,transcriber's ,notes ,inconsistent spellings and hyphenation have been retained as in the original4 ,with the exception of minor changes to format or punctuation1 any changes to the text are listed at the end of the book4 ,in this ,plain ,text version of the e-book1 symbols from the ,,ascii character set only are used4 ,the following substitutions are made for accented characters and other symbols in the text3 3a1 3o13u o-umlaut1 u-umlaut ,,ae1 ae ae-ligature a'1 e'1 o'1 u' a-grave1 e-grave1 o-grave1 u-grave c1 c-cedilla ',e1 'e e-acute e e-circumflex et ,latin ,small ,letter ,et 3e1 3i e1 i with dieresis n n-tilde ,,oe and oe oe-ligature 7upper and lower case74 ,p paragraph symbol 'u u-acute 4 centre dot ,other conventions used to represent the original text are as follows3 ,italic typeface is indicated by underscores4 ,small caps typeface is represented by ,,upper ,,case4 ,superscript typeface is preceded by caret 7e4g4 ye7 ,footnotes are numbered in sequence throughout the book and presented at the end of each chapter4 99 99 99 99 99 ,books about ,books ,edited by ,a4 ,w4 ,pollard ,early ,illustrated ,books ,illustration ,early ,illustrated ,books ,a ,history of the ,decoration and ,illustration of ,books in the #aeth and #afth ,centuries ,by ,alfred ,w4 ,pollard ,illustration ,second ,edition ,london ,kegan ,paul1 ,trench1 ,trubner ,co41 ,ltd4 ,new ,york3 ,e4 ,p4 ,dutton ,co4 ,,mdccccxvii ,first ,edition1 #ahic ,second ,edition1 revised and corrected ,may #aiag ,the rights of translation and of reproduction are reserved ,preface ,this little book was written nearly a quarter of a century ago in the enthusiasm of a first acquaintance with a fascinating subject1 and with an honest endeavour to see for myself as many as possible of the books ,i set out to describe4 ,if ,i had tried to rewrite it now ,i might have made it more interesting to experts1 but at the cost of destroying whatever merit it possesses as an introductory sketch4 ,i have therefore been content to correct1 as thoroughly as ,i could1 its many small errors 7not all of my own making71 more especially those due to the ascription of books to impossible dates and printers1 which before the publication of ,robert ,proctor's ,index to the ,early ,printed ,books in the ,british ,museum1 in #ahih1 was very difficult to avoid4 ,in these emendations1 and in getting the titles of foreign books into better form1 ,i have had much kind help from ,mr4 ,victor ,scholderer of the ,british ,museum4 ,i am grateful also to ,mr4 ,e4 ,gordon ,duff for his leave to use again the chapter on ,english ,illustrated ,books which he kindly wrote for me for the first edition4 ,a4 ,w4 ,p4 ,contents ,,chapter ,i ,,page ,,rubrishers ,,and ,,illuminators #a ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,completion ,,of ,,the ,,printed ,,book #bb ,,chapter ,,iii ,,germany--,i4 #cg ,,chapter ,,iv ,,germany--,,ii4 #ef ,,chapter ,v ,,italy--,i4 #gi ,,chapter ,,vi ,,italy--,,ii4 #ajh ,,chapter ,,vii ,,france #adb ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,french ,,books ,,of ,,hours #agd ,,chapter ,,ix ,,holland #aie ,,chapter ,x ,,spain #bji ,,chapter ,,xi ,,england4 ,by ,e4 ,gordon ,duff #bai ,,index #bdi ,,early ,,illustrated ,,books ,,chapter ,i ,,rubrishers ,,and ,,illuminators ,no point in the history of printing has been more rightly insisted on than that the early printers were compelled to make the very utmost of their new art in order to justify its right to exist4 ,when a generation had passed by1 when the scribes trained in the first half of the fifteenth century had died or given up the struggle1 when printing-presses had invaded the very monasteries themselves1 and clever boys no longer regarded penmanship as a possible profession1 then1 but not till then1 printers could afford to be careless1 and speedily began to avail themselves of their new license4 ,in the early days of the art no such license was possible1 and the striking similarity in the appearance of the printed books and manuscripts produced contemporaneously in any given city or district1 is the best possible proof of the success with which the early printers competed with the most expert of the professional scribes4 ,all this is trite enough1 but we are somewhat less frequently reminded that1 after some magnificent experiments by ,fust and ,schoeffer at ,mainz1 the earliest printers deliberately elected to do battle at first with the scribes alone1 and that in the fifteenth century the scribes were very far1 indeed1 from being the only persons engaged in the production of books4 ,the subdivision of labour is not by any means a modern invention2 on the contrary1 it is impossible to read a list of the medieval guilds in any important town without being struck with the minuteness of the sections into which some apparently quite simple callings were split up4 ,of this subdivision of labour1 the complex art of book-production was naturally an instance4 ,for a proof of this1 we need go no further than the records of the ,guild of ,st4 ,john the ,evangelist at ,bruges1 in which1 according to ,mr4 ,blades's quotation of the extracts made by ,van ,praet1 members of at least fourteen branches of industry connected with the manufacture of books joined together for common objects4 ,in the fifteenth century a book of devotions1 commissioned by some wealthy book-lover1 such as the ,duke of ,bedford1 might be written by one man1 have its rubrics supplied by another1 its small initial letters and borders by a third1 and then be sent to some famous miniaturist in ,france or ,flanders for final completion4 ,the scribe only supplied the groundwork1 all the rest was added by other hands1 and it was only with the scribe that the early printers competed4 ,the restriction of their efforts to competition with the scribe alone1 was not accepted by the first little group of printers until after some fairly exhaustive experiments4 ,the interesting trial leaves1 preserved in some copies of the #db-line ,bible1 differ from the rest not only in having their text compressed into two lines less1 but also in having the rubrics printed instead of filled in by hand4 ,printing in two colours still involves much extra labour1 and it was easier to supply the rubric by hand than to be at the pains of a second impression1 even if this could be effected by the comparatively simple process of stamping4 ,except1 therefore1 in the trial leaves1 the rubrics of the first ,bible are all in manuscript4 ,peter ,schoeffer1 however1 when he joined with the goldsmith ,fust in the production of the magnificent ,mainz ,psalter of #adeg1 was not content to rely on the help of illuminators for his rubrics and capitals1 or1 as the disuse of the word majuscules makes it convenient to call them1 initial letters4 ,accordingly1 the ,psalter appeared not only with printed rubrics1 but with the magnificent ,b at the head of the first psalm1 which has so often been copied1 and some two hundred and eighty smaller initials1 printed in blue and red4 ,schoeffer's initial letters appear again in two editions of the ,canon of the ,mass attributed to #adeh1 in the ,psalter of #adei1 in the ,rationale of ,durandus of the same year1 and in a ,donatus printed in the type of the #adfb ,bible4 ,as ,mr4 ,duff has pointed out1 in some sheets of this ,bible itself the red initial letters are printed and the outline of the blue ones impressed in blank for the guidance of the illuminator in filling them in4 ,thereafter ,schoeffer seems to have kept his initials for special occasions1 as in the #ce-line ,donatus issued c4 #adfh1 perhaps when he was starting business for himself1 and in the antiquarian reprints of the ,psalter in and after #adij4 ,doubtless he was sorry when he could no longer print in the colophon of a book that it was 'venustate capitalium decoratus1 rubricationibusque sufficienter distinctus1' but while illuminators were still plentiful1 handwork was probably the least expensive process of decoration4 ,it is noteworthy1 also1 that ,mr4 ,duff's discovery as regards the #adfb ,bible brings us down to the beginning of those troublous three years in the history of ,mainz1 during which ,fust and ,schoeffer only printed ',bulls and other such ephemeral publications4' ,when they resumed the printing of important works in #adfe with the ,decretals of ,boniface ,,viii4 and the ,de ,officiis of ,cicero1 ,schoeffer was content to leave decoration to the illuminator4 ,the firm's expenses were thus diminished1 and purchasers were able to economise in the amount of decoration bestowed upon the copy they were buying4 ,it is noteworthy1 indeed1 that even in #adei1 when he was habitually using his printed initial letters1 ,schoeffer did not refuse customers this liberty1 for while one of the copies of the ,rationale ,durandi at the ,bibliothe'que ,nationale has the initials printed1 in the others they are illuminated by hand4 ,very little attention has as yet been devoted to the study of the illumination and rubrication of printed books1 and much patient investigation will be needed before we can attain any real knowledge of the relation of the illuminators to the early printers4 ,professor ,middleton1 in his work on ,illuminated ,manuscripts1 had something to say on the subject1 but the pretty little picture he drew of a scene in ,gutenberg's 787 shop seems to have been rather hastily arrived at4 ',the workshop1' he wrote1 'of an early printer included not only compositors and printers1 but also cutters and founders of type1 illuminators of borders and initials1 and skilful binders1 who could cover books with various qualities and kinds of binding4 ,a purchaser in ,gutenberg's shop1 for example1 of his magnificent ,bible in loose sheets1 would then have been asked what style of illumination he was prepared to pay for1 and then what kind of binding1 and how many brass bosses and clasps he wished to have4' ,what evidence there is on the subject hardly favours the theory which ,professor ,middleton thus boldly stated as a fact4 ,the names we know in connection with the decoration of the #db-line ,bible are those of ,heinrich ,cremer1 vicar of the ,church of ,st4 ,stephen at ,mainz1 who rubricated1 illuminated1 and bound the paper copy now in the ,bibliothe'que ,nationale1 and ,johann ,fogel1 a well-known binder of the time1 whose stamps are found on no fewer than three of the extant copies of this ,bible4 ,we have no reason to believe that either ,cremer or ,fogel was employed in the printer's shop1 so that as regards the particular book which he instances1 it is hard to see on what ground ,professor ,middleton built his assertion4 ,as regards ,schoeffer's practice after #adfb1 the evidence certainly points to the majority of his books having been rubricated before they left his hands1 but the variety of the styles in the copies ,i have seen1 especially in those on vellum1 forbids my believing that they were all illuminated in a single workshop4 ,a copy in the ,british ,museum of his #adga edition of the ,constitutions of ,pope ,clement ,v4 presents us with an instance1 rather uncommon in a printed book1 though not infrequently found in manuscripts1 of an elaborate border and miniatures1 sketched out in pencil and prepared for gilding1 but never completed4 ,the book could hardly have been sold in this condition1 and would not have been returned so from any illuminator's workshop4 ,we must conjecture that it was sold unilluminated to some monastery1 where its decoration was begun by one of the monks1 but put aside for some cause1 and never finished4 ,the utmost on this subject that we can say at present is that as a printer would depend for the sale of his books in the first place on the inhabitants of the town in which he printed1 and as these would be most likely to employ an illuminator from the same place1 the predominant style of decoration in any book is likely to be that of the district in which it was printed1 and if we find the same style predominant in a number of books this may give us a clue to connect them altogether1 or to distinguish them from some other group4 ,in this way1 for instance1 it is possible that some light may be thrown on the question whether the #cf-line ,bible was finished at ,bamberg or at ,mainz4 ,certainly the clumsy1 heavy initials in the ,british ,museum copy are very unlike those which occur in ,mainz books1 and if this style were found to predominate in other copies we should have an important piece of new evidence on a much debated question4 ,but our knowledge that ,schoeffer had an agency for the sale of his books as far off from the place of their printing as ,paris1 the ,italian character of the illuminations added to some of his books1 and the occurrence of a note in a book printed in ,italy that the purchaser could not wait to have it illuminated there1 but entrusted it to a ,german artist on his return home1 may suffice to warn us against any rash conclusion in the present very meagre state of our knowledge4 ,apart from the question as to where they were executed1 the illuminations in books printed in ,germany are not1 as a rule1 very interesting4 ,germany was not the home of fine manuscripts during the fifteenth century1 and her printed books depend for their beauty on the rich effect of their gothic types1 their good paper and handsome margins1 rather than on the accessories added by hand4 ,the attempts of the more ambitious miniaturists to depict1 within the limits of an initial1 ,st4 ,jerome translating the ,bible or ,david playing on the harp1 are1 for the most part1 clumsy and ill-drawn4 ,on the other hand1 fairly good scroll-work of flowers and birds is not uncommon4 ,as a rule it surrounds the whole page of text1 but in some cases an excellent effect is produced by the stem of the design being brought up between the two columns of a large page1 branching out at either end so as to cover the upper and lower margins1 those at the sides being left bare4 ,it may be mentioned that much good scroll-work is found on paper copies1 the vellum used in early ,german books being usually coarse and brown1 and sometimes showing the imperfections of the skin by holes as large as a filbert1 so that it was employed apparently1 chiefly for its greater resistance to wear and tear1 rather than as a luxurious refinement1 as was the case in ,italy and ,france4 ,an extreme instance of the superiority of a paper copy to one on vellum may be found by comparing the coarsely-rubricated #db-line ,bible in the ,grenville ,collection at the ,british ,museum with the very prettily illuminated copy of the same book in the ,king's ,library4 ,the ,grenville copy is on vellum1 the ,king's on paper2 but my own preference has always been for the latter4 ,even in ,germany1 however1 good vellum books were sometimes produced1 for the printers endeavoured to match the skins fairly uniformly throughout a volume1 and a book-lover of taste would not be slow to pick out the best copy4 ,the finest ,german vellum book with which ,i am acquainted is the ,lamoignon copy of the #adfb ,bible1 now in the ,british ,museum4 ,this was specially illuminated for a certain ,conradus ,dolea1 whose name and initials are introduced into the lower border on the first page of the second volume4 ,the scroll-work is excellent1 and the majority of the large initials are wisely restricted to simple decorative designs4 ,only in a few cases1 as at the beginning of the ,psalms1 where ,david is as usual playing his harp1 is the general good taste which marks the volume disturbed by clumsy figure-work4 ,in turning from the illuminations of the first ,german books to those printed by ,jenson and ,vindelinus de ,spira at ,venice we are confronted with an interesting discovery1 first noted by the ,vicomte ,delaborde in his delightful book ,la ,gravure en ,italie avant ,marc-,antoine 7p4 #beb71 carried a little further in the ,bibliographie des ,livres a' figures ,venitiens1 written by the ,prince d',essling when he was ,duc de ,rivoli1 then greatly extended by the researches of ,dr4 ,paul ,kristeller1 some of the results of which1 when as yet unpublished1 he kindly communicated to me1 and finally summed up in the ,prince d',essling's magnificent work1 ,les ,livres a' figures ,venitiens4 ,in a considerable number--the list given me by ,dr4 ,kristeller enumerated about forty--of the works published by ,jenson and ,vindelinus1 from #adfi to #adgc1 the work of the illuminator has been facilitated in some copies by the whole or a portion of his design having been first stamped for him from a block4 ,the evidence of this stamping is partly in the dent made in the paper or vellum1 partly in the numerous little breaks in the lines where the block has not retained the ink2 but ,i was myself lucky enough to find in the ,grenville copy of the ,virgil printed at ,venice by ,bartholomaeus de ,cremona in #adgb1 an uncoloured example of this stamped work1 which was reproduced in ,bibliographica1 and subsequently by the ,prince d',essling4 ,a copy of the ,pliny of #adfi in the ,bibliothe'que ,nationale1 illuminated by means of this device1 has an upper and inner border of the familiar white elliptical interlacements on a gold and green ground4 ,in the centre of the lower border is a shield supported by two children1 and at the feet of each child is a rabbit4 ,the outer border shows two cornucopias on a green and gold ground4 ,the upper and inner borders are repeated again in the ,livy and ,virgil of #adgj1 in the ,valerius ,maximus of #adga1 and in the ,rhetorica of ,george of ,trebizond of #adgb4 ,in this last book it is joined with another border1 first found in the ,de ,officiis of ,cicero of the same year4 ,all these books proceeded from the press of ,johannes and ,vindelinus de ,spira4 ,a quite distinct set of borders are found in ,jenson's edition of ,cicero's ,epistolae ad ,familiares of #adga2 but in an article in the ,archivio ,storico delle ,arti ,dr4 ,kristeller showed that the lower border of the ,pliny of #adfi1 described above1 occurs again in a copy of the ,de ,evangelica ,praeparatione1 printed by ,jenson in #adgj4 ,the apparent distinction of the blocks used in the books of the two firms is thus broken down1 and in face of the rarity of the copies thus decorated in comparison with those illuminated by hand1 or which have come down to us with their blank spaces still unfilled1 it seems impossible to maintain that either the preliminary engraving or the illumination was done in the printer's workshop4 ,we should rather regard the engraving as a labour-saving device employed by some master illuminator to whom private purchasers sent the books they had purchased from the ,de ,spiras or ,jenson for decoration4 ,no instance has as yet been found of a book printed after #adgc being illuminated in this way4#a ,apart from the special interest of these particular borders1 the illumination in early ,italian books is almost uniformly graceful and beautiful4 ,interlacements1 oftenest of white upon blue1 sometimes of gold upon green1 are the form of ornament most commonly met with4 ,still prettier than these are the floral borders1 tapering off into little stars of gold4 ,elaborate architectural designs are also found1 but these1 as a rule1 are much less pleasing4 ,in the majority of the borders of all three classes a shield1 of the graceful ,italian shape1 is usually introduced1 sometimes left blank1 sometimes filled in with the arms of the owner4 ,more often than not this shield is enclosed in a circle of green bay leaves4 ,the initial letters are1 as a rule1 purely decorative1 the designs harmonising with the borders4 ,in some instances they consist simply of a large letter in red or blue1 without any surrounding scroll-work4 ,we must also note that in some copies of books from the presses of the ,german printers at ,rome we find large initial letters in red and blue1 distinctly ,german in their design1 the work1 possibly1 of the printers themselves4 ,germany and ,italy are the only two countries in which illumination plays an important part in the decoration of early books4 ,in ,england1 where the ,wars of the ,roses had checked the development of a very promising native school of illuminators1 the use of colour in printed books is almost unknown4 ,the early issues from ,caxton's press1 before he began to employ printed initials1 are either left with their blanks unfilled1 or rubricated in the plainest possible manner4 ,in ,france1 the scholastic objects of the press at the ,sorbonne1 and the few resources of the printers who succeeded it during the next seven or eight years1 at first forbade any serious competition with the splendid manuscripts which were then being produced4 ,in ,holland and ,spain woodcut initials1 which practically gave the death-blow to illumination as a necessary adjunct of a book1 were introduced almost simultaneously with the use of type4 ,so far we have considered illumination merely as a means of completing in a not immoderately expensive manner the blanks left by the earliest printers4 ,we may devote a few pages to glancing at the subsequent application of the art to the decoration of special copies intended for presentation to a patron1 or commissioned by a wealthy book-lover4 ,the preparation of such copies was practically confined to ,france and ,italy4 ,a copy on vellum of the ,great ,bible of #aedj1 presented to ,henry ,,viii4 by his 'loving1 faithfull and obedient subject and daylye oratour1 ,anthony ,marler of ,london1 ,haberdassher1' has the elaborate woodcut title-page carefully painted over by hand1 but this is almost the only ,english book of which ,i can think in which colour was thus employed4 ,in ,germany its use was only too common1 but for popular1 not for artistic work1 for at least two out of every three early ,german books with woodcut illustrations have the cuts garishly painted over in the rudest possible manner1 to the great defacement of the outlines1 which we would far rather see unobscured4 ,it is tempting1 indeed1 to believe that in many cases this deplorable addition must have been the work of the 'domestic' artist2 it is certainly rare to find an instance in which it in any way improves the underlying cut4 ,in ,france and ,italy1 on the other hand1 the early printers were confronted by many wealthy book-lovers1 accustomed to manuscripts adorned with every possible magnificence1 and in a few instances they found it worth while to cater for their tastes4 ,for this purpose they employed the most delicate vellum 7very unlike the coarse material used by the ,germans for its strength7 decorating the margins with elaborate borders1 and sometimes prefixing a coloured frontispiece4 ,in ,france this practice was begun by ,guillaume ,fichet and ,jean ,heynlyn1 the managers of the press at the ,sorbonne4 ,several magnificent copies of early ,sorbonne books--so sober in their ordinary dress--are still extant1 to which ,fichet has prefixed a large miniature representing himself in his clerical garb presenting a copy of the book to the ,pope1 to our own ,edward ,,iv41 to ,cardinal ,bessarion1 or to other patrons4 ,in some cases he also prefixed a specially printed letter of dedication1 thereby rendering the copy absolutely unique4 ,some twenty years later this practice of preparing special copies for wealthy patrons was resumed by ,antoine ,v'erard1 whose enterprise has bequeathed to the ,bibliothe'que ,nationale a whole row of books thus specially decorated for ,charles ,,viii41 and to the ,british ,museum a no less splendid set commissioned by ,henry ,,vii4 ,nor were ,v'erard's patrons only found among kings1 for a record still exists of four books thus ornamented by him for ,charles d',angouleme1 at a total cost of over two hundred livres1 equivalent to rather more than the same number of pounds sterling of our present money4 ,v'erard's methods of preparing these magnificent volumes were neither very artistic nor very honest4 ,the miniatures are thickly painted1 so that an underlying woodcut1 on quite a different subject1 was sometimes utilised to furnish the artist with an idea for the grouping of the figures4 ,thus a cut from ,ovid's ,metamorphoses1 representing ,saturn devouring his children and a very unpleasing figure of ,venus rising from the sea1 was converted into a ,holy ,family by painting out the ,venus and reducing ,saturn's cannibal embrace to an affectionate fondling4 ,this process of alteration and painting out was also employed by ,v'erard to conceal the fact that these splendid copies were often not of his own publication1 but commissioned by him from other publishers4 ,thus ,henry ,,vii4's copy of ,l',examen de ,conscience has the colophon1 in which it is stated to have been printed for ,pierre ,regnault of ,rouen1 rather carelessly erased1 and in ,charles ,,viii4's copy of the ,compost et ,kalendrier des ,bergers 7#adic7b ,guiot ,marchant's device has been concealed by painting over it the royal arms1 while the colophon in which his name appears has been partly erased1 partly covered over by a painted copy of ,v'erard's well-known device4 ,v'erard's borders1 also1 are as a rule heavy1 consisting chiefly of flowers and arabesques arranged in clumsy squares or lozenges4 ,altogether these princely volumes are perhaps rather magnificent than in good taste4 ,the custom of illuminating the cuts in vellum books was not practised only by ,v'erard4 ,almost all the ,french publishers of ,books of ,hours resorted to it--at first1 while the illumination was carefully done1 with very splendid effect1 afterwards to the utter ruin of the beautiful designs which the colour concealed4 ,under ,francis ,i4 illumination seems to have revived1 for we hear of a vellum copy of the ,de ,philologia of ,budaeus1 printed by ,ascensius 7#aecb71 having its first page of text enclosed in a rich border in which appear the arms of the dukes of ,orleans and ,angouleme to whom it was dedicated4 ,in another work by ,budaeus 7himself a book-lover as well as a scholar71 the ,de ,transitu ,hellenismi1 printed by ,robert ,estienne in #aece1 the portrait and arms of ,francis ,i4 are enclosed in another richly illuminated border1 and the ,king's arms are painted in other books printed about this time4 ,in a vellum copy of a ,french ,bible printed by ,jean de ,tournes at ,lyons in #aeeg1 there are over three hundred miniatures1 and borders to every page4 ,even by the middle of the seventeenth century the use of illumination had not quite died out in ,france1 though it adds nothing to the beauty of the tasteless works then issued from the ,french presses4 ,one of the latest instances in which ,i have encountered it is in a copy presented to ,louis ,,xiv4 of ,la ,lyre du ,jeune ,apollon1 ou la ,muse naissante du ,petit de ,beauchasteau 7,paris1 #afeg72 in this the half-title is surrounded by a wreath of gold1 and surmounted by a lyre1 the title is picked out in red1 blue1 and gold1 and the headpieces and tailpieces throughout the volume are daubed over with colour4 ,by the expenditure of a vast amount of pains1 a dull book is thus rendered both pretentious and offensive4 ,in ,italy1 the difference between ordinary copies of early books and specially prepared ones1 is bridged over by so many intermediate stages of decoration that we are obliged to confine our attention to one or two famous examples of sumptuous books4 ,the ,italian version of ,pliny1 made by ,cristoforo ,landino and printed by ,jenson in #adgf1 exists in such a form as one of the ,douce books 7,no4 #caj7 in the ,bodleian ,library4 ,this copy has superb borders at the beginning of each book1 and is variously supposed to have been prepared for ,ferdinand ,,ii41 ,king of ,naples1 and for a member of the ,strozzi family of ,florence1 the arms of both being frequently introduced into the decoration4 ,still more superb are the three vellum copies of ,giovanni ,simoneta's ,historia delle cose facte dallo invictissimo ,duca ,francesco ,sforza1 translated 7like the ,pliny7 by ,cristoforo ,landino1 and printed by ,antonio ,zarotto at ,milan in #adij4 ,these copies were prepared for members of the ,sforza family1 portraits of whom are introduced in the borders4 ,the decoration is florid1 but superb of its kind1 and provoked ,dibdin to record his admiration of the copy now in the ,grenville ,library as 'one of the loveliest of membranaceous jewels' it had ever been his fortune to meet with4 ,for many years in a case devoted to specimens of illuminated printed books in the ,king's ,library the ,british ,museum used to exhibit vellum copies of the ,aldine ,martial of #aeja1 and ,catullus of #aejb1 and side by side with them1 printed respectively just twelve years later1 and also on vellum1 an ,aulus ,gellius and ,plautus presented by ,giunta1 the ,florentine rival of ,aldus1 to the younger ,lorenzo de' ,medici4 ,the use of illumination in printed books was a natural and pleasing survival of the glories of the illuminated manuscript4 ,its discontinuance was in part a sign of health as testifying to the increased resources of the printing press2 in part a symptom of the carelessness as to the form of books which by the end of the seventeenth century had become well-nigh universal throughout ,europe4 ,so long as a few rich amateurs cared for copies of their favourite authors printed on vellum1 and decorated by the hands of skilful artists1 a high standard of excellence was set up which influenced the whole of the book-trade1 and for this reason the revival of the use of vellum in our own day may perhaps be welcomed4 ,it may be noted that the especially ,italian custom of introducing the arms of the owner into the majority of illuminated designs left its trace in the blank shields which so frequently form the centre of the printed borders in ,italian books from #adij to #aebj4 ,theoretically these shields were intended to be filled in with the owner's arms in colour1 but they are more often found blank4 ,two examples of their use are here shown1 one from the upper border of the ,calendar1 printed at ,venice in #adgf 7the first book with an ornamental title-page71 the other from the lower border of the first page of text of the ,trabisonda ,istoriata1 printed also at ,venice in #adid4 ,we may note also that the parallel custom of inserting the arms of the patron to whom a book was dedicated was carried on in ,spain in a long series of title-pages1 in which the arms of the patron form the principal feature4 ,illustration3 ,from the ,calendar of #adgf4 ,illustration3 ,from ,la ,trabisonda ,historiata of #adid4 ,in ,england1 also1 a patron's coat was sometimes printed as one of the decorations of a book4 ,thus on the third leaf of the first edition of the ,golden ,legend there is a large woodcut of a horse galloping past a tree1 the device of the ,earl of ,arundel1 the patron to whom ,caxton owed his yearly fee of a buck in summer and a doe in winter4 ,so1 too1 in the ,morton ,missal1 printed by ,pynson in #aejj1 the ,morton arms occupy a full page at the beginning of the book4 ,under ,elizabeth and ,james ,i4 the practice became fairly common4 ,in some cases where the leaf thus decorated has become detached1 the arms have all the appearance of an early book-plate1 and the ,bagford example of ,sir ,nicholas ,bacon's plate has endured suspicions on this account4 ,in this instance1 however1 the fortunate existence of a slight flaw in the block1 which occurs also in the undoubtedly genuine gift-plate of #aegd1 offers a strong argument in favour of its having been in the possession of ,sir ,nicholas himself1 and therefore presumably used by him as a mark of possession4 99 99 99 99 99 #a ,in a copy of the edition of ,suetonius1 printed by ,sweynheym and ,pannartz at ,rome in #adgj1 which belonged to ,william ,morris1 and is now in the ,morgan collection at ,new ,york1 there are nine excellent woodcut capitals used with a handsome border-piece1 which do not appear in other examples4 ,dr4 ,lippmann found similar decorations in the #adfe edition of ,lactantius1 printed at ,subiaco by the same firm4 ,in this case the blocks probably belonged to the printers1 but were used to decorate only a few copies4 #b ,a full description of this copy will be found in ,dr4 ,sommer's introduction to the facsimile and reprint of the ,english translations of ,paris1 #aejc1 and ,london1 #aejf 7,kegan ,paul1 #ahib74 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,completion ,,of ,,the ,,printed ,,book ,as we have seen1 the typical book during the first quarter of a century of the history of printing is one in which the printer supplied the place of the scribe and of the scribe alone4 ,an appreciable1 though not a very large1 percentage of early books have come down to us in the exact state in which they issued from the press1 with a blank space at their beginning for an illumination1 blanks for the initial letters1 blanks for the chapter headings1 no head-lines1 no title-page1 no pagination1 and no signatures to guide the binder in arranging the sheets in the different gatherings4 ,our task in the present chapter is to trace briefly the history of the emancipation of the printer from his dependence on handwork for the completion of his books4 ,we shall not expect to find this emancipation effected step by step in any orderly progression4 ,innovations1 the utility of which seems to us obvious and striking1 occur as if by hazard in an isolated book1 are then abandoned even by the printer who started them1 and subsequently reappear in a number of books printed about the same time at different places1 so that it is impossible to fix the chronology of the revived fashion4 ,illustration ,we have already noted how the anxiety of the earliest ,mainz printers to rival at the very outset the best manuscripts with which they were acquainted1 led them to anticipate improvements which were not generally adopted till many years afterwards4 ,among these we must not reckon the use for the rubrics or chapter headings of red ink1 which appears in the trial leaves of the #db-line ,bible1 and was to a greater or less extent employed by ,schoeffer in most of his books4 ,although red ink has appeared sporadically1 and still does so1 on the title-page of a book here or there1 more especially on those which make some pretence to sumptuousness1 its use in the fifteenth century was a survival1 not an anticipation4 ,for legal and liturgical works it was long considered essential2 for other books the expense of the double printing which it involves soon brought it into disfavour and has kept it there ever since4 ,the use of a colophon1 or crowning paragraph1 at the end of a book1 to give the information now contained on our title-pages1 dates from the ,mainz ,psalter of #adeg1 and was continued by ,schoeffer in most of his books4 ,a colophon occurs also in the ,catholicon of #adfj1 though it does not mention the printer's name 7almost certainly ,gutenberg74 ,there is an admirably full one in rhyming couplets 7set out as prose7 to ,pfister's ,buch der vier ,historien von ,joseph1 ,daniel1 ,esther1 und ,judith1 and the brothers ,bechterm3untze1 who printed the ,vocabularius ex quo at ,eltvil in #adfg1 are equally explicit4 ,in many cases1 however1 no colophon of any sort appears1 and the year and place of publication have to be deduced from the information given in other books printed in the same types1 or from the chance entry by a purchaser or rubricator of the date at which the book came into or left his hands4 ,we may claim colophons as part of the subject of this book1 because they early received decorative treatment4 ,schoeffer prints them1 as a rule1 in his favourite red ink1 and it was as an appendix to the colophon that the printer's device first made its appearance4 ,schoeffer's well-known shields occur in this connection in his ,bible of #adfb4 ,no other instance of a device is known until about #adgj1 when they became common1 some printers1 like ,arnold ther ,hoernen of ,cologne1 and ,colard ,mansion of ,bruges1 imitating ,schoeffer in the modest size of their badges1 while others1 among whom some ,dutch printers are prominent1 made their emblem large enough1 if need be1 to decorate a whole page4 ,of ,schoeffer's coloured capitals enough has already been said4 ,woodcut initials for printing in outline1 the outline being intended to be coloured by hand1 were used by ,g3unther ,zainer at ,augsburg at least as early as #adga1 and involved him in a controversy to which we shall allude in our next chapter4 ,their use spread slowly1 for it was about this date that the employment of hand-painted initials was given a fresh lease of life1 by the introduction of the printed 'director1' or small letter1 indicating to the illuminator the initial he was required to supply4 ,the director had been used by the scribes1 and in early printed books is frequently found in manuscript4 ,it was1 of course1 intended to be painted over1 but the rubrication of printed books was so carelessly executed that it often appears in the open centre of the coloured letter4 ,in so far as it delayed the introduction of woodcut letters1 this ingenious device was a step backward rather than an improvement4 ,in the order of introduction1 the next addition to a printer's stock-in-trade which we have to chronicle is the use of woodcut illustrations4 ,these were first employed by ,albrecht ,pfister1 who in #adfa was printing at ,bamberg4 ,like ,schoeffer's coloured initials1 ,pfister's illustrated books form an incident apart from the general history of the development of the printed book1 and it will be convenient1 therefore1 to give them a brief notice here1 rather than to place them at the head of our next chapter4 ,they are six in number1 or1 if we count different editions separately1 nine1 of which only two have dates1 viz43 one of the two editions of ,boner's ,edelstein1 dated #adfa1 and the ,buch der vier ,historien von ,joseph1 ,daniel1 ,esther1 und ,judith1 dated #adfb1 with ,pfister's name in the rhyming colophon already alluded to4 ,the undated books are another edition of the ,edelstein2 the ,belial seu consolatio peccatorum2 a ,biblia ,pauperum2 two closely similar editions of this in ,german2 two editions of the ,rechtstreit des ,menschen mit dem ,tode1 also called ,gespr3ach zwischen einem ,wittwer und dem ,tode4 ,attention was first drawn to these books by the ,pastor ,jacob ,august ,steiner of ,augsburg in #agib1 and when the volume which he described was brought to the ,bibliothe'que ,nationale1 with other spoils from ,germany1 a learned ,frenchman1 ,camus1 read a paper on them before the ,institute in #agii4 ,the three tracts which the volume contained were restored to the library at ,wolfenb3uttel in #ahae1 but the ,bibliothe'que has since acquired another set of three and a separate edition of the ,german ,biblia ,pauperum4 ,the only other copies known are those in the ,spencer ,collection1 one of the ,belial at ,nuremberg1 and a unique example of the undated ,edelstein at ,berlin4#c ,these four books contain altogether no less than #bja cuts1 executed in clumsy outline4 ,one hundred and one of these cuts belong to the ,edelstein1 a collection of ,german fables written before #accj4 ,the book which contains them is a small folio of #bh leaves1 and with a width of page larger by a fourth than the size of the cuts4 ,to fill this gap1 ,pfister introduced on the left of the illustration a figure of a man4 ,in the dated copy1 in which the cuts are more worn1 this figure is the same throughout the book2 in the undated there are differences in the man's headgear1 and in the book or tablet he is holding1 constituting three different variations4 ,in the ,buch der vier ,historien the cuts number #ee1 six of which1 however1 are repeated1 making #fa impressions4 ,in the impossibility of obtaining access to the originals1 while the ,spencer ,collection was in the course of removal1 the careful copy of one of these1 made for ,camus in #agii1 was chosen for reproduction as likely to be less familiar than the illustrations from ,pfister's other books given by ,dibdin in his ,bibliotheca ,spenceriana4 ,the subject is the solemn sacrifice of a lamb at ,bethulia after ,judith's murder of ,holofernes4 ,the ,biblia ,pauperum is in three editions1 two in ,german1 the third in ,latin2 each consists of #ag printed leaves1 with a large cut formed of five separate blocks illustrating different subjects1 but joined together as a whole1 on each page4 ,the last book of ,pfister's we have to notice1 the ,complaint of the ,widower against ,death1 is probably earlier than either of his dated ones4 ,it contains #bd leaves1 with five full-page cuts1 showing 7#a7 ,death on his throne1 and the widower and his little son in mourning2 7#b7 ,death and the widower1 with a pope1 a noble1 and a monk vainly offering ,death gold2 7#c7 two figures of ,death 7one mounted7 pursuing their victims2 7#d7 ,death on his throne1 with two lower compartments representing monks at a cloister gate1 and women walking with a child in a fair garden1--this to symbolise the widower's choice between remarriage and retiring to a monastery2 7#e7 the widower appearing before ,christ1 who gives the verdict against him1 since all mortals must yield their bodies to ,death and their souls to ,god4 ,the cuts in this book are larger and bolder than the other specimens of ,pfister's work which we have noticed1 but they are rude enough4 ,illustration3 ,from ,pfister's ,buch der vier ,historien4 ,illustration--transcription as follows3 ,sermo ad populum predicabilis 4 ,in festo presentacionis4 ,beatissime marie semper virginis nouiter cum magna diligencia4 ad communem vsum multorum sacerdotum presertim curatorum collectus4 ,et idcirco per impressonem multiplicatus4 sub hoc currente4 ,anno domini ,mo cccco 4lxxo4 cuiusquidem collectionis atque etiam multiplicacionis eius non paruipendenda racio si placet 4 videri poteret4 ,in folii laterem sequenti ,after the introduction of woodcut illustrations1 the next innovation with which we have to concern ourselves is the adoption of the title-page4 ,what may be called accidental title-pages are found on both the ,latin and the ,german edition of a ,bull of ,pope ,pius ,,ii4 printed by ,fust and ,schoeffer in #adfc4 ,after this ,arnold ther ,hoernen of ,cologne appears to have been the first printer lavish enough to devote a whole page to prefixing a title to a book4 ,a facsimile is here given1 from which we see that this 'sermon preachable on the feast of the presentation of the most blessed ,virgin' was printed in #adgj at the outset of ther ,hoernen's career4 ,the printer1 however1 seems to have understood no better than ,schoeffer the commercial advantage of what he was doing1 and the next title-page which has to be chronicled is another of the same kind1 reading the ',tractatulus compendiosus per modum dyalogi timidis ac deuotis viris editus instruens non plus curam de pullis et carnibus habere suillis quam quo modo verus deus et homo qui in celis est digne tractetur4 ,ostendens insuper etiam salubres manuductiones quibus minus dispositus abilitetur1' etc4 ,what we may call the business title of this book is much more sensibly set forth in the brief colophon3 ',explicit exhortacio de celebratione misse per modum dyalogi inter pontificem et sacerdotem1 ,anno ,lxxet1' c4 ,still1 here also1 the absence of an incipit1 and of any following text must be taken as constituting a title-page4 ,three years later two ,augsburg printers1 ,bernardus 'pictor' and ,erhardus ,ratdolt1 who had started a partnership in ,venice with ,petrus ,l3oslein of ,langenzenn in ,bavaria1 produced the first artistic title-page as yet discovered4 ,this appears in all the three editions of a ,calendar which they issued in ,latin and ,italian in #adgf1 and in ,german in #adgh4 ,the praises of the ,calendar are sung in twelve lines of verse1 beginning in the ,latin edition3-- ,aureus hic liber est3 non est preciosior ulla ,gemma kalendario quod docet istud opus4 ,aureus hic numerus2 lune solisque labores ,monstrantur facile3 cunctaque signa poli4 ,then follows the date1 then the names of the three printers in red ink4 ,this letterpress is surrounded by a border in five pieces1 the uppermost of which shows a small blank shield 7see p4 #ai71 while on the two sides skilfully conventionalised foliage is springing out of two urns4 ,the two gaps between these and the printers' names are filled up by two small blocks of tracery4 ,it is noteworthy that this charming design was employed by printers from ,augsburg1 the city in which wood-engraving was first seriously employed for the decoration of printed books4 ,but the design itself is distinctly ,italian in its spirit1 not ,german4 ,like its two predecessors1 the title-page of #adgf was a mere anticipation1 and was not imitated4 ,the systematic development of the title-page begins in the early part of the next decade1 when the custom of printing the short title of the book on a first page1 otherwise left blank1 came slowly into use4#d ,the two earliest appearances of these label title-pages in ,england are 7#a7 in ',a passing gode lityll boke necessarye behouefull agenst the ,pestilens1' by ',canutus1 ,bishop of ,aarhus1' printed by ,machlinia1 probably towards the close of his career #adhf-ij82 and 7#b7 in one of the earliest works printed by ,wynkyn de ,worde1 ,caxton's foreman1 after his master's death4 ,here1 in the centre of the first page1 we find a three-line paragraph reading3 ,the prouffytable boke for manes soule ,and right comfortable to the body and specially in aduersitee tribulation1 which boke is called ,the ,chastysynge of goddes ,chyldern4 ,other countries were earlier than ,england both in the adoption of the label title-page and in filling the blank space beneath the title with some attempt at ornament4 ,in ,france the ornament usually took the form of a printer's mark1 more rarely of an illustration2 in ,italy and ,germany usually of an illustration1 more rarely of a printer's mark4 ,until the first quarter of the sixteenth century was drawing to a close the colophon still held its place at the end of the book as the chief source of information as to the printer's name and place and date of publication4 ,the author's name1 also1 was often reserved for the colophon1 or hidden away in a preface or dedicatory letter4 ,title-pages completed according to the fashion which1 until the antiquarian revival by ,william ,morris of the old label form1 has ever since held sway1 do not become common till about #aebj4 ,perhaps the chief reason why the convenient custom of the title-page spread so slowly was that soon after #adgj the ,augsburg printers began to imitate in woodcuts the elaborate borders with which the illuminators had been accustomed to decorate the first page of the text of a manuscript or early printed book4 ,when they first appear these woodcut borders grow out of the initial letter with which the text begin1 and extend only over part of the upper and inner margins4 ,in other instances1 however1 they completely surround the first page of text1 and this is nearly always the case with the very beautiful borders which are found1 towards the close of the century1 in many books printed in ,italy4 ,in these they are mostly preceded by a 'label' title-page4 ,the use of borders to surround every page of text was practically confined#e to books of devotion1 notably the ,books of ,hours1 whose wonderful career began in #adhg and lasted for upwards of half a century4 ,head-pieces are found in a few books1 chiefly ,greek1 printed at ,venice towards the close of the fifteenth century4 ,in the absence of any previous investigations on the subject1 it is dangerous to attempt to say where tail-pieces first occur1 but their birthplace was probably ,france4 ,pagination and head-lines are said to have been first used by ,arnold ther ,hoernen at ,cologne in #adgj and #adga2 printed signatures by ,john ,koelhoff at the same city in #adgb4 ,the date of ,koelhoff's book1 an edition of ,nider's ,expositio ,decalogi1 has been needlessly held to be a misprint1 though it is a curious coincidence that we find signatures stamped by hand in one edition of ,franciscus de ,platea's ,de restitutionibus1 ,venice1 #adgc1 and printed close to the text in the normal way in another edition issued at ,cologne the following year4 ,none of these small matters have any direct bearing on the decoration of books1 but they are of interest to us as pointing to the printer's gradual emancipation from his long dependence on the help of the scribe4 ,it is perhaps worth while1 for the same reason1 to take as a landmark ,g3unther ,zainer's #adgc edition of the ,de regimine principum of ,aegidius ,columna4 ,this book is possessed of printed head-lines1 chapter headings1 paragraph marks1 and large and small initial letters4 ,from first page to last it is untouched by the hand of the rubricator1 and shows that ,zainer at any rate had won his independence within five years of setting up his press4 ,curiously enough1 to this particular specimen of his work he did not give his name1 though it is duly dated4 ,illustration3 ,from ,ptolemy's ,cosmographia1 ,ulm1 #adhb4 99 99 99 99 99 #c ,a leaf of the ,rechtstreit is in the ,taylorian ,institute at ,oxford4 #d ,it may be noted that in a few books1 alike in ,germany1 ,italy1 and ,france1 issued about #adij1 a label title is printed on the back of the last leaf1 either instead of1 or in addition to1 that on the recto of the first4 #e ,they are found also in some ,books of ,emblems1 and in a few books printed at ,lyons in the middle of the sixteenth century4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,germany--#adgj-adhf ,in the fifteenth century ,augsburg was one of the chief centres in ,germany for card-making and woodcut pictures4 ,the cutters were jealous of their privileges1 and when1 in #adga1 ,g3unther ,zainer1 a native of ,reutlingen1 who had been printing in their town for some years 7his first book was issued in ,march #adfh71 asked for admission to the privileges of a burgher1 they not only opposed him1 but demanded that he should be forbidden to print woodcuts in his books4 ,the abbot of ,,ss4 ,ulric and ,afra1 ,melchior de ,stamheim1 who subsequently set up presses of his own1 procured a compromise1 and ,g3unther was allowed to employ woodcuts freely1 so long as they were cut by authorised cutters4 ,zainer's first dated book with illustrations is a translation of the ,legenda ,aurea of ,jacobus de ,voragine1 with a small cut prefacing each of the two hundred and thirty-four biographies4 ,the first part of this was finished in ,october #adga1 and the second in ,april #adgb4 ,in #adgb came also two editions of the ,belial or 'processus ,luciferi contra ,jesum ,christum1' in which thirty-two cuts help the understanding of the extraordinary text1 and to the same year belongs ,ingold's ,das guldin ,spiel1 a wonderful work1 in which the seven deadly sins are illustrated from seven games4 ,as a copy of this book is available1 which has had the good fortune to escape the colourist1 one of its twelve cuts--that showing card-playing1 with which an ,augsburg woodcutter would be especially familiar--is here reproduced4 ,the face of the man at the far end of the table is perhaps the most expressive piece of drawing in all the series4 ,in #adgc ,zainer printed for the ,abbot of ,,ss4 ,ulric and ,afra a ,speculum ,humanae ,salvationis1 with numerous ,biblical woodcuts4 ,he also issued two editions in #adgc and #adgg of a ,bible1 with large initial letters1 into each of which is introduced a little picture4 ,at the end of the second of these editions he adds the fine device1 shown on p4 #dj1 which it is strange that he should not have used more often4 ,in #adgd he printed an account of the supposed murder of a small boy1 named ,simon1 by the ,jews1 illustrated with some quite vivid pictures1 and to about this time belongs his finest work1 an undated edition of the ,speculum ,humanae ,vitae1 full of numerous delightful cuts illustrating various trades and callings4 ,in #adgg he illustrated a ,german edition of the moralisation of the game of ,chess by ,jacobus de ,cessolis1 of which ,caxton had helped to print an ,english version a year or two before4 ,illustration3 ,from ,ingold's ,guldin ,spiel1 ,augsburg1 #adgb4 ,illustration3 ,device of ,g3unther ,zainer4 ,during the ten or twelve years of his activity at ,augsburg1 which was brought to a close by his death in #adgh1 ,g3unther ,zainer printed probably at least a hundred works1 of which about twenty1 mostly either religious or1 according to the ideas of the time1 amusing1 have illustrations4 ,of the works printed during the second half of his career1 the majority have woodcut initials1 large or small1 and a few also woodcut borders to the first page4 ,the initials 7which sometimes only extend through a part of a book1 blanks being left when the stock failed71 if seen by themselves1 are rather clumsy1 but harmonise well with the remarkably heavy gothic type which ,zainer chiefly used during this period of his career4 ,if his engraved work cannot be praised as highly artistic1 it was at least plentiful and bold1 and admirably adapted for the popular books in which it mostly appeared4 ,johann ,b3amler1 who during twenty years from #adgb printed a long list of illustrated books at ,augsburg1 can hardly have set much store by originality1 for in several of these1 e4g4 the ,belial 7#adgc71 the ,plenarium 7#adgd71 the ,legenda ,sanctorum1 c41 the cuts are wholly or mainly copied from those in editions previously issued by ,zainer4 ,b3amler began his own career as an illustrator with some frontispieces1 as we may call them1 which come after the table of contents1 and facing the first page of text in the ,summa ,confessorum of ,johannes ,friburgensis1 the ,goldenen ,harfen of ,nider1 and others of his early books4 ,in #adgd he issued the first of his three editions of the ,buch von den ,sieben ,tods3unden und den ,sieben ,tugenden4 ,the ',sins and ,virtues' are personified as armed women riding on various animals1 with various symbolical devices on their shields1 banners1 and helmets4 ,but the ladies' faces are all very much alike1 and the armorial symbolism is so recondite1 that a considerable acquaintance with medieval ',bestiaries' would be required to decipher it4 ,far better than this conventional work are the cuts in the ,buch der ,natur1 printed by ,b3amler in the next year4 ,this is a fourteenth-century treatise dealing with men and women1 with the sky and its signs1 with beasts1 trees1 vegetables1 stones1 and famous wells1 and1 as in ,zainer's ,spiegel des menschlichen ,lebens1 the artist drew from nature far better than from his imagination4 ,in an edition of ,k3onigshofen's ,chronik von allen ,k3onigen und ,kaisern1 printed in #adgf1 ,b3amler inserted four full-page cuts representing ,christ in glory1 the ,emperor ,sigismund dreaming in his bed1 ,st4 ,veronica holding before her the cloth miraculously imprinted with the face of ,christ1 and the vision of ,pope ,gregory1 when the crucified ,christ appeared to him on the altar4 ,of ,b3amler's later books1 his edition 7issued in #adhb71 of the ,history of the ,crusades 7,t3urken-,kreuzz3uge71 by ,rupertus de ,sancto ,remigio1 is perhaps the most noticeable4 ,the large cut of the ,pope1 attended by a young cardinal1 preaching to a crowd of pilgrims1 whose exclamation of ',deus ,vult' is represented by a scroll between them and the preacher1 is really a fine piece of work1 though the buildings in the background1 from whose windows listeners are thrusting their heads1 have the usual curious resemblance to bathing-machines4 ,some of the smaller cuts also are good1 notably one of a group of mounted pilgrims1 which has a real out-of-door effect4 ,after #adhb1 though he lived another twenty years1 ,b3amler published few or no new works1 being content to reprint his old editions4 ,our next ,augsburg printer is ,anton ,sorg1 whose first dated work with woodcuts is the ,buch der ,kindheit unseres ,herrn 7#adgf74 ,in his ,b3uchlein das da heisset der ,seelen ,trost1 he produced the first series of illustrations to the ,ten ,commandments1--large full-page cuts1 rudely executed4 ,his ,passion nach dem ,texte der vier ,evangelisten1 first issued in #adhj1 ran through no less than five editions in twelve years4 ,in #adha he produced the first ,german translation of the ,travels of ,mandeville1 illustrated with numerous cuts of some merit4 ,by far his most famous work is his edition of ,reichenthal's account of the ,council of ,constance1 illustrated with more than eleven hundred cuts1 chiefly of the arms of the dignitaries there present4 ,the arms were necessarily intended to be coloured 7the present system of representing the heraldic colours by conventional arrangements of lines and dots only dates from the seventeenth century71 and this fate has also befallen the larger illustrations1 whose workmanship is1 indeed1 so rude1 that it could scarcely stand alone4 ,these larger cuts represent processions of the ,pope and his cardinals1 the dubbing of a knight1 a tournament1 the burning of ,huss for heresy1 the scattering of his ashes 7which half fill a cart7 over the fields1 and other incidents of the famous council4 ,but the interest of the book remains chiefly heraldic4 ,after #adhj1 printers of illustrated books became numerous at ,augsburg1 ,peter ,berger1 ,johann ,schobsser1 ,hans ,schauer1 and ,lucas ,zeissenmaier being rather more important than their fellows4 ,more prolific than these1 but not more enterprising in respect to new designs1 was the elder ,hans ,schoensperger1 who began his long career in #adha4 ,his chief claim to distinction is his printing of the ,emperor ,maximilian's ,theuerdank1 to which we shall refer in the next chapter4 ,erhard ,ratdolt deserves mention for his ten years' stay at ,venice1 where1 as we have seen1 he issued in #adgf the ,calendar1 which is the first book with an ornamental title-page4 ,in #adhf he returned to ,augsburg at the invitation of ,bishop ,friedrich von ,hohenzollern to print service-books1 into which in future he put all his best work4 ,his types and initial letters he brought with him from ,italy2 for his illustrations1 he had recourse to ,german artists of no exceptional ability4 ,a few of his service-books1 however1 are distinguished by some interesting1 if not very successful1 experiments in printing some of the colours in his woodcuts4 ,the foregoing sketch of the chief illustrated books published at ,augsburg during the fifteenth century can hardly escape the charge of dullness4 ,it has been worth while1 however1 to plod through with it1 because it may serve very well as an epitome of the average illustrated work done between #adgj and #adij throughout ,germany4 ,some of the works we have mentioned remained to the end ,augsburg books--e4g4 the ,buch der ,kunst geistlich zu werden1 the ,buch der ,natur1 the ,historie aus den ,geschichten der ,r3omer1 were repeatedly published there and nowhere else4 ,others1 e4g4 the ,historie des ,k3onigs ,apollonius1 were shared between ,augsburg and ,ulm1 chiefly1 no doubt1 through the relationship of the two ,zainers4 ,the ,historia ,trojana of ,guido delle ,colonne and the ,geschichte des grossen ,alexander enjoyed long careers at ,augsburg1 and were then taken up by ,martin ,schott at ,strasburg4 ,eleven editions of the ,belial of ,jacobus de ,theramo were shared fairly equally between the two cities4 ,the ,bible and the ,legenda ,aurea were of too widespread an interest to be monopolised by one or two places4 ,a few books1 like the ,,aesop and the ,de ,claris ,mulieribus of ,boccaccio1 which start from ,ulm1 or the early ,fasciculus ,temporum1 of which more than half the early editions belonged to ,cologne1 trace their source elsewhere than to ,augsburg4 ,but it was at ,augsburg that the majority of the popular illustrated books of the fifteenth century were first published1 and the editions issued in other towns were mostly more or less servile imitations of them4 ,next in importance to ,augsburg in the early history of illustrated books in ,germany1 ranks the neighbouring city of ,ulm1 where the names of wood-engravers are found in the town registers from the early part of the century1 and the printers had thus plenty of good material to call to their aid4 ,the first illustrated book which we know with certainty to have been printed at ,ulm is the ,de ,claris ,mulieribus of ,boccaccio1 issued by ,johann ,zainer1 in a ,latin edition dated #adgc1 and in a ,german translation1 with the same cuts1 about the same time4 ,this ,johann ,zainer was probably a kinsman of ,g3unther ,zainer of ,augsburg1 but very little is known of him4 ,the ,de ,claris ,mulieribus begins with a fine engraved border extending over the upper and inner margins of the first page4 ,it is not merely decorative but pictorial1 the subject represented being the ,temptation of ,adam and ,eve4 ,eve is handing her husband an apple from the ,forbidden ,tree1 amid whose branches is seen the head of the serpent1 his body being twisted into a large initial ,s1 and then tapering away into the upper section of the border1 where it becomes a branch1 among the leaves of which appear emblems of the seven deadly sins4 ,the numerous woodcuts in the text are quite equal to the average ,augsburg work4 ,our illustration shows ,scipio warning ,massinissa to put away his newly married wife1 and the hapless ,sophonisba drinking the poison1 which is the only marriage gift her husband could send her4 ,zainer's most striking success was achieved by his edition of ,steinh3owel's version of the ,life and ,fables of ,,aesop1 of which no less than eleven editions were printed in various ,german towns before the end of the century1 for the most part closely copied from the ,ulm original4 ,in this1 there are altogether two hundred woodcuts1 eleven of which belong to the story of ,sigismund at the end of the book4 ,the frontispiece is a large picture of ,,aesop1 who1 here and throughout the chapters devoted to his imaginary 'life1' is represented as a knavish clown1 a variant of ,eulenspiegel or ,marcolphus4 ,some of the illustrations to the fables are very good1 notably those of the ,sower and the ,birds1 the ,huntsman1 and ,king ,stork1 here reproduced from ,sorg's reprint4 ,the ,,aesop and the ,boccaccio ,de ,claris ,mulieribus give ,johann ,zainer a high place among the ,german printers of illustrated books4 ,his other work was unimportant and mostly imitative4 ,his types are much smaller than those used in the early ,augsburg books1 and his initials less heavy and massive4 ,they are not more than an inch high1 and consist of a simple outline overlaid with jagged work4 ,illustration3 ,from ,boccaccio ,de ,clar4 ,mul41 ,ulm1 #adgc4 ,illustration3 ,king ,log and ,king ,stork1 from the ,ulm ,,aesop4 ,in #adhb1 ,leonhard ,holl printed at ,ulm an edition of ,ptolemy's ,cosmographia1 which contains the first woodcut map and fine initial letters1 one of which1 showing the editor1 ,nicolaus ,germanus1 presenting his book to the ,pope1 is given as a frontispiece to this chapter4 ,in #adhc he issued the first of many editions of the ,buch der ,weisheit der alten ,menschen von ,anbeginn der ,welt4 ,the wisdom of the ancients chiefly takes the form of fables1 which are illustrated with cuts1 larger but much less artistic than those of ,zainer's ,,aesop4 ,from ,conrad ,dinkmuth we have the first illustrated editions of three notable works1 the ,seelenwurzgarten1 or ',garden of the ,soul' 7#adhc71 ,thomas ,lirar's ,schw3abische ,chronik 7#adhf71 and the ,eunuchus of ,terence 7#adhf74 ,this last is illustrated with fourteen remarkable woodcuts1 over five inches by seven in size1 and each occupying about three-fourths of a page4 ,the scene is mostly laid in a street1 and there is some attempt at perspective in the vista of houses4 ,the figures of the characters are fairly good1 but not above the average ,ulm work of the time4 ,two later ,ulm books1 written by ,gulielmus ,caoursin and printed by ,johann ,reger in #adif1 are of great interest1 one giving the ,stabilimenta or ordinances1 of the ,order of ,st4 ,john of ,jerusalem1 the other an account of the successful defence of ,rhodes by its knights against the ,turks4 ,both are richly illustrated with woodcuts of very considerable artistic merit4 ,illustration3 ,from the ,eunuchus1 ,ulm1 #adhf4 ,at ,l3ubeck in #adge ,lucas ,brandis printed1 as his first book1 a notable edition of the ,rudimentum ,noviciorum1 an epitome of history1 sacred and profane1 during the six ages of the world4 ,the epitome is epitomised at the beginning of the book by ten pages of cuts1 mostly of circles linked together by chains1 and bearing the name of some historical character4 ,into the space left by these circles are introduced pictures of the world's history from the ,creation and the ,flood down to the life of ,christ1 which is told in a series of nine cuts on the last page4 ,the first page of the text is surrounded1 except at the top1 by a border in three pieces1 into one section of which are introduced birds1 and into another a blank shield supported by two lions4 ,the inner margin of the first page of text bears a fine figure of a man reading a scroll1 and the two columns are separated by a spiral of leaves climbing round a stick4 ,the cuts in the text are partly repeated from the preliminary pages1 partly new1 though extreme economy is shown in their use1 one figure of a philosopher standing for at least twenty different sages4 ,the large initial letters at the beginning of the various books have scenes introduced into them1 the little battle-piece in the ,q of the ',quinta aetas' being the most remarkable4 ,altogether this is a very splendid and noteworthy book1 and one which ,brandis never equalled in his later work4 ,at ,nuremberg in #adgb1 ,johann ,sensenschmidt1 its first printer1 issued a ,german ,bible1 introducing illustrations into the large initial letters4 ,at ,cologne first one printer and then another published illustrated editions 7ten in all7 of the ,fasciculus ,temporum1 though the cuts in these are mostly restricted to a few conventional scenes of cities1 and representations of the ,nativity and ,crucifixion and of ,christ in glory4 ,at ,cologne also1 about #adhj1 there appeared two great ,german dialect ,bibles in two volumes1 in the type and with borders which are found in books signed by ,heinrich ,quentel1 to whose press they are therefore assigned4 ,there are altogether one hundred and twenty-five cuts1 ninety-four in the ,old ,testament 7thirty-three of which illustrate the life of ,moses71 and thirty-one in the ,new4 ,they are of considerable size1 stretching right across the double-columned page1 and are the work of a skilful1 but not very highly inspired1 artist4 ,they have neither the na3ivet'e of the early ,augsburg and ,ulm workmen1 nor the richness of the later ,german work4 ,they were1 however1 immensely popular at the time4 ,in #adhc ,anton ,koberger copied them at ,nuremberg1 omitting1 however1 the borders which occur on the first and third pages of the first volume1 and at the beginning of the ,new ,testament1 and rejecting also nineteen of the thirty-one ,new ,testament illustrations4 ,the cuts were used again in other editions1 and influenced later engravers for many years4 ,hans ,holbein even used them as the groundwork for his own designs for the ,old ,testament printed by ,adam ,petri at ,basel in #aebc4 ,at ,strassburg1 illustrated books were first issued by ,knoblochtzer in #adgg1 and after #adhj1 ,martin ,schott and ,johann ,pr3uss printed them in considerable numbers4 ,both these printers1 however1 were as a rule contented to reproduce the woodcuts in the different ,augsburg books1 and the original works issued by them are mostly poor4 ,an exception may be made in favour of the undated ,buch der ,heiligen drei ,k3onige of ,johannes ,hildeshemensis1 printed by ,pr3uss4 ,this has a good border round the upper and inner margins of the first page of text woodcut initials1 and fifty-eight cuts of considerable merit4#f ,at ,mainz1 ,peter ,schoeffer was very slow in introducing pictures into his books1 making no use of them until he took to ,missal printing in #adhc1 when a cut of the ,crucifixion became almost obligatory4 ,in #adgi1 however1 a remarkable reprint of the ,meditationes of ,cardinal ,turrecremata had been issued at ,mainz by ,johann ,numeister or ,neumeister1 a wandering ,mainz printer1 who had previously worked at ,foligno1 and is subsequently found at ,albi1 but now while revisiting his native place published there reduced adaptations of the cuts in the editions printed by ,hahn at ,rome 7see ,chapter ,v71 worked on soft metal instead of on wood4 ,in addition to the places we have mentioned1 illustrated books were issued during this period by ,bernhard ,richel at ,basel1 by ,conrad ,fyner at ,esslingen1 and by other printers in less important ,german towns4 ,but those we have already discussed are perhaps sufficient as representatives of the first stage of book-illustration in ,germany4 ,they have all this much in common that they are planned and carried out under the immediate direction of the printers themselves1 each of whom seems to have had one or more wood-engravers attached to his office1 who drew their own designs upon the wood and cut them themselves4 ,there is a maximum of outline-work1 a minimum of shading and no cross-hatching4 ,every line is as direct and simple as possible4 ,at times the effect is inconceivably rude1 at times it is delightful in its child-like originality1 and the craftsman's efforts to give expression to the faces are sometimes almost ludicrously successful4 ,to the present writer these simple woodcuts are far more pleasing than all the glories of the illustrated work of the next century4 ,they are in keeping with the books they decorate1 in keeping with the massive black types and the stiff white paper4 ,after #aejj1 we may almost say after #adij1 we shall find that the printing and illustrating of books are no longer closely allied trades4 ,an artist draws a design with pen and ink1 a clever mechanic imitates it as minutely as he can on the wood1 and the design is then carelessly printed in the midst of type-work1 which bears little relation to it4 ,paper and ink also are worse1 and types smaller and less carefully handled4 ,everything was sacrificed to cheapness1 and the result was as dull as cheap work usually is4 ,by the time that the great artists began to turn their attention to book-illustration1 printing in ,germany was almost a lost art4 99 99 99 99 99 #f ,many of ,knoblochtzer's books also have very pretentious borders1 though the designs are usually coarse4 ,a quarto border used in his ,salomon et ,marcolfus with a large initial letter1 and a folio one in his reprint of ,,aesop perhaps show his best work4 ,these are reproduced1 with many other examples of his types1 initials1 and illustrations in ,heinrich ,knoblochtzer in ,strassburg von ,karl ,schorbach und ,max ,spirgatis4 7,strassburg1 #ahhh47 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,germany1 ,,from #adhf ,the second period of book-illustration in ,germany dates from the publication at ,mainz in #adhf of ,bernhard von ,breydenbach's celebrated account of his pilgrimage to ,jerusalem4 ,two years previously ,schoeffer had brought out a ,herbarius in which one hundred and fifty plants were illustrated1 mostly only in outline1 and in #adhe he followed this up with another work of the same character1 the ,gart der ,gesundheyt1 which has between three and four hundred cuts of plants and animals1 and a fine frontispiece of botanists in council4 ,this in its turn formed the basis of ,jacob ,meidenbach's enlarged ,latin edition of the same work1 published under the title of ,hortus ,sanitatis1 with additional cuts and full-page frontispieces to each part4 ,these three books in the na3ivet'e and simplicity of some of their illustrations1 belong to the period which we have reviewed in our last chapter1 but in other cuts a real effort seems to have been made to reproduce the true appearance of the plant1 and the increased care for accuracy links them with the newer work4 ,it is1 however1 the ,opus transmarinae peregrinationis ad sepulchrum dominicum in ,jherusalem which opens a new era1 as the first work executed by an artist of distinction as opposed to the nameless craftsmen at whose woodcuts we have so far been looking4 ,when ,bernhard von ,breydenbach went on his pilgrimage in #adhc he took with him the artist1 ,erhard ,reuwich1 and while ,breydenbach made notes of their adventures1 ,reuwich sketched the inhabitants of ,palestine1 and drew wonderful maps of the places they visited4 ,on their return to ,mainz in #adhd1 ,breydenbach began writing out his ,latin account of the pilgrimage1 and ,reuwich not only completed his drawings1 but took so active a part in passing the work through the press that1 though the types used in it apparently belonged to ,schoeffer1 he is spoken of as its printer4 ,the book appeared in #adhf1 and as its magnificence deserved1 was issued on vellum as well as on paper4 ,its first page was blank1 the second is occupied by a frontispiece1 in which the art of wood-engraving attained at a leap to an unexampled excellence4 ,in the centre of the composition is the figure of a woman1 personifying the town of ,mainz1 standing on a pedestal1 below and on either side of which are the shields of ,breydenbach and his two noble companions1 the ,count of ,solms and ,sir ,philip de ,bicken4 ,the upper part of the design is occupied by foliage amid which little naked boys are happily scrambling4 ,the dedication to the ,archbishop of ,mainz begins with a beautiful1 but by no means legible1 ,r1 in which a coat of arms is enclosed in light and graceful branches4 ,this1 and the smaller ,s which begins the preface are the only two printed initials in the volume4 ,all the rest are supplied by hand4 ,the most noticeable feature in the book are seven large maps1 of ,venice1 ,parenzo in ,illyria1 ,corfu1 ,modon1 near the bay of ,navarino1 ,crete1 ,rhodes1 and ,jerusalem4 ,these are of varying sizes1 from that of ,venice1 which is some five feet in length1 to those of ,parenzo and ,corfu1 which only cover a double-page4 ,they are panoramas rather than maps1 and are plainly drawn from painstaking sketches1 with some attempt at local colour in the people on the quays and the shipping4 ,besides these maps there is a careful drawing1 some six inches square1 of the ,church of the ,holy ,sepulchre1 headed ',haec est dispositio et figura templi dominici sepulchri ab extra1' and cuts of ,saracens 7here shown71 two ,jews1 ,greeks1 both seculars and monks1 ,syrians and ,indians1 with tables of the alphabets of their respective languages4 ,spaces are also left for drawings of ,jacobites1 ,nestorians1 ,armenians1 and ,georgians1 which apparently were not engraved4 ,illustration3 ,saracens from ,breydenbach4 ,after ,breydenbach and his fellows had visited ,jerusalem they crossed the desert to the shrine of ,st4 ,katharine on ,mount ,sinai1 and this part of their travels is illustrated by a cut of a cavalcade of ,turks in time of peace4 ,there is also a page devoted to drawings of animals1 showing a giraffe1 a crocodile1 two ,indian goats1 a camel led by a baboon with a long tail and walking stick1 a salamander and a unicorn4 ,underneath the baboon is written 'non constat de nomine' 7'name unknown'71 and the presence of the unicorn did not prevent the travellers from solemnly asserting1--',haec animalia sunt veraciter depicta sicut vidimus in terra sancta6' ,at the end of the text is ,reuwich's device1 a woman holding a shield1 on which is depicted the figure of a bird4 ,the book is beautifully printed1 in a small and very graceful gothic letter4 ,it obtained the success it deserved1 for there was a speedy demand for a ,german translation 7issued in #adhh71 and at least six different editions were printed in ,germany during the next twenty years1 besides other translations4 ,alike in its inception and execution ,breydenbach's ,pilgrimage stands on a little pinnacle by itself1 and the next important books which we have to notice1 ,stephan's ,schatzbehalter oder ,schrein der wahren ,reichth3umer des ,heils und ewiger ,seligkeit and ,hartmann ,schedel's ,liber ,chronicarum1 usually known as the ,nuremberg ,chronicle1 are in every respect inferior1 even the unsurpassed profusion of the woodcuts in the latter being almost a sin against good taste4 ,both works were printed by ,anton ,koberger of ,nuremberg1 the one in #adia1 the other two years later1 and in both the illustrations were designed1 partly or entirely1 by ,michael ,wohlgemuth1 whose initial ,w appears on many of the cuts in the ,schatzbehalter4 ,of these there are nearly a hundred1 each of which occupies a large folio page1 and measures nearly seven inches by ten4 ,the composition in many of these pictures is good1 and the fine work in the faces and hair show that we have travelled very far away from the outline cuts of the last chapter4 ,on the other hand1 there is no lack of simplicity in some of the scenes from the ,old ,testament4 ,in his anxiety1 for instance1 to do justice to ,samson's exploits1 the artist has represented him flourishing the jawbone of the ass over a crowd of slain ,philistines1 while with the gates of ,gaza on his back he is casually choking a lion with his foot4 ,in the next cut he is walking away with a pillar1 while the palace of the ,philistines1 apparently built without any ground floor1 is seen toppling in the air4 ,in contrast with these primitive conceptions we find the figure of ,christ often invested with real dignity1 and the representation of ,god the ,father less unworthy than usual4 ,in the only copy of the book accessible to me the cuts are all coloured1 so that it is impossible to give a specimen of them1 but the figure of ,noah reproduced from the ,nuremberg ,chronicle gives a very fair idea of the work of ,wohlgemuth1 or his school1 at its best4 ,the ,chronicle1 to which we must now turn1 is a mighty volume of rather over three hundred leaves1 with sixty-five or sixty-six lines to each of its great pages4 ,it begins with the semblance of a title-page in the inscription in large woodcut letters on its first page1 ',registrum huius operis libri cronicarum cum figuris et ymaginibus ab inicio mundi1' though this really amounts only to a head-line to the long table of contents which follows4 ,it is noticeable1 also1 as showing how slowly printed initials were adopted in many towns in ,germany1 that a blank is left at the beginning of each alphabetical section of this table1 and a larger blank at the beginning of the prologue1 and that throughout the volume there are no large initial letters4 ,this is also the case with the ,schatzbehalter1 the blanks in the ,british ,museum copy being filled up with garish illumination4 ,after the 'table' in the ,chronicle there is a frontispiece of ,god in ,glory1 at the foot of which are two blank shields held by wild men4 ,the progress of the work of creation is shown by a series of circles1 at first blank1 afterwards more and more filled in4 ,in the first five the hand of ,god appears in the upper left-hand corner1 to signify ,his creative agency4 ,the two chief features in the ,chronicle itself are its portraits and its maps4 ,the former are1 of course1 entirely imaginary1 and the invention of the artist was not equal to devising a fresh head for every person mentioned in the text1 a pardonable economy considering that there are sometimes more than twenty of these heads scattered over a single page and connected together by the branches of a quasi-genealogical tree4 ,the maps1 if not so good as those in ,breydenbach's ,pilgrimage1 are still good4 ,for ,ninive1 for ',athene vel ,minerva1' for ,troy1 and other ancient places1 the requisite imagination was forthcoming2 while the maps of ,venice1#g of ,florence1 and of other cities of ,italy1 ,france1 and ,germany1 appear to give a fair idea of the chief features of the places represented4 ,nuremberg1 of course1 has the distinction of two whole pages to itself 7the other maps usually stretch across only the lower half of the book71 and full justice is done to its churches of ,s4 ,lawrence and ,s4 ,sebaldus1 to the ,calvary outside the city walls1 and to the hedge of spikes1 by which the drawbridge was protected from assault4 ,illustration3 ,from the ,nuremberg ,chronicle4 ,we shall have very soon to return again to ,wohlgemuth and ,nuremberg1 but in the year which followed the production of the great ,chronicle ,sebastian ,brant's ,narrenschiff attracted the eyes of the literary world throughout ,europe to the city of ,basel1 and we also may be permitted to digress thither4 ,in the year of the ,chronicle itself a ,basel printer1 ,michael ,furter1 had produced a richly illustrated work1 the ,ritter vom ,thurn von den ,exempeln der ,gottesfurcht und ,ehrbarkeit1 the cuts in which have ornamental borders on each side of them4 ,brant had recourse to ,furter a little later1 but for his ,narrenschiff he went to ,bergmann de ,olpe1 from whose press it was published in #adid4 ,the engraver or engravers 7for there seem to have been at least two different hands at work7 of its one hundred and fourteen cuts are not known1 but ,brant is said to have closely supervised the work1 and may possibly have furnished sketches for it himself4 ,many of the illustrations could hardly be better4 ,the satire on the book-fool in his library is too well known to need description2 other excellent cuts are those of the children gambling and fighting while the fool-father sits blindfold1--of the fool who tries to serve two masters1 depicted as a hunter setting his dog to run down two hares in different directions1--of the fool who looks out of the window while his house is on fire1--of the sick fool 7here shown7 who kicks off the bedclothes and breaks the medicine bottles while the doctor vainly tries to feel his pulse1--of the fool who allows earthly concerns to weigh down heavenly ones 7a miniature city and a handful of stars are the contents of the scales71--of the frightened fool who has put to sea in a storm1 and many others4 ,the popularity of the book was instantaneous and immense4 ,imitations of the ,basel edition were printed and circulated all over ,germany3 in #adig ,bergmann published a ,latin version by ,jacob ,locher with the same cuts1 and translations speedily appeared in almost every country in ,europe4 ,it is noteworthy that in the ,narrenschiff we have no longer to deal with a great folio but with a handy quarto1 and that1 save for its cuts and the adjacent brokers1 it has no artistic pretensions4 ,illustration3 ,the ,sick ,fool ,in the same year 7#adid7 as the ,narrenschiff1 ,bergmann printed another of ,brant's works1 his poems ',in laudem ,virginis ,mariae' and of the ,saints1 with fourteen cuts1 and in #adie his ,de origine et conservatione bonorum regum et laude civitatis ,hierosolymae1 which has only two1 but these of considerable size4 ,in the following year ,brant transferred his patronage to ,michael ,furter1 who printed his ,passio ,sancti ,meynhardi1 with fifteen large cuts1 by no means equal to those of the ,narrenschiff4 ,in #adih the indefatigable author employed both his printers1 giving to ,bergmann his ,varia ,carmina and to ,furter his edition of the ,revelatio ,s4 ,methodii1 which is remarkable not only for its fifty-five illustrations1 but for ,brant's allusion to his own theory1 'imperitis pro lectione pictura est1' to the unlearned a picture is the best text4 ,after #adih ,brant removed to ,strassburg1 where his influence was speedily apparent in the illustrated books published by ,johann ,gr3uninger1 who in #adid had issued as his first illustrated book an edition of the ,narrenschiff1 and in #adif published an illustrated and annotated ,terence4 ,he followed these up with other editions of the ,narrenschiff1 ,brant's ,carmina ,varia1 and a ,horace 7#adih71 with over six hundred cuts1 many of which1 however1 had appeared in the printer's earlier books4 ,in #aeja he produced an illustrated ,boethius1 and in the next year two notable works1 ,brant's ,heiligenleben and an annotated ,virgil1 each of them illustrated with over two hundred cuts1 of which very few had been used before4 ,the year #adid was notable for the publication not only of the ,narrenschiff1 but of a ,low ,saxon ,bible printed by ,stephan ,arndes at ,l3ubeck1 where he had been at work since #adhh4 ,the cuts to this book show some advance upon those in previous ,german ,bibles1 but they are not strikingly better than the work in the ,nuremberg ,chronicle1 to whose designers we must now return4 ,in #adif we find ,wohlgemuth designing a frontispiece to an ,ode on ,s4 ,sebaldus1 published by ,conrad ,celtes1 a ,nuremberg scholar1 with whom he had previously entered into negotiations for illustrating an edition of ,ovid1 which was never issued4 ,in #aeja ,celtes published the comedies of ,hroswitha1 a learned nun of the tenth century1 who had undertaken to show what charming religious plays might be written on the lines of ,terence4 ,by far the finest of the large cuts with which the book is illustrated is the second frontispiece1 in which ,hroswitha1 comedies in hand1 is being presented by her ,abbess to the ,emperor4 ,the designs to the plays themselves are dull enough1 a fault which those who are best acquainted with the good nun's style as a dramatist will readily excuse4 ,her one brilliant success1 a scene in which a wicked governor1 who has converted his kitchen into a temporary prison1 is made to inflict his embraces on the pots and pans1 instead of on the holy maidens immured amidst them1 was not selected for illustration4 ,the woodcuts to the plays of ,hroswitha were designed by ,wohlgemuth or his scholars1 and this was also the case with those in the ,quatuor libri amorum1 published by ,celtes in #aejb1 to which ,albrecht ,d3urer himself contributed three illustrations4 ,for three years1 from ,st4 ,andrew's ,day #adhf1 ,d3urer had served an apprenticeship to ,wohlgemuth1 and when he returned to ,nuremberg after his ',wanderjahre1' during which he seems to have executed a single woodcut of no great merit for an edition of the ,epistles of ,s4 ,jerome1 printed by ,nic4 ,kesler1 at ,basel1 in #adib1 he too began to work as an illustrator4 ,his first important effort in this character is the series of sixteen wood-engravings1 illustrating the ,apocalypse1 printed at ,nuremberg in #adih4 ,the first leaf bears a woodcut title ,die heimliche ,offenbarung ,johannis1 and on the verso of the last cut but one is the colophon1 ',gedr3ucket zu ,nurnbergk durch ,albrecht ,d3urer maler1 nach ,christi geburt ,m4,,cccc und darnach im xcviij iar4' ,it has also in one or more editions some explanatory text1 taken from the ,bible1 but in spite of these additions it is a portfolio of engravings rather than a book1 and as such does not come within our province4 ,on the same principle we can only mention1 without detailed description1 the ,epitome in ,divae ,parthenices ,mariae historiam of #aeaa1 the ,passio ,domini nostri ,jesu1 issued about the same date1 and the ,passio ,christi1 or ',little ,passion1' as it is usually called1 printed about #aeab4 ,all these have descriptive verses by the ,benedictine monk ,chelidonius 7though these do not appear in all copies71 but they belong to the history of wood-engraving as such1 and not to our humbler subject of book-illustration4 ,still less need we concern ourselves with the ',triumphal ,car' and ',triumphal ,arch' of the ,emperor ,maximilian1 designed by ,d3urer1 and published1 the one in #aebb1 the other not till after the artist's death4 ,besides these works and the single sheet of the ,rhinoceros of #aeac1 ,d3urer designed frontispieces for an edition of his own poems in #aeaj1 for a life of ,s4 ,jerome by his friend ,lazarus ,spengler in #aead1 and for the ,reformation der ,stadt ,n3urnberg of #aeba4 ,in #aeac also he drew a set of designs for half-ornamental1 half-illustrative borders to fill in the blank spaces left in the ,book of ,prayers printed on vellum for the ,emperor ,maximilian in #aead4 ,by him also was the woodcut of ,christ on the ,cross1 which appears first in the ,eichst3att ,missal of three years later4 ,for us1 however1 ,d3urer's importance does not lie in these particular designs1 but in the fact that he set an example of drawing for the wood-cutters1 which other artists were not slow to follow4 ,in directing the attention of ,german artists to the illustration of books1 the ,emperor ,maximilian played a more important part than ,d3urer himself4 ,as in politics1 so in art1 his designs were on too ambitious a scale1 and of the three great books he projected1 the ,theuerdank1 the ,weisskunig1 and the ,freydal1 only the first was brought to a successful issue4 ,this is a long epic poem allegorising the ,emperor's wedding trip to ,burgundy1 and though attributed to ,melchior ,pfintzing was apparently1 to a large extent1 composed by ,maximilian himself4 ,the printing was entrusted to the elder ,hans ,schoensperger of ,augsburg1 but for some unknown reason1 when the book was completed in #aeag1 the honour of its publication was allowed to ,nuremberg4 ,a special fount of type was cut for it by ,jost ,dienecker of ,antwerp1 who indulged in such enormous flourishes1 chiefly to any g or h which happened to occur in the last line of text in a page1 that many eminent printers have imagined that the whole book was engraved on wood4 ,the difficulties of the setting up1 however1 have been greatly exaggerated1 for the flourishes came chiefly at the top or foot of the page1 and are often not connected with any letter in the text4 ,in the present writer's opinion it is an open question whether the type1 which is otherwise a very handsome one1 is in any way improved by these useless appendages4 ,they add on an average about an inch at the top and an inch and a half at the foot to the column of the text1 which is itself ten inches in height1 and contains twenty-four lines to a full page4 ,the task of illustrating this royal work was entrusted to ,hans ,sch3aufelein1 an artist already in the ,emperor's employment1 and from his designs there were engraved one hundred and eighteen large cuts1 each of them six and a half inches high by five and a half broad4 ,the cuts1 which chiefly illustrate hunting scenes and knightly conflicts1 are not conspicuously better than those produced about the same time by other ,german artists1 but they have the great advantage of having been carefully printed on fine vellum1 and this has materially assisted their reputation4 ,the ,weisskunig1 a celebration of ,maximilian's life and travels1 and the ,freydal1 in honour of his knightly deeds1 were part of the same scheme as the ,theuerdank4 ,the two hundred and thirty-seven designs for the ,weisskunig were mainly the work of ,hans ,burgkmair1#h an ,augsburg artist of repute2 its literary execution was entrusted to the ,emperor's secretary1 ,max ,treitzsaurwein1 who completed the greater part of the text as early as #aeab4 ,but the ,emperor's death in #aeai found the great work still unfinished1 and it was not until #agge that it was published as a fragment1 with the original illustrations 7larger1 and perhaps finer1 than those in the ,theuerdank71 of which the blocks had1 fortunately1 been preserved4 ,the ,freydal1 though begun as early as #aejb1 was left still less complete2 the designs for it1 however1 are in existence at ,vienna4 ,the ',triumph of the ,emperor ,maximilian1' another ambitious work1 with one hundred and thirty-five woodcuts designed by ,burgkmair1 was first published in #agif4 ,the death of ,maximilian in #aeai and the less artistic tastes of ,charles ,v4 caused ,german illustrators to turn for work to the ,augsburg printers1 and during the next few years we find them illustrating a number of books for the younger ,schoensperger1 for ,hans ,othmar1 for ,miller1 and for ,grimm and ,wirsung1 all ,augsburg firms4 ,the most important result of this activity was the ,german edition of ,petrarch's ,de ,remediis utriusque ,fortunae1 for which in the years immediately following the ,emperor's death an artist named ,hans ,weiditz1 whose identity has only lately been re-established1 drew no less than two hundred and fifty-nine designs4 ,owing to the death of the printer1 ,grimm1 the book was put on one side1 but was finally brought out by ,heinrich ,steiner1 ,grimm's successor1 in #aecb4 ,in the interim some of the cuts had been used for an edition of ,cicero ,de ,senectute1 and they were afterwards used again in a variety of works4 ,despite the excellence of the cuts the ,petrarch is a very disappointing book4 ,to do justice to the fine designs the most delicate press work was necessary1 and1 except when the pressmen were employed by an ,emperor1 the delicacy was not forthcoming2 it may be said1 indeed1 that it was made impossible by the poorness and softness of the paper on which the book is printed4 ,at this period it was only the skill of individual artists which prevented ,german books from being as dull and uninteresting as they soon afterwards became4 ,books of devotion in ,germany never attained to the beauty of the ,french ,horae1 but they did not remain uninfluenced by them4 ,in or before #adif we find a ,nouum ,b4 ,mariae ,virginis ,psalterium printed at ,zinna1 near ,magdeburg1 with very beautiful1 though florid1 borders4 ,in #aeac there appeared at ,augsburg a ,german prayer-book1 entitled ,via ,felicitatis1 with thirty cuts1 all with rich conventional borders1 probably by ,hans ,sch3aufelein1 and we have already seen that in the same year ,d3urer himself designed borders for the ,emperor's own ,gebetbuch4 ,in #aeae1 again1 ,burgkmair had contributed a series of designs1 many of which had rich architectural borders1 to a ,leiden ,christi1 published by ,schoensperger at ,augsburg4 ,in #aebj the same artist designed another set of illustrations1 with very richly ornamented borders of flowers and animals1 for the ,devotissimae ,meditationes de vita beneficiis et passione ,jesu ,christi1 printed by ,grimm4 ,the use of borders soon became a common feature in ,german title-pages1 especially in the small quartos in which the ,lutherans and anti-,lutherans carried on their controversies2 but it cannot be said that they often exhibit much beauty4 ,the innumerable translations of the ,bible1 which were another result of the ,lutheran controversy1 also provided plenty of work for the illustrators4 ,the two ,augsburg editions of the ,new ,testament in #aebc were both illustrated1 the younger ,schoensperger's by ,sch3aufelein1 ,silvan ,othmar's by ,burgkmair4 ,burgkmair also issued a series of twenty-one illustrations to the ,apocalypse1 for which ,othmar had not had the patience to wait4 ,illustration3 ,border attributed to ,lucas ,cranach4 ,at ,wittenberg the most important works issued were the repeated editions of ,luther's translation of the ,bible4 ,here also ,lucas ,cranach1 who had previously 7in #aeji7 designed the cuts for what was known as the ,wittenberger ,heiligthumsbuch1 in #aeba produced his ,passional ,christi und ,antichristi1 in which1 page by page1 the sufferings and humility of ,christ were contrasted with the luxury and arrogance of the ,pope4 ,at ,wittenberg1 too1 the thin quartos with woodcut borders to their title-pages were peculiarly in vogue1 the majority of the designs being poor enough1 but some few having considerable beauty1 especially those of ,lucas ,cranach1 of which an example is here given4 ,meanwhile1 at ,strassburg1 ,hans ,gr3uninger and ,martin ,flach and his son continued to print numerous illustrated works1 largely from designs by ,hans ,baldung ,gr3un1 and a still more famous publisher had arisen in the person of ,johann ,knoblouch1 who for some of his books secured the help of ,urs ,graf1 an artist whose work preserved some of the old-fashioned simplicity of treatment4 ,at ,nuremberg illustrated books after ,koburger's death proceeded chiefly from the presses of ,jobst ,gutknecht and ,peypus1 for the latter of whom ,hans ,springinklee1 one of the minor artists employed on the ,weisskunig1 occasionally drew designs4 ,at ,basel ,michael ,furter continued to issue illustrated books for the first fifteen years of the new century1 ,johann ,amorbach adorned with woodcuts his editions of ecclesiastical statutes and constitutions1 and ,adam ,petri issued a whole series of illustrated books1 chiefly of religion and theology4 ,to ,basel ,urs ,graf gave the most and the best of his work1 and there the young ,hans ,holbein designed in rapid succession the cuts for the ,new ,testament of #aebb1 for an ,apocalypse1 two editions of the ,pentateuch1 and a ,vulgate1 besides numerous ornamental borders4 ,some of these merely imitate the rather tasteless designs of ,urs ,graf1 in which the ground plan is architectural1 and relief is given by a profusion of naked children1 not always in very graceful attitudes4 ,holbein's best designs are far lighter and prettier4 ,the foot of the border is usually occupied by some historical scene1 the death of ,john the ,baptist1 ,mucius ,scaevola and ,porsenna1 the death of ,cleopatra1 the leap of ,curtius1 or ,hercules and ,orpheus4 ,in a title-page to the ,tabula ,cebetis he shows the whole course of man's life--little children crowding through the gate1 which is guarded by their 'genius1' and the fortune1 sorrow1 luxury1 penitence1 virtue1 and happiness which awaits them4 ,the two well-known borders for the top and bottom of a page1 illustrating peasants chasing a thieving fox and their return dancing1 were designed for ,andreas ,cratander1 for whom also1 as for ,valentine ,curio1 ,holbein drew printers' devices4 ,ambrosius ,holbein also illustrated a few books1 the most noteworthy in the eyes of ,englishmen being the #aeah edition of ,more's ,utopia1 printed by ,froben4 ,his picture of ,hercules ,gallicus1 dragging along the captives of his eloquence1 part of a border designed for an ,aulus ,gellius published by ,cratander in #aeai1 is worthy of ,hans himself4 ,while the ,german printers degenerated ever more and more1 those of ,basel and ,zurich maintained a much higher standard of press-work1 and from #aedj to #aefj1 when the demand for illustrated books had somewhat lessened1 produced a series of classical editions in tall folios1 well printed and on good paper1 which at least command respect4 ,they abound with elaborate initial letters1 which are1 however1 too deliberately pictorial to be in good taste4 ,in ,germany itself by the middle of the sixteenth century the artistic impulse had died away1 or survived only in books like those of ,jost ,amman1 in which the text merely explains the illustrations4 ,it is a pleasure to go back some seventy or eighty years and turn our attention to the beginning of book-illustration in ,italy4 99 99 99 99 99 #g ,dr4 ,lippmann was of opinion that the map of ,venice was adapted from ,reuwich's2 that of ,florence from a large woodcut1 printed at ,florence between #adhf and #adij1 of which the unique example is at ,berlin2 and that of ,rome from a similar map1 now lost1 which served also as a model for the cut in the edition of the ,supplementum ,chronicarum1 printed at ,venice in #adij4 #h ,burgkmair had already done work for the printers1 notably for an edition of ,jornandes ,de ,rebus ,gothorum1 printed in #aeaf1 on the first page of which ,king ,alewinus and ,king ,athanaricus are shown in conversation1 the title of the book being given in a shield hung over their heads4 ,,chapter ,v ,,italy--,i ,,the ,,first ,,illustrated ,,books ,,and ,,those ,,of ,,venice ,surrounded by pictures and frescoes1 and accustomed to the utmost beauty in their manuscripts1 the ,italians did not feel the need of the cheaper arts1 and for the first quarter of a century after the introduction of printing into their country1 the use of engraved borders1 initial letters1 and illustrations was only occasional and sporadic4 ,perhaps not very long after the middle of the century an ,italian block-book of the ,passion had been issued1 probably at ,venice1 as it was there that most of the cuts were used again in #adhg for an edition of the ,devote ,meditatione1 attributed to ,s4 ,bonaventura4 ,a copy of this is in the ,british ,museum2 of the block-book eighteen leaves are preserved at ,berlin4 ,despite some ungainliness in the figures and rather coarse cutting1 the pictures are vigorous and effective1 but quite unlike any later ,venetian work4 ,something of the same kind may be said of those in an edition of the ,meditationes of ,cardinal ,turrecremata1 printed by ,ulrich ,hahn at ,rome in #adfg1 the first work printed in ,italy with movable type1 in which woodcut illustrations were used4 ,the cuts are thirty-four in number1 and professed to illustrate the same subjects as the frescoes recently painted by the cardinal's order in the ,church of ,san ,maria di ,minerva at ,rome4#i ,the execution is so rude1 that it is impossible to say whether they are the work of a ,german influenced by ,italian models1 or of an ,italian working to please a ,german master1 nor is the point of the slightest importance4 ,thirty-three of the cuts were used again in the editions printed at ,rome in #adgc and #adgh1 and it is from the #adgc edition that the accompanying illustration of the ,flight into ,egypt is taken4 ,this in its original size is one of the best of the series1 but the reduction necessary for its appearance on one of our pages has had a more than usually unfortunate effect1 both on the cut itself and on the printer's type which appears below it4 ,illustration3 ,from the ,meditationes of ,turrecremata1 ,rome1 #adgc4 ,in #adha1 the courtier-printer1 ,joannes ,philippus de ,lignamine1 issued an edition of the ,opuscula of ,philippus de ,barberiis adorned with twenty-nine cuts representing twelve prophets1 twelve sibyls1 ,st4 ,john the ,baptist1 the ,holy ,family1 ,christ with the ,emblems of ,his ,passion1 the virgin ,proba1 and the philosopher ,plato4 ,plato1 ,malachi1 and ,hosea are all represented by the same cut1 another serves for both ,jeremiah and ,zechariah1 and two of the ,sibyls are also made to merge their individualities4 ,with the exception of the figure of ,christ1 which is merely painful1 the cuts are pleasantly and even ludicrously rude4 ,nevertheless1 they are not without vigour1 and are1 to my thinking1 greatly preferable to the more conventional figures of the twelve ,sibyls and ,proba which appeared shortly afterwards in an undated edition of the same book1 printed by ,sixtus ,riessinger4 ,in this edition the figures are surrounded by architectural borders1 and we have also a border to the first page and several large initial letters1 all in exact imitation of the interlacement work1 which is the commonest form of decoration in ,italian manuscripts of the time4 ,riessinger's mark1 a girl holding a black shield with a white arrow on it1 and a scroll with the letters ,s4,r4,d4,a4 7,sixtus ,riessinger de ,argentina71 is found in the 'register' at the end of the book4 ,to ,riessinger we also owe a ,cheiromantia1 with figures of hands1 which ,i have not seen1 while from ,lignamine's press there was issued an edition of the ,herbarium of ,apuleius ,barbarus 7who was1 of course1 confused with his famous namesake71 which has rude botanical figures and1 at the end of the book1 a most man-like portrait of a mandrake1 with a dog duly tugging at one of his fibrous legs4 ,the list of illustrated books printed at ,rome before #adij also includes#aj some little editions1 mostly by ,silber or ,plannck1 of the ,mirabilia ,romae1 a guidebook to the antiquities of the city1 in which there are a few cuts of pilgrims gazing at the cloth of ,s4 ,veronica1 of ,,ss4 ,peter and ,paul1 of ,romulus and ,remus1 and other miscellaneous subjects4 ,the interest of all these books is purely antiquarian4 ,if we turn from ,rome to the neighbouring city of ,naples1 we shall find evidence of much more artistic work4 ,in #adgh ,sixtus ,riessinger printed there for ,francesco ,tuppo an edition of ,boccaccio's ,libro di florio e di bianzefiore1 or ,philocolo1 illustrated with forty-one woodcuts1 of no great technical merit1 but by no means without charm4 ,two years later a representation of the supposed origin of music by the figures of five blacksmiths working at an anvil occurs in an edition of the ,musices ,theoria of ,francesco ,gafori1 printed in #adhj by ,francesco di ,dino4 ,much more important than this is a handsome edition of ,,aesop published in #adhe by ,francesco ,tuppo1 and printed for him by an anonymous firm known to bibliographers as the ',germain fidelissimi4' ,this contains eighty-seven large cuts heavily cut1 but well drawn and with a massive vigour1 one of which1 representing the death of ,,aesop1 occupies a full page4 ,the cuts illustrating the fabulist's life have rather commonplace borders to them1 but when the fables themselves are reached1 these are replaced by much more important ones4 ,into an upper compartment are introduced figures of ,hercules wrestling with ,antaeus1 ,hercules riding on a lion1 and a combat between mounted pigmies4 ,the fables have also a large border surrounding the first page of text1 used again in the ,hebrew ,bible of #adhh4 ,the ground-work of all the borders is black1 but this has not always enabled them to escape the hand of the colourist4 ,the book is also adorned by two large and two smaller printed initials4 ,to the same artist as the illustrator of the ,,aesop must be attributed the title-cut of ,granollach's ,astrologia1 issued in or about the same year4 ,in #adhf1 again1 ,matthias ,moravus printed one of the few ,italian ,horae1 a charming little book1 three inches by two1 with sixteen lines of very pretty ,gothic type1 printed in red and black1 to each of its tiny pages1 and four little woodcuts1 which in the only copy ,i have seen have been painted over4 ,a daintier prayer-book can hardly be conceived4 ,when we turn from the south to the north of ,italy1 we find that an ,italian printer at ,verona had preceded the ,german immigrants in issuing an important work with really fine woodcuts as early in #adgb4 ,this is the ,de ,re ,militari of ,robertus ,valturius1 written some few years previously1 and dedicated to ,sigismund ,malatesta4 ,in this fine book1 printed by ,john of ,verona1 there are eighty-two woodcuts representing various military operations and engines1 all drawn in firm and graceful outline1 which could hardly be bettered4 ,the designs for these cuts have been attributed to the artist ,matteo de' ,pasti1 whose skill as a painter1 sculptor1 and engraver1 ,valturius had himself commended in a letter written in the name of ,malatesta to ,mahomet ,,ii4 ,the conjecture rests solely on this commendation1 but seems intrinsically probable4 ,the book has no other adornment save these woodcuts and its fine type4 ,another edition was printed in the same town eleven years later by ,boninus de ,boninis4 ,besides the ,valturius1 the only other early ,verona book with illustrations known to me is an edition of ,,aesop in the ,italian version of ,accio ,zucco1 printed by ,giovanni ,alvisio in #adgi4 ,this has a frontispiece in which the translator is seen presenting his book to a laurel-crowned person sitting in a portico1 through which there is a distant view4 ,this is followed by a page of majuscules containing the title of the book1 but ending with a 'foeliciter incipit4' ,on the back of this is a tomb-like erection1 bearing the inscription ',lepidissimi ,,aesopi ,fabellae1' which gives it the rank of the second ornamental title-page 7see p4 #cb for the first74 ,facing this is a page surrounded by an ornamental border1 at the foot of which is the usual shield supported by the usual naked boys4 ,within the border are ,latin verses beginning3 ,vt iuuet et prosit conatum pagina praesens ,dulcius arrident seria picta iocis1 the lines being spaced out with fragments from the ornamental borders which surround each of the pictures in the body of the book4 ,these1 on the whole1 are not so good as those in the ,naples edition of #adhe1 but were helped out1 at least in some copies1 by rather pretty colouring4 ,the chief feature in the book is the care bestowed upon the preliminary leaves4 ,in ,florence1 before #adij1 we have no example of wood-engraving employed in book illustration1 but in #adgg1 ,nicolaus ,lorenz of ,breslau issued there the first of three books with illustrations engraved on copper4 ,this is an edition of ,bettini's ,monte ,santo di ,dio with three plates1 representing respectively 7#a7 the ,holy ,mountain1 up which a man is climbing by the aid of a ladder of virtues2 7#b7 ,christ standing in a 'mandorla' or almond-shaped halo formed by the heads of cherubs2 and 7#c7 the torments of ,hell4 ,this was followed in #adha by a ,dante with the commentary of ,landino1 with engravings illustrating the first eighteen cantos4 ,spaces were left for engravings at the head of the other cantos1 but the plan was too ambitious1 and they were never filled up4 ,some copies of the book have no engravings at all1 others only two1 those prefixed to ,cantos #a and #c1 the first of which is most inartistically introduced on the lower margin of the page1 tempting mutilation by the binder's shears4 ,the other venture of ,nicolaus ,lorenz1 which has engraved work1 is the ,sette ,giornate della ,geographia of ,berlinghieri1 in which he introduces numerous maps4 ,at ,milan only two illustrated books are known to have been issued before #adij1 both of which appeared in #adgi4 ,the rarer of these1 which is seldom found in perfect condition1 is the ,summula di pacifica ,conscientia of ,fra ,pacifico di ,novara1 printed by ,philippus de ,lavagna1 and illustrated with three copper-plates1 one of which represents the virtues of the ,madonna1 the others containing diagrams exhibiting the prohibited degrees of consanguinity4 ,the other book is a ,breviarium totius juris canonici1 printed by ,leonard ,pachel and ,ulrich ,scinzenceller1 with a woodcut portrait of its author1 ',magister ,paulus ,florentinus ordinis ,sancti ,spiritus1' otherwise ,paolo ,attavanti4 ,the illustrated books printed in ,italy which we have hitherto noticed are of great individual interest1 but they led to the establishment of no school of book-illustration1 and the value of wood engravings was as yet so little understood that the cuts in them often failed to escape the hands of the colourists4 ,at ,venice1 on the other hand1 where ,bernhard ,maler and ,erhard ,ratdolt introduced the use of printed initials and borders in #adgf1 we find a continuous progress to the record of which we must now turn4 ,the border to the title-page of the ,kalendars of #adgf has already been noticed3 both the ,latin and the ,italian editions also contained printed initials of a rustic shape1 resembling those in some early books in ,ulm1 but larger and better4 ,the next year the partners made a great step in advance in the initials and borders of an ,appian1 and an edition of ,cepio's ,gesta ,petri ,mocenici4 ,these were followed by an edition of ,dionysius ,periegetes1 and in #adgh by the ,cosmographia of ,pomponius ,mela4 ,three distinct borders are used in these books1 all of them with light and graceful floral patterns in relief on a black ground4 ,the large initials are of the same character1 and both these and the borders are unmistakably ,italian4 ,in #adgh ,ratdolt lost the aid of ,bernhard ,maler1 who up to that date seems to have been the leading spirit of the firm1 and the books subsequently issued are much less decorative4 ,in #adgi another ,german1 ,georg ,walch1 issued an edition of the ,fasciculus ,temporum with illustrations mostly poor enough1 but with a quaint little attempt at realism in one of ,venice4 ,these cuts of ,walch's1 and also a decorative initial1 ,ratdolt was content to copy on a slightly larger scale in an edition of his own the next year4 ,he also printed an undated ,chiromantia1 with twenty-one figures of heads1 a reprint of which bearing his name and that of ,mattheus ,cerdonis de ,windischgretz was issued at ,padua in #adhd4 ,in #adhb1 came the ,poetica ,astronomica of ,hyginus1 with numerous woodcuts of the astronomical powers1 those of ,mercury 7here very slightly reduced7 and ,sol being perhaps the best4 ,to the same year belongs a reprint of the ,cosmographia of ,pomponius ,mela with a curious map and a few good initials1 also a ,euclid with mathematical diagrams and a border and initials from the ,appian of #adgg4 ,illustration3 ,from the ,hyginus of #adhb4 ,after #adhb ,ratdolt does not seem to have printed any new illustrated books1 and in #adhf he ceased printing at ,venice and returned1 as we have seen1 to ,augsburg4 ,subject to the doubt as to whether he has not been credited with praise which really belongs to ,bernhard ,maler1 his brief ,italian career entitles him to a place of some importance among the decorators of books1 for though his illustrations were unimportant1 his borders and initials are among the best of the fifteenth century4 ,in #adhb ,octavianus ,scotus printed three ,missals with a rude cut of the ,crucifixion1 and these were imitated by other printers in #adhc1 #adhe1 and #adhg4 ,the year #adhf was marked by the publication1 by ,bernardino de ,benaliis1 of an edition of the ,supplementum ,chronicarum of ,giovanni ,philippo ,foresti of ,bergamo1 with numerous outline woodcuts of cities1 for the most part purely imaginary and conventional1 the same cuts being used over and over again for different places4 ,four years later a new edition was printed by ,bernardino de ,novara1 in which more accurate pictures were substituted in the case of some of the more important towns1 notably ,florence and ,rome4 ,in both issues the first three cuts1 representing the ,creation1 the ,fall1 and the sacrifice of ,cain and ,abel1 are copied from those in the ,cologne ,bible4 ,the year after his edition of the ,supplementum1 ,bernardinus de ,benaliis printed an ,,aesop with sixty-one woodcuts adapted from those in the ,veronese edition of #adgi4 ,of this edition ,dr4 ,lippmann1 who had the only known copy under his charge at ,berlin1 remarks that 'the style of engraving is1 to a large extent1 cramped and angular1 and the entire appearance of the work is that of a genuine chapbook4' ,illustration3 ,from the ,devote ,meditatione1 ,venice1 #aejh #adhi4 ,in #adhh we arrive at the first of the numerous illustrated editions of the ,trionfi of ,petrarch4 ,this was printed by ,bernardino de ,novara1 and has six full-page cuts1 measuring some ten inches by six1 and illustrating the triumphs of ,love1 of ,chastity1 ,death1 ,fame1 and ,time1 and of the true ,divinity over the false gods4 ,the designs are excellent1 but the engraver had very imperfect control over his point1 and his treatment of the eyes of the figures introduced is by itself sufficient to spoil the pictures4 ,curiously enough1 the ornamental border of white figures on a black ground is certainly better cut than the pictures themselves4 ,the same inferiority of the engraver to the designer is seen in the illustrations to the #adhi edition of the ,deuote ,meditatione sopra la passione del nostro signore attributed to ,s4 ,bonaventura4 ,the first illustrated edition of this book1 with eleven illustrations taken 7slightly cut down7 from the block book of the ,passion already mentioned1 had been printed in #adhg by ,ieronimo de ,santis4 ,the #adhi edition was printed by ,matteo di ,codecha 7or ,capcasa7 of ,parma1 who republished the book no less than six times during the next five years1 after which the cuts were used by other printers1--e4g4 by ,gregorio di ,rusconi1 from whose edition in #aejh our illustration of the mocking of ,christ is taken4 ,it is interesting to compare this ,venetian series with the ,florentine edition published a little later by ,antonio ,mischomini1 whose engraver1 while taking many hints from the designs of his predecessor1 greatly improved on them4 ,the next year witnessed the first ,venetian edition of another work in which the artists of the two cities were to be matched together4 ,this is the ,fior di ,virtu'1 whose title-cut of ,fra ,cherubino da ,spoleto gathering flowers in the convent garden shows a great advance on previous ,venetian work4 ,unfortunately the ,british ,museum copy has been slightly injured1 so that ,i am obliged to take my reproduction from the second of two similar editions published by ,matteo ,codecha in #adib1 #adic4 ,these have each thirty-six vignettes in the text1 illustrating the examples in the animal world of the virtues which the author desired to inculcate4 ,illustration3 ,from the ,fior di ,virtu'1 ,venice1 #adic4 ,we must now turn to the first illustrated edition of ,malermi's ,italian version of the ,bible1 printed in #adij4 ,after the woodcut basis for the six little illuminations in the ,spencer copy of ,adam of ,ammergau's edition of #adga1 the first ,biblical woodcuts at ,venice are a series of thirty-eight small vignettes which decorate an edition of the ,postilla or sermons1 of ,nicolaus de ,lyra1 printed for ,octavianus ,scotus in #adhi4 ,in the ,bible itself1 printed the next year by ,giovanni ,ragazzo for ,lucantonio ,giunta1 the illustrations are on a very lavish scale1 numbering in all three hundred and eighty-three1 of which a few are duplicates1 and about a fourth are adapted in miniature from the cuts in the ,cologne ,bibles1 which formed a model for so many other editions4 ,some of the best cuts in this and other ,venetian books are signed with a small b1 which by some writers has been supposed to stand for the name of the artist who designed them1 but is more probably to be referred to the workshop at which they were engraved4 ,the craftsmen employed on the ,new ,testament were quite unskilled1 but many of the illustrations to the ,old ,testament are delightful4 ,the first page of the ,bible is occupied by six somewhat larger cuts1 illustrating the days of ,creation1 joined together within an architectural border4 ,other editions containing the same cuts1 with additions from other books1 were issued in #adid1 #adih1 and #aejb4 ,a rival edition1 printed by ,guglielmo de ,monteferrato1 with a new set of cuts of a similar character appeared in #adic4 ,these three religious works1 the ,meditatione1 the ,postilla1 and the ,malermi ,bible thoroughly established the use of vignettes1 or small cuts worked into the text1 as an alternative to full-page illustrations1 like those in the ,petrarch1 and it was natural that this method of decoration should soon be applied to the greatest of ,italian works1 the ,divina ,commedia4 ,in producing an illustrated ,dante1 ,venice had been anticipated not only by the ,florentine edition of #adha1 though the engravings in this are only found in the first few cantos1 but by a very curious edition published at ,brescia in #adhg1 with full-page cuts1 surrounded by a black border with white arabesques4 ,these large cuts1 which measure ten inches by six1 are very coarsely executed1 and have no merit save what the earlier ones derive from their imitation of those in the ,florentine edition4 ,in the course of the year #adia two illustrated ,dantes were published at ,venice1 the first on ,march #crd by ,bernardino ,benali and ,matteo ,codecha da ,parma1 the second on ,november #ahth by ,pietro ,cremonese4 ,the earlier edition has a fine woodcut frontispiece illustrating the first canto1 but the vignettes which succeed it are so badly cut as to lose all their beauty4 ,in the later edition the same designs appear to have been followed1 but the vignettes are larger and much better cut1 so that they are at least somewhat less unworthy of their subject4 ,both editions have printed initials1 but of the poorest kind1 and in both the text is hidden away amid the laborious commentary of ,landino4 ,after ,dante's ,divina ,commedia it is natural to expect an edition of ,boccaccio's ,decamerone1 and this duly followed the next year from the press of ,gregorius de ,gregoriis4 ,the first page is occupied by a woodcut of the ten fine ladies and gentlemen who tell the stories1 seated in the beautiful garden to which they had retired from the plague which was raging around them4 ,beneath this are seventeen lines of text1 with a blank left for an initial ,h1 and woodcut and text are surrounded by an architectural border1 at the foot of whose columns little boys standing on the heads of lions are blowing horns1 while in the lower section of the design the usual blank shield is approached from either side by cupids riding on rams4 ,the blank for the initial is a great blot on the page1 as any coloured letter would have destroyed the delicacy of the whole design4 ,in the body of the work each of the ten books is headed by a double cut1 in one part of which the company of narrators is standing in front of a gateway1 while one of their number is playing a guitar2 in the other they are all seated before a fountain1 presided over by a wreath-crowned master of the story-telling4 ,the vignettes which illustrate the different tales vary very much in quality1 though some1 like the little cut of the ,marquis and his friends approaching ,griselda as she brings water from the well1 could hardly be bettered4 ,the ,boccaccio of #adib heralded a long series of illustrated books from the press of ,gregorius de ,gregoriis and his brother ,john4 ,most of these were devotional in their character1 e4g4 the ,zardine de ,oratione1 the ,monte dell' ,oratione1 the ,vita e ,miracoli del ,sancto ,antonio di ,padova1 the ,passione di ,cristo1 c4 ,the ,novellino of ,masuccio ,salernitano formed a pendant to the ,boccaccio1 and was published in the same year4 ,to the ,gregorii we also owe the magnificent border1 in white relief on a black ground1 to the ,latin ,herodotus of #adid1 repeated again in the second volume of the works of ,s4 ,jerome published in #adig-ih4 ,equally famous with any of these is the same printer's series of editions of the ,fascicolo de ,medicina of ,johannes ,ketham4 ,in the first of these1 printed in #adia1 the illustrations are confined to cuts of various dreadful-looking surgical instruments2 but in #adic large pictures were added1 each occupying the whole of a folio page1 and representing a dissection1 a consultation of physicians1 the bedside of a man struck down by the plague4 ,the dissection was printed in several colours1 but this experiment was abandoned1 and a new block was cut for the subsequent editions4 ,in some of his later books ,gregorius repaired the mistake of the ,boccaccio1 and used excellent woodcut initials4 ,the ,herodotus of #adid has only its magnificent border by way of illustration1 but other classical authors received much more generous treatment during this decade4 ,an ,italian ,livy1 with numerous vignettes1 was printed in #adic by ,giovanni di ,vercelli1 and a ,latin one in #adie by ,p4 ,pincio1 ,lucantonio ,giunta in each case acting as publisher4#aa ,in #adig ,lazarus de ,soardis printed for ,simon de ,luere a ,terence with numerous vignettes2 and in the same year there appeared an illustrated edition1 several times reprinted1 of the ,metamorphoses of ,ovid1 the printer being ,giovanni ,rossi and the publisher once more ,lucantonio ,giunta4 ,the cuts in this work measure something over three inches by five1 and have little borders on each side of them2 but the fineness of the designs is lost by poor engraving4 ,some of them are signed ia1 others ,n4 ,we now approach one of the most famous books in the annals of ,venetian printing1 the ,hypnerotomachia ,poliphili printed by ,aldus in #adii1 at the expense of a certain ,leonardo ,crasso of ,verona1 'artium et iuris ,pontificis consultus1' by whom it was dedicated to ,guidobaldo1 ,duke of ,urbino4 ,the author of the book was ,francesco ,colonna1 a ,dominican friar1 who had been a teacher of rhetoric at ,treviso and ,padua1 and was now spending his old age in the convent of ,,ss4 ,giovanni e ,paolo in ,venice1 his native city4 ,colonna's authorship of the romance is revealed in an acrostic formed by the initial letters of the successive chapters1 which make up the sentence1 ',poliam ,frater ,franciscus ,columna peramavit'3 ',brother ,francesco ,colonna greatly loved ,polia4' ,who ,polia was is a little uncertain4 ,in the opening chapter she tells her nymphs that her real name was ,lucretia1 but she has been identified with a ,hippolita ,lelio1 daughter of a jurisconsult at ,treviso1 who entered a convent after having been attacked by the plague1 which visited ,treviso from #adfd to #adfh4 ,on the other hand1 it is plausibly suggested that ,polia 7,greek3 polia71 'the grey-haired lady1' is only a symbol of ,antiquity1 and at the beginning of the book there is at least a pretence of an allegory1 though this is not carried very far4 ,illustration3 ,from the ,hypnerotomachia1 ,venice1 #adii4 ,in the story ,polifilo1 a name intended to mean 'the lover of ,polia1' imagines himself in his dream as passing through a dark wood till he reaches a little stream1 by which he rests4 ,the valley through which it runs is filled with fragments of ancient architecture1 which form the subjects of many illustrations4 ,as he comes to a great gate he is frightened by a dragon4 ,escaping from this1 he meets five nymphs 7the five senses71 and is brought to the court of ,queen ,eleuterylida 7,free ,will74 ,then follows a description of the ornaments of her palace and of four magnificent processions1 the triumphs of ,europa1 ,leda1 and ,dana3e1 and the festival of ,bacchus4 ,after this we have a triumph of ,vertumnus and ,pomona1 and a picture of nymphs and men sacrificing before a terminal figure of ,priapus4 ,meanwhile ,polifilo has met the fair ,polia1 and together they witness some of the ceremonies in the ,temple of ,venus1 and view its ornaments and those of the gardens round it4 ,the first book1 which is illustrated with one hundred and fifty-one cuts1 now comes to an end4 ,book ,,ii describes how the beautiful ,polia1 after an attack of the plague1 had taken refuge in a temple of ,diana2 how1 while there1 she dreamt a terrifying dream of the anger of ,cupid1 so that she was moved to let her lover embrace her1 and was driven from ,diana's temple with thick sticks2 lastly1 of how ,venus took the lovers under her protection1 and at the prayer of ,polifilo caused ,cupid to pierce an image of ,polia with his dart1 thereby fixing her affections as firmly on ,polifilo as he could wish--if only it were not all a dream6 ,this second book is illustrated with only seventeen woodcuts1 but as these are not interrupted by any wearisome architectural designs1 their cumulative effect is far more impressive than those of the first1 though many of the pictures in this--notably those of ,polifilo in the wood and by the river1 his presentation to ,eleuterylida1 the scenes of his first meeting with ,polia1 and some of the incidents of the triumphs--are quite equal to them4 ,unfortunately1 the best pictures in both books are nearly square1 so that it is impossible to reproduce them in an octavo except greatly reduced4 ,the woodcuts of the ,polifilo have been ascribed to nearly a dozen artists1 but in every case on the very slenderest grounds4 ,some of the cuts1 like some of those in the ,mallermi ,bible1 are marked with a little b2 but this1 as has been said1 is almost certainly indicative of the engraver's workshop from which they proceeded1 rather than of the artist who drew the designs4 ,the edition of #adii is a handsome folio2 the text is printed in fine ,roman type1 with three or four different varieties of beautiful initial letters4 ,the title and headings are printed in the delicate majuscules which belong to the type1 and have a very graceful appearance4 ,a second edition of the ,polifilo was published in #aede1 with1 for the most part1 the same cuts4 ,this was followed in the next year by a ,french translation by ,jean ,martin1 printed at ,paris by ,jacques ,kerver1 and republished three times during the century4 ,for the ,french editions the cuts were freely imitated1 the rather short1 plump ,italian women reappearing as ladies of even excessive height4 ,in ,england in #aeib ,simon ,waterson printed an abridged translation with the pretty title1 ,hypnerotomachia1 or the ,strife of ,love in a ,dreame1 with a few cuts copied from the ,italian originals4 ,the book1 now extremely rare1 was apparently not well received1 for ,waterson1 abandoning all hope of a second edition1 speedily parted with his wood-blocks4 ,four of the cuts are found amid the most incongruous surroundings in the ,strange and wonderful tidings happened to ,richard ,hasleton1 borne at ,braintree in ,essex1 in his ten yeares trauailes in many forraine countries1 though this egregious work was printed by ,a4 ,i4 for ,william ,barley in #aeie1 only three years after the ,strife of ,love in a ,dreame4 ,as we have noted1 ,aldus printed the ,hypnerotomachia on commission1 and save for two discreditably bad cuts in his ,musaeus and a rather fine portrait of ,s4 ,catherine of ,siena in his edition of her ,letters printed in #aejj1 he troubled himself with no other illustrations4 ,in his larger works he revived the memory of the stately folios of ,jenson1 and in his popular editions sought no other adornment than the beauty of his italic type4 ,if pictures were needed to make a book more acceptable to a rich patron1 he did not disdain to have recourse to the illuminator4 ,some of his ,greek books have most beautiful initial letters1 and in the ,aristotle of #adig he employs good head-pieces1 though these fall far short of the large oriental design1 printed in red1 placed by his friendly rival1 ,zacharias ,kaliergos1 at the top of the first page of the ,commentary of ,simplicius on ,aristotle of #adii4 ,illustration ,the influence of ,aldus certainly helped to widen the gulf which already existed between the finely printed works intended for scholars and wealthy book-lovers and the cheaper and more popular ones in which woodcuts formed an addition very attractive to the humbler book-buyers4 ,perhaps this in part accounts for the great deterioration in ,italian illustrated books after the close of the fifteenth century4 ,the delicate vignettes and outline cuts only appear in reprints1 and in new works their place is taken by heavily shaded engravings1 mostly of very little charm4 ,the numerous liturgical works published by ,lucantonio ,giunta and his successors perhaps show this work at its best4 ,they are mostly printed in ,gothic type with an abundant use of red ink1 and the heaviness of the illustrations is thus all the better carried off4 ,but as the century advanced ,venetian printing deteriorated more and more rapidly3 partly from excessive competition2 partly1 as ,mr4 ,brown has shown in his ,the ,venetian ,printing ,press1 from too much interference on the part of the ,government2 partly1 we must suppose1 simply from the decline of good taste1 though it is noticeable that between #aedj and #aefj1 when the insides of books had become merely dull1 is a brilliant period in the history of ,venetian binding4 ,whatever the cause1 within a few years after the close of the fifteenth century the glories of ,venetian printing had disappeared4 ,illustration3 ,from the ,epistole of ,pulci1 ,florence1 c4 #adie4 99 99 99 99 99 #i ,the title of the book1 printed in red1 beneath the first woodcut1 reads3 ',meditationes ,reveredissimi patris dni ,johannis de turre cremata sacrosce ,romane eccl'ie cardinalis posite depicte de ipsius madato i eccl'ie ambitu ,marie de ,minerva1 ,rome4' #aj ,maps hardly come under the head of illustrations1 but we may note the appearance in #adgh of the edition of ,ptolemy's ,cosmographia1 by ,arnold ,buckinck1 with maps engraved by ,conrad ,sweynheim1 the partner of ,pannartz4 #aa ,in the intervening year ,giunta had published the ,santa ,catharina1 printed by ,matteo ,codecha1 some copies of which have the false date ,,mcccclxxxiii4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,italy--,,ii ,,florence ,,and ,,milan--,,italian ,,printers' ,,marks ,we must now return from ,venice to ,florence1 where1 after the experiments with engravings on copper in #adgg and #adha1 no illustrated books had been published until on ,march #bg1 #adij1 ,francesco di ,dino 7whom we have already seen at work at ,naples ten years earlier7 brought out an edition of the ,specchio di ,croce of ,domenico ,cavalca1 with a frontispiece representing the ,crucifixion4 ,in ,september of the same year an edition of the ,laudi of ,jacopone da ,todi 7the ,franciscan author of the ,stabat ,mater71 was printed by ,francesco ,buonaccorsi1 which contains on the verso of its eighth leaf a most beautiful outline woodcut1#ab ,st4 ,jacopone kneeling by a little lectern1 his book on the ground1 while above him is a vision of the ,madonna enshrined in a 'mandorla1' supported below by three cherubs and above by four maturer angels4 ,in #adia we make the acquaintance of ,lorenzo di ,morgiani and ,giovanni ,tedesco da ,maganza1 or ,johann ,petri of ,mainz1 from whose press some of the most important of the ,florentine illustrated books were issued4 ,the first result of their activity was a new edition of ,bettini's ,monte ,santo di ,dio1 in which the three copperplates of the edition of #adgg were freely imitated upon wood4 ,in the same year they printed a little treatise on ,arithmetic1 written by ,philippo ,calandro and dedicated to ,giuliano dei ,medici4 ,this is the most delightful of all arithmetic books4 ,it has a title-cut of ',pictagoras ,arithmetice ,introductor1' and the earlier pages of the book are surrounded by a characteristic ,renaissance border4 ,towards the end of the work there is a series of illustrated problems1 only a little more absurd than those which still occur in children's school-books4 ,one of these1 however1 is so good that we must permit ourselves a little digression to quote it in a free translation3-- ,a squirrel flying from a cat climbed to the top of a tree #bf-c_/d arm's-lengths 7braccia7 in height4 ,the cat1 wanting to seize the squirrel1 began to climb the tree1 and each day leaped up half an arm's length1 and each night descended a third of one4 ,the squirrel1 on its part1 believing that the cat had gone away1 wanted to get down from the tree1 and each day descended a quarter of an arm's length1 and each night went back one-fifth of one3 ,i want to know in how many days the cat will reach the said squirrel8 ,the answer is #aba days2 but the picture must have been taken on the first or second1 for the cat is still very plump1 and so large in proportion to the tree that if he had but stood on his hind legs he ought to have reached the top6 ,others of the pictures are without this charming touch of absurdity1 perhaps the most perfect being a little cut of a traveller on horseback1 as to the expenses of whose journey the teacher was anxious for some information from his young friends4 ,these little cuts are all about an inch square1 and drawn in outline4 ,another edition of the ,arithmetic1 in ,roman type instead of black letter1 but otherwise very similar1 was issued in #aeah by ,bernardo ,zucchetta4 ,with the year #adib we come to the first dated editions of the illustrated ,savonarola tracts1 which play no inconsiderable part in the history of book illustration in ,italy4 ,their existence is in itself the best refutation of the popular belief that the reformer's influence was wholly hostile to the interests of art1 though the number of artists who reckoned themselves1 formally or informally1 among his followers should have sufficed to prevent the belief growing up4 ,these tracts1 save for the cuts with which they are adorned1 are insignificant in appearance1 being for the most part badly printed1 and with few and poor initial letters4 ,the woodcuts1 seldom more than two in a tract1 are1 however1 charming1 and have won for them much attention4 ,illustration3 ,from an undated ,savonarola tract1 ,florence1 c4 #adie4 ,the first publisher of these tracts seems to have been ,antonio ,mischomini1 who on ,june #bf1 #adib1 issued a ,trac tato dello ,amore ,di ,iesu ,christo ,composto da frate ,hieronymo da ,ferrara del l'ordine de frati predica tori pri ore di ,san ,marcho di ,f ,i ,r ,e ,n ,z ,e with the title arranged cross-wise1 as here shown4 ,on the back of the title is a picture of the ,crucifixion1 with the ,blessed ,virgin and ,s4 ,john standing by the ,cross4 ,this was followed on ,june #cjth by the ,tractato della humilta1 with a large title-cut representing the dead ,christ before ,his ,cross1 an angel supporting each arm4 ,neither of these cuts shows typical ,florentine work1 for the blank spaces have all to be cleared away by the engraver1 and there is an abundance of shading4 ,the first design was clearly spoilt in the cutting1 the second is of great beauty4 ,the typical ,florentine work1 in which white lines are cut out from a black ground1 as well as black lines from a white1 appears in the ,tractato ouero ,sermone della oratione1 finished by ,mischomini on ,october #bjth4 ,here the title-cut shows the scene at ,gethsemane3 the three disciples asleep in the foreground1 ,christ in prayer1 and the hands of an angel holding a cup appearing in a corner above4 ,the picture1 as always in distinctively ,florentine work1 is surrounded by a little border or frame1 in which a small white pattern is picked out from a black ground4 ,the other illustrated ,savonarola tracts bearing an early date1 with which ,i am acquainted1 are the ,de ,simplicitate ,christianae ,vitae1 printed 'impensis ,ser ,petri ,pacini1' ,august #bhth1 #adif1 and the ,predica dell arte del bene ,morire1 preached on ,nov4 #b of that year1 taken down at the time by ,ser ,lorenzo ,violi1 and doubtless published immediately afterwards4 ,the ,de ,simplicitate has on its first page a picture of a ,dominican friar writing in his cell1 a sand-glass at his side1 a crucifix in front of his desk1 and books and his gown scattered on a table4 ,the illustrations to the ,arte del bene ,morire comprise a hideous outline cut of ,death1 scythe on shoulder1 flying over ground strewn with corpses 7this is enclosed in a large black border used by ,mischomini in #adib71 and cuts of ,death showing a young man ,heaven and ,hell1#ac of a sick man with his good and bad angels watching him and ,death standing without the door1 and of a dying man attended by a friar1 ,death sitting now at his bed's foot1 and the angels watching as before4 ,turning now to the undated tracts1 we find that the ,expositione del ,pater ,noster contains 7#a7 a very beautiful variant of the representation of the scene on ,gethsemane1 the angel appearing on the left instead of the right1#ad 7#b7 a cut of ,s4 ,james writing at a table1 7#c7 a small cut of ,david in prayer1 and some still smaller pictures of prophets and of the ,crucifixion4 ,at the end of the book is an ,epistola a una devota donna ,bolognose1 which is headed and ended by a cut of a ,dominican preaching in the open air to a congregation of nuns4 ,an undated edition of the ,tractato della ,humilta has ,images of ,pity at the beginning and end1 the former surrounded by a black border4 ,yet another edition has an outline cut of ,christ holding ,his ,cross1 while blood streams from ,his hand into a chalice4 ,an edition of the ,tractato dello ,amore di ,iesu has two outline cuts1 one large1 one small1 showing the ,blessed ,virgin and ,s4 ,john standing by the ,cross4 ,a tract on self-examination1 addressed to the ,abbess of the ,convent of the ,murate at ,florence1 shows an aged friar being welcomed at the convent4 ,other tracts have pictures of a priest elevating the ,host1 a man praying before an altar1 a man and woman praying1 c4 ,one of the rarest is the superb cut to the ,dyalogo della ,verita prophetica1 in which a friar is preaching to seven questioners arranged in a half-circle under a tree1 a view of ,florence occupying the background4 ,cuts in other books show ,savonarola meeting a devil and an astrologer1 and represent him preaching to an intent congregation4 ,with these tracts we must join the defence of ,savonarola by his follower ,domenico ,benivieni1 who appears in the title-cut in earnest disputation with a group of ,florentines1 while later on in the book there is a full-page illustration of the reformer's vision of the regeneration of the world and the ,church1 in which the stream of ,christ's blood as ,he hangs on the ,cross is being literally used for the washing away of sins4 ,this book was published by ,francesco ,buonaccorsi in #adif4 ,illustration3 ,from ,savonarola's ,operetta sopra i dieci commandamenti di ,dio1 #adie4 ,florentine book-illustration reached its highest in an edition of the ,epistole e ,evangelii1#ae or liturgical ,gospels and ,epistles1 printed in #adie by ,lorenzo ,morgiani and ,johann ,petri at the instance of the ,ser ,piero ,pacini da ,pescia1 who for the next fourteen or fifteen years seems to have been an active promoter of illustrated books4 ,only two copies of the edition of the ,epistole e ,evangelii are known to exist1 but the owner of one of them1 ,mr4 ,c4 ,w4 ,dyson ,perrins1 has reproduced all the woodcuts in it in very finely executed facsimile1 together with a reprint of the text1 for presentation to the ,roxburghe ,club1 so that the illustrator's work can now be studied with comparative ease4 ,the title-page shows ,s4 ,peter and ,s4 ,paul standing in a circle enclosed in an arabesque border of white floral ornaments and dolphins on a black ground4 ,at the corners of the border are figures of the four ,evangelists4 ,in the text there are twelve dozen large woodcuts and two dozen half-length figures of prophets1 evangelists1 and epistle-writers4 ,of the larger cuts eleven represent ,s4 ,paul writing and one ,s4 ,peter1 most of the rest scenes from the life of ,christ1 several of those representing the ,passion having previously appeared in an undated edition of the ,meditatione attributed to ,s4 ,bonaventura from the press of ,mischomini4 ,the cuts form a treasure-house of ,florentine art1 and were frequently drawn upon by the printers of the later ,rappresentationi1 at which we shall soon have to look4 ,illustration3 ,from the ,giuocho delli ,scacchi1 ,florence1 #adic4 ,we must return now to ,antonio ,mischomini1 who published many other illustrated books besides the ,savonarola tracts4 ,in #adib he printed an edition of ,cristoforo ,landino's ,formulare di lettere e di orationi uolgari1 with a large title-cut of a very young teacher addressing a class1 and at the end of the book his mark 7a cross-surmounted ,m within two squares and a circle71 surrounded by the arabesque border which we have already noticed in the ,arte del bene ,morire of #adif4 ,the next year 7i4e4 #adic7 he printed the ,libro di ,giuocho delli ,scacchi of ,jacobus de ,cessolis1 with a large title-cut 7repeated at the end of the book7 representing courtiers playing in the presence of a king1 and thirteen smaller cuts personifying the various pieces4 ,these comprise a king and queen1 a judge1 a knight1 a 'rook1' or vicar of the king to visit in his stead all parts of the realm1 and the eight 'popolari' or pawns1 a labourer1 smith1 wool-merchant1 money-changer1 physician1 tavern-keeper 7here shown71 city-guard1 and a runner to be at the rook's service4 ,chess-players may be interested to know that the pawns actually in use in #adic1 as shown on the board in the title-cut1 had already lost this excessive individuality1 and resemble those of our own day4 ,illustration3 ,from the ,fior di ,virtu'1 ,florence1 #adih4 ,in #adid ,mischomini printed the commentary on the ,ten ,commandments by ,frate ,marco dal ,monte ,sancta ,maria1 which has a title-cut of the friar preaching1 and three full-page allegorical illustrations freely copied from those in an edition printed at ,venice4 ,the first of these represents 'la figura della vita eterna' by a picture of the glories of heaven1#af and the earthly devotions by which they are to be attained2 the second1 which is in three divisions1 the traversing of the ,desert of ,sin2 and the third1 ,mount ,sinai1 up which ,moses is seen climbing4 ,in the same year1 #adid1 ,mischomini also published a catechism known as the ,lucidario1 to which he prefixed a title-cut showing ,damocles at his feast1 the sword hanging over his head1 and in another compartment some little rabbits running happily in a wood4 ,damocles and the rabbits have nothing whatever to do with the ,catechism1 and the occurrence of the cut proves that before this date ,mischomini must have printed an edition of the ,fior di ,virtu'1 to which it rightfully belongs4 ,we have already looked at the ,venetian editions of this book1 and shall not be surprised to find that the ,florentine printers had the good sense to copy their charming title-cut1 though they did not improve it by their addition of an incongruous border of pilasters1 a vernicle1 and an ,image of ,pity4 ,the first ,florentine edition of this book1 with which ,i am acquainted1 has a fitfully rhyming colophon1 adapted from that of the ,venetian edition of #adic1 showing that it was printed at ,florence in #adih1 and ought1 at any rate1 to be read on feast-days4 ,to entice readers to persevere in this task1 there are thirty-five illustrations1 some of which1 like the one in the ,lucidario1 are divided into two parts1 so as to secure a contrast or comparison between an animal and a man--as1 for example1 between a humble sheep and a proud general riding in triumph1 or1 as shown in our illustration1 between the constancy of the phoenix1 who permits herself to be burnt to ashes rather than quit her nest1 and that of an ,emperor ,constantine who 7by a gross plagiarism upon ,solon7 quitted his country for ever1 after making his counsellors swear to observe his laws unaltered until his return4 ,the book was printed yet a third time1 probably about #aeae1 by ,gian ,stephano da ,pavia1 at the request of ,bernardo ,pacini4 ,the printer of the #adih edition is not known2 it cannot have been ,mischomini1 who seems to have brought his brilliant career to a close about #adie4 ,the foregoing notice of his illustrated books is by no means exhaustive4 ,passing mention has been made in the chapter on ,venice of one other important one1 the undated ,meditatione1 attributed to ,s4 ,bonaventura1 with cuts of peculiar interest1 from the opportunity they afford of comparing the different styles in vogue in the two cities4 ,three other ,florentine books issued during the fifteenth century remain to be mentioned1 none of which ,i have seen4 ,the first of these1 an undated edition of ,domenico ,capranica's ,arte di bene ,morire 7not to be confounded with ,savonarola's71 published by ,morgiani and ,johann ,petri about #adie1 contains twelve large cuts and twenty-two small ones4 ,the larger cuts are interesting1 because ten of them are based on those found in the old block books of the ,ars ,moriendi1 the other two coming from ,savonarola's book of the same name4 ,the smaller ones seem brought together rather at haphazard4 ,the other two books1 an ,,aesop1 printed in #adie by ,francesco ,buonaccorsi for ,piero ,pacini1 and the ,morgante ,maggiore 7a long poem on the adventures of ,orlando7 of ,ludovico ,pulci1 printed in #aejj1 both exist only in single copies in foreign libraries1 but a good many illustrations from both have been reproduced by ,dr4 ,kristeller4 ,illustration ,of illustrated books printed at ,florence after #aejj1 the most important is an edition of the ,quatriregio del decorso della vita humana of ,federico ,frezzi1 printed1 this also1 'ad petitione di ,ser ,piero ,pacini di ,pescia1' as late as #aejh1 though there is ground for believing that this may really be a reprint from a fifteenth century edition now no longer extant4 ,like the author of the ,hypnerotomachia1 ,frezzi was a ,dominican1 and was consecrated ,bishop of ,foligno1 his native place1 in #adjc4 ,he attended the ,council of ,constance1 and died there in #adaf4 ,he was a man of great learning and a book-collector1 but rather a dull poet4 ,his ,quatriregio is an imitation of ,dante's ,divina ,commedia1 and is divided into four books treating successively of the kingdoms 'of the god ,cupid1' 'of ,satan1' 'of the ,vices1' and 'of the goddess ,minerva and of ,virtue4' ,it was first printed in #adha1 and went through three other editions before it was honoured with illustrations4 ,the importance of this illustrated edition has perhaps been overrated4 ,taken individually1 the best of the cuts are not superior to those in earlier ,florentine books of less pretensions1 while the cumulative effect of the series of one hundred and twenty-six 7several of which1 it should be said1 are duplicates7 is seriously diminished1 partly by the monotonous recurrence of the same figure in every cut1 partly by the coarseness and angularity with which most of the blocks have been engraved4 ,it must be mentioned that the cut on the first page of the poem is signed with the initials ,l4 ,v41 which were at one time interpreted as standing for ,luca ,egidio di ,venturi1 i4e4 ,luca ,signorelli1 whose recognised signature1 however1 was ,l4 ,c4 7,luca di ,cortona74 ,two other great series of ,florentine illustrated books still remain to be considered4 ,the first of these is the ,rappresentazioni1 sacred and secular1 which enjoyed a life extending over two centuries1 and must be reckoned as the most artistic of chapbooks4 ,in #aheb ,m4 ,colomb de ,batines published at ,florence a bibliography of these ',antiche ,rappresentazioni ,italiane1' to which ,i am indebted for the following details concerning their chief authors4 ,the plays are almost uniformly written in ottava rima1 and poorly printed in double columns4 ,a large number of them1 at least a score1 were written and printed during the fifteenth century1 but these earliest editions are1 as a rule1 not illustrated4 ,maffeo ,belcari 7#adaj-adhd7 apparently was the first author who obtained the honours of print4 ,his play of ,abraham appeared in #adhe1 after which it was reprinted some twenty times1 the latest known edition belonging to the eighteenth century4 ,belcari also wrote on the ,annunciation1 on ,s4 ,john the ,baptist visited by ,christ in the ,desert1 and on ,s4 ,panuntius4 ,lorenzo de' ,medici himself wrote a play of ,s4 ,john and ,s4 ,paul1 ,bernardo ,pulci 7d4 #aeja7 produced one on the legend of ,barlaam and ,josaphat1 while his wife ,antonia was quite a prolific dramatist1 claiming as her own plays on ,s4 ,domitilla1 ,s4 ,guglielma1 the ,patriarch ,joseph1 ,s4 ,francis1 and the ,prodigal ,son4 ,during the fifteenth century anonymous plays were written on the ,nativity1 on the life of ,queen ,hester1 on the ,angel ,raphael1 on the conversion of three robbers by ,s4 ,francis1 and on ,s4 ,eustachio1 ,s4 ,antony1 and ,s4 ,antonia4 ,plays on the ,last ,judgment1 on ,s4 ,agatha1 ,s4 ,agnes1 ,s4 ,catharine1 ,s4 ,cecilia1 ,s4 ,christina1 c41 also appeared at an early date4 ,an angel1 as a rule1 acts as ,prologue1 and the action of the drama is divided between numerous characters4 ,most of the plays were1 doubtless1 intended to be acted on the feast-day of the ,saint whose life they celebrate1 and in a church bearing the ,saint's name1 but the multiplicity of the editions show that they also won the favour of a reading public4 ,a few undated editions of these little books1 from the types used in their press work1 may be assigned to the end of the fifteenth century4 ,the first printer who is known to have made a specialty of the ,rappresentazioni is ,francesco ,benvenuto1 who began printing them in #aeaf1 and enjoyed a career of thirty years4 ,m4 ,colomb de ,batines mentions several of his editions1 but they are very scarce1 and ,i have only myself seen a ,raphael of #aeaf with a title-cut of ,tobit and the ,angel enclosed in a border1 partly the same as that of the ,fior di ,virtu' of #adih1 a ,barlaam and ,josafat1 also of #aeaf1 with six illustrations 7including our friend ,damocles and the ,rabbit1 whose fate seems to have been to be lugged in inappropriately71 and a ,miracolo di ,tre ,peregrini che andauano a sancto ,iacopo di ,galitia1 with a solitary cut of the ,saint rescuing one of the pilgrims who is being unjustly hanged4 ,the great majority of the extant ,rappresentazioni were printed between #aeej and #aehj1 mostly anonymously1 though ,giovanni ,baleni and a printer ',alle ,scale di ,badia' were responsible for a great many of them4 ,of course1 in many cases the cuts were sadly the worse for wear1 but they held on wonderfully1 and even in the seventeenth century editions a tolerable impression is sometimes met with4 ,many of them1 also1 were recut1 sometimes skilfully1 so that it is not uncommon to find a better example in a later edition than in an earlier4 ,the illustrations here shown are from an undated edition of ,lorenzo de' ,medici's ,rappresentatione di ,san ,giovanni e ,paulo1 the careful printing of which is an argument for its belonging to the beginning of the sixteenth century1 and a picture of the martyrdom of ,s4 ,dorothea from an edition of her ,rappresentatione printed in #aeee4 ,illustration3 ,martyrdom of ,s4 ,dorothea4 ,with these religious ,rappresentazioni ,m4 ,colomb de ,batines joins a few secular poems1 whose title to be considered dramatic is not very clear4 ,of those which he mentions1 the earliest is the ,favola d' ,orfeo1 by ,angelo ,politiano1 which forms part of ,la ,giostra di ,giuliano di ,medici1 printed without name or date1 probably about #adie1 with ten excellent cuts1 that of ,aristeo pursuing the flying ,eurydice being1 perhaps1 the best4 ,la ,giostra di ,lorenzo di ,medici1 celebrated by ,luigi ,pulci1 has only a single cut1 but that a fine one--a meeting of knights in an amphitheatre4 ,among other secular chapbooks which enjoyed a long popularity was a series of 'contrasti1'#ag the contrast of ,carnival and ,lent1 of ,men and ,women1 of the ,living and the ,dead1 of the ,blonde and the ,brunette1 and of ,riches and ,poverty4 ,i give here the first of the two cuts of the ,contrasto di ,carnesciale e la ,quaresima1 undated1 but probably early4 ,with these little poems we must join the metrical ,novelle and ,istorie1 now chiefly known through the discovery in the ,university ,library at ,erlangen of a little collection of twenty-one tracts1 all undated1 and without any indication of their printers1 but which may mostly be assigned to the end of the fifteenth century4 ,among them are the ,novella di ,gualtieri e ,griselda1 the ,novella di due ,preti et un ,cherico1 the ,novella della ,figliuola del ,mercatante1 c4 ,illustration ,the charm of these little ,florentine books is so great1 and of late years has won such steadily increasing recognition1 that ,i do not think an apology is needed for the length at which they have here been treated4 ,none the less1 we must remember that they were essentially popular books1 and that the wealthy book lovers of the time probably regarded them very slightly4 ,mischomini himself did not turn his attention to them till he had been printing nearly a dozen years1 and even after #adib his more expensive books1 the great ,plotinus1 for instance1 issued in that year1 kept strictly to the traditions of twenty years earlier1 and were wholly destitute of ornament1 even of printed initials4 ,the two classes of books--those on good paper and in a large handsome type1 and those on poor paper with small type carelessly printed1 but with delightful woodcuts--were issued side by side1 but the beauties of the two were never combined1 and the ,florentine printers would doubtless have been greatly surprised if they had been told that it was the chapbooks which were to win the day4 ,even in the little italic editions issued by the ,giuntas1 in imitation of ,aldus1 which appealed to an intermediate class of purchasers1 woodcuts occur but rarely1 and the only instance ,i can call to mind is a ,dante1 printed by ,philippo ,giunta in #aejf1 which1 besides some plans of the ,inferno1 c41 has a single cut illustrating the first canto4 ,we have devoted so much space to ,venice and ,florence that the illustrated books of other towns must be noticed with rather unfair brevity4 ,brescia may be taken as an example of a town at which the native artist did his best4 ,we have already remarked the publication there of a ,dante in #adhg4 ,the same year witnessed the appearance of an ,,aesop1 rudely imitated from the ,verona edition1 and in #adia ,baptista da ,farfengo printed another book in which we have been interested1 a ,fior di ,virtu'1 with a title-cut of a student1 head on hand1 reading at a desk4 ,on a ledge on the wall are two flower-pots1 the flowers in which reach up to a very decorative ceiling4 ,this is quite a nice example of ,brescian art1 but the productions of the town have not been specially studied1 and further research might show that they deserve more serious praise4 ,at ,ferrara artists of the schools of ,venice and ,florence appear to have combined in the production of some very notable books4 ,two of these were published by ,lorenzo di ,rossi in #adig4 ,the first is an edition of the ,epistles of ,s4 ,jerome1 with numerous vignettes and three frontispieces1 the third of which1 somewhat in the style of the ,venetian ,boccaccio1 bears the date #adic1 divided between its two columns4 ,this frontispiece appears also in the other work1 the ,de pluribus claris selectisque mulieribus of ,philippus ,bergomensis1 the illustrations in the text of which show ,florentine influence in their black backgrounds4 ,this book has a title-page printed in large ,gothic letters cut in wood1 similar to that of the ,nuremberg ,chronicle4 ,no illustrated books appear to have been issued at ,milan during the eighties1 but in #adib ,philippo ,mantegazza printed the ,theorica ,musice of ,gafori with some coarse cuts1 and this was followed in #adid by the ,triumfi of ,petrarch1 printed by ,antonio ,zaroto with the usual six full-page illustrations4 ,as befits the reputation of ,milan as a musical centre1 the works of ,gafori were often printed there4 ,in #adif ,guillaume ,le ,signerre of ,rouen printed there the first edition of the ,practica ,musice1 with a curious title-page representing the relations of the ,muses and the heavenly bodies1 and fine ornamental borders to two pages of text4 ,at the base of one of these are little scenes of choir-boys practising and a music-mistress giving a lesson4 ,the style of the borders is distinctly ,venetian4 ,in another work of ,gafori's printed at ,milan1 the ,de ,harmonia ,instrumentorum of #aeah 7reprinted two years later at ,turin71 the cuts exhibit the heavy ,milanese shading1 one of them representing a lesson on the organ1 and the other a performer playing4 ,in #adif ,le ,signerre printed a devotional work1 the ,specchio di ,anima of ,besalii1 with seventy-eight full-sized cuts to its eighty-eight pages4 ,most of the cuts relate to the passion of ,christ1 and they are described by ,dr4 ,lippmann as 'vigorously executed in coarse thick outlines1 with scarcely any shading4' ,some of these cuts reappear three years later in the same printer's ,tesauro ,spirituale1 of which the unique copy is in the ,berlin ,print-,room4 ,in #adih ,le ,signerre printed an ,,aesop1 the cuts in which are surrounded by small black borders relieved in white4 ,the illustrations themselves are poor4 ,at the end of the book is the printer's mark1 a crowned stork in a shield within a circle1 on either side of which stand a fox and a monkey4 ,in this same year ,le ,signerre transferred his press to ,saluzzo1 where in #adii he issued the ,tesauro ,spirituale1 and four years later an edition of the ,de ,veritate ,contricionis of ,vivaldus1 with a fine frontispiece representing ,s4 ,jerome in the desert4 ,the border shows typical ,milanese ornament1 and recalls the illumination to the ,sforziada1 mentioned in our first chapter4 ,in #aejg a still finer work1 an edition of the ,opus ,regale1 also by ,vivaldus1 was printed at ,saluzzo by ,jacobus de ,circis4 ,this contains a fine picture of ,saint ,louis of ,france in prayer1 and also a large portrait of the ,marquis of ,saluzzo1 ,louis ,,ii41 whose taste has won for the town its little niche in the history of printing4 ,illustration3 ,mark of ,bazalerius de ,bazaleriis4 ,illustration3 ,mark of ,stephanus ,guillireti4 ,illustration3 ,mark of ,francis de ,mazalis4 ,italian printers' devices are very decorative and interesting1 and may now be studied in ,dr4 ,paul ,kristeller's ',die italienischen ,buchdrucker- und ,verlegerzeichen1' which gives nearly a complete collection of those in use before #aebe1 to the number of between three and four hundred4 ,in the great majority of devices the ground is black1 with a simple design1 mostly including a circle and a cross1 outlined in white4 ,the mark of ,bazalerius de ,bazaleriis of ,bologna and ,reggio1 taken from a copy of the ,epistolae of ,philelphus1 printed by him in #adhi1 shows this class of design in almost its simplest form4 ,in that of ,stephanus ,guillireti1 who printed at ,rome from #aejf to #aebd1 we have the addition of a shield 7the arms on which1 unluckily1 have not been identified7 and floral sprays4 ,these floral sprays become the chief feature in the design of ,franciscus de ,mazalis of ,reggio1 who printed from #adic to #aejd2 though the initials1 circle1 and cross of the simpler devices are all retained4 ,an even more beautiful example of this class of mark was used by ,egmont and ,barrevelt1 the printers of the ,sarum ,missal1 who added to its attractiveness by the use of red ink1 instead of black4 ,red ink also adds immensely to the effect of the well-known mark of ,nikolaos ,blastos1 which occurs in a copy of the ,commentary of ,simplicius upon ,aristotle1 printed by ,zacharias ,kaliergos at ,venice in #adii4 ,the delicate tracery of this design is unsurpassed by any work of the time4 ,the mark of ,nicolaus ,gorgonzola1 who printed at ,milan from #aejd to #aecc1 in its floral ornaments1 is very similar in style to those of ,mazalis and ,egmont1 but1 as in the mark of ,blastos1 the cross and circle have disappeared1 and the name is set out in full1 instead of by its initials4 ,illustration ,illustration ,illustration3 ,mark of ,niccolo ,zoppino4 ,purely ornamental designs1 of the styles illustrated in these five examples1 form the majority among ,italian devices1 but more pictorial ones were by no means unknown4 ,one of the best of these was that used by ',simon de ,gabiis dictus ,bevilaqua1' who printed at ,venice from #adhe to about #aeab4 ,another good device is that of ,ser ,piero di ,pacini of ,pescia1 the publisher of so many of the ,florentine illustrated books4 ,this consists of a crowned dolphin on a black ground1 with sometimes a smaller device of a bird1 placed on each side of it4 ,illustration3 ,mark of ,hieronymus ,francisci ,baldassaris4 ,as examples of later styles1 though not very beautiful in themselves1 we add here the rather clumsy woodcut of ,s4 ,nicholas adopted by ,niccolo' d',aristotele da ,ferrara1 called 'il ,zoppino1' who printed at ,venice from #aejh to about #aecf1 and the very florid device of ,hieronymus ,francisci ,baldassaris1 a printer at ,perugia from about #aebf to #aeej4 ,the arms there shown are those of the city of ,perugia1 while the ,f4 and the cross above it reproduce the mark used by the printer's father1 ,francesco1 the founder of the firm4 ,the ,aldine anchor and the fleur-de-lys of ,lucantonio ,giunta and his successors are too well known to need reproduction or comment1 though both stand rather apart from the ordinary run of ,italian marks4 ,illustration 99 99 99 99 99 #ab ,this1 and nearly all the ,florentine illustrations mentioned here1 will be found reproduced in ,dr4 ,paul ,kristeller's ,early ,florentine ,woodcuts1 published in #ahig1 after this chapter was written4 #ac ,there are two variants of this cut1 the smaller introducing a little landscape background4 #ad ,there is yet a third variant1 which may be recognised by the angel appearing on the right1 but showing his whole body1 not the hands only1 as in the #adib cut4 #ae ,a reprint was issued in #aeae4 #af ,in contrast to the prevailing anthropomorphism of the time1 the ,first ,person of the ,trinity is represented by a 'loco tondo et vacuo1' a blank circle1 with a halo of angels round it4 ,on either side of this circle stand ,christ and the ,blessed ,virgin4 #ag ,el ,contrasto di ,carnesciale e la ,quaresima2 ,el ,contrasto degli ,huomini e delle ,donne2 ,el ,contrasto del ,vivo e del ,morto2 ,el ,contrasto della ,bianca e della ,brunetta2 ,la ,contenzione della ,poverta contra la ,richezza1 c4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,france--,,fifteenth ,,century ,the earliest productions of the ,french press will not bear comparison with those of either the ,german or the ,italian3 they have neither the massive dignity of the one1 nor the artistic grace of the other4 ,the worthy professors at the ,sorbonne1 who called to their aid the ,swiss or ,german printers1 ,crantz ,gering and ,friburger1 bestowed1 as we have seen in our first chapter1 considerable trouble on the decoration by hand of special copies for presentation to influential friends or patrons1 but in other respects1 their books were wholly destitute of ornament4 ,when1 after little more than two years1 they gave up their press1 the three printers started again on their own account with a rather ugly gothic type1 nor did ,gering1 who afterwards worked both by himself and in combination with other printers1 produce a really handsome book until about #adhj4 ,the semi-gothic types of another firm of ,german printers in ,paris1 ,peter ,caesaris and ,stoll1 are much more attractive1 but the average ,french work during the seventies is dull4 ,the first attempt at decoration appears to have been made1 not at the capital1 but at ,lyons1 where1 in ,august #adgh1 an anonymous printer1 probably ,martin ,husz1 completed a double-column edition of ,le ,miroir de la redemption humaine1 translated from the ,latin by ,julien ,macho1 with cuts previously used in a ,german edition of the ,speculum1 printed at ,basel in #adgf4 ,in #adgh1 also1 ,barth'elemy ,buyer printed an edition of the romance of ,baudoin1 ,comte de ,flandre1 with no cuts1 but with rude printed initials4 ,in an edition of ,les ,quatre ,filz ,aymon1 unsigned and undated1 but printed at ,lyons about #adhj1 the first page bears four grotesque woodcuts representing the reception of the youths by ,charlemagne1 the buffet which the ,emperor's son gave one of them over a game of chess1 the fatal blow with the golden chess-board by which the buffet was returned1 and then the four youths fighting amid a crowd4 ,on the next page a larger picture shows their expulsion from ,charlemagne's court4 ,throughout the book are curious woodcut initials1 interwoven with grotesque faces4 ,about #adha ,ortuin and ,schenck produced 7anonymously7 an edition of the ,roman de la ,rose with eighty-six small woodcuts1 which were imitated in later editions both at ,lyons and ,paris1 and were not without a certain rude merit4 ,in #adhc ,mathieu ,husz and ,pierre ,hongre issued a ,l'egende dor'ee1 with large pictures of ,christ in ,glory on the ,last ,day1 and of the ,crucifixion1 and numerous very rough cuts at the head of the different chapters4 ,in the same year1 ,husz published1 in conjunction with ,jean ,schabeler1 an illustrated translation of ,boccaccio's ,de ,casibus illustrium virorum 7',du dechier des nobles hommes et femmes'74 ,meanwhile1 at ,albi1 in ,languedoc1 of all places in the world1 ,neumeister had reprinted in #adha an illustrated edition of the ,meditationes of ,turrecremata1 which he had produced two years previously at ,mainz4 ,in #adhd we hear of illustrated books in three other towns4 ,at ,rennes1 ,pierre ,bellescull'ee and ,josses printed the ,coutumes de ,bretagne1 with a woodcut of the arms of ,brittany1 used again the next year in the same printers' ,floret en francoys1 a book noticeable for having a woodcut title printed in white on a black ground4 ,at ,vienne1 ,pierre ,schenck printed another edition1 in double-columns1 of ,l',abuz'e en court1 with small cuts at the chapter headings4 ,at ,chamb'ery1 ,antoine ,neyret finished1 on ,july #fth1 an edition of the ,exposition des ',evangiles en romant of ,maurice de ,sully1 and in the following ,november the romance of ,baudoin comte de ,flandre4 ,the ,bishop's sermons have1 on the first page1 a large initial ,i and a very rough cut of the disciples loosing the ass and her colt for ,christ's use4 ,with their other illustrations ,i am not acquainted4 ,the romance of ,count ,baldwin has a full-page cut of the ,count riding on a gaily-decked charger1 and thirteen smaller illustrations of his adventures1 of which1 however1 several are repeated4 ,the execution of them all is as rude as can well be conceived4 ,two years later1 ,neyret printed the first edition of a very famous book1 ,le ,livre du ,roi ,modus et de la reine ,ratio1 'lequel fait mencion commant on doit deviser de toutes manie'res de chasses4' ,the cuts in this are numerous1 and their representations of the various hunting scenes are more than sufficiently grotesque4 ,the list of books we have named could certainly be extended1 especially as regards those printed at ,lyons1 but it is sufficiently full to enable us to draw some useful conclusions from it4 ,the illustrations are1 almost without exception1 poor in design and badly cut1 and are mostly accompanied by inferior types and press-work4 ,some of them are imitated from the books of foreign printers1 and they contain little evidence of the growth of any ,french school of illustrators4 ,on the other hand1 they testify to the spread of a demand for illustrated books1 at least in the provinces1 which local printers were doing their best to satisfy4 ,at ,paris the demand1 apparently1 had not yet arisen4 ,in the first dated book which bears the name of ,jean du ,pr'e1 a ,missale ad usum ecclesiae ,parisiensis1 printed by him in conjunction with ,didier ,huym in ,september #adha1 there is a large woodcut of ,god the ,father and the ,crucifixion1 illustrating the ,canon4 ,two months later ,du ,pr'e printed a ,verdun missal with a really fine metal cut of a priest at ,mass1 and a little figure rising up to represent his soul in prayer4 ,in ,february #adhc-d appeared his first illustrated secular work1 ,de la ruine des nobles hommes1 another translation from ,boccaccio's ,de ,casibus1 with a woodcut of varying merit at the head of each book4 ,these have a special interest for ,english students1 as some years later they were borrowed by ,pynson to illustrate his edition of ,lydgate's version of the same work4 ,in ,may #adhd ,jacques ,bonhomme issued ,millet's ,l',histoire de la destruction de ,troye la ,grant1 with numerous woodcuts of battles1 frequently used in later works2 and the following year ,guyot ,marchant produced the first of numerous editions of a ,danse ,macabre illustrated with a wonderful series of pictures1 full of grotesque vigour and skilfully cut1 showing ,death as a grinning skeleton seizing on his prey in every class of society4 ,marchant followed this up with a ,danse ,macabre des femmes 7somewhat less good7 in #adia1 and also with a ,compost et ,calendrier des ,bergers1 which was no less successful4 ,meanwhile the greatest ,paris publisher of the century1 ,antoine ,v'erard1 had come on the scene4 ,although some of the innumerable works which bear his name are said to have been printed 'par ,antoine ,v'erard1' it is clear that the expression must not be taken too literally1 and that he was a 'libraire1' i4e4 a bookseller or publisher1 rather than a printer4 ,his first dated book is an edition1 enriched with a single woodcut1 of ,laurent du ,premier ,fait's ,french version of the ,decamerone1 and the colophon tells us that it was printed for ,antoine ,v'erard1 'libraire1 demeurant sur le ,pont ,notre ,dame1 a' l'image de ,saint ,jean l',evang'eliste1' on ,november #bb1 #adhe4 ,the types used in the book have been identified as belonging to ,jean du ,pr'e1 and the association of the two men seems to have led to important results4 ,the next year we find ,du ,pr'e printing an edition of ,s4 ,jerome's ,vie des anciens saintz ,pe'res1 with a delightful frontispiece of the saint preaching from a lectern in the open air1 numerous smaller cuts1 and initial letters with interwoven faces4 ,during #adhf also1 he assisted ,pierre ,g'erard 7who earlier in the year had printed by himself an edition of ,boutillier's ,la ,somme ,rurale with a single cut71 in producing at ,abbeville the first really magnificent ,french illustrated book1 ,s4 ,augustine's ,cit'e de ,dieu1 in which paper and print and woodcuts of artistic value all harmonise4#ah ,two years later he joined with another provincial printer1 ,jean le ,bourgeois1 in producing a still more splendid book1 the romance of ,lancelot du ,lac1 the first volume of which was finished by ,le ,bourgeois at ,rouen on ,november #bdth1 and the second by ,du ,pr'e at ,paris on ,september #afth4 ,in #adhh also1 ,du ,pr'e produced his first ',book of ,hours1' but the ,french ,horae form so important an episode in the history of the decoration of books1 that we must reserve their treatment for a separate chapter1 in which1 besides those of ,du ,pr'e and ,v'erard1 we shall have to speak of the long series inaugurated by ,philippe ,pigouchet and ,simon ,vostre in #adia4 ,at starting1 ,v'erard's resources were probably small1 and for a year or two he produced little beyond his ,horae4 ,in #adhg1 however1 he published a ,french ,livy1 with four small cuts1 representing a battle1 a siege1 a king and his court1 and some riders1 whose hats have a very ecclesiastical shape1 entering a town4 ,the next year produced a work entitled ,l'art de ,chevalerie selon ,v'ege'ce1 really an edition of the ,faits d'arme et de chevalerie of ,christine de ,pisan4 ,this has a single large cut representing a king and his court4 ,the ,livre de ,politiques d',aristote1 published in #adhi1 has a large frontispiece of the translator1 ,nicholas ,oresme1 presenting his book to ,charles ,,viii1 in which the characteristic style of ,v'erard's artist is fully developed4 ,in #adij1 an edition of ,lucain1 ,suetone et ,saluste1 which ,i have not seen1 was printed for ,v'erard by ,pierre ,le ,rouge4 ,to #adia probably belongs his ,french ,seneca1 and in this year he must have obtained the aid of the king or of some very rich patron1 for his activity from #adib to the end of the century is quite amazing4 ,it is from about #adic1 also1 that we may date the production of those magnificent special copies on vellum1 enriched with elaborate1 if not very artistic1 miniatures1 to which we have already alluded in our first chapter4 ,the chief book of #adib was undoubtedly the series of treatises making up the ,art de bien vivre et de bien mourir1 of which a detailed description will be given later on4 ,these treatises were printed for ,v'erard by ,cousteau and ,menard1 the first part being finished on ,july #ahth1 the last on ,december #aith4 ,next to them in importance is a ,josephus de la bataille judaique1 one of ,v'erard's large folios1 with columns of printed text1 not reckoning any margin1 nearly twelve inches long4 ,the frontispiece is a fine cut of a triumphal entry of a king who should be ,french1 since he wears the lilies4 ,the design1 however1 must have been made for this book1 for a label in the middle of the picture bears the name ',josephus1' while in the ,gestes ,romaines and ,lancelot1 in both of which the cut reappears1 the label is left blank4 ,the ',entry' is also used again1 three times in the ,josephus itself1 at the beginning of the fourth1 fifth1 and seventh books4 ,an entry of a different kind1 that of ,joshua and his staff into ,jericho1 is depicted in the cut 7here reproduced7 which heads the prologue4 ,this is faced by the first page of text1 headed by a cut of an author presenting his book to an ecclesiastic4 ,both pages are surrounded by fine borders of flowers1 women1 and shield4 ,the head-cut to the second book shows a monk handing a book to a king2 that used for the third and sixth 7repeated again in the ,lancelot of #adid7 shows a king on his throne surrounded by his courtiers1 a sword of justice is in his hand1 and a suppliant kneels before him4 ,small cuts1 fitting into the columns1 head the different chapters in each book1 but are of no great merit4 ,occasionally a border about an inch wide runs up the side of one of the columns of text1 usually on the outer margin1 but sometimes on the inner4 ,altogether the book is a very notable one4 ,illustration3 ,from ,v'erard's ,josephus1 #adib4 7,much reduced47 ,in #adic1 ,v'erard's activity was still on the increase1 and we have at least eight illustrated books of his bearing the date of this year4 ,in the romance of ,le ,jouvencel and ,bonnor's ,arbre des ,batailles1 both in #dto1 the cuts1 all of them small1 are nearly identical1 and are repeated again and again in each book4 ,much more important than these are the editions of the ,chronicques de ,france 7printed for ,v'erard by ,jehan ,maurand71 and a translation of the ,metamorphoses of ,ovid1 issued under the very taking title of ,la ,bible des ,poetes4 ,this is another of ,v'erard's great folios1 with profuse illustrations1 large and small1 and in its vellum edition is a very gaudy and magnificent book4 ,in #adid ,v'erard published his ,lancelot2 and in #adie1 a ,l'egende ,dor'ee and ,s4 ,jerome's ,vie des ,pe'res en franc1ois4 ,this last book was finished on ,october #ae1 but its appearance was preceded by that of the first volume of the publisher's most ambitious undertaking1 an edition of the ,miroir ,historial of ,vincent de ,beauvais4 ,this enormous chronicle is in thirty-two books1 which ,v'erard divided between five great folio volumes1 averaging about three hundred and twenty leaves1 printed in long double columns4 ,the whole work thus contains about the same amount of matter as some fifty volumes of the present series1 yet it was faultlessly printed on the finest vellum1 and with innumerable woodcuts1 subsequently coloured1 in considerably less than a year4 ,the first volume was finished on ,september #bi1 #adie1 and the colophon which announces the completion of the last1 'a' l'honneur et louenge de nostre seigneur iesucrist et de sa glorieuse et sacr'ee mere et de la court celeste de paradis1' bears date ,may #gth1 #adif4 ,in the face of such activity and enterprise1 ,i feel ashamed of having girded at the good man for having used some of the ,ovid cuts as a basis to his illuminations in this gigantic work4 ,after #adif to the end of the century1 ,v'erard's dated books are very few4 ,the only one ,i have met with myself is a ,merlin of #adih4 ,it is possible that he produced less 7the ,miroir may not have proved a financial success71 but it is quite as likely that he merely discontinued his wholesome practice of dating his books1 and that the ,boethius1 the ,roman de la ,rose1 the ,gestes ,romaines1 the romances of ,tristram and ,gyron1 and other undated works1 whose colophons show that they were printed while the ,pont ,notre ,dame was still standing1 i4e4 before ,october #beth1 #adii1 belong to these years4 ,after #aejj ,v'erard's enterprise certainly seems less4 ,he continued to issue editions of poets and romances1 but they are much less sumptuous than of yore1 and in place of his great folios we have a series of small octavos1 mostly of works of devotion1 with no other ornament than the strange twists of the initial ,l1 which adorns their title-pages4 ,the example here given is from an undated and unsigned edition of the ,livre du ,faulcon1 but the letter itself frequently occurs in ,v'erard's undoubted books4 ,the first hint for this grotesque form of ornament may have been found in the small initials of ,du ,pr'e's #adhf edition of ,s4 ,jerome's ,vie des anciens saintz ,pe'res1 and variants of the ,l were used by other publishers besides ,v'erard1 e4g4 by ,jacques ,maillet at ,lyons1 and ,pierre ,le ,rouge and ,michel ,le ,noir at ,paris4 ,the most noticeable examples of the ,l1 besides the one here given1 are the man-at-arms ,l of the #adhh edition of the ,mer des ,histoires 7,p4 ,lerouge71 the monkey-and-bagpipes ,l1 here shown1 from ,maillet's #adid edition of the ,recueil des ,histoires ,troyennes1 a ,st4 ,george-and-the-,dragon ,l in a ,lyons reprint of the ,mer des ,histoires1 and the ,january-and-,may ,l which1 ,i believe1 was first used by ,v'erard for a #adib edition of the ,matheolus1 or 'quinze joies du mariage1' but of which a counterpart existed at ,lyons4 ,illustration3 ,initial ,l used by ,v'erard4 ,illustration3 ,initial ,l used by ,maillet4 ,it seems probable that the attention which ,v'erard paid to his vellum editions1 in which the woodcuts were only useful as guides to the illustrator1 made him less careful than he would otherwise have been to secure the best possible work in his ordinary books4 ,certainly ,i think his most interesting cuts are to be found not in his later books but in the collection of six treatises which he had printed by ,gillet ,cousteau and ,jehan ,menard in #adib1 and republished1 somewhat less sumptuously1 the next year1 under the collective title ,l'art de bien vivre et de bien mourir1 the reprint coming from the press of ,pierre ,le ,rouge4 ,the cuts in this collection have a special interest for us1 because some of them were afterwards used in ,english books1 and we may therefore be allowed to examine them at some length4 ,illustration3 ,from ,v'erard's ,art de bien vivre4 7,reduced47 ,in the #adib edition the first title-page ,le liure intitule lart de bien mourir heralds only the first work1 an adaptation of the old ,ars ,moriendi showing the struggle between good and bad angels for the possession of the dying soul4 ,the devils tempt the sufferer to hasten his end 7'interficias teipsum' one of them is saying1 the words being printed on a label71 they remind him of his sins 7'periuratus es'71 tempt him to worldly thoughts 7'intende thesauro'71 persuade his physicians to over-commiseration 7',ecce quantam penam patitur'71 or flatter him with undeserved praise 7'coronam meruisti'74 ,to each of these assaults his good angels have a 'bonne inspiracion' by way of answer1 and the devils have to confess 'spes nobis nulla' and to see the little figure of the soul received into heaven4 ,the second treatise is called at the beginning ,l'eguyllon de crainte divine pour bien mourir1 but on the title-page placed on the back of the last leaf 'les paines denfer et les paines de purgatoire4' ,its illustrations consist of large cuts in which devils are inflicting excruciating and revolting tortures on their victims4 ,its colophon gives the printers' names and the date ,july #ah1 #adib4 ,the next three parts of the book are ,le ,trait'e de l'avenement de l',antechrist1 ,les ,quinze ,signes1 or ,fifteen ,tokens of ,judgment1 and ,les ,joies du ,paradis4 ,the printing of these was finished on ,october #bh4 ,only the middle treatise is much illustrated1 but here the artist had full play for his powers in representing the fish swimming on the hills1 the seas falling into the abyss1 the sea-monsters covering the earth1 the flames of the sea1 the trees wet with blood1 the crumbling of cities1 the stones fighting among themselves1 and the other signs of the ,last ,day4 ,perhaps the best of this set of cuts is that representing the 'esbahissement' or astonishment of the men and women who had hidden themselves in holes in the earth1 when at last they ventured forth4 ,but in the last treatise1 the ,art de bien vivre1 quaintness and horror are replaced by really beautiful work4 ,the cuts here are intended to illustrate the ,ave ,maria1 ,lord's ,prayer1 ,creed1 ,ten ,commandments1 and ,seven ,sacraments4 ,those in the last series are the largest in the book1 each of them occupying a full page4 ,the ,creed has a series of smaller cuts of inferior work4 ,but the picture which precedes this1 representing the twelve apostles1 and the pictures of the ,angelic ,salutation1 of the ,pope invoking the ,blessed ,virgin 7here shown71 and of ,christ teaching the ,apostles1 show the finest work1 outside the ,horae1 in any ,french books during the fifteenth century4 ,these blocks appear also in two ,english books printed at ,paris1 in #aejc1 ,the ,traytte of god lyuyng and good deyng1 and ,the ,kalendayr of ,shyppars1 and in many of the ,english editions of the latter work from ,pynson's in #aejf onward4 ,pierre ,lerouge1 one of ,v'erard's printers1 produced at least one fine book quite independently of him4 ,this is the first illustrated edition of ,la ,mer des ,hystoires1 the ,french version of the ,rudimentum ,noviciorum 7see p4 #ej71 the general plan of which it follows1 though not slavishly4 ,pierre ,lerouge printed his edition for a publisher named ,vincent ,commin4 ,it is in two tall folios1 with the man-at-arms ,l to decorate its title-pages1 and splendid initials ,p1 ,i1 and ,s1 the first having within it a figure of a scribe at work1 the ,s being twisted into the form of a scaly snake1 and the body of the ,i containing a figure of ,christ4 ,the cuts and borders of the book are not very remarkable4 ,in #adih ,v'erard published a new edition of it1 having obtained the use of the old blocks4 ,a ,lyons reprint was issued about #aejj1 and other editions during the sixteenth century4 ,two other printers who cannot be said to have learnt anything from ,v'erard are ,jean ,bonhomme1 who as early as #adhf printed an illustrated edition of a very popular book1 ,le livre des profits champetres1 translated from the ,latin of ,petrus ,crescentius1 and ,germain ,bineaut1 who in #adij printed a ,pathelin le grant et le petit which is said to have woodcuts4 ,guyot ,marchant's series of editions of the ,danse ,macabre or 'danse des ,morts1' has been already mentioned4 ,an edition of the same work1 printed at ,lyons1 ,february #ah1 #adii 7no printer's name71 a copy of which is among the books which entered the ,british ,museum under the bequest of ,mr4 ,alfred ,huth1 is especially interesting as containing cuts of the shops of a printer and a bookseller1 at both of which ,death is at work4 ,illustration3 ,from a ,lyons ,danse ,macabre1 #adii4 7,much reduced47 ,another edition of the ,danse was printed by ,nicole de la ,barre at ,paris in #aejj1 and others of the same character in the early years of the next century4 ,we shall have to recur to the book again both with reference to the ,horae and for the later ,lyons editions1 the cuts in which followed designs by ,holbein4 ,the only other ,paris printer whom we have space here to mention is ,jean ,trepperel1 whose career began in #adib1 in which year1 according to ,hain1 he issued a ,histoire de ,pierre de ,provence et de la belle ,maguelonne1 probably illustrated4 ,in #adic he published an edition of the ,chroniques de ,france1 with four cuts1 one of the founding of a town1 another of an assault1 and two battle scenes4 ,they are good of their kind1 especially that which serves for all the founders of cities from ,,aeneas and ,romulus to ,s4 ,louis1 but their repetition becomes a little wearisome4 ,in an undated issue of ,jehan ,quentin's ,orologe de ,devotion the cuts are all different1 but fall into two series1 one badly drawn and infamously engraved1 the other showing really fine work1 and having all the appearance of having been originally designed for a ,book of ,hours4 ,the only other fifteenth century book of ,trepperel's with which ,i am acquainted is a charming quarto edition of the romance of ,paris et ,vienne1 a copy of which is in the ,morgan collection4 ,it is undated1 but was printed while the ,pont ,notre ,dame was still standing4 ,the title-cut shows signs of breakage1 and may possibly have been designed for the earlier edition by ,denis ,meslier mentioned by ,brunet as having a single cut4 ,the rest of the large cuts in the book have all the appearance of having been specially designed for the new edition1 and are equal to the best work in the ,horae4 ,meanwhile at ,lyons the rude cuts of the books which heralded illustrated work in ,france had been replaced by far more artistic productions4 ,in #adhh ,michelet ,topie de ,pymont and ,jacques ,herrnberg produced a ,french version 7by ,nicole ,le ,huen7 of ,breydenbach's ,peregrinatio 7see p4 #eg7 with copies of some of the original cuts1 the smaller ones cut on wood1 the large maps engraved on copper4 ,the next year ,jacques ,maillet brought out a rival version 7by ,frere ,jehan de ,hersin7 for which he acquired the original ,mainz woodblocks themselves4 ,to ,maillet1 also1 we owe passable imitations of some of the less sumptuous books of ,v'erard's4 ,lastly1 ,jean ,trechsel struck out a new line in a profusely illustrated ,terence of #adic4 ,at ,rouen the ,missal and ,breviary printed by ,martin ,morin were adorned with a curious initial ,m and ,b in the same style as some of the more frequent ,ls1 and ,pierre ,regnault did work which ,v'erard found worthy of his vellum4 ,paris1 however1 having once gained the predominance in illustrated work1 had as yet no difficulty in maintaining her position4 ,it remains for us to notice briefly the printers' devices in early ,french books4 ,these are so numerous that it is possible to divide them into rough classes4 ,the largest of these is formed by the marks which have as their central ornament a tree with a shield or label hung on the trunk1 with supporters varied according to the owner's fancy1 and which are not always easy to assign to their right place in the animal creation4 ,durand ,gerlier preferred rams1 ,michel ,tholoze wild men1 ,denys ,janot a creature which looks like a kangaroo1 ,hemon ,le ,fevre dancing bears duly muzzled and chained1 ,simon ,vostre leopards1 ,thielmann ,kerver unicorns1 ,felix ,baligault rabbits1 ,robert ,gourmont winged stags1 ,jehan ,guyart of ,bordeaux dolphins4 ,most of these devices have a dotted background1 and they are sometimes found printed in red ink1 which adds greatly to their decorative effect4 ,another class1 to which ,v'erard's well-known device belongs1 showed in their upper part the ,french lilies crowned and supported by angels4 ,jean ,le ,forestier combined this with the tree of knowledge1 choosing lions as its supporters1 but adding also the sacred lamb 7for his name ',jean'71 and similar variations were adopted by other printers4 ,in another large class the ,french printers1 especially those of ,lyons1 followed the simple cross and circle so common in ,italy4 ,this was mostly printed in white on a black ground1 as by ,pierre ,levet1 ,matthieu ,vivian of ,orleans1 and ,le ,tailleur4 ,less often1 as in the marks of ,berthold ,rembolt and ,georges ,wolf1 the ground is white and the design black4 ,guillaume ,balsarin who1 as was very common1 had two devices1 had one of each kind4 ,outside these classes the special designs are too many to be enumerated4 ,the successive ,le ,noirs punned on their names in at least six different devices of black heads1 and ,deny de ,harsy with less obvious appropriateness selected two black men with white waistbands to uphold his shields4 ,guyot ,marchant's shoemakers1 with the bar of music to complete his pious motto ,sola fides sufficit1 form one of the earliest and best known of ,french marks4 ,pierre ,regnault showed excellent taste in his flower-surrounded ,p1 in which the letters of his surname may also be deciphered4 ,the scholar-printer ,badius ,ascensius chose a useful1 if not very pretty1 design of printers at work1 the two variants of which first appear respectively in #aejg and #aeba4 ,all these devices and countless others will be found roughly figured in ,silvestre's ,marques ,typographiques1 many of them appear also in ,brunet's ,manuel du ,libraire1 and those of the chief fifteenth century printers have been reproduced with absolute fidelity in ,m4 ,thierry-,poux's ,monuments de l'imprimerie franc1aise4 ,only the mark of ,du ,pr'e and one of those used by ,caillaut are therefore given here1 the first 7on p4 #ada7 in honour of a pioneer in ,french illustration1 the second1 as perhaps the most beautiful of any which the present writer has seen4 ,illustration3 ,mark of ,antoine ,caillaut4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the first ,greek book printed in ,france appeared in #aejg1 and the awakening of classical feeling was accompanied1 as in other countries1 by the putting away of the last remnants of mediaeval art and literature as childish things4 ,the old romances continued to be published1 chiefly by the ,lenoirs1 but in a smaller and cheaper form1 and for the most part with old cuts4 ,v'erard diminished his output1 and the publishers of the ,horae turned in despair to ,german designs in place of the now despised native work4 ,soon only some little octavos remained to show that there was still an unclassical public to be catered for4 ,these were chiefly printed by ,galliot du ,pr'e1 with titles in red and black1 and sometimes with little architectural borders in imitation of the more ambitious ,german ones4 ,when they disappear we say farewell to the richness and colour which distinguishes the best ,french books of the end of the fifteenth century4 ,instead of the black letter and quaint cuts we have graceful but cold ,roman types1 or pretty but thin italics1 with good initial letters1 sometimes with good head-and tail-pieces1 but with few pictures1 and with only a neat allegoric device on the title-page instead of the rich designs used by the earlier printers4 ,geoffroy ,tory of ,bourges was the first important printer of the new school4 ,his earliest connection with publishing was as the editor of various classical works1 but he returned from a visit to ,italy full of artistic theories as to book-making1 which he proceeded to carry out1 partly in alliance with ,simon ,colines1 for whom he designed a new device representing ,time with his scythe4 ,tory's own device of the 'pot cass'e1' a broken vase pierced by a toret or auger1 is said to refer to his desolation on the death of his only daughter4 ,devices of other printers have been ascribed to him on the ground of the appearance in them of the little cross of ,lorraine1 which is found in some of ,tory's undoubted works4 ,it is certain1 however1 that the cross was not his individual signature1 but only that of his studio4 ,after the ,horae1 which we shall notice in our next chapter1 ,tory's most famous book was his own ,champfleury1 'auquel est contenu l'art et science de la vraie proportion des lettres antiques1' printed in #aebi4 ,this is a fantastic work1 interesting for the prelude in which he speaks of his connection with the famous ,grolier1 and for the few illustrations scattered about the text4 ,the best of these are the vignettes of ',hercules ,gallicus1' leading in chains the captives of his eloquence1 and of the ,triumphs of ,apollo and the ,muses4 ,the specimen alphabets at the end of the book also deserve notice4 ,they show that ,tory was better than his theories1 for his attempt to prove1 by far-fetched analogies and derivations1 that there is an ideal shape for every letter1 is as bad in art as it is false in history4 ,tory was succeeded in his office of royal printer by ,robert ,estienne1 and during the rest of the century the classical editions of this family of great printers form the chief glories of the ,french press4 ,their books1 both large and small1 are admirably printed1 and in excellent taste1 though with no other ornaments than their printer's device1 and good initials and head-pieces4 ,but it must be owned that from the reign of ,francis ,i4 onwards1 the decoration of the text of most ,french books is far less interesting than the superb bindings on which the kings and their favourites began to lavish so much expense4 ,only two more ,paris books need here be mentioned1 both of them printed in #aedf1 and both with cuts imitated from the ,italian--,jacques ,gohary's translation of the ,hypnerotomachia ,poliphili and the ,amour de ,cupido et de ,psich'e translated from ,apuleius4 ,the first of these was published by ,jacques ,kerver1 the second by ,jeanne de ,marnef4 ,of original ,paris work of any eminence we have no record after the death of ,tory4 ,meanwhile at ,lyons a new school of book-illustration was springing up4 ,from the beginning of the century the ,lyons printers had imitated1 or pirated1 the delicate italic books printed by ,aldus4 ,the luckless ',etienne ,dolet added something to the classical reputation of the town1 and by the middle of the century the printers there were turning out numerous pocket editions of the classics1 which they sold to their customers in 'trade bindings' of calf stamped with gold1 and often painted over with many-coloured interlacements4 ,the fashion for small books was set1 and when illustrations were fitted to them the result was singularly dainty4 ,before considering the editions of ,jean de ,tournes and his rivals we must stop to notice the appearance at ,lyons in #aech of the belated first edition of ,holbein's ,dance of ,death1 the woodcuts for which1 the work of ,h4 ,l41 whose identity with ,hans ,l3utzelburger has been sufficiently established1 are known to have been in existence as early as #aebg1 and were probably executed two or three years before that date4 ,several sets of proofs from the woodcuts are in existence1 with lettering said to be in the types of ,froben of ,basel1 who may have abandoned the idea of publishing them because of the vigour of their satire on the nobles and well-to-do4 ,the ,trechsels1 the printers of the ,french edition1 are known to have had dealings with a ,basel woodcutter with initials ,h4 ,l41 who died before ,june #aebf1 and may have purchased the blocks directly from him1 or at a later date from ,froben4 ,in #aech they issued forty-one woodcuts with a dedication by ,jean de ,vauzelles1 and a ,french quatrain to each cut either by him or by ,gilles ,corrozet1 giving to the book the title ,les ,simulachres et historiees faces de la mort4 ,its success was as great as it deserved1 and ten more cuts were added in subsequent editions4 ,in the same year as the ,dance of ,death the ,trechsels issued another series of upwards of a hundred cuts after designs by ,holbein1 the ,historiarum ,veteris ,testamenti ,icones1 with explanatory verses by ,gilles ,corrozet4 ,these1 though scarcely less beautiful1 and at the time almost as successful as those in the ,dance of ,death1 are not quite so well known1 and ,i therefore select one of them1 taken from the reprint of the following year1 as an illustration4 ,illustration3 ,from ,historiarum ,veteris ,testamenti ,icones1 ,lyons1 #aeci4 ,the success of these two books invited imitation1 and during the next twenty years many dainty illustrated books were issued by ,franciscus ,gryphius1 ,mac'e ,bonhomme1 ,guillaume ,roville1 and ,jean de ,tournes4 ,in #aedj ,gryphius issued a little ,latin ,testament1 with thirty-four lines of dainty ,roman type to a page1 which only measures #c-a_/b in4 x #b1 and in which are set charming cuts4 ,bonhomme's chief success was an edition1 printed in #aeef1 of the first three books of the ,metamorphoses translated into ,french verse by ,cl'ement ,marot and ,barth'elemy ,aneau4 ,this has borders to every page1 and numerous vignettes measuring only #a-a_/b in4 x #b4 ,in the following year this was capped by ,jean de ,tournes with another version of the ,metamorphoses1 with borders and vignettes attributed to ,bernard ,salomon1 usually called 'le petit ,bernard1' and the success of the book caused it to be re-issued in ,dutch and ,italian4 ,the borders are wonderfully varied1 some of them containing little grotesque figures worthy of our own ,doyle1 others dainty lacework1 and others less pleasing architectural essays4 ,this1 like most of the best books of its kind1 was printed throughout in italics1 and the attempt about this time of ,robert ,granjon1 another ,lyons printer1 to supersede the italic by a type modelled on the ,french cursive hand1 the 'caracte'res de civilit'e1' was only partially successful4 ,in #aefc1 and possibly in other years1 ,jean de ,tournes published an almanack and engagement-book1 a ,calendrier historial1 with tiny vignettes representing the occupations appropriate to the seasons1 and alternate pages for the entry of notes by any purchasers barbarous enough to deface so charming a book with their hasty handwriting4 ,when the brief blaze of pretty books at ,lyons died out1 ,french printing fast sinks into dulness1 and the attempt of a ,frenchman at ,antwerp to revive its glories was only partially successful1 though he has left behind him a great name4 ,jean ,plantin was born at ,tours in #aead1 and after trying to earn a living first at ,paris and then at ,caen1 set up a bookseller's shop at ,antwerp in #aedi1 and six years later printed his first book1 the ,institution d'une fille de noble maison4 ,he was soon in a position to give commissions to good artists1 ,luc de ,heere1 ,pierre ,huys1 ,godefroid ,ballain1 and others1 and issued the ,devises ,h'eroiques of ,claude ,paradin 7#aefb71 and the ,emblems of ,sambucus 7#aefd71 of ,hadrianus ,junius 7#aefe71 and ,alciati 7#aeff71 with illustrations from their designs4 ,his ,horae1 printed in #aeff and #aege1 with florid borders1 and his ,psalter of #aega1 attempted to revive a class of book then going out of fashion4 ,besides the great ,antwerp ,polyglott1 whose printing occupied him from #aefh to #aegc1 and nearly brought him to ruin1 ,plantin printed some other ,bibles1 one in ,flemish in #aeff1 and a ',bible royale' in #aegj1 being noticeable for their ambitious decoration4 ,he published also some great folio missals1 more imposing than elegant4 ,he had numerous sets of large initials1 one specially designed for music books being really graceful1 and a long array of variations on the device of the hand and compass which he adopted as his mark4 ,the title-pages of his larger books are surrounded with heavy architectural borders1 some of which were engraved on copper4 ,at his death1 in #aehi1 he had attained labore et constantia1 as his motto phrased it1 to a foremost position among the printers of his day1 but his florid illustrated books have very little real beauty1 and mark the beginning of a century and a half of bad taste from which only the microscopic editions of the ,elzevirs are wholly free4 99 99 99 99 99 #ah ,the only other ,abbeville illustrated book is the #adhg ,triomphe des ,neuf ,preux1 with conventional portraits of most of the heroes 7their legs wide apart71 and a bullet-headed ,du ,guesclin1 based on authentic tradition4 ,in a #aejh reprint by ,michel le ,noir at ,paris1 while some of the old cuts were retained this ,du ,guesclin was replaced by a much more showy figure4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,french ,,books ,,of ,,hours ,in the course of the fourteenth century the ,hours of the ,blessed ,virgin superseded the ,psalter as the popular book of devotions for lay use4 ,throughout the fifteenth century magnificently illuminated manuscript copies were produced in ,france in great numbers1 and it is thus not surprising that it was in illustrated editions of this book that ,french printers and publishers achieved their most noteworthy success4 ,each of the ,hours1 we are told1 had its mystical reference to some event in the lives of the ,blessed ,virgin and our ,lord4 ,lauds referred to the visit of ,mary to ,elizabeth1 ,prime to the ,nativity1 ,terce to the ,angels' ,message to the ,shepherds1 ,sext to the ,adoration by the ,magi1 ,nones to the ,circumcision1 ,vespers to the ,flight into ,egypt1 ,compline to the ,assumption of the ,virgin4 ,the subsidiary ,hours of the ,passion naturally suggested the ,crucifixion or1 less frequently1 the ,invention or finding of the ,cross by the ,emperor ,constantine1 and those of the ,holy ,spirit the ,day of ,pentecost4 ,we have here the subjects for nine pictures1 which were almost invariably heralded by one of the ,annunciation1 and might easily be increased by a representation of the ,adoration by the ,shepherds1 of the ,murder of the ,innocents1 and the ,death of the ,virgin4 ,moreover1 the contents of ,books of ,hours were gradually enlarged till they deserved the title1 which has been given them1 of the ,lay-,folk's ,prayer-,book4 ,a typical ,book of ,hours would contain-- 7i47 ,a ,kalendar 7one picture74 7ii47 ,passages from the ,gospels on the ,passion of ,christ4 7,one to three pictures47 7iii47 ,private ,prayers4 7iv47 ,the ,hours themselves--,horae intemeratae beatae ,mariae ,virginis--with the subsidiary ,hours of the ,passion and of the ,holy ,ghost4 7,nine to thirteen pictures47 7v47 ,the ,seven ,penitential ,psalms4 7,one or two pictures47 7vi47 ,the ,litany of the ,saints4 7vii47 ,the ,vigils of the ,dead4 7,one to four pictures47 7viii47 ,seven ,psalms on ,christ's ,passion4 ,the ,kalendar usually contained poetical directions for the preservation of health1 and was therefore preluded by a rather ghastly anatomical picture of a man4 ,the passages from the ,gospel1 which began with the first chapter of ,s4 ,john1 were illustrated by a picture of the evangelist's martyrdom1 and the ,passion by one of the ,kiss of ,judas1 or of the ,crucifixion4 ,to the ,penitential ,psalms were sometimes prefixed pictures of ,bathsheba bathing on her housetop1 and of the death of ,uriah1 or1 more rarely1 of an angel appearing to ,david with weapons in his hand1 signifying the three punishments between which he must choose for his sin in numbering the people4 ,the ,litany of the ,saints offered too wide a field for full-page cuts to be assigned it1 but was often illustrated by smaller ones set in the text4 ,to the ,vigils of the ,dead the commonest illustrations at first were those of ',les ,trois ,vifs et ,les ,trois ,morts1' three gay cavaliers meeting their own grinning corpses4 ',dives and ,lazarus' was first joined with these and afterwards superseded them4 ,we also find pictures of the ,day of ,judgment1 the ,entombment1 and in one instance of a funeral4 ,two illustrations in honour of the ,eucharist are also of common occurrence--one of angels upholding a chalice1#ai the other of the ,vision of ,s4 ,gregory1 when he saw the crucified ,christ appearing on the altar4 ,if we add to these a picture of the ,tree of ,jesse1 and another of the ,church in heaven and on earth1 we shall have exhausted the list of subjects which appear with any frequency1 though pictures of the ,creation and ,fall1 of ,david and ,goliath1 of the ,descent from the ,cross1 and perhaps one or two others may occasionally be found4 ,it should be mentioned that the illustrations to the ,psalms on the ,passion are usually repeated from others previously used1 but putting these on one side1 it will be found that we have accounted for the subjects of some five-and-twenty pictures1 and this is in excess of the number found in any one book1 which varies from six to twenty-two4 ,in some of the earlier ,horae1 as we shall see1 the printers contented themselves with these large illustrations1 and in others surrounded the text with purely decorative borders of flowers and birds4 ,but in a typical edition the borders consist of a number of small blocks or plates1 the figures in which reinforced the teaching of the main illustrations4 ,in an edition printed by ,jean ,du ,pr'e in ,february #adhh-i1 five pages are devoted to an explanation of these vignettes1 and it will not be a waste of space to quote a few lines3 ,p,cest le repertoire des histoires figures de la bible tant du vieilz testament que du nouueau contenues dedens les vignettes de ces presentes heures imprimees en cuyure4 ,en chascune desquelles vignettes sont contenues deux figures du vieilz testament signifians une vraye histoire du nouueau4 ,comme il appert par les chapitres cottez et alleguez au propos tant en latin que francoys en chascune desdits figures et histoires4 ,p,et premierement en la pagee sic ensuyuante listoire de lannunciation est prefiguree la natiuite nostre dame4 comme il appert par les deux figures de iesse et balaan4 prouue par le liure de isaye1 xi chapitre et des nombres xxiiii4 chap4 ,p,item en lautre pagee ensuyuante par ,rebecca et ,sara est entendu comme nostre dame fut espousee a ioseph4 ainsi qu'on lit en genese xxiiii4 c4 tho4 vi4 ,thus we see that1 as first planned1 the border vignettes formed a continuous series illustrating historically the teaching of the ,horae by reference to ,old ,testament types1 with chapter and verse for their significance4 ,it will be noticed also that it is distinctly stated that the vignettes in this edition were 'imprim'ees en cuyvre1' printed on copper4 ,two months later1 in an edition published by ,antoine ,v'erard 7,april #e1 #adhi71 the same table was reproduced with very slight alterations4 ,the words 'en cuyvre' were then omitted1 but 'imprim'ees' was left in1 awkwardly enough4 ,there can be no doubt that the omission was deliberate1 and we have thus two statements which reinforce the opinion of the best experts1 that both wood and copper were employed in engraving different editions of these designs4 ,these ,old ,testament types do not appear to have long retained their popularity1 and were soon superseded by a less continuous form of illustration4 ,the ,calendar offered an excuse for introducing one series of vignettes of the sports and occupations of each month1 another of the signs of the zodiac1 and a third giving pictures of the saints in connection with the days on which they were commemorated4 ,the ,gospels of the ,passion were illustrated by vignettes on the same subject2 the ,hours themselves by a long series on the lives of ,christ and of the ,blessed ,virgin4 ,the ,dance of ,death was brought in to illustrate the ,vigils of the ,dead1 and relief was given by some charming scenes of hunting and rural life1 which formed the border to the ,private ,prayers and the ,litany of the ,saints4 ,in addition to these1 we have representations of the ,prophets and ,sibyls1 of the ,cardinal ,virtues1 and the ,lives of the ,saints1 and an admixture of purely decorative or grotesque designs4 ,between the vignettes spaces were often left1 which were filled in1 sometimes with illustrative texts1 sometimes with a continuous prayer or exhortation1 either in ,french or ,latin4 ,thus in the preliminary leaves of some of the ,horae the text read3 ,tout bon loyal et vaillant catholique qui commencer aucune euure ymagine doit inuoquer en toute sa pratique premierement la puissance diuine par ce beau nom iesus qui illumine tout cueur humain tout entendement4 ,cest en tout fait ung beau commencement3 and when we turn to the ,gospels of the ,passion we find a prayer beginning ',protecteur des bons catholiques donne nous croire tellement les paroles euangeliques1' c4 ,in ,v'erard's earlier editions the book would have to be turned round to read the words on the lower border1 but in ,pigouchet's this defect was remedied1 so that we are left free to imagine that the prayer was meant for devotional use1 and not merely as a decoration4 ,the chief firms employed in the production of these beautiful prayer-books during the fifteenth century were 7i47 ,jean du ,pr'e2 7ii47 ,antoine ,v'erard2 7iii47 ,philippe ,pigouchet1 working chiefly for ,simon ,vostre1 a publisher1 but also for ,de ,marnef1 ,laurens ,philippe1 and occasionally on his own account2 7iv47 ,thielman ,kerver4 ,the proportion of dated and undated editions is about equal1 and with careful study it ought to be possible to trace the career of each of the important firms1 noting when each new illustration or vignette makes its first appearance4 ,unfortunately great confusion has been introduced into the bibliography of ,horae by the presence in them of calendars1 mostly for twenty years1 giving the dates of the moveable feasts4 ,all that these calendars show is that the edition in which they occur must have been printed before1 probably at least five or six years before1 the last year for which they are reckoned4 ,the fact that1 e4g41 the editions printed by ,pigouchet in ,august and ,september #adih have the #adhh to #aejh calendar is by itself sufficient to prove that they cannot do more than this4 ,unluckily a connection has often been assumed between the first year of the calendar and the year of publication--e4g4 undated ,horae with the calendar for #adhh-aejh are frequently ascribed on that ground only to #adhh1 or with perverse ingenuity to #adhg2 as if a calendar of the moveable feasts were like an annual almanac1 and must necessarily be printed in readiness for the new year4 ,great confusion has thus been caused1 so that it is impossible to trust any conjectural date for an ,horae unless we know the grounds on which it is based4 ,the earliest dated ,french ,horae was finished by ,antoine ,v'erard on ,august #ba1 #adhf1 and followed by another the next year dated ,july #g1 #adhg2 but the cuts in both of these are small and rude1 mere guides to an illuminator1 and as ,v'erard's later editions bring him into connection with other publishers1 it will be convenient to consider first three editions by ,jean ,du ,pr'e1 all of which are of great interest4 ,the one which we must rank as the earliest is an undated ,hore ad vsum ,romanum1 signed ',jo4 de ,prato' 7i4e4 ,j4 ,du ,pr'e7 which can be shown to have been issued some little time before ,feb4 #ai1 #adhh-i1 the date of a ,psalter printed by ,antoine ,cayllaut in which one of the cuts appears in a more worn condition4 ,the text measures #d-a_/b in4 by #c-a_/d4 ,this is the only one of the three which was known to ,brunet1 whose list of ,horae in the fifth volume of his ,manuel du ,libraire1 long as it is1 is very incomplete4 ,its text1 including the borders1 measures #e-e_/h in4 by #c-e_/h1 and in addition to ,du ,pr'e's mark and the anatomical man is illustrated by nineteen engravings4 ,nine of these are the usual illustrations to the ,hours themselves1 and the subsidiary ,hours of the ,passion and of the ,holy ,ghost4 ,the ,penitential ,psalms are illustrated by ,david's ,bathsheba and the ,death of ,uriah1 and the ,vigils of the ,dead by a figure of ,death4 ,in addition to these we have the ,fall of ,lucifer1 ,descent from the ,cross1 with emblems of the four evangelists1 a figure of the ,trinity1 the ,virgin and ,child in glory1 ,s4 ,christopher1 ,s4 ,mary ,magdalen1 and the ,vision of ,s4 ,gregory1 with small pictures from the life of ,christ and figures of the ,saints4 ,the borders carry out the plan of the table of vignettes1 containing three scenes from the ,bible and three heads1 with explanatory text1 on each page throughout the greater part of the book4 ,towards the end these are replaced by figures of saints and angels4 ,the artist's designs have been rather spoilt by the engraver1 whose strokes are frequently much too black4 ,the second of ,du ,pr'e's editions is a very interesting book1 for the illustrations are printed in three colours--blue1 red1 and green4 ,it is dated #adij1 but without the mention of any month4 ,it has some unusual illustrations--e4g4 the three ,maries with the body of ,christ1 ,david and ,goliath1 ,lazarus in ,abraham's bosom and ,dives in torment1 and ,s4 ,christopher4 ,many of the pages are without vignettes1 and where these occur they are not joined neatly together to form a continuous border1 but set1 rather at haphazard1 about the margin4 ,pictures and vignettes are printed sometimes in the same1 sometimes in different colours4 ,the page of text measures #e-a_/b in4 by #d1 or without borders1 #d by #b-a_/b4 ,the last edition known to me by ,du ,pr'e is undated1 and has a ,latin title-page1 ,hore ad usum ,romanum4 ,jo4 de ,prato4 ,the text with borders measures #d-a_/b in4 by #c-a_/b4 ,its borders are similar to those of the large folios of the period1 having a floral groundwork1 into which birds1 figures of men and women1 angels and grotesques are introduced4 ,to make up for the lack of vignettes there are seven small illustrations of the ,passion set in the text4 ,for the larger illustrations1 which appear to be woodcuts1 ,du ,pr'e again varied his subjects1 introducing for the only time in these three editions ,les ,trois ,vifs et ,les ,trois ,morts1 reduced reproductions of which are here given4 ,illustration3 ,les ,trois ,vifs4 ,from a ,horae of ,jean ,du ,pr'e4 7,reduced47 ,illustration3 ,les ,trois ,morts4 ,from a ,horae of ,jean ,du ,pr'e4 7,reduced47 ,it was not to be expected that so enterprising a publisher as ,v'erard would rest content with the very unpretentious ,horae he produced in #adhf and #adhg1 but the precise date at which he first made a more ambitious essay is not easy to fix4 ,the undated edition of his ,grandes ,heures for the use of ,rome is constantly assigned to #adhh1 for no other reason than that it contains the #adhh-aejh ,almanac1 though the breaks in the borders suffice to show that this was not the first appearance of the blocks4 ,at the library at ,toulouse there is said to be a ,v'erard ,horae ad usum ,romanum dated ,april #c1 #adhh1 that is1 as the ,french year at this time began1 at ,easter1 #adhi1 and this may be the first of ,v'erard's new editions4 ,this was followed the next year by the first edition of his ,grandes ,heures1 with thirteen woodcuts and a frontispiece4 ,i have not been fortunate enough to see a copy of either of these editions1 but three undated ,horae in the ,british ,museum1 printed by ,v'erard1 seem to belong to the same type as the ,grandes ,heures4 ,in addition to a poorly cut ,vision of ,heaven1 the ,anatomical ,man1 and the ,chalice1 they contain1 in varying order1 fourteen large woodcuts--7i47 ,the ,fall of ,lucifer2 7ii47 the history of ,adam and ,eve2 7iii47 a double picture1 the upper half showing the strife between ,mercy1 ,justice1 ,peace1 and ,reason in the presence of ,god1 and the lower half the ,annunciation1 which followed the triumph of ,mercy2 7iv47 the ,marriage of ,joseph and ,mary2 7v47 the ,invention of the ,cross2 7vi47 the ,gift of the ,spirit2 7vii47 a double picture of the ,nativity and the ,adoration by the ,shepherds2 7viii47 the ,adoration by the ,magi2 7ix47 a double picture of the ,annunciation to the ,shepherds and of peasants dancing round a tree2 7x47 the ,circumcision2 7xi47 the ,killing of the ,innocents2 7xii47 the ,crowning of the ,virgin2 7xiii47 ,david entering a castle1 with the words ',tibi soli peccavi1'--against ,thee only have ,i sinned1--issuing from his mouth2 7xiv47 a funeral service1 the hearse standing before the altar4 ,the cut of the ,message to the ,shepherds here shown will give a fair idea of the characteristics of this series1 as well as of the borders by which they were accompanied4#bj ,a full list of the larger subjects has been given because some of them often occur in later editions joined with other pictures of the school of ,pigouchet1 and it is useful to be able to fix their origin at a glance4#ba ,six of them form the only large illustrations in the little ,horae1 printed for ,v'erard1 ,april #e1 #adhi1 in which1 as we have already noted1 the words 'on copper' appear to have been deliberately omitted from the table of the vignettes4 ,the size of the ,grandes ,heures is #h in4 by #e1 that of the edition of ,april #adhi1 #f in4 by #d4 ,brunet enumerates altogether thirty editions of ,horae printed by ,v'erard1 the last of which bearing a date belongs to the year #aeaj4 ,so far as ,i am acquainted with them these later editions have few distinguishing characteristics1 but are mostly made up with illustrations designed for other firms4 ,illustration3 ,from a ,grandes ,heures of ,antoine ,v'erard4 ,we come now to the most celebrated of all the series of ,horae1 those printed by ,pigouchet1 chiefly for ,simon ,vostre4 ,brunet in his list rightly discredits the existence of an edition by this printer dated as early as ,january #e1 #adhf4 ,he accepts1 however1 and briefly describes as if he had himself seen1 one of ,september #af1 #adhh1 and mentions also an edition printed ,april #h1 #adhh-i4 ,no copy of either of these editions has come to light during the twenty years in which the present writer has been interested in ,horae1 and it seems fairly certain that ,pigouchet's first illustrated work is to be found in an edition ,ad usum ,parisiensem1 dated ,december #a1 #adia4 ,the large cuts in this are fairly good1 but a little stiff2 the small border-cuts include a long set of incidents in the life of ,christ with ,old ,testament types after the manner of the ,biblia ,pauperum4 ,a ,horae of ,may #h1 #adib1 substitutes floral borders for these little pictures4 ,in another set of editions in which ,pigouchet was concerned1 apparently between #adic and #adie1 the borders are made up of vignettes of very varying size1 which may be recognised by many of them being marked with ,gothic letters1 mostly large minuscules4 ,sometimes one1 sometimes two1 vignettes thus lettered occur on a page1 and we may presume that the lettering1 which is certainly a disfigurement1 was intended to facilitate the arrangement of the borders4 ,in these ,horae1 also1 the designs are comparatively coarse and poor4 ,some of the large illustrations are divided into an upper compartment1 containing the main subject1 and two lower compartments1 containing its 'types4' ,illustration3 ,dives and ,lazarus1 from ,pigouchet's ,horae1 #adih4 7,reduced47 ,certainly by #adif1 and possibly in earlier editions which ,i have not seen1 ,pigouchet had arrived at his typical style1 of which a good specimen-page is given in our illustration from the edition of ,august #bb1 #adih4 ,his original idea appears to have been for editions with a page of text measuring #e-a_/b in4 by #c-a_/b1 such as he issued on ,april #ag1 #adif1 and ,january #ah1 #adif-ig4 ,but at least as early as ,november #d1 #adig1 he added another inch both to the height and breadth of his page by the insertion of the little figures1 which will be noticed at the left of the lower corner and on the right at the top4 ,the extra inch was valuable1 for it enabled him to surround his large illustrations with vignettes1 but the borders themselves are not improved by them1 for they mar the rich effect of the best work in which the backgrounds are of black with pricks of white4 ,these same dotted backgrounds1 which we have already noticed as present in some of the finest of the printers' marks1 appear also in three plates1 which are found in the #adih editions1 and thenceforward1 but1 as far as ,i can ascertain1 not earlier4 ,these three plates illustrate 7i47 the ,tree of ,jesse2 7ii47 the ,church ,militant and ,triumphant2 7iii47 the ,adoration of the ,shepherds4 ,all three plates are of great beauty1 and the last is noticeable for the names--',mahault1' ',aloris1' ',alison1' ',gobin le ,gay1' and 'le beau ,roger'--which are assigned to the shepherds and their wives1 and which are the same as those by which they are known in the ,french mystery-plays4 ,the artists who used these dotted backgrounds evidently viewed the ,horae rather from the mystery-play standpoint4 ,they cared little for the 'types' which ,v'erard and ,du ,pr'e so carefully explained in their early editions1 but delighted in the ,dance of ,death and in scenes of hunting and rural life1 or failing these in grotesques4 ,they placed their talents at the disposal of religion1 but they bargained to be allowed to introduce a good deal of humour as well4 ,the best ,french ,horae were all published within about ten years4 ,during this decade1 which just overlaps the fifteenth century1 the only serious rival of ,pigouchet was ,thielman ,kerver1 who began printing in #adig1 and by dint of close imitation approached very near indeed to ,pigouchet's success4 ,with the lessening of ,pigouchet's activity about #aeje1 there came an after-flood of bad taste1 which swept everything before it4 ,the old ,french designs were displaced by reproductions of ,german work utterly unsuited to the ,french types and ornaments1 and along with these there came an equally disastrous substitution of florid ,renaissance borders of pillars and cherubs for ,pigouchet's charming vignettes and hunting scenes4 ,thielman ,kerver1 who had begun with better things1 soon made his surrender to the new fashion1 and his firm continued to print ,horae1 for which it is difficult to find a good word until about #aeef4 ,his activity was more than equalled by ,gilles ,hardouyn1 who with his successors was responsible for some seventy editions during the first half of the sixteenth century4 ,guillaume ,eustace1 ,guillaume ,godard1 and ,franc1ois ,regnault were less formidable competitors1 and besides these some thirty or forty editions are attributable to other printers4 ,on ,january #afth 7or to use the affected style of the colophon itself1 'xvii4 ,kal4 ,febr4'71 #aebe1 ,geoffroy ,tory1 the scholar1 artist1 and printer1 in conjunction with his friend ,simon ,colines1 brought out a ,horae1 which is certainly not open to the charge of bad taste4 ,the printed page measures #f-a_/d in4 by #c-c_/d1 the type used is a delicate ,roman letter with a slight employment of red ink1 but no hand work1 the borders are in the most delicate style of the ,renaissance4 ,the illustrations number twelve1 of which one1 that of the ,annunciation1 occupies two pages4 ,there are no unusual subjects1 except that in the picture of the ,crucifixion ,tory displays his classical pedantry by surrounding the central picture with four vignettes illustrating ,virgil's ',sic vos non vobis' quatrain1 on the sheep1 the bees1 the birds1 and the oxen1 whose life enriches others but not themselves4 ,in the picture of the ,adoration by the ,magi1 here given1 ,tory obtains an unusually rich effect by the figure of the negro4 ,he repeats this1 on a smaller scale1 in the black raven1 croaking ,cras1 ,cras1 in the picture of the ,triumph of ,death4 ,the tone of the other illustrations is rather thin1 and the length of the faces and slight angularity in the figures 7effects which ,tory1 the most affected of artists1 no doubt deliberately sought for7 cause them just to fall short of beauty4 ,compared1 however1 with the contemporary editions of other printers1 ,tory's ,horae seem possessed of every beauty4 ,we know of five editions before his death or retirement in #aecc1 and of some seven others before the close of the half century4 ,after #aeej the publication of ,horae in ,france almost entirely ceased1 but some pretty editions were issued at ,antwerp by the ,french printer ,christopher ,plantin in #aefe and #aege1 and perhaps in other years4 ,the decree of ,pope ,pius ,v4 making the use of the ,office no longer obligatory on the clergy seems to have been preceded by a great falling off of the popularity of the ,hours among the laity1 in whom the booksellers had found their chief customers1 and after #aefh a very few editions sufficed to supply the demand of those who were still wedded to their use4 ,illustration3 ,from ,tory's ,horae1 #aebe4 7,reduced47 99 99 99 99 99 #ai ,i join this with the other illustration as having a ,eucharistic significance1 but in one of ,v'erard's editions the full explanation is given3 ',cest la mesure de la playe du coste de notre seigneur iesucrist qui fut apportee de ,constantinople au noble empereur ,saint ,charlemaine afin que nulz ennemys ne luy peussent nuire en bataille4' #bj ,the defects in this reproduction appear also in the original1 from which it is reduced4 #ba e4g41 in an edition printed by ,jean ,poitevin1 ,may #ae1 #adih1 the illustrations for ,terce1 ,sext1 ,nones1 ,vespers1 and ,compline are from ,v'erard2 the others1 including the printer's device1 were imitated from ,pigouchet4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,holland ,thirty years ago1 under the title ,the ,woodcutters of the ,netherlands 7a little suggestive of a story for boys on life in a ,dutch forest7 ,sir ,martin ,conway wrote a treatise on the early book-illustrations of the ,low ,countries1 which is still the standard work on the subject1 and only needed plenty of facsimiles to make it completely illuminating4 ,unfortunately in #ahhd the process block was still in its infancy1 and in the absence of this cheap method of reproduction the book was issued without a single picture4 ,written some nine years later the present chapter epitomises so much of ,sir ,martin's treatise as the rather scanty stock of ,low ,country illustrated books in ,england enabled me to visualise1 and for lack of an intervening pilgrimage to ,dutch libraries comparatively little can now be added to it4 ,sir ,martin ,conway divided his book into three parts1 the first giving the history of the woodcutters1 the second a catalogue of the cuts1 and the third a list of the books containing them4 ,putting on one side the blocks imported or directly copied from ,france and ,germany1 he attributes the illustrations in fifteenth century ,dutch books to some five-and-twenty different workmen and their apprentices4 ,his first group is formed of-- 7i47 ,a ,louvain woodcutter who worked for ,john and ,conrad de ,westphalia1 for whom he cut two capital little vignette portraits of themselves1 and for ,veldener1 for whom he executed the nine illustrations in an edition of the ,fasciculus ,temporum1 published on ,december #bi1 #adge4 7ii47 ,a ,utrecht woodcutter1 whose most important works are a set of cuts to illustrate the ,boeck des gulden throens1 published by a mysterious printer1 ,gl41 in #adhj1 some additional cuts for a new edition by ,veldener of the ,fasciculus ,temporum1 and a set of thirty-nine cuts1 chiefly on the life of ,christ1 for the same printer's ,epistolen ende ewangelien of #adha4 7iii47 ,a ,bruges woodcutter1 possibly the printer himself1 who illustrated ,colard ,mansion's ,french edition of the ,metamorphoses of ,ovid 7#adhd72 and 7iv47 ,a ,gouda woodcutter1 by whose aid ,gerard ,leeu started on his career as a printer of illustrated books with the ,dialogus ,creaturarum 7of which he printed six editions between ,june #c1 #adhj1 and ,august #ca1 #adhb71 and the ,gesten van ,romen1 ,vier ,uterste1 and ,historia ,septem ,sapientum4 ,of these books1 whose illustrations are grouped together as all executed in pure line work1 the most interesting to us are the ,metamorphoses and the ,dialogus4 ,the former is handsomely printed in red and black in ,mansion's large type1 and has seventeen single-column cuts of gods and goddesses and as many double-column ones illustrating the ,metamorphoses themselves4 ,the larger cuts are the more successful1 and are certainly superior to the average ,french work of the day1 to which they bear a considerable resemblance4 ,uncouth as they are1 they were thought good enough by ,antoine ,v'erard to serve as models for his own edition of #adic4 ,the ,metamorphoses1 ,mansion's first illustrated book1 was also the last work issued from his press2 and part of the edition was not published till after his disappearance from ,bruges4 ,the hundred and twenty-one cuts in ,leeu's ,dialogus ,creaturarum are the work of a far more inspired1 if very child-like1 artist4 ,with a minimum of strokes the creatures about whom the text tells its wonderful stories are drawn so as to be easily recognisable1 and we have no reason to suppose that the humour which pervades them was otherwise than intentional4 ,we come now to the best period of ,dutch illustration1 which centres round the presses of ,leeu at ,gouda and ,antwerp1 and of ,jacob ,bellaert at ,haarlem1 whose business was probably only a branch of ,leeu's4 ,during his stay at ,gouda1 ,leeu commissioned an important set of sixty-eight blocks1 thirty-two of which were used in the ,lijden ons ,heeren of #adhb1 and the whole set in a ,devote ,ghetiden1 which ,sir ,martin ,conway conjectures to have been published just after the printer's removal to ,antwerp in the summer of #adhd4 ,fifty-two of them were used again1 in conjunction with other cuts1 in the ,boeck vanden leven ,christi of ,ludolphus in #adhg1 and the history of many of them can be traced in other books to as late as #aeaj4 ,thus they were evidently popular1 though neither their design nor their cutting calls for much praise4 ,another set of seven cuts1 to each of which is joined a sidepiece showing a teacher and a scholar1 appears in ,leeu's last ,gouda book1 the ,van den ,seven ,sacramenten of ,june #ai1 #adhd1 and evinces a much greater mastery over his tools on the part of the engraver4 ,the little sidepiece1 which was added to bring the breadth of the cuts up to that of ,leeu's folio page 7#e-a_/b in471 is particularly good4 ,after ,leeu's removal to ,antwerp his activity as a printer of illustrated books suffered a temporary check1 and our interest is transferred to the office of ,jacob ,bellaert at ,haarlem1 who1 after borrowing some of ,leeu's cuts for a ,lijden ons ,heeren1 issued in ,december #adhc1 in the following ,february had printed under the name of ,der ,sonderen troest a ,dutch version of the ,belial of ,jacobus de ,theramo4 ,this has altogether thirty-two cuts1 the first of which occupies a full page1 and represents in its different parts the fall of ,lucifer and of ,adam and ,eve1 the ,flood1 the ,passage of the ,red ,sea1 and the ,baptism of ,christ4 ,six half-page cuts represent incidents of the ,harrowing of ,hell1 the ,ascension1 and the ,day of ,pentecost4 ,the other illustrations at a hasty glance seem to be of the same size 7#e in4 by #c-c_/d71 but are soon discovered to be separable into different blocks1 usually three in number4 ,eight blocks of #b-a_/b in4 each1 and seventeen of half this width1 are thus arranged in a series of dramatic combinations4 ,thus we are first shown the different persons who answer the citation of ,solomon1 whose judgment hall is the central block in thirteen illustrations2 then the controversy in heaven before ,christ as the judge2 then scenes in a ,royal ,council ,chamber1 c4 ,our illustration is taken from the opening of ,solomon's ,court1 with ,belial appearing to plead on one side1 and ,christ answering the summons of the messenger1 ,azahel1 on the other4 ,illustration3 ,from ,leeu's edition of ,der ,sonderen troest1 ,antwerp1 #adhd4 ,in ,october of the same year1 #adhd1 ,bellaert printed an edition of the ,boeck des gulden throens1 in which four cuts1 representing the soul1 depicted as a woman with flowing hair1 being instructed by an elder1 serve as illustrations to all the twenty-four discourses4 ,in #adhe we have first of all two romances1 the ,historie vanden vromen ridder ,jason and the ,vergaderinge der ,historien van ,troyen1 both translated from ,raoul le ,fe'vre1 and illustrated with half-folio cuts1 which ,i have not seen4 ,at the end of the year came a translation of ,glanville's ,de ,proprietatibus ,rerum1 with eleven folio cuts1 of which the most interesting are the first1 which shows the ,almighty seated in glory within a circle thrown up by a black background1 and the sixth1 which contains twelve little medallions1 representing the pleasures and occupations of the different months4 ,during #adhf ,bellaert printed three illustrated books1 an ,epistelen ende ,euangelien1 ,pierre ,michault's ,doctrinael des tyts1 an allegory1 in which ,virtue exhibits to the author the schools of ,vice1 and a ,dutch version of ,deguileville's ,p'elerinage de la vie humaine4 ,the ten cuts in the second of these three books are described by ,sir ,martin ,conway as carefully drawn1 the more numerous illustrations in the others showing hasty work1 probably produced by an inferior artist4 ,after #adhf ,bellaert disappears1 and most of his cuts and types are found in the possession of ,gerard ,leeu1 who1 since his removal to ,antwerp1 had lacked the help of a good engraver4 ,he apparently secured the services of ,bellaert's artist1 and now printed ,french and ,dutch editions of the romance of ,paris and ,vienne 7,may #adhg71 an edition of ,reynard the ,fox1 of which only a fragment remains1 the already-mentioned edition of ,ludolphus1 for which he used cuts both new and old1 a ,kintscheyt ,jhesu 7#adhh71 ,dutch and ,latin versions of the story of the ,seven ,wise ,men of ,rome1 who saved the young prince from the wiles of his step-mother1 and numerous religious works4 ,at the time of his death1 in #adic1 he was engaged on an edition of the ,cronycles of ,england1 which has on its title-page a fine quarto cut showing the shield of ,england supported by angels4 ,in #adhe ,leeu had copied 7,sir ,martin ,conway says1 'borrowed1' but this is a mistake7 blocks from ,anton ,sorg1 of ,augsburg1 for an edition of ,,aesop1 and in #adia1 in his ,duytsche ,ghetiden1 he employed a set of woodcuts imitated from those in use in the ,french ,horae4 ,sir ,martin assigns these directly to a ,french wood-cutter1 but the work1 both in the cuts and the borders1 appears to me sufficiently distinctive to be set down rather as an imitation than as produced by a foreign artist4 ,its success was immediate1 and the designs appear in half a dozen books printed by ,leeu during the next two years1 and in nine others issued by ,lieseveldt1 their purchaser1 between #adic and the end of the century4 ,we must now look very briefly at some of the illustrated books printed in other ,dutch towns4 ,at ,zwolle1 from #adhd onwards1 ,peter van ,os issued a large number of devotional works1 the cuts in many of which were copied from sets made for ,leeu4 ,this1 however1 is not the case with a folio cut of the ,virgin manifesting herself to ,s4 ,bernard1 which is given as a frontispiece to three editions of the ,saint's ,sermons 7#adhd1 c471 and is of great beauty4 ,at ,delft1 ,jacob van der ,meer also copied ,leeu's books2 in #adhc he produced an original set of illustrations to the ever-popular ,scaeckspul of ,jacobus de ,cessolis1 and three years later1 a ,passionael1 with upwards of ninety cuts1 which were used again and again in more than a score of similar works or editions4 ,he was succeeded by ,christian ,snellaert1 who1 in #adia1 endeavoured to imitate ,leeu's ,french cuts in an edition of the ,kerstenen ,spieghel4 ,john de ,westphalia continued to work at ,louvain until #adif1 but his illustrated books were few and unimportant4 ,at ,gouda1 ,gotfrid de ,os1 after borrowing blocks from ,leeu1 when the latter had departed for ,antwerp1 issued a few books with woodcuts1 notably the romance of ,godfrey of ,boulogne 7,historie hertoghe ,godeuaerts van ,boloen71 and ,le ,chevalier ,d'elib'er'e by ,olivier de ,lamarche1 with sixteen large and very striking woodcuts1 which have been reproduced in facsimile by the ,bibliographical ,society from the reprint issued about the end of the century at ,schiedam4 ,at ,deventer1 ,jacobus de ,breda and ,richard ,paffroet1 from #adhf onwards1 printed a large number of books with single cuts1 none of any great importance4 ,in the last decade of the century1 ,hugo ,janszoen commissioned several sets of crude religious cuts1 while the illustrated books issued at ,antwerp by ,godfrey ,back1 who had married the widow of an earlier printer1 ,mathias van der ,goes1 do not seem to have been much better4 ,this decline of good work ,sir ,martin ,conway attributes chiefly to the influence of the ,french woodcuts introduced by ,leeu4 ',the characteristic quality1' he says1 'of the ,french cuts is the large mass of delicately cut shade lines which they contain4 ,the workmen of the ,low ,countries finding these foreign cuts rapidly becoming popular1 endeavoured to imitate them1 but without bestowing upon their work that care by which alone any semblance of ,french delicacy could be attained4 ,from the year #adij onwards1 ,dutch and ,flemish cuts always contain large masses of clumsily cut shade4 ,the outlines are rude2 the old childishness is gone2 thus the last decade of the fifteenth century is a decade of decline4' ,when we pass from the illustrations to the other decorations in early ,dutch books1 we find that large borders of foliage1 boldly but rather coarsely treated1 were used by ,veldener in his ,fasciculus ,temporum of #adhj1 and in ,gerard ,leeu's edition of the ,dyalogus ,creaturarum the following year4 ,veldener's is accompanied by a fine initial ,o1 in which the design of the border is carried on4 ,leeu's page contains a rather heavy ,s1 and the woodcut of the faces of the sun and moon4 ,in #adia1 as we have seen1 ,leeu printed a ,psalter of the ,blessed ,virgin1 by ,s4 ,bernard1 in imitation of the ,french ,horae4 ,this has very graceful little floral borders in small patterns on grounds alternately black and white4 ,after ,leeu's death1 they passed into the possession of ,adrian van ,lieseveldt1 who used them for a ,duytsche ,ghetyden in #adie4 ,the most noteworthy initial letters are the five alphabets1 printed in red1 used by ,john of ,westphalia4 ,in the smallest the letters are a third of an inch square1 in the largest about an inch and a quarter4 ,this and the next size are picked out with white scroll-work1 somewhat in the same way as ,schoeffer's4 ,peter van ,os at ,zwolle used a large ,n1 four inches square1 with intertwining foliage4 ,he had also a fount of rustic capitals1 almost undecipherable4 ,leeu1 besides his large ,s1 had several good alphabets of initials4 ,a very beautiful ,d1 reproduced by ,holtrop from the ,vier ,uterste 7,quatuor novissima7 of #adhh1 is much the most graceful letter in any ,dutch book4 ,no other initials of the same style have been found4 ,eckert van ,hombergh also had some good initials1 in which the ground is completely covered with a light floral design4 ,gotfrid van ,os at ,gouda1 ,m4 van der ,goes at ,antwerp1 ,jacob ,jacobsoen at ,delft1 and ,lud4 de ,ravescoet at ,louvain1 were the chief other possessors of initials1 the use of which continued for a long time to be very partial4 ,illustration3 ,mark of ,jacob ,bellaert4 ,several of the devices of the ,dutch printers are very splendid4 ,the borders which surrounded the unicorn of ,h4 ,eckert van ,hombergh and the eagle of ,jacob ,bellaert give them special magnificence4 ,the ,castle at ,antwerp was used as a device by ,gerard ,leeu1 and subsequently by ,thierry ,martens1 and a printer at ,gouda placed a similar erection on an elephant1 perhaps as a pun between howdah and ,gouda4 ,peter van ,os at ,zwolle had a large device of an angel holding a shield2 ,m4 van der ,goes at ,antwerp a still larger one of a ragged man flourishing a club1 while his shield displays a white lion on a black ground4 ,another ,antwerp printer1 ,g4 ,back1 used several varieties of bird-cages as his marks1 in one of which the ,antwerp castle is introduced on a shield hanging from the cage4 ,several printers--e4g4 ,colard ,mansion at ,bruges1 ,jacob ,jacobsoen at ,delft1 and ,gerard ,leeu at ,gouda1 contented themselves with small devices of a pair of shields braced together4 ,leeu1 however1 while at ,gouda1 used also a large device of a helmeted shield supported by two lions4 ,illustration3 ,from the romance of ,tirant lo ,blanch1 ,valentia1 #adij4 ,,chapter ,x ,,spain ,since the first edition of this book appeared knowledge both of ,spanish incunabula and the types in which they are printed has been greatly increased1 thanks to the researches of ,professor ,haebler4 ,these have dealt incidentally1 but only incidentally1 with the illustration and decoration of early ,spanish books1 and the present writer must still confine himself mainly to the little handful of illustrated books which have come under his own notice4 ,the book-hand in use in ,spain's manuscripts during the fifteenth century was unusually massive and handsome1 and the same characteristics naturally reappear in the majority of the types used by the early printers in ,spain4 ,a considerable proportion of these were ,germans1 whose tradition of good press-work was very fairly maintained by their immediate successors1 so that throughout a great part of the sixteenth century ,spanish books retain much of the primitive dignity which we are wont to associate only with 'incunabula4' ,from a very early period1 also1 they are distinguished by the excellence of their initial letters1 which are almost as plentiful as they are good2 the great majority of books printed after #adhe1 which ,i have seen1 being fully provided with them4 ,the prevailing form of initial exhibits very delicate white tracery on a black ground4 ,in a few instances1 as in a ,seneca printed by ,meinardo ,ungut and ,stanislao ,polono1 at ,seville1 in #adia1 some of the initials are in red1 and have a very decorative effect4 ,a fine capital ,l and ,a appear in a work of ,jean de ,mena1 issued by these printers in #adii1 and a good ,m in their ,claros ,varones of ,pulgar in the following year4 ,a ,consolat1 printed1 it is said1 by ,pedro ,posa at ,barcelona in #adid1 is very remarkable for its profusion of fine initials4 ,engraved borders are not of common occurrence in ,spanish books1 though ,i shall have to notice two striking instances of their use in books printed at ,zamora and ,valencia4 ,borders are found1 also1 on the title-pages of various laws printed at ,barcelona during the reign of ,ferdinand and ,isabella1 but these are of no great beauty1 and some of the pieces of which they are composed are poor copies from the ,french ,horae4 ,as a rule1 ,spanish title-pages are handsome and imposing4 ,during the last few years of the fifteenth century and the beginning of its successor1 the titles of books were often printed in large woodcut letters4 ,a ,spanish ,livy1 printed at ,salamanca in #adig1 a ,vocabulary of ,antonio ,lebrixa1 printed by ,kromberger at ,seville in #aejf1 and a ,mar de ,istorias printed at ,valladolid in #aeab1 supply examples of this practice4 ,in an ,obra a llaors del benauenturat lo senyor sant ,cristofol1 printed at ,valencia in #adih1 the woodcut title is in white on a black ground1 which is also relieved by a medallion of the saint fording the stream4 ,pictures were also used in connection with the more ordinary woodcut titles in black--e4g4 in ,juan de ,lucena's ,tratado de la vita beata1 printed by ,juan de ,burgos in #aejb1 we have a cut of a king1 bearing his sword of justice and surrounded by his counsellors2 and in a ,libro de ,consolat tractant dels fets maritims of the same year1 printed by ,johan ,luschner at ,barcelona1 beneath the woodcut title there is a large figure of a ship up whose masts sailors are climbing1 apparently in quest of a very prominent moon4 ,woodcut pictures of the hero decorate the title-pages of the romances of ,spain as of other countries1 and these pictorial title-pages are found also1 though less frequently1 in works of devotion and in plays4 ,such pictures are less common in ,spain than elsewhere1 because of the great popularity there of the heraldic title-page1 in which the arms of the country1 or of the hero or patron of the work1 form a singularly successful method of ornament4 ,these heraldic title-pages are found in a few books1 printed before #aejj1 and were in common use throughout the sixteenth century4 ,the earliest ,spanish illustrated book with which ,i am acquainted is the ,libro delos ,trabajos de ,hercules of the ,marquis ,enrique de ,villena1 printed by ,antonio de ,centenera at ,zamora1 on ,january #aeth1 #adhc 7#adhd74 ,this has eleven woodcuts1 illustrating the hero's exploits1 and so rudely executed that they are plainly the work of a native artist4 ,far more interesting than these 'prentice cuts are the illustrative initials1 apparently engraved on soft metal1 in a ,copilacion de ,leyes1 promulgated in #adhe1 and supposed to have been printed by ,centenera in the same year4 ,these initials are nine in number1 and must have been designed and executed by finished artists1 whose work is so fine that the printer in most instances has failed to do justice to it4 ,on the first page of text an initial ,p contains within it figures of a king and queen1 ,ferdinand and ,isabella4 ,this page has at its foot a border containing a hunting scene1 with a blank shield in its centre4 ,the rest of the page is surrounded by a text1 printed decoratively1 so as to form an open-work border4 ,the first section of the laws1 treating of 'la ,santa ,fe1' has an initial ,e1 showing ,god the ,father upholding the crucified ,christ4 ,the second section sets forth the duty of the king to hear causes two days a week1 and begins with an ,l1 here reproduced1 in which the king is unpleasantly close pressed by the litigants4 ,illustration3 ,initial ,l from a ,copilacion de ,leyes1 ,zamora1 c4 #adhe4 ,two knights spurring from the different sides of an ,s head the laws of chivalry2 a ,canonist and his scholars in an ,a preside over ,matrimony2 money-changers in a ,d over ,commerce1 while a luckless wretch being hanged in the midst of a ,t warns evil-doers of what they may expect under the criminal law4 ,the pages containing these initials are enriched also by a border in two pieces1 the lower part of which shows a shield1 with a device of trees1 supported by kneeling youths4 ,the perpendicular piece running up the outer margin bears a floral design4 ,all the letters1 while directly illustrating the subjects of the chapters which they begin1 are at the same time essentially decorative1 and they are certainly the best pictorial initials ,i have ever seen1 though it must be reckoned against them that they were unduly difficult to print with the text4 ,the page here reproduced1 unfortunately only about one-third of its original size1 from the famous romance of ,tirant lo ,blanch1 gives us another example of this peculiar style of engraving4 ,it is taken from the edition printed at ,valencia in #adij1 and may fairly be reckoned as one of the most decorative pages in any fifteenth-century book4 ,the rest of the volume has no other ornament than some good initials4 ,the first ,spanish book with woodcuts of any artistic merit with which ,i am acquainted is an edition of ,diego de ,san ,pedro's ,carcel d',amor1 printed at ,barcelona in #adic4 ,this has sixteen different cuts1 some of which are several times repeated4 ,the title-cut1 showing love's prison1 is here reproduced1 and gives a very good idea of a characteristic ,spanish woodcut4 ,the other illustrations show the lover in various attitudes before his lady1 a meeting in a street1 the author at work on his book1 c4 ,another edition of the ,carcel d',amor1 with the same woodcuts1 was printed at ,burgos in #adif by ,fadrique ,aleman4 ,illustration3 ,title-page of ,diego de ,san ,pedro's ,carcel d',amor1 ,barcelona1 #adic4 ,most of the other ,spanish incunabula with woodcuts1 which ,i have seen1 were printed at ,seville by ,meinardo ,ungut and ,stanislao ,polono4 ,the first of these1 ,gorricio's ,contemplaciones sobre el ,rosario de nuestra senora1 issued in #adie1 has some good initials1 two large cuts nearly the full size of the quarto page1 and fifteen smaller ones1 with graceful borders mostly on a black ground4 ,the small cuts illustrate the life of ,christ and of the ,b4 ,virgin1 and are1 to some extent1 modelled on the pictures in the ,french ,horae4 ,in the same year1 the same printers published ,ayala's ,chronica del ,rey don ,pedro1 with a title-cut of a young king1 seated on his throne1 and also the ,lilio de ,medicina of ,b4 de ,gordonio with a title-cut of lilies4 ,in #adif1 a firm of four printers1 ',paulo de ,colonia1 ,juan ,pegnicer de ,nuremberg1 ,magno y ,thomas1' published an edition of ,juan de ,mena's ,labirinto or ,las ,,ccc 7so called from the number of stanzas in which it is written7 with a title-cut of the author 787 kneeling before a king4 ,three years later1 still at ,seville1 ,pedro ,brun printed in quarto the romance of the ,emperor ,vespasian1 with fourteen full-page cuts of sea voyages1 sieges1 the death of ,pilate1 c4 ,against these books printed at ,seville1 during the last decade of the century1 ,i have only notes of one or two books issued at ,salamanca1 ,valencia1 and ,barcelona1 with unimportant title-cuts1 and a reprint at ,burgos of the ,trabajos de ,hercules 7#adii7 with poor illustrations fitted into the columns of a folio page4 ,but it is quite possible that my knowledge is as one-sided as it is limited1 and ,i must1 therefore1 refrain from building up any theory that ,seville1 rather than any other town1 was the chief home of illustrated books in ,spain4 ,after #aejj the ,spanish books which ,i have met have no important illustrations beyond the cuts which appear on some of their title-pages4 ,but here1 also1 ,i should be sorry to make my small experience the basis of a general statement4 ,the devices of the ,spanish printers were greatly influenced by those of their compeers of ,italy and ,france4 ,the simple circle and cross1 in white on a black ground1 with the printer's initials in the semicircles1 is fairly common1 while ,diego de ,gumiel and ,arnaldo ,guillermo ,brocar varied it1 according to the best ,italian fashion1 with very beautiful floral tracery4 ,the tree of knowledge and pendant shields1 beloved of the ,french printers1 appear in the marks of ,meinardo ,ungut and ,stanislao ,polono1 and of ,juan de ,rosembach4 ,arnaldo ,guillermo had another and very elaborate mark1 showing a man kneeling before the emblems of the ,passion1 and two angels supporting a shield with a device of a porcupine4 ,one of the quaintest of all printers' marks was used by a later printer of the name ,juan ,brocar1 whose motto 'legitime certanti' is illustrated by a mail-clad soldier grasping a lady's hair while he himself is being seized by the devil6 ,illustration3 ,from the ,canterbury ,tales1 #bnd edition4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,england ,by ,e4 ,,gordon ,,duff ,the art of the wood-engraver may almost be said to have had no existence in ,england before the introduction of printing1 for there are not probably more than half a dozen cuts now known1 if indeed so many1 that are of an earlier date4 ,the few that exist are devotional prints of the type known as the ',image of ,pity1' in which a half-length figure of ,christ on the cross stands surrounded with the emblems of the ,passion4 ,it may be taken1 ,i think1 for granted that at the time ,caxton set up his press at ,westminster1 that is1 in the year #adgf1 there was no wood-engraver competent to undertake the work of illustrating his books4 ,we see1 for instance1 that in the first edition of the ,canterbury ,tales there are no woodcuts1 while they appear in the second edition2 and it is not likely that ,caxton would have left a book so eminently suited for illustration without some such adornment had the necessary craftsmen been available4 ,as it was1 it was not till #adhj that woodcuts first appeared in an ,english printed book1 the ,mirror of the ,world4 ,in this there are two series of cuts4 ,one1 consisting of diagrams1 is found in most of the ,,mss4 of the book2 the other1 which represents masters teaching their scholars or at work alone1 was a new departure of ,caxton's4 ,it is quite probable that they were intended for general use in books1 indeed we find some used in the ,cato1 but they do not appear to have been employed elsewhere4 ,the diagrams are meagre and difficult to understand1 so much so that the printer has printed several in their wrong places4 ,the necessary letterpress occurring within them is not printed 7,caxton had not then a small enough type71 but is written in by hand1 and it is worth noticing that this is done in all copies in the same hand1 and so must have been done in ,caxton's office1 some are fond enough to suppose by ,caxton himself4 ,in the next year appeared the second edition of the ,game of ,chesse1 with a number of woodcuts4 ,the first edition1 printed at ,bruges by ,caxton and ,mansion1 had no illustrations4 ,the cuts are coarsely designed and roughly cut1 but serve their purpose2 indeed1 they are evidently intended as illustrations rather than ornaments4 ,some controversy has at different times arisen as to whether these cuts were executed in ,england or abroad1 but ,mr4 ,linton has very justly decided in favour of ,england4 ,the work1 he says1 is so poor that any one who could hold a knife could cut them1 therefore there was no necessity to send abroad4 ,about #adhd we have two important illustrated books1 the ,canterbury ,tales and the ,,aesop2 the former with #bh illustrations1 the latter with #ahf4 ,the cuts of the ,canterbury ,tales depict for the most part the various individuals of the ,pilgrimage1 and there is also a bird's-eye view of all the pilgrims seated at an immense round table at supper1 which was used afterwards by ,wynkyn de ,worde for the ',assembly of ,gods4' ,the copies of ,german cuts in the ,,aesop1 with the exception of the full-page frontispiece 7known only in the copy in the ,windsor ,library71 are smaller1 and are the work of two1 if not three1 engravers4 ,one cut seems to have been hurriedly executed in a different manner to the rest1 perhaps to take the place of one injured at the last moment4 ,it is not worked in the usual manner with the outlines in black--i4e4 raised lines on the wood-block1 but a certain amount of the effect has been produced by a white line on a black ground--i4e4 by the cut-away lines of the wood-block4 ,the ,golden ,legend1 which was the next illustrated book to appear1 contains the most ambitious woodcuts which ,caxton used4 ,those in the earlier part are the full width of a large folio page1 and show1 especially in their backgrounds1 a certain amount of technical skill4 ,the later part of the book contains a number of small cuts of saints very coarsely executed1 and the same cut is used over and over again for different saints4 ,in #adhg ,caxton first used his large woodcut device1 which is probably1 though the contrary is often asserted1 of ,english workmanship4 ,it is entirely un-,french in style and execution1 and was probably cut to print on the ,missal printed by ,maynyal for ,caxton in order that the publisher might be brought prominently into notice4 ,about this time 7#adhg-hh7 two more illustrated books were issued1--the ,royal ,book and the ,speculum ,vite ,christi4 ,the series cut for the ,speculum are of very good workmanship1 though the designs are poor1 but all of them were not used in the book4 ,one or two appear later in books printed by ,w4 de ,worde1 manifestly from the same series4 ,the ,royal ,book contains only seven cuts1 six of which are from the ,speculum4 ,some of the cuts occur also in the ,doctrinal of ,sapience and the ,book of ,divers ,ghostly ,matters4 ,it is impossible not to think when examining ,caxton's books that the use of woodcuts was rather forced upon him by the necessities of his business1 than deliberately preferred by himself4 ,he seems to have wished to popularise the more generally known books1 and only to have used woodcuts when the book absolutely needed them4 ,he did not1 as some later printers did1 simply use woodcuts to attract the unwary purchaser4 ,what cuts ,caxton possessed at the end of his career it is hard to determine4 ,the set of large ,horae cuts which ,w4 de ,worde used must have been ,caxton's1 for we find one of them1 the ,crucifixion1 used in the ,fifteen ,o'es1 which was itself intended as a supplement to a ,horae1 now unknown4 ,in the same way there must have been a number of cuts for use in the #hvo ,horae1 but as that is known only from a small fragment1 we cannot identify them4 ,from similarity of style and identity of measurement we can pick out a few from ,wynkyn de ,worde's later editions1 but many must be passed over4 ,on turning to examine the presses at work at the same time as ,caxton's one cannot but be struck by the scarcity of illustrations4 ,lettou and ,machlinia1 though they produced over thirty books1 had no ornaments that we know of beyond a border which was used in their edition of the ,horae ad usum ,sarum1 and passed into the hands of ,pynson4 ,they seem to have been without everything except type1 not having even initial letters4 ,the ,st4 ,alban's press was a step in advance4 ,a few cuts were used in the ,chronicles1 and the ,book of ,st4 ,alban's contains coats of arms1 produced by a combination of wood-cutting and printing in colour4 ,the ,oxford press was the most ambitious1 and was in possession of two sets of cuts1 in neither case intended for the books in which they were used4 ,one set was prepared for a ,golden ,legend1 but no such book is known to have been issued at the ,oxford press4 ,one of these cuts appears as a frontispiece to ,lyndewode's ,constitutions4 ,it represents ,jacobus de ,voragine writing the ,golden ,legend1 so that it did equally well for ,lyndewode writing his law-book4 ,others of the series are used in the ,liber ,festialis of #adhf1 but as that was a small folio and the cuts were large1 the ends were cut off1 and they are all printed in a mutilated condition4 ,the other cuts used in the ,festial are small1 and form part of a set for a ,horae1 but no ,horae is known to have been printed at the ,oxford press4 ,it would be natural to suppose in this case that these cuts had been procured from some other printer who had used them in the production of the books for which they were intended2 but the most careful search has failed to find them in any other book4 ,besides these cuts the ,oxford press owned a very beautiful border1 which was used in the commentary on the ,de ,anima of ,aristotle by ,alexander de ,hales and the commentary on the ,lamentations of ,jeremiah by ,john ,lattebury1 printed in #adha and #adhb4 ,the printers owned nothing else for the adornment of their books but a rudely cut capital ,g1 which we find used many times in the ,festial4 ,the poverty of ornamental letters and borders is very noticeable in all the ,english presses of the fifteenth century4 ,caxton possessed one ambitious letter1 a capital ,a1 which was used first in the ,order of ,chivalry1 and a series of eight borders1 each made up of four pieces1 and found for the first time in the ,fifteen ,o'es4 ,they are of little merit1 and compare very unfavourably with ,french work of the period4 ,the best set of borders used in ,england belonged to ,notary and his partners when they started in ,london about #adif4 ,they are in the usual style1 with dotted backgrounds1 and may very likely have been brought from ,france4 ,pynson's borders1 which he used in a ,horae about #adie1 are much more ,english in style1 but are not good enough to make the page really attractive2 in fact almost the only fine specimens of ,english printing with borders are to be found in the ,morton ,missal1 which he printed in #aejj4 ,in this book also there are fine initial letters1 often printed in red4 ,it is hard to understand why1 as a rule1 ,english initial letters were so very bad2 it certainly was not from the want of excellent models1 for those in the ,sarum missals1 printed at ,venice by ,hertzog in #adid1 and sold in ,england by ,frederic ,egmont1 contain most beautifully designed initials1 as good as can be found in any early printed book4 ,wynkyn de ,worde1 when he succeeded in #adia to ,caxton's business1 found himself in possession of a large number of cuts1 a considerably larger number than ever appeared in the books of ,caxton's that now remain to us4 ,the first illustrated book he issued was a new edition of the ,golden ,legend1 in which the old cuts were utilised4 ,this was printed in #adic4 ,in #adid a new edition of the ,speculum ,vite ,christi was issued1 of which only one complete copy is known1 that in the library at ,holkham4 ,it probably contains only the series of cuts used by ,caxton in his edition1 for the few leaves to be found in other libraries have no new illustrations4 ,about the same time 7#adid7 ,de ,worde issued several editions of the ,horae ad usum ,sarum1 one in octavo 7known from a few leaves discovered in the binding of a book in the library of ,corpus ,christi ,college1 ,oxford7 and the rest in quarto4 ,in the quarto editions we find the large series of pictures1 among which are the three rioters and three skeletons1 the tree of ,jesse1 and the ,crucifixion1 which occur in ,caxton's ,fifteen ,o'es4 ,it is extremely probable that all the cuts in these editions had belonged to ,caxton4 ,the two cuts in the fragment of the octavo edition1 however1 are of quite a different class1 evidently newly cut1 and much superior in style and simplicity to ,caxton's4 ,it is much to be regretted that no complete copy of the book exists1 for the neat small cuts and bold red and black printing form a very tasteful page4 ,a curious specimen of engraving is to be found in the ,scala ,perfectionis1 by ,walter ,hylton1 also printed in #adid4 ,it represents the ,virgin and ,child seated under an architectural canopy1 and below this are the words of the antiphon beginning1 ',sit dulce nomen dni4' ,these words are not printed from type1 but cut on the block1 and the engraver seems to have treated them simply as part of the decoration1 for many of the words are by themselves quite unreadable and bear only a superficial resemblance to the inscription from which they were copied4 ,an edition of ,bartholomaeus' ,de proprietatibus rerum issued about this time has a number of cuts1 not of very great interest2 and the ,book of ,st4 ,albans of #adif has an extra chapter on fishing1 illustrated with a picture of an angler at work1 with a tub1 in the ,german fashion1 to put his fish into4 ,it has also a curiously modern diagram of the sizes of hooks4 ,in #adih ,de ,worde issued an illustrated edition of ,malory's ,morte d',arthur4 ,the cuts are very ambitious1 but badly executed1 and the hand of the engraver who cut them may be traced in several books4 ,in #adii an edition of ,mandeville was issued1 ornamented with a number of small cuts1 and about this time several small books were issued having cuts on the title-page4 ,richard ,pynson's first illustrated book was an edition of the ,canterbury ,tales1 printed some time before #adib4 ,at the head of each tale is a rudely executed cut of the pilgrim who narrates it4 ,these cuts were made for this edition1 and were in some cases altered while the book was going through the press to serve for different characters3 the ,squire and the ,manciple1 the ,sergeant and ,doctor of ,physic1 are from the same blocks with slight alterations4 ,in #adid came an edition of ,lydgate's ,falle of ,princis1 a translation from the ,de ,casibus virorum et feminarum illustrium of ,boccaccio1 illustrated with the cuts used by ,jean ,dupr'e in his ,paris edition of a ,french version of the same work in #adhc4 ,one of the neatest of these1 depicting ,marcus ,manlius thrown into the ,tiber1 is here shown4 ,about #adig an edition of the ,speculum ,vite ,christi was issued1 with a number of neatly executed small cuts1 and in #aejj ,pynson printed the beautiful ,sarum ,missal1 known as the ,morton ,missal4 ,special borders and ornaments1 introducing a rebus on the name of ,morton1 were engraved for this1 and a full-page cut of the prelate's coat of arms appears at the commencement of the book4 ,illustration3 ,the ,death of ,marcus ,manlius4 ,from ,lydgate's ,the ,falle of ,princis1 ,pynson1 #adid4 7,reduced47 ,after the year #aejj almost every book issued by ,w4 de ,worde1 who was pre-eminently the popular publisher1 had an illustration on the title-page4 ,this was not always cut for the book1 nor indeed always very applicable to the letterpress1 and the cuts can almost all be arranged into series made for more important books4 ,there were1 however1 a few stock cuts3 a schoolmaster with a gigantic birch for grammars1 a learned man seated at a desk for works of more advanced scholarship1 and lively pictures of hell for theological treatises4 ,the title-page was formed on a fixed plan4 ,at the top1 printed inside a wood-cut ribbon1 was placed the title1 below this the cut4 ,pynson1 who was the ,royal printer1 and a publisher of learned works1 disdained such attempts to catch the more vulgar buyers4 ,his title-pages rarely have cuts1 and these are only used on such few popular books as he issued4 ,both he and ,de ,worde had a set of narrow upright cuts of men and women with blank labels over their heads1 which could be used for any purpose1 and have the names printed in type in the label above4 ,foreign competition was also at this time making its influence felt on ,english book-illustration4 ,w4 de ,worde had led the way by purchasing from ,godfried van ,os1 about #adib1 some type initial letters1 and at least one woodcut4 ,pynson1 early in the sixteenth century1 obtained some cuts from ,v'erard1 which he used in his edition of the ,kalendar of ,shepherdes1 #aejf1 and ,julian ,notary1 who began printing about #adif1 seems to have made use of a miscellaneous collection of cuts obtained from various quarters4 ,he had1 amongst other curious things1 part of a set of metal cuts executed in the manie're cribl'ee1 which have not been traced to any other book1 but appear to have passed at a considerably later date into the hands of ,wyer1 who commenced to print before #aebd4 ,when ,w4 de ,worde left ,westminster in #aejj to settle in ,fleet ,street1 he parted with some of his old woodcuts to ,notary1--woodcuts which had been used in the ,horae of #adid1 and had originally belonged to ,caxton4 ,all these miscellaneous cuts appear in his ,golden ,legend of #aejc1 and the large cut of the ',assembly of ,saints' on the title-page seems also to have been borrowed4 ,it was used by ,hopyl at ,paris in #aeje for his edition of the ,golden ,legend in ,dutch1 and passed afterwards with ,hopyl's business to his son-in-law ,prevost1 who used it in a theological work of ,john ,major's4 ,the engraved metal ornamental initials were obtained from ,andr'e ,bocard4 ,some time before #aeaj an extremely curious book1 entitled the ,passion of our ,lorde ,jesu1 was printed abroad1 probably in ,paris4 ,the uncouthness of the language seems to have brought about its destruction2 for1 though many fragments have been found in bindings1 only one perfect copy1 now in the ,bodleian1 is known4 ,it contains a number of large cuts of a very ,german appearance and quite unlike any others of the period4 ,some are used also in the ,york ,manual printed for ,de ,worde in #aeji4 ,about this time too a number of popular books in ,english1 some adorned with rude woodcuts1 were issued by ,john of ,doesborch1 a printer in ,antwerp4 ,among them may be mentioned ,the wonderful shape and nature of man1 beasts1 serpents1 c41 the ,fifteen ,tokens1 the ,story of the ,parson of ,kalenbrowe1 and the ,life of ,virgilius4 ,a still earlier ,antwerp cut1 which had been used by ,gerard ,leeu for the title-page of his ,english ,solomon and ,marcolphus1 found its way to ,england and was used by ,copland4 ,in the last years of ,henry ,,vii4's reign1 from #aeja to #aeji1 a few books may be mentioned as particularly interesting from their illustrations4 ,in #aejb ,de ,worde printed the ,ordinary of ,chrysten ,men1 a large book with a block-printed title4 ,it was reprinted in #aejf4 ,in #aejc appeared the ,recuyles of ye ,hystoryes of ,troye1 a typical example of an illustrated book of the period4 ,there are about seventy cuts of all kinds1 of which twelve were specially cut for the book3 many others were used in the ,morte d',arthur1 and the rest are miscellaneous4 ,in #aeje we have the ',craft to live and die well1' of which there is another edition in the following year4 ,in #aejf appears the ,castle of ,labour1 one of the few books entirely illustrated with cuts specially made for it2 in #aejh the ,kalendar of ,shepherdes4 ,the cuts in these last three books were all ultimately derived from ,french originals4 ,an edition of the ,seven ,wise ,masters of ,rome1 of which the only known copy is imperfect1 appeared about #aejf1 though the cuts which illustrate it were made before #aejj4 ,the fragment contains seven cuts1 but the set must have consisted of eleven4 ,they are very careful copies of those used by ,gerard ,leeu in his edition of #adij1 and have lost none of the feeling of the originals4 ,three books only of ,pynson's production during this period call for special notice4 ,about #aeje he issued an edition of the ,castle of ,labour1 with very well-cut illustrations closely copied from the ,french edition4 ,in #aejf appeared his edition of the ,kalendar of ,shepherdes1 which is illustrated for the most part with cuts obtained from ,v'erard1 and in #aejg an edition of the ,golden ,legend4 ,of each of these books but one copy is known4 ,for some unknown reason1 the accession of ,henry ,,vii4 acted in the most extraordinary way upon the ,english presses1 which in that year issued a very large number of books4 ,perhaps the influx of visitors to ,london on that occasion made an unusual demand2 but at any rate a number of popular books were then issued4 ,amongst them are ,rychard ,cuer de ,lyon1 the ,fiftene ,joyes of ,maryage1 the ,convercyon of ,swerers1 the ,parliament of ,devils1 and many others4 ,besides these there were1 of course1 a number of funeral sermons on ,henry ,,vii41 many of which have curious frontispieces4 ,one of these was used again a little later1 for the funeral sermon of the ,king's mother1 the ,lady ,margaret1 the royal pall and effigy on it being cut out and replaced by an ordinary pall4 ,this method of inserting new pieces into old blocks1 technically termed plugging1 was not much used at this period when wood-engraving was so cheap4 ,an excellent example1 however1 will be found in the books printed for ,william ,bretton1 which contain a large coat of arms4 ,a mistake was made in the cutting of the arms1 and a new shield was inserted1 the mantling and supporters being untouched4 ,another notable book of that period is ,barclay's ,ship of ,fools1 issued by ,pynson in #aeji4 ,it contains one hundred and eighteen cuts1 the first being a full-page illustration of the printer's coat of arms4 ,the rest are copies1 roughly executed1 of those in the original edition4 ,another version of this book1 translated by ,henry ,watson1 was issued the same year by ,wynkyn de ,worde4 ,it is illustrated with a special series of cuts1 which are used again in the later editions4 ,of the original edition of #aeji only one copy is known1 printed on vellum and preserved in the ,bibliothe'que ,nationale4 ,stray cuts from this series are found in several of ,de ,worde's other books1 but may be at once recognised from the occurrence of the 'fool' in his typical cap and bells4 ,about this time and a little earlier the title was very often cut entire on a block4 ,the ,de ,proprietatibus of c4 #adif contains the first and the most elaborate specimen1 in which the words ',bartholomeus de proprietatibus rerum' are cut in enormous letters on a wooden board2 indeed the whole block was so large that hardly any copy contains the whole4 ,faques1 ,pynson1 and others used similar blocks1 in which the letters were white and the background black 7one of ,pynson's printed in red is to be found in the ,ortus ,vocabulorum of #aeji71 but their uncouthness soon led to their disuse4 ,numbers of service books were issued by ,pynson and ,wynkyn de ,worde1 profusely illustrated with small cuts1 most of which appear to have been of home manufacture1 though unoriginal in design4 ,it is worth noticing one difference in the cuts of the two printers4 ,pynson's small cuts have generally an open or white background1 ,de ,worde's are1 as a rule1 dotted in the ,french style4 ,since in some of their service books these two printers used exactly similar founts of type the identification of their cuts is of particular value4 ,but these service books almost from the first began to deteriorate4 ,the use of borders was abandoned1 and little care was given to keeping sets of cuts together1 or using those of similar styles in one book4 ,we find the archaic cuts of ,caxton1 the delicate pictures copied from ,french models1 and roughly designed and executed ,english blocks all used together1 sometimes even on the same page4 ,the same thing is noticeable in all the illustrated books of the period4 ,de ,worde used ,caxton's cuts up to the very end of his career1 though in many cases the blocks were worm-eaten or broken4 ,the peculiar mixture of cuts is very striking in some books4 ,take as an example the edition of ,robert the ,devil1 published about #aead4 ,no cut used in it is original3 one is from a book on good living and dying1 another from the ,ship of ,fools1#bb a third is from a devotional book of the previous century1 and so on4 ,in the ,oliver of ,castile of #aeah1 though there are over sixty illustrations1 not more than three or four are specially cut for it1 but come from the ,morte d',arthur1 the ,gesta ,romanorum1 ,helias ,knight of the ,swan1 the ,body of ,policy1 ,richard ,cuer de ,lion1 the ,book of ,carving1 and so on1 and perhaps many are used in several4 ,indeed1 ,w4 de ,worde minded as little about using the same illustrations over and over again as some of our modern publishers4 ,for all books issued in the early years of the sixteenth century it was thought necessary to have at least an illustration on the title-page1 so that practically an examination of the illustrated books of the period means almost an examination of the entire produce of the printing press4 ,in time1 when the subject has been thoroughly studied1 it will be possible to separate all the cuts into series cut for some special purpose4 ,a rather important influence was introduced into the history of ,english book illustration about #aeah1 when ,pynson obtained a series of borders and other material1 closely imitated from the designs made by ,holbein for ,froben4#bc ,they are the first important examples of 'renaissance' design used in ,english books1 and their effect was rapid and marked4 ,wynkyn de ,worde1 who in his devices had hitherto been content to use ,caxton's trade-mark with some few extra ornaments1 introduced a hideous parody of one of ,froben's devices1 poor in design1 and wretched in execution4 ,the series of borders used by ,pynson were good in execution1 and their style harmonised with the ,roman type used by him at that time1 but with other books it was different4 ,the heavy ,english black letter required something bolder1 and unless these borders were heavily cut1 they looked particularly meagre4 ,a very beautiful title-page of this type 7here somewhat reduced7 is that in ,sir ,thomas ,elyot's ,image of ,governance1 printed by ,thomas ,berthelet at ,london in #aedj-da4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,device of ,thomas ,berthelet4 ,the illustrated books of this period offer a curious mixture of styles1 for nothing could be more opposed in feeling than the early school of ,english cuts and the newly introduced ,renaissance designs4 ,the outsides of the books underwent exactly the same change1 for in place of the old pictorial blocks with which the stationers had heretofore stamped their bindings1 they used hideous combinations of medallions and pillars4 ,the device of ,berthelet is an excellent specimen of the new style4 ,despising good old ,english names and signs1 he carried on business at the sign of ,lucretia ,romana in ,fleet ,street1 and his device depicts that person in the act of thrusting a sword into her bosom4 ,in the background is a classical landscape1 and on either side pillars4 ,above are festoons1 and on ribbons at the head and feet of the figure the name of the printer and of his sign4 ,though the cut is uninteresting it is a beautiful piece of work4 ,another result of the new movement was the banishment of woodcuts from the title-page4 ,those to ,pynson's books have already been noticed1 but lesser printers like ,scot1 ,godfrey1 ,rastell1 and ,treveris also made use of borders of classical design1 and gave up the use of woodcuts4 ,it is extremely curious to notice what excellent effects on a title-page the printers at this time produced from the poorest materials4 ,they seem to have understood much better than those of a later date how to use different sized type with effect1 and to make the whole page pleasing1 without attracting too much attention to one particular part4 ,illustration3 ,device of ,richard ,faques4 ,before leaving this early period it will be as well to return a little1 and briefly notice some of the more marked illustrated books produced by printers other than ,pynson and ,de ,worde4 ,the two printers of the name of ,faques1 ,guillam and ,richard1 produced a few most interesting books1 and the device of the last named1 founded on that of the ,paris printer1 ,thielman ,kerver1 is a fine piece of engraving4 ,the name was originally cut upon the block as ,faques1 and was so used in his two first books2 but in order to make the name appear more ,english in form1 the 'ques' was cut out and 'kes' inserted in type4 ,the last dated book which he printed1 the ,mirrour of ,our ,lady of #aecj1 contains several fine illustrations2 that on the reverse of the title-page depicting a woman of some religious order writing a book1 has at the bottom the letters ,e4 ,g4 joined by a knot1 which may be the initials of the engraver4 ,the ,cambridge press of #aeba-aebb1 from the scholastic nature of its books1 required no illustrations1 but it used for the title-page of the ,galen a woodcut border1 rather in the manner of ,holbein1 but evidently of native production4 ,in #aecf this border reappears in a ,dutch ,prognostication printed at ,antwerp4 ,the ,oxford press of the early sixteenth century borrowed some of its cuts from ,de ,worde1 but a few1 such as the ambitious frontispiece and the four diagrams in the ,compotus of #aeai1 were original4 ,john ,rastell in his ,pastyme of ,people used a number of full-page illustrations of the kings of ,england1 coarse in design and execution1 and very remarkable in appearance4 ,peter ,treveris issued a number of books with illustrations1 some of which are well worthy of notice4 ,the ,grete ,herbal1 first published in #aeaf1 contained a large number of cuts4 ,jerome of ,bruynswyke's ,worke of ,surgeri has some curious plates of surgical operations1 and though the subjects are rather repulsive1 they are excellent specimens of the wood-cutting of the period4 ,treveris' best known book is the ,policronicon of #aebg1 printed for ,john ,reynes1 whose mark in red generally occurs on the title-page4 ,this title-page is a fine piece of work1 and has been facsimiled by ,dibdin in his ,typographical ,antiquities4 ,some of the cuts and ornaments used by ,treveris passed after his death into the hands of the ,edinburgh printer1 ,thomas ,davidson4 ,lawrence ,andrewe of ,calais1 who printed shortly before #aecj1 also issued some curious illustrated books4 ,before coming to ,england he had translated the extraordinary book1 ,the wonderful shape and nature of man1 beasts1 serpentes1 c41 printed by ,john of ,doesborch1 whom we have spoken of above4 ,on his own account he issued the ,boke of distyllacyon of waters by ,jerome of ,brunswick1 illustrated with pictures of apparatus1 and ,the ,mirror of the ,world4 ,this is founded on ,caxton's edition1 but is much more fully illustrated1 the cuts to the ,natural ,history portion being particularly curious4 ,it is worth noticing that ,andrewe1 like some other printers at this time1 introduced his device into many of the initial letters and borders which were cut for him1 so that they can be readily identified when they occur1 after his death1 in books by other printers4 ,after the death of ,wynkyn de ,worde in #aece1 ideas as regards book-illustration underwent a great change4 ,theology had become popular1 and theological books were not adapted for illustration4 ,the ordinary book1 with pictures put in haphazard1 absolutely died out2 and cuts were only used in chap books1 or in large illustrated volumes1--descriptions of horrible creatures1 and the likenesses of comets or portents on the one hand1 chronicles1 books of travel1 and scientific works on the other4 ,the difference which we noticed between ,w4 de ,worde and ,pynson1 the one being a popular printer and the other a printer of standard works1 is distinctly marked in the succeeding generation4 ,while ,wyer1 ,byddell1 and ,copland published the popular books1 ,grafton and ,whytchurch1 ,wolfe and ,day1 issued more solid literature4 ,the old woodcuts passed into the hands of the poorer printers1 and were used till they were worn out1 and it is curious to notice how long in many cases this took4 ,on the other hand1 the illustrations made for new books are1 as a rule1 of excellent design and execution1 owing a good deal1 in all probability1 to the influence of ,holbein1 who1 for the latter portion of his life1 was living in ,england4 ,as examples of his work1 we may take two books published in #aedh1 ,cranmer's ,catechism1 published by ,walter ,lynne1 and ,halle's ,chronicles1 published by ,grafton4 ,the first contains a number of small cuts1 one of which is signed in full ,hans ,holbein1 and two others are signed with his initials ,h4 ,h4 ,some writers insist that these three cuts alone are to be ascribed to him1 and that the rest are from an unknown hand4 ,besides these small cuts1 there is one full-page cut on the back of the title of very fine work4 ,it represents ,edward ,,vi4 seated on his throne with the bishops kneeling on his right1 the peers on his left4 ,from the hands of the king the bishops are receiving a ,bible4 ,the cut at the end of ,halle's ,chronicles1 very similarly executed and also ascribed to ,holbein1 represents ,henry ,,viii4 sitting in ,parliament4 ,almost all the volumes of chronicles1 of which a number were issued in the sixteenth century1 contain woodcuts1 and two are especially well illustrated1--,grafton's ,chronicles1 published in #aefi1 and ,holinshed's ,chronicles in #aegg4 ,the illustrations in the latter book1 which ,mr4 ,linton considers to have been cut on metal1 do not appear in the later edition of #aehf4 ,among the illustrations in the first edition1 so ,dibdin says1 is to be found a picture of a guillotine4 ,illustration3 ,from ,cranmer's ,catechism1 ,london1 #aedh4 ,of all the ,english printers of the latter half of the sixteenth century1 none produced finer books than ,john ,day1 who1 it has been suggested1 engraved some of the woodcuts which he used4 ,the best known1 perhaps1 of his books is the ,book of ,christian ,prayers1 commonly called ,queen ,elizabeth's ,prayer ,book1 which he published in #aefi4 ,in a way1 this book is undoubtedly a fine specimen of book-ornamentation1 but as it was executed in a style then out of date1 having borders like the earlier service books1 it suffers by comparison with the ',books of ,hours' of fifty years earlier4 ,another book of ,day's which obtained great popularity was the ,history of ,martyrs1 compiled by ,john ,fox4 ,we read on ,day's epitaph in the church of ,bradley-,parva-- ,he set a ,fox to wright how martyrs runne1 ,by death to lyfe4 ,fox ventured paynes and health1 ,to give them light2 ,day spent in print his wealth4 ,considering the popularity of the book1 and the number of editions that were issued1 we can hardly imagine that ,day lost money upon it4 ,the illustrations are of varied excellence1 but the book contains also some very fine initial letters4 ,one1 the ,c at the commencement of the dedication1 contains a portrait of ,queen ,elizabeth on her throne1 with three men standing beside her1 two of whom are supposed to be ,day and ,fox4 ,below the throne1 forming part of the letter1 is the ,pope holding two broken keys4 ,initial letters about this time arrived at their best4 ,they were often very large1 and contained scenes1 mythological subjects1 or coats-of-arms4 ,a fine specimen of this last class is to be found in the ,cosmographical ,glasse1 by ,william ,cuningham1 #aeei4 ,it is a large ,d containing the arms of ,robert1 ,lord ,dudley1 to whom the book is dedicated4 ,very soon after this some ingenious printer invented the system of printing an ornamental border for the letter with a blank space for the insertion of an ordinary capital letter1--a system which soon succeeded in destroying any beauty or originality which letters had up to this time possessed4 ,in conclusion1 it will be well to notice the growth of engraving on metal in ,england4 ,the earliest specimen that ,i know of is the device first used by ,pynson about #adif4 ,it is certainly metal1 and has every appearance of having been cut in this country4 ,some writers have put forward the theory that the majority of early illustrations1 though to all appearance woodcuts1 were really cut on metal4 ,but wherever it is possible to trace an individual cut for any length of time1 we can see from the breakages1 and in some cases from small holes bored by insects1 that the material used was certainly wood4 ,julian ,notary had some curious metal cuts1 but they were certainly of foreign design and workmanship1 and the same may be said of the metal cuts found amongst the early ,english service books4 ,the border on the title-page of the ,cambridge ,galen1 usually described as engraved on metal1 is really an ordinary woodcut4 ,it is not till #aedj that we find a book illustrated with engravings produced in this country4 ,this was ,thomas ,raynald's ,byrth of ,mankynde1 which contains four plates of surgical diagrams4 ,in some of the later editions these plates have been re-engraved on wood4 ,in #aede another medical book appeared1 ,compendiosa totius delineatio aere exarata per ,thomam ,geminum4 ,it has a frontispiece with the arms of ,henry ,,viii41 and forty plates of anatomical subjects4 ,other editions appeared in #aeec and #aeei1 and the title-page of the last is altered by the insertion of a portrait of ,elizabeth in place of the royal arms4 ,the ,stirpium ,adversaria nova authoribus ,petro ,pena et ,mathia de ,lobel of #aegj has a beautifully engraved title-page1 and the #aegb edition of ,parker's ,bible contains a map of the ,holy ,land with the following inscription in an ornamental tablet3 ',graven bi ,humfray ,cole1 goldsmith1 an ,english man born in ye north1 and pertayning to ye mint in the ,tower1 #aegb4' ,humfray ,cole is supposed by some authorities to have engraved the beautiful portraits of ,elizabeth1 the ,earl of ,leicester1 and ,lord ,burleigh1 which appear in the earlier edition of #aefh4 ,saxton's maps1 which appeared in #aegi1 are partly the work of native engravers1 for at least eight were engraved by ,augustine ,ryther and ,nicholas ,reynolds4 ,in #aeia there are two books1--,broughton's ,concent of ,scripture1 and ,sir ,john ,harington's ,ariosto4 ,the latter contains almost fifty plates1 closely copied from a ,venetian edition1 and was the most ambitious book illustrated with metal plates published in the century4 ,there are a few other books published before #afjj which contain specimens of engraving1 but none worthy of particular mention4 99 99 99 99 99 #bb ,this particular cut1 which represents the ,fool looking out of a window while his house is on fire1 meant to illustrate the chapter ',of bostynge or hauynge confydence in fortune1' is not used in the edition of #aeag4 ,it may1 perhaps1 occur in the edition of #aeji1 of which the unique copy is at ,paris4 #bc ,sir ,thomas ,more1 the friend and employer both of ,pynson and ,froben1 had probably a good deal to do with this purchase of material4 ,,index ,abbeville1 #adg4 ,,aesop1 ,dutch1 ,leeu's1 #bjb2 ,english1 ,caxton's1 #bba2 ,german1 ,steinh3owel's1 #df2 ,italian1 ,brescia1 #aca2 ,florence1 #abb2 ,milan1 #acc2 ,naples1 #hc2 ,venice1 #ij2 ,verona1 #he4 ,albi1 #add4 ,aldus1 #ii-ajd4 ,antwerp1 #aig1 #bja sq4 ,arndes1 ,s41 #fg4 ,art de bien vivre et de bien mourir1 #aef-eh4 ,augsburg1 #cg-de1 #ga-gd4 ,aymon1 ,les ,quatre ,fils1 #adc4 b 7engraver's signature71 #ie4 ,back1 ,g41 #bjc1 #bjg4 ,bacon1 ,sir ,n41 book-plate1 #ba4 ,baldassaris1 ,h41 #adj4 ,baleni1 ,g41 #abf4 ,b3amler1 ,j41 #da-dc4 ,barberiis1 ,p4 de1 #hj4 ,basel1 #gf-gh4 ,bazaleriis1 ,b4 de1 #ace4 ,belcari1 ,m41 #abe4 ,belial1 by ,jacobus de ,theramo1 #cg1 #dd2 ,dutch version called ,der ,sonderen troest1 #aih-bjj4 ,bellaert1 ,j41 #aih-bja1 #bje sq4 ,benaliis1 ,b4 de1 #ij1 #if4 ,benivieni1 ,domenico1 #aaf4 ,benvenuto1 ,f41 #abf4 ,bergomensis1 ,philippus1 ,de claris mulieribus1 #acb4 ,berthelet1 ,t41 #bcf-ci4 ,bettini1 ,a41 ,monte ,santo di ,dio1 #hf1 #aji4 ,bevilaqua1 ,s41 device1 #acg4 ,bible des poetes1 #aej4 ,bibles3 ,english1 #ac2 ,german1 #adgb1 #eb2 #adgc and #adgg1 #ch2 c4 #adhj1 #eb1 #id2 #adhc1 #ec2 ,l3ubeck1 #adid1 #fg2 ,italian1 #id2 ,latin1 #db-line1 #c1 #e2 #cf-line1 #g2 #adfb1 #d1 #i1 #bc1 #be4 ,biblia ,pauperum1 ,pfister's1 #bf sq4 ,blastos1 ,n41 #acg4 ,boccaccio1 ,g41 ,de ,claris ,mulieribus1 #dg1 #di2 ,decamerone1 #if4 ,bodner1 ,edelstein1 #b4 ,bonaventura1 ,st41 ,deuote ,meditatione1 #ia sq4 ,bonhomme1 ,jacques1 #adf4 ,bonhomme1 ,mac'e1 #agj4 ,brandis1 ,l41 #ej-eb4 ,brant1 ,sebastian1 #fd-fg4 ,breda1 ,j4 de1 #bjc4 ,brescia1 #aca4 ,breydenbach1 ,b4 von1 #eg-fj1 #afb4 ,brocar1 ,a4 ,g41 #bag4 ,brocar1 ,j41 #bag4 ,bruges1 #aif sq4 ,buch der ,natur1 #da4 ,buch der vier ,historien1 #bf sq4 ,buch der ,weisheit1 #di4 ,buch von den ,sieben ,tods3unden1 #da4 ,buonaccorsi1 ,f41 #ajh1 #abb4 ,burgkmair1 ,h41 #gb1 #gd4 ,caillaut1 ,a41 #afd4 ,calandro1 ,p41 ,arithmetic1 #aji4 ,calendario1 #adgf1 #cb4 ,caliergi1 ,z4 ,see ,kaliergos4 ,cambridge1 #bda4 ,capcasa4 ,see ,codecha4 ,capranica1 ,d41 ,arte di ben morire1 #aba4 ,caxton1 ,w41 #ab1 #bah-be4 ,celtes1 ,c41 #fh4 ,centenera1 ,a41 #bab sq4 ,cessolis1 ,j4 de1 ,chess-book1 ,dutch1 #bjb2 ,english1 #bbj2 ,german1 #ch2 ,italian1 #aag sq4 ,chamb'ery1 #add4 ,champfleury1 #afg4 ,chaucer1 ,g41 ,canterbury ,tales1 ,caxton's1 #bba2 ,pynson's1 #bbg4 ,chroniques de ,france1 #afa4 ,codecha 7or ,capcasa7 ,m4 di1 #ib1 #id1 #ih note4 ,cole1 ,h41 #bdh4 ,cologne1 #eb4 ,colonna1 ,f41 #ii4 ,colophons1 #bb-be4 ,columna1 ,,aegidius1 ,de regimine principum1 #ce4 ,contrasti1 #abh4 ,conway1 ,sir ,w4 ,m41 quoted1 #aie sqq4 ,copilacion de leyes1 #adhc1 #bab sq4 ,cousteau1 ,g41 #aef4 ,cranach1 ,l41 #gf4 ,cremer1 ,h41 #e4 ,cremonese1 ,p41 #if4 ,dance of ,death 7,danse ,macabre71 #afj1 #afi4 ,dante1 ,divina ,commedia1 ,brescia1 #adhg1 #ie1 #aca2 ,florence1 #adha1 #hf2 #aejf1 #aca2 ,venice1 #adia1 #if4 ,day1 ,j41 #bde sq4 ,delfft1 #bjb1 #bjf4 ,deventer1 #bjc4 ,dialogus ,creaturarum1 #aig4 ,dienecker1 ,jost1 #ga4 ,dinckmut1 ,c41 #di4 ,dino1 ,fran4 di1 #hc4 ,directors1 #be4 ,doesborch1 ,jan van1 #bca1 #bdb4 ,dolea1 ,c41 #i4 ,dorothea1 ,s41 ,rappresentatione1 #abh4 ,dupr'e1 ,galliot1 #aff4 ,du ,pr'e1 ,jean1 #ada1 #ade-dh1 #agg1 #agi-hc4 ,durandus1 ,rationale 7#adei71 #c1 #d4 ,d3urer1 ,a41 #fi sq4 ,egmont1 ,f41 #acg1 #bbe4 ,epistole ed ,evangelii1 #aaf4 ,eustace1 ,g41 #aib4 ,faques1 ,g4 and ,r41 #bdj4 ,farfengo1 ,b4 da1 #aca4 ,fasciculus ,temporum1 ,cologneedd41 #eb2 ,ratdolt's1 #hh2 ,louvain and ,utrecht1 #aif4 ,ferdinand ,,ii41 ,king of ,naples1 #ag4 ,ferrara1 #aca4 ,fichet1 ,g41 #ad4 ,fifteen ,o'es1 #bbc1 #bbf4 ,fior di ,virt'u1 ,brescia1 #aca2 ,florence1 #abj2 ,venice1 #ic sq4 ,florence1 #hf1 #ajh-ca4 ,fogel1 ,j41 #e4 ,foresti1 ,g4 ,p41 of ,bergamo1 ,supplementum ,chronicarum1 #fd note1 #ij4 ,fox1 ,john1 ,acts and ,monuments 7,book of ,martyrs71 #bdf4 ,freydal1 #gj1 #gb4 ,frezzi1 ,f41 ,quatriregio1 #abb4 ,furter1 ,michael1 #fd1 #fg4 ,gafori1 ,f41 #acb4 ,game of ,chess4 ,see ,cessolis1 ,j4 de4 ,gart der ,gesundheit1 #ef4 ,g'erard1 ,p41 #adg4 ,gerlier1 ,d41 #afc4 ,giunta1 ,l4 ,a41 #id1 #ih1 #ajd4 ,godard1 ,g41 #aib4 ,golden ,legend4 ,see ,voragine1 ,j4 de4 ,gorgonzola1 ,n41 device1 #acf4 ,gorricio1 ,g41 ,contemplaciones sobre el rosario1 #bad4 ,gouda1 #aif-ih1 #bjc4 ,graf1 ,urs1 #gf sq4 ,granjon1 ,r41 #agj4 ,gregoriis1 ,g4 de1 #if4 ,gr3un1 ,hans ,baldung1 #gf4 ,gr3uninger1 ,j41 #fg1 #gf4 ,gryphius1 ,f41 #agj4 ,guillireti1 ,s41 #acf4 ,haarlem1 #aih-bja4 ,han1 ,u41 #gi sq4 ,hardouyn1 ,g41 #aia4 ,harrington1 ,sir ,j41 ,orlando ,furioso 7#aeia71 #bdh4 ,headlines1 #ce4 ,headpieces1 #cd4 ,historiarum veteris ,testamenti ,icones1 #afi sqq4 ,holbein1 ,a41 #gg4 ,holbein1 ,h41 #gg1 #afi1 #bdc sqq4 ,holl1 ,l41 #di4 ,hours1 ,books of1 #ag1 #agd-id4 ,hroswitha1 #fh4 ,husz1 ,m41 #adc4 ,hyginus1 ,poetica ,astronomica1 #hh sq4 ,hypnerotomachia1 #ii-ajc1 #afh4 ,ingold1 ,das guldin ,spiel1 #ch4 ,jenson1 ,n41 #i1 #aa1 #ag4 ,johann ,petri1 #aaf4 ,jornandes1 ,de ,rebus ,gothorum1 #gb note4 ,josephus1 ,de la bataille judaique1 #adi sq4 ,kaliergos1 ,z41 #ajd1 #acg4 ,kerver1 ,j41 #ajc4 ,kerver1 ,t41 #afc1 #aia4 ,ketham1 ,j41 ,fascicolo de ,medicina1 #ig4 ,knoblochtzer1 ,h41 #ec4 ,knoblouch1 ,j41 #gf4 ,koberger1 ,a41 #ec1 #fj4 ,koelhoff1 ,j41 #ce4 ,l41 ,french initial1 #aec-ee4 ,landino1 ,c41 #ag1 #hf1 #aah4 ,lavagna1 ,p41 #hf4 ,leeu1 ,g41 #aig sqq4 ,le ,rouge1 ,p41 #adh1 #aec1 #aeh4 ,le ,signerre1 ,g41 #acb4 ,lettou1 ,j41 #bbc4 ,lieseveldt1 ,a4 van1 #bjb4 ,lignamine1 ,j4 ,p4 de1 #hj1 #hb4 ,lorenz1 ,nicolaus1 #hf4 ,louis ,,ii41 ,marquis of ,saluzzo1 #acd4 ,louis1 ,st41 #acd4 ,louvain1 #aif4 ,l3ubeck1 #ej1 #fg4 ,lucidario 7#adid71 #aai4 ,l3utzelburger1 ,hans1 #afi4 ,lydgate1 ,j41 ,falle of ,princes1 #adf4 ,lyndewode1 ,w41 ,constitutiones1 #bbc4 ,lyons1 #adb sqq41 #aec1 #afj1 #afb1 #afh-gb4 ,machlinia1 ,w4 de1 #cc1 #bbc4 ,maillet1 ,j41 #aec4 ,mansion1 ,c41 #aig4 ,marchant1 ,g41 #adf4 ,martorel1 ,t41 ,tirant lo ,blanch1 #bac sq4 ,maximilian1 ,emperor1 #gj-gb4 ,mazalis1 ,f4 de1 #acf4 ,medici1 ,l4 de1 #abh4 ,meer1 ,jacob van der1 #bjb4 ,meidenbach1 ,j41 #ef4 ,menard1 ,j41 #aef4 ,mer des ,hystoires1 #aeh4 ,milan1 #hf1 #acb4 ,mirror of ,our ,lady 7#aecj71 #bda4 ,mirror of the ,world 7#adhj71 #bbj4 ,mischomini1 ,a41 #ib1 #aab1 #aac1 #aah1 #aai1 #aba4 ,more1 ,sir ,t41 #bcf note4 ,morgiani1 ,lorenzo di1 #ajg4 ,morin1 ,martin1 #afb4 ,morton ,missal1 #bj1 #bbe1 #bbh4 ,naples1 #hc4 ,neumeister1 ,j41 #ed1 #add4 ,neyret1 ,a41 #add4 ,nider1 ,j41 ,expositio decalogi1 #ce4 ,novara1 ,b4 di1 #ij4 ,novelle1 #abh4 ,nuremberg1 #eb sq41 #gf4 ,nuremberg ,chronicle4 ,see ,schedel4 ,olpe1 ,bergmann de1 #fd-fg4 ,os1 ,g4 van1 #bjc1 #bjf4 ,os1 ,p4 van1 #bjf4 ,ovid1 ,metamorphoses1 ,bruges 7#adhd71 #aig2 ,lyons 7#aeef71 #agj2 ,paris1 ,v'erard 7#adic71 #ae1 #aej2 ,venice 7#adig71 #ih4 ,oxford1 #bbc sq41 #bda4 ,pachel1 ,l41 #hg4 ,pacini1 ,bernardo di1 #aba4 ,pacini1 ,piero di1 #aaf1 #abb4 ,pagination1 #ce4 ,paris1 #ade-afa4 ,paris et ,vienne1 #afa4 ,passion of our ,lord ,jesu1 #bcj4 ,pasti1 ,matteo dei1 #hd4 ,paulus ,florentinus1 #hg4 ,petrarca1 ,f41 ,de ,remediis utriusque fortunae1 #gc2 ,trionfi1 #ia sq4 ,petri1 ,johann1 #aba4 ,pfister1 ,a41 #bf sqq4 ,pigouchet1 ,a41 #ahf sqq4 ,plantin1 ,c41 #agb4 ,politiano1 ,angelo1 #abh4 ,polono1 ,stanislao1 #bad4 ,presentation copies1 #ad sq4 ,printers' workshop1 cuts of1 #aei sq4 ,pr3uss1 ,johann1 #ec4 ,ptolemy1 ,cosmographia1 #di4 ,pulci1 ,l41 ,morgante ,maggiore1 #abb4 ,pynson1 ,richard1 #bbg sqq4 ,quentel1 ,h41 #eb4 ,rappresentazioni1 #abd sqq4 ,rastell1 ,j41 #bci1 #bda4 ,ratdolt1 ,erhard1 #cb1 #dd1 #hg-ij4 ,rechtstreit des ,menschen mit dem ,tode1 #bf4 ,regnault1 ,f41 #aib4 ,reichenthal1 ,ulrich von1 ,conciliumbuch1 #dc4 ,rennes1 #adc4 ,riessinger1 ,s41 #hb sq4 ,robert the ,devil1 #bce4 ,rome1 #gi-hc4 ,rouen1 #adg1 #afb4 ,rudimentum ,noviciorum1 #ej1 #aeh4 ,rupertus de ,sancto ,remigio1 ,t3urken-,kreuzz3uge1 #db4 ,saint ,albans1 ,book of1 #bbc4 ,saluzzo1 #acd4 ,san ,pedro1 ,diego di1 ,carcel d',amor1 #bad sq4 ,santis1 ,hier4 de1 #ib4 ,savonarola tracts1 #aaj-af4 ,sch3aufelein1 ,h41 #ga1 #gd4 ,schedel1 ,h41 ,liber chronicarum1 #fj-fd4 ,schenck1 ,p41 #adc4 ,schobsser1 ,j41 #dc4 ,schoeffer1 ,p41 #c-g1 #be1 #ed1 #eg sq4 ,sch3onsperger1 ,h41 #dd1 #ga4 ,schott1 ,m41 #ec4 ,scinzenzeler1 ,u41 #hg4 ,scotus1 ,oct41 #ij4 ,sensenschmidt1 ,j41 #eb4 ,seven ,wise ,masters of ,rome1 #bja4 ,seville1 #baf4 ,sforza family1 #ah4 ,simoneta1 ,g41 #ag4 ,snellaert1 ,c41 #bjc4 ,sorg1 ,a41 #db4 ,speculum vitae ,christi1 ,caxton's1 #bbb2 ,de ,worde's1 #bbe2 ,pynson's1 #bbh4 ,stephan1 ,p41 ,schatzbehalter1 #fj4 ,strassburg1 #ec1 #gf4 ,strozzi family1 #ag4 ,supplementum ,chronicarum4 ,see ,foresti4 ,tailpieces1 #ce4 ,terence1 ,trechsel's1 #afb2 ,eunuchus1 #di1 #ea4 ,theramo1 ,jac4 de4 ,see ,belial4 ,theuerdank1 #ga-gc4 ,tirant lo ,blanch1 #bac sq4 ,title-pages1 first use of1 #cj-cd4 ,tory1 ,g41 #aff sq4 ,tournes1 ,j41 de4 #af1 #afh1 #agb4 ,trabajos de ,hercules1 #baa1 #baf4 ,trechsel1 ,j41 #afb4 ,trechsel1 ,m41 #afi4 ,trepperel1 ,j41 #afa4 ,turrecremata1 ,cardinal1 ,meditationes1 #gi sqq4 ,ulm1 #de-ej4 ,ungut1 ,m41 #baj1 #bag4 ,utrecht1 #aif4 ,valencia1 #bad1 #baf4 ,valturius1 ,de ,re ,militari1 #hd4 ,veldener1 ,j41 #aif1 #bjd4 ,vellum1 use of1 #h sq41 #af4 ,venice1 #hg-ajf4 ,v'erard1 ,antoine1 #ad-af1 #adf-aeh1 #ahc-ahf4 ,verona1 #hd sq4 ,vespasian1 ,spanish romance of1 #baf4 ,vienne1 #add4 ,villena1 ,e4 de4 ,see ,trabajos de ,hercules4 ,vivaldus1 ,j4 ,l41 #acd4 ,voragine1 ,jac4 de1 ,legenda ,aurea1 ,english1 #bj1 #bba1 #bbc1 #bbe1 #bcj2 ,french1 #aej2 ,german1 #cg4 ,vostre1 ,simon1 #ahf4 ,weisskunig1 #gj1 #gb4 ,westphalia1 ,johann de1 #aif1 #bjc4 ,wittenberg1 #gf4 ,wohlgemuth1 ,michael1 #fj1 #fh4 ,worde1 ,wynkyn de1 #bbb1 #bbe sqq4 ,zainer1 ,g3unther1 #ce1 #cg sqq4 ,zainer1 ,johann1 #de sqq4 ,zamora1 #baa4 ,zarotus1 ,ant41 #acb4 ,zinna1 #gd4 ,zwolle1 #bjb4 ,printed by ,,morrison ,,gibb ,,limited1 ,edinburgh 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's ,note ,page #adf3 changed comma to period 7 444 rather than a printer47