these
 lower rocks1 no trace of organic       
remains has been found4 ,the shoreless  
ocean that covered the cooling surface  
of the earth's crust1 harboured no      
polype or sponge1 no rhizopod or        
infusorium1 and the angles and clefts of
 the granite were fringed by no fucus1  
or conferva3 all was waste and void4    

,and if certain parts were elevated     
above the waters1 the bleak and barren  
points were not clothed with grass1 or  
moss1 or even a lichen1 and no animal   
wandered over their ridges4 ,or1 if such
 did exist1 either in land or water1 all
 vestiges of their presence have been   
destroyed by the agency of the intense  
heat that subsequently prevailed4  ,but1
 in the numerous strata that overlie the
 rocks of granitic origin1 there are    
found1 in varying abundance1 proofs     
that1 when they were deposited1 the     
surface of our earth had become the     
abode of organic life4 ,zoophytes lived 
in the ocean1 some of which were engaged
 in secreting lime from the water1 and  
depositing it in coral-reefs2 stalked   
and jointed ,star-fishes waved like     
lilies of stone from the submerged      
rocks2 ,sea-worms twined over the mud2  
mailed ,crustaceans swam to and fro2 and
 ,mollusks1 both bivalve and univalve1  
crawled over the ledges or reposed in   
the crevices4 ,the remains of these     

occur in the ,silurian rocks that lie   
immediately on the primitive granitic   
formations of ,cumberland and ,north    
,wales4 ,the construction of the        
coral-reefs of that deposit1 in         
particular1 must have occupied a        
lengthened period1 continuing to go on1 
month after month1 year after year1     
century after century1 until at length  
the depth changed1 in which they could  
most conveniently live1 or1 owing to    
some other cause1 their labours were    
brought to a close1 and they disappeared
 from amongst existing species4#bf      
,illustration3 ,a ,,trilobite4          
7,calymene ,blumenbachii47  a4 extended2
 back view4 b4 rolled up2 side view4 c4 
rolled up2 front view4  ,not a single   
species1 or even a single genus of those
 early strata1 is identical with any    
that exists now4 ,the ,coral-polypes1   
for instance1 while allied to ours1 are 
quite distinct from them1 though endowed
 with similar powers and habits1 so that
 we may reason from analogy on the laws 

of their deposits4 ,the ,trilobites were
 allied to the tiny water-fleas         
7,entomostraca7 of the present day3 like
 the ,oniscidae 7wood-lice1 buttons1 c47
 of our gardens1 they had the habit of  
rolling their plated bodies into a ball4
 ,these are found in great numbers1     
their remains often heaped on one       
another4 ,the ,mollusca of those seas   
were chiefly of the class               
,cephalopoda--one of the least populous 
now-a-days1 but then existing in vast   
number and variety2 the ,brachiopoda1   
,conchifera1 and ,gastropoda1 were1     
however1 well represented also4  ,such  
were the inhabitants of the sea during  
the ,silurian period1 in which a series 
of solid deposits were made1 the        
aggregate1 probably1 exceeding #ej1jjj  
feet in thickness4 ,each deposit1 though
 not more than a few inches in depth1 is
 provided with its own written story1   
its sacred memoranda1 assuring us of the
 regularity and order that prevailed1   
and of the perfect uniformity of plan4  

,over all these1 however1 we see laid   
the strata of the ,devonian system1     
especially the old red sandstone1 which 
in some places attains a thickness of   
#aj1jjj feet4 ,it is composed of a      
coarse agglomeration of broken fragments
 of the old granitic rocks1 rolled and  
tossed about1 apparently by the         
ever-breaking waves of shingle-beaches1 
until the hardest stones are worn into  
rounded pebbles by long and constant    
attrition4  ,an examination of the old  
red sandstone1 as is seen in            
,herefordshire1 will aid us in forming a
 notion of the time required for its    
production4 ,it is composed of fragments
 obtained by the disintegration of more 
ancient rocks1 which1 by a long process 
of rolling together in a breaking sea1  
or in the bed of a rapid current1 have  
lost all their angles4 ,the pebbles1    
thus worn1 have at length settled1--the 
heaviest lowest1--and the whole has been
 consolidated into firm rock4 ,in many  
places1 says ,dr4 ,pye ,smith1 the upper

 part of this vast formation is of a    
closer grain1 showing that it was       
produced by the last and finest deposits
 of clayey and sandy mud1 tinged1 as the
 whole is1 with oxides and carbonates of
 iron1 usually red1 but often of other  
hues4 ,but1 frequently1 the lower       
portions1 sometimes dispersed heaps1    
and1 sometimes1 the entire formation1   
consist of vast masses of conglomerate1 
the pebbles being composed of quartz1   
granite1 or some other of the earliest  
kinds2 and thus showing the previous    
rocks1 from whose destruction they have 
been composed4 ,let any person first    
acquire a conception of the extent of   
this formation1 and of its depth1 often 
many hundreds1 and1 sometimes1 two or   
three thousand feet2 7but such a        
conception can scarcely be formed       
without actual inspection27 then let him
 attempt to follow out the processes    
which the clearest evidence of our      
senses shows to have taken place2 and   
let him be reluctant and sceptical to   

the utmost that he can1 he cannot avoid 
the impression that ages innumerable    
must have rolled over the world1 in the 
making of this single formation4#bg     
,here1 ,fishes are added to the         
,invertebrate ,animals4 ,a sort of      
,shark with the mouth terminal1 instead 
of beneath the head1 was the earliest   
representative of this class4 ,but      
closely following on this1 were some    
curious species1 enveloped in plate     
mail1 and remarkable for the singularity
 of their forms1 as the ,cephalaspis and
 the ,pterichthys4  ,illustration3      
,,cephalaspis4  ,this great period      
passed away1 and was succeeded by that  
of the ,carboniferous deposits1         
indicative of a vast change in the      
physical character of the earth's       
surface and atmosphere4 ,this change of 
character may be briefly summed up as   
consisting of an immense abundance of   
lime in the ocean1 and of an equally    
vast charge of carbonic acid in the     
atmosphere4  ,strata of limestone1      

#b1ejj feet in thickness1 were          
accumulated in the ocean by the labours 
of ,coral-polypes1 allied to1 but       
totally distinct from1 those which had  
previously existed in the primary       
system4 ,on the floor of a shallow sea1 
which then occupied the middle of what  
is now ,england1 the coral reefs rose   
perpetually towards the day1 atom by    
atom1 the strata on which they were     
founded slowly and steadily sinking ever
 to a lower level1 while successive     
generations of the industrious zoophytes
 wrought upwards1 to maintain their     
position within reach of the light and  
warmth4 ,what period of time was        
requisite for the aggregation of coral  
structure to the perpendicular thickness
 of #b1ejj feet8  ,while this was going 
on1 other ,invertebrata were living in  
the shallow seas1 mostly differing from 
the older species1 which had become by  
this time extinct4 ,encrinites and      
,sea-urchins existed2 some ,foraminifera
 were astonishingly abundant2 the       

,cephalopoda and the ,brachiopoda       
presented a vast variety of species2 and
 about seventy sorts of ,fishes1 mostly 
,sharks1 characterised the age4  ,on the
 coral limestone lies a sort of         
conglomerate1 known as the millstone    
grit2 and on this is laid that source of
 ,britain's eminence1 the coal4 ,the    
coal measures of ,south ,wales are      
estimated at #ab1jjj feet in thickness4 
,the profusion of vegetable life that   
must have combined to make the coal in  
these1 has no parallel in this age2 no1 
not in the teeming forests of ,south    
,america1 or the great isles of the     
,oriental ,archipelago4 ,the            
circumstances which favoured this       
enormous development of plants1 seem    
never to have been repeated in          
subsequent ages1 since the coal measures
 which are found in the later strata are
 thin and inconsiderable1 compared with 
those we are considering4  ,m4 ,adolphe 
,brogniart suggests that in this period1
 from some source or other1 carbonic    

acid was generated in vast abundance2   
or1 at least1 that it existed in the    
air1 in a far greater proportion than it
 does now2 and it is singularly         
confirmatory of his view1 that          
terrestrial animals1 to which this gas  
is fatal1 have left almost no traces of 
their existence1 during the age of these
 vast forests--a circumstance otherwise 
strange and unaccountable4  ,those      
parts1 says ,mr4 ,ansted1 of the great  
carboniferous series which generally    
include the beds of coral1 consist of   
muddy and sandy beds1 alternating with  
one another1 and with the coal itself4  
,some of them would appear to be of     
fresh-water1 and some of marine origin2 
and they abound1 for the most part1 with
 remains of the leaves of ,ferns and    
fern-like trees1 together with the      
crushed trunks of these and other trees1
 whose substance may have contributed to
 form the great accumulations of        
bituminised and other vegetable carbon  
obtained from these strata4  ,it is not 

easy to communicate such an idea of beds
 of coal as shall enable the reader to  
understand clearly the nature of the    
circumstances under which they may have 
been deposited1 and the time required   
for this purpose4 ,the actual total     
thickness of the different beds in      
,england varies considerably in         
different districts1 but appears to     
amount1 in the ,lancashire coal-field1  
to as much as #aej feet4 ,in ,north     
,america there is a coal-field of vast  
extent1 in which there appears at least 
as great a thickness of workable coal as
 in any part of ,england2 while in      
,belgium and ,france the thickness is   
often much less considerable1 although  
the beds thicken again still further to 
the east4  ,but this account of the     
thickness of the beds gives a very      
imperfect notion of the quantity of     
vegetable matter required to form them2 
and1 on the other hand1 the rate of     
increase of vegetables1 and the quantity
 annually brought down by some great    

rivers1 both of the eastern and western 
continents1 is beyond all measure       
greater than is the case in our drier   
and colder climate4 ,certain kinds of   
trees which contributed largely to the  
formation of the coal1 seem to have been
 almost entirely succulent1 and capable 
of being squeezed into a small compass  
during partial decomposition4 ,this     
squeezing process must have been        
conducted on a grand scale1 both during 
and after the formation of separate     
beds2 and each bed in succession was    
probably soon covered up by muddy and   
sandy accumulations1 now alternating    
with the coal in the form of shale and  
grit-stone4 ,sometimes1 trunks of trees 
caught in the mud would be retained in a
 slanting or nearly vertical position1  
while the sands were accumulating round 
them2 sometimes the whole would be      
quietly buried1 and soon cease to       
exhibit any external marks of vegetable 
origin4#bh  ,to relate the various steps
 in the formation of a bed of coal1 and 

the gradual superposition of one bed    
upon another1 by which at length the    
whole group of the coal-measures was    
completed1 would involve an amount of   
detail little adapted to these pages2   
and when it is remembered that the woody
 fibres1 after being deposited1 had to  
be completely changed1 and the whole    
character of the vegetable modified1    
before it could be reduced to the       
bituminous1 brittle1 almost crystalline 
mineral now dug out of the earth for    
fuel1 it will rather seem questionable  
whether the origin of coal was certainly
 and necessarily vegetable1 than        
reasonable to doubt the importance of   
the change that has taken place1 and the
 existence of extraordinary means to    
produce that change4 ,nothing1 however1 
is more certain than that all coal was  
once vegetable2 for in most cases woody 
structure may be detected under the     
microscope2 and this1 if not in the coal
 in its ordinary state1 at least in the 
burnt ashes which remain after it has   

been exposed to the action of heat1 and 
has lost its bituminous and             
semi-crystalline character4 ,this has   
been too well and too frequently proved 
by actual experiment1 to require more   
than the mere statement of the fact4#bi 
,an eminent practical geologist thus    
essays to guess the age of the          
coal-fields1 and of the sandstone that  
underlies it4  ,the great tract of peat 
near ,stirling has demanded for its     
formation two thousand years2 for its   
registry is preserved by the ,roman     
works below it4 ,it is but a single bed 
of coal4 ,shall we multiply it by #ajj8 
,we shall not exceed1--far from it1--did
 we allow #bjj1jjj years for the        
production of the coal-series of        
,newcastle1 with all its rocky strata4  
,a ,scottish lake does not shoal at the 
rate of half a foot in a century2 and   
that country presents a vertical depth  
of far more than #c1jjj feet in the     
single series of the oldest sandstone4  
,no sound geologist will accuse a       

computer of exceeding1 if he allow      
#fjj1jjj years for the production of    
this series alone4 ,and yet what are the
 coal deposits1 and what the oldest     
sandstone1 compared to the entire mass  
of the strata8#cj  ,the conjecture1 that
 the whole of the vegetable material now
 constituting the coal1 was the growth  
of the antediluvian centuries1 and that 
it was floated away and deposited by the
 flood1 is untenable4 ,in not a few     
instances trunks are found broken1 and  
worn by water-action2 but the great mass
 warrants the conclusion that trees of  
vast dimensions and of close            
array--dense1 majestic forests1 such as 
now occur only in the most humid regions
 of the tropics--were submerged in their
 native abodes1 lying where they fell1  
and where they have left the            
impressions1 side by side1 on the upper 
and under surfaces of the shale1 of     
their delicate peculiarities of         
structure1 which would have been totally
 obliterated1 if the trees had been     

sea-borne and shore-rolled1 as          
pretended4 ,the result of a careful and 
minute examination of the phenomena of  
coal1 by ,mr4 ,binney1 is1 that the     
vegetable matter now forming coal had   
grown in vast marine swamps1 subjected  
to a series of subsidences with long    
intervals of repose2 that the trees1 and
 perhaps smaller plants1 were submerged 
under tranquil water1 in the places of  
their growth2 and that very             
inconsiderable portions1 if any1 of the 
beds1 are owing to drifting4#ca  ,while 
the coal was in process of deposition1  
the sea was occupied with ,invertebrata1
 not widely differing from those which  
had marked the previous eras4  ,fishes1 
however1 were advancing in development2 
and several new and strange forms1 some 
of them of gigantic dimensions and      
formidable armature1 were introduced4   
,these were chiefly remarkable for their
 affinities with ,reptiles 7whence they 
are often called ,sauroid ,fishes72 and 
one of them--,megalichthys--was famished

 with jaws of serried teeth1 surpassing 
those of the crocodile4 ,with these were
 associated other and more ordinary     
,fishes2 and swarms of ,sharks of many  
species1 and varying much in size1 roved
 through the sea1 maintaining the same  
pirate character as their               
representatives of our modern           
seas--fierce1 subtle1 voracious1 and    
powerful4  ,at this time1 too1 appeared 
the earliest ,reptiles1 chiefly of the  
,amphibia sub-class4 ,some of these are 
known only by their foot-prints2 and the
 late ,hugh ,miller has graphically     
described the appearance of some of     
these1 which1 he met with marking the   
roof of a coal-mine1 four hundred feet  
below the surface4 ,these must have been
 ,batrachia of large size1 as the fore  
feet were thirteen inches apart across  
the breast4#cb ,they will be alluded to 
again4  ,with these exceptions1 remains 
of terrestrial animals are1 as has      
already been observed1 rare in this     
formation4     ,,iii4  ,,the ,,witness  

,,for ,,the ,,macro-,,chronology4       
7,,continued47       ,always distrust   
very plain cases3 beware lest a snake   
suddenly start out upon you1 in the     
shape of some concealed      and utterly
 unexpected difficulty4--,,warren3 ,law 
,studies4   ,we have hitherto been      
considering the strata as if they had   
remained permanent when once deposited1 
subject to no change1 save the          
successive superposition of other strata
 upon them4 ,but this is very far from  
being true4 ,enormous displacements1    
upheavings1 contortions1 and fractures1 
are observed in the strata1 which tell  
of mighty forces having been at work    
upon them after their formation4 ,the   
explanation of these phenomena is due to
 the internal heat1 which ever and anon 
seems to concentrate its action on some 
special point1 seeking and finding vent 
for itself by some alteration in the    
already consolidated crust4  ,sometimes1
 the mode of action has been the        
transmission of undulations through the 

crust1 producing earthquakes1 cracking  
and forcing apart strata already        
petrified1 and bending and variously    
contorting those that have but partially
 become solid4 ,sometimes1 the fiery    
impulse is sufficiently concentrated to 
break through the superincumbent        
materials1 forcing a passage for the    
molten and incandescent rock1 which then
 flows forth from the surface1          
penetrates into the cracks and fissures 
of the fractured strata1 and frequently 
spreads into the hollows and over the   
summits of the latest formations4  ,it  
is owing to such causes as these1 that  
we find the rocky layers so often       
inclined at various angles to the       
horizon1 instead of being parallel to   
it1 as they would be of course          
deposited2 occasionally standing quite  
perpendicularly1 and even to a small    
extent reversed4 ,the outcropping of    
formations1 the long lines of cliff     
running across a country in parallel    
series1 7crag and tail17 the dipping of 

strata from some central point or ridge1
 and the non-correspondence between the 
bottom of one stratum and the top of the
 underlying one1--are all phenomena of  
this sort of powerful action1 which has 
been more or less energetic at all      
periods4  ,after the deposit of the ,old
 ,red ,sandstone1 the internal fire     
appears to have enjoyed a lull of its   
energy1 if not a complete cessation1    
until the ,coal ,measures were complete4
 ,then the long tranquility was again   
broken1 and concussions so extensive and
 violent ensued1 that hardly a single   
square mile of country can anywhere be  
found which is not full of fractured and
 contorted strata1 the record of        
subterranean movements1 which mostly    
occurred between the ,carboniferous and 
the ,premian deposits4  ,the effects of 
these convulsions were manifest in the  
changed relations of land and sea1      
existing continents and islands being   
dislocated1 severed1 and swallowed up1  
while others were elevated from the     

depths of the previous ocean4  ,it was  
from the wave-worn materials thus       
obtained from pre-existing strata1 that 
the ,new ,red ,sandstone was            
consolidated4 ,it consists chiefly of   
sand and mud1 with few organic remains2 
and the hiatus thus found1 in animals   
and vegetables1 seems to be almost a    
complete one between the organisms of   
the preceding and the succeeding        
periods4  ,the most interesting traces  
of the earth's tenants during the ,new  
,red formation1 consist of foot-tracks  
impressed by the progress of animals    
along the yielding mud between the      
ranges of high and low tide4 ,they      
afford a remarkable example 7not1 ,i    
think1 sufficiently dwelt on7 of the    
extreme rapidity with which deposits    
were consolidated2 since the tracks must
 have been made1 and the material       
consolidated1 during the few hours1 at  
most1 that intervened between the recess
 and the reflux of the tide2 since1 if  
the mud had not so soon become solid1   

the flow of the sea would have instantly
 obliterated such marks1 as it does now 
on our shores4  ,illustration3          
,,labyrinthodon ,,pachygnathus4  ,the   
principal animal1 whose foot-prints have
 been identified1 was an enormous ,frog 
7,labyrinthodon71 as big as a           
hippopotamus1 but apparently allied1 in 
its serried teeth1 and in the bony      
plates with which it was covered1 to the
 ,crocodiles1 which were its associates4
  ,it is curious that marks in the same 
material have chronicled the serpentine 
trail of a ,sea-worm1 the scratchings of
 a ,crab1 the ripple of the wavelets1   
and even the drops of a passing shower2 
the last revealing1 by their margins1   
the direction of the wind by which the  
slanting rain was driven4  ,if the      
,triassic formations display but little 
evidence of organic existence1 the lack 
is supplied by the abundance of such    
records1 which is contained in the      
,oolitic system1 and specially in its   
lowest component1--the ,lias4 ,animals  

now existed in profusion1 but of species
 which were for the most part peculiar4 
,the coral-making ,polypes existed not  
7or very rarely7 in the seas of that    
age1 but lime was secreted by an unusual
 number of ,crinoid ,echinoderms1 which 
seem to have fringed the rocks and      
floating pieces of timber1 much as      
,barnacles do now4  ,among the ,mollusca
 now began to appear the inhabitants of 
those very elegant shells1 the          
,ammonites1 allied to the ,nautilus of  
our ,southern seas1 which may be        
considered as the lingering             
representative of those swarms of       
shelled ,cephalopoda4 ,they were        
accompanied by their near relations1 the
 ,belemnites1 more resembling a ,cuttle1
 with a long internal1 pointed shell4   
,fishes1 chiefly belonging to a         
curiously armed tribe of ,sharks1       
together with some enclosed in bony-mail
 like pavement1 were present in the     
shallows1 where the ,lias was probably  
deposited4  ,illustration3              

,,snake-,,necked ,,marine ,,lizards4    
,plesiosaurus dolichodeirus and ,p4     
macrocephalus4  ,but the most           
characteristic animals were great marine
 ,reptiles1 of strange and uncouth      
forms1 to which the present world       
presents us no known analogy4 ,one of   
these was the ,ichthyosaurus1 which     
closely resembled a porpoise in form1   
but thirty or forty feet in length1 with
 a vertical fish-like tail1 and two     
pairs of paddles2 a mouth set with stout
 crocodilian teeth1 and enormous eyes4  
,another form was that of the           
,plesiosaurus1 scarcely less in size    
than its fellow1 which in the outline of
 its body it resembled3 it was          
distinguished1 however1 by an           
extraordinary length of neck1 slender   
and swan-like1 consisting of thirty or  
forty vertebrae4  ,it adds to the       
interest of these great marine          
,reptiles1 that around their fossil     
skeletons are preserved pellets of      
excrement 7known as ,coprolites7        

containing fragments of bone1 teeth1 and
 scales of fishes1 which clearly reveal 
the nature of their food4 ,in some      
instances1 the stomach and intestines of
 these great carnivorous creatures1     
filled with half-digested food1 have    
left indubitable traces of their        
presence in situ4  ,again1 the geography
 of the ,globe changed4 ,new lands arose
 from the sea1 and old lands partially  
or wholly sank4 ,the ,german ,ocean1 and
 part of ,western ,europe1 of our maps1 
were a great group of islands4 ,the     
,oolitic formation was deposited4 ,the  
general character of the organization of
 this period differed little from that  
of the ,lias4 ,new forms of plants1 such
 as ,cycadeae1 were abundant1 with1     
considerable numbers of ,corals1        
,encrinites1 ,sea-urchins and ,mollusks4
 ,macrurous ,crustacea1 much like those 
of our times 7but essentially different 
in species71 inhabited the sea1 and some
 ,beetles and ,flies represented the    
,insects of the land4 ,the ,fishes and  

,marine ,reptiles were pretty much the  
same with those of the ,lias1 though    
they received some important additions4 
,illustration3 ,,megalosaurus           
,,bucklandi4  ,it is1 however1 among the
 terrestrial ,vertebrata that we must   
look for the characteristic organisms of
 this age4 ,and these are1 still1       
,reptiles4 ,the huge ,megalosaurus1 with
 a body as big as an elephant's1 stood  
high on his legs1 and stretched open a  
pair of gaping jaws1 set with jagged    
teeth4 ,the ,pterodactyles flew         
about1--carnivorous lizards1 with the   
body and wings of bats1#cc except that  
the membrane was stretched upon the     
enormously developed little             
finger2--creatures1 perhaps1 the most   
unlike to anything familiar to us1 of   
all fossil forms4 ,and1 in the marshy   
margins of the great river valley which 
formed the ,wealden of our              
,south-eastern districts1 the giant     
,iguanodon1 and his fellow1 the         
,hylaeosaurus1 waged their peaceful     

warfare on the succulent plants that    
became their unresisting prey4          
,illustration3 ,,bat-,,lizards4         
,pterodactylus crassirostris1 and ,p4   
brevirostris4  ,illustration3           
,,hylaeosaurus ,,armatus4  ,the circle  
of animal life was completed in this    
epoch1 thus far1 that every class was   
represented by some one or more of its  
constituent species4 ,no fossil         
skeletons of ,birds have1 indeed1 been  
found so low as the ,oolite1 but        
numerous foot-prints of some of the     
,grallatores are found in a sandstone of
 this period2 and in the ,stonesfield   
slate1 which is contemporary with it1 a 
genus of ,mammalia has been             
discovered1--a small ,marsupial1 allied 
to the ,opossums of ,america4  ,the     
duration of the ,oolitic period must    
have been considerable4 ,the lias       
sea-bottom was succeeded first by a     
sandy1 and then by a calcareous deposit1
 and the animals were modified          
accordingly4 ,the deposit of carbonate  

of lime1 which took place under         
circumstances that caused it to attract 
around its nodules the organic          
particles1 whence the name oolite       
7egg-stone7 is derived1 was not         
continuous1 but repeated at intervals4  
,the shells of ,mollusks were developed 
in great abundance1 and accumulations of
 these formed thick bands1 which        
consolidated into layers of             
shell-limestone4 ,three hundred feet of 
strata1 largely composed of organic     
remains1 were formed before the clay was
 deposited which made the ,stonesfield  
and contemporaneous slates4  ,once more 
the dry land sank1 probably by slow     
successive subsidences1 and the sea     
flowed many fathoms deep above the great
 ,european archipelago4 ,and upon its   
quiet bottom settled down1 first a few  
sandy and clayey beds1 and then the     
great layer of the ,chalk4  ,creatures  
of very minute size and low grades of   
organization were now playing a very    
important part4 ,a large portion of the 

lime that was deposited1 in the form of 
a pure carbonate1 was doubtless supplied
 by the ,coral structures1 which1 were  
exceedingly numerous2 the polypidoms    
being gnawed down by strong-jawed fishes
 that fed upon the ,zoophytes4          
,foraminifera also were abundant1 and   
contributed to the supply4  ,nodules of 
flint exist in the ,chalk1 sometimes    
scattered1 sometimes arranged in bands4 
,two sources are indicated for this     
substance4 ,one is ,sponge1 the most    
common kinds of which are composed of   
skeletons of siliceous spicula2 and     
these can be discerned with the         
microscope in the interior of the       
chalk-flints4 ,but millions upon        
millions of ,infusoria swam through the 
waters1 and many of these were encased  
in siliceous loricae1 while the rocks   
and sea-weeds were fringed with as      
incalculably numerous examples of       
siliceous ,diatomaceae1 whose elegant   
forms are recognisable without          
difficulty throughout the ,chalk4 ,the  

inconceivable abundance of these forms  
may be illustrated by the often-cited   
fact1 that whole strata of solid rock   
appear to be so exclusively composed of 
their solid remains1 that a cube of     
one-tenth of an inch is computed by     
,ehrenberg to contain five hundred      
millions of individuals4  ,the increase 
of these organisms is very rapid1 and   
their duration proportionately short2   
but allowing for this1 what period would
 elapse before the successive           
generations of entities1 of which       
forty-one thousand millions are required
 to make a cubic inch1 would have       
accumulated into solid strata fourteen  
feet in thickness8  ,without pausing to 
examine the whole ,cretaceous fauna1 we 
may observe that the ,mollusca with     
chambered shells--the ,ammonites and    
their allies--were developed in singular
 variety and profusion during this      
period1 after which they suddenly       
disappeared from the ocean4 ,the ,fishes
 present little that is remarkable2 of  

,birds1 few1 and of ,mammals1 no remains
 exist2 and the ,reptiles1 while not    
absolutely extinct1 are few and rare4   
,one great marine form1 however1 the    
,mosasaurus1 was added to their number4 
,at length the sea ceased to deposit    
chalk1 and its bed appears to have been 
slowly elevated1 until all the animals  
that had inhabited the waters of that   
formation were destroyed2 so that their 
race and generation perished4#cd ,the   
grand epoch of ,secondary ,formations   
was closed4  ,it was followed by an     
extensive disruption of the then        
existing strata1 and by changes and     
modifications so great as to alter the  
whole face of nature4 ,it would appear  
that a long period of time elapsed      
before newer beds were thrown down1     
since the chalky mud not only had time  
to harden into chalk1 but the surface of
 the chalk itself was much rubbed and   
worn4 ,during this protracted period1   
eruptions of molten rock occurred of    
enormous extent1 producing the ,basaltic

 formation which covers the ,chalk in   
the north of ,ireland1 and in some of   
the ,hebrides4 ,in the south of ,europe 
the ,pyrenees were elevated1 and the    
,apennines and ,carpathians were pushed 
to a greater altitude than before1 if   
they were not then formed4 ,the ,alps   
and the ,caucasus also experienced a    
series of upward movements1 continuing  
through a considerable range of the     
,tertiary epoch4  ,the rich collections 
of vegetable remains--chiefly fruits and
 seeds--that have been made from the    
,london ,clay1 show that the earliest   
land of this period was clothed with a  
great abundance and variety of plants2  
and these are of such alliances as would
 now require a tropical climate4 ,many  
species of ,palms1 ,screw-pines1        
,gourds1 ,piperaceae1 ,mimoseae1 and    
other ,leguminosae1 ,malvaceae1 and     
,coniferae1 dropped their woody pods and
 fruits where now these pages are       
written2 and the animals manifest no    
less interesting an approximation to    

existing forms than the plants4 ,the    
,zoophytes1 the ,echinoderms1 the       
,foraminifera1 the ,worms1 the          
,crustacea1 the ,mollusca1 the ,fishes  
and the ,reptiles of the ,eocene beds1  
exhibit a great preponderance of        
agreement with those that now exist1 so 
far as genus is concerned1 though the   
species are still almost wholly         
distinct4 ,the approximation is         
particularly marked in the ,molluscous  
sub-kingdom1 by the almost entire       
disappearance of the hitherto swarming  
,brachiopod and ,cephalopod forms1 and  
the progressive substitution for them of
 the ,conchifera and ,gastropoda1 which 
had1 however1 throughout the ,secondary 
epoch1 been gradually coming forward to 
their present predominance in nature4   
,among the ,fishes1 the ,placoid type   
was diminished in number2 and those that
 were produced were mostly ,sharks and  
,rays1 of modern genera2 but the chief  
difference was the paucity of those     
mailed forms 7,ganoids71 which were so  

abundant during the ,oolitic period4 ,on
 the other hand1 the ,ctenoid and       
,cycloid forms1 which had begun to make 
their appearance in small numbers in the
 ,chalk1 are well represented4 ,in both 
this deficiency and this plenitude1     
there is a very decided approach to     
existing conditions2 for the ,ganoids   
are almost unknown with us1 while the   
last-named two orders are abundant4     
,representatives of our ,perches1       
,maigres1 ,mackerels1 ,blennies1        
,herrings1 and ,cods1 were numerous2    
distinct1 however1 from the present     
species4 ,but not a single member of the
 great ,salmon family was yet           
introduced4  ,the great ,saurian        
,reptiles had entirely disappeared1 and 
were quite unrepresented in the tertiary
 beds1 except by a ,crocodile or two1   
and a small ,lizard4 ,turtles were1     
however1 numerous1 both of the marine   
and lacustrine kinds2 and there is an   
interesting stranger1 in the form of a  
large ,serpent1 allied to our ,pythons1 

some twenty feet in length4  ,birds and 
,mammals began now to assume their place
 on the land4 ,the ,london ,clay        
presents us with a little ,vulture2 and 
the ,paris basin contains remnants of   
species representing the ,raptores1 the 
,rasores1 the ,grallatores1 and the     
,natatores4  ,the ,quadrupeds came in in
 some force2 not developed from the     
lowest to the highest scale of          
organization2 for the ,monkey and the   
,bat occur in sands1 certainly not      
later1 if not earlier1 than the ,london 
,clay1 contemporaneously with the       
,racoon1 and before the existence of any
 ,rodent or ,cetacean4 ,some ,carnivora1
 as the ,wolf and the ,fox1 roamed the  
woods1 but the character of the epoch   
was given by the ,pachyderms4  ,these1  
however1 were not the massive colossi   
that browse in the ,african or ,indian  
jungles of our days2 no ,elephant1 no   
,rhinoceros1 no ,hippopotamus was as yet
 formed4 ,but several kinds of ,tapir   
wallowed in the morasses2 and a goodly  

number of largish beasts1 whose         
affinities were with the ,pachydermata1 
while their analogies were with the     
,ruminantia1 served as substitutes for  
the latter order1 which was wholly      
wanting4 ,these interesting quadrupeds1 
forming the genus ,anoplotherium1 were  
remarkable for two peculiarities1--their
 feet were two-toed1 and their teeth    
were ranged in a continuous series1     
without any interval between the        
incisors and the molars4 ,they varied in
 size from that of an ass to that of a  
hare4  ,the physical conditions of our  
earth1 when it was tenanted by these    
creatures1 is thus described3--,all the 
great plains of ,europe1 and the        
districts through which the principal   
rivers now run1 were then submerged2 in 
all probability1 the land chiefly       
extended in a westerly direction1 far   
out into the ,atlantic1 possibly        
trending to the south1 and connecting   
the western shores of ,england with the 
volcanic islands off the west coast of  

,africa4 ,the great mountain chains of  
,europe1 the ,pyrenees1 the ,alps1 the  
,apennines1 the mountains of ,greece1   
the mountains of ,bohemia1 and the      
,carpathians1 existed then only as      
chains of islands in an open sea4       
,elevatory movements1 having an east and
 west direction1 had1 however1 already  
commenced1 and were producing important 
results1 laying bare the ,wealden       
district in the south-east of ,england4 
,the southern and central ,european     
district1 and parts of western ,asia1   
were the recipients of calcareous       
deposits 7chiefly the skeletons of      
,foraminifera71 forming the ,apennine   
limestone2 while numerous islands were  
gradually lifted above the sea1 and     
fragments of disturbed and fractured    
rock were washed upon the neighbouring  
shallows or coast-lines1 forming beds of
 gravel covering the ,chalk4 ,the beds  
of ,nummulites and ,miliolites1         
contemporaneous with those containing   
the ,sheppey plants and the ,paris      

quadrupeds1 seem to indicate a deep sea 
at no great distance from shore1 and    
render it probable that there were      
frequent alternations of elevation and  
depression1 perhaps the result of       
disturbances acting in the direction    
already alluded to4  ,the shores of the 
islands and main land were1 however1    
occasionally low and swampy1 rivers     
bringing down mud in what is now the    
south-east of ,england1 and the         
neighbourhood of ,brussels1 but         
depositing extensive calcareous beds    
near ,paris4 ,deep inlets of the sea1   
estuaries1 and the shifting mouths of a 
river1 were also affected by numerous   
alterations of level not sufficient to  
destroy1 but powerful enough to modify1 
the animal and vegetable species then   
existing2 and these movements were      
continued for a long time4#ce  ,after   
the elevation of the mountain summits of
 ,europe above the sea1 and while the   
same causes were still in operation1    
deposits were being made in the narrow  

intervening seas of the ,archipelago1   
such as the present south of ,france1   
the valleys of the ,rhine and ,danube1  
the eastern districts of ,england and   
,portugal4 ,these deposits were partly  
marine and partly lacustrine2 the former
 consisting largely of loose sands1     
mingled with shells and gravel4 ,in     
,switzerland is a thick mass of         
conglomerate2 and in the district around
 ,mayence1 there is a series of         
fresh-water limestones1 and sandstones  
charged with organic remains4  ,the     
changes which took place during this    
comparatively recent epoch were not     
sudden1 but gradual2 the results of     
operations which were probably going on 
without intermission1 and perhaps have  
not yet ceased4 ,the land was more and  
more upheaved1 till at length1 what had 
been an archipelago of islands became a 
continent1 and ,europe assumed the form 
which it bears on our maps4  ,the most  
interesting addition to the natural     
history of the ,miocene1 or ,middle     

,tertiary period1 was the               
,dinotherium--a huge ,pachyderm1 twice  
as large as an elephant1 with a         
tapir-like proboscis1 and two great     
tusks curving downward from the lower   
jaw4 ,it was1 doubtless1 aquatic in its 
habits1 and possibly 7for its hinder    
parts are not known71 it may have been  
allied to the ,dugong and ,manatee1     
those whale-like ,pachyderms1 with a    
broad horizontal tail1 instead of       
posterior limbs4  ,other great          
herbivorous beasts roamed over the      
new-made land4 ,the ,mastodons1 closely 
allied to the ,elephant1 had their      
head-quarters in ,north ,america1 but   
extended also to ,europe4 ,and the      
,elephants themselves1 of several       
species1 were spread over the northern  
hemisphere1 even to the polar regions4  
,the ,hippopotamus1 the ,rhinoceros1 and
 other creatures1 now exclusively       
tropical1 were also inhabitants of the  
same northern latitudes4  ,illustration3
 ,,mammoth4  ,from some specimens of    

,elephants and ,rhinoceroses of this    
period1 which seem to have been buried  
in avalanches1 and thus to have been    
preserved from decomposition1 even of   
the more transitory parts1 as muscle and
 skin1 we learn something of the climate
 that prevailed4 ,the very fact of their
 preservation1 by the antiseptic power  
of frost1 shows that it was not a       
tropical climate in which they lived2   
and the clothing of thick wool1 fur1 and
 hair1 which protected the skin of the  
,mammoth1 or ,siberian ,elephant1 tends 
to the same conclusion4 ,at the same    
time1 those regions were not so         
intensely cold as they are now4 ,for the
 district in which the remains of       
,elephants and their associates are     
found1 in almost incredible abundance1  
is that inhospitable coast of northern  
,asia which bounds the ,polar ,sea4     
,the trees of a temperate climate--the  
oak1 the beech1 the maple1 the poplar1  
and the birch--which now attain their   
highest limit somewhere about #gj deg4  

of north latitude1 and there are dwarfed
 to minute shrubs1 appear then to have  
grown at the very verge of the polar    
basin2 and that in the condition of vast
 and luxuriant forests1 perhaps         
occupying sheltered valleys between     
mountains whose steep sides were covered
 with snow1 already become perennial1   
and ever and anon rolling down in       
overwhelming avalanches1 such as those  
which now occasionally descend into the 
valleys of the ,swiss ,alps4  ,the coast
 of ,suffolk displays a formation known 
as the ,crag--a local name for          
gravel--which rests partly on the chalk2
 but1 as it lies in other parts over the
 ,london ,clay1 it is assigned to the   
later ,tertiary1 or what is called the  
,pleiocene period4 ,it is divided into  
the coralline and the red crag1 the     
latter being uppermost where they exist 
together1 and therefore being the more  
recent4 ,the ,coralline ,crag is nearly 
composed of corals and shells1 the      
former almost wholly extinct now2 but   

the latter containing upwards of seventy
 species still existing in the adjacent 
seas4 ,the ,red ,crag contains few      
zoophytes1 but is remarkable for the    
remains of at least five species of     
,whales4 ,other ,mammalia occur in this 
formation1 among which are the red deer 
and the wild boar of modern ,europe4    
,the gradual but rapid approximation of 
the ,tertiary fauna to that of the      
present surface is well indicated by    
,mr4 ,lyell's table 7#ahda7 of recent   
and fossil species in the ,english      
formations3--                           
,per-centage   ,no4 of ,periods4        
,localities4                  of        
fossils                                 
recent4    compared4  ,eocene           
,london and ,hampshire         #a or    
#b       #djj ,miocene          ,red and
 ,coralline           #bj to  #cj       
#dej                    ,crag1 ,suffolk 
,older ,pleiocene  ,mamaliferous or     
,norwich     #fj to  #gj       #aaa     
,crag                    ,newer         

,pleiocene  ,marine strata near         
#he to  #ij       #afj                  
,glasgow                 ,post          
,pleiocene   ,fresh-water of the valley 
#ii to #ajj        #dj                  
of the ,thames            ,it is to this
 period that are assigned the animals   
whose bones are found in astonishing    
numbers in limestone caverns1 as1 for   
example1 that notable one at ,kirkdale1 
in ,yorkshire1 which was examined by    
,professor ,buckland4  ,this is a cave  
in the ,oolitic limestone1 with a nearly
 level floor1 which was covered with a  
deposit of mud1 on which an irregular   
layer of sparry stalagmite had formed by
 the dripping of water from the low     
roof1 carrying lime in solution4        
,beneath this crust the remains were    
found4  ,of the animals to which the    
bones belonged1 six were ,carnivora1    
viz4 hyaena1 felis1 bear1 wolf1 fox1    
weasel2 four ,pachydermata1 viz4        
elephant1 rhinoceros1 hippopotamus1     
horse2 four ,ruminantia1 viz4 ox1 and   

three species of deer2 four ,rodentia1  
viz4 hare1 rabbit1 water-rat1 mouse2    
five ,birds1 viz4 raven1 pigeon1 lark1  
duck1 snipe4  ,the bones were almost    
universally broken2 the fragments       
exhibited no marks of rolling in the    
water1 but a few were corroded2 some    
were worn and polished on the convex    
surface2 many indented1 as by the canine
 teeth of carnivorous animals4 ,in the  
cave the peculiar excrement of hyaenas  
7album graecum7 was common2 the remains 
of these predacious beasts were the most
 abundant of all the bones2 their teeth 
were found in every condition1 from the 
milk-tooth to the old worn stump2 and   
from the whole evidence ,dr4 ,buckland  
adopted the conclusion1 in which almost 
every subsequent writer has acquiesced1 
that ,kirkdale ,cave was a den of       
hyaenas during the period when elephants
 and hippopotami 7not of existing       
species7 lived in the northern regions  
of the globe1 and that they dragged into
 it for food the bodies of animals which

 frequented the vicinity4#cf  ,thus in  
these spots we find1 observes ,professor
 ,ansted1 written in no obscure         
language1 a portion of the early history
 of our island after it had acquired its
 present form1 while it was clothed with
 vegetation1 and when its plains and    
forests were peopled by many of the     
species which still exist there2 but    
when there also dwelt upon it large     
carnivorous animals1 prowling about the 
forests by night1 and retiring by day to
 these natural dens4  ,in our own       
country1 and in many other parts of the 
world1 we find fragments of stone       
distributed over the surface1 sometimes 
in the form of enormous blocks1 bearing 
in their fresh angles evidence that they
 have been little disturbed since their 
disruption1 but sometimes much rubbed   
and worn1 and broken into smaller       
pieces1 till they form what is known as 
gravel4 ,in many cases the original rock
 from which these masses have been      
separated does not exist in the vicinity

 of their locality2 and it is not till  
we reach a distance1 often of hundreds  
of miles1 that we find the formation of 
which they are a component part4        
,various causes have been suggested for 
the transport of these erratic blocks1  
of which the most satisfactory is the   
agency of ice1 either as slow-moving    
glaciers1 or as oceanic icebergs4  ,the 
common form of a glacier1 says          
,professor ,j4 ,forbes1 is a river of   
ice filling a valley1 and pouring down  
its mass into other valleys yet lower4  
,it is not a frozen ocean1 but a frozen 
torrent4 ,its origin or fountain is in  
the ramifications of the higher valleys 
and gorges1 which descend amongst the   
mountains perpetually snow-clad4 ,but   
what gives to a glacier its most        
peculiar and characteristic feature is1 
that it does not belong exclusively or  
necessarily to the snowy region already 
mentioned4 ,the snow disappears from its
 surface in summer as regularly as from 
that of the rocks which sustain its     

mass4 ,it is the prolongation or outlet 
of the winter-world above2 its gelid    
mass is protruded into the midst of warm
 and pine-clad slopes and green-sward1  
and sometimes reaches even to the       
borders of cultivation4#cg  ,the glacier
 moves onward with a slow but steady    
march towards the mouth of its valley4  
,its lowest stratum carries with it     
numerous fragments of rock1 which1      
pressed by the weight of the mighty     
mass1 scratch and indent the surfaces   
over which they move1 and sometimes     
polish them4 ,these marks are seen on   
many rock-surfaces now exposed1 and they
 are difficult to explain on any other  
hypothesis than that of glacial action4 
,but the alternate influence of summer  
and winter--the percolation of rain into
 the mountain fissures1 and the         
expansion of freezing--dislodge great   
angular fragments of rock1 which fall on
 the glacier beneath4 ,slowly but surely
 these then ride away towards the mouth 
of the valley1 till they reach a point  

where the warmth of the climate does not
 permit the ice to proceed2 the blocks  
then are deposited as the mass melts4   
,but if the climate itself were         
elevated1 or if the surface were lowered
 so as to immerse the glacier in the    
sea1 it would melt throughout its       
course1 and then the blocks would be    
found arranged in long lines or         
moraines1 such as we see now in many    
places4  ,if the glacier-valley debouch 
on the sea1 the ice gradually projects  
more and more1 until the motions of the 
waves break off a great mass1 which     
floats away1 carrying on its surface the
 accumulation of boulders1 gravel1 and  
other debris which it had acquired      
during its formation4 ,it is now an     
iceberg1 which1 carried by the southern 
currents1 approaches a warmer climate1  
melts1 and deposits its cargo1 perhaps  
hundreds of leagues from the valley     
where it was shipped1 and as fresh as   
when its component frusta were detached 
from the primitive rock4  ,if the       

abundance of such erratic blocks and    
foreign gravel seem to require a greater
 amount of glacial action than is now   
extant1 it has been suggested that the  
volcanic energy which elevated ,europe  
may have been succeeded by a measure of 
subsidence before the land attained its 
present permanent condition4 ,hence     
there may have been1 during the         
,tertiary epoch1 mountain chains of     
great elevation1 sufficient to supply   
the glaciers1 which1 on their           
subsidence1 melted on the spot where    
they were submerged1 or floated away as 
icebergs on the pelagic currents1 till  
they grounded on the bays and inlets of 
other shores1 which were subsequently   
elevated again4  ,thus a large portion  
of the animals which then inhabited     
these islands 7up to that time1 perhaps1
 united to the continent7 would be      
drowned1 and many species quite         
obliterated1 a few alone remaining to   
connect our present fauna with that of  
the submerged area1 when the land rose  

again to its existent state4  ,it would 
not materially augment the force of the 
evidence already adduced on the question
 of chronology1 to examine in detail the
 fossil remains of ,south ,america1     
,australia1 and ,new ,zealand4 ,the     
gigantic ,sloths#ch of the first1 the   
gigantic ,marsupials of the second1 and 
the gigantic ,birds of the third1       
however interesting individually1 and   
especially as showing that a prevailing 
type governed the fauna in each locality
 then as now--are all formations of the 
,tertiary period1 and some of them1 at  
least1 seem to have run on even into the
 present epoch4 ,indeed1 it is not quite
 certain that the enormous birds of ,new
 ,zealand and ,madagascar are even yet  
extinct4  ,the phenomenon of raised     
sea-beaches is one of great interest1   
and seems to be connected with the      
alternate elevations and depressions of 
the ,tertiary epoch1 perhaps marking the
 successive steps of the upheaval of the
 land4 ,in several parts of ,england the

 coast-line exhibits one or more shelves
 parallel with the existing sea-beach1  
and covered with similar shingle1 sand1 
and sea-shells4 ,and the same phenomenon
 is exhibited on a still more gigantic  
scale in ,south ,america4 ,mr4          
,darwin#ci found that for a distance of 
at least #a1bjj miles from the ,rio de  
la ,plata to the ,straits of ,magellan  
on the eastern side1 and for a still    
longer distance on the west1 the        
coast-line and the interior have been   
raised to a height of not less than #ajj
 feet in the northern part1 but as much 
as #djj feet in ,patagonia4 ,all this   
change has taken place within a         
comparatively short period2 for in      
,valparaiso1 where the effect is most   
considerable1 modern marine deposits1   
with human remains1 are seen at the     
height of #a1cjj feet above the sea4    
,at what exact point1 geologically1 the 
period of human history begins1 it is   
impossible to say4 ,no evidence of      
,man's presence has occurred older than 

the latest ,tertiary deposits1 which    
insensibly merge into the ,alluvial4 ,it
 seems certain that human remains have  
been found in chronological association 
with those of animals long extinct1 and 
there appears no reason to doubt that   
some species of animals1 as the ,irish  
,deer1 the ,moa of ,new ,zealand1 and   
the ,dodo of the ,mauritius1 have       
disappeared from creation within a      
period of a few centuries4#dj ,it is not
 improbable that the last of the ,moho  
race may have lived only long enough to 
grace the pages of the ,birds of        
,australia4  ,illustration3 ,,the       
,,moho4  ,it is as important as it is   
interesting1 to observe that the same   
kinds of physical operations have been1 
within the present epoch1 and are still1
 going on1 as those whose results are   
chronicled in the rocks4 ,strata of     
alluvium are constantly being formed on 
a scale which1 though it does not       
suddenly affect the outline of coasts1  
and therefore appears small1 yet is     

great in reality4  ,the ,ganges is      
estimated to pour into the ,indian      
,ocean nearly #f1djj millions of tons of
 mud every year2 and its delta is a     
triangle whose sides are two hundred    
miles long4 ,the delta of the           
,mississippi is of about the same size1 
and it advances steadily into the ,gulf 
of ,mexico at the rate of a mile in a   
century4  ,the accumulation of river-mud
 is gradually filling up the ,adriatic  
,sea4 ,from the northernmost point of   
the ,gulf of ,trieste to the south of   
,ravenna1 there is an uninterrupted     
series of recent accessions of land1    
more than a hundred miles in length1    
which1 within the last twenty centuries1
 have increased from two to twenty miles
 in breadth4  ,the coral-polypes are    
working still with great energy4 ,mr4   
,darwin mentions two or three examples  
of the rate of increase1 one of which   
only ,i shall cite4 ,in the lagoon of   
,keeling ,atoll1 a channel was dug for  
the passage of a schooner built upon the

 island1 through the reef into the sea2 
in ten years afterward1 when it was     
examined1 it was found almost choked up 
with living coral4  ,volcanic action is 
busy in many parts of the earth1 pouring
 forth clouds of ashes and torrents of  
molten rock2 and instances are not      
wanting in which new islands have been  
raised from the bed of the ocean by this
 means1 within the sphere of history4   
,slow and permanent changes of level are
 still being produced on the earth's    
crust4 ,the bottom of the ,baltic has   
been1 for several centuries at least1 in
 process of continuous elevation1 the   
effects of which are palpable4 ,many    
rocks formerly covered are now          
permanently exposed2 channels between   
islets1 formerly used1 are now closed   
up1 and beds of marine shells have      
become bare4 ,on the other hand1 the    
whole area of the ,pacific ,polynesia   
seems subsiding4  ,deposits are being   
made by waters which hold earthy        
substances in solution4 ,the principal  

of these is lime4 ,several remarkable   
examples of this kind are quoted by ,sir
 ,charles ,lyell1 in one of which there 
is a thickness of #bjj or #cjj feet of  
travertine of recent deposit1 while in  
another a solid mass thirty feet thick  
was deposited in about twenty years4 ,he
 also states that there are other       
countless places in ,italy where the    
constant formation of limestone may be  
seen1 while the same may be said of     
,auvergne and other volcanic districts4 
,in the ,azores1 ,iceland1 and          
elsewhere1 silica is deposited often to 
a considerable extent4 ,deposits of     
asphalt and other bituminous products   
occur in other places4#da  ,the floors  
of limestone caverns are frequently     
strewn with fossil bones1 which are     
imbedded in stalagmite1 and this        
incrustation is still in progress of    
formation4 ,it is remarkable that in    
this deposit alone we obtain the bones  
of ,man in a fossil condition4 ,the two 
creations1--the extinct and the         

extant1--or rather the prochronic and   
the diachronic--here unite4 ,but there  
is no line of demarcation between them2 
they merge insensibly into each other4  
,the bones of ,man1 and even his        
implements and fragments of pottery1 are
 found mingled with the skeletons of    
extinct animals in the caves of         
,devonshire1 in those of ,brazil1#db and
 in those of ,franconia4 ,in ,peru1 some
 scores of human skeletons have been    
found in a bed of travertine1 associated
 with marine shells2 the stratum itself 
being covered by a deep layer of        
vegetable soil1 forming the face of a   
hill crowned with large trees4  ,from a 
very interesting paper by ,m4 ,marcel de
 ,serres1 it appears indubitable that   
the existing shells of the              
,mediterranean are even now passing in  
numbers into the fossil state1 and that 
not in quiet spots only1 but where the  
sea is subject to violent agitations4   
,specimens of common species1 completely
 petrified1 have been converted into    

carbonate of lime at the same time that 
they have lost the animal matter which  
they originally contained4 ,their       
hardness and solidity are greater than  
those of some petrified species from    
tertiary formations4  ,in the collection
 of ,m4 ,doumet1 ,mayor of ,cette1 there
 exists an anchor which exhibits the    
same circumstances1 and which is also   
covered with a layer of solid calcareous
 matter4 ,this contains specimens of    
,pecten1 ,cardium1 and ,ostrea1         
completely petrified1 and the hardness  
of which is equal to that of fossil     
species from secondary formations4 ,on  
the surface of the deposit in which the 
anchor is imbedded1 there are ,anomiae  
and ,serpulae1 which were living when   
the anchor was got out of the sea2 these
 present no trace of alteration4#dc     
,thus we have brought down the record to
 an era embraced by human history1 and  
even to individual experience2 and we   
confidently ask1 ,is it possible1 is it 
imaginable1 that the whole of the       

phenomena which occur below the diluvial
 deposits can have been produced within 
six days1 or seventeen centuries8 ,let  
us recapitulate the principal facts4    
#a4 ,the crust of the earth is composed 
of many layers1 placed one on another in
 regular order4 ,all of these are solid1
 and most are of great density and      
hardness4 ,most of them are of vast     
thickness1 the aggregate not being less 
than from seven to ten miles4  #b4 ,the 
earlier of these were made and          
consolidated before the newer were      
formed2 for in several cases1 it is     
demonstrable that the latter were made  
out of the debris of the former4 ,thus  
the compact and hard granite was        
disintegrated grain by grain2 the       
component granules were rolled awhile in
 the sea till their angles were rubbed  
down2 they were slowly deposited1 and   
then consolidated in layers4  #c4 ,a    
similar process goes on again and again 
to form other strata1 all occupying long
 time1 and all presupposing the earlier 

ones4#dd  #d4 ,after some strata have   
been formed and solidified1 convulsions 
force them upward1 contort them1 break  
them1 split them asunder4 ,melted matter
 is driven through the outlets1 fills   
the veins1 spreads over the surface1    
settles into the hollows1 cools and     
solidifies4  #e4 ,after the outflowing  
and consolidation of these volcanic     
streams1 the action of running water    
cuts them down1 cleaving beds of immense
 depth through their substance4 ,mr4    
,poulett ,scrope1 speaking of the       
solidified streams of basalt1 in the    
volcanic district of ,southern ,france1 
observes3--       ,these ancient        
currents have since been corroded by    
rivers1      which have worn through a  
mass of #aej feet in height1 and        
formed a channel even in the granite    
rocks beneath1 since      the lava first
 flowed into the valley4 ,in another    
spot1 a      bed of basalt1 #afj feet   
high1 has been cut through by a         
mountain stream4 ,the vast excavations  

effected by the      erosive power of   
currents along the valleys which feed   
the      ,ardeche1 since their invasion 
by lava-currents1 prove that      even  
the most recent of these volcanic       
eruptions belong to      an era         
incalculably remote4#de  #f4 ,a series  
of organic beings appears1 lives1       
generates1 dies2 lives1 generates1 dies2
 for thousands and thousands of         
successive generations4 ,tiny polypes   
gradually build up gigantic masses of   
coral1--mountains and reefs--microscopic
 foraminifera accumulate strata of      
calcareous sand2 still more minute      
infusoria--forty millions to the        
inch--make slates1 many yards thick1 of 
their shells alone4  #g4 ,the species at
 length die out--a process which we have
 no data to measure1#df though we may   
reasonably conclude it very long4       
,sometimes the whole existing fauna     
seems to have come to a sudden violent  
end2 at others1 the species die out one 
by one4 ,in the former case suddenly1 in

 the latter progressively1 new creatures
 supply the place of the old4 ,not only 
do species change2 the very genera      
change1 and change again4 ,forms of     
beings1 strange beings1 beings of       
uncouth shape1 of mighty ferocity and   
power1 of gigantic dimensions1 come in1 
run their specific race1 propagate their
 kinds generation after generation1--and
 at length die out and disappear2 to be 
replaced by other species1 each         
approaching nearer and nearer to        
familiar forms4  #h4 ,though these early
 creatures were unparalleled by anything
 existing now1 yet they were animals of 
like structure and economy essentially4 
,we can determine their analogies and   
affinities2 appoint them their proper   
places in the orderly plan of nature1   
and show how beautifully they fill      
hiatuses therein4 ,they had shells1     
crusts1 plates1 bones1 horns1 teeth1    
exactly corresponding in structure and  
function to those of recent animals4 ,in
 some cases we find the young with its  

milk-teeth by the side of its dam with  
well-worn grinders4 ,the fossil         
excrement is seen not only dropped1 but 
even in the alimentary canal4 ,bones    
bear the marks of gnawing teeth that    
dragged them and cracked them1 and fed  
upon them4 ,the foot-prints of birds and
 frogs1 of crabs and worms1 are         
imprinted in the soil1 like the faithful
 impression of a seal4#dg  #i4 ,millions
 of forest-trees sprang up1 towered to  
heaven1 and fell1 to be crushed into the
 coal strata which make our winter      
fires4 ,hundreds of feet measure the    
thickness of what were once succulent   
plants1 but pressed together like       
paper-pulp1 and consolidated under a    
weight absolutely immensurable4 ,yet    
there remain the scales of their stems1 
the elegant reticulated patterns of     
their bark1 the delicate tracery of     
their leaf-nerves1 indelibly depicted by
 an unpatented process of               
nature-printing4 ,and when we examine   
the record1--the forms of the leaves1   

the structure of the tissues1 we get the
 same result as before1 that the plants 
belonged to a flora which had no species
 in common with that which adorns the   
modern earth4 ,very gradually1 and only 
after many successions1 not of          
individual generations1 but of the      
cycles of species1 genera1 and even     
families1 did the vegetable creation    
conform itself to ours4#dh  #aj4 ,at    
length the species both of plants and   
animals grew1--not by alteration of     
their specific characters1 but by       
replacement of species by species--more 
and more like what we have now on the   
earth1 and finally merged into our      
present flora and fauna1 about the time 
when we find the first geological traces
 of ,,man4  #aa4 ,during the course of  
these successive cycles of organic life1
 the map of the world has changed many  
times4 ,up to a late period the ocean   
washed over ,mont ,blanc and ,mount     
,ararat2 the continent of ,europe was a 
wide sea2 then it was a ,polynesia1 then

 an ,archipelago of great islands1 then 
a ,continent much larger than it is now1
 with ,england united to it1 and the    
solid land stretching far away into the 
,atlantic2--then it sank again1 and was 
again raised1 not all at once1 but by   
several stages1 each of which has left  
its coast line1 and its shingle beach4  
,all these changes must have been the   
work of vast periods of time4           
,excepting possibly1 but not certainly1 
the higher parts of some mountains1     
which at widely different epochs have   
been upheaved1 and made to elevate and  
pierce the stratified masses which once 
lay over them1 there is scarcely a spot 
on the earth's surface which has not    
been many times in succession the bottom
 of the sea1 and a portion of dry land4 
,in the majority of cases1 it is shown1 
by physical evidences of the most       
decisive kind1 that each of those       
successive conditions was of extremely  
long duration2 a duration which it would
 be presumptuous to put into any        

estimate of years or centuries2 for any 
alteration1 of which vestiges occur in  
the zoological state and the mineral    
constitution of the earth's present     
surface1 furnishes no analogy 7with     
regard to the nature and continuance of 
causes71 that approaches in greatness of
 character to those changes whose       
evidences are discernible in almost any 
two continuous strata4 ,it is an        
inevitable inference1 unless we are     
disposed to abandon the principles of   
fair reasoning1 that each one of such   
changes in organic life did not take    
place till after the next preceding     
condition of the earth had continued    
through a duration1 compared with which 
six thousand years appear an            
inconsiderable fraction of time4#di     
#ab4 ,the climate of our atmosphere has 
undergone corresponding mutations4 ,at  
one time the ,palms1 the ,treeferns1 the
 ,cycads of the tropical jungles found  
their congenial home here3 the          
,elephant1 the ,rhinoceros1 and the     

,tiger roamed over ,england2 nay1 dwelt 
in countless hosts on the northern      
shores of ,siberia3 then the climate    
gradually cooled to a temperate         
condition3 then it became cold1 and     
glaciers and icebergs were its          
characteristic features3 finally it     
became temperate again4  #ac4 ,the      
icebergs and the glaciers were the ships
 and railways of past epochs2 they were 
freighted with their heavy but worthless
 cargoes of rock-boulders and gravel1   
and set out on their long voyages and   
travels1 over sea and land1 sometimes   
writing their log-books in ineffaceable 
scratches on the rocky tables over which
 they passed1 and at length discharging 
their freights in harbours and bays1 on 
inland plains1 on mountain sides and    
summits1 where they remain unclaimed1   
free for any trader in such commodities1
 without the ceremony of producing the  
original bill of lading4  ,let the      
remainder be told in the words of one of
 our most eloquent and able geologists1 

,professor ,sedgwick4  ,the fossils     
demonstrate the time to have been long1 
though we cannot say how long4 ,thus we 
have generation after generation of     
shell-fish1 that have lived and died on 
the spots where we find them2 very often
 demonstrating the lapse of many years  
for a few perpendicular inches of       
deposit4 ,in some beds we have large1   
cold-blooded reptiles1 creatures of long
 life4 ,in others1 we have traces of    
ancient forests1 and enormous fossil    
trees1 with concentric rings of         
structure1 marking the years of growth4 
,phenomena of this kind are repeated    
again and again2 so that we have three  
or four distinct systems of deposit1    
each formed at a distinct period of     
time1 and each1 characterised by its    
peculiar fossils4 ,coeval with the      
,tertiary masses1 we have enormous      
lacustrine deposits2 sometimes made up  
of very fine thin laminae1 marking slow 
tranquil deposits4 ,among these laminae1
 we can find sometimes the              

leaf-sheddings and the insects of       
successive seasons4 ,among them also we 
find almost mountain-masses of the      
,indusioe tubulatoe the cases of        
,phryganeoe1 and other sheddings of     
insects1 year after year4 ,again1       
streams of ancient lava alternate with  
some of these lacustrine tertiary       
deposits4  ,in central ,france1 a great 
stream of lava caps the lacustrine      
limestone4 ,at a subsequent period the  
waters have excavated deep valleys1     
cutting down into the lacustrine        
rock-marble many hundred feet2 and1 at a
 newer epoch1 anterior to the authentic 
history of ,europe1 new craters have    
opened1 and fresh streams of lava have  
run down the existing valleys4 ,even in 
the ,tertiary period we have thus a     
series of demonstrative proofs of a long
 succession of physical events1 each of 
which required a long lapse of ages for 
its elaboration4  ,again1 as we pass    
downwards from the bottom ,tertiary beds
 to the ,chalk1 we instantly find new   

types of organic life4 ,the old species1
 which exist in millions of individuals 
in the upper beds1 disappear1 and new   
species are found in the chalk          
immediately below4 ,this fact indicates 
a long lapse of time4 ,had the chalk and
 upper beds been formed simultaneously  
at the same period as the supporters of 
the diluvial theory represent1 their    
organic remains must have been more or  
less mixed2 but they are not4 ,again1 at
 the base of the ,tertiary deposits     
resting on the ,chalk1 we often find    
great masses of conglomerate or shingle1
 made up of chalk-flints rolled by      
water4 ,these separate the ,chalk from  
the overlying beds1 and many of the     
rolled flints contain certain petrified 
chalk-fossils4 ,now1 every such fossil  
proves the following points3--       #a4
 ,there was a time when the organic body
 was alive at the      bottom of the    
sea4       #b4 ,it was afterwards       
imbedded in the cretaceous deposit4     
#c4 ,it became petrified2 a very slow   

process4       #d4 ,the ,chalk was1 by  
some change of marine currents1 washed  
away1 or degraded1 i4 e4 worn away under
 the atmosphere      by the weather and 
casualties1 a process slow almost beyond
      description1 and the solid flints 
and fossils thus      detached from     
their imbeddings1 were rolled into      
shingles4       #e4 ,afterwards1 these  
shingles were covered up1 and buried    
under ,tertiary deposits4       ,in this
 way of interpretation1 a section of a  
few      perpendicular feet indicates a 
,,long lapse of time1 and the           
co-ordinate fact of the entire change of
 organic types1      between the beds   
above and those below1 falls in with the
      preceding inference1 and shows the
 lapse of time to have      been ,,very 
,,long4#ej     ,,iv4  ,,the             
,,cross-,,examination4       ,when the  
fact itself cannot be proved1 that which
 comes      nearest to the proof of the 
fact is the proof of the                
circumstances that necessarily and      

usually attend such      facts2 and     
these are called presumptions1 and not  
proofs1      for they stand instead of  
the proofs of the fact1 till the        
contrary be proved4--,,gilbert2 ,,law   
,,of ,,evidence4   ,such1 then1 is the  
evidence for the macro-chronology4 ,i   
hope ,i have summed it up fairly2 of    
course1 many details ,i have been       
forbidden to adduce by want of space1   
but they would have been of the same    
kind as those brought forward4 ,i am not
 conscious of having in any degree      
cushioned1 or concealed1 or understated 
a single proof which would have helped  
the conclusion4  ,a mighty array of     
evidence it certainly is1 and such as   
appears at first sight to compel our    
assent to the sequent claimed for it4 ,i
 must confess that ,i have no sympathy  
with the reasonings of those1 however ,i
 honour their design1 who can find a    
sufficient cause for these phenomena in 
the natural operations of the           
,antediluvian centuries1 or in the      

convulsion that closed them4  ,but is   
there no other alternative8 ,am ,i      
compelled to accept the conclusions     
drawn from the phenomena thus witnessed 
unto1 as undeniable facts1 since they   
refuse to be normally circumscribed     
within the limits of the historic       
period8 ,i verily believe there is      
another1 and a perfectly legitimate     
solution4  ,my first business is to     
examine1 and1 if ,i can1 to disprove    
this testimony4 ,if ,i can show the     
witness to be liable to error2 if ,i can
 adduce a principle which invalidates   
all his proofs2 if ,i can make it       
undeniably manifest that1 in a case     
precisely parallel1 similar conclusions1
 deduced from exactly analogous         
phenomena1 would be notoriously false2  
if ,i can do this1 ,i think ,i have a   
right to demand that the witness be     
bowed out of court1 as perfectly        
nugatory and worthless in this cause4   
,in the first place1 there is nothing   
here but circumstantial evidence2 there 

is no direct testimony to the facts     
sought to be established4 ,let it not   
seem unfair to make this distinction2 it
 is one of great importance4 ,no witness
 has deposed to actual observation of   
the processes above enumerated2 no one  
has appeared in court who declares he   
actually saw the living ,pterodactyle   
flying about1 or heard the winds sighing
 in the tops of the ,lepidodendra4 ,you 
will say1 ,it is the same thing2 we have
 seen the skeleton of the one1 and the  
crushed trunk of the other1 and         
therefore we are as sure of their past  
existence as if we had been there at the
 time4 ,no1 it is not the same thing2 it
 is not quite the same thing2 ,,not     
,,quite4 ,strong as is the evidence1 it 
is not quite so strong as if you had    
actually seen the living things1 and had
 been conscious of the passing of time  
while you saw them live4 ,it is only by 
a process of reasoning that you infer   
they lived at all4#ea  ,the process is  
something like this4 ,here is an object 

in a mass of stone1 which has a definite
 form1--the form of the bone of a beast4
 ,the more minutely you examine it1 the 
more points of resemblance you find2 you
 say1 ,if this is a bone1 it ought to   
have so and so--condyles1 scars for the 
attachment of muscles in particular     
spots1 a cavity for the reception of    
marrow1 a mark for the insertion of the 
ligament2 you look for each of these1   
and find all in the very conditions you 
have prescribed2 it is not only a bone1 
but a particular bone1 the thigh-bone1  
for instance4 ,here in the same block of
 stone is another object3 you work it   
out2 it is another bone2 its joint      
accurately fits the preceding2 it       
answers precisely to the tibia of a     
mammal4 ,other bones at length appear1  
and you have got a perfect skeleton1 no 
part redundant1 none wanting2 the most  
minute1 the most elaborate1 the most    
delicate portions of the osseous frame  
of a mammal are present1 and every one  
exactly correspondent to the rest in    

size1 in maturity1 in fit4 ,each bone1  
out of the scores1 displays exactly     
those characters1 and no other1 which an
 anatomist would have said beforehand it
 ought to have4 ,allowing for the       
difference of species1 the skeleton1    
when worked out of its matrix1 and set  
up1 is precisely like that of the little
 beast at whose death you were actually 
present1 whose bones you cleaned with   
your own hands1 and mounted for your own
 museum4 ,it would be as reasonable to  
deny that the one is the skeleton of a  
real animal as the other4  ,thus far    
there is matter of fact--observed1      
witnessed fact2 you have found in a     
stone a real skeleton4  ,you immediately
 infer that this skeleton once belonged 
to a living animal1 that breathed1 and  
fed1 and walked about1 exactly as       
animals do now4 ,this conclusion seems  
so obvious and unavoidable1 that we     
naturally conclude it to rest on the    
same foundation as the fact that the    
object is a skeleton1 or that it was in 

the stone4 ,but really it rests on a    
totally different foundation2 it is a   
conclusion deduced by a process of      
reasoning from certain assumed premises4
  ,myriads1 perhaps millions of         
skeletons of animals like this one have 
come at different times under human     
observation1 which have been obviously  
referrible to creatures that1 within the
 same sphere of observation1 had been   
alive4 ,no similar skeleton has ever    
come within the range of recorded       
observation that could be referred to   
any other source than that of a quondam 
living animal4 ,on these premises you   
build the conclusion that a skeleton    
must1 at some time or other1 have       
belonged to a living animal4 ,and it may
 seem an impregnable position2 but yet  
its validity altogether depends on the  
exhaustive power of human observation4  
,if ,i could show1 to your satisfaction1
 that a skeleton might have existed2    
still more1 if ,i could show you that a 
skeleton must have existed2 still more1 

if ,i could prove that myriads of       
skeletons1 precisely like this1 must    
have existed1 without ever having formed
 parts of antecedent living bodies2 you 
would yourself acknowledge that your    
conclusions were untenable4 ,the utmost 
you could affirm1 would be1 that        
possibly1 perhaps probably1 the skeleton
 you had found in the stone had at some 
time belonged to a living animal1 but   
that1 so far as any recognised premises 
exist1 there was no certainty about it4 
,but the premises have not been fairly  
stated4 ,there is more than the relation
 of precedence and sequence in what we  
know of the connexion between skeletons 
and living animals2 there is the        
relation of cause and effect4 ,it is not
 only that universal experience has     
declared the fact that every skeleton   
was once part of a living body2 it has  
shown that the very structure and nature
 of the skeleton implied living body4   
,the skeleton1 in every part1 displays a
 regard for the advantages of the living

 animal2 it is built expressly for it2  
by itself it is nothing--a machine      
without any object2 its joints1 its     
cavities1 its apophyses1 its processes1 
all have special reference to tissues   
and organs which are not here now1 but  
which belong to the living body4  ,and  
then experience has shown that the      
skeleton is made in a particular manner4
 ,the bone is deposited1 atom by atom1  
in living organic cells1 which are      
formed by living blood1 which implies a 
living animal4 ,the microscopic texture 
of your stone-girt skeleton does not    
differ from that of the skeleton which  
you cleaned from the muscles with your  
own hands2 and therefore you infer that 
it was constructed in the same way1     
namely1 by the blood of a living body4  
,well1 ,i come back1 notwithstanding1 to
 my position1--that your right to affirm
 this must altogether depend on the     
exhaustive power of that experience on  
which you build4 ,and it will be        
overthrown1 if ,i can show that         

skeletons have been made in some other  
way than by the agency of living blood4 
,can ,i do this8 ,i think ,i can4 ,at   
least ,i think ,i can show enough       
greatly to diminish1 if not altogether  
to destroy1 the confidence with which   
you inferred the existence of vast      
periods of past time from geological    
phenomena4 ,i can adduce a principle1   
having the universality 7within its     
proper sphere7 of ,,law1 hitherto       
unrecognised1 whose tendency is to      
invalidate the testimony of your        
witness4      ,v4  ,,postulates4  ,a    
little philosophy inclineth a man's mind
 to atheism2 but depth in philosophy    
bringeth men's minds about to religion2 
for while the mind of man looketh upon  
second causes scattered1 it may         
sometimes rest in them1 and go no       
farther2 but when it beholdeth the chain
 of them confederate and linked         
together1 it must needs fly to          
,providence and ,deity4--,,bacon4       
',what was the opinion of ,pythagoras   

concerning wildfowl8'      ',that the   
soul of our grand-dam might haply       
inhabit a bird4'      ',what thinkest   
thou of his opinion8'      ',i think    
nobly of the soul1 and in nowise receive
 his opinion4'       ,,shakspeare4   ,as
 without some common ground it is       
impossible to reason1 ,i shall take for 
granted the two following principles3-- 
,i4 ,,the ,,creation ,,of ,,matter4     
,,ii4 ,,the ,,persistence ,,of          
,,species4  ,i4 ,if any geologist take  
the position of the necessary eternity  
of matter1 dispensing with a ,creator1  
on the old ground1 ex nihilo nihil      
fit1--,i do not argue with him4 ,i      
assume that at some period or other in  
past eternity there existed nothing but 
the ,eternal ,god1 and that ,he called  
the universe into being out of nothing4 
,,ii4 ,i demand also1 in opposition to  
the development hypothesis1 the         
perpetuity of specific characters1 from 
the moment when the respective creatures
 were called into being1 till they cease

 to be4 ,i assume that each organism    
which the ,creator educed was stamped   
with an indelible specific character1   
which made it what it was1 and          
distinguished it from everything else1  
however near or like4 ,i assume that    
such character has been1 and is1        
indelible and immutable2 that the       
characters which distinguish species    
from species now1 were as definite at   
the first instant of their creation as  
now1 and are as distinct now as they    
were then4 ,if any choose to maintain1  
as many do1 that species were gradually 
brought to their present maturity from  
humbler forms1--whether by the force of 
appetency in individuals1 or by         
progressive development in              
generations--he is welcome to his       
hypothesis1 but ,i have nothing to do   
with it4 ,these pages will not touch    
him4  ,i believe1 however1 there is a   
large preponderance of the men of       
science1#eb at least in this country1   
who will be at one with me here4 ,they  

acknowledge the almighty fiat of ,god1  
as the energy which produced being2 and 
they maintain that the specific         
character which ,he then stamped on his 
organic creation remains unchangeable4  
,,vi4  ,,laws4       ----,greek3 ton    
trochon tes geneseos4--,,james iii4 #f4 
,the course of nature is a circle4 ,i do
 not mean the plan of nature2 ,i am not 
speaking of a circular arrangement of   
species1 genera1 families1 and classes1 
as maintained by ,mac,leay1 ,swainson1  
and others4 ,their theories may be true1
 or they may be false2 ,i decide nothing
 concerning them2 ,i am not alluding to 
any plan of nature1 but to its course1  
cursus1--the way in which it runs on4   
,this is a circle4  ,here is in my      
garden a scarlet runner4 ,it is a       
slender twining stem some three feet    
long1 beset with leaves1 with a growing 
bud at one end1 and with the other      
inserted in the earth4 ,what was it a   
month ago8 ,a tiny shoot protruding from
 between two thick fleshy leaves        

scarcely raised above the ground4 ,a    
month before that8 ,the thick fleshy    
leaves were two oval cotyledons1 closely
 appressed face to face1 with the minute
 plumule between them1 the whole        
enclosed in an unbroken1                
tightly-fitting1 spotted1 leathery coat4
 ,it was a bean1 a seed4  ,illustration3
 ,,germination ,,of ,a ,,scarlet        
,,runner4       a4 ,the ripe bean1      
showing the hilum at 992      b4 ,the   
same bean1 with one cotyledon removed1  
to show the plumule4      c4 ,a similar 
bean1 twenty-four hours after planting4 
d4 ,the same1 on the sixth day after    
planting4      e4 ,the same1 on the     
twelfth day4      f4 ,the same1 on the  
fourteenth day4  ,n4,b4 ,from b1 c1 d1  
e1 the front cotyledon has been cut     
away1 to show the progress of the       
plumule4  ,was this the commencement of 
its existence8 ,o no6 ,six months       
earlier still it was snugly lying1 with 
several others like itself1 in a green  
fleshy pod1 to the interior of which it 

was organically attached4 ,a month      
before that1 this same pod with its     
contents was the centre of a scarlet    
butterfly-like flower1 the bottom of its
 pistil1 within which1 if you had split 
it open1 you would have discerned the   
tiny beans1 whose history we are tracing
 backwards1 each imbedded in the soft   
green tissue1 but no bigger than the eye
 of a cambric needle4  ,but where was   
this flower8 ,it was one of many that   
glowed on my garden wall all through    
last summer2 each cluster springing as a
 bud from a slender twining stem1 which 
was the exact counterpart of that with  
which we commenced this little          
life-history4  ,and this earlier        
stem1--what of it8 ,it too had been a   
shoot1 a pair of cotyledons with a      
plumule1 a seed1 an integral part of a  
carpel1 which was a part of an earlier  
flower1 that expanded from an earlier   
bud1 that grew out of an earlier stem1  
that had been a still earlier seed1 that
 had been--and backward1 ad infinitum1  

for aught that ,i can perceive4  ,the   
course1 then1 of a scarlet runner is a  
circle1 without beginning or end3--that 
is1 ,i mean1 without a natural1 a normal
 beginning or end4 ,for at what point of
 its history can you put your finger1   
and say1 ,here is the commencement of   
this organism1 before which there is a  
blank2 here it began to exist8 ,there is
 no such point2 no stage which does not 
look back to a previous stage1 on which 
this stage is inevitably and absolutely 
dependent4  ,to some of my readers this 
may be rendered more clear by the       
accompanying diagram3----               
,illustration3                          
legume--reed--cotyledons--shoot--stem--b
ud--flower--carpel  ,illustration3      
theca--spore--prothallus--sporal        
frond--tuft--caudex--fertile            
frond--sorus  ,see that magnificent tuft
 of ,lady-fern on yonder bank1 arching  
its exquisitely cut fronds so elegantly 
on every side4 ,a few years ago this    
ample crown was but a single small      

frond1 which you would probably not have
 recognised as that of a ,lady-fern4    
,somewhat earlier than this1 the plant  
was a minute flat green expansion       
7prothallus71 of no definite outline1   
very much like a ,liverwort4 ,this had  
been previously a three-sided spore     
lying on the damp earth1 whither it had 
been jerked by the rupture of a capsule 
7theca74 ,for this spore1 though so     
small as to be visible only by          
microscopic aid1 had a previous history1
 which may be traced without difficulty4
 ,it was generated with hundreds more1  
in one of many capsules1 which1 were    
crowded together1 beneath the oval bit  
of membrane1 that covered one of the    
brown spots 7sori71 which were developed
 in the under surface of the fronds of  
an earlier ,lady-fern4 ,that earlier    
individual had in turn passed through   
the same stages of sporal frond1        
prothallus1 spore1 theca1 sorus1 frond1 
prothallus1 spore1 theca1 sorus1 frond1 
prothallus1 c4--ad infinitum4  ,this    

sounding-winged ,hawkmoth1 which like a 
gigantic bee is buzzing around the      
jasmine in the deepening twilight1      
hovering ever and anon to probe the     
starry flowers that make the evening air
 almost palpable with fragrance1--this  
moth1 what story of a life can he tell8 
,nearly a year of existence he has spent
 as a helpless1 almost motionless pupa1 
buried in the soft earth1 from whence he
 has emerged but this evening4 ,about a 
twelvemonth ago he was a great fat green
 caterpillar with an arching horn over  
his rump1 working ever harder and harder
 at devouring poplar leaves1 and growing
 ever fatter and fatter4 ,but before    
that he had one day burst forth a little
 wriggling worm1 from a globular egg    
glued to a leaf4 ,whence came the egg8  
,it was developed within the ovary of a 
parent ,hawkmoth1 whose history is but  
an endless rotation of the same         
stages1--pupa1 larva1 egg1 moth1 pupa1  
larva1 c4 c4  ,illustration3            
larva--pupa--moth--egg  ,behold this    

specimen of ,plumularia1 a shrub-like   
zoophyte1 comprising within its populous
 branches some twenty thousand polypes4 
,every individual cell1 now inhabited by
 its tentacled ,hydra1 has in its turn  
budded out from a branch1 which was     
itself but a lateral process from the   
central axis4 ,and this was but the     
prolongation of what was at first a     
single cell1 shooting up from a creeping
 root-thread4 ,a little earlier than    
this1 there was neither cell nor        
root-thread1 but the organism existed in
 the form of a planule1 a minute        
soft-bodied1 pear-shaped worm1 covered  
with cilia1 that crawled slowly over the
 stones and sea-weeds4 ,whence came it8 
,a few hours before1 it had emerged from
 the mouth of a vase-like cell1 one of  
the ovarian capsules1 which studded the 
stem of an old well-peopled             
,plumularia-shrub1 and which had been   
gradually developed from its substance  
by a process analogous to budding4 ,and 
then if we follow the history of this   

earlier shrub backward1 it will only    
lead us through exactly correspondent   
stages1 primal cell1 planule1 ovarian   
capsule1 stem1 and so on interminably4  
,illustration3 primal                   
cell--axis--branch--polype--capsule--pla
nule  ,once more4 ,the cow that         
peacefully ruminates under the grateful 
shadow of yonder spreading beech1 was1 a
 year or two ago1 a gamesome heifer with
 budding horns4 ,the year before1 she   
was a bleating calf1 which again had    
been a breathless foetus wrapped up in  
the womb of its mother4 ,earlier still  
it had been an unformed embryo2 and yet 
earlier1 an embryonic vesicle1 a        
microscopically minute cell1 formed out 
of one of the component cells of a still
 earlier structure1--the germinal       
vesicle of a fecundated ovum4 ,but this 
ovum1 which is the remotest point to    
which we can trace the history of our   
cow as an individual1 was1 before it    
assumed a distinct individuality1 an    
undistinguishable constituent of a      

viscus1--the ovary1--of another cow1 an 
essential part of her structure1 a      
portion of the tissues of her body1 to  
be traced back1 therefore1 through all  
the stages which ,i have enumerated     
above1 to the tissues of another parent 
cow1 thence to those of a former1 and so
 on1 through a vista of receding cows1  
as long as you choose to follow it4     
,illustration3                          
embryo--foetus--calf--heifer--cow--ovum-
-germ4 vesicle--embr4 vesicle  ,this1   
then1 is the order of all organic       
nature4 ,when once we are in any portion
 of the course1 we find ourselves       
running in a circular groove1 as endless
 as the course of a blind horse in a    
mill4 ,it is evident that there is no   
one point in the history of any single  
creature1 which is a legitimate         
beginning of existence4 ,and this is not
 the law of some particular species1 but
 of all3 it pervades all classes of     
animals1 all classes of plants1 from the
 queenly palm down to the protococcus1  

from the monad up to man3 the life of   
every organic being is whirling in a    
ceaseless circle1 to which one knows not
 how to assign any commencement1--,i    
will not say any certain or even        
probable1 but any possible1             
commencement4 ,the cow is as inevitable 
a sequence of the embryo1 as the embryo 
is of the cow4 ,looking only at nature1 
or looking at it only with the lights of
 experience and reason1 ,i see not how  
it is possible to avoid one of these two
 theories1 the development of all       
organic existence out of gaseous        
elements1 or the eternity of matter in  
its present forms4  ,creation1 however1 
solves the dilemma4 ,i have1 in my      
postulates1 begged the fact of creation1
 and ,i shall not1 therefore1 attempt to
 prove it4 ,creation1 the sovereign fiat
 of ,almighty ,power1 gives us the      
commencing point1 which we in vain seek 
in nature4 ,but what is creation8 ,it is
 the sudden bursting into a circle4     
,since there is no one stage in the     

course of existence1 which1 more than   
any other affords a natural commencing  
point1 whatever stage is selected by the
 arbitrary will of ,god1 must be an     
unnatural1 or rather a preter-natural1  
commencing point4  ,the life-history of 
every organism commenced at some point  
or other of its circular course4 ,it was
 created1 called into being1 in some    
definite stage4 ,possibly1 various      
creatures differed in this respect2     
perhaps some began existence in one     
stage of development1 some in another2  
but every separate organism had a       
distinct point at which it began to     
live4 ,before that point there was      
nothing2 this particular organism had   
till then no existence2 its history     
presents an absolute blank2 it was not4 
,but the whole organisation of the      
creature thus newly called into         
existence1 looks back to the course of  
an endless circle in the past4 ,its     
whole structure displays a series of    
developments1 which as distinctly       

witness to former conditions as do those
 which are presented in the cow1 the    
butterfly1 and the fern1 of the present 
day4 ,but what former conditions8 ,the  
conditions thus witnessed unto1 as being
 necessarily implied in the present     
organisation1 were non-existent2 the    
history was a perfect blank till the    
moment of creation4 ,the past conditions
 or stages of existence in question1 can
 indeed be as triumphantly inferred by  
legitimate deduction from the present1  
as can those of our cow or butterfly2   
they rest on the very same evidences2   
they are identically the same in every  
respect1 except in this one1 that they  
were unreal4 ,they exist only in their  
results2 they are effects which never   
had causes4  ,perhaps it may help to    
clear my argument if ,i divide the past 
developments of organic life1 which are 
necessarily1 or at least legitimately1  
inferrible from present phenomena1 into 
two categories1 separated by the violent
 act of creation4 ,those unreal         

developments whose apparent results are 
seen in the organism at the moment of   
its creation1 ,i will call prochronic1  
because time was not an element in them2
 while those which have subsisted since 
creation1 and which have had actual     
existence1 ,i will distinguish as       
diachronic1 as occurring during time4   
,now1 again ,i repeat1 there is no      
imaginable difference to sense between  
the prochronic and the diachronic       
development4 ,every argument by which   
the physiologist can prove to           
demonstration that yonder cow was once a
 foetus in the uterus of its dam1 will  
apply with exactly the same power to    
show that the newly created cow was an  
embryo1 some years before its creation4 
,look again at the diagram by which ,i  
have represented the life-history of    
this animal4 ,the only mode in which it 
can begin is by a sudden sovereign act  
of power1 an irruption into the circle4 
,you may choose where the irruption     
shall occur2 there must be a bursting-in

 at some point4 ,suppose it is at calf2 
or suppose it is at embr4 vesicle4 ,put 
a wafer at the point you choose1 say the
 latter4 ,this then is the real1 actual 
commencement of a circle1 to be         
henceforth ceaseless4 ,but the embryonic
 vesicle necessarily implies a germinal 
vesicle1 and this necessitates an ovum1 
and the ovum necessitates an ovary1 and 
the ovary necessitates an entire        
animal1--and thus we have got a quarter 
round the circle in back development2 we
 are irresistibly carried along the     
prochronic stages1--the stages of       
existence which were before existence   
commenced1--as if they had been         
diachronic1 actually occurring within   
our personal experience4  ,if ,i know1  
as a historic fact1 that the circle was 
commenced where ,i have put my wafer1 ,i
 may begin it there2 but there is1 and  
can be1 nothing in the phenomena to     
indicate a commencement there1 any more 
than anywhere else1 or1 indeed1 anywhere
 at all4 ,the commencement1 as a fact1  

,i must learn from testimony2 ,i have no
 means whatever of inferring it from    
phenomena4         99       99       99 
99       99  ,permit me1 therefore1 to  
repeat1 as having been proved1 these two
 propositions3--  ,,all ,,organic       
,,nature ,,moves ,,in ,a ,,circle4      
sc,creation is a violent irruption into 
the circle of nature4_/sc      ,,vii4   
,,parallels ,,and ,,precedents4         
7,plants47       ,where wast thou when  
,i laid the foundations of the earth8   
declare1 if thou hast                   
understanding4--,,job xxxviii4 #d4      
,since every organism1 considering it1  
throughout its generations1 as an unit1 
has been created1 or made to commence   
existence1 it is manifest that it was   
created or made to commence existence at
 some moment of time4 ,i will ask some  
kind geological reader to imagine that  
moment1 and to accompany me in an ideal 
tour of inspection among the creatures1 
taking up each for examination at the   
instant that it has been called into    

existence4 ,do not be alarmed6 ,i am not
 about to assume that the moment in     
question was six thousand years ago1 and
 no more2 ,i will not rule the actual   
date at all2 you1 my geological friend1 
shall settle the chronology just as you 
please1 or1 if you like it better1 we   
will leave the chronological date out of
 the inquiry1 as an element not relevant
 to it4 ,it may have been six hundred   
years ago1 or six thousand1 or sixty    
times six millions2 let it for the      
present remain an indeterminate         
quantity4 ,only please to remember that 
the date was a reality1 whether we can  
fix it or not2 it was as precise a      
moment as the moment in which ,i write  
this word4  ,well then1 like two of     
those morning stars who1 when the       
foundations were fastened1 shouted for  
joy1 we will1 in imagination1 take our  
stand on this round world at exactly    
---- minutes past ---- o'clock1 on the  
morning of the ----th of ----1 in the   
year ,b4,c4 ----4 ,the noble ,tree-fern 

before us 7,alsophila aculeata7 has this
 instant been called into being by the  
creating voice of ,god4 ,here it stands1
 lifting up its columnar stem1 and      
spreading its minutely fretted fronds   
all around1 in a vaulted canopy above   
our heads1 through the filagree work of 
whose expanse the sunbeams play in a    
soft green radiance4 ,it has this       
instant been created4  ,but ,i will     
suppose1 further1 that we have the power
 to call into our council some          
experienced botanist2 who is not        
acquainted1 as we are1 with the fact of 
this just recent creation1 and whom we  
will ask to give us his opinion on the  
age of this beautiful plant4  ,the      
,botanist4--,you wish to ascertain the  
age of this ,alsophila4 ,i know of no   
data by which this can be determined    
with precision1 but ,i can indicate it  
approximately4 ,let us take it in order4
 ,the most recent development is the    
growing point in the centre of the      
arching crown of leaves4 ,around this   

you would see1 if your eyes were above  
the plane1 close ring-like bodies1 or1  
perhaps1 more like snail-shells1        
protruding from the growing bud2 then   
young leaves1 partially opened in       
various degrees1 but coiled up          
scroll-wise at their tips1 and around   
these the elegant fretted fronds1 which 
expand broadly outwards in a radiating  
manner1 and arch downwards4  ,now every 
one of these broad fronds was at first a
 compactly coiled ring2 but it has1 in  
the course of development1 uncoiled     
itself1 growing at the same time from   
its extremity1 and from the extremity of
 each of its formerly wrapped-up pinnae 
and pinnules1 until at length it has    
attained the expanse you behold4 ,this  
process has certainly occupied several  
days4  ,but let us look farther4 ,the   
outermost fronds that compose this      
exquisite cupola1 you see1 are nearly   
naked2 indeed1 the extreme outermost are
 quite naked1 being stripped of their   
verdant honours1 their pinnae and       

pinnules1 and left mere dry and sapless 
sticks1--the long and taper midribs of  
what were once green fronds1 as graceful
 as those that now surmount them4 ,some 
of them1 you see1 are hanging downward1 
almost detached from the stem1 and ready
 to drop at the first breath of wind4   
,now remember1 each of these brown      
unsightly sticks was once a frond1 that 
had passed through all the steps of     
uncoiling from its circinate condition4 
,this whole process has certainly       
occupied several months4  ,look1 now1   
below these withered midribs1 lifting up
 the most drooping of them4 ,the stem is
 marked with great oval scars2 and see1 
this old frond-rib has come off in my   
hand1 leaving just such a scar1 and     
adding one more to the number that were 
there before4 ,and look down the stem2  
it is studded all over with these oval  
scars4 ,there are a hundred and fifty at
 least2 but ,i cannot count them nearly 
all1 for towards the lower part they    
become more undefined1 and the growth of

 the stem has thrown them further apart2
 and besides1 there is1 as you observe1 
a matted mass of tangled rootlets1 like 
tarred twine1 which1 springing from     
between the lower scars1 increases      
downwards1 till the whole inferior      
extremity of the stem is encased in the 
dank and reeking mass4  ,you can have no
 doubt that every one of these scars    
indicates where a leaf has grown1 where 
it has waved its time1 and whence1 after
 death and decay1 it at length sloughed 
away4 ,the form of the uppermost1 which 
are not distorted by age1 agrees exactly
 with the outline of the bulging base of
 the candelabrum-like frond2 the        
arrangement of the scars is that of the 
fronds2 and you may notice in every scar
 marks where the horseshoe-shaped plates
 of woody fibre have been broken off1   
which once passed into the interior of  
the stem from the midrib of the frond4  
,these scars1 then1 are ocular          
demonstrations of former fronds2 we may 
no more doubt that fronds were once     

growing from these spots1 than we may   
that the green and leafy arches were    
once coiled up in a circinate vernation4
 ,they are the record of the past       
history of this organism1 and they      
evidently reach far back into time4 ,the
 periodic ratio of development of new   
fronds may be1 perhaps1 roughly         
estimated at six in the course of a     
year4 ,now there are about a dozen      
unfolded or unfolding1 as many withering
 midribs1 and about a hundred and fifty 
leaf-scars that we can count with ease1 
not reckoning such as are indistinct1   
nor such as are concealed beneath the   
tangled drapery of roots4               
,illustration3 ,,leaf-,,scars ,,of      
,,tree-,,fern4  ,i have no hesitation1  
then1 in pronouncing this plant to be   
thirty years old2 it is probably much   
older1 but it is1 at least1 as old as   
this4  ,such is the report of our       
botanical adviser2 such is his argument2
 and we cannot but admit that it is     
invulnerable2 his conclusion is         

inevitable1 but for one fact1 which he  
is not aware of4 ,there is one          
objection1 however1 to which it is      
open--a fatal one2 you and ,i know that 
the ,tree-fern is not five minutes old1 
for it was created but this moment4     
,here is another act of creation4 ,it   
may be the same day as that of the      
,tree-fern1 or one as remote as you     
please from it1 before or after4 ,a few 
moments ago this was a great mass of    
rough1 naked limestone1 but by creative 
energy it has been suddenly clothed with
 a luxuriant mantle of ,selaginella4    
,how exquisitely beautiful the          
aggregation of flattened branching      
stems1 studded with their tiny          
imbricated leaflets of tender green1    
bloomed with blue6 and how thick and    
soft the carpet that thus conceals the  
angles and points and crevices of the   
unsightly stone6 ,broad as is this      
expanse of verdure1 covering many square
 yards without a flaw1 and rooted as it 
is at ten thousand points of its        

creeping stem1 we shall yet find that it
 is one unbroken structure4 ,our friend 
the botanist would infer unhesitatingly 
that every part of this widespread      
ramification has originally proceeded   
from one central shoot1 and that several
 years' growth must have concurred to   
form this compact mass4  ,yet we know   
that such an inference would be false4  
,the plant has been this instant called 
into being4  ,on the summit of this     
rounded hill is a very different plant  
from the last4 ,beautiful it also is1   
but grandeur and majesty are its leading
 attributes4 ,it is a dense and massive 
clump of the ,tulda ,bamboo4 ,how noble 
these straight-jointed stems1 cylinders 
of polished green1 shooting their points
 right upwards1 and towering to a height
 of eighty feet6 ,the numerous panicles 
of tufty blossom are gracefully bending 
from the summits1 and from the tip of   
every branch1 nodding in the breeze4    
,there are scores of the tall stems1 as 
straight as an arrow1 beset at every    

joint with diverging horizontal         
branches1 crossing and recrossing in    
inextricable confusion4 ,and see1 amidst
 the crowd1 there are others as thick   
and tall1 but without a single          
side-shoot1 clothed1 however1 to atone  
for the deficiency1 in swaddling-clothes
 peculiarly their own4  ,these swathed  
stems are infant shoots1--vigorous and  
promising children1 indeed2 these brown 
triangular sheaths1 covered with down1  
are the clothing of infancy2 they       
increase in number1 and are closer      
together towards the summit of the      
shoot1 where the growing point is       
rapidly extending4 ,when the stems have 
attained their full height1 these       
sheaths will fall off1 the polished     
shafts will stand revealed in their     
glossy beauty1 and the lateral pointed  
branches will at once start forth from  
every joint1 and pierce horizontally    
through the dense tangled bush4  ,now   
these young shoots do not bear testimony
 to so great an age as you would        

suppose4 ,the whole seventy feet of     
their altitude have been attained within
 thirty days6 ,but then their massive   
size and vigour indicate a mature age in
 the clump4 ,for all the hundred stems  
that are crowded together in this dense 
,bamboo-clump are organically united2   
they are parts of one and the same      
plant1 the root-stock of which has been 
creeping to and fro year after year1    
sending up in constant succession its   
arrowy stems1 until it has attained the 
present magnificence4 ,many years must  
have elapsed between the present        
condition of the grove1 and that of the 
slender blade that shot up from the tiny
 seed in this spot4  ,yes1 so you may   
think4 ,but it is not so1 for the great 
,bamboo-clump has been created in its   
pride and glory this very hour6  ,yonder
 is a considerable area of land covered 
with the green blades of young wheat1   
and very healthy and strong it looks4   
,no1 it is ,couch-grass6 ,the whole     
green sward which we see is a single    

plant2 the creeping stem of which has   
spread its ramifications in all         
directions beneath the surface of the   
soil2 and still the long succulent      
shoots are extending in every direction1
 as shewn by the green leaf-blades4     
,this is a rapidly growing plant1 it is 
true2 yet still there must be an        
accumulated growth of many months here1 
if not years6 ,no1 it was created this  
morning4  ,contrasting with this humble 
grass1 observe that luxuriant           
,screw-pine4 ,see its singular crown of 
foliage at the summit of its equally    
singular stem4 ,its great prickle-edged 
stiff leaves grow in long diagonal rows1
 each sheathing its successor1 and      
alternating with those of the next row4 
,how rich and fragrant an odour is      
diffused from its crowded blossoms6     
,every one of those sword-like leaves   
is1 of course1 the record of a period of
 time4 ,a tree of this size makes a     
screw1 or imperfect spire1 of leaves in 
about three years2 and there are about  

sixteen pairs of leaves in each screw1  
which will give us nearly eleven leaves 
for the development of each season4     
,now1 on the trunk1 there are numerous  
waved lines quite covering its surface1 
which are the traces of old leaves that 
have in succession been produced and    
decayed away2--the trunk is1 in fact1   
composed of these leaf-bases4 ,by       
counting these1 we may obtain then an   
approximate notion of the age of this   
plant2--an approximate notion only1     
because in its young stages the         
development of leaves probably took     
place more rapidly than it does now4    
,there are then on this trunk about one 
hundred and fifty horizontal rows of    
scars1 and each row numbers four        
leaf-bases1 so that the trunk is        
inscribed with an autographic record of 
six hundred leaves4 ,if then we reckon  
eleven leaves as the produce of a single
 season1 and add the four screws which  
are still flourishing1 we shall obtain a
 result of about fifty-five years as the

 age of this ,pandanus4 ,this1 for the  
reason just assigned1 would probably be 
considerably too much2 perhaps1 forty   
years would be nearer the truth4  ,there
 are1 however1 other marks of age here1 
though they are less definite4 ,the     
great hardness of the surface-wood1     
which we perceive on trying to indent   
it1 is an indication of age1 as it is   
produced by the successive bundles of   
woody fibre1 which1 year after year1    
have passed down from each leaf1        
curving1 in their descent1 towards the  
circumference of the stem1 and1         
therefore1 constantly augmenting the    
density of the outer portions4  ,another
 very curious proof of age is seen in   
the number of aerial roots which descend
 from various points of the trunk       
towards the soil4 ,you would at first be
 inclined to think them posts1 which a  
carpenter had set to shore up the tree1 
as props to prevent its being blown     
down4 ,and truly this is their purpose2 
but they are natural adjuncts1 not      

artificial4 ,these thick rods1 some of  
which have not yet reached the ground1  
have been shot forth in turn from the   
stem1 in order to afford it additional  
support in the loose sandy soil4 ,and   
mark1 by the way1 a beautiful           
contrivance here4 ,because the growing  
tender extremity of the root has to pass
 through the sun-parched air in its     
progress towards the earth1 there is a  
curious exfoliation of its extremity1   
forming a sort of cup1 which1 collecting
 the scanty dews1 retains sufficient    
moisture for the refreshment of the     
spongy rootlet4 ,now1 ,i say1 these     
supporting roots1 since they must have  
originated from the trunk1 after the    
latter had attained a considerable      
height1 are so many evidences--and      
cumulative evidences--of age1 though    
their testimony cannot be so well made  
to bear on a known period as that of the
 leaf-bases4  ,should we not then be    
amply warranted in asserting this       
,screw-pine to be many years old1 if we 

were not assured that1 as a fact1 it has
 been this instant created8             
,illustration3 ,,roots ,,of ,,iriartea4 
,a phenomenon analogous to that which we
 have just observed is presented by     
yonder ,pashiuba ,palm 7,iriartea       
exorhiza74 ,its straight arrowy stem has
 shot up to the height of fifty feet1   
like a slender iron column4 ,on the     
summit there is the usual divergent     
crown of leaves that distinguishes this 
most graceful and queenly tribe2 and at 
the foot1 a tall open cone of roots1    
strangely supporting the column on its  
apex4  ,but what most strikes attention 
in this tree1 and renders it so         
peculiar1 is1 that the roots are almost 
entirely above ground4 ,they spring out 
from the stem1 each one at a higher     
point than the last1 and extend         
diagonally downwards till they approach 
the ground1 when they often divide into 
many rootlets1 each of which secures    
itself in the soil4 ,as fresh ones      
spring out from the stem1 those below   

become rotten and die off2 and it is not
 an uncommon thing to see a lofty tree  
supported entirely by three or four     
roots1 so that a person may walk erect  
beneath them1 or stand with a tree      
seventy feet high growing immediately   
over his head4  ,in the forests where   
these trees grow1 numbers of young      
plants of every age may be seen1 all    
miniature copies of their parents1      
except that they seldom possess more    
than three legs1 which gives them a     
strange and almost ludicrous            
appearance4#ec  ,this tall ,pashiuba    
before us1 however1 is supported on     
several scores of roots1 in various     
stages of development1 some descending  
through the air1 some already fixed in  
the soil4 ,as the presence of these1    
moreover1 implies the decay and         
disappearance of earlier ones1 their    
number and height may be accepted as a  
fair testimony to the age of the tree2  
independent of what we might have       
deduced from the trunk and other        

sources4 7,my reader will bear in mind1 
that1 throughout this chapter1 ,i am    
supposing that we have the opportunity  
of seeing each organism at the moment   
following that of its creation47 ,the   
,iriartea before us1 then1              
notwithstanding its marks of maturity1  
is but--a new-born infant1 ,i was about 
to say1 rather--a new-made adult4       
,another and more massive ,palm appears1
 where a moment ago there was nothing   
but smooth ground and empty air4 ,it is 
the ,sugar ,palm 7,saguerus             
saccharifer71 remarkable in its         
appearance for the swathes of what looks
 to be sackcloth of hair1 in which its  
stem is enveloped4 ,each of its great   
pinnate leaves forms with the dilated   
base of its midrib a broad sheath1 which
 springs out of a loose fold of this    
coarse cloth that is wrapped around it4 
,and not only the bases of the still    
flourishing leaves are swathed in this  
natural textile fabric1 but the dead and
 dry leaf-bases of the former leaves1   

which may be traced all down the stem4  
,but let us look at this strange cloth3 
what is it8 ,it is composed of the      
exterior fibres of the leaf-bases       
themselves1 which in process of growth  
have partially separated themselves1 and
 from which the parenchyma and the      
lamina have decayed away4 ,the          
appearance of a woven fabric is         
deceptive2 there is no interlacing2 but 
its semblance is produced by the fibres 
lying in layers one over the other1 and 
by some of them having a direction at   
right angles to the others4 ,originally 
all the fibres were parallel and        
longitudinal1 but as they have been1 in 
the growth of the leaf1 pulled out      
laterally1 the main fibres1 which are   
indefinitely divisible1 have adhered to 
each other at various parts1 and the    
result has been that innumerable        
constituent fibrillae have been         
stretched across from fibre to fibre4   
,every square inch1 then1 of this       
sackcloth tells of the lapse of time2   

these horse-hair-like fibres were once  
green and vascular1 enclosing a soft    
pulp2 in short1 they were a part of a   
verdant leaf2 the reduction of each     
congeries of veins to this condition was
 a work of time1 and this has been      
effected by many leaf-bases in          
succession4  ,an examination of this    
gomuti1 as it is called1 does not indeed
 help us to identify the actual interval
 lapsed in the history of the plant2 but
 we may arrive at this from other       
considerations4 ,the great sheathing    
bases themselves remain in numbers      
attached to the upper portion of the    
stem1 though the greater portion of the 
midrib with the pinnae has decayed and  
fallen2 and in the lower part1 where    
even the bases have disappeared1 still  
broad lateral scars are left1 marking   
off the stipe into horizontal rings1    
which are not less conclusively certain 
evidences of the former existence of    
similar bases1 and therefore1 still     
earlier1 of leaves4  ,the ,sugar ,palm  

developes and matures on an average six 
leaves every year4#ed ,on counting the  
dry leaf-bases1 and the scars1 ,i find  
on this trunk1 a hundred and twenty3    
besides which there are about a dozen   
expanded leaves1 and two visible1 which 
are not unfolded4 ,a hundred and        
thirty-four leaves then have left proofs
 of their existence here2 which divided 
by six1 gives about twenty-two years as 
the age of this ,palm4 ,this is the age 
of this tree1 however1 since it began to
 form a stem2 but several years of      
infancy must be added to the sum1 during
 which its fronds sprang in succession  
from the surface of the soil4  ,look at 
this ,areca4 ,by-and-by it will grow to 
the loftiest stature attained by any of 
its tribe1 and its noble crown of leaves
 will wave on the summit of a slender   
pillar a hundred and fifty feet in      
height4 ,but at present it has no stem  
at all2 the widely arching leaves       
diverge from a central point which is   
below the surface of the soil4 ,here1   

then1 are no dead leaf-bases2 here are  
no old historical scars3--have we any   
evidence of past time here8 ,yes1       
surely4 ,see this fully developed leaf4 
,it is composed of a stout midrib1 along
 the two opposite edges of which grow1  
like the beards of a feather1 narrow    
sword-like leaflets1 separated from each
 other by intervals of about two inches4
 ,but this pinnate condition1--which is 
so inseparable from the developed leaf  
of a great division of the ,palm tribe1 
that our idea of a palm-leaf almost     
always is that of an enormous           
feather1--is by no means the original   
state4 ,observe this young leaf which is
 not yet thoroughly expanded2 the       
leaflets are1 indeed1 separated         
everywhere1 except that the tips of all 
are connected by a very narrow ribbon of
 the common green lamina1 which runs    
from one to another4 ,in the fully      
opened leaves1 this has been torn apart 
and is not distinguishable4  ,but1 let  
us carefully open this still younger    

leaf1 which is protruding like a thin   
green rod1 or rather like a closed fan1 
from the centre of the crown4 ,we must  
handle it delicately1 for it is very    
tender4 ,now you see it is not pinnate  
at all2 the leaf is as entire as a ,musa
 leaf1 which1 indeed1 it much resembles1
 except that each half is folded        
transversely1 and then these transverse 
folds are packed one on another         
longitudinally1 fan-fashion4 ,each of   
the transverse folds answers to a future
 leaflet4 ,it is the development of the 
midrib in length that tears asunder the 
divisions of the lamina1 and converts   
them into separate1 and by-and-by       
remote1 pinnae4  ,it is manifest then   
that every leaflet on the midrib of a   
pinnate-leaved ,palm is a record of past
 time1 as real as the leaf-bases on the 
trunk1 inasmuch as1 in each case1 there 
is ocular proof that the conditions of  
existence are different from what they  
have been4 ,and yet in this case1 the   
evidences are fallacious1 since the     

,areca before us has even now been      
created4  ,here is an extraordinary     
plant4 ,though no thicker than your     
little finger1 it will be found almost a
 quarter of a mile in length4#ee ,this  
is a kind of ,cane 7,calamus72 its      
slender jointed and polished stem is    
encased in the closely-sheathing and    
tubular bases of the leaves1 which are  
spiny on their midribs1 spiny on their  
pinnae1 and horridly spiny on the long  
and tough whip-lash in which the point  
of each leaf terminates4 ,this          
lengthened cord is studded1 at intervals
 of a few inches1 with whorls of stout  
and acute prickles which are hooked     
backwards1 and performs an important    
part in the economy of the plant4 ,we   
see how it sprawls along the ground a   
few yards1 then climbs up a tall tree1  
runs over the summit1 descends on the   
opposite side to the ground1 mounts over
 another tree1 and thus pursues its     
wormlike course4 ,now as the pinnate    
leaves are put forth at every joint1 the

 formidably armed flagellum affords a   
secure holdfast to the climbing stem1   
which otherwise would be liable to be   
blown prostrate by the first gust of    
wind2 the recurved hooks1 however1 catch
 in the leaves and twigs of the trees1  
and effectually maintain the domination 
of the prickly intruder4  ,it is obvious
 that every inch sprawled over by this  
trailing stem supposes all the previous 
inches of its lengthening course2 that  
every successive joint implies the      
existence of all the earlier joints2    
that every whorl of spines involves the 
development of every former whorl4 ,yet 
our reasoning is at fault2 there has    
been as yet no succession2 the          
development has been simultaneous1 for  
it is the development1 not of growth1   
but of creation4  ,enough of ,palms4    
,look at this ,agave4 ,its thick1       
fleshy1 glaucous leaves1 with spinous   
margins and pointed ends1 are arranged  
in many whorls on the summit of a stem1 
which is scarcely visible1 as it barely 

rises above the soil4 ,from the centre  
of the crown springs the stately        
flower-stalk1 itself a tree of forty    
feet in stature1 having a cluster of    
yellow blossoms at the extremities of   
its candelabra-like branches4  ,have we 
here any clue to the past history of the
 plant8 ,the tall flower-stalk1 it is   
true1 is of rapid growth1 its whole     
stature having been attained within     
three or four weeks4 ,but those massive 
leaves6 ,each of these lasts many years1
 and their development is as slow as    
that of the flower-stalk is rapid4      
,certainly we cannot assign to this     
individual1 in the very vigour of its   
inflorescence1 an antiquity less than   
half a century1 and perhaps it may be   
considerably more4  ,you are altogether 
wrong2 for it is but just called into   
existence4  ,illustration3              
,,traveller',s ,,tree4  ,we pass on1 and
 pause before a noble example of one of 
the stateliest of plants1--the          
,traveller's ,tree 7,urania speciosa74  

,it is a great ,musaceous plant1        
resembling one of those fans which in   
the ,southern ,states of ,america are   
made by ladies out of the broad         
tail-feathers of a turkey4 ,its leaves1 
of vast size1 consist of a broad oblong 
lamina of the most brilliant green hue1 
divided equally by a midrib which       
descends in a smooth cylindrical        
petiole1 much longer than the lamina    
7which is itself eight feet or more in  
length74 ,each leaf-stalk terminates    
below in a great demi-sheath1 out of    
which springs another1 in a zigzag or   
distichous fashion1 the whole diverging1
 as they rise1 in the same plane4       
,below the alternately-sheathing leaves1
 of which there are but eight at present
 existing1 there are the bases of       
others1 now dead1 which1 when alive1    
evidently followed the same arrangement2
 and these give place yet lower to      
rings1 each partly surrounding a massive
 conical stem4  ,i fear we have no      
criterion for determining the exact age 

of such a plant as this from actual     
observations on its rate of growth4     
,from the fewness of its existing leaves
 they probably endure a considerable    
time2 but at all events here are        
indubitable evidences of successive     
generations of leaves which are now past
 and gone2 some of which are represented
 by withered rib-bases1 while older ones
 have left but the scars which indicate 
the positions on the trunk where once   
they stood4 ,here are distinct          
testimonies to the lapse of a           
considerable period of time since the   
magnificent ,urania1 began its          
existence4 ,yet we should err           
egregiously by giving credence to them1 
since these developments are all        
prochronic4  ,what a lovely butterfly6  
,nay1 it is a flower3 though it dances  
in the air with an insect's fluttering  
flight1 and seems to present in its     
broad wings of yellow and orange1 and in
 its long and slender members1 an       
insect's form and hues1 it is but a     

flower fixed at the end of a lengthened 
stalk1 which hangs from1 a mass of      
leaves and bulbs1 seated in the fork of 
this huge mahogany-tree4  ,we will      
neglect the flower1 curious and         
beautiful as it is1 and examine this    
crowded mass of roots and fleshy leaves 
and oval bulbs4  ,tracing the slender   
lengthened footstalk to its origin1 we  
see that it springs from the lower part 
of a flat1 ovate1 or nearly round1      
ridged1 pseudo-bulb1 of a purplish-green
 hue1 of which there are many1 much     
crowded together4 ,the point of issue of
 the flower-stalk is concealed by an    
enveloping husky scale1 which is the    
withered condition of a former leaf4    
,from the base of another bulb a thick  
obtuse cone is pushing forth1 which is  
the commencement of a new leaf-shoot2   
and here is one considerably advanced4  
,in this latter there is nothing very   
remarkable2 it is a thick1 growing      
shoot1 formed by fleshy leaves nearly   
doubled together1 each sheathed by its  

predecessor4 ,but soon this will cease  
to grow1 and the point will dilate into 
an oval bulb1 which will be a reservoir 
of nutriment for the future flower4 ,in 
fact it will add another to the matted  
mass of bulbs which are already         
accumulated1 crowned with two great     
thick1 leathery1 ovate1 brown-spotted   
leaves1 and marked with the scars of the
 leaves which are now growing1 but which
 will then have sloughed away4  ,in this
 ,oncidium1 then1 we have evidently a   
record of many bygone processes4 ,before
 the flower could open1 the flower-stalk
 must have been developed2 before this1 
the pseudo-bulb must have been formed2  
before this1 there must have been a     
well-formed leaf-shoot1 which must have 
been first a conical bud pushing forth  
from some anterior bulb2--or1 if that   
shoot had been the first of the mass1   
then it must have looked back to a seed1
 which of course looked back to the     
capsule of a pre-existent flower1 and so
 on4  ,yet this is all fallacious2 for  

the ,butterfly-flower is but just       
created4  ,as beautiful1 if less        
curious1 is the crowded spike of purple 
blossom that adorns the tall stalk of   
this terrestrial ,orchis4 ,the          
flower-stalk springs from the midst of a
 few large spotted leaves1 which        
terminate below in an irregular fleshy  
tuber of glutinous consistence4 ,this   
tuber is shrivelled1 and is in process  
of exhaustion and decay2 but a          
horizontal stem has pushed out          
underground1 which has at its extremity 
a second tuber1 as yet immature1 but    
plump and swelling4 ,this growing tuber 
contains the elements of the leaves and 
flower-spike of next season3 the        
shrivelling one was1 last year at this  
period1 in exactly the same condition as
 the swelling one is now2 it too was    
pushed out horizontally from a preceding
 one which was then shrivelling1 and so 
backward4 ,these pre-existing stages can
 with certainty be announced by the     
vegetable physiologist2 who yet would be

 deceived in this instance1 because the 
plant has been but just created4  ,this 
elegant ,gladiolus that displays its    
tall spike of crimson blossoms from the 
midst of its flattened folded leaves1   
affords us a similar example of         
retrospective energy4 ,if ,i dig away   
the light soil from around its base1 ,i 
discover two globose corms1 fleshy      
swellings of the stem1 accumulations of 
nutriment obtained during the vegetative
 activity of the plant1 and destined to 
support it during the season of         
inaction1 and therefore stored up for   
that purpose4  ,illustration3 ,,corm    
,,of ,,gladiolus ,,in ,,june4  ,the     
uppermost of these globose corms is that
 of the present season2 it is as yet    
small and immature1 being in process of 
formation by the assimilation1          
consolidation1 and deposition of new    
matter by the action of the leaves4     
,this is sheathed in the tubular bases  
of the leaves1 which expand above2 and  
it is seated on a larger1 riper1 and    

more spherical corm1 which is wrapped in
 a brown fibrous skin4 ,this is the     
matter which was deposited in the course
 of last spring and summer1 and the     
brown skin is the remains of the leaves 
of last year4 ,this corm has remained   
inactive1 since the decay of last year's
 leaves1 until this winter1 when the    
root fibres1 which we see descending    
from the lower surface1 began to form1  
and an upward prolongation of the stem  
followed1 which1 as it grew1 swelled    
into the upper corm4  ,in the centre of 
the under surface of the corm of last   
season1 in a depression surrounded by   
the white root-fibres1 there are some   
almost decayed remains of a deep brown  
hue4 ,these are the last vestiges of the
 preceding year's corm1 and they exhibit
 the condition in which the large corm  
will be next spring1 when the small     
half-formed one will be in the state and
 position of this larger one1 and will  
in like manner be surmounted by its     
rising successor4  ,thus there are in   

this plant ocular proofs of two years'  
history before the present2 yet these   
proofs are invalidated by the fact of   
its creation this day4  ,behold now that
 singular plant1 the ,grass-tree        
7,kingia australis71 displaying what    
seems an immense tuft of wiry grass     
elevated on the summit of a trunk which 
is formed of the united bases of myriads
 of decayed leaves1 the representatives 
of many generations of these organs4    
,the silvery leaves which constitute the
 existing crown1 and the numerous spikes
 of blossom which stand up in a circle  
diverging from the midst of them1 give  
to this plant a most striking effect4   
,that1 however1 is not our present      
concern1 but the evidences which we may 
be able to gather from it of a previous 
history4 ,for some distance below the   
living leaves1 the trunk is connected by
 the withered1 hanging1 but still       
persistent leaves of several successive 
developments1 a ragged drapery1 of which
 we might certainly say--       ----when

 unadorn'd1 adorn'd the most4  ,the     
lower portion of the stem is1 however1  
destitute of the decayed leaves         
themselves1 the lozenge-formed bases of 
them alone remaining1 still separable1  
indeed1 but sufficiently compact to make
 in the aggregate a sub-cylindrical     
column of loose texture1 which may in   
familiar parlance be termed a trunk4    
,this portion is marked by alternate    
enlargements and constrictions of the   
outline1 which appear to indicate       
seasonal growths4  ,the specimen before 
us is about twenty feet in height1      
exclusive of the crown2 supposing these 
swellings to mark a year's growth1 and  
to be continued in the same proportion  
on that part of the trunk which is      
masked by the decayed leaves as on the  
exposed part1 we should conclude this   
tree to be about thirty-five years old2 
for there are about thirty-four such    
swellings1 each of which contains about 
four hundred of the lozenge-shaped bases
 of the fallen leaves4#ef  ,remember1   

however1 that we are looking at the     
,grass-tree1 not as it now appears on   
the sandy plains of ,western ,australia1
 in the nineteenth century1 but as it   
came out of the hands of its ,almighty  
,creator at some precise but unknown    
period of past time4  ,this ,white      
,lily1 crowned with its cluster of      
nodding flowers1 magnificently          
beautiful1 each a fair emblem of the    
spotless purity of a noble virgin--if we
 remove the soil from its base1 we shall
 find that the stem springs out of a    
fleshy bulb4 ,this is covered with thick
 yellow scales1 by taking away each of  
which in turn1 we see that the bulb is  
made up of such1 surrounding the central
 mass which has pushed upward1 in the   
form of the stalk1 with its leaves and  
flowers4  ,illustration3 ,,section ,,of 
,,lily-,,bulb ,,in ,,july4  ,now the    
whole of this beautiful array which we  
see was formed last summer1 when1 if we 
had divided the bulb longitudinally1 we 
should have seen every leaf1 every tiny 

blossom1 folded together1 and most      
snugly packed within the encircling     
scales1 which are1 indeed1 undeveloped  
leaves2 while from the base of the bulb 
so formed we should have seen pushed up 
on the outside of it1 but yet within the
 common envelope of the exterior scales1
 the flower-stem of last season4 ,there 
could not possibly have been this raceme
 of virgin blossom1 if it had not been  
formed during the preceding season      
within the bulb2 so that its existence  
is a record of a year's growth at least4
  ,yet this is the first hour of the    
lovely ,lily's life2 an hour ago it was 
not4  ,the face of the rugged cliff that
 rises perpendicularly above us was1 a  
few moments ago1 quite naked and bare1  
or diversified only by a few stunted    
prickly shrubs that sprang from its     
crevices4 ,now1 by the mighty fiat of   
,god1 it is in an instant festooned from
 top to bottom with a most graceful     
drapery of round pale-green leaves1 and 
slender stems no thicker than whipcord1 

and multitudes of spiral tendrils that  
climb1 and hook1 and catch1 and entwine 
among the thorny bushes1 and around the 
angles and prominences of the rock4 ,we 
trace this curtain of verdure downwards1
 and find that it resolves itself into  
some half a dozen of wiry-stems1 that   
issue from different points of the      
surface of what seems a boulder of brown
 stone1 or a block of rough-hewn timber1
 at the foot of the cliff4              
,illustration3 ,,testudinaria4  ,this   
angular block is1 however1 worthy of    
closer examination4 ,it is of no        
definite form1 huge and uncouth1 lying  
as if cast accidentally on the ground4  
,its whole surface is divided into a    
multitude of polyhedral pieces1 that    
look as if they had been cut into these 
forms by human art4 ,each division has a
 small angular face1 and its sides      
display close parallel lines1 all       
following the directions and angles of  
the outer face1 but each line enclosing 
a slightly wider area than the one above

 it4 ,these woody plates closely        
resemble in their angular forms and     
their concentric lines the plates of a  
,tortoise's shell1 and hence our        
botanical friend1 to whom we will appeal
 for an opinion as to the age of the    
block1 will call the generic name       
,testudinaria4  ,well1 ,i cannot give   
you any very precise judgment on the    
matter4 ,the block itself is the tuber  
of a sort of yam1 which grows above     
ground instead of below4 ,it is a woody 
mass of great age4 ,the angular plates  
are the bark1 and they are so divided in
 consequence of the gradual growth of   
the tuber1 tearing open its periphery to
 obtain more room4 ,the concentric lines
 on the edges of the plates will not    
give us any adequate idea of the age of 
the mass1 for though they indicate      
seasonal growths1 the earlier layers    
have been worn away in the lapse of     
ages1 and there are many layers of bark 
that have not yet been burst by the     
expansive force of the growing wood4 ,it

 is known that these blocks are of very 
slow growth2 in tropical regions they   
last1 with scarcely perceptible         
increase1 from generation to generation4
 ,from such vague data as we possess1 ,i
 might loosely conjecture this tuber to 
be a thousand years old4  ,we thank our 
scientific friend1 and think it a very  
satisfactory report on an organism1     
which we saw called into existence five 
minutes ago1 before our eyes4  ,come    
away2 for ,i wish you to look at this   
,encephalalartos4 ,a horrid plant it is1
 a sort of caricature of the elegant    
,palms1 somewhat as if a founder had    
essayed a cocoa-nut tree in cast iron4  
,out of the thick1 rough1 stiff stem    
spring a dozen of arching fronds1 beset 
with sharp1 sword-shaped leaflets1 but  
having the rigidity of horn1 of a       
greyish hue1 all harsh and repulsive to 
excess4 ,in the midst of this rigid     
coronal sits the fruit1 like an immense 
pine-cone4  ,the swelling column that   
constitutes the stem is but a mass of   

pith1 surrounded by a thin case of wood1
 and enclosed by the remains of former  
leaves4 ,the whole surface is covered   
with the lozenge-shaped scars of these1 
in vast number4 ,thousands of these     
there must be in this trunk of eight    
feet high1 and a foot thick4 ,the leaves
 of the existing crown are few and very 
durable1 so that it would be no         
unreasonable conjecture to suppose that 
this great ,cycadaceous plant is seven  
or eight centuries old4  ,illustration3 
,,encephalartos4  ,nay1 for this also   
has been created even now6  ,what shall 
we say to this singular phenomenon8     
,observe yonder gigantic ,fig 7,ficus   
,australis7 growing out of the face of  
that vast rocky precipice4 ,it is not so
 much to the massive grandeur of the    
trunk1 nor to the widespread head of    
dense foliage1 that ,i call your        
attention1 as to the broad expanse of   
roots1 from the thickness of your body  
to that of your little finger1 which    
have crossed and interlaced and         

separated and re-united1 in all         
imaginable ways1 until the whole forms a
 great flat network of wood1 investing  
the surface of the rock1 and following  
all its projections and angles with     
singular faithfulness1 for a space of   
many square yards4  ,would you not say1 
admitting that the ,figs are rapid      
growers1 that many years must have      
elapsed since the minute seed was       
dropped in yonder crevice1 by some      
vagrant parrot that wiped his beak after
 breakfast on the point of rock8 ,would 
you not say that many years must have   
passed from the time when the tiny shoot
 peeped from the rocky chink1 to the    
present moment1 when the leafy honours  
of the crown above and the woody wall of
 the roots below combine to repay the   
protection which the plant in infancy   
received from its stony foster mother8  
,of course you would2 and most truly    
too1 did you not know that the ,fig-tree
 is now rejoicing in the first hour of  
its new-created being4  ,so with its    

noble congener here1 the many-trunked   
,banyan 7,ficus ,indica74 ,although not 
an old tree1 its canopy of broad downy  
leaves is already supported by so many  
secondary trunks1 that it is not easy to
 say which of the larger stems is the   
mother trunk1 and which the hopeful     
daughters4 ,every one of these stems1   
some just protruding from the horizontal
 limbs1 others hanging midway between   
the leafy roof and the earth1 some just 
inserting their slender spongy tips into
 the soil1 others thick and             
pillar-like--is an evidence of          
progressive development1 and therefore  
of lapsed time2 only for the qualifying 
fact1 that the development in this case 
is prochronic4  ,here is the great      
,euphorbia grandidens of ,africa4 ,its  
stout trunk is marked with a number of  
holes1 some four or five inches apart1  
arranged in perpendicular rows4 ,in some
 cases they are rather depressions or   
pittings than holes1 and look like what 
would result from borings made with an  

auger in pitch in warm weather1 the     
margins of which had nearly closed1     
subsequently4 ,what is the explanation  
of these marks8 ,they are all records of
 time4 ,from each of these spots once   
grew one of those angular prickly       
branches1 that look like our commonest  
sorts of ,cactus1 and which are now     
confined to the summit of the trunk1    
arching out from it1 somewhat like the  
branches of a candlestick4  ,it is the  
habit of this plant1 when the stem has  
acquired a certain thickness1 that the  
branches should1 after a time1 decay and
 drop off at the point of their union   
with the trunk1 or rather a little below
 the surface1 so as to leave the shallow
 holes or pits which we see4 ,after     
their decadence1 the growing bark       
gradually swells around the scars1 and  
has a tendency to obliterate them4 ,this
 may account for the non-appearance of  
them on the lower parts of the stem4    
,here1 then1 are demonstrations of      
several successive stages of            

development4 ,first1 the stem must have 
been in existence before any lateral    
branches could have sprung from it4     
,secondly1 the branch shot out4         
,thirdly1 it put forth its spines and   
leaves4 ,fourthly1 it died and sloughed 
away4 ,fifthly1 the growing bark        
encroached on1 and finally obliterated  
the cicatrice4  ,in this individual1 all
 these stages are illusory1 or rather   
they are prochronic4  ,see this noble   
,tulip-tree 7,liriodendron tulipiferum71
 a giant of this primeval forest2 its   
towering trunk is crowned with a head of
 large massy foliage1 of a rich deep    
verdure1 among which shine numbers of   
great golden tulip-like blossoms1 as    
fragrant as beautiful4  ,it is1 however1
 the leaves that grow on the terminal   
twigs that ,i wish you specially to     
notice4 ,these1 which1 as you see1 are  
large1 and of a remarkably elegant form1
 are fixed at the end of long petioles1 
which are set alternately on the twig4  
,notice1 now1 the manner of their       

development2 the young unexpanded leaves
 grow within two large leaf-like bracts1
 forming an oval sac1 which1 as the     
young leaf increases1 swell1 and at     
length burst1 and are left on each side 
of the base of the leaf-stalk4 ,there is
 a succession of these4 ,on this growing
 twig1 for instance1 ,i find three      
leaves already expanded 7a a a in the   
accompanying figure71 and as many pairs 
of these bracts 7b b b7 at their bases2 
the twig is terminated by a pair 7c7    
convex outwardly1 and whose edges are in
 contact with each other2 if1 now1 ,i   
cut off one of these 7as represented at 
d71 ,i expose the next leaf 7e7 folded  
together1 and bent downward1 in its     
pretty manner of vernation2 beside it is
 another pair of bracts 7f71 whose edges
 are not only in contact1 but mutually  
adherent1 and that with considerable    
force4 ,on tearing these apart1 ,i      
discover another smaller leaf1 and      
another smaller pair of adhering bracts1
 which again contain a similar set1 only

 yet more minute1 and so on in          
succession1 till ,i can no longer trace 
them4  ,illustration3 ,,twig ,,of       
,,tulip-,,tree4  ,now it is manifest    
that the uppermost of the three leaves1 
together with the developing terminal   
bud1 was at one time enclosed in the    
pair of bracts immediately below its    
base2 that1 before that1 the middle     
leaf1 with all above it1 was similarly  
incarcerated in its own proper tracts2  
and1 at a period anterior to that1 the  
lowest leaf also4 ,each pair of bracts  
is therefore a record of a past period2 
and together they testify to a          
succession of past periods4  ,and yet   
their combined testimony is utterly     
worthless1 because the noble tree was   
created in its magnificence this very   
day4  ,the beautiful twiner 7,bignonia71
 which has cast its ample festoons over 
the topmost branches of yonder towering 
,mora-tree1 almost concealing the       
natural foliage with its own elegantly  
pinnate leaves1 and adorning it with its

 gorgeous trumpet-shaped flowers1 is    
distinguished by a curious property1    
indicative of the years that have passed
 over it4 ,in its adult maturity1 as we 
now see it--the glory of this tropical  
forest--we should find1 if we cut across
 the main stem1 that its wood is divided
 into lobes arranged in a radiate or    
star-like fashion1 like the divisions   
seen on dividing an orange transversely2
 and these lobes are thirty-two in      
number4  ,but this condition has not    
existed through the life of the plant4  
,the wood has always been lobed1 but the
 number of the divisions has varied1 and
 that in geometrical ratio4 ,before the 
present stage1 the constituent lobes    
were sixteen1 which became thirty-two by
 the subdivision of each4 ,in an earlier
 stage there were eight lobes1 and1     
earlier still1 four1 which was the      
commencing number2 the duplication      
having proceeded in each case by the    
fission of each of the existing lobes   
into two4#eg  ,now though this          

phenomenon will afford us1 on the data  
we at present possess1 no insight into  
the age of the plant1 considered as an  
actual chronological period1 an         
examination of a transverse section     
would always determine which stage is   
then present1 and1 by consequence1 how  
many previous stages have been passed   
through4 ,and thus we obtain a distinct 
clue to the former history of the       
organism1 though we cannot mark it off  
into months and years4  ,yet the fact of
 creation stultifies all the conclusions
 that we might form from such premises2 
since it does1 ipso facto1 contradict   
every such thing as a previous history4 
,on this ,anona there is an intruder    
more strictly parasitical2 it is a      
,loranthus1 with long1 club-shaped1     
richly-coloured blossoms4 ,the branches 
of the supporting tree--a nurse who     
feeds her foster-child on her own vital 
juices--are over-spread for a large     
space with the shoots2 which1 springing 
each from its own disk1 appear like so  

many distinct individuals1 but are      
really all parts of a single plant1     
springing from a single seed4 7,for this
 curious fact we are indebted to the    
observations of ,mr4 ,griffith1 who has 
investigated the singular history of    
these parasites47  ,the ripe seeds      
firmly adhere to the substance on which 
they are applied1 by means of their     
viscid envelope1 which soon hardens into
 a transparent glue4 ,in the course of  
two or three days1 the radicle curves   
towards its support1 and1 as soon as it 
reaches it1 becomes dilated and         
flattened4 ,an union is gradually formed
 between the woody system of the        
parasite and that of the stock1 after   
which the former lives exclusively on   
the latter1 the fibres of the           
sucker-like root of the parasite        
expanding on the wood of the support in 
the form of a pate d'oie4 ,up to that   
time the parasite had been nourished by 
its own albumen1 which is now exhausted4
 ,as soon as the young parasite has     

acquired the height of one or two       
inches1 when an additional supply of    
nourishment is required1 a lateral shoot
 is sent out1 which is1 especially      
towards the point1 of a green colour4   
,this at one1 or two1 and subsequently  
at various points1 adheres to the       
support by means of sucker-like         
productions1 which are precisely similar
 in structure and mode of attachment to 
the original seminal one4 ,the fibres of
 the parasite never penetrate beyond    
their original attachment2 in the adult 
the sucker-bearing shoots frequently run
 to a considerable distance1 many plants
 being literally covered with parasites1
 all of which have originated from one  
and the same seed4#eh  ,illustration3   
,,young ,,plant ,,of ,,loranthus4  ,in  
this case1 again1 how delusive would be 
any inference of actual lapse of time   
deduced from the condition of a plant1  
which had been created as an adult      
capable of reproducing its race6  ,here 
is a great impenetrable thicket of      

,prickly ,pear4 ,the delicate           
sulphur-hued flowers expand their broad 
bosoms to the sun1 and the swelling     
fruit beneath is already putting on its 
lovely blush of crimson4 ,how curious   
are the leafless but leaf-like          
dilatations of the stem--these flat oval
 plates of parenchyma1 studded with     
clusters of woody and most acute        
spines6--,every one of these expansions 
is an expression of time1 as they are of
 course successive1 though several may  
be formed in a single season2 and not   
only so1 but the tufts of spines1 which 
grow at the points of intersection of   
crossing lines1 in a network pattern1   
are all successive1 appearing in turn as
 the expanded joint of the stem grows   
out4  ,the jointed dilatations          
themselves are1 however1 transitory2 in 
the slow lapse of years the common woody
 axis enlarges1 and the interspaces     
between the oval plates become gradually
 filled up with cellular tissue1 and    
thus are obliterated2 the stem1 as may  

be seen in the central part of this     
spreading thicket1 becoming round1      
almost smooth1 and of dense woody       
texture4 ,this condition is the result  
of many years1 you say4 ,it is so1 in   
the ordinary course of nature2 but in   
the case before us1 it has been educed  
in a totally different manner1 and by a 
totally different energy1 viz4          
prochronically1 by the omnipotent fiat  
of the ,creator4  ,we have emerged from 
the forest glooms1 and are come within  
the light and the music of the sparkling
 sea4 ,and here at its margin1 washed by
 its wavelets1 there has been suddenly  
created a ,mangrove tree 7,rhizophora71 
destined to be1 doubtless1 the fruitful 
parent of a grove1 which by and by will 
fringe this flat and muddy shore for    
miles1 shutting out the light and air   
which now freely play over the beach1   
and keeping in1 beneath a long canopy of
 dense and leathery foliage1 the murky  
vapours which will rise from the        
decomposition of its successive         

exuviations4  ,as yet it is a single    
tree1 but in its perfection of maturity4
 ,and see how characteristically we find
 here that singular structure1 or rather
 habit1 which in ,mangroves of normal   
development would be the effect of age4 
,the trunk springs from the union of a  
number of slender arches1 each forming  
the quadrant of a circle1 whose         
extremities penetrate into the muddy    
soil4 ,these are the roots of the       
tree--there are no others--that shoot   
out in this arched form from the base1  
or crown of the stem1 taking a very     
regular curve of six feet or more in    
length before they dip into the mud4    
,the larger arches send out secondary   
shoots from their sides1 which take the 
same curved form1 but in a direction at 
right angles to the former2 and thus a  
complex array of vaulted lines is       
formed1 which1 to the crabs that run    
beneath--if they were only able to      
institute the comparison1 must be like  
the roof-groins of some ,gothic church1 

supposing the interspaces to be open to 
the sky4  ,now1 normally1 it would      
require a lapse of several years from   
the first dip of the radicle of the seed
 into the soft soil1 to form these      
arches1 and to lift the axis of the tree
 a foot or eighteen inches above the    
surface4 ,but here the same result is   
achieved in a moment1 by the exercise of
 creative power4  ,look at this         
,eriodendron4 ,what a magnificent       
accumulation of vegetable cells is here6
 ,its colossal trunk rises in naked     
majesty1 a massive column1 to the height
 of a hundred feet1 without a branch4   
,and then what branches6 ,those limbs   
themselves are of the bulk of ordinary  
forest trees2 they break out1 three or  
four on the same plane1 and radiate     
horizontally to a vast distance1        
supporting a noble flat roof of inwoven 
shade4  ,illustration3 ,,silk-,,cotton  
,,tree4  ,perhaps the most remarkable   
feature of this majestic tree is found  
at the foot of the trunk1 which sends   

out vast spurs1 radiating in all        
directions1 and extending to a circle of
 seventy or eighty feet in diameter4    
,these spurs take the form of           
perpendicular walls of timber1 commonly 
not more than six or eight inches thick1
 pretty equal in their thickness        
throughout1 and varying in height from  
fifteen or twenty feet1 where they      
spring from the trunk1 to the point     
where they enter the soil4  ,now the    
,silk-cotton tree has not had this form 
through its life4 ,when young1 say up to
 twenty or thirty years old1 there was  
no appearance of spurs2 the trunk was   
covered with a green bark1 and was      
studded with great triangular low       
spines1 an inch in diameter4 ,and1 what 
had a curious effect1 the middle of the 
stem swelled into an ovate form1 quite  
symmetrical on all sides4 ,but1 as years
 passed1 the ventricose form of the     
trunk was gradually lost2 the bark      
became of a hoary grey hue or even      
almost white2 the three-sided prickles  

disappeared from the bole1 and were     
retained only on the upper surfaces of  
the limbs2 and the great lateral        
buttresses began to fill up the angles  
which had hitherto existed between the  
trunk and the main horizontal and       
superficial roots4  ,i called the noble 
tree before us an accumulation of       
vegetable cells4 ,and viewed in that    
aspect1 what an irresistible evidence of
 the lapse of time does this vast       
organism present to us6 since the whole 
of this immense structure originated in 
a single cell1 which1 by repeated acts  
of self-division#ei 7or1 possibly1 other
 modes of reproduction71 has gradually  
built up the mass4  ,yet such a         
retrospect would be most fallacious in  
the case before us1 since the plant1 as 
a perfect compound organism1 with its   
parts--root1 trunk1 limbs and leaves1   
and its tissues--cellular1 fibrous1 and 
vascular1 has been produced by the      
instantaneous putting forth of the      
,divine volition4  ,once again4 ,more   

gigantic even than the towering ,ceiba1 
this immense ,locust-tree 7,hymenaea7   
appears to penetrate the very sky with  
its crowd of foliage1 which is so remote
 from the earth1 that our eyes cannot   
avail to discern the forms of the       
leaves4 ,the straight columnar trunk1   
like some triumphal monument in the     
midst of a great metropolis1 is of so   
vast a bulk that a dozen of such men as 
you and ,i could scarcely embrace it    
with stretched arms and joined hands4#fj
  ,can our friend1 the vegetable        
physiologist1 help us here to form a    
notion of the time which would be       
required for the production of this tree
 in the ordinary way8 ,it is the last   
favour we will ask of him to-day4 ,come1
 ,sir1 give us your thoughts on the     
matter4  ,the ,botanist4--,there is a   
principle which1 in trees of this       
character1 namely1 such as are of       
exogenous structure1 will determine the 
age with very close accuracy4 ,each     
generation of leaves sends down woody   

fibres1 which unite into a cylinder on  
the outside of the wood previously      
formed1 and beneath the bark4  ,now1 as 
these cylinders are in general          
sufficiently distinct1 in those trees   
which renew their leaves but once in a  
year1 it will be enough to count the    
concentric circles which appear on a    
transverse section of the trunk1 and we 
shall obtain the number of years during 
which the tree has existed4 ,in the case
 of this great ,locust1 the rule1 to be 
sure1 is rather difficult of application
 in that way2 a transverse section of   
this trunk would cost a little labour4  
,but with this circular saw1 which ,i   
always carry about with me for          
investigations of this sort1 ,i can take
 out a horizontal cylinder on each of   
two or three sides of the tree1 by      
counting the layers in which ,i can form
 a tolerably accurate estimate of the   
number in the whole diameter4           
,illustration3 ,,section ,,of           
,,exogenous ,,tree4  ,see2 in these     

cylinders1 which do not materially      
differ1 there are seventy-two layers in 
a foot1 that is1 each layer is one-sixth
 of an inch wide4 ,the trunk is1 at the 
part ,i have tested1 about fifty feet in
 diameter1 or twenty-five feet in       
radius2 which would therefore contain   
just eighteen hundred such layers4 ,as  
the deposition of new wood1 however1 is 
generally more abundant in youth and    
middle life than in age1 the layers are 
probably a little wider1 that is1 fewer 
in a given space1 as we approach the    
centre4 ,for this we must make          
allowance1 and may conjecture that this 
tree is probably not less than one      
thousand five hundred years old4  ,now  
whether the premises of the botanist    
will bear out this conclusion or not1 is
 not a vital question4 ,for the question
 at issue is1 not1 ,how long it has     
lived1 but1 ,whether it has lived at    
all1 before the present moment4 ,it is  
enough for our point that the tree does1
 in its concentric zones1 afford ocular 

evidence of successive epochs of growth4
 ,and the proof of this would be equally
 good1 if ten layers were deposited in a
 year1 or if one deposit were made every
 ten years2 equally good1 if there were 
fifteen hundred zones1 or if there were 
but five4 ,it would be easy to confirm  
the testimony of the zones by that of   
other parts of the structure4 ,the      
dimensions of the tree itself bear a    
fixed and1 to a certain extent1         
recognisable ratio to its age2 every    
leaf on a given twig has been           
successively developed from a leaf-bud1 
the opening of which and its elongation 
into a twig occupied1 normally1 a       
definite period2 each bough1 each of    
those mighty limbs1 was once a twig1 was
 once an undeveloped leaf-bud1 whose    
expansion to its present condition was a
 process1 of which time was an          
inseparable and1 within certain limits1 
a mensurable element4  ,if1 then1 we    
were precluded from examining any other 
organism1 as it proceeded from the      

formative hand of its ,creator1 than    
this single tree1 we should be amply    
warranted in inferring a past existence 
7be it longer or shorter1 which is no   
matter7 from the phenomena of its       
structure1 which inference the fact of  
its creation would flatly contradict4   
,,viii4  ,,parallels ,,and ,,precedents4
  7,invertebrate ,animals47       ,there
 is a kind of character in thy life     
,that to th' observer doth thy history  
,fully unfold4---- 7,shakspeare47       
,leaving the vegetable kingdom1 those   
organisms which1 though beautiful indeed
 and instructive1 are yet inanimate1 let
 us seek others which are endowed with a
 higher style of life1 a life which is  
distinguished by a measure of           
consciousness of the exterior world1 and
 a perception of relations to it4 ,let  
us look for animals4  ,we retrace our   
steps to the verge of the rippling sea1 
where the belt of umbrageous ,mangroves 
fringes its margin4 ,beneath the arching
 roots of these are now reposing in the 

warm sunlit shallows many creatures     
which number this as the first day of   
their existence4 ,it is their natal1 or 
rather 7to make a word7 their creatal   
day4  ,here is a specimen of the        
,sea-pen 7,pennatula71 closely          
resembling a rather thick and fleshy    
feather1 with its quill-end inserted in 
the tenacious marl which constitutes the
 floor of the sea along this shore1 and 
with the greater part of its body1      
including all the pinnated portion1     
erect1 and waving lightly in the gentle 
swell of the bay4 ,its central stem is  
beset on each side with about           
twenty-five horizontal purple pinnae1   
and each pinna bears from five to       
fifteen polypes with eight tentacles    
each4  ,let us wade out to yonder reef4 
,see this great mass of ,millepore1     
growing in thin irregular perpendicular 
plates1 which join each other at various
 angles1 so as to form a large open     
honeycomb-like structure1 much          
resembling the second stomach of an ox4 

,it is covered with what appears a thin 
stratum of fawn-coloured jelly1 but this
 consists of innumerable disks1 which   
protrude from myriads of orifices not   
larger than those produced by the       
punctures of a fine needle2 as we may   
discern by touching the soft slimy      
surface1 when the whole retires1 and    
leaves apparent only the white stony    
surface dotted with numberless holes1   
within which the disks have disappeared1
 and whence they will again presently   
re-appear4  ,here too is a massive shrub
 of stone1 a noble example of the       
,muricated ,madrepore4 ,it consists of a
 great multitude of short tranches1     
which are themselves branched and       
branched again1 every part covered with 
little mammillary warts1 and pierced    
with innumerable holes in which stand   
radiating plates of the common stone4   
,out of these plated orifices1          
especially those towards the tips of the
 branches1 for the older ones are empty 
and dead1 we see perpetually peeping    

forth1 expanding for an instant1 and    
then coyly withdrawing1 lovely little   
green disks1 surrounded with thread-like
 tentacles2 and from the extreme end of 
each branch there protrudes one exactly 
similar to the rest in all respects1    
except that it is nearly twice as large4
 ,here then are the living architects2  
these have secreted within their        
gelatinous membranes the calcareous     
atoms1 whose aggregate forms the stony  
shrub before us4  ,shall we try to      
estimate the number of polypes that have
 been occupied in building this tree8   
,there are about a hundred branches1    
which1 taken one with another1 and      
followed along the sinuous course of    
their many branchlets1 we may estimate  
to average a continuous length of eight 
feet each2 that is1 #hjj feet of branch 
in all4 ,now we may consider these      
branches as averaging a thickness of two
 inches and a half in circumference1    
which gives us a surface of #bd1jjj     
square inches4 ,finally1 there are about

 ten polype-cells in each square inch2  
and thus there are or have been in this 
coral-mass1 nearly a quarter of a       
million of polype inhabitants4          
,illustration3 ,,muricated ,,madrepore4 
,but look at this dark crimson edifice  
of many stories1 tier above tier1 each  
horizontal floor of red stone sustained 
by a multitude of slender cylindrical   
pillars4 ,when we look closely at them1 
we see that the pillars are tubes1      
perforating one or more of the floors1  
from the lowest tier to the uppermost4  
,have we any clue to the age of these   
corals1 or to that of either of them1   
supposing we did not know that they have
 been created to-day8 ,not definitely1  
perhaps2 but indefinitely we have1      
certainly4 ,in the case of the ,sea-pen1
 the polypes have all been formed in    
succession2 as also in that of the stony
 ,millepore and ,madrepore1 with this   
addition1 that every newly formed polype
 deposited an increase to the stony     
substance1 which thus went on increasing

 till the great foliated or ramified    
mass that we see was formed4#fa ,and so1
 with this series of floors and pillars1
 which is the solid portion of another  
coral-polype1 the ,organ-pipe 7,tubipora
 musica74  ,illustration3               
,,organ-,,pipe4  ,every one of these    
stories has been formed in succession4  
,from the tips of some of the tubes we  
see protruding an elegant polype of an  
emerald-green hue1 having eight starry  
tentacles1 and giving off from its base 
an enveloping membrane1 which spreads   
over the rim of the tube and descends on
 the outside to the floor4 ,by means of 
this vascular membrane1 both tube and   
floor have been formed4 ,calcareous     
particles1 deposited1 one by one1 in its
 substance1 gradually built up the tube 
of the primary polype1 or probably the  
tubes of the first series1 the basement 
or ground-floor4 ,when these tubes had  
arrived at a certain height1 all        
simultaneously began to develope the    
fleshy membrane horizontally1 which     

expanded until that from each touched   
that from its neighbour1 with which it  
united4 ,meanwhile the calcareous       
deposition went on in this horizontal   
layer1 and thus the first floor was     
made4  ,now from the living vascular    
upper surface of this layer sprang up at
 certain spots buds1#fb offshoots of the
 common flesh1 which soon rose into     
columns1 and1 by a process of calcareous
 deposition1 became tubes with terminal 
polypes1 which in turn spread out a     
horizontal layer1 and thus the second   
floor was built4 ,hence a new race of   
polypes budded1 which by and by formed  
the third floor2 and so on in           
succession1 until the series had        
attained the height which we see4  ,if  
we assume one of these stories to be the
 growth of a year1#fc we have ocular    
evidence in this specimen of six years' 
age1 for here are six successive floors4
 ,but no3 for it was created complete1  
as we see it1 this very hour4  ,yonder  
goes a ,medusa1 pumping its way         

laboriously1 yet not ineffectively1 just
 beneath the surface of the clear wave4 
,it is a great affair1 nearly a foot in 
diameter4 ,have we1 from merely         
examining its appearance and structure1 
any criterion by which we can guess     
whether it has lived an hour1 or a year1
 or ten years8 ,surely we have2 for this
 mass of clear jelly is composed1 like  
all other organic bodies1 of cells1     
which have been gradually generated1 by 
nutrition and assimilation1 from the    
embryo4#fd ,this process must have      
occupied many months1 if not several    
years2 but the history of this ,medusa  
did not begin when it took its present  
umbrella-like form4 ,shall we trace it  
back a little farther8  ,at some time   
back1 then1 this creature detached      
itself as the terminal one of many      
little saucer-like bodies1 which had    
been for some time previously forming by
 the gradual constriction of a thick    
fleshy stem4 ,before the constriction   
began to be visible1 this stem was the  

body of a white ,hydraform polype1      
affixed by its base1 and furnished at   
its free extremity with thirty-two      
tentacles4 ,it had lived several years  
in this form1 developing many ,hydroid  
polypes1 just like itself1 by successive
 gemmations4 ,before it took this shape1
 which it assumed gradually1 its        
tentacles being developed in geometrical
 progression1 #cb from #af1 from #h1    
from #d1--;it was a soft ovoid planule  
clothed with vibratile cilia1 which swam
 freely in the sea1 like an ,infusorium4
  ,thus the physiologist would          
confidently assign to this ,medusa an   
existence of several years1 as an       
independent organism2 nor could his     
conclusions be controverted1 except by  
the knowledge of the fact that the      
,medusa has been but just now created4  
,we pass on4 ,here is an ,echinus4 ,let 
it be borne in mind still1 that we have1
 in idea1 the power of pursuing our     
researches on each creature at the      
moment which follows that of its        

creation2 and that1 when that actually  
was is of no consequence to our         
investigation4  ,here then is this      
new-made ,echinus sphaera1 a somewhat   
conical globe of three inches diameter1 
which is covered with a forest of       
spines1 pedicellariae1 and suckers1 and 
which glides majestically along1 with an
 even but slow progress1 over rock and  
reef4 ,its vitals are enclosed in a     
hollow box of calcareous shell1 which is
 built up of nearly a thousand pieces4  
,this specimen1 which is rather below   
than above the average size1 is formed  
of ten meridional rows of large plates  
7the interambulacral71 and ten of small 
7the ambulacral74 ,the former series are
 each composed of thirty-two plates1    
making in all three hundred and twenty2 
the latter have just double that number1
 making six hundred and forty2 thus this
 ,urchin's box is built up of nine      
hundred and sixty plates2 every one of  
which is of definite shape and angle1   
and fits into the angles of its fellows 

with the accuracy of the most skilfully 
constructed cabinet-work4  ,now every   
one of these plates is an eloquent      
witness to the past life-history of the 
,sea-urchin4 ,for the reason why the    
enclosing box is made of so many pieces 
is1 that it might gradually expand and  
enlarge its capacity with the ever      
increasing requirements of the soft     
organs within4 ,every plate is enveloped
 by a vascular flesh1 from which the    
calcareous particles are deposited in a 
constant and perfectly uniform ratio2   
and thus all the constituent plates are 
continually enlarged by additions to    
both the internal and external surfaces 
7increasing their strength71 and to     
their sutural margins 7increasing their 
combined capacity71 until the adult     
dimensions are attained4  ,the size of  
the new-born ,echinus is not nearly     
equal to that of one of these plates1   
and the progressive increase of the     
plates by deposition on their edges has 
certainly taken several years to        

accomplish4#fe  ,the same result is     
inferrible from the structure of the    
spines with which every plate is armed4 
,each of these is a very long cone of   
calcareous matter1 arranged in minute   
oval chambers1 divided by thin glassy   
walls1 and deposited particle by        
particle from the thin stratum of living
 flesh with which each has been invested
 from its first embryonic development4  
,but of this ,echinus1 as of the ,medusa
 before1 we find a history anterior to  
either box or spines4 ,its first        
appearance in this stage of existence   
was as a barely-visible circular disk1  
constructed on the outside of the       
stomach of a singular transparent       
organism1 much like a ,medusa1 but of a 
domular form with four or six legs1     
stiffened by calcareous rods1 and a     
crowning pinnacle4 ,for some undefined  
time this gelatinous dome had been      
gliding with a stately movement through 
the open sea1 before there was the least
 trace of the disk1 which afterwards    

grew to the ,echinus4 ,in its earliest  
condition the dome itself was a soft1   
spherical1 mulberry-like ,infusorium1   
covered with vibratile cilia2 this      
altered its form to that of a           
three-sided pyramid1 and this to the    
vaulted dome4  ,clearly1 therefore1 we  
have a right to infer a past history of 
the ,urchin1 and that of not a few      
distinct stages4 ,but no2 the specimen  
has commenced its history within an     
hour6  ,yonder ,feather-star 7,comatula7
 notice2 which1 having just now started 
into mature life at the almighty fiat of
 its ,creator1 goes careering joyously  
through the sea1 expanding and          
contracting its many-jointed and        
feathery arms1 as if it had been        
accustomed to the alternation for a long
 life1 and ever and anon settling itself
 by grasping the points of rock with its
 dorsal claws4 ,you would hardly think  
that those flexible and slender arms    
were made of stone3 yet they are2 every 
joint of the stems and of their pinnae  

is a vertebra of stone 7precious stones1
 you will say--topaz and ruby--from     
their brilliant hues71 which has been   
formed and deposited atom by atom1 by   
the slow and gradual process of         
secretion of calcareous matter2 the lime
 having been primarily collected from   
the sea-water which held it in solution4
 ,at least1 such is the physiological   
deduction4  ,illustration3 ,,comatula   
,,and ,,young4  ,but there was a period 
in the ,comatula's history when it was  
not a free-swimming star1 but a         
lily-like flower of ten slender fringed 
petals1 seated at the summit of a long  
stalk1 with a central columnar axis of  
stone4 ,before that1 the flower-head had
 a bud-like figure1 and the petals were 
minute and destitute of lateral fringes2
 and earlier still1 it was a tiny       
gelatinous club without any development 
of stone1 affixed by a spreading base1  
and shooting forth from the top a few   
pellucid processes4 ,earlier still1 it  
was1 no doubt1 an infusory-like gemmule1

 clothed with cilia4  ,through all these
 successive stages1 which1 of course1   
occupied a considerable period of time1 
we should certainly affirm the          
,feather-star to have passed1 did we not
 know that it has this very hour burst  
into existence4  ,that ,panther1 whose  
tawny fur studded with black rosettes   
appeared so beautiful as he bounded with
 agile grace from glade to glade just as
 we emerged from the forest1 contains   
within his intestines1 though you cannot
 see it1 a mature ,tapeworm4 ,the body  
of this parasite consists of some       
hundreds of square flattened segments1  
each of which includes a complicated    
generative apparatus1 equal to the      
production of thousands of fertile ova4 
,is not this an evidence of age8 ,for1  
first of all1 consider that the         
formation of each of these hundreds of  
joints has been a work of development   
from the anterior parts2 and therefore  
they record as many distinct and        
successive processes as there are       

segments4 ,and1 secondly1 remember that 
the ,taenia did not commence existence  
as a ,taenia1 nor in the conditions in  
which it now exists1 within the bowels  
of the ,panther4 ,it looks back to      
another form1 and to another living     
nidus4  ,there was a time when this     
parasitic creature had no ribbon-like   
body of flattened generative segments4  
,there was1 indeed1 the same curious    
head1 a tiny globose knob at the        
extremity of a slender neck1 furnished  
with the same array as now1 of rows of  
hooks and sucking disks4 ,but in place  
of the segments1 the neck merged into a 
membranous bladder distended with clear 
fluid4 ,it was not a ,taenia then1 but a
 ,cysticercus4  ,its home was at that   
time the interior of a living animal on 
whose vitalized juices it was sustained1
 but that animal was widely different   
from its present patron4 ,it was an     
,antelope1 that cropped the wiry grass  
and aromatic shrubs of the arid plain4  
,earlier still1 the germ of this ,taenia

 was an egg lying on the ground1 having 
been discharged from the rectum of      
another ,panther1 in the bowels of which
 it had been developed by one of the    
segments of a former ,taenia4  ,let us  
now trace the history of this organism  
onwards from the point at which we have 
arrived in our retrograde researches4   
,the parent ,taenia1 still snugly       
ensconced in its obscene abode1         
partially matured and then separated the
 ultimate generative segment1 containing
 many thousands of ova1 far advanced    
towards perfection4 ,the detached       
segment now became enclosed in the      
faeces of the ,carnivore1 and was at    
length discharged1 enveloped in the     
pellet4 ,the eggs1 acquiring maturity1  
were hatched1 and the infant worms      
individually scattered themselves among 
the surrounding herbage4#ff  ,one of    
these was devoured with the herbage by a
 grazing ,antelope1 and having safely   
escaped the perilous ordeals of         
mastication and rumination1 passed into 

the stomach of that ,ruminant1 whence it
 soon made its way by some unknown but  
unerring route to the liver1 in the     
parenchyma of which organ it rapidly    
developed the cyst1 which gave to the   
present stage its proper character4     
,the ,antelope fell a prey to the       
ferocious ,cat2 its flesh was quickly   
digested in the stomach1 but the gastric
 juice produced no effect on the        
,cysticercus4 ,this parasite had merely 
changed its residence for one more      
commodious1 or at least more suitable   
for its further development4 ,it        
presently attached itself to the walls  
of the intestine by means of its oral   
hooks and suckers1 and1 getting rid of  
its vesicular sac1 with its fluid       
contents1 probably by absorption1 it    
began to develop1 joint by joint1 that  
immense ribbon1 which it possesses now1 
and which constitutes it a ,tapeworm4   
,such is the strange eventful history of
 this repulsive creature2 a history     
legitimately deducible1 in all its      

stages1 from its presently-existing     
condition4 ,but it is a history         
altogether illusory4 ,the ,taenia never 
was a ,cysticercus3 the ,panther is as  
yet guiltless of capricide3 it is this  
moment called into being1 and the       
,tapeworm begins existence within it4   
,this lump of red sandstone that has    
been rolled about in the sea1 till all  
its points and angles are worn smooth1  
is now roughened again by the close and 
firm adhesion of extraneous substance1  
in the form of a cluster of shelly      
pipes1 which twine irregularly over the 
surface of the boulder1 and then start  
up erect with open mouths4 ,these are   
the tubes of a species of ,serpula1 and 
the worm itself is seen now slowly      
emerging from one of them1 and          
introducing its conical stopper1 and    
elegant fans of white and scarlet       
filaments1 to the genial daylight4      
,observe1 however1 that the tubes are   
not of the same diameter throughout4 ,at
 the point where they start up from     

contact with the stone1 they are        
considerably smaller than at the tip2   
and if we trace back the adherent       
portion along its tortuous course1 we   
find that it constantly diminishes until
 it is but a slender white thread of    
stone4 ,now this slender extremity was  
formed first2 and as the worm itself    
grew1 so it progressively required a    
larger and yet a larger habitation2     
which was readily provided of the due   
dimensions1 because the material1 which 
is limestone1 was secreted by the       
swollen collar of the worm1 and being   
freely poured out as required1 was      
moulded of the proper calibre by the    
rotatory motion of the animal1 combined 
with the special use of certain tactile 
organs for the purpose4  ,the shelly    
tubes themselves afford us ocular       
evidence not only of their progressive  
formation1 but also of the successive   
steps by which this was effected4 ,for  
at certain intervals of their length we 
perceive rings of the common stony      

substance1 which mark the rim or mouth  
of the tube as it existed after each    
periodic increase4 ,the mouth of the    
tube is1 as we see1 slightly expanded in
 a trumpet fashion2 but as the general  
cylindrical figure is to be maintained1 
the next deposit of calcareous matter is
 not made at the very edge of the lip1  
but on a ring a little way within the   
margin1 whence it is carried up1 leaving
 the former margin slightly projecting4 
,illustration3 ,,serpula4  ,who could   
hesitate to assert that a history of    
past time is legibly written in the     
annulations of these stony tubes8 ,and  
yet the creatures1 with their tubes1    
have been but this instant created4     
,but here is a tube of quite another    
construction1 though inhabited by a     
kindred worm4 ,it is wholly built up of 
sand1 the inimitable architecture of the
 indwelling ,terebella1 who has thus    
succeeded in performing a task which    
defied the efforts of that too          
industrious artizan1--the familiar of   

the renowned ,michael ,scott4#fg ,our   
worm has certainly spun a rope of sand1 
and one which holds together with       
surprising tenacity4  ,the instrument   
which our little architect wrought with 
are the long tentacles1 which1 like a   
tangled tuft of yellow sewing-cotton1   
twist and twine over the floors of sandy
 pools4 ,nothing at first sight seems   
less adequate for the purpose than those
 very slender1 soft1 and flexible       
threads4 ,dr4 ,williams shall tell us   
how they are used4 ,they consist of     
hollow flattened tubular filaments1     
furnished with strong muscular parietes4
 ,the band may be rolled longitudinally 
into a cylindrical form1 so as to       
inclose a hollow cylindrical space1 if  
the two edges of the band meet2 or a    
semi-cylindrical space1 if they only    
imperfectly meet4 ,this inimitable      
mechanism enables each filament to take 
up and firmly grasp1 at any point of its
 length1 a molecule of sand2 or1 if     
placed in a linear series1 a row of     

molecules4 ,but so perfect is the       
disposition of the muscular fibres at   
the extreme free end of each filament1  
that it is gifted with the two-fold     
power of acting on the sucking and on   
the muscular principle4 ,when the       
tentacle is about to seize an object1   
the extremity is drawn in1 in           
consequence of the sudden reflux of     
fluid in the hollow interior2 by this   
movement a cup-shaped cavity is formed1 
in which the object is securely held by 
atmospheric pressure2 this power is1    
however1 immediately aided by the       
contraction of the circular muscular    
fibres4 ,such1 then1 are the marvellous 
instruments by which these peaceful     
worms construct their habitations4#fh   
,since the slender tentacles are the    
implements by which the sand-tube is    
thus built up1 it is manifest that the  
existence of the tube must be subsequent
 to the existence of the tentacles4 ,but
 the ,terebella was at one time without 
tentacles2 so that its history certainly

 reaches back to a date anterior to the 
existence of a tube4 ,several stages of 
life have intervened between that       
distinguished by the present worm-form1 
and its infant condition1 when it swam  
as a ciliated undivided monad4  ,so1 at 
least1 we conclude from physiological   
data2 but our conclusions are false1    
because contradicted by the fact that   
the mature animal with its case has been
 just now created4         99       99  
99       99       99  ,let us forsake   
the ocean-shore1 and walk again through 
the glades of the virgin forest4 ,a     
,white-ant 7,termes7 crosses our path1  
and1 by tracking him home1 we speedily  
discover his dwelling1 an enormous      
structure composed of gnawed wood       
cemented with an animal secretion1 and  
formed into thin but very firm and hard 
layers4 ,swarms of labourers are passing
 in and out2 and1 on our breaking away a
 portion of the edifice1 out come       
crowding the warriors1 with formidable  
jaws extended widely1 ready for the     

fight4 ,in the interior we find numerous
 chambers stored with food1 and         
nurseries occupied by young and eggs1   
the number of which is every hour       
increasing by the oviposition of the    
gravid female1--the queen of the        
city--who is lodged in an apartment in  
the very centre of the whole4  ,the     
entire edifice has been built around    
her2 she is the hope of the colony1 the 
only mother in this vast assemblage4 ,it
 is therefore through her that we must  
look for a past history2 and in her we  
find it4 ,some months ago1 when she was 
not more than one thousandth part as    
large as she is now1 though then adult1 
she migrated from some other city not   
less populous than this is now4 ,it was 
just before the periodical rains1 when1 
at the time of the great annual         
swarming1 myriads of winged males and   
females were evolved from the pupa      
state1 and flew out from their native   
city4 ,this individual female was found 
by some of the workers that now compose 

this colony1 and was immediately        
selected to be at once their prisoner   
and their queen4  ,we thus trace our    
great egg-laying ,termes to a city of   
last year's building1 in which for a    
time she was in an immature condition as
 a nymph1 and before that passed a still
 less-developed stage as a larva4 ,hence
 her life-history goes yet farther back 
to an egg1 originally laid by a former  
female in exactly the same circumstances
 as those in which we find this guarded 
and immured individual4  ,thus we       
reason2 but the female1 with her host of
 attendants1 and the house1 which is    
inseparable from their present stage of 
existence1 has been created to-day4     
,see that creature which with loud      
ringing hum is whirling round and round 
the tassel-like blossoms of this noble  
,eugenia4 ,you would think it a bird    
from its massive size1 but it flashes   
and sparkles in the sun1 like a great   
jewel4 ,now it suddenly alights on one  
of the crimson flowers1 and you may     

perceive that it is a beetle2--a beetle 
of vast size1 and glittering like a lump
 of burnished metal2--it bears the name 
of ,goliath1--a giant clad in polished  
armour4  ,this is his first hour of     
existence2 now for the first time has   
his nervous system responded to the     
stimulus of the sweet air and genial    
sunshine4 ,an hour ago he had no nervous
 system2 no system of any sort2 no life2
 no being2 no anything2--he was not     
until this hour4  ,yet if we were to ask
 a friend conversant with entomology his
 opinion on the age of this insect1 he  
would immediately give it2 not1 however1
 as an opinion1 for he would repudiate  
the uncertainty which such a word       
implies1 but as an indubitable fact1    
resting on the infallible grounds of    
constant observation and undeviating    
experience4  ,illustration3 ,,goliath   
,,beetle1 ,,and ,,pupa ,,case4  ,this   
fine ,goliathus1 he would say1 has not  
long1 probably1 emerged from a hollow   
case of oval form1 made of particles of 

earth agglutinated together by a        
secretion from the mouth of the larva1  
and concealed under the surface of the  
ground4 ,within that sepulchre it has   
left its cerements1--the shrivelled skin
 of the pupa1 in which it had been      
wrapped up motionless like a mummy1 for 
several weeks prior to its appearance as
 a glittering beetle4 ,the construction 
of the oval cell was the last act of the
 larva1 a thick1 massy1 heavy-bodied    
grub1 which had fattened for years by   
feeding on the roots of plants beneath  
the soil4 ,four years passed away#fi    
while yon beetle lay on its side1 darkly
 labouring at this occupation2 and      
before that it was a minute egg for some
 weeks4 ,the specimen before us cannot  
be far short of five years old4  ,no    
such thing3 the witness is at fault3 the
 ,goliathus is not an hour old4  ,take  
notice of the swarm of ,gnats1 which1   
like a dim cloud1 are uniting in choral 
dance and song in the beam of the       
setting sun4 ,every member of the band  

that winds his shrill horn1 has had an  
aquatic before he had an aerial         
existence4 ,a week was spent1 in        
lobster-shape1 with two breathing tubes 
on the summit of his body1 in passing   
alternately from the bottom to the top  
of yonder stagnant pool1 and then back  
from the top to the bottom4 ,and a month
 was occupied in pretty nearly the same 
employment1 but in another mask1--in    
fish-like form1 with the star-tipped    
breathing-tube projecting from the side 
of the tail4 ,but for some months       
earlier still it was a little lenticular
 egg1 which was agglutinated with a     
number of others into an oval concave   
boat1 that floated to and fro on the    
surface of the pool4  ,and there was    
something worth observing in that tiny  
skiff of eggs2 for it did1 in its artful
 construction1 carry the evidence of    
time back to a former generation4 ,the  
eggs individually and separately would  
have sunk to the bottom of the water2 it
 was1 however1 essential to their life  

that they should be in contact with the 
air as well as with the water4 ,hence   
they were so arranged in the aggregate1 
that the mass should swim1 though the   
constituent individuals could not4 ,to  
effect this1 the parent ,gnat1 resting  
on the calm surface of the pool1 crossed
 her two hind legs1 and laid an egg     
perpendicularly in the angle so made3   
others were added in succession1 all    
maintaining the perpendicular position1 
all glued together by a cement that     
resists water1 but so arranged1 the     
crossed legs being still the mould1 that
 the outline should be spindle-shaped1  
while the summits of the central eggs1  
being a little lower than those of the  
outer ones1 gave a concavity to the     
boat4 ,so buoyant was it when finished1 
and the mother's legs withdrawn1 that   
even a drop of water falling full upon  
it from above1 would have failed to     
submerge it4 ,there it floated1 week    
after week1 and month after month1 all  
through the winter1 till the genial sun 

of spring hatched the fish-like larvae  
to begin their wriggling existence      
beneath the surface4  ,now may we not   
say with confidence1 that the           
sounding-winged insect looks back to the
 pupa1 the pupa to the larva1 the larva 
to the egg-boat8 ,and more1 that the    
form of the boat1--a form so essential  
that it could not have lived without    
it1--looked back to the crossed feet of 
the mother-gnat1 the impress of whose   
angle its extremities sustained8  ,of   
course we might reason thus3 but yet we 
should be at fault2 for the ringing     
swarm of merry ,gnats has been this very
 evening created4  ,illustration3       
,,larva ,,of ,,case-,,fly4  ,the        
,case-flies 7,phryganea7 that look like 
delicate moths of sober-brown hue1      
flitting over the surface of the pond1  
have1 like the ,gnats1 spent a          
considerable time under water4 ,when    
they were larvae1 they industriously    
collected small shells1 fragments of    
stone1 bits of reed1 and the like       

matters1 and1 connecting them together  
with strong silk1 made out of them      
slender tubes1 in which they sheltered  
their soft bodies from harm1 while their
 hard polished heads and shoulders      
projected from the open end4 ,and after 
having lived through the winter 7at     
least1 but ,i rather think more than one
 winter7 in this state1 each closed up  
the entrance of his castle1 by spinning 
across its open end1 a transverse screen
 of lattice-work1 made of very strong   
and stout silk1 which1 while it should  
serve the purpose of keeping out        
evil-minded intruders1 during the       
helpless inaction of the pupa1 should at
 the same time admit the free ingress   
and egress of water necessary for its   
respiration4  ,the life of the larva1   
and the exercise of these1 its curious  
instincts1 are1 together with the       
duration of the pupa stage1 inseparable 
precedents of the imago state in which  
we now observe the flying insects4 ,no1 
not inseparable2 for in this case1 at   

least1 they had no existence in time2   
they are prochronic developments4       
,illustration3 ,,melicerta4  ,in this   
pond at our feet there is an object     
worthy of a moment's observation1 minute
 though it is1 for it is only visible as
 a speck to the unassisted eye4 ,on one 
of the whorl-filaments of this tuft of  
,myriophyllum1 there stands up a        
cylindrical tube1 firmly adherent to the
 plant by its foot1 but free at its     
upper end4 ,small as it is1 this chimney
 is built up of hundreds of pellets1    
solid1 round1 and yellow2 placed in     
symmetrical order1 and firmly cemented  
together4 ,what has made this tube8 ,ha6
 here is the little architect ready to  
answer for himself2 he thrusts out his  
head and shoulders from his chimney-top1
 and announces his scientific cognomen  
as ,melicerta ringens4  ,look6 he is in 
the very act of building now4 ,did you  
see him suddenly bow down his head and  
lay a brick on the top of the last      
course8 ,and now he is busy making      

another brick2 his mould is a tiny      
cup-shaped cavity just below his chin2  
his material the floating floccose atoms
 of vegetable refuse4 ,cilia along his  
flower-like face collect these atoms    
into a stream1 and pour them into the   
cup2 and cilia within the cup whirl them
 rapidly round and round in many        
rotations1 until with the aid of mucus  
they are somewhat consolidated into a   
round pellet4 ,the brick is made1 and   
nothing remains but that it be deposited
 next the former1 in regular            
progression1 and this is done by the    
tiny ,greek3 tekton1 suddenly bending   
his head forward1 and bringing the      
chin-cup with exact precision to the    
spot4  ,and how long has he been engaged
 in this piece of work8 ,little more    
than a day4 ,it was commenced yesterday1
 when the creature was not more than    
one-third as large as he is now4 ,but he
 had lived a few hours before the       
commencement of his work4 ,he was a     
rover before he began to be a           

house-keeper4 ,in that early stage of   
youth and freedom1 before he had made up
 his mind to settle in life1 he had no  
chin-cup1 no flower-like face1 and of   
course no tube4 ,a cylindrical          
gelatinous pellucid worm1 he issued out 
of the egg1 with a brush of cilia on his
 crown1 and danced waywardly through the
 water4 ,while thus occupied1 his form  
underwent some preliminary              
modifications1 and at length was        
sufficiently matured1 to enable him to  
choose a spot for the passing of his    
future life1 and to commence the        
building on which he is still engaged4  
,not so4 ,the pellet which he deposited 
when we began to look at him1 was the   
first he had ever made2 he had been     
created but that moment2 and all the    
previous pellets of the case had been   
called into being just as we saw them4  
,they were built up prochronically4  ,i 
tear a piece of bark from the trunk of  
this half-decayed tree1 and have        
disclosed amidst the rank-smelling damp 

and rotten wood1 a large ,julus1 a      
slow-moving creature1 with some         
hundred-and-fifty little twinkling feet4
 ,as this specimen has attained its     
adult condition1 it must be at least two
 years old2 for it does not acquire its 
reproductive organs and perfect         
development till that age4#gj  ,this    
creature has passed through a rather    
curious history of evolutions4 ,the egg 
from which it was produced was lodged in
 a chamber excavated by the parent1 a   
few inches below the surface of the     
rotten mould4 ,from this egg proceeded a
 little kidney-shaped body1 without     
limbs or motion1 completely enveloped in
 a swathe of delicate transparent       
membrane4 ,about a fortnight it remained
 in this helpless state1 during which   
its organs had been forming out of the  
constituent cells1 by repeated          
subdivision1 and definite arrangement4  
,at length it burst its cerement1 and a 
minute ,julus appeared1 not more than   
#a_/bjjth of an inch in length1 composed

 of a head with antennae1 and a body of 
eight segments1 of which the first three
 carried each a pair of legs4  ,all the 
multitudinous limbs which we see in this
 adult have been produced in successive 
moultings1 and all the numerous segments
 have been produced by the subdivision  
of the last but one1--that is the joint 
preceding the anal one1--six at a time4 
,by the time the little animal was ready
 for the second sloughing1 that is1 in  
about a week after the preceding1 three 
more pairs of feet were seen1 which had 
budded from the fourth1 fifth1 and sixth
 segments1 but which were as yet closely
 packed down beneath the investing skin2
 the seventh segment also was obscurely 
marked into six divisions4 ,the skin was
 now thrown off1 and these changes were 
perfected2 the little ,julus now had six
 pairs of feet1 and thirteen segments4  
,this process was repeated again and    
again2 the new limbs always developing  
on the segments last produced1 and six  
new segments being always formed out of 

the existing penultimate4 ,and by this  
gradual succession of development1 the  
animal has attained the number of limbs 
and segments which we now perceive4 ,the
 antennae and the eyes have likewise    
passed through successive stages4  ,we  
have a right to infer the lapse of a    
period sufficient to produce these      
changes1 for we see their indubitable   
results2 but our inference would only   
lead us astray1 because we have not     
allowed for a disturbing                
influence1--that of the ,law of         
,creation4 ,this is the ,julus's first  
hour of life4  ,see1 on the trunk of    
that towering ,cedrela1 a round hole1   
out of which a large ,beetle is in the  
act of emerging4 ,it is a noble         
,buprestis1 encased in glittering mail1 
of the most refulgent metallic          
splendour1 crimson1 gold1 and green4    
,can we find any clue to his age8 ,yes3 
the white grab has rioted and fattened  
in its burrows in the timber of this    
tree for many years2 ever gnawing away  

with its horny auger-like jaws the solid
 wood in tortuous galleries1 which      
constantly enlarged1 as it progressively
 grew1 while its wake1 as it advanced1  
was partially filled by its ordure4 ,the
 old tree is1 no doubt1 perforated1     
through and through1 by its winding     
corridors1 as large as your middle      
finger4 ,as soon as the vermin had      
passed this his nonage1 which1 as ,i    
say1 may have occupied a dozen years at 
least1#ga he sank into his short        
pupa-sleep1 and here we see him paying  
his first visit to the light of day4    
,true2 this is his first experience of  
daylight1 and indeed of anything2 for   
all the pupa-sleep and the larva-labour 
were prochronic in this case4 ,the      
,beetle is just created4  ,hark to that 
hollow roar6 ,there is no mistaking that
 majestic sound4 ,it is the voice of the
 many-sounding sea4 ,yonder through the 
trees we catch a glimpse of its shining 
face1 and here we are at the verge of   
the cliffs1 against whose feet the waves

 are breaking in white foam4 ,we will   
clamber down to the rocks4  ,in this    
weed-fringed tide-pool there is a fine  
specimen of the ,shore-crab 7,carcinus  
moenas74 ,it is a male just arrived at  
the perfection of adult age2 its        
carapace smooth and wholly dark-green in
 hue1 its under parts rufous orange4    
,its claws4 are large and sharp2 and the
 promptitude with which it presents     
these formidable weapons1 extended to   
the utmost1 shows how conscious it is of
 its warlike powers4  ,to all appearance
 this ,crab is several years old2#gb ,i 
mean in this his present perfect or     
imago form4 ,when this form was first   
assumed1 the diameter of the carapace   
was not more than an eighth of an inch2 
it is now two inches2 a great many      
periodical sloughings of the crust must 
have occurred to accomplish this        
sixteen-fold increase4  ,but four       
distinct metamorphoses were passed      
before the commencement of this form4   
,there was the ,grapsoid form with the  

outline of the carapace nearly          
parallel-sided1 and the dentations on   
the sides4 ,before this there was the   
,megalopa form1 with the carapace ovate1
 and the abdomen projecting behind4     
,before this there was the ,zoea form1  
with the carapace rising into a tall    
erect spine1 sessile eyes1 no claws1 and
 the abdomen a slender jointed cord     
ending in a triangular plate4 ,and      
before this1 there was the egg1 which   
was laid by the mother ,crab1 and       
carried by her for a considerable time  
attached to the false feet of her       
abdomen4  ,all these evidences of age1  
clear and unanswerable though they are1 
are yet fallacious1 because the ,crab   
has been created but this morning4  ,on 
this sea-washed branch of a tree1 which 
has been blown off by some tempest1 and 
carried into the ocean1 there is a      
single ,barnacle 7,lepas74 ,it consists 
of a hand of many pairs of fringed      
fingers1 protected by a shell of five   
pieces1 and a long flexible             

cartilaginous stalk1 by the lower       
extremity of which it adheres to the    
timber4  ,the shelly valves are all     
crossed by strongly marked lines running
 over their surfaces in a direction     
parallel with each other1 and with the  
outer margins of each valve4 ,these1    
like the corresponding foliations in the
 tube of the ,serpula1 indicate the     
successive stages of growth2 the        
outlines of every valve having stood at 
each of these growth lines in           
succession4 ,on each of the scutal      
valves in this individual ,i can count  
about #bfj growth-lines3 if we suppose  
one of these to be made in a week1#gc   
and the increase to proceed uniformly   
throughout the year1 we must conclude   
the valve to have been just five years  
in making4  ,illustration3 ,,lepas4     
,this animal1 like others we have       
already examined1 had1 moreover1 a      
history before the first vestige of a   
valve was formed4 ,it had passed through
 several metamorphoses2 in its pupa     

stage it had the form of a ,cypris1 and 
in this condition it first became       
adherent to the timber3 before this it  
was a larva1 having a general           
resemblance to another ,waterflea1 the  
,cyclops1 especially in its younger     
stages3 in this state it moulted several
 times4 ,nor was this the beginning of  
its life2 for there was the still       
earlier condition common to all these   
classes of animals1 viz4 that of the    
egg1 which was laid and carried for some
 time by the parent ,barnacle1 and at   
length hatched while within the valves  
of her shell4  ,thus1 through a course  
of several years we are able to trace   
back the existence of this ,cirriped1 to
 its parent of a former generation4 ,but
 our conclusions are altogether vitiated
 by the simple fact that this individual
 is the first of its species2 it never  
had a parent2 it never was an egg4      
,from the rocky pool before us ,i have  
picked up a rough pebble1 the surface of
 which is incrusted with a delicate work

 of stony lace4 ,this fabric1 too fine  
to be resolved by the unassisted eye1   
consists of the oval cells of a species 
of ,lepralia4 ,there are some hundreds  
of cells in this patch1 which altogether
 does not cover a square inch of the    
pebble2 and they are all made after one 
pattern1 and set in a very regular      
manner1 in quincunx4 ,each is a minute  
slipper-shaped box of stone1 with the   
orifice set round with spines for the   
protection of the inmate1 a transparent1
 elegant1 and sensitive ,polypide1 which
 bears on its head a coronet of ciliated
 tentacles4  ,i am not going to describe
 the interesting structure and economy  
of this atom of life2 but merely wish to
 direct your attention to one           
point1--the evidence which it affords of
 the lapse of past time4  ,every one of 
these hundreds of stony cells1 together 
with its living tenant1 was normally    
produced by a process of gemmation2 each
 having budded forth from the side of   
its predecessor as a knob of clear      

gelatinous flesh1 in the midst of which 
was developed1 first the cell1 and then 
the polypide1--the latter appearing in a
 rudimentary condition1 and gradually   
acquiring its proper organs1 before the 
orifice of the cell was opened4  ,i said
 every one of the cells was thus formed2
 but ,i ought to have excepted a single 
cell1 which1 though in nowise differing 
from the rest in form or structure1 had 
a very different origin4 ,this was the  
primal cell1 and its beginning was as   
follows3  ,a minute atom of a scarlet   
hue1 and of a semi-elliptical shape1 was
 one day whirling round and round with  
rapid gyrations in the open sea4 ,it was
 of soft consistence1 covered with      
strongly vibrating cilia1 and furnished 
with some stouter setae4 ,after enjoying
 its motile instincts awhile1 it settled
 down on this pebble1 and became        
stationary4 ,presently it secreted and  
deposited calcareous matter around at1  
like a coating of the thinnest glass1   
the red parenchyma receding from the    

hyaline wall towards the centre4  ,soon 
an orifice with thickened edges appeared
 on the upper side1 and minute spines   
grew from the edges1 which quickly      
lengthened4 ,it was now a ,lepralia     
cell1 and now the polypide was          
developed1 and protruded its mouth from 
the orifice1 surrounded by its elegant  
bell of ciliate tentacles4 ,this        
solitary cell became the parent of      
hundreds more1 by the gemmative process 
which ,i have already described4  ,but  
the red swimming atom2--whence came     
that8 ,well1 it was shot out from the   
interior of a previous ,lepralia1 the   
result not of a gemmative but of a      
generative act4 ,it originated in       
another patch similar to the one which  
incrusts this pebble1 and that1 in like 
manner1 and by exactly similar stages1  
looked back to an anterior patch1 and so
 on4  ,plausible as this inference is1  
it is false2 for the little aggregation 
of cells and polypides has been called  
into existence by the ,divine fiat1 this

 very instant4  ,we are still at the    
sea-shore4 ,within the long and narrow  
crevices into which these low-lying     
ledges of shale are split1 innumerable  
tufts of sea-weed1--olive1 purple1 and  
green1--are perpetually waving in the   
wash of the sea4 ,on one of these       
branching shrubs of ,phyllophora1 there 
is adhering1 apparently cast there by   
accident1 an irregular mass of pellucid 
jelly4 ,it firmly cleaves to the alga1  
enclosing the bases of several branches 
within its firm but gelatinous          
substance4  ,this knob of jelly is a    
compound animal of the genus ,botryllus1
 and it has just been created as we see 
it4 ,in order to understand its nature1 
look at it more closely4  ,enclosed in  
the clear purplish-grey jelly1 in the   
midst of scattered lighter specks1 we   
see several star-like figures of bright 
hues1 in which yellow and red are       
predominant2 the symmetrical arrangement
 of which pleases the eye1 and reminds  
us of some ornamental pattern designed  

by human art4 ,each star is composed of 
several 7three1 seven1 ten or more7     
pear-shaped animals1 with their smaller 
ends meeting in the centre around a     
common orifice1 from which a current of 
water is discharged4  ,now this         
assemblage of animals bears evidence of 
progressive development4 ,some time ago 
a tiny egg was discharged from a parent 
,botryllus1 which presently produced a  
little active tadpole-like larva1 called
 a spinule4 ,this swam actively by means
 of its wriggling tail2 but at length it
 settled head downward on this piece of 
sea-weed4 ,immediately the head adhered1
 by an effused cement1 to its support2  
the tail now gradually disappeared2 and 
the round head1 in the midst of a mass  
of jelly-like cement1 began to display  
two orifices on its surface4 ,it soon   
assumed a pear-like shape1 and thus the 
first ,botryllus was formed4  ,from the 
side of this pear1 another was developed
 by gemmation1 and a third on the       
opposite side2 the smaller ends of all  

were in contact1 and the orifices of    
these extremities began to merge into   
one2 while the large ends diverged4 ,a  
fourth and a fifth pear were            
successively produced in the same mode1 
until a star or system was formed4      
,meanwhile the surrounding mass of      
living jelly had been commensurately    
enlarging1 and a new ,botryllus1        
separate from the other star1 had been  
produced in the jelly1 which was the    
commencing point of a second system2 and
 thus1 by degrees1 the compound mass of 
systems has grown to its present state  
of development4  ,illustration3         
,,botryllus4  a1 portion of one system  
and of a mass1 on ,phyllophora rubens2  
b1 an egg c1 spinule2 d1 the same1      
attached2 e1 the tail absorbed2 f1 the  
young ,botryllus4 ,all magnified4  ,this
 process has been one of time3 the      
adhesion of the spinule took place in   
about sixteen hours after its escape    
from the egg4 ,the appearance of the two
 orifices was when the little animal was

 four days old2 and by the end of a week
 a second pear had budded4 ,the         
attainment of the present condition may 
have occupied about six months4  ,nay2  
time has been no element in this        
development2 it is prochronic           
development2 it is the development of   
creation1 not of nature4  ,behold that  
ruffling of the smooth surface of the   
water2 it is caused evidently by the    
forcible ejection of a current from some
 source a little way beneath the        
surface4 ,yes1 it proceeds from the     
orifice in this mass of calcareous grit2
 where the protruding pipe of shell     
indicates the snug fortress of a        
,clavagella4 ,i will carefully break    
away a little of the soft stone1 and we 
shall see the curious structure more    
clearly4 ,ha6 ,i have split off a piece 
which nicely exposes the whole burrow1  
without having materially injured the   
creature or his shell4  ,you see it is a
 bivalve ,mollusk with one valve firmly 
imbedded and cemented into the stony    

wall of its chamber4 ,but the hinder end
 of this valve is continued into a      
shelly tube1 intended to protect the    
siphons1 which is carried through the   
gallery forming the entrance into the   
chamber1 and opens by a wide orifice in 
the free water outside4 ,it is to this  
tube that ,i call your attention4       
,illustration3 ,,clavagella4  ,you      
observe that on its outer surface there 
are several foliated expansions of the  
shelly substance1 surrounding it like so
 many frills at pretty regular          
intervals4 ,each of these foliations is 
a permanent record of a certain epoch4  
,the terminal one is the margin of the  
tube-wall everted4 ,the one below this  
was at some past period the eversion of 
the margin at what was at that time the 
extremity4 ,the third frill had in like 
manner terminated the tube still        
earlier2 and so with the fourth and     
fifth4 ,it is impossible to look at     
these expansions1 and not to believe    
that they have been formed in           

succession1 in this way1 by the periodic
 growth of the tube4  ,there was a time 
when1 the first frill was not commenced2
 when the creature was a ,mollusk with  
simple valves4 ,but even this was not   
the beginning of its history4 ,it was as
 a swimming ,infusory with a broad      
ciliated disk1 and a lashing flagellum1 
that the creature commenced its         
independent career2 and it was doubtless
 in this condition#gd that it found its 
way into the burrow of some ,saxicava4  
,here its tiny transparent valves were  
secreted2 the left valve was soon       
cemented to the chamber2 and then the   
creature began to secrete and form the  
tube around its siphons1 which was      
progressively enlarged1 and adorned at  
every stage of elongation by these      
witnessing frills--whose testimony is   
recorded in imperishable stone4  ,what  
can be more irresistible than such      
evidence as this8 ,and yet we must take 
exception to it on the ground that this 
is the very hour of the animal's        

creation4  ,illustration3 ,,dione       
,,veneris4  ,the elegant spinous        
shell-fish that we discern yonder1      
half-buried in the sandy floor of the   
sea--,i mean that lilac-tinted ,prickly 
,venus 7,dione ,veneris7 needs no shelly
 protection for its siphons1 which1 as  
you may observe1 are protruded to a     
great length4 ,but a lesson not less    
instructive than that taught by the     
tube-frills of the ,clavagella1 is      
inculcated by the valves of the ,dione4 
,near the hinder margin of each valve   
there is a ridge which runs from the    
beak to the front edge1 a ridge which   
bears the series of long slender shelly 
spines1 that imparts such a charm to    
this shell4  ,each of these spines      
records an interval in the growth of the
 shell4 ,there are sixteen distinctly   
enumerable2 each of which may possibly  
mark a year's growth4 ,the increase of  
bivalves1 however1 is slow2 and it may  
be that a longer interval than a year   
has intervened between spine and spine4 

,for if we look more closely at this    
beautiful shell1 we see that the whole  
exterior of both valves is marked with  
concentric foliated ridges1 which are   
also indubitable lines of growth2 and   
that these are twice or thrice as       
numerous as the spines1 from one to five
 being intercalated between those which 
support the prolongations of the shelly 
substance4  ,each of these concentric   
lines has a history4 ,every line1 as    
well as every spine1 has been produced  
by a protrusion and eversion of the     
glanduligerous edge of the mantle1 which
 then secreted and poured out a copious 
deposit of calcareous matter along the  
margin of the previously existing valve4
 ,in this species each periodic deposit 
took the form of a ridge slightly       
elevated above the general surface2 and1
 because the turned up margin of the    
mantle invested the edge of the valve   
already formed1 therefore the new layer1
 with its elevated ridge1 was concentric
 with the last edge1 which was          

concentric with the previous one1 and so
 on1 the common centre of all being the 
beak 7umbo7 at the back of the valve4   
,the spines were formed in a manner     
essentially similar4 ,at every second or
 third period of increase1 the margin of
 the mantle1 which is very versatile and
 protrusile1 was thrust out1 at the     
point which corresponds to the spines1  
into a long fleshy groove1 by the       
reduplication of its edge4 ,within this 
groove the calcareous secretion was     
poured out2 and after it had been       
allowed a few moments to harden or set1 
the mantle-groove was cautiously        
withdrawn1 and a new spine was exposed1 
as a produced end to the foliated ridge4
  ,yet1 though this is the normal and   
natural mode of production1 both of the 
concentric line and of the spines1 it   
would be illusory to conclude that they 
have been so produced in the present    
example4 ,the entire formation of the   
,dione before us has been ab-normal and 
preter-natural3 it has been created1 not

 born3 the whole development so legibly 
written on the shell has been           
prochronic4  ,there goes the ,scorpion  
,stromb 7,pteroceras scorpio71 crawling 
over the rocks with protruded head and  
tentacles1 and bearing his massive house
 on his back4 ,this shelly house of his 
will afford us a good example of        
structural development4  ,the great     
dilated lip1 and the long finger-like   
processes of its edge1 had no existence 
in the youthful days of the shell2 they 
are marks of adult age3 when young1 the 
shell was simply spiral1 with a thin    
straight lip bounding a narrow aperture4
  ,observe also a far more beautiful    
creature by its side1 the ,tiger ,cowry 
7,cypraea tigris74 ,its shell is now    
entirely enveloped in the meeting wings 
of the great fleshy mantle1 which is    
mottled with changing hues2 and its foot
 or crawling disk covers a space three  
or four times as large as the shell4 ,on
 lifting it in our hand1 the whole of   
this array of soft flesh has been       

rapidly retracted1 and has wholly       
disappeared within that very narrow     
orifice1 bordered with toothed          
projections1 on the under side of the   
shell1 which we can hardly believe      
capable of receiving a twentieth part of
 the bulk that has vanished within it4  
,and now we see nothing but the shell1  
with its smooth rounded back1 marked    
with dark spots1 its white inferior     
surface cleft by this longitudinal      
denticulate aperture1 and its brilliant 
porcellanous varnish over the whole4    
,now here is evidence of change and     
progress again4 ,this ,cowry-shell is   
very unlike that of an ,olive1 with a   
simple spire1 an oval body1 a smooth    
thin lip1 and a wide orifice2 and as    
unlike that of a ,nautilus4 ,yet it has 
passed through both of these stages     
before it was disguised as we see it    
now4 ,when it escaped from the          
egg-shell1 it was a minute ,pteropod1   
with two great ciliated disks1          
inhabiting a transparent nautiloid      

shell1 and swimming giddily about in a  
revolving fashion4 ,by and by1 the tiny 
shell increased1 and the outer whorl    
lengthened1 putting on a long-oval      
figure4 ,then--that is1 after a         
considerable period occupied in         
increasing the dimensions of the shell  
in this form--it began to assume the    
adult appearance4 ,the outer lip1 which 
had hitherto been thin1 gradually       
thickened and encroached upon the spire1
 and the mantle began to secrete and    
deposit on the outer surface the coat of
 glassy enamel4  ,at length the         
thickening of the lips proceeded to such
 an extent as almost to conceal the     
spire1 and to reduce the aperture to a  
narrow line1 the edges of which were now
 thickly plaited with the tooth-like    
ridges so characteristic of the genus4  
,the lobes of the mantle now protrude   
through this aperture2 and1 expanding on
 each side1 have deposited all over the 
exterior of the shell a coat of glassy  
enamel1 studded with dark round spots or

 clouds1 which entirely conceals the    
surface with the markings that were     
formerly visible upon it4               
,illustration3 ,,murex ,,tenuispina4    
,yonder ,thorny ,woodcock 7,murex       
tenuispina7 is a still more striking    
shell than either1 and one whose        
periodic growths are peculiarly well    
marked4 ,it is covered at regular       
intervals with rows of shelly spines1   
still longer and more numerous than     
those we lately admired in the ,dione4  
,each series crowns a thickened ridge1  
which runs across the whorl1 as regards 
the direction of its growth1 but        
longitudinally as regards the general   
figure of the shell4  ,now1 the increase
 of the shell in the ,univalves is      
performed almost exactly as in the      
,bivalves2 namely1 by the protrusion and
 eversion of the mantle on the existing 
edge4 ,and1 therefore1 each of these    
thorny ridges1 separated as they are by 
an interval of just two-thirds of a     
whorl1 marks the termination of a new   

growth1 the shelly matter rising up at  
the margin in this thickened ridge1     
which bristles with elongated points4   
,in this specimen we can trace ten such 
ridges1 whence we legitimately infer ten
 distinct periods through which this    
animal has passed1 besides the nautiloid
 stage under which all the creatures of 
this ,class commence existence4  ,yet1  
since each of these three univalves has 
been this day created1 these inferences 
are deceptive4 ,the ,scorpion-shell was 
never otherwise than dilated and        
digitated4 ,the ,cowry has never had a  
lip that was not thickened1 nor an      
exterior that was not porcellanous4 ,the
 ,woodcock has never known a moment in  
which its thorns were less numerous than
 they are now4  ,notice that fine round 
shell carried along the floor of the    
sea1 by means of a great fleshy         
tortoiseshell-coloured#ge body1 which1  
with a head of many spreading tentacles 
applied to the ground1 crawls with a    
tolerably quick progress4#gf ,it is the 

,pearly ,nautilus4  ,the amplitude of   
the beautiful nacreous shell is by no   
means a measure of the dimensions of the
 animal2 for this merely sits within the
 shallow mouth1 like a ,welsh fisherman 
in his coracle4 ,if we remove the       
creature1 we shall find the cavity      
bounded by a pearly floor1 in the centre
 of which is a slender tube running down
 from it4 ,on breaking away this floor1 
we expose an empty chamber1 with a      
similar pearly floor1 through which     
passes the shelly tube1 continued       
through the middle of the chamber1 and  
running down to the next4 ,thus we      
should find the whole interior of the   
shell occupied by a series of these     
empty chambers1 fifty or upwards in     
number1 each less than its predecessor  
7rather successor1 if we regard them in 
the order of development71 until we can 
trace them no longer in the minute      
centre of the spire4  ,without dwelling 
on the function of these chambers1      
farther than to say that they appear    

admirably contrived to make the animal  
with its shell either heavier or lighter
 than the surrounding fluid1 by forcing 
water into them through the tube1 and   
thus condensing the contained air1 or by
 relaxing the pressure1 and allowing the
 elasticity of the air to exclude the   
water1--our business is just with the   
formation of the septa1 as an evidence  
of periodic development4#gg  ,the septa 
are formed periodically1 but it must not
 be supposed that the shell-muscles ever
 become detached1 or that the animal    
moves the distance of a chamber all at  
once4 ,it is most likely that the       
adductors grow only in front1 and that a
 constant waste takes place behind1 so  
that they are always moving onward1     
except when a new septum is to be       
formed2 the septa indicate periodic     
rests4#gh  ,these periodic alternations 
of rest and action1 however1 it is      
obvious1 can never have really existed  
in an organism which has but this       
instant been created4 ,the appearances1 

therefore1 which indicate them1 are     
illusory1 considered as testimonies to  
actual time4  ,you are aware that what  
is often spoke of as the bone in this   
,cuttlefish 7,sepia officinalis71 is    
only a concealed shell2 and ,i need not 
to dissect the animal to acquaint you   
that it is a highly interesting         
structure4 ,a deservedly eminent        
physiologist shall describe it for us4  
,the outer shelly portion of this body  
consists of horny layers1 alternating   
with calcified layers1 in which last may
 be seen a hexagonal arrangement4 ,the  
soft1 friable substance1 that occupies  
the hollow of this boat-shaped shell1 is
 formed of a number of delicate plates1 
running across it from one side to the  
other in parallel directions1 but       
separated by intervals several times    
wider than the thickness of the plates2 
and these intervals are in great part   
filled up by what appear to be fibres1  
or slender pillars1 passing from one    
plate or floor to another4 ,a more      

careful examination shows1 however1 that
 instead of a large number of detached  
pillars1 there exists a comparatively   
small number of very thin1 sinuous      
laminae1 which pass from one surface to 
the other1 winding and doubling upon    
themselves1 so that each lamina occupies
 a considerable space4 ,their precise   
arrangement is best seen by examining   
the parallel plates1 after the sinuous  
laminae have been detached from them2   
the lines of junction being distinctly  
indicated upon these4 ,by this          
arrangement1 each layer is most         
effectually supported by those with     
which it is connected above and below2  
and the sinuosity of the thin           
intervening laminae1 answering exactly  
the same purpose as the corrugation     
given to iron plates for the sake of    
diminishing their flexibility1 adds     
greatly to the strength of this curious 
texture1 which is at the same time      
lightened by the large amount of space  
between the parallel plates that        

intervenes between the sinuosities of   
the laminae4#gi  ,now the delicately    
thin calcareous plates have all been    
formed in succession1 the first formed  
being at the outer part and posterior   
termination of the shell1 and the       
succeeding new layers extending always  
more forwards than the edges of the     
old4#hj ,they exhibit then many hundreds
 of distinct deposits1 each the result  
of a separate process1 each the work of 
a definite period of time4 ,the         
cuttle-bone is an autographic record1   
indubitably genuine1 of the             
,cuttlefish's history4  ,yes1 it is     
certainly genuine2 it is as certainly   
autographic3 but it is not true4 ,that  
,cuttle has been this day created4      
,,ix4  ,,parallels ,,and ,,precedents4  
7,vertebrate ,animals47       ,the      
organisation of the body at each epoch  
may be truly      said to be the        
resultant of all the material changes   
which      it has undergone during the  
preceding periods4--,dr4                

,carpenter2 ,human ,physiology1 p4 #ijc4
   ,the ,invertebrata then agree in one 
story1 and that story is the same as    
what the plants had told us before4 ,let
 us try if the ,vertebrate creatures    
bear them out4  ,from this promontory we
 can look far down into the clear       
profundity of the still and smooth sea4 
,what is that large object that plays   
hither and thither yonder1 now shooting 
ahead1 now resting on his oars1 now     
turning on his course1 now cutting the  
surface1 now descending to the depths8  
,it is a full-grown ,sword-fish1 some   
ten feet long4 ,we are sufficiently near
 him to discern that he has one short   
but high dorsal fin1 near the head1 and 
a minute one close to the caudal1 the   
whole intermediate region being smooth4 
,but this is a mark of adult age2 for in
 early life this same species is        
furnished with one long and high dorsal1
 which is continuous from the occiput to
 the vicinity of the tail-fin4 ,the     
remotely divided dorsal here tells of   

many years of life2 but tells           
deceitfully1 for the ,sword-fish is but 
just created4  ,ha6 the ,sword-fish has 
darted away1 like lightning1 after a    
finny victim4 ,see with what doublings  
and windings he pursues it1 and how the 
terrified prey uses all its powers to   
escape from its gigantic enemy6 ,now    
they near the shore2 and now the        
frightened quarry has leaped out of the 
sea upon yonder flat shelf of rock1     
where it lies gasping and floundering1  
delivered indeed from its pursuer1 but  
only to die by being drowned in the air4
 ,we will descend from the cliffs1 and  
look at it4  ,it is a ,gilt-head        
7,chrysophrys aurata74 ,life is extinct 
now2 but the brilliant colours and fine 
metallic reflections are scarcely       
dimmed--the silvery belly--the azure    
fins--the sides that gleam like polished
 steel1 inlaid with bands of burnished  
gold6  ,i will pluck a scale from this  
brilliant silvery surface4 ,its hinder1 
or free edge1 is beset with fine        

flexible crystalline points1 arranged in
 many successive rows1 overlapping each 
other4 ,the front1 or attached edge1 is 
cut in a scolloped pattern1 the         
extremities of undulations that radiate 
from a common point behind the centre4  
,the whole surface1 except the hinder   
portion that is studded with imbricated 
points1 is covered with an immense      
multitude of fine concentric lines1     
which follow the form of the general    
outline4 ,these are marks of successive 
increase2 for every one of the lines is 
the margin of a lamina1 the aggregation 
of which makes up the thickness of the  
scale4 ,the laminae can be separated by 
long maceration in water2 and then we   
see that they are laid one on another in
 regular order1 the uppermost being the 
smallest1 and the first formed2 the last
 made1 which is the largest1 being now  
in contact with the skin4               
,illustration3 ,,scale ,,of ,,gilthead4 
,every scale is therefore a document1 on
 which is indelibly written the record  

of a multitude of processes1 all        
effected in the past history of the     
fish4 ,the successively deposited       
laminae are exactly analogous to those  
of calcareous substance in the shell of 
the bivalve2#ha and the evidence is of  
exactly the same character as what we   
lately read off from the valve of the   
,dione4 ,but1 just as in that example1  
too1 the overruling fact of recent      
creation precludes our deduction of time
 from the evidence1 since it proves the 
development to have been prochronic4  ,i
 see yonder a more terrific tyrant of   
the sea than the ,sword-fish4 ,it is the
 grisly ,shark 7,carcharodon74 ,how     
stealthily he glides along1 cutting the 
glittering surface of the sea with his  
dorsal1 and now and then protruding just
 the tip of the upper lobe of his caudal
 in the wake of the other6 ,let us go   
and look into his mouth2 for neither    
animals nor elements present any        
impediments to these investigations of  
ours4 ,is not this an awful array of    

knives and lancets8 ,is not this a case 
of surgical instruments enough to make  
you shudder8 ,what would be the         
amputation of your leg to this row of   
triangular scalpels1 each an inch and a 
half in diameter8 moved1 too1 by these  
powerful muscles8  ,but observe the     
arrangement of these most formidable    
teeth4 ,they are not confined to a      
single row as ours are1 but each is     
succeeded by another lying behind it1   
that by another1 and another1 and       
another1--why1 there are a dozen ranks  
of teeth1 lying regularly packed one    
behind the other4 ,the object of this   
arrangement is a constant supply of new 
teeth1 as those in use become broken    
off1 or wasted by the sloughing away of 
the exterior half-ossified crust of the 
cartilaginous jaw1 to which their base  
is fastened by ligaments4 ,only one row1
 the outer one1 is in use at once1 and  
this row stands erect2 the others lie   
flat on each other 7more and more       
completely as they recede from the outer

 row72 a reserve of weapons in readiness
 for use1 when those now employed are   
done with4 ,there is a continual growth 
of the surface to which the teeth are   
fastened1 from within outwards2 so that 
each of the reserve rows will in turn be
 brought to the edge of the jaw1 when it
 will be thrown up into the erect       
position1 while the preceding1 now      
turned out of the mouth by the gradual  
eversion of the surface1 sloughs away   
and disappears as an useless            
incumbrance4 ,it follows1 therefore1    
that the teeth which we now see erect   
and threatening1 are the successors of  
former ones that have passed away1 and  
that they were once dormant like those  
we see behind them4  ,but perhaps you   
may say1 ,what evidence is there that   
these ever had any predecessors8 that   
they were not originally the front rank 
as they are now8 ,a very fair question4 
,in the first place1 the great size of  
the tooth indicates maturity2 and is in 
keeping with the dimensions of the      

animal1--some twenty feet or so1--which 
are those of an adult1 if not a         
full-grown individual4 ,but adult age   
implies previous youth and infancy1 and 
a gradual growth from the length of a   
few inches to this formidable size4 ,the
 teeth are found in the embryo ,shark   
when not more than a foot long2 and it  
is evident that many successive         
generations of teeth have passed away   
between those pristine lancets of a line
 in diameter1 and these of an inch and a
 half4  ,but stay2 there is a           
peculiarity in the structure of these   
present teeth1 which surely indicates   
their place to be far on in the         
succession4 ,each is seen to be finely  
serrated on its two outer edges1--a     
provision which1 of course1 makes them  
more effective dividers of flesh and    
bone4 ,but this structure is not found  
in the teeth of young individuals1 which
 up to a period comparatively advanced1 
have simply cutting edges4  ,hence we   
are compelled by the phenomena to infer 

a long past existence to this animal1   
which yet has been called into being    
within an hour4  ,on yonder twig sits a 
beautiful little ,tree-frog1 which you  
would be ready to mistake for a leaf of 
more than usually emerald hue1 but for  
the glittering eye1 and the line of     
yellow edged with purple that passes    
down the side4 ,do you notice the       
frequent gulpings of the throat8 ,those 
are the periodic inspirations ,of air1  
by which the creature breathes2 for1    
having no ribs1 by means of which to    
depress1 and so to expand1 the thoracic 
cavity1 the ,frog swallows the air by a 
voluntary action4 ,these air-gulps      
afford us another example of the sort of
 evidence we are searching for2 they are
 so many proofs of a past history4 ,for 
the ,tree-frog has not always swallowed 
air2 there was a period in its life when
 it had no lungs2 when it was an aquatic
 animal1 as exclusively a water-breather
 as any fish4 ,fish-like in form it was 
then1 as well as in habit2 it was a     

tadpole with a long compressed muscular 
tail1 and with external gills of several
 branches1 but as destitute of lungs as 
it was of limbs4 ,any physiologist1     
looking at our little green ,tree-frog1 
would pronounce without hesitation on   
the stages through which it has passed2 
and would describe with the most perfect
 confidence the order in which they took
 place2 the gradual absorption of the   
branchiae1 the development of the lungs1
 the shrinking up and final             
disappearance of the tail1 the budding  
forth of the tiny rudimentary limbs1 the
 hinder pair first1 then the fore pair1 
and the subsequent division of their    
extremities into toes2--the             
metamorphosis of the little fish into a 
little batrachian1 and the gradual      
growth and maturation of the            
latter1--these are facts1--the          
physiologist would say1--as sure both as
 to their actuality and as to their     
order1 as that the ,frog is a ,frog4    
,ah6 but the physiologist is not aware  

of a fact1 which invalidates all his    
conclusions based upon experience1--the 
fact that the little ,tree-frog has been
 created but this very instant4  ,hark6 
that rattling noise is an admonition to 
us to tread circumspectly4 ,it is the   
vibration of the horny caudal appendages
 of a ,rattlesnake4 ,and ,i see the     
reptile coiled up under yonder shadowing
 leaf4 ,but our presence is a privileged
 presence1 and so we may handle and     
examine him with impunity4 ,the organ   
which produces this sound is composed of
 a number of hollow horny capsules1 each
 one fitting into the next1 in which it 
is retained loosely by a protuberance of
 its surface4 ,these1 being agitated at 
the will of the animal1 produce that    
sound which we just now heard4 ,the     
capsules are developed periodically1 one
 being added to the number already      
existing every year1 until as many as   
forty are accumulated4#hb ,this         
individual1 therefore1 having           
five-and-twenty rattles1 must be        

five-and-twenty years old4  ,this       
,snake1 however1 has had no past years2 
it has had no yesterday4 ,its existence 
commenced this hour4  ,here crouches1   
among the thick reeds1 the ,leviathan of
 the rivers1 the mailed ,crocodile4 ,his
 body1 invested with bony ridged plates1
 that rise into strong serrations along 
the tail1 seems clothed with power2 and 
his long rows of interlocking teeth1    
unveiled by lips1 appear grinning with  
perpetual rage4 ,an experienced         
herpetologist would not fail to find    
many evidences of age in this huge      
reptile4 ,first of all1 he would point  
to its monstrous size2 then to the      
breadth and massive thickness of the    
dermal plates4 ,the head1 he would say1 
in the ruggedness of its surface1 shows 
the same thing1 for in youth it was     
comparatively smooth2 and also in the   
form of its outline2 for in this example
 its length is double its breadth1      
whereas in youth1 these measurements    
were nearly equal4 ,these conical teeth1

 too1 are by no means the same          
individual teeth which existed at first4
 ,if you look at the base of one1 you   
will see that it is hollow1 and that the
 sides of this portion are already in   
process of absorption2 that this hollow 
cone is a sheath for another tooth      
beneath1 which is destined to replace   
it2 as this has itself replaced its     
predecessor4 ,the large size of the     
teeth which we see1 therefore1 which    
accords with the dimensions of the jaws1
 is not a condition induced by gradual  
growth1 but by a succession of          
sloughings and replacements2 and hence  
the present teeth1 in their size1 point 
conclusively to others which have       
preceded them1 but which have           
disappeared4  ,yet nothing can be more  
certain1 than that1 in this ,crocodile1 
which has been created to-day1 the      
successive teeth thus witnessed to1 are 
but ideal1 that is prochronic1 teeth2   
and that all the other indications of   
the lapse of time1 in the development of

 this individual1 are liable to the same
 exception4  ,see this solemn1          
slow-going ,tortoise1 shut up in his    
high-domed house of bones4 ,it is the   
beautiful ,testudo pardalis1 well named 
from the plates being elegantly spotted 
and splashed with black on a pale-yellow
 ground1 like the fur of the panther4   
,this is a rather large individual1 and 
the number of concentric lines on the   
plates of his armour1--or may ,i not    
rather say the tiles wherewith his house
 is roofed8--is commensurately great4   
,you see what ,i mean4 ,each of the     
angular plates has a small nuclear      
lamina1 not in the centre of the area1  
for the development has been one-sided1 
but on the highest part4 ,this was the  
plate in its earliest form1 or at least 
the earliest of which any trace is left2
 for probably there were others yet     
earlier and smaller1 which1 on account  
of their thinness1 have been rubbed away
 in the travels of the old wanderer4    
,from this nucleus1 the plate has been  

successively enlarged1 to correspond    
with the general growth of the animal1  
by repeated additions of new laminae to 
the inferior surface2 each new lamina   
being a little wider in every direction 
than that which preceded it1 though not 
equally on all the margins2 and thus the
 plates assumed the form of a very low  
cone1 as you see1 always preserving the 
specific outline1 and manifesting the   
stages of increase1 by the projecting   
edges of the successive laminae1 exactly
 as we saw lately in the scales of the  
fish4  ,illustration3 ,,plates ,,of     
,,tortoise4  ,whether these laminae are 
increased in an annual ratio1 ,i am not 
sure1 nor is it important4 ,there are1  
,i find1 about forty-five concentric    
lines on one plate in this specimen1    
besides others which are evanescent4    
,hence it would be quite legitimate to  
infer that this ,tortoise has passed    
through at least forty-five distinct    
periods of life1 each of which has left 
a legible record of its existence4  ,and

 yet1 this moment1 in which we look at  
it1 is the very first moment of its     
life2 the concentric layers are         
evidences of processes that never       
occurred1 except prochronically4  ,see  
yonder stately bird1 nearly of the      
height of man1 marching among the       
luxuriant musa-groves1 and feeding on   
the succulent fruits4 ,there is nothing 
very admirable in its coarse1 black1    
hair-like plumage2 but the rich hues of 
its naked neck1 azure1 purple1 and      
scarlet1 of the most vivid intensity1   
attract the gaze4 ,the most remarkable  
feature in its physiognomy1 is the      
singular1 tall ridge of horn on its     
head1 which1 like the crested helmet of 
some mailed warrior1 imparts an air of  
martial prowess to the bird1 little in  
accordance with its peaceful habits4    
,this protuberance is altogether a      
development of age4 ,the skull1 in the  
youth of the ,cassowary1 was scarcely   
more elevated than that of a chicken2   
but in the lapse of years1 the bony     

ridge1 encased in horn1 has gradually   
elevated itself to the height which it  
now possesses4  ,here again we have a   
record of time1 which is belied by the  
fact of the bird's recent creation4     
,what is the glorious train of the      
,peacock1 all filled with eyes1 but a   
false witness of the same kind8 ,it     
leads us to infer that the bird is three
 years old at least1 since before that  
period1 the covert feathers1 which are  
to form the splendid ornament of        
maturity1 are not developed4  ,what are 
the lengthened tail-plumes of most      
refulgent blue1 that adorn the          
,fork-tailed ,humming-bird 7,trochilus  
forficatus72 what the gorgeously golden 
tail of the ,resplendent ,trogon2 what  
the elegant lyre-shaped feathers of the 
,menura2 what the lustrous plumage of   
the ,birds of ,paradise1--all of which  
have been but this hour created1--but so
 many testimonies1 unworthy of          
confidence1 to a past history8  ,but1   
further1 every individual feather of    

this beautiful array of plumage concurs 
in bearing its unblushing witness to the
 same untruth4 ,what says the           
physiologist1 who is able to read off   
these autographic records8              
,illustration3 ,,growth ,,of ,a         
,,feather4  ,a little while ago1 the    
tips of these feathers were seen each   
protruding from the extremity of a      
thick1 opaque tube2 and a little while  
before that1 the tube itself1 was a     
closed capsule1 imbedded in a deep      
follicle of the skin4 ,if you had then  
cut open the capsule1 you would have    
found two concentric membranous tubes   
investing a highly vascular secreting   
pulp1 abundantly supplied with nerves   
and blood-vessels through an orifice at 
the bottom of the capsule1 and destined 
to form the substance of the coming     
feather4 ,indeed1 you would have seen   
the soft1 newly-formed barbs folded     
round the central organized matrix2 and 
below1 the incipient quill1 filled with 
the living pulp-cells1 and their        

blood-vessels1 which were destined      
subsequently to wither up and collapse  
into the light skinny pith which you see
 in the perfectly matured feather4      
,these are stages which each of these   
hundreds of feathers has passed through2
 and these are but a single generation1 
which have replaced former series that  
have been lost in the process of        
moulting1 every one of which had in its 
turn passed through exactly             
corresponding stages1 and so on         
backward1 till we reach the first race  
of feathers1 which were already partly  
developed when the chick burst forth    
from its imprisoning egg-shell4  ,so    
says the physiologist2 but is he not    
most egregiously in error1 since this is
 the day of these lovely beings'        
creation8  ,there goes the great ,whale1
 the true ,whalebone ,whale1 rolling and
 wallowing in the trough of the sea1 and
 exposing his enormous black back like  
an island amidst the white foam1 which  
he stirs up1 making the deep to be      

hoary4 ,we will use our privilege and   
take a peep into his mouth1 as we did   
just now into that of the ,shark4  ,what
 a cavern6 and all bristling with long  
black hair6 ,why it seems as if the hair
 grew on the wrong side of his head--on 
the inside instead of the outside6      
,nay1 what you call hair is really the  
,whale's teeth1 or what represents      
teeth4 ,this is the interior free       
fibrous margin of the baleen1 which     
descends in long triangular plates from 
the upper jaw4 ,there are about two     
hundred plates on each side1 set face to
 face1 with an interval between1 and the
 edges outward4 ,the inward edge runs   
off into those long hair-like filaments1
 which also extend from the slender tip4
 ,and the whole forms an effective      
sifting apparatus1 by which the volume  
of sea-water1 which the huge creature   
takes into his mouth in feeding1 is     
drained of the sea-blubbers1 the worms1 
the mollusks1 and other small matters1  
which constitute the subsistence of this

 vast body4  ,now each of these four    
hundred plates1 some twelve feet in     
length1 has grown from a minute sort of 
bud1 in the upper jaw4 ,its base is     
hollow1 resting on the formative pulp   
which is developed from the gum4 ,the   
pulp is understood to be the immediate  
origin of the hairy fringe1 while a     
dense vascular substance1 seated between
 the bases of the plates1 forms the     
plate itself4 ,when the plate reaches a 
certain length1 its diameter has become 
greatly attenuated1 and its tip is      
constantly breaking away1 leaving the   
hair projecting4 ,there is therefore a  
continual disappearance of the substance
 of the plates at the tips1 and a       
continual growth at the base to supply  
the deficiency2 and even more1 at least 
during the period of adolescence1       
because the actual dimensions of the    
plates have to be increased in the ratio
 of the growth of the whole animal4     
,here1 again1 we read a record of past  
history4 ,the ,whale is known to be a   

long-lived animal2 and a period of many 
years must have passed in bringing these
 plates of baleen to their present      
maturity4 ,yet the vast organism before 
us has been created in its vastness but 
to-day4  ,on the most prominent shelf of
 yonder precipice1 a sharp buttress of  
naked limestone1 stands an ,ibex1       
guarding1 like a watchful sentinel1 the 
herd in the sheltered valley which own  
his leadership4 ,the pair of noble      
horns1 which are at once his defence and
 his pride1 are marked throughout their 
ample curve with semi-rings1 or knobs1  
on their anterior side4 ,these afford us
 an infallible criterion of the animal's
 age4  ,we can count in this ,ibex      
fourteen of such prominent bosses4 ,now 
the horn in these animals is not shed   
during life1 but consists of a          
persistent sheath of horny substance1   
enveloping a bony core4 ,until full     
adult age1 both the core of bone and the
 sheath of horn are continually growing2
 and in the spring1 when there is an    

unusual augmentation of vital energy in 
the system1 the increase is more than   
usually rapid4 ,at this season1 the new 
matter deposited in the corneous sheath 
accumulates in the form of one of these 
bosses1 each of which is therefore      
produced at the interval of a year4 ,as 
the first boss appears in the second    
year of the animal's age1 we have but to
 add one to the number of the bosses on 
each horn1 and we have the number of    
years which it has lived4 ,the ,ibex    
before us is just fifteen years old4    
,illustration3 ,,horns ,,of ,,stag2  ,in
 their successive developments4  ,yon   
,stag that is rubbing his branchy       
honours against a tree in the           
glade1--can we apply the same criterion 
to him8 ,not exactly3 for the horns of  
all the ,deer-tribe are of a different  
structure from those of the ,capradae4  
,they are bones of great solidity1 not  
invested with any corneous sheath1 but  
clothed for a certain portion of their  
duration with a living vascular skin1   

and are shed every year during life and 
as constantly renewed4  ,yet the bony   
horns of the ,stag are no less sure a   
criterion of age1 at least up to a      
certain period--than are those of the   
hollow-horned ,ibex4 ,in the spring of  
the second year of the ,fawn1 the horns 
first appear1 seated on bony footstalks 
that spring from the frontal bone4 ,the 
skin that covers these knobs begins to  
swell and to become turgid with blood   
supplied by enlarging arteries4 ,layers 
of bone are now deposited1 particle by  
particle1 on the footstalks1 with       
surprising rapidity1 producing the      
budding horns1 which grow day by day1   
still covered by the skin1 which grows  
also in a corresponding ratio4 ,this    
goes on till a simple rod of bone is    
formed1 without any branches4 ,when this
 is complete1 the course of the arteries
 that supplied the skin is cut off by   
fresh osseous particles deposited in a  
thick ring around the base4 ,the        
enveloping skin then dies1 and is soon  

rubbed off4  ,after a few months1 the   
connexion of the now dead bone with the 
living is dissolved by absorption1 and  
the horns fall off4  ,the next spring   
they are renewed again1 but now with a  
branch or antler2 and the whole falls   
again in autumn4 ,every spring sees them
 renewed1 but always with an increase of
 development2 and this increase is      
definite and well-known2 so that the age
 of a ,stag1 at least of one in the     
vigour of life1 can be readily and      
certainly stated4  ,for example1 the    
individual ,stag before us1 now browsing
 so peacefully1 has each horn composed  
of the following elements3--the beam1 or
 main stem2 two brow-antlers2 one       
stem-antler1 and a coronet of four      
snags1 or royal-antlers1 at the summit4 
,this condition is peculiar to the      
seventh development1 to which if we add 
one year for the hornless stage of      
fawnhood1 we obtain eight years1 as1    
beyond all doubt1 the age of this ,stag4
  ,both of these examples1 however1 the 

,ibex and the ,stag1 though so          
conclusive1 and seemingly so            
irrefragable1 are rendered nugatory by  
the opposing fact of a just recent      
creation4  ,see this ,horse1 a newly    
created1 really wild ,horse1       ,wild
 as the wild deer1 and untaught1        
,with spur and bridle undefiled1--  his 
sleek coat of a dun mouse-colour1 with a
 black stripe running down his back1 and
 with a full black mane and tail4 ,he   
has a wild spiteful glance2 and his eye1
 and his lips now and then drawn back   
displaying his teeth1 indicate no very  
amiable temper4 ,still1 we want to look 
at those teeth of his4 ,please to       
moderate your rancour1 generous ,dobbin1
 and let us make an inspection of their 
condition6  ,now notice these           
peculiarities4 ,the third pair of       
permanent incisors have appeared1 and   
have attained the same level as their   
fellows2 all are marked with a central  
hollow on the crown1 the middle pair    
faintly3 the canines have acquired      

considerable size2 they present a       
regularly-convex surface outwardly1     
without any marks of grooving on the    
sides2 their inner side is concave2     
their edges sharp2 the third permanent  
molar has displaced its predecessor of  
the milk set1 and the sixth is          
developed4#hc  ,this condition of the   
teeth infallibly marks the fifth year of
 the ,horse's age4 ,a year ago the third
 incisor was only just rising2 the      
canines were small1 and strongly        
grooved1 and the third milk grinder was 
yet existing4 ,a year hence1 the central
 incisors will be worn quite flat1 and  
their marks obliterated2 the canines    
will be fully grown tusks1 the second   
molar will have reached its full height1
 and all the teeth will be of the same  
level4 ,we can then with perfect        
confidence assert this to be a five-year
 old ,horse4 ,and yet1 if we do so1 we  
shall assert a palpable untruth1 for the
 young and vigorous stallion has been   
created to-day4  ,illustration3 ,,skull 

,,of ,,babiroussa4  ,in the thickets of 
this nutmeg grove beside us there is a  
,babiroussa2 let us examine him4 ,here  
he is1 almost submerged in this tepid   
pool4 ,gentle swine with the circular   
tusk1 please to open your pretty mouth6 
,here are four incisors in the upper    
jaw2 at one time there were six4 ,the   
canines of the same jaw having pierced  
through the flesh and skin of the face1 
have grown upward and curved backward   
like horns2 nay1 they have nearly       
completed a circle1 and are threatening 
to re-enter the skull2 once these tusks 
had not broken from the gums4 ,there are
 two pre-molars3 once there were four4  
,there are three molars1 of which the   
first is worn quite smooth3 once this   
surface was crowned with four cones2 but
 the third molar had not then appeared4 
,away to a broader river4 ,here wallows 
and riots the huge ,hippopotamus4 ,what 
can we make of his dentition8 ,a strange
 array of teeth1 indeed1 is here2 as    
uncouth and hideous a set as you may    

hope to see4 ,yes1 but the group is     
instructive4 ,we will take them in      
detail4  ,look at the lower jaw first4  
,here are two large projecting incisors 
in the middle1 with their tips worn away
 obliquely on the outer side1 by the    
action of their opponents in the upper  
jaw1 which are also worn inwardly4 ,the 
outer incisors1 both above and below1   
are also mutually worn in like manner4  
,the lower canines form massive tusks1  
curved in the arc of a circle1 ground   
away obliquely by the upper pair2 which 
are short and similarly worn on their   
front edges4 ,there are three pre-molars
 on each side1 below and above1 much    
worn3 once there was a fourth1 but it   
was shed early4 ,lastly1 we find three  
molars1 whose crowns are ground down so 
as to expose two polished areas of a    
four-lobed figure4 ,a little while ago1 
these double areas were trilobate1 but  
at first there were no smooth areas at  
all2 for these are but sections1 more or
 less advanced1 of the conical knobs1   

with which the crown of the molar was   
originally armed4#hd  ,in both these    
examples1 the polished surfaces of the  
teeth1 worn away by mutual action1      
afford striking evidence of the lapse of
 time4 ,some one may possibly object1   
however1 to this3 ,what right have you  
to assume that these teeth were worn    
away at the moment of its creation1     
admitting the animal to have been       
created adult8 ,may they not have been  
entire8 ,i reply1 ,impossible3 the      
,hippopotamus's teeth would have been   
perfectly useless to him1 except in the 
ground-down condition3 nay1 the unworn  
canines would have effectually prevented
 his jaws from closing1 necessitating   
the keeping of the mouth wide open until
 the attrition was performed2 long      
before which1 of course1 he would have  
starved4 ,in a natural condition the    
mutual wearing begins as soon as the    
surface of the teeth come into contact  
with each other2 that is1 as soon as    
they have acquired a development which  

constitutes them fit for use4 ,the      
degree of attrition is merely a question
 of time4 ,there is no period that can  
be named1 supposing the existence of the
 perfected teeth at all1 in which the   
evidence of this action would not be    
visible4 ,how distinct an evidence of   
past action1 and yet1 in the case of the
 created individual1 how illusory6      
,illustration3 ,,skull ,,of             
,,hippopotamus4       ,trampling his    
path through wood and brake1      ,and  
canes1 which1 crackling1 fall before his
 way1      ,and tassel-grass1 whose     
silvery feathers play                   
,o'ertopping the young trees1--         
,on comes the ,elephant1 to slake       
,his thirst at noon1 in yon pellucid    
springs4      ,lo6 from his trunk       
upturn'd1 aloft he flings        ,the   
grateful shower3 and now                
,plucking the broad-leaf'd bough        
,of yonder plane1 with waving motion    
slow1            ,fanning the languid   
air1      ,he waves it to and fro4  ,we 

will not be content with admiring the   
vast size of the fine ,dauntelah1 and   
the majesty of his air and movement1 and
 the intelligence manifested in all the 
actions of the half-reasoning beast1 as 
he explores the amoenities of the young 
world to which he has but this morning  
been introduced4 ,we are out on another 
sort of scent3 let us try if we can     
glean any light from him on our present 
question4  ,and1 first1 we cannot fail  
to notice his fine pair of tusks curving
 upwards almost to a semicircle4 ,each  
tusk is composed of a vast number of    
thin cones of ivory1 superimposed one on
 another2 ever increasing by new ones   
formed within the interior at the base1 
and moulded upon the vascular pulp which
 fills the cavity1 and by which the     
solid ivory is constantly secreted and  
deposited4 ,each new cone pushes further
 and further out those previously       
deposited1 and thus the tusk ever grows 
in length as it increases in age4       
,illustration3 ,,skull ,,of ,,elephant4 

,how many years have these tusks        
occupied in attaining their present     
diameter and length8 ,we cannot tell3   
without a transverse section we cannot  
determine the number of layers of which 
each consists3 and if we could1 we      
should yet require to know what ratio   
exists between the deposition of a cone 
of ivory and a fixed period of time4    
,the cones1 however1 in a tusk of these 
dimensions1 are very numerous1 for they 
are but thin2 and it is enough for our  
purpose that they have occupied the same
 number of periods of time for their    
formation1 though we cannot precisely   
indicate the length of these periods4   
,leaving the tusks1 which are the upper 
incisors1 let us now examine the molars4
 ,and there is in these a remarkable    
peculiarity of development1 which will  
assist us greatly in our chronic        
inquiries4 ,before we look at them it   
may be as well to consider this         
peculiarity4  ,the ,elephant has1 from  
first to last1 six1 or perhaps eight1   

molars on each side of each jaw2 but    
there are never more than two partially1
 or one wholly1 in use at once4 ,they   
have originally an uneven surface1      
produced by the extremities of a number 
of what may be considered as so many    
finger-like constituent teeth1 arranged 
in transverse rows1 covered by hard     
enamel1 and cemented together by a bony 
substance4 ,these points are gradually  
worn down by the process of mastication1
 and then the compound tooth appears    
crossed by narrow cartouches1 or long   
ovals of enamel1 indented at their      
margins4  ,the first set of molars1 i4  
e4 the first compound molar or milk     
teeth1 begins to cut the jaw eight or   
ten days after birth1 and the grinders  
of the upper jaw appear before those of 
the lower one4 ,these milk-grinders are 
not shed1 but are gradually worn away   
during the time the second set are      
coming forward2 and as soon as the body 
of the grinder is nearly worn away1 the 
fangs begin to be absorbed4 ,from the   

end of the second to the beginning of   
the sixth year1 the third set come      
gradually forward as the jaw lengthens1 
not only to fill up this additional     
space1 but also to supply the place of  
this second set1 which are1 during the  
same period1 gradually worn away1 and   
have their fangs absorbed4 ,from the    
beginning of the sixth to the end of the
 ninth year1 the fourth set of grinders 
come forward to supply the gradual waste
 of the third set4 ,in this manner to   
the end of life1 the ,elephant obtains a
 set of new teeth1 as the old ones      
become unfit for the mastication of its 
food4  ,the milk-grinders consist each  
of four teeth1 or laminae2 the second   
set of grinders of eight or nine        
laminae2 the third set of twelve or     
thirteen2 the fourth set of fifteen1 and
 so on to the seventh or eighth set1    
when each grinder consists of twenty-two
 or twenty-three3 and it may be added1  
that each succeeding grinder takes at   
least a year more than its predecessor  

to be completed4#he  ,as each tooth     
advances1 only a small portion pierces  
the gum at once2 one of twelve or       
fourteen laminae1 for instance1 shows   
only two or three of these through the  
gum1 the remainder being as yet imbedded
 in the jaw2 and in fact the tooth is   
complete at its fore part1 where it is  
required for mastication1 while behind  
it is still very incomplete2 the laminae
 are successively perfected as they     
advance4 ,the molar of an ,elephant can 
never1 therefore1 be seen in a perfect  
state3 for if it is not worn in front1  
the back part is not fully formed and is
 without fangs2 and when the structure  
of the hinder portion is perfected1 the 
front part is already gone4  ,when the  
complex molar cuts the gum1 the cement  
is first rubbed off the digital summits2
 then their enamel cap is worn away1 and
 the central dentine comes into play    
with a prominent enamel ring2 the       
digital processes are next ground down  
to their common uniting base1 and a     

transverse tract of dentine1 with its   
wavy border of enamel1 is exposed2      
finally1 the transverse plates          
themselves are abraded to their common  
base of dentine1 and a smooth and       
polished tract of that substance is     
produced4 ,from this basis the roots of 
the molar are developed1 and increase in
 length1 to keep the worn crown on the  
grinding level1 until the reproductive  
force is exhausted4 ,when the whole     
extent of a grinder has thus            
successively come into play1 its last   
part is reduced to a long fang          
supporting a smooth and polished field  
of dentine1 with sometimes a few        
remnants of the bottom of the enamel    
folds at its hinder part4 ,then1 having 
become useless1 it is attacked by the   
absorbent action1 by which1 and the     
pressure of the succeeding tooth1 it is 
finally shed4#hf  ,with these           
physiological facts ascertained1 let us 
proceed to the determination of the     
actual age of our noble ,dauntelah4 ,the

 molar in present use has a length of   
about nine inches1 and a diameter of    
three and a half4 ,its crown is crossed 
by about eighteen enamel-plates2 of     
which the anterior ones are much worn   
away1 while the hinder ones can scarcely
 be counted with precision1 as they have
 not wholly cut their way through the   
gum4 ,these characters indicate the     
fifth molar 7or set of molars7 of the   
whole life-series4 ,and the following   
facts will help us now to fix the actual
 age1 at least approximately4  ,the     
first molar cuts the gum at two weeks   
old1 is in full use at three months1 and
 is shed in the course of the second    
year4 ,the second cuts the gum at about 
six months1 and is shed in the fifth    
year4 ,the third appears at two years1  
is in full use about the fifth year1 and
 finally disappears about the ninth     
year4 ,in the sixth year the fourth     
breaks from the gum1 and lasts till the 
animal's twenty-fifth year4 ,the fifth  
cuts the gum at the twentieth year1 is  

entirely exposed soon after the         
fortieth1 and is thrust out about the   
sixtieth year1 by the advance of the    
sixth molar1 which appears at about     
fifty years old1 and probably lasts for 
half a century more4 ,if others succeed 
this1--a seventh and even an eighth1 as 
some assert1--these would carry on the  
,elephant's life to two or three        
centuries1 in accordance with an ancient
 opinion1 which is in some degree       
countenanced by modern observations4    
,to come back1 then1 to the case before 
us1 since the fifth molar has its fore  
part much worn1 and the posterior       
laminae scarcely yet protruded from the 
gum1 it follows that this ,elephant is  
now not far from the fortieth year of   
his life1 a deduction which well agrees 
with the dimensions of his tusks1 and   
his appearance of mature vigour4  ,can  
you detect a flaw in this reasoning8    
,and yet how baseless the conclusion1   
which assigns a past existence of forty 
years to a creature called into         

existence this very day4      ,x4       
,,parallels ,,and ,,precedents4  7,man47
       ,once1 in the flight of ages     
past1        ,there lived a ,man1--and  
who was he8      ,mortal1 howe'er thy   
lot be cast1        ,that man resembled 
thee4--,,montgomery4   ,we have knocked 
at the doors of the vegetable world1    
asking our questions2 then at those of  
the lower tribes of the brute creation1 
and now at those of the higher forms2   
and we have received but one            
answer1--varying1 indeed1 in terms1 but 
essentially the same in meaning1--from  
all4 ,and now we have one more          
application to make2 we have1 still in  
our ideal peregrination1 to seek out the
 newly-created form of our first        
progenitor1 the primal ,head of the     
,human ,race4  ,and here we behold him2 
not like the beasts that perish1 but--  
,of far nobler shape1 erect and tall1   
,godlike erect1 with native honour clad1
      ,in naked majesty1 as lord of all4
  ,the definitive question before us is 

this3 ,does the body of the ,man just   
created present us with any evidences of
 a past existence1 and if so1 what are  
they8 ,and that we may rightly judge of 
the matter1 we will1 as on former       
occasions1 call in the aid of a skilful 
and experienced physiologist1 to whom we
 will distinctly put the question4      
,the ,physiologist's ,report4  ,in      
replying to your inquiry concerning the 
proofs of a past existence in the ,man  
before me1 ,i must treat of him as a    
mere animal1--a creature having an      
organic being4  ,and1 first1 ,i find    
every part of the surface of his body   
possessing a nearly uniform temperature1
 which is higher than that of the       
surrounding atmosphere4 ,there is1      
moreover1 on all parts of the body1 a   
tinge of redness1 more or less vivid in 
certain regions4 ,the heat1 and the     
carnation tinge1 alike indicate the     
presence of blood1 arterial blood1      
diffused throughout1 and1 in particular1
 occupying the capillaries of the       

superficial parts4 ,every drop of this  
blood is preceded and succeeded by other
 drops1 every one of which has been     
impelled out of the heart by its        
constant contractions4  ,but the very   
existence of this blood supposes the    
pre-existence of chyle and lymph1 out of
 which it has been constructed4 ,the    
chyle was formed out of chyme1 changed  
by the action of the pancreatic and     
biliary secretions4 ,chyme is food1     
chemically altered by the action of the 
gastric juice4 ,so that the blood1 now  
coursing through the arteries and veins1
 implies the previous process of the    
reception of food4 ,and these pancreatic
 and biliary secretions1 which are      
essential to the conversion of chyme    
into chyle1--and therefore into         
blood1--do you ask their origin8 ,they  
were prepared1 the one by the pancreas1 
the other by the liver1 from blood      
already existing1--blood previously     
formed of chyle with the addition of    
bile1 c4--and so indefinitely4  ,again1 

the blood in these capillary arteries is
 of a bright scarlet hue1 which it      
derives from its being charged with     
oxygen4 ,this it received in the lungs1 
parting at the same time with the carbon
 which it had taken up in its former    
course4 ,the lungs then must have       
existed before the blood could be where 
and what it is1 viz4 arterial blood in  
the capillaries of the extremities2     
before it was driven out of the heart1  
since it was transmitted from the lungs 
through the pulmonary veins into the    
heart1 thence to be pumped into the     
arterial system4  ,but since all the    
tissues of the body are formed from the 
blood1 the lungs were dependent on      
already-existing blood for their        
existence4 ,and as the formative and    
nutrient power is lodged exclusively in 
arterial blood1 the very blood out of   
which the lungs were organized was      
dependent on lungs for oxygenation1     
without which it would have been effete 
and useless4  ,here then is a cycle of  

which ,i cannot trace the beginning4    
,but further4 ,on the extremities of the
 fingers and of the toes1 there are     
broad horny nails4 ,these ,i trace down 
to the curved line where they issue from
 beneath the skin1 and whence every     
particle of each nail has issued in     
succession4 ,they are composed of       
several strata of polygonal cells1 which
 have all grown in reduplications of the
 skin1 forming compressed curved sheaths
 7follicles72 stratum after stratum of  
cells having been added to the          
base-line1 as the nail perpetually grew 
forwards4 ,about three months elapse    
from the emergence of a given stratum of
 cells1 before that stratum becomes     
terminal2 and therefore each of these   
twenty-four finger- and toe-nails is a  
witness to three months' past existence4
  ,illustration3 ,,growth ,,of ,,hair   
7magnified74  ,the head is clothed with 
luxuriant hair1 composed of a multitude 
of individual fibres1 each of which is  
an epidermic appendage1 essentially     

similar to the nails4 ,every hair is    
contained at its basal extremity in a   
delicate follicle1 where it terminates  
around a soft vascular bulb1 made up of 
blood-vessels and nerves4 ,on the       
surface of this living bulb the horny   
substance is continually secreted and   
deposited in layers1 each of which in   
succession pushes forward those         
previously made1 till the tip extrudes  
from the follicle of the skin1 after    
which it continues to grow in the same  
way1 as an external hair4 ,the tip is   
gradually worn away2 and thus the       
constant growth cannot1 in general1     
cause it to exceed a certain given      
length4 ,each of the thousands of hairs 
with which this majestic head is        
clothed1 bears witness to past time2 and
 as the increase of hair is about an    
inch per month1 and as this hair is     
about four inches in length1 we have    
here thousands of witnesses to at least 
four months of previous history4  ,the  
bones which make up the firm and stately

 fabric about which this human body is  
built1 are no productions of a day4     
,long before this they existed in the   
form of cartilages4 ,in these1 minute   
arteries began to deposit particles of  
phosphate of lime1 around certain       
centres of ossification1 doing their    
work in a determinate order1 and in     
regular lines1 so as to form continuous 
fibres4 ,these fibres1 aggregated1 and  
connected by others1 soon formed a      
texture of spicula or thin plates4  ,now
 take as an example a cylindrical hollow
 bone1 as that of the thigh4 ,here the  
spicula were arranged longitudinally1   
parallel to the axis of the bone3       
preserving the general form of the      
cartilage which constituted its         
scaffolding4  ,but the bone required a  
progressive increase in size4 ,in its   
early state1 moreover1 it was not       
hollow1 but solid4 ,changes must have   
taken place to bring it to its present  
dimensions and condition4 ,these were   
effected by the actual removal of some  

parts1 simultaneously with the          
deposition of others4  ,at a certain    
stage of ossification1 cells were       
excavated by the action of the absorbent
 vessels1 which carried away portions of
 bony matter lying in the axis of the   
cylindrical bone4 ,their place was      
supplied by an oily matter1 which is the
 marrow4 ,as the growth proceeded1 while
 new layers were deposited on the       
outside of the bone1 and at the end of  
the long fibres1 the internal layers    
near the centre were removed by the     
absorbent vessels1 so that the cavity   
was further enlarged4 ,in this manner   
the outermost layer of the young bone   
gradually changed its relative          
situation1 becoming more and more deeply
 buried by the new layers which were    
successively deposited1 and which       
covered and surrounded it2 until by the 
removal of all the layers situated near 
to the centre1 it became the innermost  
layer1 and was itself destined in its   
turn to disappear1 leaving the new bone 

without a single particle which had     
entered into the composition of the     
original structure4#hg  ,these processes
 have been the slow and gradual work of 
years1 of the lapse of which years the  
bones are themselves eloquent witnesses4
  ,within the mouth there are many      
teeth4 ,i will not now speak of their   
exact number1 nor of some other         
particulars concerning them1 because ,i 
mean to return to them presently2 but ,i
 look only at their general structure   
and origin4 ,each tooth consists of     
three distinct parts1 the central       
portion1 which is ivory2 the exceedingly
 hard1 polished1 glassy coat of the     
crown1 which is enamel2 and a thin layer
 of bone around the fang1 which is the  
cement4  ,before either of these        
appeared1 a minute papillary process of 
vascular pulp was formed in a cavity of 
the jaw4 ,over the pulp was spread an   
excessively thin membrane1 which        
secreted from the blood1 and deposited1 
a thin shell of bony matter1 or ivory1  

moulded on the form of the pulp4        
,successive layers of ivory were then   
added1 from within2 the pulp diminishing
 in a corresponding ratio4 ,the cavity  
of the jaw at the same time deepened1   
and the pulp lengthened downward into   
the space thus provided2 layers of bony 
substance being gradually deposited upon
 it1 as above4  ,illustration3 ,,section
 ,,of ,,human ,,tooth 7magnified74  ,the
 cavity itself was lined with a thick   
vascular membrane1 united to the papilla
 at its base4 ,within the space lying   
between this membrane and the pulp1     
there was deposited from the wall of the
 former a soft1 granular1 non-vascular  
substance1 known as the enamel organ4   
,the cells on the inner surface of this 
substance then took the form of long1   
sub-parallel prisms1 set in close array1
 perpendicular to the surface of the    
tooth4 ,earthy matter was progressively 
deposited in them1 by which they became 
the exceedingly dense and hard enamel of
 the crown4 ,the cement of the fang was 

then formed by a slight modification of 
the process which had produced the      
enamel4  ,here1 then1 are several       
distinct and important processes1       
effected in regular and immutable       
succession1 each requiring time for its 
performance1 and all undeniably         
witnessed-to by the structure of every  
tooth here seen4  ,as ,i have thus      
proved the fact of life existing in this
 human body for some time previous to   
the present moment1 ,i now proceed to   
inquire how far its structure may throw 
light on the actual duration of that    
past life4 ,how far can we ascertain its
 chronology8  ,the stature of the ,man  
before me is about six feet4 ,an infant 
at birth is from eighteen to twenty-one 
inches in length4 ,at ten years old the 
average stature is about four feet4 ,six
 feet may be taken as the full adult    
height of man2 and this is attained from
 the twenty-first to the twenty-fifth   
year4 ,the stature of this individual   
would therefore indicate an age not less

 than twenty-one years4  ,on the front  
of the throat ,i perceive a             
strongly-marked1 angular prominence1    
formed by the union of the two plates of
 the thyroid cartilage4 ,the prominence 
of this angle is due to the enlargement 
of the larynx2 and it is accompanied by 
a deepening of the pitch of the voice1  
producing the full rich sounds that we  
have this instant heard1 as the ,man    
chanted his song of praise4 ,these      
tones1 and this projection of the       
thyroid cartilage1 are equally          
distinctive marks of puberty1 and do not
 appear till about the sixteenth or     
seventeenth year4  ,the chin1 and sides 
of the face1 are clothed with a dense   
bush of crisp hair1--the beard4 ,this is
 a distinctive mark of the adolescent   
period1 and may be taken as indicating  
an age not less than twenty years4  ,on 
again examining the mouth1 ,i find the  
teeth are thirty-two in number2 viz41   
four incisors1 two canines1 four        
pre-molars1 and six true molars1 in each

 jaw4 ,none of these existed 7at least  
visibly7 during the first seven years of
 life2 in that period they were         
represented by the milk-teeth of        
infancy4 ,the appearance of the middle  
pair of incisors occurred at about the  
eighth year2 the lateral incisors at    
nine2 the first pre-molars at ten2 the  
second at eleven2 the canines at about  
twelve2 the second molars at thirteen or
 fourteen2 and the third molars1 or     
dentes sapientiae1 at about seventeen or
 eighteen4  ,the state of the dentition1
 then1 points to an age certainly not   
less than the period just named4 ,how   
much more it may be1 we must gather from
 other sources4  ,i come now to certain 
phenomena which are not appreciable to  
us on mere external examination2 but    
which ,i am able with certainty to      
predicate4 ,and the first of these is   
the proportion of arterial to venous    
blood in the capillaries4 ,in infancy1  
the arterial capillaries contain far    
more blood than the capillary veins2 in 

old age1 the proportion is exactly      
reversed2 whereas1 in maturity1 the     
ratio is just equal4 ,now1 here there is
 a very small preponderance of arterial 
blood1 indicating a period but slightly 
remote from maturity on the side of     
youth2 well agreeing with the conclusion
 arrived at from previous premises1 of  
some twenty to five-and-twenty years4   
,other and more marked manifestations   
occur in the condition of the skeleton4 
,in the spine1 ,i find the spinous and  
transverse processes of the several     
vertebrae are completed by separate     
epiphyses1 the ossification of which    
does not commence till after puberty1   
and the final union of which with the   
body of the bone does not occur till    
about the age of twenty-five years4     
,each vertebra1 moreover1 has attained a
 smooth annular plate of solid bone1    
covering a surface that was previously  
rough and fissured1 which is invariably 
added at the same period4  ,the         
ossification of the sacrum also has     

reached its culminating point4 ,at the  
age of puberty1 the component vertebrae 
began to unite from below upwards1 and  
the two highest have now coalesced2     
which also marks a period of life not   
earlier than the twenty-fifth year4 ,the
 whole united mass1 moreover1 is        
furnished on each side with thin bony   
plates1 the appearance of which is no   
less characteristic of the same age4    
,each of the ribs is here furnished with
 two epiphyses1 one for the head and the
 other for the tubercle2 the            
ossification of these began soon after  
puberty2 but their union with the body  
of the bone1 as presented here1 has     
taken several years to accomplish4  ,to 
come to the limbs1 we find the          
shoulder-blade presenting three         
epiphyses1 one for the coracoid process1
 one for the acromion1 and one for the  
lower angle of the bone1 the            
ossification of which begins soon after 
puberty1 their union with the body of   
the bone taking place between the ages  

of twenty-two and twenty-five years4    
,the clavicle has an epiphysis at its   
sternal end1 which begins to form       
between the eighteenth and twentieth    
years1 and is united to the rest of the 
bone a few years later4 ,the            
consolidation of the shoulder-bone      
7humerus7 is completed rather earlier2  
the large piece at the upper end1 which 
is formed by the coalescence of the     
ossific centres of the head and two     
tuberosities1 unites with the shaft at  
about the twentieth year2 whilst its    
lower extremity is completed by the     
junction of the external condyle1 and of
 the two parts of the articulating      
surface 7previously united with each    
other71 at about the seventeenth year1  
and by that of the internal condyle in  
the year following4 ,the superior       
epiphyses of the arm-bones 7radius and  
ulna7 unite with their respective shafts
 at about the age of puberty2 the       
inferior1 which are of larger size1 at  
about the twentieth year4 ,the epiphyses

 of the metacarpal and phalangeal bones 
7those of the hand and fingers7 are     
united to their principals at about the 
twentieth year4 ,in the ,lower          
,extremities1 the process of            
ossification is completed at nearly the 
same periods as that of the             
corresponding parts of the ,upper4 ,the 
consolidation of the hipbones 7ilium1   
ischium1 and pubis7 to form the os      
innominatum1 by the ossification of the 
triradiate cartilage that intervenes    
between them in the socket of the thigh 
7acetabulum71 does not take place until 
after the period of puberty2 and at this
 time additional epiphyses begin to make
 their appearance on the crest of the   
ilium1 on its anterior inferior spine1  
on the tuberosity of the ischium1 and on
 the inner margin of the pubes1 which   
are not finally joined to the bone until
 about the twenty-fifth year4#hh  ,the  
concurrence of these conditions in the  
skeleton1 the nearly balanced ratio of  
the bloods1 the perfected dentition1 the

 beard1 the deepened voice1 the         
prominent larynx1 and the stature1      
combine to point out1 with infallible   
precision1 the age of this ,man1 as     
between twenty-five and thirty years4   
,so far1 then1 we can with certainty    
trace back the history of this being1 as
 an independent organism2 but did his   
history then commence8 ,o no2 we can    
carry him much farther back than this4  
,what means this curious depression in  
the centre of the abdomen1 and the      
corrugated knob which occupies the      
cavity8#hi  ,this is the ,,navel4 ,the  
corrugation is the cicatrice left where 
once was attached the umbilical cord1   
and whence its remains1 having died1    
sloughed away4 ,this organ introduces us
 to the foetal life of ,man2 for it was 
the link of connexion between1 the      
unborn infant and the parent2 the       
channel1 through whose arteries and     
veins the oxygenated and the effete     
blood passed to and from the parental   
system1 when as yet the unused lungs had

 not received one breath of vital air4  
,and thus the life of the individual    
,man before us passes1 by a necessary   
retrogression1 back to the life of      
another individual1 from whose substance
 his own substance was formed by        
gemmation2 one of the component cells of
 whose structure was the primordial     
cell1 from which have been developed    
successively all the cells which now    
make up his mature and perfect organism4
         99       99       99       99  
99  ,how is it possible to avoid this   
conclusion8 ,has not the physiologist   
irrefragable grounds for it1 founded on 
universal experience8 ,has not          
observation abundantly shown1 that1     
wherever the bones1 flesh1 blood1 teeth1
 nails1 hair of man exist1 the aggregate
 body has passed through stages exactly 
correspondent to those alluded to above1
 and has originated in the uterus of a  
mother1 its foetal life being1 so to    
speak1 a budding out of hers8 ,has the  
combined experience of mankind ever seen

 a solitary exception to this law8 ,how1
 then1 can we refuse the concession     
that1 in the individual before us1 in   
whom we find all the phenomena that we  
are accustomed to associate with adult  
,man1 repeated in the most exact        
verisimilitude1 without a single        
flaw--how1 ,i say1 can we hesitate to   
assert that such was his origin too8    
,and yet1 in order to assert it1 we must
 be prepared to adopt the old ,pagan    
doctrine of the eternity of matter2 ex  
nihilo nihil fit4 ,but those with whom  
,i argue are precluded from this1 by my 
first ,postulate4      ,,xi4            
,,parallels ,,and ,,precedents4         
7,germs47       ,every cell1 like every 
individual ,plant or ,animal1 is the    
product of a previous organism of the   
same kind4--7,,dr4      ,,carpenter1    
,comp4 ,physiol4 ,sec4 #cdg47   ,in the 
preceding examples ,i have assumed that 
every organic entity was created in that
 stage of its being which constitutes   
the acme of its peculiar development2   

when all its faculties are in their     
highest perfection1 and when it is best 
fitted to reproduce its own image4 ,from
 the very nature of things ,i judge that
 this was the actual fact2#ij since1 if 
we suppose the formation of the         
primitive creatures in an undeveloped or
 infant condition1 a period would       
require to lapse before the increase of 
the species could begin2 which time     
would be wasted4 ,to those1 indeed1 who 
receive as authority the testimony of   
the ,holy ,scripture1 the matter stands 
on more than probable ground2 for its   
statements1 as to the condition of the  
things created1 are clear and full3 they
 were not seeds1 and germs1 and eggs1   
and embryos1--but the tree yielding     
fruit whose seed was in itself1--great  
whales1--winged fowl1--the beast of the 
earth1--and man4#ia  ,but ,i do not mean
 to shield myself behind authority4 ,i  
have begged the fact of creation2 but   
not the truth1 nor even the existence1  
of any historic document describing it4 

,it is essential to my argument that any
 such be left entirely out of the       
question2 and1 for the present1 ,i      
accordingly ignore the ,bible4  ,it is  
possible that some opponent may object  
to my assumption of maturity in created 
organisms4  ,your deductions may be     
sound enough1 such an one may say1      
provided your newly-created ,locust-tree
 had so many concentric cylinders of    
timber1 your ,tree-fern had a           
well-developed stem of leaf-bases1 your 
,coral a great aggregation of           
polype-cells1 your ,tortoise a carapace 
of many-laminated plates1 your ,elephant
 a half-worn set of molars1 and your    
,man a thoroughly ossified skeleton4    
,but how do you know that either of     
these organisms was created in this     
mature stage8 ,i will not deny that each
 was created1--was called suddenly out  
of non-entity into entity2 but ,i       
believe1 or at least ,i choose to       
believe1--that each was created in the  
simplest form in which it can exist2 as 

the seed1 the gemmule1 the ovum1        
the--ahem6  ,pray go on6 you were about 
to say the infant1 or the foetus1 or the
 embryo1 probably2 pray make your       
selection3 which will you say8  ,well1  
,i hardly know4 ,because1 if ,i choose  
the new-born infant1 you will say1 ,its 
condition implies a nine months'        
pre-existence1 certainly2 not to speak  
of the absurdity of a new-born infant   
being cast out into an open world       
without a parent to feed it4 ,if ,i say1
 ,the foetus1 or the still more         
incipient embryo1 ,i involve1 at once1 a
 pre-existent mother4 ,i am afraid you  
have me there6  ,i think ,i have4       
,however1 let us take up the matter     
orderly1 and proceed on the supposition 
that my previous examples must be all   
cancelled1 and the question argued de   
novo1 on the assumption that each       
organism was created in its least       
developed condition4  ,it will not be   
considered necessary1 ,i suppose1 to    
look at any intermediate condition of   

the organisms4 ,the argument which is   
based upon the leaf-scales of the ,fern 
or the ,palm would essentially apply to 
either of these plants when it first    
issues from the ground4 ,at the period  
when it comprises but a single frond1   
the botanist would no more hesitate in  
pronouncing that the organism had passed
 through stages previous to that one1   
than he would when it possesses an      
elongated stipe2 though1 in the latter  
case1 the evidences of the pre-existence
 are more patent to the uninstructed    
eye4 ,he would say1 ,the single frond   
implies1 with absolute necessity1 a     
spore in the one case1 a seed in the    
other2 and we need not to see either1 to
 be assured that this must have preceded
 the leaf-stage4  ,but you go farther   
back still4 ,the plant was created as a 
seed4 ,let us renew our imaginary tour  
at the epoch1 or epochs 7as many as you 
please71 of creation1 on this           
supposition4  ,here is a very young     
plant of the curious ,seychelles ,palm  

or ,double ,cocoa-nut 7,lodoicea        
,sechellarum74 ,a single frond is all   
that is yet developed1 and this is as   
yet unexpanded1 the pinnae being still  
folded on the midrib1 like a fan4 ,trace
 the frond down to its base4 ,it springs
 from a thick horizontal cylindric      
process1 which has also shot down a     
radicle into the soil4 ,we trace the    
cylindrical stem along the surface of   
the soil1 and find1 lying on the ground1
 among the grass1 but not buried1 a     
great double nut1 something like the two
 hemispheres of a human brain1 or like a
 common cocoa-nut1 half split open and  
healed4 ,out of this the thick stem has 
issued2 and we find that it is only the 
cotyledon of the seed1 that has         
prolonged its base in the process of    
germination1 in order to throw up1 clear
 of the nut1 the plumule and radicle4   
,we look at the great nut1 and find1 on 
the woody exterior of the fibrous       
pericarp1 at the side opposite to that  
whence issues the cotyledon1 a broad    

scar4 ,what is this8 ,it is the mark    
left by the severance of a footstalk1   
which united the fruit to the parent    
plant4 ,this great drupe was once a     
small ovary seated in the centre of a   
three-petaled flower1 which1 with many  
others1 issued out of a great spathe1 a 
mass of inflorescence1 and hung down    
from the base of the leafy coronal of an
 adult palm-tree4 ,this scar is an      
irreproachable witness of the existence 
of the parent palm4  ,here1 lying on the
 dry and dusty earth1 is a brown flat   
bean of great hardness4 ,this is a seed 
destined by and by to produce that      
splendid tree ,erythrina crista-galli4  
,but it has been just created4  ,this   
bean bears on one of its edges an oval  
scar1 very distinctly marked1 called the
 hilum4 ,this was the point of          
attachment of a short column1 by which  
the seed was united to one of the       
sutures of a long pod1 in the interior  
of which it lay1 in company with several
 others like itself4 ,this great legume 

or pod had been the bottom of the pistil
 of a papilionaceous flower1 crowned by 
a tiny stigma1 lodged in a sheath formed
 by the united stamens1 and surrounded  
by a corolla of refulgent scarlet       
petals4  ,of course such a flower was   
not an independent organism2 it was one 
of many that adorned a great tree1 the  
history of whose life would carry us    
back through several generations of     
human years4  ,illustration3 ,,garden   
,,tulip4  ,fig4 #a4 ,a flower with two  
petals removed1 to show the ovary1 a4   
,fig4 #b4 ,the same ovary1 more mature1 
divided longitudinally2 b1 the unripe   
seeds1 packed on each other2 c1 a       
portion of the same carpel1 from which  
the seeds have been removed4  ,this     
single infolding leaf1 that is just     
shooting from the soil1 so small and    
feeble1--what of this8 ,there are       
certainly no concentric cylinders of    
timber here3 can we trace a previous    
history of this8  ,yes3 by carefully    
removing the soil from the base1 we see 

that it originates in a flat yellow     
seed--the seed of a ,tulip4 ,here again 
we have no difficulty in detecting      
evidence of its former attachment4 ,a   
great number of these seeds were once   
closely packed one on another1 in each  
of the three carpels that constituted   
the capsule4 ,and this capsule had been 
the oblong1 three-sided ovary1 which    
formed the body of the pistil in some   
beautiful ,tulip4  ,do you observe these
 two round fleshy leaves1 just peeping  
from the sandy earth8 ,they are the     
earliest growths of a plant of ,arachis 
hypogaea4 ,in this case again1 to       
understand the true relations of this   
organism1 we must expose it wholly to   
view4  ,beneath the surface of the      
earth1 then1 ,i find that these         
seed-leaves are the two halves          
7cotyledons7 of a kind of pea1 which was
 formerly enclosed in a wrinkled skinny 
pod4 ,but what is most interesting is   
that the pod is here1 the cotyledons    
shooting out of it4 ,and1 attached to   

one end of the pod1 here is a slender   
stalk1 now withered and dry1 which      
projects out of the ground into the air4
  ,illustration3 ,,germination ,,of     
,,earth-,,pea4  ,now here we have a     
beautiful link of connexion with the    
past4 ,the plant before us does not     
ripen its seeds1 and then drop them to  
care for themselves1 as most plants do4 
,the young fruit1 instead of being      
placed at the bottom of the calyx1 as in
 other kinds of pulse1 is found at the  
bottom and in the inside of a long      
slender tube1 which looks like a        
flower-stalk4 ,when the flower has      
withered1 and the young fruit is        
fertilized1 nothing but the bottom of   
the tube with its contents remains4 ,at 
this period a small point projects from 
the summit of the young fruit1 and      
gradually elongates1 curving downwards  
towards the earth4 ,at the same time the
 stalk of the fruit lengthens1 until the
 small point strikes the earth1 into    
which the now half-grown fruit is       

speedily forced1 and where it finally   
ripens in what would seem a most        
unnatural position4#ib  ,the young plant
 before us has been this moment created1
 and created in this incipient stage of 
growth3 and yet there is1 even here1 an 
indubitable evidence1 so far as physical
 phenomena can afford it1 of a past     
history4 ,it would be utterly impossible
 to select any stage in the life of the 
,earth-pea1 which did not connect       
itself1 visibly and palpably1 with a    
previous stage4  ,let us return to the  
shore-loving ,mangrove4 ,you object to  
my assumption that it was created as a  
tree1 with a well-branched stem elevated
 upon a series of arching roots2 and to 
my deduction of pre-lapsed years for the
 formation of those roots4 ,very well4  
,i give it up4 ,you allow that the      
primitive ,mangrove was created in some 
stage1 but you contend for the          
germ-stage1 the simplest condition of   
the plant1 whatever that might be4      
,now1 where shall we find it8 ,in the   

first pair of developed leaves8 ,they   
certainly point back to the cotyledons4 
,to the cotyledons1 then1 let us look4  
,lo6 the young plant is germinating     
before its connexion with the parent is 
severed4 ,it is the singular habit of   
this tree1 that its seeds are already in
 a growing condition1 while they hang   
from the twig4 ,each seed is a long     
club-shaped body1 with a bulbous base   
and a slender point1 more or less       
produced4 ,while it yet hangs from the  
branch1 the radicle and crown of the    
root begin to grow1 and gradually       
lengthen1 until the tip reaches the     
soil1 which it penetrates and thus roots
 itself2 while those which depend from  
the higher branches1 after growing for a
 while1 drop1 and1 sticking in the mud1 
throw out roots from one end1 and leaves
 from the other4  ,illustration3 ,,seed 
,,of ,,mangrove4  ,what have you gained1
 then1 in this case1 by going back to   
the germ8 ,the germ as decisively       
asserts its origination from an already 

existing organism--the parent tree--as  
the flourishing tree witnesses its      
gradual development from a germ4 ,the   
,mangrove could not by possibility have 
been created in any stage1 consistent   
with the identity of the species with   
that which we behold now in the         
nineteenth century1--that did not show  
ocular evidence of a previous           
history2--evidence from the nature of   
things fallacious4  ,it would be merely 
tiresome to go on through the vegetable 
kingdom4 ,in every plant the simplest   
condition--viz4 that of a spore or      
seed--depends on some development1 or   
process1 or series of processes1 that   
have preceded it4 ,nor does the lapse of
 time between the previous process and  
the apparent result at all destroy their
 necessary connexion4 ,in the case of   
the curious ,misseltoes1 the ovule does 
not appear till three months after the  
pollen has been shed2 but when it does  
appear1 its existence as an organism    
capable of developing the characteristic

 form of its species1 is as truly       
dependent on the previous existence of  
the pollen1 as if not an hour had       
intervened4  ,supposing the essential   
conditions of vegetable organisms to    
have been at the first what they are    
now2 in other words1 supposing specific 
identity to have been always            
maintained1--which ,i have demanded as a
 postulate for this argument1--it       
appears to me demonstrable1 that every  
plant in the world presented at the     
moment of its creation evidences        
prochronic development1 in nowise to be 
distinguished from those on which we    
firmly rely as proving the lapse of     
time4  ,but is the case otherwise in the
 animal world8  ,we traced back the     
history of our ,medusa through its      
marvellous series of gemmative          
developments1 till we reached the minute
 ,infusory-like gemmule1 which is its   
simplest form4 ,now it is quite         
legitimate to assume that this1 and not 
the pulmonigrade umbrelliform stage1 was

 the one in which the new-created       
,medusa began existence4 ,have we1 then1
 got rid of the evidence of past time1  
which we deduced from the successive    
changes through which the adult had     
passed8 ,what is this ciliated planule1 
and whence comes it8 ,it is the embryo  
discharged from the fringed ovary of a  
female ,medusa2 it has already passed   
through several changes of colour and   
form4 ,it is now of a deep yellow       
colour2 it has been violet2 it has been 
colourless3 it is now shaped like a     
dumb-bell2 it was a globule2 it had been
 a mulberry-mass4 ,yet earlier1 it had  
been a component cell of the ovarian    
band1 which divided the generative      
cavity from that of the stomach1 in the 
parent ,medusa4  ,in like manner the    
ciliated gemmule from which was formed  
the pluteus of the ,urchin1 was         
dependent on the existence of a parent  
,urchin2 the monadiform germ from which 
was developed the pentacrinus of the    
,feather-star1 was originally hidden in 

the ovarian tubes of a parent           
,feather-,star3 the infant ,serpula that
 deposited the first atoms of calcareous
 matter as a commenced tube1 had begun  
its own existence in the body of a      
parent ,serpula4  ,it is true the       
evidence of the connexion between the   
germ and the parent is not in these low 
forms always patent to the eye2 it is   
physiological4 ,but it is not less      
conclusive to one who is able to        
appreciate its force4 ,a physiologist is
 as sure that every germ1 every ovum1 in
 the ,invertebrate animals1 was produced
 by an animal of a former generation1 as
 he is of the same fact in a ,mammal1   
where his eye can see the scar of the   
umbilical cord4  ,in many instances     
there is stronger1 or rather more       
obvious and ordinarily appreciable1     
evidence of the link between the present
 and the past generation1 than the      
physiological dependence4 ,the world of 
,insects1 which1 from its immensity1 and
 from the high organic rank of its      

members1 affords us so exhaustless a    
mine of economical wonders1--is rich in 
examples to the point4 ,a few of these  
,i shall cite4  ,the eggs of many       
,insects are not dropped anywhere1 at   
random2 for1 as the newly-born young    
have limited powers of locomotion1 and  
yet are in general able to subsist only 
on some particular kind of food1 it is  
necessary that their birth should occur 
in the immediate proximity of such food3
 and therefore that the egg should be so
 placed4 ,now this circumstance would   
not be specially noteworthy if the      
locality selected for the deposition of 
the egg were the same as that in which  
the parent insect had been accustomed to
 find its own private enjoyments3 we    
should reasonably say that the eggs were
 placed here1 because the parents       
happened to be here4 ,the case1 however1
 is very different4  ,we never find the 
egg of the ,peacock ,butterfly adhering 
to the leaf of a cabbage1 nor that of   
the ,garden ,white to the leaf of a     

nettle2 but the nettle is invariably    
selected for the former1 and a          
cruciferous plant for the latter4  ,yet 
there is nothing in the individual wants
 or likings of the ,butterfly1 in either
 case1 to account for this4 ,both the   
one and the other flutter through the   
sunny air1 alight to drink the water of 
some slushy pool1 rest on the expanding 
flowers and probe them for nectar1 or   
suck the exuding juices of an over-ripe 
fruit4 ,but when did you ever see the   
gorgeous-eyed ,peacock feeding on a     
nettle1 or the ,white on a cabbage8     
,eagerly as they seek these plants1 it  
is solely for the purpose of depositing 
their eggs where instinct teaches them  
their unborn progeny will find suitable 
food4  ,supposing1 therefore1 we had    
found the egg of either of these        
butterflies at the moment of its        
creation1 we should assuredly have found
 it on the nettle or the cabbage 7as the
 case might be72 because to suppose it  
in any other situation would be         

equivalent to supposing it so placed as 
that the end of its creation--the life  
of the species created--would be ipso   
facto frustrated4 ,but1 finding it so1  
the question naturally arises1--,why    
here1 and not elsewhere8 and the only   
possible answer1 on the ground of       
phenomena1 is1 ,because the parent chose
 this situation for it4 ,and thus we are
 inevitably thrown back to an anterior  
generation1 which is equivalent to past 
time4  ,again1 if we had seen the egg of
 the ,nut ,weevil 7,balaninus nucum7    
just come from the creative hand of     
,god1 we should certainly have found it 
within the immature soft-shelled        
hazel-nut1 because there alone would the
 grub when hatched meet with food       
convenient for it4 ,and yet if we had   
sought 7ignorant of the fact of its     
recent creation7 the reason of its being
 there1 our acquaintance with entomology
 would have pointed to the parent       
beetle1 who1 with her jaws placed at the
 tip of a long slender snout1 had bored 

a tiny hole in the tender shell1 and had
 then projected the egg from her abdomen
 into the interior4  ,the eggs of the   
,oestridae--for example1 the ,worble of 
the ,ox 7,oestrus bovis7 or the ,bot of 
the ,sheep 7,oe4 ovis7--would be        
discovered in no other circumstances    
than beneath the skin of the former1 and
 at the edge of the nostrils of the     
latter4 ,for these are the respective   
situations in which the egg is always   
deposited1 that of the ,worble hatching 
in situ1 and forming a superficial      
abscess in communication with the       
external air1 and that of the ,sheep-bot
 producing a larva which crawls up the  
nostrils of the poor animal1 till it    
finds a suitable resting-place in the   
frontal sinuses of the skull4 ,to       
suppose the egg in any other            
circumstances than those which ,i have  
mentioned1 would be to consign it to    
certain destruction4 ,yet does not its  
presence there bear witness to the      
eclectic care of the parent ,gadfly1    

whose unerring instinct knew how to seek
 and select the right position8  ,if you
 had set yourself to look for the egg of
 a ,pimpla manifestator1 a common       
,cuckoo-fly1 where would you have looked
 for it1 but in the fatty tissues of a  
wild bee's grub1 that was lodged in a   
deep hole in some old post8 ,if you had 
sought elsewhere1 you would surely have 
been disappointed4 ,and would not its   
presence there bear testimony to the    
lengthened ovipositor of the well-known 
brisk and busy fly1 and to its          
remarkable habits8#ic  ,the grub of the 
,pill ,chafer or ,tumble-dung ,beetle   
7,phanaeus7 feeds on the ordure of      
,mammalia4 ,and1 in order that the      
newly-hatched young may have a copious  
supply of food at hand1 the parent      
chafer with its jaws detaches a mass of 
recent ordure1 which it then rolls over 
the ground with its hind feet1 until it 
acquires a globular form1 and a coating 
of earth or sand4 ,an egg is then       
deposited in the centre of the ball1    

which is rolled into a hole made in the 
earth to receive it4 ,the coating of    
earth drying and hardening1 keeps the   
interior of the mass fresh and moist    
until the young grub is hatched1 when it
 at once begins to devour its savoury   
and delicate provision4  ,it would be   
vain to search for the egg of a ,cynips 
except within a vegetable gall1 or at   
least within the tissues of a plant that
 are going to produce one4 ,take as an  
example ,c4 quercus1 which produces the 
spongy excrescence well known as the    
common ,oak-apple4 ,the female ,gall-fly
 is furnished with an ovipositor in the 
shape of a very fine curved needle1 with
 which she punctures the tender bark of 
an oak shoot1 lodging an egg in the     
perforation4 ,stimulated by some fluid1 
probably1 which is poured into the wound
 at the same time1 the sap forms a      
peculiar tissue around the egg1 swelling
 into a large ball1 on which the young  
grub begins to feed eagerly1 and in     
which it finds the only nutriment on    

which it could subsist4  ,now1 if we had
 found the egg of a ,gall-fly newly     
created1 we should certainly have found 
it in a gall2 and the gall would have   
afforded us indubitable evidence of the 
wounding of the vegetable tissues1 and  
of the organ1 secretion1 and instinct of
 the tiny fly by which the process had  
been effected4 ,the evidence would be   
irresistible1 but of course it would be 
fallacious4  ,let us now look at a few  
examples in which the egg is found in   
invariable association not merely with  
something that the parent has found for 
it1 but with something that has         
proceeded from her1 a part of herself4  
,of this nature are the eggs of that    
beautiful1 but most cacodious1          
lace-winged fly1 ,chrysopa perla4 ,if   
you had seen one of these 7or more7 at  
the instant of its creation1 you would  
have seen a tiny oval body placed at the
 extremity of an elastic footstalk      
half-an-inch in length1 and as fine as a
 hair1 standing erect from the surface  

of a leaf4 ,this thread is composed of a
 gummy secretion1 evolved in a gland    
attached to the oviduct of the female   
,lace-fly4 ,when she deposits an egg1   
she first exudes a drop of this gum on  
the surface of a leaf1 and then1        
elevating her abdomen1 the viscid       
substance is drawn out in a thread1     
which presently hardening in the air1   
the egg is left at the tip of the       
filament4 ,an experienced entomologist1 
on seeing this object1 would have no    
hesitation in declaring the origin of   
the footstalk to be the gum-gland of the
 female ,chrysopa2 and yet he would     
certainly have drawn a false inference  
in the case that ,i am supposing4       
,illustration3 ,,lace-,,fly ,,and       
,,eggs4  ,many ,spiders enclose their   
eggs in an envelope1 the produce of     
their own bowels4 ,take an interesting  
example1 as narrated by the eloquent    
,mr4 ,kirby4 ,there is a ,spider common 
under clods of earth 7,lycosa saccata71 
which may at once be distinguished by a 

white globular silken bag1 about the    
size of a pea1 in which she has         
deposited her eggs1 attached to the     
extremity of her body4 ,never miser     
clung to his treasure with more         
tenacious solicitude than this spider to
 her bag4 ,though apparently a          
considerable incumbrance1 she carries it
 with her everywhere4 ,if you deprive   
her of it1 she makes the most strenuous 
efforts for its recovery2 and no        
personal danger can force her to quit   
the precious load4 ,are her efforts     
ineffectual8 a stupefying melancholy    
seems to seize her2 and1 when deprived  
of this first object of her cares1      
existence itself appears to have lost   
its charms4 ,if she succeeds in         
regaining her bag1 or you restore it to 
her1 her actions demonstrate the excess 
of her joy4 ,she eagerly seizes it1 and 
with the utmost agility runs off with it
 to a place of security4  ,the          
attachment of this affectionate mother  
is not confined to her eggs4 ,after the 

young spiders are hatched1 they make    
their way out of the bag by an orifice  
which she is careful to open for them1  
and without which they could never      
escape2 and then1 like the young of the 
,surinam toad 7,rana pipa71 they attach 
themselves in clusters upon her back1   
belly1 head1 and even legs2 and in this 
situation1 where they present a very    
singular appearance1 she carries them   
about with her1 and feeds them until    
their first moult1 when they are big    
enough to provide their own             
subsistence4#id  ,i waive the argument  
derived from the fact of the apparent   
necessity of the mother's care for the  
new-born young4 ,but the mother's care  
is indispensable to the appearance of   
the young at all2 not only because the  
eggs are the produce of her ovary1 but  
also because the envelope which protects
 them is the produce of her             
spinning-glands4  ,there is a furry     
moth1 by no means uncommon1 known to    
collectors as the ,gipsy 7,hypogymna    

dispar71 the eggs of which require to be
 protected by an elaborate covering1    
either from extremes of temperature1    
from light1 or from certain electric    
conditions of the atmosphere4 ,the      
protection is afforded at the expense of
 the hair which clothed the mother      
herself4 ,her ovipositor is furnished   
with a pair of nippers1 by means of     
which she plucks off her own hairs1 and 
makes with them a flat cushion on the   
surface of a leaf4 ,on this she deposits
 her eggs in successive layers2 and when
 the full number is laid1 she covers    
them with a roof of hair1 slanting      
downwards and outwards from an apex1 so 
artfully arranged1 like the thatch of a 
cottage1 as effectually to throw off    
water2 each layer of hairs overlapping  
the preceding1 and all preserving the   
same direction1 so that1 when finished1 
the work resembles a smooth and well    
brushed piece of fur4  ,if1 then1 a     
patch of eggs newly-created had been    
subjected to our inspection1 we should  

have found them snugly protected by     
their conical roof of thatch2 and when  
we came to examine the thatch           
microscopically1 we should have found it
 composed of the hairs of ,hypogymna4   
,and thus again we should have an       
indubitable and yet deceptive record of 
a preceding existence4  ,the numerous   
species of the genus ,coccus1 to which  
we are indebted for cochineal1 lac1 and 
other products valuable in commerce1    
afford me an illustration of my         
argument1 more striking than any of the 
above4 ,in the case of the lac insect   
7,c4 lacca71 for example1 the female    
resembles a little hemispherical scale  
on the twig of a tree4 ,at a certain    
period of her life1 a pellucid1         
glutinous substance begins to exude from
 the margins of her body1 which by and  
by completely covers it1 cementing her  
firmly to the branch1 from which she    
never afterwards moves4 ,she now        
proceeds to lay her eggs1 which one by  
one as they are extruded are thrust     

under her1 between her abdomen and the  
surface of the branch4 ,the result of   
this is1 that when the whole are laid1  
they occupy pretty nearly the same      
position in relation to the mother as   
they did before1 with this exception1   
that the abdominal integuments1 which   
before were beneath them1 are now above 
them1 and are in close contact with     
those of the back1 so that both together
 make a double1 but still a thin1 arched
 roof over the heap of eggs1 which are  
thus protected till the hatching of the 
young1 when they eat their way out of   
their long dead mother4  ,let me now    
make my usual application4 ,you say the 
,coccus was created not an adult insect1
 which would involve the prochronic     
stages of its metamorphosis1 but as a   
germ1 that is an egg 7for the germ of an
 insect is an egg1 and nothing else73   
well1 here is a batch of ,coccus-eggs   
just created1 covered with the scaly    
roof which is necessary to their        
existence4 ,but this scale is not a     

record of the mother1 but the mother    
herself1 a prochronic mother1 of course6
  ,other genera of this wonderful class 
of animals yield us evidences of a      
somewhat different character1 in the    
structures which the parents form for   
the reception of their eggs4  ,one of   
the most complex and elaborate pieces of
 mechanism found in any animal organ is 
the ovipositor of the ,sawflies         
7,tenthredinidae74 ,i cannot here       
describe it at length2 it may suffice to
 say that it consists of two saw-plates1
 working separately and in opposite     
directions1 the teeth of which are cut  
into finer teeth2 and two supporting    
plates1 very similar to the saws in     
shape and appearance4 ,the whole flat   
side of the saw is1 moreover1 covered   
with minute sharp points1 which give the
 action of a rasp to the instrument1 in 
addition to that of saw4  ,by means of  
this complicated apparatus the parent   
fly cuts a groove in the twig of the    
proper shrub1 say1 a rose-bush4 ,when it

 is made1 the plates are slightly       
separated1 and an egg is laid in the    
groove4 ,the saw is now withdrawn1 and a
 frothy secretion is deposited1 which   
appears to be intended1 by its          
hardening1 to prevent the growth of the 
wood from closing upon the egg1 before  
the time of hatching arrives4  ,if1     
then1 any of the species of ,tenthredo  
had been called into primal existence as
 an egg1 it must have been within such a
 groove as this2 and the groove1 if     
carefully examined1 would have presented
 evidences of having been formed and    
filled by the curious implement of the  
parent fly4  ,those obscure and obscene 
,insects1 the ,cockroach tribe          
7,blattadae71 secrete an extraordinary  
covering for the protection of their    
eggs4 ,instead of being laid separately1
 the eggs are1 when deposited1 enclosed 
in a horny case1 or capsule1 variable in
 its form in different species but      
generally of a more or less compressed  
oval shape1 resembling a small bean4    

,there is a longitudinal slit in the    
margin of the capsule1 each side of     
which is defended by a narrow serrated  
plate1 fitting closely to its fellow4   
,the inside of this egg-case is divided 
into two spaces1 in each of which is a  
row of separate compartments1 every one 
enclosing an egg1 so that the whole     
resembles the pod of some leguminous    
vegetable4 ,this capsule1 with its      
precious contents1 is constantly carried
 about by the female for a week or a    
fortnight1 and is then fastened1 by     
means of a glutinous fluid1 in some safe
 locality4 ,the slit of the capsule is  
strongly coated with cement1 so as to be
 even stronger than the other parts4 ,in
 this capsule the young larvae are      
hatched1 and immediately discharge a    
fluid which softens the cement1 and     
enables them to push open the slit1     
through which they escape2 after their  
exit the slit shuts again so closely1   
that it appears as entire as before4 ,in
 some species it would seem that the    

females themselves liberate their       
offspring by seizing the capsule when   
the larvae are fit for escape1 and      
tearing it with the aid of their        
forelegs from end to end1 by which means
 the enclosed larvae are set at         
liberty4#ie  ,it is impossible to read  
this description without being reminded 
of the manner in which the bean or other
 leguminous seed links itself with a    
former generation by means of the       
dehiscent legume1 itself a production of
 the parent plant4 ,and the same        
reasoning applies to this case1 as to   
the other2--the egg1 if the ,blatta was 
created in that stage1 would            
triumphantly show in the pod with which 
it was covered1 a record of past        
processes4  ,so1 once more1 with the    
immense tribes of solitary ,bees1       
,wasps1 and ,spheges4 ,i shall mention  
but one example1 from my own experience4
 ,it is the ,dirt ,dauber 7,pelopoeus   
flavipes7 of ,north ,america4 ,the      
female of this elegant fly1 when about  

to lay her eggs1 builds up a tubular    
nest of cells with fine mud1 which she  
makes by mingling and kneading road-dust
 with her saliva4 ,each tube consists of
 several cells1 separated by transverse 
partitions of the mortar2 and in each1  
before she closes it up1 she lays a     
single egg1 which she then covers with  
spiders which are to constitute the food
 of the grub when hatched1 and to last  
it during the whole period of its larval
 growth4 ,dead spiders would not do1 for
 their bodies would either dry up1 or   
become putrescent long before the young 
grub could devour them4 ,on the other   
hand1 if a number of these fierce and   
carnivorous creatures were immured1 in  
health1 they would soon destroy one     
another4 ,to obviate this1 the          
parent-fly ingeniously stings every     
spider just sufficiently to paralyse1   
without killing it4 ,thus nearly a score
 of living spiders are packed away in a 
cell scarcely larger than a lady's      
thimble2 and thus they remain fresh and 

succulent food for the larva1 not only  
till it is ready to begin its eating    
task1 but even to the close of its      
repast4  ,i think this a particularly   
instructive example4 ,the ,pelopoeus was
 indubitably created2 for it exists4 ,as
 indubitably it was created in some     
stage of its cyclical life-history4 ,if 
as an imago1 then ,i press the argument 
from the necessity of its previous      
metamorphoses4 ,if as a pupa1 or a      
larva1 or an egg1 each of these         
conditions of life was entirely passed  
as an inmate of the mud-walled cottage2 
which1 cottage was built and stocked    
with food by the industry and skill of  
the parent-fly4 ,the grub could not have
 lived without the stored spiders2 the  
spiders could not have been stored      
7normally7 without the agency of the    
fly4  ,in some other instances the      
connexion between germ and parent is    
patent to the eye4 ,the beautiful       
,star-fish1 ,cribella1 passes through   
all its infant metamorphoses1 changing  

from an ovum to an ,infusory1 thence to 
a ,pluteus 7or what is analogous to it71
 thence to a ,star-fish1 all in the     
marsupium provided for the occasion1 by 
the drawing together of the arms of the 
patient mother4 ,the female ,brachionus 
carries its deposited eggs attached to  
the hinder part of its body2 and thus we
 can trace1 through their transparent   
coats1 the gradual development of the   
organs of the embryo1--the coloured eye1
 the rotatory cilia1 the complex        
mastax1--and even detect the vigorous   
movements of these and other parts1     
while yet carried hither and thither by 
the parent4  ,illustration3 ,,female    
,,brachionus1 ,,with ,,eggs4  ,but      
further1 in the class from which ,i have
 taken this last illustration--that of  
the ,,rotifera--there are examples of   
viviparous genera2 and these1 because of
 the perfect transparency of all the    
integuments1 are peculiarly instructive 
and germane to my argument4  ,in        
,rotifer macrurus the ovary with its    

germinal vesicles is distinctly seen    
occupying one side of the animal4 ,from 
this one of the vesicles enlarges1 until
 it becomes a long-oval translucent sac1
 nearly filling the whole left side of  
the visceral cavity4 ,a kind of         
spasmodic movement is suddenly observed 
in this oblong ovum1 and instantly we   
see1 in its place1 a well-developed     
living young2 as distinctly visible as  
if it were excluded4 ,it lies in a bent 
position1 with its foot upturned2 is    
nearly half the length of the parent2 is
 furnished with a proboscis1 with a pair
 of crimson eyes1 with ciliary wheels1  
with a mastax whose toothed hemispheres 
frequently work vigorously1 and with all
 the viscera proper to the species4     
,illustration3 ,,pregnant ,,asplanchna4 
a4 ,unborn young4  ,in the beautiful1   
comparatively large1 and economically   
singular genus1 ,asplanchna1 the same   
process of development can be watched   
with perfect facility through every     
stage4  ,in the body of the female      

parent1 as transparent as the clearest  
glass1 the band-like ovary is seen      
floating in the visceral cavity1 with   
several ova in various degrees of       
advancement4 ,we trace one of these till
 it becomes a manifestly living young in
 the ovisac1 lying along at the bottom  
of the parental cavity1 more than       
one-third of whose volume is occupied by
 it3--supposing it to be a female       
infant4 ,all its organs1--the eyes1 the 
jaws1 the stomach1 the pancreatic       
glands1 the ovary with its nuclei1 the  
muscles1 the rotatory cilia1 c4 can be  
traced with the utmost distinctness long
 before birth1 and its motions are      
strong and voluntary4  ,neither in this 
case1 nor in that of ,rotifer1 does the 
young animal pass through any           
metamorphosis2 the unborn young has the 
full development of the parent1 in every
 respect but size4 ,in each case1 the   
visible life-history of the individual  
commences not at birth1 but at a period 
long antecedent1 if indeed it can be    

said to commence at all1 where we see it
 gradually developed from a nucleus1    
which was an integral part of the       
parental ovary1 even before that        
parent's birth4  ,in the case of the    
amusing little ,water-fleas 7,daphnia71 
we have another example of viviparous   
generation1 which1 owing to the same    
cause as in the ,,rotifera1--the        
transparency of the integument1 can be  
followed through all its stages by the  
eye of the observer4 ,the eggs of this  
little ,crustacean are deposited in a   
special chamber within the valves of the
 parent1 where they are hatched4 ,the   
young remain in their receptacle for a  
period1 which varies according to the   
temperature1 but long enough for them to
 undergo important changes in structure1
 and to pass their first moult4#if      
,here1 again1 it is impossible to select
 a condition which does not take hold of
 a pre-existence2 for the youngest      
independent stage is dependent on       
earlier stages2 and these are passed in 

visible connexion with the parent4  ,it 
is true there is in this genus1 another 
mode of reproduction1 by means of eggs  
which are thrown off enveloped in an    
organic covering1 called the ephippium4 
,if this condition be selected for the  
argument of my supposed opponent1 ,i    
reply that it amounts to nearly the same
 thing2 only the case will then come    
into the category of those animals whose
 earliest stages are protected by       
coverings formed from the body of the   
parent1--like the ,hypogymna1 and the   
,cockroach1 already alluded to4  ,where 
then1 in these species1 can we possibly 
select a stage of life1 which is not    
inseparably and even visibly connected  
with a previous stage8  ,if we come to  
the vertebrate creatures1 the argument  
becomes assuredly not less convincing4  
,the formidable ,shark1 which we        
considered as a well-toothed adult ready
 for slaughter1 let us suppose to have  
been created in the harmlessness of     
infancy4 ,it is a slender thing1 some   

ten or twelve inches long1 bent upon    
itself1 inclosing in the ring thus made1
 the vitellus or yelk-bag1 the contents 
of which are in process of being        
absorbed into the abdomen4 ,but the     
whole1--,shark1 yelk-bag1 and all--is   
imprisoned in a brown horny capsule1    
that looks like a pillow-case1 with long
 tapes appended to the four corners4    
,this very peculiar protecting capsule  
points clearly to a peculiar structure  
in the parent4 ,the embryo was not      
inclosed in the pillow-case1 at its     
first formation2 but1 in the course of  
its descent from the ovary through the  
oviduct1 it had to pass a region of the 
latter1 where was a thick glandular     
mass1--the nidamental gland1--whose     
office it was to secrete a dense layer  
of albumen1 with which1 the embryo      
became invested4 ,this substance took   
the form of the flattened purse1 or     
pillow-case1 with produced angles1 above
 described1 and on its exclusion from   
the duct assumed a very tough horny     

consistence1 and a dark mahogany colour4
  ,the comparative anatomist would1     
therefore1 without the least hesitation1
 refer the origin of the investing      
capsule to the nidamental glands of the 
female ,shark2 but supposing the embryo 
to be but just created1 his             
physiological science would only lead   
him to a false conclusion4  ,if the     
,tree-frog afforded us evidence of      
pre-existent time1 in the metamorphosis 
which it must naturally have experienced
 from the tadpole to the reptilian      
condition1 what shall we say to that    
strange and uncouth member of the same  
class1--the ,surinam ,toad 7,pipa78     
,little would be gained by selecting the
 germ-stage1 as the presumed epoch of   
creation in this case2 for1 according to
 the extraordinary economy of this      
genus1 the male acts as midwife1 and the
 female as wet-nurse1 to the hopeful    
progeny4  ,as fast as the female        
deposits her eggs1 the male who attends 
her arranges them on her broad back1 to 

the number of fifty or upwards4 ,the    
contact of these eggs with the skin     
appears to produce a sort of            
inflammation2 the skin of the back      
swells1 and becomes covered with pits or
 cells1 which enclose each a single egg1
 the surface of the back resembling the 
closed cells of a honeycomb4 ,the female
 now betakes herself to the water2 and  
in these cells the eggs are not only    
hatched1 but the tadpoles undergo their 
metamorphosis1 emerging in a perfect    
condition1 though very small1 after a   
lapse of eighty-two days from the time  
in which the eggs were placed in their  
respective pits4  ,to a tyro in animal  
physiology it might seem that the smooth
 rounded egg of a bird or a lizard1     
presents an example of an organism in   
the simplest possible condition1 and in 
a stage which1 if any can be1 is        
independent of anything that went       
before4  ,but is it so8 ,let us see4    
,here is the egg of the common ,fowl4 ,i
 take it in my hand1 and perceive       

nothing but an uniform1 smooth1 hard1   
white surface4 ,this ,i break1 and find 
that it is a thin layer of calcareous   
substance1 which1 on microscopical      
examination1 proves to be composed of   
minute polygonal particles1 so          
agglutinated as to leave open spaces in 
the interstices of their contiguous     
angles4  ,below this calcareous shell ,i
 find a membrane 7membrana putaminis71  
which seems1 from its thinness in most  
parts1 to be single1 but which is       
separated into two layers at the large  
end of the egg4  ,illustration3 ,,hen',s
 ,,egg4  ,within this membrane there is 
another 7the chalaza7 which1 closely    
enveloping the yelk1 passes off from it 
towards each extremity of the egg in the
 form of a twisted cord4  ,then comes a 
delicate membrane 7memb4 vitelli7 in    
close contact with1 and enveloping the  
orange-coloured yelk2 which latter      
carries1 on one point of its globular   
surface1 the thin blastoderm1 or        
germinal membrane4  ,the yelk-globe1    

fastened by its twisted chalazae1 is    
suspended in a glairy fluid 7albumen71  
which fills the space between it and the
 membrana putaminis4 ,this fluid1 though
 apparently homogeneous1 is really      
composed of many layers1 and the        
innermost of these it is which is       
condensed into the chalaza4  ,such1     
then1 is the complex structure of this  
apparently simple object4 ,what light   
can it throw on our inquiry8  ,each of  
these component parts bears witness to a
 succession of past periods4 ,the yelk  
with its germ was first formed1 escaping
 naked1 or clothed only with its own    
excessively delicate membrane1 from its 
ovisac into the oviduct4 ,through the   
course of this tube it now slowly       
descended1 receiving successive         
investments as it proceeded4 ,the       
albumen was deposited layer upon layer  
from the mucous membrane of the upper   
part of the oviduct2 the first          
depositions condensing into the chalaza4
 ,by and by it came down to a region of 

the oviduct where a tenacious secretion 
was poured out1 which1 investing the    
albumen1 soon hardened into a substance 
resembling thin parchment1 and formed   
the membrana putaminis2 two successive  
layers of this were deposited1 between  
which a bubble of gas1 chiefly composed 
of oxygen generated in the interval1 was
 inclosed4 ,then it descended still     
farther1 to a part where the lining     
membrane of the duct was endowed with   
the power of secreting calcareous       
matter1 which1 as above stated1 was     
deposited in a thin layer of polygonal  
atoms4 ,and now1 having received all its
 components1 and having arrived at the  
orifice of the duct1 the egg was laid4  
,here1 then1 there is abundant evidence 
of successive processes1 which must have
 preceded the existence of this complete
 and perfect egg4 ,but there is yet one 
more evidence which ,i have reserved to 
the last1 because it is peculiarly      
distinct and palpable1 even to the      
senses4  ,the chalaza1 we see1 is       

twisted at each pole of the yelk-globe1 
until it resembles a piece of twine3    
what is the meaning of this8 ,it was1 as
 ,i observed1 deposited as a loosely    
enveloping membrane in the upper part of
 the oviduct2 the yelk-globe1 however1  
was progressively descending2 and1 as it
 descended1 it continually revolved upon
 its axis2 by means of which rotation   
the investing membrane was gathered at  
each pole into a spirally twisted cord1 
stretching from the yelk to the ends of 
the membrana putaminis4 ,thus it        
presents us with an unmistakeable record
 of what took place in the earlier      
periods of the descent4  ,we saw        
distinct traces of the past in the      
structure of a feather4 ,but the        
feathers have already begun to develop  
before the young bird leaves the egg4   
,and the structure of the egg carries us
 back to the oviduct of the parent-fowl4
  ,at what stage of existence1 then1    
could a bird1 by possibility1 have been 
created1 which did not present distinct 

records of prochronic development8  ,if 
we come to the ,,mammalia1 the          
impossibility of finding such a stage   
becomes only more and more obvious4 ,for
 it is a law in physiology1 that the    
higher the grade of organization        
assigned to any being1 the more it is   
assisted in infancy by the parent4      
,this law is remarkably exemplified in  
the class ,,mammalia1 which             
unquestionably ranks at the head of the 
animal kingdom1 in respect to degree of 
intelligence and general elevation of   
structure4 ,it is the universal and most
 prominent characteristic of this class1
 that the young are retained within the 
body of the female parent1 until they   
have made considerable progress in their
 development2 that1 whilst there1 they  
derive their support almost immediately 
from her blood2 and that they are       
afterwards nourished for some time by a 
secretion which she affords4#ig  ,the   
foetus of the ,kangaroo1 when expelled  
from the womb1 is scarcely more than an 

inch in length4 ,its limbs and its tail 
are indeed formed1 but the imperfect    
creature has been compared to an        
earthworm1 for the colour and           
semi-transparency of the integument4 ,in
 this condition it is unable to find and
 seize the nipple1 and equally unable to
 draw sustenance therefrom1 by its own  
unaided efforts4 ,the milk is ejected1  
by the muscular action of the mother1   
into the throat of the foetus1 and there
 is a peculiar and beautiful contrivance
 to obviate the danger of the injected  
fluid's passing into the trachea instead
 of the oesophagus4  ,yet1 from this    
helpless naked condition to that of the 
active1 well-clothed1 experienced young1
 able to quit the maternal pouch at     
will1 and flee to it for protection1    
there is a well-understood and perfectly
 appreciable concatenation of stages1   
each of which looks back to1 and depends
 on1 those previously existing4 ,and1   
during the whole of these1 the mother's 
presence is necessary to the comfort1   

and1 for the greater part of them1 to   
the very existence of the infant4       
,thus1 once more1 there is no condition 
of the animal1 on which we may fix1 as  
being so simple1 as to have no          
retrospective history4  ,the umbilical  
cicatrix ,i have already alluded to2 but
 ,i may be permitted to mention it      
again2 because1 in all the higher       
,,mammalia1 at least1 it exists1        
throughout life1 an eloquent witness to 
the organic connexion of the individual 
with a mother1 and therefore to her     
pre-existence4 ,if it were legitimate to
 suppose that the first individual of   
the species ,man was created in the     
condition answering to that of a        
new-born infant1 there would still be   
the need of maternal milk for its       
sustenance1 and maternal care for its   
protection1 for a considerable period2  
while1 if we carry on the suggested     
stage to the period when this provision 
is no longer indispensable1 the         
development of hair1 nails1 bones1 c41  

will have proceeded through many stages4
 ,and1 in either condition1 the navel   
cord or its cicatrix remains1 to testify
 to something anterior to both4         
,,xii4  ,,the ,,conclusion4       ,we   
have no experience in the creation of   
worlds4                                 
,,chalmers4   ,we have passed1 in review
 before us the whole organic world3 and 
the result is uniform2 that no example  
can be selected from the vast vegetable 
kingdom1 none from the vast animal      
kingdom1 which did not at the instant of
 its creation present indubitable       
evidences of a previous history4 ,this  
is not put forth as a hypothesis1 but as
 a necessity2 ,i do not say that it was 
probably so1 but that it was certainly  
so2 not that it may have been thus1 but 
that it could not have been otherwise4  
,i do not touch the inorganic world3 my 
acquaintance with chemistry is          
inadequate for this3 perhaps the same   
law does not extend to the inorganic    
elements3 perhaps their developments1   

and combinations are not1 like the      
economy of plants and animals1          
essentially and exclusively cyclical3   
perhaps carbon and oxygen and hydrogen  
could be created in conditions1 which   
obviously did not depend on any         
previously existing conditions4 ,this ,i
 do not know3 ,i neither affirm nor deny
 it4 ,but ,i think ,i have demonstrated 
in these pages1 that such a cyclical    
character does attach to1 and is        
inseparable from1 the history of all    
organic essences2 and that creation can 
be nothing else than a series of        
irruptions into circles3 that1 supposing
 the irruption to have been made at what
 part of the circle we please1 and      
varying this condition indefinitely at  
will1--we cannot avoid the conclusion   
that each organism was from the first   
marked with the records of a previous   
being4 ,but since creation and previous 
history are inconsistent with each      
other2 as the very idea of the creation 
of an organism excludes the idea of     

pre-existence of that organism1 or of   
any part of it2 it follows1 that such   
records are false1 so far as they       
testify to time2 that the developments  
and processes thus recorded have been   
produced without time1 or are what ,i   
have called prochronic4  ,nor is this   
conclusion in the least degree affected 
by the actual chronology of creation4   
,the phenomena were equally eloquent1   
and equally false1 whether any          
individual organism were created six    
thousand years ago1 or innumerable ages2
 whether primitively1 or after the      
successive creations and annihilations  
of former organisms4  ,the law of       
creation supersedes the law of nature2  
so far1 at least1 as the organic world  
is concerned4 ,the law of nature1       
established by universal experience1 is1
 that its phenomena depend upon certain 
natural antecedents3 the law of creation
 is1 that the same phenomena depend upon
 no antecedents4 ,the philosopher who   
should infer the antecedents from the   

phenomena alone1 without having         
considered the law of creation1 would be
 liable to form totally false           
conclusions4 ,in order to be secure from
 error1 he must first assure himself    
that creation is eliminated from the    
category of facts which he is           
investigating2 and this he could do only
 when the facts come within the sphere  
of personal observation1 or of historic 
testimony4 ,up to such a period of      
antiquity as is covered by credible     
history1 and within such a field of     
observation as history may be considered
 fairly cognisant of1--the inference of 
physical antecedents from physical      
phenomena1 in the animal or vegetable   
world1 is legitimate and true4 ,but1    
beyond that period1 ,i cannot safely    
deduce the same conclusion2 because ,i  
cannot tell but that at any given moment
 included in my inquiry1 creation may   
have occurred1 and have been the        
absolute beginning of the circular      
series4  ,the question of the actual age

 of any species1 whether plant or       
animal1 is one which cannot be answered1
 except on historic testimony4 ,the     
sequence of cause and effect is not     
adequate to answer it2 for a legitimate 
use of this principle1 supposing it the 
only element of the inquiry1 would      
inevitably lead us to the eternity of   
all existing organic life4  ,one of the 
familiar street-exhibitions in the      
metropolis is a tiny coach and horses of
 glittering metal2 which1 by means of   
simple machinery1 course round and round
 the margin of a circular table4 ,let us
 suppose two youths of philosophical    
turn to come up during the process4     
,they gaze for a while1 and one asks his
 companion the following question4  ,how
 long do you suppose that coach has been
 running round8  ,how long6 for an      
indefinite period1 for aught ,i know4 ,i
 have counted twenty-two turns1 and can 
see no change3 nor can ,i suggest any   
point where the course could have begun4
  ,here a shrewd lad1 carrying a        

grocer's basket1 breaks in4  ,oh no2    
there have been only six-and-twenty     
turns altogether4 ,four turns had been  
made when you came up4 ,the whole began 
by the man taking the carriage out of a 
box2 then he set it down out there1 just
 opposite to us1 and gave it a little   
push with his finger1 and it has been   
running ever since4 ,i saw him do it4   
,now perhaps you will say that a glance 
at the machinery beneath the table would
 show in a moment how many turns had    
been made1 and how many could be made4  
,very true3 but what if the tramp had   
locked up his clock-work1 and would not 
let you look at it8  ,the only evidence 
worth a rush is that of the lad who saw 
the whirligig set a-going4  ,i wish it  
to be distinctly understood1 that ,i am 
not proving the exact or approximate    
antiquity of the globe we inhabit4 ,i am
 not attempting to show that it has     
existed for no more than six thousand   
years4 ,i wish this to be distinctly    
stated1 because ,i am sure ,i shall meet

 with many opponents unfair enough1 or  
illogical enough1 to misrepresent or    
misunderstand my argument1 and sound the
 trumpet of victory1 because ,i cannot  
demonstrate that4 ,all ,i set myself to 
do1 is to invalidate the testimony of   
the witness relied on for the           
indefinitely remote antiquity2 to show  
that in a very large and important field
 of nature1 evidence exactly analogous  
to that relied on would inevitably lead 
to a false conclusion1 and must1        
therefore1 be rejected1 or received only
 contingently2 received only as         
indicative of probability1 and that only
 in the absence of any positive witness 
to the contrary4  ,perhaps it may be    
objected1 that there is no sufficient   
analogy between the phenomena from which
 the past history of a single organism  
is inferred1 and those from which the   
past history of a world is inferred4 ,is
 there not8  ,permit me to repeat an    
illustration ,i have already used4 ,the 
geologist finds a fossil skeleton4 ,his 

acquaintance with anatomy enables him to
 pronounce that the objects found are   
bones4 ,he sees cylinders1 condyles1    
cavities for the marrow1 scars of       
attachment of muscles and tendons1      
foramina for the passage of nerves and  
blood-vessels2 he finds the internal    
structure1 no less than the form and    
surface1 such as to leave not a doubt   
that these are real bones4 ,now         
universal experience has taught him that
 bones imply the existence of flesh2    
that flesh implies blood2 that blood    
implies life2 that life implies time4   
,he therefore concludes unhesitatingly1 
that this skeleton was once alive1 and  
that time passed over it in that living 
condition4  ,is not this process of     
reasoning exactly parallel to that which
 he would have pursued if he had        
examined an animal the moment after its 
creation1 7supposing this fact to be    
unknown to him17 and by which he would  
in like manner have inferred past time8 
,and where is the vital difference      

between the two cases1 which would      
operate to make a conclusion which is   
manifestly false in the one case1       
necessarily true in the other8  ,one of 
the most eminent of living botanists has
 set forth in striking terms the        
parallelism which ,i am suggesting4     
,speaking of the shoot as the vegetable 
individual1 and the woody trunk as a    
kind of ever-accumulating ground1 which 
supports successive generations of      
shoots1 he uses the following           
comparison4  ,the history of the grand  
development of nature on the surface of 
our globe presents an analogy1 which may
 perhaps serve to set this relation in a
 clear light4 ,the successive geological
 formations superposed during the course
 of countless ages1 present1 buried in  
their depths1 the traces of as many     
formations of the organic world1 each of
 which carpeted the then superior       
stratum of the earth with a new life1   
until it found its own grave in the     
succeeding formation1 when a new        

uprising of organic life took its place4
 ,in the same way1 the stem of a tree is
 a multistratified ground1 in whose     
layers the history of earlier growths is
 legibly preserved4 ,the number of the  
woody layers indicates the number of the
 generations which have perished1 i4 e4 
the age of the whole tree3 a distinct   
annual ring is the monument of a        
vigorous season1 an indistinct one of a 
bad season1 a sickly one 7which is often
 found among healthy ones7 indicates the
 unhealthiness of the foliage of that   
particular year4 ,the practised woodman 
can decipher many facts of the past in  
the layers of the trunk2 e4g4 a good    
season for foliage or for seed1 damage  
by frost or by insects1 c4#ih  ,in order
 to perfect the analogy between an      
organism and the world1 so as to show   
that the law which prevails in the one  
obtains also in the other1 it would be  
necessary to prove that the development 
of the physical history of the world is 
circular1 like that already shown to    

characterise the course of organic      
nature4 ,and this ,i cannot prove4 ,but 
neither1 as ,i think1 can the contrary  
be proved4  ,the life of the individual 
consists of a series of processes which 
are cyclical4 ,in the tree this is shown
 by the successive growths and deaths of
 series of leaves3 in the animal by the 
development and exuviation of nails1    
hair1 epidermis1 c4  ,the life of the   
species consists of a series of         
processes which are cyclical4 ,this has 
been sufficiently illustrated in the    
preceding pages1 in the successive      
developments and deaths of generations  
of individuals4  ,we have reason to     
believe that species die out1 and are   
replaced by other species1 like the     
individuals which belong to the species1
 and the organs which belong to the     
individual4 ,but is the life of the     
species a circle returning into itself8 
,in other words1 if we could take a     
sufficiently large view of the whole    
plan of nature1 should we discern that  

the existence of species ,greek3 d      
necessarily involved the pre-existence  
of species ,greek3 g1 and must          
inevitably be followed by species       
,greek3 e8 ,should we be able to trace  
the same sort of relation between the   
tiger of ,bengal and the fossil tiger of
 the ,yorkshire caves1 between ,elephas 
,indicus and ,elephas primigenius1 as   
subsists between the leaves of #aheg and
 the leaves of #ahef2 or between the oak
 now flourishing in ,sherwood ,forest   
and that of ,robin ,hood's day1 from    
whose acorn it sprang8#ii  ,i dare not  
say1 we should2 though ,i think it      
highly probable4 ,but ,i think you will 
not dare to say1 we should not4#ajj  ,it
 is certain that1 when the ,omnipotent  
,god proposed to create a given         
organism1 the course of that organism   
was present to his idea1 as an ever     
revolving circle1 without beginning and 
without end4 ,he created it at some     
point in the circle1 and gave it thus an
 arbitrary beginning2 but one which     

involved all previous rotations of the  
circle1 though only as ideal1 or1 in    
other phrase1 prochronic4 ,is it not    
possible--,i do not ask for more--that1 
in like manner1 the natural course of   
the world was projected in his idea as a
 perfect whole1 and that ,he determined 
to create it at some point of that      
course1 which act1 however1 should      
involve previous stages1 though only    
ideal or prochronic8  ,all naturalists  
have speculated upon the great plan of  
,nature2 a grand array of organic       
essences1 in which every species should 
be related in like ratio to its fellow  
species1 by certain affinities1 without 
gaps and without redundancies2 the whole
 constituting a beautiful and perfect   
unity1 a harmonious scheme1 worthy of   
the infinite ,mind that conceived it4   
,such a perfect plan has never been     
presented by any existing fauna or      
flora2 nor is it made up by uniting the 
fossil faunas and floras to the recent  
ones2 yet the discovery of the fossil   

world has made a very signal approach to
 the filling up of the great outline2   
and the more minutely this has been     
investigated1 the more have hiatuses    
been bridged over1 which before yawned  
between species and species1 and links  
of connexion have been supplied which   
before were lacking4#aja  ,it is not    
necessary1--at least it does not seem so
 to me1--that all the members of this   
mighty commonwealth should have an      
actual1 a diachronic existence2 anymore 
than that1 in the creation of a man1 his
 foetal1 infantile1 and adolescent      
stages should have an actual1 diachronic
 existence1 though these are essential  
to his normal life-history4 ,nor would  
their diachronism be more certainly     
inferrible from the physical traces of  
them1 in the one case than in the other4
 ,in the newly-created ,man1 the proofs 
of successive processes requiring time1 
in the skin1 hairs1 nails1 bones1 c4    
could in no respect be distinguished    
from the like proofs in a ,man of       

to-day2 yet the developments to which   
they respectively testify are widely    
different from each other1 so far as    
regards the element of time4 ,who will  
say that the suggestion1 that the strata
 of the surface of the earth1 with their
 fossil floras and faunas1 may possibly 
belong to a prochronic development of   
the mighty plan of the life-history of  
this world1--who will dare to say that  
such a suggestion is a self-evident     
absurdity8 ,if we had no example of such
 a procedure1 we might be justified in  
dealing cavalierly with the hypothesis2 
but it has been shown that1 without a   
solitary exception1 the whole of the    
vast vegetable and animal kingdoms were 
created1--mark6 ,i do not say may have  
been1 but ,,must have been created--on  
this principle of a prochronic          
development1 with distinctly traceable  
records4 ,it was the law of organic     
creation4  ,it may be objected1 that1 to
 assume the world to have been created  
with fossil skeletons in its            

crust1--skeletons of animals that never 
really existed1--is to charge the       
,creator with forming objects whose sole
 purpose was to deceive us4 ,the reply  
is obvious4 ,were the concentric        
timber-rings of a created tree formed   
merely to deceive8 ,were the growth     
lines of a created shell intended to    
deceive8 ,was the navel of the created  
,man intended to deceive him into the   
persuasion that he had had a parent8#ajb
  ,these peculiarities of structure were
 inseparable from the adult stage of    
these creatures respectively1 without   
which they would not have been what they
 were4 ,the ,locust-tree could not have 
been an adult ,hymenaea1 without        
concentric rings2--nay1 it could not    
have been an exogenous tree at all4 ,the
 ,dione could not have been a ,dione    
without those foliations and spines that
 form its generic character4 ,the ,man  
would not have been a ,man without a    
navel4  ,to the physiologist this is    
obvious2 but some unscientific reader   

may say1 ,could not ,god have created   
plants and animals without these        
retrospective marks8 ,i distinctly      
reply1 ,no6 not so as to preserve their 
specific identity with those with which 
we are familiar4 ,a ,tree-fern without  
scars on the trunk6 ,a ,palm without    
leaf-bases6 ,a ,bean without a hilum6 ,a
 ,tortoise without laminae on its       
plates6 ,a ,carp without concentric     
lines on its scales6 ,a ,bird without   
feathers6 ,a ,mammal without hairs1 or  
claws1 or teeth1 or bones1 or blood6 ,a 
,foetus without a placenta6 ,i have     
indeed written the preceding pages in   
vain1 if ,i have not demonstrated1 in a 
multitude of examples1 the absolute     
necessity of retrospective phenomena in 
newly-created organisms4 ,but if it can 
be undeniably shown in one single       
example1 our failure to perceive it in  
ninety-nine other instances would in    
nowise invalidate the deduction from    
that one4 ,granted that you can         
triumphantly convict me of a            

non-sequitur1 in ninety-nine out of     
every hundred of the cases in which ,i  
have attempted to show this connexion2  
still1 if ,i have conclusively proved   
that in one solitary instance an animal 
or a plant was created with but one     
solitary evidence of pre-development1   
the principle for which ,i contend is   
established4  ,i trust1 however1 it does
 not rest on one example1 nor on twenty1
 nor on a hundred4 ,it may be thought   
that ,i have multiplied my illustrations
 needlessly3 ten times as many might    
have been given4 ,i wished to show that 
the proof is of a cumulative character3 
a single good example would1 indeed1    
have established the principle2 but ,i  
wished to show how widely applicable it 
is2 that it is1 indeed1 of universal    
application in the organic kingdoms4    
,if1 then1 the existence of             
retrospective marks1 visible and        
tangible proofs of processes which were 
prochronic1 was so necessary to organic 
essences1 that they could not have been 

created without them1--is it absurd to  
suggest the possibility 7,i do no more7 
that the world itself was created under 
the influence of the same law1 with     
visible tangible proofs of developments 
and processes1 which yet were only      
prochronic8  ,admit for a moment1 as a  
hypothesis1 that the ,creator had before
 his mind a projection of the whole     
life-history of the globe1 commencing   
with any point which the geologist may  
imagine to have been a fit commencing   
point1 and ending with some unimaginable
 acme in the indefinitely distant       
future4 ,he determines to call this idea
 into actual existence1 not at the      
supposed commencing point1 but at some  
stage or other of its course4#ajc ,it is
 clear1 then1 that at the selected stage
 it appears1 exactly as it would have   
appeared at that moment of its history1 
if all the preceding eras of its history
 had been real4 ,just as the new-created
 ,man was1 at the first moment of his   
existence1 a man of twenty1 or          

five-and-twenty1 or thirty years old2   
physically1 palpably1 visibly1 so old1  
though not really1 not diachronically4  
,he appeared precisely what he would    
have appeared had he lived so many      
years4  ,let us suppose that this       
present year #aheg had been the         
particular epoch in the projected       
life-history of the world1 which the    
,creator selected as the era of its     
actual beginning4 ,at his fiat it       
appears2 but in what condition8 ,its    
actual condition at this                
moment3--whatever is now existent would 
appear1 precisely as it does appear4    
,there would be cities filled with      
swarms of men2 there would be houses    
half-built2 castles fallen into ruins2  
pictures on artists' easels just        
sketched in2 wardrobes filled with      
half-worn garments2 ships sailing over  
the sea2 marks of birds' footsteps on   
the mud2 skeletons whitening the desert 
sands2 human bodies in every stage of   
decay in the burial-grounds4 ,these and 

millions of other traces of the past    
would be found1 because they are found  
in the world now2 they belong to the    
present age of the world2 and if it had 
pleased ,god to call into existence this
 globe at this epoch of its             
life-history1 the whole of which lay    
like a map before his infinite mind1 it 
would certainly have presented all these
 phenomena2 not to puzzle the           
philosopher1 but because they are       
inseparable from the condition of the   
world at the selected moment of         
irruption into its history2 because they
 constitute its condition2 they make it 
what it is4  ,hence the minuteness and  
undeniableness of the proofs of life    
which geologists rely on so confidently1
 and present with such justifiable      
triumph1 do not in the least militate   
against my principle4 ,the marks of     
,hyaenas' teeth on the bones of         
,kirkdale cave2 the infant skeletons    
associated with adult skeletons of the  
same species2 the abundance of          

coprolites2 the foot-tracks of ,birds   
and ,reptiles2 the glacier-scratches on 
rocks2 and hundreds of other beautiful  
and most irresistible evidences of      
pre-existence1 ,i do not wish to        
undervalue1 nor to explain away4 ,on the
 hypothesis that the actual commencing  
point of the world's history was        
subsequent to the occurrence of such    
things in the perfect ideal whole1 these
 phenomena would appear precisely as if 
the facts themselves had been           
diachronic1 instead of prochronic1 as   
was really the case4#ajd  ,perhaps some 
one will say1 ,all this might be        
tenable1 supposing the world were an    
organism4 ,your argument goes to show   
that organic essences in every stage of 
their existence present proofs of       
pre-existence2 but what analogy is there
 between the lifeless inorganic globe   
7in which evidences of past processes   
are apparent1 independent of the fossil 
organisms71 and a living organic        
being1--plant or animal8  ,i answer1    

,the point in the economy of the organic
 creatures1 on which their prochronism  
rests1 is not the organic1 but the      
circular condition of their being4 ,the 
problem1 then1 to be solved1 before we  
can certainly determine the question of 
analogy between the globe and the       
organism1 is this3--,is the life-history
 of the globe a cycle8 ,if it is 7and   
there are many reasons why this is      
probable71 then ,i am sure prochronism  
must have been evident at its creation1 
since there is no point in a circle     
which does not imply previous points4   
,at all events1 geologists cannot prove 
that it is not4  ,wherever we can       
discern a cyclical condition1 there the 
law of which ,i am treating must hold   
good2 and it certainly obtains in other 
things beside organisms4 ,when the      
inorganic crust of the globe was first  
cleft to contain rivers1 whence came the
 water that flowed through the fissures8
 ,a river is the produce of rivulets1   
which issue from mountain springs2 these

 originate in the water that percolates 
through the soil2 and this is derived   
from the rains1 and snows1 and dews1    
that are deposited from the atmosphere4 
,but there would be no deposition from  
the atmosphere if the water had not     
first been carried up by evaporation2   
and the vaporable fluid is obtained from
 the moistened soil2 from the lakes and 
rivers2 and from the seas and oceans1   
whose loss is perpetually recruited from
 the flowing rivers4 ,here1 then1 we get
 a circle closely analogous to that of  
organic being4 ,was a given drop of     
water created as a component particle of
 a running stream8 ,its position and    
condition looked back to the mountain   
spring whence it must naturally have    
issued4 ,was it called into being in the
 spring8 ,it looked up to the surface1  
whence it must have oozed4 ,was it      
formed on the surface8 ,it looked to the
 clouds1 whence it must have dropped4   
,was it created in the cloud8 ,it looked
 down to the surface of the lake or sea1

 whence it must have been raised4 ,was  
it created in the lake8 ,it looked to   
the river1 whence it must have flowed4  
,the chief pelagic currents1 which have 
hitherto so often been the destruction  
of the navigator1 but which may yet     
become his able and subject servants1   
flow in circular systems4 ,there is such
 an one in the southern part of the     
,indian ,ocean1 known as the ,hurricane 
,region2 another immense one ever       
running round and round the ,north      
,pacific2 and1 above all1 that wondrous 
river of hot water--a river whose       
well-marked banks are not solid earth1  
but cold water--the ,gulf ,stream4  ,the
 fruit of trees belonging to the torrid 
zone of ,america is annually cast ashore
 on the western coasts of ,ireland and  
,norway4 ,pennant observes that the     
seeds of plants which grow in ,jamaica1 
,cuba1 and the adjacent countries1 are  
collected on the shores of the          
,hebrides4 ,thither also barrels of     
,french wine1 the remains of vessels    

wrecked in the ,west ,indian seas1 have 
been carried4 ,in #ahji ,his ,majesty's 
ship ,little ,belt was dismasted at     
,halifax1 ,nova ,scotia1 and her        
bowsprit was found1 eighteen months     
after1 in the ,basque ,roads4 ,the      
mainmast of the ,tilbury1 buried off    
,hispaniola in the ,seven ,years' war1  
was brought to our shores4#aje  ,these  
facts are dependent on the eastward set 
of this majestic current2 and so is     
another great physical fact of          
immeasurable importance to us2--the     
superiority in temperature of the       
western shores of ,europe over the      
eastern shores of ,north ,america4 ,the 
harbour of ,st4 ,john's1 ,newfoundland1 
is frequently fast closed by ice in the 
month of ,june2 yet the latitude of ,st4
 ,john's is considerably south of that  
of the port of ,brest1 in ,france4      
,impelled by the rotatory motion of the 
earth1 and by the trade-wind1#ajf the   
equatorial waters of the ,atlantic are  
ever urged1 a broad and rapid river1    

into the ,caribbean sea1 and the ,gulf  
of ,mexico1 the narrowing shores of     
which compress the stream as in a       
funnel4 ,the ,andes here present a      
slender but impregnable barrier to its  
further progress westward2 and the trend
 of the ,isthmus turns it to the        
northward4 ,still finding no outlet1 the
 impatient current1 like a wild-beast   
pacing round its cage1 courses the ,gulf
 of ,mexico1 doubles the peninsula of   
,florida1 and pursues its way first to  
the north-east1 and then to the east1   
crossing the ,atlantic in a retrograde  
direction1 until it laves with its warm 
billows the coasts of ,europe4 ,here it 
turns to the southward1 and after       
embracing the ,fortunate isles that lie 
off the ,african shores1--the ,azores1  
the ,madeiras1 and the ,canaries1--it   
joins the great equatorial set beneath  
the trade-wind1 and returns on its      
westward course4  ,this mighty          
circulation of water must have been     
going on from the instant that the earth

 commenced rotating on its axis1 or     
7granting this to have been             
chronologically subsequent7 from the    
instant the ,atlantic occupied its      
present bed4 ,whether sooner or later1  
it commenced at some instant2 but at    
that instant all the previous elements  
of the circle were presupposed1 and a   
boundless succession of former circles4 
,an intelligent stranger1 looking on the
 movement immediately after its         
commencement1 but ignorant of its       
origin1 would not be able to assign any 
limit to its past duration4 ,from his   
observation of the velocity of the      
current in different parts of the       
circle1 he would say with               
confidence1--,these identical particles 
of water1 which ,i see now urged on     
their ceaseless course towards the      
middle of the ,north ,atlantic1 were1   
yesterday morning at this hour1 in the  
latitude of the mouth of the            
,chesapeake2 on the morning before1 off 
,cape ,hatteras1 on the morning before  

that1 off ,cape ,lookout2 and so        
backwards interminably4  ,whether the   
economy of the globe is circular1 or    
not1 ,i am not in a position to show4   
,but its movements certainly are2 and so
 are the movements of all the myriad    
worlds with which astronomy is          
conversant4 ,asteroids1 planets1        
satellites1 comets1 suns1--nay1 even the
 stellar universe itself--obey in their 
motions1 the grand universal law of     
circularity4 ,take any one of           
these2--our ,moon4 ,when its orbital    
motion commenced1 it commenced at some  
point or other of the circle which it   
describes in its course around the      
earth4 ,the pre-existence1 or at least  
the co-existence1 of the ,earth1 and    
also that of the ,sun1 are necessary to 
its motion4 ,supposing it possible for a
 spectator1 furnished with modern       
astronomical knowledge1 to have looked  
at that instant on the newly-spun orb1  
would he not confidently have inferred1 
from its position at that moment1 its   

position a week before8 ,would he not   
have felt able to indicate with         
unhesitating certainty the solar and    
lunar eclipses of a century or a chiliad
 before1 just as he now calculates the  
time of the eclipse that marked the     
death of ,herod the ,great8 ,undoubtedly
 he would2 for he would assume the      
constancy of those movements which      
modern science has deduced from the     
observations of many centuries2 and1    
granting him the fact of their          
constancy1 we could not invalidate his  
conclusions4 ,yet what would he have    
shown8 ,the conditions and phenomena of 
bodies before they had begun to exist4  
,the conditions are legitimately        
deducible2 but they are prochronic      
conditions4  ,the mention of the        
celestial orbs suggests to remembrance  
the famous argument for the vast        
antiquity of the material universe1     
founded on the time which is required   
for the propulsion of light4 ,i believe 
it owes its origin to ,sir ,william     

,herschel4  ,speaking of the known      
velocity of light in connexion with the 
immense distance of certain nebulae1    
that eminent astronomer made these      
remarks3--  ,hence it follows1 that1    
when we444 see an object of the         
calculated distance at which one of     
these very remote nebulae may still be  
perceived444 the rays of light which    
convey its image to the eye must have   
been more than nineteen hundred and ten 
thousand1 that is1 almost two millions1 
of years on their way2 and that1        
consequently1 so many years ago1 this   
object must already have had an         
existence in the sidereal heavens1 in   
order to send out those rays by which we
 now perceive it4#ajg  ,the notion has  
been amplified1 with some interesting   
details1 by a writer in the ,scottish   
,congregational ,magazine for ,january  
#ahdg2 who thus throws the statements   
into a tabular form1 and comments on    
them4       ,from the ,moon1 light comes
 to the earth in #a-a_/d second         

the ,sun                         in #h  
minutes            ,jupiter             
in #eb              ,uranus             
in #b hours         a fixed ,star of    
#ast magnitude -- #c to #ab years       
#b;d                   #bj              
#c;d                   #cj              
#dth                  #de               
#eth                  #ff               
#fth                  #if               
#gth                 #ahj               
#abth                #djjj     ,now1 as 
we see objects by the rays of light     
passing from those objects to our eye1  
it follows that we do not perceive the  
heavenly bodies1 as they are at the     
moment of our seeing them1 but as they  
were at the time the rays of light by   
which we see them left those bodies4    
,thus when we look at the moon1 we see  
her1 not as she is at the moment of our 
beholding her disc1 but as she was a    
second and a quarter before2 for        
instance1 we see her not at the moment  
of her rising above the horizon1 but    

#a-a_/d second after she has risen4 ,the
 sun also when he appears to us to have 
just passed the meridian1 has already   
passed it by #h minutes4 ,so1 in like   
manner1 of the planets and the fixed    
stars4 ,we see ,jupiter1 not as he is at
 the moment of our catching a sight of  
him1 but as he was #eb minutes before4  
,uranus appears to us1 not as he is at  
the moment of our discovering him1 but  
as he was #b hours previously4 ,and a   
star of the #abth magnitude presents    
itself to our eye as it was #d1jjj years
 ago3 so that1 suppose such a star to   
have been annihilated #c1jjj years back1
 it would still be visible on the       
earth's surface for #a1jjj years to     
come3 or1 suppose a star of the same    
magnitude had been created at the time  
the ,israelites left ,egypt1 it will not
 be perceptible on the earth for nearly 
#gjj years from this date4  ,beautiful1 
and at first sight unanswerable as this 
argument is1 it falls to the ground     
before the spear-touch of our ,ithuriel1

 the doctrine of prochronism4 ,there is 
nothing more improbable in the notion   
that the sensible undulation was created
 at the observer's eye1 with all the    
pre-requisite undulations prochronic1   
than in the notion that blood was       
created in the capillaries of the first 
human body4 ,the latter we have seen to 
be a fact3 is the former an             
impossibility8  ,it may perhaps be      
said3--,the traces of prochronism you   
have adduced in created organisms may be
 granted1 because they are inseparable  
from the presumed condition of those    
organisms respectively4 ,the blood in   
the vessels1 the hair1 the teeth1 the   
nails1 may afford evidences of past     
processes2 but then those are only past 
stages of what yet exists4 ,the case1   
however1 is not parallel with the fossil
 skeletons1 many of which have no       
connexion with anything now existing4   
,the concentric rings of a timber-tree  
are essential to its adult state2 but   
how is the existence of the             

,pterodactyle or the ,megatherium       
essential to that of the recent ,draco  
volans1 or the ,south ,american ,sloth8 
,can you show in the new-formed creature
 any trace of some organ which does not 
come into its present condition of      
being1--of something which has quite    
passed away8  ,perhaps ,i can4 ,the very
 concentric rings of the tree are       
considered by botanists as1 in some     
sense1 dead4 ,the paradoxical dictum of 
,schleiden1--,no tree has               
leaves1#ajh--;is grounded on this       
circumstance1 that the woody portion of 
the mass is the inert result of former  
generations1 and that the present race  
of leaves is growing1 not out of the    
woody portion of the tree1 but out of   
its herbaceous extremities1 which grow  
upon the woody stem as upon a ground1   
formed by the process of vegetation4    
,this common ground1 namely1 the woody  
stem1 which is almost lifeless in       
comparison with the herbaceous parts    
engaged in active growth1 is annually   

covered with a vigorous sheath under the
 protecting bark2 and this sheath is the
 ground of the nourishment of all the   
vegetating herbaceous extremities4#aji  
,the polygonal plates into which the    
bark of the ,testudinaria divides1 not  
only show many superposed laminae1 at   
any given moment of its adult condition1
 but also bear witness1 in the broad    
existent surface of each one1 to former 
laminae1 yet older than the oldest now  
present1 which have disintegrated and   
dropped off4  ,the ,palm and the        
,tree-fern show1 in their trunk-scars1  
evidences of organs which have          
completely died away and disappeared2   
while1 between these scars and the      
generation of living fronds1 there is1  
at any given moment of the tree's       
history1 a series of fronds which are   
quite dead and dry1 but which have not  
yet disappeared4  ,the ,nerita1 a genus 
of beautiful shells from the tropical   
seas1 dissolves away and removes1 in the
 progress of growth1 the spiral column1 

which originally formed the axis of     
development2 so that1 in adult age1 the 
spiral direction of the whole testifies 
to the past existence of a column which 
has quite disappeared4  ,in that species
 of ,murex1#aaj which1 on account of the
 long and slender rostellum1 and the    
spines with which it is covered1 is     
known to collectors as the ,thorny      
,woodcock 7,m4 tenuispina71 the shelly  
spines of the earlier whorls would      
interfere with such as came1 in process 
of development1 to be superposed on     
them2 for they cross the area which is  
to be the cavity enclosed by the        
advancing lip4 ,they are1 however1      
removed by absorption2 but not so       
completely but that traces may still be 
discovered where they formerly existed3 
evidences of the quondam existence of   
what exists no longer4  ,towards one    
side of the upper surface of the pretty 
,star-fish1 ,cribella rosea1 7as in many
 other species of ,star-fishes17 there  
is a curious little mark1 known as the  

madreporic plate1 the use of which has  
greatly puzzled naturalists4 ,sars1 the 
,norwegian zoologist1 has unveiled the  
mystery4#aaa ,the young larva1 before it
 assumes the stellar form1 is furnished 
with a sort of thick column1 divided    
into four diverging clubbed arms1 which 
are adhering organs1 ancillary to       
locomotion4 ,in the process of          
development1 however1 new locomotive    
organs are formed2 and this four-fold   
column1 being no longer needed1 sloughs 
away2 and that so completely1 that not a
 trace of its existence remains1 except 
this scar1 or madreporic plate2 which is
 therefore a permanent record of        
something that has quite passed away4   
,but the closest parallel to the        
relation borne by the skeleton of an    
extinct species to an extant one1 is    
presented by that of the hilum to a     
seed1 or of the umbilicus to a mammal4  
,each of these is a legible and         
undeniable1 record of a being1 whose    
individuality was totally distinct from 

that of the being by which it is        
presented1 and of which all vestiges    
have disappeared1 save this record4 ,nor
 is the parallel founded on obscure or  
rare examples2 both the umbilicus and   
the hilum are generally conspicuous2 and
 both are extensively found in their    
respective kingdoms1 the former         
pervading the viviparous ,vertebrata1   
the latter characterising the whole of  
the cotyledonous types of vegetation4   
,once more4 ,an objection may arise to  
the reception of the prochronic         
principle1 on the ground that the       
examples ,i have adduced are not to be  
compared1 in point of grandeur1 with the
 mighty revolutions1 which are presumed 
to have written their records in the    
crust of the globe2 and that hence no   
analogy can be fairly drawn from one to 
the other4 ,to the philosopher1 however1
 there is no great or small1 as there is
 none in the works of ,god4 ,we have    
every reason to believe that ,he has    
wrought by the same laws in all portions

 of his universe3 the principle on which
 an apple falls from the branch to the  
ground1 is the same as that which keeps 
the planet ,neptune in the solar system4
 ,i have shown that the principle of    
prochronic development obtains wherever 
we are able to test it2 that is1        
wherever another principle1 that of     
cyclicism1 exists2 whether the cycle be 
that of a gnat's metamorphosis1 or of a 
planet's orbit4 ,the distinction of     
great or small1 grand or mean1 does not 
apply to it4 ,if it cannot be proved to 
be universal1 it is only because we are 
not sufficiently acquainted with some of
 the economies of nature to be able to  
pronounce with certainty whether they   
are cyclical or not4 ,i am not aware of 
any natural process1 in which its       
existence can be absolutely denied4     
,and this makes all the difference in   
the world between my position and that  
of the old simple-minded observers1 with
 which a superficial reader might think 
it to possess a good deal in common4 ,a 

century ago1 people used to talk of     
lusus naturae2 of a certain plastic     
power in nature2 of abortive or         
initiative attempts at making things    
which were never perfected2 of          
imitations1 in one kingdom1 of the      
proper subjects of another1 7as plants  
were supposed to be imitated by the     
frost on a window-pane1 and by the      
dendritic forms of metals74 ,still      
later1 many persons have been inclined  
to take refuge from the conclusions of  
geology in the absolute sovereignty of  
,god1 asking1--,could not the           
,omnipotent ,creator make the fossils in
 the strata1 just as they now appear8   
,it has always been felt to be a        
sufficient answer to such a demand1 that
 no reason could be adduced for such an 
exercise of mere power2 and that it     
would be unworthy of the ,allwise ,god4 
,but this is a totally different thing  
from that for which ,i am contending4 ,i
 am endeavouring to show that a grand   
,,law exists1 by which1 in two great    

departments of nature at least1 the     
analogues of the fossil skeletons were  
formed without pre-existence4 ,an       
arbitrary acting1 and an acting on fixed
 and general laws1 have nothing in      
common with each other4  ,finally1 the  
acceptance of the principles presented  
in this volume1 even in their fullest   
extent1 would not1 in the least degree1 
affect the study of scientific geology4 
,the character and order of the strata2 
their disruptions and displacements and 
injections2 the successive floras and   
faunas2 and all the other phenomena1    
would be facts still4 ,they would still 
be1 as now1 legitimate subjects of      
examination and inquiry4 ,i do not know 
that a single conclusion1 now accepted1 
would need to be given up1 except that  
of actual chronology4 ,and even in      
respect of this1 it would be rather a   
modification than a relinquishment of   
what is at present held2 we might still 
speak of the inconceivably long duration
 of the processes in question1 provided 

we understand ideal instead of actual   
time2--that the duration was projected  
in the mind of ,god1 and not really     
existent4  ,the zoologist would still   
use the fossil forms of non-existing    
animals1 to illustrate the mutual       
analogies of species and groups4 ,his   
recognition of their prochronism would  
in nowise interfere with his endeavours 
to assign to each its position in the   
scale of organic being4 ,he would still 
legitimately treat it as an entity2 an  
essential constituent of the great ,plan
 of ,nature2 because he would recognise 
the ,plan itself as an entity1 though   
only an ideal entity1 existing only in  
the ,divine ,conception4 ,he would still
 use the stony skeletons for the        
inculcation of lessons on the skill and 
power of ,god in creation2 and would    
find them a rich mine of instruction1   
affording some examples of the          
adaptation of structure to function1    
which are not yielded by any extant     
species4 ,such are the elongation of the

 little finger in ,pterodactylus1 for   
the extension of the alar membrane2 and 
the deflexion of the inferior incisors  
in ,dinotherium1 for the purposes of    
digging or anchorage4 ,and still would  
he find1 in the fossil forms1 evidences 
of that complacency in beauty1 which has
 prompted the ,adorable ,workmaster to  
paint the rose in blushing hues1 and to 
weave the fine lace of the dragonfly's  
wing4 ,the whorls of the ,gyroceras1 the
 foliaceous or zigzag sutures of the    
,ammonites1 and the radiating pattern of
 ,smithia1 are not less elegant than    
anything of the kind in existing        
creation1 in which1 however1 they have  
no parallels4 ,in short1 the readings of
 the stone book will be found not less  
worthy of ,god who wrote them1 not less 
worthy of man who deciphers them1 if we 
consider them as prochronically1 than if
 we judge them diachronically1 produced4
  ,illustration3 ,,gyroceras4         99
       99       99       99       99    
,here ,i close my labours4 ,how far ,i  

have succeeded in accomplishing the task
 to which ,i bent myself1 it is not for 
me to judge4 ,others will determine     
that2 and ,i am quite sure it will be   
determined fairly1 on the whole4 ,to    
prevent misapprehension1 however1 it may
 be as well to enunciate what the task  
was1 which ,i prescribed1 especially    
because other 7collateral1 hypothetical7
 points have been mooted in these pages4
  ,all1 then1 that ,i consider myself   
responsible for is summed up in these   
sentences3--  ,i4 ,the conclusions      
hitherto received have been but         
inferences deduced from certain         
premises3 the witness who reveals the   
premises does not testify to the        
inferences4  ,,ii4 ,the process of      
deducing the inferences has been liable 
to a vast incoming of error1 arising    
from the operation of a ,law1 proved to 
exist1 but hitherto unrecognised4       
,,iii4 ,the amount of the error thus    
produced we have no means of knowing2   
much less of eliminating it4  ,,iv4 ,the

 whole of the facts deposed to by this  
witness are irrelevant to the question2 
and the witness is1 therefore1 out of   
court4  ,v4 ,the field is left clear and
 undisputed for the one ,witness on the 
opposite side1 whose testimony is as    
follows3--  ,,in ,,six ,,days ,,jehovah 
,,made ,,heaven ,,and ,,earth1 ,,the    
,,sea1 ,,and ,,all ,,that ,,in ,,them   
,,is4      ,,index4   ,agave1 #adg4     
,ammonites1 appearance of1 #eh4         
profusion of1 #fe4  ,amphibia1          
foot-prints of1 #eb1 #ef4               
,anoplotherium1 #fi4  ,antediluvian     
hypothesis1 #i4   untenable1 #ea4       
,babbage1 ,mr41 opinions of1 #be4       
,babiroussa1 #bfb4  ,bamboo1 #acd4      
,banyan1 #afd4  ,barnacle1 development  
of1 #bag4  ,basalt1 formation of1 #ff1  
#ia4  ,beaches1 raised1 #hc4  ,beard1   
#bhd4  ,beetle1 egg of1 #caj4           
,belemnites1 #eh4  ,bignonia1 #afh4     
,birds1 earliest1 #fi4   gigantic1 #hb4 
feathers of1 #bec4  ,blackwood1 opinions
 of1 #i4  ,blocks1 transport of1 #gh4   

,blood1 #bge1 #bhe4  ,bones1 structure  
of1 #bgi4  ,botryllus1 metamorphoses of1
 #bbb4  ,brachionus1 eggs of1 #cba4     
,bracts1 development of1 #aff4  ,brown1 
,rev4 ,j4 ,m41 opinions of1 #i4  ,bulbs1
 growth of1 #aec1 #aef4  ,buprestis1    
#bad4  ,butterflies1 eggs of1 #cjg4     
,butterfly-flower1 #aej4                
,cabbage-palm1 #add4  ,carboniferous    
deposits1 #dd4  ,case-flies1 #bji4      
,cassowary1 #beb4  ,caverns1 bone1 #gf1 
#hh4  ,ceiba1 #agd4  ,cephalaspis1 #dd4 
,chalk formation1 #fd4  ,chalmers1 ,dr41
 opinions of1 #ai4  ,chronology of      
globe1 #cj1 #cci4  ,circularity of      
organic life1 #aac1 #ccf1 #cea4         
,clavagella1 #bbe4  ,coal1 age of1 #ej4 
extent of1 #df4   origin of1 #dg4       
,coccus1 economy of1 #cae4  ,cockburn1  
,rev4 ,sir ,w41 opinions of1 #ad4       
,cockroach1 egg-case of1 #cah4          
,conybeare1 ,dr41 opinions of1 #bj4     
,coprolites1 #fj4  ,coral polypes1 #dj1 
#da1 #de4   activity of1 #hf4           
,couch-grass1 #ace4  ,cow1 circular life

 of1 #aba4  ,cowry1 #bca4  ,crab1       
metamorphosis of1 #baf4  ,crag and tail1
 #ee4   formation1 #ge4  ,crinoids1     
abundance of1 #eh4  ,creation1 extent   
of1 #bb4   fact of1 #aaj4   law of1     
#ccg1 #cfh4   periods of1 #ae4   ,what  
is it8 #abc4  ,cribella1 metamorphosis  
of1 #cba4  ,crocodile1 #bdh4            
,cuckoo-fly1 egg of1 #cji4  ,cumbrian   
formations1 #cf4  ,currents1 oceanic1   
#cef4  ,cuttlefish1 shell of1 #bcg4     
,cycads1 #fj4  ,cyclicism1 #ccf1 #cea4  
of the globe1 #ced4   of inorganic      
nature1 #cee4   of celestial orbs1 #cei4
  ,cysticercus1 #aif4   ,daphnia1       
economy of1 #cbe4  ,dauber1 economy of1 
#cbj4  ,days of creation1 #ae4          
,deductions1 fallible1 #b4  ,deer1      
,irish1 #hd4  ,deltas1 #he4  ,deposits1 
earthy1 #hg4  ,depressions and          
elevations1 #ha4  ,development          
hypothesis1 #aaa4  ,devonian formations1
 #db4  ,diachronism1 #abe1 #cdf4        
,diatomaceae in chalk1 #fd4             
,dinotherium1 #gb1 #cgj4  ,dione1 #bbh4 

,disturbances of strata1 #ed1 #ff4      
,dodo1 #hd4  ,double cocoa-nut1 #bif4   
,earth-pea1 germination of1 #bii4       
,echinus1 #aij4  ,eggs of fowl1 #cbh4   
of insects1 #cjf4  ,elephant1 dentition 
of1 #bff4   fossil1 #gc4  ,elevations   
and depressions1 #ha4  ,encephalartos1  
#afa4  ,euphorbia1 #afd4  ,erythrina1   
#big4   ,fairholm1 ,mr41 opinions of1   
#ab4  ,feather1 growth of1 #bec4        
,feather-star1 #aic1 #cje4  ,fig1       
,australian1 #afb4   ,indian1 #afd4     
,fishes1 cycloid1 #fh4   earliest1 #dd4 
sauroid1 #eb4  ,fishes1 scales of1 #bdb4
  ,foetus of kangaroo1 #ccc4            
,footprints1 #eg4  ,foraminifera1 #fd1  
#gj4  ,frog1 #eg4   ,gall-fly1 egg of1  
#caj4  ,ganges1 delta of1 #he4          
,geography1 changes of1 #fj1 #ff1gj4    
,geology1 in need of caution1 #d4       
,germs1 hypothesis of1 #bid4            
,gilt-head1 #bda4  ,glaciers1 theory of1
 #gi4  ,gladiolus1 #aeb4  ,globe1       
chronology of1 #cj4   cyclicism of1     
#ced4   density of1 #cg4  ,gnats1       

egg-raft of1 #bjg4  ,goliathus1 #bje4   
,granite1 #cg4   decomposition and      
reconstruction of1 #ch4  ,grass-tree1   
#aed4  ,gray1 ,mr41 opinions of1 #bj4   
,grit1 #df4  ,gulf-stream1 #cef4        
,gyroceras1 #cga4   ,hair1 growth of1   
#bgh4  ,harris1 ,dr41 opinions of1 #ai4 
,hawkmoth1 #aah4  ,hertfordshire1 strata
 of1 #cc4  ,hippopotamus1 #bfc4         
fossil1 #gc4  ,hitchcock1 ,dr41 opinions
 of1 #ba4  ,horns of ibex1 #beg4   stag1
 #beh4  ,horse1 #bfj4  ,hylaeosaurus1   
#fb4  ,hypotheses1 variety of1 #bg4     
,ibex1 #beg4  ,ichthyosaurus1 #ei4      
,iguanodon1 #fb4  ,infusoria in chalk1  
#fd4  ,insects1 eggs of1 #cjf4          
,iriartea1 #aci4   ,julus1 #bab4        
,kangaroo1 foetus of1 #ccc4  ,kirkdale  
cave1 #gg4   ,labyrinthodon1 #eg4       
,lace-fly1 egg of1 #caa4  ,lady-fern1   
#aaf4  ,law of creation1 #ccg1 #cfh1    
#cga4  ,leaf-scars of fern1 #acj4       
,lepralia1 #bai4  ,lias1 #eh4  ,light1  
velocity of1 #cfj4  ,lily1 #aef4        
,limestone coral1 #de4  ,locust-tree4   

#agg4  ,london clay1 #fg4  ,loranthus1  
#afi4  ,lusus ,naturae1 #cfh4           
,macbrair1 ,mr41 opinions of1 #aj4      
,madrepore1 #ahc4  ,mammal1 earliest1   
#fc4  ,mammoth1 #gc4  ,man1 introduction
 of1 #hc4   structure of1 #bge4         
,mangrove1 #agc4   germination of1 #cja4
  ,marsupials1 #hb4  ,mastodon1 #gc4    
,medusa1 #ahh1 #cjd4  ,megalosaurus1    
#fa4  ,melicerta1 #baj4  ,miller1 ,hugh1
 opinions of1 #ae4  ,millepore1 #ahc4   
,moa1 #hd4  ,moho1 #hd4  ,moon1         
cyclicism of1 #cei4  ,mosasaurus1 #fe4  
,moth1 eggs of1 #cad4  ,mountains1      
upheaving of1 #ff1 #gj4  ,murex1 #bcc1  
#cfe4   ,nails1 growth of1 #bgg4        
,nature1 circularity of1 #aac4   plan   
of1 #cde1 #cfi4  ,nautilus1 #bce4       
,navel1 evidence from1 #bhi1 #ccd4      
,nerita1 axis of1 #cfe4  ,noah's flood1 
#f4   ,oestridae1 economy of1 #cji4     
,oolitic system1 #eh1 #fj2   duration   
of1 #fc4  ,opossum1 #fc4  ,organ-pipe1  
#ahe4  ,organic life a circle1 #aac1    
#abb4  ,organisms1 earliest1 #dj4       

,orchis1 #aeb4   ,palm-leaf1 young1     
#ade4  ,penn1 ,mr41 opinions of1 #aa4   
,phenomena1 evidence of1 delusive1 #ccg4
  ,plants of ,london clay1 #fg4         
,plastic power1 #cfh4  ,plates of       
tortoise1 #bej4  ,plesiosaurus1 #ei4    
,plumularia1 #aai4  ,powell1 ,professor1
 opinions of1 #bf4  ,prickly pear1 #agb4
  ,prochronism1 #abe1 #cdf1 #cfh4       
dependent on cyclicism1 #ced4           
,protoplast1 opinions of1 #bc4          
,pterodactyle1 #fb1 #cgj4   ,raindrops1 
#eh4  ,rattan1 #ade4  ,rattlesnake1     
#bdg4  ,reptiles1 ,marine1 #af1 #ei4    
,rhinoceros1 fossil1 #gc4  ,roots1      
aerial1 of fig1 #afc4   of iriartea1    
#aci4   of mangrove1 #agc4   of         
pandanus1 #ach4  ,rotifera1 viviparous1 
#cbb4   ,sackcloth of palms1 #ada4      
,sandstone1 age of1 #ej4   new red1 #ef4
   old red1 #db4  ,saw-fly1 eggs of1    
#cag4  ,scale of fish1 #bdb4            
,scarlet-runner1 economy of1 #aac4      
,screw-pine1 #acf4  ,scripture1 efforts 
to reconcile with geology1 #e4   literal

 sense of1 #d4  ,sea-urchin1 #aia1 #cje4
  ,sea-pen1 #ahb4  ,secondary epoch1    
#ff4  ,sedgwick1 ,professor1 on past    
time1 #ih4   opinions of1 #ag4          
,selaginella1 #acc4  ,senses1 evidence  
of1 #a4  ,serpent1 earliest1 #fh4       
,serpula1 #aih1 #cje4  ,sharks1 #eb1    
#eh1 #bdc4   egg of1 #cbf4  ,shells1 now
 fossilizing1 #hi4  ,shore-crab1 #baf4  
,silk-cotton tree1 #agd4  ,silurian     
formations1 #dj4  ,skeleton1 human1     
#bhf4  ,skeletons1 evidence from1 #aje1 
#cdj4  ,sloths1 fossil1 #hb4  ,smith1   
,dr4 ,pye1 opinions of1 #bb4  ,smithia1 
elegance of1 #cga4  ,species1           
persistence of1 #aaj4  ,spider1 eggs of1
 #cac4  ,stag1 #beh4  ,star-fish1       
madreporic plate of1 #cff4  ,stars1     
light from fixed1 #cfa4  ,stature of    
man1 #bhd4  ,strata1 disturbances of1   
#ed4   number of1 #cg4  ,strombus1 #bcj4
  ,sugar-palm1 #ada4  ,sumner1 ,dr41    
opinions of1 #ai4  ,surinam toad1 #cbg4 
,sword-fish1 #bdj4   ,tapeworm1 #aie4   
,tapir1 #fi4  ,teeth of babiroussa1     

#bfb4  ,teeth of crocodile1 #bdi4       
elephant1 #bfh4   hippopotamus1 #bfc4   
horse1 #bfa4   man1 #bha1 #bhe4   shark1
 #bdc4  ,termes1 #bjc4  ,terebella1     
#bja4  ,tertiary epoch1 #ff4   fauna1   
#gf4  ,testimony1 divine1 #b2   dear to 
many scientific men1 #e2   by some      
rejected1 #h4  ,testudinaria1 #aeh4     
,thames ,tunnel1 strata of1 #cb4        
,thyroid cartilage1 #bhd4  ,timber1     
rings of1 #agh1 #cdb1 #cdi4  ,tortoise1 
#bej4  ,tour of inspection1 #abg4       
,traveller's tree1 #adh4  ,tree-fern1   
age of1 #abh4  ,tree-frog1 #bdf4        
,trilobites1 #da4  ,truth1 value of1 #g4
  ,tulip1 seed of1 #bih4  ,tulip-tree1  
#afe4  ,turner1 ,sharon1 opinions of1   
#ah4  ,tusk of elephant1 #bff4   ,ure1  
,dr41 opinions of1 #aj4   ,venus1       
prickly1 #bbh4  ,vestiges1 hypothesis   
of1 #bg1 #aaa4  ,volcanic action1 #ee1  
#ff1 #hf4   ,weevil1 economy of1 #cjh4  
,whalebone1 #bee4  ,white ant1 #bjc4    
,world1 projected history of1 #cea4     
,yorkshire1 strata of1 #cc4  ,young1    

,dr41 opinions of1 #ac4         99      
99       99       99       99           
,,footnotes3  #a ,dr4 ,lardner2 ,museum 
of ,science and ,art1 vol4 i4 p4 #ha4   
#b ,as ,cuvier1 ,buckland1 and many     
others4 ,on the question whether the    
phenomena of ,geology can be comprised  
within the short period formerly        
assigned to them1 the ,rev4 ,samuel     
,charles ,wilts long ago observed3      
,buckland1 ,sedgwick1 ,faber1 ,chalmers1
 ,conybeare1 and many other ,christian  
geologists1 strove long with themselves 
to believe that they could3 and they did
 not give up the hope1 or seek for a new
 interpretation of the sacred text1 till
 they considered themselves driven from 
their position by such facts as we have 
stated4 ,if1 even now1 a reasonable1 or 
we might say ,,possible solution were   
offered1 they would1 we feel persuaded1 
gladly revert to their original         
opinion4--,christian ,observer1 ,august1
 #ahcd4  #c ,reflections on ,geology4   
#d ,geology and ,geologists4  #e ,new   

,system of ,geology4  #f ,mineral and   
,mosaic ,geologies1 p4 #dcj4  #g        
,geology of ,scripture4  #h ,scriptural 
,geology1 passim4  #i ,letter to        
,buckland1 #ae1 et seq4  #aj ,origen1   
,augustine1 c4  #aa ,testimony of the   
,rocks1 p4 #add  #ab ,discourse 7#eth   
,ed471 #aae4  #ac ,sac4 ,hist4 of       
,world4  #ad ,rec4 of ,creation4  #ae   
,nat4 ,theology4  #af ,pre-,adamite     
,earth4  #ag ,harmony of ,scripture and 
,geology4  #ah ,christian ,observer1    
#ahcd4  #ai ,religion of ,geology1      
,lect4 ii4  #bj ,scripture and ,geology4
  #ba ,i am not replying to any of these
 conflicting opinions2 else1 with       
respect to this one1 ,i might consider  
it sufficient to adduce the ipsissima   
verba of the inspired text4 ,not a word 
is said of ,adam's being nine hundred   
and thirty years old2 the plain         
statement is as follows3--,and all the  
days that ,adam lived were nine hundred 
and thirty years4 7,gen4 v4 #e47  #bb   
,protoplast1 pp4 #eh1 #ei2 p4 #cbe2     

#b;d4 ,ed4  #bc ,unity of ,worlds       
7#ahef71 pp4 #dhh1 #dic4  #bd ,a        
geological truth must command our assent
 as powerfully as that of the existence 
of our own minds1 or of the ,deity      
himself2 and any revelation which stands
 opposed to such truths must be false4  
,the geologist has therefore nothing to 
do with revealed religion in his        
scientific inquiries4--,edinb4 ,review1 
xv4 #af4  #be ,ansted's ,ancient ,world1
 #ah4  #bf ,ansted's ,ancient ,world1   
#cj4  #bg ,scripture and ,geology1 #cga4
 7,ed4 #ahee47  #bh ,it is by no means  
unlikely that some beds of coal were    
derived from the mass of vegetable      
matter present at one time on the       
surface1 and submerged suddenly4 ,it is 
only necessary to refer to the accounts 
of vegetation in some of the extremely  
moist1 warm islands in the southern     
hemisphere1 where the ground is         
occasionally covered with eight or ten  
feet of decaying vegetable matter at one
 time1 to be satisfied that this is at  

least possible4  #bi ,ansted's ,anc4    
,world1 #ge4  #cj ,m',culloch's ,system 
of ,geology1 i4 #ejf4  #ca ,origin of   
,coal4  #cb ,testimony of the ,rocks1 p4
 #gh4  #cc ,mr4 ,newman suggests that   
they were marsupial bats 7,zoologist1 p4
 #abi74 ,i have adopted his attitudes1  
but have not ventured to give them      
mammalian ears4  #cd ,in ,tennant's     
,list of ,brit4 ,fossils 7#ahdg71 but   
two species--a ,brachiopod and a        
,gastropod--are mentioned as common to  
the ,chalk and the ,london ,clay4 ,they 
are ,terebratula striatula1 and ,pyrula 
,smithii4  #ce ,ansted's ,anc4 ,world1  
#bfg4  #cf ,reliquiae ,diluvianae4  #cg 
,travels through the ,alps1 p4 #ai4  #ch
 ,prof4 ,owen1 in his admirable account 
of the ,mylodon1 has mentioned a fact   
which brings us very vividly into       
contact with its personal history4 ,he  
shows that the animal got its living by 
overturning vast trees1 doing the work  
by main strength1 and feeding on the    
leaves4 ,the fall of the tree might     

occasionally put the animal in peril2   
and in the specimen examined there is   
proof of such danger having been        
incurred4 ,the skull had undergone two  
fractures during the life of the animal1
 one of which was entirely healed1 and  
the other partially4 ,the former        
exhibits the outer tables of bone broken
 by a fracture four inches long1 near   
the orbit4 ,the other is more extensive1
 and behind1 being five inches long1 and
 three broad1 and over the brain4 ,the  
inner plate had in both these cases     
defended the brain from any serious     
injury1 and the animal seems to have    
been recovering from the latter accident
 at the time of its death4  #ci         
,naturalist's ,voyage1 passim4  #dj ,the
 ,indians of ,north ,america knew that  
the ,mastodon had a trunk2 a fact which 
7though the anatomist infers it from the
 bones of the skull7 it is difficult to 
imagine them to be acquainted with1     
except by tradition from those who had  
seen the living animal4  #da ,ansted2   

,phys4 ,geography1 #hb4  #db ,an        
interesting fact relating to the        
,brazilian caves was communicated to    
,dr4 ,mantell4 ,m4 ,claussen1 in the    
course of his researches1 discovered a  
cavern1 the stalagmite floor of which   
was entire4 ,on penetrating the sparry  
crust1 he found the usual ossiferous    
bed2 but pressing engagements compelled 
him to leave the deposit unexplored4    
,after an interval of some years1 ,m4   
,claussen again visited the cavern1 and 
found the excavation he had made        
completely filled up with stalagmite1   
the floor being as entire as on his     
first entrance4 ,on breaking through    
this newly-formed incrustation1 it was  
found to be distinctly marked with lines
 of dark-coloured sediment1 alternating 
with the crystalline stalactite4        
,reasoning on the probable cause of this
 appearance1 ,m4 ,claussen sagaciously  
concluded that it arose from the        
alternation of the wet and dry seasons4 
,during the drought of summer1 the sand 

and dust of the parched land were wafted
 into the caves and fissures1 and this  
earthy layer was covered during the     
rainy season by stalagmite1 from the    
water that percolated through the       
limestone1 and deposited calc-spar on   
the floor4 ,the number of alternate     
layers of spar and sediment tallied with
 the years that had elapsed since his   
first visit2 and on breaking up the     
ancient bed of stalagmite1 he found the 
same natural register of the annual     
variations of the seasons2 every layer  
dug through presented a uniform         
alternation of sediment and spar2 and as
 the botanist ascertains the age of an  
ancient dicotyledonous tree from the    
annual circles of growth1 in like manner
 the geologist attempted to calculate   
the period that had elapsed since the   
commencement of these ossiferous        
deposits of the cave2 and although the  
inference1 from want of time and means  
to conduct the inquiry with precision1  
can only be accepted as a rough         

calculation1 yet it is interesting to   
learn that the time indicated by this   
natural chronometer1 since the extinct  
mammalian forms were interred1 amounted 
to many thousand years4--7,petrifactions
 and their ,teachings1 p4 #dha47  #dc   
,bibliotheque ,univers41 ,march1 #aheb4 
#dd ,it is now admitted by all competent
 persons1 that the formation even of    
those strata which are nearest the      
surface1 must have occupied vast        
periods1 probably millions of years1 in 
arriving at their present               
state4--,,babbage1 ,ninth ,bridgewater  
,treatise1 p4 #fg4  #de ,geology of     
,central ,france4  #df ,though perfect  
knowledge is not possessed1 yet there   
are reasons for believing that the      
duration of life to testacean           
individuals of the present race is      
several years4 ,but who can state the   
proportion which the average length of  
life to the individual mollusc or       
conchifer1 bears to the duration        
appointed by the ,creator to the        

species8 ,take any one of the six or    
seven thousand known recent species2 let
 it be a ,buccinum1 of which #abj       
species are ascertained1 7one of which  
is the commonly known whelk27 or a      
,cypraea1 comprising about as many1 7a  
well-known species is on almost every   
mantel-piece1 the tiger-cowry27 or an   
,ostrea 7oyster71 of which #acj species 
are described4 ,we have reason to think 
that the individuals have a natural life
 of at least six or seven years2 but we 
have no reason to suppose that any one  
species has died out1 since the ,adamic 
creation4 ,may we then1 for the sake of 
an illustrative argument1 take the      
duration of testacean species1 one with 
another1 at one thousand times the life 
of the individual8 ,may we say six      
thousand years8 ,we are dealing very    
liberally with our opponents4 ,yet in   
examining the vertical evidences of the 
cessations of the fossil species1 marks 
are found of an entire change in the    
forms of animal life2 we find such      

cessations and changes to have occurred 
,,many times in the thickness of but a  
few hundred feet of these               
late-rocks4--,,dr4 ,j4 ,,pye ,,smith1   
,scripture and ,geology1 #eth ,ed4 p4   
#cgf4  #dg ,one of the laminated        
formations in ,auvergne may be said to  
furnish a chronometer for itself4 ,it   
consists of sixty feet of siliceous and 
calcareous deposits1 each as thin as    
pasteboard1 and bearing upon their      
separating surfaces the stems and       
seed-vessels of small water-plants in   
infinite numbers2 and countless         
multitudes of minute shells1 resembling 
some species of our common snail-shells4
 ,these layers have been formed with    
evident regularity1 and to each of them 
we may reasonably assign the term of one
 season1 that is a year4 ,now thirty of 
such layers frequently do not exceed one
 inch in thickness4 ,let us average them
 at twenty-five4 ,the thickness of the  
stratum is at least sixty feet2 and thus
 we gain1 for the whole of this         

formation alone1 eighteen thousand      
years4--,,dr4 ,j4 ,p4 ,,smith1          
,scripture and ,geology1 #eth ,edition1 
p4 #acg4  #dh ,this fact has now been   
verified in almost all parts of the     
globe1 and has led to a conviction that 
at successive periods of the past the   
same area of land and water has been    
inhabited by species of animals and     
plants as distinct as those which now   
people the antipodes1 or which now      
co-exist in the arctic1 temperate1 and  
tropical zones4 ,it appears that from   
the remotest periods there has been ever
 a coming in of new organic forms1 and  
an extinction of those which pre-existed
 on the earth2 some species having      
endured for a longer1 others for a      
shorter time2 but none having ever      
re-appeared1 after once dying           
out4--,,lyell',s ,elements of ,geology1 
p4 #bge4  #di ,j4 ,pye ,smith1          
,scripture and ,geology1 #eth ,ed41 p4  
#fi4  #ej ,in ,dr4 ,pye ,smith's        
,scripture and ,geology1 p4 #chb1 7,ed4 

#ahee47  #ea ,i would venture           
respectfully to suggest that the        
following argument by ,mr4 ,babbage is  
vitiated throughout by a confounding of 
the phenomena observed with the         
conclusions inferred from them4         
,what1 then1 have those accomplished1   
who have restricted      the ,mosaic    
account of the creation to that         
diminutive      period1 which is1 as it 
were1 but a span in the duration of     
the earth's existence1 and who have     
imprudently rejected      the testimony 
of the senses1 when opposed to their    
philological criticisms8 ,the very      
arguments which      ,protestants have  
opposed to the doctrine of              
transubstantiation1 would1 if their view
 of the case were      correct1 be      
equally irresistible against the ,book  
of      ,genesis4 ,but let us consider  
what would be the conclusion of      any
 reasonable being in a parallel case4   
,let us imagine a      manuscript       
written three thousand years ago1 and   

professing      to be a revelation from 
the ,deity1 in which it was stated      
that the colour of the paper of the very
 book now in the      reader's hands is 
black1 and that the colour of the ink in
      the characters which he is now    
reading is white4 ,with that            
reasonable doubt of his own individual  
faculties which would      become the   
inquirer into the truth of a statement  
said to be      derived from so high an 
origin1 he would ask all those          
around him1 whether to their senses the 
paper appeared to be      black1 and the
 ink to be white4 ,if he found the      
senses      of other individuals agree  
with his own1 then he would             
undoubtedly pronounce the alleged       
revelation a forgery1 and      those who
 propounded it to be either deceived or 
deceivers4--,ninth ,bridgewater         
,treatise1 p4 #fh4  #eb ,dr4 ,pye ,smith
 calls the hypothesis of progressive    
development the crude impertinence of a 
few foreign sophists1--and he states as 

a fact1 that all the great geologists   
repudiate such a notion with abhorrence1
 and give physical evidence of its      
falsehood4--,scripture and ,geology1    
7#eth ,ed47 p4 #dbj4 ,see also          
,professor ,owen in ,rep4 ,brit ,assoc4 
#ahdb2 ,professor ,sedgwick1 in         
,discourse on ,stud4 of ,camb42         
,professor ,whewell1 in ,hist4 of       
,inductive ,sciences2 ,professor        
,ansted1 in ,anc4 ,world2 c4  #ec       
,wallace's ,palms of the ,amazon1 p4    
#ce4  #ed ,roxburgh4  #ee ,rumph1 v4    
#ajj4  #ef ,my observations rest on the 
fine specimen of this plant preserved in
 the ,british ,museum4 ,dr4 ,harvey1    
however1 says1 ,the growth of the trunk 
in ,kingia is very slow1 and a specimen 
about ten feet high may probably be some
 hundreds of years old4 ,report of      
,dubl4 ,univ4 ,zool4 and ,bot4 ,assoc4  
for ,feb4 #be1 #aheg4 ,see the note     
infra on page #ahh4  #eg ,gaudichaud3   
,recherches ,gen4 sur l',organographie1 
p4 #abi4  #eh ,on the development of    

,loranthus1 c4 ,linn4 ,tr4 xviii p4 #ga1
 7abridged74  #ei ,each and every plant 
is at first a cell4--,new cells can     
never be formed externally to1 but only 
within1 other cells already formed4 7,a4
 ,braun1 on the ,veg4 ,indiv47  ,the    
process of the propagation of cells1 by 
the formation of new cells in their     
interior1 is an universal law in the    
vegetable kingdom4 7,schleiden2         
,grundzuege74  ,cell-formation in plants
 takes place only in the cavities of    
older cells4 7,mohl1 on the ,veg4 ,cell7
  #fj ,see ,von ,martius1 on the        
,brazilian ,locusts4  #fa ,the origin of
 coral-stocks is minutely described by  
,ehrenberg1 in the ,abhandl4 for #ahcb1 
where he makes the following            
remarks3--,the coral mass is neither a  
mere structure composed of many animals 
arbitrarily conjoined1 as ,ellis        
supposed2 nor one single animal with    
many heads1 or with simple furcations1  
as ,cavolini maintained2 nor a vegetable
 stem with animal flowers1 as ,linnaeus 

expressed it2 it is a body of families1 
a living tree of consanguinity2 the     
single animals belonging to it1 and     
continually developing upon the primary 
ancestor1 are entirely isolated within  
themselves1 and capable of complete     
independence1 although unable to achieve
 it4  #fb ,this is not quite in accord  
with ,lamouroux's account2 but it is    
more consistent with what we know of    
polype-growth4  #fc ,we lack precise    
data on which to found conclusions as to
 the actual rate of growth of many      
animals4 ,sir ,john ,dalyell's famous   
,actinia1 now in the possession of ,dr4 
,fleming1 affords us a proof that the   
,zoophytes are long-lived1 and slow in  
attaining maturity4 ,it will be readily 
seen1 however1 that the argument in the 
text does not depend on the actual      
period evolved4 ,the lapse of a period  
of time1 no matter how long1 is the only
 essential point4  #fd ,all the         
component cells of any one organism may 
be considered as the descendants of the 

primordial cell in which it originated4 
7,dr4 ,carpenter2 ,comp4 ,physiol42 p4  
#cif4 #dth ,ed47  #fe ,i conclude so2   
because ,i have kept specimens of       
,echinus1 not full grown1 in healthy    
condition1 for nearly a year1 without   
any perceptible increase in their       
dimensions4  #ff ,i am not aware that   
this stage of the ,entozoon has been    
actually observed2 but from what we know
 of its previous and subsequent history1
 the correctness of the statement in the
 text will scarcely be disputed4 7,see  
,prof4 ,owen3 ,comp4 ,anat4 of          
,inverteb4 ,ed4 #b4 p4 #gd47  #fg ,see  
,notes to ,marmion4  #fh ,report on     
,brit4 ,annelida1 p4 #aid4  #fi ,we have
 no direct observations1 that ,i am     
aware of1 on the larval state of the    
,african ,goliathi2 but their near ally1
 the ,cetonia aurata of ,europe1 passes 
four years in the grub condition1 as    
does also the ,melolontha vulgaris1     
another lamellicorn beetle4 ,the        
,lucanus cervus1 or ,stag-beetle1       

continues a larva for six years4  #gj   
,fabre2 ,ann4 d4 ,sci4 ,nat42 iii4      
#ahee4  #ga ,b4 splendida1 has been     
ascertained to have existed1 as an      
inmate of the wood of a table1 for more 
than twenty years4 7,linn4 ,trans42 x4  
#cii47  #gb ,the rate of increase in    
dimensions shown by specimens of this   
species1 now so frequently kept in      
,aquaria1 warrants this assertion2      
though how many years a ,crab takes to  
attain adult size1 no exact             
observations1 so far as ,i know1        
testify4  #gc ,the exuvia of the cirri  
are sloughed from the ,balanidae about  
every week in summer2 and perhaps this  
process is coetaneous with an addition  
to the valves4  #gd ,mr4 ,broderip      
supposes it to have had the power of    
swimming freely1 and of seeking its     
future habitation1 as a bivalve2 but    
,loven had not then made known to us the
 embryogeny and metamorphosis of the    
,conchifera4 ,it is much more probable  
that the case is as ,i have ventured to 

assume in the text4  #ge ,bennett4  #gf 
,rumphius4  #gg ,the periodical         
formation of these septa in the progress
 of growth1 is analogous to that of the 
projecting external plates in the       
,wendletrap1 and of the rows of spines  
in the ,murex2 but those external       
processes consist of the opake          
calcareous layer of the shell1 whilst   
the internal processes in the ,nautilus 
consist of the nacreous layer1 like the 
septa in the ,turritella4 ,thus the     
embryo ,nautilus at first inhabits a    
simple shell1 like that of most univalve
 ,mollusca1 and manifests1 according to 
the usual law1 the general type at the  
early stage of its existence2 although  
it soon begins1 and apparently before   
having quitted the ovum1 to take on the 
special form4--,prof4 ,owen's ,lect4 on 
,invertebrate ,anim4 p4 #eic1 #b;d ,ed4 
#gh ,woodward's ,manual of the          
,mollusca1 p4 #hc4  #gi ,carpenter1 on  
the ,microscope1 c41 p4 #fjb4  #hj      
,grant's ,comp4 ,anat41 #ec4  #ha ,see  

,jones's ,general ,outline1 p4 #ejf4    
7,ed4 #ahda47  #hb ,such is the common  
statement4 ,dr4 ,harlan1 however1       
observes that the rattle is cast        
annually with the sloughed skin1 and1   
consequently1 no inference as to the age
 of the animal can be drawn from the    
number of pieces which compose the      
rattles4 7,journ4 ,acad4 ,nat4 ,sci42 v4
 #cfh47 ,i confess this appears to me to
 be a non sequitur2 for is it not quite 
possible that one may be added to the   
number annually1 without involving the  
actual perpetuity of the preceding ones8
 ,it is evident that the increase must  
take place at some time or other1 and it
 seems to me more likely to occur at the
 sloughing of the skin1 that is1        
annually1 than either oftener or        
seldomer4  #hc ,martin ,on the ,horse1  
p4 #aaa4  #hd ,professor ,owen's        
,odontography3--to which splendid work  
,i am indebted1 for the engravings of   
these skulls4  #he ,brewster's          
,edinburgh ,encyclopaedia4  #hf ,owen's 

,odontogr4 p4 #fca4  #hg ,penny         
,cyclopaedia2 art4 ,,bone4  #hh ,dr4    
,carpenter's ,human ,physiol4 p4 #iaf4  
7,ed4 #ahee47  #hi ,sir ,thomas ,browne1
 indeed1 denies ,adam a navel2 ,i       
presume1 however1 physiologists will    
rather take my view4 ,sir ,thomas did   
not know that the prochronism which he  
thought absurd pervaded every part of   
organic structure4 ,the following is his
 verdict3--  ,another ,mistake there may
 be in the ,picture of our first        
,parents1 who after the manner of theyre
 ,posteritie are bothe delineated with a
 ,navill3 and this is observable not    
only in ordinarie and stayned peeces1   
but in the ,authenticke ,draughts of    
,vrbin1 ,angelo1 and others4 ,which1    
notwythstandynge1 cannot be allowed1    
except wee impute that vnto the first   
,cause1 which we impose not on the      
second2 or what wee deny vnto ,nature1  
wee impute vnto ,naturity it selfe2 that
 is1 that in the first and moste        
accomplyshed ,peece1 the ,creator       

affected ,superfluities1 or ordayned    
,parts withoute all ,vse or             
,offyce4--,pseudodoxia ,epidemica1 lib4 
v42 cap4 v4  #ij ,blackwood1 in an      
excellent article on ,johnston's        
,physical ,geography 7,april1 #ahdi71   
says3--,adam must have been created in  
the full possession of manhood2 for if  
he had been formed an infant1 he must   
have perished through mere helplessness4
 ,when ,god looked on this world1 and   
pronounced all to be 'very good1'--which
 implies the completion of his purpose1 
and the perfection of his work--is it   
possible to conceive that he looked only
 on the germs of production1 on plains  
covered with eggs1 or seas filled with  
spawn1 or forests still buried in the   
capsules of seeds2 on a creation utterly
 shapeless1 lifeless and silent1 instead
 of the myriads of delighted existence1 
all enjoying the first sense of being8  
,and an eminent ,geologist considers the
 position indisputable1 as regards      
man3--,to the slightest rational        

consideration it must be evident1 that  
the first human pair were created in the
 perfection of their bodily organs and  
mental powers4--7,dr4 ,j4 ,p4 ,smith2   
,script4 and ,geol42 #bai47  #ia ,gen4  
i4 #ab1 #ba1 #bf1 #bg4  #ib ,penny      
,cyclop42 art4 ,,arachis4  #ic ,linn4   
,trans4 iii4 #bc4  #id ,introd4 to      
,entom42 ,lett4 xi4 ,sec4 #b4  #ie      
,jones2 ,nat4 ,hist4 ,anim42 ii4 #aea4  
#if ,cf4 ,mr4 ,lubbock 7,proc4 ,roy4    
,soc4 viii4 #ced71 with ,dr4 ,baird     
7,brit ,entomostr4 p4 #hb74  #ig ,dr4   
,carpenter3 ,comp4 ,phys42 p4 #fae4  #ih
 ,dr4 ,alex4 ,braun1 ,on the ,veget4    
,individual4 7,ann4 ,n4 ,h4 ,nov4       
#ahee47  #ii ,it may be objected that   
,elephas primigenius is absolutely      
distinct from ,e4 ,indicus4 ,i answer1  
,yes1 specifically distinct2 and so am  
,i distinct from my                     
father1--individually distinct4 ,but as 
individual distinctness does not        
preclude the individual from being the  
exponent of a circular revolution in the

 life-history of the species1 so        
specific distinctness may not preclude  
the species from being the exponent of a
 circular revolution in some higher1    
unnamed1 life-history4  #ajj ,we may    
assert of the individual1 as well as of 
the species1 that it completes the cycle
 of its existence in a succession of    
subordinate generations2 while1 on the  
other hand1 we may affirm of the        
species1 that1 like the individual1 it  
exhibits a determinate cycle of         
development4 ,the species itself may be 
regarded as an inferior 'momentum' of a 
still more comprehensive cycle of       
development4--,dr4 ,a4 ,braun1 ,on the  
,vegetable ,individual4  ,the species is
 an individual of a higher rank4--,link3
 ,elements of ,botanical ,science1 vi4  
#aa4  ,species1 like individuals1 have a
 certain limited term of existence4 ,it 
is the fact1 that1 according to some    
general law1 species of animals are     
introduced1 last for a limited period1  
and are then succeeded by others        

performing the same office4--,ansted's  
,ancient ,world1 #eb1 #ed4  #aja ,the   
unity of the plan of organization1 and  
the regular succession of animal forms1 
point out a beginning of this great     
kingdom on the surface of our globe1    
although the earliest stages of its     
development may now be effaced3 and the 
continuity of the series though all     
geological epochs1 and the gradual      
transitions which connect the species of
 one formation with those of the next in
 succession1 distinctly indicate that   
they form the parts of one creation1 and
 not the heterogeneous remnants of      
successive kingdoms begun and destroyed3
 so that1 while they present the best   
records of the changes which the surface
 of the globe has undergone1 they       
likewise afford the best testimony of   
the recent origin of the present crust  
of our planet1 and of all its organic   
inhabitants4--,dr4 ,grant1 in ,br4 ,sci4
 ,annual for #ahci4  #ajb ,dr4 ,harris  
has the following observations3--  ,why 

might not ,god have created the crust of
 the earth1 just as it is1 with all its 
numberless stratifications1 and         
diversified formations1 complete8 ,and  
the analogy for such an exercise of     
creative power is supposed to be found  
in the creation of ,adam1 not as an     
infant1 but as an adult2 and in the     
production of the full-sized trees of   
,eden4 ,to which the reply is direct3   
the maturity of the first man1 and of   
the objects around him1 could not       
deceive him by implying that they had   
slowly grown to that state4 ,his first  
knowledge was the knowledge of the      
contrary4 ,he lived1 partly1 in order to
 proclaim the fact of his creation4     
,and1 could his own body1 or any of the 
objects created at the same time1 have  
been subjected to a physiological       
examination1 they would1 no doubt1 have 
been found to indicate their miraculous 
production in their very destitution of 
all the traces of an early growth2      
whereas the shell of the earth is a     

crowded storehouse of evidence of its   
gradual formation4 ,so that the         
question1 expressed in other language1  
amounts to this3 ,might not the ,god of 
infinite truth have enclosed in the     
earth1 at its creation1 evidence of its 
having existed ages before its actual   
production8 ,of course1 the objector    
would disavow such a sentiment4 ,but    
such appears to be the real import of   
the objection2 and1 as such1 it involves
 its own refutation4--,pre-,adamite     
,earth1 p4 #hc4  ,now this reasoning    
appeared1 doubtless1 very triumphant to 
the worthy ,doctor3 and yet a very      
little acquaintance with physiology     
would have taught him that he was       
enunciating an absurdity4 ,the very     
supposition which he considers as       
self-refuting1 is an indubitable        
physiological fact4 ,i have abundantly  
shown1 in the text1 that the cells which
 compose the tree or the animal are as  
undeniable evidences of past processes  
as the concentric cylinders of timber1  

or the superposed layers of bone and    
scale4  #ajc ,i here assume the         
life-history of the globe to be         
represented by a straight line1 because 
,i cannot prove it to be a circle4 ,i   
cannot even imagine its circularity4 ,i 
do not mean the possibility2--,i can    
imagine that3 but the mode ,i cannot    
conceive4 ,this1 however1 does not      
disprove the possibility4 ,if man's     
science extended not beyond the         
accumulated observations of his own     
life1 he would probably be quite        
incompetent to conceive how the         
life-history of such a tree as the ,oak 
could be a circle2 if he had never seen 
more than one individual1 which was a   
tree when he was born1 and continued to 
flourish till his death4  #ajd ,the     
existence of ,coprolites--the fossilized
 excrement of animals--has been         
considered a more than ordinarily       
triumphant proof of real pre-existence4 
,would it not be closely parallel with  
the presence of faeces in the intestines

 of an animal at the moment of creation8
 ,yet this appears to me demonstrable4  
,it may seem at first sight ridiculous1 
and will probably be represented so2 but
 truth is truth4 ,i have already proved 
that blood must have been in the        
arteries and veins of the newly-created 
,man 7vide p4 #bgf1 supra71 and that    
blood presupposes chyle and chyme2 but  
what became of the indigestible residuum
 of the chyme1 when the chyle was       
separated from it8 ,would it not1 as a  
matter of course1 be found in the       
intestines8 ,if the principle is true1  
that the created organism was exactly   
what it would have been had it reached  
that condition by the ordinary course of
 nature1 then faecal residua must have  
been in the intestines as certainly as  
chyle in the lacteals1 or blood in the  
capillaries4  #aje ,blackwood2 ,april1  
#ahdi2 p4 #dab4  #ajf ,strictly         
speaking1 the current is a lagging      
behind of the water1 which cannot keep  
pace with the speed communicated to the 

solid crust of the globe at its         
equatorial regions4 ,the trade-wind is  
owing to the same cause4  #ajg ,philos4 
,trans4 for #ahjb2 p4 #dih4  #ajh       
,beitrage1 p4 #aeb4  #aji ,dr4 ,a4      
,braun1 ,on the ,veg4 ,indiv4  #aaj ,see
 ante1 p4 #bcc4  #aaa ,fauna ,littor4   
,norveg42 i4 #dg4          99       99  
99       99       99  ,,marine          
,,natural ,,history ,,class4   ,in the  
summer of #ahee1 ,i met1 at ,ilfracombe1
 on the coast of ,north ,devon1 a small 
party of ladies and gentlemen1 who      
formed themselves into a ,class for the 
study of ,marine ,natural ,history4     
,there was much to be done in the way of
 collecting1 much to be learned in the  
way of study4 ,not a few species of     
interest1 and some rarities1 fell under 
our notice1 scattered as we were over   
the rocks1 and peeping into the pools1  
almost every day for a month4 ,then the 
prizes were to be brought home1 and kept
 in little ,aquariums for the study of  
their habits1 their beauties to be      

investigated by the pocket-lens1 and the
 minuter kinds to be examined under the 
microscope4 ,an hour or two was spent on
 the shore every day on which the tide  
and the weather were suitable2 and1 when
 otherwise1 the occupation was varied by
 an indoors' lesson1 on identifying and 
comparing the characters of the animals 
obtained1 the specimens themselves      
affording illustrations4 ,thus the two  
great desiderata of young naturalists   
were attained simultaneously2 they      
learned at the same time how to collect1
 and how to determine the names and the 
zoological relations of the specimens   
when found4  ,a little also was effected
 in the way of dredging the sea-bottom1 
and in surface-fishing for ,medusae1 c42
 but our chief attention was directed to
 shore-collecting4 ,altogether1 the     
experiment was found so agreeable1 that 
,i propose to repeat it by forming a    
similar party every year1 if spared1 at 
some suitable part of the coast4  ,such 
ladies or gentlemen as may wish to join 

the ,class should give in their names to
 me1 early in the summer2 and any       
preliminary inquiries about plans1      
terms1 c4 shall meet the requisite      
attention4  ,p4 ,h4 ,,gosse4            
,,marychurch1 ,,torquay1 ,oct4 #aheg4