---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,transcriber',s ,,notes ,words printed in italics in the original work are represented here between underscores1 as in text4 ,words originally printed in bold face are represented as text1 words in small capitals as ,,all ,,capitals4 ,further ,transcriber's ,notes may be found at the end of this text4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,farm ,,mechanics ,,machinery ,,and ,,its ,,use ,,to ,,save ,,hand ,,labor ,,on ,,the ,,farm ,including ,tools1 ,shop ,work1 ,driving and ,driven ,machines1 ,farm ,waterworks1 ,care and ,repair of ,farm ,implements ,by ,,herbert ,a4 ,,shearer ,,agriculturist ,author of ,farm ,buildings with ,plans and ,descriptions ,,illustrated ,,with ,,three ,,hundred ,,original ,,drawings ,,chicago ,,frederick ,j4 ,,drake ,,co4 ,publishers ,copyright #aiah ,by ,frederick ,j4 ,drake ,co4 ,chicago ,,preface ,more mechanical knowledge is required on the farm than in any other line of business4 ,if a farmer is not mechanically inclined1 he is under the necessity of employing someone who is4 ,some farms are supplied with a great many handy contrivances to save labor4 ,farmers differ a great deal in this respect4 ,some are natural mechanics1 some learn how to buy and how to operate the best farm machinery1 while others are still living in the past4 ,some farmers who make the least pretensions have the best machinery and implements4 ,they may not be good mechanics1 but they have an eye to the value of labor saving tools4 ,the object of this book is to emphasize the importance of mechanics in modern farming2 to fit scores of quick-acting machines into the daily routine of farm work and thereby lift heavy loads from the shoulders of men and women2 to increase the output at less cost of hand labor and to improve the soil while producing more abundantly than ever before2 to suggest the use of suitable machines to manufacture high-priced nutritious human foods from cheap farm by-products4 ,illustrations are used to explain principles rather than to recommend any particular type or pattern of machine4 ,the old is contrasted with the new and the merits of both are expressed4 ,,the ,,author4 ,,contents ,,page ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,farm ,,shop ,,with ,,tools ,,for ,,working ,,wood ,,and ,,iron #i ,,chapter ,,ii ,,farm ,,shop ,,work #ej ,,chapter ,,iii ,,generating ,,mechanical ,,power ,,to ,,drive ,,modern ,,farm ,,machinery #gd ,,chapter ,,iv ,,driven ,,machines #ajj ,,chapter ,v ,,working ,,the ,,soil #acg ,,chapter ,,vi ,,handling ,,the ,,hay ,,crop #afc ,,chapter ,,vii ,,farm ,,conveyances #agi ,,chapter ,,viii ,,miscellaneous ,,farm ,,conveniences #aig ,,index #bda ,,farm ,,mechanics ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,farm ,,shop ,,with ,,tools ,,for ,,working ,,wood ,,and ,,iron ,,farm ,,shop ,,and ,,implement ,,house ,the workshop and shed to hold farm implements should look as neat and attractive as the larger buildings4 ,farm implements are expensive4 ,farm machinery is even more so4 ,when such machinery is all properly housed and kept in repair the depreciation is estimated at ten per cent a year4 ,when the machines are left to rust and weather in the rain and wind the loss is simply ruinous4 ,more machinery is required on farms than formerly and it costs more4 ,still it is not a question whether a farmer can afford a machine4 ,if he has sufficient work for it he knows he cannot afford to get along without it and he must have a shed to protect it from the weather when not in use4 ,in the first place the implement shed should be large enough to accommodate all of the farm implements and machinery without crowding and it should be well built and tight enough to keep out the wind and small animals1 including chickens and sparrows4 ,the perspective and plan shown herewith is twenty-four feet in width and sixty feet in length4 ,illustration3 ,figure #a4--,perspective ,view of the ,farm ,shop1 ,garage and ,implement ,shed4 ,the doors to the right are nearly #ab feet high to let in a grain separator over night1 or during the winter1 or a load of hay in case of a sudden storm4 ,illustration3 ,figure #b4--;,floor ,plan of ,shop1 ,garage and ,storage4 ,the building is #fj feet wide and #bd feet from front to back4 ,the doors of the garage and tool shed are made to open full width1 but #h feet is wide enough for the shop door4 ,all doors open out against posts and are fastened to prevent blowing shut4 ,the work shop is well lighted and the stationary tools are carefully placed for convenience in doing repair work of all kinds4 ,the pipe vise is at the doorway between the shop and garage so the handles of the pipe tools may swing through the doorway and the pipe may lie full length along the narrow pipe bench4 ,the doorways provide headroom sufficient for the highest machines1 and the width when the double doors are opened and the center post removed is nearly twenty feet1 which is sufficient for a binder in field condition or a two-horse spring-tooth rake4 ,one end of the building looking toward the house is intended for a machine shop to be partitioned off by enclosing the first bent4 ,this gives a room twenty feet wide by twenty-four feet deep for a blacksmith shop and general repair work4 ,the next twenty feet is the garage4 ,the machine shop part of the building will be arranged according to the mechanical inclination of the farmer4 ,illustration3 ,figure #c4--,perspective ,view of ,farm ,implement ,shed and ,workshop4 ,a real farm repair shop is a rather elaborate mechanical proposition4 ,there is a good brick chimney with a hood to carry off the smoke and gases from the blacksmith fire and the chimney should have a separate flue for a heating stove4 ,farm repair work is done mostly during the winter months when a fire in the shop is necessary for comfort and efficiency4 ,a person cannot work to advantage with cold fingers4 ,paint requires moderate heat to work to advantage4 ,painting farm implements is a very important part of repair work4 ,a good shop arrangement is to have an iron workbench across the shop window in the front or entrance end of the building4 ,in the far corner against the back wall is a good place for a woodworking bench4 ,it is too mussy to have the blacksmith work and the carpenter work mixed up4 ,illustration3 ,figure #d4--;,floor ,plan of ,farm ,implement ,shed1 showing the workshop in one end of the building1 handy to the implement storage room4 ,sometimes it is necessary to bring in a pair of horses for shoeing1 or to pull the shoes off4 ,for this reason1 a tie rail bolted to the studding on the side of the shop near the entrance is an extra convenience4 ,in a hot climate a sliding door is preferable because the wind will not slam it shut4 ,in cold climates1 hinge doors are better with a good sill and threshold to shut against to keep out the cold4 ,sometimes the large door contains a small door big enough to step through1 but not large enough to admit much cold1 when it is being opened and shut4 ,likewise a ceiling is needed in a cold country1 while in warmer sections1 a roof is sufficient4 ,farm shops1 like other farm buildings1 should conform to the climate1 as well as convenience in doing the work4 ,a solid concrete floor is a great comfort4 ,and it is easily kept clean4 ,the perspective and floor plan show the arrangement of the doors1 windows and chimney and the placing of the work benches1 forge1 anvil1 toolbench and drill press4 ,figures #c and #d show the perspective and floor plan of a farm shop and implement house #dj x #af feet in size1 which is large enough for some farms4 ,,shop ,,tools ,good tools are more important on a farm than in a city workshop for the reason that a greater variety of work is required4 ,measuring ,mechanical ,work4--,in using tools on the farm the first rule should be accuracy4 ,it is just as easy to work to one-sixteenth of an inch as to carelessly lay off a piece of work so that the pieces won't go together right4 ,illustration3 ,figure #e4--;,caliper ,rule4 ,a handy slide caliper shop rule is made with a slide marked in fractions of inches as shown in the drawing4 ,the diameter of a rivet1 bolt or other round object may be taken instantly4 ,it is not so accurate as calipers for close measurements1 but it is a practical tool for farm use4 ,the handiest measuring tool ever invented is the old-fashioned two-foot rule that folds up to six inches in length to be carried in the pocket4 ,such rules to be serviceable should be brass bound4 ,the interior marking should be notched to sixteenths4 ,the outside marking may be laid out in eighths4 ,the finer marking on the inside is protected by keeping the rule folded together when not in use4 ,the coarser marking outside does not suffer so much from wear4 ,figure #e shows a #ab-;inch rule with a slide caliper jaw4 ,illustration3 ,figure #f4--,small ,pocket ,oilstone4 ,shop oilstone in a box4 #ajj-;foot measuring tapeline marked in inches1 feet and rods4 ,in using a two-foot rule to lay off work the forward end should contain the small figures so that the workman is counting back on the rule but forward on the work1 and he has the end of the rule to scribe from4 ,in laying off a #af-;foot pole the stick is first marked with a knife point1 or sharp scratchawl1 and try square to square one end4 ,the work is then laid off from left to right1 starting from the left hand edge of the square mark or first mark4 ,the two-foot rule is laid flat on top of the piece of wood4 ,at the front end of the rule the wood is marked with a sharp scratchawl or the point of a knife blade by pressing the point against the end of the rule at the time of marking4 ,in moving the rule forward the left end is placed exactly over the left edge of the mark1 so the new measurement begins at the exact point where the other left off1 and so on the whole length of the stick4 ,the final mark is then made exactly sixteen feet from the first mark4 ,in sawing the ends the saw kerf is cut from the waste ends of the stick4 ,the saw cuts to the mark but does not cut it out4 ,in using a rule carelessly a workman may gain one-sixteenth of an inch every time he moves the rule1 which would mean half of an inch in laying off a #af-;foot pole1 which would ruin it for carpenter work4 ,if the pole is afterwards used for staking fence posts1 he would gain one-half inch at each post1 or a foot for every twenty-four posts1 a distance to bother considerably in estimating acres4 ,it is just as easy to measure exactly as it is to measure a little more or a little less1 and it marks the difference between right and wrong4 ,,woodworking ,,bench ,in a farm workshop it is better to separate the woodworking department as far as possible from the blacksmith shop4 ,working wood accumulates a great deal of litter1 shavings1 blocks1 and kindling wood1 which are in the way in the blacksmith shop1 and a spark from the anvil might set the shavings afire4 ,a woodworking bench1 ,figure #g1 carpenter's bench1 it is usually called1 needs a short leg vise with wide jaws4 ,the top of the vise should be flush with the top of the bench1 so the boards may be worked when lying flat on the top of the bench4 ,for the same reason the bench dog should lower down flush when not needed to hold the end of the board4 ,it is customary to make carpenter's benches separate from the shop1 and large enough to stand alone1 so they may be moved out doors or into other buildings4 ,illustration3 ,figure #g4--;,carpenter's ,bench4 ,a woodworking bench is #af' long1 #c' #f wide and #cb high4 ,the height1 to be particular1 should be the length of the leg of the man who uses it4 ,lincoln1 when joking with ,stanton1 gave it as his opinion that a man's legs should be just long enough to reach the ground4 ,but that rule is not sufficiently definite to satisfy carpenters1 so they adopted the inside leg measurement4 ,they claim that the average carpenter is #e' #aj tall and he wears a #cb leg4 ,illustration3 ,figure #h4--;,carpenter's ,trestle1 or ,saw-,bench4 ,the top piece is #d x #f and the legs are #b x #d4 ,there is sufficient spread of leg to prevent it from toppling over1 but the legs are not greatly in the way4 ,it is heavy enough to stand still while you slide a board along4 ,it is #b feet high4 ,illustration3 ,figure #i4--,shave ,horse4 ,for shaping pieces of hardwood for repair work4 ,a good shave horse is about #h' long and the seat end is the height of a chair4 ,the head is carved on a hardwood stick with three projections to grip different sized pieces to be worked4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aj4--;,compasses1 ,wooden ,clamp and ,cutting ,pliers4 ,carpenter benches may be well made1 or they may be constructed in a hurry4 ,so long as the top is true it makes but little difference how the legs are attached1 so long as they are strong and enough of them4 ,a carpenter bench that is used for all kinds of work must be solid enough to permit hammering1 driving nails1 etc4 ,usually the top of the bench is straight1 true and level and it should be kept free from litter and extra tools4 ,good carpenters prefer a tool rack separate from the bench4 ,it may stand on the floor or be attached to the wall4 ,carpenter tools on a farm are not numerous1 but they should have a regular place1 and laborers on the farms should be encouraged to keep the tools where they belong4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aa4--,monkey-,wrenches are the handiest of all farm wrenches1 but they were never intended to hammer with4 ,two sizes are needed--an eight-inch for small nuts and a much larger wrench1 to open two inches or more1 to use when taking the disks off the shafts of a disk harrow4 ,a large pipe-wrench to hold the round shaft makes a good companion tool for this work4 ,,woodworking ,,tools ,every farmer has an axe or two1 some sort of a handsaw and a nail hammer4 ,it is astonishing what jobs of repair work a handy farmer will do with such a dearth of tools4 ,but it is not necessary to worry along without a good repair kit4 ,tools are cheap enough4 ,such woodworking tools as coarse and fine toothed hand saws1 a good square1 a splendid assortment of hammers and the different kinds of wrenches1 screw clamps1 boring tools--in fact a complete assortment of handy woodworking tools is an absolute necessity on a well-managed farm4 ,the farm kit should contain two sizes of nail hammers1 see ,figure #ae1 one suitable to drive small nails1 say up to eight penny1 and the other for large nails and spikes2 a long thin-bladed handsaw1 having nine teeth to the inch1 for sawing boards and planks2 a shorter handsaw1 having ten teeth to the inch1 for small work and for pruning trees4 ,a pruning saw should cut a fine1 smooth kerf1 so the wound will not collect and hold moisture4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ab4--;,hand ,saw4 ,this pattern1 both for cross cut and rip saw1 has been adopted by all makers of fine saws4 ,nine teeth to the inch is fine enough for most jobs on the farm4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ac4--,keyhole ,saw with point slim enough to start the cut from a half-inch auger hole4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ad4--;,bramble ,hook for trimming berry bushes and cleaning out fence corners4 ,it has a knife-edge with hooked sawteeth4 ,farmers' handsaws are required to do a great many different kinds of work4 ,for this reason1 it is difficult to keep them in good working condition1 but if both saws are jointed1 set and filed by a good mechanic once or twice a year1 they may be kept in usable condition the rest of the time by a handy farm workman1 unless extra building or special work is required4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ae4--,nail ,hammers4 ,two styles4 ,the upper hammer is made with a ball peen and a round face4 ,it is tempered to drive small nails without slipping and shaped to avoid dinging the wood4 ,this hammer should weigh #ah or #ai ounces1 including the handle4 ,the lower hammer is heavier1 has a flat face and is intended for heavy work such as driving spikes and fence staples4 ,a long-bladed ripsaw is also very useful1 and what is commonly termed a keyhole saw finds more use on the farm than in a carpenter's shop in town4 ,it is necessary frequently to cut holes through partitions1 floors1 etc41 and at such times a keyhole saw works in just right4 ,handaxes are necessary for roughing certain pieces of wood for repair jobs4 ,two sizes of handaxes for different kinds of work are very useful1 also a wide blade draw shave1 ,figure #af1 and shave horse1 ,figure #i4 ,a steel square having one #bd-;inch blade and one #ah-;inch is the best size4 ,such squares usually are heavy enough to remain square after falling off the bench forty or fifty times4 ,a good deal depends upon the quality of the steel4 ,illustration3 ,figure #af4--;,drawing-,knife with wide blade for finishing straight surfaces4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ag4--,try-,square ,with ,six-,inch ,blade4 ,wood1 brass and steel are the proper materials for a try-square4 ,a double marking gauge for scribing mortises is also shown4 ,steel squares differ in the measuring marks1 but the kind to buy has one side spaced to sixteenths and the other side to tenths or twelfths4 ,the sixteenth interest farmers generally1 so that special attention should be given this side of the square4 ,the lumber rule on some squares is useful1 but the brace rules and mitre calculations are not likely to interest farmers4 ,screw-drivers should be mostly strong and heavy for farm work4 ,three sizes of handled screw-drivers of different lengths and sizes1 also two or three brace bit screw-drivers are needed4 ,one or two bits may be broken or twisted so the assortment is sometimes exhausted before the screw is started4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ah4--;,heavy ,hand ,axe for ,use on the ,shop ,chopping ,block4 ,a beet topping knife is shown also4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ai4--;,heavy ,screwdriver4 ,the strongest and cheapest screw-driver is made from a single bar of steel4 ,the wooden handle is made in two parts and riveted as shown4 ,pinch bars and claw bars are very useful in a farm tool kit4 ,farm mechanical work consists principally in repairing implements1 machinery1 fences and buildings4 ,always a worn or broken part must be removed before the repair can be made4 ,a pinch bar twenty-four inches long1 ,figure #ba1 with a cold chisel end1 and another bar eighteen inches long with a crooked claw end1 ,figure #bb1 for pulling nails and spikes comes in very handy4 ,these two bars should be made of the best octagon steel1 seven-eighths of an inch in diameter4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bj4--7a7 ,ratchet ,screwdriver4 ,it does rapid work and will last a generation if carefully used4 7#b7 ,auger-,bit of the ,side ,cutter ,type4 ,a full set is needed4 ,they are not for boring into old wood4 ,running once against a nail ruins one of these bits4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ba4--;,handspike4 ,a wooden handspike or pry is about seven feet long by #c inches thick at the prying end4 ,in the ,north it is usually made from a hickory or an ironwood or a dogwood sapling4 ,the bark is removed and the handle is worked round and smooth on the shave horse4 ,it is better to cut the poles in the winter when the sap is in the roots4 ,after the handspikes are finished they should be covered deep with straw so they will season slowly to prevent checking4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bb4--,wrecking ,bar for pulling nails and to pry broken parts from other wreckage4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bc4--;,carpenter's ,level4 ,for practical farm work the level should be #bd or #cj long4 ,wood is the most satisfactory material4 ,the best levels are made up of different layers of wood glued together to prevent warping or twisting4 ,for this reason a good level should be carefully laid away in a dry place immediately after using4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bd4--7a7 ,snips for cutting sheet metal4 7#b7 ,carpenter's ,level1 iron stock4 ,illustration3 ,figure #be4--,wood-,boring ,twist ,drill ,bit4 ,twist drills for wood have longer points than drills for boring iron4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bf4--,pod-,bit4 ,the fastest boring gimlet bits are of this pattern4 ,they are made in sizes from to #a_/h to #c_/h and are intended for boring softwood4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bg4--;,auger-,bits4 ,for smooth boring the lip bits are best4 ,the side cutters project beyond the cutting lips to cut the circle ahead of the chips4 ,for boring green wood the single-worm clears better than the double-worm bit4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bh4--;,extension ,boring ,bits4 ,the cutting lips may be set to bore holes from #a_/b to #c in diameter4 ,they are used mostly in softwood4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bi4--,ship ,auger4 ,this shape auger is made with or without a screw point4 ,it will bore straighter in cross-grained wood without a point4 ,illustration3 ,figure #cj4--,long ,ship ,auger4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ca4--;,bridge ,auger4 ,the long handle permits the workman to stand erect while boring4 ,the home made handle is welded onto the shank of a ship auger4 ,a wooden carpenter's level1 ,figure #bc1 two feet long1 with a plumb glass near one end1 is the most satisfactory farm level1 an instrument that is needed a great many times during the year4 ,good brace bits are scarce on farms4 ,they are not expensive1 but farmers are careless about bits and braces4 ,two sizes of braces are needed1 a small brace for small pod bits and twist drills1 and a large ratchet brace with a #f-;inch crank radius for turning larger bits4 ,illustration3 ,figure #cb4--;,carpenter's ,jointer4 ,illustration3 ,figure #cc4--;,fore-,plane4 ,this style plane is preferred to a regular jointer for most farm work4 ,twist drill bits will bore both wood and iron1 and they are not expensive up to three-eighths inch or one-half inch4 ,but for larger sizes from one-half inch to one inch the finest lip wood boring bits will give the best satisfaction4 ,extension bits are used for boring holes larger than one inch4 ,two extension bits are better than one bit with two lip cutters4 ,they will bore holes in soft wood in sizes from one inch to three inches4 ,other cutting tools such as jack plane jointer and smoothing plane1 also an assortment of chisels1 belong to the farm equipment4 ,illustration3 ,figure #cd4--,tool ,box of ,socket ,chisels and ,gouges4 ,the chisels are sized from #a_/b to #b in width4 ,the two chisels to the right show different patterns4 ,all cutting tools should be of the best design and the best steel4 ,if they are properly used and taken care of1 the different jobs of repair work can be handled quickly and to great advantage4 ,,farm ,,grindstone ,a grindstone may be gritty without being coarse so it will bite the steel easily and cut it away quickly4 ,a good stone is a very satisfactory farm implement1 but a greasy stone is a perpetual nuisance4 ,there are grindstones with frames too light4 ,the competition to manufacture and sell a grindstone for farm use at the cheapest possible price has resulted in turning out thousands of grindstone frames that possess very little stability4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ce4--;,grindstone4 ,the speed of a grindstone varies with the diameter of the stone4 ,it should turn just fast enough to keep a flow of water on the upper face surface4 ,if the stone turns too slow the water will run down2 if too fast1 it will fly off4 ,grindstones should be kept under cover2 the best stone will be injured by leaving it in the hot sun4 ,the sun draws the moisture out of the upper side and leaves the lower side damp and soft so that in use the stone soon becomes flat sided4 ,the wet side freezes in winter1 which is a disintegrating process4 ,the best stones1 with good care1 will become uneven in time4 ,the remedy is to true them with a quarter-inch soft iron round rod used like a lathe tool over an iron rest placed close to the stone on a level with the center of the stone4 ,the rod is held against the stone in such a way as to cut away the high bumps and make the stone truly round4 ,the stone cuts away best when it is dry4 ,a small rod is better than a large rod4 ,it digs into the stone better and takes out a deeper bite4 ,large power stones in machine shops are trued up in this way frequently4 ,farm stones often are neglected until they wabble so badly that it is difficult to grind any tool to an edge4 ,if the grindstone is turned by a belt from an engine the work of truing may be done in a few minutes4 ,if the stone is turned by hand the work of making it round takes longer and requires some muscle1 but it pays4 ,the face of a grindstone should be rounded slightly1 and it should be kept so by grinding the tools first on one side of edge of the stone1 then on the other1 with the cutting edge of the tool crosswise to the face of the stone4 ,for safety and to prevent a sloppy waste of water the stone should turn away from the operator4 ,the best way to keep a stone moist is by a trickle of water from an overhead supply4 ,troughs of water suspended under the stone are unsatisfactory1 because the water soon gets thick and unfit for use4 ,such troughs are forgotten when the job is done1 so that one side of the stone hangs in the water4 ,an overhead supply of water leaks away and no damage is done4 ,grindstone frames are best made of wood #c x #d thoroughly mortised together and well braced with wooden braces and tied across with plenty of iron rods4 ,a good grindstone frame could be made of angle iron1 but manufacturers generally fail in the attempt4 ,there are good ball-bearing grindstone hangers on the market1 both for hand crank stones and for belt use4 ,the belt is less in the way if it is brought up from below4 ,this is not difficult to do4 ,a grindstone turns slower than any other farm machine so a speed reducing jack may be bolted to the floor at the back of the grindstone a little to one side to escape the drip4 ,this arrangement requires a short belt but it may have the full face width of the pulley as the tight and loose pulleys are on the jack shaft4 ,emery ,grinders4--,there are small emery wheels made for grinding disks that work quickly and cut an even bevel all around4 ,they are made in pairs and are attached to the ends of a mandrel supported by a metal stand which is bolted to a bench4 ,the same rig is used for sickle grinding and other farm jobs4 ,illustration3 ,figure #cf4--;,emery ,grinder4 ,the illustrations show two kinds of grinding that double emery wheels are especially adapted to4 ,to grind a mowing-machine knife it is necessary to reverse4 ,by placing the rest opposite the center between the two wheels the bevel will be the same on both sides1 or edges1 of the section4 ,,blacksmith ,,shop ,the furniture in a blacksmith shop consists of forge1 anvil1 half barrel1 vise bench1 drill press and tool rack4 ,a farm shop also has a heating stove1 shave horse1 a woodworking bench1 a good power driven grindstone and a double emery grinder4 ,forge4--,the old-fashioned forge laid up with brick in connection with an old-fashioned chimney is just as popular as ever4 ,the same old tuyer iron receives the air blast from the same old style leather bellows1 and there is nothing more satisfactory4 ,but there are modern portable forges1 ,figure #cg1 made of iron1 that are less artistic1 cheaper1 take up less room and answer the purpose just about as well4 ,the portable iron forge has a small blower attached to the frame which feeds oxygen into the fire4 ,there are a good many different sizes of portable forges4 ,most of them work well up to their advertised capacity4 ,illustration3 ,figure #cg4--,portable ,forges4 ,the smaller forge is for light work such as heating rivets for iron bridge construction4 ,the larger forge to the right is meant for blacksmith work4 ,generally1 farm forges are not required to develop a great amount of heat4 ,farmers do but little welding1 most of the forge work on the farm being confined to repair work such as heating brace irons1 so they may be easily bent into the proper shape1 or to soften metal so that holes may be punched through it easily4 ,sharpening harrow teeth1 drawing out plow points and horseshoeing are about the heaviest forge jobs required in a farm blacksmith shop1 so that a medium size forge will answer the purpose4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ch4--;,anvil4 ,the only satisfactory anvil is forged out of ingot steel with a power trip-hammer4 ,it should weigh #adj pounds4 ,anvil4--,an anvil should weigh at least #abj pounds2 #adj is better4 ,it should be set six feet from the center of the fire to the center of the anvil4 ,it should be placed on a timber the size of the base of the anvil set three feet in the ground4 ,the top of the anvil should be about thirty inches high4 ,holmstrom's rule is3 ,close the fist1 stand erect with the arm hanging down4 ,the knuckles should just clear the face of the anvil4 ,bench and ,vise4--,the vise bench should be made solid and it should face a good light4 ,the bench window should look to the east or north if possible4 ,it should be about four feet high and eight feet long1 with the window sill about six inches above the bench4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ci4--7a7 ,shoeing ,tool ,box4 ,the four small compartments are for horseshoe nails of different sizes4 ,there may be a leather loop for the paring knife4 ,the low box end is for the shoeing hammer1 rasp1 nippers and hoof knife4 7#b7 ,blacksmith ,tool ,rack4 ,tongs1 handled punches and cutters are hung on the iron rails4 ,hammers are thrown on top4 ,the lower platform is the shop catch-all4 ,illustration3 ,figure #dj4--,shoeing ,knife4 ,good temper is the main qualification4 ,all shoeing knives are practically the same shape1 although they may vary in size4 ,two and one-half feet is the usual height for a workbench above the floor4 ,the best workbench tops are made by bolting together #b x #ds with the edges up4 ,hardwood makes the best bench1 but good pine will last for years4 ,the top surface should be planed true and smooth after the nuts are drawn tight4 ,illustration3 ,figure #da4--;,horseshoeing ,rasp and ,wood ,rasp4 ,these are necessary tools in the farm shop4 ,illustration3 ,figure #db4--;,iron ,work ,bench4 ,solid is the first specification for an iron shop bench4 ,it should be three feet wide1 not less than eight feet long and about #cb inches high4 ,the top is made of #b x #ds placed on edge and bolted together4 ,the supports are #b x #f bolted to the shop studding and braced back to the studding at the sill4 ,the front part of the bench is supported by iron legs made of gas-pipe with threaded flanges at top and bottom4 ,heavy right angle wrought iron lugs are used to fasten the top of the bench to the studding4 ,the foot of the vise leg is let into the floor of the shop or into a solid wooden block sunk in the ground4 ,illustration3 ,figure #dc4--;,assortment of ,files and ,rasps needed in a farm shop4 7#a7 ,slim three-cornered handsaw-file4 7#b7 ,common three-cornered file suitable for filing a buck-saw4 7#c7 ,double-cut1 or bastard1 #aj-;inch flat file4 7#d7 ,single-cut1 or mill file1 either #aj or #ab inches4 7#e7 ,half-round #aj-;inch wood rasp4 7#f7 ,horseshoer's rasp4 ,illustration3 ,figure #dd4--;,file ,handle4 ,basswood makes the most satisfactory file handles4 ,they are fitted by carefully turning them onto the file shank to take the right taper4 ,there should be a handle for each file4 ,the handle should be the right size and fitted straight with the file so the file will take the same angle to the work when turned over4 ,illustration3 ,figure #de4--,nail ,set4 ,on all wooden surfaces to be painted nails should be carefully driven with a round peen nail hammer and the heads sunk about one-eighth of an inch deep with a nail set4 ,the holes may then be filled with putty and covered smoothly with paint4 ,illustration3 ,figure #df4--;,cold-,chisel4 ,there are more flat cold-chisels than all other shapes4 ,they are easily made in the farm shop and it is good practice4 ,they are usually made from octagon steel4 ,different sizes are needed according to the work in hand4 ,a piece of #e_/h steel #f long makes a handy cold-chisel for repair work4 ,illustration3 ,figure #dg4--;,cape ,cold-,chisel4 ,it may be tapered both ways or one way to a cutting edge1 or one edge may be rounded4 ,illustration3 ,figure #dh4--7a7 ,tinner's ,punch4 ,made of octagon steel in sizes to fit the rivets4 ,the cutting end is flat and has sharp edges made by roll filing4 ,it should be about #g long and from #c_/h to #a_/b in diameter1 according to the size of rivet and thickness of sheet metal to be punched4 7#b7 ,prick ,punch4 ,usually made rather short and stocky4 ,it may be #a_/b or #e_/h diameter and #d-a_/b to #e long4 7#c7 ,hot-iron ,punch4 ,made in many sizes and lengths4 ,the taper should be the same as the drawing4 ,illustration3 ,figure #di4--7a7 ,blacksmith ,vise4 ,the old-fashioned leg vise is the most satisfactory for the blacksmith shop4 ,it should have #e jaws4 7#b7 ,power ,post ,drill4 ,belt power is practical for the post drill in a farm shop4 ,the hand crank may be easily attached when needed4 ,the bench vise should be heavy4 ,a vise is used for bending iron hot from the forge4 ,unless the jaws are large1 the hot iron is likely to heat the vise sufficiently to draw the temper4 ,heavy jaws are solid enough to support the iron when it is being hammered4 ,often heavy hammers are used for this purpose4 ,a heavy vise holds the work solid1 because it may be screwed so much tighter than a light vise4 ,a heavy vise will hold light work1 but a light vise will not hold heavy work4 ,heavy vises cost more1 but they are cheaper in the end and more satisfactory at all times4 ,a leg vise with five-inch jaws weighs about sixty pounds2 five and one-half-inch jaws1 eighty pounds4 ,a machinist's vise is made to bolt on top of the bench4 ,it will answer for blacksmith work on the farm1 but is not as good as the old-fashioned leg vise4 ,a machinist's vise is very useful in the garage1 but it would hardly be necessary to have two heavy vises4 ,the pipe vise belongs on a separate bench1 which may be a plank bracketed against the side of the room4 ,drill-,press4--,the most satisfactory drill-press for use on a farm is the upright drill that bolts to a post4 ,there is usually a self feed which may be regulated according to the work4 ,the heavy flywheel keeps the motion steady1 and because there is no bench in the way1 wagon tires may be suspended from the drill block1 so they will hang free and true for drilling4 ,often long pieces of straight iron are drilled with holes spaced certain distances apart4 ,it is easier to pass them along when they lie flat side down on the drill block4 ,to use a drill properly and safely1 the chuck must run true4 ,it is easy to break a drill when it wabbles4 ,most drills are made on the twist pattern1 and it is something of a trick to grind a twist drill1 but anyone can do it if he tackles the job with a determination to do it right4 ,in grinding a twist drill1 use a new drill for pattern4 ,grind the angles the same as the new drill1 and be careful to have the point in the center4 ,a little practice will make perfect4 ,mechanics will say that no one except an expert should attempt to grind a twist drill1 but farmers who are mechanically inclined are the best experts within reach4 ,it is up to a farmer to grind his own drills or use them dull4 ,in drilling wrought iron either water or oil is required to cool the drill1 but cast iron and brass are drilled dry4 ,light work such as hoop-iron may be drilled dry1 but the cutting edge of the drill will last longer even in light work if the drill is fed with oil or water4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ej4--7a7 ,electric ,drill-,press4 ,a small electric motor is attached to the drill spindle4 7#b7 ,tram ,points4 ,two steel points are fitted with thumbscrew clamps to fasten them to a long wooden bar4 ,they are used to scribe circles too large for the compasses4 7#c7 ,ratchet-,brace4 ,two braces1 or bitstocks1 are needed4 ,a large brace with a #f radius for large bits and a small brace with a #c or #c-a_/b radius for small bits4 ,in using drill-presses1 some extra attachments come in very handy1 such as a screw clamp to hold short pieces of metal4 ,before starting the drill1 a center punch is used to mark the center of the hole to be bored and to start the drill in the right spot4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ea4--,twist-,drills4 ,round shank for the post drill and square taper shank for brace work4 ,brace drills are small1 #a_/d or less4 ,illustration3 ,figure #eb4--,taper ,reamer4 ,used to enlarge1 or true1 or taper a hole that has been drilled or punched4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ec4--;,another style of ,reamer4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ed4--;,countersink4 ,this is the old style1 blacksmith-made1 flat countersink4 ,it will do quick work but not so smooth as the fluted kind4 ,in doing particular work1 the drill may be re-centered when it starts wrong4 ,this is done with a small round-nosed cold chisel4 ,if the work is not very particular1 the drill may be turned a little to one side by slanting the piece to be drilled4 ,this plan is only a makeshift1 however1 the proper way being to block the work level1 so that the drill will meet it perpendicularly4 ,however1 by starting carefully1 the hole may be bored exactly as required4 ,iron ,working ,tools4--,forge tools for a farm shop need not be numerous4 ,several pairs of tongs1 one blacksmith hammer1 one sledge1 one hardy1 one wooden-handled cold chisel1 one pair pincers1 one paring knife1 one shoeing rasp1 and one shoeing hammer will do to begin with4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ee4--,machinist's ,hammers4 ,a medium weight should be selected for farm repair work4 ,it should be hung so the end of the handle clears half an inch when the face rests flat on the bench4 ,monkey-wrenches come first in the wrench department4 ,the farmer needs three sizes1 one may be quite small1 say six inches in length1 one ten inches1 and the other large enough to span a two-inch nut4 ,and there should be an ironclad rule1 never use a monkey-wrench for a hammer4 ,for work around plows1 cultivators1 harvesters1 and other farm machines1 a case of ,s wrenches will be greatly appreciated4 ,manufacturers include wrenches with almost all farm machines1 but such wrenches are too cheap to be of much use4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ef4--7a7 ,hardy4 ,the anvil hardy is used more than any other anvil tool except the blacksmith's hammer and tongs4 7#b7 ,a ,cold-,shut ,link that may be welded1 riveted or simply pounded shut4 ,illustration3 ,figure #eg4--;,calipers3 7#a7 ,a pair of tight-joint inside calipers4 7#b7 ,its mate for taking outside dimensions4 7#c7 ,a pair of spring-jointed1 screw-adjustment inside calipers for machinists' use4 ,illustration3 ,figure #eh4--;,blacksmith ,tongs4 ,straight tongs made to hold #c_/h iron is the handiest size4 ,two or three pairs for larger sizes of iron and one pair smaller come in handy4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ei4--7a7 ,wire ,splicer4 ,the oval openings in the tool are of different sizes4 ,they are made to hold two wires1 close together1 with ends projecting in opposite directions4 ,each end is wound around the other wire4 ,the ends are then notched with a three-cornered file and broken off short and filed smooth4 ,the splicing tool should be thin1 about #a_/h or #c_/af1 to bring the two twists close together4 ,this is especially necessary in making hoops for wooden pails4 7#b7 ,blacksmith ,shoeing ,pincers1 used to pull horseshoes4 ,they should close together to catch a nail by the head4 ,for heavier work pipe-wrenches are absolutely necessary4 ,the reason for having so many wrenches is to save time when in the field4 ,it often happens that men and horses stand idle waiting for what should be a quick repair job4 ,illustration3 ,figure #fj4--7a7 ,cotter ,pin ,tool4 ,handy for inserting or removing all sorts of cotter keys4 7#b7 ,nest of ,s ,wrenches of different sizes4 ,farmers have never appreciated the value of light1 handy wrenches to fit all sorts of nuts and bolt heads closely4 ,for bench work a riveting hammer and a ball peen machinist's hammer are needed4 ,a nest of ,s wrenches1 two rivet sets1 cold chisels1 round punches and several files also are required4 ,the same twist drills up to three-eighths-inch will do for iron as well as wood4 ,however1 if much drilling is done1 then round shank twist drills to fit the drill chuck will work better4 ,farmers seldom drill holes in iron larger than one-half inch4 ,for particular work1 to get the exact size1 reamers are used to finish the holes after drilling4 ,screw holes in iron are countersunk in the drill-press4 ,illustration3 ,figure #fa4--;,hack ,saw4 ,one handle and a dozen blades4 ,the frame should be stiff enough either to push or pull the saw without binding4 ,the teeth may point either way to suit the work in hand4 ,illustration3 ,figure #fb4--,powerful ,bolt ,cutter4 ,it is intended for factory use4 ,for small work1 twist drills with square shanks for brace use should range in sizes from one thirty-second of an inch up to one-quarter inch1 then every one-sixteenth inch up to one-half inch4 ,for boring screw holes in wood the quickest work is done with pod bits4 ,not many sizes are needed1 but they are cheap1 so that a half dozen1 ranging from one-sixteenth to one-quarter inch or thereabouts1 will be found very useful4 ,pod bits belong to the wood department1 but on account of being used principally for screw sinking1 they are just as useful in the iron working department as in the carpenter shop4 ,sheet metal snips for cutting sheet metal properly belong with the iron working tools4 ,snips are from ten to fourteen inches in length4 ,a medium size is best for miscellaneous work4 ,if kept in good working order twelve-inch snips will cut #ah-;gauge galvanized or black iron4 ,but a man would not care to do a great deal of such heavy cutting4 ,illustration3 ,figure #fc4--;,cutting ,nippers4 ,for cutting the points from horseshoe nails after they are driven through the hoof to hold the shoe in place4 ,these nippers are hard tempered and should not be used for any other purpose4 ,illustration3 ,figure #fd4--,two ,shapes of ,steel ,crowbars4 ,pipe-,fitting ,tools4--,recent farm improvements require a few tools that rightfully belong to plumbers4 ,every farm has some kind of water supply for domestic use and for live-stock4 ,a great many farm machines require pipe tools for repair work4 ,every year more plumbing reaches the farm4 ,plumbing work is no more difficult than other mechanical work1 if the tools are at hand to meet the different requirements4 ,one job of plumbing that used to stand out as an impossibility was the soldering together of lead pipes1 technically termed wiping a joint4 ,this operation has been discontinued4 ,every possible connection required in farm plumbing is now provided for in standardized fittings4 ,every pipe-fitting or connection that conducts supply water or waste water nowadays screws together4 ,sizes are all made to certain standards and the couplings are almost perfect1 so that work formerly shrouded in mystery or hidden under trade secrets is now open to every schoolboy who has learned to read4 ,illustration3 ,figure #fe4--7a7 ,pipe ,vise4 ,hinged to open for long pipes4 7#b7 ,machinist's ,vise4 ,made with a turntable to take any horizontal angle4 ,the pipe jaws are removable4 ,the necessary outfit to handle all the piping and plumbing on the farm is not very expensive1 probably #be4jj will include every tool and all other appliances necessary to put in all the piping needed to carry water to the watering troughs and to supply hot and cold water to the kitchen and the bathroom1 together with the waste pipes1 ventilators and the sewer to the septic tank4 ,the same outfit of tools will answer for repair work for a lifetime4 ,farm water pipes usually are small4 ,there may be a two-inch suction pipe to the force pump1 and the discharge may be one and a half inch4 ,but these pipes are not likely to make trouble4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ff4--,pipe ,cutter4 ,the most satisfactory pipe cutter has three knife-edge roller cutters which follow each other around the pipe4 ,some of these cutters have two flat face rollers and one cutter roller to prevent raising a burr on the end of the pipe4 ,the flat face rollers iron out the burr and leave the freshly cut pipe the same size clear to the end4 ,illustration3 ,figure #fg4--,pipe-,wrench4 ,this type of wrench is valuable for working with the heavier farm implements4 ,it is intended more for holding than for turning4 ,it is rather rough on nuts4 ,damaged nuts show signs of careless work4 ,there should be a good pipe vise that will hold any size pipe up to three inches4 ,at least two pipe wrenches are needed and they should be adjustable from one-quarter-inch up to two-inch pipe4 ,we must remember that water pipe sizes mean inside measurements4 ,one-inch pipe is about one and one-quarter inches outside diameter4 ,three-quarter-inch pipe is about one inch outside4 ,two-inch pipe will carry four times as much water as one-inch pipe1 under the rule doubling the diameter increases the capacity four times4 ,illustration3 ,figure #fh4--;,a smaller sized wrench with wooden handle4 ,the three-wheel pipe cutter works quickly and is satisfactory for most jobs4 ,sometimes two of the knife wheels are removed and rollers substituted to prevent raising a burr on the end of the pipe4 ,threading dies are made in standard sizes4 ,a good farm set consists of stock and dies to thread all the different sizes of pipe from one-quarter inch to one inch1 inclusive4 ,not many pipes larger than inch are threaded on the farm4 ,they are cut to the proper lengths in the farm shop and the threads are cut in town4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,farm ,,shop ,,work ,,profitable ,,home ,,repair ,,work ,each farmer must be the judge in regard to the kind of mechanical repair work that should be done at home and the kind and amount of repair work that should go to the shop in town4 ,a great deal depends on the mechanical ability of the farmer or his helpers4 ,however1 the poorest farm mechanic can do first aid service to farm implements and machinery in the nick of time1 if he is so disposed4 ,a great many farmers are helpless in this respect because they want to be helpless4 ,it is so much easier to let it go than to go right at it with a determination to fix it1 and fix it right4 ,illustration3 ,figure #fi4--,logging ,chain4 ,one of the cleverest farm inventions of any age is the logging chain4 ,it is universally used in all lumber camps and on every farm4 ,it usually is from #af to #bj feet in length1 with a round hook on one end for the slip hitch and a grab hook on the other end that makes fast between any two links4 ,illustration3 ,figure #gj4--,neckyoke and ,whiffletree ,irons4 ,farmers can make better neckyokes and whiffletrees than they can buy ready-made4 ,the irons may be bought separately and the wood selected piece by piece4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ga4--,measuring a ,worn ,skein for a ,new ,boxing4 ,the pasteboard calipers are cut to fit the old skein sideways because it is probably flattened on the bottom from wear4 ,on general principles1 however1 farm repair work should not occupy a farmer's time to the detriment of growing crops or the proper care of live-stock4 ,farming is the business2 mechanical work is a side issue4 ,at the same time1 a farmer so inclined can find time during the year to look over every farm machine1 every implement and every hand tool on the farm4 ,the stupidest farm helper can clean the rust off of a spade and rub the surface with an oily cloth1 in which some fine emery has been dusted4 ,the emery will remove the rust and the oil will prevent it from further rusting4 ,every laborer knows better than to use a spade or shovel after a rivet head has given way so the handle is not properly supported by the plate extensions4 ,there really is no excuse for using tools or machinery that are out of repair1 but the extent to which a farmer can profitably do his own repairing depends on many contingencies4 ,in every case he must decide according to circumstances1 always1 however1 with a desire and determination to run his farm on business principles4 ,illustration3 ,figure #gb4--,wooden ,wagon ,axles4 ,axle timber may be bought in the rough or partly fitted to the skeins4 ,illustration3 ,figure #gc4--,showing how to fit the irons on the forward end of a wagon reach4 ,illustration3 ,figure #gd4--,wire ,splice4 ,with a little practice wire may be wound close enough to prevent slipping4 ,home-made ,bolts4--,the easiest way to make a bolt is to cut a rod of round iron the proper length and run a thread on each end4 ,on one end the thread may be just long enough to rivet the head1 while the thread on the other end is made longer to accommodate the nut and to take up slack4 ,a farmer needs round iron in sizes from one-fourth inch to five-eighths inch4 ,he will use more three-eighths and one-half inch than any other sizes4 ,blank nuts are made in standard sizes to fit any size of round iron4 ,have an assortment1 in different sizes1 of both the square and the hexagon nuts4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ge4--;,emergency ,bolts4 ,a bolt may be made quickly without a forge fire by cutting a short thread on one end for the head and a longer thread on the other end for the nut4 ,illustration3 ,figure #gf4--,rivets4 ,a stock of soft iron rivets of different sizes and lengths should be always kept on hand ready for immediate use4 ,to make a bolt in the ordinary way requires welding1 but for repair work in a hurry it is better to select the proper iron and cut it to the required length either with a cold chisel in the vise1 or with a hardy and a handled cold chisel over an anvil4 ,the quickest way of cutting that mashes the rod the least is to be preferred4 ,the size of the rod will determine the manner of cutting in most instances4 ,illustration3 ,figure #gg4--,rivets4 ,illustration3 ,figure #gh4--,rivet ,set4 ,this style of set is used for small rivets4 ,the size should be selected to fit the rivets closely4 ,larger rivets are made to hug the work by means of a flat piece of steel with a hole through it4 ,illustration3 ,figure #gi4--,rivet ,set4 ,illustration3 ,figure #hj4--7a7 ,coulter ,clamp4 ,plow-beam clamps should be made in the farm shop to fit each plow4 7#b7 ,garden ,weeder4 ,the quickest hand killer of young weeds in the garden is a flat steel blade that works horizontally half an inch below the surface of the ground4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ha4--,stock and ,dies4 ,taps and dies and stocks are best kept in compartments in a case made for the purpose4 ,illustration3 ,figure #hb4--,stock for ,round ,dies4 ,the opening is turned true and sized accurately to fit4 ,the screw applies pressure to hold the die by friction4 ,illustration3 ,figure #hc4--,taps and ,dies4 ,standard threads are tapped into blank nuts and corresponding threads are cut onto bolts with accuracy and rapidity by using this style taps and dies4 ,they may be had in all sizes4 ,the range for farm work should cut from #a_/d to #e_/h1 inclusive4 ,illustration3 ,figure #hd4--,taper ,tap for ,blacksmith's ,use4 ,illustration3 ,figure #he4--,machine ,bolt and ,carriage ,bolt4 ,the first is used against iron and the second against wood1 but this rule is not arbitrary4 ,the rounded side of the nuts are turned in against wood2 the flat side against washers or heavier iron4 ,use square head bolts if you expect to take them out after the nuts have rusted on4 ,illustration3 ,figure #hf4--,plow bolts and sickle bar bolts should be kept in stock4 ,standard sizes and shapes are made for several different makes of plows and machines4 ,taps and dies are made to fit each size of rod4 ,if the thread on the bolt is cut with a solid1 or round1 plate die1 the corresponding tap is run clear through the nut4 ,in that case the nut will screw on the bolt easily1 possibly a little loose for some purposes4 ,it is so intended by the manufacturers to give the workman a little leeway4 ,if it is desirable to have the nut screw on the bolt very tight1 then the tap is stopped before the last thread enters the nut4 ,a little practice soon qualifies a workman to fit a nut according to the place the bolt is to occupy4 ,illustration3 ,figure #hg4--,lag ,screw4 ,to set a lag screw in hardwood1 bore a hole the size of the screw shank as calipered between the threads4 ,illustration3 ,figure #hh4--7a7 ,wagon-,box ,irons1 showing how to attach the box and the rave to the cross-piece and to brace the side of the box to hold it upright4 ,there may be several of these braces on each side of the wagon box4 7#b7 ,u ,bolt in ,cement4 ,a solid staple to be embedded in concrete for a horse ring1 door hinge1 cow stanchion1 etc4 ,generally it is desirable to have nuts fit very snug on parts of machines that shake a good deal1 and this applies to almost all farm machinery and implements4 ,illustration3 ,figure #hi4--,wagon-,box ,brace4 ,it is offset to hold the rave and to brace the sideboard at the rear and the front ends and sometimes in the middle of light wagon beds4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ij4--,two ,plow ,clevises and a ,plow ,link4 ,ordinarily a horse rake is supposed to travel steadily along like a cart1 but the ground is rough and in practical use the nuts loosen almost as soon as haying commences4 ,some farmers make a practice of riveting bolt ends to prevent nuts from working loose4 ,when the bolts have square heads1 this practice is not objectionable1 because with two wrenches a nut can be twisted off over the riveting1 but a great many bolts have round heads and very short1 square shanks4 ,theoretically1 the shanks are driven into the wood firm enough to prevent the bolts from turning4 ,practically this theory is a delusion and a snare1 as every farm boy can testify4 ,bolts are not manufactured in quantities in the farm blacksmith shop4 ,they can be made by machinery cheaper1 but so many times a bolt is needed on short notice that the farm shop should have the necessary tools and materials to supply the need quickly4 ,forging ,iron and ,steel4--,iron and steel are composed of the same properties1 but differ chemically4 ,steel also is finer grained than iron and it requires different treatment4 ,iron should be forged at a light-red or white heat4 ,if forged at a dark-red heat the iron generally will granulate or crack open and weaken the metal4 ,for a smooth finish the last forging may be done at a dark-red heat1 but the hammer must be used lightly4 ,the weight of the hammer as well as the blows also must differ with the different size of iron under heat4 ,small sizes should be treated with hammer blows that are rather light1 while for large sizes the blows should be correspondingly heavy4 ,if light blows be given with a light hammer in forging heavy iron the outside alone will be affected1 thus causing uneven tension and contrarywise strain in the iron4 ,steel should never be heated above a yellow heat4 ,if heated to a white heat the steel will be burned4 ,steel should never be forged at a dark-red heat4 ,if this is done it will cause considerable strain between the inner and outer portions1 which may cause it to crack while forging4 ,the weight of the hammer and the hammer blows in forging of steel is vastly of more importance than in forging iron4 ,if the blow or the hammer is not heavy enough to exert its force throughout the thickness of the steel it will probably crack in the process of hardening or tempering4 ,if steel be properly forged it will harden easily and naturally1 but if improperly forged the tempering will be very difficult--probably a failure4 ,the quality of a finished tool depends greatly upon the correct heat and proper method used in forging and hardening it4 ,making ,steel ,tools4--,steel for tools should first be annealed to even the density and prevent warping4 ,this is done by heating it to a dull cherry red in a slow fire4 ,a charcoal fire for this purpose is best because it contains no sulphur or other injurious impurities4 ,after heating the piece of new steel all over as evenly as possible it should be buried several inches deep in powdered charcoal and left to cool4 ,this completes the annealing process4 ,while working steel into proper shape for tools1 great care is required to prevent burning4 ,it should be worked quickly and the process repeated as often as necessary4 ,practice is the only recipe for speed4 ,when the tool is shaped as well as possible on the anvil it is then finished with a file by clamping the new tool in the vise1 using single cut files4 ,bastard files are too rough for tool steel4 ,after the tool is shaped by cross-filing and draw-filing to make it smooth it is sometimes polished by wrapping fine emery cloth around the file4 ,oil is used with emery cloth to give the steel a luster finish4 ,tempering is the last process in the making of such tools as cold chisels1 drills1 dies1 punches1 scratchawls1 etc4 ,tempering ,steel ,tools4--,good judgment is required to get the right temper4 ,good eyesight is needed to catch the color at the exact instant1 and quick action to plunge it into the water before it cools too much4 ,dies are made very hard4 ,the color of the steel at dipping time should be a bright straw color4 ,cold chisels will break when being used if tempered too hard4 ,if cold chisels are to be used for cutting iron1 the color should be violet2 if the chisels are for cutting stone1 purple is the color4 ,drills for boring iron are tempered a dark straw color at the cutting edge merging back into blue4 ,the water in the dipping tub should be warm1 as steel is likely to check or crack when it is tempered in cold water4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ia4--;,blacksmith ,hammers4 ,some smiths use a heavy machinist's hammer4 ,but the flat peen is more useful when working around the anvil and the leg vise4 ,tool steel should be held in a perpendicular position when it enters the water to cool all sides alike4 ,otherwise the new tool might warp4 ,it is better to dip slowly1 sometimes holding the point1 or cutting edge1 in the water while permitting the shank to cool slowly enough to remain soft4 ,some sizes of steel may be tempered too hard at first and the temper immediately drawn by permitting the heat of the shank to follow down almost to the edge1 then dip4 ,this is done quickly while watching the colors as they move towards the point or edge4 ,draw-filing4--,making six-sided and eight-sided punches and scratchawls out of hexagon and octagon tool steel is interesting work4 ,the steel is cut to length by filing a crease all around with a three-cornered file4 ,when it is sufficiently notched1 the steel will break straight across4 ,to shape the tool and to draw out the point the steel is heated in the forge to a dull cherry red and hammered carefully to preserve the shape along the taper4 ,special attention must be given to the numerous corners4 ,a scratchawl or small punch1 must be heated many times and hammered quickly before cooling4 ,an old ,english shop adage reads3 ,only one blacksmith ever went to the devil and that was for pounding cold iron4 ,after the punch or scratchawl is roughed out on the anvil1 it is fastened in the vise and finished by cross-filing and draw-filing4 ,copper caps on the vise jaws will prevent indentations4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ib4--,vise ,jaw ,guards4 ,soft auxiliary vise jaws are made of sheet copper or galvanized iron4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ic4--,roll ,filing4 ,to file a piece of steel round it is rolled by one hand while the file is used by the other hand4 ,draw-filing means grasping each end of the file and moving it back and forth sidewise along the work4 ,for this purpose single-cut files are used4 ,the smoothing is done with a very fine single-cut file1 or if very particular1 a float file is used4 ,then the polish is rubbed on with fine emery cloth and oil4 ,the emery cloth is wrapped around the file and the same motion is continued4 ,with some little practice a very creditable piece of work may be turned out4 ,such work is valuable because of the instruction4 ,a good test of skill at blacksmithing is making an octagon punch that tapers true to the eye when finished4 ,set-,screws4--,it is customary to fasten a good many gear wheels1 cranks and pulleys to machinery shafts by set-screws4 ,there are two kinds of set-screws2 one has a cone point1 the other a cup end4 ,both screws are hardened to sink into the shaft4 ,a cup is supposed to cut a ring and the point is supposed to sink into the shaft to make a small hole sufficient to keep the wheel from slipping4 ,however1 unless the cone-pointed screw is countersunk into the shaft1 it will not hold much of a strain4 ,the point is so small it will slip and cut a groove around the shaft4 ,to prevent this1 the set-screw may be countersunk by first marking the shaft with an indentation of the point of the screw4 ,then the wheel or crank or collar may be removed and a hole drilled into the shaft with a twist-drill the same size1 or a sixty-fourth smaller1 than the set-screw4 ,then by forcing the end of the set-screw into the drill hole1 the wheel is held solid4 ,illustration3 ,figure #id4--,machine-,bolt and ,set-,screw4 ,the bolt to the left is used to clamp cylinder heads in place4 ,the set-screw to the right is the cup variety4 ,the end is countersunk to form a cup with a sharp rim4 ,the principal objection to set-screws is that they are dangerous4 ,the heads always project and are ready to catch a coat sleeve when the shaft is revolving4 ,in all cases1 set-screws should be as large as the hub will allow1 and it is better to have them protected so it is impossible to catch anything to wind around the shaft4 ,cup set-screws are not satisfactory except for very light work4 ,if necessary to use them1 the ends may be firmly fixed by cutting a ring with a sharp1 diamond-point cold chisel4 ,setting the ,handsaw4--,nine teeth to the inch is the most satisfactory handsaw for all kinds of lumber4 ,setting the teeth of this kind of saw is best done with a hand lever set4 ,the plunger pin should be carefully adjusted to bend the teeth just far enough to give the necessary set4 ,for general work a saw needs more set than is needed for kiln-dried stuff4 ,the teeth should cut a kerf just wide enough to clear the blade4 ,anything more is a waste of time and muscle4 ,it is better to work from both sides of the saw by first setting one side the whole length of the blade4 ,then reverse the saw in the clamp and set the alternate teeth in the same manner4 ,there should be a good solid stop between the handles of the set to insure equal pressure against each sawtooth4 ,the pin should be carefully placed against each tooth at exactly the same spot every time and the pressure should be the same for each tooth4 ,the best saw-sets for fine tooth saws are automatic so far as it is possible to make them so1 but the skill of the operator determines the quality of the work4 ,the reason for setting a saw before jointing is to leave the flattened ends of the teeth square with the blade after the jointing and filing is completed4 ,jointing a ,handsaw4--,after the saw has been set it must be jointed to square the teeth and to even them to equal length1 and to keep the saw straight on the cutting edge4 ,some woodworkers give their saws a slight camber1 or belly1 to correspond with the sway-back4 ,the camber facilitates cutting to the bottom in mitre-box work without sawing into the bed piece of the box4 ,it also throws the greatest weight of the thrust upon the middle teeth4 ,a saw with even teeth cuts smoother1 runs truer and works faster than a saw filed by guess4 ,it is easy to file a saw when all of the teeth are the same length and all have the same set4 ,anyone can do a good job of filing if the saw is made right to begin with1 but no one can put a saw in good working order with a three-cornered file as his only tool4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ie4--,saw ,jointer4 ,the wooden block is about two inches square by #ab or #ad in length4 ,the block is made true and scribed carefully to have the ripsaw slot square1 straight and true4 ,the file is set into a mortise square with the block4 ,filing the ,handsaw4--,first comes the three-cornered file4 ,it should be just large enough to do the work4 ,there is no economy in buying larger files thinking that each of the three corners will answer the same purpose as a whole file of smaller size4 ,in the first place the small file is better controlled and will do better work4 ,in the second place the three corners are needed to gum the bottoms of the divisions between the teeth4 ,there is much more wear on the corners than on the sides of a saw-file4 ,also the corners of a small file are more acute1 which means a good deal in the shape of the finished teeth4 ,after the saw is carefully set and jointed1 clamp it in the saw vise and file one side of the saw from heel to point4 ,then reverse the saw in the saw clamp and file the other side1 being careful to keep the bevel of each tooth the same4 ,it is better to stop filing just before the tooth comes to a point4 ,a triangular or diamond shaped point will cut faster and leave a smoother saw kerf and last longer than a needle point4 ,as the tooth of a crosscut saw is filed away from both edges1 it is necessary to make allowances when filing the first side1 otherwise some of the teeth will come to a sharp point before the gumming is deep enough4 ,using a ,handsaw4--,anyone can saw a board square both up and down and crossways by following a few simple rules4 ,have the board supported on the level by two well made saw-benches #bd high4 ,stand up straight as possible and look down on both sides of the saw blade4 ,use long even strokes and let the saw play lightly and evenly through the saw cut4 ,do not cut the mark out2 cut to it on the waste end1 or further end1 if there are more pieces to be cut from the board4 ,the saw kerf is about #c_/cb wide for a nine-tooth saw set for unkilned lumber or dimension stuff4 ,if both saw kerfs are taken from one piece and none from the next then one length will be #c_/af shorter than the other4 ,for practice it is a good plan to make two marks #c_/cb apart and cut between them4 ,use a sharp-pointed scratchawl to make the marks4 ,a penknife blade is next best1 but it must be held flat against the blade of the square1 otherwise it will crowd in or run off at a tangent4 ,setting a ,circular ,saw4--,a good saw-set for a circular saw may be made out of an old worn-out flat file4 ,heat the file in the forge fire to draw the temper and anneal it by covering it with ashes4 ,smooth it on the grindstone4 ,put it in the vise and file a notch in one edge4 ,the notch should be just wide enough to fit loosely over the point of a sawtooth4 ,the notch should be just deep enough to reach down one-quarter of the length of the tooth4 ,make a saw-set gauge out of a piece of flat iron or steel one inch wide and about four inches long4 ,file a notch into and parallel to one edge at one corner1 about one-sixteenth of an inch deep from the edge and about half an inch long measuring from the end4 ,with the home-made saw-set bend the saw teeth outward until the points just miss the iron gauge in the corner notch4 ,the edges of the gauge should be straight and parallel and the notch should be parallel with the edge4 ,in use the edge of the gauge is laid against the side of the saw so the projecting tooth reaches into the notch4 ,one-sixteenth of an inch may be too much set for a small saw but it won't be too much for a #bd-;inch wood saw working in green cord wood4 ,jointing a ,circular ,saw4--,run the saw at full speed4 ,lay a #ad-;inch file flat on the top of the saw table at right angles to the saw4 ,move the file slowly and carefully towards the saw until it ticks against the teeth4 ,hold the file firmly by both ends until each sawtooth ticks lightly against the file4 ,a saw in good working order needs very little jointing1 but it should have attention every time the saw is set and it should be done after setting and before filing4 ,filing a ,circular ,saw4--,the teeth of a crosscut circular saw point a little ahead4 ,sometimes they point so nearly straight out from the center that you have to look twice to determine which way the saw should run4 ,there are plenty of rules for the pitch of sawteeth1 but they are subject to many qualifications4 ,what interests a farmer is a saw that will cut green poles and crooked limbs into stove lengths with the least possible delay4 ,a saw #bj inches in diameter will cut a stick eight inches through without turning it to finish the cut4 ,the front or cutting edges of the teeth of a #bd-;inch crosscut circular saw for wood sawing should line to a point a little back from the center4 ,this may not sound definite enough for best results1 so the more particular farmers may use a straight edge4 ,select a straight stick about half an inch square4 ,rest it on top of or against the back of the saw mandrel and shape the forward edges of the teeth on a line with the upper side or rear side of the straight edge4 ,the teeth will stand at the proper pitch when the saw is new1 if it was designed for sawing green wood4 ,if it works right before being filed1 then the width of the straight edge may be made to conform to the original pitch and kept for future use4 ,the gumming is done with the edge of the file while filing the front edges of the teeth4 ,it is finished with the flat side of the file while filing the rear edges of the teeth4 ,the depth1 or length1 of the teeth should be kept the same as the manufacturer designed them4 ,a wood saw works best when the front edges of the teeth have but little bevel4 ,the back edges should have more slant4 ,the teeth should have three-cornered or diamond-shaped points4 ,needle points break off when they come against knots or cross-grained hardwood4 ,short teeth do no cutting4 ,single cut flat files are used for circular saws4 ,the file should fit the saw4 ,it should be about #a_/h wider than the length of the front side of the teeth4 ,the back edges require that the file shall have some play to show part of the tooth while the file is in motion4 ,large files are clumsy4 ,the file should be carefully selected4 ,illustration3 ,figure #if4--;,how to ,sharpen a ,hoe4 ,grinding a hoe is difficult1 but filing it sharp and straight at the cutting edge is easy4 ,if the hoe chatters when held in the vise1 spring a wooden block under the blade4 ,use false vise jaws to prevent dinging the shank4 ,how to ,sharpen a ,hoe4--,it is quicker and more satisfactory to file a hoe sharp than to grind it on the grindstone4 ,the shank of the hoe must be held firmly in the vise and there should be a solid block of wood under the blade of the hoe1 a little back from the edge2 to keep the file from chattering4 ,a single cut flat file is the best to use4 ,it should be long enough to be easily held in one position to make a smooth1 even bevel at the same angle to the face of the blade all the way across4 ,to make sure not to file a feather edge it is better to joint the hoe to begin with1 then to stop filing just before reaching the edge4 ,if the edge be left #a_/fd thick it will wear longer and work more easily after having been used an hour or two than it will if the edge be filed thin4 ,this is especially noticeable when the ground contains small stones4 ,hoes are sharpened from the under side only4 ,the inside of a hoe blade should be straight clear to the edge4 ,hoes should always have sharp corners4 ,when working around valuable plants you want to know exactly where the corner of the hoe is when the blade is buried out of sight in the ground4 ,shoeing ,farm ,horses4--,farmers have no time or inclination to make a business of shoeing horses1 but there are occasions when it is necessary to pull a shoe or set a shoe and to do it quickly4 ,shoeing tools are not numerous or expensive4 ,they consist first of a tool box1 with a stiff iron handle made in the shape of a bale4 ,the box contains a shoeing hammer1 hoof rasp1 hoof knife1 or paring-knife1 as it is usually called1 and two sizes of horseshoe-nails4 ,sometimes a foot pedestal is used to set the horse's front foot on when the horse wants to bear down too hard1 but this pedestal is not necessary in the farm shop4 ,there are flat-footed horses that cannot work even in summer without shoes4 ,common sense and shoeing tools are the only requirements necessary to tack on a plate without calks4 ,shoes to fit any foot may be purchased at so much a pound4 ,a paring-knife is used to level the bottom of the hoof so that it will have an even bearing on the shoe all the way round4 ,it is not desirable to pare the frog or the braces in the bottom of a horse's foot4 ,if the foot is well cupped1 a little of the horny rim may be taken off near the edges4 ,generally it is necessary to shorten the toe4 ,this is done partly with the hoof chisel and rasp after the shoe is nailed fast4 ,sometimes one-fourth of an inch is sufficient2 at other times a horse's hoof is very much improved by taking off one-half inch or more of the toe growth either from the bottom or the front or both4 ,like all other mechanical work the shoeing of a horse's foot should be studied and planned before starting4 ,a long toe is a bad leverage to overcome when pulling a heavy load4 ,at the same time1 nature intended that a horse should have considerable toe length as a protection to the more tender parts of the foot4 ,and the pastern bone should play at the proper angle4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ig4--,tool ,box for ,field ,use4 ,the long open side is for tools4 ,on the other side of the center partition bolts1 keys1 screws1 nails1 bits of wire1 leather1 tin1 etc41 are kept in the different divisions4 ,handy ,tool ,box4--,a tool box with a high lengthwise partition in the middle and a handle in the middle of the top of the partition is the handiest tool box ever used on a farm4 ,at haying and harvest time it should be fitted with the common tools required about haying and harvest machinery4 ,one side is partitioned into square boxes to hold split wire keys1 washers1 bolts1 rivets1 and a collection of wire nails1 bits of copper wire1 a leather punch1 etc4 ,on the other side of the box is an assortment of wrenches1 cold chisels1 punches1 pliers and hammers4 ,this tool box belongs in the wagon that accompanies the outfit to the field4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ih4--,melting ,ladle4 ,babbitting shaft boxing requires a melting ladle4 ,it should be about five inches across the bowl and about three inches deep4 ,that is a good size to heat in a forge fire4 ,babbitting ,boxings4--,babbitting boxings is one of the repair jobs on the farm4 ,some men are careless about oiling2 sometimes sand cuts them out4 ,every year some boxings need rebabbitting4 ,the melting ladle should be large enough to pour the largest box4 ,usually a #e-;inch bowl is about right4 ,a large ladle will pour a small box but a small ladle won't pour a large one4 ,in cold weather the shaft and box should be warmed to insure an even flow of metal4 ,pasteboard is fitted against the shaft when pouring the cap or top half of the box4 ,pasteboard is fitted around the shaft at the ends of the box to keep the melted metal from running out4 ,never use clay or putty1 it is too mussy and the babbitt is made rough and uneven at the edges4 ,some skill is required to fit either wood or metal close enough to prevent leaks and to do a neat job4 ,if the boxing is small1 both top and bottom may be poured at once by making holes through the dividing pasteboard4 ,the holes must be large enough to let the melted metal through and small enough to break apart easily when cold4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,generating ,,mechanical ,,power ,,to ,,drive ,,modern ,,farm ,,machinery ,at one time ninety-seven per cent of the population of the ,united ,states got their living directly from tilling the soil1 and the power used was oxen and manual labor4 ,at the present time probably not more than thirty-five per cent of our people are actively engaged in agricultural pursuits4 ,and the power problem has been transferred to horses1 steam1 gasoline1 kerosene and water power1 with electricity as a power conveyor4 ,fifty years ago a farmer was lucky if he owned a single moldboard cast-iron plow that he could follow all day on foot and turn over one1 or at most1 two acres4 ,the new traction engines are so powerful that it is possible to plow sixty feet in width1 and other machines have been invented to follow the tractor throughout the planting and growing seasons to the end of the harvest4 ,the tractor is supplemented by numerous smaller powers4 ,all of which combine to make it possible for one-third of the people to grow enough to feed the whole ,american family and to export a surplus to ,europe4 ,at the same time1 the standard of living is very much higher than it was when practically everyone worked in the fields to grow and to harvest the food necessary to live4 ,farm machinery is expensive1 but it is more expensive to do without4 ,farmers who make the most money are the ones who use the greatest power and the best machinery4 ,farmers who have a hard time of it are the ones who use the old wheezy hand pump1 the eight-foot harrow and the walking plow4 ,the few horses they keep are small and the work worries them4 ,the owner sympathizes with his team and that worries him4 ,worry is the commonest form of insanity4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ii4--;,flail1 the oldest threshing machine1 still used for threshing pedigreed seeds to prevent mixing4 ,the staff is seven or eight feet long and the swiple is about three feet long by two and one-half inches thick in the middle1 tapering to one and one-half inches at the ends4 ,the staff and swiple are fastened together by rawhide thongs4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ajj4--;,bucket ,yoke4 ,it fits around the neck and over the shoulders4 ,such human yokes have been used for ages to carry two buckets of water1 milk or other liquids4 ,the buckets or pails should nearly balance each other4 ,they are steadied by hand to prevent slopping4 ,at a famous plowing match held at ,wheatland1 ,illinois1 two interesting facts were brought out4 ,boys are not competing for furrow prizes and the walking plow has gone out of fashion4 ,the plowing at the ,wheatland plowing match was done by men with riding plows4 ,only one boy under eighteen years was ready to measure his ability against competition4 ,the attendance of farmers and visitors numbered about three thousand1 which shows that general interest in the old-fashioned plowing match is as keen as ever4 ,a jumbo tractor on the grounds proved its ability to draw a big crowd and eighteen plows at the same time4 ,it did its work well and without vulgar ostentation4 ,lack of sufficient land to keep it busy was the tractor's only disappointment1 but it reached out a strong right arm and harrowed the furrows down fine1 just to show that it wasn't mad at nobody4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aja4--,well ,sweep4 ,the length of the sweep is sufficient to lower the bucket into the water and to raise it to the coping at the top of the brickwork4 ,the rock on the short end of the sweep is just heavy enough to balance the bucket full of water4 ,modern farm methods are continually demanding more power4 ,larger implements are being used and heavier horses are required to pull them4 ,a great deal of farm work is done by engine power4 ,farm power is profitable when it is employed to its full capacity in manufacturing high-priced products4 ,it may be profitable also in preventing waste by working up cheap materials into valuable by-products4 ,the modern1 well-managed farm is a factory and it should be managed along progressive factory methods4 ,in a good dairy stable hay1 straw1 grains and other feeds are manufactured into high-priced cream and butter4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ajb4--,wire ,stretcher4 ,a small block and tackle will stretch a single barb-wire tight enough for a fence4 ,by using two wire snatches the ends of two wires may be strained together for splicing4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ajc4--;,block and ,tackle4 ,the rope is threaded into two double blocks4 ,there is a safety stop that holds the load at any height4 ,farming pays in proportion to the amount of work intelligently applied to this manner of increasing values4 ,it is difficult to make a profit growing and selling grain4 ,grain may sell for more than the labor and seed1 but it takes so much vitality from the land that depreciation of capital often is greater than the margin of apparent profit4 ,when grains are grown and fed to live-stock on the farm1 business methods demand better buildings and more power1 which means that the farmer is employing auxiliary machinery and other modern methods to enhance values4 ,in other manufacturing establishments raw material is worked over into commercial products which bring several times the amount of money paid for the raw material4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ajd4--;,farm ,hoists4 ,two styles of farm elevating hoists are shown in this illustration4 ,two very different lifting jobs are also shown4 ,the principle is the same on the farm except that when a farmer raises the raw material he sells it to himself at a profit4 ,when he feeds it to live-stock and sells the live-stock he makes another profit4 ,when the manure is properly handled and returned to the soil he is making another profit on a by-product4 ,farming carried on in this way is a complicated business which requires superior knowledge of business methods and principles4 ,in order to conduct the business of farming profitably the labor problem has to be met4 ,good farm help is expensive4 ,poor farm help is more expensive4 ,while farm machinery also is expensive1 it is cheaper than hand labor when the farmer has sufficient work to justify the outlay4 ,it is tiresome to have agricultural writers ding at us about the superior acre returns of ,german farms4 ,german hand-made returns may be greater per acre1 but one ,american farmhand1 by the use of proper machinery1 will produce more food than a whole ,german family4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aje4--,two ,powerful ,winches4 ,the one to the left is used for pulling small stumps or roots in the process of clearing land4 ,the rope runs on and off the drum to maintain three or four laps or turns4 ,the winch to the right is used for hoisting well drilling tools or to hang a beef animal4 ,the rope winds on the drum in two layers if necessary4 ,,dog ,,churn ,even the dog works on some farms4 ,a dog is a nuisance among dairy cattle1 but he can be made to earn his salt at churning time4 ,all mechanism in connection with dog power must be light4 ,it also is necessary to eliminate the friction as much as possible4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ajf4--;,dog ,churn ,power4 ,a wheel keyed to an iron shaft is placed at an angle as shown4 ,the weight of the dog turns the wheel and power is conveyed to the churn by a light rope belt4 ,it is necessary to confine the dog between stationary partitions built like a stall over the wheel4 ,the best way to make a dog power is to use a light wooden sulky wheel for the revolving turn table4 ,next best to the sulky wheel is a light buggy wheel4 ,the wheel is made fast to an upright iron shaft that is stepped into an iron oil well at the bottom and inclined at an angle of about fifteen degrees to give the necessary power4 ,to steady the top of the shaft a light boxing is used1 preferably a ball-bearing bicycle race to reduce friction4 ,power is conveyed to the churn by means of a grooved pulley on the top of the shaft4 ,a small1 soft rope or heavy string belt runs from this pulley to a similar pulley connected with the churn4 ,dogs learn to like the work when fed immediately after the churning is finished4 ,dogs have been known to get on to the power wheel to call attention to their hungry condition4 ,this calls to mind the necessity of arranging a brake to stop the wheel to let the dog off4 ,when the wheel is running light1 the dog cannot let go4 ,a spring brake to wear against the iron tire of the wheel is the most satisfactory4 ,the brake may be tripped and set against the tire automatically by a small lever and weight attached to the underside of the wheel4 ,when the speed is too fast the weight swings out and sets the brake4 ,when the speed slackens the weight drops back towards the center and releases the brake4 ,when the speed is about right the weight swings between the two spring catches4 ,,bull ,,treadmill ,on dairy farms it is common to see a valuable pure bred bull working a treadmill for exercise and to pump water4 ,sometimes he turns the cream-separator1 but the motion is too unsteady for good results4 ,treadmills for this purpose are very simple4 ,the mechanism turns a grooved pulley which propels a rope power conveyor4 ,the rope belt may be carried across the yards in any direction and to almost any distance4 ,bull treadmills consist of a framework of wood which carries an endless apron supported on rollers4 ,the apron link chains pass around and turn two drumhead sprocket-wheels at the upper end and an idler drum at the lower end4 ,the sprocket-wheel drum shaft is geared to an auxiliary shaft which carries a grooved pulley4 ,a rope belt power conveyor runs in this groove and carries power from the bull pen to the pump4 ,bull tread powers usually have smooth inclined lags1 because a bull's steps on the tread power are naturally uneven and irregular4 ,this construction gives an even straight tread to the travel surface4 ,to prevent slipping1 soft wooden strips are nailed onto the lags at the lower edges4 ,even incline tread blocks or lags are also recommended for horses that are not shod and for all animals with split hoofs4 ,the traveling apron of the power is placed on an incline and the treads are carried around the two drums at the upper and lower ends of the frame by means of endless chains4 ,there is a governor attachment which regulates the speed and prevents the machinery from running away4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ajg4--;,bull ,tread ,power4 ,treadmills have gone out of fashion4 ,too much friction was the cause1 but a mill like this is valuable to exercise a pure bred bull4 ,some dairymen make him pump water4 ,the simplest governor is made on the two-ball governor principle with weights on opposite levers4 ,the governor is attached to two opposite spokes in the flywheel4 ,as the speed increases the weights move outward because of their centrifugal force4 ,this motion operates a brake lever to retard or stop the flywheel4 ,when the machine stops an opposite weight rests against the flywheel until it starts in motion again1 so the apron cannot be moved until the brake is released4 ,this is necessary to get the animal on or off of the platform while it is at rest to avoid accidents4 ,the usual incline is a rise of two feet in eight when power is wanted4 ,this pitch compels the bull to lift one-quarter of his own weight and it may be too severe for a heavy animal4 ,the endless apron is an endless hill climb to the bull4 ,treadmills are not economical of power because there are so many bearings to generate friction4 ,,windmills ,wind power is the cheapest power we have4 ,a windmill properly proportioned to its work is a great help1 especially when it is attached to a good pump for the purpose of lifting water into an elevated tank from which it is piped under pressure for domestic purposes and for watering live-stock4 ,you can have considerable patience with a windmill if you only depend upon it for pumping water1 provided you have a tank that will hold a week's supply to be drawn during a dry1 hot time when every animal on the farm demands a double allowance of water4 ,that is the time when a farmer hates to attach himself to the pump handle for the purpose of working up a hickory breeze4 ,that also is the time when the wind neglects a fellow4 ,a good windmill is useful up to about one-third of its rated capacity1 which is the strongest argument for buying a mill larger than at first seems necessary4 ,some men have suffered at some time in their lives with the delusion that they could tinker with a poorly constructed windmill and make it earn its oil4 ,they have never waked up to a full realization of their early delusion4 ,it is a positive fact that all windmills are not lazy1 deceitful nor wholly unreliable4 ,when properly constructed1 rightly mounted and kept in good repair1 they are not prone to work in a crazy fashion when the tank is full and loaf when it is empty4 ,there are thousands of windmills that have faithfully staid on the job continuously twenty-four hours per day for five or ten years at a stretch1 all the time working for nothing year after year without grumbling1 except when compelled to run without oil4 ,at such times the protest is loud and nerve racking4 ,a good windmill with suitable derrick1 pump and piping may cost #aej4 ,the yearly expense figures something like this3 ,interest on investment at #f per annum #i4jj ,depreciation #aj #ae4jj ,oil #a4jj ,repairs #c4jj making a total of #bh1 which is less than #b4ej per month for the work of elevating a constant supply of water for the house1 stable and barnyard4 ,,one-,,mule ,,pump ,a home-made device that is much used on live-stock ranches in ,california is shown in the illustration4 ,this simple mechanism is a practical means for converting circular mule motion into vertical reciprocating pump action4 ,a solid post is set rather deep in the ground about twelve feet from the well4 ,this post is the fulcrum support of the walking-beam4 ,one end of the walking-beam reaches to the center line of the well1 where it connects with the pump shaft4 ,the other end of the walking-beam is operated by a pitman shaft connecting with a crank wrist pin near the ground4 ,a round iron shaft similar to a horsepower tumbling rod about ten or twelve feet in length and one and a half inches in diameter is used to convey power and motion to the pitman shaft4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ajh4--,mule ,pump4 ,a practical home-made power to pump water for live-stock4 ,it is used where the water-table is within #bj feet of the surface of the ground4 ,the drawing shows a post in the center which supports the walking-beam and acts as a fulcrum4 ,a mowing-machine wheel is keyed to one end of a round iron shaft4 ,the other end of this shaft turns in a boxing which is swiveled to a short post as shown at ,b4 ,see also detail ,b44 ,the two plunger shafts are shown at ,a ,a4 ,the mule is hitched to the round iron shaft near the traveling wheel by means of a round hook4 ,as the mule walks around in a circle the shaft revolves and operates the crank ,b4 ,there are side guys not shown in the drawing to keep the walking-beam in position4 ,a mowing-machine wheel is keyed to the outer end of the tumbling rod4 ,at the crank end is a babbitted boxing with a bolt attachment reaching down into the top of a short post set solidly into the ground1 directly under the inner end of the walking-beam4 ,this bolt permits the boxing to revolve with a swivel motion4 ,another swivel connects the upper end of the pitman shaft with the walking-beam4 ,the whiffletree is attached to the tumbling rod by an iron hook4 ,this hook is held in place by two iron collars fastened to the tumbling rod by means of keys or set-screws4 ,the mowing-machine drive wheel travels around in a circle behind the mule turning the shaft which works the walking-beam and operates the pump4 ,it would be difficult to design another horse or mule power so cheap and simple and effective4 ,the mule grows wise after a while1 so it is necessary to use a blindfold1 or he will soldier on the job4 ,with a little encouragement from a whip occasionally a mule will walk around and around for hours pulling the mowing-machine wheel after him4 ,,horsepower ,one horsepower is a force sufficient to lift #cc1jjj pounds one foot high in one minute4 ,the term horsepower in popular use years ago meant a collection of gear-wheels and long levers with eight or ten horses solemnly marching around in a circle with a man perched on a platform in the center in the capacity of umpire4 ,this was the old threshing-machine horsepower4 ,it was the first real success in pooling many different farm power units to concentrate the combined effort upon one important operation4 ,not many horses are capable of raising #cc1jjj pounds one foot in one minute every minute for an hour or a day4 ,some horses are natural-born slackers with sufficient acumen to beat the umpire at his own game4 ,some horses walk faster than others1 also horses vary in size and capacity for work4 ,but during a busy time each horse was counted as one horsepower1 and they were only eight or ten in number4 ,and it so developed that the threshing horsepower had limitations which the separator outgrew4 ,the old threshing horsepower has been superseded by steam engines and gasoline and kerosene power1 but horses are more important than ever4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aji4--;,horse ,power1 showing the manner of attaching the braced lever to the bull wheel4 ,farm horses are larger and more powerful2 they are better kept1 better trained1 and hitched to better machinery1 because it pays4 ,one man drives three #a1fjj-pound draft horses as fast as he used to drive two #a1jjj-pound general-purpose horses4 ,the three drafters make play of a heavy load1 while the two light horses worry themselves poor and accomplish little4 ,modern farm machinery is heavier1 it cuts wider and digs deeper and does more thorough work4 ,modern farm requirements go scientifically into the proper cultivation and preparation of soil to increase fertility4 ,old methods used up fertility until the land refused to produce profitably4 ,although the old familiar horsepower has been greatly outclassed1 it has not been discarded4 ,there are many small horsepowers in use for elevating grain1 baling hay1 cutting straw for feed and bedding1 grinding feed and other light work where engine power is not available4 ,,water-,,power ,water-power is the most satisfactory of all kinds of stationary farm power1 when a steady stream of water may be harnessed to a good water-wheel4 ,it is not a difficult engineering feat to throw a dam across a small stream and take the water out into a penstock to supply water to a turbine water-wheel4 ,in the first place it is necessary to measure the flow of water to determine the size of water-wheel which may be used to advantage4 ,in connection with the flow of water it is also important to know the fall4 ,water is measured by what is termed a weir4 ,it is easily made by cutting an oblong notch in a plank placed across the stream1 as a temporary dam which raises the water a few inches to get a steady1 even flow of water through the notch so that calculations may be made in miner's inches4 ,the term miner's inch is not accurate1 but it comes near enough for practical purposes4 ,measuring the volume of water should be done during a dry time in summer4 ,the fall of the stream is easily measured by means of a carpenter's level and a stake4 ,the stake is driven into the ground at a point downstream where water may be delivered to the wheel and a tailrace established to the best advantage4 ,sighting over the level to a mark on the stake will show the amount of fall4 ,when a manufacturer of water-wheels has the amount of water and the fall1 he can estimate the size and character of wheel to supply4 ,the penstock may be vertical or placed on a slant4 ,a galvanized pipe sufficient to carry the necessary amount of water may be laid along the bank1 but it should be thoroughly well supported because a pipe full of water is heavy1 and settling is likely to break a joint4 ,galvanized piping for a farm penstock is not necessarily expensive4 ,it may be made at any tin shop and put together on the ground in sections4 ,the only difficult part about it is soldering the under side of the joints1 but generally it may be rolled a little to one side until the bottom of the seam is reached4 ,the most satisfactory way to carry power from the water-wheel to the farm buildings is by means of electricity4 ,the dynamo may be coupled to the water-wheel and wires carried any required distance4 ,the work of installing electric power machinery is more a question of detail than mechanics or electrical engineering4 ,the different appliances are bought from the manufacturer and placed where they are needed4 ,it is principally a question of expense and quantity of electricity needed or developed4 ,if the current is used for power1 then a motor is connected with the dynamo and current from the dynamo drives the motor4 ,a dynamo may be connected with the water-wheel shaft at the source of power and the motor may be placed in the power-house or any of the other buildings4 ,the cost of farm waterworks depends principally on the amount of power developed4 ,small machinery may be had for a few hundred dollars1 but large1 powerful machinery is expensive4 ,if the stream is large and considerable power is going to waste it might pay to put in a larger plant and sell current to the neighbors for electric lighting and for power purposes4 ,standard machinery is manufactured for just such plants4 ,the question of harnessing a stream on your own land when you control both banks is a simple business proposition4 ,if anyone else can set up a plausible plea of riparian rights1 flood damage1 interstate complications or interference with navigation1 it then becomes a question of litigation to be decided by some succeeding generation4 ,,steam ,,boiler ,,and ,,engine ,farm engines usually are of two different types1 steam engines and gasoline or oil engines4 ,steam stationary engines are used on dairy farms because steam is the best known means of keeping a dairy clean and sanitary4 ,the boiler that furnishes power to run the engine also supplies steam to heat water and steam for sterilizing bottles1 cans and other utensils4 ,for some unaccountable reason steam engines are more reliable than gasoline engines4 ,at the same time they require more attention1 that is1 the boilers do4 ,steam engines have been known to perform their tasks year after year without balking and without repairs or attention of any kind except to feed steam and oil into the necessary parts1 and occasionally repack the stuffing boxes4 ,on the other hand1 boilers require superintendence to feed them with both fuel and water4 ,the amount of time varies greatly4 ,if the boiler is very much larger than the engine1 that is1 if the boiler is big enough to furnish steam for two such engines1 it will furnish steam for one engine and only half try4 ,this means that the fireman can raise #dj or #fj pounds of steam and attend to his other work around the dairy or barn4 ,where steam boilers are required for heating water and furnishing steam to scald cans and wash bottles1 the boiler should be several horsepower larger than the engine requirements4 ,there is no objection to this except that a large boiler costs more than a smaller one1 and that more steam is generated than is actually required to run the engine4 ,the kind of work required of a boiler and engine must determine the size and general character of the installation4 ,portable boilers and engines are not quite so satisfactory as stationary1 but there are a great many portable outfits that give good satisfaction1 and there is the advantage of moving them to the different parts of the farm when power is required for certain purposes4 ,,small ,,gasoline ,,engines ,a gasoline engine of #b-a_/b horsepower is the most useful size for a general purpose farm engine4 ,it is convenient to run the pump1 washing-machine1 fanning-mill1 cream-separator1 grindstone1 and other similar farm chores that have heretofore always been done by human muscle4 ,a small engine may be placed on a low-down truck and moved from one building to another by hand4 ,one drive belt #bj or #cj feet long1 making a double belt reach of #ab or #ae feet1 will answer for each setting4 ,the engine once lined up to hitch onto the pulley of any stationary machine is all that is necessary4 ,when the truck is once placed in proper position the wheels may be blocked by a casting of concrete molded into a depression in the ground in front and behind each wheel4 ,these blocks are permanent so that the truck may be pulled to the same spot each time4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aaj4--,kerosene ,farm ,engine4 ,this is a very compact type of engine with heavy flywheels4 ,a longer base might sit steadier on a wagon1 but for stationary use on a solid concrete pier it gives good service4 ,a gasoline engine for farm use is expected to run by the hour without attention4 ,for this reason it should have a good1 reliable hit and miss governor to regulate the speed1 as this type is the most economical in fuel4 ,it should have a magneto in addition to a six-cell dry battery4 ,it should be equipped with an impulse starter1 a device that eliminates all starting troubles4 ,the engine should be perfectly balanced so as to insure smooth running1 which adds materially to the life of the engine4 ,with a good1 solid pump jack1 a #b-a_/b horsepower engine will pump water until the tank is full1 whether it requires one hour or half a day4 ,it is easily moved to the dairy house to run the separator4 ,as the cream-separator chore comes along regularly every night and every morning1 the engine and truck would naturally remain inside of the dairy house more than any other place4 ,if the dairy house is too small to let the engine in1 then an addition is necessary1 for the engine must be kept under cover4 ,the engine house should have some artistic pretensions and a coat of paint4 ,,kerosene ,,portable ,,engines ,the kerosene engine is necessarily of the throttle governor type in order to maintain approximately uniform high temperature at all times1 so essential to the proper combustion of kerosene fuel4 ,therefore1 a kerosene engine of the hit-and-miss type should be avoided4 ,however1 there are certain classes of work where a throttle governor engine is at a decided disadvantage1 such as sawing wood1 because a throttle governor engine will not go from light load to full load as quickly as will a hit-and-miss type1 and consequently chokes down much easier1 causing considerable loss of time4 ,a general purpose portable kerosene engine is admirably suited to all work requiring considerable horsepower and long hours of service with a fairly steady load1 such as tractor work1 threshing1 custom feed grinding1 irrigating and silo filling4 ,there will be a considerable saving in fuel bill over a gasoline engine if the engine will really run with kerosene1 or other low-priced fuel1 without being mixed with gasoline4 ,in choosing a kerosene engine1 particular attention should be paid to whether or not the engine can be run on all loads without smoking4 ,unless this can be done1 liquid fuel is entering the cylinder which will cause excessive wear on the piston and rings4 ,a good kerosene engine should show as clean an exhaust as when operating on gasoline and should develop approximately as much horsepower4 ,another feature is harmonizing the fuel oil and the lubricating oil so that one will not counteract the effects of the other4 ,,portable ,,farm ,,engine ,,and ,,truck ,illustration3 ,figure #aaa4--,portable ,farm ,engine4 ,this engine is permanently mounted on a low wheel truck wagon4 ,the saw frame is detachable and the same truck is used for spraying and other work4 ,a convenient arrangement for truck and portable power for spraying1 sawing wood and irrigation pumping1 is shown in the accompanying illustration4 ,the truck is low down1 which keeps the machinery within reach4 ,the wheels are well braced1 which tends to hold the outfit steady when the engine is running4 ,the saw table is detachable4 ,when removed1 the spraying tank bolts on to the same truck frame2 also the elevated table with the railing around it1 where the men stand to spray large apple trees1 is bolted onto the wagon bed4 ,spraying never was properly done until the powerful engine and high pressure tanks were invented4 ,spraying to be effective1 should be fine as mist1 which requires a pressure of #aej pounds4 ,there may be a number of attachments to a spraying outfit of this kind4 ,a pipe suspended under the frame with a nozzle for each row is used to spray potatoes1 strawberry vines and other low down crops that are grown in rows4 ,when not in use as a portable engine it is blocked firmly into place to run the regular stationary farm machinery4 ,,hydraulic ,,ram ,the hydraulic ram is a machine that gets its power from the momentum of running water4 ,a ram consists of a pipe of large diameter1 an air chamber and another pipe of small diameter1 all connected by means of valves to encourage the flow of water in two different directions4 ,a supply of running water with a fall of at least two feet is run through a pipe several inches in diameter reaching from above the dam to the hydraulic ram1 where part of the flow enters the air chamber of the ram4 ,near the foot of the large pipe1 or at what might be called the tailrace1 is a peculiarly constructed valve that closes when running water starts to pass through it4 ,when the large valve closes the water stops suddenly1 which causes a back-pressure sufficient to lift a check-valve to admit a certain amount of water from the large supply pipe into the air-chamber of the ram4 ,after the flow of water is checked1 the foot-valve drops of its own weight1 which again starts the flow of water through the large pipe1 and the process is repeated a thousand or a million times1 each time forcing a little water through the check-valve into the air chamber of the ram4 ,the water is continually being forced out into the small delivery pipe in a constant stream because of the steady pressure of the imprisoned air in the air-chamber which acts as a cushion4 ,this imprisoned air compresses after each kick and expands between kicks in a manner intended to force a more or less steady flow of water through the small pipe4 ,the air pressure is maintained by means of a small valve that permits a little air to suck in with the supply of water4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aab4--;,hydraulic ,ram4 ,the upper drawing shows how to install the ram4 ,the lower drawing is a detail section through the center of the ram4 ,water flows downhill through the supply pipe4 ,the intermittent action of the valve forces a portion of the water through another valve into the air-chamber4 ,air pressure forces this water out through delivery pipe4 ,another valve spills the waste water over into the tailrace4 ,an automatic air-valve intermittently admits air into the air-chamber4 ,water may be conveyed uphill to the house by this means1 sometimes to considerable distance4 ,the size of the ram and its power to lift water depends upon the amount of water at the spring and the number of feet of fall4 ,in laying the small pipe1 it should be placed well down under ground to keep it cool in summer and to bury it beyond the reach of winter frost4 ,at the upper end where the water is delivered a storage tank with an overflow is necessary1 so the water can run away when not being drawn for use4 ,a constant supply through a ram demands a constant delivery4 ,it is necessary to guard the water intake at the dam4 ,a fence protection around the supply pool to keep live-stock or wild animals out is the first measure of precaution4 ,a fine screen surrounding the upper end of the pipe that supplies water to the ram is necessary to keep small trash from interfering with the valves4 ,,the ,,farm ,,tractor ,farm tractors are becoming practical4 ,most theories have had a try out1 the junk pile has received many failures and the fittest are about to survive4 ,now1 if the manufacturers will standardize the rating and the important parts and improve their selling organizations the whole nation will profit4 ,the successful tractors usually have vertical engines with four cylinders4 ,they are likely to have straight spur transmission gears1 and a straight spur or chain drive1 all carefully protected from dust4 ,and they will have considerable surface bearing to avoid packing the soil4 ,some tractors carry their weight mostly upon the drive wheels--a principle that utilizes weight to increase traction4 ,other tractors exert a great deal of energy in forcing a small1 narrow front steering-wheel through the soft ground4 ,any farmer who has pushed a loaded wheelbarrow knows what that means4 ,some kerosene tractors require a large percentage of gasoline4 ,the driver may be as much to blame as the engine4 ,but it should be corrected4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aac4--,tractor ,transmission ,gear4 ,spur gears are the most satisfactory for heavy work4 ,manufacturers should do more educational work and talk less about the wonderfully marvelous and marvelously wonderful4 ,salesmen should study mechanics instead of oratory4 ,tractor efficiency should be rated practically instead of theoretically4 ,the few actual reports of performance have emanated from tests with new machines in the hands of trained demonstrators4 ,manufacturers include belt power work among the virtues of farm tractors1 and they enumerate many light jobs1 such as running a cream-separator1 sawing wood1 pumping water and turning the fanning-mill4 ,well1 a farm tractor can do such work--yes4 ,so can an elephant push a baby carriage4 ,if manufacturers would devise a practical means of using electricity as an intermediary1 and explain to farmers how a day's energy may be stored in practical working batteries to be paid out in a week1 then we could understand why we should run a #bj horsepower engine to operate a cream-separator one hour at night and another hour in the morning4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aad4--,straight ,transmission ,gear1 forward and chain drive reverse1 for traction engine4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,driven ,,machines ,,farm ,,waterworks ,every farm has its own water supply4 ,some are very simple1 others are quite elaborate4 ,it is both possible and practical for a farmer to have his own tap water under pressure on the same plan as the city4 ,when good water is abundant within #ge feet of the surface of the ground the farm supply may be had cheaper and better than the city4 ,even deep well pumping is practical with good machinery rightly installed4 ,farm waterworks should serve the house and the watering troughs under a pressure of at least #dj pounds at the ground level4 ,the system should also include water for sprinkling the lawn and for irrigating the garden4 ,if strawberries or other intensive money crops are grown for market there should be sufficient water in the pipes to save the crop in time of drouth4 ,these different uses should all be credited to the farm waterworks system pro rata1 according to the amounts used by the different departments of the farm4 ,the books would then prove that the luxury of hot and cold running water in the farmhouse costs less than the average city family pays4 ,three ,systems of ,water ,storage4--,the first plan adopted for supplying water under pressure on farms was the overhead tank4 ,the water was lifted up into the tank by a windmill and force pump4 ,because wind power proved rather uncertain farmers adopted the gasoline engine1 usually a two horsepower engine4 ,the second water storage plan was the air-tight steel water-tank to be placed in the cellar or in a pit underground4 ,the same pump and power supplies the water for this system1 but it also requires an air-pump to supply pressure to force the water out of the tank4 ,the third plan forces the water out of the well by air pressure1 as it is needed for use4 ,no water pump is required in this system2 the air-compressor takes its place4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aae4--,the ,farm ,pump4 ,it superseded the iron-bound bucket1 the slimy old bucket1 the malaria-lined bucket that hung in the well1 but it wore out the women4 ,oil was never wasted on its creaking joints4 ,later it was fitted with a stuffing-box and an air-chamber1 and the plunger was hitched to the windmill4 ,to the right are shown two kinds of post-hole diggers4 ,the upper digger is sometimes used to clear the fine earth out of the bottom of a hole dug by the lower digger4 ,suction-,pumps4--,the word suction1 when applied to pumps1 is a misnomer4 ,the principle upon which such pumps work is this3 ,the pump piston drives the air out of the pump cylinder which produces a vacuum4 ,the pressure of the atmosphere is about fifteen pounds per square inch of surface4 ,this pressure forces sufficient water up through the so-called suction pipe to fill the vacuum in the cylinder4 ,the water is held in the cylinder by foot-valves or clack-valves4 ,as the piston again descends into the cylinder it plunges into water instead of air4 ,a foot-valve in the bottom end of the hollow piston opens while going down and closes to hold and lift the water as the piston rises4 ,water from the well is forced by atmospheric pressure to follow the piston and the pump continues to lift water so long as the joints remain air-tight4 ,the size of piston and length of stroke depend on the volume of water required1 the height to which it must be lifted and the power available4 ,a small power and a small cylinder will lift a small quantity of water to a considerable height4 ,but increasing the volume of water requires a larger pump and a great increase in the power to operate it4 ,the size of the delivery pipe has a good deal to do with the flow of water4 ,when water is forced through a small pipe at considerable velocity1 there is a good deal of friction4 ,often the amount of water delivered is reduced because the discharge pipe is too small4 ,doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its capacity four times4 ,square turns in the discharge pipe are obstructions2 either the pipe must be larger or there will be a diminished flow of water4 ,some pump makers are particular to furnish easy round bends instead of the ordinary right-angled elbows4 ,a great many pumps are working under unnecessary handicaps1 simply because either the supply pipe or discharge pipe is not in proportion to the capacity of the pump1 or the arrangement of the pipes is faulty4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aaf4--;,hand ,force-,pump4 ,showing two ways of attaching wooden handles to hand force-pumps4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aag4--,rotary ,pump4 ,twin water-chamber rotary pumps take water through the bottom and divide the supply1 carrying half of the stream around to the left and the other half to the right4 ,the two streams meet and are discharged at the top4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aah4--,section of ,rotary ,pump4 ,rotary ,pumps4--,a twin-chamber rotary pump admits water at the bottom of the chamber and forces it out through the top4 ,intermeshing cogs and rotary cams revolve outward from the center at the bottom1 as shown by the arrows in ,figure #aah4 ,the stream of water is divided by the cams1 as it enters the supply pipe at the bottom1 and half of the water is carried each way around the outsides of the double chamber4 ,these streams of water meet at the top of the chamber1 where they unite to fill the discharge pipe4 ,these pumps operate without air-chambers and supply water in a continuous stream4 ,they may be speeded up to throw water under high pressure for fire fighting1 but for economy in ordinary use the speed is kept down to #bjj revolutions1 or thereabout4 ,rotary pumps are also made with one single water chamber cylinder4 ,the pump head1 or shaft1 is placed a little off center4 ,a double end cam moves the water4 ,both ends of the cam fit against the bore of the cylinder4 ,it works loosely back and forth through a slotted opening in the pump head4 ,as the shaft revolves the eccentric motion of the double cam changes the sizes of the water-pockets4 ,the pockets are largest at the intake and smallest at the discharge4 ,rotary pumps are comparatively cheap1 as regards first cost1 but they are not economical of power4 ,in places where the water-table is near the surface of the ground they will throw water in a very satisfactory manner4 ,but they are more used in refineries and factories for special work1 such as pumping oil and other heavy liquids4 ,centrifugal ,pumps4--,the invention and improvement of modern centrifugal pumps has made the lifting of water in large quantities possible4 ,these pumps are constructed on the turbine principle4 ,water is lifted in a continuous stream by a turbine wheel revolving under high speed4 ,water is admitted at the center and discharged at the outside of the casing4 ,centrifugal pumps work best at depths ranging from twenty to sixty feet4 ,manufacturers claim that farmers can afford to lift irrigation water sixty feet with a centrifugal pump driven by a kerosene engine4 ,the illustrations show the principle upon which the pump works and the most approved way of setting pumps and engines4 ,centrifugal pumps usually are set in dry wells a few feet above the water-table4 ,while these pumps have a certain amount of suction1 it is found that short supply pipes are much more efficient4 ,where water is found in abundance within from #ae to #cj feet of the surface1 and the wells may be so constructed that the pull-down1 or the lowering of the water while pumping is not excessive1 then it is possible to lift water profitably to irrigate crops in the humid sections4 ,irrigation in such cases1 in the ,east1 is more in the nature of insurance against drouth4 ,valuable crops1 such as potatoes and strawberries1 may be made to yield double1 or better1 by supplying plenty of moisture at the critical time in crop development4 ,it is a new proposition in eastern farming that is likely to develop in the near future4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aai4--;,centrifugal ,pump4 ,this style of pump is used in many places for irrigation4 ,it runs at high speed1 which varies according to the size of the pump4 ,it takes water at the center and discharges it at the outside of the casing4 ,illustration3 ,figure #abj4--;,air ,pressure ,pump4 ,pumping water by air pressure requires a large air container capable of resisting a pressure of #ajj pounds per square inch4 ,this illustration shows the pressure tank1 engine1 air-compressor1 well and submerged pump4 ,air ,pressure ,pump4--,instead of pumping water out of the well some farmers pump air into the well to force the water out4 ,a double compartment cylindrical tank is placed in the water in the well4 ,these tanks are connected with the farm water distributing system to be carried in pipes to the house and to the stock stables4 ,air under a pressure of from #ej to #ajj pounds per square inch is stored in a steel tank above ground4 ,small gas-pipes connect this air pressure tank with the air-chamber of the air-water tank in the well4 ,a peculiar automatic valve regulates the air so that it enters the compartment that is filled1 or partly filled1 with water1 and escapes from the empty one so the two compartments work together alternately4 ,that is1 the second chamber fills with water1 while the first chamber is being drawn upon4 ,then the first chamber fills while the second is being emptied4 ,this system will work in a well as small as eight inches in diameter1 and to a depth of #adj feet4 ,it might be made to work at a greater depth1 but it seems hardly practical to do so for the reason that1 after allowing for friction in the pipes1 #ajj pounds of air pressure is necessary to lift water #aej feet4 ,an air tank of considerable size is needed to provide storage for sufficient air to operate the system without attention for several days4 ,careful engineering figures are necessary to account for the different depths of farm wells1 and the various amounts of water and power required4 ,for instance3 ,the air tank already contains #a1jjj gallons of air at atmospheric pressure--then3 ,forcing #a1jjj gallons of atmospheric air into a #a1jjj-;gallon tank will give a working pressure of #ae pounds per square inch2 #b1jjj gallons1 #cj pounds2 #c1jjj gallons1 #de pounds1 and so on4 ,therefore1 a pressure of #ajj pounds in a #a1jjj-;gallon tank 7#db inches by #ad feet7 would require #f1fjj gallons of free atmosphere1 in addition to the original #a1jjj gallons1 and the tank would then contain #a1jjj gallons of compressed air under a working pressure of #ajj pounds per square inch4 ,a one cylinder compressor #f inches by #f inches1 operating at a speed of #bjj ,r4,p4,m4 would fill this tank to a working pressure of #ajj pounds in about #ej minutes4 ,one gallon of air will deliver one gallon of water at the faucet4 ,but the air must have the same pressure as the water1 and there must be no friction4 ,thus1 one gallon of air under a working pressure of forty-five pounds1 will1 theoretically1 deliver one gallon of water to a height of #ajj feet4 ,but it takes three gallons of free air to make one gallon of compressed air at forty-five pounds pressure4 ,if the lift is #ajj feet1 then #a1jjj gallons of air under a pressure of forty-five pounds will theoretically deliver #a1jjj gallons of water4 ,practically1 the air tank would have to be loaded to a very much greater pressure to secure the #a1jjj gallons of water before losing the elasticity of the compressed air4 ,if one thousand gallons of water is needed on the farm every day1 then the air pump would have to work about one hour each morning4 ,this may not be less expensive than pumping the water directly1 but it offers the advantage of water fresh from the well4 ,pure air pumped into the well tends to keep the water from becoming stale4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aba4--7a7 ,single-,gear ,pump ,jack4 ,this type of jack is used for wells from #bj to #dj feet deep4 7#b7 ,double-,gear1 or ,multiple-,gear ,pump ,jack4 ,this is a rather powerful jack designed for deep wells or for elevating water into a high water-tank4 ,illustration3 ,figure #abb4--,post ,pump ,jack4 ,this arrangement is used in factories when floor space is valuable4 ,the wide-face driving-pulley is shown to the left4 ,illustration3 ,figure #abc4--,three ,jacks for ,different ,purposes4 ,at the left is a reverse motion jack having the same speed turning either right or left4 ,the little jack in the center is for light work at high belt speed4 ,to the right is a powerful jack intended for slow speeds such as hoisting or elevating grain4 ,illustration3 ,figure #abd4--,speed ,jack1 for reducing speed between engine and tumbling rod or to increase speed between tumbling rod and the driven machine4 ,illustration3 ,figure #abe4--,the ,speed ,jack on the left is used either to reduce or increase tumbling rod speed and to reverse the motion4 ,the ,speed ,jack on the right transfers power either from belt to tumbling rod or reverse4 ,it transforms high belt speed to low tumbling rod speed1 or vice versa4 ,pump ,jacks and ,speed ,jacks4--,farm pumps and speed-reducing jacks are partners in farm pumping4 ,force-pumps should not run faster than forty strokes per minute4 ,considerable power is required to move the piston when the water is drawn from a deep well and forced into an overhead tank4 ,jacks are manufactured which bolt directly to the pump1 and there are pumps and jacks built together4 ,a pump jack should have good1 solid gearing to reduce the speed4 ,spur-gearing is the most satisfactory4 ,bevel-gears are wasteful of power when worked under heavy loads4 ,power to drive a pump jack is applied to a pulley at least twelve inches in diameter with a four-inch face when belting is used4 ,if a rope power conveyor is used1 then pulleys of larger diameters are required to convey the same amount of power4 ,only general terms may be used in describing the farm pump1 because the conditions differ in each case4 ,generally speaking1 farmers fail to appreciate the amount of power used1 and they are more than likely to buy a jack that is too light4 ,light machinery may do the work1 but it goes to pieces quicker1 while a heavy jack with solid connections will operate the pump year in and year out without making trouble4 ,for increasing or reducing either speed or power some kind of jack is needed4 ,all farm machines have their best speed4 ,a certain number of revolutions per minute will accomplish more and do better work than any other speed4 ,to apply power to advantage speed jacks have been invented to adjust the inaccuracies between driver and driven4 ,,irrigation ,,by ,,pumping ,the annual rainfall in the ,united ,states varies in different parts of the country from a few inches to a few feet4 ,under natural conditions some soils get too much moisture and some too little4 ,irrigation is employed to supply the deficiency and drainage1 either natural or artificial1 carries off the excess4 ,irrigation and drainage belong together4 ,irrigation fills the soil with moisture and drainage empties it4 ,thus1 a condition is established that supplies valuable farm plants with both air and moisture4 ,in the drier portions of the ,united ,states1 nothing of value will grow without irrigation4 ,in the so-called humid districts deficiency of moisture at the critical time reduces the yield and destroys the profit4 ,the value of irrigation has been demonstrated in the ,west1 and the practice is working eastward4 ,illustration3 ,figure #abf4--;,centrifugal ,pump ,setting4 ,when used for irrigation1 centrifugal pumps are set as close to the ground water as practical4 ,irrigation is the new handmaiden of prosperity4 ,a rainy season is a bountiful one4 ,irrigation supplies the bounty without encouraging destructive fungus diseases4 ,where water is abundant within easy reach1 pumping irrigation water is thoroughly practical4 ,improvements in pumps in recent years have increased their capacity and insured much greater reliability4 ,a centrifugal pump is recommended for depths down to #ge feet2 beyond this depth the necessity of installing more expensive machinery places the business of pumping for irrigation on a different plane4 ,a centrifugal pump will throw more water with less machinery than any other device1 but like all other mechanical inventions1 it has its limitations4 ,in figuring economical pumping1 the minimum quantity should be at least #ajj gallons per minute1 because time is an object1 and irrigation1 if done at all1 should cover an area sufficient to bring substantial returns4 ,centrifugal pumps should be placed near the surface of the water in the well4 ,for this reason1 a large1 dry well is dug down to the level of the water-table and the pump is solidly bolted to a concrete foundation built on the bottom of this well4 ,a supply pipe may be extended any depth below the pump1 but the standing water surface in the well should reach within a few feet of the pump4 ,the pump and supply must be so well balanced against each other that the pull-down from pumping will not lower the water-level in the well more than twenty feet below the pump4 ,the nearer the ground water is to the pump the better4 ,the water well below the pump may be bored1 or a perforated well pipe may be driven2 or several well points may be connected4 ,the kind of well must depend upon the condition of the earth and the nature of the water supply4 ,driven wells are more successful when water is found in a stratum of coarse gravel4 ,before buying irrigation machinery1 it is a good plan to test the water supply by temporary means4 ,any good farm pump may be hitched to a gasoline engine to determine if the water supply is lasting or not4 ,permanent pumping machinery should deliver the water on high ground4 ,a main irrigation ditch may be run across the upper end of the field4 ,this ditch should hold the water high enough so it may be tapped at convenient places to run through the corrugations to reach the roots of the plants to be benefited4 ,there are different systems of irrigation designed to fit different soils4 ,corrugations are the cheapest and the most satisfactory when soils are loose enough to permit the water to soak into the soil sideways1 as well as to sink down4 ,the water should penetrate the soil on both sides of the corrugations for distances of several inches4 ,corrugations should be straight and true and just far enough apart so the irrigation water will soak across and meet between4 ,some soils will wash or gully out if the fall is too rapid4 ,in such cases it may be necessary to terrace the land by following the natural contour around the ridges so the water may flow gently4 ,where the fall is very slight1 that is1 where the ground is so nearly level that it slopes away less than six inches in a hundred feet1 it becomes necessary to prepare the land by building checks and borders to confine the water for a certain length of time4 ,then it is let out into the next check4 ,in the check and border system the check bank on the lower side has an opening which is closed during the soaking period with a canvas dam4 ,when the canvas is lifted the water flows through and fills the next check4 ,this system is more expensive1 and it requires more knowledge of irrigation to get it started1 and it is not likely to prove satisfactory in the ,east4 ,for fruits and vegetables1 what is known as the furrow system of irrigation is the most practical4 ,an orchard is irrigated by plowing furrows on each side of each row of trees4 ,the water is turned into these furrows and it runs across the orchard like so many little rivulets4 ,potatoes are irrigated on the same plan by running water through between the rows after the potatoes have been ridged by a double shovel-plow4 ,this plan also works well with strawberries4 ,after the land is prepared for irrigation1 the expense of supplying water to a fruit orchard1 strawberry patch or potato field is very little compared with the increase in yield4 ,in fact1 there are seasons when one irrigation will save the crop and produce an abundant yield1 when otherwise it would have been almost a total loss4 ,overhead ,spray ,irrigation4--,the most satisfactory garden irrigation is the overhead spray system4 ,posts are set ten feet apart in rows #ej feet apart4 ,water pipes are laid on the tops of the posts and held loosely in position by large staples4 ,these water pipes are perforated by drilling a line of small holes about three feet apart in a straight line along one side of the pipe4 ,the holes are tapped and small brass nozzles are screwed in4 ,the overhead pipes are connected with standpipes at the highest place1 generally at the ends of the rows4 ,the pipe-lines are loosely coupled to the standpipes to permit them to roll partly around to direct the hundreds of spray nozzles as needed4 ,illustration3 ,figure #abg4--,overhead ,irrigation4 ,diagram showing the arrangement of pipes for irrigating one acre of land4 ,the pipes are supported on posts six feet high4 ,six feet high is sufficient to throw a fine mist or spray twenty-five feet1 which is far enough to meet the spray from the next row1 so the ground will be completely covered4 ,to do this the pipes are rolled from one side to the other1 through a #ij degree arc to throw the spray on both sides4 ,the pipes usually are laid with a grade which follows down the slope of the land4 ,a fall of one foot in fifty is sufficient4 ,water is always admitted at the upper end of each pipe-line to flow down by gravity1 assisted by tank pressure4 ,a pressure of about forty pounds is needed to produce a fine spray1 and to send it across to meet the opposite jets4 ,the little brass nozzles are drilled with about a one-eighth inch hollow4 ,but the jet opening is small1 about ,no4 #bj ,w4 ,g4 ,this gives a wire-drawn stream that quickly vaporizes when it meets the resistance of the atmosphere4 ,when properly installed a fine misty rain is created1 which quickly takes the same temperature as the air1 and settles so gently that the most delicate plants are not injured4 ,quantity of ,water to ,use4--,good judgment is necessary in applying water to crops in regard to quantity1 as well as the time of making application4 ,generally speaking1 it is better to wait until the crop really needs moisture4 ,when the pump is started give the crop plenty with the expectation that one irrigation will be sufficient4 ,much depends upon the amount of moisture in the soil2 also the kind of crop and weather conditions enter into the problem4 ,on sandy land that is very dry where drainage is good1 water may be permitted to run in the corrugations for several days until the ground is thoroughly soaked4 ,when potatoes are forming1 or clover is putting down its big root system1 a great deal of water is needed4 ,irrigation sufficient to make two inches of rainfall may be used to advantage for such crops under ordinary farming conditions4 ,it is necessary after each irrigation to break the soil crust by cultivation to prevent evaporation4 ,this is just as important after irrigation as it is after a rain shower4 ,also any little pockets that hold water must be carefully drained out1 otherwise the crop will be injured by standing water4 ,we are not supposed to have such pockets on land that has been prepared for irrigation4 ,kind of ,crops to ,irrigate4--,wheat1 oats1 barley1 etc41 may be helped with one irrigation from imminent failure to a wealth of production4 ,but these rainfall grain crops do not come under the general classification that interests the regular irrigation farmer beyond his diversity plans for producing considerable variety4 ,fruits1 roots1 clover1 alfalfa1 vegetables and ,indian corn are money crops under irrigation4 ,certain seed crops yield splendidly when watered4 ,an apple orchard properly cared for and irrigated just at the right time will pay from five hundred to a thousand dollars per acre4 ,small fruits are just as valuable4 ,these successes account for the high prices of irrigated land4 ,in the ,east and in the great ,middle ,west1 valuable crops are cut short or ruined by drouth when the fruit or corn is forming4 ,it makes no difference how much rain comes along at other times in the year1 if the roots cannot find moisture at the critical time1 the yield is reduced often below the profit of raising and harvesting the crop4 ,strawberry blossoms shrivel and die in the blooming when rain fails4 ,irrigation is better than rain for strawberries4 ,strawberries under irrigation may be made to yield more bushels than potatoes under humid conditions4 ,one hundred bushels of strawberries per acre sounds like a fairy tale1 but it is possible on rich land under irrigation4 ,the cost of pumping for irrigation1 where the well and machinery is used for no other purpose1 must be charged up to the crop4 ,the items of expense are interest on the first cost of the pumping machinery1 depreciation1 upkeep and running expenses4 ,on ,eastern farms1 however1 where diversified farming is the business1 this expense may be divided among the different lines of work4 ,where live-stock is kept1 it is necessary to have a good1 reliable water supply for the animals4 ,a reservoir on high ground so water may be piped to the watering troughs and to the house is a great convenience4 ,also the same engine that does the pumping may be used for other work in connection with the farm1 so that the irrigation pump engine1 instead of lying idle ten or eleven months in the year1 may be utilized to advantage and made to earn its keep4 ,well-water contains many impurities4 ,for this reason1 it is likely to be valuable for crop growing purposes in a wider sense than merely to supply moisture4 ,well-water contains lime1 and lime is beneficial to most soils4 ,it has been noticed that crops grow especially well when irrigated from wells4 ,illustration3 ,figure #abh4--,power ,transmission4 ,circular motion is converted into reciprocating motion by the different lengths of the two pitman cranks which cause the upper wheel to oscillate4 ,power is carried to a distance by wires4 ,to reduce friction the wires are supported by swinging hangers4 ,sometimes wooden rods are used instead of wires to lessen expansion and contraction4 ,house and ,barns ,supplied from a ,reservoir4--,a farm reservoir may sometimes be built very cheaply by throwing a dam across a narrow hollow between two hills1 or ridges4 ,on other farms1 it is necessary to scrape out a hole on the highest ground within reach4 ,for easy irrigation a reservoir is necessary1 and it is economical because the pump may work overtime and supply enough water so the irrigation may be done quickly and with sufficient water to make it effective4 ,when the cost of the reservoir can be charged up to the different departments of the business1 such as irrigation1 live-stock and house use1 the cost is divided and the profits are multiplied4 ,power ,conveyor4--,circular motion is converted into reciprocal motion to operate a pump at a distance from the engine4 ,the short jack crank oscillates the driving pulley to move the conveyor wires back and forth4 ,the distance to which power may be carried is limited by the expansion and contraction of the conveying wires4 ,wooden rods are better under extremes of temperature4 ,where an engine is used night and morning in the dairy house to run a cream separator1 this kind of power transmission may be worked to operate the pump at the house4 ,light wire hangers will support the line wires or rods4 ,they should be about three feet in length1 made fast at top and bottom to prevent wear4 ,the spring of a ,no4 #aj wire three feet long is sufficient to swing the length of a pump stroke and the friction is practically nothing4 ,,electricity ,,on ,,the ,,farm ,electric current in some sections may be purchased from electric railways or city lighting plants4 ,but the great majority of farms are beyond the reach of high tension transmission cables4 ,in some places three or four farmers may club together and buy a small lighting plant to supply their own premises with both light and power4 ,unless an engineer is employed to run it trouble is sure to follow1 because one family does all of the work and others share equally in the benefits4 ,the solution is for each farmer to install a small plant of his own4 ,the proposition is not so difficult as it sounds4 ,two-horsepower plants are manufactured for this very purpose4 ,but there is more to it than buying a dynamo and a few lamp bulbs4 ,a farm electric system should supply power to run all of the light stationary machinery about the farm1 and that means storage batteries1 and the use of one or more small electric motors4 ,there are several ways to arrange the plant1 but to save confusion it is better to study first the storage battery plan and to start with an engine large enough to pump water and run the dynamo at the same time4 ,it is a good way to do two jobs at once--you store water enough in the supply tank to last twenty-four or forty-eight hours1 and at the same time you store up sufficient electricity to run the cream-separator for a week4 ,electric power is the only power that is steady enough to get all of the cream4 ,illustration3 ,figure #abi4--;,electric ,power ,plant4 ,a practical farm generator and storage battery1 making a complete farm electric plant that will develop and store electricity for instant use in any or all of the farm buildings4 ,refrigeration is a profitable way to use electric power4 ,there are small automatic refrigerator machines that maintain low temperatures to preserve food products4 ,this branch of the work may be made profitable4 ,laundry work on the farm was principally hand labor until the small power washers and wringers were invented4 ,now a small electric motor takes the blue out of ,monday1 and the women wear smiles4 ,electric flatirons afford the greatest comfort on ,tuesday4 ,the proper heat is maintained continually until the last piece is ironed4 ,cooking by electricity is another great success4 ,some women buy separate cooking utensils1 such as toasters1 chafing dishes and coffee percolators4 ,others invest in a regular electric cooking range at a cost of fifty dollars and feel that the money was well spent4 ,it takes about #ajj ,k4,w4,h4 per month in hot weather to cook by electricity for a family of four4 ,in winter1 when heat is more of a luxury1 the coal or wood range will save half of the electric current4 ,dishwashing by electricity is another labor-saver three times a day4 ,vacuum cleaners run by electricity take the dust and microbes out of floor rugs with less hand labor than pushing a carpet sweeper4 ,incubators are better heated by electricity than any other way4 ,brooders come under the same class4 ,sewing-machines were operated by electricity in sweatshops years ago--because it paid4 ,farm women are now enjoying the same privilege4 ,electric lighting on the farm is the most spectacular1 if not the most interesting result of electric generation in the country4 ,this feature of the subject was somewhat overtaxed by talkative salesmen representing some of the pioneer manufacturers of electric lighting plants1 but the business has steadied down4 ,real electric generating machinery is being manufactured and sold on its merits in small units4 ,not many miles from ,chicago there is an electric lighting plant on a dairy farm that is giving satisfaction4 ,the stables are large and they are managed on the plan of milking early in the morning and again in the middle of the afternoon4 ,the morning work requires a great deal of light in the different stables1 more light than ordinary1 because the milking is done by machinery4 ,the milking machine air-pump is driven by electricity generated on the farm1 the power being supplied by a kerosene engine4 ,electricity on this farm is used in units1 separate lines extending to the different buildings4 ,the lighting plant is operated on what is known as the #cb-volt system2 the rating costs less to install than some others and the maintenance is less than when a higher voltage is used4 ,i noticed also that there are fewer parts in connection with the plant than in other electric light works that ,i have examined4 ,technical knowledge of electricity and its behavior under different circumstances is hardly necessary to a farmer1 because the manufacturers have simplified the mechanics of electric power and lighting to such an extent that it is only necessary to use ordinary precaution to run the plant to its capacity4 ,at the same time it is just as well to know something about generators1 switchboards and the meanings of such terms and names as volt1 ampere1 battery poles1 voltmeter1 ammeter1 rheostat1 discharge switch1 underload circuit breaker1 false fuse blocks1 etc41 because familiarity with these names1 and the parts they represent gives the person confidence in charging the batteries4 ,such knowledge also supplies a reason for the one principal battery precaution1 which is not to use out all of the electricity the batteries contain4 ,those who have electric lighting plants on the farm do not seem to feel the cost of running the plants1 because they use the engine for other purposes4 ,generally manufacturers figure about #a ,h4,p4 extra to run a dynamo to supply from #be to #ej lights4 ,my experience with farm engines is that for ordinary farm work such as driving the cream separator1 working the pump and grinding feed1 a two-horse power engine is more useful than any other size4 ,farmers who conduct business in the usual way will need a three-horsepower engine if they contemplate adding an electric lighting system to the farm equipment4 ,among the advantages of an electric lighting system is the freedom from care on the part of the women4 ,there are no lamps to clean or broken chimneys to cut a finger1 so that when the system is properly installed the only work the women have to do is to turn the switches to throw the lights on or off as needed4 ,the expense in starting a farm electric light plant may be a little more than some other installations1 but it seems to be more economical in service when figured from a farmer's standpoint1 taking into consideration the fact that he is using power for generating electricity that under ordinary farm management goes to waste4 ,a three-horsepower engine will do the same amount of work with the same amount of gasoline that a two-horsepower engine will do4 ,this statement may not hold good when figured in fractions1 but it will in farm practice4 ,also when running a pump or cream separator the engine is capable of doing a little extra work so that the storage batteries may be charged with very little extra expense4 ,on one dairy farm a five-horsepower kerosene engine is used to furnish power for various farm purposes4 ,the engine is belted to a direct-current generator of the shunt-wound type4 ,the generator is wired to an electric storage battery of #hh ampere hour capacity4 ,the battery is composed of a number of separate cells4 ,the cells are grouped together in jars4 ,these jars contain the working parts of the batteries4 ,as each jar of the battery is complete in itself1 any one jar may be cut out or another added without affecting the other units4 ,the switchboard receives current either from the battery or from the engine and generator direct4 ,there are a number of switches attached to the switchboard1 which may be manipulated to turn the current in any direction desired4 ,some provision should be made for the renewal of electric lamps4 ,old lamps give less light than new ones1 and the manufacturers should meet customers on some kind of a fair exchange basis4 ,tungsten lamps are giving good satisfaction for farm use4 ,these lamps are economical of current1 which means a reduction of power to supply the same amount of light4 ,the ,mazda lamp is another valuable addition to the list of electric lamps4 ,the ,wisconsin ,agriculturist publishes a list of #ajd different uses for electricity on farms4 ,many of the electrical machines are used for special detail work in dairies where cheese or butter is made in quantity4 ,sugar plantations also require small units of power that would not apply to ordinary farming4 ,some of the work mentioned is extra heavy1 such as threshing and cutting ensilage4 ,other jobs sound trivial1 but they are all possible labor-savers4 ,here is the list3 ,oat crushers1 alfalfa mills1 horse groomers1 horse clippers1 hay cutters1 clover cutters1 corn shellers1 ensilage cutters1 corn crackers1 branding irons1 currying machines1 feed grinders1 flailing machines1 live stock food warmers1 sheep shears1 threshers1 grain graders1 root cutters1 bone grinders1 hay hoists1 clover hullers1 rice threshers1 pea and bean hullers1 gas-electric harvesters1 hay balers1 portable motors for running threshers1 fanning-mills1 grain elevators1 huskers and shredders1 grain drying machines1 binder motors1 wheat and corn grinders1 milking machines1 sterilizing milk1 refrigeration1 churns1 cream-separators1 butter workers1 butter cutting-printing1 milk cooling and circulating pumps1 milk clarifiers1 cream ripeners1 milk mixers1 butter tampers1 milk shakers1 curd grinders1 pasteurizers1 bottle cleaners1 bottle fillers1 concrete mixers1 cider mills1 cider presses1 spraying machines1 wood splitters1 auto trucks1 incubators1 hovers1 telephones1 electric bells1 ice cutters1 fire alarms1 electric vehicles1 electro cultures1 water supply1 pumping1 water sterilizers1 fruit presses1 blasting magnetos1 lighting1 interior telephones1 vulcanizers1 pocket flash lights1 ice breakers1 grindstones1 emery wheels1 wood saws1 drop hammers1 soldering irons1 glue pots1 cord wood saws1 egg testers1 burglar alarms1 bell ringing transformers1 devices for killing insects and pests1 machine tools1 molasses heaters1 vacuum cleaners1 portable lamps to attract insects1 toasters1 hot plates1 grills1 percolators1 flatirons1 ranges1 toilette articles1 water heaters1 fans1 egg boilers1 heating pads1 dishwashers1 washing machines1 curling irons1 forge blowers4 ,,gasoline ,,house ,,lighting ,gasoline gas for house lighting is manufactured in a small generator by evaporating gasoline into gas and mixing it with air1 about #e per cent gas and #ie per cent air4 ,we are all familiar with the little brass gasoline torch heater that tinners and plumbers use to heat their soldering irons4 ,the principle is the same4 ,there are three systems of using gasoline gas for farmhouse lighting purposes1 the hollow wire1 tube system1 and single lamp system4 ,the hollow wire system carries the liquid gasoline through the circuit in a small pipe called a hollow wire4 ,each lamp on the circuit takes a few drops of gasoline as needed1 converts it into gas1 mixes the gas with the proper amount of air and produces a fine brilliant light4 ,each lamp has its own little generator and is independent of all other lamps on the line4 ,the tube system of gasoline gas lighting is similar in appearance1 but the tubes are larger and look more like regular gas pipes4 ,in the tube system the gas is generated and mixed with air before it gets into the distribution tube1 so that lamps do not require separate generators4 ,in the separate lamp system each lamp is separate and independent4 ,each lamp has a small supply of gasoline in the base of the lamp and has a gas generator attached to the burner1 which converts the gasoline into gas1 mixes it with the proper amount of air and feeds it into the burner as required4 ,farm lanterns are manufactured that work on this principle4 ,they produce a brilliant light4 ,by investigating the different systems of gasoline gas lighting in use in village stores and country homes any farmer can select the system that fits into his home conditions to the best advantage4 ,in one farmhouse the owner wanted gasoline gas street lamps on top of his big concrete gateposts1 and this was one reason why he decided to adopt gasoline gas lighting and to use the separate lamp system4 ,,acetylene ,,gas ,acetylene lighting plants are intended for country use beyond the reach of city gas mains or electric cables4 ,carbide comes in lump form in steel drums4 ,it is converted into gas by a generator that is fitted with clock work to drop one or more lumps into water as gas is needed to keep up the pressure4 ,acetylene gas is said to be the purest of all illuminating gases4 ,experiments in growing delicate plants in greenhouses lighted with acetylene seem to prove this claim to be correct4 ,the light also is bright1 clear and powerful4 ,the gas is explosive when mixed with air and confined1 so that precautions are necessary in regard to using lanterns or matches near the generators4 ,the expense of installing an acetylene plant in a farm home has prevented its general use4 ,,wood-,,saw ,,frames ,there are a number of makes of saw frames for use on farms1 some of which are very simple1 while others are quite elaborate4 ,provision usually is made for dropping the end of the stick as it is cut4 ,sometimes carriers are provided to elevate the blocks onto a pile4 ,extension frames to hold both ends of the stick give more or less trouble1 because when the stick to be sawed is crooked1 it is almost impossible to prevent binding4 ,if a saw binds in the kerf1 very often the uniform set is pinched out of alignment1 and there is some danger of buckling the saw1 so that for ordinary wood sawing it is better to have the end of the stick project beyond the jig4 ,if the saw is sharp and has the right set and the right motion1 it will cut the stick off quickly and run free while the end is dropping to the ground4 ,the quickest saw frames oscillate1 being supported on legs that are hinged to the bottom of the frame4 ,oscillating frames work easier than sliding frames4 ,sliding frames are sometimes provided with rollers1 but roller frames are not steady enough4 ,for cross sawing lumber ,v-shaped grooves are best4 ,no matter what the feeding device is1 it should always be protected by a hood over the saw4 ,the frame should fall back of its own weight1 bringing the hood with it1 so that the saw is always covered except when actually engaged with the stick4 ,saw-mandrels vary in diameter and length1 but in construction they are much alike4 ,for wood sawing the shaft should be #a-c_/h or #a-a_/b in diameter4 ,the shaft runs in two babbitted boxes firmly bolted to the saw frame4 ,the frame itself should be well made and well braced4 ,,root ,,pulper ,there are root pulpers with concave knives which slice roots in such a way as to bend the slices and break them into thousands of leafy shreds4 ,the principle is similar to bending a number of sheets of paper so that each sheet will slide past the next one4 ,animals do not chew roots when fed in large solid pieces4 ,cattle choke trying to swallow them whole1 but they will munch shredded roots with apparent patience and evident satisfaction4 ,american farmers are shy on roots4 ,they do not raise roots in quantities because it requires a good deal of hand labor1 but roots make a juicy laxative and they are valuable as an appetizer and they carry mineral4 ,pulped roots are safe to feed and they offer the best mixing medium for crushed grains and other concentrated foods4 ,,feed ,,crusher ,instead of grinding grain for feeding1 we have what is known as a crusher which operates on the roller-mill principle4 ,it breaks the grains into flour by crushing instead of grinding4 ,it has the advantage of doing good work quickly4 ,our feed grinding is done in the two-story corncrib and granary4 ,it is one of the odd jobs on the farm that every man likes4 ,the grain is fed automatically into the machine by means of the grain spouts which lead the different kinds of grain down from the overhead bins4 ,the elevator buckets carry the crushed feed back to one of the bins or into the bagger4 ,in either case it is not necessary to do any lifting for the sacks are carried away on a bag truck4 ,we have no use for a scoop shovel except as a sort of big dustpan to use with the barn broom4 ,,stump ,,puller ,pulling stumps by machinery is a quick operation compared with the old time methods of grubbing1 chopping1 prying and burning that our forefathers had on their hands4 ,modern stump pulling machines are small affairs compared with the heavy1 clumsy things that were used a few years ago4 ,some of the new stump pullers are guaranteed to clear an acre a day of ordinary stumpage4 ,this1 of course1 must be a rough estimate1 because stumps1 like other things1 vary in numbers1 size and condition of soundness4 ,some old stumps may be removed easily while others hang to the ground with wonderful tenacity4 ,there are two profits to follow the removal of stumps from a partially cleared field4 ,the work already put on the land has in every case cost considerable labor to get the trees and brush out of the way4 ,the land is partially unproductive so long as stumps remain4 ,for this reason1 it is impossible to figure on the first cost until the stumps are removed to complete the work and to put the land in condition to raise machine made crops4 ,when the stumps are removed1 the value of the land either for selling or for farming purposes is increased at once4 ,whether sold or farmed1 the increasing value is maintained by cropping the land and securing additional revenue4 ,there are different ways of removing stumps1 some of which are easy while others are difficult and expensive4 ,one of the easiest ways is to bore a two-inch auger hole diagonally down into the stump2 then fill the auger hole with coal-oil and let it remain for some weeks to soak into the wood4 ,large stumps may be bored in different directions so the coal-oil will find its way not only through the main part of the stumps but down into the roots4 ,this treatment requires that the stumps should be somewhat dry4 ,a stump that is full of sap has no room for coal-oil1 but after the sap partially dries out1 then coal oil will fill the pores of the wood4 ,after the stump is thoroughly saturated with coal-oil1 it will burn down to the ground1 so that the different large roots will be separated4 ,sometimes the roots will burn below plow depth1 but a good heavy pair of horses with a grappling hook will remove the separated roots4 ,illustration3 ,figure #acj4--,the ,oldest ,farm ,hoist4 ,the first invention for elevating a heavy object was a tripod made of three poles tied together at the top with thongs of bark or rawhide4 ,when hunters were lucky enough to kill a bear1 the tripod elevator was erected over the carcass with the lower ends of the poles spread well apart to lower the apex4 ,the gambrel was inserted under the hamstrings and attached to the top of the tripod4 ,as the skinning of the animal proceeded the feet of the tripod were moved closer together4 ,by the time the head was cut off the carcass would swing clear4 ,dynamite often is used to blow stumps to pieces1 and the work is not considered dangerous since the invention of safety devices4 ,in some sections of the country where firewood is valuable1 dynamite has the advantage of saving the wood4 ,an expert with dynamite will blow a stump to pieces so thoroughly that the different parts are easily worked into stove lengths4 ,pitch-pine stumps have a chemical value that was not suspected until some fellows got rich by operating a retort4 ,,farm ,,elevating ,,machinery ,many handy and a few heavy elevators are being manufactured to replace human muscle4 ,the simple tripod beef gin was familiar to the early settlers and it is still in use4 ,when a heavy animal was killed for butchering1 the small ends of three poles were tied together to form a tripod over the carcass4 ,the feet of the tripod were placed wide apart to raise the apex only a few feet above the animal4 ,after the gambrel was inserted and attached the feet of the tripod were moved gradually closer together as the skinning proceeded1 thus elevating the carcass to swing clear of the ground4 ,grain ,elevators4--,as a farm labor-saver1 machinery to elevate corn into the two-story corncrib and grain into the upper bins is one of the newer and more important farming inventions4 ,with a modern two-story corncrib having a driveway through the center1 a concrete floor and a pit1 it is easy to dump a load of grain or ear corn by raising the front end of the wagon box without using a shovel or corn fork4 ,after the load is dumped into the pit a boy can drive a horse around in a circle while the buckets carry the corn or small grain and deliver it by spout into the different corncribs or grain bins4 ,there are several makes of powerful grain elevating machines that will do the work easily and quickly4 ,the first requisite is a building with storage overhead1 and a convenient place to work the machinery4 ,some of the elevating machines are made portable and some are stationary4 ,some of the portable machines will work both ways4 ,usually stationary elevators are placed in vertical position4 ,some portable elevators may be operated either vertically or on an incline4 ,such machines are adaptable to different situations1 so the corn may be carried up into the top story of a farm grain warehouse or the apparatus may be hauled to the railway station for chuting the grain or ear corn into a car4 ,it depends upon the use to be made of the machinery whether the strictly stationary or portable elevator is required4 ,to unload usually some kind of pit or incline is needed with any kind of an elevator1 so the load may be dumped automatically quickly from the wagon box to be distributed by carrying buckets at leisure4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aca4--,portable ,grain ,elevator ,filling a ,corncrib4 ,the same rig is taken to the railway to load box cars4 ,the wagon is unloaded by a lifting jack4 ,it costs from #a;c to #a-a_/b;c per bushel to shovel corn by hand1 but the greatest saving is in time4 ,some elevators are arranged to take grain slowly from under the tailboard of a wagon box4 ,the tailrod is removed and the tailboard raised half an inch or an inch1 according to the capacity of the machinery4 ,the load pays out through the opening as the front of the wagon is gradually raised1 so the last grain will discharge into the pit or elevator hopper of its own weight4 ,technical building knowledge and skill is required to properly connect the building and elevating machinery so that the two will work smoothly together4 ,there are certain features about the building that must conform to the requirements and peculiarities of the elevating machinery4 ,the grain and ear corn are both carried up to a point from which they will travel by gravity to any part of the building4 ,the building requires great structural strength in some places1 but the material may be very light in others4 ,hence1 the necessity of understanding both building and machinery in order to meet all of the necessary technical requirements4 ,,chapter ,v ,,working ,,the ,,soil ,,importance ,,of ,,plowing ,illustration3 ,figure #acb4--;,heavy ,disk ,plow4 ,a strong four-horse disk implement for breaking stumpy ground or to tear tough sod into bits before turning under with a moldboard4 ,plowing is a mechanical operation that deals with physics1 chemistry1 bacteriology and entomology4 ,the soil is the farmer's laboratory2 his soil working implements are his mechanical laboratory appliances4 ,a high order of intelligence is required to merge one operation into the next to take full advantage of the assistance offered by nature4 ,the object of plowing and cultivation is to improve the mechanical condition of the soil1 to retain moisture1 to kill insects and to provide a suitable home for the different kinds of soil bacteria4 ,there are aerobic and anaerobic bacteria1 also nitrogen-gathering bacteria and nitrifying bacteria which are often loosely referred to as azotobacter species4 ,few of us are on intimate terms with any of them1 but some of us have had formal introductions through experiments and observation4 ,illustration3 ,figure #acc4--,sulky ,plow4 ,this is a popular type of riding plow4 ,it is fitted with a rolling coulter4 ,,the ,,mechanics ,,of ,,plowing ,walking ,plow4--,the draft of a walking plow may be increased or diminished by the manner of hitch4 ,it is necessary to find the direct line of draft between the work performed and the propelling force4 ,the clevis in the two-horse doubletree1 or the three-horse evener and the adjusting clevis in the end of the plow-beam with the connecting link will permit a limited adjustment4 ,the exact direction that this line takes will prove out in question4 ,the walking plow should not have a tendency to run either in or out1 neither too deep nor too shallow4 ,for the proper adjustment as to width and depth of furrow1 the plow should follow the line of draft in strict obedience to the pull so that it will keep to the furrow on level ground a distance of several feet without guidance from the handles4 ,in making the adjustment it is first necessary to see that the plow itself is in good working order4 ,all cutting edges such as share1 coulter or jointer must be reasonably sharp and the land slip in condition as the makers intended4 ,illustration3 ,figure #acd4--;,disk ,plow4 ,less power is required to plow with a disk1 but it is a sort of cut and cover process4 ,the disk digs trenches narrow at the bottom4 ,there are ridges between the little trenches that are not worked4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ace4--,three-,horse and ,four-,horse ,eveners4 ,this kind of evener hitches the horses closer to the load than some others and they are easier to handle than the spread out kinds4 ,the four-horse rig requires the best horses in the middle4 ,all plows should have a leather pocket on the side of the beam to carry a file4 ,a #ab-;inch bastard file with a good handle is the most satisfactory implement for sharpening the cutting edges of a plow in the fields4 ,a good deal depends on the character of the soil and its condition of dryness1 but generally speaking1 it pays to do a little filing after plowing a half mile of furrow4 ,if the horses are doing their duty1 a little rest at the end of the half mile is well earned4 ,the plowman can put in the time to advantage with the file and the next half mile will go along merrily in consequence4 ,no farmer would continue to chop wood all day without whetting his axe1 but1 unfortunately1 plowmen often work from morning till night without any attempt to keep the cutting edges of their plows in good working order4 ,riding ,plow4--,the riding plow in lifting and turning the furrow slice depends a good deal on the wheels4 ,the action of the plow is that of a wedge with the power pushing the point1 the share and the moldboard between the furrow slices and the land side and the furrow bottom4 ,there is the same friction between the moldboard and the furrow slice as in the case of the walking plow1 but the wheels are intended to materially reduce the pressure on the furrow bottom and against the land side4 ,plow wheels are intended to relieve the draft in this respect because wheels roll much easier than the plow bottom can slide with the weight of the work on top4 ,the track made in the bottom of the furrow with the walking plow shows plainly the heavy pressure of the furrow slice on the moldboard by the mark of the slip4 ,to appreciate the weight the slip carries1 an interesting experiment may be performed by loading the walking plow with weights sufficient to make the same kind of a mark when the plow is not turning a furrow4 ,one advantage in riding plows in addition to the relief of such a load is less packing of the furrow bottom4 ,on certain soils when the moisture is just sufficient to make the subsoil sticky1 a certain portion of the furrow bottom is cemented by plow pressure so that it becomes impervious to the passage of moisture either up or down4 ,the track of a plow wheel is less injurious4 ,illustration3 ,figure #acf4--,three-,section1 ,spike-,tooth ,harrow4 ,the harrow is made straight1 but the hitch is placed over to one side to give each tooth a separate line of travel4 ,illustration3 ,figure #acg4--;,harrow ,sled ,long ,enough to ,hold a ,four-,section ,harrow4 ,plow wheels should stand at the proper angle to the pressure with especial reference to the work performed4 ,wheels should be adjusted with an eye single to the conditions existing in the furrow4 ,some wheel plows apparently are especially built to run light like a wagon above ground regardless of the underground work required of them4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ach4--;,corn ,cultivator4 ,a one-row1 riding-disk cultivator4 ,the ridges are smoothed by the spring scrapers to leave an even surface to prevent evaporation4 ,axles should hang at right angles to the line of lift so accurately as to cause the wheels to wear but lightly on the ends of the hubs4 ,mistakes in adjustment show in the necessity of keeping a supply of washers on hand to replace the ones that quickly wear thin4 ,in this respect a good deal depends on the sand-bands at the ends of the hubs4 ,plow wheels are constantly lifting gritty earth and dropping it on the hubs4 ,there is only one successful way to keep sand out of the journals and that is by having the hubs1 or hub ferrules1 extend well beyond the bearings4 ,plow wheel hub extensions should reach two inches beyond the journal both at the large end of the hub and at the nut or linchpin end4 ,some plow wheels cut so badly that farmers consider oil a damage and they are permitted to run dry4 ,this is not only very wasteful of expensive iron but the wheels soon wabble to such an extent that they no longer guide the plow1 in which case the draft may be increased enormously4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aci4--;,a ,combination ,riding and ,walking ,cultivator1 showing fenders attached to protect young plants the first time through4 ,the two bull tongues shown are for use in heavy soils or when deeper digging is necessary4 ,scotch ,plows4--,when the long1 narrow ,scotch sod plows are exhibited at ,american agricultural fairs they attract a good deal of attention and no small amount of ridicule from ,american farmers because of the six or seven inch furrows they are intended to turn4 ,in this country we are in too much of a hurry to spend all day plowing three-fourths of an acre of ground4 ,intensive farming is not so much of an object with us as the quantity of land put under cultivation4 ,those old-fashioned ,scotch plows turn a furrow about two-thirds of the way over1 laying the sod surface at an angle of about #de deg4 to the bottom of the furrow4 ,the sharp comb cut by the coulter and share stands upright so that a sod field when plowed is marked in sharp ridges six or seven inches apart1 according to the width of the furrow4 ,edges of sod show in the bottoms of the corrugations between these little furrow ridges4 ,when the rains come the water is held in these grooves and it finds its way down the whole depth of the furrow slice carrying air with it and moistening every particle of trash clear to the bottom of the furrow4 ,such conditions are ideal for the work of the different forms of bacteria to break down plant fibre contained in the roots and trash and work it into humus1 which is in turn manipulated by other forms of soil bacteria to produce soil water which is the only food of growing plants4 ,jointer ,plows4--,american plow makers also have recognized the necessity of mixing humus with soil in the act of plowing4 ,to facilitate the process and at the same time turn a wide furrow1 the jointer does fairly good work when soil conditions are suitable4 ,the jointer is a little plow which takes the place of the coulter and is attached to the plow-beam in the same manner4 ,the jointer turns a little furrow one inch or two inches deep and the large plow following after turns a twelve-inch or fourteen-inch furrow slice flat over1 throwing the little jointer furrow in the middle of the furrow bottom in such a way that the big furrow breaks over the smaller furrow4 ,if the work is well done1 cracks as wide as a man's hand and from three to five inches deep are left all over the field4 ,these cracks lead air and moisture to rot the trash below4 ,this is a much quicker way of doing a fairly good job of plowing4 ,such plows loosen the soil and furnish the conditions required by nature2 and they may be operated with much less skill than the old-fashioned narrow-furrowed ,scotch plows4 ,good plowing requires first that the soil be in proper condition to plow1 neither too dry nor too wet1 but no man can do good plowing without the proper kind of plow to fit the soil he is working with4 ,,plowing ,,by ,,tractor ,under present conditions farm tractors are not intended to replace horse power entirely but to precede horses to smooth the rough places that horses may follow with the lighter machines to add the finishing touches4 ,light tractors are being made1 and they are growing in popularity1 but the real business of the farm tractor is to do the heavy lugging--the work that kills horses and delays seeding until the growing season has passed4 ,the actual power best suited to the individual farm can only be determined by the nature of the land and the kind of farming4 ,in the ,middle ,west where diversified farming is practiced1 the #h-af and the #aj-bj sizes seem to be the most satisfactory1 and this is without regard to the size of the farm4 ,the preponderance of heavy work will naturally dictate the buying of a tractor heavier than a #aj-bj4 ,the amount of stationary work is a factor4 ,in certain communities heavy farm tractors are made to earn dividends by running threshing machines after harvest1 silo fillers in the fall and limestone crushers in the winter4 ,here is a classified list of jobs the medium size farm tractor is good for3 ,clearing the ,land--pulling up bushes by the roots1 tearing out hedges1 pulling stumps1 grubbing1 pulling stones4 ,preparing ,seed ,bed and ,seeding--plowing1 disking1 crushing clods1 pulling a land plane1 rolling1 packing1 drilling1 harrowing4 ,harvesting--mowing1 pulling grain binders1 pulling potato digger4 ,belt ,work--hay baling1 corn shelling1 heavy pumping for irrigation1 grinding feed1 threshing1 clover hulling1 husking and shredding1 silo filling1 stone crushing4 ,road ,work--grading1 dragging1 leveling1 ditching1 hauling crops4 ,miscellaneous--running portable sawmill1 stretching wire fencing1 ditch digging1 manure spreading4 ,generally speaking1 however1 the most important farm tractor work is preparing the seed-bed thoroughly and quickly while the soil and weather conditions are the best4 ,and the tractor's ability to work all day and all night at such times is one of its best qualifications4 ,to plow one square mile1 or #fdj acres1 with a walking plow turning a twelve-inch furrow1 a man and team must walk #e1bhj miles4 ,the gang-plow has always been considered a horse killer1 and1 when farmers discovered that they could use oil power to save their horses1 many were quick to make the change4 ,it requires approximately #aj horsepower hours to turn an acre of land with horses4 ,at a speed of two miles1 a team with one plow in ten hours will turn two acres4 ,to deliver the two horsepower required to do this work1 they must travel #agf feet per minute and exert a continuous pull of #cge pounds or #ahg4e pounds per horse4 ,one horsepower equals a pull of #cc1jjj pounds1 moved one foot per minute4 ,two-mile speed equals two times #e1bhj or #aj1efj feet per hour1 or #agf feet per minute4 ,sixty-six thousand divided by #agf equals #cge foot pounds pull per minute4 ,one horsepower is absorbed in #hh feet of furrow4 ,horse labor costs1 according to ,government figures1 #ab-a_/b cents per hour per horse4 ,on this basis ten hours' work will be #a4be1 which is the average daily cost of each horse4 ,an average ,illinois diversified farm of #afj acres would be approximately as follows3 ,fifty acres of corn1 #cj acres of oats and wheat1 #bj acres of hay1 #fj acres of rough land1 pasture1 orchard1 building and feed lots4 ,this average farm supports six work horses or mules and one colt4 ,according to figures taken from farm work reports submitted by many different corn belt farmers1 the amount of horse-work necessary to do this cropping would figure out as follows3 ,fifty acres of corn land for plowing1 disking1 harrowing1 planting1 cultivating and harvesting would amount to a total of #a1dej horsepower hours4 ,thirty acres of wheat would require a total of #ccj horsepower hours4 ,twenty acres of hay would require #aaj horsepower hours4 ,in round figures1 #a1ijj horsepower hours at #ab-a_/b cents would amount to #bcg4ej4 ,elaborate figures have been worked out theoretically to show that this work can be done by an #h-af farm tractor in #bg-c_/d days at a cost for kerosene fuel and lubricating oil of #a4hi per day4 ,adding interest1 repairs and depreciation1 brings this figure up to about #d4jj per day1 or a total of #aaa4jj for the job4 ,no account is kept of man power in caring for either the horses or the tractor4 ,the actual man labor on the job1 however1 figures #ab-a_/c days less for the tractor than for horses4 ,we should remember that actual farm figures are used for the cost of horse work4 ,such figures are not available for tractor work4 ,the cost of plowing with a traction engine depends upon so many factors that it is difficult to make any definite statement4 ,it depends upon the condition of the ground1 size of the tractor1 the number of plows pulled1 and the amount of fuel used4 ,an #h-af horsepower tractor1 for instance1 burning from #ae to #bj gallons of low grade kerosene per ten hour day and using one gallon of lubricating oil1 costs about #a4ij per ten hours work4 ,pulling two #ad-;inch plows and traveling #bj miles per day1 the tractor will plow #e4f acres at a fuel and an oil cost of about #cj cents per acre4 ,pulling three #ad-;inch plows1 it will turn #h4d acres at a cost for fuel and oil of about #bj cents an acre4 ,the kind and condition of soil is an important factor in determining the tractor cost of plowing4 ,comparison between the average horse cost and the average tractor cost suggests very interesting possibilities in favor of tractor plowing under good management4 ,aside from the actual cost in dollars we should also remember that no horse gang can possibly do the quality of work that can be accomplished by an engine gang4 ,anxiety to spare the team has cut a big slice off the profits of many a farmer4 ,he has often plowed late on account of hard ground1 and he has many times allowed a field to remain unplowed on account of worn-out teams4 ,under normal conditions1 late plowing never produces as good results as early plowing4 ,many a farmer has fed and harnessed by the light of the lantern1 gone to the field and worked his team hard to take advantage of the cool of the morning4 ,with the approach of the hot hours of midday1 the vicious flies sapping the vitality from his faithful team1 he has eased up on the work or quit the job4 ,in using the tractor for plowing1 there are none of these distressing conditions to be taken into consideration1 nothing to think of but the quality of work done4 ,it is possible to plow deep without thought of the added burden4 ,deep plowing may or may not be advisable4 ,but where the soil will stand it1 deep plowing at the proper time of year1 and when done with judgment1 holds moisture better and provides more plant food4 ,the pull power required to plow different soils varies from about three pounds per square inch of furrow for light sand up to twenty pounds per square inch of furrow for gumbo4 ,the draft of a plow is generally figured from clover sod1 which averages about seven pounds per square inch4 ,suppose a plow rig has two #ad-;inch bottoms1 and the depth to be plowed is six inches4 ,a cross section of each plow is therefore #ad by #f inches1 or #hd square inches4 ,twice this for two bottoms is #afh square inches4 ,since1 in sandy soil1 the pressure per square inch is three pounds1 therefore #afh times #c pounds equals #ejd pounds1 the draft in sandy soil4 #afh times #g pounds equals #a1agf pounds1 the draft in clover sod4 #afh times #h pounds equals #a1cdd pounds1 the draft in clay sod4 ,the success of crop growing depends upon the way the seed-bed is prepared4 ,the final preparation of the seed-bed can never be thoroughly well done unless the ground is properly plowed to begin with4 ,it is not sufficient to root the ground over or to crowd it to one side but the plow must really turn the furrow slice in a uniform1 systematic manner and lay it bottom side uppermost to receive the beneficial action of the air1 rain and sunshine4 ,the moldboard of a plow must be smooth in order to properly shed the earth freely to make an easy turn-over4 ,the shape of the shear and the forward part of the moldboard is primarily that of a wedge1 but the roll or upper curve of the moldboard changes according to soil texture and the width and depth of furrow to be turned4 ,moldboards also differ in size and shape1 according to the kind of furrow to be turned4 ,sometimes in certain soils a narrow solid furrow with a comb on the upper edge is preferable4 ,in other soils a cracked or broken furrow slice works the best4 ,when working our lighter soils a wide furrow turned flat over on top of a jointer furrow breaks the ground into fragments with wide cracks or openings reaching several inches down4 ,between these extremes there are many modifications made for the particular type or texture of the soil to be plowed4 ,we can observe the effect that a rough1 or badly scratched1 or poorly shaped moldboard has on any kind of soil1 especially when passing from gravelly soils to clay4 ,in soil that contains the right amount of moisture1 when a plow scours all the time1 the top of the furrow slice always has a glazed or shiny appearance4 ,this shows that the soil is slipping off the moldboard easily4 ,in places where the plow does not scour the ground is pushed to one side and packed or puddled on the underside instead of being lifted and turned as it should be4 ,a field plowed with a defective moldboard will be full of these places4 ,such ground cannot have the life to bring about a satisfactory bacteria condition necessary to promote the rapid plant growth that proper plowing gives it4 ,cultivated sandy soils are becoming more acid year after year4 ,we are using lime to correct the acidity1 but the use of lime requires better plowing and better after cultivation to thoroughly mix the trash with the earth to make soil conditions favorable to the different kinds of soil bacteria4 ,unless we pay special attention to the humus content of the soil we are likely to use lime to dissolve out plant foods that are not needed by the present crop1 and1 therefore1 cannot be utilized4 ,this is what the old adage means which reads3 ,lime enricheth the father but impoverisheth the son4 ,when that was written the world had no proper tillage tools and the importance of humus was not even dreamed of4 ,not so many years ago farm plows were made of cast iron4 ,then came the steel moldboard1 which was supposed to be the acme of perfection in plow making4 ,steel would scour and turn the furrow in fluffy soils where cast iron would just root along without turning the ground at all4 ,later the art of molding steel was studied and perfected until many grades and degrees of hardness were produced and the shape of the moldboard passed through a thousand changes4 ,the idea all the time was to make plows that would not only scour but polish in all kinds of soil4 ,at the same time they must turn under all of the vegetable growth to make humus1 to kill weeds and to destroy troublesome insects4 ,besides these requirements the soil must be pulverized and laid loose to admit both air and moisture4 ,these experiments gradually led up to our present high grade plows of hardened steel and what is known as chilled steel4 ,besides the hardness there are different shapes designed for different soils so that a plow to work well on one farm may need to be quite different from a plow to do the best work in another neighborhood4 ,the furrow slice sliding over a perfect moldboard leaves the surface of the upturned ground as even as the bottom of the furrow4 ,by using a modern plow carefully selected to fit the soil1 gravel1 sandy1 stony or muck soils1 or silt loams that contain silica1 lime1 iron and aluminum oxide can be worked with the right plow to do the best work possible if we use the necessary care and judgment in making the selection4 ,one object of good plowing is to retain moisture in the soil until the growing crop can make good use of it4 ,the ease with which soils absorb1 retain or lose moisture1 depends mostly on their texture1 humus content1 physical condition1 and surface slope or artificial drainage4 ,it is to the extent that cultivation can modify these factors that more soil water can be made available to the growing crop4 ,there are loose1 open soils through which water percolates as through a sieve1 and there are tight1 gumbo soils which swell when the surface is moistened and become practically waterproof4 ,sandy soils take in water more readily than heavier soils1 hence less precaution is necessary to prevent run-off4 ,among the thousands of plows of many different makes there are plenty of good ones4 ,the first consideration in making a selection is a reliable home dealer who has a good business reputation and a thorough knowledge of local soil from a mechanical standpoint4 ,the next consideration is the service the plow will give in proportion to the price4 ,,disk ,,harrow ,for preparing land to receive the seed no other implement will equal a double disk4 ,these implements are made in various sizes and weights of frame4 ,for heavy land1 where it is necessary to weight the disk down1 an extra heavy frame is necessary4 ,it would probably be advisable to get the extra strong frame for any kind of land1 because even in light sand there are times when a disk may be used to advantage to kill quackgrass or to chew up sod before plowing4 ,in such cases it is customary to load on a couple of sacks of sand in addition to the weight of the driver4 ,when a disk is carrying #cjj or #djj pounds besides its own weight the racking strains which pull from different directions have a tendency to warp or twist a light frame out of shape4 ,to keep a disk cultivator in good working order it is necessary to go over it thoroughly before doing heavy work4 ,bolts must be kept tight1 all braces examined occasionally1 and the heavy nuts at the ends of the disk shafts watched4 ,they sometimes loosen and give trouble4 ,the greatest difficulty in running a disk harrow or cultivator is to keep the boxings in good trim4 ,wooden boxes are provided with the implement4 ,it is a good plan to insist on having a full set of eight extra boxes4 ,these wooden boxes may be made on the farm1 but it sometimes is difficult to get the right kind of wood4 ,they should be made of hard maple1 bored according to size of shaft1 and boiled in a good quality of linseed oil4 ,iron boxings have never been satisfactory on a disk implement4 ,wooden ones make enough trouble1 but wood has proved better than iron4 ,on most disk cultivators there are oil channels leading to the boxings4 ,these channels are large enough to carry heavy oil4 ,the lighter grades of cylinder oil work the best4 ,it is difficult to cork these oil channels tight enough to keep the sand out4 ,oil and sand do not work well together in a bearing4 ,the manufacturers of these implements could improve the oiling device by shortening the channel and building a better housing for the oil entrance4 ,it is quite a job to take a disk apart to put in new boxings1 but1 like all other repair work1 the disk should be taken into the shop1 thoroughly cleaned1 repaired1 painted and oiled in the winter time4 ,some double disk cultivators have tongues and some are made without4 ,whether the farmer wants a tongue or not depends a good deal on the land4 ,the only advantage is that a tongue will hold the disk from crowding onto the horses when it is running light along the farm lanes or the sides of the fields with the disks set straight4 ,horses have been ruined by having the sharp disks run against them when going down hill4 ,such accidents always are avoidable if a man realizes the danger4 ,unfortunately1 farm implements are often used by men who do very little thinking4 ,a spring disk scraper got twisted on a root and was thrown over the top of one of the disks so it scraped against the back of the disk and continued to make a harsh1 scraping noise until the proprietor went to see what was wrong4 ,the man driving the disk said he thought something must be the matter with the cultivator1 but he couldn't tell for the life of him what it was4 ,when farmers are up against such difficulties it is safer to buy a disk with a tongue4 ,harrow ,cart4--,a small two-wheel cart with a spring seat overshadowed with a big umbrella is sometimes called a dude sulky4 ,many sensitive farmers trudge along in the soft ground and dust behind their harrows afraid of such old fogy ridicule4 ,the hardest and most tiresome and disagreeable job at seeding time is following a harrow on foot4 ,riding a harrow cart in the field is conserving energy that may be applied to better purposes after the day's work in the field is finished4 ,,knife-,,edge ,,pulverizers ,a knife-edge weeder makes the best dust mulch pulverizer for orchard work or when preparing a seed-bed for grain4 ,these implements are sold under different names4 ,it requires a stretch of imagination to attach the word harrow to these knife-edge weeders4 ,there is a central bar which is usually a hardwood plank4 ,the knives are bolted to the underside of the plank and sloped backward and outward from the center to the right and left1 so that the knife-edges stand at an angle of about #de deg4 to the line of draught4 ,this angle is just about sufficient to let tough weeds slip off the edges instead of dragging along4 ,if the knives are sharp1 they will cut tender weeds1 but the tough ones must be disposed of to prevent choking4 ,the proper use of the knife-edge weeder prevents weeds from growing1 but in farm practice1 sometimes rainy weather prevents the use of such a tool until the weeds are well established4 ,as a moisture retainer1 these knife-edge weeders are superior to almost any other implement4 ,they are made in widths of from eight to twenty feet4 ,the wide ones are jointed in the middle to fit uneven ground4 ,,clod ,,crusher ,the farm land drag1 float1 or clod crusher is useful under certain conditions on low spots that do not drain properly4 ,such land must be plowed when the main portion of the field is in proper condition1 and the result often is that the low spots are so wet that the ground packs into lumps that an ordinary harrow will not break to pieces4 ,such lumps roll out between the harrow teeth and remain on top of the ground to interfere with cultivation4 ,the clod crusher then rides over the lumps and grinds them into powder4 ,unfortunately1 clod crushers often are depended on to remedy faulty work on ordinary land that should receive better treatment4 ,many times the clod crusher is a poor remedy for poor tillage on naturally good land that lacks humus4 ,illustration3 ,figure #adj4--,land ,float4 ,clod crushers and land floats belong to the same tribe4 ,theoretically they are all outlaws1 but some practical farmers harbor one or more of them4 ,wet land1 containing considerable clay1 sometimes forms into lumps which should be crushed4 ,as ordinarily made1 the land float or clod crusher consists of from five to eight planks1 two inches thick and ten or twelve inches wide1 spiked together in sawtooth position1 the edges of the planks being lapped over each other like clapboards in house siding4 ,the planks are held in place with spikes driven through into the crosspieces4 ,,farm ,,roller ,farm rollers are used to firm the soil4 ,sometimes a seed-bed is worked up so thoroughly that the ground is made too loose so the soil is too open and porous4 ,seeds to germinate require that the soil grains shall fit up closely against them4 ,good soil is impregnated with soil moisture1 or film moisture as it is often called1 because the moisture forms in a film around each little soil grain4 ,in properly prepared soil this film moisture comes in contact with the freshly sown seed4 ,if the temperature is right the seed swells and germination starts4 ,the swelling of the seed brings it in contact with more film moisture attached to other grains of soil so the rootlet grows and pushes out into the soil in search of moisture on its own account4 ,a roller is valuable to press the particles of soil together to bring the freshly sown seeds in direct contact with as many particles of soil as possible4 ,rolling land is a peculiar operation1 the value of which is not always understood4 ,the original idea was to benefit the soil by breaking the lumps4 ,it may be of some benefit on certain soils for this purpose1 but the land should always be harrowed after rolling to form a dust mulch to prevent the evaporation of moisture4 ,land that has been rolled and left overnight shows damp the next morning1 which is sufficient proof that moisture is coming to the surface and is being dissipated into the atmosphere4 ,in the so-called humid sections of the country the great problem is to retain moisture4 ,any farm implement that has a tendency to dissipate soil moisture is a damage to the farmer4 ,probably nine times out of ten a farm roller is a damage to the crop it is intended to benefit because of the manner in which it is used4 ,it is the abuse1 not the proper use of a roller1 that injures the crop4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ada4--;,iron ,land ,roller ,made of ,boiler ,plate4 ,illustration3 ,figure #adb4--,wooden ,land ,roller4 ,,corn-,,planter ,corn-planters are designed to plant two rows at once4 ,the width of rows may be adjusted from about #cb to #dd inches apart4 ,when seed-corn is carefully graded to size the dropping mechanism will feed out the grains of corn regularly with very few skips4 ,this is one reason why most farmers plant corn in drills4 ,there are other cultural reasons which do not properly belong to this mechanical article4 ,hill dropping is considerably more complicated and difficult4 ,after the feeding mechanism has been adjusted to the size of seed kernels to be planted so it will drop four kernels in a hill then the trip chain is tried out to see if it is right at every joint4 ,dropping in hills is a very careful mechanical proposition4 ,an inch or two out of line either way means a loss of corn in cultivating4 ,in setting the stakes to go and come by1 a careful measurement of the field is necessary in order to get the stake lines on both sides of the field parallel4 ,if the ring stakes are driven accurately on the line1 then the first hill of corn must come at the same distance from the line in each row4 ,likewise in starting back from the far side of the field the first hill should measure exactly the same distance from the stake line as the first hills on the opposite side of the field4 ,this is easily managed by counting the number of trips between the stake line and the first row of corn hills4 ,if the two lines of stakes on the opposite sides of the field are exactly parallel it is not necessary to move either line in order to get the proper distance to start dropping1 but it must be adjusted by measurement1 otherwise the corn hills will be dodged4 ,if the corn hills are to space three feet apart then the first row of hills should come nine or twelve feet from the stake line4 ,stakes may be measured and set a certain number of inches from the line to make the distance come right4 ,this careful adjustment brings the hills in line in the rows4 ,when the field is level or gently sloping there is no difficulty in making straight rows so far as check rowing is concerned4 ,when the field is hilly another problem crops up4 ,it is almost impossible to run corn rows along the side of a hill and keep them straight4 ,the planter has a tendency to slide downhill4 ,also the distance across a field is greater where the rows pass over a hill4 ,to keep the rows straight under such conditions allowance must be made for the stretch over the hill as well as for the side thrust of the planter4 ,where a chain marker is used it hangs downhill and a further allowance must be made for that4 ,a good driver will skip an inch or so above the mark so that the rows will be planted fairly straight4 ,this means a good deal more in check rowing than when the corn is planted in drills4 ,the greatest objection to hill planting is the crowding of four corn plants into a space that should be occupied by one plant4 ,a great many experiments have been tried to scatter the seeds in the hill1 so far without definite results1 except when considerable additional expense is incurred4 ,however1 a cone suspended below the end of the dropping tube usually will scatter the seeds so that no two seeds will touch each other4 ,they may not drop and scatter four or five inches apart1 but these little cones will help a good deal4 ,they must be accurately adjusted so the point of the cone will center in the middle of the vertical delivery tube1 and there must be plenty of room all around the cone so the corn seed kernels won't stick4 ,the braces that hold the cones in place for the same reason must be turned edge up and supported in such a way as to leave plenty of clearance4 ,the idea is that four kernels of corn drop together4 ,they strike the cone and are scattered in different directions4 ,they naturally fly to the outsides of the drill mark which scatters them as wide apart as the width of the shoe that opens the drill4 ,the advantage of scattering seed grains in the hill has been shown by accurate experiments conducted at different times by agricultural colleges4 ,,grain ,,drill ,to know exactly how much seed the grain drill is using it is necessary to know how many acres are contained in the field4 ,most drills have an attachment that is supposed to measure how many acres and fractions of acres the drill covers4 ,farmers know how much grain each sack contains1 so they can estimate as they go along1 provided the drill register is correct4 ,it is better to provide a check on the drill indicator4 ,have the field measured1 then drive stakes along one side1 indicating one acre1 five acres and ten acres4 ,when the one-acre stake is reached the operator can estimate very closely whether the drill is using more or less seed than the indicator registers4 ,when the five-acre stake is reached another proof is available1 and so on across the field4 ,next in importance to the proper working of the drill is straight rows4 ,the only way to avoid gaps is to drive straight4 ,the only way to drive straight is to sight over the wheel that follows the last drill mark4 ,farmers sometimes like to ride on the grain drill1 which places the wheel sighting proposition out of the question4 ,a harrow cart may be hitched behind the wheel of the grain drill1 but it gives a side draft4 ,the only way to have straight rows and thorough work is to walk behind the end of the drill4 ,this is the proper way to use a drill1 anyway1 because a tooth may clog up any minute4 ,unless the operator is walking behind the drill he is not in position to see quickly whether every tooth is working properly or not4 ,it is hard work to follow a drill all day long1 but it pays at harvest time4 ,it costs just as much to raise a crop of grain that only covers part of the ground1 and it seems too bad to miss the highest possible percentage to save a little hard work at planting time4 ,,special ,,crop ,,machinery ,special crops require special implements4 ,after they are provided1 the equipment must be kept busy in order to make it pay4 ,if a farmer produces five acres of potatoes he needs a potato cutter1 a planter1 a riding cultivator1 a sprayer that works under high pressure1 a digger and a sorter4 ,the same outfit will answer for forty acres1 which would reduce the per acre cost considerably4 ,no farmer can afford to grow five acres of potatoes without the necessary machinery1 because hand labor is out of the question for work of that kind4 ,on the right kind of soil1 and within reach of the right market1 potatoes are money-makers4 ,but they must be grown every year because the price of potatoes fluctuates more than any other farm crop4 ,under the right conditions potatoes grown for five years with proper care and good management are sure to make money4 ,one year out of five will break even1 two years will make a little money and the other two years will make big money4 ,at the end of five years1 with good business management1 the potato machinery will be all paid for1 and there will be a substantial profit4 ,,wheel ,,hoe ,in growing onions and other truck crops1 where the rows are too close together for horse cultivation1 the wheel hoe is valuable4 ,in fact1 it is almost indispensable when such crops are grown extensively4 ,the best wheel hoes have a number of attachments4 ,when the seed-bed has been carefully prepared1 and the soil is fine and loose1 the wheel hoe may be used as soon as the young plants show above ground4 ,men who are accustomed to operating a wheel hoe become expert4 ,they can work almost as close to the growing plants with an implement of this kind as they can with an ordinary hand hoe4 ,the wheel hoe1 or hand cultivator1 works the ground on both sides of the row at once1 and it does it quickly1 so that very little hand weeding is necessary4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,handling ,,the ,,hay ,,crop ,,revolving ,,hayrake ,about the first contrivance for raking hay by horse power consisted of a stick eight or ten feet long with double-end teeth running through it1 and pointing in two directions4 ,these rakes were improved from time to time1 until they reached perfection for this kind of tool4 ,they have since been superseded by spring-tooth horse rakes1 except for certain purposes4 ,for pulling field peas1 and some kinds of beans1 the old style revolving horse rake is still in use4 ,illustration3 ,figure #adc4--;,grass ,hook1 for working around borders where the lawn-mower is too clumsy4 ,illustration3 ,figure #add4--,revolving ,hayrake4 ,the center piece is #d x #f x #ab' long4 ,the teeth are double enders #a-c_/h square and #d' #f long1 which allows #bd of rake tooth clear of the center timber4 ,every stick in the rake is carefully selected4 ,it is drawn by one horse4 ,if the center teeth stick into the ground either the horse must stop instantly1 or the rake must flop over1 or there will be a repair job4 ,this invention has never been improved upon for pulling ,canada peas4 ,improved revolving horse rakes have a center timber of hardwood about #d x #f inches in diameter4 ,the corners are rounded to facilitate sliding over the ground4 ,a rake twelve feet long will have about eighteen double-end teeth4 ,the teeth project about two and one-half feet each way from the center timber4 ,each tooth is rounded up1 sled-runner fashion1 at each end so it will point forward and slide along over and close to the ground without catching fast4 ,there is an iron pull rod1 or long hook1 attached to each end of the center bar by means of a bolt that screws into the center of the end of the wooden center shaft1 thus forming a gudgeon pin so the shaft can revolve4 ,two handles are fastened by band iron straps to rounded recesses or girdles cut around the center bar4 ,these girdles are just far enough apart for a man to walk between and to operate the handles4 ,wooden1 or iron lugs1 reach down from the handles with pins projecting from their sides to engage the rake teeth4 ,two pins project from the left lug and three from the right4 ,sometimes notches are made in the lugs instead of pins4 ,notches are better2 they may be rounded up to prevent catching when the rake revolves4 ,as the rake slides along1 the driver holds the rake teeth in the proper position by means of the handles4 ,when sufficient load has been gathered he engages the upper notch in the right hand lug1 releases the left and raises the other sufficient to point the teeth into the ground4 ,the pull of the horse turns the rake over and the man grasps the teeth again with the handle lugs as before4 ,unless the driver is careful the teeth may stick in the ground and turn over before he is ready for it4 ,it requires a little experience to use such a rake to advantage4 ,no better or cheaper way has ever been invented for harvesting ,canada peas4 ,the only objections are that it shells some of the riper pods and it gathers up a certain amount of earth with the vines which makes dusty threshing4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ade4--;,buck ,rake4 ,when hay is stacked in the field a four-horse buck rake is the quickest way to bring the hay to the stack4 ,the buck rake shown is #af feet wide and the #b x #d teeth are #aa feet long4 ,two horses are hitched to each end and two drivers stand on the ends of the buck rake to operate it4 ,the load is pushed under the horse fork1 the horses are swung outward and the buck rake is dragged backward4 ,,hay-,,tedder ,the hay-tedder is an ,english invention1 which has been adopted by farmers in rainy sections of the ,united ,states4 ,it is an energetic kicker that scatters the hay swaths and drops the hay loosely to dry between showers4 ,hay may be made quickly by starting the tedder an hour behind the mowing machine4 ,it is quite possible to cut timothy hay in the morning and put it in the mow in the afternoon1 by shaking it up thoroughly once or twice with the hay-tedder4 ,when clover is mixed with the timothy1 it is necessary to leave it in the field until the next day1 but the time between cutting and mowing is shortened materially by the use of the tedder4 ,grass cut for hay may be kicked apart in the field early during the wilting process without shattering the leaves4 ,if left too long1 then the hay-tedder is a damage because it kicks the leaves loose from the stems and the most valuable feeding material is wasted4 ,but it is a good implement if rightly used4 ,in catchy weather it often means the difference between bright1 valuable hay and black1 musty stuff1 that is hardly fit to feed4 ,hay-tedders are expensive4 ,where two farmers neighbor together the expense may be shared1 because the tedder does its work in two or three hours' time4 ,careful farmers do not cut down much grass at one time4 ,the tedder scatters two mowing swaths at once4 ,in fact the mowing machine1 hay-tedder and horserake should all fit together for team work so they will follow each other without skips or unnecessary laps4 ,the dividing board of the mowing-machine marks a path for one of the horses to follow and it is difficult to keep him out of it4 ,but two horses pulling a hay-tedder will straddle the open strip between the swaths when the tedder is twice the width of the cut4 ,,hay ,,skids ,illustration3 ,figure #adf4--;,hay ,skid4 ,this hay skid is #h feet wide and #af feet long4 ,it is made of #g_/h lumber put together with #b carriage bolts--plenty of them4 ,the round boltheads are countersunk into the bottom of the skid and the nuts are drawn down tight on the cleats4 ,it makes a low-down1 easy-pitching1 hay-hauling device4 ,illustration3 ,figure #adg4--;,hay ,sling4 ,it takes no longer to hoist #ejj pounds of hay than #ajj pounds if the rig is large and strong enough4 ,four feet wide by ten feet in length is about right for handling hay quickly4 ,but the toggle must reach to the ends of the rack if used on a wagon4 ,illustration3 ,figure #adh4--7a7 ,four-,tined ,derrick ,fork4 7#b7 ,pea ,guard4 ,an extension guard to lift pea-vines high enough for the sickle is the cleanest way to harvest ,canada peas4 ,the old-fashioned way of pulling peas with a dull scythe has gone into oblivion4 ,but the heavy bearing varieties still persist in crawling on the ground4 ,if the vines are lifted and cut clean they can be raked into windrows with a spring tooth hayrake4 7#c7 ,haystack ,knife4 ,this style of hay-cutting knife is used almost universally on stacks and in hay-mows4 ,there is less use for hay-knives since farmers adopted power hayforks to lift hay out of a mow as well as to put it in4 ,hay slips1 or hay skids1 are used on the old smooth fields in the eastern states4 ,they are usually made of seven-eighths-inch boards dressed preferably on one side only4 ,they are used smooth side to the ground to slip along easily4 ,rough side is up to better hold the hay from slipping4 ,the long runner boards are held together by cross pieces made of inch boards twelve inches wide and well nailed at each intersection with nails well clinched4 ,small carriage bolts are better than nails but the heads should be countersunk into the bottom with the points up4 ,they should be used without washers and the ends of the bolts cut close to the sunken nuts4 ,the front end of the skid is rounded up slightly1 sled runner fashion1 as much as the boards will bear1 to avoid digging into the sod to destroy either the grass roots or crowns of the plants4 ,hay usually is forked by hand from the windrows on to the skids4 ,sometimes hay slings are placed on the skids and the hay is forked on to the slings carefully in layers lapped over each other in such a way as to hoist on to the stack without spilling out at the sides4 ,four hundred to eight hundred pounds makes a good load for one of these skids1 according to horse power and unevenness of the ground4 ,they save labor1 as compared to wagons1 because there is no pitching up4 ,all hoisting is supposed to be done by horse power with the aid of a hay derrick4 ,illustration3 ,figure #adi4--;,double ,harpoon ,hayfork4 ,this is a large size fork with extra long legs4 ,for handling long hay that hangs together well this fork is a great success4 ,it may be handled as quickly as a smaller fork and it carries a heavy load4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aej4--,six-,tined ,grapple ,hayfork4 ,it is balanced to hang as shown in the drawing when empty4 ,it sinks into the hay easily and dumps quickly when the clutch is released4 ,,western ,,hay ,,derricks ,two derricks for stacking hay1 that are used extensively in the alfalfa districts of ,idaho1 are shown in the illustration1 ,figure #aea4 ,the derrick to the left is made with a square base of timbers which supports an upright mast and a horizontal boom4 ,the timber base is sixteen feet square1 made of five sticks of timber1 each piece being #h x #h inches square by #af feet in length4 ,two of the timbers rest flat on the ground and are rounded up at the ends to facilitate moving the derrick across the stubble ground or along the road to the next hayfield4 ,these sleigh runner timbers are notched on the upper side near each end and at the middle to receive the three cross timbers4 ,the cross timbers also are notched or recessed about a half inch deep to make a sort of double mortise4 ,the timbers are bound together at the intersections by iron ,u-clamps that pass around both timbers and fasten through a flat iron plate on top of the upper timbers4 ,these flat plates or bars have holes near the ends and the threaded ends of the ,u-irons pass through these holes and the nuts are screwed down tight4 ,the sleigh runner timbers are recessed diagonally across the bottom to fit the round ,u-irons which are let into the bottoms of the timbers just enough to prevent scraping the earth when the derrick is being moved4 ,these iron ,u-clamp fasteners are much stronger and better than bolts through the timbers4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aea4--;,idaho ,hay ,derricks4 ,two styles of hay derricks are used to stack alfalfa hay in ,idaho4 ,the drawing to the left shows the one most in use because it is easier made and easier to move4 ,the derrick to the right usually is made larger and more powerful4 ,wire cable is generally used with both derricks because rope wears out quickly4 ,they are similar in operation but different in construction4 ,the base of each is #af feet square and the high ends of the booms reach up nearly #dj feet4 ,a single hayfork rope1 or wire cable1 is used2 it is about #fe feet long4 ,the reach is sufficient to drop the hay in the center of a stack #bd feet wide4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aeb4--;,hay ,carrier ,carriage4 ,powerful carriers are part of the new barn4 ,the track is double and the wheels run on both tracks to stand a side pull and to start quickly and run steadily when the clutch is released4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aec4--7a7 ,hayfork ,hitch4 ,a whiffletree pulley doubles the speed of the fork4 ,the knot in the rope gives double power to start the load4 7#b7 ,rafter ,grapple1 for attaching an extra pulley to any part of the barn roof4 ,there are timber braces fitted across the corners which are bolted through the outside timbers to brace the frame against a diamond tendency when moving the derrick4 ,there is considerable strain when passing over uneven ground4 ,it is better to make the frame so solid that it cannot get out of square4 ,the mast is a stick of timber #h inches square and #bj or #bd feet long4 ,this mast is securely fastened solid to the center of the frame by having the bottom end mortised into the center cross timber at the middle and it is braced solid and held perpendicular to the framework by #d x #d wooden braces at the corners4 ,these braces are notched at the top ends to fit the corners of the mast and are beveled at the bottom ends to fit flat on top of the timbers4 ,they are held in place by bolts and by strap iron or band iron bands4 ,these bands are drilled with holes and are spiked through into the timbers with four-inch or five-inch wire nails4 ,holes are drilled through the band iron the right size and at the proper places for the nails4 ,the mast is made round at the top and is fitted with a heavy welded iron ring or band to prevent splitting4 ,the boom is usually about #cj feet long4 ,farmers prefer a round pole when they can get it4 ,it is attached to the top of the mast by an iron stirrup made by a blacksmith4 ,this stirrup is made to fit loosely half way around the boom one-third of the way up from the big end1 which makes the small end of the boom project #bj feet out from the upper end of the mast4 ,the iron stirrup is made heavy and strong4 ,it has a round iron gudgeon #a-a_/b in diameter that reaches down into the top of the mast about #ah inches4 ,the shoulder of the stirrup is supported by a square1 flat iron plate which rests on and covers the top of the mast and has the corners turned down4 ,it is made large to shed water and protect the top of the mast4 ,this plate has a hole one and a half inches in diameter in the center through which the stirrup gudgeon passes as it enters the top of the mast4 ,a farm chain1 or logging chain1 is fastened to the large end of the boom by passing the chain around the boom and engaging the round hook4 ,the grab hook end of the chain is passed around the timber below and is hooked back to give it the right length1 which doubles the part of the chain within reach of the man in charge4 ,this double end of the chain is lengthened or shortened to elevate the outer end of the boom to fit the stack4 ,the small outer end of the boom is thus raised as the stack goes up4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aed4--;,hay ,rope ,pulleys4 ,the housing of the pulley to the left prevents the rope from running off the sheaves4 ,an ordinary horse fork and tackle is used to hoist the hay4 ,three single pulleys are attached1 one to the outer end of the boom1 one near the top of the mast1 and the other at the bottom of the mast so that the rope passes easily and freely through the three pulleys and at the same time permits the boom to swing around as the fork goes up from the wagon rack over the stack4 ,this swinging movement is regulated by tilting the derrick towards the stack so that the boom swings over the stack by its own weight or by the weight of the hay on the horse fork4 ,usually a wire truss is rigged over the boom to stiffen it4 ,the wire is attached to the boom at both ends and the middle of the wire is sprung up to rest on a bridge placed over the stirrup4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aee4--;,gambrel ,whiffletree1 for use in hoisting hay to prevent entanglements4 ,it is also handy when cultivating around fruit-trees4 ,farmers like this simple form of hay derrick because it is cheaply made and it may be easily moved because it is not heavy4 ,it is automatic and it is about as cheap as any good derrick and it is the most satisfactory for ordinary use4 ,the base is large enough to make it solid and steady when in use4 ,before moving the point of the boom is lowered to a level position so that the derrick is not top-heavy4 ,there is little danger of upsetting upon ordinary farm lands4 ,also the width of #af feet will pass along country roads without meeting serious obstacles4 ,hay slings usually are made too narrow and too short4 ,the ordinary little hay sling is prone to tip sideways and spill the hay4 ,it is responsible for a great deal of profanity4 ,the hay derrick shown to the right is somewhat different in construction1 but is quite similar in action4 ,the base is the same but the mast turns on a gudgeon stepped into an iron socket mortised into the center timber4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aef4--;,cable ,hay ,stacker4 ,the wire cable is supported by the two bipods and is secured at each end by snubbing stakes4 ,two single-cable collars are clamped to the cable to prevent the bipods from slipping in at the top4 ,two double-cable clamps hold the ends of the cables to form stake loops4 ,the wire hoisting cable is threaded differently1 as shown in the drawing4 ,this style of derrick is made larger1 sometimes the peak reaches up #dj' above the base4 ,the extra large ones are awkward to move but they build fine big stacks4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aeg4--;,california ,hay ,ricker1 for putting either wild hay or alfalfa quickly in ricks4 ,it is used in connection with home-made buck rakes4 ,this ricker works against the end of the rick and is backed away each time to start a new bench4 ,the upright is made of light poles or #b x #ds braced as shown4 ,it should be #bh or #cj feet high4 ,iron stakes hold the bottom1 while guy wires steady the top4 ,,california ,,hay ,,ricker ,in the ,west hay is often put up in long ricks instead of stacks4 ,one of my jobs in ,california was to put up #b1gjj acres of wild hay in the ,sacramento ,valley4 ,i made four rickers and eight buck rakes similar to the ones shown in the illustrations4 ,each ricker was operated by a crew of eight men4 ,four men drove two buck rakes4 ,there were two on the rick1 one at the fork and one to drive the hoisting rig4 ,ten mowing machines did most of the cutting but ,i hired eight more machines towards the last1 as the latest grass was getting too ripe4 ,the crop measured more than #b1ajj tons and it was all put in ricks1 stacks and barns without a drop of rain on it4 ,i should add that rain seldom falls in the lower ,sacramento ,valley during the haying season in the months of ,may and ,june4 ,this refers to wild hay1 which is made up of burr clover1 wild oats and volunteer wheat and barley4 ,alfalfa is cut from five to seven times in the hot interior valleys1 so that if a farmer is rash enough to plant alfalfa under irrigation his haying thereafter will reach from one rainy season to the next4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,farm ,,conveyances ,,stone-,,boat ,one of the most useful and one of the least ornamental conveyances on a farm is the stone-boat4 ,it is a low-down handy rig for moving heavy commodities in summer as well as in winter4 ,no other sleigh or wagon will equal a stone-boat for carrying plows or harrows from one field to another4 ,it is handy to tote bags of seed to supply the grain drill1 to haul a barrel of water1 feed for the hogs1 and a great many other chores4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aeh4--,stone-,boat4 ,stump logs are selected for the planks4 ,the bend of the planks is the natural curve of the large roots4 ,the sawing is done by band saw cutting from two directions4 ,when the country was new1 sawmills made a business of sawing stone-boat plank4 ,trees for stone-boat staves were cut close to the ground and the natural crooks of the roots were used for the noses of sleigh runners and for stone-boats4 ,but cast-iron noses are now manufactured with recesses to receive the ends of straight ordinary hardwood planks4 ,these cast-iron ends are rounded up in front to make the necessary nose crook4 ,the front plank cross piece is bolted well towards the front ends of the runner planks4 ,usually there are two other hardwood plank cross pieces1 one near the rear end and the other about one-third of the way back from the front4 ,placing the cross pieces in this way gives room between to stand a barrel4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aei4--,wheelbarrow4 ,this factory-made wheelbarrow is the only pattern worth bothering with4 ,it is cheap and answers the purpose better than the heavier ones with removable side wings4 ,the cross pieces are bolted through from the bottom up4 ,round-headed bolts are used and they are countersunk1 to come flush with the bottom of the sliding planks4 ,the nuts are countersunk into the cross pieces by boring holes about one-quarter inch deep4 ,the holes are a little larger than the cornerwise diameter of the nuts4 ,no washers are used1 and the nuts are screwed down tight into the plank4 ,the ends of the bolts are cut off even and filed smooth4 ,the nuts are placed sharp corner side down and are left nearly flush on top or even with the surface of the cross pieces4 ,in using a stone-boat1 nobody wants a projection to catch any part of the load4 ,regular doubletree clevises are attached to the corners of the old-fashioned stone-boat and the side chains are brought together to a ring and are just about long enough to form an equilateral triangle with the front end of the stone-boat4 ,cast-iron fronts usually have a projection in the center for the clevis hitch4 ,,oxen ,,on ,a ,,new ,,england ,,farm ,one of the most interesting experiences on a ,new ,england farm is to get acquainted with the manner in which oxen are pressed into farm service4 ,one reason why oxen have never gone out of fashion in ,new ,england is the fact that they are patient enough to plow stony ground without smashing the plow4 ,a great deal of ,new ,england farm land has been reclaimed by removing a portion of the surface stone4 ,in the processes of freezing and thawing and cultivation1 stones from underneath keep working up to the surface so that it requires considerable skill to do the necessary plowing and cultivating4 ,oxen ease the plowpoint over or around a rock so it can immediately dip in again to the full depth of the furrow4 ,a good yoke of cattle well trained are gentle as well as strong and powerful4 ,oxen are cheaper than horses to begin with and they are valuable for beef when they are not needed any longer as work animals4 ,the ,holstein breed seems to have the preference for oxen with ,new ,england farmers4 ,the necessary harness for a pair of cattle consists of an ox yoke with a ringbolt through the center of the yoke1 midway between the two oxen4 ,a heavy iron ring about five inches in diameter1 made of round iron1 hangs from the ringbolt4 ,there are two oxbows to hold the yoke in place on the necks of the cattle4 ,a logging chain with a round hook on one end and a grab hook on the other end completes the yoking outfit4 ,the round hook of the chain is hitched into the ring in the plow clevis4 ,the chain is passed through the large iron ring in the oxbow and is doubled back to get the right length4 ,the grab hook is so constructed that it fits over one link of the chain flatwise so that the next link standing crosswise prevents it from slipping4 ,the mechanism of a logging chain is extremely simple1 positive in action and especially well adapted to the use for which it is intended4 ,the best mechanical inventions often pass without notice because of their simplicity4 ,farmers have used logging chains for generations with hooks made on this plan without realizing that they were profiting by a high grade invention that embodies superior merit4 ,in yoking oxen to a wagon the hitch is equally simple4 ,the end of the wagon tongue is placed in the ring in the ox yoke1 the round hook engages with a drawbolt under the hammer strap bar4 ,the small grab hook is passed through the large yoke ring and is brought back and engaged with a chain link at the proper distance to stretch the chain taut4 ,the process of yoking oxen and hitching them to a wagon is one of the most interesting performances on a farm4 ,the off ox works on the off side1 or far side from the driver4 ,he usually is the larger of the two and the more intelligent4 ,the near 7pronounced n-i-g-h7 ox is nearest to the driver who walks to the left4 ,old plows turned the furrow to the right so the driver could walk on hard ground4 ,in this way the awkwardness and ignorance of the near ox is played against the docility and superior intelligence of the off ox4 ,in yoking the two together the yoke is first placed on the neck of the off ox and the near ox is invited to come under4 ,this expression is so apt that a great many years ago it became a classic in the hands of able writers to suggest submission or slavery termed coming under the yoke4 ,coming under the yoke1 however1 for the ,new ,england ox1 in these days of abundant feeding1 is no hardship4 ,the oxen are large and powerful and the work they have to do is just about sufficient to give them the needed exercise to enjoy their alfalfa hay and feed of oats or corn4 ,,travoy ,one of the first implements used by farm settlers in the timbered sections of the ,united ,states and ,canada1 was a three-cornered sled made from the fork of a tree4 ,this rough sled1 in the ,french speaking settlements1 was called a travoy4 ,whether it was of ,indian or ,french invention is not known2 probably both ,indians and ,french settlers used travoys for moving logs in the woods before ,american history was much written4 ,the legs or runners of a travoy are about five feet long4 ,there is a bunk which extends crossways from one runner to the other1 about half or two-thirds of the way back from the turned-up nose4 ,this bunk is fastened to the runners by means of wooden pins and ,u-shaped bows fitted into grooves cut around the upper half of the bunk near the ends4 ,just back of the turned up nose is another cross piece in the shape of a stout wooden pin or iron bolt that is passed through an auger hole extending through both legs from side to side of the travoy4 ,the underside of the crotch is hollowed out in front of the bolt to make room to pass the logging chain through so it comes out in front under the turned up nose4 ,illustration3 ,figure #afj4--,travoy4 ,a log-hauling sled made from the fork of a tree4 ,the front of the travoy is turned up1 sled runner fashion1 by hewing the wood with an axe to give it the proper shape4 ,travoys are used to haul logs from a thick woods to the skidways4 ,the manner of using a travoy is interesting4 ,it is hauled by a yoke of cattle or a team of horses to the place where the log lies in the woods4 ,the round hook end of the logging chain is thrown over the butt end of the log and pulled back under the log then around the bunk just inside of the runner and hooked fast upon itself4 ,the travoy is then leaned over against the log1 the grab hook end of the chain is brought over the log and over the travoy and straightened out at right angles to the log4 ,the cattle are hitched to the end of the logging chain and started4 ,this kind of a hitch rolls the log over on top of the bunk on the travoy4 ,the cattle are then unhitched4 ,the grab hook end of the chain thus released is passed down and around under the other end of the bunk from behind4 ,the chain is then passed over the bolt near the nose of the travoy and pulled down through the opening and out in front from under the nose4 ,the small grab hook of the logging chain is then passed through the clevis1 in the doubletree1 if horses are used1 or the ring in the yoke if cattle are used1 and hitched back to the proper length4 ,a little experience is necessary to regulate the length of the chain to give the proper pull4 ,the chain should be short enough so the pull lifts a little4 ,it is generally conceded by woodsmen that a short hitch moves a log easier than a long hitch4 ,however1 there is a medium4 ,there are limitations which experience only can determine4 ,a travoy is useful in dense woods where there is a good deal of undergrowth or where there are places so rough that bobsleighs cannot be used to advantage4 ,,linchpin ,,farm ,,wagons ,illustration3 ,figure #afa4--;,cross ,reach ,wagon4 ,this wagon is coupled for a trailer1 but it works just as well when used with a tongue and horses as a handy farm wagon4 ,the bunks are made rigid and parallel by means of a double reach4 ,there are two king bolts to permit both axles to turn4 ,either end is front4 ,illustration3 ,figure #afb4--,wagon ,brake4 ,the hounds are tilted up to show the brake beam and the manner of attaching it4 ,the brake lever is fastened to the forward side of the rear bolster and turns up alongside of the bolster stake4 ,the brake rod reaches from the upper end of the lever elbow to the foot ratchet at the front end of the wagon box4 ,illustration3 ,figure #afc4--;,bolster ,spring4 ,in some parts of the country the wheels of handy wagons about the farm are held on axle journals by means of linchpins in the old-fashioned manner4 ,there are iron hub-bands on both ends of the hubs which project several inches beyond the wood4 ,this is the best protection against sand to prevent it from working into the wheel boxing that has ever been invented4 ,sand from the felloes scatters down onto these iron bands and rolls off to the ground4 ,there is a hole through each band on the outer ends of the hubs to pass the linchpin through so that before taking off a wheel to oil the journal it must first be turned so the hole comes directly over the linchpin4 ,to pry out the linchpin the drawbolt is used4 ,old-fashioned drawbolts were made with a chisel shaped end tapered from both sides to a thickness of about an eighth of an inch4 ,this thin wedge end of the drawbolt is placed under the end of the linchpin4 ,the lower side of the hub-band forms a fulcrum to pry the pin up through the hole in the upper side of the sand-band projection4 ,the linchpin has a hook on the outer side of the upper end so the lever is transferred to the top of the sand-band when another pry lifts the pin clear out of the hole in the end of the axle so the wheel may be removed and grease applied to the axle4 ,the drawbolt on a linchpin wagon usually has a head made in the form of the jaws of a wrench4 ,the wrench is the right size to fit the nuts on the wagon brace irons so that the drawbolt answers three purposes4 ,illustration3 ,figure #afd4--,wagon ,seat ,spring4 ,the metal block fits over the top of the bolster stake4 ,illustration3 ,figure #afe4--;,hollow ,malleable ,iron ,bolster ,stake to hold a higher wooden stake when necessary4 ,,sand-,,bands ,many parts of farm machinery require projecting sand-bands to protect the journals from sand and dust4 ,most farms have some sandy fields or ridges4 ,some farms are all sand or sandy loam4 ,even dust from clay is injurious to machinery4 ,there is more or less grit in the finest clay4 ,the most important parts of farm machinery are supposed to be protected by oil-cups containing cotton waste to strain the oil1 together with covers in the shape of metal caps4 ,these are necessary protections and they help1 but they are not adequate for all conditions4 ,it is not easy to keep sand out of bearings on machinery that shakes a good deal4 ,wooden plugs gather sand and dust4 ,when a plug is pulled the sand drops into the oil hole4 ,farm machinery that is properly designed protects itself from sand and dust4 ,in buying a machine this particular feature should appeal to the farmers more than it does4 ,leather caps are a nuisance4 ,they are a sort of patchwork to finish the job that the manufacturer commences4 ,a man who is provident enough to supply himself with good working tools and is sufficiently careful to take care of them1 usually is particular about the appearance as well as the usefulness of his tools1 machinery and implements4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aff4--,sand ,caps4 ,not one manufacturer in a hundred knows how to keep sand out of an axle bearing4 ,still it is one of the simplest tricks in mechanics4 ,the only protection an axle needs is long ferrules that reach out three or four inches beyond the hub at both ends4 ,old-fashioned ,linchpin farm wagons were built on this principle4 ,the hubs held narrow rings instead of skeins1 but they wore for years4 ,,bobsleighs ,on ,northern farms bobsleighs are as important in the winter time as a farm wagon in summer4 ,there are different ways of putting bobsleighs together according to the use required of them4 ,when using heavy bobsleighs for road work1 farmers favor the bolster reach to connect the front and rear sleighs4 ,with this attachment the horses may be turned around against the rear sled4 ,the front bolster fits into a recessed plate bolted to the bench plank of the front sleigh4 ,this plate is a combination of wearing plate and circle and must be kept oiled to turn easily under a heavy load4 ,it not only facilitates turning1 but it prevents the bolster from catching on the raves or on the upturned nose of the front bob when turning short4 ,the heavy hardwood plank reach that connects the two bolsters is put through a mortise through the front bolster and is fastened rigidly by an extra large king-bolt4 ,the reach plays back and forth rather loosely through a similar mortise in the other bolster on the rear sleigh4 ,the rear hounds connect with the reach by means of a link and pin4 ,this link pushes up through mortise holes in the reach and is fastened with a wooden pin or key on top of the reach4 ,sometimes the hounds are taken away and the reach is fastened with pins before and behind the rear bolster4 ,this reach hitch is not recommended except for light road work4 ,these two ways of attaching the rear sled necessitate different ways of fastening the rear bolster to the sled4 ,when the rear bolster is required to do the pulling1 it is attached to the sled by double eyebolts which permit the necessary rocking motion and allows the nose of the rear sled to bob up and down freely4 ,this is an advantage when a long box bed is used1 because the bolster is made to fit the box closely and is not continually oscillating and wearing4 ,eye-bolts provide for this natural movement of the sled4 ,light pleasure bobs are attached to the box with eyebolts without bolster stakes4 ,the light passenger riding seat box is bound together with iron braces and side irons so it does not need bolsters to hold the sides together4 ,illustration3 ,figure #afg4--;,bobsleighs1 ,showing ,three ,kinds of ,coupling4 ,the upper sleighs are coupled on the old-fashioned short reach plan except that the reach is not mortised into the roller4 ,it is gained in a quarter of an inch and fastened by an iron strap with a plate and nuts on the under side4 ,the bobs in the center show the bolster reach1 principally used for road work4 ,the bottom pair are coupled by cross chains for short turning around trees and stumps in the woods4 ,bobsleighs for use in the woods are hitched together quite differently4 ,the old-fashioned reach with a staple in the rear bench of the first sled and a clevis in the end of the reach is the old-fashioned rig for rough roads in the woods4 ,such sleighs are fitted with bunks instead of bolsters4 ,bunks are usually cut from good hardwood trees1 hewed out with an axe and bored for round stakes4 ,log bunks for easy loading do not project beyond the raves4 ,with this kind of a rig1 a farmer can fasten two logging chains to the reach1 carry the grab hook ends out and under and around the log and back again over the sleighs1 and then hitch the horses to the two chains and roll the log up over a couple of skids and on to the bunks without doing any damage to the bobsleighs4 ,bobsleighs hitched together with an old-fashioned reach and provided with wide heavy raves will climb over logs1 pitch down into root holes1 and weave their way in and out among trees better than any other sled contrivance1 and they turn short enough for such roads4 ,the shortest turning rig1 however1 is the cross chain reach shown in ,figure #afg4 ,,making ,a ,,farm ,,cart ,a two-wheeled cart large enough to carry a barrel of cider is a great convenience on a farm4 ,the front wheels of a buggy are about the right size and usually are strong enough for cart purposes4 ,a one-inch iron axle will be stiff enough if it is reinforced at the square bends4 ,the axle is bent down near the hubs at right angles and carried across to support the floor of the cart box about one foot from the ground4 ,the distance from the ground should be just sufficient so that when the cart is tipped back the hind end will rest on the ground with the bottom boards at an easy slant to roll a barrel or milk can into the bottom of the box4 ,under the back end of the cart platform is a good stout bar of hardwood framed into the sidepieces4 ,all of the woodwork about the cart is well braced with iron4 ,the floor of the cart is better when made of narrow matched hardwood flooring about seven-eighths of an inch thick fastened with bolts4 ,it should be well supported by cross pieces underneath4 ,in fact the principal part of the box is the underneath part of the frame4 ,sidepieces of the box are wide and are bolted to the vertical parts of the axle and braced in different directions to keep the frame solid1 square and firm4 ,the sides of the box are permanently fastened but both tailboard and front board are held in place by cleats and rods and are removable so that long scantling or lumber may be carried on the cart bottom4 ,the ends of the box may be quickly put in place again when it is necessary to use them4 ,to hold a cart box together1 four rods are necessary1 two across the front and two behind4 ,they are made like tailboard rods in wagon boxes4 ,there is always some kind of tongue or handle bar in front of the farm cart conveniently arranged for either pulling or pushing4 ,if a breast bar is used it handles better when supported by two curved projecting shafts or pieces of bent wood1 preferably the bent up extended ends of the bedpieces4 ,the handle bar should be about three feet from the ground4 ,illustration3 ,figure #afh4--;,farm ,cart4 ,the axle need not be heavier than #g_/h4 ,the hind axle of a light buggy works the best4 ,it is bent down and spliced and welded under the box4 ,the cart should be made narrow to prevent overloading4 ,the box should be low enough to rest the back end on the ground at an angle of about #ce deg4 for easy loading4 ,,colt-,,breaking ,,sulky ,a pair of shafts that look a good deal too long1 an axle1 two wheels and a whiffletree are the principal parts of a colt-breaking sulky4 ,the shafts are so long that a colt can kick his best without reaching anything behind4 ,the principal danger is that he may come down with one hind leg over the shaft4 ,it is a question with horsemen whether it is better to first start a colt alongside of an old1 steady horse4 ,but it is generally conceded that in no case should a colt be made fast in such a way that he could kick himself loose4 ,different farmers have different ideas in regard to training colts1 but these breaking carts with extra long shafts are very much used in some parts of the country4 ,the shafts are heavy enough so that the colts may be tied down to make kicking impossible4 ,a rope or heavy strap reaching from one shaft to the other over the colt's hips will keep its hind feet pretty close to the ground4 ,any rig used in connection with a colt should be strong enough to withstand any strain that the colt may decide to put upon it4 ,if the colt breaks something or breaks loose1 it takes him a long time to forget the scare4 ,farm boys make these breaking carts by using wheels and hind axles of a worn-out buggy4 ,this is well enough if the wheels are strong and shafts thoroughly bolted and braced4 ,it is easy to make a mistake with a colt4 ,to prevent accidents it is much better to have the harness and wagon amply strong4 ,illustration3 ,figure #afi4--;,colt-,breaking ,sulky4 ,the axle and hind wheels of a light wagon1 two strong straight-grained shafts about #d feet too long1 a whiffletree and a spring seat are the principal parts of a colt-breaking sulky4 ,the shafts and seat are thoroughly well bolted and clipped to the axle and braced against all possible maneuvers of the colt4 ,the traces are made so long that the colt cannot reach anything to kick1 and he is prevented from kicking by a strap reaching from one shaft up over his hips and down to the other shaft4 ,in this rig the colt is compelled to go ahead because he cannot turn around4 ,the axle should be longer than standard to prevent upsetting when the colt turns a corner at high speed4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,miscellaneous ,,farm ,,conveniences ,,farm ,,office ,illustration3 ,figure #agj4--,perspective ,view of ,two-,story ,corn ,crib4 ,the side of the building is cut away to show the elevating machinery4 ,business farming requires an office4 ,business callers feel sensitive about talking farm or live-stock affairs before several members of the family4 ,but they are quite at ease when alone with the farmer in his office4 ,a farm office may be small but it should contain a desk or table1 two or three chairs1 book shelves for books1 drawers for government bulletins and a cabinet to hold glassware and chemicals for making soil tests and a good magnifying glass for examining seeds before planting4 ,a good glass is also valuable in tracing the destructive work of many kinds of insect pests4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aga4--;,floor ,plans of ,two-,story ,corn ,crib4 ,the first floor shows the driveway with corn cribs at the sides and the second floor plan shows the grain bins over the center driveway1 with location of the downspouts1 stairway1 etc4 ,the office is the proper place for making germination tests of various farm seeds4 ,seventy degrees of heat is necessary for the best results in seed testing4 ,for this reason1 as well as for comfort while working1 the heating problem should receive its share of attention4 ,many times it so happens that a farmer has a few minutes just before mealtime that he could devote to office work if the room be warm enough4 ,illustration3 ,figure #agb4--;,economy of ,round ,barn4 ,the diagrams show that the popular #cf' x #hj' cow stable and the commonest size of round barn have about the same capacity4 ,each barn will stable forty cows1 but the round barn has room for a silo in the center4 ,both barns have feed overhead in the shape of hay and straw1 but the round feed room saves steps4 ,illustration3 ,figure #agc4--;,concrete ,farm ,scale ,base and ,pit4 ,neatly printed letter-heads and envelopes are important4 ,the sheets of paper should be eight and a half by eleven inches in size1 pure white and of good quality4 ,the printing should be plain black and of round medium-sized letters that may be easily read4 ,fancy lettering and flourishes are out of place on business stationery4 ,illustration3 ,figure #agd4--,top ,view of the ,hay-,track ,roof ,extension1 showing the ridgeboard and supporting jack-rafters4 ,illustration3 ,figure #age4--,side view showing plan for building a ,hayfork ,hood to project from peak of a storage barn4 ,the jack-rafters form a brace to support the end of the hay-track beam4 ,illustration3 ,figure #agf4--,slaughter ,house4 ,the house should be twelve feet wide4 ,it may be any length to provide storage1 but #ab x #ab makes a good beef skinning floor4 ,the windlass shaft should be ten feet above the floor1 which requires twelve-foot studding4 ,the wheel is eight feet in diameter and the winding drum is about ten inches4 ,the animal is killed on the incline outside of the building and it lies limp against the revolving door4 ,the door catch is sprung back and the carcass rolls down onto the concrete skinning floor4 ,halftone illustration of farm animals or buildings are better used on separate advertising sheets that may be folded in with the letters when wanted4 ,illustration3 ,figure #agg4--,rule of ,six1 ,eight and ,ten4 ,diagram showing how to stake the foundation of a farm building so the excavation can be made clear out to the corners without undermining the stakes4 ,illustration3 ,figure #agh4--,roof ,truss built strong enough to support the roof of a farm garage without center posts4 ,illustration3 ,figure #agi4--;,design of ,roof ,truss ,intended to ,span a ,farm ,garage4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ahj4--,roof ,pitches4 ,mow capacity of the different roof pitches is given above the plates in figures4 ,typewriters are so common that a hand-written letter is seldom seen among business correspondence4 ,a busy farmer is not likely to acquire much speed with a typewriter1 but his son or daughter may4 ,one great advantage is the making of carbon copies4 ,every letter received is then filed in a letter case in alphabetical order and a carbon copy of each answer is pinned to it for future reference4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aha4--;,double ,corn ,crib4 ,two cribs may be roofed this way as cheaply as to roof the two cribs separately4 ,a storeroom is provided overhead and the bracing prevents the cribs from sagging4 ,the cost of furnishing a farm office will depend upon the inclinations of the man4 ,a cheap kitchen table may be used instead of an expensive mahogany desk4 ,a new typewriter costs from fifty to ninety dollars1 but a rebuilt machine that will do good work may be obtained for twenty4 ,a useful magnifying glass with legs may be bought for a dollar or two4 ,or considerable money may be invested in a high-powered microscope4 ,,speed ,,indicator ,the speed requirements of machines are given by the manufacturers4 ,it is up to the farmer to determine the size of pulleys and the speed of intermediate shafts between his engine and the machine to be driven4 ,a speed indicator is held against the end of a shaft at the center4 ,the indicator pin then revolves with the shaft and the number of revolutions per minute are counted by timing the pointer on the dial with the second hand of a watch4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ahb4--,speed ,timers4 ,two styles4 ,the point is held against the center of the shaft to be tested4 ,the number of revolutions per minute is shown in figures on the face of the dial4 ,the indicator is timed to the second hand of a watch4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ahc4--;,building ,bracket4 ,made of #b x #d pieces put together at right angles with diagonal braces4 ,the supporting leg fits between the four diagonal braces4 ,,soil ,,tools ,soil moisture often is the limiting factor in crop raising4 ,soil moisture may be measured by analysis4 ,the first step is to obtain samples at different depths4 ,this is done accurately and quickly with a good soil auger4 ,other paraphernalia is required to make a careful analysis of the sample1 but a farmer of experience will make a mud ball and form a very good estimate of the amount of water in it4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ahd4--;,diagram showing how to cut a plank on a band-saw to form a curved rafter4 ,the two pieces of the plank are spiked together as shown in the lower drawing4 ,this makes a curved rafter without waste of material4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ahe4--;,breeding ,crate for ,hogs4 ,the illustration shows the manner of construction4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ahf4--,soil ,auger4 ,scientific farming demands that soils shall be tested for moisture4 ,a long handled auger is used to bring samples of soil to the surface4 ,the samples are weighed1 the water evaporated and the soil reweighed to determine the amount of moisture4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ahg4--,post ,hole ,diggers4 ,two patterns of the same kind of digger are shown4 ,the first has iron handles1 the lower has wooden handles4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ahh4--;,hoes and ,weeders4 ,the hang of a hoe affects its working4 ,the upper hoe shows about the easiest working angle between the blade and the handle4 ,the difference between a hoe and a weeder is that the hoe is intended to strike into the ground to loosen the soil1 while the blade of the weeder is intended to work parallel with the surface of the soil to cut young weeds4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ahi4--,manure ,hook and ,potato ,diggers4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aij4--,spud4 ,certain vegetables are grown for crop and for seed4 ,the green plants are thinned with a spud for sale1 leaving the best to ripen for seed4 ,it is also used to dig tough weeds1 especially those having tap roots4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aia4--7a7 ,corn ,cutting ,knife4 7#b7 ,asparagus ,knife4 ,,fence-,,making ,,tools ,sliding ,field ,gate4--,each farm field should have a gate1 not necessarily expensive1 but it should be reasonably convenient4 ,farm field gates should be made sixteen feet long1 which will allow for a clear opening about fourteen feet wide4 ,the cheapest way to make a good farm gate is to use a #aj-;inch board for the bottom1 #h-;inch for the board next to the bottom and three #f-;inch boards above that4 ,the space between the bottom board and next board is two inches4 ,this narrow space prevents hogs from lifting the gate with their noses4 ,the spaces widen toward the top1 so that the gate when finished is five feet high4 ,if colts run the fields then a bar is needed along the top of the gate4 ,six cross pieces #a inch by #f inches are used to hold the gate together4 ,these cross pieces are bolted through at each intersection4 ,also a slanting brace is used on the front half of the gate to keep it from racking and this brace is put on with bolts4 ,two posts are set at each end of the gate4 ,the front posts hold the front end of the gate between them1 and the rear posts the same4 ,there is a cross piece which reaches from one of the rear posts to the other to slide the gate and hold it off the ground4 ,a similar cross piece holds the front end of the gate up from the ground4 ,sometimes a swivel roller is attached to the rear cross piece to roll the gate if it is to be used a good deal4 ,a plain1 simple sliding gate is all that is necessary for fields some distance from the barn4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aib4--7a7 ,plumb-,bob and ,plumb-,line4 ,the line is paid out about #f feet from the spool and given a half hitch4 ,it may then be hung over the wire and the spool will balance the bob4 7#b7 ,bipod4 ,the legs of a fence bipod are cut #f feet long4 ,the bolt is put through #f inches from the top ends4 ,by the aid of the plummet the upper wire is strung plumb over the barb-wire in the furrow and #d' #f above grade4 ,the lower parts of the posts are set against the barb-wire and the upper faces of the posts at the top are set even with the upper wire4 ,this plan not only places the posts in line1 both at the top and bottom1 but it regulates the height4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aic4--;,fence ,tools4 ,the upper tool is a round steel pin to twist heavy brace wires4 ,the scoop is for working stones out of post-holes4 ,the steel crowbar is for working around the stones to loosen them4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aid4--;,fence ,pliers4 ,this is a heavy fence tool made to pull fence staples and to stretch1 cut and splice wire4 ,,corn ,,shock ,,horse ,illustration3 ,figure #aie4--;,corn ,horse4 ,when corn is cut by hand there is no better shocking device than the old-style corn horse4 ,it is almost as handy when setting up the corn sheaves from the corn binder4 ,a convenient corn shocking horse is made with a pole cut from a straight tree4 ,the pole is about six inches through at the butt and tapers to a small end4 ,about twenty feet is a good length4 ,there are two legs which hold the large end of the pole up about #dj from the ground4 ,these legs are well spread apart at the bottom4 ,two feet back from the legs is a horizontal hole about one and one-quarter inches in diameter to hold the crossbar4 ,this crossbar may be an old broom handle4 ,the pole and the crossbar mark the four divisions of a corn shock4 ,corn is cut and stood up in each corner1 usually nine hills in a corner1 giving thirty-six hills to a shock4 ,corn planted in rows is counted up to make about the same amount of corn to the shock4 ,of course a heavy or light crop must determine the number of rows or hills4 ,when enough corn is cut for a shock it is tied with two bands1 the crossbar is pulled out and the corn horse is dragged along to the next stand4 ,,husking-,,pin ,hand huskers for dividing the cornhusks at the tips of the ears are made of wood1 bone or steel4 ,wooden husking-pins are made of ironwood1 eucalyptus1 second growth hickory1 or some other tough hardwood4 ,the pin is about four inches long1 five-eighths of an inch thick and it is shaped like a lead-pencil with a rather long point4 ,a recessed girdle is cut around the barrel of the pin and a leather finger ring fits into and around this girdle4 ,generally the leather ring fits the larger finger to hold the pin in the right position while permitting it to turn to wear the point all around alike4 ,bone husking-pins are generally flat with a hole through the center to hold the leather finger ring4 ,steel husking-pins are shaped differently and have teeth to catch and tear the husks apart4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aif4--;,brick ,trowel4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aig4--,plastering ,trowel4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aih4--;,concrete ,hog ,wallow1 showing drain pipe4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aii4--;,concrete ,center ,alley for ,hog ,house4 ,the upper illustration represents the wooden template used to form the center of the hog house floor4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bjj4--,sanitary ,pig-,pen4 ,one of the most satisfactory farrowing houses is constructed of concrete posts #f square and #f square mesh hog fencing and straw4 ,the posts are set to make farrowing pens #h' wide and #af' deep from front to back4 ,woven wire is stretched and fastened to both sides of the posts at the sides and back of each pen4 ,straw is stuffed in between the two wire nets1 thus making partitions of straw #f thick and #db high4 ,fence wire is stretched over the top and straw piled on deep enough to shed rain4 ,the front of the pens face the south and are closed by wooden gates4 ,in the spring the pigs are turned out on pasture1 the straw roof is hauled to the fields for manure and the straw partitions burned out4 ,the sun shines into the skeleton pens all summer so that all mischievous bacteria are killed and the hog-lice are burned or starved4 ,the next fall concrete floors may be laid in the pens1 the partitions restuffed with straw and covered with another straw roof4 ,in a colder climate ,i would cover the whole top with a straw roof4 ,sufficient ventilation would work through the straw partitions and the front gate4 ,in very cold weather add a thin layer of straw to the gate4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bja4--;,concrete ,wall ,mold4 ,wooden molds for shaping a concrete wall may be made as shown4 ,if the wall is to be low--#b' or less--the mold will stay in place without bolting or wiring the sides together4 ,the form is made level by first leveling the #b x #f stringers that support the form4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bjb4--;,husking-,pin4 ,the leather finger ring is looped into the recess in the wooden pin4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bjc4--;,harness ,punch4 ,the hollow punch points are of different sizes4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bjd4--;,belt ,punch4 ,two or three sizes should be kept in the tool box4 ,belt holes should be small to hold the lace tight4 ,the smooth running of belts depends a good deal on the lacing4 ,holes punch better against the end of a hickory block or other fine grained hardwood4 ,,paint ,,brushes ,paint brushes may be left in the paint for a year without apparent injury4 ,the paint should be deep enough to nearly bury the bristles4 ,pour a little boiled linseed oil over the top to form a skin to keep the air out4 ,it is cheaper to buy a new brush than to clean the paint out of one that has been used4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bje4--,knots4 ,the simple principles of knot tying as practiced on farms are here represented4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bjf4--,sheepshank1 two half hitches in a rope to take up slack4 ,the rope may be folded upon itself as many times as necessary4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bjg4--,marline ,spike4 ,used for splicing ropes1 tying rose knots1 etc4 ,,fruit ,,picking ,illustration3 ,figure #bjh4--;,fruit-,picking ,tray4 ,it is used for picking grapes and other fruits4 ,the ,california lug box has vertical sides and is the same size top and bottom4 ,otherwise the construction is similar4 ,apples are handled as carefully as eggs by men who understand the business of getting high prices4 ,picking boxes for apples have bothered orchard men more than any other part of the business4 ,it is so difficult to get help to handle apples without bruising that many inventions have been tried to lessen the damage4 ,in western ,new ,york a tray with vertical ends and slanting sides has been adopted by grape growers as the most convenient tray for grapes4 ,apple growers are adopting the same tray4 ,it is made of three-eighths-inch lumber cut #cj inches long for the sides1 using two strips for each side4 ,the bottom is #cj inches long and three-eighths of an inch thick1 made in one piece4 ,the ends are seven-eighths of an inch thick cut to a bevel so the top edge of the end piece is fourteen inches long and the bottom edge is ten inches long4 ,the depth of the end piece is eight inches4 ,hand cleats are nailed on the outsides of the end pieces so as to project one-half inch above the top4 ,these cleats not only serve to lift and carry the trays1 but when they are loaded on a wagon the bottoms fit in between the cleats to hold them from slipping endways4 ,in piling these picking boxes empty1 one end is slipped outward over the cleat until the other end drops down4 ,this permits half nesting when the boxes are piled up for storage or when loaded on wagons to move to the orchard4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bji4--;,fruit ,thinning ,nippers4 ,three styles of apple-stem cutters are shown4 ,they are also used for picking grapes and other fruits4 ,apples are picked into the trays from the trees4 ,the trays are loaded on to wagons or stone-boats and hauled to the packing shed1 where the apples are rolled out gently over the sloping sides of the crates on to the cushioned bottom of the sorting table4 ,orchard men should have crates enough to keep the pickers busy without emptying until they are hauled to the packing shed4 ,the use of such trays or crates save handling the apples over several times4 ,the less apples are handled the fewer bruises are made4 ,illustration3 ,figure #baj4--;,apple ,picking ,ladder4 ,when apples are picked and placed in bushel trays a ladder on wheels with shelves is convenient for holding the trays4 ,in ,california similar trays are used1 but they have straight sides and are called lug boxes4 ,eastern fruit men prefer the sloping sides because they may be emptied easily1 quickly and gently4 ,,fruit ,,picking ,,ladders ,commercial orchards are pruned to keep the bearing fruit spurs as near the ground as possible1 so that ladders used at picking time are not so long as they used to be4 ,illustration3 ,figure #baa4--,stepladder and ,apple-,picking ,bag4 ,this ladder has only three feet1 but the bottom of the ladder is made wide to prevent upsetting4 ,this bag is useful when picking scattering apples on the outer or upper branches4 ,picking bags carelessly used are the cause of many bruised apples4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bab4--,tree ,pruners4 ,the best made pruners are the cheapest4 ,this long handled pruner is made of fine tool steel from the cutting parts clear to the outer ends of the wooden handles4 ,a positive stop prevents the handles from coming together4 ,small one-hand pruning nippers are made for clean cutting4 ,the blades of both pruners should work towards the tree trunk so the hook will mash the bark on the discarded portion of the limb4 ,the illustration shows one of the most convenient picking ladders4 ,it is a double ladder with shelves to hold picking trays supported by two wheels and two legs4 ,the wheels which are used to support one side of the frame are usually old buggy wheels4 ,a hind axle together with the wheels works about right4 ,the ladder frame is about eight feet high with ladder steps going up from each side4 ,these steps also form the support for the shelves4 ,picking trays or boxes are placed on the shelves1 so the latter will hold eight or ten bushels of apples1 and may be wheeled directly to the packing shed if the distance is not too great4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bac4--,shears4 ,the first pair is used for sheep shearing4 ,the second is intended for cutting grass around the edges of walks and flower beds4 ,step-ladders from six to ten feet long are more convenient to get up into the middle of the tree than almost any other kind of ladder4 ,commercial apple trees have open tops to admit sunshine4 ,for this reason1 straight ladders are not much used4 ,it is necessary to have ladders built so they will support themselves4 ,sometimes only one leg is used in front of a step-ladder and sometimes ladders are wide at the bottom and taper to a point at the top4 ,the kind of ladder to use depends upon the size of the trees and the manner in which they have been pruned4 ,usually it is better to have several kinds of ladders of different sizes and lengths4 ,pickers then have no occasion to wait for each other4 ,,feeding ,,racks ,special racks for the feeding of alfalfa hay to hogs are built with slatted sides hinged at the top so they will swing in when the hogs crowd their noses through to get the hay4 ,this movement drops the hay down within reach4 ,alfalfa hay is especially valuable as a winter feed for breeding stock4 ,sows may be wintered on alfalfa with one ear of corn a day and come out in the spring in fit condition to suckle a fine litter of pigs4 ,alfalfa is a strong protein feed4 ,it furnishes the muscle-forming substances necessary for the young litter by causing a copious flow of milk4 ,one ear of corn a day is sufficient to keep the sow in good condition without laying on too much fat4 ,when shoats are fed in the winter for fattening1 alfalfa hay helps them to grow4 ,in connection with grain it increases the weight rapidly without adding a great deal of expense to the ration4 ,alfalfa in every instance is intended as a roughage1 as an appetizer and as a protein feed4 ,fat must be added by the use of corn1 kaffir corn1 ,canada peas1 barley or other grains4 ,alfalfa hay is intended to take the place of summer pasture in winter more than as a fattening ration4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bad4--;,horse ,feeding ,rack4 ,this is a barnyard hay feeder for horses and colts4 ,the diagonal boarding braces each corner post and leaves large openings at the sides4 ,horses shy at small hay holes4 ,the top boards and the top rail are #b x #ds for strength4 ,the bottom is floored to save the chaff4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bae4--;,corner ,post ,detail of ,horse ,feeding ,rack4 ,a #b x #f is spiked into the edge of a #b x #d1 making a corner post #f across4 ,the side boarding is cut even with the corner of the post and the open corner is filled with a two-inch quarter-round as shown4 ,illustration3 ,figure #baf4--;,automatic ,hog ,feeder4 ,the little building is #h' x #ab' on the ground and it is #aj' high to the plates4 ,the crushed grain is shoveled in from behind and it feeds down hopper fashion as fast as the hogs eat it4 ,the floor is made of matched lumber4 ,it should stand on a dry concrete floor4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bag4--,sheep ,feeding ,rack4 ,the hay bottom and grain trough sides slope together at #de deg4 angles4 ,the boarding is made tight to hold chaff and grain from wasting4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bah4--,rack ,base and ,sides4 ,the #b x #ds are halved at the ends and put together at right angles4 ,these frames are placed #c' apart and covered with matched flooring4 ,light braces should be nailed across these frames a few inches up from the ground4 ,the #a x #d pickets are placed #g apart in the clear1 so the sheep can get their heads through to feed4 ,these picketed frames are bolted to the base and framed around the top4 ,if the rack is more than #i' long there should be a center tie or partition4 ,twelve feet is a good length to make the racks4 ,,split-,,log ,,road ,,drag ,the only low cost road grader of value is the split-log road drag4 ,it should be exactly what the name implies4 ,it should be made from a light log about eight inches in diameter split through the middle with a saw4 ,plenty of road drags are made of timbers instead of split logs1 but the real principle is lost because such drags are too heavy and clumsy4 ,they cannot be quickly adjusted to the varying road conditions met with while in use4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bai4--;,hog ,trough4 ,in a winter hog house the feed trough is placed next to the alley or passageway4 ,a cement trough is best4 ,a drop gate is hinged over the trough so it can be swung in while putting feed in the trough4 ,the same gate is opened up level to admit hogs to the pen4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bbj4--,reinforced ,hog ,trough4 ,the section of hog trough to the left is reinforced with chicken wire1 one-inch mesh4 ,the trough to the right is reinforced with seven #a_/d rods--three in the bottom and two in each side4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bba4--;,double ,poultry ,feeding ,trough with ,partition in the ,center4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bbb4--,poultry ,feeder with ,metal or ,crockery ,receptacle4 ,the illustration shows the right way of making a road drag1 and the manner in which it is drawn along at an angle to the roadway so as to move the earth from the sides towards the center1 but illustrations are useless for showing how to operate them to do good work4 ,the eccentricities of a split-log road drag may be learned in one lesson by riding it over a mile or two of country road shortly after the frost has left the ground in the spring of the year4 ,it will be noticed that the front half of the road drag presents the flat side of the split log to the work of shaving off the lumps while the other half log levels and smooths and puddles the loosened moist earth by means of the rounded side4 ,puddling makes earth waterproof4 ,the front1 or cutting edge1 is faced with steel4 ,the ridges and humps are cut and shoved straight ahead or to one side to fill holes and ruts4 ,this is done by the driver1 who shifts his weight from one end to the other1 and from front to back of his standing platform to distribute the earth to the best advantage4 ,the rounded side of the rear half log presses the soft earth into place and leaves the surface smooth4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bbc4--,split-,log ,road ,drag4 ,the front edge is shod with a steel plate to do the cutting and the round side of the rear log grinds the loosened earth fine and presses it into the wagon tracks and water holes4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bbd4--;,heavy ,breaking ,plow1 used for road work and other tough jobs4 ,unfortunately1 the habit of using narrow tired wagons on country roads has become almost universal in the ,united ,states4 ,to add to their destructive propensities1 all wagons in some parts of the country have the same width of tread so that each wheel follows in paths made by other wheels1 until they cut ruts of considerable depth4 ,these little narrow ditches hold water so that it cannot run off into the drains at the sides of the roadway4 ,when a rut gets started1 each passing wheel squeezes out the muddy water1 or if the wheel be revolving at a speed faster than a walk it throws the water1 and the water carries part of the roadway with it so that small ruts are made large and deep ruts are made deeper4 ,in some limited sections road rules demand that wagons shall have wide tires and have shorter front axles1 so that with the wide tires and the uneven treads the wheels act as rollers instead of rut makers4 ,it is difficult to introduce such requirements into every farm section4 ,in the meantime the evils of narrow tires may be overcome to a certain extent by the persistent and proper use of the split-log road drag4 ,these drags are most effectual in the springtime when the frost is coming out of the ground4 ,during the muddy season the roads get worked up into ruts and mire holes1 which1 if taken in time1 may be filled by running lengthwise of the road with the drag when the earth is still soft4 ,when the ground shows dry on top and is still soft and wet underneath is the time the drags do the best work by scraping the drier hummocks into the low places where the earth settles hard as it dries4 ,a well rounded1 smooth road does not get muddy in the summer time4 ,summer rains usually come with a dash4 ,considerable water falls in a short time1 and the very act of falling with force first lays the dust1 then packs the surface4 ,the smooth packed surface acts like a roof1 and almost before the rain stops falling all surface water is drained off to the sides so that an inch down under the surface the roadbed is as hard as it was before the rain4 ,that is the reason why split log road drags used persistently in the spring and occasionally later in the season will preserve good roads all summer4 ,it is very much better to follow each summer rain with the road drag1 but it is not so necessary as immediate attention at the proper time in spring4 ,besides1 farmers are so busy during the summer months that they find it difficult to spend the time4 ,in some sections of the middle ,west one man is hired to do the dragging at so much per trip over the road4 ,he makes his calculations accordingly and is prepared to do the dragging at all seasons when needed4 ,this plan usually works out the best because one man then makes it his business and he gets paid for the amount of work performed4 ,this man should live at the far end of the road division so that he can smooth his own pathway leading to town4 ,,steel ,,road ,,drag ,manufacturers are making road drags of steel with tempered blades adjustable to any angle by simply moving the lever until the dog engages in the proper notch4 ,some of these machines are made with blades reversible1 so that the other side can be used for cutting when the first edge is worn4 ,for summer use the steel drag works very well1 but it lacks the smoothing action of a well balanced log drag4 ,,seed ,,house ,,and ,,barn ,,trucks ,illustration3 ,figure #bbe4--;,barn ,trucks4 ,the platform truck is made to move boxed apples and other fruit4 ,the bag truck is well proportioned and strong1 but is not full ironed4 ,bag trucks for handling bags of grain and seeds should be heavy4 ,bag truck wheels should be eight inches in diameter with a three-inch face4 ,the steel bar or shoe that lifts and carries the bag should be twenty-two inches in length4 ,that means that the bottom of the truck in front is twenty-two inches wide4 ,the wheels run behind this bar so the hubs do not project to catch against standing bags or door frames4 ,the length of truck handles from the steel lift bar to the top end of the hand crook is four feet1 six inches4 ,in buying bag trucks it is better to get the heavy solid kind that will not upset4 ,the light ones are a great nuisance when running them over uneven floors4 ,the wheels are too narrow and too close together and the trucks tip over under slight provocation4 ,platform trucks for use in moving boxes of apples or crates of potatoes or bags of seed in the seed house or warehouse also should be heavy4 ,the most approved platform truck1 the kind that market men use1 is made with a frame four feet in length by two feet in width4 ,the frame is made of good solid hardwood put together with mortise and tenon4 ,the cross pieces or stiles are three-quarters of an inch lower than the side pieces or rails1 which space is filled with hardwood flooring boards firmly bolted to the cross pieces so they come up flush with the side timbers4 ,the top of the platform should be sixteen inches up from the floor4 ,there are two standards in front which carry a wooden crossbar over the front end of the truck4 ,this crossbar is used for a handle to push or pull the truck4 ,the height of the handle-bar from the floor is three feet4 ,rear wheels are five inches in diameter and work on a swivel so they turn in any direction like a castor4 ,the two front wheels carry the main weight4 ,they are twelve inches in diameter with a three-inch face4 ,the wheels are bored to fit a one-inch steel axle and have wide boxings bolted to the main timbers of the truck frame4 ,like the two-wheel bag truck1 the wheels of the platform truck are under the frame so they do not project out in the way1 which is a great advantage when the truck is being used in a crowded place4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bbf4--;,farm ,gate ,post with ,copper ,mail ,box4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bbg4--;,concrete ,post ,supporting a ,waterproof ,clothes ,line ,reel ,box4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bbh4--;,dumb ,waiter4 ,the cage is poised by a counterweight4 ,it is guided by a rope belt which runs on grooved pulleys at the top and bottom4 ,,home ,,canning ,,outfit ,there are small canning outfits manufactured and sold for farm use that work on the factory principle4 ,for canning vegetables1 the heating is done under pressure because a great deal of heat is necessary to destroy the bacteria that spoil vegetables in the cans4 ,steam under pressure is a good deal hotter than boiling water4 ,there is considerable work in using a canning outfit1 but it gets the canning out of the way quickly4 ,extra help may be employed for a few days to do the canning on the same principle that farmers employ extra help at threshing time and do it all up at once4 ,of course1 fruits and vegetables keep coming along at different times in the summer1 but the fall fruit canning may be done at two or three sittings arranged a week or two apart and enough fruit packed away in the cellar to last a big family a whole year4 ,canning machinery is simple and inexpensive4 ,these outfits may be bought from #aj up4 ,probably a #bj or #be canner would be large enough for a large family1 or a dozen different families if it could be run on a co-operative plan4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bbi4--;,clothes ,line ,tightener4 ,this device is made of ,no4 #i wire bent as shown in the illustration4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bcj4--;,goat ,stall4 ,milch goats are milked on a raised platform4 ,feed is placed in the manger4 ,the opening in the side of the manger is a stanchion to hold them steady4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bca4--;,horse ,clippers4 ,hand clippers are shown to the left4 ,the flexible shaft clipper to the right may be turned by hand for clipping a few horses or shearing a few sheep1 but for real business it should be driven by an electric motor4 ,,electric ,,towel ,the air towel is sanitary1 as well as an economical method of drying the hands4 ,a foot pedal closes a quick-acting switch1 thereby putting into operation a blower that forces air through an electric heating device so arranged as to distribute the warmed air to all parts of the hands at the same time4 ,the supply of hot air continues as long as the foot pedal is depressed4 ,the hands are thoroughly dried in thirty seconds4 ,,stalls ,,for ,,milch ,,goats ,milch goats are not fastened with stanchions like cows4 ,the front of the manger is boarded tight with the exception of a round hole about two feet high and a slit in the boards reaching from the round opening to within a few inches of the floor4 ,the round hole is made large enough so that the goat puts her head through to reach the feed1 and the slit is narrow enough so she cannot back up to pull the feed out into the stall4 ,this is a device to save fodder4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bcb4--;,hog ,catching ,hook4 ,the wooden handle fits loosely into the iron socket4 ,as soon as the hog's hind leg is engaged the wooden handle is removed and the rope held taut4 ,,stable ,,helps ,illustration3 ,figure #bcc4--;,bull ,nose-,chain4 ,cross bulls may be turned out to pasture with some degree of safety by snapping a chain like this into the nose-ring4 ,the chain should be just long enough to swing and wrap around the bull's front legs when he is running4 ,also the length is intended to drag the ring where he will step on it with his front feet4 ,there is some danger of pulling the nose ring out4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bcd4--,manure ,carriers4 ,there are two kinds of manure carriers in general use4 ,the principal difference is the elevator attachment for hoisting when the spreader stands too high for the usual level dump4 ,overhead tracks have made feed carriers possible4 ,litter or feed carriers and manure carriers run on the same kind of a track1 the only difference is in size and shape of the car and the manner in which the contents are unloaded4 ,manure carriers and litter carriers have a continuous track that runs along over the manure gutters and overhead lengthwise of the feed alleys4 ,there are a number of different kinds of carriers manufactured1 all of which seem to do good service4 ,the object is to save labor in doing the necessary work about dairy stables4 ,to get the greatest possible profit from cows1 it is absolutely necessary that the stable should be kept clean and sanitary1 also that the cows shall be properly fed several times a day4 ,different kinds of feed are given at the different feeding periods4 ,it is impossible to have all the different kinds of food stored in sufficient quantities within easy reach of the cows4 ,hence1 the necessity of installing some mechanical arrangement to fetch and carry4 ,the only floor carrier in use in dairy stables is a truck for silage4 ,not in every stable is this the case4 ,sometimes a feed carrier is run directly to the silo4 ,it depends a good deal on the floor what kind of a carrier is best for silage4 ,the advantage of an overhead track is1 that it is always free from litter4 ,where floor trucks are used1 it is necessary to keep the floor bare of obstruction4 ,this is not considered a disadvantage because the floor should be kept clean anyway4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bce4--;,cow ,stanchion4 ,wooden cow stanchions may be made as comfortable for the cows as the iron ones4 ,,house ,,plumbing ,when water is pumped by an engine and stored for use in a tank to be delivered under pressure in the house1 then the additional cost of hot and cold water and the necessary sink and bath room fixtures is comparatively small4 ,modern plumbing fixtures fit so perfectly and go together so easily that the cost of installing house plumbing in the country has been materially reduced1 while the dangers from noxious gases have been entirely eliminated4 ,open ventilator pipes carry the poisonous gases up through the roof of the house to float harmlessly away in the atmosphere4 ,septic tanks take care of the sewerage better than the sewer systems in some towns4 ,plumbing fixtures may be cheap or expensive1 according to the wishes and pocketbook of the owner4 ,the cheaper grades are just as useful1 but there are expensive outfits that are very much more ornamental4 ,,farm ,,septic ,,tank ,illustration3 ,figure #bcf4--;,frame for ,holding ,record ,sheets in a ,dairy ,stable4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bcg4--,loading ,shute for ,hogs4 ,this loading shute is made portable and may be moved like a wheelbarrow4 ,supplying water under pressure in the farmhouse demands a septic tank to get rid of the waste4 ,a septic tank is a scientific receptacle to take the poison out of sewerage4 ,it is a simple affair consisting of two underground compartments1 made water-tight1 with a sewer pipe to lead the waste water from the house into the first compartment and a drain to carry the denatured sewerage away from the second compartment4 ,the first compartment is open to the atmosphere1 through a ventilator1 but the second compartment is made as nearly air-tight as possible4 ,the scientific working of a septic tank depends upon the destructive work of two kinds of microscopic life known as aerobic and anaerobic forms of bacteria4 ,sewerage in the first tank is worked over by aerobic bacteria1 the kind that require a small amount of oxygen in order to live and carry on their work4 ,the second compartment is inhabited by anaerobic bacteria1 or forms of microscopic life that work practically without air4 ,the principles of construction require that a septic tank shall be large enough to contain two days' supply of sewerage in each compartment2 thus1 requiring four days for the sewerage to enter and leave the tank4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bch4--;,brass ,valves4 ,two kinds of globe valves are used in farm waterworks4 ,the straight valve shown to the left and the right angle valve to the right4 ,either one may be fitted with a long shank to reach above ground when pipes are laid deep to prevent freezing4 ,estimating #ge gallons daily of sewerage for each inhabitant of the house and four persons to a family1 the septic tank should be large enough to hold #fjj gallons1 three hundred gallons in each compartment1 which would require a tank about four feet in width and six feet in length and four feet in depth4 ,these figures embrace more cubic feet of tank than necessary to meet the foregoing requirements4 ,it is a good plan to leave a margin of safety4 ,illustration3 ,figure #bci4--,septic ,tank1 a double antiseptic process for purifying sewerage4 ,it is usual to lay a vitrified sewer1 four inches in diameter1 from below the bottom of the cellar to the septic tank1 giving it a fall of one-eighth inch in ten feet4 ,the sewer enters the tank at the top of the standing liquid and delivers the fresh sewerage from the house through an elbow and a leg of pipe that reaches to within about six inches of the bottom of the tank4 ,the reason for this is to admit fresh sewerage without disturbing the scum on the surface of the liquid in the tank4 ,the scum is a protection for the bacteria4 ,it helps them to carry on their work of destruction4 ,the same principle applies to the second compartment4 ,the liquid from the first compartment is carried over into the second compartment by means of a bent pipe in the form of a siphon which fills up gradually and empties automatically when the liquid in the first compartment rises to a certain level4 ,the discharging siphon leg should be the shortest4 ,the liquid from the second compartment is discharged into the drain in the same manner4 ,there are special valves made for the final discharge1 but they are not necessary4 ,the bottom of the tank is dug deep enough to hold sewerage from two to four feet in depth4 ,the top surface of the liquid in the tank is held down to a level of at least six inches below the bottom of the cellar4 ,so there is no possible chance of the house sewer filling and backing up towards the house4 ,usually the vitrified sewer pipe is four inches in diameter1 the septic tank siphons for a small tank are three inches in diameter and the final discharge pipe is three inches in diameter1 with a rapid fall for the first ten feet after leaving the tank4 ,septic tanks should be made of concrete1 waterproofed on the inside to prevent the possibility of seepage4 ,septic tank tops are made of reinforced concrete with manhole openings4 ,also the manhole covers are made of reinforced concrete1 either beveled to fit the openings or made considerably larger than the opening1 so that they sit down flat on the top surface of the tank4 ,these covers are always deep enough down in the ground so that when covered over the earth holds them in place4 ,in laying vitrified sewer it is absolutely necessary to calk each joint with okum or lead1 or okum reinforced with cement4 ,it is almost impossible to make a joint tight with cement alone1 although it can be done by an expert4 ,each length of the sewer-pipe should be given a uniform grade4 ,the vitrified sewer is trapped outside of the building with an ordinary ,s-trap ventilated1 which leaves the sewer open to the atmosphere and prevents the possibility of back-pressure that might drive the poisonous gases from the decomposing sewerage through the sewer back into the house4 ,in this way1 the septic tank is made entirely separate from the house plumbing1 except that the two systems are connected at this outside trap4 ,it is sometimes recommended that the waste water from the second compartment shall be distributed through a series of drains made with three-inch or four-inch drain tile and that the outlet of this set of drains shall empty into or connect with a regularly organized field drainage system4 ,generally speaking1 the final discharge of liquid from a septic tank that is properly constructed is inoffensive and harmless4 ,however1 it is better to use every possible precaution to preserve the health of the family1 and it is better to dispose of the final waste in such a way as to prevent any farm animal from drinking it4 ,while manholes are built into septic tanks for the purpose of examination1 in practice they are seldom required4 ,if the tanks are properly built and rightly proportioned to the sewerage requirements they will take care of the waste water from the house year after year without attention4 ,should any accidents occur1 they are more likely to be caused by a leakage in the vitrified sewer than from any other cause4 ,manufacturers of plumbing supplies furnish the siphons together with instructions for placing them properly in the concrete walls4 ,some firms supply advertising matter from which to work out the actual size and proportions of the different compartments and all connections4 ,the making of a septic tank is simple when the principle is once understood4 ,,index ,,page ,acetylene gas #abi ,air pressure pump #ajg ,anvil #cc ,apple-picking bag #baf ladder #bae ,asparagus knife #bje ,auger1 ship #bf ,auger-bit #bd1 #be ,automatic hog feeder #bai ,axles1 wagon #eb ,babbitting boxings #gc ,barn trucks #bbf ,belt punch #baa work #adf ,bench and vise #cd ,bench for iron work #ce for woodworking #af ,bipod #bjf ,bits1 extension boring #bf ,bit1 twist-drill1 for wood-boring #be ,blacksmith hammers #fa shop #ca ,block and tackle #gg ,bobsleighs #ahh ,boiler1 steam #ij ,bolster spring #ahf stake #ahg ,bolt cutter #de ,bolts1 carriage and machine #ef emergency #ec home-made #eb plow and sickle bar #ef ,boxings1 babbitting #gc ,brace1 wagon-box #eh ,bramble hook #bj ,brass valves #bcf ,breeding crate for hogs #bjc ,brick trowel #bji ,bridge auger #bf ,bucket yoke #ge ,buck rake #afe ,building bracket #bjb ,bull nose-chain #bcc treadmill #ha ,cable hay stacker #agf ,california hay ricker #agf ,calipers #dc ,caliper rule #ad ,canning outfit #bbi ,carpenter's bench #ag trestle #ag ,cart1 two-wheel #aia ,centrifugal pumps #aje ,chain1 logging #ej ,chisels and gouges #bh ,circular saw1 filing #fi jointing #fh setting #fh ,clearing land by tractor #adf ,clevises1 plow #eh ,clod crusher #aee ,clothes line reel box1 concrete #bbh ,clothes line tightener #bcj ,cold-chisel #cg ,colt-breaking sulkey #aib ,compasses #ah ,concrete center alley for hog house #bji farm scale base and pit #aif hog wallow #bji wall mold #baj ,conveniences1 miscellaneous farm #aid ,conveyances1 farm #agi ,corn crib1 double #bja two-story #aid ,corn cultivator #adb planter #aeh shock horse #bjh ,cotter pin tool #dd ,coulter clamp #ed ,countersink #da ,cow stanchion #bcd ,crop machinery1 special #afa ,crops1 kind of1 to irrigate #aah ,crowbars #df ,cultivator1 combination #adc corn #adb ,cutting nippers #df ,derrick fork #afh ,dies and taps #ee ,diggers1 potato #bje ,disk harrow #aeb plow #acg ,dog churn #gi power #hj ,draw-filing #fb ,drawing-knife #bb ,drill1 grain #afj power post #ch ,drill-press #ci electric #dj ,driven machines #ajj ,dumbwaiter #bbi ,economy of plowing by tractor #adf ,electricity on the farm #aba1 #abg ,electric lighting #abc ,electric power plant #abb towel #bca ,elevating machinery #acc ,elevator1 grain #acd ,emery grinders #ca ,engine and truck1 portable #id ,engine1 gasoline #ia kerosene #ib steam #ij ,eveners for three- and four-horse teams #aci ,extension boring bits #bf ,farm conveniences #aid conveyances #agi office #aid shop and implement house #i shop work #ej tractor #ig waterworks #hi1 #ajj ,feed crusher #aca ,feeding racks #bag ,fence-making tools #bje1 #bjf ,fence pliers #bjg ,file handle #cf ,files and rasps #cf ,filing hand saw #ef roll #fc ,flail #ge ,fore-plane #bg ,forge #cb ,forges1 portable #cb ,forging iron and steel #ei ,fruit picking #bab ladders #bae tray #bac ,fruit-thinning nippers #bad ,gambrel whiffletree #agc ,garage #aj ,garden weeder #ed ,gas1 acetylene #abi ,gasoline engine #ia house lightning #abh ,gate1 sliding field #bje ,gatepost with copper mailbox #bbg ,gauge1 double-marking #bb ,generating mechanical power #gd ,goat stall #bcj ,grain drill #afj elevator #acd elevator1 portable #ace ,grass hook #afc ,grindstone #bh ,hacksaw #de ,hammers1 blacksmith #fa machinist's #db ,hand axe #bc ,hand saw #ai1 #fe filing #ff jointing #fe setting #fe using #fg ,handspike #bd ,hardy #dc ,harness punch #baa ,harrow cart #aed disk #aeb sled #ada spike-tooth #ada ,harvesting by tractor #adf ,hay carrier carriage #agb ,hay crop1 handling #afc ,hay derricks1 ,idaho #aga ,western #afi ,hayford1 double harpoon #afi grapple #agj hitch #agc hood #aig ,hayrake1 revolving #afc ,hay ricker1 ,california #agf ,hay rope pulleys #agd ,hay skids #afg ,hay sling #afg ,hay stacker1 cable #agf ,haystack knife #afh ,hay-tedder #afe ,hay-track roof extension #aig ,hoe1 how to sharpen #gj wheel #afb ,hoes and weeders #bjd ,hog catching hook #bcb ,hog feeder1 automatic #bai trough #bba 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to conform to the text3 sulkey to sulky1 and re-inforced to reinforced4 ,all dimensions have been standardised to a x b 7with a and b representing two numbers74 ,typographical errors corrected3 azotabacter to azotobacter 7p4 #ach71 devise to device 7p4 #bcb71 anarobic to anaerobic 7p4 #bcf71 and ,hayford to ,hayfork 7,index74 ,some minor typographical errors have been corrected silently4 ,page #aeh3 the so-called humid sections should possibly be the so-called arid sections4 ,the advertisements have been re-arranged to a single list per subject4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------