,,the ,,cross4 ,illustration3 ,,somersby ,,cross4 ,from a photo by ,carlton ,son1 ,horncastle4 ,the ,cross ,,in ,ritual1 ,architecture1 and ,art ,,by ,,the ,,rev4 ,,geo4 ,s4 ,,tyack1 ,b4,a4 ,,london3 ,,william ,,andrews ,,co41 #e1 ,,farringdon ,,avenue4 ,,william ,,andrews ,,co ,,the ,,hull ,,press ,preface4 ,in this work my aim has been to deal in a popular way with the manifold uses of the ,cross as the symbol of the ,christian ,faith4 ,the attempt necessitates certain limitations2 to give prominence to controversial points1 to go to foreign lands for illustrations and examples when so many apt ones are to be found at home1 or to load the pages with references--any of these things would have been opposed to the object which ,i have set before myself4 ,if my outline be sufficiently broad and clear1 and the details1 so far as they go1 accurate--and to attain this no pains have been spared--,i shall be content4 ,before closing this brief preface1 it is to me both a pleasure and a duty to express my grateful thanks to my friend and publisher1 ,mr4 ,william ,andrews1 for the use of his collection of works1 notes1 and pictures relating to the ,cross1 and from his own productions ,i have gleaned some out-of-the-way information4 ,,geo4 ,s4 ,,tyack1 ,,crowle1 ,,doncaster1 ,august1 #ahif4 ,contents4 ,,page #a4 ,,introductory--,the pre-,christian ,cross--,primitive cross-forms--,the ,graffito blasfemo--,the vision of ,constantine--,finding of the ,true ,cross--,the ,crusades--,heraldic ,crosses--,the ,templars1 etc4--,the ,cross in the arms and badges and coinage of modern state #a #b4 ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,crucifix--,early symbols of ,christ1 the ,vine1 ,good ,shepherd1 etc4--,the ,agnus ,dei-- ,the ,vatican ,cross--,conciliar authority for ,crucifix-- ,the ,iconoclasts--,eastern attitude towards images-- ,character of early crucifixes--,crucifixion scenes-- ,italian sacred art #ad #c4 ,,the ,,cross ,,in ,,ritual--,prophetic types of the ,cross--,sign of the ,cross primitive--,method of making--,used in public offices3 ,eucharist1 ordination1 baptism1 confirmation1 public prayer--,processional ,cross-- ,archbishop's ,cross--,pectoral ,cross--,cross in consecration of churches--,cross of ,absolution-- ,creeping to the ,cross--,feasts of the ,cross--,invention and exaltation--,dedication to ,s4 ,cross or ,holy ,rood #bh #d4 ,,the ,,cross ,,as ,,an ,,ornament ,,of ,,the ,,church1 ,,etc4--,cruciform churches--,altar ,cross--,genevan aversion to--,the rood and rood-loft--,english roods--,the ,rood of ,grace-- ,destruction of roods--,modern revival of use of-- ,embroidered crosses on vestments--,the fylfot on bells-- ,spire-cross--,churchyard crosses destroyed and renewed-- ,weeping ,cross and ,palm ,cross #dd #e4 ,,public ,,crosses--,universal use of cross-forms in old ,england--,removal of crosses--,crosses chiefly secular in use--,edinburgh ,cross3 its history--,english market-crosses--,destructions and recent restorations-- ,chichester and other crosses--,preaching crosses--,s4 ,paul's3 its history--,other ,english preaching crosses #fc #f4 ,,memorial ,,crosses--,s4 ,oswald's ,cross--,neville's ,cross-- ,cross in ,leeds--,alpine and ,spanish ,crosses--,eleanor ,crosses and modern copies of them--,newark and ,wedmore ,crosses--,sandbach1 ,iona1 ,monasterboice1 etc4--,crowle ,stone--,hall ,cross1 ,doncaster--,dartmoor ,memorials #hg #g4 ,,wayside ,,and ,,boundary ,,crosses--,whiteleaf ,cross--,uses of wayside crosses--,dartmoor ,crosses--,cornish ,crosses-- ,notable crosses elsewhere in ,england3 ,burythorpe1 ,tottenham1 ,henley1 etc4--,well ,crosses #ajf #h4 ,,conclusion--,popularity of ,symbolism--,totems--,kobong-- ,heraldic ,symbols--,symbol of the ,cross3 ,what it implies8 #abj ,,the ,,cross ,,in ,,ritual1 ,,architecture1 ,,and ,,art4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,introductory4 ,it is strange1 yet unquestionably a fact1 that in ages long before the birth of ,christ1 and since then in lands untouched by the teaching of the ,church1 the ,cross has been used as a sacred symbol4 ,the ,aryan tribes1 ancestors of most of the ,european nations1 so regarded a cross of curious form1 whose four equal arms were all turned midway at a right angle4 ,the excavations of ,dr4 ,schliemann on the site of ancient ,troy have brought to light discs of baked clay stamped with a cross4 ,it is well known that the crux ansata1 or ,tau ,cross 7,t71 sometimes with the addition of a ring1 as if for suspension1 at the top1 is found in ,egyptian inscriptions4 ,the ,greek ,bacchus1 the ,tyrian ,tammuz1 the ,chaldean ,bel1 and the ,norse ,odin1 were all symbolized to their votaries by a cruciform device4 ,the ,spanish conquerors of ,mexico found the cross already an object of reverence among the ,aztecs1 carved on temple walls1 on amulets1 and on pottery2 so1 too1 in ,north ,america1 specimens of shell-work1 engraved with crosses of various forms1 have been unearthed from mounds raised by the native ,indian tribes4 ,it is further interesting to note that the sign was frequently regarded as an emblem of deity1 or as a symbol of favourable import4 ,to the ,egyptians it spoke of a future life2 to the ,aryans of fire1 itself emblematic of life2 the ,mongolians lay it1 drawn on paper1 on the breasts of their dead2 and the ,buddhists of ,thibet see in it a mark of the foot-print of ,buddha4 ,in all this the ,christians of the first age would have rejoiced1 claiming it as a world-wide prophecy of the ,cross of the ,redeemer1 just as they drew a similar lesson from the frequency with which the cross forms1 more or less roughly1 the shape of the ordinary implements of man's handicraft4 ,consider all things in the world1 writes ,justin ,martyr1 in his apology addressed to the ,emperor ,antoninus ,pius1 whether without this form they could be administered or could have any community4 ,for the sea is not crossed except that trophy which is called a sail remain safe aboard the ship2 nor is the earth ploughed without it2 diggers and mechanics do not their work except with tools of this shape4 ,and the human form differs from that of brute beasts in nothing but in being erect1 and having the arms extended4 ,the power of this figure is even shown by your own symbols1 on what are named 'vexilla' and trophies1 with which all your processions are made1 using these1 even though unwittingly1 as signs of your authority and dominion4 ,although we should be unwilling to-day to accept as argument all that a pious1 yet simple1 fancy1 or the warmth of a fervid rhetoric1 suggested to men of former times2 it would1 nevertheless1 be equally1 or more absurd for us to follow others1 who have endeavoured to trace the mere survival of heathen custom in the ,christian use of the ,cross4 ,that such is not the case is clear1 in spite of a few parallels in teaching as curious as those above referred to1 from the fact that the ,cross amongst us symbolizes the ,faith1 not as an arbitrary or mystic sign1 but as the natural expression of an historical fact4 ,the ,christians of the first two centuries1 however1 seldom employed any material image of the ,cross1 and never the ,crucifix4 ,this is only what1 under the circumstances1 was to be expected4 ,to erect crosses in their houses1 or to wear them on their persons1 was impossible in the times of heathen ascendancy1 without risking insult to the holy sign1 and danger to themselves4 ,moreover1 in days when crucifixion was still in use as the most degrading of all forms of punishment1 and the cross to the world at large a more infamous figure than the gallows is now to us1 it must have been difficult even for the followers of the ,crucified to rise entirely above the common sentiment of their age4 ,the absolute horror with which the accursed tree was regarded before hallowing associations ennobled it1 is well illustrated by the exclamation of ,cicero in one of his orations3 ,let the very name of the cross be banished1 not from the bodies only1 but from the eyes1 the ears1 the thoughts of ,roman citizens6 ,the earliest known attempt to depict the ,crucifixion of the ,saviour illustrates the fact that it was the worship of a ,crucified ,man which struck the contemporary heathen as especially incomprehensible4 ,in the year #aheg1 a wall in the ,palatine ,palace at ,rome1 which had been hidden from sight for centuries1 was laid bare1 and displayed a rude sketch1 which has been named the graffito blasfemo4 ,stretched on a cross is a human figure with an ass's head1 before which stands a man in a short tunic with his arms upraised1 while beneath1 in very roughly-formed ,greek characters1 runs the inscription3 ,alexamenos adores his ,god4 ,the work1 scratched on the wall1 doubtless by some palace slave in ridicule of a comrade1 is assigned to the end of the second century1 and obviously alludes with blasphemous scorn to the manner of the ,saviour's death1 and to the strange calumny1 first flung by the ,gnostics at the ,jews1 and then by the heathen at ,jews and ,christians alike1 that they paid divine honours to an ass4 ,at this time the faithful contented themselves with a mere suggestion of the sign1 such as the combined ,x and ,p1 the first two letters of the name of ,christ in ,greek1 sometimes indicating the ,x with a transverse stroke across the ,p4 ,nothing more definite than this1 and dating from primitive times1 is to be found in the many inscriptions in the ,roman ,catacombs1 where the ,christians worshipped and buried their dead down at least to ,a4,d4 #bfj4 ,in their private devotions1 however1 and in public also if occasion demanded an open profession of the faith1 they early adopted the habit of making the sacred sign4 ,they prayed1 as is shown in the caricature just described1 with arms spread crosswise1 and amid the tortures of martyrdom1 when the savage uproar drowned their voices or their failing strength denied them power to speak1 their arms crossed above their heads bore their mute testimony to the steadfastness of their faith4 ,in every undertaking1 writes ,tertullian in the second century1 on coming in and going out1 on dressing or washing1 at the bringing of lights1 on going to bed1 in whatever occupation we are engaged1 we imprint our foreheads with the sign of the ,cross4 ,to this testimony of the universal use of the practice in the primitive ages might be added that of many of the most eminent of the fathers1 as1 for instance1 ,lactantius1 ,s4 ,athanasius1 ,s4 ,basil1 ,s4 ,ephrem1 ,s4 ,cyril of ,jerusalem1 and his namesake of ,alexandria1 ,s4 ,john ,chrysostom1 ,s4 ,ambrose1 and ,s4 ,augustine of ,hippo--all writers flourishing in the fourth century of our era4 ,the growth of the use of the material cross was greatly accelerated by two important historical events1 the conversion of the ,emperor ,constantine1 with which we may put the claim of the ,empress-mother1 ,s4 ,helena1 to have discovered the true ,cross1 and the outbreak of the ,crusades4 ,the story of the first of these events has been recorded for us by ,eusebius1 the friend and biographer of ,constantine1 as it was told to him by the ,emperor himself2 and the account is too well known to require repetition in detail here4 ,it will be sufficient to recall the fact that in the year #cab ,a4,d41 as ,constantine was marching against ,maxentius1 a vision of the ,cross1 with the legend ,in this sign conquer1 was vouchsafed to him1 and that a dream subsequently instructed him to inscribe that symbol on the imperial banners4 ,in obedience to this command a splendid banner was made1 consisting of a cross-staff1 from which1 embroidered in jewels on a silken square1 hung the sacred monogram2 and under this standard1 the labarum1 the army marched to victory4 ,from this time ,christianity was not only tolerated1 but placed under imperial protection2 crucifixion1 moreover1 ceased to be employed as a form of punishment1 and the ,cross began to be treated with honour4 ,a cross of gold1 adorned with precious stones1 was placed1 by ,constantine's orders1 in the chief hall of the palace2 and the imperial coinage is found to bear1 with increasing frequency1 the holy sign4 ,sometimes1 as in a coin of ,constantius ,,ii41 the ,emperor is depicted holding the labarum in his hand1 or1 as on those of ,jovianus1 he carries a globe surmounted by a cross2 while later emperors stamped their coinage with the cross itself1 often surrounded by a laurel crown4 ,the fear of insult to sacred places and religious emblems being thus removed1 the ,christians began to build themselves churches more worthy of their holy rites than the rooms or the catacombs with which they had formerly been compelled to be content1 and in the decoration of these the cross began to take its appropriate place4 ,a couple of centuries later1 in the reign of ,justinian 7#ebg-efe71 it was even ordered that every church should have a cross surmounting it4 ,closely connected with the conversion of ,constantine is the alleged discovery of the true ,cross by ,s4 ,helena4 ,it was in the year #cbe1 the year of the first ,general ,council of the ,church1 which met at ,nicaea to condemn the heresy of ,arius1 that the ,empress1 endowed with ample means and with the fullest authority1 went to ,jerusalem and began the search for the instrument of our redemption4 ,the site of the ,crucifixion having been preserved in tradition1 excavations were made on the spot1 which first disclosed the ,holy ,sepulchre1 over which1 both to conceal and to desecrate the spot1 a temple had been erected to ,venus2 and afterwards was brought to light1 in a pit hard by1 those venerable pieces of wood which ,christendom hailed as the very ,cross1 to one of which was still affixed a board with an inscription in ,hebrew1 ,greek1 and ,latin4 ,to determine the exact value of the story thus briefly summarized1 is not so easy a matter as many have assumed it to be4 ,on the one hand1 no one questions the sincerity of ,helena herself1 nor the fact that she actually did find the wood in the excavations which she had made4 ,s4 ,cyril of ,jerusalem1 writing from that spot no more than twenty years later1 refers to the event1 and most of the fathers and chroniclers of the ,church who follow him notice it1 both he and they evidently accepting as facts the claims made on behalf of the wood4 ,moreover1 it is not without its bearing on the matter that the date of the discovery coincides with a great crisis in the ,arian controversy1 when the eagerness of the heretics to attack and discredit the ,catholics in any and every way would present a special difficulty to any attempt to pass off a fraud upon ,christendom4 ,and1 finally1 it is not easy to see who could plan and carry out so vast a deception in the face of all the persons of authority both in ,church and ,state1 who were then in ,jerusalem2 nor the object which the deception would be intended to attain4 ,the great argument on the other side1 and one difficult to overcome1 and impossible to ignore1 is the silence of ,eusebius on the subject2 yet he was present in ,jerusalem at the actual time of the discovery1 or very shortly afterwards1 and in his life of ,constantine he records others of the works undertaken in the ,holy ,city by that ,emperor through his mother1 such as the erection of the church of the ,holy ,sepulchre4 ,it is impossible but that ,eusebius knew of the assertion with which ,jerusalem and the world rang1 that the wood discovered was the true ,cross1 yet he makes no allusion to it4 ,whatever conclusion we moderns may come to on the matter1 it is beyond question that all ,christendom at that time accepted the story as true1 and greeted the sacred wood with unbounded enthusiasm2 and the devotion thus excited cannot fail to have had a marked influence on the use of the figure of the ,cross4 ,a new chapter in the development of this use is begun at the ,crusades1 and to these the subsequent history of this world-famed wood naturally leads us4 ,the greater portion of the true ,cross was kept at ,jerusalem1 in the church reared by ,constantine1 and dedicated with great solemnity in #cce4 ,it was in time richly adorned with gold and jewels1 and was exposed for the veneration of the faithful every ,easter ,sunday4 ,nearly three centuries later1 in #fad1 ,chosroes1 ,king of ,persia1 after victorious campaigns in ,asia ,minor and in ,egypt1 descended on the ,holy ,land with a tumultuous host of barbarians4 ,the ,city of ,jerusalem was taken and sacked1 after ninety thousand ,christians had fallen fighting in its defence2 and the ,cross was carried off in triumph by the heathen conqueror4 ,so bold an assault both on the ,faith and on the ,empire could not be brooked1 and in #fbi1 at a great battle on the plains of ,nineveh1 the ,persian power was destroyed by the ,emperor ,heraclius1 and the ,cross recovered4 ,with all solemnity the sacred relic was borne back to its former resting place1 the ,emperor himself1 bare of head and foot1 carrying it on his shoulders into the city4 ,again was ,jerusalem captured in #fcg1 now by the newborn ,mohammedan power1 but the ,cross was not molested1 and for four hundred years it was the object of ,christendom's special devotion1 pilgrims from every country in ,europe1 and of all grades of society1 coming in countless numbers to kneel before it1 and in many cases to die within reach of it4 ,but in the year #ajji1 a ,caliph of ,egypt arose1 in the person of ,el ,hakim1 to whose fierce and fanatical spirit the toleration hitherto granted to the ,christians was hateful1 and in the name of the prophet he invaded ,palestine and took ,jerusalem4 ,the churches built by ,constantine and ,helena over the sacred sites were utterly destroyed1 and the ,cross barely escaped the same fate2 faithful bands1 however1 succeeded in carrying it off and concealing it1 and for almost a century it was but rarely and cautiously exhibited4 ,at last the trumpet call of ,peter the ,hermit rang out across ,europe1 and an army1 full of enthusiasm1 and led by a band of almost ideal heroes1 started up in answer4 ,whatever faults marred the actions of the ,crusaders1 and however soiled by human ambitions and personal jealousies later expeditions might be1 the first ,crusade was inspired by a genuine zeal for a cause that all held to be holy--the rescuing of the places sanctified by the ,saviour's life and death from the pollution of unbelievers1 and especially the bringing back of the ,cross to its place of honour4 ,on ,friday1 ,july #acth1 #ajii1 the ,christian armies entered the city1 and the ,cross1 uplifted on ,calvary1 became the centre1 almost the raison d'etre1 of the new kingdom of ,jerusalem4 ,but the time of its disappearance from the earth was not far distant4 ,godfrey1 the first king of that almost mystic kingdom1 was buried beside it on the right1 and ,baldwin1 his successor1 on the left1 and the guardianship of the holy places had fallen into hands less conscious of the sacredness of their office1 when ,saladin invaded the land in #aahg4 ,the last stand of the ,christians1 under ,guy1 the unworthy successor of the early kings1 was made at ,hattin1 and the sacred wood of the ,cross itself was borne into the camp to inspire them with courage and devotion2 but the spirit of the old ,crusaders was dead1 and the infidel was completely triumphant4 ,a few years later1 in #aaib1 we hear of the ,cross as still in ,saladin's possession1 and as shewn by his permission to some favoured pilgrims1 among whom was the ,bishop of ,salisbury1 and then it disappears from history2 the sacred wood that thousands had braved the perils of seas and ,alpine passes to gaze upon1 that myriads had gladly died to protect1 vanished from the eyes of men1 whither none can say4 ,nothing now remains of the most highly-prized relic which the world has ever held1 except numerous fragments of the wood preserved in cathedrals and elsewhere throughout ,europe1 some score or more of nails purporting to be those which fixed the hands and feet of the ,lord1 and the board with its trilingual inscription4 ,the sneer that there is enough wood of the true ,cross to build a man-of-war has become a common-place1 but it proves only the ignorance of those who repeat it2 the fragments being all of the smallest dimensions1 few as large as a pin1 many no larger than a pin's head4 ,the nails were probably most of them made as copies of the originals1 and in course of time have come to be regarded as genuine4 ,the famous iron crown of ,lombardy has been said to enshrine a holy nail1 but the claim is no older than the sixteenth century4 ,the inscription is in the church of ,santa ,croce at ,rome1 and the question of its genuineness stands exactly on a level with that of the ,cross itself3 whether or no it be the veritable board which hung above the head of the ,crucified1 there can be little doubt that it is the one unearthed by ,s4 ,helena more than fifteen hundred years ago4 ,it is from the period of the ,crusades especially that we must date the wide-spread erection of crosses and use of cross-forms throughout ,europe4 ,worn as a badge or charm1 worked in silk or chaced in metal1 towering in stone by the wayside or overshadowing the busy market1 gleaming on banners1 or resplendent in jewels in the solemnity of the ,church1--everywhere the holy sign met the eye4 ,one use of the ,christian emblem was directly due to ,crusading influence4 ,the union in the expeditions against the infidels of knights of many lands and different languages gave its origin1 or at any rate its organized form1 to the science of heraldry2 and the spirit which presided at its birth is shown in the immense variety of crosses recognised in its vocabulary4 ,we have the ,latin ,cross1 the ordinary cross of suffering2 the ,greek ,cross with its equal arms2 the ,cross of ,s4 ,andrew1 or the saltire 7,x72 the ,maltese1 or eight-pointed cross2 the ,tau1 or ,egyptian ,cross 7,t72 and others which a persistent ingenuity of invention has almost endlessly varied4 ,it is well known that every ,crusader of whatever rank had a cross of some material stitched to his tunic2 but three great orders of knighthood arose during the ,holy ,war1 who made it their peculiar badge1 as they were pre-eminently the champions of the ,cross4 ,the ,knights of the ,hospital of ,s4 ,john at ,jerusalem1 or ,knights of ,malta1 or of ,rhodes1 commonly called simply the ,hospitallers1 were founded in #ajdh1 and were habited in black mantles with a white cross on the left breast1 scarlet surcoats with similar crosses on back and front1 and each wore the same emblem in gold suspended by a black ribbon from his neck4 ,the ,brethren of the ,temple at ,jerusalem1 or ,templars1 founded in #aabh1 wore white mantles with red crosses1 and carried banners of black and white charged with a cross in red4 ,the ,teutonic ,knights1 more properly the ,knights of the ,hospital of our ,ladye of ,mount ,zion at ,jerusalem1 assumed a black cross as their badge4 ,in this connection it is interesting to note how prominent a place the emblem of the ,christian ,faith still holds in the ensigns and honourable distinctions of the world4 ,the decorations of the ,british orders of the ,garter1 the ,bath1 the ,thistle1 and of ,s4 ,patrick1 all consist of1 or comprise1 a cross1 as of course does the coveted ,victoria ,cross4 ,the same is true of the ,french ,legion of ,honour1 the ,prussian ,black ,eagle1 ,red ,eagle1 and ,iron ,cross1 the ,russian orders of ,s4 ,andrew1 ,s4 ,alexander ,newski1 and the ,white ,eagle1 the ,austrian orders of ,maria ,theresa1 and of ,s4 ,stephen1 the orders of ,fidelite of ,baden1 of ,s4 ,hubert of ,bavaria1 of ,s4 ,james and of the ,calatrava of ,spain1 and of the ,annonciade of ,italy4 ,similarly the arms1 or ensigns1 or both1 of ,great ,britain1 ,germany1 ,russia1 ,italy1 ,norway1 ,sweden1 ,denmark1 ,greece1 and ,switzerland1 all display the sign of our ,redemption1 the most conspicious of them all being the ,union ,jack1 with its combined crosses of ,s4 ,george of ,england1 ,s4 ,andrew of ,scotland1 and ,s4 ,patrick of ,ireland4 ,it is not a little remarkable that during the brief period of the ,puritan ascendancy1 when the royal arms were discarded1 although the ,church was overthrown1 the crosses of the patron saints were kept1 and from them were formed the shield of the ,commonwealth4 ,evidence of the triumph of the ,cross is given by the regalia of almost every ,christian kingdom1 where the jewelled cross surmounts the monarch's crown and sceptre1 stands on the orb1 and is engraved upon his signet2 but no more universal recognition of the sign is to be found than in the coinage of ,christendom4 ,we have seen that shortly after the conversion of ,constantine1 the ,christian symbol began to appear on the coins of the ,empire1 and the practice afterwards became general throughout ,europe4 ,this arose1 probably1 partly from a wish to testify to the faith of the sovereign and of his people1 but partly also in the hope that those who were tempted to deface or to clip the coin might be deterred by the sight of the holy sign4 ,the ,english silver pennies and nobles were almost all stamped with a cross on the reverse1 reaching from edge to edge3 the deiners of ,france1 the pistoles of ,spain1 were similarly marked2 but fully to illustrate the fact would be to catalogue a great portion of the mintage of mediaeval1 and some of modern ,europe4 ,thus wide and varied in interest is the field over which the ,cross of ,christ has flung its illuminating influence4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,the ,development of the ,crucifix4 ,we have already seen that the ,christians of the first centuries were deterred by circumstances from any general use of the figure of the ,cross4 ,it follows naturally that the ,crucifix was still later in coming into existence4 ,indeed1 long after ,christianity had become the acknowledged religion of the empire1 there were reasons which made its use inexpedient4 ,the faithful1 though now protected from insult and persecution1 were still a minority surrounded by the adherents of paganism2 and as the influence of the ,church gradually spread to the barbarian tribes beyond the confines of the empire1 she was constantly being brought face to face with fresh forms of idolatry in ,northern ,europe1 in ,africa1 and in ,asia4 ,it needs but little acquaintance with folk-lore to recall illustrations of the fact that heathenism died hard2 even when active opposition had been overcome1 and the bulk of the people had1 perhaps1 as was not seldom the case1 almost by whole tribes at a time1 outwardly accepted the faith1 yet old customs1 old superstitions lived on4 ,thus to the present day the druidic regard for the mistletoe has a traditional existence in ,england after eighteen centuries of ,christian teaching1 and in ,cornwall and elsewhere mid-summer night sees the hilltops ablaze with bonfires that1 meaningless now1 once proclaimed the fire-worshippers' devotion4 ,if such things are still found amongst us1 innocent indeed now of any idolatrous intent1 but eloquent of the vitality of the customs of idolatry1 it is easy to divine the result that would have followed the introduction of the ,crucifix into a world almost wholly heathen4 ,it has been alleged that the ,roman ,senate offered to admit the ,christ to the pantheon of the state1 and similarly the ,crucifix might have simply become the companion of the hammer of ,thor1 or the sun-crowned ,phoebus1 of the sacred ibis of ,egypt1 or the winged monsters of ,assyria2 or at best a mere substitute for them4 ,guided by a ,divine instinct1 the ,church showed a wise self-restraint2 and it was only as the decay of idolatry in the ,west removed this danger1 that she allowed herself to contemplate the image of the ,redeemer4 ,from the first1 nevertheless1 a yearning for the help towards devotion which the eye can give was felt1 although the necessity of prudence and caution confined the faithful to the use of symbolic1 rather than of historic1 figures4 ,thus even in the days of the catacombs the ,vine1 the ,dove1 the ,lamb1 the ,good ,shepherd are found1 with a meaning obviously ,scriptural in origin2 and again the ,fish1 specially recommended with the above emblems by ,s4 ,clement of ,alexandria as a device for seals and rings1 was frequently employed1 as setting forth in an anagram1 by means of its name in ,greek1 the words ,jesus ,christ1 the ,son of ,god1 the ,saviour4 ,these were all common forms1 calculated to suggest ,christian teaching to the believer1 without exciting comment from the heathen4 ,meanwhile the simple cross was growing yearly more familiar to the people as the emblem of the ,christian religion4 ,its earliest form seems to have been that known as the fylfot1 like four ,greek gammas joined at the base2 a design that served1 equally with the emblems just described1 to suggest the sign to the ,christian without offending others4 ,but so rapid was the change that took place consequent on the conversion of ,constantine1 that so early as the papacy of ,john ,i4 7who died in the year #djj7 crosses were carried in the processions of the ,church4 ,the next step was the natural one of combining with the cross one or other of the emblematic figures which were already accepted as referring to the ,crucified4 ,the ,lamb with the cross1 therefore1 became a common symbol of the ,crucifixion during the first six centuries4 ,in its most restrained form we find simply above the head of the ,lamb the sacred monogram as used on the labarum of the ,christianized empire2 and occasionally the figure becomes not so much a type as a representative of the ,saviour1 by having five bleeding wounds in its feet and side4 ,later the same emblem appears1 often with a cruciform nimbus about its head1 carrying a slender cross on a tall shaft1 or a banner charged with a cross4 ,similarly a long cross-staff is sometimes placed1 instead of the pastoral crook1 in the hand of the ,good ,shepherd4 ,in all these the emblem of ,christ is the prominent feature of the assign1 the cross being entirely subordinate4 ,as it became possible to be less guarded in displaying the ensign of the faith1 this order was to some extent reversed4 ,on the tomb of ,gallia ,placida at ,ravenna1 of the fifth century1 the ,lamb stands on a mount--the ,lamb standing on ,mount ,sion of the ,apocalypse--with behind it a cross1 from the arms of which depend the ,alpha and ,omega4 ,again1 the ,lamb lies at the foot of the cross1 an arrangement apparently referred to by ,s4 ,paulinus of ,nola in the words1 ,christ in the lamb stands 'neath the ,cross all gleaming with ,his blood4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,early ,,christian ,,tomb ,,at ,,wirksworth ,a more decided approximation to the ,crucifix was made when the sacred ,lamb was placed on the cross at the joining of the arms and the shaft2 a most interesting example of which occurs on a slab unearthed at ,wirksworth during the restoration of the church in #ahbj2 it is part of a tomb1 supposed to date from the seventh century4#a ,in the sixth century we begin to meet with the ,crucifix properly so called4 ,fortunatus gives us the first undoubted reference to one made in relief about the year #efj1 and ,s4 ,gregory of ,tours1 some thirty years later1 refers to a painted one at ,narboune4 ,the famous ,vatican cross1 said to have been given by the ,emperor ,justin 7elected #eai7 to ,pope ,gregory ,,ii41 exhibits an interesting stage in the transition from the emblem to the figure of ,christ4 ,the sacred ,lamb still keeps its place on a medallion in the centre1 while a half-length figure of the ,saviour in the act of benediction is on the upper limb of the cross1 and another1 probably ,s4 ,john ,baptist1 is on the lower one2 on the arms1 with a curious lack of reverence and taste1 are effigies of the ,emperor and his wife ,flavia4 ,a book of the ,gospels in the library at ,munich1 supposed to have been executed in this same century1 has a cross which terminates above in a kind of arch1 under which is a bust of ,christ1 while the ,alpha and ,omega hang from the transverse beams4 ,in the course of time the ,cross itself seems to have been looked on1 not so much as a suggestion of the ,crucifixion1 but as a type or emblem of ,christ4 ,a striking and curious example of this is to be found on a tomb in the church of ,s4 ,apollinare at ,ravenna1 where the artist has depicted the ,transfiguration in a strange union of realism and symbolism4 ,moses and ,elias are on either side1 and the hand above suggests the ,father1 but three sheep stand for the chosen apostles1 and in the centre is1 not ,christ1 but the ,cross4 ,it may1 perhaps1 have been the perception of such a tendency which led the ,greek ,fathers at the ,council in ,trullo1 in #fib1 to feel that the time had come for a more emphatic assertion of the personality and human nature of the ,redeemer in sacred art4 ,thus1 at any rate1 they decreed3--,we order that1 instead of the ,lamb1 our ,lord ,jesus ,christ shall be shown hereafter in ,his human form in the images2 so that1 without forgetting the height from which the ,divine ,word stooped to us1 we shall be led to remember ,his mortal life1 ,his passion1 and ,his death1 which paid the ransom for mankind4 ,the alteration1 however1 was completed as cautiously as it had been begun1 even the method of production partaking of the restraint exhibited in the development of the subject4 ,the earliest crucifixes probably had the figure simply etched in outline1 then it was painted upon the cross1 and last of all it became a partial or complete relief4 ,the last stage was not reached1 unless in a few exceptional cases1 until the ninth century4 ,the earliest crucifix in the catacombs is of the seventh or eight century1 and ,pope ,john ,,vii41 in #gjf1 dedicated the first mosaic example in ,st4 ,peter's at ,rome4 ,benedict ,biscop1 ,abbot of ,jarrow 7died #fij71 brought from ,rome the first picture of the crucifixion of which we hear in the north of ,england4 ,s4 ,augustine advancing with his monks to his first conference with ,king ,ethelbert of ,kent1 was preceded by a silver cross and a crucifixion painted on a panel4 ,now and again an iconoclastic spirit revealed itself in opposition to the growing use1 not only of the crucifix but of images of saints and patriarchs1 but it made no headway in the west4 ,serenus1 ,bishop of ,marseilles1 having broken down some images in a church1 was reproved by ,pope ,gregory1 on the ground that in paintings on walls those who are unable to read books can read what in books they cannot4 ,in the east1 however1 the movement aroused much bitterness1 and led even to persecution4 ,leo the ,isaurian in #gbf1 began an attack on all use of images1 and a ,council at ,constantinople in #geb1 rejected them altogether4 ,this decree was not accepted generally as final1 but in the end the eastern church settled down under a compromise1 which is still maintained1 by which pictures in painting1 mosaic1 or engraving1 are permitted1 but all reliefs and statutes are forbidden4 ,amongst the few crucifixes in the east which survived the destruction consequent first on the iconoclastic persecution1 and then their final condemnation1 is one that is probably the oldest in the world4 ,it is in the ,monastery of ,xeropotami1 on ,mount ,athos1 and consists of an alleged fragment of the true cross with two transverse pieces1 the upper and smaller one representing the superscription4 ,on these lies a small ivory figure1 and below is a representation of the ,church of the ,holy ,sepulchre in gold and jewels4 ,it is said to have been a gift from the ,empress ,pulcheria 7#dad-dec71 a fact which may account for its preservation4 ,the history of the development of the crucifix does not end1 when the ,divine effigy assumed the place of the type upon it4 ,the earliest artists made no attempt at realism in moulding or carving the figure4 ,they on the contrary distinctly avoided it1 and the crucifix continued to be emblematic4 ,the truth which they aimed especially at setting forth was the voluntary character of the ,lord's self-sacrifice4 ,the ,christ1 therefore1 is generally clothed in a robe reaching to the feet1 the outspread arms do not hang but lie straight along the transverse beam1 and the feet are placed side by side upon a supporting ledge2 the head is erect1 and the eyes frequently1 if not usually1 are open and look straight forward4 ,the side is not pierced1 and often the hands and feet show neither wounds nor nails4 ,others of these early crucifixes set forth the thought of ,christ as king reigning from the tree1 in unison with that line of the famous hymn ,vexilla ,regis1 ,regnavit a ligno ,deus2 and the figure is here royally crowned and robed4 ,a crucifix that has become historical is the ,holy ,face of ,lucca1 traditionally ascribed to the workmanship of ,s4 ,luke1 but really dating from about the eight century4 ,on this1 by which ,william ,rufus was in the habit of swearing under the name of the ,face of ,s4 ,luke1 are combined the characters of ,king and ,priest1 the figure being crowned1 and clad in a dark sacerdotal vestment4 ,in these crucifixes there is no appeal to the emotions1 no petition for pity on behalf of agonised humanity2 but an impressive declaration on the part of the artist of his strong faith in the deity of the ,sufferer4 ,in describing these various stages in the development of the crucifix1 it must not be taken to imply that step always followed step in a regular progression4 ,as a matter of fact the different phases overlapped considerably1 and now and again a rare specimen is found antedating considerably the age to which a strict classification of styles would assign it4 ,there is1 for instance1 a very early pectoral crucifix1#b which while coinciding for the most part with the description just given1 nevertheless represents the ,christ as dead1 with closed eyes and uncrowned head slightly inclined4 ,a crucifix in the ,treasury at ,aix-la-,chapelle1 known as the ,cross of ,lothario1 though only of the ninth century1 has the hanging arms1 the fallen head1 and the short cloth about the loins1 much as we see them to-day4 ,moreover as art in some lands was later in ripening than in others1 so in some it clung for a longer period to the older art forms2 while several of the primitive emblematic figures have become parts of the ,church's permanent teaching for the eyes of her children4 ,the builders of our ,norman churches had a special fondness for the ,agnus ,dei1 the ,lamb bearing the ,cross1 and we find it worked into their carvings in various ways4 ,amongst the most curious examples may be quoted the ancient fonts of ,ilam and ,tissington in ,derbyshire4 ,another peculiarity of the early crucifixes which sets them apart from historic representations of the crucifixion1 is the attempt made to bring within the narrow limits of a cross other details1 actual or mystical1 of the atoning sacrifice4 ,many of them have on the upper limb1 or on the arms1 of the cross more or less conventional signs for the sun and moon4 ,sometimes1 as on the pectoral cross noticed above1 these are simply a circle1 with or without rays1 and a crescent2 and in this case they are merely emblems of the powers of ,creation witnessing the death of the ,creator4 ,sometimes they are more fanciful1 as when they are suggested by male and female figures within circles1 wrapping their faces in their mantles2 and here they are symbols of the supernatural darkness of the first ,good ,friday4 ,the ,blessed ,virgin and ,s4 ,john the ,divine are frequently placed on the arms of the ,cross beyond the hands of ,christ1 as in a beautiful enamelled crucifix in the ,museum at ,copenhagen1 which was once the property of ,dagmar1 the darling queen of ,denmark1 on whose breast it was buried in #abab4 ,at the top1 again1 is often found a hand in the attitude of benediction1 a symbol of the ,father1 and at the foot writhes the vanquished serpent4 ,many of the more elaborate examples had the reverse side enamelled or engraved1 usually with appropriate ,old ,testament types1 such as the fall of ,adam1 or the sacrifice of ,abraham4 ,almost the only emblematic additions to the crucifix which have survived in use to our day are the apocalyptic symbols of the four evangelists1 still often found on large crosses1 especially those on rood screens2 and the skull placed at the foot1 sometimes with cross-bones1 as a symbol of death4 ,this last is much more modern in introduction than the others4 ,crucifixes of this full and elaborate type are found as late as the fourteenth century1 but as pictoral art advanced1 and the whole scene of the passion was treated by artists with increasing frequency and fullness1 the extraneous details dropped from the crucifix1 and it became the simple1 yet dignified expression of the crucified ,redeemer1 as it is this day4 ,almost the same phases that we have noticed in the formation of the crucifix show themselves also in early representation of the crucifixion-scene4 ,there is the same restraint in depicting the central figure1 the same use of conventional forms and of symbols4 ,there are examples in which1 while the two thieves are shown as crucified1 the ,lord stands in the midst with outspread arms1 but with no cross save that in the nimbus above ,his head4 ,the persons introduced1 as a rule1 are few in number2 almost always we have the ,blessed ,virgin and ,s4 ,john1 with emblematic signs for the sun and moon4 ,sometimes also the two thieves1 and less frequently two female figures1 personifying the ,jewish and ,christian ,churches4 ,the long robe1 instead of the loin-cloth1 on the ,crucified1 and the hand symbolising the father1 are both common forms in the earliest paintings or carved ivories4 ,there is a curious example in the chapel of ,s4 ,silvestro1 at ,rome1 in which soldiers with a spear and the sponge on a reed are introduced1 while a small angel is seen removing the crown of thorns and substituting a regal one4 ,all the three crosses are shown in this fresco1 the two lesser ones of the usual type1 but the ,saviour's in the form of a ,y1 the cross that appears on the back of a ,gothic chasuble4 ,the date of this work is said to be #abdh4 ,the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries witnessed the rise of the great ,italian schools of art1 and with the artists' growing mastery over their materials ,crucifixions became fuller of details and less rigidly conventional1 though not less devotional and scarcely less symbolic4 ,a host of angels throngs about their dying ,creator1 wringing their hands in helpless grief1 offering him their lowliest worship1 or catching in chalices the sacred blood4 ,at the foot of the ,cross1 also1 is sometimes found a crowd of figures1 representing not the hostile multitude that surged with blasphemous taunts before the failing eyes of ,christ2 but monks1 bishops1 virgins1 kings1 the saintly and devout of later ages1 who stand in wrapt attention or kneel in homage4 ,in those days1 when every art found its highest expression in the service of the ,church1 every encouragement was given to the painting of sacred subjects2 and the artists1 loyal sons for the most part of the ,church1 sought their highest ambition in realizing their ideal of a ,crucifixion1 a picta1 or a madonna4 ,to these feelings we owe the splendid frescoes of ,cimabue1 and of ,giotto1 the friend of ,dante1 at ,assissi1 the paintings of ,duccio1 the first1 it is said1 to represent our ,lord on ,his ,cross with the feet laid one upon the other2 and above all the wonderful works of ,fra ,angelico1 who embodied1 if ever man did1 his whole faith in his pictures1 with reverent devotion and tenderest purity4 ,but it would be wandering beyond the limits1 both of our subject and of our space1 to examine in any detail those sacred canvases and frescoes by which the artists of the ,italian ,renaissance have placed the whole world under a debt1 which never can be paid4 ,the very names of ,florence and ,siena1 of ,umbria and ,venice1 of ,verona1 ,ferrara1 and ,milan1 seem redolent of sacred art4 ,suffice it to say1 in conclusion1 that gradually as the fifteenth century advanced1 and especially in the age that followed1 the symbolic and devotional treatment of the tremendous spectacle of the ,crucifixion was eclipsed by the realistic and historic method4 ,the painter no longer approached his subject with awe1 that compelled a reserve eloquent of faith in its great mystery2 but too often he sought in frenzied crowds1 impassioned ,magdalens1 and contorted limbs to display his own skill only4 ,for ,crucifixions that raise the thoughts and heart from the canvas to ,calvary itself1 we must turn back to those ages1 which1 with less anatomical knowledge1 and perhaps less technical skill1 were nevertheless inspired with more perfect ideals and nobler art from the mere fulness of a simple and sincere faith4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,the ,cross in ,ritual4 ,allusion has already been made to the frequency with which the primitive ,christians used the sign of the ,cross2 and there can be no question that it early became a symbol of that confidence which they had1 that through the ,cross of ,christ all blessing1 all protection1 in a word all ,divine help1 was afforded them4 ,they delighted1 therefore1 in finding in the ,old ,testament prophetic foreshadowings of its efficacy4 ,israel blessing the sons of ,joseph with hands laid crosswise2 ,moses controlling the fortunes of the chosen people at the battle of ,rephidim1 by spreading wide his arms2 the two sticks with which ,elisha caused the axe-head of his disciple to float2 and those other two which the widow of ,sarepta had just gathered when help came to her in the arrival of ,elijah2 the saving sign marked on the foreheads of the faithful in the vision of ,ezekiel 7,ezek4 ix41 #d71 which all antiquity understood as being a tau 7,t72 these1 and other more or less fancifully selected passages1 all spoke to them of the mystery of the cross4 ,a full catena of authorities for the primitive use of this sign would embrace most of the fathers of the ,church2 one or two quotations must be sufficient to show how universal it was1 as a symbol carved or painted1 or as simply traced with the hand4 ,s4 ,ephrem 7died about #cgh71 in a sermon on the ,saviour's passion1 exclaims1 ,let us imprint on our doors1 our foreheads1 our eyes1 our mouths1 our breast1 on all our members1 this life-giving cross2 without this let us undertake nothing1 but in going to bed and in rising1 in working1 in eating and drinking1 in travelling by sea or land1 let us adorn all our members with this life-giving sign4 ,s4 ,cyril of ,jerusalem1 in a like spirit1 instructs his catechumens not to be ashamed of the ,cross of ,christ1 but openly to mark it on the forehead1 and to use that sign in eating and drinking1 sitting and lying1 rising from bed1 conversing and walking1 in a word1 on all occasions4 ,s4 ,john ,chrysostom in his fifty-fifth homily thus gives us a reason for these exhortations2 the passion of our ,lord1 says he1 is the fountain of that happiness by which we live and are2 with a joyous heart1 then1 as if crowned1 let us carry about with us the ,cross of ,christ4 ,let us earnestly impress this cross upon our houses1 our walls1 our windows2 on our foreheads also1 and on our breasts4 ,it is the sign of our salvation1 of our common liberty1 of the meekness and humility of the ,lord4 ,as often1 therefore1 as you sign yourself1 go over in your mind the general concern of the ,cross1 subdue all the motions of anger and other passions1 and fortify your hearts with courage4 ,not to multiply instances unnecessarily1 let a saying reiterated frequently by ,s4 ,jerome sum up the practice1 as inherited by his own from earlier lines--,before every action1 at every step1 let your hand make the sign of the cross4 ,over and above the idea that this holy sign recalled to ,christians their obligation to glorify their ,master in all their doings1 the thought early sprang up that in the sign itself was provided a defence against the assaults of evil4 ,s4 ,athanasius asserts most emphatically that if only the sign of the cross1 which the ,gentiles ridicule1 be used1 if ,christ be but named1 devils will instantly be put to flight1 and all the arts of magic be reduced to nothing4 ,s4 ,ephrem calls the sign the invincible armour of ,christians1 the vanquisher of death1 the hope of the faithful1 the downfall of heresies1 the bulwark of the true faith4 ,while ,tertullian1 who was quoted in this connection in a former chapter1 tells us in his ,antidote for a ,scorpion's ,sting1 that we have faith for a defence1 if we are not smitten also with distrust itself1 in immediately making the sign of the cross over the wounded part1 and adjuring that part in the name of ,jesus4 ,one wonders whether from some similar hope the custom arose of marking plague-stricken houses with a red cross and the words ,lord have mercy4 ,tertullian's ,apologies give us strong proof of the prevalence of the sign1 and the reverence felt for it1 in his day1 in that he more than once finds it needful to repel the heathen charge that the ,christians worshipped the cross1 and were indeed merely a priesthood of the cross1 crucis antistites4 ,the ,myrroure of our ,lady 7published in #aecj7 thus quaintly describes and explains the manner of making the sign3--,ye begin with the hand at the head downward1 and then to the left side and after to the right side1 in token and belief our ,lord ,jesus ,christ came down from the ,head1 that is from the ,father1 unto earth by ,his holy ,incarnation1 and from the earth unto the left side1 that is ,hell1 by ,his bitter ,passion1 and from thence unto ,his ,father's right side by ,his glorious ,ascension2 and after this ye bring your hand to your breast1 in token that ye are come to thank ,him and praise ,him in the utmost of your heart for ,his benefits4 ,the sign was not1 however1 invariably made in the same way4 ,the whole hand was sometimes employed 7the usual method in the present day7 signifying the five wounds of ,christ2 but sometimes three fingers only1 as an invocation of the ,holy ,trinity2 or two fingers emblematic of the two natures of the ,saviour4 ,in the east it is made from left to right4 ,the usages referred to in the passages quoted above are all of the private kind1 and their employment1 although common to all1 must always have depended as to their frequency upon the taste or the habits of individuals4 ,the very earliest liturgical forms1 however1 give ample proof of their use also in the stated ritual of the ,church4 ,those ancient offices for the celebration of the ,eucharist1 known as the ,divine ,liturgies of ,s4 ,james1 ,s4 ,mark1 of the ,holy ,apostles1 and others1 are of uncertain date1 yet is generally agreed that their substance belongs to a period before the great council at ,nicaea 7#cbe ,a4,d472 and they one and all contemplate the use of the sacred sign in the course of their ritual4 ,these signations are of several kinds2 the priest signs the elements before offering them at the altar2 he blesses the people with the sign1 and is bidden also to sign both himself and all the deacons who are assisting1 on the forehead4 ,moreover at certain prayers he stands with arms folded crosswise on his breast1 and a curious rubric in the ,liturgy of the ,holy ,apostles runs1 ,the priest kisses the ,host in the form of a cross1 in such a way1 however1 that his lips do not touch it1 but appear to kiss it4 ,in the different liturgies these several consignations are found with varying frequency1 but none are without the sign of the cross in some part of the office4 ,it was not in the ,eucharist alone1 however1 that it was used4 ,in ordination1 according to an early account1 the bishop first laid his hand on the head of him who was to be made priest1 with a holy prayer1 and then signed him with a cross1 after which all the clergy present gave him the kiss of peace4 ,at the reception of catechumens1 or candidates for baptism1 this sign formed an important part of the ceremony4 ,even as a boy1 ,s4 ,augustine tells us in his ,confessions1 had ,i heard of eternal life promised to us through the humility of the ,lord our ,god condescending to our pride1 and ,i was signed with the sign of the cross1 and was seasoned with ,his salt4 ,marcus of ,gaza also1 writing1 about the year #djj ,a4,d41 the life of his master and ,bishop1 ,porphyrius1 describes how some converts1 falling at the bishop's feet1 desired the ,sign of ,christ1 upon which he signed them and made them catechumens4 ,the well-known primitive posture of prayer1 namely1 with outspread arms1 is distinctly alleged by many early writers to be an intentional allusion to the cross1 perhaps especially to the ,saviour's attitude when hanging thereon4 ,so ,s4 ,ambrose prayed upon his death-bed2 and so every ,christian when at prayer represented1 according to ,asterius ,amasenus 7a writer of the close of the fourth century71 the ,passion of the ,cross by his gesture4 ,alluding to this constant use of the holy sign in the public offices of the ,church1 ,s4 ,augustine says1 ,if we are to be regenerated1 the ,cross is used2 or if we are to be partakers of the mystical food of the ,eucharist1 or to receive ordination1 we are signed with the sign of the cross4 ,in the ,english ,prayer-,book1 as is well known1 this sign is specifically retained in the office of ,holy ,baptism1 and the thirtieth ,canon was issued in defence of that retention4 ,of its use in this connection in the primitive ,church there can be no question1 nor was it denied by those ,puritans1 who1 at the ,hampton ,court ,conference in #afjd1 objected to it4 ,s4 ,augustine informs us that the water for baptism was signed with a cross2 and from several sources we learn that both in the exorcism and the unction1 which anciently preceded the actual administration of the sacrament1 the catechumen was signed4 ,and further1 as the candidate was signed when first received as such1 and again when he was baptised1 so1 too1 when the work was completed in confirmation he was signed again4 ,this last signation was preserved1 with others1 in the first ,prayer-,book of ,king ,edward ,,vi41 where the bishop is enjoined1 immediately before the laying on of hands1 to sign the confirmee on the forehead1 saying1 ,n41 ,i sign thee with the sign of the cross1 and lay mine hand upon thee1 in the name of the ,father1 and of the ,son1 and of the ,holy ,ghost3 ,amen4 ,in passing from this subject some words of ,wheatly's concerning the use of the sign of the cross in the ,english ,church are worth quoting4 ,after observing that in every ancient liturgy one or two signations at least are always found1 he proceeds1--,so much has been thought proper on this solemn occasion1 to testify that we are not ashamed of the ,cross of ,christ1 and that the solemn service we are then about is performed in honour of a crucified ,saviour4 ,and therefore as the ,church of ,england has thought fit to retain this ceremony in the ministration of one of her sacraments1 ,i see not why she should lay it aside in the ministration of the other4 ,the material cross was also early adopted in the ritual of the church4 ,as early as the year #djj ,a4,d41 mention is made of processional crosses1 their chief use being in the ,rogations1 or processions in which the ,litany was sung4 ,originally they were without the figure of the ,crucified1 but frequently bore at their extremities the emblems of the four evangelists1 while sometimes there were sconces for holding candles on the arms4 ,such a cross was given to some of the churches at ,rome by ,charlemagne1 and several splendid mediaeval examples are still preserved on the ,continent4 ,a processional1 or station1 cross in the ,lateran1 dates from the fifteenth century2 ,s4 ,denis has one of the time of ,s4 ,louis1 and ,mayence possesses a very fine one of gilded bronze of the twelfth or thirteenth century1 which embodies in its sculptures a whole system of teaching4 ,in this instance the ,agnus ,dei occupies the centre of the face of the cross1 having in the corresponding place on the reverse the ,sacrifice of ,abraham2 the following pairs of subjects fill the ends of the shaft and of the arms1 the ,new ,testament subject being in each case on the front1 and that taken from the ,old ,testament behind it at the back2 the descent into ,hades and ,samson carrying off the gates of ,gaza1 the ,resurrection and ,jonah cast up by the whale1 the ,ascension of ,christ and that of ,elijah1 ,pentecost and the giving of the ,law on ,sinai4 ,anciently ,england possessed some very noble examples of processional crosses4 ,at ,durham1 for instance1 was one for use on high festivals1 of gold on a silver staff1 and another1 for ordinary occasions1 of crystal4 ,canterbury1 according to an inventory of #abie1 had four1 all gilded and gemmed1 and ,salisbury1 in #abbb1 had one for ,sundays of silver1 and another1 presumably for festivals1 well gilt and with stones4 ,the ,exeter ,synod1 held in #abhg1 decreed that every parish church should have one fixed cross and one movable1 of which the first was probably meant to be a rood1 and the second a station-cross1 placed when not in procession on the altar4 ,but according to the ,english rite1 a system of ceremonial far more ornate than any now in use in western ,christendom1 several processional crosses were required1 at any rate in large and fully furnished churches4 ,during ,lent a plain wooden one was employed1 without the figure of our ,lord1 and painted blood-red2 from ,easter to ,ascensiontide the cross was to be of beryl or of crystal2 those of brass or the precious metals being no doubt carried on other high festivals1 and on ,sundays4 ,the processional ,crucifix1 symbolical of our great ,exemplar going before ,his people in their pilgrimage through the world1 is borne with the figure facing outwards1 in the direction in which the procession is moving2 and during ,lent it is shrouded1 as a mark of sorrow1 in a violet veil4 ,it seems to have come also to signify1 to a certain extent1 the parish in its corporate existence and authority2 thus no parochial processional cross might be carried into a monastic church1 and in collegiate churches at funerals the cross of the church only might be used4 ,it would seem1 in short1 that no parish might carry its cross beyond its own limits4 ,to us ,english1 the spectacle of the cross borne in solemn procession is calculated to recall with special vividness the memory of the establishment of the faith among our forefathers4 ,how the ,british ,church had been driven into ,cornwall and ,wales1 and how ,s4 ,augustine1 after landing in ,thanet to bring the ,gospel to the ,english1 advanced with his forty companion monks to meet ,king ,ethelbert1 chanting a litany1 and proceeded by a silver cross and a crucifix painted on a panel1--these things all men know4 ,a processional cross1 in a more restricted sense1 is that borne before an ,archbishop1 as a mark of dignity and jurisdiction4 ,at what date these crosses first came into use is unknown2 originally1 the bishops of a few only of the most important sees employed them1 and they had not yet come to denote specially the archiepiscopal rank4 ,leo ,,iv41 ,pope from #hdg to #hee1 had a cross borne before him by a sub-deacon1 as he rode through the streets of ,rome1 an action said to have been according to the custom of his predecessors4 ,the ,fourth ,lateran ,council1 in #abae1 granted to all patriarchs the privilege of having a cross carried before them1 if neither papal legate nor cardinal were present4 ,the same honour was conferred on ,archbishops by ,gregory ,,ix4 in the thirteenth century1 and as a mark of special favour some few western bishops even have been allowed to assume it1 as in the case of the ,bishops of ,lucca and of ,pavia1 who are authorized by a grant issued by ,alexander ,,ii4 in #ajgj4 ,in ,england this emblem of jurisdiction has on more than one occasion proved a ground of dispute between the archbishops4 ,s4 ,anselm who ruled at ,canterbury from #ajic to #aaad1 refused to allow the ,archbishop of ,dublin to use his cross in ,england4 ,canterbury and ,york long maintained a struggle for precedence in the ,english ,church and the point on which it turned was often the right of the one to carry his cross in the province of the other4 ,the quarrel became very bitter towards the end of the thirteenth century1 so that we find ,william de ,wickwaine in #abhj1 the year after his accession to the ,see of ,york1 complaining to the ,pope of violence shewn him while travelling in the southern province4 ,adam de ,hales1 he writes1 an officer of my ,lord of ,canterbury1 rushed like a madman upon my attendants1 and scandalously broke my cross in pieces3 but thanks be to ,god1 ,i soon caused another to be raised and carried4 ,moreover1 most holy father1 when ,i am journeying through the province of ,canterbury on business relating to my own see1 my ,lord of ,canterbury forbids food or lodging to be supplied to myself or my attendants on pain of excommunication1 exactly as if we were heretics1 and places the whole district where ,i make any sojourn under an ecclesiastical interdict4 ,the contemporary my lord of ,canterbury1 was ,john ,peckham4 ,twenty years later the feud was still rife1 and we have ,robert ,winchelsey1 the immediate successor of ,peckham1 writing to the ,bishop of ,lincoln1 bidding him see that the northern primate did not have his cross carried before him in passing through that diocese3 he also forbids the laity to kneel to him or to ask his blessing on pain of the ,church's censure1 and orders that no bell be rung and no service said in any place where he may be4 ,in #acbe1 ,william de ,melton1 ,archbishop of ,york1 was appointed treasurer by the ,king1 upon which ,walter ,raynold1 who twelve years before had succeeded ,winchelsey1 again took up the cause of the dignity of his province1 and excommunicated ,melton for having had his cross carried in the city of ,london1 in spite of which ,melton publicly said ,mass in ,westminster ,abbey4 ,in #aced1 a compromise was at last arrived at1 by which the ,archbishop of ,york might have his cross borne before him throughout the entire province of ,canterbury on condition that within two months from so doing he sent to the shrine of ,s4 ,thomas a ,becket1 a gold figure of the value of forty pounds1 of an archbishop with his cross1 to be brought by the hands of his chancellor1 a doctor of laws1 or a knight4 ,on the other hand the ,archbishop of ,canterbury was to enjoy the same privilege in the province of ,york unconditionally4 ,the two prelates by whom this arrangement was made1 were ,simon ,islip of the southern province1 and ,john de ,thoresby of the northern4 ,the above acknowledgement1 or fine1 was paid about a century later 7in #adeb71 by ,archbishop ,booth of ,york4 ,the first metropolitan in the ,english colonies to assume the cross was the ,bishop of ,cape ,town4 ,a magnificent cross of silver gilt studded with jewels was presented to the ,see of ,canterbury on the enthronement of the present occupant of the ,chair of ,s4 ,augustine1 ,dr4 ,benson4 ,it is modelled on the type of those used by the ,english ,archbishops as early as the time of ,chichely 7#adad71 and is adorned with statuettes of a dozen saints4 ,an archiepiscopal cross1 if terminating in a crucifix1 is carried with the figure facing the prelate1 not as in the case of a processional cross2 but one of those anciently used at ,canterbury had two crucifixes1 one in front and one behind4 ,the double-crossed staff1 suggesting the cross with its superscription1 which is heraldically assigned to patriarchs1 never came actually into use in the west1 although it has been employed in ,greece4 ,the triple cross of the ,pope is a modern invention1 without ritual authority4 ,from the distinctive sign of an ,archbishop's authority to the ,pectoral ,cross worn by him in common with other bishops1 is a natural transition4 ,it early became customary for a prelate to wear about his neck a reliquary which often contained a fragment of the true ,cross1 and1 as being intended for a religious purpose1 was frequently cruciform4 ,from this usage it has been supposed sprang the practice of bishops wearing a cross suspended on the breast1 hence called a pectoral cross4 ,we have instances of its common use long before it began to be reckoned as one of the regular ornaments of a bishop or a mitred abbot4 ,s4 ,gregory of ,tours is said to have worn such a cross1 as also did ,pope ,leo ,,iii4 in #haa1 and ,s4 ,alphege of ,canterbury in #ajab2 the pectoral cross worn by ,s4 ,cuthbert1 ,bishop of ,lindisfarne in #fhe1 is still preserved at ,durham1 and its design1 a curious type of ,greek cross1 forms the principal charge in the arms of that ,university4 ,innocent ,,iii4 7#aaih-abaf7 is the first to mention this as one of the recognised episcopal insignia1 and by the fourteenth century special prayers were prescribed to be said on putting it on1 with the rest of the episcopal habit4 ,it was about this time also that it became usual for priests1 when in their full vestments1 to wear the stole crosswise on the breast4 ,in each case the cross-bearing required of a disciple of ,christ is symbolized1 but in the case of the bishop the breast-plate of the high priest is also alluded to4 ,in this connection it may be worth while to make passing mention of a strange society of early monks referred to by ,cassian1 who1 with more zeal than knowledge1 interpreted the exhortation of our ,lord literally1 and wore constantly about their necks heavy wooden crosses4 ,the full and solemn ritual for the consecration of a church1 as still used throughout the major part of ,christendom1 involves a frequent use of the sacred sign4 ,by a law of ,justinian1 the building of a church might not be undertaken until the bishop of the diocese had visited the proposed site1 and fixed thereon with solemn prayer the precious cross4 ,on the completion of the building1 there is made in ashes on the floor a cross of the shape known as ,s4 ,andrew's1 and twelve crosses are marked on the inside of its walls1 and often twelve more on the outside1 five more being cut on the slab1 or mensa1 of the altar4 ,these mural crosses1 having during the ceremony of consecration been anointed by the bishop1 are afterwards either cut in the stone or traced in colour4 ,one such in colour still exists in the ,palace ,chapel at ,chichester1 and in the cathedral are others cut in the walls of two of the chapels3 at ,salisbury1 ,ottery1 and elsewhere examples of an ornamental character are found1 and two of the external crosses may still be seen at ,exeter4 ,high upon a buttress of the ,parish ,church of ,costock1 near ,loughborough1 in ,nottinghamshire1 is a stone showing on each of its two exposed faces a cross of an elegant interlaced design1 somewhat of the kind usually found in old ,irish sculptures4 ,these1 however1 can scarcely be consecration crosses2 the stone is possibly the head of some ancient shaft1 as it is almost certainly not now in its original position4 ,these crosses do not occur before the eleventh century4 ,two further instances only of the ritual use of the material cross need be noticed4 ,the first is the custom1 somewhat obscure and perhaps never common1 of burying in graves a metal cross inscribed with a papal absolution4 ,specimens of these have been found at several places on the ,continent1 and in ,england at ,bury ,s4 ,edmund's and at ,chichester4 ,it may have been a custom cognate to this use of ,crosses of ,absolution to which ,cartwright1 the ,puritan antagonist of ,archbishop ,whitgift1 refers when1 in complaining of the contemporary funeral rites1 he speaks of a cross1 white or black1 set upon the dead corpse4 ,the other ceremony1 which must not be omitted1 is that pathetic part of the solemnities of ,good ,friday1 which used to be known in ,england as ,creeping to the ,cross4 ,this rite1 which consists in kneeling before a crucifix laid before the altar and kissing it1 boasts a very early origin4 ,an epistle of ,paulinus shows that it was practised in ,jerusalem in the fourth century4 ,alcuin1 the friend and adviser of ,charlemagne1 who was born at ,york about #gdj1 mentions it2 and the ,canons of ,a,elfric in #ieg bid the faithful to greet ,god's rood with a kiss4 ,in #abef1 the ,bishop of ,sarum1 ,giles de ,bridport1 enjoined all parishioners throughout his diocese thus to venerate the cross1 making an offering according to their ability at the same time1 and he even forbade them to communicate on ,easter ,day unless they had done so4 ,at the ,reformation ,creeping to the ,cross proved the ground of much discussion between the more moderate and the extreme men4 ,those reformers who had become most strongly tinged with foreign ,protestantism from frequent intercourse with ,geneva clamoured for its abolition1 along with other ceremonies which they disliked4 ,there is still extant the order of precedence1 which was drawn up to regulate the approach of ,henry ,,viii4 and his court to the ,crucifix1 and a proclamation by that monarch specifies this rite as one that was to be maintained4 ,in #aedf its abolition was suggested1 upon which ,thomas ,cranmer wrote to the ,king1 ,that if the honouring of the cross1 as creeping and kneeling thereunto be taken away it shall seem to many that be ignorant1 that the honour of ,christ is taken away1 for1 as he says elsewhere1 we humble ourselves to ,christ herein1 offering unto ,him1 and kissing the cross in memory of our redemption by ,christ on the ,cross4 ,in #aedh1 under ,edward ,,vi41 a royal proclamation announced that no proceedings were in future to be taken against any persons who omitted sundry ceremonies hitherto customary1 the creeping being one4 ,in #aedi1 on similar authority1 it was forbidden2 and ,ridley1 ,bishop of ,london1 in his injunctions to his diocese in #aeej1 enforced the prohibition4 ,yet the custom did not at once die out1 and in the sister kingdom of ,scotland1 it was practised1 according to a letter from ,latimer to ,sir ,w4 ,cecil1 at ,dunbar1 on ,good ,friday1 in #aefh4 ,a somewhat similar ceremony is observed in the ,greek ,church on ,holy ,cross ,day2 a crucifix is placed in a basket of flowers before the altar1 and each member of the congregation1 after reverently kissing it1 takes a flower1 and makes an offering in money4 ,a reference to those ,holy ,days1 which have been specially dedicated to a commemoration of the ,cross will appropriately close this chapter1 the consideration of altar crosses1 roods1 and others which serve rather as fitting ornaments of churches than as adjuncts to their ritual1 being left to form another section4 ,the ,feast of the ,invention 7or ,finding7 of the ,cross1 which occurs on ,may #crd1 commemorates1 as its name implies1 the recovery of the ,true ,cross by ,s4 ,helena4 ,it is said to have been instituted by ,pope ,sylvester ,i41 who died in #cce1 but there is no positive evidence of its observance before the eighth century4 ,holy ,cross ,day1 or the ,feast of the ,exaltation of the ,cross1 is held in the ,west as of less honour than the feast just named1 but in the ,east it is regarded with special reverence4 ,it commemorates1 according to some1 the apparition of the ,cross to ,constantine1 but according to others the consecration of the ,church built by that ,emperor to receive the ,true ,cross4 ,it was certainly observed in ,constantinople in the days of the ,patriarch ,eutychius1 who died about #ehb4 ,on this day in #fbi1 the ,emperor ,heraclius came in solemn pilgrimage to ,jerusalem to restore to the ,church there that wood of the ,cross1 which he had recovered from ,chosroes2 this event added great lustre to the festival1 and a memorial of it has since been added to the earlier commemoration4 ,both these holy days have been retained in the calendar of the ,english ,church4 ,the ,greek and ,ethiopian ,churches celebrate on ,may #gth a miraculous apparition of the ,cross at ,jerusalem in the year #cdf4 ,not unconnected with the observance of stated days as festivals of the ,cross is the custom of dedicating churches under the name of ,s4 ,cross1 that is1 of course1 ,holy ,cross1 or ,holy ,rood4 ,the instance of the famous ,abbey and ,palace at ,edinburgh will at once occur to all2 other cases are found at ,caermarthen and ,bettws-y-,grog in ,wales1 and in ,england at ,southampton1 ,thruxton1 ,swindon1 ,malling1 and a few other places4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,the ,cross as an ,ornament of the ,church and its ,precincts4 ,a very natural sequence from the custom1 which1 as we have seen1 early arose of using the sign of the cross in almost all forms of blessing1 was the fancy for making articles of church furniture cruciform1 or of marking them with a cross4 ,as a matter of fact the only place where the sacred sign might not be placed was on the floor1 lest anyone should trample on it2 an exception to this rule1 in the blue cross on the ground at the west end of ,durham ,cathedral1 was intended as a boundary1 and is therefore an exception only in the letter1 not in the spirit1 since it was assumed that no one would step on or over it4 ,scarcely had ,christianity achieved its victory over the empire than churches began to arise1 which proclaimed by their shape the faith to the service of which they were dedicated4 ,those built by ,constantine himself at ,rome1 the ancient ,s4 ,peter's1 ,s4 ,paul-without-the-walls1 and ,s4 ,maria ,maggiore1 were all cruciform1 as also was the splendid ,church of the ,apostles which he built at ,constantinople2 and this ground-plan1 whether the form chosen were the ,greek or the ,latin ,cross1 began1 especially in cathedrals and other large churches1 to supplant the simple parallelogram of the basilica4 ,evagrius tells us that the church which enshrined the pillar on which ,s4 ,simeon ,stylites practised his austerities was constructed in the form of a cross1 adorned with colonnades on the four sides4 ,s4 ,edward the ,confessor is reputed to have been the first to introduce cruciform churches into ,england1 in the erection of his famous abbey at ,westminster4 ,the same historian just named1 ,evagrius1 who wrote in the sixth century1 records that ,chosroes1 who1 though a heathen1 had a ,christian wife1 gave to ,gregory1 ,patriarch of ,antioch1 among other things1 a cross to be fixed upon the holy table2 and ,sozomen1 earlier still1 refers to crosses lying upon the altar4 ,the primitive ages1 however1 knew nothing1 unless in an exceptional case1 of any permanent ornaments upon their altars1 yet a cross seems to have been sometimes hung above1 or placed beside them1 in very early days4 ,in this1 as in other matters already dealt with1 the suggestion rather than the representation of the ,saviour's sacrifice probably came first in the development of ,christian art4 ,thus ,s4 ,paulinus of ,nola1 writing about the year #djj1 describes a cross in front of an altar erected by ,s4 ,felix2 it had beside it the ,alpha and ,omega1 around it a crown or nimbus1 and a white lamb was placed beneath4 ,the cross did not become an indispensible ornament of the altar until the tenth century1 and down to the fourteenth century it was invariably brought in1 with the two candles1 by acolytes immediately before mass1 and removed at its conclusion4 ,the ,venerable ,bede gives one of the earliest1 if not absolutely the first1 mention of an altar cross in ,england1 when he relates how ,paulinus1 when forced in #fcc to retire from ,northumbria into ,kent1 took with him a large gold cross and a golden chalice dedicated to the use of the altar4 ,s4 ,cuthbert a little later erected one in his oratory at ,lindisfarne1 and ,aldhelm1 ,bishop of ,sherborne1 who died in #gji1 speaks in one of his verses of a cross at the altar gleaming with plates of gold and silver1 and decked with gems4 ,coming to later times1 it is on record that ,ethelwold1 ,bishop of ,winchester from #ajjf to #ajad1 gave a splendid gold cross to the altar of ,s4 ,etheldreda in the cathedral1 and that ,s4 ,margaret of ,scotland presented to a church a crucifix1 on which was a figure of pure gold4 ,the foreign ,protestants1 whose interference was so manifest in most of the extremer courses taken by the ,english ,reformers1 held very strong views as to the unlawfulness of altar crosses1 and especially of crucifixes4 ,writing from ,zurich on ,march #bjth1 #aefj1 ,peter ,martyr says1 to have the image of the ,crucifix upon the holy table at the administration of the ,lord's ,supper1 ,i do not count among things indifferent1 nor would ,i recommend any man to distribute the sacraments with that rite1 444 neither ,master ,bullinger nor myself count such things as matters of indifference1 but we reject them as forbidden4 ,master ,bullinger speaks for himself in a letter of ,may #ast1 #aeff4 ,i could never approve1 he says1 of your officiating1 if so commanded1 at an altar laden1 rather than adorned1 with the image of ,him that was crucified4 ,the matter was thought sufficiently important to form the subject of a conference1 as we learn from a letter written by ,jewel1 ,bishop of ,salisbury1 to ,peter ,martyr4 ,this controversy about the ,crucifix1 he writes1 is now at its height4444 ,a disputation upon this subject will take place to-morrow4 ,the moderators will be persons selected by the council4 ,the disputants on our side are the ,archbishop of ,canterbury and ,cox2 and on the other1 ,grindal1 the bishop of ,london1 and myself4 ,the discussion took place in the spring of #aefj1 and apparently resulted in favour of the ,protestants1 although the sympathies of the ,queen1 as we learn from a letter addressed by ,sampson1 ,bishop of ,worcester1 to ,martyr1 were on the other side4 ,the directing force in this iconoclastic movement was evidently ,genevan1 and it would appear to have been ,genevan only1 for it is well known that the ,lutheran ,churches of ,germany retain the ,crucifix above the altar4 ,in ,england1 also1 the attempt was only temporally successful4 ,at the coronation of ,charles ,i4 a crucifix was placed on the altar1 and the use of at least a cross is now practically universal4 ,without question the most striking cross used in the decoration of a church is the great ,crucifix1 or rood1 placed on the chancel screen1 generally with the figures of the ,blessed ,virgin and ,s4 ,john the ,evangelist as supporters4 ,naturally an ornament of this kind presupposes not only a certain fearlessness on the part of the church in publicly displaying her sacred symbols1 but also a command of the resources of wealth and an advanced state of art4 ,we are therefore quite prepared to find that the rood was not a very early addition to the adornment of a church4 ,we read1 indeed1 of some comparatively early instances in which the figure of the ,crucified ,lord was painted on the ceiling of the choir1 or of the apsidal sanctuary2 an example of which exists in ,ravenna1 in which the ,saviour is robed in eucharistic vestments1 and is accompanied by ,s4 ,michael and ,s4 ,gabriel4 ,the cross upon the screen1 however1 is not traced further back than the eighth century1 and the rood with its full complement of figures and lights can claim only a mediaeval date4 ,it lies beyond the scope of our subject to discuss the development of the choir-screen1 from the curtains once hung before the altar to the broad and solid gateways of carved stone1 built beneath the chancel arch1 or even further west4 ,eventually these became a universal feature in church architecture2 of wood usually in parish churches1 of stone in the larger collegiate churches1 in abbeys1 and in cathedrals4 ,fine examples exist in ,england2 at ,york1 ,lincoln1 ,exeter1 ,wells1 ,canterbury1 ,bristol1 ,southwell1 ,ripon1 ,christchurch 7,hampshire71 ,tattershall 7,lincolnshire71 and elsewhere2 but the parish churches1 which had timber screens1 have naturally not been successful in preserving for us so many examples as we have of the more solid erections1 though we have1 even of them1 many of which we may be proud4 ,when complete these screens had a broad gallery or loft at the top1 access to which was obtained by a winding stair at one1 or sometimes at each1 end4 ,in several places1 as at ,lavenham 7,suffolk71 ,s4 ,martin's1 ,stamford 7,lincolnshire71 ,wells 7,norfolk71 and ,long ,melford 7,suffolk71 the external turret which contained this stair still remains2 in other cases1 as at ,alford in ,lincolnshire1 a massive pillar was pierced to find room for the steps4 ,each side of this gallery was protected by a balustrade1 and on the western side1 fronting the nave1 stood the rood1 a crucifix often of life-size1 or even larger1 the cross being decorated with the apocalyptical emblems of the evangelists at the four extremities1 and richly painted2 a tree of life and glory to us1 though to the ,redeemer a tree of shame and death4 ,on either hand stood figures of the ,madonna and of ,s4 ,john the ,divine1 and sometimes beneath the cross a smaller effigy of the patron saint of the church was placed4 ,on great festivals a multitude of lights blazed along the rood-loft1 which1 with all its accessories1 became the most impressive object in the church4 ,a few examples of early rood-screens1 with or without the loft1 may be quoted4 ,a wooden screen1 surmounted by a cross1 was erected at ,tyre by ,paulinus1 and a stone one1 said to date from the fourth century1 still stands at ,tepekerman2 and a third has been preserved from the time of ,justinian in the church of ,s4 ,catherine1 on ,mount ,sinai4 ,the ,church of the ,apostles1 ,constantinople1 had a screen of brass gilt1 and ,s4 ,sophia's a jewelled one1 which was copied at ,novgorod1 ,kieff1 and elsewhere in the ,east1 in the eleventh century4 ,the uses to which these elevated platforms were put were many and various4 ,those portions of the more solemn services which it was specially desired that the people should all hear were often declaimed from their summits4 ,at ,high ,mass the ,gospel was read thence1 a custom which survived in ,france until the great ,revolution4 ,public notice of the ,church's feasts and fasts was given from the loft1 and there the lessons were read4 ,down to the time of the introduction of pulpits at about the thirteenth century1 sermons were preached there4 ,the fine screen1 referred to above1 in ,tattershall ,church is corbelled out into a pulpit1 and has desks for books designed in the stone balustrade4 ,on occasions of special solemnity antiphons were sung and prayers said there1 such as the ,gradual and ,alleluia1 the ,prophecies before the ,epistle at the ,christmas ,midnight ,mass1 and the ,passion on ,palm ,sunday and ,good ,friday4 ,at ,constantinople the ,emperors were crowned in the rood-loft1 as also were the ,french ,kings till the time of ,charles ,x4 in the cathedral at ,rheims4 ,altars were sometimes erected on these screens1 and generally one or more was set against their western face4 ,in ,england certain roods obtained special celebrity1 and became the objects of pilgrimage from all parts of the country2 and in some cases the temptation to attract the people at almost any cost proved too much for the ecclesiastics in charge of them1 and led to practices which1 if truly reported1 no one would wish to defend4 ,such was the ,rood of ,grace at ,boxley ,abbey4 ,archbishop ,warham1 in a report on the monastic houses1 presented to ,king ,henry in #aeab1 pleads for the preservation of this abbey because the place is so much sought for from all parts of the realm visiting the ,rood of ,grace4 ,the foundation was1 nevertheless1 condemned1 and its revenues were granted in the thirty-second year of ,henry ,,viii4 to ,sir ,thomas ,wyat4 ,in dismantling the abbey church1 the movements of the figure on the rood which1 it is alleged1 were ascribed to a miracle1 were found to be controlled by concealed machinery4 ,when plucking down the images of the ,monastery of ,boxley1 writes the commissioner ,jeffrey ,chambers to ,thomas ,cromwell1 ,i found in the image of the ,rood of ,grace 444 certain engines and old wires and sticks4 ,the whole affair was carried off1 and on ,sunday1 ,february #bdth1 #aech1 was exhibited to the people at ,s4 ,paul's ,cross by ,hilsey1 ,bishop of ,rochester1 after his sermon4 ,it is only fair to add that it has been claimed that this mechanism was not employed for deception1 but that the figure was intended for use in miracle plays4 ,it is a partial support of this view that no one seems to have proceeded against either in the ecclesiastical or the civil courts in connection with the matter1 which must surely have been the case had the charge of deception been sincerely made and actually believed4 ,other famous roods were the ,rood of ,winchester and the very cross at ,ludlow1 there was also a noted one at ,s4 ,saviour's1 ,bermondsey1 and another at ,chester4 ,the last-named1 however1 was not in the church1 but on the spot called from it the ,roodee1 or ,roodeye4 ,it was here that the football was annually presented to the ,mayor for the ,easter game at ,chester4 ,at ,durham was preserved the ,black ,rood of ,scotland1 a silver crucifix which was blackened by the smoke of the innumerable tapers burnt before it1 after it was placed in the northern cathedral4 ,charges such as that made concerning the ,rood at ,boxley were1 whether true or false1 only too readily welcomed as an excuse for an attack on all roods at the ,reformation4 ,that one case in special seems1 indeed1 to have been made the most of in the controversy4 ,calfhill refers to it in his answer1 published in #aefe1 to ,martial's book in defence of the ,cross2 and ,peterson1 ,finch1 and ,partridge1 all ,english ,protestants in correspondence with ,geneva1 allude to it in their letters4 ,a general destruction of roods took place in the autumn of #aedg1 when ,heylin tells us the image of ,christ1 best known by the name of the rood1 together with the images of ,mary and ,john1 and all other images in the church of ,s4 ,paul1 ,london1 were taken down1 as also in all other churches in ,london4 ,at ,all ,hallows1 ,staining1 the loft itself was pulled down1 and the roodloft hangings sold for #abs4 in #aeej4 ,under ,queen ,mary the work of destruction was of course stayed1 and in some cases the damage was even repaired4 ,thus1 at the church just named1 a new crucifix was purchased in #aeed at the cost of ,l#f #cs41 and the parishoners of ,s4 ,pancras1 ,soper ,lane1 were warned in ,october1 #aeee1 that their rood1 with all its figures1 was to be reinstated by ,candlemas4 ,the parish accounts of ,s4 ,helen's1 ,abingdon1 for the same year1 contain several entries concerning a similar restoration3-- ,payd for making the roode and peynting the same1 #e #d ,for making the roode lyghtes1 #aj #f ,payed for peynting the roode1 of ,mary and ,john1 and the patron of the ,church1 #f #j ,entries of a like kind are to be found in the accounts of ,s4 ,mary ,hill1 ,london1 for the same year1 and in those of ,s4 ,giles's1 ,reading1 for #aeeh4 ,then came the revived iconoclasm of the days of ,elizabeth4 ,reading pulled down for #d;d4 in #aefj1 what had cost #djs4 to put up two years before4 ,john ,rial spent three days in destroying the rood at ,s4 ,margaret's1 ,westminster1 in #aeei1 and was paid #bs4 #h;d4 for his services2 and carpenters and others1 taking down the rood-loft and stopping the holes in the wall where the joices stood at ,s4 ,helen's1 ,abingdon1 received in #aefa1 the sum of #aes4 #h;d4 ,but the unaccountable hatred which the fanaticism of the time felt towards these sacred symbols1 was not satisfied with their mere removal2 nothing less than their destruction with every mark of violence and indignity was enough4 ,crucifixes were brought to ,smithfield and to ,s4 ,paul's ,churchyard1 and there broken to pieces and burnt to ashes1 and together with these in some places copes1 also vestments1 altar-cloaths1 etc4 ,the rood with its images from ,s4 ,andrew's ,holborn1 was burnt to ashes1 and that from ,s4 ,margaret's1 ,westminster1 was destroyed by cleaving and sawing it4 ,such rage and violence towards the effigy of the ,saviour reads more like an account of the ribald and blasphemous paganism of the ,french ,revolution1 than a record of the acts of men claiming a burning desire for pure religion4 ,who can picture a sincerely ,christian devotion hacking and hewing at the statue of the ,redeemer8 ,amongst the magnificent roods destroyed about this time must be reckoned that at ,s4 ,mary ,hill1 ,london1 the figures from which were sold in the reign of ,edward ,,vi4 ,the cross was of wood1 plated with silver gilt1 and the images of silver1 and at the base of the cross was a crystal engraved with the ,holy name1 and the five wounds of the ,lord were marked with rubies4 ,it was1 perhaps1 in the hope of making assurance doubly sure that the ecclesiastical commissioners on the #ajth ,october1 in the third year of ,elizabeth1 ordered the removal of all rood-lofts4 ,it is thus decreed and ordered1 that the rood-lofts as yet being at this day aforesaid untransposed1 shall be so altered that the upper parts of the same1 with the soller 7loft71 be quite taken down unto the upper parts of the vaults and beams1 running in length over the said vaults1 by putting some convenient crest upon the said beam1 towards the church4 ,that this order was fully carried out the visitation questions of ,archbishop ,grindal and other similar documents1 as well as the state of every ancient screen left to us1 clearly show4 ,it must not1 however1 be imagined that ,england has been alone in losing these objects of art and of devotion4 ,rood-screens1 once as commonly found in ,france as amongst ourselves1 are now as commonly absent from the ordinary parish churches1 although in many instances suspended crucifixes have to some extent filled their place4 ,the lust for destroying1 which was such a passion of the ,revolutionary era in that country1 is largely answerable for this4 ,the great ,abbey of ,s4 ,ouen1 at ,rouen1 once possessed a splendid rood-loft1 ascended by twin circular stairs2 it was pierced by brass gates of elaborate design1 and surmounted by a crucifix whose top stood sixty feet from the pavement4 ,it was defaced in #aefb by the ,french ,protestants1 or ,calvinists1 and destroyed by the revolutionary faction in #agia4 ,the ,cathedral of ,alby still has a fine loft similar to the one which existed at ,rouen1 and ,louvain has one also of great dignity4 ,in recent years an extraordinary revival of rood-screens1 adorned with all their proper and ancient images1 and even provided with lofts1 has taken place in ,england4 ,amongst well-known ,london churches1 ,s4 ,peter's1 ,eaton ,square1 has recently been adorned with a fine metal screen surmounted by a cross and the figures of six angels1 and ,s4 ,paul's1 ,knightsbridge1 with a complete rood-screen2 but instances of this are now indeed common4 ,as an illustration of the revival of the loft1 together with the other details of the ancient screen1 amongst village churches in the single county of ,york1 ,womersley1 ,cantley1 and ,sledmere have all in recent years been thus enriched4 ,certainly few architectural features add more solemnity and dignity to a sacred building than a well-proportioned and well-designed screen1 crowned by the representation of the ,great ,sacrifice4 ,the marking with a cross by engraving1 embroidery1 or otherwise of almost all articles used in the sacred offices1 calls for little comment1 being largely a matter of taste merely4 ,it has long been usual to enrich the stole and maniple with three crosses1 one in the centre and one at each end2 most of the linen used at the altar is also similarly marked4 ,the old ,english chasubles usually had a cross on the back in the form of a ,y1 the ,continental ones have a ,roman ,cross4 ,the ,imitatio ,christi refers to these chasubles1 and explains their form thus3 the priest has before him and behind him the sign of the cross of his ,lord1 that he may continually bear in mind ,christ's ,passion4 ,before him he bears the cross on his chasuble1 that he may diligently look at the footsteps of ,christ1 and fervently endeavour to tread in them4 ,behind him on his back he is signed with the cross1 that he may meekly endure for ,christ's sake any trials which others may bring upon him4 ,this passage has a literary interest in that it has been imported into the controversy concerning the disputed authorship of that famous book of devotion4 ,the work has been ascribed to ,gerson1 ,chancellor of ,paris1 as well as to ,thomas a ,kempis2 but ,cardinal ,garganelli argued that neither the ,frenchman or the ,german could have written it1 but that the honour belongs to ,gerson1 ,abbot of ,vercelli2 one of his arguments being that the ,italian vestments only had the cross both on front and back1 those used elsewhere bearing it behind only4 ,the curious dissembled cross1 the fylfot1 early used with various mystical meanings by the faithful1 became a not uncommon form with which to impress church bells in some districts1 especially in ,yorkshire1 ,lincolnshire1 and ,derbyshire4 ,it is alleged to have been thought a charm against lightning4 ,the cross has long been used in two very natural ways outside the fabric of the church4 ,as the church in the midst of the clustered houses is itself a setting forth of the faith1 so it follows1 almost as a matter of course1 that it should uprear the symbol of that faith as prominently as possible4 ,thus the tall spire1 the church's finger1 heavenward pointing1 holds aloft a cross4 ,at ,amiens is an example dating from #aebf1--;a long life for a piece of metalwork in so exposed a position4 ,the stone crown which caps the tower of ,s4 ,giles's1 ,edinburgh1 originally had a bold cross above it1 as shewn in old engravings4 ,the other use referred to1 is the erection of churchyard crosses4 ,standing in ,god's acre1 surrounded by the heaving turf in many a mouldering heap1 where rest those who have died in faith1 and sleep in hope1--what can be more natural than the symbol of the ,christian's faith1 the anchor of his hope8 ,that this has been felt to be the case is abundantly shown by the use of this form in memorials of the dead1 as in the shape or the adornment of tombstones and sepulchral slabs4 ,in an illuminated copy of the ,english pre-,reformation ,offices1 preserved by a ,lancashire family1 is a painting of an ,english graveyard of the fifteenth century1 where we see the tall stone cross reared amidst the simple wooden crosses which mark the several graves4 ,one of the most striking examples of the churchyard cross now left in the country1 stands on the south side of ,somersby ,church1 in ,lincolnshire4 ,it has a tall octagonal shaft1 with an embattled capital rising from a square base to a height of fifteen feet4 ,the cross1 which is protected by a slight embattled canopy or gable1 has on the one side a crucifixion1 and on the other the ,madonna with the ,holy ,child4 ,it is supposed to date from about the middle of the fifteenth century4 ,other crosses1 somewhat similar in design1 though none more light and graceful in construction1 are found in several places4 ,at ,cricklade are two examples1 one in ,s4 ,mary's churchyard1 and the other in ,s4 ,sampson's2 each consists of a tall shaft1 mounted on steps1 and crowned with tabernacle work4 ,the niches in ,s4 ,mary's cross are filled with figures1 but those of ,s4 ,sampson's have been despoiled of theirs4 ,the latter of these two is not strictly a churchyard cross1 having been removed in recent times from the main street of ,cricklade to its present site4 ,another of these tall crosses is found in ,bitterley churchyard1 ,shropshire2 the shaft is octagonal1 and the tabernacle with its crucifixion is a good example of its kind4 ,at ,ampney ,crucis1 near ,cirencester1 is a very bold and solid specimen1 the tabernacle of which is larger1 in proportion to its shaft1 than those already described4 ,s4 ,ives and ,lanteglos in ,cornwall have interesting crosses in their churchyards4 ,in each case the cross had been taken down and buried near the church1 perhaps by some pious souls anxious to preserve them at the time when so many of their fellows were ruthlessly destroyed4 ,they were rebuilt some forty years ago4 ,the ,s4 ,ives cross1 which is ten feet six inches in height1 is the plainer1 the massive shaft being1 as is often the case1 a simple unadorned hexagon1 while the alternate faces of the example at ,lanteglos1 which is of about the same height1 are elaborately carved4 ,the almost cubic head of each is cut into niches1 containing a crucifixion and the figures of saints4 ,other instances of churchyard crosses in ,cornwall are found at ,s4 ,buryan1 ,s4 ,levan1 ,gwinear1 ,s4 ,erth1 ,sancreed1 ,s4 ,paul1 ,illogan1 ,lelant1 ,cury1 ,ludgran1 ,gulval1 and a few other places4 ,these1 for the most part1 are roughly hewn crucifixes1 of from four to six feet in height2 but those at ,sancreed and at ,s4 ,erth are taller1 the latter being a ruder specimen of the type found at ,s4 ,ives and ,lanteglos1 and the former a crucifix of a primitive sort with some simple designs cut on the body of the cross4 ,a good example of the characteristic ,cornish cross1 of little height and decorated with an interlaced pattern resembling wicker-work1 is in the churchyard at ,s4 ,columb4 ,one of the best known crosses in the country is the one in the churchyard of the little village of ,eyam1 in ,derbyshire1 celebrated for its tragic experience of the plague4 ,it is a fine specimen of a ,saxon cross1 with scrolls on the shaft1 and figures in the arms and on the centre4 ,it had long lain in fragments in a corner near the church1 when ,john ,howard1 the philanthropist1 seeing it1 got it rebuilt2 to him1 therefore1 it may be considered a lasting and fitting memorial4 ,bakewell1 in the same county1 has another cross originally of the same type1 but now much mutilated4 ,a very curious example of the ,runic cross stands in the churchyard at ,nevern1 in ,pembroke4 ,on a tall and substantial shaft1 which slightly tapers towards the top1 is placed a small cross surrounded by a circle1 the whole being covered with interlaced carvings of a semi-barbaric kind4 ,a very curious form of churchyard cross is seen at ,romsey ,abbey1 a fine late ,norman building2 a large crucifix of antique type is let into the outside wall of the south transept2 the feet of the ,redeemer lie side by side1 and above is the ,father's hand--marks of antiquity as we have seen4 ,illustration3 ,,eyam ,,cross1 ,,derbyshire4 ,all over the country1 remains of ancient churchyard crosses exist4 ,at ,dindar1 and at ,north ,petherton1 in ,somersetshire1 are graceful shafts from which the tabernacled heads have disappeared2 at ,crowle1 in ,lincolnshire1 is a short shaft on steps1 which now supports a sun-dial2 at ,bebbington1 in ,cheshire1 the base alone is left4 ,and so the catalogue of battered fragments might be continued1 through every county in ,england4 ,in their perfect state1 these churchyard crosses often witnessed to the artistic feeling of our ancestors1 and always to their sincere faith2 are we driven to draw as a moral from their ruins1 that we have fallen as far behind them in the latter1 as it will hardly be denied we have in the former8 ,in recent years something has been done to repair the losses of the past in this respect4 ,it has been pointed out above that several of the crosses as we have them now1 such as those at ,eyam1 at ,s4 ,ives1 and at ,lanteglos1 are the carefully rebuilt fragments of antiquity4 ,but besides these1 some new churchyard crosses have recently been erected1 proving the revival of the ancient feeling of their fitness4 ,quite recently the old base of a cross at ,east ,brent1 in ,somersetshire1 has been crowned with the addition of an impressive stone crucifix1 intended as a memorial of the long incumbency of the late ,archdeacon ,denison4 ,at ,harburton1 in ,devonshire1 is a new cross1 designed after the best ancient type1 with a tabernacled head surmounted by a short crocketed spire2 the carvings represent1 on the four sides1 the ,crucifixion1 the ,epiphany1 and ,s4 ,andrew1 and ,s4 ,bartholomew4 ,hickleton ,churchyard1 in ,yorkshire1 and other places1 have also had crosses re-erected in them in recent years2 as at ,broadwood ,widger1 near ,launceston1 where an ancient cross has been recovered from secular use1 and placed in the churchyard4 ,the churchyard crosses1 besides exciting the devotion of the faithful1 as they passed amid the sleeping dead to prayer1 were often used as fitting places for the performance of penances1 and hence were sometimes called ,weeping ,crosses4 ,another name1 ,palm ,crosses1 marks the fact that the ,palm ,sunday procession in passing round the church made a station at the churchyard cross1 which was for the nonce adorned with palm-branches1 or more strictly with yew or willow1 which in mediaeval ,england generally served as substitutes for the oriental palm4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,public ,crosses4 ,that the ages of faith considered religion foreign to no department of life1 is in nowise more strikingly shown than by the public use of the emblem of ,christianity4 ,our forefathers held it as the fittest of all ornaments1 not for the ,church only1 but for every place where ,christian men were found4 ,over five thousand crosses1 it is said1 existed at one time in the public places of ,england2--in the obscure village churchyard and the busy mart1 the lonely highway and the crowded city thoroughfare4 ,precisely how many of these now remain1 it would be difficult to say2 but certainly only a small proportion exists in anything like the original state4 ,some have survived as mere shafts1 beautiful still in many cases1 but shorn of almost all meaning by the loss of the one member that gave them a being and a name4 ,in other cases an unsightly stump1 a useless flight of steps1 a few worn stones1 an ancient place-name1 or a bare tradition1 keep alive the memory of the ,cross1 now desecrated or destroyed4 ,the ceaseless beating of the tide of time is responsible for much of this decay1 which the local authorities1 in carelessness or ignorance1 have been guilty in too many instances of watching without attempting to retard2 and in not a few cases the whole structure has at last been taken down simply to avoid the cost and trouble of needful repair4 ,modern improvements in the streets of our towns have cost us several examples that could ill be spared4 ,it would be as foolish as futile to decry the opening out of narrow thoroughfares to the sweet influences of sun and air1 or to grumble when growing towns make due provision for growing traffic2 yet one cannot but regret the many ancient landmarks that these changes have swept away1 nor can one doubt that1 had a proper appreciation of their worth been felt1 some means might have been found to preserve most of them4 ,but after all it was the bigotry of the ,puritan epoch which robbed us of the greater part of our public crosses1 just as it was the narrow views imported into the ,reformation movement from foreign sources that were chiefly answerable for the disappearance of our roods and other church crosses4 ,some method of classification being needful in treating of the various kinds of crosses1 one has been adopted here which is practically useful1 rather than strictly accurate4 ,churchyard crosses1 included in the preceding chapter1 form a division sufficiently distinct2 others1 which specially commemorate some person or event1 as do the ,eleanor ,crosses and that at ,neville's ,cross1 near ,durham1 will compose another class to be considered in the next chapter1 as memorial crosses4 ,in our present one attention is called to those which were public1 in the exclusive sense of being used for public purposes1 such as markets1 royal proclamations1 and preaching2 and finally1 under the names of roadside and boundary crosses1 will be included many stone crosses which cannot be grouped under any of these heads4 ,it is confessed that this classification is not scientific1 inasmuch as the classes are not in all cases mutually exclusive4 ,no doubt several of the market crosses1 besides serving the usual purposes of such structures1 enshrined the memories of departed worthies2 and unquestionably many village and roadside crosses were originally erected as preaching places for the brothers of some neighbouring monastery1 or for the use of itinerant friars4 ,for practical purposes1 however1 the above division of the subject will be found to serve4 ,to notice every cross of this public sort which has at some time adorned the streets and market-places of ,great ,britain1 even if it were possible1 would be after all the compiling of a mere tedious catalogue4 ,it will be more interesting to take a few of the more important ones as types1 referring to the others as occasion may arise4 ,for such a purpose no example can suit us better as illustrating the secular and civil uses to which these structures were put than the ,market ,cross1 or ,mercat ,croce1 of the northern capital4 ,this venerable erection might indeed be truly named1 borrowing an ,american expression1 the hub of ,scotland1 round which for centuries has revolved the history1 not of ,edinburgh only1 but of the whole kingdom4 ,it seems not improbable that the original of this cross belonged to the class of well-crosses to be referred to hereafter1 and may have been placed there by the earliest teachers of the faith in the district1 an old well existing not far from the present site under the name of the cross-well4 ,but no certain allusion to a cross standing here is found before the year #adcf1 when we read of the assassins of ,king ,james ,i4 of ,scotland meeting their punishment mounted on a pillar in the ,market ,place in ,edinburgh4 ,nearly three hundred years before this1 however 7in #aage71 ,william the ,lion ordered that all merchandisis salbe presentit at the mercat and mercat croce of burghis1 which may well be taken to imply that the first burgh in the kingdom was not at that time without its croce4 ,our next reference is in a ,charter of ,s4 ,giles' ,church1 dated #addg1 in which occur the words ex parte occidentali fori et crucis dicti burgi1 and its use as a ,market centre is clearly defined in a letter from ,james ,,iii4 to his citizens1 written in ,october #adgg1 in which he orders all pietricks1 pluvaris1 capones1 conyngs1 checkins1 and all other wyld foulis and tame to be usit and sald about the ,market ,croce and in na other place4 ,no data remain from which to reconstruct with any certainty the ancient cross in the original form4 ,the pillar of the cross now standing is the same as that named in the earliest historical notices of the structure1 perhaps even the very one that was first set up1 but whether it stood at the outset on an elevated platform as it now does and long has done1 or whether it surmounted a flight of steps in the way usual in ,england1 cannot be determined4 ,in the reign of ,james ,,iii4 great improvements were made in ,edinburgh4 ,the church of ,s4 ,giles1 for instance1 was enlarged and made collegiate1 and its independence of all but papal jurisdiction was guaranteed by a ,bull2 it seems therefore not improbable that the same royal patron of the arts added at that time dignity to the city cross by building the lofty stone platform from which it could more unquestionably dominate the market4 ,in #aeee some alterations were made in the structure1 which are described as bigging the rowme thereof1 which has been thought to imply that the open circles1 which probably first supported this platform1 were filled in so as to form the rowme4 ,the following extracts from the accounts of the city treasurer at any rate imply that the enclosed base1 entered beneath by a door1 was standing shortly after this date4 ,in #aefj we read ,item for ane band to ye ,croce dur1 ,item for mending of ye lok of ye ,croce dur2 and again in #aehd1 #e ,julii1 ,item1 ye sam day given for ane lok to ye ,croce duir1 and three keyis for it4 ,an old birds-eye view of the city as it appeared in #afdg shews the main outlines of the building to have been then very similar to what we see it to-day4 ,this type of cross was peculiarly ,scottish4 ,a similar one remains in good condition at ,prestonpans1 and another very fine one at ,aberdeen2 ,perth and ,dundee had similar ones now unfortunately destroyed1 and the capital itself had a second cross of like design in the ,canongate4 ,it may have been that the metropolitan cross was accepted as the model for the other burghs of the kingdom4 ,the treasurer's accounts cited above1 give evidence also of the early erection of another feature peculiar to the ,edinburgh cross1 namely the surmounting of it with the national emblem4 ,in #aehd1 is an entry1 ,payit to ,david ,williamson for making and upputting of the ,unicorn upon the head of the ,croce4 ,in the year #afag1 the ald croce1 was taken down and translated by the devise of certain mariners of ,leith1 from the place where it stood past the memory of man to a place beneath in the ,high ,street4 ,the stone for building the new substructure was brocht frae the ,deyne1 and on the #beth ,march the ,croce of ,edinburgh was put upon the new seat2 the total cost of its removal and re-erection being ,l#ddhf #es4 #f;d4 7,scots74 ,amid the ,puritan violence of the ,protectorate1 the cross was defaced1 among other things the ,royal arms were torn down1 and the crown that was on the unicorn was hung upon the gallows by these treacherous villains2 as a consequence the city accounts show payments for repairs to ,robert ,mylne1 a descendant of ,john ,mylne1 who had been one of the ,master measones at the re-erection4 ,at this time the cross1 or some part of it1 perhaps the heraldic carvings1 was adorned with colour1 a sum being given to ,george ,porteous for painting the ,croce4 ,on ,march #acth1 #agef1 the ,market ,cross of ,edinburgh was demolished4 ,some of the carved medallions which had decorated it passed years later into the hands of ,sir ,walter ,scott1 by whom they were built into a wall at ,abbotsford1 where they now are4 ,the pillar1 which was allowed to fall and break in the course of demolition1 was acquired by ,lord ,somerville1 who set it up near his house at ,drum4 ,the site was marked out with stones1 and a plain stone pillar was erected on the side of a well in ,high ,street1 adjacent to the place where the cross stood1 which1 by act of ,siderunt1 was declared to be the ,market ,cross of ,edinburgh from that period4 ,but even this was not allowed to remain long1 the chief argument for the removal both of it and of its great predecessor being the alleged obstruction which it offered to traffic4 ,efforts were made from time to time to persuade the city fathers to restore a structure so long and so intimately bound up with the national history1 and at last the pillar of the cross was brought back to ,edinburgh1 and placed upon a pedestal within the railings of ,st4 ,giles' ,church4 ,so matters were allowed to remain until #ahhe1 when by the generosity of the ,right ,hon4 ,w4 ,e4 ,gladstone1 then ,member of ,parliament for ,midlothian1 the original pillar was re-instated on a new and imposing base of the ancient type4 ,the following translation of the ,latin inscription which appears on one of its eight faces1 and which is dated the day whereon it was formally handed over to the ,corporation1 appropriately closes the record of the changes through which it has passed3 ,thanks be to ,god1 this ancient monument1 the ,cross of ,edinburgh1 devoted of old to public functions1 having been destroyed by evil hands in the year of our salvation1 #agef1 and having been avenged and lamented in song both noble and manly by that man of highest renown1 ,walter ,scott1 has now by permission of the city magistrates been rebuilt by ,william ,e4 ,gladstone1 who through both parents claims a descent entirely ,scottish4 ,november #bcrd in the year of grace #ahhe4 ,many were the ,scottish sovereigns who were greeted by their people at this1 the heart of their capital4 ,when ,james ,,iv4 brought home his bride1 ,margaret1 daughter of ,henry ,,vii4 of ,england1 a fountain at the ,cross ran wine for all to drink1 and a similar rejoicing took place when the ill-fated ,mary1 in #aefa1 made her public entry into the city from ,halyrud hous1 and again in #aeij1 when her son ,james ,,vi4 introduced his ,queen1 ,anne of ,denmark to the citizens4 ,of the many national and civic proclamations which have been made from ,edinburgh ,cross1 two stand out conspicuous in the history of the whole island of ,great ,britain4 ,the first1 in #aeac1 was a summons for a general muster of the ,scottish army for the invasion of ,england before the fatal field of ,flodden2 and the second was in #afjc1 when the ,lyon ,king-at-arms announced from that spot the death of ,elizabeth of ,england1 and the consequent union of the crowns of the two countries4 ,such part as the cross has played in the religious history of ,scotland1 is mostly concerned with the progress of the ,reformation in the north4 ,in #aeee ,john ,knox was burnt in effigy there1 having gone to ,geneva instead of answering a summons to appear before the ,bishops4 ,in #aefe a ,roman ,catholic priest1 for the enormity of having said mass on ,easter ,day at ,holyrood1 was tyed to the cross1 where he tarried the space of one hour1 during which time the boys served him with his ,easter egges2 and again on the following day he was set upon the ,market ,cross for the space of three or four hours1 the hangman standing by and keeping him1 while the populace again as on the former occasion displayed their godly zeal and christian charity4 ,in that stormy time for ,scotland1 the reigns of ,charles ,,ii4 and his brother ,james1 when politics and religion were so strangely and unfortunately intermingled1 that while the one party claimed to be punishing rebels1 the other felt that it was suffering martyrdom1 many1 including the ,duke of ,argyle and a hundred other persons of all ranks1 suffered death in ,edinburgh1 in most cases at the ,mercat ,croce4 ,england provides more than one instance in which1 as in the case of ,edinburgh1 the present generation has in some sort replaced the town cross1 hastily or heedlessly destroyed by a former age4 ,bristol once possessed a handsome market cross of the fourteenth century1 containing1 in niches1 statues of several ,english ,kings1 the whole work gorgeous in vermilion1 and blue1 and gold4 ,so late as #afcc1 the citizens1 to preserve it1 enclosed it with a railing and regilt it1 at the same time adding a new storey with four more statues4 ,yet in #agcc1 on the declaration of some neighbouring tradesman that it was a danger to his life and property1 it was entirely pulled down4 ,re-erected at private cost on ,college ,green1 it was actually demolished a second time1 a public subscription 7to the disgrace of ,bristol7 defraying the charges4 ,sir ,richard ,colt ,hoare1 having acquired the fragments1 rebuilt it in his park at ,stone ,head1 and a subsequent age has replaced it on the ,green with a copy of the original1 once so scornfully flung away4 ,glastonbury1 again1 has1 by the recent erection of a new cross1 made some reparation for its careless treatment of an old one4 ,its ancient market cross was one of the most curious in the country2 substantial1 simple1 and unadorned1 offering ample accommodation and shelter beneath its wide arches1 and with a certain quaint attraction in its curious gables4 ,on showing signs of decay1 its past services to the market folk were so far from pleading for it1 that it was abandoned to the plundering of local builders1 who coveted its time-honoured materials1 and not a recognizable vestige now remains4 ,its modern successor is1 as one expects of a nineteenth century erection1 perfectly conventional1 consisting of a column with canopied niches1 surmounted by a short spire4 ,gloucester boasted a market cross from the days of ,richard ,,iii4 to the year #agej--;an hexagonal tower-like structure garnished with statues1 but1 like ,edinburgh ,cross1 it was condemned as an obstruction1 and1 less fortunate than its comrade in misfortune1 has found no one to rebuild it4 ,another town in which the exigencies of modern business have been supposed to require the removal of a famous relic of the past is ,coventry1 whose cross must in its day have been one of the most ornate in the country4 ,this cross1 which ,sir ,william ,hollis reared in #aeda in the place of an earlier one1 was built on similar lines to one at ,abingdon1 which has also disappeared4 ,in form it was a hexagonal spire1 some sixty feet in height1 on a series of four steps1 covered with a mass of tracery and carving1 and containing a number of figures beneath canopies4 ,it was lavishly gilded1 and so solicitous were the authorities of preserving its gleaming bravery untarnished1 that a fine was imposed on any one who should presume to sweep the cheepinge1 or market1 without first watering it to lay the dust4 ,in #affh1 it was repaired and regilt at a cost of ,l#bgf1 but barely a century later it was razed to the ground1 and its memory is only kept alive by the presence of a few of its statues and some other fragments1 preserved variously in the neighbourhood4 ,abingdon ,cross was sawn down by the ,puritan soldiery of ,waller's army1 and the same brainless bigotry robbed ,chester of its ,high cross4 ,holbeach had a cross of unique plan1 consisting of a column supported by a pentagonal platform raised on arches1 which has disappeared2 as also has one at ,leicester1 and a boldly designed market cross at ,ipswich1 which must have been both useful and ornamental4 ,illustration3 ,,coventry ,,cross4 ,it is difficult for us to conceive how constantly these sculptured shafts and sheltering arches met the gaze of our forefathers at every turn in the older cities of ,england4 ,beside the splendid cross1 for instance1 just described1 ,coventry had at one time its ,swine's ,cross 7taken down about #agfc71 a second of the same name in another part of the town1 ,sponne ,cross1 ,hill ,cross1 ,jesus ,cross1 the ,maiden's ,cross1 and the ,new1 or ,queen's ,cross1 as well as others close at hand at ,radford and at ,whitley4 ,a similar case meets us in ,doncaster1 which once could boast of a ,butcher's ,cross 7destroyed in #agbe71 a ,butter ,cross 7removed to make room for the ,market ,house in #ahdf71 the ,northern ,cross1 the ,wheat1 or ,market ,cross1 the ,crosses of ,s4 ,james1 ,s4 ,sepulchre1 and ,maudlin 7,magdalen71 ,snorel ,cross1 and one in the churchyard4 ,not one of all this list remains1 ,doncaster's only example being the ,hall ,cross1 which will be referred to among the memorial crosses4 ,during the ,commonwealth1 with its temporary establishment of civil marriages1 this rite was solemnized1 if one may use the term in such a connection1 in ,doncaster at the ,wheat ,cross4 ,the ancient city of ,lincoln is another example of a place once rich in these memorials4 ,only a well-cross exists there to-day1 although its first ,bishop1 ,remigius1 built a town-cross1 his successor1 ,hugh de ,grenoble1 added others1 and yet others were erected by ,hugh de ,wells1 all of which1 as also an ancient ,high ,cross1 have gone4 ,amongst the ,market ,crosses still left to us1 a foremost place1 if not the first1 must be given to that of ,chichester4 ,this beautiful structure was reared by ,edward ,story1 bishop of the diocese from #adgh to #aejd1 who also left an estate1 valued at ,l#be per annum1 to keep it in repair1 and to provide wine at the ,cross annually on ,s4 ,george's ,day4 ,it is an octagon in plan1 and covers a space of some four hundred square feet4 ,crosses of this type1 of which ,malmesbury and ,salisbury provide other excellent examples1 are not only more beautiful1 but more useful1 than the solid decorated towers or spires1 such as the crosses of ,coventry and ,abingdon1 for the wide arches afford both shade and shelter to the market folk in summer heat or wintry rain and snow4 ,a cross which is almost a combination of the solid high-cross and the large covered type is found at ,shepton ,mallet1 having been erected by ,walter ,buckland and his wife in #aeje4 ,other examples of the covered cross exist at ,chipping ,campden1 in ,gloucestershire1 and at ,cheddar4 ,even in the narrower scope of the high cross1 an attempt was sometimes made to provide at least so much shelter as was possible under the circumstances1 as we see in the open lower story of the ,butter ,cross1 at ,winchester1 and of the curious pentagonal cross at ,leighton-,buzzard4 ,amid all the bustle of the busy market-place1 and perhaps above all times in this hurrying1 grasping age1 the old market cross stands with its message ever old1 yet ever needful1 for all who have ears to hear2 testifying that there are interests of more moment than buying and selling and getting gain1 and by its very antiquity speaking of the frailty of the life of man1 so many generations of whom have bargained and chaffered beneath its shadow1 and gone out one by one in long procession into the unknown ,infinite4 ,turning to those public crosses1 which were used chiefly1 though not quite exclusively1 for religious purposes and especially for preaching1 ,s4 ,paul's ,cross comes first by right both of the importance of its position1 and of the prominent part which it has played in the religious history of the country4 ,illustration3 ,,market ,,cross1 ,,chichester4 ,the original foundation of the ,cross at ,s4 ,paul's is lost in antiquity1 but evidence exists that one1 on or near the site of the later one1 marked the spot whereon the city folkmote was held before the twelfth century4 ,the earliest actual mention of the cross is in #aaia1 when one ,william ,fitz ,osbert here delivered an address against the divine authority of the crown4 ,from that time down to the middle of the seventeenth century1 a period of about five hundred years1 the references to it are frequent and interesting4 ,it was first used for ecclesiastical purposes in #abhe1 when the churchyard was enclosed1 and began probably to be regarded more distinctly as a cathedral precinct1 yet even after this the events connected with the cross are not all strictly ecclesiastical4 ,in #achb the building was damaged in a severe thunder-storm1 and in #addi it was re-built in a more splendid style by ,thomas ,kemp1 ,bishop of ,london4 ,the last preaching at the cross was in #afcc1 after which the sermons were delivered in the cathedral2 and in #afdc1 by order of the ,long ,parliament1 the cross was taken down4 ,all that now remains of it is the octagon base1 which was discovered a few years since1 when the churchyard was laid out as a garden2 the site will be found1 marked out with stones1 at the northeast corner of the present cathedral1 a portion of the east wall of which rests upon a small part of it4 ,in its palmy days1 ,s4 ,paul's ,cross consisted of a covered pulpit of stone1 surrounded by a low wall1 and surmounted by a bold cross on an ogee roof4 ,when not in use it was closed by a door1 and near the opening or window where the preacher took his stand1 was1 in its latter days1 a bracket for an hour-glass4 ,at the left hand of the structure1 against the east wall of the cathedral transept1 was a covered gallery of two storeys1 known as the shrowds1 in which persons of special distinction were accommodated to hear the preaching2 the bulk of the congregation sitting on movable forms or standing between the cross and the church4 ,here at various times were heard such famous leaders of the religious thought of the nation as ,fisher1 ,latimer1 ,gardiner1 ,ridley1 ,coverdale1 ,tunstall1 ,bonner1 ,grindal1 ,scory1 ,jewell1 ,king1 the king of preachers1 according to the opinion of ,james ,i41 ,hooker1 the judicious1 ,donne1 ,dean of ,s4 ,paul's1 and ,laud1 who1 as ,bishop of ,london1 was the last of the famous preachers to occupy this celebrated pulpit4 ,several of the sermons delivered here have become historical1 or were connected with events that have helped to make history4 ,on ,september #abth1 #aeeg1 ,dr4 ,standyche did preach at the shrowds for the winning of the battle of ,st4 ,quentin1 the lord mayor and the aldermen being present in state4 ,jewell1 ,bishop of ,salisbury1 preached a sermon on ,march #cjth1 #aefj1 which became known as the ,challenge ,sermon1 from the fact that it was largely composed of a number of theses1 which he defied the ,roman controversialists to prove from the ,fathers or from ,holy ,scripture4 ,another discourse that acquired a name had been preached here by ,latimer in #aedh2 this was the ,sermon of the ,plough1 which treated in a quaint and characteristic manner of the seed and the husbandry of ,god's plough-land4 ,queen ,elizabeth came to ,s4 ,paul's ,cross in full state on ,september #hth1 #aehh1 to hear another bishop of ,salisbury1 ,dr4 ,piers1 preach in commemoration of the overthrow of the ,armada4 ,on this occasion eleven ensigns taken from the ,spanish fleet were exhibited1 previous to their being displayed on the following day on ,london ,bridge4 ,on ,march #bdth1 #afai1 the cross was draped in black in memory of the death of ,anne of ,denmark1 the queen of ,james ,i41 who had died early in the month2 and in ,april1 ,king1 ,bishop of ,london1 delivered a sermon there at a solemn thanksgiving for the king's recovery from severe illness4 ,in #afbi a muttering of the coming storm was heard at ,s4 ,paul's ,cross1 when1 on the ,sunday before ,whitsunday1 two papers were found attached to it addressed to ,king ,charles ,i41 who was warned of the wrath of heaven against him1 and bidden1 ,give an account of thy stewardship1 for thou must be no longer ,stuart4 ,the ,cross1 however1 was not used for sermons only4 ,being a place centrally situated and resorted to by large numbers of people1 it was deemed a suitable one for the performance of acts of public penance4 ,in #adda1 ,roger ,boltyngbroke1 who was found guilty of the sin of necromancy1 sat on a chair by the ,cross during sermon time1 surrounded by his magical appliances1 and afterwards openly abjured his dark arts4 ,a more notable penitent was ,mistress ,jane ,shore1 who came here out of all araie1 save her kertle onlie1 and with a taper in her hand1 in ,may1 #adhc4 ,john ,hig1 alias ,noke1 alias ,jonson--a suspicious character obviously--stood bareheaded and barefooted1 with a faggot on his shoulder1 all through the preaching at the ,cross on ,good ,friday1 in #aebh1 as a penance for certain damnable and erroneous opinions which he confessed to having erroneously and damnably said1 affirmed1 believed and taught4 ,a similar penance was performed in #aecb by a barrister of the ,middle ,temple1 ,james ,baynham by name1 who seems to have been a singularly weak and vacillating creature4 ,having professed ,protestantism1 he recanted2 again recalled his recantation1 and was burned at ,smithfield4 ,in #aecd1 ,elizabeth ,barton1 the holy maid of ,kent1 who professed to have had divine revelations condemning the divorce of ,king ,henry ,,viii41 was compelled to stand on a high scaffold over against the pulpit1 together with some half-a-dozen priests and monks1 who had expressed belief in her prophesyings4 ,this probably mistaken1 but certainly well-meaning and pious nun1 was hanged at ,tyburn on ,april #bast1 #aecd4 ,in ,november1 #aeed1 five men did penance here by standing during the sermon with lighted tapers in one hand and rods in the other2 in ,march1 #aeef1 a man1 for transgressing the rules of ,lent1 stood with the carcase of a pig on his head and another in his hand2 and in ,august1 #aeei1 a minister did penance for marrying a couple that were married afore-time4 ,the custom1 common in past days1 of formally destroying a book by way of condemning its publication1 has several times been illustrated at ,s4 ,paul's ,cross4 ,many of ,luther's works were burnt at a sermon preached there by ,fisher on ,may #abth1 #aeba2 and ,tyndale's translation of the ,new ,testament1 after another sermon by the same bishop1 ,cardinal ,wolsey being present also1 in #aecj4 ,in #afac1 some books by a ,jesuit named ,suarez1 whose works were said to be derogatory to ,princes1 were burnt at the ,cross1 and the writings by ,pareus1 concerning the people's authority over princes1 were similarly treated in #afbb4 ,a notice of the ,cross in the reign of ,edward ,,iii4 gives us a curious insight into the ideas of episcopal duty at the time4 ,michael de ,northbury1 ,bishop of ,london from #aced to #acfb1 acted as a pawnbroker for the benefit of the citizens of that city1 and if at the year's end the pledges were not redeemed1 notice was given by the preacher1 after his sermon at the ,cross1 that they would be sold in fourteen days4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,reading ,,cross1 ,,st4 ,,paul',s1 ,,london4 ,amongst the incidents of a secular character which centred in this time-honoured erection1 we find a pleasing illustration of the friendly relations which subsisted between the ,king and his subjects in bygone days2 for it seems to have been customary for the monarch1 before going abroad1 to come down to ,s4 ,paul's ,cross1 and there to bid them farewell4 ,so came1 at any rate1 ,henry ,,iii41 both in #abeg and in #abfa1 before passing into ,france4 ,the gatherings round the spot were not always of so friendly a nature4 ,under ,queen ,mary1 religious feeling ran so high as to lead to serious disturbances4 ,dr4 ,bourne1 chaplain to ,bonner1 was interrupted by shouting and uproar for attacking ,ridley in a sermon on ,august #acth1 #aeec1 and a dagger was flung at him1 which stuck into a post of the ,cross4 ,on the following ,sunday1 about one hundred and twenty halberdiers were present1 and peace was preserved2 but in ,june of the next year1 ,dr4 ,pendleton was fired on whilst preaching and nearly struck by a pellet of tyne4 ,no other preaching cross attained to the name and fame of that of ,s4 ,paul's1 yet they were not uncommon in the country4 ,in the ,green ,yard at ,norwich was one of wood1 with leaded roof and a cross of the same metal2 ,worcester also had one4 ,remains of a preaching cross may be seen near the church in ,iron ,acton1 in ,gloucestershire1 a graceful structure originally1 now lamentably mutilated2 and at ,disley1 in the same county1 is another1 also in ruins4 ,a still better example is the ,blackfriars' preaching cross at ,hereford1 a hexagonal enclosure with open arches1 above which is the stump of what was once the sacred emblem4 ,the ,puritans1 although such advocates of preaching1 evidently had a strong prejudice against these open-air pulpits4 ,that at ,iron ,acton bears to this day marks of the violence used in the attempt to destroy it1 and most of our ,english preaching crosses have1 like our most famous example1 wholly disappeared4 ,in this last half century1 the ,english people have woke up once more in a wonderful way to an appreciation of life in the open air4 ,never were outdoor sports and games so generally followed2 and garden-parties and garden-meetings are amongst our most modern inventions4 ,parks and pleasure-grounds are now demanded almost as a public right2 and no exhibition can look for success that does not provide ample accommodation for its patrons to listen to music under the open skies4 ,in the face of all these signs of the times1 is it too much to hope that the ,church may be touched with the same feeling--surely a healthy and a desirable one2 and that we may yet see on summer's evenings the congregations choosing to sit or stand about the preaching cross in the churchyard1 rather than sit1 involuntarily listless1 at the best with difficulty attentive1 in the heat of a crowded1 and often ill-ventilated church8 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,memorial ,crosses4 ,the sign of our salvation having come to fill so large a place in ,christian art1 it would naturally be expected that in memorials in any way connected with religious feelings it would be employed1 and above all in the monuments of the dead laid to rest in hope of a joyous resurrection through the victory of the ,cross4 ,as a matter of fact1 our earliest ,christian cross-forms are the disguised crosses of the catacombs1 and in spite of every outbreak of bigotry against other uses of the symbol1 it has never been entirely abandoned for such purposes4 ,preaching crosses and market crosses might fall into ruin1 and roods and crucifixes be wantonly destroyed1 but the ,cross1 carved in stone or cut on stone above the grave1 is found in all ages1 though not so frequently in ,england in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries as before or since4 ,the first cross said to have been raised in the ,kingdom of ,northumbria1 was that wooden one which ,s4 ,oswald1 the ,king and ,martyr1 planted with his own hands on the eve of the battle of ,hevenfelth in #fce4 ,this1 originally a sign of the cause for which ,oswald sought to reclaim his realm1 became a memorial of the ,christian victory1 and was still preserved as such in the time of the ,venerable ,bede1 who tells us that the place is shown to this day1 and held in great veneration4 ,another memorial of battle was the famous ,neville's ,cross1 near ,durham1 erected to mark the spot where ,ralph ,neville1 in ,october1 #acdf1 defeated the ,scottish invaders4 ,this1 according to ancient accounts1 was a singularly dignified structure1 with a crucifixion beneath a stone canopy at the top1 and a series of figures at the base1 the whole being raised on half-a-dozen steps4 ,the greater number of our memorial crosses1 however1 preserve the memory1 as was above indicated1 of persons rather than of events2 and amongst the earliest of these is a very ancient example of the so-called runic type in the ,parish ,church of ,leeds4 ,it is curiously wrought with human figures1 difficult now to name with any certainty1 and with several fine specimens of the varied and intricate scrolls so popular with the early stone-carvers of the north4 ,it is supposed to be a monument to ,onlaf ,godfreyson1 who died about #ida4 ,travellers in the ,alps will be familiar with the memorials1 pathetic in their simplicity1 of those mountaineers and wayfarers who have met sudden destruction beneath the overwhelming avalanche2 ever and anon the rustic cross of wood is met with1 marked with the initials of the dead and with the letters ,p4 ,i41 or perhaps the words in full1 ,perit ici4 ,spain1 too1 has her wooden crosses scattered along her most lonely roads and hillsides1 or by the forest pathway2 memorials1 these1 however1 of more sombre tragedies1 telling where the brigand or the highwayman struck down his victim4 ,the great type of the permanent memorial cross amongst us in ,england has been supplied by the devotion of ,edward ,i4 to his ,queen ,eleanor1 and any land might well have been proud of the splendid series of crosses which he raised to her memory4 ,illustration3 ,,northampton ,,cross4 ,queen ,eleanor died at ,hardeby1 in ,nottinghamshire1 on ,november #bhth1 #abia1 her husband being at the time in the north1 entering upon a ,scottish campaign4 ,the body was embalmed2 and as the solemn procession1 which the ,king joined ere its start1 made its slow way to ,westminster1 a spot was chosen at each halting place1 on which a monument was to be raised4 ,the total number of these is not quite certain1 but the following is probably a complete list of them1 namely3--,lincoln 7where those parts of the body removed in the embalming were buried in the ,minster71 ,grantham1 ,stamford1 ,geddington1 ,northampton1 ,stony-,stratford1 ,woburn1 ,dunstable1 ,s4 ,alban's1 ,waltham1 ,west ,cheap1 and ,charing4 ,all have now disappeared except those at ,geddington1 ,northampton1 and ,waltham2 and these three survivors1 singularly enough1 illustrate three distinct styles of construction1 the ground plan of the first being a triangle1 of the second an octagon1 and of the last a hexagon4 ,with so many crosses varying so largely in design it is probable that there were several architects1 but not many names have come down to us2 ,john de la ,battaile is said to have designed the one at ,northampton1 and ,pietro ,cavallini the ,waltham one1 ,alexander of ,abingdon1 and ,william de ,ireland executing the work4 ,all the existing crosses have several statutes of the ,queen1 so that we may conclude that this was a feature common to the whole series2 and all were adorned with the arms of ,england1 ,castile1 and ,ponthieu4 ,the design in each case is beautiful1 and the detailed carving1 whether in the diapering of the surface1 or its enrichment with flowers1 crockets1 and other architectural features1 both elaborate and exquisite4 ,charing ,cross1 the cross of the beloved ,queen 7cher reine71 the last of the series1 more nearly approached the ,northampton ,cross than either of the other two which remain1 but its plan was hexagonal4 ,not a trace or a description of the original condition of most of the other crosses has been handed down to us4 ,geddington ,cross is in a singularly perfect state1 wanting only its upper member with the actual cross4 ,that at ,northampton is similarly truncated4 ,in the reign of ,queen ,anne a new cross1 quite out of keeping with the rest of the design was placed upon the latter by the local justices of the places1 who also adorned its faces with sundials2 these have happily been again removed4 ,waltham ,cross1 which had become seriously decayed1 was restored early in the present century1 and again more carefully and satisfactorily in #ahhg as a memorial of the jubilee of the reign of ,queen ,victoria4 ,illustration3 ,,geddington ,,cross4 ,the ,cheapside ,cross was renewed in #adhf by the citizens of ,london1 and again in #afjj4 ,in the excitement of the religious ferment of the following century it was a great sufferer1 all the images on it being broken in #aeha1 and again1 with profane indignity in #aeif4 ,its final destruction took place in #afdc under an order of the ,long ,parliament1 which decreed the demolition of all crosses4 ,both this and1 it would appear1 the earlier attacks upon it1 were the work of a fanatical minority merely1 which could command but little popular sympathy1 for ,sir ,robert ,harlow1 who had charge of the work of destruction1 brought with him to the city a troop of horse and two companies of foot to protect the workmen from the rage of the citizens4 ,the ,cross at ,charing was probably removed at the same time4 ,of the fate of the others we have no record2 some perhaps crumbled with decay1 and were neglected1 others doubtless met a fate similar to that of their ,london sisters4 ,illustration3 ,,puritans ,,destroying ,,cheapside ,,cross4 ,the ,waltham ,cross has proved the most suggestive to architects of subsequent times2 amongst other instances the ,crimean ,cross1 near ,westminster ,abbey1 has been formed on its design4 ,sir ,g4 ,gilbert ,scott drew inspiration from the ,northampton ,cross for the erection of the ,martyrs' ,memorial at ,oxford2 and near ,sheffield is one which perhaps follows1 though at an immense distance1 the type at ,geddington4 ,this is the memorial to the four hundred victims1 of the terrible epidemic of cholera which visited ,sheffield in #ahcb4 ,this cross1 the foundation-stone of which was laid by ,james ,montgomery1 the poet1 is chiefly interesting as one of the earliest instances of the reviving taste and feeling for this specially appropriate form of monument4 ,another ,memorial ,cross1 whose noble size and dignified proportions1 when compared with the one last named1 give ample evidence of the artistic growth which has accompanied this growth of feeling1 is the ,s4 ,andrew's ,cross1 at ,plymouth4 ,two crosses of a different type to the ,eleanor crosses are those at ,newark and at ,wedmore4 ,the first1 which consists of a tall shaft on a flight of bold1 hexagonal steps1 was erected by the ,duchess of ,norfolk1 as a memorial of her husband1 ,john ,viscount ,beaumont1 who fell at the battle of ,towton ,moor in #adfa4 ,the present head of the cross is modern4 ,the ,wedmore ,cross1 sometimes called ,jeffrey's ,cross1 commemorates the unfortunate country-folk of ,somersetshire1 who fell in ,monmouth's rebellion1 or were butchered by the brutal ,jeffreys afterwards4 ,illustration3 ,,crosses ,,at ,,sandbach1 ,,cheshire4 ,probably1 could we but decipher the allusions intended by their sculptures1 we should find that most of our ancient carved crosses were originally memorials4 ,almost certainly the two shafts at ,sandbach1 in ,cheshire1 are such4 ,these1 which are amongst the most valuable relics of early art in this country1 dating probably from the eighth1 or even from the seventh century1 were broken into many pieces and scattered over the district as doorsteps1 gate-posts1 and what not1 until collected and most carefully restored by ,colonel ,forde1 the lord of the ,manor4 ,the larger of these two columns1 each of which has lost its cruciform head1 is covered with sculptures of sacred subjects taken from the ,new ,testament2 we have the annunciation of ,s4 ,elizabeth1 and of the ,blessed ,virgin ,mary1 the trial and crucifixion of our ,lord1 the apocalyptic emblems of the four evangelists1 and other sacred scenes and persons4 ,the carvings on the smaller cross are of a secular character1 and are supposed to represent events connected with the marriage of ,peda1 ,king of ,mercia1 to ,alchfleda1 daughter of ,oswy1 ,king of ,northumbria1 and his baptism1 on which as a condition that marriage depended2 most of the work is now inexplicable1 referring to scenes of which all other records are lost4 ,the stones of which these columns are composed are of the hardest and most durable sort1 and a perfect enthusiasm of destruction must have been required to tear them down and break them4 ,illustration3 ,,iona ,,cross4 ,the ,scottish island1 the famous home of ,s4 ,columba1 has several note-worthy examples4 ,they are of the so-called runic design1 covered for the most part with very elegant carvings1 and form the most interesting series of relics left to us in that cradle of northern ,christianity4 ,none of them date back so far as the days of the great ,abbot1 whose name is so interwoven with the history of ,iona1 yet they are very ancient and characteristic4 ,gathered about ,reilig ,odhrain1 the burial-place of the isle1 they bear eloquent testimony to the sanctity of the spot1 to which kings and chieftains were brought for sepulchre even from far off ,norway4 ,one of these1 and perhaps the most familiar1 stands on three roughly-hewn steps overlooking the sea2 its ornamentation consisting of a series of circles4 ,abbot ,mackinnon's ,cross is now headless2 the shaft is covered with a scroll beautifully designed of conventional leaves1 and bears an inscription1 recording the date of its erection1 #adhi4 ,s4 ,martin's ,cross is near the ruined cathedral1 and is also carved in graceful scrolls in which the figures of snakes and other creatures are introduced4 ,monasterboice1 or the ,monastery of ,boethius1 a bishop who died in #eba1 situated in county ,louth1 has a number of crosses1 several of which are in excellent preservation4 ,the ,great ,cross1 as it is called1 stands twenty-two feet in height1 and is on the south side of the church4 ,a second example1 which is also near the church1 has been described as the most beautiful specimen of ,celtic stone-work now in existence1 this is the ,cross of ,muiredach4 ,it is covered with carvings of scriptural scenes1 and bears on the front the inscription 7in ,erse71 ,pray for ,muiredach1 by whom this ,cross was made4 ,the venerable builder was ,abbot of ,armagh1 and died in #ibc or #ibd4 ,drumcliff1 near ,sligo1 and many other places in ,ireland also possess most interesting crosses4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,crowle ,,stone4 ,a curiously carved shaft in the church of ,s4 ,oswald at ,crowle1 in ,north ,lincolnshire1 has been supposed by many to be the shaft of a very ancient cross1 and if so1 must almost certainly be included amongst those raised as memorials4 ,it is covered on one side with an involved chain pattern roughly suggesting a snake swallowing its tail1 and on the other are some human and animal figures1 the meaning of which has never been satisfactorily explained4 ,what makes the shaft especially interesting is the presence of the fragment of a runic inscription4 ,the wall into which the ,crowle stone is built was part of the eleventh century church of the place1 and this ancient memorial to some long-forgotten hero was obviously taken from some neighbouring spot and converted into a lintel for the west door by the ,norman builders4#c ,another memorial cross of quite a different type is the ,hall ,cross of ,doncaster4 ,it was erected by1 or in memory of1 ,oti1 or ,otho di ,tilli1 steward of ,conisborough for the ,earl of ,warren1 under ,stephen and ,henry ,,ii4 ,it would have been destroyed by the troopers of the ,earl of ,manchester in the ,civil ,war1 but for the action of the mayor1 who succeeded in preserving it2 but in #agib it was taken down on making some alterations in the level of the road1 and another cross of the same character was put up in the following year on ,hall ,cross ,hill4 ,it consists of a centre circular column1 with four others much smaller placed about it1 each of the five originally terminating in a cross4 ,its memorial character is preserved by the old ,norman-,french inscription1 which it still bears1 ,icest est la cruice ,ote di ,tilli a ki alme ,deu en face merci4 ,amn4 ,it served a more gruesome purpose in the seventeenth century1 being the spot chosen for the exposition of the heads of decapitated traitors4 ,among the simple crosses planted in such profusion over and around ,dartmoor are one or two interesting memorials4 ,roman's ,cross1 at ,leemoor1 a plain ,latin cross nearly six feet in height1 standing on a circular base1 is claimed by a local tradition as marking a spot whereon the ,apostle ,s4 ,paul once preached4 ,on ,fox ,tor stood1 till about #ahab1 a cross raised on a very solid square sub-structure in three tiers1 known as ,childe's ,tomb4 ,here1 according to the story1 ,childe1 a hunter of ages long gone by1 met his death from cold one stormy winter's night4 ,the whole memorial was wantonly destroyed by some labourers early in this century1 but it has recently been re-built and surmounted by a new cross4 ,bra ,tor boasts a modern addition to the ,dartmoor ,crosses1 one having been erected there in memory of her ,majesty's ,jubilee1 and another1 of a style more lofty and ornate than is characteristic of the locality1 has been erected at ,plympton ,s4 ,mary in memory of the ,rev4 ,merton ,smith1 a late vicar1 who perished in the ,pyrenees in #ahhc4 ,travelling yet further west1 in ,cornwall1 one ancient cross at least is found which was intended as a memorial of the now forgotten dead4 ,in the market place of ,penzance1 which can hardly1 under the circumstances1 be its original site1 is a cross some five feet high1 on which1 at its removal in #ahbi1 from the centre to the side of the square1 were found near the base the words1 ,hic procumbunt corpora piorum4 ,thus scattered up and down the land1 from far ,iona to the ,cassiterides1 is found the simple but expressive emblem of the ,christian faith1 bearing its silent testimony to the belief and hope of all the ages1 that through the ,cross the holy dead all sleep in peace to rise in joy4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,wayside and ,boundary ,crosses4 ,we have seen how the cross was erected in the busy market and beneath the shadow of the great ,cathedral1 where crowds hurried to and fro1 day by day1 for business or devotion4 ,it was not alone in such populous places1 however1 that the sign of salvation reared itself to cheer the weary traveller through life's ways by a message of faith1 of hope1 of divine love4 ,in the village street1 the lonely trackless moor1 the meadow pathway and the king's high-road1 at every turn and in every place in mediaeval ,england one met the same sacred memorial4 ,nay1 even the hillside itself has been scored with it1 as in the case of ,whiteleaf in ,buckinghamshire1 where a cross1 nearly one hundred feet long by fifty feet broad1 was cut at some unknown but remote period in the chalk hill1 by means of a huge trench over two feet in depth1 after the fashion of the more familiar ,white ,horse in ,berkshire4 ,these numerous examples are not easily classified4 ,if only the full history of their raising could be known1 many doubtless would fall into classes that have already been considered4 ,some would prove to be memorials which have failed to preserve the memory of their founders2 others may have marked spots1 round which the villagers gathered to hear sermons from the travelling friars1 to listen to some proclamation issued by the lord of the manor1 or by the king1 or to discuss those topics of local politics or of public interest which might from time to time come uppermost2 others again marked the boundaries of estates1 and especially of ,church lands4 ,they were in fact public crosses for no one special purpose1 but for every public requirement of rural life4 ,in the west of ,england1 in ,devon and ,cornwall1 roadside crosses were1 and even now are1 remarkably common4 ,those of the former county seem to have generally served one of two purposes1 either to mark the boundaries of lands1 or to act as guide posts on the other wise almost trackless moorlands of ,dartmoor and the neighbourhood4 ,for example1 not far from ,princetown stands one of the largest of the ,dartmoor ,crosses1 known as ,siward's or ,nun's ,cross1 over seven feet in height4 ,on the western face of this is carved1 in two lines1 the word ',boc-lond1' marking it as a boundary stone of the lands of ,buckland ,abbey1 although in this case it was adapted to that purpose1 not erected expressly for it1 the foundation of the abbey being not so ancient as the cross4 ,the abbey dates from #abgh4 ,bennet's ,cross1 again1 is one of the boundaries of ,headland ,warren1 and of the parish of ,bovey ,tracey2 it bears on its face the letters ,w4 ,b41 standing for ,warren ,bounds2 the letters1 but not the boundary line1 are modern4 ,an ancient track across the moor1 called the ,abbot's ,way1 which formed the most direct method of communication between the abbeys of ,buckland and ,tavistock on the one side1 and that of ,buckfast on the other1 was marked out with a series of crosses1 many of which yet remain4 ,the fords of the ,avon1 on this pathway1 were indicated by this means2 ,huntingdon ,cross still stands at one ford as of old1 but ,buckland ,ford ,cross has gone4 ,some of these weather-beaten stones have carved on their several faces the initial letters of the towns towards which those faces turn1 as a guide to the traveller4 ,sandowl ,cross1 now a rough stone rising scarcely a yard from the earth1 has cut upon it the letters ,b41 ,t41 ,r41 and ,m41 pointing to ,brent1 ,totnes1 ,kingsbridge1 and ,modbury respectively4 ,similarly ,hookmoor ,cross indicates the direction to be taken to reach ,modbury1 ,brent1 ,totnes1 and ,plymouth4 ,these ,dartmoor ,crosses are interesting as ancient landmarks and boundaries1 and as indications of the almost instinctive way in which our forefathers employed the ,cross for every purpose of more than usual importance2 they are moreover not devoid of a certain picturesque effect from the harmony of their rugged forms with their moorland surroundings4 ,they are not1 however1 in the ordinary sense of the word1 beautiful4 ,they are mostly plain ,latin crosses1 occasionally mounted on one or two steps1 with no attempt at carving or decoration4 ,nor are they specially impressive in height or size2 ,merchant's ,cross1 near ,lynch ,hill1 is the largest and stands but eight feet two inches high1 and some are much less than this4 ,some few of them have an incised cross cut within the head1 or even running the whole length1 but those on the ,moor proper are of the simplest kind4 ,on the borders we find a few cut by some slightly more ambitious hand4 ,at ,hele is a ,maltese ,cross1 the section of each of its limbs being an octagon1 and a ,latin one of the same section is at ,holne4 ,illustration3 ,,remains ,,of ,,runic ,,cross1 ,,west ,,kirby1 ,,cheshire4 ,the roadside crosses which dot the neighbouring county of ,cornwall are similar in this respect1 that there are few of them of any great size1 but otherwise the type is quite different4 ,they are mostly shafts terminating in circular or oval heads1 on which is either incised1 or cut in relief a cross or crucifix2 in very few instances is the stone itself cruciform4 ,a great number of the ,cornish crosses stood near an ancient cell or chapel1 serving much the same purpose as a churchyard cross1 others marked the pathways which led to these rude and now forgotten shrines4 ,formed of the hard granite of the district1 the simple1 and sometimes almost grotesque1 carvings of these monuments1 have been generally well preserved2 and seeing that in recent years an increasing amount of interest is shewn towards them1 there is every reason to hope that the days of careless neglect or wanton destruction are over4 ,many crosses have recently been reclaimed from degrading uses1 as field gate-posts and the like1 and placed in more seemly situations4 ,a singular cross unearthed at ,west ,kirby1 near the ,dee in ,cheshire1 bears a closer resemblance to the characteristic crosses of ,cornwall1 than to those found elsewhere in ,england4 ,the fragments of the shaft1 for it is in several pieces1 are covered with ingenious interlacing scrolls1 and the head has a bold ,latin cross within a circle cut upon it4 ,many other examples of wayside crosses are scattered up and down the country1 in a greater or less condition of preservation1 some of them being still tall and graceful structures4 ,at ,aylburton in ,gloucestershire1 is the lower portion of a very substantial column1 said by competent authorities to form part of a fourteenth century cross probably designed by some foreign artist4 ,at ,bromboro1 in ,cheshire1 are the remains of a cross1 well illustrating the meaningless fashion in which some of our ancient buildings are restored4 ,it was at one time a tall cross of simple design1 standing at the top of a flight of nine steps2 but the upper member1 the actual cruciform head1 having been destroyed1 a senseless stone ball has been put in its place1 and sundials affixed to the shaft4 ,at ,burythorpe1 in ,east ,yorkshire1 the head of what must once have been a beautiful cross is preserved in the garden of a private house4 ,it is foliated1 and of a singularly graceful pattern1 but whether originally a wayside1 or a churchyard cross1 it is impossible to say with any degree of certainty4 ,the ,east ,riding has been specially unfortunate in the matter of wayside crosses1 of the many examples which it once could boast little has been left but a number of stone sockets1 so mutilated for the most part that local tradition has forgotten their origin and purpose1 describing them as stone chairs1 stone coffin heads1 old fonts1 and so forth4 ,illustration3 ,,burythorpe ,,cross4 ,several villages are happy in having preserved intact very beautiful examples of the wayside cross1 or scarcely less so in having found careful and reverent restorers of them when in ruins4 ,gloucestershire has some good specimens1 as at ,hempsted and at ,clearwell4 ,the former is a very slender shaft surmounted by a cross of four equal arms within a circle2 the whole1 save that the cross is of the ,latin and not the ,maltese type1 looking very like the cross-headed staff which formed the badge of a ,grand ,master of the ,templars4 ,the ,clearwell ,cross1 of the fourteenth century1 has the usual features of steps1 square base or pedestal1 and slender shaft1 but the elegant cross at the head is of bolder proportions than is found in the majority of cases4 ,a very similar erection is the ,white ,friars' ,cross at ,hereford1 which can perhaps claim to be considered a memorial cross1 in that it was built by ,bishop ,charlton1 or ,cherleton 7#acfa-acgj7 at the time of an outbreak of the plague in the city4 ,it is an excellent example1 with a base heraldically decorated and finished at the top with battlements4 ,the head has been restored4 ,another fine cross of about the same date is at ,headington in ,oxfordshire2 it is crowned with a tabernacle1 which is modern and not a good imitation of ancient work of the kind4 ,but one of the most imposing of our wayside crosses stands at ,stallbridge1 ,dorsetshire4 ,it consists of three octagonal steps on which a broad low pedestal is placed1 from the centre of which rises a shaft with narrow buttresses1 surmounted by tabernacle work4 ,the column is adorned with niches containing statues of the ,blessed ,virgin ,mary1 ,st4 ,john1 and other saints1 and the tabernacle is completed with a tapering spire ending in a small cross4 ,the whole structure is thirty feet high4 ,a special class of wayside crosses has been provided by the ancient custom of placing this holy sign beside wells and springs4 ,from ancient times an idea of special sanctity attached itself to springs of bright clear water4 ,it was so in the days of classic ,rome1 and the ,derbyshire custom of well-dressing proves its existence in the past amongst ourselves4 ,all over the country we find such springs with a tradition of being holy wells1 and their frequent dedication in the names of saints illustrates the same fact4 ,canons of the church enacted in #ifj1 ordered that no well should be venerated except with the permission of the bishop of the diocese2 but so strong was the popular superstition1 that similar enactments were called for in #ajah1 and again in #aajb4 ,it was no doubt out of regard for this popular estimation of wells1 that in #iej they were declared to be sanctuaries1 whither the hunted fugitive from justice might flee and be safe4 ,the special fame of the wells of ,s4 ,keyne and of ,s4 ,winifred is widely known4 ,such being the case it was a natural thing to erect upon this holy ground the sign of our salvation1 a practice which the reader will no doubt remember is referred to by ,sir ,walter ,scott in his ,marmion3-- ,where shall she turn8 behold her mark ,a little fountain cell1 ,where water1 clear as diamond-spark1 ,in a stone basin fell1 ,above some half-worn letters say1 ',drink1 weary pilgrim drink1 and pray for the kind soul of ,sybil ,grey1 ,who built this cross and well4' ,just such a rustic roadside erection as that to which ,clare thus turned for water to slake the thirst of the dying ,marmion1 exists at the village of ,bumpking ,leys1 in ,shropshire4 ,a plain oblong trough of stone surrounds the well1 and beside it is a small ,latin ,cross1 with an inscription1 now indecipherable save for the sacred initials ,i4,h4,s4 ,we have already noticed that a well-cross is the only one left of a number of crosses once existing in the city of ,lincoln4 ,it stands near the old church of ,s4 ,mary-le-,wigford1 and consists of a square building1 like a wayside chapel1 the gable of which once bore the cross4 ,it is said to be the finest well-cross in the country1 and dates from the fourteenth century4 ,the heavy base of a cross in ,bisley ,churchyard1 in ,gloucestershire1 which is now simply a truncated spire1 has been supposed to cover a well1 which has now1 however1 dried up or taken some other course4 ,and again in the same county at ,hempsted1 whose wayside cross was noticed above1 another conduit resembling the one at ,lincoln is found4 ,this building1 known as ,our ,lady's ,well1 has the bases of two crosses on its gables1 and niches for statutes beneath them4 ,in the present century the well was closely built up4 ,the neighbourhood of ,london at one time had several well-crosses4 ,the original ,cross at ,tottenham1 of which the present one is but a modern imitation1 was not improbably of such a character2 and ,s4 ,chad's ,well1 ,s4 ,bride's ,well1 and the ,clerk's ,well 7,fons ,clericorum71 which have given their names to the respective districts of ,shadwell1 ,bridewell1 and ,clerkenwell1 doubtless had their crosses likewise4 ,near ,madron1 in ,cornwall1 is a well-chapel covering the ,madron ,well4 ,this1 though only twenty-five feet by sixteen feet1 was complete with stone benches1 raised sacrarium1 and altar1 but was almost destroyed by ,major ,ceely in the ,civil ,war4 ,helstone also has a holy well1 and a third is near ,grade ,church1 all in the same county1 where in each case the well-cross has developed into a way-side chapel4 ,henley has a cross which deserves mention on account of the subject carved in the tabernacled head4 ,a crucifix fills the niche from side to side1 while behind it1 and with hands upraised in benediction over it1 is a crowned and bearded figure representing the ,divine ,father4 ,the ,dove1 the usual emblem of the ,holy ,spirit1 does not seem to have been inserted4 ,this is a type of carving of which few instances have been left to us in ,england1 but one which was common in mediaeval ,english art1 whether the artist wrought in stone or in glass4 ,many of these wayside crosses1 besides the well crosses1 had granted to them1 or acquired by popular custom1 the rights of sanctuary2 and doubtless in early days1 when the arm of the law was not long enough or strong enough to reach through all the length and breadth of the land1 and when the king himself amongst his barons1 was scarcely more than primus inter pares1 the foremost of his peers1 it must have been a wise and merciful policy1 which multiplied these cities of refuge1 where safety was guaranteed to the accused until his case was fairly investigated4 ,others of these crosses appealed to the devotion of certain classes of the people1 like one which stood at ,king's ,weston1 on the ,severn1 which was emphatically the sailor's cross4 ,here the mariner1 after a successful voyage1 or perhaps after an almost unlooked-for escape from the perils of the deep1 paid his vows and offered his grateful thanksgiving4 ,various civic functions1 also1 took place around the high crosses of the towns1 or those of a similar character in the villages4 ,the good folk of ,folkestone were summoned by the blast of a horn to assemble at the churchyard cross before proceeding to elect their mayor2 and at ,aston ,rogers and elsewhere1 the court of the lord of the manor met at the cross4 ,the parish cross was1 in a word1 in bygone days the centre of the parochial life1 and speaks most convincingly of the extent to which religion entered into the lives of the people4 ,in times when the people's holidays were begun by attendance at the ,eucharist1 when trade gilds had their special altars in the parish church1 when every public function naturally included the offering of the great act of ,christian worship1 it was simply a part of a consistent national life that the cross should dominate the market1 should offer its welcome form at each turn of the high-road1 should mark the boundaries of property1 and crown the hillside and the cooling spring1 as well as stand where the dead lay1 sown as seed for the ,great ,harvest1 or gleam from the lighted altar1 or tower above the worshippers from the rood-loft4 ,in the destruction of these holy emblems all ,england has not suffered equally4 ,the west has been most fortunate2 ,cornwall1 ,devon1 ,somersetshire1 and ,gloucestershire1 being especially rich in the number and excellence of the examples still preserved in a more or less perfect condition4 ,the eastern counties have met with the hardest usage1 ,lincolnshire and the neighbouring shires having been swept almost bare of them4 ,thus briefly we have reviewed the uses of the sacred symbol of the ,cross in ,christendom and especially in ,england4 ,the field is one of well-nigh infinite extent1 and there are portions that we have barely touched4 ,the heraldic employment of the sign might fill a book full of interest1 and even of romance1 and every foreign land has examples worthy of record1 and a history diversely woven like our own1 of devotion and iconoclasm1 which has its word to say both to our art and our religion4 ,a fascinating portion of the story of the cross1 which lies somewhat beyond our scope1 is the legendary lore that has sprung up about it2 how the wood for the true cross was matured for its high purpose1 and how there was a mystic meaning in the several kinds of wood employed2 how the cross-bill twisted her beak in the vain endeavour to drag the nails from her ,creator's hands1 and the robin splashed his fluttering breast with the ,redeemer's blood1 in a similar fruitless attempt2 how the patient ass was signed with the holy sign in memory of the sacred burden that he bore on the first ,palm ,sunday2 and a score of other legends1 often full of pathos and of graceful fancy4 ,it is pleasant to picture those times1 further off from ours even in feeling than in years1 in which such fancies were woven4 ,the smoke of factory and mine had not then blasted or blackened the foliage of half the land1 nor green pastures nor rustling woods been swallowed up by an ever advancing tide of bricks4 ,the world moved slowly then1 and commerce and trade were in their infancy2 yet the world was beautiful4 ,the stately minster and the lordly abbey1 the rustic church and the humble cell stood in stately grandeur or in simple grace amid the fields and farmsteads of the people4 ,in every market place the tapering cross1 then perchance fresh and white from the carver's hands1 saw the folk gather at its feet to chat and chaffer1 as beneath the shelter of a friend3 and every highway and byeway was marked at intervals1 like the great pathway of man's life1 with crosses that are at once emblems of suffering and of salvation4 ,in infinite variety of form1 yet always elevating in purity of outline1 gracefulness of adornment1 and perhaps in richness of colour1 these crosses taught1 unconsciously to the learners1 the love of the beautiful and the good4 ,the wonderful growth of ,british commercial enterprise1 closely allied as it is1 with the building up of our colonial empire and the establishment of our place in the family of nations1 is not a fact that any ,englishman can regret4 ,but when one marks the sordid spirit1 the selfish grasping for wealth1 the apotheosis of mere material prosperity1 which too often accompany it1 he may well feel that the constant presence of a symbol which speaks of other and higher aims1 is not less1 but more needed now1 than it was of old4 ,from the point of view of the mental elevation of the people1 also1 the loss of so many treasures of art cannot be too deeply regretted1 nor their rebuilding1 if rebuilt in the old spirit1 too greatly desired4 ,we are but just awakening to the realization of the fact that ,art is not an amusement for the rich1 but an educating1 elevating1 spiritualizing power for all4 ,we may rejoice in the wealth of our manufacturing cities1 in the vast output of our foundries and our coalpits2 but a factory1 too hideous in its blank1 bald1 monotony of bareness for use as a prison amongst men with eyes and hearts1 does not compensate for the loss of an abbey1 whose every arch1 and gable1 and storied window1 raises the soul to thoughts of the pure and the true2 nor can a foundry chimney1 even though its veil of poisonous smoke represent a fortune working out beneath1 be accepted in exchange for the graceful1 tapering cross1 the very sight of which1 in its calm still beauty1 would cheer the dweller in our modern towns like the glimpse of an oasis in a desert4 ,in our schools of all grades some elementary instruction in art forms is now considered a necessity1 and something is being done for children of a larger growth by opening to them1 at times when the masses can use them1 the treasures of our museums and picture galleries2 how largely would these attempts at popular instruction have been aided if the people had ever before their eyes the graceful forms that ignorance1 carelessness1 and bigotry have combined to rob us of6 ,and what an influence might not the continued presence of such examples among us have had upon the building of our towns4 ,it is at least significant that in the days when these types of art were common in the land1 even domestic architecture showed a certain harmoniousness of outline2 the gabled roof1 the timbered front1 the quaintly designed chimney1 formed a setting not unbecoming the jewel in our mediaeval market-places1 and our village streets4 ,it is only since so many different instances of our forefathers' taste and skill1 fair copies each and all for their successors1 have been taken from us1 that we have learnt to build our towns in a horrid monotony of dullness4 ,ruskin1 in words of biting force1 has defined a town of to-day as the modern aggregate of bad building1 and ill-living held in check by constables1 which we call a town1 of which the widest streets are devoted by consent to the encouragement of vice1 and the narrow ones to the concealment of misery4 ,may we not hope that the wish now so obvious among us to rebuilt so far as may be1 those glorious piles which are instinct with the beauty of holiness1 is a proof that we are beginning to realize both the squalor and the sin of this condition of things8 ,so far we have seen1 it may be1 but the little cloud no larger than a man's hand2 may it be indeed the earnest of that refreshing rain for which the land has panted1 a reviving influence which shall make ,english art once more the expression of a sincere and devoted faith4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,conclusion4 ,in our rapid review of the various uses to which the sacred figure of the cross has been put1 we have been considering the most widely-spread illustration of a tendency of the human mind1 namely1 the universal love of emblems4 ,this trait in man's character1 a strange one1 perhaps1 but a very powerful one1 has been forgotten or ignored by the iconoclast and the ,puritan1 and it is owing to this characteristic that they have never been able to obtain more than a transient victory4 ,scarce anything which moves the heart of man1 rouses his enthusiasm1 or binds him more closely to his fellows1 but he has commonly represented it by a symbol4 ,amongst the earliest of such influences was the family or tribal bond carrying us back to days of patriarchal simplicity4 ,in the last blessing bestowed by ,jacob upon his sons1 we find the earliest allusion to the family emblem1 in the lion of ,judah1 the serpent of ,dan1 the hind of ,naphtali1 ,joseph's fruitful bough1 and the other symbols of the twelve ancestors of the chosen race4 ,a striking parallel to this catalogue1 in the totems of the ,north ,american ,indians1 will occur to almost everyone4 ,but1 indeed1 the custom of selecting some natural object to denote the idea of the family was well-nigh universal4 ,the inhabitants of the ,east ,indies are as familiar with the spirit of totemism as their brethren of the west4 ,in ,africa1 the ,hottentot1 the ,bechuana1 and others distinguish their tribes by the figure of some animal2 in far off ,china the flowers serve the same purpose1 and in ,australia the same practice obtains under the name of ,kobong4 ,not to multiply examples1 we may refer only to the ancient ,greek tribes as affording another instance1 and suggest the parallel supplied by the crests used in mediaeval and modern heraldry4 ,the adoption of national symbols was but the inevitable extension of these practices1 consequent on the nation1 and not the tribe1 coming to be recognized as the political unit2 and thus we get the ,roman ,eagle1 the ,white ,horse of the ,saxons1 the ,black ,raven of the ,danes1 and the countless national emblems of more modern times4 ,a closer analogy to the use of the cross meets us when we recall how1 in all ages1 the gods have been suggested to their worshippers by signs and symbols4 ,the thunderbolts of ,jove1 the lyre of ,apollo1 the caduceus of ,mercury1 the hammer of ,thor1 are all obvious examples4 ,it may be true that many of these took their rise at a time when letters were almost unknown save to the learned few1 and thus the emblem appealed to those to whom written words were meaningless4 ,yet as learning spreads to the masses of the people1 the popularity of significant tokens does not decrease1 but man gives a natural welcome to that which1 by a few strokes or a simple outline1 sums up for him the expression of a great truth4 ,and what figure is so expressive of the ,christian faith as the hallowed symbol of the ,cross8 ,to the ignorant as clearly as the learned it tells of the sufferings which purchased our redemption1 of the life of sorrow and death of agony voluntarily undergone by the ,god-,man4 ,in the light of that ,redeemer's own teaching1 it speaks of the life of self-abnegation1 the daily cross-bearing1 to which ,his followers are pledged2 and to the faithful it foretells also that flashing of the ,sign of the ,son of ,man across the heavens which shall announce the end of earthly time4 ,the ,christians' faith1 the ,christians' life1 the ,christians' hope1 all are summed up and symbolized in that one most sacred sign--the ,holy ,cross4 ,,the ,,end ,index4 ,abbot's ,way1 ,dartmoor1 #ajg ,abingdon1 #gb ,absolution1 ,cross of1 #dj ,aix-la-,chapelle1 ,cross at1 #bc ,alpine ,crosses1 #hh ,altar ,cross1 #de2 ,genevan opposition to1 #df ,ampney ,crucis1 #eg ,angelico1 ,fra1 #bf ,archbishop's ,cross1 #cf ,argyle1 ,duke of1 ,executed1 #gj ,arms of ,commonwealth1 #ac ,arms of ,modern ,states1 with ,cross1 #ab ,aston ,rogers1 #aae ,athanasius1 ,s41 quoted1 #cj ,augustine1 ,s41 quoted1 #cb ,aylburton ,cross1 #aaj ,badges1 ,cruciform1 of ,orders of ,merit1 #ab ,baptismal ,cross1 #cc ,benedict ,biscop1 ,s41 #bj ,bennet's ,cross1 ,dartmoor1 #ajg ,bisley1 #aad ,bitterley ,cross1 #eg ,books1 burning of1 #hb ,boundary ,crosses1 #ajg ,boxley1 ,rood of ,grace at1 #ej ,bristol ,cross1 #gj ,broadwood ,widger1 #fb ,bromboro1 #aaj ,buckland ,abbey1 #ajg ,burythorpe1 #aaj ,catacombs1 ,cross in1 #d2 ,crucifix in1 #bj ,catechumens signed1 #cb ,charing ,cross1 #ib ,chasubles1 marked with ,cross1 #ee ,cheapside ,cross1 #ib ,chester1 ,high ,cross1 #gb2 ,roodee1 #ea ,chichester1 #ge ,childe's ,tomb1 #ajd ,chipping ,campden1 #gf ,chosroes captures ,true ,cross1 #h ,chrysostom1 ,s41 quoted1 #bi ,churches surmounted with crosses1 #f ,churchyard ,crosses1 #ef2 ,restoration of1 #fa ,cicero on ,crucifixion1 #c ,clearwell ,cross1 #aaa ,clement of ,alexandria on ,symbols of ,christ1 #ae ,coins stamped with ,cross1 #f1 #ac ,commonwealth1 ,arms of1 #ac ,confirmation ,cross1 #cc ,consecration ,crosses1 #dj ,constantine1 ,conversion of1 #e2 ,use of ,cross by1 #f ,constantinople1 ,council of1 #ba ,costock1 ,cross at1 #dj ,cornish ,crosses1 #eg1 #aje1 #ajg1 #aji1 #aad ,council in ,trullo1 #bj2 of ,constantinople1 #ba ,coventry1 #gb1 #ge ,cricklade ,crosses1 #eg ,creeping to the ,cross1 #da2 at ,dunbar1 #db ,crosses in ,catacombs1 #d ,cross-form universal1 #b ,crowle ,stone1 #ajc2 ,churchyard ,cross at1 #fa ,crucifixes1 ,early examples of1 #bb ,cruciform ,churches1 #dd ,crusades1 #h ,cuthbert's1 ,s41 ,cross1 #ci ,cyril1 ,s41 of ,jerusalem1 quoted1 #bi ,dagmar1 ,queen of ,denmark1 #bd ,dartmoor ,crosses1 #ajd1 #ajg ,dedications to ,s4 ,cross1 #dc ,destruction of ,roods1 #ea ,development of ,crucifix1 #ad ,dindar ,cross1 #fa ,disley1 #he ,doncaster ,crosses1 #ge2 ,hall ,cross1 #ajc ,drumcliff1 #ajc ,early ,crosses1 #c1 #d2 ,crucifixes1 #bb2 ,symbols of ,christ1 #ae ,east ,brent1 #fa ,east ,riding ,crosses1 #aaj ,edinburgh ,market ,cross1 #fe ,eleanor ,crosses1 #hh ,emblems1 ,popular use of1 #abj ,ensigns charged with ,cross1 #ab ,ephrem1 ,s41 quoted1 #bi1 #cj ,eucharist1 ,cross in1 #ca ,exaltation of ,cross1 #dc ,eyam ,cross1 #eh ,fathers1 ,the1 on ,sign of ,cross1 #e ,feast of ,exaltation of ,cross1 #dc2 of ,invention of ,cross1 #db ,folkestone1 #aae ,font at ,ilam1 #bc2 at ,tissington1 #bc ,funerals1 ,cross used at1 #da ,fylfot1 #af2 on bells1 #ef ,geddington ,cross1 #ib ,gladstone1 ,w4 ,e41 restores ,edinburgh ,cross1 #fi ,glastonbury ,cross1 #ga ,gloucester1 #ga ,graffito ,blasfemo1 #d ,harburton1 #fa ,headington1 #aab ,heathen deities symbolized by ,cross1 #a1 #b ,helena1 ,s4--see ,true ,cross4 ,hempsted1 #aaa1 #aad ,henley1 #aad ,heraclius restores ,true ,cross1 #h ,heraldic ,crosses1 #aa ,hereford1 preaching ,cross1 #hf2 ,white ,friars' ,cross1 #aab ,hickleton1 #fb ,howard1 ,john1 at ,eyam1 #eh ,holy ,cross ,day1 #dc ,holy ,face of ,lucca1 #bb ,holy ,rood as ,dedication1 #dc ,holy ,wells1 #aab ,hospitallers1 ,knights1 #ab ,ilam1 ,font at1 #bc ,imitatio ,christi1 ,authorship of1 #ee ,iron ,acton1 #he ,iron ,crown of ,lombardy1 #aa ,iona1 #ajj ,italian ,art1 #be ,jeffreys1 ,judge1 #if ,jerome1 ,s41 quoted1 #bi ,john1 ,s41 ,knights of1 #ab ,justin ,martyr1 ,s41 quoted1 #b ,justinian places ,crosses on ,churches1 #f ,king's ,weston1 #aae ,knights1 of ,s4 ,john1 of ,malta1 ,teutonic1 #ab ,knox1 ,john1 burnt in effigy1 #gj ,labarum1 ,the1 #e ,lamb with ,cross1 #af ,lanteglos1 #eg ,leeds ,parish ,church1 ,cross in1 #hh ,legends of the ,cross1 #aaf ,leighton ,buzzard1 #gf ,leo the ,isaurian1 #ba ,lincoln ,crosses1 #ge2 ,well-,cross1 #aac ,london ,well-,crosses1 #aad ,lothario1 ,cross of1 #bc ,lucca1 ,holy ,face of1 #bb ,mackinnon's ,cross1 ,abbot1 #ajj ,malmesbury1 #gf ,malta1 ,knights of1 #ab ,martin's ,cross1 ,s41 ,iona1 #ajj ,marriages at a ,public ,cross1 #ge ,market ,crosses1 #fe ,mayence ,cross1 #cd ,meaning of ,signing with ,cross1 #cj ,mercat ,croce1 ,edinburgh1 #fe ,merchant's ,cross1 ,dartmoor1 #ajh ,mode of ,signing with ,cross1 #cj ,mohammedan ,rule in ,jerusalem1 #i ,monasterboice1 #ajj ,monmouth's ,rebellion1 #if ,montgomery1 ,jas41 #if ,myrroure of our ,lady1 #cj ,nails of the ,true ,cross1 #aj ,nevern ,cross1 #eh ,neville's ,cross1 #hh ,newark1 #if ,northampton1 #ia ,north ,petherton1 #fa ,norwich1 #he ,nun's ,cross1 ,dartmoor1 #ajg ,ordination1 ,cross in1 #cb ,oswald's ,cross1 ,s41 #hg ,palm ,cross1 #fb ,papal ,cross1 #ci ,patriarchal ,cross1 #ch ,paul's ,cross1 ,s41 #gf2 famous sermons at1 #hj2 ,jane ,shore at1 #ha ,pawnbroking by a bishop1 #he ,pectoral ,cross1 #ci ,penzance1 #aje ,plymouth1 #if ,preaching ,crosses1 #gf ,pre-,christian ,cross1 #a ,processional ,cross1 #af1 #cd ,ravenna1 ,tomb at1 #bj ,restoration of ,roods1 #ed2 of ,churchyard ,crosses1 #fa2 of ,archbishop's ,cross1 #ch ,right of ,sanctuary1 #aae ,rivalry of ,canterbury and ,york1 #cf ,romsey ,abbey1 #fa ,roods1 #dg2 famous examples1 #ej2 ,destruction of1 #ea2 ,rood of ,grace1 ,boxley1 #ej ,rood-lofts1 #dh2 use of1 #di2 destroyed1 #ec2 restored1 #ed ,roodee1 ,chester1 #ea ,rouen1 screen at1 #ed ,ruskin1 quoted1 #aai ,s4 ,ives1 ,cornwall1 #eg ,salisbury1 #gf ,sanctuary1 ,right of1 #aae ,sandbach1 #if ,santa ,croce1 ,rome1 #aa ,scott1 ,sir ,w4 and ,edinburgh ,cross1 #fh1 #fi2 quoted1 #aac ,sermons1 famous1 at ,s4 ,paul's ,cross1 #hj ,shepton ,mallet1 #gf ,shore1 ,jane1 at ,s4 ,paul's ,cross1 #ha ,sign of ,cross1 #d1 #bh2 ,how made1 #cj2 ,meaning of1 #cj ,silvestro1 ,s41 at ,rome1 #be ,siward's ,cross1 ,dartmoor1 #ajg ,somersby ,cross1 #eg ,spanish ,crosses1 #hh ,spire ,crosses1 #ef ,stallbridge1 #aab ,station ,cross at ,mayence1 #cd ,symbolism1 #abj ,tatterstall1 screen at1 #di ,tau ,cross1 #a1 #bh ,templars1 ,knights1 #ab ,tertullian1 quoted1 #e1 #cj ,teutonic ,knights1 #ab ,tissington1 font at1 #bc ,title of ,cross at ,santa ,croce1 #aa ,tomb at ,wirksworth1 #ai2 at ,ravenna1 #bj ,totems1 #abj ,tottenham ,cross1 #aad ,towton1 ,battle of1 #if ,triple ,cross1 #ci ,true ,cross1 discovery of by ,s4 ,helena1 #f2 captured by ,chosroes1 #h2 fragments of1 #aj2 restored by ,heraclius1 #h2 ,nails1 #aj2 finally lost1 #aj ,trullo1 ,council in1 #bj ,types of ,cross1 #bh ,universality of ,cross-form1 #b ,vatican ,cross1 #ai ,veneration of ,wells1 #aab ,waltham ,cross1 #ie ,wedmore1 #if ,weeping ,cross1 #fb ,well-crosses1 #aab ,west ,kirby1 #aaj ,wheatly on ,sign of ,cross1 #cc ,whiteleaf ,cross1 #ajf ,winchester1 #gf ,wirksworth1 ,tomb at1 #ai ,xeropotami1 ,crucifix at1 #ba ,y ,cross1 #be ,,hull3 ,,william ,,andrews ,,and ,,co41 ,,the ,,hull ,,press4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,see ,bygone ,derbyshire1 edited by ,william ,andrews1 ,f4,r4,h4,s41 ,hull1 #ahib4 #b ,engraved1 as are several other examples referred to1 in ,mrs4 ,jameson's ,history of our ,lord1 as exemplified in works of ,art1 vol4 #b4 #c ,see ,bygone ,lincolnshire1 edited by ,william ,andrews1 ,f4,r4,h4,s41 ,hull1 #ahia4 ,,list ,,of ,,publications ,,of ,,william ,,andrews ,,co41 #e1 ,,farringdon ,,avenue1 ,,london1 ,e4,c4 ,elegantly bound in cloth gilt1 demy #hvo41 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,old ,,church ,,lore1 ,by ,,william ,,andrews1 ,f4,r4,h4,s4 ,author of ,curiosities of the ,church1 ,old ,time ,punishments1 ,historic ,romance1 etc4 ,contents3 ,the ,right of ,sanctuary--,the ,romance of ,trial--,a ,fight between the ,mayor of ,hull and the ,archbishop of ,york--,chapels on ,bridges--,charter ,horns--,the ,old ,english ,sunday--,the ,easter ,sepulchre--,st4 ,paul's ,cross--,cheapside ,cross--,the ,biddenden ,maids ,charity--,plagues and ,pestilences--,a ,king ,curing an ,abbot of ,indigestion--,the ,services and ,customs of ,royal ,oak ,day--,marrying in a ,white ,sheet--,marrying under the ,gallows--,kissing the ,bride--,hot ,ale at ,weddings--,marrying ,children--,the ,passing ,bell--,concerning ,coffins--,the ,curfew ,bell--,curious ,symbols of the ,saints--,acrobats on ,steeples--,a carefully prepared ,index--,illustrated4 ,,press ,,opinions4 ,it must be confessed that when we read the statement in the preface of this work that an attempt had been made to blend instruction with entertainment1 our mind was filled with gloomy forebodings4 ,but it seems that we had no occasion for them4 ,mr4 ,andrews discusses his various subjects1--,the ,right of ,sanctuary1 ,the ,romance of ,trial1 ,charter ,horns1 ,the ,curfew ,bell1 and so on1--in so pleasant a style1 and with such evident love of his work1 that all fear of the dry-as-dust immediately vanishes1 and we find ourselves taking as great interest in ancient clerical usages and customs as he himself does1 and are1 in fact1 quite reluctant to part with our guide when the end of the volume is reached4 ,we feel that we should also mention the excellent typography of the publication1 and the suitable illustrations by which it is accompanied4--,publishers' ,circular4 ,a worthy work on a deeply interesting subject4444 ,we commend this book strongly4--,european ,mail4 ,an interesting volume4--,the ,scotsman4 ,the book is eminently readable1 and may be taken up at any moment with the certainty that something suggestive or entertaining will present itself4--,glasgow ,citizen4 ,elegantly bound in cloth gilt1 demy #hvo41 #gs4 #f;d4 ,curious ,church ,gleanings1 ,edited by ,,william ,,andrews1 ,f4,r4,h4,s41 ,author of ,curiosities of the ,church1 ,old ,church ,lore1 etc4 ,,contents3-- ,what to ,look for in an ,old ,church--,early ,church ,dedications--,the ,church ,porch--,the ,lights of a ,mediaeval ,church--,concerning ,crosses--,misericordes--,church ,gilds--,pews of the ,past--,the ,bishop's ,throne--,chantries--,hagioscopes--,some ,english ,shrines--,the ,church and the ,well of ,st4 ,chad--,burials in ,woollen--,hearse3 ,how a ,word has ,changed its ,meaning--,heart ,burials of ,english ,persons--,boy-,bishops--,gleanings from a ,parish ,chest--,a carefully compiled ,index4 ,,illustrated4 ,press ,opinions4 ,the volume1 which is beautifully printed and illustrated1 will fascinate the reader by its diversity1 its instructive exposition1 and its record of what is odd1 mystical1 and glorious in the ,church's annals4--,birmingham ,daily ,gazette4 ,a most entertaining work1 and useful to antiquaries and sociologists as a book of reference4--,leeds ,mercury4 ,a fund of quaint and pleasing information4--,chester ,courant4 ,mr4 ,andrews and his coadjutors have provided a work which will give unqualified pleasure to the reader of the day1 and which will prove engrossing to every searcher after the ancient and the curious in ecclesiastical history or structure4--,dundee ,advertiser4 ,the learned editor of this work has in several volumes proved his extensive acquaintance with early records of the ,english ,church1 and of the marks she bears of pre-,reformation times4 ,he was1 therefore1 well fitted for the task of preparing this collection of papers dealing with 'the byways and highways' of ,church ,history in this country1 and the result is a volume that will give pleasure to many besides ecclesiastical antiquarians4444 ,the writers of the various chapters show ample knowledge of the subjects they treat of1 and considerable literary powers4--,liverpool ,mercury4 ,an exceedingly interesting miscellany1 and will be read with the greater enjoyment that all the contributors have been at pains to banish pedantry from their articles1 and to write them in a light and gossiping style4--,glasgow ,herald4 ,valuable and interesting4--,the ,times4 ,readable as well as instructive4--,the ,globe4 ,a valuable addition to any library4--,derbyshire ,times4 ,the ,bygone ,series4 ,in this series the following volumes are included1 and issued at #gs4 #f;d4 each4 ,demy #hvo41 cloth gilt4 ,these books have been favourably reviewed in the leading critical journals of ,england and ,america4 ,carefully written articles by recognised authorities are included on history1 castles1 abbeys1 biography1 romantic episodes1 legendary lore1 traditional stories1 curious customs1 folk-lore1 etc41 etc4 ,the works are illustrated by eminent artists1 and by the reproduction of quaint pictures of the olden time4 ,,bygone ,,berkshire1 edited by ,rev4 ,p4 ,h4 ,ditchfield1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,s4,a4 ,,bygone ,,cheshire1 edited by ,william ,andrews1 ,f4,r4,h4,s4 ,,bygone ,,derbyshire1 edited by ,william ,andrews1 ,f4,r4,h4,s4 ,,bygone ,,essex1 edited by ,william ,andrews1 ,f4,r4,h4,s4 ,,bygone ,,england1 by ,william ,andrews1 ,f4,r4,h4,s4 ,,bygone ,,gloucestershire1 edited by ,william ,andrews1 ,f4,r4,h4,s4 ,,bygone ,,kent1 edited by ,richard ,stead1 ,b4,a4 ,,bygone ,,lancashire1 edited by ,ernest ,axon4 ,,bygone ,,leicestershire1 edited by ,william ,andrews1 ,f4,r4,h4,s4 ,,bygone ,,lincolnshire 7#b vols471 edited by ,william ,andrews1 ,f4,r4,h4,s4 ,,bygone ,,london1 by ,frederick ,ross1 ,f4,r4,h4,s4 ,,bygone ,,nottinghamshire1 by ,william ,stevenson4 ,,bygone ,,scotland1 by ,david ,maxwell1 ,c4,e4 ,,bygone ,,somersetshire1 edited by ,william ,andrews1 ,f4,r4,h4,s4 ,,bygone ,,southwark1 by ,mrs4 ,e4 ,boger4 ,,bygone ,,surrey1 edited by ,george ,clinch and ,s4 ,w4 ,kershaw1 ,f4,s4,a4 ,,bygone ,,warwickshire1 edited by ,william ,andrews1 ,f4,r4,h4,s4 ,,bygone ,,yorkshire1 edited by ,william ,andrews1 ,f4,r4,h4,s4 ,elegantly bound in cloth gilt1 ,demy #hvo41 ,price #fs4 ,,bygone ,,england3 ,,social ,,studies ,,in ,,its ,,historic ,,byways ,,and ,,highways4 ,by ,,william ,,andrews1 ,f4,r4,h4,s4 ,,contents3--,under ,watch and ,ward--,under ,lock and ,key--,the ,practice of ,pledging--,the ,minstrel in the ,olden ,time--,curious ,landholding ,customs--,curiosities of ,slavery in ,england--,buying and ,selling in the ,olden ,time--,curious ,fair ,customs--,old ,prejudices against ,coal--,the ,sedan ,chair--,running ,footmen--,the ,early ,days of the ,umbrella--,a ,talk about ,tea--,concerning ,coffee--,the ,horn ,book--,fighting ,cocks in ,schools--,bull ,baiting--,the ,badge of ,poverty--,patents to wear ,nightcaps--,a ,foolish ,fashion--,wedding ,notices in the ,last ,century--,selling ,wives--,the ,story of the ,tinder ,box--,the ,invention of ,friction matches--,body ,snatching--,christmas under the ,commonwealth--,under the ,mistletoe ,bough--,a carefully prepared ,index4 ,we welcome ',bygone ,england4' ,it is another of ,mr4 ,andrews' meritorious achievements in the path of popularising archaeological and old time information without in any way writing down to an ignoble level4--,the ,antiquary4 ,a delightful volume for all who love to dive into the origin of social habits and customs1 and to penetrate into the byways of history4--,liverpool ,daily ,post4 ,there is a large mass of information in this capital volume1 and it is so pleasantly put that many will be tempted to study it4 ,mr4 ,andrews has done his work with great skill4--,london ,quarterly ,review4 ,elegantly ,bound in ,cloth ,gilt1 ,demy #hvo41 #gs4 #f;d4 ,,the ,,lawyer in ,,history1 ,,literature1 ,,and ,,humour1 ,edited by ,,william ,,andrews1 ,f4,r4,h4,s4 ,,contents4 ,introduction--,law ,amongst ,primitive ,races--,ivo1 ,saint and ,lawyer--,benefit of ,clergy--,chaucer's ,man of ,law--,the ,law in ,shakespeare--,revels at the ,inns of ,court--,the ,law in ,scott--,dickens' ,lawyers--,literary ,lawyers--,the ,law in ,rhyme--,fighting ,lawyers--,the ,costume of the ,law--,curious ,circuit ,customs--,the ,last ,execution for ,witchcraft--,curious ,legal ,facts1 ,customs1 and ,fictions--,people in the ,pillory--,amenities of the ,bench and the ,bar--,curiosities of the ,witness ,box--,the ,law and ,laughter--,lawyers and ,eloquence--,sealed and ,delivered--,a carefully compiled ,index4 ,it will be gathered from the foregoing list of contents that the volume is one of unusual interest and value4 ,the work may be read with pleasure and profit1 and merits a place in the reference library4 ,,press ,,opinions ,a welcome addition to the lighter literature of the law4--,the ,times4 ,a considerable amount of historical and literary information4--,daily ,news4 ,an entertaining work4 ,it is rich in the lore and the humour of the law1 and ought to be as interesting to the layman as to the lawyer4--,the ,globe4 ,an entertaining volume4--,manchester ,guardian4 ,a handsome volume4444 ,the work is printed and got up in a style that does credit to the well-known firm of publishers4--,chester ,courant4 ,deserves to be placed amongst the best ,english books of reference4--,stockport ,advertiser4 ,it is a repository of many entertaining1 useful1 and surprising facts1 the result of considerable research4--,birmingham ,daily ,gazette4 ,elegantly bound1 demy1 #hvo11 #gs4 #f;d4 ,this is a charming and even captivating book4--,friends' ,quarterly ,examiner4 ,,the ,,quaker ,,poets ,,of ,,great ,,britain ,,and ,,ireland1 ,by ,,evelyn ,,noble ,,armitage1 ,,author ,,of ,a ,,dream ,,of ,,the ,,gironde1 ,,the ,,poet ,,in ,,may1 ,,the ,,message ,,of ,,quakerism1 ,,etc41 ,,etc4 ,the volume opens with a brief sketch of the ,rise of the ,society of ,friends1 and ,characteristics of its ,poetry1 ,biographical ,notices and ,examples of the best ,poems of the following poets are given3-- ,jessie ,adams1 ,gulielma ,a4 ,wheeler ,baker1 ,william ,ball1 ,william ,barber1 ,bernard ,barton1 ,henry ,binns1 ,james ,beale1 ,mary ,elizabeth ,beck1 ,louisa ,bigg1 ,robert ,bird1 ,elias ,bockett1 ,hannah ,bowden1 ,john ,le ,gay ,brereton1 ,elizabeth ,naish ,capper1 ,jane ,crewdson1 ,elfrida ,mary ,crowley1 ,dorothy ,crowley1 ,thomas ,ellwood1 ,sarah ,hustler ,fox1 ,robert ,barclay ,fox1 ,benjamin ,goouch1 ,fanny ,harris1 ,john ,harris1 ,hannah ,t4 ,harvey1 ,t4 ,newenham ,harvey1 ,thomas ,hodgkin1 ,david ,holt1 ,mary ,howitt1 ,william ,howitt1 ,richard ,howitt1 ,thomas ,hunton1 ,james ,hurnard1 ,william ,kitching1 ,mary ,leadbeater1 ,wm4 ,henry ,leatham1 ,thomas ,lister1 ,charles ,lloyd1 ,elizabeth ,lucas1 ,mary ,c4 ,manners1 ,john ,marriott1 ,mary ,mollineux1 ,amelia ,opie1 ,ellen ,clare ,pearson1 ,fanny ,a4 ,prideaux1 ,anthony ,purver1 ,james ,nicholson ,richardson1 ,thomas ,clio ,rickman1 ,richard ,ball ,rutter1 ,john ,scott of ,amwell1 ,lydia ,shackleton1 ,lovell ,squire1 ,matilda ,sturge1 ,frederick ,taylor1 ,phillips ,thompson1 ,william ,phillips ,thompson1 ,john ,todhunter1 ,arthur ,e4 ,tregelles1 ,anna ,letitia ,waring1 ,robert ,spence ,watson1 ,deborah ,webb1 ,anna ,louisa ,westcombe1 ,hannah ,maria ,wigham1 ,thomas ,wilkinson1 ,james ,h4 ,wilson1 ,thomas ,henry ,wright4 ,,press ,,opinions4 ,the book throughout is a good example of scholarly and appreciative editing4--,the ,times4 ,the book is well worth reading1 and evinces signs of careful selection and treatment of themes4--,liverpool ,daily ,post4 ,mrs4 ,armitage's book was worth compiling1 and has claims on others than members of the ,society of ,friends4--,newcastle ,daily ,leader4 ,the volume is well worth careful study4--,manchester ,guardian4 ,the austere simplicity of ,quaker costume has1 we believe1 been considerably mitigated of late1 and the bonnet of drab1 which ,bernard ,barton sang so enthusiastically1 is no longer de rigueur in the ,society of ,friends4 ,the outward garb of this ,quaker anthology symbolises this relaxation for the sumptuary laws of costume2 for instead of a severely grave binding1 ,mrs4 ,armitage's publishers have sent forth her collection in the form of a particularly handsome and attractive octavo of the amplest dimensions4 ,some sixty or seventy poets are represented1 each selection being preceded by a page or two of biographical and critical matter4--,irish ,monthly4 ,the book has been compiled with care1 and the biographical sketches are well rendered4 ,it is elegantly got up1 and will doubtless be widely read4--,friends' ,quarterly ,examiner4 ,the book can hardly fail to be widely read as its sterling merit becomes known4--,hastings ,observer4 ,one of the most remarkable features of this volume is the fact that of the sixty-five poets sketched and quoted in its pages1 not fewer than twenty-six are women4 ,it is doubtful whether any other religious body could produce an equal proportion of female singers4--,glasgow ,herald4 ,the volume has an introduction of ten well-written pages on the rise of ,quakerism and ,quaker poetry1 which fittingly leads up to the condensed biographical notices of each author whose works are quoted4444 ,the book is admirably done1 and the editor is entitled to the thanks of all who are interested in the preservation of the literature of the ,society of ,friends4--,christian ,leader4 ,just published4 ,crown #hvo41 #ccj pp4 ,a ,portrait of the ,author and other ,illustrations4 ,price #c_/f4 ,,the ,,red1 ,,red ,,wine1 ,,by ,,the ,,rev4 ,j4 ,,jackson ,,wray4 ,this1 as its name implies1 is a temperance story1 and is told in the lamented author's most graphic style4 ,we have never read anything so powerful since ',danesbury ,house1' and this book in stern and pathetic earnestness even excels that widely-known book4 ,it is worthy a place in every ,sunday ,school and village library2 and1 as the latest utterance of one whose writings are so deservedly popular1 it is sure of a welcome4 ,it should give decision to some whose views about ,local ,option are hazy4--,joyful ,news4 ,the story is one of remarkable power4--,the ,temperance ,record4 ,an excellent and interesting story4--,the ,temperance ,chronicle4 ,it is written in a graphic and conversational style1 abounding with rapidly-succeeding incidents1 which arrest and sustain the interest of the reader4--,the ,league ,journal4 ,it is just the right sort of book for a prize or present1 and should find a place in every ,band of ,hope and ,sunday ,school library4--,the ,abstainer's ,advocate4 ,a pathetic interest attaches to this volume1 it being the last legacy of ,mr4 ,jackson ,wray4 ,it is a story with a purpose--to advocate the claims of total abstinence4 ,the plot is laid in a small village of the ,east ,riding of ,yorkshire1 and the author sketches the awful ravages of intemperance in that small community4 ,the victims include a minister1 doctor1 and many others who found1 when too late1 that the red1 red wine biteth like a serpent4 ,though terribly realistic1 the picture is drawn from life1 and every tragical incident had its counterpart among the dwellers in that village4 ,it is a healthy and powerful temperance tale1 and a fearless exposure of the quiet drinking that was so common in respectable circles thirty years ago4 ,it should find a place in our school libraries to be read by elder scholars4--,methodist ,times4 ,this is a powerful story1 the last from the pen of an indefatigable worker and true friend of the total abstinence cause4 ,the scene of the o'er true tale is laid in ,east ,yorkshire1 the author's native district1 which he knew and loved so well4 ,the characters appear to be drawn from life1 and every chapter has a vivid and terrible interest4 ,the friendship between old ,aaron ,brigham and ,little ,kitty is touching4 ,the tale of trouble1 sorrow1 and utter ruin wrought by the demon of strong drink might well rouse every man1 woman1 and child to fight the destroyer1 which1 in the unfolding of the story1 we see enslaving minister and people1 shaming the ,christian ,church1 breaking hearts all round1 and wrecking the dearest hopes of individuals and families4 ,a striking and pitiful tale1 not overdrawn4--,alliance ,news4 ,elegantly ,bound1 ,crown #hvo41 price #bs4 #f;d4 ,faces on the ,queen's ,highway1 ,by ,,flo4 ,,jackson4 ,though oftenest to be found in a pensive mood1 the writer of this very dainty volume of sketches is always very sweet and winning4 ,she has evidently a true artist's love of nature1 and in a few lines can limn an autumn landscape full of colour1 and the life which is on the down slope4 ,and she can tell a very taking story1 as witness the sketch ,at the ,inn1 and ,the ,master of ,white ,hags1 and all her characters are real1 live flesh-and-blood people1 who do things naturally1 and give very great pleasure to the reader accordingly4 ,miss ,jackson's gifts are of a very high order4--,aberdeen ,free ,press4 ,a charmingly written series of sketches and stories by ,flo ,jackson1 published under the happy title ,faces on the ,queen's ,highway4 ,the writer possesses descriptive powers of a high order1 and her visionary glimpses of the passers on the patch of highway beyond the curtained window1 appeals strongly to one's better and nobler feelings4--,chester ,courant4 ,this volume bears the name1 as its author1 of ,flo ,jackson1 a talented writer1 whose sketches and stories we have often read with pleasure4 ,we can promise the same experience for readers of this volume1 which contains some of ,miss ,jackson's typical work in prose4 ,in ,winter ,mood1 ,at the ,inn1 ,the ,journey of the ,leaves1 ,safe at ,last1 and the sketches in ,faces are specimens of a high standard of literary excellence4 ,with a poetic and imaginative nature the writer combines a happy power of expression1 and she is thus enabled to paint a picture which easily arrests the attention4 ,at the ,inn1 already named1 is a short story1 which for its artistic effect and its pathos would sustain the reputation of one of our leading authors4 ,throughout the book there is a spirit of tender refinement2 while there are numerous features likely to attract the reader1 there are none to repel him4 ,the prevailing style is as unconventional as the introduction1 which is a pretty departure from the orthodox mode of bowing to the reader4--,bristol ,observer4 ,,price ,,one ,,shilling4 ,a very entertaining volume4--,birmingham ,daily ,gazette4 ,a ,lawyer's ,secrets4 ,by ,,herbert ,,lloyd1 ,,author ,,of ,,the ,,children ,,of ,,chance1 ,,etc4 ,,press ,,opinions4 ,mr4 ,herbert ,lloyd gives us a succession of stories which may reasonably be taken to have their origin in the experience of a lawyer practising at large in the criminal courts4 ,it is natural that they should be of a romantic nature2 but romance is not foreign to a lawyer's consulting room1 so that this fact need not be charged against this lawyer's veracity4444 ,the stories1 seven in all1 cover the ground of fraud and murder1 inspired by the prevailing causes of crime--greed and jealousy4 ,our lawyer is happy in having the majority of his clients the innocent victims of false charges inspired and fostered in a great measure by their own folly2 but this is a natural phase of professional experience1 and we are only concerned with the fact that he generally manages it as effectively in the interests of his clients as his editor does in presenting them to his audience4--,literary ,world4 ,a volume of entertaining stories4444 ,the book has much the same interest as a volume of detective stories1 except that putting the cases in a lawyer's mouth gives them a certain freshness4 ,it is well written1 and makes a capital volume for a railway journey4--,the ,scotsman4 ,mr4 ,herbert ,lloyd has added a very entertaining volume to the lighter literature of the day4 ',a ,lawyer's ,secrets' are a charmingly-told series of short stories1 full of life and incident1 without suggesting the impossible4 ,the professional career of the lawyer abounds in interesting confidences1 explaining many of the apparent mysteries which so frequently crop up4 ,mr4 ,lloyd ingeniously lets his readers--and they no doubt will be numerous--into the secrets of a highly-respected firm of solicitors1 whose clients furnish the remarkable cases contained in the volume4 ,care has been taken not to weary the reader1 who is afforded a very extensive range of sensations in crime to peruse4 ,after ',a ,double ,consultation' comes ',charged with ,theft1' followed by ',a ,tragic ,bankruptcy4' ,then ',a ,curious ,love ,story' is narrated1 and the mystery associated with a ',wilful ,murder' is solved by ',the ,missing ,clue4' ,the series is pleasantly concluded by an adventure of ',an ,australian ,heiress1' and if ,mr4 ,lloyd is good enough at a subsequent period to divulge further secrets1 we are sure they will be heartily welcomed by a wide circle of friends4--,birmingham ,daily ,gazette4 ,may be recommended for shortening a railway journey or a similar purpose4--,aberdeen ,free ,press4 ,a ,second and ,cheap ,edition4 ,,price1 #a_/- ,children of ,chance1 ,by ,,herbert ,,lloyd4 ,extracts from ,press ,opinions4 ,in short we have little but praise for this book4444 ,the reader's interest is aroused from the first1 and is sustained to the end4 ,there is pathos in the story1 and there is humour1 and ,mr4 ,lloyd writes very gracefully and tenderly where grace and tenderness are needed4--,birmingham ,daily ,gazette4 ,the story 444 is full of action and movement1 and is never dull4--,the ,scotsman4 ,fcap #dto4 ,bevelled boards1 gilt tops4 ,price #ds4 ,famous ,frosts and ,frost ,fairs in ,great ,britain4 ,chronicled from the ,earliest to the ,present ,time4 ,,by ,,william ,,andrews1 ,f4,r4,h4,s4 ,only #djj copies printed1 each copy numbered1 and only #bj remain on sale4 ,three curious full-page illustrations4 ,this work furnishes a carefully prepared account of all the great ,frosts occurring in this country from ,a4,d4 #acd to #ahhg4 ,the numerous ,frost ,fairs on the ,thames are fully described1 and illustrated with quaint woodcuts1 and several old ballads relating to the subject are reproduced4 ,it is tastefully printed and elegantly bound4 ,,press ,,opinions4 ,a very interesting volume4--,northern ,daily ,telegraph4 ,a great deal of curious and valuable information is contained in these pages4444 ,a comely volume4--,literary ,world4 ,the work from first to last is a most attractive one1 and the arts alike of printer and binder have been brought into one to give it a pleasing form4--,wakefield ,free ,press4 ,an interesting and valuable work4--,west ,middlesex ,times4 ,the book is beautifully got up4--,barnsley ,independent4 ,this chronology has been a task demanding extensive research and considerable labour and patience1 and ,mr4 ,andrews is to be heartily congratulated on the result4--,derby ,daily ,gazette4 ,a volume of much interest and great importance4--,rotherham ,advertiser4 ,quite up to date4--,hull ,daily ,mail4 ,crown #hvo41 #adj pp42 fancy cover1 #as42 cloth bound1 #bs4 ,,stepping ,,stones ,,to ,,socialism4 ,,by ,,david ,,maxwell1 ,c4,e4 ,,contents3--,in a reasonable and able manner ,mr4 ,maxwell deals with the following topics3--,the ,popular meaning of the ,word ,socialism--,lord ,salisbury on ,socialism--,why ,there is in ,many ,minds an ,antipathy to ,socialism--,on ,some ,socialistic ,views of ,marriage--,the ,question of ,private ,property--,the ,old ,political ,economy is not the ,way of ,salvation--,who is ,my ,neighbour8--,progress1 and the ,condition of the ,labourer--,good and ,bad ,trade3 ,precarious ,employment--,all ,popular ,movements are ,helping on ,socialism--,modern ,literature in ,relation to ,social ,progress--,pruning the ,old ,theological ,tree--,the ,churches3 ,their ,socialistic ,tendencies--,the ,future of the ,earth in ,relation to ,human ,life--,socialism is ,based on ,natural ,laws of ,life--,humanity in the ,future--,preludes to ,socialism--,forecasts of the ,ultimate ,form of ,society--,a ,pisgah-top ,view of the ,promised ,land4 ,,press ,,opinions4 ,the author has evidently reflected deeply on the subject of ,socialism1 and his views are broad1 equitable1 and quite up to date4 ,in a score or so of chapters he discusses ,socialism from manifold points of view1 and in its manifold aspects4 ,mr4 ,maxwell is not a fanatic2 his book is not dull1 and his style is not amateurish4--,hull ,daily ,mail4 ,there is a good deal of charm about ,mr4 ,maxwell's style4--,northern ,daily ,news4 ,the book is well worthy of perusal4--,hull ,news4 ,the reader who requires more intimate acquaintance with a subject that is often under discussion at the present day1 will derive much interest from a perusal of this little work4 ,whether it exactly expresses the views of the various socialists themselves is another matter1 but inasmuch as these can seldom agree even among themselves1 the objection is scarcely so serious as might otherwise be thought4--,publishers' ,circular4 ,a temperate and reverent study of a great question4--,london ,quarterly ,review4 ,mr4 ,david ,maxwell's book is the timely expression of a richly-furnished mind on the current problems of home politics and social ethics4--,eastern ,morning ,news4 ,price1 ,one ,shilling4 ,the ,studies of a ,socialist ,parson4 ,,by ,,the ,,rev4 ,w4 ,h4 ,,abraham1 ,m4,a4 7,london74 ,the volume consists of sermons and addresses1 given mostly at the ,st4 ,augustine's ,church1 ,hull4 ,the author in his preface says1 ,it is the duty of the clergyman to try and understand what ,socialism is1 and to lead men from the false ,socialism to the true4 ,,contents3--,the ,working-man1 ,past and ,present3 ,a ,historical ,review--,whither are we going8--,national ,righteousness--,the ,true ,value of ,life--,christian ,socialism--,jesus ,christ1 the ,true ,socialist--,socialism1 through ,christ or without ,him8--,the ,great ,bread ,puzzle--,labour ,day1 ,may #a1 #ahib--,the ,people1 the ,rulers1 and the ,priests--,friendly ,societies--,trades' ,unions--,the ,people's ,church--,on some ,social ,questions--,the ,greatest ,help to the true ,social ,life--,the ,great ,i ,am--,god as a present force--,signs of the ,times4 ,the following are selected from a large number of favourable notices3-- ,the volume is deserving of all praise4--,glasgow ,herald4 ,an admirable contribution to the solution of difficult problems4 ,mr4 ,abraham has much that is valuable to say1 and says it well4--,spectator4 ,eminently readable4--,northern ,daily ,news4 ,the book is nicely printed and got up4--,eastern ,morning ,news4 ,the book is as a whole sensitive and suggestive4 ,the timely words on ',decency in ,journalism and ,conversation' deserve to be widely read4--,london ,quarterly ,review4 ,elegantly ,bound1 ,crown #hvo41 #cs4 #f;d4 ,biblical and ,shakespearian ,characters ,compared4 ,studies of ,life and ,literature4 ,,by ,,the ,,rev4 ,,james ,,bell4 ,between the ,hebrew ,bible and ,shakespeare there exists some interesting and instructive points of resemblance1 especially in respect of their ways of life and character4 ,no doubt certain inevitable differences also exist between them1 but these do not hide the resemblance2 rather they serve to set it1 so to speak1 in bolder relief4 ,the author in this volume treats of this striking resemblance1 under certain phases1 between ,hebrew ,prophecy and ,shakespearian ,drama4 ,the following are the chief ,studies which find a place in the work3--,hebrew ,prophecy and ,shakespeare3 a ,comparison--,eli and ,hamlet--,saul and ,macbeth--,jonathan and ,horatio--,david and ,henry ,v4--,epilogue4 ,the following short extracts are selected from a large number of reviews of ,mr4 ,bell's book3-- ,one of the most suggestive volumes we have met with for a long time4--,birmingham ,daily ,gazette4 ,an interesting book4--,north ,british ,daily ,mail4 ,a deeply interesting book4--,the ,methodist ,times4 ,a highly interesting and ingenious work4--,british ,weekly4 ,elegantly bound in cloth gilt1 demy #hvo41 #fs4 ,,yorkshire ,,family ,,romance4 ,,by ,,frederick ,,ross1 ,f4,r4,h4,s4 ,,contents3--,the ,synod of ,streoneshalh--,the ,doomed ,heir of ,osmotherley--,st4 ,eadwine1 the ,royal ,martyr--,the ,viceroy ,siward--,phases in the ,life of a ,political ,martyr--,the ,murderer's ,bride--,the ,earldom of ,wiltes--,blackfaced ,clifford--,the ,shepherd ,lord--,the ,felons of ,ilkley--,the ,ingilby ,boar's ,head--,the ,eland ,tragedy--,the ,plumpton ,marriage--,the ,topcliffe ,insurrection--,burning of ,cottingham ,castle--,the ,alum ,workers--,the ,maiden of ,marblehead--,rise of the ,house of ,phipps--,the ,traitor ,governor of ,hull4 ,,press ,,opinions4 ,the grasp and thoroughness of the writer is evident in every page1 and the book forms a valuable addition to the literature of the ,north ,country4--,gentlewoman4 ,many will welcome this work4--,yorkshire ,post4 ,elegantly bound in cloth gilt1 demy #hvo41 #fs4 ,,legendary ,,yorkshire4 ,,by ,,frederick ,,ross1 ,f4,r4,h4,s4 ,,contents3--,the ,enchanted ,cave--,the ,doomed ,city--,the ,worm of ,nunnington--,the ,devil's ,arrows--,the ,giant ,road ,maker of ,mulgrave--,the ,virgin's ,head of ,halifax--,the ,dead ,arm of ,st4 ,oswald the ,king--,the ,translation of ,st4 ,hilda--,a ,miracle of ,st4 ,john--,the ,beatified ,sisters--,the ,dragon of ,wantley--,the ,miracles and ,ghost of ,watton--,the ,murdered ,hermit of ,eskdale--,the ,calverley ,ghost--,the ,bewitched ,house of ,wakefield4 ,,press ,,opinions4 ,it is a work of lasting interest1 and cannot fail to delight the reader4--,beverley ,recorder4 ,the history and the literature of our county are now receiving marked attention1 and ,mr4 ,andrews merits the support of the public for the production of this and other interesting volumes he has issued4 ,we cannot speak too highly of this volume1 the printing1 the paper1 and the binding being faultless4--,driffield ,observer4 ,,price1 ,,one ,,shilling4 ,if anyone wishes to become a ,barrister1 he should read--to use the words of the ,london ,globe--a pleasant little volume1 entitled ,,in ,,the ,,temple4 ,,by ,a ,,barrister-,,at-,,law4 ,this book opens with a chapter on the history of the ,temple4 ,next follows an account of the ,knight ,templars4 ,the story of the ,devil's ,own is given in a graphic manner4 ,a ,sketch of ,christmas in the ,temple is included4 ,in an entertaining manner the reader is informed how to become a ,templar1 the manner of keeping terms is described1 and lastly1 the work concludes with a chapter on call parties4 ,,the ,,press4 ,this book was well received by the critical press4 ,it was described in the ,manchester ,examiner1 as ,an entertaining little book4 ,in the ,law ,times the contents are said to be amusing and interesting sketches4 ,said the ,gentlewoman it consists of ,pleasant gossip about the barristers' quarter4 ,william ,andrews ,co41 ,publishers1 #e1 ,farringdon ,avenue1 ,london1 ,e4,c4 ,the ,press on ,messrs4 ,william ,andrews ,co4's ,printing and ,binding4 ,the book is very handsomely got up4--,dundee ,advertiser4 ,a remarkably handsome volume1 typographically equal to the best production of any ,european capital4--,north ,british ,daily ,mail4 ,the book is entitled to unstinted praise on the ground of admirable printing and binding4--,shields ,daily ,gazette4 ,will bear comparison with the best work of the first publishing firms in ,london or ,edinburgh1 the printing and paper being everything the most fastidious could desire4--,boston ,independent4 ,the book is handsomely brought out4--,scotsman4 ,beautiful work in typography and binding4--,yorkshire ,post4 ,very pretty binding4--,publishers' ,circular4 ,most elegantly bound and tastefully printed4--,hull ,daily ,mail4 ,beautifully bound and printed4--,daily ,chronicle4 ,the letterpress is beautifully clear4--,birmingham ,daily ,gazette4 ,the printer's part is perfectly done4--,india4 ,the book is handsomely got up4--,manchester ,guardian4 ,the book is excellently printed and bound4--,library ,review4 ,handsomely printed4--,newcastle ,chronicle4 ,a notice of ,bygone ,scotland concludes as follows3--,the book forms a splendid addition to the works of the same series all printed at the ',hull ,press1' and1 like all its predecessors1 is printed in the exceptionally beautiful style which marks the productions of ,mr4 ,andrews' establishment4 ,mr4 ,andrews is a bookmaker par excellence4--,printing ,world4 ,,the ,,hull ,,press1 #a1 ,,dock ,,street1 ,,hull4 ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,passages in italics are indicated by italics4 ,graphic characters are represented by ,x4