,,american ,,grape ,,training ,an account of the leading forms now in use of ,training the ,american ,grapes4 ,by ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey ,,new ,,york3 ,,the ,,rural ,,publishing ,,company #ahic4 ,by the same ,author4 ,annals of ,horticulture in ,north ,america for the year #ahhi4 ,a witness of passing events and a record of progress4 #bdi pages1 #eb illustrations4 ,annals for #ahij4 #cab pages1 #hb illustrations4 ,annals for #ahia4 #daf pages1 #gg illustrations4 ,annals for #ahib4 99499 ,a new volume is issued each year1 each complete in itself4 ,cloth1 #a2 paper1 #fj cents4 ,the ,horticulturist's ,rule-,book4 ,a compendium of useful information for fruit-growers1 truck-gardeners1 florists and others4 ,second edition1 revised to the opening of #ahib4 #bba pages4 ,cloth1 #a2 paper1 #ej cents4 ,the ,nursery ,book4 ,a complete guide to the multiplication and pollination of plants4 #cjd pages1 #ajf illustrations4 ,cloth1 #a2 paper1 #ej;c4 ,cross-,breeding and ,hybridizing4 ,with a brief bibliography of the subject4 #dd pages4 ,paper1 #dj cents4 7,rural ,library ,series47 ,field ,notes on ,apple ,culture4 #ij pages1 #ai illustrations4 ,cloth1 #ge cents4 ,talks ,afield3 ,about plants and the science of plants4 #agc pages1 #ajj illustrations4 ,cloth1 #a4 ,,copyrighted #ahic1 ,,by ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey4 ,,electrotyped ,,and ,,printed ,,by ,j4 ,,horace ,m',,farland ,,co41 ,,harrisburg1 ,,pa4 ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,pages ,introduction #i-aa ,pruning #aa-bd ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,preliminary ,preparations for ,training--,the ,trellis--,tying #be-cc ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,the ,upright ,systems4 7,horizontal ,arm ,spur ,system4 ,high ,renewal4 ,fan ,training7 #cd-ee ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,the ,drooping ,systems4 7,true or ,four-,cane ,kniffin4 ,modifications of the ,four-,cane ,kniffin4 ,the ,two-,cane ,kniffin or ,umbrella ,system4 ,the ,low or ,one-,wire ,kniffin4 ,the ,six-,cane ,kniffin4 ,overhead1 or ,arbor ,kniffin4 ,the ,cross-,wire ,system4 ,renewal ,kniffin4 ,the ,munson ,system7 #ef-hb ,,chapter ,v4 ,miscellaneous ,systems4 7,horizontal ,training4 ,post ,training4 ,arbors4 ,remodeling ,old ,vines7 #hc-ib ,illustration3 7,drawing of grapes7 ,,illustrations4 ,,page #a4 ,grape ,shoot #ab #b4 ,the ,bearing ,wood #ac #c4 ,diagram #ae #d4 ,spur #ah #e4 ,renewal ,pruning #ai #f4 ,a ,newly ,set ,vineyard #ba #g4 ,horizontal ,arm ,spur ,training #ce #h4 ,horizontal ,arm 7,diagram7 #cf #i4 ,short ,arm ,spur ,training #ch #aj4 ,the ,second ,season of ,upright ,training #dj #aa4 ,making the ,t-,head #db #ab4 ,the ,third ,season of ,high ,renewal #dc #ac4 ,high ,renewal1 before ,pruning #dd #ad4 ,high ,renewal1 ,pruned #de #ae4 ,high ,renewal1 ,pruned and ,tied #df #af4 ,high ,renewal with ,four ,canes #dg #ag4 ,high ,renewal ,complete #dh #ah4 ,a ,slat ,trellis1 with ,upright ,training #ea #ai4 ,fan ,training1 after ,pruning #ee #bj4 ,william ,kniffin #eg #ba4 ,the ,true ,kniffin ,training #ei #bb4 ,no4 #ba1 when ,pruned #fj #bc4 ,a ,poor ,type of ,kniffin #fd #bd4 ,the ,y-,trunk ,kniffin #fe #be4 ,umbrella ,training #fg #bf4 ,a ,poor ,umbrella ,system #fh #bg4 ,eight-,cane ,kniffin 7,diagram7 #gj #bh4 ,overhead ,kniffin #ga #bi4 ,overhead ,kniffin #gb #cj4 ,overhead ,kniffin1 before ,pruning #gc #ca4 ,cross-,wire ,training #ge #cb4 ,cross-,wire ,training1 ,outside ,view #gf #cc4 ,munson ,training4 ,end ,view #gh #cd4 ,munson ,training4 ,side ,view #gi #ce4 ,horizontal ,training #hc #cf4 ,low ,post ,training #hf #cg4 ,a ,yearling ,graft #ia ,,preface4 ,this little book has grown out of an attempt to teach the principles and methods of grape training to college students4 ,i have found such teaching to be exceedingly difficult and unsatisfactory4 ,it is impossible to firmly impress the lessons by mere lectures4 ,the student must apprehend the principles slowly and by his own effort4 ,he must have time to thoroughly assimilate them before he attempts to apply them4 ,i therefore cast about for books which ,i could put before my class1 but ,i at once found that there are very few succinct accounts of the subjects of grape pruning and training1 and that none of our books portray the methods which are most largely practised in the large grape regions of the east4 ,my only recourse1 therefore1 was to put my own notes into shape for print1 and this ,i have now done4 ,and inasmuch as all grape-growers are students1 ,i hope that the simple account will find a use beyond the classroom4 ,this lack of adequate accounts of grape training at first astonished me1 but is not strange after all4 ,it must be remembered that the cultivation of the native grape is of very recent origin4 ,there are many men who can remember its beginning in a commercial way4 ,it seldom occurs to the younger generation1 which is familiar with the great vineyards in many states1 that the ,concord is yet scarcely forty years old1 and that all grape growing in eastern ,america is yet in an experimental stage4 ,progress has been so rapid in recent years that the new methods outstrip the books4 ,the old horizontal arm spur system1 which is still the chief method in the books1 has evolved itself into a high renewal training1 which is widely used but which has not found its way into the manuals4 ,the ,kniffin type has outgrown its long period of incubation1 and is now taking an assured place in vineyard management4 ,so two great types1 opposed in method1 are now contending for supremacy1 and they will probably form the basis of all future developments4 ,this evolution of ,american grape training is one of the most unique and signal developments of our modern horticulture1 and its very recent departure from the early doubts and trials is a fresh illustration of the youth and virility of all horticultural pursuits in ,north ,america4 ,this development of our grape training should form the subject of a historical inquiry4 ,i have not attempted such in this little hand-book4 ,i have omitted all reference to the many early methods1 which were in most cases transportations or modifications of ,european practices1 for their value is now chiefly historical and their insertion here would only confuse the reader4 ,i have attempted nothing more than a plain account of the methods now in use2 in fact1 ,i am aware that ,i have not accomplished even this much1 for there are various methods which ,i have not mentioned4 ,but these omitted forms are mostly of local use or adaptation1 and they are usually only modifications of the main types here explained4 ,it is impossible to describe all the variations in grape training in a book of pocket size2 neither is it necessary4 ,nearly every grower who has given grape raising careful attention has introduced into his own vineyard some modifications which he thinks are of special value to him4 ,there are various curious and instructive old books to which the reader can go if he desires to know the history and evolution of grape training in ,america4 ,he will find that we have now passed through the long and costly experiment with ,european systems4 ,and we have also outgrown the gross or long-wood styles1 and now prune close with the expectation of obtaining superior and definite results4 ,i have not attempted to rely upon my own resources in the preparation of this book4 ,all the manuscript has been read by three persons--by ,george ,c4 ,snow1 ,penn ,yan1 ,n4 ,y41 ,william ,d4 ,barns1 ,middle ,hope1 ,n4 ,y41 and ,l4 ,c4 ,corbett1 my assistant in the ,cornell ,experiment ,station4 ,mr4 ,snow is a grower in the lake region of western ,new ,york1 and employs the ,high ,renewal system2 ,mr4 ,barns is a grower in the ,hudson ,river valley1 and practices the ,kniffin system2 while ,mr4 ,corbett has been a student of all the systems and has practiced two or three of them in commercial plantations4 ,these persons have made many suggestions of which ,i have been glad to avail myself1 and to them very much of the value of the book is to be attributed4 ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey1 ,,ithaca1 ,n4 ,y41 ,feb4 #a1 #ahic4 ,john ,adlum1 of the ,district of ,columbia1 appears to have been the first person to systematically undertake the cultivation and amelioration of the native grapes4 ,his method of training1 as described in #ahbc1 is as follows3 ,one shoot is allowed to grow the first year1 and this is cut back to two buds the first fall4 ,the second year two shoots are allowed to grow1 and they are tied to two stakes fixed down to the side of each plant1 about five or six feet high2 in the fall each cane is cut back to three or four buds4 ,in the third spring1 these two short canes are spread apart so as to make an angle of about forty-five degrees with the stem1 and are tied to stakes2 this season about two shoots are allowed to grow from each branch1 making four in all1 and in the fall the outside ones are cut back to three or four buds and the inner ones to two4 ,these outside shoots are to bear the fruit the fourth year1 and the inside ones give rise to renewal canes4 ,these two outer canes or branches are secured to two stakes set about sixteen inches upon either side of the vine1 and the shoots are tied up to the stakes1 as they grow4 ,the renewal shoots from the inside stubs are tied to a third stake set near the root of the vine4 ,the outside branches are to be cut away entirely at the end of the fourth year4 ,this is an ingenious renewal post system1 and it is easy to see how the ,horizontal ,arm and ,high ,renewal systems may have sprung from it4 ,,american ,,grape ,,training4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,introduction--,,pruning4 ,pruning and training the grape are perplexed questions1 even to those who have spent a lifetime in grape growing4 ,the perplexity arises from several diverse sources1 as the early effort to transplant ,european methods1 the fact that many systems present almost equally good results for particular purposes and varieties1 and the failure to comprehend the fundamental principles of the operations4 ,it is sufficient condemnation of ,european methods when applied in eastern ,america1 to say that the ,american grapes are distinct species from the ,european grapes1 and that they are consequently different in habit4 ,this fact does not appear to have been apprehended clearly by the early ,american grape-growers1 even after the native varieties had begun to gain prominence4 ,american viticulture1 aside from that upon the ,pacific slope which is concerned with the ,european grape1 is an industry of very recent development4 ,it was little more than a century ago that the first ,american variety gained favor1 and so late as #ahbc that the first definite attempt was made1 in ,adlum's ,memoir on the ,cultivation of the ,vine in ,america1 to record the merits of native grapes for purposes of cultivation4 ,even ,adlum's book was largely given to a discussion of ,european varieties and practices4 ,in #ahdf ,thomas' ,fruit ,culturist mentioned only six ,american hardy varieties1 and all of these1 save the ,catawba1 are practically not in cultivation at the present time4 ,the ,concord appeared in #ahec4 ,american grape training is1 therefore1 a very recent development1 and we are only now outgrowing the influence of the practices early imported from ,europe4 ,the first decided epoch in the evolution of our grape training was the appearance of ,fuller's ,grape ,culturist1 in #ahfd2 for while the system which he depicted and which yet often bears his name1 was but a modification of some ,european methods and had been outlined by earlier ,american writers1 it was at that time placed clearly and cogently before the public and became an accepted practice4 ,the fundamental principles of pruning are alike for both ,european and ,american grapes1 but the details of pruning and training must be greatly modified for different species4 ,we must understand at the outset that ,american species of grapes demand an ,american system of treatment4 ,the great diversity of opinion which exists amongst the best grape growers concerning the advantages of different systems of training is proof that many systems have merit1 and that no one system is better than others for all purposes4 ,the grower must recognize the fact that the most important factor in determining the merits of any system of training is the habit of the vine--as its vigor1 rate of growth1 normal size1 relative size and abundance of leaves1 and season and character of fruit4 ,nearly every variety differs from others in habit in some particular1 and it therefore requires different treatment in some important detail4 ,varieties may thrive equally well upon the same general system of training1 but require minor modifications2 so it comes that no hard and fast lines can be laid down1 either for any system or any variety4 ,one system differs from another in some one main principle or idea1 but the modifications of all may meet and blend4 ,if two men practice the ,kniffin system1 therefore1 this fact does not indicate that they prune and train their vines exactly alike4 ,it is impossible to construct rules for grape training2 it is1 therefore1 important that we understand thoroughly the philosophy of pruning and training1 both in general and in the different systems which are now most popular4 ,these points we shall now consider4 ,,pruning4 ,pruning and training are terms which are often confounded when speaking of the grape1 but they represent distinct operations4 ,pruning refers to such removal of branches as shall insure better and larger fruit upon the remaining portions4 ,training refers to the disposition of the different parts of the vine4 ,it is true that different methods of training demand different styles of pruning1 but the modification in pruning is only such as shall adapt it to the external shape and size of the vine1 and does not in any way affect the principle upon which it rests4 ,pruning is a necessity1 and1 in essence1 there is but one method2 training is largely a convenience1 and there are as many methods as there are fancies among grape growers4 ,illustration3 #a4 ,,grape ,,shoot4 ,all intelligent pruning of the grape rests upon the fact that the fruit is borne in a few clusters near the base of the growing shoots of the season1 and which spring from wood of last year's growth4 ,it may be said here that a growing1 leafy branch of the grape vine is called a shoot2 a ripened shoot is called a cane2 a branch or trunk two or more years old is called an arm4 ,fig4 #a is a shoot as it appears in the northern states in ,june4 ,the whole shoot has grown within a month1 from a bud4 ,as it grew1 flower clusters appeared and these are to bear the grapes4 ,flowering is now over1 but the shoot will continue to grow1 perhaps to the length of ten or twenty feet4 ,at picking time1 therefore1 the grapes all hang near the lower end or base of the shoots or new canes1 as in fig4 #b4 ,each bud upon the old cane1 therefore1 produces a new cane1 which may bear fruit as well as leaves4 ,at the close of the season1 this long ripened shoot or cane has produced a bud every foot or less1 from which new fruit-bearing shoots are to spring next year4 ,but if all these buds were allowed to remain1 the vine would be overtaxed with fruit the coming year and the crop would be a failure4 ,the cane is1 therefore1 cut off until it bears only as many buds as experience has taught us the vine should carry4 ,the cane may be cut back to five or ten buds1 and perhaps some of these buds will be removed1 or rubbed off1 next spring if the young growth seems to be too thick1 or if the plant is weak4 ,each shoot will bear1 on an average1 two or three clusters4 ,some shoots will bear no clusters4 ,from one to six of the old canes1 each bearing from five to ten buds1 are left each spring4 ,the number of clusters which a vine can carry well depends upon the variety1 the age and size of the vine1 the style of the training1 and the soil and cultivation4 ,experience is the only guide4 ,a strong vine of ,concord1 which is a prolific variety1 trained upon any of the ordinary systems and set nine or ten feet apart each way1 will usually carry from thirty to sixty clusters4 ,the clusters will weigh from a fourth to a half pound each4 ,twelve or fifteen pounds of marketable grapes is a fair or average crop for such a ,concord vine1 and twenty-five pounds is a very heavy crop4 ,illustration3 #b4 ,,the ,,bearing ,,wood4 ,the pruning of the grape vine1 therefore1 is essentially a thinning process4 ,in the winter pruning1 all the canes of the last season's growth are cut away except from two to six1 which are left to make the fruit and wood of the next year2 and each of these remaining canes is headed back to from three to ten buds4 ,the number and length of the canes which are left after the pruning depend upon the style of training which is practiced4 ,a vine which may completely cover a trellis in the fall1 will be cut back so severely that a novice will fear that the plant is ruined4 ,but the operator bears in mind the fact that the grape1 unlike the apple1 pear and peach1 does not bear distinct fruit-buds in the fall1 but buds which produce both fruit and wood the following season4 ,illustration3 #c4 ,,diagram4 ,let us now suppose1 therefore1 that we have pruned our vine in the fall of #ahia to two canes1 each bearing ten buds4 ,we will call these canes ,a and ,b1 respectively4 7,fig4 #c47 ,in #ahib1 therefore1 twenty shoots grow from them1 and each of these shoots or new canes branches1 or produces laterals4 ,we will call these new canes of #ahib1 ,a #a1 ,a #b1 ,a #c1 ,b #a1 ,b #b1 and so on4 ,each of the new canes bears at the base about two clusters of grapes1 giving a total yield of about forty clusters4 ,these clusters stand opposite the leaves1 as seen in fig4 #a4 ,in the axil of each leaf a bud is formed which will produce a cane1 and perhaps fruit1 in #ahic4 ,if each of these new canes1 ,a #a1 ,a #b1 etc41 produce ten buds--which is a moderate number--the vine would go into the winter of #ahib-c with #bjj buds for the next year's growth and crop2 but these buds should be reduced to about twenty1 as they were in the fall of #ahia4 ,that is1 every year we go back again to the same number of buds1 and the top of the vine gets no larger from year to year4 ,we must1 therefore1 cut back again to two canes4 ,we cut back each of the original canes1 ,a and ,b1 to one new cane4 ,that is1 we leave only ,a #a and ,b #a1 cutting off ,a #b1 ,a #c1 etc41 and ,b #b1 ,b #c1 etc4 ,this brings the vine back to very nearly its condition in the fall of #ahia2 but the new canes1 ,a #a and ,b #a1 which are now to become the main canes by being bent down horizontally1 were borne at some distance--say three or four inches--from the base of the original canes1 ,a and ,b1 so that the permanent part of the vine is constantly lengthening itself4 ,this annually lengthening portion is called a spur4 ,spurs are rarely or never made in this exact position1 however1 although this diagrammatic sketch illustrates clearly the method of their formation4 ,the common method of spurring is that connected with the horizontal arm system of training1 in which the canes ,a and ,b are allowed to become permanent arms1 and the upright canes1 ,a #a1 ,a #b1 ,b #a1 ,b #b1 ,b #c1 etc41 are cut back to within two or three buds of the arms each year4 ,the cane ,a #a1 for instance1 is cut back in the fall of #ahib to two or three buds1 and in #ahic two or three canes will grow from this stub4 ,in the fall of #ahic only one cane is left after the pruning1 and this one is cut back to two or three buds2 and so on4 ,so the spur grows higher every year1 although every effort is made to keep it short1 both by reducing the number of buds to one or two and by endeavoring to bring out a cane lower down on the spur every few years4 ,fig4 #d shows a short spur of two years' standing4 ,the horizontal portion shows the permanent arm4 ,the first upright portion is the remains of the first-year cane and the upper portion is the second-year cane after it is cut back in the fall4 ,in this instance1 the cane is cut back to one fruiting bud1 b1 the small buds1 a a1 being rubbed out4 ,there are serious objections to spurs in any position4 ,they become hard and comparatively lifeless after a time1 it is often difficult to replace them by healthy fresh wood1 and the bearing portion of the vine is constantly receding from the main trunk4 ,the bearing wood should spring from near the central portions of the vine1 or be kept near the head1 as the grape-growers say4 ,in order to do this1 it is customary to allow two canes to grow out each year back of the canes ,a #a and ,b #a1 or from the head of the vine2 these canes may be designated ,c and ,d4 7,fig4 #c47 ,these canes1 ,c and ,d1 are grown during #ahib--when they may bear fruit like other canes--for the sole purpose of forming the basis of the bearing top in #ahic1 while all the old top1 ,a and ,b1 with the secondary canes1 ,a #a1 ,a #b1 ,b #a1 ,b #b1 ,b #c1 etc41 is cut entirely away4 ,here1 then1 are two distinct methods of forming the bearing top for the succeeding year3 either from spurs1 which are the remains of the previous top2 or from renewals1 which are taken each year from the old wood near the head of the vine1 or even from the ground4 ,renewals from the ground are now little used1 however1 for they seldom give a sufficient crop unless they are headed in the first fall and are allowed to bear the second year4 ,it should be borne in mind that the spur and renewal methods refer entirely to pruning1 not to training1 for either one can be used in any system of training4 ,spur pruning1 however1 is growing in disfavor amongst commercial grape-growers1 and the renewal is more or less used in all systems of training4 ,illustration3 #d4 ,,spur4 ,fig4 #e illustrates a renewal pruning4 ,this engraving shows the head of a vine seven years old1 and upon which two canes are allowed to remain after each annual pruning4 ,the portion extending from b to f and d is the base of the bearing cane of #ahib4 ,in the winter of #ahib-c1 this cane is cut off at d1 and the new cane1 e1 is left to make the bearing wood of #ahic4 ,another cane sprung from f1 but it was too weak to leave for fruiting4 ,it was1 therefore1 cut away4 ,the old stub1 b1 f1 d1 will be cut away a year hence1 in the winter of #ahic-d4 ,in the meantime1 a renewal cane will have grown from the stub c1 which is left for that purpose1 and the old cane1 b d1 will be cut off just beyond it1 between c and f4 ,in this way1 the bearing wood is kept close to the head of the vine4 ,the wound a shows where an old stub was cut away this winter1 #ahib-c1 while b shows where one was cut off the previous winter4 ,a scar upon the back of the head1 which does not show in the illustration1 marks the spot where a stub was cut away two years ago1 in the winter of #ahij-a4 ,this method of pruning can be kept up almost indefinitely1 and if care is exercised in keeping the stubs short1 the head will not enlarge out of proportion to the growth of the stock or trunk4 ,illustration3 #e4 ,,renewal ,,pruning4 ,pruning ,young ,vines4--,the time required after planting to get the vine onto the wires or trellis varies with the strength of the vine when set1 the variety1 the soil and cultivation1 and the system of training2 but1 as a rule1 the training begins the second or third year1 previous to which time the vine is pruned1 not trained4 ,two-year-old vines are most popular for planting1 although in the strong varieties1 like ,concord and ,niagara1 well-grown yearling vines are probably as good1 if not better4 ,the strong-growing kinds are commonly set from eight to ten feet apart in the row1 and the rows eight or nine feet apart4 ,delawares and other small vines may be set closer1 although eight feet is preferable4 ,when set1 the vine is cut back to two or three buds4 ,during the first year1 the young canes are usually allowed to lie upon the ground at will1 as seen in fig4 #f4 ,in the fall or winter1 all the canes but one are cut off1 and this one is cut back to two or three buds4 ,the vine is1 therefore1 no larger at the expiration of a year's growth than it was when planted2 but in the meantime the plant has become thoroughly established in the soil1 and the second year's growth should be strong enough to form the basis for the permanent trunk or arm4 ,if1 however1 the second year's growth is weak1 it may be cut back as before1 and the third season's growth used for the trunk4 ,on the other hand1 the growth of the first year is sometimes carried onto the wires to form the permanent trunk and arms1 but it is only with extra strong vines in good soil that this practice is admissible4 ,from this point1 the treatment of the vine is discussed under training4 ,illustration3 #f4 ,a ,,newly ,,set ,,vineyard4 ,when to ,prune4--,grape vines may be pruned at any time during the winter4 ,it is the practice among most grape-growers in the north to prune as time permits from ,november to late in ,february1 or even early ,march4 ,the sap flows very freely from cuts made in spring and early summer1 causing the phenomenon known as bleeding1 or in ,europe as weeping1 and in order to prevent this loss1 pruning is stopped six weeks or more before the time at which the buds usually swell4 ,it is yet a moot point if this bleeding injures the vine1 but it is a safe practice to prune early4 ,the vine is cut off an inch or two beyond the last bud which it is desired to leave1 in order to avoid injury to the bud from the drying out of the end of the cane4 ,the pruning is done with small hand pruning-shears4 ,the canes are often allowed to remain tied to the wires until the pruning is accomplished1 although it is the practice with most growers who use the ,kniffin system to cut the strings before pruning4 ,the removal of the severed canes is known as stripping4 ,in large vineyards1 the pruner sometimes leaves the stripping to boys or other cheap labor4 ,the stripping may be done at any time after the pruning is performed until spring4 ,it must be done before the growth starts on the remaining portions of the vine1 however1 to avoid injury to the young buds when tearing the vines off the trellis4 ,summer ,pruning4--,there is much discussion as to the advisability of summer pruning4 ,it is essential to the understanding of the question that the grower bear in mind that this summer pruning is of two kinds--the removal or breaking out of the superfluous shoots1 and heading-in or stopping the main canes to keep them within limits4 ,the superfluous shoots are such as spring from small1 weak buds or those which break from the old arms or trunk of the vine4 ,shoots which start from the very base of the old cane are usually weak and should be removed4 ,buds in this position are shown at a a1 in fig4 #d4 ,the secondary or axillary branches1 which often start from the base of the season's shoots1 should be removed or broken out4 ,these superfluous shoots are pulled off from time to time as they appear1 or the buds may be rubbed off before the shoots begin to grow4 ,the heading-in of the main canes1 while desirable for the purpose of keeping the vine within bounds1 is apt to cause a growth of laterals which choke up the vine and which do not mature1 and in those styles of training in which very little wood is allowed to grow1 the practice may prevent the development of a sufficient amount of leaf surface to properly sustain the vine4 ,vines are often weakened by summer pruning4 ,these dangers can be overcome by careful attention1 however1 especially by heading-in very lightly and by doing it as late in the season as possible1 when new lateral growth does not start readily4 ,the necessity of much heading-in has been largely obviated in late years by the adoption of high or drooping systems of training1 and by setting the vines far apart4 ,the strong varieties1 like ,concord1 ,brighton and ,niagara1 should be set ten feet apart in the row1 especially if grown upon the ,kniffin system4 ,catawba1 being a very upright grower and especially well adapted to upright training1 may be set eight feet apart1 and ,delawares are often set as close as six or eight feet4 ,it is doubtful1 however1 if any variety should be set less than eight feet apart for trellis culture4 ,in ,virginia and southward1 where the growth is large because of the long seasons1 vines are often set more than ten feet apart4 ,in the ,south1 the rows should run north and south1 that the fruit may be shaded from midday sun4 ,the only summer heading-in now generally recommended is the clipping of the tips when they fall over and begin to touch the ground4 ,this clipping is often done with a sickle or sharp corn-cutter4 ,objects of ,pruning4--,the objects of pruning the grape1 as of other fruits1 are five3 #a4 ,to produce larger and better fruit4 #b4 ,to maintain or augment the vigor of the vine4 #c4 ,to keep the vine within manageable limits4 #d4 ,to facilitate cultivation4 #e4 ,to facilitate spraying4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,preliminary ,,preparations ,,for ,,training--,,the ,,trellis--,,tying4 ,training the grape vine is practiced for the purpose of keeping the vine in convenient shape and to allow each cluster to receive its full amount of space and light4 ,a well trained vine is easily cultivated and sprayed1 and the grapes are readily harvested1 and it is only upon such vines that the best and fairest fruit is uniformly produced4 ,some kind of training is essential1 for a vine will not often bear good fruit when it lies upon the ground4 ,in essence1 there are three general types or styles of training1 which may be designated as the upright1 drooping and horizontal1 these terms designating the direction of the bearing shoots4 ,the upright systems carry two or more canes or arms along a low horizontal wire1 or sometimes obliquely across a trellis from below upwards1 and the shoots are tied up as they grow to the wires above4 ,the horizontal systems carry up a perpendicular cane or arm1 or sometimes two or more1 from which the shoots are carried out horizontally and are tied to perpendicular wires or posts4 ,the drooping systems1 represented in the ,kniffin and post-training1 carry the canes or arms upon a high horizontal wire or trellis and allow the shoots to hang without tying4 ,to one or another of these types all the systems of ,american grape-training can be referred4 ,there is no system of training which is best for all purposes and all varieties4 ,the strong-growing varieties more readily adapt themselves to the high drooping systems than the weaker varieties1 although the ,delaware is often trained on a comparatively low ,kniffin with good effect4 ,the high or drooping systems are of comparatively recent date1 and their particular advantages are the saving of labor in summer tying1 cheapness of the trellis1 and the facility with which the ground can be cultivated without endangering the branches of the vine4 ,the upright training distributes the bearing wood more evenly upon the vine and is thought1 therefore1 to insure more uniform fruit1 it keeps the top near the root1 which is sometimes thought to be an advantage1 and it is better suited to the stature of the small-growing varieties4 ,there is1 perhaps1 a greater temptation to neglect the vines in the drooping systems than in the others1 because the shoots need no tying and do not1 therefore1 demand frequent attention2 while in the upright systems the shoots soon become broken or displaced if not watched4 ,for very large areas1 or circumstances in which the best of care cannot be given the vineyard1 the ,kniffin or drooping systems are perhaps always to be recommended4 ,yet the ,kniffin profits as much from diligence and skill as the other systems2 but it will give better results than the others under partial neglect4 ,the strong varieties1 especially those making long and drooping canes1 are well adapted to the ,kniffin styles2 but the smaller sorts1 and those stronger sorts which1 like ,catawba1 make an upright and stocky growth1 are usually trained upon the upright systems4 ,but the merits of both systems are so various and even so little understood1 that it is impossible to recommend either one unqualifiedly4 ,the advantages in either case are often little more than matters of personal opinion4 ,it should be said1 however1 that the ,kniffin or drooping systems are gaining in favor rapidly1 and are evidently destined to overthrow much of the older upright training4 ,this fact does not indicate1 however1 that the upright system is to be entirety superseded1 but rather that it must be confined to those varieties and conditions for which it is best adapted4 ,the two systems will undoubtedly supplement each other4 ,the horizontal systems are occasionally used for choice varieties1 but they are little known4 ,making the ,trellis4--,the fall or winter following the planting of the vineyard1 the trellis is begun if the upright systems are used2 but this operation is usually delayed a year longer in the ,kniffin systems1 and stakes are commonly used1 or at least recommended1 during the second season4 ,in the ,south the trellis is made the first year4 ,the style of trellis will depend upon the style of training1 but the main features are the same for all4 ,strong posts of some durable timber1 as cedar1 locust or oak1 are placed at such distance apart that two vines can be set between each two4 ,if the vines are set nine feet apart1 the posts maybe eighteen or twenty feet apart1 and a vine will then stand four or five feet from each post4 ,if the posts in the row are eighteen feet apart and the rows eight feet apart1 about #ccj posts will be required to the acre4 ,except in very hard and stony lands1 the posts are driven with a heavy maul1 although many people prefer to set the end posts in holes1 thinking that they endure the strain better4 ,in all loose soils1 however1 posts can be made as firm by driving as by setting with a spade4 ,all posts should be as firm as possible1 in order to hold up the heavy loads of vines and fruit4 ,in setting posts on hillsides1 it is a common practice to lean them slightly uphill1 for there is always a tendency for the posts to tilt down the slope4 ,for the ,kniffin systems1 especially for the strong-growing grapes1 the posts must stand six or six and one-half feet high when set1 but a foot less will usually be sufficient for the upright and horizontal systems4 ,the posts should stand higher at first than is necessary for the support of the wires1 for they will need to be driven down occasionally as they become loose4 ,the end posts of each row should be well braced1 as shown in several of the illustrations in this volume4 ,the wire ordinarily used is ,no4 #ab1 except for the top wire in the ,kniffin training1 which is usually ,no4 #aj1 as the greater part of the weight is then upon the top wire4 ,no4 #i is sometimes used1 but it is heavier than necessary4 ,no4 #ad is occasionally used for the middle and upper rows in the upright systems1 but it is not strong enough4 ,the following figures show the sizes and weights of these and similar iron and steel wires3 ,no4 ,diameter in inches4 ,weight of #ajj feet4 ,feet in #b1jjj pounds4 #i 4#adh #e4hj pounds4 #cd1dhc #aj 4#ace #d4hc #da1djh #aa 4#abj #c4hb #eb1cef #ab 4#aje #b4ib #fh1dic #ac 4#jib #b4bd #hi1bhf #ad 4#jhj #a4fi #aah1cdc #ae 4#jgb #a4cg #ade1ihe #af 4#jfc #a4je #aij1dgf ,the plain annealed iron wire costs about #c cents per pound1 and the galvanized--which is less used for vineyards--#c-a_/b cents4 ,of ,no4 #ab wire1 about #afj pounds is required per acre for a single run on rows eight feet apart1 and about #ejj pounds for three runs4 ,the cost of ,no4 #ab wire per acre1 for three runs1 therefore1 is about #ae4 ,the wire is secured to the intermediate posts by staples driven in firmly so that the wire will not pull through readily of its own weight1 but still loosely enough to allow of the tightening of the wires4 ,in other words1 the head of the staple should not quite touch the wire4 ,grape staples are of three lengths1 about an inch1 inch and a quarter1 and an inch and a half respectively4 ,the shortest length is little used4 ,the medium length is used for hard-wood posts and the longest for soft posts1 like chestnut and cedar4 ,these staples cost five cents per pound usually1 and a pound of the medium length contains from #ij to #ajj of the ,no4 #aj wire size4 ,an acre1 for three wires1 will therefore require1 for this size1 about nine or ten pounds of staples4 ,in windy regions1 the wires should be placed upon the windward side of the posts4 ,there are various devices for securing the wire to the end posts1 but the commonest method is to wind them about the post once and secure them with a staple1 or twist the end of the wire back upon itself1 forming a loop4 ,the wires should be drawn taut to prevent sagging with the weight of fruit and leaves4 ,in order to allow for the contraction of the wires in winter1 some growers loosen the wires after harvest and others provide some device which will relieve the strain4 ,the ,yeoman's ,patent ,grape-,vine ,trellis is a simple and effective lever-contrivance attached to each wire1 and which is operated to loosen the wires in fall and to tighten them in spring4 ,the end post is sometimes provided upon the back with a square-headed pin which works tightly in an inch and a half augur hole and about which the end of the wire is wound4 ,a square-headed iron wrench operates the pin1 while the tension of the wire around the side of the post keeps the pin from slipping4 ,this device is not durable1 however4 ,an ingenious man can easily contrive some device for relieving the tension1 if he should think it necessary4 ,as a matter of practice1 however1 the wires soon stretch and sag enough with the burden of fruit and vines to take up the winter contraction1 and most growers do not release the wires in fall4 ,it will be found necessary1 in fact1 to tighten the wires and to straighten up the posts from year to year1 as they become loose4 ,it is always a profitable labor to tamp the ground firmly about all the posts every spring4 ,the wires should always be kept tight during the growing season to prevent the whipping of the vines by wind4 ,this is especially important in white grapes1 which are discolored by the rubbing of leaves and twigs4 ,unless the vines are very strong it will be necessary to stretch only one wire the first winter4 ,trellises are often made of slats1 as shown in ,fig4 #ah1 but these are always less durable than the wire trellises and more expensive to keep in repair2 and in the older portions of the country1 where timber is dear1 they are also more expensive at the outset4 ,they catch the wind1 and1 not being held together by continuous strands1 are likely to blow down in sections4 ,fuller particulars concerning the styles of trellis are given in the discussions of the different systems of training4 ,tying4--,probably the best material for tying the canes and shoots to the trellis is raffia4 ,this is a bast-like material which comes in skeins and which can be bought of seedsmen and nurserymen for about #bj cents a pound4 ,a pound will suffice to tie a quarter of an acre of upright training throughout the season4 ,raffia is obtained from the strippings of an oriental palm 7,raphia ,ruffia74 ,wool-twine is also still largely used for tying1 but it is not so cheap and handy as raffia1 and it usually has to be cut when the trellis is stripped at the winter pruning1 while the raffia breaks with a quick pull of the vine4 ,some complain that the raffia is not strong enough to hold the vine during the season1 but it can easily be doubled4 ,osier willows are much used for tying up the canes in the spring1 and also for summer tying1 especially in the nursery regions where the slender trimmings of the cultivated osier willows are easily procured4 ,wild willows are often used if they can be obtained handily4 ,these willows are tied up in a small bundle1 which is held upon the back above the hips by a cord passed about the body4 ,the butts project under the right hand1 if the person is right-handed1 and the strands are pulled out as needed4 ,the butt is first used1 the tie being made with a twist and tuck1 the strand is then cut off with a knife1 and the twig is operated in like manner until it is used up4 ,when wool-twine is used1 the ball is often held in front of the workman by a cord which is tied about it and then passed about the waist4 ,the ball is unwound from the inside1 and it will hold its shape until the end becomes so short that it will easily drag upon the ground4 ,some workmen carry the ball in a bag1 after the manner of carrying seed-corn4 ,raffia is not so easily carried in the field as the wool-twine or the willow1 and this fact interferes with its popularity4 ,green rye-straw1 cut directly from the field1 is much used for tying the shoots in summer4 ,small wire1 about two-thirds the size of broom-wire1 is used occasionally for tying up the canes in spring1 but it must be used with care or it will injure the vine4 ,corn-husks are also employed for this purpose when they can be secured4 ,bass-bark is sometimes used for tying1 but in most of the grape regions it is difficult to secure1 and it has no advantage over raffia4 ,it is very important that the canes be tied up early in spring1 for the buds are easily broken after they begin to swell4 ,these canes are tied rather firmly to the wires to hold them steady2 but the growing shoots1 which are tied during the summer1 are fastened more loosely1 to allow of the necessary increase in diameter4 ,illustration3 7,drawing of grapes7 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,upright ,,systems4 ,the upright systems are the oldest and best known of the styles of ,american grape training4 ,they consist1 essentially1 in carrying out two horizontal canes1 or sometimes arms1 upon a low wire and training the shoots from them vertically upwards4 ,these shoots are tied to the upper wires as they grow4 ,this type was first clearly and forcibly described in detail by ,a4 ,s4 ,fuller1 in his ,grape ,culturist1 in #ahfd1 and it became known as the ,fuller system1 although it was practiced many years previous to this time4 ,horizontal ,arm ,spur ,system4--,there are two types or styles of this upright system4 ,the older type and the one described in the books1 is known as the ,horizontal ,arm ,spur training4 ,in this method1 the two horizontal branches are permanent1 or1 in other words1 they are true arms4 ,the canes are cut back each fall to upright spurs upon these arms1 as explained on page #ae 7fig4 #d47 ,two shoots are often allowed to grow from each of these spurs1 as shown in fig4 #g4 ,these spurs become overgrown and weak after a few years1 and they are renewed from new shoots which spring from near their base or from the arm itself4 ,sometimes the whole arm is renewed from the head of the vine1 or even from the ground4 ,illustration3 #g4 ,,horizontal ,,arm ,,spur ,,training4 ,the number of these upright canes and their distance apart upon these permanent arms depend upon the variety1 the strength of the vine and soil and the fancy of the grower4 ,from twelve to twenty inches apart upon the arm is the common distance4 ,if a vine is strong enough to carry five canes and the vines are eight feet apart1 then the canes are distributed at intervals of about twenty inches4 ,some very strong vines of vigorous varieties will carry eight canes upon the two arms together1 and in this case the canes stand about a foot apart4 ,in the fall or winter1 the cane is cut away and the strongest new cane which springs from its base is left for the bearing wood of the following year4 ,this new cane is itself headed in to the height of the trellis2 that is1 if the uppermost and lowermost wires are #cd inches apart--as they are in the ,brocton vineyards of western ,new ,york1 where this system is largely used--this new cane is shortened in to #cd inches long4 ,upon this length of cane there will be about seven good buds in the common varieties4 ,illustration3 #h4 ,,horizontal ,,arm4 7,diagram47 ,a modification of this horizontal arm system is shown in fig4 #i4 ,it is used about ,forestville1 in ,chautauqua county1 ,new ,york4 ,the arms in this case are very short1 and canes are taken out only at two or three places4 ,the picture shows a vine in which two canes are taken from the end of each arm1 making four canes for the bearing top of the vine4 ,these canes are cut back to spurs in the fall1 as explained in the above paragraph4 ,sometimes one or two other canes are taken out of these arms nearer the main trunk4 ,the advantages urged for this style of training are the stronger growth which is insured by so few canes1 and the small amount of old or permanent wood which is left to each vine4 ,illustration3 #i4 ,,short ,,arm ,,spur ,,training4 ,the horizontal arm training is less popular than it was twenty years ago4 ,it has serious faults1 especially in the persistence of the old spurs1 and probably will eventually give place to other systems4 ,aside from the spur pruning1 the system is much like the following1 which is a modification to allow of a renewal pruning and to which the reader is referred for further details4 ,this modification1 which may be called the ,high ,renewal1 and which is one of the most serviceable of any of the styles of training1 although it has never been fully described1 we shall now consider4 ,the ,high ,renewal1 or upright training which is now very extensively employed in the lake regions of ,new ,york and elsewhere1 starts the head or branches of the vine from eighteen to thirty inches from the ground4 ,the ideal height for most varieties is probably about two feet to the first wire1 although thirty inches is better than eighteen4 ,if the vines are lower than two feet1 they are liable to be injured by the plow or cultivator1 the earth is dashed against the clusters by heavy rains1 and if the shoots become loose they strike the ground and the grapes are soon soiled4 ,a single trunk or arm is carried up to the required height1 or if good branches happen to form lower down1 two main canes are carried from this point up to the required distance to meet the lower wire1 so that the trunk becomes ,y-shaped1 as seen in figs4 #aj1 #af and #ag4 ,in fact1 vineyardists usually prefer to have this head or crotch a few inches below the lowest wire1 to facilitate the spreading and placing of the canes4 ,the trellis for the upright systems nearly always comprises three wires1 although only two are sometimes used for the smaller growing varieties1 and very rarely four are used for the strongest kinds1 although this number is unnecessary4 ,the lowest wire is stretched at eighteen1 twenty-four or thirty inches from the ground1 and the two upper ones are placed at distances of eighteen or twenty inches apart4 ,illustration3 #aj4 ,,the ,,second ,,season ,,of ,,upright ,,training4 ,illustration3 #aa4 ,,making ,,the ,t-,,head4 ,the second season after planting should see the vine tied to the first wire4 ,fig4 #aj is a photograph taken in ,july1 #ahib1 of a ,concord vine which was set in the spring of #ahia4 ,in the fall of #ahia the vine was cut back to three or four buds1 and in the spring of #ahib two of these buds were allowed to make canes4 ,these two canes are now tied to the wire1 which was stretched in the spring of #ahib4 ,in this case1 the branches start near the surface of the ground4 ,sometimes only a single strong shoot grows1 and in order to secure the two branches it is broken over where it passes the wire1 and is usually tied to a stake to afford support4 ,fig4 #aa shows this operation4 ,a bud will develop at the bend or break1 from which a cane can be trained in the opposite direction from the original portion1 and the ,t-head is secured4 ,illustration3 #ab4 ,,the ,,third ,,season ,,of ,,high ,,renewal4--,,concord4 ,illustration3 #ac4 ,,high ,,renewal1 ,,before ,,pruning4--,,catawba4 ,the close of the second season after planting1 therefore1 will usually find the vine with two good canes extending in opposite directions and tied to the wire4 ,the pruning at that time will consist in cutting off the ends of these canes back to firm and strong wood1 which will leave them bearing from five to eight buds4 ,the third season1 shoots will grow upright from these buds and will be tied to the second wire1 which has now been supplied4 ,late in the third season the vine should have much the appearance of that shown in fig4 #ab4 ,the third wire is usually added to the trellis at the close of the second season1 at the same time that the second wire is put on2 but occasionally this is delayed until the close of the third season4 ,some of the upright shoots may bear a few grapes this third season1 but unless the vines are very strong the flower clusters should be removed2 and a three-year-old vine should never be allowed to bear heavily4 ,it must be remembered1 however1 that both these horizontal canes1 with all their mass of herbage1 are to be cut away in the fall or winter of the third year4 ,some provision must have been made1 therefore1 for the top for the fourth year4 ,it will be recalled that in discussing the renewal pruning 7page #af1 fig4 #e71 it was found that two or more shoots are allowed to grow each year to form the basis of the top the following year4 ,in fig4 #ab three or four such shoots can be seen springing from the ,y-shaped portion in the center of the vine4 ,these shoots or canes are to be bent down to the lowest wire next spring1 and the bearing shoots will arise from them4 ,this process will be seen at a glance from figs4 #ac1 #ad and #ae4 ,the first shows a full grown old vine1 trained on three wires4 ,fig4 #ad shows the same vine when pruned4 ,two long canes1 with six or eight buds each1 are left to form the top of the following year4 ,the two stubs from which the renewal canes are to grow for the second year's top are seen in the center4 ,in the fall of the next year1 therefore1 these two outside canes will be cut away to the base of these renewal stubs2 and the renewal canes1 in the meantime1 will have made a year's growth4 ,these renewal stubs in this picture are really spurs1 as will be seen2 that is1 they contain two ages of wood4 ,it is the purpose1 however1 to remove these stubs or spurs every two or three years at most1 and to bring new canes directly from the old wood or head4 ,if possible1 the renewal cane is brought from a new place on the old wood every year in order to avoid a spur4 ,such was the case in the vine shown in fig4 #e1 page #ai4 ,fig4 #ae shows the same vine tied down to the lowest wire4 ,two ties have been made upon each cane4 ,fig4 #af shows a vine in which four canes have been left to form the top for the following year4 ,the stubs for the renewals can be seen in the ,y4 ,it is customary to leave more than two canes1 occasionally1 in strong-growing varieties like ,concord4 ,sometimes four and occasionally six are left4 ,if four canes are left1 two may be tied together in each direction upon the bottom wire4 ,if six are used1 the two extra ones should be tied along the second wire1 parallel with the lowest ones4 ,these extra canes are sometimes tied obliquely across the trellis1 but this practice should be discouraged1 for the usual tendency of the vine is to make its greatest growth at the top1 and the lower buds may fail to bear4 ,illustration3 #ad4 ,,high ,,renewal1 ,,pruned4 ,illustration3 #ae4 ,,high ,,renewal1 ,,pruned ,,and ,,tied4 ,the ideal length of the two canes varies with different varieties and the distance apart at which the vines are set4 ,very strong kinds1 like ,concord and ,niagara1 can carry ten or twelve buds on each cane1 especially if the vines are set more than eight feet apart4 ,fig4 #ag shows half of a ,concord vine in which about ten buds were left on each cane4 ,these strong sorts can often carry forty or fifty buds to the vine to advantage1 but when this number is left the canes should be four1 as explained in the last paragraph4 ,in ,delaware and other weak-growing varieties1 twenty or twenty-five buds to the vine should be the maximum and only two canes should be left4 ,in short-jointed varieties1 the canes are usually cut to the desired length--four to six feet--even if too great a number of buds is left1 but the shoots which spring from these extra buds are broken out soon after they start4 ,a ,delaware vine which has made an unusually short or weak growth will require fewer buds to be left for next year's top than a neighboring vine of the same variety which has made a strong growth4 ,the ,catawba1 which is a short but very stiff grower1 is usually cut back to six or eight buds1 as seen in figs4 #ac1 #ad and #ae4 ,the grower soon learns to adjust the pruning to the character of the vine without effort4 ,he has in his mind a certain ideal crop of grapes1 perhaps about so many bunches1 and he leaves enough buds to produce this amount1 allowing1 perhaps1 ten per cent4 of the buds for accidents and barren shoots4 ,he knows1 too1 that the canes should always be cut back to firm1 well-ripened wood4 ,it should be said that mere size of cane does not indicate its value as a fruit-bearing branch4 ,hard1 smooth wood of medium size usually gives better results than the very large and softer canes which are sometimes produced on soils rich in nitrogenous manures4 ,this large and overgrown wood is known as a bull cane4 ,a cane does not attain its full growth the first year1 but will increase in diameter during the second season4 ,the tying therefore1 should be sufficiently loose or elastic to allow of growth1 although it should be firm enough to hold the cane constantly in place4 ,the cane should not be hung from the wire1 but tied close to it1 provision being made for the swelling of the wood to twice its diameter4 ,illustration3 #af4 ,,high ,,renewal ,,with ,,four ,,canes4 ,illustration3 #ag4 ,,high ,,renewal ,,complete4--,,concord4 ,the shoots are tied to the second wire soon after they pass it1 or have attained firmness enough to allow of tying1 and the same shoots are tied again to the top wire4 ,all the shoots do not grow with equal rapidity1 and the vineyard must be gone over more than twice if the shoots are kept properly tied4 ,perhaps four times over the vineyard will be all that is necessary for careful summer tying4 ,many vineyardists tie only once or twice1 but this neglect should be discouraged4 ,this tying is mostly done with green rye straw or raffia4 ,a piece of straw about ten inches long is used for each tie1 it usually being wrapped but once about the shoot4 ,the knot is made with a twist and tuck4 ,if raffia is used1 a common string-knot is made4 ,when the shoots reach the top of the trellis1 they are usually allowed to take care of themselves4 ,the ,catawba shoots stand nearly erect above the top wire and ordinarily need no attention4 ,the long-growing varieties will be likely to drag the shoots upon the ground before the close of the season4 ,if these tips interfere with the cultivation1 they may be clipped off with a sickle or corn-cutter1 although this practice should be delayed as long as possible to prevent the growth of laterals 7see page #ba74 ,it is probably better to avoid cutting entirely4 ,some growers wind or tie the longest shoots upon the top wire1 as seen in fig4 #ag4 ,it is probably best1 as a rule1 to allow the shoots to hang over naturally1 and to clip them only when they seriously interfere with the work of the hoe and cultivator4 ,the treatment for slat trellises1 as shown in fig4 #ah1 is the same as on wire trellises1 except that longer strings must be used in tying4 ,illustration3 #ah4 ,a ,,slat ,,trellis1 ,,with ,,upright ,,training4 ,it is apparent that nearly or quite all the fruit in the ,high ,renewal is borne between the first and second wires1 at the bottom of the trellis4 ,if the lower wire is twenty-four or thirty inches high1 this fruit will hang at the most convenient height for picking4 ,the fruit trays are set upon the ground1 and both hands are free4 ,the fruit is also protected from the hot suns and from frost2 and if the shoots are properly tied1 the clusters are not shaken roughly by the wind4 ,it is1 of course1 desirable that all the clusters should be fully exposed to light and air1 and all superfluous shoots should1 therefore1 be pulled off1 as already explained 7page #ba74 ,in rare cases it may also be necessary1 for this purpose1 to prune the canes which droop over from the top of the trellis4 ,after a few years1 the old top or head of the vine becomes more or less weak and it should be renewed from the root4 ,the thrifty vineyardist anticipates this circumstance1 and now and then allows a thrifty shoot which may spring from the ground to remain4 ,this shoot is treated very much like a young vine1 and the head is formed during the second year 7page #af1 bottom74 ,if it should make a strong growth during the first year and develop stout laterals1 it may be cut back only to the lowest wire the first fall2 but in other cases1 it should be cut back to two or three buds1 from one of which a strong and permanent shoot is taken the second year4 ,when this new top comes into bearing1 the old trunk is cut off at the surface of the ground1 or below if possible4 ,a top will retain its vigor for six or eight years under ordinary treatment1 and sometimes much longer4 ,these tops are renewed from time to time as occasion permits or demands1 and any vineyard which has been bearing a number of years will nearly always have a few vines in process of renewal4 ,the reader should not receive the impression1 however1 that the life or vitality of a vine is necessarily limited4 ,vines often continue to bear for twenty years or more without renewal2 but the head after a time comes to be large and rough and crooked1 and often weakened by scars1 and better results are likely to be obtained if a new1 clean vine takes its place4 ,the ,high ,renewal is extensively used in the lake region of ,western ,new ,york1 for all varieties4 ,it is particularly well adapted to ,delaware1 ,catawba1 and other weak or short varieties4 ,when systematically pursued1 it gives fruit of the highest excellence4 ,this ,high ,renewal training1 like all the low upright systems1 allows the vines to be laid down easily in winter1 which is an important consideration in many parts of ,canada and in the colder northern states4 ,fan ,training4--,a system much used a few years ago and still sometimes seen1 is one which renews back nearly to the ground each year1 and carries the fruiting canes up in a fan-shaped manner4 ,this system has the advantages of dispensing with much of the old wood1 or trunk1 and facilitating laying down the vine in winter in cold climates4 ,on the other hand1 it has the disadvantages of bearing the fruit too low--unless the lower clusters are removed--and making a vine of inconvenient shape for tying4 ,it is little used at present4 ,fig4 #ai shows a vine pruned for fan-training1 although it is by no means an ideal vine4 ,this vine has not been properly renewed1 but bears long1 crooked spurs1 from which the canes spring4 ,one of these spurs will be seen to extend beyond the lower wire4 ,the spurs should be kept very short1 and they should be entirely removed every two or three years1 as explained in the above discussion of the ,high ,renewal training4 ,the shoots are allowed to take their natural course1 being tied to any wire near which they chance to grow1 finally lopping over the top wire4 ,sometimes the canes are bent down and tied horizontally to the wires1 and this is probably the better practice4 ,two canes may be tied in each direction on the lower wire1 or the two inner canes may be tied down to the second wire4 ,in either case1 the vine is essentially like the ,high ,renewal1 except that the trunk is shorter4 ,illustration3 #ai4 ,,fan ,,training1 ,,after ,,pruning4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,drooping ,,systems4 ,in #ahde ,william ,t4 ,cornell planted a vineyard in the ,hudson ,river ,valley4 ,a neighbor1 ,william ,kniffin1 was a stone mason with a few acres of land to which he devoted his attention during the leisure seasons of his trade4 ,cornell induced ,kniffin to plant a few grapes4 ,he planted the ,isabella1 and succeeding beyond his expectations1 the plantation was increased into a respectable vineyard and ,kniffin came to be regarded as a local authority upon grape culture4 ,those were the pioneer days in commercial grape growing in ,north ,america1 and there were no undisputed maxims of cultivation and training4 ,if any system of close training and pruning was employed1 it was probably the old horizontal arm spur system1 or something like it4 ,one day a large limb broke from an apple-tree and fell upon a grape-vine1 tearing off some of the canes and crushing the vine into a singular shape4 ,the vine was thought to be ruined1 but it was left until the fruit could be gathered4 ,but as the fruit matured1 its large size and handsome appearance attracted attention4 ,it was the best fruit in the vineyard6 ,mr4 ,kniffin was an observant man1 and he inquired into the cause of the excellent fruit4 ,he noticed that the vine had been pruned and that the best canes stood out horizontally4 ,from this suggestion he developed the four-cane system of training which now bears his name4 ,a year or two later1 in #ahed1 the system had attracted the attention of those of his neighbors who cultivated grapes1 and thereafter it spread throughout the ,hudson valley1 where it is to-day1 with various modifications1 the chief method of grape training4 ,its merits have become known beyond its original valley1 and it is now spreading more rapidly than any other system4 ,the ground upon which the old ,isabellas grew is now occupied by ,concords1 which are as vigorous and productive as those grown upon newer soils4 ,william ,kniffin died at his home in ,clintondale1 ,ulster county1 ,new ,york1 ,june #ac1 #ahgf1 at fifty-seven years of age4 ,the portrait is from a photograph which was taken two or three years before his death4 ,illustration3 #bj4 ,,william ,,kniffin4 ,the ,true or ,four-,cane ,kniffin ,system4--,figure #ba shows the true ,kniffin system1 very nearly as practiced by its originator4 ,a single stem or trunk is carried directly to the top wire1 and two canes are taken out from side spurs at each wire4 ,mr4 ,kniffin believed in short canes1 and cut them back to about six buds on both wires4 ,but most growers now prefer to leave the upper canes longer than the lower ones1 as seen in illustration4 ,the bearing shoots are allowed to hang at will1 so that no summer tying is necessary2 this is the distinguishing mark of the various ,kniffin systems4 ,the main trunk is tied to each wire1 and the canes are tied to the wires in spring4 ,this system possesses the great advantage1 therefore1 of requiring little labor during the busy days of the growing season2 and the vines are easily cultivated1 and if the rows are nine or ten feet apart1 currants or other bush-fruits can be grown between4 ,the system is especially adapted to the strong varieties of grapes4 ,for further comparisons of the merits of different systems of training1 the reader should consult ,chapter ,,ii4 ,illustration3 #ba4 ,,the ,,true ,,kniffin ,,training4 ,illustration3 #bb4 ,,no4 #ba ,,when ,,pruned4 ,the pruning of the ,kniffin vine consists in cutting off all the wood save a single cane from each spur4 ,fig4 #bb illustrates the process4 ,this is the same vine which is shown with the full amount of wood on in fig4 #ba4 ,the drooping shoots shown in that illustration bore the grapes of #ahib2 and now1 in the winter of #ahib-ic1 they are all to be cut away1 with the horizontal old canes from which they grew1 save only the four canes which hang nearest the main trunk4 ,fig4 #bb shows the vine after it had been pruned4 ,it is not obligatory that the canes which are left after the pruning should be those nearest the trunk1 for it may happen that these may be weak2 but1 other things being equal1 these canes are preferable because their selection keeps the old spurs short4 ,the careful grower will take pains to remove the weak shoots which start from this point1 in order that a strong cane may be obtained4 ,it is desirable that these side spurs be removed entirely every three or four years1 a new cane being brought out again from the main body or trunk4 ,there is little expectation1 however1 that there shall be such a complete renewal pruning as that practiced in the ,high ,renewal1 which we discussed in the last chapter4 ,it will be seen that the drooping canes in fig4 #bb are shorter than they were originally1 as shown in fig4 #ba4 ,they have been cut back4 ,the length at which these canes shall be left is a moot point4 ,much depends upon the variety1 the distance between the wires1 the strength of the soil1 and other factors4 ,nearly all growers now agree that the upper canes should be longer than the lower ones1 although equal canes are still used in some places4 ,in strong varieties1 like ,worden1 each of the upper canes may bear ten buds and each of the lower ones five4 ,this gives thirty buds to the vine4 ,some growers prefer to leave twelve buds above and only four below4 ,these four pruned canes are generally allowed to hang during winter1 but are tied onto the wires before the buds swell in spring4 ,they are stretched out horizontally and secured to the wire by one or two ties upon each cane4 ,the shoots which spring from these horizontal canes stand upright or oblique at first but they soon fall over with the weight of foliage and fruit4 ,if they touch the ground1 the ends may be clipped off with a sickle1 corn-cutter or scythe1 although this is not always done1 and is not necessary unless the canes interfere with cultivation4 ,there is no summer-pinching nor pruning1 although the superfluous shoots should be broken out1 as in other systems4 7,see page #bc74 ,only two wires are used in the true ,kniffin trellis4 ,the end posts are usually set in holes1 rather than driven1 to render them solid1 and they should always be well braced4 ,the intermediate posts are driven1 and they usually stand between every alternate vine1 or twenty feet apart if the vines are ten feet apart--which is a common distance for the most vigorous varieties4 ,for the strong-growing varieties1 the top wire is placed from five and one-half to six feet above the ground4 ,five feet nine inches is a popular height4 ,the posts will heave sufficiently to bring the height to six feet1 although it is best to tap the posts every spring with a maul in order to drive them back and make them firm4 ,the lower wire is usually placed at three and one-half feet4 ,delawares1 if trained ,kniffin1 should not stand above five feet four inches1 or at most five feet six inches4 ,strong vines on good soil are often put onto the trellis the second year1 although it is a commoner practice1 perhaps1 to stake them the second season1 as already explained 7page #bg71 and put them on the wires the third season4 ,the year following the tying to the trellis1 the vine should bear a partial crop4 ,the vine is usually carried directly to the top wire the first season of training1 although it is the practice of some growers1 especially outside the ,hudson valley1 to stop the trunk at the lower wire the first year of permanent training1 and to carry it to the top wire the following year4 ,yields from good ,kniffin vines will average fully as high and perhaps higher than from other species of training4 ,w4 ,d4 ,barns1 of ,orange county1 ,new ,york1 has had an annual average of twenty-six pounds of ,concords to the vine for nine years1 #a1eej vines being considered in the calculation4 ,while the ,delaware is not so well suited to the ,kniffin system as stronger varieties1 it can nevertheless be trained in this manner with success1 as the following average yields obtained by ,mr4 ,barns from #bjj vines set in #ahha will show3 #ahhf #h-a_/b pounds to the vine4 #ahhg #aa-c_/d #ahhh #h #ahhi #i-a_/b #ahij #g #ahia #af #ahib #ac ,modifications of the ,four-,cane ,kniffin4--,various modifications of this original four-cane ,kniffin are in use4 ,the ,kniffin idea is often carelessly applied to a rack trellis4 ,in such cases1 several canes were allowed to grow where only two should have been left4 ,fig4 #bc is a common but poor style of ,kniffin used in some of the large new vineyards of western ,new ,york4 ,it differs from the type in the training of the young wood4 ,these shoots1 instead of being allowed to hang at will1 are carried out horizontally and either tied to the wire or twisted around it4 ,the advantage urged for this modification is the little injury done by wind1 but1 as a matter of practice1 it affords less protection than the true drooping ,kniffin1 for in the latter the shoots from the upper cane soon cling to the lower wire1 and the shoots from both tiers of canes protect each other below the lower wire4 ,there are three serious disadvantages to this holding up of the shoots1--it makes unnecessary labor1 the canes are likely to make wood or bull canes 7see page #ej7 at the expense of fruit1 and the fruit is bunched together on the vines4 ,illustration3 #bc4 ,a ,,poor ,,type ,,of ,,kniffin4 ,another common modification of the four-cane ,kniffin is that shown in fig4 #bd1 in which a crotch or ,y is made in the trunk4 ,this crotch is used in the belief that the necessary sap supply is thereby more readily deflected into the lower arms than by the system of side spurring on a straight or continuous trunk4 ,this is probably a fallacy1 and may have arisen from the attempt to grow as heavy canes on the lower wire as on the upper one4 ,nevertheless1 this modification is in common use in western ,new ,york and elsewhere4 ,illustration3 #bd4 ,,the ,y-,,trunk ,,kniffin4 ,if it is desired to leave an equal number of buds on both wires1 the ,double ,kniffin will probably be found most satisfactory4 ,two distinct trunks are brought from the root1 each supplying a single wire only4 ,the trunks are tied together to hold them in place4 ,this system1 under the name of ,improved ,kniffin1 is just coming into notice in restricted portions of the ,hudson valley4 ,the ,two-,cane ,kniffin1 or ,umbrella ,system4--,inasmuch as the greater part of the fruit in the ,four-,cane ,kniffin is born upon the upper wire1 the question arises if it would not be better to dispense with the lower canes and cut the upper ones longer4 ,this is now done to a considerable extent1 especially in the ,hudson valley4 ,fig4 #be explains the operation4 ,this shows a pruned vine4 ,the trunk is tied to the lower wire to steady it1 and two canes1 each bearing from nine to fifteen buds1 are left upon the upper wire4 ,these canes are tied to the upper wire and they are then bent down1 hoop-like1 to the lower wire1 where the ends are tied4 ,in some instances1 the lower wire is dispensed with1 but this is not advisable4 ,this wire holds the vine in place against the winds and prevents the too violent whipping of the hanging shoots4 ,during the growing season1 renewal canes are taken from the spurs in exactly the same manner as in the ordinary ,kniffin4 ,this species of training reduces the amount of leaf-surface to a minimum1 and every precaution must be taken to insure a healthy leaf-growth4 ,this system of training will probably not allow of the successful girdling of the vine for the purpose of hastening the maturity and augmenting the size of the fruit4 ,yet heavy crops can be obtained from it1 if liberal fertilizing and good cultivation are employed1 and the fruit is nearly always first-class4 ,a ,concord vine trained in this manner produced in #ahib eighty clusters of first quality grapes1 weighing forty pounds4 ,illustration3 #be4 ,,umbrella ,,training4 ,another type of ,umbrella training is shown in fig4 #bf1 before pruning4 ,here five main canes were allowed to grow1 instead of two4 ,except in very strong vines1 this top is too heavy1 and it is probably never so good as the other 7fig4 #be71 if the highest results are desired2 but for the grower who does not care to insure high cultivation it is probably a safer system than the other4 ,illustration3 #bf4 ,a ,,poor ,,umbrella ,,system4 ,the ,low1 or ,one-,wire ,kniffin4--,a modification of this ,umbrella system is sometimes used1 in which the trellis is only three or four feet high and comprises but a single wire4 ,a cane of ten or a dozen buds is tied out in each direction1 and the shoots are allowed to hang in essentially the same manner as in the ,true or ,high ,kniffin system4 ,the advantages urged for this system are the protection of the grapes from wind1 the large size of the fruit due to the small amount of bearing wood1 the ease of laying down the vines1 the readiness with which the top can be renewed from the root as occasion demands1 and the cheapness of the trellis4 ,the ,six-,cane ,kniffin4--,there are many old vineyards in eastern ,new ,york which are trained upon a six-cane or three-wire system4 ,the general pruning and management of these vines do not differ from that of the common ,kniffin4 ,very strong varieties which can carry an abundance of wood1 may be profitable upon this style of training1 but it cannot be recommended4 ,a ,concord vineyard over thirty years old1 comprising #bie vines1 trained in this fashion1 is still thrifty and productive4 ,twice it has produced crops of six tons4 ,illustration3 #bg4 ,,eight-,,cane ,,kniffin4 7,diagram47 ,eight-,cane ,kniffin4--,eight and even ten canes are sometimes left upon a single trunk1 and are trained out horizontally or somewhat obliquely1 as shown in the accompanying diagram 7fig4 #bg74 ,unless these canes are cut back to four or five buds each1 the vine carries too much wood and fruit4 ,this system allows of close planting1 but the trellis is too expensive4 ,the trunk soon becomes overgrown with spurs1 and it is likely to become prematurely weak4 ,this style is very rarely used4 ,illustration3 #bh4 ,,overhead ,,kniffin4 ,illustration3 #bi4 ,,overhead ,,kniffin4 ,overhead1 or ,arbor ,kniffin4--,a curious modification of the ,kniffin is employed somewhat on the ,hudson1 particularly by ,sands ,haviland at ,marlboro'4 ,the vines are carried up on a kind of overhead arbor1 as shown in figs4 #bh1 #bi and #cj4 ,the trellis is six feet above the ground1 and is composed of three horizontal wires lying in the same plane4 ,the central wire runs from post to post1 and one upon either side is attached to the end of a three-foot cross-bar1 as represented in fig4 #bh4 ,the rows are nine feet apart1 and the vines and posts twelve feet apart in the row4 ,contiguous rows are braced by a connecting-pole1 as in fig4 #bi4 ,the trunk of the vine ends in a ,t-shaped head1 which is well displayed in the vine at the extreme right in the foreground in fig4 #cj4 ,from this ,t-head1 five canes are carried out from spurs4 ,it was formerly the practice to carry out six canes1 one in each direction upon each wire1 but this was found to supply too much wood4 ,now two canes are carried in one direction and three in the other2 and the positions of these sets are alternated each year1 if possible4 ,the canes which are left after the winter pruning are tied along the wires in spring1 as in the ,kniffin1 and the shoots hang over the wires4 ,the chief advantage of this training is that it allows of the growing of bush-fruits between the rows1 as seen in fig4 #bi4 ,it is also said that the clusters hang so free that the bloom is not injured by the twigs or leaves1 and the fruit is protected from sun and frost4 ,every post must be large and firmly set1 however1 adding much to the cost of the trellis4 ,several styles similar to this are in use1 one of the best being the ,crittenden system1 of ,michigan4 ,in this system1 the trellis is low1 not exceeding four or five feet1 and the vines cover a flat-topped platform two or three feet wide4 ,illustration3 #cj4 ,,overhead ,,kniffin1 ,,before ,,pruning4 ,the ,cross-,wire ,system4--,another high ,kniffin training1 and which is also confined to the vicinity of ,marlboro'1 ,new ,york1 is the ,cross-,wire1 represented in figs4 #ca and #cb4 ,small posts are set eight feet apart each way1 and a single wire runs from the top of post to post--six and one-half feet from the ground--in each direction1 forming a check-row system of overhead wires4 ,the grape-vine is set at the foot of the stake1 to which the trunk is tied for support4 ,four canes are taken from spurs on the head of the trunk1 one for each of the radiating wires4 ,these canes are cut to three and one-half or four feet in length1 and the bearing shoots droop as they grow4 ,fig4 #ca shows this training as it appears some time after the leaves start in spring4 ,later in the season the whole vineyard becomes a great arbor1 and a person standing at a distance sees an almost impenetrable mass of herbage1 as in fig4 #cb4 ,this system appears to have little merit1 and will always remain local in application4 ,it possesses the advantage of economy in construction of the trellis1 for very slender posts are used1 even at the ends of the rows4 ,the end posts are either braced by a pole or anchored by a wire taken from the top and secured to a stake or stone eight or ten feet beyond1 outside the vineyard4 ,illustration3 #ca4 ,,cross-,,wire ,,training4 ,illustration3 #cb4 ,,cross-,,wire ,,training4 ,,outside ,,view4 ,renewal ,kniffin4--,it is an easy matter to adapt the ,kniffin principle of free hanging shoots to a true renewal method of pruning4 ,there are a few modifications in use in which the wood is annually renewed to near the ground4 ,the trellises comprise either two or three wires1 and are made in the same manner as for the upright systems1 as the ,high ,renewal4 ,at the annual pruning only one cane is left4 ,this comprises twelve or fifteen buds1 and is tied up diagonally across the trellis1 the point or end of the cane usually being bent downward somewhat1 in order to check the strong growth from the uppermost parts4 ,the shoots hang from this cane1 and they may be pinched back when they reach the ground4 ,in the meantime a strong shoot is taken out from the opposite side of the head--which usually stands a foot or less from the ground--to make the bearing wood of the next year2 and this new cane will be tied in an opposite direction on the trellis from the present bearing cane1 and the next renewal shoot will be taken from the other side of the head1 or the side from which the present bearing wood sprung2 so that the bearing top of the vine is alternated in either direction upon the trellis4 ,this system1 and similar ones1 allow of laying down the vines easily in winter1 and insure excellent fruit because the amount of bearing wood is small2 but the crop is not large enough to satisfy most demands4 ,the ,munson ,system4--,an unique system of training1 upon the ,kniffin principle1 has been devised by ,t4 ,v4 ,munson1 of ,denison1 ,texas1 a well-known authority upon grapes4 ,two posts are set in the same hole1 their tops diverging4 ,a wire is stretched along the top of these posts and a third one is hung between them on cross-wires4 ,the trunk of the vine1 or its head1 is secured to this middle lower wire and the shoots lop over the side wires4 ,the growth1 therefore1 makes a ,v-shaped or trough-like mass of herbage4 ,fig4 #cc is an end view of this trellis1 showing the short wire connecting the posts and which also holds the middle trellis-wire at the point of the ,v4 ,fig4 #cd is a side view of the trellis4 ,the bearing canes1 two or four1 in number1 which are left after the annual pruning1 are tied along this middle wire4 ,the main trunk forks just under the middle wire1 as seen at the left in fig4 #cd4 ,a head is formed at this place not unlike like that which characterizes the ,high ,renewal1 for this system also employs renewal pruning4 ,the trellis stands six feet high4 ,the shoots stand upright at first1 but soon fall down and are supported by the side wires4 ,the following account of this system of training is written for this occasion by ,mr4 ,munson3 ,after the vines have flowered1 the bearing laterals have their tips pinched off1 and that is all the summer pruning the vine gets1 except to rub off all eyes that start on the body below the crotch4 ,two to four shoots1 according to strength of vine1 are started from the forks or crotch and allowed to bear no fruit1 but are trained along over the lower central wire for renewal canes4 ,when pruning time arrives1 the entire bearing cane of the present year1 with all its laterals1 is cut away at a point near where the young renewal shoots have started1 and these shoots are shortened back1 according to strength of vine2 some1 such as ,herbemont1 being able at four years to fill four shoots six or eight feet long with fine fruit1 while ,delaware could not well carry over three or four feet each way of one shoot only4 ,the different varieties are set at various distances apart1 according as they are strong or weak growers4 ,illustration3 #cc4 ,,munson ,,training4 ,,end ,,view4 ,thus the trellis and system of pruning are reduced to the simplest form4 ,a few cuts to each vine cover all the pruning1 and a few ties complete the task4 ,a novice can soon learn to do the work well4 ,the trunk or main stem is secured to the middle lower wire1 along which all bearing canes are tied after pruning1 and from which the young laterals which produce the crop are to spring4 ,these laterals strike the two outer wires1 soon clinging to them with their tendrils1 and are safe from destruction1 while the fruit is thrown in the best possible position for spraying and gathering1 and is still shaded with the canopy of leaves4 ,i have now used this trellis five years upon ten acres of mixed vines1 and ,i am more pleased with it every year4 ,illustration3 #cd4 ,,munson ,,training4 ,,side ,,view4 ,the following advantages are secured by this system3 #a4 ,the natural habit of the vine is maintained1 which is a canopy to shade the roots and body of vine and the fruit1 without smothering4 #b4 ,new wood1 formed by sap which has never passed through bearing wood1 is secured for the next crop--a very important matter4 #c4 ,simplicity and convenience of trellis1 allowing free passage in any direction through the vineyard2 circulation of air without danger of breaking tender shoots2 ease of pruning1 spraying1 cultivation1 harvesting4 #d4 ,perfect control in pruning of amount of crop to suit capacity of vine4 #e4 ,long canes for bearing1 which agrees exactly with the nature of nearly all our ,american species far better than short spurs4 #f4 ,ease of laying down in winter4 ,the vine being pruned and not tied1 standing away from posts1 can be bent down to one side between the rows1 and earth thrown upon it1 and can be quickly raised and tied in position4 #g4 ,cheapness of construction and ease of removing trellis material and using it again4 #h4 ,durability of both trellis and vineyard4 ,illustration3 7,drawing of grapes7 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,miscellaneous ,,systems4 ,horizontal ,training4--,there are very few types of horizontal shoot training now in use4 ,the best is probably that shown in fig4 #ce4 ,this particular vine is a ,delaware1 to which this training is well adapted4 ,it will be noticed that this picture represents the end of a trellis1 and the diagonal stick seen near the ground is a brace for the end post4 ,two wires run from post to post1 one about two and one-half feet above the ground and the other five and one-half feet high4 ,the posts are set at the ordinary distance of #af or #ah feet apart4 ,the vines are set six or eight feet apart1 if ,delawares4 ,a strong stake is driven in the ground behind each vine1 standing as high as the top of the trellis when set4 ,the permanent trunk or head of the vine stands about a foot high4 ,the vine is renewed back to the top of this trunk every year4 ,one cane is left at each pruning1 which1 when tied up to the stake1 is as high as the trellis4 ,from this perpendicular cane1 the bearing shoots are carried out horizontally4 ,about six of these shoots are allowed to grow upon either side of the cane4 ,as the shoots grow1 they are tied to perpendicular slats which are fastened on the wires4 ,these slats do not touch the ground4 ,two slats are provided upon either side1 making four to a vine4 ,they stand a foot or fifteen inches apart4 ,the clusters hang free from the horizontal shoots4 ,if the shoots grow too long1 they are pinched in when they have passed the second slat4 ,while these shoots are covering the trellis1 another shoot is taken out from the head or trunk of the vine and1 without being allowed to fruit1 is tied up along the central stake4 ,this shoot is to form the top next year1 for all the present vine is to be entirely cut away at the winter's pruning4 ,so the vine starts every spring with but a single cane4 ,illustration3 #ce4 ,,horizontal ,,training4 ,excellent results are obtained from the slender growing varieties by this method of training1 but it is too expensive in trellis and in labor of tying to make it generally practicable4 ,delaware1 however1 thrives remarkably well when trained in this fashion4 ,post ,training4--,there are various methods of training to posts1 all of which possess two advantages--the saving of the expense of trellis and allowing of cultivation both ways4 ,but they also have grave disadvantages1 especially in the thickness of the head of foliage which harbors rot and mildew and prevents successful spraying1 and hinders the fruit from coloring and ripening well4 ,these faults are so serious that post training is now little used for the ,american grapes4 ,the saving in cost of trellis is not great1 for more posts are required to the acre than in the trellis systems1 and they do not endure long when standing alone with the whole weight of the vines thrown upon them4 ,illustration3 #cf4 ,,low ,,post ,,training4 ,there are various methods of pruning for the stake training1 but nearly all of them agree in pruning to side spurs upon a permanent upright arm which stands the full height of the vine4 ,there may be one or two sets of these spurs4 ,we might suppose the ,kniffin vine1 shown in fig4 #bb1 to be tied to a post instead of stretched on a trellis2 in that event1 the four canes would hang at will1 or they might be wrapped about the post1 the shoots hanging out unsupported in all directions4 ,the post systems are essentially ,kniffin in principle1 for the shoots hang free4 ,in low styles of post training1 the permanent head of the vine may be only three or four feet high4 ,this head will have a ring of spurs on it1 and at the annual pruning three to five canes with from six to ten buds each are left4 ,fig4 #cf is a view in such a post vineyard4 ,the main trunk is usually tied permanently to the post4 ,the canes left after pruning are variously disposed4 ,sometimes they are bent upwards and tied to the post above the head of the vine1 but they are oftenest either wound loosely about the post1 or are allowed to hang loose4 ,two trunks are frequently used to each post1 both coming from the ground from a common root4 ,these are wound about the post in opposite directions1 one outside the other1 and if the outside one is secured at the top by a small nail driven through it1 or by a cord1 no other tying will be necessary4 ,sometimes two or three posts are set at distances of one foot or more apart1 and the vines are wrapped about them1 but this only augments the size and depth of the mass of foliage4 ,now and then one sees a careful post training1 in which but little wood is left and vigorous breaking out of shoots practiced1 which gives excellent results2 but on the whole1 it cannot be recommended4 ,the ,european post and stake systems or modifications of them1 are yet occasionally recommended for ,american vines1 but under general conditions1 especially in commercial grape growing1 they rarely succeed long4 ,one of the latest recommendations of any of these types is that of the single pole system of the ,upper ,rhine ,valley1 by ,a4 ,f4 ,hofer1 of ,iowa1 in a little treatise published in #ahgh4 ,arbors4--,arbors and bowers are usually formed with little reference to pruning and training4 ,the first object is to secure shade and seclusion1 and these are conditions which may seriously interfere with the production of fine grapes4 ,as a rule1 too much wood must be allowed to grow1 and the soil about arbors is rarely ever cultivated4 ,still1 fair results in fruit can be obtained if the operator makes a diligent use of the pruning shears4 ,it is usually best to carry one main or permanent trunk up to the top or center of the arbor4 ,along this trunk at intervals of two feet or less1 spurs may be left to which the wood is renewed each year4 ,if the vines stand six feet apart about the arbor--which is a satisfactory distance--one cane three feet long may be left on each spur when the pruning is done4 ,the shoots which spring from these canes will soon cover up the intermediate spaces4 ,at the close of the season1 this entire cane with its laterals is cut away at the spur1 and another three-foot cane--which grew during the season--is left in its place4 ,this pruning is essentially that of the ,kniffin vine in fig4 #bb4 ,imagine this vine1 with as many joints or tiers as necessary1 laid upon the arbor4 ,the canes are tied out horizontally to the slats instead of being tied on wires4 ,this same system--running up a long trunk and cutting in to side spurs--will apply equally well to tall walls and fences which it is desired to cover4 ,undoubtedly a better plan1 so far as yield and quality of fruit is concerned1 is to renew back nearly to the root1 bringing up a strong new cane1 or perhaps two or three every year1 and cutting the old ones off2 but as the vines are desired for shade one does not care to wait until midsummer for the vines to reach and cover the top of the arbor4 ,remodeling ,old ,vines4--,old and neglected tops can rarely be remodeled to advantage4 ,if the vine is still vigorous1 it will probably pay to grow an entirely new top by taking out a cane from the root4 ,if the old top is cut back severely for a year or two1 this new cane will make a vigorous growth1 and it can be treated essentially like a new or young vine4 ,if it is very strong and ripens up well1 it can be left long enough the first fall to make the permanent trunk2 but if it is rather weak and soft1 it should be cut back in the fall or winter to two or three buds1 from one of which the permanent trunk is to be grown the second season4 ,thereafter1 the instructions which are given in the preceding pages for the various systems1 will apply to the new vine4 ,the old trunk should be cut away as soon as the new one is permanently tied to the wires1 that is1 at the close of either the first or second season of the new trunk4 ,care must be exercised to rub off all sprouts which spring from the old root or stump4 ,if this stump can be cut back into the ground and covered with earth1 better results may be expected4 ,old vines treated in this manner often make good plants1 but if the vines are weak and the soil is poor1 the trouble will scarcely pay for itself4 ,these old vines can be remodeled easily by means of grafting4 ,cut off the trunk five or six inches below the surface of the ground1 leaving an inch or two of straight wood above the roots4 ,into this stub insert two cions exactly as for cleft-grafting the apple4 ,cions of two or three buds1 of firm wood the size of a lead-pencil1 should be inserted4 ,the top bud should stand above the ground4 ,the cleft will need no tying nor wax1 although it is well to place a bit of waxed cloth or other material over the wound to keep the soil out of it4 ,fill the earth tightly about it4 ,fig4 #cg shows the first year's growth from two cions of ,niagara set in a ,red ,wyoming root4 ,great care must be taken in any pruning which is done this first year1 or the cions may be loosened4 ,if the young shoots are tied to a stake there will be less danger from wind and careless workmen4 ,in the vine shown in the illustration1 no pruning nor rubbing out was done1 but the vine would have been in better shape for training if only one or two shoots had been allowed to grow4 ,such a vine as this can be carried onto the trellis next year2 or it may be cut back to three or four buds1 one of which is allowed to make the permanent trunk next year1 like a two-year set vine4 ,illustration3 #cg4 ,a ,,yearling ,,graft4 ,if it is desired1 however1 to keep the old top1 it will be best to cut back the annual growth heavily at the winter pruning4 ,the amount of wood which shall be left must be determined by the vigor of the plant and the variety1 but three or four canes of six to ten buds each may be left at suitable places4 ,during the next season a strong shoot from the base of each cane may be allowed to grow1 which shall form the wood of the following season1 while all the present cane is cut away at the end of the year4 ,so the bearing wood is renewed each year1 as in the regular systems of training4 ,much skill and experience are often required to properly rejuvenate an old vine2 and in very many cases the vine is not worth the trouble4 ,illustration3 7,drawing of grapes ,,index4 ,page ,adlum1 quoted1 #aj ,arbor ,kniffin1 #gb ,arbors1 #hh ,arm1 defined1 #ac ,barns1 ,w4 ,d41 quoted1 #fc ,bass bark1 #cc ,bleeding1 #bb ,breaking-out1 #bc ,brocton1 ,training at1 #cg ,bull cane1 #ej1 #ff ,cane1 defined1 #ac ,chautauqua ,county1 ,training in1 #cg ,contraction of wires1 #cj ,cornell1 ,william ,t41 #ef ,cornhusks1 for tying1 #cc ,crittenden training1 #gd ,cross-wire training1 #gd ,crotch ,kniffin1 #ff ,double ,kniffin1 #ff ,drooping systems1 #ef ,eight-cane ,kniffin1 #gj ,fan training1 #ed ,forestville1 ,training at1 #cg ,four-cane ,kniffin1 #eh ,fuller1 quoted1 #aj1 #cd ,girdling1 #fi ,grafting1 #ij ,haviland1 ,sands1 #gb ,heading-in1 #bc ,high ,renewal training1 #ci ,hofer1 ,a4 ,f41 #hh ,horizontal ,arm training1 #cd ,horizontal training1 #hc ,husks1 for tying1 #cc ,improved ,kniffin1 #ff ,kniffin systems1 #eh ,kniffin training1 ,comparison of1 #bf ,kniffin1 ,william1 #ef ,low ,kniffin1 #fi ,marlboro'1 ,training at1 #gb1 #gd ,modified ,kniffin1 #fc ,munson training1 #gh ,munson1 ,t4 ,v41 #gh ,objects of pruning1 #bd ,old vines1 ,remodeling of1 #hi ,one-wire ,kniffin1 #fi ,overhead ,kniffin1 #gb ,planting1 #bj ,posts1 #bh ,post training1 #he ,pruning1 #aa ,pruning1 ,objects of1 #bd of young vines1 #bj ,summer1 #bc ,time for1 #bb ,raffia1 #cb ,raphia ,ruffia1 #cb ,reasons for pruning1 #bd ,remodeling old vines1 #hi ,renewal1 defined1 #ah ,renewal ,kniffin1 #gg ,rubbing off1 #ad1 #bc ,rye straw for tying1 #cc ,sagging of wires1 #cj ,setting1 #bj ,shoot1 defined1 #ac ,six-cane ,kniffin1 #gj ,spur1 defined1 #ag ,spur training1 #cd ,staples1 #bi ,stopping1 #bc ,stripping1 #bb ,summer pruning1 #bc ,superfluous shoots1 #bc ,systems compared1 #be ,t-head1 #da ,thomas' ,fruit ,culturist1 quoted1 #aj ,tightening wires1 #ca ,trellis1 ,making1 #bg ,true ,kniffin1 #eh ,twine for tying1 #cb ,two-cane ,kniffin1 #ff ,tying1 #ca ,umbrella training1 #ff ,upright training1 #cd ,walls1 ,training on1 #hi ,weeping1 #bb ,willows1 for tying1 #cb ,wire1 for trellis1 #bh for tying1 #cc weights and sizes1 #bi ,wool-twine1 #cb ,y-trunk ,kniffin1 #ff ,yeoman's patent trellis1 #cj ,yields of grapes1 #ad1 #fc1 #fi1 #gj ,young vines1 ,pruning of1 #bj ,illustration3 7,drawing of grapes ,illustration ,,this ,,illustration was made from a photograph of fair samples of the different grades of our grape vines1 reduced to one-tenth their natural size4 ,we take great pride and comfort in our ability to furnish strong1 fibrous-rooted stock1 so well appreciated by intelligent and experienced fruit growers4 ,,wholesale ,,trade ,,especially ,,solicited4 ,,catalogue ,,free4 ,,lewis ,,roesch1 ,,fredonia1 ,n4 ,y41 ,grape ,vine ,specialist ,and ,general ,nurseryman4 ,when writing name this book4 ,hardy ,native ,grapes4 ,we desire to call the attention of planters to our large and complete stock of ,grape ,vines4 ,we propagate and offer for sale upwards of sixty varieties1 embracing the popular old sorts as well as the new ones which seem to have merit4 ,our catalogue contains accurate descriptions1 and classifies the different varieties according to color4 ,besides the above we offer an immense collection of all kinds of ,fruit and ,ornamental ,trees1 ,shrubs1 ,roses1 ,hardy ,plants1 etc4 ,our ,general ,catalogue 7#afj pages71 embellished with numerous engravings of the most popular ,trees1 ,shrubs1 etc41 and enclosed in an illuminated cover1 will be mailed free to all who have not received it4 ,our ,supplementary ,catalogue 7#bh pages7 of ,rare and ,choice ,trees1 ,shrubs1 etc41 including several valuable novelties and many specialties of superior merit1 will also be mailed free4 ,,ellwanger ,,barry1 ,mount ,hope ,nurseries1 #ecrd ,year4 ,,rochester1 ,n4 ,y4 ,pleasant ,valley ,nurseries ,,pear ,,trees4--,lincoln1 ,coreless1 ,bessemianka1 ,japan ,golden ,russet1 ,kieffer1 ,le,conte1 etc41 ,nut ,trees in variety4 ,fruit ,trees of all sorts4 ,ornamentals1 ,eleagnus ,longipes1 ,japanese ,wineberry ,juneberry1 ,trifoliate ,orange and other valued novelties4 ,illustration3 ,,fruit ,,trees6 ,,berry ,,plants6 ,,strawberries1 ,van ,deman1 ,e4 ,p4 ,roe1 and other new varieties2 all the old standard sorts1 ,gooseberries1 ,raspberries1 ,blackberries1 ,currants1 ,asparagus ,roots and ,grape ,vines4 ,j4 ,s4 ,,collins ,,son1 ,moorestown1 ,n4 ,j4 ,send for ,catalogue4 ,,miscellaneous ,,books4 ,for the ,farm and ,household4 ,any one of these valuable books will be sent1 postpaid1 direct1 on receipt of price4 ,be careful to write name and post office plain1 so that there may be no mistake in mailing4 ,address ,the ,rural ,publishing ,co41 ,new ,york4 ,,popular ,,errors ,,about ,,plants4--,by ,a4 ,a4 ,,crozier4 ,a collection of errors and superstitions entertained by farmers1 gardeners and others1 together with brief scientific refutations4 ,highly interesting to students and intelligent readers of the new and attractive in rural literature1 and of real value to practical cultivators who want to know the truth about their work4 ,price1 cloth1 #a4 ,,the ,,nursery ,,book4--,by ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey4 ,a complete handbook of ,propagation and ,pollination of ,plants4 ,profusely illustrated4 ,this valuable little manual has been compiled with great pains4 ,the author has had unusual facilities for its preparation1 having been aided by many experts4 ,the book is absolutely devoid of theory and speculation4 ,it has nothing to do with plant physiology or abstruse reasoning about plant growth4 ,it simply tells1 plainly and briefly1 what every one who sows a seed1 makes a cutting1 sets a graft1 or crosses a flower wants to know4 ,it is entirely new and original in method and matter4 ,the cuts number #ajg1 and are made expressly for it1 direct from nature4 ,the book treats all kinds of cultivated plants1 fruits1 vegetables1 greenhouse plants1 hardy herbs1 ornamental trees1 shrubs and forest trees4 ,,contents3 ,i4--,,seedage4 ,on ,propagation by ,seed4 ,,ii4--,,separation4 ,,iii4--,,layerage4 ,propagation by ,layering4 ,,iv4--,,cuttage4 ,propagation by ,cuttings4 ,v4--,,graftage4--,including ,grafting1 ,budding1 ,inarching1 etc4 ,,vi4--,,nursery ,,list4--,this is the great feature of the book4 ,it is an alphabetical list of all kinds of plants1 with a short statement telling which of the operations described in the first five chapters are employed in propagating them4 ,over #b1jjj entries are made in the list4 ,the following entries will give an idea of the method3 ,acer 7,,maple74 ,sapindaceae4 ,stocks are grown from stratified seeds1 which should be sown an inch or two deep2 or some species1 as ,a4 dasycarpum1 come readily if seeds are sown as soon as ripe4 ,some cultural varieties are layered1 but better plants are obtained by grafting4 ,varieties of native species are worked upon common or native stocks4 ,the ,japanese sorts are winter-worked upon imported ,a4 polymorphum stocks1 either by whip or veneer grafting4 ,maples can also be budded in summer1 and they grow readily from cuttings of both ripe and soft wood4 ,phyllocactus1 ,phyllocereus1 ,disocactus 7,,leaf ,,cactus74 ,cacteae4 ,fresh seeds grow readily4 ,sow in rather sandy soil which is well drained1 and apply water as for common seeds4 ,when the seedlings appear1 remove to a light position4 ,cuttings from mature shoots1 three to six inches in length1 root readily in sharp sand4 ,give a temperature of about #fj deg41 and apply only sufficient water to keep from flagging4 ,if the cuttings are very juicy they may be laid on dry sand for several days before planting4 ,,vii4--,,pollination4 ,price1 in ,library ,style1 cloth1 wide margins1 #a ,pocket ,style1 paper1 narrow margins1 #ej cents4 ,,the ,,modification ,,of ,,plants ,,by ,,climate4--,by ,a4 ,a4 ,,crozier4 ,an essay on the influence of climate upon size1 form1 color1 fruitfulness1 etc41 with a discussion on the question of acclimation4 #ce pp4 ,price1 paper1 #be cents4 ,,fruit ,,culture1 and the ,laying ,out and ,management of a ,country ,home4--,by ,w4 ,c4 ,,strong1 ,ex-,president of the ,massachusetts ,horticultural ,society1 and ,vice-,president of the ,american ,pomological ,society4 ,illustrated4 ,new revised edition1 with many additions1 making it the latest and freshest book on the subject4 ,,contents3 ,rural ,homes--,choice of ,locality--,treatment--,a ,good ,lawn--,the ,approach4 ,fruits--,location of the ,fruit ,garden--,success in ,fruit-,culture--,profit in ,fruit-,culture4 ,how to ,procure ,trees--,quality--,how to ,plant--,time to ,plant--,preparing the ,land--,fertilizers--,cutting ,back--,distances for ,planting4 ,care of the ,fruit-,garden--,irrigation--,applicatio n of ,fertilizers--,thinning the ,fruit--,labels4 ,the ,apple--,insects ,injurious to the ,apple4 ,the ,pear--,dwarf ,pears--,situation and ,soil--,pruning--,ripening the ,fruit--,insects ,injurious to the ,pear--,diseases4 ,the ,peach--,injurious ,insects and ,diseases of the ,peach--,nectarines4 ,the ,plum--,insects and ,diseases of the ,plum--,apricots4 ,the ,cherry--,insects ,injurious to the ,cherry4 ,the ,quince--,insects ,injurious to the ,quince4 ,the ,grape--,grape-,houses--,varieties--,ins ects ,injurious to the ,grape--,mildew4 ,the ,currant--,insects ,attacking the ,currant--,the ,gooseberry4 ,the ,raspberry--,the ,blackberry4 ,the ,strawberry4 ,the ,mulberry--,the ,fig--,rhubarb--,asparagus4 ,propagating ,fruit-,trees--,from the ,seed--,by ,division--,by ,cuttings--,by ,layers--,by ,budding--,by ,grafting4 ,insecticides--,fungicides--,recipes4 ,price1 in one volume1 #afmo41 cloth1 #a4 ,,chrysanthemum ,,culture ,,for ,,america4--,by ,,james ,,morton4 ,an excellent and thorough book2 especially adapted to the culture of ,chrysanthemums in ,america4 ,the contents include ,propagation by ,grafting4 ,inarching and ,seed4 ,american ,history4 ,propagation by ,cuttings4 ,exhibition ,plants4 ,classification4 ,exhibition ,blooms4 ,soil for ,potting4 ,watering and ,liquid ,manure4 ,selection of ,plants4 ,top-,dressing4 ,hints on ,exhibitions4 ,list of ,synonyms4 ,staking and ,tying4 ,general ,culture4 ,insects and ,diseases4 ,standard ,chrysanthemums4 ,sports and ,variations4 ,disbudding and ,thinning4 ,oriental and ,european ,history4 ,calendar of ,monthly ,operations4 ,chrysanthemum ,shows and ,organizations4 ,national ,chrysanthemum ,society4 ,early and ,late-,flowering ,varieties4 ,chrysanthemums as ,house-,plants--,varieties for ,various ,purposes4 ,price1 cloth1 #a2 paper1 #fj cents4 ,,improving ,,the ,,farm1 or ,methods of ,culture that shall afford a profit1 and at the same time increase the fertility of the soil4--,by ,,lucius ,d4 ,,davis1 of ,conanicut ,park ,farm4 ,the contents treat exhaustively on renewing run-down farms1 and comprise the following chapters3 ,book-,farming4 ,the ,run-,down ,farm4 ,will ,it ,pay to ,improve the ,farm8 ,how ,farms ,become ,exhausted4 ,thorough ,tillage4 ,rotation of ,crops4 ,green ,manuring4 ,more ,about ,clover4 ,barn-,yard ,manure--,how ,made1 ,its ,cost and ,value4 ,how ,prepared and ,applied4 ,the ,use of ,wood-,ashes4 ,commercial ,fertilizers4 ,special ,fertilizers4 ,complete ,manures4 ,experiments with ,fertilizers4 ,stock on the ,farm4 ,providing ,food for ,stock4 ,specialties in ,farming4 ,price1 cloth1 #a4 ,,landscape-,,gardening4--,by ,,elias ,a4 ,,long4 ,a practical treatise comprising #cb diagrams of actual grounds and parts of grounds1 with copious explanations4 ,of the diagrams1 all but nine have appeared in the serial1 ,taste and ,tact in ,arranging ,ornamental ,grounds1 which has been so attractive a feature of ,popular ,gardening and ,american ,gardening during the past year4 ,but in the new form the matter has been entirely rewritten4 ,printed on heavy plate paper1 it is unsurpassed for beauty by any other work on ,landscape ,gardening4 ,price1 #ej cents4 ,,the ,,business ,,hen4--,breeding and ,feeding ,poultry for ,profit4 ,the pat title of a unique book is ,the ,business ,hen4 ,a condensed and1 practical little encyclopedia of profitable poultry-keeping4 ,p4 ,h4 ,jacobs1 ,henry ,hale1 ,james ,rankin1 ,j4 ,h4 ,drevenstedt and others equally well known have written chapters on their specialties1 the whole being skillfully arranged and carefully edited by ,h4 ,w4 ,collingwood1 managing editor of ,the ,rural ,new-,yorker4 ,starting with the question1 ,what is an ,egg8 the book goes on step by step to indicate the most favorable conditions for developing the egg into a ,business ,hen4 ,incubation1 care of chicks1 treatment of diseases1 selection and breeding1 feeding and housing1 are all discussed in a clear and simple manner4 ,two successful egg-farms are described in detail4 ,on one of these farms the owner has succeeded in developing a flock of #fjj hens that average over #bjj eggs each per year4 ,price1 cloth1 #ge cents2 paper1 #dj cents4 ,,first ,,lessons ,,in ,,agriculture4 7#bnd ,edition1 ,revised and ,enlarged47--,by ,f4 ,a4 ,gulley1 ,m4 ,s41 ,professor of ,agriculture in the ,agricultural ,college of ,mississippi4 ,this book discusses the more important principles which underlie agriculture in a plain1 simple way1 within the comprehension of students and readers who have not studied chemistry1 botany1 and other branches of science related to agriculture4 ,it supplies a much-needed text-book for common schools1 and is useful for the practical farmer4 ,includes all the latest developments in agricultural science as applied to the subject4 ,price1 cloth1 #a4 ,special prices for ,schools and ,colleges4 ,,the ,,new ,,potato ,,culture4--,by ,,elbert ,s4 ,,carman4 ,this book gives the result of #ae years' experiment work on ,the ,rural ground4 ,it treats particularly of3 ,how to increase the crop without corresponding cost of production4 ,manures and fertilizers3 kinds and methods of application4 ,the soil1 and how to put it in right condition4 ,depth of planting4 ,how much seed to plant4 ,methods of culture4 ,the ,rural trench system4 ,varieties1 etc41 etc4 ,nothing old or worn-out about this book4 ,it treats of new and profitable methods2 in fact1 of ,the ,,new ,potato ,culture4 ,it is respectfully submitted that these experiments at ,the ,rural grounds have1 directly and indirectly1 thrown more light upon the various problems involved in successful potato-culture than any other experiments that have been carried on in ,america4 ,price1 cloth1 #ge cents2 paper1 #dj cents4 ,,horticulturist',s ,,rule-,,book4--,by ,professor ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey1 ,editor of ,american ,gardening1 ,horticulturist of the ,cornell ,experiment ,station1 and ,professor of ,horticulture in ,cornell ,university4 ,it contains in handy and concise form1 a great number of ,rules and ,recipes required by gardeners1 fruit-growers1 truckers1 florists1 farmers1 etc4 ,synopsis of ,contents3 ,injurious insects1 with preventives and remedies4 ,fungicides for plant diseases4 ,plant diseases1 with preventives and remedies4 ,injuries from mice1 rabbits1 birds1 etc41 with preventives and remedies4 ,waxes and washes for grafting and for wounds4 ,cements1 paints1 etc4 ,seed ,tables3 ,quantities required for sowing given areas4 ,weight and size of seeds4 ,longevity of seeds4 ,time required for seeds to germinate4 ,planting ,tables3 ,dates for sowing seeds in different latitudes4 ,tender and hardy vegetables4 ,distances apart for planting4 ,maturity and ,yields3 ,time required for maturity of vegetables2 for bearing of fruit plants4 ,average yields of crops4 ,keeping and storing fruits and vegetables4 ,propagation of ,plants3 ,ways of grafting and budding4 ,methods by which fruits are propagated4 ,stocks used for fruits4 ,standard ,measures and ,sizes3 ,standard flower-pots4 ,standard and legal measures4 ,english measures for sale of fruits and vegetables4 ,quantities of water held in pipes and tanks4 ,effect of wind in cooling off glass roofs4 ,per cent4 of light reflected from glass at various angles of inclination4 ,weights of various varieties of apples per bushel4 ,amount of various products yielded by given quantities of fruit4 ,labels4 ,loudon's rules of horticulture4 ,rules of nomenclature4 ,rules for exhibition4 ,weather signs and protection from frost4 ,collecting and ,preserving3 ,how to make an herbarium4 ,preserving and printing of flowers and other parts of plants4 ,keeping cut-flowers4 ,how to collect and preserve insects4 ,chemical composition of fruits and vegetables1 and seeds1 fertilizers1 soils and vegetables4 ,names and ,histories3 ,vegetables which have different names in ,england and ,america4 ,derivation of names of various fruits and vegetables4 ,names of fruits and vegetables in various languages4 ,glossary4 ,calendar4 ,price1 cloth1 #a2 paper1 #fj cents4 ,,cross-,,breeding ,,and ,,hybridizing3--,the ,philosophy of the ,crossing of ,plants considered with reference to their ,cultivation--,how to ,improve plants by ,hybridizing4--,by ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey4 ,it is the only book accessible to ,american horticulture which gives the reasons1 discouragements1 possibilities and limitations of ,cross-,breeding4 ,every man who owns a plant should have it1 if for no other reason than to post himself upon one of the leading practices of the day4 ,the pamphlet contains also a bibliography of the subject1 including over #djj entries4 ,price1 paper1 #dj cents4 ,,chemicals ,,and ,,clover4--,by ,h4 ,w4 ,,collingwood1 ,managing ,editor of ,the ,rural ,new-,yorker4 ,a concise and practical discussion of the all-important topic of commercial fertilizers in connection with green manuring in bringing up worn-out soils1 and in general farm practice4 ,price1 paper1 #bj cents4 ,,annals ,,of ,,horticulture1 ,vol4 ,,iv4--,bright1 ,new1 ,clean and ,fresh4 ,these ,annals are entirely rewritten every year4 ,they are the only records of the progress in horticulture4 ,exhaustive lists of all the plants introduced in #ahib1 with descriptions1 directories1 full accounts of all new discoveries1 new tools1 and a wealth of practical matter for ,gardeners1 ,fruit-,growers1 ,florists1 ,vegetable-,gardeners and ,landscape-,gardeners1 comprise its contents4 ,ready soon4 ,illustrated4 ,vol4 ,,iv41 cloth #a4 ,vols4 ,i41 ,,ii4 and ,,iii4 at the same price4 ,,insects ,,and ,,insecticides4--,a practical ,manual concerning ,noxious ,insects and the ,methods of ,preventing their ,injuries4 ,by ,,clarence ,m4 ,,weed1 ,professor of ,entomology and ,zoology1 ,new ,hampshire ,state ,college4 ,i think that you have gotten together a very useful and valuable little book4--,,dr4 ,c4 ,v4 ,,riley1 ,u4,s4 ,entomologist4 ,it is excellent4 ,i must congratulate you on the skill you have displayed in putting in the most important insects1 and the complete manner in which you have done the work4--,,james ,,fletcher1 ,dominion ,entomologist4 ,i am well pleased with it4 ,there is certainly a demand for just such a work4--,,dr4 ,f4 ,m4 ,,hexamer1 ,editor ,american ,agriculturist4 ,price1 cloth1 #a4be4 ,,the ,,cauliflower4--,,by ,a4 ,a4 ,,crozier4 ,teacher and ,practical ,origin and ,history of this increasingly important and always delicious vegetable4 ,the ,cauliflower ,industry4--,in ,europe4 ,in the ,united ,states4 ,importation of ,cauliflowers4 ,management of the ,crop4--,soil4 ,fertilizers4 ,planting4 ,cultivating4 ,harvesting4 ,keeping4 ,marketing4 ,the ,early ,crop4--,caution against planting it largely4 ,special directions4 ,buttoning4 ,cauliflower ,regions of the ,united ,states4--,upper ,atlantic ,coast4 ,lake ,region4 ,prairie ,region4 ,cauliflowers in the ,south4 ,the ,pacific ,coast4 ,insect and ,fungous ,enemies4--,flea-beetle4 ,cut-worms4 ,cabbage-maggot4 ,cabbage-worm4 ,stem-rot4 ,damping-off4 ,black-leg4 ,cauliflower ,seed4--,importance of careful selection4 ,where the seed is grown4 ,influence of climate4 ,american-grown seed4 ,varieties4--,descriptive catalogue4 ,order of earliness4 ,variety tests4 ,best varieties4 ,broccoli4--,difference between ,broccoli and ,cauliflower4 ,cultivation1 use and varieties of ,broccoli4 ,cooking ,cauliflower4--,digestibility4 ,nutritive value4 ,chemical composition4 ,recipes4 ,price1 cloth1 #a4 ,,practical ,,farm ,,chemistry4--,a ,practical ,handbook of ,profitable ,crop-,feeding1 written for ,practical ,men4 ,by ,t4 ,,greiner4 ,part ,i4 ,the ,raw ,materials of ,plant-,food4 ,part ,,ii4 ,the ,available ,sources of ,supply4 ,part ,,iii4 ,principles of ,economic ,application1 or ,manuring for ,money4 ,this work1 written in plainest language1 is intended to assist the farmer in the selection1 purchase and application of plant-foods4 ,if you wish to learn ways how to save money in procuring manurial substances1 and how to make money by their proper use1 read this book4 ,if you want your boy to learn the principle of crop-feeding1 and become a successful farmer1 give him a copy of this book4 ,the cost of the book will be returned a hundred-fold to every reader who peruses its pages with care and applies its teachings to practice4 ,price1 cloth1 #a4 ,,spraying ,,crops4--,why1 ,when and ,how to ,do ,it4--,by ,,prof4 ,,clarence ,m4 ,,weed4 ,a handy volume of about #ajj pages2 illustrated4 ,covers the whole field of the insect and fungous enemies of crops for which the spray is used4 ,the following topics are discussed in a concise1 practical manner3 ,spraying ,against ,insects4 ,feeding ,habits of ,insects4 ,spraying ,against ,fungous ,diseases4 ,the ,philosophy of ,spraying4 ,spraying ,apparatus4 ,spraying ,trees in ,blossom4 ,precautions in ,spraying4 ,insecticides used in ,spraying4 ,fungicides used in ,spraying4 ,combining ,insecticides and ,fungicides4 ,cost of ,spraying ,materials4 ,prejudice ,against ,spraying4 ,spraying the ,larger ,fruits4 ,spraying ,small ,fruits and ,nursery ,stock4 ,spraying ,shade ,trees1 ,ornamental ,plants and ,flowers4 ,spraying ,vegetables1 ,field ,crops and ,domestic ,animals4 ,price in stiff paper cover1 #ej cents2 flexible cloth1 #ge cents4 ,,transcriber',s ,,note3 ,illustrations have been moved to the nearest appropriate paragraph break4 ,for the benefit of readers of the text version of this e-book1 a small description was added to #e decorative line drawings which have no caption or description in the original text4 ,this addition appears in parentheses as3 7,drawing of grapes74 ,an asterism in the text is represented as3 99499 ,inconsistencies in the author's spelling and use of punctuation are unchanged in this e-text4 ,obvious typographical and printer errors have been corrected without comment4 ,in addition to obvious errors1 the following changes have been made3 #a4 ,on page #hg3 arguments was changed to augments in the phrase1 444 this only augments the size and depth4444 #b4 ,on page #ij3 side was changed to size in the phrase1 444 wood the size of a lead-pencil4444