material from the ,google ,print project47 ,illustration3 ,,dr4 ,,montessori ,,giving ,a ,,lesson ,,in ,,touching ,,geometrical ,,insets ,,the ,,montessori ,,method ,,scientific ,,pedagogy ,,as ,,applied ,,to ,,child ,,education ,,in ,,the ,,children',s ,,houses ,,with ,,additions ,,and ,,revisions ,,by ,,the ,,author ,,by ,,maria ,,montessori ,,translated ,,from ,,the ,,italian ,,by ,,anne ,e4 ,,george ,,with ,,an ,,introduction ,,by ,,professor ,,henry ,w4 ,,holmes ,,of ,,harvard ,,university ,,with ,,thirty-,,two ,,illustrations ,,from ,,photographs ,,new ,,york ,,frederick ,a4 ,,stokes ,,company ,,mcmxii ,copyright1 #aiab1 by ,,frederick ,a4 ,,stokes ,,company ,all rights reserved1 including that of translation into foreign languages1 including the ,scandinavian ,i place at the beginning of this volume1 now appearing in the ,united ,states1 her fatherland1 the dear name of ,,alice ,,hallgarten of ,new ,york1 who by her marriage to ,baron ,leopold ,franchetti became by choice our compatriot4 ,ever a firm believer in the principles underlying the ,case dei ,bambini1 she1 with her husband1 forwarded the publication of this book in ,italy1 and1 throughout the last years of her short life1 greatly desired the ,english translation which should introduce to the land of her birth the work so near her heart4 ,to her memory ,i dedicate this book1 whose pages1 like an ever-living flower1 perpetuate the recollection of her beneficence4 ,,acknowledgments ,grateful acknowledgment is made to ,mrs4 ,guy ,baring1 of ,london1 for the loan of her manuscript translation of ,pedagogia ,scientifica2 to ,mrs4 ,john ,r4 ,fisher 7,dorothy ,canfield7 for translating a large part of the new work written by ,dr4 ,montessori for the ,american ,edition2 and to ,the ,house of ,childhood1 ,inc41 ,new ,york1 for use of the illustrations of the didactic apparatus4 ,dr4 ,montessori's patent rights in the apparatus are controlled1 for the ,united ,states and ,canada1 by ,the ,house of ,childhood1 ,inc4 ,,the ,,publishers4 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,american ,,edition ,in ,february1 #aiaa1 ,professor ,henry ,w4 ,holmes1 of the ,division of ,education of ,harvard ,university1 did me the honour to suggest that an ,english translation be made of my ,italian volume1 ,il ,metodo della ,pedagogia ,scientifica applicato all' educazione infantile nelle ,case dei ,bambini4 ,this suggestion represented one of the greatest events in the history of my educational work4 ,to-day1 that to which ,i then looked forward as an unusual privilege has become an accomplished fact4 ,the ,italian edition of ,il ,metodo della ,pedagogia ,scientifica had no preface1 because the book itself ,i consider nothing more than the preface to a more comprehensive work1 the aim and extent of which it only indicates4 ,for the educational method for children of from three to six years set forth here is but the earnest of a work that1 developing the same principle and method1 shall cover in a like manner the successive stages of education4 ,moreover1 the method which obtains in the ,case dei ,bambini offers1 it seems to me1 an experimental field for the study of man1 and promises1 perhaps1 the development of a science that shall disclose other secrets of nature4 ,in the period that has elapsed between the publication of the ,italian and ,american editions1 ,i have had1 with my pupils1 the opportunity to simplify and render more exact certain practical details of the method1 and to gather additional observations concerning discipline4 ,the results attest the vitality of the method and the necessity for an extended scientific collaboration in the near future1 and are embodied in two new chapters written for the ,american edition4 ,i know that my method has been widely spoken of in ,america1 thanks to ,mr4 ,s4 ,s4 ,mc,clure1 who has presented it through the pages of his well-known magazine4 ,indeed1 many ,americans have already come to ,rome for the purpose of observing personally the practical application of the method in my little schools4 ,if1 encouraged by this movement1 ,i may express a hope for the future1 it is that my work in ,rome shall become the centre of an efficient and helpful collaboration4 ,to the ,harvard professors who have made my work known in ,america and to ,mc,clure's ,magazine1 a mere acknowledgment of what ,i owe them is a barren response2 but it is my hope that the method itself1 in its effect upon the children of ,america1 may prove an adequate expression of my gratitude4 ,,maria ,,montessori4 ,,rome1 #aiab4 ,,contents ,,page ,,acknowledgments ,v ,,the ,,american ,,edition ,,vii ,,introduction ,,xvii ,,chapter ,i ,a ,,critical ,,consideration ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,pedagogy ,,in ,,its ,,relation ,,to ,,modern ,,science ,influence of ,modern ,science upon ,pedagogy #a ,italy's part in the development of ,scientific ,pedagogy #d ,difference between scientific technique and the scientific spirit #g ,direction of the preparation should be toward the spirit rather than toward the mechanism #i ,the master to study man in the awakening of his intellectual life #ab ,attitude of the teacher in the light of another example #ac ,the school must permit the free natural manifestations of the child if in the school ,scientific ,pedagogy is to be born #ae ,stationary desks and chairs proof that the principle of slavery still informs the school #af ,conquest of liberty1 what the school needs #ai ,what may happen to the spirit #bj ,prizes and punishments1 the bench of the soul #ba ,all human victories1 all human progress1 stand upon the inner force #bd ,,chapter ,,ii ,,history ,,of ,,methods ,necessity of establishing the method peculiar to ,scientific ,pedagogy #bh ,origin of educational system in use in the ,children's ,houses #ca ,practical application of the methods of ,itard and ,seguin in the ,orthophrenic ,school at ,rome #cb ,origin of the methods for the education of deficients #cc ,application of the methods in ,germany and ,france #ce ,seguin's first didactic material was spiritual #cg ,methods for deficients applied to the education of normal children #db ,social and pedagogic importance of the ,children's ,houses #dd ,,chapter ,,iii ,,inaugural ,,address ,,delivered ,,on ,,the ,,occasion ,,of ,,the ,,opening ,,of ,,one ,,of ,,the ,,children',s ,,houses ,the ,quarter of ,san ,lorenzo before and since the establishment of the ,children's ,houses #dh ,evil of subletting the most cruel form of usury #ej ,the problem of life more profound than that of the intellectual elevation of the poor #eb ,isolation of the masses of the poor1 unknown to past centuries #ec ,work of the ,roman ,association of ,good ,building and the moral importance of their reforms #ef ,the ,children's ,house earned by the parents through their care of the building #fj ,pedagogical organization of the ,children's ,house #fb ,the ,children's ,house the first step toward the socialisation of the house #fe ,the communised house in its relation to the home and to the spiritual evolution of women #ff ,rules and regulations of the ,children's ,houses #gj ,,chapter ,,iv ,,pedagogical ,,methods ,,used ,,in ,,the ,,children',s ,,houses ,child psychology can be established only through the method of external observation #gb ,anthropological consideration #gc ,anthropological notes #gg ,environment and schoolroom furnishings #hj ,,chapter ,v ,,discipline ,discipline through liberty #hf ,independence #ie ,abolition of prizes and external forms of punishment #aja ,biological concept of liberty in pedagogy #ajd ,,chapter ,,vi ,,how ,,the ,,lesson ,,should ,,be ,,given ,characteristics of the individual lessons #ajg ,method of observation the fundamental guide #ajh ,difference between the scientific and unscientific methods illustrated #aji ,first task of educators to stimulate life1 leaving it then free to develop #aae ,,chapter ,,vii ,,exercises ,,of ,,practical ,,life ,suggested schedule for the ,children's ,houses #aai ,the child must be prepared for the forms of social life and his attention attracted to these forms #aba ,cleanliness1 order1 poise1 conversation #abb ,,chapter ,,viii ,,refection--,,the ,,child',s ,,diet ,diet must be adapted to the child's physical nature #abe ,foods and their preparation #abf ,drinks #acb ,distribution of meals #acc ,,chapter ,,ix ,,muscular ,,education--,,gymnastics ,generally accepted idea of gymnastics is inadequate #acg ,the special gymnastics necessary for little children #ach ,other pieces of gymnastic apparatus #ada ,free gymnastics #add ,educational gymnastics #add ,respiratory gymnastics1 and labial1 dental1 and lingual gymnastics #adg ,,chapter ,x ,,nature ,,in ,,education--,,agricultural ,,labour3 ,,culture ,,of ,,plants ,,and ,,animals ,the savage of the ,aveyron #adi ,itard's educative drama repented in the education of little children #aec ,gardening and horticulture basis of a method for education of children #aee ,the child initiated into observation of the phenomena of life and into foresight by way of auto-education #aef ,children are initiated into the virtue of patience and into confident expectation1 and are inspired with a feeling for nature #aei ,the child follows the natural way of development of the human race #afj ,,chapter ,,xi ,,manual ,,labour--,,the ,,potter',s ,,art1 ,,and ,,building ,difference between manual labour and manual gymnastics #afb ,the ,school of ,educative ,art #afc ,archaeological1 historical1 and artistic importance of the vase #afd ,manufacture of diminutive bricks and construction of diminutive walls and houses #afe ,,chapter ,,xii ,,education ,,of ,,the ,,senses ,aim of education to develop the energies #afh ,difference in the reaction between deficient and normal children in the presentation of didactic material made up of graded stimuli #afi ,education of the senses has as its aim the refinement of the differential perception of stimuli by means of repeated exercises #agc ,three ,periods of ,seguin #agg ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,education ,,of ,,the ,,senses ,,and ,,illustrations ,,of ,,the ,,didactic ,,material3 ,,general ,,sensibility3 ,,the ,,tactile1 ,,thermic1 ,,baric ,,and ,,stereognostic ,,senses ,education of the tactile1 thermic and baric senses #ahe ,education of the stereognostic sense #ahh ,education of the senses of taste and smell #aij ,education of the sense of vision #aia ,exercises with the three series of cards #aii ,education of the chromatic sense #bjj ,exercise for the discrimination of sounds #bjc ,musical education #bjf ,tests for acuteness of hearing #bji ,a lesson in silence #bab ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,general ,,notes ,,on ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,the ,,senses ,aim in education biological and social #bae ,education of the senses makes men observers and prepares them directly for practical life #bah ,,chapter ,,xv ,,intellectual ,,education ,sense exercises a species of auto-education #bbd ,importance of an exact nomenclature1 and how to teach it #bbe ,spontaneous progress of the child the greatest triumph of ,scientific ,pedagogy #bbh ,games of the blind #bca ,application of the visual sense to the observation of environment #bcb ,method of using didactic material3 dimensions1 form1 design #bcc ,free plastic work #bda ,geometric analysis of figures #bdc ,exercises in the chromatic sense #bdd ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,method ,,for ,,the ,,teaching ,,of ,,reading ,,and ,,writing ,spontaneous development of graphic language3 ,seguin and ,itard #bdf ,necessity of a special education that shall fit man for objective observation and direct logical thought #beb ,results of objective observation and logical thought #bec ,not necessary to begin teaching writing with vertical strokes #beg ,spontaneous drawing of normal children #beh ,use of ,froebel mats in teaching children sewing #bfj ,children should be taught how before they are made to execute a task #bfa ,two diverse forms of movement made in writing #bfb ,experiments with normal children #bfg ,origin of alphabets in present use #bfi ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,method ,,and ,,didactic ,,material ,,used ,exercise tending to develop the muscular mechanism necessary in holding and using the instrument in writing #bga ,didactic material for writing #bga ,exercise tending to establish the visual-muscular image of the alphabetical signs1 and to establish the muscular memory of the movements necessary to writing #bge ,exercises for the composition of words #bha ,reading1 the interpretation of an idea from written signs #bif ,games for the reading of words #bii ,games for the reading of phrases #cjc ,point education has reached in the ,children's ,houses #cjg ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,language ,,of ,,childhood ,physiological importance of graphic language #caj ,two periods in the development of language #cab ,analysis of speech necessary #cai ,defects of language due to education #cbb ,,chapter ,,xix ,,teaching ,,of ,,numeration3 ,,introduction ,,to ,,arithmetic ,numbers as represented by graphic signs #cbh ,exercises for the memory of numbers #ccj ,addition and subtraction from one to twenty3 multiplication and division #ccb ,lessons on decimals3 arithmetical calculations beyond ten #cce ,,chapter ,,xx ,,sequence ,,of ,,exercises ,sequence and grades in the presentation of material and in the exercises #cch ,first grade #cch ,second grade #cci ,third grade #cdb ,fourth grade #cdc ,fifth grade #cde ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,general ,,review ,,of ,,discipline ,discipline better than in ordinary schools #cdf ,first dawning of discipline comes through work #cej ,orderly action is the true rest for muscles intended by nature for action #ced ,the exercise that develops life consists in the repetition1 not in the mere grasp of the idea #ceh ,aim of repetition that the child shall refine his senses through the exercise of attention1 of comparison1 of judgment #cfj ,obedience is naturally sacrifice #cfc ,obedience develops will-power and the capacity to perform the act it becomes necessary to obey #cfg ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,conclusions ,,and ,,impressions ,the teacher has become the director of spontaneous work in the ,children's ,houses #cga ,the problems of religious education should be solved by positive pedagogy #cgb ,spiritual influence of the ,children's ,houses #cgf ,,illustrations ,dr4 ,montessori giving a lesson in touching geometrical insets ,frontispiece ,,facing ,,page ,dr4 ,montessori in the garden of the school at ,via ,giusti #add ,children learning to button and lace4 ,ribbon and button frames #ade ,children playing a game with tablets of coloured silk #ahf ,girl touching a letter and boy telling objects by weight #ahg ,pupils arranging colours in chromatic order #ahg ,didactic apparatus to teach differentiation of objects #aij ,blocks by which children are taught thickness1 length and size #aia ,geometric insets to teach form #aid ,geometric insets and cabinet #aie ,cards used in teaching form and contour #aif ,frames illustrating lacing2 shoe buttoning2 buttoning of other garments2 hooks and eyes #bjj ,tablets with silk1 for educating the chromatic sense #bja ,didactic apparatus for training the sense of touch1 and for teaching writing #bhb ,children touching letters and making words with cardboard script #bhc ,montessori children eating dinner #cdh ,school at ,tarrytown1 ,n4 ,y4 #cdi ,,introduction ,an audience already thoroughly interested awaits this translation of a remarkable book4 ,for years no educational document has been so eagerly expected by so large a public1 and not many have better merited general anticipation4 ,that this widespread interest exists is due to the enthusiastic and ingenious articles in ,mc,clure's ,magazine for ,may and ,december1 #aiaa1 and ,january1 #aiab2 but before the first of these articles appeared a number of ,english and ,american teachers had given careful study to ,dr4 ,montessori's work1 and had found it novel and important4 ,the astonishing welcome accorded to the first popular expositions of the ,montessori system may mean much or little for its future in ,england and ,america2 it is rather the earlier approval of a few trained teachers and professional students that commends it to the educational workers who must ultimately decide upon its value1 interpret its technicalities to the country at large1 and adapt it to ,english and ,american conditions4 ,to them as well as to the general public this brief critical ,introduction is addressed4 ,it is wholly within the bounds of safe judgment to call ,dr4 ,montessori's work remarkable1 novel1 and important4 ,it is remarkable1 if for no other reason1 because it represents the constructive effort of a woman4 ,we have no other example of an educational system--original at least in its systematic wholeness and in its practical application--worked out and inaugurated by the feminine mind and hand4 ,it is remarkable1 also1 because it springs from a combination of womanly sympathy and intuition1 broad social outlook1 scientific training1 intensive and long-continued study of educational problems1 and1 to crown all1 varied and unusual experience as a teacher and educational leader4 ,no other woman who has dealt with ,dr4 ,montessori's problem--the education of young children--has brought to it personal resources so richly diverse as hers4 ,these resources1 furthermore1 she has devoted to her work with an enthusiasm1 an absolute abandon1 like that of ,pestalozzi and ,froebel1 and she presents her convictions with an apostolic ardour which commands attention4 ,a system which embodies such a capital of human effort could not be unimportant4 ,then1 too1 certain aspects of the system are in themselves striking and significant3 it adapts to the education of normal children methods and apparatus originally used for deficients2 it is based on a radical conception of liberty for the pupil2 it entails a highly formal training of separate sensory1 motor1 and mental capacities2 and it leads to rapid1 easy1 and substantial mastery of the elements of reading1 writing1 and arithmetic4 ,all this will be apparent to the most casual reader of this book4 ,none of these things1 to be sure1 is absolutely new in the educational world4 ,all have been proposed in theory2 some have been put more or less completely into practice4 ,it is not unjust1 for instance1 to point out that much of the material used by ,dr4 ,walter ,s4 ,fernald1 ,superintendent of the ,massachusetts ,institution for the ,feeble-,minded at ,waverley1 is almost identical with the ,montessori material1 and that ,dr4 ,fernald has long maintained that it could be used to good effect in the education of normal children4 7,it may interest ,american readers to know that ,seguin1 on whose work that of ,dr4 ,montessori is based1 was once head of the school at ,waverley47 ,so1 too1 formal training in various psycho-physical processes has been much urged of late by a good many workers in experimental pedagogy1 especially by ,meumann4 ,but before ,montessori1 no one had produced a system in which the elements named above were combined4 ,she conceived it1 elaborated it in practice1 and established it in schools4 ,it is indeed the final result1 as ,dr4 ,montessori proudly asserts1 of years of experimental effort both on her own part and on the part of her great predecessors2 but the crystallisation of these experiments in a programme of education for normal children is due to ,dr4 ,montessori alone4 ,the incidental features which she has frankly taken over from other modern educators she has chosen because they fit into the fundamental form of her own scheme1 and she has unified them all in her general conception of method4 ,the system is not original in the sense in which ,froebel's system was original2 but as a system it is the novel product of a single woman's creative genius4 ,as such1 no student of elementary education ought to ignore it4 ,the system doubtless fails to solve all the problems in the education of young children2 possibly some of the solutions it proposes are partly or completely mistaken2 some are probably unavailable in ,english and ,american schools2 but a system of education does not have to attain perfection in order to merit study1 investigation1 and experimental use4 ,dr4 ,montessori is too large-minded to claim infallibility1 and too thoroughly scientific in her attitude to object to careful scrutiny of her scheme and the thorough testing of its results4 ,she expressly states that it is not yet complete4 ,practically1 it is highly probable that the system ultimately adopted in our schools will combine elements of the ,montessori programme with elements of the kindergarten programme1 both liberal and conservative4 ,in its actual procedure school work must always be thus eclectic4 ,an all-or-nothing policy for a single system inevitably courts defeat2 for the public is not interested in systems as systems1 and refuses in the end to believe that any one system contains every good thing4 ,nor can we doubt that this attitude is essentially sound4 ,if we continue1 despite the pragmatists1 to believe in absolute principles1 we may yet remain skeptical about the logic of their reduction to practice--at least in any fixed programme of education4 ,we are not yet justified1 at any rate1 in adopting one programme to the exclusion of every other simply because it is based on the most intelligible or the most inspiring philosophy4 ,the pragmatic test must also be applied1 and rigorously4 ,we must try out several combinations1 watch and record the results1 compare them1 and proceed cautiously to new experiments4 ,this procedure is desirable for every stage and grade of education1 but especially for the earliest stage1 because there it has been least attempted and is most difficult4 ,certainly a system so radical1 so clearly defined1 and so well developed as that of ,dr4 ,montessori offers for the thoroughgoing comparative study of methods in early education new material of exceptional importance4 ,without accepting every detail of the system1 without even accepting unqualifiedly its fundamental principles1 one may welcome it1 thus1 as of great and immediate value4 ,if early education is worth studying at all1 the educator who devotes his attention to it will find it necessary to define the differences in principle between the ,montessori programme and other programmes1 and to carry out careful tests of the results obtainable from the various systems and their feasible combinations4 ,one such combination this ,introduction will suggest1 and it will discuss also the possible uses of the ,montessori apparatus in the home2 but it may be helpful first to present the outstanding characteristics of the ,montessori system as compared with the modern kindergarten in its two main forms4 ,certain similarities in principle are soon apparent4 ,dr4 ,montessori's views of childhood are in some respects identical with those of ,froebel1 although in general decidedly more radical4 ,both defend the child's right to be active1 to explore his environment and develop his own inner resources through every form of investigation and creative effort4 ,education is to guide activity1 not repress it4 ,environment cannot create human power1 but only give it scope and material1 direct it1 or at most but call it forth2 and the teacher's task is first to nourish and assist1 to watch1 encourage1 guide1 induce1 rather than to interfere1 prescribe1 or restrict4 ,to most ,american teachers and to all kindergartners this principle has long been familiar2 they will but welcome now a new and eloquent statement of it from a modern viewpoint4 ,in the practical interpretation of the principle1 however1 there is decided divergence between the ,montessori school and the kindergarten4 ,the ,montessori directress does not teach children in groups1 with the practical requirement1 no matter how well mediated1 that each member of the group shall join in the exercise4 ,the ,montessori pupil does about as he pleases1 so long as he does not do any harm4 ,montessori and ,froebel stand in agreement also on the need for training of the senses2 but ,montessori's scheme for this training is at once more elaborate and more direct than ,froebel's4 ,she has devised out of ,seguin's apparatus a comprehensive and scientific scheme for formal gymnastic of the senses2 ,froebel originated a series of objects designed for a much broader and more creative use by the children1 but by no means so closely adapted to the training of sensory discrimination4 ,the ,montessori material carries out the fundamental principle of ,pestalozzi1 which he tried in vain to embody in a successful system of his own3 it develops piece by piece the pupil's mental capacities by training separately1 through repeated exercises1 his several senses and his ability to distinguish1 compare1 and handle typical objects4 ,in the kindergarten system1 and particularly in the liberal modifications of it1 sense training is incidental to constructive and imaginative activity in which the children are pursuing larger ends than the mere arrangement of forms or colours4 ,even in the most formal work in kindergarten design the children are making a picture1 and are encouraged to tell what it looks like--a star1 a kite1 a flower4 ,as to physical education1 the two systems agree in much the same way3 both affirm the need for free bodily activity1 for rhythmic exercises1 and for the development of muscular control2 but whereas the kindergarten seeks much of all this through group games with an imaginative or social content1 the ,montessori scheme places the emphasis on special exercises designed to give formal training in separate physical functions4 ,in another general aspect1 however1 the agreement between the two systems1 strong in principle1 leaves the ,montessori system less formal rather than more formal in practice4 ,the principle in this case consists of the affirmation of the child's need for social training4 ,in the conservative kindergarten this training is sought once more1 largely in group games4 ,these are usually imaginative1 and sometimes decidedly symbolic3 that is1 the children play at being farmers1 millers1 shoemakers1 mothers and fathers1 birds1 animals1 knights1 or soldiers2 they sing songs1 go through certain semi-dramatic activities--such as opening the pigeon house1 mowing the grass1 showing the good child to the knights1 and the like2 and each takes his part in the representation of some typical social situation4 ,the social training involved in these games is formal only in the sense that the children are not engaged1 as the ,montessori children often are1 in a real social enterprise1 such as that of serving dinner1 cleaning the room1 caring for animals1 building a toy house1 or making a garden4 ,it cannot be too strongly emphasized that even the most conservative kindergarten does not1 on principle1 exclude real enterprises of this latter sort2 but in a three-hour session it does rather little with them4 ,liberal kindergartens do more1 particularly in ,europe1 where the session is often longer4 ,nor does the ,montessori system wholly exclude imaginative group games4 ,but ,dr4 ,montessori1 despite an evidently profound interest not only in social training1 but also in aesthetic1 idealistic1 and even religious development1 speaks of games and foolish stories in a casual and derogatory way1 which shows that she is as yet unfamiliar with the ,american kindergartner's remarkable skill and power in the use of these resources4 7,of course the ,american kindergartner does not use foolish stories2 but stories she does use1 and to good effect47 ,the ,montessori programme involves much direct social experience1 both in the general life of the school and in the manual work done by the pupils2 the kindergarten extends the range of the child's social consciousness through the imagination4 ,the groupings of the ,montessori children are largely free and unregulated2 the groupings of kindergarten children are more often formal and prescribed4 ,on one point the ,montessori system agrees with the conservative kindergarten1 but not with the liberal3 it prepares directly for the mastery of the school arts4 ,there can be no doubt that ,dr4 ,montessori has devised a peculiarly successful scheme for teaching children to write1 an effective method for the introduction of reading1 and good material for early number work4 ,both types of kindergarten increase1 to be sure1 the child's general capacity for expression3 kindergarten activity adds to his stock of ideas1 awakens and guides his imagination1 increases his vocabulary1 and trains him in the effective use of it4 ,children in a good kindergarten hear stories and tell them1 recount their own experiences1 sing songs1 and recite verses1 all in a company of friendly but fairly critical listeners1 which does even more to stimulate and guide expression than does the circle at home4 ,but even the conservative kindergarten does not teach children to write and to read4 ,it does teach them a good deal about number2 and it may fairly be questioned whether it does not do more fundamental work in this field than the ,montessori system itself4 ,the ,froebelian gifts offer exceptional opportunity for concrete illustration of the conceptions of whole and part1 through the creation of wholes from parts1 and the breaking up of wholes into parts4 ,this aspect of number is at least as important as the series aspect1 which children get in counting and for which the ,montessori ,long ,stair provides such good material4 ,the ,froebelian material may be used very readily for counting1 however1 and the ,montessori material gives some slight opportunity for uniting and dividing4 ,so far as preparation for arithmetic is concerned1 a combination of the two bodies of material is both feasible and desirable4 ,the liberal kindergarten1 meanwhile1 abandoning the use of the gifts and occupations for mathematical purposes1 makes no attempt to prepare its pupils directly for the school arts4 ,compared with the kindergarten1 then1 the ,montessori system presents these main points of interest3 it carries out far more radically the principle of unrestricted liberty2 its materials are intended for the direct and formal training of the senses2 it includes apparatus designed to aid in the purely physical development of the children2 its social training is carried out mainly by means of present and actual social activities2 and it affords direct preparation for the school arts4 ,the kindergarten1 on the other hand1 involves a certain amount of group-teaching1 in which children are held--not necessarily by the enforcement of authority1 yet by authority1 confessedly1 when other means fail--to definite activities2 its materials are intended primarily for creative use by the children and offer opportunity for mathematical analysis and the teaching of design2 and its procedure is rich in resources for the imagination4 ,one thing should be made entirely clear and emphatic3 in none of these characteristics are the two systems rigidly antagonistic4 ,much kindergarten activity is free1 and the principle of prescription is not wholly given over by the ,houses of ,childhood--witness their ,rules and ,regulations2 the kindergarten involves direct sense training1 and the ,montessori system admits some of the ,froebel blocks for building and design2 there are many purely muscular activities in the kindergarten1 and some of the usual kindergarten games are used by ,montessori2 the kindergarten conducts some gardening1 care of animals1 construction-work1 and domestic business1 and the ,montessori system admits a few imaginative social plays2 both systems 7but not the liberal form of the kindergarten7 work directly toward the school arts4 ,since the difference between the two programmes is one of arrangement1 emphasis1 and degree1 there is no fundamental reason why a combination especially adapted to ,english and ,american schools cannot be worked out4 ,the broad contrast between a ,montessori school and a kindergarten appears on actual observation to be this3 whereas the ,montessori children spend almost all their time handling things1 largely according to their individual inclination and under individual guidance1 kindergarten children are generally engaged in group work and games with an imaginative background and appeal4 ,a possible principle of adjustment between the two systems might be stated thus3 work with objects designed for formal sensory1 motor1 and intellectual training should be done individually or in purely voluntary groups2 imaginative and social activity should be carried on in regulated groups4 ,this principle is suggested only as a possible basis for education during the kindergarten age2 for as children grow older they must be taught in classes1 and they naturally learn how to carry out imaginative and social enterprises in free groups1 and the former often alone4 ,nor should it be supposed that the principle is suggested as a rule to which there can be no exception4 ,it is suggested simply as a general working hypothesis1 the value of which must be tested in experience4 ,although it has long been observed by kindergartners themselves that group-work with the ,froebelian materials1 especially such work as involves geometrical analysis and formal design1 soon tires the children1 it has been held that the kindergartner could safeguard her pupils from loss of interest or real fatigue by watching carefully for the first signs of weariness and stopping the work promptly on their appearance4 ,for small groups of the older children1 who can do work of this sort with ease and enjoyment1 no doubt the inevitable restraint of group teaching is a negligible factor1 the fatiguing effects of which any good kindergartner can forestall4 ,but for younger children a regime of complete freedom would seem to promise better results--at least so far as work with objects is concerned4 ,in games1 on the other hand1 group teaching means very little restraint and the whole process is less tiring any way4 ,to differentiate in method between these two kinds of activity may be the best way to keep them both in an effective educational programme4 ,to speak of an effective educational programme leads at once1 however1 to an important aspect of the ,montessori system1 quite aside from its relation to the kindergarten1 with which this ,introduction must now deal4 ,this is the social aspect1 which finds its explanation in ,dr4 ,montessori's own story of her first school4 ,in any discussion of the availability of the ,montessori system in ,english and ,american schools--particularly in ,american public schools and ,english ,board schools--two general conditions under which ,dr4 ,montessori did her early work in ,rome should be borne in mind4 ,she had her pupils almost all day long1 practically controlling their lives in their waking hours2 and her pupils came for the most part from families of the laboring class4 ,we cannot expect to achieve the results ,dr4 ,montessori has achieved if we have our pupils under our guidance only two or three hours in the morning1 nor can we expect exactly similar results from children whose heredity and experience make them at once more sensitive1 more active1 and less amenable to suggestion than hers4 ,if we are to make practical application of the ,montessori scheme we must not neglect to consider the modifications of it which differing social conditions may render necessary4 ,the conditions under which ,dr4 ,montessori started her original school in ,rome do not1 indeed1 lack counterpart in large cities the world over4 ,when one reads her eloquent ,inaugural ,address it is impossible not to wish that a ,school within the ,home might stand as a centre of hopeful child life in the midst of every close-built city block4 ,better1 of course1 if there were no hive-like city tenements at all1 and if every family could give to its own children on its own premises enough of happy play in grassy places4 ,better if every mother and father were in certain ways an expert in child psychology and hygiene4 ,but while so many unfortunate thousands still live in the hateful cliff-dwellings of our modern cities1 we must welcome ,dr4 ,montessori's large conception of the social function of her ,houses of ,childhood as a new gospel for the schools which serve the city poor4 ,no matter what didactic apparatus such schools may use1 they should learn of ,dr4 ,montessori the need of longer hours1 complete care of the children1 closer co-operation with the home1 and larger aims4 ,in such schools1 too1 it is probable that the two fundamental features of ,dr4 ,montessori's work--her principle of liberty and her scheme for sense training--will find their completest and most fruitful application4 ,it is just these fundamental features1 however1 which will be most bitterly attacked whenever the social status of the original ,casa dei ,bambini is forgotten4 ,anthropometric measurements1 baths1 training in personal self-care1 the serving of meals1 gardening1 and the care of animals we may hear sweepingly recommended for all schools1 even for those with a three-hour session and a socially favored class of pupils2 but the need for individual liberty and for the training of the senses will be denied even in the work of schools where the conditions correspond closely to those at ,san ,lorenzo4 ,of course no practical educator will actually propose bathtubs for all schools1 and no doubt there will be plenty of wise conservatism about transferring to a given school any function now well discharged by the homes that support it4 ,the problems raised by the proposal to apply in all schools the ,montessori conception of discipline and the ,montessori sense-training are really more difficult to solve4 ,is individual liberty a universal educational principle1 or a principle which must be modified in the case of a school with no such social status as that of the original ,house of ,childhood8 ,do all children need sense training1 or only those of unfavorable inheritance and home environment8 ,no serious discussion of the ,montessori system can avoid these questions4 ,what is said in answer to them here is written in the hope that subsequent discussion may be somewhat influenced to keep in view the really deciding factor in each case--the actual situation in the school4 ,there is occasion enough in these questions1 to be sure1 for philosophical and scientific argument4 ,the first question involves an ethical issue1 the second a psychological issue1 and both may be followed through to purely metaphysical issues4 ,dr4 ,montessori believes in liberty for the pupil because she thinks of life as a superb goddess1 ever advancing to new conquests4 ,submission1 loyalty1 self-sacrifice seem to her1 apparently1 only incidental necessities of life1 not essential elements of its eternal form4 ,there is obvious opportunity here for profound difference of philosophic theory and belief4 ,she seems to hold1 too1 that sense perception forms the sole basis for the mental and hence for the moral life2 that sense training will prepare the ordered foundation upon which the child may build up a clear and strong mentality1 including1 apparently1 his moral ideals2 and that the cultivation of purpose and of the imaginative and creative capacities of children is far less important than the development of the power to learn from the environment by means of the senses4 ,these views seem to agree rather closely with those of ,herbart and to some extent with those of ,locke4 ,certainly they offer material for both psychological and ethical debate4 ,possibly1 however1 ,dr4 ,montessori would not accept the views here ascribed to her on the evidence of this book2 and in any case these are matters for the philosopher and the psychologist4 ,a pedagogical issue is never wholly an issue of high principle4 ,can it reasonably be maintained1 then1 that an actual situation like that in the first ,house of ,childhood at ,rome is the only situation in which the ,montessori principle of liberty can justifiably find full application8 ,evidently the ,roman school is a true ,republic of ,childhood1 in which nothing need take precedence of the child's claim to pursue an active purpose of his own4 ,social restraints are here reduced to a minimum2 the children must1 to be sure1 subordinate individual caprice to the demands of the common good1 they are not allowed to quarrel or to interfere with each other1 and they have duties to perform at stated times2 but each child is a citizen in a community governed wholly in the interests of the equally privileged members thereof1 his liberty is rarely interfered with1 he is free to carry out his own purposes1 and he has as much influence in the affairs of the commonwealth as the average member of an adult democracy4 ,this situation is never duplicated in the home1 for a child is not only a member of the family1 whose interests are to be considered with the rest1 but literally a subordinate member1 whose interests must often be frankly set aside for those of an adult member or for those of the household itself4 ,children must come to dinner at dinner time1 even if continued digging in the sand would be more to their liking or better for their general development of muscle1 mind1 or will4 ,it is possible1 of course1 to refine on the theory of the child's membership in the family community and of the right of elders to command1 but practically it remains true that the common conditions of family life prohibit any such freedom as is exercised in a ,montessori school4 ,in the same way a school of large enrollment that elects to cover in a given time so much work that individual initiative cannot be trusted to compass it1 is forced to teach certain things at nine o'clock and others at ten1 and to teach in groups2 and the individual whose life is thus cabined and confined must get what he can4 ,for a given school the obvious question is1 ,considering the work to be done in the time allowed1 can we give up the safeguards of a fixed programme and group teaching8 ,the deeper question lies here3 ,is the work to be done in itself so important that it is worth while to have the children go through it under compulsion or on interest induced by the teacher8 ,or to put it another way3 ,may not the work be so much less important than the child's freedom that we had better trust to native curiosity and cleverly devised materials anyway and run the risk of his losing part of the work1 or even the whole of it8 ,for schools beyond the primary grade there will be no doubt as to the answer to this question4 ,there are many ways in which school work may safely be kept from being the deadening and depressing process it so often is1 but the giving up of all fixed and limited schedules and the prescriptions of class teaching is not one of them4 ,even if complete liberty of individual action were possible in schools of higher grade1 it is not certain that it would be desirable3 for we must learn to take up many of our purposes in life under social imperative4 ,but with young children the question becomes more difficult4 ,what work do we wish to make sure that each child does8 ,if our schools can keep but half a day1 is there time enough for every child to cover this work without group teaching at stated times8 ,is the prescription and restraint involved in such group teaching really enough to do the children any harm or to make our teaching less effective8 ,can we not give up prescription altogether for parts of the work and minimise it for others8 ,the general question of individual liberty is thus reduced to a series of practical problems of adjustment4 ,it is no longer a question of total liberty or no liberty at all1 but a question of the practical mediation of these extremes4 ,when we consider1 furthermore1 that the teacher's skill and the attractiveness of her personality1 the alluring power of the didactic apparatus and the ease with which it enables children to learn1 to say nothing of a cheerful and pleasant room and the absence of set desks and seats1 may all work together to prevent scheduled teaching in groups from becoming in the least an occasion for restraint1 it is plain that in any given school there may be ample justification for abating the rigour of ,dr4 ,montessori's principle of freedom4 ,every school must work out its own solution of the problem in the face of its particular conditions4 ,the adoption of sense-training would seem to be much less a matter for variable decision4 ,some children may need less than others1 but for all children between the ages of three and five the ,montessori material will prove fascinating as well as profitable4 ,a good deal of modern educational theory has been based on the belief that children are interested only in what has social value1 social content1 or real use2 yet a day with any normal child will give ample evidence of the delight that children take in purely formal exercises4 ,the sheer fascination of tucking cards under the edge of a rug will keep a baby happy until any ordinary supply of cards is exhausted2 and the wholly sensory appeal of throwing stones into the water gives satisfaction enough to absorb for a long time the attention of older children--to say nothing of grown-ups4 ,the ,montessori apparatus satisfies sense hunger when it is keen for new material1 and it has besides a puzzle-interest which children eagerly respond to4 ,dr4 ,montessori subordinates the value of the concrete mental content her material supplies to its value in rendering the senses more acute2 yet it is by no means certain that this content--purely formal as it is--does not also give the material much of its importance4 ,indeed1 the refinement of sensory discrimination may not in itself be particularly valuable4 ,what ,professor ,g4 ,m4 ,whipple says on this point in his ,manual of ,menial and ,physical ,tests 7p4 #acj7 has much weight3 ,the use of sensory tests in correlation work is particularly interesting4 ,in general1 some writers are convinced that keen discrimination is a prerequisite to keen intelligence1 while others are equally convinced that intelligence is essentially conditioned by higher processes1 and only remotely by sensory capacity--barring1 of course1 such diminution of capacity as to interfere seriously with the experiencing of sensations1 as in partial deafness or partial loss of vision4 ,while it is scarcely the place here to discuss the evolutionary significance of discriminative sensitivity1 it may be pointed out that the normal capacity is many times in excess of the actual demands of life1 and that it is consequently difficult to understand why nature has been so prolific and generous2 to understand1 in other words1 what is the sanction for the seemingly hypertrophied discriminative capacity of the human sense organs4 ,the usual teleological explanations of our sensory life fail to account for this discrepancy4 ,again1 the very fact of the existence of this surplus capacity seems to negative at the outset the notion that sensory capacity can be a conditioning factor in intelligence--with the qualification already noted4 ,it is quite possible that the real pedagogical value of the ,montessori apparatus is due to the fact that it keeps children happily engaged in the exercise of their senses and their fingers when they crave such exercise most and to the further fact that it teaches them without the least strain a good deal about forms and materials4 ,these values are not likely to be much affected by differing school conditions4 ,in the use of the material for sense-training1 ,english and ,american teachers may find profit in two general warnings4 ,first1 it should not be supposed that sense training alone will accomplish all that ,dr4 ,montessori accomplishes through the whole range of her school activities4 ,to fill up most of a morning with sense-training is to give it 7except perhaps in the case of the youngest pupils7 undue importance4 ,it is not even certain that the general use of the senses will be much affected by it1 to say nothing of the loss of opportunity for larger physical and social activity4 ,second1 the isolation of the senses should be used with some care4 ,to shut off sight is to take one step toward sleep1 and the requirement that a child concentrate his attention1 in this situation1 on the sense perceptions he gets by other means than vision must not be maintained too long4 ,no small strain is involved in mental action without the usual means of information and control4 ,the proposal1 mentioned above1 of a feasible combination of the ,montessori system and the kindergarten may now be set forth4 ,if it is put very briefly and without defense or prophecy1 it is because it is made without dogmatism1 simply in the hope that it will prove suggestive to some open-minded teacher who is willing to try out any scheme that promises well for her pupils4 ,the conditions supposed are those of the ordinary ,american public-school kindergarten1 with a two-year programme beginning with children three and a half or four years old1 a kindergarten with not too many pupils1 with a competent kindergartner and assistant kindergartner1 and with some help from training-school students4 ,the first proposal is for the use of the ,montessori material during the better part of the first year instead of the regular ,froebelian material4 ,to the use of the ,montessori devices--including the gymnastic apparatus--some of the time now devoted to pictures and stories should also be applied4 ,it is not suggested that no ,froebelian material should be used1 but that the two systems be woven into each other1 with a gradual transition from the free1 individual use of the ,montessori objects to the same sort of use of the large sizes of the ,froebel gifts1 especially the second1 third1 and fourth4 ,when the children seem to be ready for it1 a certain amount of more formal work with the gifts should be begun4 ,in the second year the ,froebelian gift work should predominate1 without absolute exclusion of the ,montessori exercises4 ,in the latter part of the second year the ,montessori exercises preparatory to writing should be introduced4 ,throughout the second year the full time for stories and picture work should be given to them1 and in both years the morning circle and the games should be carried on as usual4 ,the luncheon period should of course remain the same4 ,one part of ,dr4 ,montessori's programme the kindergartner and her assistant should use every effort to incorporate in their work--the valuable training in self-help and independent action afforded in the care of the materials and equipment by the children themselves4 ,this need not be confined to the ,montessori apparatus4 ,children who have been trained to take out1 use1 and put away the ,montessori objects until they are ready for the far richer variety of material in the ,froebelian system1 should be able to care for it also4 ,of course if there are children who can return in the afternoon1 it would be very interesting to attempt the gardening1 which both ,froebel and ,montessori recommend1 and the ,montessori vase-work4 ,for the possible scorn of those to whom all compromise is distasteful1 the author of this ,introduction seeks but one compensation--that any kindergartner who may happen to adopt his suggestion will let him study the results4 ,as to the use of the ,montessori system in the home1 one or two remarks must suffice4 ,in the first place1 parents should not expect that the mere presence of the material in the nursery will be enough to work an educational miracle4 ,a ,montessori directress does no common teaching1 but she is called upon for very skillful and very tiring effort4 ,she must watch1 assist1 inspire1 suggest1 guide1 explain1 correct1 inhibit4 ,she is supposed1 in addition1 to contribute by her work to the upbuilding of a new science of pedagogy2 but her educational efforts--and education is not an investigative and experimental effort1 but a practical and constructive one--are enough to exhaust all her time1 strength1 and ingenuity4 ,it will do no harm--except perhaps to the material itself--to have the ,montessori material at hand in the home1 but it must be used under proper guidance if it is to be educationally effective4 ,and besides1 it must not be forgotten that the material is by no means the most important feature of the ,montessori programme4 ,the best use of the ,montessori system in the home will come through the reading of this book4 ,if parents shall learn from ,dr4 ,montessori something of the value of child life1 of its need for activity1 of its characteristic modes of expression1 and of its possibilities1 and shall apply this knowledge wisely1 the work of the great ,italian educator will be successful enough4 ,this ,introduction cannot close without some discussion1 however limited1 of the important problems suggested by the ,montessori method of teaching children to write and to read4 ,we have in ,american schools admirable methods for the teaching of reading2 by the ,aldine method1 for instance1 children of fair ability read without difficulty ten or more readers in the first school year1 and advance rapidly toward independent power4 ,our instruction in writing1 however1 has never been particularly noteworthy4 ,we have been trying recently to teach children to write a flowing hand by the arm movement1 without much formation of separate letters by the fingers1 and our results seem to prove that the effort with children before the age of ten is not worth while4 ,sensible school officers are content to let children in the first four grades write largely by drawing the letters1 and there has been1 a fairly general conviction that writing is not in any case especially important before the age of eight or nine4 ,in view of ,dr4 ,montessori's success in teaching children of four and five to write with ease and skill1 must we not revise our estimate of the value of writing and our procedure in teaching it8 ,what changes may we profitably introduce in our teaching of reading8 ,here again our theory and our practice have suffered from the headstrong advocacy of general principles4 ,because by clumsy methods children used to be kept at the task of learning the school arts to the undoubted detriment of their minds and bodies1 certain writers have advocated the total exclusion of reading and writing from the early grades4 ,many parents refuse to send their children to school until they are eight1 preferring to let them run wild4 ,this attitude is well justified by school conditions in some places2 but where the schools are good1 it ignores not only the obvious advantages of school life quite aside from instruction in written language1 but also the almost complete absence of strain afforded by modern methods4 ,now that the ,montessori system adds a new and promising method to our resources1 it is the more unreasonable3 for as a fact normal children are eager to read and write at six1 and have plenty of use for these accomplishments4 ,this does not mean1 however1 that reading and writing are so important for young children that they should be unduly emphasised4 ,if we can teach them without strain1 let us do so1 and the more effectively the better2 but let us remember1 as ,dr4 ,montessori does1 that reading and writing should form but a subordinate part of the experience of a child and should minister in general to his other needs4 ,with the best of methods the value of reading and writing before six is questionable4 ,our conscious life is bookish enough as it is1 and it would seem on general grounds a safer policy to defer written language until the age of normal interest in it1 and even then not to devote to it more time than an easy and gradual mastery demands4 ,of the technical advantages of the ,montessori scheme for writing there can be little doubt4 ,the child gains ready control over his pencil through exercises which have their own simple but absorbing interest2 and if he does not learn to write with an arm movement1 we may be quite content with his ability to draw a legible and handsome script4 ,then he learns the letters--their forms1 their names1 and how to make them--through exercises which have the very important technical characteristic of involving a thorough sensory analysis of the material to be mastered4 ,meumann has taught us of late the great value in all memory work of complete impression through prolonged and intensive analytical study4 ,in the teaching of spelling1 for instance1 it is comparatively useless to devise schemes for remembering unless the original impressions are made strong and elaborate2 and it is only by careful1 varied1 and detailed sense impression that such material as the alphabet can be thus impressed4 ,so effective is the ,montessori scheme for impressing the letters--especially because of its novel use of the sense of touch--that the children learn how to make the whole alphabet before the abstract and formal character of the material leads to any diminution of interest or enthusiasm4 ,their initial curiosity over the characters they see their elders use is enough to carry them through4 ,in ,italian the next step is easy4 ,the letters once learned1 it is a simple matter to combine them into words1 for ,italian spelling is so nearly phonetic that it presents very little difficulty to any one who knows how to pronounce4 ,it is at just this point that the teaching of ,english reading by the ,montessori method will find its greatest obstacle4 ,indeed1 it is the unphonetic character of ,english spelling that has largely influenced us to give up the alphabet method of teaching children to read4 ,other reasons1 to be sure1 have also induced us to teach by the word and the sentence method2 but this one has been and will continue to be the deciding factor4 ,we have found it more effective to teach children whole words1 sentences1 or rhymes by sight1 adding to sense impressions the interest aroused by a wide range of associations1 and then analysing the words thus acquired into their phonetic elements to give the children independent power in the acquisition of new words4 ,our marked success with this method makes it by no means certain that it is in the characteristic process of natural development for children to build up written words from their elements--sounds and syllables4 ,it would seem1 on the contrary1 as ,james concluded1 that the mind works quite as naturally in the opposite direction--grasping wholes first1 especially such as have a practical interest1 and then working down to their formal elements4 ,in the teaching of spelling1 of course1 the wholes 7words7 are already known at sight--that is1 the pupil recognises them easily in reading--and the process aims at impressing upon the child's mind the exact order of their constituent elements4 ,it is because reading and spelling are in ,english such completely separate processes that we can teach a child to read admirably without making him a good speller and are forced to bring him to the latter glorious state by new endeavours4 ,we gain by this separation both in reading and in spelling1 as experience and comparative tests--popular superstition to the contrary notwithstanding--have conclusively proved4 ,the mastery of the alphabet by the ,montessori method will be of great assistance in teaching our children to write1 but of only incidental assistance in teaching them to read and to spell4 ,once more1 then1 this ,introduction attempts to suggest a compromise4 ,in the school arts the programme used to such good effect in the ,italian schools and the programme which has been so well worked out in ,english and ,american schools may be profitably combined4 ,we can learn much about writing and reading from ,dr4 ,montessori--especially from the freedom her children have in the process of learning to write and in the use of their newly acquired power1 as well as from her device for teaching them to read connected prose4 ,we can use her materials for sense training and lead as she does to easy mastery of the alphabetic symbols4 ,our own schemes for teaching reading we can retain1 and doubtless the phonetic analysis they involve we shall find easier and more effective because of our adoption of the ,montessori scheme for teaching the letters4 ,the exact adjustment of the two methods is of course a task for teachers in practice and for educational leaders4 ,to all educators this book should prove most interesting4 ,not many of them will expect that the ,montessori method will regenerate humanity4 ,not many will wish to see it--or any method--produce a generation of prodigies such as those who have been heralded recently in ,america4 ,not many will approve the very early acquisition by children of the arts of reading and writing4 ,but all who are fair-minded will admit the genius that shines from the pages which follow1 and the remarkable suggestiveness of ,dr4 ,montessori's labors4 ,it is the task of the professional student of education to-day to submit all systems to careful comparative study1 and since ,dr4 ,montessori's inventive power has sought its tests in practical experience rather than in comparative investigation1 this duller task remains to be done4 ,but however he may scrutinise the results of her work1 the educator who reads of it here will honour in the ,dottoressa ,maria ,montessori the enthusiasm1 the patience1 and the constructive insight of the scientist and the friend of humanity4 ,,henry ,w4 ,,holmes4 ,,harvard ,,university1 ,february #bb1 #aiab4 ,,the ,,montessori ,,method ,,chapter ,i ,a ,,critical ,,consideration ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,pedagogy ,,in ,,its ,,relation ,,to ,,modern ,,science ,it is not my intention to present a treatise on ,scientific ,pedagogy4 ,the modest design of these incomplete notes is to give the results of an experiment that apparently opens the way for putting into practice those new principles of science which in these last years are tending to revolutionise the work of education4 ,much has been said in the past decade concerning the tendency of pedagogy1 following in the footsteps of medicine1 to pass beyond the purely speculative stage and base its conclusions on the positive results of experimentation4 ,physiological or experimental psychology which1 from ,weber and ,fechner to ,wundt1 has become organised into a new science1 seems destined to furnish to the new pedagogy that fundamental preparation which the old-time metaphysical psychology furnished to philosophical pedagogy4 ,morphological anthropology applied to the physical study of children1 is also a strong element in the growth of the new pedagogy4 ,but in spite of all these tendencies1 ,scientific ,pedagogy has never yet been definitely constructed nor defined4 ,it is something vague of which we speak1 but which does not1 in reality1 exist4 ,we might say that it has been1 up to the present time1 the mere intuition or suggestion of a science which1 by the aid of the positive and experimental sciences that have renewed the thought of the nineteenth century1 must emerge from the mist and clouds that have surrounded it4 ,for man1 who has formed a new world through scientific progress1 must himself be prepared and developed through a new pedagogy4 ,but ,i will not attempt to speak of this more fully here4 ,several years ago1 a well-known physician established in ,italy a ,school of ,scientific ,pedagogy1 the object of which was to prepare teachers to follow the new movement which had begun to be felt in the pedagogical world4 ,this school had1 for two or three years1 a great success1 so great1 indeed1 that teachers from all over ,italy flocked to it1 and it was endowed by the ,city of ,milan with a splendid equipment of scientific material4 ,indeed1 its beginnings were most propitious1 and liberal help was afforded it in the hope that it might be possible to establish1 through the experiments carried on there1 the science of forming man4 ,the enthusiasm which welcomed this school was1 in a large measure1 due to the warm support given it by the distinguished anthropologist1 ,giuseppe ,sergi1 who for more than thirty years had earnestly laboured to spread among the teachers of ,italy the principles of a new civilisation based upon education4 ,to-day in the social world1 said ,sergi1 an imperative need makes itself felt--the reconstruction of educational methods2 and he who fights for this cause1 fights for human regeneration4 ,in his pedagogical writings collected in a volume under the title of ,educazione ed ,istruzione 7,pensieri71#a he gives a resume of the lectures in which he encouraged this new movement1 and says that he believes the way to this desired regeneration lies in a methodical study of the one to be educated1 carried on under the guidance of pedagogical anthropology and of experimental psychology4 #a ,trevisini1 #ahib4 ,for several years ,i have done battle for an idea concerning the instruction and education of man1 which appeared the more just and useful the more deeply ,i thought upon it4 ,my idea was that in order to establish natural1 rational methods1 it was essential that we make numerous1 exact1 and rational observations of man as an individual1 principally during infancy1 which is the age at which the foundations of education and culture must be laid4 ,to measure the head1 the height1 etc41 does not indeed mean that we are establishing a system of pedagogy1 but it indicates the road which we may follow to arrive at such a system1 since if we are to educate an individual1 we must have a definite and direct knowledge of him4 ,the authority of ,sergi was enough to convince many that1 given such a knowledge of the individual1 the art of educating him would develop naturally4 ,this1 as often happens1 led to a confusion of ideas among his followers1 arising now from a too literal interpretation1 now from an exaggeration1 of the master's ideas4 ,the chief trouble lay in confusing the experimental study of the pupil1 with his education4 ,and since the one was the road leading to the other1 which should have grown from it naturally and rationally1 they straightway gave the name of ,scientific ,pedagogy to what was in truth pedagogical anthropology4 ,these new converts carried as their banner1 the ,biographical ,chart1 believing that once this ensign was firmly planted upon the battle-field of the school1 the victory would be won4 ,the so-called ,school of ,scientific ,pedagogy1 therefore1 instructed the teachers in the taking of anthropometric measurements1 in the use of esthesiometric instruments1 in the gathering of ,psychological ,data--and the army of new scientific teachers was formed4 ,it should be said that in this movement ,italy showed herself to be abreast of the times4 ,in ,france1 in ,england1 and especially in ,america1 experiments have been made in the elementary schools1 based upon a study of anthropology and psychological pedagogy1 in the hope of finding in anthropometry and psychometry1 the regeneration of the school4 ,in these attempts it has rarely been the teachers who have carried on the research2 the experiments have been1 in most cases1 in the hands of physicians who have taken more interest in their especial science than in education4 ,they have usually sought to get from their experiments some contribution to psychology1 or anthropology1 rather than to attempt to organise their work and their results toward the formation of the long-sought ,scientific ,pedagogy4 ,to sum up the situation briefly1 anthropology and psychology have never devoted themselves to the question of educating children in the schools1 nor have the scientifically trained teachers ever measured up to the standards of genuine scientists4 ,the truth is that the practical progress of the school demands a genuine fusion of these modern tendencies1 in practice and thought2 such a fusion as shall bring scientists directly into the important field of the school and at the same time raise teachers from the inferior intellectual level to which they are limited to-day4 ,toward this eminently practical ideal the ,university ,school of ,pedagogy1 founded in ,italy by ,credaro1 is definitely working4 ,it is the intention of this school to raise ,pedagogy from the inferior position it has occupied as a secondary branch of philosophy1 to the dignity of a definite science1 which shall1 as does ,medicine1 cover a broad and varied field of comparative study4 ,and among the branches affiliated with it will most certainly be found ,pedagogical ,hygiene1 ,pedagogical ,anthropology1 and ,experimental ,psychology4 ,truly1 ,italy1 the country of ,lombroso1 of ,de-,giovanni1 and of ,sergi1 may claim the honour of being pre-eminent in the organisation of such a movement4 ,in fact1 these three scientists may be called the founders of the new tendency in ,anthropology3 the first leading the way in criminal anthropology1 the second in medical anthropology1 and the third in pedagogical anthropology4 ,for the good fortune of science1 all three of them have been the recognised leaders of their special lines of thought1 and have been so prominent in the scientific world that they have not only made courageous and valuable disciples1 but have also prepared the minds of the masses to receive the scientific regeneration which they have encouraged4 7,for reference1 see my treatise ,pedagogical ,anthropology47#b #b ,montessori3 ,l',antropologia ,pedagogica4 ,vallardi4 ,surely all this is something of which our country may be justly proud4 ,to-day1 however1 those things which occupy us in the field of education are the interests of humanity at large1 and of civilisation1 and before such great forces we can recognise only one country--the entire world4 ,and in a cause of such great importance1 all those who have given any contribution1 even though it be only an attempt not crowned with success1 are worthy of the respect of humanity throughout the civilised world4 ,so1 in ,italy1 the schools of ,scientific ,pedagogy and the ,anthropological ,laboratories1 which have sprung up in the various cities through the efforts of elementary teachers and scholarly inspectors1 and which have been abandoned almost before they became definitely organised1 have nevertheless a great value by reason of the faith which inspired them1 and because of the doors they have opened to thinking people4 ,it is needless to say that such attempts were premature and sprang from too slight a comprehension of new sciences still in the process of development4 ,every great cause is born from repeated failures and from imperfect achievements4 ,when ,st4 ,francis of ,assisi saw his ,lord in a vision1 and received from the ,divine lips the command--,francis1 rebuild my ,church6--he believed that the ,master spoke of the little church within which he knelt at that moment4 ,and he immediately set about the task1 carrying upon his shoulders the stones with which he meant to rebuild the fallen walls4 ,it was not until later that he became aware of the fact that his mission was to renew the ,catholic ,church through the spirit of poverty4 ,but the ,st4 ,francis who so ingenuously carried the stones1 and the great reformer who so miraculously led the people to a triumph of the spirit1 are one and the same person in different stages of development4 ,so we1 who work toward one great end1 are members of one and the same body2 and those who come after us will reach the goal only because there were those who believed and laboured before them4 ,and1 like ,st4 ,francis1 we have believed that by carrying the hard and barren stones of the experimental laboratory to the old and crumbling walls of the school1 we might rebuild it4 ,we have looked upon the aids offered by the materialistic and mechanical sciences with the same hopefulness with which ,st4 ,francis looked upon the squares of granite1 which he must carry upon his shoulders4 ,thus we have been drawn into a false and narrow way1 from which we must free ourselves1 if we are to establish true and living methods for the training of future generations4 ,to prepare teachers in the method of the experimental sciences is not an easy matter4 ,when we shall have instructed them in anthropometry and psychometry in the most minute manner possible1 we shall have only created machines1 whose usefulness will be most doubtful4 ,indeed1 if it is after this fashion that we are to initiate our teachers into experiment1 we shall remain forever in the field of theory4 ,the teachers of the old school1 prepared according to the principles of metaphysical philosophy1 understood the ideas of certain men regarded as authorities1 and moved the muscles of speech in talking of them1 and the muscles of the eye in reading their theories4 ,our scientific teachers1 instead1 are familiar with certain instruments and know how to move the muscles of the hand and arm in order to use these instruments2 besides this1 they have an intellectual preparation which consists of a series of typical tests1 which they have1 in a barren and mechanical way1 learned how to apply4 ,the difference is not substantial1 for profound differences cannot exist in exterior technique alone1 but lie rather within the inner man4 ,not with all our initiation into scientific experiment have we prepared new masters1 for1 after all1 we have left them standing without the door of real experimental science2 we have not admitted them to the noblest and most profound phase of such study1--to that experience which makes real scientists4 ,and1 indeed1 what is a scientist8 ,not1 certainly1 he who knows how to manipulate all the instruments in the physical laboratory1 or who in the laboratory of the chemist handles the various reactives with deftness and security1 or who in biology knows how to make ready the specimens for the microscope4 ,indeed1 it is often the case that an assistant has a greater dexterity in experimental technique than the master scientist himself4 ,we give the name scientist to the type of man who has felt experiment to be a means guiding him to search out the deep truth of life1 to lift a veil from its fascinating secrets1 and who1 in this pursuit1 has felt arising within him a love for the mysteries of nature1 so passionate as to annihilate the thought of himself4 ,the scientist is not the clever manipulator of instruments1 he is the worshipper of nature and he bears the external symbols of his passion as does the follower of some religious order4 ,to this body of real scientists belong those who1 forgetting1 like the ,trappists of the ,middle ,ages1 the world about them1 live only in the laboratory1 careless often in matters of food and dress because they no longer think of themselves2 those who1 through years of unwearied use of the microscope1 become blind2 those who in their scientific ardour inoculate themselves with tuberculosis germs2 those who handle the excrement of cholera patients in their eagerness to learn the vehicle through which the diseases are transmitted2 and those who1 knowing that a certain chemical preparation may be an explosive1 still persist in testing their theories at the risk of their lives4 ,this is the spirit of the men of science1 to whom nature freely reveals her secrets1 crowning their labours with the glory of discovery4 ,there exists1 then1 the spirit of the scientist1 a thing far above his mere mechanical skill1 and the scientist is at the height of his achievement when the spirit has triumphed over the mechanism4 ,when he has reached this point1 science will receive from him not only new revelations of nature1 but philosophic syntheses of pure thought4 ,it is my belief that the thing which we should cultivate in our teachers is more the spirit than the mechanical skill of the scientist2 that is1 the direction of the preparation should be toward the spirit rather than toward the mechanism4 ,for example1 when we considered the scientific preparation of teachers to be simply the acquiring of the technique of science1 we did not attempt to make these elementary teachers perfect anthropologists1 expert experimental psychologists1 or masters of infant hygiene2 we wished only to direct them toward the field of experimental science1 teaching them to manage the various instruments with a certain degree of skill4 ,so now1 we wish to direct the teacher1 trying to awaken in him1 in connection with his own particular field1 the school1 that scientific spirit which opens the door for him to broader and bigger possibilities4 ,in other words1 we wish to awaken in the mind and heart of the educator an interest in natural phenomena to such an extent that1 loving nature1 he shall understand the anxious and expectant attitude of one who has prepared an experiment and who awaits a revelation from it4#c #c ,see in my treatise on ,pedagogical ,anthropology the chapter on ,the ,method ,used ,in ,experimental ,sciences4 ,the instruments are like the alphabet1 and we must know how to manage them if we are to read nature2 but as the book1 which contains the revelation of the greatest thoughts of an author1 uses in the alphabet the means of composing the external symbols or words1 so nature1 through the mechanism of the experiment1 gives us an infinite series of revelations1 unfolding for us her secrets4 ,now one who has learned to spell mechanically all the words in his spelling-book1 would be able to read in the same mechanical way the words in one of ,shakespeare's plays1 provided the print were sufficiently clear4 ,he who is initiated solely into the making of the bare experiment1 is like one who spells out the literal sense of the words in the spelling-book2 it is on such a level that we leave the teachers if we limit their preparation to technique alone4 ,we must1 instead1 make of them worshippers and interpreters of the spirit of nature4 ,they must be like him who1 having learned to spell1 finds himself1 one day1 able to read behind the written symbols the thought of ,shakespeare1 or ,goethe1 or ,dante4 ,as may be seen1 the difference is great1 and the road long4 ,our first error was1 however1 a natural one4 ,the child who has mastered the spelling-book gives the impression of knowing how to read4 ,indeed1 he does read the signs over the shop doors1 the names of newspapers1 and every word that comes under his eyes4 ,it would be very natural if1 entering a library1 this child should be deluded into thinking that he knew how to read the sense of all the books he saw there4 ,but attempting to do this1 he would soon feel that to know how to read mechanically is nothing1 and that he needs to go back to school4 ,so it is with the teachers whom we have thought to prepare for scientific pedagogy by teaching them anthropometry and psychometry4 ,but let us put aside the difficulty of preparing scientific masters in the accepted sense of the word4 ,we will not even attempt to outline a programme of such preparation1 since this would lead us into a discussion which has no place here4 ,let us suppose1 instead1 that we have already prepared teachers through long and patient exercises for the observation of nature1 and that we have led them1 for example1 to the point attained by those students of natural sciences who rise at night and go into the woods and fields that they may surprise the awakening and the early activities of some family of insects in which they are interested4 ,here we have the scientist who1 though he may be sleepy and tired with walking1 is full of watchfulness1 who is not aware that he is muddy or dusty1 that the mist wets him1 or the sun burns him2 but is intent only upon not revealing in the least degree his presence1 in order that the insects may1 hour after hour1 carry on peacefully those natural functions which he wishes to observe4 ,let us suppose these teachers to have reached the standpoint of the scientist who1 half blind1 still watches through his microscope the spontaneous movements of some particular infusory animalcule4 ,these creatures seem to this scientific watcher1 in their manner of avoiding each other and in their way of selecting their food1 to possess a dim intelligence4 ,he then disturbs this sluggish life by an electric stimulus1 observing how some group themselves about the positive pole1 and others about the negative4 ,experimenting further1 with a luminous stimulus1 he notices how some run toward the light1 while others fly from it4 ,he investigates these and like phenomena2 having always in mind this question3 whether the fleeing from or running to the stimulus be of the same character as the avoidance of one another or the selection of food--that is1 whether such differences are the result of choice and are due to that dim consciousness1 rather than to physical attraction or repulsion similar to that of the magnet4 ,and let us suppose that this scientist1 finding it to be four o'clock in the afternoon1 and that he has not yet lunched1 is conscious1 with a feeling of pleasure1 of the fact that he has been at work in his laboratory instead of in his own home1 where they would have called him hours ago1 interrupting his interesting observation1 in order that he might eat4 ,let us imagine1 ,i say1 that the teacher has arrived1 independently of his scientific training1 at such an attitude of interest in the observation of natural phenomena4 ,very well1 but such a preparation is not enough4 ,the master1 indeed1 is destined in his particular mission not to the observation of insects or of bacteria1 but of man4 ,he is not to make a study of man in the manifestations of his daily physical habits as one studies some family of insects1 following their movements from the hour of their morning awakening4 ,the master is to study man in the awakening of his intellectual life4 ,the interest in humanity to which we wish to educate the teacher must be characterised by the intimate relationship between the observer and the individual to be observed2 a relationship which does not exist between the student of zoology or botany and that form of nature which he studies4 ,man cannot love the insect or the chemical reaction which he studies1 without sacrificing a part of himself4 ,this self-sacrifice seems to one who looks at it from the standpoint of the world1 a veritable renunciation of life itself1 almost a martyrdom4 ,but the love of man for man in a far more tender thing1 and so simple that it is universal4 ,to love in this way is not the privilege of any especially prepared intellectual class1 but lies within the reach of all men4 ,to give an idea of this second form of preparation1 that of the spirit1 let us try to enter into the minds and hearts of those first followers of ,christ ,jesus as they heard ,him speak of a ,kingdom not of this world1 greater far than any earthly kingdom1 no matter how royally conceived4 ,in their simplicity they asked of ,him1 ,master1 tell us who shall be greatest in the ,kingdom of ,heaven6 ,to which ,christ1 caressing the head of a little child who1 with reverent1 wondering eyes1 looked into ,his face1 replied1 ,whosoever shall become as one of these little ones1 he shall be greatest in the ,kingdom of ,heaven4 ,now let us picture among those to whom these words were spoken1 an ardent1 worshipping soul1 who takes them into his heart4 ,with a mixture of respect and love1 of sacred curiosity and of a desire to achieve this spiritual greatness1 he sets himself to observe every manifestation of this little child4 ,even such an observer placed in a classroom filled with little children will not be the new educator whom we wish to form4 ,but let us seek to implant in the soul the self-sacrificing spirit of the scientist with the reverent love of the disciple of ,christ1 and we shall have prepared the spirit of the teacher4 ,from the child itself he will learn how to perfect himself as an educator4 ,let us consider the attitude of the teacher in the light of another example4 ,picture to yourself one of our botanists or zoologists experienced in the technique of observation and experimentation2 one who has travelled in order to study certain fungi in their native environment4 ,this scientist has made his observations in open country and1 then1 by the aid of his microscope and of all his laboratory appliances1 has carried on the later research work in the most minute way possible4 ,he is1 in fact1 a scientist who understands what it is to study nature1 and who is conversant with all the means which modern experimental science offers for this study4 ,now let us imagine such a man appointed1 by reason of the original work he has done1 to a chair of science in some university1 with the task before him of doing further original research work with hymenoptera4 ,let us suppose that1 arrived at his post1 he is shown a glass-covered case containing a number of beautiful butterflies1 mounted by means of pins1 their outspread wings motionless4 ,the student will say that this is some child's play1 not material for scientific study1 that these specimens in the box are more fitly a part of the game which the little boys play1 chasing butterflies and catching them in a net4 ,with such material as this the experimental scientist can do nothing4 ,the situation would be very much the same if we should place a teacher who1 according to our conception of the term1 is scientifically prepared1 in one of the public schools where the children are repressed in the spontaneous expression of their personality till they are almost like dead beings4 ,in such a school the children1 like butterflies mounted on pins1 are fastened each to his place1 the desk1 spreading the useless wings of barren and meaningless knowledge which they have acquired4 ,it is not enough1 then1 to prepare in our ,masters the scientific spirit4 ,we must also make ready the school for their observation4 ,the school must permit the free1 natural manifestations of the child if in the school scientific pedagogy is to be born4 ,this is the essential reform4 ,no one may affirm that such a principle already exists in pedagogy and in the school4 ,it is true that some pedagogues1 led by ,rousseau1 have given voice to impracticable principles and vague aspirations for the liberty of the child1 but the true concept of liberty is practically unknown to educators4 ,they often have the same concept of liberty which animates a people in the hour of rebellion from slavery1 or perhaps1 the conception of social liberty1 which although it is a more elevated idea is still invariably restricted4 ,social liberty signifies always one more round of ,jacob's ladder4 ,in other words it signifies a partial liberation1 the liberation of a country1 of a class1 or of thought4 ,that concept of liberty which must inspire pedagogy is1 instead1 universal4 ,the biological sciences of the nineteenth century have shown it to us when they have offered us the means for studying life4 ,if1 therefore1 the old-time pedagogy foresaw or vaguely expressed the principle of studying the pupil before educating him1 and of leaving him free in his spontaneous manifestations1 such an intuition1 indefinite and barely expressed1 was made possible of practical attainment only after the contribution of the experimental sciences during the last century4 ,this is not a case for sophistry or discussion1 it is enough that we state our point4 ,he who would say that the principle of liberty informs the pedagogy of to-day1 would make us smile as at a child who1 before the box of mounted butterflies1 should insist that they were alive and could fly4 ,the principle of slavery still pervades pedagogy1 and1 therefore1 the same principle pervades the school4 ,i need only give one proof--the stationary desks and chairs4 ,here we have1 for example1 a striking evidence of the errors of the early materialistic scientific pedagogy which1 with mistaken zeal and energy1 carried the barren stones of science to the rebuilding of the crumbling walls of the school4 ,the schools were at first furnished with the long1 narrow benches upon which the children were crowded together4 ,then came science and perfected the bench4 ,in this work much attention was paid to the recent contributions of anthropology4 ,the age of the child and the length of his limbs were considered in placing the seat at the right height4 ,the distance between the seat and the desk was calculated with infinite care1 in order that the child's back should not become deformed1 and1 finally1 the seats were separated and the width so closely calculated that the child could barely seat himself upon it1 while to stretch himself by making any lateral movements was impossible4 ,this was done in order that he might be separated from his neighbour4 ,these desks are constructed in such a way as to render the child visible in all his immobility4 ,one of the ends sought through this separation is the prevention of immoral acts in the schoolroom4 ,what shall we say of such prudence in a state of society where it would be considered scandalous to give voice to principles of sex morality in education1 for fear we might thus contaminate innocence8 ,and1 yet1 here we have science lending itself to this hypocrisy1 fabricating machines6 ,not only this2 obliging science goes farther still1 perfecting the benches in such a way as to permit to the greatest possible extent the immobility of the child1 or1 if you wish1 to repress every movement of the child4 ,it is all so arranged that1 when the child is well-fitted into his place1 the desk and chair themselves force him to assume the position considered to be hygienically comfortable4 ,the seat1 the foot-rest1 the desks are arranged in such a way that the child can never stand at his work4 ,he is allotted only sufficient space for sitting in an erect position4 ,it is in such ways that schoolroom desks and benches have advanced toward perfection4 ,every cult of the so-called scientific pedagogy has designed a model scientific desk4 ,not a few nations have become proud of their national desk1--and in the struggle of competition these various machines have been patented4 ,undoubtedly there is much that is scientific underlying the construction of these benches4 ,anthropology has been drawn upon in the measuring of the body and the diagnosis of the age2 physiology1 in the study of muscular movements2 psychology1 in regard to perversion of instincts2 and1 above all1 hygiene1 in the effort to prevent curvature of the spine4 ,these desks were indeed scientific1 following in their construction the anthropological study of the child4 ,we have here1 as ,i have said1 an example of the literal application of science to the schools4 ,i believe that before very long we shall all be struck with great surprise by this attitude4 ,it will seem incomprehensible that the fundamental error of the desk should not have been revealed earlier through the attention given to the study of infant hygiene1 anthropology1 and sociology1 and through the general progress of thought4 ,the marvel is greater when we consider that during the past years there has been stirring in almost every nation a movement toward the protection of the child4 ,i believe that it will not be many years before the public1 scarcely believing the descriptions of these scientific benches1 will come to touch with wondering bands the amazing seats that were constructed for the purpose of preventing among our school children curvature of the spine6 ,the development of these scientific benches means that the pupils were subjected to a regime1 which1 even though they were born strong and straight1 made it possible for them to become humpbacked6 ,the vertebral column1 biologically the most primitive1 fundamental1 and oldest part of the skeleton1 the most fixed portion1 of our body1 since the skeleton is the most solid portion of the organism--the vertebral column1 which resisted and was strong through the desperate struggles of primitive man when he fought against the desert-lion1 when he conquered the mammoth1 when he quarried the solid rock and shaped the iron to his uses1 bends1 and cannot resist1 under the yoke of the school4 ,it is incomprehensible that so-called science should have worked to perfect an instrument of slavery in the school without being enlightened by one ray from the movement of social liberation1 growing and developing throughout the world4 ,for the age of scientific benches was also the age of the redemption of the working classes from the yoke of unjust labor4 ,the tendency toward social liberty is most evident1 and manifests itself on every hand4 ,the leaders of the people make it their slogan1 the labouring masses repeat the cry1 scientific and socialistic publications voice the same movement1 our journals are full of it4 ,the underfed workman does not ask for a tonic1 but for better economic conditions which shall prevent malnutrition4 ,the miner who1 through the stooping position maintained during many hours of the day1 is subject to inguinal rupture1 does not ask for an abdominal support1 but demands shorter hours and bettor working conditions1 in order that he may be able to lead a healthy life like other men4 ,and when1 during this same social epoch1 we find that the children in our schoolrooms are working amid unhygienic conditions1 so poorly adapted to normal development that even the skeleton becomes deformed1 our response to this terrible revelation is an orthopedic bench4 ,it is much as if we offered to the miner the abdominal brace1 or arsenic to the underfed workman4 ,some time ago a woman1 believing me to be in sympathy with all scientific innovations concerning the school1 showed me with evident satisfaction a corset or brace for pupils4 ,she had invented this and felt that it would complete the work of the bench4 ,surgery has still other means for the treatment of spinal curvature4 ,i might mention orthopedic instruments1 braces1 and a method of periodically suspending the child1 by the head or shoulders1 in such a fashion that the weight of the body stretches and thus straightens the vertebral column4 ,in the school1 the orthopedic instrument in the shape of the desk is in great favour to-day2 someone proposes the brace--one step farther and it will be suggested that we give the scholars a systematic course in the suspension method6 ,all this is the logical consequence of a material application of the methods of science to the decadent school4 ,evidently the rational method of combating spinal curvature in the pupils1 is to change the form of their work--so that they shall no longer be obliged to remain for so many hours a day in a harmful position4 ,it is a conquest of liberty which the school needs1 not the mechanism of a bench4 ,even were the stationary seat helpful to the child's body1 it would still be a dangerous and unhygienic feature of the environment1 through the difficulty of cleaning the room perfectly when the furniture cannot be moved4 ,the foot-rests1 which cannot be removed1 accumulate the dirt carried in daily from the street by the many little feet4 ,to-day there is a general transformation in the matter of house furnishings4 ,they are made lighter and simpler so that they may be easily moved1 dusted1 and even washed4 ,but the school seems blind to the transformation of the social environment4 ,it behooves us to think of what may happen to the spirit of the child who is condemned to grow in conditions so artificial that his very bones may become deformed4 ,when we speak of the redemption of the workingman1 it is always understood that beneath the most apparent form of suffering1 such as poverty of the blood1 or ruptures1 there exists that other wound from which the soul of the man who is subjected to any form of slavery must suffer4 ,it is at this deeper wrong that we aim when we say that the workman must be redeemed through liberty4 ,we know only too well that when a man's very blood has been consumed or his intestines wasted away through his work1 his soul must have lain oppressed in darkness1 rendered insensible1 or1 it may be1 killed within him4 ,the moral degradation of the slave is1 above all things1 the weight that opposes the progress of humanity--humanity striving to rise and held back by this great burden4 ,the cry of redemption speaks far more clearly for the souls of men than for their bodies4 ,what shall we say then1 when the question before us is that of educating children8 ,we know only too well the sorry spectacle of the teacher who1 in the ordinary schoolroom1 must pour certain cut and dried facts into the heads of the scholars4 ,in order to succeed in this barren task1 she finds it necessary to discipline her pupils into immobility and to force their attention4 ,prizes and punishments are every-ready and efficient aids to the master who must force into a given attitude of mind and body those who are condemned to be his listeners4 ,it is true that to-day it is deemed expedient to abolish official whippings and habitual blows1 just as the awarding of prizes has become less ceremonious4 ,these partial reforms are another prop approved of by science1 and offered to the support of the decadent school4 ,such prizes and punishments are1 if ,i may be allowed the expression1 the bench of the soul1 the instrument of slavery for the spirit4 ,here1 however1 these are not applied to lessen deformities1 but to provoke them4 ,the prize and the punishment are incentives toward unnatural or forced effort1 and1 therefore we certainly cannot speak of the natural development of the child in connection with them4 ,the jockey offers a piece of sugar to his horse before jumping into the saddle1 the coachman beats his horse that he may respond to the signs given by the reins2 and1 yet1 neither of these runs so superbly as the free horse of the plains4 ,and here1 in the case of education1 shall man place the yoke upon man8 ,true1 we say that social man is natural man yoked to society4 ,but if we give a comprehensive glance to the moral progress of society1 we shall see that little by little1 the yoke is being made easier1 in other words1 we shall see that nature1 or life1 moves gradually toward triumph4 ,the yoke of the slave yields to that of the servant1 and the yoke of the servant to that of the workman4 ,all forms of slavery tend little by little to weaken and disappear1 even the sexual slavery of woman4 ,the history of civilisation is a history of conquest and of liberation4 ,we should ask in what stage of civilisation we find ourselves and if1 in truth1 the good of prizes and of punishments be necessary to our advancement4 ,if we have indeed gone beyond this point1 then to apply such a form of education would be to draw the new generation back to a lower level1 not to lead them into their true heritage of progress4 ,something very like this condition of the school exists in society1 in the relation between the government and the great numbers of the men employed in its administrative departments4 ,these clerks work day after day for the general national good1 yet they do not feel or see the advantage of their work in any immediate reward4 ,that is1 they do not realise that the state carries on its great business through their daily tasks1 and that the whole nation is benefited by their work4 ,for them the immediate good is promotion1 as passing to a higher class is for the child in school4 ,the man who loses sight of the really big aim of his work is like a child who has been placed in a class below his real standing3 like a slave1 he is cheated of something which is his right4 ,his dignity as a man is reduced to the limits of the dignity of a machine which must be oiled if it is to be kept going1 because it does not have within itself the impulse of life4 ,all those petty things such as the desire for decorations or medals1 are but artificial stimuli1 lightening for the moment the dark1 barren path in which he treads4 ,in the same way we give prizes to school children4 ,and the fear of not achieving promotion1 withholds the clerk from running away1 and binds him to his monotonous work1 even as the fear of not passing into the next class drives the pupil to his book4 ,the reproof of the superior is in every way similar to the scolding of the teacher4 ,the correction of badly executed clerical work is equivalent to the bad mark placed by the teacher upon the scholar's poor composition4 ,the parallel is almost perfect4 ,but if the administrative departments are not carried on in a way which would seem suitable to a nation's greatness2 if corruption too easily finds a place2 it is the result of having extinguished the true greatness of man in the mind of the employee1 and of having restricted his vision to those petty1 immediate facts1 which he has come to look upon as prizes and punishments4 ,the country stands1 because the rectitude of the greater number of its employees is such that they resist the corruption of the prizes and punishments1 and follow an irresistible current of honesty4 ,even as life in the social environment triumphs against every cause of poverty and death1 and proceeds to new conquests1 so the instinct of liberty conquers all obstacles1 going from victory to victory4 ,it is this personal and yet universal force of life1 a force often latent within the soul1 that sends the world forward4 ,but he who accomplishes a truly human work1 he who does something really great and victorious1 is never spurred to his task by those trifling attractions called by the name of prizes1 nor by the fear of those petty ills which we call punishments4 ,if in a war a great army of giants should fight with no inspiration beyond the desire to win promotion1 epaulets1 or medals1 or through fear of being shot1 if these men were to oppose a handful of pygmies who were inflamed by love of country1 the victory would go to the latter4 ,when real heroism has died within an army1 prizes and punishments cannot do more than finish the work of deterioration1 bringing in corruption and cowardice4 ,all human victories1 all human progress1 stand upon the inner force4 ,thus a young student may become a great doctor if he is spurred to his study by an interest which makes medicine his real vocation4 ,but if he works in the hope of an inheritance1 or of making a desirable marriage1 or if indeed he is inspired by any material advantage1 he will never become a true master or a great doctor1 and the world will never make one step forward because of his work4 ,he to whom such stimuli are necessary1 had far better never become a physician4 ,everyone has a special tendency1 a special vocation1 modest1 perhaps1 but certainly useful4 ,the system of prizes may turn an individual aside from this vocation1 may make him choose a false road1 for him a vain one1 and forced to follow it1 the natural activity of a human being may be warped1 lessened1 even annihilated4 ,we repeat always that the world progresses and that we must urge men forward to obtain progress4 ,but progress comes from the new things that are born1 and these1 not being foreseen1 are not rewarded with prizes3 rather1 they often carry the leader to martyrdom4 ,god forbid that poems should ever be born of the desire to be crowned in the ,capitol6 ,such a vision need only come into the heart of the poet and the muse will vanish4 ,the poem must spring from the soul of the poet1 when he thinks neither of himself nor of the prize4 ,and if he does win the laurel1 he will feel the vanity of such a prize4 ,the true reward lies in the revelation through the poem of his own triumphant inner force4 ,there does exist1 however1 an external prize for man2 when1 for example1 the orator sees the faces of his listeners change with the emotions he has awakened1 he experiences something so great that it can only be likened to the intense joy with which one discovers that he is loved4 ,our joy is to touch1 and conquer souls1 and this is the one prize which can bring us a true compensation4 ,sometimes there is given to us a moment when we fancy ourselves to be among the great ones of the world4 ,these are moments of happiness given to man that he may continue his existence in peace4 ,it may be through love attained or because of the gift of a son1 through a glorious discovery or the publication of a book2 in some such moment we feel that there exists no man who is above us4 ,if1 in such a moment1 someone vested with authority comes forward to offer us a medal or a prize1 he is the important destroyer of our real reward--,and who are you8 our vanished illusion shall cry1 ,who are you that recalls me to the fact that ,i am not the first among men8 ,who stands so far above me that he may give me a prize8 ,the prize of such a man in such a moment can only be ,divine4 ,as for punishments1 the soul of the normal man grows perfect through expanding1 and punishment as commonly understood is always a form of repression4 ,it may bring results with those inferior natures who grow in evil1 but these are very few1 and social progress is not affected by them4 ,the penal code threatens us with punishment if we are dishonest within the limits indicated by the laws4 ,but we are not honest through fear of the laws2 if we do not rob1 if we do not kill1 it is because we love peace1 because the natural trend of our lives leads us forward1 leading us ever farther and more definitely away from the peril of low and evil acts4 ,without going into the ethical or metaphysical aspects of the question1 we may safely affirm that the delinquent before he transgresses the law1 has1 if he knows of the existence of a punishment1 felt the threatening weight of the criminal code upon him4 ,he has defined it1 or he has been lured into the crime1 deluding himself with the idea that he would be able to avoid the punishment of the law4 ,but there has occurred within his mind1 a struggle between the crime and the punishment4 ,whether it be efficacious in hindering crime or not1 this penal code is undoubtedly made for a very limited class of individuals2 namely1 criminals4 ,the enormous majority of citizens are honest without any regard whatever to the threats of the law4 ,the real punishment of normal man is the loss of the consciousness of that individual power and greatness which are the sources of his inner life4 ,such a punishment often falls upon men in the fullness of success4 ,a man whom we would consider crowned by happiness and fortune may be suffering from this form of punishment4 ,far too often man does not see the real punishment which threatens him4 ,and it is just here that education may help4 ,to-day we hold the pupils in school1 restricted by those instruments so degrading to body and spirit1 the desk--and material prizes and punishments4 ,our aim in all this is to reduce them to the discipline of immobility and silence1--to lead them1--where8 ,far too often toward no definite end4 ,often the education of children consists in pouring into their intelligence the intellectual contents of school programmes4 ,and often these programmes have been compiled in the official department of education1 and their use is imposed by law upon the teacher and the child4 ,ah1 before such dense and wilful disregard of the life which is growing within these children1 we should hide our heads in shame and cover our guilty faces with our hands6 ,sergi says truly3 ,to-day an urgent need imposes itself upon society3 the reconstruction of methods in education and instruction1 and he who fights for this cause1 fights for human regeneration4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,history ,,of ,,methods ,if we are to develop a system of scientific pedagogy1 we must1 then1 proceed along lines very different from those which have been followed up to the present time4 ,the transformation of the school must be contemporaneous with the preparation of the teacher4 ,for if we make of the teacher an observer1 familiar with the experimental methods1 then we must make it possible for her to observe and to experiment in the school4 ,the fundamental principle of scientific pedagogy must be1 indeed1 the liberty of the pupil2--such liberty as shall permit a development of individual1 spontaneous manifestations of the child's nature4 ,if a new and scientific pedagogy is to arise from the study of the individual1 such study must occupy itself with the observation of free children4 ,in vain should we await a practical renewing of pedagogical methods from methodical examinations of pupils made under the guidance offered to-day by pedagogy1 anthropology1 and experimental psychology4 ,every branch of experimental science has grown out of the application of a method peculiar to itself4 ,bacteriology owes its scientific content to the method of isolation and culture of microbes4 ,criminal1 medical1 and pedagogical anthropology owe their progress to the application of anthropological methods to individuals of various classes1 such as criminals1 the insane1 the sick of the clinics1 scholars4 ,so experimental psychology needs as its starting point an exact definition of the technique to be used in making the experiment4 ,to put it broadly1 it is important to define the method1 the technique1 and from its application to await the definite result1 which must be gathered entirely from actual experience4 ,one of the characteristics of experimental sciences is to proceed to the making of an experiment without preconceptions of any sort as to the final result of the experiment itself4 ,for example1 should we wish to make scientific observations concerning the development of the head as related to varying degrees of intelligence1 one of the conditions of such an experiment would be to ignore1 in the taking of the measurements1 which were the most intelligent and which the most backward among the scholars examined4 ,and this because the preconceived idea that the most intelligent should have the head more fully developed will inevitably alter the results of the research4 ,he who experiments must1 while doing so1 divest himself of every preconception4 ,it is clear then that if we wish to make use of a method of experimental psychology1 the first thing necessary is to renounce all former creeds and to proceed by means of the method in the search for truth4 ,we must not start1 for example1 from any dogmatic ideas which we may happen to have held upon the subject of child psychology4 ,instead1 we must proceed by a method which shall tend to make possible to the child complete liberty4 ,this we must do if we are to draw from the observation of his spontaneous manifestations conclusions which shall lead to the establishment of a truly scientific child psychology4 ,it may be that such a method holds for us great surprises1 unexpected possibilities4 ,child psychology and pedagogy must establish their content by successive conquests arrived at through the method of experimentation4 ,our problem then1 is this3 to establish the method peculiar to experimental pedagogy4 ,it cannot be that used in other experimental sciences4 ,it is true that scientific pedagogy is rounded out by hygiene1 anthropology1 and psychology1 and adopts in part the technical method characteristic of all three1 although limiting itself to a special study of the individual to be educated4 ,but in pedagogy this study of the individual1 though it must accompany the very different work of education1 is a limited and secondary part of the science as a whole4 ,this present study deals in part with the method used in experimental pedagogy1 and is the result of my experiences during two years in the ,children's ,houses4 ,i offer only a beginning of the method1 which ,i have applied to children between the ages of three and six4 ,but ,i believe that these tentative experiments1 because of the surprising results which they have given1 will be the means of inspiring a continuation of the work thus undertaken4 ,indeed1 although our educational system1 which experience has demonstrated to be excellent1 is not yet entirely completed1 it nevertheless constitutes a system well enough established to be practical in all institutions where young children are cared for1 and in the first elementary classes4 ,perhaps ,i am not exact when ,i say that the present work springs from two years of experience4 ,i do not believe that these later attempts of mine could alone have rendered possible all that ,i set forth in this book4 ,the origin of the educational system in use in the ,children's ,houses is much more remote1 and if this experience with normal children seems indeed rather brief1 it should be remembered that it sprang from preceding pedagogical experiences with abnormal children1 and that considered in this way1 it represents a long and thoughtful endeavour4 ,about fifteen years ago1 being assistant doctor at the ,psychiatric ,clinic of the ,university of ,rome1 ,i had occasion to frequent the insane asylums to study the sick and to select subjects for the clinics4 ,in this way ,i became interested in the idiot children who were at that time housed in the general insane asylums4 ,in those days thyroid organotherapy was in full development1 and this drew the attention of physicians to deficient children4 ,i myself1 having completed my regular hospital services1 had already turned my attention to the study of children's diseases4 ,it was thus that1 being interested in the idiot children1 ,i became conversant with the special method of education devised for these unhappy little ones by ,edward ,seguin1 and was led to study thoroughly the idea1 then beginning to be prevalent among the physicians1 of the efficacy of pedagogical treatment for various morbid forms of disease such as deafness1 paralysis1 idiocy1 rickets1 etc4 ,the fact that pedagogy must join with medicine in the treatment of disease was the practical outcome of the thought of the time4 ,and because of this tendency the method of treating disease by gymnastics became widely popular4 ,i1 however1 differed from my colleagues in that ,i felt that mental deficiency presented chiefly a pedagogical1 rather than mainly a medical1 problem4 ,much was said in the medical congresses of the medico-pedagogic method for the treatment and education of the feeble minded1 and ,i expressed my differing opinion in an address on ,moral ,education at the ,pedagogical ,congress of ,turin in #ahih4 ,i believe that ,i touched a chord already vibrant1 because the idea1 making its way among the physicians and elementary teachers1 spread in a flash as presenting a question of lively interest to the school4 ,in fact ,i was called upon by my master1 ,guido ,baccelli1 the great ,minister of ,education1 to deliver to the teachers of ,rome a course of lectures on the education of feeble-minded children4 ,this course soon developed into the ,state ,orthophrenic ,school1 which ,i directed for more than two years4 ,in this school we had an all-day class of children composed of those who in the elementary schools were considered hopelessly deficient4 ,later on1 through the help of a philanthropic organisation1 there was founded a ,medical ,pedagogic ,institute where1 besides the children from the public schools1 we brought together all of the idiot children from the insane asylums in ,rome4 ,i spent these two years with the help of my colleagues in preparing the teachers of ,rome for a special method of observation and education of feeble-minded children4 ,not only did ,i train teachers1 but what was much more important1 after ,i had been in ,london and ,paris for the purpose of studying in a practical way the education of deficients1 ,i gave myself over completely to the actual teaching of the children1 directing at the same time the work of the other teachers in our institute4 ,i was more than an elementary teacher1 for ,i was present1 or directly taught the children1 from eight in the morning to seven in the evening without interruption4 ,these two years of practice are my first and indeed my true degree in pedagogy4 ,from the very beginning of my work with deficient children 7#ahih to #aijj7 ,i felt that the methods which ,i used had in them nothing peculiarly limited to the instruction of idiots4 ,i believed that they contained educational principles more rational than those in use1 so much more so1 indeed1 that through their means an inferior mentality would be able to grow and develop4 ,this feeling1 so deep as to be in the nature of an intuition1 became my controlling idea after ,i had left the school for deficients1 and1 little by little1 ,i became convinced that similar methods applied to normal children would develop or set free their personality in a marvellous and surprising way4 ,it was then that ,i began a genuine and thorough study of what is known as remedial pedagogy1 and1 then1 wishing to undertake the study of normal pedagogy and of the principles upon which it is based1 ,i registered as a student of philosophy at the ,university4 ,a great faith animated me1 and although ,i did not know that ,i should ever be able to test the truth of my idea1 ,i gave up every other occupation to deepen and broaden its conception4 ,it was almost as if ,i prepared myself for an unknown mission4 ,the methods for the education of deficients had their origin at the time of the ,french ,revolution in the work of a physician whose achievements occupy a prominent place in the history of medicine1 as he was the founder of that branch of medical science which to-day is known as ,otiatria 7diseases of the ear74 ,he was the first to attempt a methodical education of the sense of hearing4 ,he made these experiments in the institute for deaf mutes founded in ,paris by ,pereire1 and actually succeeded in making the semi-deaf hear clearly4 ,later on1 having in charge for eight years the idiot boy known as the wild boy of ,aveyron1 he extended to the treatment of all the senses those educational methods which had already given such excellent results in the treatment of the sense of hearing4 ,a student of ,pinel1 ,itard1 was the first educator to practise the observation of the pupil in the way in which the sick are observed in the hospitals1 especially those suffering from diseases of the nervous system4 ,the pedagogic writings of ,itard are most interesting and minute descriptions of educational efforts and experiences1 and anyone reading them to-day must admit that they were practically the first attempts at experimental psychology4 ,but the merit of having completed a genuine educational system for deficient children was due to ,edward ,seguin1 first a teacher and then a physician4 ,he took the experiences of ,itard as his starting point1 applying these methods1 modifying and completing them during a period of ten years' experience with children taken from the insane asylums and placed in1 a little school in ,rue ,pigalle in ,paris4 ,this method was described for the first time in a volume of more than six hundred pages1 published in ,paris in #ahdf1 with the title3 ,traitement ,moral1 ,hygiene et ,education des ,idiots4 ,later ,seguin emigrated to the ,united ,states of ,america where he founded many institutions for deficients1 and where1 after another twenty years of experience1 he published the second edition of his method1 under a very different title3 ,idiocy and its ,treatment by the ,physiological ,method4 ,this volume was published in ,new ,york in #ahhf1 and in it ,seguin had carefully defined his method of education1 calling it the physiological method4 ,he no longer referred in the title to a method for the education of idiots as if the method were special to them1 but spoke now of idiocy treated by a physiological method4 ,if we consider that pedagogy always had psychology as its base1 and that ,wundt defines a physiological psychology1 the coincidence of these ideas must strike us1 and lead us to suspect in the physiological method some connection with physiological psychology4 ,while ,i was assistant at the ,psychiatric ,clinic1 ,i had read ,edward ,seguin's ,french book1 with great interest4 ,but the ,english book which was published in ,new ,york twenty years later1 although it was quoted in the works about special education by ,bourneville1 was not to be found in any library4 ,i made a vain quest for it1 going from house to house of nearly all the ,english physicians1 who were known to be specially interested in deficient children1 or who were superintendents of special schools4 ,the fact that this book was unknown in ,england1 although it had been published in the ,english language1 made me think that the ,seguin system had never been understood4 ,in fact1 although ,seguin was constantly quoted in all the publications dealing with institutions for deficients1 the educational applications described1 were quite different from the applications of ,seguin's system4 ,almost everywhere the methods applied to deficients are more or less the same as those in use for normal children4 ,in ,germany1 especially1 a friend who had gone there in order to help me in my researches1 noticed that although special materials existed here and there in the pedagogical museums of the schools for deficients1 these materials were rarely used4 ,indeed1 the ,german educators hold the principle that it is well to adapt to the teaching of backward children1 the same method used for normal ones2 but these methods are much more objective in ,germany than with us4 ,at the ,bicetre1 where ,i spent some time1 ,i saw that it was the didactic apparatus of ,seguin far more than his method which was being used1 although1 the ,french text was in the hands of the educators4 ,the teaching there was purely mechanical1 each teacher following the rules according to the letter4 ,i found1 however1 wherever ,i went1 in ,london as well as in ,paris1 a desire for fresh counsel and for new experiences1 since far too often ,seguin's claim that with his methods the education of idiots was actually possible1 had proved only a delusion4 ,after this study of the methods in use throughout ,europe ,i concluded my experiments upon the deficients of ,rome1 and taught them throughout two years4 ,i followed ,seguin's book1 and also derived much help from the remarkable experiments of ,itard4 ,guided by the work of these two men1 ,i had manufactured a great variety of didactic material4 ,these materials1 which ,i have never seen complete in any institution1 became in the hands of those who knew how to apply them1 a most remarkable and efficient means1 but unless rightly presented1 they failed to attract the attention of the deficients4 ,i felt that ,i understood the discouragement of those working with feeble-minded children1 and could see why they had1 in so many cases1 abandoned the method4 ,the prejudice that the educator must place himself on a level with the one to be educated1 sinks the teacher of deficients into a species of apathy4 ,he accepts the fact that he is educating an inferior personality1 and for that very reason he does not succeed4 ,even so those who teach little children too often have the idea that they are educating babies and seek to place themselves on the child's level by approaching him with games1 and often with foolish stories4 ,instead of all this1 we must know how to call to the man which lies dormant within the soul of the child4 ,i felt this1 intuitively1 and believed that not the didactic material1 but my voice which called to them1 awakened the children1 and encouraged them to use the didactic material1 and through it1 to educate themselves4 ,i was guided in my work by the deep respect which ,i felt for their misfortune1 and by the love which these unhappy children know how to awaken in those who are near them4 ,seguin1 too1 expressed himself in the same way on this subject4 ,reading his patient attempts1 ,i understand clearly that the first didactic material used by him was spiritual4 ,indeed1 at the close of the ,french volume1 the author1 giving a resume of his work1 concludes by saying rather sadly1 that all he has established will be lost or useless1 if the teachers are not prepared for their work4 ,he holds rather original views concerning the preparation of teachers of deficients4 ,he would have them good to look upon1 pleasant-voiced1 careful in every detail of their personal appearance1 doing everything possible to make themselves attractive4 ,they must1 he says1 render themselves attractive in voice and manner1 since it is their task to awaken souls which are frail and weary1 and to lead them forth to lay hold upon the beauty and strength of life4 ,this belief that we must act upon the spirit1 served as a sort of secret key1 opening to me the long series of didactic experiments so wonderfully analysed by ,edward ,seguin1--experiments which1 properly understood1 are really most efficacious in the education of idiots4 ,i myself obtained most surprising results through their application1 but ,i must confess that1 while my efforts showed themselves in the intellectual progress of my pupils1 a peculiar form of exhaustion prostrated me4 ,it was as if ,i gave to them some vital force from within me4 ,those things which we call encouragement1 comfort1 love1 respect1 are drawn from the soul of man1 and the more freely we give of them1 the more do we renew and reinvigorate the life about us4 ,without such inspiration the most perfect external stimulus may pass unobserved4 ,thus the blind ,saul1 before the glory of the sun1 exclaimed1 ,this8--,it is the dense fog6 ,thus prepared1 ,i was able to proceed to new experiments on my own account4 ,this is not the place for a report of these experiments1 and ,i will only note that at this time ,i attempted an original method for the teaching of reading and writing1 a part of the education of the child which was most imperfectly treated in the works of both ,itard and ,seguin4 ,i succeeded in teaching a number of the idiots from the asylums both to read and to write so well that ,i was able to present them at a public school for an examination together with normal children4 ,and they passed the examination successfully4 ,these results seemed almost miraculous to those who saw them4 ,to me1 however1 the boys from the asylums had been able to compete with the normal children only because they had been taught in a different way4 ,they had been helped in their psychic development1 and the normal children had1 instead1 been suffocated1 held back4 ,i found myself thinking that if1 some day1 the special education which had developed these idiot children in such a marvellous fashion1 could be applied to the development of normal children1 the miracle of which my friends talked would no longer be possible4 ,the abyss between the inferior mentality of the idiot and that of the normal brain can never be bridged if the normal child has reached his full development4 ,while everyone was admiring the progress of my idiots1 ,i was searching for the reasons which could keep the happy healthy children of the common schools on so low a plane that they could be equalled in tests of intelligence by my unfortunate pupils6 ,one day1 a directress in the ,institute for ,deficients1 asked me to read one of the prophecies of ,ezekiel which had made a profound impression upon her1 as it seemed to prophesy the education of deficients4 ,the hand of the ,lord was upon me1 and carried me out in the spirit of the ,lord1 and set me down in the midst of the valley which was full of bones4 ,and caused me to pass by them round about3 and1 behold1 there were very many in the open valley2 and1 lo1 they were very dry4 ,and he said unto me1 ,son of man1 can these bones live8 ,and ,i answered1 ,o ,lord ,god1 thou knowest4 ,again he said unto me1 ,prophesy upon these bones1 and say unto them1 ,o ye dry hones1 hear the word of the ,lord4 ,thus saith the ,lord ,god unto these bones2 ,behold1 ,i will cause breath to enter into you1 and ye shall live3 ,and ,i will lay sinews upon you1 and will bring up flesh upon you1 and cover you with skin1 and put breath in you1 and ye shall live2 and ye shall know that ,i am the ,lord4 ,so ,i prophesied as ,i was commanded3 and as ,i prophesied1 there was a noise1 and behold a shaking1 and the bones came together1 bone to his bone4 ,and when ,i beheld1 lo1 the sinews and the flesh came up upon them1 and the skin covered them above3 but there was no breath in them4 ,then said he unto me1 ,prophesy unto the wind1 prophesy1 son of man1 and say to the wind1 ,thus saith the ,lord ,god2 ,come from the four winds1 ,o breath1 and breathe upon these slain1 that they may live4 ,so ,i prophesied as ,he commanded me1 and the breath came into them1 and they lived1 and stood up upon their feet1 an exceeding great army4 ,then he said unto me1 ,son of man1 these bones are the whole house of ,israel3 behold1 they say1 ,our bones are dried1 and our hope is lost3 we are cut off for our parts4 ,in fact1 the words--,i will cause breath to enter into you1 and ye shall live1 seem to me to refer to the direct individual work of the master who encourages1 calls to1 and helps his pupil1 preparing him for education4 ,and the remainder--,i will lay sinews upon you1 and will bring up flesh upon you1 recalled the fundamental phrase which sums up ,seguin's whole method1--to lead the child1 as it were1 by the hand1 from the education of the muscular system1 to that of the nervous system1 and of the senses4 ,it was thus that ,seguin taught the idiots how to walk1 how to maintain their equilibrium in the most difficult movements of the body--such as going up stairs1 jumping1 etc41 and finally1 to feel1 beginning the education of the muscular sensations by touching1 and reading the difference of temperature1 and ending with the education of the particular senses4 ,but if the training goes no further than this1 we have only led these children to adapt themselves to a low order of life 7almost a vegetable existence74 ,call to the ,spirit1 says the prophecy1 and the spirit shall enter into them1 and they shall have life4 ,seguin1 indeed1 led the idiot from the vegetative to the intellectual life1 from the education1 of the senses to general notions1 from general notions to abstract thought1 from abstract thought to morality4 ,but when this wonderful work is accomplished1 and by means of a minute physiological analysis and of a gradual progression in method1 the idiot has become a man1 he is still an inferior in the midst of his fellow men1 an individual who will never be able fully to adapt himself to the social environment3 ,our bones are dried1 and our hope is lost2 we are cut off for our parts4 ,this gives us another reason why the tedious method of ,seguin was so often abandoned2 the tremendous difficulty of the means1 did not justify the end4 ,everyone felt this1 and many said1 ,there is still so much to be done for normal children6 ,having through actual experience justified my faith in ,seguin's method1 ,i withdrew from active work among deficients1 and began a more thorough study of the works of ,itard and ,seguin4 ,i felt the need of meditation4 ,i did a thing which ,i had not done before1 and which perhaps few students have been willing to do1--,i translated into ,italian and copied out with my own hand1 the writings of these men1 from beginning to end1 making for myself books as the old ,benedictines used to do before the diffusion of printing4 ,i chose to do this by hand1 in order that ,i might have time to weigh the sense of each word1 and to read1 in truth1 the spirit of the author4 ,i had just finished copying the #fjj pages of ,seguin's ,french volume when ,i received from ,new ,york a copy of the ,english book published in #ahff4 ,this old volume had been found among the books discarded from the private library of a ,new ,york physician4 ,i translated it with the help of an ,english friend4 ,this volume did not add much in the way of new pedagogical experiments1 but dealt with the philosophy of the experiences described in the first volume4 ,the man who had studied abnormal children for thirty years expressed the idea that the physiological method1 which has as its base the individual study of the pupil and which forms its educative methods upon the analysis of physiological and psychological phenomena1 must come also to be applied to normal children4 ,this step1 he believed1 would show the way to a complete human regeneration4 ,the voice of ,seguin seemed to be like the voice of the forerunner crying in the wilderness1 and my thoughts were filled with the immensity and importance of a work which should be able to reform the school and education4 ,at this time ,i was registered at the ,university as a student of philosophy1 and followed the courses in experimental psychology1 which had only recently been established in ,italian universities1 namely1 at ,turin1 ,rome and ,naples4 ,at the same time ,i made researches in ,pedagogic ,anthropology in the elementary schools1 studying in this way the methods in organisation used for the education of normal children4 ,this work led to the teaching of ,pedagogic ,anthropology in the ,university of ,rome4 ,i had long wished to experiment with the methods for deficients in a first elementary class of normal children1 but ,i had never thought of making use of the homes or institutions where very young children were cared for4 ,it was pure chance that brought this new idea to my mind4 ,it was near the end of the year #aijf1 and ,i had just returned from ,milan1 where ,i had been one of a committee at the ,international ,exhibition for the assignment of prizes in the subjects of ,scientific ,pedagogy and ,experimental ,psychology4 ,a great opportunity came to me1 for ,i was invited by ,edoardo ,talamo1 the ,director ,general of the ,roman ,association for ,good ,building1 to undertake the organisation of infant schools in its model tenements4 ,it was ,signor ,talamo's happy idea to gather together in a large room all the little ones between the ages of three and seven belonging to the families living in the tenement4 ,the play and work of these children was to be carried on under the guidance of a teacher who should have her own apartment in the tenement house4 ,it was intended that every house should have its school1 and as the ,association for ,good ,building already owned more than #djj tenements in ,rome the work seemed to offer tremendous possibilities of development4 ,the first school was to be established in ,january1 #aijg1 in a large tenement house in the ,quarter of ,san ,lorenzo4 ,in the same ,quarter the ,association already owned fifty-eight buildings1 and according to ,signor ,talamo's plans we should soon be able to open sixteen of these schools within the house4 ,this new kind of school was christened by ,signora ,olga ,lodi1 a mutual friend of ,signor ,talamo and myself1 under the fortunate title of ,casa dei ,bambini or ,the ,children's ,house4 ,under this name the first of our schools was opened on the sixth of ,january1 #aijg1 at #eh ,via dei ,masi4 ,it was confided to the care of ,candida ,nuccitelli and was under my guidance and direction4 ,from the very first ,i perceived1 in all its immensity1 the social and pedagogical importance of such institutions1 and while at that time my visions of a triumphant future seemed exaggerated1 to-day many are beginning to understand that what ,i saw before was indeed the truth4 ,on the seventh of ,april of the same year1 #aijg1 a second ,children's ,house was opened in the ,quarter of ,san ,lorenzo2 and on the eighteenth of ,october1 #aijh1 another was inaugurated by the ,humanitarian ,society in ,milan in the ,quarter inhabited by workingmen4 ,the workshops of this same society undertook the manufacture of the materials which we used4 ,on the fourth of ,november following1 a third ,children's ,house was opened in ,rome1 this time not in the people's ,quarter1 but in a modern building for the middle classes1 situated in ,via ,famagosta1 in that part of the city known as the ,prati di ,castello2 and in ,january1 #aiji1 ,italian ,switzerland began to transform its orphan asylums and children's homes in which the ,froebel system had been used1 into ,children's ,houses adopting our methods and materials4 ,the ,children's ,house has a twofold importance3 the social importance which it assumes through its peculiarity of being a school within the house1 and its purely pedagogic importance gained through its methods for the education of very young children1 of which ,i now made a trial4 ,as ,i have said1 ,signor ,talamo's invitation gave me a wonderful opportunity for applying the methods used with deficients to normal children1 not of the elementary school age1 but of the age usual in infant asylums4 ,if a parallel between the deficient and the normal child is possible1 this will be during the period of early infancy when the child who has not the force to develop and he who is not yet developed are in some ways alike4 ,the very young child has not yet acquired a secure co-ordination of muscular movements1 and1 therefore1 walks imperfectly1 and is not able to perform the ordinary acts of life1 such as fastening and unfastening its garments4 ,the sense organs1 such as the power of accommodation of the eye1 are not yet completely developed2 the language is primordial and shows those defects common to the speech of the very young child4 ,the difficulty of fixing the attention1 the general instability1 etc41 are characteristics which the normal infant and the deficient child have in common4 ,preyer1 also1 in his psychological study of children has turned aside to illustrate the parallel between pathological linguistic defects1 and those of normal children in the process of developing4 ,methods which made growth possible to the mental personality of the idiot ought1 therefore1 to aid the development of young children1 and should be so adapted as to constitute a hygienic education of the entire personality of a normal human being4 ,many defects which become permanent1 such as speech defects1 the child acquires through being neglected during the most important period of his age1 the period between three and six1 at which time he forms and establishes his principal functions4 ,here lies the significance of my pedagogical experiment in the ,children's ,houses4 ,it represents the results of a series of trials made by me1 in the education of young children1 with methods already used with deficients4 ,my work has not been in any way an application1 pure and simple1 of the methods of ,seguin to young children1 as anyone who will consult the works of the author will readily see4 ,but it is none the less true that1 underlying these two years of trial1 there is a basis of experiment which goes back to the days of the ,french ,revolution1 and which represents the earnest work of the lives of ,itard and ,seguin4 ,as for me1 thirty years after the publication of ,seguin's second book1 ,i took up again the ideas and1 ,i may even say1 the work of this great man1 with the same freshness of spirit with which he received the inheritance of the work and ideas of his master ,itard4 ,for ten years ,i not only made practical experiments according to their methods1 but through reverent meditation absorbed the works of these noble and consecrated men1 who have left to humanity most vital proof of their obscure heroism4 ,thus my ten years of work may in a sense be considered as a summing up of the forty years of work done by ,itard and ,seguin4 ,viewed in this light1 fifty years of active work preceded and prepared for this apparently brief trial of only two years1 and ,i feel that ,i am not wrong in saying that these experiments represent the successive work of three physicians1 who from ,itard to me show in a greater or less degree the first steps along the path of psychiatry4 ,as definite factors in the civilisation of the people1 the ,children's ,houses deserve a separate volume4 ,they have1 in fact1 solved so many of the social and pedagogic problems in ways which have seemed to be ,utopian1 that they are a part of that modern transformation of the home which must most surely be realised before many years have passed4 ,in this way they touch directly the most important side of the social question--that which deals with the intimate or home life of the people4 ,it is enough here to reproduce the inaugural discourse delivered by me on the occasion of the opening of the second ,children's ,house in ,rome1 and to present the rules and regulations#d which ,i arranged in accordance with the wishes of ,signor ,talamo4 #d ,see page #gj4 ,it will be noticed that the club to which ,i refer1 and the dispensary which is also an out-patients' institution for medical and surgical treatment 7all such institutions being free to the inhabitants7 have already been established4 ,in the modern tenement--,casa ,moderna in the ,prati di ,castello1 opened ,november #d1 #aijh1 through the philanthropy of ,signor ,talamo--they are also planning to annex a communal kitchen4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,inagural ,,address ,,delivered ,,on ,,the ,,occasion ,,of ,,the ,,opening ,,of ,,one ,,of ,,the ,,children',s ,,houses ,it may be that the life lived by the very poor is a thing which some of you here to-day have never actually looked upon in all its degradation4 ,you may have only felt the misery of deep human poverty through the medium of some great book1 or some gifted actor may have made your soul vibrato with its horror4 ,let us suppose that in some such moment a voice should cry to you1 ,go look upon these homes of misery and blackest poverty4 ,for there have sprung up amid the terror and the suffering1 cases of happiness1 of cleanliness1 of peace4 ,the poor are to have an ideal house which shall be their own4 ,in ,quarters where poverty and vice ruled1 a work of moral redemption is going on4 ,the soul of the people is being set free from the torpor of vice1 from the shadows of ignorance4 ,the little children too have a ',house' of their own4 ,the new generation goes forward to meet the new era1 the time when misery shall no longer be deplored but destroyed4 ,they go to meet the time when the dark dens of vice and wretchedness shall have become things of the past1 and when no trace of them shall be found among the living4 ,what a change of emotions we should experience6 and how we should hasten here1 as the wise men guided by a dream and a star hastened to ,bethlehem6 ,i have spoken thus in order that you may understand the great significance1 the real beauty1 of this humble room1 which seems like a bit of the house itself set apart by a mother's hand for the use and happiness of the children of the ,quarter4 ,this is the second ,children's ,house#e which has been established within the ill-favoured ,quarter of ,san ,lorenzo4 #e ,dr4 ,montessori no longer directs the work in the ,casa dei ,bambini in the ,quarter of ,san ,lorenzo4 ,the ,quarter of ,san ,lorenzo is celebrated1 for every newspaper in the city is filled with almost daily accounts of its wretched happenings4 ,yet there are many who are not familiar with the origin of this portion of our city4 ,it was never intended to build up here a tenement district for the people4 ,and indeed ,san ,lorenzo is not the ,people's ,quarter1 it is the ,quarter of the poor4 ,it is the ,quarter where lives the underpaid1 often unemployed workingman1 a common type in a city which has no factory industries4 ,it is the home of him who undergoes the period of surveillance to which he is condemned after his prison sentence is ended4 ,they are all here1 mingled1 huddled together4 ,the district of ,san ,lorenzo sprang into being between #ahhd and #ahhh at the time of the great building fever4 ,no standards either social or hygienic guided these new constructions4 ,the aim in building was simply to cover with walls square foot after square foot of ground4 ,the more space covered1 the greater the gain of the interested ,banks and ,companies4 ,all this with a complete disregard of the disastrous future which they were preparing4 ,it was natural that no one should concern himself with the stability of the building he was creating1 since in no case would the property remain in the possession of him who built it4 ,when the storm burst1 in the shape of the inevitable building panic of #ahhh to #ahij1 these unfortunate houses remained for a long time untenanted4 ,then1 little by little1 the need of dwelling-places began to make itself felt1 and these great houses began to fill4 ,now1 those speculators who had been so unfortunate as to remain possessors of these buildings could not1 and did not wish to1 add fresh capital to that already lost1 so the houses constructed in the first place in utter disregard of all laws of hygiene1 and rendered still worse by having been used as temporary habitations1 came to be occupied by the poorest class in the city4 ,the apartments not being prepared for the working class1 were too large1 consisting of five1 six1 or seven rooms4 ,these were rented at a price which1 while exceedingly low in relation to the size1 was yet too high for any one family of very poor people4 ,this led to the evil of subletting4 ,the tenant who has taken a six room apartment at eight dollars a month sublets rooms at one dollar and a half or two dollars a month to those who can pay so much1 and a corner of a room1 or a corridor1 to a poorer tenant1 thus making an income of fifteen dollars or more1 over and above the cost of his own rent4 ,this means that the problem of existence is in great part solved for him1 and that in every case he adds to his income through usury4 ,the one who holds the lease traffics in the misery of his fellow tenants1 lending small sums at a rate which generally corresponds to twenty cents a week for the loan of two dollars1 equivalent to an annual rate of #ejj per cent4 ,thus we have in the evil of subletting the most cruel form of usury3 that which only the poor know how to practise upon the poor4 ,to this we must add the evils of crowded living1 promiscuousness1 immorality1 crime4 ,every little while the newspapers uncover for us one of these interieurs3 a large family1 growing boys and girls1 sleep in one room2 while one corner of the room is occupied by an outsider1 a woman who receives the nightly visits of men4 ,this is seen by the girls and the boys2 evil passions are kindled that lead to the crime and bloodshed which unveil for a brief instant before our eyes1 in some lurid paragraph1 this little detail of the mass of misery4 ,whoever enters1 for the first time1 one of these apartments is astonished and horrified4 ,for this spectacle of genuine misery is not at all like the garish scene he has imagined4 ,we enter here a world of shadows1 and that which strikes us first is the darkness which1 even though it be midday1 makes it impossible to distinguish any of the details of the room4 ,when the eye has grown accustomed to the gloom1 we perceive1 within1 the outlines of a bed upon which lies huddled a figure--someone ill and suffering4 ,if we have come to bring money from some society for mutual aid1 a candle must be lighted before the sum can be counted and the receipt signed4 ,oh1 when we talk of social problems1 how often we speak vaguely1 drawing upon our fancy for details instead of preparing ourselves to judge intelligently through a personal investigation of facts and conditions4 ,we discuss earnestly the question of home study for school children1 when for many of them home means a straw pallet thrown down in the corner of some dark hovel4 ,we wish to establish circulating libraries that the poor may read at home4 ,we plan to send among these people books which shall form their domestic literature--books through whose influence they shall come to higher standards of living4 ,we hope through the printed page to educate these poor people in matters of hygiene1 of morality1 of culture1 and in this we show ourselves profoundly ignorant of their most crying needs4 ,for many of them have no light by which to read6 ,there lies before the social crusader of the present day a problem more profound than that of the intellectual elevation of the poor2 the problem1 indeed1 of life4 ,in speaking of the children born in these places1 even the conventional expressions must be changed1 for they do not first see the light of day2 they come into a world of gloom4 ,they grow among the poisonous shadows which envelope over-crowded humanity4 ,these children cannot be other than filthy in body1 since the water supply in an apartment originally intended to be occupied by three or four persons1 when distributed among twenty or thirty is scarcely enough for drinking purposes6 ,we ,italians have elevated our word casa to the almost sacred significance of the ,english word home1 the enclosed temple of domestic affection1 accessible only to dear ones4 ,far removed from this conception is the condition of the many who have no casa1 but only ghastly walls within which the most intimate acts of life are exposed upon the pillory4 ,here1 there can be no privacy1 no modesty1 no gentleness2 here1 there is often not even light1 nor air1 nor water6 ,it seems a cruel mockery to introduce here our idea of the home as essential to the education of the masses1 and as furnishing1 along with the family1 the only solid basis for the social structure4 ,in doing this we would be not practical reformers but visionary poets4 ,conditions such as ,i have described make it more decorous1 more hygienic1 for these people to take refuge in the street and to let their children live there4 ,but how often these streets are the scene of bloodshed1 of quarrel1 of sights so vile as to be almost inconceivable4 ,the papers tell us of women pursued and killed by drunken husbands6 ,of young girls with the fear of worse than death1 stoned by low men4 ,again1 we see untellable things--a wretched woman thrown1 by the drunken men who have preyed upon her1 forth into the gutter4 ,there1 when day has come1 the children of the neighbourhood crowd about her like scavengers about their dead prey1 shouting and laughing at the sight of this wreck of womanhood1 kicking her bruised and filthy body as it lies in the mud of the gutter6 ,such spectacles of extreme brutality are possible here at the very gate of a cosmopolitan city1 the mother of civilisation and queen of the fine arts1 because of a new fact which was unknown to past centuries1 namely1 the isolation of the masses of the poor4 ,in the ,middle ,ages1 leprosy was isolated3 the ,catholics isolated the ,hebrews in the ,ghetto2 but poverty was never considered a peril and an infamy so great that it must be isolated4 ,the homes of the poor were scattered among those of the rich and the contrast between these was a commonplace in literature up to our own times4 ,indeed1 when ,i was a child in school1 teachers1 for the purpose of moral education1 frequently resorted to the illustration of the kind princess who sends help to the poor cottage next door1 or of the good children from the great house who carry food to the sick woman in the neighbouring attic4 ,to-day all this would be as unreal and artificial as a fairy tale4 ,the poor may no longer learn from their more fortunate neighbours lessons in courtesy and good breeding1 they no longer have the hope of help from them in cases of extreme need4 ,we have herded them together far from us1 without the walls1 leaving them to learn of each other1 in the abandon of desperation1 the cruel lessons of brutality and vice4 ,anyone in whom the social conscience is awake must see that we have thus created infected regions that threaten with deadly peril the city which1 wishing to make all beautiful and shining according to an aesthetic and aristocratic ideal1 has thrust without its walls whatever is ugly or diseased4 ,when ,i passed for the first time through these streets1 it was as if ,i found myself in a city upon which some great disaster had fallen4 ,it seemed to me that the shadow of some recent struggle still oppressed the unhappy people who1 with something very like terror in their pale faces1 passed me in these silent streets4 ,the very silence seemed to signify the life of a community interrupted1 broken4 ,not a carriage1 not even the cheerful voice of the ever-present street vender1 nor the sound of the hand-organ playing in the hope of a few pennies1 not even these things1 so characteristic of poor quarters1 enter here to lighten this sad and heavy silence4 ,observing these streets with their deep holes1 the doorsteps broken and tumbling1 we might almost suppose that this disaster had been in the nature of a great inundation which had carried the very earth away2 but looking about us at the houses stripped of all decorations1 the walls broken and scarred1 we are inclined to think that it was perhaps an earthquake which has afflicted this quarter4 ,then1 looking still more closely1 we see that in all this thickly settled neighbourhood there is not a shop to be found4 ,so poor is the community that it has not been possible to establish even one of those popular bazars where necessary articles are sold at so low a price as to put them within the reach of anyone4 ,the only shops of any sort are the low wine shops which open their evil-smelling doors to the passer-by4 ,as we look upon all this1 it is borne upon us that the disaster which has placed its weight of suffering upon these people is not a convulsion of nature1 but poverty--poverty with its inseparable companion1 vice4 ,this unhappy and dangerous state of things1 to which our attention is called at intervals by newspaper accounts of violent and immoral crime1 stirs the hearts and consciences of many who come to undertake among these people some work of generous benevolence4 ,one might almost say that every form of misery inspires a special remedy and that all have been tried here1 from the attempt to introduce hygienic principles into each house1 to the establishment of creches1 ,children's ,houses1 and dispensaries4 ,but what indeed is benevolence8 ,little more than an expression of sorrow2 it is pity translated into action4 ,the benefits of such a form of charity cannot be great1 and through the absence of any continued income and the lack of organisation it is restricted to a small number of persons4 ,the great and widespread peril of evil demands1 on the other hand1 a broad and comprehensive work directed toward the redemption of the entire community4 ,only such an organisation1 as1 working for the good of others1 shall itself grow and prosper through the general prosperity which it has made possible1 can make a place for itself in this quarter and accomplish a permanent good work4 ,it is to meet this dire necessity that the great and kindly work of the ,roman ,association of ,good ,building has been undertaken4 ,the advanced and highly modern way in which this work is being carried on is due to ,edoardo ,talamo1 ,director ,general of the ,association4 ,his plans1 so original1 so comprehensive1 yet so practical1 are without counterpart in ,italy or elsewhere4 ,this ,association was incorporated three years ago in ,rome1 its plan being to acquire city tenements1 remodel them1 put them into a productive condition1 and administer them as a good father of a family would4 ,the first property acquired comprised a large portion of the ,quarter of ,san ,lorenzo1 where to-day the ,association possesses fifty-eight houses1 occupying a ground space of about #cj1jjj square metres1 and containing1 independent of the ground floor1 #a1fjj small apartments4 ,thousands of people will in this way receive the beneficent influence of the protective reforms of the ,good ,building ,association4 ,following its beneficent programme1 the ,association set about transforming these old houses1 according to the most modern standards1 paying as much attention to questions related to hygiene and morals as to those relating to buildings4 ,the constructional changes would make the property of real and lasting value1 while the hygienic and moral transformation1 would1 through the improved condition of the inmates1 make the rent from these apartments a more definite asset4 ,the ,association of ,good ,building therefore decided upon a programme which would permit of a gradual attainment of their ideal4 ,it is necessary to proceed slowly because it is not easy to empty a tenement house at a time when houses are scarce1 and the humanitarian principles which govern the entire movement make it impossible to proceed more rapidly in this work of regeneration4 ,so it is1 that the ,association has up to the present time transformed only three houses in the ,quarter of ,san ,lorenzo4 ,the plan followed in this transformation is as follows3 ,a3 ,to demolish in every building all portions of the structure not originally constructed with the idea of making homes1 but1 from a purely commercial standpoint1 of making the rental roll larger4 ,in other words1 the new management tore down those parts of the building which encumbered the central court1 thus doing away with dark1 ill-ventilated apartments1 and giving air and light to the remaining portion of the tenement4 ,broad airy courts take the place of the inadequate air and light shafts1 rendering the remaining apartments more valuable and infinitely more desirable4 ,b3 ,to increase the number of stairways1 and to divide the room space in a more practical way4 ,the large six or seven room suites are reduced to small apartments of one1 two1 or three rooms1 and a kitchen4 ,the importance of such changes may be recognised from the economic point of view of the proprietor as well as from the standpoint of the moral and material welfare of the tenant4 ,increasing the number of stairways diminishes that abuse of walls and stairs inevitable where so many persons must pass up and down4 ,the tenants more readily learn to respect the building and acquire habits of cleanliness and order4 ,not only this1 but in reducing the chances of contact among the inhabitants of the house1 especially late at night1 a great advance has been made in the matter of moral hygiene4 ,the division of the house into small apartments has done much toward this moral regeneration4 ,each family is thus set apart1 homes are made possible1 while the menacing evil of subletting together with all its disastrous consequences of overcrowding and immorality is checked in the most radical way4 ,on one side this arrangement lessens the burden of the individual lease holders1 and on the other increases the income of the proprietor1 who now receives those earnings which were the unlawful gain of the system of subletting4 ,when the proprietor who originally rented an apartment of six rooms for a monthly rental of eight dollars1 makes such an apartment over into three small1 sunny1 and airy suites consisting of one room and a kitchen1 it is evident that he increases his income4 ,the moral importance of this reform as it stands to-day is tremendous1 for it has done away with those evil influences and low opportunities which arise from crowding and from promiscuous contact1 and has brought to life among these people1 for the first time1 the gentle sentiment of feeling themselves free within their own homes1 in the intimacy of the family4 ,but the project of the ,association goes beyond even this4 ,the house which it offers to its tenants is not only sunny and airy1 but in perfect order and repair1 almost shining1 and as if perfumed with purity and freshness4 ,these good things1 however1 carry with them a responsibility which the tenant must assume if he wishes to enjoy them4 ,he must pay an actual tax of care and good will4 ,the tenant who receives a clean house must keep it so1 must respect the walls from the big general entrance to the interior of his own little apartment4 ,he who keeps his house in good condition receives the recognition and consideration due such a tenant4 ,thus all the tenants unite in an ennobling warfare for practical hygiene1 an end made possible by the simple task of conserving the already perfect conditions4 ,here indeed is something new6 ,so far only our great national buildings have had a continued maintenance fund4 ,here1 in these houses offered to the people1 the maintenance is confided to a hundred or so workingmen1 that is1 to all the occupants of the building4 ,this care is almost perfect4 ,the people keep the house in perfect condition1 without a single spot4 ,the building in which we find ourselves to-day has been for two years under the sole protection of the tenants1 and the work of maintenance has been left entirely to them4 ,yet few of our houses can compare in cleanliness and freshness with this home of the poor4 ,the experiment has been tried and the result is remarkable4 ,the people acquire together with the lore of home-making1 that of cleanliness4 ,they come1 moreover1 to wish to beautify their homes4 ,the ,association helps this by placing growing plants and trees in the courts and about the halls4 ,out of this honest rivalry in matters so productive of good1 grows a species of pride new to this quarter2 this is the pride which the entire body of tenants takes in having the best-cared-for building and in having risen to a higher and more civilised plane of living4 ,they not only live in a house1 but they know how to live1 they know how to respect the house in which they live4 ,this first impulse has led to other reforms4 ,from the clean home will come personal cleanliness4 ,dirty furniture cannot be tolerated in a clean house1 and those persons living in a permanently clean house will come to desire personal cleanliness4 ,one of the most important hygienic reforms of the ,association is that of the baths4 ,each remodeled tenement has a place set apart for bathrooms1 furnished with tubs or shower1 and having hot and cold water4 ,all the tenants in regular turn may use these baths1 as1 for example1 in various tenements the occupants go according to turn1 to wash their clothes in the fountain in the court4 ,this is a great convenience which invites the people to be clean4 ,these hot and cold baths within the house are a great improvement upon the general public baths4 ,in this way we make possible to these people1 at one and the same time1 health and refinement1 opening not only to the sun1 but to progress1 those dark habitations once the vile caves of misery4 ,but in striving to realise its ideal of a semi-gratuitous maintenance of its buildings1 the ,association met with a difficulty in regard to those children under school age1 who must often be left alone during the entire day while their parents went out to work4 ,these little ones1 not being able to understand the educative motives which taught their parents to respect the house1 became ignorant little vandals1 defacing the walls and stairs4 ,and here we have another reform the expense of which may be considered as indirectly assumed by the tenants as was the care of the building4 ,this reform may be considered as the most brilliant transformation of a tax which progress and civilisation have as yet devised4 ,the ,children's ,house is earned by the parents through the care of the building4 ,its expenses are met by the sum that the ,association would have otherwise been forced to spend upon repairs4 ,a wonderful climax1 this1 of moral benefits received6 ,within the ,children's ,house1 which belongs exclusively to those children under school age1 working mothers may safely leave their little ones1 and may proceed with a feeling of great relief and freedom to their own work4 ,but this benefit1 like that of the care of the house1 is not conferred without a tax of care and of good will4 #f,the ,regulations posted on the walls announce it thus3 #f ,see page #gj4 ,the mothers are obliged to send their children to the ',children's ,house' clean1 and to co-operate with the ,directress in the educational work4 ,two obligations3 namely1 the physical and moral care of their own children4 ,if the child shows through its conversation that the educational work of the school is being undermined by the attitude taken in his home1 he will be sent back to his parents1 to teach them thus how to take advantage of their good opportunities4 ,those who give themselves over to low-living1 to fighting1 and to brutality1 shall feel upon them the weight of those little lives1 so needing care4 ,they shall feel that they themselves have once more cast into the darkness of neglect those little creatures who are the dearest part of the family4 ,in other words1 the parents must learn to deserve the benefit of having within the house the great advantage of a school for their little ones4 ,good will1 a willingness to meet the demands of the ,association is enough1 for the directress is ready and willing to teach them how4 ,the regulations say that the mother must go at least once a week1 to confer with the directress1 giving an account of her child1 and accepting any helpful advice which the directress may be able to give4 ,the advice thus given will undoubtedly prove most illuminating in regard to the child's health and education1 since to each of the ,children's ,houses is assigned a physician as well as a directress4 ,the directress is always at the disposition of the mothers1 and her life1 as a cultured and educated person1 is a constant example to the inhabitants of the house1 for she is obliged to live in the tenement and to be therefore a co-habitant with the families of all her little pupils4 ,this is a fact of immense importance4 ,among these almost savage people1 into these houses where at night no one dared go about unarmed1 there has come not only to teach1 but to live the very life they live1 a gentlewoman of culture1 an educator by profession1 who dedicates her time and her life to helping those about her6 ,a true missionary1 a moral queen among the people1 she may1 if she be possessed of sufficient tact and heart1 reap an unheard-of harvest of good from her social work4 ,this house is verily new2 it would seem a dream impossible of realisation1 but it has been tried4 ,it is true that there have been before this attempts made by generous persons to go and live among the poor to civilise them4 ,but such work is not practical1 unless the house of the poor is hygienic1 making it possible for people of better standards to live there4 ,nor can such work succeed in its purpose unless some common advantage or interest unites all of the tenants in an effort toward better things4 ,this tenement is new also because of the pedagogical organisation of the ,children's ,house4 ,this is not simply a place where the children are kept1 not just an asylum1 but a true school for their education1 and its methods are inspired by the rational principles of scientific pedagogy4 ,the physical development of the children is followed1 each child being studied from the anthropological standpoint4 ,linguistic exercises1 a systematic sense-training1 and exercises which directly fit the child for the duties of practical life1 form the basis of the work done4 ,the teaching is decidedly objective1 and presents an unusual richness of didactic material4 ,it is not possible to speak of all this in detail4 ,i must1 however1 mention that there already exists in connection with the school a bathroom1 where the children may be given hot or cold baths and where they may learn to take a partial bath1 hands1 face1 neck1 ears4 ,wherever possible the ,association has provided a piece of ground in which the children may learn to cultivate the vegetables in common use4 ,it is important that ,i speak here of the pedagogical progress attained by the ,children's ,house as an institution4 ,those who are conversant with the chief problems of the school know that to-day much attention is given to a great principle1 one that is ideal and almost beyond realisation1--the union of the family and the school in the matter of educational aims4 ,but the family is always something far away from the school1 and is almost always regarded as rebelling against its ideals4 ,it is a species of phantom upon which the school can never lay its hands4 ,the home is closed not only to pedagogical progress1 but often to social progress4 ,we see here for the first time the possibility of realising the long-talked-of pedagogical ideal4 ,we have put the school within the house2 and this is not all4 ,we have placed it within the house as the property of the collectivity1 leaving under the eyes of the parents the whole life of the teacher in the accomplishment of her high mission4 ,this idea of the collective ownership of the school is new and very beautiful and profoundly educational4 ,the parents know that the ,children's ,house is their property1 and is maintained by a portion of the rent they pay4 ,the mothers may go at any hour of the day to watch1 to admire1 or to meditate upon the life there4 ,it is in every way a continual stimulus to reflection1 and a fount of evident blessing and help to their own children4 ,we may say that the mothers adore the ,children's ,house1 and the directress4 ,how many delicate and thoughtful attentions these good mothers show the teacher of their little ones6 ,they often leave sweets or flowers upon the sill of the schoolroom window1 as a silent token1 reverently1 almost religiously1 given4 ,and when after three years of such a novitiate1 the mothers send their children to the common schools1 they will be excellently prepared to co-operate in the work of education1 and will have acquired a sentiment1 rarely found even among the best classes2 namely1 the idea that they must merit through their own conduct and with their own virtue1 the possession of an educated son4 ,another advance made by the ,children's ,houses as an institution is related to scientific pedagogy4 ,this branch of pedagogy1 heretofore1 being based upon the anthropological study of the pupil whom it is to educate1 has touched only a few of the positive questions which tend to transform education4 ,for a man is not only a biological but a social product1 and the social environment of individuals in the process of education1 is the home4 ,scientific pedagogy will seek in vain to better the new generation if it does not succeed in influencing also the environment within which this new generation grows6 ,i believe1 therefore1 that in opening the house to the light of new truths1 and to the progress of civilisation we have solved the problem of being able to modify directly1 the environment of the new generation1 and have thus made it possible to apply1 in a practical way1 the fundamental principles of scientific pedagogy4 ,the ,children's ,house marks still another triumph2 it is the first step toward the socialisation of the house4 ,the inmates find under their own roof the convenience of being able to leave their little ones in a place1 not only safe1 but where they have every advantage4 ,and let it be remembered that all the mothers in the tenement may enjoy this privilege1 going away to their work with easy minds4 ,until the present time only one class in society might have this advantage4 ,rich women were able to go about their various occupations and amusements1 leaving their children in the hands of a nurse or a governess4 ,to-day the women of the people who live in these remodeled houses1 may say1 like the great lady1 ,i have left my son with the governess and the nurse4 ,more than this1 they may add1 like the princess of the blood1 ,and the house physician watches over them and directs their sane and sturdy growth4 ,these women1 like the most advanced class of ,english and ,american mothers1 possess a ,biographical ,chart1 which1 filled for the mother by the directress and the doctor1 gives her the most practical knowledge of her child's growth and condition4 ,we are all familiar with the ordinary advantages of the communistic transformation of the general environment4 ,for example1 the collective use of railway carriages1 of street lights1 of the telephone1 all these are great advantages4 ,the enormous production of useful articles1 brought about by industrial progress1 makes possible to all1 clean clothes1 carpets1 curtains1 table-delicacies1 better tableware1 etc4 ,the making of such benefits generally tends to level social caste4 ,all this we have seen in its reality4 ,but the communising of persons is new4 ,that the collectivity shall benefit from the services of the servant1 the nurse1 the teacher--this is a modern ideal4 ,we have in the ,children's ,houses a demonstration of this ideal which is unique in ,italy or elsewhere4 ,its significance is most profound1 for it corresponds to a need of the times4 ,we can no longer say that the convenience of leaving their children takes away from the mother a natural social duty of first importance2 namely1 that of caring for and educating her tender offspring4 ,no1 for to-day the social and economic evolution calls the working-woman to take her place among wage-earners1 and takes away from her by force those duties which would be most dear to her6 ,the mother must1 in any event1 leave her child1 and often with the pain of knowing him to be abandoned4 ,the advantages furnished by such institutions are not limited to the labouring classes1 but extend also to the general middle-class1 many of whom work with the brain4 ,teachers1 professors1 often obliged to give private lessons after school hours1 frequently leave their children to the care1 of some rough and ignorant maid-of-all-work4 ,indeed1 the first announcement of the ,children's ,house was followed by a deluge of letters from persons of the better class demanding that these helpful reforms be extended to their dwellings4 ,we are1 then1 communising a maternal function1 a feminine duty1 within the house4 ,we may see here in this practical act the solving of many of woman's problems which have seemed to many impossible of solution4 ,what then will become of the home1 one asks1 if the woman goes away from it8 ,the home will be transformed and will assume the functions of the woman4 ,i believe that in the future of society other forms of communistic life will come4 ,take1 for example1 the infirmary2 woman is the natural nurse for the dear ones of her household4 ,but who does not know how often in these days she is obliged to tear herself unwillingly from the bedside of her sick to go to her work8 ,competition is great1 and her absence from her post threatens the tenure of the position from which she draws the means of support4 ,to be able to leave the sick one in a house-infirmary1 to which she may have access any free moments she may have1 and where she is at liberty to watch during the night1 would be an evident advantage to such a woman4 ,and how great would be the progress made in the matter of family hygiene1 in all that relates to isolation and disinfection6 ,who does not know the difficulties of a poor family when one child is ill of some contagions disease1 and should be isolated from the others8 ,often such a family may have no kindred or friends in the city to whom the other children may be sent4 ,much more distant1 but not impossible1 is the communal kitchen1 where the dinner ordered in the morning is sent at the proper time1 by means of a dumb-waiter1 to the family dining-room4 ,indeed1 this has been successfully tried in ,america4 ,such a reform would be of the greatest advantage to those families of the middle-class who must confide their health and the pleasures of the table to the hands of an ignorant servant who ruins the food4 ,at present1 the only alternative in such cases is to go outside the home to some cafe where a cheap table d'hote may be had4 ,indeed1 the transformation of the house must compensate for the loss in the family of the presence of the woman who has become a social wage-earner4 ,in this way the house will become a centre1 drawing into itself all those good things which have hitherto been lacking3 schools1 public baths1 hospitals1 etc4 ,thus the tendency will be to change the tenement houses1 which have been places of vice and peril1 into centres of education1 of refinement1 of comfort4 ,this will be helped if1 besides the schools for the children1 there may grow up also clubs and reading-rooms for the inhabitants1 especially for the men1 who will find there a way to pass the evening pleasantly and decently4 ,the tenement-club1 as possible and as useful in all social classes as is the ,children's ,house1 will do much toward closing the gambling-houses and saloons to the great moral advantage of the people4 ,and ,i believe that the ,association of ,good ,building will before long establish such clubs in its reformed tenements here in the ,quarter of ,san ,lorenzo2 clubs where the tenants may find newspapers and books1 and where they may hear simple and helpful lectures4 ,we are1 then1 very far from the dreaded dissolution of the home and of the family1 through the fact that woman has been forced by changed social and economic conditions to give her time and strength to remunerative work4 ,the home itself assumes the gentle feminine attributes of the domestic housewife4 ,the day may come when the tenant1 having given to the proprietor of the house a certain sum1 shall receive in exchange whatever is necessary to the comfort of life2 in other words1 the administration shall become the steward of the family4 ,the house1 thus considered1 tends to assume in its evolution a significance more exalted than even the ,english word home expresses4 ,it does not consist of walls alone1 though these walls be the pure and shining guardians of that intimacy which is the sacred symbol of the family4 ,the home shall become more than this4 ,it lives6 ,it has a soul4 ,it may be said to embrace its inmates with the tender1 consoling arms of woman4 ,it is the giver of moral life1 of blessings2 it cares for1 it educates and feeds the little ones4 ,within it1 the tired workman shall find rest and newness of life4 ,he shall find there the intimate life of the family1 and its happiness4 ,the new woman1 like the butterfly come forth from the chrysalis1 shall be liberated from all those attributes which once made her desirable to man only as the source of the material blessings of existence4 ,she shall be1 like man1 an individual1 a free human being1 a social worker2 and1 like man1 she shall seek blessing and repose within the house1 the house which has been reformed and communised4 ,she shall wish to be loved for herself and not as a giver of comfort and repose4 ,she shall wish a love free from every form of servile labour4 ,the goal of human love is not the egotistical end of assuring its own satisfaction--it is the sublime goal of multiplying the forces of the free spirit1 making it almost ,divine1 and1 within such beauty and light1 perpetuating the species4 ,this ideal love is made incarnate by ,frederick ,nietzsche1 in the woman of ,zarathustra1 who conscientiously wished her son to be better than she4 ,why do you desire me8 she asks the man4 ,perhaps because of the perils of a solitary life8 ,in that case go far from me4 ,i wish the man who has conquered himself1 who has made his soul great4 ,i wish the man who has conserved a clean and robust body4 ,i wish the man who desires to unite with me1 body and soul1 to create a son6 ,a son better1 more perfect1 stronger1 than any created heretofore6 ,to better the species consciously1 cultivating his own health1 his own virtue1 this should be the goal of man's married life4 ,it is a sublime concept of which1 as yet1 few think4 ,and the socialised home of the future1 living1 provident1 kindly2 educator and comforter2 is the true and worthy home of those human mates who wish to better the species1 and to send the race forward triumphant into the eternity of life6 ,,rules ,,and ,,regulations ,,of ,,the ,,children',s ,,houses ,the ,roman ,association of ,good ,building hereby establishes within its tenement house number1 a ,children's ,house1 in which may be gathered together all children under common school age1 belonging to the families of the tenants4 ,the chief aim of the ,children's ,house is to offer1 free of charge1 to the children of those parents who are obliged to absent themselves for their work1 the personal care which the parents are not able to give4 ,in the ,children's ,house attention is given to the education1 the health1 the physical and moral development of the children4 ,this work is carried on in a way suited to the age of the children4 ,there shall be connected with the ,children's ,house a ,directress1 a ,physician1 and a ,caretaker4 ,the programme and hours of the ,children's ,house shall be fixed by the ,directress4 ,there may be admitted to the ,children's ,house all the children in the tenement between the ages of three and seven4 ,the parents who wish to avail themselves of the advantages of the ,children's ,house pay nothing4 ,they must1 however1 assume these binding obligations3 7a7 ,to send their children to the ,children's ,house at the appointed time1 clean in body and clothing1 and provided with a suitable apron4 7b7 ,to show the greatest respect and deference toward the ,directress and toward all persons connected with the ,children's ,house1 and to co-operate with the ,directress herself in the education of the children4 ,once a week1 at least1 the mothers may talk with the ,directress1 giving her information concerning the home life of the child1 and receiving helpful advice from her4 ,there shall be expelled from the ,children's ,house3 7a7 ,those children who present themselves unwashed1 or in soiled clothing4 7b7 ,those who show themselves to be incorrigible4 7c7 ,those whose parents fail in respect to the persons connected with the ,children's ,house1 or who destroy through bad conduct the educational work of the institution4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,pedagogical ,,methods ,,used ,,in ,,the ,,children',s ,,houses ,as soon as ,i knew that ,i had at my disposal a class of little children1 it was my wish to make of this school a field for scientific experimental pedagogy and child psychology4 ,i started with a view in which ,wundt concurs2 namely1 that child psychology does not exist4 ,indeed1 experimental researches in regard to childhood1 as1 for example1 those of ,preyer and ,baldwin1 have been made upon not more than two or three subjects1 children of the investigators4 ,moreover1 the instruments of psychometry must be greatly modified and simplified before they can be used with children1 who do not lend themselves passively as subjects for experimentation4 ,child psychology can be established only through the method of external observation4 ,we must renounce all idea of making any record of internal states1 which can be revealed only by the introspection of the subject himself4 ,the instruments of psychometric research1 as applied to pedagogy1 have up to the present time been limited to the esthesiometric phase of the study4 ,my intention was to keep in touch with the researches of others1 but to make myself independent of them1 proceeding to my work without preconceptions of any kind4 ,i retained as the only essential1 the affirmation1 or1 rather1 the definition of ,wundt1 that all methods of experimental psychology may be reduced to one2 namely1 carefully recorded observation of the subject4 ,treating of children1 another factor must necessarily intervene3 the study of the development4 ,here too1 ,i retained the same general criterion1 but without clinging to any dogma about the activity of the child according to age4 ,,anthropological ,,consideration ,in regard to physical development1 my first thought was given to the regulating of anthropometric observations1 and to the selection of the most important observations to be made4 ,i designed an anthropometer provided with the metric scale1 varying between 4#ej metre and #a4ej metres4 ,a small stool1 #cj centimetres high1 could be placed upon the floor of the anthropometer for measurements taken in a sitting position4 ,i now advise making the anthropometer with a platform on either side of the pole bearing the scale1 so that on one side the total stature can be measured1 and on the other the height of the body when seated4 ,in the second case1 the zero is indicated at #cj centimetres2 that is1 it corresponds to the seat of the stool1 which is fixed4 ,the indicators on the vertical post are independent one of the other and this makes it possible to measure two children at the same time4 ,in this way the inconvenience and waste of time caused by having to move the seat about1 is obviated1 and also the trouble of having to calculate the difference in the metric scale4 ,having thus facilitated the technique of the researches1 ,i decided to take the measurements of the children's stature1 seated and standing1 every month1 and in order to have these regulated as exactly as possible in their relation to development1 and also to give greater regularity to the research work of the teacher1 ,i made a rule that the measurements should be taken on the day on which the child completed each month of his age4 ,for this purpose ,i designed a register arranged on the following plan3-- ,,september ,,october ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,day of ,stature ,stature ,etc4 month ---------------------------------------- ---- ,standing ,sitting ,standing ,sitting ---------------------------------------- ------------- #a ---------------------------------------- ---- #b ---------------------------------------- ---- #c ---------------------------------------- ---- #d ---------------------------------------- ---- ,etc4 ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,the spaces opposite each number are used to register the name of the child born on that day of the month4 ,thus the teacher knows which scholars she must measure on the days which are marked on the calendar1 and she fills in his measurements to correspond with the month in which he was born4 ,in this way a most exact registration can be arrived at without having the teacher feel that she is overburdened1 or fatigued4 ,with regard to the weight of the child1 ,i have arranged that it shall be taken every week on a pair of scales which ,i have placed in the dressing-room where the children are given their bath4 ,according to the day on which the child is born1 ,monday1 ,tuesday1 ,wednesday1 etc41 we have him weighed when he is ready to take a bath4 ,thus the children's baths 7no small matter when we consider a class of fifty7 are sub-divided into seven days1 and from three to five children go to the bath every day4 ,certainly1 theoretically1 a daily bath would be desirable1 but in order to manage this a large bath or a number of small ones would be necessary1 so that a good many children could be bathed at once4 ,even a weekly bath entails many difficulties1 and sometimes has to be given up4 ,in any case1 ,i have distributed the taking of the weight in the order stated with the intention of thus arranging for and making sure of periodical baths4#g #g ,incidentally1 ,i may say1 that ,i have invented a means of bathing children contemporaneously1 without having a large bath4 ,in order to manage this1 ,i thought of having a long trough with supports at the bottom1 on which small1 separate tubs could rest1 with rather large holes in the bottom4 ,the little tubs are filled from the large trough1 into which the water runs and then goes into all the little tubs together1 by the law of the levelling of liquids1 going through the holes in the bottom4 ,when the water is settled1 it does not pass from tub to tub1 and the children will each have their own bath4 ,the emptying of the trough brings with it the simultaneous emptying of the little tubs1 which being of light metal1 will be easily moved from the bottom of the big tub1 in order to clean it4 ,it is not difficult to imagine arranging a cork for the hole at the bottom4 ,these are only projects for the future6 ,the form here given shows the register which we use in recording the weight of the children4 ,every page of the register corresponds to a month4 ,it seems to me that the anthropological measurements1 the taking and recording of which ,i have just described1 should be the only ones with which the schoolmistress need occupy herself2 and1 therefore1 the only ones which should be taken actually within the school4 ,it is my plan that other measurements should be taken by a physician1 who either is1 or is preparing to be1 a specialist in infant anthropology4 ,in the meantime1 ,i take these special measurements myself4 ,,september ---------------------------------------- #ast week #bnd week #crd week #dth week ,lbs4 ,lbs4 ,lbs4 ,lbs4 ---------------------------------------- ,monday ,tuesday ,wednesday ,etc4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,the examination made by the physician must necessarily be complex1 and to facilitate and regulate the taking of these measurements ,i have designed and had printed biological charts1 of which ,i here give an example4 ,number ,date ,name and ,surname ,age ,name of ,parents ,mother's ,age ,father's ,age ,professions ,details of ,hereditary ,antecedents ,personal ,antecedents ,,anthropological ,,notes ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,standing ,weight ,chest ,seated ,index of ,ponderal ,stature ,meas4 ,stature ,stature#h ,index#i ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ------------------------------------ ,,head ----------------------------------- ,dia4 ,dia4 ,cephalic ,cir4 ,front ,across ,index to ,back --------------------------------- --------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,physical ,constitution ,condition of ,muscles ,colour of ,skin ,colour of ,hair ,,notes #h ,for the ,index of ,stature ,dr4 ,montessori combines the seated and standing statures4 #i ,the ,ponderal ,index is found by combining the height and weight4 ,as will be seen1 these charts are very simple4 ,i made them so because ,i wished the doctor and the schoolmistress to be able to use them freely and independently4 ,by this method the anthropometrical records are arranged in an orderly way1 while the simplicity of the mechanism1 and the clearness of the charts1 guarantee the making of such observations as ,i have considered fundamental4 ,referring to the physician's biographical chart1 ,i advise that once a year the following measurements be taken3 ,circumference of the head2 the two greater diameters of the head2 the circumference of the chest2 and the cephalic1 ponderal1 and stature indices4 ,further information concerning the selection of these measurements may be found in my treatise1 ,antropologia ,pedagogica4 ,the physician is asked to take these measurements during the week1 or at least within the month1 in which the child completes a year of his age1 and1 if it is possible1 on the birthday itself4 ,in this way the task of the physician will also be made easier1 because of its regularity4 ,we have1 at the most1 fifty children in each of our schools1 and the birthdays of these scattered over the #cfe days of the year make it possible for the physician to take his measurements from time to time1 so that the burden of his work is not heavy4 ,it is the duty of the teacher to inform the doctor of the birthdays of the children4 ,the taking of these anthropometrical measurements has also an educational side to it1 for the pupils1 when they leave the ,children's ,house1 know how to answer with clearness and certainty the following questions3-- ,on what day of the week were you born8 ,on what day of the month8 ,when does your birthday come8 ,and with all this they will have acquired habits of order1 and1 above all1 they will have formed the habit of observing themselves4 ,indeed1 ,i may say here1 that the children take a great pleasure in being measured2 at the first glance of the teacher and at the word stature1 the child begins instantly to take off his shoes1 laughing and running to place himself upon the platform of the anthropometer2 placing himself of his own accord in the normal position so perfectly that the teacher needs only to arrange the indicator and read the result4 ,aside from the measurements which the physician takes with the ordinary instruments 7calipers and metal yard measure71 he makes observations upon the children's colouring1 condition of their muscles1 state of their lymphatic glands1 the condition of the blood1 etc4 ,he notices any malformations2 describes any pathological conditions with care 7any tendency to rickets1 infant paralysis1 defective sight1 etc474 ,this objective study of the child will guide the doctor when he finds it advisable to talk with the parents concerning its condition4 ,following this1 when the doctor has found it desirable1 he makes a thorough1 sanitary inspection of the home of the child1 prescribing necessary treatment and eventually doing away with such troubles as eczema1 inflammation of the ear1 feverish conditions1 intestinal disturbances1 etc4 ,this careful following of the case in hand is greatly assisted by the existence of the dispensary within the house1 which makes feasible direct treatment and continual observation4 ,i have found that the usual question asked patients who present themselves at the clinics1 are not adapted for use in our schools1 as the members of the families living in these tenements are for the greater part perfectly normal4 ,i therefore encourage the directress of the school to gather from her conversations with the mothers information of a more practical sort4 ,she informs herself as to the education of the parents1 their habits1 the wages earned1 the money spent for household purposes1 etc41 and from all this she outlines a history of each family1 much on the order of those used by ,le-,play4 ,this method is1 of course1 practical only where the directress lives among the families of her scholars4 ,in every case1 however1 the physician's advice to the mothers concerning the hygienic care of each particular child1 as well as his directions concerning hygiene in general1 will prove most helpful4 ,the directress should act as the go-between in these matters1 since she is in the confidence of the mothers1 and since from her1 such advice comes naturally4 ,,environment3 ,,schoolroom ,,furnishings ,the method of observation must undoubtedly include the methodical observation of the morphological growth of the pupils4 ,but let me repeat that1 while this element necessarily enters1 it is not upon this particular kind of observation that the method is established4 ,the method of observation is established upon one fundamental base--the liberty of the pupils in their spontaneous manifestations4 ,with this in view1 ,i first turned my attention to the question of environment1 and this1 of course1 included the furnishing of the schoolroom4 ,in considering an ample playground with space for a garden as an important part of this school environment1 ,i am not suggesting anything new4 ,the novelty lies1 perhaps1 in my idea for the use of this open-air space1 which is to be in direct communication with the schoolroom1 so that the children may be free to go and come as they like1 throughout the entire day4 ,i shall speak of this more fully later on4 ,the principal modification in the matter of school furnishings is the abolition of desks1 and benches or stationary chairs4 ,i have had tables made with wide1 solid1 octagonal legs1 spreading in such a way that the tables are at the same time solidly firm and very light1 so light1 indeed1 that two four-year-old children can easily carry them about4 ,these tables are rectangular and sufficiently large to accommodate two children on the long side1 there being room for three if they sit rather close together4 ,there are smaller tables at which one child may work alone4 ,i also designed and had manufactured little chairs4 ,my first plan for these was to have them cane seated1 but experience has shown the wear on these to be so great1 that ,i now have chairs made entirely of wood4 ,these are very light and of an attractive shape4 ,in addition to these1 ,i have in each schoolroom a number of comfortable little armchairs1 some of wood and some of wicker4 ,another piece of our school furniture consists of a little washstand1 so low that it can be used by even a three-year-old child4 ,this is painted with a white waterproof enamel and1 besides the broad1 upper and lower shelves which hold the little white enameled basins and pitchers1 there are small side shelves for the soap-dishes1 nail-brushes1 towels1 etc4 ,there is also a receptacle into which the basins may be emptied4 ,wherever possible1 a small cupboard provides each child with a space where he may keep his own soap1 nail-brush1 tooth-brush1 etc4 ,in each of our schoolrooms we have provided a series of long low cupboards1 especially designed for the reception of the didactic materials4 ,the doors of these cupboards open easily1 and the care of the materials is confided to the children4 ,the tops of these cases furnish room for potted plants1 small aquariums1 or for the various toys with which the children are allowed to play freely4 ,we have ample blackboard space1 and these boards are so hung as to be easily used by the smallest child4 ,each blackboard is provided with a small case in which are kept the chalk1 and the white cloths which we use instead of the ordinary erasers4 ,above the blackboards are hung attractive pictures1 chosen carefully1 representing simple scenes in which children would naturally be interested4 ,among the pictures in our ,children's ,houses in ,rome we have hung a copy of ,raphael's ,madonna della ,seggiola1 and this picture we have chosen as the emblem of the ,children's ,houses4 ,for indeed1 these ,children's ,houses represent not only social progress1 but universal human progress1 and are closely related to the elevation of the idea of motherhood1 to the progress of woman and to the protection of her offspring4 ,in this beautiful conception1 ,raphael has not only shown us the ,madonna as a ,divine ,mother holding in her arms the babe who is greater than she1 but by the side of this symbol of all motherhood1 he has placed the figure of ,st4 ,john1 who represents humanity4 ,so in ,raphael's picture we see humanity rendering homage to maternity1--maternity1 the sublime fact in the definite triumph of humanity4 ,in addition to this beautiful symbolism1 the picture has a value as being one of the greatest works of art of ,italy's greatest artist4 ,and if the day shall come when the ,children's ,houses shall be established throughout the world1 it is our wish that this picture of ,raphael's shall have its place in each of the schools1 speaking eloquently of the country in which they originated4 ,the children1 of course1 cannot comprehend the symbolic significance of the ,madonna of the ,chair1 but they will see something more beautiful than that which they feel in more ordinary pictures1 in which they see mother1 father1 and children4 ,and the constant companionship with this picture will awaken in their heart a religious impression4 ,this1 then1 is the environment which ,i have selected for the children we wish to educate4 ,i know the first objection which will present itself to the minds of persons accustomed to the old-time methods of discipline2--the children in these schools1 moving about1 will overturn the little tables and chairs1 producing noise and disorder2 but this is a prejudice which has long existed in the minds of those dealing with little children1 and for which there is no real foundation4 ,swaddling clothes have for many centuries been considered necessary to the new-born babe1 walking-chairs to the child who is learning to walk4 ,so in the school1 we still believe it necessary to have heavy desks and chairs fastened to the floor4 ,all these things are based upon the idea that the child should grow in immobility1 and upon the strange prejudice that1 in order to execute any educational movement1 we must maintain a special position of the body2--as we believe that we must assume a special position when we are about to pray4 ,our little tables and our various types of chairs are all light and easily transported1 and we permit the child to select the position which he finds most comfortable4 ,he can make himself comfortable as well as seat himself in his own place4 ,and this freedom is not only an external sign of liberty1 but a means of education4 ,if by an awkward movement a child upsets a chair1 which falls noisily to the floor1 he will have an evident proof of his own incapacity2 the same movement had it taken place amid stationary benches would have passed unnoticed by him4 ,thus the child has some means by which he can correct himself1 and having done so he will have before him the actual proof of the power he has gained3 the little tables and chairs remain firm and silent each in its own place4 ,it is plainly seen that the child has learned to command his movements4 ,in the old method1 the proof of discipline attained lay in a fact entirely contrary to this2 that is1 in the immobility and silence of the child himself4 ,immobility and silence which hindered the child from learning to move with grace and with discernment1 and left him so untrained1 that1 when he found himself in an environment where the benches and chairs were not nailed to the floor1 he was not able to move about without overturning the lighter pieces of furniture4 ,in the ,children's ,houses the child will not only learn to move gracefully and properly1 but will come to understand the reason for such deportment4 ,the ability to move which he acquires here will be of use to him all his life4 ,while he is still a child1 he becomes capable of conducting himself correctly1 and yet1 with perfect freedom4 ,the ,directress of the ,casa dei ,bambini at ,milan constructed under one of the windows a long1 narrow shelf upon which she placed the little tables containing the metal geometric forms used in the first lessons in design4 ,but the shelf was too narrow1 and it often happened that the children in selecting the pieces which they wished to use would allow one of the little tables to fall to the floor1 thus upsetting with great noise all the metal pieces which it held4 ,the directress intended to have the shelf changed1 but the carpenter was slow in coming1 and while waiting for him she discovered that the children had learned to handle these materials so carefully that in spite of the narrow and sloping shelf1 the little tables no longer fell to the floor4 ,the children1 by carefully directing their movements1 had overcome the defect in this piece of furniture4 ,the simplicity or imperfection of external objects often serves to develop the activity and the dexterity of the pupils4 ,this has been one of the surprises of our method as applied in the ,children's ,houses4 ,it all seems very logical1 and now that it has been actually tried and put into words1 it will no doubt seem to everyone as simple as the egg of ,christopher ,columbus4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,discipline ,the pedagogical method of observation has for its base the liberty of the child2 and liberty is activity4 ,discipline must come through liberty4 ,here is a great principle which is difficult for followers of common-school methods to understand4 ,how shall one obtain discipline in a class of free children8 ,certainly in our system1 we have a concept of discipline very different from that commonly accepted4 ,if discipline is founded upon liberty1 the discipline itself must necessarily be active4 ,we do not consider an individual disciplined only when he has been rendered as artificially silent as a mute and as immovable as a paralytic4 ,he is an individual annihilated1 not disciplined4 ,we call an individual disciplined when he is master of himself1 and can1 therefore1 regulate his own conduct when it shall be necessary to follow some rule of life4 ,such a concept of active discipline is not easy either to comprehend or to apply4 ,but certainly it contains a great educational principle1 very different from the old-time absolute and undiscussed coercion to immobility4 ,a special technique is necessary to the teacher who is to lead the child along such a path of discipline1 if she is to make it possible for him to continue in this way all his life1 advancing indefinitely toward perfect self-mastery4 ,since the child now learns to move rather than to sit still1 he prepares himself not for the school1 but for life2 for he becomes able1 through habit and through practice1 to perform easily and correctly the simple acts of social or community life4 ,the discipline to which the child habituates himself here is1 in its character1 not limited to the school environment but extends to society4 ,the liberty of the child should have as its limit the collective interest2 as its form1 what we universally consider good breeding4 ,we must1 therefore1 check in the child whatever offends or annoys others1 or whatever tends toward rough or ill-bred acts4 ,but all the rest1--every manifestation having a useful scope1--whatever it be1 and under whatever form it expresses itself1 must not only be permitted1 but must be observed by the teacher4 ,here lies the essential point2 from her scientific preparation1 the teacher must bring not only the capacity1 but the desire1 to observe natural phenomena4 ,in our system1 she must become a passive1 much more than an active1 influence1 and her passivity shall be composed of anxious scientific curiosity1 and of absolute respect for the phenomenon which she wishes to observe4 ,the teacher must understand and feel her position of observer3 the activity must lie in the phenomenon4 ,such principles assuredly have a place in schools for little children who are exhibiting the first psychic manifestations of their lives4 ,we cannot know the consequences of suffocating a spontaneous action at the time when the child is just beginning to be active3 perhaps we suffocate life itself4 ,humanity shows itself in all its intellectual splendour during this tender age as the sun shows itself at the dawn1 and the flower in the first unfolding of the petals2 and we must respect religiously1 reverently1 these first indications of individuality4 ,if any educational act is to be efficacious1 it will be only that which tends to help toward the complete unfolding of this life4 ,to be thus helpful it is necessary rigorously to avoid the arrest of spontaneous movements and the imposition of arbitrary tasks4 ,it is of course understood1 that here we do not speak of useless or dangerous acts1 for these must be suppressed1 destroyed4 ,actual training and practice are necessary to fit for this method teachers who have not been prepared for scientific observation1 and such training is especially necessary to those who have been accustomed to the old domineering methods of the common school4 ,my experiences in training teachers for the work in my schools did much to convince me of the great distance between these methods and those4 ,even an intelligent teacher1 who understands the principle1 finds much difficulty in putting it into practice4 ,she can not understand that her new task is apparently passive1 like that of the astronomer who sits immovable before the telescope while the worlds whirl through space4 ,this idea1 that life acts of itself1 and that in order to study it1 to divine its secrets or to direct its activity1 it is necessary to observe it and to understand it without intervening--this idea1 ,i say1 is very difficult for anyone to assimilate and to put into practice4 ,the teacher has too thoroughly learned to be the one free activity of the school2 it has for too long been virtually her duty to suffocate the activity of her pupils4 ,when in the first days in one of the ,children's ,houses she does not obtain order and silence1 she looks about her embarrassed as if asking the public to excuse her1 and calling upon those present to testify to her innocence4 ,in vain do we repeat to her that the disorder of the first moment is necessary4 ,and finally1 when we oblige her to do nothing but watch1 she asks if she had not better resign1 since she is no longer a teacher4 ,but when she begins to find it her duty to discern which are the acts to hinder and which are those to observe1 the teacher of the old school feels a great void within herself and begins to ask if she will not be inferior to her new task4 ,in fact1 she who is not prepared finds herself for a long time abashed and impotent2 whereas the broader the teacher's scientific culture and practice in experimental psychology1 the sooner will come for her the marvel of unfolding life1 and her interest in it4 ,notari1 in his novel1 ,my ,millionaire ,uncle1 which is a criticism of modern customs1 gives with that quality of vividness which is peculiar to him1 a most eloquent example of the old-time methods of discipline4 ,the uncle when a child was guilty of such a number of disorderly acts that he practically upset the whole town1 and in desperation he was confined in a school4 ,here ,fufu1 as he was called1 experiences his first wish to be kind1 and feels the first moving of his soul when he is near to the pretty little ,fufetta1 and learns that she is hungry and has no luncheon4 ,he glanced around1 looked at ,fufetta1 rose1 took his little lunch basket1 and without saying a word placed it in her lap4 ,then he ran away from her1 and1 without knowing why he did so1 hung his head and burst into tears4 ,my uncle did not know how to explain to himself the reason for this sudden outburst4 ,he had seen for the first time two kind eyes full of sad tears1 and he had felt moved within himself1 and at the same time a great shame had rushed over him2 the shame of eating near to one who had nothing to eat4 ,not knowing how to express the impulse of his heart1 nor what to say in asking her to accept the offer of his little basket1 nor how to invent an excuse to justify his offering it to her1 he remained the victim of this first deep movement of his little soul4 ,fufetta1 all confused1 ran to him quickly4 ,with great gentleness she drew away the arm in which he had hidden his face4 ',do not cry1 ,fufu1' she said to him softly1 almost as if pleading with him4 ,she might have been speaking to her beloved rag doll1 so motherly and intent was her little face1 and so full of gentle authority1 her manner4 ,then the little girl kissed him1 and my uncle yielding to the influence which had filled his heart1 put his arms around her neck1 and1 still silent and sobbing1 kissed her in return4 ,at last1 sighing deeply1 he wiped from his face and eyes the damp traces of his emotion1 and smiled again4 ,a strident voice called out from the other end of the courtyard3 ',here1 here1 you two down there--be quick with you2 inside1 both of you6' ,it was the teacher1 the guardian4 ,she crushed that first gentle stirring in the soul of a rebel with the same blind brutality that she would have used toward two children engaged in a fight4 ,it was the time for all to go back into the school--and everybody had to obey the rule4 ,thus ,i saw my teachers act in the first days of my practice school in the ,children's ,houses4 ,they almost involuntarily recalled the children to immobility without observing and distinguishing the nature of the movements they repressed4 ,there was1 for example1 a little girl who gathered her companions about her and then1 in the midst of them1 began to talk and gesticulate4 ,the teacher at once ran to her1 took hold of her arms1 and told her to be still2 but ,i1 observing the child1 saw that she was playing at being teacher or mother to the others1 and teaching them the morning prayer1 the invocation to the saints1 and the sign of the cross3 she already showed herself as a director4 ,another child1 who continually made disorganised and misdirected movements1 and who was considered abnormal1 one day1 with an expression of intense attention1 set about moving the tables4 ,instantly they were upon him to make him stand still because he made too much noise4 ,yet this was one of the first manifestations1 in this child1 of movements that were co-ordinated and directed toward a useful end1 and it was therefore an action that should have been respected4 ,in fact1 after this the child began to be quiet and happy like the others whenever he had any small objects to move about and to arrange upon his desk4 ,it often happened that while the directress replaced in the boxes various materials that had been used1 a child would draw near1 picking up the objects1 with the evident desire of imitating the teacher4 ,the first impulse was to send the child back to her place with the remark1 ,let it alone2 go to your seat4 ,yet the child expressed by this act a desire to be useful2 the time1 with her1 was ripe for a lesson in order4 ,one day1 the children had gathered themselves1 laughing and talking1 into a circle about a basin of water containing some floating toys4 ,we had in the school a little boy barely two and a half years old4 ,he had been left outside the circle1 alone1 and it was easy to see that he was filled with intense curiosity4 ,i watched him from a distance with great interest2 he first drew near to the other children and tried to force his way among them1 but he was not strong enough to do this1 and he then stood looking about him4 ,the expression of thought on his little face was intensely interesting4 ,i wish that ,i had had a camera so that ,i might have photographed him4 ,his eye lighted upon a little chair1 and evidently he made up his mind to place it behind the group of children and then to climb up on it4 ,he began to move toward the chair1 his face illuminated with hope1 but at that moment the teacher seized him brutally 7or1 perhaps1 she would have said1 gently7 in her arms1 and lifting him up above the heads of the other children showed him the basin of water1 saying1 ,come1 poor little one1 you shall see too6 ,undoubtedly the child1 seeing the floating toys1 did not experience the joy that he was about to feel through conquering the obstacle with his own force4 ,the sight of those objects could be of no advantage to him1 while his intelligent efforts would have developed his inner powers4 ,the teacher hindered the child1 in this case1 from educating himself1 without giving him any compensating good in return4 ,the little fellow had been about to feel himself a conqueror1 and he found himself held within two imprisoning arms1 impotent4 ,the expression of joy1 anxiety1 and hope1 which had interested me so much faded from his face and left on it the stupid expression of the child who knows that others will act for him4 ,when the teachers were weary of my observations1 they began to allow the children to do whatever they pleased4 ,i saw children with their feet on the tables1 or with their fingers in their noses1 and no intervention was made to correct them4 ,i saw others push their companions1 and ,i saw dawn in the faces of these an expression of violence2 and not the slightest attention on the part of the teacher4 ,then ,i had to intervene to show with what absolute rigour it is necessary to hinder1 and little by little suppress1 all those things which we must not do1 so that the child may come to discern clearly between good and evil4 ,if discipline is to be lasting1 its foundations must be laid in this way and these first days are the most difficult for the directress4 ,the first idea that the child must acquire1 in order to be actively disciplined1 is that of the difference between good and evil2 and the task of the educator lies in seeing that the child does not confound good with immobility1 and evil with activity1 as often happens in the case of the old-time discipline4 ,and all this because our aim is to discipline for activity1 for work1 for good2 not for immobility1 not for passivity1 not for obedience4 ,a room in which all the children move about usefully1 intelligently1 and voluntarily1 without committing any rough or rude act1 would seem to me a classroom very well disciplined indeed4 ,to seat the children in rows1 as in the common schools1 to assign to each little one a place1 and to propose that they shall sit thus quietly observant of the order of the whole class as an assemblage--this can be attained later1 as the starting place of collective education4 ,for also1 in life1 it sometimes happens that we must all remain seated and quiet2 when1 for example1 we attend a concert or a lecture4 ,and we know that even to us1 as grown people1 this costs no little sacrifice4 ,if we can1 when we have established individual discipline1 arrange the children1 sending each one to his own place1 in order1 trying to make them understand the idea that thus placed they look well1 and that it is a good thing to be thus placed in order1 that it is a good and pleasing arrangement in the room1 this ordered and tranquil adjustment of theirs--then their remaining in their places1 quiet and silent1 is the result of a species of lesson1 not an imposition4 ,to make them understand the idea1 without calling their attention too forcibly to the practice1 to have them assimilate a principle of collective order--that is the important thing4 ,if1 after they have understood this idea1 they rise1 speak1 change to another place1 they no longer do this without knowing and without thinking1 but they do it because they wish to rise1 to speak1 etc42 that is1 from that state of repose and order1 well understood1 they depart in order to undertake some voluntary action2 and knowing that there are actions which are prohibited1 this will give them a new impulse to remember to discriminate between good and evil4 ,the movements of the children from the state of order become always more co-ordinated and perfect with the passing of the days2 in fact1 they learn to reflect upon their own acts4 ,now 7with the idea of order understood by the children7 the observation of the way in which the children pass from the first disordered movements to those which are spontaneous and ordered--this is the book of the teacher2 this is the book which must inspire her actions2 it is the only one in which she must read and study if she is to become a real educator4 ,for the child with such exercises makes1 to a certain extent1 a selection of his own tendencies1 which were at first confused in the unconscious disorder of his movements4 ,it is remarkable how clearly individual differences show themselves1 if we proceed in this way2 the child1 conscious and free1 reveals himself4 ,there are those who remain quietly in their seats1 apathetic1 or drowsy2 others who leave their places to quarrel1 to fight1 or to overturn the various blocks and toys1 and then there are those others who set out to fulfil a definite and determined act--moving a chair to some particular spot and sitting down in it1 moving one of the unused tables and arranging upon it the game they wish to play4 ,our idea of liberty for the child cannot be the simple concept of liberty we use in the observation of plants1 insects1 etc4 ,the child1 because of the peculiar characteristics of helplessness with which he is born1 and because of his qualities as a social individual is circumscribed by bonds which limit his activity4 ,an educational method that shall have liberty as its basis must intervene to help the child to a conquest of these various obstacles4 ,in other words1 his training must be such as shall help him to diminish1 in a rational manner1 the social bonds1 which limit his activity4 ,little by little1 as the child grows in such an atmosphere1 his spontaneous manifestations will become more clear1 with the clearness of truth1 revealing his nature4 ,for all these reasons1 the first form of educational intervention must tend to lead the child toward independence4 ,,independence ,no one can be free unless he is independent3 therefore1 the first1 active manifestations of the child's individual liberty must be so guided that through this activity he may arrive at independence4 ,little children1 from the moment in which they are weaned1 are making their way toward independence4 ,what is a weaned child8 ,in reality it is a child that has become independent of the mother's breast4 ,instead of this one source of nourishment he will find various kinds of food2 for him the means of existence are multiplied1 and he can to some extent make a selection of his food1 whereas he was at first limited absolutely to one form of nourishment4 ,nevertheless1 he is still dependent1 since he is not yet able to walk1 and cannot wash and dress himself1 and since he is not yet able to ask for things in a language which is clear and easily understood4 ,he is still in this period to a great extent the slave of everyone4 ,by the age of three1 however1 the child should have been able to render himself to a great extent independent and free4 ,that we have not yet thoroughly assimilated the highest concept of the term independence1 is due to the fact that the social form in which we live is still servile4 ,in an age of civilisation where servants exist1 the concept of that form of life which is independence cannot take root or develop freely4 ,even so in the time of slavery1 the concept of liberty was distorted and darkened4 ,our servants are not our dependents1 rather it is we who are dependent upon them4 ,it is not possible to accept universally as a part of our social structure such a deep human error without feeling the general effects of it in the form of moral inferiority4 ,we often believe ourselves to be independent simply because no one commands us1 and because we command others2 but the nobleman who needs to call a servant to his aid is really a dependent through his own inferiority4 ,the paralytic who cannot take off his boots because of a pathological fact1 and the prince who dare not take them off because of a social fact1 are in reality reduced to the same condition4 ,any nation that accepts the idea of servitude and believes that it is an advantage for man to be served by man1 admits servility as an instinct1 and indeed we all too easily lend ourselves to obsequious service1 giving to it such complimentary names as courtesy1 politeness1 charity4 ,in reality1 he who is served is limited in his independence4 ,this concept will be the foundation of the dignity of the man of the future2 ,i do not wish to be served1 because ,i am not an impotent4 ,and this idea must be gained before men can feel themselves to be really free4 ,any pedagogical action1 if it is to be efficacious in the training of little children1 must tend to help the children to advance upon this road of independence4 ,we must help them to learn to walk without assistance1 to run1 to go up and down stairs1 to lift up fallen objects1 to dress and undress themselves1 to bathe themselves1 to speak distinctly1 and to express their own needs clearly4 ,we must give such help as shall make it possible for children to achieve the satisfaction of their own individual aims and desires4 ,all this is a part of education for independence4 ,we habitually serve children2 and this is not only an act of servility toward them1 but it is dangerous1 since it tends to suffocate their useful1 spontaneous activity4 ,we are inclined to believe that children are like puppets1 and we wash them and feed them as if they were dolls4 ,we do not stop to think that the child who does not do1 does not know how to do4 ,he must1 nevertheless1 do these things1 and nature has furnished him with the physical means for carrying on these various activities1 and with the intellectual means for learning how to do them4 ,and our duty toward him is1 in every case1 that of helping him to make a conquest of such useful acts as nature intended he should perform for himself4 ,the mother who feeds her child without making the least effort to teach him to hold the spoon for himself and to try to find his mouth with it1 and who does not at least eat herself1 inviting the child to look and see how she does it1 is not a good mother4 ,she offends the fundamental human dignity of her son1--she treats him as if he were a doll1 when he is1 instead1 a man confided by nature to her care4 ,who does not know that to teach a child to feed himself1 to wash and dress himself1 is a much more tedious and difficult work1 calling for infinitely greater patience1 than feeding1 washing and dressing the child one's self8 ,but the former is the work of an educator1 the latter is the easy and inferior work of a servant4 ,not only is it easier for the mother1 but it is very dangerous for the child1 since it doses the way and puts obstacles in the path of the life which is developing4 ,the ultimate consequences of such an attitude on the part of the parent may be very serious indeed4 ,the grand gentleman who has too many servants not only grows constantly more and more dependent upon them1 until he is1 finally1 actually their slave1 but his muscles grow weak through inactivity and finally lose their natural capacity for action4 ,the mind of one who does not work for that which he needs1 but commands it from others1 grows heavy and sluggish4 ,if such a man should some day awaken to the fact of his inferior position and should wish to regain once more his own independence1 he would find that he had no longer the force to do so4 ,these dangers should be presented to the parents of the privileged social classes1 if their children are to use independently and for right the special power which is theirs4 ,needless help is an actual hindrance to the development of natural forces4 ,oriental women wear trousers1 it is true1 and ,european women1 petticoats2 but the former1 even more than the latter1 are taught as a part of their education the art of not moving4 ,such an attitude toward woman leads to the fact that man works not only for himself1 but for woman4 ,and the woman wastes her natural strength and activity and languishes in slavery4 ,she is not only maintained and served1 she is1 besides1 diminished1 belittled1 in that individuality which is hers by right of her existence as a human being4 ,as an individual member of society1 she is a cypher4 ,she is rendered deficient in all those powers and resources which tend to the preservation of life4 ,let me illustrate this3 ,a carriage containing a father1 mother1 and child1 is going along a country road4 ,an armed brigand stops the carriage with the well-known phrase1 ,your money or your life4 ,placed in this situation1 the three persons in the carriage act in very different ways4 ,the man1 who is a trained marksman1 and who is armed with a revolver1 promptly draws1 and confronts the assassin4 ,the boy1 armed only with the freedom and lightness of his own legs1 cries out and betakes himself to flight4 ,the woman1 who is not armed in any way whatever1 neither artificially nor naturally 7since her limbs1 not trained for activity1 are hampered by her skirts71 gives a frightened gasp1 and sinks down unconscious4 ,these three diverse reactions are in close relation to the state of liberty and independence of each of the three individuals4 ,the swooning woman is she whose cloak is carried for her by attentive cavaliers1 who are quick to pick up any fallen object that she may be spared all exertion4 ,the peril of servilism and dependence lies not only in that useless consuming of life1 which leads to helplessness1 but in the development of individual traits which indicate all too plainly a regrettable perversion and degeneration of the normal man4 ,i refer to the domineering and tyrannical behaviour with examples of which we are all only too familiar4 ,the domineering habit develops side by side with helplessness4 ,it is the outward sign of the state of feeling of him who conquers through the work of others4 ,thus it often happens that the master is a tyrant toward his servant4 ,it is the spirit of the task-master toward the slave4 ,let us picture to ourselves a clever and proficient workman1 capable1 not only of producing much and perfect work1 but of giving advice in his workshop1 because of his ability to control and direct the general activity of the environment in which he works4 ,the man who is thus master of his environment will be able to smile before the anger of others1 showing that great mastery of himself which comes from consciousness of his ability to do things4 ,we should not1 however1 be in the least surprised to know that in his home this capable workman scolded his wife if the soup was not to his taste1 or not ready at the appointed time4 ,in his home1 he is no longer the capable workman2 the skilled workman here is the wife1 who serves him and prepares his food for him4 ,he is a serene and pleasant man where he is powerful through being efficient1 but is domineering where he is served4 ,perhaps if he should learn how to prepare his soup he might become a perfect man6 ,the man who1 through his own efforts1 is able to perform all the actions necessary for his comfort and development in life1 conquers himself1 and in doing so multiplies his abilities and perfects himself as an individual4 ,we must make of the future generation1 powerful men1 and by that we mean men who are independent and free4 ,,abolition ,,of ,,prizes ,,and ,,of ,,external ,,forms ,,of ,,punishment ,once we have accepted and established such principles1 the abolition of prizes and external forms of punishment will follow naturally4 ,man1 disciplined through liberty1 begins to desire the true and only prize which will never belittle or disappoint him1--the birth of human power and liberty within that inner life of his from which his activities must spring4 ,in my own experience ,i have often marvelled to see how true this is4 ,during our first months in the ,children's ,houses1 the teachers had not yet learned to put into practice the pedagogical principles of liberty and discipline4 ,one of them1 especially1 busied herself1 when ,i was absent1 in remedying my ideas by introducing a few of those methods to which she had been accustomed4 ,so1 one day when ,i came in unexpectedly1 ,i found one of the most intelligent of the children wearing a large ,greek cross of silver1 hung from his neck by a fine piece of white ribbon1 while another child was seated in an armchair which had been conspicuously placed in the middle of the room4 ,the first child had been rewarded1 the second was being punished4 ,the teacher1 at least while ,i was present1 did not interfere in any way1 and the situation remained as ,i had found it4 ,i held my peace1 and placed myself where ,i might observe quietly4 ,the child with the cross was moving back and forth1 carrying the objects with which he had been working1 from his table to that of the teacher1 and bringing others in their place4 ,he was busy and happy4 ,as he went back and forth he passed by the armchair of the child who was being punished4 ,the silver cross slipped from his neck and fell to the floor1 and the child in the armchair picked it up1 dangled it on its white ribbon1 looking at it from all sides1 and then said to his companion3 ,do you see what you have dropped8 ,the child turned and looked at the trinket with an air of indifference2 his expression seemed to say2 ,don't interrupt me1 his voice replied ,i don't care4 ,don't you care1 really8 said the punished one calmly4 ,then ,i will put it on myself4 ,and the other replied1 ,oh1 yes1 put it on1 in a tone that seemed to add1 and leave me in peace6 ,the boy in the armchair carefully arranged the ribbon so that the cross lay upon the front of his pink apron where he could admire its brightness and its pretty form1 then he settled himself more comfortably in his little chair and rested his arms with evident pleasure upon the arms of the chair4 ,the affair remained thus1 and was quite just4 ,the dangling cross could satisfy the child who was being punished1 but not the active child1 content and happy with his work4 ,one day ,i took with me on a visit to another of the ,children's ,houses a lady who praised the children highly and who1 opening a box she had brought1 showed them a number of shining medals1 each tied with a bright red ribbon4 ,the mistress1 she said will put these on the breasts of those children who are the cleverest and the best4 ,as ,i was under no obligation to instruct this visitor in my methods1 ,i kept silence1 and the teacher took the box4 ,at that moment1 a most intelligent little boy of four1 who was seated quietly at one of the little tables1 wrinkled his forehead in an act of protest and cried out over and over again2--,not to the boys1 though1 not to the boys6 ,what a revelation6 ,this little fellow already knew that he stood among the best and strongest of his class1 although no one had ever revealed this fact to him1 and he did not wish to be offended by this prize4 ,not knowing how to defend his dignity1 he invoked the superior quality of his masculinity6 ,as to punishments1 we have many times come in contact with children who disturbed the others without paying any attention to our corrections4 ,such children were at once examined by the physician4 ,when the case proved to be that of a normal child1 we placed one of the little tables in a corner of the room1 and in this way isolated the child2 having him sit in a comfortable little armchair1 so placed that he might see his companions at work1 and giving him those games and toys to which he was most attracted4 ,this isolation almost always succeeded in calming the child2 from his position he could see the entire assembly of his companions1 and the way in which they carried on their work was an object lesson much more efficacious than any words of the teacher could possibly have been4 ,little by little1 he would come to see the advantages of being one of the company working so busily before his eyes1 and he would really wish to go back and do as the others did4 ,we have in this way led back again to discipline all the children who at first seemed to rebel against it4 ,the isolated child was always made the object of special care1 almost as if he were ill4 ,i myself1 when ,i entered the room1 went first of all directly to him1 caressing him1 as if he were a very little child4 ,then ,i turned my attention to the others1 interesting myself in their work1 asking questions about it as if they had been little men4 ,i do not know what happened in the soul of these children whom we found it necessary to discipline1 but certainly the conversion was always very complete and lasting4 ,they showed great pride in learning how to work and how to conduct themselves1 and always showed a very tender affection for the teacher and for me4 ,,the ,,biological ,,concept ,,of ,,liberty ,,in ,,pedagogy ,from a biological point of view1 the concept of liberty in the education of the child in his earliest years must be understood as demanding those conditions adapted to the most favourable development of his entire individuality4 ,so1 from the physiological side as well as from the mental side1 this includes the free development of the brain4 ,the educator must be as one inspired by a deep worship of life1 and must1 through this reverence1 respect1 while he observes with human interest1 the development of the child life4 ,now1 child life is not an abstraction2 it is the life of individual children4 ,there exists only one real biological manifestation3 the living individual2 and toward single individuals1 one by one observed1 education must direct itself4 ,by education must be understood the active help given to the normal expansion of the life of the child4 ,the child is a body which grows1 and a soul which develops1--these two forms1 physiological and psychic1 have one eternal font1 life itself4 ,we must neither mar nor stifle the mysterious powers which lie within these two forms of growth1 but we must await from them the manifestations which we know will succeed one another4 ,environment is undoubtedly a secondary factor in the phenomena of life2 it can modify in that it can help or hinder1 but it can never create4 ,the modern theories of evolution1 from ,naegeli to ,de ,vries1 consider throughout the development of the two biological branches1 animal and vegetable1 this interior factor as the essential force in the transformation of the species and in the transformation of the individual4 ,the origins of the development1 both in the species and in the individual1 lie within4 ,the child does not grow because he is nourished1 because he breathes1 because he is placed in conditions of temperature to which he is adapted2 he grows because the potential life within him develops1 making itself visible2 because the fruitful germ from which his life has come develops itself according to the biological destiny which was fixed for it by heredity4 ,adolescence does not come because the child laughs1 or dances1 or does gymnastic exercises1 or is well nourished2 but because he has arrived at that particular physiological state4 ,life makes itself manifest1--life creates1 life gives3--and is in its turn held within certain limits and bound by certain laws which are insuperable4 ,the fixed characteristics of the species do not change1--they can only vary4 ,this concept1 so brilliantly set forth by ,de ,vries in his ,mutation ,theory1 illustrates also the limits of education4 ,we can act on the variations which are in relation to the environment1 and whose limits vary slightly in the species and in the individual1 but we cannot act upon the mutations4 ,the mutations are bound by some mysterious tie to the very font of life itself1 and their power rises superior to the modifying elements of the environment4 ,a species1 for example1 cannot mutate or change into another species through any phenomenon of adaptation1 as1 on the other hand1 a great human genius cannot be suffocated by any limitation1 nor by any false form of education4 ,the environment acts more strongly upon the individual life the less fixed and strong this individual life may be4 ,but environment can act in two opposite senses1 favouring life1 and stifling it4 ,many species of palm1 for example1 are splendid in the tropical regions1 because the climatic conditions are favourable to their development1 but many species of both animals and plants have become extinct in regions to which they were not able to adapt themselves4 ,life is a superb goddess1 always advancing1 overthrowing the obstacles which environment places in the way of her triumph4 ,this is the basic or fundamental truth1--whether it be a question of species or of individuals1 there persists always the forward march of those victorious ones in whom this mysterious life-force is strong and vital4 ,it is evident that in the case of humanity1 and especially in the case of our civil humanity1 which we call society1 the important and imperative question is that of the care1 or perhaps we might say1 the culture of human life4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,how ,,the ,,lessons ,,should ,,be ,,given ,let all thy words be counted4 ,dante1 ,inf41 canto ,x4 ,given the fact that1 through the regime of liberty the pupils can manifest their natural tendencies in the school1 and that with this in view we have prepared the environment and the materials 7the objects with which the child is to work71 the teacher must not limit her action to observation1 but must proceed to experiment4 ,in this method the lesson corresponds to an experiment4 ,the more fully the teacher is acquainted with the methods of experimental psychology1 the better will she understand how to give the lesson4 ,indeed1 a special technique is necessary if the method is to be properly applied4 ,the teacher must at least have attended the training classes in the ,children's ,houses1 in order to acquire a knowledge of the fundamental principles of the method and to understand their application4 ,the most difficult portion of this training is that which refers to the method for discipline4 ,in the first days of the school the children do not learn the idea of collective order2 this idea follows and comes as a result of those disciplinary exercises through which the child learns to discern between good and evil4 ,this being the case1 it is evident that1 at the outset the teacher cannot give collective lessons4 ,such lessons1 indeed1 will always be very rare1 since the children being free are not obliged to remain in their places quiet and ready to listen to the teacher1 or to watch what she is doing4 ,the collective lessons1 in fact1 are of very secondary importance1 and have been almost abolished by us4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,individual ,,lessons3--,,conciseness1 ,,simplicity1 ,,objectivity ,the lessons1 then1 are individual1 and brevity must be one of their chief characteristics4 ,dante gives excellent advice to teachers when he says1 ,let thy words be counted4 ,the more carefully we cut away useless words1 the more perfect will become the lesson4 ,and in preparing the lessons which she is to give1 the teacher must pay special attention to this point1 counting and weighing the value of the words which she is to speak4 ,another characteristic quality of the lesson in the ,children's ,houses is its simplicity4 ,it must be stripped of all that is not absolute truth4 ,that the teacher must not lose herself in vain words1 is included in the first quality of conciseness2 this second1 then1 is closely related to the first3 that is1 the carefully chosen words must be the most simple it is possible to find1 and must refer to the truth4 ,the third quality of the lesson is its objectivity4 ,the lesson must be presented in such a way that the personality of the teacher shall disappear4 ,there shall remain in evidence only the object to which she wishes to call the attention of the child4 ,this brief and simple lesson must be considered by the teacher as an explanation of the object and of the use which the child can make of it4 ,in the giving of such lessons the fundamental guide must be the method of observation1 in which is included and understood the liberty of the child4 ,so the teacher shall observe whether the child interests himself in the object1 how he is interested in it1 for how long1 etc41 even noticing the expression of his face4 ,and she must take great care not to offend the principles of liberty4 ,for1 if she provokes the child to make an unnatural effort1 she will no longer know what is the spontaneous activity of the child4 ,if1 therefore1 the lesson rigorously prepared in this brevity1 simplicity and truth is not understood by the child1 is not accepted by him as an explanation of the object1--the teacher must be warned of two things3--first1 not to insist by repeating the lesson2 and second1 not to make the child feel that he has made a mistake1 or that he is not understood1 because in doing so she will cause him to make an effort to understand1 and will thus alter the natural state which must be used by her in making her psychological observation4 ,a few examples may serve to illustrate this point4 ,let us suppose1 for example1 that the teacher wishes to teach to a child the two colours1 red and blue4 ,she desires to attract the attention of the child to the object4 ,she says1 therefore1 ,look at this4 ,then1 in order to teach the colours1 she says1 showing him the red1 ,this is red1 raising her voice a little and pronouncing the word red slowly and clearly2 then showing him the other colour1 ,this is blue4 ,in order to make sure that the child has understood1 she says to him1 ,give me the red1--,give me the blue4 ,let us suppose that the child in following this last direction makes a mistake4 ,the teacher does not repeat and does not insist2 she smiles1 gives the child a friendly caress and takes away the colours4 ,teachers ordinarily are greatly surprised at such simplicity4 ,they often say1 ,but everybody knows how to do that6 ,indeed1 this again is a little like the egg of ,christopher ,columbus1 but the truth is that not everyone knows how to do this simple thing 7to give a lesson with such simplicity74 ,to measure one's own activity1 to make it conform to these standards of clearness1 brevity and truth1 is practically a very difficult matter4 ,especially is this true of teachers prepared by the old-time methods1 who have learned to labour to deluge the child with useless1 and often1 false words4 ,for example1 a teacher who had taught in the public schools often reverted to collectivity4 ,now in giving a collective lesson much importance is necessarily given to the simple thing which is to be taught1 and it is necessary to oblige all the children to follow the teacher's explanation1 when perhaps not all of them are disposed to give their attention to the particular lesson in hand4 ,the teacher has perhaps commenced her lesson in this way3--,children1 see if you can guess what ,i have in my hand6 ,she knows that the children cannot guess1 and she therefore attracts their attention by means of a falsehood4 ,then she probably says1--,children1 look out at the sky4 ,have you ever looked at it before8 ,have you never noticed it at night when it is all shining with stars8 ,no6 ,look at my apron4 ,do you know what colour it is8 ,doesn't it seem to you the same colour as the sky8 ,very well then1 look at this colour ,i have in my hand4 ,it is the same colour as the sky and my apron4 ,it is blue4 ,now look around you a little and see if you can find something in the room which is blue4 ,and do you know what colour cherries are1 and the colour of the burning coals in the fireplace1 etc41 etc4 ,now in the mind of the child after he has made the useless effort of trying to guess there revolves a confused mass of ideas1--the sky1 the apron1 the cherries1 etc4 ,it will be difficult for him to extract from all this confusion the idea which it was the scope of the lesson to make clear to him2 namely1 the recognition of the two colours1 blue and red4 ,such a work of selection is almost impossible for the mind of a child who is not yet able to follow a long discourse4 ,i remember being present at an arithmetic lesson where the children were being taught that two and three make five4 ,to this end1 the teacher made use of a counting board having coloured beads strung on its thin wires4 ,she arranged1 for example1 two beads on the top line1 then on a lower line three1 and at the bottom five beads4 ,i do not remember very clearly the development of this lesson1 but ,i do know that the teacher found it necessary to place beside the two beads on the upper wire a little cardboard dancer with a blue skirt1 which she christened on the spot the name of one of the children in the class1 saying1 ,this is ,mariettina4 ,and then beside the other three beads she placed a little dancer dressed in a different colour1 which she called ,gigina4 ,i do not know exactly how the teacher arrived at the demonstration of the same1 but certainly she talked for a long time with these little dancers1 moving them about1 etc4 ,if ,i remember the dancers more clearly than ,i do the arithmetic process1 how must it have been with the children8 ,if by such a method they were able to learn that two and three make five1 they must have made a tremendous mental effort1 and the teacher must have found it necessary to talk with the little dancers for a long time4 ,in another lesson a teacher wished to demonstrate to the children the difference between noise and sound4 ,she began by telling a long story to the children4 ,then suddenly someone in league with her knocked noisily at the door4 ,the teacher stopped and cried out--,what is it6 ,what's happened6 ,what is the matter6 ,children1 do you know what this person at the door has done8 ,i can no longer go on with my story1 ,i cannot remember it any more4 ,i will have to leave it unfinished4 ,do you know what has happened8 ,did you hear6 ,have you understood8 ,that was a noise1 that is a noise4 ,oh6 ,i would much rather play with this little baby 7taking up a mandolin which she had dressed up in a table cover74 ,yes1 dear baby1 ,i had rather play with you4 ,do you see this baby that ,i am holding in my arms8 ,several children replied1 ,it isn't a baby4 ,others said1 ,it's a mandolin4 ,the teacher went on--,no1 no1 it is a baby1 really a baby4 ,i love this little baby4 ,do you want me to show you that it is a baby8 ,keep very1 very quiet then4 ,it seems to me that the baby is crying4 ,or1 perhaps it is talking1 or perhaps it is going to say papa or mamma4 ,putting her hand under the cover1 she touched the strings of the mandolin4 ,there6 did you hear the baby cry6 ,did you hear it call out8 ,the children cried out--,it's a mandolin1 you touched the strings1 you made it play4 ,the teacher then replied1 ,be quiet1 be quiet1 children4 ,listen to what ,i am going to do4 ,then she uncovered the mandolin and began to play on it1 saying1 ,this is sound4 ,to suppose that the child from such a lesson as this shall come to understand the difference between noise and sound is ridiculous4 ,the child will probably get the impression that the teacher wished to play a joke1 and that she is rather foolish1 because she lost the thread of her discourse when she was interrupted by noise1 and because she mistook a mandolin for a baby4 ,most certainly1 it is the figure of the teacher herself that is impressed upon the child's mind through such a lesson1 and not the object for which the lesson was given4 ,to obtain a simple lesson from a teacher who has been prepared according to the ordinary methods1 is a very difficult task4 ,i remember that1 after having explained the material fully and in detail1 ,i called upon one of my teachers to teach1 by means of the geometric insets1 the difference between a square and a triangle4 ,the task of the teacher was simply to fit a square and a triangle of wood into the empty spaces made to receive them4 ,she should then have shown the child how to follow with his finger the contours of the wooden pieces and of the frames into which they fit1 saying1 meanwhile1 ,this is a square--this is a triangle4 ,the teacher whom ,i had called upon began by having the child touch the square1 saying1 ,this is a line1--another1--another1--and another4 ,there are four lines3 count them with your little finger and tell me how many there are4 ,and the corners1--count the corners1 feel them with your little finger4 ,see1 there are four corners too4 ,look at this piece well4 ,it is a square4 ,i corrected the teacher1 telling her that in this way she was not teaching the child to recognise a form1 but was giving him an idea of sides1 of angles1 of number1 and that this was a very different thing from that which she was to teach in this lesson4 ,but1 she said1 trying to justify herself1 it is the same thing4 ,it is not1 however1 the same thing4 ,it is the geometric analysis and the mathematics of the thing4 ,it would be possible to have an idea of the form of the quadrilateral without knowing how to count to four1 and1 therefore1 without appreciating the number of sides and angles4 ,the sides and the angles are abstractions which in themselves do not exist2 that which does exist is this piece of wood of a determined form4 ,the elaborate explanations of the teacher not only confused the child's mind1 but bridged over the distance that lies between the concrete and the abstract1 between the form of an object and the mathematics of the form4 ,let as suppose1 ,i said to the teacher1 that an architect shows you a dome1 the form of which interests you4 ,he can follow one of two methods in showing you his work3 he can call attention to the beauty of line1 the harmony of the proportions1 and may then take you inside the building and up into the cupola itself1 in order that you may appreciate the relative proportion of the parts in such a way that your impression of the cupola as a whole shall be founded on general knowledge of its parts1 or he can have you count the windows1 the wide or narrow cornices1 and can1 in fact1 make you a design showing the construction2 he can illustrate for you the static laws and write out the algebraic formulae necessary in the calculation of such laws4 ,in the first place1 you will be able to retain in your mind the form of the cupola2 in the second1 you will have understood nothing1 and will come away with the impression that the architect fancied himself speaking to a fellow engineer1 instead of to a traveller whose object was to become familiar with the beautiful things about him4 ,very much the same thing happens if we1 instead of saying to the child1 ,this is a square1 and by simply having him touch the contour establish materially the idea of the form1 proceed rather to a geometrical analysis of the contour4 ,indeed1 we should feel that we are making the child precocious if we taught him the geometric forms in the plane1 presenting at the same time the mathematical concept1 but we do not believe that the child is too immature to appreciate the simple form2 on the contrary1 it is no effort for a child to look at a square window or table1--he sees all these forms about him in his daily life4 ,to call his attention to a determined form is to clarify the impression he has already received of it1 and to fix the idea of it4 ,it is very much as if1 while we are looking absent-mindedly at the shore of a lake1 an artist should suddenly say to us--,how beautiful the curve is that the shore makes there under the shade of that cliff4 ,at his words1 the view which we have been observing almost unconsciously1 is impressed upon our minds as if it had been illuminated by a sudden ray of sunshine1 and we experience the joy of having crystallised an impression which we had before only imperfectly felt4 ,and such is our duty toward the child3 to give a ray of light and to go on our way4 ,i may liken the effects of these first lessons to the impressions of one who walks quietly1 happily1 through a wood1 alone1 and thoughtful1 letting his inner life unfold freely4 ,suddenly1 the chime of a distant bell recalls him to himself1 and in that awakening he feels more strongly than before the peace and beauty of which he has been but dimly conscious4 ,to stimulate life1--leaving it then free to develop1 to unfold1--herein lies the first task of the educator4 ,in such a delicate task1 a great art must suggest the moment1 and limit the intervention1 in order that we shall arouse no perturbation1 cause no deviation1 but rather that we shall help the soul which is coming into the fulness of life1 and which shall live from its own forces4 ,this art must accompany the scientific method4 ,when the teacher shall have touched1 in this way1 soul for soul1 each one of her pupils1 awakening and inspiring the life within them as if she were an invisible spirit1 she will then possess each soul1 and a sign1 a single word from her shall suffice2 for each one will feel her in a living and vital way1 will recognise her and will listen to her4 ,there will come a day when the directress herself shall be filled with wonder to see that all the children obey her with gentleness and affection1 not only ready1 but intent1 at a sign from her4 ,they will look toward her who has made them live1 and will hope and desire to receive from her1 new life4 ,experience has revealed all this1 and it is something which forms the chief source of wonder for those who visit the ,children's ,houses4 ,collective discipline is obtained as if by magic force4 ,fifty or sixty children from two and a half years to six years of age1 all together1 and at a single time know how to hold their peace so perfectly that the absolute silence seems that of a desert4 ,and1 if the teacher1 speaking in a low voice1 says to the children1 ,rise1 pass several times around the room on the tips of your toes and then come back to your place in silence all together1 as a single person1 the children rise1 and follow the order with the least possible noise4 ,the teacher with that one voice has spoken to each one2 and each child hopes from her intervention to receive some light and inner happiness4 ,and feeling so1 he goes forth intent and obedient like an anxious explorer1 following the order in his own way4 ,in this matter of discipline we have again something of the egg of ,christopher ,columbus4 ,a concert-master must prepare his scholars one by one in order to draw from their collective work great and beautiful harmony2 and each artist must perfect himself as an individual before he can be ready to follow the voiceless commands of the master's baton4 ,how different is the method which we follow in the public schools6 ,it is as if a concert-master taught the same monotonous and sometimes discordant rhythm contemporaneously to the most diverse instruments and voices4 ,thus we find that the most disciplined members of society are the men who are best trained1 who have most thoroughly perfected themselves1 but this is the training or the perfection acquired through contact with other people4 ,the perfection of the collectivity cannot be that material and brutal solidarity which comes from mechanical organisation alone4 ,in regard to infant psychology1 we are more richly endowed with prejudices than with actual knowledge bearing upon the subject4 ,we have1 until the present day1 wished to dominate the child through force1 by the imposition of external laws1 instead of making an interior conquest of the child1 in order to direct him as a human soul4 ,in this way1 the children have lived beside us without being able to make us know them4 ,but if we cut away the artificiality with which we have enwrapped them1 and the violence through which we have foolishly thought to discipline them1 they will reveal themselves to us in all the truth of child nature4 ,their gentleness is so absolute1 so sweet1 that we recognise in it the infancy of that humility which can remain oppressed by every form of yoke1 by every injustice2 and child love and knowledge is such that it surpasses every other love and makes us think that in very truth humanity must carry within it that passion which pushes the minds of men to the successive conquest of thought1 making easier from century to century the yokes of every form of slavery4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,exercises ,,of ,,practical ,,life ,,proposed ,,winter ,,schedule ,,of ,,hours ,,in ,,the ,,children',s ,,houses ,opening at ,nine ,o'clock--,closing at ,four ,o'clock #i-aj4 ,entrance4 ,greeting4 ,inspection as to personal cleanliness4 ,exercises of practical life2 helping one another to take off and put on the aprons4 ,going over the room to see that everything is dusted and in order4 ,language3 ,conversation period3 ,children give an account of the events of the day before4 ,religious exercises4 #aj-aa4 ,intellectual exercises4 ,objective lessons interrupted by short rest periods4 ,nomenclature1 ,sense exercises4 #aa-aa3cj4 ,simple gymnastics3 ,ordinary movements done gracefully1 normal position of the body1 walking1 marching in line1 salutations1 movements for attention1 placing of objects gracefully4 #aa3cj-ab4 ,luncheon3 ,short prayer4 #ab-a4 ,free games4 #a-b4 ,directed games1 if possible1 in the open air4 ,during this period the older children in turn go through with the exercises of practical life1 cleaning the room1 dusting1 putting the material in order4 ,general inspection for cleanliness3 ,conversation4 #b-c4 ,manual work4 ,clay modelling1 design1 etc4 #c-d4 ,collective gymnastics and songs1 if possible in the open air4 ,exercises to develop forethought3 ,visiting1 and caring for1 the plants and animals4 ,as soon as a school is established1 the question of schedule arises4 ,this must be considered from two points of view2 the length of the school-day and the distribution of study and of the activities of life4 ,i shall begin by affirming that in the ,children's ,houses1 as in the school for deficients1 the hours may be very long1 occupying the entire day4 ,for poor children1 and especially for the ,children's ,houses annexed to workingmen's tenements1 ,i should advise that the school-day should be from nine in the morning to five in the evening in winter1 and from eight to six in summer4 ,these long hours are necessary1 if we are to follow a directed line of action which shall be helpful to the growth of the child4 ,it goes without saying1 that in the case of little children such a long school-day should be interrupted by at least an hour's rest in bed4 ,and here lies the great practical difficulty4 ,at present we must allow our little ones to sleep in their seats in a wretched position1 but ,i foresee a time1 not distant1 when we shall be able to have a quiet1 darkened room where the children may sleep in low-swung hammocks4 ,i should like still better to have this nap taken in the open air4 ,in the ,children's ,houses in ,rome we send the little ones to their own apartments for the nap1 as this can be done without their having to go out into the streets4 ,it must be observed that these long hours include not only the nap1 but the luncheon4 ,this must be considered in such schools as the ,children's ,houses1 whose aim is to help and to direct the growth of children in such an important period of development as that from three to six years of age4 ,the ,children's ,house is a garden of child culture1 and we most certainly do not keep the children for so many hours in school with the idea of making students of them6 ,the first step which we must take in our method is to call to the pupil4 ,we call now to his attention1 now to his interior life1 now to the life he leads with others4 ,making a comparison which must not be taken in a literal sense1--it is necessary to proceed as in experimental psychology or anthropology when one makes an experiment1--that is1 after having prepared the instrument 7to which in this case the environment may correspond7 we prepare the subject4 ,considering the method as a whole1 we must begin our work by preparing the child for the forms of social life1 and we must attract his attention to these forms4 ,in the schedule which we outlined when we established the first ,children's ,house1 but which we have never followed entirely1 7a sign that a schedule in which the material is distributed in arbitrary fashion is not adapted to the regime of liberty7 we begin the day with a series of exercises of practical life1 and ,i must confess that these exercises were the only part of the programme which proved thoroughly stationary4 ,these exercises were such a success that they formed the beginning of the day in all of the ,children's ,houses4 ,first3 ,cleanliness4 ,order4 ,poise4 ,conversation4 ,as soon as the children arrive at school we make an inspection for cleanliness4 ,if possible1 this should be carried on in the presence of the mothers1 but their attention should not be called to it directly4 ,we examine the hands1 the nails1 the neck1 the ears1 the face1 the teeth2 and care is given to the tidiness of the hair4 ,if any of the garments are torn or soiled or ripped1 if the buttons are lacking1 or if the shoes are not clean1 we call the attention of the child to this4 ,in this way1 the children become accustomed to observing themselves and take an interest in their own appearance4 ,the children in our ,children's ,houses are given a bath in turn1 but this1 of course1 can not be done daily4 ,in the class1 however1 the teacher1 by using a little washstand with small pitchers and basins1 teaches the children to take a partial bath3 for example1 they learn how to wash their hands and clean their nails4 ,indeed1 sometimes we teach them how to take a foot-bath4 ,they are shown especially how to wash their ears and eyes with great care4 ,they are taught to brush their teeth and rinse their mouths carefully4 ,in all of this1 we call their attention to the different parts of the body which they are washing1 and to the different means which we use in order to cleanse them3 clear water for the eyes1 soap and water for the hands1 the brush for the teeth1 etc4 ,we teach the big ones to help the little ones1 and1 so1 encourage the younger children to learn quickly to take care of themselves4 ,after this care of their persons1 we put on the little aprons4 ,the children are able to put these on themselves1 or1 with the help of each other4 ,then we begin our visit about the schoolroom4 ,we notice if all of the various materials are in order and if they are clean4 ,the teacher shows the children how to clean out the little corners where dust has accumulated1 and shows them how to use the various objects necessary in cleaning a room1--dust-cloths1 dust-brushes1 little brooms1 etc4 ,all of this1 when the children are allowed to do it by themselves1 is very quickly accomplished4 ,then the children go each to his own place4 ,the teacher explains to them that the normal position is for each child to be seated in his own place1 in silence1 with his feet together on the floor1 his hands resting on the table1 and his head erect4 ,in this way she teaches them poise and equilibrium4 ,then she has them rise on their feet in order to sing the hymn1 teaching them that in rising and sitting down it is not necessary to be noisy4 ,in this way the children learn to move about the furniture with poise and with care4 ,after this we have a series of exercises in which the children learn to move gracefully1 to go and come1 to salute each other1 to lift objects carefully1 to receive various objects from each other politely4 ,the teacher calls attention with little exclamations to a child who is clean1 a room which is well ordered1 a class seated quietly1 a graceful movement1 etc4 ,from such a starting point we proceed to the free teaching4 ,that is1 the teacher will no longer make comments to the children1 directing them how to move from their seats1 etc41 she will limit herself to correcting the disordered movements4 ,after the directress has talked in this way about the attitude of the children and the arrangement of the room1 she invites the children to talk with her4 ,she questions them concerning what they have done the day before1 regulating her inquiries in such a way that the children need not report the intimate happenings of the family but their individual behaviour1 their games1 attitude to parents1 etc4 ,she will ask if they have been able to go up the stairs without getting them muddy1 if they have spoken politely to their friends who passed1 if they have helped their mothers1 if they have shown in their family what they have learned at school1 if they have played in the street1 etc4 ,the conversations are longer on ,monday after the vacation1 and on that day the children are invited to tell what they have done with the family2 if they have gone away from home1 whether they have eaten things not usual for children to eat1 and if this is the case we urge them not to eat these things and try to teach them that they are bad for them4 ,such conversations as these encourage the unfolding or development of language and are of great educational value1 since the directress can prevent the children from recounting happenings in the house or in the neighbourhood1 and can select1 instead1 topics which are adapted to pleasant conversation1 and in this way can teach the children those things which it is desirable to talk about2 that is1 things with which we occupy ourselves in life1 public events1 or things which have happened in the different houses1 perhaps1 to the children themselves--as baptism1 birthday parties1 any of which may serve for occasional conversation4 ,things of this sort will encourage children to describe1 themselves4 ,after this morning talk we pass to the various lessons4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,refection--,,the ,,child',s ,,diet ,in connection with the exercises of practical life1 it may be fitting to consider the matter of refection4 ,in order to protect the child's development1 especially in neighbourhoods where standards of child hygiene are not yet prevalent in the home1 it would be well if a large part at least of the child's diet could be entrusted to the school4 ,it is well known to-day that the diet must be adapted to the physical nature of the child2 and as the medicine of children is not the medicine of adults in reduced doses1 so the diet must not be that of the adult in lesser quantitative proportions4 ,for this reason ,i should prefer that even in the ,children's ,houses which are situated in tenements and from which little ones1 being at home1 can go up to eat with the family1 school refection should be instituted4 ,moreover1 even in the case of rich children1 school refection would always be advisable until a scientific course in cooking shall have introduced into the wealthier families the habit of specialising in children's food4 ,the diet of little children must be rich in fats and sugar3 the first for reserve matter and the second for plastic tissue4 ,in fact1 sugar is a stimulant to tissues in the process of formation4 ,as for the form of preparation1 it is well that the alimentary substances should always be minced1 because the child has not yet the capacity for completely masticating the food1 and his stomach is still incapable of fulfilling the function of mincing food matter4 ,consequently1 soups1 purees1 and meat balls1 should constitute the ordinary form of dish for the child's table4 ,the nitrogenous diet for a child from two or three years of age ought to be constituted chiefly of milk and eggs1 but after the second year broths are also to be recommended4 ,after three years and a half meat can be given2 or1 in the case of poor children1 vegetables4 ,fruits are also to be recommended for children4 ,perhaps a detailed summary on child diet may be useful1 especially for mothers4 ,method of ,preparing ,broth for ,little ,children4 7,age three to six2 after that the child may use the common broth of the family47 ,the quantity of meat should correspond to #a gramme for every cubic centimetre of broth and should be put in cold water4 ,no aromatic herbs should be used1 the only wholesome condiment being salt4 ,the meat should be left to boil for two hours4 ,instead of removing the grease from the broth it is well to add butter to it1 or1 in the case of the poor1 a spoonful of olive oil2 but substitutes for butter1 such as margerine1 etc41 should never be used4 ,the broth must be prepared fresh2 it would be well1 therefore1 to put the meat on the fire two hours before the meal1 because as soon as broth is cool there begins to take place a separation of chemical substances1 which are injurious to the child and may easily cause diarrhea4 ,soups4 ,a very simple soup1 and one to be highly recommended for children1 is bread boiled in salt water or in broth and abundantly seasoned with oil4 ,this is the classic soup of poor children and an excellent means of nutrition4 ,very like this1 is the soup which consists of little cubes of bread toasted in butter and allowed to soak in the broth which is itself fat with butter4 ,soups of grated bread also belong in this class4 ,pastine1#aj especially the glutinous pastine1 which are of the same nature1 are undoubtedly superior to the others for digestibility1 but are accessible only to the privileged social classes4 #aj ,those very fine forms of vermicelli used in soups4 ,the poor should know how much more wholesome is a broth made from remnants of stale bread1 than soups of coarse spaghetti--often dry and seasoned with meat juice4 ,such soups are most indigestible for little children4 ,excellent soups are those consisting of purees of vegetables 7beans1 peas1 lentils74 ,to-day one may find in the shops dried vegetables especially adapted for this sort of soups4 ,boiled in salt water1 the vegetables are peeled1 put to cool and passed through a sieve 7or simply compressed1 if they are already peeled74 ,butter is then added1 and the paste is stirred slowly into the boiling water1 care being taken that it dissolves and leaves no lumps4 ,vegetable soups can also be seasoned with pork4 ,instead of broth1 sugared milk may be the base of vegetable purees4 ,i strongly recommend for children a soup of rice boiled in broth or milk2 also cornmeal broth1 provided it be seasoned with abundant butter1 but not with cheese4 7,the porridge form--polenta1 really cornmeal mush1 is to be highly recommended on account of the long cooking47 ,the poorer classes who have no meat-broth can feed their children equally well with soups of boiled bread and porridge seasoned with oil4 ,milk and ,eggs4 ,these are foods which not only contain nitrogenous substances in an eminently digestible form1 but they have the so-called enzymes which facilitate assimilation into the tissues1 and1 hence1 in a particular way1 favour the growth of the child4 ,and they answer so much the better this last most important condition if they are fresh and intact1 keeping in themselves1 one may say1 the life of the animals which produced them4 ,milk fresh from the cow1 and the egg while it is still warm1 are assimilable to the highest degree4 ,cooking1 on the other hand1 makes the milk and eggs lose their special conditions of assimilability and reduces the nutritive power in them to the simple power of any nitrogenous substance4 ,to-day1 consequently1 there are being founded special dairies for children where the milk produced is sterile2 the rigorous cleanliness of the surroundings in which the milk-producing animals live1 the sterilisation of the udder before milking1 of the hands of the milker1 and of the vessels which are to contain the milk1 the hermetic sealing of these last1 and the refrigerating bath immediately after the milking1 if the milk is to be carried far1--otherwise it is well to drink it warm1 procure a milk free from bacteria which1 therefore1 has no need of being sterilised by boiling1 and which preserves intact its natural nutritive powers4 ,as much may be said of eggs2 the best way of feeding them to a child is to take them still warm from the hen and have him eat them just as they are1 and then digest them in the open air4 ,but where this is not practicable1 eggs must be chosen fresh1 and barely heated in water1 that is to say1 prepared a la coque4 ,all other forms of preparation1 milk-soup1 omelettes1 and so forth1 do1 to be sure1 make of milk and eggs an excellent food1 more to be recommended than others2 but they take away the specific properties of assimilation which characterise them4 ,meat4 ,all meats are not adapted to children1 and even their preparation must differ according to the age of the child4 ,thus1 for example1 children from three to five years of age ought to eat only more or less finely-ground meats1 whereas at the age of five children are capable of grinding meat completely by mastication2 at that time it is well to teach the child accurately how to masticate because he has a tendency to swallow food quickly1 which may produce indigestion and diarrhea4 ,this is another reason why school-refection in the ,children's ,houses would be a very serviceable as well as convenient institution1 as the whole diet of the child could then be rationally cared for in connection with the educative system of the ,houses4 ,the meats most adapted to children are so-called white meats1 that is1 in the first place1 chicken1 then veal2 also the light flesh of fish1 7sole1 pike1 cod74 ,after the age of four1 filet of beef may also be introduced into the diet1 but never heavy and fat meats like that of the pig1 the capon1 the eel1 the tunny1 etc41 which are to be absolutely excluded along with mollusks and crustaceans1 7oysters1 lobsters71 from the child's diet4 ,croquettes made of finely ground meat1 grated bread1 milk1 and beaten eggs1 and fried in butter1 are the most wholesome preparation4 ,another excellent preparation is to mould into balls the grated meat1 with sweet fruit-preserve1 and eggs beaten up with sugar4 ,at the age of five1 the child may be given breast of roast fowl1 and occasionally veal cutlet or filet of beef4 ,boiled meat must never be given to the child1 because meat is deprived of many stimulating and even nutritive properties by boiling and rendered less digestible4 ,nerve ,feeding ,substances4 ,besides meat a child who has reached the age of four may be given fried brains and sweetbreads1 to be combined1 for example1 with chicken croquettes4 ,milk ,foods4 ,all cheeses are to be excluded from the child's diet4 ,the only milk product suitable to children from three to six years of age is fresh butter4 ,custard4 ,custard is also to be recommended provided it be freshly prepared1 that is immediately before being eaten1 and with very fresh milk and eggs3 if such conditions cannot be rigorously fulfilled1 it is preferable to do without custard1 which is not a necessity4 ,bread4 ,from what we have said about soups1 it may be inferred that bread is an excellent food for the child4 ,it should be well selected2 the crumb is not very digestible1 but it can be utilised1 when it is dry1 to make a bread broth2 but if one is to give the child simply a piece of bread to eat1 it is well to offer him the crust1 the end of the loaf4 ,bread sticks are excellent for those who can afford them4 ,bread contains many nitrogenous substances and is very rich in starches1 but is lacking in fats2 and as the fundamental substances of diet are1 as is well known1 three in number1 namely1 proteids1 7nitrogenous substances71 starches1 and fats1 bread is not a complete food2 it is necessary therefore to offer the child buttered bread1 which constitutes a complete food and may be considered as a sufficient and complete breakfast4 ,green ,vegetables4 ,children must never eat raw vegetables1 such as salads and greens1 but only cooked ones2 indeed they are not to be highly recommended either cooked or raw1 with the exception of spinach which may enter with moderation into the diet of children4 ,potatoes prepared in a puree with much butter form1 however1 an excellent complement of nutrition for children4 ,fruits4 ,among fruits there are excellent foods for children4 ,they too1 like milk and eggs1 if freshly gathered1 retain a living quality which aids assimilation4 ,as this condition1 however1 is not easily attainable in cities1 it is necessary to consider also the diet of fruits which are not perfectly fresh and which1 therefore1 should be prepared and cooked in various ways4 ,all fruits are not to be advised for children2 the chief properties to be considered are the degree of ripeness1 the tenderness and sweetness of the pulp1 and its acidity4 ,peaches1 apricots1 grapes1 currants1 oranges1 and mandarins1 in their natural state1 can be given to little children with great advantage4 ,other fruits1 such as pears1 apples1 plums1 should be cooked or prepared in syrup4 ,figs1 pineapples1 dates1 melons1 cherries1 walnuts1 almonds1 hazelnuts1 and chestnuts1 are excluded for various reasons from the diet of early childhood4 ,the preparation of fruit must consist in removing from it all indigestible parts1 such as the peel1 and also such parts as the child inadvertently may absorb to his detriment1 as1 for example1 the seed4 ,children of four or five should be taught early how carefully the seeds must be thrown away and how the fruits are peeled4 ,afterwards1 the child so educated may be promoted to the honour of receiving a fine fruit intact1 and he will know how to eat it properly4 ,the culinary preparation of fruits consists essentially in two processes3 cooking1 and seasoning with sugar4 ,besides simple cooking1 fruits may be prepared as marmalades and jellies1 which are excellent but are naturally within the reach of the wealthier classes only4 ,while jellies and marmalades may be allowed1 candied fruits1--on the other hand1--marrons glaces1 and the like1 are absolutely excluded from the child's diet4 ,seasonings4 ,an important phase of the hygiene of child diet concerns seasonings--with a view to their rigorous limitation4 ,as ,i have already indicated1 sugar and some fat substances along with kitchen salt 7sodium chloride7 should constitute the principal part of the seasonings4 ,to these may be added organic acids 7acetic acid1 citric acid7 that is1 vinegar and lemon juice2 this latter can be advantageously used on fish1 on croquettes1 on spinach1 etc4 ,other condiments suitable to little children are some aromatic vegetables like garlic and rue which disinfect the intestines and the lungs1 and also have a direct anthelminthic action4 ,spices1 on the other hand1 such as pepper1 nutmeg1 cinnamon1 clove1 and especially mustard1 are to be absolutely abolished4 ,drinks4 ,the growing organism of the child is very rich in water1 and1 hence1 needs a constant supply of moisture4 ,among the beverages1 the best1 and indeed the only one1 to be unreservedly advised is pure fresh spring water4 ,to rich children might be allowed the so-called table waters which are slightly alkaline1 such as those of ,san ,gemini1 ,acqua ,claudia1 etc41 mixed with syrups1 as1 for example1 syrup of black cherry4 ,it is now a matter of general knowledge that all fermented beverages1 and those exciting to the nervous system1 are injurious to children2 hence1 all alcoholic and caffeic beverages are absolutely eliminated from child diet4 ,not only liquors1 but wine and beer1 ought to be unknown to the child's taste1 and coffee and tea should be inaccessible to childhood4 ,the deleterious action of alcohol on the child organism needs no illustration1 but in a matter of such vital importance insistent repetition is never superfluous4 ,alcohol is a poison especially fatal to organisms in the process of formation4 ,not only does it arrest their total development 7whence infantilism1 idiocy71 but also predisposes the child to nervous maladies 7epilepsy1 meningitis71 and to maladies of the digestive organs1 and metabolism 7cirrhosis of the liver1 dyspepsia1 anaemia74 ,if the ,children's ,houses were to succeed in enlightening the people on such truths1 they would be accomplishing a very lofty hygienic work for the new generations4 ,instead of coffee1 children may be given roasted and boiled barley1 malt1 and especially chocolate which is an excellent child food1 particularly when mixed with milk4 ,,distribution ,,of ,,the ,,meals ,another chapter of child diet concerns the distribution of the meals4 ,here1 one principle must dominate1 and must be diffused1 among mothers1 namely1 that the children shall be kept to rigorous meal hours in order that they may enjoy good health and have excellent digestion4 ,it is true that there prevails among the people 7and it is one of the forms of maternal ignorance most fatal to children7 the prejudice that children in order to grow well must be eating almost continuously1 without regularity1 nibbling almost habitually a crust of bread4 ,on the contrary1 the child1 in view of the special delicacy of his digestive system1 has more need of regular meals than the adult has4 ,it seems to me that the ,children's ,houses with very prolonged programmes are1 for this reason1 suitable places for child culture1 as they can direct the child's diet4 ,outside of their regular meal hours1 children should not eat4 ,in a ,children's ,house with a long programme there ought to be two meals1 a hearty one about noon1 and a light one about four in the afternoon4 ,at the hearty meal1 there should be soup1 a meat dish1 and bread1 and1 in the case of rich children1 also fruits or custard1 and butter on the bread4 ,at the four o'clock meal there should be prepared a light lunch1 which from a simple piece of bread can range to buttered bread1 and to bread accompanied by a fruit marmalade1 chocolate1 honey1 custard1 etc4 ,crisp crackers1 biscuits1 and cooked fruits1 etc41 might also be usefully employed4 ,very suitably the lunch might consist of bread soaked in milk or an egg a la coque with bread sticks1 or else of a simple cup of milk in which is dissolved a spoonful of ,mellin's ,food4 ,i recommend ,mellin's ,food very highly1 not only in infancy1 but also much later on account of its properties of digestibility and nutrition1 and on account of its flavour1 which is so pleasing to children4 ,mellin's ,food is a powder prepared from barley and wheat1 and containing in a concentrated and pure state the nutritive substances proper to those cereals2 the powder is slowly dissolved in hot water in the bottom of the same cup which is to be used for drinking the mixture1 and very fresh milk is then poured on top4 ,the child would take the other two meals in his own home1 that is1 the morning breakfast and the supper1 which latter must be very light for children so that shortly after they may be ready to go to bed4 ,on these meals it would be well to give advice to mothers1 urging them to help complete the hygienic work of the ,children's ,houses1 to the profit of their children4 ,the morning breakfast for the rich might be milk and chocolate1 or milk and extract of malt1 with crackers1 or1 better1 with toasted bread spread with butter or honey2 for the poor1 a cup of fresh milk1 with bread4 ,for the evening meal1 a soup is to be advised 7children should eat soups twice a day71 and an egg a la coque or a cup of milk2 or rice soup with a base of milk1 and buttered bread1 with cooked fruits1 etc4 ,as for the alimentary rations to be calculated1 ,i refer the reader to the special treatises on hygiene3 although practically such calculations are of no great utility4 ,in the ,children's ,houses1 especially in the case of the poor1 ,i should make extensive use of the vegetable soups and ,i should have cultivated in the garden plots vegetables which can be used in the diet1 in order to have them plucked in their freshness1 cooked1 and enjoyed4 ,i should try1 possibly1 to do the same for the fruits1 and1 by the raising of animals1 to have fresh eggs and pure milk4 ,the milking of the goats could be done directly by the larger children1 after they had scrupulously washed their hands4 ,another important educative application which school-refection in the ,children's ,houses has to offer1 and which concerns practical life1 consists in the preparing of the table1 arranging the table linen1 learning its nomenclature1 etc4 ,later1 ,i shall show how this exercise can gradually increase in difficulty and constitute a most important didactic instrument4 ,it is sufficient to intimate here that it is very important to teach the children to eat with cleanliness1 both with respect to themselves and with respect to their surroundings 7not to soil the napkins1 etc471 and to use the table implements 7which1 at least1 for the little ones1 are limited to the spoon1 and for the larger children extended to the fork and knife74 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,muscular ,,education--,,gymnastics ,the generally accepted idea of gymnastics is1 ,i consider1 very inadequate4 ,in the common schools we are accustomed to describe as gymnastics a species of collective muscular discipline which has as its aim that children shall learn to follow definite ordered movements given in the form of commands4 ,the guiding spirit in such gymnastics is coercion1 and ,i feel that such exercises repress spontaneous movements and impose others in their place4 ,i do not know what the psychological authority for the selection of these imposed movements is4 ,similar movements are used in medical gymnastics in order to restore a normal movement to a torpid muscle or to give back a normal movement to a paralysed muscle4 ,a number of chest movements which are given in the school are advised1 for example1 in medicine for those who suffer from intestinal torpidity1 but truly ,i do not well understand what office such exercises can fulfil when they are followed by squadrons of normal children4 ,in addition to these formal gymnastics we have those which are carried on in a gymnasium1 and which are very like the first steps in the training of an acrobat4 ,however1 this is not the place for criticism of the gymnastics used in our common schools4 ,certainly in our case we are not considering such gymnastics4 ,indeed1 many who hear me speak of gymnastics for infant schools very plainly show disapprobation and they will disapprove more heartily when they hear me speak of a gymnasium for little children4 ,indeed1 if the gymnastic exercises and the gymnasium were those of the common schools1 no one would agree more heartily than ,i in the disapproval expressed by these critics4 ,we must understand by gymnastics and in general by muscular education a series of exercises tending to aid the normal development of physiological movements 7such as walking1 breathing1 speech71 to protect this development1 when the child shows himself backward or abnormal in any way1 and to encourage in the children those movements which are useful in the achievement of the most ordinary acts of life2 such as dressing1 undressing1 buttoning their clothes and lacing their shoes1 carrying such objects as balls1 cubes1 etc4 ,if there exists an age in which it is necessary to protect a child by means of a series of gymnastic exercises1 between three and six years is undoubtedly the age4 ,the special gymnastics necessary1 or1 better still1 hygienic1 in this period of life1 refer chiefly to walking4 ,a child in the general morphological growth of his body is characterised by having a torso greatly developed in comparison with the lower limbs4 ,in the new-born child the length of the torso1 from the top of the head to the curve of the groin1 is equal to #fh per cent of the total length of the body4 ,the limbs then are barely #cb per cent of the stature4 ,during growth these relative proportions change in a most noticeable way2 thus1 for example1 in the adult the torso is fully half of the entire stature and1 according to the individual1 corresponds to #ea or #eb per cent of it4 ,this morphological difference between the new-born child and the adult is bridged so slowly during growth that in the first years of the child's life the torso still remains tremendously developed as compared with the limbs4 ,in one year the height of the torso corresponds to #fe per cent of the total stature1 in two years to #fc1 in three years to #fb4 ,at the age when a child enters the infant school his limbs are still very short as compared with his torso2 that is1 the length of his limbs barely corresponds to #ch per cent of the stature4 ,between the years of six and seven the proportion of the torso to the stature is from #eg to #ef per cent ,in such a period therefore the child not only makes a noticeable growth in height1 7he measures indeed at the age of three years about #j4he metre and at six years #a4je metres7 but1 changing so greatly the relative proportions between the torso and the limbs1 the latter make a most decided growth4 ,this growth is related to the layers of cartilage which still exist at the extremity of the long bones and is related in general to the still incomplete ossification of the entire skeleton4 ,the tender bones of the limbs must therefore sustain the weight of the torso which is then disproportionately large4 ,we cannot1 if we consider all these things1 judge the manner of walking in little children by the standard set for our own equilibrium4 ,if a child is not strong1 the erect posture and walking are really sources of fatigue for him1 and the long bones of the lower limbs1 yielding to the weight of the body1 easily become deformed and usually bowed4 ,this is particularly the case among the badly nourished children of the poor1 or among those in whom the skeleton structure1 while not actually showing the presence of rickets1 still seems to be slow in attaining normal ossification4 ,we are wrong then if we consider little children from this physical point of view as little men4 ,they have1 instead1 characteristics and proportions that are entirely special to their age4 ,the tendency of the child to stretch out on his back and kick his legs in the air is an expression of physical needs related to the proportions of his body4 ,the baby loves to walk on all fours just because1 like the quadruped animals1 his limbs are short in comparison with his body4 ,instead of this1 we divert these natural manifestations by foolish habits which we impose on the child4 ,we hinder him from throwing himself on the earth1 from stretching1 etc41 and we oblige him to walk with grown people and to keep up with them2 and excuse ourselves by saying that we don't want him to become capricious and think he can do as he pleases6 ,it is indeed a fatal error and one which has made bow-legs common among little children4 ,it is well to enlighten the mothers on these important particulars of infant hygiene4 ,now we1 with the gymnastics1 can1 and1 indeed1 should1 help the child in his development by making our exercises correspond to the movement which he needs to make1 and in this way save his limbs from fatigue4 ,one very simple means for helping the child in his activity was suggested to me by my observation of the children themselves4 ,the teacher was having the children march1 leading them about the courtyard between the walls of the house and the central garden4 ,this garden was protected by a little fence made of strong wires which were stretched in parallel lines1 and were supported at intervals by wooden palings driven into the ground4 ,along the fence1 ran a little ledge on which the children were in the habit of sitting down when they were tired of marching4 ,in addition to this1 ,i always brought out little chairs1 which ,i placed against the wall4 ,every now and then1 the little ones of two and one half and three years would drop out from the marching line1 evidently being tired2 but instead of sitting down on the ground or on the chairs1 they would run to the little fence and catching hold of the upper line of wire they would walk along sideways1 resting their feet on the wire which was nearest the ground4 ,that this gave them a great deal of pleasure1 was evident from the way in which they laughed as1 with bright eyes1 they watched their larger companions who were marching about4 ,the truth was that these little ones had solved one of my problems in a very practical way4 ,they moved themselves along on the wires1 pulling their bodies sideways4 ,in this way1 they moved their limbs without throwing upon them the weight of the body4 ,such an apparatus placed in the gymnasium for little children1 will enable them to fulfil the need which they feel of throwing themselves on the floor and kicking their legs in the air2 for the movements they make on the little fence correspond even more correctly to the same physical needs4 ,therefore1 ,i advise the manufacture of this little fence for use in children's playrooms4 ,it can be constructed of parallel bars supported by upright poles firmly fixed on to the heavy base4 ,the children1 while playing upon this little fence1 will be able to look out and see with1 great pleasure what the other children are doing in the room4 ,other pieces of gymnasium apparatus can be constructed upon the same plan1 that is1 having as their aim the furnishing of the child with a proper outlet for his individual activities4 ,one of the things invented by ,seguin to develop the lower limbs1 and especially to strengthen the articulation of the knee in weak children1 is the trampolino4 ,this is a kind of swing1 having a very wide seat1 so wide1 indeed1 that the limbs of the child stretched out in front of him are entirely supported by this broad seat4 ,this little chair is hung from strong cords and is left swinging4 ,the wall in front of it is reinforced by a strong smooth board against which the children press their feet in pushing themselves back and forth in the swing4 ,the child seated in this swing exercises his limbs1 pressing his feet against the board each time that he swings toward the wall4 ,the board against which he swings may be erected at some distance from the wall1 and may be so low that the child can see over the top of it4 ,as he swings in this chair1 he strengthens his limbs through the species of gymnastics limited to the lower limbs1 and this he does without resting the weight of his body upon his legs4 ,other pieces of gymnastic apparatus1 less important from the hygienic standpoint1 but very amusing to the children1 may be described briefly4 ,the ,pendulum1 a game which may be played by one child or by several1 consists of rubber balls hung on a cord4 ,the children seated in their little armchairs strike the ball1 sending it from one to another4 ,it is an exercise for the arms and for the spinal column1 and is at the same time an exercise in which the eye gauges the distance of bodies in motion4 ,another game1 called ,the ,cord1 consists of a line1 drawn on the earth with chalk1 along which the children walk4 ,this helps to order and to direct their free movements in a given direction4 ,a game like this is very pretty1 indeed1 after a snowfall1 when the little path made by the children shows the regularity of the line they have traced1 and encourages a pleasant war among them in which each one tries to make his line in the snow the most regular4 ,the little round stair is another game1 in which a little wooden stairway1 built on the plan of the spiral1 is used4 ,this little stair is enclosed on one side by a balustrade on which the children can rest their hands4 ,the other side is open and circular4 ,this serves to habituate the children to climbing and descending stairs without holding on to the balustrade1 and teaches them to move up and down with movements that are poised and self-controlled4 ,the steps must be very low and very shallow4 ,going up and down on this little stair1 the very smallest children can learn movements which they cannot follow properly in climbing ordinary stairways in their homes1 in which the proportions are arranged for adults4 ,another piece of gymnasium apparatus1 adapted for the broad-jump1 consists of a low wooden platform painted with various lines1 by means of which the distance jumped may be gauged4 ,there is a small flight of stairs which may be used in connection with this plane1 making it possible to practise and to measure the high-jump4 ,i also believe that rope-ladders may be so adapted as to be suitable for use in schools for little children4 ,used in pairs1 these would1 it seems to me1 help to perfect a great variety of movements1 such as kneeling1 rising1 bending forward and backward1 etc42 movements which the child1 without the help of the ladder1 could not make without losing his equilibrium4 ,all of these movements are useful in that they help the child to acquire1 first1 equilibrium1 then that co-ordination of the muscular movements necessary to him4 ,they are1 moreover1 helpful in that they increase the chest expansion4 ,besides all this1 such movements as ,i have described1 reinforce the hand in its most primitive and essential action1 prehension2--the movement which necessarily precedes all the finer movements of the hand itself4 ,such apparatus was successfully used by ,seguin to develop the general strength and the movement of prehension in his idiotic children4 ,the gymnasium1 therefore1 offers a field for the most varied exercises1 tending to establish the co-ordination of the movements common in life1 such as walking1 throwing objects1 going up and down stairs1 kneeling1 rising1 jumping1 etc4 ,,free ,,gymnastics ,by free gymnastics ,i mean those which are given without any apparatus4 ,such gymnastics are divided into two classes3 directed and required exercises1 and free games4 ,in the first class1 ,i recommend the march1 the object of which should be not rhythm1 but poise only4 ,when the march is introduced1 it is well to accompany it with the singing of little songs1 because this furnishes a breathing exercise very helpful in strengthening the lungs4 ,besides the march1 many of the games of ,froebel which are accompanied by songs1 very similar to those which the children constantly play among themselves1 may be used4 ,in the free games1 we furnish the children with balls1 hoops1 bean bags and kites4 ,the trees readily offer themselves to the game of ,pussy wants a corner1 and many simple games of tag4 ,illustration3 ,,dr4 ,,montessori ,,in ,,the ,,garden ,,of ,,the ,,school ,,at ,,via ,,giusti ,illustration3 7,a7 ,,children ,,three ,,and ,,one-,,half ,,and ,,four ,,years ,,old ,,learning ,,to ,,button ,,and ,,lace4 7,b7 ,,ribbon ,,and ,,button ,,frames4 ,these are among the earliest exercises4 ,,educational ,,gymnastics ,under the name of educational gymnastics1 we include two series of exercises which really form a part of other school work1 as1 for instance1 the cultivation of the earth1 the care of plants and animals 7watering and pruning the plants1 carrying the grain to the chickens1 etc474 ,these activities call for various co-ordinated movements1 as1 for example1 in hoeing1 in getting down to plant things1 and in rising2 the trips which children make in carrying objects to some definite place1 and in making a definite practical use of these objects1 offer a field for very valuable gymnastic exercises4 ,the scattering of minute objects1 such as corn and oats1 is valuable1 and also the exercise of opening and closing the gates to the garden and to the chicken yard4 ,all of these exercises are the more valuable in that they are carried on in the open air4 ,among our educational gymnastics we have exercises to develop co-ordinated movements of the fingers1 and these prepare the children for the exercises of practical life1 such as dressing and undressing themselves4 ,the didactic material which forms the basis of these last named gymnastics is very simple1 consisting of wooden frames1 each mounted with two pieces of cloth1 or leather1 to be fastened and unfastened by means of the buttons and buttonholes1 hooks and eyes1 eyelets and lacings1 or automatic fastenings4 ,in our ,children's ,houses we use ten of these frames1 so constructed that each one of them illustrates a different process in dressing or undressing4 ,one3 mounted with heavy pieces of wool which are to be fastened by means of large bone buttons--corresponds to children's dresses4 ,two3 mounted with pieces of linen to be fastened with pearl buttons--corresponds to a child's underwear4 ,three3 leather pieces mounted with shoe buttons--in fastening these leather pieces the children make use of the button-hook--corresponds to a child's shoes4 ,four3 pieces of leather which are laced together by means of eyelets and shoe laces4 ,five3 two pieces of cloth to be laced together4 7,these pieces are boned and therefore correspond to the little bodices worn by the peasants in ,italy47 ,six3 two pieces of stuff to be fastened by means of large hooks and eyes4 ,seven3 two pieces of linen1 to be fastened by means of small hooks and worked eyelets4 ,eight3 two pieces of cloth to be fastened by means of broad coloured ribbon1 which is to be tied into bows4 ,nine3 pieces of cloth laced together with round cord1 on the same order as the fastenings on many of the children's underclothes4 ,ten3 two pieces to be fastened together by means of the modern automatic fasteners4 ,through the use of such toys1 the children can practically analyse the movements necessary in dressing and undressing themselves1 and can prepare themselves separately for these movements by means of repeated exercises4 ,we succeed in teaching the child to dress himself without his really being aware of it1 that is1 without any direct or arbitrary command we have led him to this mastery4 ,as soon as he knows how to do it1 he begins to wish to make a practical application of his ability1 and very soon he will be proud of being sufficient unto himself1 and will take delight in an ability which makes his body free from the hands of others1 and which leads him the sooner to that modesty and activity which develops far too late in those children of to-day who are deprived of this most practical form of education4 ,the fastening games are very pleasing to the little ones1 and often when ten of them are using the frames at the same time1 seated around the little tables1 quiet and serious1 they give the impression of a workroom filled with tiny workers4 ,,respiratory ,,gymnastics ,the purpose of these gymnastics is to regulate the respiratory movements3 in other words1 to teach the art of breathing4 ,they also help greatly the correct formation of the child's speech habits4 ,the exercises which we use were introduced into school literature by ,professor ,sala4 ,we have chosen the simple exercises described by him in his treatise1 ,cura della ,balbuzie4#aa ,these include a number of respiratory gymnastic exercises with which are co-ordinated muscular exercises4 ,i give here an example3 #aa ,cura della ,balbuzie e del ,difetti di ,pronunzia4 ,sala4 ,ulrico ,hoepli1 publisher1 ,milan1 ,italy4 ,mouth wide open1 tongue held flat1 hands on hips4 ,breathe deeply1 lift the shoulders rapidly1 lowering the diaphragm4 ,expel breath slowly1 lowering shoulders slowly1 returning to normal position4 ,the directress should select or devise simple breathing exercises1 to be accompanied with arm movements1 etc4 ,exercises for proper use of lips1 tongue1 and teeth4 ,these exercises teach the movements of the lips and tongue in the pronunciation of certain fundamental consonant sounds1 reinforcing the muscles1 and making them ready for these movements4 ,these gymnastics prepare the organs used in the formation of language4 ,in presenting such exercises we begin with the entire class1 but finish by testing the children individually4 ,we ask the child to pronounce1 aloud and with force1 the first syllable of a word4 ,when all are intent upon putting the greatest possible force into this1 we call each child separately1 and have him repeat the word4 ,if he pronounces it correctly1 we send him to the right1 if badly1 to the left4 ,those who have difficulty with the word1 are then encouraged to repeat it several times4 ,the teacher takes note of the age of the child1 and of the particular defects in the movements of the muscles used in articulating4 ,she may then touch the muscles which should be used1 tapping1 for example1 the curve of the lips1 or even taking hold of the child's tongue and placing it against the dental arch1 or showing him clearly the movements which she herself makes when pronouncing the syllable4 ,she must seek in every way to aid the normal development of the movements necessary to the exact articulation of the word4 ,as the basis for these gymnastics we have the children pronounce the words3 pane--fame--tana--zina--stella--rana--ga tto4 ,in the pronunciation of pane1 the child should repeat with much force1 pa1 pa1 pa1 thus exercising the muscles producing orbicular contraction of the lips4 ,in fame repeating fa1 fa1 fa1 the child exercises the movements of the lower lip against the upper dental arch4 ,in tana1 having him repeat ta1 ta1 ta1 we cause him to exercise the movement of the tongue against the upper dental arch4 ,in zina1 we provoke the contact of the upper and lower dental arches4 ,with stella we have him repeat the whole word1 bringing the teeth together1 and holding the tongue 7which has a tendency to protrude7 close against the upper teeth4 ,in rana we have him repeat r1 r1 r1 thus exercising the tongue in the vibratory movements4 ,in gatto we hold the voice upon the guttural g4 ,,chapter ,x ,,nature ,,in ,,education--,,agricultural ,,labour3 ,,culture ,,of ,,plants ,,and ,,animals ,itard1 in a remarkable pedagogical treatise3 ,des premiers developpements du jeune sauvage de l',aveyron1 expounds in detail the drama of a curious1 gigantic education which attempted to overcome the psychical darkness of an idiot and at the same time to snatch a man from primitive nature4 ,the savage of the ,aveyron was a child who had grown up in the natural state3 criminally abandoned in a forest where his assassins thought they had killed him1 he was cured by natural means1 and had survived for many years free and naked in the wilderness1 until1 captured by hunters1 he entered into the civilised life of ,paris1 showing by the scars with which his miserable body was furrowed the story of the struggles with wild beasts1 and of lacerations caused by falling from heights4 ,the child was1 and always remained1 mute2 his mentality1 diagnosed by ,pinel as idiotic1 remained forever almost inaccessible to intellectual education4 ,to this child are due the first steps of positive pedagogy4 ,itard1 a physician of deaf-mutes and a student of philosophy1 undertook his education with methods which he had already partially tried for treating defective hearing--believing at the beginning that the savage showed characteristics of inferiority1 not because he was a degraded organism1 but for want of education4 ,he was a follower of the principles of ,helvetius3 ,man is nothing without the work of man2 that is1 he believed in the omnipotence of education1 and was opposed to the pedagogical principle which ,rousseau had promulgated before the ,revolution3 ,tout est bien sortant des mains de l',auteur des choses1 tout degenere dans les mains de l'homme1--that is1 the work of education is deleterious and spoils the man4 ,the savage1 according to the erroneous first impression of ,itard1 demonstrated experimentally by his characteristics the truth of the former assertion4 ,when1 however1 he perceived1 with the help of ,pinel1 that he had to do with an idiot1 his philosophical theories gave place to the most admirable1 tentative1 experimental pedagogy4 ,itard divides the education of the savage into two parts4 ,in the first1 he endeavours to lead the child from natural life to social life2 and in the second1 he attempts the intellectual education of the idiot4 ,the child in his life of frightful abandonment had found one happiness2 he had1 so to speak1 immersed himself in1 and unified himself with1 nature1 taking delight in it--rains1 snow1 tempests1 boundless space1 had been his sources of entertainment1 his companions1 his love4 ,civil life is a renunciation of all this3 but it is an acquisition beneficent to human progress4 ,in ,itard's pages we find vividly described the moral work which led the savage to civilisation1 multiplying the needs of the child and surrounding him with loving care4 ,here is a sample of the admirably patient work of ,itard as observer of the spontaneous expressions of his pupil3 it can most truly give teachers1 who are to prepare for the experimental method1 an idea of the patience and the self-abnegation necessary in dealing with a phenomenon which is to be observed3 ,when1 for example1 he was observed within his room1 he was seen to be lounging with oppressive monotony1 continually directing his eyes toward the window1 with his gaze wandering in the void4 ,if on such occasions a sudden storm blew up1 if the sun1 hidden behind the clouds1 peeped out of a sudden1 lighting the atmosphere brilliantly1 there were loud bursts of laughter and almost convulsive joy4 ,sometimes1 instead of these expressions of joy1 there was a sort of frenzied rage3 he would twist his arms1 put his clenched fists upon his eyes1 gnashing his teeth and becoming dangerous to those about him4 ,one morning1 when the snow fell abundantly while he was still in bed1 he uttered a cry of joy upon awaking1 leaped from his bed1 ran to the window and then to the door2 went and came impatiently from one to the other2 then ran out undressed as he was into the garden4 ,there1 giving vent to his joy with the shrillest of cries1 he ran1 rolled in the snow1 gathered it up in handfuls1 and swallowed it with incredible avidity4 ,but his sensations at sight of the great spectacles of nature did not always manifest themselves in such a vivid and noisy manner4 ,it is worthy of note that in certain cases they were expressed by a quiet regret and melancholy4 ,thus1 it was when the rigour of the weather drove everybody from the garden that the savage of the ,aveyron chose to go there4 ,he would walk around it several times and finally sit down upon the edge of the fountain4 ,i have often stopped for whole hours1 and with indescribable pleasure1 to watch him as he sat thus--to see how his face1 inexpressive or contracted by grimaces1 gradually assumed an expression of sadness1 and of melancholy reminiscence1 while his eyes were fixed upon the surface of the water into which from time to time he would throw a few dead leaves4 ,if when there was a full moon1 a sheaf of mild beams penetrated into his room1 he rarely failed to wake and to take his place at the window4 ,he would remain there for a large part of the night1 erect1 motionless1 with his head thrust forward1 his eyes fixed on the countryside lighted by the moon1 plunged in a sort of contemplative ecstasy1 the immobility and silence of which were only interrupted at long intervals by a breath as deep as a sigh1 which died away in a plaintive sound of lamentation4 ,elsewhere1 ,itard relates that the boy did not know the walking gait which we use in civilised life1 but only the running gait1 and tells how he1 ,itard1 ran after him at the beginning1 when he took him out into the streets of ,paris1 rather than violently check the boy's running4 ,the gradual and gentle leading of the savage through all the manifestations of social life1 the early adaptation of the teacher to the pupil rather than of the pupil to the teacher1 the successive attraction to a new life which was to win over the child by its charms1 and not be imposed upon him violently so that the pupil should feel it as a burden and a torture1 are as many precious educative expressions which may be generalised and applied to the education of children4 ,i believe that there exists no document which offers so poignant and so eloquent a contrast between the life of nature and the life of society1 and which so graphically shows that society is made up solely of renunciations and restraints4 ,let it suffice to recall the run1 checked to a walk1 and the loud-voiced cry1 checked to the modulations of the ordinary speaking voice4 ,and1 yet1 without any violence1 leaving to social life the task of charming the child little by little1 ,itard's education triumphs4 ,it is true that civilised life is made by renunciation of the life of nature2 it is almost the snatching of a man from the lap of earth2 it is like snatching the new-born child from its mother's breast2 but it is also a new life4 ,in ,itard's pages we see the final triumph of the love of man over the love of nature3 the savage of the ,aveyron ends by feeling and preferring the affection of ,itard1 the caresses1 the tears shed over him1 to the joy of immersing himself voluptuously in the snow1 and of contemplating the infinite expanse of the sky on a starry night3 one day after an attempted escape into the country1 he returns of his own accord1 humble and repentant1 to find his good soup and his warm bed4 ,it is true that man has created enjoyments in social life and has brought about a vigorous human love in community life4 ,but nevertheless he still belongs to nature1 and1 especially when he is a child1 he must needs draw from it the forces necessary to the development of the body and of the spirit4 ,we have intimate communications with nature which have an influence1 even a material influence1 on the growth of the body4 7,for example1 a physiologist1 isolating young guinea pigs from terrestrial magnetism by means of insulators1 found that they grew up with rickets47 ,in the education of little children ,itard's educative drama is repeated3 we must prepare man1 who is one among the living creatures and therefore belongs to nature1 for social life1 because social life being his own peculiar work1 must also correspond to the manifestation of his natural activity4 ,but the advantages which we prepare for him in this social life1 in a great measure escape the little child1 who at the beginning of his life is a predominantly vegetative creature4 ,to soften this transition in education1 by giving a large part of the educative work to nature itself1 is as necessary as it is not to snatch the little child suddenly and violently from its mother and to take him to school2 and precisely this is done in the ,children's ,houses1 which are situated within the tenements where the parents live1 where the cry of the child reaches the mother and the mother's voice answers it4 ,nowadays1 under the form of child hygiene1 this part of education is much cultivated3 children are allowed to grow up in the open air1 in the public gardens1 or are left for many hours half naked on the seashore1 exposed to the rays of the sun4 ,it has been understood1 through the diffusion of marine and ,apennine colonies1 that the best means of invigorating the child is to immerse him in nature4 ,short and comfortable clothing for children1 sandals for the feet1 nudity of the lower extremities1 are so many liberations from the oppressive shackles of civilisation4 ,it is an obvious principle that we should sacrifice to natural liberties in education only as much as is necessary for the acquisition of the greater pleasures which are offered by civilisation without useless sacrifices4 ,but in all this progress of modern child education1 we have not freed ourselves from the prejudice which denies children spiritual expression and spiritual needs1 and makes us consider them only as amiable vegetating bodies to be cared for1 kissed1 and set in motion4 ,the education which a good mother or a good modern teacher gives to-day to the child who1 for example1 is running about in a flower garden is the counsel not to touch the flowers1 not to tread on the grass2 as if it were sufficient for the child to satisfy the physiological needs of his body by moving his legs and breathing fresh air4 ,but if for the physical life it is necessary to have the child exposed to the vivifying forces of nature1 it is also necessary for his psychical life to place the soul of the child in contact with creation1 in order that he may lay up for himself treasure from the directly educating forces of living nature4 ,the method for arriving at this end is to set the child at agricultural labour1 guiding him to the cultivation of plants and animals1 and so to the intelligent contemplation of nature4 ,already1 in ,england ,mrs4 ,latter has devised the basis for a method of child education by means of gardening and horticulture4 ,she sees in the contemplation of developing life the bases of religion1 since the soul of the child may go from the creature to the ,creator4 ,she sees in it also the point of departure for intellectual education1 which she limits to drawing from life as a step toward art1 to the ideas about plants1 insects1 and seasons1 which spring from agriculture1 and to the first notions of household life1 which spring from the cultivation and the culinary preparation of certain alimentary products that children later serve upon the table1 providing afterwards also for the washing of the utensils and tableware4 ,mrs4 ,latter's conception is too one-sided2 but her institutions1 which continue to spread in ,england1 undoubtedly complete the natural education which1 up to this time limited to the physical side1 has already been so efficacious in invigorating the bodies of ,english children4 ,moreover1 her experience offers a positive corroboration of the practicability of agricultural teaching in the case of little children4 ,as for deficients1 ,i have seen agriculture applied on a large scale to their education at ,paris by the means which the kindly spirit of ,baccelli tried to introduce into the elementary schools when he attempted to institute the little educative gardens4 ,in every little garden are sown different agricultural products1 demonstrating practically the proper method and the proper time for seeding and for crop gathering1 and the period of development of the various products2 the manner of preparing the soil1 of enriching it with natural or chemical manures1 etc4 ,the same is done for ornamental plants and for gardening1 which is the work yielding the best income for deficients1 when they are of an age to practise a profession4 ,but this side of education1 though it contains1 in the first place1 an objective method of intellectual culture1 and1 in addition1 a professional preparation1 is not1 in my opinion1 to be taken into serious consideration for child education4 ,the educational conception of this age must be solely that of aiding the psycho-physical development of the individual2 and1 this being the case1 agriculture and animal culture contain in themselves precious means of moral education which can be analysed far more than is done by ,mrs4 ,latter1 who sees in them essentially a method of conducting the child's soul to religious feeling4 ,indeed1 in this method1 which is a progressive ascent1 several gradations can be distinguished3 ,i mention here the principal ones3 ,first4 ,the child is initiated into observation of the phenomena of life4 ,he stands with respect to the plants and animals in relations analogous to those in which the observing teacher stands towards him4 ,little by little1 as interest and observation grow1 his zealous care for the living creatures grows also1 and in this way1 the child can logically be brought to appreciate the care which the mother and the teacher take of him4 ,second4 ,the child is initiated into foresight by way of auto-education2 when he knows that the life of the plants that have been sown depends upon his care in watering them1 and that of the animals1 upon his diligence in feeding them1 without which the little plant dries up and the animals suffer hunger1 the child becomes vigilant1 as one who is beginning to feel a mission in life4 ,moreover1 a voice quite different from that of his mother and his teacher calling him to his duties1 is speaking here1 exhorting him never to forget the task he has undertaken4 ,it is the plaintive voice of the needy life which lives by his care4 ,between the child and the living creatures which he cultivates there is born a mysterious correspondence which induces the child to fulfil certain determinate acts without the intervention of the teacher1 that is1 leads him to an auto-education4 ,the rewards which the child reaps also remain between him and nature3 one fine day after long patient care in carrying food and straw to the brooding pigeons1 behold the little ones6 behold a number of chickens peeping about the setting hen which yesterday sat motionless in her brooding place6 behold one day the tender little rabbits in the hutch where formerly dwelt in solitude the pair of big rabbits to which he had not a few times lovingly carried the green vegetables left over in his mother's kitchen6 ,i have not yet been able to institute in ,rome the breeding of animals1 but in the ,children's ,houses at ,milan there are several animals1 among them a pair of pretty little white ,american fowl that live in a diminutive and elegant chalet1 similar in construction to a ,chinese pagoda3 in front of it1 a little piece of ground inclosed by a rampart is reserved for the pair4 ,the little door of the chalet is locked at evening1 and the children take care of it in turn4 ,with what delight they go in the morning to unlock the door1 to fetch water and straw1 and with what care they watch during the day1 and at evening lock the door after having made sure that the fowl lack nothing6 ,the teacher informs me that among all the educative exercises this is the most welcome1 and seems also the most important of all4 ,many a time when the children are tranquilly occupied in tasks1 each at the work he prefers1 one1 two1 or three1 get up silently1 and go out to cast a glance at the animals to see if they need care4 ,often it happens that a child absents himself for a long time and the teacher surprises him watching enchantedly the fish gliding ruddy and resplendent in the sunlight in the waters of the fountain4 ,one day ,i received from the teacher in ,milan a letter in which she spoke to me with great enthusiasm of a truly wonderful piece of news4 ,the little pigeons were hatched4 ,for the children it was a great festival4 ,they felt themselves to some extent the parents of these little ones1 and no artificial reward which had flattered their vanity would ever have provoked such a truly fine emotion4 ,not less great are the joys which vegetable nature provides4 ,in one of the ,children's ,houses at ,rome1 where there was no soil that could be cultivated1 there have been arranged1 through the efforts of ,signora ,talamo1 flower-pots all around the large terrace1 and climbing plants near the walls4 ,the children never forget to water the plants with their little watering-pots4 ,one day ,i found them seated on the ground1 all in a circle1 around a splendid red rose which had bloomed in the night2 silent and calm1 literally immersed in mute contemplation4 ,third4 ,the children are initiated into the virtue of patience and into confident expectation1 which is a form of faith and of philosophy of life4 ,when the children put a seed into the ground1 and wait until it fructifies1 and see the first appearance of the shapeless plant1 and wait for the growth and the transformations into flower and fruit1 and see how some plants sprout sooner and some later1 and how the deciduous plants have a rapid life1 and the fruit-trees a slower growth1 they end by acquiring a peaceful equilibrium of conscience1 and absorb the first germs of that wisdom which so characterised the tillers of the soil in the time when they still kept their primitive simplicity4 ,fourth4 ,the children are inspired with a feeling for nature1 which is maintained by the marvels of creation--that creation which rewards with a generosity not measured by the labour of those who help it to evolve the life of its creatures4 ,even while at the work1 a sort of correspondence arises between the child's soul and the lives which are developed under his care4 ,the child loves naturally the manifestations of life3 ,mrs4 ,latter tells us how easily little ones are interested even in earthworms and in the movement of the larvae of insects in manure1 without feeling that horror which we1 who have grown up isolated from nature1 experience towards certain animals4 ,it is well then1 to develop this feeling of trust and confidence in living creatures1 which is1 moreover1 a form of love1 and of union with the universe4 ,but what most develops a feeling of nature is the cultivation of the living things1 because they by their natural development give back far more than they receive1 and show something like infinity in their beauty and variety4 ,when the child has cultivated the iris or the pansy1 the rose or the hyacinth1 has placed in the soil a seed or a bulb and periodically watered it1 or has planted a fruit-bearing shrub1 and the blossomed flower and the ripened fruit offer themselves as a generous gift of nature1 a rich reward for a small effort2 it seems almost as if nature were answering with her gifts to the feeling of desire1 to the vigilant love of the cultivator1 rather than striking a balance with his material efforts4 ,it will be quite different when the child has to gather the material fruits of his labour3 motionless1 uniform objects1 which are consumed and dispersed rather than increased and multiplied4 ,the difference between the products of nature and those of industry1 between divine products and human products--it is this that must be born spontaneously in the child's conscience1 like the determination of a fact4 ,but at the same time1 as the plant must give its fruit1 so man must give his labour4 ,fifth4 ,the child follows the natural way of development of the human race4 ,in short1 such education makes the evolution of the individual harmonise with that of humanity4 ,man passed from the natural to the artificial state through agriculture3 when he discovered the secret of intensifying the production of the soil1 he obtained the reward of civilisation4 ,the same path must be traversed by the child who is destined to become a civilised man4 ,the action of educative nature so understood is very practically accessible4 ,because1 even if the vast stretch of ground and the large courtyard necessary for physical education are lacking1 it will always be possible to find a few square yards of land that may be cultivated1 or a little place where pigeons can make their nest1 things sufficient for spiritual education4 ,even a pot of flowers at the window can1 if necessary1 fulfil the purpose4 ,in the first ,children's ,house in ,rome we have a vast courtyard1 cultivated as a garden1 where the children are free to run in the open air--and1 besides1 a long stretch of ground1 which is planted on one side with trees1 has a branching path in the middle1 and on the opposite side1 has broken ground for the cultivation of plants4 ,this last1 we have divided into so many portions1 reserving one for each child4 ,while the smaller children run freely up and down the paths1 or rest in the shade of the trees1 the possessors of the earth 7children from four years of age up71 are sowing1 or hoeing1 watering or examining1 the surface of the soil watching for the sprouting of plants4 ,it is interesting to note the following fact3 the little reservations of the children are placed along the wall of the tenement1 in a spot formerly neglected because it leads to a blind road2 the inhabitants of the house1 therefore1 had the habit of throwing from those windows every kind of offal1 and at the beginning our garden was thus contaminated4 ,but1 little by little1 without any exhortation on our part1 solely through the respect born in the people's mind for the children's labour1 nothing more fell from the windows1 except the loving glances and smiles of the mothers upon the soil which was the beloved possession of their little children4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,manual ,,labour--,,the ,,potter',s ,,art ,,and ,,building ,manual labour is distinguished from manual gymnastics by the fact that the object of the latter is to exercise the hand1 and the former1 to accomplish a determinate work1 being1 or simulating1 a socially useful object4 ,the one perfects the individual1 the other enriches the world2 the two things are1 however1 connected because1 in general1 only one who has perfected his own hand can produce a useful product4 ,i have thought wise1 after a short trial1 to exclude completely ,froebel's exercises1 because weaving and sewing on cardboard are ill adapted to the physiological state of the child's visual organs where the powers of the accommodation of the eye have not yet reached complete development2 hence1 these exercises cause an effort of the organ which may have a fatal influence on the development of the sight4 ,the other little exercises of ,froebel1 such as the folding of paper1 are exercises of the hand1 not work4 ,there is still left plastic work1--the most rational among all the exercises of ,froebel1--which consists in making the child reproduce determinate objects in clay4 ,in consideration1 however1 of the system of liberty which ,i proposed1 ,i did not like to make the children copy anything1 and1 in giving them clay to fashion in their own manner1 ,i did not direct the children to produce useful things2 nor was ,i accomplishing an educative result1 inasmuch as plastic work1 as ,i shall show later1 serves for the study of the psychic individuality of the child in his spontaneous manifestations1 but not for his education4 ,i decided therefore to try in the ,children's ,houses some very interesting exercises which ,i had seen accomplished by an artist1 ,professor ,randone1 in the ,school of ,educative ,art founded by him4 ,this school had its origin along with the society for young people1 called ,giovinezza ,gentile1 both school and society having the object of educating youth in gentleness towards their surroundings--that is1 in respect for objects1 buildings1 monuments3 a really important part of civil education1 and one which interested me particularly on account of the ,children's ,houses1 since that institution has1 as its fundamental aim1 to teach precisely this respect for the walls1 for the house1 for the surroundings4 ,very suitably1 ,professor ,randone had decided that the society of ,giovinezza ,gentile could not be based upon sterile theoretical preachings of the principles of citizenship1 or upon moral pledges taken by the children2 but that it must proceed from an artistic education which should lead the youth to appreciate and love1 and consequently respect1 objects and especially monuments and historic buildings4 ,thus the ,school of ,educative ,art was inspired by a broad artistic conception including the reproduction of objects which are commonly met in the surroundings2 the history and pre-history of their production1 and the illustration of the principal civic monuments which1 in ,rome1 are in large measure composed of archaeological monuments4 ,in order the more directly to accomplish his object1 ,professor ,randone founded his admirable school in an opening in one of the most artistic parts of the walls of ,rome1 namely1 the wall of ,belisarius1 overlooking the ,villa ,umberto ,primo--a wall which has been entirely neglected by the authorities and by no means respected by the citizens1 and upon which ,randone lavished care1 decorating it with graceful hanging gardens on the outside1 and locating within it the ,school of ,art which was to shape the ,giovinezza ,gentile4 ,here ,randone has tried1 very fittingly1 to rebuild and revive a form of art which was once the glory of ,italy and of ,florence--the potter's art1 that is1 the art of constructing vases4 ,the archaeological1 historical1 and artistic importance of the vase is very great1 and may be compared with the numismatic art4 ,in fact the first object of which humanity felt the need was the vase1 which came into being with the utilisation of fire1 and before the discovery of the production of fire4 ,indeed the first food of mankind was cooked in a vase4 ,one of the things most important1 ethnically1 in judging the civilisation of a primitive people is the grade of perfection attained in pottery2 in fact1 the vase for domestic life and the axe for social life are the first sacred symbols which we find in the prehistoric epoch1 and are the religious symbols connected with the temples of the gods and with the cult of the dead4 ,even to-day1 religious cults have sacred vases in their ,sancta ,sanctorum4 ,people who have progressed in civilisation show their feeling for art and their aesthetic feeling also in vases which are multiplied in almost infinite form1 as we see in ,egyptian1 ,etruscan1 and ,greek art4 ,the vase then comes into being1 attains perfection1 and is multiplied in its uses and its forms1 in the course of human civilisation2 and the history of the vase follows the history of humanity itself4 ,besides the civil and moral importance of the vase1 we have another and practical one1 its literal adaptability to every modification of form1 and its susceptibility to the most diverse ornamentation2 in this1 it gives free scope to the individual genius of the artist4 ,thus1 when once the handicraft leading to the construction of vases has been learned 7and this is the part of the progress in the work1 learned from the direct and graduated instruction of the teacher71 anyone can modify it according to the inspiration of his own aesthetic taste and this is the artistic1 individual part of the work4 ,besides this1 in ,randone's school the use of the potter's wheel is taught1 and also the composition of the mixture for the bath of majolica ware1 and baking the pieces in the furnace1 stages of manual labour which contain an industrial culture4 ,another work in the ,school of ,educative ,art is the manufacture of diminutive bricks1 and their baking in the furnace1 and the construction of diminutive walls built by the same processes which the masons use in the construction of houses1 the bricks being joined by means of mortar handled with a trowel4 ,after the simple construction of the wall1--which is very amusing for the children who build it1 placing brick on brick1 superimposing row on row1--the children pass to the construction of real houses1--first1 resting on the ground1 and1 then1 really constructed with foundations1 after a previous excavation of large holes in the ground by means of little hoes and shovels4 ,these little houses have openings corresponding to windows and doors1 and are variously ornamented in their facades by little tiles of bright and multi-coloured majolica3 the tiles themselves being manufactured by the children4 ,thus the children learn to appreciate the objects and constructions which surround them1 while a real manual and artistic labour gives them profitable exercise4 ,such is the manual training which ,i have adopted in the ,children's ,houses2 after two or three lessons the little pupils are already enthusiastic about the construction of vases1 and they preserve very carefully their own products1 in which they take pride4 ,with their plastic art they then model little objects1 eggs or fruits1 with which they themselves fill the vases4 ,one of the first undertakings is the simple vase of red clay filled with eggs of white clay2 then comes the modelling of the vase with one or more spouts1 of the narrow-mouthed vase1 of the vase with a handle1 of that with two or three handles1 of the tripod1 of the amphora4 ,for children of the age of five or six1 the work of the potter's wheel begins4 ,but what most delights the children is the work of building a wall with little bricks1 and seeing a little house1 the fruit of their own hands1 rise in the vicinity of the ground in which are growing plants1 also cultivated by them4 ,thus the age of childhood epitomises the principal primitive labours of humanity1 when the human race1 changing from the nomadic to the stable condition1 demanded of the earth its fruit1 built itself shelter1 and devised vases to cook the foods yielded by the fertile earth4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,education ,,of ,,the ,,senses ,in a pedagogical method which is experimental the education of the senses must undoubtedly assume the greatest importance4 ,experimental psychology also takes note of movements by means of sense measurements4 ,pedagogy1 however1 although it may profit by psychometry is not designed to measure the sensations1 but educate the senses4 ,this is a point easily understood1 yet one which is often confused4 ,while the proceedings of esthesiometry are not to any great extent applicable to little children1 the education of the senses is entirely possible4 ,we do not start from the conclusions of experimental psychology4 ,that is1 it is not the knowledge of the average sense conditions according to the age of the child which leads us to determine the educational applications we shall make4 ,we start essentially from a method1 and it is probable that psychology will be able to draw its conclusions from pedagogy so understood1 and not vice versa4 ,the method used by me is that of making a pedagogical experiment with a didactic object and awaiting the spontaneous reaction of the child4 ,this is a method in every way analogous to that of experimental psychology4 ,i make use of a material which1 at first glance1 may be confused with psychometric material4 ,teachers from ,milan who had followed the course in the ,milan school of experimental psychology1 seeing my material exposed1 would recognise among it1 measures of the perception of colour1 hardness1 and weight1 and would conclude that1 in truth1 ,i brought no new contribution to pedagogy since these instruments were already known to them4 ,but the great difference between the two materials lies in this3 ,the esthesiometer carries within itself the possibility of measuring2 my objects on the contrary1 often do not permit a measure1 but are adapted to cause the child to exercise the senses4 ,in order that an instrument shall attain such a pedagogical end1 it is necessary that it shall not weary but shall divert the child4 ,here lies the difficulty in the selection of didactic material4 ,it is known that the psychometric instruments are great consumers of energy--for this reason1 when ,pizzoli wished to apply them to the education of the senses1 he did not succeed because the child was annoyed by them1 and became tired4 ,instead1 the aim of education is to develop the energies4 ,psychometric instruments1 or better1 the instruments of esthesiometry1 are prepared in their differential gradations upon the laws of ,weber1 which were in truth drawn from experiments made upon adults4 ,with little children1 we must proceed to the making of trials1 and must select the didactic materials in which they show themselves to be interested4 ,this ,i did in the first year of the ,children's ,houses adopting a great variety of stimuli1 with a number of which ,i had already experimented in the school for deficients4 ,much of the material used for deficients is abandoned in the education of the normal child--and much that is used has been greatly modified4 ,i believe1 however1 that ,i have arrived at a selection of objects 7which ,i do not here wish to speak of in the technical language of psychology as stimuli7 representing the minimum necessary to a practical sense education4 ,these objects constitute the didactic system 7or set of didactic materials7 used by me4 ,they are manufactured by the ,house of ,labour of the ,humanitarian ,society at ,milan4 ,a description of the objects will be given as the educational scope of each is explained4 ,here ,i shall limit myself to the setting forth of a few general considerations4 ,first4 ,the difference in the reaction between deficient and normal children1 in the presentation of didactic material made up of graded stimuli4 ,this difference is plainly seen from the fact that the same didactic material used with deficients makes education possible1 while with normal children it provokes auto-education4 ,this fact is one of the most interesting ,i have met with in all my experience1 and it inspired and rendered possible the method of observation and liberty4 ,let us suppose that we use our first object1--a block in which solid geometric forms are set4 ,into corresponding holes in the block are set ten little wooden cylinders1 the bases diminishing gradually about the millimetres4 ,the game consists in taking the cylinders out of their places1 putting them on the table1 mixing them1 and then putting each one back in its own place4 ,the aim is to educate the eye to the differential perception of dimensions4 ,with the deficient child1 it would be necessary to begin with exercises in which the stimuli were much more strongly contrasted1 and to arrive at this exercise only after many others had preceded it4 ,with normal children1 this is1 on the other hand1 the first object which we may present1 and out of all the didactic material this is the game preferred by the very little children of two and a half and three years4 ,once we arrived at this exercise with a deficient child1 it was necessary continually and actively to recall his attention1 inviting him to look at the block and showing him the various pieces4 ,and if the child once succeeded in placing all the cylinders properly1 he stopped1 and the game was finished4 ,whenever the deficient child committed an error1 it was necessary to correct it1 or to urge him to correct it himself1 and when he was able to correct an error he was usually quite indifferent4 ,now the normal child1 instead1 takes spontaneously a lively interest in this game4 ,he pushes away all who would interfere1 or offer to help him1 and wishes to be alone before his problem4 ,it had already been noted that little ones of two or three years take the greatest pleasure in arranging small objects1 and this experiment in the ,children's ,houses demonstrates the truth of this assertion4 ,now1 and here is the important point1 the normal child attentively observes the relation between the size of the opening and that of the object which he is to place in the mould1 and is greatly interested in the game1 as is clearly shown by the expression of attention on the little face4 ,if he mistakes1 placing one of the objects in an opening that is small for it1 he takes it away1 and proceeds to make various trials1 seeking the proper opening4 ,if he makes a contrary error1 letting the cylinder fall into an opening that is a little too large for it1 and then collects all the successive cylinders in openings just a little too large1 he will find himself at the last with the big cylinder in his hand while only the smallest opening is empty4 ,the didactic material controls every error4 ,the child proceeds to correct himself1 doing this in various ways4 ,most often he feels the cylinders or shakes them1 in order to recognise which are the largest4 ,sometimes1 he sees at a glance where his error lies1 pulls the cylinders from the places where they should not be1 and puts those left out where they belong1 then replaces all the others4 ,the normal child always repeats the exercise with growing interest4 ,indeed1 it is precisely in these errors that the educational importance of the didactic material lies1 and when the child with evident security places each piece in its proper place1 he has outgrown the exercise1 and this piece of material becomes useless to him4 ,this self-correction leads the child to concentrate his attention upon the differences of dimensions1 and to compare the various pieces4 ,it is in just this comparison that the psycho-sensory exercise lies4 ,there is1 therefore1 no question here of teaching the child the knowledge of the dimensions1 through the medium of these pieces4 ,neither is it our aim that the child shall know how to use1 without an error1 the material presented to him thus performing the exercises well4 ,that would place our material on the same basis as many others1 for example that of ,froebel1 and would require again the active work of the teacher1 who busies herself furnishing knowledge1 and making haste to correct every error in order that the child may learn the use of the objects4 ,here instead it is the work of the child1 the auto-correction1 the auto-education which acts1 for the teacher must not interfere in the slightest way4 ,no teacher can furnish the child with the agility which he acquires through gymnastic exercises3 it is necessary that the pupil perfect himself through his own efforts4 ,it is very much the same with the education of the senses4 ,it might be said that the same thing is true of every form of education2 a man is not what he is because of the teachers he has had1 but because of what he has done4 ,one of the difficulties of putting this method into practice with teachers of the old school1 lies in the difficulty of preventing them from intervening when the little child remains for some time puzzled before some error1 and with his eyebrows drawn together and his lips puckered1 makes repeated efforts to correct himself4 ,when they see this1 the old-time teachers are seized with pity1 and long1 with an almost irresistible force1 to help the child4 ,when we prevent this intervention1 they burst into words of compassion for the little scholar1 but he soon shows in his smiling face the joy of having surmounted an obstacle4 ,normal children repeat such exercises many times4 ,this repetition varies according to the individual4 ,some children after having completed the exercise five or six times are tired of it4 ,others will remove and replace the pieces at least twenty times1 with an expression of evident interest4 ,once1 after ,i had watched a little one of four years repeat this exercise sixteen times1 ,i had the other children sing in order to distract her1 but she continued unmoved to take out the cylinders1 mix them up and put them back in their places4 ,an intelligent teacher ought to be able to make most interesting individual psychological observations1 and1 to a certain point1 should be able to measure the length of time for which the various stimuli held the attention4 ,in fact1 when the child educates himself1 and when the control and correction of errors is yielded to the didactic material1 there remains for the teacher nothing but to observe4 ,she must then be more of a psychologist than a teacher1 and this shows the importance of a scientific preparation on the part of the teacher4 ,indeed1 with my methods1 the teacher teaches little and observes much1 and1 above all1 it is her function to direct the psychic activity of the children and their physiological development4 ,for this reason ,i have changed the name of teacher into that of directress4 ,at first this name provoked many smiles1 for everyone asked whom there was for this teacher to direct1 since she had no assistants1 and since she must leave her little scholars in liberty4 ,but her direction is much more profound and important than that which is commonly understood1 for this teacher directs the life and the soul4 ,second4 ,the education of the senses has1 as its aim1 the refinement of the differential perception of stimuli by means of repeated exercises4 ,there exists a sensory culture1 which is not generally taken into consideration1 but which is a factor in esthesiometry4 ,for example1 in the mental tests which are used in ,france1 or in a series of tests which ,de ,sanctis has established for the diagnosis of the intellectual status1 ,i have often seen used cubes of different sizes placed at varying distances4 ,the child was to select the smallest and the largest1 while the chronometer measured the time of reaction between the command and the execution of the act4 ,account was also taken of the errors4 ,i repeat that in such experiments the factor of culture is forgotten and by this ,i mean sensory culture4 ,our children have1 for example1 among the didactic material for the education of the senses1 a series of ten cubes4 ,the first has a base of ten centimetres1 and the others decrease1 successively1 one centimetre as to base1 the smallest cube having a base of one centimetre4 ,the exercise consists in throwing the blocks1 which are pink in colour1 down upon a green carpet1 and then building them up into a little tower1 placing the largest cube as the base1 and then placing the others in order of size until the little cube of one centimetre is placed at the top4 ,the little one must each time select1 from the blocks scattered upon the green carpet1 the largest block4 ,this game is most entertaining to the little ones of two years and a half1 who1 as soon as they have constructed the little tower1 tumble it down with little blows of the hand1 admiring the pink cubes as they lie scattered upon the green carpet4 ,then1 they begin again the construction1 building and destroying a definite number of times4 ,if we were to place before these tests one of my children from three to four years1 and one of the children from the first elementary 7six or seven years old71 my pupil would undoubtedly manifest a shorter period of reaction1 and would not commit errors4 ,the same may be said for the tests of the chromatic sense1 etc4 ,this educational method should therefore prove interesting to students of experimental psychology as well as to teachers4 ,in conclusion1 let me summarize briefly3 ,our didactic material renders auto-education possible1 permits a methodical education of the senses4 ,not upon the ability of the teacher does such education rest1 but upon the didactic system4 ,this presents objects which1 first1 attract the spontaneous attention of the child1 and1 second1 contain a rational gradation of stimuli4 ,we must not confuse the education of the senses1 with the concrete ideas which may be gathered from our environment by means of the senses4 ,nor must this education of the senses be identical in our minds with the language through which is given the nomenclature corresponding to the concrete idea1 nor with the acquisition of the abstract idea of the exercises4 ,let us consider what the music master does in giving instruction in piano playing4 ,he teaches the pupil the correct position of the body1 gives him the idea of the notes1 shows him the correspondence between the written notes and the touch and the position of the fingers1 and then he leaves the child to perform the exercise by himself4 ,if a pianist is to be made of this child1 there must1 between the ideas given by the teacher and the musical exercises1 intervene long and patient application to those exercises which serve to give agility to the articulation of the fingers and of the tendons1 in order that the co-ordination of special muscular movements shall become automatic1 and that the muscles of the hand shall become strong through their repeated use4 ,the pianist must1 therefore1 act for himself1 and the more his natural tendencies lead him to persist in these exercises the greater will be his success4 ,however1 without the direction of the master the exercise will not suffice to develop the scholar into a true pianist4 ,the directress of the ,children's ,house must have a clear idea of the two factors which enter into her work--the guidance of the child1 and the individual exercise4 ,only after she has this concept clearly fixed in her mind1 may she proceed to the application of a method to guide the spontaneous education of the child and to impart necessary notions to him4 ,in the opportune quality and in the manner of this intervention lies the personal art of the educator4 ,for example1 in the ,children's ,house in the ,prati di ,castello1 where the pupils belong to the middle-class1 ,i found1 a month after the opening of the school1 a child of five years who already knew how to compose any word1 as he knew the alphabet perfectly--he had learned it in two weeks4 ,he knew how to write on the blackboard1 and in the exercises in free design he showed himself not only to be an observer1 but to have some intuitive idea of perspective1 drawing a house and chair very cleverly4 ,as for the exercises of the chromatic sense1 he could mix together the eight gradations of the eight colours which we use1 and from this mass of sixty-four tablets1 each wound with silk of a different colour or shade1 he could rapidly separate the eight groups4 ,having done this1 he would proceed with ease to arrange each colour series in perfect gradation4 ,in this game the child would almost cover one of the little tables with a carpet of finely-shaded colours4 ,i made the experiment1 taking him to the window and showing him in full daylight one of the coloured tablets1 telling him to look at it well1 so that he might be able to remember it4 ,i then sent him to the table on which all the gradations were spread out1 and asked him to find the tablet like the one at which he had looked4 ,he committed only very slight errors1 often choosing the exact shade but more often the one next it1 rarely a tint two grades removed from the right one4 ,this boy had then a power of discrimination and a colour memory which were almost prodigious4 ,like all the other children1 he was exceedingly fond of the colour exercises4 ,but when ,i asked the name of the white colour spool1 he hesitated for a long time before replying uncertainly white4 ,now a child of such intelligence should have been able1 even without the special intervention of the teacher1 to learn the name of each colour4 ,the directress told me that having noticed that the child had great difficulty in retaining the nomenclature of the colours1 she had up until that time left him to exercise himself freely with the games for the colour sense4 ,at the same time he had developed rapidly a power over written language1 which in my method as presented through a series of problems to be solved4 ,these problems are presented as sense exercises4 ,this child was1 therefore1 most intelligent4 ,in him the discriminative sensory perceptions kept pace with great intellectual activities--attention and judgment4 ,but his memory for names was inferior4 ,the directress had thought best not to interfere1 as yet1 in the teaching of the child4 ,certainly1 the education of the child was a little disordered1 and the directress had left the spontaneous explanation of his mental activities excessively free4 ,however desirable it may be to furnish a sense education as a basis for intellectual ideas1 it is nevertheless advisable at the same time to associate the language with these perceptions4 ,in this connection ,i have found excellent for use with normal children the three periods of which the lesson according to ,seguin consists3 ,first ,period4 ,the association of the sensory perception with the name4 ,for example1 we present to the child1 two colours1 red and blue4 ,presenting the red1 we say simply1 ,this is red1 and presenting the blue1 ,this is blue4 ,then1 we lay the spools upon the table under the eyes of the child4 ,second ,period4 ,recognition of the object corresponding to the name4 ,we ,say to the child1 ,give me the red1 and then1 ,give me the blue4 ,third ,period4 ,the remembering of the name corresponding to the object4 ,we ask the child1 showing him the object1 ,what is this8 and he should respond1 ,red4 ,seguin insists strongly upon these three periods1 and urges that the colours be left for several instants under the eyes of the child4 ,he also advises us never to present the colour singly1 but always two at a time1 since the contrast helps the chromatic memory4 ,indeed1 ,i have proved that there cannot be a better method for teaching colour to the deficients1 who1 with this method were able to learn the colours much more perfectly than normal children in the ordinary schools who have had a haphazard sense education4 ,for normal children however there exists a period preceding the ,three ,periods of ,seguin--a period which contains the real sense education4 ,this is the acquisition of a fineness of differential perception1 which can be obtained only through auto-education4 ,this1 then1 is an example of the great superiority of the normal child1 and of the greater effect of education which such pedagogical methods may exercise upon the mental development of normal as compared with deficient children4 ,the association of the name with the stimulus is a source of great pleasure to the normal child4 ,i remember1 one day1 ,i had taught a little girl1 who was not yet three years old1 and who was a little tardy in the development of language1 the names of three colours4 ,i had the children place one of their little tables near a window1 and seating myself in one of the little chairs1 ,i seated the little girl in a similar chair at my right4 ,i had1 on the table1 six of the colour spools in pairs1 that is two reds1 two blues1 two yellows4 ,in the ,first ,period1 ,i placed one of the spools before the child1 asking her to find the one like it4 ,this ,i repeated for all three of the colours1 showing her how to arrange them carefully in pairs4 ,after this ,i passed to the ,three ,periods of ,seguin4 ,the little girl learned to recognise the three colours and to pronounce the name of each4 ,she was so happy that she looked at me for a long time1 and then began to jump up and down4 ,i1 seeing her pleasure1 said to her1 laughing1 ,do you know the colours8 and she replied1 still jumping up and down1 ,yes6 ,,yes6 ,her delight was inexhaustible2 she danced about me1 waiting joyously for me to ask her the same question1 that she might reply with the same enthusiasm1 ,yes6 ,yes6 ,another important particular in the technique of sense education lies in isolating the sense1 whenever this is possible4 ,so1 for example1 the exercises on the sense of hearing can be given more successfully in an environment not only of silence1 but even of darkness4 ,for the education of the senses in general1 such as in the tactile1 thermic1 baric1 and stereognostic exercises1 we blindfold the child4 ,the reasons for this particular technique have been fully set forth by psychology4 ,here1 it is enough to note that in the case of normal children the blindfold greatly increases their interest1 without making the exercises degenerate into noisy fun1 and without having the child's attention attracted more to the bandage than to the sense-stimuli upon which we wish to focus the attention4 ,for example1 in order to test the acuteness of the child's sense of hearing 7a most important thing for the teacher to know71 ,i use an empiric test which is coming to be used almost universally by physicians in the making of medical examinations4 ,this test is made by modulating the voice1 reducing it to a whisper4 ,the child is blindfolded1 or the teacher may stand behind him1 speaking his name1 in a whisper and from varying distances4 ,i establish a solemn silence in the schoolroom1 darken the windows1 have the children bow their heads upon their hands which they hold in front of their eyes4 ,then ,i call the children by name1 one by one1 in a whisper1 lighter for those who are nearer me1 and more clearly for those farther away4 ,each child awaits1 in the darkness1 the faint voice which calls him1 listening intently1 ready to run with keenest joy toward the mysterious and much1 desired call4 ,the normal child may be blindfolded in the games where1 for example1 he is to recognise various weights1 for this does help him to intensify and concentrate his attention upon the baric stimuli which he is to test4 ,the blindfold adds to his pleasure1 since he is proud of having been able to guess4 ,the effect of these games upon deficient children is very different4 ,when placed in darkness1 they often go to sleep1 or give themselves up to disordered acts4 ,when the blindfold is used1 they fix their attention upon the bandage itself1 and change the exercise into a game1 which does not fulfil the end we have in view with the exercise4 ,we speak1 it is true1 of games in education1 but it must be made clear that we understand by this term a free activity1 ordered to a definite end2 not disorderly noise1 which distracts the attention4 ,the following pages of ,itard give an idea of the patient experiments made by this pioneer in pedagogy4 ,their lack of success was due largely to errors which successive experiments have made it possible to correct1 and in part to the mentality of his subject4 ,,iv3 ,in this last experiment it was not necessary1 as in the one preceding1 to demand that the pupil repeat the sounds which he perceived4 ,this double work1 distributing his attention1 was outside the plane of my purpose1 which was to educate each organ separately4 ,i1 therefore1 limited myself to following the simple perception of sounds4 ,to be certain of this result1 ,i placed my pupil in front of me with his eyes blinded1 his fists closed1 and had him extend a finger every time that ,i made a sound4 ,he understood this arrangement1 and as soon as the sound reached his ear1 the finger was raised1 with a species of impetuosity1 and often1 with demonstrations of joy which left no doubt as to the pleasure the pupil took in these bizarre lessons4 ,indeed1 whether it be that he found a real pleasure in the sound of the human voice1 or that he had at last conquered the annoyance he at first felt on being deprived of the light for so long a time1 the fact remains that more than once1 during the intervals of rest1 he came to me with his blindfold in his hand1 holding it over his eyes1 and jumping with joy when he felt my hands tying it about his head4 ,v3 ,having thoroughly assured myself1 through such experiments as the one described above1 that all sounds of the voice1 whatever their intensity1 were perceived by ,vittorio1 ,i proceeded to the attempt of making him compare these sounds4 ,it was no longer a case of simply noting the sounds of the voice1 but of perceiving the differences and of appreciating all these modifications and varieties of tone which go to make up the music of the word4 ,between this task and the preceding there stretched a prodigious difference1 especially for a being whose development was dependent upon gradual effort1 and who advanced toward civilisation only because ,i led thitherward so gently that he was unconscious of the progress4 ,facing the difficulty now presented1 ,i had need to arm myself more strongly than ever with patience and gentleness1 encouraged by the hope that once ,i had surmounted this obstacle all would have been done for the sense of hearing4 ,we began with the comparison of the vowel sounds1 and here1 too1 made use of the hand to assure ourselves as to the result of our experiments4 ,each one of the fingers was made the sign of one of the five vowels4 ,thus the thumb represented ,a and was to be raised whenever this vowel was pronounced2 the index finger was the sign for ,e2 the middle finger for ,i2 and so on4 ,,vi3 ,not without fatigue1 and not for a long time1 was ,i able to give a distinct idea of the vowels4 ,the first to be clearly distinguished was ,o1 and then followed ,a4 ,the three others presented much greater difficulty1 and were for a long time confused4 ,at last1 however1 the ear began to perceive distinctly1 and1 then1 there returned in all their vivacity1 those demonstrations of joy of which ,i have spoken4 ,this continued until the pleasure taken in the lessons began to be boisterous1 the sounds became confused1 and the finger was raised indiscriminately4 ,the outbursts of laughter became indeed so excessive that ,i lost patience6 ,as soon as ,i placed the blindfold over his eyes the shouts of laughter began4 ,itard1 finding it impossible to continue his educational work1 decided to do away with the blindfold1 and1 indeed1 the shouts ceased1 but now the child's attention was distracted by the slightest movement about him4 ,the blindfold was necessary1 but the boy had to be made to understand that he must not laugh so much and that he was having a lesson4 ,the corrective means of ,itard and their touching results are worth reporting here6 ,i wished to intimidate him with my manner1 not being able to do so with my glance4 ,i armed myself with a tambourine and struck it lightly whenever he made a mistake4 ,but he mistook this correction for a joke1 and his joy became more noisy than ever4 ,i then felt that ,i must make the correction a little more severe4 ,it was understood1 and ,i saw1 with a mixture of pain and pleasure1 revealed in the darkened face of this boy the fact that the feeling of injury surpassed the unhappiness of the blow4 ,tears came from beneath the blindfold1 he urged me to take it off1 but1 whether from embarrassment or fear1 or from some inner preoccupation1 when freed from the bandage he still kept his eyes tightly closed4 ,i could not laugh at the doleful expression of his face1 the closed eyelids from between which trickled an occasional tear6 ,oh1 in this moment1 as in many others1 ready to renounce my task1 and feeling that the time ,i had consecrated to it was lost1 how ,i regretted ever having known this boy1 and bow severely ,i condemned the barren and inhuman curiosity of the men who in order to make scientific advancement had torn him away from a life1 at least innocent and happy6 ,here also is demonstrated the great educative superiority of scientific pedagogy for normal children4 ,finally1 one particular of the technique consists in the distribution of the stimuli4 ,this will be treated more fully in the description of the didactic system 7materials7 and of the sense education4 ,here it is enough to say that one should proceed from few stimuli strongly contrasting1 to many stimuli in gradual differentiation always more fine and imperceptible4 ,so1 for example1 we first present1 together1 red and blue2 the shortest rod beside the longest2 the thinnest beside the thickest1 etc41 passing from these to the delicately differing tints1 and to the discrimination of very slight differences in length and size4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,education ,,of ,,the ,,senses ,,and ,,illustrations ,,of ,,the ,,didactic ,,material3 ,,general ,,sensibility2 ,,the ,,tactile1 ,,thermic1 ,,baric1 ,,and ,,stereognostic ,,senses ,the education of the tactile and the thermic senses go together1 since the warm bath1 and heat in general1 render the tactile sense more acute4 ,since to exercise the tactile sense it is necessary to touch1 bathing the hands in warm water has the additional advantage of teaching the child a principle of cleanliness--that of not touching objects with hands that are not clean4 ,i therefore apply the general notions of practical life1 regarding the washing of the hands1 care of the nails1 to the exercises preparatory to the discrimination of tactile stimuli4 ,the limitation of the exercises of the tactile sense to the cushioned tips of the fingers1 is rendered necessary by practical life4 ,it must be made a necessary phase of education because it prepares for a life in which man exercises and uses the tactile sense through the medium of these finger tips4 ,hence1 ,i have the child wash his hands carefully with soap1 in a little basin2 and in another basin ,i have him rinse them in a bath of tepid water4 ,then ,i show him how to dry and rub his hands gently1 in this way preparing for the regular bath4 ,i next teach the child how to touch1 that is1 the manner in which he should touch surfaces4 ,for this it is necessary to take the finger of the child and to draw it very1 very lightly over the surface4 ,another particular of the technique is to teach the child to hold his eyes closed while he touches1 encouraging him to do this by telling him that he will be able to feel the differences better1 and so leading him to distinguish1 without the help of sight1 the change of contact4 ,he will quickly learn1 and will show that he enjoys the exercise4 ,often after the introduction of such exercises1 it is a common thing to have a child come to you1 and1 closing his eyes1 touch with great delicacy the palm of your hand or the cloth of your dress1 especially any silken or velvet trimmings4 ,they do verily exercise the tactile sense4 ,they enjoy keenly touching any soft pleasant surface1 and become exceedingly keen in discriminating between the differences in the sandpaper cards4 ,the ,didactic ,material consists of2 a--a rectangular wooden board divided into two equal rectangles1 one covered with very smooth paper1 or having the wood polished until a smooth surface is obtained2 the other covered with sandpaper1 b--a tablet like the preceding covered with alternating strips of smooth paper and sandpaper4 ,i also make use of a collection of paper slips1 varying through many grades from smooth1 fine cardboard to coarsest sandpaper4 ,the stuffs described elsewhere are also used in these lessons4 ,as to the ,thermic ,sense1 ,i use a set of little metal bowls1 which are filled with water at different degrees of temperature4 ,these ,i try to measure with a thermometer1 so that there may be two containing water of the same temperature4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,cloister ,,school ,,of ,,the ,,franciscan ,,nuns ,,in ,,rome ,children playing a game with tablets of coloured silk ,illustration3 7,a7 ,,girl ,,touching ,a ,,letter ,,and ,,boy ,,telling ,,objects ,,by ,,weight4 ,illustration3 7,b7 ,,arranging ,,tablets ,,of ,,silk ,,in ,,their ,,chromatic ,,order4 ,there are eight colours1 and eight shades of each colour1 making sixty-four gradations in all4 ,i have designed a set of utensils which are to be made of very light metal1 and filled with water4 ,these have covers1 and to each is attached a thermometer4 ,the bowl touched from the outside gives the desired impression of heat4 ,i also have the children put their hands into cold1 tepid1 and warm water1 an exercise which they find most diverting4 ,i should like to repeat this exercise with the feet1 but ,i have not bad an opportunity to make the trial4 ,for the education of the baric sense 7sense of weight71 ,i use with great success little wooden tablets1 six by eight centimetres1 having a thickness of #a_/b centimetre4 ,these tablets are in three different qualities of wood1 wistaria1 walnut1 and pine4 ,they weigh respectively1 #bd1 #ah1 and #ab grammes1 making them differ in weight by #f grammes4 ,these tablets should be very smooth2 if possible1 varnished in such a way that every roughness shall be eliminated1 but so that the natural colour of the wood shall remain4 ,the child1 observing the colour1 knows that they are of differing weights1 and this offers a means of controlling the exercise4 ,he takes two of the tablets in his hands1 letting them rest upon the palm at the base of his outstretched fingers4 ,then he moves his hands up and down in order to gauge the weight4 ,this movement should come to be1 little by little1 almost insensible4 ,we lead the child to make his distinction purely through the difference in weight1 leaving out the guide of the different colours1 and closing his eyes4 ,he learns to do this of himself1 and takes great interest in guessing4 ,the game attracts the attention of those near1 who gather in a circle about the one who has the tablets1 and who take turns in guessing4 ,sometimes the children spontaneously make use of the blindfold1 taking turns1 and interspersing the work with peals of joyful laughter4 ,,education ,,of ,,the ,,stereognostic ,,sense ,the education of this sense leads to the recognition of objects through feeling1 that is1 through the simultaneous help of the tactile and muscular senses4 ,taking this union as a basis1 we have made experiments which have given marvellously successful educational results4 ,i feel that for the help of teachers these exercises should be described4 ,the first didactic material used by us is made up of the bricks and cubes of ,froebel4 ,we call the attention of the child to the form of the two solids1 have him feel them carefully and accurately1 with his eyes open1 repeating some phrase serving to fix his attention upon the particulars of the forms presented4 ,after this the child is told to place the cubes to the right1 the bricks to the left1 always feeling them1 and without looking at them4 ,finally the exercise is repeated1 by the child blindfolded4 ,almost all the children succeed in the exercise1 and after two or three times1 are able to eliminate every error4 ,there are twenty-four of the bricks and cubes in all1 so that the attention may be held for some time through this game--but undoubtedly the child's pleasure is greatly increased by the fact of his being watched by a group of his companions1 all interested and eager4 ,one day a directress called my attention to a little girl of three years1 one of our very youngest pupils1 who had repeated this exercise perfectly4 ,we seated the little girl comfortably in an armchair1 close to the table4 ,then1 placing the twenty-four objects before her upon the table1 we mixed them1 and calling the child's attention to the difference in form1 told her to place the cubes to the right and the bricks to the left4 ,when she was blindfolded she began the exercise as taught by us1 taking an object in each hand1 feeling each and putting it in its right place4 ,sometimes she took two cubes1 or two bricks1 sometimes she found a brick in the right hand1 a cube in the left4 ,the child had to recognise the form1 and to remember throughout the exercise the proper placing of the different objects4 ,this seemed to me very difficult for a child of three years4 ,but observing her ,i saw that she not only performed the exercise easily1 but that the movements with which we had taught her to feel the form were superfluous4 ,indeed the instant she had taken the two objects in her hands1 if it so happened that she had taken a cube with the left hand and a brick in the right1 she exchanged them immediately1 and then began the laborious feeling the form which we had taught and which she perhaps1 believed to be obligatory4 ,but the objects had been recognised by her through the first light touch1 that is1 the recognition was contemporaneous to the taking4 ,continuing my study of the subject1 ,i found that this little girl was possessed of a remarkable functional ambidexterity--,i should be very glad to make a wider study of this phenomenon having in view the desirability of a simultaneous education of both hands4 ,i repeated the exercise with other children and found that they recognise the objects before feeling their contours4 ,this was particularly true of the little ones4 ,our educational methods in this respect furnished a remarkable exercise in associative gymnastics1 leading to a rapidity of judgment which was truly surprising and had the advantage of being perfectly adapted to very young children4 ,these exercises of the stereognostic sense may be multiplied in many ways--they amuse the children who find delight in the recognition of a stimulus1 as in the thermic exercises2 for example--they may raise any small objects1 toy soldiers1 little balls1 and1 above all1 the various coins in common use4 ,they come to discriminate between small forms varying very slightly1 such as corn1 wheat1 and rice4 ,they are very proud of seeing without eyes1 holding out their hands and crying1 ,here are my eyes6 ,i can see with my hands6 ,indeed1 our little ones walking in the ways we have planned1 make us marvel over their unforeseen progress1 surprising us daily4 ,often1 while they are wild with delight over some new conquest1--we watch1 in deepest wonder and meditation4 ,,education ,,of ,,the ,,senses ,,of ,,taste ,,and ,,smell ,this phase of sense education is most difficult1 and ,i have not as yet had any satisfactory results to record4 ,i can only say that the exercises ordinarily used in the tests of psychometry do not seem to me to be practical for use with young children4 ,the olfactory sense in children is not developed to any great extent1 and this makes it difficult to attract their attention by means of this sense4 ,we have made use of one test which has not been repeated often enough to form the basis of a method4 ,we have the child smell fresh violets1 and jessamine flowers4 ,we then blindfold him1 saying1 ,now we are going to present you with flowers4 ,a little friend then holds a bunch of violets under the child's nose1 that he may guess the name of the flower4 ,for greater or less intensify we present fewer flowers1 or even one single blossom4 ,illustration3 7,a7 ,,drawing ,,table ,,and ,,inset4 7,b7 ,,wooden ,,tablets4 ,these are partly covered with sandpaper to give rough and smooth surfaces4 7,c7 ,,solid ,,insets4 ,with these the child1 working by himself1 learns to differentiate objects according to thickness1 height1 and size4 ,copyright1 #aiab1 by ,carl ,r4 ,byoir ,illustration3 7,a7 ,,broad ,,stair4 7,b7 ,,long ,,stair4 7,c7 ,,tower4 ,blocks by which children are taught thickness1 length1 size4 ,copyright1 #aiab by ,carl ,r4 ,byoir ,but this part of education1 like that of the sense of taste1 can be obtained by the child during the luncheon hour2--when he can learn to recognise various odours4 ,as to taste1 the method of touching the tongue with various solutions1 bitter or acid1 sweet1 salty1 is perfectly applicable4 ,children of four years readily lend themselves to such games1 which serve as a reason for showing them how to rinse their mouths perfectly4 ,the children enjoy recognising various flavours1 and learn1 after each test1 to fill a glass with tepid water1 and carefully rinse their months4 ,in this way the exercise for the sense of taste is also an exercise in hygiene4 ,,education ,,of ,,the ,,sense ,,of ,,vision ,i4 ,differential ,visual ,perception of ,dimensions ,first4 ,solid ,insets3 ,this material consists of three solid blocks of wood each #ee centimetres long1 #f centimetres high and #h centimetres wide4 ,each block contains ten wooden pieces1 set into corresponding holes4 ,these pieces are cylindrical in shape and are to be handled by means of a little wooden or brass button which is fixed in the centre of the top4 ,the cases of cylinders are in appearance much like the cases of weights used by chemists4 ,in the first set of the series1 the cylinders are all of equal height 7#ee millimetres7 but differ in diameter4 ,the smallest cylinder has a diameter of #a centimetre1 and the others increase in diameter at the rate of #a_/b centimetre4 ,in the second set1 the cylinders are all of equal diameter1 corresponding to half the diameter of the largest cylinder in the preceding series--7#bg millimetres74 ,the cylinders in this set differ in height1 the first being merely a little disk only a centimetre high1 the others increase #e millimetres each1 the tenth one being #ee millimetres high4 ,in the third set1 the cylinders differ both in height and diameter1 the first being #a centimetre high and #a centimetre in diameter and each succeeding one increasing #a_/b centimetre in height and diameter4 ,with these insets1 the child1 working by himself1 learns to differentiate objects according to thickness1 according to height1 and according to size4 ,in the schoolroom1 these three sets may be played with by three children gathered about a table1 an exchange of games adding variety4 ,the child takes the cylinders out of the moulds1 mixes them upon the table1 and then puts each back into its corresponding opening4 ,these objects are made of hard pine1 polished and varnished4 ,second4 ,large pieces in graded dimensions3--,there are three sets of blocks which come under this head1 and it is desirable to have two of each of these sets in every school4 7a7 ,thickness3 this set consists of objects which vary from thick to thin4 ,there are ten quadrilateral prisms1 the largest of which has a base of #aj centimetres1 the others decreasing by #a centimetre4 ,the pieces are of equal length1 #bj centimetres4 ,these prisms are stained a dark brown4 ,the child mixes them1 scattering them over the little carpet1 and then puts them in order1 placing one against the other according to the graduations of thickness1 observing that the length shall correspond exactly4 ,these blocks1 taken from the first to the last1 form a species of stair1 the steps of which grow broader toward the top4 ,the child may begin with the thinnest piece or with the thickest1 as suits his pleasure4 ,the control of the exercise is not certain1 as it was in the solid cylindrical insets4 ,there1 the large cylinders could not enter the small opening1 the taller ones would project beyond the top of the block1 etc4 ,in this game of the ,big ,stair1 the eye of the child can easily recognise an error1 since if he mistakes1 the stair is irregular1 that is1 there will be a high step1 behind which1 the step which should have ascended1 decreases4 7b7 ,length3 ,long and ,short ,objects3--,this set consists of ten rods4 ,these are four-sided1 each face being #c centimetres4 ,the first rod is a metre long1 and the last a decimetre4 ,the intervening rods decrease1 from first to last1 #a decimetre each4 ,each space of #a decimetre is painted alternately red or blue4 ,the rods1 when placed close to each other1 must be so arranged that the colours correspond1 forming so many transverse stripes--the whole set when arranged has the appearance of a rectangular triangle made up of organ pipes1 which decrease on the side of the hypothenuse4 ,the child arranges the rods which have first been scattered and mixed4 ,he puts them together according to the graduation of length1 and observes the correspondence of colours4 ,this exercise also offers a very evident control of error1 for the regularity of the decreasing length of the stairs along the hypothenuse will be altered if the rods are not properly placed4 ,this most important set of blocks will have its principal application in arithmetic1 as we shall see4 ,with it1 one may count from one to ten and may construct the addition and other tables1 and it may constitute the first steps in the study of the decimal and metric system4 7c7 ,size3 ,objects1 ,larger and ,smaller3--,this set is made up of ten wooden cubes painted in rose-coloured enamel4 ,the largest cube has a base of #aj centimetres1 the smallest1 of #a centimetre1 the intervening ones decrease #a centimetre each4 ,a little green cloth carpet goes with these blocks4 ,this may be of oilcloth or cardboard4 ,the game consists of building the cubes up1 one upon another1 in the order of their dimensions1 constructing a little tower of which the largest cube forms the base and the smallest the apex4 ,the carpet is placed on the floor1 and the cubes are scattered upon it4 ,as the tower is built upon the carpet1 the child goes through the exercise of kneeling1 rising1 etc4 ,the control is given by the irregularity of the tower as it decreases toward the apex4 ,a cube misplaced reveals itself1 because it breaks the line4 ,the most common error made by the children in playing with these blocks at first1 is that of placing the second cube as the base and placing the first cube upon it1 thus confusing the two largest blocks4 ,i have noted that the same error was made by deficient children in the repeated trials ,i made with the tests of ,de ,sanctis4 ,at the question1 ,which is the largest8 the child would take1 not the largest1 but that nearest it in size4 ,any of these three sets of blocks may be used by the children in a slightly different game4 ,the pieces may be mixed upon a carpet or table1 and then put in order upon another table at some distance4 ,as he carries each piece1 the child must walk without letting his attention wander1 since he must remember the dimensions of the piece for which he is to look among the mixed blocks4 ,the games played in this way are excellent for children of four or five years2 while the simple work of arranging the pieces in order upon the same carpet where they have been mixed is more adapted to the little ones between three and four years of age4 ,the construction of the tower with the pink cubes is very attractive to little ones of less than three years1 who knock it down and build it up time after time4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,few ,,of ,,the ,,many ,,geometric ,,insets ,,of ,,wood ,,used ,,to ,,teach ,,form ,copyright1 #aiab1 by ,carl ,r4 ,byoir ,illustration3 7,a7 ,,geometric ,,insets ,,of ,,wood1 ,,and ,,frame4 ,the frame furnishes the control necessary for exactness of work4 7,b7 ,,cabinet4 7,for storing geometric inset frames47 ,copyright1 #aiab1 by ,carl ,r4 ,byoir ,,ii4 ,differential ,visual ,perception of ,form and ,visual-tactile-muscular ,perception ,didactic ,material4 ,plane geometric insets of wood3 ,the idea of these insets goes back to ,itard and was also applied by ,seguin4 ,in the school for deficients ,i had made and applied these insets in the same form used by my illustrious predecessors4 ,in these there were two large tablets of wood placed one above the other and fastened together4 ,the lower board was left solid1 while the upper one was perforated by various geometric figures4 ,the game consisted in placing in these openings the corresponding wooden figures which1 in order that they might be easily handled1 were furnished with a little brass knob4 ,in my school for deficients1 ,i had multiplied the games calling for these insets1 and distinguished between those used to teach colour and those used to teach form4 ,the insets for teaching colour were all circles1 those used for teaching form were all painted blue4 ,i had great numbers of these insets made in graduations of colour and in an infinite variety of form4 ,this material was most expensive and exceedingly cumbersome4 ,in many later experiments with normal children1 ,i have1 after many trials1 completely excluded the plane geometric insets as an aid to the teaching of colour1 since this material offers no control of errors1 the child's task being that of covering the forms before him4 ,i have kept the geometric insets1 but have given them a new and original aspect4 ,the form in which they are now made was suggested to me by a visit to the splendid manual training school in the ,reformatory of ,st4 ,michael in ,rome4 ,i saw there wooden models of geometric figures1 which could be set into corresponding frames or placed above corresponding forms4 ,the scope of these materials was to lead to exactness in the making of the geometric pieces in regard to control of dimension and form2 the frame furnishing the control necessary for the exactness of the work4 ,this led me to think of making modifications in my geometric insets1 making use of the frame as well as of the inset ,i therefore made a rectangular tray1 which measured #cj x #bj centimetres4 ,this tray was painted a dark blue and was surrounded by a dark frame4 ,it was furnished with a cover so arranged that it would contain six of the square frames with their insets4 ,the advantage of this tray is that the forms may be changed1 thus allowing us to present any combination we choose4 ,i have a number of blank wooden squares which make it possible to present as few as two or three geometric forms at a time1 the other spaces being filled in by the blanks4 ,to this material ,i have added a set of white cards1 #aj centimetres square4 ,these cards form a series presenting the geometric forms in other aspects4 ,in the first of the series1 the form is cut from blue paper and mounted upon the card4 ,in the second box of cards1 the contour of the same figures is mounted in the same blue paper1 forming an outline one centimetre in width4 ,on the third set of cards the contour of the geometric form is outlined by a blank line4 ,we have then the tray1 the collection of small frames with their corresponding insets1 and the set of the cards in three series4 ,illustration3 ,some of the ,card ,forms used in the exercises with the three series of cards4 ,copyright1 #aiab1 by ,carl ,r4 ,byoir ,i also designed a case containing six trays4 ,the front of this box may be lowered when the top is raised and the trays may be drawn out as one opens the drawers of a desk4 ,each drawer contains six of the small frames with their respective insets4 ,in the first drawer ,i keep the four plain wooden squares and two frames1 one containing a rhomboid1 and the other a trapezoid4 ,in the second1 ,i have a series consisting of a square1 and five rectangles of the same length1 but varying in width4 ,the third drawer contains six circles which diminish in diameter4 ,in the fourth are six triangles1 in the fifth1 five polygons from a pentagon to a decagon4 ,the sixth drawer contains six curved figures 7an ellipse1 an oval1 etc41 and a flower-like figure formed by four crossed arcs74 ,exercise with the ,insets4 ,this exercise consists in presenting to the child the large frame or tray in which we may arrange the figures as we wish to present them4 ,we proceed to take out the insets1 mix them upon the table1 and then invite the child to put them back in place4 ,this game may be played by even the younger children and holds the attention for a long period1 though not for so long a time as the exercise with the cylinders4 ,indeed1 ,i have never seen a child repeat this exercise more than five or six times4 ,the child1 in fact1 expends much energy upon this exercise4 ,he must recognise the form and must look at it carefully4 ,at first many of the children only succeed in placing the insets after many attempts1 trying for example to place a triangle in a trapezoid1 then in a rectangle1 etc4 ,or when they have taken a rectangle1 and recognise where it should go1 they will still place it with the long side of the inset across the short side of the opening1 and will only after many attempts1 succeed in placing it4 ,after three or four successive lessons1 the child recognises the geometric figures with extreme facility and places the insets with a security which has a tinge of nonchalance1 or of slight contempt for an exercise that is too easy4 ,this is the moment in which the child may be led to a methodical observation of the forms4 ,we change the forms in the frame and pass from contrasted frames to analogous ones4 ,the exercise is easy for the child1 who habituates himself to placing the pieces in their frames without errors or false attempts4 ,the first period of these exercises is at the time when the child is obliged to make repeated trials with figures that are strongly contrasted in form4 ,the recognition is greatly helped by associating with the visual sense the muscular-tactile perception of the forms4 ,i have the child touch#ab the contour of the piece with the index finger of his right hand1 and then have him repeat this with the contour of the frame into which the pieces must fit4 ,we succeed in making this a habit with the child4 ,this is very easily attained1 since all children love to touch things4 ,i have already learned1 through my work with deficient children1 that among the various forms of sense memory that of the muscular sense is the most precocious4 ,indeed1 many children who have not arrived at the point of recognising a figure by looking at it1 could recognise it by touching it1 that is1 by computing the movements necessary to the following of its contour4 ,the same is true of the greater number of normal children2--confused as to where to place a figure1 they turn it about trying in vain to fit it in1 yet as soon as they have touched the two contours of the piece and its frame1 they succeed in placing it perfectly4 ,undoubtedly1 the association of the muscular-tactile sense with that of vision1 aids in a most remarkable way the perception of forms and fixes them in memory4 #ab ,here and elsewhere throughout the book the word touch is used not only to express contact between the fingers and an object1 but the moving of fingers or hand over an object or its outline4 ,in such exercises1 the control is absolute1 as it was in the solid insets4 ,the figure can only enter the corresponding frame4 ,this makes it possible for the child to work by himself1 and to accomplish a genuine sensory auto-education1 in the visual perception of form4 ,exercise with the three series of cards4 ,first series4 ,we give the child the wooden forms and the cards upon which the white figure is mounted4 ,then we mix the cards upon the table2 the child must arrange them in a line upon his table 7which he loves to do71 and then place the corresponding wooden pieces upon the cards4 ,here the control lies in the eyes4 ,the child must recognise this figure1 and place the wooden piece upon it so perfectly that it will cover and hide the paper figure4 ,the eye of the child here corresponds to the frame1 which materially led him at first to bring the two pieces together4 ,in addition to covering the figure1 the child is to accustom himself to touching the contour of the mounted figures as a part of the exercise 7the child always voluntarily follows those movements72 and after he has placed the wooden inset he again touches the contour1 adjusting with his finger the superimposed piece until it exactly covers the form beneath4 ,second ,series4 ,we give a number of cards to the child together with the corresponding wooden insets4 ,in this second series1 the figures are repeated by an outline of blue paper4 ,the child through these exercises is passing gradually from the concrete to the abstract4 ,at first1 he handled only solid objects4 ,he then passed to a plane figure1 that is1 to the plane which in itself does not exist4 ,he is now passing to the line1 but this line does not represent for him the abstract contour of a plane figure4 ,it is to him the path which he has so often followed with his index finger2 this line is the trace of a movement4 ,following again the contour of the figure with his finger1 the child receives the impression of actually leaving a trace1 for the figure is covered by his finger and appears as he moves it4 ,it is the eye now which guides the movement1 but it must be remembered that this movement was already prepared for when the child touched the contours of the solid pieces of wood4 ,third ,series4 ,we now present to the child the cards upon which the figures are drawn in black1 giving him1 as before1 the corresponding wooden pieces4 ,here1 he has actually passed to the line2 that is1 to an abstraction1 yet here1 too1 there is the idea of the result of a movement4 ,this cannot be1 it is true1 the trace left by the finger1 but1 for example1 that of a pencil which is guided by the hand in the same movements made before4 ,these geometric figures in simple outline have grown out of a gradual series of representations which were concrete to vision and touch4 ,these representations return to the mind of the child when he performs the exercise of superimposing the corresponding wooden figures4 ,,iii4 ,differential ,visual ,perception of ,colours3--,education of the ,chromatic ,sense ,in many of our lessons on the colours1 we make use of pieces of brightly-coloured stuffs1 and of balls covered with wool of different colours4 ,the didactic material for the education of the chromatic sense is the following1 which ,i have established after a long series of tests made upon normal children1 7in the institute for deficients1 ,i used as ,i have said above1 the geometric insets74 ,the present material consists of small flat tablets1 which are wound with coloured wool or silk4 ,these tablets have a little wooden border at each end which prevents the silk-covered card from touching the table4 ,the child is also taught to take hold of the piece by these wooden extremities1 so that he need not soil the delicate colours4 ,in this way1 we are able to use this material for a long time without having to renew it4 ,illustration3 7,a7 ,,lacing4 7,b7 ,,shoe ,,buttoning4 7,c7 ,,buttoning ,,of ,,other ,,garments4 7,d7 ,,hooks ,,and ,,eyes4 ,frames illustrating the different processes of dressing and undressing4 ,copyright1 #aiab1 by ,carl ,r4 ,byoir ,illustration3 ,,tablets ,,wound ,,with ,,coloured ,,silk ,used for educating the chromatic sense4 ,the tablets are shown in the boxes in which they are kept4 ,copyright1 #aiab1 by ,carl ,r4 ,byoir ,i have chosen eight tints1 and each one has with it eight gradations of different intensity of colour4 ,there are1 therefore1 sixty-four colour-tablets in all4 ,the eight tints selected are black 7from grey to white71 red1 orange1 yellow1 green1 blue1 violet and brown4 ,we have duplicate boxes of these sixty-four colours1 giving us two of each exercise4 ,the entire set1 therefore1 consists of one hundred twenty-eight tablets4 ,they are contained in two boxes1 each divided into eight equal compartments so that one box may contain sixty-four tablets4 ,exercises with the ,colour-tablets4 ,for the earliest of these exercises1 we select three strong colours3 for example1 red1 blue1 and yellow1 in pairs4 ,these six tablets we place upon the table before the child4 ,showing him one of the colours1 we ask him to find its duplicate among the mixed tablets upon the table4 ,in this way1 we have him arrange the colour-tablets in a column1 two by two1 pairing them according to colour4 ,the number of tablets in this game may be increased until the eight colours1 or sixteen tablets1 are given at once4 ,when the strongest tones have been presented1 we may proceed to the presentation of lighter tones1 in the same way4 ,finally1 we present two or three tablets of the same colour1 but of different tone1 showing the child how to arrange these in order of gradation4 ,in this way1 the eight gradations are finally presented4 ,following this1 we place before the child the eight gradations of two different colours 7red and blue72 he is shown how to separate the groups and then arrange each group in gradation4 ,as we proceed we offer groups of more nearly related colours2 for example1 blue and violet1 yellow and orange1 etc4 ,in one of the ,children's ,houses1 ,i have seen the following game played with the greatest success and interest1 and with surprising rapidity4 ,the directress places upon a table1 about which the children are seated1 as many colour groups as there are children1 for example1 three4 ,she then calls each child's attention to the colour each is to select1 or which she assigns to him4 ,then1 she mixes the three groups of colours upon the table4 ,each child takes rapidly from the mixed heap of tablets all the gradations of his colour1 and proceeds to arrange the tablets1 which1 when thus placed in a line1 give the appearance of a strip of shaded ribbon4 ,in another ,house1 ,i have seen the children take the entire box1 empty the sixty-four colour-tablets upon the table and after carefully mixing them1 rapidly collect them into groups and arrange them in gradation1 constructing a species of little carpet of delicately coloured and intermingling tints4 ,the children very quickly acquire an ability before which we stand amazed4 ,children of three years are able to put all of the tints into gradation4 ,experiments in ,colour-memory4 ,experiments in colour-memory may be made by showing the child a tint1 allowing him to look at it as long as he will1 and then asking him to go to a distant table upon which all of the colours are arranged and to select from among them the tint similar to the one at which he has looked4 ,the children succeed in this game remarkably1 committing only slight errors4 ,children of five years enjoy this immensely1 taking great pleasure in comparing the two spools and judging as to whether they have chosen correctly4 ,at the beginning of my work1 ,i made use of an instrument invented by ,pizzoli4 ,this consisted of a small brown disk having a half-moon shape opening at the top4 ,various colours were made to pass behind this opening1 by means of a rotary disk which was composed of strips of various colours4 ,the teacher called the attention of the child to a certain colour1 then turned the disk1 asking him to indicate the same disk when it again showed itself in the opening4 ,this exercise rendered the child inactive1 preventing him from controlling the material4 ,it is not1 therefore1 an instrument which can promote the education of the senses4 ,,exercise ,,for ,,the ,,discrimination ,,of ,,sounds ,it would be desirable to have in this connection the didactic material used for the auricular education in the principal institutions for deaf mutes in ,germany and ,america4 ,these exercises are an introduction to the acquisition of language1 and serve in a very special way to centre the children's discriminative attention upon the modulations of the sound of the human voice4 ,with very young children linguistic education must occupy a most important place4 ,another aim of such exercises is to educate the ear of the child to noises so that he shall accustom himself to distinguish every slight noise and compare it with sounds1 coming to resent harsh or disordered noises4 ,such sense education has a value in that it exercises aesthetic taste1 and may be applied in a most noteworthy way to practical discipline4 ,we all know how the younger children disturb the order of the room by shouts1 and by the noise of over-turned objects4 ,the rigorous scientific education of the sense of hearing is not practically applicable to the didactic method4 ,this is true because the child cannot exercise himself through his own activity as he does for the other senses4 ,only one child at a time can work with any instrument producing the gradation of sounds4 ,in other words1 absolute silence is necessary for the discrimination of sounds4 ,illustration ,signorina ,maccheroni1 ,directress1 first of the ,children's ,house in ,milan and later in the one in ,franciscan ,convent at ,rome1 has invented and has had manufactured a series of thirteen bells hung upon a wooden frame4 ,these bells are to all appearances1 identical1 but the vibrations brought about by a blow of a hammer produce the following thirteen notes3 ,the set consists of a double series of thirteen bells and there are four hammers4 ,having struck one of the bells in the first series1 the child must find the corresponding sound in the second4 ,this exercise presents grave difficulty1 as the child does not know how to strike each time with the same force1 and therefore produces sounds which vary in intensity4 ,even when the teacher strikes the bells1 the children have difficulty in distinguishing between sounds4 ,so we do not feel that this instrument in its present form is entirely practical4 ,for the discrimination of sounds1 we use ,pizzoli's series of little whistles4 ,for the gradation of noises1 we use small boxes filled with different substances1 more or less fine 7sand or pebbles74 ,the noises are produced by shaking the boxes4 ,in the lessons for the sense of hearing ,i proceed as follows3 ,i have the teachers establish silence in the usual way and then ,i continue the work1 making the silence more profound4 ,i say1 ,st6 ,st6 in a series of modulations1 now sharp and short1 now prolonged and light as a whisper4 ,the children1 little by little1 become fascinated by this4 ,occasionally ,i say1 ,more silent still--more silent4 ,i then begin the sibilant ,st6 ,st6 again1 making it always lighter and repeating ,more silent still1 in a barely audible voice4 ,then ,i say still in a low whisper1 ,now1 ,i hear the clock1 now ,i can hear the buzzing of a fly's wings1 now ,i can hear the whisper of the trees in the garden4 ,the children1 ecstatic with joy1 sit in such absolute and complete silence that the room seems deserted2 then ,i whisper1 ,let us close our eyes4 ,this exercise repeated1 so habituates the children to immobility and to absolute silence that1 when one of them interrupts1 it needs only a syllable1 a gesture to call him back immediately to perfect order4 ,in the silence1 we proceeded to the production of sounds and noises1 making these at first strongly contrasted1 then1 more nearly alike4 ,sometimes we present the comparisons between noise and sound4 ,i believe that the best results can be obtained with the primitive means employed by ,itard in #ahje4 ,he used the drum and the bell4 ,his plan was a graduated series of drums for the noises1--or1 better1 for the heavy harmonic sounds1 since these belong to a musical instrument1--and a series of bells4 ,the diapason1 the whistles1 the boxes1 are not attractive to the child1 and do not educate the sense of hearing as do these other instruments4 ,there is an interesting suggestion in the fact that the two great human institutions1 that of hate 7war71 and that of love 7religion71 have adopted these two opposite instruments1 the drum and the bell4 ,i believe that after establishing silence it would be educational to ring well-toned bells1 now calm and sweet1 now clear and ringing1 sending their vibrations through the child's whole body4 ,and when1 besides the education of the ear1 we have produced a vibratory education of the whole body1 through these wisely selected sounds of the bells1 giving a peace that pervades the very fibres of his being1 then ,i believe these young bodies would be sensitive to crude noises1 and the children would come to dislike1 and to cease from making1 disordered and ugly noises4 ,in this way one whose ear has been trained by a musical education suffers from strident or discordant notes4 ,i need give no illustration to make clear the importance of such education for the masses in childhood4 ,the new generation would be more calm1 turning away from the confusion and the discordant sounds1 which strike the ear to-day in one of the vile tenements where the poor live1 crowded together1 left by us to abandon themselves to the lower1 more brutal human instincts4 ,musical ,education ,this must be carefully guided by method4 ,in general1 we see little children pass by the playing of some great musicians as an animal would pass4 ,they do not perceive the delicate complexity of sounds4 ,the street children gather about the organ grinder1 crying out as if to hail with joy the noises which will come instead of sounds4 ,for the musical education we must create instruments as well as music4 ,the scope of such an instrument in addition to the discrimination of sounds1 is to awaken a sense of rhythm1 and1 so to speak1 to give the impulse toward calm and co-ordinate movements to those muscles already vibrating in the peace and tranquillity of immobility4 ,i believe that stringed instruments 7perhaps some very much simplified harp7 would be the most convenient4 ,the stringed instruments together with the drum and the bells form the trio of the classic instruments of humanity4 ,the harp is the instrument of the intimate life of the individual4 ,legend places it in the hand of ,orpheus1 folk-lore puts it into fairy hands1 and romance gives it to the princess who conquers the heart of a wicked prince4 ,the teacher who turns her back upon her scholars to play1 7far too often badly71 will never be the educator of their musical sense4 ,the child needs to be charmed in every way1 by the glance as well as by the pose4 ,the teacher who1 bending toward them1 gathering them about her1 and leaving them free to stay or go1 touches the chords1 in a simple rhythm1 puts herself in communication with them1 in relation with their very souls4 ,so much the better if this touch can be accompanied by her voice1 and the children left free to follow her1 no one being obliged to sing4 ,in this way she can select as adapted to education1 those songs which were followed by all the children4 ,so she may regulate the complexity of rhythm to various ages1 for she will see now only the older children following the rhythm1 now1 also the little ones4 ,at any rate1 ,i believe that simple and primitive instruments are the ones best adapted to the awakening of music in the soul of the little child4 ,i have tried to have the ,directress of the ,children's ,house in ,milan1 who is a gifted musician1 make a number of trials1 and experiments1 with a view to finding out more about the muscular capacity of young children4 ,she has made many trials with the pianoforte1 observing how the children are not sensitive to the musical tone1 but only to the rhythm4 ,on a basis of rhythm she arranged simple little dances1 with the intention of studying the influence of the rhythm itself upon the co-ordination of muscular movements4 ,she was greatly surprised to discover the educational disciplinary effect of such music4 ,her children1 who had been led with great wisdom and art through liberty to a spontaneous ordering of their acts and movements1 had nevertheless lived in the streets and courts1 and had an almost universal habit of jumping4 ,being a faithful follower of the method of liberty1 and not considering that jumping was a wrong act1 she had never corrected them4 ,she now noticed that as she multiplied and repeated the rhythm exercises1 the children little by little left off their ugly jumping1 until finally it was a thing of the past4 ,the directress one day asked for an explanation of this change of conduct4 ,several little ones looked at her without saying anything4 ,the older children gave various replies1 whose meaning was the same4 ,it isn't nice to jump4 ,jumping is ugly4 ,it's rude to jump4 ,this was certainly a beautiful triumph for our method6 ,this experience shows that it is possible to educate the child's muscular sense1 and it shows how exquisite the refinement of this sense may be as it develops in relation to the muscular memory1 and side by side with the other forms of sensory memory4 ,tests for ,acuteness of ,hearing ,the only entirely successful experiments which we have made so far in the ,children's ,houses are those of the clock1 and of the lowered or whispered voice4 ,the trial is purely empirical1 and does not lend itself to the measuring of the sensation1 but it is1 however1 most useful in that it helps us to an approximate knowledge of the child's auditory acuteness4 ,the exercise consists in calling attention1 when perfect silence has been established1 to the ticking of the clock1 and to all the little noises not commonly audible to the ear4 ,finally we call the little ones1 one by one from an adjoining room1 pronouncing each name in a low voice4 ,in preparing for such an exercise it is necessary to teach the children the real meaning of silence4 ,toward this end ,i have several games of silence1 which help in a surprising way to strengthen the remarkable discipline of our children4 ,i call the children's attention to myself1 telling them to see how silent ,i can be4 ,i assume different positions2 standing1 sitting1 and maintain each pose silently1 without movement4 ,a finger moving can produce a noise1 even though it be imperceptible4 ,we may breathe so that we may be heard4 ,but ,i maintain absolute silence1 which is not an easy thing to do4 ,i call a child1 and ask him to do as ,i am doing4 ,he adjusts his feet to a better position1 and this makes a noise6 ,he moves an arm1 stretching it out upon the arm of his chair2 it is a noise4 ,his breathing is not altogether silent1 it is not tranquil1 absolutely unheard as mine is4 ,during these manoeuvres on the part of the child1 and while my brief comments are followed by intervals of immobility and silence1 the other children are watching and listening4 ,many of them are interested in the fact1 which they have never noticed before2 namely1 that we make so many noises of which we are not conscious1 and that there are degrees of silence4 ,there is an absolute silence where nothing1 absolutely nothing moves4 ,they watch me in amazement when ,i stand in the middle of the room1 so quietly that it is really as if ,i were not4 ,then they strive to imitate me1 and to do even better4 ,i call attention here and there to a foot that moves1 almost inadvertently4 ,the attention of the child is called to every part of his body in an anxious eagerness to attain to immobility4 ,when the children are trying in this way1 there is established a silence very different from that which we carelessly call by that name4 ,it seems as if life gradually vanishes1 and that the room becomes1 little by little1 empty1 as if there were no longer anyone in it4 ,then we begin to hear the tick-tock of the clock1 and this sound seems to grow in intensity as the silence becomes absolute4 ,from without1 from the court which before seemed silent1 there come varied noises1 a bird chirps1 a child passes4 ,the children sit fascinated by that silence as if by some conquest of their own4 ,here1 says the directress1 here there is no longer anyone2 the children have all gone away4 ,having arrived at that point1 we darken the windows1 and tell the children to close their eyes1 resting their heads upon their hands4 ,they assume this position1 and in the darkness the absolute silence returns4 ,now listen1 we say4 ,a soft voice is going to call your name4 ,then going to a room behind the children1 and standing within the open door1 ,i call in a low voice1 lingering over the syllables as if ,i were calling from across the mountains4 ,this voice1 almost occult1 seems to reach the heart and to call to the soul of the child4 ,each one as he is called1 lifts his head1 opens his eyes as if altogether happy1 then rises1 silently seeking not to move the chair1 and walks on the tips of his toes1 so quietly that he is scarcely heard4 ,nevertheless his step resounds in the silence1 and amid the immobility which persists4 ,having reached the door1 with a joyous face1 he leaps into the room1 choking back soft outbursts of laughter4 ,another child may come to hide his face against my dress1 another1 turning1 will watch his companions sitting like statues silent and waiting4 ,the one who is called feels that he is privileged1 that he has received a gift1 a prize4 ,and yet they know that all will be called1 beginning with the most silent one in all the room4 ,so each one tries to merit by his perfect silence the certain call4 ,i once saw a little one of three years try to suffocate a sneeze1 and succeed6 ,she held her breath in her little breast1 and resisted1 coming out victorious4 ,a most surprising effort6 ,this game delights the little ones beyond measure4 ,their intent faces1 their patient immobility1 reveal the enjoyment of a great pleasure4 ,in the beginning1 when the soul of the child was unknown to me1 ,i had thought of showing them sweetmeats and little toys1 promising to give them to the ones who were called1 supposing that the gifts would be necessary to persuade the child to make the necessary effort4 ,but ,i soon found that this was unnecessary4 ,the children1 after they had made the effort necessary to maintain silence1 enjoyed the sensation1 took pleasure in the silence itself4 ,they were like ships safe in a tranquil harbour1 happy in having experienced something new1 and to have won a victory over themselves4 ,this1 indeed1 was their recompense4 ,they forgot the promise of sweets1 and no longer cared to take the toys1 which ,i had supposed would attract them4 ,i therefore abandoned that useless means1 and saw1 with surprise1 that the game became constantly more perfect1 until even children of three years of age remained immovable in the silence throughout the time required to call the entire forty children out of the room6 ,it was then that ,i learned that the soul of the child has its own reward1 and its peculiar spiritual pleasures4 ,after such exercises it seemed to me that the children came closer to me1 certainly they became more obedient1 more gentle and sweet4 ,we had1 indeed1 been isolated from the world1 and had passed several minutes during which the communion between us was very close1 ,i wishing for them and calling to them1 and they receiving in the perfect silence the voice which was directed personally toward each one of them1 crowning each in turn with happiness4 ,a ,lesson in ,silence ,i am about to describe a lesson which proved most successful in teaching the perfect silence to which it is possible to attain4 ,one day as ,i was about to enter one of the ,children's ,houses1 ,i met in the court a mother who held in her arms her little baby of four months4 ,the little one was swaddled1 as is still the custom among the people of ,rome--an infant thus in the swaddling bands is called by us a pupa4 ,this tranquil little one seemed the incarnation of peace4 ,i took her in my arms1 where she lay quiet and good4 ,still holding her ,i went toward the schoolroom1 from which the children now ran to meet me4 ,they always welcomed me thus1 throwing their arms about me1 clinging to my skirts1 and almost tumbling me over in their eagerness4 ,i smiled at them1 showing them the pupa4 ,they understood and skipped about me looking at me with eyes brilliant with pleasure1 but did not touch me through respect for the little one that ,i held in my arms4 ,i went into the schoolroom with the children clustered about me4 ,we sat down1 ,i seating myself in a large chair instead of1 as usual1 in one of their little chairs4 ,in other words1 ,i seated myself solemnly4 ,they looked at my little one with a mixture of tenderness and joy4 ,none of us had yet spoken a word4 ,finally ,i said to them1 ,i have brought you a little teacher4 ,surprised glances and laughter4 ,a little teacher1 yes1 because none of you know how to be quiet as she does4 ,at this all the children changed their positions and became quiet4 ,yet no one holds his limbs and feet as quietly as she4 ,everyone gave closer attention to the position of limbs and feet4 ,i looked at them smiling1 ,yes1 but they can never be as quiet as hers4 ,you move a little bit1 but she1 not at all2 none of you can be as quiet as she4 ,the children looked serious4 ,the idea of the superiority of the little teacher seemed to have reached them4 ,some of them smiled1 and seemed to say with their eyes that the swaddling bands deserved all the merit4 ,not one of you can be silent1 voiceless as she4 ,general silence4 ,it is not possible to be as silent as she1 because1--listen to her breathing--how delicate it is2 come near to her on your tiptoes4 ,several children rose1 and came slowly forward on tiptoe1 bending toward the baby4 ,great silence4 ,none of you can breathe so silently as she4 ,the children looked about amazed1 they had never thought that even when sitting quietly they were making noises1 and that the silence of a little babe is more profound than the silence of grown people4 ,they almost ceased to breathe4 ,i rose4 ,go out quietly1 quietly1 ,i said1 walk on the tips of your toes and make no noise4 ,following them ,i said1 ,and yet ,i still hear some sounds1 but she1 the baby1 walks with me and makes no sound4 ,she goes out silently6 ,the children smiled4 ,they understood the truth and the jest of my words4 ,i went to the open window1 and placed the baby in the arms of the mother who stood watching us4 ,the little one seemed to have left behind her a subtle charm which enveloped the souls of the children4 ,indeed1 there is in nature nothing more sweet than the silent breathing of a new-born babe4 ,there is an indescribable majesty about this human life which in repose and silence gathers strength and newness of life4 ,compared to this1 ,wordsworth's description of the silent peace of nature seems to lose its force4 ,what calm1 what quiet6 ,the one sound the drip of the suspended oar4 ,the children1 too1 felt the poetry and beauty in the peaceful silence of a new-born human life4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,general ,,notes ,,on ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,the ,,senses ,i do not claim to have brought to perfection the method of sense training as applied to young children4 ,i do believe1 however1 that it opens a new field for psychological research1 promising rich and valuable results4 ,experimental psychology has so far devoted its attention to perfecting the instruments by which the sensations are measured4 ,no one has attempted the methodical preparation of the individual for the sensations4 ,it is my belief that the development of psychometry will owe more to the attention given to the preparation of the individual than to the perfecting of the instrument4 ,but putting aside this purely scientific side of the question1 the education of the senses must be of the greatest pedagogical interest4 ,our aim in education in general is two-fold1 biological and social4 ,from the biological side we wish to help the natural development of the individual1 from the social standpoint it is our aim to prepare the individual for the environment4 ,under this last head technical education may be considered as having a place1 since it teaches the individual to make use of his surroundings4 ,the education of the senses is most important from both these points of view4 ,the development of the senses indeed precedes that of superior intellectual activity and the child between three and seven years is in the period of formation4 ,we can1 then1 help the development of the senses while they are in this period4 ,we may graduate and adapt the stimuli just as1 for example1 it is necessary to help the formation of language before it shall be completely developed4 ,all education of little children must be governed by this principle--to help the natural psychic and physical development of the child4 ,the other aim of education 7that of adapting the individual to the environment7 should be given more attention later on when the period of intense development is past4 ,these two phases of education are always interlaced1 but one or the other has prevalence according to the age of the child4 ,now1 the period of life between the ages of three and seven years covers a period of rapid physical development4 ,it is the time for the formation of the sense activities as related to the intellect ,the child in this age develops his senses4 ,his attention is further attracted to the environment under the form of passive curiosity4 ,the stimuli1 and not yet the reasons for things1 attract his attention4 ,this is1 therefore1 the time when we should methodically direct the sense stimuli1 in such a way that the sensations which he receives shall develop in a rational way4 ,this sense training will prepare the ordered foundation upon which he may build up a clear and strong mentality4 ,it is1 besides all this1 possible with the education of the senses to discover and eventually to correct defects which to-day pass unobserved in the school4 ,now the time comes when the defect manifests itself in an evident and irreparable inability to make use of the forces of life about him4 7,such defects as deafness and near-sightedness47 ,this education1 therefore1 is physiological and prepares directly for intellectual education1 perfecting the organs of sense1 and the nerve-paths of projection and association4 ,but the other part of education1 the adaptation of the individual to his environment1 is indirectly touched4 ,we prepare with our method the infancy of the humanity of our time4 ,the men of the present civilisation are preeminently observers of their environment because they must utilise to the greatest possible extent all the riches of this environment4 ,the art of to-day bases itself1 as in the days of the ,greeks1 upon observation of the truth4 ,the progress of positive science is based upon its observations and all its discoveries and their applications1 which in the last century have so transformed our civic environment1 were made by following the same line--that is1 they have come through observation4 ,we must therefore prepare the new generation for this attitude1 which has become necessary in our modern civilised life4 ,it is an indispensable means--man must be so armed if he is to continue efficaciously the work of our progress4 ,we have seen the discovery of the ,roentgen ,rays born of observation4 ,to the same methods are due the discovery of ,hertzian waves1 and vibrations of radium1 and we await wonderful things from the ,marconi telegraph4 ,while there has been no period in which thought has gained so much from positive study as the present century1 and this same century promises new light in the field of speculative philosophy and upon spiritual questions1 the theories upon the matter have themselves led to most interesting metaphysical concepts4 ,we may say that in preparing the method of observation1 we have also prepared the way leading to spiritual discovery4 ,the education of the senses makes men observers1 and not only accomplishes the general work of adaptation to the present epoch of civilisation1 but also prepares them directly for practical life4 ,we have had up to the present time1 ,i believe1 a most imperfect idea of what is necessary in the practical living of life4 ,we have always started from ideas1 and have proceeded thence to motor activities2 thus1 for example1 the method of education has always been to teach intellectually1 and then to have the child follow the principles he has been taught4 ,in general1 when we are teaching1 we talk about the object which interests us1 and then we try to lead the scholar1 when he has understood1 to perform some kind of work with the object itself2 but often the scholar who has understood the idea finds great difficulty in the execution of the work which we give him1 because we have left out of his education a factor of the utmost importance1 namely1 the perfecting of the senses4 ,i may1 perhaps1 illustrate this statement with a few examples4 ,we ask the cook to buy only 'fresh fish4' ,she understands the idea1 and tries to follow it in her marketing1 but1 if the cook has not been trained to recognise through sight and smell the signs which indicate freshness in the fish1 she will not know how to follow the order we have given her4 ,such a lack will show itself much more plainly in culinary operations4 ,a cook may be trained in book matters1 and may know exactly the recipes and the length of time advised in her cook book2 she may be able to perform all the manipulations necessary to give the desired appearance to the dishes1 but when it is a question of deciding from the odor of the dish the exact moment of its being properly cooked1 or with the eye1 or the taste1 the time at which she must put in some given condiment1 then she will make a mistake if her senses have not been sufficiently prepared4 ,she can only gain such ability through long practice1 and such practice on the part of the cook is nothing else than a belated education of the senses--an education which often can never be properly attained by the adult4 ,thia is one reason why it is so difficult to find good cooks4 ,something of the same kind is true of the physician1 the student of medicine who studies theoretically the character of the pulse1 and sits down by the bed of the patient with the best will in the world to read the pulse1 but1 if his fingers do not know how to read the sensations his studies will have been in vain4 ,before he can become a doctor1 he must gain a capacity for discriminating between sense stimuli4 ,the same may be said for the pulsations of the heart1 which the student studies in theory1 but which the ear can learn to distinguish only through practice4 ,we may say the same for all the delicate vibrations and movements1 in the reading of which the hand of the physician is too often deficient4 ,the thermometer is the more indispensable to the physician the more his sense of touch is unadapted and untrained in the gathering of the thermic stimuli4 ,it is well understood that the physician may be learned1 and most intelligent1 without being a good practitioner1 and that to make a good practitioner long practice is necessary4 ,in reality1 this long practice is nothing else than a tardy1 and often inefficient1 exercise of the senses4 ,after he has assimilated the brilliant theories1 the physician sees himself forced to the unpleasant labor of the semiography1 that is to making a record of the symptoms revealed by his observation of and experiments with the patients4 ,he must do this if he is to receive from these theories any practical results4 ,here1 then1 we have the beginner proceeding in a stereotyped way to tests of palpation1 percussion1 and auscultation1 for the purpose of identifying the throbs1 the resonance1 the tones1 the breathings1 and the various sounds which alone can enable him to formulate a diagnosis4 ,hence the deep and unhappy discouragement of so many young physicians1 and1 above all1 the loss of time2 for it is often a question of lost years4 ,then1 there is the immorality of allowing a man to follow a profession of so great responsibility1 when1 as is often the case1 he is so unskilled and inaccurate in the taking of symptoms4 ,the whole art of medicine is based upon an education of the senses2 the schools1 instead1 prepare physicians through a study of the classics4 ,all very well and good1 but the splendid intellectual development of the physician falls1 impotent1 before the insufficiency of his senses4 ,one day1 ,i heard a surgeon giving1 to a number of poor mothers1 a lesson on the recognition of the first deformities noticeable in little children from the disease of rickets4 ,it was his hope to lead these mothers to bring to him their children who were suffering from this disease1 while the disease was yet in the earliest stages1 and when medical help might still be efficacious4 ,the mothers understood the idea1 but they did not know how to recognise these first signs of deformity1 because they were lacking in the sensory education through which they might discriminate between signs deviating only slightly from the normal4 ,therefore those lessons were useless4 ,if we think of it for a minute1 we will see that almost all the forms of adulteration in food stuffs are rendered possible by the torpor of the senses1 which exists in the greater number of people4 ,fraudulent industry feeds upon the lack of sense education in the masses1 as any kind of fraud is based upon the ignorance of the victim4 ,we often see the purchaser throwing himself upon the honesty of the merchant1 or putting his faith in the company1 or the label upon the box4 ,this is because purchasers are lacking in the capacity of judging directly for themselves4 ,they do not know how to distinguish with their senses the different qualities of various substances4 ,in fact1 we may say that in many cases intelligence is rendered useless by lack of practice1 and this practice is almost always sense education4 ,everyone knows in practical life the fundamental necessity of judging with exactness between various stimuli4 ,but very often sense education is most difficult for the adult1 just as it is difficult for him to educate his hand when he wishes to become a pianist4 ,it is necessary to begin the education of the senses in the formative period1 if we wish to perfect this sense development with the education which is to follow4 ,the education of the senses should be begun methodically in infancy1 and should continue during the entire period of instruction which is to prepare the individual for life in society4 ,a,esthetic and moral education are closely related to this sensory education4 ,multiply the sensations1 and develop the capacity of appreciating fine differences in stimuli1 and we refine the sensibility and multiply man's pleasures4 ,beauty lies in harmony1 not in contrast2 and harmony is refinement2 therefore1 there must be a fineness of the senses if we are to appreciate harmony4 ,the aesthetic harmony of nature is lost upon him who has coarse senses4 ,the world to him is narrow and barren4 ,in life about us1 there exist inexhaustible fonts of aesthetic enjoyment1 before which men pass as insensible as the brutes seeking their enjoyment in those sensations which are crude and showy1 since they are the only ones accessible to them4 ,now1 from the enjoyment of gross pleasures1 vicious habits very often spring4 ,strong stimuli1 indeed1 do not render acute1 but blunt the senses1 so that they require stimuli more and more accentuated and more and more gross4 ,onanism1 so often found among normal children of the lower classes1 alcoholism1 fondness for watching sensual acts of adults--these things represent the enjoyment of those unfortunate ones whose intellectual pleasures are few1 and whose senses are blunted and dulled4 ,such pleasures kill the man within the individual1 and call to life the beast4 ,illustration3 ,s--,sense1 ,c--,nerve centre1 ,m--,motor4 ,indeed from the physiological point of view1 the importance of the education of the senses is evident from an observation of the scheme of the diagrammatic arc which represents the functions of the nervous system4 ,the external stimulus acts upon the organ of sense1 and the impression is transmitted along the centripetal way to the nerve centre--the corresponding motor impulse is elaborated1 and is transmitted along the centrifugal path to the organ of motion1 provoking a movement4 ,although the arc represents diagrammatically the mechanism of reflex spinal actions1 it may still be considered as a fundamental key explaining the phenomena of the more complex nervous mechanisms4 ,man1 with the peripheral sensory system1 gathers various stimuli from his environment4 ,he puts himself thus in direct communication with his surroundings4 ,the psychic life develops1 therefore1 in relation to the system of nerve centres2 and human activity which is eminently social activity1 manifests itself through acts of the individual--manual work1 writing1 spoken language1 etc4--by means of the psychomotor organs4 ,education should guide and perfect the development of the three periods1 the two peripheral and the central2 or1 better still1 since the process fundamentally reduces itself to the nerve centres1 education should give to psychosensory exercises the same importance which it gives to psychomotor exercises4 ,otherwise1 we isolate man from his environment4 ,indeed1 when with intellectual culture we believe ourselves to have completed education1 we have but made thinkers1 whose tendency will be to live without the world4 ,we have not made practical men4 ,if1 on the other hand1 wishing through education to prepare for practical life2 we limit ourselves to exercising the psychomotor phase1 we lose sight of the chief end of education1 which is to put man in direct communication with the external world4 ,since professional work almost always requires man to make use of his surroundings1 the technical schools are not forced to return to the very beginnings of education1 sense exercises1 in order to supply the great and universal lack4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,intellectual ,,education 444 ,to lead the child from the education of the senses to ideas4 ,edward ,seguin4 ,the sense exercises constitute a species of auto-education1 which1 if these exercises be many times repeated1 leads to a perfecting of the child's psychosensory processes4 ,the directress must intervene to lead the child from sensations to ideas--from the concrete to the abstract1 and to the association of ideas4 ,for this1 she should use a method tending to isolate the inner attention of the child and to fix it upon the perceptions--as in the first lessons his objective attention was fixed1 through isolation1 upon single stimuli4 ,the teacher1 in other words1 when she gives a lesson must seek to limit the field of the child's consciousness to the object of the lesson1 as1 for example1 during sense education she isolated the sense which she wished the child to exercise4 ,for this1 knowledge of a special technique is necessary4 ,the educator must1 to the greatest possible extent1 limit his intervention2 yet he must not allow the child to weary himself in an undue effort of auto-education4 ,it is here1 that the factor of individual limitation and differing degrees of perception are most keenly felt in the teacher4 ,in other words1 in the quality of this intervention lies the art which makes up the individuality of the teacher4 ,a definite and undoubted part of the teacher's work is that of teaching an exact nomenclature4 ,she should1 in most cases1 pronounce the necessary names and adjectives without adding anything further4 ,these words she should pronounce distinctly1 and in a clear strong voice1 so that the various sounds composing the word may be distinctly and plainly perceived by the child4 ,so1 for example1 touching the smooth and rough cards in the first tactile exercise1 she should say1 ,this is smooth4 ,this is rough1 repeating the words with varying modulations of the voice1 always letting the tones be clear and the enunciation very distinct4 ,smooth1 smooth1 smooth4 ,rough1 rough1 rough4 ,in the same way1 when treating of the sensations of heat and cold1 she must say1 ,this is cold4 ,this is hot4 ,this is ice-cold4 ,this is tepid4 ,she may then begin to use the generic terms1 heat1 more heat1 less heat1 etc4 ,first4 ,the lessons in nomenclature must consist simply in provoking the association of the name with the object1 or with the abstract idea which the name represents4 ,thus the object and the name must be united when they are received by the child's mind1 and this makes it most necessary that no other word besides the name be spoken4 ,second4 ,the teacher must always test whether or not her lesson has attained the end she had in view1 and her tests must be made to come within the restricted field of consciousness1 provoked by the lesson on nomenclature4 ,the first test will be to find whether the name is still associated in the child's mind with the object4 ,she must allow the necessary time to elapse1 letting a short period of silence intervene between the lesson and the test4 ,then she may ask the child1 pronouncing slowly and very clearly the name or the adjective she has taught3 ,which is smooth8 ,which is rough8 ,the child will point to the object with his finger1 and the teacher will know that he has made the desired association4 ,but if he has not done this1 that is1 if he makes a mistake1 she must not correct him1 but must suspend her lesson1 to take it up again another day4 ,indeed1 why correct him8 ,if the child has not succeeded in associating the name with the object1 the only way in which to succeed would be to repeat both the action of the sense stimuli and the name2 in other words1 to repeat the lesson4 ,but when the child has failed1 we should know that he was not at that instant ready for the psychic association which we wished to provoke in him1 and we must therefore choose another moment4 ,if we should say1 in correcting the child1 ,no1 you have made a mistake1 all these words1 which1 being in the form of a reproof1 would strike him more forcibly than others 7such as smooth or rough71 would remain in the mind of the child1 retarding the learning of the names4 ,on the contrary1 the silence which follows the error leaves the field of consciousness clear1 and the next lesson may successfully follow the first4 ,in fact1 by revealing the error we may lead the child to make an undue effort to remember1 or we may discourage him1 and it is our duty to avoid as much as possible all unnatural effort and all depression4 ,third4 ,if the child has not committed any error1 the teacher may provoke the motor activity corresponding to the idea of the object3 that is1 to the pronunciation of the name4 ,she may ask him1 ,what is this8 and the child should respond1 ,smooth4 ,the teacher may then interrupt1 teaching him how to pronounce the word correctly and distinctly1 first1 drawing a deep breath and1 then1 saying in a rather loud voice1 ,smooth4 ,when he does this the teacher may note his particular speech defect1 or the special form of baby talk to which he may be addicted4 ,in regard to the generalisation of the ideas received1 and by that ,i mean the application of these ideas to his environment1 ,i do not advise any lessons of this sort for a certain length of time1 even for a number of months4 ,there will be children who1 after having touched a few times the stuffs1 or merely the smooth and rough cards1 will quite spontaneously touch the various surfaces about them1 repeating ,smooth6 ,rough6 ,it is velvet6 etc4 ,in dealing with normal children1 we must await this spontaneous investigation of the surroundings1 or1 as ,i like to call it1 this voluntary explosion of the exploring spirit4 ,in such cases1 the children experience a joy at each fresh discovery4 ,they are conscious of a sense of dignity and satisfaction which encourages them to seek for new sensations from their environment and to make themselves spontaneous observers4 ,the teacher should watch with the most solicitous care to see when and how the child arrives at this generalisation of ideas4 ,for example1 one of our little four-year-olds while running about in the court one day suddenly stood still and cried out1 ,oh6 the sky is blue6 and stood for some time looking up into the blue expanse of the sky4 ,one day1 when ,i entered one of the ,children's ,houses1 five or six little ones gathered quietly about me and began caressing1 lightly1 my hands1 and my clothing1 saying1 ,it is smooth4 ,it is velvet4 ,this is rough4 ,a number of others came near and began with serious and intent faces to repeat the same words1 touching me as they did so4 ,the directress wished to interfere to release me1 but ,i signed to her to be quiet1 and ,i myself did not move1 but remained silent1 admiring this spontaneous intellectual activity of my little ones4 ,the greatest triumph of our educational method should always be this3 to bring about the spontaneous progress of the child4 ,one day1 a little boy1 following one of our exercises in design1 had chosen to fill in with coloured pencils the outline of a tree4 ,to colour the trunk he laid hold upon a red crayon4 ,the teacher wished to interfere1 saying1 ,do you think trees have red trunks8 ,i held her back and allowed the child to colour the tree red4 ,this design was precious to us2 it showed that the child was not yet an observer of his surroundings4 ,my way of treating this was to encourage the child to make use of the games for the chromatic sense4 ,he went daily into the garden with the other children1 and could at any time see the tree trunks4 ,when the sense exercises should have succeeded in attracting the child's spontaneous attention to colours about him1 then1 in some happy moment he would become aware that the tree trunks were not red1 just as the other child during his play had become conscious of the fact that the sky was blue4 ,in fact1 the teacher continued to give the child outlines of trees to fill in4 ,he one day chose a brown pencil with which to colour the trunk1 and made the branches and leaves green4 ,later1 he made the branches brown1 also1 using green only for the leaves4 ,thus we have the test of the child's intellectual progress4 ,we can not create observers by saying1 observe1 but by giving them the power and the means for this observation1 and these means are procured through education of the senses4 ,once we have aroused such activity1 auto-education is assured1 for refined well-trained senses lead us to a closer observation of the environment1 and this1 with its infinite variety1 attracts the attention and continues the psychosensory education4 ,if1 on the other hand1 in this matter of sense education we single out definite concepts of the quality of certain objects1 these very objects become associated with1 or a part of1 the training1 which is in this way limited to those concepts taken and recorded4 ,so the sense training remains unfruitful4 ,when1 for example1 a teacher has given in the old way a lesson on the names of the colours1 she has imparted an idea concerning that particular quality1 but she has not educated the chromatic sense4 ,the child will know these colours in a superficial way1 forgetting them from time to time2 and at best his appreciation of them will lie within the limits prescribed by the teacher4 ,when1 therefore1 the teacher of the old methods shall have provoked the generalisation of the idea1 saying1 for example1 ,what is the colour of this flower6 of this ribbon8 the attention of the child will in all probability remain torpidly fixed upon the examples suggested by her4 ,we may liken the child to a clock1 and may say that with the old-time way it is very much as if we were to hold the wheels of the clock quiet and move the hands about the clock face with our fingers4 ,the hands will continue to circle the dial just so long as we apply1 through our fingers1 the necessary motor force4 ,even so is it with that sort of culture which is limited to the work which the teacher does with the child4 ,the new method1 instead1 may be compared to the process of winding1 which sets the entire mechanism in motion4 ,this motion is in direct relation with the machine1 and not with the work of winding4 ,so the spontaneous psychic development of the child continues indefinitely and is in direct relation to the psychic potentiality of the child himself1 and not with the work of the teacher4 ,the movement1 or the spontaneous psychic activity starts in our case from the education of the senses and is maintained by the observing intelligence4 ,thus1 for example1 the hunting dog receives his ability1 not from the education given by his master1 but from the special acuteness of his senses2 and as soon as this physiological quality is applied to the right environment1 the exercise of hunting1 the increasing refinement of the sense perceptions1 gives the dog the pleasure and then the passion for the chase4 ,the same is true of the pianist who1 refining at the same time his musical sense and the agility of his hand1 comes to love more and more to draw new harmonies from the instrument4 ,thia double perfection proceeds until at last the pianist is launched upon a course which will be limited only by the personality which lies within him4 ,now a student of physics may know all the laws of harmony which form a part of his scientific culture1 and yet he may not know how to follow a most simple musical composition4 ,his culture1 however vast1 will be bound by the definite limits of his science4 ,our educational aim with very young children must be to aid the spontaneous development of the mental1 spiritual1 and physical personality1 and not to make of the child a cultured individual in the commonly accepted sense of the term4 ,so1 after we have offered to the child such didactic material as is adapted to provoke the development of his senses1 we must wait until the activity known as observation develops4 ,and herein lies the art of the educator2 in knowing how to measure the action by which we help the young child's personality to develop4 ,to one whose attitude is right1 little children soon reveal profound individual differences which call for very different kinds of help from the teacher4 ,some of them require almost no intervention on her part1 while others demand actual teaching4 ,it is necessary1 therefore1 that the teaching shall be rigorously guided by the principle of limiting to the greatest possible point the active intervention of the educator4 ,here are a number of games and problems which we have used effectively in trying to follow this principle4 ,,games ,,of ,,the ,,blind ,the ,games of the ,blind are used for the most part as exercises in general sensibility as follows3 ,the ,stuffs4 ,we have in our didactic material a pretty little chest composed of drawers within which are arranged rectangular pieces of stuff in great variety4 ,there are velvet1 satin1 silk1 cotton1 linen1 etc4 ,we have the child touch each of these pieces1 teaching the appropriate nomenclature and adding something regarding the quality1 as coarse1 fine1 soft4 ,then1 we call the child and seat him at one of the tables where he can be seen by his companions1 blindfold him1 and offer him the stuffs one by one4 ,he touches them1 smooths them1 crushes them between his fingers and decides1 ,it is velvet1--,it is fine linen1--,it is rough cloth1 etc4 ,this exercise provokes general interest4 ,when we offer the child some unexpected foreign object1 as1 for example1 a sheet of paper1 a veil1 the little assembly trembles as it awaits his response4 ,weight4 ,we place the child in the same position1 call his attention to the tablets used for the education of the sense of weight1 have him notice again the already well-known differences of weight1 and then tell him to put all the dark tablets1 which are the heavier ones1 at the right1 and all the light ones1 which are the lighter1 to the left4 ,we then blindfold him and he proceeds to the game1 taking each time two tablets4 ,sometimes he takes two of the same colour1 sometimes two of different colours1 but in a position opposite to that in which he must arrange them on his desk4 ,these exercises are most exciting2 when1 for example1 the child has in his hands two of the dark tablets and changes them from one hand to the other uncertain1 and finally places them together on the right1 the children watch in a state of intense eagerness1 and a great sigh often expresses their final relief4 ,the shouts of the audience when the entire game is followed without an error1 gives the impression that their little friend sees with his hands the colours of the tablets4 ,dimension and ,form4 ,we use games similar to the preceding one1 having the child distinguish between different coins1 the cubes and bricks of ,froebel1 and dry seeds1 such as beans and peas4 ,but such games never awaken the intense interest aroused by the preceding ones4 ,they are1 however1 useful and serve to associate with the various objects those qualities peculiar to them1 and also to fix the nomenclature4 ,,application ,,of ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,the ,,visual ,,sense ,,to ,,the ,,observation ,,of ,,the ,,environment ,nomenclature4 ,this is one of the most important phases of education4 ,indeed1 nomenclature prepares for an exactness in the use of language which is not always met with in our schools4 ,many children1 for example1 use interchangeably the words thick and big1 long and high4 ,with the methods already described1 the teacher may easily establish1 by means of the didactic material1 ideas which are very exact and clear1 and may associate the proper word with these ideas4 ,method of ,using the ,didactic ,material ,dimensions4 ,the directress1 after the child has played for a long time with the three sets of solid insets and has acquired a security in the performance of the exercise1 takes out all the cylinders of equal height and places them in a horizontal position on the table1 one beside the other4 ,then she selects the two extremes1 saying1 ,this is the thickest--,this is the thinnest4 ,she places them side by side so that the comparison may be more marked1 and then taking them by the little button1 she compares the bases1 calling attention to the great difference4 ,she then places them again beside each other in a vertical position in order to show that they are equal in height1 and repeats several times1 thick--thin4 ,having done this1 she should follow it with the test1 asking1 ,give me the thickest--,give me the thinnest1 and finally she should proceed to the test of nomenclature1 asking1 ,what is this8 ,in the lessons which follow this1 the directress may take away the two extreme pieces and may repeat the lesson with the two pieces remaining at the extremities1 and so on until she has used all the pieces4 ,she may then take these up at random1 saying1 ,give me one a little thicker than this one1 or ,give me one a little thinner than this one4 ,with the second set of solid insets she proceeds in the same way4 ,here she stands the pieces upright1 as each one has a base sufficiently broad to maintain it in this position1 saying1 ,this is the highest and ,this is the lowest4 ,then placing the two extreme pieces side by side she may take them out of the line and compare the bases1 showing that they are equal4 ,from the extremes she may proceed as before1 selecting each time the two remaining pieces most strongly contrasted4 ,with the third solid inset1 the directress1 when she has arranged the pieces in gradation1 calls the child's attention to the first one1 saying1 ,this is the largest1 and to the last one1 saying1 ,this is the smallest4 ,then she places them side by side and observes how they differ both in height and in base4 ,she then proceeds in the same way as in the other two exercises4 ,similar lessons may be given with the series of graduated prisms1 of rods1 and of cubes4 ,the prisms are thick and thin and of equal length4 ,the rods are long and short and of equal thickness4 ,the cubes are big and little and differ in size and in height4 ,the application of these ideas to environment will come most easily when we measure the children with the anthropometer4 ,they will begin among themselves to make comparisons1 saying1 ,i am taller1--you are thicker4 ,these comparisons are also made when the children hold out their little hands to show that they are clean1 and the directress stretches hers out also1 to show that she1 too1 has clean hands4 ,often the contrast between the dimensions of the hands calls forth laughter4 ,the children make a perfect game of measuring themselves4 ,they stand side by side2 they look at each other2 they decide4 ,often they place themselves beside grown persons1 and observe with curiosity and interest the great difference in height4 ,form4 ,when the child shows that he can with security distinguish between the forms of the plane geometric insets1 the directress may begin the lessons in nomenclature4 ,she should begin with two strongly-contrasted forms1 as the square and the circle1 and should follow the usual method1 using the three periods of ,seguin4 ,we do not teach all the names relative to the geometric figures1 giving only those of the most familiar forms1 such as square1 circle1 rectangle1 triangle1 oval4 ,we now call attention to the fact that there are rectangles which are narrow and long1 and others which are broad and short1 while the squares are equal on all sides and can be only big and little4 ,these things are most easily shown with the insets1 for1 though we turn the square about1 it still enters its frame1 while the rectangle1 if placed across the opening1 will not enter4 ,the child is much interested in this exercise1 for which we arrange in the frame a square and a series of rectangles1 having the longest side equal to the side of the square1 the other side gradually decreasing in the five pieces4 ,in the same way we proceed to show the difference between the oval1 the ellipse1 and the circle4 ,the circle enters no matter how it is placed1 or turned about2 the ellipse does not enter when placed transversely1 but if placed lengthwise will enter even if turned upside down4 ,the oval1 however1 not only cannot enter the frame if placed transversely1 but not even when turned upside down2 it must be placed with the large curve toward the large part of the opening1 and with the narrow curve toward the narrow portion of the opening4 ,the circles1 big and little1 enter their frames no matter how they are turned about4 ,i do not reveal the difference between the oval and the ellipse until a very late stage of the child's education1 and then not to all children1 but only to those who show a special interest in the forms by choosing the game often1 or by asking about the differences4 ,i prefer that such differences should be recognised later by the child1 spontaneously1 perhaps in the elementary school4 ,it seems to many persons that in teaching these forms we are teaching geometry1 and that this is premature in schools for such young children4 ,others feel that1 if we wish to present geometric forms1 we should use the solids1 as being more concrete4 ,i feel that ,i should say a word here to combat such prejudices4 ,to observe a geometric form is not to analyse it1 and in the analysis geometry begins4 ,when1 for example1 we speak to the child of sides and angles and explain these to him1 even though with objective methods1 as ,froebel advocates 7for example1 the square has four sides and can be constructed with four sticks of equal length71 then indeed we do enter the field of geometry1 and ,i believe that little children are too immature for these steps4 ,but the observation of the form cannot be too advanced for a child at this age4 ,the plane of the table at which the child sits while eating his supper is probably a rectangle2 the plate which contains his food is a circle1 and we certainly do not consider that the child is too immature to be allowed to look at the table and the plate4 ,the insets which we present simply call the attention to a given form4 ,as to the name1 it is analogous to other names by which the child learns to call things4 ,why should we consider it premature to teach the child the words circle1 square1 oval1 when in his home he repeatedly hears the word round used in connection with plates1 etc4 ,he will hear his parents speak of the square table1 the oval table1 etc41 and these words in common use will remain for a long time confused in his mind and in his speech1 if we do not interpose such help as that we give in the teaching of forms4 ,we should reflect upon the fact that many times a child1 left to himself1 makes an undue effort to comprehend the language of the adults and the meaning of the things about him4 ,opportune and rational instruction prevents such an effort1 and therefore does not weary1 but relieves1 the child and satisfies his desire for knowledge4 ,indeed1 he shows his contentment by various expressions of pleasure4 ,at the same time1 his attention is called to the word which1 if he is allowed to pronounce badly1 develops in him an imperfect use of the language4 ,this often arises from an effort on his part to imitate the careless speech of persons about him1 while the teacher1 by pronouncing clearly the word referring to the object which arouses the child's curiosity1 prevents such effort and such imperfections4 ,here1 also1 we face a widespread prejudice2 namely1 the belief that the child left to himself gives absolute repose to his mind4 ,if this were so he would remain a stranger to the world1 and1 instead1 we see him1 little by little1 spontaneously conquer various ideas and words4 ,he is a traveller through life1 who observes the new things among which he journeys1 and who tries to understand the unknown tongue spoken by those about him4 ,indeed1 he makes a great and voluntary effort to understand and to imitate4 ,the instruction given to little children should be so directed as to lessen this expenditure of poorly directed effort1 converting it instead into the enjoyment of conquest made easy and infinitely broadened4 ,we are the guides of these travellers just entering the great world of human thought4 ,we should see to it that we are intelligent and cultured guides1 not losing ourselves in vain discourse1 but illustrating briefly and concisely the work of art in which the traveller shows himself interested1 and we should then respectfully allow him to observe it as long as he wishes to4 ,it is our privilege to lead him to observe the most important and the most beautiful things of life in such a way that he does not lose energy and time in useless things1 but shall find pleasure and satisfaction throughout his pilgrimage4 ,i have already referred to the prejudice that it is more suitable to present the geometric forms to the child in the solid rather than in the plane1 giving him1 for example1 the cube1 the sphere1 the prism4 ,let us put aside the physiological side of the question showing that the visual recognition of the solid figure is more complex than that of the plane1 and let us view the question only from the more purely pedagogical standpoint of practical life4 ,the greater number of objects which we look upon every day present more nearly the aspect of our plane geometric insets4 ,in fact1 doors1 window-frames1 framed pictures1 the wooden or marble top of a table1 are indeed solid objects1 but with one of the dimensions greatly reduced1 and with the two dimensions determining the form of the plane surface made most evident4 ,when the plane form prevails1 we say that the window is rectangular1 the picture frame oval1 this table square1 etc4 ,solids having a determined form prevailing in the plane surface are almost the only ones which come to our notice4 ,and such solids are clearly represented by our plane geometric insets4 ,the child will very often recognise in his environment forms which he has learned in this way1 but he will rarely recognise the solid geometric forms4 ,that the table leg is a prism1 or a truncated cone1 or an elongated cylinder1 will come to his knowledge long after he has observed that the top of the table upon which he places things is rectangular4 ,we do not1 therefore1 speak of the fact of recognising that a house is a prism or a cube4 ,indeed1 the pure solid geometric forms never exist in the ordinary objects about us2 these present1 instead1 a combination of forms4 ,so1 putting aside the difficulty of taking in at a glance the complex form of a house1 the child recognises in it1 not an identity of form1 but an analogy4 ,he will1 however1 see the plane geometric forms perfectly represented in windows and doors1 and in the faces of many solid objects in use at home4 ,thus the knowledge of the forms given him in the plane geometric insets will be for him a species of magic key1 opening the external world1 and making him feel that he knows its secrets4 ,i was walking one day upon the ,pincian ,hill with a boy from the elementary school4 ,he had studied geometric design and understood the analysis of plane geometric figures4 ,as we reached the highest terrace from which we could see the ,piazza del ,popolo with the city stretching away behind it1 ,i stretched out my hand saying1 ,look1 all the works of man are a great mass of geometric figures2 and1 indeed1 rectangles1 ovals1 triangles1 and semicircles1 perforated1 or ornamented1 in a hundred different ways the grey rectangular facades of the various buildings4 ,such uniformity in such an expanse of buildings seemed to prove the limitation of human intelligence1 while in an adjoining garden plot the shrubs and flowers spoke eloquently of the infinite variety of forms in nature4 ,the boy had never made these observations2 he had studied the angles1 the sides and the construction of outlined geometric figures1 but without thinking beyond this1 and feeling only annoyance at this arid work4 ,at first he laughed at the idea of man's massing geometric figures together1 then he became interested1 looked long at the buildings before him1 and an expression of lively and thoughtful interest came into his face4 ,to the right of the ,ponte ,margherita was a factory building in the process of construction1 and its steel framework delineated a series of rectangles4 ,what tedious work6 said the boy1 alluding to the workmen4 ,and1 then1 as we drew near the garden1 and stood for a moment in silence admiring the grass and the flowers which sprang so freely from the earth1 ,it is beautiful6 he said4 ,but that word beautiful referred to the inner awakening of his own soul4 ,this experience made me think that in the observation of the plane geometric forms1 and in that of the plants which they saw growing in their own little gardens1 there existed for the children precious sources of spiritual as well as intellectual education4 ,for this reason1 ,i have wished to make my work broad1 leading the child1 not only to observe the forms about him1 but to distinguish the work of man from that of nature1 and to appreciate the fruits of human labour4 7a7 ,free ,design4 ,i give the child a sheet of white paper and a pencil1 telling him that he may draw whatever he wishes to4 ,such drawings have long been of interest to experimental psychologists4 ,their importance lies in the fact that they reveal the capacity of the child for observing1 and also show his individual tendencies4 ,generally1 the first drawings are unformed and confused1 and the teacher should ask the child what he wished to draw1 and should write it underneath the design that it may be a record4 ,little by little1 the drawings become more intelligible1 and verily reveal the progress which the child makes in the observation of the forms about him4 ,often the most minute details of an object have been observed and recorded in the crude sketch4 ,and1 since the child draws what he wishes1 he reveals to us which are the objects that most strongly attract his attention4 7b7 ,design ,consisting of the ,filling in of ,outlined ,figures4 ,these designs are most important as they constitute the preparation for writing4 ,they do for the colour sense what free design does for the sense of form4 ,in other words1 they reveal the capacity of the child in the matter of observation of colours1 as the free design showed us the extent to which he was an observer of form in the objects surrounding him4 ,i shall speak more fully of this work in the chapter on writing4 ,the exercises consist in filling in with coloured pencil1 certain outlines drawn in black4 ,these outlines present the simple geometric figures and various objects with which the child is familiar in the schoolroom1 the home1 and the garden4 ,the child must select his colour1 and in doing so he shows us whether he has observed the colours of the things surrounding him4 ,free ,plastic ,work ,these exercises are analogous to those in free design and in the filling in of figures with coloured pencils4 ,here the child makes whatever he wishes with clay2 that is1 he models those objects which he remembers most distinctly and which have impressed him most deeply4 ,we give the child a wooden tray containing a piece of clay1 and then we await his work4 ,we possess some very remarkable pieces of clay work done by our little ones4 ,some of them reproduce1 with surprising minuteness of detail1 objects which they have seen4 ,and what is most surprising1 these models often record not only the form1 but even the dimensions of the objects which the child handled in school4 ,many little ones model the objects which they have seen at home1 especially kitchen furniture1 water-jugs1 pots1 and pans4 ,sometimes1 we are shown a simple cradle containing a baby brother or sister4 ,at first it is necessary to place written descriptions upon these objects1 as it is necessary to do with the free design4 ,later on1 however1 the models are easily recognisable1 and the children learn to reproduce the geometric solids4 ,these clay models are undoubtedly very valuable material for the teacher1 and make clear many individual differences1 thus helping her to understand her children more fully4 ,in our method they are also valuable as psychological manifestations of development according to age4 ,such designs are precious guides also for the teacher in the matter of her intervention in the child's education4 ,the children who1 in this work reveal themselves as observers1 will probably become spontaneous observers of all the world about them1 and may be led toward such a goal by the indirect help of exercises tending to fix and to make more exact the various sensations and ideas4 ,these children will also be those who arrive most quickly at the act of spontaneous writing4 ,those whose clay work remains unformed and indefinite will probably need the direct revelation of the directress1 who will need to call their attention in some material manner to the objects around them4 ,geometric ,analysis of ,figures2 ,sides1 ,angles1 ,centre1 ,base ,the geometric analysis of figures is not adapted to very young children4 ,i have tried a means for the introduction of such analysis1 limiting this work to the rectangle and making use of a game which includes the analysis without fixing the attention of the child upon it4 ,this game presents the concept most clearly4 ,the rectangle of which ,i make use is the plane of one of the children's tables1 and the game consists in laying the table for a meal4 ,i have in each of the ,children's ,houses a collection of toy table-furnishings1 such as may be found in any toy-store4 ,among these are dinner-plates1 soup-plates1 soup-tureen1 saltcellars1 glasses1 decanters1 little knives1 forks1 spoons1 etc4 ,i have them lay the table for six1 putting two places on each of the longer sides1 and one place on each of the shorter sides4 ,one of the children takes the objects and places them as ,i indicate4 ,i tell him to place the soup tureen in the centre of the table2 this napkin in a corner4 ,place this plate in the centre of the short side4 ,then ,i have the child look at the table1 and ,i say1 ,something is lacking in this corner4 ,we want another glass on this side4 ,now let us see if we have everything properly placed on the two longer sides4 ,is everything ready on the two shorter sides8 ,is there anything lacking in the four corners8 ,i do not believe that we may proceed to any more complex analysis than this before the age of six years1 for ,i believe that the child should one day take up one of the plane insets and spontaneously begin to count the sides and the angles4 ,certainly1 if we taught them such ideas they would be able to learn them1 but it would be a mere learning of formulae1 and not applied experience4 ,exercises in the ,chromatic ,sense ,i have already indicated what colour exercises we follow4 ,here ,i wish to indicate more definitely the succession of these exercises and to describe them more fully4 ,designs and ,pictures4 ,we have prepared a number of outline drawings which the children are to fill in with coloured pencil1 and1 later on1 with a brush1 preparing for themselves the water-colour tints which they will use4 ,the first designs are of flowers1 butterflies1 trees and animals1 and we then pass to simple landscapes containing grass1 sky1 houses1 and human figures4 ,these designs help us in our study of the natural development of the child as an observer of his surroundings2 that is1 in regard to colour4 ,the children select the colours and are left entirely free in their work4 ,if1 for example1 they colour a chicken red1 or a cow green1 this shows that they have not yet become observers4 ,but ,i have already spoken of this in the general discussion of the method4 ,these designs also reveal the effect of the education of the chromatic sense4 ,as the child selects delicate and harmonious tints1 or strong and contrasting ones1 we can judge of the progress he has made in the refinement of his colour sense4 ,the fact that the child must remember the colour of the objects represented in the design encourages him to observe those things which are about him4 ,and then1 too1 he wishes to be able to fill in more difficult designs4 ,only those children who know how to keep the colour within the outline and to reproduce the right colours may proceed to the more ambitious work4 ,these designs are very easy1 and often very effective1 sometimes displaying real artistic work4 ,the directress of the school in ,mexico1 who studied for a long time with me1 sent me two designs2 one representing a cliff in which the stones were coloured most harmoniously in light violet and shades of brown1 trees in two shades of green1 and the sky a soft blue4 ,the other represented a horse with a chestnut coat and black mane and tail4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,methods ,,for ,,the ,,teaching ,,of ,,reading ,,and ,,writing ,spontaneous ,development of ,graphic ,language4 ,while ,i was directress of the ,orthophrenic ,school at ,rome1 ,i had already began to experiment with various didactic means for the teaching of reading and writing4 ,these experiments were practically original with me4 ,itard and ,seguin do not present any rational method through which writing may be learned4 ,in the pages above quoted1 it may be seen how ,itard proceeded in the teaching of the alphabet and ,i give here what ,seguin says concerning the teaching of writing4 ,to have a child pass from design1 to writing1 which is its most immediate application1 the teacher need only call ,d1 a portion of a circle1 resting its extremities upon a vertical2 ,a1 two obliques reunited at the summit and cut by a horizontal1 etc41 etc4 ,we no longer need worry ourselves as to how the child shall learn to write3 he designs1 then writes4 ,it need not be said that we should have the child draw the letters according to the laws of contrast and analogy4 ,for instance1 ,o beside ,i2 ,b with ,p2 ,t opposite ,l1 etc4 ,according to ,seguin1 then1 we do not need to teach writing4 ,the child who draws1 will write4 ,but writing1 for this author1 means printed capitals6 ,nor does he1 in any other place1 explain whether his pupil shall write in any other way4 ,he instead1 gives much space to the description of the design which prepares for1 and which includes writing4 ,this method of design is full of difficulties and was only established by the combined attempts of ,itard and ,seguin4 ,chapter ,,xl3 ,,design4 ,in design the first idea to be acquired is that of the plane destined to receive the design4 ,the second is that of the trace or delineation4 ,within these two concepts lies all design1 all linear creation4 ,these two concepts are correlative1 their relation generates the idea1 or the capacity to produce the lines in this sense2 that lines may only be called such when they follow a methodical and determined direction3 the trace without direction is not a line2 produced by chance1 it has no name4 ,the rational sign1 on the contrary1 has a name because it has a direction and since all writing or design is nothing other than a composite of the diverse directions followed by a line1 we must1 before approaching what is commonly called writing1 insist upon these notions of plane and line4 ,the ordinary child acquires these by instinct1 but an insistence upon them is necessary in order to render the idiot careful and sensitive in their application4 ,through methodical design he will come into rational contact with all parts of the plane and will1 guided by imitation1 produce lines at first simple1 but growing more complicated4 ,the pupil may be taught3 ,first1 to trace the diverse species of lines4 ,second1 to trace them in various directions and in different positions relative to the plane4 ,third1 to reunite these lines to form figures varying from simple to complex4 ,we must therefore1 teach the pupil to distinguish straight lines from curves1 vertical from horizontal1 and from the various oblique lines2 and must finally make clear the principal points of conjunction of two or more lines in forming a figure4 ,this rational analysis of design1 from which writing will spring1 is so essential in all its parts1 that a child who1 before being confided to my care1 already wrote many of the letters1 has taken six days to learn to draw a perpendicular or a horizontal line2 he spent fifteen days before imitating a curve and an oblique4 ,indeed the greater number of my pupils1 are for a long time incapable of even imitating the movements of my hand upon the paper1 before attempting to draw a line in a determined direction4 ,the most imitative1 or the least stupid ones1 produce a sign diametrically opposite to that which ,i show them and all of them confound the points of conjunction of two lines no matter how evident this is4 ,it is true that the thorough knowledge ,i have given them of lines and of configuration helps them to make the connection which must be established between the plane and the various marks with which they must cover the surface1 but in the study rendered necessary by the deficiency of my pupils1 the progression in the matter of the vertical1 the horizontal1 the oblique1 and the curve must be determined by the consideration of the difficulty of comprehension and of execution which each offers to a torpid intelligence and to a weak unsteady hand4 ,i do not speak here of merely having them perform a difficult thing1 since ,i have them surmount a series of difficulties and for this reason ,i ask myself if some of these difficulties are not greater and some less1 and if they do not grow one from the other1 like theorems4 ,here are the ideas which have guided me in this respect4 ,the vertical is a line which the eye and the hand follow directly1 going up and down4 ,the horizontal line is not natural to the eye1 nor to the hand1 which lowers itself and follows a curve 7like the horizon from which it has taken its name71 starting from the centre and going to the lateral extremity of the plane4 ,the oblique line presupposes more complex comparative ideas1 and the curve demands such firmness and so many differences in its relation to the plane that we would only lose time in taking up the study of these lines4 ,the most simple line then1 is the vertical1 and this is how ,i have given my pupils an idea of it4 ,the first geometric formula is this3 only straight lines may be drawn from one given point to another4 ,starting from this axiom1 which the hand alone can demonstrate1 ,i have fixed two points upon the blackboard and have connected them by means of a vertical4 ,my pupils try to do the same between the dots they have upon their paper1 but with some the vertical descends to the right of the point and with others1 to the left1 to say nothing of those whose hand diverges in all directions4 ,to arrest these various deviations which are often far more defects of the intelligence and of the vision1 than of the hand1 ,i have thought it wise to restrict the field of the plane1 drawing two vertical lines to left and right of the points which the child is to join by means of a parallel line half way between the two enclosing lines4 ,if these two lines are not enough1 ,i place two rulers vertically upon the paper1 which arrest the deviations of the hand absolutely4 ,these material barriers are not1 however1 useful for very long4 ,we first suppress the rulers and return to the two parallel lines1 between which the idiot learns to draw the third line4 ,we then take away one of the guiding lines1 and leave1 sometimes that on the right1 sometimes that on the left1 finally taking away this last line and at last1 the dots1 beginning by erasing the one at the top which indicates the starting point of the line and of the hand4 ,the child thus learns to draw a vertical without material control1 without points of comparison4 ,the same method1 the same difficulty1 the same means of direction are used for the straight horizontal lines4 ,if1 by chance1 these lines begin well1 we must await until the child curves them1 departing from the centre and proceeding to the extremity as nature commands him1 and because of the reason which ,i have explained4 ,if the two dots do not suffice to sustain the hand1 we keep it from deviating by means of the parallel lines or of the rulers4 ,finally1 have him trace a horizontal line1 and by uniting with it a vertical ruler we form a right angles4 ,the child will begin to understand1 in this way1 what the vertical and horizontal lines really are1 and will see the relation of these two ideas as he traces a figure4 ,in the sequence of the development of lines1 it would seem that the study of the oblique should immediately follow that of the vertical and the horizontal1 but this is not so6 ,the oblique which partakes of the vertical in its inclination1 and of the horizontal in its direction1 and which partakes of both in its nature 7since it is a straight line71 presents perhaps1 because of its relation to other lines1 an idea too complex to be appreciated without preparation4 ,thus ,seguin goes on through many pages1 to speak of the oblique in all directions1 which he has his pupils trace between two parallels4 ,he then tells of the four curves which he has them draw to right and left of a vertical and above and below a horizontal1 and concludes3 ,so we find the solution of the problems for which we sought--the vertical line1 the horizontal1 the oblique1 and the four curves1 whose union forms the circle1 contain all possible lines1 all writing4 ,arrived at this point1 ,itard and ,i were for a long time at a standstill4 ,the lines being known1 the next step was to have the child trace regular figures1 beginning of course1 with the simplest4 ,according to the general opinion1 ,itard had advised me to begin with the square and ,i had followed this advice for three months1 without being able to make the child understand me4 ,after a long series of experiments1 guided by his ideas of the genesis of geometric figures1 ,seguin became aware that the triangle is the figure most easily drawn4 ,when three lines meet thus1 they always form a triangle1 while four lines may meet in a hundred different directions without remaining parallel and therefore without presenting a perfect square4 ,from these experiments and many others1 ,i have deduced the first principles of writing and of design for the idiot2 principles whose application is too simple for me to discuss further4 ,such was the proceeding used by my predecessors in the teaching of writing to deficients4 ,as for reading1 ,itard proceeded thus3 he drove nails into the wall and hung upon them1 geometric figures of wood1 such as triangles1 squares1 circles4 ,he then drew the exact imprint of these upon the wall1 after which he took the figures away and had the boy of ,aveyron replace them upon the proper nails1 guided by the design4 ,from this design ,itard conceived the idea of the plane geometric insets4 ,he finally had large print letters made of wood and proceeded in the same way as with the geometric figures1 that is1 using the design upon the wall and arranging the nails in such a way that the child might place the letters upon them and then take them off again4 ,later1 ,seguin used the horizontal plane instead of the wall1 drawing the letters on the bottom of a box and having the child superimpose solid letters4 ,after twenty years1 ,seguin had not changed his method of procedure4 ,a criticism of the method used by ,itard and ,seguin for reading and writing seems to me superfluous4 ,the method has two fundamental errors which make it inferior to the methods in use for normal children1 namely3 writing in printed capitals1 and the preparation for writing through a study of rational geometry1 which we now expect only from students in the secondary schools4 ,seguin here confuses ideas in a most extraordinary way4 ,he has suddenly jumped from the psychological observation of the child and from his relation to his environment1 to the study of the origin of lines and their relation to the plane4 ,he says that the child will readily design a vertical line1 but that the horizontal will soon become a curve1 because nature commands it and this command of nature is represented by the fact that man sees the horizon as a curved line6 ,the example of ,seguin serves to illustrate the necessity of a special education which shall fit man for observation1 and shall direct logical thought4 ,the observation must be absolutely objective1 in other words1 stripped of preconceptions4 ,seguin has in this case the preconception that geometric design must prepare for writing1 and that hinders him from discovering the truly natural proceeding necessary to such preparation4 ,he has1 besides1 the preconception that the deviation of a line1 as well as the inexactness with which the child traces it1 are due to the mind and the eye1 not to the hand1 and so he wearies himself for weeks and months in explaining the direction of lines and in guiding the vision of the idiot4 ,it seems as if ,seguin felt that a good method must start from a superior point1 geometry2 the intelligence of the child is only considered worthy of attention in its relation to abstract things4 ,and is not this a common defect8 ,let us observe mediocre men2 they pompously assume erudition and disdain simple things4 ,let us study the clear thought of those whom we consider men of genius4 ,newton is seated tranquilly in the open air2 an apple falls from the tree1 he observes it and asks1 ,why8 ,phenomena are never insignificant2 the fruit which falls and universal gravitation may rest side by side in the mind of a genius4 ,if ,newton had been a teacher of children he would have led the child to look upon the worlds on a starry night1 but an erudite person might have felt it necessary first to prepare the child to understand the sublime calculus which is the key to astronomy--,galileo ,galilei observed the oscillation of a lamp swung on high1 and discovered the laws of the pendulum4 ,in the intellectual life simplicity consists in divesting one's mind of every preconception1 and this leads to the discovery of new things1 as1 in the moral life1 humility and material poverty guide us toward high spiritual conquests4 ,if we study the history of discoveries1 we will find that they have come from real objective observation and from logical thought4 ,these are simple things1 but rarely found in one man4 ,does it not seem strange1 for instance1 that after the discovery by ,laveran of the malarial parasite which invades the red blood-corpuscles1 we did not1 in spite of the fact that we know the blood system to be a system of closed vessels1 even so much as suspect the possibility that a stinging insect might inoculate us with the parasite8 ,instead1 the theory that the evil emanated from low ground1 that it was carried by the ,african winds1 or that it was due to dampness1 was given credence4 ,yet these were vague ideas1 while the parasite was a definite biological specimen4 ,when the discovery of the malarial mosquito came to complete logically the discovery of ,laveran1 this seemed marvellous1 stupefying4 ,yet we know in biology that the reproduction of molecular vegetable bodies is by scission with alternate sporation1 and that of molecular animals is by scission with alternate conjunction4 ,that is1 after a certain period in which the primitive cell has divided and sub-divided into fresh cells1 equal among themselves1 there comes the formation of two diverse cells1 one male and one female1 which must unite to form a single cell capable of recommencing the cycle of reproduction by division4 ,all this being known at the time of ,laveran1 and the malarial parasite being known to be a protozoon1 it would have seemed logical to consider its segmentation in the stroma of the red corpuscle as the phase of scission and to await until the parasite gave place to the sexual forms1 which must necessarily come in the phase succeeding scission4 ,instead1 the division was looked upon as spore-formation1 and neither ,laveran1 nor the numerous scientists who followed the research1 knew how to give an explanation of the appearance of the sexual forms4 ,laveran expressed an idea1 which was immediately received1 that these two forms were degenerate forms of the malarial parasite1 and therefore incapable of producing the changes determining the disease4 ,indeed1 the malaria was apparently cured at the appearance of the two sexual forms of the parasite1 the conjunction of the two cells being impossible in the human blood4 ,the theory--then recent--of ,morel upon human degeneration accompanied by deformity and weakness1 inspired ,laveran in his interpretation1 and everybody found the idea of the illustrious pathologist a fortunate one1 because it was inspired by the great concepts of the ,morellian theory4 ,had anyone1 instead1 limited himself to reasoning thus3 the original form of the malarial insect is a protozoon2 it reproduces itself by scission1 under our eyes2 when the scission is finished1 we see two diverse cells1 one a half-moon1 the other threadlike4 ,these are the feminine and masculine cells which must1 by conjunction1 alternate the scission1--such a reasoner would have opened the way to the discovery4 ,but so simple a process of reasoning did not come4 ,we might almost ask ourselves how great would be the world's progress if a special form of education prepared men for pure observation and logical thought4 ,a great deal of time and intellectual force are lost in the world1 because the false seems great and the truth so small and insignificant4 ,i say all this to defend the necessity1 which ,i feel we face1 of preparing the coming generations by means of more rational methods4 ,it is from these generations that the world awaits its progress4 ,we have already learned to make use of our surroundings1 but ,i believe that we have arrived at a time when the necessity presents itself for utilising human force1 through a scientific education4 ,to return to ,seguin's method of writing1 it illustrates another truth1 and that is the tortuous path we follow in our teaching4 ,this1 too1 is allied to an instinct for complicating things1 analogous to that which makes us so prone to appreciate complicated things4 ,we have ,seguin teaching geometry in order to teach a child to write2 and making the child's mind exert itself to follow geometrical abstractions only to come down to the simple effort of drawing a printed ,d4 ,after all1 must the child not have to make another effort in order to forget the print1 and learn the script6 ,and even we in these days still believe that in order to learn to write the child must first make vertical strokes4 ,this conviction is very general4 ,yet it does not seem natural that to write the letters of the alphabet1 which are all rounded1 it should be necessary to begin with straight lines and acute angles4 ,in all good faith1 we wonder that it should be difficult to do away with the angularity and stiffness with which the beginner traces the beautiful curve of the ,o4#ac ,yet1 through what effort on our part1 and on his1 was he forced to fill pages and pages with rigid lines and acute angles6 ,to whom is due this time-honoured idea that the first sign to be traced must be a straight line8 ,and why do we so avoid preparing for curves as well as angles8 #ac ,it will1 of course1 be understood that this is a criticism of the system in use in ,italian schools4 ,a4 ,e4 ,g4 ,let us1 for a moment1 divest ourselves of such preconceptions and proceed in a more simple way4 ,we may be able to relieve future generations of all effort in the matter of learning to write4 ,is it necessary to begin writing with the making of vertical strokes8 ,a moment of clear and logical thinking is enough to enable us to answer1 no4 ,the child makes too painful an effort in following such an exercise4 ,the first steps should be the easiest1 and the up and down stroke1 is1 on the contrary1 one of the most difficult of all the pen movements4 ,only a professional penman could fill a whole page and preserve the regularity of such strokes1 but a person who writes only moderately well would be able to complete a page of presentable writing4 ,indeed1 the straight line is unique1 expressing the shortest distance between two points1 while any deviation from that direction signifies a line which is not straight4 ,these infinite deviations are therefore easier than that one trace which is perfection4 ,if we should give to a number of adults the order to draw a straight line upon the blackboard1 each person would draw a long line proceeding in a different direction1 some beginning from one side1 some from another1 and almost all would succeed in making the line straight4 ,should we then ask that the line be drawn in a particular direction1 starting from a determined point1 the ability shown at first would greatly diminish1 and we would see many more irregularities1 or errors4 ,almost all the lines would be long--for the individual must needs gather impetus in order to succeed in making his line straight4 ,should we ask that the lines be made short1 and included within precise limits1 the errors would increase1 for we would thus impede the impetus which helps to conserve the definite direction4 ,in the methods ordinarily used in teaching writing1 we add1 to such limitations1 the further restriction that the instrument of writing must be held in a certain way1 not as instinct prompts each individual4 ,thus we approach in the most conscious and restricted way the first act of writing1 which should be voluntary4 ,in this first writing we still demand that the single strokes be kept parallel1 making the child's task a difficult and barren one1 since it has no purpose for the child1 who does not understand the meaning of all this detail4 ,i had noticed in the note-books of the deficient children in ,france 7and ,voisin also mentions this phenomenon7 that the pages of vertical strokes1 although they began as such1 ended in lines of ,c's4 ,this goes to show that the deficient child1 whose mind is less resistant than that of the normal child1 exhausts1 little by little1 the initial effort of imitation1 and the natural movement gradually comes to take the place of that which was forced or stimulated4 ,so the straight lines are transformed into curves1 more and more like the letter ,c4 ,such a phenomenon does not appear in the copy-books of normal children1 for they resist1 through effort1 until the end of the page is reached1 and1 thus1 as often happens1 conceal the didactic error4 ,but let us observe the spontaneous drawings of normal children4 ,when1 for example1 picking up a fallen twig1 they trace figures in the sandy garden path1 we never see short straight lines1 but long and variously interlaced curves4 ,seguin saw the same phenomenon when the horizontal lines he made his pupils draw became curves so quickly instead4 ,and he attributed the phenomenon to the imitation of the horizon line6 ,that vertical strokes should prepare for alphabetical writing1 seems incredibly illogical4 ,the alphabet is made up of curves1 therefore we must prepare for it by learning to make straight lines4 ,but1 says someone1 in many letters of the alphabet1 the straight line does exist1 ,true1 but there is no reason why as a beginning of writing1 we should select one of the details of a complete form4 ,we may analyse the alphabetical signs in this way1 discovering straight lines and curves1 as by analysing discourse1 we find grammatical rules4 ,but we all speak independently of such rules1 why then should we not write independently of such analysis1 and without the separate execution of the parts constituting the letter8 ,it would be sad indeed if we could speak only after we had studied grammar6 ,it would be much the same as demanding that before we looked at the stars in the firmament1 we must study infinitesimal calculus2 it is much the same thing to feel that before teaching an idiot to write1 we must make him understand the abstract derivation of lines and the problems of geometry6 ,no less are we to be pitied if1 in order to write1 we must follow analytically the parts constituting the alphabetical signs4 ,in fact the effort which we believe to be a necessary accompaniment to learning to write is a purely artificial effort1 allied1 not to writing1 but to the methods by which it is taught4 ,let us for a moment cast aside every dogma in this connection4 ,let us take no note of culture1 or custom4 ,we are not1 here1 interested in knowing how humanity began to write1 nor what may have been the origin of writing itself4 ,let us put away the conviction1 that long usage has given us1 of the necessity of beginning writing by making vertical strokes2 and let us try to be as clear and unprejudiced in spirit as the truth which1 we are seeking4 ,let us observe an individual who is writing1 and let us seek to analyse the acts he performs in writing1 that is1 the mechanical operations which enter into the execution of writing4 ,this would be undertaking the philosophical study of writing1 and it goes without saying that we should examine the individual who writes1 not the writing2 the subject1 not the object4 ,many have begun with the object1 examining the writing1 and in this way many methods have been constructed4 ,but a method starting from the individual would be decidedly original--very different from other methods which preceded it4 ,it would indeed signify a new era in writing1 based upon anthropology4 ,in fact1 when ,i undertook my experiments with normal children1 if ,i had thought of giving a name to this new method of writing1 ,i should have called it without knowing what the results would be1 the anthropological method4 ,certainly1 my studies in anthropology inspired the method1 but experience has given me1 as a surprise1 another title which seems to me the natural one1 the method of spontaneous writing4 ,while teaching deficient children ,i happened to observe the following fact3 ,an idiot girl of eleven years1 who was possessed of normal strength and motor power in her hands1 could not learn to sew1 or even to take the first step1 darning1 which consists in passing the needle first over1 then under the woof1 now taking up1 now leaving1 a number of threads4 ,i set the child to weaving with the ,froebel mats1 in which a strip of paper is threaded transversely in and out among vertical strips of paper held fixed at top and bottom4 ,i thus came to think of the analogy between the two exercises1 and became much interested in my observation of the girl4 ,when she had become skilled in the ,froebel weaving1 ,i led her back again to the sewing1 and saw with pleasure that she was now able to follow the darning4 ,from that time on1 our sewing classes began with a regular course in the ,froebel weaving4 ,i saw that the necessary movements of the hand in sewing had been prepared without having the child sew1 and that we should really find the way to teach the child how1 before making him execute a task4 ,i saw especially that preparatory movements could be carried on1 and reduced to a mechanism1 by means of repeated exercises not in the work itself but in that which prepares for it4 ,pupils could then come to the real work1 able to perform it without ever having directly set their hands to it before4 ,i thought that ,i might in this way prepare for writing1 and the idea interested me tremendously4 ,i marvelled at its simplicity1 and was annoyed that ,i had not thought before of the method which was suggested to me by my observation of the girl who could not sew4 ,in fact1 seeing that ,i had already taught the children to touch the contours of the plane geometric insets1 ,i had now only to teach them to touch with their fingers the forms of the letters of the alphabet4 ,i had a beautiful alphabet manufactured1 the letters being in flowing script1 the low letters #h centimetres high1 and the taller ones in proportion4 ,these letters were in wood1 #a_/b centimetre in thickness1 and were painted1 the consonants in blue enamel1 the vowels in red4 ,the under side of these letter-forms1 instead of being painted1 were covered with bronze that they might be more durable4 ,we had only one copy of this wooden alphabet2 but there were a number of cards upon which the letters were painted in the same colours and dimensions as the wooden ones4 ,these painted letters were arranged upon the cards in groups1 according to contrast1 or analogy of form4 ,corresponding to each letter of the alphabet1 we had a picture representing some object the name of which began1 with the letter4 ,above this1 the letter was painted in large script1 and near it1 the same letter1 much smaller and in its printed form4 ,these pictures served to fix the memory of the sound of the letter1 and the small printed letter united to the one in script1 was to form the passage to the reading of books4 ,these pictures do not1 indeed1 represent a new idea1 but they completed an arrangement which did not exist before4 ,such an alphabet was undoubtedly most expensive and when made by hand the cost was fifty dollars4 ,the interesting part of my experiment was1 that after ,i had shown the children how to place the movable wooden letters upon those painted in groups upon the cards1 ,i had them touch them repeatedly in the fashion of flowing writing4 ,i multiplied these exercises in various ways1 and the children thus learned to make the movements necessary to reproduce the form of the graphic signs without writing4 ,i was struck by an idea which had never before entered my mind--that in writing we make two diverse forms of movement1 for1 besides the movement by which the form is reproduced1 there is also that of manipulating the instrument of writing4 ,and1 indeed1 when the deficient children had become expert in touching all the letters according to form1 they did not yet know how to hold a pencil4 ,to hold and to manipulate a little stick securely1 corresponds to the acquisition of a special muscular mechanism which is independent of the writing movement2 it must in fact go along with the motions necessary to produce all of the various letter forms4 ,it is1 then1 a distinct mechanism1 which must exist together with the motor memory of the single graphic signs4 ,when ,i provoked in the deficients the movements characteristic of writing by having them touch the letters with their fingers1 ,i exercised mechanically the psycho-motor paths1 and fixed the muscular memory of each letter4 ,there remained the preparation of the muscular mechanism necessary in holding and managing the instrument of writing1 and this ,i provoked by adding two periods to the one already described4 ,in the second period1 the child touched the letter1 not only with the index finger of his right hand1 but with two1 the index and the middle finger4 ,in the third period1 he touched the letters with a little wooden stick1 held as a pen in writing4 ,in substance ,i was making him repeat the same movements1 now with1 and now without1 holding the instrument4 ,i have said that the child was to follow the visual image of the outlined letter4 ,it is true that his finger had already been trained through touching the contours of the geometric figures1 but this was not always a sufficient preparation4 ,indeed1 even we grown people1 when we trace a design through glass or tissue paper1 cannot follow perfectly the line which we see and along which we should draw our pencil4 ,the design should furnish some sort of control1 some mechanical guide1 for the pencil1 in order to follow with exactness the trace1 sensible in reality only to the eye4 ,the deficients1 therefore1 did not always follow the design exactly with either the finger or the stick4 ,the didactic material did not offer any control in the work1 or rather it offered only the uncertain control of the child's glance1 which could1 to be sure1 see if the finger continued upon the sign1 or not4 ,i now thought that in order to have the pupil follow the movements more exactly1 and to guide the execution more directly1 ,i should need to prepare letter forms so indented1 as to represent a furrow within which the wooden stick might run4 ,i made the designs for this material1 but the work being too expensive ,i was not able to carry out my plan4 ,after having experimented largely with this method1 ,i spoke of it very fully to the teachers in my classes in didactic methods at the ,state ,orthophrenic ,school4 ,these lectures were printed1 and ,i give below the words which1 though they were placed in the hands of more than #bjj elementary teachers1 did not draw from them a single helpful idea4 ,professor ,ferreri#ad in an article speaks with amazement of this fact4#ae #ad ,g4 ,ferreri--,per l'insegnamento della scrittura 7,sistema della ,dott ,m4 ,montessori7 ,bollettino dell' ,associazione ,romana per la cura medico--pedigogica dei fanciulli anormali e deficienti poveri1 anno #a1 n4 #d1 ottobre #aijg4 ,roma ,tipografia delle ,terme ,diocleziane4 #ae ,riassunto delle lezion di didattica1 della dott4 ,montessori anno #aijj1 ,stab4 lit4 ,romano1 via ,frattina #fb1 ,disp4 #f;a1 pag4 #df3 ,lettura e ,scrittura simultanee4 ,at this point we present the cards bearing the vowels painted in red4 ,the child sees irregular figures painted in red4 ,we give him the vowels in wood1 painted red1 and have him superimpose these upon the letters painted on the card4 ,we have him touch the wooden vowels in the fashion of writing1 and give him the name of each letter4 ,the vowels are arranged on the cards according to analogy of form3 o e a i u ,we then say to the child1 for example1 ',find o4 ,fat it in its place4' ,then1 ',what letter is this8' ,we here discover that many children make mistakes in the letters if they only look at the letter4 ,they could however tell the letter by touching it4 ,most interesting observations may be made1 revealing various individual types3 visual1 motor4 ,we have the child touch the letters drawn upon the cards1--using first the index finger only1 then the index with the middle finger1--then with a small wooden stick held as a pen4 ,the letter must be traced in the fashion of writing4 ,the consonants are painted in blue1 and are arranged upon the cards according to analogy of form4 ,to these cards are annexed a movable alphabet in blue wood1 the letters of which are to be placed upon the consonants as they were upon the vowels4 ,in addition to these materials there is another series of cards1 where1 besides the consonant1 are painted one or two figures the names of which begin with that particular letter4 ,near the script letter1 is a smaller printed letter painted in the same colour4 ,the teacher1 naming the consonant according to the phonetic method1 indicates the letter1 and then the card1 pronouncing the names of the objects painted there1 and emphasizing the first letter1 as1 for example1 'p-pear3 give me the consonant p--put it in its place1 touch it1' etc4 ,in all this we study the linguistic defects of the child4 ,tracing the letter1 in the fashion of writing1 begins the muscular education which prepares for writing4 ,one of our little girls taught by this method has reproduced all the letters with the pen1 though she does not as yet recognise them all4 ,she has made them about eight centimetres high1 and with surprising regularity4 ,this child also does well in hand work4 ,the child who looks1 recognises1 and touches the letters in the manner of writing1 prepares himself simultaneously for reading and writing4 ,touching the letters and looking at them at the same time1 fixes the image more quickly through the co-operation of the senses4 ,later1 the two facts separate2 looking becomes reading2 touching becomes writing4 ,according to the type of the individual1 some learn to read first1 others to write4 ,i had thus1 about the year #ahii1 initiated my method for reading and writing upon the fundamental lines it still follows4 ,it was with great surprise that ,i noted the facility with which a deficient child1 to whom ,i one day gave a piece of chalk1 traced upon the blackboard1 in a firm hand1 the letters of the entire alphabet1 writing for the first time4 ,this had arrived much more quickly than ,i had supposed4 ,as ,i have said1 some of the children wrote the letters with a pen and yet could not recognise one of them4 ,i have noticed1 also1 in normal children1 that the muscular sense is most easily developed in infancy1 and this makes writing exceedingly easy for children4 ,it is not so with reading1 which requires a much longer course of instruction1 and which calls for a superior intellectual development1 since it treats of the interpretation of signs1 and of the modulation of accents of the voice1 in order that the word may be understood4 ,and all this is a purely mental task1 while in writing1 the child1 under dictation1 materially translates sounds into signs1 and moves1 a thing which is always easy and pleasant for him4 ,writing develops in the little child with facility and spontaneity1 analogous to the development of spoken language--which is a motor translation of audible sounds4 ,reading1 on the contrary1 makes part of an abstract intellectual culture1 which is the interpretation of ideas from graphic symbols1 and is only acquired later on4 ,my first experiments with normal children were begun in the first half of the month of ,november1 #aijg4 ,in the two ,children's ,houses in ,san ,lorenzo1 ,i had1 from the date of their respective inaugurations 7,january #f in one and ,march #g in the other71 used only the games of practical life1 and of the education of the senses4 ,i had not presented exercises for writing1 because1 like everybody else1 ,i held the prejudice that it was necessary to begin as late as possible the teaching of reading and writing1 and certainly to avoid it before the age of six4 ,but the children seemed to demand some conclusion of the exercises1 which had already developed them intellectually in a most surprising way4 ,they knew how to dress and undress1 and to bathe1 themselves2 they knew how to sweep the floors1 dust the furniture1 put the room in order1 to open and close boxes1 to manage the keys in the various locks2 they could replace the objects in the cupboards in perfect order1 could care for the plants2 they knew how to observe things1 and how to see objects with their hands4 ,a number of them came to us and frankly demanded to be taught to read and write4 ,even in the face of our refusal several children came to school and proudly showed us that they knew how to make an ,o on the blackboard4 ,finally1 many of the mothers came to beg us as a favour to teach the children to write1 saying1 ,here in the ',children's ,houses' the children are awakened1 and learn so many things easily that if you only teach reading and writing they will soon learn1 and will then be spared the great fatigue this always means in the elementary school4 ,this faith of the mothers1 that their little ones would1 from us1 be able to learn to read and write without fatigue1 made a great impression upon me4 ,thinking upon the results ,i had obtained in the school for deficients1 ,i decided during the ,august vacation to make a trial upon the reopening of the school in ,september4 ,upon second thought ,i decided that it would be better to take up the interrupted work in ,september1 and not to approach reading and writing until ,october1 when the elementary schools opened4 ,this presented the added advantage of permitting us to compare the progress of the children of the first elementary with that made by ours1 who would have begun the same branch of instruction at the same time4 ,in ,september1 therefore1 ,i began a search for someone who could manufacture didactic materials1 but found no one willing to undertake it4 ,i wished to have a splendid alphabet made1 like the one used with the deficients4 ,giving this up1 ,i was willing to content myself with the ordinary enamelled letters used upon shop windows1 but ,i could find them in script form nowhere4 ,my disappointments were many4 ,so passed the whole mouth of ,october4 ,the children in the first elementary had already filled pages of vertical strokes1 and mine were still waiting4 ,i then decided to cut out large paper letters1 and to have one of my teachers colour these roughly on one side with a blue tint4 ,as for the touching of the letters1 ,i thought of cutting the letters of the alphabet out of sandpaper1 and of gluing them upon smooth cards1 thus making objects much like those used in the primitive exercises for the tactile sense4 ,only after ,i had made these simple things1 did ,i become aware of the superiority of this alphabet to that magnificent one ,i had used for my deficients1 and in the pursuit of which ,i had wasted two months6 ,if ,i had been rich1 ,i would have had that beautiful but barren alphabet of the past6 ,we wish the old things because we cannot understand the new1 and we are always seeking after that gorgeousness which belongs to things already on the decline1 without recognising in the humble simplicity of new ideas the germ which shall develop in the future4 ,i finally understood that a paper alphabet could easily be multiplied1 and could be used by many children at one time1 not only for the recognition of letters1 but for the composition of words4 ,i saw that in the sandpaper alphabet ,i had found the looked-for guide for the fingers which touched the letter4 ,this was furnished in such a way that no longer the sight alone1 but the touch1 lent itself directly to teaching the movement of writing with exactness of control4 ,in the afternoon after school1 the two teachers and ,i1 with great enthusiasm1 set about cutting out letters from writing-paper1 and others from sandpaper4 ,the first1 we painted blue1 the second1 we mounted on cards1 and1 while we worked1 there unfolded before my mind a clear vision of the method in all its completeness1 so simple that it made me smile to think ,i had not seen it before4 ,the story of our first attempts is very interesting4 ,one day one of the teachers was ill1 and ,i sent as a substitute a pupil of mine1 ,signorina ,anna ,fedeli1 a professor of pedagogy in a ,normal school4 ,when ,i went to see her at the close of the day1 she showed me two modifications of the alphabet which she had made4 ,one consisted in placing behind each letter1 a transverse strip of white paper1 so that the child might recognise the direction of the letter1 which he often turned about and upside down4 ,the other consisted in the making of a cardboard case where each letter might be put away in its own compartment1 instead of being kept in a confused mass as at first4 ,i still keep this rude case made from an old pasteboard box1 which ,signorina ,fedeli had found in the court and roughly sewed with white thread4 ,she showed it to me laughing1 and excusing herself for the miserable work1 but ,i was most enthusiastic about it4 ,i saw at once that the letters in the case were a precious aid to the teaching4 ,indeed1 it offered to the eye of the child the possibility of comparing all of the letters1 and of selecting those he needed4 ,in this way the didactic material described below had its origin4 ,i need only add that at ,christmas time1 less than a month and a half later1 while the children in the first elementary were laboriously working to forget their wearisome pothooks and to prepare for making the curves of ,o and the other vowels1 two of my little ones of four years old1 wrote1 each one in the name of his companions1 a letter of good wishes and thanks to ,signor ,edoardo ,talamo4 ,these were written upon note paper without blot or erasure and the writing was adjudged equal to that which is obtained in the third elementary grade4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,method ,,and ,,didactic ,,material ,,used ,,first ,,period3 ,,exercise ,,tending ,,to ,,develop ,,the ,,muscular ,,mechanism ,,necessary ,,in ,,holding ,,and ,,using ,,the ,,instrument ,,in ,,writing ,design ,preparatory to ,writing4--,didactic ,material4 ,small wooden tables2 metal insets1 outline drawings1 coloured pencils4 ,i have among my materials two little wooden tables1 the tops of which form an inclined plane sloping toward a narrow cornice1 which prevents objects placed upon the table from slipping off4 ,the top of each table is just large enough to hold four of the square frames1 into which the metal plane geometric insets are fitted1 and is so painted as to represent three of these brown frames1 each containing a square centre of the same dark blue as the centres of the metal insets4 ,the metal insets are in dimension and form a reproduction of the series of plane geometric insets in wood already described4 ,exercises4 ,placed side by side upon the teacher's desk1 or upon one of the little tables belonging to the children1 these two little tables may have the appearance of being one long table containing eight figures4 ,the child may select one or more figures1 taking at the same time the frame of the inset4 ,the analogy between these metal insets and the plane geometric insets of wood is complete4 ,but in this case1 the child can freely use the pieces1 where before1 he arranged them in the wooden frame4 ,he first takes the metal frame1 places it upon a sheet of white paper1 and with a coloured pencil draws around the contour of the empty centre4 ,then1 he takes away the frame1 and upon the paper there remains a geometric figure4 ,this is the first time that the child has reproduced through design1 a geometric figure4 ,until now1 he has only placed the geometric insets above the figures delineated on the three series of cards4 ,he now places upon the figure1 which he himself has drawn1 the metal inset1 just as he placed the wooden inset upon the cards4 ,his next act is to follow the contour of this inset with a pencil of a different colour4 ,lifting the metal piece1 he sees the figure reproduced upon the paper1 in two colours4 ,here1 for the first time is born the abstract concept of the geometric figure1 for1 from two metal pieces so different in form as the frame and the inset1 there has resulted the same design1 which is a line expressing a determined figure4 ,this fact strikes the attention of the child4 ,he often marvels to find the same figure reproduced by means of two pieces so different1 and looks for a long time with evident pleasure at the duplicate design--almost as if it were actually produced by the objects which serve to guide his hand4 ,besides all this1 the child learns to trace lines determining figures4 ,there will come a day in which1 with still greater surprise and pleasure1 he will trace graphic signs determining words4 ,after this1 he begins the work which directly prepares for the formation of the muscular mechanism relative to the holding and manipulation of the instrument of writing4 ,with a coloured pencil of his own selection1 held as the pen is held in writing1 he fills in the figure which he has outlined4 ,we teach him not to pass outside the contour1 and in doing so we attract his attention to this contour1 and thus fix the idea that a line may determine a figure4 ,the exercise of filling in one figure alone1 causes the child to perform repeatedly the movement of manipulation which would be necessary to fill ten copy-book pages with vertical strokes4 ,and yet1 the child feels no weariness1 because1 although he makes exactly the muscular co-ordination which is necessary to the work1 he does so freely and in any way that he wishes1 while his eyes are fixed upon a large and brightly coloured figure4 ,at first1 the children fill pages and pages of paper with these big squares1 triangles1 ovals1 trapezoids2 colouring them red1 orange1 green1 blue1 light blue1 and pink4 ,gradually they limit themselves to the use of the dark blue and brown1 both in drawing the figure and in filling it in1 thus reproducing the appearance of the metal piece itself4 ,many of the children1 quite of their own accord1 make a little orange-coloured circle in the centre of the figure1 in this way representing the little brass button by which the metal piece is to be held4 ,they take great pleasure in feeling that they have reproduced exactly1 like true artists1 the objects which they see before them on the little shelf4 ,observing the successive drawings of a child1 there is revealed to us a duplicate form of progression3 ,first4 ,little by little1 the lines tend less and less to go outside the enclosing line until1 at last1 they are perfectly contained within it1 and both the centre and the frame are filled in with close and uniform strokes4 ,second4 ,the strokes with which the child fills in the figures1 from being at first short and confused1 become gradually longer1 and more nearly parallel1 until in many cases the figures are filled in by means of perfectly regular up and down strokes1 extending from one side of the figure to the other4 ,in such a case1 it is evident that the child is master of the pencil4 ,the muscular mechanism1 necessary to the management of the instrument of writing1 is established4 ,we may1 therefore1 by examining such designs1 arrive at a clear idea of the maturity of the child in the matter of holding the pencil or pen in hand4 ,to vary these exercises1 we use the outline drawings already described4 ,through these designs1 the manipulation of the pencil is perfected1 for they oblige the child to make lines of various lengths1 and make him more and more secure in his use of the pencil4 ,if we could count the lines made by a child in the filling in of these figures1 and could transform them into the signs used in writing1 they would fill many1 many copy-books6 ,indeed1 the security which our children attain is likened to that of children in our ordinary third elementary grade4 ,when for the first time they take a pen or a pencil in hand1 they know how to manage it almost as well as a person who has written for a long time4 ,i do not believe that any means can be found which will so successfully and1 in so short a space of time1 establish this mastery4 ,and with it all1 the child is happy and diverted4 ,my old method for the deficients1 that of following with a small stick the contours of raised letters1 was1 when compared with this1 barren and miserable6 ,even when the children know how to write they continue these exercises1 which furnish an unlimited progression1 since the designs may be varied and complicated4 ,the children follow in each design essentially the same movements1 and acquire a varied collection of pictures which grow more and more perfect1 and of which they are very proud4 ,for ,i not only provoke1 but perfect1 the writing through the exercises which we call preparatory4 ,the control of the pen is rendered more and more secure1 not by repeated exercises in the writing1 but by means of these filled-in designs4 ,in this way1 my children perfect themselves in writing1 without actually writing4 ,,second ,,period3 ,,exercises ,,tending ,,to ,,establish ,,the ,,visual-,,muscular ,,image ,,of ,,the ,,alphabetical ,,signs1 ,,and ,,to ,,establish ,,the ,,muscular ,,memory ,,of ,,the ,,movements ,,necessary ,,to ,,writing ,didactic ,material4 ,cards upon which the single letters of the alphabet are mounted in sandpaper2 larger cards containing groups of the same letters4 ,the cards upon which the sandpaper letters are mounted are adapted in size and shape to each letter4 ,the vowels are in light-coloured sandpaper and are mounted upon dark cards1 the consonants and the groups of letters are in black sandpaper mounted upon white cards4 ,the grouping is so arranged as to call attention to contrasted1 or analogous forms4 ,the letters are cut in clear script form1 the shaded parts being made broader4 ,we have chosen to reproduce the vertical script in use in the elementary schools4 ,exercises4 ,in teaching the letters of the alphabet1 we begin with the vowels and proceed to the consonants1 pronouncing the sound1 not the name4 ,in the case of the consonants1 we immediately unite the sound with one of the vowel sounds1 repeating the syllable according to the usual phonetic method4 ,the teaching proceeds according to the three periods already illustrated4 ,first4 ,association of the visual and muscular-tactile sensation with the letter sound4 ,the directress presents to the child two of the cards upon which vowels are mounted 7or two of the consonants1 as the case may be74 ,let us suppose that we present the letters i and o1 saying1 ,this is i6 ,this is o6 ,as soon as we have given the sound of a letter1 we have the child trace it1 taking care to show him how to trace it1 and if necessary guiding the index finger of his right hand over the sandpaper letter in the sense of writing4 ,knowing how to trace will consist in knowing the direction in which a given graphic sign must be followed4 ,the child learns quickly1 and his finger1 already expert in the tactile exercise1 is led1 by the slight roughness of the fine sandpaper1 over the exact track of the letter4 ,he may then repeat indefinitely the movements necessary to produce the letters of the alphabet1 without the fear of the mistakes of which a child writing with a pencil for the first time is so conscious4 ,if he deviates1 the smoothness of the card immediately warns him of his error4 ,the children1 as soon as they have become at all expert in this tracing of the letters1 take great pleasure in repeating it with closed eyes1 letting the sandpaper lead them in following the form which they do not see4 ,thus the perception will be established by the direct muscular-tactile sensation of the letter4 ,in other words1 it is no longer the visual image of the letter1 but the tactile sensation1 which guides the hand of the child in these movements1 which thus become fixed in the muscular memory4 ,there develop1 contemporaneously1 three sensations when the directress shows the letter to the child and has him trace it2 the visual sensation1 the tactile sensation1 and the muscular sensation4 ,in this way the image of the graphic sign is fixed in a much shorter space of time than when it was1 according to ordinary methods1 acquired only through the visual image4 ,it will be found that the muscular memory is in the young child the most tenacious and1 at the same time1 the most ready4 ,indeed1 he sometimes recognises the letters by touching them1 when he cannot do so by looking at them4 ,these images are1 besides all this1 contemporaneously associated with the alphabetical sound4 ,second4 ,perception4 ,the child should know how to compare and to recognise the figures1 when he hears the sounds corresponding to them4 ,the directress asks the child1 for example1 ,give me o6--,give me i6 ,if the child does not recognise the letters by looking at them1 she invites him to trace them1 but if he still does not recognise them1 the lesson is ended1 and may be resumed another day4 ,i have already spoken of the necessity of not revealing the error1 and of not insisting in the teaching when the child does not respond readily4 ,third4 ,language4 ,allowing the letters to lie for some instants upon the table1 the directress asks the child1 ,what is this8 and he should respond1 o1 i4 ,in teaching the consonants1 the directress pronounces only the sound1 and as soon as she has done so unites with it a vowel1 pronouncing the syllable thus formed and alternating this little exercise by the use of different vowels4 ,she must always be careful to emphasize the sound of the consonant1 repeating it by itself1 as1 for example1 m1 m1 m1 ma1 me1 mi1 m1 m4 ,when the child repeats the sound he isolates it1 and then accompanies it with the vowel4 ,it is not necessary to teach all the vowels before passing to the consonants1 and as soon as the child knows one consonant he may begin to compose words4 ,questions of this sort1 however1 are left to the judgment of the educator4 ,i do not find it practical to follow a special rule in the teaching of the consonants4 ,often the curiosity of the child concerning a letter leads us to teach that desired consonant2 a name pronounced may awaken in him a desire to know what consonants are necessary to compose it1 and this will1 or willingness1 of the pupil is a much more efficacious means than any rule concerning the progression of the letters4 ,when the child pronounces the sounds of the consonants1 he experiences an evident pleasure4 ,it is a great novelty for him1 this series of sounds1 so varied and yet so distinct1 presenting such enigmatic signs as the letters of the alphabet4 ,there is mystery about all this1 which provokes most decided interest4 ,one day ,i was on the terrace while the children were having their free games2 ,i had with me a little boy of two years and a half left with me1 for a moment1 by his mother4 ,scattered about upon a number of chairs1 were the alphabets which we use in the school4 ,these had become mixed1 and ,i was putting the letters back into their respective compartments4 ,having finished my work1 ,i placed the boxes upon two of the little chairs near me4 ,the little boy watched me4 ,finally1 he drew near to the box1 and took one of the letters in his hand4 ,it chanced to be an f4 ,at that moment the children1 who were running in single file1 passed us1 and1 seeing the letter1 called out in chorus the corresponding sound and passed on4 ,the child paid no attention to them1 but put back the f and took up an r4 ,the children running by again1 looked at him laughing1 and then began to cry out r1 r1 r6 r1 r1 r6 ,little by little the baby understood that1 when he took a letter in hand1 the children1 who were passing1 cried out a sound4 ,this amused him so much that ,i wished to observe how long he would persist in this game without becoming tired4 ,he kept it up for three-quarters of an hour6 ,the children had become interested in the child1 and grouped themselves about him1 pronouncing the sounds in chorus1 and laughing at his pleased surprise4 ,at last1 after he had several times held up f1 and had received from his public the same sound1 he took the letter again1 showing it to me1 and saying1 f1 f1 f6 ,he had learned this from out the great confusion of sounds which he had heard2 the long letter which had first arrested the attention of the running children1 had made a great impression upon him4 ,it is not necessary to show how the separate pronunciation of the alphabetical sounds reveals the condition of the child's speech4 ,defects1 which are almost all related to the incomplete development of the language itself1 manifest themselves1 and the directress may take note of them one by one4 ,in this way she will be possessed of a record of the child's progress1 which will help her in her individual teaching1 and will reveal much concerning the development of the language in this particular child4 ,in the matter of correcting linguistic defects1 we will find it helpful to follow the physiological rules relating to the child's development1 and to modify the difficulties in the presentation of our lesson4 ,when1 however1 the child's speech is sufficiently developed1 and when he pronounces all the sounds1 it does not matter which of the letters we select in our lessons4 ,many of the defects which have become permanent in adults are due to functional errors in the development of the language during the period of infancy4 ,if1 for the attention which we pay to the correction of linguistic defects in children in the upper grades1 we would substitute a direction of the development of the language while the child is still young1 our results would be much more practical and valuable4 ,in fact1 many of the defects in pronunciation arise from the use of a dialect1 and these it is almost impossible to correct after the period of childhood4 ,they may1 however1 be most easily removed through the use of educational methods especially adapted to the perfecting of the language in little children4 ,we do not speak here of actual linguistic defects related to anatomical or physiological weaknesses1 or to pathological facts which alter the function of the nervous system4 ,i speak at present only of those irregularities which are due to a repetition of incorrect sounds1 or to the imitation of imperfect pronunciation4 ,such defects may show themselves in the pronunciation of any one of the consonant sounds1 and ,i can conceive of no more practical means for a methodical correction of speech defects than this exercise in pronunciation1 which is a necessary part in learning the graphic language through my method4 ,but such important questions deserve a chapter to themselves4 ,turning directly to the method used in teaching writing1 ,i may call attention to the fact that it is contained in the two periods already described4 ,such exercises have made it possible for the child to learn1 and to fix1 the muscular mechanism necessary to the proper holding of the pen1 and to the making of the graphic signs4 ,if he has exercised himself for a sufficiently long time in these exercises1 he will be potentially ready to write all the letters of the alphabet and all of the simple syllables1 without ever having taken chalk or pencil in his hand4 ,we have1 in addition to this1 begun the teaching of reading at the same time that we have been teaching writing4 ,when we present a letter to the child and enunciate its sound1 he fixes the image of this letter by means of the visual sense1 and also by means of the muscular-tactile sense4 ,he associates the sound with its relative sign2 that is1 he relates the sound to the graphic sign4 ,but when he sees and recognises1 he reads2 and when he traces1 he writes4 ,thus his mind receives as one1 two acts1 which1 later on1 as he develops1 will separate1 coming to constitute the two diverse processes of reading and writing4 ,by teaching these two acts contemporaneously1 or1 better1 by their fusion1 we place the child before a new form of language without determining which of the acts constituting it should be most prevalent4 ,we do not trouble ourselves as to whether the child in the development of this process1 first learns to read or to write1 or if the one or the other will be the easier4 ,we must rid ourselves of all preconceptions1 and must await from experience the answer to these questions4 ,we may expect that individual differences will show themselves in the prevalence of one or the other act in the development of different children4 ,this makes possible the most interesting psychological study of the individual1 and should broaden the work of this method1 which is based upon the free expansion of individuality4 ,,third ,,period3 ,,exercises ,,for ,,the ,,composition ,,of ,,words ,didactic ,material4 ,this consists chiefly of alphabets4 ,the letters of the alphabet used here are identical in form and dimension with the sandpaper ones already described1 but these are cut out of cardboard and are not mounted4 ,in this way each letter represents an object which can be easily handled by the child and placed wherever he wishes it4 ,there are several examples of each letter1 and ,i have designed cases in which the alphabets may be kept4 ,these cases or boxes are very shallow1 and are divided and subdivided into many compartments1 in each one of which ,i have placed a group of four copies of the same letter4 ,the compartments are not equal in size1 but are measured according to the dimensions of the letters themselves4 ,at the bottom of each compartment is glued a letter which is not to be taken out4 ,this letter is made of black cardboard and relieves the child of the fatigue of hunting about for the right compartment when he is replacing the letters in the case after he has used them4 ,the vowels are cut from blue cardboard1 and the consonants from red4 ,in addition to these alphabets we have a set of the capital letters mounted in sandpaper upon cardboard1 and another1 in which they are cut from cardboard4 ,the numbers are treated in the same way4 ,illustration3 7,a7 ,,training ,,the ,,sense ,,of ,,touch4 ,learning the difference between rough and smooth by running fingers alternately over sandpaper and smooth cardboard2 distinguishing different shapes by fitting geometric insets into place2 distinguishing textures4 7,b7 ,,learning ,,to ,,write ,,and ,,read ,,by ,,touch4 ,the child at the left is tracing sandpaper letters and learning to know them by touch4 ,the boy and girl are making words out of cardboard letters4 ,illustration3 7,a7 ,,children ,,touching ,,letters4 ,the child on the left has acquired lightness and delicacy of touch by very thorough preparatory exercises4 ,the one on the right has not had so much training4 7,b7 ,,making ,,words ,,with ,,cardboard ,,script4 ,exercises4 ,as soon as the child knows some of the vowels and the consonants we place before him the big box containing all the vowels and the consonants which he knows4 ,the directress pronounces very clearly a word2 for example1 mama1 brings out the sound of the m very distinctly1 repeating the sounds a number of times4 ,almost always the little one with an impulsive movement seizes an m and places it upon the table4 ,the directress repeats ma--ma4 ,the child selects the a and places it near the m4 ,he then composes the other syllable very easily4 ,but the reading of the word which he has composed is not so easy4 ,indeed1 he generally succeeds in reading it only after a certain effort4 ,in this case ,i help the child1 urging him to read1 and reading the word with him once or twice1 always pronouncing very distinctly1 mama1 mama4 ,but once he has understood the mechanism of the game1 the child goes forward by himself1 and becomes intensely interested4 ,we may pronounce any word1 taking care only that the child understands separately the letters of which it is composed4 ,he composes the new word1 placing1 one after the other1 the signs corresponding to the sounds4 ,it is most interesting indeed to watch the child at this work4 ,intensely attentive1 he sits watching the box1 moving his lips almost imperceptibly1 and taking one by one the necessary letters1 rarely committing an error in spelling4 ,the movement of the lips reveals the fact that he repeats to himself an infinite number of times the words whose sounds he is translating into signs4 ,although the child is able to compose any word which is clearly pronounced1 we generally dictate to him only those words which are well-known1 since we wish his composition to result in an idea4 ,when these familiar words are used1 he spontaneously rereads many times the word he has composed1 repeating its sounds in a thoughtful1 contemplative way4 ,the importance of these exercises is very complex4 ,the child analyses1 perfects1 fixes his own spoken language1--placing an object in correspondence to every sound which he utters4 ,the composition of the word furnishes him with substantial proof of the necessity for clear and forceful enunciation4 ,the exercise1 thus followed1 associates the sound which is heard with the graphic sign which represents it1 and lays a most solid foundation for accurate and perfect spelling4 ,in addition to this1 the composition of the words is in itself an exercise of intelligence4 ,the word which is pronounced presents to the child a problem which he must solve1 and he will do so by remembering the signs1 selecting them from among others1 and arranging them in the proper order4 ,he will have the proof of the exact solution of his problem when he rereads the word--this word which he has composed1 and which represents for all those who know how to read it1 an idea4 ,when the child hears others read the word he has composed1 he wears an expression of satisfaction and pride1 and is possessed by a species of joyous wonder4 ,he is impressed by this correspondence1 carried on between himself and others by means of symbols4 ,the written language represents for him the highest attainment reached by his own intelligence1 and is at the same time1 the reward of a great achievement4 ,when the pupil has finished the composition and the reading of the word we have him1 according to the habits of order which we try to establish in connection with all our work1 put away all the letters1 each one in its own compartment4 ,in composition1 pure and simple1 therefore1 the child unites the two exercises of comparison and of selection of the graphic signs2 the first1 when from the entire box of letters before him he takes those necessary2 the second1 when he seeks the compartment in which each letter must be replaced4 ,there are1 then1 three exercises united in this one effort1 all three uniting to fix the image of the graphic sign corresponding to the sounds of the word4 ,the work of learning is in this case facilitated in three ways1 and the ideas are acquired in a third of the time which would have been necessary with the old methods4 ,we shall soon see that the child1 on hearing the word1 or on thinking of a word which he already knows1 will see1 with his mind's eye1 all the letters1 necessary to compose the word1 arrange themselves4 ,he will reproduce this vision with a facility most surprising to us4 ,one day a little boy four years old1 running alone about the terrace1 was heard to repeat many times1 ,to make ,zaira1 ,i must have z-a-i-r-a4 ,another time1 ,professor ,di ,donato1 in a visit to the ,children's ,house1 pronounced his own name for a four-year-old child4 ,the child was composing the name1 using small letters and making it all one word1 and had begun1 thus--diton4 ,the professor at once pronounced the word more distinctly2 di do nato1 whereupon the child1 without scattering the letters1 picked up the syllable to and placed it to one side1 putting do in the empty space4 ,he then placed an a after the n1 and1 taking up the to which he had put aside1 completed the word with it4 ,this made it evident that the child1 when the word was pronounced more clearly1 understood that the syllable to did not belong at that place in the word1 realised that it belonged at the end of the word1 and therefore placed it aside until he should need it4 ,this was most surprising in a child of four years1 and amazed all of those present4 ,it can be explained by the clear and1 at the same time1 complex vision of the signs which the child must have1 if he is to form a word which he hears spoken4 ,this extraordinary act was largely due to the orderly mentality which the child had acquired through repeated spontaneous exercises tending to develop his intelligence4 ,these three periods contain the entire method for the acquisition of written language4 ,the significance of such a method is clear4 ,the psycho-physiological acts which unite to establish reading and writing are prepared separately and carefully4 ,the muscular movements peculiar to the making of the signs or letters are prepared apart1 and the same is true of the manipulation of the instrument of writing4 ,the composition of the words1 also1 is reduced to a psychic mechanism of association between images heard and seen4 ,there comes a moment in which the child1 without thinking of it1 fills in the geometric figures with an up and down stroke1 which is free and regular2 a moment in which he touches the letters with closed eyes1 and in which he reproduces their form1 moving his finger through the air2 a moment in which the composition of words has become a psychic impulse1 which makes the child1 even when alone1 repeat to himself ,to make ,zaira ,i must have z-a-i-r-a4 ,now this child1 it is true1 has never written1 but he has mastered all the acts necessary to writing4 ,the child who1 when taking dictation1 not only knows how to compose the word1 but instantly embraces in his thought its composition as a whole1 will be able to write1 since he knows how to make1 with his eyes closed1 the movements necessary to produce these letters1 and since he manages almost unconsciously the instrument of writing4 ,more than this1 the freedom with which the child has acquired this mechanical dexterity makes it possible for the impulse or spirit to act at any time through the medium of his mechanical ability4 ,he should1 sooner or later1 come into his full power by way of a spontaneous explosion into writing4 ,this is1 indeed1 the marvellous reaction which has come from my experiment with normal children4 ,in one of the ,children's ,houses1 directed by ,signorina ,bettini1 ,i had been especially careful in the way in which writing was taught1 and we have had from this school most beautiful specimens of writing1 and for this reason1 perhaps ,i cannot do better than to describe the development of the work in this school4 ,one beautiful ,december day when the sun shone and the air was like spring1 ,i went up on the roof with the children4 ,they were playing freely about1 and a number of them were gathered about me4 ,i was sitting near a chimney1 and said to a little five-year-old boy who sat beside me1 ,draw me a picture of this chimney1 giving him as ,i spoke a piece of chalk4 ,he got down obediently and made a rough sketch of the chimney on the tiles which formed the floor of this roof terrace4 ,as is my custom with little children1 ,i encouraged him1 praising his work4 ,the child looked at me1 smiled1 remained for a moment as if on the point of bursting into some joyous act1 and then cried out1 ,i can write6 ,i can write6 and kneeling down again he wrote on the pavement the word hand4 ,then1 full of enthusiasm1 he wrote also chimney1 roof4 ,as he wrote1 he continued to cry out1 ,i can write6 ,i know how to write6 ,his cries of joy brought the other children1 who formed a circle about him1 looking down at his work in stupefied amazement4 ,two or three of them said to me1 trembling with excitement1 ,give me the chalk4 ,i can write too4 ,and indeed they began to write various words3 mama1 hand1 ,john1 chimney1 ,ada4 ,not one of them had ever taken chalk or any other instrument in hand for the purpose of writing4 ,it was the first time that they had ever written1 and they traced an entire word1 as a child1 when speaking for the first time1 speaks the entire word4 ,the first word spoken by a baby causes the mother ineffable joy4 ,the child has chosen perhaps the word mother1 seeming to render thus a tribute to maternity4 ,the first word written by my little ones aroused within themselves an indescribable emotion of joy4 ,not being able to adjust in their minds the connection between the preparation and the act1 they were possessed by the illusion that1 having now grown to the proper size1 they knew how to write4 ,in other words1 writing seemed to them only one among the many gifts of nature4 ,they believe that1 as they grow bigger and stronger1 there will come some beautiful day when they shall know how to write4 ,and1 indeed1 this is what it is in reality4 ,the child who speaks1 first prepares himself unconsciously1 perfecting the psycho-muscular mechanism which leads to the articulation of the word4 ,in the case of writing1 the child does almost the same thing1 but the direct pedagogical help and the possibility of preparing the movements for writing in an almost material way1 causes the ability to write to develop much more rapidly and more perfectly than the ability to speak correctly4 ,in spite of the ease with which this is accomplished1 the preparation is not partial1 but complete4 ,the child possesses all the movements necessary for writing4 ,and written language develops not gradually1 but in an explosive way2 that is1 the child can write any word4 ,such was our first experience in the development of the written language in our children4 ,those first days we were a prey to deep emotions4 ,it seemed as if we walked in a dream1 and as if we assisted at some miraculous achievement4 ,the child who wrote a word for the first time was full of excited joy4 ,he might be compared to the hen who has just laid an egg4 ,indeed1 no one could escape from the noisy manifestations of the little one4 ,he would call everyone to see1 and if there were some who did not go1 he ran to take hold of their clothes forcing them to come and see4 ,we all had to go and stand about the written word to admire the marvel1 and to unite our exclamations of surprise with the joyous cries of the fortunate author4 ,usually1 this first word was written on the floor1 and1 then1 the child knelt down before it in order to be nearer to his work and to contemplate it more closely4 ,after the first word1 the children1 with a species of frenzied joy1 continued to write everywhere4 ,i saw children crowding about one another at the blackboard1 and behind the little ones who were standing on the floor another line would form consisting of children mounted upon chairs1 so that they might write above the heads of the little ones4 ,in a fury at being thwarted1 other children1 in order to find a little place where they might write1 overturned the chairs upon which their companions were mounted4 ,others ran toward the window shutters or the door1 covering them with writing4 ,in these first days we walked upon a carpet of written signs4 ,daily accounts showed us that the same thing was going on at home1 and some of the mothers1 in order to save their pavements1 and even the crust of their loaves upon which they found words written1 made their children presents of paper and pencil4 ,one of these children brought to me one day a little note-book entirely filled with writing1 and the mother told me that the child had written all day long and all evening1 and had gone to sleep in his bed with the paper and pencil in his hand4 ,this impulsive activity which we could not1 in those first days control1 made me think upon the wisdom of ,nature1 who develops the spoken language little by little1 letting it go hand in hand with the gradual formation of ideas4 ,think of what the result would have been had ,nature acted imprudently as ,i had done6 ,suppose ,nature had first allowed the human being to gather1 by means of the senses1 a rich and varied material1 and to acquire a store of ideas1 and had then completely prepared in him the means for articulate language1 saying finally to the child1 mute until that hour1 ,go--,speak6 ,the result would have been a species of sudden madness1 under the influence of which the child1 feeling no restraints1 would have burst into an exhausting torrent of the most strange and difficult words4 ,i believe1 however1 that there exists between the two extremes a happy medium which is the true and practical way4 ,we should lead the child more gradually to the conquest of written language1 yet we should still have it come as a spontaneous fact1 and his work should from the first be almost perfect4 ,experience has shown us how to control this phenomenon1 and how to lead the child more calmly to this new power4 ,the fact that the children see their companions writing1 leads them1 through imitation1 to write as soon as they can4 ,in this way1 when the child writes he does not have the entire alphabet at his disposal1 and the number of words which he can write is limited4 ,he is not even capable of making all of the words possible through a combination of the letters which he does know4 ,he still has the great joy of the first written word1 but this is no longer the source of an overwhelming surprise1 since he sees just such wonderful things happening each day1 and knows that sooner or later the same gift will come to all4 ,this tends to create a calm and ordered environment1 still full of beautiful and wonderful surprises4 ,making a visit to the ,children's ,house1 even during the opening weeks1 one makes fresh discoveries4 ,here1 for instance1 are two little children1 who1 though they fairly radiate pride and joy1 are writing tranquilly4 ,yet1 these children1 until yesterday1 had never thought of writing6 ,the directress tells me that one of them began to write yesterday morning at eleven o'clock1 the other1 at three in the afternoon4 ,we have come to accept the phenomenon with calmness1 and tacitly recognise it as a natural form of the child's development4 ,the wisdom of the teacher shall decide when it is necessary to encourage a child to write4 ,this can only be when he is already perfect in the three periods of the preparatory exercise1 and yet does not write of his own accord4 ,there is danger that in retarding the act of writing1 the child may plunge finally into a tumultuous effort1 due to the fact that he knows the entire alphabet and has no natural check4 ,the signs by which the teacher may almost precisely diagnose the child's maturity in this respect are3 the regularity of the parallel lines which fill in the geometric figures2 the recognition with closed eyes of the sandpaper letters2 the security and readiness shown in the composition of words4 ,before intervening by means of a direct invitation to write1 it is best to wait at least a week in the hope that the child may write spontaneously4 ,when he has begun to write spontaneously the teacher may intervene to guide the progress of the writing4 ,the first help which she may give is that of ruling the blackboard1 so that the child may be led to maintain regularity and proper dimensions in his writing4 ,the second1 is that of inducing the child1 whose writing is not firm1 to repeat the tracing of the sandpaper letters4 ,she should do this instead of directly correcting his actual writing1 for the child does not perfect himself by repeating the act of writing1 but by repeating the acts preparatory to writing4 ,i remember a little beginner who1 wishing to make his blackboard writing perfect1 brought all of the sandpaper letters with him1 and before writing touched two or three times all of the letters needed in the words he wished to write4 ,if a letter did not seem to him to be perfect he erased it and retouched the letter upon the card before rewriting4 ,our children1 even after they have been writing for a year1 continue to repeat the three preparatory exercises4 ,they thus learn both to write1 and to perfect their writing1 without really going through the actual act4 ,with our children1 actual writing is a test2 it springs from an inner impulse1 and from the pleasure of explaining a superior activity2 it is not an exercise4 ,as the soul of the mystic perfects itself through prayer1 even so in our little ones1 that highest expression of civilisation1 written language1 is acquired and improved through exercises which are akin to1 but which are not1 writing4 ,there is educational value in this idea of preparing oneself before trying1 and of perfecting oneself before going on4 ,to go forward correcting his own mistakes1 boldly attempting things which he does imperfectly1 and of which he is as yet unworthy dulls the sensitiveness of the child's spirit toward his own errors4 ,my method of writing contains an educative concept2 teaching the child that prudence which makes him avoid errors1 that dignity which makes him look ahead1 and which guides him to perfection1 and that humility which unites him closely to those sources of good through which alone he can make a spiritual conquest1 putting far from him the illusion that the immediate success is ample justification for continuing in the way he has chosen4 ,the fact that all the children1 those who are just beginning the three exercises and those who have been writing for months1 daily repeat the same exercise1 unites them and makes it easy for them to meet upon an apparently equal plane4 ,here there are no distinctions of beginners1 and experts4 ,all of the children fill in the figures with coloured pencils1 touch the sandpaper letters and compose words with the movable alphabets2 the little ones beside the big ones who help them4 ,he who prepares himself1 and he who perfects himself1 both follow the same path4 ,it is the same way in life1 for1 deeper than any social distinction1 there lies an equality1 a common meeting point1 where all men are brothers1 or1 as in the spiritual life1 aspirants and saints again and again pass through the same experiences4 ,writing is very quickly learned1 because we begin to teach it only to those children who show a desire for it by spontaneous attention to the lesson given by the directress to other children1 or by watching the exercises in which the others are occupied4 ,some individuals learn without ever having received any lessons1 solely through listening to the lessons given to others4 ,in general1 all children of four are intensely interested in writing1 and some of our children have begun to write at the age of three and a half4 ,we find the children particularly enthusiastic about tracing the sandpaper letters4 ,during the first period of my experiments1 when the children were shown the alphabet for the first time1 ,i one day asked ,signorina ,bettini to bring out to the terrace where the children were at play1 all of the various letters which she herself had made4 ,as soon as the children saw them they gathered about us1 their fingers outstretched in their eagerness to touch the letters4 ,those who secured cards were unable to touch them properly because of the other children1 who crowded about trying to reach the cards in our laps4 ,i remember with what an impulsive movement the possessors of the cards held them on high like banners1 and began to march1 followed by all the other children who clapped their hands and cried out joyously4 ,the procession passed before us1 and all1 big and little1 laughed merrily1 while the mothers1 attracted by the noise1 leaned from the windows to watch the sight4 ,the average time that elapses between the first trial of the preparatory exercises and the first written word is1 for children of four years1 from a month to a month and a half4 ,with children of five years1 the period is much shorter1 being about a month4 ,but one of our pupils learned to use in writing all the letters of the alphabet in twenty days4 ,children of four years1 after they have been in school for two months and a half1 can write any word from dictation1 and can pass to writing with ink in a note-book4 ,our little ones are generally experts after three months' time1 and those who have written for six months may be compared to the children in the third elementary4 ,indeed1 writing is one of the easiest and most delightful of all the conquests made by the child4 ,if adults learned as easily as children under six years of age1 it would be an easy matter to do away with illiteracy4 ,we would probably find two grave hinderances to the attainment of such a brilliant success3 the torpor of the muscular sense1 and those permanent defects of spoken language1 which would be sure to translate themselves into the written language4 ,i have not made experiments along this line1 but ,i believe that one school year would be sufficient to lead an illiterate person1 not only to write1 but to express his thoughts in written language4 ,so much for the time necessary for learning4 ,as to the execution1 our children write well from the moment in which they begin4 ,the form of the letters1 beautifully rounded and flowing1 is surprising in its similarity to the form of the sandpaper models4 ,the beauty of our writing is rarely equalled by any scholars in the elementary schools1 who have not had special exercises in penmanship4 ,i have made a close study of penmanship1 and ,i know how difficult it would be to teach pupils of twelve or thirteen years to write an entire word without lifting the pen1 except for the few letters which require this4 ,the up and down strokes with which they have filled their copy-book make flowing writing almost impossible to them4 ,our little pupils1 on the other hand1 spontaneously1 and with a marvellous security1 write entire words without lifting the pen1 maintaining perfectly the slant of the letters1 and making the distance between each letter equal4 ,this has caused more than one visitor to exclaim1 ,if ,i had not seen it ,i should never have believed it4 ,indeed1 penmanship is a superior form of teaching and is necessary to correct defects already acquired and fixed4 ,it is a long work1 for the child1 seeing the model1 must follow the movements necessary to reproduce it1 while there is no direct correspondence between the visual sensation and the movements which he must make4 ,too often1 penmanship is taught at an age when all the defects have become established1 and when the physiological period in which the muscular memory is ready1 has been passed4 ,we directly prepare the child1 not only for writing1 but also for penmanship1 paying great attention to the beauty of form 7having the children touch the letters in script form7 and to the flowing quality of the letters4 7,the exercises in filling-in prepare for this47 ,,reading ,didactic ,material4 ,the ,didactic ,material for the lessons in reading consists in slips of paper or cards upon which are written in clear1 large script1 words and phrases4 ,in addition to these cards we have a great variety of toys4 ,experience has taught me to distinguish clearly between writing and reading1 and has shown me that the two acts are not absolutely contemporaneous4 ,contrary to the usually accepted idea1 writing precedes reading4 ,i do not consider as reading the test which the child makes when he verifies the word that he has written4 ,he is translating signs into sounds1 as he first translated sounds into signs4 ,in this verification he already knows the word and has repeated it to himself while writing it4 ,what ,i understand by reading is the interpretation of an idea from the written signs4 ,the child who has not heard the word pronounced1 and who recognises it when he sees it composed upon the table with the cardboard letters1 and who can tell what it means2 this child reads4 ,the word which he reads has the same relation to written language that the word which he hears bears to articulate language4 ,both serve to receive the language transmitted to us by others4 ,so1 until the child reads a transmission of ideas from the written word1 he does not read4 ,we may say1 if we like1 that writing as described is a fact in which the psycho-motor mechanism prevails1 while in reading1 there enters a work which is purely intellectual4 ,but it is evident how our method for writing prepares for reading1 making the difficulties almost imperceptible4 ,indeed1 writing prepares the child to interpret mechanically the union of the letter sounds of which the written word is composed4 ,when a child in our school knows how to write1 he knows how to read the sounds of which the word is composed4 ,it should be noticed1 however1 that when the child composes the words with the movable alphabet1 or when he writes1 he has time to think about the signs which he must select to form the word4 ,the writing of a word requires a great deal more time than that necessary for reading the same word4 ,the child who knows how to write1 when placed before a word which he must interpret by reading1 is silent for a long time1 and generally reads the component sounds with the same slowness with which he would have written them4 ,but the sense of the word becomes evident only when it is pronounced clearly and with the phonetic accent4 ,now1 in order to place the phonetic accent the child must recognise the word2 that is1 he must recognise the idea which the word represents4 ,the intervention of a superior work of the intellect is necessary if he is to read4 ,because of all this1 ,i proceed in the following way with the exercises in reading1 and1 as will be evident1 ,i do away entirely with the old-time primer4 ,i prepare a number of little cards made from ordinary writing-paper4 ,on each of these ,i write in large clear script some well-known word1 one which has already been pronounced many times by the children1 and which represents an object actually present or well known to them4 ,if the word refers to an object which is before them1 ,i place this object under the eyes of the child1 in order to facilitate his interpretation of the word4 ,i will say1 in this connection1 the objects used in these writing games are for the most part toys of which we have a great many in the ,children's ,houses4 ,among these toys1 are the furnishings of a doll's house1 balls1 dolls1 trees1 flocks of sheep1 or various animals1 tin soldiers1 railways1 and an infinite variety of simple figures4 ,if writing serves to correct1 or better1 to direct and perfect the mechanism of the articulate language of the child1 reading serves to help the development of ideas1 and relates them to the development of the language4 ,indeed1 writing aids the physiological language and reading aids the social language4 ,we begin1 then1 as ,i have indicated1 with the nomenclature1 that is1 with the reading of names of objects which are well known or present4 ,there is no question of beginning with words that are easy or difficult1 for the child already knows how to read any word2 that is1 he knows how to read the sounds which compose it4 ,i allow the little one to translate the written word slowly into sounds1 and if the interpretation is exact1 ,i limit myself to saying1 ,faster4 ,the child reads more quickly the second time1 but still often without understanding4 ,i then repeat1 ,faster1 faster4 ,he reads faster each time1 repeating the same accumulation of sounds1 and finally the word bursts upon his consciousness4 ,then he looks upon it as if he recognised a friend1 and assumes that air of satisfaction which so often radiates our little ones4 ,this completes the exercise for reading4 ,it is a lesson which goes very rapidly1 since it is only presented to a child who is already prepared through writing4 ,truly1 we have buried the tedious and stupid ,a ,b ,c primer side by side with the useless copy-books6 ,when the child has read the word1 he places the explanatory card under the object whose name it bears1 and the exercise is finished4 ,one of our most interesting discoveries was made in the effort to devise a game through which the children might1 without effort1 learn to read words4 ,we spread out upon one of the large tables a great variety of toys4 ,each one of them had a corresponding card upon which the name of the toy was written4 ,we folded these little cards and mixed them up in a basket1 and the children who knew how to read were allowed to take turns in drawing these cards from the basket4 ,each child had to carry his card back to his desk1 unfold it quietly1 and read it mentally1 not showing it to those about him4 ,he then had to fold it up again1 so that the secret which it contained should remain unknown4 ,taking the folded card in his hand1 he went to the table4 ,he had then to pronounce clearly the name of a toy and present the card to the directress in order that she might verify the word he had spoken4 ,the little card thus became current coin with which he might acquire the toy he had named4 ,for1 if he pronounced the word clearly and indicated the correct object1 the directress allowed him to take the toy1 and to play with it as long as he wished4 ,when each child had had a turn1 the directress called the first child and let him draw a card from another basket4 ,this card he read as soon as he had drawn it4 ,it contained the name of one of his companions who did not yet know how to read1 and for that reason could not have a toy4 ,the child who had read the name then offered to his little friend the toy with which he had been playing4 ,we taught the children to present these toys in a gracious and polite way1 accompanying the act with a bow4 ,in this way we did away with every idea of class distinction1 and inspired the sentiment of kindness toward those who did not possess the same blessings as ourselves4 ,this reading game proceeded in a marvellous way4 ,the contentment of these poor children in possessing even for a little while such beautiful toys can be easily imagined4 ,but what was my amazement1 when the children1 having learned to understand the written cards1 refused to take the toys6 ,they explained that they did not wish to waste time in playing1 and1 with a species of insatiable desire1 preferred to draw out and read the cards one after another6 ,i watched them1 seeking to understand the secret of these souls1 of whose greatness ,i had been so ignorant6 ,as ,i stood in meditation among the eager children1 the discovery that it was knowledge they loved1 and not the silly game1 filled me with wonder and made me think of the greatness of the human soul6 ,we therefore put away the toys1 and set about making hundreds of written slips1 containing names of children1 cities1 and objects2 and also of colours and qualities known through the sense exercises4 ,we placed these slips in open boxes1 which we left where the children could make free use of them4 ,i expected that childish inconstancy would at least show itself in a tendency to pass from one box to another2 but no1 each child finished emptying the box under his hand before passing to another1 being verily insatiable in the desire to read4 ,coming into the school one day1 ,i found that the directress had allowed the children to take the tables and chairs out upon the terrace1 and was having school in the open air4 ,a number of little ones were playing in the sun1 while others were seated in a circle about the tables containing the sandpaper letters and the movable alphabet4 ,a little apart sat the directress1 holding upon her lap a long narrow box full of written slips1 and all along the edge of her box were little hands1 fishing for the beloved cards4 ,you may not believe me1 said the directress1 but it is more than an hour since we began this1 and they are not satisfied yet6 ,we tried the experiment of bringing balls1 and dolls to the children1 but without result2 such futilities had no power beside the joys of knowledge4 ,seeing these surprising results1 ,i had already thought of testing the children with print1 and had suggested that the directress print the word under the written word upon a number of slips4 ,but the children forestalled us6 ,there was in the hall a calendar upon which many of the words were printed in clear type1 while others were done in ,gothic characters4 ,in their mania for reading the children began to look at this calendar1 and1 to my inexpressible amazement1 read not only the print1 but the ,gothic script4 ,there therefore remained nothing but the presentation of a book1 and ,i did not feel that any of those available were suited to our method4 ,the mothers soon had proofs of the progress of their children2 finding in the pockets of some of them little slips of paper upon which were written rough notes of marketing done2 bread1 salt1 etc4 ,our children were making lists of the marketing they did for their mothers6 ,other mothers told us that their children no longer ran through the streets1 but stopped to read the signs over the shops4 ,a four-year-old boy1 educated in a private house by the same method1 surprised us in the following way4 ,the child's father was a ,deputy1 and received many letters4 ,he knew that his son had for two months been taught by means of exercises apt to facilitate the learning of reading and writing1 but he had paid slight attention to it1 and1 indeed1 put little faith in the method4 ,one day1 as he sat reading1 with the boy playing near1 a servant entered1 and placed upon the table a large number of letters that had just arrived4 ,the little boy turned his attention to these1 and holding up each letter read aloud the address4 ,to his father this seemed a veritable miracle4 ,as to the average time required for learning to read and write1 experience would seem to show that1 starting from the moment in which the child writes1 the passage from such an inferior stage of the graphic language to the superior state of reading averages a fortnight4 ,security in reading is1 however1 arrived at much more slowly than perfection in writing4 ,in the greater majority of cases the child who writes beautifully1 still reads rather poorly4 ,not all children of the same age are at the same point in this matter of reading and writing4 ,we not only do not force a child1 but we do not even invite him1 or in any way attempt to coax him to do that which he does not wish to do4 ,so it sometimes happens that certain children1 not having spontaneously presented themselves for these lessons1 are left in peace1 and do not know how to read or write4 ,if the old-time method1 which tyrannized over the will of the child and destroyed his spontaneity1 does not believe in making a knowledge of written language obligatory before the age of six1 much less do we6 ,i am not ready to decide1 without a wider experience1 whether the period when the spoken language is fully developed is1 in every case1 the proper time for beginning to develop the written language4 ,in any case1 almost all of the normal children treated with our method begin to write at four years1 and at five know how to read and write1 at least as well as children who have finished the first elementary4 ,they could enter the second elementary a year in advance of the time when they are admitted to first4 ,games for the ,reading of ,phrases4 ,as soon as my friends saw that the children could read print1 they made me gifts of beautifully illustrated books4 ,looking through these books of simple fairy lore1 ,i felt sure that the children would not be able to understand them4 ,the teachers1 feeling entirely satisfied as to the ability of their pupils1 tried to show me ,i was wrong1 having different children read to me1 and saying that they read much more perfectly than the children who had finished the second elementary4 ,i did not1 however1 allow myself to be deceived1 and made two trials4 ,i first had the teacher tell one of the stories to the children while ,i observed to what extent they were spontaneously interested in it4 ,the attention of the children wandered after a few words4 ,i had forbidden the teacher to recall to order those who did not listen1 and thus1 little by little1 a hum arose in the schoolroom1 due to the fact that each child1 not caring to listen had returned to his usual occupation4 ,it was evident that the children1 who seemed to read these books with such pleasure1 did not take pleasure in the sense1 but enjoyed the mechanical ability they had acquired1 which consisted in translating the graphic signs into the sounds of a word they recognised4 ,and1 indeed1 the children did not display the same constancy in the reading of books which they showed toward the written slips1 since in the books they met with so many unfamiliar words4 ,my second test1 was to have one of the children read the book to me4 ,i did not interrupt with any of those explanatory remarks by means of which a teacher tries to help the child follow the thread of the story he is reading1 saying for example3 ,stop a minute4 ,do you understand8 ,what have you read8 ,you told me how the little boy went to drive in a big carriage1 didn't you8 ,pay attention to what the book says1 etc4 ,i gave the book to a little boy1 sat down beside him in a friendly fashion1 and when he had read ,i asked him simply and seriously as one would speak to a friend1 ,did you understand what you were reading8 ,he replied3 ,no4 ,but the expression of his face seemed to ask an explanation of my demand4 ,in fact1 the idea that through the reading of a series of words the complex thoughts of others might be communicated to us1 was to be for my children one of the beautiful conquests of the future1 a new source of surprise and joy4 ,the book has recourse to logical language1 not to the mechanism of the language4 ,before the child can understand and enjoy a book1 the logical language must be established in him4 ,between knowing how to read the words1 and how to read the sense1 of a book there lies the same distance that exists between knowing how to pronounce a word and how to make a speech4 ,i1 therefore1 stopped the reading from books and waited4 ,one day1 during a free conversation period1 four children arose at the same time and with expressions of joy on their faces ran to the blackboard and wrote phrases upon the order of the following3 ,oh1 how glad we are that our garden has begun to bloom4 ,it was a great surprise for me1 and ,i was deeply moved4 ,these children had arrived spontaneously at the art of composition1 just as they had spontaneously written their first word4 ,the mechanical preparation was the same1 and the phenomenon developed logically4 ,logical articulate language had1 when the time was ripe1 provoked the corresponding explosion in written language4 ,i understood that the time had come when we might proceed to the reading of phrases4 ,i had recourse to the means used by the children2 that is1 ,i wrote upon the blackboard1 ,do you love me8 ,the children read it slowly aloud1 were silent for a moment as if thinking1 then cried out1 ,yes6 ,yes6 ,i continued to write2 ,then make the silence1 and watch me4 ,they read this aloud1 almost shouting1 but had barely finished when a solemn silence began to establish itself1 interrupted only by the sounds of the chairs as the children took positions in which they could sit quietly4 ,thus began between me and them a communication by means of written language1 a thing which interested the children intensely4 ,little by little1 they discovered the great quality of writing--that it transmits thought4 ,whenever ,i began to write1 they fairly trembled in their eagerness to understand what was my meaning without hearing me speak a word4 ,indeed1 graphic language does not need spoken words4 ,it can only be understood in all its greatness when it is completely isolated from spoken language4 ,this introduction to reading was followed by the following game1 which is greatly enjoyed by the children4 ,upon a number of cards ,i wrote long sentences describing certain actions which the children were to carry out2 for example1 ,close the window blinds2 open the front door2 then wait a moment1 and arrange things as they were at first4 ,very politely ask eight of your companions to leave their chairs1 and to form in double file in the centre of the room1 then have them march forward and back on tiptoe1 making no noise4 ,ask three of your oldest companions who sing nicely1 if they will please come into the centre of the room4 ,arrange them in a nice row1 and sing with them a song that you have selected1 etc41 etc4 ,as soon as ,i finished writing1 the children seized the cards1 and taking them to their seats read them spontaneously with great intensity of attention1 and all amid the most complete silence4 ,i asked then1 ,do you understand8 ,yes6 ,yes6 ,then do what the card tells you1 said ,i1 and was delighted to see the children rapidly and accurately follow the chosen action4 ,a great activity1 a movement of a new sort1 was born in the room4 ,there were those who closed the blinds1 and then reopened them2 others who made their companions run on tiptoe1 or sing2 others wrote upon the blackboard1 or took certain objects from the cupboards4 ,surprise and curiosity produced a general silence1 and the lesson developed amid the most intense interest4 ,it seemed as if some magic force had gone forth from me stimulating an activity hitherto unknown4 ,this magic was graphic language1 the greatest conquest of civilisation4 ,and how deeply the children understood the importance of it6 ,when ,i went out1 they gathered about me with expressions of gratitude and affection1 saying1 ,thank you6 ,thank you6 ,thank you for the lesson6 ,this has become one of the favourite games3 ,we first establish profound silence1 then present a basket containing folded slips1 upon each one of which is written a long phrase describing an action4 ,all those children who know how to read may draw a slip1 and read it mentally once or twice until they are certain they understand it4 ,they then give the slip back to the directress and set about carrying out the action4 ,since many of these actions call for the help of the other children who do not know how to read1 and since many of them call for the handling and use of the materials1 a general activity develops amid marvellous order1 while the silence is only interrupted by the sound of little feet running lightly1 and by the voices of the children who sing4 ,this is an unexpected revelation of the perfection of spontaneous discipline4 ,experience has shown us that composition must precede logical reading1 as writing preceded the reading of the word4 ,it has also shown that reading1 if it is to teach the child to receive an idea1 should be mental and not vocal4 ,reading aloud implies the exercise of two mechanical forms of the language--articulate and graphic--and is1 therefore1 a complex task4 ,who does not know that a grown person who is to read a paper in public prepares for this by making himself master of the content8 ,reading aloud is one of the most difficult intellectual actions4 ,the child1 therefore1 who begins to read by interpreting thought should read mentally4 ,the written language must isolate itself from the articulate1 when it rises to the interpretation of logical thought4 ,indeed1 it represents the language which transmits thought at a distance1 while the senses and the muscular mechanism are silent4 ,it is a spiritualised language1 which puts into communication all men who know how to read4 ,education having reached such a point in the ,children's ,houses1 the entire elementary school must1 as a logical consequence1 be changed4 ,how to reform the lower grades in the elementary schools1 eventually carrying them on according to our methods1 is a great question which cannot be discussed here4 ,i can only say that the first elementary would be completely done away with by our infant education1 which includes it4 ,the elementary classes in the future should begin with children such as ours who know how to read and write2 children who know how to take care of themselves2 how to dress and undress1 and to wash themselves2 children who are familiar with the rules of good conduct and courtesy1 and who are thoroughly disciplined in the highest sense of the term1 having developed1 and become masters of themselves1 through liberty2 children who possess1 besides a perfect mastery of the articulate language1 the ability to read written language in an elementary way1 and who begin to enter upon the conquest of logical language4 ,these children pronounce clearly1 write in a firm hand1 and are full of grace in their movements4 ,they are the earnest of a humanity grown in the cult of beauty--the infancy of an all-conquering humanity1 since they are intelligent and patient observers of their environment1 and possess in the form of intellectual liberty the power of spontaneous reasoning4 ,for such children1 we should found an elementary school worthy to receive them and to guide them further along the path of life and of civilisation1 a school loyal to the same educational principles of respect for the freedom of the child and for his spontaneous manifestations--principles which shall form the personality of these little men4 ,illustration3 ,example of writing done with pen1 by a child five years4 ,one-fourth reduction4 ,translation3 ,we would like to wish a joyous ,easter to the civil engineer ,edoardo ,talamo and the ,princess ,maria4 ,we will ask them to bring their pretty children here4 ,leave it to me3 ,i will write for all4 ,april #g1 #aiji4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,language ,,in ,,childhood ,graphic language1 comprising dictation and reading1 contains articulate language in its complete mechanism 7auditory channels1 central channels1 motor channels71 and1 in the manner of development called forth by my method1 is based essentially on articulate language4 ,graphic language1 therefore1 may be considered from two points of view3 7a7 ,that of the conquest of a new language of eminent social importance which adds itself to the articulate language of natural man2 and this is the cultural significance which is commonly given to graphic language1 which is therefore taught in the schools without any consideration of its relation to spoken language1 but solely with the intention of offering to the social being a necessary instrument in his relations with his fellows4 7b7 ,that of the relation between graphic and articulate language and1 in this relation1 of an eventual possibility of utilising the written language to perfect the spoken3 a new consideration upon which ,i wish to insist and which gives to graphic language a physiological importance4 ,moreover1 as spoken language is at the same time a natural function of man and an instrument which he utilises for social ends1 so written language may be considered in itself1 in its formation1 as an organic ensemble of new mechanisms which are established in the nervous system1 and as an instrument which may be utilised for social ends4 ,in short1 it is a question of giving to written language not only a physiological importance1 but also a period of development independent of the high functions which it is destined to perform later4 ,it seems to me that graphic language bristles with difficulties in its beginning1 not only because it has heretofore been taught by irrational methods1 but because we have tried to make it perform1 as soon as it has been acquired1 the high function of teaching the written language which has been fixed by centuries of perfecting in a civilised people4 ,think how irrational have been the methods we have used6 ,we have analysed the graphic signs rather than the physiological acts necessary to produce the alphabetical signs2 and this without considering that any graphic sign is difficult to achieve1 because the visual representation of the signs have no hereditary connection with the motor representations necessary for producing them2 as1 for example1 the auditory representations of the word have with the motor mechanism of the articulate language4 ,it is1 therefore1 always a difficult thing to provoke a stimulative motor action unless we have already established the movement before the visual representation of the sign is made4 ,it is a difficult thing to arouse an activity that shall produce a motion unless that motion shall have been previously established by practice and by the power of habit4 ,thus1 for example1 the analysis of writing into little straight lines and curves has brought us to present to the child a sign without significance1 which therefore does not interest him1 and whose representation is incapable of determining a spontaneous motor impulse4 ,the artificial act constituted1 therefore1 an effort of the will which resulted for the child in rapid exhaustion exhibited in the form of boredom and suffering4 ,to this effort was added the effort of constituting synchronously the muscular associations co-ordinating the movements necessary to the holding and manipulating the instrument of writing4 ,all sorts of depressing feelings accompanied such efforts and conduced to the production of imperfect and erroneous signs which the teachers had to correct1 discouraging the child still more with the constant criticism of the error and of the imperfection of the signs traced4 ,thus1 while the child was urged to make an effort1 the teacher depressed rather than revived his psychical forces4 ,although such a mistaken course was followed1 the graphic language1 so painfully learned1 was nevertheless to be immediately utilised for social ends2 and1 still imperfect and immature1 was made to do service in the syntactical construction of the language1 and in the ideal expression of the superior psychic centres4 ,one must remember that in nature the spoken language is formed gradually2 and it is already established in words when the superior psychic centres use these words in what ,kussmaul calls dictorium1 in the syntactical grammatical formation of language which is necessary to the expression of complex ideas2 that is1 in the language of the logical mind4 ,in short the mechanism of language is a necessary antecedent of the higher psychic activities which are to utilise it4 ,there are1 therefore1 two periods in the development of language3 a lower one which prepares the nervous channel and the central mechanisms which are to put the sensory channels in relation with the motor channels2 and a higher one determined by the higher psychic activities which are exteriorized by means of the preformed mechanisms of language4 ,illustration ,thus for example in the scheme which ,kussmaul gives on the mechanism of articulate language we must first of all distinguish a sort of cerebral diastaltic arc 7representing the pure mechanism of the word71 which is established in the first formation of the spoken language4 ,let ,e be the ear1 and ,t the motor organs of speech1 taken as a whole and here represented by the tongue1 ,a the auditory centre of speech1 and ,m the motor centre4 ,the channels ,,ea and ,,mt are peripheral channels1 the former centripetal and the latter centrifugal1 and the channel ,,am is the inter-central channel of association4 ,illustration ,the centre ,a in which reside the auditive images of words may be again subdivided into three1 as in the following scheme1 viz43 ,sound 7,so71 syllables 7,sy71 and words 7,w74 ,that partial centres for sounds and syllables can really be formed1 the pathology of language seems to establish1 for in some forms of centro-sensory dysphasia1 the patients can pronounce only sounds1 or at most sounds and syllables4 ,small children1 too1 are1 at the beginning1 particularly sensitive to simple sounds of language1 with which indeed1 and especially with s1 their mothers caress them and attract their attention2 while later the child is sensitive to syllables1 with which also the mother caresses him1 saying3 ba1 ba1 punf1 tuf6 ,illustration ,finally it is the simple word1 dissyllabic in most cases1 which attracts the child's attention4 ,but for the motor centres also the same thing may be repeated2 the child utters at the beginning simple or double sounds1 as for example bl1 gl1 ch1 an expression which the mother greets with joy2 then distinctly syllabic sounds begin to manifest themselves in the child3 ga1 ba2 and1 finally1 the dissyllabic word1 usually labial3 mama4 ,illustration ,we say that the spoken language begins with the child when the word pronounced by him signifies an idea2 when for example1 seeing his mother and recognising her he says mamma2 and seeing a dog says1 tette2 and wishing to eat says3 pappa4 ,thus we consider language begun when it is established in relation to perception2 while the language itself is still1 in its psycho-motor mechanism1 perfectly rudimentary4 ,that is1 when above the diastaltic arc where the mechanical formation of the language is still unconscious1 the recognition of the word takes place1 that is1 the word is perceived and associated with the object which it represents1 language is considered to have begun4 ,on this level1 later1 language continues the process of perfecting in proportion as the hearing perceives better the component sounds of the words and the psycho-motor channels become more permeable to articulation4 ,this is the first stage of spoken language1 which has its own beginning and its own development1 leading1 through the perceptions1 to the perfecting of the primordial mechanism of the language itself2 and at this stage precisely is established what we call articulate language1 which will later be the means which the adult will have at his disposal to express his own thoughts1 and which the adult will have great difficulty in perfecting or correcting when it has once been established3 in fact a high stage of culture sometimes accompanies an imperfect articulate language which prevents the aesthetic expression of one's thought4 ,the development of articulate language takes place in the period between the age of two and the age of seven3 the age of perceptions in which the attention of the child is spontaneously turned towards external objects1 and the memory is particularly tenacious4 ,it is the age also of motility in which all the psycho-motor channels are becoming permeable and the muscular mechanisms establish themselves4 ,in this period of life by the mysterious bond between the auditory channel and the motor channel of the spoken language it would seem that the auditory perceptions have the direct power of provoking the complicated movements of articulate speech which develop instinctively after such stimuli as if awaking from the slumber of heredity4 ,it is well known that it is only at this age that it is possible to acquire all the characteristic modulations of a language which it would be vain to attempt to establish later4 ,the mother tongue alone is well pronounced because it was established in the period of childhood2 and the adult who learns to speak a new language must bring to it the imperfections characteristic of the foreigner's speech3 only children who under the age of seven years learn several languages at the same time can receive and reproduce all the characteristic mannerisms of accent and pronunciation4 ,thus also the defects acquired in childhood such as dialectic defects or those established by bad habits1 become indelible in the adult4 ,what develops later1 the superior language1 the dictorium1 no longer has its origin in the mechanism of language but in the intellectual development which makes use of the mechanical language4 ,as the articulate language develops by the exercise of its mechanism and is enriched by perception1 the dictorium develops with syntax and is enriched by intellectual culture4 ,going back to the scheme of language we see that above the arc which defines the lower language1 is established the dictorium1 ,d1--from which now come the motor impulses of speech--which is established as spoken language fit to manifest the ideation of the intelligent man2 this language will be enriched little by little by intellectual culture and perfected by the grammatical study of syntax4 ,illustration ,hitherto1 as a result of a preconception1 it has been believed that written language should enter only into the development of the dictorium1 as the suitable means for the acquisition of culture and of permitting grammatical analysis and construction of the language4 ,since spoken words have wings it has been admitted that intellectual culture could only proceed by the aid of a language which was stable1 objective1 and capable of being analysed1 such as the graphic language4 ,but why1 when we acknowledge the graphic language as a precious1 nay indispensable1 instrument of intellectual education1 for the reason that it fixes the ideas of men and permits of their analysis and of their assimilation in books1 where they remain indelibly written as an ineffaceable memory of words which are therefore always present and by which we can analyse the syntactical structure of the language1 why shall we not acknowledge that it is useful in the more humble task of fixing the words which represent perception and of analysing their component sounds8 ,compelled by a pedagogical prejudice we are unable to separate the idea of a graphic language from that of a function which heretofore we have made it exclusively perform2 and it seems to us that by teaching such a language to children still in the age of simple perceptions and of motility we are committing a serious psychological and pedagogical error4 ,but let us rid ourselves of this prejudice and consider the graphic language in itself1 reconstructing its psycho-physiological mechanism4 ,it is far more simple than the psycho-physiological mechanism of the articulate language1 and is far more directly accessible to education4 ,writing especially is surprisingly simple4 ,for let us consider dictated writing3 we have a perfect parallel with spoken language since a motor action must correspond with heard speech4 ,here there does not exist1 to be sure1 the mysterious hereditary relations between the heard speech and the articulate speech2 but the movements of writing are far simpler than those necessary to the spoken word1 and are performed by large muscles1 all external1 upon which we can directly act1 rendering the motor channels permeable1 and establishing psycho-muscular mechanisms4 ,this indeed is what is done by my method1 which prepares the movements directly2 so that the psycho-motor impulse of the heard speech finds the motor channels already established1 and is manifested in the act of writing1 like an explosion4 ,the real difficulty is in the interpretation of the graphic signs2 but we must remember that we are in the age of perceptions1 where the sensations and the memory as well as the primitive associations are involved precisely in the characteristic progress of natural development4 ,moreover our children are already prepared by various exercises of the senses1 and by methodical construction of ideas and mental associations to perceive the graphic signs2 something like a patrimony of perceptive ideas offers material to the language in the process of development4 ,the child who recognises a triangle and calls it a triangle can recognise a letter s and denominate it by the sound s4 ,this is obvious4 ,let us not talk of premature teaching2 ridding ourselves of prejudices1 let us appeal to experience which shows that in reality children proceed without effort1 nay rather with evident manifestations of pleasure to the recognition of graphic signs presented as objects4 ,illustration ,and with this premise let us consider the relations between the mechanisms of the two languages4 ,the child of three or four has already long begun his articulate language according to our scheme4 ,but he finds himself in the period in which the mechanism of articulate language is being perfected2 a period contemporary with that in which he is acquiring a content of language along with the patrimony of perception4 ,the child has perhaps not heard perfectly in all their component parts the words which he pronounces1 and1 if he has heard them perfectly1 they may have been pronounced badly1 and consequently have left an erroneous auditory perception4 ,it would be well that the child1 by exercising the motor channels of articulate language should establish exactly the movements necessary to a perfect articulation1 before the age of easy motor adaptations is passed1 and1 by the fixation of erroneous mechanisms1 the defects become incorrigible4 ,to this end the analysis of speech is necessary4 ,as when we wish to perfect the language we first start children at composition and then pass to grammatical study2 and when we wish to perfect the style we first teach to write grammatically and then come to the analysis of style--so when we wish to perfect the speech it is first necessary that the speech exist1 and then it is proper to proceed to its analysis4 ,when1 therefore1 the child speaks1 but before the completion of the development of speech which renders it fixed in mechanisms already established1 the speech should be analysed with a view to perfecting it4 ,now1 as grammar and rhetoric are not possible with the spoken language but demand recourse to the written language which keeps ever before the eye the discourse to be analysed1 so it is with speech4 ,the analysis of the transient is impossible4 ,the language must be materialised and made stable4 ,hence the necessity of the written word or the word represented by graphic signs4 ,in the third stage of my method for writing1 that is1 composition of speech1 is included the analysis of the word not only into signs1 but into the component sounds2 the signs representing its translation4 ,the child1 that is1 divides the heard word which he perceives integrally as a word1 knowing also its meanings1 into sounds and syllables4 ,illustration ,let me call attention to the following diagram which represents the interrelation of the two mechanisms for writing and for articulate speech4 ,illustration3 ,the peripheric channels are indicated by heavy lines2 the central channels of association by dotted lines2 and those referring to association in relation to the development of the heard speech by light lines4 ,e ear2 ,so auditory centre of sounds2 ,sy auditory centre of syllables2 ,w auditory centre of word2 ,m motor centre of the articulate speech2 ,t external organs of articulate speech 7tongue72 ,h external organs of writing 7hand72 ,,mc motor centre of writing2 ,,vc visual centre of graphic signs2 ,v organ of vision4 ,whereas in the development of spoken language the sound composing the word might be imperfectly perceived1 here in the teaching of the graphic sign corresponding to the sound 7which teaching consists in presenting to the child a sandpaper letter1 naming it distinctly and making the child see it and touch it71 not only is the perception of the heard sound clearly fixed--separately and clearly--but this perception is associated with two others3 the centro-motor perception and the centro-visual perception of the written sign4 ,the triangle ,,vc1 ,,mc1 ,so represents the association of three sensations in relation with the analysis of speech4 ,when the letter is presented to the child and he is made to touch and see it1 while it is being named1 the centripetal channels ,e,so2 ,h1 ,,mc1 ,so2 ,v1 ,,vc1 ,so are acting and when the child is made to name the letter1 alone or accompanied by a vowel1 the external stimulus acts in ,v and passes through the channels ,v1 ,,vc1 ,so1 ,m1 ,t2 and ,v1 ,,cv1 ,so1 ,sy1 ,m1 ,t4 ,when these channels of association have been established by presenting visual stimuli in the graphic sign1 the corresponding movements of articulate language can be provoked and studied one by one in their defects2 while1 by maintaining the visual stimulus of the graphic sign which provokes articulation and accompanying it by the auditory stimulus of the corresponding sound uttered by the teacher1 their articulation can be perfected2 this articulation is by innate conditions connected with the heard speech2 that is1 in the course of the pronunciation provoked by the visual stimulus1 and during the repetition of the relative movements of the organs of language1 the auditory stimulus which is introduced into the exercise contributes to the perfecting of the pronunciation of the isolated or syllabic sounds composing the spoken word4 ,when later the child writes under dictation1 translating into signs the sounds of speech1 he analyses the heard speech into its sounds1 translating them into graphic movements through channels already rendered permeable by the corresponding muscular sensations4 ,,defects ,,of ,,language ,,due ,,to ,,lack ,,of ,,education ,defects and imperfections of language are in part due to organic causes1 consisting in malformations or in pathological alterations of the nervous system2 but in part they are connected with functional defects acquired in the period of the formation of language and consist in an erratic pronunciation of the component sounds of the spoken word4 ,such errors are acquired by the child who hears words imperfectly pronounced1 or hears bad speech1 ,the dialectic accent enters into this category2 but there also enter vicious habits which make the natural defects of the articulate language of childhood persist in the child1 or which provoke in him by imitation the defects of language peculiar to the persons who surrounded him in his childhood4 ,the normal defects of child language are due to the fact that the complicated muscular agencies of the organs of articulate language do not yet function well and are consequently incapable of reproducing the sound which was the sensory stimulus of a certain innate movement4 ,the association of the movements necessary to the articulation of the spoken words is established little by little4 ,the result is a language made of words with sounds which are imperfect and often lacking 7whence incomplete words74 ,such defects are grouped under the name blaesitas and are especially due to the fact that the child is not yet capable of directing the movements of his tongue4 ,they comprise chiefly3 sigmatism or imperfect pronunciation of s2 rhotacism or imperfect pronunciation of r2 lambdacism or imperfect pronunciation of l2 gammacism or imperfect pronunciation1 of g2 iotacism1 defective pronunciation of the gutturals2 mogilalia1 imperfect pronunciation of the labials1 and according to some authors1 as ,preyer1 mogilalia is made to include also the suppression of the first sound of a word4 ,some defects of pronunciation which concern the utterance of the vowel sound as well as that of the consonant are due to the fact that the child reproduces perfectly sounds imperfectly heard4 ,in the first case1 then1 it is a matter of functional insufficiencies of the peripheral motor organ and hence of the nervous channels1 and the cause lies in the individual2 whereas in the second case the error is caused by the auditory stimulus and the cause lies outside4 ,these defects often persist1 however attenuated1 in the boy and the adult3 and produce finally an erroneous language to which will later be added in writing orthographical errors1 such for example as dialectic orthographical errors4 ,if one considers the charm of human speech one is bound to acknowledge the inferiority of one who does not possess a correct spoken language2 and an aesthetic conception in education cannot be imagined unless special care be devoted to perfecting articulate language4 ,although the ,greeks had transmitted to ,rome the art of educating in language1 this practice was not resumed by ,humanism which cared more for the aesthetics of the environment and the revival of artistic works than for the perfecting of the man4 ,to-day we are just beginning to introduce the practice of correcting by pedagogical methods the serious defects of language1 such as stammering2 but the idea of linguistic gymnastics tending to its perfection has not yet penetrated into our schools as a universal method1 and as a detail of the great work of the aesthetic perfecting of man4 ,some teachers of deaf mutes and intelligent devotees of orthophony are trying nowadays with small practical success to introduce into the elementary schools the correction of the various forms of blaesitas1 as a result of statistical studies which have demonstrated the wide diffusion of such defects among the pupils4 ,the exercises consist essentially in silence cures which procure calm and repose for the organs of language1 and in patient repetition of the separate vowel and consonant sounds2 to these exercises is added also respiratory gymnastics4 ,this is not the place to describe in detail the methods of these exercises which are long and patient and quite out of harmony with the teachings of the school4 ,but in my methods are to be found all exercises for the corrections of language3 7a7 ,exercises of ,silence1 which prepare the nervous channels of language to receive new stimuli perfectly2 7b7 ,lessons which consist first of the distinct pronunciation by the teacher of few words 7especially of nouns which must be associated with a concrete idea72 by this means clear and perfect auditory stimuli of language are started1 stimuli which are repeated by the teacher when the child has conceived the idea of the object represented by the word 7recognition of the object72 finally of the provocation of articulate language on the part of the child who must repeat that word alone aloud1 pronouncing its separate sounds2 7c7 ,exercises in ,graphic ,language1 which analyse the sounds of speech and cause them to be repeated separately in several ways3 that is1 when the child learns the separate letters of the alphabet and when he composes or writes words1 repeating their sounds which he translates separately into composed or written speech2 7d7 ,gymnastic ,exercises1 which comprise1 as we have seen1 both respiratory exercises and those of articulation4 ,i believe that in the schools of the future the conception will disappear which is beginning to-day of correcting in the elementary schools the defects of language2 and will be replaced by the more rational one of avoiding them by caring for the development of language in the ,children's ,houses2 that is1 in the very age in which language is being established in the child4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,teaching ,,of ,,numeration2 ,,introduction ,,to ,,arithmetic ,children of three years already know how to count as far as two or three when they enter our schools4 ,they therefore very easily learn numeration1 which consists in counting objects4 ,a dozen different ways may serve toward this end1 and daily life presents many opportunities2 when the mother says1 for instance1 ,there are two buttons missing from your apron1 or ,we need three more plates at table4 ,one of the first means used by me1 is that of counting with money4 ,i obtain new money1 and if it were possible ,i should have good reproductions made in cardboard4 ,i have seen such money used in a school for deficients in ,london4 ,the making of change is a form of numeration so attractive as to hold the attention of the child4 ,i present the one1 two1 and four centime pieces and the children1 in this way learn to count to ten4 ,no form of instruction is more practical than that tending to make children familiar with the coins in common use1 and no exercise is more useful than that of making change4 ,it is so closely related to daily life that it interests all children intensely4 ,having taught numeration in this empiric mode1 ,i pass to more methodical exercises1 having as didactic material one of the sets of blocks already used in the education of the senses2 namely1 the series of ten rods heretofore used for the teaching of length4 ,the shortest of these rods corresponds to a decimetre1 the longest to a metre1 while the intervening rods are divided into sections a decimetre in length4 ,the sections are painted alternately red and blue4 ,illustration ,some day1 when a child has arranged the rods1 placing them in order of length1 we have him count the red and blue signs1 beginning with the smallest piece2 that is1 one2 one1 two2 one1 two1 three1 etc41 always going back to one in the counting of each rod1 and starting from the side ,a4 ,we then have him name the single rods from the shortest to the longest1 according to the total number of the sections which each contains1 touching the rods at the sides ,b1 on which side the stair ascends4 ,this results in the same numeration as when we counted the longest rod--#a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i1 #aj4 ,wishing to know the number of rods1 we count them from the side ,a and the same numeration results2 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i1 #aj4 ,this correspondence of the three sides of the triangle causes the child to verify his knowledge and as the exercise interests him he repeats it many times4 ,we now unite to the exercises in numeration the earlier1 sensory exercises in which the child recognised the long and short rods4 ,having mixed the rods upon a carpet1 the directress selects one1 and showing it to the child1 has him count the sections2 for example1 #e4 ,she then asks him to give her the one next in length4 ,he selects it by his eye1 and the directress has him verify his choice by placing the two pieces side by side and by counting their sections4 ,such exercises may be repeated in great variety and through them the child learns to assign a particular name to each one of the pieces in the long stair4 ,we may now call them piece number one2 piece number two1 etc41 and finally1 for brevity1 may speak of them in the lessons as one1 two1 three1 etc4 ,,the ,,numbers ,,as ,,represented ,,by ,,the ,,graphic ,,signs ,at this point1 if the child already knows how to write1 we may present the figures cut in sandpaper and mounted upon cards4 ,in presenting these1 the method is the same used in teaching the letters4 ,this is one4 ,this is two4 ,give me one4 ,give me two4 ,what number is this8 ,the child traces the number with his finger as he did the letters4 ,exercises with ,numbers4 ,association of the graphic sign with the quantity4 ,i have designed two trays each divided into five little compartments4 ,at the back of each compartment may be placed a card bearing a figure4 ,the figures in the first tray should be #j1 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 and in the second1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i4 ,the exercise is obvious2 it consists in placing within the compartments a number of objects corresponding to the figure indicated upon the card at the back of the compartment4 ,we give the children various objects in order to vary the lesson1 but chiefly make use of large wooden pegs so shaped that they will not roll off the desk4 ,we place a number of these before the child whose part is to arrange them in their places1 one peg corresponding to the card marked one1 etc4 ,when he has finished he takes his tray to the directress that she may verify his work4 ,the ,lesson on ,zero4 ,we wait until the child1 pointing to the compartment containing the card marked zero1 asks1 ,and what must ,i put in here8 ,we then reply1 ,nothing2 zero is nothing4 ,but often this is not enough4 ,it is necessary to make the child feel what we mean by nothing4 ,to this end we make use of little games which vastly entertain the children4 ,i stand among them1 and turning to one of them who has already used this material1 ,i say1 ,come1 dear1 come to me zero times4 ,the child almost always comes to me1 and then runs back to his place4 ,but1 my boy1 you came one time1 and ,i told you to come zero times4 ,then he begins to wonder4 ,but what must ,i do1 then8 ,nothing2 zero is nothing4 ,but how shall ,i do nothing8 ,don't do anything4 ,you must sit still4 ,you must not come at all1 not any times4 ,zero times4 ,no times at all4 ,i repeat these exercises until the children understand1 and they are then1 immensely amused at remaining quiet when ,i call to them to come to me zero times1 or to throw me zero kisses4 ,they themselves often cry out1 ,zero is nothing6 ,zero is nothing6 ,,exercises ,,for ,,the ,,memory ,,of ,,numbers ,when the children recognise the written figure1 and when this figure signifies to them the numerical value1 ,i give them the following exercise3 ,i cut the figures from old calendars and mount them upon slips of paper which are then folded and dropped into a box4 ,the children draw out the slips1 carry them still folded1 to their seats1 where they look at them and refold them1 conserving the secret4 ,then1 one by one1 or in groups1 these children 7who are naturally the oldest ones in the class7 go to the large table of the directress where groups of various small objects have been placed4 ,each one selects the quantity of objects corresponding to the number he has drawn4 ,the number1 meanwhile1 has been left at the child's place1 a slip of paper mysteriously folded4 ,the child1 therefore1 must remember his number not only during the movements which he makes in coming and going1 but while he collects his pieces1 counting them one by one4 ,the directress may here make interesting individual observations upon the number memory4 ,when the child has gathered up his objects he arranges them upon his own table1 in columns of two1 and if the number is uneven1 he places the odd piece at the bottom and between the last two objects4 ,the arrangement of the pieces is therefore as follows3-- o o o o o o o o o o ,x ,,xx ,,xx ,,xx ,,xx ,,xx ,,xx ,,xx ,,xx ,,xx ,x ,,xx ,,xx ,,xx ,,xx ,,xx ,,xx ,,xx ,x ,,xx ,,xx ,,xx ,,xx ,,xx ,x ,,xx ,,xx ,,xx ,x ,,xx ,the crosses represent the objects1 while the circle stands for the folded slip containing the figure4 ,having arranged his objects1 the child awaits the verification4 ,the directress comes1 opens the slip1 reads the number1 and counts the pieces4 ,when we first played this game it often happened that the children took more objects than were called for upon the card1 and this was not always because they did not remember the number1 but arose from a mania for the having the greatest number of objects4 ,a little of that instinctive greediness1 which is common to primitive and uncultured man4 ,the directress seeks to explain to the children that it is useless to have all those things upon the desk1 and that the point of the game lies in taking the exact number of objects called for4 ,little by little they enter into this idea1 but not so easily as one might suppose4 ,it is a real effort of self-denial which holds the child within the set limit1 and makes him take1 for example1 only two of the objects placed at his disposal1 while he sees others taking more4 ,i therefore consider this game more an exercise of will power than of numeration4 ,the child who has the zero1 should not move from his place when he sees all his companions rising and taking freely of the objects which are inaccessible to him4 ,many times zero falls to the lot of a child who knows how to count perfectly1 and who would experience great pleasure in accumulating and arranging a fine group of objects in the proper order upon his table1 and in awaiting with security the teacher's verification4 ,it is most interesting to study the expressions upon the faces of those who possess zero4 ,the individual differences which result are almost a revelation of the character of each one4 ,some remain impassive1 assuming a bold front in order to hide the pain of the disappointment2 others show this disappointment by involuntary gestures4 ,still others cannot hide the smile which is called forth by the singular situation in which they find themselves1 and which will make their friends curious4 ,there are little ones who follow every movement of their companions with a look of desire1 almost of envy1 while others show instant acceptance of the situation4 ,no less interesting are the expressions with which they confess to the holding of the zero1 when asked during the verification1 and you1 you haven't taken anything8 ,i have zero4 ,it is zero4 ,these are the usual words1 but the expressive face1 the tone of the voice1 show widely varying sentiments4 ,rare1 indeed1 are those who seem to give with pleasure the explanation of an extraordinary fact4 ,the greater number either look unhappy or merely resigned4 ,we therefore give lessons upon the meaning of the game1 saying1 ,it is hard to keep the zero secret4 ,fold the paper tightly and don't let it slip away4 ,it is the most difficult of all4 ,indeed1 after awhile1 the very difficulty of remaining quiet appeals to the children1 and when they open the slip marked zero it can be seen that they are content to keep the secret4 ,,addition ,,and ,,subtraction ,,from ,,one ,,to ,,twenty3 ,,multiplication ,,and ,,division ,the didactic material which we use for the teaching of the first arithmetical operations is the same already used for numeration2 that is1 the rods graduated as to length which1 arranged on the scale of the metre1 contain the first idea of the decimal system4 ,the rods1 as ,i have said1 have come to be called by the numbers which they represent2 one1 two1 three1 etc4 ,they are arranged in order of length1 which is also in order of numeration4 ,the first exercise consists in trying to put the shorter pieces together in such a way as to form tens4 ,the most simple way of doing this is to take successively the shortest rods1 from one up1 and place them at the end of the corresponding long rods from nine down4 ,this may be accompanied by the commands1 ,take one and add it to nine2 take two and add it to eight2 take three and add it to seven2 take four and add it to six4 ,in this way we make four rods equal to ten4 ,there remains the five1 but1 turning this upon its head 7in the long sense71 it passes from one end of the ten to the other1 and thus makes clear the fact that two times five makes ten4 ,these exercises are repeated and little by little the child is taught the more technical language2 nine plus one equals ten1 eight plus two equals ten1 seven plus three equals ten1 six plus four equals ten1 and for the five1 which remains1 two times five equals ten4 ,at last1 if he can write1 we teach the signs plus and equals and times4 ,then this is what we see in the neat note-books of our little ones3 #i #a #aj #h #b #aj #e x #b #aj #g #c #aj #f #d #aj ,when all this is well learned and has been put upon the paper with great pleasure by the children1 we call their attention to the work which is done when the pieces grouped together to form tens are taken apart1 and put back in their original positions4 ,from the ten last formed we take away four and six remains2 from the next we take away three and seven remains2 from the next1 two and eight remains2 from the last1 we take away one and nine remains4 ,speaking of this properly we say1 ten less four equals six2 ten less three equals seven2 ten less two equals eight2 ten less one equals nine4 ,in regard to the remaining five1 it is the half of ten1 and by cutting the long rod in two1 that is dividing ten by two1 we would have five2 ten divided by two equals five4 ,the written record of all this reads3 #aj - #d #f #aj - #c #g #aj _/ #b #e #aj - #b #h #aj - #a #i ,once the children have mastered this exercise they multiply it spontaneously4 ,can we make three in two ways8 ,we place the one after the two and then write1 in order that we may remember what we have done1 #b #a #c4 ,can we make two rods equal to number four8 #c #a #d1 and #d - #c #a2 #d - #a #c4 ,rod number two in its relation to rod number four is treated as was five in relation to ten2 that is1 we turn it over and show that it is contained in four exactly two times3 #d _/ #b #b2 #b x #b #d4 ,another problem3 let us see with how many rods we can play this same game4 ,we can do it with three and six2 and with four and eight2 that is1 #b x #b #d #c x #b #f #d x #b #h #e x #b #aj #aj _/ #b #e #h _/ #b #d #f _/ #b #c #d _/ #b #b ,at this point we find that the cubes with which we played the number memory games are of help3 #b #d #f #h #aj ,x ,x,x ,,xx ,x,x ,,xx ,x,x ,,xx ,x,x ,,xx ,x,x ,x ,x,x ,,xx ,x,x ,,xx ,x,x ,,xx ,x,x ,x ,x,x ,,xx ,x,x ,,xx ,x,x ,x ,x,x ,,xx ,x,x ,x ,x,x ,from this arrangement1 one sees at once which are the numbers which can be divided by two--all those which have not an odd cube at the bottom4 ,these are the even numbers1 because they can be arranged in pairs1 two by two2 and the division by two is easy1 all that is necessary being to separate the two lines of twos that stand one under the other4 ,counting the cubes of each file we have the quotient4 ,to recompose the primitive number we need only reassemble the two files thus #b x #c #f4 ,all this is not difficult for children of five years4 ,the repetition soon becomes monotonous1 but the exercises may be most easily changed1 taking again the set of long rods1 and instead of placing rod number one after nine1 place it after ten4 ,in the same way1 place two after nine1 and three after eight4 ,in this way we make rods of a greater length than ten2 lengths which we must learn to name eleven1 twelve1 thirteen1 etc41 as far as twenty4 ,the little cubes1 too1 may be used to fix these higher numbers4 ,having learned the operations through ten1 we proceed with no difficulty to twenty4 ,the one difficulty lies in the decimal numbers which require certain lessons4 ,,lessons ,,on ,,decimals3 ,,arithmetical ,,calculations ,,beyond ,,ten ,the necessary didactic material consists of a number of square cards upon which the figure ten is printed in large type1 and of other rectangular cards1 half the size of the square1 and containing the single numbers from one to nine4 ,we place the numbers in a line2 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i1 #aj4 ,then1 having no more numbers1 we must begin over again and take the #a again4 ,this #a is like that section in the set of rods which1 in rod number #aj1 extends beyond nine4 ,counting along the stair as far as nine1 there remains this one section which1 as there are no more numbers1 we again designate as #a2 but this is a higher #a than the first1 and to distinguish it from the first we put near it a zero1 a sign which means nothing4 ,here then is #aj4 ,covering the zero with the separate rectangular number cards in the order of their succession we see formed3 #aa1 #ab1 #ac1 #ad1 #ae1 #af1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai4 ,these numbers are composed by adding to rod number #aj1 first rod number #a1 then #b1 then #c1 etc41 until we finally add rod number #i to rod number #aj1 thus obtaining a very long rod1 which1 when its alternating red and blue sections are counted1 gives us nineteen4 ,the directress may then show to the child the cards1 giving the number #af1 and he may place rod #f after rod #aj4 ,she then takes away the card bearing #f1 and places over the zero the card bearing the figure #h1 whereupon the child takes away rod #f and replaces it with rod #h1 thus making #ah4 ,each of these acts may be recorded thus3 #aj #f #af2 #aj #h #ah1 etc4 ,we proceed in the same way to subtraction4 ,when the number itself begins to have a clear meaning to the child1 the combinations are made upon one long card1 arranging the rectangular cards bearing the nine figures upon the two columns of numbers shown in the figures ,a and ,b4 ,a ,b ---- ---- #aj #aj #aj #bj #aj #cj #aj #dj #aj #ej #aj #fj #aj #gj #aj #hj #aj #ij ---- ---- ,upon the card ,a we superimpose upon the zero of the second #aj1 the rectangular card bearing the #a3 and under this the one bearing two1 etc4 ,thus while the one of the ten remains the same the numbers to the right proceed from zero to nine1 thus3 ,in card ,b the applications are more complex4 ,the cards are superimposed in numerical progression by tens4 ---- #aj #aa #ab #ac #ad #ae #af #ag #ah #ai #bj ---- ,almost all our children count to #ajj1 a number which was given to them in response to the curiosity they showed in regard to learning it4 ,i do not believe that this phase of the teaching needs further illustrations4 ,each teacher may multiply the practical exercises in the arithmetical operations1 using simple objects which the children can readily handle and divide4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,sequence ,,of ,,exercises ,in the practical application of the method it is helpful to know the sequence1 or the various series1 of exercises which must be presented to the child successively4 ,in the first edition of my book there was clearly indicated a progression for each exercise2 but in the ,children's ,houses we began contemporaneously with the most varied exercises2 and it develops that there exist grades in the presentation of the material in its entirety4 ,these grades have1 since the first publication of the book1 become clearly defined through experience in the ,children's ,houses4 ,,sequence ,,and ,,grades ,,in ,,the ,,presentation ,,of ,,material ,,and ,,in ,,the ,,exercises ,first ,grade ,as soon as the child comes to the school he may be given the following exercises3 ,moving the seats1 in silence 7practical life74 ,lacing1 buttoning1 hooking1 etc4 ,the cylinders 7sense exercises74 ,among these the most useful exercise is that of the cylinders 7solid insets74 ,the child here begins to fix his attention4 ,he makes his first comparison1 his first selection1 in which he exercises judgment4 ,therefore he exercises his intelligence4 ,among these exercises with the solid insets1 there exists the following progression from easy to difficult3 7a7 ,the cylinders in which the pieces are of the same height and of decreasing diameter4 7b7 ,the cylinders decreasing in all dimensions4 7c7 ,those decreasing only in height4 ,second ,grade ,exercises of ,practical ,life4 ,to rise and be seated in silence4 ,to walk on the line4 ,sense ,exercises4 ,material dealing with dimensions4 ,the ,long ,stair4 ,the prisms1 or ,big ,stair4 ,the cubes4 ,here the child makes exercises in the recognition of dimensions as he did in the cylinders but under a very different aspect4 ,the objects are much larger4 ,the differences much more evident than they were in the preceding exercises1 but here1 only the eye of the child recognises the differences and controls the errors4 ,in the preceding exercises1 the errors were mechanically revealed to the child by the didactic material itself4 ,the impossibility of placing the objects in order in the block in any other than their respective spaces gives this control4 ,finally1 while in the preceding exercises the child makes much more simple movements 7being seated he places little objects in order with his hands71 in these new exercises he accomplishes movements which are decidedly more complex and difficult and makes small muscular efforts4 ,he does this by moving from the table to the carpet1 rises1 kneels1 carries heavy objects4 ,we notice that the child continues to be confused between the two last pieces in the growing scale1 being for a long time unconscious of such an error after he has learned to put the other pieces in correct order4 ,indeed the difference between these pieces being throughout the varying dimensions the same for all1 the relative difference diminishes with the increasing size of the pieces themselves4 ,for example1 the little cube which has a base of #b centimetres is double the size1 as to base1 of the smallest cube which has a base of #a centimetre1 while the largest cube having a base of #aj centimetres1 differs by barely #a_/aj from the base of the cube next it in the series 7the one of #i centimetres base74 ,thus it would seem that1 theoretically1 in such exercises we should begin with the smallest piece4 ,we can1 indeed1 do this with the material through which size and length are taught4 ,but we cannot do so with the cubes1 which must be arranged as a little tower4 ,this column of blocks must always have as its base the largest cube4 ,the children1 attracted above all by the tower1 begin very early to play with it4 ,thus we often see very little children playing with the tower1 happy in believing that they have constructed it1 when they have inadvertently used the next to the largest cube as the base4 ,but when the child1 repeating the exercise1 corrects himself of his own accord1 in a permanent fashion1 we may be certain that his eye has become trained to perceive even the slightest differences between the pieces4 ,in the three systems of blocks through which dimensions are taught that of length has pieces differing from each other by #aj centimetres1 while in the other two sets1 the pieces differ only #a centimetre4 ,theoretically it would seem that the long rods should be the first to attract the attention and to exclude errors4 ,this1 however1 is not the case4 ,the children are attracted by this set of blocks1 but they commit the greatest number of errors in using it1 and only after they have for a long time eliminated every error in constructing the other two sets1 do they succeed in arranging the ,long ,stair perfectly4 ,this may then be considered as the most difficult among the series through which dimensions are taught4 ,arrived at this point in his education1 the child is capable of fixing his attention1 with interest1 upon the thermic and tactile stimuli4 ,the progression in the sense development is not1 therefore1 in actual practice identical with the theoretical progression which psychometry indicates in the study of its subjects4 ,nor does it follow the progression which physiology and anatomy indicate in the description of the relations of the sense organs4 ,in fact1 the tactile sense is the primitive sense2 the organ of touch is the most simple and the most widely diffused4 ,but it is easy to explain how the most simple sensations1 the least complex organs1 are not the first through which to attract the attention in a didactic presentation of sense stimuli4 ,therefore1 when the education of the attention has been begun1 we may present to the child the rough and smooth surfaces 7following certain thermic exercises described elsewhere in the book74 ,these exercises1 if presented at the proper time1 interest the children immensely4 ,it is to be remembered that these games are of the greatest importance in the method1 because upon them1 in union with the exercises for the movement of the hand1 which we introduce later1 we base the acquisition of writing4 ,together with the two series of sense exercises described above1 we may begin what we call the pairing of the colours1 that is1 the recognition of the identity of two colours4 ,this is the first exercise of the chromatic sense4 ,here1 also1 it is only the eye of the child that intervenes in the judgment1 as it was with the exercises in dimension4 ,this first colour exercise is easy1 but the child must already have acquired a certain grade of education of the attention through preceding exercises1 if he is to repeat this one with interest4 ,meanwhile1 the child has heard music2 has walked on the line1 while the directress played a rhythmic march4 ,little by little he has learned to accompany the music spontaneously with certain movements4 ,this of course necessitates the repetition of the same music4 7,to acquire the sense of rhythm the repetition of the same exercise is necessary1 as in all forms of education dealing with spontaneous activity47 ,the exercises in silence are also repeated4 ,third ,grade ,exercises of ,practical ,life4 ,the children wash themselves1 dress and undress themselves1 dust the tables1 learn to handle various objects1 etc4 ,sense ,exercises4 ,we now introduce the child to the recognition of gradations of stimuli 7tactile gradations1 chromatic1 etc471 allowing him to exercise himself freely4 ,we begin to present the stimuli for the sense of hearing 7sounds1 noises71 and also the baric stimuli 7the little tablets differing in weight74 ,contemporaneously with the gradations we may present the plane geometric insets4 ,here begins the education of the movement of the hand in following the contours of the insets1 an exercise which1 together with the other and contemporaneous one of the recognition of tactile stimuli in gradation1 prepares for writing4 ,the series of cards bearing the geometric forms1 we give after the child recognises perfectly the same forms in the wooden insets4 ,these cards serve to prepare for the abstract signs of which writing consists4 ,the child learns to recognise a delineated form1 and after all the preceding exercises have formed within him an ordered and intelligent personality1 they may be considered the bridge by which he passes from the sense exercises to writing1 from the preparation1 to the actual entrance into instruction4 ,fourth ,grade ,exercises of ,practical ,life4 ,the children set and clear the table for luncheon4 ,they learn to put a room in order4 ,they are now taught the most minute care of their persons in the making of the toilet4 7,how to brush their teeth1 to clean their nails1 etc47 ,they have learned1 through the rhythmic exercises on the line1 to walk with perfect freedom and balance4 ,they know how to control and direct their own movements 7how to make the silence1--how to move various objects without dropping or breaking them and without making a noise74 ,sense ,exercises4 ,in this stage we repeat all the sense exercises4 ,in addition we introduce the recognition of musical notes by the help of the series of duplicate bells4 ,exercises ,related to ,writing _/ ,design _/ ,the child passes to the plane geometric insets in metal4 ,he has already co-ordinated the movements necessary to follow the contours4 ,here he no longer follows them with his finger1 but with a pencil1 leaving the double sign upon a sheet of paper4 ,then he fills in the figures with coloured pencils1 holding the pencil as he will later hold the pen in writing4 ,contemporaneously the child is taught to recognise and touch some of the letters of the alphabet made in sandpaper4 ,exercises in ,arithmetic4 ,at this point1 repeating the sense exercises1 we present the ,long ,stair with a different aim from that with which it has been used up to the present time4 ,we have the child count the different pieces1 according to the blue and red sections1 beginning with the rod consisting of one section and continuing through that composed of ten sections4 ,we continue such exercises and give other more complicated ones4 ,in ,design we pass from the outlines of the geometric insets to such outlined figures as the practice of four years has established and which will be published as models in design4 ,these have an educational importance1 and represent in their content and in their gradations one of the most carefully studied details of the method4 ,they serve as a means for the continuation of the sense education and help the child to observe his surroundings4 ,they thus add to his intellectual refinement1 and1 as regards writing1 they prepare for the high and low strokes4 ,after such practice it will be easy for the child to make high or low letters1 and this will do away with the ruled note-books such as are used in ,italy in the various elementary classes4 ,in the acquiring of the use of written language we go as far as the knowledge of the letters of the alphabet1 and of composition with the movable alphabet4 ,in ,arithmetic1 as far as a knowledge of the figures4 ,the child places the corresponding figures beside the number of blue and red sections on each rod of the ,long ,stair4 ,the children now take the exercise with the wooden pegs4 ,also the games which consist in placing under the figures1 on the table1 a corresponding number of coloured counters4 ,these are arranged in columns of twos1 thus making the question of odd and even numbers clear4 7,this arrangement is taken from ,seguin47 ,fifth ,grade ,we continue the preceding exercises4 ,we begin more complicated rhythmic exercises4 ,in design we begin3 7a7 ,the use of water colours4 7b7 ,free drawing from nature 7flowers1 etc474 ,composition of words and phrases with the movable alphabet4 7a7 ,spontaneous writing of words and phrases4 7b7 ,reading from slips prepared by the directress4 ,we continue the arithmetical operations which we began with the ,long ,stair4 ,the children at this stage present most interesting differences of development4 ,they fairly run toward instruction1 and order their intellectual growth in a way that is remarkable4 ,this joyous growth is what we so rejoice in1 as we watch in these children1 humanity1 growing in the spirit according to its own deep laws4 ,and only he who experiments can say how great may be the harvest from the sowing of such seed4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,general ,,review ,,of ,,discipline ,the accumulated experience we have had since the publication of the ,italian version has repeatedly proved to us that in our classes of little children1 numbering forty and even fifty1 the discipline is much better than in ordinary schools4 ,for this reason ,i have thought that an analysis of the discipline obtained by our method--which is based upon liberty1--would interest my ,american readers4 ,whoever visits a well kept school 7such as1 for instance1 the one in ,rome directed by my pupil ,anna ,maccheroni7 is struck by the discipline of the children4 ,there are forty little beings--from three to seven years old1 each one intent on his own work2 one is going through one of the exercises for the senses1 one is doing an arithmetical exercise2 one is handling the letters1 one is drawing1 one is fastening and unfastening the pieces of cloth on one of our little wooden frames1 still another is dusting4 ,some are seated at the tables1 some on rugs on the floor4 ,there are muffled sounds of objects lightly moved about1 of children tiptoeing4 ,once in a while comes a cry of joy only partly repressed1 ,teacher6 ,teacher6 an eager call1 ,look6 see what ,i've done4 ,but as a rule1 there is entire absorption in the work in hand4 ,the teacher moves quietly about1 goes to any child who calls her1 supervising operations in such a way that anyone who needs her finds her at his elbow1 and whoever does not need her is not reminded of her existence4 ,sometimes1 hours go by without a word4 ,they seem little men1 as they were called by some visitors to the ,children's ,house2 or1 as another suggested1 judges in deliberation4 ,in the midst of such intense interest in work it never happens that quarrels arise over the possession of an object4 ,if one accomplishes something especially fine1 his achievement is a source of admiration and joy to others3 no heart suffers from another's wealth1 but the triumph of one is a delight to all4 ,very often he finds ready imitators4 ,they all seem happy and satisfied to do what they can1 without feeling jealous of the deeds of others4 ,the little fellow of three works peaceably beside the boy of seven1 just as he is satisfied with his own height and does not envy the older boy's stature4 ,everything is growing in the most profound peace4 ,if the teacher wishes the whole assembly to do something1 for instance1 leave the work which interests them so much1 all she needs to do is to speak a word in a low tone1 or make a gesture1 and they are all attention1 they look toward her with eagerness1 anxious to know how to obey4 ,many visitors have seen the teacher write orders on the blackboard1 which were obeyed joyously by the children4 ,not only the teachers1 but anyone who asks the pupils to do something is astonished to see them obey in the minutest detail and with obliging cheerfulness4 ,often a visitor wishes to hear how a child1 now painting1 can sing4 ,the child leaves his painting to be obliging1 but the instant his courteous action is completed1 he returns to his interrupted work4 ,sometimes the smaller children finish their work before they obey4 ,a very surprising result of this discipline came to our notice during the examinations of the teachers who had followed my course of lectures4 ,these examinations were practical1 and1 accordingly1 groups of children were put at the disposition of the teachers being examined1 who1 according to the subject drawn by lot1 took the children through a given exercise4 ,while the children were waiting their turn1 they were allowed to do just as they pleased4 ,they worked incessantly1 and returned to their undertakings as soon as the interruption caused by the examination was over4 ,every once in a while1 one of them came to show us a drawing made during the interval4 ,miss ,george of ,chicago was present many times when this happened1 and ,madame ,pujols1 who founded the first ,children's ,house in ,paris1 was astonished at the patience1 the perseverance1 and the inexhaustible amiability of the children4 ,one might think that such children had been severely repressed were it not for their lack of timidity1 for their bright eyes1 for their happy1 free aspect1 for the cordiality of their invitations to look at their work1 for the way in which they take visitors about and explain matters to them4 ,these things make us feel that we are in the presence of the masters of the house2 and the fervour with which they throw their arms around the teacher's knees1 with which they pull her down to kiss her face1 shows that their little hearts are free to expand as they will4 ,anyone who has watched them setting the table must have passed from one surprise to another4 ,little four-year-old waiters take the knives and forks and spoons and distribute them to the different places2 they carry trays holding as many as five water-glasses1 and finally they go from table to table1 carrying big tureens full of hot soup4 ,not a mistake is made1 not a glass is broken1 not a drop of soup is spilled4 ,all during the meal unobtrusive little waiters watch the table assiduously2 not a child empties his soup-plate without being offered more2 if he is ready for the next course a waiter briskly carries off his soup-plate4 ,not a child is forced to ask for more soup1 or to announce that he has finished4 ,illustration3 ,,montessori ,,children ,,at ,,dinner ,the tables are set in the grounds of the school of the ,franciscan ,nuns1 in ,rome4 ,illustration3 ,,school ,,at ,,tarrytown1 ,n4 ,y4 ,the two girls at the left are constructing the big stair and the tower4 ,the boy in the center has constructed the long stair1 and is placing the figures beside the corresponding rods4 ,the child to the right is tracing sandpaper letters4 ,remembering the usual condition of four-year-old children1 who cry1 who break whatever they touch1 who need to be waited on1 everyone is deeply moved by the sight ,i have just described1 which evidently results from the development of energies latent in the depths of the human soul4 ,i have often seen the spectators at this banquet of little ones1 moved to tears4 ,but such discipline could never be obtained by commands1 by sermonizings1 in short1 through any of the disciplinary devices universally known4 ,not only were the actions of those children set in an orderly condition1 but their very lives were deepened and enlarged4 ,in fact1 such discipline is on the same plane with school-exercises extraordinary for the age of the children2 and it certainly does not depend upon the teacher but upon a sort of miracle1 occurring in the inner life of each child4 ,if we try to think of parallels in the life of adults1 we are reminded of the phenomenon of conversion1 of the superhuman heightening of the strength of martyrs and apostles1 of the constancy of missionaries1 of the obedience of monks4 ,nothing else in the world1 except such things1 is on a spiritual height equal to the discipline of the ,children's ,houses4 ,to obtain such discipline it is quite useless to count on reprimands or spoken exhortations4 ,such means might perhaps at the beginning have an appearance of efficacy3 but very soon1 the instant that real discipline appears1 all of this falls miserably to the earth1 an illusion confronted with reality--night gives way to day4 ,the first dawning of real discipline comes through work4 ,at a given moment it happens that a child becomes keenly interested in a piece of work1 showing it by the expression of his face1 by his intense attention1 by his perseverance in the same exercise4 ,that child has set foot upon the road leading to discipline4 ,whatever be his undertaking--an exercise for the senses1 an exercise in buttoning up or lacing together1 or washing dishes--it is all one and the same4 ,on our side1 we can have some influence upon the permanence of this phenomenon1 by means of repeated ,lessons of ,silence4 ,the perfect immobility1 the attention alert to catch the sound of the names whispered from a distance1 then the carefully co-ordinated movements executed so as not to strike against chair or table1 so as barely to touch the floor with the feet--all this is a most efficacious preparation for the task of setting in order the whole personality1 the motor forces and the psychical4 ,once the habit of work is formed1 we must supervise it with scrupulous accuracy1 graduating the exercises as experience has taught us4 ,in our effort to establish discipline1 we must rigorously apply the principles of the method4 ,it is not to be obtained by words2 no man learns self-discipline through hearing another man speak4 ,the phenomenon of discipline needs as preparation a series of complete actions1 such as are presupposed in the genuine application of a really educative method4 ,discipline is reached always by indirect means4 ,the end is obtained1 not by attacking the mistake and fighting it1 but by developing activity in spontaneous work4 ,this work cannot be arbitrarily offered1 and it is precisely here that our method enters2 it must be work which the human being instinctively desires to do1 work towards which the latent tendencies of life naturally turn1 or towards which the individual step by step ascends4 ,such is the work which sets the personality in order and opens wide before it infinite possibilities of growth4 ,take1 for instance1 the lack of control shown by a baby2 it is fundamentally a lack of muscular discipline4 ,the child is in a constant state of disorderly movement3 he throws himself down1 he makes queer gestures1 he cries4 ,what underlies all this is a latent tendency to seek that co-ordination of movement which will be established later4 ,the baby is a man not yet sure of the movements of the various muscles of the body2 not yet master of the organs of speech4 ,he will eventually establish these various movements1 but for the present he is abandoned to a period of experimentation full of mistakes1 and of fatiguing efforts towards a desirable end latent in his instinct1 but not clear in his consciousness4 ,to say to the baby1 ,stand still as ,i do1 brings no light into his darkness2 commands cannot aid in the process of bringing order into the complex psycho-muscular system of an individual in process of evolution4 ,we are confused at this point by the example of the adult who through a wicked impulse prefers disorder1 and who may 7granted that he can7 obey a sharp admonishment which turns his will in another direction1 towards that order which he recognises and which it is within his capacity to achieve4 ,in the case of the little child it is a question of aiding the natural evolution of voluntary action4 ,hence it is necessary to teach all the co-ordinated movements1 analysing them as much as possible and developing them bit by bit4 ,thus1 for instance1 it is necessary to teach the child the various degrees of immobility leading to silence2 the movements connected with rising from a chair and sitting down1 with walking1 with tiptoeing1 with following a line drawn on the floor keeping an upright equilibrium4 ,the child is taught to move objects about1 to set them down more or less carefully1 and finally the complex movements connected with dressing and undressing himself 7analysed on the lacing and buttoning frames at school71 and for even each of these exercises1 the different parts of the movement must be analysed4 ,perfect immobility and the successive perfectioning of action1 is what takes the place of the customary command1 ,be quiet6 ,be still6 ,it is not astonishing but very natural that the child by means of such exercises should acquire self-discipline1 so far as regards the lack of muscular discipline natural to his age4 ,in short1 he responds to nature because he is in action2 but these actions being directed towards an end1 have no longer the appearance of disorder but of work4 ,this is discipline which represents an end to be attained by means of a number of conquests4 ,the child disciplined in this way1 is no longer the child he was at first1 who knows how to be good passively2 but he is an individual who has made himself better1 who has overcome the usual limits of his age1 who has made a great step forward1 who has conquered his future in his present4 ,he has therefore enlarged his dominion4 ,he will not need to have someone always at hand1 to tell him vainly 7confusing two opposing conceptions71 ,be quiet6 ,be good6 ,the goodness he has conquered cannot be summed up by inertia3 his goodness is now all made up of action4 ,as a matter of fact1 good people are those who advance towards the good--that good which is made up of their own self-development and of external acts of order and usefulness4 ,in our efforts with the child1 external acts are the means which stimulate internal development1 and they again appear as its manifestation1 the two elements being inextricably intertwined4 ,work develops the child spiritually2 but the child with a fuller spiritual development works better1 and his improved work delights him1--hence he continues to develop spiritually4 ,discipline is1 therefore1 not a fact but a path1 a path in following which the child grasps the abstract conception of goodness with an exactitude which is fairly scientific4 ,but beyond everything else he savours the supreme delights of that spiritual order which is attained indirectly through conquests directed towards determinate ends4 ,in that long preparation1 the child experiences joys1 spiritual awakenings and pleasures which form his inner treasure-house--the treasure-house in which he is steadily storing up the sweetness and strength which will be the sources of righteousness4 ,in short1 the child has not only learned to move about and to perform useful acts2 he has acquired a special grace of action which makes his gestures more correct and attractive1 and which beautifies his hands and indeed his entire body now so balanced and so sure of itself2 a grace which refines the expression of his face and of his serenely brilliant eyes1 and which shows us that the flame of spiritual life has been lighted in another human being4 ,it is obviously true that co-ordinated actions1 developed spontaneously little by little 7that is1 chosen and carried out in the exercises by the child himself71 must call for less effort than the disorderly actions performed by the child who is left to his own devices4 ,true rest for muscles1 intended by nature for action1 is in orderly action2 just as true rest for the lungs is the normal rhythm of respiration taken in pure air4 ,to take action away from the muscles is to force them away from their natural motor impulse1 and hence1 besides tiring them1 means forcing them into a state of degeneration2 just as the lungs forced into immobility1 would die instantly and the whole organism with them4 ,it is therefore necessary to keep clearly in mind the fact that rest for whatever naturally acts1 lies in some specified form of action1 corresponding to its nature4 ,to act in obedience to the hidden precepts of nature--that is rest2 and in this special case1 since man is meant to be an intelligent creature1 the more intelligent his acts are the more he finds repose in them4 ,when a child acts only in a disorderly1 disconnected manner1 his nervous force is under a great strain2 while on the other hand his nervous energy is positively increased and multiplied by intelligent actions which give him real satisfaction1 and a feeling of pride that he has overcome himself1 that he finds himself in a world beyond the frontiers formerly set up as insurmountable1 surrounded by the silent respect of the one who has guided him without making his presence felt4 ,this multiplication of nervous energy represents a process which can be physiologically analysed1 and which comes from the development of the organs by rational exercise1 from better circulation of the blood1 from the quickened activity of all the tissues--all factors favourable to the development of the body and guaranteeing physical health4 ,the spirit aids the body in its growth2 the heart1 the nerves and the muscles are helpful in their evolution by the activity of the spirit1 since the upward path for soul and body is one and the same4 ,by analogy1 it can be said of the intellectual development of the child1 that the mind of infancy1 although characteristically disorderly1 is also a means searching for its end1 which goes through exhausting experiments1 left1 as it frequently is1 to its own resources1 and too often really persecuted4 ,once in our public park in ,rome1 the ,pincian ,gardens1 ,i saw a baby of about a year and a half1 a beautiful smiling child1 who was working away trying to fill a little pail by shoveling gravel into it4 ,beside him was a smartly dressed nurse evidently very fond of him1 the sort of nurse who would consider that she gave the child the most affectionate and intelligent care4 ,it was time to go home and the nurse was patiently exhorting the baby to leave his work and let her put him into the baby-carriage4 ,seeing that her exhortations made no impression on the little fellow's firmness1 she herself filled the pail with gravel and set pail and baby into the carriage with the fixed conviction that she had given him what he wanted4 ,i was struck by the loud cries of the child and by the expression of protest against violence and injustice which wrote itself on his little face4 ,what an accumulation of wrongs weighed down that nascent intelligence6 ,the little boy did not wish to have the pail full of gravel2 he wished to go through the motions necessary to fill it1 thus satisfying a need of his vigorous organism4 ,the child's unconscious aim was his own self-development2 not the external fact of a pail full of little stones4 ,the vivid attractions of the external world were only empty apparitions2 the need of his life was a reality4 ,as a matter of fact1 if he had filled his pail he would probably have emptied it out again in order to keep on filling it up until his inner self was satisfied4 ,it was the feeling of working towards this satisfaction which1 a few moments before1 had made his face so rosy and smiling2 spiritual joy1 exercise1 and sunshine1 were the three rays of light ministering to his splendid life4 ,this commonplace episode in the life of that child1 is a detail of what happens to all children1 even the best and most cherished4 ,they are not understood1 because the adult judges them by his own measure3 he thinks that the child's wish is to obtain some tangible object1 and lovingly helps him to do this3 whereas the child as a rule has for his unconscious desire1 his own self-development4 ,hence he despises everything already attained1 and yearns for that which is still to be sought for4 ,for instance1 he prefers the action of dressing himself to the state of being dressed1 even finely dressed4 ,he prefers the act of washing himself to the satisfaction of being clean3 he prefers to make a little house for himself1 rather than merely to own it4 ,his own self-development is his true and almost his only pleasure4 ,the self-development of the little baby up to the end of his first year consists to a large degree in taking in nutrition2 but afterwards it consists in aiding the orderly establishment of the psycho-physiological functions of his organism4 ,that beautiful baby in the ,pincian ,gardens is the symbol of this3 he wished to co-ordinate his voluntary actions2 to exercise his muscles by lifting2 to train his eye to estimate distances2 to exercise his intelligence in the reasoning connected with his undertaking2 to stimulate his will-power by deciding his own actions2 whilst she who loved him1 believing that his aim was to possess some pebbles1 made him wretched4 ,a similar error is that which we repeat so frequently when we fancy that the desire of the student is to possess a piece of information4 ,we aid him to grasp intellectually this detached piece of knowledge1 and1 preventing by this means his self-development1 we make him wretched4 ,it is generally believed in schools that the way to attain1 satisfaction is to learn something4 ,but by leaving the children in our schools in liberty we have been able with great clearness to follow them in their natural method of spontaneous self-development4 ,to have learned something is for the child only a point of departure4 ,when he has learned the meaning of an exercise1 then he begins to enjoy repeating it1 and he does repeat it an infinite number of times1 with the most evident satisfaction4 ,he enjoys executing that act because by means of it he is developing his psychic activities4 ,there results from the observation of this fact a criticism of what is done to-day in many schools4 ,often1 for instance when the pupils are questioned1 the teacher says to someone who is eager to answer1 ,no1 not you1 because you know it and puts her question specially to the pupils who she thinks are uncertain of the answer4 ,those who do not know are made to speak1 those who do know to be silent4 ,this happens because of the general habit of considering the act of knowing something as final4 ,and yet how many times it happens to us in ordinary life to repeat the very thing we know best1 the thing we care most for1 the thing to which some living force in us responds4 ,we love to sing musical phrases very familiar1 hence enjoyed and become a part of the fabric of our lives4 ,we love to repeat stories of things which please us1 which we know very well1 even though we are quite aware that we are saying nothing new4 ,no matter how many times we repeat the ,lord's ,prayer1 it is always new4 ,no two persons could be more convinced of mutual love than sweethearts and yet they are the very ones who repeat endlessly that they love each other4 ,but in order to repeat in this manner1 there must first exist the idea to be repeated4 ,a mental grasp of the idea1 is indispensable to the beginning of repetition4 ,the exercise which develops life1 consists in the repetition1 not in the mere grasp of the idea4 ,when a child has attained this stage1 of repeating an exercise1 he is on the way to self-development1 and the external sign of this condition is his self-discipline4 ,this phenomenon does not always occur4 ,the same exercises are not repeated by children of all ages4 ,in fact1 repetition corresponds to a need4 ,here steps in the experimental method of education4 ,it is necessary to offer those exercises which correspond to the need of development felt by an organism1 and if the child's age has carried him past a certain need1 it is never possible to obtain1 in its fulness1 a development which missed its proper moment4 ,hence children grow up1 often fatally and irrevocably1 imperfectly developed4 ,another very interesting observation is that which relates to the length of time needed for the execution of actions4 ,children1 who are undertaking something for the first time are extremely slow4 ,their life is governed in this respect by laws especially different from ours4 ,little children accomplish slowly and perseveringly1 various complicated operations agreeable to them1 such as dressing1 undressing1 cleaning the room1 washing themselves1 setting the table1 eating1 etc4 ,in all this they are extremely patient1 overcoming all the difficulties presented by an organism still in process of formation4 ,but we1 on the other hand1 noticing that they are tiring themselves out or wasting time in accomplishing something which we would do in a moment and without the least effort1 put ourselves in the child's place and do it ourselves4 ,always with the same erroneous idea1 that the end to be obtained is the completion of the action1 we dress and wash the child1 we snatch out of his hands objects which he loves to handle1 we pour the soup into his bowl1 we feed him1 we set the table for him4 ,and after such services1 we consider him with that injustice always practised by those who domineer over others even with benevolent intentions1 to be incapable and inept4 ,we often speak of him as impatient simply because we are not patient enough to allow his actions to follow laws of time differing from our own2 we call him tyrannical exactly because we employ tyranny towards him4 ,this stain1 this false imputation1 this calumny on childhood has become an integral part of the theories concerning childhood1 in reality so patient and gentle4 ,the child1 like every strong creature fighting for the right to live1 rebels against whatever offends that occult impulse within him which is the voice of nature1 and which he ought to obey2 and he shows by violent actions1 by screaming and weeping that he has been overborne and forced away from his mission in life4 ,he shows himself to be a rebel1 a revolutionist1 an iconoclast1 against those who do not understand him and who1 fancying that they are helping him1 are really pushing him backward in the highway of life4 ,thus even the adult who loves him1 rivets about his neck another calumny1 confusing his defence of his molested life with a form of innate naughtiness characteristic of little children4 ,what would become of us if we fell into the midst of a population of jugglers1 or of lightning-change impersonators of the variety-hall8 ,what should we do if1 as we continued to act in our usual way1 we saw ourselves assailed by these sleight-of-hand performers1 hustled into our clothes1 fed so rapidly that we could scarcely swallow1 if everything we tried to do was snatched from our hands and completed in a twinkling and we ourselves reduced to impotence and to a humiliating inertia8 ,not knowing how else to express our confusion we would defend ourselves with blows and yells from these madmen1 and they having only the best will in the world to serve us1 would call us haughty1 rebellious1 and incapable of doing anything4 ,we1 who know our own milieu1 would say to those people1 ,come into our countries and you will see the splendid civilisation we have established1 you will see our wonderful achievements4 ,these jugglers would admire us infinitely1 hardly able to believe their eyes1 as they observed our world1 so full of beauty and activity1 so well regulated1 so peaceful1 so kindly1 but all so much slower than theirs4 ,something of this sort occurs between children and adults4 ,it is exactly in the repetition of the exercises that the education of the senses consists2 their aim is not that the child shall know colours1 forms and the different qualities of objects1 but that he refine his senses through an exercise of attention1 of comparison1 of judgment4 ,these exercises are true intellectual gymnastics4 ,such gymnastics1 reasonably directed by means of various devices1 aid in the formation of the intellect1 just as physical exercises fortify the general health and quicken the growth of the body4 ,the child who trains his various senses separately1 by means of external stimuli1 concentrates his attention and develops1 piece by piece1 his mental activities1 just as with separately prepared movements he trains his muscular activities4 ,these mental gymnastics are not merely psycho-sensory1 but they prepare the way for spontaneous association of ideas1 for ratiocination developing out of definite knowledge1 for a harmoniously balanced intellect4 ,they are the powder-trains that bring about those mental explosions which delight the child so intensely when he makes discoveries in the world about him1 when he1 at the same time1 ponders over and glories in the new things which are revealed to him in the outside world1 and in the exquisite emotions of his own growing consciousness2 and finally when there spring up within him1 almost by a process of spontaneous ripening1 like the internal phenomena of growth1 the external products of learning--writing and reading4 ,i happened once to see a two-year-old child1 son of a medical colleague of mine1 who1 fairly fleeing away from his mother who had brought him to me1 threw himself on the litter of things covering his father's desk1 the rectangular writing-pad1 the round cover of the ink-well4 ,i was touched to see the intelligent little creature trying his best to go through the exercises which our children repeat with such endless pleasure till they have fully committed them to memory4 ,the father and the mother pulled the child away1 reproving him1 and explaining that there was no use trying to keep that child from handling his father's desk-furniture1 ,the child is restless and naughty4 ,how often we see all children reproved because1 though they are told not to1 they will take hold of everything4 ,now1 it is precisely by means of guiding and developing this natural instinct to take hold of everything1 and to recognise the relations of geometrical figures1 that we prepare our little four-year-old men for the joy and triumph they experience later over the phenomenon of spontaneous writing4 ,the child who throws himself on the writing-pad1 the cover to the ink-well1 and such objects1 always struggling in vain to attain his desire1 always hindered and thwarted by people stronger than he1 always excited and weeping over the failure of his desperate efforts1 is wasting nervous force4 ,his parents are mistaken if they think that such a child ever gets any real rest1 just as they are mistaken when they call naughty the little man longing for the foundations of his intellectual edifice4 ,the children in our schools are the ones who are really at rest1 ardently and blessedly free to take out and put back in their right places or grooves1 the geometric figures offered to their instinct for higher self-development2 and they1 rejoicing in the most entire spiritual calm1 have no notion that their eyes and hands are initiating them into the mysteries of a new language4 ,the majority of our children become calm as they go through such exercises1 because their nervous system is at rest4 ,then we say that such children are quiet and good2 external discipline1 so eagerly sought after in ordinary schools is more than achieved4 ,however1 as a calm man and a self-disciplined man are not one and the same1 so here the fact which manifests itself externally by the calm of the children is in reality a phenomenon merely physical and partial compared to the real self-discipline which is being developed in them4 ,often 7and this is another misconception7 we think all we need to do1 to obtain a voluntary action from a child1 is to order him to do it4 ,we pretend that this phenomenon of a forced voluntary action exists1 and we call this pretext1 the obedience of the child4 ,we find little children specially disobedient1 or rather their resistance1 by the time they are four or five years old1 has become so great that we are in despair and are almost tempted to give up trying to make them obey4 ,we force ourselves to praise to little children the virtue of obedience a virtue which1 according to our accepted prejudices1 should belong specially to infancy1 should be the infantile virtue yet we fail to learn anything from the fact that we are led to emphasize it so strongly because we can only with the greatest difficulty make children practise it4 ,it is a very common mistake1 this of trying to obtain by means of prayers1 or orders1 or violence1 what is difficult1 or impossible to get4 ,thus1 for instance1 we ask little children to be obedient1 and little children in their turn ask for the moon4 ,we need only reflect that this obedience which we treat so lightly1 occurs later1 as a natural tendency in older children1 and then as an instinct in the adult to realise that it springs spontaneously into being1 and that it is one of the strongest instincts of humanity4 ,we find that society rests on a foundation of marvellous obedience1 and that civilisation goes forward on a road made by obedience4 ,human organisations are often founded on an abuse of obedience1 associations of criminals have obedience as their key-stone4 ,how many times social problems centre about the necessity of rousing man from a state of obedience which has led him to be exploited and brutalised6 ,obedience naturally is sacrifice4 ,we are so accustomed to an infinity of obedience in the world1 to a condition of self-sacrifice1 to a readiness for renunciation1 that we call matrimony the blessed condition1 although it is made up of obedience and self-sacrifice4 ,the soldier1 whose lot in life is to obey if it kills him is envied by the common people1 while we consider anyone who tries to escape from obedience as a malefactor or a madman4 ,besides1 how many people have had the deeply spiritual experience of an ardent desire to obey something or some person leading them along the path of life--more than this1 a desire to sacrifice something for the sake of this obedience4 ,it is therefore entirely natural that1 loving the child1 we should point out to him that obedience is the law of life1 and there is nothing surprising in the anxiety felt by nearly everyone who is confronted with the characteristic disobedience of little children4 ,but obedience can only be reached through a complex formation of the psychic personality4 ,to obey1 it is necessary not only to wish to obey1 but also to know how to4 ,since1 when a command to do a certain thing is given1 we presuppose a corresponding active or inhibitive power of the child1 it is plain that obedience must follow the formation of the will and of the mind4 ,to prepare1 in detail1 this formation by means of detached exercises is therefore indirectly1 to urge the child towards obedience4 ,the method which is the subject of this book contains in every part an exercise for the will-power1 when the child completes co-ordinated actions directed towards a given end1 when he achieves something he set out to do1 when he repeats patiently his exercises1 he is training his positive will-power4 ,similarly1 in a very complicated series of exercises he is establishing through activity his powers of inhibition2 for instance in the lesson of silence1 which calls for a long continued inhibition of many actions1 while the child is waiting to be called and later for a rigorous self-control when he is called and would like to answer joyously and run to his teacher1 but instead is perfectly silent1 moves very carefully1 taking the greatest pains not to knock against chair or table or to make a noise4 ,other inhibitive exercises are the arithmetical ones1 when the child having drawn a number by lot1 must take from the great mass of objects before him1 apparently entirely at his disposition1 only the quantity corresponding to the number in his hand1 whereas 7as experience has proved7 he would like to take the greatest number possible4 ,furthermore if he chances to draw the zero he sits patiently with empty hands4 ,still another training for the inhibitive will-power is in the lesson of zero when the child1 called upon to come up zero times and give zero kisses1 stands quiet1 conquering with a visible effort the instinct which would lead him to obey the call4 ,the child at our school dinners who carries the big tureen full of hot soup1 isolates himself from every external stimulant which might disturb him1 resists his childish impulse to run and jump1 does not yield to the temptation to brush away the fly on his face1 and is entirely concentrated on the great responsibility of not dropping or tipping the tureen4 ,a little thing of four and a half1 every time he set the tureen down on a table so that the little guests might help themselves1 gave a hop and a skip1 then took up the tureen again to carry it to another table1 repressing himself to a sober walk4 ,in spite of his desire to play he never left his task before he had passed soup to the twenty tables1 and he never forgot the vigilance necessary to control his actions4 ,will-power1 like all other activities is invigorated and developed through methodical exercises1 and all our exercises for will-power are also mental and practical4 ,to the casual onlooker the child seems to be learning exactitude and grace of action1 to be refining his senses1 to be learning how to read and write2 but much more profoundly he is learning how to become his own master1 how to be a man of prompt and resolute will4 ,we often hear it said that a child's will should be broken that the best education for the will of the child is to learn to give it up to the will of adults4 ,leaving out of the question the injustice which is at the root of every act of tyranny1 this idea is irrational because the child cannot give up what he does not possess4 ,we prevent him in this way from forming his own will-power1 and we commit the greatest and most blameworthy mistake4 ,he never has time or opportunity to test himself1 to estimate his own force and his own limitations because he is always interrupted and subjected to our tyranny1 and languishes in injustice because he is always being bitterly reproached for not having what adults are perpetually destroying4 ,there springs up as a consequence of this1 childish timidity1 which is a moral malady acquired by a will which could not develop2 and which with the usual calumny with which the tyrant consciously or not1 covers up his own mistakes1 we consider as an inherent trait of childhood4 ,the children in our schools are never timid4 ,one of their most fascinating qualities is the frankness with which they treat people1 with which they go on working in the presence of others1 and showing their work frankly1 calling for sympathy4 ,that moral monstrosity1 a repressed and timid child1 who is at his ease nowhere except alone with his playmates1 or with street urchins1 because his will-power was allowed to grow only in the shade1 disappears in our schools4 ,he presents an example of thoughtless barbarism1 which resembles the artificial compression of the bodies of those children intended for court dwarfs1 museum monstrosities or buffoons4 ,yet this is the treatment under which nearly all the children of our time are growing up spiritually4 ,as a matter of fact in all the pedagogical congresses one hears that the great peril of our time is the lack of individual character in the scholars2 yet these alarmists do not point out that this condition is due to the way in which education is managed1 to scholastic slavery1 which has for its specialty the repression of will-power and of force of character4 ,the remedy is simply to enfranchise human development4 ,besides the exercises it offers for developing will-power1 the other factor in obedience is the capacity to perform the act it becomes necessary to obey4 ,one of the most interesting observations made by my pupil ,anna ,maccheroni 7at first in the school in ,milan and then in that in the ,via ,guisti in ,rome71 relates to the connection between obedience in a child and his knowing how4 ,obedience appears in the child as a latent instinct as soon as his personality begins to take form4 ,for instance1 a child begins to try a certain exercise and suddenly some time he goes through it perfectly2 he is delighted1 stares at it1 and wishes to do it over again1 but for some time the exercise is not a success4 ,then comes a time when he can do it nearly every time he tries voluntarily but makes mistakes if someone else asks him to do it4 ,the external command does not as yet produce the voluntary act4 ,when1 however1 the exercise always succeeds1 with absolute certainty1 then an order from someone else brings about on the child's part1 orderly adequate action2 that is1 the child is able each time to execute the command received4 ,that these facts 7with variations in individual cases7 are laws of psychical development is apparent from everyone's experience with children in school or at home4 ,one often hears a child say1 ,i did do such and such a thing but now ,i can't6 and a teacher disappointed by the incompetence of a pupil will say1 ,yet that child was doing it all right--and now he can't6 ,finally there is the period of complete development in which the capacity to perform some operation is permanently acquired4 ,there are1 therefore1 three periods3 a first1 subconscious one1 when in the confused mind of the child1 order produces itself by a mysterious inner impulse from out the midst of disorder1 producing as an external result a completed act1 which1 however1 being outside the field of consciousness1 cannot be reproduced at will2 a second1 conscious period1 when there is some action on the part of the will which is present during the process of the development and establishing of the acts2 and a third period when the will can direct and cause the acts1 thus answering the command from someone else4 ,now1 obedience follows a similar sequence4 ,when in the first period of spiritual disorder1 the child does not obey it is exactly as if he were psychically deaf1 and out of hearing of commands4 ,in the second period he would like to obey1 he looks as though he understood the command and would like to respond to it1 but cannot1--or at least does not always succeed in doing it1 is not quick to mind and shows no pleasure when he does4 ,in the third period he obeys at once1 with enthusiasm1 and as he becomes more and more perfect in the exercises he is proud that he knows how to obey4 ,this is the period in which he runs joyously to obey1 and leaves at the most imperceptible request whatever is interesting him so that he may quit the solitude of his own life and enter1 with the act of obedience into the spiritual existence of another4 ,to this order1 established in a consciousness formerly chaotic1 are due all the phenomena of discipline and of mental development1 which open out like a new ,creation4 ,from minds thus set in order1 when night is separated from day come sudden emotions and mental feats which recall the ,biblical story of ,creation4 ,the child has in his mind not only what he has laboriously acquired1 but the free gifts which flow from spiritual life1 the first flowers of affection1 of gentleness1 of spontaneous love for righteousness which perfume the souls of such children and give promise of the fruits of the spirit of ,st4 ,paul--,the fruit of the ,spirit is love1 joy1 peace1 long-suffering gentleness1 goodness1 faith1 meekness4 ,they are virtuous because they exercise patience in repeating their exercises1 long-suffering in yielding to the commands and desires of others1 good in rejoicing in the well-being of others without jealousy or rivalry2 they live1 doing good in joyousness of heart and in peace1 and they are eminently1 marvellously industrious4 ,but they are not proud of such righteousness because they were not conscious of acquiring it as a moral superiority4 ,they have set their feet in the path leading to righteousness1 simply because it was the only way to attain true self-development and learning2 and they enjoy with simple hearts the fruits of peace that are to be gathered along that path4 ,these are the first outlines of an experiment which shows a form of indirect discipline in which there is substituted for the critical and sermonizing teacher a rational organisation of work and of liberty for the child4 ,it involves a conception of life more usual in religious fields than in those of academic pedagogy1 inasmuch as it has recourse to the spiritual energies of mankind1 but it is founded on work and on liberty which are the two paths to all civic progress4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,conclusions ,,and ,,impressions ,in the ,children's ,houses1 the old-time teacher1 who wore herself out maintaining discipline of immobility1 and who wasted her breath in loud and continual discourse1 has disappeared4 ,for this teacher we have substituted the didactic material1 which contains within itself the control of errors and which makes auto-education possible to each child4 ,the teacher has thus become a director of the spontaneous work of the children4 ,she is not a passive force1 a silent presence4 ,the children are occupied each one in a different way1 and the directress1 watching them1 can make psychological observations which1 if collected in an orderly way and according to scientific standards1 should do much toward the reconstruction of child psychology and the development of experimental psychology4 ,i believe that ,i have by my method established the conditions necessary to the development of scientific pedagogy2 and whoever adopts this method opens1 in doing so1 a laboratory of experimental pedagogy4 ,from such work1 we must await the positive solution of all those pedagogical problems of which we talk to-day4 ,for through such work there has already come the solution of some of these very questions3 that of the liberty of the pupils2 auto-education2 the establishment of harmony between the work and activities of home life and school tasks1 making both work together for the education of the child4 ,the problem of religious education1 the importance of which we do not fully realise1 should also be solved by positive pedagogy4 ,if religion is born with civilisation1 its roots must lie deep in human nature4 ,we have had most beautiful proof of an instinctive love of knowledge in the child1 who has too often been misjudged in that he has been considered addicted to meaningless play1 and games void of thought4 ,the child who left the game in his eagerness for knowledge1 has revealed himself as a true son of that humanity which has been throughout centuries the creator of scientific and civil progress4 ,we have belittled the son of man by giving him foolish and degrading toys1 a world of idleness where he is suffocated by a badly conceived discipline4 ,now1 in his liberty1 the child should show us1 as well1 whether man is by nature a religious creature4 ,to deny1 a priori1 the religions sentiment in man1 and to deprive humanity of the education of this sentiment1 is to commit a pedagogical error similar to that of denying1 a priori1 to the child1 the love of learning for learning's sake4 ,this ignorant assumption led us to dominate the scholar1 to subject him to a species of slavery1 in order to render him apparently disciplined4 ,the fact that we assume that religions education is only adapted to the adult1 may be akin to another profound error existing in education to-day1 namely1 that of overlooking the education of the senses at the very period when this education is possible4 ,the life of the adult is practically an application of the senses to the gathering of sensations from the environment4 ,a lack of preparation for this1 often results in inadequacy in practical life1 in that lack of poise which causes so many individuals to waste their energies in purposeless effort4 ,not to form a parallel between the education of the senses as a guide to practical life1 and religious education as a guide to the moral life1 but for the sake of illustration1 let me call attention to how often we find inefficiency1 instability1 among irreligious persons1 and how much precious individual power is miserably wasted4 ,how many men have had this experience6 ,and when that spiritual awakening comes late1 as it sometimes does1 through the softening power of sorrow1 the mind is unable to establish an equilibrium1 because it has grown too much accustomed to a life deprived of spirituality4 ,we see equally piteous cases of religious fanaticism1 or we look upon intimate dramatic struggles between the heart1 ever seeking its own safe and quiet port1 and the mind that constantly draws it back to the sea of conflicting ideas and emotions1 where peace is unknown4 ,these are all psychological phenomena of the highest importance2 they present1 perhaps1 the gravest of all our human problems4 ,we ,europeans are still filled with prejudices and hedged about with preconceptions in regard to these matters4 ,we are very slaves of thought4 ,we believe that liberty of conscience and of thought consists in denying certain sentimental beliefs1 while liberty never can exist where one struggles to stifle some other thing1 but only where unlimited expansion is granted2 where life is left free and untrammelled4 ,he who really does not believe1 does not fear that which he does not believe1 and does not combat that which for him does not exist4 ,if he believes and fights1 he then becomes an enemy to liberty4 ,in ,america1 the great positive scientist1 ,william ,james1 who expounds the physiological theory of emotions1 is also the man who illustrates the psychological importance of religious conscience4 ,we cannot know the future of the progress of thought3 here1 for example1 in the ,children's ,houses the triumph of discipline through the conquest of liberty and independence marks the foundation of the progress which the future will see in the matter of pedagogical methods4 ,to me it offers the greatest hope for human redemption through education4 ,perhaps1 in the same way1 through the conquest of liberty of thought and of conscience1 we are making our way toward a great religious triumph4 ,experience will show1 and the psychological observations made along this line in the ,children's ,houses will undoubtedly be of the greatest interest4 ,this book of methods compiled by one person alone1 must be followed by many others4 ,it is my hope that1 starting from the individual study of the child educated with our method1 other educators will set forth the results of their experiments4 ,these are the pedagogical books which await us in the future4 ,from the practical side of the school1 we have with our methods the advantage of being able to teach in one room1 children of very different ages4 ,in our ,children's ,houses we have little ones of two years and a half1 who cannot as yet make use of the most simple of the sense exercises1 and children of five and a half who because of their development might easily pass into the third elementary4 ,each one of them perfects himself through his own powers1 and goes forward guided by that inner force which distinguishes him as an individual4 ,one great advantage of such a method is that it will make instruction in the rural schools easier1 and will be of great advantage in the schools in the small provincial towns where there are few children1 yet where all the various grades are represented4 ,such schools are not able to employ more than one teacher4 ,our experience shows that one directress may guide a group of children varying in development from little ones of three years old to the third elementary4 ,another great advantage lies in the extreme facility with which written language may be taught1 making it possible to combat illiteracy and to cultivate the national tongue4 ,as to the teacher1 she may remain for a whole day among children in the most varying stages of development1 just as the mother remains in the house with children of all ages1 without becoming tired4 ,the children work by themselves1 and1 in doing so1 make a conquest of active discipline1 and independence in all the acts of daily life1 just as through daily conquests they progress in intellectual development4 ,directed by an intelligent teacher1 who watches over their physical development as well as over their intellectual and moral progress1 children are able with our methods to arrive at a splendid physical development1 and1 in addition to this1 there unfolds within them1 in all its perfection1 the soul1 which distinguishes the human being4 ,we have been mistaken in thinking that the natural education of children should be purely physical2 the soul1 too1 has its nature1 which it was intended to perfect in the spiritual life1--the dominating power of human existence throughout all time4 ,our methods take into consideration the spontaneous psychic development of the child1 and help this in ways that observation and experience have shown us to be wise4 ,if physical care leads the child to take pleasure in bodily health1 intellectual and moral care make possible for him the highest spiritual joy1 and send him forward into a world where continual surprises and discoveries await him2 not only in the external environment1 but in the intimate recesses of his own soul4 ,it is through such pleasures as these that the ideal man grows1 and only such pleasures are worthy of a place in the education of the infancy of humanity4 ,our children are noticeably different from those others who have grown up within the grey walls of the common schools4 ,our little pupils have the serene and happy aspect and the frank and open friendliness of the person who feels himself to be master of his own actions4 ,when they run to gather about our visitors1 speaking to them with sweet frankness1 extending their little hands with gentle gravity and well-bred cordiality1 when they thank these visitors for the courtesy they have paid us in coming1 the bright eyes and the happy voices make us feel that they are1 indeed1 unusual little men4 ,when they display their work and their ability1 in a confidential and simple way1 it is almost as if they called for a maternal approbation from all those who watch them4 ,often1 a little one will seat himself on the floor beside some visitor silently writing his name1 and adding a gentle word of thanks4 ,it is as if they wished to make the visitor feel the affectionate gratitude which is in their hearts4 ,when we see all these things and when1 above all1 we pass with these children from the busy activity of the schoolroom at work1 into the absolute and profound silence which they have learned to enjoy so deeply1 we are moved in spite of ourselves and feel that we have come in touch with the very souls of these little pupils4 ,the ,children's ,house seems to exert a spiritual influence upon everyone4 ,i have seen here1 men of affairs1 great politicians preoccupied with problems of trade and of state1 cast off like an uncomfortable garment the burden of the world1 and fall into a simple forgetfulness of self4 ,they are affected by this vision of the human soul growing in its true nature1 and ,i believe that this is what they mean when they call our little ones1 wonderful children1 happy children--the infancy of humanity in a higher stage of evolution than our own4 ,i understand how the great ,english poet ,wordsworth1 enamoured as he was of nature1 demanded the secret of all her peace and beauty4 ,it was at last revealed to him--the secret of all nature lies in the soul of a little child4 ,he holds there the true meaning of that life which exists throughout humanity4 ,but this beauty which lies about us in our infancy becomes obscured2 shades of the prison house1 begin to close about the growing boy 444 at last the man perceives it die away1 and fade into the light of common day4 ,truly our social life is too often only the darkening and the death of the natural life that is in us4 ,these methods tend to guard that spiritual fire within man1 to keep his real nature unspoiled and to set it free from the oppressive and degrading yoke of society4 ,it is a pedagogical method informed by the high concept of ,immanuel ,kant3 ,perfect art returns to nature4 ,,the ,,end